Roman Questions: Selected Papers 3515066772, 9783515066778
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Jerzy Underski
Roman Questions Selected Papers
Jerzy Linderski Roman Questions
Heidelberger Althistorische Beiträge und Epigraphische Studien herausgegeben von Géza Alföldy Band 20
Jerzy Linderski
Roman Questions Selected Papers
Franz Steiner Verlag Stuttgart
1995
Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Linderski, Jerzy: Roman questions : selected papers 1958 - 1993 / Jerzy Linderski. - Stuttgart : Steiner, 1995 (Heidelberger althistorische Beiträge und epigraphische Studien ; Bd. 20) ISBN 3-515-06677-2 NE: GT
P O ISO 9706
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For D.
CONTENTS V o rtw o rt d e s H e r a u s g e b e r s ............................................................................................. XI P re fa c e I.
Π.
............................................................................................................................χ γ
H is to ria 1.
Si V is P a c e m P a ra B e llu m : C o n c e p ts o f D e fe n s iv e Im p e ria lis m ( 1 9 8 4 ) ...................................................................................
2.
M o m m s e n a n d S y m e: L a w a n d P o w e r in th e P rin c ip a te o f A u g u stu s ( 1 9 9 0 ) ......................................................................................... 3 2
3.
G a rd e n P a rlo rs: N o b le s a n d B ird s ( 1 9 8 9 ) ........................................ 4 4
4.
R e v ie w o f M ic h a e l C ra w fo rd , T h e R o m a n R e p u b lic (1 9 8 2 ) .. 6 6
1
Iu s P u b lic u m 5.
C o n s titu tio n a l A sp e c ts o f th e C o n s u la r E le c tio n s in 5 9 B .C .
6.
W e re P o m p e y a n d C ra ssu s E le c te d in A b se n c e to th e ir F irs t
7.
C o n s u ls h ip ? ( 1 9 6 6 ) .................................................................................. 91 A. G a b in iu s A .F . C a p ito a n d th e F irst V o te r in th e L e g is la tiv e
( 1 9 6 5 ) .............................................................................................................. 71
C o m itia T rib u ta ( 1 9 7 3 ) ........................................................................... 9 5 8.
T h e D ra m a tic D a te o f V a rrò , D e re r u s tic a , B o o k Π Ι a n d
9.
th e E le c tio n s in 5 4 ( 1 9 8 5 ) .................................................................... 100 B u y in g th e V o te: E le c to ra l C o rru p tio n in th e L a te R e p u b lic ( 1 9 8 5 ) ............................................................................................................ 107
10.
T h re e T ria ls in 5 4 B .C .: S u fe n a s, C a to , P ro c iliu s a n d C ic e ro , A d A ttic u m 4 .1 5 .4 ( 1 9 6 9 ) ...................................................................... 115
11.
R e v ie w of: C la u d e N ic o le t, L ’o r d r e é q u e s tr e à l ’é p o q u e r é p u b lic a in e . T o m e 2: P r o s o p o g r a p h ie d e s c h e v a lie r s r o m a in s ( 1 9 7 7 ) .......................................................................................... 137
12.
L e g ib u s P r a e f e c ti M itte b a n tu r (M o m m s e n a n d F e stu s
13.
2 6 2 .5 , 13 L ) ( 1 9 7 9 ) ................................................................................. 143 R o m e , A p h ro d is ia s a n d th e R e s G e s ta e : th e G e n e r a M ilitia e a n d th e S ta tu s o f O c ta v ia n ( 1 9 8 4 ) ..................................................... 147
14.
U su , fa rre , c o e m p tio n e . B e m e rk u n g e n z u r Ü b e rlie fe ru n g e in e s R e c h ts a tz e s ( 1 9 8 4 ) .................................................................................. 154
Π Ι.
C o lle g ia 15. D e r S e n a t u n d d ie V e re in e ( 1 9 6 8 ) .................................................... 165 16.
C ic e ro s R e d e p ro C a e lio u n d d ie A m b itu s- u n d V e re in s g e s e tz g e b u n g d e r a u sg e h e n d e n R e p u b lik ( 1 9 6 1 ) ....................... 2 0 4
Contents
vm
17.
S u e to n s B e ric h t ü b e r d ie V e re in s g e tz g e b u n g u n te r C a e s a r u n d A u g u stu s ( 1 9 6 2 ) ............................................................................... 2 1 7
IV .
P ro s o p o g ra p h ic a 18.
C ic e ro a n d S a llu st o n V a rg u n te iu s ( 1 9 6 3 ) .................................... 2 2 4
19.
T h e S u rn a m e s a n d th e A lle g e d A ffin ity o f M . C a e liu s R u fu s
20.
( 1 9 6 8 ) ............................................................................................................. 2 2 6 T h e A e d ile sh ip o f F a v o n iu s , C u rio th e Y o u n g e r a n d C ic e r o ’s E le c tio n to th e A u g u ra te ( 1 9 7 2 ) ......................................................... 231
21.
T h e Q u a e s to rs h ip o f M a rc u s A n to n iu s ( 1 9 7 4 ) ........................... 251
22.
T h e M o th e r o f L iv ia A u g u sta a n d th e A u fid ii L u rc o n e s o f th e
23.
T w o Q u a e s to rs h ip s ( 1 9 7 5 ) .................................................................... 2 8 0
24.
R e v ie w of: M a g n u s W istra n d , C ic e r o I m p e r a to r . S tu d ie s
25.
R e v ie w o f: T h o m a s N . M itc h e ll, C ic e r o , T h e A s c e n d in g Y e a rs
R e p u b lic ( 1 9 7 4 ) ........................................................................................ 2 6 2
in C i c e r o ’s C o r r e s p o n d e n c e 5 1 —4 7 B .C . ( 1 9 8 1 ) ........................ 2 8 4
( 1 9 8 2 ) ............................................................................................................. 2 8 7 26.
D e v illa A p p io P u lc h ro fa ls o a ttrib u ta ( 1 9 8 1 ) ............................. 2 8 9
27.
P a tie n tia f r e g i t: M . O c ta v iu s a n d T i. G ra c c h u s (C ic e ro , B r u tu s 9 5 ) ( 1 9 8 2 ) ..................................................................................... 291
V.
28.
T h e A e d ile s a n d th e D i d a s c a lia e ( 1 9 8 7 ) ....................................... 2 9 5
29.
R o m a n O ffic e rs in th e Y e a r o f P y d n a ( 1 9 9 0 ) .............................. 301
30.
T h e D e a th o f P o n tia ( 1 9 9 0 ) ................................................................. 3 2 0
A u c to re s 31.
T w o S p e e c h e s o f Q . H o rte n siu s. A C o n trib u tio n to th e C o rp u s
32. 33.
V e rg il a n d D io n y s iu s ( 1 9 9 2 ) ............................................................... 3 3 6 T w o C r u c e s in S e n e c a , D e v ita b e a ta 2 5 .2 ( 1 9 8 2 ) .................... 3 4 4
34.
A e s O l e t : P e tro n iu s 5 0 .7 a n d M a rtia l 9 .5 9 .1 1 ( 1 9 9 2 ) ............... 351
35.
A lfre d th e G re a t a n d th e T ra d itio n o f A n c ie n t G e o g ra p h y
O ra to ru m o f th e R o m a n R e p u b lic (1 9 6 1 , re v is e d 1 9 9 4 ) ........ 3 2 8
( 1 9 6 3 ) ............................................................................................................. 3 5 6 V I.
E p ig ra p h ic a 36.
N o te s o n C IL I2 3 6 4 (1 9 5 8 ; re v is e d 1 9 9 4 ) .................................... 3 6 2
37.
L ib iis o r L ib e n s ? A N o te o n a N e w D e d ic a tio n to L ib e r P a te r
38.
N a ta lis P a ta v ii ( 1 9 8 3 ) ............................................................................ 3 6 9
3 9.
J u lia in R e g iu m ( 1 9 8 8 ) .......................................................................... 3 7 5
40. 41.
C e rtis C a le n d is ( 1 9 9 1 ) ........................................................................... 3 9 5 U p d a tin g th e C IL fo r Ita ly ( 1 9 9 0 ) ......................................................... 4 0 7
fro m D a c ia ( 1 9 7 5 ) .................................................................................... 3 6 6
Contents
V II.
IX
L e x ic o g ra p h ic a e t O n o m a s tic a 42.
Z u m N a m e n C o m p e ta lis ( 1 9 6 0 ) ........................................................ 4 1 5
43.
R e v ie w of: D .R . S h a c k le to n B a ile y , T w o S tu d ie s in R o m a n N o m e n c la tu r e ( 1 9 7 8 ) .............................................................................. 4 2 0
44.
A m i a n u s ( 1 9 7 8 ) ........................................................................................ 4 2 3
45a.
F u m u m v e n d e r e a n d f u m o n e c a r e ( 1 9 8 7 ) ....................................... 4 2 4
45b.
F u m o n e c a r e : A n A d d e n d u m ( 1 9 8 7 ) .............................................. 4 3 4
46.
T h e S u rn a m e o f M . A n to n iu s C re tic u s a n d th e c o g n o m in a e x v ic t is g e n tib u s ( 1 9 9 0 ) ....................................................................... 4 3 6
VEII. R e lig io 47.
R ö m is c h e r S ta a t u n d d ie G ö tte rz e ic h e n : z u m P ro b le m d e r o b n u n tia tio ( 1 9 7 1 ) .................................................................................... 4 4 4
48.
C ic e ro a n d R o m a n D iv in a tio n ( 1 9 8 3 ) ............................................. 4 5 8
49
W a tc h in g th e B ird s: C ic e ro th e A u g u r a n d th e A u g u ra l te m p la ( 1 9 8 6 ) ............................................................................................. 4 8 5
50.
T h e L ib r i R e c o n d iti ( 1 9 8 5 ) .................................................................. 4 9 6
51.
E x ta a n d A v e s : A n E m e n d a tio n in R u fin u s, O r ig e n is in N u m e r o s H o m ilia 17.2 ( 1 9 8 1 ) ........................................................... 5 2 4
52. 53.
S a n n io a n d R e m u s ( 1 9 8 9 ) .................................................................... 5 2 7 “A u s p ic ia e t A u g u ria R o m a n a ... S u m m o L a b o re C o lle c ta ” : A N o te o n M in u c iu s F e lix , O c ta v iu s 26.1 ( 1 9 8 2 ) ..................... 531
54.
A W ittic is m o f A p p u le iu s S a tu rn in u s ( 1 9 8 4 ) .............................. 5 3 4
55.
R e lig io u s A sp e c ts o f th e C o n flic t o f th e O rd e rs: T h e C a se
56.
o f c o n f a r r e a tio ( 1 9 8 6 ) ........................................................................... 5 4 2 T h e A u sp ic e s a n d th e S tru g g le o f th e O rd e rs ( 1 9 9 0 ) ................ 5 6 0
57.
H e lio g a b a lu s , A le x a n d e r S e v e ru s a n d th e iu s c o n f a r r e a tio n is :
58.
R e v ie w of: T h o m a s K ö v e s-Z u la u f, R e d e n u n d S c h w e ig e n :
A N o te o n th e H is to r ia A u g u s ta ( 1 9 8 9 ) ......................................... 5 7 5 r ö m is c h e R e lig io n b e i P lin iu s M a io r ( 1 9 7 5 ) ............................... 5 8 4
59.
A N o n -M isu n d e rsto o d T e x t C o n c e rn in g T a g e s ( 1 9 7 8 ) ........... 5 9 0
60.
R e v ie w of: L e d é li t r e lig ie u x d a n s la c it é a n tiq u e ( 1 9 8 4 ) ..... 5 9 2
61.
R e v ie w of: L .B . V a n D e r M e e r, T h e B r o n z e L iv e r o f P ia c e n z a ( 1 9 9 0 ) ........................................................................................ 5 9 5
62.
R e v ie w o f Id a P a la d in o , F r a tr e s A r v a le s : S to r ia d i un c o lle g io s a c e r d o t a le r o m a n o ( 1 9 9 1 ) ................................................ 6 0 0
63.
R e v ie w o f D .S . P o tte r, P r o p h e c y a n d H is to r y in th e C r is is o f th e R o m a n E m p ir e : A H is to r ic a l C o m m e n ta r y on th e T h ir te e n th S ib y lin e O r a c le ( 1 9 9 3 ) .................................................. 6 0 4
64.
R o m a n R e lig io n in L iv y ( 1 9 9 3 ) ......................................................... 608
B ib lio g ra p h ic a l In fo rm a tio n o n O rig in a l P u b lic a tio n .........................................6 2 7
Contents
X
A d d e n d a a n d C o rrig e n d a ( 1 9 9 4 ) ............................................................................... 631 In d ic e s: M o d e m A u th o r s ....................................................................................................... 6 8 0 A n c ie n t S o u r c e s ....................................................................................................... 695 1. A n c ie n t A u t h o r s ...................................................................................... 695 2. I n s c r ip tio n s .................................................................................................721 G e n e ra l I n d e x ........................................................................................................... 7 2 5
VORWORT DES HERAUSGEBERS
E s ist fü r m ic h e in e b e s o n d e re F re u d e , e in e n W u n sc h Je rz y L in d e rsk is , d es la n g jä h rig e n F re u n d e s d e s S e m in a rs fü r A lte G e sc h ic h te in H e id e lb e rg , zu e rfü lle n u n d s e in e „ K le in e n S c h rifte n “ in d e r R e ih e „ H e id e lb e rg e r A lth is to ri sc h e B e iträ g e u n d E p ig ra p h is c h e S tu d ie n “ zu v e rö ffe n tlic h e n . E rfa ß t sin d in d ie s e m B a n d 6 4 a n s e h r w e it v e rs tre u te n S te lle n p u b liz ie rte A rb e ite n d e s V e rfa s s e rs , d a ru n te r 10 B u c h b e s p re c h u n g e n u n d e in R e v ie w -A rtic le , v e rö f fe n tlic h t in e n g lis c h e r u n d d e u ts c h e r S p ra c h e , d a z u n o c h e in k u rz e r A rtik e l in la te in is c h e r S p ra c h e . D ie B e iträ g e u m fa s s e n e in e 3 5 jä h rig e Z e itsp a n n e , d ie m it ,,N o te s o n C IL I2 3 6 4 “ a u s d e m J a h re 1958 b e g in n t (S. 3 6 2 -3 6 5 ) u n d m it e in e m A u fs a tz ü b e r „ R o m a n R e lig io n in L iv y “ a u s d e m Ja h re 1993 (S. 6 0 8 6 2 5 ) e n d e t. E s ist e in b e re d te s Z e u g n is fü r d ie In te m a tio n a litä t u n s e re r W isse n sc h a ft, d a ß e in G e le h rte r, d e r au s P o le n sta m m t u n d d e r sp ä te r in d e n V e re in ig te n S ta a te n v o n A m e rik a e in e n e u e H e im a t fan d , d e n E rtra g s e in e r F o rsc h u n g sa r b e it in e in e m in D e u ts c h la n d e rs c h e in e n d e n S a m m e lb a n d v o rle g t. D ie „ K le i n e n S c h rifte n “ L in d e rsk is g e sta tte n z u g le ic h e in e n E in b lic k in se in e w is s e n s c h a ftlic h e E n tw ic k lu n g u n d v e rra te n a u c h e tw a s v o n se in e m L e b e n sw e g . D ie v o m V e rfa s s e r s e lb s t b e s tim m te R e ih e n fo lg e se in e r a b g e d ru c k te n B e iträ g e , d ie sic h n ic h t n a c h z e itlic h e n , s o n d e rn n a c h s a c h lic h e n G e s ic h ts p u n k te n ric h te t, lä ß t k a u m e rk e n n e n , d a ß se in e S c h rifte n in c h ro n o lo g is c h e r H in sic h t z w e i G ru p p e n b ild e n . D ie e rs te n z e h n A rtik e l w u rd e n im Z e itra u m v o n 1958 b is 1 9 6 6 v e rö ffe n tlic h t. A b g e s e h e n v o n e in e m im J a h re 1968 in d e r d a m a lig e n D D R m it m e h rjä h rig e r V e rs p ä tu n g e rs c h ie n e n e n A u fsa tz g e h ö rt a lle s w e ite re in d e n Z e itra u m v o n 1971 b is 1993. W a s d a z w is c h e n lag, k a n n d e r m it d e m S c h ic k s a l d e s V e rfa s se rs n ic h t v e rtra u te L e s e r h ö c h ste n s d u rc h d ie H in w e ise a u f s e in e n D ie n s to rt e ra h n e n , d ie a m E n d e m a n c h e r B e iträ g e e rsc h e in e n : in d e r e rs te n P h a s e K ra k a u , in d e r z w e ite n z u e rst E u g e n e /O re g o n , d a n n C h a p e l H ill/N o rth C a ro lin a . D ie U rsa c h e fü r d ie fü n fjä h rig e U n te rb re c h u n g - n ic h t d e r F o rs c h u n g s a rb e it, w o h l a b e r d e r s c h rifts te lle ris c h e n A k tiv itä t - h eiß t: E m ig ra tio n . D ie E m ig ra tio n e rw e is t sic h im L e b e n e in e s je d e n , d e r sic h d a z u g e z w u n g e n sah , als tie fe r E in sc h n itt. S ie b e d e u te t e in e n e u e U m g e b u n g , z u m e is t e in e n e u e S p ra c h e , u n g e w o h n te D e n k - u n d V e rh a lte n sw e ise n , e in n e u e s A rb e its fe ld , n e u e K o lle g e n , n e u e P e rsp e k tiv e n , n e u e M ö g lic h k e ite n , n e u e P ro b le m e . W is s e n s c h a ftle rn , d ie in ih re m F a c h e in e S te lle fin d e n , fä llt e s z w a r h ä u fig n ic h t a llz u s c h w e r, in e in e m ih n e n z u n ä c h st fre m d e n L a n d a llm ä h lic h e in e n e u e H e im a t z u e rk e n n e n . D a n k d e r K o n tin u itä t ih re r F o rsc h u n g sa rb e it, d ie
X II
Vorwort des Herausgebers
d e n w ic h tig s te n L e b e n sin h a lt b ild e t, w ie g e n m a n c h e S c h w ie rig k e ite n o ftm a ls n ic h t so s c h w e r, w ie d ie s so n st d e r F all w ä re ; u n d d e r D ra n g , sic h - o h n e im n e u e n M ilie u v e rw u rz e lt zu sein u n d o ft a u c h u n te r h ö h e re n A n fo rd e ru n g e n als in d e r frü h e re n H e im a t g e w o h n t - d u rc h z u s e tz e n , k a n n h ö c h st s tim u lie re n d w irk e n . D e n n o c h ist e s k e in e sw e g s s e lb s tv e rs tä n d lic h , d a ß e in E m ig ra n t e s sc h a fft, a lle n e u e n H e ra u s fo rd e ru n g e n zu m e iste rn , g a n z z u s c h w e ig e n d a v o n , d a ß e r n ic h t ü b e ra ll m it o ffe n e n A rm e n e m p fa n g e n w ird . B e i d en m e is te n G e le h rte n k o m m t h in z u , d a ß sie e in e F re m d s p ra c h e (o d e r m e h re re S p ra c h e n ) a u f e in e m N iv e a u e rle rn e n m ü sse n , d a s sie b e fä h ig t, in d ie se r S p ra c h e z u p u b liz ie re n , z u u n te rric h te n u n d in le ite n d e r P o s itio n V e rw a l tu n g s a rb e it z u le iste n . U m m it a lle n g e n a n n te n - u n d m it v ie le n u n g e n a n n te n H e ra u s fo rd e ru n g e n fe rtig z u w e rd e n , b ra u c h t m a n e in e rse its n ic h t w e n ig G lü c k , a n d e re rs e its e n tsp re c h e n d e p e rs ö n lic h e F ä h ig k e ite n , v o r a lle m B e g a b u n g , B e g e is te ru n g fü r d ie W isse n sc h a ft, z ie lstre b ig e n A rb e itsfle iß u n d D u rc h s e tz u n g s v e rm ö g e n . „ L a fo rtu n e n e fa v o ris e q u e le s ä m es p ré p a ré e s .“ F ü r d en W e rd e g a n g e in e s H is to rik e rs k a n n d ie E m ig ra tio n v o n b e s o n d e re r B e d e u tu n g sein . S ir R o n a ld S y m e , d e r m e h rm a ls z u m A u sd ru c k b ra c h te , w a s e r fü r „ th e m a k in g o f th e h is to ria n “ fü r n ö tig h ie lt, sa h e in e d e r w ic h tig sten V o ra u s s e tz u n g e n h ie rfü r in d e r V e rtra u th e it m it d e r P o litik u n d d er m e n s c h lic h e n N a tu r, u n d sein Z a u b e rre z e p t d a fü r, w ie d ie se V e rtra u th e it am e h e s te n z u e rw e rb e n sei, la u te te : „ e x ile “ (w o b e i e r d e n H is to rik e rn , d e re n L e b e n s w e g , w ie sein e ig e n e r, d ie se s „ P riv ile g “ m isse n lä ß t, als E rs a tz h ie rfü r „ fo re ig n tra v e l“ e m p fa h l). F ü r d ie H isto rik e r, d e re n S ic h tw e is e v o n d e n E rfa h ru n g e n d e r E m ig ra tio n in b e s o n d e re m M a ß e g e p rä g t w u rd e , se ie n h ie r n ic h t n u r d ie v o n S y m e so o ft g e n a n n te n B e isp ie le , T h u k y d id e s u n d E d w a rd G ib b o n , g e n a n n t, s o n d e rn a u c h so u n te rs c h ie d lic h e H is to rik e r R o m s in u n s e re m J a h rh u n d e rt w ie M ic h a e l R o sto v tz e ff, A n d re a s A lfö ld i, A rn a ld o M o m ig lia n o , H a n s -G e o rg P fla u m . A u c h J e rz y L in d e rsk i ist d u rc h d ie se „ S c h u le d e r G e s c h ic h te “ g e g a n g e n . E r h a tte je d o c h a u c h n o c h d a s z u sä tz lic h e „ P riv ile g “ , d a ß e r - g a n z zu s c h w e ig e n v o n d e r K in d h e it in den Ja h re n d e r Z e rs tö ru n g u n d V e rw ü stu n g s e in e r p o ln is c h e n H e im a t - w ä h re n d d e r z w e i b e s o n d e rs w ic h tig e n Ja h rz e h n te s e in e s L e b e n s , in d e n e n ein W iss e n s c h a ftle r d ie e n tsc h e id e n d e n Im p u lse e rh ä lt, n ä m lic h im S tu d iu m u n d z u B e g in n se in e r b e ru flic h e n T ä tig k e it, u n te r d e m D ru c k e in e s to ta litä re n R e g im e s z u le id e n hatte. „ T h e m a k in g o f th e h is to ria n “ k a n n a u c h v o n d e r la n g jä h rig e n , b e w u ß te n in n e re n O p p o sitio n zu e in e r G e w a lth e rrs c h a ft g e p rä g t sein , w o b e i d a n n d a s E rle b n is d e r B e fre iu n g d u rc h d ie E m ig ra tio n e rst re c h t e in e m N e u b e g in n g le ic h k o m m t. N ic h t z u fä l lig v e rra te n d ie A rb e ite n L in d e rsk is au ch e in e ü b e rd u rc h s c h n ittlic h e V e rtra u t h e it m it d e r G e s c h ic h te u n s e re r e ig e n e n Z eit. S e in e S c h rifte n z e ig e n d a rü b e r h in a u s z u m e in e n , d a ß se in e b e s tim m e n d en w is s e n s c h a ftlic h e n H a u p tin te re sse n b e re its in se in e n ju n g e n Ja h re n a u s g e p rä g t w aren . Im M itte lp u n k t s e in e r frü h e n B e iträ g e steh t, e b e n s o w ie in
Vorwort des Herausgebers
X III
s e in e n s p ä te re n S c h rifte n , d ie rö m isc h e R e p u b lik - e in S ta a tsw e se n , in d e m d ie b e id e n w ic h tig s te n k o n stitu ie re n d e n E le m e n te d e r rö m isc h e n G e sc h ic h te u n d au c h ih re r E rfo rs c h u n g , „law and p o w e r“ (S. 4 3 ), in e in e r so e in z ig a rtig e n W e is e m ite in a n d e r v e rb u n d e n w aren . D ie se P ro b le m a tik m a c h t sich sc h o n in d e n S c h rifte n d es ju n g e n G e le h rte n in e in e r b e a c h tlic h e n V ie lfa lt b e m e rk b a r, d ie s ic h in s b e s o n d e re m it d e n S tic h w o rte n W a h le n , V e re in s w e s e n , P ro so p o g ra p h ie k e n n z e ic h n e n lä ß t. Z u g le ic h b rin g t a b e r d er v o rlie g e n d e S a m m e lb a n d z u m A u sd ru c k , w ie sic h d ie P e rsp e k tiv e d e s re ife n F o rsc h e rs in se in e r n e u e n H e im a t a u s w e ite te . D ie s g ilt n ic h t n u r im c h ro n o lo g is c h e n S in n e , in so fe rn e r in s e in e F o rs c h u n g s a rb e it a u c h P ro b le m e d e r rö m isc h e n K a ise rz e it e in b e z o g . E n ts c h e id e n d is t d ie V ie lfa lt d e r F ra g e ste llu n g : D ie T h e m e n sin d ü b e r d ie b e re its o b e n g e n a n n te n h in a u s n u n m e h r au c h F o rsc h u n g sg e sc h ic h te , p h ilo lo g is c h e , s p ra c h w is s e n s c h a ftlic h e u n d e p ig ra p h isc h e P ro b le m e , d ie P e rs ö n lic h k e it a n tik e r A u to re n , h e ra u s ra g e n d e h isto risc h e F ig u re n , V e rfa ssu n g , Ä m te r w e s e n , R e c h t, S tra fp ro z e ss e , P o litik , S o z ia lg e sc h ic h te , R e lig io n - in s b e s o n d e re S a k ra lre c h t so w ie O ra k e lw e s e n - u n d v ie le s a n d e re m e h r. D ie V ie lfa lt d e r T h e m a tik b e d e u te t n ic h t, d a ß w ir es m it d isp a ra te n B e iträ g e n zu tu n h a b e n . S ie sin d n ic h t n u r d u rc h d e n g le ic h e n z e itlic h e n R a h m e n , s o n d e rn a u c h d u rc h e in e R e ih e w e ite re r G e m e in sa m k e ite n m ite in a n d e r v e rb u n d e n . D e r A u sg a n g sp u n k t ist im m e r e in e k o n k re te F ra g e . D ie m e is te n A rtik e l L in d e rsk is b e g in n e n e n tw e d e r m it e in e r a n tik e n A u to re n s te l le, in d e r e in P ro b le m lie g t, o d e r m it d e r W ie d e rg a b e u n z u re ic h e n d e r L ö s u n g s v o rs c h lä g e u n d M e in u n g e n m o d e rn e r F o rsc h e r. „ P rü fe n w ir n u n d ie Q u e lle n !“ (S. 165), „ L e t u s, h o w e v e r, lo o k m o re c lo se ly in to th e p a s s a g e in q u e s tio n “ (S. 2 3 2 ): D ie h ä u fig e n A u ffo rd e ru n g e n d ie se r A rt, d ie d er A u to r an sic h s e lb s t ric h te t, w e rd e n k o n s e q u e n t b efo lg t. E r is t e in F o rsc h e r, d e r sic h b ei je d e m G e d a n k e n , b e i je d e r A u ssa g e u n m itte lb a r a u f d ie Q u e lle n stü tz t. Z u g le ic h ist e r e h rlic h u n d b e sc h e id e n g e n u g , d o rt, w o d ie Q u e lle n n ic h t a u s re i c h e n , d e n h y p o th e tis c h e n C h a ra k te r se in e r T h e s e n e in z u g e ste h e n : „ W e sh o u ld n o t c o n v e rt p o s sib ilitie s in to facts a n d p re te n d to k n o w m o re th a n w e d o “ (S. 2 5 0 ). D ie je n ig e n , d ie F a k te n d u rc h T h e o rie n zu e rse tz e n p fle g e n , w e rd e n v o n d ie s e m B a n d e n ttä u s c h t sein . A u c h d ie G re n z e n v e rs c h ie d e n e r F o rs c h u n g s m e th o d e n w e rd e n k la r g e z o g e n . D ie P ro so p o g ra p h ie z. B . „ c a n o p e n so m e d o o rs th a t h a d h ith e rto b e e n firm ly lo c k e d , b u t it is n o t a m a ste r k ey a n d still le ss a p ic k lo c k “ (S . 142). D ie s a lles b e d e u te t je d o c h k e in e sw e g s K o n z e p tlo sig k e it o d e r e in e n M a n g e l an Id e e n . L in d e rsk is B e iträ g e stro tz e n v o n o rig in e lle n G e d a n k e n . W e l c h e m A lth is to rik e r fä llt es sc h o n ein , sic h n ic h t n u r ü b e r d ie M e n sc h e n u n d In s titu tio n e n R o m s, so n d e rn a u c h ü b e r se in e V ö g e l G e d a n k e n zu m a c h e n (S. 4 4 -6 6 ), n ic h t e tw a au s a n tiq u a ris c h e n o d e r o rn ith o lo g is c h e n In te re ss e n , s o n d e rn u m d ie S u b tilitä t d e r rö m isc h e n A d e ls k u ltu r b e s s e r z u b e g re ife n ? D ie in te lle k tu e lle n A n sp rü c h e d es V e rfa sse rs sin d se h r h o c h , n ic h t z u le tz t in d e r so g e rn e g e fü h rte n D is k u ss io n m it a n d e re n F o rsc h e m . M it se in e n K o lle g e n
X IV
Vorwort des Herausgebers
g e h t e r n ic h t im m e r so n d e rlic h n e tt u m , so e tw a , w e n n e r d e n „ d e lp h is c h e n “ C h a ra k te r ih re r u n v e rs tä n d lic h e n Ä u ß e ru n g e n m it W o rte n w ie „ o ra c u la r p ro n o u n c e m e n t“ g e iß e lt (S . 38) o d e r ein G e g e n a rg u m e n t als „ se c re t w e a p o n “ d e r L ä c h e rlic h k e it p re is g ib t (S. 103) o d e r w e n n e r e in e r A u to rin e m p fie h lt, d e m T ite l ih re s B u c h e s d e n U n te rtite l „O r, th e P itfa lls o f E v id e n c e “ h in z u z u fü g e n (S. 6 0 0 ). D o c h is t d a s n ic h ts a n d e re s als e in A u sd ru c k d e r L ie b e z u r W a h rh e it u n d zu ih re r k la re n F o rm u lie ru n g . „ A m ic u s P a lm e ru s, m a g is a m ic a v e rita s “ , le s e n w ir zu B e g in n e in e r A u se in a n d e rs e tz u n g m it R . E . A . P a lm e r (S. 2 8 9 ). E s ü b e rra s c h t n ic h t, d a ß d ie se b is z u r B e g e is te ru n g g e s te ig e rte L ie b e d e r W a h rh e its s u c h e a u c h a u f d e n G e g e n s ta n d d e r A rb e it ü b e rtra g e n w ird . „ A c h a rm in g s e t!“ , le se n w ir ü b e r d ie O rte , in d e n e n sic h C ic e ro s D ia lo g sz e n e n a b s p ie le n (S. 4 7 ). „ A fa s c in a tin g lis t!“ , v e rn e h m e n w ir ü b e r d ie G e s p rä c h s p a rtn e r d ie s e r D ia lo g e (S. 4 8 ). „ A m a rv e llo u s s ta te m e n t!“ , h e iß t e s zu e in e r A u s s a g e C ic e ro s ü b e r s e in e U n k e n n tn is d e s iu s p o n tific iu m (S. 4 9 8 ). „ A c h a rm in g , fa s c in a tin g a n d m a rv e llo u s a ttitu d e o f a s c h o la r“ , m ö c h te m a n h in z u fü g e n . M it d e m v o rlie g e n d e n B a n d w e rd e n d e r a lth is to risc h e n F o rsc h u n g d ie z u s a m m e n g e fa ß te n E rg e b n iss e d e r la n g jä h rig e n , p rä z ise n u n d w e ite rfü h re n d e n F o rs c h u n g s a rb e it e in e s h ö c h st k o m p e te n te n F a c h m a n n e s z u r V e rfü g u n g g e s te llt. D e r a u fm e rk sa m e L e s e r w ird a b e r in d ie se m B a n d m e h r als n u r s tu p e n d e G e le h rs a m k e it e n td e c k e n k ö n n e n . W e r d ie W iss e n s c h a ft n ic h t n u r als tro c k e n e P rä z is io n sa rb e it v e rste h t, s o n d e rn a u c h W itz u n d Iro n ie z u lä ß t u n d te m p e ra m e n tv o lle D is k u ss io n b e g rü ß t, w ird an d ie se m B a n d e b e n s o se in e F re u d e h a b e n w ie au ch je n e r, d e r w e iß , d a ß m a n in e in e m w is se n sc h a ftlic h e n W e rk n ic h t n u r d a s P ro d u k t d e r G e h irn z e lle n e in e s A u to rs e rb lic k e n so llte , s o n d e rn a u c h v o m S c h la g se in e s H e rz e n s e tw a s v e rsp ü re n d arf. G é z a A lfö ld y
PREFACE
T h is c o lle c tio n c o n ta in s six ty fo u r p a p e rs w ritte n o v e r a p e rio d o f th irty fiv e y e a rs o n tw o c o n tin e n ts , in v a rio u s p la c e s b u t m a in ly a t th re e u n iv e rs i tie s o f w h ic h I w ill m e n tio n a n im o g r a to tw o , T h e U n iv e rs ity o f O re g o n a n d its D e p a r tm e n t o f H is to ry , a n d m y p re s e n t h o m e , T h e U n iv e rs ity o f N o rth C a ro lin a at C h a p e l H ill a n d its D e p a rtm e n t o f C la ssic s. It is a s o u rc e o f p a rtic u la r jo y , a n d a n h o n o r, th a t th is c o lle c tio n a p p e a rs in th e s e rie s H e i d e lb e r g e r A lth is to r is c h e B e itr ä g e u n d E p ig r a p h is c h e S tu d ie n , a n d th a t th e E d ito r o f th e se rie s, P ro fe s s o r G é z a A lfö ld y w a s k in d
e n o u g h to c o n t r i b u te a g e n e r o u s V o r w o r t.
“ L a e tu s s u m la u d a r i m e ... a
la u d a to v iro ” . T h e A d d e n d a a n d C o r r ig e n d a sh o w th a t m u c h w a s in n e e d o f im p ro v e m e n t, a n d th a t s c h o la rs h ip d id n o t s ta n d still. T h e title o f th e c o lle c tio n I b o r r o w e d fro m P lu ta rc h a s e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d w a rn in g : o n ly th o s e s c h o la rs d o n o t fa il w h o d o n o t a s k q u e stio n s. M y th a n k s a lso g o to th e S te in e r V e rla g fo r th e ir u n stin tin g c o o p e ra tio n , a n d to M s. D ia n e S m ith fo r h e r h e lp in th e c o m p o sitio n o f th e v o lu m e . S ix ty f o u r p ie c e s r e m in d u s o f th e s ix ty f o u r fie ld s in th e g a m e o f c h e ss. S c h o la rs h ip is a g a m e c o n d u c te d a c c o rd in g to c e rta in ru le s. T h e g o a l o f th a t g a m e is to b e s t th e o p p o n e n t a n d to g a in k n o w le d g e . O n a d e e p e r le v e l te x ts a re e v a n e s c e n t, fa c ts illu s io n s , a n d in te r p r e ta tio n s m e re d o x a i. B u t th e p la n e ts a re a lso u ltim a te ly c o m p o se d o f a to m s a n d q u a rk s, y e t th e a s tr o n o m e r s h a v e c h a r te d th e ir c o u rs e , a n d a lth o u g h p h y s ic a l o b je c ts s e n s u a lto d o n o t e x ist, k n o w le d g e a b o u t th e m is n o t im p o ssib le . S o is a lso k n o w l
e d g e a c h ie v a b le a b o u t v e r b a a n d g e s ta . It is in th is s p irit o f u ltim a te s c e p ti c is m a n d p ra c tic a l p o s itiv is m th a t th e se p ie c e s o f p h ilo lo g y , h is to ry , a n d o f p o le m ic a re o ffe re d . O f th e lo n g p ro c e s s io n o f n a m e s I re m e m b e r w ith g ra titu d e o r lo a th in g I w ill o m it th e la tte r, a n d o f th e fo rm e r I sh a ll m e n tio n o n ly th re e . O f th e lo n g p a s s e d , m y firs t T e a c h e r a n d M a ste r, L u d w ik P io tro w ic z . H e ta u g h t m e to r e a d th e s o u r c e s f ir s t.
W i th o u t h im I w o u ld n o t h a v e c o m e to k n o w
M o m m s e n a n d S y m e , T a y l o r a n d B r o u g h to n .
O f th e a n c i e n ts , M a r c u s
T e re n tiu s V a rro . H e w a s p o s se ss e d o f e ru d itio n , c u rio sity , a n d w it. O f th e p re s e n t, a lw a y s D. C h a p e l H ill, A p ril 1995
1 SI
V IS P A C E M , P A R A
BELLUM :
CONCEPTS OF DEFENSIVE IMPERIALISM
T h e o d o r M o m m s e n is t h e o r i g i n a t o r , a n d t o m a n y t h e h o l y p a t r o n , o f t h e i d e a o f d e f e n s i v e i m p e r i a l i s m . I n a f o o t n o t e in a r e c e n t b o o k fro m
t h e p e n o f a m o s t k n o w l e d g e a b l e a u t h o r h e a p p e a r s in t h e
c o m p a n y o f tw o le s s e r s ta r s , M a u r ic e H o lle a u x a n d T e n n e y F r a n k . 1 B u t in f a c t t h e r e is l i t t l e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e m e m b e r s o f t h i s t r i n i t y ; p h ilo s o p h y
s e p a ra te s
H o l l e a u x ’s s t u d i e s o n
t h e m . M o m m s e n ’s R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e a n d R o m a n e x p a n s io n
a re p ro d u c ts o f d iffe re n t
e p o c h s , d if f e r e n t s p ir its . T h e y w e r e n o u r is h e d b y d if f e r e n t p o litic a l e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d t h e y b e l o n g to d i f f e r e n t l i t e r a r y g e n r e s . M o m m s e n ’s is a s w e e p i n g c o u r s e o f d e s t i n y t h a t c a m e to a n a b r u p t h a l t w i t h t h e p e r s o n o f C a e s a r; 2 H o lle a u x h e ld fo r th o s te n s ib ly n o p h ilo s o p h y ; th e im p a r tia l s tu d y o f fa c ts w a s h is p r o f e s s e d g o a l.3 W h e n M o m m s e n s e t o u t to c o m p o s e h is R o m a n H i s t o r y h e w a s o n l y t h i r t y - t w o y e a r s o l d ; m o r e t h a n fifty y e a r s o f s c h o l a r l y g r e a t n e s s a n d a c a d e m i c p o w e r la y a h e a d o f h i m . B u t in 1 8 5 4 , w h e n t h e f ir s t v o l u m e a p p e a r e d , 4 h e w a s o n l y a p r o f e s s o r in B r e s l a u ; f o u r y e a r s s e p a r a t e d h i m f r o m h is a p p o i n t m e n t in B e r l in , a n d h e h a d o n l y j u s t r e t u r n e d to G e r m a n y f r o m
h i s e x i l e in S w i s s Z ü r i c h . A n d h e h a d
a lw a y s b e e n a p r o f e s s o r o f la w , n o t h is to ry . H e h im s e lf s to o d o n th e th re s h o ld
b e tw e e n
t h e s e t w o d i s c i p l i n e s w h i c h w e r e in a s t a t e o f
t u r m o i l a n d u p h e a v a l . F r i e d r i c h v o n S a v ig n y a n d h is h i s t o r i c i s m n o w d o m in a te d th e s tu d y o f la w .5 A w a r w a s b e in g w a g e d a g a in s t th e a b s tr a c t te n e ts o f th e n a tu r a l la w s c h o o l. T h e c o m p re h e n s io n o f h is to ry w as
tu rn e d
u p s id e d o w n
by
H e g e l, t h e c o u r t p h i l o s o p h e r o f t h e
P ru s s ia n m o n a rc h y .6 B u t a b o v e a ll th e R ö m is c h e G e s c h ic h te w a s a p r o d u c t o f th e p a in f u l a n d s o b e r in g e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e r e v o lu tio n o f 1 8 4 8 . B e n e d e tto C r o c e c a l l e d it a p o e t i c h i s t o r y ; 7 a n d h e w a s r i g h t . I t w a s t h e f r u i t o f r o m a n tic is m . In a g r a n d a n d c u r io u s w a y it c o m b in e s th e p r in c ip le s o f h is to r ic is m a n d o f th e r o m a n tic v is io n o f th e p a s t.8 M o m m s e n b e lie v e d
in h is to r ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t, le a d in g n e c e s s a rily , th o u g h th r o u g h to il a n d t r i a l , I r o m l o w e r to h i g h e r s ta g e s o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e . T h e n a t i o n is t h e s u p r e m e s u b j e c t o f h i s t o r y a n d its u l t i m a t e g o a l t h e n a t i o n a l s t a t e . T h e g r e a t n e s s o f R o m e r e s i d e d in h e r u n i f i c a t i o n o f I t a l y . 9 W h o c a n f a i l t o r e c o g n i z e i n t h i s g l o w i n g a d m i r a t i o n f o r R o m e ’s ro te i i Ita ly a re fle c tio n , p a tr io tic a n d id e a liz e d , o f G e r m a n y a n d P - u s s ia ? R o m e w a s im a g in e d to h a v e a c h ie v e d in Ita ly w h a t P r u s s ia w a s f e r v e n t l y e x p e c t e d t o a c c o m p l i s h in G e r m a n y ; a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e P r u s s i a n s w e r e e x h o r t e d to f o l l o w in t h e f o o t s t e p s o f t h e R o m a n s a n d li v e u p to t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l d e s t i n y . 10 W h e n t h e s e t h o u g h t s p o u r e d d o w n f r o m M o m m s e n ’s p e n , h is d r e a m s la y s h a t t e r e d ; w h a t h e h a d h o p e d fo r a n d w h a t h e h a d fo u g h t fo r, a p e a c e fu l u n ific a tio n o f G e r m a n y a s a l i b e r a l a n d l a w f u l s t a t e , p r o v e d a lo s t c a u s e ; h e h i m s e l f , a c c u s e d o f t r e a s o n , w a s c h a s e d a w a y f r o m h i s c h a i r in L e i p z ig . U n i t e d G e r m a n y r e m a in e d h is g o a l, b u t lib e r a lis m
h a d to b e to s s e d a s id e .
L ib e ra l P ru s s ia w a s a p h a n to m , b u t n o t th e P ru s s ia o f B lu t u n d E is e n . M o m m s e n o p p o s e d B i s m a r c k a n d o n c e c a l l e d h is p o l i c y a s w i n d l e , 11 b u t M o m m s e n ’s u n i f i c a t i o n o f I t a l y p a r a l l e l s B i s m a r c k ’s u n i f i c a t i o n o f G e r m a n y . T h e u n if ic a tio n o f L a tiu m c o r r e s p o n d s to th e P ru s s ia n -le d N o r th G e r m a n F e d e ra tio n { N o r d -D e u ts c h e r B u n d ); a n d th e u n ific a tio n o f Ita ly a f te r th e w a r a g a in s t P y r r h u s to th e u n if ic a tio n o f G e r m a n y a f te r th e w a r a g a in s t th e F ra n c e o f N a p o le o n
111. T h e t h e m e o f b l o o d
h o v e r e d in th e a ir; s u c h w a s th e Z e itg e is t, th e c o n te m p o r a r ie s w o u ld e x p l a i n . I t s e t t l e d o n t h e li p s o f t h e I r o n C h a n c e l l o r a n d o n t h e p e n o f M o m m s e n , w h o u s e d it to p a i n t t h e l a u r e l s o f S u l l a . H e p r a i s e s S u l l a a s th e c r e a to r o f th e fin a l a n d c o m p le te u n ity o f Ita ly ; th e p r ic e w a s e n d l e s s m i s e r y a n d s tr e a m s o f b l o o d —f o r s u c h a n a c h i e v e m e n t n o t to o h i g h a p r i c e . 12 A h i s t o r y t h i s is n o t ; a s a g r a n d i o s e p o l i t i c a l p a m p h l e t i t h a s f e w e q u a ls . B u t h o w c o u ld it h a v e e s c a p e d th e s g u a r d o lin c e o o f M o m m s e n th a t th e u n if ic a tio n o f Ita ly , e v e n o f L a tiu m , w a s a fo r c e d u n if ic a tio n , m o s t o fte n
an
o u trig h t c o n q u e s t?
It d id
n o t . T h e a n s w e r lie s in
M o m m s e n ’s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c o n q u e s t a n d u n i f i c a t i o n . C o n q u e s t is th e fo rc e fu l c o m b in a tio n o f th in g s th a t d o n o t o r g a n ic a lly b e lo n g t o g e t h e r ; w h e n th e y d o b e l o n g t o g e t h e r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n b e a r s t h e n a m e o f u n i f i c a t i o n , n o t c o n q u e s t . A n d t h e n it d o e s n o t r e a l l y m a t t e r w h e th e r it w a s a c h ie v e d th r o u g h p e a c e o r th r o u g h ir o n . Ita ly w a s f o r M om m sen
a g e o g ra p h ic ,
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and
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u n it,
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b e a u tif u l v a s e s h a tte r e d in to h u n d r e d s o f p ie c e s . I n e r tia c o m p e lle d t h e m t o lie in d u s t a n d o b l i v i o n ; b u t w h e n o n e s h e r d d e v e l o p e d t h e
s t r e n g t h a n d w i l l to p u l l t h e p i e c e s t o g e t h e r , e v e n a g a i n s t t h e i r s e lf is h r e s is ta n c e , c a n w e c a ll th is a n a c t o f c o n q u e s t? It w a s a p ro c e s s o f r e s t o r a t i o n . 13 B u t w h e r e c a n w e f in d t h a t l o s t p a r a d i s e o f o r i g i n a l u n i t y ? I n t h e g re y m o r n in g o f h is to r y w h e n th e I n d o - E u r o p e a n tr ib e s p o u r e d d o w n i n t o t h e p e n i n s u l a . A f a i r y t a l e b u t a l s o p u r e H e g e l . U n ity is t h e t h e s i s . A s a n a n t i t h e s i s t h e I t a l i a n t r e e s p lit s u p i n t o a p l e t h o r a o f b r a n c h e s a n d t w i g s . I n t h e t h i r d s t a g e t h e p r o c e s s o f s y n t h e s i s s e ts i n : R o m e a n d Ita ly b e c o m e g ra d u a lly o n e a n d th e s a m e o rg a n is m ; th e Ita lia n n a tio n f in d s a t l a s t its f o r m a n d its s o u l . 14 F o r M o m m s e n it w a s t h e m o s t p e r f e c t a n d m o s t n a t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t t o b e f o u n d in h i s t o r y p ro to ty p e a n d p a ra d ig m D is q u ie t p e rs is ts .
a
f o r P r u s s i a a n d G e r m a n y . 15
E ven
if w e
g ra n t th a t
R o m e ’s c o n q u e s t o f
L a tiu m , o f S a m n iu m , o f U m b ria , a n d o f o th e r Ita lic trib e s w a s a p r o c e s s o f u n i f i c a t i o n o r d a i n e d b y h i s t o r y , s til l th i s d o e s n o t p r o d u c e a p e r f e c t u n i o n o f a ll I t a l y . N o n - i t a l i c t r i b e s , G r e e k s a n d E t r u s c a n s r e m a i n . N o p r o b l e m . T h e y w e r e a f o r e i g n b o d y o n I t a l i a n s o i l . 16 I n p r in c ip le th e y w e r e e n title d to a s e p a r a te a n d in d e p e n d e n t e x is te n c e , b u t t h i s is n o t a n a b s o l u t e p r i n c i p l e . T h e y h a d t o b e n d b e f o r e t h e n e c e s s ity o f h is to ry , b e f o r e th a t h ig h e s t G o o d , th e n a tio n a l s ta te . If t h e y h a d h a d t h e i r c h a n c e , t h e y l o s t it. O n c e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e I t a l i a n n a t i o n b e g a n , t h i s w a s t h e s u p r e m e r i g h t ; a l l o t h e r r i g h t s t h a t s t o o d in its w a y h a d t o r e t r e a t . 17 M o m m s e n ’s s e n t i m e n t is p a r a l l e l e d b y h i s a t t i t u d e to t h e p r o b l e m o f n a tio n a l m in o r itie s in P r u s s ia - G e rm a n y a n d A u s tr ia . In 1 8 4 8 h e w a s s t i l l a b l e t o m u s t e r s o m e c o o l u n d e r s t a n d i n g f o r t h e r e b e l l i o n in t h e P o l i s h p r o v i n c e s o f P r u s s i a , m i x e d , h o w e v e r , w i t h a n t i p a t h y f o r its l e a d e r s ; 18 h a l f a c e n t u r y
la te r h e g ro s sly
in te rv e n e d
in t h e
s trife
b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e s in A u s t r i a . I n a n o p e n l e t t e r “ T o t h e G e r m a n s in A u s t r i a ” w h i c h a p p e a r e d in O c t o b e r 1 8 9 7 i n t h e V i e n n e s e d a i l y N e u e F r e ie P r e s s e h e p r e a c h e d :
“ T h e s k u l l s o f t h e C z e c h s a r e c l o s e d to r e a s o n ; to t h e s t i c k th e y a r e o p e n . U n t i m e l y s u r r e n d e r is s i n f u l a n d d a m a g i n g ; a n d t h i s is w h a t h a s b e e n h a p p e n i n g i n A u s t r i a . E v e r y t h i n g is a t s t a k e ; t o lo s e m e a n s t o c e a s e to e x is t. T h e A u s tr ia n G e r m a n s c a n n o t e m ig ra te , lik e th e J e w s f r o m R u s s i a , f r o m t h e f r o n t i e r p r o v i n c e s w h i c h th e y h a v e b r o u g h t t o f u l l e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l b l o o m . I f y o u g iv e i n y o u m u s t k n o w t h a t e ith e r y o u r c h ild re n
o r c e rta in ly y o u r g ra n d c h ild r e n
w ill b e c o m e
C z e c h s ” . 19 T h e u n ific a tio n o f Ita ly w a s th u s th e h ig h e s t p o in t o f a n c ie n t
135
3
h is to ry , b u t th e R o m a n s d id n o t s to p a t th e s tr a its th a t s e p a r a te th e p e n i n s u l a f r o m S ic i ly . S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g t h i s m u s t m e a n t h a t a t t h e m o m e n t o f t h e i r c r o s s i n g to M e s s a n a t h e R o m a n s b e g a n t h e i r l o n g d e s c e n t , a l t h o u g h , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , th e y w e r e s til l a s c e n d i n g a s th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f I t a l y i n t o o n e n a t i o n w a s s til l t w o c e n t u r i e s a w a y . A t th e a f te r m a th o f P y d n a , d ir e c tin g h is g a z e b a c k o n th e ro a d R o m e h a d tr a v e r s e d , M o m m s e n w r o te h is tw o fa m o u s p a g e s , th e c r a d l e o f t h e d e f e n s i v e t h e o r y o f R o m a n i m p e r i a l i s m . 20 In t h e e n d , h e m u s e d , it m i g h t a p p e a r t h a t a ll t h e s t a t e s a n d n a t i o n s o f a n t i q u i t y e x i s t e d s o le ly f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f h e l p i n g to b u i l d t h e g r e a t n e s s o f I ta l y . A la s t h i s g r e a t n e s s w a s a l s o h e r fa ll a n d c o l l a p s e . G ra n d
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and
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M o m m s e n ’s id e a w i l l s t a n d o u t l u c i d a n d in h i g h r e l i e f . I n 1 8 5 8 , n o t a fu ll tw o y e a rs a f te r th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e th ir d v o lu m e o f th e R ö m is c h e G e s c h ic h te ,
M om m sen
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v o l u m e o f t h e l i b e r a l a n d n a t i o n a l i s t P r e u s s i s c h e J a h r b ü c h e r : a lo n g r e v i e w o f A d o l p h e T h i e r s ’ H i s t o i r e d u C o n s u l a t e t d e l ’E m p i r e . 2' W h a t M o m m s e n t h o u g h t o f T h i e r s is o f i n t e r e s t , b u t n o t o f i m p o r t a n c e ; M o m m s e n ’s v ie w
o f N a p o le o n
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R om e and
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N a p o l e o n w a s th e e m b o d i m e n t o f F r a n c e ’s l o n g i n g a f t e r g lo r y , b u t h e w a s a n I t a l i a n . H is p o li c y w a s a n t i n a t i o n a l : h a d h e s u c c e e d e d F r a n c e w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b s o r b e d i n h is w o r l d e m p i r e j u s t a s M a c e d o n i a p e ris h e d
in
A l e x a n d e r ’s
e m p ire .
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d e n a t i o n a l i z e d s t a t e : t h i s w a s t h e s o u r c e o f its p r e c i p i t o u s c o l l a p s e , its g r e a t n e s s b e i n g o n l y g l i t t e r . W h e n a n a t i o n t r a n s g r e s s e s its n a t u r a l f r o n t i e r s it f in d s i t s e l f o n t h e w a y to s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i o n . 22 It is o f c o u r s e in th is s e n s e
th a t w e
have
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M o m m s e n ’s w o r d s a b o u t
I t a l y ’s
g r e a tn e s s b e in g a ls o h e r d e s tr u c tio n . T h e i p s i s s i m a o r i g o o f M o m m s e n ’s t h e o r y o f d e f e n s i v e e x p a n s i o n li e s in h is w i s h t o f r e e t h e R o m a n s f r o m r e s p o n i b i l i t y f o r d e s t r o y i n g th e ir
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R o m e by c irc u m s ta n c e s .
R o m a n f o r e ig n p o l i c y w a s r u n b y t h e s e n a t e a n d t h e s e n a t e w a s a n a s s e m b ly o f h o n e s t b u t lim ite d m e n ; n o t fo r th e m th e c o n q u e r in g f la ir o f a C a e s a r o r a N a p o le o n ; in s te a d o f s h o w in g a n y d e s ire fo r c o n q u e s t th e y w e r e r a t h e r s e i z e d b y f e a r o f c o n q u e s t s . R u le o v e r I ta ly w a s th e s o le d e s i r e o f t h e R o m a n s ; b u t th e y p e r c e i v e d c o r r e c t l y t h a t n e i g h b o r s w h o w e r e to o p o w e r f u l c o u ld
s u ffo c a te th e m . T h is c o u ld
4
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t o l e r a t e d . T h e r i n g s u r r o u n d i n g I t a l y w a s b r o k e n in A f r i c a , in G r e e c e , in A s i a ; s t e p b y s t e p t h e R o m a n s w e r e f o r c e d to b r o a d e n t h e c i r c l e o f t h e i r i n v o l v e m e n t a n d d e f e n d t h e s t a t u s q u o . 21 A s th e tw o f e a tu r e s o f a tr u e e x p a n s io n is t p o lic y M o m m s e n p o s its e x t e n s i v e a n n e x a t i o n s a n d d r e a m s o f w o r l d d o m i n a t i o n . H e f in d s b o t h o f th e m w a n ti n g in R o m e a n d c o n c lu d e s th a t th e s e n a te w a s n o t b e n t o n e x p a n s i o n . H e p o i n t s h is f i n g e r to t h e s e n a t e ’s r e l u c t a n c e to a n n e x f o r e i g n t e r r i t o r i e s b u t f o r g e t s t h a t th i s v a u n t e d r e l u c t a n c e w a s a p p l i e d r a th e r v e ry s e le c tiv e ly a n d th a t e x p a n s io n n e e d n o t p ro c e e d b y w a y o f i n d i s c r i m i n a t e a n n e x a t i o n s . 24 R e s u l t s m a t t e r , n o t s ty le . N o r d o e s M o m m s e n a s k w h e th e r th e n e ig h b o r in g s ta te s h a d a n y reaso n
to
b e d is tru s tfu l o f R o m e a n d
c o n c e rn e d
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s e c u r i t y . H e t a c i t l y a s s u m e s t h e m o r a l s u p e r i o r i t y o f R o m e a n d o f h is o w n id e a o f Ita ly o v e r a n y rig h ts o f o th e r s ta te s . W a rs w h ic h th e R o m a n s u n d e r t o o k i n t h e b e l i e f , e v e n a m i s t a k e n b e l ie f , o f d e f e n d i n g th e s e c u r ity o f Ita ly th u s b e c o m e w a r s if n o t ju s t, th e n a t le a s t ju s tif ie d . A nd
th e n
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r e a s s u r in g . It b e lo n g s to th e la n g u a g e o f d ip lo m a c y r a th e r th a n h is to ry , f o r it a l w a y s c o n c e a l s s o m e t h i n g . W h a t is c o n c e a l e d in M o m m s e n ’s w h ic h
s ta tu s q u o
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R o m a n s so a s s id u o u s ly o b s e rv e d ? T h e w a r
a g a i n s t P e r s e u s f o r o n e w a s f o u g h t i n its d e f e n s e . T h e s t a t u s q u o t h u s re v e a ls
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e f f e c t i v e f ig u r e s , b u t t h e y h a r d l y p r o v e w h a t M o m m s e n s e t o u t to p ro v e , th e r e s tr a in t o f R o m e . Y e t M o m m s e n h a d to c o n c e d e th a t in v ic to ry th e R o m a n s d id n o t s h o w th e r e q u ir e d m o d e r a tio n . T h e c lin g in g to S p a in , th e p r o te c to r a te o v e r A f r i c a , t h e l a s t i n g i m m e r s i o n in G r e e k a f f a i r s w e r e t h r e e s in s a g a i n s t R o m e ’s I t a l i a n m i s s i o n . B u t it s o o n t u r n s o u t t h a t h o w e v e r m o r ta l it w a s , th e e r r o r o f e x p a n s io n w a s u n a v o id a b le : th e a n c ie n t w o r ld d id n o t k n o w As
a
chance
t h e i d e a o f b a l a n c e o f p o w e r . 25
h a p p e n in g ,
w hat
a
la m e n ta b le
and
u n b e a ra b le
s p e c t a c l e it w o u l d h a v e b e e n , t h e s u b j u g a t i o n b y R o m e o f s o m a n y t a l e n t e d n a t i o n s . U n l i k e P o l y b i u s , M o m m s e n a n d h is a g e f e a r e d a n d d e t e s t e d c h a n c e , a n d w i s h e d to r e l e g a t e it f r o m h i s t o r y . A n d s o it w a s not chance
th a t
b ro u g h t
R om e
to
th e
p in n a c le ;
it w a s
d e s tin y ,
n e c e s s a r y , i n e x o r a b l e , a c c e p t a b l e . 26 A c c e p t a b l e b e c a u s e it w a s n o t t h e fo rc e o f a rm s th a t d e c id e d th e s tru g g le , th e m e re s u p e r io r ity o f th e l e g i o n o v e r t h e p h a l a n x . T h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e l e g io n w a s o n l y a n
137
5
o u t w a r d m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f R o m e ’s i n n e r e x c e l l e n c e . A n d th i s e x c e l l e n c e a ll flo w e d fro m o n e s o u r c e : th e n a tio n a l u n ity o f Ita ly . O n e n a tio n , o n e s ta te :
th i s
nobody
a c h ie v e d
in
a n tiq u ity
but
R om e
and
I t a l y . 27
It w a s a b l i n d b e l i e f in t h e s e t w o i d o l s , t h e n a t i o n a n d t h e n a t i o n a l s t a t e - t o M o m m s e n “ t h e s a c r e d s h r i n e o f o u r ti m e s ” 28 - t h a t le d h i m t o a c c e p t a n d p r a i s e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f e x p a n s i o n . F o r n e c e s s i t y is th e g o d d e s s o f h is to ry , o f v ic to rs a n d v a n q u is h e d a lik e . M o m m s e n a d m ire d
c o u ra g e ;
in
rin g in g a n d
m o v in g w o rd s h e d e s c rib e d
th e
s t r u g g l e o f H a m i l c a r a n d H a n n i b a l a g a i n s t R o m e , a n d h is p o r t r a i t o f V e r c i n g e t o r i x is a c a l l t o th e f ig h t f o r l i b e r t y . B u t th e y w e r e h e r o e s in a s u b j e c t i v e s e n s e o n l y ; o b j e c t i v e l y th e y t r i e d to s te m th e p r o g r e s s o f h i s t o r y , t h e y f o u g h t a g a i n s t f a t e . 29 M o m m s e n a n d M a r x d r a n k f r o m th e sa m e m u rk y H e g e lia n s o u rc e . R e c e n t b io g r a p h e r s a n d in te r p r e te r s o f M o m m s e n o fte n c h a r a c te r i z e h im a s a n a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t , w h e t h e r h e d w e l l e d in a n c i e n t R o m e o r in m o d e r n G e r m a n y . 30 B u t l a b e l s te ll u s l i t t l e ; to a f f ix t h e m d o e s n o t m e a n to u n d e r s t a n d
th e m .
M o m m s e n w a s a p o litic a l r e a lis t a n d h e b e lie v e d , a n d fo r g o o d re a so n s,
th a t
th e
p o lic y
of
b a la n c e
of
pow er
in
E u ro p e
w as
a d v a n t a g e o u s n o t o n l y to E n g l a n d , b u t to G e r m a n y a s w e l l . A f t e r a l l it w a s o n l y a t t h e B e r l in c o n f e r e n c e o f 1 8 7 8 t h a t t h e n e w G e r m a n E m p i r e w a s a c c e p te d fo r g o o d in to th e c o n c e r t o f g r e a t p o w e r s . H e lo o k e d w ith a n g e r a n d f o r e b o d in g a t th o s e w h o w e r e s e d u c in g th e G e r m a n n a tio n w i t h f a n t a s t i c p l a n s o f c o n q u e s t . 31 B u t a t t h e s a m e ti m e h e a l s o b e l i e v e d th a t in h is to ry a g e n e r a l la w o p e r a te d w h ic h in a g r ip p in g m e ta p h o r h e c o m p a r e d to th e l a w o f g r a v i t y . T h i s l a w d e c r e e d t h a t “ a n a t i o n w h i c h h a s c o n s titu te d its e lf a s a s ta te w ill a b s o r b th o s e n e ig h b o rs w h o a re n o t o f ag e p o litic a lly ; a n d a c iv iliz e d n a tio n w ill a b s o r b th o s e n e ig h b o rs w h o s p i r i t u a l l y a r e n o t o f a g e ” .32 W i t h M o m m s e n ’s l a w i t s e l f o n e c a n h a v e n o q u a r r e l : t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y h a s b o r n e it o u t o f t e n e n o u g h ; y e t in e a c h c a s e its v a l i d i t y is a p p a re n t
o n ly
ex
e v e n tu .
It
w o rk ed
at
R om e:
p o litic a lly
R om e
a b s o r b e d th e G r e e k w o r ld a n d im p o s e d R o m a n ita s o n th e c u ltu r a lly in f e r io r W e s t. B u t as a s lo g a n a n d ju s tif ic a tio n o f c u r r e n t p ra c tic e s M o m m s e n ’s l a w c o u l d h a v e c o m e s t r a i g h t f r o m th e m o u t h o f a C e c il R h o d e s o r J u le s F e r r y . 33 E x p a n s i o n b y v e r d i c t o f G o d a n d F a te a n d th e m is s io n
c iv ilis a tr ic e
im p e ria lis ts .
w ere
M om m sen
th e
tw in p a r o le s o f n in e te e n th
h im s e lf
d id
not
h e s ita te
to
c e n tu ry
e x te n d
th e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s l a w t o h is o w n ti m e s . E n r a g e d b y C z e c h e f f o r t s to p r e s e r v e t h e i r l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e , h e l a s h e d o u t in t h e l e t t e r o f 1 8 9 7
t o t h e G e r m a n s in A u s t r i a a g a i n s t “ t h e a p o s t l e s o f b a r b a r i s m w h o s t r i v e to b u r y t h e fiv e h u n d r e d y e a r s o f G e r m a n w o r k in t h e a b y s s o f t h e i r n o n - c u l t u r e ” .34 I n M o m m s e n ’s lo v e f o r I ta l y , in h is d e e p a p p r e c i a t i o n o f F r e n c h c u l t u r e a n d F r e n c h l a n g u a g e s o m e d e t e c t a n a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t n a t u r e . 35 B u t M o m m s e n w a s o n l y a k i n to F l a m i n i n u s . T h e s y m b i o s i s o f R o m e a n d H e l l a s h e s a w r e f l e c t e d in t h e c u l t u r a l u n i o n o f R o m a n c e a n d G e r m a n ic n a tio n s , w ith th e f o r m e r p la y in g th e ro le o f th e G re e k s , th e l a t t e r t h a t o f t h e R o m a n s . 36 F o r o t h e r s h e h a r d l y s a w a p l a c e in t h i s c o m m u n ity ; th e C z e c h s a n d o th e r le s s e r n a tio n s w e r e f o r h im as m u c h a p e b b l e o f h i s t o r y a s t h e S a m n i t e s o r C e l t s . I n h is d i v i d e d m i n d l i v e d s i d e b y s i d e t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y o f 1 8 4 8 , t h e e n e m y o f B is m a r c k , j u n k e r s and
c le ric a ls ,
and
B i s m a r c k ’s a n d
th e
n a tio n a lis t
w ho
a p p la u d e d
th e
re s u lts
of
C a e s a r ’s p o l i c i e s .
M o m m s e n h a s R o m a n h i s t o r y m o v e in t w o o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s : o n e w h e e l r o l l s in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l s t a t e in I t a l y ; t h e o t h e r r o l l s in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e e m p i r e t h u s i m p e r i l l i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n a n d s u r v i v a l o f t h e I t a l i a n n a t i o n . T h e s e n a t e , a n d R o m e ’s e n e m i e s , t r i e d t o s l o w its c o u r s e . I n v a i n : b o t h w h e e l s w e r e t h e w h e e l s o f n e c e s s i t y . I n f a c t t h e s e c o n d w h e e l w a s d r i v e n b y t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e f ir s t: it w a s t h e R o m a n u n if ic a tio n o f Ita ly th a t e n g e n d e r e d th e e m p ir e . F o r th e I ta lia n w h e e l t h e l a s t i n g i n v o l v e m e n t in S p a i n a n d G r e e c e w a s a n a b e r r a t i o n ; b u t f o r t h e i m p e r i a l w h e e l it w a s a n a t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e R o m a n s t o c o n q u e r t h e w o r l d w i t h o u t b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e f o r it. I f t h e E m p i r e w a s a n e g a t i o n o f I ta l y , a s y n t h e s i s r e q u i r e d t h e n e g a tio n
of
n e g a tio n .
M om m sen
th o u g h ts
in
H e g e lia n
g a rb ;
fo rtu n a te ly
s u b sta n c e
does
speaks.
not
The
d ress
id e a
of
h is an
I t a l o - H e l l e n i c s t a t e h u n g in t h e a i r ; b u t t h e c o r r u p t a r i s t o c r a c y w a s n o t a b l e to s o lv e t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n I ta l y a n d E m p i r e . A g e n i u s w a s n e c e s s a ry , a n d C a e s a r a p p e a r e d . Ita ly h a d b e e n h o m e to th e R o m a n I t a l i c n a t i o n : n o w t h e w h o l e o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w a s to b e c o m e a v a s t n e w h o m e to t h e r e j u v e n a t e d I t a l o - H e l l e n i c n a t i o n . W i t h C a e s a r th e
c irc le
o f d e v e lo p m e n t
reac h ed
a
new
h e ig h t a n d
p r o m i s e . 37
M o m m s e n ’s i d e a o f d e f e n s i v e c o n q u e s t f l o w s f r o m h is c o n c e p t o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e ; it e v o k e s a v i s i o n o f A r i s t o t e l i a n c e l e s t i a l m e c h a n i c s . I t is
as
g ro u n d e d
in
R om an
h is to ry
as
A r i s t o t l e ’s
th e o ry
w as
in
a s t r o n o m y . B u t it p r o v i d e d s o o t h i n g m u s i c to t h o s e w h o f o r w h a t e v e r re a s o n w a n te d
to h e a r it. H e n c e its l a s t i n g p o p u l a r i t y . 38
A f t e r t h i s l o n g s o j o u r n in B e r l in , a n d in t h e r e a l m o f p h i l o s o p h y , w i t h g l i m p s e s o n R o m e , i t is h i g h t i m e to m o v e o n to P a r i s . W e d e s c e n d
139
7
t o t h e b a r e f a c t s , o r s o M a u r i c e H o l l e a u x p r o m i s e s u s . 39 P o l e m i c is th e h e a r t o f s c h o la r s h ip , a n d th e id e a s a n d m e th o d s o f H o lle a u x w ill s h in e m o s t c o n s p ic u o u s ly
i n h is d e f e n s i v e a t t a c k
on
M o n sie u r T a d e u s z
W a le k , a “ y o u n g a n d le a r n e d p r o f e s s o r a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f W a r s a w ”, a s H o l l e a u x d e s c r i b e d h i m h a l f - i r o n i c a l l y . 40 O n e y e a r p r e v i o u s l y , i n 1 9 2 5 , i n a n a r t i c l e i n R e v u e d e P h i l o l o g i e , 41 W a l e k h a d c r i t i c i z e d H o lle a u x ’ u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f R o m a n p o lic y to w a r d s th e H e lle n is tic W o r ld ; th e R o m a n s , h e w r o te , w e r e th e im p e ria lis ts , a n d n o th in g b u t im p e ria lis ts .
T h is
o f c o u rse
m eant
th a t
H o lle a u x
c o m p re h e n d e d
n o t h i n g . B u t W a l e k ’s w a s a d e m o n s t r a t i o n n e i t h e r e l e g a n t n o r e r u d i t e , and
H o lle a u x
w as
a b le
to o v e r w h e lm
it w ith
h is
to n e o f p o lite
s u p e r io r ity a n d a n a v a la n c h e o f fa c ts . H e r e w e o b s e r v e a p o s itiv is t h is to r i a n in a c tio n . T h e fa c ts a r e th e r e t o b e p i c k e d u p ; t h e s a m e f a c t s f o r H o l l e a u x a n d f o r h is o p p o n e n t . O f c o u r s e H o l l e a u x l e a v e s n o d o u b t a s to w h o d o e s i t b e t t e r ; h e p a r a d e s h is e r u d i t i o n ; a n d y e t a t o n e o f r e s i g n a t i o n r e s o u n d s i n h is v o ic e : h e a n d h is o p p o n e n t a r e i m p r e g n a b l e t o e a c h o t h e r ; t h e q u a r r e l i n w h i c h H o l l e a u x e n g a g e s is a f r i v o l o u s a f f a i r f o r it h a s e v e r y c h a n c e o f p e rp e tu a tin g
it s e lf .
P ro p h e tic
w o rd s!
G e n e ra tio n s
o f s tu d e n ts
of
R o m a n e x p a n s io n w o u ld w a lk in to th e tr a p o f m a tc h in g th e ir fa c ts w i t h t h e f a c t s o f H o l l e a u x a n d h is d i s c i p l e s . T h e m o s t r e c e n t a n d m o s t re s o lu te a d v e rs a ry o f H o lle a u x , W illia m
H a rris , h a s a tte m p te d
to
s h o w , s u c c e s s fu lly , m o s t o f h is r e a d e r s w ill a g re e , th a t th e r e a l o u tlo o k o f th e R o m a n s w a s b e llig e r e n t, n o t d e f e n s iv e . Y e t I d o n o t d o u b t f o r a m o m e n t t h a t t h e g lo v e h e h a s t h r o w n a t t h e f e e t o f t h e d e f e n s i v e s c h o o l o f R o m a n e x p a n s i o n w i l l s o o n b e t h r o w n b a c k a t h i m . 42 F o r R o m a n f a c t s a r e n o t w a i t i n g t h e r e t o b e c o l l e c t e d ; t h e a c t o f p i c k i n g t h e m u p is th e
act
o f c h o ic e
and
in te rp re ta tio n .
No
fa c t e x is ts
w ith o u t
an
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i m p o s e d u p o n it. F o r f a c t s a r e l i k e w o r d s i n a d i c t i o n a r y ; th e y
a re
dead.
In
th e
re a l la n g u a g e
w o rd s
c o m e to
lif e o n l y
in
e n u n c i a t i o n s ; i n t h e r e a l w o r l d f a c t s c o m e t o lif e o n l y in t h e f l o w o f h i s t o r y . A n d t h e f l o w o f h i s t o r y , a s w e k n o w it, f l o w s f r o m t h e o r d e r i n g m i n d o f t h e h i s t o r i a n , a n c i e n t o r m o d e r n . T h e to o l s o f o r d e r a r e u n e x p r e s s e d p h ilo s o p h y a n d a s s u m e d te rm in o lo g y . H e n c e e v e n th e m o s t e x te n s iv e e r u d itio n a n d d e e p e s t k n o w le d g e o f th e q u is q u ilia o f e p i g r a p h y m a y s til l r e s u l t i n s p e c i o u s h i s t o r y . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d o r r e f u t e w h a t a h i s t o r i a n s a y s , w e m u s t i n v e s t i g a t e h is f r a m e o f m i n d . T h i s a p p e a r s to u s a n a t u r a l p o s t u l a t e w i t h r e s p e c t to o u r a n c i e n t f o r e f a th e r s , b u t th e d is s e c tin g o f th e m in d s o f o u r c o n te m p o r a r y c o l l e a g u e s m a n y w o u l d f e e l is a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r : a t a s k u n b e c o m i n g a
140
8
s c h o la r a n d g e n tle m a n . Y e t w e a re n o t q u e s tio n in g h o n e s ty ; w e a re q u e s tio n in g
p h ilo s o p h y .
We
a re
s e e k in g
p re m is e s
u n ex p ressed ,
u n re a liz e d , u n s u s p e c te d . T ake
fo r e x a m p le
th e
F irs t Illy ria n
W a r. T h e
R o m an s,
says
H o lle a u x a t th e v e ry o u ts e t o f h is in v e s tig a tio n s , d id n o t d o a n y th in g t h a t w a s n o t “ a b s o l u t e l y l e g i t i m a t e ” .43 B u t “ l e g i t i m a t e ” is a w o r d lo a d e d w ith b ia s ; a c a u tio u s h is to r ia n , a n d o n e n o t b u r d e n e d w ith a p re c o n c e iv e d p a r ti p r is , w o u ld r a th e r sa y : “ th e R o m a n s d id n o t d o a n y th in g th e y d id n o t re g a r d a s le g itim a te ” . H o lle a u x b e tra y s h im s e lf a s a c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s t (s i t v e n i a v e r b o ) ; h e s l a v i s h l y f o l l o w s P o l y b i u s a n d f a i t h f u l l y r e p r o d u c e s h i s a n t i - I l l y r i a n b i a s ; h e m a k e s n o a t t e m p t to u s e t h e P o l y b i a n f a c t s f o r a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e I l l y r i a n s id e o f t h e s t o r y . I l l y r i a n p i r a c y is t h e m a g i c w o r d ; b u t a s E r n s t B a d i a n h a s s h o w n , a m a g i c w o r d e n g e n d e r s f a i r y - t a l e , n o t h i s t o r y . 44 T h e I l l y r i a n la n d
in v a s io n
o f E p iru s
and
th e
n a v a l a tta c k s
a g a in st
P h o in ik e ,
E p id a m n o s a n d K o r k y r a w ill a p p e a r in a d if f e r e n t lig h t o n c e w e ta k e th e m
n o t as ra n d o m
a c ts o f p ira c y a n d r o b b e r y , b u t r a th e r a s a
c o -o rd in a te d a n d s tra te g ic a lly s o u n d p la n a im e d a t e x te n d in g s o u th w a r d s th e p o s s e s s io n s a n d in flu e n c e o f th e Illy ria n k in g d o m . T h is w a s t h e f ir s t s ta g e o f t h e I l l y r i a n e m p i r e - b u i l d i n g ; a n a c t n e i t h e r m o r e n o r le s s l e g i t i m a t e t h a n t h e e x p a n s i o n o f M a c e d o n i a o r R o m e , o n l y le s s s u c c e s s fu l. W h e th e r Q u e e n
T e u ta b e h a v e d
in s o le n tly to w a r d s th e
R o m a n e n v o y s is o f l i t t l e i m p o r t a n c e ; i m p o r t a n t is t h a t h e r r e p l y , a s P o l y b i u s p r e s e n t s i t , 45 c o n t a i n e d a n e l e m e n t o f c o m p r o m i s e : w h i l e r e f u s in g to c o n s tr a in p r iv a te p ira c y b y h e r s u b je c ts s h e p ro m is e d th a t th e I lly ria n s ta te w o u ld ta k e n o a c tio n h o s tile to R o m e . In o th e r w o rd s , a n d in t h e t e r m s o f p o l i t i c s , s h e g u a r a n t e e d t h e s e c u r i t y o f I ta l y , b u t a tte m p te d to s ta k e o u t h e r c la im to h e r n e w ly a c q u ir e d p o s s e s s io n s a n d d e p e n d e n c ie s a n d to c o n tr o l o v e r th e A d ria tic . T h e m e n a c in g re s p o n s e of one
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d e liv e re d a n u ltim a tu m . T h a t th e m u r d e r o f th e y o u n g e r o f th e C o ru n c a n ii w a s th e c a u s e o f th e w a r h a r d ly n e e d s r e f u ta tio n ; n o s ta te g o e s to w a r o v e r th e d e a th o f an
a m b a s s a d o r u n l e s s it w i s h e s w a r . F e w
p e o p le w ill s e e in th e
a s s a s s in a tio n o f A r c h d u k e F e r d in a n d ( w h ic h H o lle a u x m e n tio n s in t h i s c o n t e x t ) 46 t h e c a u s e o f t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r ; i f t h e A u s t r i a n g o v e r n m e n t w e r e n o t b e n t o n d e s t r o y i n g S e r b i a , w h i c h th e y t h o u g h t w a s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e A u s t r i a n p o s s e s s i o n o f B o s n ia , th e y w o u ld n o t h a v e p r o d u c e d a n u n a c c e p ta b le u ltim a tu m . O r h a v e w e
141
9
f o r g o t t e n t h e p i c t u r e s q u e s t o r y o f t h e G e r m a n a m b a s s a d o r to F r a n c e w h o o n i n s t r u c t i o n s f r o m h is g o v e r n m e n t s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e d e c l a r a tio n o f w a r in 1 9 1 4 p r o m e n a d e d p u b lic ly in P a ris in th e h o p e th a t s o m e b o d y w o u ld s h o o t h im
a n d p ro v id e a c le a n c a s u s b e ll i ? T h e
a s s a s s in a tio n o f L. C o r u n c a n iu s p ro v id e d th e s e n a te w ith a c le a n c a s u s b e l l i , b u t w e h a v e to r e m e m b e r t h a t i n t h e l a n g u a g e o f d i p l o m a c y c a s u s
m e a n s p re te x t, n o t c a u s e . R e p r i s a l s w e r e i n o r d e r , s a y s H o l l e a u x ; it w a s a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n r ig h t a n d ju s t. B u t th e R o m a n m ilita r y re s p o n s e , th e la rg e c o n c e n tr a t i o n o f w a r s h i p s a n d l e g i o n a r i e s , w a s r a t h e r e x c e s s iv e if t h e s e n a t e i n t e n d e d m e r e l y to c u r b I l l y r i a n p i r a c y o r p u n i s h T e u t a ; it is f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e i f t h e R o m a n g o a l w a s to b r e a k t h e I l l y r i a n k i n g d o m . T h e c a m p a i g n o v e r , t h e R o m a n s p r o c e e d e d t o w h a t H o l l e a u x c a l ls re g u la tio n
of
Illy ria n
a f f a i r s . 47 O n e
need
not
be
re m in d e d
th a t
r e g u l a t i o n , r é g l e m e n t , is n o t a n e u t r a l w o r d ; it p r e s u p p o s e s t h e m o r a l s u p e rio rity
o f th e
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p r e v a ile d . In th is c a s e o r d e r m e a n t th e R o m a n p r o te c to r a te o v e r p a r t o f t h e I l l y r i a n a n d E p i r o t a n c o a s t . 48 T h i s w a s a n a t u r a l r e s u l t o f t h e R o m a n v ic to r y , s o H o l l e a u x p r o c l a i m s . T h e R o m a n p r e s e n c e o n t h e I lly r ia n s id e o f th e A d r ia tic w a s o f c o u r s e d e f e n s iv e in c h a r a c te r . F irs t o f a ll th e R o m a n s a tte m p te d to s e c u re to w a r d th e E a s t th e ir n a tu r a l f r o n tie r s ; h e r e H o lle a u x q u o te s T ä u b le r , b u t th e w h o le id e a c o m e s s tr a ig h t fro m M o m m s e n , w h o d is c u s s e d th e I lly r ia n W a r in th e c h a p t e r d e a l i n g w i t h t h e n a t u r a l f r o n t i e r s o f I t a l y . 49 I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e n a t u r a l p o litic a l f r o n tie r s o f R o m e a re h e re id e n tifie d w ith th e g e o g ra p h ic a l f r o n t i e r s o f I t a l y . A r e m a r k a b l e a s s u m p t i o n f o r it a m o u n t s to a t a c i t id e n tific a tio n o f th e s e c u rity o f R o m e w ith th e s e c u rity o f R o m a n d o m i n a t i o n in I t a l y . 50 T h e s t u d y o f t e r m i n o l o g y i n i n s t r u c t i v e : it w a s R o m e t h a t p r o v e d d a n g e r o u s t o I l l y r i a , a n d n o t v ic e v e r s a ; a n d y e t if th e Illy r ia n s h a d a tte m p te d to e s ta b lis h s tr o n g h o ld s o n th e c o a s t o f I t a l y H o l l e a u x w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e h e s i t a t e d to c a l l it a p r u d e n t a n d d e fe n s iv e p r e c a u tio n . B t th e R o m a n s to o k p r e c a u tio n s n o t o n ly a g a in s t Illy ria b u t a lso a g a i n s t M a c e d o n i a ; t h i s i d e a o f H o l l e a u x s t r a n g e l y r u n s c o u n t e r to h is o w n t h e s i s o f R o m a n l a c k o f i n t e r e s t in G r e e k a f f a i r s . H e c o n c e d e s t h a t M a c e d o n ia , h e r n a v y w e a k a n d u n p r e p a r e d , c o u ld n o t a t th a t tim e p o s e a n y r e a l d a n g e r to R o m e ; b u t h e i m m e d i a t e l y r e t o r t s t h a t o n e c a n fe e l t h r e a t e n e d e v e n i f t h e r e is n o v i s i b l e d a n g e r p r e s e n t . 51 E r n s t B a d i a n , n o t a d e fe n s iv e im p e r ia lis t h im s e lf, p r o d u c e d a s im p lifie d v e rs io n o f H o l l e a u x ’ e x p l a n a t i o n : it w a s I l l y r i a n o t M a c e d o n t h e R o m a n s w e r e 142
a f r a id o f, a n d it w a s th is R o m a n m is a p p r e h e n s io n th a t w a s r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e I l l y r i a n w a r s . 52 B u t p e o p l e w h o f e a r e v e r y r o a r i n g m o u s e d o n o t c o n q u e r e m p ire s . W e t e n d to u s e t e r m s d e n o t i n g e m o t i o n s l o o s e l y a n d i m p r e c i s e l y . T h i s is u n f o r t u n a t e f o r i t d i s t o r t s h i s t o r y . I f w e a r e a f r a i d o f p o t e n t i a l e n e m i e s i t m e a n s w e a s s u m e , c o r r e c t l y o r n o t , t h a t th e y a r e a b l e to d e f e a t u s ; b u t in s u c h a s itu a tio n fe w g o v e rn m e n ts , r u le r s o r n a tio n s w o u ld w illin g ly s ta r t a w a r -
u n le s s m is c a lc u la tio n , fa n a tic is m
or
h y s t e r i a i n t e r v e n e d . T h e R o m a n s i n t e r v e n e d i n I l l y r i a a n d in s c o r e s o f o t h e r p l a c e s b e c a u s e t h e y h a d n o t h i n g to f e a r ; I l l y r i a p r e s e n t e d a n u i s a n c e , n o t d a n g e r . T h e m e t u s h o s t i l i s a s a p o p u l a r f e e l i n g s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h e n e m i e s w h o in t h e p a s t h a d in f lic te d d is a s te rs o n R o m e , w ith th e G a u ls a n d C a r th a g in ia n s . A fte r 216
th e
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a p p re h e n s io n
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s u c c e s s o rs a n d s h a d o w s o f A le x a n d e r, th e M a c e d o n ia n a n d S e le u c id m o n a r c h i e s , b u t in a l l R o m a n e n t e r p r i s e s i n t h e E a s t t h e i n i t i a l w a r e f f o r t w a s m o d e r a te . A te llin g s to ry . D o e s it n o t s h o w th a t th e s e n a te d i d n o t a n t i c i p a t e a n y i m m e d i a t e d a n g e r to I t a l y a n d s t i l l le s s to t h e s e c u r i t y o f R o m e h e r s e l f ? I n f a c t it d o e s s h o w t h a t t h e s e n a t e d i d n o t c o n s id e r a n y o u tr ig h t f a ilu r e p o s s ib le . M o s t R o m a n w a r s , if n o t a ll, w e r e u n d e r t a k e n f r o m a p o s i t i o n o f s t r e n g t h w h e n R o m e w a s s e c u r e in its
m ilita ry
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H a n n ib a lic W a r. A p p re h e n s io n s c o n c e rn in g so m e d is ta n t fu tu re a re a d if f e r e n t m a tte r . T h e y m a y h a v e p la y e d s o m e ro le a s a s tim u lu s f o r e x p a n s io n , a n d s o m e w ill s a y th a t th e tr a g e d y o f R o m a n im p e r ia lis m , a n d its u n d o i n g , w a s t h a t t h e R o m a n s s t o p p e d b e f o r e t h e e n d o f t h e h o r i z o n . 53 H o lle a u x c h e r is h e d fa c ts a n d th is a d m ir a tio n o f h is d e riv e s fro m a n im p o rta n t
c u rre n t
d e c la r e d in
in
F re n c h
h is to ric a l
w r i t i n g . 54 E r n e s t
R enan
1 8 6 2 th a t fo r a h is to r ia n o n ly fa c ts e x ist, c a u s e s a n d
l a w s ; 55 a n d F u s t e l d e C o u l a n g e s , i n a b i t t e r f r u i t o f t h e w a r o f 1 8 7 0 , th e e s s a y o n th e m a n n e r o f w r itin g h is to r y in F r a n c e a n d in G e r m a n y , a s s e r t e d h i s c o m m i t m e n t to h i s t o r y a s a s c i e n c e p u r e a n d d i s i n t e r e s t e d , g r o u n d e d i n a n e r u d i t i o n c a l m , s i m p l e a n d e l e v a t e d . 56 T h e s e a r e a l l f e a t u r e s o f H o l l e a u x ’ w r i t i n g ; a n d t h i s is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e f o r e a r l y in h i s li f e h e c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f F u s t e l d e C o u l a n g e s . 57 Y e t p r o g r a m a n d r e a l i t y a r e n o t o n e a n d t h e s a m e t h i n g . R e n a n ’s L i f e o f J esu s a n d
T h e A n c i e n t C i t y b y F u s te l d e C o u la n g e s a r e n o t s im p le
a s s e m b la g e s o f fa c ts ; th e y a r e p o w e r f u l v is io n s g o v e r n e d b y la w s ,
143
11
p r e m i s e s a n d c a u s e s p e c u l i a r t o t h e m . T h e s a m e is t r u e o f H o l l e a u x ; h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e R o m a n s n e v e r p r a c t i s e d a n i m p e r i a l i s t p o l i c y in G re e c e a c q u ire d
a li f e a n d a m o m e n t u m
o f its o w n .
I n d e v o tin g h is ta le n ts to th e s tu d y o f R o m a n e x p a n s io n in G r e e c e H o lle a u x
fo llo w e d
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c o m p o s e d in 1 8 5 8 a s h is F r e n c h th e s is a lo n g e s s a y e n title d P o ly b iu s o r G r e e c e c o n q u e r e d b y t h e R o m a n s ·, 58 h i s L a t i n t h e s i s d e a l t w i t h t h e c u l t
o f V e s ta . A fe w y e a rs la te r , in 1 8 6 4 , F u s te l in c o r p o r a te d s u b s ta n tia l p o r t i o n s o f V e s t a a n d P o l y b i u s i n t o h is A n c i e n t C i t y a s its p r o l o g u e a n d c o n c l u s i o n . T h e m a i n p r o p o s i t i o n o f h i s e s s a y o n P o l y b i u s is t h i s : f r o m th e P e lo p o n n e s ia n W a r o n w a r d s th e G r e e k W o r ld w a s d iv id e d in to tw o
w a rrin g
p a rtie s ,
ric h
and
p o o r,
a ris to c ra c y
and
d e m o c ra c y .
D e m o c ra c y te n d e d to a c c e p t w illin g ly a n y im p e r ia l d o m in a tio n ; o f A th e n s a n d th e n o f A e to lia . A ris to c ra c y w a s m o re c o n c e rn e d w ith l i b e r t y . B u t i n t h e a g e o f P o l y b i u s t h e a r i s t o c r a c y l o o k e d to R o m e f o r s a lv a tio n a n d s e c u rity . Its b a ttle c ry w a s p r o p e r ty , n o t lib e rty . T h e s ta te o f G re e c e , a n d in d e e d o f th e e n tir e w o rld , m a d e th e E m p ire o f R o m e a n e c e s s i t y . T h i s f its p e r f e c t l y i n t o F u s t e l ’s s c h e m e o f d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m f a m i l y to c l a n t o t r i b e t o c i ty . B u t t h e c i t y - s t a t e h a d r u n it s c o u r s e ; t h e s o u ls o f m e n n o w lo n g e d a f te r th e b r o a d h o r iz o n s o f a w o r ld e m p ir e ; th e y d e s ir e d s e c u rity fro m in c e s s a n t r e v o lu tio n s . R o m e m e rite d h e r e m p ir e ; b u t th e le g io n s a n d th e s e n a te a c c o m p lis h e d p a r t o f th e w o r k o n ly . F o r th e G r e e k s c o u ld p e r h a p s s to p th e a d v a n c e o f R o m e ; b u t th e y w is h e d n o t. T h r o u g h h e r w illin g s u b m is s io n to R o m e G r e e c e s a v e d h e rs e lf fro m
h e r o w n d e s tru c tiv e fo rc e s.
T h e a f f i n i t y o f t h i s v i s i o n to M o m m s e n ’s i d e a o f R o m e ’s b e i n g i n v o l u n t a r i l y d r a w n i n t o G r e e c e is a p p a r e n t ; it e x t e n d s e v e n t o t h e f i g u r a t i v e u s e o f t h e l e g i o n b y M o m m s e n a n d F u s t e l . 59 T h i s is t h e m o r e s tr ik in g a s w e a r e h e r e in th e p r e s e n c e o f a v e r ita b le a n d f o r tu ito u s c o n g ru ity , n o t in f lu e n c e : e x p la in in g th e o r ig in o f h is A n c ie n t C i t y F u s t e l c o n f e s s e d t h a t i n o r d e r to k e e p h i s m i n d f r e s h f o r h i s o w n a p p re c ia tio n o f a n c ie n t e v id e n c e h e re fra in e d fro m re a d in g m o d e rn a u t h o r i t i e s , M o m m s e n i n p a r t i c u l a r . 60 T h e t a s k o f H o l l e a u x w a s to t u r n t h i s i n s p i r e d v i s i o n i n t o h i s t o r y , w h e r e fa c ts w ill m a r c h a n d s p e a k , n o t id e a s . B u t F u s te l d e C o u la n g e s c o m m e n te d o n tw o s id e s o f R o m a n p o lic y : h e s a w m o d e r a tio n a n d a d e s ir e to c o n q u e r ; w h e n fa c ts c ry s ta lliz e d o n th e p e n o f H o lle a u x th e f ig u r e o f m o d e r a t i o n e m e r g e d , a n d n o o t h e r s i d e r e m a i n e d . F u s te l d e C o u la n g e s a p p r e c ia te d th e v a lu e o f d o u b t; th e h is to r ia n b e g i n s h i s w o r k b y d u b i t a t i o n . 61 H o l l e a u x e c h o e d t h i s s e n t i m e n t . H e
144
12
e x h o r t e d h is s t u d e n t s t o p r o t e c t t h e s p i r i t o f c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n . 62 B u t h e a ls o e c h o e d a n o th e r s e n tim e n t o f F u s te l. M a n , w r o te d e C o u la n g e s , c a n n e v e r c o m p l e t e l y f o r g e t t h e p a s t . I t liv e s in h i m . I f h e d e s c e n d s d o w n i n t o h i s s o u l h e w i l l d i s c o v e r r e li c s o f e a c h o f t h e e p o c h s o f t h e p a s t . 63 N o w p ro c la im e d
H o lle a u x th e
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o f “ m a g n ific e n t h o u r s
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h i s t o r i a n . T h e n a g r a n d v i s i o n fills h is m i n d . T h e m e n o f t h e p a s t m o v e t o w a r d s h i m ; n o m o r e i n e r t s h a d o w s , b u t p e o p l e o f f l e s h a n d lif e . T h e h is to r ia n c o m m u n ic a te s w ith th e m n o t th r o u g h lo n g r e fle c tio n a n d p a tie n t in d u c tio n , b u t th r o u g h a n im m e d ia te c o n ta c t. In a m y s te rio u s w a y t h e s o u l o f o l d h a d r e p l a c e d in h i m t h e s o u l o f t o - d a y ; t h e m o m e n t o f d i v i n a t i o n h a s c o m e . T h e h i s t o r i a n c a n n o w e n t r u s t h i m s e l f t o h is i n s p i r a t i o n ; i t w i l l n o t d e c e i v e h i m ” .64 H o lle a u x w a s n o t o n ly a c o lle c to r o f fa c ts ; h e fe lt h e p e n e tr a te d th e th o u g h ts o f th e R o m a n s , th e ir fe a rs a n d th e ir d e s ire s . If n o t f o r th e s c h e m e s a n d m a c h in a tio n s o f P h ilip a n d A n tio c h u s , o f A tta lu s a n d E um enes,
and
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cro ssed
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A d r ia tic . R o m e a n d G re e c e , a n d th e G r e e k E a s t, w o u ld h a v e f o re v e r r e m a in e d tw o w o rld s a p a r t. T h e n th e R o m a n s w o u ld h a v e c o n c e n tr a te d th e ir e ffo rts o n th e b a r b a r ia n s to th e w e s t o f Ita ly . T h is re a s o n d i c t a t e d , a n d p r o f i t . 65 I n t h e W e s t , M o m m s e n , a n d H o l l e a u x , a n d T enney
F ra n k
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t h e R o m a n s to c o n q u e r , to e x p l o i t , t o b e
i m p e r i a l i s t s ; b u t n o t in G r e e c e . T h i s M o m m s e n a n d F r a n k c a l l e d t h e s e n t i m e n t a l p o l i c y ; 66 it w a s a p o li c y b o r n o f G e r m a n n a t i o n a l i s m , o f F r e n c h a d m i r a t i o n f o r R o m e , a n d o f A m e r i c a n p a c i f is m . A n d s o w e a r e o n o u r w a y f r o m B e r l in a n d P a r i s t o B r y n M a w r , w h e r e o n t h e e v e o f t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r T e n n e y F r a n k c o m p o s e d h is R om an
I m p e r ia lis m . T h e
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E u r o p e h is to ry w a s b e in g m a d e a n d w r itte n
in g r a n d c a p i t a l s , in
A m e r i c a in s m a l l c i tie s a n d s m a l l c o l l e g e s . T h i s e n t a i l e d a n e w s h a p e o f h i s t o r y : c i v il, o p t i m i s t i c a n d m o d e r a t e l y d u l l . A n y b o o k o n R o m a n i m p e r i a l i s m is a P o l y b i a n v e n t u r e ; P o l y b i u s trie d
to e x p la in
th e ris e o f R o m e fo r th e
G re e k s, T e n n e y
F ra n k
e x p la in e d it f o r th e A m e r ic a n s , as a n e x a m p le a n d a w a r n in g . P o ly b iu s l o o k e d f o r h is a n s w e r t o t h e m a r v e l l o u s c o n s t i t u t i o n o f R o m e , a n d F r a n k l o o k e d f o r h i s to t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . H is b o o k is a m o n u m e n t t o t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e r e is a n A m e r i c a n w a y to R o m a n h is to ric a l tr u th . In b o o k s p u r p o r ti n g to d e a l w ith H is to ry a n d n o t m e re ly w ith i s o l a t e d h a p p e n i n g s it is w e l l to r e a d t h e p r e f a c e ; f o r in t h e p r e f a c e th e
145
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a u t h o r r e v e a l s h is m o t i v e s a n d c o n f e s s e s h is d r e a m s . “ O l d - w o r l d p o litic a l tra d itio n s ”, T e n n e y
F r a n k w r o t e in h is p r e f a c e , 68 “ h a v e
ta u g h t h is to r ia n s to a c c e p t te r r i to r ia l e x p a n s io n as a m a tte r o f c o u r s e “ For
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E u ro p e , o v e r c r o w d e d a n d w ith s c a n t m e a n s o f s u b s is te n c e , h a v e b e e n f o r c e d to f ig h t to m a k e f o r t h e m s e l v e s “ a p l a c e i n t h e s u n l i g h t
T h is
p h r a s e e n j o y e d c u r r e n t t o p i c a l i t y . “ W e w i s h to o v e r s h a d o w n o b o d y , b u t w e d e m a n d o u r p la c e u n d e r th e s u n ” . In th is s e n te n c e C h a n c e llo r B e rn h a rd
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R e i c h s t a g t h e g o a l s o f G e r m a n f o r e i g n p o li c y a n d c h a r t e d its c o u r s e to c a t a s t r o p h e . T e n n e y F r a n k e x t e n d e d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e m a x i m to a l l c o n t i n e n t a l n a t i o n s . H e n c e h is a r g u m e n t : it is E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y , p a s t a n d p r e s e n t , t h a t h a s le d c o n t i n e n t a l w r i t e r s to a s s u m e t h a t “ t h e d e s ir e to p o s s e s s m u s t s o m e h o w h a v e b e e n th e m a in s p r in g o f a c tio n w h e th e r in th e S p a n is h - A m e r ic a n w a r o r th e P u n ic w a r s o f R o m e ” . R o m e a n d A m e r i c a m a k e a p e r f e c t p a i r ; t h i s j u x t a p o s i t i o n t e lls its s t o r y : b o t h r e p u b l i c s p u r s u e d t h e s a m e p o l i c y . 70 H e n c e a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e A m e r ic a n - S p a n is h w a r m a y p r o v e in s tr u c tiv e - e v e n if th is w a s n o t a P u n ic , b u t m e re ly a n
Illy ria n w a r.
I n h is m e s s a g e t o t h e C o n g r e s s o f 11 A p r i l 1 8 9 8 P r e s i d e n t W i l l i a m M c K i n l e y l i s t e d f o u r r e a s o n s t h a t j u s t i f i e d A m e r i c a n i n t e r v e n t i o n in t h e h o s t i l i t i e s b e t w e e n ( a s h e t e r m e d it) t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f S p a i n a n d th e p e o p le o f C u b a . F irs t, h u m a n ity , ju s tic e , a n d a n A m e r ic a n s e n s e o f d u t y . N e x t, t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s i n C u b a . T h i r d , t h e v e ry s e rio u s in ju r y to th e c o m m e rc e , tr a d e a n d b u s in e s s o f A m e ric a . F o u r t h , t h e m e n a c e to p e a c e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e c o n d i t i o n o f a f f a i r s in C u b a . U n d e r th i s h e a d i n g t h e P r e s i d e n t m e n t i o n e d i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e s e i z u r e s o f A m e r i c a n t r a d i n g v e s s e ls “ a t o u r v e r y d o o r b y w a r s h i p s o f a f o r e i g n n a t i o n ” , a l t h o u g h h e a d m i t t e d t h a t s o m e o f t h o s e v e s s e ls m a y have
been
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th a t
we
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p o w e r l e s s to p r e v e n t a l t o g e t h e r ” .71 T h e R o m a n e n v o y s to t h e Q u e e n o f I l l y r i a s p o k e o f t h e R o m a n s e n s e o f ju s tic e , o f o u tra g e s a n d w ro n g s c o m m itte d a g a in s t R o m a n c i t i z e n s , o f i n j u r y to I t a l i a n c o m m e r c e a n d m a r i t i m e t r a d e , a n d th e y th re a te n e d
w ar
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e n fo rc e
th e ir
d e m a n d s . 72 T h e
m u rd e r
of
L.
C o r u n c a n i u s c r e a t e d g r e a t i n d i g n a t i o n in R o m e ; i n F e b r u a r y 1 8 9 8 t h e A m e r i c a n b a t t l e s h i p M a i n e w a s d e s t r o y e d in t h e h a r b o r o f H a v a n a , 146
14
w h ile b e in g th e r e “ o n a m is s io n o f p e a c e
“ T h e d e s tru c tio n o f th a t
n o b l e v e s s e l h a s f il le d t h e n a t i o n a l h e a r t w i t h i n e x p r e s s i b l e h o r r o r ” — t h e s e a r e t h e w o r d s o f P r e s i d e n t M c K i n l e y . T h e A m e r i c a n g o a l, a s t h e P r e s i d e n t d e f i n e d it, w a s n o w “ t h e e n f o r c e d p a c i f i c a t i o n o f C u b a ” .73 T h e w a r w a s e x p e c t e d t o b e a n e a s y a f f a i r a n d it w a s a n e a s y a f f a i r ; 74 a n d y e t p a m p h l e t s a n d b o o k s c i r c u l a t e d in A m e r i c a e x a l t i n g t h e S p a n i s h d a n g e r . F e w h i s t o r i a n s , if a n y , p i c k e d u p t h i s c l a i m a n d a d o p t e d it a s a s e r i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n ; u n l i k e s o m e m o d e r n s t u d e n t s o f R o m a n e x p a n s io n th e y c o n c e n tr a te d o n th e a s s e s s m e n t o f th e b a la n c e o f p o w e r, o n d e e d s n o t w o rd s . P o litic ia n s b e h a v e d d iffe re n tly . T h e th e m e o f th e S p a n is h d a n g e r to p e a c e w a s ta k e n u p b y P r e s id e n t M c K i n l e y a f e w m o n t h s l a t e r , i n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 9 8 , in h is i n s t r u c t i o n s to t h e A m e r i c a n P e a c e C o m m i s s i o n e r s . T h e c o n d u c t o f t h e U n i t e d S ta t e s , h e w r o t e , is “ a n e x a m p l e o f m o d e r a t i o n , r e s t r a i n t , a n d r e a s o n in v ic to ry ” . “ T h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f th e W e s te r n H e m is p h e r e b y S p a in w a s a n i m p e r a t i v e n e c e s s i t y . I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t , w e o n ly fu lfille d
a
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a c k n o w le d g e d ” . It
w as
a
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p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r a l a s t i n g p e a c e . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w h e n it e n t e r e d u p o n w a r “ h a d n o d e s ig n o f a g g r a n d iz e m e n t a n d n o a m b itio n o f c o n q u e s t ” . Y e t “ th e m a rc h o f e v e n ts ru le s a n d o v e rru le s h u m a n a c t i o n ” ; it c r e a t e d a n e w s i t u a t i o n in t h e P h i l i p p i n e s : “ t h e p r e s e n c e a n d s u c c e s s o f o u r a r m s a t M a n ila im p o s e s u p o n u s o b lig a tio n s w h ic h w e c a n n o t d i s r e g a r d ... w i t h o u t a n y d e s i g n o r d e s i r e o n o u r p a r t t h e w a r h a s b r o u g h t u s n e w d u tie s a n d r e s p o n s ib ilitie s w h ic h w e m u s t m e e t a n d d is c h a rg e a s b e c o m e s a g re a t n a tio n o n w h o s e g ro w th a n d c a r e e r fro m th e b e g in n in g th e R u le r o f N a tio n s h a s p la in ly w r itte n th e h i g h c o m m a n d a n d p l e d g e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n ” .75 I n p l a i n l a n g u a g e t h i s m e a n t th e a n n e x a tio n o f th e P h ilip p in e s . T enney M c K in le y
F r a n k ’s R o m e w a s a m i r r o r i m a g e o f t h e A m e r i c a o f and
d e s t i n y . 76 T h i s id e o lo g u e s ,
and
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s u p e r i o r i t y o f A m e r i c a n c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d its u l t i m a t e s p r e a d o v e r t h e w h o l e w o r l d . T h e t o o l s a n d m e a n s o f t h i s a s c e n t w e r e to b e A m e r i c a ’s in d u s tria l m ig h t a n d a n n e x a tio n s d e v e lo p e d
d id
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r e m a i n e d t h e h e g e m o n i a l p o s i t i o n in t h e W e s t e r n H e m i s p h e r e — a n d b e y o n d . T h e p r o f e s s e d c o u r s e w a s t h e o p e n d o o r p o li c y , a n d d o o r s w e re
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F r a n k h a d m ix e d fe e lin g s a b o u t a n n e x a tio n s . “ R o m e w a s n o w a d e m o c r a c y ” , h e s a y s d e s c r ib in g th e b e g in n in g o f th e F irs t P u n ic W a r, “ a n d s o w h e n t h e s e n a t e r e f u s e d t o g iv e a f a v o r a b l e a n s w e r t o t h e M a m e r t i n e s t h e j i n g o e s t o o k t h e m a t t e r t o t h e p l e b e i a n a s s e m b l y ” .77 The
fo o tn o te
e x p la in s th a t th e jin g o e s w e re
p rim a rily
th e
u rb a n
p l e b e i a n s . W h e n R o m e s e c u r e d S ic ily a s a p r o v i n c e it “ s e t o u t o n t h e d e v i o u s r o a d o f i m p e r i a l i s m ” .78 N o t a v e r y a u s p i c i o u s b e g i n n i n g f o r t h e p o l i c y o f r e s t r a i n t . F o r a c c o r d i n g t o w h a t F r a n k w r i t e s in h is p r e f a c e s u c h a t h i n g w a s n o t s u p p o s e d t o h a p p e n b e c a u s e in a p e a s a n t r e p u b l i c in w h i c h t h e f in a l d e c i s i o n o n w a r r e s t s w i t h t h e p e o p l e t h e r e a r e “ e n o u g h ... c r o s s c u r r e n t s t o n e u t r a l i z e ... t h e b l i n d i n s t i n c t to •
a c q u ire
.
79
T h e c o n q u e s t o f S p a in d u r in g th e H a n n ib a lic W a r w a s “ a p o litic a l n e c e s s i t y ” , y e t in t h e s u b s e q u e n t y e a r s “ n o w h e r e d i d R o m a n w a r f a r e and
d ip lo m a c y
N e v e rth e le s s
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c o n c e iv a b le c o u rs e ” . W h y th is s h o u ld b e so F r a n k d o e s n o t e x p la in o r p e r h a p s t h i s is t h e e x p l a n a t i o n : “ T h e S p a n i s h t r i b e s ” , h e a s s e r t s , “ w e r e f a r f r o m r i p e f o r p o l i t i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d t h e y h a d n o lo v e f o r a n o r d e r l y r e g i m e ” .80 H e n c e t h e n e e d f o r “ t h e p o l i c i n g o f S p a i n ” b y R o m e . F o r a p a r a l l e l a n d i n s p i r a t i o n w e d o n o t h a v e f a r to s e e k . In h i s m e s s a g e t o t h e C o n g r e s s in D e c e m b e r 1 9 0 4 P r e s i d e n t T h e o d o r e R o o s e v e lt p r o c la im e d a n e w in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e M o n r o e d o c tr in e : th e U n i t e d S t a t e s d o e s n o t h a r b o r p l a n s o f c o n q u e s t a n d a n n e x a t i o n ; b u t it is i n t e r e s t e d in t h e s t a b i l i t y , p e a c e a n d p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e n e i g h b o r i n g c o u n t r i e s . I n o r d e r to p r o t e c t t h e s e v a l u e s a n d p r e v e n t i n j u r i e s t o t h e in te r e s ts o f th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d o th e r c o u n tr ie s o f th e W e s te r n H e m i s p h e r e it is t h e d u t y o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s to a s s u m e t h e r o l e o f a n “ i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i c e f o r c e ” .81 T im e s a n d n a tio n s c h a n g e ; w o rd s re m a in . In s te a d o f R o m a n w a rs o f a g g re s s io n
w e a re se rv e d
th e to p o s o f g e n e r o u s R o m e , u n r u ly
trib e s m e n a n d th a n k le s s G re e k s . T e n n e y F r a n k a t t e m p t s to e x p l a i n “ t h e a p p a r e n t p a r a d o x t h a t R o m e b e c a m e m is tre s s o f th e w h o le w o r ld w h ile a d h e r in g w ith a fa ir d e g r e e o f f id e l it y t o a s a c r e d r u l e w h i c h f o r b a d e w a r s o f a g g r e s s i o n ” .82 A s h is p r im e a u th o r ity h e q u o te s E m p e r o r A u g u s tu s : a s o u rc e n o t b e y o n d s u s p ic io n . T h e p a r a d o x d o e s n o t e x is t. R o m a n h is to ry m a k e s b e t t e r s e n s e w h e n it is s t o o d o n its f e e t . I n 2 6 4 t h e s e n a t e w a s o p p o s e d t o w a r , t h e p o p u l a r a s s e m b l y w a s f o r it; in 2 0 0 t h e p o p u l a r a s s e m b l y
148
16
w a s o p p o s e d t o w a r , a n d t h e s e n a t e w a s f o r it: in b o t h c a s e s t h e w a r p a r t y p r e v a i l e d . W h e t h e r c l o a k e d in f e t i a l f o r m u l a s o r n o t s u c h w a s th e p a tte r n o f R o m a n e x p a n s io n : v o le n te m f a ta d u c u n t. G a e t a n o D e S a n c t i s w o u l d a g r e e . 83 I n I t a l y , f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , th e d o c tr in e o f d e fe n s iv e im p e ria lis m h a s n e v e r ta k e n ro o t. T h is d o e s n o t m e a n , h o w e v e r, th a t th e re a re n o p o in ts o f c o n ta c t b e tw e e n th e th r e e p r o ta g o n is ts o f d e fe n s iv e c o n q u e s t a n d th e p r in c e p s o f I ta lia n h is to r ia n s . T h e c o m p a r is o n im p o s e s its e lf fo r tw o re a s o n s : S to r ia d e i R o m a n i is a g r a n d c o u n t e r p a r t t o M o m m s e n ’s R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e ,
a n d th e c o n c e p t o f im p e ria lis m
s to o d a t th e c e n te r o f D e S a n c tis ’
th o u g h t. W e tu r n to th e f o u r th v o lu m e o f th e S to r ia , th e F o n d a z io n e d e l l ’I m p e r o , t h e f ir s t p a r t o f w h i c h t r a c e s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f R o m e ’s
d o m in a tio n fro m Z a m a to P y d n a . It m a tu r e d d u r in g th e c o n v u ls io n s o f th e W o r ld W a r , a n d a p p e a r e d in 1 9 2 3 , a lm o s t s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith H o l l e a u x ’ s t u d i e s , b u t h o w d i f f e r e n t w a s its t o n e ! D e S a n c t i s l o o k e d a t th e p a s t — a s e v e ry g re a t h is to ria n m u s t - w ith th e ey es o f th e p re s e n t. T h e o n ly n o v e lty , h e w r o te , w h ic h h e tr ie d to in tr o d u c e in to h is w o r k w a s th e r e th in k in g o f th e a n c ie n t h a p p e n in g s in th e lig h t o f th o s e m o s t v a r i e g a t e d e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t h a v e e n r i c h e d h u m a n i t y i n its l a b o r i o u s w a y t o w a r d t h e b e t t e r f u t u r e . 84 I f t h e l a s t p h r a s e s o u n d s s e n t i m e n t a l , it a ls o c o n ta in s a m e ss a g e : w h a te v e r th e p ric e R o m e a n d th e p e o p le s o f th e M e d ite r r a n e a n p a id f o r th e R o m a n c o n q u e s t, w h a te v e r th e c o s t o f th e W o rld
W a r, h o w e v e r th o r n y th e w a y , m a n k in d c o n tin u e d to
a d v a n c e to w a r d a n “ a v v e n ir e m ig lio re ” . In th is w is h th e te le o lo g ic a l c o n c e p t o f h is to ry s ta n d s re v e a le d : a n d in fa c t th e te n s io n b e tw e e n h is to r y a s p r o v id e n c e a n d h is to r y a s th e f ig h t f o r l i b e r t y p e r m e a t e s t h e t h o u g h t o f D e S a n c t i s . B u t w o r d s a r e o n l y m a s k s ; i f w e s t r i p t h i s h i s t o r i o s o p h i c a l d o c t r i n e o f its c a t h o l i c c o a t i n g it w i l l a p p e a r c l o s e t o t h e v i s i o n o f t h e r o m a n t i c s , t h e r e l i g i o u s S c h e llin g a n d th e a th e is t M o m m s e n . F o r th e s to r ia p r o v v id e n z ia le v e r s u s s t o r i a c o m e l o t t a p e r l a l i b e r t à 85 is n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e f ig h t o f N o t w e n d i g k e i t a n d F r e i h e i t in h i s t o r y , a p r o b l e m e v e r y h i s t o r i a n w o r t h y o f t h a t n a m e m u s t f a c e , if n o t a n s w e r . T h e p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s i n M o m m s e n ’s G e s c h i c h t e a n d D e S a n c t i s ’ S t o r i a w e r e n o t d i s s i m i l a r w i t h o n e e x c e p t i o n , h o w e v e r . B o th o f t h e m b e l i e v e d n o t o n l y i n t h e s u p e r io r ity o f u n ity o v e r p a r tic u la r is m b u t a ls o in th e m a r c h o f H is to ry t o w a r d t h a t u n i t y . M o m m s e n s p o k e o f t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f I ta l y , D e S a n c t i s o f l a c o n q u i s t a d e l p r i m a t o in I t a l i a , 86 b u t t h e e s s e n c e w a s t h e s a m e . A s t h e r e a d e r o f t h e S t o r i a f in d s o u t , w h e n D e S a n c t i s w r o t e
149
17
S e n tin o h e th o u g h t o f S o lfe rin o ; th e m a rc h to w a r d u n ity b e g a n fo r h im w i t h C a m i l l u s ’ c o n q u e s t o f V e ii a n d e n d e d a t P o r t a P i a . 87 A n d w h e n th e
R om ans
em b a rk e d
on
th e
seco n d
ro u n d
o f th e ir e x p a n s io n ,
M o m m s e n , H o lle a u x , F r a n k a n d D e S a n c tis , a ll o f th e m , h a d re a d y t w o s e ts o f g la s s e s , o n e
f o r s c r u t i n i z i n g t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e l e g i o n s in
th e W e s t, a n d th e o th e r in th e E a s t. I n t h e W e s t t h e c a l i g a w a s t h e s y m b o l o f c u l t u r e , in G r e e c e t h e y w o u ld h a v e p r e f e r r e d n o t to s e e th e R o m a n s a t a ll. In h is f a m o u s e s s a y of
1920,
a n t i c o , 88 in
D opogu erra
w h ic h
De
S a n c tis
p a in ts
th e
d e v e lo p m e n ts a fte r th e H a n n ib a lic W a r , b u t th in k s o f E u ro p e a fte r V e rs a ille s , h e c o m e s to s p e a k o f th e c o n q u e s t o f G a u l: s h o u ld th e h i s t o r i a n a d o p t t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f t h e G a u l s , h e is e n t i t l e d t o b e w a i l th e c o n q u e s t a n d r o m a n iz a tio n ; b u t if h e o v e r c o m e s th is p a r ti c u la r p o in t o f v ie w , w h e th e r G a u lis h o r R o m a n , a n d c o n s id e r s th e in te r e s ts o f h u m a n i t y a n d c u l t u r e , h e m u s t a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t R o m a n v i c t o r y in G a u l s i g n a l l e d a r e m a r k a b l e e v e n t in t h e h i s t o r y o f p r o g r e s s . T h u s D e S a n c tis a r r iv e d a t h is m o s t a r r e s tin g d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n im p e r ia lis m a n d c o lo n ia lis m : im p e r ia lis m w a s c a la m ity f o r a ll c o n c e r n e d , c o lo n iz a tio n
and
c o lo n ia lis m
sound
and
w h o le s o m e -
as
th e
e ty m o lo g y
in f o r m s . T h is d is tin c tio n le d h im u ltim a te ly to s u p p o r t a n d p r a is e th e c o lo n ia l v e n tu r e s o f th e n e w I m p e r o R o m a n o o f h is tim e s . B u t D e S a n c tis w a s a ls o a h u m a n is t, a n d h e k n e w h o w to a p p r e c ia te c o u r a g e . He
d e d ic a te d
h is
F o n d a z io n e
d e l l ’I m p e r o ,
th e
s to ry
of
R om an
im p e ria lis m tr iu m p h a n t, “ a q u e i p o c h is s im i c h e h a n n o p a r im e n te a s d e g n o d ’e s s e r e o p p r e s s i e d i f a r s i o p p r e s s o r i ” , “ to t h o s e f e w w h o f e e l e q u a l c o n te m p t fo r b e in g o p p r e s s e d a n d fo r b e c o m in g o p p re s s o rs ” . A n o b l e d e d i c a t i o n , a n d j u s t l y f a m o u s , a n d y e t it r e v e r b e r a t e s w i t h a h o llo w
s o u n d . D e S a n c tis a d m ir e d th e c o u r a g e a n d p a trio tis m
of
V i r i a t h u s a n d V e r c i n g e t o r i x n o le s s t h a n M o m m s e n . 89 B o th o f t h e m d o l e f u l l y l a i d t h e h e r o e s in t h e i r u s e l e s s g r a v e s l e s t th e y b l o c k t h e “ a v v e n ire
m ig lio re ” .
“ N e l l ’E u r o p a
b a rb a ra ”
o p p o rtu n itie s
not
r e a liz e d d id n o t c o u n t. Im p e ria lis ts a n d o p p re s s o rs a n d d is r u p to r s o f p ro g re s s th e R o m a n s w e r e in G r e e c e . H e r e D e S a n c tis p a r te d c o m p a n y w ith M o m m s e n a n d H o l l e a u x . R o m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n w a s u n p r o v o k e d a n d u n j u s t i f i e d f o r in v ie w o f th e im p o te n c e o f th e H e lle n is tic m o n a r c h ie s d e m o n s tr a te d d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d P u n i c W a r R o m e h a d n o t h i n g to f e a r f r o m
th e
E a s t . 90 Q u i t e p o s s i b l y t h e R o m a n s i n t e r r u p t e d i n G r e e c e a m o v e m e n t to w a r d u n ity ; th e r e s u lt w a s c o n f u s io n a n d th e p ro g re s s iv e d e c a d e n c e
150
o f th e G r e e k w o r ld . I n th is a s s e s s m e n t o f G r e e k a ffa irs D e S a n c tis f o llo w e d in th e f o o ts te p s o f h is e s te e m e d a n d b e lo v e d m a e s tr o J u liu s B e lo c h w h o s o m e tw e n ty y e a rs p r e v io u s ly a c c u s e d th e R o m a n s o f p u ttin g a n e n d to th e r e n a is s a n c e o f G re e k c u ltu r e in th e th ir d c e n tu r y a n d th u s p lu n g in g c la s s ic a l c u ltu r e in to a d o w n w a r d s p ira l fro m w h ic h i t n e v e r r e c o v e r e d . 91 F u s t e l d e C o u l a n g e s s a w
in th e R o m a n s th e
s a v io u r s o f G re e c e , b u t h e d id n o t th in k o f c u ltu r e b u t r a th e r o f c la s s s tru g g le . D e S a n c tis s a w th is p r o b le m
a s w e ll, b u t h e s a w R o m a n
c o n q u e s t n o t a s a c u r e f o r c l a s s s t r u g g l e , b u t r a t h e r a s its f u e l a n d cause.
It
e x a c e rb a te d
or
c re a te d
s o c ia l c o n flic ts
in
R om e
it s e lf ,
p r e v e n te d n e c e s s a ry r e f o r m s a n d s p e lt r u in to th e R e p u b lic a n d lib e rty . A t t h e e n d , s t o o d , i t is t r u e , t h e p a x R o m a n a , s e c u r i t y f r o m f o r e i g n i n v a s i o n s a n d i n t e r n a l w a r s , b u t i t w a s a p e a c e il l - g a i n e d a n d il l- u s e d , w ith
th e
fru its
G re c o -R o m a n
of
p ro s p e rity
c u ltu re
not
g o in g
a b le
to
to
fe w ,
and
th e
ocean
ta m e
th e
is la n d s
of
o f p ro v in c ia l
b a r b a r i t y . 92 I t is i n t h e n a t u r e o f g r a n d v i s i o n s t o b e f u l l o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s ; f o r P lin io F r a c c a ro th e s e “ m o r a lis tic th e o rie s ” w e r e d e v o id o f a n y v a lu e . T h u s th e s ta g e w a s s e t f o r a c la s h b e tw e e n th e tw o lu m in a o f I ta lia n h is to r io g r a p h y , G a e ta n o D e S a n c tis a n d P lin io F ra c c a ro . A s P ie ro T r e v e s c o m p e l l i n g l y p u t it, D e S a n c t i s i n t e r p r e t e d “ la r e a l t à d e l p r e s e n t e n e l l a r i c o s t r u z i o n e d e l p a s s a t o e la r e a l t à d e l p a s s a t o n e l tra v a g lio d e l p r e s e n te ”, a n d s u p p re s s e d “ o g n i d is tin z io n e o d is ta n z a d i t e m p i ” .93 I n h i s c e l e b r a t e d r e v i e w o f t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e f o u r t h v o lu m e o f th e S to r ia F r a c c a ro u rg e d h is to r ia n s to k e e p th e p a s t a n d th e p r e s e n t s e p a r a t e , a n d k e e p t o t h e f a c t s . 94 B u t i n t h e H o u s e o f H i s t o r y th e r e a r e m a n y m ir r o r s a n d th e s o b e r h is to r ia n c lin g in g to h is fa c ts m a y b e a r e fle c tio n o f a n y o f th e m . F ra c c a ro e m b ra c e d H o lle a u x a n d F r a n k and
p ro c la im e d
d e m o g ra p h ic
th a t a ro u n d
c o n d itio n s
in
200 R om e
B .C . t h e
s o c ia l ,
p re c lu d e d
any
e c o n o m ic p o s s ib ility
and of
im p e r ia lis m . A v e rs io n to c o n c e p tu a l h is to r y c a n th u s p r o d u c e c u r io u s r e s u lts . T h e u m b r a e r e r u m , th e w o rd s , a r e in o u r p o w e r ; a r e th e re s ip s a e ?
T w o p r e c e p t s o f p o l i t i c s a r e o f t e n a s c r i b e d to t h e R o m a n s . D i v i d e e t i m p e r a is o n e ; s i v i s p a c e m , p a r a b e l l u m , is t h e o t h e r . I n t h i s f o r m
n e i t h e r is R o m a n i n o r i g i n . T h e f o r m e r b e t r a y s its l a t e p r o v e n a n c e b y its f a u l t y g r a m m a r . I t p r o b a b l y o r i g i n a t e d a t t h e c o u r t o f L o u i s X I o f F r a n c e . 95 T h e l a t t e r a p p e a r s i n v a r i o u s s h a p e s i n m a n y R o m a n a u t h o r s . O s te n d ite
m odo
b e ll u m ·, p a c e m
h a b e b itis ,
says
L iv y ,
and
C ic e ro
i n s t r u c t s u s : s i p a c e f r u ì v o l u m u s , b e l l u m g e r e n d u m e s t . 96 W h e n h e
151
t h o u g h t o f p e a c e , h e t h o u g h t o f w a r . A n d i n d e e d r e p u b l i c a n L a t i n is ric h
in
w o rd s
p e rta in in g
to
w a r,
poor
in
p r a i s e s o f p e a c e . 97 I ts
e q u i v a l e n t o f p e a c e f u l is p a c a t u s , s u b d u e d . I n R o m e e v e n p e a c e w a s a g g r e s s i v e . 98 *
NOTES
1 W. V. Harris, W a r a n d I m p e r i a l i s m i n R e p u b l i c a n R o m e 3 2 7 - 7 0 B . C . (Oxford, 1979) 169, n. 1. For a lucid appraisal of Roman imperialism, see also P. A. Brunt, “ Laus imperii ”, I m p e r i a l i s m i n t h e A n c i e n t W o r l d , ed. by P.D.A. Garnsey and C. R. W hittaker (Cambridge, 1978) 159-191 and C. Nicolet, R o m e e t l a c o n q u è t e d u m o n d e m é d i t e r r a n é e n 2 (Paris, 1978) 883-920. As to Mommsen’s and Holleaux’ followers, their name is legion. Imperialism is an imprecise term: this observation was made sixty years ago by O. Spann in H a n d w ö r t e r b u c h d e r S t a a t s w i s s e n s c h a f t 5 (4th ed., Iena, 1923) 383-385; it was repeated by M. Hammond, “ Ancient Imperialism ”, H S C P 58-59 (1948) 125, n. 3, and again by D. Flach, “ Der sogenannte römische Imperialismus. Sein Verständnis im Wandel der neuzeitlichen Erfahrungswelt ”, H i s t o r i s c h e Z e i t s c h r i f t 2 2 2 (1976) 37-42, who would prefer to abandon this term altogether. But imprecise are many other expressions pertaining to human affairs; those who wish to purge imperialism from the language have no greater chance of success than those who wish to purge it from history. 2 Three monographs (hereafter referred to by the name of the author alone) are indispensable to any student of Mommsen: L. Wickert, T h e o d o r M o m m s e n . E i n e B i o g r a p h i e , vols. 1-4 (Frankfurt a.M., 1959, 1964, 1969, 1980); A. Heuss, T h e o d o r M o m m s e n u n d d a s 1 9 . J a h r h u n d e r t (Kiel, 1956); A. Wucher, T h e o d o r M o m m s e n . G e s c h i c h t s s c h r e i b u n g u n d P o l i t i k (Göttingen, 1956, 2nd ed. 1968). W ickert provides a chronicle of Mommsen’s life and work; detailed and reasoned, occasionally chaotic but always fascinating. Heuss and W ucher attempt to interpret Mommsen’s G e s c h i c h t s a u f f a s s u n g against the background of contempo rary history and culture. W ucher is a modern historian dealing with Mommsen as a nineteenth century figure (cf. the interesting analysis of W ucher’s book by F. Sartori, P a i d e i a 16 [1961] 3-11); Heuss and W ickert are eminent historians of Rome; this imparts Roman color to their presentation. Heuss is more inclined to philosophical theory; W ickert favors enumeration. W ickert’s views on Roman history are probably best gleaned from his article “ Princeps ” in R E 2 2 (1954) 1998-2296; of Heuss one should read not only his R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e (2nd ed. Braunschweig, 1964), with its sensible remarks on Roman imperialism (cf. Harris, W a r a n d I m p e r i a l i s m 162, n. 1), but also and above all his many studies on the concept of revolution (see below, nn. 6, 12). Very useful are the introductions by T.R.S. Broughton to the new English edition of the fifth volume of Mommsen’s history. T h e P r o v i n c e s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e (Chicago, 1968) IX-XXV and by K. 153
Christ to the new edition of R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e (in voi. 8 [München, 1976] 7-66). Christ treats of Mommsen also in his V o n G i b b o n z u R o s t o v t z e f f . L e b e n u n d W e r k f ü h r e n d e r A l t h i s t o r i k e r d e r N e u z e i t (Darmstadt, 1972) 84-118, and above all one has now to consult his R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e u n d d e u t s c h e G e s c h i c h t s w i s s e n s c h a f t (München, 1982). 3 See below, n. 39. 4 For the publication history of the R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e , see Wickert 3.399-422, 619-675. In February 1854 the printing of voi. 1 was almost concluded, and it was out by the end of May or the beginning of June at the latest (Wickert 3.400, 623-624, nn. 36-38), almost simultaneously with Mommsen’s R u f to Breslau (W ickert 3.298-304, 545-548, nn. 22-28). Voi. 2 appeared in 1855, voi. 3 in 1856. The second edition appeared in 1856-1857; and the third in 1861. It differed from the second, to quote Mommsen, “ nicht beträchtlich ”. In subsequent editions Mommsen introduced practically no changes. 5 On Mommsen and von Savigny, see Wickert 1.161, 170-171, 454-456, nn. 217-222. Mommsen regarded himself as a successor of both B. G. Niebuhr and von Savigny, and he expressed it forcefully in his famous A n t r i t t s r e d e of 1858 as a member of the Berlin Academy ( R e d e n u n d A u f s ä t z e [Berlin, 1905] 36). Cf A. Heuss, “ Niebuhr und Mommsen ”, A n t i k e u n d A b e n d l a n d 14 (1968) 1-18, and on the natural law school versus the historical school of law, see now P. Stein, L e g a l E v o l u t i o n (Cambridge, 1980) Iff., 5 Iff. 6 There are no direct quotes of Hegel by Mommsen, but the philosopher’s unseen presence nobody could escape, even Mommsen. See Wickert 1.117-118; W ucher 91, η. 17; Heuss 13Iff., 259ff., and idem, “ Theodor Mommsen und die revolutionäre Struktur des römischen Kaisertums ”, A N R W II 1 (1974) 88-90. 7 B. Croce, T e o r i a e s t o r i a d e l l a s t o r i o g r a f i a 3 (Bari, 1927) 26-27 and 255: “ il romanticismo ... creò ... il tipo del filologo-pensatore (e talvolta altresì poeta), dal Niebuhr al Mommsen, dal Thierry al Fustel de Coulanges ”, Mommsen’s G e s c h i c h t e was for Croce one of the p s e u d o s t o r i e , as also were the histories of Droysen and Grote (p. 27). For an excellent short appraisal of Croce’s thought, see A. Momigliano, “ Reconsidering B. Croce ”, Q u a r t o C o n t r i b u t o a l l a s t o r i a d e g l i s t u d i c l a s s i c i e d e l m o n d o a n t i c o (Roma, 1969) 95-115. 8 Romanticism and historicism were in fact in many respects close to each other. Both idolized the V o l k (the pedigree goes back to Herder) and both treated it as a living and developing organism (this they shared with Burke). Compare, for instance, Adam Müller, D i e E l e m e n t e d e r S t a a t s k u n s t (Berlin, 1809, new ed. Jena, 1922) 1.145: “ Ein Volk ist die erhabene Gemeinschaft einer langen Reihe von vergangenen, jetzt lebenden und noch kommenden Geschlechtern, die alle in einem grossen innigen Verband zu Leben und Tod Zusammenhängen ”, and F. von Savigny, V e r m i s c h t e S c h r i f t e n 5 (Berlin, 1850) 141-142: “ Das wahrhaft historische Verfahren strebt ... darnach, das Gegebene aufwärts durch alle seine Verwandlungen hindurch bis zu seiner Entstehung aus des Volkes Natur, 154
S c h i c k s a l u n d B e d ü r f n i s z u v e r f o l g e n ... D i e a l l g e m e i n e V o r a u s s e t z u n g b e i d i e s e m V erfah ren
is t
d ie ,
dass
jed es
V o l k ...
e in e
n ich t
b lo ss
zu fä llig e,
sondern
w e s e n t l i c h e u n d n o t h w e n d i g e ... I n d i v i d u a l i t ä t h a b e ” . F o r S c h l e g e l a n d S c h e l l i n g , s e e b e lo w , n n . 2 6 , 2 7 and for a d is c u ssio n o f th e c o n c e p ts V o lk , N a tio n an d S ta a t, see
P. C a t a l a n o , P o p u l u s R o m a n u s Q u i r i t e s ( T o r i n o ,
1 9 7 4 ) 2 1 -4 9 (w ith
a m p le
lite r a tu r e ). 9 C f. W u c h e r 6 3 - 8 5 . T h e h is t o r y o f Ita ly is n o t “ w a s m a n d i e B e z w i n g u n g I t a l i e n s d u r c h d i e R ö m e r z u n e n n e n g e w o h n t is t ” , b u t r a t h e r “ d i e E i n i g u n g z u e i n e m S ta a t e d e s g e s a m m t e n S t a m m e s d e r I ta lik e r ” ( R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e 8 1 .6 ). T h e n a t i o n a l u n if i c a t i o n is “ d i e V o l l e n d u n g d e s m e n s c h l i c h e n D a s e i n s ” ( R e d e n u. A u f s ä t z e 3 1 6 ) - th is t h o u g h t q u it e a p p r o p r ia t e ly a p p e a r s at th e h e a d o f a le c tu r e d e l i v e r e d in M a r c h 1 8 7 1 . It d e a l t w i t h t h e G e r m a n p o l i c y o f A u g u s t u s , b u t a b o v e and
beyond
c o n c lu d e d
th is
it c e l e b r a t e d
h is le c tu r e w ith
V a ru ssch la ch t
und
z u letzt
10 C f . Z . Y a v e t z , “ W h y I9th
C en tu ry " T h is
eco n o m ic
the
bei
a cc u sa tio n See
of
P ru ssia
over
France. M om m sen
M ars-Ia-T ou rs
und
Sedan ”
(p p .
342-343).
R o m e ? Z e i t g e i s t a n d A n c i e n t H i s t o r i a n s in E a r l y
G e r m a n y ”, A J P
p o lic y .
v icto ry
p r a i s e o f t h e “ S c h l a c h t r u f d e r D e u t s c h e n ... in d e r
97
(1 9 7 6 )
276-2 9 6 .
in
1881)
eoneerned
(m ad e W ic k e r t
B i s m a r c k ’s
p ro tectio n ist
4 .9 4 -1 2 1 .
12 R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e 8 2 . 3 7 3 . A t t h e s a m e t i m e “ S u l l a h a t d i e i t a l i s c h e R e v o lu tio n
(w h ic h
began
w ith
th e
G ra cch i)
en d g ü ltig
g e s c h lo s s e n ”.
On
M o m m s e n ’s c o n c e p t o f r e v o l u t i o n , s e e A . H e u s s , “ D e r U n t e r g a n g d e r r ö m i s c h e n R e p u b l i k u n d d a s P r o b l e m d e r R e v o l u t i o n ”, H i s t o r i s c h e Z e i t s c h r i f t
182 (1 9 5 6 )
4 f f .; E. T o r n o w , D e r R e v o l u t i o n s b e g r i f f u n d d i e s p ä t e r ö m i s c h e R e p u b l i k - e i n e S tu d ie zu r d e u tsc h e n 1978)
G e s c h ic h ts s c h r e ib u n g im
19. u n d 2 0 . jh .
(F r a n k fu r t a .M .,
9-34.
n
See
ca n to n a len
above,
n. 9. M om m sen
speaks
fu rth er o f th e
progress “ von
dem
P a r tic u la r is m u s, m it d e m je d e V o lk s g e s c h ic h t e a n h e b t u n d a n h e b e n
m u s s , z u d e r n a tio n a le n E in ig u n g , m it d er je d e V o lk s g e s c h ic h t e e n d ig t o d e r d o c h e n d ig e n
s o l l t e ” ( R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e “ 1 .4 1 , c f.
14) -
o b se r v e th e rem a rk a b le
j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t h e s u p p o s e d l y g e n e r a l tru th ( e n d i g t ) a n d th e m o d a l w i s h f u l n e s s (e n d ig e n s o llte ). But M o m m se n
w a s w e l l a w a r e o f t h e f a c t t h a t in I t a l y “ D a s
E in ig u n g sw e r k
schonenden
n ic h t
m it
dem
M esser
des
A rztes
d u rch gefü h rt
w o r d e n w a r ” . T h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f I t a l y b y R o m e w a s a “ Z w a n g s e h e ”, b u t “ w a s d ie
V ö lk e r a n la n g t, so
fragt d ie G e s c h i c h t e
w e n ig
nach
dem
E in ig u n g sg r u n d ,
w e n n n u r d a s Z i e l e r r e i c h t , ... d a s V o l k z u m S t a a t z u s a m m e n g e f a s s t w i r d ” ( R e d e n u.
A u fsä tze
316-317).
M R ö m isch e M Ib id .
G e s c h i c h t e 8 1 .6 ff.
1 .1 7 6 .
16 M o m m s e n s t r i v e s c o n s t a n t l y t o d i m i n i s h
E tru scan an d G ree k in flu e n c e s
155
22
o n R o m e a n d L a tiu m ; th e E tr u s c a n s p r o d u c e d a b arren c iv iliz a tio n , a n d fr o m th e G reeks
th e
L a tin s
(R ö m is c h e
receiv ed
G e sc h ic h te 8
o n ly
l.lló ff.,
“ A nregungen ” and
som e
p ra ctica l
sk ills
237 -2 3 9 ).
17 R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e 8 1 . 3 2 0 f f . , e s p . 3 3 8 , 3 8 0 : “ d a s u n e r b i t t l i c h e S c h i c k s a l fr a g t n ic h t n a c h S c h w ü r e n u n d v e r z w e i f e l t e m F le h e n ” (r e fe r r in g to th e d e b a c l e o f th e
S a m n ites 18 C f .
and
th eir
W ic k e r t
19 W i c k e r t
tu ra ti
m ilite s).
2 .2 1 2 -2 1 3 .
4 .7 4 -7 5 . A d
rem ,
see
th e
ex c e lle n t
stu d ie s
by
B. S u tter,
D ie
B a d e n i s c h e n S p r a c h e n v e r o r d n u n g e n v o n 1 8 9 7 ( W i e n , 1 9 6 0 - 1 9 6 5 ) 1 . 1 2 8 f f „ 2 . 4 1 ff ., a n d e s p e c i a l l y “ T h e o d o r M o m m s e n s B r i e f ‘ A n d i e D e u t s c h e n in O e s t e r r e i c h ’ ” , O s td e u ts c h e W isse n sc h a ft 10 (1 9 6 3 )
1 5 2 -2 2 5 . A c c o r d in g to th e V e r o r d n u n g o f 5
A p ril 1 8 9 7 C z e c h w a s r e c o g n iz e d as th e o ffic ia l a d m in istr a tiv e la n g u a g e (o n a par w ith
G erm an)
in
th e
20 R ö m i s c h e
K in g d o m
G e sc h ic h te 8
of
B o h e m ia .
1 .7 8 1 -7 8 2 .
21 P r e u s s i s c h e J a h r b ü c h e r 1 ( 1 8 5 8 ) 2 2 5 - 2 4 4 , e s p . 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 . It w a s p u b l i s h e d a n o n y m o u sly ,
cf.
22 R e d e n
W ic k e r t
und
3 .3 7 1 -3 7 6 ,
A u fsä tze
5 70-577.
318.
2Ì T h e s p i r i t u s m o v e n s o f R o m a n e x p a n s i o n w a s n o t “ d i e E r o b e r u n g s l u s t ” b u t r a th e r “ d ie P h ilis t e r fu r c h t ”. B ut at th e s a m e tim e M o m m s e n m a i n t a in s th a t th e R o m a n s w e r e p r o m p t e d to g o to w a r o n l y “ d u r c h e i n e u n e r h ö r t e S t ö r u n g d e r b estehenden 24 O n
V e r h ä ltn isse ”
(R ö m is c h e
G e sc h ic h te8
th e p o lic y o f a n n e x a tio n a n d n o n -a n n e x a tio n , se e
Im p e ria lism G reece
p o litisc h e n
and
1 .7 8 1 -7 8 2 ).
H arris, W a r a n d
1 3 I f f . C f . a l s o A . L i n t o t t , “ W h a t w a s t h e ‘ I m p e r i u m R o m a n u m ’? ” , Rom e
27
(1 9 8 1 )
53-67,
esp.
54.
25 R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e 8 1 . 7 8 2 . M o m m s e n w a s q u i t e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h i s id e a . In h is a r tic le a b o u t T h ie r s a n d N a p o le o n (a b o v e , n. 2 1 ) h e p o s t u la te d as a program
fo r P ru ssia
N a tio n e n ” (p. a m b itio u s
in i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o li t i c s
2 4 4 ).
But
in
1858
P ru ssia
“ das G leich g ew ich t der grossen c o u ld
h a r d ly
asp ire
to
any
m ore
r o le.
26 R ö m i s c h e
G e sc h ic h te 8
1 .7 8 2 :
“ d ie
n o th w en d ig e
E n tw ic k e lu n g
der
V ö l k e r v e r h ä h n i s s e d e s A l t e r t u m s ”. O n c h a n c e a n d d e s t i n y c o m p a r e F. S e h e l l i n g , D ie
V o r lesu n g e n
ü b er d ie M e th o d e d es a k a d e m isc h e n
S tu d i u m s (B erlin ,
1803,
r e p r in t in A u s g e w ä h l t e W e r k e 8, D a r m s t a d t , 1 9 7 6 ) 5 4 5 : “ ( H i s t o r i e ) w ir d . . . j e n e I d e n t i t ä t d e r F r e i h e i t u n d N o t w e n d i g k e i t in d e m S i n n e d a r s t e l l e n m ü s s e n , w i e s i e v o m G e s i c h t s p u n k t d e r W i r k l i c h k e i t a u s e r s c h e i n t ... V o n d i e s e m a u s ist s i e a b e r n u r a ls u n b e g r if f e n e u n d g a n z o b j e k t iv e Id e n titä t e r k e n n b a r , a ls S c h ic k s a l ” a n d M om m sen,
R ö m isc h e
G e s c h ic h te 8 2 .4 5 4 :
“ D ie
G e sc h ic h te ,
der
K am pf
der
N o t h w e n d i g k e i t u n d d e r F r e i h e i t , is t e i n s i t t l i c h e s P r o b l e m : P o l y b i o s b e h a n d e l t
156
23
sie als wäre sie ein mechanisches S c h i c k s a l and N o t w e n d i g k e i t were the trademarks of romantic parlance. On Polybius’ concept of Tyche, see F. W. W albank, A H i s t o r i c a l C o m m e n t a r y o n P o l y b i u s (Oxford, 1957) 1.16-28. 27 R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e 8 1.30: Italy “ errang allein unter allen Kulturvölkern des Altertums ... die nationale Einheit ”. Cf. F. Schlegel according to whom the Romans were “ die einzige Nation, die ganz Nation war ” (A t h e n a e u m 3 [Berlin, 1800] 14). But in 1880 we read a surprising statement: “ Die alte Welt kennt das nicht, was wir heute den nationalen Staat nennen ” (R e d e n u. A u f s ä t z e 413). 28 Quoted by Christ,
Von
G ib b o n
zu
R o sto v tze ff
(above, n. 2) 108.
29 R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e 8 1.53Iff., esp. 536, 561 ff., esp. 565 (Hamilcar’s “ K am pf... gegen das S chicksal”), 570ff. (Hannibal); 3.291-292 (synkrisis of Hannibal and Vercingetorix).
30 W ucher 67. But cf. Wickert 4.81-82. 51 W ucher 194ff. In a letter of 30 October 1870 Mommsen so characterized the results of the war against France: “ Der grauenvolle Ruin Frankreichs ... ist ein Ärmerwerden auch für uns, da wir nun allein bleiben; und unsere innere Entwickelung wird es auch merken, dass die Nation sich durch die philisterhafte Furcht vor dem unbequemen Nachbarn ins Erobern hineinhetzen lässt ” (Wickert 4.67). About Roman expansion in Greece Mommsen spoke in almost exactly the same words, in 1854 ( R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e 8 1.781-782), and again in 1871 ( R e d e n u.
A u fsä tze e
318).
32 R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e 8 3.220. Mommsen formulated his “ law ” as a prelude to his description of the conquest and romanization of the West. 33 For the pronouncements of Rhodes and Ferry (French prime minister 1880-81, 1883-85), see the excellent source collection by W. Mommsen, Im p e ria lism u s.
S e in e
g eistig e n ,
p o litisc h e n
und
w irtsc h a ftlic h e n
G ru n d la g e n
(Hamburg, 1977) 48-49, 61, 63-64, 83-85, 88-91. 34 Wickert 4.75. See above, n. 19. 33 W ucher 196-197. Cf. R e d e n u . A u f s ä t z e 113-114 (1881), 142-143 (1885), 41 Off. (1888), 430-431 (1895). On Mommsen and France, see Wickert 4.137-170. But it is instructive to read also the openly nationalist lines, R e d e n u . A u f s ä t z e 18-19, 27, 31 (1875), 55-56 (1875). 36 In fact Prussia surpassed Rome: Germany was not only militarily but also culturally superior to contemporary France and Italy, cf. Mommsen’s comments in a letter written shortly after the battle of Sedan (Wickert 4.66), and above all R e d e n u. A u f s ä t z e 7: “ Lange bevor die deutschen Waffen auf dem Schlachtfeld den Sieg gewannen, hat die deutsche Forschung auf ihrem Gebiet die gleiche Anerkennung sich erobert und die Nachbarn gezwungen unsere strenge, aber 157
24
unentbehrlich gewordene Sprache widerwillig zu lernen ” (R e k t o r a t s r e d e of 1874). Cf. i b i d . 130. 37 R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e 8
3.547-549. This was “ das Werk des dritten und grössten der demokratischen Staatsmänner Roms ”. On the myth of democracy in Rome, see J. Linderski, C / 77 (1982) 275-277. 38 This does not mean that it enjoyed a monopoly. At the turn of the century it was largely supplanted in Germany by an “ aggressive ” interpretation of Roman expansion. No wonder: in the last decennia of the nineteenth century the ideal and the goal was no longer national unification - of Germany by Prussia or Italy by Rome - but rather world-wide expansion and colonization. The writings of Heinrich v. Treitschke and Max Weber and the political proclamations of the time provide eloquent testimony. In its proclamation of 1897 A l l g e m e i n e r D e u t s c h e r V e r b a n d exhorted the V o l k to vie with the Romans in building up their own W e l t r e i c h , and Max Weber wrote in the same year that foreign markets can be controlled by no other means than d i e M a c h t and d i e n a c k t e G e w a l t (quoted by W. Mommsen [above, n. 33] 127, 130). The content of J. Kromayer’s R o m s K a m p f u m d i e W e l t h e r r s c h a f t (Leipzig, 1912) matches its title. But Kromayer was not an admirer of Roman expansion: Roman conquest bears out the old truth that the domination of one nation over another leads inevitably to the degeneration of both the conqueror and the conquered (p. 74). 39 “ La politique romaine en Grèce et dans l’Orient hellénistique au IIP siècle ”, É t u d e s d ’é p i g r a p h i e e t d ’h i s t o i r e g r e c q u e s 4.1 (Paris, 1952) 26-75 at 27 (originally published in R e v u e d e P h i l o l o g i e 50 [1926] 46-66, 194-218). 40 I b i d .
26.
41 “ La politique romaine en Grèce et dans l’Orient hellénistique au IIP siècle”, R e v u e d e P h i l o l o g i e 49 (1925) 28-54, 118-142. The object of W alek’s criticism was Holleaux’ book R o m e , l a G r è c e e t l e s m o n a r c h i e s h e l l é n i s t i q u e s a u U K s i è c l e a v a n t J . C . (Paris, 1921, reprinted 1935 and 1969). Walek, who received his doctorate from the University of Berlin in 1911 (his R e f e r e n t e n were Eduard Meyer and Otto Hirschfeld), expressed similar views also in his book D z i e j e u p a d k u m o n a r c h i i m a c e d o r ì s k i e j (with French summary: L e s d e r n i e r s r o i s d e M a c é d o i n e [Cracow, 1924]). This was not a novel stance in Polish historical writing. In the same year K. Morawski, professor of classics at Cracow University, published a collection of essays R z y m i n a r o d y ( R o m e a n d t h e N a t i o n s [Warsaw 1924]) in which he pictured Rome, to use Mommsen’s famous phrase ( R e d e n u . A u f s ä t z e 319), as “ den grossen V ölkerzw inger”. The historical vicissitudes of Poland nourished this attitude. The eastward expansion of Poland in the XIV-XVII centuries was never perceived, in history or historiography, as a conquest, but rather presented strictly legalistically as an act (or acts) of union. Hence no political need to admire Roman conquests; admiration was reserved for the constitution of the Roman republic, which many Polish writers of the XVI-XVIII centuries and still Rousseau in his C o n s i d e r a t i o n s s u r l e g o u v e r n e m e n t d e P o l o g n e fancied to have rediscovered in the constitution of Poland-Lithuania. 158
25
With the collapse of the Polish commonwealth toward the end of the eighteenth century the perspective changed: now Prussia, Russia and Rome all appeared as “ die grossen Völkerzwinger 42 A. North, “ The Development of Roman Imperialism ”, J R S 81 (1981) 1-9, accords Harris cautious acknowledgement (or is it endorsement?). But the title - and the content —of the review by A. N. Sherwin-White ( J R S 80 [1980J 177-181) exude bewilderment at the sight of this marvellous and strange beast, Rome the Aggressor. Apparently West Europe (and America too) have lost not only the spirit but also the understanding of Empire. To taste conquest, and find out what the obligations are, and delights, of domination, we have to travel eastwards. O r backwards: to London, Paris, Berlin - and Rome. 43
O p . cit.
(above, n. 39) 28ff. Cf. Polybius 2. 2-12.
44 “ Notes on Roman Policy in Illyria ”, S t u d i e s i n G r e e k (Oxford, 1964) Iff. (originally published in 1952).
and
Rom an
H is to ry
45 2. 8. 8-9. 46 O p .
cit.
47
c it.
O p.
(above, n. 39) 28. Cf. Walek,
op.
cit.
(above, n. 41) 33.
36.
48 For the territorial details of the Roman settlement, see Badian, (above, n. 44) 6-7, 23-25. 49 Holleaux,
o p . c it.
(above, n. 39) 36; E. Täubler, D i e (Berlin, 1921) 17, 23; Mommsen,
z w e ite n p u n isc h e n K rie g e s c h te 8
o p . cit.
V o rg e sc h ic h te d e s R ö m isc h e G esch i-
1.550ff.
50 So also Sherwin-White, o p . c i t . (above, n. 42) 178: during the invasions of Pyrrhus, Hannibal and the Celts “ Rome was undoubtedly defending Italy against foreign assault ”. Let us ask the Samnites. 51 R o m e , n. 39) 36-39.
la G r è c e
(above, n. 41) 109-112; “ La politique romaine ” (above,
52 Badian, o p . c i t . (above, n. 44) 3-5. Familiarity with Badian’s R o m a n I m p e r i a l i s m (Ithaca, 1968) is of course assumed throughout this paper. He rightly stresses - following in the footsteps of Rostovtzeff - the importance of the “ hegemonial imperialism ” (p. 9). 53 Cf. J. Linderski,
CP
11
(1982) 175-177.
54 An excellent introduction to historical writing in nineteenth century France is provided by P. Stadler, G e s c h i c h t s c h r e i b u n g u n d h i s t o r i s c h e s D e n k e n 159
26
in
F ra n k re ic h
(Zürich, 1958) esp. 303-324 (Renan and Fustel de
1789-1871
Coulanges). ” Renan expressed this idea in the programmatic pamphlet “ La Chaire d ’Hébreu au Collège de France ”, O e u v r e s c o m p l e t e s 1 (Paris, 1947) 165. 56 “ De la manière d ecrire l’histoire en France et en Allemagne depuis cinquante a n s ”, Q u e s t i o n s h i s t o r i q u e s (Paris, 1893) 3-16 at 15-16 (originally published in 1872). For an appraisal of Fustel’s thought, see J. Herrick, T h e H i s t o r i c a l T h o u g h t o f F u s t e l d e C o u l a n g e s (Washington, 1954) and A. Momi gliano, “ La città antica di Fustel de Coulanges ”, R i v i s t a S t o r i a I t a l i a n a 82 (1970), 81-98. 37 L. Robert in Holleaux, É t u d e s 6 (Paris, 1968) 59. In this volume L. Robert assembled a num ber of obituaries and commemorations of Holleaux. 58 P o l y b e o u h isto riq u e s
la
G rèce
c o n q u is e p a r le s
R o m a in s
reprinted in
Q u e stio n s
119-211.
59 Mommsen,
R ö m isc h e
G e sc h ic h te 8
1.782; Fustel de Coulanges,
P o ly b e
121. 60 Momigliano,
op.
cit.
(above, n. 56) 94.
61 “ Fragments sur la méthode historique ”, quoted by Stadler, (above, n. 54) 318.
op.
cit.
62 In his inaugural lecture of 1888 quoted by M. Roques, “ Notice sur la vie et les travaux de Maurice H olleaux”, C R A I (1943) 70. 65 L a C i t é a n t i q u e ' 0
(Paris, 1883) 4-5.
64 Quoted by M. Roques, o p . here “ le souffle de Michelet ”. 65 C a m b r i d g e 431-432.
A n cien t
H isto ry
c it.
(above, n. 62) 66-67. Roques discovers
8 (1930) 239 =
E tu d es
5.2 (Paris, 1957)
66 Mommsen, R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e 8 1.720-721; T. Frank, R o m a n I m p e r i a (New York, 1914) 138ff., esp. 157-159. For a masterly analysis of the concept o f “ sentimental politics ”, see E. Badian, T i t u s Q u i n c t i u s F l a m i n i n u s (Lectures in Memory of Louise Taft Semple, Cincinnati, 1970) 18-21. Badian characterizes Frank’s book as “ divided between the obviously wrong-headed and the flash of insight illuminating the obviously true ” (pp. 18-19). It was “ written ... with little contact with the mainstream of international scholarly discussion, especially as written in foreign languages ”. And “ among much else that Frank did not know ” Badian accuses him of not knowing “ the immense tome ” by G. Colin, R o m e e t l a G r è c e d e 2 0 0 a 1 4 6 α ν . ) . C . (Paris, 1905). But Frank mentions Colin as one of his lism
160
authorities in note 1 to chapter VIII (p. 159), and on p. IX he lists the names of eighteen scholars (Colin inc'uded) who “ would fill pages of additional notes if I could have recorded all my obligations On p. 149 (perhaps not the page to which one would normally go to find this information) he speaks of various theories of Roman expansion, and in footnotes 22-25 (p. 161) records in addition to Mommsen the names of Peter, Ihne, Meyer, Wilamowitz and Duruy, the last one despite Badian’s remark: “ the translation of Duruy ... should have been available in this country ” (p. 19). But Frank does not need any defense in the matter of footnotes. This is a wrong measure for a work of intellectual vision. We do not miss references to modern literature in Mommsen’s G e s c h i c h t e or Fustel’s L a C i t é . These works belong to the realm of ideology, and their success, failure or greatness has nothing to do with the m i n u t i a e of pedantic scholarship. 67 Significant was also the title: R o m a n I m p e r i a l i s m . Before Frank only one book in English on Roman history displayed the word “ imperialism ” on its title-page: W. T. Arnold’s S t u d i e s o f R o m a n I m p e r i a l i s m (Manchester, 1906); however, it was published posthumously, its title was due to the editor, and it did not deal with Roman expansion but rather with the administration of the Roman empire. Mommsen in his R o m a n H i s t o r y did not use the term “ imperialism ” at all; the first modern author to apply it extensively to characterize Roman policy in the third and second centuries seems to have been Guglielmo Ferrerò in his once famous G r a n d e z z a e d e c a d e n z a d i R o m a 1 (Milano, 1902). On the semantic development of the term “ imperialism ”, see R. Koebner and H. D. Schmidt, Im p e ria lism .
The
S to ry
and
S ig n ific a n c e
of
a
P o litic a l
W ord,
1840-1960
(Cambridge, 1964), and, for Roman history, D. Flach, “ Der sogenannte römische Imperialismus ”, H i s t o r i s c h e Z e i t s c h r i f t 222 (1976) 1-42. Cf. also D. Musti, P o l i b i o e l ’i m p e r i a l i s m o r o m a n o (Napoli, 1978) 13ff., esp. n. 4 on pp. 35-36, who, however, did not consider the works by Koebner-Schmidt and Flach. For various theories of imperialism in modern times, see the surveys by W. Mommsen, T h e o r i e s o f I m p e r i a l i s m (New York, 1980) and N. Etherington, “ Reconsidering Theories of Imperialism ”, H i s t o r y a n d T h e o r y 21 (1982) 1-36. 68 P. VII. All subsequent quotes of Frank in this paragraph are taken from his preface, pp. VII-IX. 69 See W. Mommsen,
o p . cit.
(above, n. 33) 130.
70 History and vogue dictated the comparison of the two great republics: in the same year in which Frank’s R o m a n I m p e r i a l i s m appeared Guglielmo Ferrerò published his A n c i e n t R o m e a n d M o d e r n A m e r i c a (New York, 1914). Cf. M. Hammond, “ Ancient Rome and Modern America Reconsidered ”, P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e M a s s a c h u s e t t s H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y 73 (1961 [1963]) 3-17. 71 P a p e r s
R e la tin g
to
th e
F o reig n
R e la tio n s
of
th e
U n ited
S ta te s
1898
(Washington, 1901) 757-759. 12
Polybius 2.8. 161
28
75 O p .
cit.
(ab ove,
n.
71)
758-759.
74 A “ splendid little w ar ”, as John Milton Hay, Secretary of State under McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt, called it. Cf. G. F. Linderman, T h e M i r r o r o f W a r . A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y a n d t h e S p a n i s h - A m e r i c a n W a r (Ann Arbor 1974) 175, and passim for the w ar propaganda. (above, n. 71) 907. A. March in his book T h e H i s t o r y a n d C o n q u e s t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s (1899) p. X, found better words, the words of Kipling, to describe America’s mission: “ Take up the white m an’s burden - / Ye dare not stoop to less —”. But the president spoke not only of civilization. “ Incidental to our tenure in the Philippines is the commercial opportunity to which American statesmanship can not be indifferent ” (p. 907). 75 O p .
sio n
cit.
76 See A. K. Weinberg, M a n i f e s t D e s t i n y : i n A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y (Baltimore, 1935). 77 R o m a n
Im p e ria lism
78 I b i d .
93.
79 I b i d .
VIII.
80
129.
Ib id .
81 P a p e r s
R e la tin g
to
A
S tu d y o f N a tio n a list E x p a n
89 and 107 n. 5.
th e
F o reig n
R e la tio n s
of
th e
U n ited
S ta tes
1904
(Washington, 1905) IX. 82
Rom an
Im p e ria lism
V III; 8-9 and 12 n. 20.
85 For Gaetano De Sanctis’ philosophy of history, see E. Gabba, “ Riconsi derando l’opera storica di Gaetano De S an ctis”, R F I C 99 (1971) 5-25; L. Polverini, “ Gaetano De Sanctis recensore ”, A n n a l i d e l l a S c u o l a N o r m a l e S u p e r i o r e d i P i s a , serie 3, 3 (1973) 1047-1094; G. Bandelli, “ Imperialismo, coloniali smo e questione sociale in Gaetano De Sanctis ”, Q u a d e r n i d i S t o r i a 12 (1980) 88ff.; M. Pani, “ Gaetano De Sanctis e l’imperialismo antico ”, S t u d i i n o n o r e d i F u l v i o G r o s s o (Roma, 1982) 475-492. For a lucid introduction to Italian historiography from the turn of the century until World W ar II, see A. Momigliano, C o n t r i b u t o a l l a s t o r i a d e g l i s t u d i c l a s s i c i (Roma, 1955) 275-297 (originally published in 1950). For Ettore Pais, see R. T. Ridley, “ Ettore Pais ”, H e l i k o n 15-16 (1975-76) 500-533, and for Guglielmo Ferrerò: P. Treves, L ' i d e a d i R o m a e l a c u l t u r a i t a l i a n a d e l s e c o l o X I X (Milano-Napoli, 1962) 261-293, and the collection of articles G u g l i e l m o F e r r e r ò . H i s t o i r e e t p o l i t i q u e a u X X e s i è c l e (Genève, 1966). 84 S t o r i a d e i R o m a n i 2
4.1 (Firenze, 1969) VII.
8’ I borrow this expression from Gabba,
29
o p . cit.
(above, n. 83) 18. See
a lso
id em ,
R ivista
“ L ’u l t i m o
S to ric a
86
v o lu m e
d ella
7 6 (1 9 6 4 )
Ita lia n a
S to r ia
dei
1 0 5 0 - 1 0 5 7 at
Rom ani
di
G.
De
S a n c t i s ”,
1053-1054.
T h i s w a s t h e t itl e o f t h e first t w o v o l u m e s o f t h e S t o r i a ( p u b l i s h e d in
1907).
87 S t o r i a d e i R o m a n i 2 2 (Firenze, 1960) 339-340 ( = 1st ed. 357-358). Cf. P. Treves, L o s t u d i o d e l l ’a n t i c h i t à c l a s s i c a n e l l ’o t t o c e n t o (Milano-Napoli, 1962) XXXIX; E. Gabba, o p . c i t . (above, n. 83) 17. 88 A t e n e e R o m a 1 (1920) 3-14, 73-89, reprinted in S c r i t t i M i n o r i 4 (Roma, 1976) 9-38, but which ought to be read in the edition with commentary by P. Treves, L o s t u d i o (above, n. 87) 1247-1282 at 1264. 89 Cf. on Viriathus, Mommsen, R ö m i s c h e G e s c h i c h t e 8 2.12-13 and De Sanctis, S t o r i a 4.3 (Firenze, 1964) 222-223, 232. 90 S t o r i a d e i R o m a n i
4.1. 23ff.
91 I. Beloch, “ Der Verfall der antiken kultur ”, H i s t o r i s c h e Z e i t s c h r i f t 84 (1900) 1-38. See the stimulating remarks by Gabba, o p . c i t . (above, n. 83) 14-16. On De Sanctis and Beloch, see De Sanctis’ commemoration of his old teacher edited with commentary by P. Treves, L o s t u d i o (above, n. 87) 1231-1246. 92 This picture emerges above all from De Sanctis’ review of M. Rostovtzeff, T h e S o c i a l a n d E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e ( R F I C 54 [1926] 537-554 = S c r i t t i M i n o r i 6.1 [Roma, 1972] 295-313), from his article “ Rivolu zione e reazione nell’età dei Gracchi ” ( A t e n e e R o m a 2 [1921] 209-237 = S c r i t t i M i n o r i 4 [Roma, 1976] 39-69), and his p r o l u s i o n e of 1929, “ Essenza e caratteri della storia greca ” ( i b i d . 4.419-459). Cf. Gabba, o p . c i t . (above, n. 83) 21-23; Pani, o p . c i t . (above, n. 83) 480-483. 91
L o stu d io
(above, n. 87) XL, and, for Fraccafo versus De Sanctis, 1248.
94 R i v i s t a S t o r i c a 5-18, esp. 15-16.
Ita lia n a
2
(1924) 12-26 =
O p u sc u la
2
(Pavia, 1957)
95 J. Vogt, “ Divide et impera — die angebliche Maxime des römischen Imperialismus ”, in: D a s S t a a t s d e n k e n d e r R ö m e r , ed. by R. Klein (Darmstadt, 1966) 15-38 (originally published in 1940). 96 Liv. 6.18.7; Cic. pacem , praeparet
P h il.
7.19. Cf. Vegetius,
r. m i l .
3
p r a e f .: q u i d e s i d e r a t
b ellu m .
97 E. Wölfflin, “ Krieg und Frieden im Sprichworte der Römer ”, g sb e rich te
der
B a yerisch en
Akad.
d.
W iss.
zu
M ünchen,
P h il.-H is t.
S itzu n C la sse
(1888) 1.197-215. 163
30
98 These remarks are not to be construed as condemnation of Roman expansion but rather as an attempt to call a spade a spade. Nor are they to be construed as censure of great scholars whose names appear on the preceding pages but rather as an attempt to understand their views.
164
31
2
Mommsen and Syme: Law and Power in the Principate of Augustus
T w o s c h o la rs a n d tw o w o r k s o f g e n iu s h a v e d e fin e d f o r all tim e th e b a t tle g r o u n d f o r o u r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f R o m e a n d A u g u s tu s : T h e o d o r M o m m s e n a n d R o n a ld S y m e, R ö m i s c h e s S ta a ts r e c h t a n d T h e R o m a n R e v o l u ti o n . “ M e n a n d d y n a s tie s p a s s , b u t s ty le a b id e s ,” 1 a n d th e s e tw o
w o r k s a r e as d is s im ila r in sty le a s th e y a r e in c o n te n t. A re th e y a ls o m u tu a lly e x c lu siv e , o n e w r o n g a n d th e o t h e r rig h t? Is th e r e a m id d le g r o u n d b e tw e e n th e m , o r d o M o m m s e n a n d S y m e p e r h a p s illu m in a te tw o d iffe re n t a s p e c ts o f th e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n ? D e p e n d in g u p o n th e m e th o d a n d th e in s tr u m e n t o f o b s e r v a tio n lig h t c o m e s o u t as a c o r p u s cle o r as a w a v e . B u t th e n e w p h y s ic s d id n o t s im p ly p r o v e N e w to n w r o n g ; it a ls o s h o w e d t h a t th e w o r ld re v e a ls itse lf to o b s e rv e rs in g u ises t h a t m e c h a n is tic p h y s ic s w a s n o t c a p a b le o f c o n ju rin g u p o r u n d e r s ta n d in g . D e p e n d in g u p o n w h e th e r w e lo o k t h r o u g h th e p ris m o f p r o s o p o g r a p h y o r th e p r is m o f la w w e a rriv e a t o n e o f tw o a p p e a r a n c e s o f th e p r in c ip a te , th e v is io n o f S y m e o r th e v is io n o f M o m m s e n , n e ith e r tr u e o r fa lse in itse lf, a n d n e ith e r c o m p le te . It is o tio s e to a s k w h a t th e 1. R. Syme, Tacitus, voi. 2 (Oxford 1958) 624.
32
43
p r in c i p a te w a s ; in d o in g so w e c o n tin u e th e tr a d i t i o n o f A ris to tle a n d th e S c h o la s tic s , th e p e r n ic io u s p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith d e fin itio n s a n d th e “ e s s e n c e ” o f th in g s . It w a s th e lib e r a tio n f ro m t h a t tr a d i ti o n t h a t g av e u s th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f m o d e r n sc ie n c e : w e d o n o t d efin e th in g s b u t a sk h o w th e y b e h a v e .2 N a t u r e d o e s n o t a n s w e r in a n e q u e s tio n s , n o r d o e s h is to ry . B u t n e ith e r s c ie n tis t n o r s c h o la r lives in a v o id ; th e w o r ld in w h ic h w e live im p in g e s u p o n u s, s u g g e sts q u e s tio n s , a n d c o lo rs p e r c e p tio n s . “ T h e m e n a c e o f d e s p o tic p o w e r h u n g o v e r R o m e lik e a h e a v y c l o u d ” ;3 it a ls o h u n g o v e r th e w o r ld o f S ym e.
The Roman Revolution
w a s p u b lis h e d in th e f a ta l y e a r o f 1 9 3 9 , in th e m o n th o f S e p te m b e r. A lth o u g h c o n c e iv e d in t r a n q u i l O x f o r d , it w a s b o r n a m id th e ris in g tid e o f F a s c is t c h a r is m a tic d ic ta to r s h ip s in E u r o p e ; a n d th e s c h o la rly e n v i r o n m e n t w a s o n e o f a d u l a t i o n o f A u g u s tu s , w h ic h o o z e d f ro m th e s u g a r - c o a te d c o m m e n ta r ie s o n th e A u g u s ta n p o e ts , a n d f r o m n e w a n d d is q u ie tin g a r r iv a ls , b o o k s lik e
Princeps
b y W ilh e lm W e b e r (S tu ttg a r t
1 9 3 6 ) , a m u r k y h a r a n g u e (stu ffe d w ith a n t iq u a r ia n fo o tn o te s ) o n th e g r e a tn e s s o f A u g u s tu s , h is
Mut, Wut,
and
b e h e ld th e e x t r a v a g a n t c e le b r a tio n s o f th e o ld
impero
Kraft. In 1 9 3 7 - 3 8 th e bimillenario augusteo,
w o r ld o f th e
a n d th e n e w .4 S y m e ’s b o o k w a s a T a c ite a n re a c tio n to h is
tim e s ,5 a n d to c h e e rfu l c re d u lity .
Princeps d u ly a p p e a r s in S y m e ’s b ib lio g ra p h y , b u t w h e n w e a rriv e a t th e le tte r M, o f a ll M o m m s e n ’s w o r k s w e fin d o n ly th r e e liste d : o n e v o lu m e o f h is Gesammelte Schriften, th e e d itio n o f th e Res Gestae Divi Augusti, a n d tw o v o lu m e s o f h is Römische Forschungen. T h e tw o Meisterwerke, Römisches Staatsrecht a n d Römisches Strafrecht a re W e b e r’s
2. Cf. K. Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies (London, 1945), voi. 1, chap. 3, sect. 6; voi. 2, chap. 11, sect. 2 (= 5th ed., rev. [Princeton 1966] 1: 31-34; 2: 9-26); id., Conjectures and Refutations (London and New York 1962) 2 0 -2 1 , 103. 3. R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (Oxford 1939) 8. 4. “A memorable and alarming anniversary looms heavily upon us. The poet of the Italian nation was paid his due honours seven years ago, and now all Italy will conspire to acclaim the Princeps who was also Dux,” so wrote R. Syme in a review published in CR 51 (1937) 194. On the celebrations of the bimillenario augusteo and on Mussolini’s iden tification with Augustus, see the informative article (although written from a Marxist per spective) by M. Cagnetta, “Il mito di Augusto e la ‘rivoluzione’ fascista,” QS 2 (1976) 139 -8 L 5. Cf. esp. A. Momigliano, Terzo contributo alla storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico (Rome 1966) 7 2 9 -3 2 (originally published as the introduction to the Italian trans lation of The Roman Revolution [Turin 1962]); F. Millar, JRS 71 (1981) 146 (review of Syme’s Roman Papers, vols. 1-2); W. Schmitthenner, “Caesar Augustus— Erfolg in der Geschichte,” Saeculum 36 (1985) 286—91.
33
J. Linderski
m iss in g . N o a c c id e n t h e re . In h is p re fa c e S y m e p ro fe s s e s h is d e b t to five s c h o la r s :6 to th e “ p r o s o p o g r a p h ic a l s tu d ie s o f M ü n z e r , G r o a g a n d S te in ” 7 a n d in p a r t i c u l a r to M ü n z e r ’s “ s u p r e m e e x a m p le a n d g u id a n c e ” ;8 f u r th e r h e a c k n o w le d g e s t h a t h is “ o p in io n s a b o u t th e o a t h o f a lle g ia n c e o f 3 2 B .C . a n d a b o u t th e p o s itio n o f th e P rin c e p s as a p a r ty le a d e r n a t u r a lly o w e m u c h ” to A n to n v o n P r e m e r s te in ’s “ illu m in a tin g w o r k ” ( Vom
Werden und Wesen des Prinzipats
[M u n ic h 1 9 3 7 ] ) ;9 finally,
g r a c io u s m e n tio n is m a d e o f W. W. T a r n ’s “ w r itin g s a b o u t A n to n iu s a n d C l e o p a t r a ” — th e o n ly a u t h o r w r itin g in E n g lish s o h o n o r e d . A m o n g th e G e r m a n , S w iss, a n d A u s tr ia n
lumina
M o m m s e n ’s n a m e is a g a in m is s
in g ; b u t e v e n m o r e s tr ik in g is th e a b s e n c e o f M a tt h ia s G elzer.
Sir Ronald Syme, “Oie römische Revolution” und die deutsche Althistorie,10 A l T h is fa c t d id n o t e s c a p e th e k e e n eye o f G é z a A lfö ld y . In
fö ld y p r e s e n ts a n e x c e lle n t p a n o r a m a o f S y m e ’s “ r e c e p tio n ” in θ ε τ ό. Syme (supra n. 3) VIII. 7. On Münzer (1868—1942, in a concentration camp), see now A. Kneppe and J. Wiesehöffer, Friedrich Münzer: ein Althistoriker zwischen Kaiserreich und Nationalsozialis mus (Bonn 1983). Edmund Groag (1873—1945) and ArthurStein (1871—1950) were, inter alta, the editors of the second edition of the Prosopographia Imperii Romani (1933—1952, vols. 1—4, fase. 2), but to render suum cuique one should not forget that the impulse to elaborate the prosopography of the Roman Empire came from Theodor Mommsen (see his praemonitum to the first edition of voi. 1 of the Prosopographia [Berlin 1897]). 8. This guidance will have presumably emanated above all from Münzer’s numerous prosopographical contributions to RE rather than from his Römische Adelsparteien und Adelsfamilien (Stuttgart 1920; reprint Darmstadt 1963)— a grand work but one in which there are already present the germs of the sickness that rendered hollow so many proso pographical constructs of the epigones, showing a tendency to infer the behavior of indi viduals from the behavior of groups. Such inferences have only statistical validity, not factual (cf. C. Nicolet, “Prosopographie et histoire sociale: Rome et l’Italie à l’époque républicaine,” Annales ESC 25 [1970] 1 2 09-28, esp. 1226; J. Linderski, CP 72 [1977] 55—56). On Münzer and Syme, see Millar (supra n. 5) 146 (he evaluates the Adelsparteien much more positively); Alföldy (infra n. 10) 18. Alföldy gives an engrossing assessment of Syme’s prosopographical method in his review of Syme’s Roman Papers, vols. 1—2, in AJAH 4 (1979 [1981]) 167-85. 9. AbhMünch N.F. no. 15 (1937). After the death of von Premerstein (1869—1935) the work was edited by Hans Volkmann. For an evaluation of von Premerstein’s scholarly career, see K. Christ, Römische Geschichte und Wissenschaftsgeschichte, voi. 3 (Darm stadt 1 9 8 3 )1 1 5 -2 7 . 10. SBHeid 1983, no. 1. Cf. Inez Stahlmann, Imperator Caesar Augustus: Studien zur Geschichte des Principatsverständnisses in der deutschen Altertumswissenschaft (Darm stadt 1988). For the enduring fascination with the Roman revolution and The Roman Revolution, both in the West and in the East, see the collection La Rivoluzione Romana: Inchiesta tra gli antichisti. Biblioteca di Labeo 6 (Naples 1982). On the concept of revolu tion in Mommsen (and Syme), see also A. Heuss, “Der Untergang der römischen Republik und das Problem der Revolution,” HZ 182 (1956) 1—28; id., “Theodor Mommsen und die revolutionäre Struktur des römischen Kaisertums,” A N R W 2.1 (1974) 77—90; E. Tor now, Der Revolutionsbegriff und die späte römische Republik— eine Studie zur deutschen Geschichtsschreibung im 19. und 20. Jh. (Frankfurt 1978) 9—34; J. F. McGlew, “Revolu tion and Freedom in Theodor Mommsen’s Römische Geschichte,” Phoenix 40 (1986 [1987]) 4 2 4 -4 5 .
34
45
m a n y . G e lz e r ’s m o n o g r a p h
Die Nobilität der römischen Republik
(L e ip
z ig a n d B e rlin 1 9 1 2 ) h a s rig h tly b e e n d e s c rib e d a s “ a tu r n i n g - p o i n t ” in th e s tu d y o f R o m a n r e p u b li c a n p o li tic s .11 W h e n c e th is la c k o f a c k n o w l e d g m e n t? T h e a c k n o w le d g m e n t c o m e s, b u t it c o m e s n o t in th e p re fa c e b u t in a f o o tn o t e . T h is is n o t a s s u r p r is in g as it m ig h t se e m . G e lz e r’s e x p re s s a im w a s to o v e r c o m e M o m m s e n ’s le g a c y o f a le g a l (o r le g a listic ) a p p r o a c h to R o m a n so c ie ty , b u t (as A lfö ld y p o in ts o u t) in c o n t r a s t to th e w o r k s o f M ü n z e r ,
Die Nobilität
is n o t a p r o s o p o g r a p h ic a l, b u t
r a t h e r a s t r u c t u r a l , in v e s tig a tio n o f R o m a n o lig a rc h y .12 S ym e e x p lic itly a c c e p ts G e lz e r ’s d e f in itio n o f th e te r m
nobilis,
a n d w rite s , “ G e lz e r ’s lu
c id e x p l a n a ti o n o f th e c h a r a c t e r o f R o m a n s o c ie ty a n d R o m a n p o litic s , n a m e ly a n e x u s o f p e r s o n a l o b lig a tio n s , is h e re fo llo w e d clo sely .” 13 S till,
The Roman Revolution
w o u ld h a v e b e e n p o s s ib le w i t h o u t G e lz e r; w i t h
o u t M ü n z e r , h o w e v e r, “ it c o u ld h a r d ly h a v e e x is te d .” 14 T h e im p lic it c o n d e m n a ti o n o f
Staatsrecht
sp e lls o u t th e p r o g r a m : a
p le a f o r n a r r a t iv e h is to ry . M a n y y e a rs la te r, in a s p le n d id essay, e n title d “ T h r e e E n g lis h H i s t o r i a n s ,” S y m e m a d e p la in t h a t h is s y m p a th ie s la y “ w ith th e n a r r a t iv e h is to r i a n s G ib b o n a n d M a c a u le y , n o t w ith th e s a in ts a n d th i n k e r s w h o a re e a g e r t o u se h is to r y f o r o u r a m e n d m e n t o r p u n is h m e n t.” 15 T h is is w h a t S y m e m a y t h i n k h e w r o te b u t it is n o t w h a t he
The Roman Revolution is studio (T ac. Ann. 1 .1 .6 ) th a n a re and Fall o f G ib b o n . T o a p p r e c ia te d id , f o r
sine ira et th e Decline
n o m o re a w o rk c o m p o sed th e
Annals
o f T a c itu s o r
th e w in n e r ,16 it w a s w r itt e n f r o m th e
g ra v e s o f th e v a n q u is h e d : it c e rta in ly “ a m e n d e d ” b o th th e w r itin g o f h is to r y a n d th e h is to r y o f A u g u s tu s . It p u n is h e d c r e d u lity a n d m o r a lis tic o b f u s c a ti o n , r e w a r d e d c le a r t h o u g h t a n d s c e p tic is m . T h is w a s a c h ie v e d n o t b y th e im p a r ti a l a s s e m b la g e o f fa c ts b u t b y s e le c tio n a n d c o m m e n t. T h e s t a n d a r d m o d e r n b o o k o n C a e s a r is M a t t h i a s G e lz e r’s r e n o w n e d m o n o g r a p h . 17 S y m e o ffe rs u n q u a lif ie d a n d in s tr u c tiv e p ra is e : “ T h e a u l ì . R. T. Ridley, “The Genesis of a Turning-Point: Gelzer’s N obilität,” Historia 35 (1986) 4 7 4 —502. Cf. also C. Simon, “Gelzer’s Nobilität der römischen Republik als ‘Wen depunkt,’” Historia 37 (1988) 222—40; and the contributions of J. Bleicken, C. Meier, and H. Strasburger in J. Bleicken, ed., Matthias Geizer und die römische Geschichte, Frank furter Althistorische Studien 9 (Kallmünz 1977). 12. Alföldy (supra n. 10) 14. 13. Syme (supra n. 3) 10, n. 3. 14. Ibid., Vili. 15. “Three English Historians: Gibbon, Macauley, Toynbee,” The Emory University Quarterly 18 (1962) 140. On Gibbon and Syme, cf. G. Bowersock, “The Emperor of Roman History,” The N ew York Review o f Books, 6 March 1980, 10. 16. For a composite picture of Syme’s Augustus, see Alföldy (supra n. 10) 21-22. 17. Caesar, der Politiker und Staatsmann, originally published in Stuttgart and Berlin in 1921. The last edition, the sixth, appeared in Wiesbaden in 1960 (trans. P. Needham [Oxford 1968]). 35
J. Linderski
46
t h o r is n o t a r g u in g a th e s is ; a n d r e m e m b e r in g t h a t h is to r y is n a r r a tiv e , n o t re s e a r c h , d i s p u t a t i o n , a n d th e p a s s in g o f ju d g m e n ts , h e lets fa c ts s p e a k fo r th e m s e lv e s .” 18 B u t “ f a c t s ” n e v e r s p e a k fo r th e m s e lv e s ; it is th e h is to r ia n w h o w e a v e s h a p p e n in g s in to h is to r y .19
Eadem magistratuum vocabula
(Tac.
Ann.
1 .3 .7 ); “ N a m e s p e r s is t
e v e ry w h e re w h ile s u b s ta n c e c h a n g e s .” 20 In p r o c e d u r e s a n d in s titu tio n s th e n e w T a c itu s s h o w s as little in te r e s t as th e o ld . It is “ th e re a l a n d u ltim a te p o w e r ” t h a t “ n e e d s to b e d is c o v e re d .” 21 P e o p le , n o t in s ti tu ti o n s , a re th e n a t u r a l s u b je c t o f n a r r a tiv e h is to ry , a n d , fo r S y m e, n o t all p e o p le b u t (a lm o s t so lely ) th e g o v e rn in g class. S lav es a n d o th e r lo w e r c la sse s m a y be b o r in g in d e e d (u n le ss th e y c a u s e tr o u b le ) ,22 b u t th e s o ld ie rs ? In th e civil w a r s th e y w e re a u b iq u ito u s a n d d e c isiv e fa c t o f life — a n d d e a t h ; in
The Roman Revolution,
h o w e v e r,
th e y ta k e a b a c k s e a t to ev en th o s e n o b le s w h o b a re ly e s c a p e d th e ir s w o rd s . W e a r e o ffe re d n o a n a ly s is o f m ilita r y in s titu tio n s o r o f th e
ites
mil
as a s o c ia l g r o u p — a s u r p r is in g o m is s io n in a w o r k d e v o te d to th e
d is c o v e ry o f “ th e re a l a n d u ltim a te p o w e r ” b e h in d th e veil o f th e p r i n c ip a le .23 S y m e ’s a t tit u d e t o w a r d in s titu tio n s is p e r h a p s b e s t illu s tr a te d in h is c h a p te r s 2 6 a n d 2 7 , “ T h e G o v e r n m e n t” a n d “ T h e C a b i n e t ” (th e la tte r in its m o d e r n is tic o u t l o o k re m in is c e n t o f th e y o u n g M o m m s e n ’s lin g u is tic in n o v a tio n s in h is
Roman History).
S y m e re fe rs to th e g o v e r n m e n t
a n d th e c a b in e t a s “ th e y ,” n o t “ it.” H e d o e s n o t ta lk o f th e s e n a te a n d
consilium principis, b u t o f e m p ir e , o f th e principes o f th e
its o r g a n iz a ti o n o r o f th e
th e m e n w h o ru le d
a n d a d m in is te r e d th e
d y in g R e p u b lic , o f
A g r ip p a , M a e c e n a s , a n d L iv ia (n o less a m a n th a n th e y ), o f M a r c e llu s , o f L iv ia ’s s o n s , D r u s u s a n d T ib e r iu s , a n d o f t h a t s p le n d id a n d e v a n e s c e n t c o n s te lla tio n o f g e n e ra ls a n d a d m in is tr a t o r s w h o h e lp e d A u g u s tu s to b e c o m e a su c c e ss in h is to ry , in all a p r o c e s s io n o f s o m e f o r ty n a m e s o r so . S y m e ta lk s o f m e n w h o le d th e a rm ie s o f c o n q u e s t a n d g o v e rn e d th e p ro v in c e s ( w h e th e r in th e n a m e o f th e
princeps o r
th e s e n a te ) o r w h o
18. JRS 32 (1944) 92 (= Roman Papers, voi. 1 [Oxford 1979] 149). Syme reviewed the enlarged and thoroughly revised second edition of 1941. 19. For a critique of the “positivist” understanding of “facts,” see J. Linderski, "Si vis pacem, para bellum: Concepts of Defensive Imperialism,” PAAR 29 (1984) 140—41. 20. Syme (supra n. 3) 406. 21. Ibid. 22. See the delightful pronouncement of Syme quoted by Alföldy (supra n. 10) 17. 23. Cf. now H. Botermann, Die Soldaten und die römische Politik in der Zeit von Caesars Tod bis zur Begründung des zweiten Triumvirats (Munich 1968); K. Raaflaub, “Die Militärreformen des Augustus und die politische Problematik des frühen Prinzipats,” in G. Binder, ed., Saeculum Augustum, voi. 1 (Darmstadt 1987) 246—307.
36
47
s u p e r v is e d th e tr e a s u r y a n d to o k c a re o f th e a q u e d u c ts . H e d o e s n o t ta lk o f th e d u tie s o f p r o v in c ia l g o v e r n o r s , o f th e v o tin g a r r a n g e m e n ts in th e s e n a te , o r o f th e
aerarium
o r th e
cura aquarum.
In th e R e p u b lic it is th e c o n s u la r s w h o a re “ th e g o v e r n m e n t” ; in th e n e w s ta t e o f A u g u s tu s , “ th e P rin c e p s , th e m e m b e rs o f h is fa m ily a n d h is p e r s o n a ] a d h e r e n ts .” T h e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e w o r k in g o f th e “ C a b i n e t ” e n d s th u s q u ite a p p r o p r i a t e l y o n th e th e m e o f “ a c risis . . . a t th e v ery c o r e o f th e p a r ty ,” th e s c h e m e o f A u g u s tu s to p r o m o t e h is a d o p tiv e g r a n d s o n s , a n d T i b e r iu s ’ m o r o s e r e tir e m e n t to R h o d e s . T h a t is n o t to s a y t h a t a f te r 6 B .c . th e g o v e r n m e n t c e a se d to f u n c tio n . F a r f ro m it. T h e “ N e w S t a t e ” e n d u r e d , a s it h a d a f te r th e d e a th o f A g r ip p a , fo r “ it w a s w e ll e q u ip p e d w ith th e m in is te r s o f th e g o v e r n m e n t,” e x c e p t t h a t “ th e e n e m ie s o f T ib e r iu s . . . n o w h a d th e ir t u r n ” in “ th e s y n d ic a te o f g o v e r n m e n t.” “ T h e S u c c e s s io n ” n o w b e c o m e s th e p r e v a ilin g a s p e c t o f th e
ar
canum imperii, a n d it is to th is m u r d e r o u s s u b je c t t h a t S y m e d ire c ts h is p e n . Primum facinus novi imperii (Tac. Ann. 1 .6 ), th e e x e c u tio n o f A g r ip p a P o s tu m u s a t th e a c c e s s io n o f T ib e r iu s , p r o m p t s th e a u t h o r to a r e m a r k t h a t m a y s ta n d a s a n e m b le m o f h is p e r c e p tio n o f th e p o litic a l a n d th e le g a l: “ T h e a r b i t r a r y re m o v a l o f a riv a l w a s n o less e s s e n tia l to th e P r in c ip a te th a n th e p u b li c c o n f e r m e n t o f le g al a n d c o n s titu tio n a l p o w e r .” 24 A t th e v e ry o u ts e t o f
The Roman Revolution
a p h r a s e c a tc h e s th e eye:
A u g u s t u s ’ “ c o n s t i t u t i o n a l re ig n as a c k n o w le d g e d h e a d o f th e R o m a n S ta te .” A u g u s t u s ’ title w a s , h o w e v e r, “ s p e c io u s ” ; th e re v iv a l o f r e p u b li c a n in s ti tu ti o n s “ c o n v e n i e n t” ; b u t “ all t h a t m a d e n o d iffe re n c e to th e s o u r c e a n d fa c ts o f p o w e r .” To th e s o u r c e p e r h a p s ; b u t if it m a d e n o d iffe re n c e to th e fa c ts o f p o w e r , w h y d id A u g u s tu s p r o m o t e th e m y th ? A t th e s a m e tim e , “ ‘th e R e s to r a t io n o f th e R e p u b lic ’ w a s n o t m e re ly a s o le m n c o m e d y , s ta g e d b y a h y p o c r ite .” T h e r e is d is c re p a n c y h e re , a n d u n e a s in e s s . T h e le tte r o f th e la w d id n o t m a tte r : “ T h e P rin c e p s s to o d p r e - e m i n e n t . . . a n d n o t to b e d e fin e d .” 2526T h e s a m e c h a p t e r a n d v e rse is r e p e a te d a g a in a n d a g a in , a n d rig h tly s o , f o r th e r e w e re , a n d a re , s tu d e n ts o f th e p a s t w h o f r o m w illfu l b lin d n e s s o r g o o d n a t u r e re m o v e all u n p le a s a n tn e s s f r o m h is to r y a n d lo se s ig h t o f t h a t new , p e r m a n e n t, a n d o v e r w h e lm in g a lie n b o d y , th e
dux,
th e
princeps,
th e
imperator.16
24. Syme (supra n. 3) 387, 414, 413, 401, 425, 439. 25. Ibid., 1 ,2 ,3 . 26. Cf. ibid., 324, n.5 and the names of the scholars mentioned there; and see now, for example, H. Castritius, Der römische Prinzipat als Republik (Husum 1982), who main tains: “[Es] erweist sich als nötig der von Augustus restituierten römischen Republik eine juristische und politische Wirklichkeit— und dies für einen längeren Zeitraum— zuzuer-
J. Linderski
W h e n a c o n t e m p o r a r y a n c ie n t h is to r ia n p ro fe s s e s to b e w r itin g h is to ry , it is lik e ly t h a t w h a t h e re a lly is e n g a g e d in is p r o s o p o g r a p h y . T h is is in k e e p in g w ith “ S y m e ’s la w ,” a c c o r d in g to w h ic h “ in all a g e s, w h a t ev er th e f o rm a n d n a m e o f g o v e r n m e n t, b e it m o n a rc h y , re p u b lic o r d e m o c ra c y , a n o lig a r c h y lu r k s b e h in d th e f a ς a d e .” 27 B u t th e s tr a n g e p e c u lia r ity o f a n a u t h o r i t a r i a n re g im e is t h a t th e r e is a lso a d e s p o t, c ru e l o r b e n ig n . To fin d h im o n e n e e d n o t lo o k b e h in d th e fa ς a d e : h e lu rk s e v e ry w h e re . T h e s to r y o f th e y o u n g a d v e n tu r e r se iz in g p o w e r w ith th e h e lp o f h is a c o ly te s a n d th e a rm y , a n d m a in ta in in g it t h r o u g h re p r e s s io n a n d in t im id a tio n , is b a n a l e n o u g h ; h o w e v e r, th e s to r y o f th e s a m e a d v e n tu r e r c r e a tin g in a g r e a t e m p ir e a n e w a n d e n d u r in g fo rm o f g o v e r n m e n t is a th e m e o f w o r ld h is to r y ; fo r “ p o w e r ” c a n n o t b e s e p a r a te d fro m th e f o rm in w h ic h it is e n s c o n c e d . S e a rc h in g a f te r a ta n g ib le “ s u b s ta n c e ,” 28 w e o fte n f o r g e t t h a t fo rm s to o a r e r e a l a n d c a n b e b r u s h e d a s id e o n ly w ith g r e a t p e ril to th e a c to r s (th e y ris k th e ir lives, a s C a e s a r th e d ic ta to r c a n te s tify ), a n d to th e h is to r ia n s (th e y risk b e in g d r o w n e d in “ f a c ts ” a n d rh e to ric ). A n o r a c u l a r p r o n o u n c e m e n t b y C h r is tia n M e ie r in h is D e lp h ic R e s P u b lic a A m i s s a c a p tu r e s e x q u is ite ly th e r e a lity o f th e fo rm a l tr a n s i tio n
fro m th e R e p u b lic to th e p r in c ip a te : th e c risis o f th e R e p u b lic w a s a crisis w i t h o u t a s o lu tio n (“ K rise o h n e A lte r n a tiv e ” ), a n d as a r e s u lt “ d ie b e s te h e n d e O r d n u n g [w u rd e ] a llm ä h lic h v e r n ic h te t, o h n e d a s s sie v e r n e in t w o r d e n w ä r e ” (“ T h e e x is tin g o r d e r w a s d e s tr o y e d w i t h o u t b e in g n e g a t e d ” ). N o p o w e r e x is te d t h a t w a s a b le e ith e r to d e fe n d th e w h o le o f th e o ld s y ste m o r to c r e a te a n e n tire ly n e w o n e .29 T h e “ c o lle c tiv e m o n a r c h y o f th e n o b le s ” w a s a b o lis h e d ,30 b u t th e h u s k o f th e R e p u b lic e n d u r e d , a n d it e n d u r e d b e c a u s e it m a tte r e d : th e s h a d o w o f th e p a s t p r o v id e d le g itim a c y f o r th e v ic to r in th e R o m a n R e v o lu tio n , a n d fo r t h a t re a s o n th e e lu siv e fo rm o f th e p r in c ip a te w a s a ls o its s u b s ta n c e .
kennen” (21). Castritius concludes that Cicero’s declaration (Leg. agr. 2.17) that omnes potestates, imperia, curationes ab universo populo Romano proficisci convenit “galt . . . kaum weniger für die sog. Prinzipatszeit” (111). 27. Syme (supra n. 3) 7. 28. Ibid., VII: “The composition of the oligarchy of the government. . . emerges . . . as the binding link between the Republic and the Principate: it is something real and tangible, whatever may be the name or theory of the constitution.” 29. C. Meier, Res Publica Amissa (Wiesbaden 1966) 201—5, and L, L1V, LV11 in the new introduction to the reprint edition (Frankfurt 1980). 30. To borrow the phrase from Andreas Alföldi, Caesariana (Bonn 1984) 316 ( = id.. Review of Die Vergottung Caesars, by H. Gesche [Kallmünz 1968], Phoenix 24 [1970] 166).
38
49 It is r e p o r t e d t h a t th e n o t o r i o u s c o n s titu tio n o f th e S o v ie t U n io n o f 1 9 3 6 , “ th e S ta lin C o n s t i t u t i o n ,” as it w a s c a lle d in a d u l a tio n , m a d e a p r o f o u n d im p r e s s io n o n S y m e as a s u p r e m e s h a m .31 T o th e c itiz e n s it g u a r a n t e e d all s o r ts o f civ il lib e rtie s , a n d to th e c o n s ti tu e n t re p u b lic s th e r ig h t to fre e a n d u n c o n d i tio n a l se c e s s io n fro m th e u n io n . In th e eyes o f th e W e st, a n d in p la in fa c t, S ta lin w a s a d ic ta to r , b u t th e f o r m o f h is c o n s ti tu ti o n a l r u le a s th e a c k n o w le d g e d h e a d o f th e S o v ie t s ta te c o n t in u e d to b affle o b s e r v e r s n o less th a n th e “ c o n s ti tu ti o n a l r e ig n ” o f C a e s a r A u g u s tu s . L ik e th e C a e s a r s , S ta lin w a s th e m a s te r o f d e a th ; b u t to live a n d r u le h e h a d to r e m a in a c o m r a d e w ith in th e p a rty , as h is R o m a n
principes w ith in th e res publica. The Roman Revolution A r n a ld o M o m ig lia n o
c o u n t e r p a r t s h a d to r e m a in th e In h is re v ie w o f
re
m a r k s c o n c is e ly a n d c o g e n tly t h a t S y m e c o n s id e rs “ s p ir itu a l in te re s ts o f th e p e o p le . . . m u c h less th a n th e ir m a rr ia g e s .” A n d h e c o n tin u e s : “ B u t if L. C a e s a r , c o s. 6 4 B.C ., w r o te a b o o k
de auspiciis,
A p . C la u d iu s
P u lc h e r, c o s . 5 4 B.C., a w o r k o n a u g u r a l d is c ip lin e . . . a n d if C . S c rib o n iu s C u r io g a v e th e n a m e to th e
logistoricus
o f V a rro
de deorum cultu
. . . , th e n th e w a y to th e re lig io u s p o lic y o f A u g u s tu s is c le a re r.” 32 A n d as
religio
and
res publica
w e re in R o m e in te r tw in e d , a c o n s id e r a tio n o f
th e ju r is tic a n d a n t i q u a r i a n p r e o c c u p a tio n s o f th e d e fe a te d , b u t n o t a n n ih ila te d , r e p u b lic a n a r is to c r a c y m ig h t h a v e t h r o w n lig h t o n th e c o n s ti t u t i o n a l s e n s itiv itie s o f th e p r in c ip a te . It w ill n o t d o s im p ly to d is c a rd A p p iu s
C la u d iu s
P u lc h e r a s
“ s u p e r s tit io u s ” o r V a rro
as “ th e o ld
s c h o l a r ” w h o “ la c k e d s ty le , in te n s ity , a g u id in g id e a ,” 33 m e m o r a b le as th e s e p h r a s e s m a y b e , a n d u n ju s t; V a rro w a s p o s s e s s e d o f a q u ic k w it a n d a r o b u s t s e n s e o f h u m o r , a n d A p p iu s C la u d iu s w a s th e g u id in g lig h t f o r C ic e r o th e a u g u r .34 M e n (a n d p rin c e s ) s o u g h t e n lig h te n m e n t f r o m th e a s tr o lo g e r s a n d b e lie v e d in “ th e in e x o r a b le s t a r s ” ;35 p o litic a lly th e
sacerdotia
quattuor amplissima
w e re m o r e i m p o r t a n t , a n d w e s h o u ld n o t t r e a t th e p rie s ts
s o le ly a s q u a r r ie s
for
th e p r o s o p o g r a p h ic a l h u n t . 36 T h e y w e re th e ex -
31. Millar (supra n. 5) 146. 32. JRS 30 (1940) 76 ( = Secondo contributo alla storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico [Rome 1960] 409). 33. Syme (supra n. 3) 45, 247. 34. Cf. J. Linderski, “Cicero and Roman Divination,” PP 37 (1982 [1983]) 31—32; id., “The Libri Reconditi,” HSCP 89 (1985) 2 2 6 -2 7 . 35. Syme (supra n. 3) 9, 418. 36. Characteristically enough, in two recent books on the fratres Arvales, John Scheid’s Les Frères Arvales (Paris 1975) and Ronald Syme’s Some Arval Brethren (Oxford 1980), there are hundreds of names and (again to quote Momigliano) “marriages,” but only scant word about doctrine and ritual.
39
J. Linderski
50
p o u n d e r s o f a d o c t r i n e . A n d b o th C a e s a r th e d i c t a t o r a n d A u g u s tu s th e
princeps p a id a g r e a t d e a l o f a t te n ti o n to p rie s tly d o c tr in e s .37 If The Roman Revolution is “ a m o d e rn v e rs io n o f th e b o o k
on A u
g u s tu s t h a t T a c itu s fa ile d t o w r ite ,” 38 s h o u ld w e sa y t h a t M o m m s e n ’s
Staatsrecht is istratibus?39
th e m o d e r n v e rs io n o f a lo s t r e p u b lic a n tr e a tis e
De mag
F ir s t o f a ll w e h a v e t o d is p e l th e p e r s is te n t a n d n o x io u s m y th t h a t th e R o m a n s w e re n o t in te r e s te d in p u b lic o r “ c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ” law . T h e y w e re ; a n d if all th e w r itin g s in th is field h a d s u rv iv e d , th e y w o u ld h a v e filled m a n y O x f o r d o r T e u b n e r v o lu m e s .40 B u t S e m p ro n iu s T u d ita n u s , V a le riu s M e s s a la , o r V a rro w o u ld feel m u c h m o r e a t h o m e in th e
sche Alterthümer o f L u d w ig L a n g e ( 1 8 2 5 —8 5 ) th a n in Staatsrecht.41 T o ju d g e f r o m th e e x t a n t fr a g m e n ts , R o m a n
Römi
M o m m s e n ’s w r itin g s o n
s a c ra l a n d p u b lic la w w e re e x p l a n a to r y a n d a n t i q u a r i a n ; a n d L a n g e w a s th e la s t tr u e a n t i q u a r i a n , a n d a re s o lu te c r itic o f M o m m s e n . I n d e e d ,
Staatsrecht w a s d ir e c te d a n o f fs p rin g o f th e Pandektistik, a n d gische Methode, t r i u m p h a n t in civil M o m m s e n ’s
a g a in s t th is a n tiq u a r ia n is m . It w a s it b r illia n tly a p p lie d th e
begriffslo
law , to th e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e R o
m a n s ta te a n d its p u b lic law . A s M o m m s e n p u t it h im se lf, in th e p re fa c e t o th e firs t e d itio n o f th e first v o lu m e (p. ix ); h is w a s “ d ie b eg rifflich g e s c h lo s s e n e u n d a u f c o n s e q u e n t d u r c h g e f ü h r te n G r u n d g e d a n k e n w ie a u f fe s te n P fe ile rn r u h e n d e D a r le g u n g ” ( “ th e c o n c e p tu a lly c o m p le te p r e s e n ta tio n , re s tin g , a s if o n firm p illa rs , o n n o ti o n s t h a t a r e b a s ic a n d a r e c o n s e q u e n tly c a r r ie d o u t ” ).42 T h e g u id in g n o tio n s o f th e
Staatsrecht
37. Cf. J. Linderski, “The Augural Law,” A N R W 2.16.3 (1986) 2181-84. 38. “Es ist die neuzeitliche Version des Buches über Augustus, das Tacitus nie geschrie ben hat”: A. Momigliano in his review of Syme’s Tacitus, Gnomon 33 (1961) 55 ( = id. [supra n. 5] 740). 39. 1 give here a synopsis of the editions of Mommsen’s Römisches Staatsrecht, all published in Leipzig: voi. 1 (1871), l 2 (1876), l 3 (1877); voi. 2, parts 1 and 2 (1874— 1875), 22 (1877), 23 (1887); voi. 3, parts 1 and 2 (1887-1888). 40. See the fragments of various “constitutional” writers in the collections of F. P. Bre mer, Iurisprudentiae Antehadrianae quae supersunt, vols. 1 and 2, parts 1—2 (Leipzig 1896—1901); and H. Funaioli, Grammaticae Romanae Fragmenta (Leipzig 1907); and for Varro, B. Riposati, Varro: D e vita populi Romani fragmenta (Milan 1939); and B. Cardauns, M. Terentius Varro: Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum, 2 vols. (Wiesbaden 1976). For a summary discussion of this literature, see E. Rawson, Intellectual Life in the Late Roman Republic (Baltimore 1985) esp. 201-14, 2 3 3 -4 9 , 2 98-316. 41. The editions of Lange’s work: voi. I3 (Berlin 1876; 1st ed., 1856); voi. 23 (1879; 1st ed., 1862); voi. 32 (1876; 1st ed., 1871). For Lange’s critique of Mommsen, see his review of voi. 1 of the Staatsrecht, in his Kleine Schriften, voi. 2 (Göttingen 1887) 154—65 (originally published in 1872). Against Mommsen’s “dogmatisch-juristische Formulierung des römischen Staatsrechts” Lange upholds the validity of “historisch-antiquarische For schung” (155). Even a cursory comparison of Römische Alterthümer and Römisches Staatsrecht demonstrates the enormous conceptual difference between these works— and the greatness of Mommsen’s achievement. 42. Mommsen (supra n. 39) 11:IX. 40
51
w e r e n o t (as J o c h e n B le ic k e n r e m in d s u s )43 s im p ly e x c o g ita te d b y M o m m s e n , b u t d e riv e d d ir e c tly f r o m R o m a n s o u rc e s . T h e p iv o ts o f th e
Staatsrecht, th e c o n c e p ts o f magistratus a n d privatus, o f imperium a n d auspicium, o f potestas a n d coercitio, a re all R o m a n n o tio n s f a m ilia r to e v e ry r e a d e r o f L a tin li te r a tu r e . B u t le g a l n o ti o n s a re o f te n a p o o r g u id e to h is to ry , a n d n o w h e r e is th is m o r e g la rin g ly o b v io u s th a n in M o m m s e n ’s t r e a tm e n t o f th e in s ti t u t i o n o f th e p r in c i p a te . T h e s e c o n d v o lu m e o f th e
Staatsrecht tr e a ts
of
“ d ie e in z e ln e n M a g i s t r a t u r e n ” (“ th e in d iv id u a l m a g is tr a c ie s ” ). It b e g in s w ith th e k in g d o m a n d e n d s w ith th e p r in c ip a te . T h a t
ceps
princeps qua prin
w a s a m a g is tr a te is d u b io u s ,44 b u t a s p e c ia l fu ry o f c ritic ism to d a y
g re e ts M o m m s e n ’s th e o r y o f d y a rc h y , th e c o -ru le o f th e p r in c e p s a n d th e s e n a te .45 T h is c ritic is m is b a s e d o n a g rie v o u s m is u n d e r s ta n d in g . T h e a c c u s e rs d e p ic t M o m m s e n as o b liv io u s to th e h is to r ic a l a n d so c ia l r e a l itie s o f th e e m p ir e , a p ic tu r e n e ith e r lik e ly n o r r e a s o n a b le . W h e re th e s o u r c e o f p o w e r la y M o m m s e n w a s w e ll a w a r e , b u t h e w a s n o t w r itin g o f th e
arcana imperii.*6 T h e
“ f o r m a l a n d o fficial th e o r y o f th e P r in c ip a te
a s th e g o v e r n m e n t o f th e S e n a te a n d th e P e o p le ” w a s f o r h im “ h o l l o w ” — as h o ll o w as th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e s e n a to r ia l g o v e r n m e n t in th e R e p u b lic a s th e “ S e lb s tr e g ie r u n g d e r fre ie n B ü r g e r s c h a f t” (“ th e selfg o v e r n m e n t o f th e fre e c itiz e n r y ” ).47 A n e s s e n tia l fe a tu r e o f a r e p u b lic a n m a g is tr a c y w a s th e s tr ic t d e lim ita tio n o f its s p h e r e o f c o m p e te n c e ; in th e p r in c i p a te th e n o ti o n o f m a g is te r ia l c o m p e te n c e is so b r o a d t h a t it c o m e s c lo se t o lic e n se : “ d e r C o m p e te n z b e g r if f . . . ist in d e m P r in c ip a t s o w e it a u s g e d e h n t, d a s s d ie se S c h r a n k e n fa c tis c h d e r S c h ra n k e n lo s ig k e it n a h e k o m m e n .” 48 It is o n ly a t th is p o in t , a f te r all th e se c a v e a ts , t h a t M o m m s e n f o r m u la te s h is id e a o f d y a rc h y . F r o m th e p o in t o f v ie w o f p u b lic la w —
staatsrechtlich—
th e p r in c ip a te c a n n o t be d e s c rib e d as
m o n a r c h y ; h e n c e “ th e d e s c r ip tio n as d y a r c h y . . . w ill e x p re s s m o re c o r-
43. J. Bleicken, Lex Publica: Gesetz und Recht in der römischen Republik (Berlin 1975) 1 6 -5 1 , esp. 2 3 -2 4 , 3 6 -3 8 , 4 1 ,4 9 . For a recent appraisal and critique of the Staats recht, see also Y. Thomas, Mommsen et l’ “Isolierung" du Droit (Rome, I’Allemagne et l’État), published separately (Paris 1982) and as the introduction to the reprint of the French translation of the Staatsrecht. Thomas’ study will be read with profit in conjunc tion with the remarks of G. Crifò, review of Thomas’ Mommsen, SDHI 52 (1986) 485— 91; and E. Gabba, review ofT hom as’ Mommsen, Athenaeum 64 (1986) 2 4 5 -47. 44. Mommsen himself admits ([supra n. 39] 23: 749, n. 2) that he does not know of any source in which the emperor is described as magistratus. 45. Cf., for instance, Z. Yavetz, “The Res Gestae and Augustus’ Public Image,” in F. Millar and E. Segal, eds., Caesar Augustus: Seven Aspects (Oxford 1984) 24. 46. Mommsen (supra n. 39) 2 3 VII. 47. Ibid., 747. 48. Ibid., 7 4 7 -4 8 . 41
J. Linderski
52
re c tly th e e sse n c e o f th is r e m a r k a b le in s ti tu ti o n .” 49 T h e e sse n c e ,
Wesen,
das
o f w h ic h M o m m s e n w rite s is— in c o n t r a p o s i tio n to v o n P re m e r-
s te in a n d S y m e — n o t th e h is to r ic a l a n d s o c ia l e sse n c e o f th e p r in c ip a te b u t s o le ly le g a l. T h e p r in c ip a te w a s a s o c ia l in s titu tio n o f w h ic h M o m m s e n in te n d e d to give, a n d g a v e , a legal d e s c r ip t io n .50 O r as W o lf g a n g K u n k e l e x p r e s s e d it, M o m m s e n la rg e ly e x c lu d e d fro m h is d is c u s s io n th e p o litic a l a n d s o c ia l a s p e c ts n o t b e c a u s e h e fa ile d to see th e m o r w a s n o t in te r e s te d in th e m (“ d a s G e g e n te il b e w e is t je d e S eite s e in e r
Roman History
R ö m is c h e n G e s c h ic h te ,” “ e a c h p a g e o f h is
p ro v e s th e
o p p o s i t e ” ), b u t b e c a u s e h e w is h e d to p r e s e n t th e R o m a n s ta te “ as a p u r e le g a l s y s te m ” (“ als re in e R e c h t s o r d n u n g ” ).51 “ D a s r e a l e ” is b u r ie d in a f o o t n o t e .52 C o m m e n tin g o n th e c la im o f
Res Gestae (6 .1 2 ) in consulatu sexto et septimo . . . rem publicam ex mea potestate in senat[us populique Romani a]rbitrium transtuli, M o m m s e n w r ite s t h a t th is te s tim o n y a n d o th e r c o n t e m p o r a r y A u g u s tu s in th e
te x ts a re “ d e c isiv e f o r th e fo rm a l i n t e r p r e ta tio n o f th e a c t,” a n d h e a d d s t h a t a m o n g th e c o n te m p o r a r ie s o n ly th e G re e k S tr a b o gives “ th e re a l i n t e r p r e ta tio n .” A n d S tr a b o (1 3 .3 .2 5 = p. 8 4 0 ) s tre sse s t h a t A u g u s tu s , f a r fro m r e s to r in g th e R e p u b lic , re m a in e d
kyrios
o f w a r a n d peace fo r
life. M o m m s e n e x p r e s s e d th e s a m e t h o u g h t e v e n m o re c le a rly in h is
Res Gestae: Vides aetatis Augustae auctores Roma nos plane ut facit ipse Augustus rem ita narrare, quasi vere tum rem publicam reddiderit; solus Strabo . . . liberius sic enuntiat non rerum speciem, sed ipsam rem.53 M o m m s e n w a s w e ll a w a r e t h a t th e Staats recht d e a l t w ith th e species rerum, b u t u n lik e m a n y r e c e n t in te r p r e te r s h e a ls o k n e w t h a t n o res e x ists sine specie. If M o m m s e n h a d e v e r w r itte n a f o u r th v o lu m e o f h is Römische Ge schichte h e p r o b a b ly w o u ld h a v e p r e e m p te d S y m e — n o t in h is p r o s o c o m m e n ta r y o n th e
,5A
49. Ibid., 748: “Die Bezeichnung als Dyarchie, das heisst als eine zwischen dem Senat einer- und dem Princeps als dem Vertrauensmann der Gemeinde andrerseits ein für allemal getheilte Herrschaft, würde das Wesen dieser merkwürdigen Institution zutreffender ausdrücken.” 50. Alan Watson’s definition comes to mind: “A legal institution is a social institution looked at from the legal point of view” (The Evolution o f Law [Baltimore 1985] 111). 51. W. Kunkel, “Theodor Mommsen als Jurist,” Chiron 14 (1984) 371. 52. Mommsen (supra n. 39) 2k 746, n. 2. 53. T. Mommsen, Res Gestae D ivi Augusti2 (Berlin 1883) 146. 54. The third volume ends with the battle of Thapsus. Why Mommsen failed to pro duce the history of the empire has been the subject of much speculation; see Demandt (infra n. 55) 497-506 (a full catalogue of various opinions); G. Bowersock, “Gibbon’s Historical Imagination,” The American Scholar 57 (1988) 4 6 -4 7 . For the history of the composition of the Römische Geschichte and for its evaluation and appreciation, see L. Wickert, Theodor Mommsen, voi. 3 (Frankfurt 1969) 3 9 9 -4 2 2 , 618-75, and voi. 4
42
53
p o g r a p h ic a l a n a ly s e s , b u t a s a T a c ite a n ju d g m e n t o f A u g u s tu s . H is u n i v e rs ity le c tu re s o n th e e m p ir e a re fa irly w e ll d o c u m e n te d , a n d in th e se le c tu r e s h e s p o k e w ith th e v o ic e a n d sty le o f t h a t o f th e
Staatsrecht.
Römische Geschichte,
not
H e s h a re s w ith S y m e a n a d m ir a ti o n fo r G ib b o n
a n d T a c itu s , a n d A s in iu s P o llio ; h e s h a re s w ith S y m e th e c o n v ic tio n t h a t in th e e m p ir e “ d ie G e s c h ic h te in d e m K a b in e tt lie g t,” a n d , lik e S ym e, he d e te s ts A u g u s tu s b u t a p p r e c ia te s h is a c h ie v e m e n t.55 In J u ly 1 8 5 8 , in h is
Antrittsrede
as a m e m b e r o f th e B e rlin A c a d e m y ,
M o m m s e n fo rc e fu lly p le a d e d fo r “ d ie V e rs c h m e lz u n g v o n G e s c h ic h te u n d J u r i s p r u d e n z ” a s “ d ie e rs te B e d in g u n g o r g a n is c h e r B e h a n d lu n g d e r r ö m is c h e n D in g e ” (“ th e a m a lg a m a ti o n o f h is to r y a n d ju r i s p r u d e n c e ” as “ th e firs t p re m is e fo r a n o r g a n ic tr e a t m e n t o f R o m a n m a t t e r s ” ).56 T h is is s till o u r g o a l; f o r th e
Staatsrecht,
in its g r a n d fa lla c y t h a t it is p o s sib le
t o d e s c rib e a n d u n d e r s t a n d a s o c ia l o r g a n is m b y s tu d y in g o n ly its f o r m a l law , h a s (a g a in s t th e w is h o f its c r e a to r ) la rg e ly e lim in a te d h is to ry ,57 and
The Roman Revolution,
in its c o n t e m p t fo r fic tio n , is o b liv io u s to
th e f a c t t h a t fic tio n s a b id e to o . T h e r e c o n c ilia tio n o f M o m m s e n a n d S y m e, o f la w a n d p o w e r, is a V e rg ilia n a n d A u g u s ta n th e m e , a m b ig u o u s lik e th e p r in c ip a te itse lf:
Remo cum fratre Quirinus . . . / iura dabunt.58
(1980) 3 3 2 -4 8 ; and the introduction of K. Christ to the new edition of Mommsen’s Römi sche Geschichte, voi. 8 (Munich 1976) 7—66 ( = Christ [supra n. 9] 26—73). 55. Cf. V. Ehrenberg, “Theodor Mommsens Kolleg über römische Kaisergeschichte,” Heidelberger Jahrbb. 4 (1960) 9 4 -1 0 7 ( = K. F. Stroheker and A. J. Graham, eds., Polis und Imperium: Beiträge zur Alten Geschichte [Zurich and Stuttgart 1965] 613—30, esp. 618 -2 1 ); and, above all, A. Demandi, “Die Hensel-Nachschriften zu Mommsens Kaiserzeit-Vorlesung,” Gymnasium 93 (1986) 497—519, esp. 512—15. On the striking sim ilarities between Mommsen’s and Syme’s art of writing and understanding history, see Alföldy (supra n. 10) 33—40. 56. T. Mommsen, Reden und Aufsätze2 (Berlin 1905) 36. 57. But it is important to remember that in his Abriss des römischen Staatsrechts (Leip zig 1893), before proceeding to a systematic presentation, Mommsen devoted the whole first book to a historical outline of constitutional developments. Cf. Gabba (supra n. 43) 246. Crifò (supra n. 43) 487, rightly observes that “Lo stesso Mommsen . . . la cui intera attività era rivolta al superamento della frattura [tra ‘storia’ e ‘diritto’] paradossalmente . . . aveva contribuito con la sua ‘scientificizzazione’ dell’esperienza pubblicistica romana a costruire un sistema di diritto pubblico che con la storia sembrava aver poco a che fare.” 58. Verg. Aen. 1.292-93.
43
3
Garden Parlors: Nobles and Birds
B ird s in a g a r d e n , d a n c in g , ju m p in g , f e e d in g , p e r c h e d o r c a u g h t in flig h t, a re a f r e q u e n t m o t i f in R o m a n la n d s c a p e p a in tin g .
T h e fre s
c o e s in th e h o u s e o f L iv ia o n th e P a la tin e c o m e t o m in d a n d th e g a r d e n p ic tu r e s in P o m p e ii w h ic h th e h a p p y c o n ju n c tio n o f W ilh e lm in a a n d S ta n le y J a s h e m s ld ’s a rc h a e o lo g ic a l s c h o la rs h ip a n d a rtis tic c a m e ra b r o u g h t so b r il lia n tly t o li f e .1 T h e s e p a in tin g s r e f le c t t h e g e n te e l m o d e o f le is u re ly e x is te n c e w h ic h in th e la s t c e n t u r y o f th e R e p u b lic b e c a m e a n o r m fo r a R o m a n o f c u ltu r e , a n d o f m e a n s. T h e th i r d b o o k o f V a r r o ’s D e R e R u stica is a tr e a tis e de v illa tic is fru c tib u s:
m e n t.
h e r e th e b ird s a n d t h e ir m a s te rs re c e iv e d a lite r a r y m o n u
T h e s o b e r in te r lo c u t o r s in V a r r o ’s d ia lo g u e w e re p a s s io n a te ly
in t e r e s te d in f r u c tu s , th e p ro fits to b e d e riv e d f r o m a v illa, b u t th e y w e re a lso d e v o te d to th e p le a s u re s o f th e p a la te a n d o f th e eyes. T h e r e a re tw o la n d s o f a v ia rie s , e x p la in s o n e o f t h e c h a r a c te r s in th e d ia lo g u e , o n e f o r p r o f it in w h ic h b ird s a re k e p t in e n c lo s u re s a n d fa tte n e d f o r th e m a rk e t. T h e o t h e r is delectation is causa, f o r p le a s u re , u t Varro hic f e c it n o ster su b C a n n o .2 H a v in g th u s sk ilfu lly i n t r o d u c e d h is e s ta te
n e a r C a s in u m V a rro p ro c e e d s to d e s c rib e its fa b u lo u s aviary. I t w as a m a z e in w h ic h h is g u e s ts m a y h a v e b e e n as e a sily lo s t as m o d e m c o m m e n ta to r s a re to d a y .3 W a lk in g a lo n g sid e th e b a n k o f a s tre a m , a n d m e a n d e r in g t h r o u g h t h e a v ia ry w h e re w a te r fo w l flo a te d in p o n d s a n d all k in d o f s in g in g b ir d s w e re e n c lo s e d w ith n e ts b e tw e e n th e ro w s o f c o lu m n s , th e v is ito r w o u ld fin a lly a rriv e a t t h e M u se u m , w h e r e V a rro w o rk e d a n d w h e r e h e k e p t h is lib ra ry . V a r r o ’s M u s e u m r e m i n d s o n e o f t h e A c a d e m ia a n d L y c e u m in C i c e r o ’s T u s c u la n e s ta te a n d o f A ttic u s ’ A m a lth e u m w h ic h C ic e r o w as so e a g e r to im ita te in h is v illa a t A r p in u m .4 T h e s e a re t h e h a llm a rk s o f th e c u ltu ra l p a rv e n u s w h o in t h e i r v a s t d o m a in s s tro v e to r e c r e a te
44
C la ssica
t h e p h il o s o p h i c a l g a r d e n s o f A th e n s a n d e m u la te t h e e r u d i t i o n o f A le x a n d ria .
T h e s e c o u n t r y - s id e p a v ilio n s w ith fa n c y n a m e s r e p la c e d
t h e a g o ra s , p a la e s tr a s a n d g y m n a sia o f th e G r e e k s .s F o r o f all t h e r id ic u lo u s th in g s , th e u n c o u n t a b le in ep tia e, w h a t is m o r e r id ic u lo u s t h a n t h e G r e e k c u s to m o f e n g a g in g i n d is p u te s w ith a n y p e r s o n i n a n y p la c e a b o u t m a t t e r s e i t h e r d e f y in g s o l u t i o n o r friv o lo u s ?
C ic e r o p u ts th is s e n ti m e n t i n t o t h e m o u t h o f th e o r a t o r
C r a s s u s ;6 h e h i m s e l f c e r t a in l y d id n o t s h a r e C r a s s u s ’ d is lik e f o r th e m a tte r s d is c u s s e d b y t h e G r e e k s , b u t c o u ld n o t a g re e m o r e w ith h im t h a t b o t h th e locus o f t h e G r e e k d ia lo g u e s a n d t h e c h o ic e o f i n t e r lo c u to r s w e re m o s t u n s u ita b le fo r th e R o m a n s.
A n d in d e e d th e firs t
R o m a n d ia lo g u e o n r e c o r d s trik e s an u n m is ta k a b ly R o m a n to n e :
th e
f a th e r i n s tr u c ts h is s o n a n d n o t th e m a s t e r h is p u p ils , as i n G re e c e ; a n d t h e s u b je c t o f th e d ia lo g u e is n o t p h ilo s o p h y b u t law . I ts a u t h o r w as M . I u n iu s B ru tu s , p r a e t o r ca. 140 B .C ., o n e o f th e f o u n d e r s o f th e i u s c iv ile ?
I f t h e f o r m o f th i s d ia lo g u e w a s R o m a n , t h e fa m ilia r s e rie s o f
le g a l respon sa ,8 its s c e n e r y w a s n o t le ss so: its th r e e b o o k s a re lo c a te d i n s u c c e s s io n in P r iv e r n a ti, in A lb a n o a n d in T ib u r ti, th e th r e e c o u n t r y e s ta te s o f B ru tu s . T h u s th e R o m a n s f o u n d th e a p tu s locus f o r t h e i r l i t e r a r y d ia lo g u e , t h e v il la ; a n d t h e p r o p e r i n t e r lo c u t o r s , th e p r in c ip e s c iv ita tis , t h e i r s o n s, f r ie n d s a n d re la tiv e s , th e f u tu r e prin cipes.
C ic e r o b e c a m e th e a c k n o w le d g e d m a s te r o f th is g e n r e . F o u r c o n s u la rs a p p e a r i n h is d ia lo g u e D e O ra to re ( c o m p o s e d in 5 5 ):
t h e tw o
p r o ta g o n is ts , th e s u p r e m e o r a to r s L . L ic in iu s C ra s s u s (cos. 9 5 ) a n d M . A n to n iu s (c o s. 9 9 ); t h e v ic to r o f th e C im b r i, Q . L u ta tiu s C a tu lu s (cos. 1 0 2 ); a n d t h e e l d e r s ta t e s m a n , C r a s s u s ’ f a th e r - in - la w , t h e f a m o u s la w y e r a n d a u g u r, Q . M u d u s S c a e v o la (co s. 117). I n t h e c o llo q u y also p a r t i d p a t e t h r e e y o u n g e r m e n , C . A u re liu s C o tt a , th e f u tu r e c o n s u l o f 7 5 , a t t h e d r a m a tic d a te o f t h e d ia lo g u e , S e p te m b e r 9 1 , a c a n d id a te f o r t h e t r i b u n a te o f th e p le b s; R S u lp ic iu s R u fu s w h o th r e e y e a rs l a t e r as a t r i b u n e o f t h e p le b s w a s t o im p re s s a n in d e lib le s ta m p o n t h e h is to r y o f th e R e p u b lic ; a n d C . Iu liu s C a e s a r S tr a b o , C a t u lu s ’ h a lf - b r o th e r , t h e c u r u le a e d ile i n 9 0 a n d u n s u c c e s s fu l c a n d id a te f o r t h e c o n s u ls h ip i n 8 8 , t h e a u t h o r o f tr a g e d i e s a n d p e r h a p s i n c o n g r u o u s l y e n o u g h r e n o w n e d as a n o r a t o r f o r h is fa c e tia e . T h e c o m p a n y m e t i n t h e v illa o f C ra s s u s in T u s c u lu m . I ts p o r tic o a n d p a la e s tr a e v o k e d m e m o r ie s o f th e g y m n a sia a n d d is p u te s o f th e G r e e k s ( D e O r a t. 2. 2 0 , C ra s s u s sp e a k in g ). T h e p la n e t r e e in th e g a r d e n r e m i n d e d S c a e v o la o f th e p la n e t r e e in P l a t o ’s P haedrus; b u t w h ile S o c r a te s t h r e w h im s e lf d o w n o n th e g ra ss, th e R o m a n p a r ty r e p o s e d o n b e n c h e s ; t h e s e rv a n ts b r o u g h t c u s h io n s .9 T h e c o n d u c tin g d is c u s s io n t o o k p la c e in m e d ia s ilv a , a s h a d y g r o v e in t h e c e n t e r o f th e e s t a t e .10
45
G a rd e n P a rlo rs: N o b les i f B ird s A s im ila r c a s t o f c h a r a c te r s in h a b its th e D e R e P ublica ( c o m p o s e d in 5 4 -5 1 ): th e to w e r in g f ig u re o f S c ip io A e m ilia n u s ; h is tr u s te d f r ie n d th e sa g e C . L a e liu s (co s. 140); th e g r e a t j u r i s t M ’ M a n iliu s (co s. 149); th e f o llo w e r o f C a r n e a d e s C . F u r iu s P h ilu s (co s. 136); S c ip io ’s n e p h e w {sororis f iliu s ) , th e s te m S to ic Q . A e liu s T u b e r o ; th e tw o s o n s - in - la w o f
L a e liu s , a t t h e ti m e o f th e d ia lo g u e in 1 2 9 o f q u a e s to r i a n a g e , C . F a n n iu s a n d Q . M u d u s S c a e v o la , b o th d e s tin e d t o b e c o m e c o n s u ls (in 122 a n d in 117) a n d t o g a in fa m e , F a n n iu s as a h is to r ia n a n d S c a e v o la as a iu r is peritu s·, S p . M u m m iu s , t h e r e f in e d b r o t h e r o f th e b r u tis h c o n q u e r o r o f C o r i n t h ; a n d th e y o u n g P. R u tiliu s R u fu s (c o s. 105). T h i s tim e th e d ia lo g u e is n o t s ta g e d in a c o u n t r y e s ta te b u t in th e R o m a n v illa a n d h o r ti o f S c ip io .11 In fa c t all d ia lo g u e s o f G c e r o (w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e fifth b o o k o f th e D e F in ib u s a n d T im a eu s, w h ic h a r e lo c a te d in A th e n s a n d in E p h e s u s ) ta k e p la c e in u r b a n h o u s e s a n d c o u n tr y - s id e v illas o f th e p rin cip es.
H e r e is a sy n o p sis o f th e d ia lo g o
r u m loca :12 D e Oratore and D e Re Publica : see above. D e Legibus·. Cicero h villa in Arpinum, but on a metaphorical level an imi tation of Plato h scenery in The Law s.15 Cicero and his companions admire the
oak of Marius (1.1) and stroll along the shady bank o f Liris (1.14); they repose on an island in the Fibrenus (Cicero calls it his palaestra, 2.6) and in the after noon return to the shade of the alders on the Liris (Macrob. Sat. 6.4.8). D e Partitione Oratoria·, a villa of Cicero outside Rome.14 Brutus: Cicero’s Roman house, in pratulo propter Platonis statuam .15 Hortensius·. Lucullus’ villa in Tusculum, o rm i adparatu venustatis ornata.16 Academica Priora: Catulus’ (cos. 78) villa at Cumae; on the second day the scene is set in a colonnade (in xysto) in the villa of Hortensius at Bauli (Acad. 2.9). D e Finibus: the first dialogue is staged in Cicero’s Cum anum (1.14; cf. 2.119: fin em fecim us et am bulandi et disputandi); the second in the famed library in Lucullus’ Tusculanum (3.7); the third disputation takes place in Athens dur ing an ambulatio postm eridiana in the Academy (5.1). Academica Posteriora: Varroh villa at Cumae (1.1; cf. 1.14: consedimus omnes). The scene of the second dialogue seems to have been laid out at the Lacus Lucrinus, not far from Varro’s villa.17 Tusculanae Disputationes: Cicero’s Tusculan villa (1.8-9, a u t sedens a u t ambulans disputabam). Before noon the discussion apparendy took place in the upper gymnasium, the Lyceum; it was devoted to rhetoric. To discuss philos ophy port m eridiem in A cadem iam descendimus (2.9). D e N atu ra Deorum: the house of C. Aurelius Cotta (cos. 75), probably in Rome; the participants sit in an exedra.19 D e D ivinatione: the Lyceum in Ciceroh Tusculanum. In the first book Cicero and his brother walk about (1.8: cum ambulandi causa in Lyceum venis semus), in the second book they are seated m bibliotheca quae in Lyceo est (2.8, cf. 2.150).19
46
C lassica D e Fato: Cicero’s Puteolanum (1.1). Timaeus: the scene is laid out in Ephesus (fr. 1). D e Senectute: apparently Cato the Elderh house in Rome (1.3). D e A m icitia: the house o f Laelius in Rome (1.5).
A c h a r m in g set! I t te lls u s s o m e th in g a b o u t li te r a r y c o n v e n tio n s , a n d s till m o r e a b o u t C ic e r o h im s e lf. T o o w n a v illa , a n d e s p e c ia lly a v illa o n th e C a m p a n ia n s h o r e , w as a s y m b o l o f s ta tu s . B u t f o r a m o r a l i s t o n l y a t h i n li n e s e p a r a te d p le a s in g am oenitas f r o m s lo th fu l lu x u ria :20 “I s c o r n v illa s r ic h l y a p p o in te d , m a r b le flo o rs a n d p a n e lle d c e ilin g s ,” e x c l a i m s C i c e r o . 21
H is a v o w e d id e a l w as t h e s im p lic ity o f th e
a n c i e n t s ,n / M splen didu m , n ih il o m a tu m 22 H e h e a p e d s c o r n a n d c o n t e m p t u p o n t h e h e a d s o f t h e p iscin a rii,23 a n d y e t i t w a s d e e p ly g ra tif y i n g t o h i m to h a v e L u c u llu s a n d H o r te n s iu s f o r h is n e ig h b o r s .24 H e d i d n o t k e e p th is s e n t i m e n t m e r e ly t o h im s e lf o r t o A ttic u s , h e le f t a l i t e r a r y m o n u m e n t t o te s tif y t o it: t h r e e o f h is d ia lo g u e s w e r e p la c e d a m id s t “m a r b l e flo o r s a n d p a n e lle d c e ilin g s ,” a m id s t th e m a g n ificen tia o f H o r t e n s i u s a n d L u c u l lu s , a n d in tw o d ia lo g u e s th e s e tw o g r e a t p isc in a rii w e r e h o n o r e d w ith t h e le a d in g ro le s : t h e y d is s e c te d p h ilo s o p h y , n o t m u lle ts .
D e e p i n h is h e a r t G c e r o t h e p h il o s o p h e r r e m a in e d
a hom o novus. T h e v illa s a r e a r r e s tin g , b u t n o t h i n g is m o r e re v e a lin g th a n th e d ra m a tis person ae.
O f C i c e r o ’s d ia lo g u e s t h e tw o e a r lie s t o n e s , D e
O ra to re a n d D e R epu blica, d is p la y t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s a n d t h e m o s t e l a b o r a t e l y i n t e r c o n n e c t e d c a s t o f a r is t o c r a ti c c h a r a c te r s .
B u t h is
o t h e r d ia lo g u e s a lso h a v e a so c ia l m e ss a g e t o im p a r t. I t w ill b e u s e fu l t o p r o v id e a fu ll lis t o f p a r tic ip a n ts . I p r e s e n t it, f o r illu s tr a tio n a n d i n s t r u c tio n , in R o m a n fa s h io n , a c c o r d in g t o t h e g ra d u s d ig n ita tis-P I. The am sidars a t the tim e o f the dialogue or the ju tu re consuls: 1. Cicero himself, cos. 63 (Leg·, P art. O r a t, B rut., H ort., Acad. Pr. and Post., Fin., F a t, N a t.D ., D iv ., Tim .) 2. Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder, cos. 195 (Sen.) 3. M ’ Manilius, cos. 149 (Rep.) 4. P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, cos. 147, 134 (Rep., Sen.)
5. C. Laelius, cos. 140 (Rep., Sen., A m ie.) 6. C . Furius Philus, cos. 136 (Rep.) 7. C. Fannius, cos. 122 (Rep., A m ie.) 8. Q. Mucius Scaevola, cos. 117 (De Or., Rep.) 9. P. Rutilius Rufus, cos. 105 (Rep.) 10. Q. Lutatius Catulus, cos. 102 (D e Or.) 11. M. Antonius, cos. 99 (D e Or.) 12. L. Licinius Crassus, cos. 95 (D e Or.) 13. Q. Lutatius Catulus, cos. 78 (H ort., Acad. Pr.) 14. C. Aurelius Cotta, cos. 75 (N a t.D ., D e Or.)
47
G a rd e n P a rlo rs: N o b les i f B ird s
15. L. Licinius Lucullus, cos. 74 (H o rt, Acad. Pr.) 16. Q. Hortensius, cos. 69 (H o rt, Acad. Pr.) 17. M. Pupius Piso, cos. 61 (Fin.) 18. A. Hirtius, cos. 43 (F a t) 19. Cicero b son Marcus, cos. sufF. 30 (Part. Or.) II. The praetorii a t the tim e o f the dialogue or the fu tu re praetors: 20. Cicerob brother Quintus, pr. 62 (Leg·, Fin., D iv.) 21. M. Terentius Varro, pr. probably soon after 76 (Acad. Post.) 22. P. Nigidius Figulus, pr. 58 (Tim .) 23. M. Porcius Cato, pr. 54 (Fin.) 24. L. Manlius Torquatus, pr. 49 (Fin.) 25. M. Iunius Brutus, pr. 44 (B rut.) III. O ther senators:
26. C. Iulius Caesar Strabo, aed. 90 (De. Or.) 27. Q. Aelius Tubero, tr. pi. before 129 (Rep.) 28. P. Sulpicius Rufus, tr. pi. 88 (D e Or.) 29. C. Velleius, senator, perhaps tr. pi. before 90 (N at.D .) 30. Sp. Mummius, as a member of a senatorial commission in 140-39 no doubt a senator26 (Rep.) I K Others:
31. Q. Lucilius Balbus, no information available (N at. D .) 32. C. Valerius Triarius, praef. classis under Pompey 49-48 (Fin.) 33. L. Tullius Cicero, C icero's fr a te r patruelis, no information available (Fin.)
34. T. Pomponius Atticus (Leg., B rut., Fin., Acad. Post.) 35. Cratippus, from (probably) 46 the head o f the Peripatetic school in Athens (T im .) A fa s c in a tin g list! T h e c o n s u ls , p a s t o r f u tu r e , o c c u p y m o r e th a n h a l f o f its slo ts. A m o n g th e re la tiv e ly fe w s p e a k e rs w h o r e a c h e d o n ly th e p r a e t o r s h i p w e h a v e th e lu m in a o f R o m a n h is to r y a n d L a t in l e t te rs :
th i s w as t h e i r e n t r y tic k e t.
O f th e lo w e r m a g is tr a te s C a e s a r
S tr a b o w a s p a t r i c ia n a n d a m o s t c o l o r f u l p e r s o n , a n d t h e t r i b u n e s A e liu s T u b e r o a n d S u lp id u s R u fu s w e r e e a c h r e m a r k a b le in d is p a r a te w ays; th e l a t t e r w o u ld h a v e c e r ta in ly r e a c h e d th e h ig h e s t m a g is tra c ie s h a d h e n o t p e r is h e d in t h e v o r te x o f t h e c iv il w a r.
A lso V a le r iu s
T r i a r i u s fe ll as a y o u n g m a n , a t t h e b a t t l e o f P h a r s a lu s , i t w o u ld a p p e a r. W e a lth , s c h o la rs h ip , p o litic a l in flu e n c e , a n d C ic e r o ’s a m ic it i a p r o c u r e d a s p o t fo r t h e k n ig h t A ttic u s .
T h e fig u re s in C ic e r o ’s d ia
lo g u e s e n t e r th e s ta g e o s te n s ib ly as m e n o f le tte r s , as fr ie n d s a n d r e la tiv e s o f S d p io , o f L a e liu s , o f C ic e r o h i m s d f , b u t i t is r e m a r k a b le h o w few o f th e m fa ile d to c o m b in e t h d r lite r a r y c u l tu r e w ith p o litic a l sig n ific a n c e . In th is c o n t e x t t h e D e N a tu r a D e o r u m s ta n d s o u t as a s o d a i
C lassica a n o m a ly :
o u t o f th e t h r e e p r in c ip a l s p e a k e rs ( n o t c o u n t in g C ic e ro )
tw o a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n m e n o f n o c o n s e q u e n c e , p o litic a lly s p e a k in g . V e lle iu s is in t r o d u c e d as a s im p le s e n a to r, a n d B a lb u s ’ fa m e r e s te d o n p h ilo s o p h y , n o t m a g is tra c y .27 B u t t h e o d d e s t is th e la s t n a m e o n th e list. N o G r e e k p h ilo s o p h e r a p p e a r s as a p a r t i c i p a n t in a R o m a n d ia lo g u e . A d e m o n s t r a tio n o f R o m a n ta c t, say s H ir z e l ;28 a r r o g a n c e is a b e t t e r w o r d . G r e e k r h e to r s a n d p h ilo s o p h e r s m a y h a v e b e e n te a c h e r s a n d c o n fid a n ts o f th e R o m a n s ; s o c ia l c h a s m s e p a r a te d th e m . C ic e r o ’s d ia lo g u e s d id n o t t r e a t o n ly o f o r a t o r y a n d p h ilo s o p h y ; th e y w e re so c ia l s ta te m e n ts . T o h a v e G r e e k c h a r a c te r s a s s o c ia tin g in fu ll v ie w a n d o n a n e q u a l le v e l w ith t h e p r in c ip e s c iv i ta t is w o u ld b e fa ls e a n d i n a p p r o p r i a t e .
B u t if n o
P a n a e tiu s , n o P o s id o n iu s , n o t e v e n P o ly b iu s n o ster m a d e a d ia lo g u e , t h e n w h y s h o u ld h a v e o b s c u r e C r a tip p u s ?
T h a t C ic e r o w is h e d to
h o n o r t h e m a n w h o p r e s id e d o v e r t h e P e r ip a t o s w h e n C i c e r o ’s s o n s tu d ie d in A th e n s 29 is a la m e e x p la n a tio n .
C r a tip p u s is t o b e s tr u c k
f r o m th e lis t o f d ia lo g o ru m p erso n a e ; th e d is c u s s io n i n th e T im e a u s , i f it r e a lly w a s a d ia lo g u e , w ill h a v e b e e n s u s ta in e d , com m e i l f a u t, b y th e R o m a n s e n a to r s a lo n e , C ic e r o a n d N ig id iu s . A m b u la tin g i n t h e i r g a r d e n s a n d a m a te u r is h ly ta lk in g o f p h ilo s o p h y th e R o m a n a r is to c r a ts h a d e v e ry r e a s o n t o feel s u p e r io r t o t h e ir G r e e k tu to rs:
t h e G r e e k s w e r e t h e m a s te r s o f a r g u m e n t, b u t th e y
w e r e t h e m a s te r s o f t h e w o r ld . T h e y r e a liz e d th e d r e a m o f P la to , a n d im p r o v e d u p o n it. T o d e m o n s t r a te t h e id e a l S tate, th e o p tim u s s ta tu s c iv i ta t is , S c ip io A e m ilia n u s n e e d e d o n ly t o p o i n t t o t h e g r o w th o f
R o m e , w h e r e a s P la t o w a s f o rc e d t o e x c o g ita te a fic titio u s c o n s tr u c t .30 B u t n o t o n ly t h e p la c e a n d t h e p a r tic ip a n ts in t h e d ia lo g u e h a d to b e a p ti b u t a ls o t h e tim e .
T h e d is p u te in t h e D e O ra to re ta k e s p la c e
d u r i n g t h e R o m a n g a m e s ,31 w h e n th e s ta te s m e n w e re a b le to s p a re a fe w d ay s o f o tiu m f r o m t h e i r p r e s s in g o b lig a tio n s , a n d i t is th e L a tin h o lid a y s t h a t p r o v id e le is u r e f o r th e d is c u s s io n i n T h e R epu blic a n d in O n th e N a t u r e o f G o d s ? 1
T h e p h il o s o p h i c a l a m b u la tio in t h e D e
L e g ib u s is s e t o n t h e l o n g e s t d a y o f th e y e a r, t h e M id s u m m e r D ay, a
tim e f o r m e r r y fe s tiv itie s .33 W h e n C ic e r o s to o d a t th e h e lm o f th e s ta te h e w as a b le t o s p a re f o r h is l i t e r a r y e n d e a v o u r s — s o h e in tim a te s — o n ly su bsiciva te m p o ra , o d d s a n d e n d s o f tim e , o n ly a fe w d ay s a d ru stic a n d u m ,34 T h e e n f o r c e d r e t i r e m e n t f r o m p o li tic s u n d e r t h e d i c ta to r s h ip o f C a e s a r p r o v id e d h i m w ith o tiu m u n b o u n d e d a n d u n w e lc o m e ,3S b u t h o w f o r tu n a te fo r E u r o p e a n c u ltu r e .
P h ilo s o p h ic a l c o m p ila tio n s p o u r e d f r o m h is p e n ,
a n d t h e r e w a s n o u r g e n t n e e d t o ju s tify to m a n y o f h is c o lle a g u e s so f r iv o lo u s a n a c tiv ity b e f i t t i n g a G r e e k c l i e n t r a t h e r th a n a R o m a n s ta te s m a n .36 I n d ic a tio n s o f th e d r a m a tic tim e o f a d ia lo g u e b e c o m e
49
G a rd e n P a rlo rs: N obles i f B ird s
s p a rse r a n d less d e tailed ; cum in am bu larem in xysto et essem otiosus d o m i is all w e g e t in B ru tu s? 1 I t is h a rd ly b y c h a n c e th a t th e th re e d ia lo g u e s s e t in a tim e w h e n th e re p u b lic w as still r u n b y th e prin cipes. O n th e O rator, O n the Republic, a n d O n the N a tu re o f the Gods, w e re all p la ce d o n th e h o lid ay s. I f th e c o lo r o f C ic e r o ’s d ia lo g u e s w as R o m a n , th e principes in th e ir u rb a n m a n sio n s a n d c o u n try re tre a ts , th e ir to p ic s b e c a m e m o re a n d m o re G re e k : n o t o n ly o r a to r y o r th e c o n s titu tio n o f th e s ta te , th e su b jec ts o f e m in e n t p ra c tic a l im p o rta n c e a n d w h ic h R o m a n sta te s m e n d iscussed in C ic e r o ’s d ia lo g u e s w ith an a ir o f su p re m e a u th o rity ,38 b u t in c re a s in g ly a b s tru s e p h ilo so p h y . I t w as a b o ld m o v e to in tr o d u c e R o m a n n o b le s in to th is d o m a in o f th e G re e k s. W h y d id th e y n o t ta lk o f law ? O u t o f th ir ty - f o u r R o m a n c h a ra c te rs in C ic e r o ’s d ia lo g u e s o n ly five, n o n e o f th e m C ic e ro ’s c o n te m p o ra ry , a re m e n tio n e d as o u t s ta n d in g ju rists in th e liber sin gu laris enchiridii o f Sex. P o m p o n iu s, a le g a l s c h o la r w h o flo u r is h e d u n d e r H a d r ia n a n d A n to n in u s P iu s .39 T h e s e five p e rs o n s are: 1. M . C a to , b u t in th e D e Senectute th e C e n s o r speaks a b o u t o ld age n o t law, a n d in d e e d h e w as an o r a to r sk illed in law r a th e r th a n a ju ris t sensu stricto as, fo r in sta n c e , h is so n C a to L icin ia n u s. 2. M ’ M an iliu s, th e a u th o r o f ven aliu m vendendorum leges, b u t in th e D e Republica h e is in tro d u c e d as a ju ris t o n ly in a n o b liq u e m a n n e r: a t 1.20 L a e liu s jo c u la rly su g g ests th a t M a n iliu s issue an in te rd ic tu m c o n c e rn in g th e a p p e a ra n c e o f th e tw o suns; a t 3.17 F u riu s P h ilu s in h is d isco u rse o n th e a rb itra rin e s s o f th e law styles h im iu ris in terpres w h o a fte r th e e n a c tm e n t o f each n e w s ta tu te alia iu ra dicat. 3. a n d 4 . T w o f u r th e r c h a ra c te rs fro m th e D e Republica, Q . A eliu s T u b e ro a n d P. R u tiliu s R ufus. T u b e ro d o e s n o t say a n y th in g a b o u t law, a n d R u tiliu s w as a t th e tim e o f th e d ia lo g u e to o y o u n g to say a n y th in g . 5. L . L ic in iu s C r a s s u s , w h o m P o m p o n i u s c o n f u s e d w ith P. L ic in iu s C ra ssu s M u c ia n u s (cos. 131). A n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s h o u ld b e a d d e d to th is lis t, Q . M u c iu s S caevola th e A u g u r. In B ru tu s C ic e ro d o es n o t re c k o n h im a m o n g th e o ra to rs , b u t p ra ises h im as b e in g s u p re m e in civil law.40 In th e D e Republica h e speaks b u t o n c e (1.33), in th e D e A m ic itia h e a n d F a n n iu s fo rm m e re ly a passive b a c k g ro u n d fo r L a e liu s ’ m o n o lo g u e . In th e D e O ratore, o v e rsh a d o w e d b y C ra ssu s a n d A n to n iu s, h e exits a t th e e n d o f B o o k I.41 E v e n i f m a tte rs o f law lo o m e d la rg e in th is b o o k , A n to n iu s a n d C ra ssu s w e re n o t e n g a g e d in a sy stem atic e x p o sitio n o f legal p rin c i ples; th e y m e re ly d e b a te d , w ith p assio n a n d e ru d itio n , th e p lace o f i u s civile in th e e d u c a tio n a n d p ra c tic e o f th e o r a to r , a v e ry d if f e r e n t
50
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p ro p o s itio n . F o r A n to n iu s th e k n o w le d g e o f la w w as o f s e c o n d a ry im p o r ta n c e : h is o w n ig n o ra n c e o f th e m a tte r h a d n e v e r h a m p e r e d h im in cases h e a rg u e d in c o u rt. T o b e effective a n o r a to r n e e d n o t be a iu r is p ru d en s , an e x p e r t in a b stru se a n d te c h n ic a l p a rts o f th e i u s d v i le .42 C ra ssu s a rg u e d th a t th e o r a to r m u s t m a ste r th e civil law v e ry w ell: perdiscendum ius civile , a n d h e w e n t o n to illu s tra te th is p o in t w ith a
p le th o ra o f ex am p les.43 C ic e ro h a s h im s in g a m o s t e x tra v a g a n t p ra ise o f iu s d v ile : th e sm a ll libellu s o f th e Χ Π T a b le s s u rp a ss e s all th e lib ra rie s o f all p h ilo s o p h e rs b o th in th e w e ig h t o f its a u th o rity a n d th e w e a lth o f its u sefu ln ess; th e stu d y o f ius d v ile is w o n d ro u s ly c h a rm in g a n d d e lig h tfu l; th e dom us o f th e iu ris consultus is lik e an oracu lu m d v i tatis.**
In v ie w o f all th e se laudes iu ris C ic e ro fe lt h e m a y w ell h a v e b een e x p e c te d b y h is frie n d s to c o m p o se a sp ecial d ia lo g u e o n th is m o s t R o m a n s u b je c t o f all, th e ius d v ile . A t th e o u ts e t o f th e d ia lo g u e 0 n th e L a w s v a rio u s to p ic s fo r d iscussion are b r o u g h t u p . A ttic u s suggests th e iu s d vile: C ic e ro w ill su re ly b e able to e x p o u n d th is m a tte r in a m o re re fin e d w ay th a n h a d b e e n d o n e p reviously.45 W h e n w e re a d in th e B ru tu s C ic e r o ’s p ra is e o f S erv iu s S u lp iciu s— fo r h is p re d e c e ss o rs th e ius d v ile h a d m e re ly b e e n a u sefu l to o l, S erv iu s a lo n e m a d e an a rt o f it46— w e m a y in d e e d w o n d e r w h y h e h a d n e v e r p ro c e e d e d to w rite a d ia lo g u e n a m e d , fo r in s ta n c e , S u lp id u s sive de iu re d v ili. C ic e ro ’s re p ly to A ttic u s is v e ry c h a ra c te ristic . T h e ius d v ile as h a n d le d b y th e iu r is consulti is u sefu l a n d necessary, b u t i t is also e x tre m e ly triv ial. S u rely y o u d o n o t w a n t m e to c o m p o se a tre a tis e de stillid d io ru m ac de p a r ie ta ru m tu re , o n th e la w o f eaves a n d h o u se-w a lls? 47 C ic e ro ’s a ttitu d e
w as th a t o f a n o ra to r; h e sh a re d w ith C ra ssu s h is a p p re c ia tio n o f th e civil law, b u t a t th e sam e tim e w as re p e lle d b y its p e ttin e ss w h ic h m a d e th e ju r is t a p p e a r as “ a p e ttifo g g e r, a c rie r o f le g al actio n s, a c h a n te r o f fo rm u la s, a c a tc h e r o f sy llab les.”48 T h e su b je c t fo r C ic e ro th e s ta te s m a n a n d p h ilo s o p h e r w h o fa n c ie d h im s e lf a R o m a n P la to w as th e leges, th e c o n s titu tio n o f a n id e a l state.49 T h e ius d v ile , p e tty a n d p ra c tic a l, m a d e R o m e g re a t; th e q u e s t a fte r an id e al m a d e G re e k p h ilo s o p h y g re a t, G re e k sta te s p itifu l. G c e r o th e le g is la to r d id n o t fare m u c h b e tte r. I f n o t law, th e n p e rh a p s a d ia lo g u e a b o u t a n o th e r h a llo w e d su b je c t, a g ric u ltu re ? N o , G c e r o w as d e fin ite ly n o t in th e m o o d to p r o v id e a lite ra ry v e rs io n o f th e C a rth a g in ia n M a g o ’s fam o u s h a n d b o o k . T h e r e is n o re a so n to le a r n th e lib ri o f M a g o b y h e a r t.50 A g ain , like th e law, th e su b je c t w as n o t e lev a te d e n o u g h . T h i s ta sk w as re se rv e d fo r V a rro . V a rro w as th e o n ly c h a r a c te r in G c e r o ’s d ia lo g u e s w h o h im s e lf
51
G a rd e n P arlors: N obles i r B ird s
was e n g a g e d in w ritin g d ia lo g u e s. T h i s m ak es his lite ra ry e o n ta e ts w ith C ie c ro d o u b ly in te re s tin g . As early as 54 w h e n C ie e ro w as w o rk in g o n th e D e R epu blica V a rro e o v e te d a p la c e in a d ia lo g u e o f C ic c ro ;sl it to o k h im n in e years to b re a k th ro u g h th e C ic e ro n ia n w all o f lite ra ry n o b le s. In 45 V a rro re n e w e d his e ffo rts: h e again c o m m u n ic a te d his w ish to A tticu s, A ttieu s e x e rte d p re s su re an d p e rsu asio n o n C ic e r o , a n d C ie e r o fin a lly d e e id e d to tr a n s f e r h is A cadem ica fro m C a tu lu s , L u e u llu s a n d H o r te n s iu s , th e h om in es nobiles , b u t h a r d ly sch o lars, nullo modo philologi ,52 to V a rro , th e v ir R om anorum e r u d itis sim us , as Q u in tilia n ealls h im .53 In J u n e 45 C ie e ro s e n t V a rro a e o p y
o f th e A cadem ica to g e th e r w ith an e la b o ra te ly p o lite d e d ic a to ry le t te r.54 “ I p laecd o u r discu ssio n in m y C u m an u m , in th e p re se n c e o f A ttic u s ,” C ic e ro w ro te . “ You m ig h t w o n d e r,” h e c o n tin u e d , “ w h en you re a d it, th a t w e w e re ta lk in g a b o u t m a tte rs w hich w e in fact h a d n e v e r discu ssed to g e th e r, b u t y o u a re w ell c o n v e rs a n t w ith th e d ia lo g u e c o n v e n tio n .” T h is c o n v e n tio n ap p lied o f c o u rse also to o th e r d ia lo g u es o f C ie c ro , a n d to V a rro ’s d ialogues as w ell.ss T h o u g h V a rro e m p lo y e d so m e fo rm o f d ia lo g u e in a t le ast so m e o f h is M e n ip p e a n S a tires an d in th e Logostorici th e y p re s e n t to d a y a m o rass o f fra g m e n ts a n d c o n je c tu re s .56 I f w e seek terra f ir m a it is to th e Res Rusticae th a t w e have to tu rn . F irst, th e su b jec t. F o r C a to th e E ld e r th e v i r bonus w as b o n u s agricolasl or, as he p u t it in his in stru c tio n s fo r his son: V ir bonus, M arce f ili, colendi perit'us, cuius fe rra m e n ta splendent ,58 T h e R o m a n s e n ate as an in s titu tio n w as in te re ste d in b o o k s m o s tly in a n eg ativ e w ay: arc th e y p e rn ic io u s to th e m o ra ls a n d e sta b lish e d cult? H e n c e th e b u rn in g o f su sp ieio u s b o o k s.59 B ut books o n a g ric u ltu re w e re alw ays w h o le so m e , even if th e y c a m e fro m th e la n d o f a b itte r foe. A fte r th e d e stru c tio n o f C a r th a g e th e sen a te se t u p a c o m m itte e to p ro c u re an official tra n s la tio n fro m th e P u n ie o f M a g o ’s e ru d ite m a n u a l.60 T h u s a t th e b e g in n in g o f L a tin p ro se sta n d h isto ric a l annals, legal responsa an d te x tb o o k s o f a g ric u ltu re , C a to ’s D e R e Rustica b e in g th e o ld e st p re se rv e d p ro se w ork. I f w e exelude D e Consulatu Suo a n d D e lu re C iv ili In A r te m Redigendo, lo s t a n d o f little lite ra ry c o n se q u e n c e , C ic e ro d id n o t w rite o n an y o f th ese subjects, a v ery u n R o m a n a ttitu d e in d e e d . C a to in c lu d e d a see tio n o n a g ric u ltu re in h is lib ri a d filium ·, V arro tw is tin g th is v e ry R o m an c o n e c p t o f in s tru c tio n w ro te his D e Re Rustica as a m a n u a l fo r his wife: in th is w ay h e w ill be able to give h e r advice even a fte r his d e ath (1 .1 .1 -4 ). B u t it w as fo r h im also a s o rt o f lite ra ry te sta m e n t: “m y e ig h tie th y e a r ad m o n ish es m e to c o lle c t m y pack (sarcinas colligere) b e fo re I d e p a rt fro m life .”61 T h e r e w e re m a n y a g ric u ltu ra l a u th o rs b e fo re V a rro a n d m a n y a fte r him ; n o n e o f th e m w ro te a d ialo g u e. T h e o rig in a lity o f V a rro 52
Classica s ta n d s o u t in full relief: o n th e o n e h a n d a s tric t a n d sch e m a tic m a n u al— in B o o k o n e , f o r in s ta n c e , h e p re s e n ts in tu r n e ig h ty -o n e te c h n ic a l p o in ts — b u t o n th e o th e r th e a u th o r o f th e M en ippean S atires im p a rts to th is d ry to p ic c h a rm a n d la u g h te r. H is style c atc h e s o n e ’s eye an d e a r a n d exercises th e lin g u istic abilities o f th e m o d e m r e a d e r to th e u tm o s t: as J . H e u r g o n fe lic ito u sly o b serv ed , th e style o f V a rro is a s tra n g e a m a lg a m o f c o llo q u ia l n e g lig e n c e a n d rh e to ric a l artifice .62 I t is sim u lta n e o u s ly a te x tb o o k , a c o m e d y a n d a satire: d ie c h a ra c te rs re c e iv e th e ir ro le s, p a rte s , 6 3 th e y c o m e a n d go, th e y sp ea k a n d liste n , th e y m o v e fro m o n e to p ic o r actus 64 to a n o th e r.6S T h e d ia lo g u e is a festival o f p u n s a n d jo k es. In serio u s P e rip a te tic g a rb d ie o ld C y n ic fro lics. I t w as a tim e - h o n o r e d c o n v e n tio n — w h ic h C ic e ro c o n fe sse s to h a v e v io la te d in th e A cadem ica P r i o r i 6— n o t to le t th e c h a ra c te rs sp ea k o v e r th e ir h e ad s. V a rro e m b ra c e d w h o le h e a rte d ly th is ru le , a n d gave i t a c o m ic al tu rn . N o t o n ly a re th e re a l in te re s ts o f h is in te rlo c u to rs c o n s is te n t w ith th e ir p a rtes , also h ila rio u s ly c o n g ru o u s a re th e ir n a m es. V a rro ’s w ife F u n d a n ia b o u g h t a farm , fu n du s. T h e avow ed p u rp o s e o f th e D e R e R ustica w as to in s tr u c t F u n d a n ia h o w to m a n a g e h ex fu n du s. T h i s trig g e re d a c h a in re a c tio n o f n a m e p u n s. In B o o k I, d e v o te d to a g ric u ltu re p ro p e r, th e la n d a n d its fru its, six p e rs o n s a p p e a r (in a d d i tio n to V a rro w h o fig u re s in all th r e e books): V a rro ’s fa th e r-in -la w C . F u n d a n iu s a n d h is lin g u istic tw in L . F u n d iliu s; tw o f u r th e r a g ric u ltu r al m u ta n ts , C . A g riu s a n d P. A grasius; C . L ic in iu s S to lo , a n ic e e ty m o lo g ic a l a n d a n tiq u a ria n to u c h fo r o n e a n c e s to r o f th is “su c k e r” {stolo) s p o n s o re d a fa m o u s a g ra ria n law, a n d a n o th e r “w as th e first to le a d th e p e o p le , fo r th e v o tin g o n th e law s, fro m th e com itium in to th e seven iu gera o f th e f o r u m ” (a d m itte d ly a r a th e r re c h e rc h é jo k e);67 fin ally C n . T re m e liu s S cro fa (“S o w ”), a g re a t a u th o rity o n a g ric u ltu re . H e speaks w isely a n d profusely, b u t acq u ires h is o w n c o m ical p a r t o n ly in B o o k Π. T h is b o o k h a s as its s u b je c t th e res pecuaria , a n d S cro fa n a tu ra lly e n o u g h le c tu re s , in te r a lia , a b o u t sw in e (2 .4 .1 ). T h e s e c o n d a c tu s c o m es, o n th e la rg e r an im a ls,-an d o n e o f th e in te rlo c u to rs , V a c d u s by n a m e , e x cla im s “ S in c e t h e r e a re c o w s in it, th a t is w h e re m y p a r t c o m e s i n ” ( 2 .5 .2 - 3 ). W h e n th e p a r ty b ro k e u p S c ro fa a n d V a rro d e p a rte d in hortos a d V itu lu m (2.11.12). V a rro d e d ic a te d th is d ia lo g u e to T u rra n iu s N ig e r (2. praef. 6), w h o w as a d e d ic a te d c a ttle m a n and w h o s e n a m e w as p r o b a b ly c o n n e c te d w ith th e U m b r ia n w o rd fo r “b u ll” ( toru ).68 T h e r e d p i e n t o f B o o k III, o n th e b ird s, w as, h o w ev er, e n tire ly o n th e c o m ical m a rk : h e w as called P in n iu s, “M r. F e a th e ry ” ( 3 .1 .1 ; 1 7 .1 0 ). A m o n g t h e d ia lo g i p erso n a e fiv e a v e s a p p e a r: L . C o r n e l i u s M e r u l a ( “ B l a c k b i r d ”), F i r c e l l i u s P a v o ( “ P e a c o c k ”),
G a rd e n P arlors: N obles & B ird s
M in u c iu s P ic a (“M a g p ie ”), M . P e tr o n i u s P a s s e r (“ S p a r r o w ”), a n d P a n tu le iu s P a rr a (“ O w l”). T h e y a re m o s d y m u te ; o n ly th e B lack b ird M e ru la w as v e ry ta lk a tiv e a n d h e le c tu re d a b o u t b ird -h o u se s , p ig e o n s, doves, h e n s , g e ese a n d ducks; a n d w h e n F irc e lliu s P a v o d e p a rte d h e w as e n c o u ra g e d to sp ea k fre e ly a b o u t p eaco ck s fo r “i f y o u sh o u ld say a n y th in g o u t o f th e w a y a b o u t th e m , h e w o u ld p e rh a p s h a v e a b o n e to p ic k w ith y o u f o r th e c re d it o f th e fam ily ” (3.6.1). M e ru la m a y in d e e d h av e b e e n an a u th o r ity o n th is su b jec t, b u t I su sp e c t th e r e is m o re to h is p e ro ra tio n s th a n m e e ts th e ear: th e b la c k b ird w as b e lie v ed to b e c ap a b le o f h u m a n sp e e c h .69 In C ic e r o ’s d ia lo g u e s b ird s d o n o t speak: th e y m a k e n o ise. W h e n a t C ic e ro ’s b id d in g th e E p ic u re a n A ttic u s a d m itte d th a t th e g o d s g o v e rn th e u n iv e rse , h e o b se rv e d w ith a sigh o f re lie f: “T h e s in g in g o f th e b ird s a n d th e ru s h in g o f th e s tre a m s ,” concentus a v iu m a n d s tr e p itu s flu m in u m , “re lie v e m e fr o m all fe a r th a t I m a y b e o v e rh e a rd b y m y fe l lo w d iscip les.”70 B u t b ird s w e re above all th e w in g e d m e sse n g e rs o f g o d s, th e c a rrie rs o f o m e n s . N u n tia f u lv a Iovis m ira n d a visa fig u r a , “J o v e ’s g o ld e n m e s s e n g e r o f w o n d ro u s fo r m ,” th e eagle w h ic h J u p ite r s e n t to M a riu s as a p re s a g e o f g o o d tid in g s, so ars p r o m in e n d y a t th e o u t s e t o f t h e D e L e g ib u s (1 .2 ). V a rro in h is A n tiq u ita te s R e r u m D iv in a r u m d e v o te d o n e le a rn e d b o o k to th e a u g u rs;71 h e w as in tim a te ly c o n v e r s a n t w ith t h e b ir d s o f a u g u r y a n d o m e n . T h e c o m ic a l d im e n sio n o f th is av ian lo re w as to o ex q u isite to b e a llo w ed to slip by. O f c o u rs e V a rro ’s a u g u ra l b ird s a re scaled d o w n fro m th e h e ro ic flig h t (literal a n d fig u rativ e) o f C ic e ro ’s M a riu s to th e m o re m u n d a n e in te r ests o f h is in te rlo c u to rs . O f eag les h e d o es n o t speak, r a th e r o f c h ic k en s. E a g le s w e re re s e rv e d fo r m o m e n to u s o c ca sio n s a n d fo r th e p o e ts; th e e v e ry d a y c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith th e g o d s w as c o n d u c te d th r o u g h th e in te r m e d ia r y o f t h e p u lli. C h ic k e n s w e re th e fir s t b ird s to b e ra ise d in a villa: firs t b y th e R o m a n a u g u rs f o r th e ir auspices, n e x t b y th e p a tres fa m ilia s in th e c o u n try (3.3.5). T h e m ise en scene in th e th ir d b o o k is d e se rv e d ly fa m o u s fo r its w it a n d in v e n tiv e n ess. O n a h o t day, d u rin g th e e le c tio n o f th e aediles, V a rro a n d h is fello w tribu lis th e s e n a t o r Q . A x iu s s e e k s h a d e in t h e V illa P u b lic a in t h e C a m p u s M a rtiu s — w e n e e d n o t b e re m in d e d th a t s e e k in g sh ad e is a s ta n d a rd C ic e ro n ia n device o f in tr o d u c in g a c o n v e rsa tio n .72 T h e r e th e a u g u r A p p iu s C la u d iu s P u lc h e r sat o n a b e n c h fla n k e d b y C o rn e liu s M e ru la a n d F irc e lliu s P a v o o n h is le ft, a n d M in u c iu s P ica a n d M . P e tro n iu s P a sse r o n h is rig h t. “W ill y o u a c c e p t u s in to y o u r aviary?”,73 A xius asked w ith a sm ile, a n d so a d is p u te a b o u t th e villas a n d th e ir aves w as o f f to a n au sp icio u s s ta rt. T h e p r ie s d y b ir d - w a tc h e r s ittin g a m o n g th e “ b ir d s ” is a s ig h t c o m ical e n o u g h e sp e c ia lly i f w e re a liz e th a t th e a u g u ra l b ird s o fte n
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c o m e in p airs, tw o o n th e le ft a n d tw o o n th e rig h t. T h e s ta n d a rd fo r m u la fo r th e auspices fro m th e flig h t o f b ird s ra n as follow s (P lau t. A s m . 2 6 0 -6 1 ): picus et co m ix ab la eva , corvos p a rra ab dextera consuadent
[W o o d p e c k e r a n d c ro w o n th e le ft, ra v e n a n d b a rn -o w l o n th e rig h t] “G o a h e a d ,” th e y c o u n se l. A p p iu s sa t a m o n g th e b ird s all rig h t, b u t th e y w e re th e w ro n g b ird s!74 S o o n a fifth b ir d a p p e a re d , P a n tu le iu s P a rra , a b ird o f evil o m e n ,75 a n d h e b ro u g h t b a d new s in d e e d : th e custos76 o f th e c an d id a te w h o m P a v o s u p p o rte d w as a p p re h e n d e d w h ile stu ffin g th e box w ith false b a llo ts (3.5.18). M a n y a r e a d e r o f V a rro w o u ld n o w w o n d e r: are th e se p e o p le w ith fu n n y n a m e s fo r re a l o r a re th e y m e re ly fictitious? B u t jokes a b o u t fig m e n ts w o u ld fall flat. A ll th e n a m e s w h ic h V a rro e m p lo y s a re in d e p e n d e n tly a tte ste d , in lite ra tu re a n d in sc rip tio n s. V a rro h im s e lf p o in ts o u t t h a t R o m a n n a m e s , b o t h n o m in a a n d co g n o m in a , w e re o f te n d e riv e d fro m v a rio u s a n im a ls.77 A n d in d e e d o n e h a s o n ly to th in k o f th e h e ro ic D e d i M u re s , n a m e d a fte r th a t m o s t easily fr e ig h te n e d o f all a n im a ls , to re a liz e th e c o m ic a l p o te n tia l o f R o m a n n o m e n c la tu r e . V a rro ’s d ia lo g u e is an ex q u isite p u n o n R o m a n n a m e system . H e k n e w h is a u d ien c e : th e R o m a n s th o ro u g h ly e n jo y e d th is ty p e o f h u m o r.78 B u t a t th e sam e tim e V a rro ’s d ia lo g u e is also a p a ea n to th e Ita ly o f a g ric u ltu ra l e n tre p re n e u rs , s tu rd y a n d ro b u s t in th e ir m ores a n d th e ir la n g u a g e . A s C . N ic o le t p e rc e p tiv e ly o b s e rv e d , th e D e L egibu s o f C ic e ro is in m a n y re s p e c ts “u n v e rita b le m a n ife ste m u n ic ip a l,”79 th e p ra is e o f g r e a t R o m a n s w h o c a m e fr o m sm all m u n icipia , lik e C a to , M a riu s , C ic e ro h im self, th e p ra ise o f th e ir w ay o f life a n d th e ir (in th e p a st) m o d e s t fa rm s. B u t h o w m u c h c lo s e r to th e p u ls e o f Ita ly is V a r r o ’s d ia lo g u e ! S u r e ly th e p e o p le in sm all to w n s o f I ta ly m u c h o f te n e r ta lk e d o f h o g s th a n o f n a tu ra l law. P h ilo so p h ic a lly A rp in u m w as fo r C ic e ro h is g erm a n a p a tr ia b u t p ra c tica lly a s u m m e r re tre a t; fo r V a rro ’s to w n s m e n fro m R e a te w h o p o p u la te th e p ag es o f th e D e R e R ustica th is S a b in e to w n w as th e ir tru e h o m e a n d n o t o n ly a d is ta n t c ra d le . O u t o f tw e n ty in te r lo c u to r s 80 in V a rro ’s d ia lo g u e (tw o o f th e m o n ly p o te n tia l sp eakers) o n ly o n e w as a tru e n o b le : A p p iu s C la u d iu s P u lc h e r, c o n s u l in 54 a n d c e n s o r in 50, C ic e r o ’s c o lle a g u e o n th e a u g u ra l c o lle g e a n d th e e ld e r b r o th e r o f th e n o to r io u s P. C lo d iu s . S ev eral re a so n s a c c o u n t fo r h is a p p ea ra n ce . F ir s t his fam e as a u g u r.81 I f an a u g u r w as to fig u re in a d ia lo g u e d e v o te d to b ird s, A p p iu s w as th e p e rs o n . H is praen om en o ffe re d an a d d itio n a l b o n u s: in a n ic e d is p la y o f p o p u la r e ty m o lo g y A p p iu s c laim s to k n o w e v e ry th in g a b o u t
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bees, apes (3.16). N e x t, th e S ab in e o rig in o f h is fam ily a n d h is p e rs o n al c o n ta c ts w ith R eate: h e w as involved in s o m e c ap a c ity in th e d is p u te b e tw e e n I n te r a m n a a n d R e a te c o n c e r n in g th e Lacus Velinus ;82 w h e n o n th is o ccasio n h e re c e n tly v isite d R ea te h e w as lav ish ly e n te r ta in e d b y Q . Axius: th e su m p tu o u s fare w as th e b ird s o f c o u rse (3.2.3). T h is R e a tin e legal a n d g a stro n o m ic a l c o n n e c tio n p ro v id e d fo r a m a r v ello u sly sm o o th o p e n in g o f th e d ia lo g u e in B o o k Π Ι: A p p iu s a n d A x iu s m e e t in R o m e a t t h e a e d i l i c i a n e l e c t i o n s a n d s t a r t ta lk in g — a b o u t w h a t else?— birds! T w o s e n a to rs o f p ra e to r ia n ra n k follow , V a rro h im s e lf a n d C n . T re m e liu s S c ro fa,83 th e se v e n th m a n in h is fa m ily to re a c h th e p ra e to rs h ip (2.4.2). T h e i r im m e d ia te c o n ta c t w ith a g ric u ltu re is u n d e r sc o re d b y th e fa c t th a t th e y w e re co lle ag u e s o n th e b o a rd o f tw e n ty a d agros dividendos C am panos (1 .2 .1 0 ) u n d e r C a e s a r’s a g ra ria n law s. C . F u n d a n iu s , V a rro ’s fa th e r-in - la w (1 .2 .1 ) w as q u a e s to r ca. 100,·84 Q . A xius o f R eate, e x p lic id y in tro d u c e d as s e n a to r (3.2.1), w as p ro b a b ly also o f q u a e sto ria n ra n k . Q . L u d e n u s senator, a la n d -o w n e r in E p iru s (2.5.1), a b o u t w h o m n o th in g is k n o w n b e y o n d th is n o tic e , clo ses th is s h o rt a n d u n d is tin g u is h e d lis t o f c e rta in s e n a to rs .85 B u t L . C o rn e liu s M e ru la , consulari fa m ilia ortus (3.2.2) a n d C . L ic in iu s S to lo , w h o also h a d d istin g u ish e d a n c e sto rs (1.2.9), m a y h av e b e e n se n a to rs as w ell.86 N e x t, th e e q u e s tria n s . S u rp ris in g ly e n o u g h , th e lis t c o m p ris e s o n ly th re e n am es: T . P o m p o n iu s A tticu s, th e m u tu a l frie n d o f C ic e ro a n d V arro; C o ssin iu s (h is praenom en is lo s t in a g a p a t th e b e g in n in g o f B o o k Π), n o d o u b t id e n tic a l w ith L . C o ssin iu s, eques R om anus a n d a frie n d o f A ttic u s .87 H e is in tro d u c e d as o n e o f th e ric h c a td e -o w n e rs in E p iru s (2. pra ef. 6; 2 .1.1), w h ic h explains h is c lo se c o n ta c ts w ith A ttic u s , a n o th e r E p i r o ta n la tifo n d ista . T h e th ir d e q u e s tria n is C . A grius, eques R om anus Socraticus (1.2.1). P. A grasius, publicantis (1.2.1), m a y w ell h av e b e en an eques.88 T h is is tr u e also o f o th e r c h a ra c te rs, b u t i t is p e rh a p s m o re lik e ly th a t th e y b e lo n g e d to th e s tra tu m ju s t b elow th e se n a to rs a n d e q u e stria n s, th e m u n ic ip a l a risto c ra c y . T h e y w e re th e dom i nobiles, as C ic e ro calls th e m , th e b a c k b o n e o f Italy. T h e s e w e re th e p e o p le w h o v o te d in th e c e n tu r ia te a sse m b ly in th e firs t d a s s a n d d e c id e d th e c o n s u la r an d p ra e to ria n c o n te sts, a n d w h o th ro u g h th e ir n e tw o rk o f vicin itates c o n tro lle d th e elec tio n s in th e trib al assem bly. T o c u ltiv a te th e m w as th e first c o m m a n d m e n t o f ev ery p o litid a n , a n d in V a rro ’s d ia lo g u e w e see th e p a tric ia n A p p iu s C la u d iu s d o in g ju s t th a t. H is frien d s n a m e d a fte r b ird s w e re u n d o u b te d ly dom i nobiles: w e can c e rta in ly su rm ise th is as re g a rd s P a n tu le iu s P a rra , M in u d u s Pica, M . P e tro n iu s Passer, a n d w e k n o w i t fo r c e rta in w ith re s p e c t to F irc e lliu s P a v o o f R e a te (3.2.2): V a r r o ’s m a te rn a l a u n t, a ric h lady, se e m s to h a v e b e e n a F irc e llia
56
C lassica
(3.2.15 in c o n ju n c tio n w ith 3.4.1). T h e n th e r e a re tw o ric h la n d -o w n ers in E p iru s , w h o jo in th e s e n a to r L u d e n u s a n d th e equites C o ssin iu s a n d A ttic u s: th e y a re M u rriu s o f R e a te 89 (2.6.1), w h o speaks o f th a t fa m o u s S a b in e sp ecialty , asses a n d m u le s, a n d o u r o ld a c q u a in ta n c e V a c d u s . A n d fin a lly w e h av e L . F u n d iliu s, th e o v erseer, aedituus, o f th e te m p le o f T e llu s (2.1.2), a n d a c e rta in M e n a te s (2.1.1; 8.1; 11.12), p ro b a b ly also a n aedituus, in R o m e o r r a th e r in E p iru s .90 T h e s e tw o m e n , fo r q u ite d is p a ra te re a so n s, n e v e r c o m e to speak. T h e c o n tra s t b e tw e e n th e c h a ra c te rs in C ic e ro ’s d ia lo g u e s a n d in V a rro ’s D e R e R ustica c o u ld h a rd ly b e m o re p ro fo u n d . E x d u d in g few ex ce p tio n s, n a m e s, s ta tio n , c u ltu re a n d la n g u a g e se p a ra te d th e m . B u t i t w o u ld be p re m a tu re to c o n d u d e th a t V a rro m a n ife ste d a n ti-n o b le feelin g s. I t w as th e s u b je c t-m a tte r th a t d ic ta te d th e c h o ic e o f c h a ra c te rs , a n d th e c h o ic e o f style. T o re c tify th e b a lan c e w e s h o u ld c o n sid e r a n o th e r w o rk o f V a rro , th e Logistorici. T h e L ogistorici a p p ea rs to h av e b e e n d ia lo g u e s (in sev en ty -six b o o k s) sim ila r in fa rm to C ic e ro ’s C a to D e Senectute o r L aeliu s D e A m ic itia .n D o u b le title s o f th is ty p e , fo r in s ta n c e P iu s D e Pace, a re th e p ro s o p o g r a p h e r ’s tre a s u re tro v e . W e k n o w six teen ( o r p e rh a p s se v e n te e n ) n a m e s th a t fig u re d in th e title o f a logistoricus; fo u r te e n c a n b e assig n ed w ith c e r ta in ty o r a g re a t d e g re e o f p ro b a b ility to k n o w n h is to ric a l p e rs o n s.92 O f th e m e n th u s h o n o re d w e have: I. N in e co n su ls: C . M a riu s, Q . M u c iu s Scaevola (cos. 95), Q . C a e c iliu s M e te llu s P iu s (cos. 80), C . S c rib o n iu s C u rio (cos. 76), C n . A u re liu s O re ste si(c o s. 71), Q . C ae c iliu s M e te llu s N e p o s 93 (cos. 57), Μ . V aleriu s M essa la (cos. 53), M . C la u d iu s M a rc e llu s (cos. 51), Q . F u fiu s C a le n u s (cos. 47). Π . T h r e e p ra e to rs : th e fam o u s h is to ria n , L . C o rn e liu s S ise n n a (pr. 78), M . A e m iliu s S c a u ru s (pr. 56), M . Iu v e n tiu s L a te ra n e n s is (pr. 51). III.
O n e s e n a to r o f q u a e s to ria n ra n k : V a rro ’s fa th e r-in - la w C .
F u n d a n iu s . IV. O n e eq u es: T . P o m p o n iu s A tticus. T h e s o d a i p a ra d ig m stan d s o u t in all d a r ity : in a lite ra ry d ia lo g u e h is to ry a n d p h ilo s o p h y w e re a p re se rv e o f th e h ig h e s t se n a to ria l aris tocracy. O n ly p e o p le a tta c h e d to th e a u th o r o f a d ia lo g u e b y d o s e tie s o f fa m ily o r frie n d s h ip c o u ld b re a k th ro u g h th e ra n k s o f th e n o b le s w h ic h b o th C ic e r o a n d V a rro w e re la b o r io u s ly in s tr u c tin g . A g ric u ltu re w as, h o w e v er, a v e ry d iffe re n t p ro p o s itio n : n o o b sta c le o f u rban itas o r genus b a rre d entry. V a rro s tric tly fo llo w ed to preponi in th e Res Rusticae i t is S cro fa w h o speaks o f sw ine, in th e Logistorici th e to p ic o f th e M a riu s i s fo r tu n a . T h e d ia lo g u e s o f C ic e ro fin d th e ir c o n g e n ia l s u rro u n d in g in th e a m o e n ita s o f p riv a te v illa s . V illa s f ig u r e p r o m i n e n tly in th e R e s 57
G arden Parlors: Nobles i f B irds Rusticae b u t o n ly as a s u b je c t fo r d iscu ssio n . T h e first d ia lo g u e , a b o u t f i m d i a n d a g r i, is p la c e d , v e r y c h a r a c te r is tic a lly , in th e te m p le o f
T ellu s94 o n th e fe r ia e sem en tivae ,9S th e S o w in g F estiv al (1.2.1). T h is lo c a tio n is a p ro g ra m a n d a p ro c la m a tio n : a g ric u ltu re is a h a llo w e d o c c u p a tio n a n d n o t m e re ly a p riv a te p a stim e o f th e u rb a n ite s, lik e p h i lo so p h y . T h e re lig io u s a u ra is f u r th e r b e s to w e d o n th e s u b je c t b y V a rro ’s in v o c a tio n a t th e o u ts e t o f th e first b o o k o f th e tw elve d eitie s o f a g ric u ltu re , th e F a th e r J u p ite r a n d T ellus, th e M o th e r E a r th , Sol a n d L u n a , C e re s a n d L ib e r, R o b ig u s a n d F lo ra , M in e rv a a n d V e n u s, L y m p h a a n d B o n u s E v e n tu s . B u t th is s e r io u s a n d h o l y s u b je c t receiv es a jo c u la r fo rm . T h e d ia lo g u e th u s fa ith fu lly re p ro d u c e s th e s o le m n ity a n d m e r r im e n t o f ru s tic festivals. T h e s e ttin g is in g e n io u s . V a rro , h is fa th e r-in -la w , S c ro fa a n d S to lo , A g riu s a n d A g ra siu s c o m e to d in n e r a t th e te m p le o f T e llu s a t th e in v ita tio n o f L . F u n d iliu s, th e k e e p e r o f th e te m p le .96 W a itin g fo r h is r e tu r n th e c o m p a n y e n g ag e s in a le a rn e d a n d m e rry d iscu ssio n . F in a lly th e ffe e d m a n o f F u n d iliu s c o m e s r u n n in g w ith te a rs in h is eyes. H e in v ite s th e g e n tle m e n to a fu n e ra l th e n e x t day. W h o s e f u n e r a l? — t h e y cry. W h y , h is p a t r o n ’s fu n e r a l; h e h a d ju s t b e e n sta b b e d in th e c ro w d w ith a knife b y s o m e o n e , a p p a r e n d y b y m ista k e . T h e c o m p a n y d is p e rs e d ; “ a n d w e d e p a r te d ,” w rite s V a rro , “r a t h e r la m e n tin g th e m is c h a n c e s o f h u m a n life th a n w o n d e rin g th a t su ch th in g h a d h a p p e n e d in R o m e ” (1 .6 9 .2 -3 ). F o r th e d ra m a tic d a te o f th e d ia lo g u e is J a n u a r y 57 o r 56,97 th e p e rio d o f s tre e t fig h ts b e tw e e n th e g an g s o f C lo d iu s a n d M ilo . C ic e ro w as m u c h m o re c arefu l th a n th e p o o r F u n d iliu s. W h e n in F e b ru a ry 56 th e re ag ain c a m e to blow s b e tw e e n th e nostri, th a t is th e th u g s o f M ilo a n d th e b a n d its o f C lo d iu s, C ic e ro h a stily e scap ed fro m th e scen e o f th e melée, ne q u id in tu rba, le s t s o m e th in g u n to w a rd h a p p e n in th e c ro w d .98 T h e c o n v e r s a tio n in B o o k Π a lso ta k e s p la c e o n a d ie s f e s tu s (2 .1 1 .1 2 ), a n d as th e s u b je c t is th e res pecu aria U rs in u s c o n c lu d e d th a t th e feast in q u e stio n w as th e Palilia o r P a rilia (21 A p ril), a n d th a t th e p a rtic ip a n ts m e t in R o m e in th e te m p le o f P a le s.99 F r o m 2.8.1 w e le a rn th a t th e y w e re in v ite d to o ffe r th e sa c re d cakes;100 th is su its th e feast o f P arilia v e ry w ell in d e e d .101 B u t th e p lace o f th e d ia lo g u e w ill h a rd ly b e R o m e; r a th e r E p iru s .102 A fte r all, th e d ia lo g u e p u rp o r ts to r e c o u n t th e c o n v e r s a tio n s w h ic h V a rro h a d w ith c a ttle - o w n e r s o f E p iru s w h e n d u rin g th e w a r w ith th e p ira te s (67 B .C .) h e w as in c o m m a n d o f th e fleets in te r D elu m e t S id lia m (2. pra ef. 6). B u t V a rro ’s o rig in a lity in c h o o s in g a s ta rtlin g s e ttin g fo r h is d ia lo g u es sh in es e sp ecially in B o o k H I. T h e p lace is th e Villa Publica 103 in th e C a m p u s M a r tiu s , a n d th e o c c a s io n th e e le c tio n s o f th e a ed iles
58
Classica (3 .2 .1).104 T h i s gave V a rro a m a rv e llo u s o p p o r tu n ity to p la y o n th e v a rio u s m e a n in g s o f th e te r m villa . H is c h a ra c te rs s it in a villa, b u t i t is n e ith e r a fa rm s te a d n o r a lu x u rio u s c o u n try -s id e re tr e a t. I t is n o t m a re s a n d asses, b u t th e c itiz e n s w h o c o m e to th is villa fro m th e field (campus); h e r e th e c o h o rts assem b le w h e n s u m m o n e d b y th e c o n su l fo r a levy; h e r e th e c e n s o rs c a rry o u t th e c en su s o f th e p e o p le (3 .2 .3 -7 ). B u t in V a r r o ’s d ia lo g u e , in a fa in t e c h o o f A ris to p h a n e s ’ B irds, th e V illa is o c c u p ie d b y th e c itiz e n s w ith b ir d n a m e s w h o h a d ju s t c a s t th e ir b a llo ts, a n d ta lk in g a b o u t b ird s, w a it fo r th e o u tc o m e o f th e v o t in g . F in a lly th e h e ra ld a n n o u n c e s th e re s u lts (3.17.1). A p p iu s h u r r ie d ly ris e s a n d a c c o m p a n ie d b y M e r u la le a v e s th e V illa. B u t th e c a n d id a te s u p p o rte d b y V a rro a n d A xius w as also v ic to rio u s; a n o ise is h e a r d o n th e p r o p itio u s r ig h t, a n d th e a e d ile -d e s ig n a te e n te r s th e V illa . V a r r o a n d A x iu s a c c o m p a n y h im t o th e C a p ito l to r e n d e r th a n k sg iv in g s to J u p ite r (3.17.10). T h u s a g ric u ltu r e b le n d s w ith re lig io n a n d p o litic s , w ith all its fra u d s a n d jo y s. T h e b ird -c itiz e n s sy m b o lize th e e le c to ra te v e ry w ell, b u t i t is th e n o b le s w h o g e t e le c te d to h ig h o ffices a n d e a rn th e r ig h t to stro ll in lite ra ry g a rd e n s n e x t to th e statu es o f P la to a n d A ris to d e .
NOTES 1. W. F. Jashemski, The Gardens o f Pompeii (New Rochelle 1979), pp. 80 and 368 (Index, s.v. birds). 2. Rust. 3.4.2-3; 5.1-8. 3. Rust. 3.5.9-17. Cf. B. Tilly, Varro the F arm er (London 1973), pp. 112-16, 283-89, who summarizes major modem reconstructions of the aviary and provides a sensible short commentary. 4. O. E. Schmidt, Ciceros Villen (Darmstadt 1972; reprint with biblio graphical additions o f the article originally published in 1899 in N e u e Jahrbücher f ü r das klassische A ltertu m ), pp. 15-19, 34—35. 5. See P. Grimal, L es ja r d in s rom ains (Paris 1943), pp. 75-76, 262-65, 384-85. 6. D e O r. 2.18. 7. Cic. D e O r. 2.224; Clu. 141; Pompon. D ig. 1.2.2.39. On Brutus’ dia logue, see R. Hirzel, D e r Dialog, 2 vols. (Leipzig 1895), 1: 428-31. On the date o f his praetorship, see Broughton, M R R , 1: 480. 8. Cf. Cic. D e O r. 2.142. 9. D e O r. 1.28-29. At Leg. 2.7, Cicero observes that the finest plane trees grow in Atticus’ Epirotan A m altheum . 59
G a rd e n P arlors: N obles & B ird s
10. D e O r. 3.18. 11. Rep. 1.14, 17-18. On the horti of Scipio, see Grimal J a r dins (supra n.5), pp. 128-29; F. Coarelli, “La doppia tradizione sulla morte di Romolo e gli auguracula dell’Arx e del Quirinale,” in G li Etruschi a Roma: A t t i dell'incon tro d i studi in onore d i M assimo Pallotino (Rome 1981), pp. 186-87. 12. As a generai guide to Cicero’s villas, Schmidt, Ciceros Villen (supra η. 4), still remains unsurpassed. For the Campanian villas of Cicero, Catulus, Hortensius and Varro, see J. H. D ’Arms, R om ans on the B ay o f N a p les (Cambridge, Mass. 1970), pp. 39 ff., 181, 188-89, 197-200. For a discussion of the setting o f Cicero’s dialogues, see also E. Becker, “Technik und Szenerie des ciceronischen Dialogs” (Diss. Münster 1938), pp. 11 ff. 13. Leg. 1.15; cf. Hirzel, D er D ialog (supra n. 7), 1: 475, n. 2; E. Rawson, “The Interpretation o f Cicero’s D e Legibus,” A N R W l , 4 (Berlin 1973), pp. 338-40. 14. Part. Or. 1.1, cf. QFr. 3.3.4 and M. Schanz-C. Hosius, Geschichte der römischen Literatur, 4 vols. (Munich 1927), 1: 463. 15. Brut. 10, 24. Cf. A. E. Douglas, M . Tulli Ciceronis Brutus (Oxford 1966), ad locc., pp. 7, 16-17, and Cic. A tt. 12.16.2 with D. R. Shackleton Baileyk commentary, Cicero's Leiters to Atticus, 7 vols. (Cambridge 1965-1970), 5: 353-54. 16. H ort. ff. 17-19 Müller (Leipzig 1893-1923); Acad. 2.148. Cf. Hirzel, D e r D ialog (supra n. 7), 1: 499, n. 3; M. Ruch, L'Hortensius de Cicéron (Paris 1958), pp. 69-70; J. van Ooteghem, Lucius Licinius Lucullus (Brussels 1959), pp. 180-86. 17. Nonius p. 65 = p. 91 Lindsay = ff. 13 Müller = Plasberg p. 90 in app.; cf. 2.125. 18. N a t. D . 1.15, and cf. ad loc. A. S. Pease, M . Tulli Ciceronis D e N a tu ra Deorum (Cambridge, Mass. 1955), pp. 163-64. 19. Cf. A. S. Pease, M . Tulli Ciceronis De D ivinatione L ibri Duo (Urbana 1920-23; reprint Darmstadt 1963), pp. 16-17, 65-66, 587. 20. On the villa as a subject o f moralistic diatribes, see the excellent remarks by D ’Arms, Romans (supra n. 12), pp. 40 ff. 21. Leg. 2.1: magnifieasque villas et pavim enta marmorea et laqueata tecta contemno·, 2.30: the m agnificentia o f Lucullus’ villa at Tusculum affords an example that cupiditatibusprincipum et v itiis infici solet tota civitas. 22. Parad. Stoic. 38. 23. A tt. 1.18.6, 19.6, 20.3; 2.1.7. Cf. Macrob. Sat. 3.15.6: illi nobilissimi principes, Lucullus Philippus et Hortensius, quos Cicero piscinarios appellat·, Varro, Rust. 3.3.10: quis enim propter nobilitates ignorat piscinas Philippi, H o rten sii, Lucullorum ? 24. A tt. 5.2.1; Acad. 2.9. 25. In no publication is such a list available at a glance. Detailed infor mation on the careers o f the persons listed can easily be gleaned from RE or M RR; see also the very conscientious but unfortunately unpublished study by L. E. Austin, “A Study o f the Characters in Cicero’s Dialogues” (Ph.D. Diss. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 1932). After each name are indi cated the dialogue or dialogues in which the person in question appears.
Classica
26. But on his status in 146, cf. Broughton, M R R , 1: 468. 27. N a t. D .. 1.15. P. Levine, “Cicero and the Literary Dialogue,” C J 53 (1958): 147, clearly exaggerates the auctoritas o f Balbus and Velleius. The father o f Balbus may have been a senator: he seems to have been present at the debate in the senate in 162, but the words u t e p a tre audiebam (N at. D . 2.11) may merely be a rhetorical device containing no historical information. 28. Hirzel, D er D ialog (supra n. 7), 1: 542, n. 1. 29. So Ibid., p. 542. 30. Rep. 2.3. 31. D e O r. 1.24. Cf. H. H. Scullard, Festivals an d Cerem onies o f the Roman Republic (Ithaca 1981), pp. 183-86. 32. Rep. 1.14; N a t. D . 1.15 and cf. Pease, D e N a tu ra D eorum (supra η. 18), p. 163. On th e. feriae Latinae, see Scullard, Festivals (supra n. 31), pp. 111-15. Originally Cicero intended to place the dialogue in the D e Republica on the novendiales feriae (of 129), QFr. 3.5.1. 33. Leg. 3.30. Cf. Hirzel, D er D ialog (supra n. 7), 1: 475, n. 3; H. Stem, Le Calendrier de 3 5 4 (Paris 1953), pp. 107-08. 34. Leg. 1.9. On otium as a prerequisite for literary activity, see M. Kretschmar, “Otium, studia litterarum, Philosophie und bios theöretikos im Leben und Denken Ciceros” (Diss. Leipzig 1937), esp. pp. 50-61; J.-M. André, V otiu m dans la vie morale et intellectuelle roma'tne (Paris 1966), pp. 310 ff. 35. Cf. esp. D io. 2.6; N a t. D . 1.7; Off. 2.2; 3.1-2. 36. See esp. A rch. 13. 37. B rut. 10. 38. Rep. 1.33; cf. QFr. 3.5.1. 39. D ig . 1.2.2.35 ff. For a list of republican jurists, see W. Kunkel, H erku nft und soziale Stellung d er römischen Juristen (Graz 1967), pp. 7 ff.; F. Schulz, Geschichte d er römischen Rechtswissenschaft (Weimar 1961), pp. 54-57 and 203-05 (on Pomponius’ Enchiridium). 40. B rut. 102. 41. D e O r. 1.265; cf. A tt. 4.16.3. 42. D e O r. 1.234-50. 43. D e O r. 1.159, 166-200. 44. De Or. 1.193,200. 45 .L e g . 1.13. 46. B rut. 152. 47. Leg. 1.14. 48. D e O r. 1.236 (Antonius speaking). 49. In fact Cicero did compose a treatise—not a dialogue— D e iure c iv ili in artem redigendo (for the fragments, see F. P. Bremer, Jurisprudentiae a n tehadrianae quae supersunt, 2 vols. [Lipsiae 1906], 1: 129-30), thus fulfilling the plan he had put into the mouth o f Crassus (De O r. 2.142). But as Cicero’s a r s is lost the monument he left for us is above all his merciless ridicule o f the pettifoggery o f the iu ris consulti—of Servius Sulpicius himself—in the Pro M urena 25-29; cf. the excellent exposition by A. Bürge, “Die Juristenkomik in Ciceros Rede Pro Murena” (Diss. Zürich 1974).
G a rd e n P arlors: N o b les & B ird s
50. D e Or. 1.249. 51. A n . 4.16.2. 52. A t t . 13.12.3; 13.13.1: to ta m A cadem iam a i hom inibus nobilissim is abstuli, transtuli ad nostrum sodalem (as Shackleton Bailey perceptively notes, this demonstrates that Varro was not considered a nobilis, Cicero's L etters to A tticu s [supra n. 15], 5: 367, 369); 13.14.1; 13.16.1: Cicero admits that it was para to prepon to entrust the dialogue in the Academica to Catulus, Hortensius, and Lucullus; their lack of expertise in these matters was notorious. Cicero cogitated to transfer illos sermones to Cato and Brutus but ecce tuae litterae de Varrone; 13.18.1, 19.3-5, 22.1-3, 23.2, 24.1, 25.3. Cf. R. E. Jones, “Cicerob Accuracy of Characterization in his Dialogues,” A J P 60 (1939): 307ff., esp. 324-25. 53. Inst. 10.1.95. 54. Fam . 9.8, cf. A tt. 13.25.3. 55. But Cicero’s remarks at QFr. 3.5.1 seem to imply, as D. R. Shackleton Bailey observes (Cicero. Epistulae A d Q uintum Fratrem [Cambridge 1980], p. 218), that “readers of D e Oratore were expected to believe that the dialogue was at least in part based on real conversations.” 56. For orientation and introduction, see H. Dahlmann, s.v. M. Terentius Varro, RE, Suppi. 6 (1935), cols. 1261-76; Hirzel, D er Dialog (supra η. 7), 1: 436-54, 552-65; for the Menippean Satires, the great commented edition by J.-P. Cèbe, Varron, Satires Ménippées (Paris 1972- ), now in the course of pub lication; for the Logistorici, B. Zucchelli, Varro Logistoricus. Studio letterario e prosopografico (Parma 1980). 57. A g r., praef. 2. 58. H. Jordan, M . Catonis praeter librum D e re rustica quae extant (Lipsiae 1860), p. 78. 59. Cf. W. Speyer, B ü ch erfu nde in d e r G la u b esw e rb u n g d e r A n tik e (Göttingen 1970), pp. 5Iff. 60. Colum. Rust. 1.1.13; Plin. H N . 18.22. Cf. R. Reitzenstein, “De scrip torum rei rusticae qui intercedunt inter Catonem et Columellam libris deperditis” (Diss. Berlin 1884), pp. 47 ff. 61. Thus the date o f the publication of the D e Re Rustica was 37 B.C., but it is eminently possible that Varro composed drafts of individual books much earlier, cf. in this sense R. Martin, Recherches sur les agronomes latins et leurs conceptions économiques et sociales (Paris 1971), pp. 213-35; J. Heurgon, V arron, Economie rurale, (Paris 1978), 1: XXI-XXVI. 62. Heurgon, Varron (supra n. 61), p. L; E. Laughton, “Observations on the Style of Varro,” C Q 10 (1960): 1-28. 63. Cf. e.g. 2.5.2, 10.1. 64. Cf. Hirzel, D e r D ialog (supra n. 7), 1: 554, n. 3. 65. See the marvellous appreciation of the D e Re Rustica as a literary work by Dahlmann, “M. Terentius Varro” (supra n. 56), cols. 1186-94. Hirzel is too much under the spell of Cicero to perceive the greatness of Varro; the peculiarities of Varrob dialogue are for him symptoms of literary decline (D e r Dialog [supra n. 7], 1: 559). For Varrob dialogue as a scholarly treatise, see J.
C lassica
E. Skydsgaard, Varrò the Scholar. Studies in the F irst Book o f Varro’s D e R e Rustica (Hafhiae 1968). 66. A tt. 13.16.1. Cf. supra n. 52. 67. Cf. G. Nìccolini, I fa s ti dei tribuni della plebe (Milan 1934), pp. 60-61, 133-35; L. R. Taylor, Rom an Voting Assemblies (Ann Arbor 1966), pp. 23-24. 68. C f Tilly, Varro (supra n. 3), p. 230; J. W. Poultney, The Bronze Tables o f Igu viu m (Baltimore 1959), p. 328; A. Emout, L e dialecte O m brien (Paris 1961), p. 99. 69. Philostr. VA 6.36, adduced by J. M. C. Toynbee, A n im a ls in Rom an Life an d A r t (Ithaca 1973), pp. 277, 399, n. 298. But the magpie, pica, was also famous for uttering intelligible sounds (Ibid., pp. 275-76), and yet Minucius Pica opens his mouth only once (3.7.11). 70. Leg. 1.21. 71. August. D e civ. D . 6.3. 72. Cf. D e O r. 3.18; Leg. 1.14; Macrob. Sat. 6.4.8. 73. Varro ^ description of Appius’ ornithon is so vivid that a diligent schol ar mistook it in his otherwise very useful book for a real bird-house, cf. I. Shatzman, Senatorial Wealth and Roman Politics (Brussels 1975), p. 323: Appius “had gardens in Rome...in which there were aviaries.” 74. Cf. Pease, D e D ivinatione (supra n. 19), pp. 74—77; J. André, L es nom s d'oiseaux en L atin (Paris 1967), pp. 61-63, 118-22, 127-30. 75. Cf. Horace, C arm . 3.27.1. This applied to the parra as an unsolicited omen, the auspicium oblativum·, in the auspicia im petrativa, the solicited aus pices, the pa rra , if it appeared ab dextera, was a propitious sign. 76. Each candidate was entitled to appoint one or more custodes whose officiai task was to see to it that no false ballots were cast, see T. Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecbt, 3 vols. (Leipzig 1887-88), 3: 406-07. See now the excellent studies by C. Nicolet, “Le Ihre III des res rusticae de Varron et les allusions au déroulement des cornices tributes,” REA 72 (1970): 113-37; and Idem, “Tessères frumentaires et tessères de vote,” in L'Italie prérom aine e t la Rome ripublicaine. M ilan ges ojferts à Jacques Heurgon, 2 vols. (Rome 1976), : pp. 695-716, esp. 709-10. 77. R u s t 2.1.10; 3.3.10. Cf. I. Kajanto, The L atin Cognomina (Helsinki 1965), pp. 84—88, 325-34; A. Alföldi, “Les cognomina des magistrate de la République romaine,” in M elanges d'Arcbeologie et d'H istoire ojferts à A n d r é Piganiol, ed. R Chevallier, 3 vols. (Paris 1966), 2: 709-22. 78. In the inscription CIL XI. 1777 three brothers appear named Ursus, Aper, Lupus. We also meet M. Porcius Aper (C IL II. 4238) and P. Vaccius Vitulus (C IL IX. 2827), the latter name reminding us o f Varro^ Vaccius and Vitulus (I owe these examples to W. Schulze, Z u r Geschichte lateinischer E igennam en [Berlin 1904], pp. 115, n. 2; 234, n. 1). Here also belongs Fircellius Pavo. The name Fircellius is apparently derived from fircus which in the Sabine dialect, as Varro notes in the D e Lingua Latina (5.97), corre sponded to Latin hircus. This Fircellius Pavo was really “Mr. Buck Peacock.” Varro must have relished this etymological joke, but it is rather doubtful whether his non-Sabine audience was able to appreciate it. Cf. M. G. Bruno, “I Sabini e la loro lingua,” RendlstLomb 95 (1961): 539; 96 (1962): 571-72. In
G a rd e n P arlors: N obles & B ird s
another field o f onomastic fun the family composed o f Eroticus (pater). Eroticus (filius) and Erotica (filia) stands out (A E pigr. [1966], no. 199). 79. C. Nicolet, “Arpinum, Aemilius Scaurus et les Tullii Cicerones,” REL 45 (1967): 276. Cf. Rawson, “Interpretation” (supra η. 13), pp. 339-40. 80. Again detailed information can easily be obtained from RE, M R R , and C. Nicolet, V ordre equestre à Pepoque républicaine, voi. 2: Prosopographie des chevaliers Romains (Paris 1974), ad loc. 81. See Cic. D ìo . 1.29, 132; 2.75 and Pease, D e D ivinatione (supra η. 19), ad locc. H e composed a learned treatise, A uguralis disciplinae libri, in which he discussed various kinds of augural birds. For an (incomplete) collection of fragments, see H. Funaioli, Gram m aticae Romanae fragm en ta (Lipsiae 1907), pp. 426-27. 82. For this dispute, see also Cic. A tt. 4.15.5, and Shackleton Bailey, Cicero’s Letters to A tticu s (supra n. 15), 2: 209. 83. On Scrofa, see the erudite article by G. Perl, “Cn. Tremelius Scrofa in Gallia Transalpina,” A J A H 5 (1980): 97-105. 84. F. Münzer, s.v. Fundanius, R E 7 (1912): 291-92, identified him also with the tribune of the plebs o f (probably) 68, but this is highly unlikely; the tribune will be his son, and hence Varrok brother-in-law, see R. Syme, “Ten Tribunes,” J R S 53 (1963): 58 = Roman Papers, 5 vols. (Oxford 1979-88), 2: 563; M. H. Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, 2 vols. (Cambridge 1974), 1: 328. 85. On Axius (and Lucienus), see L. R. Taylor, The Voting D istricts o f the Roman Republic (Rome 1960), p. 197; T. P. Wiseman, N ew M en in the Rom an Senate 139 B .C .- 1 4 A .D . (Oxford 1971), pp. 216, 234. 86. Neither o f them is mentioned in Broughton’s supplementary list of senators, M R R , 2: 486ff. Stolo was probably the father of C. Licinius Calvus Stolo, quindecim vir sacris fa d u n d is (and λ praetorius) in 17 B.C. (Acta lu doru m saeculariorum, IL S 5050, Unes 150, 167). See PIR2, voi. 5, 1 (Berlin 1970), p. 32, L 179. 87. Cf. Nicolet, V ordre équestre (supra n. 80), 2: 856-57. 88. Both names. Agrius and Agrasius, are well attested epigraphically, Agrius, inter alia, also in Casinum (CIL I2. 1541) where Varro had one of his estates. 89. Cf. IL S 3484, a dedication by Q. M u rriu s Cn. f . to the Sabine deity Vacuna.
90. On the various categories of the aeditui and their social standing, see J. Marquardt, Römisches S ta a tsv e rw a ltu n g 2, 3 vols. (Leipzig 1881-85), 3: 214-18. 91. See ucchelli, Varro Logistoricus (supra n. 56), pp. 23 n. 16 and 32 ff. 92. See Ibid., pp. 37ff. (with further literature). I doubt if it is possible to identify with any reasonable degree o f probability the persons named in the titles o f Catus, D e Liberis Educandis and Tubero, De Origine H um ana. 93. Unless the logistoricus Nepos was named after the historian Cornelius Nepos. 94. On the temple o f Tellus, see A. Aust, “De aedibus sacris populi Romani” (Diss. Marburg 1889), p. 14; S. B. Platner and T. Ashby, A 64
Classica Topographical Dictionary o f A ncient Rome (Oxford 1929), p. 511. 95. On this festival, see W. W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals o f the Period o f the Republic (London 1889), pp. 294—96; Scullard, Festivals (supra n. 31), p. 68; G. Wissowa, Religion und K ultus d er Römer1 (Munich 1912), pp. 193-95; P. O vidius Naso. D ie Fasten ed. F. Bömer, 2 vols. (Heidelberg 1958), 2: 73 (ad v.
658), 74 (ad v. 669). 96. On the aedilician aedium sacrarum procuratio, Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht (supra η. 76), l 3: 507. The aedituus L. Fundilius again appears to have been a historical person, and not a literary figment. The famous inscrip tion C IL l 2.709 = IL L R P 515 (dated to 17 Nov. 89) contains a list o f the mem bers of the consilium of the consul Cn. Pompeius Strabo. In this list as the twenty-first name (line 7) appears a C. Fundilius C . f , most probably a military tribune, belonging (as it seems) to the tribe Quirina. N ow Quirina was the tribe of Reate, and the Fundilii are known from inscriptions (C IL IX. 4673, 4691) as an important Reatine family. Thus it is very likely that also our L. Fundilius came from this Sabine town; this would explain very well his acquaintance with Varro. See, above all, C. Cichorius, Römische S tu dien (Leipzig 1922), pp. 153-54, 191. Cf. also Taylor, Voting D istricts (supra n. 85), pp. 216, 274; N . Criniti, L'epigrafe d i Cn. Pompeo Strabone (Milan 1970), pp. 19 η. 24,120-21. 97. Cf. Perl, “Cn. Tremelius Scrofa” (supra η. 83), p. 97. 98. Cic. QFr. 2.3.2. 99. See Dahlmann, “M Terentius Varro” (supra n. 56), coi. 1190, with further literature. 100. C um haec loquerentur, ven it a M enate (cf. 2.1.1: cum M enates discessis set. He did not reappear, cf. 2.11.12: Itaque discedimus...illi p a rtim dom um , p a rtim ad M enatem ) libertus, qui dicat liba absoluta esse (the translation in the Loeb Classical Library edition is erroneous: liba absoluta esse does not mean “the cakes had been offered” but “the cakes are ready”) et rem d iv in a m paratam ; si vellent, ven iren t illuc e t ipsi pro se sacrificarentur. 101. Cf. Ovid. Fast. 4.721ff., esp. 743-44: libaque de milio m ilii fiscella sequatur: rustica praecipue est hoc dea laeta cibo. See A. Schleicher, M eletem aton Varronianorum specimen I (Diss. Bonn 1846), pp. 2-3; Bömer, D ie Fasten (supra n. 95), pp. 271ff.; Scullard, Festivals (supra n. 31), pp. 103-05. 102. Cf. Tilly, Varro (supra n. 3), p. 231. 103. On the V illa Publica, see G. Tossi, “La Villa Publica di Roma nelle fonti letterarie e numismatiche,” A t t i dell'Istituto Veneto, Classe d i Scienze M orali, Lettere e d A r ti 135 (1976-77): 413-26. 104. Since Schleicher, M eletem aton Varronianorum specimen (supra n. 101),
p. 10, it had until recently been assumed that the dramatic date o f Book III was 54 B.C. But a number o f scholars, especially D. R. Shackleton Bailey, Cicero's L etters to A tticu s (supra n. 15), 2: 208-10 and C. Nicolet, “Le livre III des res rusticae" (supra n. 76), pp. 113, n. 2; 116, n. 1, have called this date in question, and E. Badian, “Additional N otes on Roman Magistrates,” A thenaeum n.s. 48 (1970): 4—6, disproved it decisively. His own dramatic date is 50 B.C. N ow J. S. Richardson, “The Triumph o f Metellus Scipio and the Dramatic Date of Varro, R R 3,” C Q 33 (1983): 456-63, apparently unaware of Badianb article, attempts to revive the traditional date. His argument is eru-
G a rd e n P arlors: N obles i r B ird s
dite and sophisticated, but I doubt if it is going to cany the day. See now my “The Dramatic Date o f Varrò, de re rustica, Book ΠΙ and the Elections in 54,” H istoria 34 (1985): 248-54.
4 By M ich a el C raw ford . Fontana History of the Ancient World. Hassocks, Nr. Brighton, Sussex: The Harvester Press, Ltd.; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, Inc. (in association with Fontana), 1978. Pp. 224 + 8 pis.; 4 maps -f 12 figs, in text. $18.50.
T h e R o m a n R e p u b lic .
This is not a book from which one can learn what traditionally passes for the facts of Roman history. In Crawford’s presentation there are few heroes or villains; he does not write of dates and names, of noble and base deeds, but of social groups and historical processes; he dissects and analyzes. Ample quotations of ancient sources enliven the narrative and lend credence to the argument, although at times one may doubt whether it is really the modern author who speaks the idiom of the sources or the ancient authors who are made to conform to the views of their modern colleague. Yet such shrewd observers of the Roman scene as Polybius or that splendid historian who shines through the text of Appian would find much to agree with and to admire in C.’s dispassionate vision of Republican history. The present reviewer finds that he and C. are often of one mind; whether this makes C. right is another question. First, the credibility and uses of the sources. The patricians “had been defined already under the monarchy by a process which is now unknowable” (p. 32). C.’s cheerful epistemological agnosticism is reassuring, although the ambitious scholar or the dreamer will not be deterred .1 That Roman accounts of the early 1. Cf. recently P.-Ch. Ranouil, Recherches sur le patriciat (Paris, 1975); J.-C. Richard, Les origines de la plèbe romaine: Essai sur la formation du dualismo patricio-plébéicn (Paris, 1978).
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Republic and of the regal period constitute a fanciful fiction is not exactly a discovery. C. stresses, however, an important point which has not received all the attention it deserves, namely, that the Romans did believe in that fiction (p. 20). Historical fictions throw an interesting light on the society that maintains them. They perform an important social and political function; one might be tempted to describe Roman tales of the o rig in es as a Roman version of the “magnificent m yth”—“facilius autem quod est propositum [i.e., to illustrate the o p tim u s sta tu s c iv ita tis ] consequar, si nostram rem publicam vobis . . . ostendero, quam si mihi aliquam, ut apud Platonem Socrates, ipse finxero” (Cic. R e p . 2. 3). Next, Rome, Italy, and the Empire. This leads us to the problems of Roman “ character” and Roman imperialism. It is a much trodden ground, first by Roman legionaries, then by modern scholars, the latter often no less formidable in their naiveté than the former in their seriousness. That Roman authors, Cicero and Virgil in the forefront, were taken in by the idea of Rome’s imperial destiny, is understandable and excusable: they were Romans, they had a personal interest in Rome’s success, and they did a good job as national propagandists. That so many modern authors followed in their footsteps is to be understood as well, but hardly pardoned. The writing of history is only partially a W isse n sc h a ft; in part it is self-serving propaganda. Here lies the clue to the modern fascination with the idea of Rome. C., as was to be expected of a British author living in an age when the notion of the p a x B r ita n n ic a is merely an antiquarian term and when no Kipling exhorts the progeny of Boudicca to rule over high seas and wide lands, is remark ably free from any such preconceived misconception. He utters a salutary warn ing: the history of the Roman Republic is the history of Italy as well as of Rome (p. 124). This is just and right, but it is a difficult task to write Roman history from that perspective. Difficult, for as seen from the A r x , Italy and the World appear as objects, not subjects of history :2 These small peoples are thick as flies, to the point of irritation, satiation and nausea.
Yet on occasion even C. would be admitted to the distinguished company of the men around Scipio Aemilianus, who in Cicero’s dialogue have just concluded that Romulus was a cultured gentleman, in no respect inferior to the Greeks (Cic. R e p . 1. 58). C. tells us that for the Greek cities of southern Italy the choice lay between “ the barbarian tribes and Rome” (p. 27). If one recalls the splendor and the prosperity of southern Italy before the Hannibalic War and the many lu m in a of Latin literature who came from that part of the peninsula, doubt may be enter tained as to the alleged cultural superiority of Rome. In fact C. wishes to have it both ways; stating that “ in some respects . . . Italy was in advance of Rome,” he observes that “ the tenth-rate Samnite town of Pompeii possessed a stone theatre from the late second century B.c.” (p. 130; the first permanent stone theater in Rome was built by Pompey in 52 B.C.). This is not relevant: political and ideological reasons, not economic or cultural, prevented Rome from erecting a stone theater at an earlier date. When in 154 “censores theatrum lapideum in 2. \V. Szymborska, “Voices,” trans. M. J. Krynski and R. A. Maguire, The Polish Review 24. 3 (1979): 18-19.
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urbe constitui censuerunt, quod ne tunc fieret, Scipio Nasica [cos. 162, 155, eens. 159, pont. max. 150-41] gravissima oratione obstitit, dicens, inimicissimum hoc fore bellatori populo ad nutriendam desidiam lasciviamque commentum, adeoque movit senatum, ut non solum vendi omnia theatro comparata iusserit, sed etiam subsellia ludis poni prohibuerit” (Oros. 4. 21. 4). Cicero (referring to the Greek practice) concurs: “cum in theatro imperiti homines rerum omnium rudes ignarique consederant, tum bella inutilia suscipiebant, tum seditiosos homines rei publicae praeficiebant, tum optime meritos civis e civitate eiciebant” ( F la c . 16). These and other texts, “ buried in a footnote . . . of Mommsen’s R ö m isch es S la a lsrc c h l” (3:396, n. 3), have been resurrected by L. R. Taylor, who devoted a lucid and penetrating analysis to this question .3 Rome was spared for some time the enormity of a permanent theater, but she was not able to combat all the dangers of Hellen ism (cf. pp. 85-87). When the Byzantine Greeks started calling themselves oi 'Ρωμαίοι, this meant the ultimate triumph of Rome and the ultimate subversion of R o m a n ita s .
C. is perplexed that as late as in 149 “a desire for security, understandable in any community, amounted in Rome almost to a neurosis over her supposed vulnerability” (p. 53). Again, let the poet speak; two fictitious Roman statesmen exchange their thoughts :4 I feel threatened by every new horizon. T hat’s how I see the problem, 0 Hostius Melius. To that I, Hostius Melius, reply to you, 0 Appius Papius: Forward. Somewhere out there the world must have an end.
The poet and the scholar, those two dissimilar worlds, share the same lack of understanding of a true imperial mentality. What the Romans of the second century were concerned with was not only the security, the mere existence of the City of Rome, but the security of the Empire of Rome. This is not one and the same thing. When a state passes from the stage of the struggle for survival to the stage of a balance of power in international politics and ultimately to the position of a superpower, its notion and perception of security dramatically changes. Small states cannot worry too much about their security, for they are never secure; their security depends on the goodwill of the others, on diplomacy and not on their own strength. To the imperial power a sign of independence on the part of a dependent ally or subject is an alarming signal not to be taken lightly, for it may be the first step leading to the dissolution of the Empire, to the retreat into the dismal world of K le in sla a llic h k e il. Carthage showed some faint signs of inde pendence, and the world was taught the lesson. Britain, for one, was never in this position, for in Europe she had to accept the policy of the concert of powers. On the other hand, this is exactly the position of the Soviet Union today. C. praises the innovativeness of the Roman oligarchy in the East and castigates its stubbornness in Spain (p. 94). In fact, I would contend, we here have to do 3. Roman Voting Assemblies (Arm Arbor, 1966), pp. 29-32, 123-125. Mommsen does not appear in C.’s bibliography; Taylor does, but obviously her book was not read very carefully. It does not pay to disregard either of them. 4. Szymborska, “Voices.”
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with two sides of the same coin. An imperial power can afford withdrawing troops from a foreign country only after an unequivocal victory, never after a stalemate or defeat, for this would amount to the loss of international credibility. When Augustus adopted the policy of containment, Rome chose the sure though com fortable way to the ultimate disaster. Through their stubborn engagement in Spain the republican statesmen strengthened the Empire and weakened, possibly lost, the Republic. Thus the rise of the Empire and the dissolution of the Republic are inextricably connected with each other. “A part-time peasant army conquered the Medi terranean; that conquest then facilitated its destitution” (p. 107). Tiberius Gracchus would agree. But it was not only the peasants who were adversely affected by the imperial aggrandizement. Individual nobles prospered, but their rule as a class was undermined. I t was the empire, C. points out, that made possible various la rg itio n es and the p o p u la r is ra tio (p. 113); the fortunes robbed or extorted in the East “fed through competition in display of wealth, and through bribery in elections and trials, the internal conflict within the Roman oligarchy” (p. 134; cf. p. 172). Numerous laws destined to curb extortion, bribery, and s u m p tu s were enacted in quick succession; the leges a n n a le s were erected as a barrier against the ambition of powerful individuals. The ruling group tried hard to preserve its own cohesion (pp. 75-83, esp. p. 88 ). All in vain; it would not be unfair to apply to the nobles of the second and first centuries the bon m o t of Tacitus referring to Pompeius: “suarum . . . legum idem auctor ac subversor” ( A n n . 3. 28; on the close connection between provincial extortion and electoral bribery, see Asc. 19 Clark). The dissolution of the traditional concept and essence of the Roman citizenship was an important factor in the transition from the Republic to the Principate or, more exactly, from the social system of a city-state to that of an empire. C.’s analysis of that process coincides in a large measure with the views expressed some time ago by the present writer ,5 but it is worth pondering not only for that reason. The Roman citizenship articulated itself in three ways: the Roman citizen appeared as a voter, as a soldier, and as a member of a property class (pp. 16869). No account of the Roman expansion can fail to stress the spectacular success of the Republican citizenship policy, which, as Philip V was so well aware, was unlike anything known in Greece (pp. 38-48, esp. p. 45). The greatest success of Rome came when the so c ii rose in arms because they were denied the Roman citizenship (and with it the spoils of the empire). But when ultimately the citizen ship of Rome spread all over the peninsula it “had become detached from d e fa c to possibility of voting” (p. 112); thus once again the very success of Rome sub verted the traditional structure of civita s R o m a n a . But the real blow had been dealt by the Marian reform: the dissociation of military service from the property qualification altered the very essence of the Republican citizenship (p. 126). The “ homines honesti atque in suis vicinitatibus et municipiis gratiosi” (Cic. M u r . 47) retained their (progressively useless) votes and (happily) lost their swords. As history instructs us, in times of crisis swords or bullets carry more weight than 5. J. Linderski, Roman Electoral Assemblies from Sulla to Caesar (Wroclaw, 1966), pp. 156-66.
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voles. T h e center of political power m oved from the Senate and the (centuriate) A ssem bly lo the arm y and its leaders. T h is spelled ruin to the R epublic . 8
f>. Of course, there are in (Vs hook n number of points of rifluii or interpretation whirl) arc open to criticism. I append a selection of controversiae. 1*. -iS: ('. speaks of the continuity of the institu tion of clientela in Rome. Hut the archaic clientela was defined legally and not only socially; we ran surmise that it stood in approximately the same relationship to the late Republican clientela as the patriciate (which was both a legal and a social category) to the nobility (which was only a social category). 1’. 52: Rome was more militaristic than Sparta. The comparison misses the point. Sparta was a petrified relic from the tribal past, a community of warriors, which Rome was not. Rome was militaristic in a manner not unlike lhc Prussian stale of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries with its junker ollicer class and peasant army. P. ‘)7: App. Claudius Pulcher triumphed in 1Ί.1 "evading a threatened trilmnici.in veto . . . by taking his «laughter with him in the triumphal chariot." llis daughter qua daughter would be of no help to him; she was a Vestal (for sources, sec It rough ton, M UK, 1: Ί71). Pp. 10') It); Commenting on the dc|H>silion of Octavius ("unprecedented, but . . . hardly illegal”) C. writes: ", . . if one accepted the principle of |X>pular sovereignty, it was undoubtedly the right of the people to take away what it had given." This is fallacious logic. The Roman public law did not know the principle of popular sovereignly. It was a Greek and a very im-Roman concept. Although the individual tribunes of the plehs were selected through n process of popular eie« lion, it is important to realize that their prerogatives did not derive from the people but from the original lex sacrata, a sworn, divinely protected, and unalterable law which could not he abridged or modified by any plebiscitum or lex publica. P. 127: C. Marins was forced "to bow lo public opinion” and act against Saturninus and Glaucia. This is n superficial explanation. 1C. lladian has long ago brilliantly shown the real reason for Marius’ action: “Saturninus, having won the attachment of Marius’ soldiers, proceeded to use them for his own schemes. . . . With his ally apparently stealing his clients from him . . . Marius could not hesitate” ("Marius and the Nollies," Durham University Journal (Piòli: 1-18).
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5 C O N S T IT U T IO N A L A S P E C T S O F T H E C O N SU LA R E L E C T IO N S IN 5 9 B.C. I t h a d been g enerally h eld since M ommsen t h a t th e o rd er of th e consuls’ nam es in th e official lists h ad no significance an d th a t it w as determ in ed purely b y ch an c e .1 In 1 9 4 9 , how ever, L. R . T ay lo r a n d T. R. S. B ro u g h to n in a p ap er th a t deserves m uch m ore a tte n tio n th a n h as been p aid to it, proved th a t th e o rd er of th e consuls’ nam es was based on a s tric t sy stem .2 T h ey established th a t 1 ) th e m en n am ed first in th e lists u su ally h eld th e fasces in J a n u a ry an d in th e odd-num bered m o n th s of th e y ear 2 ) th e m en m entioned first in th e F a sti are, in a n u m b er of cases, know n to have been elected first. T here is no case, a t least in th e late republic, of th e m an elected a fte r his colleague a p p earin g first in th e y early list. T h u s th e te rm consul prio r received a new ex p la n a tio n a n d new significance: th e p rio rity in th e F a sti an d in holding th e fasces did n o t depend, as m a n y scholars believed, on g reater ag e ,3 nor was it d eterm in ed b y lot, b u t w as based on p rio rity of election. T he consul holding th e fasces in th e odd m o n th s h ad some im p o rta n t ad v an tag es over his col le a g u e ;4 T ay lo r a n d B ro u g h to n observed fu rth e r th a t, as th e elections in th e post-sullan period to o k place n o rm ally in th e o d d m o n th of Ju ly , th e y were a p p a re n tly presided over b y th e first consul. I t is to be n o ted th a t M ommsen was of th e opinion th a t th e decision regarding th e conducting of th e elections was m ade b y lo t or b y agreem en t (com paratio) betw een th e consuls .5 T h e events connected w ith th e consular elections in 5 9 B.c. are highly in terestin g b o th from th e p o litical an d th e co n stitu tio n al p o in t of view, a n d I propose to re-exam ine th e m ta k in g full acco u n t of th e rules established b y T ay lo r an d B ro u g h to n 6. T here is a w idespread opinion th a t th e com itia consularia in th a t y ear were presided over b y C aesar ;7 as his nam e ap p ears first in all th e lists an d consular 1 Th. Mommsen, Römisches S taatsrecht I 3, Leipzig 1887, 37-41; I I 3, Leipzig 1887, 90. Cf. B. Kiibler, R E IV (1900), 1118 s. v. consul. 2 The Order of the Two Consuls’ Names in the Y early Lists, Memoirs of the American Academ y in Rom e 19, 1949, 3-14 (hereafter cited as Taylor-Broughton). 3 Cf. e. g. L. Lange, Röm ische A lterthüm er I 3, Berlin 1876, 731. 4 See esp. Taylor-B roughton 4—5. 6 S taatsrecht I 3 41—42. 6 The article of W. C. Grummel, The Consular Elections of 59 b .c ., CJ 49, i9 5 3 -I 954> 351—355 is concerned only w ith some political questions and does not present any new p o in t of view. 7 Cf. e. g. J. Carcopino, César (Histoire Générale: H istoire Romaine, voi. II), Paris 1936, 689. 71
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datings 8 th e accepted facts seem to correspond perfectly w ith th e th e o ry of T ay lo r and B roughton. H ow ever, th e re is preserved in a le tte r to A tticu s a curious sta te m e n t th a t, although of great im p o rtan ce for th e p ro p er u n d erstan d in g of th e co n stitu tio nal aspects of th e consular elections in 5 9 , h as u n til now been eith er ignored or m isinterpreted . W e read Cicero, ad A tt. 2 . 2 0 . 6 : C om itia B ibulus A rchilo chio edicto in a n te diem X V. K al. N ovem br. d istu lit. A few days la te r 9 Cicero inform s A tticu s (2 . 2 1 . 5 ) : B ibuli qui sit ex itu s fu tu ru s nescio. U t nu n c res se h ab et, adm irabili gloria est. Qui cum com itia in m ensem O ctobrem distulisset, quod solet ea res populi v o lu n tatem offendere, p u ta ra t Caesar oratione sua posse im pelli contionem u t ire t ad B ib u lu m ; m u lta cum seditiosissim e diceret, vocem exprim ere non p o tu it. W e have a very curious situ atio n : B ibulus postpones th e election an d w h at is Caesar doing? On J u ly 2 5 he addresses a m eeting, w ith P om pey presen t an d also speaking (ad A tt. 2 . 2 1 . 3 ), criticizes th e edicts of B ibulus an d in order to com pell B ibulus to w ith d raw his ed ict delaying th e com itia tries to induce th e crow d to m arch against th e la tte r ’s house; a fte r his efforts fail he finally gives up. T he elections ev en tu ally d id n o t ta k e place in Ju ly . W h a t is especially strang e ab o u t th is situ atio n is th e fact th a t Caesar d id n o t contest th e v alid ity of B ib u lu s’ action. Now a n y a tte m p t a t in te rp re ta tio n m u st be concerned w ith tw o prin cip al questions: 1 ) w hy did C aesar acknow ledge th e v alid ity of B ibu lu s’ ac t ? 2 ) w h at was th e legal basis of B ib u lu s’ edict ? L et us now see how th e scholars tried to answ er th e above questions. A ccording to L ange 10 C aesar h ad issued an ed ict announcing th e d a te of th e elections, b u t B ibulus encouraged b y signs of th e dim inishing p o p u la rity of th e triu m v irs decided to p u t off th e com itia. Lange cites no evidence con cerning th e edict of Caesar an d in fact th e re is no such evidence. H is recon stru ctio n is based exclusively on th e belief th a t it was Caesar who w as to conduct elections. This, how ever, is n o t th e w eakest poin to f his thesis. T h ro u g h o u t th e republic we find only one of th e consuls in charge of electio n s :11 th e L ange’s thesis im plies th a t th e orders issued b y th e presiding consul could h av e been revoked or veto ed b y his colleague. A gain, one can ad d u ce no evidence to prove th a t. M ommsen has rig h tly po in ted o u t th a t, as fa r as elections were concerned, collegial v eto was fo rb id d en .12 B ibulus did n o t, how ever, sim ply recall or v eto th e presum ed ed ict of Caesar: he ordered th e assem bly to convene on O ctober 1 8 . To announce th e d ate of elections was a prero g ativ e of th e presiding officer; consequently, it w ould follow th a t e ith e r th e re were tw o presid en ts of th e assem bly a t one 8 See below p. 433 and note 42. * The letter 2. 21 was w ritten im mediately after Ju ly 25 and 2. 20 about Ju ly 20. 10 RA I I I 2, Berlin 1876, 293. 11 Mommsen, S taatsrecht I3 41. 12 S taatsrecht I3 285-286. 72
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tim e, or th a t B ibulus h ad u su rp ed th a t post, w hich, as th e a ttitu d e of Caesar proves, clearly w as n o t th e fact. Professor L ily R oss T ay lo r in h er article on th e V ettiu s affair holds th a t B ibulus proclaim ed h e w ould w atch th e h eavens till O ctober 1 8 an d th a t in th is w ay he m ade it im possible for Caesar to g a th e r th e assem bly earlier .13 She also believes th a t Caesar was in charge of elections b u t seeking ex p lan atio n for th e action of B ibulus in his rig h t of o b n u n tiatio she is on m u ch firm er ground th a n Lange. A lthough th is is a really ingenious solution I w ould co ntend th a t 1 ) it is inconsistent w ith th e o ry an d p ractice of o b n u n tia tio 2 ) th e w ording of Cicero is ag ain st it. Considering th e problem of o b n u n tiatio th e following points are to be ta k e n in to accou n t : 1 ) in o rd er to h in d er th e presiding m ag istrate from sum m oning th e com itia (or, if he chose n o t to obey, to m ake th e acts of th e as sem bly legally n u ll an d void) th e notice of o bservation of lig h tn in g h ad to be served personally early in th e m orning before th e assem bly gath ered . O nly th is notice (dico: fulm en vidisse) can tech n ically be term ed as o b n u n tiatio . T hough th e announcem ent se de caelo servare m ean t th e th r e a t of o b n u n tiatio it did n o t legally b in d th e presiding officer. T his basic rule of m agisterial o b n u n tiatio is illu strated b y Cicero’s vivid description of M ilo’s efforts to sto p th e election of Clodius to th e curule aedilship in 5 7 . T he consul M etellus N epos in sp ite of Milo’s an n o u n cem en t th a t he w ould be w atching th e heavens on all com itial days a tte m p te d to convene th e electoral assem bly an d only th e a c tu a l o b n u n tiatio b y Milo sto p p ed him a t th e last m om ent from doing so .14 2 ) I t is tru e th a t B ibulus p o sted edicts co ntaining th e form ula se de caelo ser v are p ro b ab ly sep arately for ev ery com itial d a y , 15 how ever, as he h ad sh u t h im self u p in his house he failed to serve th e notice in person. H is “ o b n u n tiatio n es” (so norm ally tho u g h in co rrectly called) were therefo re invalid from th e s ta n d p o in t of augural discipline an d th is p o in t of view w as of course sh ared as well b y Caesar. I t has been com m on opinion am ong scholars th a t in p ractice it was sufficient for a m a g istrate w ho w an ted to call off an assem bly to declare th a t he was w atching th e heavens. I t was sufficient as long as th e presiding officer could n o t h in d er a m a g istra te w atching for b ad om ens from serving h im th e notice and it was th e n reasonable to resign a t once from sum m oning th e com i tia a fte r a m a g istrate announced he would w atch th e heavens. T he situ atio n th a t developped in 5 9 does n o t, how ever, fit in w ith th is p a tte rn . Caesar was able n o t to allow an y b o d y w atching for b ad signs to ap p ro ac h him : he once 13 The D ate and Meaning of the V ettius Affair, H istoria 1, 1950, 46. 14 Cic., A tt. 4. 3. 3—4. Cf. I. M. J. Valeton, De iure obnuntiandi comitiis et conciliis, M nem osyne N. S. 19, 1891, 82—83, 101—102. 15 Suet., Caes. 20. Cf. Cass. Dio 38. 6. 5, who, however, confused the obnuntiationes of Bibulus w ith indictiones feriarum . Valeton, op. cit. 106—107 has shown convincingly th a t it was against the spirit of augural law to announce in one edict the intention of heaven watching during a period of time. 73
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cl i as cd Bibulus from Hie F o ru m 1® and lie was read y to rep ea t th is action. I t was a violation of th e o th e r consul’s rights, b u t it was n ot a violation of a u gural law. Bibulus did not succeed in conveying Caesar th e will of th e gods, i. e. lie did not recite th e ritu al form ula on th e prescribed spot and a t th e p re scribed time. And th e enunciation of a form ula was th e only th in g th a t really counted in augural discipline. This point, I th in k , has been com pletely missed in all m odern studies dealing w ith o b n u n tiatio . T he en tire problem of heaven w atching and especially th e question of th e v alid ity of C aesar’s legislation th u s calls for a renewed discussion. T he “ o b n u n tiatio n es” of Bibulus did not hinder Caesar and V atinius from carrying through th e ir law s; w hy th en should Caesar have accepted so easily I lie a u th o rity of B ibulus’ edict aim ed a t delaying th e elections? T he last point I should like to m ake is th a t it is b y no m eans clear if o b n u n tiatio was allowed a t all before th e lex Clodia a t electoral assemblies. Professor T aylor and m any o th er scholars believe th a t it w as; u n fo rtu n ately th is ex trem ely com plicated question cannot be gone in to here. I t is, how ever, to be noted th a t Lange and V alcton, th e au th o rs of to d a te b y far best tre a tm e n ts of th e whole subject, are against th is view 17 and, in m y opinion, th e studies of M cDonald, W einstock and S unnier 18 did not w eaken th em on th a t point. T he analysis of th e technicalities of o b n u n tiatio th u s lends h eavy su p p o rt (o our thesis th a t th e edict of B ibulus can n o t he in terp rete d as an announce m ent of heaven w atching. L et us now pass to th e term inology used by Cicero. T here is no explicit allusion to obnu n tiatio in th e te x t of Cicero. Cicero speaks only of an edict. T he assum ption it contained th e announcem ent se de caelo servare is based m erely on th e fact th a t B ibulus did issue such edicts, b u t this is h ard ly a proof. Cicero w rites Bihulus edicto com itia d istu lit. W h at is th e precise m eaning of “ ed ictu m ” and “ com itia differre” ? To begin w ith, th e term com itia differre is a technical expression to d e n o te th e postponem ent of an assem bly . 111 T he term has been discussed b y M om m sen ;20 10 Snot., Cues. 2 0 : obnuntiantem collegam (against the first agrarian taw) armis foro expulit. 17 L. l.ange, Do legibus Aelia et Fufia com m entatio, Gissae 1 8 6 1 = Kleine Schriften I, Güttingen 1 8 .8 7 , 3 2 9 (T. ; Valcton, op. eit. 9 4 , 2 (>1 . 1K\V. K. McDonald, Clodius ami the Lex Aelia Fufia, JR S 1 9 , 1 9 2 9 , ι 6 .|ίϊ.; S. Weinstoek, Clodius and the Lex Aelia Fufia, JK S 2 7 , 1 0 3 7 , 2 1 5 IL; G. V. Sumner, Lex Aetia, Lex I'ufia, A J I’ll 7 4 , 1 9 6 2 , 3 4 3 3 4 4 . Hut Sumner succeeded —and this is his great achieve m ent especially in view of fruitless efforts of many students - in establishing a valid distinction between the l'ulian and Aclian law. 10 It is to be noted that the term com itia (without a more particular specification) normally denotes the electoral assem bly. For this usage see esp. G. \V. Botsford, The Roman Assemblies, New York 1 9 0 9 , 1 3 3 - 1 3 4 . 20 Staatsrecht 111, Berlin 1 8 8 7 , 4 1 5 - 4 1 1 ).
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som e in stan ces m ay be ad d ed from th e T h esau ru s Linguae L a tin a e .21 T heoretically tw o basic ty p e s of p ostponem ents are to be discerned, b o th of th e m covered b y th e te rm com itia differre: i) th e d ilatio com itiorum could be ordered a fte r th e d a te of m eetin g h ad alread y been announced. H ere tw o fur th e r v a ria n ts were possible: e ith e r in th e announcem ent of th e dilatio a new d a te was given or n o t. In th e la tte r case a new announcem ent w as needed. 2 ) th e dilatio could occur a fte r th e assem bly convened. I t am o u n ted th e n to dissolving of th e com itia. Tw o fu rth e r v aria n ts w ere possible as above u n d er ( 1 ). T h e m ost im p o rta n t fact is th a t in none of th e cases adduced b y Mommsen and th e T hesauru s L inguae L atin ae th e term com itia differre can be u n d er stood as corresponding to “ com itia o b n u n tian d o differre” ; on th e co n trary , in all cases th e actio n of th e presiding officer is im plied. If th e sen ate voted th a t th e com itia should be postponed, th e execution of th e se n a te ’s decree was u n d o u b te d ly th e obligation of th e presid en t of th e assem bly. If a m ag istrate in person served th e notice of a bad sign, th e presiding officer could n o t legally convene th e assem bly, if an augur, th e p resident was bound to dissolve th e com itia; also a n y fu rth e r actio n as to w h eth er o r w hen, to sum m on th e as sem bly again rested w ith th e presiding officer .22 21 S. vv. differo p. 1074 and com itium p. 1803. 22 The most im portant instances are: Cie., A tt. 1. 16. 13: ita com itia in a. d. VI. Kal. Sext. dilata sunt (in order to pass before the election a bribery law) ; A tt. 4. 17. 3: com itia d ilata ex s. c., dum lex de tacito iudicio ferretur; pro Mur. 51: meministis fieri senatus consultum referente me, ne postero die com itia haberentur; Liv. fi. 37. 12: oinniumque earum rogationum com itia in adventum eius exercitus differunt qui Velitras obsidebat (cf. 6. 36. 9 ); 8 . 23. 14: tam en ad interregnum res redit, dilatisque alia atque aliadc causa com itiis; 9. 34. 20: nisi duo (sc. censores) confecerint legitim a suffragia, non renuntiato altero com itia differantur; 7. 17. 13: cum intercedendo tribuni nihil aliud quam u t differ ren t com itia valuissent, duo patricii consules creati sunt. Of these texts only Liv. 7. 17. 13 presents difficulty. I t is, however, to be observed th a t the dilatio is here only a consequence of intercessio. To p u t it in other words, the tribunes having interposed veto prohibited the assembly from convening; th e presiding officer was able to hold the consular election only after th ey gave up. (On th e veto as stopping an action and not annulling it see esp. A. Eigenbrodt, De m agistratuum Rom anorum iure intercedendi, Lipsiae 1875). In a much discussed passage, crucial for the reconstruction of the Rom an theory of obnuntiatio (Phil. 2. 81), in which Cicero uses the m ost exact term inology he speaks of Antonius: m ul tis an te m ensibus in senatu dix it se Dolabellae com itia an t prohibiturum au t id facturum esse, quod fecit. Antonius tried to dissolve the assembly as augur after it had convened (the technical expression for this is com itia dim ittere, see Mommsen, Staatsrecht 1ΙΓ 415 note 6), although he had previously m ade it known th a t he would watcli the heavens in his capacity as consul (that is before the beginning of the comitia). For interpretation of this passage see Valeton, op. cit. 95-96. For the usage of the expression com itia prohibere see also Liv. 4. 25. 1. The rule th a t the magisterial obnuntiatio prevents the com itia from being convened and not postpones them (although the postponem ent is really brought about by the obnuntiatio, technically it results from the action of the presiding officer and, moreover, only in the case of his trying to gather the assembly for the same purpose a t a later d ate; if he had dropped his original plan of gathering the com itia we cannot speak 75
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According to th e R om an system an y official com m unication by th e m agis tra te having th e ius edicendi was called ed ictu m ; it h a d to be announced orally by a herold an d ex h ib ited in th e w ritten from in a public place. A ny m a tte r could be d ealt w ith ; as it is well know n, th e consul o r an y o th e r m agis tra te who was to preside o v er an assem bly an nounced th e d ate an d th e su b ject of th e com itia by a special e d ic t .23 Now, if he decided o r was com pelled to p o st pone th e assem bly, th e re w as no o th e r w ay of inform ing th e citizens th a t th e com itia would no t ta k e place on th e previously fixed day, th a n to issue a new edict calling off th e gathering. A nd th is is precisely w h at Cicero says of B ibulus’ action. As far as th e ju rid ical base is concerned, th e re is no difference betw een th e announcem ent an d th e p o stp o n em en t of an assem bly: th e m a g istrate who h a d th e rig h t to convene th e com itia h ad also th e rig h t to dissolve or to p o st pone them . F o r our purpose, how ever, it is m ore convenient to express th is in reverse order: th e m a g istrate w ho h ad th e rig h t to postpone th e com itia m u st hav e h a d also th e rig h t to g a th e r them . Now, B ib u lu s’ rig h t to postpone th e elections was n o t questio n ed ; if our arg u m en tatio n th a t he did n o t an d could no t, bring a b o u t th e p o stp o n em en t b y m eans of o b n u n tiatio , be g ran ted , th e re is no o th e r altern ativ e, b u t to accep t th a t in 5 9 n o t Caesar, b u t B ibulus was in charge of elections. As one can see th is is a solution th a t answ ers perfectly th e questions p u t forw ard a t th e beginning of th e present p ap er a n d I th in k th a t th is p o in t has been proved beyond an y reasonable doubt. T he results reached above pose new problem s, b u t a t th e sam e tim e open u p new perspectives for solving th em . T he solutions I am going to p resen t in m ost cases b ear th e c h a ra c te r of te n ta tiv e p ropositions; m an y of th em w ill be, no d o u b t, m odified in th e course of fu rth e r research. L et us re tu rn a t first to th e th e o ry of T ay lo r a n d B roughton. A ccording to it th e consul elected first held th e fasces in th e odd m onths an d it fell therefore to his lo t to conduct th e elections. F rom th e fact th a t B ibulus presided over th e elections it is consequently to be inferred t h a t he an d n o t C aesar was elected first, th a t B ibulus and n o t C aesar was consul prior. B u t th ere is som ething more. T he rig h t to preside over elections depended, at all of a postponement) is illustratene! by the use of obnuntiatio in 54 b .c . (cf. Cic., Att. 4. 17. 4: Q. fr. 3. 3. 2) and by a testim ony of Appian concerning the consular election in 84 b .c . (B. C. I. 78. 358-359): άπειλησάντων δέ ιδιώτην άποφανεΐν, έπανηλ&ε μέν καί χειροτονίαν προύθηκεν υπάτου· απαίσιου δέ της ήμέρας γενομένης έτέραν προΰγραφεν· κάν ταύτη κεραυνοΰ πεσόντος . . οί μάντεις ύπέρ τάς θερινάς τροπάς άνετίΟ-εντο τάς χειροτονίας. The consul because of an adverse omen postponed the election ; after a new portent oc curred the augurs declared the period until after the sum m er solstice unfit for holding the election. The right to fix a new date rested with the presiding consul who, however, was obliged n o t to trespass the provision of the augural decree. 23 Mommsen, Staatsrecht I 3 205-207; II I 370. 76
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according to T ay lo r a n d B ro u g h to n , on holding th e fasces. W h a t, how ever, w ould h av e h a p p en e d if th e com itia were p o stp o n ed a n d to o k place ev en tu ally in a n even m o n th ? W as in th a t case th e p rero g ativ e to co n d u ct th e elections tra n sfe rre d to g e th er w ith th e fasces from th e first consul to his co lleag u e ?24 H ap p ily we are in a p o sition to give a t once a definite answ er. C om itia B ib u lus . . . in an te diem X V. K al. N ovem br. d istu lit - w rites Cicero (ad A tt. 2 . 2 0 . 6 ) an d elsew here (ad A tt. 2 . 2 1 . 5 ) : q u i cum co m itia in m ensem O ctobrem d istu lisset . . . N o te th a t O ctober is an even m o n th ; if B ibulus h ad th e fasces in J u ly , in O ctober th e y h a d to be h an d ed over to Caesar. If we accep t th e th esis th a t th e presidency w as based on holding th e fasces, it w ould m ean th a t B ibulus delaying th e elections u n til O ctober d elib erately resigned th e p o st of presiding officer a n d p u t Caesar in ch arg e of th e electoral assem bly, T his is an ev id en t a b su rd ity an d I see no o th e r a lte rn a tiv e b u t to ab an d o n th e th esis cited above a n d to a d m it th a t th e privilege of holding th e elections was n o t connected w ith a c tu a l possession of th e fasces. T he th e o ry of T ay lo r an d B ro u g h to n in th e p a r t concerning th e p o st of th e p resid en t of elections h as th u s pro v ed to be u n ten ab le, b u t th e re is still a possibility n o t to dam age it, b u t to give it a new shape. I t seems th a t th e p re sidency over elections was a special p rero g ativ e of th e consul prior. I t was p ro b ab ly based d irectly on p rio rity of election a n d w as n o t connected w ith holding th e fasces. I h av e h ad th e privilege of discussing som e of th e questions involved w ith Professors T. R . S. B ro u g h to n a n d L. R . T aylor. T h ey are now inclined to th in k th a t th e arran g em en ts for presiding over elections were in d ep en d en t of e ith e r p rio rity of election or th e m o n th in w hich th e consul held th e fasces an d t h a t th e decision regarding th e holding of elections w as m ad e b y lo t o r b y agreem ent betw een th e consuls. In assigning th e first consul th e exclusive rig h t to d irec t elections I m ay be of course w rong, b u t th e re are som e arg u m e n ts th a t te n d to co rro b o rate m y th esis an d I consider th e m w o rth statin g . 24 Professor Taylor m ade an a tte m p t to interpret in view of her thesis the postponem ent ordered by Bibulus. She w rites (On the Chronology of Caesar’s F irst Consulship, A JP h 72, 1951, 262 note 29; hereafter cited as Chronology) as follows: " In an edict issued in Ju ly .. . Bibulus postponed th e consular com itia from Ju ly to October 18, th a t is, ac cording to my view, from a m onth when Caesar held the fasces to a m onth when Bibulus, as th e holder of th e fasces, would have conducted th e election. In th e end Bibulus was ap p arently intim idated and th e election was conducted by Caesar, who m ay have post poned it to his m onth, N ovem ber” . This interpretation resembles th a t of Lange and is open to the sam e objections. F irst of all it does not answer th e question regarding the legal basis of B ibulus’ edict. If Caesar held th e fasces in Ju ly and if th e prerogative to conduct th e elections belonged to th e holder of th e fasces, only Caesar had th e right to issue in Ju ly edicts concerning elections. B ut, this being th e case, th e edict of Bibulus becomes m ysterious. (It is to be noted th a t the article cited is subsequent to Professor T aylor’s paper on th e V ettius affair and th a t th e interpretation according to which B ibu lus b ro u g h t about th e postponem ent by means of obnuntiatio is here dropped). 77
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I t will be a reasonable procedure to keep a p a rt facts from th e periods before an d afte r Sulla ; actu ally I know no cases of so rtitio or com paratio in th e postSullan period. Professor B ro u g h to n him self rem arks th a t instances one can adduce go ra th e r far back. In an y case an agreem ent betw een C aesar and B ibulus seems to be o u t of th e question ; so rtitio is still a th eo retical possibility, tho u g h cases of presidency over elections in th e period betw een 7 8 a n d 4 9 argue strongly ag ain st it. T he evidence has been p a rtia lly collected b y T aylor and B ro u g h to n ;25 th e y cite th e presidents of th e electoral assem bly in th e years 6 7 , 6 3 and 5 5 . To th is list th e nam es of presidents in th e years 7 8 , 6 6 , 5 8 , 57, 5 6 m ay be added. Of those years, in 7 8 , 6 7 , 6 3 , 5 8 , 5 6 an d 5 5 th e elec tions were conducted (or, if th e y did n o t actu ally ta k e place, w ere to be con ducted) by th e consuls w hose nam es ap p ea r first in th e y early lists, resp ect ively by M. Aemilius L epidus 26 in 7 8 , C. C alpurnius Piso 27 in 6 7 , M. Tullius 25 Taylor-Broughton 12 note 24. 26 Appian B. C. 1. 107. 502 informs us th a t the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus did not retu rn to Rome επί τά άρχαιρέσια. If we combine this w ith the fact th a t the elections were adjourned and finally took place early in 77 under the presidency of an interrex (Sail., H ist. I. 77. 22 M; cf. T. R. S. Broughton, The M agistrates of the R om an Republic II, New Y ork 1952, 89, 92 note 4) it seems reasonable to infer th a t the electoral com itia were originally to be presided over by Lepidus. E. G abba (Appiani Bellorum civilium liber primus, Firenze 1958, 294 ad loc.) refers th e Appian statem ent to Lepidus’ bid for re-election to the consulship (cf. Sail., H ist. 1. 77. 15M; Plut., Pomp. 16), on p. 423, however, he translates (or, ra th e r interprets) the te x t under discussion as follows : Lepido . . . non ritornò per presiedere i comizi consolari. The senate until the end of the year sought reconciliation w ith Lepidus; here seems to lie the explanation of why Lepidus had not been deprived of his post of president of the elections a t once after he revolted against the senate. F or full references to ancient sources and elucidating discussion on Lepidus’ consulship see esp. T. Rice Holmes, The R om an Republic I, Oxford 1923, 365—369. Lepidus’ name comes first in the F asti Capitolini and the consular datings, see A. Degrassi. Inscriptiones Italiae 13. i, pp. 57, 484—485 (hereafter cited as Degrassi). On CIL I2 588 (SC de Asclepiade) where Lucius Caesar’s rule seems to apply (Lepidus being probably absent from Rome) see Taylor-Broughton 8. 27 The professions of the candidates were accepted by Piso (Val. Max. 3. 8. 3) and he subsequently conducted the elections. The elections because of the strife concerning a bribery law (cf. Cass. Dio 36. 38—39; Asconius p. 57—59 Clark) were postponed in th a t year and held a t the end of A ugust or a t the beginning of September. The August date since Piso’s colleague M’. Acilius Glabrio left Rome for his province of B ithynia and Pon tus already in July (see Lange RA I I I 2 213; Klebs, R E I 256—257 s. v. Acilius no 38; Broughton, M RR II 142—143, 154) does not involve the question concerning the presumable rig h t of th e holder of the fasces to direct elections. At the same tim e I should stress th a t th e elections were originally scheduled for July and th e prerogative to conduct them belonged undoubtedly to Piso who had already accepted professiones and spoke of his rig h t to refuse the renuntiatio to M. Lollius Palicanus even if the latter were elected by th e people (Val. Max. 3. 8. 3.). The FC for this year are not preserved. In six out of eight instances collected by Degrassi (pp. 488—489) Piso is listed first. The exceptions are CIL I2 957 (where sole Acilius Glabrio appears) and Cass. Dio 36. 12. 1. In another place of Cass. Dio (36. 24. 3; om itted
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Cicero 28 in 6 3 , L. C alpurnius P iso 29 in 5 8 , Cn. Cornelius L en tu lu s M arcellinus 30 in 5 6 and Cn. P om peius 31 in 5 5 . Of th ese, Lepidus, Cicero an d P om pey (together w ith Crassus) were elected w ith o u t d o u b t an d L. Piso p robably, a t th e h ead of th e po ll .32 O nly tw o years, 6 6 an d 5 7 , seem to show irreg u larity ; how ever, as we sh all see, th is is n o t tru e of 5 7 . In fact, we do n o t know w hich of th e consuls co n d u cted th e consular an d p raeto rian elections in th a t y ear; th e elections of th e curule aediles were to be presided over (in N ovem ber) b y Q. Caecilius M etellus N epos .33 M etellus N epos is listed second in th e F a sti and co n su lar d a tin g s .34 T ry in g to exp lain th e fact of his presidency over elections by Degrassi) Piso appears first. Cf. P. Stein, Die Senatssitzungen der Ciceronischen Zeit, M ünster 1930, 5 (cited hereafter as Senatssitzungen); Taylor-Broughton 4 and i l note io. 28 There are num erous references to Cicero’s presidency over elections (Cic., Mur. 1-2, 51—52; Sull. 51 ; Cat. 1. 11 ; Sallust, Cat. 26. 5). He is first in the F asti Am iternini (Degrassi 171; th e FC are not preserved) and in all b u t one (CIL I 2 750) consular datings (Degrassi 490—491). The elections were postponed in th a t year (the question of the date a t which the com itia consularia eventually took place cannot be gone into here), b u t it was Cicero who presented a m otion to th a t effect in the senate (Cic., Mur. 51). I t is clear th a t he was prepared to conduct the election in Ju ly and the decision to adjourn it was made a t the last m om ent. 29 The praetorian elections were conducted in Ju ly by Piso (Cic., de domo 112; for the date see Cic., A tt. 3. 13. 1 ; 14. 1) ; it is to be noted th a t the consular and praetorian com itia were perform ed under the sam e auspices. Piso is listed first b y th e F C (Degrassi 57); he is also first in all consular datings (Degrassi 492—493). Only in CIL I 2 2500 (lex Gabinia de Delo) Gabinius is p u t ahead of him. Cf. Stein, Senatssitzungen 27 t. ; Taylor-Broughton 4 and i i note 13. 30 Although the elections did not take place in th a t year there is good reason to assume th a t th ey were to be presided over by Marcellinus : in th e senate he asked Pom pey and Crassus (after th e election had already been announced) if they considered running for the consulship (Cass. Dio 39. 30. 1—2, cf. 39. 27. 3; P lut., Crass. 15; Pomp. 51 —P lutarch places the event a t a contio). Marcellinus appears first in th e F asti and in all consular datings (Degrassi 492—493). Cf. Stein, Senatssitzungen 37ff. ; Taylor-Broughton 4 and 11 note 15. 31 The com itia praetorum (for 55) were directed by Pom pey (Plut., Pomp. 52; cf. T aylor-Broughton 12 note 24); he also presided over th e election of the curule aediles for 55. According to unanim ous opinion of scholars the aedilician elections were conducted by Crassus; L. R. Taylor has proved, however, by an ingenious argum ent (auctor legis is by Cicero not th e lator, b u t th e m an who uses his auth o rity to support the law) th a t Cicero’s words quae com itia prim um habere coepit consul cum omnibus in rebus sum m a auctoritate, tu m harum ipsarum legum am bitus auctor (pro Plane. 49) are to be referred to Pompey. See her article M agistrates of 55 b.c. in Cicero’s Pro Plancio and Catullus 52, A thenaeum N. S. 42, 1964, 12 ff. — Pom pey’s nam e is listed first in all datings (Degrassi 494—495). The FC are not preserved for th a t year. Cf. Stein, Senatssitzungen 45; TaylorB roughton 4 and i i note 19. 32 F or evidence see Drum ann-Groebe, Geschichte Roms II 53; IV 524; Taylor-Brough ton 4, 6, 8 and 12 notes 29, 31. 33 Cic., A tt. 4. 3. Because of the obstruction of Milo th e com itia aedilicia did not take place until Jan u a ry 56. See above p. 425 and note 14; Broughton, M RR II 208. 34 Degrassi 492—493. 79
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of th e curule aediles one can adduce tw o possible solutions: i) p erh ap s th e rule of the first consul holding elections applied only to consular an d p raeto rian elections w hich were perform ed u n d er th e sam e auspices in th e cen tu riate as sem bly, w hile th e presidency over elections of m inor m ag istrates (com itia leviora as Cicero pro Plancio 7 ch aracterizes them ) was a prero g ativ e of th e o th e r consul. T h eo retically th is is possible, b u t ta k in g into account th e aedilician elections of 5 5 (for 5 5 ) presided over b y P om pey, I do n o t th in k th is ex p lan atio n to be probable. 2 ) I t is m uch m ore likely to suppose th a t th e consul prio r P. Cornelius L en tu lu s S p in th e r was a t th a t tim e ab sen t from th e city. In fact, he left R om e before his te rm of office ex p ired .35 T he d ate of his de p a rtu re cannot be d eterm ined exactly, b u t it is to be n o ted th a t w hile in O ctober th e decree of th e sen ate concerning Cicero’s house h ad been b ro u g h t ab o u t consulibus referentibus, a t th e m eeting of th e sen ate on N ovem ber 1 4 only M etellus N epos seems to h av e been a c tin g .36 T his is especially striking since N ovem ber is an odd m o n th an d th e fasces should have been held by L entulus S pinther. On th e co n tra ry th e situ a tio n in 6 6 is indeed confusing an d to propose an explanation w hich w ould m eet general accep tatio n seems to be extrem ely difficult. T he consul L. V olcatius Tullus refused to accep t th e professio of C atilin e ;37 as th is was a prero g ativ e of th e presiding officer, he h ad ap p are n tly th e rig h t to conduct elections. Professor B ro u g h to n rem arks (in a letter) th a t V olcatius is usually listed second .38 I t is tru e th a t in all consular datings p re served for th e y ear V olcatius’ nam e comes a fte r th a t of his colleague. I t is, how ever, to be no ted th a t th e F a sti C apitolini are n o t preserved for th is year an d th e indications of th e lite ra ry sources are c o n tra d icto ry .39 U nder these circum stances com plete ce rta in ty regarding th e position of V olcatius Tullus cannot be reached. Of course th is m ay be used as an arg u m en t ag ain st m y thesis, b u t certain ly need n o t be and, in an y case, it is n o t a dam aging arg u m ent. A com parison m ay be h elpful: in J a n u a ry 4 9 L. Cornelius L entulus Crus, nam ed second in th e yearly list, held th e fasces .40 No one w ould see in th is fact a proof against th e rule established b y T aylor and B roughton giving th e first consul p rio rity in holding th e fasces. T he evidence collected b y T aylor an d B roughton clearly does n o t allow of such an in te rp re ta tio n ; accordingly th e case of th e second consul holding th e fasces in J a n u a ry is to be view ed as an exception to th e rule. Of eight cases in w hich th e nam es of presiding consuls are know n, six ex h ib it perfect agreem ent w ith th e th e o ry giving th e first consul th e prerogative 35 See Münzer, R E IV 1395 s. v. Cornelius no 238. 36 Cic., A tt. 4. 2. 4—5; de har. resp. 13. Cf. Stein, Senatssitzungen 35-36. 37 Ascon. p. 89 Clark. 38 The evidence is collected by Degrassi 488—489. 39 The F asti H ydatiani, Chronicon Paschale, Cassius Dio and Sallust give priority to Volcatius. 40 See Taylor-Broughton 4 and 11 note 20.
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to d irect elections an d none is ag ain st it. In one case th e presidency of th e consul listed second finds easy ex p lan atio n in th e absence of th e consul p rio r w hich, in fact, lends fu rth e r su p p o rt to our thesis. In one case th e evidence is confused allow ing for d iv erg en t in te rp re ta tio n s. T his is h a rd ly likely to be th e resu lt of chance and, consequently, th e re is no reason for re tu rn in g to M ommsenian conception of so rtitio an d co m p aratio .41 T his conclusion w ill of course h av e its b earing on reco n stru ctio n an d ev alu atio n of m a n y events of 5 9 b . c . an d it is now to be discussed w h at p a rtic u la r im plications it entails. As we have seen th e consul elected first gained th re e im p o rta n t privileges: 1 ) th e rig h t of h avin g his n am e inscribed in th e first place in th e F a s ti 2 ) h old ing th e fasces in th e odd m o n th s an d calling th e sen ate for th e first m eeting of th e y ear 3 ) presiding over elections. T h e th e o ry of T ay lo r a n d B ro u g h to n as developped above, w hen conse q u en tly applied to th e facts reco n stru cted in th e preceding section, leads to som e im p o rta n t conclusions: 1 ) B ib u lu s’ rig h t to h old th e elections a t w h a t ever d a te th e y occurred was b ased on his position of consul prior 2 ) from th is, in tu rn , it is to be inferred th a t he was elected first an d th a t 3 ) he held th e fasces in J a n u a ry an d in th e odd-num bered m o n th s of th e year. These conclusions, if g ran ted , en tail a th o ro u g h revision of m an y accep ted facts concerning th e h isto ry of C aesar’s consulship; in p a rtic u la r th e y are inconsistent w ith th e view p ropounded b y P rofessor L. R. T ay lo r th a t Caesar carried th ro u g h his first ag rarian law n o t in A pril or M arch, as h ad been believed u n til recently, b u t alread y in J a n u a ry . C a e s a r ’s n a m e i n th e F a s t i . A gainst th e arg u m e n tatio n presen ted in th e preceding section one serious objection m ay be raised: th e fact th a t C aesar’s nam e comes first in th e y early lists an d consular d atin g s preserved for th e y e a r .42 As th in g s w ould a p p e a r we have th e n tw o in d isp u tab le facts: B ibulus h aving th e rig h t to preside over elections an d C aesar ap p earin g first in th e F a sti. As we know from th e s tu d y of L. R. T ay lo r an d T. R. S. B ro u g h to n first position in th e F a sti depended on p rio rity of election an d in d icated p rio r ity in holding th e fasces. Now, we h av e show n th a t th e rig h t to direct elections depended also on p rio rity of election. P o siting th e correctness of b o th m y an d 41 Professor Taylor pointed out to me an interesting passage of Livy th a t m ay give some additional support to m y thesis. I t reads as follows (32. 28. 4) : neque ulla alia res m aius bello im pedim entum ad eam diem fuisset, quam quod . . . in ipso conatu gerendi belli prior consul revocaretur. L. R. Taylor rem arks rightly th a t a t th a t tim e (197 b .c .) either accom odation or sortitio prevailed. I am therefore inclined to think th a t here Livy projected the late republican usage into th e second century. T he case of M. Aemilius Lepi dus in 78 (see above, note 26) offers a striking parallel to his report. Professor Taylor notes fu rth er th a t in th e lex M alacitana 52 th e duum vir m aior n atu is directed to hold com itia; this reflects, however, ra th e r A ugustan th a n republican arrangem ents. 42 See Degrassi 492—493.
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T ay lo r-B ro u g h to n ’s th e o ry th e re is only one w ay of escape from th is seem ingly unsolvable co n trad ictio n : to assum e th a t in 5 9 th e F a sti are o u t of order. This is not so hazard o u s a solution as it m ig h t seem a t first sight. Professor T aylor herself has show n th a t th e A ugustan editors of th e consular list reco n stru cted it so as to m ake it fittin g for th e political goals of th e new regim e. I t is especially conspicuous an d m ost im p o rta n t for our arg u m en t th a t in m an y cases in w hich th e order of th e consuls’ nam es, as given b y th e F asti, is d iv ergent from th a t tra n s m itte d b y L iv y an d o th e r w riters, th e nam es of predecessors of A ug u stu s’ fam ily an d of th e pontifices w ho m ade up th e com m ission editin g th e list, are p u t in th e F a s ti in th e first p lace .43 I t h ad a priori to be expected th a t b y th e re-edition of th e y early list C aesar’s nam e w ould be placed first. T he nam e of divus Iulius, th e fa th e r of A ugustus, could n o t have ap p eared a fte r th a t of M. B ibulus, his p o litical an d personal enem y. So th e order was reversed. T he consular d atin g s are p erh ap s m ore intriguing. W e m ay, how ever, sup pose th a t in th o se d atin g s th e rule of L. Caesar w as applied, according to w hich th e te rm consul m aior designated vel eum penes quern fasces s in t vel eum qui prior factus s it .44 So in th e d atin g s th e nam e of th e consul actu ally holding th e fasces, th o u g h elected afte r his colleague, could h av e been placed first. T his is th e m ore p robable as since th e tim e B ibulus h ad sh u t him self up in his house only Caesar could h av e been considered as actin g consul (i. e. consul m aior according to th e first definition of L. Caesar). T his situ a tio n is ex cellently depicted b y a p o p u lar w itticism circu latin g in R om e th a t it w as th e y e a r of th e consulship of Iu liu s an d C aesar .45 C a e s a r ’s e le c tio n to th e c o n s u l s h i p . Is th e re an y ind icatio n in th e sources th a t Caesar was elected to th e consulship a fte r B ibulus ? A p en d an t question w ould be: is th e re an y in d icatio n th a t he was elected first? T he answ er to eith er query is: no. T he sources say sim ply n o th in g definite. P lu ta rch states in a rhetorical fashion th a t Caesar was elected b rillia n tly ,46 Cassius Dio inform s th a t his election w as u n an im o u s ,47 b u t he is speaking here only of th e a ttitu d e ad o p ted b y th e followers of P om pey an d Crassus. One gets an im pression th a t C aesar’s election is referred to in view of his fu rth e r accom plishm ents. Besides, a possibility can n o t be excluded th a t Caesar an d B ibulus g o t all th e v o tes; in th a t case th e decision regarding th e p rio rity w as p ro b ab ly m ade b y lot. A t an y ra te B ibulus em erged as consul prio r an d th e evidence concerning C aesar’s election is n o t ag ain st th is view. T h e d a te o f C a e s a r ’s f i r s t a g r a r i a n la w . T he belief th a t Caesar held th e fasces in J a n u a ry and th a t only th e consul being in a c tu a l possession of th e fasces 43 L. R. Taylor, New Indications of Augustan E diting in the Capitoline Fasti, CPh 46, 1951, 73 ff. 44 Festus p. 154 L. Cf. Taylor-Broughton 6. 45 Suet., Caes. 20. 46 Caes. 14, Crass. 14. 47 37. 54. 3. Full references to ancient sources will be found in Drum ann-Groebe I I I 177. 82
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could preside in th e sen ate is essential for L. R. T ay lo r’s th e o ry p u ttin g th e passage of C aesar’s first ag rarian law on one of th e la st days of J a n u a r y .48 T he p o in t concerning th e presidency in th e sen ate seems to me to be proved b eyond a n y d o u b t ,49 b u t if our arg u m e n tatio n th a t B ibulus was th e first consul an d th a t he held th e fasces in J a n u a ry is accepted, one of th e pillars of L. R. T a y lo r’s th e o ry will be dam aged. I t is to b e n o ted th a t th e question of w h eth er only th e consul holding th e fasces could exercise th e ius cum populo agendi (w hich seems v ery doubtful) has no bearin g on d atin g of C aesar’s legislation: before su b m ittin g th e p ro jec t of his bill to th e v o te of th e trib es Caesar p re sen ted it to th e sen ate an d d id n ot tu rn d irectly to th e assem bly u n til a fte r his plans h ad been d isap p ro v ed b y th e senate. A le tte r of Cicero w ritte n in D ecem ber 6 0 is claim ed b y T ay lo r an d B rough to n 50 to produce u n m istak ab le evidence th a t Caesar d id have th e fasces in J a n u a ry . B ecause of im p o rtan ce a tta c h e d to th a t te x t b y th e scholars nam ed above I reproduce it below. Cicero, a d A tt. 2 . 3 . 3 : Venio nu n c ad m ensem Ian u a riu m e t ad ύπόστασιν n o stram ac πολιτείαν, in q u a Σ ω κρα τικώ ς εις έκάτερον sed ta m en a d ex trem u m , u t illi so leb an t, την άρέσκουσαν. E s t res sane m agni consilii; n am a u t fo rtite r resisten d u m est legi ag rariae, in quo est q u aedam dim icatio sed p len a laudis, a u t quiescendum , quod non est dissi m ile a tq u e ire in Solonium a u t A ntium , a u t etia m ad iu v an d u m , quo d a me a iu n t Caesarem sic ex p ectare u t non d u b ite t. I t is to b e stressed th a t th e le tte r does n o t co n tain an y d irec t in fo rm atio n concerning th e fasces of Caesar, nor does it say an y th in g definite ab o u t th e d a te of C aesar’s ag rarian law. This being th e case, an y conclusion we infer from th e w ords of Cicero is a m a tte r of in te rp re ta tio n an d it is n o t im possible to im agine an in te rp re ta tio n divergent from th a t p u t forw ard b y T ay lo r a n d B roughton. Should we n o t, for instance, ta k e th e expression venio nunc ad m ensem Ian u ariu m to m ean th e y ear 59 in general, J a n u a ry 1 m ark in g th e beginning of C aesar’s consulship ? I t seems th a t th e re are only tw o certain facts we know a b o u t th e d a te of C aesar’s law : th a t th e term in u s a n te quern for it is th e beginning of A pril an d th a t it w as passed on a com itial d ay preceding th e sen ato rial m eeting a t w hich B ibulus trie d in vain to find some one w ho w ould b rin g forw ard th e question of th e v alid ity of C aesar’s la w .52 If th is m eeting was held u n d er th e presidency 48 On th e Chronology of C aesar’s F irst Consulship, A JP h 72, 1951, 254-268. In th a t paper Professor Taylor dates th e passage of the law on Jan u a ry 28; in the notes for an unw ritten paper on chronology of 59 (which she had kindly p u t a t m y disposition) she argues, however, th a t the law was passed on the 29th. 49 Ch. Meier (Zur Chronologie und Politik in Caesars erstem Konsulat, H istoria 10, 1961, 69 note 2) denies this; however, he adduces no argum ents. The circumstances of Cic., Phil. 8. 33 (cited by O ’Brien Moore, R E Suppi. VI 701) are quite exceptional. 50 Taylor, Chronology 258; Broughton, M RR II 187. 51 Taylor, Chronology 257. 52 Suet., Caes. 20. 83
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of B ibulus 53 th e law was passed eith er in a m o n th in w hich B ibulus h a d th e fasces (i. e. according to our th esis in an odd m onth) or on th e last d ay of th e preceding m o n th (th e sen ato rial m eeting in th a t la tte r case is to be placed on th e first d ay of an odd m o n th ). O nly M arch an d F e b ru ary 2 8 fit in w ith th is schem e, J a n u a ry being excluded since Caesar could n o t convene th e sen ate u n til F ebruary. U nder a lex G abinia F e b ru ary w as reserved for hearings of th e foreign em bassies: th ese hearings could, howTever, h av e been postponed (as was th e case in 5 6 a n d p ro b ab ly in 6 0 54) an d it is possible th a t Caesar p re sented his bill to th e sen ate in F e b ru ary (when he h ad th e fasces). W hen re constructing th e chronology of C aesar’s consulship one should rem em ber th a t Caesar was pontifex m axim us an d th erefore it is te m p tin g to assum e an in te r calary m o n th .55 T here is no indication in th e sources as to whom th e fasces belonged in th a t m o n th : d id th e y rest w ith th e consul holding th em in F e b ru ary or pass over to th e o th e r one? W hen, how ever, we consider th a t th e in te r calary m onth was in serted afte r T erm inalia an d lasted u n til R egifugium , i. e. th a t afte r it followed still five days of F eb ru ary , it w ill ap p ear ra th e r im prob able th a t th e re should h av e been an y change in holding th e fasces. I t seems therefore possible to assum e th a t th e lex ag raria w as v o ted on in M arch or on F e b ru ary 2 8 , th e discussion in th e senate ta k in g place in th e in tercalary m o n th . C ic e r o , a d A t t i c u m 2 . 1 5 . 2 a n d th e d i l a t i o c o m i t i o r u m . I t is a strik in g fact ab o u t th e postponem ent of elections in 5 9 th a t th e le tte r Cic., ad A tt. 2 . 2 0 . 6 w hich we have discussed above, was n o t th e first to m ention a d ilatio com itio rum . In ad A tt. 2 . 1 5 . 2 we read as follows: B ibuli au tem is ta m ag n itu d o anim i in com itiorum d ilatione q u id h ab e t nisi ipsius iudicium sine ulla correctione rei p. ? T h e le tte r is d a te d betw een A pril 2 4 an d 2 9 s6 an d since in th a t m o n th norm ally no elections to o k place C icero’s inform ation becom es enigm atic. M ost scholars w ho h ave com m ented on th e te x t u n d er discussion h av e in te r p rete d it as a reference to th e regular elections for 6 0 . 57 B ibulus could indeed h av e announced in A pril th a t he w ould n o t convene th e electoral assem bly on its norm al J u ly term . This solution, how ever, seems som ew hat strange, because in th a t case th e ed ict of B ibulus w ould h av e am o u n ted to th e p o st poning of an assem bly th a t h ad n o t been previously ordered to convene. On 53 The questions concerning the senatorial procedure cannot be discussed here. L. R. Taylor in her paper on the chronology of Caesar’s consulship (p. 260) thought th a t the meeting referred to by Suetonius (Caes. 20) was presided over b y Caesar, however, sub sequently, she changed her view (in the "N otes” cited above, note 48) and returned to the opinion held by E. Meyer, Caesars Monarchie und das P rincipat des Pompeius3, S tu ttg a rt u. Berlin 1922, 71 th a t Bibulus was presiding. 54 C ic ., Q . fr. 2. 3. 1; A tt. 1. 18. 7. 55 A possibility of an intercalary m onth is assumed also by L. R. Taylor in her "N otes” (see above, note 48). 56 See L. A. Constans, Cicéron, Correspondance I, Paris 1950, 189, 239. 57 E. Meyer, Caesars Monarchie 81 note 4; Ch. Meier, op. cit. 93. 84
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th e o th e r h and, how ever, since J u ly was, in th e po st-S u llan period, th e n orm al te rm for elections, an y an n o u n cem en t to th e effect th a t th e y w ould n o t ta k e place a t th a t tim e m ig h t easily h av e been looked u p o n as a dilatio. If th is were th e case, w hy th e n , d id B ibulus issue a new ed ict in J u ly ? A n ex p lan atio n can be afforded of th is q u ery as well: it is possible th a t th e A pril edict e ith er did n o t fix a definite d a te for th e elections, or if it did, p erh ap s B ibulus w an ted to change it an d announce a still la te r one. T he o th e r problem is, does th e above reco n stru ctio n fit th e p o litical situ a tio n in A pril an d J u ly ? One m ay ask w hy C aesar d id n o t re a c t im m ed iately in A pril, w hen his po litical position w as stro n g , b u t w aited u n til Ju ly . M oreover, from C icero’s description one gains a stro n g im pression th a t Caesar w as com pletely baffled b y B ib u lu s’ J u ly m an e uver. H ow ever, let it be rem ark ed th a t th e im pressions of different scholars are n o rm ally also different an d an y such a rg u m e n tatio n is b o u n d to rem ain inconclusive. N one th e less th e re is s till a p o ssib ility t h a t has escaped th e scholars. B ib u lu s’ ed ict could h av e been concerned w ith an election called to fill a v acan cy an d n o t w ith reg u lar elections for 5 8 . U n fo rtu n ate ly we know of no m a g istrate who died in office early in 5 9 ; we only h ap p en to know th a t an augur, Q. Caecilius M etellus Celer (cos. 6 0 ), died before leaving th e city . H is d eath oc cu rred p ro b ab ly before A pril an d n o t la te r th a n th e m iddle of th a t m o n th .58 A can d id ate for th e a u g u rate w as P. V atin iu s ,69 arch en em y of th e o p tim ate faction. I t w ould b e te m p tin g to suppose th a t B ibulus delayed ju s t these au g u ral elections; th is idea is, how ever, u n acc ep tab le: since th e lex of T. L a bienus in 6 3 th e elections of th e priests h ad occurred only a t a set tim e betw een th e consular an d p ra e to ria n ones .60 T he only rem aining p ossibility is to con sider th e election for a v a c a n t m ag istracy w hich is possible, b u t can n o t be p o sitiv ely proved. T h e l e x C a m p a n a a n d th e p r o fe s s io o f c a n d id a te s . T he second ag rarian law concerning th e ager C am panus an d th e cam pus S tellas passed b y th e en d of M ay 61 contained a clause req u irin g th e can d id ates to ta k e an o ath of allegiance to th e leges Iuliae before a contio. Cicero inform s us of th is provision rep o rtin g as follows (ad A tt. 2 . 1 8 . 2 ) : H a b e t etiam C am pana lex execrationem in c o n ti one can d id ato ru m , si m en tio n em fecerint quo a lite r ager po ssid eatu r a tq u e u t ex legibus Iuliis. N on d u b ita n t iu rare ceteri; L ateren sis ex istim a tu r la u te fecisse quod trib u n a tu m pl. p etere d e s titit ne iu rare t. 58 T. R. S. B roughton, Metellus Celer’s Gallic Province, TAPhA 79, 1948, 73-76; M RR I I 183. 69 Cic., A tt. 2. 5. 2; 9. 2; 7. 3. V atinius was not elected, see Cic., Vat. 19; cf. Cael. 59, Sest. 130, Sch. Bob. p. 147 Stangl. 60 Mommsen, S taatsrecht I I 3 31-32; L. R. Taylor, The Election of th e Pontifex M axi m us in th e L ate Republic, CPh 37, 1942, 422. 61 On the date see Taylor, Chronology 256. 55
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A ccording to L. R. T ay lo r th e le tte r cited above belongs to th e tim e of th e professio of trib u n icial c a n d id a te s ;62 she seems th u s to assum e th a t th e p ro fessio was perform ed a t th e contio referred to b y Cicero. Ch. Meier objects to th a t in terp reta tio n th a t in fact we do n o t know w h eth er th e contio took place a t or after, th e tim e of th e professio .63 I t is surprizing th a t th e scholars who discussed our te x t h av e spoken only of th e professio of th e trib u n icial candidates. To be sure, Cicero does n o t say th a t th e oath w as ta k en exclusively b y th e can d id ates for th e trib u n a te ; he rep o rts th a t of all can d id ates only Iu v en tiu s L ateren sis refused to ta k e th e prescribed o ath an d therefo re resigned from ru n n in g for th e trib u n a te . His inform ation regarding th e clause from th e lex C am pana bears a general ch a ra c te r an d it is clear th a t th e law d id n o t single o u t th e trib u n icial candidates. If Cicero refers to a trib u n icial can d id ate it is only for th a t reason th a t th e only can d id ate w ho refused to ta k e th e o ath h ap p en ed to be stan d in g for th e trib u n a te of th e plebs. B y th e tim e th e le tte r u n d er discussion was w ritte n 64 th e contio of th e can didates h ad already ta k e n place — according to our in te rp re ta tio n it w as a contio of all can d id ates an d n o t exclusively of trib u n icial ones. Could th is m ean th a t b y th a t tim e th e professio of all can d id ates, including th o se s ta n d ing for th e curule m agistracies, was over as well ? F irst of all it is to be stressed th a t th e re is no explicit m ention of th e pro fessio in Cicero’s le tter. A ny view th a t identifies th e contio can d id ato ru m w ith th e act of professio or tries to establish th e sequence of th ese ev en ts m u st be carefully argued. L. R. T ay lo r holds th a t th e contio an d professio were sim ul taneous, Ch. Meier th a t th e professio preceded th e co n tio .65 T here is only one possibility left an d I am going to show th a t th e professio could h av e ta k e n place only a fte r th e contio can d id ato ru m . T he first problem to b e solved is w hich m a g istrate h ad th e d u ty of con vening th e contio. T here m u st h av e been a special p o in t in th e lex dealing w ith th e president of th e contio. T h e legislator h a d only tw o possibilities to choose from : he could assign th e d u ty of sum m oning th e contio eith er to th e presidents of th e electoral assem blies or to a n o th e r m ag istrate, p ro b ab ly a consul. In th e first case tw o sep arate m eetings w ould h av e been required, re spectively for th e can d id ates ru n n in g for th e cu ru le offices an d th o se stan d in g for th e plebeian ones. T h e language of Cicero (as we h av e argued above) who speaks only of one contio an d of can d id ates in general is n o t in fav o u r of th is possibility (with w hich, how ever, b o th th e in te rp re ta tio n proposed b y T ay lo r an d th a t of Meier correspond). M oreover it seems h ard ly likely t h a t C aesar 02 The V ettius Affair, H istoria i, 1950, 47. 63 Op. cit. 93 note 10. 64 I t was w ritten a t any ra te before the ludi Apollinares were over (th at is before July 12) and since in ad A tt. 2. 19. 3 an incident in the th eater is referred to, probably before the beginning of the ludi. 65 See above, notes 62 and 63.
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should have e n tru ste d th e p resid en t of th e electoral com itia - th a t is B ibulus w ith a prerogative so im p o rta n t for th e sake of his legislation. P ro b ab ly Caesar in his law d irected one of th e consuls to convene th e m eeting of th e can d id ates (w ith an unexpressed b u t clear in ten tio n th a t he him self w ould see th a t th e contio be sum m oned before th e elections). T h e consideration of th e technicalities of professio lends fu rth er su p p o rt to our thesis. T he a c t of professio never took place before th e people (i. e. th e contio) b u t before a m a g istrate (the presid en t of th e electoral assembly) an d th e re is no evidence th a t it was perform ed b y all can d id ates a t one tim e .66 To be sure, w h at we know of C aesar’s professio in 6 0 shows clearly th a t it could have been perform ed on an y d ay w ith in th e legally prescribed p erio d .67 If all legal requirem ents w ere n o t com plied w ith by a can d id ate th e presiding m a g istrate was obliged to refuse to accep t th e professio (unless a dispensation h ad been decreed b y th e senate). These req u irem en ts were set u p m ostly by special s ta tu te s such as th e Sullan law de m ag istratib u s or th e lex an nalis; new provisions were su b seq u en tly added b y o th e r bills, as d id also th e lex C am pana. T he presiding officer hav in g accep ted th e professio of a can d id ate s ta te d officially th a t th e la tte r was legally e n titled to sta n d for a m agistracy. P ro b ab ly by th e ac t of ratio n em accipere th e p resid en t bound him self n o t to refuse to announce officially (renuntiare) th e election of any of th e accepted candidates. T his precludes th e possibility of professio preceding th e contio can d id ato ru m : it is clear th a t u n til th e necessary legal requirem ent in 5 9 th e o a th tak in g , h ad n o t been com plied w ith b y th e candidates, th e y could n o t p resen t them selves before th e presidents of th e electoral assem blies .68 T h e conclusion we h ave reached above im plies th a t b y th e tim e of Cic., ad A tt. 2 . 1 8 th e elections b o th of th e curule an d th e plebeian m ag istrates h ad n o t y e t been announced. A ccording to M om m sen’s view w hich like so m any o th ers becam e an article of faith , th e ac t of professio in th e post-S ullan epoch h ad to be perform ed in a period of tim e preceding th e announcem ent of elec tions. T he edict would th e n n o t only fix th e d a te of th e elections, b u t contain ee Mommsen, S taatsrecht I3 471 note 1, 501 ff. 67 Cf. App., B. C. 2. 8; P lut., Caes. 13; Suet., Caes. 18. 68 A striking analogy to the clause of Caesar’s law is to be found in the provision of the lex L atin a Tabulae B antinae (on this law which is to be dated in th e post-G racchan period see G. Barbieri, Dizionario Epigrafico IV 716-717 s. v. lex; the edition cited is th a t by S. Riccobono, Fontes Iuris Rom ani A nteiustiniani I, Florentiae 1941, 82—84). W e read linn. 19-20: Qu]ei ex h(ace) l(ege) non iourauerit, is m agistratum inperium ue nei petito neiue gerito neiue habeto, neiue in senatu [sententiam deicito deicereue eum] ni quis sinito, neiue eum censor in senatum legito. I t is interesting th a t the law barred those who had n o t sworn not only from habere and gerere a m agistracy, b u t also from petere. A sim ilar provision m ust have been inserted in the law of Caesar: Laterensis trib u n atu m pi. petere d estitit, we read in Cicero’s letter. On the oath taking by the senators see E.Meyer, Caesars Monarchie 67-68 and L. R. Taylor, P arty Politics in the Age of Caesar, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1949, 134. 87
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also a list of can d id ates 69 (becom ing th u s form ally com parable to th e pro m u l gatio of a law). I t has never been clear w hen, in th e view of Mommsen an d his followers, th e period of p resen tin g of th e can d id atu res began. If we place it w ith Mommsen before th e announcem ent of elections it will ap p ea r th a t in 5 9 th e professio should alread y h av e ta k en place in A pril. If B ib u lu s’ edict set a d a te for elections (according to Ch. Meier an A ugust d a te 70) th e electioneering period would h av e alread y begun in A pril an d b y th a t tim e th e professions m u st have been over. N o one will readily subscribe to th is reconstruction w hich is, how ever, clearly im plied b y th e com m on view of th e tim e of professio. B u t perhaps B ibulus d id n o t set a definite d a te in April. T hen th e electioneering period began in J u ly a n d lasted till O ctober 1 8 . T he term in u s a n te quern for professio of cand id ates ru n n in g for curule offices w ould in th a t case h av e been th e d ate of B ib u lu s’ edict. H ere, how ever, a new difficulty arises. T here is no d o u b t th a t to accep t professions was an exclusive rig h t of th e presid en t of elections. B u t B ibulus rem ained sh u t u p in his house an d consequently he was n o t able to accept th e professions of th e can d id ates (it is alm ost certain th a t th e act of professio h a d to be perform ed in a public place, p ro b ab ly in th e Forum ). W ho th en did accep t th em ? Unless th e re was a s tric tly lim ited period for th e candidates to presen t them selves during w hich th e consul acting in th e cap acity of th e p resident of elections m u st have been u n in terru p ted ly on h and, I see no possibility of solving th is difficulty. If th e consul w ho was to accep t candidacies had , because of a prolonged illness or some o th e r reason, been p rev en ted from fulfilling his d u ty , it is m ost pro b ab le to assum e th a t his col league au to m atically to o k over his task . A t an y ra te it is clear th a t th e period of professions m u st n o t h av e stretch ed over m an y m onths. I w ould suggest th a t th is period is to be placed n o t before b u t a fte r th e announcem ent of elec tio n s .71 I t was p ro b ab ly th e period of 2 4 days co u n tin g b ack from th e d ay for w hich th e com itia were scheduled. This proposition has, a t any ra te , one ad v an tag e: a clause of th e lex F ufia is believed to h av e provided th a t no law could be prom ulgated or passed in th e period betw een th e ann o u n cem en t and th e holding of th e elections .72 This period is u su ally th o u g h t to h av e lasted 2 4 days (trinum nundinum ) ; w h at, how ever, w ould be th e solution if th e elections were postponed or announced long in advance (as in 5 9 ) ? Is it conceivable th a t in th a t case th e clause p ro h ib itin g legislation before elections was valid during th e tw o, th ree o r m ore m o n th s th a t h a d elapsed since th e original announcem ent ? I t seems th erefore reasonable to assum e th a t th e Fufian law forbade proposing an d v o ting on laws only in th e period of 2 4 consecutive days im m ediately preceding th e election day. 69 S taatsrecht I3 471-472, 502-504. Cf. A. E. Astin, “ Professio” in the Abortive Elec tion of 184 B.C., H istoria 11, 1962, 2520. 70 Op. cit. 94 note 14. 71 I shall discuss this question in detail elsewhere. 72 On the whole problem see now esp. Ο. V. Sumner, op. cit., 340 if. 88
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L e t us now p resen t a te n ta tiv e reco n stru ctio n of B ib u lu s’ an d C aesar’s m aneuvres concerning th e elections. A b o u t th e end of A pril C aesar po sted his p ro jec t of th e lex C am pana; B ibulus on hearing th a t it in clu d ed a clause to th e effect th a t all can d id ates h ad to ta k e an o ath to ad h ere to th e leges Iu liae decided to co u n teract an d announced t h a t he w ould n o t convene th e electoral com itia in J u ly .73 A bout th e end of J u n e Caesar a c tin g according to th e provision of his law sum m oned th e contio a n d th e candidates (except Iu v en tiu s L aterensis) to o k th e o ath . N ot long before J u ly 2 5 B ibulus p o stp o n ed th e com itia to O ctober 1 8 . W hile doing so he ev id en tly hoped th a t som ething favourable to th e o p tim ates w ould h ap p en . T h e political situ a tio n d id n o t, how ever, change a n d in O cto b er B ibulus h ad n o t enough courage to leave his house an d resum e his du ties as consul an d p resid en t of elections .74 C aesar th e n ap p eared on th e stage an d to o k over (as he w as p ro b ab ly req u ired to do b y a c o n stitu tio n al rule) th e ta sk of accepting professiones an d con d u ctin g elections. T h e henchm en of th e triu m v irs Piso a n d G abinius were elected to th e consulship. F u rth e r rem arks are needed here. No source ex p licitly sta te s th a t Caesar conducted th e elections p ersonally; it is, how ever, very p robable th a t th e y really did ta k e place on O cto b er 1 8 since in a le tte r w ritte n a fte r O ctober 2 5 a p ra e to r designatus is referred t o .75 Cicero speaks of Piso (in Pis. 3 ) : tu consul es re n u n tia tu s . . . im peditis rei publicae tem p o rib u s, dissidentibus consulibus. P rofessor B rough to n n o tes (in a letter) th a t, if B ibulus held th e election, he h a d to announce as consuls stro n g ly opposed to h im Piso an d G abinius. T he expression dissidentibus consulibus seems to be in th a t case an un u su ally m ild sta te m e n t. I have n o th in g to a d d to th ese ju s t rem arks. In fact, it is h ighly im probable th a t B ibulus d irected th e elections an d perform ed th e solem n a c t of re n u n tia tio of Piso an d G abinius - h ad he done so, it w ould h ave am o u n ted to his having surren d ered to th e triu m v irs. On th e co n trary , Cicero to o k active p a rt in th e election serving as custos on b eh alf of P iso .76 T here is still one question. One m ay ask w hy B ibulus did n o t delay th e election u n til th e end of th e year. T h e answ er m ay be th a t e ith e r th e president B i b u l u s , C a e s a r a n d th e c o n s u l a r e le c tio n s .
73 B ibulus’ edict is m entioned in ad A tt. 2. 15; the first reference to the lex Cam pana is in ad A tt. 2. 16 which was w ritten on April 29 or M ay 1. The only date m entioned in 2. 15 is the 5th of M ay: Cicero inform s A tticus th a t he will w ait for him in Form iae usque ad I I I Nonas Maias. This letter m ay have been w ritten on May 2 or 3 and it seems there fore quite possible th a t 2. 16 preceded 2. 15. 74 I do not propose to discuss here the V ettius affair which is ra th e r a political and not a constitutional problem. I t seems to me still likely, in spite of Ch. Meier’s criticism, to d ate it w ith L. R. Taylor in m id-July. One m ight object to this th a t our thesis of pro fessio following the contio candidatorum is inconsistent w ith L. R. T aylor’s dating of the V ettius affair. This is not so. The tribunicial elections m ay have been announced im medi ately after th e contio candidatorum . 76 Cic., Q. fr. I . 2. 10. 76 Cic., post red. in sen. 17; Pis. 11. 89
442
J e r z y L i n d e r s k i , Constitutional Aspects of the Consular Elections in 59 n.c.
of elections was legally bound (unless p rev en ted b y a hindrance) to announce an d convene th e electoral assem bly before his te rm of office expired, or th a t B ibulus fearing th a t Caesar m ight reso rt to violence sim ply gave up. I hope th a t th e th eo ry of th e order of th e consuls’ nam es in th e y early lists b u ilt u p m ore th a n a decade ago b y em inent B ryn M awr scholars an d developped in th e presen t p ap er as th e th eo ry of presidency over elections m ay prove to be a useful tool in fu rth er investigations of R om e’s com plicated political an d con stitu tio n al histo ry in th e post-S ullan period. I t should be given p rio rity over an y even ingenious b u t isolated conjecture an d in terp reta tio n and it ought n o t to be ab an d o n ed unless refu ted b y clear an d u n m istak ab le facts.
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6 W ER E POM PEY A N D CRASSUS ELECTED IN ABSENCE TO TH E IR F IR ST CO N SU LSH IP?
In summer 71 two victorious generals Cn. Pompeius Magnus and M. Licinius Crassus, having crushed respectively Sertorius in Spain and the uprising of Spartacus in Italy, stood at the head o f their armies outside the gates of Rome demanding consulship and trium ph1. This, at any rate in respect to Pompey, was a totally unconstitutional demand, for Pompey had not yet reached the age prescribed for consulship by the armai law and had not previously held any other regular magistracy. In view o f a coalition between the generals and the popular leader the tribune M. Lollius Palicanus the senate was, however, compelled to yield and to exempt Pompey from observing the lex annalis2, to vote a trium ph for him and an ovation for Crassus. A nd so Pompey, an eques Romanus, and Crassus were elected to the highest magistracy of the Rom an state. Now, there are scholars who assert that the senate granted Pompey and Crassus two further dispensations from the provisions of the Sullan law de magistratibus: 1) from the provision forbidding the election of absent candidates, 2) from the provision requiring the candidates to perform in person the act of professio3, that is the act of the official announcement o f can didature to the presiding officer of the electoral assembly4. 1 For detailed description and analysis of Pompey’s, Crassus’ and the senate’s manoeuvres in 71 see T. R ice H olmes, The Roman Republic and thè Founder of the Empire, I, Oxford 1923, 161 ff.; M. G elzer, Das erste Consulat des Pompeius and die Übertragung der grossen Imperien, Kleine Schriften Π, Wiesbaden 1963, 158 ff. (published originally in Abh. d. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss., Phil-Hist. Kl. 1943 no 1); J. Van O oteghem, Pompée le Grand, Bruxelles 1954, 138 ff. 2 The question whether Crassus also needed a dispensation from the lex annalis depends upon whether he held his praetorship in 72 (so L ast in Cambridge Ancient History 9,333; H olmes, op. cit. 159; O oteghem , op. cit. 138) or in 73, which Seems more plausible (see G elzer , RE s. v. Licinius no 68, col. 302; T. R. S. B rough ton , The Magistrates of the Roman Republic II, New York 1952, 110, 118, 121 note 2). In that latter case there would have been the normal interval of two years between his praetorship and consulship, so that he could seek the consulship in 71 (for 70) in full accordance with the existing laws. 3 On professio in general see esp. Th. M ommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht I 3, Leipzig 1887, 501-504. On the announcements of candidature in the post-Sullan period see the chapter on professio in J. L inderski, Rzymskic zgromadzenie wyboreze od Suili do Cezara (The Roman Electoral Assembly from Sulla to Caesar), Kraków 1966. 4 The problems concerning the presidency over the electoral assembly after Sulla are discussed in my article: Constitutional Aspects of the Consular Elections in 59 B. C., Historia 14, 1965, 392 ff.
91
J erzy L inderski
T hat assertion has recently been restated by J. P. V. D. Balsdon in his study on absentis ratio5. He registers Pompey and Crassus as elected in 71 in absence to their first joint consul ship. Balsdon tries to prove this thesis by subtle reasoning; he is, however, not the first to p ro pound it. The same opinion was expressed in 1954 by J. Van Ooteghem6, in 1952 by F. M ilt ner7 and still earlier, in 19th century by W. D rum ann8. The thesis o f Pompey and Crassus being elected in absence to the consulship o f 70 rests on three laboriously erected pillars — but I would contend that all of them are fragile or —-I even dare to say — non-existent. I. The first one may conveniently be characterized as tacit identification o f professio and electio. The scholars cited above are, of course, well aware that profession and election were two different acts — but nevertheless they are ignoring the basic fact that professio and electio did not take place either on the same day or on the same spot. This is especially characteristic of Balsdon’s arguing based on the following premise: if a candidate was required by law to be present at election, he was also required to make his professio in person. In this way professio and electio become, in respect to the presence or absence o f a candidate, interchangeable terms and they are used as such in Balsdon’s argumentation. A few examples will illustrate this method. P. 141 Balsdon writes: “From earlier than the time of M arius the law forbade the election to curule office of anyone who was not present at the professio”. The source for this contention is Plutarch, M arius 12; in fact, Plutarch’s passage contains no word about professiog. He says only that the law forbade the election of absent candidates; whether it also forbade professions in absence we are not told. According to M ommsen10 the obligation of professio in person was introduced between January 63 and July 60. In any case it existed in 60 when Caesar canvassed for the consulship. Balsdon alleges th at Caesar addressed the application to the senate “to be allowed to stand in absence for the consulship o f 59” (p. 141). The relative sources11 leave, however, no doubt that w hat Caesar really wanted to get was not the general permission “to stand in absence for the con sulship” (that is permission to be elected in absence), but only exemption from the provision requiring personal professio. As Caesar had still in prospect his trium ph from Spain and without forfeiting the right to it he could not cross the pomerium, it has rightly been reasoned that the 6 Roman History, 65-50 B. C.: Five Problems. V. Absentis Ratio, JRS 52, 1962, 140-141. In spite of the article by Balsdon (with whom I disagree on most points) the problem of absentis ratio and elections in absence (which is not at all the same thing, as Balsdon seems to admit) still calls for a special and detailed discussion. Here I shall confine myself only to problems having immediate bearing on the query expressed in the title of the present paper. • Op. cit., 139-140. 7 RE s. v. Cn. Pompeius Magnus, col. 2087-2088. 8 W. D rumann-P . G roebe, Geschichte Roms, IV, Leipzig 1908, 395 (going back to Drumann’s original edition). Drumann assumes that the war against Spartacus lasted until winter (an error corrected by Groebe: the revolt of Spartacus was already crushed in spring) and that for that reason Crassus was far away from Rome at the moment of election. In respect to Pompey he writes: “Es ist ungewiss, ob er sich zu rechter Zeit meldete; in jedem Falle aber war auch er als Abwesender zu betrachten”. However, Pompey and Crassus do not appear on Groebe’s list of men elected in absence (ibid., IV, 138, n. 7). * The text reads as follows : Kai τό δεύτερον ύπατος άπεδείχ&η, τον μεν νόμου κωλύοντος άπόντα καί μή διαλιπόντα χρόνον (ήριδμένον αύ&ις αίρείσΰαι, του δε δήμου τούς άντιλόγοντας εκβαλόντος. 10 Op. cit., Is, 503, η. 3. 11 Appian B. c. II 8; Plutarch, Caes. 13; Suetonius, Caes. 18.
92
W ere Pompey and C rassus elected in absence to their first consulship ?
525
act of professio had to be perform ed inside the pomerium, probably on the Comitium12. It was therefore essential to him to be exempted from the obligation o f professio in person; to which end, however, would he (as he waited before the gates of Rome) have needed the general permis sion “to stand in absence for the consulship’’ is not comprehensible to the present writer (see below the remarks in section III). On the other hand the professio in person was not obligatory still in January 63. The inform a tion to that effect is contained in Cicero’s speech de lege agraria 2.24. Criticizing the Rullus’ plan to elect a special land commission the orator says : “Presentem enim profiteri iubet, quod nulla allia in lege um quam fuit ne in iis quidem m agistratibus, quorum certus ordo est”. Balsdon interprets this that according to Rullus’ project “no candidate’s name could be accepted unless he was present in Rome at the election” (p. 141). Let us, however, observe that there is in Cicero’s text no mention of election: Cicero speaks only of professio. Also M ommsen’s and Lange’s discussion of the problem lacks sharp distinction between professio and electio. Like Balsdon, they see a contradiction between information supplied by Plutarch and Cicero, but, unlike him, dismiss the former one. Mommsen seems to interpret both texts as concerning professio13 which, as we have seen, is true only in the case o f Cicero’s words. Lange is o f the opinion that before 63 both elections and professions were allowed in absence14. Balsdon, on the contrary, holds that from the end of the second century elections and professions in absence were forbidden. He asserts that “what Rullus must have proposed was that in no circumstances whatever should either the people or the Senate be allowed to give special exemption to any single individual to stand in absence for a place on the commission” (p. 141). But the explanation is much simpler. There is no contradiction between Plutarch and Cicero. The law forbidding elections in absence was already in force at the time of Marius and remained so to the end of the republic. That law is referred to in Plutarch, Marius 12. The idea of profes sio in person was first conceived by Rullus (in 63) in respect to election of land-commissioners. A provision to that effect concerning all regular magistracies was laid down in a law enacted shortly afterwards. II. A n essential factor in the m isinterpretation of the circumstances of Pompey’s and Crassus’ election in 71 is the belief that their case was wholly parallel to that of Caesar in 60. F. Miltner’s article on Pompey in RE (21 col. 2087) is the most representative for that belief: “Solange er an der Spitze der Truppen stand... konnte er sich nicht zur Konsulatswahl präsentieren. Es was das gleiche Dilemma, das rund ein Jahrzehnt später Caesar durch den überraschenden Verzicht auf den Trium ph in seiner Weise löste... (col. 2088): Der Senat musste sich beugen... und so gewährte er dem Feldherrn die Dispens von den Gesetzen”. The analogy is indeed attractive. Caesar waited for his trium ph and so did Pompey; at the same time both canvassed for the consulship. Caesar, however, was not given dispensation from the provision requiring the candidates to profess in person and, seeking his main goal —·the consulship, gave up the trium ph. Pompey, on the other hand, broke through the senate’s op position, gained the consulship and on 29th December, the last day of the year (in the pre-
13 M ommsen, op. cit. I3 503. 13 Op. cit., I3, 503, n. 3. 11 L. L ange, Römische Alterthümer I3, Berlin 1876, 718; III2 (1876), 263. Cf. also N eumann, RE I s. v. absen tia, col. 116-117.
93
J i K / . γ L i n d i KSKi
Julian calendar) cclebralcd his second triumph. Is it legitimate to infer from this that lie was granted hy tlie senate that exemption that eleven years later was refused to Caesar? Such a con clusion is suggested by Miltner, Balsdon and Drumann. So we have here a fine piece o f syllogistic thinking, but this is hardly a method for historical research. The truth is that l’om pey’s and Crassus’ situation in 71 resembled that of Caesar in 60 only to some extent; it is not to he forgotten that the differences between the electoral law in force in 71 and 60 are equally, if not even more important, than the similarities. As we have seen, the provision forbidding elections in absence elates from before 104 (the second consul ship o f Marius). On the contrary, the law requiring pro fessio in person was enacted at earliest in 63. So, from the constitutional point o f view, in any case as far as the presence or absence o f a candidate at the act o (p ro fe ssio is concerned, no analogy can be detected between Pompey’s and Caesar’s situation. Pompey and Crassus simply could not have been exempted from a pro vision that did not yet exist at that time. 111. But personal attendance o f candidates at election was required by law in 71. Perhaps Pompey and Crassus were granted dispensation from that provision? This is the view o f Ootcghem: “ Un sénatus-consulte affranchi! Pompóe des dispositions de la lex Villia annalis et de la lex Cornelia de magistratibus et lui permit d’accèder au consulat, bien qu’il... füt absent de Rome au moment du vote" (pp, 139-140). One may, however, ask: where did Ooteghcm find the information to that effect? In the sources there is no such evidence. Obviously he reached this conclusion in the same way as Balsdon who contends that Pompey and Crassus were elected in absence “for Pompey’s triumph on 29tfi December and Crassus’ ovation were considerably later than the consular elections" (p. f40). This contention constitutes the main and, at the same time, mosl fallacious pillar o f the theory under criticism. Balsdon obviously thinks that as Caesar having crossed the pomerium for feited his right to the triumph, Pompey anti Crassus would have done the same. Caesar did not, however, cross the pomerium in order to participate at his election, but only because o f the fact that on the last day reserved for the professions to be made at that time in person lie was not yet ready with the preparations for his triumph. In 71 Pompey and Crassus could announce their candidature through the intermediary o f their friends. The elections o f consuls and praetors were performed by the co m itia centuriatu. In this con nection it is to be borne in mind that the centuriate assembly as originally, and, at least in theory until its ultimale disparition under the empire, a military assembly could not gather within the pomerium, the sacred boundary o f Rome. And indeed the meeting-place o f the com itia centu riatu. the Campus Martius lay outside the pomerium. These facts are easily to he found in any handbook o f Roman antiquities or Roman topography. Pompey and Crassus did not need any exemption from the law forbidding elections in absence: the com itia centuriata gathering outside the pomerium, they could take part at the electoral meeting that returned them as consuls and, at the same tinte, retain their right to cele brate triumph vesp. ovation. Balsdon writes that Pompey’s “other disqualifications were so numerous that his 'absence’ is not stressed at all in our sources” (p. 140 n. 50). The “absence" of Pompey and Crassus at their election is not mentioned in our sources for one reason: because they were present.
94
7 A. AND
THE
GABINIUS
F I RS T V O T E R I N
A . F.
CAPITO
THE L E G I S L A T I V E C O M I T I A
TRI BUTA
E.S. Staveley in his interesting a r tic le on the role of the first voter in Roman legislotive assemblies has convincingly argued that the first voter in the legislative tribal ossembly was selected by the presiding m a g i s t r a t e . ^ As evidence he adduces C icero, pro Plancio 35 and de domo 7 9 - 8 0 . An inscription from Delos omitted by Staveley (lex G abinia Calpurnia de Delo of 58)
2) '
offers additional support for his theory. Line 4 reads as
follows: A. G abinius A .f . Capito pr C. The letters pr [ have been interpreted as the 3) · beginning of the phrose pr [o tribu primus scivit. ' The consuls who presented the law were A. Gabinius A. f. and L. Calpurnius L. f. Piso. The upper port of the stone where the names of the rogators were engraved is broken off, but they ore partially preserved in the G reek text in lines 3 7 - 3 8 :
[Αυλός Π α β ε ί ν ι ο ς Αϋλου [υ ιό ς
-
] u [| ...υ ίό ]ς
ΤΤειΟων υ π α τ [ . The restoration o f a blank space between Αυλου and the next legible u presents a difficulty. After AuXou must follow υ ί ό ς ^ but the effaced space is larger and υ ί ό ς does not fill it. According to E. Cuq, the first editor of the whole inscription, the cognomen
Καπείτων should be inserted after υ ι ό ς ; he olso believed that the next
1) E. S. S ta v e le y , The Role o f the First Voter in Roman Legislative Assemblies, Historia 1 8 ,1 9 6 9 ,5 1 3 -5 2 0 . Cf. also his recent book, Greek and Roman Voting and Elections, London 1972, 165-168,254. 2) Fragments of this inscription (found in 1907 on Mykonos) were published by P. Roussel in his book, Dèlos, colonie A thènienne, Paris 1916,334 notes 3 and 4. Editio princeps of the whole text and an importont commentory by E. Cuq, BCH 4 6 ,1 9 2 2 ,1 98-215; afterwards reprinted or republished in: F. Durrbach, Choix d'inscriptions de Dèlos, Paris 1923, no 163; AEp. 1923,19; SEG 1.335; CIL 1^ 2500; F. F. Abbott and A . C . Johnson, Municipal Administration in the Roman Empire, Princeton 1 9 2 6 ,p .2 8 4 -2 8 5 ; Inscriptions de Dèlos, Paris 1937, no 1511. 3) For the reading pr [ and not pro [ or pro [, and for a discussion of the formula pro tribu primus scivit, see below , p. 251 . 4) With the exception of Roussel ond Launey (Insc. Dèlos 1511) all the editors have read after AliXou an u, i . e . the beginning of υ ι ό ς . O n the photograph of the squeeze there is no troce of on u in this ploce.
95
248
J . L i n d e r s k i - A. K a m i n s k a - Linderski
legible u was the beginning of υ[π α το ς.
Cuq's text was reprinted by R. Cagnat and
M. Besnier (AEp. 1923,19); his restoration Καπείτων has also been a c c e p ted by F. Durrbach. Hondius in SEG 1.335 introduced a correction in the Greek spelling of the cognomen Capito printing it as Κ α π ί τ ω ν . ^ This reading also appears in the c ollection of A bbott-Johnson, and above a ll, in the most recent and the best edition of the inscription by Roussel and Launey (Insc.Dèlos 1 5 1 1 ) . ^ The insertion of Καπείτων or Καπίτων entails two important consequences: a) we woluld have to a c c e p t that A. G abinius, the consul of 58, had the cognomen 81 C a p ito , a fact not attested anywhere else, ' although there are numerous references 9) to him; b) we would have to equate the consul A. G abinius A . f . , the rogator of the law, with A. Gabinius A . f . C apito (mentioned in line 4) who cast the first vote for the 5) SEG, Durrbach, Abbott-Johnson read ϋπ [α τος, Roussel-Launey more cautiously υπ [α τος. This is doubtful. The trace visible on the photograph does not look like the upper bar of a π; it is rather a scratch on the stone. 6) This is undoubtedly the correct form, attested many times in the Greek inscriptions. As the i in Capito is short, Καπείτων would be highly unusual. 7) They propose the following restoration of lines 3 7 - 3 8 : [Αυλός Γ Ι α β ε ίν ιο ς Αυλου [ υ ίό ς Καπίτων] ΰπ[ατος καί Λ ε ύ κ ιο ς Κ αλπόρνιος Λ ε υ κ ί-] [ου υ ί ό ] ς ΤΤείοων υπατ[ος] 8) Unless we would like to see an allusion to it in Cicero's scornful remarks about G abinius' curled hair (p.red. in sen. 1 2 -13,16; Sest.18; P is .25). But Capito does not mean "curlyheaded" but "having too large a h e a d ". Cf. I .K a ja n to , The Latin Cognomina, Helsinki 1965, 118-119,235. 9) There appears, however, among the C atilinarian conspirators a Roman knight P. Gabinius Capito; see on him M ünzer, RE 7,1912,431 s. v. Gabinius 15, and esp. E. Badian, The Early Career of A. Gabinius (cos. 58 B .C .) , Philologus 103, 19 5 9 ,9 7 -9 9 . Badian discusses the possibility of his having been a son of P. Gabinius A. f . , praetor (probably) in 88, and thus according to his reconstruction of the stemma of the G abinii a relative of the consul. But it is difficult to fit A. Gabinius A. f. into the stemma of the G a b in ii, and therefore Badian concludes that for the time being the Gabinii Capitones must be left u nattached. Distant relationship seems to be the most likely solution. 10) According to Badian (o p .c it.9 8 ) this would have been a constitutional anomaly, but Gabinius "was no stickler for constitutional propriety". At the same time, however, he concedes that it is impossible to establish whether or not law and custom gave the presiding officer the right to cast the first vote for his own law. This raises an important question : when did the presiding officer cast his v o te ? As the last voter in his trib e ? O r perhaps he did not vote at a l l ? As the presiding magistrate had the right to select the first voter, there does not seem to have been any constitutional obstacles to his voting at the head of his tribe.
96
A . G a b i ;n i u s
249
A. f . C a p i t o
The cognomen Capito for A. G abinius (cos. 58) has been a c c e p te d by most editors and commentators of the text; it has also found its way as a firmly established fact to standard works of reference as Dizionario Epigrafico or A ncient Roman Statutes. ^
Some
historians and prosopographers remained s c e p tic a l. T. R.S. Broughton firmly re je c te d the identification of the two G a b in ii, and R. Syme never attributes the cognomen Capito to the consul.
E. Badian in his a r tic le on the early c areer of A. Gabinius came to
the conclusion (p.98) that "we have no right to restore the unattested name, unless the inscription demands i t . " Among the editors of the inscription only E. Lommatzsch has seen no epigraphical reason for assigning to A. Gabinius the consul the cognomen C apito. He has proposed the following restoration of line 37 (CIL 1 .
2
t
2500): Αυλός Π α β ε ί ν ι ο ς
Αυλου υ [ ί ο ς ύπατος κ αί Λ ε]υ [κ ιο ς Κ αλ πού ρνιος. The CIL editor asserts that there is no space for the cognomen. This makes one wonder since in the blank space where other editors have proposed to read υ [ ί ο ς (or [υιός) Καπίτων 1 1 letters,
(or Καπείτων)]
i . e . 10 or
13)
7 Lommatzsch found enough room to insert 14 or rather (see note 13) 15
letters. E. Badian ( o p .c it. p . 99 and n. 1) was rightly not satisfied with the alte rna tive reading suggested by the CIL editor; on the one hand, he remarked, "it is not by any means certain that the insertion o f the name is even possible", but on the other "the Latin text can easily be restored so as to permit it, and the beginning of the G reek text (11 . 37 f .) has almost c e rta in ly been wrongly restored". He concluded that " if , . . . (as seems likely) the Iine [i. e . 1.37]should be shortened, there would be no room for the name " C a p i t o " ." In fact the possibility of the restoration of the name Capito depends above all upon the length of the blank space between Αυλου and υ . Badian reports that he had tried in vain "to get information from Delos, where the stone is said to b e " .
14)
11) See G . Tibi l e t t i , D E 4 ,1 9 5 7 , s . v . lex, p.7 2 2 ; A .C . Johnson, P .R .C o le m a n N orton, F. C. Bourne, A ncient Roman Statutes, Austin 1961, no 8 7 , p . 7 8 . See also E.M . Sanford, The Career of Aulus G abinius, ΤΑΡΑ 7 0 ,1 9 3 9 ,6 6 : "an inscription recently discovered at Delos gives (sic) the name of the consul in 58 B.C. as A. G abin ius A .f . C a p ito " . 12) T. R.S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic 2, New York 1952,199; R. Syme, The Roman Revolution, Oxford 1939, passim (according to index). 13) In fact 11 or 12 letters: the correct reading is [ υ ίό ς and not υ [ ί ό ς ; see above n .4 . 14) O p . c i t . 99 n . 2 . Apparently also A. Degrassi was not able to get any information : there is no photograph of this important document in his Inscriptiones Latinae liberae rei p u b lic a e . Imagines, Berolini 1965.
97
250
J . L i n d e r s k i - A. K a m i n s k a - L i n d e r s k i
Although it seems a more arduous task to reach a stone in a museum than a rock on the moon, the situation is not quite desperate. E. Cuq provides in BCH 4 6 ,1 9 2 2 , plate XIV / a serviceable photograph of a squeeze of the inscription. This allows the reader to verify different restorations. Exactly nine letters are required to fill the effaced space in line 37. Consequently both the restoration of those scholars who proposed to read υ [ ί ό ς (or [υ ιό ς Καπίτων (or Καπειτων)]
and of course a Iso that of Lommatzsch who read υ [ ί ό ς ύπατος
κ αι Λε] are too long for the space and ought to be abandoned. We propose the following reading of line 37 : [Αυλός Γ ία β ε ίν ιο ς Αΰλου [υ ιό ς καί Λ ε]ύ[κ ιος Καλπουρνιος Λευκ]. If we ac c e p t this restoration we have to introduce a small correction in line 38. We re a d : Λ ευκ[ίου υ ί ό ] ς ΤΤείΰων υ π α τ [ ο ι. Instead of the hitherto a c c e p te d reading ύπατος the name of each of the consuls we must restore in line 38 the plural ύ π α τ ο ι.
after
For ύπ ατοι
following the names of the consuls some parallels may be a d d u c e d , see e . g . R.K. Sherk, Roman Documents from the G reek East, Baltimore 1969, nos 12, line 9 , p .6 4 ; 20, c o l. Il E, lines 4 - 5 , p. 117; 22, lines 24 , 28, p. 127; 23, lines 1 -2 , 6 3 - 6 4 , pp. 134-135; 31 , lines 8 4 - 8 5 , p . 176. In this way the alle g e d cognomen of A. Gabinius (cos. 58) definitely disappears, but the theory of Staveley gains a strong support. The coin c id e n c e of the names of the consul who presented the law and the first voter is striking and it cannot be explained away as due merely to c h a n c e . It is a reasonable supposition that A. Gabinius A .f . Capito was a close associate, probably a distant relative of the consul, who had especially selected him to cast the first vo te . This clearly disproves the interpretation of the selection of the first voter put forward by U. Hall. Commenting upon the fact that Plancius senior was the first man to vote on the lex lulia de publicanis she w rote: "Presumably all that Caesar could have done to ensure this was, knowing Plancius' importance in his own tribe and expecting him to vote first in it, to see that his tribe was the first to v o te ". ^
Now ,
whereas it is possible to argue that Plancius, a prominent publicanus, was a likely man to vote first in his tribe on a law concerning the publicans, this certainly cannot have been true with respect to A. Gabinius C apito, probably a young, and in any case an obscure person. But this raises the question why it was precisely he who received the honour of casting the first vo te . Staveley observes that the first voter invariably supported the measure 15) U .H a ll, Voting Procedure in Roman Assemblies, Historia 1 3 ,1 9 6 4 ,2 7 7 n .3 7 .
98
A. Gabinius
A. f. C a p i t o
251
before the assembly and that the support of a prominent individual could exert considerable influence upon the voters. It is difficult to imagine that G abinius was not able to find anyone of a more e le v a te d status to a c t as the first vo te r. Let us, how ever, observe that the lex de Delo was sponsored, at least formally, ^
by both consuls and was undoubtedly
carried de senatus se n te n tia . O n ly a contested law was in need of a special support and the lex G a b in ia Calpurnia does not seem to have been a controversial measure. The vote cast by G abinius Capito was c ertainly not meant to influence the wavering or uncommitted voters. We read in the text of the law (lines 14-16) that the praedones quei orbem teH rarum complureis [annos vexarint — ] [ . . . fan] a delubra simuOajcra deorum immorHalium loca religiolsissuma — ] J [devast]arint, lege G a M i n i a (obviously the lex G abinia of 67 that gave Pompey command in the war against the pirates) superatei a c deletei sD]nt. It was then to the law of G abinius carried by him as tribune that Delos owed its preservation (of Pompey no word : should we atta c h any significance to this fact ? ) . The law of 58 implies that since the time of the bellum piraticum there had existed a special bond betw een G abinius and the island. Now as consul Gabinius was again appearing as a benefactor of Delos, and a Gabinius was casting the first vote on the law. This may have been intended as an additional demonstration of the personal ties between the consul and the island of Apollo. But we should not forget that the tribe a cting as principium was se le c te d by lot, and Gabinius could not have known that the lot would fall upon the tribe of C apito. He profited by the occasion, but it is difficult to see here any preconceived or far-reaching plan. The person of the first voter has been duly recorded in our inscription, but the re c e iv e d restoration of lines 3 and 4 is open to doubt. All editors and commentators have a c c e p te d in line 4 the ingenious interpretation of Cuq : A. G abinius A . f . Capito proCtribu primus scivit. ^
All of them have read on the stone after Capito the letters
pro (or pro). However, Roussel a n d Launey could see only pr[. This reading is clearly corroborated by the photograph. The stone is broken off in such a way that only a part of R rem ained. It is important to re a liz e what is visible on th e stone (or rather squeeze) 716 16) L.Piso played only a secondary role as it was clearly Gabinius who presided over the com itia. 17) P. Roussel read in 1916 p r o tc o s ., (Dèlos, colonie A th è n ie n n e , p .3 3 3 n .5 ) .
J . L i n d e r s k i - A. K a m i n s k o -
252
Linderski
since the formulo that has hifherta been occepfed in line 4 is unusuol. No porollel con be found for a formulo in which the nome of the first voter wos followed by the phrose pro tribu primus scivit. In the proescripfiones of the Romon lows o slightly different formulo wos used : pro tribu (the nome of the first voter) primus scivit. This usage is born out by examples ranging from the lote second century to 9 B.C. : 1. Lex agroria of 111 B.C. ( CI L1.
585 = Fl RA 1 no 8; cf. Degrossi, Imogines 385 b) :
Tribus . . . princijpium fui f, pro tribu Q . -Fobius Q. f . primus scivit. 2. Lex Cornelio de XX quoestoribus, 81 B.C. (CIL 1.
587 = FIRA 1^ no 10; cf. Degrassi,
Imagines 387) : tribus . . .] principium fuit, pro tribu [ . . . primus scivit. 3. Lex Q u in c tia de aquaeductibus, 9 B.C. (Frontinus, De oquoeductu urbis Romoe 129.
2
2 - 3 , ed. Ρ . G rim a l, Poris 19ól = FIRA 1 no 14): Tribus Sergi a principium fui t , pro tribu Sex. [. . .] L. f. Virro (primus scivif]. In view of these exomples i t seems virfuol ly certoin that I ines 3 and 4 of the lex G obinio Co Ipumi a should be restored os follows (we also print the end of line 2 and the beginning of line 5) : pro | oede Qasfor(is) o(nte) d(iem) VI k a 0 (endas) . . . , tribus . . . principium fuit, pro | tribù] A. Gobinius A. f. Capi to prOmus scivif. iujbeatis.
. ..
Veli |tis,
18)
18) For the sake of comporison we reproduce lines 3-4 as given by Roussel-Louney (Inscr. Dfclos 1511): pro | a e d e Qasfor(is) o(nte) d(iem) VI kaDendas - - - , tribus - — — · p r i n c ip u m | f u i t , ] A. G a b in i u s A. f . C a p it o p r t o t r ib u prim us s c i v i t ----------- -Veli I tis, iujbeatis.
8 THF DRAMATIC DATE OF VARRO, DE RE RUSTICA, BOOK III A N D THE ELECTIONS IN 54 I. Puzzles .ire irresistible: the dramatic date of the third book of Varro’s de re rustica continues to stir excitement. Who will snatch the top prize? The most recent entrant is J. S. Richardson: with new guns he defends the traditional date, 54 B. C . 1 But his erudite salvos carry blank cartridges, and his own armour is not impenetrable. In fact he has left both flanks entirely unprotected. II. But first let us consider the traditional argument for 54. In its most ample form it was presented by August .Schleicher in his Bonn dissertation of 1846.2 The place of the dialogue is the 1
‘The Triumph ot Metellus Scipio and the Dramatic Date of Varro, RR 3 , CQ 33 (1983),
456 63 ·’ Melelenuton Wmvnumoriun specimen I (Diss. Bonn, 1846), 10. After his dissertation Schleichei went on to become one of the founders of modern comparative Indo-European studies.
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v i l l a p u b l i c a in the Campus Martius, 3 and the time the elections to the curule 4 aedileship (3. 2 . 2-3). Varro and his t r i b u l i s , the senator Q. Axius, meet in the v i l l a Appius Claudius, sitting on a bench and flanked hilariously by four companions named after birds (Merula, Pavo, Pica, Passer). Appius is explicitly introduced as an augur, the priestly bird-watcher. 3 As it turns out, a few days previously Appius went to Reate in the matter of the dispute between the Reatines and the people of Interamna; on this occasion he stayed with Axius in his villa . 6 Schleicher combines this information with the news transmitted by Cicero to Atticus on 27 July 54: Cicero also went to Reate to plead the case of the Reatini (concerning l a c u s V e l i n u s ) against the Interamnates before the consuls and ten assessors ; he stayed with Axius and returned to Rome on 9 July . 7 Schleicher’s conclusion: Varrò and Cicero speak of one and the same episode; the consul8 before whose c o n s i l i u m Cicero defended the Reatini was none other than Appius; the conversation in Book III and the aedilician elections took place on the first or second day after Cicero’s return to Rome, on July 1 0 or I I . 9 This is a ‘juxtapositional’ argument of classical simplicity; no wonder Schleicher’s date became an article of faith, often adduced as a fact, never scrutinized afresh.
' On the v i l l a p u b l i c a , see G. Tossi, ‘La Villa Publica di Roma nelle fonti letterarie e numismatiche’, A t t i d e l l ' I s t i t u t o V e n e t o , C l a s s e d i S c i e n z e M o r a l i , L e t t e r e e d A r t i 135 (1976-77), 413-26. 4 This follows from the fact that the presiding consul is mentioned, 3. 2. 2 , 7. 1 . Cf. Mommsen, StR II3. 483. 3 RR 3. 2. 2: ‘ibi Appium Claudium augurem sedentem invenimus in subselliis, ut consuli, siquid usus poposcisset, esset praesto’. On the augural assistance at the elections, see J. Linderski, ‘The Augural Law’, A N R W l l . 16. 3 (foithcoming). 6 R R 3. 2. 3, Appius jestingly remarks to Axius: I shall readily admit you to my ‘ornithon’, you ‘quoius aves hospitales etiam nunc ructor, quas mihi apposuisti paucis ante diebus in villa Reatina ad lacum Velini eunti de controversiis Interamnatium et Reatinorum’. 7 A t t . 4. 15. 5-6: ‘His rebus actis Reatini me ad sua Τέμπη duxerunt ut agerem causam contra Interamnatis apud consules (so Shackleton Bailey on the basis of Cic. S c a u r . 27 ; c o n s u l e m Mss.) et decem legatos, qua lacus Velinus a M’. Curio emissus interciso monte in N ar(em ) defluit;. . . vixi cum Axio; . . . redii Romam Fontei causa a. d. VII Id. Quint, veni spectatum’. A d r e m , see D. R. Shackleton Bailey, C i c e r o ’s L e t t e r s t o A t t i c u s II (Cambridge, 1965), 208-10. He is of the opinion that the phrase u t a g e r e m ‘does not necessarily imply that the case was heard locally’. He may well be right, but the curious term d e c e r n l e g a t i impels caution. This would be the only known instance in which the councillors of the consuls sitting in Rome would have been so called. Mommsen, of course, did not miss the passage; buried in a footnote is his observation that in this case Cicero calls the councillors l e g a t i because the hearing took place locally, a n O r t u n d S t e l l e , S t R II3. 693-4 n. 4; cf. 109. So also B. Schleussner, D i e L e g a t e n d e r r ö m i s c h e n R e p u b l i k (Munich, 1978), 73. 8 He follows the manuscript reading a p u d c o n s u l e m . See the preceding note. 9 We may note that Schleicher takes Varro’s ‘quoius aves hospitales etiam nunc ructor’ quite literally. N ow a careful reading of Cicero’s letter should have been sufficient to overturn Schleicher’s construction. After his return to Rome Cicero went to the theatre ( v e n i s p e c t a t u m ) · , between July 6 and 13 the l u d i A p o l l i n a r e s were celebrated (cf. A. Degrassi, I n s c r . It. XIII. 2. 477-82) and although July 10-13 were the comitial days it is not very likely that the elections would be held on any of these days. But above all at 4. 15. 7 Cicero complains of the bribery of the consular candidates and describes the arrangement between the tribunician candidates and Cato as umpire to prevent bribery at the election of the tribunes. These elections were scheduled for 28 July. Of the aedilician elections not a word; I do not wish to introduce an a r g u m e n t u m e s i l e n t i o , but in the course of this article Cicero’s silence will become louder and louder.
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111. Now the classical counter-argument : tt took more than one hundred years to develop it. With their customary aettmen D. R. Shaildoton Bailey, 10 I.. R. Iaylor" and C. N icole!1* saw tlearlv that Sehleither’s proof was a mere house of cards', in 54 no elections for regular magistracies took place, h'utthermore the dispute Between Interamna and Reate was a long-drawn allau : the visits ol Appms and Cicero to Reate need not have belonged to tine and the same year. In Iact we know for certain that no consuls and praetors were elected in 54;" that no curule aediles were elected is an inference based on Mommsen’s (incontestable, it would seem) finding that the elections of regular magistrates were always held ill a strict descending order. 14 IN’. This leads us to the neo arguments tor 54. hiuluisiastie assumption of Schleicher’s juxtaposition and an open attack on Mommsen’s rule are their twin characteristics. Priority goes to 1. Shat/man.11' 1 le advanced three points, uneven in value. That Appius appears as augur and not as consul is due solely to the comical exigencies ol the dialogue, Varro’s conceit of having an augur talk ol bitiK (quite tight and quite inconclusive, either way). That no consuls and praetors were elected in 54 need not militate against placing the dialogue in that year for ‘it is still possible that the cut tile aediles were elected’. 1 low can we prove this? N o problem: Varro’s mention (3. 2. 16) ol the liiumph of Metellus Scipio offers the key. Shat/man places Scipio’s praetorslup in 56, his piovmcial command in 55, and his triumph in 54, which will thus be also the dramatic date of Book 111. Consequently the elections of the curule aediles did take place in 54, and Mommsen’s t ule is o\ et mi ned. It does not tequile any perspicacity to detect that Shat/nian’s argument ts an embryonic Richardson’s scheme, or, should we rather say, Richardson’s argument is a developed Shat/man’s scheme. Developed independently, lor he does not quote his predecessor’s effort. Again we have the linee lamili.n points: Appius as an augur, the aedilician elections in 54, and the triumph of Metellus Supio. We can proceed stiaight to the elections. Richardson admits that under normal circumstances the customary order of elections was followed and Mommsen’s rule fully obtained. 1 lowever, if a year ended in an interregnum this rule need not have applied, l'or ‘abnormal’ vears Richardson postulates two distinct sets of «»nitia: a) the consular and practoi ian ; if the consuls were not elected, the praetors were not elected either b) the aediltctan and quaestorian; we know from Cass. Dio (39. 7. 4) that if the aediles had not Been chosen the quaestorian election could not take place. l’iool loi two such distinct sets ol elections is hard to come by. In particular there is no shred of evidence that m 5(,, 54, and 53, the years in which no higher magistrates were elected, the consuls evet attempted to convene the aedilician comiru: the successful obstruction of the consular elections, bv sheer violence ot bv the ti ibunes, is all we hear o f . 1,1 In 56 with the help of friendly tribunes I’ompev and C iassus engineered an interregnum; they were elected to the consulship for 55 some time belore 1 1 l’ebru.n v of that year, and subsequently they held the elections of praetors and aediles.1’ To an unprejudiced eye this is a perfect example of the wot king of Mommsen’s rule. 10 Op. cu. (.thos e, n. 7) , 70S 10. I le particularly stresses that ‘nothing in the dialogue indicates that Appius was consul at the time'. 11 Rotn.ui \ ηting 'bscw/'/ic's (Ann Arhoi, 1 % 6 ), 135 n. 5S. Her own dramatic date is rather mdell i t t l e , ‘probably within the two decades before 50 when Appius Clauditis Pulcher, cos. 54, was an augur'. u R l 4 "2 ( I‘>70), I 13 n. 2 and esp. 1 16 n. 1 . As the dramatic date of the dialogue lie excludes 54, 5' 51 (when Apptus was m ('dicta), and also 59, when Narro was a vtgintivir ad ugno i/no/cui/us ( ’.i ·’(/'.( 'im ( R R I. 2 1 0 ; cl.' Broughton, M R R II. 191-2); it is. however, not clear why tilts lunction should have pi evented Varro troni coming to the aedilician elections. 1 ' ( ass. Dio 40. 45. 1 4 . 14 SrR 1’ 5SO-2. ,s Athcn.u'inn 46 (1968), 350-1. " Ctc An. 4 16. 5 4. 15. 4, 7 S; 4. 17. 4, Q /»·. 3. 3. 2; Cass. Dio 39. 27-31; 40. 45-6; 1 IW. /Vi 105; SV/’ Hol·. 172 St. >’ Cass. Dio 39. 32.
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But it is high time to face Richardson’s secret weapon, the triumph of Metellus Scipio. Richardson acutely observes that in fragment XXXIX of the F a s t i T r i u m p h a l e s C a p i t o l i n i the triumph of the I g n o t u s in 54 follows immediately upon Pompey’s triumph in 61.18 Consequently the triumph of Metellus Scipio must fall between January 54 and June 53, when a te s s e r a attests him as i n t e r r e x .l9 But beware: here we enter the opening curve of a c i r c u l u s v i t i o s u s : because Richardson believes the dramatic date of Book III to be 54 (see below), he excludes 53 as the year of Scipio’s triumph. N ow Degrassi identified the I g n o t u s with C. Pomptinus, who celebrated his triumph in November 54, but observed that the stone leaves space for a c o g n o m e n . His conclusion was that Pomptinus must have had a c o g n o m e n of which we are not informed .20 But with Metellus Scipio on the stage, the possessor of a number of c o g n o m i n a to choose from , 21 it would appear that at last we have an ideal candidate to fill the gap. But this is not so: Degrassi too hastily assumed a lacuna. 22 In the garb of I g n o t u s hides either Scipio or Pomptinus . 23
18 A. Degrassi, I n s c r . It . XIII. 1. 84-5, 566. But Richardson was not the first to make this observation; see below, n. 34. 19 C I L I2. 2663c. Cf. Broughton, M R R II. 229. 20 Op. cit. 566. 21 His full name was Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica, but unfortunately as the F a s t i C o n s u l a r e s for 52 are lost we do not know his official style. Perhaps Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio. In the t e s s e r a e C l L I2. 2663c (June 53) and 933 (Sept. 52) we read Q. M e t ( e l l o ) , and on the coins he minted as proconsul and i m p e r a t o r in Africa in 47 and 46 he styles himself either Q. M e t e l ( l u s ) P i u s S c i p i o I m p . (four issues) or Q. M e t e l l ( u s ) S c i p i o I m p . (one issue). See M. H. Crawford, R o m a n R e p u b l i c a n C o i n a g e I (Cambridge, 1974), 471-2, nos. 459-61. 22 Degrassi (p. 85) reconstructed the entry for 54 as follows: [C. P o m p t i n u s - f. - n . ------ p r o p r ( a e t o r e ) \ a. D C X C I X
[de A llo b ro g ib u s I V I non. N o v .]
(in his commentary, p. 566, he mistakenly placed the number in line 2). It has been my good luck to be able to discuss this matter with Professor T. R. S. Broughton. With his unerring prosopographical s g u a r d o l i n c e o he immediately pointed out that a parallel case is offered by the triumph of M’. Aquillius in 126. This entry is fully preserved and it reads as follows (Degrassi, p. 83, frg. XXXIII and XXXIV): M’. Aquillius M’. f. M’. n. pro co ( n ) s ( u l e ) a n . D C X X V I I e x A [si]a I I I id u s N o v e m b r .
There are twenty-two letters in line 1 ; in the Pomptinus entry, as reconstructed by Degrassi but without the hypothetical cognomen, we have twenty or possibly twenty-one letters (it seems that at the end of line one before the number we should read a ] n and not ]a ; cf. Tab. LI). In other words there is no need to assume a lacuna. Degrassi was apparently misled by the fact that the triumphator’s cognomen was normally accommodated in line 1 of each entry. However, if the triumphator lacked the cognomen line 1 could be filled in a variety of ways ; see e. g. the following years : 223, where a n n o is spelt in full and a blank space is left between cos. and a n n o \ 93, where the p r o v i n c i a in which the victory was achieved is recorded; 172, where the phrase q u i s ] c r i b ( a ) [ f u e r a ] t is added. 23 In fact it is preferable to date Scipio’s triumph to 53 : if the dramatic date of Book III was 50 (see below), then n u p e r used with respect to Scipio’s triumph may well be taken to indicate that it was the last triumph before the dramatic date of the dialogue. Unfortunately this consideration is not conclusive, for n u p e r may have been used very loosely; Scipio may have triumphed in November or December 54; and finally Pomptinus’ triumph certainly was not so lavish as Scipio’s. But 53 is the only slot that can accommodate Scipio’s triumph without disturbing his aedileship in 57 (see M R R II. 201 and 207 n. 1), and one should not lightly introduce disturbances into M R R . 103
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After this preliminary barrage Richardson is ready to mount a frontal assault on the dramatic date of Book III. His opening moves are deftly executed: a) Varro’s mention of the triumph of Metellus Scipio precludes a dramatic date for Book III earlier than January 54 b) ingeniously utilizing the c i s t o p h o r i of Apamea he has established that Appius must have left Rome in May 53 at the latest ; consequently he could not have been present at the aedilician elections of 53 for 53 since the consuls were not elected before July of that year c) Appius was still in Cilicia in August 51, and hence could not have attended the aedilician election in that year24 d) in 49 Varro was away from Rome as Pompey’s legate in Spain. The conclusion : the dramatic date of Book III must be either 54 or 50. Richardson opts for 54, on a flimsy basis. At 3. 2. 17 we read: ‘M. Cato nuper . . . Luculli accepit tutelam.’ N ow Cato assumed the guardianship of the young Lucullus in 57 or 56. Richardson opines that as this occurred n u p e r , 54 is much more likely as the dramatic date of the dialogue than 50. But n u p e r is treacherous. The following examples, from two contemporaries of Varro, should dampen the faith of those who would use n u p e r as a peg upon which to hang a precise chronological computation: Cic. P la n e . 41 : ‘An vero nuper clarissimi cives nomen editicii iudicis non tulerunt’ (‘Recently our most distinguished citizens rejected the very notion of a nominated jury’). The speech was delivered in 54, and n u p e r most probably refers to the measures proposed by Servius Sulpicius in 63.25 [Q. Cic.] C o m m . P e t . 11 : ‘Quanto melior tibi fortuna petitionis data est quam nuper homini novo C. Coelio’ (‘H ow much more advantageous are to you the circumstances of your candidacy than they had recently been to the new man C. Coelius’). C. Coelius Caldus was consul in 94; n u p e r covers the span of thirty years. The pride of place goes to Cic. N . D . 2. 126: ‘nuper, id est paucis ante saeclis’ . 26 But in fact no assistance is needed from Cicero and his brother: Varro’s own use of n u p e r in the R R is vague enough. Out of five other instances only once does n u p e r refer to the immediate past, a remark just made in the conversation ;27 once it alludes to a business transaction the precise time of which we are not able to establish ;28 two times the reference is to ‘recent’ discoveries or improvements, one concerning the grafting of trees, and the other the fattening of hares. In the former case, as in this chapter Varro quotes and paraphrases Theophrastus, the new method of grafting will be ‘recent’ in the sense that it had been unknown to Theophrastus (and probably Cato ) ; 29 as to the fattening of hares, this is a ‘recent’ development, for Archelaos (floruit ca. 300), whom Varro adduced in the preceding sentence as an authority on hares, apparently did not
The curule aediles were elected before July 19; Cic. F a m . 8 . 4. 3. See T. Mommsen, D e c o l l e g i i s e t s o d a l i c i i s R o m a n o r u m (Kiliae, 1843), 63ff. J. L. StrachanDavidson, P r o b l e m s o f t h e R o m a n C r i m i n a l L a w II (Oxford, 1912), 103-4 and H. B. Mattingly, CQ 25 (1975), 260-1, refer Cicero’s remark to the abrogation of the l e x S e r v i l i a G l a u c i a ; in this case n u p e r would be stretched even further. 26 Cf. A. S. Pease, M . T u l l i C i c e r o n i s D e N a t u r a D e o r u m (Cambridge, Mass., 1958), 872-3 (with further examples). 27 R R 1.1. 1 : ‘N os te non dimittemus . . . antequam illa tria explicaris, quae coeperas n u p e r dicere, (cum) sumus interpellati’. 28 R R 3. 7. 10: ‘Quas (i. e. the pigeons) n u p e r e um mercator tanti emere vellet a L. Axio, equite Romano, minoris quadringentis denariis daturum negavit’. On L. Axius, see C. Nicolet, L ’o r d r e e q u e s t r e II (Paris, 1974), 800-1. 29 R R 1 .4 0 .6 : ‘Est altera species ex arbore in arborem inserendi n u p e r animadversa in arboribus propinquis’. A d r e m , see J. Heurgon, V a r r o n , E c o n o m i e r u r a l e I (Paris, 1978), 164ff esp. 168 n. 16; J. E. Skydsgaard, V a r r o t h e S c h o l a r (Hafniae, 1968), 6 8 ff. ; K. D. White, R o m a n F a r m i n g (London, 1970) 248ff. 104 24
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mention it . 30 Particularly telling is the passage in which Varro promises his wife to write down for her instruction the conversations which he ‘recently’ had about agriculture. 31 N ow Varro composed the R R in his eightieth year, in 37 B. C . , 32 and the dramatic date of Book I is January 57 or 56 ; 33 Book II is placed in 67, when Varro was Pompey’s legate in the war against the pirates (2. p r a e f . 6).
V. But ultimately it is not n u p e r that settles the dramatic date of Book III but another adverb, t u n c , and, yes indeed, the triumph of Metellus Scipio. To have resuscitated this triumph from long oblivion has been Shatzman’s great merit, but it is neither he nor Richardson who has won the prize, a ride in Scipio’s triumphal chariot to the dramatic date of Book III. Long before Richardson entered the race this prize had already been successfully claimed by another contestant. In a brilliant article Ernst Badian demolished Shatzman’s construct and established 50 B. C. as the date of action in Book III. 34 Had Richardson consulted Badian’s paper he would probably have abandoned his project, and then there would have been no need either ( h o r r i b i l e d i c t u ) for this rebuttal. The way in which Varro presents the triumph of Metellus Scipio precludes 54 as the dramatic date of Book III. Once pointed out, this conclusion springs to the reader’s eyes. We read (3. 2. 15-16): Atque in hac villa (i. e. in the villa of Varro’s maternal aunt) qui est ornithon, ex eo uno quinque milia scio venisse turdorum denariis ternis, ut sexaginta milia ea pars reddiderit e o a n n o villae . . . Sed ad hunc bolum (u t) pervenias, opus erit tibi aut epulum aut triumphus alicuius, ut t u n c fuit Scipionis Metelli, aut collegiorum cenae, quae n u n c 15 innumerabiles excandefaciunt annonam macelli. Reliquis annis omnibus si (non) hanc expectabis summam, spero, non tibi decoquet ornithon. (Well, I happen to know that from the aviary alone which is in that villa there were sold five thousand fieldfares, for three denarii apiece, so that that division of the villa in that year brought in sixty thousand sesterces . . . But to achieve such a haul as that you will need a public banquet or som ebody’s triumph, such as that of Metellus Scipio at that time, or the dinners of the c o ll e g i a , which are so countless just now as to send soaring the price of the produce in the market. Even if you can’t look for this sum in all other years, your aviary, I hope, will not go bankrupt on you’). Richardson gives the following interpretation (p. 456): ‘The unemphatic use of t u n c and n u n c serves to contrast the occasional nature of a triumphal celebration (especially such a one as Scipio’s) with the current frequency of collegiate banquets ‘quae n u n c innumerabiles’, rather than 3. 12. 5: ‘Hos (i. e. l e p o r e s ) quoque n u p e r institutum ut saginarent plerumque, cum exceptos e leporario condant in caveis et loco clauso faciant pingues’. On Archelaos, see R. Reitzenstein, R E 2 (1896), 453—4, and on the breeding of hares, cf. D. W. Rathbone, ZPE 47 (1982), 281—4. 30 R R
31 R R 1 . 1 . 7: ‘ego referam sermones eos quos de agri cultura habuimus n u p e r , ex quibus quid te facere oporteat animadvertere poteris’. 32 R R 1 . 1 . 1. R. Martin, R e c h e r c h e s s u r les a g r o n o m e s l a t i n s e t l e u r s c o n c e p t i o n s é c o n o m i q u e s e t s o c i a l e s (Paris, 1971), 213-35, 282-6, argues that 37 is the date only of the final composition of the whole work ; single books Varro would have composed much earlier, Book I around 55, Book II at some time which we are not able exactly to determine, and Book III close to the publication date. Martin’s argument has been accepted by Heurgon, op. cit. (above, n. 29), XXI-XXVI, but in any case as far as Book I is concerned it is based on a deceitful and circular premise, the word n u p e r at 1 .1 .7 . 33 See the excellent study by G. Perl, A J A H 5 (1980), 97. 34 A t h e n a e u m 48 (1970), 4-6. 35 Here n u n c l s an emendation by H. Keil, but it is undoubtedly correct ; cf. Richardson 456 n. 5. 105
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to emphasise how long ago the former took place’. But this begs the question. How do we know that t u n c and n u n c are used unemphatically in this passage? Apparently because we have already decided, on different grounds, that 54 is the dramatic date of the book. However, in the only other occurrence of this locution in the R R t u n c and n u n c are used quite emphatically (2 . 2 . 2 ): 'Atticus, qui tunc (i. e. in 67, the dramatic date of Book II) Titus Pomponius, nunc (i. e. 37 when Varro composed or published the RR** ') Quintus Caecilius cognomine eodem’. It is a good methodologi cal principle to explain obscure passages with the help of passages in which the sense of a disputed phrase is not in doubt. If as regards Atticus the use of t u n c - n u n c is emphatic, there is no reason to suppose that it should be unemphatic with respect to Metellus Scipio. Richardson considered only the middle of the three passages reproduced above. In the first of them c o a n n o stares at the reader. It is the year to which t u n c refers. R e l i q u i s a n n i s also points to two different years: t u n c , the year of Seipio’s triumph, and n u n c , the year of the c o l l e g i o r u m cctiiic.*7 N o interlocutor would use simultaneously c o a n n o and t u n c t o refer to the very year of the conversation. The earliest date for Scipio’s triumph is 54, and the latest 53 ; and with Appius away from Rome between 53 and 51 the only year left for n u n c , the dramatic date of the dialogue, is 50 B .C .w 54 as the dramatic date of Book III has exerted an alluring appeal; it is sad to part with it. It can still be rescued, but at a very high price - for Varro: if we ascribe sloppiness and inaccuracy' 9 to this v i r i n c u r a t i s s i m e d o c t u s .40
6 , and above, n. 32. On the feasts of the c o l l e g i a , see J.-P. Waltzing, É t u d e b i s t o r i q u e s u r les c o r p o r a t i o n s p m f e s s i o n u e l l c s ch e/. Ics R o m a i n s I (Louvain, 1895), 322ff., esp. 325. '* In 50 Appius was censor (Broughton, M R R II. 247-8) and it is quite likely that his visit to Reate and his intervention in the controversy between the Reatini and the Interamnates was in some way connected with the operations of the census. V) I.. R. Taylor (above, n. 11), 135 n. 58, has come very close to this conclusion : ‘In the writing of his dialogues Varro was less careful than Cicero’. I doubt this very much. 40 Apul. A p o l . 42.
v> R R 2. p r a e / . 17
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9
Buying the Vote: Electoral Corruption in the Late R epublic 1
In a speech delivered in the senate in the year 376, the tenth year of the emperor Gratian, and the second year of his independent reign, an em inent defender of Roman traditions, Q. Aurelius Symmachus, painted the horrors of the republican dispensation and the humiliations to which the senators were then subjected (Or. 4.7): To challenge the present let antiquity produce the tribes smeared with freedmen and the plebeian scum; we call upon the patricians. Let it conjure up the distributors (divisores)2 of electoral bribes; we call upon the emperors. We understand very well the blessings of our age: the hideous voting tablet (cera tu r p is ), the crooked distribution of the seating places in the theater among the clients,3 the venal urn,4 all of these are no more! The elections are transacted between the senate and the emperors: equals elect equals, and the final decision rests w ith the superiors. In his fulsome praise of the present age and his condemnation of corrupt v e tu s ta s Symmachus was, however, easily outtoadied by the poet Ausonius. Expressing his gratitude to the emperor Gratian for the bestowal of the consulship, Ausonius wrote (G ra t, a c tio 3.13): I became consul, O most august Emperor, solely by your favor; I did not undergo the ordeal of the voting enclosure and the Campus Martius; the ordeal of the balloting, the counting of votes, the depositing of the tablets in a box.s I was not obliged to shake
1. A comprehensive study of electoral malpractices in Rome is a desideratum. T. Mommsen, Römisches Strafrecht (Leipzig, 1899) 865-875 and E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (Berkeley, 1974), esp. 212-239, 271-276, offer a succinct introduction, legal and political. But the most detailed discussion is still to be found in two monographs, very antiquarian in character (they were composed in response to the question concerning ambitus in Rome put forth in 1853 by the Ordo Iurisconsultorum in Academia RhenoTraiectina)'. S.H. Rinkes, Disputatio de crimine ambitus et de sodaliciis apud Romanos tempore liberae reipublicae (Lugduni Batavorum, 1854) and I. Tel ting, Disputatio Juridica de crimine ambitus et de sodaliciis apud Romanos (Groningae, 1854). 2. The manuscript reading is fauisores; diuisores is the conjecture of O. Seeck in his edition of Symmachus in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (Berlin, 1883). For a defense of the reading fauisores, see now F. Del Chicca, "Favisores o Divisores? (Per Symm. or. 4,7)," Sandalion 4 (1981) 165-176. On divisores, see below, nn. 5 and 29. 3. diribitio corrupta clientelarum cuneis. Cf. Cic. pro Mur. 67, 72, 73; CIL VI 32098f = ILS 5654f: client (ibusj, on a gradus in the Flavian Amphitheatre. Cf. A. Chastagnol, Le sénat remain sous le regne d'Odoacre. Recherches sur l'epigraphie du Colisée au V* siede (Bonn, 1966) 24-27. 4. sitella venalis. The term sitella is not quite appropriate: sitella was a pitcher used for the sortitiones at the comitia; the voters deposited their ballots in the cistae, see L.R. Taylor, Roman Voting Assemblies (Ann Arbor, 1966) 25, 29, 43, 70-74. For the tampering with the ballots, cf. Plut Cat. Min. 46; Varro, de re rust. 3.15.18, and, on Varro's passage, see C. Nicolet, "Tessères frumentaires et tessères de vote," L'Italie preromaine et la Rome republicaine. Melanges offerts à Jacques Heurgon (Rome, 1976) 709-710. 5. consul ego ... munere tuo non passus saepta neque campum, non suffragia, non puncta, non loculos. For puncta, see below η. 18; for loculi, see Varro, de re rust. 3.15.8; Mamert. grat. act. 19.1: nota diuisorum flagitia, notae loculorum prestigiae; and the article of C. Nicolet quoted in the preceding note; for sequestres see below, nn. 7 and 29.
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hands nor was I so overwhelmed by crowds of well-wishers as to forget the names of my friends or to address them by names which were not theirs. I did not canvass the tribes, I did not flatter the centuries, I did not tremble w hen the classes were called upon to vote. I deposited no money for bribes with a trustee (c u m se q u e stre ) nor did I have any dealings with distributors of bribes. The Roman People, the Campus Martius, the Equestrian Order, the Rostra, the voting enclosure, the Senate and the Senate house — Gratian alone was all of these for me. Under an authoritarian regime, ancient or modern, official documents tend to depict the present times as the golden age, breathing contentment, felicity and prosperity. Thus Symmachus and Ausonius merely conformed to the rule, but they did it co n a m o re . They genuinely shivered at the thought of shaking the hands of commoners. Before their eyes may have hovered examples of disgraceful humiliations like that of P. Sulpicius Galba, who in his bid for the consulship of 63 started "shaking the hands" more than one year in advance, and all he got for his effort was an immediate and plain rejection, without white-wash or excuse, as Cicero gleefully reports [A tt. 1.1). Or still worse the case of another patrician, P. Scipio Nasica, consul in 111, the to g a ta e p o te n tia e c la rissim u m lu m e n (Val. Max. 7.5.2) who as a candidate for the aedileship eagerly embraced the d e x tr a of a rustic, so hardened by work that Nasica jestingly inquired whether he employed his hands for walking. The joke was picked up by the bystanders, made the rounds in the assembly, and as a result all the rural tribes, enraged by Nasica's c o n tu m e lio sa u rb a n ita s, turned him down. Can anyone imagine Symmachus in that role? The speeches of Cicero could provide dreadful reading as well. "It is the privilege of free peoples," he wrote [Plane. 9, 11-12), "and especially of the Roman people, to b e able by its votes to bestow offices on anyone or take them away as it likes. We, the senators, tossed as we are upon the stormy waves of popular favor, m ust modestly bear the fluc tuations of the people's will, win it over, retain or assuage it when it is angered. If the h o n o res, which the people alone dispenses, are im portant to us, we must never grow weary in courting the people's favor. For the p o p u lu s always desires to be asked, always desires that the candidates appear in the guise of suppliants. The p o p u lu s promotes to the offices those candidates by whom it is canvassed most assiduously, a q u ib u s e st m a x im e a m b itu s . " This verb, a m b e o , innocuous at the start, spawned two notorious nouns, a m b itio and a m b itu s ,6 repositories at once of all corrupt longings for the h o n o re s and all corrupt elec toral practices, and at the same time the catalysts of pious outrages against these practices. In the eyes of Symmachus and his friends, the c o m itia , in which ideally the will of the people manifested itself, became not only the scene of the humiliations visited upon the patricians, but also, and above all, an arena of disgusting bribery. Their opinion echoes the sentiment expressed by another imperial grandee, of an earlier, though not necessarily more fortunate or secure age. In a letter to Lucilius (118.3) the advice of Seneca the sage is n ih il p etere: to disdain all the c o m itia fo rtu n a e . This phrase triggered in his mind a picture of republican elections: the tribes had been called upon to vote, and the candidates, visible on the platform, wait in anxious suspense. They are engaged in frantic last minute efforts: one candidate publicly proclaims the am ount of money he is prepared to pay; another conducts his dealings through the agency of a trustee;7 still another assiduously rubs his kisses onto the hands of people to whom, once 6. Cf. F. Teichmüller, Ambire, -fio, -tiosus, -Uose, -tus (Prog. Wittstock, 1901); J. Helleguarc'h, Le vocabulaire latin des relations et des partis politiques sous la république (Paris, 1963) 208-211. 7. Quam putas esse iucundum tribubus vocatis, cum candidati in templis suis pendeant et alius nummos pronuntiet, alius per sequestrem agat. Templum here is the inaugurated spot, the tribunal on which both the presiding magistrate and the candidates were seated. Cf. Varro, de ling. Lat. 6.91; Val. Max. 4.5.3; I.M. J. Valeton, "De templis romanis," Mnemosyne 23 (1895) 28-35. The translation of R.M. Gummere in the Loeb Classical Library ("the candidates are making offerings in their favourite temples") is a disaster. For an interpretation of Seneca's passage, see also R. Frei-Stolba, Untersuchungen zu den Wahlen in der römischen Kaizerzeit (Zürich 1967) 173-174.
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appointed to office, he would refuse even the touch of his hand. All this suits the n u n the vanity fair, full of buyers and sellers. N ih il rogo: I ask for nothing. Not quite. It was obviously proper and in good taste to court one's equals and entreat one's superiors. Velleius Paterculus is an eloquent and eager witness to the dawn of this golden age: among other magnificent things that came to pass under Tiberius, riotous behavior was chased away from the fo ru m , and unseemly canvassing from the c a m p u s (2.126.2)8. The fo r u m was the meeting place of the c o m itia trib u ta (and the c o n c iliu m p leb isj, which elected the lower magistrates; in the late republic this assembly was dominated by the easily excitable city mob; the c a m p u s stands for the c o m itia c e n tu ria ta , which elected the higher magistrates, praetors and consuls, and was the scene of unbounded a m b itu s. Now, painting the gloomy decline of republican liberty, Tacitus reports (A n n . 1.14.4) that upon Tiberius' accession to power the elections were for the first time transferred from the people to the senate, tu m p r im u m e c a m p o c o m itia a d p a tre s tra n sla ta su n t. This famous passage incited a torrent of modern literature;9 among conflicting interpretations one thing stands firm: the popular assemblies continued to meet at least until the beginn ing of the third century, but their sole function was to approve, probably by acclama tion, the list of candidates presented by the senate and the p rin c e p s. Idle talk was the on ly reaction of the people to that loss of their republican birthright; and the senators, Tacitus writes, gladly accepted the change; it freed them from largitio, the bribery expen ditures, and from p re c e s so rd id a e, undignified canvassing. This revulsion, understan dable no doubt, against humbling oneself before the imperious mob of impecunious voters, goes a long way toward explaining why, despite occasional grumblings, the senatorial aristocracy resoundingly accepted the principate. Sallust was of one mind w ith Symmachus, Ausonius and Velleius. The age in which he was born was one of corruption and decline. P u d o r, a b stin e n tia , v irtu s were forgotten, a u d a c ia , largitio, a v a ritia flourished (B C a t. 3.4).10 Unaware of the future splendors of the authoritarian dispensation, Sallust, like so many dream ers and pamphleteers of all times, sought the golden age in an imaginary past. He was not alone in dating the turning point to the middle of the second century, when Carthage, the a e m u la im p e rii R o m a n i, was raz ed to the ground. Now a m b itio and the desire for riches invaded Rome. The first victim was internal concord. But before we are completely inundated by these moralizing ac cusations, let us turn to the cool and sober mind of a pragmatic historian. Polybius saw the beginnings of the process against which Sallust fulminates; when a state has achiev ed uncontested supremacy and prosperity, he wrote (6.57.5-9), life will become more profligate, w ith the love of office and display of wealth in the forefront. But the engine of this change for the worse will be the populace itself: it will favor those candidates for of fice who flatter it. The people will no longer simply obey the ruling class, but will de mand the lion's share for themselves. The end result of this development will inevitably be ochlocracy, mob-rule. Now this is a rather schematic analysis of the decay of the mix ed constitution,11 but not all of it is abstraction, pure and simple. L a rg itio and a m b itu s was indeed in Rome a symptom of the change, not the cause of it. For why was it necessary to buy the vote? The answer is simple. If you do not im mediately control the voters, you must pay for their support. This can be done in two ways: by means of legislation appealing to special interest groups or directly by handing d in a e ,
8. Cf. ad loc. A.J. Woodman, Velleius Paterculus. The Tiberian Narrative (Cambrige, 1977) 237-238. 9. Cf. Frei-Stolba, Untersuchungen (above, n. 7) 130 ff.; M. Pani, Comitia e senato. Sulla trasformazione della procedura elettorale a Roma nell'età di Tiberio (Bari, 1974) passim (both with further literature). 10. On these code-words, and Sallust's idelology, see Helleguarc'h, Le vocabulaire (above, n. 6) 27, 116, 196, 203, 219-221, 242-245, 260-261, 274-277, 476-483; D.C. Earl, The Political Thought of Sallust (Cambridge, 1961) esp. 5-17. 11. Cf. F.W. Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius 1 (Oxford, 1957) 743-746.
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out money and gifts. The appearance of such legislation and of direct bribery un mistakably points to grave social shifts, and there is never a dearth of reckless politicians ready to exploit the new situation for their personal aggrandizement, however ultimately pernicious their conduct might prove for their class as a whole. If this model holds any substance a m b itu s should make its debut as a social and political problem some time in the second century; it should have grown to prominence in the last century of the republic and reached its peak in the age of Pompey and Caesar. One test we can apply to check the validity of this hypothesis is the occurence of legisla tion against electoral abuse. The first law de a m b itu on record Livy dates to 358 BC (7.5.12). The lex P o e te lia 12 was sponsored by a tribune of the plebs a u c to rib u s p a tr ib u s and was intended, we are told, to curb the a m b itio of the h o m in e s n o v i who used to canvass at the n u n d in a e and co n cilia b u la . A m b itu s is here clearly to be taken in its original meaning of "canvassing by going around";13 it contains no intimation of outright bribery. But as any case of tribunician legislation before the lex H o r te n s ia is suspect,14 the law in question may well be a figment of the annalists. But if this is so, it is a deft figment; the goal of the lex P o e te lia was to pro tect the interests of the established p a tre s and to insulate their clien tela e from the wooing of the h o m in e s novi. How this was to be achieved we are not informed, but the general perception given by the annalist is remarkably unclouded by moral posturing. C u i bono is the question which not only the stern judge L. Cassius asked,1S but which also every historian should constantly repeat. Electoral largitio was always an instrum ent of wresting electoral clie n te la e from their inherited allegiances. It required huge sums of ready cash not only for direct bribery, but above all for lavish games and gladiatorial shows. Both Sallust and Polybius stress d iv itia e as a prerequisite of largitio. One obvious source of money for bribes was extortion in the provinces; this link between a m b itu s and re p e tu n d a e did not escape the keen eye of Asconius. In 54 M. Aemilius Scaurus, the son of the famous p rin c e p s s e n a tu s at the turn of the century, was indicted before the q u a e stio de re p e tu n d is for extortions he had committed as governor of Sardinia and Corsica. The accusation coincided with Scaurus' campaign for the consulship. Asconius relates (19 C.) that the prosecutors did not utilize the thirty days they received for the inquiries in Sardina, and insisted upon immediate trial: they were afraid that Scaurus would buy the consulship with the money he had extorted in the province and would enter upon office before the conclusion of the trial, thus secur ing for himself immunity from further prosecution. Scaurus mustered for his defense the unprecedented num ber of six patrons, among them a most unlikely pair of collaborators, Cicero and P. Clodius. Cicero should have known from his own experience the painful plausibility of the accusers' fears. Fourteen years earlier as a candidate for the aedileship and at the same time the accuser of Verres, he himself had to fend off the torrent of Sicilian money (V e rr. 1.22-23). The consuls of this year M. Hortensius and Q. Metellus were elected p e c u n ia S icilien si, and Verres used to boast M e te llu m n o n fa to , se d o p era su a c o n su le m fa c tu m . At the time of Naevius the consulship was a birthright of the Metelli;16 now times had changed: even a Metellus had to practice electoral largitio. 12. The lex Poetelia attracted some attention. See M. Isler, "Ueber das Poetelische Gesetz de ambitu," RhM 28 (1873) 473-478; L. Lange, "Ueber das Poetelische Gesetz de ambitu," RhM 29 (1874) 500-505 (reprinted in L. Lange, Kleine Schriften 2 [Gottingen, 1887] 195-202); and recently L. Fascione, "Alie origini della legisla zione de ambitu," in; F. Serrao (ed.), Legge e società nella repubblica romana 1 (Napoli, 1981) 269-279. All three authors display a very credulous attitude toward the annalistic source of Livy's information, an attitude characteristic of old antiquarianism and, alas, also of contemporary Italian legal dottrina. 13. Varro, de ling. Lat. 5.28; Festus (Paulus) s.v. ambitus, 20 L. 14. Cf. E.S. Staveley, "Tribal legislation before the lex Hortensia," Athenaeum 33 (1955) 3-31; J. Bleicken, Das Volkstribunat der klassischen Republik2 (München, 1968) 11 ff. 15. Asc. in Mil. 45 C. 16. Cf. H.B. Mattingly, "Naevius and the Metelli," Historia 9 (1960) 414-439, esp. 417-418.
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Extortion leads us back to the second century: this is the earliest date money from this source would be freely forthcoming. But money in the pockets of the candidates is only one part of the equation. The other are the recipients of the bribes. The economic upheavals of the second century, the rise of the la tifu n d ia , the impoverishment of the farmers, the migration to Rome created a large group of voters who were ready to sell their votes to the highest bidder. Since the Gracchi a long series of agrarian and grain laws appealed to this group; as they owed no direct allegiance to the nobility as a class, they could easily be swayed by promises of grain or land or by the outright distribution of money. But perhaps the most im portant event in the spread of a m b itu s was the one that was hailed as the dawn of popular liberty: the introduction of written and hence secret ballot - ta b ella v in d e x lib e rta tis was the p a ro le of the reformers (Cic. d e leg. 3.39; P la n e. 16). Four tribunician laws in quick succession established written ballots: in 139 in electoral assemblies (le x G a b in ia ); in 137 in judicial, with the exception of p erd u ellio , (le x C a ssia ); in 131 in legislative (le x P a p iria ); and finally in 107 also in the comitial trials for treason (le x C a e lia }.17 In the era of oral voting the voters indicated their preference to the ro g a tores, selected from prom inent men in the state. The ro g a to res recorded the votes by placing dots, p u n c ta , one dot for one vote, on special tablets.18 Now, with the written ta b ella , a client could vote as he pleased, without his patron being able to control or in timidate him. No wonder the nobility was adamantly opposed to this form of voting; for them as for Symmachus five hundred years later the waxed voting tablet was the harb inger of all evil: cera tu rp is. Cicero in his ideal Roman state would curiously enough re tain the written ballot, but stipulates that before being deposited in the urn the ballots be shown to the leading men of the state: the su ffra g ia should be p o p u lo libera, but o p tim a tib u s n o ta [de leg. 3. 10, 33, 38).19 Thus it should come as no surprise that the first historically attested leges de a m b itu date to the second century. Two laws are on the books (Livy 40.19.11; P er. 47), the lex C o rn elia B a e b ia of 181, and a law of 159, normally attributed to the consuls of that year Cn. Cornelius Dolabella and M. Fulvius Nobilior. About their content and generally about a m b itu s in the second century we know unfortunately little; as one probably should have expected Cato the Elder delivered a speech d e a m b itu ,20 and we have occa sional references to illegal a m b itio in the Livian tradition (Obs. 12) and Plautus (T r in . 1033). In the prologue to A m p h itr y o 60ff. (which may or may not have been w ritten by Plautus himself) the corrupt solicitation by the actors for applause, and particularly the distribution of the bands of claqueurs is compared to the illegal soliciting for votes at the elections. The author of the prologue proposes that any actor found guilty of having hired the fa v ito re s or having engineered the failure of a rival should have his actor's costume, his o r n a m e n ta , cut to pieces. It is perhaps not too adventurous to detect here a comical allusion to the punishm ent meted out to the candidates convicted of bribery: the loss of their rank, the civic o rn a m e n ta . If we are to trust Polybius they stood to lose something even more precious: whereas at Carthage candidates for office used to practice bribery openly, in Rome th a n a to s is the penalty (6.56.4). But this information is to be taken c u m g ra n o salis. We probably have to 17. For the references, see G. Rotondi, Leges Publicae Populi Romani (Milano, 1912, repr. Hildesheim, 1962) 297, 302, 324-325. 18. See T. Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht 3 (Leipzig, 1887) 404, 407 n. 5. ^ 19. For an interpretation of this law of Cicero, see the excellent article of C. Nicolet, "Ciceron, Platon et le vote secret," Historia 19 (1970) 39-66. According to L. Troiani, "Sulla lex de suffragiis in Cicerone, de legibus III, 10," Athenaeum 59 (1981) 180-184, Cicero proposes "il voto palese" for the optimates and "il voto libero" for the plebs. But the passage de leg. 3.39: "habeat sane populus tabellam quasi vindicem libertatis, dum modo haec optimo cuique et gravissimo civi ostendatur ultroque offeratur" shows clearly that it was the suf fragia of the populus that were to be nota to the optimates. 20. H. Malcovati, Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta2 (Turin, 1955) fr. 136, p. 54. See also his ne lex Baebia derogaretur, ibid., frgs. 137, 138, p. 54. Cf. A. Astin, Cato the Censor (Oxford, 1978) 120-121, 329-331.
I l l
J. LINDERSKI
admit that for some forms of bribery the c a p u t of the offender was the penalty, but at the same time Polybius himself (6.14.7) tells us that the people fearing conviction on capital charges would habitually remove themselves from Rome and live peacefully in exile in one of the allied communities of Italy.21 They would lose their c a p u t in the civil but not in the physical sense of the word. But Polybius' account causes trouble. A Ciceronian scholiast (Schol. Bob. p. 78 St.) reports that before the le x C a lp u rn ia of 67 the candidates convicted of a m b itu s on the basis of a lex C o rn elia were merely prohibited for ten years from standing for office. This le x C o rn elia will certainly be a law of Sulla; but if so, a remarkable lowering of the penal ty will have occurred between the age of Polybius and the beginning of the first century. This evolution we should connect with the introduction of the standing court de a m b itu ; no source remarks on this event and no constituent law stands on record. Yet the trial of Marius for bribery, arising from his campaign for the praetorship of 115, clearly took place before the jurors of a q u a e stio and not before the judicial c o m itia of the people (Plut. M a r . 5).22 Thus the q u a e stio d e a m b itu must have been introduced sometime before 11623 - it is difficult not to see here a connection with the leges ta b ella ria e. On the one hand its establishment corresponds to the general legal trend of transferring the handling of delicts from the c o m itia to the standing courts, but on the other it is also an indirect testimony to the increase in a m b itu s accusations which the judicial assembly of the peo ple was apparently unable to handle. We pick up again the thread of the legal development only in the age of Sulla; from his time a special praetor was in charge of the q u a e s tio de a m b itu . In the post-Sullan legislation three trends are discernible: first, the gradual sharpening of the penalties for candidates convicted of bribery; second, the introduction of penalties for the associates and helpers in bribery; and third, a more precise definition of the crime of a m b itu s, and the progressive inclusion in it of a num ber of previously allowed practices, as for in stance the limitation of the num ber of se c ta to re s who accompanied the candidates on their daily peregrinations around the city (introduced by a le x F a b ia , perhaps in 65)24 or the ban on n o m e n c la to re s disregarded by everybody but religiously observed by Cato as a candidate for the military tribunate (Plut. C at. M in . 8).2S The lex C a lp u rn ia of 67 threatened expulsion from the senate and perpetual exclu sion from the h o n o res (Sch. Bob. 78-79 St.); four years later the law sponsored by Cicero stipulated the penalty of exile [M ur. 45, 47, 89; P la n e. 8, 83), limited however to ten years, according to Cassius Dio (37.29).26 The law of Pompey of 52 contained a p o e n a g ra vior, no doubt exile for life.27 A pecuniary penalty was included in the le x C a lp u rn ia and was probably increased substantially by the Pompeian law.28. But perhaps the most telling facet of a m b itu s legislation are the provisions concern ing the distributors of bribes, the notorious d iv iso re s.29 Originally their trade seems to 21. Cf. G. Crifo, Ricerche sull'exilium nel periodo repubblicano (Milano, 1961) 44 ff. 22. Cf. T. Carney, "Two Notes on Republican Roman Law," Acta Iuridica (1959) 232-234. 23. Cf. E. Gruen, Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts (Cambridge, Mass., 1968) 124. 24. On this law, see T.E. Kinsey, "Cicero, Pro Murena 71," Revue Beige de Philologie et d'Histoire 43 (1965) 57-59. 25. Cf. Bernert, "Nomenclator," RE 18 (1936) 817-820; J. Vogt, "Nomenclator," Gymnasium 85 (1978) 327-338. 26. Cf. E. Levy, Die römische Kapitalstrafe jSitzungsberichte d. Heidelberger Akad. d. Wiss., Phil. -hist. Kl. 1930/1931, 5 Abh.) 31-32; E. Grassmuck, Exilium. Untersuchungen zur Verbannung in der Antike (Padeborn, 1978) 102-103, who, however, omits to discuss the exilium of the lex Pompeia (see below, n. 27). 27. Asc. in Mil. 36 C.; Plut. Cat. Min. 48; Cic. ad Att. 9.14.2; Mommsen, Strafrecht 874 n. 7. 28. Sch. Bob. 78 St.; according to the lex Pompeia the victorious accuser was to receive a pecuniary praemium (Asc. in Mil. 54 C.|, no doubt from the property of the condemnatus. 29. W. Liebenam, "Divisor," RE 5 (1905) 1237-1238. Still very useful is F.H. Weismann, De divisoribus et se questribus ambitus apud Romanos instrumentis (Diss. Heidelberg, 1831).
112
BUYING THE VOTE
93
have been an honest one; their task was to distribute various gratuities among the trib u les, the members of the same tribe. But in the later republic they offered a ready conduit for the flow of bribes. Cicero speaks in one breath of thieves and d iviso res [V err. 3.161), and in another passage he jestingly remarks that a certain d iv iso r Nummius ac quired his name on the Campus Martius [de O r. 2.63). W hen Cicero thundered against Verres he was, no doubt, describing a familiar scene [V err. 1.22-23): "Some ten baskets of Sicilian money were left at the house of a certain senator for the purpose connected w ith my candidacy (i.e. this senator was to act as the go-between, s e q u e ste r or in te rp re s ); a meeting of d iv iso re s of all tribes was convened one night at Verres' house ... Verres reminded them how generously he had treated them, both when he himself was a can didate for the praetorship some time ago, and at the recent elections of consuls and praetors; and he then at once promised them as much money as they might wish if only they succeeded in turning down my bid for the aedileship ... Some of them replied they did not believe it could be managed; however, a friend and kinsman of Verres, Q. Verres of the Romilian tribe, a fine specimen of the bribery-agent, declared he would undertake this task for the sum of five hundred thousand sesterces paid dow n." This sum attracts attention: it was a larger am ount than that needed for the equestrain census; Roman elections were definitely not for the poor. To distribute bribes evidently was a lucrative occupation. W hen the consul in 67 C. Calpurnius Piso included in his law penalties against bribery agents, the crowd of d iviso res chased him from the forum; but the consul returned w ith a stronger bodyguard, and pushed his law through.30 But the clubs and stones were as effective a means of persuasion as gold. In 55 the le x L ic in ia d e so d a liciis, sponsored by the triumvir M. Crassus, attacked associations organized for the purpose of bribery and intimidation. Their members could now be pro secuted and punished both for violence and bribery, vis and a m b itu s .31 In 61 the proposal of a curious law was ventilated: those who merely promised cash for the tribes but failed to pay would go unpunished; those who were convicted of living up to their promise would be obliged to pay annually to each tribe three thousand sesterces for life (Cic. A tt. 1.16.13). All these numerous measures, some seven laws and a dozen senatorial decrees, w hether serious or ridiculous, were ultimately utterly ineffective, for they approached a m b itu s as a moral or at best political issue, but failed to address its social roots and causes. The stakes were too high and rewards too enticing to contend for office merely v irtu te , and not fa v ito rib u s, as Plautus had exhorted. The breakdown of old c lien tela e, and the rise of the new ones, of Pompey, Caesar, or Catiline, were facts of life that could not be exorcised by the letter of the law. The conservative senators and the "dynasts," as they were called, competed w ith each other on two curiously incompatible levels. They posed as the saviours of the Republic, bent upon eradicating corruption. The legislation against the d iviso res was initiated by the tribune C. Cornelius, a former quaestor of Pompey, but was carried to fruition, after prolonged bickering and tortuous com promises, by Pompey's foe, the consul Calpurnius Piso. On the other hand it was Hortensius who sponsored in 56 a senatorial decree directed against the electoral so d a lita te s. The comitial legislation to this effect was stalled by the machinations of the triumvirs but ironically enough it was Crassus who as consul in the next year claimed 30. Asc. in Com. 75-76 C.; Cass. Dio 36.38-39. Cf. W. McDonald, "The Tribunate of Cornelius," CQ 23 (1929) 196-208, esp. 200-205; C. Nicolet, "Le sénat et les amendements aux lois à la fin de la re'publique," Revue Hist, de droit francais et étranger 36 (1958) 262-266; M. Griffin, "The Tribune C. Cornelius," JRS 63 (1973) 196-203. 31. See J. Linderski, "Ciceros Rede Pro Caelio und die Ambitus- und Vereinsgesetzgebung der ausgehenden Republik," Hermes 89 (1961) 106-119, with sources and further literature. The loose divagations of P. Grimal, "La lex Licinia de sodaliciis," in: Ciceroniana. Hommages à K. Kumaniecki (Leiden, 1975) 107-115, contain little of use.
113
J. LINDERSKI
the credit for a tough law d e so d a lic iis.32 But behind this screen of moral probity, electoral life flourished untainted by Utopian sentiments. Two patterns emerge. One is the tradi tional competition in bribery between members of the senatorial class dictated by per sonal ambition and the instinct for survival. The ensuing accusations and trials provided interesting divertissment for high society, but were devoid of any immediate political consequence. The other pattern was much more ominous: the contest between the "dynasts" and their senatorial opponents. It was an ominous pattern for it demonstrated a d n a u s e a m the puny role the c o m itia of the people now played. W henever the triumvirs wished to occupy the consulship or to give it to one of their partisans, they were always able to crush the opposition through the force of their gold and their veterans. The peo ple bestowed offices but no power. Soon they were to lose their liberty, and w ith it its v in d e x , the tabella. L a rg itio remained: a bribe for torpid docility, not fa sc e s and im p eria .
32. J. Linderski, "Two Speeches of Q. Hortensius," PP 16 (1961) 304-311. Cf. E. Gruen, The Last Generation (above, n. 1) 229-230.
114
10 THREE
T R IA L S IN
5 4 B . C .:
S U F E N A S , C A T O , P R O C IL IU S ' AD
A T T IC U M
AND
C IC E R O ,
4 . 15. 4
T h e p a s s a g e o n w h i c h I p r o p o s e to p r e s e n t a c o m m e n t a r y r e a d s as f o ll o w s , C ic e r o ,
ad A tt.,
4 . 15. 4 :
N u n c Romanas res accipe. A . d. l l l l Nonas Quintiles Sufenas et Cato absoluti, Procilius condemnatus, ex quo intellectum est τρισαρεοπαγίτας am bitum , comitia, interre gnum , maiestatem, totam denique rem p. flocci non facere, patrem familias dom i suae occidi nolle, neque tamen id ip sum abunde; nam absolverunt XXI I , condemnarunt XXVI I I . Publius sane diserto epilogo criminans mentes iudicum moverat. Hortalus in ea causa fu it cuiusmodi solet, nos ver bum nullum ; veritast enim pusilla, quae nunc laborat, ne anim um Publi offenderem ( ! ). T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d i n t r i c a t e q u e s t i o n t h a t fa c e s a n y s c h o la r tr y in g to i n t e r p r e t th e
te x t re p ro d u c e d
a b o v e is to r e c o n s t r u c t th e
p o l i t i c a l s e t t i n g o f t h e t r i a l s m e n t i o n e d b y C ic e r o
and
to f i n d
out
w h a t s p e c ific c h a r g e s w e r e b r o u g h t i n a g a i n s t S u f e n a s , C a to a n d P r o c iliu s . T h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e
curriculum vitae
o f th o s e m e n a n d e s p e
c i a lly o f C a t o m a y h e r e b e h e l p f u l . C . P o r c i u s C a t o (2) m a d e h is p o l i t i c a l d e b u t i n 5 9 B . C . w i t h a n
(*) (2)
L. A. C o n s t a n s , Cicéron, Correspondance, III, Paris, 1 9 5 0 . See D r u m a n n - G roebe , Geschichte Roms, V, Leipzig, 1 9 1 9 , 2 1 5 -2 1 7 ; Fr. M i l t n e r , s.v . Porcius (n° 6 ), in RE, XXII. 1 , Stuttgart, 1 9 5 3 , 1 0 5 - 1 0 7 ; G. N i c c o l i n i ,
115
JERZY LINDERSKI
a s s a u lt
upon
th e
c o n s u l d e s ig n a te
a t t e m p t e d to b r i n g a l a w - s u it in g
th a t P o m p e iu s
C . G a b in iu s
de ambitu·,
a g a in st w h o m
he
th e p ra e to rs, h o w e v e r, fe a r
m ig h t b e in fu ria te d
by
th e
i n d i c t m e n t o f h is
h e n c h m a n , d i d n o t a c c e p t t h e a c c u s a tio n . C a t o a s s a ile d t h e n p u b l i c l y th e
trium vir
d re w
la b e llin g h im
C ic e r o ’s s c o r n u p o n
o f C a to :
privatus dictator, h i m (3) a n d
turbulentus adulescens
a n a u d a c io u s s te p , t h a t
ju s tif ie s F e n e s t e l l a ’s o p i n i o n
(4). I n 5 7 h e w a s e le c te d to t h e t r i b u
n a t e o f t h e p le b s ( f o r 5 6 ) a n d a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e h e b e c a m e C l o d i u s ’ a l ly a n d M i l o ’s e n e m y . A s t r i b u n e h e s u p p o r t e d C lo d i u s ( w h o w a s th e n a c a n d id a te fo r th e c u ru le a e d ils h ip ) a n d a g ita te d fo r th e im m e d ia te h o l d i n g o f t h e a e d i l i c i a n e le c tio n s (5) w h i c h w e r e d e l a y e d u n t i l Ja n u a ry
56
b e c a u s e o f M i l o ’s o b s t r u c t i o n
and
th e h o s tility
o f th e
c o n s u l C n . C o r n e l i u s L e n t u l u s M a r c e l l i n u s a n d t h e t r i b u n e L . R a c i li u s t o C lo d i u s (6). H e a ls o to o k a n a c tiv e p a r t i n t h e s tr if e c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e s t i t u t i o n o f t h e k i n g P t o l e m y A u l e t e s (7) a n d o p p o s e d i n th is c o n n e c t i o n b o t h P o m p e i u s a n d P . C o r n e l i u s L e n t u l u s S p i n t h e r (cos. 5 7 a n d g o v e r n o r o f C ilic ia ) , t h e s e n a t e ’s c a n d i d a t e f o r c a r r y i n g t h r o u g h
t h e r e s t o r i n g o f t h e k i n g . I n F e b r u a r y h e p r o m u l g a t e d t w o la w s , o n e
de imperio P. Cornelio Lentulo abrogando
(8), a n d t h e o t h e r c o n c e r n
i n g M ilo , p r o b a b l y p r o p o s i n g t o e s ta b l is h a s p e c ia l c o u r t t o p r o s e c u te h i m (9). I n
th e
s e n a te
he
v e h e m e n tly
a tta c k e d
P o m p e i u s (10). T h e
p r o p o s a ls o f C a t o w e r e s t r o n g l y o p p o s e d b y t h e c o n s u l L e n t u l u s M a r c e l lin u s
w ho
h a v in g
p ro c la im e d
feriae
and
supplicationes
on
th e
c o m iti a l d a y s m a d e i t im p o s s ib l e f o r C a to to p u t h is m o t i o n s to th e v o te o f t h e tr ib e s (n ). T h e t r i b u n e , a n g r y a t th i s , d e c l a r e d h e w o u l d in r e v e n g e i m p e d e t h e h o l d i n g o f t h e r e g u l a r e le c tio n s (12). I Fasti dei tribuni della plebe, Milano, 1934, 303-308; T. R. S. B r o u g h t o n , The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, II, New York, 1952, 209. (3) Ad. Q. fr., i. 2 . 1 5 . (4) Nonius Marcellus, de comp, doctr., 385 ( M ü l le r ) ( = Fenestella, frg. 21 [ P e t e r ]).
Cicero, ad jam., 1. 4. 1; ad. Q. fr., 2. 1. 2-3. (6) Cicero, ad Att., 4. 3. 3-5; ad Q. fr., 2. 1 . 2-3; cf. ad Q. fr., 2. 2. 2. (7) Cf. T. R. H o l m e s , The Roman Republic, II, Oxford, 1923, 66 ff.; E. M ey er , Caesars Monarchie und das Principal des Pompejus3, Stuttgart-Berlin, 1922, 126 ff. (8) Cicero, ad Q. fr., 2. 3. 1. 4; ad fam., 1. 5. 2; cf. 1. 5a. 2. (9) Cicero, ad Q. fr., 2. 3. 4. (10) Cicero, ad Q. fr., 2. 3. 4. (") Cicero, ad Q. fr., 2. 4. 4-6. (12) Cicero, ad Q. fr., 2. 4. 6: C. Cato contionatus est comitia haberi non si turum si sibi cum populo dies agendi essent exempti (March 56). (5)
116
283
THREE TRIALS IN 54 B. C.
T h e p o l i t i c a l s y m p a t h i e s o f C a t o a r e t h u s c l e a r ly d e l i n e a t e d : h e w a s n e i t h e r a s u p p o r t e r o f P o m p e i u s n o r o f th e o p t i m a t e s ; o n t h e w h o l e t h e v ie w o f t h e s c h o la r s w h o c o n s id e r h i m a p a r t i s a n o f C r a s s u s s e e m s m o s t p l a u s i b l e (13). A f t e r t h e c o n f e r e n c e a t L u c a h e w a s r e c o n c ile d w ith P o m p e iu s , p r o b a b ly th r o u g h
C r a s s u s ’ m e d i a t i o n ; h is co -
o p e r a t i o n p r o v e d v e r y e f f e c tiv e to t h e t r i u m v i r s . A c c o rd in g
to
th e d e c i s i o n r e a c h e d
a t th e
c o n fe re n c e
of L uca
P o m p e i u s a n d C r a s s u s w e r e to s t a n d f o r t h e c o n s u l s h i p f o r 5 5 . T h e re a lis a tio n
o f t h i s p l a n w a s , h o w e v e r , s e r io u s ly e n d a n g e r e d b y t h e
r e s is ta n c e o f th e c o n s u l C n . C o r n e l i u s M a r c e l l i n u s , a s t a u n c h o p t i m a te , th o u g h o n c e a q u a e s to r o f P o m p e iu s , w h o d e c la re d h e w o u ld n o t a c c e p t P o m p e i u s a n d C r a s s u s as c a n d i d a t e s ( 14). A c c o r d i n g t o th e R o m a n e l e c to r a l s y s te m
t h e r e w a s n o le g a l m e a n s o f i n d u c i n g th e
c o n s u l p r e s i d i n g o v e r t h e e l e c to r a l a s s e m b l y t o a c c e p t a g a i n s t h is w i l l a c a n d i d a t u r e o r to a n n o u n c e o ffic ia lly ( renuntiare ) t h e r e s u lt s o f t h e v o t i n g . I n o r d e r t o o v e r c o m e th e c o n s u l ’s o p p o s i t i o n t h e d y n a s ts d e c i d e d t o i m p e d e t h e h o l d i n g o f t h e e le c tio n s a n d t o d e l a y t h e m u n t i l t h e
interregnum w o u l d t h e n r e s u l t a n d th e y h o p e d t h e interreges w o u l d a d m i t t h e i r professio. I n f a c t b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e interregnum a n d e v e n t u a l l y
e n d o f th e y ear. T h e th a t fin a lly o n e o f th e y
succeeded in
P o m p e i u s a n d C r a s s u s w e r e e le c te d to t h e c o n s u l s h i p e a r l y i n 5 5 u n d e r th e p re s id e n c y o f a n A nd
interrex.
i t is i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n
th a t th e n a m e o f C a to re a p p e a rs .
C a s s iu s D i o , hist., 3 9 . 2 7 . 3 , s ta te s t h a t t h e t r i u m v i r s διεπράσσοντο τάς άρχαιρεσίας εν τω ένιαυτω έκείνω μή γενέσθ-αι, άλλους τε καί τον Κ άτωνα τον Γάιον ένιέντες, ινα μεσοβασιλέως αίρεθ-έντος καί αίτήσωσι κατά τούς νόμους τήν αρχήν καί λάβωσι, a n d t h e s a m e i n f o r m a t i o n is t o b e f o u n d
Periochae, 1 0 5 : cum C. Catonis tribuni plebis intercessionibus comitia tollerentur, senatus vestem mutavit. T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t C ic e r o w h i l e m e n t i o n i n g i n ad A tt., 4 . 1 5 . 4 , comitia a n d interregnum i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e t r i a l o f C a to m a k e s i n L i v y ’s
a n a l l u s i o n to t h e l a t t e r ’s a c t iv it y i n 5 6 a s t h e p r i n c i p a l a g e n t o f th e t r i u m v i r s i n d e l a y i n g t h e e le c tio n s a n d b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e i n t e r r e gnum .
B u t i n t h e s a m e c o n t e x t S u f e n a s a ls o is r e f e r r e d to a n d i t is
(13) L. L an ge , Römische Alterthüm er, III2, Berlin, 1876, 320-321, 333; M e yer , Caesars Monarchie, 132-133. This view is based on Cicero, ad Q. fr., 2. 3. 4: N am Pompeius haec intellegit nobiscumque communicat, insidias vitae suae fieri, C. Catonem a Crasso sustentari. (14) Cassius Dio, hist., 39. 27-31.
117
JERZY LINDERSKI
2«4
a p la u s i b le s u g g e s tio n to i d e n t i f y h i m w i t h o n e o f th o s e ά λ λ ο ι m e n ti o n e d b y C a s s iu s D i o w h o c o - o p e r a t e d w i t h
C a to in 5 6 .
O n e im
p o r t a n t f a c t s h o u l d b e s tr e s s e d : it is e x c lu s iv e ly o n th e b a s is o f C i c e r o ’s l e tte r to A t t i c u s
h e r e u n d e r d is c u s s io n
th a t
M . N o n i u s S u f e n a s is
n o r m a l l y lis te d a m o n g t h e t r i b u n e s o f th e p le b s o f 5 6 ( 1S). I n a n a r ti c le o n
Catullus
Magistrates of
55
B.C. iti Cicero’s Pro Plancio and
5 2 ( 16) t o b e v ie w e d as o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s
to th e la te r e p u b l i c a n p r o s o p o g r a p h y p u b l i s h e d in r e c e n t y e a rs , L . R . T a y lo r h a s p re s e n te d
p o w e rfu l a rg u m e n ts
N o n iu s S u fe n a s w ith C a tu llu s ’ by
a r e a lly
in g e n io u s
struma
a rg u m e n t
th a t
f o r th e
id e n tific a tio n
of
N o n i u s (17). A t f ir s t s h e p r o v e d th e
c u ru le
a e d i ls h ip
of
C n.
P l a n c i u s a n d A . P lo ti u s , s in c e W u n d e r ( 18) d a t e d b e y o n d q u e s t i o n in 5 4 , b e l o n g s in f a c t t o 5 5 .
A s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t s h e to o k th e o b s e r v a ti o n
t h a t in t h e C i c e r o n i a n ( a n d e v e n m o r e g e n e r a l , th e r e p u b l i c a n ) u s a g e th e te rm
auctor legis
d id n o t d e n o t e th e l a t o r o f a la w b u t th e m a n
w h o u s e d h is a u t h o r i t y to s u p p o r t t h e p r o p o s a l.
C o n s e q u e n t l y in th e
quasi non comitiis iam superioribus sit Plancius designatus aedilis; quae comitia prim um habere coepit consul cum omnibus in rebus sum m a auctoritate, tum harum ipsarum legum ambitus auctor {pro Plane., 4 9 ), th e c o n s u l r e f e r r e d to is n o t C r a s s u s ( w h o p a s s e d t h e lex de sodaliciis) b u t P o m p e i u s . T h e comitia supe riora a t w h i c h P l a n c i u s h a d a l r e a d y b e e n d e s i g n a t e d w e r e a p p a r e n t l y d is s o lv e d b e f o r e t h e f i n a l renuntiatio ; th u s th e y a rc e a s ily to b e i d e n t i f i p h r a s e o f C ic e r o :
ed w ith
t h e v i o l e n t e le c tio n s o f th e c u r u l e a e d ile s f o r 5 5 a t w h i c h
P o m p e i u s ’ g a r m e n t s w e r e b e s p a t t e r e d w i t h b lo o d ( 19). B r o u g h t o n r e g is t e r s a s c u r u l e a e d ile s in 5 5 L . A e m i l i u s P a u l l u s a n d N o n i u s S t r u m a (20), b u t th e r e is n o c e r t a i n t y a n d
( ls)
Sec M ü n z e r ,
9 0 1 ; N i c c o l i n i , Fasti,
s .v .
Nonius (n° 5 2 ), in RE, XVIII. ; B r o u g h t o n , Magistrates, II,
3 0 3 -3 0 4
( 16) ( 17)
1,
fo r A e m iliu s
Stuttgart,
1936,
900
-
209.
In Athenaeum, N.S., 4 2 , 1 9 6 4 , 1 2 -2 8 . Catullus, carm., 5 2 : Sella in curuli struma Nonius sedet, per consulatum perierat Vatimus. ( IS) E. W u n d e r , Pro Cn. Plancio oratio, Lipsiac, 1 8 3 0 , i.xvm ff.; M ü n z e r , s.v. Plancius (n° 4 ), in RE, XX. 2 , Stuttgart, 1 9 5 0 , 2 0 1 4 -2 0 1 ·;; B r o u g h t o n , Magistra tes, II, 2 2 3 . (19) Cassius Dio, hist., 3 9 . 3 2 . 2 -3 ; Valerius Maximus, mem., 4 . 6 . 4 ; Plutarch, Pomp., 5 3 . Cf. Appian, hell, civ., 2 . 1 7 . (20)
Magistrates, II,
216
.
118
THREE TRIALS IN 54 B. C.
385
P a u l l u s a n o t h e r d a t e h a s a ls o b e e n p r o p o s e d (2I) : lie m a y e q u a l l y w e ll h a v e h e l d h is a e d i l s h i p in 5 6 . T h e o n ly b a s is f o r a s s i g n i n g N o n i u s t h e c u r u l e a e d i l s h i p in 5 5 is C a t u l l u s , c a r m ., 5 2 , w h e r e h e is d e p i c te d as s i t t i n g in a c u r u l e c h a i r , b u t th i s m a y a ls o b e i n t e r p r e t e d as a r e f e r e n c e t o h is p r a e t o r s h i p .
N o w t h e r e is a q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r s t r u m a is to b e
t a k e n as a n i c k n a m e o r c o g n o m e n : b o t h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r c p o s s ib le a n d b o t h w e r e a d h e r e d to , b u t o n th e w h o l e t h e firs t o n e s e e m s to b e m o r e p l a u s i b l e (22). T w o N o n i i a r e a p o s s ib ility f o r th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h C a t u l l u s ’ s tr u m a N o n iu s : M . N o n iu s S u fe n a s am i L . N o n iu s A sp rc n a s, c o n su l s u f f e c t u s in 3 6 a n d
p r a e t o r b e f o r e 4 6 (23).
S u fe n a s, w h o a p p e a rs a t
a n y r a t e as e a r l y as 5 4 a n d w h o s e t r i b u n a t e in 5 6 s e e m s to b e c e r t a in is, n o d o u b t , a b e t t e r c h o i c e t h a n A s p r e n a s , o f w h o m , as L . R . T a y l o r h a s p o i n t e d o u t, n o t h i n g is k n o w n b e f o r e 4 6 (24). It m a y b e f u r th e r o b se rv e d th a t M . N o n iu s S u fe n a s w as g o v e rn o r o f a n e a s te r n p r o v i n c e in 5 1 -5 0 (25); if th e r e g u l a t i o n s o f th e s e n a to r i a l d e c re e o f 53 w h ic h p ro v id e d c o n s u ls h ip
or
p ra e to rs h ip
f o r th e i n t e r v a l o f fiv e y e a rs b e t w e e n
and
a p p lie d , N o n iu s ’ p ra e to rs h ip
p r o v in c i a l
w o u ld
have
c o m m a n d (26) w e r e to b e
d a te d
h e re
p r e c is e ly
in
55 i27)· O f c o u r s e th e r e is s till t h e q u e s t i o n to w h i c h y e a r C a t u l l u s ’ p o e m b e l o n g s , b u t , o n v a r io u s c o u n t s , 5 5 is m o r e l i k e ly t h a n 5 4 , p r o b a b ly t h e y e a r o f th e p o e t ’s d e a t h .
In a n y c a se it m u s t h a v e b e e n th e y e a r
in w h i c h V a t i n i u s ’ c h a n c e s f o r th e c o n s u ls h ip w e r e e s p e c ia lly p r o m i s i n g a n d in 5 5 w h e n h e w o n th e e l e c tio n to th e p r a e t o r s h i p th e y w e r e u n c o n te s ta b ly b e tte r th a n
in 5 4 w h e n
lie w a s a c c u s e d d e s o d a li c ii s .
(21)
See Μ. I. H e n d e r s o n , in JRS, 4 9 , 1 9 5 9 , 1 6 7 (review of A. K. A s t i n ’.s book, T h e L e x Annalis before Stilla, Bruxelles, 1 9 5 8 ): L. R. T aylor, op. eit., 1 7 - 1 8 . Cf., however, E. R a d i a n , Caesar's cursus and the intervals between offices, in //AS’, 4 9 , 1 9 5 9 . 8 2 -8 3
. (22) See L. R. T aylor , op. cit., 1 9 with nt. 18, where also the views of other scholars are quoted. To the literature cited we may add C. |. Io r d y c k , Catullus. A Commentary, Oxford, 1 9 6 1 , 2 2 1 -2 2 2 , who also interprets struma as a nickname. (23) See on him M ü n z e r , s . v . Nonius (nr. 1 4 ), in RE, XVIII, 1 , 8 6 5 -8 6 6 ; B r o u g h t o n , Magistrates, II, 2 8 7 , 3 9 9 . (24) Op. cit., 1 0 . This is also the opinion of M. Oei.zkr, s . v . Tullius (n° 2 9 ), in RE, VII A. 1 , Stuttgart, 1 9 3 9 , 8 5 9 , and F o r d y c e , op. cit., 2 2 2 (who, however, holds him (25) (26) (27)
curule aedile in 5 4 ). Cicero, ad Att., 6 . 1 . 1 3 ; 8 . 1 5 . 3 . Cassius Dio, hist., 4 0 . 3 0 ; 4 0 . 4 6 . L. R. T aylor , op. cit., 1 9 -2 0 .
119
2
.
JERZY
L IN D E R SK I
F o r d y c e (28) s u g g e s ts t h a t h is n a m e m a y h a v e a p p e a r e d o n th e p a g i n u la e f u t u r o r u m c o n s u l u m (29) c o m p o s e d b y t h e t r i u m v i r s a t t h e i r m e e t
in g a t L u ca. P l a n c iu s , P lo ti u s a n d S u f e n a s w e r e th e tr i b u n e s o f th e p le b s in 5 6 ; th e f ir s t tw o w o u l d th u s h a v e b e e n c u r u l e a e d ile s a n d th e t h i r d
p r a e t o r i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r w a r d s in 5 5 . p r o v is io n s o f t h e l e g e s a n n a l e s ? p le b e ia n
and
re g u la r
Is th is c o n c i lia b le w i t h
th e
S u c h i m m e d i a t e s u c c e s s io n s b e t w e e n
m a g is tr a c i e s
w e re
fre q u e n t
b efo re
196, b u t
a c c o r d i n g to M o m m s e n ’s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d o p i n i o n , a t t h a t t i m e a r e g u l a t i o n w a s e n f o r c e d t h a t f o r b a d e t h e m a g i s t r a t e s to p r e s e n t t h e m se lv e s a s c a n d i d a t e s f o r a n y o t h e r m a g i s t r a c y b e f o r e th e e x p i r a t i o n o f t h e i r t e r m o f office (30). U n d e r n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s th is p r o v is io n h a d to b r i n g a b o u t a n i n t e r v a l o f a t le a s t o n e y e a r b e t w e e n a p le b e ia n a n d a r e g u l a r office (31). B u t, as L . R . T a y l o r p o i n t e d o u t, t h e y e a r in q u e s t i o n w a s n o t a n o r m a l y e a r : in 5 6 t h e e le c to r a l c o m i t i a d i d n o t t a k e p la c e . e le c tio n s o f p r a e t o r s , c u r u l e a e d ile s a n d
q u a e s to r s w e r e h e l d
The in
55
u n d e r th e p r e s i d e n c y o f P o m p e i u s a n d th e c a n d i d a t e s f o r th o s e offices c o u ld
p re se n t
th e m s e lv e s
o n ly
a fte r
th e
c o n s u la r
e le c tio n s
w e re
o v e r (32). (28) (29)
O p . cit., 2 2 2 .
Cicero,
ad
A tt.,
4
.
8
.
. I3, Leipzig,
2
S ta a tsre ch t, 1 8 8 7 , 5 3 1 -5 3 5 . Cf. A. E . A s t i n , T h e ; G. R ög le r , D i e L e x V i l l i a A n n a l i s , in K l i o , 4 0 , 1 9 6 2 , 1 0 3 . (31) It should be remembered that the b i e n n i u m was compulsory only between regular magistracies, but not between plebeian and regular. (32) On the date of the consular elections cf. P. S t e i n , D i e S e n a t s s i t z u n g e n d e r C i c e r o n i s c h e n Z e i t , Münster, 1 9 3 0 , 4 4 nt. 2 2 . Pompeius and Crassus were elected in any case before February 1 1 and probably at the end of January. L. R. T aylor , o p . c i t . , 2 1 writes that in 5 6 the «candidates declared themselves late» and further (p. 2 2 ) that many of the triumvirs’ henchmen « must have been late in declaring their candidacy». This, as far as the chronology of events is concerned, is uncontestably true, but at the same time not very accurate from the constitutional point of view. The p r o j e s s i o n e s of the candidates were acepted by the president of the electoral assembly, i.e. in 5 6 by the consul Marcellinus. But the elections were delayed and eventually took place under the presidency of an i n t e r r e x (the c o m i t i a c o n s u l a r i a ) and the newly elected consul Pompeius (the elections of praetors, aediles and quaestors). Neither the successive i n t e r r e g e s , nor Pompeius were constitutionally bound to respect the decisions of Marcellinus. All the candidates who still wanted to stand for an office had to present themselves before the new president of elections, also those whose p r o f e s s i o had already been accepted by Marcellinus. For details see the chapter on p r o f e s s i o in my book R z y m s \ i e z g r o m a d z e n i e w y b o r e z e o d S u l l i d o C e z a r a ( T h e R o m a n E l e c t o r a l A s s e m b l y f r o m S u l l a t o C a e s a r ) , Krakow, 1 9 6 6 , 5 2 ff.
( 30)
R ö m isc h es
L e x A n n a lis, 2 7
120
THREE
TR IA L S
IN
54
B. C.
2S7
T h e t r i b u n e s o f 5 6 a f t e r h a v i n g la id d o w n t h e i r office o n D e c e m b e r 9 b e c a m e p r i v a t e c i t i z e n s a n d as s u c h c o u l d b e g i n c a n v a s s i n g f o r r e g u l a r m a g i s t r a c i e s i n f u l l a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e a n n a l la w s . e l e c ti o n s
th e
o p tim a te
c a n d id a te s
w e re
e lim in a te d
and
p o s ts w e r e f il le d b y t h e t r i u m v i r s w i t h t h e i r h e n c h m e n .
A t th e
a lm o s t
a ll
A m o n g p ra e
to rs w e f in d th e C a e s a ria n V a tin iu s , th e P o m p e ia n s M ilo a n d (p ro b a b ly ) P . P l a u t i u s H y p s a e u s , p r o b a b l y
a ls o Q . C a e c iliu s M e te l lu s P i u s
S c ip io N a s ic a ( w h o w a s l a te r to b e c o m e P o m p e i u s ’ f a t h e r - i n - l a w ) (33). T o th i s li s t a f u r t h e r P o m p e i a n , M . N o n i u s S u f e n a s , is n o w added.
The
t r i u m v i r s ’ h e n c h m e n w e r e a ls o C n . P l a n c i u s
to b e
and
A.
P l o t i u s , w h o s e c u r u l e a e d i l s h i p in 5 5 h a s b e e n p r o v e d b y L . R . T a y l o r b e y o n d a n y r e a s o n a b l e d o u b t , t h e p l e b e i a n a e d i le C . M e s s iu s a n d a ll b u t t w o t h e t r i b u n e s o f t h e p le b s (34). O n e n a m e is c o n s p ic u o u s l y m i s s i n g o n t h i s lis t, t h a t o f C . C a to . T h i s is e s p e c ia lly s t r i k i n g n o w , a f t e r i t h a s b e e n e s ta b l is h e d t h a t a t le a s t t h r e e t r i b u n e s o f t h e p le b s o f 5 6 g a i n e d h i g h e r m a g i s t r a c i e s in 5 5 . N o n i u s S u f e n a s w a s r e w a r d e d w i t h a p r a e t o r s h i p f o r h is p a r t i n
d e l a y i n g t h e e le c tio n s in 5 5 ; w o u l d C a to , w h o is in th i s r e s p e c t c r e d i t e d b y t h e s o u r c e s w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t m e r i t s f o r t h e d y n a s ts , h a v e b e e n re fu se d a re w a rd ? I n 5 4 C a t o w a s a t a n y r a t e a n i m p o r t a n t p e r s o n , so t h a t C ic e r o a n d e v e n M ilo m a n a g e d t o b e o n g o o d t e r m s w i t h h i m (35). A c u r io u s t e s t i m o n y o f C ic e r o ’s s h o u l d h e r e b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t. f o r m i n g h is b r o t h e r o f G a b i n i u s ’ a c q u i t t a l o n t h e c h a r g e c h a ra c te riz e s th e ju ry in th e f o llo w in g w o rd s
{ad Q. fr.,
C ic e r o i n
de maiestate 3 . 4 . 1 ):
Quid plura de indicibus? duo praetorii sederunt, D om i tius Calvinus (is aperte absolvit ut omnes viderent) et Cato (is diribitis tabellis de circulo se subduxit et Pompeio primus nuntiavit) ( 36). (33) L. R. T aylor , op. cit., 2 3 nt. 3 0 , suggests that Caesar’s sympathiser and Livia’s father M. Livius Drusus also held his praetorship in 5 5 . (34) See N i c c o l i n i , Fasti, 3 0 9 -3 1 0 ; B r o u g h t o n , Magistrates, II, 2 1 5 -2 1 7 ; L. R. T aylor , op. cit., 2 2 -2 4 . (35) Cicero, ad Att., 4 . 1 6 . 5 . (36) Miltner refers this notice erroneuosly to the trial of M. Aemilius Scaurus; he writes about Cato (s. v. Porcius [n° 7 ], in RE, XXII. 1 , 1 0 7 ): «N achher setze er sich für seinen Verteidiger (see below) M. Aemilius Scaurus ..., als dieser selbst angeklagt war, ein, ohne dass die Annahme, Cato hätte als einer der Richter in diesem Prozess fungiert, angesichts der unklaren Überlieferung (Cicero, ad Q. fr., 3 . 4 . 1 ; bes. 3 . 8 . 6 ) berechtigt w äre». T o be sure, Cicero, ad O. fr., 3 . 4 . 1
121
JKK7.Y
I . INIMIRSKI
Wlto w:is this Gito? Of course it could not have been M. Gito: not speaking even of the utmost improbability of Guo Uticensis having jubilantly informed Pompeius of Gabinius’ acquittal, he was in 54 actually praetor and not praetorius (and as such not eligible for jury duty). One may consider him — as Drumann-Groebc (37) arc inclined to do — an unknown son of M. Cato (3R), praetor about 9 2 , but this is a slight possibility. Another explanation proposed is to emend the text and read G>tta (3y) instead of Cato — in that case M. Aurelius Cotta who commanded in Sardinia in 49 and was probably praetor by 54 might have been referral to O . Hut the emendation of a text is the last escape to which one should resort; why should we not admit the most natural explanation and identify the juror mentioned by Cicero with C. Cato, the tribune in 56? The principal objection that has, so far, been raised against this identification is that in 54 C. Cato was tribunicius and not praetorius ('"). 'This objec tion is based exclusively on the belief that C. Cato as tribune in 56 could not have been praetor in the following year. Hut, as we have seen, the career of M. Nonius Sufenas allords an example that under specific conditions, such as those in 55, the immediate succession from tribunate to prnetorship was possible. In this way any obstacle for the identification of Cato the praetorius in 54 with Cato the tribune in 56 seems to he removed. 1 would contend that now as we know that he could have been praetor in 55, the information supplied by Cicero is to be taken as a proof that in fact he was. This conclusion fits in so excellently with the general picture ol the triumvirs’ policy in 56 and 55 emerging from recent studies that it corroborates in turn the solutions advanced by L. R. Taylor (42). leaves no doubt that Cato functioned as a juror, and in 3 . 8 . 6 the reading of manuscripts is Cinta and not Cato. This reading has been often emended into Cotta, but it has been retained by B r o u g h t o n , Magistrates, II, a is ~>b. Nothing is known about that person save the information supplied by Cicero in the passage quoted above. Cutta appears there as a candidate for the consulship of 52, supported by Pompeius. ( ,7) Op. eit., V, 2 1 7 nt. 2 . O Cf. B r o u g h t o n , Magistrates, 11, 1 p i.( nt. 2 . G ) See D i u ì m a n n Cuotuiu, t o c o c i t . G ) B r o u g h t o n , Magistrates, II, χ ί , 2 2 J nt. 2 , lists him as praetor in ■>.}. (4l) Sec D r u m a n n C k o r r f . , t o c o cit.; C o n s t a n s , CicOoii, Correspoiulance, III, 2 5 5 . G ) One should not, however, forget that in our case, as far as the teges annales are concerned, it is not sufhcienl to prove only the possibility of the im-
/22
THKHL TRIALS IN 54 B. C.
289
T h e p o li tic a l e v o l u t i o n o f C . C a t o is s i g n i f i c a n t : i n 5 9 h e a c c u s e d G a b in iu s a n d a tta c k e d
P o m p e i u s , in 5 4 h e a c q u i t t e d
G a b in iu s a n d
t r i e d to g a i n P o m p e i u s ’ f a v o u r . T h e o p t i m a t e f a c t i o n d e f e a te d in 5 6 a n d 5 5 s c o r e d s o m e i m p o r t a n t v ic to r ie s in th e e le c tio n s f o r 5 4 : L . D o m i t i u s A h e n o b a r b u s w a s e le c te d to t h e c o n s u l s h i p a n d M . C a t o b e c a m e p r a e t o r .
U n d e r C a t o ’s l e a d e r
s h i p t h e o p t i m a t e s s tr o v e to t a k e r e v e n g e u p o n t h e t r i u m v i r s ’ h e n c h m en.
M a n y o f th e m
c o u rts
th e
C a to n ia n s
w e r e i n d i c t e d o n v a r io u s c h a r g e s , b u t a t t h e w e re n o t v e ry fo rtu n a te .
P. V a tin iu s w h o se
c o n t e s t f o r th e p r a e t o r s h i p w i t h M . C a to i n 5 5 f o c u s e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f b o t h a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n a u t h o r s w a s a c c u s e d d e s o d a li c ii s .
C n.
P l a n c i u s a n d C . M e s s iu s , r e s p e c tiv e ly th e c u r u l e a n d t h e p le b e ia n a e d i les o f 5 5 , w e r e t r e a t e d u n d e r t h e s a m e c h a r g e .
T h e tr i a ls o f V a t i n i u s
a n d P l a n c i u s a n d p r o b a b l y t h a t o f M e s s iu s to o r e s u l t e d in a c q u i t t a l s . A . G a b in iu s , co n su l o f 5 8 , w as a c q u itte d o f th e c h a rg e d e m a k s ta te , b u t c o n d e m n e d f o r e x t o r s i o n (43). A m o n g th e p a r t i s a n s o f t h e d y n a s ts u n s u c c e s s f u lly p r o s e c u t e d in 5 4 w e a ls o f i n d C . C a t o a n d M . S u f e n a s , t h e t r i b u n e s o f t h e p le b s o f 5 6 a n d p r a e t o r s in 5 5 ; o n P r o c i l i u s see t h e r e m a r k s b e lo w .
mediate succession from plebeian to regular offices: the interval between quaestorship and praetorship and the m inim um age laid down for that latter office must also be taken into account. B r o u g h t o n , Magistrates, II, 1 7 5 , assignes the quaestorship of Sufenas to 6 2 , but the date is queried. Η. H. Mattingly (in an article cited by B r o u g h t o n , Magistrates, Suppl. 4 3 ) dates his quaestorship in 6 2 or 6 3 . Thus we obtain an interval of six or seven years which is in perfect accordance with other known careers in the post-Sullan period (cf. A. E. A s t i n , The Lex Annalis, 3 9 ). W ith Cato the question is more complicated. As the evidence concerning the date of his quaestorship seems to be lacking, his tenure of that office is not even mentioned by Broughton, and Miltner also made no attempt to attribute it to a definite year. One may of course suppose that he held his quaestorship at about the same time as Sufenas. The difficulty is that he must have reached before entering upon praetorship (in February or March 5 5 ) the statutory age of 3 9 (finished) years. N ow in 5 9 , when according to the above computation he would have been already in his 3 6 th year, Cicero (ad Q. jr., 2 . 1 . 1 5 ) calls him still adu lescens. This need not, however, be used as an argument against Cato’s praetorship in 5 9 : Fenestella, frg. 2 1 ( P e t e r ), still terms Cato adulescens in 5 7 / 5 6 , when he was already the tribune of the plebs. For the similar usage of adulescens cf. Cicero, de rep., I. 1 8 : doctos adulescentes iam aetate quaestorios and esp. Valerius Maximus, mem., 7 . 5 . 2 : cum aedilitatem curulem adulescens peteret. (43) Cf. H. G u n d e l , s.v . Vatinius (n° 3 ), in RE, VIII A. 1 , Stuttgart, 1 9 5 5 , 5 0 8 ; M ü n z e r , s. v . Messius (n° 2 ), in RE, XV. 1 , Stuttgart, 1 9 3 1 , 1 2 4 3 ; W inder M ü h l l , s . v. Gabinius (n° 1 1 ), in RE, VII. 1 , Stuttgart. 1 9 1 0 , 4 2 9 -4 3 0 .
123
2Q0
JERZY
L et us n o w
re tu rn
LIN D E R SK I
to t h e q u e s t i o n o f c h a r g e s b r o u g h t b y t h e
p r o s e c u t i o n a g a i n s t C a to , S u f e n a s a n d P r o c il iu s . T h e s c h o la r s a r e u n a n i m o u s , i n a n y c a s e as f a r as C a t o a n d S u f e n a s a r e c o n c e r n e d , t h a t it w a s t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e i r t r i b u n a t e w i t h w h ic h
th e y w e r e
ch a rg e d .
B u t in
d e t a ils
o p in io n s
a re
d iv e rg e n t.
B r o u g h t o n (44) w r i t e s t h a t C a t o , S u f e n a s a n d P r o c i l i u s w e r e p r o s e c u t e d f o r t h e i r « p a r t in d e l a y i n g t h e e l e c t i o n s » i n 5 6 ; M i l t n e r s ta te s t h a t C a t o w a s a c c u s e d « w e g e n s e in e s V e r h a l t e n s a ls V o l k s t r i b u n » (45) a n d Z w ic k e r
w rite s
in
s im ila r
w o rd s
about
P ro c iliu s :
« z u g le ic h
m it
S u f e n a s a n d C a t o w e g e n s e in e r A m t s f ü h r u n g a n g e k l a g t » (46). L . R . T a y l o r t h i n k s t h a t « i t is n o t u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e t r i a l s o f C . C a t o a n d S u f e n a s h a d to d o w i t h i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h e le c tio n s » (47). I n th is c o n n e c t i o n t w o f a c ts m u s t n o t b e lo s t o f s i g h t : 1 ) n o o n e is l i k e l y
to q u e s t i o n
im p e d in g
t h a t th e r o l e p la y e d b y C a to a n d
S u f e n a s in
t h e e l e c ti o n s in 5 6 a r o u s e d t h e o p t i m a t e s ’ h a t r e d
a g a in st
t h e m a n d t h a t it w a s t h e p r i n c i p a l c a u s e o f t h e i r h a v i n g b e e n a c c u se d ; b u t w h ile s c h o la r s
c i te d
b e in g in above w e
fu ll a g re e m e n t w ith
th e o p in io n s o f th e
m u s t n o t f o r g e t t h a t th e y
th e m s e lv e s i n p o l i t i c a l a n d n o t in le g a l te r m s .
a r e e x p r e s s in g
C a to a n d S u fe n a s
c o u ld n o t h a v e te c h n ic a lly b e e n c h a rg e d « w ith th e ir p a r t in d e la y in g e le c tio n s »
or
« w ith
th e
m anner
of c o n d u c tin g
th e ir
trib u n a te » .
T h e s e o ffe n c e s (o r a l l e g e d o f f e n c e s ) m u s t h a v e b e e n e n t e r e d u n d e r s o m e m o r e g e n e r a l h e a d i n g s , e. g . m a ie s ta s m i n u t a , a n d t r e a t e d a s a b r e a c h o f t h e la w u n d e r w h i c h t h e t r i a ls w e r e to ta k e p l a c e ; 2 ) th e v e r d ic ts w e r e r e t u r n e d i n e a c h c a se o n t h e s a m e d a y ( J u ly 4 ) ; it f o ll o w s t h a t C a t o , S u f e n a s a d P r o c i l i u s w e r e t r e a t e d i n t h r e e s e p a r a t e c o u r ts a n d o n d i f f e r e n t c h a r g e s . T h i s o b s e r v a ti o n h a d a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e b y Z u m p t a n d r e c e n t l y r e s t a t e d b y L . R . T a y l o r (4S).
Z u m p t c o n je c tu re d
t h a t S u f e n a s w a s a c c u s e d o f e l e c to r a l b r i b e r y , P r o c i l i u s o f c r i m e n la e s a e m a i e s t a t i s a n d t h a t C a t o ’s t r i a l w a s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e c o m i t i a .
L e t u s n o w see i f t h e r e is a p o s s ib ility o f s a y in g s o m e t h i n g m o r e d e fin ite .
C ic e r o a f t e r h a v i n g i n f o r m e d A t t i c u s o f S u f e n a s ’ a n d C a t o ’s
a c q u i t t a l a n d t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n o f P r o c i l i u s c o n t i n u e s t h a t f r o m th e s e
f44) (4S) f46) (47) (48)
Magistrates, II, 2 0 9 . S. V. Porcius (n° 6 ), in RE, XXII. 1 , 1 0 7 . S. V. Procilius (n° 1 ), in RE, XXIII. 1 , Stuttgart, 1 9 5 7 , 6 8 . Op. cit., 1 9 nt. 1 9 . A. W. Z u m p t , D er Criminalprocess der römischen Republik.;, Leipzig, 1 8 7 1 , 5 0 9 , 5 3 2 ; L. R . T aylor , op. cit., 1 9 nt. 1 9 .
124
THREE
T R IA L S
IN
54
29 I
B. C.
v e r d i c t s t h e c o n c l u s i o n m i g h t b e d r a w n t h a t th e had
n o t b o th e re d
th e m s e lv e s w i t h
τρισαρεοπαγίτοα (49)
a m b itu s , c o m itia ,
in te r r e g n u m ,
m a i e s t a s , b u t t h a t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d th e y d i d n o t a p p r o v e t h e k i l l i n g
o f a p a t e r f a m i l i a s i n h i s o w n h o u s e , t h o u g h e v e n i n th is r e s p e c t th e y w e r e n o t u n a n i m o u s . T h u s th e a c q u i t t a l o f S u f e n a s a n d C a t o is l i n k e d w i t h t h e j u r o r s ’ la c k o f i n t e r e s t i n p u b l i c a f f a ir s a n d t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n o f P r o c i l i u s w i t h t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s th e c r i m e o f m u r d e r i n g t h e p a te r fa m ih a s .
I f w e d o n o t h a v e to d o h e r e w i t h a m e r e l y r h e t o r i c a l
f i g u r e th i s m i g h t m e a n t h a t t h e c h a r g e a g a i n s t P r o c i l i u s w a s m u r d e r a n d t h a t h is t r i a l to o k p la c e u n d e r t h e l a w d e v i (50). I n a n y c a s e it s e e m s to b e t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n w e a r e n o w a b le to a ffo rd .
I t e n ta ils o n e im p o r ta n t c o n c lu s io n : if P ro c iliu s w a s f o u n d
(49) T he word τρισαρε(ι)οπαγίτης is a hapax, coined by Cicero. Z u m p t , Der Criminalprocess der römischen Republik,;, 5 0 9 , interprets it, apparently erroneuosly, as an allusion to «drei dam aligen Machthaber des Staates». The context shows clearly that this expression is employed with regard to the jurors. L idd el l -S cott J o n e s , A Grec\-English Lexicon, II9, Oxford, 1 9 4 8 , 8 2 2 , s. h. v., give as the m eaning « an Aeropagite thrice over, i.e. a stern and rigid judge ». Cf. W . P a p e , GriechischDeuisches Handwörterbuch3, Braunschweig, 1 9 0 2 , 1 1 4 7 , s. h. v.\ «ein dreifacher Aeropagit, d.i. sehr streng, ernsthaft». Cf. also H . Stephanus: «ter areopagita ». Constans translates it as « n o s aréopagites renforcés» and E. O. W i n s t e d t , Cicero, Letters to Atticus, I, Cambridge (Mass.)-London, 1 9 5 3 , 3 0 7 , paraphrases the expression as «ou r lights of the la w » . R. B. S t e e l e , The Greek, in Cicero's Epistles, in A m . Journ. Philol., 2 1 , 1 9 0 0 , 4 0 5 , lists the word τρισαρειοπαγίτης among new expressions coined by Cicero, but does not discuss its precise m eaning (the study of R. L o e w , Quaestiones de Graecorum verborum , quae in epistulis Ciceronis extant, fontibus, usu, condicionibus, Basileae, 1 8 8 9 , has been inaccessible to me; the books of O. W e i s e , Die griechischen Wörter im Latein, Leipzig, 1 8 8 2 , and P . O k s a l a , Die Griechischen L ehnwörter in den Prosaschriften Ciceros, H elsinki, 1 9 5 3 , are concerned only with Greek loan-words in Latin and not with Greek citations). All these translations and paraphrases miss the pointed m eaning of Cicero’s expression being a biting allusion to the composition of juries of representatives of the three orders (i.e. senators, knights and tribuni aerarii) and stressing at the same time the notorious corruption and lack of competence of this threefold body, a « threefold Areopagus ». (50) This is also the opinion of T yrrel - P u r s e r , The Correspondence of M. Tullius Cicero, II2, Dublin, 1906, 149, ad h i., recently restated by L. R. T aylor , op. cit., 19 nt. 19. Cf. also W . S t e r n k o p f , Die Blätterversetzung im 4 . Buche der Briefe ad Atticum , in Hermes, 40, 1905, 26-27; M e yer , Caesars Monarchie, 201. According to T yrrel - P u r s e r , loco cit., a remark of Cicero, ad Alt., 4. 18. 3 (written at the end of October), lends support to this thesis: sed omnes absolventur, nec posthac quisquam damnabitur, nisi qui hominem occident. Procilius is not, however, m entioned here and the reference may equally be to M. Fulvius Nobilior of whose condemnation Cicero speaks in the next sentence (cf. on him M ü n z e r , s. v . Fulvius (n° 94 ), in RE, VII. 1, Stuttgart, 1910, 268).
125
JERZY LINDERSKI
g u ilty o f m u r d e r th e c rim e w ith w h ic h h e w a s c h a rg e d h a d n o th in g i n c o m m o n w i t h d e l a y i n g t h e e le c tio n s .
I n a n y c a se — a n d i n d e p e n
d e n t l y o f w h e t h e r th e c h a r g e a g a i n s t h i m w a s m u r d e r o r n o t — it is e v id e n t th a t S u fe n a s a n d
interregtium
and
C a to
w e re
P r o c il iu s w a s n o t.
lin k e d
w ith
th e
comitia
and
I t s h o u l d b e r e c a lle d t h a t th e
o n l y b a s is f o r a s s i g n i n g to S u f e n a s th e t r i b u n a t e o f th e p le b s in 5 6 is t h e f a c t t h a t h e a p p e a r s t o g e t h e r w i t h C . C a t o as p r o s e c u te d f o r o f f e n ces c o n c e r n i n g in s o m e w a y th e e le c tio n s in 5 6 .
It h as b een th o u g h t
t h a t P r o c il iu s w a s a l l u d e d to in t h e s a m e c o n t e x t , b u t th i s b e lie f , a s w e h a v e s e e n , p r o v e s to h a v e b e e n b a s e d o n a r a t h e r s u p e r f ic i a l a n a ly s is of
C ic e r o ’s p a s s a g e .
O ne
cannot but
a g re e
w ith
Z u m p t (51) a n d
T a y l o r (52) t h a t th i s p a s s a g e a f f o r d s n o e v id e n c e f o r a t r i b u n a t e
of
P r o c il iu s . A n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e t r i a l o f P r o c il iu s h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n p r e s e n t e d b y D . R . S h a c k l e t o n B a ile y i n h is s t i m u l a t i n g
ad A tticum (53). Publius sane diserto epilogo criminans mentes indicium moverat — so r e a d s t h e t e x t as r e s e a r c h e s o n t h e t e x t o f th e
p rin te d
in m o s t e d i t i o n s a n d
n o b o d y b e fo re S h a c k le to n
q u e s t i o n e d its g e n u i n e n e s s (54).
B a ile y h a d
B u t w a s C lo d i u s r e a lly t h e a c c u s e r ?
S h a c k l e t o n B a ile y p r o p o s e s to e m e n d
criminans
in
lacrimans
( te a r s
w e r e o f t e n r e s o r te d to in R o m a n c o u r ts ) a n d to a s s ig n C lo d i u s to th e d e fe n c e . T h is
q u e s tio n
h a v in g
been
p u t fo rw a rd
by
S h a c k le to n
B a ile y
m u s t n o t b e a v o id e d in a p a p e r c o n c e r n e d p r e c is e ly w i t h t h e s a m e p a s s a g e o f C ic e ro , b u t it o u g h t to b e e x a m i n e d a c h ie v e d
above.
S h a c k le to n
B a ile y p o in t s
sum m on
P r o c il iu s b e f o r e th e c o u r t w o u l d
in v ie w o f th e r e s u lts
o u t t h a t f o r C lo d i u s
to
m a k e n o p o li tic a l s e n se .
O f c o u r s e n o t if P r o c il iu s w e r e th e t r i b u n e i n 5 6 a n d a c o l le a g u e o f C a t o a n d S u f e n a s , as S h a c k l e t o n B a ile y t h i n k s h i m to h a v e b e e n .
B ut
(51) Criminalprocess, 5 0 9 nt. 3 . (52) Op. cit., 2 0 nt. 1 0 . T o be sure, site formulates this opinion in a more positive manner, that there is no evidence at all for his tribunate. She may be right, but see the remarks below. (53) Towards a text of Cicero: A d Atticum, Cambridge, i 9 6 0 , 1 9 ff. Cf. now also D. R. S h a c k l e t o n B a i l e y , Cicero’s Letters to Atticus, II, Cambridge, 1 9 6 5 , 1 1 6 1 1 9 , 2 0 1 -2 0 2 , 2 0 7 -2 0 8 . Unfortunately this important edition and commentary became available only after this article was already sent to the Editol. The emendation proposed by Shackleton Bailey has recently been accepted by L. R. T aylor , in Class. Phil., 6 2 , 1 9 6 7 , 1 9 7 . f54) }. N . M a d v i o , Adversaria critica, III, Hauniac, 1 8 8 4 , 1 7 3 , read ( m e) cri minans. Cf. S t e r n k o p f ’s criticism of this reading: op. cit., 2 6 -2 7 .
293 as w e h a v e s e e n , t h e t r i b u n a t e o f P r o c il iu s is l a c k i n g s o lid f o u n d a t i o n s . S h a c k l e t o n B a i le y · h a s , h o w e v e r , o n e s t r o n g a r g u m e n t f o r h is th e s is : C i c e r o ’s e v i d e n t d i s l i k e o f P r o c il iu s . O f P r o c i l i u s ’ p r e v i o u s c a r e e r w e k n o w o n l y a f e w f a c ts (55).
ad Q. fr.,
2 . 6 . (7 o r 8 ) 1 , C ic e r o w r ite s o f h i m
In
( in M a y 5 6 ):
Sed cetera, ut scribis, praesenti sermoni reserventur; hoc tamen non queo differre: Idibus Maiis senatus frequens di vinus fu it in supplicatione Gabinio deneganda, adiurat Procilius hoc nem ini accidisse, foris valde plauditur, mihi cum sua sponte ineundum tum iucundius, quod me absente; est enim ε ι λ ι κ ρ ι ν έ ς iudicium, sine oppugnatione, sine gratia no stra. I t is p e r h a p s l e g i t i m a t e to c o n c l u d e f r o m th i s , as S h a c k l e t o n B a ile y d o e s , t h a t P r o c i l i u s p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h e f e e l in g s o f t h e m a j o r i t y , b u t i t is a ls o p o s s ib le t o c o n c e iv e h i m as s tr e s s in g t r i u m p h a n t l y t h e d e g r e e o f G a b in iu s ’ h u m ilia tio n .
A n d t h a t l a t t e r e x p l a n a t i o n is p e r h a p s e v e n
p r e f e r a b l e : see b e l o w . S h a c k l e t o n B a ile y o p in e s , h o w e v e r , t h a t in v ie w o f C i c e r o ’s s a r c a s m e x p r e s s e d in m u s t b e g iv e n p r i o r i t y .
ad A tt.,
4 . 1 5 . 4 , t h e f ir s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
(ad A tt.,
H e ta k e s C ic e r o ’s r e m a r k
Procilio rumores non boni, sed indicia nosti
to
be
4 . 16. 6)
o n ly
de
« m ock
c o n c e r n ». A ll th is is o f c o u r s e p o s s ib le .
B u t t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g m o r e .
t h e t e x t c i te d a b o v e i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n s m a y b e i n f e r r e d .
F ro m If P ro
c iliu s s p o k e in th e s e n a te a n d d i d n o t e x p r e s s h is v ie w i n p r i v a t e ( th is is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t r e s e r v a t io n ) , h e c o u l d d o th i s o n l y e i t h e r a s k e d f o r h is o p i n i o n b y t h e p r e s i d i n g m a g i s t r a t e ( th i s im p lie s t h a t h e w a s a m e m b e r o f t h e s e n a te a n d a t le a s t
quaestorius
a t t h a t tim e ) , o r b e y o n d
t h e s e t o r d e r o f « U m f r a g e » as a m a g i s t r a t e , p r e s u m a b l y a s t r i b u n e . T h u s t h e r e is a p o s s ib ility (a v e r y s l i g h t o n e : it m u s t b e c o n c e d e d ) to re c o v e r fro m
th is t e x t t h e t r i b u n a t e o f P r o c il iu s .
L e t it, h o w e v e r , b e o b s e r v e d t h a t a c c o r d i n g to C ic e r o t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f P r o c i l i u s c a m e a f t e r t h e m o t i o n to d e c r e e th e in h o n o u r o f G a b i n i u s ’ m i l i t a r y re fu te d :
th i s
m eans
th a t h e
d id
e f f o r ts in not m ake
S y r ia h a d h is
supplicationes a lre a d y b een
o b s e r v a ti o n
w h ile
p a r t i c i p a t i n g in d is c u s s io n p r e c e d i n g t h e v o t i n g o n t h e p r o p o s a l.
If
( 5S) Z w i c k e r , s . v . Prociliuss (n° i ) , in RE, XXIII. i , 6 8 , holds that he was quaestor in 5 9 . Again no proof. CIL I2, 9 1 8 (a tessera nummularia of 5 9 B.C.) demonstrates only the existence in 5 9 B.C. of a Procilius and nothing more. On tesserae nummulariae cf. the basic study of R. H e r z o g , A u s der Geschichte des Bankwesens im Altertum, Giessen, 1 9 1 9 , passim.
JERZY
L IN D E R SK I
th is w a s a f o r m a l s p e e c h t h e o n ly p o s s i b ili ty t h a t s e e m s to b e le f t is to a s s u m e t h a t it w a s d e l iv e r e d a f t e r t h e m e e t i n g h a d b e e n r e c o n v e n e d b y a t r i b u n e , p o s s ib ly b y P r o c il iu s h im s e lf . The
above
re c o n s tru c tio n
is t h e o r e t i c a l l y
w h o l e i t s e e m s to o a r t i f i c i a l to b e tr u e .
p o s s ib le , b u t o n
th e
F u r t h e r it is n o t e a s y to c o n
c e iv e w h y a n y o n e s p e a k i n g in f a v o u r o f G a b i n i u s s h o u l d h a v e n o ti c e d th a t n o b o d y h a d m e t w ith s u c h a n a f f r o n t u n til th a t tim e : it h a v e i n d u c e d th e o p p o n e n t s to c h a n g e t h e i r m i n d s a n d G a b in iu s ?
s h o u ld v o te f o r
I t is t h e r e f o r e , n o d o u b t , p r e f e r a b l e to i n t e r p r e t P r o c i l i u s ’
w o r d s a d d u c e d b y C ic e r o as a p r i v a t e c o m m e n t o n t h e r e s u l t o f th e v o tin g . S h a c k l e t o n B a ile y h o l d s t h a t P r o c i l i u s ’ c o m m e n t « w o u l d h a r d l y h a v e b e e n w o r t h r e p e a t i n g u n le s s i t w a s in o p p o s ito n to th e g e n e r a l s e n t i m e n t , i. e. a p r o t e s t a g a i n s t G a b i n i u s ’ t r e a t m e n t » (56).
A n e x c e l
l e n t s u g g e s tio n b y H a l k i n (57) h e lp s h e r e : h e i d e n tif i e s o u r P r o c i l i u s w i t h P r o c il iu s , t h e h i s t o r i a n a n d a n t i q u a r i a n (58). T h e r e m a r k o f s u c h a n a u th o rity
hoc nem ini accidisse
[ w h i c h , in f a c t, w a s n o t t r u e (59)]
p o i n t i n g to th e e x t e n t o f G a b i n i u s ’ d e f e a t a n d s tr e s s in g its u n i q u e n e s s s e e m e d to C ic e r o so i m p o r t a n t a n d g a v e h i m s u c h g r e a t p le a s u r e t h a t h e c o u l d n o t r e s is t t h e t e m p t a t i o n o f t r a n s m i t t i n g it i m m e d i a t e l y to Q u i n t u s ( hoc
tamen non queo differre )
a n d e v e n m a n y y e a rs l a te r
h e r e p e a te d th is a l l e g a t i o n i n h is P h i l i p p i c s (60). T h u s o n th i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i t c a n s a f e ly b e a d m i t t e d t h a t in M a y 5 6 P r o c i l i u s s y m p a t h i z e d w i t h t h e o p t i m a t e s (6I). (5t>) (57)
A q u e r y is, h o w e v e r ,
Op. cit., 2 0 . L. H a l k i n , La supplication d ’action de graces chez les Romains, Paris,
1 953>
93-94· (5i}) On Procilius the historian see K. Z i e g l e r , s. v. Procilius (n° 2 ), in RE, XXIII. i, 6 8 -6 9 . According to Ziegler’s opinion to identify this Procilius with the tribune is « eine naheliegende, aber nicht beweisbare V erm utung» (speaking cf Procilius the tribune Ziegler thinks, of course, of Procilius condemned in 5 4 ). For fragments of his works (quoted by Varro and Plinius) cf. P e t e r , Historicorum rom an or um reliquiae, I, Lipsiae, 1 8 8 3 , 3 1 6 -3 1 7 . Also Cicero read Procilius’ works and his judgement was not so unfavourable to Procilius as Ziegler holds it to have been: no wonder that when comparing Procilius with Dicaearchus Cicero exclaims: O magnum hominem et unde multo plura didiceris quam de Procilio (ad Alt., 2 . 2 . i, December 6 0 ). (59) H a l k i n , op. cit., 9 4 ff. i 60) 1 4 . 2 4 : ... quod praeter Gabinium contigit nemini. (61) T o generalize this conclusion might be, however, deceptive. The exemple of C. Cato w ho in February 5 6 Pompeium tamquam reum accusavit (Cicero, ad 0 . fr., 2. 3 . 3 ) and a few months later co-operated with him must be borne in mind.
128
295 h e r e in p l a c e : is P r o c i l i u s t h e h i s t o r i a n ( a n d p o s s ib ly s e n a to r ) m e n t i o n e d b y C ic e r o i n 5 6 a n d P r o c i l i u s c o n d e m n e d i n 5 4 o n e a n d t h e s a m e p e rso n ?
N o d i i n g c o m p e lls u s to i d e n t i f y t h e m . I t is o n ly a p o s s ib ility ,
n o t a f a c t. P ro c iliu s w a s d e f e n d e d b y Q . H o r te n s iu s H o r ta lu s .
Hortalus in ea causa fu it cuiusmodi solet
is n o t v e r y
T h e re m a rk : d e fin ite , b u t
t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t n o i n s t a n c e o f H o r t e n s i u s a c t i n g as p r o s e c u t o r c a n b e a d d u c e d , t h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e e v e n t h e s l i g h t e s t d o u b t t h a t i n th is t r i a l a ls o h e a p p e a r e d as a d v o c a te (62).
A s h is p a r t w a s
e v i d e n t l y n o t a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t o n e , t h i s d o e s n o t c o n t r a d i c t t h e th e s is a s s i g n i n g to C l o d i u s t h e p r i n c i p a l r o le in t h e d e f e n c e .
nos ver bum n u llu m ; veritast enim pusilla, quae nunc laborat, ite anim um Publi offenderem (63). I t f o ll o w s t h a t h a d h e s p o k e n h e w o u l d h a v e W h a t C ic e r o h a s to sa y o f h i m s e l f is m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g :
t a k e n a s t a n d a g a i n s t C l o d i u s ; n o w in t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e t h a t h a d e la p s e d b e tw e e n th e tr ia l o f V e rre s a n d th a t o f T . M u n a tiu s P la n c u s B u r s a in D e c e m b e r 5 2 C ic e r o n e v e r s u p p o r t e d a p r o s e c u t i o n a n d t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to a s s u m e t h a t h e w o u l d h a v e d o n e so in th i s c a se (64). T h i s c o n c l u s i o n is c l e a r ly i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e th e s is t h a t C lo d i u s s p o k e fo r th e d e fe n c e .
B u t t h e r e is s till a n o t h e r p o s s ib ility .
O n e m a y a ls o
a d m i t t h a t C ic e r o d o e s n o t a l l u d e to t h e p o s s i b ili ty o f h is a p p e a r i n g i n t h e c o u r t i n d i e c a p a c it y o f a c c u s e r o r a d v o c a te , b u t o n l y as a w itn e s s i n o r d e r to g iv e e v i d e n c e .
T o g iv e e v i d e n c e f o r o r a g a i n s t P r o c i l i u s :
f o r — i f C l o d i u s w a s p r o s e c u t i n g , a n d a g a i n s t — if h e w a s d e f e n d i n g . T h e p a s s a g e m a y b e i n t e r p r e t e d e i t h e r w a y , b u t t h e o d d s s e e m to b e a g a i n s t S h a c k l e t o n B a i le y ’s i n g e n i o u s e m e n d a t i o n . T h e q u e r i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e t r i a ls o f S u f e n a s a n d C a t o a r e p e r h a p s even m o re n u m e ro u s.
mitia , interregnum
and
In
c o n n e c tio n w ith
maiestas
a re re fe rre d
th e m
ambitus , co
t o ; o f th e s e o n l y t h e
f i r s t a n d t h e la s t i t e m c o u l d h a v e c o n s t i t u t e d a f o r m a l c h a r g e .
S o le ly
o n t h e b a s is o f i n t e r n a l a n a ly s is o f t h e t e x t w e a r e n o t a b le to e s ta b l is h f o r c e r t a i n w i t h w h i c h o f d ie s e o ffe n c e s S u f e n a s a n d C a t o w e r e c h a r g ed.
I f t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e c h a r g e s a r e li s t e d c o r r e s p o n d s to t h a t
in w h ic h th e d e f e n d a n ts w a s p ro s e c u te d
de ambitu
a r e n a m e d , it m i g h t f o ll o w a n d C a to
th a t S u fen as
de maiestate.
if1) C f r . D r u m a n n - G r o e b e , Geschichte, III, 9 4 ; H. M a l c o v a t i , Oratorum Ro manorum Fragmenta2, Aug. Taurinorum-Mediolani, 1 9 5 5 , 3 1 0 f f . , esp. 3 2 7 . (63) Offenderet Mss; offenderem Manutius. (M) C f . D r u m a n n - G r o e b e , Geschichte, VI, 2 7 .
129
JERZY
I n a l e t t e r o f C i c e r o ’s w e f i n d
a re m a rk
t h e le g a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f C a t o ’s t r i a l . W e r e a d
LIN D E R SK I
th a t th ro w s lig h t o n
ad Att.,
4 . 16. 5 :
N u n c ad ea quae quaeris de C. Catone, lege lunia et Licitila scis absolutum; Fufia ego tibi nuntio absolutum iri, neque patronis suis tam libentibus quam accusatoribus ( 6S). T h u s C . C a t o w a s tw ic e p r o s e c u t e d i n 5 4 : u n d e r t h e
Licinia
and
a f t e r w a r d s u n d e r th e
lex lunia
lex Fufia.
W h o S u fe n a s ’ a c c u se r w as d o es n o t s ta n d o n re c o rd .
W e are ,
h o w e v e r , f o r t u n a t e to k n o w th e n a m e s b o t h o f C a t o ’s p r o s e c u t o r a n d h is a d v o c a te s . S e n e c a a n d T a c i t u s (66) i n f o r m
u s t h a t a s u it a g a i n s t C a t o w a s
b r o u g h t i n b y C . A s i n i u s P o llio , t h e n 21 y e a rs o ld .
In th e fu tu re
P o l l i o w a s to b e c o m e c o n s u l ( in 4 0 B .C .) a n d , a b o v e a ll, a r e n o w n e d h i s t o r i a n a n d m a n o f l e tte r s (67). I n 5 6 h e s u p p o r t e d P . L e n t u l u s S p i n th e r
in
th e
s tr if e
c o n c e rn in g
th e
re s to rin g
o f th e
k in g
P to le m y
A u le t e s (68) ; P o l l i o a n d C a to th u s b e l o n g e d t o th e o p p o s ite f a c t io n s . C . L i c i n i u s C a l v u s (69) s p o k e f o r t h e d e f e n c e (70).
S eneca re c o rd s
t h a t th e q u a r r e l r e a c h e d a p o i n t a t w h i c h A s i n i u s P o lli o w a s a b o u t t o b e k i l l e d b y t h e c l ie n ts o f C a t o a n d o n ly th e r e s o lu t e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f L i c i n i u s C a lv u s s a v e d h i m
life (71).
(65)
This letter was written before 4 . 1 5 . 4 , between June 2 9 and July 3 . See op. cit., 13-17. (f6) Seneca, contr., 7 . 4 . 7 ; Tacitus, dial, de or., 3 4 . 7 . (67) See the monograph of J. A ndré , La vie et I’oeuvre d'Asinius Pollion, Paris, 1 9 4 9 . (^) Cicero, ad jam., 1. 6 . 1 . (69) On Calvus as orator see M ü n z e r , s . v . Licinius (n° 1 1 3 ), in RE, XII. 1 , Stuttgart, 1 9 2 6 , 4 2 8 ff.; M a l c o v a t i , Orator, rom. fragni.2, 4 9 2 ff.; E. C a s t o r i n a , L i cinio Calvo, Catania, 1 9 4 6 . c °) Seneca, contr., 7 . 4 . 7 . This is the common opinion of scholars cf. e.g. M a l c o v a t i , Orator, rom. fragni.2, 9 4 8 f.; A n d r e , op. eil., 1 2 . Münzer, however, had once expressed the view that Calvus was the accuser (s. v. Licinius (n° 1 1 3 ), in RE, XIII. I , 4 3 2 ). Cato is termed by Seneca in respect to Calvus reus suits. But this expression is rather to be understood as « the accused whose case is pleaded by Calvus » and not as « the one who is accused by Calvus ». The context is in any case in favour of the first interpretation. (71) Seneca, contr., 7 . 4 . 7 : idem (Calvus) postea cum videret a clientibus Calonis rei sui Pollionem Asinium circumventum in foro caedi, inponi se supra cippum iussit... ei iuravit, si quam iniuriam Cato Pollioni Asinio accusatori suo fecisset, se in eum iuraturum calumniam ; nec um quam postea Pollio a Catone advocatisque eius aut re aut verbo violatus est. A n d r e , op. cit., 1 2 , states mistakenly that he was rescued by Aemilius Scaurus. S
t er n k o pf
,
130
297
A s c o n i u s s u p p lie s t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t M . A e m i l i u s S c a u r u s (72) a f t e r h a v i n g r e t u r n e d to R o m e ( o n J u n e 2 9 ) f r o m h is p r o v i n c e d i x e r a t p r o C . C a t o n e i s q u e e r a t a b s o l u t u s a .d . / / / / N o n . Q u i n t (73).
H e r e th e
r e f e r e n c e is to C a t o ’s s e c o n d t r i a l , t h a t r e f e r r e d to b y C ic e r o i n a d A tt., 4 . 15. 4 .
T h u s t w o t r i a l s , o n e a c c u s e r , t w o a d v o c a te s .
H o w to a s s ig n t h e
r o le s ? A n d r e s e e m s to a s s u m e t h e p o s s i b ili ty t h a t A s i n i u s P o l l i o a c t e d o n b o t h o c c a s io n s a s p r o s e c u t o r , L i c i n i u s C a l v u s a n d A e m i l i u s S c a u r u s b e i n g h is a d v e r s a r i e s (74).
T h i s th e s is c a n n o t b e a c c e p te d .
C ic e r o
a s s e r ts t h a t o n h is s e c o n d t r i a l , t h a t u n d e r t h e l e x F u f ia , C a t o w a s g o i n g to b e a c q u i t t e d n e q u e p a t r o n i s s u is t a m l i b e n t i b u s q u a m a c c u s a to rib u s .
On
th e o th e r h a n d
we
h a v e th e
in fo rm a tio n
r e g a r d i n g t h e a s s a u lt o f C a t o ’s c l ie n ts u p o n A s i n i u s P o llio .
o f S eneca S uch an
a t t a c k w o u l d h a v e b e e n i n e x p l i c a b l e i f t h e p r o s e c u t o r a c t e d i n c o l lu s io n w i t h t h e d e f e n d a n t .
T h e te s t i m o n i e s o f C ic e r o a n d S e n e c a a r e to
f 72) Cf. K l e b s , s. V. Aemilius (n° 1 4 1 ), in RE, I. i, Stuttgart, 1 8 9 3 , 5 8 9 . (73) Asconius, in Scaur., p. 18 ( C l a r k ). The date supplied by Asconius is the basis for emendation in ad Att., 4 . 1 5 . 4 , where the Mss reading is a.d. HI Nonas Quintiles. f74) H e writes {op. cit., 1 2 ): « ... après leur sortie de charge, deux procès furent intentes aux tribuns en vertu des lois Iunia Licinia et Fufia. Pollion se porta accusateur de C. Caton qui fut défendu par un familier de Crassus, C. Licinius Calvus, et un familier de Pompée, M. Aemilius Scaurus». Cf., however, p. 6 8 : «on ne salt si Pollion intervint dans les deux causes ». M a l c o v a t i , Orator, rom. f r a g m 2, 4 9 8 , is even more positive: « C. Cato... ab Asinio Pollione accusatus est lege Li cinia Iunia et lege Fufia ». P. G r o e b e , in D r u m a n n - G r o e b e , Geschichte, V, 2 1 6 nt. 1 0 , accepts the thesis of L a n g e , Röm. Alterthiimer, III2, 3 4 7 , that « es sei hier nicht von einem, sondern von zw ei Prozessen die Rede, dessen erster sich nur gegen Cato richtete und im Juni m it der Freisprechung endete, während der zw eite Cato und Sufenas betraf ». Cf. L a n g e , loco cit. : « Gleich darauf wurde (Cato), und m it ihm M. N onius Sufenas, wegen H inderung der W ahlcomitien nach der lex Fufia angeklagt». Cf. also S t e r n k o p f , op. cit., 2 6 : «Sufenas und Cato waren wegen eines politischen Vergehens angeklagt, wahrscheinlich beide wegen desselben und zwar nach der lex Fufia. Ihr Ankläger ist uns nicht bekannt » (p. 2 6 nt. 2 , he writes: « C. Cato wurde im 5 4 zweim al belangt; in welchem dieser Prozesse C. Asinius Pollio sein Ankläger war, steht dahin»). M i l t n e r , s . v . Porcius (n° 5 ), in RE, XXII. 1 , 1 0 7 , records only one trial of Cato in 5 4 ; he does not mention his prosecution by Asinius Pollio and his defence by Licinius Calvus. But to admit, as Lange, Groebe, Sternkopf and Andre do, that other tribunes (that is, in fact, Sufenas) were either also twice prosecuted in 5 4 or, in any case, under the same laws as Cato runs clearly counter both the contents of the analysed texts and the rules of Roman court procedure. It is to be repeated that, as the verdicts were returned on the same day. Cato and Sufenas must have been treated on different charges.
13 1
JERZY LINDERSKI
b e r e f e r r e d to t w o d i f f e r e n t t r i a ls a n d , n o d o u b t , t h a t o f S e n e c a to th e f i r s t o n e . T o s u m u p : th e s u it b r o u g h t in b y C . A s i n iu s P o llio w a s b a s e d o n th e l e x I m i i a L i c i n i a ; P o l l i o ’s a d v e r s a r y w a s C . L i c in i u s C a lv u s . S h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s C a t o s to o d t r i a l u n d e r th e l e x F u fia ·, th is ti m e h e w a s d e fe n d e d b y M . A e m iliu s S c a u ru s a n d a c q u itte d w ith th e c o n n i v a n c e o f t h e p r o s e c u ti o n . T h e le x lu n ia L ic in ia
(p a s s e d in 6 2 b y th e c o n s u ls M . I u n i u s
S ila n u s a n d L . L i c i n i u s M u r e n a ) w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h s o m e t e c h n i c a l i tie s o f th e l e g i s l a t i o n ; a c c o r d i n g to its p r o v i s i o n t h e c o p ie s o f ( p r o m u l g a t e d ) la w s h a d
to b e d e p o s i t e d i n t h e a e r a r i u m (75).
T h e accu ser
m u s t h a v e a s s e r te d t h a t C a to w h i l e p r o p o s i n g h is l e g is la t io n as t r i b u n e in 5 4 h a d i n s o m e w a y v i o l a te d th e p r e s c r i p t i o n s o f th i s la w (76). T h e t r i a l o f C . C a t o u n d e r th e l e x F u f i a h a s a r o u s e d c o n s id e r a b le in te re s t a m o n g
m o d e rn
s c h o la r s , a b o v e
a ll b e c a u s e o f its r e l a t i o n
to th e p r o b l e m
o f o b n u n t i a t i o a n d its b e a r i n g o n th e r e c o n t r u c t i o n
o f th e p r o v is io n s o f t h e l e g e s A e l i a a n d F u f i a fi1).
T h e r e is n o d o u b t
t h a t th e l e x F u f i a r e f e r r e d to is t o b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h th e l e x F u f ia w h i c h w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h o b n u n t i a t i o a n d w h i c h is n o r m a l l y m e n t i o n e d t o g e t h e r w i t h th e l e x A e l i a .
M c D o n a ld h a s, h o w e v e r, p o in te d
to th e e x is te n c e o f a l e x F u f i a i u d ic t a r ia a n d e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t « i t is n o t i n c o n c e iv a b le t h a t it w a s u n d e r th i s la w .... t h a t C . C a t o w a s i n d i c t e d » (7S). T h e o r e t i c a l l y th i s is p o s s ib ile , b u t o n e m u s t n o t f o r g e t C ic e r o ’s r e m a r k a b o u t c o m i t i a a n d i n t e r r e g n u m m ista k a b ly
p o in t in
th e
rig h t
d ire c tio n :
w o u ld
it h a v e
th a t u n n o t been
( 75) M o m m s e n , Rom. Staatsrecht, II3, 5 4 6 ; III, 3 7 1 . F. v o n S c h w i n d , Zur Frage der Publikation im römischen Recht, München, 1 9 4 0 , 2 8 ff., argues, however, that the Iunian and Licinian law was not concerned with the projects of laws, but rather with depositing the final texts of laws after they had already been voted on by the popular assembly. But the fact that Cato only promulgated his laws and did not pass them is against this thesis. (76) Cato’s accuser under the lex lunia Licinia was Pollio: note that in 3 6 Pollio supported P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther and Cato promulgated a law dc imperio P. Lentulo abrogando. (π ) The entire problem of the lex Fufia and obnuntiatio cannot be gone into here. It needs a detailed discussion that can be undertaken only in a larger context. Accordingly I shall concentrate myself only on those points that are of special importance in the proper understanding of the analysed texts. (78) W. F. M c D o n a l d , Clodius and the Lex Aelia Fufia, in JRS, 1 9 , 1 9 2 9 , 1 7 9 nt. 3 . On the lex Fufia iudiciaria see Broughton, Magistrates, II, 1 8 8 - 1 8 9 ; C. M a c d o n a l d , The Lex Fufia of 5 9 R. C., in Class. Ret’., N . S., 7 , 1 9 5 7 , 1 9 8 .
132
THREE
T R IA L S
IN
54
299
B . C.
e x t r e m e l y o d d , i f t h i s w e r e to b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a c o m m e n t o n t h e p r o s e c u t i o n u n d e r a j u d i c i a r y la w (79) ?
I f th is c o n c lu s io n n e e d s f u r
t h e r s u p p o r t , a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e c a l le d to a p a s s a g e o f C ic e r o to b e f o u n d i n t h e s a m e l e t t e r i n w h i c h h e s p e a k s o f C a t o ’s t r i a l s : a d A t t ., 4.
16. 6 :
d e tr u d a t,
p u ta n t fo re C a to n e
a liq u e m
p r a e s e r tim
qui
c o m itia
in
The
a b s o lu to .
a d v e n tu m
re fe re n c e
C a e s a r is
is h e r e ,
as
S u m n e r (80) r i g h t l y a r g u e s , n o t to C a t o ’s a c q u i t t a l u n d e r t h e l e x l u n i a L i c i n i a , b u t t o h is f u t u r e a c q u i t t a l u n d e r t h e F u f i a n
l a w ; as C ic e r o
h a d a l r e a d y s a id t h a t t h e p r o s e c u t o r s d i d n o t i n f a c t w i s h C a t o to be
condem ned, he
tre a te d
h is a c q u itta l as a
fo reg o n e
B e s id e s t h a t i t is n o t e a s y to i m a g i n w h a t c o n n e c t i o n
c o n c lu sio n . th e re c o u ld
h a v e b e e n b e t w e e n t h e I u n i a n a n d L i c i n i a n la w c o n c e r n i n g l e g i s l a t i o n a n d t h e q u e s t i o n o f d e l a y i n g t h e e le c tio n s . B u t t h e r e is s till o n e p o i n t t h a t , a s it s e e m s , h a s b e e n m is s e d i n r e c e n t d is c u s s io n .
T w o p a s s a g e s o f C ic e r o i n f o r m u s h o w t h e e l e c
t o r a l c o m i t i a w e r e i m p e d e d i n 5 4 : a d A t t . , 4 . 1 7 . 4 ( d a t e d O c t o b e r 1) : ... o b n u n t i a t i o n i b u s p e r S c a e v o l a m (81) i n t e r p o s i t i s A n g u l i s d i e b u s u s q u e a d p r . K a l . O c to b ., a n d a d Q . f r ., 3 . 3 . 2
(d a te d O c to b e r 2 1 ): c o
m itio r u m c o tid ie s in g u li d ie s to llu n tu r o b n u n tia tio n ib u s m a g n a v o lu n ta te b o n o r u m
o m n iu m .
T w o s t a t e m e n t s m a y b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e te x ts r e p r o d u c e d a b o v e : 1) t h e a c q u i t t a l o f C a t o u n d e r t h e l e x F u f i a w a s u n d e r s t o o d b y C ic e r o a s e n c o u r a g e m e n t to i m p e d i n g t h e e l e c t i o n s ; 2 ) t h e e le c tio n s in 5 4 w e re p re v e n te d f r o m b e in g h e ld b y m e a n s o f o b n u n tia tio (a n d n o t in te r c e s s io ). I t f o ll o w s t h a t : 1 ) C a t o ’s t r i a l u n d e r t h e l e x F u f ia w a s c o n n e c t e d w i t h h is o b s t r u c t i o n o f e l e c ti o n s i n 5 6 ; 2 ) t h e e le c tio n s w e r e i m p e d e d i n t h a t y e a r (a s i n
54) b y a n n o u n c e m e n ts o f b a d
s ig n s (82) ; 3 ) t h e
le x F u fia c o n ta in e d p r e s c r ip tio n s c o n c e r n in g o b n u n tia tio , o r, a t a n y
r a t e , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f o b n u n t i a t i o a t e le c tio n s .
f i 9) in
C f. a ls o
th e
JRS, 2 7 , 1937, 220
c ritic ism n t.
o f S.
W
e in s t o c k
G. V.
( 81)
Q . M u c iu s S c a e v o la , t r . p le b is , in 5 4 .
(ω )
L iv y ’s p e r io c h a e , 1 0 5 , sta te ,
u m m e r
,
L e x A e lia , L e x F u fia ,
in 5 6 b y th e tr ib u n ic ia n in te r c e s s io . c f. e .g . E .
M
eyer
,
C l o d iu s a n d t h e L e x A e lia F u fia ,
20.
(*°)
S
,
C a e s a r s M o n a r c h ie ,
in
A m . f o u r n . P h ilo l.,
h o w e v e r , th a t th e
T h i s in f o r m a tio n 150.
B u t i t is
e le c tio n s
84,
w ere
to
m y k n o w le d g e
a n d th e r e
are s t r o n g
d o u b t th e c r e d ib ility
c a se
q u e s t io n
th e p o s t-S u lla n
o f th is in f o r m a t io n .
In
any
th e
p e r io d u r g e n t l y c a lls fo r a d e ta ile d a n a ly s is.
133
339.
p r o h ib ite d
h a s b e e n g e n e r a lly a c c e p te d ,
in s ta n c e o f in te r c e s s io a g a in s t e le c tio n s a fte r S u lla in
1963,
th e
o n ly
r e a so n s to
o f in te r c e s s io
JERZY LINDERSKI
L e t u s n o w c o m p a r e th e s e c o n c lu s io n s w i t h t h e r e s u lts a c h ie v e d b y S u m n e r in
h is a n a ly s is o f t h e
c o n t e n t s o f th e
F u fia n
la w (83).
D i s c u s s i n g t h e t r i a l o f C a t o h e c o m e s to t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t « t h e
Fufia
c o n t a i n e d a p r o v i s i o n c o n c e r n é d w i t h p r e v e n t i n g th e o b s t r u c
t i o n o f e le c tio n s » — n o te t h a t h e s p e a k s o f o b s t r u c t i o n w ith
no
w o rd
of
q u a lific a tio n .
t h e o r y a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h th e
tiatio
lex
intercessio
and
th e F u f ia n
la w
T h is
lex Aelia
is
in
h arm o n y
in g e n e r a l w ith
w as c o n c e rn e d w ith
h is
obnun
(e x c lu s iv e ly ) a t th e le g is la tiv e a s s e m b lie s , w h i l e
c o n ta in e d
p r o v is io n s w i t h
legum rogandarum ( p r e s c r i b i n g m e e t o n l y o n dies comitiales ) a n d
th a t th e
re g a rd
to
le g is la tiv e
ms et tempus comitia c o u l d
to o b s t r u c t i o n o f e le c tio n s ( e n a b l i n g
t h e p r o s e c u ti o n f o r i m p e d i n g t h e e le c tio n s a n d f o r b i d d i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e s u m m o n i n g o f t h e le g is la tiv e a s s e m b ly in th e p e r i o d b e t w e e n t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t a n d th e h o l d i n g o f e le c tio n s ). S u m m e r ’s d is c u s s io n , e s p e c ia lly as c o m p a r e d w i t h s o lu tio n s p r o p o s e d b y h is p r e d e c e s s o r s , is a g r e a t a d v a n c e ; o f s p e c ia l i m p o r t a n c e a r e h is e f f o r ts to d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n t h e t w o la w s . so m e p o in ts th a t n e e d f u r th e r in v e s tig a tio n . s h o w th a t th e
lex Fufia
W e h a v e t r i e d a b o v e to
m u s t a lso h a v e c o n t a i n e d c e r t a i n p r o v is io n s
c o n c e r n in g th e p ra c tic e o f s e m b lie s .
B u t th e re are
obnuntiatio
w ith
re g a rd
to e l e c to r a l a s
I t h i n k t h a t th i s d o e s n o t c o n t r a d i c t S u m m e r ’s th e s is , b u t
r a t h e r s u p p l e m e n t s it. The
lex Fufia
is s a id b y C ic e r o to h a v e b e e n t o t a l l y r e p e a l e d b y
C lo d i u s (84); a m o n g m o d e r n s c h o la r s th i s o p i n i o n is s h a r e d a ls o b y V a l e t o n (8S).
In
s p ite , h o w e v e r , o f C i c e r o ’s r h e t o r i c s a n d V a l e t o n ’s
a r g u i n g , t h e f a c t t h a t C a to c o u l d h a v e b e e n a c c u s e d u n d e r t h e F u f i a n la w
s e e m s to a f f o r d
an
i r r e f u t a b l e p r o o f t h a t a t le a s t s o m e p r o v i
s io n s o f th i s la w r e m a i n e d in f o rc e a f t e r 5 8 as w e ll (86). T h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e h o l d i n g o f e le c tio n s c o u ld h a v e le g a l ly b e e n
im p e d e d b e f o r e 58 b y m e a n s o f
obnuntiatio
is o p e n to
d is c u s s io n (87); o n t h e o t h e r h a n d th e n u m e r o u s e x a m p le s o f h e a v e n (83) Op. a t., 3 3 8 ff. The important article of A. E. A s t i n , Leges Aelia et Fufia, in Latomus, 2 3 , 1 9 6 4 , 4 2 1 ff., reached me only after this paper was already in the press. (84) Dc prov. cons., 4 6 ; pro Sest., 3 3 ; post red. in sen., 1 1 ; har resp., 5 8 ; pro Pis., 9 , 1 0 ; pro Vat., 1 8 . (85) I. M. J. V a l e t o n , De iure obnuntiandi comitiis et conciliis, in Mnemo syne, N . S., 1 9 , 1 8 9 1 , 2 6 8 -2 7 0 . (86) Cf. S u m n e r , op. cit., 3 5 1 . (87) Cf. L . L a n g e , De legibus A ei i a and Fufia commentatio, in Kleine Schriften. I, Göttingen, 1 8 8 7 , 3 2 9 ff.; V a l e t o n , op. cit., 9 4 , 2 6 1 .
134
3 OI
THREE TRIALS IN 5 4 B. C.
w a t c h i n g a f t e r t h e l e x C l o d i a i n o r d e r to p r o h i b i t t h e c o n v e n i n g o f t h e e l e c to r a l a s s e m b ly le a v e n o d o u b t t h a t a t t h a t t i m e t h e o b n u n t i a t i o w a s l e g a l l y a l l o w e d a t e le c tio n s (88).
N o w , if o b n u n t i a t i o
w as
a l lo w e d
a t e l e c ti o n s a f t e r 5 8 a n d
if
C a t o w a s p r o s e c u t e d f o r h a v i n g i m p e d e d th e c o m i t i a c o n s u l a r i a b y t h e d e v ic e o f h e a v e n w a t c h i n g , i t f o ll o w s t h a t i t c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n t h e p r o s e c u t i o n f o r p r a c t i c i n g o f o b n u n t i a t i o as s u c h , b u t o n l y f o r t r e s p a s s i n g th e r u l e s o f its a p p l i c a t i o n .
A c c o r d i n g to C ic e r o , a d A t t . , 4 .
1 5 . 4 , C a t o w a s c h a r g e d e i t h e r w i t h m a i e s t a s o r a m b it u s ·, as, h o w e v e r ,
t h e e l e c to r a l m a l p r a c t i c e s h a v e c l e a r ly n o i m m e d i a t e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f o b n u n t i a t i o , o n l y th e f i r s t p o s s i b ili ty h o l d s g o o d (89). T h u s t h e p r o s e c u t i o n u n d e r t h e l e x F u f ia t e c h n i c a l l y t o o k p la c e as a
ch a rg e
de
m a ie s ta te
m in u ta .
H o w e v e r,
a
d if f ic u lty
a r is e s
h ere.
A s t h e l e x F u f ia , a c c o r d i n g to d i f f e r e n t d a t i n g s , w a s p a s s e d b e t w e e n 1 5 4 a n d 1 3 2 B .C . (90), it c o u l d n o t h a v e c o n t a i n e d t h e n o t i o n o f m a i e s ta s
m in u ta .
The
e x p la n a tio n
m ay
be
th a t
t h e o ffe n c e s
p u n is h e d
o r i g i n a l l y b y t h e F u f i a n la w w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y e n t e r e d b y o n e o f t h e l e g e s m a i e s t a t i s u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g m a ie s ta s m i n u t a .
I n o u r case a
p r o v i s i o n t o th i s e f f e c t m u s t h a v e b e e n e n f o r c e d b y t h e l e x C o r n e l ia o f S u lla .
T h a t th i s n o t o n l y a t h e o r e t i c a l p o s s i b ili ty is c l e a r ly s h o w n
b y a C i c e r o n i a n p a s s a g e { in P i s ., 5 0 ) w h e r e w e r e a d t h a t c e r t a i n d e e d s such
as e x i r e d e p r o v i n c i a , e d u c e r e
g e r e r e , in r e g n u m
fo rb id d e n
by
e x e r c itu m , b e llu m
su a s p o n te
i n i u s s u p o p u l i R o m a n i a u t s e n a tu s a c c e d e r e w e r e
p lu r im a e
le g e s
v e te r e s
tu m
le x
m a ie s ta tis
C o r n e l ia .
A n d t h a t il l e g a l o b s t r u c t i o n o f p r o c e e d i n g s o f a n a s s e m b ly w a s i n f a c t c o n s i d e r e d a s c r i m e n m a i e s t a t i s is te s t if ie d b y t h e A u c t o r a d H e r e n n iu m , 2 . 1 7 : m a ie s ta te m v ita tis a m p litu d o
is m i n u i t , q u i e a t o l l i t , e x q u i b u s r e b u s c i
c o n s ta t,
q u a e s u n t ea, Q .
g is tr a tu s . n e m p e ig itu r tu e t p o p u lu m s ilio p r iv a s ti, c u m
To
o b n u n tia te
C a e p io ?
s u ffr a g ia , m a
s u ffr a g io e t m a g is tr a tu m
con
p o n te s d is tu r b a s ti.
a g a in st
th e
h o ld in g
of
th e
e l e c to r a l
a s s e m b ly
w a s i n its e lf a le g a l a c t, b u t th e w a y i n w h i c h C . C a t o a n n o u n c e d a n d a p p l i e d h is o b n u n t i a t i o n s m u s t h a v e b e e n v ie w e d b y t h e p r o s e c u t i o n
(s8) See the chapter on obnuntiatio in my book R zym sbje zgrom adzem e wyborcze, 7 4 ss.; S u m m e r , op. cit., 3 5 3 ff. (89) Cf. L a n g e , op. cit., 3 3 4 n t . 3 . f90) 1 5 4 or 1 5 3 is the traditional date. According to L. R. T aylor, Fore runners of the Gracchi, in JRS, 5 2 , 1 9 6 2 , 2 2 , the law was passed at about 1 5 0 . S u m m e r , op. cit., 3 4 9 -3 5 0 , has proposed 1 3 2 R. C.
JERZY LINDERSKI
a s il le g a l.
T h e a c c u s e r s m u s t h a v e a r g u e d t h a t b y h a v i n g a c t e d in
th is m a n n e r h e — H e r e n n iu m
to
b o rro w
— p o p u lu m
t h e e x p r e s s io n f r o m
th e A u c t o r
ad
s u ffr a g io p r iv a v it.
W h i c h p r o v is io n w a s a l le g e d l y v io l a te d b y C a t o i n 5 6 w h i l e o b n u n t i a t i n g a g a i n s t t h e c o n s u l a r e le c tio n s is n o t e a s y t o d e t e c t. o n e m a y tr y .
T h e a n n o u n c e m e n t s e d e c a e lo s e r v a r e h a d a c c o r d i n g
to th e a u g u r a l d is c ip lin e
to b e
m ade
s e p a ra te ly fo r e a c h
d a y a n d n o t in o n e a c t f o r a p e r i o d o f t i m e (91). C a t o f a il e d to o b s e r v e t h i s r u l e
c o m itia l
I t is p o s s ib le t h a t
(as d i d M i l o b e f o r e h i m
in 5 7 ) —
n o t e t h a t a f t e r C a t o ’s t r i a l t h i s p r i n c i p l e w a s s tr ic tly a d h e r e d trib u n e s
B ut
a n n o u n c in g
th e
s till a n o t h e r p o s s ib ility .
w a tc h in g
of
h e a v e n s (92).
A c c o r d i n g t o a u g u r a l la w
o b s e r v e d t h e s k y f o r p u r p o s e s o f h is o w n .
B ut
to b y
th e re
is
th e m a g is tra te
N o w , C . C a t o h a d as e a r l y
as in M a rc h 5 6 m a d e it p la in th a t h e w o u ld n o t a llo w th e r e g u la r e l e c ti o n s to b e h e l d .
In co n seq u en c e h e m ig h t h av e b een accused o f
h a v i n g f o r g e d t h e a u s p i c i a (e m e n t i r i a u s p i c i a ). C . C a t o b e i n g p r o s e c u t e d u n d e r th e c h a r g e o f m a ie s ta s , t h e a c c u s a ti o n o f a m b i t u s m e n t i o n e d in S u fe n a s.
I t is m o s t p r o b a b l e t h a t h e w a s a c c u s e d o f e l e c to r a l m a l
p r a c t ic e s c o m m i t t e d b y h i m ( f o r 5 5 ).
C ic e r o ’s l e t t e r is to b e r e f e r r e d to
w h i l e c a n v a s s in g f o r p r a e t o r s h i p i n 5 5
T h u s h e is to b e a d d e d to t h e lis t o f t r i u m v i r s ’ h e n c h m e n
p r o s e c u t e d f o r a m b i t u s in 5 4 .
op. cit., 1 0 6 -1 0 7 . Cf. also J. L i n d e r s k i , Constitutional Aspects of the Consular Elections in 5 9 B. C., in Historia, 1 4 , 1 9 6 5 , 3 9 4 . (92) See Cicero, ad Att., 4 . 1 7 . 4 : ... obnuntiationibus per Scaevolam interpo sitis singulis diebus usque ad pr. Kal. Octob., quo ego haec die scripsi·, ad Q. fr., 3 . 3 . 2 : comitiorum cotidie singuli dies tolluntur obnuntiationibus. On M ilo’s ob nuntiatio in 5 7 see Cicero, ad Att., 4 . 3 . 3 : proscripsit se per omnes dies comitiales de caelo servaturum. ( 91)
V aleton,
136
11 voi. 2 : P ro so p o g ra p h ie By Claude N icolet. Bibliothèque des ficoles Francaises d ’Athènes et de Rome, fase. 207. Paris: Editions E. de Boccard, 1974. Pp. xvii -f755-1150 + 3 folding maps.
V o r d r e équestre à l ’époque ré p u b lic a in e (3 1 2 -4 3 av. J . - C . ) , d es chevaliers ro m a in s.
The first volume of C. Nicolet’s magnum opus, V o r d r e équestre à l ’époque ré p u b li appeared in 1966. It bore the subtitle, D é fin itio n s ju r id iq u e s et stru ctu res so cia les. Now we also have the long-awaited volume 2: P ro so p o g ra p h ie des chevaliers ro m a in s. Together they constitute an inseparable whole (not only because of con tinuous pagination) : volume 2 contains a list and a detailed discussion of all known eq u ites, and thus it forms the basis and foundation on which N. has erected his im posing edifice of the ordo equester. Hence, when volume 2 is discussed, it is necessary to refer frequently to volume 1, especially as pages 147-60 have been intended by the author as an introduction to his method and his prosopographical lists. The subtitles are telling. N .’s these is a study in social phenomenology; its subject is the equestrian order in its two E rsc h e in u n g sfo rm e n as a legal institution and as a social structure. And his method is prosopographical. Three questions can be addressed to the author: what was the ordo equester, who were the equites, and what is the prosopographical method? To none of these questions, including the last, is the answer self-evident. The importance of method is obvious. Fortunately we can here have recourse to N .’s own reflections on the subject in his article, “ Prosopographie et histoire sociale: Rome et l’Italie à l’époque républicaine” ( A n n a le s E S C 25 [1970]: 1209-28), the mature fruit of his “equestrian” studies. Prosopography is of course collection and description of π ρ ό σ ω π α , and hence it begins with the compilation of different kinds of itid ices n o m in u m and o n o m a stic a , embracing finally all known persons in a given period of time. But, as N. rightly points out, this is only a preliminary stage, at least for a social historian. The next step is the establishment of f a s t i or, more gen erally, of lists of people having a common distinguishing feature, be it that they hold a magistracy (or magistracies), that they are members of a specific gens, ordo, or association, or that they belong to a certain social stratum or occupational group (e.g., as p u b lic a n i, negotiatores, m ercatores, lib erti, or m ilite s ). Such groups ought to be analyzed from various points of view: chronology and geography, family con nections, property, political and economic activities, and terminology, especially honorific titles and set expressions, are all important criteria. N .’s definition of prosopography is as follows (“ Prosopographic et histoire sociale,” p. 1226): “la prosopographie suppose la mise en sèrie, elle ne met en évidence l’individuel et l’exceptionnel que pour dégager, par contraste, le collectif et le normal.” As this definition runs counter to the habitual practice of most Roman prosopographers, a few words of comment are in place. Even if the known members of a group form only a small fraction of the total, it is often possible to establish social, political, and economic patterns. However, a historian can succeed only rarely in reducing such inductively established patterns to individual cases. In other words, there is no secure method of inferring from a ca in e ,
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Renerai pattern the likely behavior or situation of an individual. This is a basic rule of statistical patterns and one of which both physicists and sociologists are well aware, hut which apparently is unknown to classicists, for they so often indulge in this kind of upside-down prosopography. Moreover, as we normally know only a chance fraction of the total, it is impossible to establish a margin of error for such inferences. The situation is different with respect to legal definitions, legal rules, and set patterns (as opposed to statistical patterns). In this case it is often (but by no means always) possible and legitimate to make inferences concerning individual instances. Three sets of examples will illustrate our point. Inegal rules: (1) The lex Acilia (lex tabulae Bembinae) excluded the senators and their rela tives from service on juries. Hence, if a person is attested as a iudex between 122 and 106 (the date of the lex Servilia Caepionis), he obviously was an eques ex definitione legis Aciliae. Conversely, a juror attested between the lex Cornelia and the lex Aurelia was undoubtedly a senator. After the lex Aurelia, no such automatic inferences are possible. (2) The lex Roscia of 67 reserved for the equites the first fourteen rows in the theater. Hence a man at tested to have sat in the quattuordecim ordines can safely be regarded as an eques—what ever the exact meaning of the term. Set patterns: As set patterns we can define those patterns in which one element appears in all known instances in a constant correlation with another element, as, for example, if A either entails or excludes B. This is often the case with set expressions. N. was able to establish (a) that there is a relatively high percentage of negotiatores and argentarii among the equites (46 examples, 12.8% of the total) ; and (b) that on the other hand “aucun cheva lier n’est jamais appelé mercator” (l'ordre equestre, 1 :364, 367). As (a) represents only a statistical pattern, it does not allow any particular inferences; but if a person was (in the Republican period) a mercator, he certainly was not an eques. Statistical patterns: Owing to the particular structure of Roman politics and society, Broughton’s MRR is bound to remain the most significant study in Roman social history. In the fasti magistratuum we can see year-by-year tangible results of the politics of Adels parteien and Adelsfamilien, not yet distorted by unfounded conclusions. Adelsparteien and Adelsfamilien constituted the essence of Roman political and social life. This essence was, however, formed of constantly and unpredictably shifting elements. There are no set politi cal patterns: in politics we have only statistical patterns, and it is therefore impossible, on the basis of the known general pattern, to reconstruct individual elements, that is, to divine the actual course of political events. As an illustration we may cite the famous example (produced by A. Heuss) of Caesar’s being a dear friend of Bibulus because they held to gether all the magistracies from the aedileship to the consulate. It is also well known that the consul often exerted decisive influence upon the election of his successor, and it might therefore be tempting to suppose that C. Calpurnius Piso owed his election to the friendly support of C. Calpurnius Bibulus. Unfortunately, despite all prosopographical appearances, there wras no Julio-Calpurnian faction rolling down the highway of Roman politics in 59-58. This reasoning seems absurd only because we happen to know that the conclusions are false, but the works of Miinzer’s epigoni (although the Master himself is not completely innocent either) are littered with similar inferences which pass for historical scholarship. N .’s book is a prosopographical study, for it proceeds from the individual to the general. Scholars who prefer a different direction ought to be aware that they are engaged in creating a prosopographical fantasy.
Now' to our next question: who were the eq u ites? The Roman knights had been of great interest to students of Roman antiquities since the time of Pantagathus,
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P a n v i n i u s , a n d M a n u t i u s , b u t , s t r a n g e ly e n o u g h , it w a s n o t u n til 1912 th a t a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o c o l l e c t a l l p e r s o n s a t t e s t e d a s eq u ites. P . S c h m i d t , a p u p i l o f C i c h o r i u s , a d o p t e d i n h i s B r e s l a u d i s s e r t a t i o n (D ie rö m isch en R itter von d cn G ra cch en
bis zu m T o d e Ciceros) a s e v e r e c r i t e r i o n , b u t t h e o n l y r e a s o n a b l e o n e : h e i n c l u d e d in h i s f a s t i e q u itu m o n l y t h o s e m e n w h o w e r e e x p l i c i t l y t e r m e d equites o r f o r w h o m th e h o ld i n g o f t h e p u b lic h o r se w a s a t t e s t e d . H o w e v e r , h e d id n o t offer a n y h is t o r i c a l or s o c io lo g ic a l a n a ly s is , a n d so h is b a re list o f 196 n a m e s fa ile d to e x e r t a n y s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e . T h e s t u d y o f t h e equites c o n t i n u e d t o f o l l o w a d e v i o u s c o u r s e . T h e fie ld w a s d o m i n a t e d b y t h e p r e c o n c e i v e d i d e a , m o s t f o r c e f u l l y e x p r e s s e d b y E . J. B e lo t
( H is to ir e des chevaliers r e m a in s , 2 v o l s .
[P a ris,
1866-73]),
t h a t a ll
“ r i c h ” m e n w h o w e r e n o t s e n a t o r s w e r e equites. T h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h i s l i n e w a s a c h i e v e d — 2 5 y e a r s a f t e r A . S t e i n ’s D er röm isch e R itte rsta n d ( M u n i c h , 1 9 2 7 ) h a d p u t t h e s t u d y o f t h e k n i g h t s in t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d o n f i r m g r o u n d ! — b y H . H i l l
( T h e R o m a n M id d le C lass in the R e p u b lic a n P e rio d [ O x f o r d , 1 9 5 2 ] ) , w h o i m a g i n e d t h e r e p u b l i c a n equites a s a k i n d o f “ m i d d l e c l a s s , ” t h u s u n d u l y m o d e r n i z i n g a n d m i s i n t e r p r e t i n g P l i n y ’s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e k n i g h t s a s t h e te rtiu m co rp u s ( N i l 3 3 . 3 4 , c f . 3 3 . 2 9 ) . H i l l ’s t h e o r y h a s b e e n d e s e r v e d l y c r i t i c i z e d , m o s t n o t a b l y b y G e l z e r (G nom on 2 5 [ 1 9 5 3 ] : 3 1 9 - 2 3 ) a n d G a b b a ( A th e n a e u m n . s . 3 2 [ 1 9 5 4 ] : 3 3 6 - 4 5 ) , b u t i t is n o t a n e a s y t a s k t o l a y a m y t h t o r e s t . O n e m y t h w a s t h a t t h e equites w e r e p r i m a r i l y r i c h b u s i n e s s m e n a n d b a n k e r s (a rg e n ta rii, negotiatores, fo e n e ra to re s). P . A . B r u n t ( “ T h e E q u i t e s in t h e L a t e R e p u b l i c , ” T h e C risis o f the R o m a n R e p u b lic , e d . R . S ea g er [C a m b r id g e , 1969], p . 88) h a s cle a r ly , a lb e it ra th er in t u itiv e ly , seen th e fa l la c y o f th is c o n t e n t i o n , b u t it w a s o n l y t h a n k s to th e p r o s o p o g r a p h ic a l a p p r o a c h th a t N . h a s b e e n a b le to s h o w th e s t a tis tic a l a n d e c o n o m ic im p o r ta n c e o f l a n d e d p r o p r i e t o r s a m o n g t h e equites (V o r d r e equestre, 1 : 2 8 5 - 3 1 5 ) . N . ’s P ro so p o g ra p h ie c o n t a i n s 4 0 0 a l p h a b e t i c a l l y a r r a n g e d e n t r i e s ( n o s . 9 5 - 9 9 a r e m i s s i n g — th r o u g h o v e r s i g h t ? — a n d th e r e is o n e d o u b le e n t r y ) . H i s c r it e r io n o f in c l u s i o n is t w o f o l d . T h e c o r e o f h i s l i s t c o n s i s t s o f t h e equites certi: p e r s o n s e x p l i c i t l y c a l l e d equites, o r d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g ex equestri o rd in e, o r m e n t i o n e d in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e a n u lu s a u re u s, equus p u b lic u s, o r t h e cen tu ria e a n d recognitio e q u itu m ( 2 2 3 e n t r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o m y c o u n t ) . T h e o t h e r c a t e g o r y is m a d e u p o f equites probabiles ( 1 7 7 e n t r i e s ) . T h i s i s b y t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s a t e n u o u s c a t e g o r y , f o r it is o f t e n r a th e r d ifficu lt to e s t im a t e th e d e g r e e o f p r o b a b ilit y . N . lists h ere ( a m o n g o th e r s ) s o m e pra efecti a n d tr ib u n i m ilitu m
( s e e b e l o w ) , s o m e h o m in e s n o vi, s o m e scribae,
p u b lic a n i, a n d o f f i c i a l s o f t h e societates, s o m e r e l a t i v e s o f s e n a t o r s a n d eq u ites, a n d f i n a l l y s o m e m e n w h o a r e i n c l u d e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r h o n o r i f i c t i t l e s ( e . g . , s p le n
d id u s , o r n a tis s im u s ) . P r o s o p o g r a p h y w a s t h e b a s i s o f N . ’s a d m i r a b l e t r e a t m e n t o f stru ctu res sociales, b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y p r o s o p o g r a p h y d o e s n o t t e l l w h o w e r e t h e equites a s l e g a l l y d e f i n e d . W e l e a r n o n l y w h o w e r e t h e equites o n t h e l i s t . N . ’s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t o n l y t h e equites equo p u b lico f o r m e d t h e ordo equester ( V o r d r e equestre, 1: 1 6 2 - 7 6 ) w a s d i s c u s s e d w i t h h i s u s u a l a c u m e n b y T . P . W i s e m a n ( “ T h e D e f i n i t i o n o f ‘E q u e s R o m a n u s ’ in t h e L a t e R e p u b l i c a n d E a r l y E m p i r e , ” H isto ria 19 [ 1 9 7 0 ] : 6 7 - 8 3 ) , a n d r e c e n t l y E . B a d i a n h a s o f f e r e d p e n e t r a t i n g r e m a r k s (P u b lic a n s a n d S in n e r s [ I t h a c a , 1972], p p . 8 2 - 8 7 , 1 4 4 - 4 6 ) . N . ta k e s u p th e q u e s t io n a g a in in v o lu m e 2, e s p e c i a l l y in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f T . C a t i e n u s ( “ h o m o l e v i s a c s o r d i d u s , s e d t a m e n e q u e s t r i c e n s u , ” C i c . Q F r. 1. 2 . 6 ) , C . C l u v i u s ( “ si e x c e n s u s p e c t a s ,
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eques Romanus,” Cic. Q R osc. 42), the squanderer Gellius (“nomen ordinis equestris retinet, ornamenta confecit,” Cic. S e sl. I ll) , D. Laberius, and the scrib a e C. Cicereius and Maevius. The three distinguished authors do not seem, however, to have paid enough attention to the importance of the lex R o sc ia for the legal definition of the ordo. The lex R oscia of 67 reserved for the eq u ites the first fourteen rows in the theater. Was this right limited only to the holders of the eq u u s p u b lic u s (so essentially N.; cf. Mommsen, S la a lsrech l, 3:521, and Wiseman, “ Definition of ‘Eques,’ ” p. 72) or was it extended (as Badian thinks, P u b lic a n s , p. 84; cf. Stein, R itte rsta n d , p. 26) to all those who possessed the ce n su s equester of 400,000 HS? Badian points out that if the fourteen rows had been provided exclusively for the equites proper, it is hardly conceivable that Cicero { M u r . 40) would have so ex travagantly praised the lex R oscia before a jury one-third of which was composed of the tr ib u n i a e ra rii, who not only did not gain any additional d ig n ita s through the law, but were clearly the losers. Hence the law must have benefited both the equites and the tr ib u n i a era rii: it reserved the fourteen rows for all men with the equestrian census (it is virtually certain, as N. accepts hesitatingly, and Wiseman and Badian, following Mommsen, state quite decisively, that the census of the tr ib u n i a e ra rii was the same as the cen su s equester, and not an inferior one, viz. 300,000 HS). Badian has obviously made a point, but his conclusion is as fallacious as his argument is persuasive. He seems to overlook the close connection between the o rn a m e n ta equestria, symbolized especially by the gold ring, and the iu s in X I V o rd in ib u s sedere. The examples of Roscius, Laberius, and Maevius, the scriba of Verres, show that the ce n su s equester was a necessary but not a sufficient pre requisite: not every hom o equestri cen su had the o rn a m en ta equestria. N. { V o rd re equestre, 1: 92 ff.) is inclined to think that the a n u lu s a u re u s automatically assured a man of a place in the cen tu ria e e q u itu m . But the scene staged by Pompey in 70 (Plut. P o m p . 2 2 ; cf. V o r d r e equestre, 2:986-87) demonstrates that it was still the duty of the censors to review the membership of the eighteen centuries, although there is little doubt that the censors would normally enroll all the men who had received from the im p era to res the grant of the a n u lu s a u re u s. The lu s tr u m of 70 was to be the last one performed before Augustan times. The result was a severe and constantly increasing disorder in the membership of the c en tu ria e, and a baffling lack of clarity in the legal concept and colloquial usage of the term eques. In 67 the lex R o scia intervened, and in the absence of the censorship the fourteen rows re placed the eighteen centuries as the basic framework for the legal definition and delimitation of the ordo equester. In fact all those who could claim a seat in the quattuordecim ordines were now regarded as equites. There were several categories of persons who qualified, including ( 1) the actual holders of the eq u u s p u b lic u s, (2) the sons of senators, and (3) the sons of equites (i.e., equites equo p u b lic o ), often referred to as equestri loco n a ti or orti (cf. on this expression N .’s brilliant article “Les fin ito re s ex equestri loco de la loi Servilia de 63 av. J.C .,” L a to m u s 29 [1970]: 72-103). The sons of equites had a hereditary claim to the eq u u s p u b lic u s, and per haps could even be placed on the roll of the c en tu ria e by the clerks. Privileged seats could also be claimed by (4) all those who were in possession of the cen su s equester and had received the o rn a m en ta equestria (without a censorial action, however, they could hardly have been enrolled in the equestrian voting centuries). In addi-
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59
tion to these groups, the lex R oscia provided the first two rows for (5) the military tribunes and the tr ib u n ic ii. The military tribunes of nonequestrian origin were thus automatically receiving the grant of the a n u lu s a u re u s and promotion to the equestrian order (cf. the cases of L. Petronius, T. Marius, and Horace). It is there fore a pity that N. has (and for no compelling reason) excluded the military tribunes from his prosopography. (He now concedes this point; cf. his article “ Armee et société à Rome sous la république: A propos de l’ordre equestre,” P roblèm es de guerre à R o m e , ed. J.-P. Brisson [Paris, 1969], p. 140.) Furthermore, it follows from Ovid F a st. 4. 383 (cf. Mommsen, S ta a tsrech t, 3:521) that also (6 ) the d ecem viri s tlitib u s iu d ic a n d is (and no doubt other minor magistrates) acquired the right to sit in the first two rows. Finally, Badian is undoubtedly right in contending that Cicero would not have praised the lex R oscia in front of (7) the tr ib u n i a e ra rii if they had been excluded from the fourteen rows, though this need not mean, and, as we have seen, it did not mean, that all h o m in e s eq u estri cen su sat in the fourteen rows. If we turn Badian’s conclusion around we may arrive at the right answer: the lex R o scia gave the iu s in X I V o rd in ib u s sedere only to those tr ib u n i a e ra rii who served as iu d ic c s. From the point of view of the lex R o scia , the jurors from the d e c u ria trib u n o ru m a era rio ru m formed an integral part of the equestrian order (cf. S c h o l. B ob. on Cic. F ine. 4, p. 94 Stangl = p. 34 Ilildebrandt, where tr ib u n i a era rii and equites are glossed as e iu sd e m scilicet o rd in is v ir i) , but from the point of view of the older classification based upon membership in the cen tu ria e e q u itu m (a classi fication not formally abolished), they had no claim to the title of eques R o m a n u s. The utter confusion in the equestrian terminology thus finds a reasonable ex planation in the lapsing of the censorship and in the substitution of other criteria, principally the iu s X I V o r d in u m , for defining the ordo equester. This interpretation seems to be confirmed by Pliny N H 33. 29-32 (I am not convinced by E. S. Stavelev’s explanation of this passage in R h M 96 [1953]: 201-213). Pliny there discusses the connection between the a n u lu s a u re u s, the iu d ic e s, and the equites: divo Augusto decurias ordinante maior pars iudicum in ferreo anulo fuit iique non equites, sed iudices vocabantur, equitum nomen subsistebat in turmis equo rum publicorum. . . . decuriae quoque ipsae pluribus discretae nominibus fuere, tribunorum aeris et selectorum et iudicum. praeter hos etiamnum nongenti vocabantur ex omnibus electi ad custodiendas suffragiorum cistas in comitiis, et divisus hic quoque ordo erat superba usurpatione nominum, cum alius se non gentum, alius selectum, alius tribunum appellaret. Tiberii demum principatu nono anno in unitatem venit equester ordo, anulorumque auctoritati forma con stituta est . . . constitutum, ne cui ius esset nisi qui ingenuus ipse, patre, avo paterno, HS CCCC census fuisset et lege Iulia theatrali in quattuordecim ordi nibus sedisset.
Pliny’s train of thought is tortuous, but nevertheless the following observations can be made: (a) the nonequestrian jurors “ in anulo ferreo fuerunt” : the jury service did not lead to the a n u lu s a u reu s; (b ) Augustus apparently restored the preRoscian definition of equites based on the holding of the eq u u s p u b lic u s; (c) Pliny nevertheless regards the nonequestrian iu d ices as members of the ordo equester; id ) the u n ita s of the ordo (i.e., of the members of the tu rm a e and the nonequestrian jurors) was achieved on the basis of the cen su s equester and the lex I u lia th e a tra lis
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(which undoubtedly incorporated most provisions of the lex R o sc ia )\ (e ) it follows from this provision that not all h o m in es equ estri re n su had the in s X I V o rd in u m (otherwise the mention of the lex th ea tra lis would be redundant); (/) it also follows that the nonequestrian jurors had the right of the fourteen rows, for otherwise they could not have been “ united” on this basis with the equites proper. In the case of d ffin itio n s ju r id iq u e s Mommsen obviously beats Münzer. Lawrence Stone once composed the following grandiloquent encomium of prosopography: “ Prosopographv . . .contains within it the potentiality to help in the re-creation of a unified field out of the loose confederation of jealously inde pendent topics and techniques which at present constitutes the historian’s empire. It could be a means to bind together constitutional and institutional history on the one hand and personal biography on the other . . . ” (H isto ric a l S tu d ie s T o d a y , ed. F. Gilbert and S. R. Graubard [New York, 1972], p. 134). Nicolet’s opus comes as close as possible to this lofty ideal, and it is very far. Prosopography can open some doors that had hitherto been firmly locked, but it is not a master key and still less a picklock.
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L E G IB U S P R A E F E C T I M IT T E B A N T U R (M om m sen and Festus 262. 5, 13 L) T he present note is not intended to p rovide a detailed discussion of the vexed question of R om an prefectures in Italy. Its aim is a very lim ited one: to attem pt to clear up current m iscon cep tion s concerning M om m sen ’s interpretation of F estus’ phrase legibus praefecti mittebantur. In order to understand the nature of the controversy, it is necessary to adduce the text o f Festus in extenso. It reads as follo w s (p. 262. 2 -1 6 L):
5
10
15
Praefecturae eae appellabantur in Italia, in quibus et ius dicebatur, et nundinae agebantur; et erat quaedam earum R. P., neque tamen m agistratus suos habebant, in q u as1 legibus praefecti m ittebantur quotannis qui ius dicerent. Q uarum genera fuerunt d u o: alterum , in quas solebant ire praefecti quat tuor, vigin ti sex virum num ero2 populi suffragio creati erant, in haec oppida: Capuam, Cumas, C asilinum , V olturnum , L iternum , P u teolos, A cer ras, Suessulam , A tellam , Calatium: alterum, in quas ibant, quos praetor urbanus quotannis in quaeque lo ca miserat legibus, ut F undos, Form ias, Caere, V enafrum , A llifas, Privernum , A nagniam , Frusinon em , Reate, Saturniam, N ursiam , A rpinum , aliaque conplura.
T he point to w hich w e w o u ld like to address ourselves is the m eaning of ‘legib u s’. B runt3 has the fo llo w in g com m ent: “ A ccord in g to Festus they [i.e. the prefects] were appointed ‘leg ib u s’ ; the plural may be noted; the concession was made first to one, then to another” (sc. municipium ; cf. B runt’s remark a couple of lines above : “ it was a concession to the convenience of the municipes”). T his statement is not com pletely explicit, but it is clear that Brunt understands ‘leg ib u s’ as referring to Rom an leges comitiales. It is undoubt edly a sound interpretation, but unfortunately Brunt has coupled it w ith the fo llo w in g critique of M om m sen (p. 531 n. 2): “ M om m sen ’s assum ption ( St R iii. 582 n. 2) that the leges w ere the charters o f the m unicipalities need not be right” . Brunt w as, h ow ever, not the first to attribute this interpretation of ‘legib u s’ to M om m sen. A . N . Sherw in-W hite w rote in the first ed itio n 4 of his Roman Citizenship (O xford 1939, 42): “ Festus . . . says that the second type [/.*. the prefects appointed by the praetor] were sent out by the praetor legibus, that is, as M om m sen saw, in accordance with the charters of the m unicipalities” (p. 42 n. 5 [= 2 n d ed. p. 45 n. 2], He gives the same reference as Brunt, but in a som ew hat d eveloped form : “St. R. I ll, 582, n. 2, q u oting the lex of A cerrae” ). It is im portant to note that Sherw in-W hite (and, as he thinks, also M om m sen) is o f the op in ion that on ly the prefects appointed by the praetor were sent out in accordance with the m unicipal charters; the praefecti Capuam Cumas elected by the people were sent out on the basis of the Rom an leges. H ence the first ‘legibus’ in Festus (line 5), as far as it
1 Lindsay prints in ~\qua hisf , but U rsinus’ reading in quas is quite certain. 2 Lindsay’s text is f viginti sex vtrum nü p r o \\ the corrections g o back to Ursinus and M om m sen. 3 P. A . Brunt, Italian M anpow er (O xford 1971) 531. 4 Repeated verbatim in the second edition O xford 1973, 45. 143
Miszellen concerns the elective praefecti, w ould denote the R om an leges comitiales·, it is only the second ‘legibus’ (line 13), referring exclusively to the appointed prefects, w hich w ould signify the m unicipal charters, i.e. the leges datae by the R om an authorities5. B ut enough for the time being of έπίγονοι. Let us now consult the ipsissima verba of the ‘A ltm eister’. First, the incrim inated passage, Staatsrecht III 582, n. 2: . legibus (d.h. nach dem constituirenden Gesetz, wie das papirische für Acerrae w ar . . . ) praefecti mittebantur quotannis qui ius dicerent. N ach E rö rte ru n g der com itialen praefecti Capuam Cumas fügt er hinzu: alterum (genus fuerat) in quas ibant quos praetor quotannis in quaeque loca miserat legibus". T w o observations: this passage does not tell us explicitly anything ab o u t how M om m sen interpreted the second ‘legibus’ in Festus, but there is in any case n o th in g to show that he u nderstood under the leges the m unicipal charters®. O n the other hand M om m sen explained the first ‘legibus’ as referring to the constituirendes Gesetz, adducing as an example the lex Papiria, which was a lex rogata voted by the Rom an comitia1. He defines the constituirendes Gesetz (III 576 q u o tin g again the lex Papiria) as “ ein die Stellung derselben [i.e. of a ‘H albbürgergem einde’] regulirender Beschluss der röm ischen B ürgerschaft” . T he lex Papiria was a R om an law, b u t from the point of view of the A cerrani it could be regarded as a lex data. It is, how ever, im portant to realize that the prefect was not sent o u t on the basis of the m unicipal charter (contained in the lex 5 In this context Sherw in-W hite (p. 41; 2nd ed. p. 43) also discusses Liv. 9. 20. 5: “ prim um praefecti Capuam creari coepti legibus a L. F urio praetore datis, cum utrum que ipsi pro rem edio aegris rebus discordia intestina petissent” (we are not interested here in the veracity of Livy’s in form ation; Sherw in-W hite accepts it, but m ost o th er scholars reject it). His translation of the passage is as follow s (p. 41 n. 3): “ Prefects for Capua first began to be created w ith plenipotentiary pow ers legally derived from the praetor, L . Furius, w hen in a tim e of civil discord they them selves had asked for both as a cure for their political disease” (in the second edition, p. 43 n. 4, the phrase “ w ith plenipoten tiary pow ers” is replaced by “ w ith rules of law ” ). T his interpretative translation is certainly incorrect; it reads into the text of Livy notions that are not present there. Sherw in-W hite com bines praefecti . . . creari coepti w ith legibus a . . . praetore datis, and consequently im agines the prefects as appointed by L. Furius on the basis of his leges. But legibus datis and creari coepti o ught to be kept apart; one should not disregard the follow ing cum utrumque ipsi .. . petissent. T he Capuans asked the R om ans to provide them w ith the leges (cf. Liv. 9. 20. 10: “ nec arm a m odo sed etiam iura R om ana late pollebant” ), and to send prefects for the adm inistration of justice. If legibus datis should refer only to creari coepti, then the leges the charter o f Capua m ust simply disappear, as they do in Sherw in-W hite’s translation (thus leaving incom prehensible the m eaning of utrumque). In spite of, and contrary to, his translation, Sherw in-W hite m anages, how ever, som ehow to believe that “ the leges a praetore datae should have provided a perm anent solution of the troubles of the tim e” . It is obvious that a praetor could not give leges to anyone or send o u t the prefects w ith o u t being authorized to do so by the senate o r the people; the ultim ate basis both for the dispatching of the prefects and for the leges datae m ust have been either a senatus consultum o r a lex comitialis (cf. M om m sen, Staatsrecht I I 3 594 n. 5). F or further criticism o f Sherw in-W hite’s interpretation of Livy, see my note “ Primum creati and primum creari coepti" (forthcom ing). ® Sherw in-W hite, op. cit. 43 n. 5 (2nd ed. 45 n. 2) m istranslates M om m sen’s “ für A cerrae” as “ of A cerrae” . 7 See G. R otondi, Leges Publicae Populi Romani (M ilano 1912, repr. H ildesheim 1962) 228-229, and esp. T. R .S. B roughton, The Magistrates o f the Roman Republic I (N ew Y ork 1951) 142 n. 2, w ith a discussion of the lator of the lex. 144
Miszellen
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comitialis o r draw n up according to the instructions spelt out by it), but rather on the basis of the ‘constituirendes G esetz’ itself, i.c. the R om an lex lata6. A t this juncture Sherw in-W hite and B runt could well re to rt that o u r argum ents are valid only w ith respect to the first set of F estus’ leges, and that they do not apply in the least to the leges m entioned in connection w ith the appointed prefects. T hey could also po in t o u t that Festus places A cerrae in the sphere of jurisdiction of an elective prefect. Sherw in-W hite and B runt o verlook, how ever, a crucial p o in t for the p ro p er interpreta tio n of M om m sen’s Lehre·, according to the latter the intro d u ctio n of the popular election of the prefects was a later developm ent; originally all of the prefects were appointed by the p raeto r o n the basis of an ‘Einzelgesetz’, i.e. a R om an, and not a m unicipal law (Staatsrecht I I 3 608-609). The fact is that M om m sen does not m ake any distinction be tw een the tw o sets of leges in Festus. In the Staatsrecht I I 3 608 he writes : “praefecti iure dicundo . . . sind, durchaus auf G ru n d von Einzelgesetzen, von dem röm ischen Stadt p rä to r an verschiedenen P un k ten Italiens bestellt w o rd en ” . M om m sen illustrates the ‘Einzelgesetze’ by a reference to Festus (II3 608 n. 4): “legibus praefecti mittebantur u n d n achher: miserat legibus"9. If the leges m entioned in the first instance are the leges comitiales (as Sherw in-W hite agrees), the same m ust also hold w ith respect to F estus’ second m ention of leges. A nd finally, we have Staatsrecht III 583 (com m enting u p o n Liv. 9. 20. 5, reproduced and discussed above, n. 5): “ F ü r Capua ist dies [i.e. the be stow al of the leges] nachweislich bei der E inrichtung selbst geschehen . . . in der W eise, daß, o hne Zweifel auf G ru n d eines röm ischen Volksschlusses, der röm ische P rätor, der den ersten praefectus fü r Capua ernannte, zugleich das Stadtrecht feststellte” . M om m sen regards the p raeto r as em pow ered by a lex comitialis to establish the m unicipal charter (the lex data) and to send a prefect. N o m unicipal charter could on its ow n authority lay dow n in a binding way that the p raeto r send o u t a p refect10. T his could have been done only by a lex, senatus consultum 8 O n the concept of the lex data, see the illum inating studies by G. T ibiletti, “ Leges datae” , estratto from Novissimo Digesto Italiano (T orino, n. d.); “ L ex” , D E 4 (1957) 706-708; and above all “ Sulle ‘L eges’ rom ane” . Studi in onore di P. de Francisci 4 (M ilano 1956) 595ff., esp. 602-625. O n p. 612 he gives the follow ing definition: “ le leggi datae sono norm e provenienti dall’esterno, alla form azione delle quali n o n hanno partecipato gli interessati” . Cf. also p. 608: “ Le leges datae . . . potevano essere leggi o decreti” (this last statem ent does n o t seem to be com pletely satisfactory; w e should rather say that the leges datae could be established by laws or decrees - the leges datae them selves in their capacity as local charters certainly were neither laws nor decrees). 9 Cf. also I I 3 609 n. 1, and 608 n. 5, w here M om m sen lists F estus’ prefectures F undos Form ias etc. as the cities to w hich prefects were sent on the basis of the ‘Einzelgesetze’. 10 T he same m isunderstanding as in Sherw in-W hite also in H . Siber, Römisches Verfassungsrecht (L ahr 1952) 202: the four praefecti Capuam Cumas “ w erden zuerst 318 auf G ru n d einer prätorischen lex data . . . bestellt” , and fu rth er: “ andere P räfekten . . . w erden auf G ru n d v o n leges rogatae oder datae ohne V olksw ahl durch den S tadtprätor ern an n t” . Also T oynbee’s treatm ent of the question is open to criticism . He translates the Festus passage in the follow ing way {Hannibal's Legacy I, O xford 1965, 241 n. 4): “ P rae fecti, instructed [by the praetor urbanus], were sent to these praefecturae annually to adm inister justice th ere” . T he w ord ‘instructed’ renders here F estus’ ‘legibus’, the result being that any n o tio n of a lex, com itial o r m unicipal, com pletely evaporates from the text; mittebantur is dissociated from legibus and com bined im m ediately w ith praefecti, and finally legibus receives as a com plem ent the phrase “ by the praetor urbanus” im ported here w ith the change of the gram m atical construction (and w ith o u t any com pelling justifi145
M is z e ll e n
constitutio principis). O n th e o t h e r h a n d it is t o b e e x p e c t e d th a t th e lo c a l s t a t u t e s h a d praefecti a p p o i n t e d b y t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t ,
(o r
t o ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e e x i s t e n c e o f th e
a n d h a d to c o n t a i n p r o v i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e m ; a g o o d e x a m p l e , u n f o r t u n a t e l y d a t i n g f r o m a la t e r p e r i o d , is p r o v i d e d b y th e
lex Salpensana {cap. 2 4 ) 11.
I t is p e r h a p s n o t a v a in h o p e th a t it s h o u l d b y n o w b e c le a r t o e v e r y o n e th a t t h e in t e r p r e t a t io n a d v a n c e d b y S h e r w in - W h i t e a n d B r u n t la c k s a n y fa c t u a l f o u n d a t i o n . M o m m s e n w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e b e e n p e r p le x e d a n d a s t o n i s h e d t o s e e th e p e c u li a r id e a th a t t h e p r e f e c t s w e r e s e n t o u t t o th e I t a lia n c o m m u n i t i e s o n th e b a s is o f m u n i c ip a l c h a r t e r s n o t o n l y a s c r ib e d t o h i m , b u t a ls o p a r a d e d a s a n e x a m p l e o f h is p e r s p i c a c it y ( “ a s M o m m s e n sa w
c a t i o n ) f r o m lin e 12 . I n w o r d t h i s is n o t F e s t u s ’ t e x t , b u t T o y n b e e ’s. T o y n b e e ’s t r a n s la t i o n o b s c u r e s a n d e l u d e s th e v e r y p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n o f th e le g a l b a s is o f th e a c t i v i t y o f th e
praefecti in I t a ly . T h e r e is n o d i s c u s s i o n o f th e m e a n i n g o f ‘l e g i b u s ’ in th e t w o b o o k s , w h i c h , o n e w o u l d e x p e c t , o u g h t t o h a v e a d d r e s s e d t h e m s e l v e s t o th e p r o b le m : E . M a n n i,
Per la storia dei municipii fino alla guerra sociale ( R o m a 1947 ) 69 f f . , a n d W . S im s h ä u s e r , Iuridici und Munizipalgerichtsbarkeit in Italien ( M ü n c h e n 1973 ) 85 - 1 0 9 . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , c o r r e c t in t e r p r e t a t i o n is g i v e n b y L . L a n g e , Römische Alterthümer I 3 ( B e r li n 18 7 6 ) 9 0 7 : th e u r b a n p r a e to r s e n t o u t th e p r e f e c t s “ e r m ä c h t ig t d u r c h V o l k s b e s c h l ü s s e ” , a n d b y F . d e M a r tin o ,
Storia della costituzione romana II ( r is ta m p a r iv e d u t a , N a p o l i 196 0 ) 1 1 8 :
“ I p r e f e t t i e r a n o . . . n o m i n a t i d a l p r e t o r e R o m a n o , in v ir t ù d i l e g g i ” . S o a ls o J . H e u r g o n ,
Recherches sur l'histoire . . . de Capoue préromaine (P a r is 1942 ) 239 n . 4 : th e a n n u a l p r e f e c tu r e s w e r e e s t a b lis h e d s u c c e s s i v e l y , a n d “ c h a q u e f o i s e n v e r t u d ’u n e l o i p a r t ic u liè r e . . .
legibus d a n s F e s t u s ” . C f. a ls o W . E n s s l i n , “ P r a e f e c t u s ” , R E 2 2 A ( 1954 ) 1 3 0 9 ; E . S a c h e r s , “ P r a e f e c t u s iu r e d i c u n d o ” , ibid. 2 3 8 2 - 3 . 11 I L S 6 0 8 8 ; S. R i c c o b o n o , Fontes iuris Romani antejustiniani I 2 ( F ir e n z e 194 1 ) 2 0 5 ; A . D ’O r s , Epigrafia juridica de la Espana Romana (M a d r id 1953 ) 2 9 0 -2 9 1 ( w i t h a c o m m e n d ’o ù le p lu r ie l
ta r y ).
Addendum S in c e t h is n o t e w a s s u b m i t t e d , t w o
w o r k s d e a li n g w it h R o m a n p r e f e c t u r e s in Ita ly
h a v e a p p e a r e d : E . R a tti, “ I p r a e fe c t i iu r e d i c u n d o e la p r a e fe c t u r a c o m e d i s t i n z i o n e
C S D I R A t t i 6 , 1974 - 7 5 , 2 5 1 - 2 6 4 , a n d H . G a ls t e r e r , Herrschaft u. V er waltung im republikanischen Italien, M ü n c h e n 19 7 6 , 27 - 3 3 . N e i t h e r o f t h e m d is c u s s e s th e
g r o m a t ic a ” ,
m e a n i n g o f ‘l e g i b u s ’ in F e s tu s .
146
13 R O M E , A P H R O D IS IA S THE
GENERA
M IL IT IA E
AND
AND
THE
THE
RES
STATU S
G ESTAE: OF
O C T A V IA N
W h e n in t h e a u t u m n o f 4 4 O c t a v ia n e m b a r k e d o n h i s p e r i l o u s j o u r n e y a s h e ir t o C a e s a r ’s m a n t le h e a n d h i s s o l d i e r s w e r e b r a n d e d a s b r ig a n d s o r e x t o l l e d a s s a v i o u r s o f t h e i r c o u n t r y . W h a t w a s t h e i r le g a l s t a t u s ? M o s t m o d e r n h is t o r ia n s , f a s c in a t e d w i t h n a k e d p o w e r , t a c i t ly d i s m i s s t h i s q u e s t i o n a s u t t e r ly f r i v o l o u s . T h e y a r e f u l l y s a t is f ie d w i t h C ic e r o n ia n e p i t h e t s . O c t a v ia n a n d C ic e r o w e r e n o t . T h e R o m a n d o c t r i n e o f t h e. g e n e r a m i l i t i a e a f f o r d e d O c t a v ia n a c o m f o r t a b l e le g a l n i c h e a t e a c h s t a g e o f h i s c a r e e r . I t a ll o w s u s to c o m p r e h e n d t h e in t r ic a t e m a n o e u v r e s in t h e s e n a t e a t t h e t u r n o f 4 4 a n d 4 3 b . c . ; it a ls o s h e d s li g h t o n t h e c r o w n i n g c o u p o f O c t a v ia n w h e n h e le d I t a ly a s a d u x a g a in s t A n t o n i u s a n d t h e Q u e e n . B u t t h i s a n t i q u a r ia n d o c t r i n e , a t t e s t e d o n l y i n la t e a u t h o r s , c o u l d e a s i ly b e d i s m i s s e d a s a n a r tific ia l c o n s t r u c t fa r r e m o v e d f r o m r e a l li f e . H i s t o r i c a l p u z z l e s li e d o r m a n t a n d i n s o l u b l e u n t i l a s p a r k o f i n s i g h t c r e a t e s a n in s t a n t e n l i g h t e n m e n t . A n d t h e s p a r k c o m e s f r o m A p h r o d is i a s , f r o m t h e n e w d o c u m e n t s p u b l i s h e d in a n e x e m p l a r y w a y b y J o y c e R e y n o ld s , A p h r o d i s i a s a n d R o m e (1 9 8 2 ) . It c o m e s in th e sh a p e o f a n e w p u z z le . D o c u m e n t 9 ( p p . 9 2 - 3 ) c o n t a i n s e x c e r p t s f r o m v a r io u s R o m a n a c t s g r a n t i n g p r i v i l e g e s to P la r a s a /A p h r o d is ia s . L in e s 2 - 4 rea d a s fo llo w s : μ ή τ ε μ η ν ά ρ χ ο ν τ ά τ ι ν α ή ά ν τ ά ρ χ ο ν τ α δ ή μ ο υ ‘Ρ ω μ α ί ω ν ε τ ε ρ ό ν τ έ τ ι ν α είς τ η ν π ό λ ι ν ή καί τ ή ν χ ώ ρ α ν ή κ α ί τ ο ύ ς ö p o u s τ ο ύ ς Τ Τ λ α ρ α σ έω ν κ α ί Ά φ ρ ο δ ε ι σ ι έ ω ν σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ν κ α ί ά ν τ ι σ τ ρ α τ ιώ τ η ν , Ιπ π έα , ε τ ε ρ ό ν τ ι ν α εις π α ρ α χ ε ι μ α σ ί α ν π ρ ό ς α υ τ ο ύ ς δ ί δ ο σ θ α ι μ η δ έ κ α τ α θ έ σ θ α ι κ ελ εύ ε ιν . T h i s c la u s e c o m e s f r o m t h e S . C . d e A p h r o d is i e n s ib u s ( 3 9 B .C .); it r e c u r s in t h e n e w fr a g m e n t o f th is d e c r e e , D o c . 8, lin e s 3 2 - 4 , w h e r e th e s u p p le m e n ts are a ssu r e d b y D o c . 9. T h e e x p r e s s i o n σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ν κ α ί ά ν τ ι σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ν is b a ff lin g . R e y n o l d s t r a n s la t e s i t ( p . 6 2 ) ‘ a s o l d ie r o r a s u b s t i t u t e s o l d ie r ’ o r ( p . 9 3 ) ‘ a n i n f a n t r y m a n o r o n e s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r s u c h ’, a n d s h e c o m m e n t s ( p . 7 8 ) : ‘ T h e m o s t s a t i s f y i n g e x p la n a t io n th a t I c a n p r o p o s e is th a t o f L a w r e n c e K e p p i e , w h o c o m p a r e s it w i t h v i c a r i i ( m il ite s ) in P li n y , E p . 1 0 . 3 0 ’. I n g e n i o u s b u t h a r d ly c o r r e c t , a s a g la n c e a t P l i n y ’s t e x t w i l l s h o w . I n E p . 1 0 . 2 9 P li n y i n f o r m s T r a j a n th a t t w o s l a v e s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d a m o n g tir o n e s·, s h o u l d t h e y b e e x e c u t e d ? T h e y h a d a lr e a d y t a k e n t h e m i li t a r y o a th ( ‘ ia m d ix e r a n t s a c r a m e n t o ’), b u t h a d n o t y e t b e e n p o s t e d t o a u n i t ( ‘ n o n d u m d i s t r i b u t i i n n u m e r o s e r a n t ’) . x T r a j a n r e p li e s ( E p . 1 0 . 3 0 ) th a t t h e la t t e r p o i n t i s o f n o c o n s e q u e n c e f o r t h e y w e r e o b l i g e d t o r e v e a l t h e i r s t a t u s (o r ig o ) at t h e i r e n l i s t m e n t , o n t h e v e r y d a y ‘ q u o p r i m u m p r o b a t i s u n t ’. W h a t d o e s m a t t e r is w h e t h e r ‘ t h e y w e r e v o l u n t e e r s ( v o l u n t a r i i ) o r c o n s c r i p t s ( le c ti) , o r p o s s i b l y o f f e r e d a s s u b s t i t u t e s ( v i c a r i i ) . I f t h e y a r e c o n s c r i p t s , t h e r e c r u i t i n g o f f ic e r w a s a t f a u l t ; i f s u b s t i t u t e s , t h e n t h o s e w h o o f f e r e d t h e m a s s u c h a r e g u i l t y ; b u t i f t h e y v o l u n t e e r e d f o r s e r v i c e , w e ll a w a r e o f t h e i r s t a tu s , th e n th e y w ill h a v e to b e e x e c u te d ’. A c c o r d i n g t o A . N . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , 2 f o l l o w e d b y R e y n o ld s , t h i s is t h e e a r lie s t e v i d e n c e f o r v i c a r i i m il ite s . I n f a c t t h e e a r lie s t m e n t i o n i s in L i v y . H e r e p o r t s ( 2 9 . 1) t h a t in 2 0 5 S c i p i o c o n s c r i p t e d ( le g i t) in S i c i l y o u t o f a ll y o u n g e r m e n (iu n io r e s ) t h r e e h u n d r e d h o r s e m e n , m e n o f h i g h r a n k a n d w e a lt h . B u t w h e n t h e y p r o v e d r e lu c t a n t t o g o w it h h i m to A f r ic a h e r e le a s e d t h e m a ll f r o m t h e i r m i li t a r y o a t h , o n c o n d i t i o n , h o w e v e r , th a t t h e y p r o v id e h o r s e s , a r m a m e n t a n d m i li t a r y t r a i n in g t o t h r e e h u n d r e d v i c a r i i . B u t it w a s n o t t h e c o n s c r i p t e d S i c i l i a n e q u ite s w h o w e r e t o f u r n i s h t h e s e s u b s t i t u t e s : t h e i m p e r a to r h i m s e l f 1 G . R. W atson, The Rom an Soldier (1969), 43, and R. W . D avies, ‘ Joining the R om an A rm y B J 169 (1969), 214, take this phrase to re fe rto rolls o r records. B ut in a fu n d a m e n ta l article J. F . G illiam , ‘ E n ro l m e n t in th e R om an Im perial A rm y Eos 48, 2 ( 1956), 212, perspicaciously observed th a t in numeros distribuere (or per numeros distribuere in T ra ja n ’s
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reply) ‘ is n o t equivalent to in numeros referre ’. In the latter phrase numeri m eans rolls, b u t in th e form er p robably units. T h e tirones, G illiam suggests, ‘ were still at som e recru itin g c en ter and had not yet been divided am ong o r at any rate disp atch ed to u n its ’. 2 The Letters o f P liny. A H istorical and Social Comm entary (1966), 601.
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s u p p lie d th e m . T h e y w e r e th e y o u n g R o m a n v o lu n t e e r s : ‘ th u s th r e e h u n d r e d S ic ilia n s w e r e r e p la c e d b y R o m a n h o r s e m e n w i t h o u t e x p e n s e to th e s t a te A c u r io u s sto r y , v e r y e m b e l l i s h e d , a n d h a r d ly r e l i a b l e .3 I t b e l o n g s t o t h e g e n r e o f s t r a te g e m a ta . B u t it is i n s t r u c t i v e : it p r e s e n t s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f v i c a r i i a s s o m e t h i n g e x o t i c , a lie n t o n o r m a l R o m a n p r a c t i c e .4* T h u s it d o e s n o t le n d a n y s u p p o r t t o R e y n o l d s ’s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . N o r d o e s t h e le t t e r o f T r a j a n . T r a j a n s p e a k s o f t h e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o f r e c r u its v o l u n t a r i i , le c ti, v i c a r i i . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e v i c a r i i s h o u l d h a v e s e r v e d in s p e c i a l u n i t s ; o c c a s i o n a ll y w e h e a r o f th e c o h o r te s v o l u n ta r io r u m ,6 b u t t h e c o h o r te s v i c a r i o r u m a r e n o t o n r e c o r d . O n c e h e s w o r e t h e m i li t a r y o a t h t h e v i c a r i u s w a s a r e g u la r s o l d ie r , m ile s ; h i s le g a l s t a t u s d id n o t d if f e r f r o m t h a t o f h i s c o m p a n i o n s , c o n s c r i p t s o r v o lu n t e e r s . V i c a r i i d is c a r d e d , w h e r e are w e t o t u r n ? ‘ ’Α ν τ ι σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ς is u n iq u e ’, w r it e s R e y n o ld s , ‘ a n d t h e i m p l i e d p r o m i l i t e is a ls o u n k n o w n ’ ( p . 78).® B u t ‘ t h e i m p l i e d p r o m i l i t e ’ is in f a c t q u i t e w e l l k n o w n , t h o u g h n o t f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d . S a ll u s t , H i s t . f r g . in e . 8 M . ( p . 2 0 2 ) , r e a d s : ‘ N e u q u is m i le s n e v e p r o m i l i t e ’, w h i c h f o r m s a s t r ik in g p a r a lle l to μ ή τ ε μ η ν . . . σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ν κ α ί ά ν τ ι σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ν . T h i s f r a g m e n t o f S a ll u s t d id n o t , o f c o u r s e , e s c a p e M o m m s e n ’s a t t e n t io n . H i s c o m m e n t s in S t R 113, 5 7 7 a re w o r t h q u o t i n g . H e a r g u e s th a t as m i li t a r y s e r v i c e ‘ h a s i n p r in c i p le n o t i m e li m i t s ’, s o a ls o ‘ th e p r o r o g a t i o n g e n e r a ll y d i d n o t a p p ly t o t h e s o l d i e r a n d o ff ic e r r a n k ’. A n d h e c o n t i n u e s ( n . 4 ) : ‘ W h e n S a l l u s t . . . d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n m ile s a n d p r o m il ite h e d o e s n o t h a v e i n m i n d t h o s e w h o s e r v e b e y o n d th e s p a c e o f o n e y e a r b u t r a th e r t h o s e w h o s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g a r e n o t a u t h o r i z e d t o s e r v e ’. I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e e x p r e s s i o n p r o m il ite c a n n o t b e e x p la i n e d b y a n a lo g y w i t h p r o c o n su le , p r o p r a e t o r e o r p r o q u a e s to r e . H e n c e p r o m il ite m u s t d e s c r ib e s o m e b o d y ‘ w h o s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g i s n o t a u t h o r i z e d t o s e r v e ’, ‘ d e r e i g e n t l i c h z u d i e n e n n i c h t b e f u g t i s t ’. T h i s s o u n d s m y s t e r io u s , b u t f o r t u n a t e ly M o m m s e n d ir e c t s u s f o r f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n to C ic e r o , d e o ff. I. 36 :
Popilius imperator tenebat provinciam in cuius exercitu Catonis filius tiro militabat. Cum autem Popilio videretur unam dimittere legionem, Catonis quoque filium, qui in eadem legione militabat, dimisit. Sed cum amore pugnandi in exercitu remansisset, Cato ad Popilium scripsit, ut, si eum patitur in exercitu remanere, secundo eum obliget militiae sacramento, quia priore amisso iure cum hostibus pugnare non poterat. M o s t e d it o r s b r a c k e t t h i s p a s s a g e a s e it h e r a n i n t e r p o la t i o n o r C ic e r o ’s o w n e a r lie r v e r s i o n w h i c h h is p o s t h u m o u s a n d p i u s e d i t o r c o u l d n o t b r in g h i m s e l f to e x c i s e . 7 T h i s p a s s a g e is f o l l o w e d b y a n o t h e r o n e o f s i m il a r c o n t e n t , le s s d e t a i l e d b u t s t y l i s t i c a l l y m u c h s u p e r io r (1 . 3 7 ):
Marci quidem Catonis senis est epistula ad Marcum filium, in qua scribit se audisse eum missum factum esse a consule cum in Macedonia bello Persico miles esset. Monet igitur ut caveat ne proelium ineat; negat enim ius esse, qui miles non sit cum hoste pugnare. T h e r e a re s o m e d is c r e p a n c ie s b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o v e r s i o n s , 8 b u t t h e ir le g a l m e s s a g e is i d e n t i c a l : o n l y t h e p e r s o n w h o h a d s w o r n t h e s a c r a m e n tu m is a m ile s. W h e n th e l e g i o n is d i s m i s s e d t h e s o l d ie r s a re a u t o m a t ic a l ly r e le a s e d f r o m t h e i r m i li t a r y o a t h . A p e r s o n w h o in 3 As H . H . Scullard w rites, Scipio’s preparations for his expedition to A frica are ‘ sh ro u d e d in d o u b t ’ (Scipio A fricanus (1970), i n ) . F o r the story itself, see A. Passerini, L e coorti pretorie (1939), 6 ff. * T h e custom o f providing vicarii m ay have come into being du rin g the civil wars, b u t it is do u b tfu l if any conclusions can be draw n from the story in M acrobius 2. 4. 27 (brilliantly elucidated by C. C ichorius, Römische Studien (1922), 28 2 -5 ): ‘ ex clam avit ingenti voce veteranus: at n o n ego, Caesar, p ericlitante te Actiaco bello vicarium quaesivi sed pro te ipse pugnavi ’. 3 O n th e cohortes voluntariorum, see K . K raft, Z u r Rekrutierung der A len und Kohorten an Rhein und Donau (1951), 82-95, who criticizes the idea o f G . L. C heesm an, The A uxilia o f the Roman Im perial A rm y (1914), 65-7, 186-7, th a t the m ajority o f these units
were the cohortes libertinorum. T h e inscription o f the ‘ cap to r o f D ecebalus ’ clearly su p p o rts K ra ft’s view ; cf. M . Speidel, J R S 60 (1970), 151. 8 T h e G reek sense of άντιστρατιώτη? is not in d isp u te: ‘ soldier o f the e n e m y ’, as L S jf duly records. T h e R om an developm ent th u s parallels th at of άντιστράτηγος from ‘ en em y ’s general ’ to ‘ acting com m ander ’ o r ‘ governor ’. B ut ‘ acting soldier ’ does n o t take us very far: see below in the text. 7 cf. C. A tzert in his T e u b n e r edition, pp. x x v m XXIX. 8 In any case C ato will n o t have w ritte n two identical letters, one in 173 w hen his son served as a tiro in L iguria u n d e r the consul M . P opillius L aenas, and the o th er in 168 w hen L icinianus was in the arm y o f A em ilius Paullus and took part in the battle o f Pydna. Cf. D ru m a n n -G ro eb e , Geschichte R om s v, 160-1.
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J. LINDERSKI t h i s s e n s e c e a s e d t o b e a m iles c a n n o t iu re e n g a g e i n c o m b a t , f o r t h e k i l l i n g o f a h o stis w o u l d t h e n a m o u n t t o m u r d e r a n d w o u l d n o t b e a l e g i t i m a t e a c t o f w a r ( c f . P l u t . , Q u a e s t. R o m . 3 9 ) . C o m b i n i n g S a l l u s t a n d C ic e r o , M o m m s e n d e d u c e d t h e s t a t u s o f t h e p e r s o n w h o s t a y e d w i t h t h e a r m y w i t h o u t v a li d sa c ra m e n tu m : h e a c t e d p r o m ilite . M o m m s e n ’s e x p la n a t io n i s b r il li a n t a t f ir s t s i g h t , b u t la m e o n c lo s e r s c r u t i n y . C ic e r o d o e s n o t u s e t h e e x p r e s s i o n p r o m ilite , a n d f o r a v e r y g o o d r e a s o n : t h e p e r s o n w h o w a s n o t u n d e r o a t h w a s n o t a s o l d ie r a t a ll, n e i t h e r m iles n o r p r o m ilite . H e w a s a c iv i li a n . I t i s s u r p r i s i n g t h a t M o m m s e n d id n o t f e e l i n t h i s p la c e a n y n e e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e c o n t e x t in w h i c h S a l l u s t ’s f r a g m e n t w a s r e c o r d e d . A n d t h e c o n t e x t is t h i s : in h i s c o m m e n t a r y a d A e n . 2 . 1 5 7 S e r v i u s a t t e m p t s t o e x p la i n t h e m ilitia e tr i a g e n e r a . A b o u t o n e o f t h e m h e w r it e s : p le r u m q u e e n im ‘ e v o c a ti ’ d ic u n tu r , e t n o n s u n t m ilite s, se d p ro m ilite : u n d e S a llu stiu s ‘ n e u q u is m ile s n e v e p ro m ilite ’, ite m ip se ‘ ab h is o m n e s e v o c a to s e t c e n tu r io n e s ’ (C a t. 5 9 . 3). S h o u l d w e c o n c l u d e h a s t i l y t h a t ά ν τ ι σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ξ = e v o c a tu s ? F e stin a le n te ! F o r w h a t d o e s S e r v i u s u n d e r s t a n d b y t h e t e r m e v o c a tu s ? T o a n s w e r t h i s q u e s t i o n w e h a v e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e g e n e r a m ilitia e . S e r v i u s ’ c o m m e n t s o n A e n . 7 . 6 1 4 a n d 8 . 1 a ls o b e l o n g h e r e . T h e f o r m e r p a s s a g e c o r r e s p o n d s a l m o s t v e r b a t i m to I s i d o r u s , E ty m . 9 . 3 . 5 3 - 5 ; p a r t o f t h e s a m e t r a d i t io n i s e x t a n t in D o n a t u s ’ C o m m e n tu m T e re n ti, E u n . 7 7 2 ( v o i . i , p . 4 3 4 W e s s n e r ) . H e r e i s t h e s y n o p s i s o f t h i s a n t i q u a r ia n t h e o r y o f t h e tr i a g e n e ra
m ilitia e : ( a ) t h e m i l i t i a le g itim a ( 8 . 1 ). I t w a s t h e p l e n a m i l i t i a : i t la s t e d t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s ( 2 . 1 5 7 ; I s i d . ) . 9 T h e s o l d i e r s w e r e s a c r a m e n to r o g a t i ( 2 . 1 5 7 , c f . 8 . 1 ); t h e y t o o k t h e i r o a th i n d i v i d u a l l y ( 8 . 1 ‘ s i n g u l i iu r a b a n t ’ ; 7 . 6 1 4 a n d I s i d . , ‘ iu r a t u n u s q u i s q u e m i l e s ’). T h e y s w o r e ‘ p r o r e p u b li c a s e e s s e f a c t u r o s ’ ( 8 . 1, c f . 2 . 1 5 7 ) a n d ‘ n o n r e c e d e r e , n i s i p r a e c e p t o c o n s u l i s p o s t c o m p l e t a s t i p e n d i a ’ ( 7 . 6 1 4 a n d I s i d . , w h o o m i t s ‘ p r a e c e p t o c o n s u l i s ’). T h e i n d i v i d u a l o a t h a p p e a r s a s t h e m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f t h e m i l i t i a le g itim a : ‘ s a c r a m e n t u m v o c a b a t u r ’ ( 8 . i ) . I n t w o o t h e r p a s s a g e s ( 7 . 6 1 4 a n d I s i d . ) t h e t e r m s a c r a m e n tu m i s u s e d t o u t c o u r t t o d e n o t e t h i s g e n u s o f s e r v i c e . 10 (b ) t h e c o n iu r a tio ( 8 . 1 ; 7 . 6 1 4 a n d I s i d . ) . I t o c c u r s in tu m u ltu , i.e . ‘ I t a l i c o b e l l o e t G a l li c o ( 7 . 6 1 4 ; 8 . i ) q u a n d o v i c i n u m u r b is p e r i c u l u m s i n g u l o s iu r a r e n o n p a t i t u r ( 7 . 6 1 4 a n d I s i d . ; c f. 8 . 1 ), s e d r e p e n t e c o l l i g i t u r m u l t i t u d o ’ ( I s i d . ) . T h e p e r s o n w h o w a s to le a d t h e a r m y ( 8 . 1 : ‘ q u i f u e r a t d u c t u r u s e x e r c i t u m ’, h e n c e n o t n e c e s s a r ily a m a g i s t r a t e ) ‘ p e d it e s e v o c a b a t ’ (a n d e q u it e s ) sa y in g ‘ “ q u i r e m p u b lic a m s a lv a m e s s e v u lt , m e s e q u a t u r ” , e t q u r c o n v e n i s s e n t s i m u l i u r a b a n t : e t d i c e b a t u r is ta m i li t ia c o n iu r a t io ’ ( 8 . 1 ). T h e s o l d ie r s s o a s s e m b l e d w e r e c a ll e d ‘ “ t u m u l t u a r i i ” , h o c e s t q u i a d u n u m m i l i t a b a n t b e l l u m ’ (2 . 1 5 7 )· ( c ) t h e e v o c a t i o ( 8 . 1 ; 7 . 6 1 4 a n d I s i d . ; D o n a t . ) . I t o c c u r s in tu m u ltu (8 . 1 ; D o n a t . ) o r in t h e c a s e o f a s u b itu m b e llu m ( 7 . 6 1 4 a n d I s i d . ) . T h e c o n s u l ( 7 . 6 1 4 a n d I s i d . ) o r d u x ( D o n a t . ; h e n c e a g a in n o t n e c e s s a r ily a m a g i s t r a t e ) ‘ a ll o q u it u r c i v e s ( D o n a t . ) “ q u i r e m p u b lic a m s a lv a m e s s e v u lt m e s e q u a tu r ” ’ (7 . 6 1 4 a n d I s id .; c f. D o n a t .) . T h e e v o c a ti w e r e n o t m il ite s b u t o n l y p r o m i l i t e ( 2 . 1 5 7 ) ; o n t h e o t h e r h a n d I s i d . r e p o r t s t h a t ‘ n o n s o l u m m i l e s s e d e t c e t e r i e v o c a n t u r ’. T o a c h ie v e t h i s ‘ a d d iv e r s a lo c a d iv e r s i p r o p t e r c o g e n d o s m i t t e b a n t u r e x e r c i t u s ’ ( 8 . 1 : a c le a r a ll u s i o n t o t h e c o n q u is ito r e s ). Q u i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a ll y n o o a th is m e n t io n e d . I t d o e s n o t r e q u ir e a n y p e r s p i c a c i t y t o s e e t h a t o u r a n t iq u a r ia n s d i s t i n g u i s h e d r a th e r s u c c e s s f u l l y b e t w e e n t h e m ilitia le g itim a a n d t h e t w o o t h e r g e n e ra , b u t f a i le d m i s e r a b ly to m a k e c le a r w h a t r e a lly d if f e r e n t i a t e d c o n iu ra tio f r o m e v o c a tio . T h e i r m o d e r n c o l l e a g u e s d id n o t fa r e m u c h b e t t e r : M o m m s e n t h r i c e r e s h u f f le d t h e i n g r e d i e n t s o f t h i s a n t iq u a r ia n p u z z l e w i t h o u t r e a lly s o l v i n g i t ; 11 a n d t h r e e m o r e p e r m u t 10 cf. B ell. A le x. 56. 4 ; T ac ., A n n . 16. 13. 3; H ist. i. 5. 1; F lor., 1. 22. 23; Iu v ., 16. 35-6. 11Römische Forschungen ιι (1879), 2 4 7 -5 7 ; Eph. E p. 5 (1885), 142-5 = Ges. Sehr, v ili, 4 4 6 -9 ; S t R i3 (1887), 695-6.
“ Clearly a later a ddition reflecting im perial practice. R . E. S m ith , Service in the P ost-M arian Rom an A rm y (1958), 29 -3 3 , rightly observes th a t u ntil A u g u stu s th e len g th o f service was n o t expli citly specified an d the sacramentum c ontained no reference to it.
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a t i o n s w e r e o f f e r e d b y J o h a n n S c h m i d t , 12 S a lv a t o r e T o n d o 13 a n d J o c h e n B l e i c k e n .14 B le i c k e n p e r s p i c a c io u s l y r e c o g n iz e d t w o a n d o n ly t w o f o r m s o f t h e l e v y : t h e r e g u la r m i l i t i a b a s e d o n d ile c tu s a n d t h e in d i v id u a l o a t h , s a c r a m e n tu m ; a n d t h e ir r e g u la r c o n iu r a tio , t h e v o lu n t a r y a n d j o i n t o a t h o f t h o s e w h o b a n d e d t o g e t h e r t o f o l l o w t h e c a ll ‘ t o s a v e th e r e p u b lic B u t h i s t r e a t m e n t o f e v o c a t io w a s n o t e n t i r e ly s a t is f a c t o r y : t h e s c r a p s ( ‘ F e t z e n ’) o f S a ll u s t i n S e r v iu s , a d A e n . 2 . 1 5 7 w o u l d r e fe r t o t h e la t e r e p u b li c a n e v o c a t io , ‘ t h e r e c a l l i n g o f v e t e r a n s t o a c t iv e s e r v ic e T h i s is t r u e o f C a t . 5 9 . 2 - 3 , b u t in t h i s p a s s a g e S a ll u s t d o e s n o t c h a r a c t e r iz e t h e e v o c a t i a s p r o m ilite , a n d i n th e f r a g m e n t f r o m t h e H is to r ie s , w h i l e j u x t a p o s i n g m ile s a n d p r o m ilite , h e d o e s n o t m e n t i o n t h e e v o c a t i a t a ll. I t i s t h e a n t iq u a r ia n s w h o a r b it r a r ily c o n n e c t e d t h e s e t w o s e p a r a t e e n u n c ia t io n s . I t is a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e y c o n f u s e d t h e la t e r e p u b li c a n e v o c a t io o f v e t e r a n s w it h t h e o ld i n s t i t u t i o n o f c o n iu r a tio . B u t h o w d id t h i s c o n f u s i o n a r is e ? N o w s a c r a m e n tu m is a f o r m o f o a t h , a n d c o n iu r a tio , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , is a n o t h e r f o r m o f o a t h , a n d n o t a f o r m o f le v y . T h e s a c r a m e n tu m f o l l o w s u p o n d ile c t u s ,15 a n d t h e c o n iu r a tio u p o n t h e c a ll t o a r m s ‘ Q u i r e m p u b l i c a m s a lv a m . . . ’. T h e d u x ( w h e t h e r a p r i v a t u s o r a m a g is t r a t e ) v o c a t o r e v o c a t t h e c it iz e n s t o d e f e n d t h e r e p u b li c . W h a t w a s t h e n a m e o f t h i s c a ll ? E v o c a t i o , c e r t a in ly . T h e m o s t c h a r a c t e r is t ic e l e m e n t o f e v o c a t io , a n d o n e t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d i t a s a m i l i t i a , w a s t h e j o i n t o a t h , t h e c o n iu r a tio . T h e e v o c a t i a s s e m b l e , a n d iu r a n t o r c o n iu r a n t. W h a t d id t h e y s w e a r ? T h e y s w o r e t o f o l l o w t h e ir le a d e r a d b e llu m u n u m , th e w a r a t h a n d . A t t h e e n d o f t h e w a r t h e y h a d t o b e a u t o m a t ic a l ly d i s m i s s e d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n t h e f o r m u la o f s a c r a m e n tu m t h e l e n g t h o f s e r v i c e w a s n o t s p e c i f ie d ; t h e d is m is s a l o f t h e s o l d i e r s w a s in t h e fr e e a r b it r iu m o f t h e s e n a t e a n d t h e c o m m a n d e r .16 T h e s a c r a m e n tu m c o u l d b e s w o r n o n l y in t h e v e r b a o f t h e le g i t i m a t e im p e r iu m - h o l d e r ; 17 t h e o a th o f e v o c a t io a ls o i n t h e v e r b a o f a d u x p r i v a t u s . T h o s e w h o ‘ s a c r a m e n t o d i x e r u n t ’ w e r e r e g u la r s o l d ie r s , m ilite s ; t h o s e w h o j o i n e d i n a m ilit a r y c o n iu r a tio s e r v e d p r o m ilite . N o w , j u s t a s s a c r a m e n tu m w a s o c c a s i o n a ll y u s e d a s t h e c o d e - w o r d f o r t h e r e g u la r s e r v i c e , s o a ls o e v o c a t io r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e f o r m o f t h e o a t h it s o w n c o d e - w o r d , c o n iu r a tio . I n f a c t i n it s o r ig in a l s e n s e t h e e v o c a t io l i v e d o n in t h e a n t iq u a r ia n t r a d i t io n o n l y , b u t t h e a n t iq u a r ia n s s p l i t t h e e v o c a t i o / c o n iu r a tio in t o t w o s e p a r a t e ( b u t h a r d ly d is t in g u i s h a b l e ) f o r m s o f t u m u lt u a r y l e v y . T h e o a th t h e y a s s i g n e d , q u it e n a t u r a lly , t o t h e c o n iu r a tio . T h u s w h e n t h e c o n iu r a tio g a in e d it s a n t iq u a r ia n i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d a s c e n d a n c y , t h e e v o c a t io w a s c o n s i g n e d t o a s h a d o w y a n d u n c e r t a i n e x i s t e n c e . N e x t t h e a n t i q u a r ia n s c o n f o u n d e d t h i s d e n u d e d , o a t h l e s s e v o c a t io w i t h t h e e v o c a t io o f v e t e r a n s . T h e i r m o d e r n s u c c e s s o r s t o o k t h i s f a l s e c o i n f o r s o l i d g o l d a n d c o n c l u d e d th a t t h e e v o c a t i, t h e p ic k e d s o l d i e r s o f t h e t r i u m v ir a l a r m ie s , w e r e b o u n d b y n o m i li t a r y o a t h .18 B u t a n o a t h l e s s m ile s is a n i m p o s s i b il it y . A g l o s s ( C G L v , 1 9 5 , 1 5 ) e x p la i n s t h e e v o c a t i a s ‘ q u i m i li t a n t s i n e s a c r a m e n t o ’. T h e la c k o f s a c r a m e n tu m p r e s u p p o s e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n o t h e r o a t h , t h e o a t h o f c o n iu r a tio . T h e I t a ly o f t h e c iv i l w a r s f r o m M a r iu s to A c t i u m w a s f ille d w it h ir r e g u la r a r m ie s r a is e d w i t h o u t e x p r e s s a u t h o r i z a t io n b y t h e s e n a t e o r t h e a s s e m b ly , a n d t h u s e n j o y i n g a t b e s t t h e a m b i g u o u s s t a t u s o f e v o c a t i / c o n iu r a ti. I t w a s a ls o f ille d w i t h t h e e v o c a t i, t h e v e t e r a n s 12 ‘ D ie E v o c a ti’, Hermes 14 (1879), 322-31. sacramentum militiae nell’am biente culturale rom ano-italico ’, S D H I 29 (1963), 1-25. 14 ‘ C oniuratio ’, Jahrb. f . N um ism atik u. Geldgeschichte 13 (1963), 51-70. 15 O n dilectus, see the brilliant exposition by P. A. B ru n t, Ita lia n M anpower (1971), 625-44. B ut cf. also the objections by E. Raw son, P B S R 39 (1971), Ϊ5 ff. u It is im p o rtan t to keep ap art the length of the legal obligation to serve and the length o f the actual service. O nly the soldiers whose stipendia were emerita o r confecta had a legal claim to a missio; cf. L ivy 34. 56. 9; 39. 19. 4 ; 39. 38. 12; 40. 35. i i ; 43. 14. 9, and the passages adduced by S m ith, Service, 35 n. 3, whose illum inating discussion (27 ff.) dispersed m any com m on m isconceptions. See also B runt, J R S 52 (1962), 8 0 -2 ; M anpower, 399 ff. ; J. H arm and, L ’armée et le Soldat d Rome de io y à 50 avant notre ère (1967), 245 ff. T h e idea o f the tw enty legitima stipendia in the late R epublic has no source authority.
17 A nd m oreover this imperium-h o ld er had to be a uthorized by the senate (or the people) to hold the levy. M om m sen believed ( S t R I3, 119) th a t the m agistrate cum imperio did n o t need any perm ission from the senate for dilectus, b u t see the convincing critique o f th is theory by B runt, Z P E 13(1974), 162 ff. T h e an tiquarians connect coniuratio w ith tumultus, b u t in the annalistic tradition tu m u ltu ary levies are as a rule o rdered by the senate, an d the milites tum ultuarii are often sacramento rogati, cf. esp. L ivy 32. 26. 10-12; 40. 26. 7; 41. 5. i i (in conjunction w ith 41. 5 .4 ). W e can p u t forth the follow ing schem e: the regular dilectus was always accom panied by sacramentum·, the tu m u ltu ary dilectus was accom panied by a sacramentum w hen it was conducted on express orders from the senate by a m agistrate cum imperio. T h e coniuratio com es into the picture w hen a m agistrate acted on his own initiative o r w hen the dux was a privatus. 18 cf. O. Fiebiger. R E 6 (1909), 1146; A. N eum ann, Der Kleine P auly 2 (1975), 471.
13 ‘ II
150
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r e c a l le d t o t h e r a n k s . T h e s e t w o c a t e g o r i e s , m o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t , c o i n c i d e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r , f o r it w a s t h e v e t e r a n i to w h o m t h e c a ll t o s a v e t h e r e p u b l i c ( a n d p r o m o t e a le a d e r ) w a s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y a d d r e s s e d . T h i s is t h e fo r ts a n d o r ig o o f a n c ie n t a n d m o d e r n c o n f u s io n . B u t v e r b a l a n d le g a l p u z z l e s r e m a in b a r r e n u n l e s s im p l a n t e d in t h e s o i l o f h is t o r y . A n d t h e r e is n o r ic h e r o r d a r k e r s o i l t h a n t h a t f r o m w h i c h O c t a v ia n s p r a n g . B u t w h i l e t h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e R e s G e s t a e , ‘ e x e r c i t u m p r iv a t o c o n s i l i o e t p r iv a t a im p e n s a c o m p a r a v i ’, h a s e n j o y e d a ll s c h o l a r ly a t t e n t io n , f e w q u e s t i o n s h a v e b e e n a s k e d a b o u t t h e s t a t u s o f O c t a v i a n ’s f o l l o w e r s . I n O c t o b e r 4 4 O c t a v ia n v i s i t e d t h e c o l o n i e s o f v e t e r a n s a t C a la tia a n d C a s i l i n u m a n d w o n t h e m o v e r b y p r o m i s i n g f iv e h u n d r e d d e n a r ii a p ie c e t o t h o s e w h o w o u l d j o i n h i m . 12*19 E a r ly in N o v e m b e r h e s t e p p e d fo r w a r d a s d u x p r i v a t u s a n d r a is e d t h e s t a n d a r d o f e v o c a t i o .20 H e a s s e m b l e d a t C a p u a h is f o l lo w e r s f r o m C a s il in u m , C a la tia , a n d o t h e r p la c e s in C a m p a n ia . H e d i v i d e d t h e m i n t o c e n t u r i e s , 21 a n d t h e y u n d o u b t e d l y s w o r e b y c e n t u r i e s 22 a j o i n t o a t h . A n d h e p a id o u t t h e p r o m i s e d m o n e y . N o t c o u n t i n g t h e m o n e y , t h e s e a r e a ll t h e t r a d i t io n a l a c t s o f e v o c a t i o / c o n iu r a tio , t h e a s s e m b l i n g ‘ in f o r m a m i u s t i e x e r c i t u s ’ ( c f . V e i l . 2 . 6 1 . 1 - 2 ) . C a s s i u s D i o ( 4 5 . 1 2 . 3 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e v e t e r a n s w h o in 4 4 a n s w e r e d O c t a v i a n ’s c a ll a s τ ό τ ώ ν ή ο υ ο κ ά τ ω ν σ ύ σ τ η μ α . H e a ls o a v e r s ( 5 5 . 2 4 . 8 ) t h a t u n d e r t h e e m p i r e t h e e v o c a t i f o r m e d a s e p a r a t e c o r p s ( t h i s is c o r r e c t ) , a n d th a t t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n g o e s b a c k t o t h e t i m e w h e n A u g u s t u s s u m m o n e d t o a r m s t h e f o r m e r s o l d ie r s o f C a e s a r . H e r e C a s s i u s D i o is g u i l t y o f a g r a v e b u t v e n ia l in a c c u r a c y . H e c o n f u s e d t h e im p e r ia l e v o c a t i 23 w i t h t h e r e p u b li c a n e m e r g e n c y s o l d ie r s . T h e f o l l o w e r s o f O c t a v ia n w e r e t h e e v o c a t i in b o t h s e n s e s o f t h e w o r d : t h e v e t e r a n s w h o r e j o i n e d t h e r a n k s a n d t h e c o n iu r a ti w h o b a n d e d t o g e t h e r t o d e f e n d t h e r e p u b li c . T h e a r m y le d b y a d u x p r i v a t u s c o u l d n o t b e b o u n d b y s a c r a m e n tu m . W h e n th e ‘ m i l i t e s v e t e r a n i q u i . . . p r o r e p u b li c a a r m a c e p e r a n t v o le b a n t s ib i ab il lo im p e r a r i ’, a n d w h e n t h e ‘ le g i o M a r t ia e t l e g i o q u a r ta ita s e c o n t u l e r a n t a d a u c t o r i t a t e m s e n a t u s . . . u t d e p o s c e r e n t im p e r a t o r e m e t d u c e m C . C a e s a r e m ’ ( C i c ., P h i l. 1 1 . 2 0 ) , t h e y m u s t h a v e s w o r n s o m e s o r t o f o a t h o f a ll e g ia n c e t o t h e r e p u b l i c a n d O c t a v ia n , b u t w h a t e v e r t h e y c a lle d i t , f o r m a l l y it w a s a p r iv a t e c o m p a c t o n ly . T h e y f o r m e d a c o n iu r a tio . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e i r s u c c e s s t h e y w o u l d b e b r a n d e d a s b r ig a n d s o r p r a is e d a s c o u r a g e o u s c it iz e n s . O f c o u r s e t h e y a c t e d ‘ o p t i m o in r e m p u b l i c a m c o n s e n s u ’ ( C i c . , P h i l. 5. 4 6 ; c f. 3 . 7 , 3 1 , 3 8 ) ; a d e f t p h r a s e , fo r c o n se n su s h a s a n o b l e r in g a n d a v o id s t h e h a l l o w e d b u t s i n i s t e r i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c o n iu r a tio ,24 T o l e g a l i z e t h e i r p o s i t i o n , o n 1 J a n u a r y C ic e r o m o v e d a d e c r e e d e e x e r c itu C a e s a r is ( P h i l . 5 . 5 3 ) . I n h is m o t i o n h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d c a r e f u l ly b e t w e e n t h e m ilite s v e t e r a n i , w h o f o l l o w e d t h e a u c to r i ta s o f ( t h e y o u n g ) C a e s a r ( o b s e r v e th a t t h e y w e r e c iv i li a n s w h e n t h e y j o i n e d O c t a v ia n ) a n d t h e L e g i o M a r t ia , L e g i o q u a r ta a n d t h e s o l d ie r s ‘ o f t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r t y - f i f t h le g i o n s w h o j o i n e d t h e c o n s u l s C . P a n s a a n d A . H i r t i u s a n d g a v e in t h e ir n a m e s ’. I n C i c e r o ’s d e c r e e t h e r e is a r e m a r k a b le p r o v i s i o n : ‘ e a s q u e l e g i o n e s b e l l o c o n f e c t o m i s s a s fie r i p la c e r e ’ ; a s i m il a r p r o v i s i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e m ilite s v e t e r a n i is c o n s p i c u o u s l y a b s e n t . A p p a r e n t l y t h e y d id n o t n e e d a n y f o r m a l m is sio . T h i s is c o r r e c t : t h e r e w a s n o f o r m a l r e le a s e f o r c o n iu r a ti·, t h e p r e s u m p t i o n w a s th a t t h e y w o u l d a u t o m a t ic a l ly b e d i s m i s s e d b e llo c o n f e c to ,25* T h u s C ic e r o d r a w s a li n e b e t w e e n t h o s e s o l d ie r s w h o w e r e Bailey’s ren d erin g is exem plary (Cicero’s Letters to A tticus vi, 189): ‘ h e ’s . . . form ing com panies at C apua and paying out bou n ties ’. 22 cf. L ivy 22. 28. I : ‘ in te r sese decu riati equites, centuriati pedites con iu rab an t C aes., B C i. 76. 3: ‘ centuriarim p roducti m ilites idem iu ran t ’. 23 O n the evocati u n d e r the em pire, in a d d itio n to the w orks of M om m sen, S chm idt and Fiebiger q u o ted in notes 11, 12, and 18, see A. v. D om aszew ski, Die Rangordnung des römischen Heeres (1908; 2nd ed. by B. D obson, 1967), 7 5 -8 ; M . D u rry , Les cohortes prétoriennes (1938), 117-26; E. Birley, Z P E 43 (1981), 25-9. 21 cf. R. Sym e, Rom an Revolution, 160-1; J. H elleguarc’h, Le vocabulaire latin des relations et des partis politiques sous la republique (1963), 95-7, 123-5. 26 B ru n t, J R S 52 (1962), 81, reads (th ro u g h a lapsus calami) ‘ bello confectae ’ (sc. legiones), w hich of course affected his argum ent.
12 F o r sources and discussion, see H . B oterm ann, Die Soldaten und die römische P olitik in der Zeit von Caesars Tod bis zu r Begründung des zweiten T rium virats (1968), 36 ff. 20 A p p ian (B C 3. 40) re p o rts th at th e veterans collected by O ctavian in C am pania m arched ύφ' ivi σημΕίω, u n d e r one vexillum : a fair description o f a manus tumultuaria. 21 O n 4 N o v e m b er 44 C icero w rote (A tt. 16. 9): O ctavian ‘ rem gerit palam , cen tu ria t C apuae, din u m erat A . Alföldi, O ktavians A ufstieg zu r M acht (1976), 108 n. 401, m aintains th a t 1 cen tu ria t C apuae ’ does n o t re fe r to the form ation of m ilitary u n its at all: ‘ C en tu ria re u n d dinum erare sind A usdrücke d e r stad trö m isch en W ahlb estechung T h is is true of decuriatio (cf. J. L inderski, Hermes 89 (1961), 106 ff.), b u t centuriare is not a ttested in this sense. T h e explanation in O L D (s.v. ‘ d in u m e ro ’): he ‘ is giving th e soldiers th e ir pay ’ is m arre d by ‘ pay ’, w hich introduces a w rong em phasis. D . R. Shackleton
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79
sub Sacramento a n d t h o s e w h o w e r e n o t. T h e fo r m e r s o ld ie r s o f A n t o n iu s C ic e r o a p p a r e n tly r e g a r d e d as b o u n d b y th e ir sacramentum to th e r e p u b lic , a n d th u s th e ir o a th as s till v a lid . I n fa c t t h e fo r m u la o f sacramentum s e e m s to h a v e c o n ta in e d th e p h r a se ‘ p r o r e p u b lic a se e s s e fa c tu r o s ’ ( S e r v ., ad Aen. 8 . i ) . B u t it a lso c o n ta in e d th e sa c r e d w o r d s ‘ s e iu ssu c o n s u lu m c o n v e n tu r o s n e q u e in iu s s u a b itu r o s ’ ( L iv y 3 . 2 0 . 3 ; 2 2 . 3 8 . 3 ), w h ic h is w h a t th e y d id w h e n th e y le ft A n t o n iu s a n d e m b r a c e d O c ta v ia n . N o p r o b le m : t h e y d id n o t a b a n d o n a c o n s u l; th e y a b a n d o n e d a n e n e m y o f th e sta te . ‘ lu r e la u d a n t u r ’ ( C ic ., Phil. 5 . 3 - 4 ; c f. 4 . 3 - 6 ; 1 2 . 8 ). W h e n t h e fa te fu l y ea r o f th e tw o c o n s u ls w h o fe ll in b a ttle b e g a n , th e evocati o f O c ta v ia n c e a s e d to b e a p r iv a te a rm y , b u t d id n o t a u to m a tic a lly b e c o m e a r e g u la r o n e : th e y w e r e n o w t h e e m e r g e n c y so ld ie r s , t h e coniurati in th e se r v ic e o f th e r e p u b lic . O n 2 J a n u a r y 4 3 th e ir dux r e c e iv e d fr o m th e se n a te th e c o m m a n d pro praetore', 26 a n d h is dies imperii w a s 7 J a n u a r y , w h e n h e a s s u m e d th e fasces. I t is lo g ic a l to s u p p o s e th a t o n th is d a y th e so ld ie r s w h o r e m a in e d u n d e r O c ta v ia n ’s c o m m a n d ( th e F o u r th a n d th e M a r tia n le g io n s w e r e p r o b a b ly ta k e n o v e r b y H ir tiu s 27) sw o r e th e sacramentum in h is verba ; a n d it is n o t im p la u s ib le th a t t h e v e te r a n s a n d th e n e w r e c r u its w e r e o r g a n iz e d as th e n o w fo r m a lly r e c o n s t it u t e d s e v e n th a n d e ig h t h le g io n s . 28 T h e v e te r a n s o b v io u s ly r e ta in e d th e ir q u a lity o f evocati, b u t w e r e n o w re g u la r s o ld ie r s : th e y b e g a n a n e w r o u n d o f militia legitima. R e p e t it io n ju s tifie s a n d p e r fe c ts ille g a lity . N o t fo r n o th in g d id C ic e r o h o ld u p fo r t h e se n a te a n d O c ta v ia n th e e x a m p le o f P o m p e y , t h e o r ig in a l adulescentulus carnifex·. ‘ g rea t h o n o u r s w e r e p a id to C n . P o m p e iu s t h o u g h h e w a s a y o u n g m a n , a n d in d e e d r ig h tly ; fo r h e c a m e to th e a ssista n c e o f th e sta te ’ (Phil. 5 . 4 3 ). H e a s s e m b le d an a rm y o f v o lu n te e r s ; 29 t e c h n ic a lly th e y w e r e th e coniurati a n d h e a dux privatus. I n 3 2 B .c. O c ta v ia n r e p e a te d h is ea r ly s te p s o n a g r a n d sc a le . It w a s n o w n o t m e r e ly th e s o ld ie r s o f th e F o u r th a n d th e M a r tia n le g io n s w h o ‘ d e p o s c e r e n t im p e r a to r e m et d u c e m C . C a e sa r e m ’, b u t ‘ to ta Ita lia ’. W h ic h s t u d e n t o f t h e Res Gestae h a s n o t p o n d e r e d o v e r t h e s e t w o c h a p te r s:
Milia civium Roma[no]rum [sub] sacramento meo fuerunt circiter [quingen]ta. ( 3 . 3 ). Iuravit in mea verba tota Italia sponte sua, et me be[lli] quo vici ad Actium ducem depoposcit; juraverunt in eadem ver[ba provin]ciae Galliae, Hispaniae, Africa, Sicilia, Sardinia. Qui [sub signis meis tum] militaverint, fuerunt senatores plures quam DCC, in ii[s qui vel antea vel pos]tea consules facti sunt ad eum diem, quo scripta su[nt haec, LXXXIII, sacerdo]tes ci[rc]iter CLXX (25· 2-3)· T h i s is n o t th e p la c e fo r d is s e c t in g th e o p in io n s a n d in te r p r e ta tio n s o f K r o m a y e r , V. P r e m e r ste in ; S y m e , H e r r m a n n a n d o f sc o r e s o f o th e r s c h o la r s; 30 I w is h m e r e ly to p o in t o u t th a t th e s e p a ssa g e s m a k e p e r fe c t s e n s e a n d fin d a c o h e r e n t e x p la n a tio n w it h in th e d o c tr in e o f t h e genera militiae. I n th e first p a ssa g e w e d eal w ith t h e r e g u la r m ilita r y o a th , t h e sacramentum. A s th e r e is n o m e n tio n o f sacramentum in t h e o th e r p a ssa g e , a n d th e c o n te x t is u n m is ta k a b ly m ilita r y , w e are th e r e in th e p r e s e n c e o f a m ilita r y o a th o f a d iffe r e n t so r t. W e k n o w o f o n ly o n e s u c h o th e r o a th , th e o a th o f coniuratio. N o w turare in verba a p p e a rs in L iv y as a v ir tu a l s y n o n y m o f sacramentum, b u t it is im p o r ta n t to n o te th a t th is v e r y m e a n in g ca n in each in s ta n c e b e a sc e r ta in e d o n ly fr o m th e c o n t e x t . 31 I n th e p h r a se it s e lf th e r e is n o th in g th a t 28 P. A . B ru n t and J. M . M oore, Res Gestae D ivi A ugusti (1967), 38-9, o p t for i January, b u t see the discussion by P. Stein, Die Senatssitzungen der ciceronischen Zeit (D iss. M ü n ster, 1930), 80-3. 27 A p p ., B C 3. 65; cf. Cic., Phil. 14. 2 6 -7 ; Fam. t o . 30. i ; i t . 19. I . 28 B oterm ann, D ie Soldaten, 42, 2 0 2-3; B runt, M anpower, 481-2. 28 L ivy, Per. 85; P lut., Pomp. 6. 3-4. 20 J. K rom ayer, D ie rechtliche Begründung des P rinzipats (1888), 16 ff.; Sym e, Rom. R ev., 284 ff.; A. V. P rem erstein, Vom Werden und Wesen des P rinzipats (A bh. M ü n ch ., 1937), 36 ff. ; P. H errm ann, Der römische Kaisereid (1969), 78 ff. (cf. J. Briscoe, C R 21 (1971), 2 60-3); B ru n t-M o o re (above, n. 26),
6 7 -8 ; V. Fadinger, Die Begründung des Prinzipats (1969), 18 ff.; H . Benario, Chiron 5 (1975), 301-9. 31 Livy 2. 32. 1; 3. 20. 3 -5. See also 28. 29. 12, w here the phrase in verba turare refers (as follows from 28. 27. 4 and 12) to the renew al o f sacramentum. T h e turare in verba and dilectus'. 6. 2. 6; 22. 11. 9. Cf. also 7. 16. 8; 45. 2. 10. A t 22. 53. 12 the phrase does not refer to sacramentum, b u t to an oath of the type ‘ u t victor revertar ’, and in four o th er passages it appears in a n o n-m ilitary context (6. 22. 7; 7. 5. 5; 32. 5· 4 ; 41. 15. 11). Cf. H e rrm a n n , (above, n. 30), 42 n. 75; 81 n. 89. O n T ac ., A n n . 1. 7. 2 (the oath in verba Tiberii Caesaris), see the judicious rem arks by F. R. D . G oodyear, The A nnals o f Tacitus I (1972), 138-9.
8o
THE GENERA MILITIAE AND THE STATUS OF OCTAVIAN
w o u ld c o n n e c t it e x c lu s iv e ly w it h sa cra m en tu m . T h e p e r s o n w h o is sa cra m en to ro g a tu s a n d t h e p e r s o n w h o j o in s in a m ilita r y coniuratio b o th sw e a r to f o llo w th e ir c o m m a n d e r s . B u t t h e sa cra m en tu m p r e s u p p o s e s a g e n e r a l o b lig a tio n to m ilita r y s e r v ic e ; it is c o n n e c t e d w ith t h e dilectu s. I t s f u n c t io n w a s to tr a n sfo r m t h is g e n e r a l o b lig a tio n to se r v e in t o c o n c r e te m ilita r y s e r v ic e . A lt h o u g h it c o u ld b e ta k e n v o lu n ta r ily , it w a s n o t a v o lu n ta r y o a th . T h e c o n s c r ip t c o u ld n o t r e fu s e to sw e a r it ; i f h e d id h e w a s s e v e r e ly p u n is h e d (c f. L iv y 4 . 5 3 . 9 ). I n th e ir c a p a c ity as m ilite s t h e c itiz e n s h a d n o in flu e n c e u p o n th e c h o ic e o f th e ir c o m m a n d e r s ; th is c h o ic e w a s r e s e r v e d fo r th e m o n ly in d ir e c t ly , in th e ir e a r lie r h y p o s ta s is as c itiz e n v o te r s, w h e n t h e y c a s t th e ir v o t e s at t h e c o n s u la r o r p r a e to r ia n e le c tio n s (c f. L iv y 2 4 . 8 . 1 9 ). In a w o r d th e sa cra m en tu m p r e s u p p o s e s an im p e riu m -h o ìà & t in w h o s e verba it w a s s w o r n , b u t in th is c h a p te r A u g u s t u s is c o n s p ic u o u s ly r e tic e n t a b o u t h is o ffic ia l p o s it io n . T h e im p eriu m , s o p r o m in e n t ly d is p la y e d at t h e o u ts e t o f t h e R e s G estae, h e r e r e c e iv e s n o m e n tio n . O n th e o th e r h a n d , t h e o a th o f evocatiojc o n iu ra tio w a s f o r m a lly a v o lu n ta r y a n d , in th e c a s e o f a d u x p r iv a tu s , le g a lly c o n s t it u t iv e o a th : it e s ta b lis h e d th e le a d e r a n d h is f o llo w e r s as th e b o n a fid e sa v io u r s o f t h e r e p u b lic . A c o n iu ra tio n e e d n o t h a v e b e e n a n ille g a l o r— to u s e a m o r e a m b ig u o u s a n d h e n c e a m o r e a p p r o p r ia te w o r d — e x tr a -le g a l a ffa ir; it c o u ld b e in itia te d b y a c o m p e t e n t m a g istr a te o r t h e s e n a te . I n 5 2 B.C., a fte r t h e d e a th o f P . C lo d iu s , t h e s e n a te d e c r e e d , le s t t h e u r b a n r io ts sp r e a d th r o u g h o u t I ta ly , ‘ u t o m n e s iu n io r e s I ta lia e c o n iu r a r e n t ’ (C a e s ., B G 7 . 1 ). H o w th is w a s a c c o m p lis h e d w e d o n o t k n o w , b u t tw o d e c a d e s la ter , as w e g a th e r fr o m S u e to n iu s {A u g . 1 7 . 2 ), t h e coniurationes (th is t im e o f to ta Ita lia , a n d h e n c e , m ilita r ily s p e a k in g , o f a ll iuniores a n d seniores ) w e r e o r g a n iz e d lo c a lly in ea c h c o m m u n it y o f I ta ly : A u g u s t u s ‘ B o n o n ie n s ib u s q u o q u e p u b lic e , q u o d in A n t o n io r u m c lie n te la a n tiq u itu s er a n t, g r a tia m f e c it c o n iu r a n d i c u m to ta Ita lia p r o p a r tib u s s u is ’ . T h e c o n tr o v e r s y w h e th e r t h e o a th o f 3 2 w a s a T re u e id o r a m ilita r y o a th a p p e a r s b a r r e n : e v e r y m ilita r y o a th w a s a n o a th o f a lle g ia n c e as w e ll. O n e t h in g , h o w e v e r , is c lea r : t h e o a th o f 3 2 w a s n o t a n o a th o f a lle g ia n c e in t h e s e n s e o f th e la te r K a isereid e. T h e im p e r ia l o a th s o f a lle g ia n c e e x p r e s s e d t h e p e r p e tu a l a lle g ia n c e o f t h e p o p u la t io n to t h e p r in c e p s a n d im p e r a to r . O n t h e o th e r h a n d , t h e m e n o f I t a ly a n d t h e w e s te r n p r o v in c e s s w o r e in 3 2 th e ir a lle g ia n c e to O c ta v ia n s o le ly in h is c a p a c ity as d u x in t h e w a r at h a n d ; a d bellum u n u m , as a R o m a n c o n s t it u t io n a l e x p e r t w o u ld h a v e d e s c r ib e d it. T h e e n d o f th e w a r w o u ld m ark t h e e n d o f th e ir o b lig a tio n . A s t h e y d id n o t sw e a r t h e sa cra m en tu m , b u t o n ly t h e ius iu ra n d u m o f a coniuratio, te c h n ic a lly t h e y w e r e n o t m ilites·, to u s e t h e id io m o f S a llu s t, th e a n tiq u a r ia n s a n d t h e senatus consultum de A p h ro d isien sib u s, t h o s e w h o th e n a c tu a lly se r v e d w it h t h e sta n d a r d s d id it p r o m ilite. T h e d o c u m e n t s fr o m A p h r o d is ia s r e sto r e to life t h e a n tiq u a r ia n d is t in c tio n b e t w e e n t h e m ilitia legitim a a n d coniuratio, b e t w e e n m ilites a n d p ro m ilite . T h e y illu m in a te th e q u a lity o f m in d th a t m a d e t h e R o m a n s p a y a t te n t io n to t h e s e le g a l d is t in c tio n s , e v e n in t im e o f w a r . T h e y illu m in a te t h e y o u n g O c ta v ia n ’s a rca n a im perii.
153
14 Usu, farre, coemptione. Bemerkungen zur Überlieferung eines Rechtsatzes D ie X I I T a fe ln h a b e n s ic h b e k a n n t lic h m it d er E h e a ls s o lc h e r n ic h t b e s c h ä f t ig t , s o n d e r n v ie lm e h r m it d e n v e r s c h ie d e n e n R e c h t s m it t e ln , d u r c h w e lc h e d ie
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farreatio u n d d ie coemptio f e h le n . N u n h a t A l a n W a t s o n in s e in e m s e h r v e r d ie n s t v o lle n B u c h R o m e o f t h e X I I T a b le s
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S t e lle n w ie d e r : G a iu s I 1 1 0 (ed . D a v i d - N e l s o n ) : O lim it a q u e tr ib u s m o d is in m a n u m c o n u e n ie b a n t : u s u , fa r r e o , c o e m p t io n e . S e r v iu s a u c t u s a d V e r g . G e o rg . I 31 (ed . T h i l o ) : tr ib u s e n im m o d is a p u d v e t e r e s n u p tia e f ie b a n t : u s u , . . . fa r r e , . . . c o e m p t io n e . A r n o b iu s , A d v . n a t. I V 2 0 (e d . M a r c h e s i ) : U x o r e s e n im d ii h a b e n t . U s u , fa r r e , c o e m p t io n e g e n ia lis le c t u l i s a c r a m e n ta c o n d ic u n t? B o e t h iu s a d C ic. T o p . I l l 14 ( F I R A I I 3 0 7 ): T r ib u s e n im m o d is u x o r h a b e b a tu r : u su fa rreo c o e m p tio n e . D ie m e r k w ü r d ig e R e ih e n f o lg e — im m e r d ie s e lb e — usu, f ä l l t a u f (ü b e r d ie D is k r e p a n z z w is c h e n
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a u c h d e n G e b r a u c h d e s in s t r u m e n t a le n A b l a t iv s . E s u n t e r lie g t w o h l k e in e m Z w e ife l, d a ß a lle v ie r B e r ic h te a u f e in e g e m e in s a m e V o r la g e z u r ü c k z u fü h r e n s in d ; e s f o lg t a b e r n ic h t , d a ß d ie s e g e m e in s a m e Q u e lle d ie X I I T a f e ln sin d o d e r s e in m ü s s e n . I n d e n e r h a lte n e n B r u c h s tü c k e n d e s Z w ö lf t a f e lg e s e t z e s i s t d er G ebrauch des
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g la u b t n ie m a n d d a r a n , d a ß B o e t h iu s , A r n o b iu s o d e r S e r v iu s d ie X I I T a fe ln m it ih r e n e ig e n e n A u g e n g e le s e n h a b e n . W ir m ü s s e n a ls o n a c h e in e m V e r m itt le r s u c h e n . W a r e s G a iu s?
J) G a iu s I 111 = T a b . V I 5 ( F I R A I 4 4 ). Z u r m anus u n d E h e s ie h e d ie b a h n b r e c h e n d e n S tu d ie n v o n E . V o l t e r r a , b e s o n d e r s L a c o n c e p t io n d u m a r ia g e d ’a p r è s le s j u r is t e s r o m a in s ( P a d o v a 1 9 4 0 ), b es. lO ff. ; N u o v e r ic e r c h e s u lla „ c o n v e n t io in m a n u m “ , M e m o r ie d e lla A c c a d . d e i L in c e i se r. V i l i , v o i. Χ ΙΓ , f a s e . 4 , 1 9 6 6 ; L a „ c o n v e n t io in m a n u m “ c il m a tr im o n io r o m a n o , T e m is 2 2 , 1 9 6 7 , 1 1 — 2 8 ; P r e c is a z io n i in t e m a d i m a tr im o n io c la s s ic o , B I D R 7 8 , 1 9 7 5 , 2 4 5 — 2 7 0 . S ie h e a u c h J . G a u d e m e t , O b s e r v a tio n s su r la m a n u s , A H D O - R I D A 2 , 1 9 5 3 , 3 2 3 — 3 5 3 ; M . K a s e r , D a s a lt r ö m is c h e iu s (G ö tt in g e n 1 9 4 9 ), 3 1 6 ff., 3 4 3 f f .; E h e u n d „ c o n v e n t io in m a n u m “ . I u r a 1, 1 9 5 0 , 6 4 — 101 u n d z u s a m m e n fa s s e n d d e r s . , D a s r ö m is c h e P r iv a t r e c h t I 2 (M ü n c h e n 1 9 7 1 ), 71 f f . ; F . B e n e d e k , D ie conventio in m anum u n d d ie F ö r m lic h k e ite n d e r E h e s c h lie ß u n g im r ö m is c h e n R e c h t (P é c s 1 9 7 8 ), b es. 3 - 2 3 . 2) E r h a t d ie s s c h o n in S D H I 2 9 , 1 9 6 3 , 3 3 7 — 3 3 8 v o r g e s c h la g e n ; d a z u z w e ife ln d K a s e r , P r iv a tr e e h t 7 6 A n m . 1. V g l. V o l t e r r a , N u o v e r ic e r e h c 2 8 3 A i m . 6 4 : « L ’ip o te s i è v e r o s im ile , m a g li a r g o m e n ti a d d o t t i p er d im o s tr a r la m i s e m b r a n o a lq u a n t o d e b o li» .
154
Miszellen N u n h a t W a t s o n s e lb s t b e m e r k t 8), d a ß B o e t h iu s in s e in e m K o m m e n t a r zu C ice ro s T o p ic a I I I 1 4 v o n d er coem ptio s p r ic h t u n d a ls s e in e Q u e lle U lp ia n s I n s t i t u t i o n e n a n fü h r t. E s i s t a ls o r e c h t w a h r s c h e in lic h , d a ß e r a u c h d ie R e ih e n f o lg e usu, farreo, coemptione in d e r s e lb e n S c h r if t v o r f a n d . D a d ie I n s t i t u t i o n e n n ic h t e r h a lt e n s in d , k ö n n e n w ir n ic h t m i t S ic h e r h e it e n t s c h e id e n , w o h e r d e r K o m p ila t o r s e in M a te r ia l g e s c h ö p f t h a t ; n o c h i s t in d e n s o g e n a n n t e n T itu li e x c o r p o r e U lp ia n i d e r A b s c h n it t de his qu i in m anu sunt e r h a lte n . W ir b e s it z e n d a v o n n u r e in k le in e s B r u c h s t ü c k (c a p . I X , F I R A I I 2 7 2 ), d a s j e d o c h fü r u n s e r e B e w e is f ü h r u n g v o n I n t e r e s s e is t : Farreo conuenitur in m anum certis uerbis et testibus X praesen tibu s et sollem ni sacrifìcio facto, in quo p a n is quoque farreus adhibetur. D ie s e r T e x t e r w e is t s ic h s o f o r t a ls e in e g e k ü r z t e F a s s u n g v o n G a iu s I 1 1 2 ; m a n v e r g le ic h e n u r d ie f o lg e n d e n v o n G a iu s g e b r a u c h t e n W e n d u n g e n :
farreo in m anum conueniunt; ( sacrificiu m ) in quo farreus p a n is adhibetur; cum certis et sollem nibus uerbis praesen tibu s decem testibus. O b a u c h d ie I n s t i t u t i o n e s U lp ia n i a u f G a iu s z u r ü c k g e h e n , i s t s c h w e r z u s a g e n ; B o e t h iu s ’ B e r ic h t ü b e r d ie coem ptio z e ig t f a s t k e in e B e r ü h r u n g s p u n k t e , s t ilis t is c h o d e r s a c h lic h , m it d e m d e s G a iu s. A ls e in u n a b h ä n g ig e r Z e u g e fü r d ie R e ih e usu, farreo, coemptione s c h e id e t B o e t h iu s j e d e n fa lls a u s . D e n n d a s e in z ig e , fü r u n s g e r a d e w ic h t ig s t e W o r t , d a s fü r V e r g le ic h s z w e c k e in F r a g e k o m m t , i s t d ie F o r m farreo, d ie a u c h in U lp ia n s T it u li u n d G a iu s v o r k o m m t , w ä h r e n d A r n o b iu s u n d S e r v iu s a u c t u s d ie F o r m farre a u fw e is e n . E s s c h e in t a ls o , d a ß w ir es m it z w e i Ü b e r lie f e r u n g e n z u t u n h a b e n , e in e r ju r is t is c h e r u n d e in e r a n tiq u a r is c h e r . E s so ll j e t z t u n t e r s u c h t w e r d e n , w a n n u n d a u f w e lc h e W e is e d ie s e S p a lt u n g a u fg e k o m m e n is t , u n d w o h in u n s d ie s e b e id e n Ü b e r lie f e r u n g s f ä d e n fü h r e n w e r d e n . D e r T e x t v o n A r n o b iu s e r la u b t s e in e r K ü r z e w e g e n k e in e s ic h e r e n S c h lü s s e ; e s e m p f ie h lt s ic h d a g e g e n , d ie B e r ic h t e v o n G a iu s u n d S e r v iu s a u c t u s e in e r v e r g le ic h e n d e n A n a ly s e z u u n t e r z ie h e n . I n w erden
in
g e s p e r r te r
K u r s iv s c h r if t
dagegen
S c h r if t d ie w ö r t lic h e n d ie A u s s a g e n ,
d e r f o lg e n d e n
Z u s a m m e n s te llu n g
E n tsp r ec h u n g e n
d ie a u f v e r s c h ie d e n e
b e z e ic h n e t ,
in
W e is e d e n s e lb e n
G ed a n k en a u sd r ü c k e n : G a iu s I 1 0 9 - 1 1 3 : 1 0 9 I n m a n u m a u t e m f e m in a e t a n t u m c o n u e n iu n t. 1 1 0 O lim it a q u e t r i b u s m o d i s in m a n u m c o n u e n ie b a n t 4): u s u , f a r r e o , c o e m p t io n e . 111 U s u in m a n u m c o n u e n ie b a t,
quae a n n o continuo n u p t a perseuerabat.
S e r v iu s a u c t u s a d V e r g . G e o rg . I 3 1 :
T r i b u s e n im m o d i s apud veteres n u p t ia e f ie b a n t : usu, si v e r b i g r a t ia m ulier a n n o uno c u m v ir o , lic e t s in e le g ib u s ,
fuisset.
3) T h e L a w o f P e r s o n s in t h e L a t e r R o m a n R e p u b lic (O x fo r d 1 9 6 7 ), 19 A n m . 1 ; R o m e o f t h e X I I T a b le s , 9 A n m . 4 . 4) D e n V o r s c h la g v o n R . G. B ö h m , G a iu s s t u d ie n X (F r e ib u r g im B r e is g a u 1 9 7 2 ), 6 3 — 6 6 , Olim namque ueteres tribus m odis in m anum u iri su i perueniebant zu w id e r le g e n , e r ü b r ig t s ic h . S e in e L e s u n g e n in I 111 — 11 3 (S . 6 9 — 1 0 5 ) p r o d u z ie r e n e in n ic h t m in d e r g e f o lt e r t e s L a t e in ; I 1 1 2 : in quo noster farreus p a n is adhibetur, unde etiam de n u p tiis pan e dicitu r, i s t e in m u s t e r h a f t e s B e is p ie l.
155
J . L in d e r s k i, U s u , fa r r e , c o e m p t io n e
303
I n G a iu s f o lg t e in e d e t a illie r t e D is k u s s io n v o n usus u n d trinoctium ( m it d e m V e r w e is a u f d ie X I I T a f e ln ) , d ie in S e r v iu s a u c t u s k e in e E n t s p r e c h u n g f in d e t . 1 1 2 Farreo in m a n u m c o n u e n iu n t p e r q u o d d a m g e n u s s a c r if ic ii, q u o d Io u i F arreo fit; i n q u o farreus p a n is adhibetur,
farre,
u n d e e t ia m c o n f a r r e a t i o
c u m p e r p o n t if ic e m m a x im u m e t D ia le m fla m in e m per f r u g e s e t molam salsam c o n iu g e b a n t u r , unde confarreatio
dicitur.
appellabatur, e x q u ib u s n u p t iis p a tr im i e t m a tr im i n a s c e b a n tu r ;
I m F o lg e n d e n e r w ä h n t G a iu s d ie decem testes u n d d ie S a k r a lr e g e l, n a c h d e r d ie flam ines m aiores u n d d e r rex sacrorum n isi ex farreatis n ati non leguntur;
ac ne ip s i quidem sine confarreatione sacerdotium habere possu n t. I n S e r v iu s a u c t u s ’ K o m m e n t a r z u G e o r g . 1 3 1 f in d e n d ie s e N a c h r ic h t e n k e in e E n t s p r e c h u n g ; v o n d er P r ie s t e r e h e s p r ic h t S e r v iu s a u c t u s a b e r a n m a n c h e n a n d e r e n S t e lle n , a d A e n . I V 3 3 9 , 3 7 4 u n d b e s o n d e r s 1 0 3 : quae res ad farreatas n u ptias pertin et,
quibus flam inem et flam inicam iure po n tificio in m atrim onium necesse est convenire. 103 C o e m p t i o n e u e r o
co em p tio n e vero a t q u e in m anum conventione
in m anum conueniunt p e r m a n c ip a t io n e m , id e s t q u a n d a m im a g in a r ia m u e n d it io n e m : n a m a d h ib it is n o n m in u s q u a m V t e s t ib u s c iu ib u s R o m a n is p u b e r ib u s , i t e m lib r ip e n d e , e m it e u m (m u lie r e t is ) m u lie r e m , c u iu s in m a n u m c o n u e n it.
c u m ill a in f ilia e lo c u m 5), m a r itu s in p a tr is v e n ie b a t , u t s iq u is p r io r f u is s e t d e f u n c t u s , lo c u m h e r e d it a t is iu s t u m a lt e r i f a c e r e t . A u f d en
e r s te n
B lic k h a b e n
d ie s e B e sc h r e ib u n g e n , d e r coemptio n u r se h r
w e n ig m ite in a n d e r zu t u n ; a n a n d e r e r S te lle s c h r e ib t a b e r S e r v iu s a u c t u s (a d A e n . I V 1 0 3 ): coemptio enim est ubi libra atque aes adhibetur, et m ulier atque
v ir inter se quasi em ptionem faciunt. S o a u c h S e r v iu s a d G e o r g . 1 3 1 , u n m it te lb a r v o r d e n o b e n w ie d e r g e g e b e n e n S te lle n d e s S e r v iu s a u c t u s : quod autem a it ,em at‘ ad antiquum pertin et ritum , quo se m aritu s et uxor invicem coemebant, sicut habemus in iure (v g l. I s id . E t y m . V 2 6 : nam antiquus nu ptiaru m erat ritus quo se m aritus et uxor invicem coemebant). D ie s d ü r fte n u r e in S t ü c k fa ls c h e n E t y m o lo g ie s ie r e n s s e in , in d e m e in A n t iq u a r d a s co-emere a ls d a s g e g e n s e it ig e emere a u f f a ß t e ; d ie se r A n t iq u a r w ir d a b e r k e in e s w e g s V a rr o s e in , d a s ic h s e in e E t y m o lo g ie fü r d ie s m a l m it d er m o d e r n e n A u s le g u n g d e c k t . E r in te r p r e tie r t co-emere im S in n e v o n 5) D ie s e W e n d u n g k e h r t b e i G a iu s s e h r o f t w ie d e r , s ie h e b e s o n d e r s 1 1 1 1 (b e i d e r B e s p r e c h u n g d e s usus): filiaeque locum optinebat; I 1 1 4 : quae enim cum
m arito suo facit coemptionem, (ut) apu d eum filiae loco sit, dicitur m atrim onii causa fecisse coemptionem. V g l. B o e t h iu s a d Ó ic. T o p . I l l 1 4 ( E I R A I I 3 0 7 ) : Itaque m ulier u iri conueniebat in m anum , et uocabantur hae nuptiae p er coem ptio nem, et erat m ulier, m aterfam ilias uiro loco filiae. F ü r e in e e in g e h e n d e I n t e r p r e t a t io n d e s A u s d r u c k e s u n d d er R e c h t s la g e s ie h e G a u d c m e t , O b s e r v a tio n s , 3 3 5 f . ; V o l t e r r a , N u o v e r ic e r c h e , 3 2 9 f f .
156
M is z e lle n
in unu m cogere, (L in g . L a t V I 4 3 ), w o m it A . E r n o u t u n d A . M e i l l e t 6) zu v e r g le ic h e n s in d : in co-emo « l e p r é v e r b e m a r q u e l ’a s p e c t ’d é t e r m in é 1». A u s d ie s e n G r ü n d e n i s t d ie E r g ä n z u n g in G a iu s I 1 1 3 em it eum (m ulier et is) m ulierem n ic h t n u r z w e if e lh a f t , w ie s ie D a v i d u n d N e l s o n i n ih r e m K o m m e n t a r zu d e r S t e lle b e z e ic h n e n 7), o s n d e r n g a n z u n d g a r u n m ö g lic h . E s i s t sc h w e r v o r s te llb a r , d a ß e in A n t iq u a r o d e r e in J u r is t d er b e s s e r e n Z e it fü r e in e s o lc h e F e h la u s le g u n g d e r coem ptio v e r a n t w o r t lic h s e in s o llte . I n B o e t h iu s a d C iò. T o p . I I I 1 4 le s e n w ir : coemptio uero certis sollem nitatibus peragebatur, et sese in coemendo inuicem interrogabant (sc . u ir u n d m ulier). D ie F r a g e n u n d A n t w o r t e n , d ie er a n fü h r t, b e z ie h e n s ic h a b e r o f fe n s ic h tlic h n ic h t a u f d e n L ib r a la k t d e r coem ptio, s o n d e r n d r ü c k e n d e n g e g e n s e it ig e n E h e k o n s e n s a u s , d e r s ic h e r lic h d er e ig e n tlic h e n coem ptio u n m it te lb a r v o r a n g in g 8). A u f d ie s e W e is e w ir d b e i B o e t h iu s d ie coem ptio m it d e m
E h e k o n s e n s v e r w e c h s e lt u n d
v e r s c h m o lz e n ; d ie s e V e r w e c h s lu n g i s t in S e r v iu s u n d I s id o r n o c h w e it e r f o r t g e s c h r it t e n , in d e m s ie d ie G e g e n s e itig k e it d e s E h e k o n s e n s e s a u f d ie coemptio e r s t r e c k te n . I n d e r 'S a c h e d e r „ K n u f c h e “ g ib t e s n o c h e in e n a n d e r e n B e r ü h r u n g s p u n k t z w is c h e n S e r v iu s u n d
B o e th iu s . L e tz t e r e r b e m ü h t e s ic h , d ie B e d e u t u n g d e s
A u s d r u c k e s m a terjam ilias b e i C ice ro , T o p . I I I 14 zu illu s tr ie r e n . C ice ro s T e x t l a u t e t w ie f o lg t : genus est, uxor; eius duae form ae: una matrum, fam ilias, eae
sunt, quae in m anum convenerunt, altera earum quae tantum m odo uxores habentur. C icero e r w ä h n t n u r g e n e r e ll d ie conventio in manum·, e s w a r ja fü r s e in e n Z w e c k n ic h t n o t w e n d ig , d ie R e c h t s w e g e , a u f d e n e n d ie m anus ü b e r tr a g e n w e r d e n k o n n t e , e in z e ln z u n e n n e n . W e n n a ls o B o e t h iu s s c h r e ib t: quae autem in m anum p e r coem ptionem conuenerant, eae m atres fa m ilias uocabantur, quae uero usu uel farreo, m inim e, so h a t er C icero u n d v ie lle ic h t a u c h s e in e u n m it te lb a r e V o r la g e , d ie d e m U lp ia n z u g e s c h r ie b e n e n I n s t i t u t i o n e n , a r g m iß v e r s t a n d e n . W a s u n s z u m B e d e n k e n m a h n t, is t d ie e n g e V e r w a n d ts c h a f t z w is c h e n d ie s e m S a tz lin d z w e i S t e lle n d e s S e r v iu s u n d S e r v iu s a u c t u s . W ir le s e n b ei S e r v . a u c t . a d A e n . X I 4 7 6 : ma,trem vero fam ilia s eam esse, quae in m ariti m anu m ancipioque9).
aut in cuius m aritu s m anu m ancipioque (d ie s s c h e in t e in Z u s a tz e in e s s p ä te r e n A n t iq u a r s zu s e in ) esset, quoniam in fa m ilia m quoque m a riti et su i heredis locum venisset. A lii m atronas virgines nobiles dicunt, m atresfam ilias vero illas quae in m atrim on iu m per coem ptionem convenerunt : nam per quandam iu ris sollem nitatem in fa m ilia m m igrant m a riti; S e r v . a d A e n . X I 58 1 : m aterjam ilias vero illa dicitu r quae in m atrim on i um convenit p er coem ptionem : nam p e r quandam iuris sollem nitatem in fa m ilia m m igrat m ariti. I n B o e t h iu s e r s c h e in t d ie coemptio a ls d ie w ic h t ig s t e , ja f a s t d ic e in z ig e F o r m d e r conventio in m anum . D a s s e lb e g ilt fü r d ie b e id e n o b e n w ie d e r g e g e b e n e n S te lle n , u n d in S e r v iu s a u e t u s , a d G e o r g . I 3 1 , le s e n w ir d e n m e r k w ü r d ig e n S a tz coemptione vero atque in m anum conventione, w o atque s t ö r e n d w ir k t u n d e) D ic t io n n a ir e é t y m o lo g iq u e d e la la n g u e la t in e 3 (P a r is 1 0 5 1 ), 3 4 7 . 7) G a i I n s t i t u t i o n u m C o m m e n ta r ii I V . K o m m e n t a r , 1 L ie fe r u n g (L e id e n 1 9 5 4 ), 1 3 4 -1 3 8 . 8) V g l. V o l t e r r a , L a c o n c e p t io n 2 0 f f . 9) E ü r e in e D is k u s s io n d ie s e s A u s d r u c k e s s ie h e G a u d e m e t , O b s e r v a tio n s , 3 3 2 f . ; V o l t e r r a , N u o v e r ic e r c h e , 2 7 4 f f .
157
J . Lindcrski, U su, farre, coem ptione
305
wo die coemptio m it der conventio in m anum tatsäch lich identifiziert w ird10). N ur bei der D arstellung der coem ptio spricht Servius von den R echtsfolgen, die die conventio in m anum nach sich zieht. In der T at erw ähnt er die conventio in m anum nur bei dieser G elegenheit11). E s is t nich t unm öglich, daß alle drei A utoren, B oethius, Servius und Servius au ctu s, ihre übereinstim m ende In terp retation der coem ptio und ihre ebenfalls übereinstim m ende A uslegung des T erm inus m aterjam ilias in U lpians I n s ti tu tion en vorfanden. Wir sollten aber einen groben juristischen Fehler nicht voreilig einer juritischen Quelle zur L a st legen, besonders, w enn wir eine viel w ahrscheinlichere Lösung zur H and haben. D ie gleiche A uslegung der coemptio fin d et sich näm lich in Aelius D o n a tu s’ Terenzkom m entar, Andria 297 : confir m atae sunt legitim ae n uptiae per in m anum conventionem. W as nun die Quellen des sogenannten Servius auctus oder Servius D anielis anlangt, wird je tz t a ll gem ein angenom m en, daß in seinem K om m entar die Trümmer der großen V ergilauslegung des A elius D on atu s verborgen sind. E s scheint, daß dem ServiusK om m entar da3 W erk des D on atu s als Vorlage diente und daß später, w ahr scheinlich im sieb en ten oder achten Jahrhundert, ein anderer K om m entator, den wir Servius auctus oder D anielis nennen, diesem m eistens gram m atisch an gelegten Schulauslegung eine prächtige R eihe antiquarischer N otizen bei steu erte, die er ebenfalls aus dem D on atus-K om m entar herausgelesen h a t12). D er D onatu s-K om m en tar w urde auch von M acrobius benutzt, und w ie wir je tz t sehen, es verw endete ihn auch B oethius (neben den In stitu tion es U lpiani) bei seiner A uslegung vo n Ciceros T opica. Es darf uns also n ich t wunder nehm en, daß dieselbe F ehlinterpretation der coemptio bei allen A utoren w'iederkehrt, die von D onatus abhängen. D ie D arstellung des Gaius ist klar und präzis; die des Servius konfus und en tstellt. D ie U rsache dieser K orruptel liegt auf der H and. Gaius und die anderen R echtsgelehrten b eschäftigten sich m it der juristischen Frage des m anus-
10) Vgl. G a u d e m c t , O bservations, 328 Anm. 30, 330 Anm . 41. N ach V o l t e r r a , N uove ricerche, 299 — 300 A nm . 97, « Servio . . . giunge a considerare come forine diverse di m atrim onio la coemptio e la conventio in m anum ». Servius auctus spricht aber von den tres m odi n u p tia ru m ; er interpretiert also die con ventio in m anum eher als eine andere B enennung der coemptio. n ) Siehe auch Scrv. auct. ad Acn. IV 103: quoniam coemptione jacta m ulier in potestatem v iri cedit atque ita sustinet conditionem liberae servitutis . . . quoque om nis iste mos coem ptionis et citra n om inis nuncupationem dotis datae taxatione expediretur, quae res in m anum conventio dicitur, subiunxit (sc. Vergilius) ,dotalesque tuae T y rio s perm ittere dextrae‘. quid est enim aliud ,perm ittere dextrae‘, quam in m anum convenire? So w eit, so g u t; lesen wir aber, was folgt: quae conventio eo ritu perficitur, ut aqua et igni adhibitis, duobus m axim is elementis, natura coninncta habeatur: quae res ad farreatas n u ptias pertinet, quibus flam inem et flam inicam iure pontificio in m atrim onium necesse est convenire. D ie coemptio wird also m it der confarreatio verw echselt und die conventio in m anum als ein H eiratsbrauch a u f gefaß t (vgl. V o l t e r r a , La conception, 20 —21). 12) Siehe dazu die au sgezeichneten U ntersuchungen von A. S a n t o r o , Il Servio D aniclino e D on ato, SIFC 20, 1946, 7 9 ff.; R . B . L l o y d , R epublican A uthors in Servius and the Scholia D anielis, HSCP 65, 1961, 291 ff., bes. 2 3 4 —237 ; R. K a s t e r , M acrobius and Servius: V erecundia and the Gram m arian’s F unction, HSGP 84, 1980, 219 ff., bes. 2 2 4 ff„ 2 5 5 ff.
J 58
Miszellen E rw erb es; D o natus, Servius und die anderen späteren literarischen K om m en ta to re n bem ühen sich dagegen, die nuptiae zu erklären; sie verkennen aber dabei die T atsache, daß die röm ische E he eine sozial-religiöse, n ieh t aber eine ju ristische E rscheinung w ar, un d gehen infolgedessen fehl, weil sie die nuptiae m it H ilfe rechtlicher K ategorien zu erfassen versuchen. Schon in seiner E in leitung zum T hem a h e b t Gains (I 110) die m am ts-U bertragung hervor, w ährend Servius au ctu s sofort in die Irre geht, indem er die drei modi des mtmws-Erwerbes als die drei modi der E heschließung in te rp re tie rt. Sein Vorgehen w ird im m er klarer bei seiner D arstellung des usus, wo Gaius ganz k o rrek t die F ra u , die auf diese IVeise in manum conueniebat, als nupta schon am A nfang der E in jah res periode bezeichnet, w ährend Servius die nuptiae n u r am E nde dieser F rist ein tre te n lä ß t u nd von der mulier, die cum viro n u r verbi gratia, sine legibus zusam m cnlebte, etw as abschätzig sprieht, w odurch er den juristischen Bezug des usus u n d die außerrechtliche N a tu r der röm ischen E he m ißdeutet. E s sieh t also so aus, als ob Gaius und Servius auctus (d. h. sein G ew ährsm ann D onatus) eine Quelle von juristisch-antiquarischem C harakter benutzten, bei derer W iedergabe aber D onatus die juristischen E inzelheiten entw eder beseitigte oder u m deutete. D aß es aber ein u n d dieselbe Quelle w ar, w ird zur Genüge d u rch die R edew endungen gezeigt, die bei beiden A utoren w ieder kehren, λvie besonders tribus modis, unde, confarreatio dicitur bzw. appellabatur, coemptione vero. Dies wird kaum auf einem Zufall beruhen. D aß Servius Gaius b en u tzte , ist wohl auszuschließen, da sein T ex t Z usätze en th ä lt die sich in Gaius n ic h t befinden. U m die Id e n titä t dieser gem einsam en Vorlage feststellen zu können, m üssen wir uns den lateinischen Glossen zuw enden. Im J a h re 1878 veröffentlichte G. L ö w e 13) eine Glosse aus dem Codex M ontecassinensis 439; sie w urde sp äter von G. G o e tz in das Corpus G lossariorum L atinorum auf genom m en14) und d an n v on IV. M. L i n d s a y in die G lossaria L a tin a 15), wo sie als A bolita CO 102 erscheint. In L indsays W iedergabe la u te t sie folgenderm aßen: C onfarreatis n u p tiis: m ultis m odis n u p tiae fiu n t; usu, si anno verbi gratia cum viro, licet sine legitim is sollem nitatibus, fie re t16); vel m anuum (in m anum ?) conventione[m ]17), cum in filiae locum , m aritu s in p a tris ven it, u t si quis prior fuerit defunctus, locum h ered itatis iustum alteri fa c ia t; fra tre (farre), cum per p o n ti ficem m axim um e(t) D iale(m ) flam inem per fruges et m olam salsam coniunguntur, cx quibus n u p tiis p atrim i et m atrim i n a sc u n tu r. N ach fieret lesen L ö w e un d G o e tz coemptione[m]; diese, offenbar korrekte, Lesung w urde auch von L i n d s a y angenom m en, als er unsere Glosse 1930 in seiner P ariser E d ition des F e stu s ab d ru c k te 18) (coemptione vel in manum con ventione). 13) RhM 33, 1878, 6 3 1 -6 3 3 . 14) B d. 4 (Lipsiae 1889), 41, Anm. z. Zeile 2; Bd. 6 (1899), 253. 15) Bd. 3 (P aris 1926), 113; siehe auch seine praefatio, S. 93 —95. 16) N ach L ö w e s E m endation fuerit·, cf. G o e t z CGL 6, 253 (fuerit?)A 17) Diese W endung ist interessant, weil der G lossator die conventio in manum m it der dextrarum iunctio verw echselt zu haben scheint; vgl. die oben (Anm. 11) an g efü h rten Stellen des Serv. auct. 18) G lossaria L atin a 4, 175.
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D ieser T e x t stim m t m it dem S crviu s-auctus-B ericht fast w örtlich überein; die folgenden D ivergenzen sind jedoch von Interesse: die ungew öhnliche R eih en folge usu, coemptione, farre·, und zw eitens der Gebrauch des Präsens und n ich t des Im perfekts, w ie in Servius au ctu s. In P a u lu s’ E xcerp ta aus F estu s erscheint das folgende Stichw ort (65 L.): D iffareatio genus est sacrificii, quo in ter viru m et m ulierem fiebat dissolutio. D icta difjareatio, quia fiebat farreo libo19) adhibito. E s ist klar, daß der F c stu ste x t ein st eine parallele N o tiz über die confarreatio en th alten haben m uß. D iese verschollene F estu san gab e h a t L i n d s a y in der Glosse des Codex M ontecassinensis erkannt20) und sie seiner zw eiten E d ition des F estu s cinverleibt21). D am it is t aber die Sage der Glossa M ontecassincnsis noch n ich t zu E nde. In seinen berühm ten Verrianischen F orsch u n gen 22) h at R . R e i t z e n s t e i n den N achw eis erbracht, daß eine größere A nzahl v o n Lem m ata in F estu s aus A teius Capitos B üchern de iure pon tificio g esch öp ft ist. Er h at auch eine andere Q uelle des V errius-F estus nachgew iesen, den A nonym us de n u p tiis. A uf R eitzensteins F orschungen fußend, h a t W . S t r z e l e c k i 23) m it zw ingenden Gründen dargetan, daß R eitzen stein s A nonym us de n u p tiis kein anderer gew esen ist als A teius C apito: wir w issen, daß er, verm utlich in se in e n libri de iure pon tificio, v o n den n u p tia e schrieb, besonders denen der flam ines. U nter diesen U m ständen lag es gew iß sehr nahe, hierher auch die Glosse von M onte Cassino heranzuziehen, u n d sie dem A nonym us de n u p tiis oder A teius Capito zuzuschreiben. D ies ist aber erst 1963 geschehen, als W . S t r z e l e c k i in einem F estschrift-A ufsatz sie in der T at als eine A teian isch e zu erweisen unternom m en h a t24). U n ter den w enigen B uchbesprechungen, die dauernden Ruhm erlangt haben, n im m t E. F r ä n k e l s B esprechung der E d itio H arvardiana des Servius einen hervorragenden P latz ein 25). Er w arf den E ditores H arvardiani vor, daß sie in ihrem T estim onien-A pparatus das größte B uch, das die röm ische Z ivilisation hervorbrachte, vernachlässigten, und dadurch die korrekte D eu tu n g v o n u n zähligen Stellen sehr erschw erten. Fränkel dachte an die D igesten ; einen äh n lichen V orwurf können wir auch S t r z e l e c k i m achen. H ä tte er Gaius heran gezogen, so würde er sicherlich die T ex tgesch ich te des A teius anders rekonstruiert und das F ragm ent des A teiu s über die confarreatio anders g estaltet haben. W ir haben die folgende Ü berlieferungskette vor uns: Gaius und Servius au ctu s w eisen Ü bereinstim m ungen solcher A rt auf, daß sie letzten E ndes von ein- und derselben Quelle abstam m en m üssen; eine gew isse stilistisch e Ver w andschaft b esteh t auch zw ischen P a u lu s’ Stichw ort diffareatio und Gaius I 112; Servius stim m t m it der Glosse vo n M onte Cassino fa st völlig überein; diese
19) farre oliuuo E. V gl. G aius I 112 farreus p a n is. -°) Glossaria L atina 3, 113 in app. 21) Glossaria L atina 4, 175; siehe jedoch seine A nm erkung in app.: s i Festina sint. 22) Breslau 1887, 41 ff. (Breslauer P hilol. Abh. 1 4 ). 23) D e A teio Capitone nuptialium caerim oniarum interprete (W roclaw 1947), passim . 24) D e glossarii ,A bolita' quadam glossa, L anx Satura N . Terzaghi oblata (G enova 1963), 3 2 1 - 3 2 4 . 25) JR S 38, 1948. 1 3 1 - 1 4 3 , bes. 142; 39, 1949, 1 4 5 - 1 5 4 .
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Glosse sta m m t, w ie es sch ein t; aus der E p itom e des F estu s; Verrius F laccus b en u tzte A teiu s C apito, besonders für seine D arstellung des iu s po n tificiu m und der caerim oniae nuptiales. D ie F olgerung: A ls die gem einsam e Quelle m ancher späteren D arstellungen der n u ptiae und der conventio in m anum , des usus, der confarreatio und der coem ptio ist A teius Capito anzusehen. U nsere A ufgabe ist, nun den W eg zu zeigen, der von A teiu s Capito zu Gaius und Servius auctus führt. Z uerst ein paar B em erkungen über die N atu r des W erkes A teius Capitos. W . S t r z e l e c k i h a t in seiner Sam m lung der F ragm ente des A teius Capito die Glossa M ontecassinensis als ein fragm entum A teian u m ohne W eiteres a b gedru ck t26). D ies ist irreführend und für den m orbusphilogorum , T ex te juristischen In h a lts ohne hinreichende juristische K en n tn isse beurteilen zu w agen, sehr bezeichnend. Für einen Ju risten ist es sofort klar, daß wir hier keinen ech ten W ortlau t des A teiu s haben, sondern nur ein sehr verkürztes und en tstelltes E xzerp t. D er w irkliche Charakter des A teianischen U rtex tes ergibt sich aus dem V ergleich zw ischen G aius und Servius au ctus. W ie wir schon b eto n t haben: D ie Q uelle, die sie b en u tzten , w ies juristische und antiquarische E igenschaften auf. D ies p a ß t aufs B este zu den lib ri de iure pon tificio des A teius, der ja ein R ech tsgeleh rter und zugleich ein A ntiquar gew esen ist. W ie gesagt, h a t Verrius F laccus eine große A nzahl seiner A ngaben aus A teius Capitos lib ri de iure pon tificio , de iure sacrificiorum und de iure augurali geschöpft. D en B üchern de iure po n tificio w ird jed och in F estu s expressis verbis nur das S tich w ort m undus zugeschrieben27). Ü ber diese Frage schrieb Capito in lib. V I P o n tific a li; Verrius (F estus) zitiert auch einen Satz aus den com m entarii iu ris c iv ilis des Cato (d. h. Cato filiu s), den er jedoch w ahrscheinlich nur durch Capitos V erm ittlung k annte. D ie E xcerp ta Pauli geben dieses S tichw ort im Großen und G anzen recht genau wieder, beseitigen aber den Verweis auf Capito und Cato. Ob wir dasselbe auch für das oben w iedergegebene S tichw ort diffareatio annehm en dürfen, is t ungew iß, da diese N o tiz nur als eine A rt Verweis auf das G rundstichw ort confarreatio dienen k on n te. D aß aber A teius Capito die con farreatio speziell behandelte, w issen wir aus P lutarchs Q uaestiones R om anae 50, wo er v o n der E he der flam ines spricht und A teius Capito ausdrücklich zitiert. P lutarch h a t A teiu s Capito sicherlich selb st n ich t gelesen; das A teianische G ut (dem er auch seine übrigen A ngaben über den flam en D ia lis und die caerimoniae nuptiales zu verdanken scheint) is t an ihn durch J u b a 28) oder Verrius F laccu s29) gekom m en (es is t durchaus m öglich, daß auch Ju b a A teius Capito nur aus Verrius k ann te30)). D ie E p itom e des F estu s en th ä lt reiche A ngaben über die caerim oniae, berührt aber das iu s civile nur selten . D ies sind gerade die E igenschaften, die Servius auctu s charakterisieren. D aß D on a tu s Verrius Flaccus (oder F estus) ausschrieb, 2β) C. A tei C apitonis F ragm enta (Lipsiae 1967), 30 (Suppi. 6a). 27) 144 — 146 L. = S t r z e l e c k i Frg. 11. 28) R . P e t e r , Q uaestionum p on tificaliu m specim en (D iss. A rgentorati 1886), 2 0 f f .; S t r z e l e c k i , D e A teio Capitone 2 3 f f .; d e r s ., C. A tei Capitonis F rag m enta (W roclaw 1960), 1 7 f. (m it w eiterer Literatur). 2β) Η . J. R o s e , The R om an Q uestions of P lutarch (Oxford 1924), 35ff. 30) R o s e 3 8 —40.
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sch ein t gesichert zu sein31), obw ohl die Id en titä t seiner Anm erkung zu Georg. 1 31 m it der G lossa M ontecassinensis keinen sicheren B ew eis dafür b ildet, da der G lossator seine N o tiz n ich t nur d irek t dem F estu s, sondern auch dem D onatus entnehm en k onnte. A ulus G ellius war ein Z eitgenosse des Gaius. In seinen N octes A ttica e führt er A teius Capito m anchm al an; für uns ist aber die Stelle X 15, 1 — 18 besonders w ich tig, w eil Gellius dort v o n den caerim oniae im positae fla m in i D ia li spricht und auf die lib ri, qui de sacerdotibus p u b licis com positi sunt, und auf Fabius P ictor verw eist. Am E nde seiner D arstellung zitiert er aber eine A ngabe von M asurius Sabinus; es u n terliegt keinem Zw eifel, daß er in der T at den ganzen A b sch n itt aus den M em orialiu m libri des Sabinus (vgl. V II 7, 8) geschöpft h at32). In dem selben W erk schrieb Sabinus auch über den ritu s nuptiarum ·, w enn wir uns nun den U m stan d gegenw ärtig h alten , daß A teius Capito von dem flamen D ia lis lind den n uptiae ausführlich handelte und daß Sabinus der Tradition gem äß Capitos Schüler und N achfolger war33), liegt die A nnahm e sehr nahe, daß die Bücher des Sabinus D e flam ine D iali und D e ritu nuptiarum von den libri Capitos D e iure p on tificio abhängig sind. D ieser Schluß ist w ichtig, w eil er die Brücke zu Gaius schlägt. Gaius verw eist auf Sabinus m anchm al34), auf A teiu s Capito nie. E s wäre also sehr verw underlich, wenn er seine D arstellung der conventio in m anum unm ittelbar aus A teius Capito herausgelesen h ä tte ; als seinen Gewährsmann sollten wir eher Masurius Sabinus annehm en. B etrach ten wir also die Quellenlage: Gaius w eist eine große Ä hnlichkeit m it dem T e x t des Servius auctus, d. h. D on atu s, auf; D onatus b en u tzte F estu s oder Verrius, w elch letzterer A teius Capito ausgeschrieben h at. D er Schluß ist unausw eichlich; näm lich, um die trefflichen W orte S t r z e l e c k i s zu zitieren, M a su riu m S abin u m alacri anim o ex A teia n is lignatum esse silv is 35). D ies g ilt natürlich für seine M em orialium libri; ich glaube aber, daß Gaius eher die berühm ten Libri iuris civilis als seine Vorlage benutzte. Sabinus
31) G. R o w o l d t , Librorum pontificiorum R om anorum de caerim oniis sacri ficiorum reliquiae (D iss. H alis Saxonum 1906), 33, 43 (Frg. 6: F estu s 292 L. p u ra vestim enta, vgl. Serv. au ct. ad A en. IV 683, Serv. und Serv. auct. X I I 169), 4 4 f. (Frg. 9: P aulus 82 L. flam in iu s cam illus, von S t r z e l e c k i , Suppi. 55, A teius Capito zugeschrieben; vgl. Serv. au ct. X I 543), 46 (Frg. 15: P aulus 101 L. inarculum , v g l. Serv. auct. IV 137). 32) Vgl. P e t e r . Quacst. pontif. 1 5 f., 20L ; R o w o l d t , Libr. pontif. 2 7 f. 33) Ich sehe keinen Grund, m it F. S c h u l z , G eschichte der röm ischen R echtw isscnschaft (W eimar 1961), 141 f ., diese Tradition als „eine verfehlte gesch ich t liche K om bination des P om ponius oder seiner Q uelle“ zu bezeichnen. Diesen Schluß begründet er durch folgende B ew eisführung: „Capito hat auf dem Gebiete des P rivatrech ts nur U nbedeutendes g eleistet, die R echtsschulen des 1. Jahr hunderts beschränkten sich aber auf das Z ivilrecht.“ D er erste Satz trifft zu (vgl. aber Gellius X 20, 2, der Capito p u b lici privatique iu ris peritissim u m nennt), der andere viel weniger. Masurius Sabinus h a t sich auf dem Gebiete des S taats- und Sakralrcchtes eifrig b etä tig t, und m indestens in dieser H in sich t ist er als ein N achfolger des Capito anzusehen. 34) p_ p . B r e m e r , Iurisprudentiac antchadrianae quae supersunt 1 11 (Lipsiae 1901), 331 f . ; A. M. H o n o r é , Gaius (O xford 1962), 22. 35) C. A tei Capitonis F ragm enta (Lipsiae 1967), X IX f.
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behandelte dort das Personenrecht und die G cw altverhältnisse36) ; er muß von dem m anus- Erwerb gesprochen haben. D ies war aber nicht nur ein Teil des in s civile, sondern auch, besonders was die confarreatio und die Flam inenche anbolangt, ein Teil dos iu s p o n tific iu m ; also steh t nichts der A nnahm e im W ege, daß Sabinus seine D arstellung dieses Sachverhalts ans den Büchern des A teius Capito über das P on tifik alrech t en tleh n t hat. So sind wir im stande, die U borlioferungstradition und die B edeutung der einzelnen Schliisselphrascn zu beleuchten: Zuerst noch einm al die R eihenfolge usu, fa rre (o ), coemptione. Da uns diese R eihenfolge sow ohl in der juristischen (Gains) w ie auch der antiquarischen (Servius auctus) Tradition begegnet, muß sie auf den gem einsam en N enner, d. h. A teius Capito, zurückgeführt werden. D ie Gründe für diese überraschende Sequenz sind nicht schwer zu erahnen: Es ist eine streng juristische, nicht eine religiöse K lassifikation. Durch usus wird die m anus ganz unm erkbar, nur tatsäch lich, ohne irgendeinen rechtlichen A k t erw orben. D ie confarreatio ist eine religiöse Zerem onie, aber rechtlich ist sie eine A nom alie; sic ist nach K a s e r 37) „das einzige R ech tsin stitu t, das die privatrechtlichen W irkungen ausschließlich aus der rein sakralen Form sch öp ft4-. Sie war auch, jedenfalls in der frühen R epublik, ein patrizisohes R ech tsin stitu t; es sch ein t, daß sogar in der cieeronischen Zeit Plebcicr untereinander die konfarreierte E he nich t cingehcn konnten38). U nter diesen U m ständen erscheint die coem ptio, der feierliche A kt per aes et libram , als, juristisch gesehen, der D au p tm od u s dos raemw.s-Erwerbes. Für einen K om pilator lag es also sehr nahe, dio coem ptio und die conventio in m anum zu verschm elzen. Auf w elohe W eise ist aber die abw eichende R eihenfolge in der Glossa Monteeassinonsis — usu, coem ptione, /arre — zu erklären? V ielleicht sollten wir die A ntw ort in der L em m aübcrsehrift confarreatis n u p tiis suchen: der H auptgegenstand dieses Stichw ortes, die confarreatio, wurde von dem zw eiten an den letzten , mehr hervorgehobenen P latz gerückt. Ü brigens sieht diese Ü berschrift wie ein später Zusatz oder ein Fall der M ißlcm m afisierung aus. Tn F estus und Paulus sind die Ü berschriften keine gesonderten T itel (wie confarreatis n u p tiis in dieser G losse); sie bilden vielm ehr den Satzanfang. Es ist also vielleicht nicht allzu abenteuerlich vorzuschlagen, daß der T ex t Servius auctus ad Georg. 131 (== Glossa M ontocassinensis) ursprünglich zu einem anderen Lem m a gehörte. Verrius F laccus und F estu s haben von den tres m odi der conventio in m anum (bzw. dor nuptiae) sicherlich an m ehreren S tellen gehandelt; es ist durchaus m öglich, daß ihre W erke die Stichw örter coemptio (oder coemptione) und con ventio in m anum (oder d esgleichen39)) en th ielten . In der T at hat L i n d s a y dem F e stn s das Lemma com tionalis (coem ptionalis) senex revindiziert40). Das S tich w ort coemptio würde in der R eihe conciliatrix, conventae condicio, cael than
3β) S e h u l z , G eschichte, 1 8 6 ff. 37) D as altröm ischc ius, 343. 38) W a t s o n , T he Law of Persons, 23 f. 39) V ielleich t in m anum conventio, vgl. F estu s 242 L.: Rem ancipatam Gallus A elius esse a it, quae m ancipata sit ab eo, cui in manum convenerit. 40) Glossaria Latina 3, 175.
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hasta, cingillo, cam elis virginibus, cinxiae Iu n on is und cumerum4I) seinen P latz loicht finden. Für dieses Stichw ort können wir die traditionelle R eihenfolge der Modi der wiaraws-Ubertragung ohne W eiteres annchm en. Es bleib t noch die D ivergenz zw ischen farre und farreo zu erklären. Das S u b sta n tiv farreum h a t sich aus dem Adj. farreum (se. libum ) entw ick elt; farre erscheint also als eine ältere Form . Sie begegnet uns in den X I I T afeln42), D ion ysios vo n H alikarnassos I I 25 spricht sehr charakteristisch von der κονωνία τοϋ φαρρός, und das W ort erscheint bei den D ichtern im Zusam m enhang m it den O pferhandlungen43). Ich m öchte also farre als die ursprüngliche Lesung annehm en; bei Gaius wurde sic in A nlehnung an die folgenden W orte genus sa crificii, quod Io u i Farreo fit, in quo farreus p a n is adhibetur, durch farreum verdrängt. D ie Lesung farreum in der gaianischen Tradition beruht also wohl nur auf einem Abschreibfehler. E . V o l t e r r a 44) h a t in seinen gelehrten N u ove ricerche sulla ,con ven tio in m anum 1 die V erm utung ausgesprochen: „non sem bra assurdo congetturare ehe Servio avev a a ttin to talune notizie (d. h. seine A ngaben über die coemptio und confarreatio) da un testo giuridico“. Der vorliegende A ufsatz ist ein Versuch, diese V erm utung zu belegen. Wir haben die Quellen des Sorvius und des Gaius bis auf A teius Capito zurückverfolgt; können wir nun, über Capito hinauf, unseren B lick auf die republikanischen G elehrten lenken? Es ist mehrfach b eob ach tet worden, daß das S ystem des Masurius Sabinus von dem des Q. M ucius Scaevola hergeleitet war; ob aber Scaevola die droi Modi dos numusErw erbes gerade auf eine ähnliche W eise wie Gaius (und verm utlich Sabinus und Capito) behandelte, verm ögen wir nicht sagen. E in A nh altsp u n k t wird allerdings durch die schon oben besprochene Stello des Gellius (X 15, 1 — 18) gegeben. Gellius führt Masurius Sabinus und F abius Pictor nam entlich an, d. h. seine unm ittelbare Vorlage sow ie den ältesten von Sabinus erw ähnten Schriftsteller. Sabinus h at sehr w ahrscheinlich außer Fabius auch die Verfasser der übrigen libri, qui de sacerdotibus pu blicis com positi sunt, genannt, vor allem A teius Capito, dessen Bücher er ausgeschrieben h at und dem er auch seine N achricht über F abius P ictor verd an k t haben wird. A uf diese W eise reicht unsere Q uellenkette bis zu F abius P ictor und dessen Iuris pontificii libri. Dies betrifft nur den Sachverhalt, die caerim oniae des flam en D ia lis und die dam it zusam m enhängende confarreatio, n ich t aber die Form ulierungen. D aß also die X I I T afeln sich m it allen drei Modi des »«anj^'-Erwerbes beschäftigt haben, bleibt eino anziehende Idee; die R eihenfolge usu, farre, coemptione läß t sich jedoch über A teius Capito hinaus nich t zurückverfolgen45).
41) P aulus 5 4 —55 L. A lle diese Stichw örter sind von S t r z c l c c k i (Suppl. Frg. 1 —2, 9 — 11, 19) A teius Capito revindiziert worden. 4a) F IR A I 33 (Tab. I I I 4). 43) V gl. Thes. Ling. L at. und O xford L atin D ictionary s. v. 44) N u ove ricerche 300 in Anm . 46) Für stilistisch e Verbesserung m eines T extes bin ich Herrn C h r i s t o p h K o n r a d sehr dankbar.
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15 Der Senat und die Vereine
Das Problem des Übergangs von dem Vereinsrecht, das zur Zeit der Republik gegolten b a tte, zur k a iser ze itlich en Vereinsordnung wurde zum Gegenstand der Untersuchungen mancher hervorragenden A Gelehrten ; v ie le Grundfragen sind aber bisher ungeklärt g e b lie ben. Nicht anders verh ält sich die Sache mit dem Senatsbeschluß vom J. 64, der a ls der Anfangspunkt der Entwicklung des spätrepu blikanischen Vereinsrechts allgemein anerkannt i s t . Nach der Lehre 2 Mommsens wurde das Senatsconsult gegen d ie , meistens aus Sklaven und Freigelassenen zusammengesetzten Vereine g e lic h te t, die soge nannten c o lle g ia com p italicia, die für den Larenkultus sorgten und a lljä h r lic h zu Ehren d ieser Gottheiten auf Kreuzwegen Spiele ver3 a n sta lte ten . Cohn und Waltzing"^ haben diese These Mommsens einer scharfen K ritik unterzogen; der Senatsbeschluß bezog sich ih rer Ansicht nach nicht auf die c o lle g ia com pitalicia, deren Existenz s ie b e str itte n , sondern auf die Berufsvereine, von denen nur die wenigen ausdrücklich genannten verschont werden s o llte n . Es i s t zu betonen, daß die Grundlage für d ie se , der Mommsenschen so entge gengesetzte Auffassung derselbe Text b ild e t, auf welchen sich die These Mommsens stü tz t: der Bericht von Asconius in seinem Kommen tar zu Ciceros Reden Pro Cornelio und In Pisonem. In den letzten Jahren hat man versucht, mit H ilfe des neuen epigraphischen Mate r ia ls die Schwierigkeiten der Interpretation des Asconiustextes zu überwinden. Die Beschäftigung mit den in sc h r iftlic h e n Quellen hat zur Wiederaufnahme der Lehre Mommsens geführt^, aber wie wir sehen werden, erwecken auch Konstruktionen neuerer Forscher Bedenken. Unter diesen Umständen scheint eine neue Untersuchung auf diesem Gebiet notwendig: s ie kann nicht nur ein neues Licht auf die uns h ier in teressierend e Frage werden, sondern dadurch auch unsere Kenntnis der Sozialgeschichte der Spätrepublik bereichern. Prüfen wir nun die Quellen! Cicero, In L. Pisonem (ed. R. Klotz) 8: Cuius f u i t initium ludi co m p ita licii, tum primum fa c ti post L. I u l i um e t Q. Marcium consules, contra auctoritatem huius ordì—
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95 n is: quos Q. M etellus - fa c io in iu r iam fortissim o viro mortuo, qui illu m , cuius paucos pares haec c iv ita s t u l i t , cum hac importuna be lua conferam - sed. i l l e designatus consul, quum quidam tribunus p le b is suo au x ilio magistros ludos contra senatus consultum facere i u s s i s s e t , privatus f i e r i v e tu it, atque id , quod nondum p otestate p oterat, ob tin u it a u cto rita te. Tu, quum in Kalendas Ianuarias com pitaliorum d ies in c id is s e t , Sex. Clodium, qui numquam antea prae textatu s f u is s e t , ludos facere e t praetextatum v o lita r e passus es, hominem impurum ac non modo f a c ie , sed etiam oculo tuo dignissimum. Asconius (ed . Clark, 6-7) ad lo c .s L. I u lio C. Marcio consulibus quos e t ip se Cicero supra memo r a v it senatus consulto c o lle g ia sublata sunt quae adversus rem pu5 blicam videbantur esse con stitu ta . Solebant0 autem m agistri c o lle giorum ludos fa cere, sic u t m agistri vicorum faciebant Compitali c io s p ra e te x ta ti, qui ludi su b la tis c o lle g iis d iscu ssi sunt. Post VI deinde annos quam sublata erant P. Clodius t r . p l. le g e ·la ta r e s t i t u i t c o lle g ia . Invidiam ergo e t crimen restitutorum confert in Pisonem, quod, cum consul e s s e t, passus s i t ante quam le x ferre tur facere Kal. Ianuar. praetextatum ludos Sex. Clodium. I s f u i t fam iliarissim us Clodii et operarum Clodianarum dux, quo auctore postea i l l a t o ab e is corpore Clodii curia cum eo incensa e s t. Quos ludos tunc quoque f i e r i prohibere temptavit L. Ninnius t r . p l. Ante biennium autem quam restitu eren tu r c o lle g ia , Q. M etellus Celer consul designatus magistros vicorum^ ludos Compitalicios facere prohibuerat, ut Cicero tr a d it, quamvis auctore tribuno p le b is fie r e n t lu d i; cuius tribuni nomen adhuc non in ven i. Cicero, Pro Cornelio (ed . Clark) 75* Quid ego nunc tib i argumentis respondeam posse f i e r i u t a liu s a liq u is Cornelius s i t qui habeat Philerotem servum; volgare nomen 7 esse P h ile r o tis, Cornelios vero i t a multos ut iam etiam c o lle gium constitutum sit? Asconius (ed. Clark, 75) ad l o c .i Frequenter tum etiam coetus factiosorum hominum sine publica au ctoritate malo publico fieb ant: propter quod postea c o lle g ia et S. C. e t pluribus legibus sunt sublata praeter pauca atque certa quae u t i l i t a s c iv it a t is d esid erasset, sic u t fabrorum lictorum que8 .
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Es besteht j e t z t wohl kein Zweifel darüber, daß der von Asco ndila in In . P is . erwähnte Senatsbeschluß aus dem J. 64 stammte; auf d ie se s Jahr weisen sowohl sachliche wie paläographische Grün9 d e '. Man kann sic h fragen, ob Asconius auch im Kommentar zu der Rede Pro Cornelio von demselben Senatsconsult sp rich t. An d ieser le tz te r e n S t e lle ste h t die Abkürzung S.C.; je nach der angenommenen Lösung s ( enatus) c(on su lto) oder s ( enatus) c (o n su ltis) 1 0 hat man d iese Frage bejaht 11 oder n egiert . Dies kann aber 12nicht den An fangspunkt der Analyse des Asconiustextes bilden; es sch ein t, daß die Frage, wie diese Abkürzung zu lesen i s t , die Aufmerksamkeit der Forscher von einer anderen, v i e l wichtigeren Sache abgelenkt h at. Man muß zuerst untersuchen, in welchem Zusammenhang die bei den Berichte Asconius' miteinander stehen. Unserer Ansicht nach b ild e t die Antwort auf diese Frage nicht nur den Kernpunkt der Diskussion über das Senatsconsult vom J. 64, sondern i s t auch über haupt für die Beurteilung der Entwicklung des Vereinsrechts in den le tz te n Jahren der Republik von entscheidender Bedeutung. Der bes seren Anschaulichkeit halber geben wir unten die beiden uns h ier interessierend en S te lle n des Asconius nebeneinander wieder» In Corn. S. 75s In P is . S. 6: Frequenter tum etiam coetus fa c L. I u lio C. Marcio consulibus., tiosorum hominum sine publica senatus consulto c o lle g ia sub auctoritate malo publico fiebant» la ta sunt quae adversus rem propter quod postea c o lle g ia et publicam videbantur esse con S. C. et pluribus legibu s sunt s t it u t a . sublata praeter pauca atque cer ta quae u t i l i t a s c iv i t a t is d e sid erasset, sic u t fabrorum l i c t o rumque. Es i s t vor allem zu bemerken, daß w ir, g le ich g ü ltig ob wir die von Asconius in In P is . und in In Corn, erwähnten Senatsbe schlüsse für ein und dasselbe Senatsconsult halten oder n ich t, n ich t ohne w eiteres berechtigt sin d , den ganzen In halt der S te lle aus dem Kommentar zur Corneliana dem Senatsbeschluß vom J. 64 zu— zuschreiben. Dies würde bedeuten, daß die von Asconius angedeute— ten weiteren leg e s nichts Neues eingeführt, sondern nur die Vor sch riften des Senatsbeschlusses vom J. 64 wiederholt haben. Diese unwahrscheinliche These wurde aber erstaunlicherw eise zur herr schenden Meinung von drei Generationen von Gelehrten, wie aus den
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untea angeführten Worten Mommsens, Waltzings und De Robertis' klar hervorgeht : Mommsen, De c o lle g iis 74; Ne tarnen hoc SCto (d .h . aus dem J. 64) omnia c o lle g ia peraeque d isso lu ta putes, excepta sunt certa quaedam quae publicam u tilita te m haberent. Waltzing, Étude I 106; C 'é ta it (d. h. das Senatsconsult aus dem J. 64) une mesure generale; le s co lleg e s èpargnés formaient une s i minime exception que le Sénat le s désigna nominativement. De R obertis, Dir. a ss. 9 3 : (das Senatsconsult vom J. 64 war) un provvedimento generale . . . c h e ... soppresse t u t t i le associa z io n i, eccetto alcune poche specificam ente in d ica te. Die obengenannten Gelehrten haben aber gewiß nicht daran ge dacht, welche weitreichende Folgerungen sic h aus ihren Worten er geben; w örtlich genommen haben s ie anstatt der le x I u liö das Senats consult vom J. 64 zum Grundstein der kaiserlich en Vereinsordnung gemacht. Unsere Theorie, die sic h von der bisher herrschenden Meinung grundsätzlich unterscheidet, können wir folgendermaßen formulieren: 1) auf das senatus consultum de c o lle g iis vom J. 64 beziehen sic h unmittelbar nur die Bemerkungen des Asconius im Kommentar zu der Rede In Pisonem; 2) der Kommentar zu der Rede Pro Cornelio enthält dagegen einen kurzen Abriß der Entwicklung des Vereinsrechts von - dem Senatsbeschluß vom J. 64 b is zur Gesetzgebung des Augustus e in sc h lie ß lic h . Dieser Leitfaden unserer Erörterungen muß je tz t etwas ausführ lic h e r begründet werden. Schon auf den ersten Blick sie h t man k lar, daß Asconius an den beiden S te lle n sic h der verschiedenen Terminologie bedient, daß s ie verschiedenartig s t i l i s i e r t sind. Im Kommentar zur Pisoniana lesen w ir, daß nur diese Vereine a u fgelöst worden sind, die für das Staatswohl gefäh rlich waren (quae adversus rem publicam videbantur esse c o n stitu ta ). Man erin nere sich in diesem Zusammenhang an die von Gaius ü b e r lie fer te Be stimmung des Zwölft a f e lg e s e tz e s ; h is (sodalibus) potestatem f a c it le x (XII Tab.) pactionem quam v e lin t sib i fe r r e , dum ne quid ex AO publica lege corrumpant der Senat hat im J. 64 augenscheinlich dieselben rechtlichen Möglichkeiten ausgenutzt, wie im J. 186 während der Bacchanalien-Affäre 14 . Der Senatsbeschluß änderte gar n ich ts an der bestehenden Vereinsgesetzgebung, er schuf keine neuen
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Regeln der S ta a tsp o litik bezüglich der Vereine. Der Senat wirkte nur auf Grund sein er Befugnis, für die Sicherh eit der Republik zu sorgen, und in seinem Beschlüsse s t e l l t e er f e s t , daß eine An zahl der K ollegien adversus rem publicam gegründet worden waren. Er empfahl der Magistratur, d iese staatsgefäh rlich e Kategorie der K ollegien aufzulösen. Im Kommentar zu der Rede fü r Cornelius le g t Asconius das Schwergewicht nicht auf die aufgehobenen Vereine, sondern auf jene, die verschont wurden. Bei dem Tatbestand, der im Kommentar zur Pisoniana g esch ild ert wird, s o l l t e ein Verein, um verschont zu werden, nur nicht adversus rem publicam sein; in In P is. betont Asconius dagegen, daß d ies zur Verschonung nicht genügte: um wei terbestehen zu können mußte jeder Verein seine N ützlichkeit für den Staat nachweisen. Es i s t wohl verstän d lich , daß Asconius Bei sp ie le solcher K ollegien g ib t und daß dieselben verhältnismäßig nicht zahlreich waren. Der Ausdruck u t i l i t a s c iv i t a t is war in dem oben angedeuteten Sinn der republikanischen S taatstheorie fremd. Es i s t zwar offen s ic h t lic h , daß die ideologische Terminologie des Prinzipats v ie le s aus der p o litisch en Sprache der ausgehenden Republik übernommen hat 1 5 , es i s t aber ebenso k la r , daß die alten termini sehr o f t neue Bedeutung e r h ie lte n . O f fiz ie lle Dokumente und l it e r a r i sche Texte aus der Zeit der Republik sprechen zwar von der u t i l i ta s publica, aber der Ausdruck wird in der Regel nur a ls a llg e meiner B eg riff verwendet und nicht a ls eine streng p r ä z isie rte ju r istisc h e Regel*16 . Man kann zwar behaupten, daß wir an der h ier in Rede stehen den S te lle mit einer gewissen Modernisierung zu tun haben, indem Asconius Anschauungen sein er Epoche in die Zeiten der Republik v e rleg t hat1 7' . Diese These i s t zwar möglich, aber unbeweisbar; s ie würde sonst unsere Ansicht b estätigen , daß der Senatsbeschluß vom J. 64 den Gedanken der u t i l i t a s c iv it a t is nicht enthalten hat. Es i s t aber v i e l wahrscheinlicher, daß Asconius den B egriff der u t i l i t a s c iv i t a t is aus ein er der von ihm erwähnten leges geschöpft hat. Es wird von ihm im Kommentar zur Corneliana eine lange le g is la tiv e T ätigkeit gesch ild ert: den Ausgangspunkt b ild e t die Ver mehrung von coetus factiosorum hominum, d. h. von Vereinen, die adversus rem publicam videbantur esse con stitu ta; gegen diese Organisationen rich teten sic h aufeinanderfolgende Senatsbeschlüsse
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99 und Gesetze, die die V erein sfreih eit immer mehr beschränkten, b is sc h lie ß lic h nur diese Vereine geblieben sind, quae u t i l i t a s c iv i t a t i s d esid erasset. Aus den obigen Ausführungen ergibt sich zugleich die Antwort auf die Frage, wie die Abkürzung S.C. in In Corn, zu lesen ist» a ls e in zig e, durch sachliche Gründe berechtigte Lösung wird man s(enatus) c (o n su ltis) und nicht s(enatus) c(onsulto) anerkennen müssen. Was für Senatsbeschlüsse und Gesetze hatte Asconius im Sinn? Man kann an folgende Akte denken: 1) senatus consultum de c o lle g i i s vom J. 64; 2) senatus consultum vom J. 56 (u t so d a lita te s decuriatique discederent); 3) le x L icinia de s o d a lic iis vom J. 55; ΛQ 4) le x I u lia (von Caesar oder Augustus) . Das Senatsconsult vom J. 64 war unserer Interpretation gemäß au ssch ließ lich gegen die Vereine g e r ic h te t, die adversus rem publi cam videbantur esse c o n stitu ta . Der Senatsbeschluß vom J. 56 und die le x L icinia bezogen sich auf die von Clodius g e s tifte te n Ver ein e, bzw. auf die Vereinigungen, die die Wahlbestechungen organi sie r te n . In keinem von diesen Akten finden wir - soweit wir auf Grund der uns ü b erlieferten Quellen darüber u rteilen können irgendeine Berufung auf u t i l i t a s c iv it a t is oder u t i l i t a s publica. D ieser B egriff a ls Grundgedanke für Umgestaltung des Vereinsrechts i s t erst durch die le x I u lia eingeführt worden. Dieser Schluß er g ib t sic h zwingend aus der bekannten In sc h r ift des collegium symphoniacorum19': Dis Manibus c o lle g io symphoniacorum. Qui sa c ris p u blion c is praestu sunt, quibus senatus c (o ir e) c(ollegium ) c(on stitu ere) perm isit e lege I u lia ex auctoritate Augusti ludorum causa. Das Kollegium der symphoniaci i s t also ludorum causa autori s ie r t worden; seine N ützlichkeit beruhte offenbar auf der T ätigkeit der symphoniaci während der S p iele. Nicht anders wird sich die Sa che mit den von Asconius erwähnten fabri und lic to r e s verhalten. Was die lic to r e s a n b e tr ifft, i s t ihre N ützlichkeit für den Staat ganz augenscheinlich 21 , aber auch die c o lle g ia fabrum erh ielten die sta a tlich e Autorisation wegen der von ihnen ausgeübten Funktionen der Feuerlöschmannschaft 22 Die oben vorgeschlagene These wird noch deutlicher durch e in i ge Äußerungen der späteren Juristen b e stä tig t, die in der S t i l i sierung und Terminologie eine überraschende Ähnlichkeit mit der h ier analysierten S te lle des Asconius aufweisen:
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Caius, D ig . 3 ,4 ,1 : F aucis««« In causis concessa sunt huiusmodi corpora und w eiter: item Romae c o lle g ia certa sunt, quorum corpus senatus co n su ltis atque con stitu tion ib u s principalibus confirmatum e s t , v e lu ti pistorum e t quorundum aliorum, et navi ciliari orum, qui e t in p ro v in c iis su nst. (Asconius: c o lle g ia . . , pauca atque certa ). C a llistr a tu s, D ig .2 7 ,1 ,1 7 ,2 : Eos, qui in corporibus sunt, v e lu ti fabrorum, immunitatem habere d icim u s... (Asconius: c o lle g ia . . . sic u t fabrorum lictorum que). C a llistr a tu s, D ig . 5 0 , 6 , 6 ,12: Quibusdam c o lle g iis v e l corpori bus, quibus iu s coeundi lege permissum e s t, immunitas trib u itu r: s c i l i c e t e is c o lle g iis v e l corporibus, in quibus a r t i f i c i i sui causa unusquisque adsumj tu r , ut fabrorum corpus e st e t s ie quae eandem rationem o r ig in iis habent, id e s t id circo in s titu ta sunt, u t necessariam operam p u b licis u t ilit a t ib u s exhiberent. (Asconius: c o l l e g i a ... quae u t i l i t a s c iv it a t is d e sid er a sse t). Die ju r istisc h e und term inologische Übereinstimmung zwischen Asconius, Gaius und C a llistra tu s kann am besten durch die Annahme einer gemeinsamen Quelle erk lärt werden. Als solche gemeinsame Quelle kann nur die le x I u lia , das Grundgesetz des k a is e r z e it li chen Vereinssystems, angesehen werden. Dieses Gesetz e n th ie lt wahrscheinlich nicht das Verzeichnis der a u to risierten Vereine, sondern vielmehr die Aufzählung der causae,auf Grund deren die sta a tlic h e Genehmigung e r t e i l t werden k o n n te^ . B eisp ielsw eise wurden aber wohl ein ige Kategorien der K ollegien angeführt, jed en fa lls sicher die fa b r i. Die Tatsache, daß die fabri bei Asconius und an zwei verschiedenen S te lle n des C a llistra tu s in einem ähnlichen Kontext erscheinen, wird schwerlich auf einem Zufall beruhen24 . Asconius betont nur den Grundgedanken der le x I u lia : Rücksicht auf die u t i l i t a s c iv it a t is 25 das gelten de Vereinsrecht wurde aber dann durch die sic h an das Iu lisch e Gesetz anknüpfenden Senatsbeschlüsse und K aisererlässe w eiterent w ick elt, und dieser Tatbestand wird von Gaius und C allistra tu s g e sch ild er t. Es i s t also wohl möglich und sogar wahrscheinlich, daß s ie nicht unmittelbar aus der le x I u lia geschöpft haben, son dern durch Vermittlung der von Gaius erwähnten senatus consulta und con stitu tio n es; diese aber en th ielten einige aus diesem Gesetz stammende Formeln und Ausdrücke, wie die Berufung auf die u t i l i t a s c iv i t a t is bzw. u t i l i t a s publica, oder die Erwähnung der c o lle g ia fabrorum.
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Die bisherigen ErwäguDgeD habeD zur Rekonstruktion der Ent wicklung des Vereinsrechts io den letz te n Jahren der Republik ge führt; es i s t nun notwendig, das senatus consultum vom J. 64 einer weiteren Analyse zu unterziehen. Welches war also im einzelnen der In halt d ieses Seoatsbeschlusses? Eine Antwort auf diese Frage kann uns nur eine k r i t i sche Erörterung der uns von Ascooius io In P is . 6-7 C ü b er lie fer ten Nachrichten geben. Zunächst i s t zu bemerken, daß die übliche Bezeichnung senatus consultum de c o lle g iis den wesentlichen Inhalt des Beschlusses nicht adäquat w iedergibt. Der Seoatsbeschluß - wie ihn Cicero dar s t e l l t und Ascooius erläu tert - betraf nämlich wenigstens zwei Probleme: erstens verfügte er die Auflösung der K ollegien, quae adversus rem publicam videbantur esse co n stitu ta , zweitens verbot er die Veranstaltung und Abhaltung der alljä h rlich en Sp iele auf Kreuzwegen, der ludi c o m p ita licii. Aus den Worten Ascooiu^ "qui ludi su b la tis c o lle g iis d iscu ssi sunt" könnte man zwar schließen, daß die Aufhebung der ludi le d ig lic h eine Folge der Auflösung der K ollegien war, aber die Worte Ciceros se lb st (ludi com p italicii tum primum f a c t i . . . contra auctoritatem huius ordinis und w eiter ...tr ib u n u s p leb is suo au x ilio magistros ludos contra senatus con sultum facere iu s s i s s e t ) , lassen keinen Zweifel über den wahren Sachverhalt bestehen 2 6 . Jedenfalls standen diese beiden Faktoren - Kollegien und ludi - miteinander in einem gewissen Zusammenhang. Der w ichtigste Punkt i s t hier die Interpretation des Satzes: solebant autem ma g is t r i collegiorum ludos facere sic u t magistri vicorum faciebant Com pitalicios p r a e te x ta ti, qui ludi su b la tis c o lle g iis d iscu ssi sunt, deo man je nach der angenommenen Interpunktion verschieden verstehen kann. Bei rein theoretischer Prüfung der Texte Ciceros und des Ascooius ergeben sich nämlich mehrere Ioterpretatioosm öglic h k e ite o : 1) wenn wir, wie die Mehrzahl der Herausgeber, io dem oben angeführten Satz zwei B eistrich e, nach facere und nach fa c ie bant, setzen, so bekommen w ir, daß io die toga praetexta g e k lei dete m agistri collegiorum die ludi com p italicii zusammen mit ma g is t r i vicorum veran stalteten . Hier sind zwei w eitere Varianten möglich: diese magistri collegiorum konnten sein: a) magistri s p e z ie lle r , zur P flege des Lareokultus und zur Veranstaltung von Spielen berufener Vereinigungen, der sogenannten c o lle g ia compita -
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lic ia » b) m agistri verschiedener, bei der Veranstaltung der ludi co m p ita licii mitwirkender Handwerkergenossenschaften. Die erste Variante lag der Theorie Mommsens zugrunde27 , fürpQ die zweite Möglic h k e it hat sic h dagegen Waltzing ausgesprochen ; 2) setzen wir jedoch nur einen B e istrich , und zwar nach fa cere, so i s t anzuneh men, daß die m agistri der K ollegien irgendwelche nicht näher bezeichnete S p iele organ isierten , hingegen die com pitalicia nur OQ von den m agistri vicorum v e ra n sta lte t wurden . An d ieser S t e lle i s t zu bemerken, daß der Text die Möglich k e it der Veranstaltung von ludi co m p italicii a lle in von den ma g is t r i collegiorum nicht zuläßt. Cicero b erich tet nämlich, daß schon nach dem J. 64, also nach Auflösung der K ollegien und dem Verbot der Abhaltung von kompitalischen Spielen, m agistri e x is t ie r ten , die sic h bemühten, die ludi wieder einzuführen. Dies konnten n atü rlich keine m agistri der Kollegien sein ; Asconius id e n t if iz ie r t s ie denn auch ausdrücklich mit den m agistri vicorunr30 . Man muß es klar heraussagen, daß der Text des Asconius keine Grundlage für eine eindeutige Lösung d ie se s Problems b ie t e t . Be sonders v ie le Mißverständnisse entstanden im Zusammenhang mit der krage der sogenannten c o lle g ia com p italicia. Da gerieten die zwei großen Autoritäten Mommsen und Waltzing aneinander, und es ent brannte sodann unter späteren Forschern eine heiße Polemik. Man muß bedenken, daß die Antwort auf die Frage, ob Kollegien d ieser Art ta tsä c h lic h e x is tie r te n , für die Darstellung des ganzen Problems der Lage der römischen Kollegien in der Mitte des ersten Jahrhunderts keineswegs ohne Bedeutung i s t . Denn wenn wir uns der These Mommsens anschließen, so müssen wir annehmen, daß der Senats beschluß vor allem gegen jene c o lle g ia com pitalicia le d ig lic h von Mommsen ersonnen sind, so sind die aufgelösten Vereine insbesondere unter den verschiedenartigen Handwerkervereinigungen zu suchen. Und eine solche Lösung w ir ft natürlich ein anderes Licht auf das Verhalten der römischen Handwerker und ih rer Organisationen in den heißen Jahren der Verschwörung G atilinas und der T ätigkeit des Clodius. Unter diesen Umständen erscheint eine m öglichst a l l s e i t i ge Erörterung d ieser Frage unerläßlich. Es i s t vor allem - auch zum Zweck der V erifikation der schon durchgeführten Analyse des Textes des Asconius - unbedingt notwendig, nach anderen Quellen zu suchen. Besonders große Bedeutung haben epigraphische Denkmäler, d ie , wie z. B. die neuen In sch riften aus Minturnae, Mommsen und
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Waltzing noch nicht bekannt waren. Aufklärung eri ordern vor allem der Charakter der ludi compi t a l i c i i und der Zusammenhang, der zwischen ihnen und der Organisa tion der einzelnen v ic i bestand. Erst auf diesem Grund wird man etwas Konkreteres über den w ichtigsten Gegenstand der gegenwärti gen Erwägungen, die c o lle g ia com p italicia, sagen können. Ludi c o m p ita licii. A lljä h rlich v era n sta ltete man auf Kreuzun gen von Wegen und Rainen ö ffe n tlic h e Sp iele zu Ehren der Laren a ls Schutzgötter der Arbeit des Landmannes. Auf einer solchen Kreu zung, die die Bezeichnung compitum trug, befand sich gewöhnlich eine Kapelle - sacellum - , ein Mittelpunkt des Larenkultus. Daher stammt die Bezeichnung der dort verehrten Laren: Lares compitales, des Feiertages: Compitalia und der S p iele: Ludi c o m p ita licii. Es war dies a lso , wenigstens ursprünglich, ein ausgesprochen bäuerlicher Feiertag} auf dem Gebiet der Stadt Rom nahm er jedoch mit der Zeit einen anderen Charakter an, indem er s p e z ie ll die Handwerk betreibende Bevölkerung der Hauptstadt heranzog. Varro bezeichnet die Compitalia a ls fe r ia e conceptivae 32 , beweglicher F eiertag. Dieser f i e l in der Regel in die ersten Tage des Januar und wurde jedesmal nach den Saturnalien vom Prätor bestimmt. Der Kult der Lares compitales war hauptsächlich in den niedrigeren Schichten der Bevölkerung v e r b r e ite t. Auf dem Land war es vor a lOO lern ein Feiertag des unfreien Gesindes^ . Dieser Kult hatte naturgemäß zugleich einen te r r ito r ia le n Charakter. Von diesem Gesichtspunkt gesehen bezeichnete der Termi nus compitum nicht nur eine Straßenkreuzung, sondern auch das G ebiet, dessen Einwohner gemeinsam die Laren verehrten und gemein sam an den Spielen zu ihren Ehren teilnahmen. Was für ein Gebiet ein solches compitum umfaßte, i s t nicht ganz klar; die Frage der E inteilung des republikanischen I ta lie n s in pagi, v i c i , fora, conc ilia b u la und compita, ih res V erhältnisses zueinander, ih rer inne ren Organisation und ih res rechtlichen Statu s, gehört übrigens zu den schwierigsten Problemen bei der Erforschung der Verfassungs geschichte der Republik. D ieses Thema kann an dieser S te lle nur flü c h tig berührt werden; aber auch hier muß man trachten, sich ein möglichst klares B ild zu verschaffen; ohne Erörterung der Fra ge des Zusammenhanges von compitum, vicu s und pagus i s t das Rätsel der c o lle g ia com pitalicia nicht zu lösen .
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104 Compitum. Man hat bemerkt, daß d ie innere Organisation der pagi und v ic i in einem gewissen Sinn der Organisation der römischen K ollegien der Handwerker und Kaufleute und den r e lig iö se n K ollegien 34 entspricht^ . An der Spitze der pagi und v ic i standen - ebenso wie in den K ollegien - m agistri (ein er oder mehrere), s ie besaßen o ft eigene Statuten (pactiones und le g e s paganae), die ihre inneren Angelegenheiten reg elten , erließen für 31 e Einwohner des gegebenen pagus oder vlcu s verbindliche Dekrete, hatten endlich die Fähig k e it , Rechtshandlungen vorzunehmen; s ie besaßen Vermögen, unter nahmen verschiedene Bauarbeiten, s p e z ie ll die Renovierung von Tem p eln , der Zentren ih res K ultes. Die Gesamtheit der Einwohner eines pagus oder vlcu s entspricht damit der Gesamtheit der M itglieder ein es Kollegiums. Die Stellu ng der m agistri des pagus bekleideten in der Regel ingenui; die m agistri vicorum waren hingegen vorwie gend F reigelassene, ihnen halfen m in istr i, in der Regel Sklaven. Es gab jedoch ziem lich o ft Abweichungen von dem oben angegebenen Schema. Der Wirkungskreis der einzelnen pagi und v ic i war übrigens keineswegs g le ic h . Die Lage der pagi und v ic i war anders dort, wo es keine städ tisch e Organisation gab, wo s ie - das i s t verständ lic h - am in ten siv sten lebten und einen T eil der anderswo von Städten e r fü llte n Aufgaben auf sic h nahmen (ein k la ssisch es Bei s p ie l sind die pagi Campani), anders auf T erritorien, die zu Städ ten gehörten, anders endlich in Rom s e lb s t. Man nimmt gewöhnlich an, daß der pagus eine größere te r r ito r ia le E inheit b ild ete a ls der v ic u s, d. h . , daß der pagus mehrere v ic i umfaßte. Das war aber keine allgemein bindende Regel. Es sind F älle bekannt, in denen ein pagus nur einen vicu s e n th ie lt oder einzelne v ic i überhaußt außerhalb der pagi lagen, ohne zu irgendeinem von ihnen zu gehören^35 .
Mommsen meinte, daß jedes compitum, mit dem Zentrum um das sacellum der Laren, mehrere v ic i umfaßte. Über die Organisation des Lareskultus schreibt er wie fo lg t: Cultores autem Larum compi3£ talium constituere solebant collegium compitalicium . Die Mit g lied er ein es solchen Kollegiums wählten eigene m agistri, die nicht mit den m agistri der entsprechenden v ic i zu verwechseln sind. Diese m agistri so llte n zusammen die ludi com p italicii veranstal t e t haben. In der Konstruktion Mommsens i s t es jedoch nicht k lar, ob zu einem solchen Kollegium a lle Einwohner der gegebenen v ic i oder nur
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105 ein ige (cu ltores Larum) gehörten. Mommsen scheint zu d ieser zwei ten Möglichkeit zu neigen. Dann b le ib t jedoch die rech tlich e Lage d ieser Vereine weiterhin unklar. Erwähnungen der c o lle g ia com pitalicia befinden sich nach Mommsen nicht nur bei Asconius; auch Cicero s o ll bei der Beschrei bung der Bildung der Kollegien durch Clodius auf Grund sein es den Senatsbeschluß über die K ollegien vom J. 64 aufhebenden Gesetzes vom J. 58 davon sprechen. Cicero schreibt nämlich u. a .: servorum d ile c tu s habebatur pro trib u n ali Aurelio nomine collegiorum cum . vicatim homines conscriberentur, decuriarentur^Ύ! , und an anderer S t e lle : cum in tribunali Aurelio conscribebas palam non modo lib e ros, sed etiam servos ex omnibus v ic is concitatos^®. Diese Vereine bildeten sich also in den einzelnen v i c i , und es gehörten ihnen vorwiegend Sklaven an, was ta tsä c h lich dem Charakter des Kompitalk u lts gut entsp richt. Cicero erwähnt zwar nirgends die Bezeichnung "collegium compitalicium", es sieh t aber tatsäch lich nicht so aus, a ls hätte Cicero hier gewöhnliche Handwerkerkollegien im Sinn gehabt. Die K ritik Waltzings i s t hier also nicht gut begründet^39 . Einen entscheidenden Beweis des Bestehens d ieser K ollegien und des sen, daß ihre Bezeichnung ta tsä c h lich "collegium compitalicium" la u te te , h o ffte aber Mommsen in der In sc h r ift CIL XI 1550 aus Fae sulae zu finden, die jedoch schon aus der K aiserzeit stammt: D.M.L. Terentio Fido e t Noviciae contubernali eius c o lleg iu s com pitalici u s. Diese In sc h r ift b ie te t ta tsä ch lich einen unwiderlegbaren Be w eis, daß es in der Periode des Kaisertums (wahrscheinlich im 3. Jh.) in Faesulae eine Vereinigung gab, die co lleg iu s com pitali ciu s genannt wurde. Wir wissen jedoch n ich t, ob das Kollegium aus Faesulae und die in Frage stehenden c o lle g ia com pitalicia aus der Z eit der Republik miteinander das Wesen oder nur den Namen gemein sam hatten. Die z it ie r t e In sc h r ift trennt vom Ende der Republik ein genügend langer Zeitraum, um ähnliche Vorbehalte zu machen. Das Kollegium aus Faesulae war, wie d ies schon die S tilisie r u n g der In sc h r ift andeutet, wahrscheinlich ein Verein p rivater cu ltores oder ein Begräbnisverein 40 . Wie wir sehen werden, entspricht das nicht ganz dem Wesen der c o lle g ia com p italicia, wenigstens in der Auffassung Mommsens. Wie wir gesehen haben, lä ß t sich der Text des Asconius auch abweichend von der Theorie Mommsens, welche das Bestehen der c o lle gia com pitalicia annimmt, sin n voll in terp retieren; gegen diese
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106 Theorie wurden jedoch auch gewisse sachliche Einwürfe erhoben. So s t e l l t e Waltzing schon den ersten Punkt der Beweisführung Mommsens in Abrede, die Behauptung, daß compitum aus mehreren v ic i bestehe. Nach seiner Ansicht v e r h ie lt sich die Sache anderst der Terminus "compitum" war nur ein Synonym der Bezeichnung v icu s, v ic in it a s . Im J. 7 v . u. Z. führte Kaiser Augustus eine Reform IL O der adm inistrativen E inteilung Roms durch : die Stadt wurde in 14 regiones (es verschwanden damals die alten montes und pagi ur bani) e in g e t e ilt , die wieder in k lein ere te r r ito r ia le Einheiten z e r fie le n . Suetonius nennt s ie v i c i ^ , P lin iu s bezeichnet s ie aus·· drucklich a ls compita Larum44 . So i s t also vicu s hier g le ic h com pitum. T atsächlich e r h ie lt damals jeder vicu s ein eigenes sa c el lum, das Zentrum zugleich des Lareskults und des Kultus des Kaiser hauses. Augustus lie ß auch das a lte Amt der m agistri vicorum be stehen; es wurden s e i t d ieser Z eit e plebe cuiusque v ic in ia e je v ie r gewählt45 ; m in istri halfen ihnen, Sklaven. Zu ihren Obliegen heiten gehörte u. a. die Veranstaltung der von Augustus nach langer Unterbrechung erneuerten ludi com p italicii 46 . Die Tatsache, daß vicu s und compitum fortan id en tisch waren, konnte v ie l l e i c h t nur eine Neueinführung des Augustus se in , eine M öglichkeit, d ie Waltzing n ich t wahrgenommen h at. Er war wahr sch ein lich der Ansicht, daß die (zwar aus Pompeji und nicht aus 2 Rom stammende) In sc h r ift CIL I 777=IV 66, welche eine L iste der m agistri aus den Jahren 47 und 46 v.u .Z . en th ält, die a ls mag ( i s t r i ) v ic i e t compiti bezeichnet sind, a lle Zweifel zerstreuen muß. Es i s t i jr - so schloß er - unmöglich, daß auf dem Gebiet desselben vicu s = compitum g le ic h z e itig voneinander unabhängige m agistri v ic i und m agistri eines collegium compitalicium tä tig w aren^. So e x is tie r te n also nach Ansicht d ieses Forschers diese K ollegien überhaupt nicht; die lud i com p italicii organisierten ganz einfach d ie m agistri vicorum zusammen mit dem m agistri ver schiedener Handwerkergenossenschaften. Die Wahl zwischen den Theorien Mommsens und Waltzings i s t schwer: beide sind B eisp iele eindringlicher Q uelleninterpretation und entwickeln lo g isch die im Text des Asconius gegebenen In ter pretationsm öglichkeiten. Unter diesen Umständen erscheint es not wendig, noch gewisse term inologische und insbesondere ju r istisc h e Präzisierungen durchzuführen.
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107 1) Waltzing behauptet, daß vicu s dasselbe war wie compitum, Mommsen hingegen, daß compitum mehrere v ic i umfaßte. Es sind aber beide angeführten Behauptungen b erech tigt. Es hängt davon ab, was wir unter compitum verstehen. Wenn es das Gebiet i s t , dessen Ein wohner zusammen die Lares anbeteten und ihre auf der Wegkreuzung stehende Kapelle betreuten, so f o lg t aus d ieser Bezeichnung n ich t, daß compitum dem vicu s g leich sein mußte. Dies war nur in dem P a ll, wenn, sofern man so sagen kann, der vicu s die te r r ito r ia le B asis des Kultes war; auf solche B eisp iele beruft sic h Waltzing, und so war es wahrscheinlich im republikanischen Rom und ganz be stimmt im k a iserlich en . Wenn jedoch nicht die Einwohner ein es v i cus, sondern die ein es pagus gemeinsam die Laren anbeteten, dann war compitum in der oben angebenen Bedeutung id en tisch mit pagus 48 . Es i s t nicht ausgeschlossen, daß es sic h in Kampanien so v e r h ie lt. Es i s t ferner k lar, daß der B egriff compitum im Gegensatz zu pagus oder vicu s ju r is tis c h nichts besagt; compitum i s t überhaupt keine adm inistrative E inh eit. 2) Keiner der bisherigen Forscher hat im Zusammenhang mit der Frage der c o lle g ia com pitalicia über die rech tlich e Stellung jener Beamten und Kollegien nachgedacht, die sic h mit dem Larenkultus und s p e z ie ll mit den Kompitalspielen befaßten. Man muß bedenken, daß die Compitalia kein F est rein privaten Charakters waren. Ihr Termin wurde vom Prätor fe s tg e s e tz t, und schon das a lle in machte s ie zu einem der s ta a tlic h anerkannten Festtage und öffen tlich en S p ie le . Sie hatten also o f f iz ie lle n , ö ffen tlich en Charakter; die während d ieser Feste den Laren dargebrachten Opfer waren nicht nur sacra privata 49 . Es war d ies jedoch ein o f f i z i e l l e r Charakter be sonderer Art: im Gegensatz zu anderen Festen und Spielen, wie ludi magni oder c a p ito lin i, waren die ludi com p italicii e ig e n tlic h ein Ständefest, und zwar ein Fest des niedrigstens Volkes, vor allem der Freigelassenen und Sklaven. Die m agistri, die diese Sp iele ver a n sta lteten , waren jedoch nichtsdestoweniger o f f i z i e l l e Persön lic h k e ite n , selb stverstän d lich nicht Repräsentanten des Staates, sondern nur des vicu s oder pagus. Ein sichtbares Zeichen ih rer o f f iz ie lle n Stellung war das Recht, die toga praetexta zu tragen. Asconius bezeichnet die m agistri, welche den Spielen vorstanden, ausdrücklich a ls p r a etex ta ti. In diesem Zusammenhang verdient eine S t e lle des L ivius Beachtung, die für die dort gegebene Schilderung der Rechte und P riv ileg ien der niedrigsten Schichten und Stände
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108 der römischen G esellsch aft sehr charakteristisch i s t . Livius bei der Erzählung der E reignisse des Jahres 195 schreibt: purpura v ir i utemur, p ra etex ta ti in m agistratibus, in sa cerd o tiis; lib e r i nost r i p r a etex tis purpura to g is utentur; magistratibus in c o lo n iis m unicipiisque, h ic Romae infimo gen eri, m a g i s t r i s v i e o r u m , togae praetextae habendae iu s permittemus^. Die Worte des L ivius schildern zwar eher die Stimmung der Augustei schen Epoche, geben ein id e a le s B ild der r e a lis ie r te n concordia ordinum n ich t nur von den Spitzen der G esellsch aft, sondern auch von ih rer untersten Schicht. Jeder Stand, se lb st der n ied rigste hat einen P latz im Staat und seinen Wirkungskreis. Was aber die Befugnisse der m agistri vicorum b e t r if f t , war d ies bestimmt keine Innovation des Augustus; Augustus hat d ieses Amt nur erneuert^51 . Hier l i e g t m. E. der schwächste Punkt der Hypothese Momm sens: die c o lle g ia com pitalicia müßten, damit ihre magistri den Spielen vorstehen und vor allem die toga praetexta tragen könnten, Organisationen o f f iz ie lle n Charakters gewesen se in . Und das hat Mommsen k e in e s fa lls bewiesen. Das Kollegium aus Paesulae, auf das er sich b eru ft, war bestimmt keine o f f i z i e l l e Organisation. Um ein mögliches Mißverständnis zu vermeiden, muß man sic h dagegen verwahren, daß die obigen Bemerkungen le d ig lic h das recht lic h e Wesen der c o lle g ia com pitalicia und ihren Zusammenhang mit den ludi betreffen ; es erscheint hingegen nicht r ic h tig , mit Walt zing ihre Existenz überhaupt in Abrede zu s t e lle n . 3) Diese Befugnisse der m agistri vicorum schließen jedoch die M öglichkeit nicht aus, daß in einzelnen Pallen der Kompitalkultus sp e z ie lle n Organisationen übertragen wurde. Ohne auf den S tr e it um den Namen einzugehen - es waren nicht Kollegien jener Art, für die Mommsen s ie h i e l t . Den Terminus "collegium" kann man nämlich verstehen a) a ls Versammlung einer gewissen Anzahl Personen mit den von ihnen gewählten Beamten, den m agistri, an der S p itze. Die c o lle g ia com pitalicia betrachtete Mommsen eben als solche Organi sationen, a ls "wirkliche" Vereine; b) a ls ein Kollegium der Beam ten , erwählten oder durch die Organisationen design ierten, die nicht die technische Bezeichnung collegium trugen. Anders gesagt, es handelt sich um Unterscheidung zwischen m a g i s t r i c o l l e g i orum und c o l l e g i a m a g i s t r o r u m . Obige Bemerkungen im Gedächtnis behaltend, können wir an die Erörterung der epigraph!sehen Quellen herantreten.
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109 I . Unter den zahlreichen In sch riften , die sic h auf die sögeζρ nannten m agistri Campani beziehen , befindet sich u. a. folgende I n s c h r if t ^ : Pagus Herculaneus s c i v it a.d.X Term inaflia]. Conlegium, s e ive ma g is tr a l Io v ei Compagei[sunt], u te i in porticum paganam r e fic ie n dam pequniam consumerent ex lege pagana, arbitratu Cn. Laetori Cn. f . magistral pagei; uteique ei conlegio, selve m agistri sunt Iovei Compagei, locus in teatro e sse t tam quasei ludos fe c is s e n t (w eiter rolgen die Namen von 12 Freigelassenen - m agistri und das Datums die Namen der Konsuln des Jahres 94-)· Diese In sc h r ift g e sta tte t ein ige wichtige Beobachtungen zu machen : 1) Auf dem Gebiet des pagus Herculaneus*7^ gab es neben dem Amt des magister (oder der m agistri) des pagus noch andere magist r i; zu den Obliegenheiten d ieser letzteren gehörte die Betreuung des Heiligtums und desCC Kults der obersten G ottheit des pagus des Juppiter Compages'7'7 sowie die Veranstaltung der S p iele, wahr sc h ein lich der paganalia. 2) Die Wendung conlegium selve m agistrei Iovei Compagei be w eist d eu tlich , daß d ies nicht magistri irgendeiner Vereinigung von cultores waren, sondern daß eben s ie se lb st ein Kollegium von 12 Beamten bildeten'7*7. 3) Aus der In sc h r ift ergib t sich hingegen k e in e s fa lls , daß d iese m agistri im Verhältnis zum magister pagi eine übergeordnete 57 w o llte ), oder umgekehrt, Stellung einnahmen (wie d ies Hatzfeld^' daß s ie diesem unmittelbar untergeordnet waren (wie Mommsen und CO Schulten behaupteten'7 ) . 4·) Höchstwahrscheinlich war d ieses Kollegium selve m agistrei Io v ei Compagei von der Pagusversammlung und ihren Beschlüssen (pagi sc ita ^597) abhängig. Diese magistri wurden wahrscheinlich a l l jä h rlich von der Gesamtheit der Einwohner des pagus gewählt und waren selb stverstän d lich vor dem pagus verantw ortlich. Heurgon hat also auch nicht recht, wenn er beweisen w ill, daß ursprünglich zwischen den "Kollegien der m agistri und der Orga n isation der pagi kein Zusammenhang bestand und daß diese magistri e r st allm ählich von den einzelnen pagi abhängig gemacht wurden . Zwischen den Jahren 112/111, aus denen die ersten In sch riften der m agistri Campani datieren, und dem Jahr 94-, aus welchem d ie in Rede stehende In sc h r ift stammt, sind in der Lage der pagi Campani
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k e in e rlei Veränderungen ein getreten , die eine solche Abhängigmachung bedingt hätten. Überdies verwechselt Heurgon ganz d eu tlich die Abhängigkeit von Beamten, den m agistri p a g i,mit der Abhängig k e it vom ganzen pagus (d. h. sein er Versammlung), die zw eifello s vom Anfang des Erscheinens der In sch riften der m agistri an be stand. Die Tatsache, daß wir in anderen von m agistri Campani stammenden In sch riften einer Intervention des pagus nicht begegnen 61 , fin d e t eine ganz einfache Erklärung darin, daß sich die m agistri in a llen diesen Fällen a u ssch ließ lich mit dem Wiederaufbau von Heiligtümern und mit Kultusangelegenheiten, also damit befassen, was gewissermaßen von vornherein zu ihren P flich ten gehörte. In unserer In sc h r ift erweitern s ie ihren Wirkungskreis; da die Be dürfnisse des Heiligtum offenbar schon b efried ig t waren, restau rieren s ie eine zum pagus gehörende p orticu s. Aber die Genehmigung ein es solchen Verbrauchs von Geldern, die grundsätzlich für einen anderen Zweck bestimmt waren, erforderte einen sp eziellen Beschluß Cp des pagus : Pagus Herculaneus s c i v i t . . . So war a lso der Wirkungskreis des Kollegiums der 12 m agistri durch die le x pagana und die p a g iscita begrenzt. Wohl begründet erscheint die Behauptung, daß ähnliche V erhältnisse auch in den übrigen, le id e r (wahrscheinlich mit Ausnahme des pagus Dianae T ifatin ae) dem Namen nach nicht bekannten pagi Campani bestanden^. Die vorstehenden Erwägungen werfen ein gewisses Licht auf eine andere In sc h r ift aus dem ager Campanus, die sich schon unmittelb ar auf den Lareskultus bezieht 64 : Hisce m in istris Laribus faciendum eoe [raveru nt]. . . Weiter folgen die Namen von m in istri (ein Freigelassener und ein ig e Sklaven). Wir wissen le id e r n ich t, auf welchen pagus sich diese In s c h r ift b ezieh t. Nichtsdestoweniger i s t die Stellung dieser m inist r i ziem lich d eu tlich sichtbar: 1) Mit dem Hauptkult des pagus befaßten sic h die K ollegien der m agistri, die aus ingenui und Freigelassenen bestanden. Eine solche Organisation war das uns schon bekannte conlegium seive m agistrei Iovei Compagei; hierzu sind auch andere magistri Campani zu zählen, wie z. B. m agistreis Venerus Io v ia e, m agistreis Cererus, 66 m agistreis Castori et P ollu ci . 2) Der im Verhältnis zu diesem Hauptkult untergeordnete Laren k u lt war vom pagus einem aus Sklaven bestehenden Kollegium von '
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m in istri (in unserem f a l l mit einem Freigelassenen an der Spitze) anvertraut. Diese m inistri standen also keinem r elig iö se n Verein, keiner privaten Vereinigung von cultores Larum vor, sondern bild e ten se lb st ein o f f i z i e l l mit dem Kult d ieser Gottheiten betrautes Beamtenkollegium. Es wäre also vergeblich, hier das Mommsensche collegium compitalicium zu suchen. So wie die Kollegien der kampanischen magistri für die Heiligtümer Juppiters, der Diana, Ceres, des Kastor und des Pollux sorgten, so betreuten diese m in istri die Kapellen der Laren; in der z itie r te n In sc h r ift der m in istri sind pondera und pavimentum erwähnt - wahrscheinlich Blöcke zum Bau einer Kapelle und ih r Fußboden. So wie die m agistri ö ffen tlic h e S p iele (paganalia) und Bühnenvorstellungen organisierten , so veran sta lte te n auch die m inistri Larum für den betreffenden pagus ludi c o m p ita lic ii. 67 Die aus Tibur bekannten m inistri Laribus ' nahmen wahrschein lic h eine ähnliche Stellung e in , allerd in gs nur für die Stadt und n ich t für den pagus. II. Bei den in den Jahren 1932/33 auf dem Gebiet von Mintur nae durchgeführten Ausgrabungen wurden 29 steinerne Stelen und Bruchstücke von zwei weiteren ans Tageslicht gebracht 68 . Jede von ihnen war von einem besonderen aus 12 (in eiriem F all 9) m agistri, Freigelassenen und Sklaven, bestehenden Kollegium errich tet; .fünf von diesen K ollegien setzten sic h au ssch ließ lich aus Frauen zusam men. Diese Stelen stammen aus dem ersten Jahrhundert v .u .Z .; im ersten Jahrhundert u.Z. verwendete man s ie a ls Baumaterial für das Ortsheiligtum , infolgedessen sind die In sch riften te ilw e ise be schädigt. Man nimmt f a s t allgemein an, daß s ie sursprünglich a ls die einfachste Form von arae oder sa c ella Larum dienten 69 . Es i s t zwar nirgends deu tlich gesagt, daß s ie den Laren gewidmet sind, wohl aber sind s ie nach einigen auf den In sch riften erhaltenen Dedikationen den in den ländlichen Kreisen zusammen mit den Laren verehrten Gottheiten gewidmet'70 . In Minturnae pflegten also den KompitalkuLt die c o lle g ia von m agistri und magistrae; um d ieses Problem entstand jedoch eine ernste Kontroverse. Vor allem i s t die Datierung dieser In schriften s t r i t t . Der erste Herausgeber, J. Johnson, d atierte s ie sukzessiv von den ersten Jahren des 1. Jh. v.u .Z . b is zum Jahr 6h, so daß jedes Kollegium seiner Ansicht nach auf ein anderes Jahr en tfallen s o l l t e . Im Jahr 64 so llen die minturnaeischen c o lle g ia magistrorum
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auf Grund des eben in Rede stehenden Senatsbeschlusses au fgelöst worden sein ; hingegen wurden nach der le x Clodia noch zwei w eitere Altäre e r r ic h t e t ^ . Die Hypothese Johnsons unterzog E. ßtaedler^2 einer scharfen K ritik; er sprach sich für eine Verbindung der Ausstellung der In sch riften und der Bildung der K ollegien der m agistri mit der Augu steisch en assig n atio nova aus, die im Jahre 28 zustande gekommen sein s o l l . Die colonia Minturnae e r h ie lt damals ein bedeutendes Gebiet je n s e its des L iris-F lu sses; d ieses Gebiet s o llt e in 30 länd lic h e pagi g e t e i lt werden, jeder pagus aus 4 v ic i bestehend. Zum Zwecke der sakralen Konsekration d ieses Territoriums und seiner Übergabe in die Obhut der Feldgottheiten wurden ebenjene 30 Kolle gien von m agistri und m agistrae, je eins für jeden pagus, g e b ild et. A lle Stelen mit den In sch riften wurden g le ic h z e itig und im voraus h e r g e s te llt; das sumpfige Terrain hinter dem Id ris wurde jedoch niemals w irklich in Benutzung genommen und die S te le n -sa c e lla wur den dort niemals a u fg e s te llt. Die auf ihnen angeführten m agistri verrich teten auch niemals ihren D ienst. Die im vorstehenden in allgemeinen Umrissen d a r g e ste llte Kon struktion Staedlers i s t zweifelsohne g e is tr e ic h , aber zugleich in hohem Maße k ü n stlich . Eins scheint nämlich sicher zu sein : die p I n s c h r ift N r.6 (=CIL I 2683)stammt, entgegen den Einwürfen Staed le r s und übereinstimmend mit der ursprünglichen Datierung Johnsons, bestimmt aus dem Jahr 65. Am Ende der In sc h r ift lesen wir das Da tum: L. Manlio L. Aurelio. Staedler behauptet, daß in den Fasti C ap itolini die Namen der beiden Konsuln in umgekehrter Reihenfolge auftr e ten, er betont ferner, daß h ier das gewöhnlich bei den Kon sulnnamen sorgsam angeführte Patronymikon fe h lt; auf Grund d ieser Argumentation h ä lt er genannte Persönlichkeiten für lokale Beamte, d u oviri, und nicht für römische Konsuln'73 . Die F asti C apitolini sind aber für das Jahr 65 bekanntlich nicht e r h a lte n ^ , und was Staedler über die Regeln der Reihenfolge der Konsulnnamen auf den F asti sa g t, i s t ganz v e rfeh lt 75 . Staedler vergiß t auch, daß die praenomina patrum sorgsam nur auf den F asti angeführt wurden, aber nicht in den In sch riften , wo die Namen der Konsuln nur zum Zweck der Datierung ste h e n ^ . In der In sc h r ift Nr. 28 (=CIL I 2 2705) t r i t t Philemo Mari C(ai) s(erv u s)1^ auf. Wie bekannt, hat die Stadt Minturnae im Leben des Marius eine dratmatische Rolle g e sp ie lt; es i s t nicht ausge-
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schlossen , daß er ln Ihrer Umgebung eine Besitzung hatte und eben deshalb seine Sch ritte dorthin len k te, a ls er im Jahre 88 vor Sulla rioh . Der in der In sc h r ift erwähnte Sklave konnte also tatsä ch lich ein Sklave des historischen Gajus Marius se in . Der Terminus ante quem für diese In sc h r ift wäre dann Januar 8 6 ^ . Diese Vermutung b estätigen drei w eitere In sch riften , in denen wir den Namen C. T itin iu s lesen . Es war dies möglicherweise derselbe C. T itin iu s, den wir aus dem von Marius entschiedenen Scheidungsprozeß der Fannia . 80 kennen Gegen die These Staedlers sp richt noch ein bisher nicht wahj>genommener Umstand. In der In sc h r ift Nr. 10 (=CIL I 2687) lesen wir nach dem Namen m agistri: isdemque lu [dum] fe c e r . scaen. Es erscheint höchst unwahrscheinlich, daß man bei der g le ic h z e iti gen und, wie Staedler behauptet, in großer E ile erfolgten H erstel lung a lle r Stelen an die Erwähnung von ludi scaenici dachte, die erst stattfin d en s o llte n . Dasselbe kan man von der In sc h r ift Nr. 28 (=CIL 1^ 2 7 0 5 ) sagen, in der Ohillus Arri C(ai) s(ervus) mag ( is t e r ) lu d (i) oder lud(orum) erscheint. Alle im vorstehenden angeführten Beweise sprechen deu tlich Q/J für die ursprüngliche Datierung Johnsons . Das bedeutet aber nicht, daß die von Johnson vorgeschlagene Deutung der In sch riften aus Min turnae mit allen E inzelheiten angenommen werden kann. Und so i s t es nicht wahrscheinlich, daß jedes der erwähnten K ollegien, wie Johnson meint, auf ein anderes Jahr e n t f ie l. Es i s t schwer anzu nehmen, daß man den Kult der Laren und mit ihnen verwandter Gott heiten in irgendeinem Jahr einem Kollegium anvertraute, daß aus sc h lie ß lic h aus Frauen bestand, welches überdies nur für Vesta Qp (oder Venus) eine Widmung a u s s te llte . Wahrscheinlicher und im Einklang mit dem, was wir aus dem ager Campanus und der le x Colo niae Iu lia e Genetivae w issen, i s t anzunehmen, daß in Minturnae in jedem Jahr mehrere solche K ollegien von magistri und magistrae tä tig waren. Wir wissen le id e r nichts Gewisses von der .Art und Weise der Berufung dieser Organisationen. Die Ansicht Johnsons, wonach Min turnae in 4 v ie l z e r fie l und jeder vicus drei magistri d e leg ier te, stü tz t sich auf eine ganz unbewiesene Annahme. Es i s t nicht aus geschlossen, daß diese Kollegien vom Rat der Dekurionen bestimmt wurden; man kann sich hier auf die Analogie mit den allerd in gs späteren Bestimmungen der schon z itie r te n lex Coloniae Iu lia e
114 Genetivae berufen® \ Von unserem Standpunkt aus i s t besonders w ich tig, daß die c o lle g ia magistrorum und magistrarum aus Minturnae auf keinen P all mit den c o lle g ia com pitalicia in der Mommsenschen Auffassung d ie se s Terminus id e n t if iz ie r t werden können, wie d ies Johnson tut®'*. In Minturnae haben wir es mit den c o lle g ia magistrorum und nicht mit Vereinen von cultores mit m agistri an der Spitze zu tun. Ganz v e r fe h lt i s t auch die These Johnsons, daß die M itteilung des Aaconius bezüglich der Auflösung der Kollegien durch den Senat sich auch auf die K ollegien der m agistri aus Minturnae beziehe; Asconius hat K ollegien eines ganz anderen Typus im Sinn. Die Tatsache, daß nach dem Jahr 64 die c o lle g ia magistrorum in Minturnae, wie es sch ein t, verschwunden sin d, konnte le d ig lic h eine Folge der Verordnung, des Senats se in , welche die Abhaltung der ludi compi t a l i c i i verbot. Dadurch verloren d iese K ollegien Ihren e ig e n t lichen “W irkungskreis und wurden nicht mehr einberufen 86 . III. V iele In sch riften , die eine deutliche Ähnlichkeit mit den In sch riften aus dem ager Campanus und mit den epigraphischen Deükmälern aus Minturnae verraten, wurden auf Delos entdeckt, dem Hauptzentrum der I ta lik e r im Osten s e i t der zweiten Hälfte des 2. Jh. Einige d ieser In sch riften hängen unmittelbar mit dem Proan blem der c o lle g ia com pitalicia und dem Larenkult zusammen . Die ä lt e s t e von ihnen stammt aus dem Jahre 99/98, die übrigen bezie hen sic h g le ic h fa lls auf die ersten Jahre des 1. Jh. v. u. Z. , keine von ihnen stammt aus einem späteren Zeitpunkt als dem Jahr 88, dem Datum der Zerstörung von Delos durch die Truppen des Mithri dates. In form eller H insicht haben a lle erwähnten In schriften den gleichen Charakter: a) Sie bringen die Hamen ein ig er Freigelassenen und Sklaven (in den einzelnen In sch riften schwankt ihre Zahl von 5 Dis 12; d iese le tz te r e Zahl finden wir auch in den uns schon bekannten In sch riften aus Kampanien und. Minturnae). b) Sie enthalten eine Formel, welche die genannten Persön lic h k eiten a ls κομπεταλι,αστοα yevópevot bezeichnet. c) Sie enthalten eine Formulierung, welche Aufschluß g ib t, welcher G ottheit das Opfer hergebracht oder ein Denkmal e r r ic h te t wurde.
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Ea entsteht die Frage, was die Formel κομπεταλι,ασταο γενόμενοί bedeutet. Man s ie h t je d e n fa lls, daß der griechische Terminus κομπεταλι,αστης mit dem latein isch en compitum, com pitalicius im Zusammenhang ste h t, überdies fand man die besprochenen In sch riften auf den Kreuzungen ein iger Straßen, die eine Art compitumQQ b ild e ten , auf dem "Agora der Kompetaliasten" genannten Terrain . Die Beurteilung der erwähnten In sch riften wird le ic h te r se in , wenn wir zu unseren Erwägungen ein ige andere In sch riften aus Delos heran ziehen, die ähnlichen Charakter b e sitzen . So lesen wir also u. a .t Oi 'ΕρμαΙ'σται, 'Ερμεί και, Μαιαι. τον ναόν άνεθηκαν. Magistrale Mercurio e t Malae fecerunt 89y. Ποσει,δωνι,ασται, Ποσει,δώνι,. 90 Mag. Neptunales Neptuno·^ . 0i 'ΕρμαΙ'σται, nat ’Απόλλωνι,ασται, και, Ποσει,δωνι,ασται, 'ΗρακλεΓ. M agistrals Mirquri Apollonis Neptuni H e r c o li^ . Wie wir sehen, entspricht den griechischen Termini 'ΕρμαΙ’σται, Ποσει,δωνι,ασται, *Απόλλωνι,ασται, der la te in isc h e Ausdruck m agistrals mit hinzugafügtem Adjektiv oder Substantiv, manchmal aber ohne irgendeine nähere Bezeichnung ('ΕρμαΙ'σται,. =magistrais oder ma g is t r a ls Mirquri, Ποσει,δωνι,ασται . = m agistrals, m agistrals Neptu nales oder m agistrals Neptuni, *Απόλλων cacrrat= m agistrals Apollo n i s ) . Wie schon darauf aufmerksam gemacht wurde, baseß die grie chische Sprache keinen entsprechenden Fachausdruck, um den ganzen im la tein isch en Wort "magister" steckenden B egriff wiedarzugeban, und mußte sich jedesmal anderer, ja nach dam Charakter der gagabenan Verbindung geb ild eter Form ilierungen bedienen^92 . Dia uns ü b erlieferten , sic h auf die κομπεταλοασταυbeziehenden Texte sind le id e r a u ssch ließ lich in dar griechischen Sprache ver faßt*, es u n ter lie g t jedoch keinem Zw eifel, daß der Terminus κομπεταλι,ασταό ebenso zu verstehen i s t wie d ie Termini 'ΕρμαΙ'σται,, Ποσει,δωνι,ασται, ’Απόλλωνι,αστοαΐ So erhalten wir also a ls Äquivalent dar Bezeichnung Hoμπεταλι,ασταcmagistrθis compiti oder m agistrals com pitales. Dia la tein isc h e Bezeichnung wird zwar a ls m agistri 91 Larum oder cultores Larum compitalium rekonstruiert·^, d ie oben angegebene Übersetzung entspricht jedoch zw eifello s besser dam griechischen Original (das übrigens eine w örtliche Übersetzung aus dem Lateinischen war94 7 ).
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So befaßten siob also unter den auf Delos angesiedelten I ta lik ern mit dem Kult der höchsten Gottheiten (Mercurius, Neptunus, Apollo) aus ingenui und lib e r t i zusammengesetzte Organisationen, mit dem untergeordneten, obwohl ebenso o f f iz ie lle n Lareskultus hin gegen Μομπεταλκχστοα,vor allem Sklaven. Man sie h t da eine a u ffa l lende Ä hnlichkeit mit dem, was wir auf dem ager Campanus beobach ten; es wäre daher der Terminus MopTCexaXuoccrcauanalog zu den kapuanisehen m in istri Laribus noch besser a ls m inistrale compitales zu rekonstruieren. Aber so wie bei den epigraph!sehen Denkmälern aus Kampanien und Minturnae kann man auch h ier die Frage s te lle n : bildeten die in den h ier besprochenen d e lisehen In sch riften erwähnten Persön lic h k e ite n se lb st ein Kollegium der m agistri, oder waren s ie ein ausübendes Organ irgendeines "wirklichen" sakralen Vereins? Zur Beantwortung d ieser Frage und der damit zusammenhängenden a llg e meineren Frage der Organisation der ita lisc h e n Kolonie auf Delos oc wurden verschiedene Hypothesen a u f g e s te llt 7 , auf deren Bespre chung wir an d ieser S te lle nicht eingehen können. Eines aber i s t sich er: der Termin γενομενοι,, welcher in den In sch riften a lle r v ie r erwähnten Organisationen a u f t r itt , besagt d eu tlich , daß das Amt der m agistri z e it lic h begrenzt war (d ie Dauer ih rer Amtsfüh rung betrug wahrscheinlich, wie gewöhnlich, ein Jahr), er belehrt aber n ich t über die Art und Weise der Berufung d ieser m agistri und über den Charakter ih res Kollegiums. Es i s t jedoch wahrschein lic h , daß, wenn wir es hier mit wirklichen K ollegien und nioht nur mit c o lle g ia magistrorum zu tun hätten, der la te in isc h e Text d ie s durch die Wendung z. B. m agistreis c o lle g ii Neptuni oder c o lle g ii neptunalium andeuten und nicht das bloße m agistreis Nep tuni oder Neptunales anwenden würde. Für die Diskussion über die C ollegia com pitalicia i s t die Tatsache von besonderer W ichtigkeit, daß man auch in den delischen κομπεταλυασται nur ein collegium der m in istri und nicht ein p rivates collegium cultorum Larum sehen s o l i . Wichtig i s t w eiter der Umstand, daß auf Delos die ludi com p i t a l i c i i stattfanden^6 , von deren o ffiz ie lle m Charakter schon zuvor die Rede war. Die V eranstalter d ieser Spiele bekleideten also im Verhältnis zur Bevölkerung der In se l eine o f f i z i e l l e S te l lung; auch aus diesem Grund i s t es schwer, in den delischen κομπεTaXuacrraL nur eine private Vereinigung von Anbetern der Laren zu sehen.
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Die oben erörterten Quellen widersprechen ganz d eu tlich der Behauptung, daß die ludi com p italicii der Fürsorge der c o lle g ia com pitalicia anvertraut warent gerade umgekehrt begegnen wir so wohl auf Delos wie in Kampanien und in Minturnae o f f iz ie lle n und h a lb o ffiz ie lle n c o lle g ia magistrorum und ministrorum^ und nicht den Vereinigungen von cultores Larum. Das bedeutet zwar n ich t, daß solche Vereine von cultores überhaupt nicht e x istie r te n ; in den lu d i co m p ita licii nahmen s ie je d en fa lls einen untergeordneten Platz nach dem m agistri vicorum bzw. den o f f iz ie lle n c o lle g ia magistro rum ein . Man hat versucht, die in dem Problem der c o lle g ia com pitali cia liegenden Schwierigkeiten noch auf einem anderen Wege zu lö sen. Es s o llte n die magistri vicorum während der ludi com p italicii a ls m agistri collegiorum compitaliciorum auftreten98 7 . Diese Theo r ie i s t absolut unannehmbar! s ie steh t in krassem Widerspruch mit dem Text des Ascosiu s, der die erste Grundlage a lle r Erwägungen d ieser Frage bilden muß. Asconius id e n t if iz ie r t die m agistri vico rum Dicht mit den m agistri der K ollegien, sondern unterscheidet s ie genau. Und sonderbarerweise hat gerade d iese am wenigsten wahr sch ein lich e Hypothese die w eiteste Verbreitung gefunden, besonders 99 in neueren Arbeiten77. Zu ih rer Unterstützung kann man jedoch Dicht eine ein zige Quelle anführen, und das weder aus der Zeit der Republik noch aus der K aiserzeit. Die Deutung d ieser Quellen, auf d ie sic h die V erteidiger d ieser Anschauung berufen, beruht auf einem offenbaren Mißverständnis**^*"*. Im Vorstehenden war schon die Rede von den Reformen des Augu stu s auf diesem Gebiet. Die bedeutendste Neuerung bestand in der Verbindung des Larenkultus mit dem Kultus des Kaiserhauses und der Person des K aisers. Fortan s o llt e man Dicht die Lares im allgem ei nen, sondern die Lares domus Augustae zusammen mit dem Genius des Kaisers verehren 1 0 1 . Auf dem stadtrömisehen Gebiet befaßten sich mit diesem Kult aus v ie r m agistri und v ie r m inistri bestehende Kolleg ien 1 0 2 . Nach dem B eisp iel der Hauptstadt verb reitete sich der o f f i z i e l l e Kult der k aiserlich en Laren auf dem Gebiet des ganzen Reiches. Es befaßten sich mit ihm jedoch nicht nur m agistri vico rum, sondern auch, besonders auf dem Gebiet ein iger Munizipien, s p e z ie lle c o lle g ia magistrorum und ministrorum. Sie trugen den T it e i m agistri (m in istri) Larum (Augustorum) 103 . Diese Verfügung des Augustus trug außerordentlich zur Verbreitung des Kultes d ieser
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G ottheiten bei; es entstanden auch zahlreiche Vereinigungen von 104 cu ltores Larum . Im Gegensatz jedoch zu den o f f iz ie lle n m agistri Larum waren d ies Vereine a u ssch ließ lich privaten Charakters. Eine solche private Vereinigung von cultores b ild e te auch wahrschein l ic h das b ereite erwähnte Kollegium aus Faesulae. Der Irrtum v ie le r neuerer Forscher bestand also in der Ver wechslung der o f f iz ie lle n m agistri Larum (Augustorum) mit den Vor stehern privater Kultusverbände, mit m agistri collegiorum Larum (Augustorum). Der Unterschied in der Terminologie i s t scheinbar n ich t groß, aber sehr p r in z ip ie ll. Die ersten d ieser O rganisatio nen (m agistri Larum) waren keine wirklichen K ollegien, hatten aber einen o f f iz ie lle n Charakter, die zweiten (c o lle g ia Larum mit ma g is t r i an der Sp itze) waren w irkliche K ollegien, aber ohne o f f i z ie lle n Charakter. Ganz ähnlich waren d ie V erhältnisse auf diesem Gebiet auch zur Z eit der Bepublik. Daß es schon damals o f f i z i e l l e m agistri und m in istri gab, kann im Lichte der bisherigen Beweisführung k ei nem Zweifel u n terliegen . Es 1 st auch wahrscheinlich, daß zu der selben Z eit die ersten privaten Verbände von Verehrern der Laren entstanden^ ^; le id e r i s t ein Kollegium d ieser Art für die Z eit der Bepublik nirgends ausdrücklich bezeugt. Suchen kann man s ie worauf schon Mommsen hinwies - nur unter den im J. 58 von Clodius gebildeten Vereinen. Wenn also De Bobertis die Existenz solcher Vereinigungen von cu ltores Larum zur Zeit der Bepublik annimmt, so kann man ihm zustimmen, besonders wenn er behauptet, es s e i n ich t w esentlich , ob s ie die Benennung collegium compitalicium oder eine andere Bezeichnung trugen. Wenn er aber w eiter schreibts Λnfi certo s i è che esse organizzavano i giuochi com pitelici , so widerspricht d ieser Anschauung unsere ganze bisherige Beweisfüh rung. S c h ließ lic h i s t noch eine sic h aus dem Text des Asconius er gebende M öglichkeit in Erwägung zu ziehen. Wie wir gesehen haben, kann man diesen Text bei entsprechender Interpunktion auch so verstehen, daß die lud i com p ita licii a u ssch ließ lich die m agistri vicorum, die m agistri collegiorum hingegen andere von Asconius 9 107 nicht näher b ezelchnete Sp iele veran stalteten . Zur Unterstüt zung d ieser These sammelte man auch gewisse sachliche Beweise. Es i s t bekannt, das ein ige K ollegien eigene Sp iele hatten; solche S p iele konnte Asconius gemeint haben. In diesem Zusammenhang führt
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119 man gewöhnlich die von den tib ic in e s veran stalteten S p iele und die lud i p is c a to r ii an. Im ersten P all handelt es sich jedoch um ein s p e z ie lle s Privilegium der tib ic in e s , deren Kollegium überhaupt zur Kategorie der apparitores, also zu den h a lb o ffiz ie lle n Verbän den gezählt werden muß^®. Was die ludi p is c a to r ii a n b e tr ifft^ ^ , so i s t nirgends ausdrücklich bezeugt, daß sic h an ih rer Organisa tion ein collegium von p iscatores b e t e ilig t hat. Das corpus p isca torum et urinatorum to tiu s alv ei T ib eris, dem man die Organisierung d ieser Spiele zuschreibt, i s t spät, nämlich erst im J. 205 be zeugt l i o . Auf d ieser Grundlage i s t es schwer, irgendwelche Schlüsse für die Periode der Republik zu ziehen. Sp iele d ieser Art mußten jed en fa lls eine ganz ausnahmsweise Erscheinung gewesen se in . Unter v ielen hundert In sch riften , die sic h auf Kollegien beziehen, kennen wir nicht eine e in zig e, die über die ludi irgendeines anderen Kol legiums inform iert. Übrigens können Sp iele d ieser Art h ier noch aus einem anderen und entscheidenden Grund nicht in Betracht kom men: Asconius schreibt nämlich ausdrücklich über die Worte Ciceros: d i c it de lu d is co m p ita liciis 111 . Nach Ansicht Waltzings organisierten zwar die m agistri vicorum d ie ludi c o m p ita licii, s ie sp ielten aber dabei nicht die entschei dende R olle. Diese Rolle so lle n die m agistri der verschiedenen Handwerkerkollegien gehabt haben, die an den ludi t e l lnahmen 112 Es i s t in der Tat durchaus verstän d lich , daß sic h an den Kompitalfe ie r lic h k e ite n sowohl einzelne Personen wie auch ganze Organisa tionen b e te ilig e n konnten. Nichts steh t dem im Wege, daß wir anneh1 1 -s men, daß z. B. M itglieder des collegium hortolanorum J in Kapua zusammen an den F eierlich k eiten zu Ehren der Laren, der Schutzgott heiten ihrer Arbeit, teilnahmen. In Rom, dem Zentrum des Handwerks, wurden die Laren natürlicherweise zu Schutzgöttern der Arbeit des Handwerkers. Überdies muß man bedenken, daß sic h in Rom, ähnlich wie in v ielen m itte la lte rlich en Städten, die Handwerker einer Spez ia l i t ä t häufig in einem Bezirk gruppierten 114 . Man kann sic h also sehr gut v o r ste lle n , daß die m agistri der in einem Bezirk tätigen Handwerkerkollegien bei der Organisierung von Spielen mit den ma g is t r i vicorum mitwirkten. Die Behauptung aber, daß s ie bei den lud i com p italicii den Vorsitz führten, i s t absolut unannehmbar. Nur die magistri vicorum waren o f f i z i e l l e P ersönlichkeiten, nur s ie hatten das Recht, die toga praetexta zu tragen. Unsere Ansicht wird b e stä tig t nicht nur durch die oben angeführte S te lle des Livius
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bezüglich der m agistri vicorum, sondern vor allem durch die Tat sache, daß die m agistri vicorum nach Auflösung der K ollegien im J . 61 s e lb s t S p iele zu organisieren versuchten. Asconius schreibt: solebant autem m agistri collegiorum ludos facere; wenn es sic h h ier um Kollegien landein würde, die o f f i z i e l l zur P flege des Kompitalk u lts beirufen sin d, so wäre die Verwendung des Wortes solere aus gesch lossen. Asconius hätte dann eher ganz einfach gesagt: m agistri collegiorum ludos facieb an t, ähnlich, wie er w eiter von den magist r i vicorum schreib t: m agistri vicorum faciebant Com pitalicios prae te x ta ti . Die ludi co m p italicii veran stalteten also d ie m agistri vico rum; bei den K om pitalfeierlichkeiten traten jedoch, wenn auch in zw eiter L in ie, Handwerkerkollegien und r e lig iö s e Organisationen, c o lle g ia opificum und cu ltores Larum auf. Nur eine solche Lösung stimmt mit dem Text des Asconius überein und entspricht zugleich a lle n anderen Quellen. Die Ergebnisse unserer Erörterungen bezüglich des Problems der c o lle g ia com pitalicia können wir wie f o lg t zusammenfassen: 1) Die P flege des o f f iz ie lle n Larenkults und die Organisierung der ludi co m p italicii war anvertraut: a) den m agistri vicorum (in Horn und wahrscheinlich in Pompeji), b) den aus höchstens 12 Perso nen bestehenden c o lle g ia magistrorum und ministrorum. Zur Bezeichnung dieser le tz te r e n Organisationen kann man den Terminus "collegium" nicht im Sinne von "Verein" anwenden; es i s t auch k la r, daß d ie Bezeichnung collegium compitalicium (wenn man d ie se s collegium für einen wirklichen Verein h ä lt) weder auf die m agistri vicorum, noch auf die c o lle g ia magistrorum bezogen werden kann. 2) Asconius b erich tet, daß in den ludi com p italioii neben den m agistri vicorum auch die m agistri von Kollegien t ä tig waren; es konnten d ies nur Handwerkerkollegien oder r e lig iö s e Vereine (in s b es. cu ltores Larum) se in . Diese letz te r e n konnten fa k tisch die Benennung c o lle g ium compitalicium tragen; beim gegenwärtigen Stand der Quellen lä ß t sich das jedoch nicht beweisen. Eins i s t aber nach unseren Ausführungen sich er: es waren dies jed en fa lls Vereine pri vaten Charakters, die mit den o f f iz ie lle n Vorstehern des Kompital— k u lts r e c h tlic h nichts gemein hatten. 3) Damit ergibt sic h auch die Antwort auf die Frage, gegen welche Kategorien der K ollegien der Senatsbeschluß vom J. 64 gerioh-
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t e t war. Entgegen der verb reiteten Meinung wurden von d ieser Maß nahme die o f f iz ie lle n Vorsteher des Kompitalkults nicht betroffen: das Senatsconsult bezog sic h weder auf die m agistri vicorum, noch auf die verschiedenen c o lle g ia magistrorum. Der Sentat hat nur durch das Verbot der Abhaltung der ludi co m p ita licii diesen Orga nisationen den w ichtigsten Gegenstand ih rer T ätigkeit weggenommen. Es f o lg t aber aus dem Text des Asconius, daß die aufgelösten Ver eine in einem Zusammenhang mit den ludi com p italicii gestanden haben; da aber an diesen Spielen sowohl Berufsvereine, wie r e l i g iö se Vereinigungen teilnahmen, sind die verbotenen Vereine unter diesen beiden Kategorien zu suchen. Der Senat hat a lle K ollegien a u fg e lö st, die adversus rem publicam videbantur esse con stitu ta: es konnten demnach sowohl Handwerkergenossenschaften wie auch c o lle g ia cultorum Larum gewesen se in .
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Anmerkungen 1 Siehe dazu von der neueren Literatur L. Schnorr von C arolsfeld, Geschichte der ju ristisch en Person, 1, München 1933, 258.262; F.M. De R obertis, I l d ir it t o a sso cia tiv o romano, Bari 1934, 65—162; derselb e, I l fenomeno a sso cia tiv o nel mondo romano, Napoli 1955, 33-36* S. Accame, La le g isla z io n e romana intorno ai c o lle g i nel I secolo a. C., B u lletin o del Museo dell'Impero Romano 13* 1942, 13-49· 2 Th. Mommsen, De c o lle g iis e t s o d a lic iis Romanorum, K iliae 1843, 73-76. 3 M. Cohn, Zum römischen V ereinsrecht, Berlin 1873, 39-55; J . P. Waltzing, Étude historiqu e sur le s corporations p rofessio n e lle s chez le s Romains, 1, Louvain 1895, 90-11. 4 Siehe J. Johnson, Excavations at Minturnae, 2: In sc rip tio n s, 1» Republican M agistri, Philadelphia 1933* 8, 122-125; derselbe, Minturnae, RE Suppi. 7* 1940, 474; Acoame 27-29; L.R. Taylor, Party P o lit ic s in the Age of Caesar, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1 9 4 9 , 43-44; E. B ick el, Pagani, Kaiseranbeter in den LarenKapellen der pagi urbani im Rom Neros und des Apostels Petrus, Rh. Mus. 97, 1 9 5 4 , 29; G. N iebling, Laribus Augustis Magistri Primi, H istoria 5* 1956, 307-309; F. Börner, Untersuchungen über d ie R eligion der Sklaven in Griechenland und Rom, 1, Wiesbaden 1958, 35-38 (Abh. Mainz 1957 Nr. 7 ) . 5 Th. Stangl in seiner Ausgabe von Asconius (Ciceronis Orationum S c h o lia sta e ), 2, Vindobonae-Lipsiae 1912, 15 nimmt die Lesart admissa an. Nach d ieser S te lle befindet sich eine Lücke, die in den verschiedenen Handschriften 6 b is 10 Buchstaben beträgt. 6 An der ersten S te lle steh t in zwei maßgebenden Handschriften vicorum, in einer dagegen ludorum; an der zweiten S te lle weisen a lle Handschriften die Lesart ludorum auf. Siehe dazu Clark und Stangl in apparatu c r itic o und unten Anm. 3 0 . 7 Uber d ie se s collegium Corneliorum siehe je t z t J. Ceska, Deset t i s i c Corneliu, L isty F ilologick e 78, 1955* 177-181. 8 Die (von Stangl 59 angenommene) Lesart lictorum befindet sic h in a lle n Handschriften. Clark hat nach Manutius in den Text die Kon jektur fictorum eingeführt; die Lesart der Handschriften muß aber, wie wir sehen werden, aus den sachlichen Gründen bevorzugt werden.
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10
11
12
13 14 15 16 17
18
19 20 21 22
Mommseo, De c o l l . , 73~74; W. Liebenam, Zur Geschichte und Orga n isation des römischen Vereinswesens, Leipzig 1890, 21; 0. KarIowa, Römische Rechtsgeschichte, 2, Leipzig 1892, 66-67; Walt zing, 1, 92-93; E. Kornemann, Collegium, RE 4 , 1900, 406; De R ohertis, D ir. a ss. 77-79; Accame, 13-16. Auf das J. 68 datier ten das Senatsco’n su lt A. Pernice, M. A n tistiu s Labeo. Das römi sche Privatrecht 1, Halle 1873» 301 5 Cohn, 39-41; V. Bandini, Appunti s u lle corporazioni romane, Milano 1937» 51· Paläographisch genommen s o l l t e die Mehrzahl durch die Schreib w eise S.CC. angedeutet werden (v g l. De R obertis, Dir. a s s ., 77 )5 es i s t aber zu bemerken, daß in In Corn. 58 Z. 6 und 10 (Clark) d ie Abkürzung S.C. s te h t, obwohl Asconius an diesen S te lle n nicht von einem, sondern von mehreren Senatsbeschlüssen sp rich t. Mommsen, De c o l i . , 73» Liebenam, 23; Waltzing, 1,91; G.M. Monti, Le corporazioni n e ll'e v o antico e n e ll'a lt o medio evo, Bari 1934, 23-24. Vgl. De Robertis, Dirr. a s s ., 76-77. P. Kayser, Abhandlungen aus dem Process- und S trafrech t, 2s Die Strafgesetzgebung der Römer gegen Vereine, Berlin 1873» 160; Cohn, Römisches Vereinsrecht, 53-54. L .47,22,4. J. Linderski, Paóstwo a kolegia (Staat und V ereine), Kraków 1961, 55-65. J. Blranger, Remarques sur la langue p o litiq u e du P rincipat, REL 3 0 , 1 9 5 2 , 42. J. Gaudemet, U tilita s publica, Revue h is t , de d roit franc, e t e tr . 29, 1 9 5 1 , 467-470. Vgl. De Robertis, D ir. a s s ., 87. Siehe dazu meine Arbeiten Pafistwo a k olegia, 66-114; Ciceros Rede pro Caelio und die Ambitus- und Vereinsgesetzgebung der ausgehenden Republik, Hermes 89, 1961, 106-119; Suetons Bericht über die Vereinsgesetzgebung unter Caesar und Augustus, SZ 79» 1962, 322-328, wo die Quellen und w eitere Literatur angegeben werden. CIL VI 4416. Für die Rechtfertigung d ieser Neulesung verweise ich auf meine Arbeit Pafistwo a k o leg ia , IO7 -IO8 . De Robertis, D ir. a s s ., 75* J. Linderski, C ollegia centonariorum , Przeglad historyczny 48, 1957, 28-37 mit w eiterer L iteratur.
124 23 De Robertis , D ir. a s s ., 239-240. 24 Es 1 s t zu betonen, daß ln den In sch riften die normale Form col legium fabrum la u te t und nicht fabrorum, wie bei Asconlue und C a llis tr a tu s. Die erste d ieser Formen gehörte wahrscheinlich der Umgangssprache, die zweite dagegen der lite ra r isch en und ju r istisc h e n Spraohe an. 25 Gaudemt, U t ilit a s , 476, vermutet, daß an der S te lle von C a lli stra tu s D.50, 6 , 6 ,12 die Worde . . . l d e s t id circo in s titu ta sunt, u t necessariam operam p u b licis u t ilita tib u s exhiberent in te r p o lie r t worden sin d . Im Lichte unserer Beweisführung muß diese Vermutung abgelehnt werden. 26 Waltzing, 1 , 92-93. 27 Mommsen, De c o l l . , 74-75· 28 Waltzing, 1, 9ö-99l nach Ihm Kornemann, 406; B. E llachevitch, La personnalitè juridique en d r o it prlv& romain, Paris 1942, 2 1 3 -2 1 8 .
29 Cohn, Römisches Vereinsrecht, 40 Anm. 62; De R obertis, D ir .a ss. 84 Anm. 45. 30 Die Schwierigkeiten der Interpretation vergrößert noch die Tat sache, daß in den Handschriften des Asconius an einigen für das r ic h tig e Verständnis des Textes entscheidenden S te lle n verschie dene Lesarten Vorkommen. So lesen wir ln dem von Asconius kom mentierten Satz Ciceros ...cum quidam t r . p l. suo au x ilio ma g is tr o s ludos contra senatus consultum facere iu s s is s e t (In P is . 8) in zwei von drei grundlegenden codices magnos ludos und in einem magis ludos. D iese le tz te r e Lesart 1 s t o ffe n sic h tlic h ein gewöhnlicher Fehler; was die erste anbelangt, so konnte der Kopist sehr le ic h t magistros in magnos umändern, dies um so le ic h t e r , a ls magnos ludos auch rich tigen Sinn h a tte . Cicero sp rich t jedoch an d ieser S te lle ausdrücklich von ludi compital i d i und nicht von lud i magni. Wir sind hier überdies in der glücklichen Lage, daß man d ie keinen Zweifel erweckende Konjek tur magistros auch in Anlehnung an die Handschriften Ciceros einführen konnte. Ferner schwanken im Kommentar se lb st die Kodlces des Asconius zwischen den Lesarten m agistri vicorum und m agistri ludorum (sieh e oben Anm. 6 ). Die Mehrzahl der Heraus geber nimmt die erste Lesung an (mit größter Vorsicht S ta n g l), aber auch die Lesart m agistri ludorum i s t aus sachlichen Grün den nicht ausgeschlossen. Für d ie Z eit der Republik können wir
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31 32 33
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35
36 37 38 39 40
eine der In sch riften aus Minturnae anführen (OIL I 2705) in der C hillus Arri C .s. m ag(ister) lud(orum) oder lu d (i) auft r i t t . Vgl. aus der K aiserzeit magister ludi (OIL IX 4226 Amintem ua) und magister ludorum (AÉ 1914 Nr. 6 Scarbantia). In unserem F all i s t aber die Lesart m agistri vicorum wahrschein lic h e r i siehe aber dagegen Accame, 27-28. Mommsen, De c o l l . , 74t C ollegia quae d icto 8Cto sublata sunt erant urbana tantummodo, maxime c o n c ita lic ia . De lingua l a t . VI 25. 29. G. Wissowa, Compitalia, HE 4 , 1900, 791-792} derselb e, Religion und Kultus der Römer, 2. A u fl., München 1912, 168-172; Boehm, Lares, RE 12, 1925» 807-809} A. P igan iol, Recherches sur le s Jeux romalns, Strasbourg 1923* 127-194·} L.A. Holland, The Shri ne of the Lares Compitales, Trans. Am. P h llo l. Ass. 68, 1937» 428-441; L. D elatte, Recherches sur quelques f i t e s mobiles du calendrier romain, L'Ant. C lass. 6, 1937» 111-114; Nlebllng 307-309; Börner, Untersuchungen, 33-37; K. L atte, Römische R eli gi onsgeschichte, München I960, 90-94. Vgl. auch Thes. 1 .1 . a. w . com pitalia, compitum. H. Rudolph, Stadt und Staat im römischen I t a lie n , Leipzig 1935» 5 O-5 3 . Es i s t aber zu bemerken, daß die pagi und v ic i o f f i z i e l l e Organisationen waren} die entschiedene Mehrzahl der Kolle gien bilden dagegen Genossenschaften mit au ssch ließ lich priva tem Charakter. Diesen p r in z ip ielle n rechtlichen Unterschied scheint Rudolph überhaupt nicht wahrgenommen zu haben. Uber die Organisation der ita lisc h e n pagi und v ic i siehe auch E. Komemann, Pagus, RE 18, 1942, 2322-2324} A.W. van Buren, Vicus, RE 8 A, 1958, 2 0 9 C-2 0 9 4 . o Vgl. CIL I 1002 m eg (istri) de duobus pagels e t v ic e i Sulpicei ( v g l. aber auch Accame 19 Anm. 58)1 CIL IX 3521t die m agistri pagi handeln de v ic i sen ten tia . De c o li . 75-76. Pro S e st. 34-· De domo 54. 1 , 99-104. Für Verbindungen d ieser Art fin d et sich am h&uflgsten der Ter minus c o lle g iu s an statt collegium . Vgl. z. B. CIL IX 1505» 1688, 3447, 4129, 6154; XI 2720. Siehe auch zu d ieser In sc h r ift Börner, Untersuchungen 28.
126 41 Waltzing, 1, 98-102. Die Beweisführung Waltzings hat z u letz t E liach evitch , P ersonnalitè, 219-218 erneuert. 42 Siehe dazu N iebling, 303-307. 321-331. 43 Aug.30. 44 Nat. h i s t . I l l 66. 45 Suet. Aug. 30. 46 Cass. Dio LV 8,6; Suet. Aug. 31· 47 Aber gerade in Pompeji waren d ie V erhältnisse besonders ver w ick elt.E s fungierten dort außer den oben erwähnten m agistri v ic i e t compiti noch d ie untereinander unabhängigen m in istri Fortunae, m in istri Mercurii Maiae, m agistri und m in istri pagi Augusti F e lic is suburbani. Siehe dazu G. Grether, Pompeian "m inistri", C lass. P h il. 27, 1932, 59-65 und besonders Börner, Untersuchungen, 105-109 (mit w eiterer L iteratu r). 48 Siehe Verg. Georg. II 382 pagos e t compita circum (v g l. Hör. E p ist. 1 ,1 ,4 9 ) und Philargyrius ad lo c . (S erv ii Grammatici Commentarii, II I P. 252, L ipsiae 1887, ed. Thilo-Hagen): compi t a . . . ubi pagani agrestes bucina convocati solen t certa in ir e con s i l i a : hinc e t Lares compitales e t feria e compita lic a e . CIL IX 1618 (Beneventum): zwei Spender schenken paganis communib(us) pagi L u cu i... porticum cum apparitorio et compitum (compitum bedeutet h ier offen s ic h t lic h das sacellum der Laren; es war aber im B esitz des pagus und n ich t des v ic u s ). CIL XIV 2121 begegnen uns municipes compitenses veicorum quinque. In diesem F all gruppierten sic h , wie es sc h e in t, die Einwohner von fünf v ic i um ein compitum = sacellum. 49 Festus p. 284 (ed . Lindsay): publica sacra, quae publico sumptu pro populo fiu n t, quaeque pro montibus, pagis, c u r iis , sa c el l i s . Die sacra pro s a c e l l is waren, wie Wissowa, Religion und Kultus 398-399 ein d rin glich bemerkte, - Compitalia, so wie die sacra pro pagis - Paganalia. Compitalia waren jedoch nicht nur die sacra publica, sondern zugleich die sacra popularia, an denen die gesamte Bevölkerung und nicht nur s p e z ie lle Reprä sentanten (Beamte, P riester und hierzu bestimmte Familien,; t e i l nahmen. Siehe Festus p. 298 (ed . Lindsay): popularia sacra sunt, ut a it Labeo, quae omnes cives fa ciu n t, nec c e r tis fami l i i s adtributa sunt: Fornacalia, P a r ilia , Laralia (d . h. Com p i t a l i a ) . Vgl. diesbezüglich auch E liachevitch , 213-214. 50 3 4 ,7 ,2 . Uber b ild lic h e Darstellungen der m agistri in toga prae tex ta siehe N iebling, 310-322; K. Meuli, Altrömischer Masken-
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51 52
53 54·
55
56
brauch, Mus. Helv. 12, 1955» 219 Anm. 51. 230-231 mit Abb. 1 und 2} Börner, Untersuchungen, 40-41. Vgl. Accame, 19-20. CIL I 2 672 - 6 9 1 . 25 O6 . Lie Zusammenstellung a lle r bisher ent deckten In sch riften der m agistri Campani gib t M.W. Frederiksen, Republican Capua, Papers of the B r itish School at Rome 27» 1959» I 2 I - I 3 O. Die ä lte s te von diesen 28 In sch riften stammt aus dem J. 112 oder 111, die le t z t e aus dem J. 7 I v.u .Z . CIL I 2 682 = Dessau, ILS 63 O2 . Pagus Herculaneus befand sic h auf dem Gebiete, das vor 211 zu Kapua gehörte. E. Staedler, Zu den 29 neu aufgefundenen In sc h r ifts te le n von Minturno, Hermes 77» 1942, 177 Anm. 6 bringt ihn irrtüm lich mit der Stadt Herculaneum in Verbindung. Die Form Iovei Compagei i s t nicht k la r. Iovei i s t jed en fa lls bei dem Nom. Iuppiter ein Dativ (conlegium Iovei Compagei = conlegium für Iu p p iter). Man weiß aber n ich t, ob compagei a ls Adj. (vom*compax,-agis oder*compages,-is) zu behandeln i s t , oder a ls Subst. vom compagus. J. Heurgon, Les m agistri des c o llèg e s et le relevement de Capoue de 111 à 71 avant J .C ., Melanges d'archéologie e t d 'h isto ir e 56, 1939» 16 Anm. 1 er k lä r t sich für d iese zweite M öglichkeit, zu deren Unterstützung er die Worte des P s.-F ulgen tiu s, Sena. 11 (Migne, S eries L ati na 6 5 , 872)z it ie r t : unius compagi tegmine reten tae. Compagei wäre dann Gen. und die Form compagus das substantivische Gegen stück zum Adj. compaganus. Vgl. CIL XI 5375 Iuppiter paganicus; L iv. 24,44,8 Iuppiter v ic ilin u s . Heurgon erklärt compagus a ls 1 ^-ensemble des habitants d’un pagus. Der Name der G ottheit wür de also Iuppiter compagi lauten (die Form Iuppiter Compagus, wo compagus Adj. i s t , scheint schwer annehmbar zu s e in ). Mög lic h i s t aber auch die Rekonstruktion Ioviu s Compages; Iovei wäre dann Gen. (E.H. Warmington, Remains of Old Latin, 4: Ar chaic In scrip tio n s, London 1953» 109 Anm. 7 ). Ich nehme die Form Iuppiter Compages an: in diesem F a ll sind Iovei und Compa g e i Dative. Es i s t ein entschiedenes Mißverständnis, wenn man (wie dies Heurgon, 12-17» tu t) auf Grund der Tatsache, daß es in Kampa nien und in den ita lisc h e n Städten wirkliche Berufs- und Kult vereine gab, denselben Charakter automatisch auch unseren ma g is t r i = conlegium Iovei Compagei und anderen K ollegien von
198
128 m agistri Campani zuschreibt. Ähnlich wie Heurgon auch Accame, 18. Mommsen hat zw eifello s recht (CIL X S. 366-368), wenn er die m agistri Campani mit den in der le x Ursonensis auftretenden p m a g (istrl) ad fana templa delubra (CIL I 594 cap. 128) ver g le ic h t , bezüglich deren kein Zweifel b esteh t, daß s ie nur c o lle g ia magistrorum bild eten und nicht d ie m agistri der Kult vereine gewesen sin d . Vgl. auch die Ausführungen von A.E.R. Boak, The M agistri of Campania and D elos, C lass. P h il. 11, 1916, 25 - 3 4 ·
57 J. H atzfeld, Les I ta lie n s r&sidant έ Délos, B u ll. Corr. H ell. 36, 1 9 1 2 , 186-188; derselbe, Les trafiquants I ta lie n s dans l'O rien t h ellén iq u e, Paris 1919* 257-260. 58 Mommsen, CIL X, 367-368} A. Schulten, De conventibus civium Romanorum, B erolini 1892, 44-45· 71-77* derselbe, Die Landge meinde im römischen Reiche, Philologus 53* 1894, 6 3 2 - 6 3 4 . Ähn lic h wie Mommsen und Schulten Frederiksen, 89-90 (fü r den T ite l s . Anm. 5 2 ). Vgl. auch R.M. Peterson, The Cults of Campania, Rome 1 9 1 9 , 34-8. 59 Vgl. CIL I 2 686 «Dessau ILS 6 3 0 3 : H eise, m agistr. ex pagei s c itu in servom Iunonis Gaurae [co ]n tu le(r u n t); v g l. auch CIL X 829 = Dessau ILS 5706 ( s . zu d ieser In sc h r ift Frederik sen, 89)· Uber le g e s paganae s . auch G. T ib ile t t l, Lex, D izio nario Epigrafico 4 , 1957* 81. 60 Heurgon, 18 (für den T ite l s . Anm. 55)· 61 Die Ausnahme bilden CIL I 2 686 und 684 (d iese le tz te r e In sc h r ift i s t aber stark beschädigt). 62 Anders Frederiksen, 89. 63 Die Behauptung Schultens, De conventibus, 44-45, 57-59* daß es nur dan pagus Herculaneus gab, h alte ic h für unwahrscheinlich. Ebenso kann ic h den Ausführungen von Frederiksen, 89-90, die eine Modifikation der These Schultens d a r ste lle n , nicht zu stimmen· 64 CIL I 2 681 = Dessau ILS 3609 (98 v .u .Z .). 65 Die Zahl d ieser m inistri i s t unsicher, s . dazu Börner, Untersu chungen, 43. 66 CIL I 2 675, 677, 678. 67 CIL I 2 1483. Siehe auch CIL X 3790 (Capua. 24 v .u .Z .). 68 Diese In sch riften wurden zum erstenmal von J. Johnson, Excava tio n s at Minturnae 2: In scrip tio n s 1, Philadelphia 1933» 18-48
199
129
69
70
71 72
73 74 75
76
77
78
79 80 81 82
83
2 v e r ö ffe n tlic h t. Sie werden in CIL I unter den Nummern 26782708 abgedruckt. Siehe aber gegen diese Ansicht L atte, Röm. R eligionsgesch ichte, 273 Anm. 1. Es sind nämlich die 'Vidmungen für V(enus) oder V (esta) (CIL I 2 2685)» Spes (2689, 2698, 2700), Ceres (2699), Mercurius F elix (2702) erhalten. Johnson, Excavations, 123-125? derselbe, Minturnae, RE Suppl. 7, 1940, 472-473. Zu den 29 neu aufgefundenen In sc h r ifts te le n von Minturno [ s i c ! ] , Hermes 77» 1942, 161-169. Die These Staedlers i s t von F. Zucker, Hermes 78, 1943» 200 und E. B ick el, Rh. Mus. 97» 1954, 6 ange nommen . Staedler, 180. I 90 Anm. 1. A. Degrassi 1 In scrip tion es I t a lia e , XIII 1, 1947 » 57. 488. Siehe j e t z t die grundlegende Arbeit von L.R. Taylor und T.R.S. Broughton, The Order of the Consuls' Names in the Yearly L is ts , Mem. Am. Acad. Rome 19» 1949» 3“14. Es i s t noch zu bemerken, daß in drei anderen In sch riften aus Minturnae, in denen die Datierung nach den duoviri angewendet i s t (Nr. 8 = CIL I 2 2685; 25 = 2702; 29 = 2706), die Namen der selben immer am Anfang und nie am Ende der In sc h r ift genannt sin d . Über diese Form der Sklavennamen s . A. Oxé, Zur älteren Nomen klatur der römischen Sklaven, Rh. Mus. 59» 1904, 108 f f . ; W. Schulze, Zur Geschichte la te in isc h e r Eigennamen, Berlin 1904, 5 IO-5 1 5 . Johnson, Excavations, 63; derselbe RE Suppl. 7» 1940, 475. Die Auslegung Johnsons wurde von F. Münzer, Zu den Magistri von Min turnae MDAI Röm. Abt. 50, 1935» 321 f f . angenommen. Nr. 12 = CIL I 2 2689; 18 = 2695; 22 = 2699. P lu t. Marius 38; Val. Max. VIII 2 ,3 · Vgl. Münzer a. 0 .; M. Bang, Marius in Minturnae, Klio 10, I 9 IO, 178 f f . Siehe auch Börner, Untersuchungen, IO2 -IO 3 . Nr. 8 = CIL I 2 2685. Es sind in Minturnae noch fünf andere aus sc h lie ß lic h aus Frauen zusammengesetzte K ollegien von magistrae bezeugt (CIL I 2 2680, 2681, 2686, 2688, 2694). Siehe diesbezüglich die Besprechung von R. Meigs JRS 24, 1934, 96-97. Es i s t auch zu betonen, daß in der In sc h r ift Nr. 25 =
200
130 ?
84 85 86
87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96
97
98 99
CIL I 2702 nur 9 m agistri auftreten, was mit der Theorie JohnsoDs Dicht üherelDstimmt. CIL 1^ 5 9 4 cap.128; v g l. A.D'Ors, Epigrafia ju rid ica de la Espana Romana, Madrid 1953» 267-268. RE Suppl. 7, 1940, 474. Clodius erneuerte die ludi co m p italicii nur für kurze Z eit; dann wurde ihre Veranstaltung wieder e in g e s t e llt . Erst Augustus be leb te s ie wieder. Siehe Suet. Aug. 3 I · In scr. de Délos 1760-1770. Siehe dazu Börner, Untersuchungen, 43-44 mit w eiterer L iteratur. F. Durrbach, Choix d 'in scr ip tio n s de Délos, Paris 1921, 233. In sc r . de Delos 1731· Ebenda 1751. Ebenda 1753. F. Poland, Geschichte des griechischen Vereinswesens, Leipzig 1 9 0 9 , 3755 H atzfeld, B u ll. Corr. H ell. 36, 1912, 177. Kornemann, Conventus, RE 4, 1 9 OO, 1188. Vgl. auch J. Linderski, Zum Namen Competalis , G lotta 39, I960, 148. Für die Literaturangaben s . K. Meuli, Mus. Helv. 12, 1955, 219 Anm. 51; Börner, Untersuchungen; 43 Anm. 3* M. Bulard, La r e lig io n domestique dans la colonie ita lie n n e de D elos, Paris 1926, 82 f f . 417 f f . ; Meuli, 230-232; Börner, Un tersuchungen, 45. Diese Tatsache ste h t nicht im Widerspruch mit dem, daß die Com p it a lia zu den sacra popularia quae omnes cives faciu nt gezählt wurden (v g l. oben Anm. 4 9 ). Die c o lle g ia magistrorum und die m agistri vicorum sorgten ständig für die sa c e lla der Laren, sie standen den Spielen vor, aber am Kultus se lb st und an den Spie len nahmen a lle t e i l . Wenn hingegen ein Kult im ganzen einem bestimmten Kollegium oder einer Familie anvertraut war, so be t e ilig t e n sic h an denselben nur diese Organisationen. So z . B. nahmen an dem w ichtigsten T e il der Luperkalien, dem Lauf um den Fuß des P a latin , nur M itglieder der Bruderschaft der Luperken te il. J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, 3, 2 . Aufl. Leipzig 1885, 204. Wissowa, RuK2 1 7 I 5 Boehm, Lares, RE 12, 1925, 810; Accame, 15; Börner, H istoria 3, 1954, 252; B ick el, Rh. Mus. 97, 1954, 29;
201
131
100
101
102 103
104
10 5
106 107 108
N lebllng, H istoria 5» 1956» 309? J· Bleicken, Vici m agister, EE Ö A, 1958, 2480. Eie Quellen, auf welche sic h in diesem Zusammenhang d ie oben genannten Forscher berufen (C ic. In P is . 9; de domo 54; de har. respi 22; Case. Dio LV 8 ; CIL IV 60, VI 12, 335, 1324, 2221, 30888, X 3789), beweisen nur das, was augenscheinlich i s t , näm lic h daß es magistri vicorum und c o lle g ia Larum gab, sagen aber nichts von einem Zusammenhang der einen mit den anderen aus. A.D. Nock, Cambridge Ancient H i s t o r y IO, 1934, 479-480; P. Lam brechts, La p olitiq u e apollonienne d'Auguste e t le culte impe r ia l , N. Clio 5, 1953, 65-82. N iebling, H istoria 5, 1956, 303-331 passim. Siehe z. B. CIL II 1133, 4293, 4297, 4304, 4306, 4307, XI 2835, V 3257, X 1582, XII 406. Ich kann auf diese In sch riften an die ser S te lle le id e r nicht näher eingehen und verweise auf eine andere Arbeit. Vgl. auch Börner, Untersuchungen, 42-54. Ein Verzeichnis der privaten Verbände von Anbetern der Laren g ib t Waltzing, Étude historique sur le s corporations profes sio n e lle s chez le s Romains, 4 , Louvain I 9 0 0 , 190-192. Uber die cultores s . auch L. Schnorr v . C arolsfeld, Geschichte der ju ri stischen Person, 1, München 1933, 267-271. Diese Verbände tru gen meistens den Namen collegium Laium, aber auch collegium cultorum Larum, cultores c o lle g ii Larum. Oft war zu dem Namen noch eine nähere Bezeichnung hinzugefügt, z. B. CIL VI 671s collegium magnum Lar(um )... Antonini P ii . In diesem Zusammenhang i s t auf die Tatsache hinzuweisen, daß schon Im zweiten Jh. bakchische Vereinigungen und so d a lita te s Magnae Matris e x is tie r te n . In den letz ten Jahren der Republik verbreiteten sic h besonders Verbindungen der Bekenner der ägyp tischen Gottheiten; sie nahmen an den p o litisch en Kämpfen sehr aktiv t e i l und wurden durch den Senat aufgehoben. Siehe dazu A. Alfo id i, I s is k u lt und Umsturzbewegung im le tz te n Jahr hundert der römischen Republik, Schweizer Münzblätter 5, 1954/ 55, 25-31. D ir. a s s ., 85-86. Cohn, Zum römischen Vereinsrecht, Berlin 1873, 4-0* De Robertis, Dir. a s s ., 84. Uber die tib ic in e s s . J. Linderski, Pabstwo a k olegia, Kraków 1961, 9 Anm. 10, wo die w eitere Literatur angeführt i s t .
132
109 Vgl. Waltzing, 1, 237-238. 110 CIL VI 1872. Vgl. J. Le G ail, Le Tibre dans l'a n tiq u ité , Paris 1 9 5 3 , 2 6 8 -2 7 0 .
111 In P is . Clark 6 . 112 Waltzing 1 , IO3 . 1 1 3 CIL I 2 687 (nur im P alle der R ich tigk eit der von Heurgon, Mèi. d'arch. e t d 'h is t. 56, 1939* 14 Anm. 1 vorgeschlagenen Ergän zung horto [lanorum ]). 114 Siehe aus der Zeit der Republik: in te r fig u lo s , in te r fa lc a r io s , in te r lig n a r io s, vicu s argentarius, bubularius, lo ra riu s, m ateriarius, sandalarius, v it r ia r iu s , campus pecuarius (H. Jor dan, Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum, 1, Berlin 1871, 5 1 5 -5 1 7 und 2, 1885, 597; 0. R ichter, Topographie der Stadt Rom, 2. Aufl. München I 9 OI, 401-403; P latn er-Ashby, A Topo graphical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, London 1929, s . v . v . Daß die Handwerkerkollegien sic h ta tsä ch lich in den einzelnen Bezirken organisierten , beweist das B e isp iel des Vereins von p la n ii p iscin en ses (CIL I 978), so genannt nach dem ö f f e n t li chen Teich, P iscina Publica in der XII. Region.
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ιο 6
C IC E R O S R E D E P R O C A E L IO U N D D I E A M B IT U S - U N D V E R E IN S G E S E T Z G E B U N G D ER AUSGEHENDEN
R E P U B L IK
D e r P e r s o n d e s M. C a e liu s R u f u s u n d d e r C a e lia n a C ic ero s h a b e n in d ie s e r Z e its c h r if t b e r e i ts F . M ü n z e r 1 u n d R . H e i n z e 2 ih r e U n te r s u c h u n g e n g e w id m e t ; d u r c h e in e K e t t e v o n s c h a rfs in n ig e n F e s ts te llu n g e n h a b e n sie u n s e r W is s e n in d ie s e r H in s ic h t so b e r e ic h e r t, d a ß d a m it e in f e s te r G r u n d f ü r a lle w e ite re n A r b e ite n g e s c h a ffe n w u rd e . W e n n w ir u n s a b e r d a s re g e I n te r e s s e f ü r d ie G e s c h ic h te
d e s r ö m is c h e n
V e re in s w e s e n s u n d
z u g le ic h d e n
r u d im e n tä r e n
Z u s t a n d d e r d ie s b e z ü g lic h e n Ü b e r lie f e r u n g g e g e n w ä rtig h a l te n , m u ß es u n s e r s ta u n lic h e rs c h e in e n , d a ß d ie C a e lia n a v o n d ie se m S t a n d p u n k t a u s n ie m a ls e in e r e in g e h e n d e re n P r ü f u n g u n te r w o r f e n w u rd e . E s i s t n ic h t u n s e r e A b s ic h t, e in e v o lls tä n d ig e D a r s te llu n g d e s rö m is c h e n V e re in s w e s e n s z u r Z e it d e r a u s g e h e n d e n R e p u b lik z u g e b e n ; w ir w o lle n n u r v e r s u c h e n , a u f G r u n d d e r R e d e C ic e ro s P r o C aelio e in ig e S tr e itf r a g e n v o n n e u e m z u e r ö r te r n . W ie b e k a n n t , w u r d e im A p ril d e s J a h r e s 5 6 M. C a e liu s R u f u s v o n d e m ju n g e n L . S e m p ro n iu s A t r a t i n u s v o r G e r ic h t g e f o r d e r t. D ie K la g e l a u t e t e d e v i, z u d e n A n k la g e p u n k te n g e h ö r te n a b e r a u c h d ie c r im in a s o d a liu m ac s e q u e s tr iu m , d e r e n C a e liu s s ic h s c h u ld ig g e m a c h t z u h a b e n s c h e in t. M a n v e r
w e is t a u f d ie d ie sb e z ü g lic h e S te lle d e r C a e lia n a o ft g e n u g , h a t sic h a b e r b is h e r s e h r w e n ig b e m ü h t, sie e in g e h e n d e r z u a n a ly s ie r e n u n d m i t a n d e r e n Q u e lle n z u s a m m e n z u s te lle n 3. D e r g rö ß e re n A n s c h a u lic h k e it h a l b e r so ll d ie se S te lle im g a n z e n U m fa n g w ie d e rg e g e b e n w e rd e n . P r o C aelio 16 : Q u o d h a u d s c io a n d e a m b itu e t d e c r im in ib u s is t i s s o d a liu m a c s e q u e striu m , q u o n ia m h u c in c id i , s im i li te r r e s p o n d e n d u m p u te m . N u m q u a m e n im ta m C a e liu s
1 Aus dem Leben des M. Caelius Rufus, Herm es 44, 1909, 135fr., siehe auch dens., R E I I A 1366. 2 Ciceros Rede P ro Caelio, Herm es 60, 1925, 1930. 8 F. M. D e R obertis zitiert diese Stelle in seinem großen W erke über die Geschichte des röm ischen Vereinswesens, Il d iritto associativo rom ano (Bari 1938), n u r einmal, und zwar n u r gelegentlich in einer A nm erkung (S. 118 Anm. 41) ; auch M ommsen ist auf dieselbe nicht tiefer eingegangen, weder in der frühen Schrift De collegiis et sodaliciis Rom anorum (Kiliae 1843) noch in seinem Meisterwerk Römisches S trafrecht (Leipzig 1899). Dasselbe gilt für die A rbeiten der folgenden A utoren: A. W. Z umpt , D eis Crim inalrecht der röm i schen Republik, Bd. I I 1,2 (Berlin 1868—69); P. K ayser , A bhandlungen aus dem Processund S trafrecht. I I : Die Strafgesetzgebung der R öm er gegen Vereine (Berlin 1873) ; M. Cohn , Zum röm ischen Vereinsrecht (Berün 1873); W. L iebenam , Zur Geschichte und Organisa tio n des röm ischen Vereinswesens (Leipzig 1890); I. van W ageningen im K om m entar zu seiner Ausgabe der R ede Pro Caelio (Groningae 1908) ; E. Costa, Cicerone giureconsulto (Bologna 1927); P f a f f , R E s. v. Sodalicium; J. L en gle , Römisches S trafrecht bei Cicero und den H istorikern (Leipzig und Berlin 1934) ; S. A ccame, La legislazione rom ana intorno ai collegi nel I sec. a. C., Bull, del Museo àell’ Im p. Rom. 13, 1942, i3ff. ; B. E liachevitch , L a personnalité juridique en droit privé rom ain (Paris 1942), und auch für die neueste A rbeit D e R o bertis ’, Il fenomeno associativo nel mondo rom ano (Napoli 1955). 204
Ciceros R e d e p ro C aelio u. d. A m b itu s- u. V erein sg esetzg eb u n g d. R e p u b lik
1 07
a m e n s f u i s s e t , u t, s i se is to in f i n i to a m b itu c o m m a c u la sse t, a m b itu s a lte r u m a c c u sa r e t, n e q u e e iu s f a c t i i n a lte ro s u s p itio n e m q u a ereret, c u iu s s ib i p e r p e tu a m lic e n tia m o p ta re t, n ec s i s ib i s e m e l p e r ic u lu m a m b itu s s u b e u n d u m p u ta r e t, ip s e a lte r u m ite r u m a m b itu s c r im in e a r c e s s e r e t1.
W a s d ie r e c h tlic h e N a t u r d e r c r im in a s o d a liu m u n d se q u e str iu m a n b e l a n g t u n d w a s ü b e r h a u p t u n t e r d ie se n c r im in a z u v e r s te h e n sei, i s t n ic h t o h n e w e ite r e s k la r. B e m e r k e n w ir z u n ä c h s t, d a ß d ie se s V e rg e h e n in d e r F a s s u n g C ic ero s e in e b e s o n d e r e A r t v o n B e s te c h u n g b ild e t, d e n i n f in itu s a m b itu s , d e r d e m g e w ö h n li c h e n a m b itu s e n tg e g e n g e s te llt is t. W e n n w ir d ie se c r im in a r e in th e o r e tis c h b e t r a c h t e n , so e rg e b e n sic h fo lg e n d e M ö g lic h k e ite n : m a n k a n n d a r u n t e r v e r s te h e n : I. d a s v o n e in e m K a n d id a t e n d a d u r c h b e g a n g e n e V e rg e h e n , d a ß e r d ie so d a le s u n d se q u e stre s f ü r s ic h g e w o n n e n h a t , u m m i t H ilfe d ie s e r A n h ä n g e r d ie
W ä h le r z u b e s te c h e n o d e r e in z u s c h ü c h te m , 2 . d a ß je m a n d b e i d e r B e w e rb u n g e in e s K a n d i d a t e n a ls d e s s e n s o d a lis u n d seq u ester g e w ir k t h a t . E s i s t b e g re iflic h , d a ß d ie se M ö g lic h k e ite n k e in e A lte r n a tiv e b ild e n , sie s in d v ie lm e h r a ls v e rs c h ie d e n e S e ite n d e s s e lb e n V e rg e h e n s z u b e t r a c h te n . M it w e lc h e r v o n d ie se n M ö g lic h k e ite n h a b e n w ir a b e r h ie r z u t u n ? D a ß C a e liu s s ic h s e lb s t u m
e in A m t b e w o r b e n h a b e , w ir d m i t R e c h t f a s t a llg e m e in
a ls u n h a l t b a r e r k a n n t 2; es b le ib t n u r d ie V e r m u tu n g ü b rig , d a ß e r d ie K a n d id a t u r e in e s a n d e r e n m i t u n e r la u b te n M itte ln u n t e r s t ü t z t h a b e . N a c h d e m M ü n z e r d ie I d e n t i t ä t d e s B e s tia m i t d e m V a te r d e s A t r a t i n u s d a r g e t a n h a t 3, l ä ß t sic h n i c h t w e ite r a n
d ie T e iln a h m e C a e liu s’ a n d e r B e w e rb u n g B e s tia s u m d ie
P r a e t u r d e n k e n ; H e i n z e v e rw e is t d a g e g e n s e h r g lü c k lic h a u f d ie P o n tif ik a lw a h le n 4. A u s d e r b e tre f f e n d e n S te lle d e r C a e lia n a ( 1 9 ) e r f a h r e n w ir, d a ß C a e liu s b e i d ie s e r W a h l e in e n S e n a to r m i ß h a n d e lt h a t . E s l ä ß t sic h v e r m u te n , d a ß es s ic h h ie r u m e in e n G e g n e r d e s K a n d i d a t e n h a n d e l te , f ü r d e n C a e liu s b e i d ie se r W a h l g e a r b e ite t h a t 5. W e n n m a n d ie se s E r e ig n is im Z u s a m m e n h a n g m i t d e n o b e n e r w ä h n te n c r im in a b e t r a c h t e t , p a ß t es s e h r w o h l z u d e r b e k a n n t e n T a t s a c h e , d a ß d ie s o d a le s n ic h t n u r m i tte ls B e s te c h u n g w ir k te n , s o n d e rn a u c h v o r d e r A n w e n d u n g v o n G e w a lt n ic h t z u r ü c k s c h r e c k te n . D ie A m b itu s - G e s e tz e k a n n t e n v o r d e m J a h r e 5 6 d e n B e g riff d e r c r im in a s o d a liu m u n d s e q u e s tr iu m n ic h t ; d ie V o rw ü rfe d e r A n k lä g e r k o n n te n d e m g e m ä ß
n u r a u f z w ei R e c h t s a k te n b e r u h e n : 1 . a u f e in e m S e n a ts b e s c h lu ß v o m 1 0 . F e b r u a r d e s s e lb e n J a h r e s , ü b e r d e n C ic e ro s e in e m B r u d e r g e le g e n tlic h in e in e m B r ie f (2 , 3 , 5 ) m i t t e i l t : s e n a tu s c o n s u ltu m f a c tu m est, u t s o d a lita te s d e c u ria tiq u e 1
Vgl. auch 78 : n o n p o te st, q u i a m b itu ne a b so lu tu m q u id e m p a tia tu r esse a b so lu tu m , ip s e
im p u n e u m q u a m esse la rg ito r.
* Siehe besonders H ein ze a. a. O. S. 212. Die Auffassung von D rumann -G roebe , Geschichte Roms II 348, ist nicht stichhaltig. * Siehe die in Anm. 1, S. 106 angeführten A rbeiten. * A. a. O. 212. 6 H e in ze a. a. O. 2170. und bes. 218 Anm. 1 h a t sehr wahrscheinlich gem acht, daß es Q. Fufius Calenus war, der bei den Pontifikalkom itien durch Caelius zurückgedrängt wurde. 205
ιο 8
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d is c e d e r e n t l e x q u e d e i i s f e r r e t u r , u t , q u i n o n d i s c e s s is s e n t, ea p o e n a , q u a e e st d e v i , te n e r e n t u r , 2 .
auf dem Gesetz, das d er obenerw ähnte Senatsbeschluß a n k ü n d ig t. P rüfen w ir zu n äch st diese le tztere M öglichkeit. Seit dem S enatsbeschluß vom F e b ru a r 5 6 verflossen bis zum P rozeß des Caelius fast drei M onate, d a h a tte der S enat genug Z eit zur D u rch fü h ru n g des G esetzes; es sp rich t ab er alles dafü r, d aß zur Zeit d er V eih an d lu n g jene l e x noch n ic h t in K ra ft g etreten w ar. W äre dies d er Fall, so läge die V erm u tu n g nahe, d aß m an auf dieser G rundlage eine formelle A nklage gegen Caelius erhoben h ä tte . Cicero ä u ß e rt sich dagegen (3 0 ) sehr d eu tlich : A d u l t e r , i m p u d i c u s , s e q u e s te r c o n v i t i u m e s t, n o n a c c u s a tio : n u l l u m e s t e n i m f u n d a m e n t u m h o r u m c r i m i n u m , n u l l a s e d e s . D er s e q u e s te r is t hier also strafrech tlich dem a d u l t e r u n d i m p u d i c u s gleichgestellt. Diese T atsach e zeigt ausdrücklich, d aß die c r i m i n a s e q u e s t r i u m noch d u rch keine l e x getroffen w aren, denn die zwei erstg en an n ten sind e rst u n te r A ugustus stra fb a r gew o rd en 1. Cicero bezeichnet also diesen A nklagepunkt als c o n v i t i u m , bloße u n d u n b estim m te B eschuldigung, n ic h t n u r darum , weil die A nkläger keine Beweise d afü r b eig eb rach t haben, sondern vielm ehr, weil ü b e rh a u p t keine rechtliche G rundlage für eine solche A nklage vorhanden w ar. E s w aren ab er doch c r i m i n a , w as Cicero keinesw egs zu leugnen v ersu ch t ; sie un terlag en zw ar keiner S trafe, w urden ab er allgem ein m ißbilligt u n d m u ß ten , w as besonders die s o d a le s u n d s e q u e s tr e s an b etrifft, jedem als rechtsw idrige T ätig k eit erscheinen. E s u n te rh e g t keinem Zweifel, d aß die P hrase c r i m i n a s o d a l i u m a c s e q u e s t r i u m ein term in u s technicus ist, d er allen A nw esen den b ereits geläufig w ar u n d schon frü h er in einem R e ch tsak t form uliert worden ist. N ach A usschaltung d er verm eintlichen l e x bleib t n u r d as S enatsconsult vom F e b ru a r 5 6 , dem w ir die juristische F orm u lieru n g des Begriffes zuschreiben k ö n n e n 2. A us dem bisher G esagten erg ib t sich offensichtlich, d aß Ciceros B erich t ü b er den Senatsbeschluß vom F e b ru a r 5 6 sehr flüchtig ist. Die A nalyse d er C aeliana lä ß t uns die T atsach e feststellen, d aß der S enatsbeschluß n ic h t n u r aus drei P u n k te n , sondern aus m indestens vier oder fünf P u n k ten b estan d . Zu den in dem Briefe Ciceros b ereits g en an n ten P u n k te n d e s o d a l i t a t i b u s , d e d e c u r i a t i s u n d d e le g e d e i i s q u i n o n d is c e s s i s s e n t f e r e n d a können w ir nun auf G rund d er C aeliana zwei w eitere hinzufügen, näm lich d e s e q u e s tr ib u s u n d d e s o d a l i b u s 3. Diese F eststellu n g zieht w ichtige Folgen n ach sich: sie fü h rt näm lich zu neuer 1 M ommsen , Strafrecht 688 ff. 2 Zu demselben Schluß scheint auch H einze a. a. O. 212 gekommen zu sein; er h a t aber diese Feststellung nur gelegentlich gem acht, ohne sie zu weiterer A rgum entation zu ver wenden. 5 E s ist sehr wahrscheinlich, daß im T ext des Senatsbeschlusses die Maßregeln gegen die einzelnen sodales und jene gegen die ganzen sodalitates gesondert form uliert waren, denn in diesem letzteren Falle handelt es sich nicht nur um die bloße Bestechung oder Erpressung, sondern vor allem um den M ißbrauch des Vereinsrechts.
206
C ic e r o s R e d e p r o C a e lio u . d . A m b i t u s - u . V e r e in s g e s e t z g e b u n g d . R e p u b l i k
109
B e u r t e ilu n g d e s I n h a l t s d ie se s S e n a ts b e s c h lu s s e s u n d s te l lt ü b e r h a u p t d ie A b s ic h t, in w e lc h e r d e r S e n a t se in c o n s u l t u m e rg e h e n lie ß , in e in n e u e s L ic h t. U m d a s V e r s tä n d n is d e r w e ite r e n A u s f ü h r u n g e n z u e r le ic h te r n , s c h e in t es n ic h t u n a n g e b r a c h t, a n d ie s e r S te lle e in e k u rz e B e s p r e c h u n g d e r b is h e rig e n E r w ä g u n g e n e in z u s c h a lte n u n d d e n h e u tig e n S t a n d d e s P r o b le m s a n z u g e b e n . E s b e k ä m p f e n s ic h in d e r F a c h l i t e r a t u r z w e i A n s ic h te n . N a c h d e r e in e n , d ie v o n M o m m s e n 1 s t a m m t u n d v o n C o h n 2 u n d W a l t z i n g 3 g e b illig t w u rd e , g e h ö r te d e r S e n a ts b e s c h lu ß z u d e n M a ß n a h m e n , d ie a u s s c h lie ß lic h g e g e n W a h lu m tr ie b e g e r ic h te t w a re n . D ie s o d a l i t a t e s s o llte n in d ie s e r F a s s u n g d ie V e re in ig u n g e n v o r n e h m e r L e u te , d e r a m i c i u n d s o d a le s e in e s K a n d id a t e n se in , d ie a lle rd in g s n ic h t d u r c h
G e w a lt ( v is ) , s o n d e r n n u r d u r c h B e s te c h u n g ( la r g itio ) w irk e n
s o llte n . U n t e r d e c u r i a t i d ü r f te n d ie Z e h n ts c h a f te n d e r W ä h le r z u v e r s te h e n s e in , d ie a u f d ie se W e ise o r g a n is ie r t w a r e n , u m ih r e S tim m e n le ic h te r v e r k a u f e n z u k ö n n e n . Z u m p t 4 u n d K a y s e r 6 s in d a n d e r e r M e in u n g : d a s S e n a ts c o n s u lt b e z ie h e s ic h n ic h t a u f d ie W a h lv e r e in ig u n g e n , s o n d e r n a u f d ie c lo d is c h e n K o lle g ie n , d ie , w ie sic h a u s e in ig e n c ic e ro n is c h e n S te lle n e rg e b e , a u c h in D e k u r ie n g e t e ilt w a re n . D e r S e n a ts b e s c h lu ß d ü r f te a lso d ie A u f h e b u n g d e r v o n C lo d iu s g e g r ü n d e te n V e re in e in A u s s ic h t g e n o m m e n h a b e n . N e u e rd in g s is t d ie s e r G e d a n k e v o n d e m ita lie n is c h e n R e c h ts g e le h r te n F . M. D e R o b e r t i s a u fg e g riffe n w o rd e n , d e r n a c h g e n a u e r P r ü f u n g d e r Q u e lle n u n d d e r b is h e r a u s g e s p r o c h e n e n A n s ic h te n d e n S c h lu ß g e z o g e n h a t : E s s o . . . d o v e t te c o m p le ta m e n te
p re s c in d e re
d a lla c o rru z io n e e le tto r a le , c o lp ita d a a l t r e
leg g i
s p e c ia li i n q u e s to t e m p o 6. D ie A u s f ü h r u n g e n D e R o b e r t i s ’ h a b e n b is h e r k e in e n W id e r s p r u c h e r r e g t u n d s c h e in e n a llg e m e in a n e r k a n n t z u s e i n 7; se in e M e in u n g d a r f a lso a ls d ie h e u t e h e r r s c h e n d e L e h re b e z e ic h n e t w e rd e n . B e i u n b e f a n g e n e r Ü b e r p r ü f u n g d e r v o n D e R o b e r t i s v e r tr e te n e n T h e o rie k a n n m a n ih m a b e r n ic h t z u s ti m m e n ; w ir w e rd e n s e h e n , d a ß d ie Q uellen· k e in e n A n h a l t s p u n k t f ü r e in e so f o r m u lie r te T h e o rie b ie te n . E s soll a n d ie s e r S te lle d a s w ic h tig s te E r g e b n is d e r b is h e rig e n A u s f ü h r u n g e n b e s o n d e r s b e t o n t w e rd e n , n ä m lic h , d a ß s c h o n im T e x t d e s S e n a ts b e s c h lu s s e s v o m F e b r u a r 5 6 s ic h e in P u n k t d e s e q u e s tr ib u s b e f u n d e n h a t , u n d n ic h t, w ie d ie h e rr s c h e n d e L e h re s tills c h w e ig e n d a n z u n e h m e n s c h e in t, e r s t in d e r l e x L i c i n i a . E s f r a g t s ic h , a u f w e lc h e W e ise d ie M a ß n a h m e n g e g e n d ie s e q u e s tr e s , d ie L e u te , b e i d e n e n d ie B e s te c h u n g s g e ld e r d e p o n ie r t w a r e n , in E in k la n g m i t d e r T h e o rie g e b r a c h t w e rd e n k ö n n te n , d ie je d e B e z ie h u n g d e s S e n a ts b e s c h lu s s e s a u f d ie W a h lu m tr ie b e z u n e g ie re n v e r s u c h t. D ie se T h e o r ie m u ß a lso a ls d e n Q u e lle n 1 De collegiis 60. 2 A. 3 J. Ρ. W altzing , É tu d e historique Rom ains I (Louvain 1895) m f . 4 A. a. O. 385. 5 A. a. O. 7 Siehe A ccame a. a. O. 32ff.; L. (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1949) 210.
a. Ο. 58. sur les corporations professionnelles chez les 165. · Dir. ass. 107 Anm. 42. R oss T aylor , P a rty Politics in the Age of Caesar 207
no
J e r z y L in d e r s k i
w idersprechend bezeichnet u n d als solche ab g eleh n t w erden. Die A blehnung der h eu te herrschenden M einung b e d e u te t a b e r n ich t, d aß d am it d er P la tz für die E rn eu e ru n g d er MoMMSENschen L ehre g eräu m t ist u n d d aß diese L ehre m it allen E inzelheiten anzunehm en sei; sie b e d e u te t au ch g ar n ich t, d aß alle A us führungen D e R o b e r t i s ’ zu verw erfen seien. E s h a n d e lt sich h ier n u r um das W ichtigste, um die F rage, ob es irgendeinen Z usam m enhang zw ischen dem S enatsconsult u n d den M aßnahm en gegen B estechung gegeben habe. E s liegt au f d e r H an d , d aß n ach d er obigen A rg u m en tatio n eine M einung, die diesen Z usam m enhang verneinen w ollte, n ic h t m eh r h a ltb a r ist. D e R o b e r t i s h a t w ohl R ech t, w enn er den S enatsbeschluß entgegen d er A nsicht M o m m se n s auf die clodischen V ereine b e z ie h t1. Ich m öchte ab er d azu bem erken, d aß sich aus dieser w ohl richtigen B eh au p tu n g n ic h t n otw endig ergibt, d aß eine B eziehung des S enatsbeschlusses a u f die W ah lu m trieb e zu negieren sei. U m die obigen E rö rteru n g en noch etw as eingehender zu b egründen, scheint es zw eckm äßig, auch die in dem B rief Ciceros uns begegnenden B ezeichnungen s o d a lita te s u n d d e c u r i a t i einer A nalyse zu unterw erfen. W as im T e x t des S enatsbeschlusses u n te r s o d a lita te s zu versteh en sei, h a t schon, u n d im w esentlichen rich tig , T h. M o m m se n g e k lä rt2. E s m u ß als u n b e s tritte n angenom m en w erden, d aß es V ereinigungen einflußreicher L eute w aren, die u. a. bei den W ahlen w irk ten u n d gewisse K a n d id atu ren u n te r stü tz te n . Cicero n e n n t solche s o d a lita te s einige Mal, ih r W esen erscheint ab er m it besonderer K larh eit in dem von Q. Cicero v erfaß ten C om m entariolum p e ti tionis. E s h eiß t 1 9 : n a m h o c b i e n n i o q u a t t u o r s o d a lita te s h o m i n u m a d a m b i t i o n e m g r a t i o s i s s i m o r u m t i b i o b lig a s ti, M . F u n d a n i i , Q . G a l l i i , C . C o r n e l i i , C . O r c h i v i i : h o r u m i n c a u s i s a d te d e fe r e n d i s q u i d t i b i e o r u m s o d a le s r e c e p e r in t et c o n f i r m a r i n t
Diese v ier M änner sind also die T eilnehm er u n d vielleicht V orsteher der einzelnen s o d a lita te s gew esen; d arau s erg ib t sich, d aß solche O rganisationen eine gewisse D au erh aftig k eit besaßen u n d n ic h t n u r fü r eine b estim m te W ahl ins Leben gerufen w urden. Im G egensatz ab er zu den K olle gien, deren V orhandensein von dem W echsel der M itglieder u n d d e r m a g i s t r i u n ab h än g ig w ar, w ar das B estehen ein er solchen s o d a l i t a s eng m it d e r Person ihres V orstehers v erk n ü p ft. E s g ib t noch einen w eiteren U n tersch ied zwischen s o d a lita te s u n d c o lle g ia — B eru fsv erb än d en : die innere O rganisation der letzteren b e ru h t au f dem okratischen Prinzipien, ihre V orsteher, die m a g i s t r i , q u a e s to r e s , d e c u r io n e s usw., w erden von allen Genossen g ew äh lt; nirgends begegnet uns z. B. ein c o lle g iu m C o r n e l i i , des Cornelius, wie oben eine gleich nam ige s o d a l i t a s 3. B esondere A u fm erk sam k eit m uß au f die soziale Seite des s c io , n a m i n t e r f u i .
1 Dir. ass. 102 ff., siehe auch A ccame a. a. Ο. 342 De collegiis 60. 8 D e R obertis (Dir. ass. 23 Anm. 78 und 103 Anm. 21) h a t irrtüm lich die sodalitas Cornelii, die ihren Namen von dem V olkstribun C. Cornelius führte, m it dem collegium Corneliorum (Cic., Pro Corn, bei Asc. S. 75 Clark , vgl. App., B. C. 1, 100— 104, CIL I s 722) identifiziert, welches aus den von Sulla freigelassenen Sklaven zusam m engesetzt w a r 208
Ciceros Rede pro Caelio u. d. Ambitus- u. Vereinsgesetzgebung d. R epublik
m
P r o b le m s g e le n k t w e rd e n , d ie g e w ö h n lic h u n b e r ü c k s ic h tig t b le ib t. I n d ie s e r H in s ic h t i s t m i t b e s o n d e re m N a c h d r u c k d e r U m s ta n d h e r v o r z u h e b e n , d a ß d ie M itg lie d e r d e r s o d a lita te s a u s d e n m i ttl e r e n u n d o b e re n S c h ic h te n d e r G e se ll s c h a f t s ta m m te n , w ä h r e n d d ie d e r K o lle g ie n d ie n ie d e re n K la s s e n r e p r ä s e n t i e r t e n , b e s o n d e r s d ie p l e b s u r b a n a 1. A b e r d ie in R e d e s te h e n d e n s o d a lita te s h a b e n a u c h m i t d e n a l te n re lig iö se n G e n o s s e n s c h a fte n , d ie e b e n fa lls d e n s e lb e n N a m e n f ü h r te n , n ic h ts g e m e in . J e n e w a r e n w irk lic h e re lig iö se B r u d e r s c h a f te n , d ie m a n c h m a l a u s u r a l t e n Z e ite n s t a m m t e n u n d s ic h g u te n R u f e s e r f r e u te n , d ie se h in g e g e n w a r e n n ic h t e in e A u s a r t u n g d e r f r ü h e r e n , s o n d e rn , w a s a u c h a u s d e m o b e n z itie r te n Z e u g n is d es Q. C ic ero h e r v o r g e h t, g a n z n e u e V e re in ig u n g e n , d ie sic h u m e in e n o d e r m e h re r e e in flu ß re ic h e P o lit ik e r o d e r G e s c h ä f ts le u te g r u p p ie r te n u n d f a s t a u s s c h lie ß lic h p o litis c h e n Z w e c k e n d i e n t e n 2. C icero h a t d ie se Ä n d e r u n g d e r B e d e u t u n g s e h r r ic h tig w a h rg e n o m m e n , in d e m e r in d e r P la n c ia n a (3 7 ) e in e V e re in ig u n g z u r W a h lb e s te c h u n g a ls e in e c o n s e n s io b e z e ic h n e t, q u a e m a g i s h o n e s te q u a m v e re s o d a l i t a s n o m i n a r e t u r . D a s s e lb e g ilt a u c h f ü r d a s W o r t s o d a l i s , w e lc h e s v o n
C icero P r o P la n c io 4 6 a ls n o m e n c r i m i n o s u m e r k l ä r t w ird . G le ic h z e itig w a re n a b e r d ie s e b e id e n B e n e n n u n g e n a u c h in d e r ä lte r e n , n ic h t a b fä llig e n B e d e u tu n g im G e b r a u c h ; C icero s e lb s t v e r w e n d e t sie m a n c h m a l in d ie se m S in n e , u . a. a u c h in d e rs e lb e n R e d e P r o P la n c io 3. E in ig e d e r ä l te r e n s o d a lita te s b e s ta n d e n a u c h d a m a ls f o r t : C ic ero b e z e ic h n e t z. B . a ls s o d a l i t a s d ie B r u d e r s c h a f t d e r L u p e r c i , m a n k a n n a u c h a n d ie s o d a lita te s M a g n a e M a t r i s d e n k e n 4. D ie se re lig iö se n s o d a lita te s w u rd e n d u r c h d e n S e n a ts b e s c h lu ß o ffe n b a r n ic h t g e tro ffe n . I m w e ite re n w ir d a ls o n u r v o n d e n s o d a lita te s — p o litis c h e n V e re in ig u n g e n d ie R e d e sein. D aß
d ie T ä t ig k e i t s o lc h e r V e r b ä n d e n ic h t n u r a u f W a h lb e e in flu s s u n g
b e s c h r ä n k t w a r, h a t sc h o n M o m m se n e r k a n n t u n d a u c h B e isp ie le d a f ü r a n g e f ü h r t ; w e n n e r a b e r b e h a u p t e t , d a ß d ie s o d a lita te s b e i d e n W a h le n u n d ü b e r h a u p t n u r l a r g i t i o g e ü b t h a b e n 5, v e r m a g ic h d e m M e is te r d e r A lte r t u m s w is s e n s c h a ft n i c h t z u z u s tim m e n . E s i s t w a h r , d a ß in d e n Q u e lle n , a u f w e lc h e M o m m se n h in w e is t (d. h . in d e r P la n c ia n a ) , n u r v o n B e s te c h u n g d ie R e d e is t. Zum collegium Corneliorum siehe je tz t J.
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sk a
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Deset tisic Corneliu, Listy Filologicke II I
78- 1 955. *77fi-
1 N icht zutreffend erscheint die Ansicht D e R o bertis ’ Dir. ass. 103 Anm. 21, der die vier oben erw ähnten sodalitates für Vereinigungen von Freigelassenen hält. D anach wären die Freigelassenen zu sodales ihrer ehemaligen H erren geworden, was jedenfalls höchst unw ahrscheinlich ist. 2 Zu dieser Frage vgl. E liachevitch a. a. O. 219ff., wo die Quellen- und L itera tu r angaben vollständig verzeichnet sind. 3 P ro Plancio 29. F ü r die weiteren Belege siehe H. Merg u et , Lexikon zu den Reden des Cicero (Jena 1884), und W. A. O ldfather , Η. V. Canter , K. M. A bbot , Index verborum Ciceronis epistularum (U rbana 1938) s. vv. sodalitas und sodalis. Siehe auch de or. 2, 197, 200; B rut. 166; de nat. deor. 80. 1 Pro Caelio 26; de senect 13, 45. 5 De collegiis 41—42, 47. 209
J e r z y L in d e r s k i
II2
ab er diese T atsach e d arf n ich t v erallgem einert w erden ; sie bew eist insbesondere g ar n ich t, daß auch andersw o n u r l a r g i t i o vorliegen müsse. W enn z. B. Cicero a d A tt. I , 1 4 , 5 ü b er die b a r b a tu li i u v e n e s , t o tu s i lle g r e x C a t i l i n a e sp rich t, so p a ß t dieses B ild sicher n ic h t zu den au s Sklaven u n d städ tisch er Plebs zu sam m engesetzten V ereinen, sondern eh er zu einer s o d a lita s v o rn eh m er Ju g en d . E s ist bem erkensw ert, d aß andersw o dieselben b a r b a tu li i u v e n e s als c o m m is a to r e s c o n i u r a t i o n i s bezeichnet w e rd e n 1. D iese b a r b a t u l i i u v e n e s erscheinen in V er b in d u n g m it den o p e r a e C lo d ia n a e ; es k an n als sicher gelten, d aß die G egner des Clodius, Milo u n d Sestius, von gleichartigen V ereinigungen u n te rs tü tz t w urden. D aß solche O rganisationen n ic h t n u r zu W ahlbestechungszw ecken g egründet w urden, ist offensichtlich. M an b ra u c h t ab er g ar n ich t d erartig e Beweise an zu fü h ren ; es genügt, sich an die T atsach e zu erinnern, d aß die s o d a le s k ra ft des im S enatsbeschluß an gekündigten G esetzes von d e r gleichen S trafe getroffen w erden sollten wie G ew altverbrecher. H ä tte n die s o d a le s w irklich n u r l a r g i t i o geü b t, so w äre diese B estim m ung sehr eigentüm lich u n d rä ts e lh a ft; nehm en w ir dagegen an, sie h ä tte n auch G ew alt anzuw enden gepflegt, so entfallen diese Schw ierigkeiten d er In te rp re ta tio n . Im T e x t des Senatsbeschlusses m üssen w ir also u n te r s o d a lita te s die poli tischen V ereinigungen d er V ornehm en verstehen, deren W irkung sich au f alle G ebiete des G esellschaftslebens erstreck te, besonders diejenigen, die die W ähler bestachen u n d sich an den S traß en k äm p fen bew affnet beteiligten. D aß u n te r d e c u r i a t i die d e c u r ia e t r i b u l i u m gem eint sind, ist aus Stellen wie etw a Cicero P ro Plane. 4 5 . 4 7 zu en tn e h m e n 2, dagegen b estich t die B e ziehung auf die clodischen K ollegien auch wegen d er u ns P ro Sest. 3 4 u n d De dom o 1 3 en tg eg en treten d en A usdrücke n ic h t w en ig 3. D ie E rk läru n g dieser B ezeichnung b e re ite t also gewisse Schw ierigkeiten, die ab er n u r zu einem Teil au f u n k laren Ä ußerungen un serer Quellen beruhen, zu einem an d eren dagegen d ad u rch hervorgerufen sind, d aß neuere F o rsch er diese In te rp re ta tio n s m öglichkeiten als sich w idersprechend b e tra ch ten u n d b ald die eine, b ald die andere aus dem W ege räum en wollen. E in B eispiel für derartig es V erfahren b ie te t C o h n s B eh au p tu n g , daß, weil die clodischen V ereine rechtlich als c o lle g ia g estiftet w urden, d er S enat, w enn er sie treffen wollte, sie bei dem selben N am en nennen m ü ß te 4, oder D e R o b e r t i s ’ V ersuch, den D ekurien ausschließ lich m ilitärische B ed eu tu n g beizum essen5, w as offenbar falsch ist, d a die
1 Ad
A tt. i, 16, i i . Pro Plancio 45 : decuriatio tribulium , discriptio populi, suffragia largitione devincta severitatem senatus . . . excitarunt. 4 7 : sic tu (sc. Laterensis) doce (Plancium) sequestrem fu isse largitum esse conscripsisse tribulis decuriavisse. 3 Pro Sestio 34: servorum dilectus habebatur pro tribunali Aurelio nomine collegiorum cum vicatim homines conscriberentur, decuriarentur. De domo 13: cum desperatis ducibus decuriatos ac descriptos haberes exercitus perditorum. * A. a. O. 61. 5 Dir. ass. 106 ff. Diese Ansicht hat schon durch Accame a. a. Ο. 35 ihre Berichtigung erfahren. 2
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D e k u r ie n e in te ilu n g e in ty p is c h e s M e rk m a l d e r r ö m is c h e n V e re in e b ild e te . D ie se s ic h a n s c h e in e n d w id e r s p r e c h e n d e n I n te r p r e ta ti o n s m ö g li c h k e it e n la s s e n s ic h a b e r in W ir k lic h k e it s e h r le ic h t in E i n k la n g b rin g e n . W a s n ä m lic h C o h n s o b e n a n g e f ü h r te M e in u n g b e tr if f t, so is t sie s e h r f o r m a lis tis c h a u s g e d r ü c k t. N a c h d e r lex Clodia, d ie d ie fre ie V e re in s b ild u n g u n t e r S c h u tz d e r V o lk s v e rs a m m lu n g g e s te llt h a t , w a r je d e E in s c h r ä n k u n g d e r V e re in s f r e ih e it e r s t n a c h d e r A b r o g a tio n d e s c lo d is c h e n G e se tz e s m ö g lic h . I m J a h r e 5 6 k o n n te a lso d e r S e n a t, a n d e r s a ls im J a h r e 6 4 , n ic h t g e g e n a lle V e re in e V o rg eh en u n d ih re re c h tlic h e S te llu n g zu ä n d e r n v e r s u c h e n , d . h . e r k o n n te n ic h t d ie a u c h f ü r d ie Z u k u n f t in d ie s e r H in s ic h t a lle B ü r g e r b in d e n d e n V o r s c h rif te n e in fü h r e n . A b e r es i s t a u c h k la r , d a ß d a m i t d e m S e n a t u n d d e r M a g is tr a t u r d ie p o liz e ilic h e A u f s ic h t ü b e r d ie V e re in e n ic h t e n tz o g e n w u r d e 1. D e r S e n a t k o n n te a ls o a u c h n a c h d e r lex Clodia d ie s ta a ts w id r ig e n V e re in e , o d e r b e s s e r g e s a g t, d ie V e re in e , d ie e r a ls so lc h e e r k a n n t h a t t e , a u flö s e n o d e r d e r e n A u f lö s u n g d e r M a g is tr a t u r a u f tr a g e n . C ic ero s c h ild e r t u n s d ie v o n C lo d iu s g e g r ü n d e te n collegia a ls in D e k u r ie n g e te ilte S c h a r e n b e w a ffn e te r L e u te , d ie m i t d e n e c h t e n K o lle g ie n n ic h ts z u t u n h a b e n u n d s ic h n u r a ls so lc h e a u f s p ie l e n 2. A lso s tr e n g j u r i s t is c h g e n o m m e n — u n d d a s w a r e b e n d e r S t a n d p u n k t d e s S e n a ts — h a t t e n d ie O rg a n is a tio n e n , w e lc h e a n d e n S tr a ß e n k ä m p f e n t e il g e n o m m e n h a b e n u n d ü b e r h a u p t e n tw e d e r z u d ie se m Z w eck e o d e r z u r W a h l b e s te c h u n g in s L e b e n g e ru fe n w u r d e n , k e in e n A n s p r u c h a u f d e n N a m e n d e r K o lle g ie n ( u n te r collegia so lle n h ie r d ie d u r c h d a s G e se tz d e s C lo d iu s g e s c h ü tz t e n V e re in e v e r s ta n d e n w e rd e n ). D ie K o lle g ie n »der R ä u b e r u n d B a n d ite n « s o w o h l w ie d ie W a h lk lu b s z u m V e r k a u f d e r S tim m e n w a re n s c h o n ex d e fin itio n e g e s e tz w id rig u n d k o n n te n d e m g e m ä ß n ic h t, w ie es s o n s t s e lb s t v e r s tä n d l ic h is t, u n t e r d e m S c h u tz e d e s R e c h t s s te h e n . E s m u ß a b e r d a r a u f a u f m e r k s a m g e m a c h t w e rd e n , d a ß d ie o b e n g e b r a u c h te n K u n s ta u s d r ü c k e , w ie decuriati, collegia, s e lb s t d e r B e g riff d e s R e c h ts , n ic h t a b s o lu t, s o n d ern
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o b ig e A r g u m e n ta tio n n u r d e n S t a n d p u n k t d e s S e n a ts w ie d e rz u g e b e n v e r s u c h t u n d d a ß d ie G e g n e r d e s s e lb e n g a n z a n d e r e r A n s ic h t w a re n . C lo d iu s h a t se in e V e re in ig u n g e n a ls collegia g e s ti f te t, d e r S e n a t w o llte sie a b e r a ls so lc h e n ic h t a n e rk e n n en . D ie b is h e rig e n A u s f ü h r u n g e n h a b e n u n s a lso z u d e m S c h lü sse g e f ü h r t, d a ß d e r S e n a t, a ls e r g e g e n d ie decuriati e i n s c h r i tt, d a m it n ic h t, w ie D e R o b e r t i s m e i n t 3, d ie lex Clodia fo rm e ll a u f h e b e n o d e r e in s c h r ä n k e n , s o n d e r n v ie lm e h r sie u m g e h e n w o llte . A u f d ie se W e ise w ir d m e in e s E r a c h te n s so w o h l d a s v o n C o h n k o n s t a t i e r t e H in d e r n is b e s e itig t a ls a u c h d ie B e z ie h u n g d e s A u s d ru c k e s
decuriati a u f d ie c lo d is c h e n V e re in e v e r te id ig t . I m V e rg le ic h m i t d e r I n t e r In diesem Sinne auch M o m m s e n , Strafrecht 6 6 2 Anm. 4 . red. in sen. 3 3 : simulatione collegiorum, Pro Sest. 3 4 : nomine collegiorum, Post red. ad Quir. 1 3 , D e domo 1 3 , In Pis. 1 1 . 3 Dir. ass. 1 0 8 . 1
1 Post
211
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p r e t a t i o n D e R o b e r t i s ’ i s t a b e r d ie se B e z ie h u n g o ffe n s ic h tlic h in e in e m g a n z a n d e r e n S in n g e m e in t. A ls decuriati e rs c h e in e n a lso in u n s e r e n Q u e lle n n ic h t n u r d ie K o lle g ie n d es C lo d iu s ; d ie in d e r P la n c ia n a e r w ä h n te n A b te ilu n g e n d e r B ü r g e r , d ie ih re S tim m e n v e r k a u f t h a t t e n , m u ß t e n a u c h im J a h r e 5 6 e x is tie r e n u n d s o llte n e b e n s o g u t d u r c h d e n S e n a ts b e s c h lu ß g e tro ffe n w e rd e n . D a ß es sic h in d e r P la n c ia n a n u r u m largitio h a n d e l t, h a t n u r f ü r d ie se n E in z e lfa ll B e w e is k ra ft, a n d e rs w o k o n n te n s o lc h e Z e h n ts c h a f te n e b e n s o g u t a u c h E r p r e s s u n g ü b e n . D ie c lo d is c h e n
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s o n d e r n b e te ilig te n sic h a u c h a n d e n W a h lk ä m p f e n . D ie o f t a u s g e s p ro c h e n e M e in u n g , d a ß d ie se le tz tg e n a n n te n V e re in e z u m g r ö ß te n T e il a u s S k la v e n b e s ta n d e n u n d in fo lg e d e sse n z u W a h lz w e c k e n u n g e e ig n e t w a r e n 1, b e r u h t a u f Ü b e r tr e ib u n g e in ig e r Ä u ß e r u n g e n C ic ero s, d e r, g e w iß a u c h s e lb s t n ic h t o h n e Ü b e r tr e ib u n g , ü b e r d ie T e iln a h m e d e r S k la v e n a u s f ü h r lic h s p r ic h t, a b e r a u c h z u b e m e r k e n w e iß , d a ß d ie S k la v e n n u r n e b e n d e n F re ie n a u fg e n o m m e n w u r d e n : cum in tribunali Aurelio conscribebas palam non modo liberos, sed
etiam servos ex omnibus vicis concitatos2. D ie S k la v e n m a c h te n a lso w o h l n u r e in e M in d e rh e it d e r M itg lie d e r a u s. E s is t n o c h z u b e m e rk e n , d a ß E r p r e s s u n g a u c h e in e A r t d e s W a h lk a m p f e s b ild e n k o n n te . I m J a h r e 53 b e w a r b sic h C lo d iu s u m d ie P r a e t u r . H in s ic h tlic h d ie se r B e w e r b u n g b e m e r k t C icero : (C lodius) convocabat tribus, se interponebat, Collinam
novam dilectu perditissim orum civium conscribebat3. D ie S te lle — w ie sie h a n d s c h r if tlic h ü b e r lie f e r t u n d h ie r w ie d e rg e g e b e n is t — i s t o ffe n b a r v e r d e r b t , d e n n d ie W e n d u n g Collinam novam g ib t k e in e n b e frie d ig e n d e n S in n u n d is t a u c h f ü r M o m m se n u n e r k lä r b a r g e b lie b e n 4. S t a t t novam s o llte m a n
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novo s c h re ib e n u n d d a s W o r t n ic h t m i t Collina, s o n d e r n e h e r m i t dilectus v e r b in d e n : Collinam novo dilectu . . . conscribebat. D ie se K o n je k t u r e m p fie h lt sich s e h r a u s s a c h lic h e n G rü n d e n u n d b e r e i te t k e in e p a lä o g r a p h is c h e n S c h w ie rig k e ite n , d a d ie Ä n d e r u n g novojnovam le ic h t v e r s tä n d lic h is t. I m J a h r e 53 h a t a lso C lo d iu s e in e n n e u e n dilectus in d e r tribus Collina v o r g e n o m m e n 5; z u m e r s te n m a l g e s c h a h es a lle r W a h r s c h e in lic h k e it n a c h im J a h r e 5 8 , a ls e r sein V e re in s g e s e tz d u r c h g e f ü h r t h a t t e . I n d ie s e r H in s ic h t is t es w e ite r s e h r b e m e rk e n s w e r t, d a ß d ie h ie r v o n C ic ero g e b r a u c h te n B e z e ic h n u n g e n (dilectus,
cives perditissim i, conscribere) sic h e in e rs e its m i t d e n in d e r P la n c ia n a g e b r a u c h t e n te r m in i te c h n ic i z u s a m m e n s te lle n la ss e n , w o v o n d e r conscriptio tribulium d ie R e d e i s t 6, a n d e r s e its a b e r a u c h m i t d e n B e n e n n u n g e n , w elch e C icero fü r d ie v o n C lo d iu s im J a h r e 5 8 g e s tif te te n V e re in e a n g e w a n d t h a t
[dilectus, exercitus perditorum , conscribere ) 7. N a c h C ic ero s A n g a b e h a t C lo d iu s im J a h r e 53 sein e conscriptio tributivi d u r c h g e f ü h r t, w e n n sie a u c h n u r a u f d ie 1 Cohn a. a. O. 60; D e R obertis , Dir. ass. 105. 2 De domo 54. 8 Pro Mil. 25. 4 De collegiis 59 Anm. 14. 6 Vgl. L. R oss T aylor a. a. O. 202. 8 Pro Plancio 45. 47. 7 Pro Sest. 34, De domo 13, In Pis. 11.
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tribus Collina b e s c h r ä n k t w a r. W ir h a b e n a lso h ie r m i t d e m s e lb e n V e r f a h r e n zu t u n , w e lc h e s in d e r P la n c ia n a a ls conscriptio tribulium b e z e ic h n e t is t. D a ß a b e r d ie s e c lo d is c h e conscriptio n i c h t n u r S tim m z w e c k e im A u g e h a t t e , k a n n m a n a u f G r u n d d e r A u s d r ü c k e dilectus u n d p erd itissim i cives v e r m u te n , d ie m i t b lo ß e r largitio n i c h t v e r e i n b a r sin d . E s sei n o c h h in z u g e f ü g t, d a ß d ie im J a h r e 5 8 v o n C lo d iu s o r g a n is ie r te n K o lle g ie n n a c h vici a n g e w o rb e n u n d in D e k u r ie n g e t e ilt w a re n , d . h . d a ß a u c h d ie se conscriptio z u g le ic h tributim g e m a c h t w u rd e , d a d ie s ta d t r ö m is c h e n vici sic h m i t d e n v ie r s tä d t is c h e n tribus d e c k e n m u ß t e n ; e in e W a h r n e h m u n g , d ie n i c h t o h n e W e r t f ü r d ie B e u r t e ilu n g d e s W e s e n s d e r als
decuriati b e z e ic h n e te n O r g a n is a tio n e n z u se in s c h e in t, in d e m sie le h r t , d a ß k e in g r u n d s ä tz l ic h e r U n te r s c h ie d z w isc h e n decuriati u n d decuriae tribulium b e s ta n d . I n u n s e m Q u e lle n e r s c h e in t b a l d d ie e in e , b a l d d ie a n d e r e S e ite i h r e r T ä t ig k e i t, b a l d largitio, b a l d vis. I m J a h r e 5 6 k o n n te n d ie sodales u n d decuriati n u r f ü r w irk lic h b e g a n g e n e G e w a lta k te b e s t r a f t w e r d e n ; d ie b lo ß e Z u g e h ö r ig k e it z u e in e r sodalitas o d e r
decuria b il d e te d a m a ls k e in ju r i s t is c h d e f in ie rte s V e rg e h e n . I n Z u k u n f t a b e r, k r a f t d e s n e u e n G e se tz e s, s o llte a u c h s c h o n d ie b lo ß e Z u g e h ö rig k e it a ls e in
crimen b e h a n d e l t u n d m i t g le ic h e r S tr a f e w ie f ü r vis b e le g t w e rd e n , w e n n a u c h d ie sodales o d e r decuriati in d ie se m o d e r je n e m F a ll k e in e n G e w a lt akt
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a u g e n s c h e in lic h d a s le tz te r e , f ü r d ie S t a a t s o r d n u n g g e w iß g e fä h r lic h e r e V e r g e h e n a ls m a ß g e b e n d . E s li e g t a u f d e r H a n d , d a ß d ie se S tr a f e n u r g e g e n d ie M itg lie d e r v e r b r e c h e ris c h e r V e r e in ig u n g e n A n w e n d u n g fin d e n s o llte u n d n ic h t g e g e n B e w e r b e r u m Ä m te r. A u s d e n b is h e r a n a ly s ie r te n Q u e lle n e r g ib t sic h le id e r n ic h t, o b d e r S e n a ts b e s c h lu ß
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e n t h ie lt , d ie sic h u n e r l a u b t e r W a h lv e r e in ig u n g e n b e d i e n t h a t t e n . W e n n w ir u n s a b e r a n d a s V o r h a n d e n s e in d e s P u n k t e s de sequestribus e r in n e r n , so k ö n n e n w ir e in e s o lc h e A n n a h m e a ls w a h r s c h e in lic h g e lte n la sse n . D a m i t w ä r e d ie e r s te A u fg a b e d ie s e r U n te r s u c h u n g , d ie Z u s a m m e n s te llu n g d e r A n g a b e n d e r C a e lia n a ü b e r d ie crim ina sequestrium u n d sodalium m i t d e m B e r i c h t C ic ero s ü b e r d e n
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1E s ist ein großes V erdienst D e R o bertis ', die scharfsinnige W ahrnehm ung gem acht zu haben (Dir. ass. H 2ff.), daß die sodales und decuriati nicht für vis, sondern n u r m it gleicher S trafe wie für vis gestraft werden sollten. 213
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liciorum tribuario crim ine ad communem am bitus causam contulisti. D a s crimen sodaliciorum e r s c h e in t h ie r a lso im G e g e n s a tz z u m am bitus com munis. M an p fle g t a u f G r u n d d ie s e r S te lle a n z u n e h m e n , d a ß d ie lex L icin ia d e n B e g riff d es s c h w e re n am bitus z u m e r s te n M ale e in g e f ü h r t u n d d a s D e lik t a b g e s o n d e r t v o m am bitus com m unis b e h a n d e lt h a b e . B e m e rk e n w ir a b e r z u n ä c h s t, d a ß d e r se lb e G e g e n s a tz d e s s c h w e re n u n d d e s g e w ö h n lic h e n am bitus u n s s c h o n in d e r C a e lia n a b e g e g n e t, zw ei J a h r e v o r d e r R e d e f ü r P la n c iu s u n d e in J a h r v o r d e r
lex L icin ia . I n d ie se r R e d e e rs c h e in e n , w ie w ir s c h o n g e s e h e n h a b e n , d ie crimina sodalium u n d sequestrium, w e lc h e a ls g e s te ig e r te r, in fin itu s ambitus, a u f g e f a ß t, d e m g e w ö h n lic h e n am bitus e n tg e g e n g e s e tz t w e rd e n . E s w u rd e o b e n g e z e ig t, d a ß C ic ero d e n B e g riff d e s in fin itu s am bitus in d e r R e d e fü r C a e liu s n u r a u s d e m S e n a ts b e s c h lu ß v o m J a h r e 5 6 g e s c h ö p f t h a b e n k o n n te . E i n J a h r s p ä t e r e r s c h e in t d a s g le ic h e D e lik t a u c h in d e r lex L icin ia . M a n s ie h t n u n m i t v o lle r K la r h e it, d a ß es in s lic in isc h e G e s e tz a u s d e m S e n a ts b e s c h lu s s e ü b e r tr a g e n w o rd e n se in m u ß . D a s a u f d ie se W e ise z u e r s t im S e n a ts b e s c h lu ß th e o r e tis c h fo rm u lie r te crimen d e s s c h w e re n am bitus w u rd e d u r c h d a s G e se tz d e s C ra ssu s a u c h in d ie R e c h ts p r a x is e in g e fü h rt.
D a m it is t au ch die von M o m m s e n 1 abgelehnte, von C o h n 2 u n d neuerdings von D e R o b e r t i s 3 erneuerte V erm utung, d aß das licinische G esetz m it der d u rch den Senatsbeschluß ang ek ü n d ig ten lex identisch sei, au f einem an d eren W ege endgültig erw iesen4. D a ß d ie lex L icinia n a c h d e m V o rg a n g d es S e n a ts b e s c h lu s s e s d ie S t r a f b a r k e i t d e r sequestres e in g e f ü h r t h a t , e r g ib t sic h a u s e in ig e n w e ite r e n S te lle n d e r P la n c i a n a 5. E s i s t le ic h t z u b e w e ise n , d a ß d ie g e g e n a n d e r e A n h ä n g e r d e r K a n d id a te n
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S e n a ts c o n s u lt ü b e r n o m m e n w o rd e n sin d . W ir le se n P r o P la n c io 4 6 : quos tu (sc. L a te re n s is ) si sodalis vocas, offitiosam am icitiam nom ine inquinas crim inoso;
sin quia gratiosi sint accusandos putas. E s is t a lso h ie r d a s s e lb e crimen sodalium v e r s te c k t, d a s u n s s c h o n in d e r C a e lia n a e n t g e g e n tr a t . D ie A n h ä n g e r e in es A m ts b e w e rb e rs , d ie ih m b e i B e s te c h u n g b zw . E r p r e s s u n g g e h o lfe n h a t t e n , 3 Dir. ass. ι ι ο ίϊ . Vgl. A ccame a. a. O. 3 4 . Anm. 7 auf Sch. Bob. S. 1 5 0 Sta n g l : crimine de sodaliciis Vatinius coeperat accusari und behauptet: »e poiché ^interroga tio in V atinium ’ è del 5 6 non può trattarsi che del senatoconsulto in questione«. Wir haben es dabei augen scheinlich nur m it einem Versehen sowohl des antiken als auch des modernen Gelehrten zu tun. Cicero spricht an der entsprechenden Stelle (3 3 ) der Interrogatio in Vatinium nur über die lex L icinia Iu n ia, der Scholiast hat Iunia weggelassen und Licinia irrtümlich als lex L icinia de sodaliciis erklärt. Auf diese W eise hat der italienische Rechtsgelehrte, von einer irrtümlichen Interpretation ausgehend, dem Senatsbeschluß wohl richtig die Einführung des Begriffes des crimen sodaliciorum zugeschrieben und dam it seine eigene Behauptung, daß der Senatsbeschluß nichts m it den W ahlumtrieben zu tun gehabt habe, negiert. 6 Pro Plane. 4 5 . 4 7 . 4 8 . 1
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k o n n te n n u n v o r G e r ic h t g e b r a c h t w e rd e n . C ic ero s p r ic h t P r o P la n c io 3 7 v o n e in e r consensio quae m agis honeste quam vere sodalitas nom inaretur u n d d u r c h w e lc h e d ie
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sodalitates w u r d e n a lso d ie decuriae tribulium a n g e w o r b e n 1, d e r e n M itg lie d e r (decuriati ) a b e r , w ie w ir g e se h e n h a b e n , n ic h t V e re in ig u n g .
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n u r ih r e S tim m e n v e r k a u f t e n , s o n d e r n a u c h b e i d e r w e ite re n B e s te c h u n g u n d E r p r e s s u n g m i tw ir k te n . E s i s t d a h e r n i c h t u n w a h r s c h e in lic h , d a ß d ie lex L icin ia d ie A n k ü n d ig u n g d e s S e n a ts b e s c h lu s s e s h in s ic h tlic h d e r S tr a f e g e g e n d ie T e iln e h m e r d e r sodalitates u n d decuriae v e r w ir k lic h t h a t ,
ohne von
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P r in z i p a b g e h e n z u m ü s s e n , d a ß n u r d ie B e w e rb e r u m e in A m t u n d ih re H e lf e r b e i d e r B e s te c h u n g sic h s t r a f b a r m a c h e n , d ie b e s to c h e n e n W ä h le r a b e r n ic h t. D a s crim en sodaliciorum, w ie es in d e r P la n c ia n a e rs c h e in t, b e r u h t a u f decuriatio u n d conscriptio trib u liu m ; f ü r d ie B e w e is fü h ru n g d e s M iß b ra u c h e s s c h e in t a b e r n u r d ie A n w e s e n h e it e in e s sequester u n d divisor m a ß g e b e n d g e w e s e n z u se in , d a n u r in d ie s e m F a lle e rw ie s e n w e rd e n k o n n te , d a ß d ie se
decuriatio B e s te c h u n g 2 z u m Z w e c k g e h a b t h a t u n d d a m i t zu e in e m r e c h t s w id rig e n V e r f a h r e n g e w o rd e n i s t 3. De sodaliciis k o n n te so w o h l e in K a n d i d a t b e l a n g t w e rd e n , d e r d ie conscriptio u n d decuriatio tribulium s e lb s t d u r c h g e f ü h r t u n d z u g le ic h a ls sequester o d e r largitor g e w ir k t h a t t e , w ie a u c h e in e r, d e r d ie se s G e s c h ä f t m i t t e l s s e in e r sodales e r le d ig t h a t . C icero b e t o n t in d e r P l a n c ia n a b e s o n d e r s d ie se e r s te M ö g lic h k e it u n d b e m ü h t sic h z u b e w e is e n , d a ß P la n c iu s n ie m a ls d ie Z e h n t s c h a f te n d e r W ä h le r a n g e w o rb e n h a b e u n d n ie m a ls e in sequester o d e r divisor g e w e se n s e i; d e r B o b ie n s e r S c h o lia s t m a c h t d a g e g e n a u f d ie z w e ite M ö g lic h k e it a u f m e r k s a m , in d e m e r b e r ic h te t ( S t a n g l S . 1 5 2 ):
M . L ic in iu s Crassus . . . pertulit, ut severissime quaereretur in eos candidatos qui sibi conciliassent a l iis o r t o s ” p r o p o s e d in 187 9 b y A . R ie s e . T h u s th is e m e n d a t i o n ( a s a ls o a ll o t h e r e m e n d a t i o n s l i s t e d b y T h i l o in h is a p p a r a t u s ) 19 p r e s u p p o s e s t h e e ty m o lo g y a b o r ig i n e ; n o A b e r r i g i n e s in S a u f e iu s .20 T h u s V e r g il, a n d h is c o m m e n t a t o r s , s t o o d f ir m ly in t h e c a m p o f V a r r o ; th e y e m b r a c e d h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to t h e e x c lu s io n a n d o b liv io n o f a ll o t h e r s . T h e c o n t r a s t w ith D io n y s iu s is p e r f e c t . I n h is A n t i q u i t a t e s t h e P e l a s g i a n s f o r m t h e n e x t w a v e o f i m m i g r a n t s to I ta ly ( 1 .1 7 - 3 0 ) . T h e y c a m e f r o m T h e s s a ly , b u t o r i g i n a t e d in t h e P e l o p o n n e s u s , a n d t h u s w e r e b o u n d b y ti e s o f k i n s h i p t o t h e A b o r i g i n e s . T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e A b o r ig in e s th e y m a d e a w a r o n th e S ic e ls, a n d e x p e l le d t h e m f r o m t h e i r a b o d e s ( in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e f u t u r e L a t i u m , C a m p a n i a a n d E t r u r i a ) . 21 B u t th e y s u f f e r e d th e w r a t h o f g o d s , a n d o n ly s m a ll r e lic s o f t h e m r e m a i n e d in Ita ly . V e r g il m e n t i o n s th e P e la s g i s e v e n tim e s , a n d h e , a n d t h e c o m m e n t a t o r s , firm ly id e n tif y th e m a s th e G r e e k s ; b u t in six p a s s a g e s (1 .6 2 4 ; 2 .8 3 , 106, 152; 6 .5 0 3 ; 9 .1 5 4 ) th e y a r e t h e G r e e k s a t T r o y a n d t h e i r t r e a c h e r o u s a r t s . It is o n ly o n c e , a t 8 .6 0 0 - 2 ,
E d itio H a r v a r d ia n a a c c e p ts th e r e a d in g “ q u o n ia m
fc r u n t a L a t in o d ic tu m L a tiu m ( t h is w a s th e o p in i o n o f L iv y ), a lii ip s u m L a tin u m a L a t io ” (th is w a s in fa c t th e in t e r p r e ta tio n th a t V e r g il e m b r a c e d ) . C f. B a r te lin k ( n . 1 4 a b o v e ) 4 9 -5 0 ; R . M a ltb y , A L e x ic o n o f A n c i e n t L a tin E t y m o l o g ie s ( L e e d s 1 9 9 1 ) 3 2 9 . 1 9 M a ltb y in h is v e r y u s e fu l b o o k (n . 18 a b o v e ) 2 , a tt r ib u te s th is p h r a s e d ir e c t ly to S e r v iu s a u c tu s ( a n d n o t t o S a u f e i u s ) , a n d p r in t s “ a b iis o r t o s ” t h e d o e s n o t in d ic a t e th a t t h is is a c o n j e c t u r a l r e a d in g ) . ^ W c d o n o t k n o w w h o w a s th e o r ig in a t o r o f t h is c u r io u s in t e r p r e t a t io n ; in a d d it io n to D io n y s i u s it is r e c o r d e d in O r ig o g e n tis R o m a n a e 4 .2 : “ A lii v o lu n t e o s , q u o d e r r a n t e s il lo ( = in I t a l i a m ) v e n e r in t , p r im o A b e r r i g i n e s , p o s t m u t a ta u n a lit t e r a a lt e r a a d e m p t a A b o r i g i n e s c o g n o m i n a t o s ” ; c f. F e s t u s 3 2 8 .9 - 1 0 L.; P a u lu s e x F e s t o 1 7 L . J .-C . R ic h a r d , “ V a r r o n , 1’O r ig o g e n tis R o m a n a e e t Ics A b o r ig ò n e s ,” R P h 5 7 ( 1 9 8 3 ) 2 9 -3 7 , a r g u e s th a t it w a s in fa c t V a r r o w h o in v e n t e d t h is e t y m o lo g y . I d o n o t s e e h o w t h is c o n c lu s io n c a n b e r e a c h e d o n th e b a s is o f M a c r o b iu s , S a t. 1 .7 .2 8 ( q u o t in g V a r r o ) , w h e r e t h e p h r a s e “ c u m L a tiu m p o s t e r r o r e s p lu r im o s a d p u lis s e n t ” r e fe r s to th e P e la s g i a n d n o t to t h e A b o r ig in e s ; o n th e o t h e r h a n d V a r r o n ia n e c h o e s r e v e r b e r a te in th e O r ig o : in p a r t ic u la r t h e e t y m o l o g i c a l m e t h o d o f th is t r e a t is e c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s t h e p r a c t ic e o f V a r r o ( s e e t h e e x a m p l e s a d d u c e d b y R ic h a r d 3 5 - 6 ) . In t h e O r ig o th e n e w c o m e r s a r e g r e e t e d b y P ie u s; t n e y m a y h a v e c o m e e r r a n te s , b u t th e y w e r e th e first h u m a n o c c u p a n ts o f Ita ly (c f. P a u lu s ex F e s t o 1 7 L.: “ fu it e n im g e n s a n tiq u is s im a I t a lia e ” ) , a n d th u s it w a s in Ita ly th a t th e y c h a n g e d fr o m A b e r r ig in e s to A b o r ig in e s . T h is s c h e m e w e p e r h a p s c a n a s c r ib e to V a r r o , w h o w o u ld th u s b e c o m e th e o r ig in a to r ( o r at le a s t p r o p o u n d e r ) o f b o th e t y m o lo g ie s . B u t th is s h o u ld n o t m e a n th a t V a r r o r e g a r d e d t h e A b o r i g i n e s a s t h e G r e e k s : s o P .L . S c h m i d t , “ D a s C o r p u s A u r e l i a n u m u n d S . A u r e l i u s V i c t o r , ” R E S u p p l . 15 ( 1 9 7 8 ) 1 6 1 7 ( a g a i n o n e w o n d e r s h o w t h is c o n c l u s i o n c a n b e d e r iv e d fr o m V a r r o , D e g e n te p o p u l i R o m a n i frg. 2 5 F r a c c a r o (n . 14 a b o v e ) = A u g u s t ., D e civ . D e i 1 8 .1 5 ).
21
S c r v iu s , p r e s e r v in g th e a u t o c h t h o n y o f t h e A b o r ig in e s in Ita ly , h a s a c u r io u s c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e S ic u l i ( S i c a n i ) e x p e l l i n g t h e A b o r i g i n e s a n d b e i n g in tu r n “ p u ls i a b il li s q u o s a n te p e p u le r a n t ” { a d A e n . 8 .3 2 8 , et. 7 .7 9 5 ) . C f. B r iq u e l (n . 3 a b o v e ) 1 0 8 -9 . G a b b a ( 1 1 4 ) d is r e g a r d s th is v e r s io n .
8
341
t h a t V e r g il m e n tio n s t h e P e la s g i a n s in Ita ly : “v e t e r e s P e la s g o s . . . q u i p r im i fin is a liq u a n d o h a b u e r e L a tin o s ” (w e a ls o le a r n th a t th e P e la s g ia n s p o s s e s s e d a s a c r e d g r o v e n e a r th e c ity o f C a e r e , h is to r ic a lly a m a jo r E t r u s c a n c ity 22. C o m m e n t i n g o n t h e s e lin e s S e r v iu s ( a n d S e r v iu s a u c tu s ) a d d u c e v a r io u s th e o r ie s c o n c e r n in g th e o rig in o f th e P e la s g ia n s ( th e c o m m e n ta to r s o p t fo r T h e s s a ly ) , a n d a v e r : “ hi p r im i I t a l i a m t e n u i s s e ” ( a p p a r e n t l y n o t p e r c e iv in g a n y c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n th is s t a t e m e n t a n d t h e i r c o m m e n ts o n t h e A b o r ig in e s ) . A g a in a s t a r k c o n t r a s t w ith D io n y s iu s : a s t h e a llie s o f th e A b o r ig in e s , th e P e la s g i a n s a r e f o r D io n y s iu s a n i m p o r t a n t i n g r e d i e n t o f th e e a r ly h is to r y o f Ita ly a n d o f R o m a n e t h n o g e n e s i s ; in t h e A e n e i s th e y a r e to ta lly in s ig n if ic a n t, a n d th e y a r e la rg e ly n e g l e c te d a ls o b y th e s c h o li a s ts .23 N e x t c a m e t h e c e l e b r a t e d E v a n d e r w ith h is A r c a d ia n s ; th e y w e r e p e a c e fu lly a c c e p t e d b y th e A b o r ig in e s , a n d e s t a b l i s h e d th e m s e lv e s o n t h e P a l a t i n e . It w a s th e y w h o b r o u g h t to I t a l y i n g r e d i e n t s o f h i g h e r c iv iliz a tio n : m u s ic , c r a f ts , a n d la w s , a n d t h e G r e e k a l p h a b e t 24 S o D io n y s iu s ( 1 .3 1 - 3 3 ) . N o w V e r g il m e n t i o n s E v a n d e r t w e n t y - e i g h t ti m e s ; if th e P e l a s g i a n s o n ly t a n g e n t i a l l y t o u c h e d u p o n th e h is to r y o f R o m e , E v a n d e r , th e p o s s e s s o r o f th e P a l a t i n e , w a s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f R o m e ’s p a s t . B u t in V e r g il t h e s t r e s s is o n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e f u t u r e s i t e o f R o m e ( A e n . 8 . 5 0 f f . ) ; f u r t h e r m o r e w h e r e a s in D i o n y s i u s t h e A r c a d i a n s liv e in p e a c e w i t h t h e A b o r i g i n e s , in V e r g il th e y “ b e l l u m a d s i d u e d u c u n t c u m g e n t e L a t i n a ” ( 8 .5 5 ) ; th e s to r y o f t h e i r f u t u r e a m a l g a m a t i o n w ith th e L a t in s a n d th e T r o j a n s is n o t to ld . I n V e r g i l ( a n d in L iv y ) H e r c u l e s c o m e s t o I t a l y a n d P a l l a n t i u m a l o n e w ith h is c a t t l e ;25 in D io n y s iu s ( 1 .3 9 - 4 4 ) h e a n d h is f o llo w e r s c o n s t i t u t e a n o t h e r w a v e o f G r e e k i m m i g r a n t s ; w h e n H e r c u l e s d e p a r t e d f r o m I ta ly h e le f t b e h i n d h im t h e E p e a n s ( f r o m E l i s ) a n d t h e A r c a d i a n s f r o m P h e n e u s , w h o u l t i m a t e l y m in g le d w ith th e A r c a d ia n s o f E v a n d e r a n d th e A b o r ig in e s . A n d fin a lly t h e r e a r r iv e d th e T r o ja n s : f o r D io n y s iu s ( 1 .5 7 - 8 , 6 1 - 2 , 6 8 - 9 ) u n m i s t a k a b l y s till a n o t h e r g r o u p o f G r e e k s . F o r V e r g il ( a n d th e R o m a n s o f th e A u g u s t a n a g e ) t h i s w a s h e r e s y . A e n e a s a n d h is l i n e w a s c o n n e c t e d ( t h r o u g h g o d s ) w ith th e lin e o f E v a n d e r : A e n e a s s tr e s s e s th is h im s e lf in h is a d d r e s s to th e
22No c o m m e n t h e r e , b u t a d A e n . 1 0 .1 8 3 S e r v iu s a u c tu s a tt r ib u te s t o th e P e la s g i a n s th e f o u n d a t i o n o f C a e r e . C f. a l s o a d 8 .4 7 9 w h e r e h e h e s i t a t e s b e t w e e n P e l a s g u s , T e l e g o n u s a n d T y rrh en u s. ^ W c w ill b e a b le to a p p r e c ia t e b e tt e r h o w little V e r g il a n d h is in t e r p r e te r s h a v e to s a y o f t h e P é l a s g i a n s in I t a ly i f w e c o n s i d e r th a t D . B r iq u e l , L e s P é l a s g e s e n I ta lie . R e c h e r c h e s s u r l ’h is to ir e d e la lé g e n d e ( R o m e 1 9 8 4 ) d e v o te d to th e s u b je c t fu ll six h u n d r e d fifty -n in e p a g e s . 2 4 T h a t th e le t te r s w e r e G r e e k D io n y s iu s s t a te s e x p lic it ly (1 .3 3 .4 ) ; in L iv y (1 .7 .8 ) E v a n d e r is “ v e n e r a b il is v ir m i r a c u lo l i t t e r a r u m ,” a n d in T a c it u s { A n n . 1 1 .1 4 .3 ) “ lit t e r a r u m fo r m a s . . . A b o r ig in e s A r c a d e a b E v a n d r o d id ic e r u n t.” A e n . 8 .1 9 0 -2 6 5 ; L ivy 1 .7 .3 -1 2 , a n d cf. O g ilv ie , C o m m e n ta r y (n . 6 a b o v e ) 5 5 -6 1 .
9
A r c a d i a n k in g (A e n . 8 .1 3 4 - 1 4 2 ) , b u t h e w a s n o t a G r e e k . V e r g il a n d t h e c o m m e n t a t o r s e m p h a s i z e t h e o v e r r id i n g f a c t t h a t D a r d a n u s , th e a n c e s t o r o f A e n e a s , o r i g i n a t e d in I t a l y . 26 D i o n y s i u s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is f i r m i n a s s e r t i n g t h e A r c a d i a n o r i g i n o f D a r d a n u s ( 1 .6 1 , 6 8 ) . H e c o u l d l o o k u p o n a n i l l u s t r i o u s R o m a n p re d e c e s s o r: “ G ra e c i e t V a rro h u m a n a ru m re ru m D a rd a n u m n o n ex I t a l i a , s e d d e A r c a d ia , u r b e P h e n e o , o r i u n d u m d ic u n t .” 27 G a b b a ( 1 1 7 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e s to r y o f t h e I t a l i a n o r ig i n o f D a r d a n u s m a y h a v e b e e n b a s e d “ o n t r a d i t i o n s o f E t r u s c a n n o b il ity .” 28 T h is le a d s u s to th e r o le o f th e E t r u s c a n s in D io n y s iu s a n d in V e r g il. M o r e d if f e r e n c e s h e r e : D io n y s iu s is a n o t o r i o u s c h a m p i o n o f E t r u s c a n a u t o c h t h o n y in I ta l y ( 1 .1 6 - 3 0 ) ; V e r g i l r e m a i n s f i r m l y a n c h o r e d in t h e H e r o d o t e a n t r a d i t i o n d e r i v i n g t h e T y r r h e n i a n s f r o m L y d ia , a n d s o a r e h is c o m m e n t a t o r s .29 G a b b a s t r e s s e s ( 1 1 7 ) t h a t th e E t r u s c a n s “ a r e a s s ig n e d a d e c i d e d l y p o s i tiv e r o l e b y D i o n y s i u s ” w h e r e a s th e y “ a r e d i v i d e d b y V e r g il i n t o f r i e n d s a n d e n e m i e s o f A e n e a s . ” B u t in t h e A e n e i d t h e e n e m i e s o f A e n e a s a r e n o t t h e E tr u s c a n s p e r se b u t r a th e r th e E tr u s c a n o u tc a s ts : th e c ru e l M e z e n tiu s w as c h a s e d a w a y b y t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f C a e r e , a n d f o u n d r e f u g e w ith T u r n u s in th e R u tu lia n A r d e a (A e n . 8 .4 7 9 - 9 3 ) . T o fig h t M e z e n tiu s a n d T u r n u s A e n e a s a c q u i r e d a s a llie s th e w h o le o f E t r u r i a ( A e n . 1 0 .1 4 8 -2 1 4 ) , in c lu d in g M e z e n t i u s ’ n a t iv e C a e r e . 30 V e r g il h e r e s ta n d s s tr ik in g ly o p p o s e d to th e a n n a l is ti c tr a d i t i o n : in L iv y ( 1 .3 - 4 ; 3 . 4 - 5 ) M e z e n t iu s is n o t a n e x ile , b u t r u le s t h e o p u l e n t C a e r e ; th e A b o r ig in e s a n d th e T r o j a n s h a v e to c o p e w ith th e o v e r b e a r i n g p o w e r o f E t r u r i a , t h e f l o r e n t e s o p e s E t r u s c o r u m . A n d D io n y s iu s s i d e s w ith L iv y , n o t V e r g il: h is M e z e n t i u s is a p o w e r f u l k in g o f th e T y r r h e n i a n s ( 1 .6 4 - 6 5 ) . T h e a l i g n m e n t p i t t i n g L iv y a n d D io n y s iu s a g a i n s t V e r g il ( a n d in t h e c a s e o f t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t o r ig i n o f A e n e a s a l s o D io n y s iu s a n d V a r r o a g a i n s t V e r g il) s h o u l d s e r v e a s a w a r n i n g t o t h o s e s c h o la r s w h o w o u ld w is h to d e t e c t in o f te n
^ A e n . 3 .9 4 -6 , 166-8; 7 .2 0 5 -7 , 23 9 -4 0 ; S erv iu s and S erv iu s a u c tu s, a d lo c o 2 7 S erv iu s a u c tu s a d A e n . 3 .167. C f. H . H ill, “ D io n y siu s o f H a lic a r n a ssu s and th e O rig in s o f R o m e ,” J R S 51 (1 9 6 1 )) 8 8 - 9 3 at 9 2. B u t a s P o u c e t (n. 3 a b o v e ) 7 3 , p o in ts o u t, this d o e s not m e a n that D io n y s iu s d ir e c tly fo llo w s V arro; h e m a y h a v e u se d o n e o f th e u n n a m e d G ra e c i sc rip tores. O n th e s te m m a o f A e n e a s in D io n y siu s, s e e n o w M artin (n o te 3 a b o v e ) esp . 1 2 0 -2 2 , 140—41. ^ A s arg u ed b y G . C o lo n n a , “ V ir g ilio , C o r to n a e la le g g e n d a etr u sc a di D a r d a n o ,” A rch . C la ss. 3 2 (1 9 8 0 ) 1-15. C f. B r iq u e l, L e s P éla sg es (n. 23 a b o v e ) 1 61-65. 29A e n . 8 .4 7 9 -8 0 , 4 9 9 , a n d S e r v iu s a n d S e r v iu s a u c tu s , ad lo c . C f. a lso th e c o m m e n t on 2 .7 8 1 . S e e n o w th e v o lu m i n o u s t r e a t m e n t ( 5 7 6 p p .) b y D . B r iq u e l, L ’o r ig in e L y d i e n n e d e s E tru sq u es. H isto ire d e la d o c trin e d a n s l ’A n tiq u ité ( R o m e 1 9 9 1 ), and sp ec ifica lly o n D io n y siu s , s e e th e a rtic le o f th e s a m e sc h o la r , “ L ’a u to c h to n ie d e s E tr u sq u e s c h e z D e n y s d ’H a lic a r n a sse ,” R E L 61 (1 9 8 3 ) 65-83. ^ S e e th e s c h o lia s t ’s c o m m e n t o n 1 0.183: at 7 .6 5 2 “ d u c it A g y llin a n e q u iq u a m e x u rb e s e c u t o s / m ille v ir o s ” ( o f M e z e n t iu s ’ so n L a u su s) r e fe r s to th o s e w h o f o llo w e d M e z e n t iu s and L a u su s w h en th ey had fled from C a e r e ( = A g y lla ).
343
m i n o r d i v e r g e n c e s in m y t h ic a l h is to r y e i t h e r s ig n s o f A u g u s t a n id e o lo g y o r o f v e i l e d o p p o s i t i o n t o A u g u s t u s . 31 T h e t r u t h o f t h e m a t t e r is t h a t D i o n y s i u s r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r e - A u g u s t a n la y e r o f R o m a n m y th o lo g y o f t h e origines", h e d o e s n o t c r i t i c i z e V e r g i l ’s v is io n o r t h e o f f ic i a l v e r s i o n o f t h e n e w r e g i m e : h e d i s r e g a r d s t h e m 32 A s G a b b a d e m o n s t r a t e d i n h is m a r v e l o u s c h a p t e r o n “ T h e P o l i t i c a l M e a n i n g o f D io n y s iu s ’s H is to r y ” ( 1 9 0 - 2 1 6 ) , t h e a i m o f t h e G r e e k h i s t o r i a n w a s t o b o l s t e r t h e p r i d e o f t h e G r e e k s : G r e e c e w a s n o t r u le d b y a b a r b a r i a n n a t i o n b u t b y a c ity t h a t w a s a G r e e k c o lo n y . G a b b a c o n c lu d e s (1 1 7 ): “ w ith in th e o v e r a ll f ra m e w o rk o f I ta lia n e t h n o g r a p h y t h e d i s t a n c e s e p a r a t i n g V ir g il a n d D io n y s iu s m a y i n d e e d b e s m a l l e r t h a n o n e m i g h t e x p e c t a t f ir s t g l a n c e .” W e h a v e t r i e d to t a k e a s e c o n d g la n c e , a n d t h e d i s ta n c e is a s g r e a t a s e v e r 33
31As d o e s, e.g ., H ill 32C f. P o u c e t (n . 3
(n . 27 a b o v e ) 92.
a b o v e ) 93: “ l ’h is t o r ie n d ’H a lic a r n a s s e tr a ite s o n s u je t, c o m m e si l ’É n é id e d e V ir g ile n’e x ista it p a s.” M a r tin (n . 3 a b o v e ) 136, c o n c lu d e s: “ L e ré c it d e D e n y s est d o n e un récit à l’u sa g e du m o n d e g r e c .” 3 3 A m e r ic a n u n iv e rsity p r e s s e s n o to r io u s ly o v er ed it m a n u scrip ts, but at th e sa m e tim e in th e ca se o f G a b b a ’s b o o k th e C a lifo rn ia P re ss w a s n ot a b le to c r e a te a d e c e n t in dex. T h e in d ices b ristle w ith irritatin g m istak es: p. 249: D io d e s o f P e p a r e th u s is p r e s e n te d as D io d e s P ep a reth u s; p. 251: F e stu s and P auli ex c erp ta ex F e s to are c o n fla te d ; Livy’s P ra e fa tio to his A b u rb e c o n d ita is lis te d a s a s e p a r a te w ork ; p. 252: n o d istin c tio n b e t w e e n S e r v iu s and S e r v iu s a u c tu s a lth o u g h G a b b a in th e text o f h is b o o k d istin g u ish e s th e m carefu lly; p. 253; th e c o m p ile r o f th e in d ex c o n fla ted M irsc h ’s e d itio n o f V a rr o ’s A n tiq u ita te s reru m h u m a n a ru m and C a rd a u n s’ e d itio n o f A n tiq u ita tes rerum d ivin a n in v, p. 253: w e n o te th e entry: X a n th u s o f L ydia, L y d ia c a I. 2 8 .2. A s sh o u ld b e c le a r fro m G a b b a ’s d isc u ssio n (p . 1 1 2 ), a n d as w a s e a s y to c h e c k , th e r e fe r e n c e 1.28.2 is n o t to X a n th u s b u t to D io n y siu s’ A n tiq u ita te s (w h e r e D io n y siu s m e n tio n s X a n th u s).
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Maio quid mihi anim i sit ostendere praetextatus et t causatus quam nudis scapulis aut t sementis. I n a r e c e n t is s u e o f A J P (101 [1 9 8 0 ] 4 4 6 ) A. W . C a m p s r u s h e d to r e s c u e t h i s te x t f r o m t h e t o r m e n t u m c r u c is . In p l a c e o f t h e n o n s e n s i c a l c a u s a t u s , t h e r e a d i n g o f o u r b e s t a u t h o r i t y , th e c o d e x A m b r o s i a n u s , h e
p r o p o s e s to r e a d c a n u s i n a t u s . T h e w o o l o f C a n u s i u m fam o u s, a n d
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F ir s t, n i h i l n o v i s u b s o le . T h e r e a d i n g c a n u s i n a t u s a p p e a r s in M u r e t u s ’ e d i t i o n o f S e n e c a , R o m e 1585; a n d M u r e t u s c l a i m s to h a v e d e r i v e d i t f r o m a c o d e x S i c u l u s . 1 T h e f ir s t r e a c t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r to C a m p s ’ id e a w a s to a t t e m p t a c o u n t e r - e m e n d a t i o n : c a u s i a t u s (c a u s ia o r c a u se a w a s a M a c e d o n ia n h e a d -g e a r, b u t it w as a ls o k n o w n a t R o m e , cf. M a r t. 14 .2 9 ). A g l a n c e a t L . D . R e y n o l d s ’ O C T a p p a r a t u s ( O x f o r d 1977) s a v e d t h i s w r i t e r f r o m r u s h i n g t h i s o l d 2 ( a n d i n d e f e n s ib le ) e m e n d a t i o n i n t o p r i n t . A s th e G e r m a n s a y i n g g o e s , h i e r is t d e r H u n d b e g r a b e n : R e y n o l d s d o e s n o t l i s t t h e r e a d i n g c a n u s i n a t u s , n o r is
i t to b e f o u n d i n a n y r e c e n t e d i t i o n o f S e n e c a . T o c o m e a c r o s s i t o n e h a s to g o to o l d e r b o o k s , f o r i n s t a n c e th e e d i t i o n b y C . R . F i c k e r t (see n . I ) , 3 t h e f a m o u s f o u r t h e d i t i o n o f L i p s i u s ( A n t v e r p i a e 1652) o r , s u r p r i s i n g l y e n o u g h , th e s c h o o l e d i t i o n b y J . F . H u r s t a n d H . C . W h i t i n g ( N e w Y o r k 1877). S e c o n d , a c r e d i b l e e m e n d a t i o n m u s t f i t s m o o t h l y i n t o th e r h e t o r ic a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e s e n te n c e . C a m p s ’ e m e n d a t i o n v i o l a t e s th i s r u l e . T h e r e a r e tw o c r u c e s i n t h e te x t; w h i l e t r y i n g to r e m o v e th e f i r s t o f th e m
C a m p s s ta te s e x p r e s s l y t h a t t h e m e r i t s o f L i p s i u s ’ s e m i t e c t i s
( w h ic h h e p r in t s in lie u o f th e o th e r c r u x ) “ a re irr e le v a n t h e r e .” N o w , q u i t e to th e c o n t r a r y , t h e m e r i t s o r d e m e r i t s o f L i p s i u s ’ c o n j e c t u r e a r e v ery re le v a n t h e re . T h e s e n te n c e in q u e s ti o n h a s e ith e r c h ia s tic o r p a r a lle l s tru c tu re . I n th e f o r m e r c a s e S e n e c a is c o n t r a s t i n g p r a e t e x t a t u s w i t h t s e n t e n t i s and
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1F or
the re a d in g o f M u re tu s, see C. R. F ick ert, L. Annaei Senecae Opera 3 (L ip -
sia e 1844) 187, in a p p . T h is o b v io u s ly is n o t the p la c e to en ter in to a d is c u s s io n o f th e m v ste r io u s codex Siculus; see M . C. Gertz, Studia critica m L. Annaei Senecae D ialogos (H a u n ia e 1874) 9 - 1 1 . 2R e y n o ld s a ttr ib u tes it to B rak m an , (i.e. C. B ra k m a n , Annaeana nova [L e id e n 1910] 8 - 9 : cf. Id em , “A n n a e a n a ," M nem osyne 56 [1928] 151), b ut a c c o r d in g to F ic k e rt’s a p p a r a tu s the r e a d in g canusinatus a p p ea rs alrea d y in so m e o f th e codices Pm ciani. T h a t causiatus m ig h t be the r e a d in g a ls o o ccu red to H . W a g e n v o o r t, “A d S en eca e D ia lo g o r u m L ib r is V II-X I a d n o ta tio n e s c r itic a e ,” Studi L u igi C astiglioni 2 (F iren ze 1960) 1 0 8 4 -8 5 , b ut h e d isco v ered in tim e th a t th e sa m e c o n je c tu r e (in th e form causeatus) h ad b een p r o p o se d by M. L e u m a n n in T L L s.v. “g a u s a p a tu s ” (1934). A p p a r e n tly n eith e r o f th e m c o n s u lte d F ickert (or L ip s iu s ), a n d in a d d itio n W a g e n v o o r t m isse d B rak m an a n d T . Birt, “ M a r g in a lie n zu la te in isc h e n P r o sa ik e r n ,” P h ilologu s 83 (1927) 4 9 - 5 0 , w h o a ls o read causeatus (and Birt in tu rn m isse d B r a k m a n ’s stu d y o f 1910). 3In a d d itio n to canusinatus a n d causeatus F ickert lists th e f o llo w in g re a d in g s (e m e n d a tio n s o r the r e a d in g s o f th e deteriores): cam isatus. catus, gausapatus, ch lam y datus, clam idatus, candidatus.
345
91
IN T E R P R E T A T IO N S
e x a m p l e . C a m p s ’ c a n u s i n a t u s ( to w h i c h L i p s i u s ’ g a u s a p a t u s c o r r e s p o n d s 4) a n d L i p s i u s ' s e m i t e c t i s (sc. s c a p u l i s ) w e w o u l d c o n j u r e u p th e f o l l o w i n g p i c t u r e : ta k e o ff y o u r p r a e t e x t a a n d y o u r s h o u l d e r s a r e b a r e : ta k e o f f y o u r f in e C a n u s i a n p a e n u l a a n d y o u r s h o u l d e r s a r e h a l f c o v e r e d ( o r v ic e v e rs a i n th e c h i a s t i c a r r a n g e m e n t ) . R h e t o r i c a l l y i t is a la m e f ig u r e : n u d a e s c a p u l a e a n d s e m i t e c t a e s c a p u l a e a r e i l l - m a t c h e d a n d a w k w a r d a s th e o p p o s i n g p a i r to p r a e t e x t a t u s a n d c a n u s i n a t u s . O n e w o n d e r s w h y t h e p r a e t e x t a a n d th e p a e n u l a — o r r a t h e r th e l a c k o f t h e m — s h o u l d h a v e p r o d u c e d d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s w i t h r e s p e c t to th e d e g r e e o f n a k e d n e s s o f th e p o o r m a n ’s b a c k . T h i s le a d s u s to o u r t h i r d a n d c r u c i a l p o i n t . C a m p s ’ c o n j e c t u r e d i s r e g a r d s t h e r e a l i a o f th e R o m a n re s v e s t i a r i a . R o m a n m a n t l e s , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e p a e n u l a , h a v e b e e n th e s u b j e c t o f a l o n g a n d e r u d i t e s tu d y
by
F ra n k
K o lb . A s h e p o i n t s o u t , t h e p a e n u l a w a s s t e a d i l y
g a i n i n g p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e R o m a n w o r l d , b u t e v e n a t th e t i m e o f T r a j a n i t w a s s o c i a l l y a n i n f e r i o r d re s s a s c o m p a r e d w i t h th e to g a . O n th e A n a g l y p h a T r a i a n i th e s e n a t o r s a n d t h e k n i g h t s a p p e a r d r e s s e d i n th e
to g a s :
p a e n u la ti
a re
th e
com m on
c i t i z e n s .5 G e l l i u s ,
N o ci.
A tt.
13.22(21 ). 1, s p e a k s o f t o g a , p a e n u l a a n d l a c e r n a , i n t h i s o r d e r o f s o c i a l r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . T h e m a g i s t r a t e ’s p r a e t e x t a a n d th e c o m m o n c i t i z e n ’s p a e n u l a a re a g a in a n ill-m a tc h e d p a ir. O f c o u rs e o n e c a n a r g u e th a t
th e m a g i s t e r i a l p r a e t e x t a is h e r e a s s o c i a t e d n o t w i t h th e c o m m o n p a e n u l a , b u t r a t h e r w i t h t h e r i c h m a n ’s e x p e n s i v e p a e n u l a C a n u s i n a . T h i s
w o u l d i n d e e d b e a p o s s i b i l i t y w e r e n o t th e s y n t a x a n d th e d r e s s i n g h a b i t s o f th e R o m a n s a g a i n s t it. I n th e te x t o f S e n e c a th e c o n j u n c t i o n e t s p r i n g s to o n e ’s e y e s .6 If w e p r i n t c a n u s i n a t u s w e ta c itl y a s s u m e t h a t S e n e c a ’s r i c h p h i l o s o p h e r 4 Lipsius (4lh ed.. Antverpiae 1652) prints praetextatus et candidatus, but in his annotation to praetextatus he opts for pexatus (slavishly reproduced in the D ictionary of Lewis and Short), a good exam ple of how fondness for conjectures leads to the disfigura tion of a perfectly sound text. In his annotation to candidatus he changed his m ind and decided to read petasatus et gausapatus. In L ipsius’ defense it ought to be said that he perceived the incongruity of the praetexta and the paenula, see below in the text. 5 F. Kolb, "Röm ische Mantel: paenula, lacerna, μανδύη,” R om . M itt. 80 (1973) 69-167, esp. 93-94, and plate 24. Cf. T. Mommsen, R öm isches Staatsrecht 3 (Leipzig 1887) 217-23. 6 W. H. Alexander, “Seneca’s Dialogues I. II, VII, V ili, IX, X. T he Text Emended and Explained,” U niversity o f California P ublications in Class. Phil. 13.3 (1945) 65-66, attem pted to defend L ipsius' gausapatus and sem itectis with the following argum ent: "just as sem itectis gives a contrast with nudis, gausapatus . . . suggests the contrast between the dignity of the official praetexta and the inform ality of the outing suit." But Seneca’s et is a stum bling block for any such interpretation: it suggests com plim entaritv.
AMERICAN JO U R N A L OF PH ILO LO G Y w o r e a t t h e s a m e t i m e b o t h th e t o g a a n d th e p a e n u l a (as a n o v e r c o a t) . N o w o n th e b a s is o f l i t e r a r y a n d m o n u m e n t a l t e s t i m o n i e s F . K o lb w a s a b l e to e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e p a e n u l a w a s w o r n “ d i r e k t ü b e r d e r T u n i c a u n d n i c h t ü b e r d e r T o g a . ’’7 A s N o n i u s (861 L .) sa y s , p a e n u l a e s t v e s t i s , quam
su p ra tu n ic a m
a c c ep im u s.
T h e r e e x i s t s , i t s e e m s , s u f f i c i e n t e v i d e n c e to d i s p o s e , o n c e a n d f o r e v e r, o f a l l e m e n d a t i o n s t h a t a s s u m e a g a r m e n t h i d i n g i n f c a u s a t u s . A n d so it g o es a n d c a n u s in a tu s , a n d g a u s a p a tu s , a n d c h la m y d a tu s , a n d c a m isa tu s.
T h e v e t e r e s , a n d n o w a d a y s C a m p s , l o o k e d f o r a n a n s w e r to t h e s h o u l d e r s . T h e m o d e r n i t r a n s f e r r e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n to th e h e a d a n d t h e fe e t. A s f a r a s th e h e a d - c o v e r is c o n c e r n e d o n l y o n e c o n j e c t u r e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d , o u r o l d a c q u a i n t a n c e , c a u s i a t u s ( b u t se e n . 4). Y e t i t is n o t o b v i o u s a t a l l w h y S e n e c a s h o u l d h a v e s e le c te d t h i s r a r e a n d n o n - R o m a n h e a d -c o v e r as h is e x a m p le . T h e R o m a n s p r a e te x t a a n d th e M a c e d o n i a n c a u s i a a r e a n o d d p a i r .8 C o r o n a t u s w o u l d b e a b e t t e r c h o i c e , f o r i t c o u l d p o i n t to t h e s t a t u s o f p e r s o n a l f e l i c i t y .9 Y e t i t is t o o f a r r e m o v e d f r o m t h e w o r d - f o r m w e a r e s u p p o s e d to e m e n d , a n d a b o v e a l l , w e h a v e to r e m e m b e r t h a t a m o n g th e R o m a n s th e u n c o v e r e d h e a d w a s n o t a s y m b o l o f p o v e r t y o r a d v e r s i t y . 10 T h e h e a d b e i n g o f n o h e l p , le t u s n o w t u r n t o th e fe e t. H e r e t h e p ro s p e c ts
seem
b rig h te r.
The
s e n a to ria l
sh o es,
th e c a l c e i , 11 a r e a
noi contrast. Alexander perceived this clearly. His solution? "It would improve the text from this point of view to read aut for et after praetextatus." Again, the old m orbus ph ilo lo g o ru m : the readiness to sacrifice a sound text for the sake of a doubtful conjec ture. T h e reading sem itectis m ust go; as Birt, op. cit. (above, n. 2) 50, observed, it brings "fü r das, was Seneca will, nichts wesentlich Neues.” 7 Op. cit. (above, n. 5) 79-80. 8Cf. ihe critique of this em endation by A. Klotz in his review of B rakm an’s Annaeana nova in B erliner P h ilologisch e W ochenschrift 31 (1911) 834. 9Cf. the curious phrase vu lg u m tam chlam ydatos quam coronatos voco (de vita beata 2.2), now brilliantly elucidated by H. D ahlm ann, Bem erkungen zu Seneca, De Vita Beata (= Abh. Akad. Mainz, 1972, 6) 5-8 (= 309-314). C hlam ys and corona are here the symbols of felicitas, cf. Cic. Phil. 2.85 of Caesar: sedebat in rostris . . . am ictus toga p u r purea . . . coronatus, and see other examples collected by D ahlm ann (Suet. Cal. 19; Ner. 25; D om it. 4.4, and already Auctor ad Her. 4.60). Yet all this is of little help for the conjecture coronatus. As D ahlm ann saw, Seneca alludes to the felicitas of a trium phator, and under the Em pire this was an exclusive privilege of the ruler, cf. Mommsen. Staats recht l 5 (1887) 426-29, and 432 n. 5 (chlam ys as the Greek term for the Rom an palu dam en tu m ).
10Cf. Mommsen, Staatsrecht 3.217. See also l 5.426: "Kopfbedeckung trägt der Beamte in der Friedenstracht in der Regel n icht.” 11 See Mommsen, Staatsrecht 3.2 (1888) 888-92, esp. 888: "Der Schuh scheidet die Senatoren von den übrigen B ürgern.”
347
93
in t e r p r e t a t io n s
s p l e n d i d c o u n t e r p a r t t o th e m a g i s t e r i a l t o g a p r a e t e x t a . C a l c e a t u s is t h e c o n j e c t u r e w e o w e to t h e i n g e n i u m o f F. S c h u l t e s s . 12 W e o u g h t to h a v e e m b r a c e d i t u n r e s e r v e d l y b u t fo r o n e o b s ta c l e : h o w a r e w e t o s o lv e t h e o t h e r c r u x ? S c h u lt e s s p r o p o s e d to r e a d s e c t i s p l a n t i s , q u o t i n g V e rg . E e l . 10.49: t i b i n e t e n e r a s g l a c i e s s e c e t a s p e r a p l a n t a s , b u t th i s is f a r
f e tc h e d in d e e d . A s a r e s u l t n o e d i t o r w i t h th e e x c e p t i o n o f J . W . B a s o r e in L C L (1 9 3 2 ) a d m i t t e d S c h u l t e s s ’ c o n j e c t u r e s i n t o h is te x t, a n d R e y n o l d s d o e s n o t q u o t e t h e m e v e n i n h is a p p a r a t u s . H e m a y b e r i g h t f o r it c a n n o t b e s tr e s s e d e n o u g h t h a t a s u c c e s s f u l e m e n d a t i o n m u s t ta k e c a r e o f b o t h d a g g e r s a t o n c e . S o th e r e is n o h a p p y e n d to th i s s to r y , b u t t h e r e is a m o r a l e to it: b e t t e r tw o d a g g e r s t h a n o n e p l a c e b o . *
*
*
S t r i c t l y a s a n o b i t e r d i c t u m m a y I b e p e r m i t t e d to o f f e r a s u g g e s t i o n . P e r h a p s w e o u g h t to c h a n g e th e d i r e c t i o n o f o u r s e a r c h . S e n e c a ’s a r g u m e n t c o n s i s t s o f a s e r ie s o f th r e e r h e t o r i c a l e x p o s i t i o n s , q u e s t i o n s a n d a n s w e r s ( o r c o n c l u s i o n s ) . O u r c r u c e s c o m e i n th e s e c o n d s e g m e n t . In t h e f ir s t p a r t (2 5 .1 ) h e c o n t r a s t s th e o p u l e n t i s s i m a d o m u s a n d t h e p o n s s u b l i c i u s , t h e ‘d o m i c i l e ’ o f th e e g e n t e s , a n d c o n c l u d e s : D o m u m i l l a m s p l e n d i d a m m a l o q u a m p o n t e m . In th e t h i r d p a r t (2 5 .3 ) h e j u x
ta p o s e s f e li c it y a n d a d v e r s it y . H is c o n c l u s i o n is: M a l o g a u d i a t e m p e r a r e , q u a m d o l o r e s c o m p e s c e r e . T h i s d e m o n s t r a t e s c l e a r l y t h a t a l s o h is
c o n c l u s i o n i n th e s e c o n d s e g m e n t o u g h t to b e c lo s e ly c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g e x p o s i t i o . T h i s e x p o s i t i o r u n s a s f o ll o w s ( R e y n o l d ’s te x t): P o n e < i n > in s tr u m e n tis 13 s p le n d e n tib u s et d e lic a to a p p a r a tu : n ih ilo m e felic io re m c re d a m q u o d m ih i m o lle e rit a m ic u lu m ,11 q u o d p u r p u r a c o n u iu is m eis s u b ste rn e tu r. M u ta s tra g u la m e a :15 n ih ilo m ise riu s e ro si 12 F. Schultess, P h ilologisch er Anzeiger 17 (1887) 302 (review of the edition by M. C. Gertz). He regards calceatus as sicher; sectis p lan tis "w urde wenigstens dem Sinne entsprechen.” A. Klotz (loc. cit. [above, n. 8]) describes Schultess' calceatus as glänzend; "ingeniose Schultess" remarks E. Hermes in his T eubner edition (1905). 13 instrum entis A. F. Haase (Bibi. Teubn. 1851) follow ing some dett. (R and V, Reynolds) reads in stram entis, not w ithout some justification. See below in the text. "A . Bourgery (Coll. Bude, Paris 1951), endorsed by W. H. Alexander, op. cit. [above, n. 6] 65, reads adm in icu lu m , "cushion.” He follows the manus quinta in the A m brosianus (cf. the edition by M. C. Gertz, [H auniae 1886] 245 in app.). But there is no doubt that am iculum is the correct reading: it has m anuscript authority and is required by the following praetextatus and nudis scapulis. Cf. Varro, Men. 212 (Non. 864 L.): cubo in Sardianis tapetibus; clam idas et purpurea am icula.
15 So Madvig com bining the conjectures of Agricola (M alo stragulam m eam ) and Fickert (Muta m agnam rem meam)·, m ultas m agnam meam A.
348
AMERICAN JO U R N A L OF PH ILO LO G Y lassa c e ru ix m ea in m a m c u lo faeni a d q u ie sc e t, si s u p e r C irc en se to m e n tu m p e r s a rtu ra s u eteris lin te i e fflu e n s in c u b a b o . N o w a s a c o m p a n i o n to p r a e t e x t a t u s (cf. m o l l e a m i c u l u m , p u r p u r a . . . s u b s t e r n e t u r ) o n e w o u ld e x p e c t a w o rd c o n v e y in g a se n se o f
l u x u r y , p e r h a p s d e l i c a t u s . 16 S e n e c a ’s u s a g e o f t h e w o r d is n o t a g a i n s t t h i s id e a , a n d m a y e v e n b e ta k e n to s u p p o r t i t . 17 A s to f s e n t e n t i s , I d o u b t if t h i s p a r a d o s i s c o n t a i n s a w o r d r e f e r r i n g to s c a p u l a e ; if th i s w e r e th e c a s e o n e w o u l d r a t h e r e x p e c t th e w o r d - o r d e r s c a p u l i s n u d i s a u t . . . . N u d i s s c a p u l i s e x p r e s s e s a n a b s o l u t e c o n c e p t : th e la c k o f a g a r m e n t .18 A s i m i l a r c o n c e p t , e x p r e s s i n g th e w a n t o f s o m e t h i n g e s s e n tia l, w ill a ls o be h id d e n in f s e n te n tis . C o n s id e r w h a t S e n e c a say s in E p . 2 0 .9 :
E g o certe a lite r a u d io , q u a e d ic it D e m e triu s n o ste r, c u m iliu m u id i n u d u m ,19 q u a n t o m in u s q u a m [in] s tra m e n tis in c u b a n te m . . . Q u id ergo? . . . E t ille in g e n tis a n im i est, q u i illa s c irc u m fu s a s sib i . . . rid e t s u a s q u e a u d it m a g is esse q u a m sensit. M u ltu m est n o n c o r r u m p i d iu itia ru m c o n tu b e rn io ; m a g n u s ille, q u i in d iu itiis p a u p e r est. T h e p e rfe c t p h ilo s o p h e r sh o w s h is v irtu e n u d u s a n d w ith o u t s tra m e n ta ,
a n d s t i l l b e t t e r w h e n h e d o e s n o t le t h i m s e l f c o r r u m p i
d i u i t i a r u m c o n t u b e r n i o . T h e s a m e im a g e , th e s a m e m o r a l e , a n d n e a r l y
t h e s a m e w o r d i n g a s i n d e v i t a b e a t a . I n v ie w o f t h i s te x t a n d o f th e p re c e d in g d is q u is itio n
a b o u t th e s t r a g u l a
(a n d p ro b a b ly a ls o s tr a
m e n t a ) , m a n i c u l u m f a e n i a n d t o m e n t u m , o n e m a y a s k : is i t t o o a d v e n
t u r o u s to r e a d n u d i s s c a p u l i s a u t s i n < .e s t r a > m e n t i s ? 20
16O ne of the deteriores (cf. Fickert in app.) has catus; not that this per se is m agni m om enti.
17 Cf. esp. Ep. 66.49; 114.4 {qu am delicatus fuerit, sc. Maecenas); de ira 1.18.2; de tranqu. anim i 2.13; de const, sap. 10.2 (delicati et felices)·, cf. also Cic. de off. 1.106 (delicate ac m o lliter vivere). 18Cf. Ep. 63.11. 19 Cf. Ep. 62.3: D em etriu m . . . mecum circum fero et relictis conchyliatis (= p u r puratis, cf. D ahlm ann, op. cit. [above, η. 7] 6) cum illo sem inudo loquor. Sem inudus = nudis scapulis. 20 T. Birt, op. cit. (above, n. 2) 49-50, read nudis scapulis aut sine tegm entis. He introduced tegm entis as a counterpart to his reading causeatus, and adduced as a com-
349
parison Consol, ad H elv. 7.9, tegm enta capitum . But tegm entum does not per se point to the head-gear; and objections to the reading causeatus (see above) still hold. Yet it was a great idea to discover sine in the first part of t sententis. Cf. also P. G rim al. L. Annaei Senecae De Vita Beata (C ollection Érasme, Paris 1969) 112 in app. "A ture d'hvpoihèse" he proposes to read praetextatus et loricatus quam nudis scapulis et sine tegum entis. Sine tegum entis reproduces basically the reading of Bin (w ithout quoting him), and loricatus is better passed over with silence, even ά litre d'hypothèse. I should like to thank my friend Deedra Keller for her unfailing help.
350
34 AES OLET
:
P E T R O N IU S 5 0 .7 A N D M A R T IA L 9 .5 9 .1 1
T
R IM A L C H IO b o a sts th a t h e alo n e p o sse sse s tru e C o rin th ian b ro n z e s. A (fe e b le ) jo k e o n ly : h e b u y s h is b ro n z e w a re fro m a
sm ith n a m e d C o rin th u s. B u t b ro n z e s, h e c o n fe sse s, are n o t his fav o rite o b jects: ig n o sc e tis m ih i q u o d d ix e ro : e g o m a lo m ihi v itre a , c erte n o n o lu n t . 1 1 Sat. 50.7. The reading of the Traguriensis (H) is certe nolunt ; certe non olunt was proposed by F. Bücheier in his Berlin 1862 edition (in his apparatus he notes the adscriptio of Jahn, certe non olent ; see also his praefatio, p. ΧΧΧΙΠ), and has been accepted by (it appears) all subsequent editors. It is obvious paleographically, unassailable linguisti cally (the third conjugation form olo, -ere, was used in popular speech; it is attested in Plautus, Afranius and Pomponius, cf. OLD s.v., and Nonius 147 M. = 214 L.), and it makes excellent sense. G. C. Whittick, “Petronius, 50.7,” Latomus 17 (1958) 545, notes that the Traguriensis “nowhere goes wrong on the negative non,” and proposes to read certe inolunt, the existence of the negative form inolere to be derived from Lucr. 2.850 inolentis olivi. Certainly ingenious, but it is difficult to imagine Trimalchio using the Lucretian idiom. Bücheler’s predecessors kept nolunt, but some editors objected to certe. C. G. Antonius, Petronii Arbitri Satyricon ex recensione Petri Burmanni passim reficta (Lipsiae 1781), conjectured certi nolunt, and commented in his apparatus (p. 147): “certi autem sunt notissimi, qui possint nominari.” Scheffer (as Antonius puts it) “olim suspi catus est ceteri, postea haesit.” His idea was picked up by N. Heinsius who read caeteri nolint. P. Burmann, Titi Petronii Arbitri Satyricon (Amstelodami 1743) is more detailed; he quotes Scheffer as writing: “suspicabar olim caeteri nolunt, nunc haereo, vereorque, altius subesse malum” (p. 332; cf. Bucheler’s judgment on the merits of Scheffer and Heinsius, p. XXXXI). Ordii proposed certae nolunt, “cauillari Trimalchionem Fortuna tam suam opinatus” (Bücheier 1862 in app.). Cf. also the apparatuses in the editions of L. Friedländer, Petronii Cena Trimalchionis2 (Lipsiae 1906), K. Müller (1st and 3rd edd., München 1961 and 1983), C. Pellegrino (Roma 1975), all minus accurate. Scheffer was right: “altius subesse malum.” It is against the background of those emendations that Bücheler’s ingenium brightly shines: for what should have been the point of Trimalchio’s remark that he cherishes glass more than bronze, but others do not?
J . L in d e r s k i
I f w e w ish ed to d e v e lo p the th o u g h t o f the g en ial h o st (w ith o u t, h o w ev er, im ita tin g h is g ra m m a r), w e w o u ld be te m p ted to ex claim : “ a en e a o lu n t.” B ut “ th e sm ell o f b ro n z e ” is a co n c e p t so p e c u lia r that m o d e m P e tro n ia n c o m m e n ta to rs refu se ev e n to try to sniff. In this re sp e c t th ey are q u ite u n lik e M a rtia l’s (9 .5 9 .1 1 ) M a m u rra w ho co n su lu it n ares an o le re n t aera C o rin th o n .
h as
In h is recen t c o m m e n ta ry on the C e n a T r im a lc h io n is M . S. S m ith th is to say: “T h e b e lie f that a c o n n o isse u r c o u ld id en tify
C o rin th ia n b ro n z e b y its sm ell is m o c k e d b y M a rtia l .” 2 T h is in d e ed m ay seem (see b e lo w ) to b e the p o in t M artial m a k e s, b u t it is assu red ly n o t th e p o in t o f T rim a lc h io ’s rem ark : he d o es n ot id e n tify his “ C o rin th ia n ” w are by its sm ell; h e m e re ly o b se rv e s th at he p re fe rs glass to b ro n z e b e c a u se the fo rm e r (u n lik e the la tter) do es not sm ell.
2Petronii Arbitri Cena Trimalchionis, edited by M. S. Smith (Oxford 1975) 136. Smith’s comment reproduces the communis opinio of Petronian interpreters, cf. Fried länder (above, n. 1) 280; A. Maturi, La Cena di Trimalchione di Petronio Arbitro (Napoli 1945) 183; P. Perrochat, Le Festin de Trimalcion3 (Paris 1962) 109-110; Pellegrino (above, n. 1) 309. Smith also adduces ad loc. Plin. Ep. 3.6.1, but although in this passage Pliny mentions indeed a Corinthium signum, he says nothing about its smell. In his note on this passage of Pliny, A. N. Sherwin-White, The Letters of Pliny. A Historical and Social Commentary (Oxford 1966) 225, displays the same misunderstanding of Trimalchio’s words: “Petronius . . . robustly mocks the pretensions of amateurs of Corinthian bronzes, such as Martial’s Mamurra who tested his bronzes by smell.” So also W. C. A. Kerr in his Loeb (1920) Martial (2.116, n. 2): “Connoisseurs professed to detect an odour in genuine Corinthian bronze: Petr. 50” — not quite accurate even as a comment on Martial, and as interpretation of Petronius not better than the ideas of Trimalchio him self. The same opinion in E. V. Marmorale, Petronii Arbitri Cena Trimalchionis (Firenze 1947) 83 (ad loc.): “Trimalchione non poteva sopportare l’odore dei vasi corintii, attes tano da Mart. 9,59,11.” It is worth noting that L. Friedländer in his venerable edition and commentary (M. Valerii Martialis Epigrammaton Libri, voi. 2 [Lipsiae 1886] 82, ad loc.) takes the words of Martial at their face-value: “Die Corinthischen Bronzen hatten einen eigenthümlichen Geruch, der als Merkmal der Aechtheit galt.” To support this Statement he refers to A. W. Becker, Gallus; oder, römische Scenen aus der Zeit des Augustus, neu berbeitet von H. Göll, 1 (Berlin 1880) 43—44, who quotes solely Martial and Petronius, and believes that the peculiar odor derived from oxidation. The circle of non-information is thus tightly closed. But its classical form this interpretation received already in 1800 in an erudite article by the then famous but today utterly forgotten C. A. Böttiger, “Der Geruch, ein Kennzeichen des Metalls,” reprinted in his Kleine Schriften 3 (Leipzig 1850) 422-425. Cf. below, n. 6.
A e s Olet: P e t r o n i u s 5 0 .7 a n d M a r t i a l 9 .59.11
351
N o w in an tiq u ity b ro n z e did sm ell in d eed , an d it sm elled b e c a u se it w as g reased — a se n sib le p reca u tio n a g a in st b ro n ze rust. C ato p rescrib e s “ a h e n e a o m n ia u n g u ito (sc. a m u r c a ) , sed priu s ex te rg e to b en e, p o stea, cu m u n x eris, cu m uti v o les, e x terg eto : sp le n d id io r e rit et aeru g o n on e rit m o le s ta ,” 3 ad v ice rep ea ted by P lin y th e E ld er (N H 15.34): “ a e ra m e n ta (sc. a m u r c a ungui) c o n tra ae ru g in e m , co lo ris g ra tia e le g a n tio ris.” A t N H 34 .9 9 P lin y o b se rv e s “ a era e x te rsa ro b ig in em cele riu s tra h u n t q u am n e g le c ta nisi o le o p e ru n g u a n tu r.” O b se rv e th at h ere P lin y sp eak s o f o le u m itself, and n o t o f a m u r c a ; in the n e x t sen te n ce he rem a rk s on the use o f b ro n ze to en su re the p e r p e t u i ta s m o n im e n to r u m , in p a rtic u la r o f the b ro n ze ta b les “ in q u ib u s p u b lic a e c o n stitu tio n e s in c id u n tu r.” It is thus m o st lik ely th a t th ese ta b u la e w ere also p e rio d ic a lly c lean ed and o ile d .4 B u t to fig h t ru st n o t o n ly a m u r c a an d o le u m w ere used. T h e le x m e ta lli fro m V ip a sc a in L u sitan ia, in the c h a p te r c o n tain in g th e b ath s re g u la tio n s, p re sc rib e s th a t o n ce a m o n th th e o v e rse e r o u g h t to w ash , c lean and g re a se w ith fresh an im al fat th e b ro n ze vats used fo r h eatin g th e w ater, C IL 2.5181 = ILS 6 8 9 1 , lin es 2 5 -2 6 : “ A en a q u ib u s u te tu r la v are te rg e re u n g u e re q u e ad ip e e recen ti tric e n sim a q u aq u e die recte d e b e to .” 5 T h e c o m m e n ta to rs o f this d o c u m e n t n e g le c t C ato and 3 Cato, Agr. 107 [= 98],2. On the preparation and the uses of amurca, the lees or dregs of olive oil, see also 104—106, 107-110 (= 95-97, 99-101), and the notes ad locc. by R. Goujard, Caton: De iagriculture (Paris 1975 [Coll. Budé]) 259-262; H. Bliimner, Technologie und Terminologie der Gewerbe und Künste bei Griechen und Römern 1 2
(Leipzig 1912) 335; 4 (1887) 338. 4 C. Williamson, “Monuments of Bronze: Roman Legal Documents on Bronze Tablets,” Class. Ant. 6 (1987) 160-183, refers to Pliny NH 34.99, and remarks on the pol ishing of bronze tablets (p. 166, n. 23), but has no word of oiling, whereas Pliny insists that polished bronze (aera extersa) must be oiled for otherwise it will soon be covered with rust. 5 See R. Shaw-Smith, “Metal Polish,” CQ 31 (1981) 469. He does not mention Petronius or Martial. See now the edition and commentary by C. Domergue, La mine antique d'Aljustrel (Portugal) et les tables de bronze de Vipasca (Paris 1983) 52-53 (text and translation), 83 (commentary). His translation is straightforward: “Tout les trente jours, il devra convenablement laver, frotter et enduire de graisse fraiche les chaudières en usage,” but in his commentary he writes that it was not only the vats (chaudières) that were to be greased but also and in particular “les robinets qui y étaient adaptés et commandaient la distribution de l’eau chaude.” He argues that for the greasing of the vats no adeps recens was necessary; fresh grease was on the other hand essential for keeping in service the robinetterie. That may be so; but in the text itself only vats are mentioned and no faucets and taps: Domergue conjures them up, so to speak, from fresh fat. D. Flach, “Die Bergwerksordnungen von Vipasca,” Chiron 9 (1979) 435, believes that the vats were to be cleaned “damit sich kein Kalkstein festsetzte.” Oddly enough, he does not
353
J . L in d e r s k i
P lin y ; b u t it ts in the lig h t o f th e ir rem a rk s th a t the p re sc rip tio n o f u n g u e re a fte r t e r g e r e finds its n atu ral e x p lan atio n .
B u t th ere is m ore to the ru st, the C o rin th ia n b ro n z e w a re , T rim a lc h io an d M a m u rra th at m e ets the nose. A t T u sc . 4 .3 2 C ic ero d raw s a p e c u liar p arallel b e tw e e n th e types o f m e n and the ty p es o f b ro n ze: In te r acu to s au tem et in te r h eb etes in terest, q u o d in g e n io si, ut aes C o rin th iu m in a e ru g in e m , sic illi in m o rb u m et in c id u n t tard iu s et re c re a n tu r o ciu s, h e b e te s n o n item . C ic e ro ’s m ed ical e x p e rtise m ay b e q u e stio n e d , b u t he k n ew his b ro n zes: th e C o rin th ia n b ro n z e s w ere m o re re sista n t to the ru st than th e o th e r c h e a p e r k in d s ,6 and ap p are n tly th e y c o u ld b e c lean ed w ith mention the bronze rust (and cf. Domergue, p. 83, who points out that the water of Aljustrel “n’est pas calcaire”). 6 Bliimner 4.185 (above, n. 3) states (referring to Cicero) that with respect to the Corinthian bronzes “galt als ein besonderer Vorzug, dass es keinen Grünspan ansetze.” “No rust” would be ridiculous, but this is not what Cicero says. See now the excellent article by D. Emanuele, “Aes Corinthium : Fact, Fiction and Fake,” Phoenix 43 (1989) 347-357, with full collection of ancient references and modem discussions. He points out that the genuine Corinthian bronzes apparently were high-tin bronzes, and “a high tin-content .. . increases the alloy’s resistance to corrosion” (p. 352). As to the smell of bronze he has this to say: “Martial and Petronius suggest that some of their contem poraries thought they could recognize genuine Corinthian bronze by its smell [certainly incorrect with reference to Trimalchio, see above in the text, and n. 2). This seems a most unreliable method, but if there was any difference, perhaps the patina itself, produced by the chlorides in Corinthian water, had a distinct odor [but this does not apply to Trimalchio’s bronzes for although they were produced by a Corinthus they were not pro duced in Corinth]. It is more likely that Martial . . . and Petronius . . . meant to satirize the notion of olfactory authentication” [again, this does not apply to Petronius]. With respect to Martial this remains a possibility, but amurca and oleum are better choices. Professor J. Bodel points out (in a letter) that W. D. Lowe in his edition of the Cena (Cambridge 1905) commenting on “assellus Corinthius," (31.9, p. 18) adduces (in addi tion to Petr. 50.7 and Mart. 9.59.11) also Arrian, Epici. 1.20; the passage (it figures also in the article by Böttiger [above, n. 2] 423—424) describes the methods applied by the testers of coins: ό άργυρογνώμων προσχρήται προς δοκιμασίαν τοΰ νομίσματος, xfi δψει, τη άφη, τη όσφρασίφ, τα τελευταία τη ακοή. Lowe concludes in the familiar vein: “Corinthian bronze was supposed to possess a peculiar odour.” Arrian talks of test ing a denarius, a silver coin: the tester tried to discover whether the coin was adulterated with bronze. Pure silver and an alloy of silver and bronze would have thus possessed a distinct smell; we should rather follow the finding of Vespasian that money, even that acquired from the urinae vectigal, had no smell at all (Suet. Vesp. 23.3). According to Ps.-Arist. Mirab. 49 (834 a) among the cups of Darius (captured by Alexander) there was
354
Aes Olet: Petronius 5 0 .7 and Martial 9 5 9 .1 1
353
less e ffo rt (so as sh a rp -w itte d m en w o u ld g e t w ell a g a in fa ste r th a n the d u ll).
A n d th a t m e an s th a t the real C o rin th ia n w are n e e d e d to b e
g re a se d less fre q u e n tly , a n d less th o ro u g h ly . N o w , if T rim a lc h io c o u ld d e te c t o n h is b ro n z e s the ra n c id sm ell o f o ld g rease th a t w as u n p le a sa n t e v e n to h im , the w are he w as p u rc h a sin g fro m C o rin th u s w as o f p o o r q u a lity in d e ed .
O r co n v ersely :
i f the
b ro n z e s p ro d u c e d b y C o rin th u s liv e d u p to the n a m e o f th e ir crea to r, th en T rim a lc h io , b y e x c e ssiv e ly g re a sin g th em , fa ile d to re c o g n iz e th e ir re a l q u a lity . E ith e r w ay , h e w as a v u lg a r u pstart. A t le a st h e w as rich . M a rtia l’s M a m u rra w as p o o r, v u lg a r, an d an im p o sto r: he sp e n t a w h o le d ay in ric h shops p re te n d in g n o t to have fo u n d a n y th in g to h is lik in g , an d at the c lo sin g h o u r c a rrie d o ff tw o cu p s b o u g h t fo r a p en n y . T h e b ro n z e s d id n o t p ass the te st o f his nose: th e y d id n o t sm ell e n o u g h o f C o rin th . B u t w e sh o u ld read M a rtia l’s m o c k e ry o f M a m u rra in the lig h t o f a n c ie n t p ra c tic e o f a e r a u n g u e r e :7 if a b ro n z e p ie ce w as n o t c o v e re d w ith th ic k ru st, an d d id n o t e x u d e the sm ell o f o il, it c o u ld b e a C o rin th ia n w are. T h e sm ell o f C o rin th w as n o sm e ll at all.
a good number ας εί μή τή όσμη, άλλως ούκ ήν διαγνώναι πάτερόν είσι χαλκαΐ ή χρυσαΐ. Here we are in the land of the mirabilia : not a reliable guide for the students of Petronius. 7 Received notions often cloud the perception of even very diligent scholars: Bliimner (above, n. 3) conscientiously notes that an Oelanstrich was put on bronzes (4.338), but at the same time he interprets the passage of Martial as pure fable (4.185).
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35
ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE TRADITION OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY A m o n g v a r io u s w o rk s t r a n s l a t e d fro m L a t i n b y A lfre d , o r o n h is b e h a lf , th e r e w as a h i s t o r y w r i t t e n in t h e e a r l y f ifth c e n t u r y b y a S p a n is h p r ie s t , O ro siu s : H i s t o r i a e a d v e r s u m p a g a n o s . O ro siu s p r e c e d e d h is h i s to r y b y a g e o g ra p h ic a l d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e w o rld . T h is p a r t , a s e x t a n t in A lf r e d ’s A n g lo -S a x o n v e rs io n , is n o t s im p ly a
t r a n s l a t i o n o f O ro s iu s ’ t e x t , b u t a n a l m o s t e n t ir e ly n e w w o rk , w ith m a n y a n d i m p o r t a n t a d d i tio n s . A lf r e d ’s a im w a s t o b r in g u p t o d a t e t h e O ro s ia n ic d e s c r ip ti o n , w h ic h fo r t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y , e s p e c ia lly in r e g a r d to n o r t h a n d m id d le E u r o p e , w as c o m p le te ly a n a c h r o n is tic . H is G e o g r a p h y c o n s ti tu te s th u s a m o n u m e n t o f A n g lo -S a x o n s c h o la r s h ip a n d a r e a l tr e a s u r e o f h is to r ic a l in f o r m a tio n . O w in g to th e e ffo rts o f g e n e r a tio n s o f s c h o la rs t h e g e n e ra l p ic tu r e o f A lf r e d ’s E u r o p e se e m s n o w to b e c le a r .1 T h e r e is, h o w e v e r, a p r o b le m t h a t h a s n e v e r b e e n s t u d i e d in d e t a il : t h e p r o b le m o f c la ss ic a l t r a d i t i o n in h is w o rk . H a d A lfre d a t h is d is p o s itio n , a p a r t fro m O ro s iu s, o th e r a n c i e n t g e o g ra p h ic a l w o rk s , a n d , if so , is i t p o s sib le to d is c o v e r w h ic h o n e s ? T h e p r e s e n t p a p e r is i n t e n d e d a s a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o th i s p a r ti c u la r issu e. L e t u s a n a ly z e t h e fo llo w in g p a s s a g e t o w h ic h n o th i n g in O r o s iu s ’ t e x t c o r r e sponds :
Ond hie M aroara habbab be westan him pyringas ond Behemas ond Begwara healfe; ond be supan him, on opre healfe Donua, paere ie, is paet land Carendre, sup op pa beorgas, pe mon Alpis haet. To paem ilcan beorgan licgab Begwara landgemaero ond Swaefa. / Ond / ponne be eastan Carendran londe, begeondan paem westenne, is Pulgara land. Ond be eastan paem is Creca land. Ond be eastan M aroara londe is Wisle lond; ond be eastan paem sint Datia, pa pe iu waeron Gotan.3 / And these Moravians have west of them the Thuringians, and Bohemians, and part of the Bavarians; and south of them, on the other side of the Danube, is the country of Carinthia, south to the mountains called the Alps. Towards the same mountains lie the boundaries of the Bavarians and the Svabians. Then east of the country of Carinthia, beyond the wilderness, is Bulgaria and east of it is Greece; and east of M oravia is the Vistula country, and east of it are the Dacians, who were formerly Goths3 /. H e r e th e p o i n t o f o r i e n t a t i o n fo r A lfre d is M o r a v ia — t o d a y a p a r t o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia w ith its c e n t e r a r o u n d t h e c i ty o f B r n o , in t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t S la v ic s t a t e ( th e s o -c a lle d G r e a t M o r a v ia n s t a t e ) in th is p a r t o f E u r o p e in c lu d in g a lso a n o r t h e r n p a r t o f a n c i e n t P a n n o n ia . C a r i n t h i a is s a id t o h a v e la in
1See especially from the recent literature K. Malone, “King Alfred’s N orth,” S p e c u l u m , v . (1930), 139-167; R. Ekblom, “Alfred the Great as Geographer,” Studia Neophilologica xiv (1941/42), 115-144; G. Labuda, Zródla, sagi i legendy do najdawniejszych dziejów Polski [Sources, sagas and legends concerning the earliest history of Poland] (Warsaw, 1960), pp. 13-90; èródla skandynawskie i anglosaskie do dziejów SkrwiaAszczyzny [Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon sources illustrating the history of the Slavs] (Warsaw, 1961), pp. 7-118 (edition of Alfred’s Geography with an important com mentary). Labuda’s works are cited hereafter as Labuda I and Labuda II. ! H. Sweet, King Alfred’s Orosius (London, 1883), p. 16; Labuda n, 66. 3 The translation is that of Ekblom, p. 117. 356
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s o u th o f M o r a v i a , t h e d e v i a tio n fro m r e a l s o u th b e in g h e r e , a c c o r d in g t o E k b l o m , a b o u t 19°. E k b l o m lo c a te s A lf r e d ’s C a r i n t h i a in t h e d i s t r i c t w e s t o f G r a z ,4 f a r fro m t h e D a n u b e , id e n tif y i n g i t in th i s w a y w ith t h e m e d ia e v a l C a r i n th ia . B u t A lfre d s a y s e x p lic itly t h a t i t is t o b e lo c a te d “ o n t h e o t h e r s id e o f t h e D a n u b e ” ; a s h e m e n tio n s n o o t h e r c o u n t r y b e tw e e n M o r a v ia a n d C a r i n t h i a , h e o b v io u s ly m e a n s to s a y t h a t t h e l a t t e r e x te n d e d a s f a r n o r t h a s t h e D a n u b e . H is C a r i n t h i a t h u s c o r r e s p o n d s r o u g h ly to a n c i e n t N o r ic u m . T h e r e a l t r o u b l e b e g in s , h o w e v e r, o n ly w h e n o n e a t t e m p t s t o d e t e r m in e t h e p o s itio n s o f t h e V is tu la c o u n t r y a n d D a c ia . A lfre d s p e a k in g o f D a c i a a n d o f t h e G o th s w h o liv e d th e r e is s t r ik i n g ly a n a c h r o n is tic ; h e m a y h a v e b e e n in flu e n c e d h e re b y t h e p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r o f O ro s iu s p r o v id in g th e in f o r m a tio n o n th e s a m e s u b j e c t .6 T h e r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e le f t b y A lfre d u n t r a n s l a t e d , r e a d s : “ a b o r ie n te A la n ia e s t, in m e d io D a c ia u b i e t G o th ia , d e in d e G e r m a n i a e s t, u b i p lu r i m a m p a r t e m S u e b i t e n e n t . ” 6 T h e 'm e n ti o n o f D a c ia a n d G o th ia a p p e a r s h e r e , h o w e v e r, in a n e n t ir e ly d if f e r e n t c o n t e x t; s till m o re i m p o r t a n t is t h e f a c t t h a t A lfre d is a w a r e o f th e d is a p p e a r a n c e o f th e G o th s . I t is t o b e o b s e r v e d t h a t D a c i a a n d G o th ia lin k e d u p t o g e t h e r a r e t o b e f o u n d a lso in o t h e r s o u r c e s 7; i t c a n n o t a t le a s t b e e x c lu d e d , a l t h o u g h a t t h e s a m e tim e i t c a n n o t y e t b e p o s itiv e ly p r o v e d , t h a t A lfre d d e r iv e d th i s in f o r m a tio n fro m s o m e o th e r s o u rc e . I n A lf r e d ’s E u r o p e e a s t o f M o r a v i a lies t h e V is tu la c o u n t r y ; w h e th e r h is s t a t e m e n t “ a n d e a s t o f i t is D a c i a ” is t o b e u n d e r s to o d a s im p ly in g t h a t D a c ia lies e a s t o f t h e W is le lo n d o r e a s t o f M o r a v ia h a s b e e n d is p u te d . T h e f o r m e r m e a n in g h a d b e e n g e n e r a lly a c c e p t e d 8 u n t i l E k b l o m a r g u e d t h a t , M o r a v ia b e in g fo r A lfre d th e s t a r t i n g p o i n t , o n ly t h e l a t t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m a k e s s e n s e . 9 T h e d is c u s s io n se e m s to m e , h o w e v e r , a l i t t l e s u p e r flu o u s . A c c o r d in g t o A lfre d , b o t h D a c ia a n d t h e V is tu la c o u n t r y lie e a s t o f M o r a v i a , a n d , if so , D a c i a is n e c e s s a r ily t o b e lo c a te d e a s t o f t h e “ W isle l o n d .” I t w a s M a lo n e ’s t h e o r y t h a t th e p o s itio n s g iv e n b y A lfre d a r e in m o s t in s ta n c e s d e v i a te d f ro m t h e r e a l o n e s a b o u t 4 5 °; a s h is “ e a s t ” m e a n s “ s o u t h e a s t , ” t h e ite m s in d ic a te d b y h im a r e t o b e s h if te d 45 ° c lo c k w is e .10 B u t , a s E k b l o m r i g h t l y p o in t e d o u t , M a lo n e ’s s h if tin g - s y s te m d o c s n o t w o r k in o u r c a s e . D a c ia s h o u ld h a v e to b e s h if te d c lo c k w ise , b u t t h e V is tu la c o u n t r y c o u n te r - c lo c k w is e .11 T h e S w e d is h s c h o la r , a l th o u g h c la im in g t h a t h e “ u n lik e M a lo n e , h a s n o t b e e n m isle d i n t o p r e s u m in g t h a t A lfre d m e a n s t o s a y t h a t G re e c e ( t h e E a s t e r n E m p ir e ) lies to t h e e a s t o f B u lg a r ia a n d D a c ia to t h e e a s t o f t h e 4 Pp. 131 and 141 (map). 5 Cf. Labuda, i, 41. 8 Oros. i 2, 53 (ed. C. Zangemeister) 7 See Iordanes, Get. xn 74 (ed. Th. Mommsen): “Daciam dico antiquam, quam nunc Gepidarum populi possidere noscuntur, quae patria in conspectu Moesiae sita trans Danubium corona montium cingitur, duos tamen habens accensus, unum per Boutas, alterum per Tapas. Haec Gotia, quam Daciam appellavere maiores, quae nunc ut diximus Gepidia dicitur.” 8 See esp. Malone, p. 153. » P. 122. 10 Malone, pp. 151 ff., esp. 166. 11 Ekblom, pp. 126 ff. Malone (p. 153) resorted in that case to an emendation reading “norjmn” instead of the “eastan” of the text, in this way placing the Vistula country north of Moravia. He observed himself, however, that the emendation was very drastic. 357
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V is tu la c o u n t r y , ” 12 w as n e v e r - th c - le s s c o m p e lle d t o c o n fe ss t h a t n o r e a s o n a b le e x p la n a tio n c o u ld b e a d d u c e d : ‘‘i t n e e d n o t a s to n i s h u s t h a t m in o r m is ta k e s w e re m a d e a b o u t c o u n tr ie s so f a r fro m E n g l a n d a s t h e V is tu la e o u n t r y , D a c ia a n d th e E a s t e r n E m p i r e . ” 13 A c c o rd in g to L a b u d a ’s o p in io n , m a n y in c o n s is te n c ie s a n d in a e e u r a c ic s in A lf r e d ’s d e s c r ip tio n m a y b e e x p la in e d o n t h e t h e o r y t h a t h e h a d a t h is d is p o s itio n a m a p b y th e h e lp o f w h ic h h e d e te r m in e d th e p o s itio n s o f c o u n tr ie s a n d tr ib e s m e n tio n e d b y h im , b u t a t t h e s a m e tim e h e r e p r o d u c e d g e o g ra p h ic a l e r r o r s a n d m is c o n c e p tio n s c o n ta in e d in t h a t m a p .14 T h is is t h e m o s t in g e n io u s t h e o r y e v e r p u t f o r w a r d fo r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f A lfre d , b u t e v e n L a b u d a c a m e s h o r t of s o lv in g d e f in ite ly th is i n t r i c a t e q u e s tio n . H is c o n c lu s io n is t h a t o n ly a m a p c o u ld h a v e g iv e n A lfre d a n id e a o f w h a t t h e p o s itio n o f D a c i a in r e s p e c t to M o r a v ia w as. I t is, h o w e v e r, to b e s tr e s s e d t h a t t h e m a in d iffic u lty h e r e is p r e s e n te d n o t b y t h e p o s itio n o f D a c ia b u t b y t h a t o f t h e V is tu la c o u n t r y . T h e p o s itio n o f D a c ia c a n b e e x p la in e d o n M a lo n e ’s th e o r y , t h a t o f t h e “ W isle lo n d ” c a n n o t. T h e V is tu la r iv e r , o r a t le a s t its n a m e , if n o t a lw a y s its e x a c t lo c a liz a tio n , w as w ell k n o w n to th e a n c i e n t g e o g ra p h e rs . T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t i t m u s t h a v e b e e n in d ic a te d o n A lf r e d ’s m a p . I t w as q u it e n a t u r a l t h a t h e a s s o c ia te d t h e V is tu la c o u n t r y , t h e in f o r m a tio n a b o u t w h ic h h e a p p a r e n t l y re c e iv e d fro m c o n t e m p o r a r y , a n o n y m o u s a n d p e r h a p s o r a l s o u rc e s , w ith t h e r iv e r V is tu la o f a n e i e n t tr a d i ti o n . So f a r h e w a s r ig h t . T h e “ W isle lo n d ,” th e c o u n t r y o f t h e t r i b e o f W is la n ie , d id in f a c t h a v e its c e n t e r a r o u n d t h e u p p e r V is tu la . F o r so m e a n c i e n t g e o g ra p h e rs , h o w e v e r, t h e V is tu la c o n s t i t u t e d t h e w e s te r n b o u n d a r y o f D a c ia . T h is w a s th e v ie w p o in t o f t h e tw o l a te - R o m a n g e o g ra p h ic a l d e s c r ip tio n s , t h e D ivisio orbis
terrarum a n d t h e D im ensuratio provinciarum , a n d a lso o f P lin jq th o u g h h e d id n o t m e n tio n D a c ia b y n a m e : Divisio orbis 14: Dacia finitur ab oriente desertis Sarmatiae, ab occidente flumine Vistla. Dimens.provine. 8: Dacia, Getica finiuntur ab oriente desertis Sarmatiae, ob occidente flumine Vistula.16 Plin. N.H. IV 81: Agrippa totum eum tractum ab Histro ad oceanum bis ad decies cen tenum milium passuum in longitudinem, quattuor milibus minus CCCC in latitudinem, ad flumen Vistlam a desertis Sarmatiae prodidit. T h e p ic tu r e g iv e n b y th e s o u rc e s e ite d a b o v e is e x a c tly th e s a m e a s A lf r e d ’s: th e V is tu la is w e s t o f D a e ia , t h a t is, re c k o n in g fro m M o r a v ia , a s A lfre d d o c s, D a e ia lies d i r e e tly to th e e a s t o f t h e V is tu la . P lin y , t h e D ivisio a n d th e D im ensuratio a re b a s e d o n t h e m o s t fa m o u s R o m a n g e o g ra p h ic a l w o rk , w h ie h e x e re ise d tr e m e n d o u s in flu e n c e o n t h e p ic tu r e o f t h e w o rld in s u b s e q u e n t e e n t u r ie s : o n t h e C om m entarii o f A g r ip p a a n d p e r h a p s on h is M a p p a M u n d i.16 T h u s th e m a p (o r th e d e s c r ip tio n ) u Ekblom, p. 128-129. 15 Ekblom, p. 142. 11Labuda, i 38 ff. 16 The Divino and the Dimensuratio are cited in the edition of P. Schnabel, Philologus, cx (1935), 425-440. 19 See D. Detlefsen, Ursprung, Einrichtung und Bedeutung der Erdkarte Agrippas (Berlin, 1906), Quellen u. Forschungen zur alten Geschichte u. Geographie, Heft 13, passim, esp. p. 34; A. Klotz, “Die geographischen commentarii des Agrippa und ihre Überreste,” Klio xxiv (1931), 38-58, 386466, esp. 421-422; H. Lowmiahski, Pocz^tki Polski [The Origins of Poland] (Warsaw 1963), I, pp. 145-149. 358
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A lfre d u s e d w a s a lm o s t c e r t a i n l y a l a t e a n c i e n t o ffs p rin g o f A g r ip p a ’s w o rk . O n th is t h e o r y t h e h in d r a n c e s t h a t fa c e d s c h o la rs i n t e r p r e t i n g o u r p a s s a g e , t h e s t r i k in g ly in a c c u r a te lo c a liz a tio n M o r a v ia - W is le lo n d - D a c i a , c a n b e fo r t h e f ir s t tim e r e a s o n a b l y e x p la in e d . T h e th e s is p r e s e n te d a b o v e s h e d s n e w a n d u n e x p e c te d li g h t o n s till a n o t h e r it e m in A lf r e d ’s d e s c r ip tio n . I n a p a s s a g e w e h a v e a l r e a d y c ite d A lfre d s p e a k s o f a w ild e rn e s s b e tw e e n C a r i n t h i a a n d B u lg a r ia . T h e s a m e w ild e rn e ss is m e n tio n e d b y h im in a n o t h e r c o n t e x t a lso :
ond be su v i u m t r i p u < d i u m > Festus (382 L.) quotes another fragment of Appius; it is fair to assume that also his third notice (284 -2 8 5 L.) concerning the tr i p u d i a will be of the same origin. In this passage Appius presents an etymology of tri p u d i u m ; the same etymology recurs at d e d iv . 2.72—hardly a coincidence.76 This discussion is of prime importance for the interpretation of Ser vius a u c t u s , a d Verg. A e n . 1.398, our second passage in which the expression l ib r i r e c o n d i t i occurs. Servius maintains “ in libris reconditis pedibus only “ oblative,” and the auspicia ex diris formed a category o f particu larly pernicious “ oblative” signs. 73 A reference to the same decree may be hidden in the corrupt passage, de div. 1.28 (Q. Cicero speaking): “ quod autem scriptum habetis taut (avi Tur nebus, avi or omni avi hesitatingly Pease, pulte Giomini) tripudium fieri, si ex ea quid in solidum ceciderit.” 74 Cic. Farn. 3.4.2; 3.9.3; 3.11.4. An incomplete collection o f Appius’s frag ments in Bremer (above n.50) 1.243-244 and in H. Funaioli, Grammaticae Romanae Fragmenta (Lipsiae 1907) 4 2 6 -4 2 7 ; a good discussion in J. Zingler, De Cicerone historico quaestiones, diss. Berlin 1900, 1 8 -2 4 , and in Pease, M. Tulli Ciceronis De Divinatione (above n.70) 12, 2 7 -2 8 , 133, 138-140, 2 8 8 -2 8 9 , 3 3 3 -3 3 4 , 4 7 1 -4 7 2 . 75 quod f a u l t Lindsay quom Mueller α ν /Ant. Augustinus. 7 6 Cf. Pighi (above n.70) 154.
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lectum esse posse quam libet avem auspicium attestari, maxime quia non poscatur.” This rule displays close affinity with the augural decree “ om nem avem tripudium facere posse.” In both cases we deal with a u s p i c i a o b l a t i v a ; Servius makes this clear by remarking “ maxime quia non poscatur.” He presents the following scheme: hoc enim interest inter augurium et auspicium, quod augurium et petitur et certis avibus ostenditur, auspicium qualibet avi dem onstratur et non petitur. There is confusion in his terminology. W hat Servius a u c t u s really describes is not (as he thought) a distinction between a u g u r i u m and a u s p i c i u m but rather between the solicited a u s p i c i a i m p e t r a t i v a and unsolicited a u s p i c i a o b l a t i v a . 77 In this shape this is perfectly sound augural doctrine: at the a u s p i c i a i m p e t r a t i v a the Romans employed indeed only few kinds of b ird s,78 the p u l l i being one of them , but as to the unsolicited signs the augurs apparently believed that the gods could send them through the medium o f any bird. There are differences also between the augural decree and the text of Servius a u c t u s . The decree speaks very specifically about t r i p u d i u m , Servius a u c t u s considers in general the a u s p i c i a d e a v i b u s . And in fact birds could give auspicai signs not only when they ate and when crum bs were dropping from their beaks but above all through their v o l a t u s and c a n t u s . The form er the augurs called a l i t e s , the latter o s c i n e s , and Servius a u c t u s goes on to speak precisely of these two categories of augural birds. Yet his ultim ate source may have treated of the tr i p u d i a as well. For there existed a peculiar link between this form o f auspices and the o s c i n e s : if a feeding bird uttered a cry it functioned as an o s c e n , but at the same time it also t r i p u d i u m f e c i t , as the food it carried would per force drop down. Here obviously belongs the o s c i n u m tr i p u d iu m appearing in a passage of Festus (214 L.); this inform ation will again derive from the work o f Appius Claudius, for a few lines below Festus reports that Appius treated of o s c i n e s and a l i t e s and gave their lists. Thus the virtual identity o f the rule ascribed by Cicero to the augural decree and by Servius a u c t u s to the lib r i r e c o n d i t i appears assured. The source of Servius a u c t u s explicitly opposed the l i b r i r e c o n d i t i to the a u g u r a l e s c o m m e n t a r i i . Now this whole passage is a com m ent on Vergil’s words “ cantusque dedere” ( A e n . 1.398), referring to swans, 77 0 n 78
the terminology of Servius, see Catalano, Contributi (above n.30) 80ff. Cic. de div. 2.76; cf. Seneca, N.Q. 2.32.5.
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The com m entator remarks that the swans were not the a v e s and that they are not listed in the augural “ com m entaries” ; on the other hand, he continues, according to the l ib r i r e c o n d i t i every bird was capable of giving the auspices. Vergil, he explains, “ amat secretiora dicere.” In other words, the poet, as a perfect augur, did not limit him self solely to the c o m m e n t a r i i but also utilized the secret knowledge contained in the lib r i r e c o n d iti. Servius a u c t u s points out that Vergil represents the swans both as a l i t e s (this he indicates by the words “ stridentibus alis” ( A e n . 1.397) and as o s c i n e s , as shown by the verse “ et coetu cinxere polum cantusque dedere” (1.398). As a l i t e s and o s c i n e s are augural categories Vergil “ totum m orem augurum exsecutus est proprietate verborum .” Let us pursue the swan connection a bit further. At A e n . 1.390-395 Vergil writes (Venus speaking): c y c n i.
a u g u r a le s
nam que tibi reduces socios classemque relatam nuntio et in tutum versis Aquilonibus actam, ni frustra augurium vani docuere parentes, aspice bis senos laetantis agmine cycnos, aetheria quos lapsa plaga Iovis ales aperto turbabat caelo. Servius com m ents on line 393: cycnos navibus comparat, aquilam (i.e., Iovis ales) tem pes tati. In auguriis autem considerandae sunt non solum aves, sed etiam volatus, ut in praepetibus, et cantus, ut in oscinibus, quia nec om nes nec om nibus dant auguria: ut columbae non nisi regibus dant, quia num quam singulae volant, sicut rex num quam solus incedit; . . . item cycni nullis dant nisi nautis, sicut lectum est in O r n i t h o g o n i a :79 cycnus in auguriis nautis gratissimus ales;80 hunc optant sem per, quia num quam mergitur undis.
79 A poem by Aemilius Macer (obiit 16 B.C.E.); see Schanz-Hosius (above n.6 8 ), II (1935) 164-165. 80 So Thilo; clearly preferable to the reading augur adopted in the Editio Harvardiana. Isid. Etym. 12.7.19 quotes this verse in the following form:
Cygnus in auspiciis semper laetissimus ales hunc optant nautae, quia se non mergit in undas.
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Vergil once again appears as a d o c t u s a u g u r deftly considering distinc tions between the p r a e p e t e s ( a l i t e s ) and o s c in e s . But Servius’s own explanation “ quia nec om nes nec om nibus dant auguria” is awkwardly confused. In this phrase two disparate ideas are coupled together. The assertion “ nec om nes (sc. aves) dant auguria” alludes to the augural principle governing the a u s p i c i a i m p e r a t i v a , but as Servius a u c t u s points out in his note on line 398 Vergil m ust be describing an a u s p i c i u m o b l a t i v u m . Consequently Servius’s q u i a is quite inane. But above all the rule “ nec om nibus dant auguria” is totally alien to the Rom an s c i e n t i a a u g u r a l i s — a t least as practiced by the a u g u r e s p u b lic i . The swan connection now becomes the pigeon link which leads us to the very heart of the prophetic bird lore of the d i s c i p l i n a E t r u s c a . The haruspices were very m uch interested in various divine signs per taining to the kings and p r i n c i p e s c i v i t a t i s ; the c o l u m b a r u m a u g u r i u m n finds its counterpart in the f u l g u r a r e g a l i a and e x t a r e g a l i a . 82 Hence it is quite likely that they also developed a theory of a special sym pathetic connection between swans and sailors. Now in their headless effort to make out of Vergil a p e r i t u s a u g u r the com m entators missed the obvious fact that neither Vergil nor Aemilius Macer used the term a u g u r i u m in the technical augural sense83 of divine approval or disap proval of an action but rather in the colloquial sense of presage. Now this colloquial usage conform ed to the teaching of the haruspices, who interpreted every sign as a prodigy portending future events.84 Toward the end of the republic this Etruscan doctrine was making headway even into the College of Augurs: Appius Claudius Pulcher believed that the task of the d i s c i p l i n a a u g u r a l i s was to discover in divine signs the p r a e s e n s i o . . . v e r i t a t i s f u t u r a e . 85 But there is more to the swans than the haruspices alone; the swan was the bird of Apollo, and as such he was e o i p s o endowed with prophetic powers. The swan’s last song portending his death was a topos constantly rehashed by the 81 Cf. Serv. auci. ad Aen. 1.398: “ nam et haec (sc. columbae) inter augurales aves dicuntur non inveniri.” 82 See C. 0 . Thulin, Die etruskische Disciplin (Göteborg 190 5 -0 9 , reprint Darmstadt 1968) I 7 0 -7 2 ; 11 4 6 -4 7 : S. Weinstock, “ Libri fulgurales,” PBSR 19 (1951) 149-150. 83 And in this case rather the term auspicium should have been used. 8 4 0 n this aspect o f the disciplina Etrusca, see esp. Seneca, NQ 2 .3 1 -3 2 , and Η. M. Hine, An Edition with Commentary o f Seneca, Natural Questions, Book Two (N ew York 1981) 340ff. 8 5 Cic. de div. 1.105. Cf. de leg. 2.32. For Cicero’s opposition to Appius’s views, see esp. de div. 2.70: “ Non enim sumus ii nos augures qui avium reliquorumve signorum observatione futura dicamus.”
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poets and rhetors. Thus in the poetic and antiquarian lore of the swan as a bird of prophecy there were mixed up in various configurations G reek, Roman, and Etruscan elem en ts.86 The d i s c i p l i n a E t r u s c a was particularly concerned with f u l g u r a , e x t a , and o s t e n t a . In the books dealing with the latter, the o s t e n t a r l a , 87 vari ous kinds of divine signs were described and interpreted. Macrobius, S a t . 3.20.3, mentions an o s t e n t a r i u m a r b o r a r i u m composed by Tarqui tius Priscus,88 and from Pliny, N H 10 .6 -4 2 , a similar book dealing with bird signs, an o s t e n t a r i u m a v i a r i u m , can be recovered.89 The immediate source of Pliny appears to have been his contemporary, the haruspex Umbricius Melior, but the tradition of o s t e n t a r l a goes back deep into the republican times. Iulius Obsequens reports in his lib e r p r o d i g i o r u m 14 that in 163 “ in tem plum Victoriae cygnus inlapsus per manus capientium effugit.” Prodigies were often given by birds and animals appearing in unusual places. The haruspices were normally consulted about the meaning of such happenings and about what should be done to avert divine anger.90 W hen in 191 “ boves duos domitos in Carinis per scalas pervenisse in tegulas aedificii . . . eos vivos comburi cinerem que eorum deici in Tiberim haruspices iusserunt” (Livy 3 6 .3 7 .1 -2 ). A swan in the temple of Victory was an affair even more serious; we can assume that the Senate turned to the haruspices for illumination. In their interpretation the haruspices would take account of the place in which the prodigy occurred and of various attending circumstances. The l o c u s — the temple of V icto riapointed to military operations. But, whereas the b o v e s in 191 were caught and burnt alive, the swan escaped. Just as the e f f u g ia h o s tia .
86 On the lore o f the swan, D ’Arcy W. Thompson, A Glossary o f Greek Birds 2 (Oxford 1936) 179ff.; G ossen, “ Schwan,” R E 2a (1921) esp. 784-789; TLL s.v. “ cycnus,” col. 1585, lines 31ff. 87 Thulin (above n.82) I 1 0 -1 2 ; 111 76ff. 88 On this Tarquitius Priscus and the libri Tarquitiani, see J. Heurgon, “ Tar quitius Priscus et l’organisation de l’ordre des haruspices sous l’empereur Claude,” Laiomus 12 (1953) 4 0 2 -4 1 7; but see also the very divergent interpre tation of M. Torelli, Elogia Tarquinensia (Firenze 1975) 105ff. Recently Heur gon changed his mind and embraced Torelli’s interpretation (whether rightly, quaeritur), “ Varron et l’haruspice Etrusque Tarquitius Priscus,” Varron, Grantmaire Antique et Stylistique Latine: Recueil offert à Jean Collari (Paris 1978) 101-104. 89 Thulin (above n.82) III 106ff. 90 L. Wülker, Die geschichtliche Entwicklung des Prodigienwesens bei den Römern (Leipzig 1903) 1 6 -1 8 , 36.
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the victim that escaped from before the altar, was a very bad sign,91 so also the escape of the swan portended that som ething dire would irre vocably happen. And it did. The consul of 163, M'. luventius Thalna, was victorious in Corsica, and the Senate decreed s u p p l i c a tio n e s , , thanksgivings to the gods. W hen Thalna got news of this honor he was so overcome with joy that he suddenly died.92 Thus the meaning of the prodigy is transparent. M o r t e m v i c to r i p o r t e n d i , the haruspices m ust have declared. But they could have come upon this interpretation only if they were acquainted with the theory that swans “ providentes quid in m orte boni sit, cum cantu et voluptate m orian tu r” (Cic. T u s e . 1.73). The swan chased by the temple attendants m ust have uttered a cry; his appearance in the temple and his escape was an adverse om en, but his voice was apparently a mixed sign: both propitious and dire. The unfortunate Thalna’s success in Sardinia was his “ swan song.” Thus the explanation of Servius or rather of his source that swans “ nullis dant (auguria) nisi nautis” is manifestly incorrect even within the limits of the d i s c i p l i n a E t r u s c a ; it is a misleading generalization o f Aemilius M acer’s “ cycnus in auguriis nautis gratissimus ales.” But we can go a bit further: Macer uses the term a l e s . As a l e s the swan was a propitious sign for the sailors, but as o s c e n it could portend death.93 Be it as it may, we cannot doubt that the c y c n u s occupied a place of note in the Etruscan o s t e n t a r l a . Regell and Thulin regard the lib r i r e c o n d i t i as the books of the haruspices mainly for two reasons. First, they point to the contradiction between Cicero’s statem ent “ externa . . . auguria . . . om nibus fere avibus utuntur, nos adm odum paucis” { d e d iv . 2.76) and the principle ascribed by Servius a u c t u s to the lib r i r e c o n d i t i that any bird was capable of giving augural signs. This was an Etruscan principle, they claim. No doubt; but in view of the augural decree “ om nem avem tripudium facere posse” (see above) this was an augural rule as well. Thus the contradiction Regell and Thulin postulate is more illusory than real. Furtherm ore Servius a u c t u s does not say at all that the c y c n i are listed as a v e s a u g u r a l e s in 9 1 Serv.
auct.ad Aen. 2.140. Max. 9.12.3; Plin. NH 7.182. 9 3 L. Hopf, Thierorakel und Orakelthiere in alter und neuer Zeit (Stuttgart 1888) 177, quotes a passage from Saxo Grammaticus, a prophetic warning in which “ voce canorus Olor” portends death. In Roman reliefs the swan appears as a symbol o f a happy death but also as a symbol of victory: on an altar in the Arles museum a laurel wreath is suspended between the beaks o f two swans; see J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (London 1973) 260 (with further literature). 9 2 Val.
521
The
Libri Reconditi
233
the l i b r i r e c o n d i t i ; that they could give signs is the inference his source makes from the rule “ posse quam libet avem auspicium adtestari.” Second, Regell and T hulin94 point to the text of Servius a u c t u s , a d A e n . 2.649, the third o f our texts in which the l i b r i r e c o n d i t i are m en tioned. Here the context is unmistakably Etruscan. If a p r i n c e p s c i v l· t a t i s was struck by a f u l m e n and was only scorched this signifies that his progeny would be o f enduring fame. This species of f u l g u r a r e g a l i a finds a close parallel in a passage of Tarquitius adduced by M acrobius (3.7.2): “ est . . . liber transcriptus ex Ostentario Tusco, ibi repentur: purpureo aureove colore ovis ariesve si aspergetur, principi ordinis et generis sum m a cum felicitate largitatem auget, genus pro geniem propagat in claritate laetioremque efficit.” Thus Etruscan lore was indeed contained in the lib r i r e c o n d iti. Yet it is neither obvious nor necessary to assum e that there ever existed a category o f Etruscan books technically called lib r i r e c o n d iti. For what is the import of the enunciations of Servius a u c tu s ', “ in libris recon ditis lectum esse” and “ hoc scriptum in reconditis invenitur” ? Either the l i b r i r e c o n d i t i lived up to their nam e and in that case they can hardly have been consulted by a Vergilian com m entator or they were r e c o n d i t i in nam e only. Judging by the two passages of Servius a u c t u s they treated o f abstruse matters but hardly secret. Macrobius, S a t . 3.9.6, writes that he reproduces the two famous formulas, the c a r m e n e v o c a t i o n i s and the c a r m e n d e v o t i o n i s , from the fifth book R e r u m R e c o n d i t a r u m o f Serenus Sammonicus, who in turn found them in “ cuiusdam Furii vetustissimo libro.” Serenus Sammonicus f l o r u i t under Septimius Severus and was executed in 212 by Caracalla, perhaps as a f a m i l i a r i s of G eta.95 The author of the H i s t o r i a A u g u s t a ( G o r d . 18.2) equips him in jest with a library consisting of precisely 62,000 volumes, which some m odern innocents take seriously. A v ir s a e c u l o s u o d o c t u s (Macr. S a t . 3.16.6), he was not neglected by D onatus, the source o f Servius and Servius a u c t u s , in his Vergilian commentary. Servius a u c t u s twice adduces Serenus Sammonicus by name but without quoting the title o f his work, once as an authority on the m i r a c u l a of the i n s u l a Thyle ( a d G e o r g . 1.30) and the other time as the source of explanation of the name G a r g a r a ( a d G e o r g . 94 Regell, De augurum libris (above n.46) 3 5 -3 7 ; Thulin (above n.82) I 5 and III 111 n.4. Cf. A. Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité IV (Paris 1882) 59 n.3. 95 Kind, “ Serenus 6 ,” R E 2 a (1923) 1675, and above all see now the excel lent article by E. Champlin, “ Serenus Sam m onicus,” HSCP 85 (1981) 1 89-212. Cf. R. Syme, Ammianus Marcellinus and the Historia Augusta (Oxford 1968) 160, 1 7 1 -1 7 2 , 183, 186.
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1.102). Sam m onicus’s interest in e v o c a t i o and d e v o t i o matches very well the augural and fulguratory content of the l i b r i r e c o n d i t i in Servius a u c t u s . These l i b r i are in search of an author; it would be perverse to deny them Samm onicus.96 The shadowy Furius apart,97 we can estab lish one im portant source of Sam m onicus’s knowledge: P. Nigidius Figulus. In his study of l u x u r i a Sammonicus quoted Nigidius’s D e A n i m a l i b u s (Macr. S a t . 3.16.7), and it is very likely that he also knew other works of this polyhistor. In his book D e a u g u r i o p r i v a t o Nigidius mixed freely the Etruscan and augural elem ents,98 and this mixture is also the hallmark of the l i b r i r e c o n d i t i in Servius a u c t u s . Thus in whichever direction we turn we are confronted with layer upon layer of antiquarian tradition. And when the l i b r i r e c o n d i t i seem at last to be within our reach they reveal themselves as another late and confused compilation, a fitting denouem ent of our quest. T e n e r e d i s c i p l i n a m , to uphold the doctrine, was the com m on obligation of the augurs, pontiffs, and haruspices. We cannot doubt that the books they guarded were o c c u l t i indeed and r e c o n d i t i , far removed a n o titia v u lg a r i . Like the inhabitants of Plato’s cave we can see their shadows only.
96 Kind, “ Serenus 6 ,“ ascribed them to Sammonicus as a matter o f fact, without any discussion, and Champlin observes (193): “ Two abstruse items on auspices and lightning which Servius dredged out o f unspecified ‘libri reconditi’ might well derive from Sammonicus also.” 97Bremer (above n.50) I 29, identifies this Furius, on no apparent grounds, with L. Furius Philus, cos. 136. 98Thulin (above n.82) III 109. On Nigidius, see A. Swoboda, P. Nigidii Figuli Opera (Pragae 1889); A. Della Casa, Nigidio Figulo (Rom e 1962) esp. 101 fF.
523
51 E X T A A N D A V E S : AN E M E N D A T IO N IN R U F IN U S , O R IG Ε Ν I S I N N U M E R O S H O M I L I A 17.2
HE editors of Christian authors have naturally been much more Christiani than Ciceroniani. Yet the study of Roman antiquities, and in particular of Roman religious terminology, may often be very helpful in discovering the correct sense and correct text of hitherto unintelli gible passages. T he text of Rufinus, Origenis in Numeros Homilia 1 7 .2 , offers an instructive example. T h e text as printed in the authoritative edition by W. A. Baehrens, Origines, Werke 7 (Die Griechischen Christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte 3 0 , Leipzig, 1 9 2 1 ), 1 5 6 , reads as follows (Origenes-Rufinus comment on Num. 2 4 : 1 referring to Balaam):
T
D e n i q u e “ n o n a b i i t ” [ s c . B a la a m ] i n q u i t [ i .e . S c r i p t u r e s a y s ] “ e x m o r e in o c c u r s u m s e n s ib u s
a u s p ic iis ” ; n o n e n im
r a p ie t u r
in
a n im a lib u s
m o r e s ib i s o lito , s t u ltis e t in a n ib u s
m u tis
et
p e c u d ib u s
D ei
c o n s id e r a n s
v o lu n t a t e m , s ic u t h i, q u i e x is tis t a lib u s a u s p ic ia c o llig u n t , s e d a g n o s c e t e tia m
ip s e
q u ia
neque
“ de bobus
cura est
D e o ,”
s im ilite r n e q u e
de
o v ib u s n e q u e d e a v ib u s a liis q u e a n im a lib u s , s e d s i q u a d e h is s c r ip ta s u n t , p r o p t e r h o m i n e s i n t e l l i g e t s c r i p t a . [ T h e s a m e t e x t in M i g n e , P a t r .
G ra e c a , v o i. 2 0 , c o l. 7 0 4 ]
T he phrase qui ex istis talibus auspicia colligunt is incomprehensible . 1 We have to read: qui ex extis et avibus auspicia colligunt. T he expression auspicia colligere seems to have been an augural terminus technicus, although it is attested only in late Latin authors. Servius auctus in his comment on Aen. 3 . 2 4 6 speaks of auspicii genus . . . secundum augures, quod de diris colligitur, quorum unum genus est quod de signis colligitur. At Aen. 4 . 4 5 3 he mentions genus ominis . . . de augurali disciplina translatum . . . qua e2 diris observatur, and informs us that dira My thanks go to Professor Agnes Michels, who very kindly agreed to read a draft of this note. 1 Baehrens does not list any variant readings or conjectures. H. M éhat (ed.), Origène, Homélies sur les Nombres (Sources Chrétiennes 29 [Paris 1951]) 341, follows the text of Baehrens and translates the passage in question as qui en tirent des présages. 2 qua e ed. Harv. quae Thilo.
524
214
Jerzy Linderski
enim deorum ira est, quae duplici modo colligitur, aut ex signis aut quo cumque modo aut quacumque ex parte (cf. also 5 ,7 ). Ammianus Marccllinus 2 1 . 1.9 uses the same expression with respect to aves: auguria et auspicia non volucrum arbitrio . . . colliguntur . . . sed volatus avium dirigit deus.3 Now as we learn from Festus (Paulus) 3 1 6 , 3 1 7 L. quinque genera signorum observant augures publici: ex caelo, ex avibus, ex tripudis, ex quadripedibus, ex diris. In Servius auctus and Ammianus M arcellinus the expression colligo assumes part of the meaning of the traditional augural term observoA In the language of the augurs this term denoted both the perception of a sign and its interpretation and classification according to the rules codified once and for ever in the augural books . 5 In the text of Rufinus, in view of these examples the emendation qui ex . . . avibus auspicia colligunt suggests itself. Although augury and extispicine formed two separate branches of divination, exta and aves appear frequently juxtaposed ,6 and the term auspicia was occasionally used with respect to the inspection of en trails .7 T h e term colligo also appears in connection with the interpreta tion of exta, Serv. on Verg. Georg. 3 .4 9 1 : Colligi enim nisi ex sana victima Jutura non possunt,MT h e expression ex extis auspicia colligere would hardly have passed scrutiny of a republican augni, but linguisti3 Cf. Amm. Marc. 30.5.7: per portam voluit (sc. Valentinianus) unde introiit exire, ut omen colligeret, quod cito remeabit ad Gallias. 4 T his meaning of colligo seems also to be present at Min. I'cl. 26.1 auspicia et auguria Romana . . . summo labore collecta, where collectu means not only “ collected,” but also describes the auspicia of which the correct interpretation had been established summo labore, or, as Cicero would have said, observatione diuturna (cf. de div. 1.34, 72; 2.26). ln his translation of Octavius (Coll. RudCrisis Theories< and the Beginning of the Principate, Romanitas-Christianitas, Festschrift Johannes Straub, Berlin 1982, 38-41). For the technical aspects of the case (imperium and aus picium), see also (but not necessarily embrace) the explications proposed by H. S. Versnel, Triumphus, Leiden 1970, 305-313, and R. M. Rampelberg, Les dépouilles opimes à Rome, des débuts de la République à Octave, Revue Historique de Droit 56, 1978, 191-214. L. Schumacher in his erudite study, Die impe ratorischen Akklamationen der Triumvim und die auspicia des Augustus, Historia 34, 1985, 207-212, dis cusses the auspicia and the triumph of Crassus, but not his claim to the spolia opima. 2 0 De div. 2.71-72. See also Festus 474 L. s.v. silentio surgere and 476 L. s.v. sinistrum. Cf. Liv. 8.23.15: »consul oriens de nocte silentio diceret dictatorem« (and the comment in Linderski, 21732174, η. 94). 21 For the phrases auspicio adesse and in auspicio esse (auspicio interesse), see Cic., de div. 2.71; de leg. 3.43; de rep. 2.16; ad Att. 2.12.1. 22 Cic., de div. 2.72-73; Servius ad Aen. 6.198. 23 Cic., de div. 2.72; Festus 386 L. (quoting the augur Appius Claudius Pulcher; cf. J. Linderski, The Libri Reconditi, HSCP 89, 1985, 226-227). 24 Cf. Liv. 1.34.9: »Accepisse id augurium laeta dicitur Tanaquil«; 6.12.7 (see above, η. 12); 7.26.3-4 (of M. Valerius Corvinus): »conserenti iam manum Romano corvus repente in galea consedit in hostem versus, quod primo ut augurium caelo missum laetus accepit tribunus«; 7.26.7: »Camillus laetum mili tem victoria tribuni, laetum tam praesentibus ac secundis dis ire in proelium iubet«; 26.41.18 (in the speech of Scipio): »dii immortales imperii Romani praesides ... auguriis auspiciisque et per nocturnos etiam visus omnia laeta ac prospera portendunt« (also in this passage the auspicia and auguria appear in the sense and in the function of a presage, whereas in the strict augural doctrine auspicium expressed solely divine consent for action, cf. Cic., de div. 2.70 of the Roman augurs: »non enim sumus ii nos au gures qui avium reliquorumve signorum observatione futura dicamus«); Lucanus, Phars. 5.396 (cf. Suet., Caes. 77); Festus 476 L = Ateius Capito, fr. 22 Strzelecki: »Sinistrum in auspicando significare ait Ateius Capito laetum et prosperum auspicium«. Cf. Hickson, 43. 25 Cf. P. Catalano, Contributo alio studio del diritto augurale I, Torino 1960, 42-45. 26 Fot a discussion of the augural doctrine of ementita auspicia, see Linderski, 2214-2215, and 2198 (the case of Antonius); C. Schäublin, Ementita Auspicia, Wiener Studien N.F. 20, 1986, 171 ff. (but he does not discuss the passage of Livy).
68
623
27 28 29
30
31
Technically it was a (favorable) auspicium oblativum, but Livy calls it augurium (quo laetus augurio consul), using the term in the colloquial sense of presage. Cf. Stabler, 186-201. See 5.21.1: »dictator (M. Camillus) auspicato egressus« (Veii is taken); 6.12.7 (above, n. 12); 10.39.8 (see above in the text on Papirius and the victory at Aquilonia); 9.14.3-4 (below, n. 32); 22.42.8: Aemilius Paulus »cum ei sua sponte cunctanti pulli quoque auspicio non addixissent, nuntiari iam ef ferenti porta signa collegae iussit« (Terentius Vanro remembering Flamini recens casus obeyed, and the debacle at Cannae, as Livy puts it, was postponed); 27.16.15: »Fabio auspicanti, priusquam egrederetur ab Tarento, aves semel atque iterum non addixerunt; hostia quoque caesa consulenti deos haruspex cavendum a fraude hostili et ab insidiis praedixit« (the Cunctator remained in Tarentum, and avoided the insidiae of Hannibal); 34.14.1: M. Porcius Cato as consul in 195 »cum auspicio operam dedisset, profectus« (victory); 35.48.13: the envoy of Antiochus lambasts Flamininus: nobody ever had seen him in battle as a commander but rather »auspicantem immolantemque et vota nuncupantem« - here Livy implies e contrario that it was not solely Roman armies but above all Roman religio that triumphed over the Greeks (cf. Liebeschuetz 1979, 4; Briscoe 1981, 212-213); 38.26.1: »consul (of 189 Manlius Vulso) cum auspicio operam dedisset, deinde immolasset, ... copias educit« (the Galatians routed); 41.18.4-14: the consul of 176 Q. Petilius performed the sortitio for the selection of his field of oper ations non auspicato, and furthermore »etiam ex pullario auditum est vitium in auspicio fuisse, nec id consulem ignorasse«. Petilius was killed in battle (cf. Linderski, 2173-2175). The cumulative message of these examples is not to be missed: without valid auspices no victory. Cf. Mommsen I3, 61-67; A. Magdelain, Recherches sur 1’imperium, Paris 1968, esp. 40 ff. A. Giovannini, Consulare Imperium, Basel 1983, esp. 7-19; Linderski, 2162 ff. One has to distinguish carefully the cases of the repetitio auspiciorum and the renovatio auspiciorum (cf. Mommsen I3, 91, 99-100) although Livy does not always succeed in keeping these two very differ ent acts terminologically apart. When the auspices of the consuls are contaminated by a vitium, this means that their successors will be elected through the agency of contaminated auspices and will inherit the contamination. The only way to break this chain of contamination is through the abdication of all magistrates; the auspices then return from the sphere of action to their receptacle among the patres (the patrician senators). By this act they are cleansed and ready to be transmitted by the interrex to the next pair of consuls, pure and pristine again. The repetitio auspiciorum is on the other hand a totally differ ent thing. It does not concern the whole office of the magistrate, but solely his particular field of action: the sphere militiae. Livy mentions four cases of the renovatio auspiciorum: 5.17.3 (the magistrates vitio creati; it was decided that they »abdicarent se magistratu, auspicia de integro repeterentur [= reno varentur] et interregnum iniretur«); 5.31.7 (»consulibusque morbo implicitis placuit per interregnum renovari auspicia«); 5.52.9 (»instauratio sacrorum auspiciorumque renovatio«); 6.5.6 (»in civitate plena religionum, tunc edam ab recenti clade [sc. Alliensi] superstitiosis principibus, ut renovarentur auspicia, res ad interregnum rediit«), There are also four cases of the repetitio auspiciorum: 8.32.4 (dis cussed below in the text); 10.3.3-8 (the dictator returns to Rome auspiciorum repetendorum causa; his master of horse pabulatum egressus falls in a trap and is defeated. This neatly illustrates the principle that one should not engage the enemy incertis auspiciis, and Livy himself points back to the case of 8.32.4); 23.19.3-5 (again the dictator returns to Rome to repeat the auspices, and orders his master of horse ne quid absente eo rei gereret; the magister equitum obeys - hence no calamity); 23.36.9-10 (Fa bius Cunctator as cos. suff. in 215 prudently refrained from action »occupatus primo auspiciis re petendis, dein prodigiis ...; expiantique ea haud facile litari haruspices respondebant«). The phrase thus refers primarily to the renewal of military auspices of the commander, but once Livy uses it in a more restricted sense of repeating the auspicatio (after an unfavorable omen) on the next day (9.39.1: »Dictator postero die auspiciis repetitis pertulit legem«).
69
32
33 34 35
36
37 38
39 40
41
A few years later, in 320, the same Papirius, this time as consul, appears again in the company of a pul larius (9.14.3-4): »agentibus divina humanaque, quae adsolent, cum acie dimicandum est, consulibus Tarentini legati occursare ...; quibus Papirius ait: >auspicia secunda esse, Tarentini, pullarius nuntiat; li tatum praeterea est egregie; auctoribus dis ... ad rem gerendam proficiscimurvo S tu d ie s in R o m a n N o m e n c la tu r e (A m e r ic a n C la s s ic a l S tu d ie s 3 [1 9 7 6 ]). In: P h o e n ix 31 (1 9 7 7 [1 9 7 8 ]) 3 7 2 -3 7 5 . 4 4 . “A m ia n u s ” , Z e its c h r if t f ü r P a p y r o lo g ie u n d E p ig r a p h ik 3 0 (1 9 7 8 ) 158. 4 5 a . “F u m u m v e n d e r e a n d f u m o n e c a r e ” , d o t t a 6 5 (1 9 8 7 ) 1 3 7 -1 4 6 . 4 5 b . “F u m o n e c a r e : A n A d d e n d u m ” , d o t t a 65 (1 9 8 7 ) 2 5 0 - 2 5 1 . 4 6 . “T h e S u rn a m e o f M . A n to n iu s C re tic u s a n d th e c o g n o m in a e x v ic tis g e n tib u s ” , Z e its c h r if t f ü r P a p y r o lo g ie u n d E p ig r a p h ik 80 (1 9 9 0 )
1 5 7 -1 6 4 . 47. “ R ö m is c h e r S ta a t u n d
d ie
G ö tte rz e ic h e n :
zum
P ro b le m
der
o b n u n ti a ti o ” , J a h r b u c h d e r U n i v e r s i t ä t D ü s s e l d o r f 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 0 [1 9 7 1 ] 3 0 9 -3 2 2 . 4 8 . “ C ic e ro a n d R o m a n D iv in a tio n ” , L a P a r o la d e l P a s s a to 3 7 , fa se . 2 0 2 (1 9 8 2 [1 9 8 3 ]) 1 2 -3 8 . 4 9 . “W a tc h in g th e B ird s: C ic e ro th e A u g u r a n d th e A u g u ra l te m p la ” . C la s s ic a l P h ilo lo g y 81 (1 9 8 6 ) 3 3 0 -3 4 0 .
50. “ T h e L ib r i R e c o n d iti” , H a r v a r d S tu d ie s in C la s s ic a l P h ilo lo g y 89 (1 9 8 5 ) 2 0 7 -2 3 4 . 51. “E x ta a n d A v e s : A n E m e n d a tio n in R u fin u s , O r ig e n is in N u m e r o s H o m ilia 1 7 .2 ” , H a r v a r d S tu d ie s in C la s s ic a l P h ilo lo g y 85 (1 9 8 1 )
2 1 3 -2 1 5 . 5 2 . “ S a n n io a n d R e m u s ” , M n e m o s y n e 4 2 (1 9 8 9 ) 9 0 - 9 3 .
J. Linderski
630
5 3 . “A u s p ic ia e t A u g u r ia R o m a n a ... S u m m o L a b o r e C o llecta ·. A N o te o n M in u c iu s F e lix , O c ta v iu s 2 6 .1 ” , C la s s ic a l P h ilo lo g y 77 (1 9 8 2 ) 1 4 8 150. 5 4 . “A W ittic is m o f A p p u le iu s S a tu rn in u s ” , R iv is ta d i F ilo lo g ia 111 (1 9 8 3 [1 9 8 4 ]) 4 5 2 - 4 5 9 . 55. “ R e lig io u s A s p e c ts o f th e C o n f li c t o f th e O r d e r s : T h e C a s e o f c o n f a r r e a tio ” . In: K u rt A . R a a fla u b (e d .), S o c ia l S tr u g g le s in A r c h a ic R o m e .
N e w P e r s p e c t iv e s o n th e C o n flic t o f th e O r d e r s (B e r
k e le y 1986) 2 4 4 -2 6 1 . 5 6 . “T h e A u sp ic e s a n d th e S tru g g le o f th e O rd e rs ” . In: W a lte r E d e r (e d .), (S tu ttg a rt 1 9 9 0) 3 4 - 4 8 (a n d d is c u s s io n c o n trib u tio n s, p p . 8 8 - 8 9 , 3 9 5 , 4 7 7 -
S ta a t u n d S ta a tlic h k e it in d e r f r ü h e n r ö m is c h e n R e p u b lik
4 7 8 , 5 5 6 , h e re n o t re p ro d u c e d ). 5 7 . “ H e lio g a b a lu s , A le x a n d e r S e v e ru s a n d th e iu s c o n f a r r e a tio n is : A N o te o n th e H is to r ia A u g u s ta ” . In: M . P ié ra rt e t O . C u rty (e d s.). H is to r ia T e stis.
M é la n g e s d ’é p ig r a p h ie , d ’h is to ir e a n c ie n n e e t d e p h ilo lo g ie
o ffe r ts à T a d e u s z Z a w a d z k i (F rib o u rg 1 989) 2 0 7 -2 1 5 . 5 8. R e v ie w of: T h o m a s K ö v e s-Z u la u f, R e d e n u n d S c h w e ig e n : r ö m is c h e R e lig io n b e i P lin iu s M a io r (M ü n c h e n 1972). In: C la s s ic a l P h ilo lo g y
7 0 (1 9 7 5 ) 2 8 4 - 2 8 9 . 5 9 . “ A N o n - M is u n d e r s to o d T e x t C o n c e r n in g T a g e s ” , L a P a r o l a d e l P a s s a to 3 3 , fase. 180 (1 9 7 8 ) 1 9 5 -1 9 6 . 6 0 . R e v ie w of: L e d é li t r e lig ie u x d a n s la c it é a n tiq u e (R o m e 1981). In: C la s s ic a l P h ilo lo g y 7 9 (1 9 8 4 ) 1 7 4 -1 7 7 .
61. R e v ie w o f: L .B . V a n D e r M e e r, T h e B r o n z e L i v e r o f P i a c e n z a (A m ste rd a m 1987).
In: C la s s ic a l P h ilo lo g y 85 (1 9 9 0 ) 6 7 - 7 1 .
6 2 . R e v ie w o f I d a P a la d in o , F r a t r e s A r v a l e s : S t o r ia d i un c o l l e g i o s a c e r d o ta le r o m a n o (R o m a 1988). In: C la s s ic a l P h ilo lo g y 8 6 (1 9 9 1 )
8 4 -8 7 . 6 3 . R e v ie w o f D .S . P o tte r, P r o p h e c y a n d H is to r y in th e C r is is o f th e R o m a n E m p ir e : A H is to r ic a l C o m m e n ta r y o n th e T h irte e n th S ib y llin e O r a c le (O x fo rd 1990).
In: C la s s ic a l P h ilo lo g y 8 8 (1 9 9 3 ) 1 8 0 -1 8 3 .
64. “ R o m a n R e lig io n in L iv y ” . In : W o lfg a n g S c h u lle r ( e d .), L iv iu s . A s p e k te s e in e s W e r k e s (K o n sta n z 1 993) 5 3 - 7 0 .
A d d e n d a a n d C o r r ig e n d a (1 9 9 4 ) (The first page number refers to the pagination of the volume; the second to the pagination of the original contribution)
A BBR E V IA TIO N S A le x a n d e r, T r ia ls = M .C . A le x a n d e r, T r ia ls in th e L a te R o m a n R e p u b lic (T o ro n to 1990). B ro u g h to n , M R R 3 = T .R .S . B r o u g h to n , T h e M a g is t r a te s o f th e R o m a n R e p u b lic . V o i H I, S u p p le m e n t (A tla n ta 1986). D a v id , P J = J .-M . D a v id , L e p a t r o n a t j u d i c i a i r e a u d e r n ie r s iè c le d e la r é p u b lìq u e r o m a in e (= B E F A R 2 7 7 , R o m e 1977).
G ru e n , L G R R = E .S . G ru e n , T h e L a s t G e n e r a tio n o f th e R o m a n R e p u b lic (B e rk e le y 1974). L i n d e r s k i , K o l e g i a = J. L in d e r s k i, P a n s t w o a k o le g ia . Z e s t u d i ó w n a d h is to r ia r z y m s k ic h s to w a r z y s z e n u s c h y lk u r e p u b lik i [S ta a t u n d V e rein e. S tu d ie n ü b e r d ie G e s c h ic h te d e s r ö m is c h e n V e r e in s w e s e n s a m E n d e d e r R e p u b lik ] (K ra k ó w 1961).
L in d e rs k i, A s s e m b ly = J. L in d e rs k i, R z y m s k ie z g r o m a d z e n ie w y b o r c z e o d S u ili d o C e z a r a [T h e R o m a n E le c to r a l A s s e m b ly f r o m S u lla to C a e s a r ]
(K ra k o w 1966). L in d e rs k i, A L = J. L in d e rsk i, “T h e A u g u ra l L a w ” , A N R W 2 .1 6 .3 (1 9 8 6 ). M a rs h a ll, A s c o n iu s = B .A . M a rs h a ll, A H is to r ic a l C o m m e n ta r y o n A s c o n iu s (C o lu m b ia , M O ., 1965). S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C L A = D .R . S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C i c e r o ’s L e t te r s to A ttic u s 1 -7 (C a m b rid g e 1965, 1965, 1968, 1968, 1966, 1967, 1970).
S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C E F = D .R . S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C ic e r o . E p is tu la e a d F a m ilia r e s 1 - 2 (C a m b rid g e 1977).
S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C Q F -M B - D .R . S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C ic e ro . E p is tu la e a d Q u in tu m F r a tr e m e t M . B ru tu m (C a m b rid g e 1980).
Addenda and Corrigenda
1 SI VIS PA C E M PA R A BELLUM : C O N CEPTS O F D EFEN SIV E IM PE R IA L ISM (1984) In a r a r e a n d g r a t i f y i n g c o n j u n c t i o n o f m in d s E . F r é z o u ls , “ S u r l ’h is to rio g ra p h ie d e l ’im p é ria lis m e ro m a in ” , K te m a 8 (1 9 8 3 [1 9 8 6 ]) 1 4 1 162, h a s a rriv e d a t a s im ila r a p p ra isa l o f b o th R o m a n im p e ria lis m a n d o f its m o d e m h isto ria n s. C f. a lso E . H e rm o n , “ L ’im p é ria lis m e ro m a in ré p u b lic a in : A p p ro c h e s h is to rio g ra p h iq u e s e t a p p ro c h e d ’a n a ly se ” , A th e n a e u m 7 7 [N .S . 67] (1 9 8 9 ) 4 0 7 —4 1 6 , e sp . 4 0 8 —4 0 9 , a n d v a rio u s p a p e rs p u b lis h e d in G o u v e r n a n ts e t g o u v e m é s d a n s Γ I m p e r iu m R o m a n u m , ed. b y E . H e rm o n (= C a h ie r s d e s É tu d e s A n c ie n n e s 2 6 [1 9 9 1 ]), esp . Z. Y a v e tz , “T o w a rd a F u rth e r S te p In to
th e S tu d y o f R o m a n I m p e r i a l i s m ” (p p . 3 - 2 2 ) ; D . B a r o n o w s k i, “ T h e R o m a n s ’ A w a re n e s s o f T h e ir Im p e r ia lis m in th e S e c o n d C e n tu ry B .C .” (pp. 1 7 3 -1 8 1 ). A lso tw o v o lu m in o u s a n d stim u la tin g a c c o u n ts a n d a p p ra isa ls o f R o m a n e x p a n s io n in th e E a s t a n d o f R o m a n im p e ria lis m h a v e a p p e a re d : E . G ru e n , T h e H e l l e n i s t i c W o r ld a n d th e C o m in g o f R o m e 1 - 2 ( B e r k e le y 1 9 8 4 ); J.-L . F e rra ry , P h ilh e llé n is m e e t im p é r ia lis m e . A s p e c ts id é o lo g iq u e s d e la c o n q u è te r o m a in e d u m o n d e h e llé n is tiq u e (B E F A R 2 7 1 , P a ris 1988).
O n G ru e n , see m y re m a rk s in J o u r n a l o f I n te r d is c ip lin a r y H is to r y 16 (1 9 8 5 ) 3 0 5 -3 0 7 . F o r an a p p ra isa l o f th e R o m a n c o n q u e s t o f Ita ly , see R .J. R o w la n d , Jr., “ R o m e ’s E a rlie s t Im p e ria lism ” , L a to m u s 4 2 (1 9 8 3 ) 7 4 9 - 7 6 2 , esp. 7 6 1 : “th e R o m a n s, fa r fro m p re o c c u p y in g th e m se lv e s w ith d e fe n s iv e w a rs (a lth o u g h m a n y o f th e ir w a rs in th is p e rio d w e re in fa c t d e fe n s iv e ), fo llo w e d a r e p e a te d p a tte rn o f b e h a v io r, o u tfla n k in g allie s a n d p o te n tia l e n e m ie s, a n d re a c tin g to th o se re sp o n se s as i f th e R o m a n s w e re a g g rie v e d p a rty ” . P . 11 = 143:
o n th e m e tu s h o s tilis , see H . B e lle n , M e tu s G a llic u s —
M e tu s P u n ic u s . Z u r F u r c h tm o tiv in d e r r ö m is c h e n R e p u b lik (A b h . M a in z
1 9 8 5 , 3), to b e re a d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e re m a rk s b y A . E c k ste in , C J 8 2 .4 (1 9 8 7 ) 3 3 5 -3 3 8 . P p . 1 3 -1 6 = 1 4 5 -1 4 8 (an d 2 7 - 2 8 = 1 6 0 -1 6 1 , nn. 6 6 -6 7 ): se e n o w an a p p r a is a l o f T . F r a n k b y T .R .S . B r o u g h to n , in W .W . B rig g s a n d W .M . C a ld e r III (e d s.), C la s s ic a l S c h o la r sh ip . A B io g r a p h ic a l E n c y c lo p e d ia (N ew Y o rk 1990) 6 8 - 7 6 , a n d b y th e p re s e n t w rite r in A m e r ic a n N a tio n a l B io g r a p h y (fo rth c o m in g ).
P. 19 = 151: see n o w L. P o lv e rin i, “ F ra c c a ro a n d D e S a n c tis ” , A th e n a e u m 7 3 [= N .S . 63] (1 9 8 5 ) 6 8 -8 1 (an d pp. 8 2 - 1 1 3 c o n ta in in g a se le c tio n o f th e c o rre s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o sc h o la rs).
633
Addenda and Corrigenda
E rra ta . R ead : P. 10 = 142, lin e 8 fro m b o tto m : “ B u t” .
2 M O M M SE N AND SYM E: L A W AND PO W E R IN TH E PR IN C IPA T E O F A UG USTU S (1990) S e e a lso o th e r c o n trib u tio n s p u b lish e d to g e th e r w ith th is a rtic le in th e s a m e c o lle c tio n , e sp . H . G a ls te r e r , “ A M a n , a B o o k a n d a M e th o d : S ir R o n a ld S y m e ’ s R o m a n R e v o l u ti o n a f te r F if ty Y e a r s ” ( 1 - 2 0 ) ; W . E d e r, “A u g u s tu s a n d th e P o w e r o f T ra d itio n : T h e A u g u sta n P rin c ip a te as B in d in g L in k b e tw e e n R e p u b lic a n d E m p ire ” (7 1 -1 2 2 ).
I re p e a t: w h e n M o m m s e n
w rite s as a ju r is t it is fru itle s s to c ritic ise h im fo r n o t w ritin g as a h isto ria n . S e e n o w th e b r i l l i a n t j u x t a p o s i t i o n ( a n d a p p r a i s a l ) o f th e “ T w o P rin c ip e s : A u g u stu s a n d S ir R o n a ld S y m e ” b y G . A lfö ld y , A th e n a e u m 81 (1 9 9 3 )
1 0 1 -1 2 2 .
P . 3 9 = 4 9 (a n d n. 34): o n V a rro , see a lso N o 3. P. 3 9 = 49, n. 36: in th e m e a n tim e J. S c h e id p ro d u c e d n o t o n ly a n o th e r b o o k o n a rv a l p ro s o p o g ra p h y b u t a lso a m a g n ific e n t stu d y o f d o c trin e a n d ritu a l (se e b e lo w , A d d e n d a to N o 62). P . 4 3 = 5 3 , n. 5 5 :
th e H e n s e l-N a c h s c h rifte n h a v e n o w a p p e a re d : T .
M o m m s e n , R ö m is c h e K a is e r g e s c h ic h te . N a c h d e r V o rle s u n g s m its c h rifte n v o n S. u n d P . H e n s e l 1 8 8 2 -1 8 8 5 h e ra u s g e g e b e n v o n B . u n d A . D e m a n d i (M ü n c h e n 1992).
3 G A R DEN PARLORS: N O BLES AND BIRD S (1989) O n V a r r o ’s d ia lo g u e , see n o w a lso W .J. T a tu m , “T h e P o v e rty o f A p p ii P u lc h ri: V a rro , D e R e R u s tic a 3 .1 6 .1 - 2 ” , C Q 4 2 (1 9 9 2 ) 1 9 0 -2 0 0 . F o r a s h o rt re c e n t d is c u s s io n o f C ic e ro ’s d ia lo g u e te c h n iq u e , see J.G .F . P o w e ll, C ic e r o . C a to M a io r D e S e n e c tu te (C a m b rid g e 1 988) 1 -2 4 .
P. 5 8 = 119 (a n d p. 65 = 126, η. 9 6 ): o n th e F u n d ilii, cf. J. S u o la h ti, “A S u b m e rg e d G e n s” , A r c to s 13 (1 9 7 9 ) 1 6 1 -1 6 7 . E rra ta : P . 55 = 116, lin e 5: th e sq u a re b ra c k e t sh o u ld b e p la c e d in lin e 7, a fte r “th e y c o u n s e l” . P. 6 2 = 123, n. 60, a n d P. 6 4 = 125, n. 9 4: d is re g a rd th e q u o ta tio n m a rk s. n. 91: “Z u c c h e lli” .
T h e title s sh o u ld h a v e b e e n se t in ita lic s.
P . 64 = 125,
Addenda and Corrigenda
634
4 R E V IE W OF: M IC H A E L C R A W FO R D , T H E R O M A N R E P U B L I C (1982) A n e w e d itio n o f C ra w fo rd ’s b o o k a p p e a re d in 1993 (H a rv a rd U n iv e r s ity P re s s, C a m b rid g e , M A ).
5 C O N ST IT U T IO N A L A SPECT S O F TH E C O N SU LA R ELEC TIO N S IN 59 B.C. (1965) Pp. 7 3 -7 4 = 4 2 5 -4 2 6 :
o n B ib u lu s, a n d o b n u n tia tio , see n o w m y r e
m a rk s in A L 2 1 6 6 - 2 1 6 8 , 2 1 9 5 - 2 1 9 8 , 2 2 0 2 - 2 2 0 3 , 2 2 0 5 - 2 2 0 6 , 2 2 0 9 - 2 2 1 0 (cf. a lso N o 5 0 , p p . 5 1 3 - 5 1 4 = 224—2 2 5 , a n d n. 64 ).
T h a t th e n o tic e o f
o b n u n tia tio h a d to b e d e liv e re d in p e rs o n w a s a c c e p te d b y L .R . T a y lo r,
“T h e D a tin g o f M a jo r L e g is la tio n a n d E le c tio n s in C a e s a r ’s F irs t C o n s u la te ” , H is to r ia 17 (1 9 6 8 ) 1 7 8 -1 7 9 . C f. also U . H a ll, “N o te s on M . F u lv iu s F la c c u s ” , A th e n a e u m 55 [= 65] (1 9 7 7 ) 284—2 8 5 . T .N . M itc h e ll, “T h e L e g e s C lo d ia e a n d O b n u n tia tio ” , C Q 3 6 (1 9 8 6 ) 1 7 2 -1 7 6 , a rg u e s th a t it w a s th e le x C lo d ia th a t in tro d u c e d “ an e x p lic it re q u ire m e n t th a t th e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f
u n fa v o u ra b le o m e n s b e m a d e in p e rso n to th e p re s id in g m a g istra te a t an a p p o in te d tim e a n d p la c e ” (p. 175).
H is so lu tio n w a s e m p h a tic a lly e n d o rse d
b y W .J. T a tu m , “ C ic e ro ’s O p p o sitio n to th e L e x C lo d ia d e C o lle g iis ” , C Q 4 0 (1 9 9 0 ) 189. T h a t th is p ro v is io n fo rm e d p a rt o f th e C lo d ia n la w is p la u sib le in d e e d ; b u t I still b e lie v e th a t th e la w o n ly re s ta te d th e e x istin g re g u la tio n s.
S ee a lso th e e x c e lle n t a rtic le b y C . S c h ä u b lin , “ E m e n tita a u s p ic ia ” ,
W S 2 0 (1 9 8 6 ) 1 6 5 -1 8 1 , esp . 1 7 2 -1 8 1 ; a n d th e stu d ie s b y L .A . B u rc k h a rd t, P o l i t i s c h e S t r a te g i e n d e r O p t i m a t e n in d e r s p ä te n r ö m is c h e n R e p u b lik
(S tu ttg a rt 1 9 8 8 ) 1 7 8 -2 0 9 , esp . 198; L . T h o m m e n , D a s V o lk s tr ib u n a t d e r s p ä te n r ö m is c h e n R e p u b lik ( S tu ttg a r t 1 9 8 9 ) 2 4 1 - 2 4 8 ; L. de L ib e ro , O b s tr u k tio n (S tu ttg a rt 1992) 5 6 - 6 4 , 9 9 - 1 0 1 ; an d , m o s t re c e n tly , c le a r a n d
in t e ll ig e n t r e m a r k s b y K . H e ik k ilä , “ L e x n o n iu re r o g a ta ” , in : S e n a tu s P o p u lu s q u e R o m a n u s . S tu d ie s in R o m a n R e p u b lic a n L e g is la tio n (= A c ta
In s titu ti R o m a n i F in la n d ia e 13 [H e lsin k i 1 9 93]) 1 2 5 -1 2 6 , 1 3 6 -1 4 1 (w ith th e v a lid p o in t th a t B ib u lu s ’ o b n u n tia tio n e s p e r e d ic tu m co u ld b e re g a rd e d as a c o n tin u a tio n o f h is o rig in a l a tte m p t to d e liv e r th e n o tic e o f o b n u n tia tio in p e rso n ). P p . 7 6 -8 1 = 4 2 8 -4 3 3 : o n th e p re sid e n c y at th e e le c tio n s, see th e c o u r te o u s re jo in d e r b y L .R . T a y lo r a n d T .R .S . B ro u g h to n , “T h e O rd e r o f C o n -
635
A d d e n d a and C orrig en d a
s u ls ’ N a m e s in O ffic ia l R e p u b lic a n L is ts ” , H is to r ia 17 (1 9 6 8 ) 1 6 6 -1 7 1 . T h e y a c c e p t th a t B ib u lu s w a s c h a rg e d w ith th e c o n d u c t o f th e c o m itia (1 6 8 ), b u t a rg u e th a t C a e s a r w as e le c te d first (see a lso T a y lo r [in th e a rtic le a d d u c e d a b o v e ] 1 8 8 -1 9 3 ).
A s a re s u lt th e y a b a n d o n e d th e ir o rig in a l th e o ry .
T h e p rio rity o f e le c tio n d e c id e d th e o rd e r o f th e n a m e s in th e F a s ti, a n d th e o rd e r in w h ic h th e f a s c e s w e re h e ld ; th e c o n s u l first e le c te d p re s id e d o v e r th e firs t m e e tin g o f th e se n a te in Ja n u a ry . B u t th e p re s id e n c y o v e r th e e le c tio n s w as d e c id e d b y “ th e o ld m e th o d s o f c o m p a r a tio a n d s o r titio ” , w ith th e lo t b e in g th e u s u a l m e th o d (p. 171).
T h e s u b je c t h a s b e e n d is c u s s e d in
s o m e d e ta il in m y A s s e m b ly 2 2 -3 4 , a n d a g a in in th e e x c e lle n t m o n o g ra p h b y R . R ilin g e r, D e r E in flu ss d e s W a h lle ite r s b e i d e n r ö m is c h e n K o n s u lw a h le n v o n 3 6 6 b i s 5 0 v. C h r. (M ü n c h e n 1 9 7 6 ) 4 0 - 5 9 . H e h a s d e m o n stra te d th a t b o th b e f o r e a n d a f t e r S u lla th e r e e x is te d a “ V e r b in d u n g z w is c h e n d e r S te llu n g in d e n F a ste n u n d d e r W a h lle itu n g ” (p. 5 4 ), a n d th a t th e sta tistic a l m a te ria l re fle c ts th e c o n s titu tio n a l a rra n g e m e n t.
F o r 5 9 , fo llo w in g T a y lo r
a n d B ro u g h to n , h e a ssu m e s C a e s a r as e le c te d first. In th a t c o n fig u ra tio n th e o n ly o b s ta c le re m a in s th e e d ic t o f B ib u lu s. R ilin g e r in te rp re ts th e d iffic u lty a w a y b y p o s itin g th a t B ib u lu s ’ e d ic t (p e rh a p s b a c k e d b y a d e c re e o f th e s e n a te ) c o n c e rn e d w h a t w a s stric tly c o n stitu tio n a lly C a e s a r’s sp h e re o f c o m p e te n c e , b u t th a t C a e s a r b e c a u se o f p o litic a l c o n s id e ra tio n s c h o s e to o b e y his c o lle a g u e (p p . 5 5 - 5 7 ) . W e n e e d a b e tte r, a n d a m o re e le g a n t so lu tio n th a n a n y o f th e sc h o la rs in v o lv e d in th is d e b a te h a s b e e n a b le to e x c o g ita te . A.
D r u m m o n d , “ S o m e O b s e r v a tio n s o n th e O r d e r o f th e C o n s u ls ’
N a m e s ” , A th e n a e u m 5 6 [= 6 6 ] (1 9 7 8 ) 8 0 - 1 0 8 , rig h tly p o in ts o u t (p p . 8 3 8 5 ) th a t th e rig h t to m a k e a r e la tio in th e se n a te w as n o t lim ite d to th e c o n s u l a c tu a lly h o ld in g th e f a s c e s , b u t h e w a s n o t a b le to u n d e rm in e th e id e a th a t th e p rio rity o f e le c tio n d e te rm in e d th e p rio rity in th e c o n s u la r lists, o r th a t th e c o n s u l e le c te d first w a s a lso th e firs t to h o ld th e f a s c e s .
O n th e
s y m b o lis m o f th e f a s c e s , see A .J. M a rs h a ll, “ S y m b o ls a n d S h o w m a n s h ip in R o m a n P u b lic L ife: T h e F a s c e s ” , P h o e n ix 38 (1 9 8 4 ) 1 2 0 -1 4 1 . T h e c o n s titu tio n a l im p o rta n c e o f th e c o n s u l e le c te d first is u n d e rs c o re d b y th e m e n tio n o f th e ύ π α τ ο ς ό π ρ ώ τ ο ς γ ε ν ό μ ε ν ο ς in th e s o -c a lle d le x d e p i r a t i s p e r s e q u e n d i s · , s e e t h e p e n e t r a t i n g r e m a r k s b y J .- L . F e r r a r y ,
“ R e c h e rc h e s s u r la lé g is la tio n d e S a tu rn in u s e t d e G la u c ia ” , M E F R A 89 (1 9 7 7 ) 6 1 9 - 6 6 0 at 6 3 3 - 6 3 4 , 6 4 7 -6 5 1 . C f. a lso V e rg il’s d e s c rip tio n o f th e o p e n in g o f th e g ates o f Ia n u s, A e n . 7 .6 1 3 : “ in sig n is re s e ra t s trid e n tia lim in a c o n s u l” , a n d S e rv iu s ’ c o m m e n t: “ in s ig n e m a c c ip e p rim o lo c o c re a tu m , lic e t s im ile m h a b e a t p o te sta te m ” . P. 81 = 4 3 3 , n. 4 1 : o n c o n s u l p r i o r in L iv y 3 2 .2 8 .4 , see th e c o rre c tio n b y T a y lo r a n d B ro u g h to n , 167, n. 6 . P p . 8 5 - 8 8 = 4 3 7 —440: o n p r o f e s s io , se e a d e ta ile d d is c u s s io n in m y b o o k A s s e m b ly 5 2 - 7 3 , a n d in R ilin g e r, W a h lle ite r 6 3 - 9 4 (w ith fu rth e r lit-
A d d e n d a an d C o rrig en d a
e r a tu r e , e s p e c ia lly w ith a d is c u s s io n o f o p in io n s o f A s tin [ 1 9 6 2 ], E a r l [1 9 6 5 ], S ta v e le y [1 9 7 2 ], H a ll [1 9 7 2 ]).
H e b e lie v e s th a t “ D ie p e rs ö n lic h e
P ro fe s s io w u rd e z ie m lic h s ic h e r als A d -h o c -M a ss n a h m e z u r V e rh in d e ru n g v o n C a e s a r’s K a n d id a tu r im J a h re 6 0 e in g e fü h rt” (p. 9 1 ). T h is is m o s t u n lik e ly ; it w as p ro b a b ly a im e d at a n a n tic ip a te d c a n d id a tu re o f P o m p e y o r o f h is h e n c h m e n (a n d w as p a s s e d e ith e r in 6 3 o r 62). B . L e v ic k , “ P ro fe s s io ” , A th e n a e u m 5 9 [= 69] (1 9 8 1 ) 3 7 8 - 3 8 8 , c o n te n d s th a t a fo rm a l p r o f e s s io to
th e p re s id in g m a g is tra te w a s n e v e r o b lig a to ry u n d e r th e R e p u b lic . A r e m a rk a b le a rg u m e n t, b u t n o t e n tire ly c o n v in c in g . T h e a u th o r d o e s n o t p a y s u f f ic ie n t a tte n tio n , I b e lie v e , to th e te rm s r a tio n e m h a b e r e a n d n o m e n a c c ip e r e .
F o r fu rth e r re m a rk s o n p r o f e s s io , a n d its a p p lic a tio n in p o litic s,
s e e E . B a d ia n , “T h e D e a th o f S a tu rn in u s ” , C h iro n 14 (1 9 8 4 ) 1 1 2 -1 1 5 . C o rre c tio n s. R ead : P. 7 2 = 4 2 4 , lin e 16: “ c o m p e l” ; lin e 31: “L a n g e ’s th e s is ” . P. 7 3 = 4 2 5 , lin e 35: “ d e v e lo p e d ” . P. 7 4 = 4 2 6 , lin e 3: “ c o n v e y in g to ” . P. 75 = 4 2 7 , n. 22 (o n p. 7 6 = 4 2 8 , lin e 4): “π ρ ο ύ γ ρ α φ ε . κ ά ν ” . P. 7 6 = 4 2 8 , lin e 3: “ h e ra ld ” ; “ f o r m ” . P. 7 9 = 4 3 1 , n. 3 1 , lin e 5: “ in ” . P . 81 = 4 3 3 , lin e 5: “ th e M o m m s e n ia n ” ; lin e 14: “ d e v e lo p e d ” . P . 83 = 4 3 5 , lin e 14: “ th e im p o r ta n c e ” . P . 83 = 4 3 5 , n. 4 8 , lin e 2: “ d ates ... to ” . P. 9 0 = 4 4 2 , lin e 6 : “ d e v e lo p e d ” .
6 W ER E PO M PE Y AND CRASSUS ELEC TED IN A BSENC E TO T H E IR FIRST C O N SU LSH IP? (1966) T h e s o lu tio n p r e s e n te d in th is a r tic le h a s b e e n a c c e p te d i.a . b y A . W a rd , M a r c u s C r a s s u s a n d th e L a te R e p u b lic (C o lu m b ia , M O , 1977) 100, n. 5 ; B ro u g h to n , M R R 3.165. D. S to c k to n , “ T h e F irs t C o n s u ls h ip o f P o m p e y ” , H is to r ia 2 2 (1 9 7 3 ) 2 0 5 - 2 1 8 , w rite s (p. 2 0 8 ): “ H a d P o m p e y c e le b ra te d h is triu m p h in 7 1 , a n d th e n w a ite d to b e a c a n d id a te in p e rs o n a n d n o t in a b s e n c e fo r e le c tio n in 7 0 to h o ld o ffic e in 69, th e w o rld w o u ld still h a v e tu rn e d o n its a x is ” . H e still d o e s n o t se e m to r e a liz e th a t P o m p e y w a s p r e s e n t at h is e le c tio n in th e c o m itia c e n tu r ia ta , a n d th a t in th is y e a r th e re w a s still n o le g a l re q u ire m e n t o f p r o f e s s io in p e rso n . P. 91 = 5 2 3 , n. 2: o n th e d a te o f C ra s s u s ’ p ra e to rsh ip , cf. B ro u g h to n , M R R 3 .1 2 0 . P. 91 = 5 2 3 , n. 3: o n p r o f e s s io , see a b o v e , A d d e n d a to N o 5 (pp. 8 5 8 8 = 4 3 7 -4 4 0 ). I ta k e th is o p p o rtu n ity to in d ic a te c o rre c tio n s. R ead : P. 92 = 5 2 4 , lin e 5: “ th e 19th” . P. 9 3 = 5 2 5 , lin e 7: o m it “ th e ” b e fo re “ R u llu s ” .
A d d e n d a and C o rrig en d a
637
7 A . G A B I N I U S A .F . C A P I T O A N D T H E F I R S T V O T E R IN T H E L E G IS L A T IV E C O M IT IA T R IB U T A
(1973) S e e n o w th e e x e m p la ry stu d y o f all a sp e c ts o f th e in s c rip tio n b y J.-C . D u m o n t, J.-L . F e rra ry , P. M o re a u , C . N ic o le t, In su la S a c r a . L a lo i G a b in ia C a l p u m ia d e D é l o s ( 5 8 α ν. J .- C ) (R o m e 1 9 8 0 ), esp . 3 , a n d 4 5 -6 1 (“ L e s
ro g a te u rs d e la lo i” b y C . N ic o le t), esp . 4 7 ^ 1 8 (a c c e p tin g th e re s titu tio n o f th e G re e k te x t p ro p o s e d o n p. 9 8 = 2 5 0 ); 54, n. 2 6 (a c c e p tin g th e re a d in g o f th e L a tin p r a e s c r i p ti o p ro p o s e d o n p p . 9 9 - 1 0 0 = 2 5 1 - 2 5 2 ) . P . 9 6 = 2 4 8 , n. 9:
cf. C . K o n ra d , “ A N o te o n th e S te m m a o f th e
G a b in ii C a p ito n e s ” , K lio 6 6 (1 9 8 4 ) 1 5 1 -1 5 6 . E rra ta . R ead : P . 9 8 = 2 5 0 , lin e 8 : “ [Α υ λ ό ς Γ ] α β ε ίν ιο ς ” .
8 T H E D R A M A T IC D A T E O F V A R R O , D E R E R U S T IC A , B O O K III A N D T H E E L E C T I O N S I N 54
(1985) S.
A g a c h e , “ L ’a c tu a lité d e la V illa P u b lic a e n 5 5 - 5 4 av. J .- C .” , in:
U rb s. E s p a c e u r b a in e e t h is to ir e (Ier s iè c le a v. J .-C . - IIIe s iè c le a p . J .- C .) =
C o lle c tio n d e l ’É c o le F ra n g a ise d e R o m e 9 8 (R o m e 1 987) 2 1 1 - 2 3 4 , esp . 2 2 2 - 2 3 0 , 2 3 3 , d is c o v e rs in th e te x t o f V a rro R .R . 3 .2 .4 “ u b i c o h o rte s ad d ile c tu m c o n s u li a d d u c ta e c o n s id a n t, u b i a r m a o s te n d a n t, u b i c e n s o re s c e n s u a d m itta n t p o p u lu m ” a llu sio n s to c o n te m p o ra ry e v e n ts a n d c o n c e rn s, a n d o n th a t b a sis a ssig n s th e d ra m a tic d a te o f th e d ia lo g u e to 5 5 - 5 4 . T h is a rg u m e n t is e n tire ly in th e e y e o f th e b e h o ld e r; A g a c h e a v o id s c o n fro n tin g th e th o rn y fa c t th a t in 5 4 n o e le c tio n s fo r c u ru le m a g is tra c ie s to o k p la c e , a n d t h a t th e tr i u m p h o f M e t e l l u s S c ip i o c a n n o t b e d a t e d to 5 5 ( c f. B ro u g h to n , M R R 3 .4 2 ). P. 103 = 2 5 1 , n. 2 1 : o f c o u rse w e d o k n o w th e o ffic ia l sty le o f S c ip io M e te llu s : Q . C a e c iliu s Q. f . F a b . M e te llu s P iu s S c ip io . I t is a tte ste d in th e lis t o f w itn e ss e s to th e tw o s e n a tu s c o n s u lta q u o te d b y C a e liu s R u fu s in h is le tte r to C ic e ro ( F a m . 8 . 8 .5 , 6 ; 2 9 S e p . 5 1 ).
S o a lso I G R R 4 .4 0 9 (fro m
P e rg a m o n ), w h e re , h o w e v e r, th e trib e is o m itte d .
A fte r h is a d o p tio n (o r
ra th e r im p o s itio n o m in is f e r e n d i ) h e h im s e lf se e m s n e v e r to h a v e u s e d th e c o g n o m e n N a sic a . C f. m y p a p e r “ Q . S c ip io Im p .” (fo rth c o m in g ). P p . 1 0 4 -1 0 5 = 2 5 2 -2 5 3 : o n th e m e a n in g o f n u p e r , see P .B . H a rv e y , “ C ic e ro , E p is tu la e A d Q u in tu m F r a tr e m e t A d B r u tu m : C o n te n t and C o m -
638
A d d e n d a and C orrig en d a
m e n t” , A th e n a e u m 7 8 (1 9 9 0 ) 3 2 8 , w h o u ltim a te ly q u o te s w ith a p p ro v a l th e s ta te m e n t o f D .R . S h a c k le to n B a ile y , O n o m a s tic o n to C i c e r o ’s S p e e c h e s 2 (S tu ttg a rt 1 9 9 2 ) 2 2 : “ th e c o n s id e ra tio n u p p e rm o s t in C ic e ro ’s m in d [w h en u s in g n u p e r ] w a s n o t th e a c tu a l le n g th o f tim e in v o lv e d b u t th e fa c t th a t th e e v e n t h e w a s re c a llin g w a s th e m o s t re c e n t o f its k in d ” . B e la te d ly I h a v e d is c o v e r e d a p a s s a g e in T h e S c h o l ia B e m b in a , e d . b y J .F . M o u n tf o r d ( L iv e r p o o l 1 9 3 4 ) 5 2 , w h e r e in th e c o m m e n t o n T e r e n t i u s ’ H e a u t o n t i m o r u m e n o s 53 w e re a d th e fo llo w in g e x p la n a tio n : “ n u p e r in te rd u m ip s u m
te m p u s in te rd u m sp a tiu m ab a liq u o te m p o re in d ic a t se d q u ia e t lo n g e [et] a n te et p a u lo a n te s ig n ific a t a d d id it a d m o d u m ” . T h is c o m e s v e ry c lo s e to S h a c k le to n B a ile y ’s u n d e rs ta n d in g ; a n d i f m o d e m stu d e n ts o f R o m a n h is to ry h a d k n o w n th is p ie c e o f a n c ie n t g ra m m a tic a l le a rn in g , v a rio u s h is to ri c a l m is c o n stru c ts c o u ld h a v e b e e n a v o id e d .
9 BU Y IN G TH E VOTE: ELE C TO R A L C O R R U PT IO N IN TH E LA TE R EPUBLIC (1985) F o r a re c e n t so lid d is c u s s io n o f th e le g is la tio n a g a in st e le c to ra l m a l p ra c tic e s (w ith fu rth e r b ib lio g ra p h y ), se e E .A . B a u e rle , P r o c u r in g a n E le c tio n : A m b itu s in th e R o m a n R e p u b lic (D iss. M ic h ig a n [A n n A rb o r] 1 990)
p a s s im .
T h e b o o k b y L . F a sc io n e , ‘C r im e n ’ e ‘q u a e s tio a m b itu s ’ n e l l ’e tà
r e p u b b lic a n a (M ila n o 1984) h a s n o t m u c h to re c o m m e n d it: it is m u c h le ss
in fo rm e d th a n th e n e w e r m o n o g ra p h o f B a u e rle , a n d it is m u c h le ss d e ta ile d th a n th e o ld stu d ie s b y R in k e s a n d T e ltin g . O f th e v a rio u s a rtic le s e ith e r p o s td a t in g B a u e r l e o r n o t li s t e d in h e r m o n o g r a p h , s e e H . K o w a ls k i, “ O r g a n i z a c j a p r z e k u p s t w w y b o r c z y c h w R z y m ie w o k r e s i e s c h y l k u re p u b lik i” , A c t a U n iv e r s ita tis W r a tis la v ie n s is 4 9 7 = A n tiq u ita s 9 (W ro c la w 1 9 8 3 ) 1 0 7 -1 1 7 (w ith G e rm a n s u m m a ry [1 1 7 -1 1 8 ]: “ D ie D u rc h fü h ru n g d e r W a h lb e s te c h u n g in R o m in d e r Z e it d e s U n te rg a n g s d e r R e p u b lik ” ); E . M a ró ti, “D e d u c e re - D e d u c to re s ” , O ik u m e n e 5 (1 9 8 6 ) 2 3 7 - 2 4 2 , esp . 2 4 1 2 4 2 ; É . D e n ia u x , “D e 1’a m b itio à V a m b itu s: les lie u x d e la p ro p a g a n d e e t d e la c o rru p tio n é le c to ra le à la fin d e la ré p u b liq u e ” , in: U rb s. E s p a c e u r b a in e e t h is to ir e ( Ier s iè c le a v . J .-C . - IIIe s iè c le a p . J .C .) = C o lle c tio n d e l ’É c o le
F r a m m is e d e R o m e 9 8 ( R o m e 1 9 8 7 ) 2 7 9 - 3 0 4 ; S . D e m o u g i n , “ Q u o d e s c e n d a t in c a m p o p e tito r. E le c tio n s et é le c te u rs à la fin d e la ré p u b liq u e et a u d é b u t d e l ’e m p ire ” , I b id . 3 0 5 -3 1 7 ; A . L in to tt, “E le c to ra l B rib e ry in th e R o m a n R e p u b lic ” , J R S 80 (1 9 9 0 ) 1 -1 6 ; A . Y a c o b s o n , “ P e titio an d L a rg itio ” , J R S 82 (1 9 9 2 ) 3 2 - 5 2 . C f. a lso H . K o w a lsk i, “ O d p o w ie d z ia ln o s c k a m a z a p rz e s te p stw a w y b o rc z e w R z y m ie (II-I w ie k p .n .e )” [“ P e n a i R e-
639
A d d e n d a an d C orrig en d a
s p o n s ib ility fo r E le c to ra l M a lp ra c tic e s in R o m e , II-I c e n tu ry B .C .E .], F o lia S o c i e t a t i s S c i e n ti a r u m L u b l i n e n s is ( B iu le ty n L u b e l s k ie g o T o w a r z y s tw a N a u k o w e g o ) 34 (1 9 9 3 ) 7 3 ff. (n o n v id i).
P p . 1 0 7 -1 0 8 = 8 7 - 8 8 : o n th e p a s s a g e o f A u so n iu s, cf. th e (ra th e r c u rso ry ) c o m m e n ta ry b y R .P .H . G re e n , T h e W o r k s o f A u s o n iu s (O x fo rd 1 991) 5 4 2 . P. I l l = 91: o n P la u tu s ’ A m p h itr u o , see M . M c D o n n e ll, “A m b itu s a n d P la u tu s ’ A m p h itr u o 6 5 - 8 1 ” , A J P 107 (1 9 8 6 ) 564—576. H e co n c lu d e s (5 7 6 ) th a t th e se lin es c o n s titu te a n in te rp o la tio n , w ritte n a fte r 181, p ro b a b ly in the 1 5 0 ’s. P . 112 = 9 2 , n. 25:
o n n o m e n c la to r e s , se e n o w th e c o m p re h e n s iv e
s tu d y b y J. K o le n d o , N o m e n c la to r (F a e n z a 1 9 8 9 ) esp . 1 5 -1 9 . E rra ta . T h is a rtic le w a s p rin te d v e ry c a re le ssly : in p a rtic u la r F re n c h a c c e n ts a n d G e rm a n u m la u ts w e re a lm o s t c o n s is te n tly o m itte d . h a s b e e n a tte m p te d o n a c o p y h e re re p rin te d .
A re m e d y
10 T H R E E T R I A L S I N 5 4 B .C .: S U F E N A S , C A T O , P R O C IL IU S A N D C IC E R O , A D A T T I C U M 4 .1 5 .4
(1 969) P p. 1 1 8 -1 1 9 = 2 8 4 -2 8 5 :
o n th e a e d ile s o f 55 a n d 5 4 , cf. B ro u g h to n ,
M R R 3 .1 4 8 , 158. H e is in c lin e d to a c c e p t th e re c o n s tru c tio n o f T a y lo r.
P p . 1 2 1 -1 2 2 = 2 8 7 -2 8 8 : th a t C . C a to w a s p ra e to r in 55 h a s n o w b e e n a c c e p te d b y S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C Q F -M B 2 1 5 (cf. 1 6 4 -1 6 5 ; cf. a lso T w o S tu d ie s in R o m a n N o m e n c la tu r e 2 [A tla n ta 1991] 9 3 ), a n d (m o re c a u tio u sly )
b y B ro u g h to n , M R R 3 .1 6 9 -1 7 0 (cf. 1 4 8 -1 4 9 o n N o n iu s S u fe n a s). S e e a lso H . S o lin , G n o m o n 5 9 (1 9 8 7 ) 599. P p. 124—126 = 2 9 0 -2 9 2 : cf. G ru e n , L G R R 3 1 5 - 3 1 6 , n. 2 5 ; B ro u g h to n , M R R 3 .1 7 5 . T h e y a g re e th a t th e re is n o c o m p e llin g e v id e n c e fo r a ssig n in g
a trib u n a te to P ro c iliu s. C f. S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C Q F -M B 185. A le x a n d e r, T r ia ls 138, p o in ts o u t th a t th e tria l o f P ro c iliu s m u s t h a v e ta k e n p la c e u n d e r
th e le x C o r n e lia d e s ic a r i is e t v e n e fic is . C f. D a v id , P J 7 6 3 . P. 125 = 2 9 1 , n. 49: o n th e e x p re s s io n τ ρ ισ α ρ ε ιο π α γ ίτ α ι, see m o s t r e c e n tly A . B ra z o u sk i, A H B 2 (1 9 8 8 ) 1 1 1 -1 1 2 . S h e fa ils to e x p la in s a tis fa c to rily th e se n s e o f τ ρ ισ -. T h e re is n o d is c u s s io n o f th e w o rd in B . B a ld w in , “ G re e k in C ic e ro ’s L e tte rs ” , A c ta C la s s ic a 35 (1 9 9 2 ) 1 -1 8 . P p . 1 2 9 -1 3 0 = 2 9 5 - 2 9 6 (a n d 1 3 4 -1 3 6 = 3 0 0 -3 0 2 ): G ru e n , L G R R 3 1 5 , n. 2 3 , d o e s n o t f in d c o n v in c in g th a t “ C a to a n d S u fe n a s w e re f o r m a lly c h a r g e d d e m a ie s ta t e a n d d e a m b itu r e s p e c tiv e ly ” .
T h e p o s s ib ility th a t
N o n iu s S u f e n a s w a s c h a r g e d w ith a m b itu s is n o te d ( w ith a q u e r y ) b y A le x a n d e r, T r ia ls 138, a n d b y B a u e rle , A m b itu s 1 7 5 -1 7 6 (see a b o v e , A d -
640
A d d e n d a and C o rrigen d a
d e n d a to N o 9). T h e c h a rg e a g a in st C a to G ru e n g e n e ra lly d e fin e s as b e in g
u n d e r th e le x F u fia (p. 139). T h a t C a to w a s a c c u se d u n d e r th e F u fia n la w is a tte s te d b y C ic e ro , A tt. 4 .1 6 .5 ; as th is la w h a d n o th in g to d o w ith a m b itu s , a n d a s b o th tr ia ls to o k p la c e o n th e s a m e d a y , it p e r f o r c e f o llo w s th a t a m b itu s m u s t h a v e b e e n th e c h a rg e a g a in st S u fe n a s. C o n s e q u e n tly th e te c h
n ic a l c h a rg e a g a in st C a to m u s t h a v e b e e n m a ie s ta s m in u ta . P p . 1 3 0 -1 3 2 = 2 9 6 - 2 9 8 : th e tria ls o f C a to u n d e r th e le x L ic in ia Iu n ia a n d th e le x F u fia . T h a t C a lv u s sp o k e fo r th e d e fe n c e w a s a lso c o n v in c in g ly a rg u e d b y E . G ru e n , “ C ic e ro a n d L ic in iu s C a lv u s ” , H S C P 71 (1 9 6 6 ) 2 2 3 2 2 4 ; 2 3 1 - 2 3 2 , n n . 6 7 - 7 1 ; cf. L G R R 3 1 5 .
O n th e o th e r h a n d M a rs h a ll,
A s c o n i u s 1 2 1 , a n d A le x a n d e r , T r i a ls 1 3 8 , se e in h im th e a c c u s e r.
B ut
M a rs h a ll a ssig n s h im (a n d A sin iu s P o llio ) as p ro s e c u to rs to th e tria l u n d e r th e le x F u fia ; G ru e n ( H S C P 7 1 , p. 2 3 1 , n. 6 6 ) a n d A le x a n d e r ( T r ia ls 1 3 7 139) re g a rd it as u n c e rta in w h e th e r C a lv u s (a n d P o llio ) p a rtic ip a te d in th e firs t tria l o r th e s e c o n d o r b o th . M a rs h a ll’s re c o n s tru c tio n , b u t a lso G r u e n ’s a n d A le x a n d e r’s a p o r ia , d isre g a rd s C ic e ro ’s in tim a tio n o f th e c o llu s io n b e tw e e n th e p r o s e c u tio n a n d th e d e f e n d a n t at th e s e c o n d tr ia l ( u n d e r th e F u fia n la w ; th e re is n o m e n tio n o f c o llu s io n at th e tria l u n d e r th e le x Iu n ia L ic in ia ).
A le x a n d e r, T r ia ls 1 3 7 -1 3 8
(c f.
1 4 1 ), l i s t s M . L i v i u s D r u s u s
C la u d ia n u s as a n o th e r a c c u se r o f C a to u n d e r th e le x Iu n ia L ic in ia , a n d n o te s th a t h e “ m a y h a v e c o m m itte d p r a e v a r i c a ti o " . D a v id , P J 1 1 1 , 8 3 9 - 8 4 0 , r ig h tly a s s ig n s A s in iu s P o llio (c f. 8 8 6 ) to th e tr ia l u n d e r th e le x I u n ia L ic in ia , b u t h e a lso b e lie v e s th a t th e o th e r a c c u s e r w a s D ru su s , a n d th a t
D ru s u s w a s la te r p ro s e c u te d fo r p r a e v a r ic a tio (cf. 8 6 6 , n. 16) c o m m itte d at th is tria l. B u t th e re w a s n o c o llu s io n at th is tria l, a n d D ru su s as C a to ’s p ro s e c u to r is a p h a n to m c o n ju re d u p b y S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C L A 2 .2 0 1 - 2 0 2 (cf. C Q F - M B 2 0 1 ) , f r o m A t t . 4 .1 6 .5 : “ D r u s u s r e u s f a c t u s e s t a L u c r e t i o ” .
S h a c k le to n B a ile y c o m b in e s th is in fo rm a tio n w ith th e p re c e d in g n o tic e c o n c e rn in g C a to : “ [leg e ] F u fia e g o tib i n u n tio a b s o lu tu m iri, n e q u e p a tro n is su is ta m lib e n tib u s q u a m a c c u sa to rib u s ” . G ru e n ( H S C P 7 1 .2 3 2 , n. 7 2 ) h a s d is p e lle d th is id e a b y p o in tin g o u t th e o b v io u s: “ C ic e ro is h e re sp e a k in g o f th e p ro s p e c tiv e tria l o f C a to u n d e r th e le x F u fia , n o t y e t h e a rd , w h e re a s D ru s u s w a s a lre a d y u n d e r in d ic tm e n t fo r p r a e v a r ic a tio " . I ta k e th is o p p o rtu n ity to c o rre c t m isp rin ts a n d in fe lic itie s. R ead : P. 116 = 2 8 2 , lin e 10 (a n d p. 118 = 2 8 4 , lin e 11; p. 119 = 2 8 5 , lin e s 2 a n d 3): “ a e d ile s h ip ” . P. 121 = 2 8 7 , lin e 13: “ o f th e trib u n e s ” . P . 121 = 2 8 7 , n. 36, lin e 1: “ e rro n e o u s ly ” . P. 122 = 2 8 8 , n. 4 2 , lin e 5: “ a s s ig n s ” ; lin e 7: “ d a te s ... to ” . P. 123 = 2 8 9 , lin e 16: “ e x to rtio n ” . P. 124 = 2 9 0 , lin e 13: “ lo s t sig h t o f ’; lin e 2 6: “ trie d ” . P . 125 = 2 9 1 , n. 4 9 , lin e 2: “e rro n e o u s ly ” ;
A d d e n d a an d C o rrig en d a
641
lin e 6 : “A re o p a g ite ” ; lin e 7: “A re o p a g it” . P. 125 = 2 9 1 , n. 5 0 , lin es 1 a n d 5: “T y rre ll” . P . 126 = 2 9 2 , n. 53, lin e 4: “E d ito r” . P . 127 = 2 9 3 , n. 5 5 , lin e 1: “ P ro c iliu s ” . P. 128 = 2 9 4 , n. 6 1 , lin e 1: “e x a m p le ” . P. 129 = 2 9 5 , lin e 3: “ c o m p e ls ” . P . 131 = 2 9 7 , n. 7 4 , lin e 22: “ c o u n te r to ” . P . 132 = 2 9 8 , lin e 16: “re c o n s tru c tio n ” . P. 133 = 2 9 9 , lin e 11: “im a g in e ” . P . 135 = 3 0 1 , lin e 20: “T h a t th is is ” . P. 135 = 3 0 1 , η. 9 0 , lin e 2: “ in a b o u t” .
11 R E V IE W O F : C L A U D E N I C O L E T , L ’O R D R E E Q U E S T R E À V É P O Q U E R É P U B L IC A IN E .
T O M E 2: P R O S O P O G R A P H IE D E S C H E V A L IE R S R O M A IN S
(1977) J.-L . F e rra ry , “P iin e , N .H ., Χ Χ Χ ΙΠ , 3 4 et les c h e v a lie rs ro m a in s so u s la ré p u b liq u e ” , R E L 5 8 (1 9 8 0 [1 9 8 1 ]) 3 1 3 -3 3 7 ; at 3 2 7 - 3 2 9 a d is c u s s io n o f th e le x R o s c i a : h e c o n c lu d e s th a t o u r so u rc e s d o n o t p e rm it u s to d e c id e w ith a n y c e rta in ty w h e th e r th e R o sc ia n la w re s e rv e d th e X IV o r d in e s f o r th e o r d o e q u e s te r in a stric t se n se o r f o r a la rg e r g ro u p “e n g lo b a n t, sin o n to u ts
le s p o s s e s s e u rs d u c e n s é q u e stre , au m o in s le s tr ib u n i a e r a r iC . S. D e m o u g in in h e r v o lu m in o u s b o o k , L ’o r d r e é q u e s tr e s o u s le s J u lio C la u d ie n s (R o m e 1 988) a lso p re se n ts a sh o rt d is c u s s io n o f th e le x R o s c ia th e a tr a lis (p p . 7 9 4 - 8 0 2 ) , b u t a g a in sh e c le a rly u n d e re s tim a te s th e im p o r
ta n c e o f th is m e a su re fo r th e d e fin itio n o f th e o r d o e q u e s te r . T h e b e s t a n d m o s t d e t a i l e d s tu d y o f th e p r o b l e m is E . R a w s o n , “D is c r im in a o r d in u m : T h e L e x J u lia T h e a tr a lis ” , P B S R 55 (1 9 8 7 ) 8 3 - 1 1 4
(esp . 1 0 2 -1 0 5 ), re p rin te d in: E . R a w so n , R o m a n C u ltu r e a n d S o c ie ty . C o l l e c te d P a p e r s (O x fo rd 1991) 5 0 8 - 5 4 5 (esp . 5 3 0 - 5 3 4 ) . H e r v ie w s are ra th e r
c lo s e to th o s e e x p re s s e d in m y re v ie w (cf. p. 103 = 5 3 2 , n. 115). S. W h ite h e a d , in h is y e t u n p u b lish e d S y d n e y d o c to ra l th e sis, h a s a lso a rriv e d (w ith a d iffe re n t s e t o f a rg u m e n ts) at a s im ila r c o n c lu sio n , n a m e ly th a t th e tr ib u n i a e r a r i i re p re s e n te d m e m b e rs o f th e e q u e s tria n o rd e r o u ts id e th e e ig h te e n
c e n tu rie s e q u o p u b lic o . U . H a c k l, “E q u e s R o m a n u s e q u o p u b lic o . E in B e itra g z u r D e fin itio n d e s rö m is c h e n R itte rsta n d e s w ä h re n d d e r Z e it d e r R e p u b lik ” , in: F e s ts c h r ift R o b e r t W e r n e r (K o n s ta n z 1 9 8 9 ) 1 0 7 - 1 1 4 , fin d s it v e ry lik e ly “ d a s s d ie
rö m is c h e n R itte r a u c h n a c h A b g a b e d es S ta a tsp fe rd e s z w e c k s A b stim m u n g in d e n C e n t u r i a t k o m i t i e n in ih r e n a n g e s t a m m t e n 18 R i t t e r c e n t u r i e n v e rb lie b e n ” . S h e d o es n o t d isc u ss th e q u e stio n o f th e X IV o r d in e s (p. 111).
642
A d d e n d a and C orrig en d a
12 L E G IB U S P R A E F E C T I M IT T E B A N T U R
(M O M M SEN AND FESTU S 262.5,13 L) (1979) S e v e ra l fu rth e r s tu d ie s o n th e p re fe c tu re s in Ita ly h a v e a p p e a re d : F . S a rto ri, “I p ra e fe c ti C a p u a m C u m a s ” , in: C o n v e g n o I n te m a z io n a le Ί C a m p i F l e g r e i n e l l ’ a r c h e o lo g i a e n e lla s t o r i a ” = A tti d e i C o n v e g n i L in c e i 33
(R o m e 1 977) 1 4 9 -1 7 1 ; M . H u m b e rt, M u n ic ip iu m e t c iv ita s s in e s u ffr a g io (R o m e 1 978) 356-^102; P .C . K n a p , “F e stu s 2 6 2 L a n d p ra e fe c tu ra e in Ita ly ” , A th e n a e u m 5 8 [= 6 8 ] (1 9 8 0 ) 1 4 -3 8 ; E . P ia n e z z o la , “ N o ta d i le ttu ra . F e st.,
s.u . P ra e fe c tu ra e 2 6 2 L in d s .” , in: F e s ts c h r ift f ü r R o b e r t M u th = In n s b ru c k e r B e iträ g e z u r K u ltu rw is s e n s c h a ft 2 2 (In n s b ru c k 1 9 8 3 ) 3 5 7 - 3 6 0 ; M . F re d e rik s e n , C a m p a n ia (R o m e 1984) 2 6 8 - 2 6 9 (a n d nn. 4 7 - 5 1 ) . P . 144 = 2 4 8 , n. 5: th e n o te o n “ P rim u m c re a ti” w a s u ltim a te ly n e v e r c o m p le te d . P . 145 = 2 4 9 (a n d n. 10): S a rto ri, 1 6 3 -1 6 4 , 170, ta k e s le g e s in F e stu s (in a n y ca se in th e se c o n d p a s s a g e ) in th e se n se o f “ d isp o siz io n i p re to rie ” ; P ia n e z z o la , 3 5 7 , in c lin e s to ag ree. H u m b e rt, 3 5 6 , tra n sla te s le g ib u s (in b o th p la c e s ) as “c o n fo rm é m e n t a u x lo is (o u m u n is d e s t r u c t i o n s ? ) ” . K n a p , 15, tra n s la te s le g ib u s “ a c c o rd in g to la w ” , a n d g iv e s (p p . 2 1 - 2 2 ) a d e ta ile d in te r p re ta tio n o f th e e x p re ssio n : “ le g ib u s in F e s tu s ’ n o tic e (b o th in lin e 4 a n d in lin e 1 2 ) p ro b a b ly m e a n s ‘w e re se n t in a c c o rd a n c e w ith a sse m b ly le g is la tio n ’ w h ic h e m p o w e re d a p r a e to r to s e n d th e m e v e ry y e a r, o r, in th e c a s e o f ‘C a p u a m C u m a s ’, w h ic h h a d a u th o riz e d th e A ss e m b ly in s u b se q u e n t y e a rs to e le c t p re fe c ts ” . F re d e rik s e n d o e s n o t d isc u ss th e m e a n in g o f le g ib u s .
13 R O M E, A PH R O D ISIA S AND THE R E S G E S T A E : TH E G E N E R A M I L I T I A E AND THE STATUS O F O C TA V IA N (1984) C f. a n e w
d is c u s s io n
o f t u m u lt u s , c o n i u r a t i o ,
e v o c a tio ,
and
s a c r a m e n tu m b y J. R iip k e, D o m i M ilitia e q u e (S tu ttg a rt 1990) 7 0 - 9 1 .
P. 147 = 74: th e te rm ά ν τ ισ τ ρ α τ ιώ τ η ς (a n d a lso ά ν τ ιν α ύ τ η ς ) h a s n o w a p p e a re d a lso in th e M o n u m e n tu m E p h e s e n u m , th e R o m a n c u s to m s la w fro m E p h e s o s .
S e e th e e d itio n b y H . E n g e lm a n n a n d D . K n ib b e , D a s
Z o llg e s e tz d e r P r o v in z A s ia (= E p ig r a p h ic a A n a to lic a 14 [1 9 8 9 ]).
In lin e 6 4 (p . 2 4 ) w e re a d : ] ο ϊς τ ε α ν δ ια τ ρ έ φ ω ν τ α ι σ τ ρ α τ ιώ τ η ς ή ν α ύ τ η ς ή ά ν τ ισ τ ρ α τ ιώ τ η ς ή ά ν τ ιν α ύ τ η ς , δ ς ά ν ή π ρ α γ μ ά τ ω ν ε ν ε κ ε ν δ ή μ ο υ 'Ρ ω μ α ίω ν . In th e ir o th e rw is e v e ry u s e fu l c o m m e n ta ry E n g e lm a n n a n d
A d d e n d a an d C orrig en d a
643
K n ib b e d is r e g a r d b o th th e c o n trib u tio n o f J. R e y n o ld s o n th e d o c u m e n t fro m A p h ro d is ia s , a n d th e a rtic le h e re re p rin te d , a n d as a re s u lt th e y o ffe r th e fo llo w in g m istra n s la tio n (p. 87): “u n d w o v o n sic h d e r S o ld a t o d e r d e r M a tro s e o d e r d ie P e rso n , d ie im A u ftra g d e s S o ld a te n o d e r M a tro s e n ag ie rt, e rn ä h re n , d e r fü r d ie S a c h e d e s rö m isc h e n V o lk e s (u n te rw e g s) is t” . In th e ir c o m m e n ta r y (p . 8 8 ) th e y h a v e th is to say : “ Σ τ ρ α τ ιώ τ η ς k ö n n te s ic h zu ά ν τ ι σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ς v e r h a l t e n w ie p r o c o n s u l z u c o n s u l . D a n n w ä r e ά ν τ ι σ τ ρ α τ ιώ τ η ς e in f r ü h e r e r S o ld a t, e in V e te ra n , so w ie p ro c o n s u l d e n g e w e s e n e n c o n s u l b e z e i c h n e t . D o c h s i n d d e r σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ς w ie d e r ά ν τ ι σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ς u n te r w e g s z u e in e m F e ld z u g ; d a s d ü r f te e h e r f ü r d ie G le ic h s e tz u n g ά ν τ ι σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ς = p ro m ilite s p re c h e n , “ im A u f tr a g d e s S o ld a te n ” . T h is e x p la n a tio n m isc o n stru e s b o th th e lin g u is tic a n d le g a l s itu a tio n ; th e c irc u m s ta n c e th a t b o th σ τ ρ α τ ιώ τ η ς a n d ά ν τ ι σ τ ρ α τ ι ώ τ η ς a re “ u n te rw e g s z u e in e m F e ld z u g ” sp e a k s c le a rly a n d lo u d ly in fa v o r o f th e in te rp re ta tio n p re s e n te d in th e p a p e r h e re re p ro d u c e d . Pp. 1 4 7 -1 4 8 = 7 4 -7 5 :
o n th e v ic a r i i, c f. F . R e d u z z i M e ro la ,
“ ‘V ic a r iu m e x p e d i r e ’, ‘v ic a r io s d a r e ’, ‘v ic a r io s e x p e t e r e ’ n e l l ’e s e r c ito ro m a n o ” , I n d e x 15 (1 9 8 7 ) 3 8 1 -3 8 8 . S h e d u ly n o te s th e S c ip io e p iso d e , a n d rig h tly d o u b ts its a u th e n tic ity . P . 1 5 0 = 7 7:
R ü p k e 7 4 c o n te s ts th e c o m b in in g o f e v o c a t i o (a s a
m e th o d o f le v y ) w ith c o n iu r a tio (as a fo rm o f o a th ). B u t h o w sh o u ld w e c a ll th e le v y w h ic h f o llo w e d u p o n th e c a ll to a rm s “ q u i r e m p u b lic a m s a lv a m e s s e v u lt, m e se q u a tu r” ? C f. a lso F. H in a rd , “ S a c ra m e n tu m ” , A th e n a e u m 81 (1 9 9 3 ) 2 5 0 - 2 6 3 .
U n fo rtu n a te ly h e d is re g a rd s th e a n tiq u a ria n s o u r c e s , n o r c a n I a c c e p t h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s a c r a m e n t u m a n d iu s
iu ra n d u m in L iv y 2 2 .3 8 .1 -5 .
P p . 1 5 2 -1 5 3 = 7 9 - 8 0 : cf. M . R e in h o ld , F r o m R e p u b lic to P r in c ip a te . A n H is to r ic a l C o m m e n ta r y o n C a s s iu s D i o ’s R o m a n H is to r y B o o k s 4 9 - 5 2 ( 3 6 - 2 9 B .C .) (A tla n ta 1 988) 2 2 4 - 2 2 5 (a n d nn. 4 9 - 5 3 o n p p . 2 2 4 - 2 2 5 ) , b y
a n d la rg e a c c e p tin g th e s o lu tio n h e re p re s e n te d .
O n th e le g a l s ta tu s o f
O c ta v ia n , see n o w K .M . G ira rd e t, “D e r R e c h ts sta tu s O c ta v ia n s im Ja h re 3 2 V. C h r.” , R h M 133 (1 9 9 0 ) 3 2 2 - 3 5 0 , esp . 3 4 5 - 3 5 0 . A n e x c e lle n t p a p e r, b u t G ira rd e t s e e m s to u n d e re s tim a te th e c o n s titu tio n a l le g a lity a n d im p o rta n c e o f th e c o n iu r a tio I ta l i a e so p r o m in e n tly d is p la y e d in th e R e s G e s ta e .
I
s h o u ld h a v e s ta te d m o re e x p lic itly th a t O c ta v ia n w a s n o t a p r iv a t u s (cf. G ira rd e t, 3 4 7 , n. 137), b u t I d o n o t th in k th a t h is p ro v in c ia l c o m m a n d c o u ld h a v e p r o v id e d h im w ith im p e r iu m le g a lly s u f f ic ie n t f o r th e w a r a g a in s t C le o p a tra . A n d in fa c t G ira rd e t p o s tu la te s th a t in 3 2 th e re w a s c re a te d fo r O c ta v ia n , b y th e se n a te a n d th e p o p u la r a sse m b ly , a n e w p r o v in c ia , “ K rie g g e g e n K le o p a tra ” (p. 3 4 7 ).
I f so , w h y d o e s A u g u stu s n e g le c t to m e n tio n
th is e v e n t in th e R e s G e s ta e , a n d d w e lls so le ly o n th e o a th o f Ita ly a n d th e p r o v in c e s ?
R .G . L e w is in h is m o s t in te r e s tin g p a p e r , “ R e c h ts fr a g e II:
644
A d d e n d a and C orrig en d a
O c ta v ia n ’s p o w e rs in 3 2 B .C .” , L C M 16 (1 9 9 1 ) 5 7 - 6 2 , m isu n d e rsta n d s , I a m a fra id , m y a rg u m e n t w h e n h e w rite s (p. 5 9 , n. 12): “ [L in d e rsk i] a rg u e s th a t th e c o n iu r a tio I ta lia e o f 3 2 w a s a k in d o f m ilita ry m u s te r in re s p o n s e to a n e m e rg e n c y ( tu m u ltu s ) — o r a t le a s t so p re s e n te d b y A u g u stu s in h is R e s G e s ta e .
T h a t m u c h m ig h t p e rh a p s b e tru e , b u t it fa ils to sh o w e ith e r th a t
O c ta v ia n la c k e d im p e r iu m at th e tim e o r th a t th e o a th c o n fe rre d it” . N o w I d id n o t a rg u e th a t O c ta v ia n la c k e d im p e r iu m a lto g e th e r, b u t r a th e r a s s u m e d ( u n f o r tu n a te ly o n ly ta c itly ) th a t h is im p e r iu m w a s te r r i to r ia lly c i r c u m s c rib e d , a n d h e n c e in s u ffic ie n t fo r a n e w w a r (se e a b o v e , G ira rd e t); a n d th e p u rp o s e o f th e iu r a tio w as c e rta in ly n o t to b e s to w im p e r iu m , b u t to s e le c t a d u x f o r th e w ar. C f. a lso K .M . G ira rd e t, “ Z u r D is k u ss io n u m d a s im p e r iu m c o n s u la r e m ilitia e im 1. Jh . v. C h r.” , C a h ie r s d u C e n tr e G . G lo tz 3 (1 9 9 2 )
2 1 4 - 2 2 0 , esp . 2 1 5 - 2 1 8 , m o s tly a p o le m ic a g a in s t J.M . R o d d a z , “ Im p e riu m : n a tu re e t c o m p é te n c e s à la fin d e la R é p u b liq u e e t a u d é b u t d e l ’E m p ire ” , I b id . 1 8 9 -2 1 1 , esp . 1 9 8 -2 0 2 ; h e b e lie v e s th a t O c ta v ia n c o n tin u e d to re g a rd
h im s e lf as in v e s te d w ith tr iu m v ir a l p o w e r s .
T h is is v e r y u n lik e ly .
J.
B le ic k e n , Z w is c h e n R e p u b lik u n d P r in z ip a t. Z u m C h a r a k te r d e s Z w e ite n T r i u m v i r a t s (= A b h . G ö t t i n g e n . P h i l o l .- H i s t . K l. D r i t t e F o l g e
185
[G ö ttin g e n 1 9 90]) 7 2 - 7 3 , rig h tly n o te s th a t w h ile O c ta v ia n re ta in e d th e p r o c o n s u la r c o m m a n d “ d ie B e fu g n iss e in R o m u n d Ita lie n m u s s te n h in g e g e n m it d e m E n d d a tu m d e s T riu m v ira ts [i.e. 31 D e c . 33] e rlö s c h e n ” . O c ta v ia n ’s a n s w e r w a s th e iu r a tio ; B le ic k e n o b se rv e s: “ D e r B e z u g a u f d e n K rie g g e g e n A n to n iu s ... z e ig t d e u tlic h , d a ss es h ie r u m d ie m ilitä ris c h e G e fo lg s c h a ft g in g , n ic h t u m d ie a lle r rö m is c h e r B ü r g e r u n d d e r P r o v in z ia le n ” .
Thus
B le ic k e n a rriv e d (in d e p e n d e n tly , a n d w ith o u t a n y d is c u s s io n o f th e le g a l c h a ra c te r o f th e c o n iu r a tio w ith in th e b ro a d e r sc h e m e o f th e R o m a n m ilitia ) a t a c o n c lu sio n v e ry a k in to th a t p ro p o s e d in th e a rtic le h e re re p rin te d .
14 USU, FA R RE, C O EM PTIO NE. B E M ER K U N G EN ZU R Ü BER L IEFER U N G EINES R ECH TSATZES (1984) P . 154 = 3 0 1 , n n . 1 a n d 2: th e stu d ie s o f V o lte rra h a v e b e e n re p rin te d in: E . V o lte rra , S c r itti g iu r id ic i (N a p o li 1991) II 3 - 6 8 ; III 3 - 1 0 7 , 1 5 5 -1 7 6 , 3 5 5 - 3 8 0 . T h e a rtic le b y W a tso n h a s b e e n re p rin te d in: A . W a tso n , L e g a l O r ig in s a n d L e g a l C h a n g e (L o n d o n 1991) 9 - 1 0 . B. B io n d o , “F a rre o c o e m p tio n e u s u ” , in: S o d a lita s . S c r itti in o n o r e d i A n to n io G u a r in o 3 (N a p o li 1984) 1 3 0 1 -1 3 0 9 . S h e a rg u e s (p. 1303) th a t “ la p ro g re s s io n e ‘u su fa rre o c o e m p tio n e ’ d e b b a e s s e re c o rre tta , su l p ia n o d e lla
645
Addenda and Corrigenda
s to ria , in ‘fa rre o c o e m p tio n e u s u ’ ” , b u t d o e s n o t d isc u ss th e te x tu a l tra d itio n o f th e fo rm u la . I w a s n o t a b le to c o n s u lt E . C a n ta r e lla , “ ‘U su fa rre o c o e m p tio n e ’: ip o te s i re c e n ti su l m a trim o n io ro m a n o ” , in: I n c o n tr o c o n G io v a n n i P u g lie s e (M ila n o 1 9 9 2 ) 9 7 ff.
15 D E R S E N A T U N D D IE V E R E IN E (1 9 6 8 ) O n th e s e n a t u s c o n s u l tu m d e c o l l e g i i s o f 6 4 , s e e n o w F .M . D e R o b e r tis , S t o r ia d e l l e c o r p o r a z i o n i e d e l r e g im e a s s o c i a t i v o n e l m o n d o r o m a n o 1 (B a ri 1 971) 8 3 - 1 1 5 (re sta tin g h is e a rlie r v ie w s).
T h e m o n o g ra p h b y F .M . A u sb ü tte l, U n te rsu c h u n g e n zu d e n V e re in en im W e ste n d e s r ö m is c h e n R e ic h e s (K a llm ü n z 1982), c o n ta in s an e x te n siv e
b ib lio g ra p h y , a n d in th e se c tio n “P o litis c h e A k tiv itä te n ” b rie fly tre a ts o f la te re p u b lic a n m e a su re s c o n c e rn in g th e c o lle g ia (pp. 8 5 -9 3 ). F . S a le rn o , “ C o lle g ia a d v e rsu s re m p u b lic a m ? ” , in: S o d a lita s . S c r itti in o n o r e d i A n to n io G u a r in o 2 (N a p o li 1984) 6 1 5 -6 3 1 (th is a rtic le w a s also
p u b lis h e d in I n d e x 13 [1 9 8 5 ] 5 4 1 -5 5 6 ), a rriv e s a t th e c o n c lu sio n (p. 6 3 1 ) th a t th e “S .C . d e c o lle g iis s ia sta to u n a m isu ra a m m in istra tiv a , d i p o liz ia , c h e , p u r se e s p re s s a in fo rm u le g e n e ra li e d im p e ra tiv e , n o n tro v a v a u g u a le a ttu a z io n e n e lla p ra tic a ” . H e m ista k e n ly a ttrib u te s to th e p re s e n t w rite r the v ie w (p. 6 2 6 , n. 6 5 ) th a t it w a s a “ m isu ra di p o rta ta g e n e ra le ” . A s to th e j u r i d i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f th e s e n a to r i a l d e c r e e s , G . C r if ò , “A ttiv ità n o rm a tiv a d e l s e n a to in e tà re p u b b lic a n a ” , B ID R 71 (1 9 6 8 ) 3 1 1 1 5 , a rg u e s (p. 5 1 ) th a t “ la p ro p o s ta le g is la tiv a d i C lo d io m o s tra c h e c o n tro l ’a p p lic a z io n e d e l s e n a to c o n s u lto d e l 6 4 n o n a v re b b e p o tu to e s s e re s u ffic ie n te u n a s e m p lic e in te r c e s s io e c iò è a rg o m e n to d e lla fo rz a v in c o la n te d e l s e n a to c o n s u lto s te sso ” . S ee a lso a m o s t in fo rm a tiv e stu d y b y J .-M . F la m b a rd , “ C lo d iu s , les c o llè g e s , la p lè b e e t les e sc la v e s. R e c h e rc h e s su r la p o litiq u e p o p u la ire au m ilie u d u I er s iè c le ” , M E F R A 89 (1 9 7 7 ) 1 1 6 -1 5 3 . “ C lo d io
e g li
s c h ia v i” , A c ta
C la s s ic a
C f. a lso T . L o p o s z k o ,
U n iv e r s ita tis
S c ie n tia r u m
D e b r e c e n e n s is 21 (1 9 8 5 ) 4 3 - 7 2 .
P. 166 = 95: th a t th e c o rre c t re a d in g o f th e n a m e o f C lo d iu s ’ a sso c ia te a n d h e lp e r is S ex . C lo e liu s (a n d n o t th e v u lg a te S ex. C lo d iu s) h a s b e e n e s ta b lis h e d b y D .R . S h a c k le to n B a ile y in a se rie s o f b rillia n t te x tu a l stu d ie s; see m o s t re c e n tly T w o S tu d ie s in R o m a n N o m e n c la tu r e 2 (A tla n ta 1991) 17, 9 1 ; O n o m a s t i c o n to C i c e r o ’s S p e e c h e s 2 ( S t u t t g a r t - L e i p z i g 1 9 9 2 ) 3 6 . F la m b a rd , M E F R A 89 (1 9 7 7 ) 1 2 6 -1 2 8 ; a n d “N o u v e l e x a m e n d ’u n d o s sie r
Addenda and Corrigenda
p ro s o p o g ra p h iq u e : le c a s d e S ex . C lo d iu s / C lo e liu s ” , M E F R A 9 0 (1 9 7 8 ) 2 3 5 - 2 4 5 , fig h ts a lo s t b a ttle d e fe n d in g th e re a d in g S ex. C lo d iu s.
O n th is
p e rs o n , h is so c ia l sta n d in g a n d h is p o litic a l ro le , see th e m o st in te re s tin g a r tic le s b y J. T a tu m , “ P . C lo d iu s P u lc h e r a n d T a rra c in a ” , Z P E 83 (1 9 9 0 ) 2 9 9 3 0 4 , a n d C . D a m o n , “ S ex. C lo e liu s, s c rib a ” , H S C P 9 4 (1 9 9 2 ) 2 2 7 - 2 5 0 (b u t sh e is c e rta in ly m ista k e n w h e n sh e sta te s [p. 2 3 2 ] th a t th e s e n a tu s c o n s u ltu m o f 6 4 b a n n e d n o t o n ly th e c o lle g ia b u t a lso th e m a g is tr i v ic o r u m ). P p . 175 ff. = 104 ff.: th e c o lle g ia c o m p ita lic ia c o n tin u e to c a u s e v e x a tio n . S e e a b o v e a ll J .-M . F la m b a rd , “ C o lle g ia C o m p ita lic ia : p h é n o m è n e a s s o c ia tif, c a d re s te rrito ria u x e t c a d re s c iv iq u e s d a n s le m o n d e ro m a in à l ’é p o q u e ré p u b lic a in e ” , K te m a 6 (1 9 8 1 ) 1 4 3 -1 6 6 , esp . 1 5 1 -1 5 4 . A n e ru d ite a n d s p irite d p ie c e , b u t o n a n u m b e r o f p o in ts I m u s t d is a g re e w ith it. W e s h o u ld n o t a m a lg a m a te th e m a g is tr i v ic o r u m w ith th e m a g is tr i o f th e v a ri o u s c u ltic a sso c ia tio n s o rg a n iz e d v ic a tim \ fro m th e p a s s a g e o f C ic e ro , P is .
8:
“ C u m q u id a m tr. p i. s u o a u x ilio m a g is tr o s lu d o s c o n tr a S .C . fa c e re
iu s s it” , it is h a rd ly p o s s ib le to a rg u e (p . 1 5 3 ) th a t th e m a g is t r i v ic o r u m “n ’a v a ie n t p lu s d ’e x iste n c e lé g a le d e p u is 6 4 ” (cf., a lso to ta lly u n fo u n d e d , L. C ra c c o R u g g in i, “ L e a s s o c ia z io n i p r o f e s s io n a li n e l m o n d o ro m a n o b iz a n tin o ” , in: S e ttim a n e d i S tu d io d e l C e n tr o I ta lia n o d e l l ’A lto M e d io e v o 18 [S p o le to 1971] 7 3 : th e S .C . o f 6 4 a b o lish e d th e m a g is tr i vico ru m )', in th e S .C . o f 5 6 th e e x p re s s io n s o d a li t a te s d e c u r ia tiq u e is h a rd ly “r e d o n ta n te ”
(p. 164).
C f. a lso F la m b a rd , M E F R A 8 9 (1 9 7 7 ) 1 3 3 -1 4 4 .
O n th e d is c u s
s io n o f th e c o lle g ia c o m p ita lic ia b y A . M a stro c in q u e , L u c io G iu n to B ru to . R i c e r c h e d i s to r i a , r e li g io n e e d i r i t t o d e ll a r e p u b b li c a r o m a n a (T r e n to 1 9 8 8 ) 5 9 - 6 5 , se e J. L in d e rsk i, A J P 112 (1 9 9 1 ) 4 0 8 . S e e a lso th e in fo rm e d a n d th o u g h tf u l o b s e r v a tio n s b y A . F r a s c h e tti, R o m a e il P r i n c ip e (B a ri 1 9 9 0 ) 2 0 4 - 2 7 3 . W ith re s p e c t to th e m a g is tr i v ic o r u m h e o b se rv e s (n o n sin e ra tio n e !): “L e a b b o n d a n tis s im e d isc u ssio n i, c u i essi h a n n o d a to lu o g o n e lla s to rio g ra fia m o d e rn a (d a M o m m s e n a C o h n , d a W a ltz in g a D e R o b e rtis , d a L in d e rs k i a F la m b a rd ), so n o in v e rs a m e n te p ro p o rz io n a li ai m a te ria li a n tic h i d is c u s s i” (p. 2 4 2 ). B u t h is id e a th a t “ i lu d i ai C o m p ita lia n o n e ra n o o rg a n iz z a ti p a rtita m e n te d a g ru p p i d i ‘m a g is tri v ic o r u m ’, m a d a u n g ru p p o di m a g is tr i c h e e ra n o ta li in q u a n to e d ito ri di lu d i e c h e a g iv a n o o g n i a n n o
d a n d o s p e tta c o li n e i v a ri c o m p ita ” w h ile in g e n io u s is n o t p a rtic u la rly a ttra c tiv e. W e h a v e to c o n c lu d e : a n e w stu d y , a n d a d e ta ile d p o le m ic , is c a lle d fo r. P p . 179 = 1 0 8 , 189 = 118: T h e m a in w e a k n e ss o f m o s t stu d ie s d e a lin g w ith th e v ic i, c o lle g ia a n d m a g is tr i c o n tin u e s to b e th e ir fa ilu re e ith e r to p a y a tte n tio n a t a ll to th e te rm in o lo g y o r to d is tin g u is h c le a rly b e tw e e n th e m a g is tr i c o lle g io r u m (as th e m a g is tr i o f th e p ro fe s s io n a l c o lle g ia ) a n d th e c o ll e g ia m a g is tr o r u m (as th e s o -c a lle d m a g is tr i C a m p a n i o r th e m a g is tr i
a n d m a g is tr a e fro m M in tu rn a e ).
I e m p h a tic a lly d is a g re e w ith F la m b a rd ’s
s ta te m e n t th a t “ E n a u c u n c a s le s m a g is t r i n e c o n s ti tu a i e n t à a u x s e u ls
647
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l ’in té g ra lité d u c o llè g e ” (“ O b se rv a tio n s s u r la n a tu re d e s m a g is tr i Ita lie n s d e D é lo s ” , in: D e i o e l ’I ta lia = O p u s c u la I n s titu ti R o m a n i F in la n d ia e 2 [1 9 8 2 ] 6 7 - 7 7 a t 7 1 ). B u t see h is a tte m p t a t a d istin c tio n , “ L es c o llè g e s e t le s élite s lo c a le s à la é p o q u e r é p u b lic a in e d ’a p rè s l ’e x a m p le d e C a p o u e ” , in : L e s “b o u r g e o i s i e s ” m u n ic ip a le s ita lie n n e s a u x IIe e t Ier s iè c le s a v. J .C . (P a ris-
N a p le s 1 9 8 3 ) 7 5 - 8 9 , esp . 83. O n th e d e n o m in a tio n s o f th e D e lia n m a g is tr i, s e e a ls o P . P o c c e tti, “ R o m a n i e I ta lic i a D e io . S p u n ti lin g u is tic i d a u n a p u b b lic a z io n e re c e n te ” , A th e n a e u m 6 2 [= 72] (1 9 8 4 ) 6 4 6 - 6 5 6 a t 6 4 9 - 6 5 0 . I v e ry m u c h d o u b t th a t th e m a g is tr i C a p ito lin i w e re sla v e tra d e rs, as a rg u e d b y F . C o a re lli, “ M a g is t r i C a p ito lin i e m e rc a n ti d i s c h ia v i” , I n d e x 15 (1 9 8 7 ) 1 7 5 -1 8 7 . P p . 1 8 0 -1 8 2 = 1 0 9 -1 1 1 (a n d n n . 5 2 - 5 6 ) : f o r th e la s t th o u g h ts o f Μ . F re d e rik s e n o n th e su b je c t o f th e m a g is tr i C a m p a n i, see h is b o o k (p o s th u m o u s ly e d ite d b y N . P u rc e ll) C a m p a n ia (R o m e 1984) 2 6 5 (a n d n n . 7 - 1 4 ) : M o m m s e n w a s rig h t: th e y fo rm e d th e c o lle g ia o f c u r a to r e s f a n o r u m .
So
a lso B . C o m b e t-F a m o u x , M e r c u r e r e m a in (R o m e 1 980) 4 1 2 - 4 1 9 . H . S o lin , “ R e p u b lic a n C a p u a ” , in: H . S o lin a n d M . K a ja v a (e d s.), R o m a n E a s te r n P o l i c y a n d O th e r S tu d ie s in R o m a n H is to r y (= C o m m e n ta
tio n e s H u m a n a ru m L itte ra r u m 91 [H e ls in k i 1 9 9 0 ]) 1 5 1 - 1 6 2 , w rite s th a t M o m m s e n ’s v ie w o f th e m a g is tr i C a m p a n i “ e x p la in s m a n y fe a tu re s o f th e se re c o rd s v e ry w e ll” (p. 155), b u t a t th e sa m e tim e e x p re sse s a d ire c tly c o n tra d ic to ry v ie w (p. 156): “ I a m in n o d o u b t th a t th e C a p u a n m a g is tri w e re at th e h e a d o f th e c o lle g ia ... T h e n a tu re o f th e se c o lle g ia is n o t e a s y to d e te r m in e , b u t i f th e n u m b e r o f th e ir m a g is tr i a lo n e a m o u n ts to tw e lv e , th e to ta l s iz e o f a c o lle g iu m m u s t h a v e b e e n c o n s id e ra b le ” . T h u s a g a in fa ta l re fu s a l to d r a w
a d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n m a g is tr i c o lle g io r u m
an d c o lle g ia
m a g is tr o r u m .
16 C IC E R O S R E D E P R O C A E L IO U N D D IE A M B IT U S - U N D V E R E IN S G E S E T Z G E B U N G D E R A U S G E H E N D E N R E P U B L IK
(1961) P p . 2 0 8 = 110 (a n d n. 3 ); 2 0 9 = 111 (a n d n. 1), a n d p a ssim : F .M . D e R o b e rtis h a s re s ta te d h is v ie w s o n th e s e n a tu s c o n s u ltu m o f F e b ru a ry 5 6 a n d th e l e x L i c i n i a in h is n e w c o m p r e h e n s i v e m o n o g r a p h S t o r i a d e l l e c o r p o r a z i o n i e d e l r e g im e a s s o c i a t i v o n e l m o n d o r o m a n o 1 (B a ri 1 9 7 1 )
1 1 6 -1 4 6 , esp . 120, n. 2 1 ; 122, n. 2 5 ; 130, n. 1 (in d ire c t p o le m ic a g a in s t th e in te rp re ta tio n p re s e n te d in m y a rtic le ; cf. a lso m y m o n o g ra p h , K o le g ia 6 6 80 ). H e o ffe rs n o n e w arg u m e n ts.
Addenda and Corrigenda
T h e m a in th e sis o f th e a rtic le (o n th e n a tu re o f th e s e n a tu s c o n s u ltu m o f F e b ru a ry 5 6 “ u t so d a lita te s d e c u ria tiq u e d is c e d e re n t” , a n d its re la tio n to th e le x L ic in ia d e s o d a lic iis ) h a s b e e n a c c e p te d (in te r alio s a lia sq u e ) b y L .R . T a y lo r, “ M a g is tra te s o f 55 B .C . in C ic e ro ’s P r o P la n c io a n d C a tu llu s 5 2 ” , A th e n a e u m N .S . 4 2 (1 9 6 4 ) 12, n. 2; E . G ru e n , L G R R 2 2 9 - 2 3 0 , 2 3 3 ; A.
W a rd , M a r c u s C r a s s u s a n d th e L a te R e p u b lic (C o lu m b ia , M O , 1 977) 2 7 0 2 7 1 ; F .M . A u s b ü tte l, U n te r s u c h u n g e n z u d e n V e r e in e n im W e s te n d e s r ö m is c h e n R e ic h e s (K a llm ü n z 1 9 8 2 ) 9 1 - 9 2 (b u t h e d o e s n o t d iffe re n tia te
s u ffic ie n tly b e tw e e n th e p o s itio n ta k e n in th is a rtic le a n d th e p o sitio n o f D e R o b e rtis ); a n d b y D .R . S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C Q F -M B 178.
H e c a u tio u s ly
a n d ju d ic io u s ly o b se rv e s: “B u t th e su b je c t p re s u m a b ly re m a in s c o n tro v e r s ia l” . Q u ite so, b u t p r o d o m o m e a I w o u ld w ish to a d d th a t th e a rg u m e n t p re s e n te d in th e a rtic le is m u c h s im p le r a n d o p e ra te s w ith fe w e r a s s u m p tio n s th a n th o s e o f o th e r sc h o la rs.
I sh o u ld a lso w ish to say th a t d e s p ite
(p a rtia l) d is a g re e m e n t I a m fu ll o f a d m ira tio n fo r th e e ru d ite w o rk s o f D e R o b e rtis.
T h is s e n tim e n t a lso a p p lie s to th e su b tle a rtic le b y C . V e n tu rin i,
“ L ’o r a z io n e P ro C n . P la n c io e la le x L ic in ia d e s o d a lic iis ” , in: S tu d i in o n o r e d i C e s a r e S a n f ìlip p o 5 (M ila n o 1 984) 7 8 9 - 8 0 4 , w h o o n th e w h o le
e n d o rs e s th e p o sitio n o f D e R o b e rtis (se e esp . p. 8 0 2 ). S ee a lso A d d e n d a to N o s 9 a n d 31. P p. 2 0 4 -2 0 6 = 1 0 6 -1 0 8 :
D e R o b e r tis , 1 2 2 , n. 2 2 , s ta te s th a t th e
c r im in a s o d a liu m a c s e q u e s tr iu m w e re n o t c rim e s a t a ll b e c a u s e C ic e ro
“ e s p re s s a m e n te lo n e g a ” w h e n h e sa y s th a t “ a d u lte r, im p u d ic u s , s e q u e s te r c o n v itiu m est, n o n a c c u sa tio ” . T h is m isre a d s th e a rg u m e n t o f th e a rtic le , a n d o f C ic e ro . I a rg u e d th a t at th e tim e o f C a e liu s ’ tria l th e o n ly le g a l fo u n d a tio n f o r th e c r im in a s o d a l i u m a n d s e q u e s t r iu m c o u ld h a v e b e e n th e s e n a tu s c o n s u ltu m o f F e b ru a ry 5 6 “ u t so d a lita te s d e c u ria tiq u e d is c e d e re n t” .
T h e s e c r im in a b e c a m e te c h n ic a lly a c tio n a b le o n ly a fte r th e ir in c o rp o ra tio n in to th e p ro v isio n s o f th e le x L ic in ia o f 55. S till th is a c c u sa tio n w a s p o te n tia lly d a m a g in g to C a e liu s, a n d C ic e ro d e ftly p ro c e e d e d to w e a k e n it b y j u x ta p o s in g th e se c r im in a w ith tra n s g re s s io n s th a t w e re d is re p u ta b le b u t n o t p u n is h e d b y sta tu to ry la w . A sim ila r m isre a d in g a lso in th e o th e rw is e e x c e lle n t a rtic le b y C .J. C la sse n , “ C ic e ro s R e d e P ro C a e lio ” , A N R W l 3 (1 9 7 3 ) 6 3 - 6 4 , n. 16. P p. 2 0 8 - 2 1 0 = 1 1 0 -1 1 2 : A u sb ü tte l, 92, e x p re sse s d o u b t w h e th e r th e W a h lv e r e in e p ro h ib ite d b y th e le x L ic in ia w e re id e n tic a l w ith th e “q u a ttu o r
s o d a lita te s h o m in u m a d a m b itio n e m g r a tio s is s im o ru m ” m e n tio n e d in th e C o m m e n ta r io lu m p e ti ti o n i s as “ K o m e m a n n u n d L in d e rsk i m e in e n ” .
A nd
h e c o m m e n ts: “M a n d a r f e h e r m it D a v id v e rn e in e n , d a ss C ic e ro s B ru d e r in s e in e r S c h r if t a u f s o lc h e u n la u te r e n u n d g e s e tz w i d r ig e n W a h l k a m p f m e th o d e n h in g e w ie s e n h a b e n d ü rfte ” . B u t in fa c t b o th m y s e lf a n d J.-M . D a v id ( in : J .- M . D a v id , S. D e m o u g i n , E . D e n ia u x , D . F e r e y , J .- M .
649
Addenda and Corrigenda
F la m b a rt, C . N ic o le t, “ L e ‘C o m m e n ta rio lu m P e titio n is ’ d e Q u in tu s C ic é ro n . E ta t d e la q u e s tio n et é tu d e p ro s o p o g ra p h iq u e ” , A N R W I 3 [1 9 7 3 ] 2 7 6 - 2 7 7 ) d is tin g u is h (a n d d is tin g u is h in d e p e n d e n tly fo r D a v id d id n o t u tiliz e th e a r tic le h e r e r e p r o d u c e d ) b e tw e e n th e s o d a l i t a t e s in th e C o m m e n ta r io lu m p e titi o n i s a n d in th e L ic in ia n law .
D a v id , 2 7 7 , w rite s: “il fa u t c o m p re n d re
q u e le s s o d a li t a te s d u ‘C o m m e n ta rio lu m ’ so n t e n c o re d e v ra ie s s o d a lita te s au s e n s tra d itio n n e l d u te rm e (cf. # 1 6 ), m a is d é jà to u c h é e s p a r u n e p ra tiq u e q u i c o m m e n c e s e u le m e n t à le s fa ire é v o lu e r” . C f. a lso in a s im ila r se n se ( b u t w i t h o u t a n y r e f e r e n c e to p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s ) R . M a r t i n i , “ N u g a e c o m itia le s , II.
‘A m ic i’ di c a n d id a ti e c o rru z io n e e le tto ra le in R o m a a n tic a ” ,
in: S c r ìtti p e r M a r io d e lle P ia n e (N a p o li 1 986) 1 -4 . P . 2 1 2 = 114: S. T re g g ia ri, “A n e w C o llin a ” , H is to r ia 19 (1 9 7 0 ) 1 2 1 1 2 2 , w o n d e rs (p. 121): “ c a n ‘C o llin a m n o v a m ’ r e f e r to in flu e n c e in ru ra l tr i b e s w ie l d e d b y f r e e d m e n c h ie f ly r e s id e n t in th e c i t y ? ” .
F la m b a r d ,
M E F R A 8 9 ( 1 9 7 7 ) 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 , n. 1 3 0 , le a n s to w a r d th e in t e r p r e ta tio n o f
T re g g ia ri; L o p o s z k o , A c ta C la s s . U n iv. D e b r e c . 21 (1 9 8 5 ) 6 7 , n. 2 8 , a c c e p ts th e e m e n d a tio n n o v o d ile c tu (fo r fu ll title s o f th e se a rtic le s, see A d d e n d a to N o 15).
P e rh a p s , a fte r all, th e m o s t lik e ly is th e id e a o f L .R . T a y lo r, T h e
V o tin g D i s tr i c ts o f th e R o m a n R e p u b lic (R o m e 1 960) 145, n. 5 0 : “ C lo d iu s,
w h o a lre a d y h a d a b a n d o f fo llo w e rs fro m th e C o llin a , ra is e d a n e w b a n d fro m th e sa m e trib e ” . P. 2 1 4 = 116, n. 4:
D e R o b e rtis, 130, n. 1 w rite s: “ In a m m is ib ile è il
d u b io a v a n z a to d a l L i n d e r s k i ... c irc a la p o s s ib ilità d i c o n fu s io n e n e lle fo n ti tr a la le x L ic in ia e la le x L ic in ia Iu n ia .
T r a tta s i in f a tti d i f o n ti il c u i
te c n ic is m o d e v e fa rc i e s c lu d e re in v ia d i m a ss im a la p o s s ib ilità d i e rro ri e c o n f u s i o n i , a lm e n o p e r q u e l c h e r i g u a r d a q u e l le c o n t e m p o r a n e e a g li a v v e n im e n ti rife riti” . T h e so u rc e in q u e stio n is n o t a c o n te m p o ra ry a u th o r b u t th e S c h o lia B o b ie n s ia , a s c rip t la te a n d o fte n in a c c u ra te . T h e c o n fu s io n o f th e S c h o lia s t is b la ta n t; it c a n n o t b e c o n ju re d aw ay . P . 2 1 5 = 117, n. 4: V e n tu rin i, 7 9 3 - 7 9 7 , a c u te ly p o in ts o u t th a t th e te x t o f th e S ch . B o b . re fe rs to th e p ro h ib itio n o f th e c o itio b e tw e e n th e c a n d id a te s.
17 S U E T O N S B E R IC H T Ü B E R D IE V E R E IN S G E S E T Z G E B U N G U N TE R C A ESA R UND A U G U STU S
(1962) O n th e le x I u lia , see n o w F .M . D e R o b e rtis, S to r ia d e lle c o r p o r a z io n i e d e l r e g im e a s s o c ia tiv o n e l m o n d o r o m a n o 1 (B a ri 1971) 1 9 3 -2 3 7 .
P p . 2 2 0 - 2 2 2 = 3 2 5 -3 2 7 : D e R o b e rtis, 2 0 6 , n. 2 7 , d e fe n d s h is in te rp re ta tio n o f th e te rm s c o lle g ia n o v a a n d c o lle g ia a n tiq u a .
R e v ie w in g o u r re -
650
A d d e n d a an d C orrig en d a
s p e c tiv e a rg u m e n ts I a m in c lin e d to th in k th a t o u r p o s itio n s a re in fa c t m u c h c lo s e r th a n e ith e r o f u s w as p re p a re d to a d m it. F o r a n e x c e lle n t o v e rv ie w , la rg e ly a c c e p tin g th e re su lts a c h ie v e d in th e a rtic le s h e re re p rin te d (N o s 1 5 -1 7 ), see Z . Y a v e tz , J u liu s C a e s a r a n d h is P u b lic I m a g e (L o n d o n [also Ith a c a ] 1983) 8 5 -9 6 .
18 C IC E R O A N D S A L L U S T O N V A R G U N T E IU S
(1963) E .A . B a u e rle , P r o c u r in g a n E le c tio n : A m b itu s in th e R o m a n R e p u b lic (D iss. M ic h ig a n [A n n A rb o r] 1990) 141; C . M a c D o n a ld in h is n o te to C ic. C a t. 1.9 (in L o e b C la ss. L ib ra ry , C ic e ro , v o i. 10 [1 9 7 7 ] 4 2 - 4 3 ) ; a n d F .X .
R y a n , “T h e Q u a e s to rs h ip s o f Q . C u riu s a n d C . C o rn e liu s C e th e g u s ” , C P 89 ( 1 9 9 4 ) 2 5 6 - 2 6 1 , a t 2 5 6 , a c c e p t 6 6 as th e d a te o f V a r g u n te i u s ’ tr ia l d e a m b itu a n d a s s u m e th a t h e w as c o n v ic te d ; so a lso R . S y m e , S a llu s t (B e rk e
le y 1 9 6 4 ) 8 8 , n. 2 3 . D a v id , P J 1 6 3 (7 6 5 , n. 19), d a te s th e tria l “v e rs 6 6 ” . B a u e r l e , M a c D o n a l d , a n d R y a n a g r e e t h a t a f t e r h is c o n v i c t i o n V a rg u n te iu s c o u ld h a v e b e c o m e te c h n ic a lly an e q u e s (cf. P. M c G u sh in , C. S a llu s tiu s C r is p u s , B e llu m C a tilin a e . A C o m m e n ta r y [L e id e n 1977] 172).'
O n th e o th e r h a n d C . N ic o le t, V o r d r e é q u e s tr e à l ’é p o q u e r é p u b lic a in e 2: P r o s o p o g r a p h ie d e s c h e v a lie r s r o m a in s {B E F A R 2 0 7 , P a ris 1 974) 1 0 6 0 -
1 0 6 1 , c o n te sts th e id e a th a t V a rg u n te iu s a fte r h is c o n v ic tio n (w h ic h h e r e g a rd s as u n c e rta in ) sh o u ld h a v e “re d e v e n u c h e v a lie r” (C f. A le x a n d e r, T r ia ls 2 0 2 ). V a rg u n te iu s c e rta in ly w a s n o t a d m itte d (o r re -a d m itte d ) to th e e q u e s tria n c e n tu rie s, b u t i f h e p o s se ss e d th e e q u e stria n c e n su s h e c o u ld h a v e e a s ily b e e n re g a rd e d as e q u e s , in an y c a s e in th e se n se o f th e le x R o s c ia o f 6 7 , as a p e rs o n w h o h a d th e rig h t to sit in th e X IV o r d in e s . M o s t sc h o la rs a g re e th a t S a llu st w as rig h t in n a m in g C . C o rn e liu s a n d V a rg u n te iu s as w o u ld -b e a ssa ssin s o f C ic e ro (cf. B ro u g h to n , M R R 3 .2 1 5 ; B a u e rle , A m b itu s 1 4 1 -1 4 2 ), b u t R .P . R o b in s o n in a n a rtic le w h ic h I h a d u n fo rtu n a te ly o m itte d to a d d u c e (“D u o E q u ite s R o m a n i” , C W 4 0 [1 9 4 7 ] 1 3 8 143) a rg u e d (o n th e b a sis o f an e m e n d a tio n o f P lu t. C ic e r o 16.1) th a t th e o th e r e q u e s w a s (M .) C a e p a riu s. In g e n io u s b u t n o t lik e ly (N ic o le t d o e s n o t re c o rd R o b in s o n ’s c o n je c tu re a n d d o es n o t list C a e p a riu s as a k n ig h t). C e r ta in ly , it is n o t im p o ssib le th a t e ith e r S a llu st g o t a w ro n g n a m e o r C ic e ro w as c a re le ss in w ritin g d u o e q u ite s , b u t I su b m it it is m o re e le g a n t to r e c o n c ile C ic e ro a n d S a llu st th a n to a c c u se th e m o f e rro r. P. 2 2 5 = 5 1 2 , n. 10: S a llu s t’s re fe re n c e is to P. S u lla S er. f., a n d n o t to P . S u lla , c o s . d e s . 6 5 ; s e e L .E . R e a m s , “ T h e S tr a n g e C a s e o f S u l l a ’s B ro th e r” , C J 8 2 .4 (1 9 8 7 ) 3 0 1 , n. 2.
651
A d d e n d a and C orrig en d a
19
THE SURNAMES AND THE ALLEGED AFFINITY OF M. CAELIUS RUFUS (1968) P . 2 2 6 = 146 (a n d nn. 2, 3): o d d ly e n o u g h th e re is n o d is c u s s io n o f th e n a m e o f th e c o n s u l o f 17 in O . S a lo m ie s, A d o p tiv e a n d P o ly o n y m o u s N o m e n c la tu r e in th e R o m a n E m p ir e ( H e ls in k i 1 9 9 2 ).
P . 2 2 8 = 148: o n th e h o m e to w n o f C a e liu s, cf. M . V o lp o n i, M . C e lio R u fo ‘‘in g e n io s e n e q u a m ” (= M e m o rie d e ll’1st. L o m b a rd o . C l. d i L e tte re
X X X I, fa se . 3 [M ila n o 1 9 7 1 ]) 2 0 1 - 2 0 3 . S h e a c c e p ts In te ra m n ia . S o a lso D .V . M a d s e n , T h e L ife a n d P o l it ic a l C a r e e r o f M a r c u s C a e liu s R u fu s (D iss. U n iv . o f W a s h in g to n , S e a ttle , 1981) 1 7 -2 0 , a n d g e n e ra lly all m o re re c e n t lite ra tu re , e.g . T .P . W ise m a n , N e w M e n in th e R o m a n S e n a te 1 3 9 B .C .- 1 4 A .D . (O x fo rd 1 9 71) 2 1 8 ; Id e m , C a tu llu s a n d H is W o r ld (C a m b rid g e 1985)
6 2 ; M .H . D e tte n h o ffe r, P e r d it a iu v e n tu s. Z w is c h e n d e n G e n e r a tio n e n v o n C a e s a r u n d A u g u s tu s (M ü n c h e n 1 992) 80.
P. 2 2 9 = 149 (a n d n. 14): R . S y m e , T h e A u g u s ta n A r is to c r a c y (O x fo rd 1 9 8 6 ) 87 a n d W ise m a n , N e w M e n 2 1 8 (n o 7 7 ) c o n tin u e to a d h e re to th e ir d iv e rg e n t id e n tific a tio n s. I ta k e th is o p p o rtu n ity to c o rre c t m isp rin ts a n d in fe lic itie s. R e a d : P . 2 2 7 = 147, lin e 9: “ V e lle iu s ’ ” ; lin e 11: o m it “it” . P. 2 2 7 = 147, n. 5, lin e 2: “ re p u ls iv e ” . P . 2 2 9 = 149, lin e 8 : o m it “ o u t” ; lin e 16: “ a e d ile ” . P. 2 2 9 = 149, n. 14, lin e 3: “ C Q ” . P. 2 3 0 = 150, lin e 10: o m it “it” .
20 THE AEDILESHIP OF FAVONIUS, CURIO THE YOUNGER AND CICERO’S ELECTION TO THE AUGURATE (1972) J. G e ig e r, “ M . F a v o n iu s: T h re e N o te s ” , R iv is ta S to r ic a d e l l ’A n tic h ità 4 ( 1 9 7 4 ) 1 6 1 - 1 7 0 , d i s c u s s e s w ith g r e a t a c u m e n th e d a t e o f F a v o n i u s ’ a e d ile s h ip (p p . 1 6 1 -1 6 4 ); h e o p ts fo r 53. H e re m a rk s th a t e v e n a fte r th e p a p e r h e re r e p r in te d c a m e to h is a tte n tio n h e d id n o t s e e a n y r e a s o n to c h a n g e h is v ie w s (“ A d d itio n a l N o te ” , p. 170). T h e fa c t re m a in s th a t th e re d o e s n o t e x is t a n y d ire c t te stim o n y fo r th e d a te o f F a v o n iu s ’ a e d ile sh ip , a n d e v e n i f 53 m ig h t lo o k m o re e n tic in g , 5 2 c a n n o t b e e x c lu d e d .
B ro u g h to n ,
M R R 3 .9 0 -9 1 , rig h tly sta te s th a t th e d a te “ m a y b e e ith e r 5 3 o r 5 2 ” (b u t, I
m a y a d d , h e m is s e d G e ig e r’s d e fe n s e o f 5 3 ). A g a in s t G e ig e r, see n o w , c o n v in c in g ly , F .X . R y a n , “T h e Q u a e sto rsh ip o f F a v o n iu s a n d th e T rib u n a te o f
652
A d d e n d a an d C o rrig en d a
M e te llu s S c ip io ” , A th e n a e u m 8 2 (1 9 9 4 ) 5 0 5 - 5 2 1 at 5 1 6 - 5 1 7 , η. 7 8 . a lso S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C Q F -M B 198.
C f.
In h is a rtic le “ N o te s o n C ic e r o ’s
P h ilip p ic s ” , P h ilo lo g u s 126 (1 9 8 2 ) 2 1 9 , S h a c k le to n B a ile y p o in ts o u t th a t o n e a rg u m e n t in fa v o r o f th e tra d itio n a l d a te (5 3 ) is “ C ic e ro ’s im p lie d s ta te m e n t th a t C u rio w a s o u t o f Ita ly d u rin g th e p e rio d o f A n to n y ’s c a n d id a tu re ” , a n d “u n le s s C u rio lin g e re d fo r m o n th s o n th e w a y , h e w o u ld b e in R o m e a g a in b y th e a u tu m n ” . In c o n c lu siv e . P p . 2 4 1 - 2 4 2 = 1 9 1 -1 9 2 : cf. S h a c k le to n B a ile y , 2 3 3 - 2 3 4 . P. 2 4 6 = 196: th e tr iu m v ir c a p ita lis re m a in s a th o rn in th e fle s h o f riv a l in te rp re ta tio n s . A . W . L in to tt, “ C ic e ro a n d M ilo ” , J R S 6 4 (1 9 7 4 ) 7 2 , n. 16, o b je c ts to th e c h ro n o lo g ic a l re c o n s tru c tio n h e re p re s e n te d , b u t see a g a in s t L in to tt th e re m a rk s b y M a rs h a ll, A s c o n iu s 182.
A ls o J.S . R u e b e l,
“T h e T ria l o f M ilo in 5 2 B .C .: A C h ro n o lo g ic a l S tu d y ” , Τ Α Ρ Α 109 (1 9 7 9 ) 2 4 2 , to t a ll y d is r e g a r d s th e c h r o n o lo g i c a l im p lic a tio n s o f th e t r i u m v i r c a p ita lis .
21 THE QUAESTORSHIP OF MARCUS ANTONIUS (1974) P . 251 = 2 1 3 , n. 2 (a n d p a s s im ): w e s h o u ld n o t h a v e m is s e d S h a c k le to n B a ile y ’s r e tra c tio n o f h is “ c o r r e c tio n ” (as h e d e s c rib e s it) o f B ro u g h to n (C L A 7 .9 6 ). H e p o in ts o u t th a t F a m . 2 .1 8 (w h ic h w e a lso o m it te d to a d d u c e ) “re fe rs to L . (n o t C .) A n to n iu s as Q u a e s to r in 5 0 a n d im p lie s th a t h is tw o e ld e r b ro th e rs h a d h e ld th e o ffic e s u c c e s s iv e ly in th e tw o p re v i o u s y e a rs ” . B u t in 1977 in h is c o m m e n t o n F a m . 2 .1 8 ( C E F 1 .4 5 5 ) h e d e c la re d h im s e lf p e rs u a d e d b y o u r a rg u m e n t, a n d o b s e rv e d th a t “T h e a p p a re n t d is c re p a n c y b e tw e e n th e ir c o n c lu sio n a n d th is p a s s a g e ... m a y b e g o t o v e r o n th e s u p p o sitio n th a t, as th e y a rg u e , M a rc u s h a d o rig in a lly in te n d e d to h o ld th e o ffic e in 5 2 ” — b u t a c tu a lly h e ld it in 5 1 , a n d h e ld it s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith h is y o u n g e r b ro th e r. “N o rm a lly M a rc u s w o u ld h a v e p re c e d e d G a iu s , b u t in fa c t d id n o t” . I a m th a n k fu l to S B fo r th is d e liv e ra n c e . T h e d a t i n g o f A n t o n i u s ’ q u a e s t o r s h i p to 51 h a s n o w b e e n a c c e p t e d b y B ro u g h to n , M R R 3 .1 9 - 2 0 . It is g ra tify in g to se e th a t J. M a litz , A m b itio M a la : S tu d ie n z u r p o litis c h e n B io g r a p h ie d e s S a llu s t (B o n n 1 9 7 5 ) 1 1 3 -1 1 4 ,
a n d W .K . L a c e y , “ A n to n y ’s q u a e s to rs h ip : th e e v id e n c e o f C ic e ro , P h il. 2 .4 8 - 5 0 ” , L C M 10.6 (1 9 8 5 ) 82, a lso a rriv e d at 51 as th e d a te o f A n to n iu s ’ q u a e s to rs h ip , a n d a rriv e d in d e p e n d e n tly , a n d w ith s im ila r a rg u m e n ts.
C f.
a lso M .H . D e tte n h o ffe r, P e r d ita iu v en tu s. Z w is c h e n d e n G e n e r a tio n e n v o n C a e s a r u n d A u g u s tu s (M ü n c h e n 1 992) 6 6 - 6 8 .
653
A d d e n d a and C orrig en d a
22 THE MOTHER OF LIVIA AUGUSTA AND THE AUFIDII LURCONES OF THE REPUBLIC (1974) O n L u rc o , see n o w B ro u g h to n , M R R 3 .2 9 . Pp. 2 6 9 -2 7 0 = 4 7 0 -4 7 1 :
E .A . B a u e r l e , P r o c u r i n g a n E l e c ti o n :
A m b itu s in th e R o m a n R e p u b lic (D iss. M ic h ig a n [A n n A rb o r] 1 9 9 0 ) 7 3 ,
n. 9 2 , p o in ts o u t th a t th e b ill o f L u rc o “ m a y h a v e b e e n m o re b ro a d ly d e sig n e d to c u rry fa v o r a m o n g th e e le c to ra te , ra th e r th a n m e re ly to h in d e r o r e x c lu d e P o m p e y a n d h is a ss o c ia te s ” . P . 2 6 9 = 4 7 0 , n. 31: o n th e b ill o f L u rc o a n d th e te x t o f C ic e ro , A d A tt. 1 .1 6 .1 3 , s e e E . B a d ia n , “ A n U n r e c o g n iz e d D a te in C i c e r o ’s T e x t ” , in: M N E M A I. C l a s s ic a l S tu d ie s in M e m o r y o f K a r l H. H u lle y (C h ic o 1 984) 9 7 -
101. H e d e fe n d s th e p a ra d o s is q u i m a g is tr a tu m cu m le g e a lia in iit. P. 2 7 0 = 4 7 1 , n. 38: th e stu d y o f th e le g e s A e lia a n d F u fia p ro m is e d in th is n o te still re m a in s in m a n u sc rip t. A .E . A stin , “ L e g e s A e lia a n d F u fia ” , L a to m u s 23 (1 9 6 4 ) 4 3 8 , η. 2; A .K . M ic h e ls , T h e C a le n d a r o f th e R o m a n R e p u b lic (P rin c e to n 1 9 6 7 ) 9 5 , n. 7; a n d E . B a d ia n , “ T h e D e a th o f
S a tu rn in u s ” , C h ir o n 14 (1 9 8 4 ) 1 1 5 -1 1 7 (a n d n. 3 5 ), rig h tly p o in t o u t th a t th e le g e s A e lia a n d F u fia p ro h ib ite d o n ly le g is la tio n b u t n o t p ro m u lg a tio n in th e p e rio d b e tw e e n th e a n n o u n c e m e n t a n d th e h o ld in g o f th e e le c tio n s, b u t n o n e o f th e s e s c h o la rs o b s e rv e d th a t th is ru le p e rta in e d o n ly to m e a su re s c o n c e rn in g e le c to ra l la w (w h ic h , in fa c t, fits B a d ia n ’s c a s e v e ry w e ll). T h e o b je c tio n o f B .L . T w y m a n , “T h e D a y E q u itiu s d ie d ” , A th e n a e u m N .S . 67 [= 7 7 ] (1 9 8 9 ) 5 0 8 , is m isg u id e d : it d e p e n d s u p o n a m isre a d in g o f M ic h e ls. P p . 2 7 2 ff. = 4 7 3 ff.: A . L ic o rd a ri, in: E p ig r a fia e o r d in e s e n a to r io Π (= T itu li 5 [R o m e 1 9 8 2 ]) 2 7 - 2 8 a m a lg a m a te s M . A lfid iu s a n d A u fid iu s L u rc o , a n d p o in ts to th e “ a lte rn a n z a d e lle fo rm e A lfid iu s e A u fid iu s n e lle is c riz io n i lo c a li” . F o r th is p h e n o m e n o n h e re fe rs to G . P e siri, “ Is c riz io n i di F o n d i e d e l c irc o n d a rio ” , E p ig r a p h ic a 4 0 (1 9 7 8 ) 173. T h e fa c t is th a t b o th n o m in a a re a tte ste d in F u n d i, a n d in o th e r p la c e s; w h e th e r th e y w e re in te r
c h a n g e a b le w e d o n o t k n o w . M . T o re lli, T itu li 5, 1 9 0 -1 9 1 , b e lie v e s th a t th e p a s s a g e o f S u e to n iu s (C a l. 2 3 ) “é c h ia ra m e n te u n g io c o iro n ic o d i C a lig o la ste sso ... b a s a to su O ra z io ” . H e a ttrib u te s A lfid ia to M a rru v iu m .
C o n tra ,
see C . L e tta , I b id . 198: th e h o m e -to w n o f A lfid ia w a s F u n d i. O n th e A lfid ii, cf. a lso P. S im e lo n , “A . A lfid iu s d ’A tin a e t so n h é ritie r O lu ssa : u n n o u v e l in te rp ré ta tio n d e R IB , 9 ” , L a to m u s 4 7 (1 9 8 8 ) 8 6 3 -8 6 7 , esp . 8 6 4 -8 6 5 .
654
A d d e n d a an d C o rrig en d a
23 T W O Q U A E S T O R S H IP S (1 9 7 5 ) O n th e se q u a e sto rsh ip s, cf. B ro u g h to n , M R R 3 .5 1 -5 2 . P . 2 8 2 = 3 7 , n. 21: see N o 21.
24 R E V IE W O F : M A G N U S W IS T R A N D , C IC E R O IM P E R A T O R . S T U D I E S I N C I C E R O ’S C O R R E S P O N D E N C E 5 1 - 4 7 B .C .
(1 9 8 1 ) P . 2 8 4 = 7 8 2 (a n d n. 2):
o n th e le x P o m p e ia d e p r o v in c iis , se e n o w
(w ith fu rth e r lite ra tu re ) th e so lid stu d y b y K . M . G ira rd e t, “ D ie le x Iu lia d e p ro v in c iis . V o rg e s c h ic h te - In h a lt - W irk u n g e n ” , R h M 130 (1 9 8 7 ) 2 9 1 - 3 2 9 at 2 9 3 - 3 0 7 , esp . 2 9 8 -2 9 9 : h e a rg u e s th a t th e le x P o m p e ia c o n c e rn e d o n ly th e p ra e to rs; in 51 C ic e ro a n d B ib u lu s re c e iv e d th e ir p ro v in c ia l c o m m a n d s o n th e b a s is o f a s e n a tu s c o n s u ltu m , a n d th e im p e r iu m c o n s u la r e w a s b e sto w e d u p o n th e m e x tr a o r d in e m “d u rc h e in e le x ( tribu to. / c e n tu r ia ta ) d e im p e r io " . U n fo rtu n a te ly G ira rd e t o ffe rs n o d is c u s s io n o f th e le x c u r ia ta .
25 R E V IE W O F : T H O M A S N . M IT C H E L L , C IC E R O , T H E A S C E N D IN G Y E A R S (1 979) P . 2 8 8 = 2 7 6 : it is p e rh a p s to o m u c h to e x p e c t to p u t to re s t th e sp e c tre o f d e m o c ra c y h a u n tin g R o m e , b u t I e n list th e h e lp o f th a t e x p e rt m o n ste rs la y e r, E rn s t B a d ia n : “ fro m T i. G ra c c h u s d o w n to C a e s a r ’s c o n q u e s t o f R o m e , n o t a sin g le p o litic ia n , to o u r k n o w le d g e , m a d e a sin g le p ro p o sa l to in t r o d u c e w h a t e i th e r w e o r th e G r e e k s w o u ld c a ll d e m o c r a c y ” ( “ T h e Y o u n g B e tti a n d th e P ra c tic e o f H is to ry ” , in: G . C rifò [ed .], C o s titu z io n e R o m a n a e c r is i d e lla r e p u b b lic a . A t t i d e l c o n v e g n o su E m ilio B e tti [N a p o li
1 986] 8 9 -9 0 ). F o r a n e a rlie r p e rio d , cf. A . L in to tt, “ D e m o c ra c y in th e M id d le R e p u b lic ” , Z R G 104 (1 9 8 7 ) 34—5 2 . H e a rg u e s th a t in so m e re s p e c ts “th e R o m a n c o n s titu tio n in th e m id d le R e p u b lic w a s lik e th e m o re m o d e ra te fo rm s o f d e m o c ra c y a p p ro v e d b y A ris to tle ” (p. 5 0 ). H e se e m s to u n d e re s tim a te th e fa c t th a t R o m a n a sse m b lie s d id n o t p o s se ss le g is la tiv e in itia tiv e . J. N o rth , “ P o litic s a n d A ris to c ra c y in th e R o m a n R e p u b lic ” , C P 85 (1 9 9 0 ) 2 7 7 - 2 8 7 ,
655
A d d e n d a an d C o r r ig e n d a
is r ig h t w h e n h e sa y s (p . 2 8 4 ) th a t i f R o m e w e re a G re e k c ity A r is to tle “ w o u ld h a v e c e rta in ly c a lle d it s o m e k in d o f o lig a rc h y , p e rh a p s re c o g n iz in g a n e le m e n t o f d e m o c ra c y , u s e fu l to m a in ta in in g th e s ta b ility o f th e o lig a r c h ic re g im e ” .
26
DE VILLA APPIO PULCHRO FALSO ATTRIBUTA (1981) C f. n o w W .J. T a tu m , “ T h e P o v e r ty o f A p p ii P u lc h ri: V a rro , D e R e R u s tic a 3 .1 6 .1 - 2 ” , C Q 4 2 ( 1 9 9 2 ) 198, n. 3. E rra ta . R e a d : P . 2 9 0 = 2 7 3 , lin e 15: “in h o rtis ” ; lin e 18 “ trib u li” .
27 P A T IE N T IA F R E G IT :
M. OCTAVIUS AND TL GRACCHUS (CICERO, B R U T U S 95) (1982) P . 2 9 2 = 2 4 5 : D .F . E p ste in , “In im ic itia b e tw e e n M . O c ta v iu s a n d T i. G ra c c h u s , trib u n i p le b is ” , H e r m e s 111 (1 9 8 3 ) 2 9 6 - 3 0 0 , rig h tly re je c ts th e n o tio n o f in h e rite d e n m ity b e tw e e n O c ta v iu s a n d T ib e riu s , b u t a t th e sa m e tim e ta k e s th e p h ra s e f r e g i t Ti. G r a c c h u m p a tie n tia as re fe rrin g to “ to th e s te a d y o p p o s itio n , as m a n if e s te d b y a lm o s t d a ily s p e e c h e s , w ith w h ic h O c ta v iu s f o u g h t th e la n d b ill” (p. 2 9 9 ).
T h is is q u ite a rb itra ry a n d d is re
g a rd s to ta lly th e C ic e ro n ia n d e fin itio n o f p a tie n tia .
N o r is th e C ic e ro n ia n
d e fin itio n ta k e n in to a c c o u n t b y E . B a d ia n , “T h e S ile n c e o f N o rb a n u s ” , A J P 10 4 (1 9 8 3 ) 162 (a n d n. 2 5 ).
“T h e p e rs is te n c e o f M . O c ta v iu s in h is v e to ”
w a s n o t a n e x e rc is e in p a t i e n t i a , a t le a s t a s p a t ie n t ia w a s u n d e rs to o d b y C ic e r o .
P . B o tt e r i, L e s f r a g m e n t s d e V h is t o ir e d e s G r a c q u e s d a n s la
‘B ib l io t h è q u e ' d e D i o d o r e d e S ic ile (G e n è v e 1992) 5 6 - 5 7 , a p tly a d d u c e s th e p a s s a g e o f D io d o ru s (3 4 /3 5 .7 .1 ) th a t a fte r h is d e p o s itio n O c ta v iu s ε μ ε ν ε κ α τ ά τ η ν ι δ ί α ν ο ικ ία ν ή σ υ χ ά ζ ω ν , a n d c o m m e n ts th a t a t C ic e ro , B r u tu s 9 5 , “ la p a t ie n t ia é v o q u e d ’u n e c e rta in fa g o n Γ ή σ υ χ ία ” . P. 2 9 4 = 2 4 7 , n. 12: f o r th e c o n c e p t o f c o n s ta n tia , see th e b ib lio g ra p h y in B ib lio g r a p h ie z u r la te in is c h e n W o r tfo r sc h u n g 4 (B e rn 1992) 2 6 7 - 2 7 1 , esp . T J . M o o re , A r tis tr y a n d I d e o lo g y : L i v y ’s V o c a b u la r y o f V irtu e (= B e iträ g e z u r k la s s is c h e n P h ilo lo g ie 192 [F ra n k fu rt a. M . 1 9 8 9 ]) 6 3 - 6 7 ,1 5 2 . E rra ta . R e a d : P . 2 9 3 = 2 4 6 , lin e 8 : “ d u c e B a d ia n ” (th is e rro r u n fo rtu n a te ly a ffe c te d B a d ia n ’s c o m m e n t in h is a rtic le a d d u c e d a b o v e ).
A d d e n d a an d C o rrig en d a
28 T H E A E D IL E S A N D T H E D I D A S C A L I E
(1987) P . 2 9 8 = 8 6 , η. 13: f o r a lte rn a tio n in th e c u ru le a e d ile s h ip o f p a irs o f p a tric ia n a n d p le b e ia n a e d ile s , c f. T .C . B r e n n a n , “ S u l l a ’s C a r e e r in th e N in e tie s : S o m e R e c o n s id e ra tio n s ” , C h iro n 2 2 (1 9 9 2 ) 135, a n d n. 9 6 : “ it is e n tire ly p o s s ib le ” th a t th e s y ste m o f a lte rn a tio n “ w a s still in e ffe c t ca. 1 0 0 ” . F .X . R y a n , “T e n Ill-S ta rre d A e d ile s ” , fo rth c o m in g , a rg u e s th a t th e a lte rn a tio n “ w a s n o lo n g e r re q u ire d b y th e tim e o f th e e le c tio n s in 104” . E rra ta . R e a d : P . 2 9 6 = 84, lin e 2 5 : “ s tre n g th e n s ” .
29 R O M A N O F F IC E R S IN T H E Y E A R O F P Y D N A
(1990) Pp. 3 0 1 -3 0 2 = 5 3 -5 4 :
s e e a ls o B . S c h le u s s n e r , D i e L e g a t e n d e r
r ö m i s c h e n R e p u b l i k . ‘D e c e m l e g a t i ’ u n d d i e s t ä n d i g e n H i l f s g e s a n d t e
(M ü n c h e n 1978) esp . 1 0 1 -2 1 1 , w h o , h o w e v e r, fa lls in th e tra p o f th e a n n a l is tic te rm in o lo g y a n d fa ils to d is tin g u is h th e se n a to ria l le g a te s le c ti p u b lic e fro m th e o ffic e rs a p p o in te d f o r a sp e c ific ta s k b y th e g e n e ra l, w h o n e e d n o t h a v e b e e n s e n a to rs. N o r d o e s B .E . T h o m a s so n , L e g a tu s (S to c k h o lm 1991) 9 - 1 3 , p a y a tte n tio n to th is fu n d a m e n ta l d istin c tio n . F o r th e c o n s u la r p r o v in c e s in 1 6 8 , c f. th e e x c e lle n t a r ti c le b y W . B in g h a m , “T h e A s s ig n m e n t o f th e C o n s u la r P r o v in c ia e in 168 B .C .” , S tu d ie s in L a tin L ite r a tu r e a n d R o m a n H is to r y 4 (1 9 8 6 ) 1 8 4 -2 0 9 .
30 T H E D E A T H O F P O N T IA
(1990) P . 3 2 2 = 8 8 , n. 7 : e a rlie r e d itio n s o f V a le riu s b y T h y s iu s (i.e. A n to n iu s T h y s , c a 1 6 0 3 -1 6 6 5 ) a p p e a re d in 1651, 1655 a n d 1660. P . 3 2 3 = 8 9 , n. 12: th e a rtic le o f V o lte rra h a s n o w b e e n re p rin te d in : E . V o lte rra , S c r itti g iu r id i c i 2 (N a p o li 1 9 9 1 ) 1 2 7 -1 7 7 . P . 3 2 4 = 9 0 , η. 14:
cf. a lso S u e t. C la u d . 2 6 .2 : “ Q u a m (i.e . M e s s a
lin a m ) c u m c o m p e r is s e t s u p e r c a e te ra fla g itia a tq u e d e d e c o ra C . S ilio e tia m n u p s is s e ... su p p lic io a d fe c it” . P . 3 2 4 = 9 0 , n. 16: o n n e c o , cf. A d d e n d a to N o 4 5 a, b . O n s tra n g u la tio n as th e n o rm a l m o d e o f e x e c u tio n in th e c a r e e r , a n d th e n o rm a l m o d e o f
657
A d d e n d a an d C o rrig en d a
e x e c u tio n o f w o m e n , see J.-M . D a v id , “D u c o m itiu m à la ro c h e T a rp é ie n n e . S u r c e r ta in s r itu e ls d ’e x é c u tio n c a p ita le so u s la R é p u b liq u e , le s r é g n e s d ’A u g u s te e t d e T ib è re ” , in: D u c h à tim e n t d a n s la c ité . S u p p lic e s c o r p o r e is e t p e in e d e m o r i d a n s le m o n d e a n tiq u e (R o m e 1 984) 143, n. 5 8 ; Y . T h o
m a s , “ V ita e n e c is q u e p o t e s t a s . L e p é re , la c ité , la m o ri” , I b id . 5 4 1 - 5 4 4 . P . 3 2 4 = 9 0 , n. 17: H a rris (a d d u c e d in n. 7 ) 8 7 , in fe rs fro m th e te rm p r o d ita m
t h a t V a l e r i u s M a x im u s r e g a r d e d P o n t i a a s i n n o c e n t .
The
p a e d a g o g u s w o u ld h a v e sim p ly d e liv e re d h e r to S a tu rn in u s, a n d h e r fa th e r
e x e c u te d h e r n o t b e c a u s e sh e w a s g u ilty , b u t b e c a u se sh e w a s p o llu te d . N o t im p o s s ib le ; b u t w e h a v e to re m e m b e r th a t th e p a e d a g o g u s w a s e x p e c te d to p ro te c t th e c a s ti ta s o f h is c h a rg e a lso fro m th e g ir l’s o r b o y ’s o w n te m e r ity — a n d th u s e v e n i f h e o n ly fa c ilita te d th e m e e tin g s b e tw e e n P o n tia a n d S a tu rn in u s h e c e rta in ly w o u ld h a v e b e e n d e e m e d to h a v e “b e tra y e d ” h e r v ir g in ity .
T h e j u r i s t s a s s u m e th a t illic it p a s s io n s ta rts e a rly : U lp ia n ( D ig .
4 8 .5 .1 4 .8 ) s e rio u sly d isc u sse s th e c a s e “ si m in o r d u o d e c im a n n o s in d o m u m d e d u c ta a d u lte riu m c o m m is e rit” .
31 T W O S P E E C H E S O F Q . H O R T E N S IU S . A C O N T R IB U T IO N T O T H E C O R P U S O R A T O R U M O F T H E R O M A N R E P U B L IC (1 9 6 1 ) P. 3 2 8 = 1: o n th e d a te o f P la n c iu s ’ a e d ile sh ip (ra th e r 5 5 , a n d n o t 54 ), cf. B ro u g h to n , M R R 3 .1 5 8 . P. 3 2 8 = 1, n. 6 : cf. n o w H . M a lc o v a ti, O R F 4 (1 9 7 6 ), A d d e n d a A , p. 538. P . 3 3 0 = 3, n. 12 (a n d p a ssim ): th e id e a th a t th e d e c re e o f th e se n a te “u t s o d a lita te s d e c u ria tiq u e d is c e d e re n t” (C ic. Q . f r . 2 .3 .5 ) w a s p ro p o s e d b y H o rte n s iu s h a s b e e n a c c e p te d b y G ru e n , L G R R 2 2 9 , 2 3 3 ; a n d (m o re c a u tio u s ly ) b y S h a c k le to n B a ile y , C Q F -M B 178.
G ru e n a lso a d m its th e c o n
n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e s e n a tu s c o n s u ltu m a n d th e L ic in ia n L a w ( 2 2 9 - 2 3 0 , n. 83): “ th e re c a n b e little d o u b t th a t th e le x L ic in ia g re w o u t o f th e s .c . o f F e b ru a ry , 5 6 ” . S e e a lso h is re m a rk s in “M . L ic in iu s C ra ssu s. A R e v ie w A r tic le ” , A J A H 2 (1 9 7 7 [1 9 7 9 ]) 1 2 6 -1 2 7 (a n d n. 4 1 ). C f. a lso P. G rim a l, “L a le x L i c i n i a d e s o d a l i c i i s ” , in : C i c e r o n i a n a . H o m m a g e s à K a z i m i e r z K u m a n i e c k i ( L e i d e n 1 9 7 5 ) 1 0 7 - 1 1 5 ; J .- C . R ic h a r d , “ P r a e t o r c o l l e g a
c o n s u lis e s t Π: L a le x L ic in ia d e s o d a lic iis e t l ’e x il d e M . V a le riu s M e s sa la R u fu s ” , M E F R A 9 5 (1 9 8 3 ) 6 5 1 - 6 6 4 at 6 5 4 - 6 5 7 , a n d see A d d e n d a to N o s 9 a n d 16. O n th e o th e r h a n d G ru e n w rite s (L G R R 3 2 0 , n. 4 3 ): “T h a t H o rte n siu s a lso s p o k e f o r P la n c iu s is a n u n w a rra n te d s u p p o sitio n .
H is s p e e c h c o n -
658
A d d e n d a an d C o rrig en d a
c e m e d o n ly th e te c h n ic a litie s o f th e le x L ic in ia d e s o d a lic iis , f o r h e h ad u rg e d a s im ila r m e a su re in 5 6 ” . A n d fu rth e r: “ I f H o rte n s iu s h a d a c tu a lly d e fe n d e d P la n c iu s , C ic e ro w o u ld h a v e m a d e m o re o f th a t fa c t th a n a sin g le b r ie f a llu s io n ” . T h e la s t p o in t is n o t v a lid : w e k n o w th a t H o r te n s iu s d e f e n d e d L . L ic in iu s M u re n a in 6 3 , b u t C ic e ro ’s sp e e c h P r o M u r e n a c o n ta in s o n ly tw o b r ie f a llu s io n s to th a t c irc u m sta n c e . A t 10 w e h a v e a p a s s in g re fe re n c e to H o rte n s iu s : “ e te n im si m e tu a fa m ilia rita s a b h a c c a u s a re m o v is s e t e t si ho c id e m Q . H o rte n sio , M . C ra s s o c la ris sim is v iris ... a c c i d i s s e t T h e o th e r p a s s a g e (4 8 ) b e a rs a s trik in g re s e m b la n c e to P r o P la n c io 37: “A tq u e ex o m n ib u s illa p la g a e s t in ie c ta p e titio n i tu a e n o n ta c e n te m e m a x im a , d e q u a a b h o m in e in g e n io s is sim o e t c o p io siss im o < Q .> H o rte n s io m u lta g ra v is s im e d ic ta su n t. Q u o e tia m m ih i d u rio r lo c u s e s t d ic e n d i d a tu s u t, c u m a n te m e e t ille d ix is s e t e t v ir s u m m a d ig n ita te e t d ilig e n tia e t fa c u lta te d ic e n d i M . C ra s s u s, e g o in e x tre m o n o n p a rte m a liq u a m a g e re m c a u sa e , se d d e to ta re d ic e re m q u o d m ih i v id e re tu r.” H o rte n siu s th u s c o n c e n tra te d in h is sp e e c h o n o n ly a p a r s c a u s a e , a n d as fo llo w s fro m 4 7 , h e d e a lt w ith th e te c h n ic a li tie s o f th e a m b itu s le g isla tio n , a n d in p a rtic u la r w ith th e se n a to ria l d e b a te s o n th a t s u b je c t a n d w ith S u lp ic iu s ’ p ro p o sa ls o f a to u g h e r a n ti-b rib e ry la w . H e c le a rly p la y e d th e sa m e ro le at th e tria l o f P la n c iu s. T h e r e r e m a in s th e in t e r p r e ta tio n o f th e p h r a s e ( P r o P l a n c i o 3 7 ): “ h u iu s c e re i (i.e. o f th e iu d ic e s e d it ic i i ) o b s c u ra c a u s a e s t ... e t d is p u ta ta h e s te rn o d ie a Q . H o rte n s io ” . N o w G ru e n a) a d m its H o rte n s iu s ’ s p o n s o r s h ip o f th e s e n a tu s c o n s u ltu m o f F e b ru a ry 5 6 (to th is c irc u m s ta n c e w ill re fe r P r o P la n c io 37: “ c u i tu m e s t se n a tu s a d s e n s u s ” ), b u t b ) d e n ie s a n y d ire c t
in v o lv e m e n t o f H o rte n s iu s in th e tria l o f P la n c iu s .
In th a t c o n fig u ra tio n
c) th e o n ly v e n u e fo r H o rte n s iu s ’ d is p u ta tio n h e s te m o d ie c o u ld h a v e b e e n a g a in th e se n a te (a lth o u g h G ru e n d o e s n o t sta te th is e x p lic itly ). T h is w o u ld m e a n th a t a d a y b e fo re C ic e ro ’s sp e e c h H o rte n siu s h a d d is c u s s e d th e te c h n i c a litie s o f th e le x L ic in ia in th e sen ate , a n d th a t C ic e ro re fe rs h is a u d ie n c e , a n d th e ju r y , to th is sp e e c h .
B u t i f H o rte n s iu s h a d s p o k e n in th e s e n a te
C ic e ro ’s re fe re n c e to h is d is p u ta tio w o u ld n o t h a v e m a d e m u c h se n s e in th e c o n te x t o f a ju ry -tria l: a t le a s t tw o -th ird s o f th e ju r o r s w h o w e re n o t th e m e m b e rs o f th e se n a te , th e e q u ite s a n d th e tr ib u n i a e r a r ii, w o u ld n o t h a v e h e a rd th e o ra tio n o f H o rte n siu s, an d c o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n d ire c tly in flu e n c e d b y it, e v e n i f H o rte n siu s sp o k e c o p io s is s im e .
T h is c o n s id e ra tio n c lin c h e s
th e a rg u m e n t: H o rte n siu s sp o k e in th e d e fe n se o f P la n c iu s , a n d h e d e liv e re d h is sp e e c h n o t in th e se n a te b u t b e fo re th e ju ry . A le x a n d e r, T r ia ls 1 4 2 -1 4 3 , a n d D a v id , P J 7 6 3 (a n d 7 6 5 , n. 2 9 ) a c c e p t H o r te n s iu s as a d v o c a tu s o f P la n c iu s. O n th e m e n tio n o f th e iu d ic e s e d it ic i i a t P r o P la n c io 4 1 , se e J.-L . F e rra ry , “ R e c h e rc h e s su r la le g is la tio n d e S a tu rn in u s e t d e G la u c ia II: L a lo i
659
A d d e n d a an d C o rrig en d a
d e iu d ic iis re p e tu n d a ru m , d e C . S e rv iliu s G la u c ia ” , M E F R A 91 (1 9 7 9 ) 8 5 134 a t 1 2 4 -1 2 7 .
32
VERGIL AND DIONYSIUS (1993) P p . 3 3 6 , 341 = 4, 8 (a n d n. 20): o n D io n y siu s, V e rg il, a n d th e A b o rig i n es, se e n o w th e n e w stu d ie s b y D . B riq u e l, L e s T y r r h e n e s p e u p l e d e s to u r s (R o m e 1 9 9 3 ) 1 2 5 -1 4 0 ; “ V irg ile e t le s A b o rig è n e s ” , R E L 7 0 (1 9 9 2 [1 9 9 3 ]) 6 9 -9 1 .
I h a v e u n fo rtu n a te ly m iss e d th e in te re s tin g a rtic le b y N . G o lv e rs,
“T h e L a tin N a m e A b o r ig in e s . S o m e H is to rio g ra p h ic a l a n d L in g u is tic O b s e rv a tio n s ” , A n c . S o c . 2 0 (1 9 8 9 ) 1 9 3 -2 0 7 . P p . 3 3 6 , 3 4 3 = 4, 10: o n L a tin u s a n d M e z e n tiu s, see a lso A . G ra n d a z z i, “L e ro i L a tin u s , a n a ly se d ’u n e fig u re lé g e n d a ire ” , C R A I (1 9 8 8 ) 4 8 1 - 4 9 5 ; D . B riq u e l, “A p ro p o s d ’u n e in s c rip tio n re d é c o u v e rte a u L o u v re : re m a rq u e s s u r la tra d itio n re la tiv e à M é z e n c e ” , R E L 6 7 (1 9 8 9 [1 9 9 0 ]) 7 8 - 9 2 . P . 3 4 0 = 7 , n. 16: cf. a lso C .J. C a ste r, P r o s o p o g r a p h y o f R o m a n E p i c u r e a n s f r o m th e S e c o n d C e n tu r y B .C . to th e S e c o n d C e n tu r y A .D . (F ra n k
fu rt a.M . 1 9 8 8 ) 6 4 -6 7 .
33
TWO
CRUCES
IN SENECA, D E (1982)
V IT A B E A T A
25.2
P . 3 4 5 = 9 0 (a n d n. 2): o n th e M a c e d o n ia n c a u s ia , a n d its o rig in , se e n o w th e le a r n e d a r ti c le b y B . K in g s le y , “ A l e x a n d e r ’s K a u s i a a n d th e M a c e d o n ia n T ra d itio n ” , C la s s . A n t. 10 (1 9 9 1 ) 5 9 - 7 6 .
34 AES OLET:
PETRONIUS 50.7 AND MARTIAL 9.59.11 (1992) T h e P e tr o n ia n S o c i e t y N e w s l e t t e r 2 2 (1 9 9 2 ) 4 , re p o rts a n o te b y S.
W a lk e r, “ R o m e : C ity a n d E m p ire ” , B r itis h M u s e u m M a g a z in e 6 (1 9 9 1 ) 3, in w h ic h r e f e r r in g to o u r p a s s a g e o f P e tro n iu s sh e w rite s : “ In th e e a rly E m p ire it b e c a m e p o s s ib le to d rin k f o r th e f irs t tim e fro m c u p s m a d e o f b lo w n g la ss , w h ic h im p a rte d n o ta s te to d rin k ” . T h is m is s e s th e g is t o f P e tro n iu s ’ jo k e .
660
A d d e n d a an d C o rrig en d a
S tu d ie s o n C o rin th ia n b ro n z e c o n tin u e a p p e a rin g : D .M . J a c o b so n , M .P . W e itz m a n , “W h a t w a s C o rin th ia n B ro n z e ? ” , A J A 9 6 (1 9 9 2 ) 2 3 7 - 2 4 8 . T h e y re m a rk o n th e p a s s a g e s o f P e tro n iu s a n d M a rtia l (p. 2 3 8 ): “ th e se re fe re n c e s n e e d n o t b e ta k e n se rio u sly . M e ta ls n o rm a lly d o n o t h a v e in trin s ic s m e ll” . A .R . G iu m lia -M u ir, P .T . C ra d d o c k , C o r in th iu m A e s : d a s s c h w a r z e G o l d d e r A lc h im is te n (M a in z 1 992) [n o n v id i].
35
ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE TRADITION OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY (1964) P . 3 5 8 = 4 3 6 : fo r fu rth e r tra c e s o f th e m a p o f A g rip p a , see th e in g e n io u s a rtic le b y T .P . W is e m a n , “ J u liu s C a e s a r a n d th e H e r e f o r d W o rld M a p ” , H i s t o r y T o d a y 3 7 (1 9 7 6 ) 5 3 - 5 7 .
O n th e w h o le q u e s tio n o f th e
s o u rc e s o f th e O ld E n g lis h O ro siu s, see th e e x c e lle n t p a p e r b y J.M . B a te ly , “T h e R e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n g e o g ra p h ic a l in fo rm a tio n in th e O ld E n g lis h O r o s iu s a n d L a tin T e x ts o th e r th a n O r o s iu s ” , A n g lo - S a x o n E n g la n d 1 (1 9 7 2 ) 4 5 - 5 7 , esp . 4 6 , 53 (o n D a c ia a n d V istu la ), 5 3 - 5 4 (o n th e w a s te la n d b e tw e e n C a re n ta n ia a n d B u lg a ria ; sh e p re fe rs to c o n n e c t it w ith th e A v a rs). K in g A lf r e d ’s g e o o g ra p h y w a s a lso tre a te d , ra th e r d is a p p o in tin g ly , b y O . P rits a k in h is stra n g e v o lu m e , T h e O r ig in o f R u s ’. V o i. O n e: O ld S c a n d in a v ia n S o u r c e s o th e r th a n th e S a g a s (C a m b rid g e , M A , 1 981), 6 8 3 - 7 0 3 , 8 0 2 -
806.
H e re p ro d u c e s , b u t d o es n o t d isc u ss, th e p a s s a g e c o n c e rn in g V is tu la
a n d D a c ia (p p . 6 8 7 -6 8 8 ). P p . 3 5 7 - 3 5 8 = 4 3 5 -4 3 6 : o n V is tu la as th e w e s te rn b o rd e r o f D a c ia , see a lso C . N ic o le t, S p a c e , G e o g r a p h y a n d P o litic s in th e E a r ly R o m a n E m p ir e (A n n A rb o r 1 9 9 1 ) 109.
A n in s p irin g a n d e ru d ite b o o k ; still h e d o e s n o t
m e n tio n A lfre d .
36
NOTES ON C IL I2 364 (1958) T h e s o lu tio n h e re p r o p o s e d (re c o rd e d in A E p . 1 9 6 0 , p . 7 4 , a fte r no 2 7 3 ) w a s r e a c h e d i n d e p e n d e n tl y , a n d o n s im i la r g r o u n d s , a ls o b y A . D e g ra s si, IL L R P (F ire n z e 1957) 1.1 92 (pp. 1 2 8 -1 2 9 ), a n d w a s a c c e p te d b y G . G ia c o m e lli, L a lin g u a F a lis c a (F ire n z e 1963) 264—265 (n o X IV ), w h o
661
A d d e n d a and C o rrig en d a
a d d u c e s b o th c o n trib u tio n s. S h e w rite s th a t th is s o lu tio n h a d b e e n fo re s h a d o w e d b y F . B u e c h e le r in C L E 1.2 (1 8 9 5 ), p p . 2 - 3 , a n d b y E . B o rm a n n in C IL X I 3 0 7 8 (1 8 8 8 ) = 7 4 8 3 (1 9 2 6 ), b u t B u e c h e le r h a s n o w o rd o n th a t m a t
te r, a n d th u s p re s u m a b ly fo llo w e d th e re c e iv e d o p in io n , w h e re a s B o rm a n n q u ite e x p lic itly id e n tif ie s th e c o ll e g iu m o f c o o k s w ith th e F a lis c a n s in S a rd in ia .
A s D e g ra s s i n o te s , it w a s R . G a rru c c i, S y l lo g e I n s c r ip tio n u m
L a tin a r u m 2 .5 5 7 -5 5 8 (A u g u sta e T a u rin o ru m 1877), p p . 1 6 8 -1 7 1 , w h o h a d
b e lie v e d th a t th e tw o in s c rip tio n s w e re e n g ra v e d s e p a ra te ly , in s c rip tio n b m u c h o ld e r th a n in s c rip tio n a . D e g ra s si h im s e lf o n th e o th e r h a n d b e lie v e s th a t th e m e tric in s c rip tio n ( b ) w a s c o m p o s e d first, b u t as it w a s m a rre d b y v a rio u s e rro rs “ la m e lla ia m u n a e x p a rte in s c rip ta a d a liu m titu lu m in a lte ra p a rte a b e o d e m sc a lp to re e x a ra n d u m a d h ib e re tu r” . T h e m o s t d e ta ile d s tu d y o f th e m o n u m e n t is n o w E . P e r u z z i, “ L a la m in a d e i c u o c h i F a lis c h i” , A t t i e M e m o r ie d e l l ’A c c a d e m ia T o s c a n a d i S c ie n z e e L e tte r e “L a C o l o m b a r i a ” , 31 (1 9 6 6 ) 1 1 3 -1 6 2 . H e to o a ssig n s the
tw o in s c rip tio n s to tw o d iffe re n t c o rp o ra tio n s, th e F a lisc a n s s o jo u rn in g in S a rd in ia , a n d th e c o lle g iu m o f c o o k s re sid in g in F a le rii N o v i. F o llo w in g in th e fo o ts te p s o f a p e rc e p tiv e e p ig ra p h ic a l stu d y o f a n a n o n y m o u s s c h o la r in L a c iv iltà c a tto lic a 11 (1 8 9 4 ) 2 2 1 - 2 2 4 (as P e ru z z i n o te s, u n til 1933 a rtic le s
in th a t jo u r n a l w e re p u b lish e d a n o n y m o u sly , b u t th e a rtic le in q u e s tio n w as w ritte n b y M in a si), P e ru z z i (w h o c o n d u c te d th e a u to p sy o f th e d o c u m e n t) o b s e rv e s (p p . 1 1 9 -1 2 4 , 157) th a t th e la y o u t o f in s c rip tio n a fits p e rfe c tly th e d im e n s io n s o f th e p la te , w h e re a s o n th e o th e r h a n d in in s c rip tio n b, as th e A n o n y m u s p u t it, “le le tte re d e ll’u ltim o v e rs o ... u te i etc., so n o q u a s i tu tte s e g a te ” . H e c o n c lu d e s th a t in s c rip tio n b w as e n g ra v e d first, a n d th e p la te (w h ic h w as p re s u m a b ly c u t a t th e b o tto m ) w a s th e n u tiliz e d to a c c o m o d a te in s c rip tio n a . N o t a n u n lik e ly se q u e n c e , b u t n o t e v e ry b o d y w ill a g re e th a t th e a rg u m e n t o f th e A n o n y m u s a n d P e ru z z i o ffe rs d e fin ite p ro o f. D e g ra s s i d a te s b o th in sc rip tio n s to th e e n d o f th e th ird c e n tu ry , P e ru z z i (p p . 1 6 0 -1 6 2 ) to th e G ra c c h a n p e rio d . H e is in c lin e d to c o n n e c t th e in s c rip tio n o f “F a le s c e q u e i in S a rd in ia s u n t” w ith C . G ra c c h u s ’ p ro g ra m o f c o lo n iz a tio n : “N u lla e s c lu d e la d e d u z io n e d i u n a c o lo n ia in S a rd e g n a c o n la p a rte z ip a z io n e d i fa lis c h i” . B u t q u ite a p p ro p ria te ly h e a d d s a s o m b e r c a v e a t: “ M a u n a s im ile ip o te s i h a b is o g n o d i p ro v e c h e a n c o ra n o n v e d o ” (p. 162). T h e d a te in th e se c o n d p a rt o f th e se c o n d c e n tu ry se e m s n o w to b e e s ta b l is h e d as th e c o m m u n is o p in io : se e R .W . W ä c h te r , A l t l a t e i n i s c h e I n sc h r ifte n (B e rn 1 987) 4 4 1 —4 4 6 ; B . V in e , S tu d ie s in A r c h a ic L a tin I n s c r ip tio n s (In n s b ru c k 1 993) 2 0 9 (w ith fu rth e r lite ra tu re ).
W ä c h te r 4 4 3 , w ith a
v e ry in v o lv e d e x p la n a tio n , c o n tin u e s to id e n tify th e c o o k s a n d th e F a le sc e . O n th e S a tu rn ia n v e rse , see B . L u ise lli, II v e r s o s a tu r n io (R o m e 1967), esp . 3 2 9 - 3 3 0 ; T . C o le, “T h e S a tu rn ia n V e rs e ” , Y C S 21 (1 9 6 9 ) 3 - 7 3 .
662
A d d e n d a an d C o rrig en d a
T h e e p ith e t “ in p e ra to rib u s s u m m e is ” P e ru z z i (p p . 124—127) re fe rs to Iu p p ite r, Iu n o a n d M in e rv a : b o th d e d ic a tio n s w e re in te n d e d to b e d isp la y e d in th e s a m e te m p le in F a le rii in w h ic h th e c u lt o f J u n o w a s a p p a re n tly c o m b in e d w ith th e c u lt o f J u p ite r a n d M in e rv a ; th e fe m a le d e itie s w e re p ro b a b ly re p re s e n te d as “ d iv in ità in a sp e tto g u e rrie ro ” . O n M in e rv a Im p e ra to r in a la te in s c r ip tio n fro m L u c u s F e ro n ia e , se e J .-L . G ira rd , “ M in e r v a C a p ta : e n tre R o m e e t F a le rie s ” , R E L 67 (1 9 8 9 [1 9 9 0 ]) 1 6 3 -1 6 9 a t 168. H e in g e n io u s ly c o n n e c ts th e sp e llin g s g o n le g iu m , V o lg a n i, g o n d e c o r a n t (in th e m e t ric in s c rip tio n ) w ith th e in tro d u c tio n o f th e le tte r G b y th e fre e d m a n S p. C a rv iliu s , th e m a g is te r o f th e first lu d u s litte r a r iu s in R o m e , a n d th e p o s s ib le p a tro n a g e o f th e g e n s C a r v ilia o v e r F a le rii (pp. 1 6 8 -1 6 9 ). P e ru z z i a rg u e s (p p . 1 2 7 -1 2 8 ) th a t v e n te r F a lis c u s w a s m o d e s t fa re , a n d h e n c e it is a n e x a g g e ra tio n to s p e a k o f F a le rii as a c e n te r o f c u lin a ry art. F o r th e tra d itio n a l v ie w , see th e c o n v in c in g re m a rk s b y J. C o lla ri, V a rro n , D e lin g u a L a tin a , liv r e V (P aris 1 954) 216.
O n c o o k s in G re e c e a n d in Ita ly , see n o w : H . D o h m , M a g e ir o s . D ie R o lle d e s K o c h s in d e r g r ie c h is c h -r ö m is c h e n K o m ö d ie (M ü n c h e n 1964); G .
B e rth ia u m e , L e s r ö le s d u m à g e ir o s . É tu d e s s u r la b o u c h e r ie , la c u is in e e t le s a c r if ic e d a n s la G r è c e a n c ie n n e (L e id e n 1982); a n d a b o v e a ll th e e x c e lle n t
stu d y b y J.C .B . L o w e , “ C o o k s in P la u tu s ” , C la s s . A n t. 4 (1 9 8 5 ) 7 2 - 1 0 3 . D o h m a n d B e rth ia u m e d o n o t a d d u c e o u r in sc rip tio n , e v e n b y w a y o f illu s tra tio n a n d c o m p a ris o n ; o n th e o th e r h a n d L o w e o b s e rv e s th a t n o rm a lly R o m a n c o o k s w e re sla v e s o r fre e d m e n , a n d p o in ts o u t th a t C .G . H a rc u m , R o m a n C o o k s (B a ltim o re 1 914) 6 7 - 6 8 “c ite s as th e o n ly e v id e n c e o f fre e
b o rn c o o k s th e m u c h -d is c u ss e d d e d ic a tio n o f th e F a lisc a n c o o k s ” , b u t, h e c o n tin u e s , “ th is d e p e n d s o n th e p ro b a b ly fa lse a s s u m p tio n th a t th e c o o k s are to b e id e n tifie d w ith th e F a lisc a n s in S a rd in ia ” (p. 83, n. 75 ). A f te r th e e d itio n o f L o m m a ts c h , fu ll b ib lio g r a p h ic a l re fe r e n c e s a re p ro v id e d b y G ia c o m e lli (see a b o v e ); I. D i S te fa n o M a n z e lla in S u p p le m e n ta I ta lic a 1 (1 9 8 1 ), p. 124 (ad C IL X I 7 4 8 3 ); I. K ru m m re y in C IL I 2 (v o i. 1,
p a rs p o s te rio r, fase. 4 , a d d e n d a te rtia [1 9 8 6 ]), p. 877 (o n I 2 3 6 4 ). N e w p h o to g ra p h s a re to b e fo u n d a p p e n d e d to th e a rtic le b y P e ru z z i, an d , a b o v e all, in A . D e g ra s si I n s c r ip tio n e s L a tin a e L ib e r a e R e i P u b lic a e . I m a g in e s ( C IL A u c ta r iu m [1 9 6 5 ]) 93 a . b . (p. 61).
O n th e h is to ry o f F a le rii N o v i, see n o w I. D i S te fa n o M a n z e lla , “ L o stato g iu rid ic o d i F a le rii N o v i d a lla fo n d a z io n e al III se c o lo d. C .” , in: L a C iv iltà d e i F a l i s c i (= A tti d e l X V C o n v e g n o d i S tu d i E tru s c h i e d Ita lic i
[F ire n z e 1 9 9 0 ]) 3 4 1 -3 6 8 , esp . 3 4 1 -3 5 0 .
A d d e n d a an d C o rrig en d a
663
37
LIBnS OR LIBENS? A NOTE ON A NEW DEDICATION TO LIBER PATER FROM DACIA (1975) In th e s a m e fa s c ic le o f L a to m u s in w h ic h th is a rtic le w a s p u b lis h e d a ls o A . A lb e r tin i h a s r e c o g n iz e d th a t in o u r in s c r ip tio n l ib i is = lib e ( n ) s (1 9 7 5 , fa s e . 1, p . 2 3 2 ).
38
NATALIS PATAVII (1983) P . 3 7 2 = 2 3 0 : o n th e R o m a n in te rv e n tio n in P a ta v iu m , see F . S a rto ri, “ P a d o v a n e llo s ta to R o m a n o d a l se c . I l l a .C . a l l ’e tà d io c le z i a n e a ” , in : P a d o v a a n tic a : d a c o m m u n ità p a l e o v e n e ta a c ittà r o m a n o -c r is tia n a , T rie ste
1 9 8 1 , 1 0 7 -1 0 9 . P . 3 7 3 = 231 (an d η. 2 2 ):
o n C IL V 2 7 8 7 = IL S 5 2 0 2 , a n d th e lu d i
c e ta s ti, see L .D . Ja c o b s , “L u d i C e ta s ti P a ta v in o ru m ” , A th e n a e u m N .S . 67
[= 7 7 ] (1 9 8 9 ) 2 7 5 - 2 8 1 at 2 8 0 .
C f. a lso M .S . B a s s ig n a n o , “ II m u n ic ip io
P a ta v in o ” , in: P a d o v a a n tic a 2 2 3 -2 2 4 .
39
JULIA IN REGIUM (1988) P . 3 7 5 = 181 (a n d n . 1):
th e in s c r ip tio n is n o w p u b lis h e d b y M .
B u o n o c o re in S u p p le m e n ta I ta lic a N .S . 5 (R o m e 1 989) 6 3 - 6 4 (n o 16). P . 3 7 8 = 184, n. 10:
f o r th is in sc rip tio n , see B u o n o c o re , I b id . 64—65
(n o 17). P . 3 7 9 = 185:
Y . T h o m a s , “ D r o it d o m e s tiq u e e t d r o it p o litiq u e à
R o m e . R e m a rq u e s su r le p é c u le et le s h o n o r e s d e s fils d e fa m ilie ” , M E F R A 9 4 ( 1 9 8 2 ) 5 2 7 - 5 8 0 , i n t e r e s tin g l y o b s e r v e s (a t 5 5 1 ) th a t “ le s p r e m ie r s p é c u le s q u i n o u s so ie n t v é rita b le m e n t a tte sté s p o u r d e s lib e r i so u s p u is s a n c e p a te m e lle s o n t c e u x d e Ju lie e t d e T ib è re ” .
A d d e n d a an d C orrig en d a
P p . 3 8 0 - 3 8 4 = 1 8 6 -1 9 0 :
J.F . G a rd n e r, “J u lia ’s F re e d m e n : Q u e stio n s
o f L a w a n d S ta tu s ” , B I C S 35 (1 9 8 8 ) 94—100, esp . 94—9 7 , a rg u e s th a t G e lo s a n d T h ia s u s w e re m a n u m itte d b y J u lia in 14/15, in th e p e rio d b e tw e e n th e d e a th o f A u g u stu s a n d th e d e a th o f Ju lia , a n d th a t th e m o th e r o f G e lo s w as m a n u m itte d b y L iv ia b e tw e e n 14 (w h e n L iv ia a s s u m e d th e n a m e o f Iu lia A u g u s ta ) a n d 2 9 , th e d a te o f L iv ia ’s d e a th .
S h e p o in ts o u t th a t th e s e r v u s
p e c u l i a r i s m a n u m i s s u s w a s t e c h n i c a l l y a l i b e r t u s o f th e p a t e r ( D i g .
3 7 .1 4 .1 3 ), a n d h e n c e i f G e lo s a n d T h ia s u s h a d b e e n m a n u m itte d d u rin g A u g u s tu s ’ life tim e th e y w o u ld h a v e b e e n A u g u s ti l ib e r ti (a n d n o t I u lia e lib e r ti) . H e n c e h e r th e o ry : T h ia s u s a n d G e lo s a n d th e m a te r w e re o rig in a lly
s la v e s o f L iv ia liv in g in th e h o u s e h o ld o f Ju lia ; a fte r th e d e a th o f A u g u stu s (a n d a fte r J u lia lo s t h e r p e c u liu m ) L iv ia g a v e T h ia s o s a n d G e lo s as a g ift to J u lia , b u t r e ta in e d th e o w n e r s h ip o v e r th e m a te r , J u lia , n o w s u i iu r is , m a n u m itte d T h ia s u s a n d G e lo s e ith e r in h e r life tim e o r in h e r w ill.
A s to
th e m o th e r w e are in a g re e m e n t; G a rd n e r’s in te rp re ta tio n o f th e le g a l v ic is s itu d e s o f T h ia s u s a n d G e lo s is c e rta in ly in g e n io u s, b u t I w o u ld ra th e r a d m it th e (le g a lly ) in c o rre c t w o rd in g o f th e in s c rip tio n th a n a c c e p t a g ift fro m L iv ia . P . 3 8 2 = 188, n. 2 1: th e a rtic le h e re m e n tio n e d h a s a p p e a re d : “ P a r tu s A n c illa e . A v e tu s q u a e s tio in th e L ig h t o f a N e w In s c r ip tio n ” , L a b e o 33
(1 9 8 7 ) 1 9 2 -1 9 8 . S e e th e p o le m ic b y A . W a tso n , “ P a rtu s A n c illa e a n d a R e c e n t in s c r ip tio n fro m R e g iu m ” , L a b e o 38 (1 9 9 2 ) 3 3 5 - 3 3 8 , e s p e c ia lly a g a in st th e id e a th a t G e lo s b e c a m e J u lia ’s p ro p e rty th ro u g h u su fru c tu s. In a n y c a s e th e a lte rn a te in te rp re ta tio n p ro v id e d in th e a rtic le h e re re p ro d u c e d (p. 187, lin e s 4—9 fro m b o tto m ) a p p e a rs m o re lik e ly (b u t se e a b o v e ). O n th e p ro b le m o f p a r t u s a n c illa e , se e a lso P. B irk s , “ A n U n a c c e p ta b le F a c e o f H u m a n P ro p e rty ” , in: P . B irk s (ed .), N e w P e r s p e c tiv e s in th e R o m a n L a w o f P r o p e r ty . E s s a y s f o r B a r r y N ic h o la s (O x fo rd 1989) 6 1 - 7 3 , esp . 6 3 - 6 4 .
I
still b e lie v e th a t th e te n o r o f C ic e ro , d e fin . 1.4.12, in d ic a te s th a t th e q u e s tio n “ an p a rtu s sitn e in fru c tu h a b e n d u s ” w as n o t y e t re s o lv e d at th a t tim e. P . 3 8 9 = 195 (a n d n. 4 3 ):
th e in s c r ip tio n h a s b e e n re p u b lis h e d b y
B u o n o c o re , S u p p l. It. 5, n o 15 (pp. 6 2 -6 3 ). P p . 3 8 9 a n d 391 = 195 a n d 197:
th e in s c rip tio n fro m R e g iu m w as
m is s e d b y J. S c h e id , S c rib o n ia C a e sa ris e t le s J u lio -C la u d ie n s ” , M E F R A 87 (1 9 7 5 ) 3 4 9 - 3 7 5 (c f. 3 7 3 - 3 7 5 : “ D o c u m e n ts r e la tif s à S c r ib o n ia e t à sa f a m ilie ” ), b u t I u n f o r tu n a te ly m is s e d h is o th e rw is e m o s t e ru d ite a rtic le . S c h e id e s ta b lish e s c o n v in c in g ly th a t S c rib o n ia w a s n o t th e s is te r b u t ra th e r th e d a u g h te r o f th e c o n su l o f 34. E rra ta . R ead : P . 37 5 = 181, lin e 12: “ te s ta m e n [to].
P . 375 = 181, n. 1, lin e 2: “ d i
e p ig ra fia ” . P. 3 8 8 = 194, in th e n u m b e rin g o f fo o tn o te s: “4 2 ) ” . P. 3 8 9 = 195, n. 4 3 , lin e 4: “ in d e n te d ” .
665
A d d e n d a and C orrig en d a
40 C E R T IS C A L E N D IS
(1991) Pp. 4 0 0 -4 0 3 = 9 0 -9 3 :
f o r th e s e n tim e n t h e re d is c u s s e d , see a lso M .
F u s s l, “ C o n d ic io n a s c e n d i — C o n d ic io m o rie n d i. Z u e in e m a n tik e n T ro s tg e d a n k e n
und
s e in e r
N a c h w irk u n g
bei
den
la te in is c h e n
K irc h e n v ä te rn ” , G r a z e r B e itr ä g e 16 (1 9 8 9 ) 2 4 3 - 2 6 9 . P . 40 1 = 9 1 , n. 2 4 : o n e sh o u ld c h e c k th e in d ic a tio n s p ro v id e d b y e v e n th e g re a te s t a u th o ritie s. A d d u c in g th e in s c rip tio n C L E 1168 I re p e a te d a fte r B u e c h e le r th a t it w a s fo u n d in “T e o s in L y d ia ” .
O f c o u rs e it is T e o s in
Io n ia ; cf. W . R u g e , “T e o s ” , R E 9 A (1 9 3 4 ) 5 4 1 , n o 7 0 . P . 4 0 4 = 9 4 (a n d n . 4 1 ):
H o r a c e , E p . 2 .2 .1 7 5 , e c h o e s th e lin e o f
L u c re tiu s : “p e rp e tu u s n u lli d a tu r u s u s ” . P . 4 0 6 = 9 6 , η. 50: cf. K . A rg e tsin g e r, “B irth d a y R itu a ls: F rie n d s a n d P a tro n s in R o m a n P o e try a n d C u lt” , C la s s . A n t. 11 (1 9 9 2 ) 1 7 5 -1 9 3 , esp . 178, 181.
41 U P D A T IN G T H E C IL F O R IT A L Y
(1990) P . 411 = 3 1 7 , V e litra e N o . 24: H . S o lin h a s k in d ly se n t m e th e fo llo w in g n o te (d a te d 19 N o v . 1990) w h ic h a rriv e d to o la te to b e in c lu d e d in m y c o m m e n t o n th e in sc rip tio n : “ Y o u ... a re in c lin e d to re a d C . B a e b iu s C .l. P a m p h ilu s . B u t th e le tte r a fte r P c a n n o t b e an A ; th e p h o to is h e re m is le a d in g . P re p a rin g th e e d itio n e v e n I w ro te first [P a jm p h ilu s , b u t a fte r a c lo se e x a m in a tio n o f th e sto n e I c o u ld c o n firm th a t th e le tte r fo llo w in g P c a n n o t in d e e d b e a n A — th e re is in fa c t a n ‘a s ta v e rtic a le ’. P e rh a p s I sh o u ld h a v e e x p la in e d in th e a p p a ra tu s th a t th e p h o to is m is le a d in g ” . I f so w e d o n o t k n o w th e c o g n o m e n o f B a e b iu s a n d th e n o m e n o f P a m p h ilu s ; th e la tte r w o u ld h a v e se rv e d as a r b ite r , w h ic h a lso m a k e s g o o d sen se. P . 41 1 = 3 1 7 , V e litra e N o . 71: f o r a d e ta ile d stu d y o f th is in sc rip tio n , see N o 4 0 .
42 Z U M N A M E N C O M P E T A L IS
(1960) P. 4 1 6 = 146: 220.
cf. I. K a ja n to , T h e L a tin C o g n o m in a (H e lsin k i 1965)
H e l i s t s th e n a m e C o m p e t a l i s a s d e r i v e d f r o m th e f e s t i v a l o f
A d d e n d a and C o rrig en d a
C o m p ita lia (p. 2 2 0 ) o r a lte rn a te ly a m o n g th e c o g n o m in a d e riv e d fro m o c c u
p a tio n s , m o re e x a c tly th e d e n o m in a tio n s o f p rie sts (p. 3 1 8 ). I w o u ld ra th e r say it is d e riv e d fro m th e n o u n c o m p itu m . P . 4 1 8 = 148, n. 4: see a b o v e , N o 15.
43 R E V IE W O F : D .R . S H A C K L E T O N B A I L E Y , T W O S T U D I E S I N R O M A N NOM ENCLATURE
(1978) S e e n o w S h a c k le to n B a ile y ’s A p p e n d ix in th e s e c o n d e d itio n o f h is b o o k (A tla n ta 1991) 8 7 -9 8 .
44 A M IANUS
(1978) C f. in d e p e n d e n tly S o lin , G n o m o n 5 9 (1 9 8 7 ) 5 9 7 .
T h e n a m e is n o w
a c c e p te d b y D .R . S h a c k le to n B a ile y , T w o S tu d ie s in R o m a n N o m e n c la tu r e 2 (A tla n ta 1 991) 8 8 .
45a FU M U M VENDERE AND FU M O N ECARE
(1987) 45b FU M O N E CA RE : AN ADDENDUM
(1987) P p . 4 2 9 —431 = 1 4 2 -1 4 4 : see n o w J.N . A d a m s, “T h e U se s o f N e c o ” , G io ita 6 8 (1 9 9 0 ) 2 3 0 - 2 5 5 , esp . 2 3 4 ; 69 (1 9 9 1 ) 9 4 - 1 2 3 , esp . 1 0 1 -1 0 3 . P. 4 3 1 = 144, n. 2 7: A .J. P o m e ro y , “ H a n n ib a l a t N u c e ria ” , H is to r ia 38 (1 9 8 9 ) 1 6 2 -1 7 6 , a t 162, 164—165, 174—175, re g a rd s th e sto ry o f H a n n ib a l’s a tro c itie s a t N u c e ria as a n n a lis t fa b ric a tio n , a n d in p a rtic u la r th e b a th e p i so d e: b e fo re th e a d v e n t o f th e h y p o c a u s t b a th s it w a s h a rd ly p o s sib le to in d u c e s u ffo c a tio n f u m o e t v a p o r e .
A d d e n d a an d C orrig en d a
667
46
THE SURNAME OF M. ANTONIUS CRETICUS AND THE COGNOMINA E X V IC T IS G E N T IB U S (1990) P. 4 3 6 = 157: o n th e c o g n o m e n C re tic u s, cf. D .R . S h a c k le to n B a ile y , H e a c c e p ts th e
T w o S tu d ie s in R o m a n N o m e n c la tu r e 2 (A tla n ta 1 991) 89.
id e a th a t th e c o g n o m e n o f A n to n iu s w a s m e a n t to b e h o n o r if ic . M .H . D e tte n h o ffe r, P e r d ita iu v e n tu s. Z w is c h e n d e n G e n e r a tio n e n v o n C a e s a r u n d A u g u s tu s (M ü n c h e n 1 9 9 2 ) 6 4 , c o n tin u e s to b e lie v e th a t A n to n iu s “ w e g e n
s e in e s M is s e rfo lg s w u rd e ... z u m S p o tt C re tic u s g e n a n n t” . H . P o h l, D ie r ö m is c h e P o l it ik u n d d ie P ir a te r ìe im ö s tlic h e n M itte lm e e r v o m 3. b is zu m 1 Jh. V. C h r. (B e rlin 1 993), d o e s n o t d isc u ss th e c o g n o m e n C re tic u s , a n d h is
d is c u s s io n o f A n to n iu s ’ c a m p a ig n is p e rfu n c to ry (pp. 2 7 0 -2 7 4 ). P. 4 3 6 = 157, n. 2: th e e p ig ra m fro m C o rin th , IL L R P 3 4 2 , w h ic h A .N . S h e r w in - W h ite , “ R o m e , P a m p h y lia a n d C ilic ia , 1 3 3 - 7 0 B .C .” , J R S 6 6 (1 9 7 6 )
1 - 1 4 at 4 , a tte m p te d to a sc rib e to M . A n to n iu s C re tic u s b e lo n g s to
M . A n to n iu s , p r. 102; se e J.-L . F e rra ry , “R e c h e rc h e s su r la lé g is la tio n d e S a tu rn in u s e t d e G la u c ia ” , M E F R A 89 (1 9 7 7 ) 6 3 9 -6 4 3 . P. 4 3 9 = 160, lin e 2: th is is in e x a c t. T h e te x t o f th e F a s ti T r iu m p h a le s is o n ly p a rtia lly p re s e rv e d fo r L . S c ip io , b u t D e g ra s s i’s re s titu tio n (p. 81) S [ c ip io A s ia tic u s ] is a s s u re d b y th e le n g th o f th e lin e.
F o r fu rth e r th o u g h ts o n th e a c c la m a tio im p e r a to r ia a n d th e b e s to w a l o f th e c o g n o m in a e x v ic tis g e n tib u s , see “A M is s in g P o n tic u s ” , fo rth c o m in g in AJA H .
E rrata: P. 4 3 9 = 160, n. 21: o m it “ 2 0 1 :” .
47
RÖMISCHER STAAT UND DIE GÖTTERZEICHEN: ZUM PROBLEM DER OBNUNTIATIO (1971) S e e A d d e n d a to N o 5 (pp. 8 3 - 8 4 = 435-^126).
48
CICERO AND ROMAN DIVINATION (1983) It is p le a s a n t to n o te th a t A . M o m ig lia n o , as h e h im s e lf a c k n o w le d g e s, p a in ts a ra th e r s im ila r p ic tu re o f R o m a n r e lig io a n d R o m a n d iv in a tio n : “T h e
Addenda and Corrigenda
T h e o lo g ic a l E ffo rts o f th e R o m a n U p p e r C la sse s in th e F irs t C e n tu ry B .C .” , C P 7 9 (1 9 8 4 ) 1 9 9 -2 1 1 (cf. 199, n. 1). S e e a lso th e a rtic le s b y N . D e n y e a r,
“T h e C a s e a g a in st D iv in a tio n : an E x a m in a tio n o f C ic e ro ’s D e d iv in a tio n e ” , P r o c . C a m b r . P h i l o l. S o c . N .S . 31 (1 9 8 5 ) 1 - 1 0 ; M . B e a rd , “ C ic e ro a n d
D iv in a tio n : th e F o rm a tio n o f a L a tin D is c o u rs e ” , J R S 7 6 (1 9 8 6 ) 3 3 - 4 6 ; M . S c h o fie ld , “ C ic e ro fo r a n d a g a in st D iv in a tio n ” , I b id . 4 7 - 6 5 ; J. N o rth , “ D i v in e rs a n d D iv in a tio n at R o m e ” , in: M . B e a rd a n d J. N o rth (e d s.). P a g a n P r i e s t s (L o n d o n 1 9 9 0 ) 5 1 - 7 0 .
S ee a lso in th is v o lu m e N o 4 9 . A n e w e d i tio n o f th e D e d iv in a tio n e w ith a G e rm a n tra n s la tio n a n d u s e fu l c o m m e n ta ry w a s p r o d u c e d b y C . S c h ä u b l i n , M a r c u s T u l l iu s C i c e r o , W a h r s a g u n g (M ü n c h e n u n d Z ü ric h 1991).
Ü b e r d ie
P . 4 6 2 = 16, n. 9: A L 2 1 7 6 -2 1 7 7 . P. 4 6 9 = 2 3 , n. 4: A L 2 2 5 8 -2 2 8 9 . P p . 4 7 1 - 4 7 2 = 2 5 - 2 6 : o n th e a n n u lm e n t o f th e le g e s A p p u le ia e , L iv ia e a n d th e le x T itia , cf. A L 2 1 6 7 , n n . 6 2 - 6 3 , a n d A d d e n d a to N o 5 4 (p. 5 4 0 = 4 5 8 , n. 1). O n th e \e x T itia , see a lso a c u te re m a rk s b y J.-C . R ic h a rd , “ S u r la r o g a tio T itia a g r a r ia ” , M E F R A 103 (1 9 9 1 ) 5 8 9 - 6 0 3 , esp . 5 9 7 - 6 0 2 , a n d o n th e l e g e s L iv ia e , th e c o n v in c in g p ie c e b y F .X . R y a n , “T h e R e lia b ility o f A sc o n iu s In C o r n e lia n a m 6 9 C ” , S I F C 12 (1 9 9 4 ) 1 0 3 -1 0 9 . P . 4 7 7 = 3 1 , n. 4 5 :
A L 2 2 0 0 - 2 2 0 2 ; a n d a b o v e a ll, C . S c h ä u b lin ,
“E m e n tita a u s p ic ia ” , W S 2 0 (1 9 8 6 ) 1 6 5 -1 8 1 . E rra ta . R ead : P . 4 7 9 = 3 3 , lin e 21: “ in a u g u r a to " .
49 W A T C H I N G T H E B IR D S : C IC E R O T H E A U G U R A N D T H E A U G U R A L T E M P IA
(1986) S e e A d d e n d a to N o 48. P p . 4 9 0 —4 9 2 = 3 3 5 -3 3 7 :
o n th e c o n c e p t o f te m p lu m , see th e e ru d ite
a n d im a g in a tiv e stu d y b y J. V a a h te ra , “ O n th e R e lig io u s N a tu re o f th e P la c e o f A s s e m b ly ” , in: S e n a tu s P o p u lu s q u e R o m a n u s. S tu d ie s in R o m a n R e p u b li c a n L e g i s l a ti o n (= A c ta In s titu ti R o m a n i F in la n d ia e 13 [H e ls in k i 1 9 9 3 ]) 9 6 - 1 1 6 , esp . 1 0 7 -1 1 2 . E rra ta . R ead : P. 4 9 3 = 3 3 8 , n. 2 3 , lin e s 1 -2 : “ D e m o d is a u sp ic a n d i R o m a n o ru m ” .
Addenda and Corrigenda
669
50 T H E L IB R I R E C O N D IT I (1985) P . 4 9 7 = 2 0 8 , n. 3:
o n th e le x P a p ir ia , see n o w th e w id e ly d iv e rg e n t
in te r p r e ta tio n s b y A . Z ió lk o w s k i, T h e T e m p le s o f M id - R e p u b lic a n R o m e a n d th e H is t o r i c a l a n d T o p o g r a p h ic a l C o n te x t (R o m e 1 992) 2 1 9 - 2 3 4 , a n d
W J . T a tu m , “T h e L e x P a p ir ia D e D e d ic a tio n ib u s ” , C P 8 8 (1 9 9 3 ) 3 1 9 - 3 2 8 . P . 4 9 8 = 2 0 9 , n. 5: A L 2241 (a n d n. 3 7 6 ). P p . 5 1 2 - 5 1 4 = 2 2 3 -2 2 5 : o n th e d e b a te (a n c ie n t a n d m o d e m ) c o n c e rn in g th e v a lid ity o f B ib u lu s ’ o b n u n tia tio , see A d d e n d a to N o 5 (p p . 7 3 - 7 4 = 4 2 5 - 4 2 6 ) , esp . H e ik k ilä , 1 4 0 -1 4 1 . P . 5 1 8 = 2 2 9 (a n d n. 7 9 ): see a lso th e e x c e lle n t stu d y b y H . D a h lm a n n , Ü b e r A e m iliu s M a c e r (= A b h . M a in z 1981, N r. 6 ) 8 -1 0 .
P . 5 2 3 = 2 3 4 (a n d η. 9 7 ): o n “ th e s h a d o w y F u riu s ” I m iss e d th e in c i siv e (a n d w is e ly in c o n c lu s iv e ) d is c u s s io n b y E . R a w s o n , “ S c ip io , L a e liu s a n d th e A n c e s tra l R e lig io n ” , J R S 63 (1 9 7 3 ) 1 6 1 - 1 7 4 , e sp . 1 6 8 - 1 7 4 ; r e p r in t e d in : E . R a w s o n , R o m a n C u ltu r e a n d S o c i e t y . C o l l e c t e d P a p e r s (O x fo rd 1 991) 8 0 -1 0 1 , esp . 9 3 -1 0 1 .
51 E X T A AND A V E S :
A N E M E N D A T IO N IN R U F IN U S , O R IG E N I S I N N U M E R O S H O M IL IA 17.2
(1981) P . 5 25 = 2 1 4 , nn. 4 a n d 5: o n th e a u g u ra l m e a n in g o f c o llig e r e , see N o 53. E rra ta . R ead : P . 5 2 4 = 2 1 3 , lin e 10: “ O rig e n e s ” .
52 S A N N IO A N D R E M U S (1989) P . 5 2 9 = 9 2 , n . 1:
S k u t s c h f i r s t p r e s e n t e d h is e m e n d a t i o n in
“ C o n d e n d a e U r b is A u s p ic ia ” , C Q 55 = N .S . 11 (1 9 6 1 ) 2 5 2 - 2 6 7 at 2 5 8 a n d
26 3 (re p rin te d in O . S k u tsc h , S tu d ia E n n ia n a [L o n d o n 1968] 6 3 - 8 5 a t 7 0 a n d 7 6 ).
H .D . J o c e ly n , “U rb s A u g u rio A u g u sto C o n d ita : E n n iu s ap. C ic.
D iv . 1 .1 0 7 (= A n n . 7 7 -9 6 V 2)” , P C P S 197 = N .S . 17 (1 9 7 1 ) 4 4 - 7 4 , d is re
g a rd e d b y S k u ts c h in h is c o m m e n ta ry , o ffe re d a d e ta ile d c ritiq u e o f th e
670
Addenda and Corrigenda
e m e n d a tio n (p p . 6 0 - 6 3 ) .
S k u tsc h m a y n o t b e rig h t, b u t J o c e ly n ’s s u g g e s
tio n , d e fe n d in g th e re a d in g s e d e v o v e t, th a t R e m u s m a d e “ a b a rg a in w ith the u n d e rw o rld g o d s, a c c o rd in g to w h ic h th e y w e re e ith e r to h e lp h im to th e k in g s h ip b y g iv in g a c e rta in a u s p ic e o r to c la im h im f o r th e ir o w n ” (p. 6 3 ), is n o t c o n v in c in g . “ S e a u sp ic io d e v o v e re ” is n o t o n e a n d th e sa m e th in g as “ se D is M a n ib u s d e v o v e re ” .
53 “ A U S P IC IA E T A U G U R IA R O M A N A ... S U M M O L A B O R E C O L L E C T A ” : A N O T E O N M IN U C IU S F E L IX , O C T A V I U S 26.1 (1982) T h is a rtic le s h o u ld b e re a d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e le a rn e d re s p o n s e a n d p o le m ic b y J.R . F e a rs, “ M in u c iu s F e lix O c ta v iu s 2 6 .1 ” , C P 7 7 (1 9 8 2 ) 1 5 0 -1 5 2 . S u re ly o m e n c o llig o c a n m e a n a n d o fte n d o e s m e a n (a s in A m m . M a rc . 3 0 .5 .1 7 , a d d u c e d b y F e a rs) “ to o b ta in a n o m e n ” . B u t o n e c a n n o t o b ta in a n o m e n w ith o u t at th e sa m e tim e in te rp re tin g it. C f. a lso P e tr. 126.3: “ n e c a u g u ria n o v i n e c m a th e m a tic o ru m c a e lu m c u ra re s o le o , e x v u ltib u s h o m in u m m o re s c o llig o " . T h e ju x ta p o s itio n o f n o v i a n d c o llig o is in s tru c tiv e: in o rd e r to e m p lo y th e a u g u r ia o n e m u s t k n o w th e ir s ig n ific a n c e ; s im i la rly in o rd e r to d e d u c e ( c o ll ig o ; in th is p la c e c e rta in ly n o t s im p ly “ o b ta in ” ) th e c h a ra c te r o f p e o p le fro m th e ir v u ltu s o n e m u s t k n o w th e m e a n in g o f fa c ia l e x p re s sio n s. C f. a lso N o 51. P p . 5 3 2 - 5 3 3 = 1 4 9 -1 5 0 , nn. 8 a n d 10: see n o w A L 2 2 3 0 -2 2 4 1 .
54 A W I T T I C I S M O F A P P U L E IU S S A T U R N IN U S (1984) P . 5 3 8 = 4 5 6 , n. 1: o n th e d e v ir is illu s tr ib u s a n d th e L iv ia n e p ito m e , c f . P .L . S c h m i d t , in : H a n d b u c h d e r l a t e i n i s c h e n L i t e r a t u r . B d . V : R e s ta u r a tio n u n d E rn e u e ru n g . D ie la te in is c h e L ite r a tu r v o n 2 8 4 b is 3 7 4 n. C h r. (M ü n c h e n 1 989) 1 8 7 -1 9 1 .
H e c le a rly u n d e re s tim a te s th e “v e rb a le n
Ü b e re in s tim m u n g e n ” . P . 5 4 0 = 4 5 8 , n. 1:
o n th e p r o b le m o f th e a n n u lm e n t o f th e le g e s
A p p u le i a e , I n o te th e s o lid stu d y o f L . d e L ib e ro , O b s tr u k tio n (S tu ttg a rt
1 9 9 2 ) 9 1 - 9 6 ; a n d , in p a rtic u la r, K . H e ik k ilä , “ L e x n o n iu re r o g a ta ” , in: S e n a tu s P o p u lu s q u e R o m a n u s . S tu d ie s in R o m a n R e p u b lic a n L e g is la tio n
(= A c ta In stitu ti R o m a n i F in la n d ia e 13 [H e lsin k i 1993] 134—137. C . B e rg e m a n n , P o litik u n d R e lig io n im s p ä tr e p u b lik a n is c h e n R o m (S tu ttg a rt 1 992) 9 8 , is b o th u n in fo rm e d a n d c o n fu s e d (u n fo rtu n a te ly th is o b s e rv a tio n a p p lie s
671
Addenda and Corrigenda
to m a n y o th e r p a g e s o f th e b o o k , a n d so I re fra in fro m q u o tin g it in o th e r p la c e s . S e e m y re v ie w o f d e L ib e ro a n d B e rg e m a n n fo rth c o m in g in C P 9 0 [1 9 9 5 ]). O n th e p a s s a g e o f S a tu rn in u s ’ le x a g r a r ia , see a lso J.L . B e n e s s , “T h e U rb a n U n p o p u la rity o f S a tu rn in u s ” , A n tic h th o n 25 (1 9 9 1 ) 3 3 - 5 7 , esp . 4 6 - 4 7 . C f. a b o v e . A d d e n d a to N o 4 8 (pp. 4 7 1 - 4 7 2 = 2 5 - 2 6 ) . E rra ta . R ead : P. 5 3 8 = 4 5 6 , n. 1, lin e 6 : “ in ” . P . 5 3 9 = 4 5 7 , lin e 9: “ in ” .
55 R E L IG IO U S A S P E C T S O F T H E C O N F L IC T O F T H E O R D E R S : T H E C A S E O F C O N F A R R E A T IO (1986) A s th is a rtic le w a s p u b lish e d in a c o lle c tiv e v o lu m e , all a b b re v ia tio n s w e re g iv e n a t th e e n d o f th e v o lu m e . I g iv e h e re th e fu ll title s o f th e w o rk s c ite d in th e fo o tn o te s in an a b b re v ia te d fo rm : A . A lfö ld i, “ S tru k tu r d es R ö m e rs ta a te s ” = “ Z u r S tru k tu r d es R ö m e rs ta a te s im 5. Jh. v. C h r.” , in: L e s o r ig in e s d e la r é p u b liq u e r o m a in e (= E n tre tie n s s u r l ’ant. d a s s . 13 [V a n d o e u v re s -G e n è v e 1 9 6 7 ]) 2 2 3 - 2 7 8 . P .E . C o rb e tt, M a r r ia g e = T h e R o m a n L a w o f M a r r ia g e (O x fo rd 1930). P . D e F ra n c isc i, P r im o r d ia = P r im o r d ia c iv ita tis (R o m e 1959). E . G je rs ta d , E a r ly R o m e V (L u n d 1973). F . G u iz z i , V e s t a = I l s a c e r d o z i o d i V e s ta : A s p e t t i g i u r i d i c i d e l s a c e r d o z i o r o m a n o (N a p o li 1968).
M . K a se r, I u s = D a s a ltr ö m is c h e iu s (G ö ttin g e n 1949). M . K a se r, P r iv a tr . I 2 = D a s r ö m is c h e P r iv a tr e c h t I 2 (M ü n c h e n 1971). J.
M a r q u a rd t, P r i v a t l e b e n 2 = D a s P r i v a t le b e n d e r R ö m e r 1 (L e ip z ig
1 886). J. M a rq u a rd t, S ta a ts v e r w a ltu n g Π Ι 2 = R ö m is c h e S ta a ts v e r w a ltu n g ΙΠ 2 (L e ip z ig 1885). T.
M o m m s e n , R ö m . S t a a ts r e c h t III. 1 = R ö m is c h e s S ta a ts r e c h t III. 1
(L e ip z ig 1887). P . N o a ille s , F a s = F a s e t iu s: É tu d e s d e d r o it r o m a in (P a ris 1948). R . O g ilv ie , C o m m . = A C o m m e n ta r y o n L iv y , B o o k s 1 - 5 ( O x f o rd 1965). J .-C . R ic h a r d , O r i g in e s = L e s o r i g i n e s d e la p l è b e r o m a in e (P a ris 1978). A . W a ts o n , X I I T a b le s = R o m e o f th e X I I T a b le s: P e r s o n s a n d P r o p e r ty (P rin c e to n 1975).
C .W . W e s tru p , R e c h e r c h e s = R e c h e r c h e s s u r le s f o r m e s a n tiq u e s d e m a r ia g e d a n s V a n c ie n d r o it r o m a in (= D a n s k e V id e n sk . S e lsk .
H ist-F ilo l.
Addenda and Corrigenda
M e d d . 30 .1 [K d b e n h a v n 1943]). G . W is s o w a , R e lig io n = R e lig io n u n d K u ltu s d e r R ö m e r2 (M ü n c h e n 1912). P. 5 4 7 = 2 4 9 , n. 17: th e a rtic le b y V o lte rra h a s b e e n re p rin te d in: E . V o lte rra , S c r itti g iu r id ic i 3 (N a p o li 1991) 1 5 5 -1 7 6 . P . 5 4 8 = 2 5 0 , η . 19:
G . R a d k e , “ B e o b a c h tu n g e n z u r r ö m i s c h e n
c o n f a r r e a tio ” , G y m n a s iu m 9 6 (1 9 8 9 ) 2 0 9 - 2 2 6 a t 214—2 1 5 , in a c a s e o f w ill
fu l b lin d n e s s , c o n tin u e s to c o n fu s e th e c e re m o n y o f th e o b n u b e r e o f th e b r id e w ith th e v e l a t i o c a p i t i s o f th e g ro o m a n d th e b rid e . S. T r e g g ia ri, R o m a n M a r r ia g e . I u s ti C o n iu g e s f r o m th e T im e o f C ic e r o to th e T im e o f U lp ia n (O x fo rd 1991) 2 1 - 2 4 , p ro v id e s o n ly a g e n e ra l a c c o u n t o f th e c e r
e m o n y . O n fla m m e u m , se e N . B o é ls-Ja n sse n , “ L a fia n c é e e m b ra s é e ” , in: D. P o rte a n d J.-P . N é ra u d a u (e d s.), H o m m a g e s à H e n ri L e B o n n ie c . R e s S a c r a e (= C o lle c tio n L a to m u s 201 [B ru x e lle s 1 9 88]) 1 9 -3 0 , esp . 2 9 ; “ L a p rè tre ss e a u x tro is v o ile s ” , R E L 67 (1 9 8 9 [1 9 9 0 ]) 1 1 7 -1 3 3 , esp . 1 1 9 -1 2 1 .
C f. also
E a d e m , “ F la m in ic a c in c ta , à p ro p o s d e la c o u ro n n e ritu e lle d e l ’é p o u s e d u fla m in e d e J u p ite r” , R E L 6 9 (1991 [1 9 9 2 ]) 3 2 - 5 0 . P p . 5 4 8 - 5 4 9 = 2 5 0 -2 5 1 (a n d n. 2 0 ): R a d k e , 2 1 7 , n. 5, re je c ts (w ith o u t a rg u m e n t) th e id e a th a t S e rv iu s a u c tu s , G e o r g . 1.31, u ltim a te ly d e riv e s fro m A te iu s C a p ito { a d r e m , cf. N o 14, pp. 3 0 6 -3 0 7 ).
C o n s e q u e n tly h e d e n ie s
th e p a rtic ip a tio n o f th e f la m e n D i a l is a t th e c e re m o n y o f c o n f a r r e a tio . H is tru m p a rg u m e n t is th is (p p . 2 1 0 - 2 1 1 ) : “ S e it d e m S e lb s tm o rd d e s f la m e n D i a l is L . C o rn e liu s M e ru la i. J. 87 v. C h r. k o n n te d a s ... P rie rs te ra m t n a c h
d e r A u s k u n f t b e i T a c . a n n . 3 ,5 8 ,2 f ü n f u n d s ie b z ig J a h r e h in d u r c h n ic h t w ie d e r b e s e tz t w e rd e n . ...
W ä re d ie A n g a b e d e s S e rv . a u c t. z u tre ffe n d ,
h ä tte n in d ie se n 75 Ja h re n ... k e in e k o n fa rre ie rte n E h e n g e s c h lo s s e n w o rd e n se in k ö n n e n ” . T h e a rg u m e n t a p p e a rs c o g e n t, b u t it is e m p ty .
T h e sa m e
T a c itu s in th e sa m e p a s s a g e (A n n . 3 .5 8 ) sta te s e x p lic itly th a t in th e a b se n c e o f th e f la m e n D i a l is h is fu n c tio n s w e re p e rfo rm e d b y th e p o n tiffs: “ sa e p e p o n tif ic e s s a c r a D ia lia fe c is s e , si fla m e n v a le tu d in e a u t m u n e re p u b lic o im p e d ire tu r,
q u in q u e e t s e p tu a g in ta a n n is p o s t C o rn e lii M e ru la e c a e d e m
n e m in e m s u ffe c tu m , n e q u e ta m e n c e s s a v is s e re lig io n e s ,
q u o d si p e r to t
a n n o s p o s s it n o n c re a ri n u llo sa c ro ru m d a m n o ...” . C f. in th is se n s e a lre a d y G . M a rto ra n a , “ O sse rv a z io n i su l f la m e n D ia lis ” , in: Φ ι λ ία ς χ ά ρ ι ν . M is c e l la n e a in o n o r e d i E u g e n io M a n n i (R o m e 1979) 1455.
J.H . V a n g g a a rd , T h e F la m e n . A S tu d y in th e H is to r y a n d S o c io lo g y o f R o m a n R e lig io n (C o p e n h a g e n 1988) 5 0 , m a in ta in s th a t th e c a m illi “h a d to
b e o f p a tric ia n d e s c e n t” , b u t c o n c e d e s th a t “ th is is n o t c a p a b le o f a c tu a l p r o o f ’. H e m isse d th e g lo s s a a n d S erv iu s. P. 551 = 2 5 3 , n. 26: th e re fe re n c e is to J.-C . R ic h a rd , “ P a tric ia n s a n d P le b e ia n s: T h e O rig in o f a S o c ia l D ic h o to m y ” , in: S o c ia l S tr u g g le s in A r c h a ic R o m e (B e rk e le y 1 986) 1 0 5 -1 2 9 , a t 1 0 7 -1 1 0 .
Addenda and Corrigenda
673
P . 5 5 2 = 2 5 4 , n. 2 8 : th e re fe re n c e is to R ic h a rd (as a b o v e ) 1 1 0 -1 1 4 . P p. 5 3 3 -5 3 4 = 2 5 5 -2 5 6 :
se e a lso N o 5 7 , p p . 5 8 0 - 5 8 1 = 2 1 2 - 2 1 3 .
R a d k e , p p . 2 1 5 - 2 1 6 , h a s n o th in g to o ffe r.
R .E . M itc h e ll, P a tr ic ia n s a n d
P l e b e i a n s (Ith a c a 1 9 9 0 ) 8 6 , n. 7 2 , s p e c u la te s th a t o u r s a c e r d o s c o n f a r r e a tio n u m e t d iff a r r e a tio n u m “ m a y h a v e b e e n a p a tric ia n in c h a rg e o f m a in
ta in in g tra d itio n a l sta n d a rd s ” . T h is flie s in th e fa c e o f a ll p ro s o p o g ra p h ic a l e v id e n c e , a n d is a g o o d e x a m p le o f b e n d in g fa c ts to a p re c o n c e iv e d th e o ry . C f. S. T re g g ia ri, R o m a n M a r r ia g e 2 4 (a n d n. 96). P p . 5 5 4 —5 5 6 = 2 5 6 -2 5 8 : E . B a d ia n , G n o m o n 6 2 (1 9 9 0 ) 33 (a n d a l re a d y I b id . 33 [1 9 6 1 ] 5 9 8 ), su p p o rts th e v ie w th a t C a e s a r w a s fo rm a lly in a u g u ra te d as f la m e n D ia lis .
I d o n o t b e lie v e th a t th is w a s p ro v e n b y G .V .
S u m n e r, T h e O r a to r s in C i c e r o ’s B r u tu s (T o ro n to 1 973) 1 3 9 -1 4 0 ; th e te rm in a u g u r a tu s is n e v e r u s e d o f C aesar.
P p . 554—5 5 5 = 2 5 6 -2 5 7 :
V a n g g a a rd , F la m e n 5 0 - 5 4 , a rg u e s th a t th e
f la m in ic a n e e d n o t h av e b e e n a p a tr ic ia .
N o w f r o m th e f a c t th a t th e
f la m in e s M a r tia le s c o u ld b e m a rrie d to p le b e ia n w o m e n it is ra th e r ris k y to
d ra w a n y c o n c lu s io n s c o n c e r n in g th e f l a m e n D i a l i s a n d h is w ife . T h e f la m in ic a p a rtic ip a te d in th e c u ltu s ; o n th e o th e r h a n d w e d o n o t k n o w a n y th in g o f th e r itu a l o b lig a tio n s o f th e w iv e s o f th e f la m e n M a r ti a li s a n d Q u ir i n a li s .
S e c o n d ly w e s h o u ld n o t c o n f u s e tw o d is p a r a te th in g s : th e
e lib ility to th e sta tio n o f f la m in ic a ( D i a l is ) a n d th e c a p a c ity to c o n lu d e m a r ria g e th ro u g h th e c e re m o n y o f c o n f a r r e a tio . T h e e lig ib ility to th e fo rm e r w a s lim ite d to th e p a t r i c i a e n a ta e e x c o n fa rrea tis', th e c a p a c ity to c o n c lu d e m a rria g e th ro u g h c o n f a r r e a tio w a s o p e n to p le b e ia n w o m e n m a rry in g p a tri c ia n h u s b a n d s . P. 5 5 8 = 2 6 0 , n. 54: th e re fe re n c e is to R .E . M itc h e ll, “T h e D e fin itio n o f p a t r e s a n d p l e b s \ A n E n d to th e S tr u g g le o f th e O r d e r s ” , in : S o c ia l S tr u g g le s 1 3 0 -1 7 4 , a t 1 7 1 -1 7 3 .
P. 5 5 9 = 2 6 1 , n. 5 6 : th e re fe re n c e s are to R .E . M itc h e ll (as a b o v e ), a n d to K .A . R a a fla u b , “ F ro m P ro te c tio n a n d D e fe n se to O ffe n se a n d P a rtic ip a tio n : S ta g e s in th e C o n flic t o f th e O rd e rs ” , I b id . 1 9 8 -2 4 3 , esp . 2 2 7 - 2 3 6 . M itc h e ll u p h o ld s th e id e n tity o f p a t r e s a n d s a c e r d o te s in h is b o ld b o o k P a tr ic ia n s a n d P le b e ia n s . T h e O r ig in o f th e R o m a n S ta te (Ith a c a 1990), esp.
6 4 - 1 3 0 . T h is is n o t tru e fo r th e la te r o r m id d le re p u b lic ; fo r th e e a rly r e p u b lic it is tru e in th e se n se th a t as lo n g as th e p rie s th o o d s w e re o p e n o n ly to th e p a tr ic ia n s , a ll s a c e r d o t e s w e re p a t r e s .
L . S a n c h o , “ E l m a tr im o n io
ro m a n o p rim itiv o y el v a lo r d e la L e x in h u m a n issim a (C ic. R e p . Π 3 7 ,6 2 )” , R ID A 37 (1 9 9 0 ) 3 4 7 - 3 8 3 , c o n c lu d e s th a t “ e l u n ic o p ro b a b le ritu a l m a trim o
n ia l a rc a ic o e s la c o n f a r r e a tio ” (p. 3 7 1 ), a n d th a t it w as p ra c tic e d b y b o th th e p a tric ia n s a n d p le b e ia n s. C f. a lso K .-J. H ö lk e s k a m p , G n o m o n 61 (1 9 8 9 ) 3 1 4 ; R .A . B a u m a n , Z R G 107 (1 9 9 0 ) 4 7 3 .
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56 T H E A U S P IC E S A N D T H E S T R U G G L E O F T H E O R D E R S
(1990) T h is p a p e r s h o u ld b e c o n s id e re d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e d is c u s s io n th a t fo llo w e d a fte r its p re s e n ta tio n in B e rlin in 1986; see e sp e c ia lly th e c o m m e n t b y M . T o re lli, in : S t a a t u n d S ta a tlic h k e it in d e r f r ü h e n r ö m is c h e n R e p u b lik (S tu ttg a rt 1990) 7 4 - 8 3 , a n d th e re m a rk s b y A . G io v a n n in i (p. 85),
E . B a d ia n (p p . 8 5 - 8 6 , e s p . h is il lu m i n a t i n g d is c u s s io n o f th e p h r a s e “ a u s p ic ia a d p a tre s r e d e u n t” (c f. p p . 4 6 6 - 4 6 7 ) .
C f. a ls o m y r e s p o n s e
(p p . 8 8 - 8 9 ) , a n d see n o w th e p e n e tra tin g re m a rk s b y L . S c h u m a c h e r, Z R G 110 (1 9 9 3 ) 6 7 0 - 6 7 1 . T o th e b ib lio g ra p h y a d d E .S . S ta v e le y , “T h e N a tu re a n d A im s o f th e P a tric ia te ” , H is to r ia 3 2 (1 9 8 3 ) 2 4 - 5 7 , esp . 3 4 - 4 0 . P . 56 1 = 35: in th e te x t o f L iv y M . C ra w fo rd su g g e sts ( p e r litte r a s ) an e x c e lle n t e m e n d a tio n : “ e t p riv a ti[m ] < e a > a u sp ic ia h a b e a m u s ” . P p . 5 7 0 - 5 7 2 = 4 4 - 4 6 : J.-C . R ic h a rd , “T rib u n s m ilita ire s e t trio m p h e ” , in : L a R o m e d e s p r e m i e r s s iè c le s , lé g e n d e e t h is to ir e .
A c te s d e la T a b le
R o n d e e n l ’h o n n e u r d e M a s s im o P a llo tin o (= B ib lio te c a di S tu d i E tr u s c h i
2 4 [F ire n z e 1 9 9 2 ]) 2 3 5 - 2 4 6 , a rriv e s a t a c o n c lu sio n a lm o s t id e n tic a l to th a t a d v o c a te d in th e a r ti c le h e r e r e p r in t e d : th e t r i b u n i m ilitu m c o n s u l a r i p o t e s t a t e h a d th e rig h t to th e a u s p ic e s (cf. a n e a r lie r a rtic le b y R ic h a rd ,
“ R é fle x io n s s u r le tr ib u n a t c o n s u la ir e ” , M E F R A 1 0 2 [1 9 9 0 ] 7 6 7 - 7 9 9 a t 7 7 9 ), b u t th e y w e re in c a p a b le o f c e le b ra tin g a triu m p h . T h a t h o n o r w a s re s e r v e d o n ly f o r th o s e h o ld e r s o f im p e r iu m w h o p o s s e s s e d i t “ d a n s sa p lé n itu d e e t d a n s sa p u re té o rig in e lle ” (p. 2 3 9 , cf. 2 4 3 ).
A m a g n ific e n t
s tu d y w ith a n a rg u m e n t e n v ia b le in its c o g e n c y a n d c la rity . In a p o s t-s c rip t R ic h a rd a llu d e s to m y a rtic le , b u t h e p re se n ts m y a rg u m e n t o n ly p a rtia lly a n d ra th e r in a c c u ra te ly w h e n h e w rite s (p. 146, n. 4 6 ) th a t a c c o rd in g to m y v ie w (e x p r e s s e d o n p . 4 5 ) “ c e s m a g is tr a ts , lo r s q u ’ils a p p a r te n a ie n t à la p lè b e , d é te n a ie n t se lo n to u te v ra is e m b la n c e c e q u ’il fa u t a p p e lle r ‘a le ss e r a u s p ic iu m ’” . A n d h e c o m m e n ts: “C e n o u v e a u p h é n o m è n e d e d e m in u tio n e
s u ffit p o rta n t p a s à e x p liq u e r à n o s y e u x q u e to u t le s trib u n s c o n s u la ire s , q u ’ils fu s s e n t p lé b é ie n s o u p a tric ie n s, n ’a ie n t p u c é lé b re r le trio m p h e ” . In fa c t I p o in t o u t (p. 4 4 ) th a t o n ly th e p a tric ia n m e m b e rs o f th e c o lle g e o f th e tr ib u n i m ilitu m m a y h a v e b e e n th o u g h t a b le “to tra n s m it th e a u s p ic e s to
th e ir s u c c e sso rs in th e ir p u re a n d p ris tin e sta te ” , b u t I g o o n to re je c t (p e r h a p s n o t c le a rly e n o u g h ) th e h y p o th e tic a l id e a th a t th e c o lle g e m ig h t h a v e b e e n c o m p o se d o f tw o se p a ra te g ro u p s o f o ffic ia ls, p a tric ia n a n d p le b e ia n , o f a d iffe rin g “ a u s p ic a i” statu s: I a rg u e th a t a ll m e m b e rs o f th e c o lle g e h a d th e sa m e p re ro g a tiv e s, th a t all o f th e m , w h e th e r p a tric ia n o r p le b e ia n , a d m in is te re d in c o m p a ris o n to c o n su ls (o r p r a e to r e s ) a “ le ss e r im p e r iu m a n d le s s e r a u s p ic iu m ” (pp. 4 5 - 4 6 ) .
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E . B a d ia n in th e s a m e v o lu m e in w h ic h m y a r tic le w a s o r ig in a lly p rin te d ( S ta a t u n d S ta a tlic h k e it in d e r f r ü h e n r ö m is c h e n R e p u b lik [S tu ttg a rt 1 9 9 0 ]) 4 6 9 , c o n je c tu re s th a t th e tr ib u n i m ilitu m h a d th e a u sp ic e s b u t la c k e d N o t lik e ly : e v e n th e p r i v a t i w e re g iv e n im p e r iu m w h e n th e y
im p e r iu m .
w e re s e le c te d to c o m m a n d tr o o p s .
T h e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e tr ib u n i
m ilitu m c o n s u la r i p o t e s t a t e a n d th e c o n s u le s w a s ra th e r lik e th a t o b ta in in g
(in la te r tim e s ) b e tw e e n th e c o n su ls a n d p ra e to rs.
I c a n d o n o b e tte r th a n
q u o t e B a d i a n h i m s e l f (p . 4 6 5 , n . 1 6 ): “ T h e p r a e t o r i a n a u s p i c e s a n d im p e r iu m w e re o f th e sa m e n a tu re as th e c o n s u ls ’, b u t h e w a s m in o r to th e m , h e n c e c o u ld n o t c re a te a u s p ic e s a n d im p e r iu m o f a n e ss e n tia lly su p e rio r n a tu re ” . T h e tr ib u n i m ilitu m c o u ld c re a te c o n su ls, b u t th e y c o u ld n o t (a t le a s t o rig in a lly ; B a d ia n , 4 6 5 , d isre g a rd s th e im p lic a tio n o f L iv y 4 .3 1 .4 ) n a m e d ic ta to rs , a n d th e y w e re n o t a b le to c e le b ra te triu m p h s (w h ic h th e p ra e to rs w e re ). E rra ta . R ead : P . 5 6 3 = 3 7 , lin e 10: “ A n d r é ” .
P . 5 6 4 = 3 8 , lin e 3 f r o m b o tto m :
“A n d ré ” . P . 5 6 7 = 4 1 , lin e 14: “ o ffic e s ” ; lin e 5 fro m b o tto m : “ th e v e ry la s t d a y s ” . P. 5 6 8 = 4 2 , lin e 12: “ a u s p ic a i” . P. 5 6 9 = 4 3 , lin e 2 2 : “in je o p a r d y ” ; lin e 2 5 : “ a u s p ic a i” . P . 5 7 2 = 4 6 , lin e 13 fro m b o tto m : “ a u s p ic a i” ; lin e 16 fro m b o tto m : “e n g in e e re d ” . P . 5 7 3 = 4 7 , lin e 14 fro m b o tto m : “ th e y a rg u e ” .
57 H E L IO G A B A L U S , A L E X A N D E R S E V E R U S A N D T H E IU S C O N F A R R E A T IO N IS : A N O T E O N T H E H IS T O R IA A U G U S T A (1 9 8 9 ) P. 5 7 8 = 2 1 0 , n. 12: o n th e te x t o f G a iu s, a n d th e v a rio u s a tte m p ts to f i l l th e la c u n a e , s e e L . M e s s i n a , “ L e la c u n e d i G a i. 1 . 1 3 6 - 1 3 7 ” , in : S o d a lita s . S c r itti in o n o r e d i A n to n io G u a r in o 2 (N a p o li 1 9 8 4 ) 8 1 3 -8 3 4 . P p. 5 8 0 -5 8 1 = 2 1 2 -2 1 3 : see N o 55, A d d e n d a to pp. 5 3 3 - 5 3 4 = 2 5 5 -2 5 6 .
58 R E V IE W O F : T H O M A S K Ö V E S -Z U L A U F , R E D E N U N D S C H W E IG E N : R Ö M IS C H E R E L IG IO N B E I P L IN IU S M A IO R
(1975) P . 5 8 6 = 2 8 6 : o n I u p p ite r D e p u ls o r, se e J. K o le n d o , “ L e c u lte d e J u p p ite r D e p u ls o r e t le s in c u rs io n s d e s B a r b a r e s ” , A N R W 11.18 ( 1 9 8 9 ) 1 0 6 2 -1 0 7 6 .
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Addenda and Corrigenda
P p . 5 8 6 - 5 8 8 = 2 8 6 - 2 8 8 : o n th e th e p a ra d o s is c o m m e n ta tio n is a n d th e c o n je c tu re c o m m e n d a tio n is , see a lso Ä . B ä u m e r, “D ie M a c h t d e s W o rte s in R e lig io n u n d M a g ie (P lin iu s , N a tu ra lis H is to ria 2 8 , 4 - 2 9 ) ” , H e r m e s 112 (1 9 8 4 ) 84—9 9 , at 8 7 - 9 4 . S h e m e n tio n s in p a s s in g th e re v ie w h e re re p rin te d (8 5 , n. 3), a n d p ro c e e d s to h e r o w n c ritiq u e o f th e in te rp re ta tio n o f K ö v e sZ u la u f. A lth o u g h sh e d o es n o t a c k n o w le d g e it e x p lic itly , sh e a rriv e s (b y a r a th e r c irc u ito u s ro u te ) at a c o n c lu sio n a lm o s t id e n tic a l w ith th a t e la b o ra te d in m y re v ie w . C . G u itta rd , “ P iin e e t la c la ss ific a tio n d es p riè re s d a n s la r e lig io n ro m a in e (N H 2 8 , 1 0 -2 1 )” , in: I. P ig e a ld u s a n d I. O ro z iu s (e d s.), P lin e L ’A n c ie n . T e m o in d e s o n te m p s (S a la m a n c a -N a n te s 1 987) 4 7 3 —4 8 6 a lso a r riv e d (w ith o u t u tiliz in g th e p ie c e in C P ) at a s im ila r in te rp re ta tio n o f th e se
te rm s ; in p a rtic u la r h e a lso a rg u e s in fa v o r o f th e e m e n d a tio n c o m m e n d a tio .
59 A N O N -M IS U N D E R S T O O D T E X T C O N C E R N IN G T A G E S (1978) T h e re a d in g e x tis p ic iu m h a s n o w b e e n fin a lly in tro d u c e d in to th e te x t b y J. W illis in h is T e u b n e r e d itio n o f M a rtia n u s C a p e lla (L e ip z ig 1 9 8 3 ), p. 4 7 .1 1 -1 2 . D. S h a n z e r, “ D e T a g e tis e x a ra tio n e ” , H e r m e s (1 9 8 7 ) 1 2 7 -1 2 8 , fo llo w in g a s u g g e s t i o n b y C . M u r g i a , p r o p o s e s to r e a d “ e t r i t u m
s ta tim
g e n ti< b u s > s e x tis p ic iu m q u e m o n s tra v it” . T h e p lu ra l g e n tib u s w o u ld p a r a l le l “ th e r e s t o f th e s e r ie s o f d a t iv e o b je c ts in th e tr i c o l o n , c f . 4 7 .1 3 s it i e n ti b u s ... e x h ib u if , 4 7 .1 4 m o r ta lib u s p r a e s t i t e r u n t ” (s o M u r g ia ) , a n d
fin d s s u p p o rt (so S h a n z e r) in th e p a s s a g e o f P ru d e n tiu s ( A p o th e o s is 5 0 6 5 0 8 ) , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e p h r a s e “ g e n t ib u s e m i c u i t ” , r e f e r r i n g in P ru d e n tiu s to C h rist, b u t tra n s fe rre d to T a g e s in th e im ita tio n b y M a rtia n u s C a p e lla . N o w g e n tib u s m a k e s e m in e n t se n se w ith re s p e c t to C h rist, b u t is o u t o f p la c e w ith re s p e c t to T a g e s: h is te a c h in g w a s n o t u n iv e rs a l, b u t a d d re s s e d to o n e p a rtic u la r g e n s , th e E tru sc a n s.
T h e s in g u la r g e n ti is s u p
p o rte d b y O v id , M e t. 1 5 .5 5 8 -5 5 9 : “ q u i p rim u s E tru s c a m e d o c u it g e n te m c a su s a p e rire fiitu ro s” . T h e r e a d in g s im p u v iu m
is
d e fe n d e d
by
E . Z w ie rle in -D ie h l,
“ S im p u v iu m N u m a e ” , in: H .A . C a h n u n d E. S im o n (e d s.), T a in ia R o la n d H a m p e ... d a r g e b r a c h t (M a in z 1 978) 4 0 5 - 4 2 2 , at 4 2 1 - 4 2 2 . S h e p u b lish e s a
g e m o n w h ic h sh e b e lie v e s is d e p ic te d T a g e s sp rin g in g fro m a fu rro w a n d p re s e n tin g to a g ro u p o f t o g a ti a n o b je c t in w h ic h Z w ie rle in -D ie h l w ish e s to re c o g n iz e a s im p u v iu m . T h is is m o st u n lik e ly : w h y sh o u ld th e E tru sc a n T a g e s b e re p re s e n te d w ith s im p u v iu m , an e a rth e n w a re la d le th a t fu n c tio n e d as an e m b le m o f th e R o m a n p o n t if i c e s ?
677
Addenda and Corrigenda
I t is a l s o m o s t u n l i k e l y t h a t T a g e s is r e p r e s e n t e d o n a c i s t a P r a e n e s t i n a ; see J. C h a m p e a u x , “ R e lig io n ro m a in e e t re lig io n la tin e : le s
c u lte s d e J u p ite r e t J u n o n a P ré n e s te ” , R E L 6 0 (1 9 8 2 [1 9 8 3 ]) 7 1 - 1 0 4 , at 7 8 8 3 ; E a d e m , “ S o r s o r a c u li: le s o r a c le s e n I ta l ie s o u s la R é p u b l iq u e e t l ’E m p ire ” , M E F R A 102 (1 9 9 0 ) 2 8 2 , η. 2 2 ; a n d w ith a d iffe re n t in te rp re ta tio n , H . R ie m a n n , “P r a e n e s tin a e S o r o r e s . P ra e n e s te ” , M D A I (R ) 98 (1 9 8 8 ) 5 6 -5 7 .
60 R E V IE W O F : L E D É L IT R E L IG IE U X D A N S L A C IT É A N T IQ U E
(1984) P . 5 9 2 = 174: an e x c e lle n t lite ra ry c o u n te rp a rt to G a m e lin ’s p a in tin g is T h e U n w i ll in g V e s ta l. A T a le o f R o m e u n d e r th e C a e s a r s , a n o v e l b y
E d w a rd L u c a s W h ite (o rig in a lly p u b lish e d in 1918; b y th e tim e o f th e N e w Y o rk 1 9 6 7 e d itio n it h a d g o n e th ro u g h tw e n ty fo u r p rin tin g s ).
I o w e th e
k n o w le d g e o f th is p ie c e o f lite ra tu re to th e g e n e ro s ity o f P ro fe s s o r R .E .A . P a lm e r. P . 5 9 4 = 1 76:
o n th e h a n d lin g o f r e lig io u s o ffe n s e s c o m m itte d b y
m a g is tra te s, see A L 2 1 7 3 -2 1 7 7 ; a n d in g re a te r d e ta il th e in s tru c tiv e m o n o g ra p h b y N . R o s e n s te in , I m p e r a to r e s V ic ti.
M ilita r y D e f e a t a n d A r i s t o
c r a ti c C o m p e titio n in th e M id d le a n d L a te R e p u b lic (B e rk e le y 1990) 5 4 - 9 1 .
P . 5 9 5 = 177: o n th e h u m a n sa c rific e in R o m e , see n o w th e e x c e lle n t p a p e r b y A . E c k s te in , “ H u m a n S a c rific e a n d F e a r o f M ilita ry D is a s te r in R e p u b lic a n R o m e ” , A J A H l (1 9 8 2 [1 9 8 5 ]) 6 9 - 9 5 . C f. a lso F. H a m p l, “Z u m R itu s d e s L e b e n d ig b e g ra b e n s v o n V e s ta lin n e n ” , in: F e s ts c h r ift f ü r R o b e r t M u th , ed. b y P . H a n d e l a n d W . M e id (= In n s b ru c k e r B e iträ g e z u r K u ltu r
w is s e n s c h a ft 2 2 [In n sb ru c k 1983]) 1 6 5 -1 8 2 .
61 R E V IE W O F : L .B . V A N D E R M E E R , T H E B R O N Z E L I V E R O F P I A C E N Z A
(1990) C f. a b o v e , A d d e n d a to N o 5 9 , a n d A . M o ra n d i, “N u o v e o s se rv a z io n i su l fe g a to b ro n z e o d i P ia c e n z a ” , M E F R A 100 (1 9 8 8 ) 2 8 3 - 2 9 7 . P . 5 9 8 = 7 0 , n. 8 : o n C ile n s, cf. M .J. S tra z z u lla , “F o rtu n a E tru sc a e F o rtu n a R o m a n a : d u e c ic li d e c o ra tiv i a c o n fro n to (R o m a , v ia S. G re g o rio e B o ls e n a )” , O s tr a k a 2 (1 9 9 3 ) 3 1 7 -3 4 9 , at 3 3 5 -3 3 8 .
Addenda and Corrigenda
P . 5 9 9 = 71 (a n d n. 10): o n th e c o n ta c ts b e tw e e n G re e k a n d E tru sc a n d iv in a tio n , cf. D . B riq u e l, “ D iv in a tio n é tru s q u e e t m a n tiq u e g re c q u e : la re c h e r c h e d ’u n e o r ig in e h e llé n iq u e d e 1' E tr u s c a d i s c i p l i n a ” , L a to m u s 4 9 (1 9 9 0 ) 3 2 1 - 3 4 2 . P . 5 9 9 = 71 (a n d n. 11): o n th e m irro r fro m T u s c a n ia , se e M . T o re lli, “E tr u r ia P r in c ip e s d is c ip lin a m d o c e to .
Il m ito n o rm a tiv o d e llo s p e c c h io d i
T u s c a n ia ” , S tu d ia T a r q u in ie n s ia (R o m e 1988) 1 0 9 -1 1 8 , a b r illia n t stu d y . T h e re is n o T a g e s d e p ic te d o n th e m irro r; T o re lli id e n tifie s th e fig u re s as A v le T a rx u n u s , th e so n o f T a rc h o n , a n d P a v a ta rx ie s , i.e . “ u n p u e r d e lla s tirp e d i T a rc h o n ” . “ P a v a ta rx ie s è d u n q u e u n g io v a n e c h e si sta e s e rc ita n d o n e lla d is c ip lin a so tto l ’o c c h io v ig ile e p re o c c u p a to d e l m a tu ro a ru s p ic e A v le T a rx u n u s ” (p. 114).
62 R E V IE W O F : ID A P A L A D I N O , F R A T R E S A R V A L E S : S T O R IA D I U N C O L L E G IO S A C E R D O T A L E R O M A N O (1 9 9 1 ) P . 6 0 2 = 8 6 : S c h e id , R o m u lu s (see b e lo w ) 16, h a s m o d ifie d h is v ie w c o n c e rn in g th e te x t o f V a rro ; h e n o w a d m its th a t “ le p ré s e n t d u v e rb e f a c e r e in d iq u e q u e ce c u lte n ’e s t p a s u n lo in ta in so u v e n ir” . P . 6 0 3 = 87: w e a lm o st g o t a n ew H e n z e n : J. S c h e id , R o m u lu s e t s e s f r è r e s . L e c o ll e g e d e s f r è r e s a r v a le s , m o d e le d u c u lte d a n s la R o m e d e s e m p e r e u r s (R o m e 1 990), a m o st e ru d ite stu d y o f th e a c ta a r v a liu m a n d o f
th e a rv a l c u lt. T h e p ro s o p o g ra p h y o f th e c o lle g e S c h e id tre a te d e x te n siv e ly in L e c o llè g e d e s f r è r e s a r v a le s . É tu d e p r o s o p o g r a p h iq u e d u re c r u te m e n t, 6 9 - 3 0 4 (R o m e 1 9 9 0 ).
W e n o w a w a it fro m h is p e n a n e w e d itio n o f th e
d o c u m e n ts th e m se lv e s.
63 R E V IE W O F : D .S . P O T T E R , P R O P H E C Y A N D H I S T O R Y I N T H E C R I S I S O F T H E R O M A N E M P IR E : A H IS T O R IC A L C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E T H IR T E E N T H S IB Y L L IN E O R A C L E
(1 993) P . 6 0 6 = 1 8 2 , n. 10: c f. a ls o T . S te r n b e r g , “ D ie R e g i e r u n g s z e it G o r d ia n s III. a u s d e r S ic h t d e r k a is e r lic h e n R e c h t s p r e c h u n g ” , K l i o 71 (1 9 8 9 ) 1 6 4 -1 7 8 .
Addenda and Corrigenda
679
64 R O M A N R E L IG IO N IN L IV Y (1 9 9 3 ) S im u lta n e o u sly w ith th is a rtic le , a n d b e a rin g a s im ila r title , th e re a p p e a re d th e b o o k b y D .S . L e v e n e , R e lig io n in L iv y (= M n e m o s y n e , S u p p l. 127 [L e id e n 1 9 9 3 ]). H e re th e s im ila ritie s en d . L e v e n e ’s is m o stly a lite ra ry s tu d y w ith little in te re s t in th e te c h n ic a l a sp e c ts o f th e R o m a n re lig io n . A s an e m b le m f o r L e v e n e ’s a p p ro a c h m a y sta n d th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n t: “A u s p ic e s. I d e fin e th e se , n o t in th e stric t R o m a n se n se as th e d iv in a tio n b y a u g u rs, u s u a lly fro m b ird s o r th u n d e r a n d lig h tn in g , b u t in th e w id e r se n s e o f o m e n s s o u g h t a n d o b ta in e d at th e b e g in n in g o f an e n te rp riz e , th u s in c lu d in g , f o r e x a m p le , e x tis p ic y b y th e h a ru s p ic e s i f e m p lo y e d u n d e r su c h c irc u m s ta n c e s ” (p. 3 ). T h is d e fin itio n m a k e s n o se n se , a n d s e rv e s n o p u rp o se .
It
a lso c o n ta in s tw o e rro rs. F irst: a u sp ic e s w e re n o t e x c lu siv e ly “ d iv in a tio n b y a u g u rs ” b u t m o s tly d iv in a tio n b y m a g istra te s; th e p ro p e r sp h e re o f th e a u g u rs w a s d e fin e d as a u g u r ia n o t a u s p ic ia .
S e c o n d : th is d e fin itio n fa ils to
d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n th e a u s p ic ia im p e tr a tiv a so u g h t b e fo re th e b e g in n in g o f a n e n te rp riz e , a n d th e a u s p ic ia o b la tiv a th a t c o u ld a p p e a r a t a n y tim e , e v e n w h e n a n e n te rp riz e w a s in p ro g re ss. C o m p a re a lso th e a n a ly sis o f th e r e li g io u s ritu a l a t th e b a ttle o f A q u ilo n ia p re s e n te d in th is p a p e r (p p . 6 0 - 6 1 ) w ith L e v e n e ’s s u p e rfic ia l d e sc rip tio n (pp. 2 3 7 -2 3 9 ). P . 611 = 5 6 : o n d e fe a t a n d th e p a x d e o r u m , th e b a s ic stu d y is n o w N . R o s e n s te in , I m p e r a to r e s V ic ti (B e rk e le y 1 990) 5 4 - 9 1 . P . 6 1 4 = 5 9 (a n d η. 19):
th e fu ll re fe re n c e to E . B a d ia n ’s a rtic le is:
“L iv y a n d A u g u s tu s ” , in: W . S c h u lle r (ed ), L iv iu s. A s p e k te s e in e s W e rk e s (K o n s ta n z 1 9 9 3 ) 9 - 3 8 .
C f. a ls o th e i n t e r e s tin g p a p e r b y J. G lu c k e r ,
“A u g u s tio ra ” , G r a z e r B e itr ä g e 19 (1 9 9 3 ) 5 1 -1 0 1 . P. 6 1 5 = 6 0 (a n d n. 2 4 ):
o n la e tu s a s a v o x a u g u r a lis , see a ls o H .
D a h lm a n n , Ü b e r A e m iliu s M a c e r (= A b h . M a in z 1981, N r. 6 ) 9. P . 6 2 0 = 65:
a re v is e d a n d e x p a n d e d v e rs io n o f th e d is s e rta tio n b y
F .V . H ic k s o n h a s n o w a p p e a re d in p rin t: R o m a n P r a y e r L a n g u a g e . L iv y a n d th e A e n e i d o f V e r g il (S tu ttg a rt 1993).
E rra ta . P. 6 1 9 = 64, lin e 9: th e G re e k te x t w a s sc ra m b le d o n th e c o m p u te r. R e a d : “ 6 ι μ ά ν τ ε ις δ τ ι τ ε έ π ί μ έ γ α α ύ ξ ή σ ο ι κ α ί ” .
IN D IC E S M o d e rn A u th o rs A Abbott, F.F. 9 5 -9 6 , 198 Abbott, K.M. 209 Accam e, S. 193-94, 196, 199, 201, 204, 207, 210, 2 1 4 -1 5 , 2 1 7 -1 8 , 2 2 1 -2 2 , 330 Adams, J.N. 324, 429, 666 Adcock, F.E. 244 A fzelius, A. 3 0 9 -1 0 , 312, 314 Agache, S. 637 Agricola, R. 348 Albanese, B. 379, 383 Albertario, A. 385 Albertini, A. 663 Aidea, J.A. 366 Alexander, M.C. 631, 6 3 9 -4 0 , 650, 657 Alexander, W.H. 3 4 6 -4 8 Alexandre, C. 6 0 5 -7 A lföldi, A. 38, 63, 151, 202, 268, 288, 336, 3 6 0 -6 1 , 442, 481, 5 5 1 -5 2 , 585, 602, 671 Alföldy, G. 3 4 -3 6 , 43, 402, 582, 633 Alram, M. 6 0 5 -6 Altheim , F. 363 Ambrosch, J.A. 507 Amyot, J. 239 André, J.-M. 6 1 ,6 3 , 1 3 0 ,2 6 7 Andreau, J. 411 Annas, J. 467 Antonius, C.G. 351 Arbesmann, R. 532 Argetsinger, K. 665 Arnaldi, F. 2 2 8 -2 9 Arnold, W .T. 28 Ashby, T. 6 4 ,2 0 3 ,5 0 1 Astin, A.E. 88, 111, 119-20, 123, 134, 270, 292, 297, 307, 315, 318, 445, 4 7 9 ,6 3 6 ,6 5 3 Astolfi, R. 3 8 3 ,3 8 5 ,5 5 0 Atzert, C. 148, 305 Augustinus, A. 516
Ausbüttel, F.M. 645, 648 Aust, E.(= A .) 64, 3 6 2 -6 3 , 373 Austin, L.E. 60 Austin, R.G. 2 28-29, 330, 338 B Babcock, C.L. 260 Badian, E. 9, 10, 2 6 -2 8 , 65, 70, 9 6 -9 7 , 105, 119, 1 3 9 -4 1 ,2 4 3 , 2 6 6 -6 7 , 271, 2 9 2 -9 4 , 297, 303, 437, 467, 481, 511, 531, 540, 623, 636, 6 5 3 55, 6 7 3 -7 5 , 679 Badius, I. 322 Baehrens, A e.(= E.) 425 Baehrens, W .A. 524 Bäumer, Ä. 676 Bailey, C. 400, 404 Baiter, J.G. 2 2 8 ,2 8 1 -8 2 ,4 3 7 ,4 8 5 Baldwin, B. 4 2 4 -2 5 , 428, 639 Balsdon, J.RV.D. 9 2 -9 4 , 445 Bandelli, G. 29 Bandini, V. 194 Bang, M. 200 Barbieri, G. 8 7 ,3 9 5 ,4 1 0 Bardon, H. 371 Bardt, C. 240 Barnes, T.D. 4 3 1 ,5 7 6 ,5 8 2 Baronowski, D. 632 Bartelink, G.J.M. 3 3 9 ,3 4 1 Barth, C. 590 Bartoli, A. 409 Basore, J.W. 348 Bassignano, M.S. 663 Bately, J.M. 660 Bäuerle, E.A. 6 3 8 -3 9 , 650, 653 Bauman, R.A. 673 Baumgartner, A.J. 4 2 4 -2 5 Bayet, J. 422, 475, 625 Baynes, N. 582 Bean, G.E. 234 Beard, M. 5 9 2 ,6 0 1 -2 ,6 6 8 Beaujeu, J. 5 2 5 ,5 3 1 -3 2
Indices
Becher, I. 625 Becker, A.W . 352 Becker, E. 60 Bellen, H. 632 Beloch, J. 1 9 ,3 0 Belot, E J . 139 Benario, H. 152 Benedek, F. 154 Beness, J.L. 671 Ben veniste, É. 461 Béranger, J. 194, 292 Bergemann, C. 670 -7 1 Berger, A. 399, 552 Bergk, T. 526 Bernardi Perini, G. 425 Bemert, (.) 112 Bernstein, A.H. 292 Beroaldus, Ph. 228 Berthiaume, G. 662 Besnier, M. 96 Bessone, L. 5 3 7 -3 8 Bickel, E. 1 9 3 ,2 0 0 -1 B ied l.A . 598 B iggs, R.D. 599 Binder, G. 36 Bingham, W. 656 Biondo, B. 644-4 5 Birks, P. 664 Birley, E. 151,431 Birt, T. 3 4 5 ,3 4 7 ,3 4 9 - 5 0 Blecher, G. 526 Bleicken, J. 35, 4 1 ,1 1 0 , 150, 202, 391, 4 4 5 -4 6 , 453, 455, 471, 573, 644 Bloch, H. 230 Bloch, R. 622 Bliimner, H. 3 5 3 -5 5 , 434 B lumenthal, F. 587 Boak, A.E.R. 199 Bodel, J. 354 Bodor, A. 366 Boehm, Fr. 196, 201 Böhm, R.G. 155 Boels-Janssen, N. 672 Börner, F. 6 5 -6 6 , 193, 196-202, 370, 4 1 8 ,5 1 0 Böttinger, C.A. 352, 354 Boissevain, U.P. 226 Bona, F. 548
681
Bonner, S.F. 321 Borghesi, B. 600 Bormann, E. 362, 4 0 9 -1 0 , 661 Borzsak, S. 360 Bosworth, J. 359 Botermann, H. 3 6 ,1 5 1 -5 2 Botsford, G.W. 74 Botteri, P. 655 Bouché-Leclercq, A. 474, 522, 532 Boulanger, A. 258 Boulogne, R. 321 Bourgery, A. 348 Bourne, F.C. 97 Bowersock, G. 35, 42 Braccesi, L. 410, 5 3 7 -3 8 Bracco, V. 4 1 3 -1 4 Brakman, C. 345, 347 Branca, G. 568 Brassloff, S. 543, 555 Brause, F.A. 5 0 7 -8 Brazouski, A. 639 Breglia Pulci Doria, L. 605 Brelich, A. 399 Bremer, F.P. 40, 61, 162, 508, 516, 523 Brennan, T.C. 656 Briggs, W.W. 632 Briquel, D. 336, 3 4 1 -4 3 , 659, 678 Briscoe, J. 152, 620, 622, 624 Brisson, J.-P. 141, 307 Broilo, F. 408 Broise, H. 601, 603 Broughton, T.R.S. 20, 59, 61, 6 4 ,7 0 , 7 1 -7 2 , 7 6 -8 3 , 85, 89, 91, 97, 1 0 2 3, 106, 116, 118-19, 121-24, 132, 13 8 ,1 4 4 , 200, 2 2 4 -2 5 , 2 3 1 -3 5 , 2 3 7 -3 9 , 241, 246, 2 5 1 -5 4 , 268, 2 7 1 -7 5 , 2 7 7 -7 8 , 2 8 1 -8 3 ,2 8 6 -8 7 , 2 9 4 -9 8 , 3 0 0 -1 , 3 0 3 -5 , 308, 3 1 0 11, 3 1 5 -1 7 , 319, 436, 439, 4 4 2 -4 3 , 497, 534, 536, 555, 568, 570, 6 3 1 32, 6 3 4 -3 6 , 639, 6 5 0 -5 4 , 657 Brozek, M. 2 2 6 -3 0 Bruère, R.T. 584 Bruhl, A. 367 Bruno, M.G. 63 Brunt, P.A. 20, 139, 143, 1 45-46, 1 5 0 52, 2 8 6 ,3 1 4
Indices
Bruwaene van den, Μ. 468 Buckland, W.W. 380,382,388 Bücheier, F. 351,362,373,403,661, 665 Bülz, M. 234-35, 252, 255, 281-82 Bürge A. 61 Bulard, M. 201 Buonocore, M. 375-76,382,411-14, 663-64 Burckhardt, L.A. 634 Buresch, K. 224 Burke, E. 21 Burkert, W. 466 Burmann, P. 351 C Cagnat, R. 96,230, 368 Cagnetta, M. 33 Cahn, H.A. 676 Calboli, G. 292 Calder, W.M. 632 Calderone, S. 461 Cameron, Al. 431 Camps, A.W. 344-47 Cantarella, E. 645 Canter, H.V. 209 Carcopino, J. 71 Cardauns, B. 40, 464 Camey, T. 112 Carp, T. 596 Casaubonus, I. 424-25, 576 Cèssola, F. 325,499-501 Casson, L. 244, 287 Caster, C.J. 659 Castorina, E. 130 Castricius, H. 37-38 Catalano, P. 22, 372, 446, 476, 489, 492, 502, 517, 530, 554-55, 563, 573,623 Cèbe, J.-P. 62, 337 Ceska, J. 193,209 Champeaux, J. 603, 677 Champlin, E. 319,458,522-23 Chantraine, H. 376, 380, 382, 389 Charles-Picard, G. 607 Chastagnol, A. 107, 430 Cheesman, G.L. 148 Christ, K. 20-21,24,34,43
Ciaceri, E. 240, 243, 248 Cichorius, C. 65, 139, 148, 266, 277, 298, 509 Cipriano, P. 485, 490-95 Clark, A.C. 193, 229, 232, 241, 249, 260, 269, 276-77 Clarke, G.W. 531-32 Classen, C.J. 289, 648 Coarelli, F. 60, 290, 494, 647 Coccio, M. 320 Cohn, L. 426-27 Cohn, M. 165, 193-95, 202, 204, 207, 210-12, 214-15, 217, 220, 330 Colafrancesco, P. 396 Cole, T. 661 Coleman-Norton, P.R. 97 Colin, G. 27-28 Collari, J. 662 Collot, C. 428 Colonna, G. 343 Combet-Famoux, B. 647 Conington, J. 530 Connor, W.R. 425 Constans, L.-A. 84, 115, 122, 234, 237, 422 Corbett, P.E. 543,577,579,671 Cornell, T. 592,594 Costa, E. 204 Costabile, F. 375, 382 Costanza, S. 266, 276 Courtney, E. 436 Cracco Ruggini, L. 646 Craddock, P.T. 660 Crévier, J.B. 308, 561 Criniti, N. 65, 326 Cristofani, M. 336 Cramer, F.H. 483 Crawford, M.H. 64, 66-70, 103, 296, 438, 600, 634, 674 Cresci Marrone, G. 409-10 Crifò.G. 41,43,112,510,592,595, 645,654 Croce, B. 1, 21 Crook, J.A. 580 Crummey, R.O. 550 Cugusi, P. 401 Cuq, E. 95-96,98-99
Indices
D D’Arms, J.H. 60 D’Ors, A. 146,201,219 Dagron, G. 370 Dahlmann, Η. 62, 65, 347, 349, 669, 679 Damon, C. 646 Damsté, P.H. 534 David, J.-M. 421,631,639-40,64849, 657-58 David, M. 157,543,578 Davies, R.W. 147 De Bellis Franchi, A. 409-10 De Coninck, L. 383 De Francisci, P. 446,549,671 De Franciscis, A. 413 De Robertis, F.M. 168,189,193-95, 202, 204, 207-14, 217-18, 221, 330, 645, 647-49 De Rossi, I.B. 603 De Sanctis, G. 17-19, 29-30, 555 De Visscher, F. 385-86,551-52 Deecke.W. 362,596,598 Degmediié, I. 360 Degrassi, A. 78-81, 97, 100-1, 103, 200, 226, 255, 262-63, 370, 373, 410, 438-39, 442^13, 501, 568, 660-62, 667 Dekan, J. 359 Del Chicca, F. 107 Delatte, L. 196 Deléage, A. 413 Della Casa, A. 523 Demandt, A. 42-43, 633 Demandi, B. 633 Demougin, S. 412, 638, 641, 648 Deniaux, É. 638, 648 Denniston, J.D. 255, 258 Denyear, N. 668 Dessau, H. 362-63, 368, 373, 410, 417, 439, 623 Detlefsen, D. 358, 361 Dettenhoffer, M.H. 651-52, 667 Develin, R. 297, 308 Di Stefano Manzella, I. 410, 662 Dick, A. 590-91 Diehl, E. 362-63,401
683
Diels, H. 465, 605 Dieterich, A. 549 Dietz, K. 606 Dihle.A. 228,465 Dobson, B. 151 Dölger, F.J. 430,432 Doer, B. 438 Döring, K. 466, 486 Dörrie, H. 468 Dohm, H. 662 Domaszewski von, A. 151 Domergue, C. 353-54 Douglas, A.E. 60, 292-93 Dow, S. 361 Dragona-Monachou, M. 460 Drews, R. 622 Droysen, G. 21 Drumann, W. 79, 82, 92, 94, 115, 122, 129, 148, 205, 216, 224, 231, 23334, 240-41, 244, 246, 248, 251-53, 258, 260, 270-71, 281-82, 284, 287-88, 305, 328-30, 437, 440, 471, 497, 512 Drummond, A. 635 Du Cange, C. 398 Du Four, Johnstone M. 263 Du Mesnil, A. 475 Duby, G. 550 Duff, J.W. 584 Dumézil, G. 483, 550 Dumont, J.-C. 637 Dupuy, C. 421 Durand, R. 458,490 Durrbach, F. 95-96,201 Durry, M. 151 Duruy, V. 28 Duthoy, R. 381 Duval, N. 401 Dziatzko, K.(= C.) 295-96, 299 E Eadie, J.W. 281 Earl.D.C. 109,292,636 Ebrey, P.B. 550 Eck, W. 413,427,441 Eckstein, A. 372,632,677 Eder.W. 633 Edmonds, J.M. 426
Indices
Ehrenberg, V. 43, 258, 282, 467 Eigenbrodt, A. 75 Eitrem, S. 293 Ekblom, R. 356-59 Eliachevitch, B. 195, 197, 204, 209, 217, 220 Emanuele, D. 354 Engelmann, H. 642-43 Ensslin, W. 146 Eppstein, D.F. 655 Erasmus, D. 424 Erkell, H. 264 Emout, A. 63, 157, 322, 366, 417,502, 541,570 Etherington, N. 28 Ewins, U. 372 F Fabian, B. 464 Fadinger, V. 152 Farrington, B. 466 Fascione, L. 110,336,638 Fears, J.R. 481,488,670 Fele, M.L. 537 Ferey, D. 648 Ferguson, J. 459 Ferrary, J.-L. 469,632,635,637,641, 658-59, 667 Ferrerò, G. 28-29 Ferrili, A. 376 Femia, A. 409 Fetzer, K. 438 Fickert, C.R. 345, 348 Fiebiger, O. 150-51 Fiehn, (.) 425 Finger, P. 474, 490 Flach, D. 20,28,353 Flambard, J.M. 421,645-49 Foerster, R. 429 Fontaine, J. 431 Forbiger, A. 406, 530 Fordyce, C.J. 119-20 Forster, E.S. 440 Forster, R. 550 Foucart, P. 436, 440 Fowler, W.W. 65,592-93 Fraccaro, P. 19,30,292-93,315,339, 536-37
Frankel, E. 160, 500 Francken, C.M. 228 Frank, T. 1, 13-16, 18, 19, 27-29, 362, 632 Fraschetti, A. 592, 595, 646 Frederiksen, M.W. 198-99, 642, 647 Frei-Stolba, R. 108-9,241,555,588 Freier, H. 548 Frézouls, E. 632 Friedländer, L. 351-52 Friedlieb, J.H. 605-6 Frier, B.W. 501-2,622 Fröhlich, (.) 281 Fuhrmann, M. 586 Funaioli, H. 40,64,516 Fussl.M. 665 Fustel de Coulanges, N.D. 11-13,19, 21,27-28 G Gabba, E. 29-30, 41, 43, 78, 139, 33644, 438, 471-72, 534-35, 537, 540 Galsterer, H. 146, 633 Gamelin, J. 592,595,677 Garcia Garrido, M. 379, 386 Gardner, J.F. 664 Gamsey, P.D.A. 20 Garrucci, R. 661 Gasparotto, C. 369 GaudemeU. 154,156-58,194-95 Geffcken, J. 604-5 Geiger, J. 651 Geizer, M. 34-36, 91, 119, 139, 240, 287,314 Gerlo, A. 266, 276 Gertz.M.C. 345,348 Gesche, H. 38 Gessler, F. 311 Ghislanzoni, E. 369 Giacomelli, G. 660-62 Giannelli, G. 502-3 Giarratano, C. 276-77 Gibbon, E. 35,43 Gilbert, F. 142 Gilliam, J.F. 147,250,375,591 Giomini, R. 458,516 Giovannini, A. 624, 674 Girard, J.-L. 662
Indices
Girardet, K.M. 643-44, 654 Giumla-Muir, A.R. 660 Gjerstad, E. 551,671 Gladigow, B. 287 Glucker, J. 679 Goar, R J. 468 Göll, H. 352 Goetz, G. 159,536,582 Goffart, W. 428 Golvers, N. 659 Goodyear, F.R.D. 152, 384, 389-90, 392-93 Goold, G.P. 376 Gossen, H. 520 Gothofredus, I. 424 Goujard, R. 353 Graf, A. 360 Graham, A J. 43 Grandazzi, A. 659 Grassmück, E. 112 Graubard, S.R. 142 Green, P. 376-77 Gregori, G.L. 410 Grether, G. 197 Griffin, M. 113 Grimal, P. 59, 60, 100, 113, 290, 350, 657 Groag, E. 34, 226, 229, 265-66, 269, 376 Grodzynski, D. 461 Groebe, P. 79, 82, 92, 115, 122, 129, 131, 148, 205, 216, 224, 228, 231, 233-34, 240-41, 244, 246, 248, 25153, 258, 260, 270-71, 281-82, 284, 287, 305, 328-30, 437, 471, 497, 512 Grote, G. 21 Grotius, H. 590 Gruen, E. 107, 111, 114, 278-79, 512, 535, 631-32, 639-40, 648, 657-58 Grummel, W.C. 71 Gruter, J. 229,421 Gualandi, G. 387-88 Guarducci, M. 407 Guarino, A. 292, 565 Günther, (.) 431 Guillaumont, F. 485-95 Guittard, C. 592,595,676 Guizzi, F. 554,578,671
685
Gummere, R.M. 108 Gundel, H.G. 123,224,231,436 Guthrie, W.K. 466 H Haase, A.F. 348 Habicht, C. 375 Hackl.U. 641 Halkin, L. 128 Hall, A. 439 Hall, U. 98,634,636 Hammond, M. 20, 28, 268 Hampl, F. 677 Hampson, R.T. 359 Handel, P. 677 Hands, A.R. 258 Hanell, K. 571 Hanslik, R. 376 Harcum, C.G. 662 Harmand, J. 150,301,307 Hamecker, O. 228 Harris, W.V. 8,20,23,26,250,321, 324, 369, 373-75, 657 Harvey, P.B. 637-38 Hatzfeld, J. 180, 199, 201, 365, 443 Heibges, U. 479 Heikkilä, K. 634,669-70 Heinsius, N. 351 Heinze, R. 204-5, 262-63, 268, 272 Helleguarc’h, J. 108-9, 151, 294, 315 Henderson, M.I. 119 Henrichs, A. 465 Henzen, W. 601,603,678 Hermes, E. 348 Hermon, E. 632 Herrick, J. 27 Herrmann, P. 152 Herzog, R. 127 Heurgon, J. 53, 62, 104-5, 146, 18081, 198-99, 203, 295-96, 299, 520 Heuss, A. 20-22, 34, 138, 563, 565, 570, 572-73 Hickson, F.V. 620, 623, 679 Hijmans, B.L. 400 Hill, H. 139, 343-44 Hinard, F. 643 Hine, H.M. 519 Hinrichs, F.T. 436
Indices
Hirschfeld, Ο. 25 Hirzel, R. 49,59-62 Hölkeskamp, K.-J. 572, 673 Hönn, K. 576 Hoff van, AJ.L. 464 Hoffmannn, F. 321 Hofmann, J.B. 417, 541, 570 Hohl, E. 379,383,553,576 Holland, L.A. 196 Holleaux, Μ. 1, 7-13, 18-20, 25-27 Holmes, T.R. 78, 91, 116, 224, 241, 247, 252-53, 256, 270 Hondius, JJ.E. 96 Honoré, A.M. 162 Hopf, L. 521 Hosius, C. 60, 328, 402, 514, 518, 530 Hübner, E. 507 Hübner, W. 525 Hug, A. 367 Humbert, J. 257 Humbert, M. 642 Hunter, L.W. 244 Hurst, J.F. 345 Hutton, J.H. 550
I Iacopi, G. 375, 378 Ihm, M. 262,275,409,413 Dine, W. 28 Isler.M. 110
J Jacobs, L.D. 663 Jacobson, D.M. 660 Jahn, O. 351 Jal.P. 481-2 Janson, T. 621 Janssen, L.F. 461 Jashemski, S. 44, 59 Jashemski, W. 44, 59 Jocelyn, H.D. 461,464-65,473,593, 621, 669-70 Johnson, A.C. 95-97 Johnson, J. 182-85,193,199-200 Jolliffe, R.O. 271 Jolowicz, H.F. 399 Jones, C.P. 261, 361 Jones, R.E. 62 Jordan, H. 62, 203, 305
K Kaibel, G. 409, 413 Kajanto, I. 63,96,239,268,320-21, 442, 609, 620-21, 665-66 Kajava, M. 647 Kapp, J. 322 Karlowa, O. 194, 579-81 Karsten, H.T. 527-28, 530 Kaser, M. 154, 163, 219, 379, 382-85, 387, 399-400, 543, 546-49, 557, 565, 577-79, 671 Kassel, R. 404 Kasten, H. 421-22 Kaster, R. 158, 337, 509, 530 Kayser, P. 194, 204, 207, 215, 217 Keaveney, A. 621 Keil, H. 105, 276, 329, 529 Keil, J. 266 Keller, D. 350 Kelly, J.M. 388 Kempf.C. 320 Keppie, L. 147 Kerr.W.C.A. 352 Keyssner, K. 371,374 Kienast, D. 378,551,607 Kiessling, A. 262-63, 268, 272, 276-77 Kind, F.E. 522-23 Kingsley, B. 659 Kinsey, T.E. 112 Klebs, E. 78, 131, 226, 238, 262, 268, 275, 303-4, 430, 436, 441, 485 Klein, R. 30 Klotz, A. 328-29, 3 47^8, 358, 361 Knap.P.C. 642 Kneissl, P. 410,438 Kneppe, A. 34 Knibbe, D. 642-43 Knüttel, R. 579-80 Kock, T. 426 Koeber, R. 28 Köpke, E. 215 Körte, G. 596,598 Koestermann, E. 374, 578 Köves-Zulauf, T. 584—89, 676 Kohns, H.P. 575 Kolb, F. 346-47 Kolenda, P. 550 Kolendo, J. 675
Indices
Konrad, C. 164,434,637 Kopp.U.F. 590 Komemann, E. 194-96, 201, 262, 362 Koschaker, P. 545-46 Koster, WJ.W. 362 Kowalski, Η. 638-39 Kraft, K. 148 Krähe, Η. 415-16 Krahner, L. 590 Kranz, W. 465 Krenkel, W. 298 Kretschmar, M. 61 Kroll, W. 215-16, 299, 328-29 Kromayer, J. 25, 152 Krummrey, H. 401, 412, 662 Krynski, M J. 67 Kubitschek, W. 369 Kübler, B. 71 Kunkel, W. 42,61,288,323-24,391, 446, 580 L Lacey, W.K. 236,376,652 Laffi.U. 375 Lamboglia, N. 412 Lambrechts, P. 202 Lana, I. 228 Lange, L. 40, 71-74, 77-78, 93, 110, 117, 131, 134-35, 146, 224, 231, 233, 244-45, 249, 270, 281, 309-10, 479 Laqueur, R. 571 Last, H. 91,551 Lattanzi, E. 375 Latte, K. 196, 200, 367, 584 Lattimore, R. 399, 411 Laughton, E. 62 Launey, M. 95-96,99 Lauregans, P. 387 Le Gall, J. 203 Lehmann, C.A. 286 Lenaz, L. 591 Lengle, J. 204, 259, 307, 332 Leo, F. 362 Leon, E.F. 391 Leone, M. 554 Leonhard, R. 543, 577 Lessing, C. 582
687
Letta, C. 653 Leumann, M. 345, 418 Levene, D.S. 679 Levi, M. 219 Levick, B. 376-77,392,636 Levine, P. 61 Levy, E. 112,579 Lewis, R.G. 643-44 Libero de, L. 634, 670 Licordari, A. 653 Liebenam, W. 112, 194, 204, 217, 221 Lieberg, G. 464 Liebeschuetz, J.H.W.G. 592,620-21, 624 Liebs, D. 428-29,583 Liegle, J. 587 Lier.B. 399,401,403-4,411 Lindberg, D.C. 250 Lindermann, G.F. 29 Linderski, J. 25-26, 34, 36, 39-40, 66, 69, 91, 101, 113-14, 120, 135-36, 151, 194, 201-2, 254, 256, 282, 287, 306, 330-31, 382, 422, 458, 462-63, 469, 474, 477, 480, 48586, 488, 490, 492, 494, 498, 503, 508, 510, 514-15, 525, 530, 533, 539, 560, 564, 566, 569, 572-74, 579, 586, 596, 599, 620-25, 63132, 634-35, 637, 644, 646-47, 664, 667-68, 670-71 Lindsay, W.M. 143, 159-60, 163, 516, 577 Lintott, A. 23,256,472,488,513-14, 534, 539, 638, 652, 654 Lipsius, J. 262, 345-46, 485 Lissberger, E. 399 Lloyd, R.B. 158,509,530 Lobrano, G. 563 Löfstedt, E. 429 Loew, R. 125 Löwe, G. 159 Lommatzsch, E. 97-98, 362-63, 662 Loposzko, T. 512,645,649 Lowe, J.C.B. 662 Lowe, W.D. 354 Lowmiahski, H. 358 Lucas, H. 406 Luce, TJ. 458,620-21
Indices
Luiselli, B. 661 Luterbacher, F. 228, 620, 622 M MacBain, B. 620,622,625 MacDonald, C. 132, 650 McDonald, W.F. 74, 113, 132, 445 McDonnell, M. 639 McGIew, J.F. 34 McGushin, P. 338, 650 Macé.A. 383 Macrea, M. 360 Madsen, D.V. 651 Madvig, J.N. 126,301,309,316,318, 348, 576, 583 Magdelain, A. 446, 455,492-94, 56366, 570, 573, 624-25 Maggi ani, A. 598-99 Magie, D. 265,443,576 Magnino. D. 240 Maguire, R.A. 67 Maiuri, A. 352 Maleo vati, H. 111, 129-31, 307, 328, 657 Malitz, J. 652 Malone, K. 356-59 Maltby, R. 341 Mancini, G. 395-96 Manganaro, G. 369 Manni, E. 146,262 Manutius, P. 139,193,276-77 Marbach, E. 455, 515 March, A. 29 Marini, G. 601 Marinucci, A. 411 Marmorale, E.V. 352 Maróti, E. 436, 638 Marquardt, J. 64, 201, 307, 396, 507, 5 4 4 , 547-48, 671 Marshall, A.J. 257, 259, 284, 635 Marshall, B.A. 631,640 Martin, P.M. 336, 343^14 Martin, R. 62,105 Martini, R. 649 Martorana, G. 672 Marx, F. 268,298 Massaro, M. 396 Mastandrea, P. 598
Mastrocinque, A. 646 Mattingly, H.B. 104, 110, 123, 299 Maurenbrecher, B. 436,441-42 Mayer, A. 415-16 Mayhoff, C. 276 Mazza, M. 620-21 Méhat, H. 524 Meid, W. 677 Meier, C. 35, 38, 83-84, 86, 88-89, 231, 237, 286 Meiggs, R. 200 Meillet, A. 157, 322, 366, 417, 502, 541, 570 Meineke, A. 426 Meise, E. 391 Meloni, P. 313,316 Mennella, G. 409-10,412,414 Mercklin, L. 243, 248 Merguet, H. 209, 258 Messina, L. 675 Meuli.K. 197-98,201,418 Meusel, H. 253 Meyer, E. 25, 28, 84, 87, 116-17, 125, 133,232, 244, 247, 288 Meyer, J.-W. 599 Michelet 27 Michels, A.K. 245, 460-61, 499, 524, 533, 566, 653 Millar, F. 33,34,41,387-88 Miltner, F. 92-94, 115, 121, 123-24, 131,233,240 Minasi, G. 661 Minellius, J. 322 Mitchell, J.F. 246 Mitchell, R.E. 559,673 Mitchell, T.N. 287-89, 634 Mitteis, L. 219 Momigliano, A. 21, 27, 29, 33, 39, 565, 570, 667-68 Mommsen, T. 1-7, 10, 12, 13, 17, 18, 20-28, 30, 32-43, 63, 65, 68, 71-72, 74-76, 81, 85, 87-88, 91-93, 101-2, 104, 107, 111-12, 120, 132, 140-46, 148-50, 165, 168, 173, 175-77, 179-80, 182, 185, 193-96, 199, 204, 206-9, 211-12, 214-15, 217, 21920, 228, 235, 238-39, 241, 243, 246, 248, 251, 255, 258-59, 262, 269,
Indices
271, 281-82, 285-86, 288, 298, 3013, 307, 311, 313, 315, 324, 330, 332, 346-47, 357, 362, 372, 378,407, 409, 411-14, 432, 454, 457, 478, 487-88, 504,513, 539, 545-47,555, 562, 564, 567, 570, 581, 593, 603, 620, 624, 633, 642, 647, 671 Mommsen, W. 24-25, 28 Monti, G.M. 194,222 Moore, J.M. 152 Moore, T J. 655 Morandi, A. 677 Morani, M. 491 Morawski, K. 25 Moreau, P. 637 Morgan, G. 585 Mocsy, A. 360 Mountford, J.F. 529, 638 Moyle, J.B. 399,405 Mrozek, S. 369 Mühll Vonder, F. 123, 328-29 Müllenhoff, K. 360 Müller, A. 21 Müller, C.(= K.) O. 516,596 Mueller, C.W.F. 514 Müller, H J. 315 Müller, K. 351 Münzer, F. 34-35, 64, 80, 96, 118-19, 123,125, 130,138, 142, 200, 204, 216, 224, 228, 231, 233-35, 237, 240, 245, 266,271, 278, 282-83, 296, 298, 304,315-18, 320-21, 32526, 328, 340, 434, 443, 446, 459, 485 Muretus, M.A. 345 Murgia, C. 676 Musti, D. 28, 336, 413, 620, 622 Muth, R. 461 N Naumann, A. 150 Needham, P. 35 Nelson, H.L.W. 157, 543, 578 Néraudau, J.-P. 672 Nettleship, H. 530 Neumann, K.J. 93 Niebling, G. 193, 196-97, 201 Niebuhr, B.G. 21, 507 Niccolini, G. 63, 115, 117, 121, 232-33,
689
248, 251, 281-82, 310, 497, 534, 536 Nicholas, B. 399 Nicolet, C. 20, 34, 55, 63-65, 102, 104, 107, 111, 113, 137-42, 259, 287, 307, 310, 312, 320-21, 326, 340, 420-21, 637, 641, 649-50, 660 Nicoletti, A. 605-7 Nicols, J. 413 Nipperdey, K. 226,251,253,255, 282-83 Nisbet, R.G. 497-98,503-4,514,543 Nissen, H. 314 Noailles, P. 545-47,552,671 Nocera, G. 471 Nock, A.D. 202 Noethlichs, K.L. 429 Nordstroem, V. 336 North, J. 26, 495, 593, 654-55, 668 Nougayrol, J. 599
O O’Brien Moore, A. 83, 220 Ober, J. 383 Oehler, J. 397 Oetling, W. 228 Ogilvie, R. 337-38, 342, 374, 468, 479, 502,558-62, 567, 571, 573, 620-22,671 Oksala, P. 125 Oldfather, W.A. 209 Oliverius Arzignanensis 320, 322 Ooteghem van, J. 60,91-92,94,240, 243-44, 440, 443 Opelt, I. 429,582 Optendrenk, T. 582 Ordii, J.C.(= K.) 228,281-82,351, 437, 485 Ormerod, H.A. 436, 440 Orozius, I. 676 Otto.A. 398,403,406,411,424 Otto, W.F. 264 Oxé.A. 200
P Paci, G. 414 Pack, R.A. 540-41
690
Packard, D.W. 620-21 Pais, E. 29,407,414 Paladino, I. 600-603,678 Pallotino, M. 598-99 Palmer, R.E.A. 289-90, 369-70, 502, 567,677 Panciera, S. 407,410,412-13 Pani, M. 29-30, 108 Panthagatus, O. 138 Panvinius, O. 139 Pape, W. 125 Pascal, C.B. 603 Paschali, D. 541 Pasoli, E. 601 Passerini, A. 148, 441-42, 540 Pavis D’Escurac, H. 575, 583 Pease, A.S. 60-61, 63-64, 104, 45859, 466, 468, 474-75, 479, 487, 490, 499, 503, 515-16, 526, 53233, 562, 596 Pédech, P. 464 Peek, W. 436 Pekàry, T. 605 Pellegrino, C. 351-52 Pellicer, A. 400 Perl, G. 64-65, 105 Pernice, A. 194 Pernice, L.G.A. 426 Perrochat, P. 352 Peruzzi, E. 661-62 Pesili, G. 653 Peter, H. 128, 338, 340, 576 Peter, K.(= C.) L. 28 Peter, R. 161-62,543-^4 Petersen, L. 263 Peterson, R.M. 199 Pfaff.I. 204 Pfeffer, F. 474,532 Pflaum, H.-G. 553,580,586 Philipp, H. 372 Pianezzola, E. 642 Piccaluga, G. 479-80, 592, 595 Piganiol, A. 196, 562 Pigealdus, I. 676 Pighi, G.B. 515-16 Pighius, S.V. 231,234 Pikhaus, D. 399-401 Pilchmayr, F. 534, 536
Indices
Pinotti, P. 397 Pinsent, J. 571 Pisani, V. 362,364 Platner, S.B. 64,203,501 Plepelits, K. 425 Poccetti, P. 412, 647 Pocock, L.G. 512 Pohl.H. 667 Poland, F. 201 Polverini, L. 29, 632 Pomeroy, A.J. 666 Popa, A. 366 Popper, K. 33 Porte, D. 672 Potter, D.S. 603-7, 678 Poucet, J. 336, 343-44 Poultney, J.W. 63, 489 Powell, J.G.F. 633 Préaux, J.G. 590-91 Preibisch, P. 507-8 Premerstein von, A. 34, 42, 152 Prete, S. 299,529 Prévost, M.H. 226 Pritsak, O. 660 Purcell, N. 647 Purser, L.C. 125, 234, 236-37, 258, 287 Puteanus (Dupuy), C. 421
Q Quispel, G. 531 R Raaflaub, K. 36, 559-60, 566, 577, 673 Radke.G. 500,672-73 Rambaud, M. 287 Rampelberg, R.M. 623 Rankin, M.E. 364 Ranouil, P.-C. 66, 570 Ranum, O. 550 Rathbone, D.W. 105 RatkoS, P. 359 Ratti, E. 146 Raubitschek, A.E. 340 Rawson, E. 40, 60, 64, 150, 287, 340, 435, 459, 465, 622, 641, 669 Reams, L.E. 650 Reddé.M. 378 Reduzzi Merola, F. 643
Indices
Reeve, M.D. 295 Regell, P. 474, 490, 493-94, 503, 507-8, 522, 525,533, 587 Rehm, B. 339 Reifferscheidt, A. 490, 507 Reineke, (.) 244 Reinhold, Μ. 623,643 Reitzenstein, R. 62, 105, 160 Renan, E. 11,27 Reynolds, J. 147-48,643 Reynolds, L.D. 345,348 Ribbeck, O. 397 Ricci, M.L. 396 Riccobono, S. 87 Richard, J.-C. 66,341,546,549,55152, 566-68, 570, 657, 668, 671-74 Richardson, J.S. 65-66, 100, 102-6 Richardson, L. 290 Richter, O. 203 Ridley, R.T. 29,35,571 Riemann, H. 677 Riepl, W. 244 Riese, A. 341,424-25 Rilinger, R. 635 Rinkes, S.H. 107,224, 269, 638 Riposati, B. 40 Robert, J. 234 Robert, L. 27,234,585 Robinson, R.P. 650 Robleda, O. 579 Roddaz, J.M. 644 Rögler, G. 120 Rogers, R.S. 390-91 Rohde, G. 504,509-11 Rolfe, J.C. 431 Ronconi, A. 425 Roques, Μ. 27 Rosborough, R.N. 262 Rose, H.J. 161,544 Rosenberg, A. 262 Rosenhauer, J. 538 Rosenstein, N. 677, 679 Rossbach, A. 543, 548, 577, 579 Rostovtzeff, M. 26, 30, 583 Rothstein, M. 228-29 Rotondi, G. 111,144,310,313,471,485 Rouse, R.H. 295 Roussel, P. 95-96, 99
691
Rowland, R.J. 632 Rowoldt, G. 162, 508, 543-44 Rozenberg, K. 362, 364 Rubino, J. 554 Ruch, M. 60 Rudolph, H. 196,262 Ruebel, J.S. 652 Rüpke, J. 642-43 Ruge.W. 665 Ryan, F.X. 650-52, 656, 668 Rzach, A. 500, 605 S Sabbatucci, D. 592, 595 Sachers, E. 146 Säflund, G. 276 Safarewicz, J. 362,418 Sage, M.M. 384,537-38 Saint-Denis, E. 622 Salerno, F. 645 Sailer, R.P. 386 Salmasius, C. 424, 432, 575 Salmon, E.T. 372 Salomies, O. 414,651 Sancho, L. 673 Sandbach, F.H. 541 Sanders, G. 395, 403 Sanford, E.M. 97 Santalucia, B. 592, 595 Santoro, A. 158, 509, 530 Sartori, F. 20, 369, 425, 642, 663 Savage, S. 510 Savigny von, F. 1,21-22 Sblendorio Cugusi, M.T. 307 Schäublin, C. 623, 625, 634, 668 Schanz, M. 60, 328, 514, 518, 530 Scheffer, J. 351 Scheid, J. 39, 592-94, 601-3, 633, 664, 678 Schian, R. 473 Schlee, F. 529 Schleicher, A. 65, 100-2 Schleussner, B. 101,656 Schmeisser, G. 590-91 Schmidt, H.D. 28 Schmidt, J. 150-51,330 Schmidt, M. 426-27 Schmidt, O.E. 59-60
692
Schmidt, P. 139 Schmidt, P.L. 341,620-21,670 Schmidt, W. 370 Schmiedt, G. 378 Schmitthenner, W. 33, 422 Schnabel, P. 358 Schnorr von Carolsfeld, L. 193, 202, 217,219, 221 Schoell, R. 276-77 Schofield, M. 668 Schrevelius, C. 576 Schröder, W.A. 338,372 Schubert, G. 231 Schuller, W. 427, 429, 679 Schulten, A. 180, 199 Schultess, F. 348 Schulz, F. 61, 162-63, 499, 586 Schulze, W. 63, 200, 276, 296, 414, 429, 433, 485 Schumacher, L. 623, 674 Schuppe, E. 321 Schwegler, A. 507 Schwind von, F. 132 Scullard, H.H. 61, 65-66, 148, 308 Seager, R. 129 Seeck, O. 107,413 Seel, O. 252-53 Segal, E. 42 Seidel, J. 231,234-35,237-39,296, 298-99 Serrao, F. 110 Settle, J.N. 257 Seyfarth, W. 431 Shackleton Bailey, D.R. 60, 62, 64-65, 101-2, 126-29, 151, 238, 241, 248, 251, 254, 269-72, 275, 277, 281, 283, 286, 289-90, 297, 303, 321, 325-26, 414, 420-25, 430, 437, 459, 485, 511, 631, 638-40, 645, 648, 652, 657, 666-67 Shanzer, D. 596, 676 Shatzman, I. 73, 102, 105, 290 Shaw-Smith, R. 353 Sherk, R.K. 98 Sherwin, W.K. 536, 538 Sherwin-White, A.N. 26, 143-47, 262, 352,514, 667
Indices
Siber, H. 145 Simelon, P. 653 Simon, C. 35 Simon, E. 676 Simshäuser, W. 146 Sini.F. 507 Skutsch, O. 527, 529, 621, 669 Skydsgaard, E. 62-63, 104 Smith, M.S. 352 Smith, R.E. 149, 286, 287, 301 Sobeck, F. 251,281-82 Sobrino, E.O. 323 Solin, H. 99,321,407,409,411,41314, 639, 647, 665-66 Solmsen, F. 461,466 Sordi, M. 367,392 Spagnuolo Vigorita, T. 605-6 Spann, O. 20 Spannheim, E. 485 Speidel, M. 148 Speyer, W. 62,483 Stadler, P. 26-27 Staedier, E. 183-84, 198, 200 Stahlmann, I. 34 Stangl, T. 193, 195, 215, 276-77 Stati, S. 368 Staveley, E.S. 95, 98, 110, 141, 412, 636, 674 Steele, R.B. 124 Stein, A. 34, 139-40,262 Stein, P(aul) 79-80, 120, 152, 247 Stein, P(eter) 21 Steinwender, T. 310 Stengel, P. 370 Stephanus, H. 125, 262 Stem, H. 61 Sternberg, T. 678 Stemkopf, W. 125-26, 130-31, 259, 286 Stockton, D. 286-87, 292, 636 Stolz, F. 418 Stone, L. 142 Strachan-Davidson, J.L. 104, 332 Strack, P. 373 Strasburger, H. 35 Strazzulla, M.J. 677 Stroheker, K.F. 43 Strzelecki, W.(= L.) 160-62, 164, 544,
Indices
548-49 Stübler, G. 620-21,624 Sumner, G.V. 74, 88, 133-35, 255, 270, 281-82, 292, 297, 303, 315, 318, 445,479, 673 Suolahti, J. 271,307,309,633 Sutphen, M.C. 403 Sutter, B. 23 Svennung, J. 369, 374 Swan, P.M.D. 392 Sweet, H. 356,359 Swoboda, A. 523 Syme, R. 32-43, 64, 97, 151-52, 22829, 260, 263, 265, 285-86, 288, 326, 376,382, 390, 414, 428-30, 460, 475, 522, 576, 601, 620, 623, 650-51 Szymborska, W. 67-68 T Täubler, E. 10, 26 Tatum, W J. 633-34, 646, 655, 669 Taylor, L.R. 63-65,68,71-74,76-87, 89, 102, 106-7, 118-22, 124-26, 135, 193, 200, 207, 212, 226, 22829, 231, 241, 263, 272-75, 277, 286, 326, 334, 445, 465, 467, 513, 55556, 634-35, 639, 648^19 Teichmüller, F. 108 Telting, I. 107,638 Thierfelder, A. 514 Thiers, A. 4, 23 Thilo, G. 341,518,524 Thomas, Y. 41,379.657,663 Thomasson, B.E. 427, 656 Thommen, L. 634 Thompson, D’Arcy W. 520 Thompson, L.A. 257-60, 282, 303-4 Thulin, C.O. 372, 519-20, 522-23, 525, 590-91, 596, 598 Thysius, A. 322, 656 Tibiletti, G. 97, 145, 199, 218-19 Tilly, B. 59,63,65 Timpe, D. 383 Tomsin, A. 530 Tondo, S. 150 Torelli, M. 494, 520, 592, 595, 653, 674, 678 Tomow, E. 22, 34
693
Torremus, A. 320 Tossi, G. 65, 101, 290 Toynbee, A J. 145-46 Toynbee, J.M.C. 63, 521 Treggiari, S. 649, 672-73 Treitschke von, H. 25 Treves, P. 19, 29-30 Troiani, L. 111 Tromp, S.P.C. 593-94 Trotz, C.H. 424 Turano, C. 375,378,389 Tumebus, A. 516 Twyman, B.L. 653 Tyrrell, R.Y. 125, 234, 236-37, 258, 287 U Umpfenbach, F. 529 Ursinus, F. 59, 143 Usener, H.K. 603 V Vaahtera, J. 668 Vaglieri, D. 264 Vahlen, J. 527 Valeton, I.MJ. 73-75, 108, 134, 136, 446, 452, 463, 480, 489-93, 514, 539,573, 625 Valpy.AJ. 320,322 Van Buren, A.W. 196 Van Der Meer, L.B. 595-99, 677 Van Doren, M. 499, 501 Vanggaard, J.H. 672-73 Venturini, C. 648-49 Versnel, H. 284-85, 571, 623 Vetter, E. 412 Victorius, P. 426 Vine, B. 661 Vinetus, E. 536 Vittinghoff, F. 370 Voci, P. 320,391 Vogt, J. 30,112 Volkmann, H. 3, 566 Vollehoven, H. 228 Volpe, R. 395-96,411 Volponi, M. 651 Volterra, E. 154,156-58,164, 323, 547, 577, 644, 656, 672
Indices
W Wächter, R.W. 661 Wacke, A. 466 Wageningen van, I. 204 Wagenvoort, H. 345 Walbank, F.W. 24, 109, 301, 307, 310, 464, 466 Walde, A. 417,541,570 Walek, T. 8,25-26 Walker, S. 659 Walser, G. 605 Walsh, P.G. 609, 620-21 Waltzing, J.-P. 106,165,168,173-74, 176-78,190, 193-95, 197, 202-3, 207, 217, 362, 364, 373, 412, 531, 577 Ward, A. 636,648 Warmington, E.H. 198, 362, 364 Waszink, J.H. 267-68 Watson, A. 42, 154-55,163, 380, 38385, 387, 399, 404, 543, 551-52, 556-57,577, 579, 644, 664, 671 Watson, G.R. 147 Weaver, P.R.C. 380,382 Weber, M. 25 Weber, W. 33 Wegehaupt, W. 228 Weinberg, A.K. 29 Weinrib, E.J. 270,422,471,479 Weinstock, S. 74, 133, 445, 455, 482, 513,519, 539, 598 Weise, O. 125 Weismann, F.H. 112 Weiss, E. 219 Weissenborn, W. 315 Weitzman, M.P. 660 Werner, R. 571 Wessner, P. 295-96, 529-30 Westerink, L.G. 466 Westrup, CW. 546-47, 549, 556-57, 671-72 White, E.L. 677 White, J.F. 425-27 White, K.D. 104 Whitehead, S. 641 Whiting, H.C. 345
Whittaker, C.R. 20 Whittick, G.C. 351 Wickert, L. 20,21-24,42-43 Wieling, H.J. 388 Wiesehöffer, J. 34 Wikander, Ö. 326 Wilamowitz von, U. 28 Wilhelm, A. 436 Willems, P. 224, 231, 234, 238-39, 251, 253, 258-59, 271, 281-82, 302, 309, 313 Williamson, C. 353 Willis, J. 676 Winstedt, E.O. 125 Wirszubski, C. 294 Wiseman, T.P. 64, 139-40, 229, 238, 262, 264-65, 271, 277, 279, 325, 651,660 Wisniewski, B. 469 Wissowa, G. 65, 196-97, 201, 363, 367, 371, 397, 446, 455, 488, 501, 507, 544, 549, 584-85, 593, 602-3, 62022, 672 Wi strand, E. 622 Wistrand, M. 284-87,654 Wölfflin, E. 30 Wood, J.R. 596,599 Woodman, A.J. 109 Wucher, A. 20-22,24 Wülker, L. 476, 520, 620, 622, 625 Wuilleumier, P. 258 Wunder, E. 117,330 Y Yacobson, A. 638 Yavetz, Z. 22,41,227,650 Yonge, C.D. 258 Z Zawadzki, T. 575 Zetzel, J.E.G. 458 Zgusta, L. 421,423 Ziegler, K. 128,239 Zingler, J. 516 Ziólkowski, A. 669 Zmigryder-Konopka, Z. 362, 364
Indices
Zucchetti, B. 62, 64 Zucker, F. 200 Zumpt, A.W. 124-26, 204, 207, 215, 224, 269, 331
695
Zwicker, J. 124, 127 Zwierlein, Ο. 295 Zwierlein-Diehl, E. 676
A n c ie n t S o u rc e s 1. A n c ie n t A u th o r s
A d n o ta tio n e s s u p e r L u c a n u m
(ed. I.
Endt) 2.175 (p. 51): 435 Aelianus H is to r ia A n im a liu m
8.5: 529 Afranius (ed. O. Ribbeck2) 109: 499 163: 397
C o m ic a
Ambrosius d e T o b ia
12.42 (P a ir .
L a t.
14, p.
812 B) 398
1.133: 472,539 1.133-36: 535 1.136: 472,540 1.138: 535 2.3: 224 2.8: 87, 92 2.17 118 2.71 233,254, 281 3.40 151 3.65 152 4.3: 378 4.59 281 4.86 378 4.89 281 S ik e lik e
6.1- 2; 437, 441-43 Apuleius
Ammianus Marcellinus 21.1.9-10: 525,533 24.4.30: 431 25.2.3: 588 30.5.17: 525,670 (ed. A. Riese; D.R. Shackleton Bailey) 199 R = 190 S.B., 60-65: 424-25
A n th o lo g ia L a tin a
A p o lo g ia
106 57-60: 428
4 2:
M e ta m o r p h o s e s
3.7: 588 5.26 554, 581-82 8.25 268 9.25 431 9.27 431 10.29 554, 582
Appianus B e llu m C iv ile
1.12: 293 1.74.342: 435 1.78.358-59: 76 1.97.451: 438 1.100-4: 208 1.107.502: 78
Aristophanes A ves
822: 425 1125-29: 425 Aristophon (ed. T. Kock) 2.277 : 426
Indices
Aristoteles M e ta p h y s ic a
12.8.19 (1074b): 466 Arnobius A d v e r s u s N a tio n e s
4.20: 154,553,581 4.35: 490 Arrianus
Ateius Capito (ed. L. Strzelecki) fr. 11: 161 fr. 22: 623 fr. Suppi. 1-2: 164 fr. Suppi. 6a: 161,548-^9 fr. Suppi. 9-11: 164 fr. Suppi. 19: 164 fr. Suppi. 55: 162 Athenaeus
A n a b a s is
D e ip n o s o p h is ta e
1.4.5: 358 Artemidoros O n e iro k ritik a
6.9 (= 6.238c): 426 Augustinus d e C iv ita te D e i
1.76: 540-41 2.37: 410 Asconius (ed. A. Clark) pp.6-7: 166-67,172,203 p. 18: 131 p. 19: 110 pp. 30-31: 254 p. 31: 562,564-65 p. 32.15: 278 pp. 32-33: 232 p. 36: 112, 245-47 p. 37: 232,256 pp. 37-38: 246 p. 38: 249 p. 41: 251 p. 42: 232,257 p. 44: 246 p. 45: 110 p. 49: 232 p. 51: 278 p. 54: 112 p p .54-55: 277 p. 55: 260,277 p. 55.21: 276 pp. 57-59: 78,270 p. 58.6,10: 194 pp. 68-69: 472 p. 75: 108 pp. 75-76: 113,166-67 p. 77: 567 p. 89: 80
3.27: 435 4.8: 588 4.21: 588 4.27: 464,470 4.31: 464,470 6.3: 63 6.5: 463 6.5- 6: 464 6.12: 464 7.5- 6: 464 18.15: 341 Ausonius G r a tia r u m A c tio
3.13: 107,639 Boethius a d C ic e r o n is T o p ic a
3.14: 154-57,553,579,581 Caesar B e llu m C iv ile
1.18.11.23.2: 1.76.3: 2.23.5: 2.24.1: 2.28.12.43.1: 3.62.4: 3.64.1: 3.65.1: 3.105.3:
4: 420 253 151 253 253 2: 253 253 253 253 253 500
Indices
B e llu m G a llicu m
1.3.5: 552 1.8.6-7: 552 1.52.1: 252-53 4.13.3: 252-53 4.22.3: 252-53 5.24.2: 252 5.24.3: 252 5.24.7: 252 5.25.5: 252 5.46.1: 252 5.47.1- 2: 252 5.53.6: 252 6.6.1: 252 7.1: 153 7.20.10: 391 7.81.6: 251-53 8.2.1: 251 8.24.2: 251-52 8.38.1: 251-53 8.46.4: 251-52 8.47.2: 251,253 8.48.1: 251,253 8.48.8-9: 251,253 8.50.1- 3: 248,252-53 [Caesar] B e llu m A le x a n d rin u m
48.1: 282 50.1: 282 56.4: 149 B e llu m H isp a n ie n se
33: 421 Cassius Dio fr. 83.4 Boiss.: 292 fr. 111: 442-43 36.12.1: 78 36.24.3: 78 36.38.1: 225 36.38-39: 78,113,270 37.25.3: 471 37.29: 112 37.37.1: 242 37.54.3: 82 38.6.5: 73 38.13.3-4: 447
697
39.7: 259 39.7.4: 102 39.22: 514 39.27-31: 102,117 39.27.3 79,117 39.30.1--2: 79 39.32: 102, 118 40.25.4 281 40.30: 119 40.45.1 254, 281 40.45.1-4: 232-33 40.45-46: 102 40.46.2 119 40.49.1--2: 232 40.54: 257 40.55.1 232 41.24.2 282 41.61.3 500 43.29.3 421 45.12.3 151 45.40.3 251 47.11.3 278 51.24.4 623 53.20.1 619 53.32.5-6: 619 53.33.5 619 54.1. i-:2: 619 54.36.1 578 55.3: 220 55.8.6: 197, 202 55.10.4 376, 391 55.13.1 la: 376-77 55.24.8 151 56.10.2 384 56.32.4 379, 384 57. index libri: 226-30 57.16.3 392 57.17.1 226 57.18.1 a: 390 59.3.5- 8: 393 59.6.2: 393 69.7.4: 427 Cato d e A g r i C u ltu ra
praef. 2: 52, 62 104-10 (= 95-101): 353 107 (= 98).2: 35
(ed. H. Jordan) p. 79: 52,62 O r a tio n e s ( O R F J, ed. H. Malcovati) fr. 130: 306 fr. 132: 306 fr. 137-38: 111 fr. 150-51: 307 fr. 221: 324 O r ig in e s (H R R 2, ed. H. Peter) fr. 1.5: 338 fr. 1.24: 493 fr. 40: 374
a d M a r c u m F iliu m
Catullus 52: 118-19 Censorinus d e D ie N a ta li
4.13: 590,596 Charisius (ed. H. Keil; C. Barwick) 1.122.22 K. = 156.23 B.: 495 Cicero A c a d e m ic a
1.1: 46 1.14: 46 2.9: 46,60 2.23: 294 2.53: 294 2.125: 60 2.148: 60 d e A m ic itia
1.5: 47 7: 501,587 64: 294 95: 294 99: 294 p r o A r c h ia
13: 61 a d A ttic u m
1.14.5: 210 1.16.3: 271 1.16.11: 210 1.16.13: 75,113,238,269,653 1.18.3: 271 1.18.6: 60 1.18.7: 84
1.19.6: 60 1.20.3: 60 2.1.7: 60 2.1.8: 285 2.2.1: 128 2.3.3: 83 2.5.2: 85 2.7.3: 85 2.9.2: 85 2.12.1: 623 2.15: 89 2.15.2: 84-85 2.16: 89 2.18: 87 2.18.2: 85 2.19.3: 86 2.20.6: 72,77,84 2.21: 72 2.21.3: 72 2.21.5: 72,77 3.2.17: 104 3.13.1: 79 3.14.1: 79 4.1.4: 369,374 4.1.7: 505-6 4.2.3: 497,505 4.2.3-4: 559 4.2.4: 506 4.2.4-S: 80 4.3.3-5: 73,79,116,136 456,514 4.8.2: 120 4.9.1: 489 4.13: 281 4.15.4: 115-36,639 4.15.5: 64 4.15.5-6: 101 4.15.7: 101 4.15.9: 238 4.16.2: 62 4.16.3: 61 4.16.5: 121,130,640 4.16.6: 127 4.17.3: 75 4.17.4: 76,133,136,489 4.18.3: 125 5.1.2: 325 5.2.1: 60
Indices
5.12.11: 277 5.13.2: 277 5.15.3: 421,423 5.19.1: 244 5.19.3: 248 5.20.8: 283,421-22 5.21.2: 282 5.21.12: 583 6.1.1: 244 6.1.13: 119,421,423 6.6.4: 251,254,257,282 6.8.3: 248 7.7.4: 287 7.8.5: 251,254 7.11.5: 286 7.14.3: 286 7.15.3: 485 8.3.4: 286 8.4.3: 420 8.10.1: 406 8.11. B.1: 286 8.11. B.3: 285 8.11.D.5: 286 8.12.2: 286 8.15.3: 119 9.5.2: 532 9.9.3: 572 9.14.2: 112 9.15.2: 572 9.19.2: 325 11.20.1: 244 12.16.2: 60 12.40.4: 421 12.44.2: 326 13.4: 297 13.5.1: 303 13.6.4: 303 13.12.3: 62 13.13.1: 62 13.14.1: 62 13.16.1: 62-63 13.18.1: 62 13.19.3-5: 62 13.22.1-3: 62 13.23.2: 62 13.24.1: 62 13.25.3: 62 13.32: 297
699
13.33.3: 511 16.9: 151 p r o B a lb o
46: 294 48: 540 B r u tu s
1: 248,555 10: 60-61 24: 60 63: 292 78: 292 82: 218 89: 292 95: 291-94,655 102: 61 117: 294 130: 292 133: 292 135: 292 143: 292-93 146: 292 152: 61 153: 292 163: 292 166: 209 194: 292 223: 293 239: 292 252: 292 261: 292 265: 292-93 267: 475 272: 292 273: 294 283: 292 303: 292 304: 306 319: 247 a d B ru tu m
1.5.3-4: 241-42 1.5.4: 561-63,566 1.7: 248 p r o C a e lio
5: 228 9: 258 16: 204-17,330 19: 205 26: 209
Indices
700
59: 85 78: 215 in C a tilin a m
1.9: 224 1.11: 79 2.25: 294 p r o C lu e n tio
141: 45,59 163: 420 196: 294 d e D iv in a tio n e
1.1-2: 474 1.5: 533 1.8: 46 1.9- 10: 460,609 1.11-12: 474,532-33 1.25: 533 1.27- 28: 475,516 1.28: 516,562 1.28- 30: 532 1.29: 64,462,477,515 1.29- 30: 618 1.31: 530 1.32-33: 479 1.34: 474,525,532 1.36: 533 1.72: 474,503,525,532 1.77-78: 532-33 1.78: 478 1.82-84: 460,473 1.89: 621 1.90: 501,587 1.99: 621 1.105: 451,519 1.106: 481 1.107-8: 621 1.109: 474,533 1.119: 526 1.120: 533 1.127: 533 1.132: 64,483 1.148: 483 2.5: 461 2.6: 61 2.8: 46 2.10- 11: 462 2.20-22: 532 2.26: 474,525,532
2.28: 463,474 2.28- 30: 461 2.28- 69: 469 2.32: 596 2.33: 532 2.41: 460,609 2.42-43: 448,462-63,469, 474,486,489,598 2.50: 469,596 2.51: 483 2.52-53: 482 2.54: 621 2.59: 459 2.67: 533 2.70: 451, 462,473, 475-76, 519,623 2.71: 451,462,623 2.71- 73: 515,623 2.71- 74: 489,516 2.73: 516,587 2.74: 448, 450, 455, 462-63, 487,489 2.75: 64,462,474,486 2.76: 469,517,521 2.76-77: 474 2.80-81: 473 2.82-83: 469,494 2.83: 461 2.98: 371 2.101-2: 460,473,609 2.104-6: 460,473,609 2.107: 473 2.132: 461 2.143: 470 2.146: 474 2.148-49: 460,470,480 2.150: 46 de D om o
13: 210-12 32: 505 33: 498,506,509 34: 514 38: 543,562,566,568 39: 294,496,512 40: 455,512 41: 497 54: 116,202,212 79-80: 95
Indices
112: 79,290 121: 498 127-28: 497,504 128: 505 130: 504 136-37: 504-5 137: 505 138: 503,506 139-40: 510 140: 506,514 a d F a m ilia r e s
1.4.1: 116 1.5.2: 116 1.5a.2: 116 I. 6.1: 130 2.1- 6: 234 2.3: 237 2.10.3: 286 2.15.1: 248 2.15.4: 251,254,256,282 2.18: 652 3.4.2: 516 3.9.3: 516 3.10.10: 249 3.11.4: 516 4.5.5: 485 6.6: 459 7.6.1: 218 8.2.2: 236 8.3.1: 236,248 8.4.1: 243 8.4.2: 236 8.4.3: 104,243 8.8.4— 8: 504 8.8.5: 237 8.8.5- 6: 637 8.8.10: 236 8.9.3: 236 8.14.1: 248 9.7.1: 277 9.8: 62 9.10.1: 414 9.20: 272 10.12.3: 526 10.30.1: 152 I I . 10.4: 391 11.19.1: 152 12.10.1- 2: 244
701
12.12.5: 244 15.4.11: 285 15.14: 282 15.14.4: 283 16.11.3: 286 16.12.5: 286 d e F a to
1.1: 47 d e F in ib u s
1.12: 664 1.14: 46 2.81: 294 2.119: 46 3.1: 294 3.7: 46 3.75: 294 5.1: 46 p r o F la c c o
4: 141 16: 68 84: 577 84-89: 238,271 98: 294 102: 372 d e H a r u s p ic u m R e s p o n s o
13 18 22 37 48 58
80 587 202 499 512 134
H o r te n s iu s
fr. 17-19 Müller: 60 d e In v e n tio n e
2.163: 294 d e L e g e A g r a r ia
2.17: 2.18: 2.24: 2.26: 3.5:
38 242,555 93 566 471
d e L e g ib u s
1.1: 1.2: 1.9: 1.13: 1.14: 1.15:
46 54 61,486 61 46,61 60
702
1.20 470 1.21 63 1.42 470-71 2.1: 60 2.6: 46 2.7: 59 2.8: 470 2.13: 470 2.14: 471-72,540 2.20-21: 474,477,488,503, 515 2.23 470 2.30 60 2.31 456, 471-72, 476, 485, 487-88, 515 2.32 -33: 460,462,473-75, 477, 519 2.50: 380 3.9: 563 3.10 111,477 3.24 293 3.27 478,487 3.30 61 3.33 111 3.38 111 3.39 111 3.43 478, 623 p r o M a r c e llo
31: 294 p r o M ilo n e
24: 243 25: 212, 249 36: 259 40: 241, 251, 257 40-41: 254 73: 324 96: 249 p r o M u re n a
1.1: 608 1-2: 79 10: 658 25-29: 61 40: 140 45: 112 47: 69, 112, 658 48: 658 51: 75, 79 51-52: 79
54: 334 60-66: 498 67: 107 72-73: 107 89: 112 d e N a tu r a D e o r u m
1.1: 294 1.7: 61 1.15: 60-61 1.117: 461 1.118: 466 1.122: 447 2.7: 462,515 2.9: 474 2.10-11: 487 2.11: 61 2.12: 460,609 2.68: 499 2.126: 104 2.163: 477 2.166: 474,533 3.5: 447,473 3.42: 503 3.46: 293 3.80: 209 d e O ffic iis
1.33: 293 1.36-37: 148,305-^ 1.106: 349 2.2: 61 3.1-2: 61 O r a to r
134: 293 d e O r a to r e
1.24: 61 1.28-29: 45,59 1.80: 294 1.159: 61 1.166-200: 61 1.193: 61 1.200: 61 1.228: 318 1.234-50: 61 1.236: 61 1.249: 62 1.265: 61 2.18: 45,59 2.20: 45
Indices
2.48: 471 2.63: 113 2.98: 292-93 2.142: 45,59,61 2.197: 209 2.200: 209 2.224: 45,59 2.240-41: 292 3.18: 45,60 P a r a d o x a S to ic o r u m
17-18: 293 38: 60 d e P a r titio n e O r a to r ia
1.1: 60 21: 292 77: 294 P h ilip p ic a e o r a tio n e s
1.31: 488 2.4: 240,242, 248, 254, 555 2.21: 254 2.44: 441 2.49-50: 241,251,254 2.50: 257,260 2.71: 251 2.78- 84: 488,490 2.79- 82: 453,455 2.81: 75,450,476,488-89 2.82: 476 2.83: 487,616 2.85: 347 2.88: 616 3.7: 151 3.9: 488 3.17: 441 3.31: 151 3.38: 151 4.3- 6: 152 4.12.8: 152 5.3- 4: 152 5.9: 488,490 5.43: 152 5.46: 151 5.53: 151 7.19: 19,30 8.33: 83 9.10: 294 10.13: 294 10.20: 400
703
10.41: 294 11.20: 151 12.18: 294 13.12: 248,490,503 13.15: 294 14.17: 294 14.24: 128 14.26-27: 152 14.31: 400 in P is o n e m
3: 89,471 8: 165-66, 195, 646 9-10: 134, 202, 222, 479, 481 10 270 11 211-12 17 89 25 96 50 135 p r o P la n c io
7: 80 8: 112 9-12: 108 14: 215 16: 111 19-23: 229 29: 209 35: 95 36: 216,331 37: 209, 215-16, 328-35, 331, 333,658 38: 333-34 39: 334 41: 104,658 42: 331-32,334 43: 238,333 44: 331,334 45: 210,212,214 46: 209,214 47: 210,212,214 48: 214 49: 79,118 77: 294 83: 112 d e P r o v in c iis C o n su la rib u s
46: 134 p r o Q u in c tio
12: 421 17: 421
704
25: 421
p r o Q . R o s c io
42 46
a d Q u in tu m F r a tr e m
1.2.6 139,430 1.2.15: 116 2.1.2-3: 116 2.1.15: 123 2.2.2 116 2.3.1 84, 116 2.3.2 65, 76 2.3.3 128 2.3.4 116-17 2.3.5 205-17, 330, 657 2.4.4-6: 116 2.6 [7 or 8] 1: 127 2.12: 259 3.1.24: 238 3.3.2 133, 489 3.3.3 238 3.3.4 60 3.4.1 121 3.5.1 61-62 3.8.6 121-22 d e R e P u b lic a
1.7-11: 486 1.14: 60-61 1.17--18: 60 1.18 123 1.20 50 1.23 316 1.33 50,61 1.58 67 1.69 468 2.3: 61, 67, 486 2.16 462, 623 2.36 479 2.39 288 2.63 551,560 3.8-31: 469 3.17: 50 3.33: 470 p o s t R e d itu m a d Q u ir ite s
13: 211 p o s t R e d itu m in S e n a tu
11: 134, 479 12-13: 96 17: 89 33: 211
140 595
p r o S c a u ro
27
101
d e S e n e c tu te
3: 47 18 306 45 209 72 400 p r o S e s tio
.
16 481 18 96 33 134 34 196, 210-12 37 535 55 222 76 294 77 294 83 451 88 294 98 479 111: 140 130: 85 139: 294
p r o S u lla
45 51 67
294 79 224
T im a e u s
fr. 1: 47 T o p ic a
3.14: 157,579 T u s c u la n a e D is p u ta tio n e s
1.8-9: 46 1.73: 521 1.93: 403 2.9 : 46 4.32: 354 4.55: 294 4.57: 294 4.60-61: 294 5.13: 294 5.56: 293 5.104: 294 in V a tin iu m
18
134, 479,481
Indices
19: 85 23: 479 36: 258
705
6.304: 411 7.6 (obrogare): 536 7.65: 499
in V e rre m
1.11: 315 1.22-23: 110,113 1.30: 307 Π. 1.30: 247 Π. 1.45 : 429,432 Π. 1.128: 325 Π. 1.130: 325 Π.2.8: 437 Π.2.143: 376 Π.3.119: 323 Π.3.161: 113 Π.3.212-18: 437 Π.3.213: 441 Π.4.128-29: 363 [Q. Cicero] C o m m e n ta rio lu m P e titio n is
10: 421 11: 104 19: 208-9 Columella d e R e R u stic a
1.1.13: 62 C o m m e n ta (Lucani) B e m e n s ia (ed. H. Usener) 2.173 (pp. 61-62): 434 C o n s o la tio a d L iv ia m
369-71: 405 Cornelius Sisenna (H R R P, ed. H. Peter) p. 278: 621 C o r p u s G lo s s a r io r u m L a tin o ru m
2.100.42: 409 2.353.44: 409 4.41.2: 159 5.195.15: 150 5.549.5: 500 6.212.17-18: 409 6.253: 159,582
Damascius (ed. L.G. Westerink) Phaedo
113e (p.147): 466 D ig e s ta
1.2.2.35: 61 1.2.2.39: 45,59 I. 2.7: 499 3.4.1: 171 4.3.1.3: 466 7.1.1: 404 II. 7.5-6: 385 12.1: 399 13.3: 399 13.6: 399 27.1.17.2: 171 28.1.3: 387 28.4.42: 387 28.5.41: 388 31.L87.pr.: 583 32.1.35.pr.: 583 33.8.19.2: 380 35.1.40.2: 406 37.14.13: 380 39.5.7.pr.: 380 40.1.7: 380 40.2.4.pr.: 380 40.2.22: 380 40.15.1: 380 44.7: 399 45.1.46: 397 45.1.47: 396 45.1.74: 399 46.2.19: 498 47.22.4: 194 48.5: 324 48.5.14.8: 657 48.9.5: 324 49.16.13.6: 376 50.6.6.12: 171,195 50.16.108: 399 50.17.66: 399
Indices
706
D im e n s u r a tio P r o v in c ia r u m
(ed. P.
Schnabel) 8: 358 18: 360
2.19: 438 6.18: 281 Fenestella (ed. H. Peter) H R R 2 fr. 21: 116,123
Diodoros 34/35.7.1 38.4.2: 434 40.1-3: 437, 441-42 Dionysius Halicarnassensis A n tiq u ita te s R o m a n a e
1.1.11: 339 1.10.2: 340 1.11-13: 339 1.14.1: 337 1.16-30: 341,343 1.31.2: 339 1.31-33: 342 1.33.4: 342 1.39-44: 342 1.57-58: 342 1.61-62: 342-43 1.64-65: 343 1.68-69: 342-43 2.5.2-4: 599 2.5.5: 447 2.25: 164,549,579 3.71: 479 9.41.3: 566 9.49: 454 9.49.5: 567 4.62.5-6: 500 D iv i s io O r b is
(ed. P. Schnabel)
14: 358 Donatus C o m m en tu m T e re n ti
(ed. P.
Wessner) A d e lp h o e
547: 444 672: 530 A n d r ia
praef. 6: 295 297: 158 E u n u ch u s
79: 541
Festus B r e v ia r iu m
17: 281 Festus (and Paulus) d e V e rb o ru m S ig n ific a tu
(ed. W.M.
Lindsay) 14-15: 495,510,586 17: 341 20: 110 54-55: 164 60: 411 65: 160, 548, 579 79: 580 82: 162 101 162 144-46: 161 152 587 154 82 228 339 234 452 242 163 262 2-16: 143-46,642 268 586 276 26: 526 284 197 284-85: 516 286-87: 494,525 292 162 298 197 316 309 316-17: 515,525,533 328 9-10: 341 382 516 386 516, 623 454 493 470-72: 529 474 623 474 10: 529 476 623 505 491
Indices
Florus 1.22.23: 149 1.42: 436-37,440 2.4.6: 472 2.9.15: 435 2.15.4: 536-37 2.16.6: 541 2.17.7-8: 536-37 3.4.2 (= 1.39.2): 430 F r a g m e n ta V a tic a n a
294 (F IR A 2.529-30): 386
707
14.7.7: 492 15.11.1: 483 G lo s s a r ia L a tin a
3.113 (Abolita CO 102): 159, 548 3.175: 163 4.175: 159 (ed. H. Keil) Agroecius (d e O r th o g r a p h ia ) VII.123.29: 500 Pompeius (C o m m e n tu m A r tis
G r a m m a tic i L a tin i
D o n a ti )
Frontinus d e A q u a e d u c tu
129.2-3: 100 S tr a te g e m a ta
V. 303.28-31: 529 Sacerdos (A rtiu m G r a m m a tic a r u m L ib r i )
VI.
459.1-2: 529
4.5.17: 305 Hieronymus Gaius 1.17-20: 382 1.38-39: 382 1.45.94: 383 1.109-14: 154-57, 159-60 1.110: 553 1.111: 552,557 1.112: 543,547-50,554,577, 579, 581 1.113: 554 1.120: 404 1.136: 578,675 2.29: 404 2.124: 384 2.128: 384 3.90: 399 4.88-89: 399
C o m m e n tu m in A m o s
3.8 (P a tr. 398
L a t.
25, p. 1080 C):
E p is tu la e
56.3: 466 H is to r ia A u g u s ta A le x a n d e r S e v e r u s
13.6: 588 21.9-22.3: 575 22.3: 553,575 23.8: 428 35-36: 429 36.2: 424,426,428 38.2: 428 60.3: 588 67.2: 428 A n to n in u s P iu s
Gellius
11: 424,428
N o c te s A ttic a e
1.12.15: 554 7.7.8: 162 10.15.1-18: 162, 164 10.15.22-24: 543,580 10.20.2: 162 13.15: 448-49,489 13.15.4: 566,571 13.22.1: 346
A u r e lia n u s
20.3: 603 A v id iu s C a s siu s
4.3: 424,430,432 E la g a b a lu s
6.5: 582 10.3: 428 15.1: 428 G e ta
3.8: 588
Iustinianus
G o r d ia n i
8.5: 607 9.3: 607 18.2: 522 24.4: 424 Herodianus 7A3-7.6.2: 607
In stitu tio n e s
2.15.4: 388 3.13-14: 399 Iustinus 33.2.1-4: 305 42.4: 281 43.1.3: 339
Horatius C a r m in a
3.27.1: 63 E p is tu la e
1.1.149: 1.10.10: 2.2.109: 2.2.175:
197 367 218 665
E p o d o n lib e r
Iuvenalis 10.336: 562 16.35-36: 149 Lactantius D iv in a e In stitu tio n e s
1.11.32: 437 6.17.28: 432-33
2.69-70: 397 S a tu ra e
1.2.115-16: 272 1.3.86-87: 397 1.5.34-36: 262 1.6.81-84: 323 2.4.24: 239,267
Lactantius Placidus (ed. R. Jahnke) C o m m e n ta r ii in S ta tii T h e b a id a
1.104: 530 4.468: 525 Libanius (ed. R. Foerster) O r a tio n e s
5.3 (= 51.7 F.): 424,429
Hyginus A s tr o n o m ic a
2.20.2: 401 F a b u la e
26.3: 402 52.2: 402 Iordanes G e tic a
12.74: 357 Isidorus E ty m o lo g ia e
1.36.14: 529 5.26: 156 8.11.99: 499 9.3.53-55: 149 12.7.19: 518 15.4.2: 500 18.65: 409
Livius praef.6: 610 praef.7: 608 praef.13: 608 1.1.5: 337-38 1.2.4: 337-38 1.3-4: 343 1.4.2: 608,611 1.6.3-7.3: 610 1.7.3-12: 342 1.7.8: 342 1.18.7: 529 1.18.10: 489 1.19.5: 468 1.31.7: 621 1.32.1: 564 1.34.9: 623 1.36.2-7: 479,622
Indices
1.36.6: 622 1.55.3: 493 2.32.1: 152 2.42.10: 525 3.1.4: 623 3.4-5: 343 3.5.14: 621-22 3.7.7-8: 622 3.8.1: 622 3.20.3-5: 152 3.20.6: 622 3.42.2: 623 3.54.11: 567 3.56.7: 621 3.61.2- 5: 610 4.1.6: 560 4.2.5: 559-60 4.4.12: 574 4.6.2- 3: 558 4.12: 560 4.19-20: 614 4.20.7: 618 4.25.1: 75 4.31.4: 571,674 4.53.9: 153 5.13.6: 622 5.17.3: 624 5.21.1: 624 5.31.7: 624 5.31.8: 565 5.38.1: 615 5.46.6: 622 5.49.6: 622 5.52.2: 610 5.52.9: 565,624 5.52.17: 622 6.1.3: 372 6.1.12: 622 6.2.3: 560 6.2.6: 152 6.5.6: 565,624 6.12.6: 622 6.12.7: 622-24 6.12.9: 610 6.18.7: 19,30 6.22.7: 152 6.29.8: 363 6.36.9: 75
709
6.37.12: 75 6.41.4-12: 561-62 6.41.5: 454,567 6.41.6: 622,674 6.41.9-10: 622 7.1.6: 298 7.2.2: 622 7.3.5: 570 7.5.5: 152 7.5.12: 110 7.6.11: 454,567 7.16.8: 152 7.17.13: 75 7.26.3- 4: 623 7.26.7: 623 7.32.10: 623 7.40.6: 623 7.42.2: 568 8.12.6: 623 8.23.14: 75 8.23.15: 623 8.23.16: 529 8.30-35: 617 8.31.1: 623 8.32.4: 624 8.33.22: 623 9.10.3: 442 9.14.3- 4: 624-25 9.20.5: 144-45 9.20.10: 144 9.31.9: 624 9.34.20: 75 9.38.15: 493 9.39.1: 493 9.46.1: 499 9.46.5: 499 10.1.6: 432 10.3.3- 8: 624 10.7.7: 623 10.7.12: 621 10.8.9: 567 10.18.1: 623 10.37.16: 501 10.38: 616 10.39.8: 624 10.40: 615-16,622 10.40.2-4: 587 10.40.4: 515
Indices
710
10.40.11: 478 10.41: 616 21.62.1: 622 21.63: 618 22.1.5-20: 618 22.9.8: 500 22.10: 595 22.11.9: 152 22.28.1: 151 22.38.1-.5: 643 22.38.3: 152 22.42.8: 624 22.42.8- 10: 515 22.49.17 315 22.53.12 152 23.19.3-.5: 624 23.31.13--14: 569 23.36.9- 10: 624 24.8.19: 152 24.10.6-11.1: 612 24.44.8: 198 25.6.8: 315 26.41.13 623 26.41.18 623 27.8.4-5 554 27.16.15 624 27.23.1-4: 612 27.26-27 : 612 28.12.12 622-23 28.16.14 622 28.19.9: 302 28.27.4: 152 28.27.12 152 28.28.11 610 28.28.14 302 28.29.12 152 28.38.1: 622 28.41.10 622 29.1: 147-48 29.18.1- 7: 609 29.19.8: 487 29.20.10 487 29.38.6: 554 30.27.1: 610 30.33.2: 302 30.45.7: 437, 440 31.4.1: 622 31.9.8: 487
32.5.4: 152 32.26.10-12: 150 32.28.4: 81,635 34.7.2: 179, 197 34.14.1: 624 34.56.9: 150 35.48.13: 624 36.1.6- 7: 307 36.2.2: 307 36.3.13-14: 307 36.17.2: 622 36.37.1- 2: 520 38.26.1: 624 38.44.5: 487 38.46.12: 621 39.10.5: 621 39.19.4: 150 39.38.12: 150 40.19.11: 111 40.26.7: 150 40.35.11: 150 40.39.3- 14: 483 40.42.8- 11: 554 40.52.5: 623 41.5.4: 150 41.5.11: 150 41.15.11: 152 41.17.3: 622 41.18.4- 14: 624 41.18.14: 478 41.19.2: 623 41.21.12: 612 41.27.3: 369,372 41.28.1: 623 41.28.8: 622 42.2.3-7: 611 42.9.8: 568 42.31.2: 309 42.31.5: 307 42.35.4: 309 42.35.5: 307 42.49.9: 308 42.58.12: 308 43.5.1- 9: 309 43.11.9- 10: 309 43.12.1- 5: 310 43.12.6- 7: 309,313 43.13.1- 2: 608
Indices
43.14.9: 150 43.15.3- 5: 310 44.1.1- 2: 310,313 44.18.8: 317 44.21.2: 303 44.21.2-3: 311 44.21.5-11: 311 44.31.1: 312 44.31.15: 315 44.35.14: 304,317 44.36.9- 14: 317 44.37.5: 316 44.38.1: 317 44.40.4- 5: 304 44.40.6: 303 44.41.2: 315 44.46.1- 2: 317 44.46.3: 303 45.1.11: 244 45.2.10: 152 45.3.2: 623 45.4.7: 305 45.5.2: 304 45.6.9: 317 45.7.1: 304 45.8.8: 304 45.12.10- 12: 311,487 45.27.4: 316 45.33.8: 317 45.34.8: 317 45.35.8: 317 45.37.4: 318 Livius P e r io c h a e A I:
11 1
48: 69: 85: 97: 105: 108:
324 535 152 436-37,441 102,117,133 281
Lucanus 1.523-638: 603 2.371: 562 5.146: 500 5.395-96: 481,623
711
Lucianus d e M o r te P e r e g r in i
21: 432,433 24: 429-33 25: 432 V e ra H is to r ia
2.31: 430 Lucilius (ed. F. Marx) 48: 298 75-80: 268 Lucretius 1.55-57: 400 2.850: 351 3.971: 404 Macrobius S a tu r n a lia
1.7.28 341 1.16: 593 2.4.27 148 2.5.2: 393 3.7.2: 522 3.9.6: 522 3.13.10: 556 3.15.6 60 3.16.6 522 3.16.7 523 3.20.3 520 4.4.17 431 6.4.6: 46 Manilius 4.16: 402 Martialis 4.5.7: 425 4.46.8: 365 8.44.11: 397 8.64.4: 406 9.59.11: 351-55,659 12.70.2: 530 14.29: 345 Martianus Capella d e N u p tiis P h ilo lo g ia e e t M e r c u r ii
1.41-61: 598
712
Indices
1.45: 598 2.157: 590-91,596,676
6.781-84: 602 M e ta m o r p h o s e s
15.558-59: 676 Minucius Felix
R e m e d ia A m o r is
561-62: 397
O c ta v iu s
26.1: 525,531-33,670 P a n e g y r ic i L a tin i
(Cornelius) Nepos A ttic u s
3.19.1 (Mamertinus): 107 6 (7).22.4: 370
12.3: 340 Paulus
V ita e
21.5: 401
S e n te n tia e
4.9.9 Nonius (ed. W.M. Lindsay) 85 L. (= 61 M.): 529 91 L. (= 65 M): 60 214 L. (= 147 M.): 351 615 L. (=385 M): 116 619 L. (= 387 M.): 529 861 L.: 347 864 L.: 348 Obsequens 12: 111 46: 471 71-72: 625
(F IR A
2.380): 383
Petronius S a ty r ic o n
31.19: 354 50.7: 351-55,659 88.5: 391 117: 219 126.3: 670 Philostratus V ita A p o llo n ii
6.36: 63 Plato
(ed. J. Geffcken) 13.1-20: 605-7
O r a c u la S ib y llin a
N om oi
5.741b: 467 10.889c-890a: 466 11.913b: 483
O r ig o G e n tis R o m a n a e
4.2: 341 Orosius 1.2.53: 4.21.4: 5.12.5: 5.16.8: 5.18.27:
357 68 539 324 502
P o lite la
2.364b-e: 483 3.382b-d: 467 3.389b-c: 467 3.414-415d: 466 5.459c-460b: 467 Plautus A m p h itr u o
Ovidius
prol. 60: 111,639
F a s ti
2.70: 503 3.725-35: 367 3.761-62: 367 3.835-48: 363 4.383: 141 4.721-44: 65
A s in a r ia
259-61: 55,489 A u lu la r ia
553: 364 B a c c h id e s
519c: 393
713
C a s in a
79-86: 562 86: 562 C u rc u lio
54: 430 M o s te lla r ia
126: 411 1103-4: 530 P ersa
421: 268 S tic h u s
198: 498 T rin u m m u s
1033: 111 Plinius Maior N a tu r a lis H is to r ia
2.53: 316 2.93-94: 589 2.142-44: 598 3.65: 585 3.66: 197 3.130: 374 3.146: 360 4.81: 358 7.22: 589 7.68-69: 589 7.182: 521 8.221: 588 9.55: 588 10.41: 589 10.6-42: 520 10.45: 239,266, 272 11.74: 585 11.105: 500 11.190: 588 11.195: 588 11.251 : 586 13.84-87: 483 14.102: 373 15.34: 351 17.243 : 588 18.6: 510 18.8: 585 18.10: 579 18.22: 62 18.131 : 588 21.179 : 589
22.157: 429 24.116: 429 25.28: 588 27.11: 510 28.10-29: 585-89 28.11: 477,585-86 28.12: 588 28.14: 589 28.15-16: 589 28.17: 452,586 28.18: 585 28.26: 586-87 28.39: 586 33.29: 139 33.29- 32: 141 33.30: 412 33.34: 139 34.99: 351,353 36.116-20: 236-37 Plinius Minor E p is tu la e
3.6.1: 351 4.8.1: 510 4.11.7: 593 10.29- 30: 147-48 Plutarchus M o r a lia C o n s o la tio a d A p o llo n iu m
10 (106F): 404 28 (116A): 404 Q u a e s tio n e s R o m a n a e
39: 149 50: 161,544,579-80 99: 510 d e V ita n d o A e r e A lie n o
2(828): 397 V ita e A e m iliu s P a u llu s
15.3-6: 304 15-17: 317 21.1-6: 305 26.7: 317 27.1: 304 30.5: 317 A n to n iu s
1: 437
B r u tu s
29: 281 40: 281 C a esa r
13: 87,92 14: 82 47.3: 529 C a m illu s
32.7: 529 C a to M a io r
20.7-8: 305 C a to M in o r
8: 112 46: 233-38, 107, 271 48: 112 C ic e r o
12.2: 471 16.1: 224 C rassu s
14: 82 15: 79 18: 280-81 C. G ra c c h u s
17.3: 293 Ti. G r a c c h u s
10.1: 291 12.4-5: 293 M a r c e llu s
5.2: 529 12.1: 569 28-29: 612 M a r iu s
5: 112 12: 92-93 38: 200,325 44.5: 435
Polybius 2.2-12: 26 2.8: 28 2.8.8-9: 9,26 6.12.7: 307 6.14.7: 112 6.19.1-9: 307 6.34.3: 307 6.35.4: 301 6.56.4: 111 6.56.6-12: 460,464,466 6.57.5-9: 109 16.12: 464 35.4.5: 302 Prudentius A p o th e o s is
506-8: 676 P e r is te p h a n o n
1.50: 433 3.159-60: 433 Ps.-Aristoteles d e M ir a b iliu m A u s c u lta tio n ib u s
49 (834a): 354-55 Ps.-Asconius (ed. T. Stangl) p. 189: 289 p. 202: 437,441 p. 212: 247 p. 220: 289 p. 259: 437,441 Ps.-Fulgentius S erm on es
11: 198
P o m p e iu s
6.3-4: 152 16: 78 22: 140 51: 79 52: 79 53: 118 57: 485
Ps.-Plutarchus V ita H o m e r i
212: 532 Ps.-Quintilianus D e c la m a tio n e s M a io r e s
3.17: 324
R o m u lu s
22.1: 529 S u lla
27: 500
Ps.-Ulpianus R e g u la e
1.3: 536
Indices
9.1: 543,547 10.5: 554 Quintilianus In stitu tio O ra to ria
9.2.57: 218 10.1.95: 62 11.1.85: 471 R h e to ric a a d H e re n n iu m
1.20 242, 248, 555 2.17 4.17 4.60 4.68
135 292 347 608
Rufinus (ed. W.A. Baehrens) O rig e n is in N u m e ro s H o m ilia
17.2: 524-26 17.3: 526
715
(ed. T. Stangl) p. 78: 225 p p .78-79: 112 p. 94: 141 p. 96: 437,441,443 p. 112: 257 p. 123: 251 p. 147: 85 p. 148: 270 p. 150: 214 p. 152: 215 p. 160: 331 p p .169-70: 249 p. 172: 102, 249
S c h o lia B o b ie n sia
S c h o lia G ro n o v ia n a
S c h o lia in Iu v e n a le m
1.11: 79 3.4: 109 6.1: 338 12.3: 460 17.3: 225 28.1: 224 54: 286 59.2-3: 149-50 H isto ria e (ed. B. Maurenbrecher) 1.77.15: 78 1.77.22: 79 3.9: 440 3.10-15: 442 fr. ine. 8: 148
(ed. P. Wessner)
8.105: 441
Sallustius C atilin a
(ed. T. Stangl)
A, p. 344: 431
S c h o lia T e re n tia n a E unuchus
(ed. F. Schlee)
780: 529 S c h o lia V ero n en sia in V erg ilii A e n e id e m (ed. H. Hagen)
10.241: 529,587 Seneca Rhetor C o n tro v e rsia e 1 A .1 : 130
Seneca d e C lem en tia
1.15.2-7: 379 D ia lo g i
T h e S c h o lia o n the A v e s o f
(ed. J.F. White) 154: 425 822: 427 876: 427 1379: 427
A r isto p h a n e s
S c h o lia B e m b in a (ed. J.F. Mountford) H e a u to n tim o ro u m e n o s
53: 638 209: 529
2 (d e C o n sta n tia S a p ie n tis )
10.2: 349 3 {de Ira ) 1.18.2: 349
6 (C o n so la tio
a d M a rc ia m )
10.2: 404 7 (de V ita B e a ta ) 2.2: 347 7.25.2: 344-50,659 7.25.3: 348 9 (de T ra n q u illita te A n im i ) 2.13: 349
10 {d e B r e v ita te V ita e ) 13.6: 438 11 {C o n s o la tio a d P o ly b iu m ) 10.4-5: 405 12 { C o n s o la tio a d H e lv ia m ) 7.9: 349 E p is tu la e M o r a le s
20.9: 349 62.3: 349 63.11: 349 66.49: 349 70.10: 393 99.8: 402 114.4: 349 118.3: 108 Q u a e s tio n e s N a tu r a le s
2.31-32: 518 2.32.5: 517 2.34: 489 2.41-42: 599 2.42: 525 d e R e m e d iis F o r tu ito ru m
2.1: 402 Servius (and Servius a u c tu s) in V e rg ilii A e n e id o s lib r o s C o m m e n ta rii
1.6: 337-40 1.56: 530 1.346: 562 1.386: 528 1.393: 518 1.398: 496,516-19 1.446: 492 2.140: 521 2.157: 149-50 2.199: 529 2.484: 499 2.649: 496,522 2.693: 447,489,599 2.711: 530 2.781: 343 3.12: 499 3.20: 503 3.94-96: 343 3.166-68: 343 3.246: 524,533 3.265: 586
3.327-28: 477 3.374: 447 4.29: 544, 580 4.45: 503 4.103: 156,158,543,545, 581 4.137: 162 4.200: 492 4.339: 156,543,545,581 4.374: 156,543,545,548 581 4.453: 524-25,533 4.683: 162 4.696: 406 5.7: 525,533 5.30: 530 5.530: 586 6.4: 268 6.71: 499 6.72: 500 6.190: 451 6.197: 529-30 6.198: 528,623 6.402: 529 7.109: 367 7.153: 492 7.174: 492 7.205-7: 343 7.239-40: 343 7.303: 554 7.613: 635 7.614: 149 7.657: 337 7.795: 341 8.1: 149,152 8.51: 337 8.319: 340-41 8.328: 341 8.427: 596 8.479: 342-43 8.499: 343 8.552: 544,556 9.4: 492,527-28,530 9.326: 586 10.183: 342-43 11.47: 579 11.476: 157 11.543: 162
Indices
11.581: 12.169: 12.259: 12.260:
157 162 586 452
in V e r g ilii B u c o lic a C o m m e n ta r ii
9.13: 447 in V e r g ilii G e o r g ic a C o m m e n ta r ii
1.30: 522 1.31: 156, 543, 548-49, 553, 577, 579, 672 1.102: 522-23 1.151: 541 1.270: 508-9 2.382-83: 197 3.491: 525 4.458: 530 Silius Italicus 3.21: 500 11.36: 402
717
V ita e A u g u s tu s
2.3: 411 17.2: 153 19: 392 30-31: 197 31: 578 31.1: 500 32: 217-23 35: 219 45: 219 55.2: 391 62.2: 389 65: 376 65.3 377,379 65.4 392 67.2 323 87: 398,411 101.1: 381 101.3: 384 C aesar
Solinus 1.18: 371 Statius S ilv a e
1.6.43-44: 409 4.9.35: 365 Strabo 5.1.6 (=213): 360 5.3.2 (=230): 603 6.1.6 (=259): 378 7.1.5 (=292): 360 7.3.11 (=304): 360 7.3.14 (= 305): 360 7.5.2 (=313): 360 13.3.25 (= 840): 42 Suda (ed. A. Adler) 1, p. 393, A 4266: 370 2, p. 213, E 361: 426 2, p. 688, Y 81: 425
1: 554 18: 87,92 19: 286 20: 73-74,82-84 32: 482 42: 217-23 77: 623 81.2: 482 C a lig u la
12: 555 15: 393 19: 347 23.2: 262,275,653 C la u d iu s
5: 219 9: 393 14: 219 21: 219 26.2: 656 D o m itia n u s
4.4: 347 G a lb a
8: 219 Suetonius d e G r a m m a tic is
1: 483 15: 268
N ero
25: 347 T ib e r iu s
5: 264
718
11.4: 388 15.3: 379 23: 383-84 25: 392 33: 391 50: 379,382,389-91 V e sp a sia n u s
8: 219 23.3: 354 V ite lliu s
1: 339 Symmachus O r a tio n e s
4.7: 107
H is to r ia e
1.5.1: 149 Terentius E u n u ch u s
780: 527 H ecyra
prol. 1.1-5: 540 Tertullianus d e A n im a
33.3-4: 267 50.2: 400 d e E x h o r ta tio n e C a s tita tis
13.1: 579 d e M o n o g a m ia
Tacitus
17.3: 579
A n n a le s
1.1.6: 35 1.3.7: 36 1.6: 37 1.6.2: 392 1.7.2: 152 1.7.3: 383 1.8.1: 381,383-84 1.14.4: 109 1.53: 377,390 2.27-32: 393 2.39-40: 392 3.4.1: 385 3.9.2: 385 3.28: 69 3.58: 578,672 4.6.4: 380 4.16: 578,581 4.16.2: 554 11.14.3: 342 14.50: 427 14.62.4: 391 14.64.2: 431 15.23: 588 16.6.2: 385 16.13.3: 149 16.21.1: 374 D ia lo g u s
17.1: 278 18.1: 278 34.7: 130
a d N a tio n e s
2.1.8-15: 464 d e P a llio
5.6: 239,266 d e P r a e s c r ip tio n e H a e r e tic o r u m
40.5: 579 a d U x o re m
1.7.5: 579 Thucydides 2.95: 427 Tibullus 1.10.19-24: 367 Tituli ex Corpore Ulpiani 9 (F IR A 2.272): 155 Valerius Maximus 1.1.1 477, 587 1.5.5 325 2.1.1 562 3.2.16: 305 3.8.3 78 4.5.2 499 4.5.3 108 4.6.4 118 5.4.7 324 5.10.3: 400 6.1.3 320-27 6.1.5 324
Indices
6.1.13: 324-25 6.3.8: 324 6.5.7: 321 7.5.2: 108, 123 7.7.3-4: 387 8.1.12: 324 8.1. abs.2: 318 8.1.damn.3: 471 8.2.3: 200,325 8.4.1: 323 8.11.1: 316 9.6.ext.2: 431 9.7.2: 534 9.12.3: 521 9.12.4: 435 9.15.ext.l: 387 Varro d e L in g u a L a tin a
5.3: 337 5.21: 509 5.28: 110 5.53: 339 5.85: 602 5.87: 301 5.97: 63 5.98: 509 5.111: 365 5.143: 371 6.14: 367 6.25: 196,417 6.29: 196 6.30: 593 6.43: 156-57 6.91: 108,626 7.513: 492 7.6- 7: 493 7.8: 509 7.10: 492 d e R e R u stic a
1.1.1: 105, 108 1.1.1-4: 52 1.1.7: 105 1.2.1: 56 1.2.9: 56 1.2.10: 56 1.40.6: 104 1.69.2-3: 58
719
2.praef.6: 53, 56, 58, 106 2.1.1: 56,57,65 2.1.2: 57 2.1.10: 63 2.2.1: 104 2.2.2: 106 2.4.1: 53 2.4.2: 56 2.5.1: 56 2.5.2: 62 2.5.2-3: 53 2.6.1: 57 2.8.1 57-58,367 2.9.6: 326 2.10.1: 62 2.11.12: 53,57-58,65 3.1.1: 53 3.2.1: 54,59 3.2.1- 14: 266,290 3.2.2- 3: 56, 101 3.2.3- 7: 59 3.2.4: 637 3.2.15: 57, 105 3.2.16: 102, 105 3.2.17: 104,266 3.3.5: 54 3.3.10: 60,63 3.4.1: 57 3.4.2- 3: 44,59 3.5.1- 8: 44,59 3.5.9-17: 44,59 3.5.18: 55, 107 3.6.1: 45,239,266 3.6.1- 6: 272 3.6.3- 6: 266 3.6.6: 266 3.7.1: 101 3.7.10: 104 3.7.11: 63 3.10.1: 266 3.12.5: 105 3.15.18: 107 3.16: 56 3.17.1: 59,290 3.17.10: 53 S a tu ra e M e n ip p e a e (ed. A. Riese) 212: 348
720
Indices
Vegetius
7.613: 635 8.50-55: 342 8.134—42: 343 8.190-265: 342 8.319-23: 340 8.479-93: 343 8.499: 343 8.600-2: 341-42 9.3-4: 527 9.154: 341 9.326: 586 10.148-214: 343 10.467: 406 12.819-40: 338
d e R e M ilita r i
praef.3: 30 Velleius Paterculus 2.22.4: 435 2.27.2: 438 2.31.3-4: 437 2.36.2: 227 2.41: 554,556 2.46.4: 281 2.61.1- 2: 151 2.68.1- 2: 227 2.100.2: 376 2.100.5: 376,388 2.126.2: 109 Venantius Fortunatus 5.7.17: 400
E c lo g a e
7.33-36: 367 10.49: 348 G e o r g ic a
2.382: 197 2.393-96: 367
Vergilius A e n e is
1.6-7: 337 1.31: 337 1.292-293: 43 1.390-95: 518 1.397: 518 1.624: 341 2.83: 341 2.106: 341 2.152: 341 2.297: 500 2.324: 396 2.702: 529 3.183: 527 3.327-28: 477 6.186-97: 530 6.503: 341 6.753: 608 7.38: 337 7.45: 337 7.47-49: 339 7.52: 529 7.170-248: 339 7.187: 528 7.205-8: 337 7.213: 339 7.240: 337
(ed. F. Pilchmayr) 65.5: 293,536-37 66.9: 537-38 73: 472,537-38 73.1: 534 73.6-8: 534 73.7: 537-39 73.15: 541 75.9: 438 81.4: 534 83: 281
d e V iris I llu s tr ib u s
Vitruvius 4.2.1: 491 Vulgata A p o c a ly p s is
9.18: 431 Iu d ic e s
9.49: 430 Zonaras (ed. L. Dindorf) 7.11: 500 7.19: 571 10.36 (2.449 D.): 377 11.2 (3.5 D.): 390
Indices
2. L ’A n n é e É p ig r a p h iq u e
1903, 235: 419 1914,6: 196 1923, 19: 95-100 1925, 90: 395-406, 411 1928, 108: 289 1933, 74.6 401 1946, 116. 12-13: 401 1959, 146: 245, 256 1960, 60: 420 1966, 199: 64 1971,88: 323 1971,493. 11-13: 401 1975, 284: 378 1975, 286: 389 1975, 289: 375 1980, 368: 412 1982, 274: 410 1983, 59: 410 1983, 324: 414 C a r m in a L a tin a E p ig r a p h ic a
1.2: 661 59.8- 9: 396 183: 403 464.1- 2: 406 629.8- 9: 396 693.1,4-5: 401 718.5: 402 719.9: 396 815.2: 396 965: 401 1001.1- 4: 403 1120.2: 406 1168.3- 4: 401,665 1316.4: 402 1489.3: 402 1522.15: 400 1552A.37: 409 1552A.69-71: 406 1567.1- 3,7-8: 400,402 2156.1: 406 2177.4- 5: 406 C o r p u s In sc rip tio n u m G ra e c a r u m
ΠΙ.5895: 580
721
I n s c r ip tio n s C o r p u s I n s c r ip tio n u m L a tin a ru m
13: 319 364: 362-65, 660-62 585: 100 587: 100 588: 78 594 (cap. 128): 199,201 672-691: 198-99 687: 202 709.7 : 65 722: 208 741: 439 746: 443 750: 79 777: 177 918: 127 933: 103, 245, 256 957: 78 978: 202 1002 196 1215 396 1483 199 1541 64 2500 79, 95-100 2506 198 2663c: 103 2678 -2708: 200-1 2683 183 2687 184 2705 183-84, 196 Π. 1133: 202 1235.7: 402 1667: 238,262-63 4228: 63 4293: 202 4304: 202 4306-7: 202 4426: 402 5181: 353 5810: 419 ΙΠ. 423.6-7: 401 9527.12-13: 396 IV. 60: 202 66: 177 V. 1142: 416-19 1721: 406
Indices
2787: 369,373,663 2794: 374 2797: 374 2864: 374 2873: 374 2885: 374 2943: 374 3019: 374 3031: 374 3143.3: 406 3257: 202 4449: 364 7530: 412 7776: 412 7779: 412 VI. 12: 202 335: 202 671: 202 1324: 202 1872: 202 2221: 202 3580.12-13: 402 4416: 194 6502: 403 10234.9,11: 373 11252.7-9,12-13: 402 11693.6-7: 402 14000: 588 15696.6: 402 25369: 396 25617.2: 401 29691: 373 30888: 202 30957: 290 31201: 268 32098-99: 107 32323.110-14,162-63: 508 37045.10: 326 37317.13: 402 Vm. 212A. 37, 69-71: 406,409 4375: 374 5585: 374 9247: 265 14683a: 370 16374.4-6: 401 16410.3-5 : 401 19942: 423 21873: 419
IX. 1238: 227-28 1356: 226 1505: 196 1618: 197 1688: 196 2827: 63 3023: 412 3156: 414 3187: 420 3447: 196 3521: 196 3660: 263 3661: 238,262-63, 273 4129: 196 4226: 196 5860.2: 401 6154: 196 X. 407: 413-14 416: 413 829: 199 1582: 202 1920: 406 2533.7--8: 396 3789: 202 3790: 199 6248: 264 6555: 411 6561: 321 6662: 553,580 XI. 1550: 176 1777: 63 2720: 196 2835: 202 3075: 410 3078: 661 3805: 380 4810: 417 4815: 417 4818: 417 4914: 417 5375: 198 6302: 409-10 6327: 410 6369: 410 7483: 661 ΧΠ. 406: 202 1122: 400 4357: 264
Indices
Xm. 4583: 423 6731: 419 10010.18: 423 XIV. 2121: 197 2622: 229 A. Degrassi, Im a g in e s 93a-b: 662 385b: 100 387: 100 E p h e m e r is E p ig r a p h ic a
Vm, p. 90, no 334.6-7: 403 F o n te s lu r is R o m a n i A n tiq u i l 2
8 : 100 10: 100
14: 100
723
pp. 80-81: 439 p. 83: 103 pp. 84-85: 103 p. 171: 79 XIII.2 pp. 192-93: 393 I n s c r ip tio n e s L a tin a e C h r is tia n a e V e te re s
79.12-13: 396 1347: 401 1521: 402 1524.3: 401 3192A: 396 3302: 401-2 3444: 396 I n s c r ip tio n e s L a tin a e L ib e r a e R e i P u b lic a e
I n s c r ip tio n e s C h r is tia n a e U rb is R o m a e
Π.4985: 401 VI. 15634: 401 I n s c r ip tio n e s C r e tic a e
Π.252: 443 I n s c r ip tio n e s G r a e c a e
m.565: 443 IV2.1.66.25: 436 XIV. 1072: 580 I n s c r ip tio n e s G r a e c a e a d R e s R o m a n a s P e r tin e n te s
1.135: 4.409: 4.982: 4.983:
580 637 263 238, 262-4
I n s c r ip tio n e s I ta lia e
m.1.17: 414 ΧΠΙ.1 pp. 34-35: 442 pp. 40-41: 438 pp. 46-49: 438 pp. 50-51: 568 pp. 54-55: 438 p. 57: 78-79 pp. 74-75: 438
122: 622 192: 660-62 314: 319 342: 667 371: 439 374: 443 515.7: 65 515.10: 326 I n s c r ip tio n e s L a tin a e S e le c ta e
5: 319 20: 622 36: 439 125: 238,262-63,273 199: 321 867: 443 1455: 553,580 3083: 363 3484: 64 3609: 199 3635: 419 4379: 368 4673: 368 5050.110-14,162-63: 508 5050.150, 167: 64 5163.62-63: 219 5202: 373,663 5406: 374 5650: 373
Indices
724
5654-55: 107 5706: 199 6088 (cap. 24): 146 6302: 198 6303: 199 6579: 380 6824: 370 6891: 353 7213: 373 8497: 588 9337: 503 9359: 413 9420: 374
3.3: 152 6.12: 42 7.3: 602 25.2-3: 152 29.3: 499-500 J. Reynolds, A p h r o d is ia s a n d R o m e doc. 8, lines 32-34: 147 doc. 9, lines 2-4: 147 S u p p le m e n tu m E p ig r a p h ic u m G r a e c u m
1.335: 95-100 (voi., page, number) 1.40-41, no 5: 409 1.47- 48, no 16: 409 1.49, no 19: 409 1.49-50, no. 20: 409 1.55, no 30: 409 1.63-64, no 16: 663 1.64-65, no 17: 663 1.127, no 2: 410 1.143-44, no 21: 410 1.156-57, no 40: 410 2.47- 48, no 10: 411 2.55-56, no 24: 411,665 2.87-88, no 71: 395-406,411, 665 2.177-79, no 17: 412 2.205, no 3: 412 2.208-9, no 7: 412 3.67- 68, no 17: 413 3.68- 69, no 22: 413 3.76-77, no 5: 413-14 3.154-55, no 17: 414 3.165, no 29: 414 3.182, no 56: 414 3.195-96, no 78: 414 5.62-63, no 15: 664
S u p p le m e n ta I ta lic a
I n s c r ip tio n s d e D é lo s
1511: 95-100 1731: 201 1751: 201 1753: 201 1760-70: 201,418 I n s c r ip tio n s L a tin e s d e l ’A lg é r ie
5635: 374 L e x L a tin a T a b u la e B a n tin a e
lines 19-20: 87 L e x M a la c ita n a
52: 81 M o n u m e n ta A s ia e M in o r is A n tiq u a
4.27.7-8: 421,423 N o tiz ie d e g li S c a v i
1924, 351, no 3: 395^106 1926,352: 374 E. Pais, S u p p le m e n ta 384: 396
R e s G e s ta e D iv i A u g u s ti
I ta lic a
Indices
725
G e n e r a l In d e x
A abdicatio of magistrates, and augurs 487-88 Aborigines 337-43,659 absentis ratio 91-94,636 Accius and Attius 420 acclamatio imperatoria and honorific cognomina 439-40, 667 M’. (Acilius) Glabrio (aed. Π c.) 29699 Acilius Glabrio, M’. (cos. 67) and elections in 67 78 acrostics 395-96 actus in Varro, rust. 53 adoption of Clodius 422 testamentary 422 adyta 499-501 Aeclanum not a home town of Velleius Paterculus 227-28 aediles curules in 55 and 54 118 in 53 and 52 231-50 elections of, in Varro, rust. ΙΠ 54— 55, 59, 100-6 curules, alternation between patricians and plebeians 29798, 656 and the Terentian didascaliae 29599 aeditui 57 Aelius Tubero, Q. officer in 168 304 Aelius Tubero, Q. (tr. pi. before 129) interlocutor in Cic., rep. 46, 48, 50 Aemilius Lepidus, M. (cos. 78) scheduled to preside over elections 78-79 Aemilius Paullus, L. aed. 55? 118-19
Aemilius Scaurus, M. (pr. 56) trial for extortion in 54, and his ambitus 110 defends (in 54) C. Cato 131-32 as title of Varro’s L o g isto ric u s 57 aes Corinthium in Petronius and Martial 351-55, 659-60 and grease 353-55 Agrasius, P. publicanus, interlocutor in Varro, rust. I 53, 56, 58, 64 agricola vir bonus 52 agriculture as subject of dialogues 51-53, 5758 treatises on 52-53 Agrippa (Vipsanius), Μ. 36-37 his mappa mundi and Alfred the Great 358-61,660 Agrippa Postumus 37 Agrius, C. eques, interlocutor in Varro, rust. I 53, 56, 58, 64 Alexander Severus and confarreatio 553, 575-83 Alfidia, M.f. (mother of Livia) 238, 262-79 home town of 262-63 honors paid to 263-64 Alfidii 262-79,653 in Fundi 264, 653 Alfidius, M. accuses (in 52) Sex. Cloelius 27679 Altius Flavus, C. pr. or quaesitor in 54 238 Alfred the Great and the map of Agrippa 356-61 ambarvalia 603 ambitus 107-14, 129, 136, 204-17, 224, 638-40 and lex Aelia et Fufia 270-71 and the promulgatio of Lurco, and s.c. of 61 269-72,653
Indices
and the trial of Nonius Sufenas 12930,639—40 and the trial of Vargunteius 204, 650 Ambivius 420 Ambivius Turpio, L. directs plays of Terence 296 amburbium 603 America and Rome 14—15,28 Amianus 420-21,423,666 amicitia 284—86 amoenitas 47 Anicius, Cn. legate in 168 303 Annius Milo, T. (tr. pi. 57) obnuntiatio against Clodius’ election to the aedileship 73, 116 Annius Saturninus and Pontia 325 annulment of laws 469-72 antiquarianism versus Staatsrecht 40-41 άντιστρατιώτης 147-49, 642-43 Antium sacerdos confarreationum et diffarreationum 553-54, 580-81 Antonius, M. (cos. 99) interlocutor in Cicero, d e or. 45, 47, 50-51 Antonius Creticus, M. (pr. 74) his cognomen 436-43, 667 campaign in Crete 436, 440-443 Antonius, M. (triumvir) candidacy for augurate 240-41 quaestorship, date of 240-61,282, 652 and Fulvia (in 52) 260 Aper 63 Apicius see Gavius Appuleius Saturninus, L. (tr. pl. 103,100) legislation of, and auspicia 534—41, 670-71 his death 541 Aquillius, M’. triumph in 126 103 entry in the Fasti 103
Aquilonia battle of, and auspicia 615-16, 679 arcanae caerimoniae 585-86 archives of priests 496-523 Arpinum 55 arvales 39, 600-3, 678 Asconius his usage of cognomina 278-79 Asinius Pollio, C. (cos. 40) prosecutes (in 54) C. Cato 13032, 640 as historian admired by Mommsen and Syme 53 Atilius, L. officer in 168 304—5 Atilius Praenestinus, L. directs plays of Terence 296 Atina inscriptions from 413 Atticus see Pomponius Attis mundus of 413 Attius and Accius 420 Attus Navius and augury, and Tarquinius Priscus 473,479-480 auctor. legis 118 Aufidii (Lurcones) 262-79, 653 in Fundi 262-64 and Pontii 326 Aufidius Lurco, M. aedileship? 231,238-50,271 promulgatio de ambitu 269-70, 653 breeds peacocks 266 gourmet 265-68 business in Asia 271 Aufidius Luscus (pr. in Fundi) 26263, 267 augures as administri Iovis 478-80 archives of 501-3 do not possess auspicia publica 572-73
Indices
collegium augurum and individua! augurs 488-89, 573 and invocatio uti avertantur mala 586 responsa of 497-98 responsa at contiones 511-13 secrets of 510, 585-86 augurium augustum 529, 610, 669-70 and auspicium 492-93,517,572-73 columbarum 519 salutis 510, 586-87 augury as branch of artificial divination 532-33 utilitarian theory of 462-84 and Attus Navius 473, 479-80 and Cicero 458-84, 485-95 dispute between C. Marcellus and App. Claudius Pulcher 474—76 augural lore in Varro 54—55 and disciplina Etrusca 519-22, 525 and libri reconditi 496-523 and sedere 527-30 and vetustas 474 see also calamitas, grandinare, vitium Augustus his status in 44-30 147-53, 643-44 dux privatus 151-53, 643^14 and Cornelius Cossus 614, 679 and exile of Julia 375-94 confarreatio, reform of 578 and Lares 188-89 and prodigia 618-19 last will 382-88 and Franco-Prussian War 22 in Syme and in Mommsen 32-43 Aurelius Cotta, M. (pr. by 54) 122 Aurelius, Orestes, Cn. (cos. 71) as title of Varro’s L o g isto ric u s 57 Aurelius Cotta, C. (cos. 75) interlocutor in Cicero’s dialogues 45, 47 Aurelius Papirius Dionysius, M. sacerdos confarreationum et diffarreationum 553-54, 580-81
727
auspicium, auspicia and auguria 492-93, 517, 572-73 ex avibus 54-55,493-95,517-18 ex caelo 493 and calamitas 534, 540-41 colligere 524-26,531-33,669-70 and conubium 558-61 and defeat 614,617-18,677,679 ex diris 533 dubia 617 ementiri 136, 615-16, 618, 668 and exta 524-26 fulmen (sinistrum) 447-50, 46263 genera of 515,525 gradus of 447 incerta 617 impetrati va 449-50, 517, 613-14 and luno Moneta 503 iustum 618 legum dictio 449-50 of magistrates 447-49 maxima 447-49 negative 476-77 nuntiatio of impetrativa, binding 478 nuntiatio of oblativa by augurs 488-98 oblativa 451-52, 515, 613-14 and obnuntiatio 444-57 orientation at 469, 493-95 of patricians 560-74 pertain to action not status 47678,613-14 perturbatio of 560-61,574 and plebeians 560-74 populi Romani 563 and prodigia 476-77,613-14 publica and privata 560-74 publica, owned and used by patricians, and only used by plebeians 567-74 pullaria 515-16 and pullarii 615-18 redeunt ad patres 563-66, 674 renovatio of 565, 624 repetitio of 617, 624 and the struggle of the orders 560-
Indices
728
74, 674-75 and templum 494 and tribunes of the plebs 454-57 of tribuni militum consulari potestate 570-72, 674-75 ex tripudiis 515-16 and victory 614, 624 and vitium 487-88,568-69,61517 Austria national minorities in 3, 6-7 Autronius Paetus, P. 225 avitarium 409 Axius, Q. senator, interlocutor in Varro, rust. ΠΙ 56, 59, 101 B
balance of power concept of 5 Bantia augural templum 494 bellum piraticum 272 birds augural 54-55 in dialogues of Cicero and Varro 44, 54-55 Bismarck von, O. 2, 7, 22 bribery, electoral see ambitus Brutus see Iunius Bülow von, B. 14 Burke, E. 21 C Caecilius Metellus Celer, Q. (cos. 60, augur) dies in 59 85 Caecilius Metellus (Creticus), Q. (cos. 69) elected pecunia Siciliensi 110 his cognomen 443 Caecilius Metellus Nepos, Q. (cos. 57) presides over elections of curule aediles 73, 79-80 Nepos as title of Varro’s L o g isto ric u s 57 Caecilius Metellus Pius, Q. (cos. 80) Pius as title of Varro’s L o g isto ric u s 57
Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio (Nasica), Q. (cos. 52) triumph, date of 100, 102-6, 637 his official style 103,637 Caecina, A. and Cicero 459-60 Caelius, C. (cos. suff. 4) 229 Caelius Rufiis, C. (cos. +17) alleged descendant of M. Caelius Rufus 226-30,651 his home town 229, 651 Caelius Rufus, C., C.f. (aedile in Tusculum) his identification 229 Caelius Rufiis, M. his birth-place 228-30, 651 trial in 56, and crimina sodalium et sequestrium 204-17 Caesar selected flamen Dialis 554-56, 673 election to the consulship (in 60 for 59) 92-94 and consular elections (in 59) 71-90 his legislation in 59, and obnuntiationes 74 and auspices 480-84 his name in the Fasti (for 59) 81-82 elegans as orator 292 opinion of Mommsen 1, 7 opinion of Gelzer and Syme 34 Cagatius 414 calamitas and vitium, augural concept of (and Appuleius Saturninus) 534, 540-41 Caligula on Livia’s maternal grandfather 262-65 Calpurnius Bestia, L. accused by Caelius 205 Calpurnius Bibulus, M. (cos. 59) and consular elections (in 59) 72-90 his obnuntiationes 72-75, 480, 512-14, 669 Calpurnius Piso, C. (cos. 67) presides over elections 78 refuses renuntiatio to Lollius Palicanus 78
Indices
Calpurnius Piso, L. (cos. 58) presides over elections 79 camilli 548-49,672 Campania magistri, and pagi 180-82 Canusinatus 344- 48 Capua magi stri, and pagi 180-82 Cassius Longinus, C. (cos. 171) tr. mil. in 168 315 as censor attempts to place (in 154) a statue of Concordia in the curia 504-5 Cassius Longinus, C. (tyrannicide) quaestorship, date of 281-82 Cassius Longinus, Q. quaestorship, date of 282-83 presumed trial 283 and Lucceius 422 casus belli in the Illyrian war and in World War I 9-10 Catilina see Sergius Cato Maior interlocutor in Cicero, se n . 47, 50 Cato Minor interlocutor in Cicero,/in. 48 contemplated as interlocutor in A c a d . 62 Caudinus as honorific cognomen 442 causeatus (causiatus) 345-47, 659 c.c.s. 412 chance in history 5-6, 23-24 Cicero augurate, election to 231,240-50, 651-52 and divination (augury) 458-84, 485-95, 667-688 disclaims knowledge of ius pontificium and augurale 49799, 503-10 philosopher and augur 485-87 treatise on augury 514—15 presumed incongruity between le g . Π and d iv . Π 468-84 dialogues 45-52, 633
729
as interlocutor in his own dialogues 47,49 selects Varro as interlocutor in the A c a d . 52 d e d o m o 496-523 d e iu re c i v ili 61 Roman laws and the laws of nature 470-73 presides over elections in 63 7879 and the trial of Procilius 115, 129 imperator 284—87 official responsibilities in 49 286 and A. Caecina 459-60 modem biographies 287-89, 65455 C IL
and S u p p U ta lic a 1-3 407-14 cimis 409 citizenship, Roman 69-70 Claudius Marcellus, C. vitio creatus abdicates the consul ship in 215 568-69 Claudius Marcellus, C. (pr. 80, augur) his theory of augury, and Cicero 462-63 dispute with App. Claudius Pulcher 474-75, 519 Claudius Marcellus, M. (cos. 51) as title of Varro ’s L o g is to r ic u s 57 Claudius Pulcher, App. (cos. 143) triumph 70 Claudius Pulcher, App. (cos. 54) antiquarian 39, 64 treatise on augury 516-17,519 dispute with C. Claudius Marcellus 474-75, 519 interlocutor and augur in Varro, ru st. 54-56, 59, 101, 104, 106 his gardens 289-90, 655 his praenomen Appius, and apes 55-56 Cicero’s and Syme’s characteriza tion of 39,475 Claudius Pulcher, C. (pr. 56) and C. Curio 234 Claudius Pulcher, P. (cos. 249) disregards auspices 462
730
Clodius, P. (tr. pi. 58) 55 lex de collegiis 166 and obnuntiatio 74, 445,481, 512-13 election to the aedileship 73, 116 defends (or accuses) Procilius in 54 115,126-27, 129 Clodius, Sex. see Cloelius Cloelius, Sex. 166, 420, 645-46 Cluvius, C. legate in 168 303 coemptio 154-64,644—45 cognomina usage in Asconius 277-78 ex victis gentibus 436-43, 667 collegium, collegia antiqua 220-22, 649-50 compitalicia 165-203, 646-47 Comeliorum 208 magistrorum 179, 646-47 nova 220-22, 649-50 symphoniacorum 170 legislation concerning collegia 165-203, 204-23, 645^17 senatus consultum of 64 165-203, 645 lex Clodia 166, 211, 220-22, 645 lex Iulia 166, 170-71, 217-23 colligere auspicia 524-26, 531-33, 669-70 Collina nova 212-13,649 comitia aedilicia, consularia see elections differre 74-77 tributa, first voter 95-100, 637 commendatio as a term of religio 585-88 in public law 588 commentarii of priests 504-11 commentatio alleged as a term of religio 58588 comparatio 71,81 comperire 324 Competalis, competalis, compitalis 416-19, 665-66
Indices
κομπεταλιασταί 185-87,418-19 compitalicia collegia, ludi 165-192 compitum (competum), compita 165, 172-92, 417-419 confarreatio 154-64, 542-59, 573-83, 644-45, 672-73, 675 sacerdos confarreationum et diffarreationum 553-54, 58081, 673 coniuratio Italiae, and Augustus 149-53, 64344 consecratio and the lex Papiria 497 Considius, quaesitor in 52 246 consilium domesticum 323-24 (cf. iudicium) constantia 291-94,655 constitutional law Roman interest in 40 consul first elected 71-90, 635 maior 82 continuo 257-58 contio candidatorum (in 59) 85-88 conubium and auspicia 558-59 coqui collegium of 362-65, 660-62 Corfinium inscriptions from 414 Cornelius, C. (tr. pi. 67) promulgatio de ambitu 113 Cornelius, C. eq. R., plans to murder Cicero 22425, 650 Cornelius, C. sodalitas of 208 Cornelius Lentulus Crus, L. (cos. 49) 80 Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus, Cn. (cos. 56) scheduled to preside over elections 79 opposes C. Cato 116 opposes Pompey and Crassus 117 Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, P. (cos. 57) and elections (in 57) 80
Indices
andC. Cato 116 Cornelius Merula, L. interlocutor in Varro, rust. ΙΠ 5354, 56, 59 Cornelius Scipio, L. (brother of P.) as legatus 302 Cornelius Scipio, L. (son of L. Scipio Asiaticus) not a tr. mil. in 169 319 Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, P. (cos. 147, 134) interlocutor in Cicero’s dialogues 46-47 Cornelius Scipio Nasica, P. (aed. cur. 169, cos. 162, 155) tr. mil. or leg. in 168 317 Cornelius Scipio Nasica, P. (cos. I l l ) suffers repulsa as candidate for aedileship 108 Cornelius Sisenna, L. (pr. 78) as title of Varro’s L o g isto ric u s 57 Cornelius Sulla, P. (cos. des. 65) 225, 650 Cornelius Sulla, P., Ser. f. 650 corpus, corpora 171 Coruncanii and the outbreak of the Illyrian War 9, 14 Cosilinum inscriptions from 413 Cossinius, L. eques, interlocutor in Varro, rust. Π 56-57 Cratippus not an interlocutor in Cicero, Tim . 48-49 Crete campaigns against pirates 436-43 Creticus origin of the cognomen 436-43 see M. Antonius Creticus, Q. Caecilius Metellus Creticus crimina sodalium et sequestrium 204— 17 cult of recent publications 286 curator lusus iuv(enum) 411
731
calendarii 413 curiosus, curiositas 497-99, 506, 589 cycnus in augury 517-22 as prodigy 520-21 D Dacia and Vistula, in the map of Agrippa and in Alfred the Great 35661, 660 Liber Pater, cult of 366-68, 663 danista 411 de caelo servare and elections (in 59) 73-75, 136 De Sanctis, G. and Roman conquest 17-19 and Fraccaro 19,632 andHolleaux 18-19 and Mommsen 17-19 death as debitum naturae 398-406, 665 debitum naturae, persolvere, reddere, solvere 398—406, 665 decem legati 101 deception and religion 465-67 decuriati, decuriatio 205-17 Delos collegia, and magistri 185-87 democracy myth of, in Rome 16, 25, 288-89, 654-55 depello, depulsio as terms of religio 585-88, 675 deserta Scytharum, Boiorum, and in Alfred the Great 359-61 deus, dei existence of 609-10 pax of 610-12 and Rome 610-11 dialogue as a Roman literary genre 44—66 dialogues of Cicero and Varro as source for Roman prosopography 45-49,53-58
Indices
subject matter 50-56 set in gardens and villas 44—49 set on dies otiosi 49-50 Didymos, scholiast and grammarian 426-27 diffarreatio 579-81 dilatio comitiorum (in 59) 74-77, 8485 dilectus 150, 153 dining ius vescendi 409 Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Vergil on archaic Italy and Rome 336-44, 659 disciplina Etrusca and augury 519-22,525 and Greek divination 678 and Tages 590-91,676-78 cf. haruspicina divide et impera 19 divination natural and artificial 532-33 and Cicero 458-84 critique of 458-84 divisores 107-8, 112-13, 270-71 domi nobiles in Varro, rust. 55-57 dramatis personae in Roman dialogues 45-49, 53-58 Drusus 36 dux privatus or magistratus 149-51 dyarchy theory of 41-42 E Eburum inscriptions from 414 effugere effugia hostia 521 swan 520-21 Elagabalus and ius confarreationis 553, 57583 elections in 163, vitium at 487-88 for 70 91-94 in 59 71-90
in 56 and 55 117-21,123 for 54 123 in 54 100-6 in 54-53, and the date of C. Cassius’ quaestorship 280-82 in 53-52 233-50, 256-57 of curule aediles in Varro, rust. ΙΠ 54-55,59,100-6 to priesthoods 241-44, 247-49 in absentia 91-94, 636 and intercessio 117,133 and obnuntiatio 73-75, 133-34 order of 102,246-47 presidency over 71-90, 634-35 professio at 78, 80, 85-88, 91-94; 120, 635-36 elegantia oratores elegantes, list of 292-93 emendations at Cic. M/7. 25 212,649 at Ennius, A n n . 79-80 V = 74-75 S. 527-30, 669-70 at H ist. A u g ., A l. S ev. 22.3 575-76, 583 at Livy 6.41.6 561,674 at Mart. Cap. 2.157 590-91, 676 at Or. Sib. 13.8 606-7 at Plin. N .H . 18.11 586-88 at Rufrnus, O rig. in N u m . Horn. 17.2 524-26 at Seneca, V ita B e a ta 25.2 344-50 at Vir. ill. 73.6-8 534-41 Ennius critique of divination 483 equites and the ordo equester 137-42, 641 era local, of cities 369-74 Eroticus 63 Euripides and religion 466 critique of divination 483 evocati, evocatio 149-53, 642-43 executions of daughters and sons 322-24 of slaves 322-24 terminology 323-24
Indices
exta and auspicia 524-26 F Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, Q. officer in 168 304 Falerii 364-65,660-62 Novi, inscriptions from 410 Falisci in Sardinia 362-65, 660-62 Fannius, C. (cos. 122) interlocutor in Cicero’s dialogues 46-47, 50 Fannius Saturninus and Pontia 320-27, 657 and Pontii and Titinii 325-26 fasces holding of, and the presidency over elections and in the senate 7190,635 fasti order of consuls’ names 76-81, 634-35 Favonius, M. aedileship, date of 231-50, 651-52 quaesitor de sodaliciis in 52 238 Felicitas statue of, dedicated to Alfidia at Fundi 264 Feltria local era 374 Ferentinum inscriptions from 409 feriae sementivae 58 Ferry, Jules 6, 24 fiction in history 66-67 Fircellia 56-57 Fircellius Pavo interlocutor in Varro, rust. Ill 5356, 63 flamen Dialis participates at confarreatio 548-49, 577-78, 672 selection of 554-55 Caesar selected as 554—56, 673 flamines and marriage per confarreationem 542-49, 577
733
reform of Tiberius 578-79 flaminica 548, 554-55, 672-73 flammeum 548,672 form and substance in history 38, 42 fortitudo 294 foundation of cities, ritual of 371-72 Fraccaro, P. and De Sanctis 19, 632 and Frank 19 andHolleaux 19 denies Roman imperialism 19 Frank, T. his R o m a n Im p e ria lism 13-17, 632 and Rome and America 14-15 and Fraccaro 19 frumentum rationes and tesserae 583 fucinalis 412 Fufius Calenus, Q. (cos. 47) and Caelius 205 as title of Varro’s L o g isto ric u s 57 Fulvia and Antonius (in 52) 260 Fulvius, M. (aed. Π c.) 296-99 fumus fumum vendere 424-29 fumo necare 429-36, 666 Fundania, Varro’s wife 53 Fundanius, C. (qu. ca 100) Varro’s father-in-law, interlocutor in rust. I 53, 56,58 as title of Varro’s L o g isto ric u s 57 Fundanius, M. sodalitas of 208 Fundi home town of Livia’s maternal grandfather 262-64 and Alfidii and Aufidii 262-64 birth place of Tiberius? 264 Fundilius, C , C.f. in the consilium of Cn. Pompeius Strabo 65, 633 Fundilius, L. aedituus, a character in Varro, rust. I 53, 57-58, 65, 633 furia, Furiae and the Gracchi 293
Indices
Furius Philus, C. (cos. 136) interlocutor in Cicero, re p . 46-47, 50 upholds Kameades’ view of religion as convention 469 and Serenus Sammonicus 522-23, 669 Fustel de Coulanges, N.D. andHolleaux 11-13 and Mommsen 12 G Gabinius, A. (cos. 58) 79 andlexdeD elo 95-110 and C. Cato 116 andProcilius 127-28 Gabinius Capito, A. first voter in the lex Gabinia Calpurnia de Delo 95-100 and the stemma of Gabinii Capitones 96, 637 Gabinius Capito, P. 96 Gallius, Q. sodalitas of 208 gardens as setting for Roman dialogues 44-49 Gavius Apicius, M. authority on culinary art 267-68 Geizer, M. 34-36 genera militiae 147-53, 642-44 Genua inscriptions from 414 Gibbon, E. 35, 43 Gordiani in Or. Sib. 605-7 gourmets 265-68 Gracchus see Sempronius grandinare as augural vitium et calamitas 534, 541 gravitas and elegantia 292-93 grease and bronze 353-55 Gutta 121-22 Η Hamilcar 6, 24
Hannibal 6, 24 haruspicina iecur Placentinum 595-99,677-78 Hay, John Milton 29 Hegel, G.W.F. 1,3,6-7,21 Herder von, J.G. 21 Hirtius, A. (cos. 43) interlocutor in Cic., de f a t o 48 Histonium inscriptions from 411-12 history narrative history 35 as fiction 66-67 as propaganda 67 Holleaux, M. as a positivist and a visionary historian 7-13 as supporter of the theory of defen sive imperialism 8-12 and De Sanctis 18-19 and Fustel de Coulanges 11-13 and Mommsen 12-13 and Renan 11 honor, honores 315 Hortensius Hortalus, Q. (cos. 69) elected pecunia Siciliensi 110 sponsors in 56 a senatorial decree against electoral sodalitates 113,216, 328-35,657-58 defends Plancius 328-35, 568-59 defends Procilius 115,129 nominates Cicero to the augurate 247-49 interlocutor in Cicero’s dialogues 48, 52, 62 piscinarius 47 gourmet 265-68 horti of App. Claudius Pulcher 289-90, 655 Scapulani 421 I iecur Placentinum 595-99 Illyrian War, First 9-10 and American-Spanish War 14-15 imitatio Alexandri, by Cicero 285
Indices
imperatores summi 362-65, 662 imperialism defensive 1-31 Roman 67-69, 632 and the collapse of the Republic 69 history of the term 28 imperium bestowal of 284-85, 654 of tribuni militum consulari potestate 675 impiety 592-93 inauguratio augural concept of 492-93 incendium Plaetorianum 421-22 incestum of Vestal 593-95 indictio feriarum 73 inimicitia 292 iniuria 293-94 Interamna and Reate 101 Interamnia Praetuttianorum home town of Caelius Rufus 228-9 intercessio 75 and elections 117, 133 interpres augural meaning 487-88 interreges patricians 561-66, 569-70 first interrex possibly selected by lot 564 interregnum and auspices 561-66 Italy unification of, Mommsen’s theory 2-7 and the theory of De Sanctis 17-18 and the unification of Germany 2-4 iudex, iudices editicii 331-35, 658-59 selectus 412 iudicium domesticum 323-24 Iulia (daughter of Augustus) exiled 375-394, 663-64 her freedmen 375, 379-83, 664
735
her peculium 379-88, 663 and Augustus, last will 382-88 and Livia 375 and Scribonia 388-92 and Tiberius 376-77, 387-93 her death 390-93 Iulia, freedwoman of Livia 375, 38082, 664 Iulius Caesar see Caesar Iulius Caesar, L. (cos. 64) as antiquarian 39, 78, 82 Iulius Caesar Strabo, C. (aed. cur. 90) interlocutor in Cic., d e or. 45, 48 Iulius Gelos, freedman of Julia 375, 380-82, 664 Iulius Thiasus, freedman of Julia 375, 380-82, 664 Iunius Brutus, M. (pr. ca 140) author of the first Roman dialogue 45 Iunius Brutus, M. (pr. 44) interlocutor in Cic., B ru t. 48 contemplated as interlocutor in A c a d . 62 Iuno and Falisci 362, 662 Moneta, temple of, and the archives of augurs 502-3 Moneta, and auspices 503 Iuppiter Compages 180, 198 Depulsor 586, 675 Imperator 363, 662 and auspices 478-80 and Falisci 362 ius civile Cicero’s opinion of, and interest in 50-51,61 ius iurandum in legem, Iuliam agrariam (Campanam) 85-88 military 152-53, 643-44 iurare in verba 152 ius vescendi 409 Iuventius Laterensis, M. (pr. 51) refuses to swear in legem Iuliam agrariam 85-87, 89
Indices
736
as title of Varro’s L o g isto ric u s 57 Iuventius Thalna, M. (cos. 163) his death and the prodigium cycni 521 K Kalendae certae 395-406, 665 Kalendarium 397 καπνός, Καπνός 425-26 Kameades and religion as convention 469-70 Kipling, R. 29, 67 κομπεταλιασταί 185-87,418-19 Kritias and religion 465 L lacrimae 126 lacus Velinus dispute between Interamna and Reate 56, 101 Laelius, C. (cos. 190) as legatus and quaestor 302 Laelius, C. (cos. 140) interlocutor in Cicero’s dialogues 46-47, 50 laetus augural term 623, 679 Lange, L. representative of antiquarianism and critic of Mommsen 40 Lares and vici, compita, magistri 165, 172-92 ministri of 181-82 and Augustus 188-89 largitio 107-14 Latinus 336, 343, 659 lator legis 118 legati definition of 301-2, 316, 656 ‘legates’, ‘lieutenants’ in 168 30119 in Caesar’s B .C . and B .G . 252-53 legiones levies in 171-68 307-15 quattuor primae (consular) 306-14
numbering of 311 urbanae 307, 310-13 legitimus annus 297 collegia legitima 218-23 lex, leges Aelia et Fufia 74, 88, 130-36, 270, 445,640, 653 agraria of 111, prescript 100 de ambitu of 159 111 annales 120, 122-23 Appuleia agraria, annulment of 471-72, 534-41, 668, 670-71 Appuleia de exilio Metelli 534-35 Aufidia (promulgatio of Lurco) de ambitu 269-71 Caelia tabellaria 111 Calpurnia de ambitu 112-13 Canuleia 558 Cassia tabellaria 111 Clodia de collegiis 166, 211, 22022, 646 Clodia de exilio Ciceronis 496-97 Clodia de iure obnuntiandi 74, 445, 481 Cornelia de ambitu 112 Cornelia de maiestate 135 Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis 639 Cornelia de XX quaestoribus, prescript 100 Cornelia Baebia de ambitu 111 curiata 284-85, 654 Domitia de sacerdotiis 242-43 Fabia de numero sectatorum 112 Fufia (and the trial of C. Cato in 54) 130-36, 640 Fufia iudiciaria 132 Gabinia de senatu habendo 84 Gabinia tabellaria 111 Gabinia Calpurnia de Delo 95-100, 637 Iulia agraria (prima), date of 82-84 Iulia agraria (secunda = lex Campana) 85-86 Iulia de collegiis 170-71, 217-23, 649-50 Iulia de sacerdotiis 242-43 Iulia theatralis 641
Indices
Iunia Licinia (and the trial of C. Cato in 54) 130-33,640 Labiena de sacerdotibus 85,242^43 Licinia de sodaliciis 113-14, 170, 207, 213-17, 328-35, 647^49, 657-59 Licinia Cassia (of 171) de tribunis militum 307-13 Liviae, annulment of 472, 536-38, 668 Minucia de lege Rubria abroganda 536-39 Ogulnia de sacerdotiis 561-62, 57273 Papiria (concerning Acerrae) 14445 Papiria de dedicatione/consecratione 497-98, 669 Papiria tabellaria 111 de piratis persequendis 635 Poetelia de ambitu 110 Pompeia de ambitu 112 Pompeia de provinciis 284-85, 654 Quinctia de aquaeductibus, prescript 100 Roscia theatralis 140-42, 641, 650 Rutilia de tribunis militum 309-10 sacrata 70 Titia agraria, annulment of 471-72, 668 Tullia de ambitu 112 Valeria de Sulla dictatore 470-71 Liber Pater cult in Dacia 366-68 libri and commentarii (of priests) 499511 contain ritual prescriptions 511-12 of pontiffs 499-501 reconditi 496-523 Sibyllini 500-1 libum, liba absoluta 65 in Roman cult 366-67, 663 Licinia (Vestal) dedicates iniussu populi 504 Licinius Calvus, C. defends C. Cato 130, 640
737
Licinius Calvus Stolo, C. (pr.) 64 Licinius Crassus, L. (cos. 95) interlocutor in Cic., d e or. 45, 47, 50-51 Licinius Crassus, M. (cos. 70, 55) election to the consulship for 70 91-94, 636 election to the consulship for 55 117 does not preside over elections in 55 79 Licinius Crassus Mucianus, P. (cos. 131) 50 Licinius Lucullus, L. (cos. 74) interlocutor in Cicero’s dialogues 48, 52, 62 piscinarius 47 Licinius Stolo, C. interlocutor in Varro, rust. I 53, 56,58 life as loan 399-406,665 Livia 36 her mother 238, 262-79 and Julia 375 Livius Drusus, M. (tr. pi. 91) annulment of his legislation 472, 536-38 Livius Drusus Claudianus, M. (husband of Alfidia, mother of Livia) 263 accused of praevaricatio 640 Livy and religio, auspicia 608-25, 679 and Augustus 614, 679 method of composition 313-14, 612-13 preface 608-9 Locri inscriptions from 412-13 Lollius Palicanus, M. (tr. pi. 71, pr. by 69) and C. Calpurnius Piso (cos. 67) 78 lot see sors, sortitio Louis XI 19 Lucceius, L. (pr. 67) and Q. Cassius 421-22
Indices
Lucienus, Q., senator interlocutor in Varro, rust. Π 56-57 Lucilius Balbus, Q. interlocutor in Cic., nat. d eor. 48, 61 ludi cetasti in Patavium 373-74, 663 compitalicii, and collegia, and magistri 165-92 in Delos 187 in Minturnae 184 of pagus 180 Lupus 63 Lurco, Lurcones 238-39, 262-79 as tr. pl. in 61 promulgates a bili against ambitus 269-72 M. Lurco 271 Aufidius 262-79 A. Petronius 268 M. Petronius 268 Lutatius Catulus, Q. (cos. 102) interlocutor in Cic., d e or. 45, 47 his suicide 434-35 Lutatius Catulus, Q. (cos. 78) interlocutor in Cicero’s dialogues 47, 52,62 luxuria 47 M Maecenas 36 magistri collegiorum 165, 172-92, 646-47 vicorum 165, 172-92, 646-47 vicorum, wear toga praetexta 17879 Larum, and collegiorum Larum 189 Campani 180-82,646-47 Capitolini 647 Iovei Compagei 180 pagi 180 in Delos 185-87,646-47 in Minturnae 182-85, 646-47 collegia magistrorum 179,191, 646-47 magistrae (in Minturnae) 182-85 Mago his agricultural handbook 51-52
maiestas and lex Cornelia 135 and lex Fufia 115, 135-36, 639-40 manifest destiny 15 Manilius, M’. (cos. 149) interlocutor in Cic., rep. 46-47, 50 as a jurist 50 Manlius Torquatus, A. (quaesitor 52) 246 Manlius Torquatus, L. (pr. 49) interlocutor in Cic., fin . 48 manus 154-64, 552-53, 644- 45 and confarreatio 546-47, 578-79 map of Agrippa, and Alfred the Great 356-61 Marcellus (nephew of Augustus) 36 Marcius Philippus, L. (cos. 91, augur) opposes leges Liviae 472, 536-38 Marius, C. (cos. 107, 104-100) and Saturninus and Glaucia 70 trial de ambitu 112 and Minturnae 183-84 as title of Varro’s L o g isto ric u s 57 Marruvium proposed as home town of Livia’s maternal grandfather 464 Marx, K. 6,285 Masurius Sabinus 162 matrimonium intermarriage between patricians and plebeians 542-59 Mausoleum of Augustus, its legal position 38386 McKinley, William 14-15 Menates a character in Varro, rust. Π 57, 65 Messius, C. trial de sodaliciis in 54 238 metus hostilis 11 Mezentius 336, 343, 659 Michelet, J. 27 m(illenae) 413 militia (milites) genera of 147-53, 642-44 legitima 149 and coniuratio 149-53, 642-44
Indices
and dilectus 150, 153 and evocatio 149-53, 643 and missio 151-52 and sacramentum 148-53, 643 and tumultus 149 Minerva and Falisci 362-63, 662 imperator 662 ministri of Lares 181-82 Minturnae magistri and magistrae 182-85 and Marius 183-84 Minucius Pica interlocutor in Varro, ru st. ΙΠ 54, 56, 63 Minucius Prothymus, L. directs revivals of Terence 299 Minucius Rufus (tr. pi. 121) proposes to repeal lex Rubria de colonia Cartaginem deducenda 536-39 Minucius Thermus, Q. (aed. II c.) 29599 missio and bellum confectum 151-52 Mommsen, T. defensive imperialism, theory of 4-7 the theory of dyarchy, misunderstood by recent scholars 41-42 and De Sanctis 17-19 and Fustel de Coulanges 12 and Holleaux 12-13 and Münzer 140 and Napoleon 4 and nation, concept of 6-7 and national minorities 3, 6-7 R ö m is c h e G e s c h ic h te 1-2 R ö m is c h e G e s c h ic h te and R ö m is c h e s S ta a ts r e c h t 42-43 R ö m is c h e s S ta a ts r e c h t as a work of law not of history 40-42 and Syme 32-43, 633 unification of Italy and unification of Germany 1-7 Monroe doctrine 16
739
Mucius Scaevola, Q. (cos. 117) interlocutor in Cicero’s dialogues 45-47, 50 Mucius Scaevola, Q. (cos. 95) Scaevola as title of Varro’s L o g is to r ic u s 57 and theologia tripertita 463 Mummius, Sp. legate in 146? 303 interlocutor in Cic., re p . 46, 48, 61 Murrius interlocutor in Varro, ru st. Π 57 Murrius, Q. 64 Musssolini and Augustus 33 N N as abbreviation 369-74 names comical, and jokes about, in Varro, ru st. 53-56 in inscriptions 63 Napoleon I Mommsen’s view of 4, 23 Napoleon ΠΙ 2 natalis of Patavium 369-74,663 of homines, collegia, templa, urbes 370-73, 665 nature the laws of, and Roman laws 46973 necare 323-24, 429-35, 656-57, 666 Nigidius Figulus, P. (pr. 58) interlocutor in Cic., Tim . 48-49 as antiquarian 523 nomenclator 112,639 Nonius Asprenas, L. (cos. suff. 36) 119 Nonius Struma 118-19 Nonius Sufenas, M. (tr. pi. 56) his aedileship or praetorship in 55 118-22 prosecuted in 54 (de ambitu?) 115, 123-26, 129, 136, 639-40 nuper 104-5, 637-38
Indices
nuptiae 154-64 ritual of 548, 672-73 Ο
obnuntiatio 444^157, 539-40, 634, 667 and lex Aelia and Fufia 132-36 by Antonius against Caesar in 44 488-90 by augurs 488-89 by Bibulus and three tribunes (in 59) 73-77,480,512-14,634, 669 and lex Clodia de iure obnuntiandi 74, 445, 481,634 and elections (in 56) 133-36, (in 54) 133, 136 by magistrates 488-90 andmaiestas 129-30,134-36, 639-40 in person 513-14, 634 and servare de caelo 488-90,513 and spectio 488-90 by tribunes 454-57 obrogare 535-39 Octavius, M. (tr. pi. 133) deposition of 70, 291-94, 655 oligarchy and autocracy, “Syme’s law” 38 optimates as oratores elegantes 292-93 orators optimates and populares 291-94 Orchivius, C. sodalitas of 208 orientation, augural 469 and iecur Placentinum 599 ostentarla 520-22 otium 49-50, 61 P
paedagogi 320-23, 657 paenula 344—47 pagus, pagi 175,178-81 Herculaneus 180 Pales 58 Pandateria as Julia’s place of exile 375-77, 379
Pantuleius Parra interlocutor in Varro, rust. ΠΙ 54-56 Parilia 58,371,373 partes in Varro, rust. 53 partus ancillae 382, 664 Patavium natalis of 369-74, 663 ludi cetasti 373-74, 663 patientia 291-94,655 patricians intermarriage with plebeians 542-59 patriciate, formation of 550-52 patricii magistratus augural meaning, and access of plebeians to 566-74 pavo, pavones 265-66, 277 cf. Fircellius pax Britannica 67 deorum 610-14, 621-22, 679 si vis pacem, para bellum 19 peacocks see pavo, pavones peculium of Julia 379-88,662-63 of Tiberius 379-80, 663 penetralia 499-500 Perseus 5 pertinacia 291-94 Petronius Passer, M. interlocutor in Varro, rust. ΠΙ 54, 56 Philip V and Roman citizenship 69 philosophy and the writing of history 288-89 piaculum 593-94 Pinnius Varro dedicates to him rust. HI 53 Pisaurum inscriptions from 409-10 piscinarii 47 Plaetorius incendium Plaetorianum 421-22 Plancius, Cn. (tr. pl. 56) aedileship of 118-21, 657 Plato γενναιον ψευδός, and theologia tripertita 466-67
Indices
critique of divination 483 plebeians intermarriage with patricians 54259 gain access to magistracies 566-74 both consuls plebeians 568-69 use auspicia publica but do not own them 566-69 Plinius Maior as source for Roman religion 58489 Plotius, A. (tr. pi. 56) his aedileship 118-21 Polybius and chance in history 5, 23-24 and Roman constitution 13 and Roman religion 460, 464-65 Pompeius Magnus, Cn. (cos. 70, 55, 52) as dux privatus 152 election to the consulship in 71 (for 70) 91-94,636 attacked by C. Cato 116 nominates Cicero to the augurate 247-49 presides over elections (in 55) 79 theatrum lapideum 66 belief in portents 481-82 opinion of Tacitus 69 Pompeius Rufus, Q. (tr. pi. 52) and Favonius 232-33 Pomponius Atticus, T., eques interlocutor in Cicero’s dialogues 48 interlocutor in Varro, rust. Π 56-57 as title of Varro’s L o g isto ric u s 57 Pomponius, Sex. lib e r sin g u la ris e n c h irid ii 50 Pomptinus, C. triumph in 54, entry in the Fasti 103 Pontia, Pontii and Fannius Saturninus 320-27, 657 and Fannii and Titinii 325-26 and Aufidii 326 pontifex maximus participates at confarreatio 548-49, 577-78 pontifices archives of 503-5 and Cicero’s «forno 496-523
741
and ius sacrorum (pontificium) 499-504 popular sovereignty 70 populares as orators leves and turbulenti, not elegantes 292-93 Porcius Aper, M. 63 Porcius Cato, C. (tr. pi. 56) 115-36 obstructs elections 115-18 praetor in 55? 121-22, 639 prosecuted in 54 115,123-36, 639-40 Porcius Cato (Maior) M. (cos. 195) see Cato Maior Porcius Cato (Minor), M. (pr. 54) see Cato Minor Porcius Cato Licinianus, M. in the battle of Pydna 50, 305-6 Postumius, C. tr. mil. in 168 317 Postumius Albinus, L. (cos. 173) tr. mil.(?) in 168 315-16 praecatio, praecationes categories of 585-88 praefecturae in Italy 143^16,642 prefaces important to read 13-14 priesthoods election to 241-44, 247-49 primus scivit 100 principale in Mommsen and in Syme 32-43 prior factus consul, and the presidency over elections 71-90,635 pro milite 148-50 Procilius, tr. pi. in 56 (?) 125-27, 639 convicted in 54 (de vi?) 115, 12329, 639 and Procilius the antiquarian 12829 prodigia and Augustus 618-19 and auspicia 613-14 and Livy 621 pertain to status 476,613-14 procuratio of 611-13
742
and swan (cycnus) 520-21 Prodikos and religion 465 professio at elections 78, 80, 91-94, 120, 635-36 and the lex Campana 85-88 prosopography 137-42,292,308,314 Protagoras and religion 465 Prussia and Rome 2 national minorities in 3 Ptolemy Auletes 116 Pupius Piso, M. (cos. 61) interlocutor in Cic., fin . 48 Pydna battle of 4 Pyrrhus 2 Q quaesitores (iudices quaestionis) de sodaliciis 238 in 52 245-46 quaestores selected sorte or sine (extra) sorte 257-59, 282, 302 quaestor = pro quaestore 280-82 quattuordecim (XIV) ordines 140-42 Quinctius Scapula 427 R Reate 55-56, 65, 101 reconditus reconditi, libri 496-523 Regium as Julia’s place of exile 375-94, 663-64 religion (Roman) and augury 458-84 and Cicero 458-74, 667-68 and convention 469-70 crimes, religious 592-95,677 and Livy 608-25 manipulation of 465 misinterpretation of 592-93 and philosophy 462-64 and Polybius 460, 464-65
Indices
ritual, its importance 39-40 and Sallust 460 and superstitio 460-61,464 utilitarian theory of 458-69 Remus and auspicia 473-74, 669 Renan, E. as a positivist historian and ideo logue 11 and Holleaux 11 renuntiatio at elections 78,117-18 responsa (and decreta) of priests, classification of 508 of augurs 497-98 of augurs at contiones 511-13 of pontiffs 503-6 of pontiffs de domo Ciceronis 505-6 revolution concept of 34 rex sacrorum and marriage per confarreationem 542-45 Rhodes, Cecil 6, 24 Rome and America 14—15 and Sparta 70 as an ideal state 49 street fights in 58 Romulus and augury 473-74, 610, 669 Roosevelt, Theodore 15-16, 29 Rousseau, J.-J. 25 Rutilius Rufus, P. (cos. 105) character in Cic., rep. 46-47, 50 S sacerdos confarreationum et diffarreationum 553-54,580-81 sacerdotia patrician 542-59 sacramentum 148-53 sacrificium humanum 595, 677 Sannio 527-30 Saturninus Fannius and Annius 321, 325
Indices
Saufeius, L. antiquarian and Epicurean 340-41, 659 Savigny von, F. 1,21-22 Scapula Quinctius 421 Scapulani, horti 421 Schelling, F. 17,22-23 Schlegel, F. 22, 24 Scribonia and Julia 388-92, 664 Scribonius Curio, C. (cos. 76) as title of Varro’s L o g isto ric u s 39, 57 Scribonius Curio, C. (tr. pl. suff. 50) and Favonius 231-38 qu. in Asia 234 aedile in 53? 234-35, 239-40 candidacy for the aedileship of 50 235-37 election to the tribunate 235-36 his games 233-34, 237-40 and Cicero’s election to the augurate 231-50 imperium in 49 286 sectatores 112 sedere augural term 527-30 Seius, M. breeds peacocks 266 accuses (in 52) M. Saufeius 277 Sempronius Asellio Rufus, C. as a gourmet 267 Sempronius Atratinus, L. accuses Caelius in 56 204-5 Sempronius Gracchus, Ti. (cos. 163) commits vitium at the consular elections 487-88 Sempronius Gracchus, Ti. (tr. pl. 133) and M. Octavius 291-94, 655 Sempronius Tuditanus, C. (cos. 129) aedileship 297-98 treatise de magistratibus 40 senators as privati 562-63 senatus and the honorific cognomina 437-40
743
senatus consultum against ambitus (in 61) 270-71 de collegiis (of 64) 165-203, 645 de dedicatione of Vestal Licinia 504 de domo Ciceronis 505-6 de provinciis quaestorum 259 ut sodalitates decuriatique discederent (of 56) 170, 20517, 328-35, 647-49, 557-58 decrees collected in commentarii 511 sentimental politics 13, 27 sepulcra familiaria, heredidaria, and the Mausoleum of Augustus 38386 sequestres 107-8, 112 crimina of 204-17 Serenus Sammonicus his lib ri re ru m re c o n d ita ru m 52223 Sergius, Catilina, L. (pr. 68) his professio in 66 80 plot to murder Cicero 224-25 Sergius, Silus, M. legate in 168 303-4 Servilius Isauricus, P. as pr. in 54 presides over Messius’ trial de sodaliciis 238 Sibylline books and oracles 604-7 Simitthus local era 373-74 sine ira et studio, in Tacitus and in Syme 35 lege 257-58 sorte 257-59, 302 sodalicia 113 quaestio de, quaesitor 238 cf. lex Licinia sodalis, sodales crimina of 204-17, 330, 648, 65758 sodalitas, sodalitates 113, 205-27, 328-35, 646-49 of Luperci 209
744
Indices
Magnae Matris 209 sors as capital of life 399-400 sors, sortitio divine nature of 467, 564 and interreges 564 and presidency over elections 7881 of quaestors 257-59, 282, 302 of military tribunes 313-14 of legions 313 Staatsrecht versus antiquarianism 40-41 Stalin 3 struggle of the orders and auspicia 560-74, 674-75 and confarreatio 542-59, 672-73 Sulpicius Galba, P. his petitio consulatus 108 Sulpicius Galba, Ser. (cos. 151) tr. mil. in 168? 317-19 Sulpicius Galus, C. (pr. 168) legate or tr. mil. in 168 304, 316 Sulpicius Rufus, P. (tr. pl. 88) interlocutor in Cic., d e or. 45, 48 Sulpicius Rufus, Ser. (cos. 51) jurisprudent, Cicero’s opinion of 50,61 superstitio and religio 460-61, 464 Supplementa Italica 1-3 407-14 supplicium 322-23, 657 swans in augury 517-22 as prodigy 520-21 Syme, R. his R o m a n R e v o lu tio n 32-43 and Augustus 37-39 and Geizer 34-36 and Mommsen 32-43, 633 and Münzer 34-35 Symmachos, scholiast and grammarian 426-27 T tabellariae, leges 111 tabula lusoria 409
Tages story of, in Censorinus 596 ridiculed by Cicero 469, 596 in Mart. Capella 590-91,676-77 and cista Praenestina 677 and mirror of Tuscania 599,678 Tarquinius Priscus and Attus Navius 479-80 Tarquitius Priscus his ostentarium 520, 522 Teate Marrucinorum inscriptions from 412 Tegi anum inscriptions from 413 Tellus temple of, in Rome 57-58 templum etymology 491-92 augural concept of 490-95, 668 augural in Bantia 494-95 aerium 493-95 caeleste 493 as locus inauguratus 492-93 tribunal at elections 108 Terentius Varro, M. (pr. after 76) see Varro theatrum lapideum 67-68 Theogenes 425-27 theologia tripertita 463-70 Thierry, A. 21 Thiers, A. 4, 23 Tiberius 36-37 bom in Fundi? 264 as Augustus’ filius familias and his peculium 379-80 and Julia 376-77, 387-93 his legal decisions 387-88 reform of confarreatio 578-79 Titinii and Fannii and Pontii 325-26 Tocqueville de, A. and the role of religion 464 toga praetexta and magistri vicorum 178-79 travel, speed of 244 Tremelius Scrofa, Cn. (pr.) interlocutor in Varro, rust. I and II 53,56-58
Indices
trials of triumvirs’ supporters (in 54) 12336 in 52 245-46 tribuni aerarii 140-41, 641 tribuni militum mode of appointment in 171-68 306-16 tribuni militum consulari potestate and auspices 570-72, 674-75 cannot appoint dictator 571-72 and imperium 675 and triumph 570-72, 675 trinum nundinum 245^47 τρισαρειοπαγίται 125, 639 triumphus and honorific cognomina 439-40 and tribuni militum consulari potestate 570-72, 675 triumvir capitalis in 52, and the date of elections 24647, 256, 652 Tullius Cicero, L. interlocutor in Cic., f in . 48 Tullius Cicero, M. (cos. 63) see Cicero Tullius Cicero, M. (cos. suff. 30), Cicero’s son interlocutor in Cic., p a r t or. 48 Tullius Cicero, Q. (pr. 62) interlocutor in Cicero’s dialogues 48 tumultus 149-50 tunc-nunc 105-6 Turranius Niger Varro dedicates to him ru st. Π 53 Tusculum proposed as home town of Caelius Rufus 228-29 Twelve (ΧΠ) Tables and conventio in manum 154-64, 552-53 U Ursus 63 usus and matrimonium 154-64, 644-45 utilitas civitatis (publica) 166,169,171
745
V Vaccius interlocutor in Varro, ru st. Π 53 Vaccius Vitulus, P. 63 Vacuna, Sabine deity 64 Vada Sabatia inscriptions from 412 Valerius, L. (aed. II c.) 296-99 Valerius Messala, M. (cos. 53) his treatise de auspiciis 40 as title of Varro’s L o g is to r ìc u s 57 Valerius Triarius, C. interlocutor in Cic., f in . 48 Vargunteius, L. senator and eques 224-25, 650 Varro as authority on Roman antiquitates 40 and theologia tripertita 463-66, 469-70 his dialogues 44, 52-59, 633 d e r e ru st, as a dialogue 52-53 book I, dramatic date 58 book II, dramatic date and place 58 bookΙΠ 44, 53-56 dramatic date 58-59, 65-66, 1006,637 L o g is to r ic i 39, 57 Varro’s humor 53-54 Syme’s characterization of Varro, unjust 39 interlocutor in Cic., a c a d . p o s t. 48, 51-52 interlocutor in ru st. 56, 58 Vatinius, P. (tr. pi. 59) his legislation in 59 and obnuntiationes 74 candidate for the augurate 85 in Catullus 119-20 Veidius, Veidia 414 Velitrae inscriptions from 411 Velleius, C. interlocutor in Cic., n at. d e o r . 48, 61
746
Velleius Paterculus his home town 227-28 verba power of 585-89 Vercingetorix 6,18,24 Vergilius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus on archaic Italy and Rome 33644, 659 peritus and always right (according to scholiasts) 338 peritus in augury 517-19,528 Verginia a patrician, marries L. Volumnius (cos. 296) sine manu 557 Vestals 70 crimen incesti 593-95, 677 vestis, vestes 344-350 veterani and evocati 150-51 Vettia as cognomen 414 Vettius affair of (in 59) 73 vicarii milites 147-48, 643 vices and virtues, Roman 291-94 victory and auspicia 614, 624 vicus, vici magistri of, and ludi (compitalicii) 165, 172-92, 646-47
In d ic e s
villa as setting for Roman dialogues 4547, 57-59 villa publica 54-55,58-59, 100-1, 290, 637, 655 Vipsanius see Agrippa virginitas prodenda 320-22 Viriathus 18, 30 virtues and vices, Roman 291-94 Vistula and Dacia, in the map of Agrippa, and in Alfred the Great 356-61, 660 vitium augural concept of 487-88, 615-17 and calamitas (and Appuleius Saturninus) 534, 540-41 C. Claudius Marcellus (cos. 215) vitio creatus abdicates 568-69 Vitulus interlocutor in Varro, rust. Π 53 Volcatius Tullus, L. (cos. 66) and the presidency over elections 80 Volcei inscriptions from 413-14 Volk in romanticism and historicism 2122 voluntarii milites 147-48 Vulcanus and coqui 362-65