Robins and Chats (Helm Identification Guides) 0713639636, 9780713639636

Table of contents :
Cover
Half-title
Title
Copyright
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK: LAYOUT AND SCOPE
CHAT SYSTEMATICS – SHAKING THE TREE by Per Alström
COLOUR PLATES
SPECIES ACCOUNTS
Genus Sialia
Eastern Bluebird Sialia sialis
Western Bluebird Sialia mexicana
Mountain Bluebird Sialia currucoides
Genus Cochoa
Purple Cochoa Cochoa purpurea
Green Cochoa Cochoa viridis
Javan Cochoa Cochoa azurea
Sumatran Cochoa Cochoa beccarii
Genus Chlamydochaera
Black-breasted Fruithunter Chlamydochaera jefferyi
Genera Heteroxenicus, Brachypteryx and Heinrichia
Gould’s Shortwing Heteroxenicus stellatus
Rusty-bellied Shortwing Brachypteryx hyperythra
Rufous-bellied Shortwing Brachypteryx major
White-bellied Shortwing Brachypteryx albiventris
Lesser Shortwing Brachypteryx leucophris
White-browed Shortwing Brachypteryx montana
Great Shortwing Heinrichia calligyna
Genus Alethe
Fire-crested Alethe Alethe castanea
White-tailed Alethe Alethe diademata
Genus Pseudalethe
Red-throated Alethe Pseudalethe poliophrys
Brown-chested Alethe Pseudalethe poliocephala
White-chested Alethe Pseudalethe fuelleborni
Cholo Alethe Pseudalethe choloensis
Genus Pogonocichla
White-starred Robin Pogonocichla stellata
Genus Swynnertonia
Swynnerton’s Robin Swynnertonia swynnertoni
Genus Stiphrornis
Forest Robin Stiphrornis erythrothorax
Genus Sheppardia
Bocage’s Akalat Sheppardia bocagei
Lowland Akalat Sheppardia cyornithopsis
Equatorial Akalat Sheppardia aequatorialis
Sharpe’s Akalat Sheppardia sharpei
East Coast Akalat Sheppardia gunningi
Gabela Akalat Sheppardia gabela
Rubeho Akalat Sheppardia aurantiithorax
Usambara Akalat Sheppardia montana
Iringa Akalat Sheppardia lowei
Grey-winged Akalat Sheppardia polioptera
Genus Erithacus
European Robin Erithacus rubecula
Genera Luscinia, Larvivora and Calliope
Bluethroat Luscinia svecica
Thrush Nightingale Luscinia luscinia
Common Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos
White-bellied Redstart Luscinia phaenicuroides
Japanese Robin Larvivora akahige
Ryukyu Robin Larvivora komadori
Rufous-headed Robin Larvivora ruficeps
Indian Blue Robin Larvivora brunnea
Siberian Blue Robin Larvivora cyane
Rufous-tailed Robin Larvivora sibilans
Siberian Rubythroat Calliope calliope
Himalayan Rubythroat Calliope pectoralis
Blackthroat Calliope obscura
Firethroat Calliope pectardens
Genus Tarsiger
White-browed Bush Robin Tarsiger indicus
Rufous-breasted Bush Robin Tarsiger hyperythrus
Collared Bush Robin Tarsiger johnstoniae
Red-flanked Bluetail Tarsiger cyanurus
Himalayan Bluetail Tarsiger rufilatus
Golden Bush Robin Tarsiger chrysaeus
Genus Irania
White-throated Robin Irania gutturalis
Genus Cossyphicula
White-bellied Robin-Chat Cossyphicula roberti
Genus Cossypha
Mountain Robin-Chat Cossypha isabellae
Archer’s Robin-Chat Cossypha archeri
Olive-flanked Robin-Chat Cossypha anomala
Cape Robin-Chat Cossypha caffra
White-throated Robin-Chat Cossypha humeralis
Blue-shouldered Robin-Chat Cossypha cyanocampter
Rüppell’s Robin-Chat Cossypha semirufa
White-browed Robin-Chat Cossypha heuglini
Red-capped Robin-Chat Cossypha natalensis
Chorister Robin-Chat Cossypha dichroa
White-headed Robin-Chat Cossypha heinrichi
Snowy-crowned Robin-Chat Cossypha niveicapilla
White-crowned Robin-Chat Cossypha albicapillus
Genus Xenocopsychus
Angola Cave Chat Xenocopsychus ansorgei
Genus Cichladusa
Collared Palm Thrush Cichladusa arquata
Rufous-tailed Palm Thrush Cichladusa ruficauda
Spotted Palm Thrush Cichladusa guttata
Genus Cercotrichas
Forest Scrub Robin Cercotrichas leucosticta
Miombo Scrub Robin Cercotrichas barbata
Bearded Scrub Robin Cercotrichas quadrivirgata
Brown Scrub Robin Cercotrichas signata
Brown-backed Scrub Robin Cercotrichas hartlaubi
White-browed Scrub Robin Cercotrichas leucophrys
Rufous Scrub Robin Cercotrichas galactotes
Kalahari Scrub Robin Cercotrichas paena
Karoo Scrub Robin Cercotrichas coryphoeus
Black Scrub Robin Cercotrichas podobe
Genus Namibornis
Herero Chat Namibornis herero
Genus Copsychus
Madagascar Magpie-Robin Copsychus albospecularis
Seychelles Magpie-Robin Copsychus sechellarum
Oriental Magpie-Robin Copsychus saularis
Philippine Magpie-Robin Copsychus mindanensis
Indian Robin Copsychus fulicatus
Genus Kittacincla
White-rumped Shama Kittacincla malabarica
Visayan Shama Kittacincla superciliaris
White-browed Shama Kittacincla luzoniensis
White-vented Shama Kittacincla niger
Black Shama Kittacincla cebuensis
Genus Trichixos
Rufous-tailed Shama Trichixos pyrropygus
Genus Phoenicurus
Przevalski’s Redstart Phoenicurus alaschanicus
Eversmann’s Redstart Phoenicurus erythronotus
Blue-capped Redstart Phoenicurus coeruleocephala
Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros
Common Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus
Hodgson’s Redstart Phoenicurus hodgsoni
White-throated Redstart Phoenicurus schisticeps
Daurian Redstart Phoenicurus auroreus
Moussier’s Redstart Phoenicurus moussieri
Güldenstädt’s Redstart Phoenicurus erythrogastrus
Blue-fronted Redstart Phoenicurus frontalis
Plumbeous Redstart Phoenicurus fuliginosa
Luzon Water Redstart Phoenicurus bicolor
White-capped Redstart Phoenicurus leucocephalus
Genera Myiomela and Cinclidium
White-tailed Robin Myiomela leucura
Sunda Blue Robin Myiomela diana
Blue-fronted Robin Cinclidium frontale
Genus Grandala
Grandala Grandala coelicolor
Genus Enicurus
Little Forktail Enicurus scouleri
Sunda Forktail Enicurus velatus
Chestnut-naped Forktail Enicurus ruficapillus
Black-backed Forktail Enicurus immaculatus
Slaty-backed Forktail Enicurus schistaceus
White-crowned Forktail Enicurus leschenaulti
Spotted Forktail Enicurus maculatus
Genus Saxicola
Whinchat Saxicola rubetra
Stoliczka’s Bush Chat Saxicola macrorhynchus
Hodgson’s Bush Chat Saxicola insignis
Canary Islands Chat Saxicola dacotiae
Common Stonechat Saxicola torquatus
Réunion Stonechat Saxicola tectes
White-tailed Stonechat Saxicola leucurus
Pied Bush Chat Saxicola caprata
Jerdon’s Bush Chat Saxicola jerdoni
Grey Bush Chat Saxicola ferreus
White-bellied Bush Chat Saxicola gutturalis
Genus Campicoloides
Buff-streaked Chat Campicoloides bifasciatus
Genus Oenanthe
Red-rumped Wheatear Oenanthe moesta
Capped Wheatear Oenanthe pileata
Red-breasted Wheatear Oenanthe bottae
Heuglin’s Wheatear Oenanthe heuglini
Isabelline Wheatear Oenanthe isabellina
Northern Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe
Somali Wheatear Oenanthe phillipsi
Kurdistan Wheatear Oenanthe xanthoprymna
Red-tailed Wheatear Oenanthe chrysopygia
Pied Wheatear Oenanthe pleschanka
Cyprus Wheatear Oenanthe cypriaca
Black-eared Wheatear Oenanthe hispanica
Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti
Mourning Wheatear Oenanthe lugens
Abyssinian Wheatear Oenanthe lugubris
Arabian Wheatear Oenanthe lugentoides
Finsch’s Wheatear Oenanthe finschii
Variable Wheatear Oenanthe picata
Hume’s Wheatear Oenanthe albonigra
White-crowned Black Wheatear Oenanthe leucopyga
Black Wheatear Oenanthe leucura
Hooded Wheatear Oenanthe monacha
Genus Cercomela
Sickle-winged Chat Cercomela sinuata
Karoo Chat Cercomela schlegelii
Brown Rock Chat Cercomela fusca
Tractrac Chat Cercomela tractrac
Familiar Chat Cercomela familiaris
Brown-tailed Rock Chat Cercomela scotocerca
Sombre Rock Chat Cercomela dubia
Blackstart Cercomela melanura
Genus Pinarochroa
Moorland Chat Pinarochroa sordida
Genus Myrmecocichla
Congo Moor Chat Myrmecocichla tholloni
Northern Anteater Chat Myrmecocichla aethiops
Southern Anteater Chat Myrmecocichla formicivora
Sooty Chat Myrmecocichla nigra
Rüppell’s Black Chat Myrmecocichla melaena
White-fronted Black Chat Myrmecocichla albifrons
Arnot’s Chat Myrmecocichla arnotti
Mountain Chat Myrmecocichla monticola
Genus Thamnolaea
Mocking Cliff Chat Thamnolaea cinnamomeiventris
White-winged Cliff Chat Thamnolaea semirufa
Genus Pinarornis
Boulder Chat Pinarornis plumosus
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX

Citation preview

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ROBINS AND CHATS

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H E L M I D E N T I F I C AT I O N G U I D E S

ROBINS AND CHATS Peter Clement and Chris Rose

CHRISTOPHER HELM LONDON

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Christopher Helm An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway London New York WC1B 3DP NY 10018 UK USA www.bloomsbury.com BLOOMSBURY, CHRISTOPHER HELM and the Helm logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published 2015 © text by Peter Clement 2015 © artwork by Chris Rose 2015 © photographs by named photographers 2015 Peter Clement and Chris Rose have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Authors of this work.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organisation acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the authors. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication data has been applied for. ISBN (hardback): 978-0-7136-3963-6 ISBN (epub): 978-1-4081-5596-7 ISBN (epdf): 978-1-4081-5597-4 2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1 Designed by Julie Dando, Fluke Art Printed and bound in C&C Offset Printing Co Ltd.

To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com Here you will find extracts, author interviews, details of forthcoming events and the option to sign up for our newsletters.

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CONTENTS Plate

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 9 INTRODUCTION 11 HOW TO USE THIS BOOK: LAYOUT AND SCOPE 18 CHAT SYSTEMATICS – SHAKING THE TREE by Per Alström 30 COLOUR PLATES 38 SPECIES ACCOUNTS 162 Genus Sialia 162 Eastern Bluebird Sialia sialis 1 162 Western Bluebird Sialia mexicana 1 166 Mountain Bluebird Sialia currucoides 1 170 Genus Cochoa 173 Purple Cochoa Cochoa purpurea 2 173 Green Cochoa Cochoa viridis 2 174 Javan Cochoa Cochoa azurea 3 177 Sumatran Cochoa Cochoa beccarii 3 178 Genus Chlamydochaera 180 Black-breasted Fruithunter Chlamydochaera jefferyi 3 180 Genera Heteroxenicus, Brachypteryx and Heinrichia 182 Gould’s Shortwing Heteroxenicus stellatus 4 182 Rusty-bellied Shortwing Brachypteryx hyperythra 4 184 Rufous-bellied Shortwing Brachypteryx major 4 185 White-bellied Shortwing Brachypteryx albiventris 4 187 Lesser Shortwing Brachypteryx leucophris 5 189 White-browed Shortwing Brachypteryx montana 6 193 Great Shortwing Heinrichia calligyna 5 198 Genus Alethe 200 Fire-crested Alethe Alethe castanea 7 200 White-tailed Alethe Alethe diademata 7 202 Genus Pseudalethe 204 Red-throated Alethe Pseudalethe poliophrys 7 204 Brown-chested Alethe Pseudalethe poliocephala 8 206 8 208 White-chested Alethe Pseudalethe fuelleborni Cholo Alethe Pseudalethe choloensis 8 211 Genus Pogonocichla 213 White-starred Robin Pogonocichla stellata 9 213 Genus Swynnertonia 217 Swynnerton’s Robin Swynnertonia swynnertoni 9 217 Genus Stiphrornis 219 Forest Robin Stiphrornis erythrothorax 9 219 Genus Sheppardia 222 Bocage’s Akalat Sheppardia bocagei 10 222 Lowland Akalat Sheppardia cyornithopsis 11 224 Equatorial Akalat Sheppardia aequatorialis 11 226 Sharpe’s Akalat Sheppardia sharpei 11 227 East Coast Akalat Sheppardia gunningi 11 229 Gabela Akalat Sheppardia gabela 11 232 Rubeho Akalat Sheppardia aurantiithorax 10 233 Usambara Akalat Sheppardia montana 10 234 Iringa Akalat Sheppardia lowei 10 236 Grey-winged Akalat Sheppardia polioptera 21 237 Genus Erithacus 240 European Robin Erithacus rubecula 12 240

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Genera Luscinia, Larvivora and Calliope 247 Bluethroat Luscinia svecica 13 247 Thrush Nightingale Luscinia luscinia 17 257 Common Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos 17 261 White-bellied Redstart Luscinia phaenicuroides 36 267 Japanese Robin Larvivora akahige 12 269 Ryukyu Robin Larvivora komadori 12 271 Rufous-headed Robin Larvivora ruficeps 13 273 Indian Blue Robin Larvivora brunnea 16 275 Siberian Blue Robin Larvivora cyane 15 278 Rufous-tailed Robin Larvivora sibilans 17 282 Siberian Rubythroat Calliope calliope 14 284 Himalayan Rubythroat Calliope pectoralis 14 288 Blackthroat Calliope obscura 15 291 Firethroat Calliope pectardens 15 294 297 Genus Tarsiger White-browed Bush Robin Tarsiger indicus 16 297 Rufous-breasted Bush Robin Tarsiger hyperythrus 18 299 Collared Bush Robin Tarsiger johnstoniae 16 301 Red-flanked Bluetail Tarsiger cyanurus 18 303 Himalayan Bluetail Tarsiger rufilatus 18 308 Golden Bush Robin Tarsiger chrysaeus 18 310 313 Genus Irania White-throated Robin Irania gutturalis 28 313 317 Genus Cossyphicula White-bellied Robin-Chat Cossyphicula roberti 19 317 319 Genus Cossypha Mountain Robin-Chat Cossypha isabellae 19 319 Archer’s Robin-Chat Cossypha archeri 19 320 Olive-flanked Robin-Chat Cossypha anomala 19 322 Cape Robin-Chat Cossypha caffra 20 324 White-throated Robin-Chat Cossypha humeralis 21 327 Blue-shouldered Robin-Chat Cossypha cyanocampter 20 328 Rüppell’s Robin-Chat Cossypha semirufa 20 330 White-browed Robin-Chat Cossypha heuglini 332 20 Red-capped Robin-Chat Cossypha natalensis 21 334 Chorister Robin-Chat Cossypha dichroa 21 338 White-headed Robin-Chat Cossypha heinrichi 22 340 Snowy-crowned Robin-Chat Cossypha niveicapilla 22 341 White-crowned Robin-Chat Cossypha albicapillus 22 343 345 Genus Xenocopsychus Angola Cave Chat Xenocopsychus ansorgei 22 345 346 Genus Cichladusa Collared Palm Thrush Cichladusa arquata 23 346 Rufous-tailed Palm Thrush Cichladusa ruficauda 23 348 Spotted Palm Thrush Cichladusa guttata 23 349 352 Genus Cercotrichas Forest Scrub Robin Cercotrichas leucosticta 27 352 Miombo Scrub Robin Cercotrichas barbata 24 354 Bearded Scrub Robin Cercotrichas quadrivirgata 24 355 Brown Scrub Robin Cercotrichas signata 24 358 Brown-backed Scrub Robin Cercotrichas hartlaubi 25 360 White-browed Scrub Robin Cercotrichas leucophrys 25 361 Rufous Scrub Robin Cercotrichas galactotes 26 365 Kalahari Scrub Robin Cercotrichas paena 26 369 Karoo Scrub Robin Cercotrichas coryphoeus 27 371

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Black Scrub Robin Cercotrichas podobe 27 373 376 Genus Namibornis Herero Chat Namibornis herero 28 376 379 Genus Copsychus Madagascar Magpie-Robin Copsychus albospecularis 29 379 Seychelles Magpie-Robin Copsychus sechellarum 31 382 Oriental Magpie-Robin Copsychus saularis 29 384 Philippine Magpie-Robin Copsychus mindanensis 29 388 Indian Robin Copsychus fulicatus 38 389 392 Genus Kittacincla White-rumped Shama Kittacincla malabarica 30 392 Visayan Shama Kittacincla superciliaris 31 396 White-browed Shama Kittacincla luzoniensis 31 397 White-vented Shama Kittacincla niger 31 399 Black Shama Kittacincla cebuensis 31 400 402 Genus Trichixos Rufous-tailed Shama Trichixos pyrropygus 30 402 404 Genus Phoenicurus Przevalski’s Redstart Phoenicurus alaschanicus 32 404 Eversmann’s Redstart Phoenicurus erythronotus 32 406 Blue-capped Redstart Phoenicurus coeruleocephala 32 409 Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros 33 411 Common Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus 33 419 Hodgson’s Redstart Phoenicurus hodgsoni 34 425 White-throated Redstart Phoenicurus schisticeps 34 427 Daurian Redstart Phoenicurus auroreus 34 429 Moussier’s Redstart Phoenicurus moussieri 35 431 Güldenstädt’s Redstart Phoenicurus erythrogastrus 35 433 Blue-fronted Redstart Phoenicurus frontalis 35 437 Plumbeous Redstart Phoenicurus fuliginosa 36 439 Luzon Water Redstart Phoenicurus bicolor 36 441 White-capped Redstart Phoenicurus leucocephalus 36 442 445 Genera Myiomela and Cinclidium White-tailed Robin Myiomela leucura 37 445 Sunda Blue Robin Myiomela diana 37 447 Blue-fronted Robin Cinclidium frontale 37 449 451 Genus Grandala Grandala Grandala coelicolor 38 451 453 Genus Enicurus Little Forktail Enicurus scouleri 39 453 Sunda Forktail Enicurus velatus 39 454 Chestnut-naped Forktail Enicurus ruficapillus 39 456 Black-backed Forktail Enicurus immaculatus 39 457 Slaty-backed Forktail Enicurus schistaceus 40 458 White-crowned Forktail Enicurus leschenaulti 40 460 Spotted Forktail Enicurus maculatus 40 462 464 Genus Saxicola Whinchat Saxicola rubetra 41 464 Stoliczka’s Bush Chat Saxicola macrorhynchus 41 471 Hodgson’s Bush Chat Saxicola insignis 45 474 Canary Islands Chat Saxicola dacotiae 43 479 Common Stonechat Saxicola torquatus 42, 43 482 Réunion Stonechat Saxicola tectes 43 502 White-tailed Stonechat Saxicola leucurus 41 504 Pied Bush Chat Saxicola caprata 44 507 Jerdon’s Bush Chat Saxicola jerdoni 44 513

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Grey Bush Chat Saxicola ferreus 45 517 White-bellied Bush Chat Saxicola gutturalis 44 520 Genus Campicoloides 524 Buff-streaked Chat Campicoloides bifasciatus 45 524 Genus Oenanthe 527 Red-rumped Wheatear Oenanthe moesta 53 527 Capped Wheatear Oenanthe pileata 56 530 Red-breasted Wheatear Oenanthe bottae 56 532 Heuglin’s Wheatear Oenanthe heuglini 56 534 Isabelline Wheatear Oenanthe isabellina 50 537 Northern Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe 50 542 Somali Wheatear Oenanthe phillipsi 49 551 Kurdistan Wheatear Oenanthe xanthoprymna 53 553 Red-tailed Wheatear Oenanthe chrysopygia 53 556 Pied Wheatear Oenanthe pleschanka 51, 52 559 Cyprus Wheatear Oenanthe cypriaca 51 565 Black-eared Wheatear Oenanthe hispanica 52 570 Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti 55 578 Mourning Wheatear Oenanthe lugens 46, 48 583 Abyssinian Wheatear Oenanthe lugubris 49 590 Arabian Wheatear Oenanthe lugentoides 48 594 Finsch’s Wheatear Oenanthe finschii 54 596 Variable Wheatear Oenanthe picata 46, 47 600 Hume’s Wheatear Oenanthe albonigra 55 606 White-crowned Black Wheatear Oenanthe leucopyga 55 608 Black Wheatear Oenanthe leucura 46 611 Hooded Wheatear Oenanthe monacha 54 614 Genus Cercomela 617 Sickle-winged Chat Cercomela sinuata 57 617 Karoo Chat Cercomela schlegelii 57 618 Brown Rock Chat Cercomela fusca 59 620 Tractrac Chat Cercomela tractrac 57 622 Familiar Chat Cercomela familiaris 59 624 Brown-tailed Rock Chat Cercomela scotocerca 58 626 Sombre Rock Chat Cercomela dubia 58 628 Blackstart Cercomela melanura 58 629 Genus Pinarochroa 632 Moorland Chat Pinarochroa sordida 59 632 Genus Myrmecocichla 634 Congo Moor Chat Myrmecocichla tholloni 60 634 Northern Anteater Chat Myrmecocichla aethiops 60 635 Southern Anteater Chat Myrmecocichla formicivora 60 637 Sooty Chat Myrmecocichla nigra 60 639 Rüppell’s Black Chat Myrmecocichla melaena 61 640 White-fronted Black Chat Myrmecocichla albifrons 61 641 Arnot’s Chat Myrmecocichla arnotti 61 643 Mountain Chat Myrmecocichla monticola 46 645 Genus Thamnolaea 648 Mocking Cliff Chat Thamnolaea cinnamomeiventris 62 648 White-winged Cliff Chat Thamnolaea semirufa 62 651 Genus Pinarornis 653 Boulder Chat Pinarornis plumosus 28 653 BIBLIOGRAPHY 656 INDEX 679

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My first acknowledgement has to be to those chats that have been the source for a lifetime of inspiration and admiration, especially the wheatears for which I reserve special pride of place, though this is not to belittle or demean the others, each of which has a distinct charm and character. I cannot remember where or when I saw my first (Northern) Wheatear, but every spring I look for them with renewed vigour and enthusiasm (and the same applies to listening for the opening bars of the returning Common Nightingales), as perhaps more than any other migrants, to me they are the true heralds of spring. Wheatears have, and always will, hold a special affection for me, not only due to their lifestyle of almost constant movement, from one part of the globe to another, but also their endurance of extreme weather conditions, spending the winter in the warm desert regions before moving north in early spring to Eurasia, only to find that winter’s grip is not yet gone. I think I first realised just how much these birds endured some years ago, when it became clear that those individuals that breed in Greenland and NE Canada didn’t (as was largely imagined at the time) travel north via NW Europe (i.e. by island-hopping) but crossed up to 2,500km of the open Atlantic, from somewhere in NW Africa or NW Spain, with the hope and expectation (but no certainty) of reaching land at a time when the winter snow has receded and food is available. And all that after a good number have previously crossed a significant part of the western Sahara. Every time I see a wheatear in England (or anywhere else), I often wonder what traveller’s tales they could tell and also where will they be this time next week, next month, by midsummer or the turn of the year. As is always the case with a huge project such as this, the amount of detailed information included is a reflection of the knowledge, advice and commitment of many others; this book could not have been written (or would undoubtedly have been considerably less comprehensive) without their help. I would like to thank those who willingly gave special help and advice on a number of issues (listed alphabetically): Mansour Aliabadian (Iran and wheatears), Per Alström (for taking the time in his busy schedule to write the Taxonomy chapter, as well as for providing information on Gould’s Shortwing and Blackthroat), Vasil Ananian together with Chris Bradshaw (for data on distribution in Armenia), Raffael Ayé and Manuel Schweizer (status and distribution information for Central Asia), Gomboo Bataar (Mongolia), Nik Borrow (W & C Africa and for organising the final selection of photographs), Adrian Constantino (Philippines), Will Duckworth and Rob Tizard (Laos), Magnus Hellström (stonechats), Magne Husby (Norway), James Eaton and Rob Hutchinson (for discussion, help and advice on distributions in China, Philippines, SE Asia and Sulawesi), David Hussell (Northern Wheatear in Canada), Frank Lambert (NE India and China), Aleksi Lehikoinen and Ari Rajasärkkä (Red-flanked Bluetail in Finland), Åke Lindström, Lennart Karlsson and Anders Wirdheim (Sweden), Yang Liu (for very detailed comments on status and distribution in China), Simon Mahood (status and distribution in Cambodia and Vietnam), Michael Mills (status and distribution in Angola), Richard Porter (identification, status and distribution in the Middle East), Bill Read (Eastern Bluebird), Colin Richardson (United Arab Emirates and Cyprus), V. V. Robin (Brachypteryx shortwings), Phil Round (Thailand and NE Bangladesh), Claire Spottiswoode (Africa), Colin Trainor (Timor), Ewan Urquhart (comments on the Saxicola species accounts) and Arend Wassink (status and distribution in Kazakhstan). Particular thanks are also due to Bev McBride for tirelessly searching out documents, data and contacts in Canada and the USA. I am greatly indebted to Tim and Carol Inskipp for help and discussion of Indian and Nepalese species, Richard Porter for the same on Iraqi species’ distributions and photographs, and to Jevgeni and Darja Shergalin for translating and compiling data from Belarus, Georgia, Russia and Ukraine. Yet more special thanks are due to the curators and library staff at the Natural History Museum, Tring (where the largest collection of chat specimens resides), in particular Robert Prys-Jones, Mark Adams and Hein van Grouw, who were always extremely helpful and knowledgeable, together with Alison Harding, who was able to procure books, journals or documents no matter how obscure their origin – all of their help was inestimable. Both Tang Jun and James Eaton helped immensely in enabling me to see breeding Firethroat and Blackthroat in C China; without their help, good humour and organisation this would have been almost impossible. In addition, I would like to thank Miou Helps and Selina Ip for translations from French and Chinese sources, respectively, together with many others who helped in all manner of ways including: Des Allen, Jim Almond, Simon Aspinall, David Beadle, Michael Blair, Emma & Andy Bloomfield, Neil Bostock, Andy Boyce, Richard Byrne, Stavros Christodoulides (Cyprus Wheatear in winter), Nigel Collar, Peter Colston, Neil Ellis,

9

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Robins and Chats

Peter Flint, Ernest Garcia and Charles Perez (Black Redstarts – Gibraltar), John & the late Judy Geeson, Alan Harris, Bert Harris, Ren Hathway, Gene Herzberg, John & Jemi Holmes, Mike Jennings (Saudi Arabia), Tang Jun, Joe Kierman, Richard Knapton, Mark Mallalieu, Rod Martins, Geoff Mawson, Pete Morris, Tim & Sue Parmenter, Yoav Perlman, Aasheesh Pittie, M. Pope, Abidur Rahman (Kaziranga), Nigel Redman, Peter Roberts, Steve Rooke, Gang Song, Mike Spicer, Dr Jochen Tamm, Philippe Verbelen, Alan Vittery and Robert Zink. Grateful thanks are also due to all of the photographers who responded to a request (or were persuaded) to share their (often hard-won) images: AbdulRahman Al-Sirhan Alenezi, Duha Alahashimi, Bjorn Anderson, Vaughan Ashby, Aurélien Audevard, Arnaud Barras, Mike Barth, Eyal Bartov, Pritam Baruah, Prasad Basavaraj, Bill Baston, David Beadle, Amir Ben Dov, Simon Bennett, Joris Bertrand, Carlos Nazario Bocos, Nik Borrow, Paul Bowyer, Colin Bradshaw, Ursula Bryson (née Franke), Mike Buckham, Oscar Campbell, Tim Carney, Hugh Chittenden, Stavros Christodoulides, Paul Cools, Bram Cornelissen, Abhishek Das, Subharghya Das, Kit Day, Matthias Dehling, Bram Demeulemeester, Arpit Deomurari, Richard Diepstraten, John East, James Eaton, Boas Emmanuel, Josh Engel, Jacques Erard, Peter Ericsson, Ian Fisher, Con Foley, Clement Francis, Leif Gabrielsen, Deborshee Gogoi, Chris Gooddie, Martin Goodey, Yoshihito Goto, Tomas Grim, Dr Johann Grobbelaar, Vinod Kumar Gupta, Marc Guyt, Stefan Hage, Martin Hale, Trevor Hardaker, Hugh Harrop, Chris Hill, Per Holmen, Tommy Holmgren, Jon Hornbuckle, Lee Hunter, Rob Hutchinson, Nicky Icarangal, Louise Jasper, Ayuwat Jearwattanakanok, Tang Jun, Adam Scott Kennedy, Nelson Khor, Lior Kislev, Nick Kontonicolas, John Kormendy, Evgeny Kotelevsky, Jainy Kuriakose, Ram Mallya, Alan Manson, Datta Manwadkar, Ralph Martin, Jonathan Martinez, Manjula Mathur, Juan Matute de Toro, Alison McArthur, Ian Merrill, David Monticelli, Pete Morris, David Moyer, Soumyajit Nandy, Ian Nason, Rebecca Nason, Paul Noakes, Jyrki Normaja, Daniele Occhiato, Georges Olioso, Frédéric Pelsy, Daudi Peterson, Lars Petersson, Raj Kamal Phukan, Mark Piazzi, Pedro Vaz Pinto, René Pop, Mike Pope, Mike Prince, Mathias Putze, Ramon Quisumbing, Biswapriya Rahut, Justin Rayboun, George Reszeter, Neon Tomas B. Rosell II, Amano Samarpan, Niranjan Sant, Mathias Schaef, Brian Schmidt, Ben Schweinhart, Glyn Sellors, Dubi Shapiro, Ted Shimba, Amar Singh, Arun Singh, Jordan Sitorus, Oliver Smart, Claire Spottiswoode, Ramki Sreenivasan, Artur Stankiewicz, Loutjie Steenberg, Harri Taavetti, Toyoshige Tanaka, Wanna Tantanawat, Warwick Tarboton, Gary Thoburn, Alejandro Torés Sánchez, Marco Valentini, Eric VanderWerf, Paul van Giersbergen, Lesley van Loo, Rick van der Weijde, Norman Deans van Swelm, Robert van Zalinge, Ariadne van Zandbergen, Alex Vargas, Nigel Voaden, Mike Wallen, Ingo Waschkies, Kilian Wasmer, Arend Wassink, Robert Weinand, Gabriel Whiting, Stijn de Win, Ethan Winning and Cherry Wong. Chris Rose would like to thank the following for their invaluable and generously given assistance in providing references for the artwork: Bob McGowan (National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh), Mark Adams, Robert Prys-Jones, Katrina and Hein van Grouw, Peter Colston (Natural History Museum, Tring), Clem Fisher (World Museums Liverpool), Paul Sweet (American Museum of Natural History, New York), Pamela Beresford (University of Cape Town), Nate Rice (Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia), Marc Herremans (Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium), Chris Wood (University of Washington, Seattle), Anita Gamauf (Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna), Nik Borrow, Jon Fjeldså, John Gale, Simon Harrap, Tim Loseby, Nigel Redman and Martin Woodcock. Chris and I would also like to give special thanks to Julie Dando at Fluke Art who, with her customary skill and artistic flair, has designed and produced the book, and last but by no means least to Nigel Redman at Bloomsbury Publishing for commissioning the whole project and patiently seeing it through. Finally, and by no means least, in addition to those who helped materially and otherwise, I wish to record my immense debt of gratitude to Angela who endured long periods of absence (both while I was at home and away) with patience and understanding, and supplied kind words of encouragement during the long (and often seemingly unending) period of gestation while the book was in preparation. Peter Clement, March 2015

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INTRODUCTION What is a chat? Collectively, chats are closely related groups of birds with similarities in plumage, behaviour and breeding ecology. The name ‘chat’ derives from the sharp and abrupt alarm call made by several of the common or most widespread species, most notably Common Stonechat, whose name derives from the sound of two stones being knocked or tapped together. These were among the first to be described or at least given (probably in old English) a name that was used colloquially over time for several species, and remains in use today. The chat or chak call is by no means confined to Common Stonechat; others in the same genus (Saxicola) give the same or a very similar call (often in combination with other notes), as do many wheatears (Oenanthe), several redstarts (Phoenicurus) and some of the Luscinia, including Bluethroat, Siberian Rubythroat and Indian Blue Robin. Until fairly recently, chats were considered to be most closely related to thrushes in the family Turdidae, and that the two groups shared a common ancestry and formed two sub-families. Molecular analysis now indicates that the chats are more closely related to the Old World flycatchers in the family Muscicapidae, and that their similarities to the thrushes may be due to convergent evolution. The fact remains that thrushes and chats share certain morphological and vocal characteristics, both are fairly slender or have slightly plump bodies, a broad-based and usually straight bill, prominent rictal bristles (in some), fairly short and rounded wings (except in Grandala and the longer-distance migrant wheatears) with ten primaries (the outermost usually very short), a tail comprising 12 feathers (occasionally ten or 14 in some) and medium to (proportionately) fairly long legs, often with strong toes (especially in the more terrestrial shortwings, the water-loving forktails and some of the Luscinia and Tarsiger chats), and are well-adapted to terrestrial living. Chats, together with thrushes, share two critical similarities with the Old World flycatchers in that juvenile plumage is heavily spotted (except in a few chats, where this is restricted to the edges of the wing-coverts) and the shape of the syrinx, the latter (also known as the ‘voice-box’) is a distinctive condition or configuration enabling their rich songs. Chats are essentially an Old World subfamily with the exception of the three bluebirds (Sialia) – currently regarded as thrushes in Turdidae – and two species (Northern Wheatear and Bluethroat) whose breeding ranges extend in summer to NW & NE North America; they are completely absent from South America, Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands (though one species, White-rumped Shama, has been introduced to Hawaii). The subfamily (as considered here) currently consists of 168 species* of which 67 are entirely Asian and 77 exclusively African (including the Indian Ocean islands). None are entirely European, but ten breed in Europe and W Asia, wintering in Asia or Africa, and the rest breed in Europe and Africa, or in all three continents like Northern Wheatear and Common Stonechat. The last-named species must be considered the most successful chat given its abundance, distribution and subspecific diversification. Included in the chats are the well-known European Robin, nightingales, robin-chats, redstarts, stonechats and wheatears, together with other or less well-known groups such as the shortwings, scrub robins, alethes, akalats and forktails, and a number of other individual or small groups of species of mainly African or Asian distribution. How each of these is related to each other within the overall assemblage (or subfamily Saxicolinae of the Muscicapidae) is explained in the taxonomy section within each species account and in more technical detail in the next chapter. Outside of this grouping, there are several other species with the name ‘chat’ or ‘robin’ in their names; these birds were so-named by the first settlers, explorers and naturalists owing to their superficial similarity to the familiar birds back home. These include several Middle and North American thrushes (notably American Robin) and American Redstart and Yellow-breasted Chat (both of which are warblers). In Australia there are at least 15 species of robin (depending on taxonomy), together with five chats and two scrub robins, all of which are entirely unrelated to any of the ‘true’ chats included here. The defining characteristics of the robins and chats include their extremes of visibility, from those that are exceptionally difficult to find within dense temperate or tropical forest undergrowth, thickets or extensive thorn scrub (and possibly detectable only when calling or during the often short song period), to those that live in more open habitats. Some, especially the shortwings, which spend most of their lives on or very close to the ground within dense undergrowth, are among some of the most elusive and rarely seen of all terrestrial birds. Two of the Calliope chats are virtually unknown outside of their breeding ranges

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and the present breeding range of one of the Saxicola awaits discovery. At the other extreme are the other Saxicola, redstarts and wheatears, which occur almost entirely in the open and include species that occur up to 5,000m in the mountains of Asia, the tundra of the high Arctic, in the centre of the hottest African deserts, and among the industrialised regions of major European cities. * This book includes a total of 175 species; of these, eight (the three bluebirds, four cochoas and Fruithunter) are now recognised as belonging within the thrushes (Turdidae) and as such would have been more appropriately included in the Thrushes monograph (Clement & Hathway 2000), but at the time their relationship was less clear; this is explained in more detail under Taxonomy (see page 19).

Morphology In their plumages chats exhibit almost an entire spectrum of colours from all black through brown and red to yellow, very pale or sandy-buff; no species is all white though several have white on the head and rump to tail; most have a combination of plumages, from darker head and upperparts, to paler underparts (mostly as part of cryptic camouflage in their habitat). Very few wear a single colour, although the cochoas (which are thrushes) are predominantly green, purple or dark blue, several of the Cercomela and Myrmecocichla chats are almost uniformly grey or dark to blackish-brown, and Isabelline Wheatear is possibly the palest of all. Within this spectrum are body colours of blues, greys, brown and bright orange to red (predominantly in males, but also in several species in which the sexes are alike), mixed with paler and darker hues, and often more heavily or boldly marked head or face patterns. Included among the latter are broad pale or white supercilia (lines over the eyes and ear-coverts) and contrasting pale and dark moustachial or submoustachial stripes. A more extreme case concerns the normally concealed small whitish patch above the lores in several shortwings, all of the akalats and White-starred Robin, and appears to be mainly a signalling device, revealed (as far as is known) only in territorial aggression and mate attraction displays. The bright red on the throat and/or breast of male Siberian and Himalayan Rubythroats, Firethroat and Indian Blue Robin are shown at their best during courtship displays or territorial disputes while the bright metallic blue on the breast of Bluethroats is ultraviolet reflective, and females use UV colour vision in selecting a partner (UV reflectance is also greater in adult males than first-year birds, thereby ensuring enhanced sexual status of adult males over their offspring). The incorporation of ultraviolet in the plumage also occurs in the Myiomela and Cinclidium chats, where the violet-blue forehead and shoulders (lesser coverts) are undoubtedly of little use as signalling devices in displays without UV reflectance in the dimly lit forest understorey. Similarly, and although not necessarily UV related, the brilliance of the blue in male bluebirds means that those with the brightest plumage pair earlier and fledge more young, thus indicating their quality or suitability as mates and potential breeding productivity. Bright or distinctive tail patterns are a feature of several species or genera, and range from orange-red or rufous (redstarts and robin-chats) to brown or black and rufous (Bluethroat and two wheatears), and dark blue or black and white (several Luscinia/Calliope and the remaining wheatears and all of the forktails).

Behaviour For some species the bright tail patterns are used in combination with rapid movements of the tail, such as quivering/shivering and wagging (though this is by no means a trait of the chats alone), which also serves to emphasise the tail features. To a greater or lesser degree, all redstarts characteristically shake or quiver the tail nervously, either occasionally or habitually when perched, and all wheatears after running or flying short distances wag the tail on landing. In White-browed and Rufous Scrub Robins (Cercotrichas) the long and usually brightly coloured tail with broad white tips is held high over the back, and in extreme cases almost touches the back of the head. In Plumbeous Redstart tail-wagging is taken to its furthest degree, as this bird is able to wag the tail vertically, whilst simultaneously opening it sideways scissors-fashion. In addition, another seemingly nervous expression of agitation is wing-flicking, a rapid almost subliminal lifting of the wings, which (often in combination with tail-flicking) is a characteristic of such well-known species as European Robin and Common Stonechat, both of which demonstrate this most frequently in alarm or agitation. The Cercomela and Pinarochroa chats, together with Herero Chat, flick their wings several times and partly flick open the tail immediately on landing. In Karoo Chat wing-flicking forms part of the pair-bond, where pair members forage separately but call to each other when seeking to be re-united; once perched together, they greet each other in an upright stance and flick their wings horizontally.

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The flight of most chats is undulating, either over short distances or longer ones, though this is varied. Redstarts and most other small chats moving between bushes, or shortwings making for cover, make short direct flights, as do most of the bush- or forest-dwelling African robins and chats whose movements are usually of very short duration. Forktails too can make long direct flights before breaking into short undulations, and migrant wheatears break long periods of direct flight with short spells of brief undulations. The restrictedrange Herero Chat of SW Angola and Namibia is possibly less terrestrial than many of its relatives (though its true affinities are unresolved) and its flight is generally more direct than undulating. In defence of their territories, stonechats, Whinchats and most wheatears chase intruders or potential mates around or from their area by rapid, direct and often twisting flights low over the ground. Several wheatears have hovering display flights (most notably and impressively by Isabelline Wheatear) in which the male rises several metres high on stiff wingbeats, with broadly spread tail and singing loudly, hovers in one place, before turning and spiralling or gliding back to the ground, then repeating the whole display over again. In the montane and fairly long-winged Grandala, either individuals or whole flocks indulge in very impressive swallow-like swoops and glides, or aerial manoeuvres, over mountain passes or peaks. Grandalas are, like other chats, ground-feeders and dig in soft earth for invertebrates so it is difficult to understand the purpose of these aerial aerobatics, other than for the sheer joy of being able to do so.

Habitat Habitats occupied by chats range from sub-Arctic tundra, heaths, parkland, woodlands and dense forests to open hillsides, scree slopes, montane passes and vast open terrain and crags both within and above the treeline. In altitude they range from sea level to some of the highest passes in the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. A wide range of other habitats are occupied; European Robin is a frequent and familiar bird of rural, urban and some city gardens (though in parts of the range it is a more retiring or shy bird of woodlands and forest glades). Common Stonechat occurs on open heaths and hillsides to savanna with scattered trees, Whinchats breed in moorland and grassy meadows, while nightingales nest in woodlands with well-developed undergrowth but in winter move to thickets, thorn scrub and open forest, a habitat they share with several scrub robins and two of the palm thrushes. Wheatears are open-country specialists with little or no need of trees, but whose requirements range from open fields and hillsides to montane plateaux, deserts, wadis and around oases. Of all the wheatears, White-crowned Black Wheatear is the only true desert resident, found throughout the year in the most extreme and seemingly inhospitable regions, whilst at the other extreme is Northern Wheatear, which breeds north through the temperate regions to the open, windswept Arctic tundra. Asian chats include several forest-breeding birds such as Himalayan Rubythroat and longer distance migrants like Red-flanked Bluetail, Siberian Blue Robin, Siberian Rubythroat and Rufous-tailed Robin, which summer in pristine Siberian (taiga) forest and birches at the edge of the tundra, and winter well to the south in the forests of the Himalayas and throughout India and SE Asia. Forktails are an exclusively Asian family of chats that have evolved to occupy a niche of their own; like large wagtails, they patrol large stretches of usually fast-flowing streams and rivers, moving nimbly between muddy edges and wave-splashed boulders and rocks in midstream. Some of the larger forktails such as Black-backed and White-crowned Forktails are occasionally found foraging on damp ground or waterlogged areas away from streams (though usually within easy distance of flowing water) within both closed and fairly open forests. Unlike many of the smaller and more slender chats, forktails have much thicker and stronger legs with long, curved claws for gripping wet and slippery surfaces, and densely feathered plumage to counteract their cold and wet surroundings. African chats have similar requirements; the akalats and alethes live in dense tropical and subtropical forests, as do some robin-chats and scrub robins, though several of the latter are also found in more open forest as well as thickets or scrubby areas. Africa also harbours three species that have evolved within a habitat niche of their own. Mocking Cliff Chat, Angola Cave Chat and Boulder Chat live almost exclusively on sheer cliffs, ravines, gorges or inselbergs, or in the latter case outcrops of massive boulders. All, however, require an area of woodland or scrub in which to feed. The redstarts are one of the most diverse groups of chats, distributed mainly in Europe and Asia (and probably of Asian origin), but two species, Common and Black Redstarts, winter in Africa (the former almost exclusively and the latter partly), while another, Moussier’s Redstart, has a restricted range in NW Africa. Most of the family are lowland to mid-altitude birds of open forest, either deciduous or coniferous: Common Redstart is the most widespread, breeding mainly in mature broadleaved or mixed broadleaf and

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conifer forests, mainly of birch and pine. Its congener, Black Redstart, in contrast, largely avoids woodland (though in one or two areas it breeds in stunted juniper forest, open Deodar Cedar forest and willow and wild rose thickets), being principally a bird of open montane areas, breeding up to the snowline on dry hillsides with sparse or scattered bushes, and on stony or rocky slopes, cliffs, boulder fields and around human settlements. This affinity with human habitation has enabled it to spread into villages, towns and cities of S Russia and throughout much of Europe, including densely populated metropolises like London, Cologne and Istanbul, where it requires small areas of open or ‘waste’ ground with some vegetation and undisturbed areas for nesting, such as cemeteries, abandoned factories, warehouses, gasworks, dockyards, railway stations, churches and building sites. The other member of the group to avoid forest of any kind is the high-altitude Güldenstädt’s Redstart, which lives above the treeline on open, rocky or barren hillsides, cliffs, boulder fields, mountain valleys, meadows and passes with only sparse scrubby vegetation; in winter it may move to similar habitat at lower levels, but many remain at high altitudes until forced down by severe weather. Although mainly forest birds, White-capped Redstart and the two water redstarts (Plumbeous and Luzon Water Redstarts, the latter a N Philippine endemic) have taken to living alongside mountain streams and rivers, usually within deciduous or mixed forests, and are (for the two mainland Asian species) often found on the same streams or rivers as some forktails.

Foraging and Food All chats are predominantly terrestrial feeders, often pursuing a wait-and-watch, or watch-and-pounce strategy from an elevated perch, dropping to the ground to seize their prey, although several also pursue and catch insects in flight (including several of the larger chats, e.g. Boulder Chat) or briefly hover to glean insects from the outer edge of foliage. Most are well adapted for hopping, running and foraging in soft earth, leaf litter and decaying vegetation for invertebrates; ants, in particular, form a large part of the diet, followed by a range of beetles that form a staple of wheatears, especially those living in and around deserts, where the range of nutrition is at its leanest. Ants probably also form a significant part of the diet for many forest-dwelling chats too, in particular the akalats and alethes, which also gain a good living at the expense of invertebrates flushed by swarming army ants. Finally, ants play such an important role in the lives of two species of African chats (Northern and Southern Anteater Chats) that they could hardly be known as anything else; in the case of the former one or more termitaria (termite mounds) are a pre-requisite in establishing any territory. In addition to invertebrates, most are able to switch to seasonally available ripe fruit such as mulberries, raspberries, dogwood and honeysuckle, as well as small cherries, either collected on the ground or taken directly from shrubs and trees. The bluebirds and several of the Eurasian chats, including European Robin, are mainly insectivores in summer, but in autumn and early winter take small fruits and berries as they ripen, these birds playing a critical role in seed dispersal, especially those consumed by migrants, who may have moved some distance by the time the seeds are defecated. Other foraging and feeding opportunities are exploited when they are presented; European Robins are frequent attendants at garden bird-tables in Europe and, going one better than this, Seychelles Magpie-Robin has been known to enter houses to look for scraps, and in some African lodges Mocking Cliff Chats will enter restaurants in search of food. Hooded and White-crowned Black Wheatears are often camp followers of desert nomads, taking ticks from livestock, while Fire-crested Alethe and Chorister Robin-Chat have been recorded removing parasites from Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekei and Bushbuck T. scriptus, respectively. In China, Oriental Magpie-Robin is a frequent visitor to dung-heaps in search of invertebrates and their larvae. In terms of food/energy requirements, it has been estimated that a juvenile European Robin in its first year requires c.4.5kg of food, and almost double that when it is adult, which roughly equates to consuming its own weight daily; in order to maintain this level each individual needs to eat up to 750 small invertebrates 2–6mm long every day.

Breeding The breeding behaviour of many chats has been reasonably well documented; for some species considerable effort has been made, such as in studies of European Robin (Lack 1948, 1965, which include not only details of breeding but the species’ entire life history) and Common Redstart (Buxton 1950), together with some of the less well-known African forest chats including Red-capped and White-browed Robin-Chats (Farkas 1969, 1973). Panov (1974, 1999 and 2005) has studied most of the E European and Asian breeding wheatears. However, some species are less well known and, although the nests and eggs have been documented, little additional information exists on incubation periods, fledging times or success. For some, nothing is known

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at all. The nest or eggs of Gould’s, Rusty-bellied and Great Shortwings, White-bellied and White-headed Robin-Chats, Gabela, Usambara, Iringa and Rubeho Akalats, Firethroat, Blackthroat, Rufous-headed and Rufous-breasted Bush Robins, White-vented and Black Shamas, Przevalski’s Redstart, Blue-fronted Robin, Stoliczka’s Bush Chat and Sombre Rock Chat still await discovery. Most robins and chats are territorial and monogamous. Although there are occasional records of polygamy, this appears to be irregular and possibly opportunistic. Territories are used for feeding, shelter, to attract a mate and for nesting (all territories are established by males, and without one there is no chance of breeding). For some species the young are provisioned with food from within the territory, but for many foraging occurs wherever possible (including within another’s territory). Some resident species often remain in or close to their territory throughout the year, whilst migratory species often establish separate summer and winter (or non-breeding) territories, and often return to them in subsequent years. The size of the territory can be small, in one case 50 × 100 yards or 400m², or several times larger (an average of 5.8ha for Hume’s Wheatear), but depends mainly on habitat quality and the ability of the territory owner to defend its boundaries. Almost all territories in optimum habitats commence large, but decrease in size as other birds move in and adjacent territories are established. Nests are constructed entirely by the female (though there are a few records of males assisting to gather material) and are mainly cup-shaped or occasionally domed and either tightly or loosely (and often untidily) woven of material gathered locally, including grasses, leaves, plant fibres, bark strips or moss, and lined with finer or softer versions of the same. Unlike some of thrushes, mud is rarely used in the construction, its employment being almost entirely restricted to the three species of African palm thrushes. The nest is usually in a concealed position, low down in a bush, sapling, a low tree or amongst undergrowth, or on the ground, occasionally in the crevice or fork of a branch or on a ledge. Nests of Plumbeous and White-capped Redstarts, and some of the forktails, are often placed on a ledge overhanging streams or rivers, occasionally behind fast-flowing waterfalls. Several of the Cercomela chats and some wheatears (including Black, Cyprus, Hume’s and Mourning Wheatears) build a rampart of stones, twigs or dry earth at the entrance to the nest; in some of these the entrance is elaborately decorated with several hundred stones (each collected individually) and in the case of Mourning Wheatear pottery shards are also sometimes used. A study of breeding Black Wheatears in Spain found that one nest, used over several years, had accumulated 9,300 pebbles with a mean weight of 6.8g, while the heaviest at 28g was around two-thirds of the weight of the bird. Two of the Asian wheatears also nest in (shared or abandoned) underground tunnels or burrows of montane or plateau-dwelling rodents. The clutches of 2–8 eggs are mainly white or blue with variations of pale to greenish blue or cream, usually with fine reddish to brown freckles, spots or speckling, either at the broadest end or sometimes covering the entire egg. Incubation is by the female alone for 12–17 days (usually towards the lower end of this range) and the fledging period of the nestlings is of similar duration, though some leave when still unable to fly, remaining in the vicinity of the nest and being fed by both parents. In the main, most chats are attentive parents caring for the young until they are able to fly and forage for themselves. Most attain independence at around one month or slightly more after fledging. Young usually hatch with a fine or rather fluffy-textured down, which gives way in a matter of days to the first real feathers. These are followed within the first two months of life (depending on the fledging date) by a partial or incomplete (post-juvenile) moult into first-year plumage (usually, but not in all species, distinct from the adult plumage, especially in the first few months – known as first-winter plumage – and in some lasting into their first summer). For some, the feathers (mainly those of the wings and tail) grown at this stage are retained until the following summer and only replaced after they have bred. Several Luscinia and Larvivora chats have very distinct first-year plumages, whilst others such as White-throated Robin-Chat acquire a plumage almost identical to the adult within three months.

Voice The vocal prowess of the chats is well known and needs little introduction; in Europe, Common and Thrush Nightingales are the supreme songsters, particularly the first-named, which has long been admired for its rich, powerful song and is celebrated in prose, music and verse, most notably in Keats’ ‘Ode to a Nightingale’ and in Beethoven’s ‘Pastoral Symphony’. In Asia, White-throated Robin, and further east, the shamas (especially White-rumped Shama), are celebrated songsters, and in Africa the songs of robin-chats are esteemed for their quality and beauty. Songs are characterised by having several short and vigorous phrases of rising fluty notes, rich bubbling notes and piping, either given in isolation or at two frequencies simultaneously,

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producing both high notes and low trills, and broken by short pauses; in the case of the nightingales and several robin-chats, the songs usually end in a rising crescendo and conclude with a flourish. The songs of all these species are enhanced by the singer’s surroundings, usually the otherwise silent depths of woodlands or forests and (in the case of the nightingales often at night) their songs resonate with an ethereal quality. By way of contrast, some Common Nightingales in Europe are urban dwellers (occurring in parks in downtown Berlin) and raise the volume of their songs (by c.14 decibels) to compensate for competing sounds such as road traffic. The song of Common Nightingale is often given with such emphasis that it frequently reaches 90 decibels, equivalent to a train whistle – whereas, normal human conversation is usually within the range 60–65 decibels. Equally impressive is the description of the concluding part of the song of White-browed Robin-Chat by Terry Oatley (Oatley & Arnott 1998), who found it ‘scarcely believable that a bird of this size could produce such a volume of sound. At its loudest, the bird’s whole body seems compulsively committed to pumping out the song; the tail jerks, the wings flutter and the air-sacs in the neck are visibly inflated.’ In addition to their musical songs, many species are expert mimics. It is mostly the calls and songs of nearby species that are perfectly imitated, but also species that have been encountered by one species and then imitated can be quickly incorporated into the songs of all neighbouring territory holders within a matter of days; this also includes use of an acquired or imitated alarm call given at appropriate moments. The habit of copying calls already being mimicked by others may help to explain the acquisition of certain distinct calls or songs otherwise outside the distribution of the singer, e.g. in the case of a Blue-shouldered Robin-Chat (a sedentary species) in Gabon recorded imitating the song of a Common Nightingale, when the latter is unknown in the country. In Africa the record for the greatest mimicry appears to be Kalahari Scrub Robin with an impressive repertoire of more than 40 calls of other species; however, this total falls some way short of that of Bluethroats, which exceeds 64 species. In addition to pure imitation of other birds’ calls and songs, many chats are habitual imitators of almost any sound, from camera clicks and motor-drives to human whistles, bleating sheep and the striking of an axe. It is also equally noteworthy that at the opposite extreme White-browed Robin-Chat never imitates the songs of other birds (though is apparently able to) but is an accomplished mimic of alarm calls. Some Cape Robin-Chats have extensive repertoires of imitated calls, whilst others appear to never include mimicry in their repertoire.

Movements Amongst the chats, several wheatears and one redstart are long-distance migrants (Northern Wheatear is one of the longest-distance migrants of any passerine), whilst others move shorter distances (both between countries or continents, or altitudinally to lower levels). The remainder are entirely sedentary, moving little during their entire lives. As already noted, Northern Wheatear is remarkable not just for the longest distance moved by some of the population (breeders in Alaska winter in Africa, travelling c.12,000km annually), but another part (the race leucorhoa or ‘Greenland’ Wheatear) undertakes a spring sea-crossing of between 1,000km and a staggering 2,500km over the N Atlantic (taking c.4 days) to reach the breeding grounds in Greenland and NE Canada, returning by the same route in autumn, the longest sea-crossing regularly undertaken by any migrant passerine. Their ability to survive such a journey, often in adverse conditions, and to time their arrival when the ground is becoming ice-free and food available, has yet to be fully understood in terms of their physical/physiological attributes including energy, metabolic and respiratory rates, but leaving that aside, is simply a source of marvel and admiration. Shorter and comparatively less endurance-testing movements (but nevertheless still impressive in their own right) are made by both Common and Thrush Nightingales, Bluethroat, Red-flanked Bluetail, Siberian Rubythroat, Siberian Blue Robin, Rufous-tailed Robin, Isabelline, Black-eared, Pied and Cyprus Wheatears, White-throated Robin, Common and some populations of Black Redstarts, and Whinchat, all of which winter well south of their Eurasian breeding ranges. Most of these movements witness the departure of the entire breeding population (and their offspring) from temperate (or marginally sub-Arctic) regions to the subtropics, or in a few cases the tropical zone, and a return movement the following spring. More complex movements are those of shorter distance and duration, and often influenced or triggered by natural phenomena such as sudden snowstorms or severe winters at altitude, or in Africa the onset of the rains. As chats (more so than insectivorous flycatchers) are able to utilise different food sources, they are better able to withstand further north and subtropical areas, including those north of the Sahara and across the Middle East, most of India to S China and SE Asia; in N America the same applies to the bluebirds, many of which never leave the USA.

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Conservation The population status of many chats is (as far as is known) best summarised as at least stable (local declines often being balanced by increases elsewhere) and many can be described as either common or the source of local or national concern. Not one has become extinct (certainly within the last two centuries) or is even currently treated as Critically Endangered, but there are growing concerns over the status and/or distribution of 26 species. Of these, nine species (16%) are currently listed by BirdLife International as Endangered (facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future), a further nine species are currently considered as Vulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term) and another eight (14%) are placed in the Near Threatened category (species not subject to specific conservation programmes, but which are close to qualifying as Vulnerable). The main threat to the future of these species is loss of habitat, mainly through conversion to agriculture and the continued logging of forests and woodlands, and several have very small or restricted ranges including four that occur on small islands, and it is these that require most attention and vigilance in terms of their conservation and monitoring. Endangered Rufous-bellied Shortwing White-bellied Shortwing Cholo Alethe Gabela Akalat Rubeho Akalat Usambara Akalat Rufous-headed Robin Seychelles Magpie-Robin Black Shama

Vulnerable Sumatran Cochoa Javan Cochoa Swynnerton’s Robin Iringa Akalat Blackthroat White-headed Robin-Chat Luzon Water Redstart Stoliczka’s Bush Chat Hodgson’s Bush Chat

Near Threatened Rusty-bellied Shortwing East Coast Akalat Firethroat Rufous-tailed Shama Przevalski’s Redstart Chestnut-naped Forktail Canary Islands Chat White-bellied Bush Chat

Anyone interested in assisting (either physically or financially) in the work of conserving these (and other taxa) are urged to contact BirdLife International in the first instance, and secondly by becoming members of regional conservation organisations such as the UK-based Oriental Bird Club, African Bird Club and Ornithological Society of the Middle East, together with nationally based organisations that are established throughout Africa and Asia.

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HOW TO USE THIS BOOK: LAYOUT AND SCOPE The plates As far as we have been able, all the main plumages of each of the 175 species have been depicted on the plates, together with those of the most recognisable races or geographically distinct forms. Every figure in this book has been illustrated through direct reference to museum specimen, with only a handful of exceptions, where professionally taken photographs of very rare skins held only in overseas collections were used. Many sources of photographic reference (including video footage) of live birds were sought to complement the museum material, together with written, verbal and sometimes sketched references of species of which the artist had no personal experience. Every care has been taken to make these as accurate as possible and reference to illustrations in other publications has been kept to an essential minimum, mainly where no other source exists. In almost every case, adults are illustrated in fresh or newly moulted plumage except where stated otherwise; this is to show them firstly at their ‘best’ or in the most developed stage of their plumage. For some species this will be little (if any) different to that when the plumage is more worn, for others, e.g. stonechats and some wheatears, fresh plumage more extensively conceals the breeding plumage, which is revealed through abrasion or wear to the paler edges and tips. In the majority of cases, both sexes are illustrated except in those species where females are identical to males, in which case just one adult is shown. In those species where worn plumage differs considerably from fresh plumage, this is also shown, either on the same or an adjacent plate. For some species, the differences between fresh (autumn and winter; non-breeding) and worn plumage are largely indistinguishable in the field, but are clear or more obvious in the hand. Worn plumage is usually only kept for short periods of a few weeks or possibly a few months during the summer, or in the latter stages of the breeding season, and is most evident in the hand or in very close field views when the more heavily worn or abraded edges to the wing and tail feathers become evident. In most cases, immature and/or juvenile plumages are also illustrated, but have been restricted to those species where the juvenile, or more especially first-year, plumages are either especially distinctive or differ considerably from the adults. In general the plumage assumed on leaving the nest, for the duration of up to two or three months prior to the first moult, is often a much duller version of the respective adult. In some, however, the juvenile/first-winter plumage is marked by the presence of paler tips, often forming bars or spots (in some the spots are pale-centred with darker fringes) on both the upper- and underparts, and in others the bars formed by the darker tips to individual feathers are more crescent-like or form a ‘scalloped’ pattern. The pale tips to the greater coverts on many first-year birds are often retained wholly or in part (though not always obvious) well into their first year, making ageing relatively or comparatively easy. For a few of the less well-known or studied species the juvenile and immature plumages are still unknown or undescribed. A few flight illustrations are included, mostly of Oenanthe wheatears, to show the distinctive rump and tail patterns. Black-and-white diagrams have been included within the text to show more detailed wing or tail patterns visible in the field. All of the plates have been arranged to follow the same order as the text, the few exceptions to this have been to show similar and potentially confusing species alongside one another. In one or two cases, geographically related groups are shown together or follow on for ease of reference and for comparison with those species that are most similar. In other instances this has not always been possible owing to the number of similar species, but the caption to the plate, together with the identification section of the main text, indicates which species most closely resemble the particular species under consideration and which need to be eliminated when the observer is confronted by an unfamiliar species or an individual in an unfamiliar plumage. On each plate, every individual is illustrated to scale but the scale may differ between plates. On the facing pages to the plates are the captions to each bird illustrated and these provide a brief summary of the range and habitat for each species, together with a summary of the distinctive features relating to the age and sex of the individual.

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The photographs In addition to Chris Rose’s magnificent plates are a series of photographs illustrating most of the species covered by this book in different plumages (including sexes and subspecies). These have been selected to illustrate aspects of identification and ageing of the species under review. As in most other handbooks, the emphasis has been on photographs of birds taken in the field as opposed to birds in the hand, to show the individual in its normal shape and (where possible) habitat. There are, however, a few instances where this has proved difficult and for one species, Rubeho Akalat, it has so far proved impossible to find a suitable image. This is a recently discovered and very little-known akalat from the mountains of C Tanzania. We remain indebted to all of the photographers who submitted their images for possible inclusion in the book, and those whose photographs appear in the book are listed in the Acknowledgments.

Taxonomy and systematics Over recent decades, our understanding of the systematics of the chats has undergone something of a shift as to where their origins lie, with the earlier long-held view that they were part of the large family of thrushes being challenged by molecular analysis, which places them more closely to (or even within) the Old World flycatchers, and in recent world checklists, notably Dickinson & Christidis (2014) and Gill & Donsker (2015), they have been entirely subsumed therein. While the chats may be closer genetically to Old World flycatchers, it does not preclude a close relationship with the thrushes since they have morphological and behavioural similarities indicating a common ancestry. The taxonomic order for this book (and the preceding volume Thrushes by Clement & Hathway 2000) was based on Sibley & Ahlquist (1990), who separated the Muscicapidae into the Turdinae (‘true’ thrushes) and the Muscicapinae, which they further subdivided into two distinct tribes, the Old World flycatchers (Muscicapini) and the Saxicolini – the robins and chats. This order has largely remained intact with minor adjustments, e.g. the cochoas (included by Sibley & Ahlquist with the chats) now being regarded as primitive thrushes (along with Black-breasted Fruithunter), and conversely the rock thrushes (Monticola) now regarded as being more closely allied to the chats. The inclusion of Brachypteryx and Alethe within the thrushes by Sibley & Monroe (1990) has subsequently been revised, and these are now returned to the Saxicolini chats. The New World bluebirds (Sialia) are included here but are now part of the Myadestinae subfamily (and are unquestionably more appropriately considered ‘thrushes’), which includes other New World genera such as the solitaires (Myadestes), the Old World ant thrushes (Neocossyphus) and the flycatcher-thrushes (Stizorhina). This may, on further investigation, prove to be the group to which the monotypic Boulder Chat belongs. Where we have differed from this order the justification for doing so is given, usually based on more recent information or if there are either grounds to doubt, or insufficient evidence to adopt proposals or decisions, particularly in the review of subspecies. All of these changes that have taken place over a relatively short period of time reflect the work that has been undertaken in attempting to unravel or at least clarify relationships within the entire Muscicapidae. It also needs to be added that none of the current subfamily groupings are necessarily the last word (and some probably far from it), as much work remains to be done on resolving the affinities of species and genera within these groups. The ‘traditional’ order adopted here is one based on shared characters in morphology, behaviour (including foraging, vocal abilities and breeding) and to a degree where they live, which may have little or no relevance to their phylogenetic relationships. It is in essence a satisfactory grouping providing a measure of continuity until further advances in knowledge are able to clarify and substantiate relationships. As always when faced with what is essentially (at present) a moving target, it is entirely likely that anyone attempting a similar work in future will be faced by a revised (and possibly greatly enhanced) arrangement. As a step in this direction, Per Alström in the following chapter ‘Shaking the tree’ sets out a current perspective of higher-level chat taxonomy through modern molecular analysis. However, whilst this will be fundamental to future decisions and changes, some of the revised groupings have not always (as noted within the generic introductions and individual species accounts) subsequently been supported by others conducting similar analysis; in other cases, more substantive support has been provided for previous or existing arrangements. Except for a few notable cases, species-level taxonomy within the chats is comparatively stable. Among the notably contentious or unresolved cases are the various ‘splits’ into discrete species, i.e. subspecies that are either likely (based on current evidence) or are considered to be good candidates to be full species (and treated as such elsewhere). The most notable of these is Common Stonechat, where it is acknowledged that

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the treatment adopted here may be too conservative (and most probably not to everyone's liking). While recognising that this is a species in a state of flux and (possibly with others currently considered closely related), it is not yet entirely clear how many full species are currently masked by the present arrangement, as the evidence for making these distinctions is not yet available. Other species that are likely or proposed candidates for splitting into additional species for which the evidence is in progress are White-browed Shortwing (notably the races goodfellowi and floris), Great Shortwing, Olive-flanked Robin-Chat (races macclounii, grotei and mbuluensis), White-browed Bush Robin (race formosanus) and possibly European Robin (the endemic island race superbus). Comprehensive reviews are also required of the present species limits of Oriental Magpie-Robin and White-rumped Shama.

English names The English names used in this book are largely those in most frequent or traditional use, and are like those in Sibley & Monroe (1990), which in turn differ little from those in Voous (1977) and Vaurie (1959) for Holarctic species, and Keith et al. (1992) and Hockey et al. (2005) for Afrotropical species. These in turn differ little (with one or two notable exceptions) from the most recent version (5.1) of the IOC World Bird List (Gill & Donsker 2015), and progress towards a higher degree of uniformity (or something approaching it) seems closer, if not entirely within reach, than it has done previously.

The maps The maps show the seasonal or (for sedentary species) annual distribution of each species. The ranges shown represent a condensed view of the area occupied, and more detailed information on status and distribution is given in the text, which should be read in conjunction with the maps.

Species present year-round Species present only during the breeding season ?

Species present only during the non-breeding season

?

?

Areas of uncertain occurrence

Genera For each of the genera covered by this monograph, there is a brief introduction outlining the main characteristics and highlighting particularly unique aspects of the genus, as well as indicating which genera are most closely related.

Species accounts The main heading for each species comprises its English name followed by its scientific name. Below this are any alternative English names that are either in current use or have been in recent usage; this is not intended to be an exhaustive list. This is followed by the citation to the species’ original description. This includes its original scientific name, followed by the name of the describer, date of first description, the original publication, and the locality (known as the type locality) from where the bird was described; in most cases the location where the bird was first collected. This is followed by a short overview of the species in question and a listing of all of the currently recognised subspecies, together with a summary of their ranges (fuller details of distribution are given in ‘Status and Distribution’).

Field identification  This introductory and often brief summary contains essential information on the species’ size (in cm) with minimum and maximum body lengths, and usually the most obvious features of 20

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the shape, stance or plumage that enable identification. Where relevant to this, reference is also made to the number of races and differences from the nominate (first named or discovered) race. In some cases, particularly those species with severely restricted ranges, especially those endemic to small islands, the account includes reference to the range, to highlight that outside this area the species is extremely unlikely, if ever, to be encountered. Among the chats, the males of many species, particularly those in bright plumage, should present few difficulties; this will of course be helped by familiarity and knowledge of which species is likely to be found in which habitat. More confusion is likely among the forest-dwelling groups such as the shortwings and akalats, especially if seen only fleetingly, but here knowledge of those features critical to identification coupled with the location should provide certain distinct clues. In some cases, more than a brief view will be necessary, and in areas where one or more species occur, and particularly in relatively unknown areas, this will be essential together with (where possible) photographs and recordings of calls or songs. In other groups, including some Saxicola chats and wheatears, females and first-winter/year birds are likely to be more problematic or less straightforward to identify than males, and attention to small points such as bill size, head shape, presence or absence of a supercilium, wing length, uniformity of plumage tones, extent of pale or white areas, and any particular wing or tail markings (even on what appear to be uniform individuals) will assist in establishing a correct identification, or at least narrowing the options down.

Similar species  Almost all, except the most obvious or distinct species, possess similarities with others, whether closely or more distantly related, and one of the purposes of this book is to ensure that individual birds can be correctly identified, and that an uncommon or rare species is not mistaken for a more common one. For each species, this section gives details of other species with which it is most likely to be confused (in some cases species outside the scope of this book), with emphasis placed on those aspects of structure or plumage that will enable correct identification. For those species which are more distinctive or obvious this may not be relevant or necessary, especially in parts of the world where there are no similar counterparts. In a few species, especially the more skulking and rarely seen shortwings and to a similar degree the nightingales and others in the genera Luscinia, Larvivora and Calliope, the main means of locating them are via vocalisations, and information on these is essential when comparing the different species. These differences are detailed in the next section. Voice  Most robins and chats are highly vocal (some, however, are only vocal for brief periods during territorial advertisement or display, and are otherwise mostly silent) and in this section descriptions are included of the most frequent calls and song(s), together with song periods, and, where known, the locations. For most chats, calls are principally given to maintain contact between pairs or offspring, or as an alarm at the first sign of a predator or other cause for agitation. For some species with relatively few calls, most alarm or agitation calls are a sharper or more emphatic version of the contact call, often given for some time until the cause of the alarm either recedes or has been taken up by others. For instance, the sharp tic of European Robin differs little (to most listeners) between that given by territorial birds announcing or defending their territory, to that announcing the sudden arrival of a predator, the difference being merely in emphasis as a signal to alert other birds. In describing the calls, every effort has been made to be as comprehensive as possible, but there may be some notes or phrases of calls or songs that are not given here. This may be because the species is poorly known, the calls are dialectic or particular to a given race, or possibly only given for a brief period in the year (e.g. when young are in the nest or shortly after they have fledged). The calls of adults to nestlings and, to some extent, also fledglings are not included as these are not especially distinctive (except in possibly a few cases) and are more relevant to the breeding biology of individual species or genera. The primary purpose of this book is identification and most calls are given by birds which are, in general, at least three months old since, prior to that age, fledglings are largely (though not entirely) still dependent on parental care and use a begging call, initially perfected in the nest, but which soon becomes lost or redundant once the individual is independent. Some chats are rightly famed throughout the world for their songs and are among the most celebrated of avian songsters; as such they demonstrate staggering vocal dexterity in variation, frequency and modulation of their tonal structures. The descriptions given here are the best attempt at defining the complex nature of these songs, which can barely amount to little more than perfunctory adequacy through imitative transcription of the vast range of modulated tones and pitch. Other authors have clearly felt the same sense of limitation: Bates & Lowther in their Breeding Birds of Kashmir, first published in 1952, simply stated that

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‘Bird songs cannot be written down’ and it is worth quoting these difficulties in their own words since they are impossible to improve upon. ‘Most attempts to transcribe them into words or music notation are sheer gibberish ... One cannot commit to paper a complex of sibilant or contralto sounds such as the songs of skylark and blackbird because one cannot relate them to any alphabetical pattern. Even if you can, or think you can, point to some vowels, the consonants bewilder us ... and that the words of a song can tell us little if anything about the composition of the music to which they are attempting to describe and nothing at all of its timbre. After all tzeet-tze-tze-tzeet may convey the alarm notes of one species that is familiar to us but such a jumble of letters will almost certainly present a completely different meaning to anyone else.’ In all cases, those wishing to hear an exact rendering of the calls or song are now best directed to relevant websites such as xeno-canto.org and AVoCet (http://avocet.zoology.msu.edu/) which have (or intend to present) a comprehensive range of calls and songs of all the world’s birds and welcome additional contributions. Sonograms are not presented in this book as the differences between species with similar calls or songs will convey very little to most fieldworkers, and to both beginner and experienced birdwatchers who are unfamiliar with the range of notes given by different species (although it is appreciated that there are an increasing number who are becoming adept at using these for identification).

Habitat  Within this section, as may be expected, the preferred habitat or that in which the species is most frequently found is given, together with any specific details of occurrence. Considerable effort has been made to include all of the habitats utilised, although it is possible that some localised habitats have been unintentionally omitted. Robins and chats are in the main either woodland or forest-dwellers, or have become adapted to more open habitats, such as woodland edge, thickets, heaths, bushes, scrub, etc. Only the wheatears spend the greater part of their lives in completely treeless areas and are adapted to more arid regions ranging from dry open country to desert edges and oases; in some this extends to the centre of the world’s hottest deserts, and only vast expanses of moving sand are avoided. As noted elsewhere, one or two species, mainly European Robin and, to a lesser degree, Black Redstart, have become well used to man-made habitats and live in close association with man, especially where it is beneficial for food, protection or breeding to do so, but in both cases this is only be true for part of the population. Elsewhere, more opportunistic relationships occur, e.g. the camp-following Hooded and White-crowned Black Wheatears, which helpfully seek out and remove ticks and other potentially harmful parasites from livestock. Altitudinal ranges, especially for montane species, are included, but for many these are not uniform throughout their ranges, and exceptions will doubtless occur depending both on region and season. In addition migratory species are as likely to occur in more extreme or unusual habitats as any other migrant, especially those forced off-course by severe weather. As examples of this, several of the longest-distance migrant Larvivora, Calliope and Tarsiger chats, which breed and winter in woodlands and forests, have occurred as vagrants to remote and often treeless islands off the coast of NW Europe, when they should have been in the foothills of the Himalayas or SE Asia. Behaviour  This section commences with the family relations or sociability of the species, mainly whether likely to be encountered alone, in pairs or (at certain times) in loose or mixed-species flocks. Most chats are territorial, especially during the breeding season, and even wintering areas can be rigorously defended by some species, especially the wheatears. Apart from a few common or more widespread species, the only time of year that some pairs are likely to be seen together is during the brief courtship and display period immediately prior to nesting. Courtship behaviour and display is described under Breeding, but territorial behaviour, particularly aggression in defence of territory is not included therein, primarily as this is a wideranging subject in itself and is not essential in a handbook devoted to identification and distribution. Also not considered are comments on individual species’ habits, in particular comfort activities such as headscratching and bill-wiping, together with sun- and dust-bathing and roosting, as these are an everyday part of the life of most birds. Reference is made to flight, particularly where it is distinctive or has a characteristic action. The flight of most chats is fast, usually direct and often slightly undulating, especially over long distances. Forest-dwelling species are especially adept at rapid flight through what appear to be impenetrable areas of dense vegetation, but generally keep low and seek shelter in deep cover when a predator threatens. The specifics of flight mode is included where it is relevant to the identification of individual species, but (almost the sole exception is Grandala) most genera show little variation that individually sets them apart, thus anyone seeking more information is directed to those works devoted to the detailed behaviour and ecology of particular taxa or families.

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This section concludes with details on foraging and diet. Many species combine terrestrial foraging, i.e. by hopping or running after invertebrate prey on the ground, with a watching and waiting technique, or wait-and-pounce, from a low or slightly elevated perch. Other methods include gleaning invertebrates from the outer edges of foliage by brief hovering sallies, or more actively pursuing insects in flight. In addition, some also take small ripe berries when available. For many chats, there are few specific differences between their actions, thus these will only in assist narrowing down the identification to this subfamily; terrestrial activity is more likely to be undertaken by a chat than a flycatcher but the reverse may be true for birds taking insects in flight (except in some larger chats). Chats are best described as mainly insectivorous or partly omnivorous, since an invertebrate diet is supplemented at certain seasons by small berries and fruit. Other non-invertebrate prey (taken by individual species, not collectively) includes small frogs, lizards and some seeds. In the bluebirds, both invertebrates and fruit are taken and they have also been recorded taking small mammals (including shrews), salamanders, lizards, tree-frogs and once a small snake. This clearly indicates that, like the thrushes, they are largely opportunistic and take whatever is available; few species are entirely dependent on a limited number of invertebrates for survival, though for a few tropical forest species, the anteater chats and most wheatears, large numbers of ants (or termites) and beetles comprise a significant proportion of their daily intake. Dietary lists usually take the form of a general description (e.g. ants, beetles, grasshoppers, etc., or for fruits, e.g. blackberry, etc.) as for the majority of species a comprehensive analysis is lacking and, where detailed studies exist, would occupy a disproportionate amount of space (and not necessarily provide incremental assistance to the identification process). It should be stated that given this group of birds’ general range of food items, those taken by the less familiar or poorly known species may be much greater than is currently known.

Breeding  This section provides a brief summary of breeding data, mainly the dates of the start and duration of the breeding season (and how it may vary across regions), courtship or display, territory, nesting materials and location, and number and colour of the eggs. In addition, some data are also given on the number of days between completion of egg laying and hatching (incubation period), the fledging period of nestlings and any details concerning the number of broods. For some species that have been studied in detail, productivity and/or success rates are given, which reflect the success or possible decline of particular species, together with their most frequent predators (including those species which are most frequently hosts to cuckoos). Regrettably, space does not permit the inclusion of more details of the particular features of (and hence differences between) nestlings and downy fledglings. Status and Distribution  The section starts with a brief summary (often one or two words) of the species’ present status throughout the range; qualifiers may be given to clarify where this differs in some regions or different countries. In almost every species, there are wide degrees of variation in the density or abundance between areas. For some this is due to seasonal shifts in the population or because individuals are less easy to detect at certain times of year, especially if they are not singing and, more generally, because when birds are moulting they tend to become less visible. With the exception of those species that have been mapped in their breeding range (see below), no attempt has been made to map areas of greatest abundance, as for most species this does not exist, or it may reflect either seasonal variation or be largely unpredictable between seasons or years. However, where large concentrations of some species are known to occur (even occasionally and mostly on migration), these are mentioned under Movements. For those (mainly European) species whose breeding distribution has been mapped and estimates of the overall population made, these are given here together with a résumé of those countries that support the largest percentage of the overall population. At the opposite end of the scale, for those species with very small (and usually declining) populations and considered threatened by BirdLife International, the most recent population estimates are given, together with a summary of ongoing threats and measures taken to conserve them. The known breeding or wintering ranges are given. Determining the breeding or wintering limits with any degree of accuracy is inherently difficult, given that within the area shown on any map the species may be absent from large parts, especially peripheral areas, and those less well known or even never visited. It should also be recognised that there are limits to the accuracy of depicting the distribution of almost any species in this way, except possibly those that are extremely well known and/or occupy very small areas, e.g. mountain ranges or small islands. As most chats are (for at least some of the year, mainly during the breeding season) insectivorous, very few are restricted to particular habitat types, although some have a preference

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for various types or stages of undergrowth (including bamboo) or occur most frequently near streams or damp areas in forest habitats. In such cases, it is of course impossible to map them more accurately (even when such fine details are available), thus these ‘broad-brush’ distribution maps must be used in conjunction with the species’ particular habitat requirements. The range of any species is largely determined by a number of factors, not least its ecological requirements and the area of preferred habitat. There are, however, very few data on why some species are particularly scarce or apparently absent from suitable areas. In recognition of these factors, the ranges described or shown may represent the maximum extent for the species, but one not attained or occupied annually, or perhaps only when the population is at its highest level. For some species, mainly tropical forest chats, more detailed locations such as individual forests or protected areas are mentioned, firstly as a means of assisting observers to find a species but also to record the current extent of the range. For some chats inhabiting forests in lowland Asia and throughout Africa (both lowland and montane) forests are under increasing (if not imminent) danger of commercial destruction (either selectively or by total clearance). This is likely to critically affect not only the range occupied, but the conservation status and hence the ability of certain taxa to withstand the onslaught of increasing destruction. For the most threatened species, an account of those threats is given, together with any known or proposed mitigation measures; additional updates are available via BirdLife International whose website (www.birdlife. org), which should be consulted for the most recent status information. Other sources of information can be found in a wide range of journals including those published by regional or worldwide conservation organisations (see Conservation). An increasing number of countries (or organisations) are producing country or regional atlases of range or distribution, and whilst some are mapped at a rather large scale, it is hoped that these will give a more detailed emphasis on future population trends.

Movements  This section details information on movements, principally to and from the breeding areas, their phenology, or for some (mainly Afrotropical) species, movements influenced by the onset of rains or dry periods, together with more random or nomadic wanderings. The section also highlights the sedentary or resident nature of some species and summarises (where possible) the occurrence of birds outside their normal areas, from the unusual visitor to the extreme vagrant. Several wheatears (Oenanthe) are long-distance migrants, most notably Northern Wheatear, which has populations that migrate from the wintering areas in sub-Saharan Africa north and north-east across N Asia and on to Alaska, whilst at the other end of the range, they move north to NW Africa or W Europe before either making a direct crossing of the N Atlantic to S Greenland and NE Canada, or continue north across NW Europe, before turning west, and make the return journey along the same routes in autumn. Other species perform much more limited movements, in both duration and distance. Some of the higher altitude redstarts (Phoenicurus) are mainly altitudinal migrants, moving (sometimes very short distances) to escape the worst of winter weather at high altitudes. In a couple of instances, speed and rates of progress made by migrants (based satellite-tagging and ringing) are used to show how far and fast birds like this can move. Following the summary of the main movements, information is given on where the species has occurred either as a scarce or rare migrant, or as a vagrant, together (where available) with information on the number of occasions it has occurred. This is not intended to be an exhaustive list (and undoubtedly will soon become numerically – and possibly also geographically – out of date), but is intended to reflect the ability of the species in question to occur where it might not otherwise be expected. In the main, these records are listed by species, but for a few, where relevant data exist, they are listed by subspecies.

Description  This section provides detailed information on the plumage of adults and immatures and, where recognisable in the field (or in the hand), first- and second-year plumages; also included are some instances where variation (beyond adult) in the plumage occurs with age. The section starts with reference to the sexes of adults and whether they are alike, similar (but separable) or different; where the adults are identical, no additional description is given for the adult female. In all cases, the nominate (or first-named) race is described here and all other races are either described or differences from the nominate race given, under Geographical Variation. The rest of this section deals with the plumage of juveniles or immatures, most usually (and where known) that acquired shortly before or immediately after leaving the nest (juvenile plumage) and that which succeeds it following the first moult (first-year plumage), which may have to serve the individual for up to one year before it is replaced. In some cases, juveniles (especially those recently out 24

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of the nest) may still have traces of down on the head and upperparts, feathers in pin and usually short or still growing tails, and their first plumage lasts only briefly (no longer than 3–4 months). Immature birds, in first-year or occasionally older plumage, are more like the respective adult in size and plumage. In the Palearctic, first-year plumages are frequently referred to (when possible to distinguish) as first-winter and first-summer plumages, based on the time of year that the bird is encountered. In Africa these terms are less applicable as for many species the breeding season either lasts throughout the year, is determined by the onset of the rainy season, or the seasons are generally less definable. In practice, differences between first-winter and first-summer may be very slight, mainly concerning feather abrasion or wear revealing new feather patterns, which are clearly definable as adult plumage (lacking any trace of immature characters). In the hand these differences are often easier to see and, as in thrushes, ageing can usually be confirmed by the shape of the tail feathers. In first-year birds the tips of the tail are more pointed, whilst those of the adult are more rounded. In North America the equivalent descriptions of these plumages are referred to as (i) hatching year (HY) – a bird in the year of its birth until 31 December, in its first full plumage following juvenile moult; (ii) after-hatching year or second year (AHY or SY) – a bird in at least its second calendar year (although since most passerines moult from their first-winter/HY plumage to one virtually inseparable from that of the adult, this does not apply to many species), and (iii) adult/after-second year (ASY) – an individual that has achieved full plumage (for some this will be full adult plumage) in the autumn of its second calendar year following moult. In almost every case, the description follows the same format, enabling the reader to find the relevant parts quickly. This usually begins with the head, particularly the forehead, crown and nape (together with the face if little different), followed by the rest of the upperparts and the tail. The wings are described separately, beginning with the wing-coverts, alula and primary coverts, then the flight feathers (primaries, secondaries and tertials, although when both the ‘flight feathers’ and tertials are described, the former applies to the primaries and secondaries alone). Unless it has already been described, the face is then described together with the supercilium and any other facial markings, which for some species (e.g. akalats) include distinctive (if visible) pale erectile tufts or spots on the lores; in some species the presence or colour of the eye-ring is also given. The underparts are described from the chin and throat to the breast, belly, flanks and undertail-coverts; for those species or plumages in which the underparts are uniform, these parts are not given separately. The section concludes with details of the bare (or soft) parts including eye colour, bill, legs and feet; as these are in almost all cases consistent between adults, these are given only under the first adult described, and only those differences present in immatures are given there. In describing plumage colours, additional considerations have been observed. Firstly, light plays a large part in the way colours are interpreted by the human eye. This is particularly true when trying to identify birds in the shade of forest undergrowth; in more open terrain strong overhead light will increase the level of contrast and make dark colours paler and pale colours lighter, greyer or, in photographic terms, ‘overexposed’. Similarly, shaded light will make dark colours darker and any colour with an element of red may appear brown, and brown can appear black and so on. Even in good light, birds within green foliage can appear both lighter or possess a greenish tinge. In addition, birds in vegetation rely on certain plumage features, e.g. bars or spots, as a mean of camouflaging their presence, and as such can often be difficult to detect, especially the more skulking and hence elusive species. In describing colours it should also be remembered that in some (probably most) cases the basic colours are modified by qualifiers that precede them, thus grey-brown is browner than brownish grey and, in any description, the main colour is modified by the preceding adjectival qualifier. Although every effort has been made to be consistent in the way plumages are described, the range of colour tones and shades, mainly subtle differences in brown, grey and black shown to a degree by many (if not most) of the birds covered here is not always easy to convey, since what is brown or grey-brown to one eye may be judged differently by another. Moreover, the addition of some tones such as olive, tawny, cinnamon or buff is designed to make subtle colours more widely appreciable and assist in the correct identification (or in some cases ageing) of an individual. It seems appropriate to mention that, with a single exception, instances of leucism and albinism in robins and chats are extremely rare. Instances of partial leucism involve individuals showing uncharacteristic amounts of white to pale buff in the plumage, from those with pale or abnormal head patterns to just one or all flight or tail feathers. The single exception mentioned above relates to European Robin, which appears to generate

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occasional (but still fairly rare) individuals with not only partial or entirely leucistic plumage and albinistic individuals, but also those with ‘xanthochromism’, whereby the brown parts of the plumage are replaced by yellow or dull yellow. No attempt has been made to document the extent of variation in leucistic or albinistic birds and, as far as is known, there are no known cases of melanism or partial melanism in chats or robins.

Geographical variation  The plumages, or differences in plumage, of all subspecies (races) are detailed herein, mainly those characters that differentiate them either from the nominate or from those races closest to them in range or plumage. Some races differ only weakly or subtly, in colour tone or size, from others and are probably only certainly identifiable in the hand. In others, the subspecies vary considerably, possibly more than is generally understood, as the boundaries may be either poorly marked or incompletely understood. In addition, in many cases there is a gradual (or clinal) change from pure individuals or pairs of respective neighbouring subspecies through an intermediate stage, where individuals of adjoining races meet and intergrade. Where races or subspecies have been described (and largely accepted) as showing only slight differences from others, e.g. by subtle changes in plumage tones or by measurements (in mm) alone, and determined only via comparison with other museum specimens, these are accepted as currently valid and details are presented supporting their differences. For some species, however, there is evidence to support the claim that subspecies have been proposed on extremely slim or even inconsistent grounds and these have been merged or regarded as synonymous with another (usually more consistently differing) subspecies; all such cases are detailed either here or under Taxonomy.

Measurements  With the exception of the total or overall length, given in cm in the Field identification section, all length measurements given are in mm. These measurements are provided chiefly as a guide for comparing similar-sized birds in the field or (mainly by ringers/banders) in the hand. Some species show slight differences in leg or wing lengths which, with practice, may be recognisable or at least indicated in the field, especially when considered in relation to the structure of the bird in question. Wing length is measured from the carpal joint (bend of the folded wing) to the tip of the longest primary on the flattened wing. Tail length is taken from the base of the central feathers to the tip of the longest feather. Bill length (except where stated) is the length of the exposed culmen from the base of the feathers to the tip of the upper mandible (maxilla). Tarsus length represents the distance between the ‘knee’ joint at the upper end of the tarsus to the ‘ankle’ (usually the last complete scute prior to the divergence of the toes). For some species these measurements, from a range of sources, are taken from live birds caught for ringing/banding; for most other species and where measurements from live birds are not available, museum specimens have been used. In the latter case, however, it should be borne in mind when comparing museum data with those from live birds that differences may arise due to (i) some may have been measured differently, and (ii) up to c.3% shrinkage or reduction in size occurs in dead or prepared specimens through natural processes. In addition, some measurements, particularly where only a few individuals have been sampled, may include those taken from worn individuals or juveniles, which are usually slightly smaller than live adults. Some caution is also needed in comparing bill data as not all sources use identical measuring methods; the alternatives are tip of bill to feathers or to the nostrils, or the base of the skull, and, especially if the particular method is not specified, comparisons may differ by a clear margin and thus may be inappropriate. Likewise, tail measurements are not always be reliable. Other than in the hands of the most capable practitioner, it is not always easy or possible to measure from the base of the central feathers to the tip, as the undertail-coverts provide good cover for the base of the tail, and the right point is not always easily located. It is also necessary to remember that on some museum specimens the tail can have moved or otherwise become detached, and is not always restored in its original position. Unless otherwise stated, all measurements refer in the first instance to the nominate subspecies and are given in the order of wing, tail, bill and tarsus. These are followed by those measurements for any named subspecies and conclude with the weight (in g). All measurements given were either taken from existing (and acknowledged) sources or are those taken from live birds or museum specimens, the latter being mainly the Natural History Museum collection at Tring (BMNH) or the US National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution) in Washington DC. Data on weight are entirely from published references and include those from ringing/banding reports from bird observatories or ringing groups, etc. These are given purely as a guide to the average adult weight, bearing in mind that this changes over the course of a year, sometimes even shorter periods, in response to natural conditions, most notably availability of food, migration and in the case of females, egg development. 26

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Moult  As a general rule chats, like thrushes and most passerines, undergo two moult periods during the course of a year. Following the breeding season, the adults undertake a complete or full moult, which involves the replacement of all feathers (performed gradually over a period of several weeks). For birds born within the year, a partial (or incomplete) moult takes place, as some of the wing and tail feathers are retained for a full year, until they are replaced at the full moult stage as in adults (except some tropical species, where juveniles also undertake a complete moult). Some species may also undergo a partial moult at the end of winter or the non-breeding period during which some of the body feathers and wing-coverts are replaced (often revealing a brighter breeding plumage, especially in first-year birds attaining their adult plumage). Birds in newly moulted or recently replaced feathers (following complete moult) are known as fresh-plumaged, whilst those in older and more abraded plumage of the summer or breeding season are referred to as in worn plumage. The complete (or pre-basic) moult usually (in temperate Holarctic chats) occurs from July to September, but can begin up to one month earlier and terminate up to six weeks later, depending on the length of the breeding season. In chats the moult occurs on the breeding grounds or very close by, and is usually complete (or substantially so) before those that migrate depart for their wintering areas. Body feathers are replaced by the emergence of new feathers displacing existing ones, resulting in a gradual transition from old to new plumage. The flight feathers are replaced individually, or in groups of two or three, beginning with the inner primaries and continuing outwardly, and the same feathers are moulted in both wings simultaneously; the tertials are usually moulted together at about the same time that moult of the primaries begins, and usually before the secondaries are replaced. The secondaries are replaced individually (beginning shortly after that of the primaries starts), but are renewed starting with the outermost and moving inwards. The tail feathers are also replaced from the innermost, or central, feathers outwards, though this may not proceed at the same rate on both sides of the tail. Moult is usually completed with the replacement of the outermost (and usually smallest) primary and the outermost tail feathers. Some moulting individuals are more obvious than others, by virtue of their rather untidy or uneven plumage, with a mixture of both old and new feathers showing, the varying stages of growth in the tail feathers, and at close range (or in the hand) by the contrast in the older (or retained) and new feathers. In female Northern Wheatears moult often begins up to two weeks later than males and, although details are lacking, it is likely that many other chats follow a similar pattern. Moult in first-year birds follows a similar pattern, but begins slightly later, and only involves a partial renewal of the body feathers and a variable number of wing-coverts (the number varies both between individuals of the same and different species). For instance, it is known that early broods often replace more greater coverts than later or subsequent broods and the same is also true for southern and northern populations, with the former often replacing more than the latter, and that some level of variation occurs between years. For those that moult some greater coverts it is usually the inner ones that are replaced, whilst none of the other coverts or flight feathers are replaced. In some species this is evident on some individuals, as those with retained greater coverts (from juvenile plumage) have fine paler fringes (mostly just the tips) than the newer, broadly fringed replaced feathers. The spring, pre-breeding (or pre-alternate) moult of both adult and first-year birds affects fewer species and is, in most cases, much less obvious and often concerns smaller areas of plumage. Depending on the species, it may involve the replacement of some head or face and body feathers, but the wing and tail feathers are usually retained until the complete post-breeding moult. In first-year birds, this may mean that old (or juvenile) flight feathers are retained for a whole year, possibly slightly longer, and are often very noticeably worn (and contrasting), either paler (through bleaching in tropical species) or duller or browner than those of adults. Also depending on species, the moult at this time of year can begin as early as Jan and continue to early Apr, and for some it may be a more gradual process that occurs throughout the winter or nonbreeding period. In Siberian Blue Robin a complete moult begins in Nov and proceeds gradually until Feb, but becomes intense in Mar–Apr, immediately prior to spring migration. For most temperate species, spring marks the time when the breeding plumage (in some a slightly brighter version of that worn previously) is revealed through abrasion of the broad pale tips to some body and wing feathers; it is also when those species with little or no obvious spring moult begin to show the first signs of wear to plumage acquired via the previous moult (in temperate regions, this could be the previous autumn). In adults the period of moult takes 3–4 weeks to replace the wing and tail feathers, but usually c.7–8 weeks for the entire moult to be completed. For juveniles moulting into their first-year plumage the period is often slightly shorter, lasting 4–5 weeks, although much variation exists, mostly between migratory and largely 27

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sedentary species (the former having a greater requirement for new feathers); for some robin-chats this can take 10–11 weeks, whilst that of juvenile Red-capped Robin-Chat takes >3 months. In more extreme cases, the average moult period for the largely sedentary White-chested Alethe is c.25 weeks, which may overlap with (or be delayed by) the breeding season. In a book such as this, dealing with a wide-ranging and highly dispersed group of birds, this is at best a general summary of how moult periods affect various species. It is intended to be more of a guide (rather than a detailed account) of how the annual replacement of certain feathers takes place, as an aid to understanding how birds appear in the field at certain seasons. Also included are references to more detailed information on the appearance and ageing of moulting birds in the hand. More detailed information on bird moult can be found in Jenni & Winkler (1994) and Svensson (1992), for European species, and Pyle et al. (1997) for North America; for Africa there is, as yet, no comparable work on moult, but some details are included in Hockey et al. (2005).

Taxonomy  Most species accounts conclude with a section on taxonomy. Here, more detailed information is given relating to individual species’ evolutionary relationships, including whether it is part of a superspecies grouping. Alternative taxonomic treatments are also presented where applicable (detailing if other authors treat the species in question as conspecific with another, or if one or more subspecies is regarded by other authorities as species), and any subspecies which may have been proposed but are not recognised in this work are also mentioned here. The recent proliferation of genetic studies has resulted in many proposed changes to the genera that chat species are assigned to, some of which have been adopted here. Details of previously used genera or proposed new genera not used here are also mentioned in this section.

Topography supercilium ear coverts

crown forehead

nape sides of neck

lores chin

mantle

throat scapulars

malar breast

back

lesser coverts

tertials median coverts

rump

alula greater coverts

uppertail-coverts

flanks

primaries

primary coverts belly

tail

secondaries vent undertail-coverts

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smallest middle

TERTIAL LENGTH

EXTENT OF RUMP

tertials

largest

PRIMARY PROJECTION

TAIL PROJECTION CLOSED

SPREAD

alula primary coverts lesser coverts median coverts greater coverts primaries

tertials

secondaries

supercilium

lateral crown stripe median crown stripe

upper mandible (maxilla) eye-stripe eye-ring lower mandible moustachial stripe lateral throat stripe (malar) sub-moustachial stripe

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CHAT SYSTEMATICS – SHAKING THE TREE Per Alström Swedish Species Information Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden; and Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.

Systematics in general Taxonomy is the science of identifying, describing, naming and classifying organisms into taxa1 that are arranged in a hierarchical system based on their phylogenetic2 relationships. The term systematics is often used synonymously with taxonomy, but is generally used in a slightly broader sense, with greater focus on the phylogeny. Traditionally, taxonomy was based on external (morphological) similarity: species that were sufficiently similar in appearance were assumed to be closely related, and were placed in the same genera, families etc. A new era in systematic philosophy began when it became widely accepted that only characters that were uniquely shared by two or more species as a result of inheritance from a most recent common ancestor (so called shared derived or synapomorphic characters) were informative of relationships (phylogeny) (Hennig 1966). A true systematic revolution started with the advent of molecular methods, especially analyses of DNA sequences. DNA sequences, which comprise series of four so-called base pairs (abbreviated A, C, G and T – adenine, cytocine, guanine and thymine, respectively), contain a wealth of information that can be used to infer relationships. For example, a sequence of 1,000 base pairs (e.g. GGATCGTTACTA…) for all of the species in the genus Tarsiger may contain a few hundred characters that are informative of relationships, whereas it would be extremely difficult to find even a handful of morphological characters potentially useful for inferring relationships. As the genome (i.e. all DNA) of a bird contains approximately one billion base pairs (e.g. Hillier et al. 2004, Warren et al. 2010, Ellegren et al. 2012), DNA sequences provide an enormously rich source of data for reconstructing relationships among birds. However, it is important to remember that, for various reasons, analyses based on single or a few genes may not necessarily reveal the true picture. When evaluating results, it is vital to consider the statistical support (usually ‘posterior probabilities’ or ‘bootstrap’ values). Phylogenetic analyses based on DNA sequences have revolutionised our understanding of relationships, uncovering a multitude of cases where traditional notions of relationships were wrong – as well as confirming many long-standing beliefs. The main reasons why studies of external characters sometimes lead to wrong conclusions are because unrelated species may evolve similar features due to similar ecology (so-called parallel or convergent evolution) or simply by chance. Alternatively, a species or group of species may have diverged so much in plumage and structure from its near relatives that its true relationships have become obscured. For example, males of several species of wheatears that are not very closely related are very similar in plumage due to convergent evolution (e.g. Mourning, Pied and one of the colour morphs of Variable Wheatears), whereas the close phylogenetic relationship between White-capped Redstart and Plumbeous Water Redstart is not reflected in their plumages (see below). New findings often lead to revised classifications, as modern systematics do not accept so-called nonmonophyletic3 groups (see Fig. 1). Such taxonomic revisions can be extremely confusing, especially when different names are used in different books and checklists. However, if we want scientific names to reflect relationships, some changes of generic names are inevitable as new knowledge emerges. Another source of confusion results from different preferences among taxonomists regarding the circumscription of taxonomic groups. There are no rules governing the taxonomic ranking of monophyletic groups. Some taxonomists favour large genera, whereas others prefer smaller ones. Accordingly, a certain group may be Singular taxon, plural taxa, is any formally established scientific name, at any level in the taxonomic hierarchy, e.g. a sub­ species, species, genus, family or higher category. 2 Phylogenetic (adj.), phylogeny (subj.), referring to evolutionary relationships, often illustrated in the form of phylogenetic trees. 3 A monophyletic group (see Fig. 1) is a group, e.g. a genus or family, that inludes all of the descendants from a common ancestor or, in other words, a group whose members share a more recent common ancestry with each other than with members of other such groups. Conversely, a non-monophyletic group (e.g. genus) contains some species that are more closely related to species in other groups (e.g. genera) than to those in their group (e.g. genus). 1

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classified as a single genus by some authors, whereas others split it into multiple genera. As an example, the genus Oenanthe (wheatears) is treated very differently A B C D E F G H I J K by different authors (see below). Moreover, some taxonomists define genera exclusively based on relationships, irrespective of morphological variation within the group, whereas others like generic names to indicate morphological similarity, e.g. by placing morphologically aberrant species in monotypic genera4. In addition, several authors have expressed a wish to let taxonomic ranks reflect the absolute age of the groups Figure 1. Tree showing relationships between 11 taxa (A–K). All (e.g. Hennig 1966, Sibley & Ahlquist 1990). of the monophletic groups (clades) have been marked. All other Although DNA is superior to morphology for combinations of taxa are non-monophyletic. inferring phylogenetic relationships, it is not superior to other tools in species delimitation. Ideally, species should be defined based on a combination of independent sources of information, so-called integrative taxonomy (e.g. Dayrat 2005, Padial et al. 2010). In cases where DNA analyses suggest that one or more subspecies of a polytypic species are more closely related to another species, this is strong evidence that the polytypic species actually represents multiple species. Such findings would be even more convincing if the same results are obtained by several independent (‘unlinked’) genes or other lines of evidence (e.g. morphology, vocalisations). Mitochondrial gene sequences5 are a sensitive tool for uncovering evolutionary groups but, like all other lines of evidence, on their own they should not be considered as final proof. Genetic distances (i.e. percentage differences between taxa) are often used in taxonomy, but it is important to realise that there are no objective cut-off values for the definition of species, and different genes, or even different parts of the same gene, may possess highly different evolutionary rates, and therefore are not directly comparable (e.g. Fregin et al. 2012). Careful evaluation of morphological differences among taxa is a highly valuable taxonomic tool, although the rate of divergence of morphological characters is extremely variable, and some anciently separated species can be exceedingly similar (‘cryptic species’ or ‘sibling species’), whereas some very young species can look strongly different. Analyses of vocalisations are nowadays generally considered to be of great importance (review in Alström & Ranft 2003), as songs are believed to function as important reproductive isolating barriers among species. Differences in behaviour, especially mating displays, and ecology can also be important clues in assessments of taxonomic status. Finally, geographical distributions need to be taken into consideration, and in case of overlapping breeding distributions between putative species, their interactions should be studied. Different species concepts may lead to recognition of different species, although this is not the main reason for the general increase in the number of recognised species in recent years, which instead is due to improved knowledge (Sangster 2009, 2014). The cornerstones of the so-called Biological Species Concept (BSC) are the capacity to interbreed with individuals of the same species and reproductive isolation from individuals of other species by intrinsic (i.e. not purely geographical) reproductive barriers (Mayr 1942, 1963). In contrast, diagnostic differences, which are evidence of long-standing isolation, are the hallmark of the so-called Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC) (e.g. Cracraft 1983, 1989). According to de Queiroz (1998) ‘all modern species definitions are variations on the same general species concept’, by which species are lineages (‘branches in the tree of life’), and the various species concepts should be viewed as complementary rather than incompatible. He concludes that the main discrepancies between the different species concepts result from their focus on particular properties that various species concepts consider to be ‘defining’ for species rank. It is important to keep in mind that a species concept aims to determine what species are (e.g. a segment of a lineage or a reproductively coherent group of populations), whereas   A monotypic genus contains just one species (also monospecific); a monotypic family contains only one genus; a monotypic species has no subspecies; etc. 5   Most genes are located in the cell nucleus. Mitochondrial genes are located in the cell cytoplasm, outside the nucleus, and code for the mitochondrial functions. Mitochondrial genes generally evolve faster than nuclear genes, and are therefore more suitable for analyses of closely related species, whereas more slowly evolving nuclear genes are generally better at resolving more ancient relationships. As mitochondrial genes are inherited as a single unit from mother to daughter, different mitochondrial genes do not represent independent estimates of the phylogeny (although different mitochondrial genes evolve at different rates, and may therefore provide information at different phylogenetic levels). 4

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species criteria (e.g. fixed morphological or genetic differences) are used to identify individual species. Since the mid-20th century, the documentation of bird species has become increasingly integrative and elaborate (Sangster 2014, Sangster & Luksenburg 2015). This trend reflects the transition of taxonomy to a science, in which all named taxonomic units (including species) are considered scientific hypotheses that require documentation and testing (Haszprunar 2011, Sluys 2013). These trends illustrate that, in practice, taxonomists do not consider a single property to be ‘defining’ but rather use as many types of evidence as possible to document their taxonomic descriptions and revisions (Sangster 2014).

Higher-level systematics Traditionally, all chats were placed together with thrushes, babblers, whistlers, flycatchers and others in the huge family Muscicapidae (Ripley 1964). Later, Watson et al. (1986), based on ‘the researches of Charles G. Sibley and others’ (i.e. DNA-DNA hybridisation studies6) restricted Muscicapidae to ‘true flycatchers’. Sibley & Ahlquist (1990), based on their DNA-DNA hybridisation analyses, as well as Sibley & Monroe (1990)), recognised Turdidae, divided into the two subfamilies Turdinae and Muscicapinae; the former contained the ‘true thrushes’, whereas the latter comprised ‘true flycatchers’ (tribe Muscicapini) and chats and robins (tribe Saxicolini). The American Ornithologists’ Union (1998) and Dickinson (2003) treated these groups as Turdidae and Muscicapidae, respectively, i.e. at the family level instead of subfamily level. Modern phylogenetic analyses based on DNA sequence data have resulted in substantial additional changes within Muscicapidae/Muscicapinae, and have suggested multiple cases where traditional taxonomy was apparently misguided due to convergent evolution7. Alice Cibois & Joel Cracraft (2004) analysed a single nuclear gene for a small number of species in this complex, and found support for a clade8 (recognised as Turdini) comprising various thrush genera, solitaires, ant thrushes and bluebirds, and another clade containing different Old World flycatcher and chat/robin genera, as well as redstarts and wheatears. The second clade included representatives from both Muscicapini and Saxicolini, but both these groups were found to contain species usually placed in the other group, i.e. they were non-monophyletic. The same year, Gary Voelker & Garth Spellman (2004) published an analysis based on another nuclear gene and two mitochondrial genes for a larger number of species in this complex. The results were generally in agreement with those of Cibois & Cracraft (2004), but they also suggested more extensive incongruence with the then accepted taxonomy, e.g. one traditional Muscicapinae genus (Cochoa) instead being part of Turdinae and five traditional Turdinae (Alethe, Brachypteryx, Monticola, Myophonus and Pseudocossyphus) belonging within Muscicapidae. Moreover, within Muscicapinae, two accepted Saxicolini genera (Cercotrichas and Copsychus) were found within Muscicapini and, conversely, two Muscicapini (Cyornis and Ficedula) genera in Saxicolini. Two comprehensive analyses of Muscicapidae (in the authors’ terminology) employing both mitochondrial and nuclear genes were published almost simultaneously, in 2010, one by George Sangster and co-workers and the other by Dario Zuccon & Per Ericson (2010a). The former analysed 134 species in 37 genera, whereas the latter analysed 68 species, with representatives from seven genera not included in the former study. The results from both these studies closely agreed with each other (see Fig. 2). Sangster and co-authors recognised four clades at subfamily level: Muscicapinae (e.g. Muscicapa flycatchers, Copsychus shamas and magpierobins and Cercotrichas scrub robins), Niltavinae (e.g. Niltava, Cyanoptila, Eumyias and Cyornis flycatchers), Erithacinae (e.g. European Robin and Cossypha ‘robin-chats’) and Saxicolinae (e.g. wheatears, Saxicola chats, rock thrushes, redstarts, Ficedula flycatchers, forktails, whistling thrushes, shortwings and Luscinia and Tarsiger chats/robins). Both these studies recovered a sister9 relationship between wheatears (and various other African chats, see below) and Saxicola chats; between these and rock thrushes; and between these and redstarts. Both studies also found a sister relationship between these four groups and Ficedula flycatchers, although it was less strongly supported by the data. The relationships among the other main groups in Saxicolinae, i.e. chats in the genera Luscinia and Tarsiger, shortwings, forktails and whistling thrushes, and some others, are partly uncertain. However, surprisingly, both Sangster et al. (2010) and Zuccon & Ericson (2010a) found a strongly supported close relationship 6   In DNA-DNA hybridisation, DNA from different species is first allowed to combine, ‘hybridise’, and then heated until separated, under the assumption that DNA from more closely related species will be more tightly bound together and therefore detach at higher temperature than in more distantly related species. 7   Convergent evolution results in similar appearance in distantly related organisms due to, e.g., similar ecology. 8   A clade is a monophyletic group in a phylogenetic tree (see Fig. 1). 9   Sister relationship refers to relationship between closest relatives. In a phylogenetic tree, these are a pair of species or other taxa that share a more recent common ancestor with each other than with any other taxa.

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Chats systematics – shaking the tree Campicoloides # Cercomela # Myrmecocichla # Oenanthe Pentholaea # Pinarochroa # Thamnolaea # Saxicola Monticola Chaimarrornis # Phoenicurus Rhyacornis # Ficedula Muscicapella # Larvivora

§

Saxicolinae

Brachypteryx Heinrichia Vauriella

§

Erithacinae

Tarsiger Myiomela Cinclidium Enicurus Heteroxenicus Myophonus Hodgsonius # Irania § Luscinia Calliope Alethe Cichladusa Cossypha Erithacus rubecula Pseudalethe Pogonocichla Sheppardia Stiphrornis Swynnertonia Anthipes Cyanoptila

Niltavinae

Cyornis Eumyias Niltava

Muscicapidae

Rhinomyias Bradornis Empidornis Fraseria

Muscicapini

Melaenornis Muscicapa Myioparus

Muscicapinae Copsychini

Sigelus Alethe castanea Alethe diademata Cercotrichas Copsychus Saxicoloides Trichixos

Turdidae Figure 2. Tree of family Muscicapidae (with its closest relative, the family Turdidae indicated) based mainly on Sangster et al. (2010) and Zuccon & Ericson (2010a). Taxonomic names follow Sangster et al. (2010). All traditional ‘chat/robin’ genera are in Saxicolinae and Copsychini), although Saxicolinae also contains rock thrushes (Monticola), Ficedula flycatchers, whistling thrushes (Myophonus) and Vauriella flycatchers. The vertical depths of the coloured triangles (clades) reflect the number of analysed species and the horizontal depths the resolution and divergence among these (better resolved and deeper relationships = greater depth) (based on Sangster et al. 2010). The names of the genera studied in the different groups are shown next to the triangles in alphabetical order; # after species names indicate genera that have been proposed to be merged with others (see text); the § after Irania indicates that the inclusion of this genus in this clade is somewhat uncertain. The ‘comb-like’ (polytomous) part of the tree where seven branches originate from the same ‘baseline’ (node) shows that the relationships among these branches are highly uncertain; § at nodes indicate somewhat uncertain relationships (e.g., the close relationship between Tarsiger and Myiomela is not fully supported by the data). Note that in phylogenetic trees, a node (i.e. a junction between two or more branches) signifies a common hypothetical ancestor of the branches originating from that node. As all branches can be rotated around their nodes, relationships are indicated by the positions of clades in relation to nodes, not to the clades’ vertical positions. Accordingly, e.g., Muscicapini and Copsychini are each other’s closest relatives (sister clades) as they are united at the node indicated by Muscicapinae, and Niltavinae is more closely related to Erithacinae and Saxicolinae than to Muscicapinae.

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between the dramatically different-looking forktails and whistling thrushes. The study by Zuccon & Ericson, which was the only one that analysed Blue-fronted Robin, found this species to be sister to the whistling thrushes, supporting the previously proposed move of White-tailed and Sunda Robins from Cinclidium to Myiomela leaving Blue-fronted Robin as the single remaining species in the genus Cinclidium (Collar 2005). White-tailed and Sunda Robins appear to be most closely related to Tarsiger ‘bush robins’. The other chats/robins do not form a monophyletic group. Tarsiger ‘bush robins’ are all close relatives, and this genus deserves to be upheld. The two rubythroats, Firethroat and Blackthroat form another group, for which Sangster et al. (2010) suggested that the genus Calliope be resurrected. These two genera each contains species that are morphologically fairly similar, so these results are uncontroversial. However, unexpectedly, the study by Sangster and co-authors found a group comprising White-throated Robin, two nightingales, White-bellied Redstart and Bluethroat (not all of these were analysed by Zuccon & Ericson 2010a); the sister relationship between the two latter and between the nightingales, respectively, were well supported by the molecular data, and it was proposed that White-bellied Redstart be transferred from the monotypic genus Hodgsonius to Luscinia (while the monotypic genus Irania for White-throated Robin was retained). Two clades that were particularly strongly supported in the analysis by Sangster et al. (2010) are (1) Japanese, Ryukyu and Rufous-tailed Robins, and (2) Indian and Siberian Blue Robins (only one of these five species was studied by Zuccon & Ericson 2010a); these two groups were suggested to be sisters, although that received only weak statistical support. However, together they formed a well-supported monophyletic group together with the Brachypteryx shortwings. Remarkably, the same study also recovered a close relationship between Great Shortwing and White-browed Jungle Flycatcher, suggesting that the latter is a ‘chat’ and not a flycatcher, and moved from the genus Rhinomyias to Vauriella. Another study, by Trevor Price and coworkers (2014) confirmed that Gould’s Shortwing, which was previously placed in the genus Brachypteryx, is not closely related to other shortwings and is appropriately placed in the monotypic genus Heteroxenicus (as previously proposed by Rasmussen & Anderton 2005, based on plumage and song). Another extraordinary finding strongly supported by both Sangster et al. (2010) and Zuccon & Ericson’s (2010a) studies is the sister relationship between the dramatically different-looking White-capped Redstart and Plumbeous Water Redstart, which interestingly have rather similar habitat preferences (Luzon Water Redstart, which is likely to be even more closely related to Plumbeous Water Redstart, was not analysed). Moreover, according to the first-named study, these two are more closely related to Daurian, Black, Common and Moussier’s Redstarts than these four are to Blue-fronted Redstart, leading Sangster and co-workers to subsume the monotypic genera Chaimarrornis (White-capped Redstart) and Rhyacornis (Plumbeous Water Redstart) in the genus Phoenicurus. Robert Outlaw and co-workers (2010), Sangster et al. (2010) and Voelker et al. (2012) all reported pronounced non-monophyly within a clade comprising wheatears, Cercomela chats, Buff-streaked Chat, Myrmecocichla chats, Thamnolaea cliff chats and Moorland Chat, and Sangster and co-authors proposed that all these be treated as Oenanthe, except White-winged Cliff Chat, which had previously been found to be part of the rock thrush group and therefore removed to the genus Monticola (Zuccon & Ericson 2010a,b). A subsequent multi-gene analysis by Mansour Aliabadian and co-authors (2012) that included all species of these ‘open-habitat chats’ suggested further amendments to the taxonomy, recognising a larger number of genera: Oenanthe (most traditional wheatears, all Cercomela chats, except Sickle-winged, Karoo and Tractrac Chats [see below], and White-fronted Black Chat, formerly in Myrmecocichla or Pentholaea), Myrmecocichla (including the five traditional Myrmecocichla species, Sooty, Anteater, Congo Moor, Rüppell’s Black and Anteating Chats, the former Pentholaea species, Arnot’s and Ruaha Chats, and Mountain Wheatear), Emarginata (Sickle-winged, Karoo and Tractrac Chats, previously placed in Cercomela) and the monotypic genera Pinarochroa (Moorland Chat), Campicoloides (Buff-streaked Chat) and Thamnolaea (Mocking Cliff Chat; Gill & Donsker 2014 also included White-crowned Cliff Chat in Thamnolaea, although it does not appear to have been studied molecularly). Steven Goodman and Lee Weigt (2002), plus Outlaw et al. (2007), proposed that the Malagasy rock thrush genus Pseudocossyphus be subsumed into the ‘traditional’ rock thrush genus Monticola, and this was supported by Zuccon & Ericson (2010b) and Cruaud et al. (2011). The Erithacinae group (sensu Sangster et al. 2010) comprises several African genera such as Sheppardia (akalats), Cossypha (robin-chats), Alethe and Pseudalethe (alethes), Stiphrornis (Forest Robin), Pogonocichla (White-starred Robin), Swynnertonia (Swynnerton’s Robin), Cichladusa (palm thrushes), and European Robin

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(Beresford 2003, Voelker et al. 2009, Sangster et al. 2010, Zuccon & Ericson 2010a). The first three of these genera were suggested to be non-monophyletic, although Sangster et al. (2010) recommended additional data before a comprehensive taxonomic review is undertaken, with the exception of recognition of the genus Pseudalethe (Red-throated, Brown-chested, White-chested and Thyolo Alethes), following Beresford (2003). The Copsychini group (sensu Sangster et al. 2010) comprises the Asian Copsychus (shamas and magpie-robins) and monotypic genera Trichixos (Rufous-tailed Shama) and Saxicoloides (Indian Robin), and the mainly African scrub robins (Cercotrichas) and two species of Alethe (White-tailed and Fire-crested Alethes) (Beresford 2003, Sangster et al. 2010, Lim et al. 2010). Sangster and co-workers (2010) proposed that Rufous-tailed Shama and Indian Robin should be transferred to Copsychus. They also found that the scrub robins separated into two clades, of which one was more closely related to the Copsychus clade. However, due to incomplete taxonomic sampling, these authors refrained from revising the taxonomy of the scrub robins. Table 1. Genera within Muscicapidae according to Gill & Donsker (2014). Sequence based on Sangster et al. (2012).

Alethe Cercotrichas1 Copsychus2 Fraseria3 Myioparus4 Melaenornis3 Muscicapa3 Anthipes5 Cyornis6 Niltava Cyanoptila Eumyias7 Erithacus8,10 Pseudalethe9,10 Cossyphicula10 Cossypha10 Swynnertonia10 Pogonocichla10 Stiphrornis10 Sheppardia10 Cichladusa10 Heinrichia Vauriella11 Brachypteryx Larvivora12 Luscinia13 Irania Calliope12 Myiomela Tarsiger12 Enicurus Heteroxenicus14 Myophonus Cinclidium15 Ficedula16 Phoenicurus17 Monticola Saxicola Campicoloides18 Emarginata18 Pinarochroa18 Thamnolaea18 Myrmecocichla18 Oenanthe18 Pinarornis19 Namibornis19 Humblotia19

Non-monophyletic according to Sangster et al. (2010) (hereafter S), who noted that more complete sampling is required before a taxonomic revision be undertaken. Includes Erythropygia and Agrobates according to S. 2 Includes Trichixos and Saxicoloides according to S and Zuccon & Ericson (2010a) (hereafter Z&E). 3 Non-monophyletic according to S, who noted that more complete sampling is required before a taxonomic revision be undertaken. Genera Empidornis, Sigelus and Bradornis, which are sometimes recognised, form part of this complex. 4 Analysed by Z&E, but position uncertain, and further study is required to evaluate whether or not this should be recognised. 5 Previously included Ficedula monileger and F. solitaris, but not closely related to Ficedula according to Outlaw & Voelker (2006), S and Z&E. 6 Non-monophyletic according to S, as C. concretus falls outside this clade, and also includes some Rhinomyias; Rhinomyias was synonymised with Cyornis according to S. 7 Rhinomyias additus removed to Eumyias according to S. 8 Monotypic according to S, Z&E and Voelker et al. (2009). 9 Separated from Alethe following Beresford (2003) and S. 10 Taxonomic revision is needed, as indicated by analyses by S, Z&E and Voelker et al. (2009). 11 Based on S, includes former V. insignis and, tentatively V. goodfellowi, V. albigularis and V. gularis (latter analysed by Oliveros et al. 2012), all previously in genus Rhinomyias. Monotypic genus Leonardina found by Oliveros et al. (2012) in a clade with V. insignis and V. gularis, so suggested here to be synonymised with Vauriella. Close relationship between Vauriella and Heinrichia suggests that these two could be merged (under name Heinrichia, by priority). 12 Separated from Luscinia by S. 13 Includes former monotypic Hodgsonius according to S and Z&E. 14 Position as sister to Enicurus suggested, but poorly supported, by Price et al. (2014), although clade with these two plus Myophonus and Cinclidium well supported. 15 Monotypic according to Z&E. 16 Includes Muscicapella based on Z&E. 17 Includes Rhyacornis and Chaimarrornis according to S and Z&E. 18 S synonymised Cercomela, Myrmecocichla, the single species of Thamnolaea studied (T. cinnamomeiventris) and the monotypic Campicoloides in Oenanthe (other genera marked 18 not studied), whereas Aliabadian et al. (2012) in a more densely sampled study recognised more genera. 19 Not yet included in phylogenetic analysis, so relationship uncertain. 1

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The study by Sangster et al. (2010) found the Fruithunter to be sister to Green Cochoa, the only cochoa species analysed, thereby moving also the Fruithunter from Muscicapidae to Turdidae. A yet unpublished study (Alström et al. submitted) suggests that the Asian Grandala is closely related to the North American bluebirds, and hence a thrush rather than a muscicapid.

Lower-level taxonomy Many species in different genera have been shown by molecular markers to comprise deeply diverged lineages, usually recognised at the rank of subspecies, and studies of a combination of traits, such as genetic, morphological, vocal, behavioural and ecological, have prompted a number of species-level taxonomic changes (e.g. Illera et al. 2008, Sheldon et al. 2009, Förschler et al. 2010, Zuccon & Ericson 2010b, Randler et al. 2012, Schweizer & Shirihai 2013, Luo et al. 2014). These are elucidated in the species accounts.

Acknowledgements I am most grateful to George Sangster for useful comments.

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PLATE 1: BLUEBIRDS Eastern Bluebird Sialia sialis

Map and text page 162

15–16.5cm. Widespread and common, or locally common in open woodlands, parks and orchards in North and Middle America. Nominate is migratory, breeding north to S & SE Canada and winters in S of breeding range south to SE Arizona and E Mexico. Seven other races resident in S USA, Bermuda and Middle America south to E Honduras and NE Nicaragua. Usually in pairs or small groups, perches in open. a

Adult male S. s. sialis Bright blue head and face to upperparts, wings and tail; chin and throat to breast and flanks bright russet or deep orange, centre of belly to undertail white.

b

Adult female S. s. sialis Grey head and upperparts and bright blue on wing-coverts, flight and tail feathers, breast and flanks peachy-buff to tinged rufous or rust.

c

Adult male S. s. fulva Slightly paler blue than S. s. sialis, paler orange throat and breast, and underparts contrasting less with white on belly and vent.

d Juvenile Similar to adult female or darker on head and upperparts; bright blue wing-coverts and tail; upperparts spotted white, and heavily mottled or spotted whitish and grey on underparts.

Western Bluebird Sialia mexicana

Map and text page 166

16.5–19cm. The western counterpart of the previous species is equally common or locally common (except on coasts) in similar habitats of W North America and Mexico; northern populations of S. m. mexicana are migratory, but many only move short distances, race bairdii is a short-distance altitude migrant, while four other races are resident in Mexico. Perches in open; in winter may form mixed flocks with Mountain Bluebird, American Robin Turdus migratorius, warblers, sparrows and juncos. e

Adult male S. m. bairdii As male S. m. mexicana but has extensive chestnut on mantle, back and lower scapulars.

f

Adult female S. m. bairdii As nominate female, but upperparts warmer or tinged rufous-brown.

g

Adult male S. m. mexicana Deep cobalt-blue head and face to throat, wings and tail; upperparts vary from deep blue to chestnut, and may be restricted or patchy in some; breast and flanks bright rufous-chestnut.

h

Adult female S. m. mexicana Grey or tinged bluish on head and upperparts; bright blue edges to wingcoverts, flight and tail feathers; breast and flanks peachy-buff to tinged rufous or rust.

i Juvenile Similar to adult female or darker grey; blue wing-coverts, flight and tail feathers, and heavily streaked or spotted whitish or off-white above and below.

Mountain Bluebird Sialia currucoides

Map and text page 170

16.5–20cm. Locally common in C & W North America to C Alaska in open woodlands, subalpine meadows, treeline and sagebrush with scattered trees. Northern breeders are long-distance migrants, wintering in S of breeding range to C Mexico. Occurs alone, in pairs or small family groups, and in late summer in groups of up to 200. Perches on dead or bare branches, fences, posts, rocks and tall plants. On migration and in winter may also occur in mixed-species flocks with Western Bluebird, American Robin, warblers, sparrows and juncos. j

Adult male Deep sky-blue head and upperparts to wings and tail; slightly paler or duller blue on underparts, becoming whiter on vent and undertail.

k

Adult female Grey to grey-brown head and upperparts; blue or bluish-grey greater coverts and blue edges to blackish flight feathers, tail mostly pale or bright blue; underparts dingy white to grey-brown, becoming whiter on vent and undertail.

l

First-year male As adult female, but head, upper- and underparts bluish to bluish-grey or tinged brownish on upperparts, outer greater coverts dull brownish-blue contrasting with brighter blue inner coverts; primary coverts taper at tips and abraded bluish with dusky fringes or tips.

m Juvenile As adult female, but has fine pale streaks on crown and large pale spots on underparts; young female often has more brownish tinge on head and upperparts, and less blue in wings and tail.

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Eastern Bluebird

a

c

b

d e f Western Bluebird

i

g

h

j

m k

l

Mountain Bluebird

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PLATE 2: COCHOAS I Green Cochoa Cochoa viridis

Map and text page 174

28–30cm. Scarce to rare resident of dense humid or moist evergreen forests in E Himalayas, NE India and extreme S China discontinuously throughout SE Asia to W Cambodia and C Vietnam; may associate with Purple Cochoa where ranges overlap. Shy and often silent, remaining in the canopy of trees. Sedentary or possibly nomadic, may be a short-distance altitude migrant to higher elevations in summer. a

Adult male Brilliant moss-green body tinged bluish on flanks and belly, bright blue crown and nape, shining pale blue wing patches and blue uppertail narrowly edged and broadly tipped black.

b

Adult female As male but slightly duller crown, bronze-green upperparts and rusty or bronze staining on blue bases to secondaries and tips to greater coverts.

c

First-year male Similar to adult male, but darker or tinged olive or brownish-green above, tipped darker on mantle and scapulars, and lacks any blue on underparts; dark shaft-streaks and broad tips to body feathers.

d

First-year female As adult female, but slightly paler or duller green; white cheeks, ear-coverts and necksides; lores to around eye black; upperparts more broadly tipped blackish and blue on greater coverts broadly edged blackish; underparts yellowish-green overlain by tawny-buff or light orange, or more uniform pale orange-buff or bronze-brown.

e Juvenile Wings and tail like adult; crown spotted or barred white, with blackish tips; broad black supercilium to nape-sides; face to chin and throat finely barred or spotted white or buff-brown. Upperparts spotted black with warm brown to rusty-buff centres; breast to belly and undertail-coverts dull or dingy orange, to orange-buff tipped blackish.

Purple Cochoa Cochoa purpurea

Map and text page 173

25–28cm. Generally scarce to locally common but secretive resident in moist broadleaf evergreen forests of Himalayas to N & E Myanmar, NW Thailand, SC China and N Vietnam. Usually in dense canopy; may associate with Green Cochoa where ranges overlap. Sedentary or makes short-distance altitudinal movements; possibly a summer migrant to higher areas. f

Adult male Deep purplish-grey with pale or lavender-blue crown (may appear whitish tinged blue), black head-sides, broad pale lavender band across bases to black flight feathers (showing as a broad wingbar in flight), and metallic pale lavender-purple tail with black tip; undertail black.

g

Adult female Head, face and tail as adult male or slightly paler; rust-brown upperparts to wing-coverts, bases of secondaries and tertials; rest of wing black except broad pale lavender band across bases to flight feathers; underparts slightly paler or orange-brown, throat can be paler or whitish.

h

Juvenile male Forehead and crown white finely barred black, broad black lores to nape, upperparts and wing-coverts dull dark brown tinged purplish and spotted buff; buff tips to median and greater coverts; rest of wing and tail as adult, except tip of tail finely pointed. Lower face finely barred orange-buff and brown, becoming broader bars on underparts.

i

Juvenile female As juvenile male, but tips of crown feathers brown, mantle and back browner (lacking purple tinge) with pale buff-brown streaks at tips; inner greater, and all median and lesser coverts brown with broad buffish-orange tips, base of secondaries brown heavily tinged purplish or pale lavender.

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Green Cochoa

e

b a

d

c

g

f

h

i

Purple Cochoa

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PLATE 3: COCHOAS II AND FRUITHUNTER Javan Cochoa Cochoa azurea

Map and text page 177

23–24cm. Rare endemic resident in montane forests of W & WC Java; currently known from just three localities. Generally little-known, fairly secretive and unobtrusive (occasionally tame or approachable), spending long periods perched motionless. May join mixed-species foraging flocks. a

Adult male All dark blue except bright pale bluish forehead and crown, edges to flight and tail feathers.

b

Adult female As adult male or slightly duller blue to bluish-black on face, upper- and underparts, and pale blue edges to flight feathers narrower or less extensive.

c Juvenile As adult female over face, upperparts, wings and tail, but has buff-brown spots on throat to breast, belly and flanks.

Sumatran Cochoa Cochoa beccarii

Map and text page 178

25–28cm. Rare and little-known endemic in montane forest of the Barisan range on Sumatra, known from a few localities. Generally shy and unobtrusive, found alone, in pairs or mixed-species flocks; spends long periods almost motionless in canopy. d

Adult male Bright iridescent blue forehead and crown, black face and glossy black upper- and underparts, and wings, except broad pale iridescent blue flashes on greater coverts and edges to flight feathers; tail also bright pale blue with black tip. Both sexes have pale pink to reddish orbital ring.

e

Adult female As adult male except gingery-buff face and whitish chin, and upper- and underparts duller dark blue or bluish-black (may be tinged brownish on underparts).

Black-breasted Fruithunter Chlamydochaera jefferyi

Map and text page 180

21–23cm. Scarce, unobtrusive and generally little-known endemic of montane forests in N Borneo (where most often seen on Mt Kinabalu). Sedentary and usually solitary in fruiting trees; quiet and unobtrusive, but best located by call. May join small mixed flocks with other fruit-eaters. f

Adult male Distinctive pale crown to nape and broad black band from base of bill through eyes to sides and centre of nape; pale yellowish-buff face and black sides of throat to breast patch, upperparts and wingcoverts dove-grey with black flight feathers; tail mostly pale grey with black subterminal band and fine white tip.

g

Adult female As adult male, but upperparts greyer brown and wing-coverts to tertials and rump to most of tail warm brown, underparts pale brown tinged rusty-buff; broad black tail band, narrowly tipped white.

h

Immature female Similar to adult female, but has slightly browner upperparts, crown dingy or dull buffbrown finely tipped black, face buffish, tips to scapulars, median and greater coverts pale buff-brown, broad black breast patch, and underparts rich buff-brown heavily scaled darker.

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a

Javan Cochoa

b

c

d e

Sumatran Cochoa

f

h

g

Black-breasted Fruithunter

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PLATE 4: SHORTWINGS I Gould’s Shortwing Heteroxenicus stellatus

Map and text page 182

12–13.5cm. Scarce and generally little-known shortwing of montane forests in C Himalayas; nominate stellatus occurs from C Nepal to SW & S China, poorly marked race fuscus (not illustrated) in extreme S China and NW Vietnam. Shy and secretive. Rare and local resident or short-distance migrant wintering at lower levels. a Adult H. s. stellatus Chestnut upperparts and dark grey to black forehead, cheeks and underparts, with fine vermiculations and bright white spots, streaks or stars. b Adult H. s. stellatus Underparts are finely vermiculated. c Juvenile Resembles adult, but duller or browner on head and upperparts, with fine pale shaft-streaks.

Rusty-bellied Shortwing Brachypteryx hyperythra

Map and text page 184

12–13cm. Secretive, little-known and rarely seen shortwing restricted to bamboo and undergrowth of forests in E Himalayas of NE India and extreme S China; probably resident or may move short distances altitudinally. d

Adult male Deep or dark blue above with black lores and short white supercilium (occasionally concealed), underparts rufous-orange.

e

Adult male With supercilium showing; in some restricted to spot or streak above eye.

f

Adult female Olive-brown above, no supercilium, with pale or dull rufous-orange underparts.

White-bellied Shortwing Brachypteryx albiventris

Map and text page 187

15cm. Very similar to Rufous-bellied Shortwing but allopatric. Restricted to undergrowth and forest floor of S Western Ghats, India. Solitary or in pairs; sedentary or possibly short-distance migrant. g Adult Almost entirely deep blue or slate-blue, except white or finely bluish-white forehead, blackish lores and white belly to undertail-coverts.

Rufous-bellied Shortwing Brachypteryx major

Map and text page 185

15cm. Scarce and little-known shortwing found in montane forest in S Western Ghats of SW India. Solitary or in pairs, secretive and shy. h Adult Almost entirely deep blue or slate-blue with blackish lores to eye, and pale orange to rufous flanks. i Juvenile Similar to adult, but dull slate- or greyish-blue on head and breast, finely streaked pale buff and mottled browner on mantle and scapulars.

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a

b Gould’s Shortwing

c

d

e

f

g

Rusty-bellied Shortwing

White-bellied Shortwing

h i

Rufous-bellied Shortwing

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PLATE 5: SHORTWINGS II Lesser Shortwing Brachypteryx leucophris

Map and text page 189

11–13cm. Small, short-tailed and relatively long-legged, with rounded wings, similar in shape and actions to small babbler. In damp undergrowth and dense understorey of montane and submontane forests, resident or partly resident, with some populations moving to lower altitudes in winter. a

Adult male B. l. leucophris Sumatra to Timor. Warm brown crown and upperparts, fine white supercilium, chin and throat whitish, buffish-brown face to breast-sides and flanks.

b

Adult female B. l. leucophris Very similar to adult male, with dark brown head to upperparts, wings and tail; supercilium more usually concealed. Chin and centre of throat to lower breast, belly and vent paler or off-white tipped cinnamon-brown, flanks similar, paler or white restricted to centre or lower throat.

c Juvenile B. l. leucophris Upperparts darker than adult, with rufous subterminal spots or streaks, wing-coverts broadly fringed orange-rufous, underparts cinnamon-buff with slightly paler centres and darker fringes creating spotted or scalloped appearance. d

Adult male B. l. nipalensis Himalayas of N India to SW & S China. Slate-blue head and upperparts, narrow white supercilium, chin and centre of throat white, throat- and neck-sides and upper breast bluish-grey forming breast-band.

e

Adult male B. l. nipalensis Supercilium fully revealed when forehead and crown feathers erect.

f

Adult female B. l. nipalensis (dark-breasted) As nominate adult with variably darker olive-brown breast, belly-sides and flanks.

g

Adult female B. l. nipalensis (pale-breasted) Paler olive-brown breast, belly and flanks.

h

First-year male B. l. nipalensis Becomes progressively blue-grey, upperparts slightly duller and more brownish-grey on crown, back and rump; breast-band and flanks duller blue-grey or tinged drab brown.

i

Adult male B. l. carolinae W Thailand, SE Asia to SE China. As female nipalensis but upperparts average slightly richer or warmer cinnamon-brown, and underparts vary from mainly white, or whitish on chin and throat, becoming heavily mottled brown and forming breast-band. Female similar to male but browner on underparts.

j

Adult male B. l. langbianensis S Laos, W Cambodia and C Vietnam. As nominate female, but lores to earcoverts greyish or olive-brown; throat-sides, breast-band and upper flanks grey or bluish-grey (as nipalensis) becoming dull olive-brown on flanks.

k

Adult male B. l. wrayi Thai-Malay Peninsula. As male nipalensis, but lower forehead and lores to eye black, upperparts slightly darker slate-blue, centre of chin and throat white, neck- and throat-sides, breast and flanks as upperparts, or vary from slightly darker greyish-blue or tipped paler.

Great Shortwing Heinrichia calligyna

Map and text page 198

17.5cm. Rotund, with fairly thick bill, rounded wings, fairly long tail and long legs; generally shy, secretive and little-known, restricted to undergrowth montane forests on Sulawesi; additional undescribed populations occur in NC & E Sulawesi. l

Adult male H. c. calligyna Latimojong Mts, SC Sulawesi. Entirely dark blue except blackish lores, indistinct white patches at basal tail-sides and rust-brown tinge to edges of primaries and lower flanks.

m

Adult female H. c. calligyna As male except white pre-ocular spot, rust-brown rump, dark chestnut face to throat and upper breast, slate-blue tinged greyish belly, becoming rufous-tinged on vent and undertailcoverts.

n

Adult female H. c. simplex N Sulawesi. Dark sepia or olive-brown head, upperparts, wings and tail; small whitish pre-ocular spot, chin, throat and breast dark chocolate or rust-brown, and greyish to dark grey belly.

o

Adult female H. c. picta SE Sulawesi. As nominate female, but smaller whitish pre-ocular spot, chestnut extends to breast and upper belly; rump uniform with upperparts.

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a

d

c

Lesser Shortwing

e

g f h

i

b j

k

l

m

o

n

Great Shortwing

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PLATE 6: SHORTWINGS III White-browed Shortwing Brachypteryx montana

Map and text page 193

12.5–15cm. Shy and generally secretive, with long legs, short tail, finely pointed bill and short rounded wings. Resident or short-distance altitudinal migrant; inhabits undergrowth of montane or highland broadleaf forests. Undescribed population on Mindanao. a

Adult male B. m. cruralis C Nepal and N India to S China and Indochina. As B. m. montana (see page 195) with slightly longer white supercilium extending just behind eye, and underparts more uniform slate-blue.

b

Adult female B. m. cruralis Upperparts dark olive-brown, wing-coverts, flight feathers and outer tail feathers fringed cinnamon; lower forehead and lores to just behind eye rufous, and short supercilium pale goldenbrown.

c

First-year male B. m. cruralis As adult female, with pale buffish-orange tips to greater coverts, also blue bases to crown, nape and upperparts to wings and tail (become prominent in adult plumage), and short or indistinct whitish supercilium.

d

Adult male B. m. sinensis S & SE China. As nominate male (see page 195), but upperparts slightly paler and greyer blue, underparts also distinctly paler, from mid-grey to paler on centre of breast and belly, and whitish on vent.

e

Adult female B. m. sinensis As female cruralis but forehead and lores duller and more uniform with dull olive-brown upperparts, wings and tail edged rufous, may lack supercilium or have fine pale brownish line over lores, and paler or buff-brown on throat and breast, becoming whitish on belly.

f

Adult male B. m. goodfellowi Taiwan. Both sexes slightly darker than female sinensis on head and upperparts, lack orange on face, but have long, broad white supercilium, rump and uppertail-coverts tinged rufous, and underparts as female cruralis, whitish-buff, or tinged orange-buff.

g

Adult female B. m. montana Java. Head to mantle as male, or slightly paler with shorter supercilium (mostly above or in front of eye). Lower mantle to scapulars, rump, wings and tail rufous-brown. Underparts as male, becoming paler on lower belly and cinnamon-rufous on rear flanks and undertail-coverts.

h

Adult female. B. m. saturata Sumatra. As male cruralis but duller and less bluish-black; throat and breast as upperparts, or slightly duller, or greyer, and lacks white supercilium.

i

Adult female B. m. erythrogyna N & C Borneo. Distinctive, with forehead, supercilium and head-sides orange-cinnamon, mantle, scapulars and lesser and median coverts dark indigo-blue, and tail dark chestnut-brown. Underparts orange-cinnamon, browner on rear flanks, breast-sides may show indigo-blue.

j

Adult male B. m. poliogyna Upper- and underparts deep grey-blue, black wings and tail, grey-blue edges to flight feathers, and belly washed pale grey.

k

Adult female B. m. poliogyna N Luzon, Philippines. Similar to female erythrogyna but head dark chestnut, chin and throat pale cinnamon-orange, wings and tail dark grey-blue,mantle to scapulars, rump and uppertail-coverts blue. Underparts as male or slightly paler and less blue; undertail dark reddish-brown.

l

Adult male B. m. floris Flores, Lesser Sundas. Paler than nominate male (see page 195), with darker forehead, may show narrow pale supercilium, nape to mantle, scapulars, rump and uppertail-coverts dull indigo-blue, tail dark indigo-blue, and underparts whitish or whitish-grey, or grey-blue on breast.

m

Adult female B. m. floris Warm or rufous-brown upperparts, slightly darker forehead and crown, rump and outertail brighter or chestnut, face buffish-brown, whitish on chin and throat, pale grey breast to flanks, white belly to vent, and warm buff-brown undertail.

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White-browed Shortwing

b a

c

e f d

h

g

i

k

j l

m

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PLATE 7: ALETHES I Fire-crested Alethe Alethe castanea

Map and text page 200

18cm. Medium-sized, with fairly long tail and more horizontal stance than other alethes. Fairly common or locally abundant, but secretive and more often heard than seen (except at ant swarms), the frequently given call is a familiar sound in dense lowland primary and secondary forests. Nominate castanea occurs from S Nigeria to PR Congo and NW Angola, race woosnami (not illustrated) from DR Congo to SW Sudan, W & S Uganda and NW Tanzania differs largely in grey-brown forehead and duller brown crown-sides to nape and upperparts. a Adult Raised bright rust-orange central crown-stripe (usually entirely or partly concealed). b Adult Forehead, crown and hindneck rich brown, upperparts to scapulars, wings and uppertail-coverts rich or warm cinnamon-brown, tail dark brown fringed chestnut, face to neck-sides grey, chin and most of underparts white except grey breast-sides and upper flanks. c Juvenile Crown and head-sides to face blackish-brown broadly streaked pale orange, upperparts show large pale orange spots, wings and tail as adult, but greater coverts have large orange spots narrowly fringed black. Underparts pale orange heavily streaked blackish-brown on breast.

White-tailed Alethe Alethe diademata

Map and text page 202

18cm. Medium-sized, fairly long-tailed inhabitant of lowland and mid-elevation primary and secondary forests from SW Senegal to Togo. Locally common, but elusive and very secretive, more often heard than seen (except at ant swarms), although the monotonous call is a familiar sound. d Adult Crown to hindneck dark brown; when agitated raises bright rust-orange central crown-stripe (otherwise usually concealed); hindcrown and upperparts to edges to flight feathers olive-brown, tail slightly darker with broad white tips to outer three feathers, greyish face, breast-sides and flanks. e

Adult tail pattern Spread tail showing white tips to outer feathers.

f Juvenile Crown to face and head-sides brown or warm brown, flecked or streaked darker on fringes or tips, upperparts have large pale orange spots, wings and tail as adult including white tips to outer rectrices, median and greater coverts with large orange spots narrowly fringed black. Chin and throat whitish, breast tawny or orange-brown fringed or lightly scalloped darker.

Red-throated Alethe Pseudalethe poliophrys

Map and text page 204

15cm. Medium-sized with fairly long tail and distinctive red or reddish-orange throat. Resident in undergrowth of montane and submontane forests of Albertine Rift. Locally fairly common, but very shy and elusive; occurs alone, in pairs or in small mixed-species flocks, often in with Brown-chested Alethe. g Adult P. p. poliophrys NE & E DR Congo, W Uganda, W Rwanda and W Burundi. Blackish-grey face, black forehead to nape and broad grey supercilium extending to sides and rear nape; bright reddish-brown upperparts and wings, broad reddish-chestnut edges to tail feathers and distinctive red or reddish-orange throat, rest of underparts whitish washed grey or dull buffish-brown on flanks. h Adult P. p. kaboboensis Mt Kabobo, E DR Congo. As nominate, but upperparts to rump duller or browner, and lack warm or chestnut tones, upperwing-coverts and edges to flight feathers olive-brown, edges to tailfeathers slightly or only narrowly rufous, and reddish-orange on throat slightly paler. i Juvenile Dark brown streaked blackish and heavily spotted above, and streaked blackish on throat to belly; wings as adult, with orange spot and blackish fringe at tips of coverts.

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b a

Fire-crested Alethe

c

d

f White-tailed Alethe

e

g

i h

Red-throated Alethe

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PLATE 8: ALETHES II Brown-chested Alethe Pseudalethe poliocephala

Map and text page 206

14.5–16cm. Medium sized and stout-bodied, with rather upright stance and long pale pinkish-flesh legs. Common and widespread, but generally shy and secretive, in lowland and lower montane primary and secondary forests. Nominate occurs from W Guinea to S Ghana, while eight other races occur east to S Sudan, C Kenya and SW Tanzania and south to W Angola. Variation between them is fairly slight and concerns the tones of the head, face and upperparts; some races have breast and flanks paler or only faintly washed brown. a Adult P. p. poliocephala Dark grey head and face with broad white supercilium; upperparts mostly rich chestnut or duller, tinged olive except blackish-brown tail; underparts white, or breast and flanks washed dull buff-brown or brownish, belly and undertail-coverts creamy-white. b Adult P. p. carruthersi As P. p. poliocephala but has slightly paler grey crown and browner ear-coverts to nape and neck-sides; upperparts slightly browner or less obviously chestnut or reddish-brown. c Juvenile Head and nape dark brown finely streaked pale cinnamon, upperparts and wing-coverts have large pale orange or brown spots, greater coverts blackish becoming cinnamon, flight feathers, rump and tail as adult. Chin and throat buffish broadly fringed brown, breast boldly spotted tawny-buff and dark brown, flanks dull buffish or tinged orange.

White-chested Alethe Pseudalethe fuelleborni

Map and text page 208

17–20cm. Large and mainly brown and white. Common or locally common, but shy and elusive (though often noted at ant swarms) in montane forests between N Tanzania and N Malawi; also lowlands of SC Mozambique. Sedentary or short-distance altitudinal migrant. d Adult Dark head and face (no supercilium), chestnut or russet-brown upperparts and bright chestnut tail; underparts mostly pure white except brown or greyish-brown flanks; some show weak or pronounced dark tips or crescents on breast-sides. e Juvenile Crown and face dark brown with pale orange shaft-streaks; upperparts blackish brown with large pale orange centres; throat dark grey-brown with white or off-white flecks and finely barred darker on lower throat; breast pale orange with dark brown or blackish fringes forming scaly pattern; flanks pale grey-brown and belly paler or yellowish-white.

Cholo Alethe Pseudalethe choloensis

Map and text page 211

17–19cm. Medium- to large-sized, usually shy and more often heard than seen (except at ant swarms), when agitated flicks wings and tail, and flashes white tips of tail. Resident (or perhaps a short-distance altitudinal migrant) in undergrowth of montane forests in S Malawi and N Mozambique, where locally common. Two races but differences between them slight. f Adult Head and face dark cinnamon-brown, becoming slightly deeper or reddish-brown on upperparts and wings, tail dark brown with white spots at tips of outer feathers, underparts white with grey-and-buff wash on breast and flanks. g

Adult tail pattern Spread tail showing extent of white tips.

h Juvenile Almost entirely dark brown above, with orange shaft-streaks broadening to spots at tips of feathers, throat dingy or dirty white with narrow dark tips, breast blackish blotched pale orange, rest of underparts dull or dirty white or mottled blackish, flanks washed pale orange.

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a b

c Brown-chested Alethe

e

White-chested Alethe

d

h f

g Cholo Alethe

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PLATE 9: AFRICAN ROBINS White-starred Robin Pogonocichla stellata

Map and text page 213

15–16cm. Small and slender, recalling a flycatcher. Common or locally common, but often shy, in moist evergreen montane primary and secondary forests. Nominate stellata occurs in E & S South Africa, while nine other races range north to S Sudan; variation between them is fairly slight, although race elgonensis has an all-black tail. a Adult P. s. stellata E & S South Africa. Head and face bluish-slate grey white spots or ‘stars’ usually concealed; mantle to wing-coverts olive-green; flight feathers dark grey finely edged bluish-slate; rest of the underparts entirely deep yellow. b Adult P. s. stellata White spots or ‘stars’ on upper lores and centre of lower throat. c Adult P. s. stellata Black central tail feathers and outer feathers tipped black with golden-yellow bases forming distinctive panels. d Adult P. s. transvaalensis E Zimbabwe, N & W Mozambique, NE South Africa. Upperparts to uppertail slightly deeper olive-green than in stellata; underparts more heavily orange-yellow. e Adult P. s. intensa N Kenya to N Tanzania. Upperparts rich olive-green except bright yellow rump and uppertail-coverts; tertials edged brighter green and primaries and secondaries edged slaty. f Subadult/first-year P. s. transvaalensis Dull olive-green above and pale yellow below. g Juvenile Heavily spotted upperparts, pale yellowish tips to wing-coverts. Underparts pale yellow heavily scalloped blackish-olive, with pale yellow centres on breast becoming even paler yellowish on belly and undertail.

Swynnerton’s Robin Swynnertonia swynnertoni

Map and text page 217

13–14cm. Small, slender and agile, with a long, fine bill, fairly short rounded wings and comparatively long legs. Sedentary and locally common to scarce in undergrowth of evergreen hill forests in N & C Tanzania (race rodgersi) and E Zimbabwe and N Mozambique (nominate swynnertoni); race rodgersi has more olive on crown, greyer back and paler yellow underparts. h

Adult male S. s. swynnertoni Grey head with white crescent on lower throat; upperparts olive-brown, slategrey wings and tail, underparts deep yellow or orange except white undertail-coverts. i Adult female S. s. swynnertoni Slightly duller than adult male; hindneck greenish-olive and chin and throat paler. j Juvenile Head and most of upperparts to wing-coverts brown tipped buffish-yellow. Lower throat crescent pale, finely edged brown.

Forest Robin Stiphrornis erythrothorax

Map and text page 219

11–13cm. Small with a slim or fine bill, short wings and legs, and a fairly short tail; varies from yellowish-orange to bright orange on throat and breast. Common or fairly common, but shy and most often detected by call. Resident in undergrowth of lowland and mid-elevation primary or old secondary forest. k

Adult male S. e. erythrothorax Sierra Leone and SE Guinea to S Nigeria. Face black, prominent white spot on upper lores, crown to nape grey-brown becoming olive-green on upperparts; flight feathers edged olivegreen, chin to upper breast bright orange, flanks tinged greyish. l Adult female S. e. erythrothorax As male but face greyer, merging into crown and nape; orange on throat and upper breast less bright. m Juvenile Head and upperparts dark brown, mantle and scapulars boldly spotted, tips to wing-coverts bright rufous, chin and throat whitish, breast brown with large orange or rufous-orange spots, rest of underparts white. n Adult S. e. xanthogaster SE Cameroon to SW Sudan and W & S Uganda. Upperparts grey-brown tinged olive or olive-brown, chin to breast paler or yellowish, belly and flanks white or creamy, yellow or buffish-orange; in Uganda more olive on upperparts with deeper orange throat and yellowish wash to belly. o Adult male S. e. gabonensis S Nigeria to NW Gabon. Similar to nominate, but head and upperparts slate-grey washed olive and chin to breast slightly paler. p Adult male S. e. sanghensis SW Central African Republic. Slate greyish-olive forehead and crown, large preocular spot and bluish-grey ear-coverts, nape and upperparts dark olive-green, flight feathers edged olive, and chin to breast bright orange-yellow. q Adult male S. e. pyrrholaemus SW Gabon and possibly S PR Congo. Dark grey crown and nape, upperparts olive-green and flight feathers narrowly fringed olive-green, chin to breast bright orange, and belly to vent cream-yellow.

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White-starred Robin

a b

e

d

c

f

g

i

h

j k

Swynnerton’s Robin

n l

Forest Robin

m

p

q

o

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PLATE 10: AKALATS I Bocage’s Akalat Sheppardia bocagei

Map and text page 222

13–15cm. Small and brightly coloured with broad-based bill, fairly short, rounded wings and rather short rufous tail; small white patch in front of eye. Fairly common but secretive in undergrowth of montane and submontane evergreen forest and in riverine and secondary forest. a Adult S. b. bocagei W Angola. Crown dark grey, slightly tinged olive-brown, lores white (usually concealed), upperparts to tail tawny olive-brown, with rufous outer rectrices. Lower face, neck-sides, breast and flanks rufous-orange, centre of belly and vent off-white tinged buffy-orange, undertail pale cinnamon-orange. b Adult S. b. chapini SE DR Congo, N Zambia and SW Tanzania. As nominate but crown more greyish-olive, upperparts more tawny-brown and flanks washed olive. c Adult S. b. ilyai W Tanzania. As chapini but crown heavily tinged olive, upperparts to rump slightly darker or tinged rufous, lower rump and uppertail-coverts bright rufous, tail slightly duller brown, underparts darker orange and washed olive on breast-sides and flanks. d Adult S. b. granti SE Nigeria. Crown olive-grey and lores to below eye blackish, upperparts olive-brown becoming rufous on uppertail-coverts, and tail shorter and more reddish-brown than nominate. e Juvenile S. b. granti Head and upperparts brown with bold black centres and rufous fringes, rump, uppertail-coverts and tail rust-brown, underparts scalloped or spotted light buff and broadly edged dark brown, belly and undertail-coverts dull or dingy white. f Adult S. b. poensis Bioko I. As granti but crown and ear-coverts darker or blackish, upperparts uniform tawny-olive, lores to upper ear-coverts blackish or slate, underparts rich rufous. g Adult S. b. kaboboensis E DR Congo (Mt. Kabobo). As nominate but lores and ear-coverts slate-grey or with fine black line below eye, upperparts less tawny-brown and centre of tail duller brown. h Adult S. b. kungwensis W Tanzania. As kaboboensis and nominate, with slightly deeper brown upperparts and olive-grey crown; tail duller or browner than nominate.

Iringa Akalat Sheppardia lowei

Map and text page 236

13–14cm. Small, dull or dingy brown akalat endemic to undergrowth of montane forest and thickets in SW Tanzania. Generally uncommon, shy and easily overlooked. Alone or in pairs, but several can gather at ant swarms. i Adult Dull or dingy olive-brown head and upperparts, pale yellowish throat, slightly paler olive-brown on breast and flanks, and off-white belly and vent. j Adult Short yellowish-buff streak over upper lores to eye, becomes whitish when raised in alarm or excitement.

Usambara Akalat Sheppardia montana

Map and text page 234

13–14.5cm. Small, stocky, long-legged and strong-billed but rather dull brown akalat, similar to other akalats in behaviour, restricted to undergrowth of forests in W Usambara Mts of NE Tanzania. k Adult Crown brown or greyish-brown, becoming paler on upperparts and wings, with dark rufous-brown edges to tail. Pale face with whitish lores and small (usually concealed) pale cinnamon loral streak. Chin and throat off-white, breast and flanks pale smoky grey. l Adult Pale lores and cinnamon or orange-rufous upper loral streak between base of bill and eye become more visible when excited or in display. m Juvenile Dark brown, heavily spotted pale or yellowish-buff on upperparts, and scalloped dark brown on underparts; tail and wings as adult.

Rubeho Akalat Sheppardia aurantiithorax

Map and text page 233

c.14cm. Little-known but fairly common in undergrowth of montane and secondary forests in C Tanzania, where resident or a short-distance altitudinal migrant. n Adult White lores, dull grey-brown tinged olive forehead to nape, warmer brown upperparts, wings and tail, heaviest on rump and uppertail. Sides of throat to breast deep orange, white to creamy-buff on belly, and tawny-olive on flanks and undertail.

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Bocage’s Akalat

b

a

c

f

d e

g

h

j i

Iringa Akalat

l

k

m

n

Rubeho Akalat Usambara Akalat

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PLATE 11: AKALATS II Lowland Akalat Sheppardia cyornithopsis

Map and text page 224

13cm. Small with broad-based bill and fairly short tail. Generally scarce or uncommon; may be most active around dawn and dusk, on ground and in dense undergrowth of coastal plantations, lowland and lower montane primary and secondary forests. Nominate cyornithopsis occurs from S Cameroon to SW Central African Republic and S PR Congo, two other races occur in W & C Africa, but racial differences very slight. a Adult S. c. cyornithopsis Crown and upperparts olive-brown with rufous-rusty rump and outer tail, face grey, chin and throat pale yellowish-orange becoming orange on breast and belly-sides, breast-sides and flanks olive-brown, and centre of belly and vent white. b Juvenile Head and upperparts dark brown with dull rust-brown spots, face buffish-brown flecked or spotted brown, chin and throat buffish-white, breast to belly and flanks warm buff with broad brown fringes forming scallops.

Sharpe’s Akalat Sheppardia sharpei

Map and text page 227

12cm. Small brownish akalat with rather upright stance. Shy and fairly secretive, common or locally common resident or partial migrant, but more often heard than seen. Inhabits dense, damp undergrowth in montane forests. Nominate sharpei occurs in highlands of C Tanzania, Malawi and N Zambia, race usambarae only in Nguru Mts, E & W Usambara Mts and on Mt Nilo of EC Tanzania; variation between them is extremely slight. c Adult Crown, upperparts, wings and tail bright olive-brown, short white supercilium, crown-sides deep grey, uppertail-coverts slightly warmer brown and tail edged rich brown, chin, throat and neck-sides yellowishorange, duller brownish or olive on breast and flanks, centre of belly white. d Juvenile Head and upperparts dull dark brown flecked or broadly streaked pale buff or orange, rump to tail as adult; wing-coverts tipped bright or rusty orange. Face to throat pale buffish, ear-coverts slightly browner, dark scallops or chevrons on breast, usually heaviest at sides, belly to undertail-coverts whitish.

Equatorial Akalat Sheppardia aequatorialis

Map and text page 226

12–13cm. Small and short-billed. Locally common but generally shy and fairly secretive, and possibly crepuscular in humid, highland and montane primary and secondary forest. Nominate aequatialis occurs in C Africa, from E DR Congo to W Burundi, SW Uganda and W Kenya, and race acholiensis (not illustrated) in S Sudan. e Adult Crown, upperparts and wings olive-brown, brighter or rufous-brown on rump to tail, dull bluegreyish face, bright orange chin and throat to flanks, and belly and vent white. f Juvenile Crown to nape dark brown finely streaked paler, upperparts dark brown with large pale spots, and rump and tail as adult. Face pale buffish, ear-coverts finely streaked brown, chin and throat pale buff, breast, belly-sides and flanks pale orange-buff, edged dark brown.

East Coast Akalat Sheppardia gunningi

Map and text page 229

11–12cm. Fairly small akalat of lowland and mid-elevation evergreen forests in E Africa. Fairly common within restricted range, but shy and easily overlooked especially in non-breeding season; usually alone but several may forage at ant swarms. Nominate gunningi resident in coastal forests of C Mozambique, with three other races discontinuously north to NC Malawi, E Tanzania and SE Kenya. Variation between them fairly pronounced. g Adult S. g. gunningi Crown and upperparts pale olive-brown or tinged grey, has blue-grey face to above eye and edges to flight feathers, tail dark brown fringed paler, lacking any rufous, and underparts bright yellow-orange to paler yellow. h Adult S. g. bensoni Upperparts warmer brown and more extensively bright orange on underparts. i Juvenile Head and upperparts olive-brown flecked paler, mantle and scapulars with larger olive-brown spots, wing-coverts with buffish tips, chin and throat buffish-white and pale buff-brown breast with darker brown fringes.

Gabela Akalat Sheppardia gabela

Map and text page 232

12–13cm. Small and generally little-known akalat with fairly long legs, rounded head and broad-based, short, dark bill. Found alone, in pairs or loose groups in non-breeding season. Uncommon or locally common resident restricted to dense undergrowth in primary and secondary forests around Gabela, WC Angola. j Adult Head and upperparts mostly drab brownish-olive, tail edged warm brown, narrow pale buffish eyering, underparts pale buff to white, with brownish-olive breast-band.

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Lowland Akalat

c a b

Sharpe’s Akalat

d f

e

Equatorial Akalat

i

h g

East Coast Akalat

j

Gabela Akalat

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PLATE 12: EUROPEAN AND ASIAN ROBINS European Robin Erithacus rubecula

Map and text page 240

14cm. Small to medium-sized, fairly plump with round head and slender tail. Distinctive melodious song given year-round. Common or locally common and a familiar garden bird in Europe; elsewhere in forests and woodlands. Nominate rubecula throughout Europe to Urals; seven other races across Britain and Ireland east to W Siberia. Some populations winter south to Middle East, Gulf States and S Iran. a

Adult worn E. r. rubecula Crown, upperparts and wing-coverts warm brown tinged grey or greyish-olive; base of tail feathers warmer greyish olive-brown. Forehead to above eye, cheeks, chin to lower breast dull orange. Ash-grey band from upper forehead to breast-sides less obvious than in fresh plumage. b Adult fresh E. r. rubecula Very similar to worn plumage, but crown, upperparts and tail slightly brighter, forehead to face and lower breast deep orange, ash-grey band from upper forehead to neck- and breastsides may be slightly mottled olive. Greater coverts may have pale buff to rufous-cinnamon tips. c Adult fresh E. r. melophilus As fresh-plumaged rubecula but upperparts darker brown, uppertail-coverts and base of tail brighter brown, face to breast deeper orange, and flanks deeper buff-brown. d Adult fresh E. r. hyrcanus As rubecula but bill slightly longer and upperparts browner or deeper brown lacking greyish tinge, uppertail-coverts and tail-base cinnamon-brown to rufous-chestnut, face and breast deep orange (as melophilus but flanks pale, like rubecula). e Adult fresh E. r. superbus Slightly smaller than rubecula; prominent pale or whitish eye-ring, upperparts browner, broader band of ash-grey on forecrown often extending to central crown; face to breast deeper rufous-orange than melophilus; belly and vent whiter. f Juvenile Entirely brown, finely streaked or spotted paler or buffish, with larger spots on wing-coverts, throat and breast, tail unspotted. Pale spots at tips of greater coverts no indication of age.

Japanese Robin Larvivora akahige

Map and text page 269

14–15cm. Small or slender with tail often held slightly raised. Common to locally abundant, but fairly shy in undergrowth of mature montane deciduous and evergreen forests. Nominate akahige breeds from C Sakhalin to Japan and S Kuril Is; race tanensis on Izu Is (and possibly islands south of Kyushu). Resident and short-distance migrant, wintering on Nansei Shoto Is and SE China. Variation between races fairly slight. g

Adult male fresh L. a. akahige Crown, upperparts and wings olive-brown, brighter on uppertail-coverts, rufous-brown on tail and may show fine pale buff-brown tips. Forehead to sides of nape, chin, throat and breast deep orange, bordered below by black breast-band; flanks grey, and belly to undertail-coverts white. h Adult male worn L. a. akahige As in fresh plumage but may lack black breast-band and more extensively greyish on lower breast, belly and flanks. i Adult male worn L. a. akahige Some may show very broad black breast-band. j Adult female fresh L. a. akahige As adult male, but crown and upperparts duller brown. Face to upper breast less extensively orange, flecked brownish; breast-band either absent or narrower and pale brown. k Adult female worn L. a. akahige As in fresh plumage, but orange face to breast may be slightly duller; grey bases to breast, belly and flanks. l Juvenile Slightly duller than adult, with pale buff flecks on head to nape and mantle. Face to upper breast dull rufous or orange-brown; lower breast and flanks broadly barred olive-brown.

Ryukyu Robin Larvivora komadori

Map and text page 271

14cm. Small, active, brightly coloured and long-legged robin with fairly long bill, in undergrowth of broadleaf evergreen forest. Nominate komadori breeds in N Nansei Shoto Is of S Japan, with race namiyei on Okinawa and adjacent islands of C Nansei Shoto. Common or locally common resident and short-distance migrant. m n o p q

Adult male fresh L. k. komadori Upper forehead to upperparts, wings and tail bright rufous. Lower forehead and face to throat and centre of breast jet black with black smudges on flanks. Adult female L. k. komadori Forehead, crown and upperparts slightly duller than male. Lores and lower face whitish finely streaked greyish, and sides of lower throat and upper breast may form greyish band. Adult male fresh L. k. namiyei As komadori but with slightly darker rufous upperparts; belly and flanks greyish-white. Adult male head L. k. namiyei Some have less or may lack any black on forehead and black only on lores from base of bill. First-winter male Face to throat blackish or tipped pale grey; breast and flanks tipped grey forming bars.

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b

a

c

e

d

European Robin

f

g h

j

i

Japanese Robin

k

l

o

n m q

p

Ryukyu Robin

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PLATE 13: BLUETHROAT AND RUFOUS-HEADED ROBIN Bluethroat Luscinia svecica

Map and text page 247

13–14cm Slim, elegant, fairly long-legged and brightly coloured, especially males. Widespread and fairly or locally common, but often elusive, in wide variety of low vegetation including forest clearings and steppe, edges of marshes, alpine meadows, birch and willow scrub at edge of tundra. Nominate svecica breeds from Scandinavia and parts of C & E Europe through Russia to NE China and NW North America; ten other races breed south and west to S Europe and NW Africa, S Russia, Caucasus, C Asia, Himalayas and Mongolia. Medium to long-distance migrant to S edge of Sahara, Arabia, N India, S China and SE Asia. a

Adult male breeding L. s. svecica Deep cobalt-blue breast with deep reddish-rufous centre, bordered below by narrower bands of black, white or pale buff, and a slightly broader band of warm rufous or bright cinnamon; head and upperparts grey-brown with prominent white or creamy-buff supercilium, and darker or blackish-centred tail with broad rufous-chestnut panels on sides.

b

Adult female breeding (bright) L. s. svecica As adult male, but variable amounts of blue on breast (in exceptional instances, females have extensive blue on throat and breast, approaching adult male).

c

Adult female breeding (dull) L. s. svecica As adult male but most have throat and breast pale cream to buff, with broad black malar and breast-band.

d

Adult tail pattern Spread tail showing distinctive tail pattern.

e

First-year male autumn L. s. svecica Similar to adult male, but slightly browner on crown and upperparts, and extent of blue and rufous on breast varies from very little blue or is restricted to narrow band above gorget of dull black spots, or has lower throat and upper breast tinged pale rufous above a band of pale blue merging with black breast-band. Greater coverts and tertials have greyer centres and pale tawny to rufous-buff fringes.

f

First-year female autumn As adult female, lacks any blue and rufous on breast, submoustachial, chin and throat pale buff or creamy-white, or has some dusky specks on sides of chin and upper throat, broad black malar and gorget on upper breast: greater coverts and tertials as same-age male.

g Juvenile Head and upperparts deep brown streaked pale or yellowish-buff, rump and uppertail-coverts unspotted bright rufous, tail as adult tipped pale rufous-buff, greater coverts broadly tipped rusty-buff, and tertials and secondaries broadly fringed warm tawny or rufous-buff. Supercilium pale buff and finely flecked buffish, chin to breast and upper flanks buff, broadly streaked darker. h

Adult male L. s. cyanecula As svecica but has large white spot on throat (occasionally absent), blue on breast averages slightly paler cobalt-blue, or slightly deeper blue with purplish tinge in worn plumage.

i

Adult male L. s. luristanica As male cyanecula in breeding plumage, throat of adult male entirely blue or may have small white spot in centre of lower throat and upper breast, and prominent deep rufous band on lower breast.

j

Adult male L. s. pallidogularis Chin to breast glossy pale cerulean-blue (paler than cyanecula) and centre of lower throat relatively large and pale rufous-cinnamon; rufous lower breast-band usually narrow; and upperparts slightly paler brownish-grey than svecica.

Rufous-headed Robin Larvivora ruficeps

Map and text page 273

14–15cm. Extremely rare, secretive and little-known; mainly detected by voice. Breeds in very restricted range in C China, in damp mixed coniferous and broadleaf subalpine forest. A short-distance migrant, but wintering areas largely unknown, though presumed to be S Malay Peninsula. k

Adult male Unmistakable, with rufous-chestnut forehead to nape, black lores to eye and neck-sides, dovegrey upperparts and blackish-grey centre and tip to tail, with deep rufous bases to outer feathers; chin to upper breast white bordered by narrow black breast-band above grey-smudged breast.

l

Adult male Showing spread tail pattern.

m

Adult female Brown to grey-brown head and upperparts, with warmer or brighter rufous-brown edges to outer tail feathers, face pale or buffish-brown, chin and throat finely spotted brownish becoming more heavily barred or scalloped on breast.

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a

d

b

e

c

f g

Bluethroat

h

i

j

l

m

k

Rufous-headed Robin

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PLATE 14: RUBYTHROATS Siberian Rubythroat Calliope calliope

Map and text page 284

14–15cm. Slender, medium-sized and very elegant. Common to locally very common in summer, generally shy and secretive on passage and in winter; breeds in lowland taiga forest across Russia from Urals to the Pacific, W & N Mongolia, NE & C China, N Korea and N Japan; winters in C Nepal, NE India and SE Asia. a

b c

d

e f g

Adult male fresh Crown and upperparts to median coverts warm olive-brown, rump and uppertail-coverts warmer brown, wings and tail dark brown. Prominent white supercilium, broad white submoustachial and black malar, chin and throat bright scarlet finely tipped white, breast (below gorget) mid-grey washed brown. Adult male worn As fresh plumage, but throat and upper breast more extensively bright scarlet, black gorget usually more distinct, and neck-sides cleaner grey. First-year male fresh As adult male but greater coverts and tertials tipped pale buff, white supercilium and submoustachial may be finely tipped brown, black malar usually poorly defined and does not form gorget across breast. Chin and throat as adult male, pinkish-red or tipped white. Adult female fresh Crown and upperparts as adult male or slightly browner, face to upper breast variable, supercilium usually less well-defined or narrower. Lores and cheeks paler or browner, off-white submoustachial less well-defined (can be absent). Chin and throat white or dull buffish-white, tinged scarletred or pinkish-red, bib less well-defined and lacks black gorget; lower breast olive-brown to pale grey. Adult female fresh showing variation Chin and throat whitish, in some tinged scarlet or pinkish-red, or has faint pinkish wash on centre of throat, but only rarely as solidly scarlet as male. Adult female worn Similar to fresh plumage but slightly duller on upper- and underparts, and in very worn plumage red of throat and upper breast (if present) bleach paler and may be completely abraded to white. First-year female fresh Similar to fresh adult female but greater coverts and tertials tipped pale buff, submoustachial, chin and throat white or pinkish(atypically red as male), mottled or tinged brown, breast and flanks warm buffy-brown, not well-demarcated from throat as adult female.

Himalayan Rubythroat Calliope pectoralis

Map and text page 288

12.5–14cm. Small to medium-sized, elegant and rather long-legged and long-tailed chat of montane and alpine areas in C Asia, the Himalayas and C China; four races but variation slight except race tschebaiewi. Resident or short-distance altitudinal migrant; breeders in C Asia move slightly further. h

i j k

l m n o p q r s

Adult male fresh C. p. pectoralis Crown, upperparts and wing-coverts slate greyish-brown. Flight feathers and tertials dark brown. Tail black tipped white on outer feathers with white bases forming broad panels. Long white supercilium, face black or blackish-grey. Chin to centre of throat bright ruby-red finely tipped whitish; throat- and breast-sides black tipped dark grey. Adult male worn C. p. pectoralis As fresh plumage but upperparts to wing-coverts more uniform black or blackish-grey; chin and centre of throat uniform bright scarlet or ruby-red. First-year male worn C. p. pectoralis As adult male but crown, upperparts and tail browner or olive-brown; wings slightly browner and may show pale tips to inner greater coverts and primary-coverts. Adult female worn C. p. pectoralis Dark olive-brown above; tail dark brown, outer feathers tipped white. Narrow white supercilium, face dark grey, slightly greyer on neck-sides, chin and centre of throat white, breast and upper flanks pale grey or buffish-brown. First-winter male C. p. confusa As same-age pectoralis but upperparts more blackish-grey, ear-coverts more extensively blackish, and has fine pale buff tips to greater coverts. Adult female C. p. confusa Similar to nominate female or slightly paler olive-brown on head and upperparts; in some face and breast blackish-grey (amount and depth of grey may be age-dependent). First-year female fresh C. p. confusa As adult female and similar to same-age nominate, with pale buff tips to greater coverts and tertials; underparts more extensively cinnamon-buff. Adult male fresh C. p. tschebaiewi Broad white submoustachial, blackish lores and malar, upperparts slightly browner than nominate, red throat patch may average slightly larger. Adult male worn C. p. tschebaiewi Crown to wings duller grey-black or tinged brownish, breast also paler or greyer-black, and throat often largely white or pale pink. Adult female fresh C. p. tschebaiewi As female confusa but variable on crown and upperparts, with some greyer and others darker; grey to whitish submoustachial and dark malar separating white chin and throat. Adult male Spread tail pattern. Adult female Spread tail pattern.

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Siberian Rubythroat

b

a

c

g

f d e

h

k

i j

Himalayan Rubythroat

r

l

m q

s

o

n

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p

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PLATE 15: ASIAN ROBINS I Blackthroat Calliope obscura

Map and text page 291

12.5–14cm. Extremely secretive and generally little-known, with small breeding range (recently discovered) in temperate or broadleaf forest of C China; wintering areas unknown, but presumed to include N Thailand. Forages low in understorey and on ground, presumed to occur in pairs in summer and alone on passage and in winter. a

Adult male Deep slate-blue grey-tinged crown and upperparts, black tail with white sides to base, jet-black face to belly and white on rest of underparts.

b

Adult female Grey-brown crown and upperparts, with light rufous-brown uppertail-coverts and edges to tail, warm buff-brown face, and pale grey to whitish on breast, flanks and belly.

Firethroat Calliope pectardens

Map and text page 294

14cm. Adult male brightly coloured. Very shy and more likely to be heard than seen, and most easily detected in spring/early summer. Rare and little-known; breeds in montane broadleaf and fir forests in S China, possibly N Myanmar, and presumed to be a short-distance migrant; the wintering range is unknown but includes NE Bangladesh. c

Adult male breeding Deep blue-grey above with a fiery orange throat to breast, broad black breast-sides and a small white patch on lower neck-sides, with short white patches at base of outer tail feathers.

d

Adult male non-breeding Similar to breeding plumage, but neck patch reduced or less prominent, and underparts duller or browner with red of throat and breast obscured.

e

Adult female Almost entirely dull olive-brown above except slightly browner wings and rufous-tinged tail; face buffish with pale eye-ring; chin and throat whitish to cream, and warm buff-brown breast and flanks.

f

First-winter male As adult female or slightly darker olive-brown, becoming slate-blue in mid-winter, face to neck-sides olive-brown, chin and throat off-white; buffish-brown to olive-brown on breast-sides and flanks.

g

First-summer male breeding Similar to adult male; face to neck- and breast-sides black, with small white spot on neck-sides, and chin to breast yellow, pale orange or reddish.

h Juvenile As adult female, but slightly darker brown upperparts and finely spotted pale buff on head to mantle and back; face, chin and throat to breast heavily mottled dark brown and buff, and tail as respective adult.

Siberian Blue Robin Larvivora cyane

Map and text page 278

13–14cm. Fairly small, short-tailed and long-legged; breeds in lowland and submontane coniferous and mixed forests. Common or locally common, but easily overlooked, especially when not singing; may be more easily seen on passage and in winter. Nominate cyane breeds in Altai of C Russia across Siberia to Ussuriland, N Mongolia, NE China and Korea; race bochaiensis breeds from Amur Basin to Sakhalin and Japan, but distinction between races doubtful. A long-distance migrant, wintering in SE Asia to Indonesia, possibly SE China. i

Adult male fresh Crown, upperparts and wing-coverts to ear-coverts and neck-sides deep blue or slate-blue. Black tail overlaid by long slate-blue uppertail-coverts and blue-black edges to all outer feathers; broad outer webs to flight feathers and tertials deep blue.

j

First-summer male As fresh adult male, but wings blackish and greater coverts may show fine pale tips.

k

First-winter male (dull) Similar to adult female, usually with heavier buff underparts and pale base to bill. Crown and upperparts olive-brown with bright blue rump to tail, lesser and median coverts, and scapulars, or washed olive-brown from mantle to tail.

l

First-winter male (bright) As dull male, but some have upperparts strongly blue, extending to scapulars and wing-coverts, and as blue as adult male, when distinguished only by rufous-buff tips to greater coverts.

m

Adult female Head and upperparts dark olive-brown with broad pale buffish eye-ring; rump and uppertailcoverts to base of tail dull blue or blue-grey, but can be deep blue like adult male; underparts creamy-white flecked buff-brown on throat-sides and more heavily scalloped brown on breast.

n

First-year female As adult female but greater coverts and sometimes tertials have fine rufous or buff tips; some have blue or greyish-blue tail base, extending to rump and uppertail-coverts (but not scapulars or wing-coverts, unlike some first-year males).

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a

c

Blackthroat

b

d

e f Firethroat

h

g i

j

Siberian Blue Robin

k

l

n

m

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PLATE 16: ASIAN ROBINS II Indian Blue Robin Larvivora brunnea

Map and text page 275

13–15cm. Small and slender with a fairly short tail and long legs; breeds in lower montane and submontane broadleaf forest with bamboo and rhododendron. Shy and usually skulking, in breeding season more often heard than seen, at other times typically silent. Nominate occurs from NW Afghanistan to Himalayas and SC China; partial resident or short-distance migrant, wintering in S India and Sri Lanka, but Chinese breeders considered largely resident or perform short-distance altitudinal migrations, while race wickhami is resident in W Myanmar. a

Adult male fresh L. b. brunnea Slate bluish-grey crown and upperparts including wings and tail, fairly short but broad white supercilium, black face and rich rufous-orange underparts.

b

Adult male (variation) L. b. brunnea On some, white throat-sides absent, deep orange on lower throat, breast and upper belly tipped blackish, and flanks greyish.

c

Adult female fresh L. b. brunnea Deep olive-brown head and upperparts including wings and tail, brighter warm or rufous-brown rump, and face and underparts warm buffish-brown, with white chin and central belly.

d

First-year male L. b. brunnea Becomes progressively more like adult male, but crown, face and upperparts duller or tinged olive-brown, with narrow and dull or off-white supercilium, brown or dark brown flight feathers (may show rufous-buff tips to greater coverts), and underparts paler or more buffish-orange with fine dark tips to breast and flanks.

e Juvenile Similar to adult female, but mottled buff on upper- and underparts, usually lacks supercilium or is only poorly defined, and wings either deep blue in juvenile male or brown in female.

White-browed Bush Robin Tarsiger indicus

Map and text page 297

15cm. Slim and fairly long-legged; occurs in subalpine fir and broadleaf forests. Nominate indicus in Himalayas to S China, two other races, one in S China to NW Vietnam and the other (formosanus) is endemic to Taiwan; mainland populations are short-distance migrants. Variation between races slight, but more pronounced in formosanus. Generally uncommon or locally common, but shy and easily overlooked, especially when not singing. f

Adult male fresh T. i. indicus Slate-blue crown and upperparts, very long narrow white supercilium, black wings and deep orange underparts except white belly to vent.

g

Adult female T. i. indicus Olive-brown crown and upperparts, long narrow white supercilium (may be partly concealed) and pale buffish eye-ring, underparts dull or pale ochre-brown, and palest on belly. Male often breeds in female-like plumage.

h Juvenile Crown and upperparts brown to dark olive-brown, finely flecked or streaked pale buff on head and face, boldly streaked or spotted pale orange-buff with darker tips on mantle and scapulars, and wings (including coverts) deep olive-brown with fine buff-brown tips to greater coverts. Chin to breast heavily mottled dull yellowish-buff to warm buff-brown with dark brown fringes. i

Adult male T. i. formosanus As indicus but forecrown (in some entire crown) olive-brown overlying slate-blue bases, with slightly duller blue upperparts, edges to wing-coverts and flight feathers duller, and underparts dull tawny-rufous tinged olive or olive-buff, palest on chin, throat and centre of belly.

Collared Bush Robin Tarsiger johnstoniae

Map and text page 301

12cm. Small, slim and brightly coloured (male); endemic to subalpine and montane forests on Taiwan. Common or locally common, active and usually in pairs in clearings, parks and large gardens, and forest edges. A partial or short-distance migrant in winter (some remain in highlands). j

Adult male Slate-black head to face and throat, wings and tail, long white supercilium, deep rufous or rusttinged collar across breast and over shoulders to centre of mantle and across scapulars.

k

Adult female Dull olive-brown head and upperparts with slightly warmer brown edges to wings, narrow whitish supercilium, and chin and throat to breast and flanks pale yellowish to yellowish-olive.

l Juvenile Similar to adult female, with pale buff to whitish-buff streaks and spots; juvenile male usually has rufous or rusty tinge to throat and neck-sides.

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Indian Blue Robin

c

a b

e f

d

White-browed Bush Robin

g h i

j Collared Bush Robin

k

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l

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PLATE 17: RUFOUS-TAILED ROBIN AND NIGHTINGALES Rufous-tailed Robin Luscinia sibilans

Map and text page 282

13–14cm. Slim, fairly long-tailed and long-legged with prominent eye-ring. Locally common but shy and breeds in dense undergrowth of lowland fir and mixed forests in E Siberia and NE China, but sometimes more easily seen on passage. A long-distance migrant, wintering in S & SE China and parts of SE Asia. a Adult Head and upperparts olive-brown with bright rufous-brown lower rump to tail, pale brownish face with pale lores, prominent eye-ring, whitish underparts heavily scalloped with fairly broad brown to greybrown fringes, and long pale pink legs. b Adult Some have only fine fringes or scallops on underparts, creating larger almost entirely white area. c First-winter Very similar to adult; greater coverts usually have small pale or whitish-buff tips in early spring, and occasionally the lesser and median coverts also show fine pale tips; scalloping on throat and breast often more diffuse, with vestigial grey-brown fringes.

Thrush Nightingale Luscinia luscinia

Map and text page 257

14–17cm. Large-sized, shy and in summer more likely to be heard than seen. Common or locally common (but easily overlooked). Breeds in E Europe and S Scandinavia to WC Siberia and N Caucasus, and winters in subSaharan Africa from SW Tanzania to N Botswana and NE South Africa. d

Adult fresh (autumn) Plain grey-brown above, with warmer or brighter reddish-brown uppertail-coverts and tail, large dark eye, narrow pale eye-ring and broad or narrow dark malar; underparts dull whitish with grey-brown breast. e Adult worn (spring) As in fresh plumage, but dull or dingy-whitish chin and throat-sides; breast finely mottled olive-brown usually forming breast-band; flanks dull off-white, washed or finely streaked greybrown, or paler or whiter on centre of belly; vent and undertail-coverts dull whitish, and may show olivebrown tips to sides of undertail-coverts. f First-winter Similar to adult with head and upperparts dull grey-brown tinged olive-grey; may show short dark moustachial, pale buff or off-white submoustachial (can be finely flecked darker) and broad or narrow dark malar; tail either entirely reddish-brown or outer tail feathers deep brown tinged reddish; breast grey-brown or finely mottled darker brown, rest of underparts off-white, with dark olive-brown tips to some undertail-coverts. g Adult tail pattern (bright) Reddish-brown uppertail-coverts and tail. h Adult tail pattern (dark) Variably deep brown, lacking any rufous or reddish tinge. i Adult in flight Showing extent of contrast between upperparts and tail.

Common Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos

Map and text page 261

15–17cm. Large-sized, shy and almost entirely warm brown; much more likely to be heard than seen (sings both by day and throughout night) especially in spring/early summer. Common to locally very common (but easily overlooked) in lowland woods, hedges and thickets. Nominate breeds in W, C & S Europe to C & S Ukraine, W & NC Turkey, Mediterranean islands to Crete and Cyprus, and in NW Africa; two other races breed east to Caucasus, S Russia, E Mediterranean, C Asia to NW China and SW Mongolia, and all populations winter across sub-Saharan and E Africa. Variation between races fairly slight. j

Adult spring L. m. megarhynchos Forehead, crown and upperparts to edges of flight feathers warm brown, with reddish-brown rump to tail. Lores and supercilium pale grey, broad pale buff eye-ring, neck-sides greyish. Underparts whitish with pale or sandy-buffish wash on breast and upper flanks, and rusty-buff tinge to unspotted undertail-coverts. k First-winter L. m. megarhynchos Pale tips to outer greater coverts and tertials. l Juvenile Head and upperparts heavily spotted buff with blackish fringes, finely on head and face; rump and uppertail-coverts may show some dark bars; fringes to greater coverts pale buff; tail as adult, with pointed tips; underparts warm or yellowish-buff, scaled dark on sides of throat, breast and flanks. m Adult L. m. golzii Crown, upperparts and wings paler sandy or greyer brown, pale tips to median coverts and fringes to greater coverts, tertials and tips of inner secondaries, pale buffish supercilium, face often greyishwhite to chin, throat and breast, or sandy-buff on breast and upper flanks, and rest of underparts white. n Adult tail pattern Entirely bright reddish-brown. o Adult in flight Shows less contrast between warm or rufous-brown upperparts and tail.

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Rufous-tailed Robin

c

b

a

f

d

h g Thrush Nightingale

e

i

k

n j

o

m

l

Common Nightingale

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PLATE 18: BLUETAILS AND BUSH ROBINS Red-flanked Bluetail Tarsiger cyanurus

Map and text page 303

13–14cm. Slim with fine bill and distinctive plumage (only likely to be confused with very similar Himalayan Bluetail). Common or locally common and widespread breeder in fir and mixed forests from N & E Finland across Russia to Sakhalin and Japan, wintering from S Japan to N Thailand and Laos. a b c

d

Adult male fresh In late summer/early autumn, head and upperparts (except lesser and median coverts) heavily fringed brown to olive-brown (not extending to blue uppertail-coverts and tail). Adult male worn Crown, upperparts and wings to breast-sides deep blue, uppertail-coverts and tail bright blue, white to bluish-white supercilium, and bright orange lower breast-sides and flanks. Adult female worn Adult female and first-year male very similar; head and upperparts buff-brown to brown, except blue uppertail-coverts and tail base; fairly narrow white throat above brown to grey-brown breastband, and pale orange lower breast-sides and flanks. First-winter male Very similar (some inseparable) to adult female (most reliably separated by shape of tail feather tips), but small number of first-winter males have blue lesser coverts and/or bluish tinge to scapulars.

Himalayan Bluetail Tarsiger rufilatus

Map and text page 308

13–14cm. Slim with fine pointed bill, very similar to Red-flanked Bluetail. Often shy and retiring, but nimbly flits between perches along or across trails through forest. Common or locally common resident, or short-distance altitudinal migrant, from extreme E Afghanistan and N Pakistan to NE India, Bhutan and S & CS China, and winters in SE China, NE India and parts of SE Asia. e

f

Adult male Like Red-flanked Bluetail but has slightly brighter or deeper blue upperparts, pale blue (not white) supercilium, throat and breast white (not buffish), more rounded wingtip and slightly longer tail and tarsus. In fresh plumage head and upperparts (except lesser and median coverts) to upper rump heavily fringed brown to olive-brown. Adult female Adult female and first-year male very similar to same-age/sex Red-flanked Bluetail; on average Himalayan is less olive-brown on head, upperparts, wings and breast, and whiter on throat.

Rufous-breasted Bush Robin Tarsiger hyperythrus

Map and text page 299

12–14cm. Fairly small and plump, small fine bill and comparatively long legs; in undergrowth of birch, fir, oak and rhododendron forests in C & E Himalayas. Locally common to scarce; often shy and best detected when singing. Short-distance altitudinal migrant, moving to lower levels or slightly beyond breeding range in winter. g

h i

Adult male worn Deep blue crown to upperparts and tail, forehead, supercilium, lesser coverts and lower rump bright ultramarine-blue, face either blackish or deep blue, chin to breast, flanks and upper belly bright rufous-orange, and vent and undertail-coverts white. First-summer male As adult male but face blackish and fine pale buff tips to median and greater coverts. Adult female Dark olive-brown upperparts, rump and uppertail-coverts pale blue, tail fringed deep blue. Chin to belly rich buff to tawny-brown, browner on breast, brightest or tawny-orange on belly.

Golden Bush Robin Tarsiger chrysaeus

Map and text page 310

14–15cm. Small to medium-sized, fairly plump, long-legged and brightly coloured bush robin of rhododendron and bamboo thickets in conifer forests. Generally shy and keeps low, its presence often betrayed by croaking call. Nominate race found in Himalayas of N India to SC China; race whistleri occurs in N Pakistan and NW India. Locally common altitudinal migrant, moving to lower levels within or slightly beyond breeding range. j

Adult male fresh T. c. chrysaeus Bright olive-brown crown and upperparts, except bright yellow supercilium, edges to scapulars, and rump, uppertail-coverts and entire underparts; broad black mask; tail has bright yellow sides and black central feathers and tips. k Adult female T. c. chrysaeus Dull olive to olive-brown tinged yellowish above; lacks black face of adult male, brightest or yellowish on chin to breast, may show pale yellow supercilium. l Juvenile Almost entirely brown to dark olive-brown, broadly spotted or streaked pale buff on upperparts; tail has brownish-black central feathers and tips to outers, or pale yellowish outer feathers in female. Underparts pale buff to yellowish-buff streaked dark brown on breast and flanks. m Adult male fresh T. c. whistleri As male chrysaeus but upperparts slightly paler; yellow rump, uppertailcoverts and underparts slightly paler. n Adult male tail pattern Showing extent of yellow when spread.

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Red-flanked Bluetail

b a d

e f c

Himalayan Bluetail

g

i Rufous-breasted Bush Robin

h

j

Golden Bush Robin

l

k

m

n

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PLATE 19: AFRICAN ROBIN-CHATS I White-bellied Robin-Chat Cossyphicula roberti

Map and text page 317

12–13cm. Smallest robin-chat, short-tailed, broad-headed and round-bodied with a short, broad-based bill; recalls an akalat (Sheppardia). Two races; one uncommon or local in W Africa, the other slightly more numerous in C Africa; generally shy and unobtrusive. a Adult C. r. roberti SE Nigeria, W Cameroon and Bioko. Olive-brown head and upperparts, centre of tail blackish, short white supercilium, dark face, bright orange chin to lower breast, and white belly to vent. b Adult C. r. rufescentior E DR Congo, SW Uganda and Rwanda. As nominate except has more orange and less white on underparts, and may show less distinct supericilium.

Mountain Robin-Chat Cossypha isabellae

Map and text page 319

15cm. Fairly small and short-tailed robin-chat; unobtrusive, but not always secretive, in undergrowth of montane and submontane forests. Alone or in pairs, often at ant swarms. Common to locally abundant within restricted range in W Africa. c Adult C. i. isabellae SW Cameroon (Mt Cameroon). Dark brown crown and upperparts, blackish face, narrow white supercilium, bright rufous-orange rump and tail-sides, and deep orange underparts, but belly slightly paler. d Adult C. i. batesi SE Nigeria and W & C Cameroon. As nominate, but upperparts to wings slightly paler, face dark brown, rump and uppertail-coverts darker rufous, central rectrices brown or blackish-brown, and underparts slightly paler orange, centre of belly to vent white. e Juvenile Head and upperparts brown flecked or streaked buffish-brown, with orange-buff central shaft-streaks on upperparts; rump to tail as adult or slightly duller. Large orange-buff spots on wing-coverts; underparts heavily scalloped, with broad orange or rufous-buff centres and broad brown to blackish-brown fringes.

Archer’s Robin-Chat Cossypha archeri

Map and text page 320

14–15cm. Fairly small to medium-sized, rather plump robin-chat restricted to undergrowth in montane and secondary forests around the Albertine Rift. Common to abundant within restricted range, but often secretive; occasionally in mixed-species flocks, and less frequently at ant swarms than other robin-chats. f Adult C. a. archeri SW Uganda to W Rwanda, W Burundi and E DR Congo. Blackish face to neck-sides and long white supercilium; upperparts to edges of wings deep rufous-brown, with uniformly rufous-brown tail; bright or deep rufous-orange underparts. g Adult C. a. kimbutui E DR Congo (Mount Kabobo). As nominate but has darker or blacker head and face, and white chin (often difficult to see). h Juvenile Head and upperparts as adult, finely spotted rufous-buff; tips to median coverts also rufous-buff. Underparts mottled pale orange with darker tips to chin and neck-sides, becoming scalloped with pale orange and darker fringes; paler on flanks, belly whitish.

Olive-flanked Robin-Chat Cossypha anomala

Map and text page 322

14–15cm. Small to medium-sized robin-chat with restricted and fragmented range; fairly secretive and usually remains well hidden in undergrowth of damp montane forests. Uncommon or local resident, and easily overlooked especially when not singing. i Adult C. a. grotei E & C Tanzania. Dark grey crown and upperparts, with black-and-orange tail, bold white supercilium, black face, white chin and throat, and grey breast. j Adult C. a. mbuluensis NC Tanzania. As grotei but darker (the darkest race), heavily dark grey on breast and flanks, with larger area of black on face to sides of lower throat and breast, and broader white supercilium. k Adult C. a. macclounii S Tanzania to N Malawi and NE Zambia. Intermediate, with head and face like grotei but back and wing-coverts more olive-tinged, rump and uppertail-coverts much duller or browner chestnut, and underparts whiter or paler than nominate. l Adult C. a. anomala S Malawi and N Mozambique. Olive-brown crown and upperparts, dark face and poorly marked greyish supercilium; rump to tail-sides warmer or rufous-brown and rest of tail brown; white chin and throat; greyish breast, and rufous flanks and undertail. m Juvenile Head brown flecked buff or buffish-brown; upperparts brown with large buff-brown spots; underparts duller with buffish speckles and spots, heavily scalloped on breast and flanks.

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White-bellied Robin-Chat

a

b

Mountain Robin-Chat

c e

d

Archer’s Robin-Chat

f

g

h

i m

Olive-flanked Robin-Chat

l

j

k

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PLATE 20: AFRICAN ROBIN-CHATS II White-browed Robin-Chat Cossypha heuglini

Map and text page 332

19–20cm. Large and fairly long-tailed robin-chat, widely distributed throughout Africa in lowland to lower submontane evergreen forests, Acacia woodland, and in parts of range in city and suburban parks. Common to locally common; usually shy but can be tame. Nominate from N Cameroon to S Sudan and S Ethiopia, south to NE South Africa and Swaziland, with two other races to the west and east, but differences between them very slight and possibly clinal. a Adult C. h. heuglini Prominent black face and crown, with long, broad white supercilium, olive-brown upperparts, olive-brown central tail feathers and bright orange-rufous underparts. d Adult C. h. subrufescens As nominate, but has black or blackish-olive central rectrices. c Juvenile Head brown flecked and spotted paler or olive-brown; upperparts warm or rufous-brown, with long streaks at tips of scapulars and wing-coverts; rump and tail as adult but duller. Chin and throat pale buff or whitish, becoming pale orange-buff with brownish fringes or chevrons.

Rüppell’s Robin-Chat Cossypha semirufa

Map and text page 330

18–19cm. Medium to large robin-chat, found in riverine, submontane and montane forests, thickets and heavily wooded suburban gardens in NE Africa. Nominate is resident in S Eritrea, W, C & S Ethiopia, N Kenya and possibly extreme SE Sudan, while two other races occur south to S Kenya and N Tanzania, but differences are slight. Common or locally very common; often active at dusk. d Adult C. s. semirufa Prominent black head with long, broad white supercilium, olive-brown to slate-grey upperparts and orange-rufous rump to outer tail feathers; centre of tail black and entire underparts bright orange-rufous. e Adult C. s. intercedens As nominate but slightly larger, with darker or more greyish-olive upperparts, and darker chestnut rump and outer tail feathers. f Juvenile Head brown flecked and spotted paler or olive-brown, upperparts olive-brown with warm or rufous-brown tips to scapulars and wing-coverts, and rump to tail as adult but duller. Chin and throat pale buff, breast and upper flanks pale orange with brown fringes fading on belly.

Blue-shouldered Robin-Chat Cossypha cyanocampter

Map and text page 328

15–16.5cm. Medium-sized, elusive robin-chat with distinctive bluish patch on wing-coverts. Uncommon or locally common, but easily overlooked when not singing. Resident in dense undergrowth in lowland and mid-elevation forests. g Adult C. c. cyanocampter SW Mali and E & SE Guinea east to S Nigeria, Central African Republic, Gabon and N PR Congo. Black head with long white supercilium, dark olive-brown upperparts, bright, steel blue lesser coverts (caan be partly concealed), orange-rufous rump/uppertail-coverts, blackish central tail feathers and bright orange-rufous throat and breast. h First-year C. c. cyanocampter As adult after few months or slightly duller, and may show traces of juvenile plumage on face and tips to wing-coverts. i Adult C. c. bartteloti S Sudan to W Kenya and Tanzania. As nominate but slightly smaller and upperparts slightly darker, more blackish-olive, with slightly paler underparts.

Cape Robin-Chat Cossypha caffra

Map and text page 324

16–17cm. Mid- to large-sized and long-tailed; common throughout extensive range. Inhabits all manner of woodlands from large montane forests to gardens in towns and cities. Active and conspicuous, forages on ground in open, in shrubs and low trees, and can be tame. Nominate occurs from E Zimbabwe and N Mozambique to N, E & S South Africa and Lesotho, with three other races north to Sudan and west to Namibia, but differences are slight. j Adult C. c. iolaema As nominate but upperparts greyer (less olive-brown), orange and grey of underparts slightly deeper, and tawny-orange on chin to breast. k Adult C. c. caffra Black-and-white face with broad white supercilium and black or dark grey crown, greyertinged olive upperparts, rufous rump and outer tail feathers, dark brown central tail, pale orange chin to breast, and pale grey or white underparts. l Juvenile Head and upperparts brown with broad orange-buff streaks and darker or blackish fringes; underparts pale buff, fringed or scalloped darker; rump and tail as adult.

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White-browed Robin-Chat

a

b c

d

e

f

Rüppell’s Robin-Chat

h i g

Blue-shouldered Robin-Chat

k j

l

Cape Robin-Chat

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PLATE 21: AFRICAN ROBIN-CHATS III AND GREY-WINGED AKALAT Red-capped Robin-Chat Cossypha natalensis

Map and text page 334

15.5–19cm. Mid- to large-sized; widespread across much of sub-Saharan Africa. Common to uncommon, but usually shy, in undergrowth of lowland evergreen and deciduous forests, also forest patches in thornbush savanna. Nominate in S Mozambique to Swaziland and E South Africa, with two other races north to C Nigeria, east to SW Ethiopia and west to Angola, but differences are slight. a Adult C. n. natalensis Orange-rufous head and face, with slightly darker or brown crown and nape, and underparts also bright orange-rufous. b Adult C. n. larischi As nominate but upperparts slightly darker and browner on crown to nape. c Juvenile Heavily mottled dark brown, spotted rufous-brown or buffy-rufous on head and body; rufous spots on underparts larger towards belly and fringed brownish.

Chorister Robin-Chat Cossypha dichroa

Map and text page 338

19–20cm. Mid- to large-sized robin-chat endemic to South Africa. In N inhabits montane mistbelt and moist evergreen forests of N Drakensberg Mts, in S occurs down to sea level in deciduous and evergreen forests. Common to very common, wary but not secretive and may become tame, though often partly crepuscular. Nominate in E South Africa, W Swaziland, and N Lesotho, and race mimica in NE South Africa, but differences are slight. d Adult C. d. dichroa Dark grey crown and upperparts, except rufous-orange rump and black face; black centre to orange tail and deep orange-rufous underparts. e Juvenile Dark brown, finely or heavily spotted paler brown or buffy-rufous on head and upperparts, orange on rump slightly mottled or barred darker, and underparts also mottled rich buff and dark brown, paler towards belly and fringed brownish.

White-throated Robin-Chat Cossypha humeralis

Map and text page 327

17–18cm. Medium-sized, long-tailed and mainly dark grey and white robin-chat of dry or semi-arid bushy areas, Acacia thickets and edges of broadleaf woodland in Zimbabwe to C Mozambique and NE South Africa; also occurs in large gardens in some areas. Common or locally common resident, but only emerges in open around dusk. f Adult Dark slate-grey crown to back, broad white supercilium to nape-sides, bright orange rump to sides of dark-centred tail, black face and wings with broad white edges to inner coverts and cinnamon or rufous undertail-coverts. g First-year As adult but slightly duller face and upperparts, may show some dark fringes to white breast, and retains duller or more worn juvenile flight feathers.

Grey-winged Akalat Sheppardia polioptera

Map and text page 237

14–15cm. Mid- to large-sized akalat with striking head pattern and is often mistaken for a small robin-chat. Shy and usually only seen when singing. Resident in sub-Saharan lowland to montane moist evergreen forests, as well as forest patches in dry savanna, where it is locally common or scarce. Nominate occurs discontinuously from S Sudan to NW Zambia and NW and E Angola, with two other races in W Africa east to Central African Republic, but differences between them weakly defined. h Adult S. p. polioptera Striking blackish forehead and crown, broad white supercilium and black lores and ear-coverts; olive-brown upperparts, becoming rufous-brown on rump to outer tail; underparts rich orange except whitish centre to belly. i Adult S. p. nigriceps Very similar to nominate except crown is black and supercilium extends further behind eye, often meeting rufous of ear-coverts.

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Red-capped Robin-Chat

a b

c

d

d e

Chorister Robin-Chat

g f

White-throated Robin-Chat

i

h h

Grey-winged Akalat

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PLATE 22: AFRICAN ROBIN-CHATS IV AND ANGOLA CAVE-CHAT White-headed Robin-Chat Cossypha heinrichi

Map and text page 340

22–23cm. Distinctive, large or long-tailed robin-chat with all-white head and face. Restricted to very small, fragmented range in evergreen and gallery forest and adjacent savanna forest in N Angola. Secretive and generally little-known; until recently not seen by Western observers for more than 45 years. a Adult Unique combination of all-white head to throat and neck-sides, olive-brown upperparts, deep orange-rufous underparts and typical robin-chat tail; unlikely to be confused with any other species.

Snowy-crowned Robin-Chat Cossypha niveicapilla

Map and text page 341

20–22cm. Fairly large and long-tailed; inhabits undergrowth to mid-canopy of gallery and secondary forests, savanna thickets and plantations, mangroves and large overgrown gardens. Common or locally common resident or short-distance migrant; usually shy and rather skulking, and often more active towards dusk when may roost communally. b Adult Distinctive white crown and nape, and all-black face including lower forehead; mantle and back to wing-coverts slate-grey or tinged olive when fresh; narrow rufous collar on lower nape and neck-sides, and black-centred tail. c

Adult ‘melanonota’ Mantle, back, wing-coverts and flight feathers black with little or no olive tinge and fine blue-grey fringes.

d Juvenile Head and upperparts to wing-coverts browner, flecked on head and nape with orange-buff; narrow wingbars on median and greater coverts; underparts pale orange tipped or barred slightly duller.

White-crowned Robin-Chat Cossypha albicapillus

Map and text page 343

23–27cm. The largest robin-chat, found in lowland evergreen riverine and gallery forests across a fairly narrow band of sub-Saharan Africa; in some areas also in parks and large gardens. Uncommon or locally common resident or short-distance migrant; generally shy, but not especially secretive. Nominate occurs from S Burkina Faso and N Ghana to C Cameroon and N Central African Republic, with two other races north to Senegambia and east to SW Ethiopia, but differences between them are very slight. e Adult C. a. albicapillus White crown tipped or scaled darker, brownish-black wings and upperparts except bright orange-rufous rump and uppertail-coverts and sides to long dark-centred tail, graduated at tip, and orange-rufous underparts. f Adult C. a. giffardi As nominate except feathers of crown and nape show extensive black bases and crown appears mostly blackish with fine white fringes and crescents. Upperparts, wings and tail slightly more obviously black and underparts very slightly paler, especially on belly and vent.

Angola Cave Chat Xenocopsychus ansorgei

Map and text page 345

18–19cm. Large, long-tailed and mainly black and white; endemic to W Angola and NW Namibia, where resident on rocky hills, outcrops, ravines, caves and cliffs close to areas of forest or thornbush. Locally common; behaviour very similar to that of robin-chats. g Adult Black head and face with broad white supercilium, black upperparts and wings except paler grey rump and white uppertail-coverts, and broad white patch on wing-coverts; tail has black central and broad white outer feathers, and underparts are entirely white.

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White-headed Robin-Chat

a

d

Snowy-crowned Robin-Chat

b

c

e

White-crowned Robin-Chat

g

f

Angola Cave Chat

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PLATE 23: PALM THRUSHES Spotted Palm Thrush Cichladusa guttata

Map and text page 349

16–17cm. Slender, medium-sized, long-tailed and thrush-like; widespread in E Africa in thickets, low scrub along coasts, rivers and streams. Quick to seek cover but not especially secretive. Nominate resident from S Sudan to C Uganda, NE DR Congo and NW Kenya, with two other races east to S Somalia, Kenya and NE Tanzania, but differences are slight. a Adult Crown and upperparts warm brown, becoming bright rufous-brown on edges to flight feathers, uppertail-coverts and tail; face whitish with broad dark malar extending to whitish underparts, where becomes heavy black teardrop spots on breast and flanks. b Juvenile As adult but has dark spots on forehead and crown, dark centres to pale edged mantle, back and scapular feathers, dull off-white underparts with blackish or blackish-brown malar, ill-defined spots on breast and streaks on flanks.

Collared Palm Thrush Cichladusa arquata

Map and text page 346

17–18cm. Slim, long-tailed bird almost entirely restricted to clumps of Hyphaene and Borassus palms and surrounding savanna and riverine woodland, occasionally in large gardens in coastal towns, some distance from any palms. Range extends from extreme S Uganda to N Botswana and coastal Kenya south to Mozambique and inland along rivers into Zimbabwe. Usually in pairs or small family groups, low down in vegetation and in open. c Adult Bright chestnut crown and upperparts, bright rufous rump and tail, broad pale grey face to breastsides, and broad black gorget from malar to centre of breast; also very pale eye. d Juvenile As adult but has dark eye; forehead to crown and nape darker brown, with darker streaks and underparts are duller and more spotted or streaked.

Rufous-tailed Palm Thrush Cichladusa ruficauda

Map and text page 348

17–18cm. Slim, long-tailed bird almost entirely restricted to areas of Hyphaene and Elaeis palms along coasts and rivers with dry Acacia and baobab forest between S Gabon and NW Namibia. Uncommon to locally common, fairly shy and elusive but easily overlooked. In some areas is tame or approachable, especially when singing. e Adult Bright rufous-brown forehead to nape, slightly paler or chestnut upperparts and wings, and bright rufous rump and tail; pale grey face to breast and flanks, pale yellowish chin and throat, and has dark or reddish-brown eye. f Juvenile As adult, with dark streaks on crown and nape; mantle, back and scapulars have irregular dark or dusky tips forming bars; underparts almost entirely greyish, lacking pale throat patch, with dark or dusky tips forming bars.

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b Spotted Palm Thrush

a

c

d

Collared Palm Thrush

e

f

Rufous-tailed Palm Thrush

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PLATE 24: AFRICAN SCRUB ROBINS I Miombo Scrub Robin Cercotrichas barbata

Map and text page 354

16–17cm. Scrub robin of predominantly mature miombo woodland with dense understorey of the interior of CS Africa from Angola to Zambia, W & SW Tanzania and Malawi. Fairly common and active; forages on ground in and around scrub, thickets or near termite mounds. a

Adult fresh plumage Bold face pattern, brown crown and grey to grey-brown upperparts, cinnamon-brown rump and long dark tail (graduated tip) with white outer feathers; white tips at bend of wing (alula) and small white panel at base of inner primaries; underparts mostly rich tawny-brown.

b Juvenile Similar to adult but paler brown bases and dark or blackish fringes or tips to crown, mantle and back; rump and uppertail-coverts can be slightly barred; median and greater coverts indistinctly tipped orange-buff; white at base of primaries like adult. Mainly warm buff on breast and upper flanks, variably fringed or lightly streaked brown on breast; lower flanks mostly orange-brown.

Bearded Scrub Robin Cercotrichas quadrivirgata

Map and text page 355

15–17cm. Fairly large and long-tailed; found in understorey of coastal sand forest, semi-evergreen or deciduous riverine woodland, thickets and tangled scrub. Common or fairly common and usually in pairs; shy and most frequently active in late afternoon to dusk. Attends ant swarms, but rarely forms part of mixed-species flocks. c

Adult worn C. q. quadrivirgata E & S Africa from S Somalia to NE South Africa and Swaziland. Dark olivebrown with boldly marked face, rufous-brown rump and long dark tail tipped white with extensive white outer feathers; small white tips at bend of wing and white panel at base of primaries; underparts pale cinnamon-rufous or off-white on breast and flanks.

d

Adult fresh C. q. quadrivirgata As worn plumage, but crown and upperparts tinged warmer or rufous, and underparts more prominently cinnamon.

e

Adult fresh C. q. greenwayi Mafia and Zanzibar Is, Tanzania. As nominate but forehead to crown and upperparts greyer brown, rump duller (more olive-rufous) and contrasts with blacker tail; breast and flanks washed buff (not rufous) and white upper belly to undertail-coverts.

f Juvenile Similar to adult or slightly paler brown, with black tips to upperparts and duller or browner rump; wing-coverts tipped rufous-buff forming indistinct wingbar. Underparts mainly warm or rufous-buff, deepest on breast, with dark brown fringes.

Brown Scrub Robin Cercotrichas signata

Map and text page 358

16–19cm. Fairly large scrub robin with fairly restricted range in S Africa. Resident in evergreen forest, also woodland and coastal forest on dunes. Common in S of range; generally shy and disappears into cover if disturbed, but may be more active at dawn and dusk. g

Adult worn C. s. signata E South Africa and NE Swaziland. Crown and upperparts dark olive-brown, tail dark olive-brown broadly tipped white, broad white tips to alula and white bases to primaries (except outer two), forming small white patch, long white supercilium and white crescent below eye, greyish malar merges with grey sides to neck, breast and upper flanks.

h

Adult fresh plumage C. s. signata As worn plumage, but head, face and upperparts tinged browner.

i

Adult fresh plumage C. s. tongensis S Mozambique and E South Africa. As nominate but has mantle and back dark reddish-brown, and breast and flanks buffish-tinged cinnamon.

j Juvenile Crown and nape dark brown tipped buffish, upperparts with dark brown or blackish tips, and wings as upperparts but tips to median and greater coverts form wingbars. Underparts buffish or off-white, with breast fringed dusky, sometimes forming indistinct breast-band.

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Miombo Scrub Robin

a

d

b

c e

Bearded Scrub Robin

f

h

g

Brown Scrub Robin

i

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j

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PLATE 25: AFRICAN SCRUB ROBINS II Brown-backed Scrub Robin Cercotrichas hartlaubi

Map and text page 360

15cm. Small- to medium-sized resident of W & C Africa from SE Nigeria and S Cameroon, NE DR Congo to C Kenya, Rwanda and NW Tanzania, with an isolated population in NW Angola. Inhabits tall or lush grassland with bushes, open or regenerating secondary woodland, abandoned fields and banana plantations. Uncommon or locally common, fairly shy and elusive, spending long periods on ground or in low vegetation, and best seen when singing from atop bush or tall tree. a

Adult fresh Forehead to crown and upperparts dark brown tinged greyish or olive, broad white supercilium and submoustachial stripe, broad white wingbars on median and greater coverts, rump and tail deep rufous, broad black tip to tail with white tips to outer feathers.

b

Adult worn As fresh plumage but upperparts slightly paler or greyer, white tips to wing-coverts narrower or vestigial, and white tips to tail feathers reduced or absent.

c Juvenile Head and upperparts to wing-coverts paler brown fringed darker, rump and uppertail-coverts to base of tail as adult or duller, greater coverts broadly fringed orange-buffish, and underparts uniform buff with dark tips to breast forming crescents.

White-browed Scrub Robin Cercotrichas leucophrys

Map and text page 361

14–16cm. Medium-sized scrub robin common and widespread over sub-Saharan Africa. Nominate occurs from S Zimbabwe and S Mozambique to E South Africa and Swaziland, with eight other races north to Gabon and S Sudan; races can be divided into two main groups, ‘white-winged’ and ‘red-backed’ birds. Inhabits dry open bushland and broadleaf savanna woodland, miombo (Brachystegia) and mopane woodlands. Common to locally very common; sings from tops of bushes as well as from canopy. d

Adult fresh C. l. leucophrys Crown and mantle earth-brown, rump and uppertail-coverts rufous, tail black broadly tipped white, boldly marked face with white supercilium and submoustachial, blackish eyestripe and long dark malar; broad white tips to median and greater coverts form wingbars, with dark streaks on breast and belly.

e

Adult worn C. l. leucophrys As fresh plumage but crown and upperparts duller brown and more prominently dark-streaked; white tips to median and greater coverts narrower or greatly reduced, and streaks on underparts more pronounced and extend to flanks.

f Juvenile Head and upperparts (to scapulars) rich or deep rufous-buff, heavily or boldly fringed blackish; wing-coverts tipped pale or whitish-buff; underparts off-white, chin, throat and breast barred, mottled or scalloped brownish. g Adult C. l. leucoptera Broad white tips to median coverts and fringes to greater coverts form broad panel; flight feathers finely edged whitish on primaries and broadly on inner secondaries; upperparts as nominate, or slightly deeper brown; tail mostly deep rufous or rufous-brown, with broad dark brown subterminal band and white tips. Underparts mostly white streaked diffusely greyish, and flanks warm buffbrown. h Adult C. l. brunneiceps As leucoptera except white tips to wing-coverts usually form two distinct wingbars, rather than single patch, and white extends narrowly on edges of inner secondaries. Crown and nape darker, blackish-olive or blackish-grey when worn; mantle and scapulars tinged olive, and breast buffishwhite heavily streaked dark brown. i

Adult fresh C. l. sclateri As brunneiceps but upperparts brighter or more reddish-brown; broad white wingbars on median and greater coverts, and buffish edges to tertials and secondaries; underparts have narrower and paler brown streaks.

j

Adult fresh C. l. zambesiana Upperparts paler than sclateri, lacks white fringes to inner secondaries; tail mostly chestnut to reddish-chestnut with black subterminal band and broad white tips (except central pair). Some variation in streaking on underparts, in S populations streaking broader but paler than in sclateri, in N streaking as in sclateri.

k

Adult fresh C. l. munda As zambesiana but upperparts slightly duller, tail dark brown and less rufous (feathers often dark brown at base fringed warm brown or rufous).

l

Adult fresh C. l. ovamboensis As munda but upperparts greyer and less rufous, tail mostly black and lacks rufous, except fringes near bases, streaks on underparts restricted to sides of throat, and breast and flanks orange-cinnamon or washed greyish in worn plumage.

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Brown-backed Scrub Robin

b

a

c

e

d

f

g White-browed Scrub Robin

h i

j

k l

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PLATE 26: AFRICAN SCRUB ROBINS III Rufous Scrub Robin Cercotrichas galactotes

Map and text page 365

13–17cm. Medium-sized, long-tailed (with rounded tip), long-legged and rather slender scrub robin. Nominate breeds in SW Europe, N Africa, SW Syria, Israel and N & W Jordan; four other races range east from SE Europe to Turkey, Arabia and C Asia, and south to sub-Saharan Africa. Races differ in general coloration, wing formula and tail length. Found in dry bushy or scrubby steppes, edges of desert, Acacia thickets, gorges and dense low woodland, but shuns forests. Common or locally common, often skulking but not especially shy. Resident and long-distance migrant, all breeding populations N of equator winter in sub-Saharan and E Africa. a

Adult fresh C. g. galactotes Crown and upperparts bright sandy-brown becoming slightly foxy-rufous on rump to tail (tip broadly blackish subterminally and all outer feathers tipped white). Wing-coverts fringed pale sandy-buff, broadly on greater coverts, flight feathers and tertials also finely fringed sandy-buff. Long white supercilium and broad dusky-brown eyestripe, face creamy-buff or more sandy on rear ear-coverts, with narrow brownish moustachial. Underparts white or sandy-buff, tinged pinkish on breast and flanks.

b

Adult worn C. g. galactotes As fresh plumage, but crown and upperparts slightly duller or darker sandybrown, pale fringes and tips to wing-coverts reduced or abraded, and wing-coverts and flight feathers more uniform with upperparts.

c First-year As adult (following post-juvenile moult) but retains juvenile flight feathers and primary-coverts, which are very similar to those of adults and only some can be aged by moult contrast. d Adult C. g. hamertoni As nominate but smaller and upperparts slightly duller sandy-brown. e Adult C. g. syriaca Pale sandy crown and upperparts, prominent white supercilium and broad dark brown eyestripe, cheeks and ear-coverts paler than nominate, also greyer or greyish-buff on breast and flanks, and broader blackish subterminal tail-band. f Adult C. g. familiaris As syriaca but upperparts average paler and greyer, rump and tail slightly paler, but still contrastingly bright rufous, and underparts pale greyish to off white.

Kalahari Scrub Robin Cercotrichas paena

Map and text page 369

16cm. Medium-sized, long-legged and long-tailed scrub robin; the S African equivalent of Rufous Scrub Robin which it closely resembles (but allopatric). Inhabits dry, open sandy areas including thickets, edges of woodland, bushland and savanna. Common; forages on open ground and hops or runs with tail held raised almost vertically, almost touching back of head. g

Adult fresh plumage C. p. paena Namibia to Botswana, W Zimbabwe and N South Africa. Greyish forehead to nape, warm sandy-brown upperparts and bright rufous uppertail-coverts and base of tail, with broadly black subterminal band and broad white tips; wing-coverts broadly edged bright sandy, with pale buff tips to greater coverts, broad white supercilium, dark brown eyestripe and white chin and throat, becoming creamy to greyish-buff on rest of underparts.

h

Adult worn C. p. paena As fresh plumage, but crown to upperparts slightly paler; wings more blackish, with sandy-brown fringes reduced or absent; face and underparts whiter.

i

Adult fresh plumage C. p. oriens N & NE South Africa. As nominate but upperparts slightly browner, underparts darker and more brownish-buff.

j

Adult fresh plumage C. p. benguellensis SW Angola and N Namibia. As nominate but crown to ear-coverts and upper mantle pale grey, rest of upperparts grey-brown, rump and tail paler or duller rufous, and wingcoverts (except tertials) edged pale sandy-grey.

k Juvenile Similar to adult, but head and upperparts duller and browner, mottled dark grey and tipped pale brown; wing-coverts have broad or rich buff-brown fringes; underparts slightly paler, spotted darker at tips or scalloped with dark fringes.

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Rufous Scrub Robin

a b

d c

e

f

g

k

Kalahari Scrub Robin

h

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i

j

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PLATE 27: AFRICAN SCRUB ROBINS IV Forest Scrub Robin Cercotrichas leucosticta

Map and text page 352

15–16.5cm. Long-tailed, dark or sombre brown scrub robin found in three areas of W & C Africa. Nominate resident in S Ghana, NE Ivory Coast and SE Liberia, with three other races in C & S Sierra Leone to Ivory Coast; SE Central African Republic, NE DR Congo and NW Angola; they differ in colour of upperparts and base of tail, breast and flanks and extent of white tips to tail. Inhabits interior of lowland and escarpment forests, also plantations, coastal scrub and bushy savanna; usually around termite mounds. Scarce to locally common; extremely shy and easily overlooked. a Adult C. l. leucosticta Bold face pattern of long white supercilium and broad white submoustachial, chestnut rump and long dark tail (graduated at tip), with white tips to outer feathers. Wings dark brown with white tips to alula and small white panels at base of primaries; chin and centre of throat white, pale or brownishgrey breast, tinged warmer buff-brown on flanks. b

Adult fresh C. l. colstoni As nominate but upperparts slightly darker, dark rufous-brown on rump and uppertail-coverts; chin and throat white, sharply demarcated from brownish-grey streaked paler breastband. Rest of underparts dirty white or dull grey-brown, flanks tinged rufous-buff.

c

Adult worn C. l. colstoni As in fresh plumage, but forehead, crown and upperparts tinged noticeably rufous and slightly darker on rump and uppertail-coverts.

d Adult C. l. reichenowi Crown and upperparts slightly paler brown or olive-brown tinged warmer or tawnybrown on rump and uppertail-coverts; white patch in wing more extensive, on edges of outer primaries; breast and lower neck-sides pale grey and flanks olive-buff.

Karoo Scrub Robin Cercotrichas coryphoeus

Map and text page 371

15–17cm. Medium-sized scrub robin with long legs and long, graduated tail with rounded tip. Nominate resident in C Namibia to South Africa except SW, which is occupied by race cinerea; difference between them is slight. Inhabits arid edges of deserts, dry fynbos and thorn scrub, bushy clumps in rock outcrops, often in Tamarix or Acacia. Common, active, noisy and easily seen, perches atop tall plants or fences. e

Adult fresh C. c. coryphoeus Head and upperparts mostly dark olive-brown, with median and greater coverts, tertials and flight feathers fringed warmer brown; long black tail has broad white tips to outer feathers; white supercilium, whitish submoustachial (usually with dark moustachial) and dark malar; white chin and upper throat.

f

Adult worn C. c. coryphoeus As fresh plumage, but edges to wing-coverts, tertials and flight feathers lose paler brown fringes, and become more uniform or abraded.

g Juvenile As adult, but more dusky-brown edged pale buff on upperparts, wing-coverts and mantle to rump mottled with buffish tips; supercilium narrower, shorter and more buffish; underparts pale grey with tips barred or scaled dark brown.

Black Scrub Robin Cercotrichas podobe

Map and text page 373

18–20cm. Conspicuous and unmistakable, long-tailed, long-legged and almost entirely sooty-black. Resident in arid, subdesert areas with thorn scrub, tamarisk thickets and undergrowth in wadis and dry savanna. Common, not especially shy and territory defended year-round. Mainly resident but some move to winter in NE Africa and it is a regular non-breeding visitor to S Israel. h

Adult fresh C. p. podobe C Mauritania and N Senegal across S Sahara to Red Sea coast and Eritrea. All black except white tips to undertail-coverts and very broad white tips (arranged in pairs) on underside of graduated tail, which is often held high or almost vertical when perched on ground or top of bush.

i Adult C. p. podobe in flight Rufous on inner webs of bases to primaries and secondaries (except outermost two). j Adult C. p. melanoptera in flight W Saudi Arabia and Yemen. All-black wings, usually lacking any rufous (but see text regarding birds in Saudi Arabia). k Juvenile As adult but browner black and plumage often loose or fluffy, and white tips to undertail-coverts either very narrow, restricted to faint line at tip or absent; white tips to tail smaller and often absent; greater coverts and tertials may be tinged warm brown, and rufous bases to inner webs of flight feathers slightly more extensive.

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b

c

Forest Scrub Robin

a

d

f e g

Karoo Scrub Robin

i j h k

Black Scrub Robin

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PLATE 28: BOULDER AND HERERO CHATS AND WHITE-THROATED ROBIN Boulder Chat Pinarornis plumosus

Map and text page 653

23–27cm. Large, dark, slim, long-tailed and rather thrush-like; restricted to granite hills and rocky outcrops with large boulders and trees from SW Malawi and E Zambia through E Zimbabwe to E Botswana and W & C Mozambique. Uncommon or locally common and moves in strongly hops and bounds over rocks and boulders. Largely sedentary but pairs often apparently absent from breeding areas. a Adult Entirely dark brown to black (appears all black in field) with broad white wingbar and long tail with white tips to outer feathers. b

Adult in flight White wingbar very obvious in flight.

c

Tail pattern Showing large white tips (often raises long tail high over back on landing).

Herero Chat Namibornis herero

Map and text page 376

17cm. Slim and medium-sized; restricted to semi-desert areas of SW Angola and W Namibia. Uncommon to locally common resident or short-distance migrant in vegetated rocky hills, outcrops, escarpments, inselbergs and ravines, dry watercourses at base of hills and adjacent plains with patches of vegetation, usually in areas of mixed acacias and scattered low trees. Fairly shy and elusive, but forages from open or semi-open perches or on ground. d

Adult fresh Blackish shrike-like mask and broad white supercilium, upperparts brown except warm rufous or chestnut rump, tail and wing-coverts and edges to flight feathers (creating warm brown panel on closed wing); underparts whitish or washed brownish and finely streaked darker.

e Tail pattern Showing darkest or browner central pair more broadly fringed chestnut or rufous towards outer feathers.

White-throated Robin Irania gutturalis

Map and text page 313

15–17cm. Slim, elegant, long-billed and long-tailed; inhabits dry or arid areas with bushes, thickets and wooded clumps on open hillsides and lower slopes, also tamarisks and acacias from C Turkey and S Caucasus to C Asia; winters in E Africa. Common or locally common (scarce in C Asia), but shy and easily overlooked. f

Adult male fresh/autumn Very distinctive, with blue-grey crown, upperparts and wings, long black tail, long white supercilium, black on face and throat-sides, centre of throat white, and rich orange or rufous breast, flanks and belly.

g

Adult male (paler individual) As fresh plumage, but paler grey-blue crown and upperparts, and paler orange breast to belly.

h

Adult male (head and breast of paler individual) As fresh plumage, but creamy-buff on breast to belly.

i

Adult male (darker individual) Deeper orange or rufous-orange on breast to belly, and in some black sides of throat may narrowly meet across lower throat.

j

Adult female (dark individual) Mainly grey-brown with black tail, white or whitish chin and throat (may also show pale submoustachial), pale greyish breast and orange or orange-rufous breast-sides and flanks.

k

Adult female (pale individual) As dark individual, but slightly paler on crown and upperparts, and breast buff to pale grey.

l Juvenile Like female or slightly darker, finely spotted or streaked pale buffish on head and more heavily spotted on mantle, back and scapulars and tips to wing-coverts and flight feathers.

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a Boulder Chat

b c

d

e

h g

Herero Chat

f White-throated Robin

i

j

k l

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PLATE 29: MAGPIE-ROBINS Madagascar Magpie-Robin Copsychus albospecularis

Map and text page 379

18cm. Slim and fairly long-tailed, endemic to Madagascar, nominate in E & NE, two other races in W, C & SE, with differences between them fairly distinct. Common or locally common in humid evergreen and dry deciduous forests, also coastal scrub, spiny forest and, occasionally, edges of villages and towns. Usually in pairs, males being conspicuous, foraging below dense undergrowth, occasionally in open. a

Adult male C. a. albospecularis Almost entirely glossy black except white on lesser coverts and inner median and greater coverts.

b

Adult female C. a. albospecularis Head and upperparts brown with darker brown wings and white edges to inner lesser, median and greater coverts; tail also dark brown; face and underparts pale grey, with cinnamon-rufous flanks to undertail.

c

Adult male C. a. pica Head and upperparts as nominate but has broad white band on wing-coverts extending to edges of inner secondaries; chin to lower breast black, rest of underparts white and tail black with outer two feathers white.

d

Adult female C. a. pica As female nominate, with slightly duller brown upperparts, inner median and greater coverts white, longest tertial and inner secondaries edged white, pale grey face and chin to upper breast, and rest of underparts buffish-white; white in outer tail feathers as adult male.

e

Juvenile male C. a. pica Similar to adult male but is much more drab grey or blackish-grey on head and upperparts.

f

Juvenile female C. a. pica Similar to adult female but head to mantle and scapulars paler or grey-brown with slightly darker fringes; throat and breast same or paler.

Oriental Magpie-Robin Copsychus saularis

Map and text page 384

19.5–23cm. Fairly large, stout-billed and long-tailed; nominate widespread from N Pakistan and N India to S China and Vietnam, with six other races elsewhere in India, SE Asia and parts of Indonesia; differences between them mainly involves extent of black plumage and tail pattern. Occurs in deciduous woodland, including mangroves and riverine forest, plantations, edges of cultivation, parks and large wooded gardens (even in towns and cities). Frequently tame, but most often active towards dusk. g

Adult male C. a. saularis Glossy black on head to breast and upperparts, with white inner wing-coverts, edges to tertials and belly to undertail-coverts (except on Andaman Is, E Java, Bali and N & E Borneo, where belly is black), and outer tail feathers always white (except in race pluto where tail is all black).

h

Adult female C. a. saularis As male but upperparts dark grey, throat and breast pale grey. Juvenile similar to adult female but has pale orange-buff or whitish tinged orange inner wing-coverts and edges to secondaries; chin to breast pale grey or greyish-buff, with pale buff or whitish centres, becoming heavier white or off-white spots with broad dark fringes on lower breast and flanks.

i

Adult male C. a. adamsi As nominate except black or deep bluish-black to lower flanks and vent, only undertail-coverts white or whitish, though some intergrades can show white tips to lower belly, vent and thighs; also slightly more white on median and inner greater coverts, and broadly on inner secondaries (absent in some).

j

Adult male C. a. pluto Almost all black, except white undertail-coverts (usually tipped or mixed blackish) and white in wing-coverts (similar to adamsi); tail either all black or outer feathers white (latter may indicate intermediates with adamsi).

Philippine Magpie-Robin Copsychus mindanensis

Map and text page 388

19.5–20cm. Stout-billed and long-tailed; endemic to Philippines. Very similar to Oriental Magpie-Robin. Locally common, in forest and woodland, including bamboo clumps and thickets, scrubby areas, parks (even in large towns and cities) and edges of cultivation. Conspicuous and can be tame and confiding, often active around dusk. k

Adult male Head to breast and upperparts glossy black, including tail; inner wing-coverts to edges of tertials, belly and undertail-coverts white.

l

Adult female As male but head and upperparts dark grey, throat and breast slightly paler grey.

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Madagascar Magpie-Robin

a

b

c f d

e

h g

Oriental Magpie-Robin

i

k

j l

Philippine Magpie-Robin

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PLATE 30: SHAMAS I White-rumped Shama Kittacincla malabarica

Map and text page 392

21–28cm. Slim, elegant, brightly coloured and long-tailed, with a powerful and melodious song; found from India to Java. Common or locally common in lowland to lower montane, primary or mature evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, also secondary forest, swamp forest and mangroves. Shy and more heard than seen, often crepuscular. Nominate occurs in W & S India, with 12 other races north to S China and east through SE Asia to Borneo and Java, with differences between them sometimes considerable, but others possibly do not merit recognition. a

Adult male K. m. malabarica Glossy deep bluish-black head to breast and upperparts, except white lower back to rump and uppertail-coverts; long, graduated tail is mainly black with white outer feathers; rest of underparts deep orange to orange-rufous.

b

Adult female K. m. malabarica As adult male (some almost identical) or has head to breast and upperparts greyer and orange on underparts slightly paler.

c

Juvenile male K. m. malabarica Head and upperparts dull brown to blackish-brown with fine pale buff streaks on head and face, and larger spots on mantle, back and wing-coverts; tail slightly shorter than adult with off-white outer feathers; throat to breast buffish-brown with darker fringes.

d

Juvenile female K. m. malabarica As juvenile male but head and upperparts paler or grey-brown.

e

Adult male K. m. albiventris As nominate but tail shorter, lower breast to central belly white, flanks to undertail-coverts tinged warm brown, pale orange or rufous.

f

Adult male K. m. tricolor As nominate but is deeper or more rufous-orange on underparts, extending to thighs (underparts slightly paler and thighs white on Java).

g

Adult male K. m. stricklandii As nominate except centre of forehead and over crown to central nape white; tail glossy black on central feathers, but extent of black in outer feathers perhaps variable.

h Juvenile K. m. stricklandii As same-age and sex malabarica.

Rufous-tailed Shama Trichixos pyrropygus

Map and text page 402

20–22cm. Slim, medium- to fairly large-sized shama, with a comparatively short, graduated and round-tipped tail, stout dagger-like bill and prominent rictal bristles, of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. Inhabits mature primary lowland and lower montane broadleaf evergreen forest. Fairly shy but occasionally forages amongst outer foliage of trees. i

Adult male Dark grey or blackish head (with bright white patch above eye), upper back and face to lower breast; rump, uppertail-coverts and basal two-thirds of tail rufous, rest black; breast to flanks and undertailcoverts pale orange, centre of belly and vent whitish.

j

Adult female As male but lacks white spot above eye and black or blackish-grey replaced by olive-brown; face to upper breast pale orange to buff-rufous, central belly to undertail whitish.

k Juvenile As adult female but slightly browner; head and mantle spotted orange or rufous-buff, and chin to centre of upper breast off-white; median and greater coverts boldly spotted dull tawny-orange forming broad wingbars, and breast indistinctly spotted rufous-buff.

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White-rumped Shama

b a

d

c

e

f g j

h

Rufous-tailed Shama

k

i

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PLATE 31: SHAMAS II AND SEYCHELLES MAGPIE-ROBIN White-browed Shama Kittacincla luzoniensis

Map and text page 397

17–18cm. Medium-sized with a long, graduated tail and short, rather rounded wings; endemic to N Philippines. Nominate occurs on Luzon, Alabat and Catanduanes Is, two other races on Polillo (parvimaculatus) and Marinduque (shemleyi), but differences very slight. Common or locally common, except race shemleyi which is poorly known. Very secretive in thick primary and secondary forests, and more often heard than seen. a

Adult male K. l. luzoniensis Head to scapulars and upper back bluish-black, long broad white supercilium to nape, lower back and rump rufous to chestnut, tail black, with outer feathers broadly tipped white, wings black with broad white wingbar, chin to breast bluish-black, lower breast and belly white, and flanks pale rufous.

b

Adult female K. l. luzoniensis As adult male but black head and nape duller without bluish gloss, lores to cheeks black, upperparts to wings and tail dark charcoal-grey, with broad white tips to greater coverts.

c Juvenile K. l. luzoniensis Similar to adult female but duller or grey-brown on head to back and wings, throat whitish, and neck-sides to breast grey.

Visayan Shama Kittacincla superciliaris

Map and text page 396

17–18cm. Medium-sized with a long tail and fairly short wings. Common or locally common in primary and secondary forest on Negros, Panay, Masbate and Ticao in C Philippines. Very shy and more often heard than seen. d

Adult male Head, upperparts, wings and tail and throat to upper breast bluish-black, long broad white supercilium, outermost tail feathers may be finely tipped white, and rest of underparts white or tinged buffish-grey on flanks.

White-vented Shama Kittacincla niger

Map and text page 399

18–21cm. Medium-sized; endemic to lowland, secondary forests and thickets on Calamian Is, Palawan and Balabac in W Philippines. Uncommon or locally common, and occasionally in more open areas when singing; not shy and often approachable. e

Adult male All glossy bluish-black except white vent to undertail and outer tail feathers, but perched birds can appear entirely blue-black from behind as white outer tail feathers are mainly visible in flight.

f

Adult female As male but duller black or blackish-grey; can be paler on breast and lower belly may have whitish tips.

g Juvenile Head and upperparts dull blackish tinged blue, with fine buff streaks on forehead and crown, and larger spots on scapulars; wing-coverts broadly tipped rufous-brown and flight feathers edged warm brown; mottled pale rufous and dark brown on throat and breast and brownish or rufous-buff on flanks.

Black Shama Kittacincla cebuensis

Map and text page 400

20cm. Glossy black with long, graduated tail; restricted to forest on Cebu, Philippines. Very rare and little-known; shy and difficult to locate if not singing. h

Adult male Entirely glossy bluish-black.

i

Adult female As adult male but duller grey or greyer-brown.

j Immature As adult female but dull black or charcoal-grey; wings may be browner.

Seychelles Magpie-Robin Copsychus sechellarum

Map and text page 382

22–24cm. Large, slim, fairly long-legged and long-tailed; once on the verge of extinction, population has recovered and is steadily increasing though still numbers only a few hundred individuals on five islands. Inhabits mature primary forest with shady undergrowth, and also plantations and gardens near forest. k Adult Almost entirely black with blue sheen, except prominent white band on wing-coverts. l Juvenile Similar but duller black and white patch on wing-coverts is fringed chestnut.

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White-browed Shama

b

a

c

e d

White-vented Shama Visayan Shama

f

g

h

j

i

Black Shama

k l

Seychelles Magpie-Robin

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PLATE 32: REDSTARTS I Przevalski’s Redstart Phoenicurus alaschanicus

Map and text page 404

16cm. Medium-sized redstart, breeds in NC China and moves to lower elevations within same range or east to EC China in winter. Locally common to scarce on hillsides with bushes and dense scrub. Fairly active and conspicuous, perches on bushes and low trees. a

Adult male spring Blue-grey crown to ear-coverts and neck-sides, deep rufous mantle to rump and tail, broad white band on black wing-coverts reaches tertials, and bright rufous underparts.

b

Adult female Mainly pale grey-brown except pale eye-ring, bright rufous rump to tail-sides, with dark brown central feathers, and pale or whitish-buff tips to median and greater coverts.

c

Adult tail pattern Outer feathers deep rufous-orange and central pair blackish.

Eversmann’s Redstart Phoenicurus erythronotus

Map and text page 406

15cm. Medium-sized redstart of SC Siberia to about Lake Baikal, E Kazakhstan and W China. Migratory, but some move only short distances to lower levels within the breeding range, with N breeders wintering in Iran, Afghanistan and W Himalayas. Locally common in open, rocky montane and submontane forests on hillsides. Perches in open; wary and alert, but occasionally tame and approachable. d

Adult male fresh Crown to nape tipped pale brown, with rufous mantle, back and scapulars broadly tipped pale buff-brown (largely obscuring rufous bases), and black face may also be finely tipped paler.

e

Adult male worn Pale grey crown to nape, bright rufous mantle to rump and outer tail, black face and scapulars, broad white slash on black wing-coverts and deep rufous underparts.

f

Adult tail pattern Outer feathers deep rufous-orange and central pair blackish.

g

Adult female Pale grey-brown except pale eye-ring, bright rufous rump to tail-sides, dark brown central feathers, and pale buff tips to median and greater coverts. Slightly paler or greyer brown above and below than female Przevalski’s Redstart.

h Juvenile Similar to adult female but slightly paler with large pale buff and dark-tipped spots or scales on crown, mantle, back and breast; edges to wing-coverts and flight feathers buffish-brown; tail as adult.

Blue-capped Redstart Phoenicurus coeruleocephala

Map and text page 409

15–15.5cm. Slim or slender redstart with a (proportionately) long and all-dark tail, lacking any red in the plumage from C Asia east to C Himalayas. Locally common to scarce, breeds in open subalpine forests to the treeline on rocky slopes and hillsides. Active and perches prominently on tops of bushes or low trees. A shortdistance migrant wintering at lower levels, within the breeding range or in SC Asia. i

Adult male fresh Black of upperparts, throat and breast partly obscured by brown or buff-brown tips.

j

Adult male worn Mainly black and white with pale blue-grey cap and white slash on wing; tail all black; underparts clearly black and white.

k

Adult female Almost entirely grey-brown except warmer or chestnut-brown rump to base of outer tail feathers, dark brown rest of tail and pale buffish or whitish tips to outer median coverts and greater coverts.

l Juvenile Similar to adult female, with bold pale buff streaks on head and nape, spots and dark fringes to upperparts, and pale spots with dark fringes on throat and breast; young male shows prominent white fringes to tertials.

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b

a

c

Przevalski’s Redstart

e

g d f

h Eversmann’s Redstart

j

i

k

l

Blue-capped Redstart

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PLATE 33: REDSTARTS II Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros

Map and text page 411

14–15cm. Fairly slim with narrow tail; widespread across Europe, Middle East, Asia and N Africa. Nominate breeds from C & E Turkey and Caucasus to NE Iran and possibly NE Iraq, while four other races occur in Europe, NW Africa and Asia, and are resident, partial or altitudinal migrants, or long-distance migrants. Differences between them well marked in males, mainly in upperparts and amount of black and rufous on underparts, but variation in females/juveniles less distinct. Predominantly a montane breeder, but in Europe and parts of Asia also in towns and cities. Common or locally common; perches in open. a

Adult male fresh P. o. gibraltariensis Mainly dark grey with black face to breast, prominent white panel on closed wing and rich rufous or reddish-orange rump to tail-sides, and whitish or greyish-white vent and undertail-coverts.

b

First-winter male P. o. gibraltariensis Most are like adult females or slightly duller grey (becoming more like adult male in spring); brighter individuals resemble adult male and may show some pale or whitish tertial edges forming small panel, and lower flanks and undertail not as deep or bright as adult.

c

Adult female P. o. gibraltariensis Crown and upperparts mouse-grey tinged brown, face can be slightly warmer brown; narrow pale buff eye-ring; rump and uppertail-coverts to tail-sides reddish-orange with dark brown central feathers; underparts similar to upperparts or slightly paler or greyer, except pale orange undertail-coverts.

d

Adult male worn P. o. rufiventris Head, upperparts and wings to breast black; reddish-orange on rump to outer tail, and rest of underparts deep or bright rufous-orange.

e

Adult female P. o. rufiventris As nominate female or paler grey-brown on mantle, back and scapulars, dull grey-brown breast and peachy-or orange-buff buff lower breast, belly and flanks.

f

Adult male P. o. ochruros Crown and upper nape dark or slate-grey, becoming blackish or charcoal-grey on upperparts, neck-sides to throat, breast and belly; rump, uppertail-coverts and tail-sides reddish-orange, central feathers dark brown. Lower belly to undertail-coverts deep rufous-orange.

g

Adult male P. o. phoenicuroides Pale grey forehead and crown becoming darker or blackish-grey on centre of crown to back and scapulars, wings blackish-brown, face to breast black and sharply demarcated from the bright rufous-cinnamon of the rest of the underparts.

Common Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus

Map and text page 419

14cm. Fairly slim redstart of lowland and upland mature broadleaf or mixed broadleaf and conifer woodland, also in open larch and pinewoods, and occasionally orchards. Active and usually perches in open. A long-distance migrant wintering in Africa along S edge of Sahara to NE Africa or south to Uganda. h

Adult male fresh plumage P. p. phoenicurus Europe (except SE) to C & S Siberia, Mongolia, extreme NW China and NW Africa. Similar to adult male worn plumage, but crown and upperparts tinged brownish, wing-coverts fringed buff-brown and flight feathers dark brown fringed pale or warm buff-brown, black face finely tipped or flecked whitish, underparts have narrow to broad pale or whitish tips, becoming paler on lower belly and flanks. First-winter male very similar but usually has black face more heavily obscured.

i

Adult male worn P. p. phoenicurus Broad white band on forehead, pale grey crown and upperparts except bright rufous rump to tail-sides, black face to throat and bright rufous underparts with white belly to undertail-coverts.

j

Adult female P. p. phoenicurus Mainly plain brown to light brown tinged greyish except rufous rump to tail-sides; underparts pale to warm buffish.

k

First-winter male P. p. phoenicurus Similar to adult male fresh, forehead, crown and upperparts brown or grey-brown, may show narrow white line on forehead, wing-coverts and flight feathers edged warm buffbrown, face to throat pale buff (black bases often concealed), breast to belly and flanks deep orange with pale buff tips, and central belly and vent whitish.

l

Adult male worn P. p. samamisicus SE Europe to Caucasus, C Asia and Iran. As nominate male but has broad white patch in wing; may also show slightly deeper grey crown and upperparts (to back).

m

Adult tail pattern Deep rufous-orange outer and dark or blackish-brown central feathers.

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c

b

a

f

g

d

Black Redstart

e

h

j

i Common Redstart

m l

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k

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PLATE 34: REDSTARTS III Hodgson’s Redstart Phoenicurus hodgsoni

Map and text page 425

15cm. Slim, medium-sized redstart with fairly long tail. Breeds in SC China and winters from W Nepal and NE India to N Myanmar and S China. Locally common in summer in montane pine and deciduous woodland, poplar plantations and alpine meadows; winters in open forest and scattered bushes in foothills. Perches in open. a

Adult male Grey crown and upperparts, deep or bright rufous rump to outer tail feathers and dark brown central feathers, large white panel on inner secondaries, black face to upper breast and deep rufous rest of underparts. b Adult male tail pattern Outer feathers bright rufous and brown (broadly fringed rufous) central pair. c Adult female Almost entirely plain grey-brown with pale buff eye-ring and rump to tail pattern as male, but lacks any white in wing. d Juvenile As adult female but upperparts have pale orange-buff spots, rump and uppertail-coverts to tailsides paler orange, median and greater coverts broadly tipped pale rufous-buff and tertials edged likewise, and underparts greyish or whitish, mottled paler sandy-buff.

White-throated Redstart Phoenicurus schisticeps

Map and text page 427

15cm. Medium-sized, colourful redstart of C Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau of S China. Fairly common in open subalpine spruce and fir forest, rhododendrons and roses on ridges at or below treeline; winters at lower levels, but may remain at high altitudes all year. Usually conspicuous. e

Adult male Blue crown contrasting with indigo or blackish-blue mantle and back; black face with thin white central throat; large white patch on inner wing-coverts to edges of primaries; deep rufous rump to base of blackish tail and underparts. f Adult male head Showing narrow extent of white on central throat. g Adult male tail pattern Uppertail-coverts deep rufous, tail all black. h Adult female Mainly grey-brown with prominent pale eye-ring, white throat patch and broad white panel on inner wing-coverts to edges of primaries; rufous rump to basal tail-sides. i Adult female tail pattern Uppertail-coverts and basal tail-sides (extending for at least 50% of tail), central feathers and tips of outers brown or dark brown. j Juvenile As adult female but heavily mottled pale buff on mantle and back, scapulars pale orange-buff fringed blackish, spots on head and face smaller with dark fringes, rump to tail and wing pattern as respective adult. Chin and throat flecked pale buff and lower throat and breast to upper flanks heavily mottled light orange-buff and brown.

Daurian Redstart Phoenicurus auroreus

Map and text page 429

15cm. Small to medium-sized, fairly slim redstart; nominate breeds from SC & SE Siberia to Russian Far East, NE China, N & C Korea, and race leucopterus in WC China, but differences are slight. Common or locally common in wide range of open wooded and forest edge habitats, scrub and second growth, edges of cultivation and villages. Perches in open. Nominate winters in S Japan, Korea, Taiwan, CS China and N Vietnam; leucopterus moves to NE India and SE Asia. k

Adult male fresh P. a. auroreus As worn plumage but crown to nape tipped dark grey, mantle, back, scapulars and wing-coverts show fine pale buff-brown fringes partly obscuring black centres, and chin and throat also flecked greyish. l Adult male worn P. a. auroreus Pale grey crown contrasts with black face, throat, upperparts and wingcoverts, broad, almost triangular white patch at base of black flight feathers, lower back to rump and outer tail feathers bright rufous and central tail black. m Adult male tail pattern Outer feathers deep orange-rufous and central feathers dark brown or black. n Adult female P. a. auroreus Mainly mid-brown head and upperparts, slightly paler or tinged orange below, pale buff eye-ring, and broad white bases to secondaries and tertials, forming smaller patch than adult male. o Juvenile As adult female but heavily spotted pale buff above, pale orange tips to greater coverts and tertials, fine brown fringes to flight feathers, rufous rump, uppertail-coverts and outer tail feathers, and pale buff spots with dark fringes on breast and flanks.

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Hodgson’s Redstart

c

a

d

b

e h

f

g

j White-throated Redstart

i k

n Daurian Redstart

l

o

m

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PLATE 35: REDSTARTS IV Moussier’s Redstart Phoenicurus moussieri

Map and text page 431

12–13cm. Small, slim redstart of montane areas and desert edges in NW Africa. Locally common to abundant in rocky maquis with scattered bushes and open forest to above treeline in rugged plateaux. Usually conspicuous, perches in open. Sedentary or a short-distance migrant to lower levels including coastal plains and cliffs. a

Adult male fresh As worn plumage except black crown and upperparts fringed pale or warm brown, forming slightly barred pattern, rump and uppertail-coverts slightly paler rufous and breast-sides to flanks often show paler tips.

b

Adult male worn Broad white forehead to above eyes and behind ear-coverts, black over rest of head, face, upperparts and wings except large white panel at base of flight feathers, and underparts almost entirely deep rufous-orange.

c

Adult male tail pattern Bright rufous rump to outer tail, with dark brown or brownish-black central feathers and outer edge to tips of outer feathers.

d

Adult female Head to back and wings brown or grey-brown, no white panel in wings, rump to tail as male, and underparts brown heavily washed rufous or orange.

e

Juvenile male As adult female but slightly duller brown, crown to nape finely tipped or spotted pale buff, becoming pale buff on upperparts, wing-coverts dark brown finely fringed pale or rufous-buff, flight feathers as adult (including white bases to secondaries), and chin and throat to lower breast and flanks pale to warm buff-brown broadly fringed paler.

Güldenstädt’s Redstart Phoenicurus erythrogastrus

Map and text page 433

17–19cm. A large, striking redstart; breeds above treeline on open dry, rocky or barren alpine and subalpine hillsides, and winters in similar habitat at lower levels. f

Adult male P. e. erythrogastrus C Asia east to Himalayas and north to S Siberia, Mongolia and W China. White crown and nape, black face to upper breast, mantle and scapulars, black wings with large white patch at base of flight feathers, and bright orange rump, tail and breast to undertail.

g

Adult male P. e. grandis C Caucasus. As nominate male but slightly paler on upper- and underparts and white at base of primaries (except outermost two) slightly more extensive, and tips to central tail feathers slightly deeper or darker rufous.

h

Adult female Pale grey-brown head and upperparts except bright orange rump to tail, underparts slightly paler or more buffish, heaviest on breast (or whiter in worn plumage).

i

Juvenile male As adult female or slightly greyer, head to scapulars and breast to belly finely tipped white or pale buff, tail as adult, greater coverts and flight feathers blackish-brown with fine buffish tips, and juvenile male has broad white wing patch at base of secondaries and primaries as adult male.

Blue-fronted Redstart Phoenicurus frontalis

Map and text page 437

15–16cm. Slim, medium-sized redstart with fairly short wings and long, thin tail, in Himalayas north to C China. Common or locally common in subalpine thickets of birch, rhododendron, dwarf juniper and low bushes at treeline. Perches in open and is often tame and approachable. Resident or short-distance altitudinal migrant, wintering in valleys and foothills. j

Adult male fresh Crown, face and mantle to back have broad brownish or orange-brown fringes obscuring blue, and median and greater coverts and tertials fringed buffish to buffish-brown.

k

Adult male worn Deep blue head and upperparts, paler or cobalt-blue forehead to above eyes, bright rufous-orange rump to tail-sides, and underparts deep rufous-orange.

l

Adult male tail pattern Rump, uppertail-coverts and outer tail feathers bright rufous-orange, central feathers entirely blackish with broad blackish tips to rest forming an inverted T.

m

Adult female Head and upperparts dull grey-brown except deep rufous-orange rump to tail-sides; tail pattern as adult male, while underparts have warmer or orange-brown tinge to lower belly, flanks and undertail.

n Juvenile As adult female but has pale streaks and spots on head and upperparts, and mottled throat and breast; rump and tail as adult.

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Moussier’s Redstart

d

b

a c

e

g

f

Guldenstadt’s Redstart

h i

m

j l

k n

Blue-fronted Redstart

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PLATE 36: REDSTARTS V White-capped Redstart Phoenicurus leucocephalus

Map and text page 442

18–19cm. Large, brightly coloured, long-legged redstart, with long tail often raised high; conspicuous along fastmoving mountain streams and rivers from C Asia to Himalayas, C & S China. Common or locally common, perches on banks, rocks or boulders, rarely in trees or bushes. Sedentary and migratory; winters widely in foothills of Himalayas to Myanmar east to N & C Laos. a Adult Pure white crown, black or blackish-blue lower forehead, face and upperparts to upper back and breast, bright chestnut rump to tail (except broad black tip) and rest of underparts; no real change between worn and fresh plumage. b Juvenile Crown to nape white, finely fringed blackish, upperparts, wing-coverts and flight feathers blackishbrown, mantle and scapulars fringed pale or fulvous-brown, tips to median and greater coverts pale or fulvous-brown, and rump and tail as adult or slightly duller chestnut. Lower breast and belly edged rufous; undertail-coverts dull chestnut.

Plumbeous Redstart Phoenicurus fuliginosa

Map and text page 439

12–13cm. Small, short-tailed and rather dumpy redstart of fast-moving mountain streams and rivers; nominate is widespread from C Asia through Himalayas to C & N China, race affinis is restricted to Taiwan, but differences are slight and mainly affect adult females and some immatures. Common and conspicuous, and often associates with White-capped Redstart; frequently waves and spreads tail. Sedentary or short-distance migrant to lower levels. c

Adult male Deep slate-blue head and upperparts with darker or blackish wings, and chestnut rump and tail. Underparts as upperparts, or paler blue on belly to undertail-coverts. d Adult female Slate-grey head and upperparts with pale tips forming thin double wingbars, white rump and basal tail-sides, blackish centre and tip to tail, and underparts finely barred or spotted paler or whitish. e Juvenile As adult female but grey-brown and flecked, mottled or streaked paler on head and upperparts, wing-coverts with small buffish spots at tips, flight feathers and tertials dark grey finely fringed paler, underparts paler grey-brown densely spotted whitish, belly white with dusky crescents.

Luzon Water Redstart Phoenicurus bicolor

Map and text page 441

14.5–15cm. Small to medium-sized redstart with comparatively long tail, endemic to fast-flowing mountain streams and rivers of N Luzon, Philippines. Similar behaviour and actions to Plumbeous Redstart of mainland Asia. Uncommon and largely sedentary. f

Adult male Head to back, throat and breast dark slate-blue; wings sooty-black and rump to tail, belly and undertail-coverts reddish or bright chestnut. g Adult female Duller than male with deep blue head to back and breast, rufous rump, tail and underparts duller brown or chestnut-brown, and offer little contrast with upperparts. h Juvenile Similar to female or darker brownish-grey, finely barred or spotted pale grey.

White-bellied Redstart Luscinia phaenicuroides

Map and text page 267

18–19cm. Slim, short-winged, long-tailed and usually (except when singing) very shy. Nominate breeds in Himalayas east to W & N Myanmar, race ichangensis occurs in C & S China, but differences are very slight. Locally common in dense thickets of subtropical and subalpine rhododendron, birch and juniper, at or near treeline. Resident and short-distance migrant, wintering at lower levels. i

Adult male Slate-blue with striking white belly and white spots at bend of wing (conspicuous in flight and when wings drooped). j Adult male tail pattern Long and graduated with orange-rufous patches at base (often difficult to see on closed tail), best seen when singing and tail partly spread. k Adult female Olive-brown head and upperparts, with fairly plain brown face and brownish-buff throat and underparts, and tail uniform dull rufescent-brown or tinged warmer brown at base of outer feathers. Immature male as female but has orange-rufous tail patches. l Juvenile Head and upperparts to rump brown with prominent buff streaking, tail brown, tinged warmer or chestnut-brown at base. Wing-coverts and flight feathers brown, greater coverts tipped orange-brown. Underparts buff with fine or diffuse dark fringes, and centre of lower breast and belly whitish.

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White-capped Redstart

b

a

d Plumbeous Redstart

c

e

Luzon Water Redstart

f

g

h

l

i

k

White-bellied Redstart

j

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PLATE 37: ASIAN BLUE ROBINS White-tailed Robin Myiomela leucura

Map and text page 445

17–19cm. Slim, long-tailed and long-legged chat of moist broadleaf evergreen forest; nominate breeds in C Himalayas, S China and SE Asia, with two other races in SE Thailand to W Cambodia (cambodiana) and on Taiwan (montium); differences slight in montium, but more marked in cambodiana. Uncommon or locally common; shy and more often heard than seen. Sedentary or short-distance altitudinal migrant. a

Adult male M. l. leucura Deep dark blue, appearing almost black in field (except in very good light), with pale blue forehead to crown and wing bend, with long white patches on tail-sides.

b

Adult male tail pattern Black or slightly bluish-black with long, broad white patches at basal sides of outer feathers (outermost feather all black), but and only visible when partly spread.

c

Adult female M. l. leucura Almost entirely brown or olive-brown except paler throat and central belly to undertail; tail pattern as male but central feathers and distal half of outers blackish-brown.

d Juvenile Slightly darker on upper- and underparts than adult female, and juvenile male usually darker than female; flecked or spotted pale to orange buff on head and face, more heavily spotted pale orange to rufous-buff on upperparts to scapulars, and streaked or spotted on lower belly and vent; tail pattern as adult.

Sunda Blue Robin Myiomela diana

Map and text page 447

14–15cm. Slim, fairly long-tailed and secretive chat restricted to montane broadleaf forest on W & C Sumatra (race sumatrana) and Java (nominate); differences between races slight. Uncommon and extremely shy, and more likely to be heard at start of breeding season. e

Adult male M. d. diana Almost entirely deep or indigo-blue (appears black) with slightly blacker wings and tail, and small white spot or patch on forehead.

f

Adult male tail pattern Mostly black broadly fringed indigo-blue centrally, with small white patches either side of base of central feathers (only visible when tail spread).

g

Adult female M. d. diana Head and face to mantle and back rust-brown, wings and tail dark brown fringed rust-brown, and olive-brown on sides of throat to breast; may show white or whitish streaks on throat and grey on belly to undertail.

Blue-fronted Robin Cinclidium frontale

Map and text page 449

18–20cm. Slim, long-tailed chat with restricted range; nominate breeds in E Himalayas of N India and Bhutan, and race orientale in S China and NW Vietnam; difference between races slight. Uncommon or scarce in hill and lower montane subtropical and temperate broadleaf forest. Very little-known, shy and easily overlooked; forages on ground in dense undergrowth. Sedentary or short-distance altitudinal migrant. h

Adult male C. f. frontale Deep blue (appears mostly black in most lights) with a brighter pale blue band across central forehead and at bend of wing; long, all-dark tail is slightly graduated or rounded at tip. In hand (exceptionally in field) shows small white patch on underwing-coverts.

i

Adult female C. f. frontale Almost entirely warm or russet olive-brown with pale eye-ring, slightly darker flight feathers and paler chin and throat and belly to undertail; also has same small white patch on underwing-coverts as in male.

j

Immature male C. f. frontale As female or slightly darker brown, with blue forehead and dark lores, may also show some blue on lesser coverts and progressively on upperparts.

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c

a

b

d

White-tailed Robin

g e f

Sunda Blue Robin

i j

h

Blue-fronted Robin

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PLATE 38: INDIAN ROBIN AND GRANDALA Indian Robin Copsychus fulicatus

Map and text page 389

16–19cm. Fairly slim, short-winged and long-tailed chat. Nominate resident in S India, with and four other races north to Pakistan, NW India and Nepal, and south to Sri Lanka; differences between them most evident in males, but considerable degree of intergradation where they meet. Common and widespread in open scrub, wooded edges, around cultivation, gardens in villages and roadside verges. Active and often fairly tame. a

Adult male C. f. cambaiensis Similar to nominate but has forehead to crown, mantle and upper rump dark brown; wings also dark brown except white lesser coverts, inner median coverts and bases to inner greater coverts.

b

Adult male in flight Showing extent of white on wing-coverts.

c

Adult female C. f. cambaiensis Similar to nominate female but has forehead to nape and face warm brown, becoming paler brown on mantle and scapulars, and grey rump to base of tail.

d

Adult male C. f. fulicatus Almost entirely glossy bluish-black except white stripe on wing-coverts and bright chestnut undertail-coverts.

e

Adult female C. f. fulicatus Almost entirely grey-brown lacking any white in wing, flight feathers darker grey fringed pale grey-brown, tail also slightly darker grey or blackish, and face and underparts slightly paler than upperparts.

f

Adult male C. f. leucopterus As nominate male but slightly deeper glossy blue on head and upperparts, and chestnut on vent less extensive.

g

Adult female C. f. leucopterus As nominate female but darker brown head and upperparts; wings also slightly darker, and underparts darker and less contrasting with upperparts.

Grandala Grandala coelicolor

Map and text page 451

21–23cm. Large, slim and long-winged, with a fairly short, fine bill; a striking bird of high altitudes in Himalayas to C China. Uncommon or locally common, most often seen in flocks over montane ridges, snowfields and slopes; on ground recalls a thrush in size and stance. A superb flier, graceful and effortless, even in strongest winds seems unaffected; flocks circle for long periods high in air. Mainly resident, but may move to slightly lower levels in severe winters. h

Adult male Deep cobalt or royal-blue with a velvet sheen, dark loral stripe and sooty-black wings and tail.

i

Adult male in flight Long, black and sharply pointed wings.

j

Adult female Head, neck and upperparts dark grey-brown flecked and streaked fulvous-white, extending on face to lower breast (except darker, unstreaked lores to eye); rump and uppertail-coverts may be tinged dark greyish-blue or deep blue; tips of median and greater coverts buffish-white (absent when worn); flight feathers and tertials dark or blackish-brown, tips of tertials white, with small circular or triangular white patch at base of secondaries and primaries; underparts brown streaked fulvous-white.

k Immature As adult female or slightly browner, streaked pale buff on head and body, but lacks blue tinge to rump and uppertail-coverts; fine pale buff tips to median and greater coverts form two narrow wingbars, and large white spot or patch at base of secondaries is very conspicuous in flight.

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b a

c

d e

f g Indian Robin

h

i j

k

Grandala

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PLATE 39: FORKTAILS I Little Forktail Enicurus scouleri

Map and text page 453

12–14cm. Smallest forktail; plump with high crown and steep forehead, thin bill and short, notched tail, found along mountain streams from C Asia through Himalayas to CS China and N SE Asia. Common or locally common, in broadleaf or mixed forests. Active, often tame and confiding. Largely resident, but some move short distances to lower levels in winter. a Adult Large white patch on steep forehead; crown, neck, face, breast and upperparts to upper back black; broad white band across otherwise black wings; outer tail feathers white, central feathers black, and fleshpink legs and feet. b Juvenile Similar to adult but duller or sooty-brown, with blackish forehead and white lower back to rump; underparts tinged buffish or off-white with fine dark tips to throat and breast.

Sunda Forktail Enicurus velatus

Map and text page 454

16–17cm. Medium-sized forktail with long, deeply forked tail; occurs at edges of fast-flowing streams and rivers in hill and lower montane forest. Nominate resident on Java and race sumatranus on Sumatra, but differences are very slight. Flits between rocks in streams. Common on Sumatra but scarce or rare on Java. c

Adult male Dark grey or black crown, face and upperparts to back and wings, narrow white band on forehead, long, graduated tail with white tips, and underparts white except pale grey streaks or smudges on breast-sides.

d

Adult female As male but has rich chocolate-brown crown.

e Juvenile As adult female, with duller brown crown, nape, cheeks and ear-coverts, narrower white or whitish band on centre of forehead, broad dark brown lores to eye, pale or whitish moustachial bordered by dark brown or blackish submoustachial; breast-sides faintly scaled greyish.

Chestnut-naped Forktail Enicurus ruficapillus

Map and text page 456

18–21cm. Medium-sized, brightly coloured forktail of lowland and hill forests in S Myanmar, peninsular Thailand, Sumatra and Borneo. Common or locally common (uncommon in S Myanmar and on Sumatra); often conspicuous but also shy. Inhabits banks and rocks in swift or fast-flowing rivers and streams, occasionally small pools in forest. f

Adult male Broad white band on forehead, rich chestnut crown and nape, wings black except broad white tips to greater coverts and tertials, white lower back to uppertail-coverts and deeply forked black-and-white tail; black face to throat and heavily scalloped breast and flanks.

g

Adult female As adult male but chestnut crown and nape extends to mantle.

h Juvenile As adult except duller brown head and darker chestnut mantle; forehead white bordered by blackish band on upper forehead through eye and across cheeks to neck-sides; centre of chin and throat whitish with blackish tips; breast and upper flanks white with heavy black fringes.

Black-backed Forktail Enicurus immaculatus

Map and text page 457

20–25cm. Fairly large, slim-billed and long-tailed forktail of fast-flowing rivers and streams in broadleaved tropical and subtropical forests of Himalayan foothills east to N Myanmar and NW Thailand. Locally common and sedentary; fairly conspicuous, but occasionally in ditches and damp areas in forest. i Adult Broad white band on steep forehead narrows above eyes, black head and crown to upper back, black wings with broad white band on tips to greater coverts, large white patch on lower back to uppertail, and very long black-and-white tail. j Juvenile As adult but duller black or sooty-brown, lacks white band on forehead, tail usually shorter, underparts have dark or blackish fringes to lower throat, breast and upper flanks, and bill has pale cutting edges to maxilla and yellowish mandible.

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a

b Little Forktail

d

c

Sunda Forktail

e g

f Chestnut-naped Forktail

h

j

i

Black-backed Forktail

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PLATE 40: FORKTAILS II Slaty-backed Forktail Enicurus schistaceus

Map and text page 458

22–25cm. Fairly large, long-tailed, grey-and-white forktail of fast-flowing rivers and streams in Himalayas east to S & SE China, discontinuously south to Malaysia. Common or locally common; found amongst rocks in streams or occasionally in more secluded damp areas in forest. Largely sedentary, but birds in Himalayas winter in lower foothills and adjacent plains. a Adult Broad white band on forehead narrows above eyes, slate-grey crown to upper back, broad white wingbar on greater coverts and base of tertials, white lower back to uppertail, and long black-and-white tail with broad white tips, widely forked at tip. b Juvenile As adult but slightly paler, lacks white band on forehead, crown and upperparts to lower back grey, lores to eye greyish-white merging with broad white eye-ring, underparts white or greyish and may show dark greyish fringes to breast and upper flanks.

White-crowned Forktail Enicurus leschenaulti

Map and text page 460

25–28cm. Large with long, graduated and deeply forked tail of NE India to SE Asia and Indonesia. Nominate resident on Java and Bali, with five other races ranging north to NE India, S China, SE Asia and Borneo, and west to Sumatra, but differences are slight (mainly size or length of tail). Common or locally common on fast-flowing rivers and streams in dense broadleaf forest; fairly active, but flies at first sign of disturbance. Mainly sedentary, but some move short distances to winter in lower foothills. c Adult E. l. leschenaulti Prominent white forehead (often steeply raised or forward-pointing, or with slight crest on crown), black upperparts and face to upper belly, wings mainly black with broad white tips to greater coverts, lower back, rump and uppertail-coverts white, and long, graduated tail is black with white tips. d Adult E. l. frontalis Slightly smaller than nominate with slightly less white on crown. e Juvenile Similar to adult but more obviously blackish or sooty-brown, lacks white band on forehead, sootybrown on breast and rest of underparts white.

Spotted Forktail Enicurus maculatus

Map and text page 462

25–28.5cm. Large forktail of Himalayas east to S China and parts of SE Asia; similar to White-crowned Forktail, but has prominent white spots on mantle and scapulars. Nominate ranges from NE Afghanistan and N Pakistan to SW China, with three other races in N India to SE China and Vietnam, but differences are slight. Common or locally common on streams and rivers in forests, wooded ravines and gorges. Active and conspicuous, rarely far from water, though often shy or elusive. Sedentary or short-distance altitudinal migrant. f Adult E. m. maculatus Prominent white patch on forehead (often steeply raised or has slight crest), black crown and face to upper breast, bold white spots on mantle, upper back and scapulars, rump and uppertail-coverts white, long, forked tail black with white tips, wings black with broad white tips to greater coverts, and lower breast also black with white fringes. g Adult E. m. guttatus As nominate but has slightly shorter wings and tail, and fewer and smaller white spots on mantle and scapulars. h Juvenile Similar to adult but lacks any white on forehead to crown, flight and central tail feathers browner black, head and face to mantle brown or sooty-brown flecked slightly paler, face to breast also brown or sooty-brown flecked paler, becoming more heavily spotted white on breast, and grading into whitish or off-white underparts.

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a

Slaty-backed Forktail

b

c

White-crowned Forktail

e d

f

Spotted Forktail

g

h

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PLATE 41: STONECHATS I Whinchat Saxicola rubetra

Map and text page 464

12.5–13cm. Slim, elegant chat that breeds on open heaths, meadows, moors, edges of bogs and areas with low scrub over most of Europe east to C Russia and Caucasus. Winters mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. a

Adult male fresh. Crown and upperparts blackish fringed warm brown, broadly on upperparts; face black flecked paler, with broad pale buff supercilium; wings fringed warm brown, with narrow white patches on inner wing-coverts, primary-coverts and base of inner primaries. b Adult male worn As fresh plumage but face black with white supercilium, upperparts more clearly black with fine pale fringes, wings black except for narrow white patches, and rich orange breast and flanks. c Adult male tail pattern Spread tail shows white bases to outer feathers and blacker central feathers and tips. d Adult female Similar to adult male but slightly duller with buffish-white bases to outer tail feathers, face browner, supercilium and chin buffish-white, wings browner-black with less white (sometimes none) on inner coverts, and paler orange breast. e First-winter As adult female (many not easily aged in field) with crown and upperparts broadly fringed sandy, wings also edged pale sandy-brown, supercilium buffish (not white), and underparts sandy-brown with darker spots on breast. f Juvenile Crown and upperparts dark brown fringed paler, rump and uppertail-coverts have blackish centres and pale cinnamon-buff fringes; tail as adult. Wing-coverts blackish-brown fringed cinnamon-buff. Underparts pale or creamy-buff with darker feather tips.

Stoliczka’s Bush Chat Saxicola macrorhynchus

Map and text page 471

15–17cm. Slim chat with fairly long bill and tail. Extremely rare and local in NW India. Inhabits arid and semi-arid deserts including thorn scrub with grassy tussocks. Presumably a short-distance migrant, but breeding areas unknown. g

h

i

j

k

Adult male fresh Face brown flecked paler, with broad dark eyestripe and edge of ear-coverts, crown and upperparts streaked buff-brown, white inner wing-coverts (usually concealed by scapulars), outer wingcoverts and flight feathers fringed brown or buff-brown, and underparts pale buff or tinged peach-buff. Adult male worn Black face with long white supercilium, black or blackish crown, upperparts and flight feathers, narrow white patch on inner median and greater coverts, white primary coverts, whitish rump and uppertail-coverts, blackish tail with broad white outer feathers, and white chin and throat with yellowish breast. Adult male late winter/spring (transitional) Face becomes darker as pale tips abrade and black bases become visible, pale fringes on crown and upperparts narrower. First-summer male very similar but retains some pale fringes to upperparts (especially on upper mantle) and never as solidly black, flight feathers browner. Adult female fresh Similar to fresh-plumaged male, but face, crown and upperparts paler sandy-buff streaked darker, pale buffish supercilium, lacks white in wing, warm buff-brown tips to greater coverts, tail buff or warm sandy-buff, buffish-white chin and throat. Juvenile male Crown dark brown streaked paler, upperparts grey with brown fringes. Tail dark brown fringed warm or cinnamon-buff on outer feathers. Wings dark brown, coverts fringed pale buffish or buffish-brown, greater coverts tipped pale buff. Underparts buffy-white with fine dark brown fringes.

White-tailed Stonechat Saxicola leucurus

Map and text page 504

12.5–14cm. Small, fairly long-tailed stonechat patchily distributed from C Pakistan and N India to N Myanmar. Locally common in tall grassland and bushy scrub. Sedentary but may make short-range seasonal movements. l

m n o p q

Adult male fresh Head and upperparts grey-brown streaked darker, buff fringes or tips to wing-coverts except white on inner median and greater coverts, and pale fringes to tertials and secondaries; tail as in worn plumage. Underparts pale or orange-buff, heaviest on breast. Adult male worn Very similar to male Common Stonechat of races maurus and stejnegeri but separable by extensive white at base of outer tail feathers, which usually shows as narrow stripe when closed. Adult female fresh Pale brown head and upperparts streaked darker; can show pale supercilium, rump warm orange-buff, tail almost all brown without white at base. Chin and throat white becoming warm peachy-buff. Adult female worn Head and upperparts slightly darker grey-brown than fresh plumage as pale fringes wear off, and underparts are paler or almost white, except orange-buff breast. Adult female (dark) Some are darker as fringes to head and upperparts wear off, similar to fresh-plumaged male, but lack black face. First-year male As adult male but has paler or greyish-black ear-coverts, less white on wing-coverts, flight and tail feathers more contrastingly browner black than adult.

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Whinchat

e a

b c

f

d

h

g

Stoliczka’s Bush Chat

i

j

k

l m

o White-tailed Stonechat

q

p

n

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PLATE 42: STONECHATS II Common Stonechat Saxicola torquatus

Map and text page 482

13cm. Small to medium-sized with distinctive round-headed and short-tailed profile; common and widespread on open heaths, plains, montane areas, plateaux and coastal areas in Eurasia and Africa, and may comprise three (possibly more) species (see Taxonomy). Perches in open. Sedentary, partly migratory and migratory; breeders at high altitudes (particularly in C Asia, Himalayas and C China) move short distances to lower levels in winter; races maurus, stejnegeri and przewalskii are long-distance migrants wintering in Arabia and S & SE Asia. ‘European Stonechat’ a Adult male fresh S. t. rubicola Head, face and upperparts broadly fringed brown obscuring blackish bases; rump and uppertail white fringed rufous-brown (fringes on uppertail-coverts almost fully concealing white bases). b Adult male worn S. t. rubicola Black head and upperparts except paler or white rump and uppertail; inner wing-coverts white, tail black, large white patch on neck- to breast-sides, and underparts mainly bright orange. c Adult female worn S. t. rubicola Head and upperparts sooty-brown fringed paler, rump and uppertailcoverts dark brown, tail and wings brown and usually less white on inner wing-coverts than male, chin and throat blackish fringed paler buff, and breast and flanks pale cinnamon. d First-year male fresh S. t. rubicola Very similar to adult male, but brown fringes on upperparts, wing-coverts, head and throat slightly broader and black bases more obscured; some may have rump paler or unspotted white. e First-year female fresh S. t. rubicola As adult female worn but head and upperparts fringed brown streaked darker; wing-coverts blackish-brown fringed pale buff (inner two greater coverts white); may show short pale supercilium; breast and flanks pale orange-buff. f Juvenile female Crown and upperparts streaked pale buffish, rump and uppertail-coverts rufous-brown streaked blackish. Tail dark brown with broad pale buff fringes and tips. Wing-coverts blackish fringed buff, greater coverts tipped cinnamon, face paler than crown. g Adult male fresh S. t. hibernans As male rubicola but has darker or more rufous-brown fringes to head and upperparts, smaller pale buff or white neck-sides (never reaching nape), rump may show small white patch (not as extensive as rubicola), breast and flanks darker or more rufous-chestnut. ‘Siberian Stonechat’ h Adult male fresh S. t. maurus Crown and upperparts black, broadly fringed sandy, rump and uppertail coverts pale peachy-orange to white fringed paler or rufous-buff, wings blackish-brown fringed buff-brown, secondaries fringed pale buff. Chin and throat black concealed by pale fringes, neck-sides peachy-buff or whitish, and centre of breast and upper flanks pale cinnamon. i Adult male worn S. t. maurus As worn male rubicola but rump and uppertail-coverts usually pure white, wings (including underwing-coverts) black with larger white patches on inner greater coverts and bases to tertials, larger white patch on neck-sides (appearing to meet on hindneck) to breast-sides and upper flanks (generally more than rubicola and hibernans). j Adult female fresh S. t. maurus Similar to adult male but head and upperparts paler, broadly streaked dull sandy or cinnamon-buff, prominent pale supercilium, rump and uppertail-coverts whitish to pale orange. Wing-coverts blackish fringed sandy-buffish, greater coverts (white inner coverts not always visible) broadly tipped cinnamon. Face brown streaked paler, throat pale or buffish-white. k First-year male fresh S. t. maurus Similar to fresh adult female but usually separable by darker face. Chin and throat pale buff or buffish-white (concealing dark grey bases), long pale buff supercilium, rump white (can be concealed by pale orange or rufous-buff tips), uppertail-coverts white tipped rufous-buff, inner greater coverts as adult male, pale buff fringes to secondaries and tertials. l First-year male fresh S. t. stejnegeri Almost identical to first-year male maurus but fringes to upper- and underparts average darker, more rufous on belly and flanks, rump unstreaked cinnamon-rufous or white on centre; underwing-coverts black narrowly fringed white. m First-year male fresh S. t. hemprichii Head and upperparts broadly fringed sandy-buff overlying black bases, inner median and greater coverts white, rump and uppertail-coverts orange-buff becoming white with orange-buff tips, tail blackish-brown with broad white bases of outer feathers. n Adult male worn S. t. hemprichii As adult male maurus and stejnegeri but rump and uppertail-coverts whiter and bases to outer tail feathers white. Neck-sides have large white patches (largest of any race), central breast deep rufous-chestnut and rest of underparts white or whitish.

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Common Stonechat

d

a

e

f

c

b

h g k

i

j

m l

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n

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PLATE 43: STONECHATS III Common Stonechat Saxicola torquatus (continued – see also Plate 42)

Map and text page 482

‘African Stonechat’ a

b

c d

e f g

h

Adult male fresh S. t. torquatus Head and upperparts black broadly fringed olive-brown, chin and throat finely tipped whitish, rump and uppertail-coverts white with some orange-buff and greyish tips to tailcoverts. Wings black except white inner median and greater coverts fringes and edges to lower tertials and inner secondaries. Underparts deep rufous finely fringed pale buff; undertail-coverts white or whitish. Adult male worn S. t. torquatus Entire head to throat and upperparts black except broad white half-collar, inner wing coverts to tertials and rump and uppertail-coverts white, tail black with some white at base of inner feathers but concealed by long uppertail-coverts (not usually visible except in hand). Adult female worn S. t. torquatus Head and upperparts dark brown fringed slightly paler, unstreaked white rump and uppertail-coverts, white inner wing-coverts, breast and flanks cinnamon-orange. Adult male fresh S. t. axillaris As adult male torquatus, with narrower pale fringes to upperparts, chestnut on breast slightly deeper but highly variable (in some just a small spot or is absent), and in some black throat extends to upper breast; belly white or off-white washed buff. Adult male worn S. t. axillaris Black bib more extensive, and chestnut may be confined to narrow band or patch at its lower border. Adult male fresh S. t. albofasciatus Mainly black and white with pale or cinnamon-buff fringes on mantle and scapulars and tips of lower breast pale buff-brown, rump and uppertail-coverts pure white. Adult male worn S. t. albofasciatus Entire head and upperparts to lower back and throat, breast and upper flanks glossy black, large white patch on neck- to breast-sides. Wings and tail black with white inner wingcoverts, and base of uppermost tertial. Adult male worn S. t. voeltzkowi As male torquatus but white neck-sides more extensive and white in wing restricted to inner median and greater coverts, black rump and white uppertail-coverts.

Réunion Stonechat Saxicola tectes

Map and text page 502

12.5–13cm. Small, rather dumpy and short-tailed chat, endemic to Réunion. Common to locally common in open dry forest, woodland, heath and scrub with understorey vegetation, including mixed evergreen forest, edges of cultivation and gardens. Fairly conspicuous and can be inquisitive and approachable. Sedentary or nomadic in non-breeding season. i

j

k

Adult male fresh Head and upperparts black with broad brown or rufous-brown fringes obscuring blackish centres, narrow white supercilium, white on neck-sides and uppertail-coverts tinged warm or chestnut-buff, chin to neck-sides white and rest of underparts almost uniformly orange or orange-buff. Adult male worn As fresh plumage but lacks brown fringes to head, upper rump and wings, narrow white patch on inner wing-coverts, rump mid-grey and uppertail-coverts off-white, longer coverts tipped orangebuff, chin and throat to neck-sides and belly white, with orange or deep orange patch on centre of breast. Adult female Crown and upperparts earth-brown, thin pale supercilium, warmer brown uppertail-coverts, may show pale fringes or patch on inner wing-coverts, and peachy or orange-buff on breast.

Canary Islands Chat Saxicola dacotiae

Map and text page 479

11–12.5cm. Small and fairly slim with slender bill, endemic to Fuerteventura. Occurs on steep slopes and valleys, open stony fields, dry watercourses (barrancos) with semi-desert scrub. Locally common and sedentary. l

Adult male fresh Head and upperparts broadly blackish-brown fringed paler, wings fringed pale grey, narrow white patch on inner coverts often concealed, white collar obscured by grey tips, and chin and throat buffish or yellowish-buff. m Adult male worn Blackish-brown head and upperparts, fine white supercilium, white neck-sides, white patch on inner wing-coverts, whitish tips to uppertail-coverts, underparts whitish with orange-buff patch on breast. n Adult female fresh Paler grey-brown on head and upperparts, with pale buff supercilium, white patch on inner wing small, absent or restricted to tips of inner greater coverts, chin and throat whitish, and warm to peachy or pinkish-buff on rest of underparts. o Adult female worn As fresh plumage but more uniformly grey-brown as fringes wear, supercilium slightly paler, underparts paler and breast and flanks pale yellowish. p Juvenile As adult female with pale spots on crown and upperparts, variable amount of white on inner wingcoverts (usually more visible on juvenile male), buff-brown fringes to greater coverts, tertials and flight feathers, and fine brown fringes on warm buff breast.

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Common Stonechat

c

b

a

d

g

h f e i

j

k l o Réunion Stonechat

m n p

Canary Islands Chat

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PLATE 44: STONECHATS IV Jerdon’s Bush Chat Saxicola jerdoni

Map and text page 513

15cm. Slim with a fairly long, rounded tail and rather short wings; found in upland scrub, along seasonally exposed river channels and floodplain grasslands in S & SE Asia. Abundance varies greatly between habitats. Males highly conspicuous in spring and summer, but at other times both sexes are secretive. Sedentary or presumed to make relatively short-distance movements, but wintering area(s) are little-known. a

Adult male Glossy blue-black head and face to neck-sides, upperparts, wings and tail, and all-white under­ parts from chin and throat, or may be washed buff or yellowish on breast when fresh.

b

Immature male As adult male but dull bluish-black head, face and upperparts, with darker fringes, rump buffish-white, uppertail-coverts also tipped brownish, and underparts a more uniform dull or pale buff.

c

Adult female Dark rufous-brown head, face and upperparts to upper back, brighter rufous or chestnut lower back to rump and uppertail-coverts, wings and tail darker brown with rufous fringes, chin and throat white with buff breast and upper flanks, becoming rufous on lower flanks and vent.

White-bellied Bush Chat Saxicola gutturalis

Map and text page 520

15–17cm. Fairly slim and long-tailed. Nominate resident on Timor and Roti Is, and race luctuosus on Semau I (off SW Timor); races differ mainly in extent of white on wing-coverts and base of tail in adult males. Common to locally abundant but little-known, in dry deciduous forest and savanna, including tamarind plantations. d

Adult male Glossy-black head and upperparts with broad white patch on inner wing-coverts and base of tail; chin and throat white becoming buffish or yellowish-buff on breast.

e

Immature male As adult male but head and upperparts duller black or blackish-brown on crown and mantle, with small area of white on inner wing-coverts and flight feathers are duller and browner; underparts duller and may show fine streaks across breast.

f

Adult female Dull rufous-brown with brighter chestnut rump to sides of otherwise dark brown tail, and wings also dark brown with small amount of white or pale buff on inner wing-coverts. Broad pale buff supercilium and underparts almost entirely dull creamy-white or tinged buffish.

Pied Bush Chat Saxicola caprata

Map and text page 507

13–14cm. Fairly small and stocky with short, square-ended tail. Familiar bird of open country across lowland S and SE Asia; nominate in N Philippines, while 15 other races range west to Iran, north to S Kazakhstan and S China, and south to Indonesia and New Guinea; differences are fairly slight, mainly in size, extent of white in male and colour of female. Common in open savanna and plains, stony foothills, semi-desert oases, scrubby areas, edges of cultivation and around villages. Usually tame and approachable. g

Adult male fresh S. c. bicolor Crown and upperparts black fringed pale brown, rump and uppertail-coverts white with buff or rufous-buff tips, tail black finely fringed pale buff, chin to lower breast, belly and flanks tipped pale grey. Wing-coverts black finely fringed brownish except white on inner coverts, and flight feathers and tertials black narrowly edged and tipped pale buff.

h

Adult male worn S. c. bicolor Black with white flash on inner wing-coverts, white rump and uppertail-coverts, and white belly and vent to undertail-coverts.

i

First-year male fresh S. c. bicolor As adult male, but dark areas duller sooty brownish-black and less glossy, upperparts broadly fringed brown or greyish-brown, white wing-patch often more restricted.

j

Adult female S. c. bicolor Brown or dark brown with darker wings (lacking any white) and tail, paler or brighter brown underparts, warm brown to rufous-brown rump and uppertail-coverts.

k

Juvenile male As adult female with fine pale buff spots or streaks on crown and upperparts, inner median and greater coverts white or whitish, pale cinnamon-buff to yellowish on breast and flanks fringed darker brown.

l

Adult male S. c. caprata As adult male bicolor but underparts more extensively glossy black and only undertail-coverts are white.

m

Adult female S. c. pyrrhonota As nominate female but upperparts slightly darker, underparts slightly more cinnamon than brightest bicolor, and undertail-coverts usually dull cinnamon.

n

Adult female S. c. wahgiensis Head to upperparts grey-brown except white or buffish-white rump and uppertail-coverts; underparts deep cinnamon-brown with dark streaks.

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a

b

c

Jerdon’s Bush Chat

d f

e

White-bellied Bush Chat

i g

h

k j

Pied Bush Chat

m l n

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PLATE 45: STONECHATS V AND BUFF-STREAKED CHAT Hodgson’s Bush Chat Saxicola insignis

Map and text page 474

16–17cm. Medium to large chat with rounded head, fairly large bill and longish tail; poorly known, extremely rare and very locally distributed. Breeds in alpine and subalpine meadows in Russian Altai and N Mongolia. Presumed to be a long-distance migrant, wintering in lowlands of Nepal and parts of N India. a

b c d

e

Adult male fresh Blackish head and face with buffish tips, white sides of throat and neck mottled orange, upperparts blackish fringed pale greyish, large white patch on closed wing and smaller patch at base of primaries, rump and uppertail-coverts white or partly orange, tail black finely fringed buffish, underparts pale orange to cinnamon-orange. Adult male fresh (head and breast) Some have blackish spots on breast-sides. Adult male worn More uniformly black on head and upperparts (may retain some fine pale fringes), extensive white collar on neck-sides and nape, and orange on breast and upper belly more rufous. Adult female fresh Brown or grey-brown head and face with indistinct buffish supercilium, upperparts brown or dark brown streaked paler, white patch on inner wing-coverts, pale warm buff to buff-brown rump and uppertail-coverts, dark brown tail, pale buff throat, and orange to cinnamon-buff on rest of underparts. First-year male As adult female but much darker on head and upperparts with sooty-black feather centres, white in inner wing-coverts and bases to primaries as adult male, rump and uppertail-coverts buffish-orange, throat pale buffish, breast dull orange and may show some dark grey or blackish spots on upper breast.

Grey Bush Chat Saxicola ferreus

Map and text page 517

13–15cm. Slim, fairly long-tailed chat. Nominate breeds N Pakistan to N Myanmar, race harringtoni in C & S China and much of SE Asia; differences are very slight except in egg colour. Common on open hillsides with scattered trees and scrub, edges of cultivation and around villages. Sedentary or short-distance altitudinal migrant. f

Adult male fresh Crown and upperparts grey, wings and tail black with white inner median and greater coverts, pale fringes to tertials and secondaries; some inner tail feathers also fringed pale or whitish-grey.

g

Adult male worn Black or blackish-grey crown, black face with long white supercilium, upperparts blackish fringed dark grey, uppertail-coverts and tail black except white outer edge, wings mainly black with white inner greater coverts (often partly or wholly concealed), and underparts whitish.

h

First-year male fresh As adult male with brownish-olive tips to crown and upperparts, brownish-black tail with fine greyish-white fringes and dull cinnamon tips to outer feathers, some wing coverts retained from juvenile plumage.

i

Adult female fresh Head and upperparts deep rufous-brown with pale buff supercilium, rump to tail-sides bright rufous-brown and centre of tail dark brown, wings dark brown fringed paler.

j

Adult female worn Slightly darker brown than fresh plumage on head and upperparts, fringes to wing feathers partially or heavily abraded, buff tips to greater coverts may form indistinct wingbar.

k Juvenile Similar to adult female but heavily streaked and spotted buff on head and upperparts.

Buff-streaked Chat Campicoloides bifasciatus

Map and text page 524

16–17cm. Slim elegant chat, endemic to rocky or boulder-strewn grasslands of E South Africa and Lesotho. Uncommon to locally common. Sedentary or a partial, short-distance migrant. l

Adult male fresh Dark brown crown and mantle, pale yellowish edges to scapulars, back and rump, broad pale supercilium to neck-sides, face to throat and upper breast black, dark brown or black wings and tail.

m

Adult male worn Crown all black, mantle progressively blackish or finely streaked dark brown, scapulars and back to uppertail-coverts bleached very pale buff to off-white, and tail dark brown.

n

Adult female fresh Dark brown crown, vinaceous-brown on upperparts, pale orange-buff rump and uppertail-coverts, blackish-brown wings fringed orange-brown, and underparts pale sandy-buff finely streaked darker.

o

Adult female worn Crown and upperparts slightly darker brown, finely streaked paler on latter, pale fringes to wings abrade and become more uniform dark brown. Dark streaks on throat to belly.

p Juvenile Head dark brown streaked pale buff, mantle and scapulars warm brown fringed darker, rump and uppertail-coverts pale orange or cinnamon. Wings dark brown, fringed dull orange-brown. Underparts pale orange or cinnamon-buff, brightest on throat and breast.

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Hodgson’s Bush Chat

a

b

d

c

g e

h

f

Grey Bush Chat

j

k

i o

m

n

l p

Buff-streaked Chat

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PLATE 46: WHEATEARS I AND MOUNTAIN CHAT Black Wheatear Oenanthe leucura

Map and text page 611

18cm. Large, large-billed and almost completely black wheatear, Nominate breeds in SW Europe and race riggenbachi in NW Africa, but differences are slight. Common or locally common in dry areas, rocky hillsides, ruins, gorges and sea cliffs to edges of cultivation. Perches on ground and low trees. Mainly sedentary or partial migrant to lower levels. a

Adult male fresh O. l. leucura SW France to S Spain and E Portugal. Almost entirely sooty-black with white rump, tail-coverts and tail, except broad black central feathers and band across tip, and brown fringes to flight feathers and primary coverts.

b

Adult male worn O. l. leucura As fresh plumage but deeper black, flight and tail feathers browner.

c

Adult female O. l. riggenbachi Morocco to NW Libya and NW Mauritania. As nominate but dark brown (less glossy black), slightly broader black band at tip of tail (considerable overlap), and belly paler or tinged grey becoming white on vent to undertail-coverts.

d Juvenile Resembles adult but duller, plumage loose and often fluffed-out on rump and tail-coverts, throat and breast have slightly paler grey-brown fringes, greater coverts and tertials finely fringed sandy-brown or tips are off-white, and primary coverts browner and narrowly fringed off-white.

Variable Wheatear Oenanthe picata (see Plate 47) e

Mourning Wheatear Oenanthe lugens (see Plate 48) f

Map and text page 600

Adult male O. p. opistholeuca S Kazakhstan to E Afghanistan and N Pakistan. Almost all black except for white rump to basal tail-sides and white vent to undertail-coverts. From Mourning Wheatear race warriae by slightly more white behind legs to vent and undertail-coverts and, in flight, has distinctive white band across flight feathers.

Map and text page 583

Adult male O. l. warriae S Syria and N Jordan. Almost all black with small white rump and tail-sides, and more extensive white behind legs to undertail-coverts, and in flight shows distinctive white band across flight feathers.

Mountain Chat Myrmecocichla monticola

Map and text page 645

17–20cm. A large, variable chat of S Africa; nominate occurs from S Namibia through South Africa to Swaziland, and three other races occur in Namibia and Angola, although differences are slight except in race nigricauda. Locally common in grasslands and savanna, semi-desert hills and valleys, also low cliffs, plains and edges of cultivation. Usually wary, perching on bushes, boulders, fences and termite mounds. Sedentary or partly nomadic. Formerly included in wheatears, Oenanthe. g

Adult male Polymorphic, with black and grey morphs. Black morph almost entirely jet-black except white lesser and median coverts, white lower rump and uppertail-coverts to outer tail feathers, and some pale or whitish tips to undertail-coverts.

h

Adult male Black morph variant with white on upper lores and more extensively on undertail-coverts. Proportionately more individuals of M. m. atmorii have white streak above lores from bill to eye.

i

Adult male Black morph variant with pale grey crown to nape, and white belly to undertail-coverts.

j

Adult male Grey morph equally variable, with deep grey head, upper- and underparts, white lesser and median coverts, black greater coverts and flight feathers, white lower rump to outer tail feathers, and white undertail-coverts.

k

Adult male Grey morph but paler grey than j with white on belly to undertail-coverts.

l

Adult female Almost entirely sooty-black or sooty-brown, with white tail-coverts, and white tail with blackish central feathers.

m

Adult female Brown variant is paler or more earth-brown, but in worn plumage all birds become browner with fine pale buff fringes to tertials and secondaries.

n

Adult female M. m. nigricauda Greyer on head and upperparts, and white lower belly.

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b

d

a

Black Wheatear

e

Variable Wheatear

c

f

Mourning Wheatear

h

g

i

j k

n

l m

Mountain Chat

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PLATE 47: WHEATEARS II Variable Wheatear Oenanthe picata (see also Plate 46)

Map and text page 600

14.5–16.5cm. Medium-sized wheatear of SC Asia and Iran to W Himalayas and NW India. Three races (previously considered colour morphs) with differences between them distinct and complex, with intergrades. Uncommon or locally common in arid mountain plateaux, desert edges, gravel and stony foothills, plains and slopes with sparse vegetation. Conspicuous but often wary, perching on low bushes, fences and roadside wires. Sedentary or partial migrant to lower elevations within or south of breeding range, mainly in Pakistan and N & NW India. a

Adult male worn O. p. picata Black head and upperparts to upper back, wings, face and upper breast, lower back to basal tail-sides white, with black central rectrices and broad tips to outer tail feathers, and centre of breast to undertail-coverts white.

b

Adult female worn O. p. picata Head to back dark grey-brown with paler grey fringes, rump to tail as adult male, wings slightly darker than back, chin and throat to breast paler grey or buff-brown, and flanks slightly paler or dingy white. Birds with creamy belly to undertail-coverts probably older females.

c

Adult female head O. p. picata When fresh some have blackish face to chin and throat tipped pale buff.

d

First-year female fresh O. p. picata Head to back browner or dull grey-brown, wings dark brown with paler or warm brown fringes to coverts and flight feathers, ear-coverts often warm brown, chin and throat paler grey or buff-brown, becoming slightly warmer buff-brown or deeper on breast.

e

Adult male fresh O. p. capistrata As male picata but white, creamy or greyish-tinged forehead to crown and nape, whitish sides to crown, greater and primary-coverts narrowly fringed pale buff, tertials fringed and secondaries tipped warm or sandy-buff, and primaries finely tipped pale or sandy-buff.

f

Adult male worn O. p. capistrata As fresh plumage but crown to nape darker or have darker tips, and fringes to wing-coverts and flight feathers reduced or absent.

g

Adult male head O. p. capistrata Some have very pale creamy to white crown and nape by early or mid­ winter.

h

Adult male head O. p. capistrata Some have greyer crown and nape in fresh plumage.

i

Adult female worn O. p. capistrata Pale brown to grey-brown on head and upperparts, rump and tail as race picata but black areas are dark brown, wings darker brown fringed pale greyish-buff on median coverts and warm brown on greater coverts, chin and throat grey-brown or darker brown, and rest of underparts buffish to white.

j

First-year male fresh O. p. capistrata White crown and nape, black upperparts and face, throat and breast grey as buff-brown tips abrade in early spring, wings as same-age picata with browner black alula, primarycoverts (with fine pale or whitish fringes) and dark brown flight feathers, tail as adult with dark or blackishbrown terminal band and pale buff tips.

k

Adult male worn O. p. opistholeuca Almost entirely black or glossy black except for white rump to basal tailsides and white vent to undertail-coverts.

l

First-year male fresh O. p. opistholeuca As adult but head and upperparts dull sooty-black, primary-coverts and tertials fringed brown or pale brown, primaries and secondaries blackish-brown, and band at tip of tail broader.

m

Adult female worn O. p. opistholeuca As worn male but duller blackish-brown or brown on crown to nape, wings blackish-brown, breast also sooty-brown or brownish-black, with slightly paler brown tips to lower breast, flanks and belly.

n

First-year female fresh O. p. opistholeuca As adult female, but paler brown or duller blackish-brown, with pale tips to mantle and back, warm or rich brown cheeks and ear-coverts, and broader pale brown or buffbrown tips to breast and belly.

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Variable Wheatear

a b

c

d

f

e

g

h

k j i

m

n

l

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PLATE 48: WHEATEARS III Mourning Wheatear Oenanthe lugens (see also Plate 46)

Map and text page 583

13.5–14.5cm. A slim-bodied wheatear of N Africa, the Middle East, N Arabia and Iran. Locally common in stony deserts, plains, wadis, dry hills and boulder-strewn slopes with or without sparse vegetation. Fairly conspicuous, occasionally wary. Sedentary or short-distance migrant to wintering areas within or south of breeding range. a

Adult male fresh O. l. lugens C Egypt, S & E Israel, Jordan and NW Saudi Arabia. Crown and nape white finely tipped pale grey, face to throat, mantle, upper back, scapulars and wings black (except for white inner webs to base of primaries and secondaries), lower back, rump and uppertail-coverts white, tail white with central feathers distally black for about half length and tips to all outers black; undertail-coverts peachy buff. b First-year male worn O. l. lugens As adult but flight feathers, primary-coverts and outer greater coverts browner, contrasting with new black median coverts and upperparts, partial or vestigial pale tips to some greater and primary coverts, pale fringes to tertials. c Adult female worn O. l. lugens As male but mantle, scapulars and throat often slightly duller grey-brown. d Adult fresh O. l. persica C & N Iraq and W, S & C Iran. Both sexes as nominate (female slightly duller than male), but crown streaked grey-brown, undertail-coverts darker rusty-buff or cinnamon-orange, tip of tail slightly more extensively black. e Adult male fresh O. l. halophila C & E Morocco through N Algeria to NW & NE Libya and NW Egypt. From nominate male by usually more extensive pale grey crown reaching to centre of nape; upper mantle also pale grey to grey-brown, becoming darker or blacker, primary coverts can be finely tipped whitish, and is paler warm peach-buff or cream-pink on undertail-coverts (all white in some). f Adult male worn O. l. halophila As nominate male except extent of white on inner webs of flight feathers (see illustration in text) and paler or off-white undertail-coverts. g Adult female fresh O. l. halophila (pale-throated) Crown and upperparts pale grey tinged brown, lower back to tail as male but central and tips to all outer feathers browner and terminal fringe pale whitish-buff, and buffish-white supercilium. Wing-coverts dark brown finely fringed sandy-grey, white or greyish-white wedge at base of inner web of primaries (only visible in flight) as male but less well-defined, warm or rufous-brown ear-coverts, cheeks and neck-sides pale sandy-brown, and chin and throat dirty white or pale grey. h Adult female fresh head O. l. halophila (pale-throated) Some pale-throated birds have neck-sides darker and throat dirty white or pale grey, while intermediates between pale- and dark-throated birds have dark brown ear-coverts and cheeks, with broader dark rear border and mottled dark grey chin and upper throat. i Adult female fresh head O. l. halophila (dark-throated) Face as male or finely tipped paler or creamy-buff; those with darkest throats may have forehead, crown-sides and nape nearly white. j Adult female worn O. l. halophila (dark-throated) Upperparts paler and greyer, wings can be almost black as pale fringes on wings and tip to tail lost; pale buff to off-white forehead, supercilium and nape-sides, and blackish face, chin and throat (may show pale tips on throat). k Juvenile Forehead to crown and upperparts sandy-grey or faintly streaked darker, tail as adult with broad white or sandy-white tips. Wing-coverts dark grey fringed sandy-buff, greater coverts broadly tipped buffish, throat and breast pale or sandy-buff, rest of underparts whitish, and undertail-coverts as adult.

Arabian Wheatear Oenanthe lugentoides

Map and text page 594

13.5–14.5cm. Rather stocky or thickset with fine bill. Nominate resident in SW Saudi Arabia and Yemen, with race boscaweni in E Yemen and S Oman, but differences slight. Common on open rocky hillsides, terraces and cliffs with sparse vegetation or low trees, edges of cultivation, villages and roadsides, occasionally in large cities. l

m n

o p

Adult male fresh Very similar to male Mourning Wheatear with whitish streaked grey crown and nape sharply divided from rest of black upperparts, underparts white except rusty-buff vent and undertailcoverts, and in flight shows pale inner webs to primaries (see text). Adult male worn Slightly heavier streaking on crown and nape, lower forehead to crown- and nape-sides slightly broader or whiter; underparts white except slightly paler orange-buff vent and undertail-coverts. Adult female Grey-brown head and upperparts with warm or rufous-brown ear-coverts, rump to tail as male, underparts off-white with diffuse grey streaks on breast; in flight lacks white in primaries, which are paler grey on inner webs and appear semi-translucent. Adult male in flight from below Black underwing-coverts. Adult male in flight from above Showing extent of broad white wedge on basal half of inner webs of primaries (except outermost).

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Mourning Wheatear

c

b

a

e d

f

g h i j k

o

p

l

m n

Arabian Wheatear

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PLATE 49: WHEATEARS IV Abyssinian Wheatear Oenanthe lugubris

Map and text page 590

15–16cm. Slim with variable plumage; resident in NE & E Africa. Locally common in highland ravines, rocky outcrops with scattered bushes and low trees, occasionally at edges of villages; race schalowi also in dry watercourses with adjacent bushy grassland in Rift Valley. Conspicuous, perching on rocks, bushes and low trees. a

Adult male O. l. lugubris (dark-bellied) N Eritrea to S Ethiopia. Grey crown to upper nape, face to upper- and underparts including wings pure black, rump and tail-coverts to base and sides of tail orange-buff to white.

b

Adult female O. l. lugubris Head and upperparts dark brown streaked blackish except white, buff or pale orange rump and uppertail-coverts, tail as male, throat pale or greyish-buff streaked darker (extending to flanks), breast dingy buff and flanks dusky or off-white.

c

Adult male fresh O. l. schalowi CS Kenya and N Tanzania. Crown to nape drab brown, dingy brown or sootyblack fringed grey-buff, face to throat and upperparts black, mantle, back and scapulars fringed browner, rump and uppertail-coverts bright cinnamon becoming deeper on base and sides of tail, underparts as nominate with variable extent of black from only on throat, extending to breast in others, and rest of underparts white.

d

Adult male worn O. l. schalowi As fresh plumage but crown to nape darker, upperparts uniform black, pale fringes to upperparts, primary-coverts and alula completely abraded, and pale tips to tail also lost.

e

Adult female O. l. schalowi As nominate female but head to back and wings slightly paler or greyer brown, indistinct supercilium, rump and uppertail-coverts as male but slightly paler, tail as male but terminal band slightly wider and browner, and wing-coverts finely fringed buff-brown.

f Juvenile Almost entirely sooty brown but slightly paler or whiter on belly to undertail, face slightly darker or warm blackish-brown, rump to tail as adult, tips to median and greater coverts orange-buff, face to throat finely flecked or spotted pale buffish, and underparts to flanks broadly streaked or spotted dark brown, buffish or orange-buff. g

Adult male fresh O. l. vauriei C & N Somalia. Crown to nape greyish-white (the palest race) streaked blackish, upperparts black finely fringed paler, rump and uppertail-coverts white or pale orange-buff (paler than schalowi), base of outer tail feathers vary from pale orange to white, and central feathers and tips broadly black. Face to upper breast black, rest of underparts pale greyish-white or white.

h

Adult female O. l. vauriei Head and upperparts paler brown than female lugubris with rump pale buff to pinkish-buff, underparts also paler or whiter, with buffish wash on lower throat and lightly streaked brownish.

Somali Wheatear Oenanthe phillipsi

Map and text page 551

14cm. Fairly small, slim wheatear with very restricted distribution in NE Africa. Locally common in open grassland, savanna and semi-desert plains with sparse vegetation, rocks and scattered bushes, also recently burnt grassland. Perches on ground, rocks, low bushes and other vantage points; often tame and rarely flies far if disturbed. Sedentary but may make short-distance movements in non-breeding season. i

Adult male worn Forehead, crown and upperparts to inner greater coverts pale grey tinged bluish, white supercilium, rump and uppertail-coverts, tail white with black central and tips to all outer feathers, outer greater coverts, alula, primary-coverts and flight feathers black, tertials and secondaries finely edged white, face, neck-sides, throat and breast sooty-black, and lower flanks, belly and undertail-coverts white.

j

Adult female fresh As adult male except crown and upperparts slightly paler or duller grey, cheeks and ear-coverts blackish-brown, rest of face, throat-sides to lower breast broadly tipped grey obscuring black bases, white fringes to wing-coverts and white edges to tertials.

k First-winter Crown to back as adult or tinged brownish, tail as juvenile or subterminal tail-band may be broader, greater coverts variable, new feathers blackish-brown broadly fringed pale grey (as adult but dark centres more extensive) and retained juvenile feathers dark brown fringed white, flight feathers dark brown, tertials broadly fringed whitish, secondaries similar but fringes narrower. Face to breast black, tipped grey – throat may be almost black to all-grey in first-year females. l Juvenile Crown, upperparts, throat and breast greyish-white to grey-brown fringed brown, slightly broader fringes on throat and breast, tail as adult but central feathers and tips to all outer feathers browner and slightly more extensive. Lesser and median coverts broadly fringed grey or white, greater coverts dark brown broadly fringed white, alula and primary-coverts dark brown fringed whitish, and flight feathers dark brown fringed buff.

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Abyssinian Wheatear

c

b

a

d

e

f

h g

i

i k j

l

Somali Wheatear

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PLATE 50: WHEATEARS V Northern Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe

Map and text page 543

14.5–15.5cm. Slim, fairly long-legged and the most widespread and familiar wheatear. Nominate breeds across Europe, most of N Asia and into Alaska and NW Canada, with three other races in NE Canada, Greenland and Iceland; S Europe east to C Asia; and NW Africa. Differences between them rather slight and clinal, except males and some females of race seebohmi. Common or very common in semi-desert, temperate and low Arctic habitats. A long-distance migrant, wintering in Africa, except race seebohmi which is a short-distance migrant. a

Adult male fresh O. o. oenanthe Crown and upperparts olive-brown or warm brown obscuring grey bases, wing-coverts and flight feathers black with narrow pale grey-buff or off-white tips to lesser and median coverts, warm or cinnamon-buff fringes to tertials and greater coverts, fine fringes to primaries and primarycoverts, face black but ear-coverts flecked paler, throat and upper breast buffish to deep buffy-cinnamon, and rest of underparts pale cinnamon-buff to pale creamy-buff, palest in centre of belly and vent. b Adult male worn O. o. oenanthe Pale grey crown and upperparts, white lower forehead and supercilium, black mask, bright white rump and tail-sides with black centre and band at tip of tail, wings all black as pale fringes wear off, chin and throat whitish to cream-yellow and peachy or orange-buff on breast and flanks. c Adult male O. o. oenanthe in flight White rump extends to tail-sides with broad black tip and central feathers. d First-summer male O. o. oenanthe As breeding adult but upperparts tinged olive-brown, black ear-coverts flecked olive-brown, throat and breast deeper ochre-buff, tail, flight feathers and some (or all) wing-coverts dark or blackish-brown (black in adult) with fine pale tips to greater coverts. e Adult female worn O. o. oenanthe Head and upperparts olive-brown tinged greyer, face plainer than adult male, lacking black mask and has narrow buff to whitish supercilium, dark lores and eyestripe; rump and tail as male and underparts creamy to warm buff or off-white. f Adult female O. o. oenanthe in flight Blackish underwing-coverts with broad white fringes. g First-winter O. o. oenanthe As adult non-breeding female (often indistinguishable), crown to upperparts pale buffish or warmer brown, secondaries, tertials and primary-coverts broadly fringed pale buff to warm buff-brown forming panel on closed wing, buffish becoming white supercilium, blackish-brown eyestripe, warm buff-brown cheeks and ear-coverts, and underparts warm buff. h Juvenile Crown and upperparts dark grey-brown and buff, rump, uppertail-coverts and tail as adult, lesser and median coverts dark olive-brown with pale buff tips, tertials and greater coverts fringed warm brown. Face brown streaked pale buff, underparts pale to warm-buff. i Adult male worn O. o. seebohmi Black face and throat, crown to upperparts as adult male oenenthe but may show less black on tip of tail, and underparts as adult male oenanthe or paler or whiter. j Adult female O. o. seebohmi Variable, either as female oenanthe or may have brown ear-coverts, and face to chin and throat blackish mottled paler; upperparts paler and more sandy-brown or greyer in some (almost as grey as adult male), axillaries and underwing-coverts dark grey-brown or blackish with whitish fringes. k Adult male worn O. o. leucorhoa As nominate male or slightly larger and often more colourful (distinction from nominate oenanthe rarely possible to confirm except in hand) but many in spring and summer are as pale or paler on throat and breast. l First-winter O. o. leucorhoa As same-age oenanthe but on average browner or tinged rust-brown on crown and upperparts, cheeks and underparts average deeper and more extensively rusty-cinnamon (some firstyear male oenanthe can be similar to adult leucorhoa in underparts coloration, and separable only on size).

Isabelline Wheatear Oenanthe isabellina

Map and text page 537

15–16.5cm. Large, upright and long-legged wheatear with large (or broad-based) bill. Breeds from SE Europe and S Russia to C Asia, S Siberia, Mongolia and N China. Common or locally common; conspicuous in dry open plains and steppes with sparse vegetation. Winters in sub-Saharan Africa, Arabia and NW India. m

Adult worn Broad dark or blackish lores to eye, broad pale or whitish supercilium, sandy to greyish-sandy upperparts and fringes to wing-coverts largely obscuring dark or blackish-brown flight feathers, except black alula (often clearest black feather in wing). White lower rump to basal half of tail and broad black band at tip, with short extension on central feathers. n First-winter As adult and often impossible to age in field. Retained juvenile wing and tail feathers more worn than adjacent fresh feathers, and browner and more worn than adult at same season. Buff fringes and tips of primary-coverts and greater coverts broader and less clear-cut than adult. o Adult in flight from above Broad bases to wings. p Adult in flight from below Very pale or whitish underwing.

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Northern Wheatear

b

a

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o Isabelline Wheatear

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PLATE 51: WHEATEARS VI Pied Wheatear Oenanthe pleschanka (see also Plate 52)

Map and text page 559

14–16.5cm. Slim, fairly long-tailed wheatear. Breeds from SE Europe through C & S Russia to NE China; partly overlaps and hybridises with Black-eared Wheatear in SE Europe, S Russia and Caucasus. Common or locally common in variety of habitats, from level short-grass steppe to arid stony plains. A long-distance migrant, wintering in SW Arabia and NE & E Africa. A white-throated morph (‘vittata’) occurs sporadically throughout range. a

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Adult male fresh Crown and nape buffish-brown (may show white bases), black mantle and upper back partially or fully concealed by grey-brown tips, rump to sides of tail white; wings black finely fringed pale and tips forming wingbars on median and greater coverts and pale edges to tertials and inner secondaries; face to throat black finely tipped cream or whitish; rest of the underparts pale to sandy or orange-buff. Adult male fresh When very fresh, crown to upper back grey-brown (with black bases visible through wear); amount of black on face to throat depends on wear of pale tips. Adult male worn Crown and nape white; lower back and rump to sides of tail white, central tail feathers and tips to outers black forming band (often narrow or broken); mantle, upper back and wings black with all fringes absent; black face and throat extends to centre of upper breast; rest of the underparts white. Adult male in flight from below Adult male in flight from above First-winter male Brown or cold grey-brown head and upperparts with fine pale buff fringes or tips forming wavy pattern, wings blackish-brown broadly fringed pale buff-brown, may show some black on face and throat (usually concealed by buff or whitish fringes); in flight has black underwing-coverts like adult. First-summer male Crown never cleanly white, with grey or grey-brown tips into spring (can be tinged brown in Jun). Black upperparts may show brownish fringes. Ear-coverts and throat less pure black, and can show fine brown tips. Wing-coverts and flight feathers blackish-brown (black in adult). Adult male ‘vittata’ head Black on face restricted to lores and ear-coverts, narrowly across neck-sides, while chin and throat to upper breast white. Adult female ‘vittata’ head Ear-coverts dull brown, neck-sides and throat pale buff or off-white. Adult female ‘vittata’ fresh In some intermediates or in fresh plumage, white only on chin and throat.

Cyprus Wheatear Oenanthe cypriaca

Map and text page 565

13–14cm. Slim and fairly compact wheatear that breeds only on Cyprus. Common on grassy or scrub-covered hillsides with scattered trees to orchards, vineyards and plantations; in winter in semi-desert with sparse bushes and scrub. Medium- to short-distance migrant, wintering mostly in S Egypt, N Sudan and SC Ethiopia. k

Adult male fresh Crown and nape dark brown finely tipped white, mantle, back and scapulars blackishbrown fringed paler, wings black or blackish-brown fringed or tipped paler, rump, uppertail-coverts and basal tail-sides white, central tail feathers and terminal band black, face to centre of upper breast black finely tipped pale buff-brown, and rest of underparts cinnamon-buff to paler or orange-buff. l Adult male worn Forehead to crown, nape and upper mantle white, variably spotted black, buff or pearlgrey, upperparts and wings jet-black. Face to neck-sides and centre of upper breast black, breast peachy or pale cinnamon, and rest of underparts white. m Adult female fresh As adult male but more sooty or browner black on upperparts and usually only crownsides from forehead to sides or lower nape white, becoming more extensively white in spring; wings finely fringed buff, and underparts similar or duller cinnamon than adult male. n Adult female worn As male (often inseparable in late summer); crown, nape and upper mantle brown or grey-brown, becoming paler and whiter with wear, to all white in some. o Adult very worn All-white forehead to crown and nape, and all-black face to throat, neck-sides, mantle, back, scapulars and wings; underparts white. p First-winter male As fresh adult female but greyer forehead and forecrown, mantle, back and scapulars dull blackish broadly fringed pale buff (averages broader than adult). Face and throat sooty-brown finely flecked buff, and underparts duller and richer cinnamon. q First-year female As adult female (not always safely aged in field) and same-age male; upperparts broadly fringed pale buff, pale fringes almost conceal black face to lower throat (but sooty-black by May). r Juvenile Head and upperparts grey-brown spotted pale or yellowish-buff, narrow pale buff or whitish supercilium, rump and tail as adult with pale tips to tail, wing-coverts fringed or tipped pale buff, and flight feathers and tertials blackish finely edged pale or whitish-buff.

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Pied Wheatear

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Cyprus Wheatear

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PLATE 52: WHEATEARS VII Pied Wheatear Oenanthe pleschanka (continued – see also Plate 51) a b

c

Map and text page 559

Adult male spring Crown to upper edge of mantle tipped brown or grey-brown, with white bases (depending on wear), becoming white or whiter by May. Adult female worn Head and upperparts dull grey-brown, wings black (finely fringed pale brown when fresh), rump to tail as male, throat to upper breast variably pale brownish-white to grey, grey-brown or blackish. First-winter female As adult female, mantle and scapulars prominently scaled with pale buff fringes, throat and upper breast grey or grey-brown tinged brown to rusty-brown on breast; retained juvenile flight feathers, tertials, primary-coverts and some greater coverts similar to adult female making ageing difficult.

Black-eared Wheatear Oenanthe hispanica

Map and text page 570

13.5–15.5cm. Fairly slim and comparatively long-tailed wheatear. Nominate breeds around W Mediterranean from Portugal to S France, N & C Italy and in NW Africa from Morocco to NW Libya, with race melanoleuca from S Italy through Balkans to SE Romania, Turkey, Caucasus, Iran and W Kazakhstan, and in south to Israel and Jordan. Racial differences most evident in males. Breeding range partly overlaps with Pied Wheatear and they hybridise in SE Europe, S Russia and Caucasus. Common or locally common in open dry, rock and bouldercovered hillsides with maquis or scrub, gorges, quarries, heaths, dry river valleys and wadis, also edges of cultivation. Winters in similar habitats, in sub-Saharan Africa. d

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Adult male fresh O. h. hispanica (dark-throated) Forehead creamy-white, crown to upper back deep sandybrown tinged cinnamon, wings black finely fringed sandy-buff to buffish-white, face to centre of lower throat black finely streaked paler, and warm sandy or light orange-brown on breast and upper flanks. Adult male worn O. h. hispanica Forehead extensively whitish, crown to mantle, scapulars and breast golden or light sandy-brown, scapulars wearing paler golden yellow or whiter in summer; wings all black. Adult male head fresh O. h. hispanica (pale-throated) As dark-throated except black only on lores to earcoverts (not extending to base of bill) with lower cheeks white. Adult male head worn O. h. hispanica (pale-throated) As fresh plumage but forehead and crown whiter. Adult male (pale-throated) in flight from below Shows dark underwing-coverts. Adult male (pale-throated) in flight from above Wings mainly black with most pale fringes lost. Adult female worn O. h. hispanica Crown, nape and mantle dull sandy-brown, wings blackish-brown and rump and tail as adult male. In pale-throated morph, cheeks and ear-coverts brown or warm brown (in some only slightly darker than crown) and chin and throat pale buff or white. First-year female O. h. hispanica As adult female. Warm sandy-brown crown and upperparts, wings dark brownish-black broadly fringed sandy, faint buff supercilium, cheeks and ear-coverts brown, throat pale buff or creamy, and breast and flanks sandy or orange-yellow. At close range (or in hand) retained juvenile wing and tail feathers more visibly worn than adult with abraded fringes, but often difficult to distinguish. Adult male fresh O. h. melanoleuca (pale-throated) Lower forehead to eye, cheeks and ear-coverts black, crown to back grey-brown or sandy-brown, tail as nominate hispanica but when spread shows more white in broken or narrower band at tip, wings black or blackish-brown, coverts fringed buff, greater coverts broadly fringed pale buff, and breast sandy-buff to pale cream-yellow. Adult male worn O. h. melanoleuca (dark-throated) Similar to worn male hispanica, upper forehead to crown and mantle pale grey or off-white to sandy-cream on mantle; scapulars and wings black; in mid-summer mantle to back is whiter, and can often appear a black-and-white bird. First-winter male O. h. melanoleuca As fresh adult female but crown and upperparts slightly greyer-brown, scapulars broadly fringed sandy-brown, wings brownish-grey broadly fringed buff to sandy-buff, face as adult but has slightly darker ear-coverts, and warm or orange-buff (occasionally duller or browner) on breast. Adult female worn O. h. melanoleuca Similar to adult female hispanica (both pale- and dark-throated, but proportion of dark-throated greater than in female hispanica) and separation not always easy and some overlap is evident. Crown to mantle usually darker or dull grey-brown lacking warm tones (but intermediates occur). Dark-throated birds usually have pale or off-white chin, and face never as black as male. First-year female fresh O. h. melanoleuca Similar to adult female melanoleuca; crown and upperparts slightly darker brown or greyer-brown than hispanica.

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Pied Wheatear

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PLATE 53: WHEATEARS VIII Red-rumped Wheatear Oenanthe moesta

Map and text page 527

16–17cm. Medium to large, long-legged and rather large-headed wheatear with stout bill. Desert edges across northern fringe of Sahara in N Africa and parts of Middle East. Fairly or locally common in low sandy hills, wadis and stony plains with low scrub or sparse vegetation. Usually not shy; perches prominently on rocks, boulders or low bushes. Mainly sedentary but may move short distances in non-breeding season. a

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Adult male fresh Pale grey crown to upper mantle, dark or blackish-grey on mantle to scapulars, wings dark grey or black with broad white fringes to wing-coverts, rump to base of tail pinkish-buff to rufous, rest of tail black, white forehead and supercilium to nape-sides, black face to sides of neck and breast. Adult male fresh in flight Adult male worn As fresh plumage but supercilium broader, crown and nape paler, lower back, rump and uppertail-coverts pale buff or buff-white, with some rufous at base of tail, pale fringes to wing feathers bleached paler, wing-coverts uniform black, and undertail-coverts paler. Adult male worn in flight Adult female fresh Head to upper mantle deep sandy or cinnamon-brown, with paler sandy or sandybrown mantle, scapulars and back, rump and uppertail-coverts cinnamon, tail more extensively rufous at base than male, wing-coverts grey-brown fringed buff and tipped whiter, flight feathers and tertials as adult male but paler, underparts sandy or cream-white, and undertail-coverts pale sandy-cinnamon. Adult female fresh Some have mantle, back and scapulars pale grey and poorly defined supercilium. Adult female worn As fresh plumage, with deeper sandy-brown head and face, mantle and scapulars slightly darker, wings and tail duller brown, pale fringes and tips bleached paler and partly abraded. Adult female in flight Juvenile female Head and upperparts buff-brown or grey-brown, rump and uppertail-coverts pale buff to rufous-buff, tail as adult female, wing-coverts grey or sandy-grey tipped buff, greater coverts broadly tipped sandy, flight feathers finely tipped white, underparts pale buff or creamy-white.

Red-tailed Wheatear Oenanthe chrysopygia

Map and text page 556

13–15cm. Fairly slim, grey-brown wheatear with prominent orange-rufous rump to basal tail-sides. Breeds from Caucasus and Iran to parts of C Asia and NW Pakistan. Uncommon or locally common in dry, rocky mountains, hills, ravines, slopes and valleys. A medium-distance migrant; winters in coastal Sudan and Eritrea (uncommon) and from E Arabia, Gulf States, S Iran to S Afghanistan and NW India. j

Adult fresh Grey or grey-brown head and upperparts, pale or whitish supercilium, prominent orangerufous rump to basal tail-sides, and wings darker brown with pale sandy or orange-buff fringes and tips to greater coverts. Sexes similar; male has on average darker face and slightly brighter head and upperparts. k Adult worn Crown to upperparts browner or greyer brown, rump and uppertail-coverts bleached paler orange-buff, fringes on wings and tail bleached paler and wings largely dark-brown with fine buff fringes on greater coverts and tertials; flanks and undertail-coverts paler occasionally tawny-buff. l Adults in flight from above and below m Juvenile Head and upperparts paler than adult, and rump and uppertail-coverts pale cinnamon-buff. Tail as adult, breast buff, flanks, belly and vent pale cream, or flanks tinged sandy, and undertail-coverts pale cinnamon. Wing-coverts pale grey-brown broadly fringed sandy-buff or sandy-brown.

Kurdistan Wheatear Oenanthe xanthoprymna

Map and text page 553

14–15cm. Distinctive wheatear with restricted breeding range in SE Turkey and W Iran. Uncommon or locally common in stony foothills and valleys with scattered bushes and low scrub. A short-distance migrant, wintering between S Israel, E & SE Egypt and along Red Sea to Sudan; possibly also W Saudi Arabia. n o p

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Adult male Grey-brown head and upperparts, black face to throat, rump and uppertail-coverts deep rufous or cinnamon-orange, white bases to outer tail feathers with black centre and broad black tip. Adult males in flight from above and below Adult female (dark-throated) Dimorphic; black-throated form resembles male, with slightly duller face and throat. Rump and uppertail-coverts as male, tail white or bright orange on bases to outer feathers, with black central feathers and broad band at tips of all feathers. Adult female (pale-throated) As dark-throated but has grey-brown cheeks and ear-coverts and paler or whiter throat; may also have paler grey to grey-brown crown, mantle and scapulars.

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PLATE 54: WHEATEARS IX Hooded Wheatear Oenanthe monacha

Map and text page 614

17cm. Large, slender and long-billed wheatear of E Egypt and east through Arabia to Pakistan. Locally common or scarce in remote arid hills, cliffs, scree slopes, canyons and wadis, occasionally at desert settlements and roadsides, dry saltmarshes or grassland with sparse scrub. Conspicuous but also shy and cautious; often makes long flights if disturbed. Sedentary or undertakes short-range dispersal in non-breeding season. a

Adult male fresh As worn plumage except crown and nape tinged buff, mantle to scapulars tipped pale grey, central tail feathers narrowly tipped pale buff, outers white with narrow black shaft-streaks near tips and wider streak at tip of outermost. Lesser and median coverts finely tipped whitish, ear-coverts, sides of throat and neck tipped white, chin and centre of throat often entirely whitish, and upper breast also tipped white.

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Adult male worn Black-and-white with white forehead to nape, black face to centre of breast, upperparts and wings, white back to tail-sides with centre of tail black.

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Adult male in flight from above

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First-year male fresh As adult male but crown and nape tinged pale grey, mantle to scapulars fringed pale grey (fringes broader than adult), and rump and uppertail-coverts pinkish-cream (white in adult). Wing coverts black finely fringed white, and flight feathers blackish-brown. Face to breast-sides dull black with broad whitish tips (broader than adult).

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Adult female fresh Pale sandy or sandy-grey crown and upperparts, with narrow and often indistinct supercilium, blackish wings fringed pale buff and sandy to rufous-buff tail-coverts and outer tail feathers.

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Adult female worn As fresh plumage except crown and upperparts greyer, rump, uppertail-coverts and outer tail paler, underparts paler sandy-buff, and wings browner with fringes fine or abraded.

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Adult female in flight from above

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Adult female tail pattern Central feathers dark brown, all outer feathers pale cinnamon or rufous-buff, often with broad dark spot at tip – largest on outermost three – and outermost is more extensively brown.

Finsch’s Wheatear Oenanthe finschii

Map and text page 596

15–17.5cm. Rather stocky wheatear of desolate stony hillsides, plains and desert edges. Nominate breeds from S Turkey to N Israel and Iran, race barnesi from E Turkey and Caucasus to N Iraq, N Iran and C Asia to W Pakistan, but differences are slight. Common or locally common, and perches prominently, but is occasionally shy or elusive. Sedentary or partial migrant, birds from highest areas move to lower levels within breeding range or slightly further south. i

Adult male fresh O. f. finschii Crown to nape, mantle and back creamy-yellow or beige to white tinged buffish-grey, sides of crown to nape white, rump to uppertail-coverts and most of tail white, central rectrices and tips to outer feathers black, all narrowly tipped white, face to throat, neck-sides and wings black, primary-coverts and tertials finely tipped white, and underparts whitish to creamy-buff or tinged pinkish.

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Adult male worn O. f. finschii As fresh plumage except crown to mantle paler cream or whiter, white fringes on wings and tail absent, may show dark bases to crown, mantle, back and underparts.

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Adult male in flight from above Wings black with inner webs to flight feathers paler or greyer black.

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Adult tail pattern worn Central feathers and tips to all feathers black, lacking any extension along outer edge of outermost feathers; in fresh plumage all feathers narrowly tipped white.

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Adult female fresh O. f. finschii Sandy-grey head and upperparts with slightly warmer or brown ear-coverts, wings blackish-brown fringed pale brown-grey, greater coverts fringed buffy or whitish, chin and throat variably pale buff to whitish or creamy, or face to ear-coverts and neck-sides, chin and throat blackish, or has paler buffish or whitish tips to chin and throat.

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Adult female worn O. f. finschii Crown and upperparts sandy grey-brown, dark half-collar (in dark-throated birds) more prominent; in heavily worn dark-throated females, face and throat nearly solidly black, but chin and throat often whitish.

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Adult female in flight from below Dull blackish or brownish-black underwing-coverts contrasting with pale flight feathers.

p Juvenile As adult female but crown and upperparts buffish to fawn, neck-sides, throat and breast white to pale pinkish-buff. Wing-coverts and tertials with broad buff or off-white fringes. Sexes similar but separable, dark areas in wings and tail are black in male and dark brown in female.

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Hooded Wheatear

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PLATE 55: WHEATEARS X Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti

Map and text page 578

14–15cm. Medium-sized, sandy-coloured wheatear, widespread across N Africa and Asia. Differences between races mainly involve colour saturation, and size and extent of white in wings. Common or locally common in stony and sandy deserts including wadis, rocky plains and wide valleys with sparse vegetation. Partly sedentary and a short- or long-distance migrant, wintering around Sahara and E Africa and from Arabia to NW India. a

First-year male fresh O. d. oreophila C Asia to W Himalayas and WC China. As adult but has broader pale buffish-white fringes to black face, throat and neck-sides, often partly obscuring black bases. Greater coverts dark or blackish-brown (black finely tipped white in adult), fringed sandy or sandy-cinnamon, and completely buff-white fringes to dark brown primary coverts. b Adult male worn O. d. oreophila Sandy upperparts, white lower forehead, supercilium and band on scapulars, black face to throat connects across neck-sides to black lesser coverts and flight feathers, fine buffish-white fringes to wings, rump and uppertail-coverts white or creamy-white. c Adult female fresh O. d. oreophila As adult male or slightly paler on crown and upperparts, face and throat mostly pale sandy to sandy-buff, with paler supercilium, darker sandy ear-coverts and paler or whiter chin and throat, but some may resemble adult male with blackish face and throat. d Adult female worn (dark-throated) Pale tips on face, throat and neck-sides wear to reveal blackish bases. e Tail pattern In flight tail mainly black with white or cream-white rump, uppertail-coverts and base of tail, but latter concealed by uppertail-coverts or visible only at sides. f Adult male fresh O. d. homochroa N Africa from S Morocco to NW Mauritania east to N & W Egypt. As male nominate and oreophila but mantle and scapulars tinged pinkish, breast and upper flanks pink-buff or slightly deeper sandy-buff, flight feathers fringed pinkish-buff. g Adult male worn O. d. deserti SE Turkey to NE Egypt, east to C Asia and N China. Crown and upperparts pale sandy or sandy-grey, and rump and uppertail-coverts whitish. In mid-summer wings black with pale scapulars. Supercilium white, face to throat and neck-sides pure black. h Adult male in flight from above i Adult female in flight from above j Juvenile As adult female but crown and upperparts buffy-brown mottled paler. Tail as adult with broad greyish-buff or pink-buff tips, and wing-coverts greyish-black with pale buff fringes and tips. Face pale greyish-buff.

Hume’s Wheatear Oenanthe albonigra

Map and text page 606

17–18cm. Large, long-legged wheatear, with relatively large, high-crowned head. E Iraq and S Gulf States to S Afghanistan and Pakistan. A dry-country specialist, on barren hillsides, cliffs and ravines with very sparse vegetation, also ruins and settlements. Common or locally common, and often tame and confiding. Largely sedentary or makes short-distance movements. k

Adult fresh Glossy bluish-black on head and upperparts, white lower back, rump, breast and belly, primary coverts very finely tipped white, secondaries and inner primaries have fine grey tips. l Adult in flight from above Showing black central feathers and terminal band. m Juvenile As adult but plumage loose and fluffy, and bluish-black replaced by dark sooty-brown, with fine pale brown fringes on mantle and scapulars; tail feathers finely fringed grey or off-white.

White-crowned Black Wheatear Oenanthe leucopyga

Map and text page 608

17cm. Medium-sized, almost entirely glossy black wheatear in deserts of N Africa and Arabia. Nominate breeds across Sahara from Morocco to Mauritania east to Egypt and N & NE Ethiopia, with race ernesti in NE Egypt and S Israel to E Saudi Arabia, but differences between them are slight and possibly clinal. Common or locally common, and conspicuous often in most arid areas with minimal vegetation. Largely sedentary. n Adult Glossy black except white crown, upper nape, rump to outer tail feathers and undertail-coverts. Tips to tail vary slightly, with some having dark spots or patches, but never a complete band. o Adult in flight Showing tail pattern. p First-year head As adult but crown black with slight gloss, becoming white when first-summer, with irregular small white patch often on forecrown or crown-sides. q Juvenile Slightly paler and browner than adult in worn plumage, no white on crown, wings slightly paler or browner, primary and greater coverts have fine pale tips, and black subterminal spot on each rectrix.

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White-crowned Black Wheatear

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PLATE 56: WHEATEARS XI Red-breasted Wheatear Oenanthe bottae

Map and text page 532

17–18cm. Large, long-legged and upright wheatear. Common or locally common in highland grassland with scattered bushes, stony or rocky hillsides, lava plains and, edges of cultivation. Usually tame and perches on rocks, fences and bushes. Mainly sedentary, but some move short distances when not breeding. a

Adult fresh O. b. bottae SW Saudi Arabia and W Yemen. Crown and upperparts grey-brown. Bold white supercilium and broad dark or black eyestripe. Tail almost all dark or blackish-brown, except white bases to outer feathers. Lower face to throat white, breast and flanks bright orange to sandy-brown. b Adult worn O. b. bottae As fresh plumage but crown and upperparts darker or drab grey-brown; pale fringes on wings abraded; underparts paler orange. c Adult in flight from above White uppertail-coverts and sides to base of tail, rest of tail black. d Adult in flight from below Pale or off-white underwing-coverts. e Juvenile Slightly paler than adult, crown and upperparts lightly spotted pale buff, wing-coverts broadly fringed buffish-sandy, greater coverts tipped paler, secondaries and tertials broadly fringed cinnamon, narrow dull buff supercilium, and face and underparts buffish, finely fringed or tipped darker. f Adult fresh O. b. frenata Eritrea to S Ethiopia. Crown and upperparts darker than nominate, lower necksides, breast and flanks bright cinnamon-orange, and centre of belly buffish-white.

Heuglin’s Wheatear Oenanthe heuglini

Map and text page 534

14–15cm. Medium-sized, long-legged, slim and fairly dark wheatear at S edge of Sahara and NC Africa. Locally common in semi-arid savanna and dry, stony and rocky desert edges, wadis, hillsides with short grass and edges of cultivation. Perches in open on rocks, bushes and termite mounds. A short-distance migrant. g

Adult fresh Dark brown crown and upperparts fringed rufous or cinnamon-buff. White uppertail-coverts and basal tail-sides, and rest of tail black except fine white tips. Wings dark brown fringed rufous-buff or cinnamon on tertials and secondaries, pale face and throat merging into sandy underparts. h Adult worn As fresh plumage but upperparts and wings more uniform dark brown; uppertail-coverts pale grey. Supercilium duller buff; underparts paler and less heavily rufous. i Adult in flight from above Showing extent of white uppertail-coverts and base of tail, and broad black tail-band. j Adult in flight from below Pale sandy underwing-coverts. k First-year Similar to fresh adult; fine pale tips on crown and more broadly on upperparts, lost by first summer. Pale fringes to median and greater coverts, narrow edges to flight feathers, all absent or worn by first summer. Supercilium pale buff and often poorly defined. l Juvenile Crown and upperparts slightly duller brown than adult and finely spotted paler. Pale buff-brown fringes to wings. Narrow, pale supercilium, chin and throat white, and pale buff finely fringed darker on lower face and underparts, tinged sandy on breast and flanks.

Capped Wheatear Oenanthe pileata

Map and text page 530

16–18cm. Boldly marked wheatear of E & S Africa; nominate breeds SW Namibia, S South Africa and W Swaziland, with two other races north to Angola and S Kenya, but differences are very slight. Fairly common in dry grassy plains with scattered shrubs or low trees and termite mounds, semi-desert, barren sandy or stony areas, and alpine moors. Sedentary and migratory, most movements seasonal, complex and generally short-distance. m

Adult fresh O. p. pileata Broad white band on forehead and supercilium, crown black with broad black face, neck-sides and breast-band. White chin and throat, brown upperparts and cinnamon-brown rump. Wings blackish-brown fringed cinnamon-brown or buff. n Adult worn O. p. pileata As fresh plumage, but crown more extensively black to upper nape, upperparts duller or cold earth-brown, pale fringes to tail and wing abraded, breast-band uniform black and underparts whiter, with cinnamon wash restricted to rear flanks and undertail-coverts. o Adult in flight from above Showing narrow white uppertail-coverts and base of outer tail. p Adult in flight from below Broad black breast-band and pale underwing-coverts. q Adult fresh O. p. livingstonii As nominate but crown paler, often only slightly darker than mantle, narrow white band on forehead (can be buffish), upperparts darker or grey-brown, and rump also darker cinnamon-brown. r First-winter O. p. livingstonii Similar to adult but breast-band only faintly indicated, crown and upperparts grey to grey-brown tipped paler, and wings as fresh adult, but may show moult contrast among greater and primary coverts and tail feathers may be more broadly tipped cinnamon-buff.

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Red-breasted Wheatear

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Capped Wheatear

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PLATE 57: SOUTHERN AFRICAN CHATS Sickle-winged Chat Cercomela sinuata

Map and text page 617

15cm. Small to medium-sized, rather slim chat of S Africa; nominate breeds in W Cape Province, with two other races in Namibia east to Lesotho and SE South Africa, but differ only slightly. Common or locally common in dry scrub in semi-desert lowlands, edges of cultivation and montane grassland. Mainly sedentary, but some (of race hypernephela) make short-distance movements to lower levels. a Adult Pale grey-brown head, face and upperparts, with narrow pale eye-ring and slightly warmer brown ear-coverts, and buff to rufous-buff fringes to inner secondaries and tertials form narrow panel on closed wing. b

Adult tail pattern Bright rufous or rufous-pink rump to base and sides of tail, and broad dark centre and tip to tail.

c Juvenile Similar to adult but head and upperparts browner finely spotted pale buff, median, greater coverts and alula broadly tipped warm buff-brown, tertials broadly fringed warm buff-brown, and rump to tail as adult, but tail also broadly fringed pale buff. Underparts pale or creamy-buff, breast and flanks grey-brown mottled paler or buffish.

Tractrac Chat Cercomela tractrac

Map and text page 662

14–15cm. Small to medium-sized, slim and very pale chat of S Africa; nominate breeds in W South Africa, with four other races north to SW Angola. Races differ mainly in head and body plumage. Common and usually conspicuous on plains of Karoo and Namib Deserts, including in scrubby areas, dry riverbeds and scattered bushes on coastal dunes. Sedentary or makes short-range nomadic movements in non-breeding season. d Adult C. t. tractrac Grey or pale grey head and upperparts with slightly paler or whitish and not well-defined supercilium and broad grey eyestripe; wings darker grey broadly fringed pale grey or whitish-buff; underparts whitish. e

Adult tail pattern C. t. tractrac White lower rump and uppertail-coverts to tail-sides, and rest of tail black.

f Juvenile Head and upperparts brown spotted pale or whitish-buff, with larger buff fringes to wing-coverts. Fringes to tertials pale or pinkish-buffish. Rump to tail as adult with narrow buffish-white tip to tail. Underparts creamy, and breast mottled grey-brown with fine dark fringes. g Adult C. t. albicans Slightly larger with paler grey upperparts, whiter or creamier-white underparts, and rump and uppertail-coverts also paler creamy-white than nominate. h

Adult tail pattern C. t. albicans As nominate or has more white in outer feathers and terminal band paler brown.

Karoo Chat Cercomela schlegelii

Map and text page 618

15–18cm. Medium-sized, slender chat of semi-desert areas in S Africa. Nominate breeds in coastal and S Namibia, with three other races north to SW Angola and south into South Africa. They differ in head and upperparts plumage, with palest birds in N to darker or greyer in S. Common and often tame in scrubby areas on low hills and plateaux. Largely sedentary, but may make local or nomadic movements. i Adult C. s. schlegelii Pale or whitish-grey head, face and upperparts, becoming white on rump and uppertailcoverts, with dark grey or blackish wing-coverts and flight feathers broadly fringed pale grey or tipped paler grey. All-white underparts. j

Adult tail pattern C. s. schlegelii Tail with white fringes to outer feathers.

k Adult C. s. pollux Head and upperparts to rump uniform dark grey. Uppertail-coverts pale grey with outer feathers whitish. Chin to breast and upper flanks pale grey, whiter on belly to undertail. l

Adult tail pattern C. s. pollux Outer tail feathers as nominate or more extensively white, and rest of tail slightly darker.

m Juvenile C. s. pollux Grey-brown head and upperparts spotted or streaked paler, tips to median and greater coverts pale greyish-buff and edges to tertials broadly pale whitish-buff; tail as adult. Face to breast pale grey fringed darker on breast and flanks, paler or whiter on belly to undertail.

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Sickle-winged Chat

c

a

b

f d

g

e

Tractrac Chat

i

h

j

m

k

l

Karoo Chat

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PLATE 58: NORTHERN AFRICAN AND MIDDLE EASTERN CHATS Sombre Rock Chat Cercomela dubia

Map and text page 628

14–15cm. Slim, fairly long-legged and comparatively long-tailed chat endemic to very small area of dry and rocky hillsides with scattered bushes in EC Ethiopia and N Somalia. Rare and very little-known. Sedentary and perches on rocks, boulders and bushes. a Adult Nondescript grey-brown head and upperparts with darker brown wings and tail, underparts paler grey with buffish or greyish-brown vent, and undertail-coverts darker brown with broad pale tips.

Blackstart Cercomela melanura

Map and text page 629

14cm. Slim grey chat with long all-black tail, widely distributed from E Mediterranean across Sahel of sub-Saharan Africa to Red Sea. Nominate breeds from S Syria to NE Egypt, W & C Saudi Arabia to S Oman, with five other races across N & W Africa to Mali, SW Niger and Burkina Faso. They differ slightly in head and body plumage. Common or locally common in rocky and scrubby areas at edges of stony deserts, cliffs, hillsides and wadis with scattered bushes. Sedentary or a short-distance migrant. b Adult C. m. melanura Almost entirely pale grey head and upperparts except for black uppertail-coverts and tail, wing-coverts and flight feathers fringed pale grey in fresh plumage, and belly to vent and undertailcoverts pale grey to whitish. c Adult C. m. lypura Head and upperparts including wing-coverts pale grey-brown tinged sandy or sepia on median and greater coverts and edges to flight feathers in fresh plumage. Uppertail-coverts and tail as nominate; breast to belly pale brownish-grey or tinged buffish on flanks. d Adult C. m. airensis Head and upperparts browner than lypura, tinged sandy or cinnamon-brown, chin and throat buffish-grey becoming pale sandy-brown on breast and flanks, creamy-buff on belly, and whiter on vent and undertail-coverts. e Adult C. m. neumanni As nominate but slightly darker or smokier grey on upper- and underparts. f Juvenile Similar to adult but duller grey-brown, black uppertail-coverts tipped buffish-brown, wing-coverts and flight feathers have broad pale grey fringes, breast pale grey or greyish-buff, and buffish-cream on belly, flanks and vent.

Brown-tailed Rock Chat Cercomela scotocerca

Map and text page 626

13–14cm. Small to medium-sized plain brown chat widely distributed in C & E Africa. Nominate breeds in E Sudan to N Eritrea and Ethiopia, with four other races west to C Chad and south to N Somalia and N Kenya. They differ mainly in plumage tones. Common to locally very common resident. Tame bird of arid rocky or boulderstrewn areas including escarpments, rocky outcrops, low cliffs, lava fields and wadis with low scrub. g Adult C. s. scotocerca Head, face and upperparts plain or cold grey-brown becoming slightly warmer or tinged rufous on rump and uppertail-coverts. Dark brown tail fringed slightly warmer brown at base. Plain face with narrow pale eye-ring and pale underparts. h Adult C. s. turkana As nominate but head and upperparts slightly darker, uppertail-coverts and outer edges of outer tail feathers also tinged warm brown, and underparts more uniformly plain grey-brown or tinged brown on flanks. i Adult C. s. spectatrix Slightly larger than nominate, with paler or greyer upperparts and whiter underparts.

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Sombre Rock Chat

c a

e d Blackstart

b

f

g

h

i Brown-tailed Rock Chat

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PLATE 59: AFRICAN AND ASIAN ROCK CHATS Familiar Chat Cercomela familiaris

Map and text page 624

14–15cm. Slim brown chat of sub-Saharan Africa. Nominate breeds in South Africa, while six other races range north to Senegal, and east to Sudan, Ethiopia and NW Kenya, but differ only slightly in head, upper- and underparts plumage. Common or locally very common in open miombo woodland and shrubby areas with scattered rocks. Sedentary but may make short-distance movements ahead of rains and is a breeding-season visitor to parts of range. a Adult C. f. familiaris Almost entirely pale brown, slightly darker on head, face and upperparts, with buffishbrown underparts and rufous rump to tail-sides. b

Adult tail pattern C. f. familiaris Rufous outer feathers with broad dark brown tips and central pair forming inverted T pattern.

c Adult C. f. angolensis As nominate but upperparts slightly paler, rufous rump to tail-sides also slightly paler, brown band at tip of tail narrower (but variable), washed pale grey-brown on throat- and breast-sides, with creamy central belly to flanks and undertail-coverts, and flanks may also be tinged warm buff to dull cinnamon. d Adult C. f. falkensteini As nominate but head and upperparts slightly paler or greyish, chin and throat paler or whiter, and breast and belly pale grey lacking any brownish tinge. e Juvenile Similar to adult but crown and upperparts mottled paler brown, tips of median coverts spotted buff, fringes to greater coverts and tertials warm buff-brown, and underparts as adult or slightly paler with grey or dusky-brown fringes.

Brown Rock Chat Cercomela fusca

Map and text page 620

16.5–17cm. Slim, dark brown chat with long, square-tipped tail, endemic to dry plains and foothills in Indian Subcontinent. Common or locally common, and conspicuous, tame and confiding, being frequently found in villages, towns and cities. Largely sedentary, northern breeders move short distances to south in winter. f Adult Dark or rufescent-brown, or slightly brighter brown on underparts but intensity of rufescent tones on face and underparts largely affected by light, being much brighter in strong sunlight.

Moorland Chat Pinarochroa sordida

Map and text page 632

14–15cm. Small, short-tailed and mostly brownish chat with restricted range in E & NE Africa. Nominate breeds in N & E Ethiopia, with three other races through C Kenya to Uganda and N Tanzania, but differ only slightly. Common or very common and usually tame, perching upright on rock or bush. Occurs in montane grassland, moors and cultivated edges. g Adult P. s. sordida Brown or dull greyish-brown head, face and upperparts, with black-and-white tail pattern recalling a wheatear, off-white to dull buffish chin and throat, and buff-brown underparts. h

Adult tail pattern Central tail feathers blackish-brown, outer feathers white with very narrow blackishbrown tips, and outermost feather has one-third and to half of outer web dark brown.

i Adult P. s. ernesti As nominate but upperparts slightly darker, and underparts pale buff to warm buff-brown. j Juvenile As adult but head and upperparts finely spotted, wing-coverts and flight feathers broadly fringed warm brown, and underparts speckled or finely barred dark brown.

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a

c

d

Familiar Chat

b e

Brown Rock Chat

f

g

i j h

Moorland Chat

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PLATE 60: CONGO MOOR CHAT AND ANTEATER CHATS Congo Moor Chat Myrmecocichla tholloni

Map and text page 634

18–19cm. Medium-sized chat with a stout and slightly curved bill, short, rounded wings and distinctive fluttering flight, restricted to small areas in central and west-central Africa south to central Angola. Common or locally common; active in grasslands with scattered bushes and small trees in sandy or marshy areas. Perches on bushes, fence-posts and roadside wires. a Adult Crown and upperparts dark brown fringed paler; wings dark brown with a white panel on bases to primaries; white rump and uppertail-coverts and dark brown tail; pale chin, throat, face and sides of neck and nape. d Adult in flight Showing pale patch at base of primaries and white or buffish-white rump and uppertail-coverts. c Juvenile As adult or more uniformly dark brown on head and upperparts and paler or greyer on underparts with mottled or dirty white throat; lacks any white in the primaries but wing-coverts, tertials and secondaries have broad pale tips. Pale or horn-coloured bill.

Northern Anteater Chat Myrmecocichla aethiops

Map and text page 635

17–19cm. Medium-sized, stocky chat with short rounded wings, square-ended tail, fairly long legs and often very upright stance. Nominate breeds from S Mauritania and N Senegal to N Cameroon and NE Central African Republic, with two other races east to Sudan, Kenya and NW Tanzania, but differ only slightly. Common or locally common, perching prominently in savanna and areas of short grass with termite mounds and bushes. Sedentary but may move short distances north during wet season. d

Adult fresh M. a. aethiops Almost entirely dark or sooty-brown (appears black at distance), with slightly paler fringes to crown, nape, chin, throat, breast and flanks. Broad white bases to primaries on upper- and underwing surfaces visible only in flight. e Adult M. a. cryptoleuca As nominate but sightly darker or more sooty-brown, with a slightly longer wing. f Adult in flight Broad white inner webs to all except outermost primaries. g Juvenile/first-year As adult but slightly paler or warmer brown. Prior to post-juvenile moult has pale buff fringes to forehead, crown, throat and breast; usually retains pale yellow gape for first three months.

Southern Anteater Chat Myrmecocichla formicivora

Map and text page 637

17–18cm. Medium-sized chat with short, square-ended tail, fairly long legs and upright stance. Common or locally very common; perches prominently in semi-desert and arid habitats in Namibia, Botswana and South Africa. Sedentary but may make nomadic or random movements. h

Adult male fresh Almost entirely dark or sooty-brown (appears all black at distance), head and body feathers fringed paler brown or tinged sandy-brown on chin to belly, lesser coverts white (often partly concealed by scapulars), median and greater coverts dark brown finely edged paler, and prominent white bases to primaries most visible in flight. i Adult male in flight White lesser coverts and extent of white in basal two-thirds of inner webs of all, except outer two, primaries. j Adult female As adult male but lacks white on lesser coverts. k Juvenile/first-year Almost entirely dark brown and very similar to adult; prior to post-juvenile moult has pale buff or buffish-brown spots on head and breast.

Sooty Chat Myrmecocichla nigra

Map and text page 639

16–18cm. Medium-sized, stocky chat with fairly short tail and rounded wings, widely distributed across C & E Africa from Nigeria to NW Tanzania, south to S Zambia and Angola. Sedentary, common and locally common; usually in pairs in open semi-arid grassland, scrub and low bushes with termite mounds. Perches on bushes, posts, termite mounds and roadside wires. l m

Adult male Almost entirely glossy black except bright white patch on lesser and median coverts. Adult male in flight White lesser and median coverts, bases to greater coverts also white (but usually concealed), and inner webs to flight feathers dark brown. n Adult female Uniform dark brown lacking any white in wings. o Juvenile Similar to adult female; juvenile male duller brown-black and less glossy than adult.

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Congo Moor Chat

a

d

c b

e f

Northern Anteater Chat

g

j

h k

Southern Anteater Chat

i n

l o

m

Sooty Chat

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PLATE 61: BLACK CHATS Rüppell’s Black Chat Myrmecocichla melaena

Map and text page 640

15.5–17cm. Medium-sized, fairly short-tailed black chat endemic to highlands of S Eritrea and NC Ethiopia. Resident; local or uncommon, often tame or confiding, usually in pairs or small family groups on rocky cliffs, crags, gorges and ravines with bushes or open woodland. a Adult Entirely black except white bases to primaries which show well only in flight. b

Adult in flight Bases to primaries white and tip or distal third blackish-brown, outer webs of primaries black, and white patch is visible on upper- and undersides of wings.

White-fronted Black Chat Myrmecocichla albifrons

Map and text page 641

15–16cm. Slim chat widely distributed across W & WC Africa east to S Ethiopia. Nominate is resident in N Eritrea and N Ethiopia, with four other races south to N DR Congo and west to Senegambia, but differ only slightly, mainly in extent of white on head and, in two races, wing-coverts. Uncommon or locally common in savanna woodland, edges of cultivation, open and rock-strewn ravines, stony grassland and recently burnt areas. c

Adult male M. a. clericalis As male nominate and frontalis with white on lesser and median coverts.

d

Adult female M. a. clericalis Almost entirely dark or sooty-brown with slightly paler or browner flight feathers.

e

Adult male M. a. frontalis Almost entirely glossy black except prominent white forehead, slightly more extensive than in nominate, but in many individuals as nominate; flight feathers dark brown, underside white or whitish.

f

Adult male M. a. pachyrhyncha As adult male frontalis but white forehead more extensive to centre of crown.

g

Adult female M. a. albifrons Similar to female clericalis almost entirely dusky brownish-black lacking any gloss, or white on forehead, but has chin and throat paler or greyish-white.

h Juvenile Similar to respective adult but head and upperparts heavily spotted with pale buff to brownish fringes, and wing-coverts more uniform with broad pale subterminal spots and blackish tips.

Arnot’s Chat Myrmecocichla arnotti

Map and text page 643

16–18cm. Medium-sized black-and-white chat similar to wheatear in size and shape. Nominate is resident in C Tanzania south to Mozambique and NE South Africa, and west to E Angola and N Namibia, with two other races north to Rwanda and C & S Angola. They differ in extent of white on head, throat and wings. Locally common or uncommon in mopane woodland with open patches and well-developed shrub layer. Usually shy and retiring, but occasionally conspicuous and noisy when in small groups. i

Adult male M. a. arnotti Almost entirely black except brilliant white forehead to nape and large white patch on wing-coverts.

j

Adult female M. a. arnotti As male or slightly duller brownish-black, and lacks white forehead to nape, but has white chin and throat to upper breast.

k

Adult male M. a. harterti As nominate but white on head restricted to sides of forehead and narrow supercilium, and white in wing slightly less extensive than nominate, but primary-coverts mainly black with white bases (often concealed).

l

Adult female M. a. harterti As nominate female, with all-blackish head, smaller and often duller or off-white throat patch with fine blackish tips.

m Juvenile As adult but all dull black or brownish-black. Young male has white bases to forehead and crown, which may show as narrow white supercilium before becoming more uniform white on crown. Juvenile female can show some white tips on chin and throat.

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Rüppell’s Black Chat

c

a

b White-fronted Black Chat

d f e

g

h j

i

Arnot’s Chat

l k

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PLATE 62: CLIFF CHATS Mocking Cliff Chat Thamnolaea cinnamomeiventris

Map and text page 648

19–21cm. Fairly large or long-tailed chat patchily distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. Nominate breeds from W South Africa east to W Swaziland, with eight other races north to S Mauritania, S Sudan and Ethiopia. They differ mainly in plumage of forehead and crown, lower breast and upper belly, and extent of white on median coverts in males. Locally common or scarce, generally shy, and almost exclusively found around cliffs, gorges, ravines and rocky outcrops. Sedentary or moves short distances in non-breeding season. a

Adult male T. c. subrufipennis Glossy black head to breast and upperparts, rump and uppertail-coverts deep orange, prominent white patch on lesser and median coverts, narrow white band on upper breast, and rich or deep orange belly and flanks.

b

Adult male T. c. subrufipennis in flight

c

Adult female T. c. subrufipennis Head to breast and mantle greyer or greyer black than nominate female, rump and uppertail coverts also paler orange, all-black wing-coverts and flight feathers, and belly to undertail-coverts paler orange.

d

Adult female T. c. albiscapulata Both sexes similar to male subrufipennis but pale band on lower breast/ upper belly usually a poorly defined line or patch, and has black undertail-coverts. Female lacks white wingcoverts.

e

Adult female T. c. cinnamomeiventris Head to breast and upperparts dark or blackish-grey, rump and uppertail-coverts deep rufous, lacks white lesser and median coverts, and flight feathers, tertials and tail slightly duller or blackish-grey. Lacks pale line on lower breast/upper belly, and lower breast to undertailcoverts chestnut.

f

Adult male T. c. bambarae As male nominate but has smaller dark rufous rump, uppertail-coverts are bluishblack and white in wing is restricted to lesser coverts.

g

Adult male T. c. kordofanensis As male subrufipennis but has white forehead and crown to nape.

h

Adult male T. c. coronata As adult male kordofanensis but crown varies from white finely tipped with black, to black forehead with few white tips, and some may have all-black crown (perhaps morphs). May also lack white band on lower breast.

i

Adult male T. c. coronata in flight White or whitish-tipped dark forehead to crown and white lesser coverts.

j

Adult female T. c. coronata As female kordofanensis (not illustrated) but has slightly paler throat and brighter orange belly.

k Juvenile As respective adult and sexes separable before fledging. Juvenile male dull or drab dark grey or greyish-black (lacking any gloss), and plumage loose or distinctly fluffy. White line on lesser and median wing-coverts narrower and greater and primary coverts edged greyish.

White-winged Cliff Chat Thamnolaea semirufa

Map and text page 651

19–21cm. Fairly large chat endemic to S Eritrea and Ethiopia. Local or uncommon on cliffs, gorges and ravines with scrub and at edges of mature woodland in vicinity of cliffs and gorges. Usually in pairs or small groups. Sedentary, generally shy but may become approachable in some areas. l

Adult male Glossy black head to breast, upperparts and wings, except white bases to primaries (forming short panel on closed wing); tail black; deep orange on belly to undertail.

m

Adult male in flight Broad white bases to primaries (except short outermost).

n

Adult female Almost entirely blackish or blackish-brown with white patch at base of primaries. Some individuals show broken or irregular buff stripe on centre of chin and throat. Breast to flanks and belly barred dark brown and undertail-coverts dull orange.

o Juvenile Similar to adult female, almost entirely blackish-brown spotted orange-buff on head, becoming larger on mantle, back and scapulars. Tips to median and greater coverts finely orange-buff. Chin to breast, belly and flanks orange-buff fringed blackish-brown; undertail-coverts dull orange to orange-buff.

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Mocking Cliff Chat

a

c

d

b

k e

f

h

j

l i g

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m White-winged Cliff Chat

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Genus Sialia Three species. The bluebirds of North and Central America are flycatcher-like chats which form a small, anomalous group, apparently at some distance from ‘true’ thrushes; recent biomolecular analysis indicates that they are closest to the solitaires in Myadestes, and possibly the African ant-thrushes in Neocossyphus. Medium-sized with short, slender black bill, long and pointed wings, and fairly long tail which is slightly forked at the tip. Sexes dimorphic with males more brightly coloured than females; plumage is predominantly blue or mixed with deep orange or chestnut.

EASTERN BLUEBIRD Sialia sialis



Plate 1

Motacilla Sialis Linnaeus 1758, Syst. Nat. (10th edn.), 1: 187. South Carolina, USA. A stocky, chat-sized thrush of open woodland, orchards and edges of agriculture in S & SE Canada, C & E USA to Central America and on Bermuda, with a rounded or domed head, short fairly thin bill and relatively short tail. Migratory and resident, some populations of nominate race move south to winter in E Mexico. Polytypic, with eight races presently recognised, but differences between them are slight, only discernible in breeding plumage and probably inconsistent or untenable with larger sample sizes. S. s. sialis (Linnaeus, 1758). E North America in S & SE Canada, C, E & SE United States to N Mexico; winters in centre and south of breeding range to SE Arizona and E Mexico. S. s. bermudensis Verrill, 1901. Bermuda. S. s. grata Bangs, 1898. SE USA in SC Florida. S. s. nidificans A.R. Phillips, 1991. Mountains of EC Mexico. S. s. fulva Brewster, 1885. SW USA to W & C Mexico. S. s. guatemalae Ridgway, 1882. SE Mexico, SW Guatemala and SW Belize. S. s. meridionalis Dickey & van Rossem, 1930. Honduras, N & E El Salvador and NC Nicaragua. S. s. caribaea T.R. Howell, 1965. E Honduras and NE Nicaragua. FIELD IDENTIFICATION  Length 15–16.5cm. Adult male has bright blue head and face to upperparts, wings and tail; chin and throat to breast and flanks are bright or deep orange to reddish-brown, and centre of belly to undertail white. Adult female duller and greyer on head and upperparts, and bright blue or grey-blue on edges of wing-coverts, flight and tail feathers; breast and flanks variably peachy-buff or tinged rufous or rusty. Juvenile similar to adult female or darker on head, with blue in wing-coverts and tail, and heavily spotted or mottled whitish on underparts. SIMIL A R SPECIES  Western Bluebird, the western counterpart (but ranges overlap slightly in SE Arizona) is similar, but male has all-blue (not rufous or chestnut) chin and throat, usually deeper blue upperparts with variable amounts of chestnut on mantle, back and scapulars (or in some populations in overlap areas can show cinnamon or chestnut fringes to scapulars in fresh plumage) and centre of belly to undertail-coverts greyish tipped bluish; also longer primary projection. Adult female Western is a slightly deeper grey or blue-grey version of the male, with the chin and throat pale greyish (variably whitish, tinged buffish or dull buffish-orange in Eastern Bluebird) and usually has a dark malar and narrow whitish moustachial stripe; underparts of female Eastern are variably orange

to cinnamon (paler, peachy or only tinged rufous in Western), and contrast with white belly to undertail. Adult male Eastern Bluebird from male Mountain Bluebird by shorter and more stout bill, shorter wings and primary projection, and shorter tail, also bright rufous-chestnut (not blue) throat to breast and flanks; adult female from female Mountain Bluebird by short stout bill, shorter wings and primary projection, and shorter tail and legs, also differs by generally greyer head and upperparts, whitish to peachy-buff chin and throat (greyish in female Mountain) to rufous or rusty breast and flanks, which are usually uniform grey or dull brown in some female Mountain, but some may show a cinnamon or rufous wash to breast. Adult female Eastern Bluebird from Townsend’s Solitaire Myadestes townsendi by shorter tail, blue in wings and underparts coloration. VOICE Most frequent contact call is a rising chur-lee or tu-a-wee given year-round, with several low-pitched calls given between pair members including chuck and chip. Series of high-pitched turr-turr-turr calls during territorial disputes or aggressive interactions; alarm call a harsh pridik and longer chattering chit-chit-chit... given repeatedly an often accompanied by nervous wing-flicking, usually in response to a predator at or near nest; also a short squawk or screeching notes during aggressive interactions (Gowaty & Plissner 1998). Song a series of rich warbled notes, often delivered rapidly, usually by adult male either as an extended version of the call, chur chur-lee chur-lee, tury, cherwee, cheye-ley or a longer ayo ala loee – alee ay lalo leeo; also a softer version usually given near the nest when female is laying or incubating. Song given from open, high and conspicuous perch, often with tail spread or partly raised, occasionally also in flight; song occasionally given by females usually when predators are near and when male is away from territory (Pinkowski 1971). Song given by males from Mar to late Jul, mostly during nest-building and egg-laying periods, ceasing with the start of incubation. HABITAT Mainly open deciduous, mixed and pine woods, pastures and edges of agricultural areas with scattered trees and sparse or no understorey. Also parkland, orchards, woodland and forest clearings (including recently burnt and clear-felled areas), tracks and trails, railway cuttings and, in some areas, stands of pines and plantations. In rural areas, population has increased where nestboxes are available; in areas of overlap with Western and Mountain Bluebirds in S Texas, mainly confined to oaks and adjacent pines. Occurs from sea level to about 2,440m in USA (Gowaty & Plissner 1998), 600–2,700m in C Mexico, and sea level to c.1,500m in NE Mexico; in Honduras occurs at 600–1,800m. BEH AVIOUR Usually in pairs, small family groups (mainly from second or later broods) or small flocks of up to 20 juveniles/first-winters on dispersal from breeding areas, on migration and in winter, often associated with Pine Warblers Setophaga pinus; also alone. Like other

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Eastern Bluebird

bluebirds, forages in typical chat fashion, hunched, upright or at slight angle on exposed tip of dead branch, post or similar prominent perch, scanning ground below before dropping down to seize prey; may consume item on the ground, but larger prey are usually taken to higher perch and beaten against branch first. Locates ground prey usually c.15–20m from perch but occasionally up to 40m away; also gleans insects from outside of foliage and pursues them in flight, but rarely hovers; on the ground moves in short hops. Pairs or small groups defend feeding area in winter, usually part of home range or territory occupied year-round by resident birds (K rieg 1971, Pinkowski 1977). Diet mainly invertebrates and their larvae, but also takes seasonally available small fruits and berries (mainly in winter); invertebrates include beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, spiders, butterflies and moths; also takes shrews and small snakes up to 8.3cm long (Flanigan 1971, Pinkowski 1974c), and recorded (probably very rarely) taking salamanders, lizards and tree-frogs. Up to 60 species of fruit found in stomach contents including mistletoe, blackgum, blueberry, camphor tree, black cherry, currants, flowering dogwood, autumn, cherry and thorny elaeagnus, sugar hackberry, American holly, amur and Japanese honeysuckle, common pokeberry, pyracantha, red cedar, Carolina snailseed, and smooth and staghorn sumac (Gowaty & Plissner 1998), the latter the preferred winter fruit in Ontario (B. Read pers comm.). BREEDING Monogamous but polygamy also recorded, and extra-pair copulations frequent (mainly in areas of high population density); 20% of nestlings in South Carolina and 25–30% of broods in Ontario involved at least one other male (Gowaty & Bridges 1991). Hybridisation with Mountain Bluebird (rare) in NC USA (N Great Plains) and S Canada (mainly Manitoba and Saskatchewan), but reportedly involves fewer than 2% of all breeding pairs in zone of overlap (Rounds & Munro 1982). Territorial; size of territory varies, 1.1–8.4ha in Michigan and averaged 2.1ha in New York and South Carolina, but size decreases as season advances, and often nests semi-colonially. Territory used for mating, nesting and feeding, and vigorously defended by both sexes; usually aggressive towards House Sparrows Passer domesticus, European Starlings Sturnus vulgaris and cowbirds, which are evicted by singing loudly and chasing, sometimes fighting; also aggressive towards larger birds within the territory including Northern Mockingbirds Mimus polyglottus and Blue Jays Cyanocitta cristata (Buser 1980). Pairs form following singing and territorial display by adult male, and bond once female has entered potential nest hole; some pair-bonding also occurs in winter; in Tennessee most pairs form in Nov–Jan; duration longlasting and for at least one season in successful pairs (Pinkowski 1974a). Season, late Feb to mid or late Aug. Nest, constructed entirely by adult female, a loose cup mainly of grasses or pine needles, lined with finer grasses, horse-hair or feathers, and placed in tree cavity (usually a dead tree or branch); often utilises old woodpecker holes, also widely takes to nestboxes. Eggs 3–6 occasionally seven, pale blue, rarely all white. Incubation 11–19 days, nestlings fed and tended by both parents (cooperative feeding by juveniles from earlier broods rare to almost unknown: Pinkowski 1975); fledging period 17–19 days. Two or three broods, occasionally four and five broods recorded (Peakall 1970, Pinkowski 1974), but two usual in Ontario. Breeds in first year. Brood parasitism rare, recorded in

Maryland by Brown-headed Cowbird Molothrus ater, where size of entrance hole in nestbox allowed access. Average age of most re-trapped birds 1.5 years, but oldest known wild bird was eight years (male), while additional evidence from ringed birds indicates 6–7 years not uncommon for both sexes. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Common or locally common; nominate sialis regular but rare in winter Ontario and N USA (Michigan and New York). Breeding population in S Canada declined after c.1920 as a result of House Sparrows and later European Starlings occupying nest holes, together with changes in climate and agricultural practices. Increased again after 1980 as a result of warmer winters and provision of well-managed nestbox schemes. Numbers recorded by breeding bird survey (BBS) in Canada showed a decline of 1.07% per annum in 1966 –1978 then an increase of 11.89% in 1978–1987 (Sauer & Droege 1990). Between 1981 and 2005, BBS data indicate an annual increase of 8% in Ontario, where there is now c.40,000 birds (B. Read pers. comm.). In C & E USA has expanded west into the Great Plains with the conversion of forests to agriculture and orchards, creating new habitat. Spread NW into Manitoba in late 1800s and Saskatchewan in 1920s, and perhaps still advancing slowly west. In Colorado may be expanding west to foothills of the Rocky Mts (Andrews & Righter 1992) and in S Canada has bred SE Alberta and occasionally north in Saskatchewan to Saskatoon and Greenwater Lake districts (Smith 1996). In S USA declined in mid-20th century, possibly due to harsh weather in successive winters up to 1980, but has since increased with milder winters and widely adopted nestbox scheme across North America, where numbers increased by c.53% in 1984–1993. Has declined on Bermuda, where once very common, due to introduction of House Sparrow in 19th century and again following introduction of European Starling and Great

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Sialia

Kiskadee Pitangus sulphuratus in 1950s, which significantly increased competition for natural nest holes, together with effects of domestic cats and more recently loss of nest sites in native Bermuda cedar (Gowaty & Plissner 1998). S. s. sialis Breeding E North America south to N Mexico; from S Saskatchewan, S (occasionally NW) Manitoba, N Ontario, SC Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward I (where scarce or local) and Nova Scotia south through C & E United States west to extreme SE Montana, extreme NE & SE Wyoming, extreme NE Colorado, W Oklahoma south to C Texas (except High Plains and Trans-Pecos) and N Mexico (EC Coahuila) east to C Florida. Nonbreeding  Winters in central and southern breeding range, casually north to N United States (Michigan, New York, New England) and S Ontario, south and west to SE Arizona and casually to lowlands of E Mexico (Veracruz, Yucatán, Quintana Roo). S. s. bermudensis Bermuda. S. s. grata Resident in SC Florida north to about Lake County. S. s. nidificans Resident on Gulf slope of E Mexico from SW Tamaulipas to C Veracruz. S. s. fulva Resident from SC to SE Arizona (Nogales and Patagonia east to Huachuca and Chiricahua Mts) south through the Sierra Madre Occidental of W & C Mexico to Oaxaca, and west of race nidificans. S. s. guatemalae Resident in montane S Mexico (Chiapas), SW Guatemala and SW Belize. S. s. meridionalis Resident in Honduras, N & E El Salvador and mountains of NC Nicaragua. S. s. caribaea Resident in lowland pine savanna of NE Nicaragua and E Honduras. MOVEMENTS Nominate sialis migratory, all other races sedentary. Mainly a diurnal migrant, often in small flocks, occasionally or exceptionally up to several hundred together; f locks comprise birds of same age, usually immatures, which often migrate independently of adults in both autumn and spring, and remain together in winter. In spring some adult males arrive at breeding sites ahead of females, but pairs also recorded arriving together. Migration routes not studied in detail, but considered to be mainly north–south in autumn (and reverse in spring) in east-coast areas. Recoveries of ringed birds in south-east states (North and South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) includes birds previously ringed between New Hampshire to SE Michigan and S Ontario, and recoveries in the Gulf Coast states between Alabama and Texas include birds ringed between W Manitoba and C Ohio (Brewer et al. 2000). Some evidence (from ringing) indicates that northern migrants leapfrog over resident populations to winter further south (Gowaty & Plissner 1998). Migrants and migratory periods of nominate sialis not easily defined due to similarity in plumage and difficulty of separating migrants from residents. Departs northern breeding areas between early Sep and late Nov, occasionally early Dec, but peak migration in EC USA is between late Sep and late Oct, whereas at Cape May, New Jersey, peak numbers pass in late Oct to mid-Nov. Arrives in Arkansas mid-Sep to Nov and in Florida late Oct throughout Nov; in NE Mexico first arrivals usually in Nov. Return passage in spring reverse of autumn routes, arrives in Missouri, Ohio and Weightachusetts in second half of Feb or early Mar, with main passage mid-Mar to early Apr and small numbers continuing into early or mid-May; in S Quebec arrives mid-Mar to early Apr, but winter visitors still present NE Mexico throughout Mar. Very few records outside usual ranges but vagrants (presumably of nominate race) have occurred on Bahamas (Eleuthera), Cuba and Virgin Is (St. John).

DESCRIPTION Sexes differ. Adult male In late winter and early spring forehead and crown to upperparts bright blue or tinged purplish-blue, tail same or slightly brighter blue, but inner webs browner. Wings as upperparts, except bluish-black flight feathers edged bright blue on outer webs; axillaries and underwing-coverts pale grey to greyblue. Face as upperparts or slightly duller grey-brown, washed blue on lores and ear-coverts. Chin and throat to sides of throat, breast and flanks russet or deep orange, can be slightly duller or tinged brownish on lower breast and flanks, centre of belly and vent whitish or off-white becoming whiter on undertail-coverts. Eye black. Bill black with yellow gape line. Legs and feet black. In fresh plumage (early autumn) fine pale edges to upperparts, wings and tail, and overall slightly duller than in breeding plumage, pale edges lost through wear during winter. In late spring and summer becomes heavily worn and overall plumage duller, with both pale and darker tips (where blue fringes abraded) to upperparts, and underparts often paler or duller red on throat and breast, flecked or tinged greyish. Adult female Similar to adult male at same season, but overall much duller and greyer; in late winter and early spring forehead to crown and upperparts pale grey (greyish-brown in some) tinged blue to deeper grey-blue or slightly deeper blue (but never as intensely blue as male) on wings and tail. Tail usually shows slightly darker or blackish centres to outer feathers towards tips. Wing-coverts less uniform blue with black or blackish centres to median and greater coverts, and broad black tips to primary coverts; flight feathers usually blackish edged pale blue with darker or blackish tips; underwingcoverts as male or tinged browner. Face slightly paler than crown, pale grey to grey-brown, with distinct pale buff or whitish eye-ring. Chin and throat whitish, tinged buffish or dull buffish-orange, often with a brown to darker brown malar, and slightly contrasting but narrow whitish submoustachial stripe; sides of lower throat, breast and flanks pale orange to cinnamon-rufous, rest of underparts white. In worn plumage (late spring and summer) overall duller or paler grey-blue (except on rump, uppertailcoverts and sides to base of tail), and any blue or bluish fringes to wings reduced or absent, with fine or irregular pale tips to wing-coverts and tertials. Juvenile male Head and neck grey to olive-brown, becoming dusky brown to grey-brown on upperparts, streaked or spotted paler or whitish on nape, back and scapulars; tail as adult female, but uniformly paler or lighter blue, with outermost feather narrowly edged buff or white. Wings brownish with narrow buffy shaft-streaks and large off-white or buffish tips to lesser and median coverts, buff edges to greater coverts and tertials, and bright blue wash to primary coverts and outer webs of flight feathers. Chin and throat off-white or greyish-white finely edged brownish, becoming larger or more boldly spotted white with bright or rich brown fringes on breast and upper f lanks. Juvenile female As same-age male, but upperparts slightly paler often with slightly larger pale spots, tail has dingy blue base becoming duller or greyer-blue towards tip with distinct broad white edge to outermost feather; primary coverts dingy grey to grey-brown, and primaries dull, dingy or greyish-black, with little blue or greenish-blue on outer webs, except outermost primary which has greenish-blue edge. First-winter/year male (Sep–Aug) Upperparts including tail bright blue, but duller than adult; greater coverts, tertials and central secondaries bright blue, outer

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Eastern Bluebird

primary coverts narrow and tapered, also bright blue or with dusky-blue tips; underparts similar to adult male, rufous or deep rufous (Pinkowski 1974b, Pitts 1985, Pyle 1997). First-winter/year female Head and upperparts pale grey or tinged chestnut, overlying bright blue bases on crown, nape, scapulars, back and rump; face has fairly broad pale eye-ring; lesser and median coverts pale blue fringed or indistinctly tipped cinnamon-chestnut; alula deep blue or has cinnamon-chestnut wash on tip of uppermost; greater coverts (depending on moult) bluegrey fringed cinnamon-chestnut on inner retained coverts and bright blue on replaced outer coverts; tertials may also be replaced and are blue or bright blue broadly fringed pale chestnut on outer edge (may contrast with retained brown central secondaries); replaced secondaries greyblue or broadly fringed pale blue; outer primary coverts narrow, tapered (or possibly abraded in retained feathers), brownish tinged blue and fringed buffish, outermost primary covert (of juvenile plumage) lacks any blue and is rounded at tip; primaries pale grey and washed bluish; tail bright blue and feathers either entirely tapered or rounded at tip, or mix of both (Pinkowski 1974b, Pitts 1985, Pyle 1997). In first-spring and summer all cinnamon fringes abraded and head, upperparts and wings much more blue.

the body, 3–10 inner greater coverts, 1–3 tertials (in c.50% of individuals), occasionally the central secondaries and none to all tail feathers (Pyle 1997). However, individual variation is extensive and associated with very lengthy breeding period over most of range (Pinkowski 1976c). Spring-bred juveniles undergo a moult when 2–3 months old, late Jul to mid-Sep. Summer-bred juveniles begin moulting when 50, gather in favoured feeding areas, including SE Colorado, E New Mexico and Davis Mts of SW Texas. Forages in typical manner of chats and the other bluebirds, perching almost horizontally (or less upright than other bluebirds) on mid-height dead or bare branches, fences, posts, rocks and tall plants,

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Mountain Bluebird

scanning the ground below for prey and dashes down to ground, vegetation or tree branch or trunk, to seize prey, usually returning to same perch or one close by. Also forages while walking on ground or frequently hovers, either above vegetation or at edge of trees and bushes, also fly-catches by pursuing insects in flight. Most foraging in early morning and again in late afternoon and evening, but feeding of nestlings can be evenly spaced throughout day. Diet mostly invertebrates and insect larvae in summer, also some plant material, in winter small fruits, seeds and insects. Insects include ants, beetles, bugs, grasshoppers and small crickets, flies, bees, wasps, moths and small butterflies, as well as spiders; seasonally available fruit includes grapes, currants, elderberries, mistletoe, cedar berries and Virginia creeper drupes, also seeds of sumac, mistletoe and hackberries. BREEDING Monogamous, with single report of polygamy (Power 1966); hybridises with Eastern Bluebird, possibly not widely or extensively, in areas of overlap (in SW Manitoba hybrid pairs accounted for 8,000 pairs (Rounds & Munro 1982). Pair-bond probably endures only for duration of breeding season, or possibly shorter if attempt fails; pairs may mate again in following season, but possibly greater fidelity to site than pair-bond; pair members may divorce after breeding failure and mate with a new partner, and up to three attempts at nesting, including with different partners, recorded in same season (Power & Lombardo 1996). Territorial: size of territory may initially be >5ha and centred on nest site, but size may subsequently decrease as other pairs establish themselves, though in some areas pairs without adjacent neighbours have no clear-cut boundaries; territory used for foraging, courtship and nesting. Season Apr to mid or late Aug. Displaying male advertises territory to female by singing on or near nest site and flies back and forth between perch near female and nest site. Nest, constructed entirely by female, mostly of coarse dry grasses, lined with softer grasses and bark strips, occasionally wool or feathers, and placed in natural hole or tree cavity, including in branch, or crevice in wall of building or cliff; readily uses nestboxes. Eggs 4–6, occasionally up to eight, pale blue to bluish-white, rarely pure white; incubation by the female alone c.13 days, and fed on or near nest by male during this period; fledging period 18–21 days and fledglings able to fly short distances on leaving nest, but dependant on adults for further month, occasionally longer before dispersing. Usually two, occasionally three, broods; probably breeds in first year. Oldest known birds at least four years old (Power & Lombardo 1996). STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Locally common; fairly common in winter in Mexico. Casual or infrequent in W, N & SC Alaska (Nunivak I, Point Barrow, Middleton I), Cambridge Bay, Nunavut and N Manitoba (Churchill); east from Minnesota, Ontario (has overwintered), S Quebec, New York, Vermont, Weightachusetts, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia south to Iowa, Arkansas, Kentucky, Indiana, Pennsylvania and Maryland; and in Gulf region from coastal C Texas to Louisiana and Mississippi. Breeding From C & SE Alaska and NW & W Canada (C & S Yukon, possibly reaching Mackenzie Mts, Northwest Territories), mainly interior of British Columbia but reaches coast north of Vancouver, NC Alberta, C Saskatchewan and C & SW Manitoba (also an old breeding record from Kasmere Lake, NW Manitoba:

Mowat & Lawrie 1955), south through Rocky Mts of W & WC USA west to Cascade Mts in Washington and Oregon, and Siskiyou Mts of SW Oregon, south to SC & E California (east slopes of coastal ranges and through Sierra Nevada– Cascade ranges to Santa Barbara, Kern and Ventura counties, E San Bernardino Mts and Mt San Jacinto), C & SE Nevada, N & E Arizona; in east to NE North Dakota, NW Minnesota, W South Dakota, extreme NW & SW Nebraska, C Colorado, C Oklahoma (Cleveland County), SC New Mexico and extreme W Texas (Guadeloupe and Davis Mts). Non-breeding Winters at lower elevations within centre and south of breeding range, from SW Canada (S British Columbia, where rare) and W USA (W Montana south to N Baja California, including islands off California), east, at least casually or occasionally, to W Nebraska, S Minnesota, E Kansas, W Oklahoma, and C & S Texas, and south of breeding range in Mexico (N Baja California south through the interior of S Sonora, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí and Guadalupe I). MOVEMENTS Migratory and partial altitudinal migrant, departing breeding areas between late Aug and Nov, and returning Feb to late Mar, but extent of southbound movement and wintering area largely inf luenced by severity of winter weather and availability of fruit. In autumn, juveniles and adult females depart breeding areas ahead of adult males; in spring adult males usually return to breeding areas several days, occasionally weeks, ahead of females, but some pairs return together. In autumn, the most northerly and central breeders depart between late Aug and mid–late Sep, but some males still present in early Oct in Montana, South Dakota and Idaho, even Nov in Colorado and Wyoming, and arrives in wintering areas between Sep and Dec. Remains in wintering areas until mid or late Feb, returning to Colorado in Feb, California in mid-Apr, Oregon in Mar, Montana in late Mar to midApr, Manitoba in Mar and early Apr, and late Apr in NW Canada (Yukon) and Alaska.

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Sialia

DESCRIPTION Sexes differ. Adult male In fresh plumage (late Aug or Sep) entire head and upperparts dull blue with greyish or brownish-grey fringes on crown to back and scapulars; wing-coverts and flight feathers also mainly blue or dull blue, with pale or greyish-white edges to all coverts, tertials and secondaries, tips of primaries blackish or dark grey. Tail mainly pale blue with dark grey on inner webs towards tip. Narrow whitish or pale whitishblue eye-ring, and often shows narrow dark line on lores. Underparts slightly paler or duller than upperparts, with buffish tips, becoming paler or whitish on lower belly and vent, and white on undertail-coverts. Eye hazel-brown to dark brown or black. Bill, legs and feet black. In spring and early summer becomes much brighter or deeper skyblue, as pale or greyish fringes to upper- and underparts wear off; some males can appear tinged greenish-blue above and darker blue on underparts; adult males much brighter than first-years. In the hand, primary coverts broad, uniform blue and rounded at tips, tail feathers also have rounded tips. Adult female Similar to adult male, but much paler or greyish-blue; in fresh plumage (late Aug or Sep) head and upperparts to wing-coverts pale ash-grey tinged bluish, with pale or whitish edges to wing-coverts, or bluish to bluish-grey on greater coverts and edges to tertials; primaries and secondaries black finely edged pale blue. Upper lores and occasionally lower forehead often whitish, with broad white eye-ring and variably thin to prominent dark line across lores to eye. Chin and upper throat, also cheeks, pale or whitish to whitish-grey, sides of throat to belly and vent pale ash-grey to greyish-brown, or washed tawny or rufous-buff on lower throat and breast, flanks grey-brown, centre of belly to undertail-coverts white. In spring and summer becomes slightly duller and more uniform plain or mouse-grey, with a deeper blue or greenish-blue wash, and slightly more bluish on rump, uppertail-coverts and tail, except outermost tail feather, which is edged whitish; wing-coverts grey-brown fringed whitish or pale grey-blue, usually paler or greyer on inner wing-coverts; flight feathers dark grey fringed pale blue or greyish-blue on secondaries and tertials; tips of primaries dark or blackish-grey. Juvenile Similar to adult female, but duller or greyer brown on head and upperparts, may have fine whitish streaks on crown; rump and uppertail-coverts grey or finely tipped brownish, tail pale blue except grey

fringes to inner webs and tips. Wing-coverts brownish-grey fringed buffish-white on greater coverts; flight feathers dark grey fringed buffish-white on secondaries and tertials, and pale blue on outer edges to primaries, but tips broadly fringed buffish-white. Usually shows fairly broad whitish eye-ring. Underparts pale or whitish-grey, and prominently spotted, mottled or scalloped whitish on breast, flanks and sides of belly. Sexes often separable as juvenile female often has more brownish tinge or wash to head and upperparts, and blue in wings and tail duller or tinged greenish, versus more predominantly blue in same-age male. First-year male From Sep similar to adult female, but head, upper- and underparts bluish to bluish-grey, or tinged brownish on upperparts, outer greater coverts (retained from juvenile plumage) dull brownish-blue contrasting with brighter blue replaced inner coverts, alula also brownish-blue; primary coverts tapered towards tip and abraded bluish, with dusky fringe or tip, tail feathers also slightly worn and tapered at tip (Pyle 1997). First-year female Similar to adult female, but head, upper- and underparts grey to dull grey-brown, retained outer greater coverts brownish or tinged bluish, and contrast with blue to bluish-grey replaced inner coverts, primary coverts narrow and tapered as male, also slightly abraded and dull brownish-blue, alula brownish, and tail feathers as same-age male (Pyle 1997).

Mountain Bluebird, adult male (Vaughan Ashby/Birdfinders).

Mountain Bluebird, adult female. Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada (Rick van der Weijde).

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None. MOULT Adults undergo complete post-breeding moult, Jul–Sep, and may commence moulting while feeding young. Juveniles undertake partial post-juvenile moult at same time, including up to eight inner greater coverts and central tail feathers (Pyle 1997). ME A SUR EMENTS Wing male 108 –121mm, female 101–116mm. Tail male 66–76.5mm, female 63–72mm. Bill 12–15mm. Tarsus 21.5–23mm. Weight 27–33g (Godfrey 1986, Power & Lombardo 1996, Pyle 1997). TAXONOMY DNA hybridisation and mtDNA sequence analyses indicated that Mountain and Eastern Bluebirds are more closely related than either is to Western Bluebird (Sibley & Ahlquist 1990, Klicka et al. 2005), but Voelker & Klicka (2008) found a strong sister relationship between Eastern and Western Bluebirds; the relationships of all Sialia remain unclear.

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Genus Cochoa Four species. Previously considered to be large or over-sized chats but on recent nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis they have been included with the true thrushes. Their distinctive plumages and what are considered to be primitive songs of mainly long or drawn-out whistles are thought to indicate an isolated and ancient group.

PURPLE COCHOA Cochoa purpurea

Plate 2

Cochoa purpurea Hodgson, 1836, J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 5: 359. Nepal. A stocky, generally lethargic and unobtrusive thrush with a short bill, fairly long and broad tail, and short legs, of moist broadleaved forests in Himalayas to N & E Burma, NW Thailand, SC China and N Vietnam. Locally common or scarce; usually in dense canopy of trees (and more often heard than seen, except in spring or when feeding at fruiting tree). Sedentary or makes short-distance altitudinal movements, being a summer migrant to higher areas. Monotypic. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 25–28cm. Male dark, mostly deep purplish-grey, with pale lavender crown (can appear whitish tinged blue), black sides to head, broad pale lavender-purple band across bases to black flight feathers (forming broad wingbar in flight), and a metallic pale lavender-purple tail with black tip. Undertail black. Female has rust-brown body, paler or orange-brown on underparts; throat occasionally paler or whitish. SIMILAR SPECIES Adult unlikely to be confused with any other species in range; juvenile similar to same-age Green Cochoa and differs mainly by less boldly spotted upper- and underparts, and lavender (not pale blue) in wings and tail. VOICE Calls include a thin sit and slightly more drawn-out tssri, a nasal nyerrr and low, chuckling pink-pink-trrrrrrww. Song a rich but low flute-like rising whistle, commencing softly and ending abruptly, fwheeeeeeet or whiiiiii, also peeeyou-peeee said to resemble a shepherd’s bamboo flute (with pitch dropping slightly mid-phrase). Song recalls that of Green Cochoa but deeper; heard for up to one month in early to mid-spring, often given from conspicuous perch, mostly atop tall tree in early morning (dawn until c.10.00h); also heard singing for prolonged periods in SE Arunachal Pradesh in Dec (Srinivasan et al. 2010) . HABITAT Dense, damp or moist undergrowth, and low to mid-levels in broadleaf evergreen forest in tropical and lower temperate zones, at 900–3,050m. Occurs in areas of tall moss-covered trees, especially fruiting trees, and heavy humid or moist undergrowth and scrub, and in Khasi Hills in ravines with evergreen trees and undergrowth in pine forest. In Thailand occurs in evergreen hill forest, usually at 1,000–1,800m, although once recorded at 400m. In Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh, NE India recorded in winter at between 500-600m; also recorded down to 400m in Cuc Phong NP, Vietnam (Viswanathan & Naniwadekar 2014).

in pairs or small family parties. Forages in lower to middle and canopy level, and often associates with thrushes and bulbuls (and sometimes Green Cochoa where ranges overlap) at fruiting trees. Main diet appears to be fruit, either plucked and swallowed whole (up to 20 mm) or pecked at whilst still attached to the tree; foraging and feeding periods are usually followed by inactive periods during which large seeds are regurgitated; in NE India fruits of Beilschmiedia assamica, Alseodaphne petiolaris, Machilus duthei, Prunus ceylanica and Aphanamixis sp recorded (Viswanathan & Naniwadekar 2014); other food items include insects, and slugs and other molluscs (Ali & Ripley 1983). BREEDING Season May–mid-Jul. Nest a rather untidy, shallow cup of green moss with some dead leaves, rootlets and scraps of fibres, lined with fine black rootlets, lichen and white thread-like fungi/lichen. Usually placed in horizontal fork of small tree 2–6m above ground, sometimes in bushes. Clutch 2–4, eggs pale sea-green (less frequently pale reddish-stone) variably but usually richly blotched bright reddish-brown, with secondary blotches of lavender and grey, usually more numerous at larger end, where they may form a ‘cap’. Incubation by both sexes. Nesting birds very shy, sitting bird usually slipping away quietly while intruders still some distance from nest. Single-brooded. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Generally scarce to rare or locally uncommon resident throughout range, though undoubtedly under-recorded due to secretive nature; rarely recorded during non-breeding season; rare in India, Nepal, Myanmar and Thailand; very rare in China. In Laos known only from nine recently dead individuals in N Laos market, Feb 1999, and one in forest, Phongsaly, Dec 2004 (Duckworth et al. 2002, Fuchs et al. 2007). N Indian Subcontinent in Himalayan foothills of Uttarakhand and C & E Nepal (see below), Darjeeling, Sikkim, Bhutan, W & E Arunachal Pradesh, S Assam

?

BEHAVIOUR Poorly known; quiet, unobtrusive, skulking or secretive, with rather lethargic movements, probably crepuscular with most activity very early in morning, occasionally perches motionless in middle and upper levels of forest trees for long periods. Flight slow. Found singly,

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Cochoa

Purple Cochoa, adult male. April, Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh, India (James Eaton).

Purple Cochoa, adult male. April, Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh, India (James Eaton).

including Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and E Meghalaya (Khasi Hills), to N & E Myanmar, NW Thailand and N Vietnam (W & E Tonkin). In SW China, in SE Tibet, C Sichuan (Emei Shan), W Guizhou (Weining) and SW & NW Yunnan (including Mt Lijiang and Mt Gaoligong) and S Guangxi. Previously more widespread in Nepal in lower hills and northern hills. Recorded at edge of Kathmandu Valley at Sheopuri and Bhimpedi, but just four records since 1990: three above Dhunge Sangu in May 1994, a nest with eggs in Makalu Barun NP in Jun 1994, single on Phulchoki in Apr 1996 and two in Shivapuri Nagarjun NP in May 2009 (Inskipp 2013).

black, heavily flecked or spotted white, greyish-white, or mostly white with fine black tips. Fairly broad black line from lores and around eye to nape, rest of face has fine orange-buff and brown barring (can show pale buff fringes to rear ear-coverts), becoming heavier or bolder rusty-buff on throat, breast and flanks, and vent and undertail-coverts brown to dusky brown. Mantle, back and wing-coverts dull dark brown (tinged purplish), variably streaked or heavily spotted buff; tips to median and greater coverts also buff or buff-brown; uppertailcoverts as back, but often have rich brown tips. Rest of wing and tail as adult, except tips to tail feathers more finely pointed. Juvenile female as juvenile male, but tips of crown feathers brown, and face and ear-coverts also browner; mantle and back browner with darker tips and small ochraceous centres or streaks at tips; greater coverts and base of secondaries brown heavily tinged purplish or pale lavender, inner greater and all median and lesser coverts brown with broad buffish-orange tips.

MOVEMENTS Resident, but may move altitudinally; partial summer migrant (mostly May–Sep) to higher areas; wintering grounds of birds breeding in Himalayas unknown, may become nomadic at lower levels or scarce and rarely recorded passage migrant; in E Nepal recorded moving into oak-chestnut forests in May; vagrant to SE Bangladesh, Nov 1990 and Oct 2005 (Thompson et al. 2014). A female on Po Toi Island, Hong Kong, in Oct 2007 was considered to have escaped from captivity. DESCRIPTION Sexes differ. Adult male Forehead to hindcrown uniform pale lavender-blue or forehead to over eyes can appear whiter, depending on light, and may show fine whitish fringes to crown in fresh plumage. Face from base of bill and lores to eye, cheeks, ear-coverts and neck-sides black, and broad or prominent eye-ring pale lavender or can appear greyish. Upperparts to wing-coverts and tertials brownish overlain by heavy purplish-grey wash; alula purple-lavender finely tipped black, primaries glossy black with broad pale lavender bases, and secondaries mainly deep purplish-lavender broadly tipped glossy black. Tail metallic or slightly glossed purple-lavender with black tip. Underparts dark brownish-purple. Eye crimson-brown or red-brown. Bill black. Legs and feet slate-black. Adult fema le Similar to male, but overall browner with rusty or dark reddish-brown mantle, back and wing-coverts to bases of secondaries and tertials, and underparts brown, slightly paler than upperparts, and throat to breast often warmer or more gingery-brown; may also show whitish throat. Juvenile Male has forehead and crown variably

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None. MOULT No information. MEASUREMENTS Wing 140–145mm. Tail 95–105mm. Bill 23–24mm. Tarsus 28–31mm. Weight 100–106.5g. TAXONOMY Historically placed within the chats, but DNA analysis (Voelker & Klicka 2008, Sangster et al. 2010) places the genus Cochoa among the true thrushes.

GREEN COCHOA Cochoa viridis

Plate 2

Co.(choa) Viridis Hodgson, 1836, J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 5: 359–360. Nepal. A rather stocky, elusive, scarce and poorly known thrush with a short bill, fairly long tail and short legs, of humid or moist evergreen forests in E Himalayas and NE India, through extreme S China and discontinuously in SE Asia to W Cambodia and C Vietnam; usually shy and remains in

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canopy (and more often heard than seen, except in spring). Sedentary or possibly nomadic, perhaps a short-distance altitudinal migrant to higher areas in summer. Monotypic. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 28–30cm. Adult male has brilliant moss-green body, bright blue crown and nape, shinning pale blue wing patches and blue upperside to tail, narrowly margined and more broadly tipped black. Female differs in slightly duller crown, bronze-green upperparts, and rust or bronze staining on secondaries and tips to greater coverts. Similar structure to Purple Cochoa, with which it overlaps broadly in geographical and altitudinal distribution, and they occasionally feed in the same fruiting trees. SIMILAR SPECIES Adults are unlikely to be confused with any other species in range except Purple Cochoa (especially if seen briefly or in deep forest shade); in Laos, birds in limestone areas tend to be darker than those in other evergreen forests, and are more likely to be confused with Purple Cochoa. Juvenile also similar to same-age Purple Cochoa and differ mainly in more boldly spotted upper- and underparts, and pale blue (not lavender) in wings and tail (which are otherwise as adult). VOICE Full vocal range not well known, but often vocal at certain seasons. Calls include a short, thin or highpitched pok. Song, a series of thin pure monotone whistles feeeeeeeee or biiiiiiii, lasts c.2 seconds, fades towards end and is repeated at regular intervals (recalls Black-headed Sibia Heterophasia melanoleuca in pitch but lacks wavering quality), similar to Purple Cochoa, but slightly higher and more even-pitched, and more metallic in tone. HABITAT Undergrowth and lower to mid-levels of trees (less frequently in canopy), in dense evergreen forest of tropical and subtropical zones, often in areas crossed by small streams and on steep slopes. In Thailand occurs in hill evergreen and dry deciduous forests. Breeds in Himalayas at c.700–1,800m (with doubtful records of breeding in Sikkim at 3,050–3,350m: Ali & Ripley 1983); in SE Asia usually occurs above 1,220m, or 1,200m in N Thailand; in non-breeding season occasionally descends lower, being recorded down to 600m in Laos, 500m in NE India and 400m in N Thailand. BEHAVIOUR Rather poorly known but generally very similar to habits of Purple Cochoa. Found alone, in pairs or occasionally in small flocks. Usually shy and silent, sometimes perching unobtrusively in lower to mid-storey for long periods, although may sing from exposed limbs near forest edge, occasionally forages and dust-bathes on ground and recorded fly-catching from atop tall tree. Diet mainly fruit, especially berries, including fruits of Alseodaphne petiolaris and Machilus duthei together with Litsea sp. in Arunachal Pradesh (Viswanathan & Naniwadekar 2014); also insects and molluscs. BREEDING Season May–Aug. Nest similar to that of Purple Cochoa, cup-shaped (often fairly shallow) and mostly of green moss, lined with white, thread-like lichen, placed in fork of a branch or on an exposed branch up to 10m above ground, in moderate-sized trees within dense forest, almost always near water. Clutch 2–3 (rarely four); eggs very similar to Purple Cochoa. Incubation by both sexes, but period unknown. Possibly single-brooded. Some evidence of cooperative breeding, with young from previous year also feeding young (Robson 2007).

?

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Scarce to rare throughout range, though probably under-recorded due to secretive nature, but often vocal in spring. Very rare Sikkim and W China, uncommon N Thailand and rare Bhutan (three spring records in E & C valleys, including a pair at start of May) and Cambodia. In Laos locally common in extensive karst landscapes (W. Duckworth pers. comm.) and above 1,000m on Bolaven Plateau, where habitat rapidly becoming fragmented (Thewlis et al. 1998). In NE India, possibly formerly more common or numerous in E Manipur. In N India occurs in foothills of Himalayas of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh; also S Assam, Meghalaya (Khasi Hills), Manipur, Nagaland and Cachar Hills. E & S Myanmar (Thandaung, Nattaung, Kengtung), N, CW & extreme SE Thailand, Laos, N & C Vietnam (Tonkin and N, C & S Annam) and recently (2000) found on Tumpor, Samkos and Aural, Cardamom Mts, W Cambodia (Eames et al. 2002; S. Mahood pers. comm.). In S China recorded from extreme S & SW Yunnan (around Tengchong, Ruili and Xishuangbanna, close to border with Myanmar) and once in Fujian (Xiamen, Dec: Cheng 1987), but possibly of captive origin (Yang Liu pers. comm.); also listed for SE Tibet: Zheng 2007). First described from four specimens collected in lowland Nepal by Brian Hodgson in 1836, the only records for the country, also single old (undated) specimen from E Uttarakhand. MOVEMENTS Generally little-known; some probably sedentary or nomadic, may be partial summer migrant, Mar–Aug, to higher areas, moving short distances to lower levels in winter, but rarely recorded during non-breeding season. Vagrant to NE Thailand (first record Mar 2006). DESCRIPTION Sexes similar but separable. Adult male In fresh plumage, crown and nape deep iridescent or electric blue, but appears pale blue in strong light. Lores and supercilium to over ear-coverts black. Lower cheeks, ear-coverts and sides of nape deep blue. Mantle, back and lesser coverts to rump and uppertail-coverts deep mossgreen, with fine black fringes forming bars. Median coverts moss-green tipped black, greater coverts black, broadly edged pale silvery-blue on outer webs, forming solid or continuous bar on closed wing, flight feathers black, pale or whitish-blue across bases of all feathers. Central tail feathers lavender-blue tipped black, becoming all black on outer pair. Underparts deep green, washed pale blue on throat, flanks and belly, and tinged bronze on vent and undertail. Undertail blackish-brown. Orbital skin pink,

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Cochoa

eye brownish-orange to deep crimson or maroon-brown. Bill black. Legs and feet pale or bright pink to flesh- or horn-brown. Adult female As male, but upperparts duller or tinged bronze-green, usually has less blue on face, and inner greater covert tips and inner secondaries stained rust or bronze-brown; iris duller than male. Juvenile Wings and tail similar to adult; crown feathers white or pale whitish-blue with blackish tips, latter often broad and create bold barred or spotted pattern. Broad black and usually poorly defined supercilium, face, chin and throat, finely barred or spotted white or buff-brown, ear-coverts to neck-sides similar but whitish fringes more apparent. Upperparts black with warm brown to rufous or rusty-buff centres forming large spots, or has deep moss-green bases visible on mantle and back; tips to wing-coverts comprise large bold spots of buff or rusty-buff fringed finely black. Breast to belly and undertail-coverts dull or dingy orange to orange-buff, finely streaked paler (on shafts) and broadly tipped blackish, forming heavy but poorly defined barring, usually dullest or greyish on flanks. Eye dark brown or black. Legs and feet blackish-brown. First-year male Similar to but darker than adult male, tinged olive or brownish-green with dark or blackish tips above and without any blue below. Dark shaft-streaks and broad tips to body feathers. First-year female (possibly breeds in this plumage, as recorded feeding young at nest) Paler or duller than adult female, with white cheeks, ear-coverts and neck-sides (may extend as dull or off-white to chin and throat), lores to around eye broadly black, forehead pale blue becoming deeper blue over crown to nape, rest of underparts yellowish-green overlain by tawny-buff or light orange (can show as more uniform pale orangebuff in some, or deeper or bronze-brown in some lights); upperparts, wings and tail as adult female, but former more broadly tipped blackish, blue on greater coverts broadly edged blackish and inner secondaries lightly washed brown; becomes progressively like adult, with lower face and underparts becoming deep moss-green, but may retain some white tips to cheeks and ear-coverts into full adult plumage.

Green Cochoa, first-year female. August, Doi Ankang, Chiang Mai, Thailand (Ayuwat Jearwattanakanok).

Green Cochoa, adult male. July, Doi Angkang, Chiang Mai,Thailand (Ayuwat Jearwattanakanok).

Green Cochoa, juvenile. September, Doi Inthanon, Chiang Mai, Thailand (Ayuwat Jearwattanakanok).

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None. MOULT Adult: no information. Post-juvenile moult is only partial and not fully known, but includes replacement of median and inner greater coverts, Jul–Oct. MEASUREMENTS Wing 135–147mm. Tail 98–120mm. Bill 23mm. Tarsus 25–27mm. Weight c.88–122 g (Ali & Ripley 1983). TAXONOMY Historically placed within the chats, but DNA analysis (Voelker & Klicka 2008, Sangster et al. 2010) places the genus Cochoa among the true thrushes.

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Javan Cochoa

JAVAN COCHOA Cochoa azurea

Plate 3

Other name: Sunda Cochoa. Turdus azureus Temminck, 1824, Planches Color livr., 46: pl. 274. Java. A poorly known and rarely seen cochoa of montane forests in W & WC Java. Infrequently recorded and probably occurs at very low densities, but is undoubtedly easily overlooked due to its unobtrusive and often silent behaviour, and is possibly more numerous than records indicate. Listed as Vulnerable and considered to be declining due to ongoing habitat loss, especially at lower altitudes (Stattersfield & Capper 2000, Collar et al. 2001). Monotypic. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 23–24cm. Shape as other cochoas, with a fairly stocky body and long tail, but smaller and less brightly coloured, with a short pointed bill. Both sexes are all dark, bluish in male and browner in female; both have bluish crown, edges to flight feathers and central tail feathers, but slightly duller in female. Juvenile resembles adult female but has buff-brown spots on underparts. SIMILAR SPECIES Both Blue Myophonus caeruleus and Javan Whistling Thrushes M. glaucinus are similar, but Javan Cochoa has slimmer and more pointed bill, shorter legs, and contrastingly paler forehead and crown; also like adult male Blue Rock Thrush Monticola solitarius but slightly more stocky or plump, has shorter wings, longer legs and tail, and contrasting forehead and crown plumage. VOICE Very little-known, calls include a sharp or scolding cet-cet-cet in alarm, while song is similar to that of other cochoas, a thin, sharp, high-pitched whistled siiiit. Song period probably restricted to start of breeding season. HABITAT Tropical montane rainforest at 900–3,000m, usually in lower to middle strata of forest trees. BEHAVIOUR Very little-known, occurs either alone or

Javan Cochoa, adult. July, Java, Indonesia (James Eaton).

in pairs, but also as part of mixed-species foraging flocks. Like other cochoas, fairly secretive and unobtrusive, but occasionally tame or approachable, spending long periods perched quietly or motionless within foliage. Forages in tallest trees for fruit and uses serrated edge of bill to tear flesh from fruits. Diet mostly fruit and berries, including those of Zanthoxylum ovalifolium and Z. scandens, as well as insects, larvae and snails (Collar et al. 2001). BREEDING Very little-known (just one nest described). Season Aug–Apr, juveniles being fed in Oct and Apr, and specimens in breeding condition Aug–Mar (Collar et al. 2001). Nest cup-shaped and mostly constructed of moss strands and fine roots. Eggs two. Possibly two broods, fledglings (Sep) and eggs (Dec). STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Rare endemic resident of montane forests of W & WC Java, and currently known from just three localities in W Java. Post-1980 records are from Gunung Halimun Park (now Gunung HalimunSalak National Park), Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park (where recorded almost annually) and Gunung Tangkuban Perahu. Since 2001, regularly recorded on

Javan Cochoa, immature. July, Gunung Gede, Java, Indonesia (Dubi Shapiro).

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Cochoa

Plawangan Hill in S of Gunung Merapi National Park, the species’ easternmost locality, c.150km beyond the previous known limit, Gunung Slamet (Taufiqurrahman 2012). Previously also recorded at Jampang (two collected Jan 1895), Gunung Salak (last recorded 1984), Pengalengan (undated but pre-1891), Gunung Manglayang (male collected 1925), Gunung Rakutak (two collected Feb 1900), Gunung Guntur (three collected Oct 1900), Gunung Ciremay (four collected Feb 1927 and Jun 1928) and Gunung Slamet (two collected in 1911 and male collected 1925) (Andrew 1985, Collar et al. 2001). MOVEMENTS None known, but may make seasonal, local or altitudinal movements. DESCRIPTION Sexes separable. Adult male Forehead to hindcrown dull azure-blue, becoming deeper blue-black on nape (can appear blackish); base of maxilla, lores to face and ear-coverts black. Mantle, back, rump to scapulars and lesser coverts deep or midnight-blue (can also appear blackish in shade); greater coverts, tertials, secondaries and outer primaries deep or dark blue (bluer in good light), broadly edged deep cobalt-blue on outer webs, inner webs and tips of all primaries blackish; underwingcoverts and axillaries blackish-brown. Tail deep or dark blue, slightly paler on outer webs of outer feathers. Entire underparts deep purplish-blue except brownish thighs. Eye dark brown. Bill black. Legs and feet black. Adult female Very similar, but forehead to hindcrown slightly duller blue, and face, upper- and underparts duller blue to bluish-black; some, possibly subadults, have lores dark brown, becoming umber-brown on chin, face, throat and breast, and flanks and belly tinged purplish-blue (can appear dull brown in shade). Juvenile Mostly dull blueblack above, including forehead and crown (without any azure-blue); edges to wing-coverts and central tail slightly brighter blue; throat and breast to flanks and belly mottled reddish to orange-buff, fringed black. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None. MOULT No details; a male on Gunung Gede-Pangrango was in moult in Mar (Collar et al. 2001). MEASUREMENTS Wing male 117–122mm, female 116– 120mm. Tail 103–110mm. Bill (to feathers) 13.5–16mm. Tarsus male 25.5–29mm, female 27.5mm. (BMNH, Tring). Weight: no data. TAXONOMY Historically placed within the chats, but DNA analysis (Voelker & Klicka 2008, Sangster et al. 2010) places the genus Cochoa among the true thrushes. Javan Cochoa has been considered a subspecies of Sumatran Cochoa, but differs considerably in size and plumage; may form a superspecies with the latter.

SUMATRAN COCHOA Cochoa beccarii

known from only a few localities. Listed as Vulnerable owing to continuing decline though habitat destruction for conversion to agriculture, especially at lower elevations, and to some extent hunting; total population c.2,500– 10,000 individuals and, with ongoing habitat loss, possibly closer to lower figure (Stattersfield & Capper 2000, Collar et al. 2001). Monotypic. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 25–28cm. Both sexes have pale iridescent-blue forehead and crown, broad pale iridescent-blue flashes on wings and base of tail, latter with black tip. Adult male has black face and glossy black body; female has gingery-buff face, whitish chin and dull brown body; both have reddish orbital skin around eyes. SIMILAR SPECIES In range, unlikely to be confused with any other species. VOICE Very poorly known. A thin, thrush-like sip in flight. Song, a long, thin, high-pitched whistle similar to that of Garnet Pitta Erythropitta granatina but shorter and higher pitched (Simpson 1995); song given during June, possibly from early spring to onset of breeding. HABITAT Lower to mid-level montane forest at 1,000– 2,200m (all specimens taken at 1,200–1,600m); occurs in all forest strata including canopy, bushes and undergrowth (van Marle & Voous 1988, Collar et al. 2001). BEHAVIOUR Very little-known. Occurs alone, in pairs or in mixed-species foraging flocks. Generally shy, quiet and unobtrusive, spending long periods perched almost motionless in cover, usually in canopy. Possibly occurs at extremely low density, but perhaps more numerous than records suggest. Forages in trees and bushy shrubs; diet mainly fruit, including small green berries, and insects (Robinson & Kloss 1918, Collar et al. 2001). BREEDING Almost unknown. Pair suspected to be feeding young in Feb, juveniles seen May–Jun and an immature male in Jul. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Rare endemic resident of Barisan Mts, on Sumatra, where known from few locations. Until early 1980s known from just four specimens (all males) taken at 1,200–1,600m, at three localities in Barat Province, W Sumatra: Mt Singgalang, Padangpanjang, and Mt Kerinci (two specimens), between 1879 and 1918. Recent sight records include a juvenile at 1,600–1,700m at Berastagi, Batak Highlands, N Sumatra, 3 May 1982, and Tanjungbarus in 1984; since then, observed most

Plate 3

Other names: Blue Cochoa, Malaysian Cochoa. Cochoa beccarii Salvadori, 1879, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova 14: 228. Padang highlands, Sumatra. A rare, little-known, fairly large and plump cochoa with a fairly short, broad-based, pointed bill, short legs and relatively long broad tail. Endemic to Sumatra, where

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Sumatran Cochoa

Sumatran Cochoa, probable immature male. June, Mt Kerinci, Sumatra, Indonesia (János Oláh).

Sumatran Cochoa, female probably adult. April, Danau Ranau, Sumatra, Indonesia (Chris Gooddie).

frequently on Mt Kerinci, now within Gunung Kerinci/ Seblat National Park, including in 1993, Feb 1994, Jul 1998, May–Jul 1999, Jun 2000, Apr 2001, Jun 2005, and an immature male in Jul–Aug 2007; elsewhere, records available from above Bintang, Aceh Province, Aug 1995, Gunung Dempo, S Sumatra, Oct 1995 (Collar et al. 2001, Simpson 1995), Danau Ranau, May 2009 (Goodie 2010) and Bukit Hamtikor, Bukit Barisan/Barisan National Park, Oct 2011 (Y. Muzika).

tinged brownish on underparts, lacking any glossy tone; blue feathers in wings paler, and legs and feet pale flesh pink. Juvenile Unknown. Immature male (in Jul) had pale or silver-blue in wing similar to that of adult male, but forehead to crown dark or brownish-black, pale grey or pale lavender-grey orbital area, and nape and face to sides of neck, throat, breast and centre of belly dark brown, heavily spotted or mottled paler brown or buffish-brown on face (Oriental Bird Club Images).

MOVEMENTS Resident or sedentary, but may undertake local altitudinal movements.

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None.

DESCRIPTION Sexes similar but separable. Adult male Forehead to crown and nape bright iridescent powderblue, tinged lavender, the nape feathers interspersed with long black hair-like plumes. Base of upper mandible, lores to above eye, ear-coverts, head-sides, mantle, back, lesser and median coverts, scapulars and uppertail-coverts glossy black. Orbital ring (often fairly extensive) reddish to light purple or pale lavender. Lesser coverts also glossy black; greater coverts pale iridescent silvery-blue, finely tipped black, primary coverts and inner webs of outermost median coverts black; alula and two outer primaries black, remaining primaries and secondaries have bases of outer webs greyish-blue, increasing in extent towards inner secondaries and tertials. Axillaries, underwing-coverts and underside of flight feathers black. Central tail feathers pale blue with narrow black tips; others pale blue on outer webs with broad black tips, outermost pair all black; underside of tail black. Entire underparts glossy black. Eye brown or light brown. Bill black. Legs grey and feet brownishblack. Adult female Very poorly known; similar to adult male but has gingery or sandy-buff face to ear-coverts and neck-sides, or pale purple cheeks becoming paler or whiter on chin and upper throat, while throat can also be brick-red (Goodie 2010); orbital ring as male; upper- and underparts duller dark-blue or bluish-black, but may be

MEASUREMENTS Wing 140–149mm. Tail 115–126mm. Bill (from gape) 31mm (culmen) 20mm. Tarsus 29–30mm. (BMNH, Tring; Robinson & Kloss 1918). Weight: no data.

MOULT No information.

TAXONOMY Historically placed within the chats, but DNA analysis (Voelker & Klicka 2008, Sangster et al. 2010) places the genus Cochoa among the true thrushes. Until recently Sumatran Cochoa was considered a subspecies of Javan Cochoa, but they differ considerably in size and plumage; may form a superspecies with Javan Cochoa.

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Genus Chlamydochaera Monotypic. Previously included with the cuckooshrikes (Campephagidae) due to its similarity to the trillers, and on behaviour with bulbuls, laughingthrushes and orioles, but recent anatomical and biochemical analyses place this within the thrushes, genetically close to the cochoas.

BLACK-BREASTED FRUITHUNTER Chlamydochaera jefferyi Plate 3 Other names: Black-collared Fruithunter, Black-breasted Triller, Black-breasted Thrush, Black-collared Thrush. Chlamydochaera jefferyi Sharpe, 1887, Ibis (5)5: 439. Mount Kinabalu, Borneo. A scarce, unobtrusive, generally little-known, short-billed and long-tailed endemic of highland forests of N Borneo (most frequently seen on Mt Kinabalu). Sedentary and usually seen in fruiting trees, outside of breeding season occurs either alone or in small or mixed flocks with other fruit-eating birds. Monotypic.

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Uncommon and local (but locally common when fruit is abundant) with notable gaps in distribution, e.g. Kelabit uplands, though common at localities such as Mt Dulit and parts of Crocker Range (c.160km south-west of Mt Kinabalu). Endemic to Borneo, where occurs on Mt Kinabalu, Mt Trus Madi and Crocker Range (Kaingaran, Malangkap, Rinangisan, Sinsuran road), Sabah, to Mt Mulu and Mt Dulit, Sarawak, erratically south to Mt Nyiut, W Kalimantan, Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya National Park on border of W & C Kalimantan, and Schwaner Range of C Kalimantan (Priemé & Heegaard 1988, Rice 1989, Sheldon et al. 2001, Mann 2008, Myers 2009).

FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 21–23cm. Both sexes have distinctive head pattern, with pale forehead and crown to nape, and broad black band from base of bill through eye to sides and centre of nape; black breast patch, grey and black body (male) or brown to reddishbuff (female), with broad black crescent on upper breast and broad black subterminal band and white tip to tail. SIMILAR SPECIES Posture recalls a small or slim pigeon, and foraging behaviour at fruiting tree recalls that of a bulbul, but unlikely to be confused with any other species if seen well. VOICE Often mainly silent; calls both in flight and when perched, a soft but high-pitched and slightly rising seep at regular intervals (Ahlquist et al. 1984). Song unknown, but a complex subsong consists of a rapid or almost continuous series of high-pitched squeaky, warbling and twittering notes. HABITAT Montane forest at 700–3,200m, frequenting middle and upper storeys, often found in or close to fruiting trees and at edge of mountain roads. BEHAVIOUR A quiet and unobtrusive species, often remaining still or moving slowly through trees, and best located by call; sometimes considered to behave in pigeon-like manner; occasionally perches in open atop tall tree. Earlier records indicated diet is mainly fruit, visiting fruiting trees of any size, favouring Litsea cubica and other large berries (Sheldon et al. 2001); also forages on the ground, where it takes snails, breaking their shells by tapping them in thrush-like manner against hard earth, stones, tarmac or concrete surfaces; occasionally also takes other invertebrates. Infrequently gathers in large numbers (up to 100 together) if food is plentiful, in company of other frugivores such as pigeons, bulbuls and flowerpeckers (Ahlquist et al. 1984). BREEDING Very little known. Season at least Mar–Apr, with recently fledged juveniles Aug and early Sep. Nest, a deep cup of plant fibres, thickly walled with green moss and placed up to 10m above ground in fork of a sapling (Smythies 1981, Mann 2008). Clutch two eggs. Nothing further known.

MOVEMENTS Sedentary but may wander short distances in search of fruiting trees. DESCRIPTION Sexes differ. Adult male Forehead warm or gingery-buff fading to yellowish-cream on crown and becoming greyish on hindcrown and nape. Broad black stripe from base of bill broadly through lores to eye, and across ear-coverts, meeting on lower hindneck. Mantle, back and scapulars dove-grey. Wings also dove-grey on coverts and tertials; flight feathers and tips of tertials black. Tail, broad, pale or dove grey with broad black (subterminal) tip, outermost feathers paler or white on outer web and black on inner web with broad subterminal band and white tip. Chin and upper throat as forehead or cream, and deep cream on cheeks and lower ear-coverts. Large black patch on breast; lower neck-sides, belly and f lanks pale grey, becoming white or whitish-grey on undertail-coverts. Eye reddish to red or light brown. Bill, legs and feet flesh-brown to black. Adult female As male, but white on forehead to hindcrown, and face to throat deep rich buff or gingery-buff, while grey areas are replaced with rust or reddish-buff on crown and underparts, and duller or reddish-brown on upperparts, wing-coverts, outer webs of tertials and centre of tail. Immature Juvenile unknown. Immatures are similar to the respective adult and the sexes are separable at an early age; immature male has slightly duller head pattern than adult male with black lores to ear-coverts and sides of the nape

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Black-breasted Fruithunter

Black-breasted Fruithunter, adult male. April, Mt Kinabalu, Borneo (Cherry Wong).

not so well-defined with pale tips; upperparts and wing coverts as adult or may retain narrow pale buff tips to some scapulars and tips to greater coverts; lower face, throat to breast and belly dull yellowish-buff tipped darker with black bases showing on sides of lower throat and breast, and pale off-white bases to lower breast and rest of the underparts. Immature female is similar to adult female or slightly browner on upperparts; forehead and crown dingy or dull buff-brown, and may have narrow black tips; tips to some scapulars, median coverts and all greater coverts pale buff-brown, and underparts deep buff-brown heavily barred darker at tips, most heavily on breast. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None. MOULT No information. M E A SU R E M ENTS Wing male 95 –112mm, female 109–112mm. Tail 94–103mm. Bill (to feathers) 14–17mm. Tarsus 26–28.5mm (BMNH, Tring). Weight: no data. TA XONOM Y Fir st descr ibed in 18 87 a nd, u nt i l recently, grouped with the trillers and cuckoo-shrikes (Campephagidae) and orioles (Oriolidae). Anatomical and biochemical evidence, together with nest architecture, places the species within the Turdinae, close to the typical thrushes in Turdus (Ahlquist et al. 1984), with close morphological similarities to the cochoas (Olson 1987).

Black-breasted Fruithunter, adult female, November, Mt Kinabalu, Borneo (Jordan Sitorus).

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Genera Heteroxenicus, Brachypteryx and Heinrichia Seven species of terrestrial chats grouped together as ‘shortwings’. All shortwings were previously classified as thrushes (Turdidae) but Voelker & Spellman (2004) demonstrated, using molecular data, a closer link to the chats. Currently considered to be primitive chats, the taxonomic position and relationship of all three genera is still largely unresolved and requires further work. Heteroxenicus and Heinrichia are both monotypic, differing largely on plumage and behaviour from Brachypteryx; Heinrichia also differs in size. The inclusion of Rufous-bellied and White-bellied Shortwings within Brachypteryx remains controversial as some consider them morphologically closer to Myiomela. The range of variation in plumages and voice of White-browed Shortwing across its rather extensive range includes male plumages that are dark or slate-blue to brown (or a mixture of both) and females that are either identical to the male or distinct, and is further complicated by the fact that some of the dark blue males breed in a brown female-type plumage (and may never become blue); these differences, coupled with the variation in calls and songs across the range, are clearly indicative of more than one other good species disguised within the present arrangement, and work is currently in progress to examine and review this complex. All shortwings are small with long legs, short tails, finely pointed bills and short rounded wings; they are also extremely shy or elusive ground-dwellers where they run mouse-like over the ground, usually preferring the cover of dense undergrowth and emerging only occasionally into the open to sing or display.

GOULD’S SHORTWING Heteroxenicus stellatus

Plate 4

Other name: Chestnut Shortwing. Brachypteryx (Drymochares) stellatus Gould, 1868, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1868: 218. Nepal. A shy, scarce, rarely seen, and generally little-known shortwing of vegetated alpine slopes and undergrowth, in montane forest of C Himalayas (mainly C Nepal and NE India) and sparsely or patchily east to SW & S China and NW Vietnam. The nest and eggs are unknown. A short-distance or altitudinal migrant that winters at lower levels (but very rarely recorded away from breeding areas). Polytypic with two races recognised. H. s. stellatus C & E Himalayas to NE India, NE Myanmar, and S & SC China. H. s. fuscus S China and NW Vietnam. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 12–13.5cm. Small size, long legs, narrow pointed bill, short rounded wings and short, narrow tail; usually shy and secretive, recalling generally much duller wren-babbler. Both sexes have rich, contrasting plumage, including chestnut upperparts and dark grey to black face and underparts, at close range with fine vermiculations or scaling, and bright white spots, streaks or ‘stars’ on rear underparts. SIMILAR SPECIES Unmistakable and unlikely to be confused with any other species if seen well; no other shortwing or wren-babbler has similar actions and behaviour, or distinctive rich chestnut upperparts and blackish face and underparts. VOICE Generally silent but utters sharp tik-tik in alarm. Song, a short series of very thin or high-pitched sii or siiiip notes, gradually becoming louder and more rapid, piercing and with a slightly undulating rhythm tssii tsiii tssiu tssiu tssiu-tssiu-tsitsitssiut ssiut-ssiutssiutsitsitsiutssiu..., possibly not far-carrying and only detected at close range (P. Alström recording; Robson 2000). HABITAT Breeds above tree-line in screes and open barren boulder fields with dwarf rhododendrons, in alpine zone. Winters in boulder-strewn gullies and ravines with dense rhododendron or bamboo thickets, also juniper

scrub and undergrowth in fir and rhododendron forests, often in or near damp ravines or streams with dense mossy banks. Occurs in E Himalayas at 3,505–4,200m in summer, and 2,120–4,540m elsewhere; in winter down to c.2,000m in E Himalayas, but recorded as low as 540m in Sikkim (Ali & Ripley 1983). BEHAVIOUR Generally shy and secretive, though in some areas may become (possibly only in late spring and summer when singing) remarkably confiding, and active in open either on ground or perching on bushes and stumps. Flicks wings rapidly when perched or on ground, recalling similar action of European Robin or other chats, possibly when nervous or agitated. On ground, runs in rapid mouse-like fashion over fallen vegetation and among tree roots, in search of invertebrates and insect larvae, also small seeds. BREEDING Almost nothing known. Season May–Jul or to Aug–early Sep in Bhutan: eggs probably laid Jun–Jul and juveniles (collected) in Aug (Ludlow & Kinnear 1937). STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Rare and local resident or short-distance altitudinal migrant throughout most of range, but possibly more frequent in Arunachal Pradesh (where formerly reported as common in upper Subansiri region) and fairly common in summer 2009 at Sela Pass (P. Alström pers. comm.); uncommon Bhutan; rare S China and NW Vietnam. In Nepal first recorded in extreme east in upper Mai Valley in April 1912, but just one additional record from there in Mar 1961; most regularly recorded near Ghopte Cave, below Gosainkund, Langtang National Park, with maximum of seven, May 1982; post-1990 records mainly of singles: in Jun 1995, May 1997, Jun 1999 and May 2002, two in May 2007, 2–3 in May 2008, and singles in Apr 2011 and Apr 2012. Elsewhere in Nepal, singles recorded at three other localities since 1990: in Mar 1997 between Sukhani and Garuwa, Jhapa/Ilam Districts, in Sankhuwa River valley, Makalu Barun National Park buffer zone in 1993–1995 (numbers and dates unknown), and Sandakpur, Ilam District, Jul 2007 (Inskipp 2013). H. s. stellatus C & E Himalayas, in N Uttarakhand (very few recent records) and C Nepal (most records in Langtang National Park – see status), Sikkim, NE Bhutan, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and NE Myanmar; in S China (SE Tibet and NE (Yanjing), W (Gaoligongshan) & C Yunnan), and recently recorded in N & C Sichuan in Jiuzhaigou National Park, Jiudingshan, Emei Shan and Hailuogou

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Glacier Park) (Yang Liu pers. comm.; J.& J. Holmes in litt.). H. s. fuscus NW Vietnam, northern W Tonkin, (S. Mahood pers. comm.); possibly also Jinping area, SE Yunnan, S China (MacKinnon & Phillipps 2000) but no specimens or recent records (Yang Liu pers comm.). MOVEMENTS A short-distance altitudinal migrant; recorded down to 2,000m in winter, from about mid–late Sep, but some remain as high as 3,505m in late Dec in Sikkim. Passage birds in India and Nepal recorded as low as 450m; recorded on passage through upper montane forest in Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh (where not known to breed) in mid-May (F. Lambert pers. comm.). In NW Vietnam in winter to 1,500m. DESCRIPTION Sexes alike. Adult Lower forehead dark grey, finely tipped black in fresh plumage, base of bill, lores and face to above eye black; upper forehead, crown and rear ear-coverts to neck-sides, mantle, wing-coverts and uppertail-coverts bright chestnut or chestnut-orange (can show fine, slightly darker fringes); lower rump has darker grey bases, flecked subterminally white; tail slightly darker chestnut than upperparts; flight feathers dark or blackish-grey edged paler brown or chestnut (not reaching tips). Chin, throat and breast (to axillaries and underwingcoverts) mid-grey, finely vermiculated or scaled darker, with very fine blackish crossbars and paler grey tips;

Gould’s Shortwing, adult H. s. stellatus. June, Sikkim, India (Jainy Kuriakose).

belly and flanks similar, mainly dark grey with fine white shaft-streaks and small bright white inverted triangles or star-shaped spots subterminally. Rear flanks, vent and undertail-coverts finely barred rufous-brown and blackish, with fine pale grey tips; thighs rufous-brown. Eyes brown or dark brown. Bill black. Legs and feet fleshy horn-brown, or grey-brown to blackish-brown. Differs little in worn plumage, but in late summer can show dark grey feather bases on upperparts. Juvenile Unknown. Immature has upperparts chestnut-brown, feathers with blackish tips and fine rusty-buff to buffish-brown shafts-streaks that broaden towards tips, forming distinct streaks; rump as adult but duller, uppertail-coverts and tail as adult. Wings as adult, but lesser and median coverts have rusty-buff tips. Lores, ear-coverts, chin and throat dark sooty-grey with paler buffish-grey centres forming mottling; breast dark grey tipped brownish, with dull buff or rusty-buff centres and off-white shaft-streaks; belly, vent and rear flanks dark grey with white shaft-streaks, forming inverted V-shaped triangles on belly, becoming broad whitish crossbars on vent and rear flanks, forming bold chevrons and bars. With age, upperparts become reddish-brown, with arrowshaped marks and speckling on underparts more buff, and dark feather fringes on breast fade to buff-brown. GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION Slight or poorly marked. H. s. fuscus as nominate but averages smaller, upperparts marginally slightly darker and duller; underparts as nominate but white stars or triangles average smaller. MOULT Adult post-breeding complete by Sep. Adult pre-breeding moult probably only partial but few data. Post-juvenile partial, precise extent unknown, but of four BMNH specimens examined, one is replacing inner tertials (Sep–Oct). MEASUREMENTS Wing male 73–80mm, female 70– 73mm. Bill 15.3–17.5mm. Tarsus 28–32.5mm. H. s. fuscus Wing male 71–74mm, female 67–73mm. Weight: 19–23g (Ali & Ripley 1983, Collar 2005; BMNH, Tring). TAXONOMY Previously classified or included in Brachypteryx with other shortwings, but found to be distantly related to other shortwings and differs consider­ably in plumage and song, thus meriting classification in monotypic genus (Price et al. 2014, Rasmussen & Anderton 2005).

Gould’s Shortwing, adult H. s. stellatus. April, Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh, India (James Eaton).

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RUSTY-BELLIED SHORTWING Brachypteryx hyperythra

Plate 4

Other name: Rusty-breasted Shortwing. Brachypteryx hyperythra Blyth, 1861, Proc. Zool. Lond. 1861: 201. Darjeeling, India. A secretive, scarce, little-known and rarely seen shortwing with a restricted range in bamboo and undergrowth of forests in E Himalayas of NE India and extreme S China; the nest, eggs and juveniles are undescribed. Considered Near-Threatened (previously listed as Vulnerable) and declining due to habitat destruction for timber, agriculture, grazing and conversion to tea plantations; total population estimated at 2,500 –10,000 mature individuals (Stattersfield & Capper 2000). Monotypic. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 12–13cm. Small size, rounded head with short straight bill, long legs, short rounded wings, and short narrow tail; like all shortwings, usually shy and secretive. Male is deep or dark blue above, with black lores and base of bill, short white supercilium and rufous-orange underparts. Female olive-brown above, lacks supercilium, with pale rufous-orange underparts, whiter or paler on centre of belly. Juvenile plumage unknown, but presumably spotted or streaked as in other shortwings. SIMILAR SPECIES Most likely confusion is with Indian Blue Robin, a slightly larger and longer-tailed version of Rusty-bellied Shortwing; male Indian Blue Robin has longer and bolder white supercilium extending over earcoverts, white (not rufous) vent and undertail-coverts, and dark (not pink) legs. Female Indian Blue Robin has rufous tinge to rump, white chin, mottled brownish-buff breast and flanks, and may show a pale buffish eye-ring. Male White-browed Bush-Robin is also slightly larger, longer-tailed with a longer and more conspicuous white supercilium, and slightly duller, more cinnamon-ochre underparts. Female White-browed Bush-Robin is much darker fulvous-brown above, duller and more ochre below, usually with a conspicuous pale supercilium (occasionally reduced or absent). Confusion also possible with several ‘blue’ f lycatchers. In particular (probably the main confusion species) male recalls male Snow y-browed Flycatcher Ficedula hyperythra, but has shorter supercilium (from above lores to ear-coverts in Snow y-browed). Snowy-browed has slightly darker blue upperparts (lores and cheeks less contrastingly black), rufous-brown edges to flight feathers and small (often difficult to see) white patches at base of tail; orange on underparts is more restricted to throat and breast; Rusty-bellied Shortwing is slightly (c.2cm) larger, with a longer bill, longer legs, is more terrestrial and has different vocalisations. Female also similar to female Snowy-browed Flycatcher, but darker above, richer and more orange on underparts, and lacs pale orange-buff supercilium, eye-ring and paler, mottled underparts. Confusion also possible with smaller Pygmy Blue Flycatcher F. hodgsoni, which has short tail, a fine bill and similar plumage, but male Rusty-bellied Shortwing is larger, duller and less blue above (lacking bright blue forecrown), and has a short but fairly prominent white supercilium. Male also initially recalls male Slaty-backed Flycatcher F. sordida, which has darker blue upperparts, lacks a supercilium and has a much longer tail with small white side panels at its base.

VOICE Generally silent, but gives a soft chak note and gueh in response to playback of song. Song very similar to Lesser Shortwing, but faster, more musical and generally longer; a high-pitched jumbled warble of slightly slurred musical and higher-pitched or piping notes, announced by a clear tu-tiu, wi-tu or tsoo, too, followed by a rapid and accelerating series of slurred notes, deedelooddeleeleelo, deleswititit and ending rather abruptly with a flourish. Responds to playback of own song and that of Lesser Shortwing. Song period unknown, but presumably at start of breeding season; in West Bengal males recorded in full song late Apr and May (Mauro & Vercruysse 2000). Sings from ground or low perch, usually with tail half-cocked and wings slightly drooped. HABITAT Not fully known, in breeding season occurs at 1,800–2,900m, but recently recorded in coniferous forest in May at 3,600 m (Acharya & Vijayan 2007), in bamboo thickets, dense rhododendron and secondary scrub, and dense undergrowth within broadleaf evergreen forest and edges of conifer forest, primarily in damp and heavily vegetated areas, particularly steep-sided gullies in primary forest and tall second growth. In winter in similar habitat at lower levels down to 540m, also in dense grassland with scrub and reeds, but some remain higher, as recorded in Jan at 2,900m (Mauro & Vercruysse 2000, Collar et al. 2001). BEH AV IOUR Poorly known. Usually shy, secretive, skulking, silent and easily overlooked, but occasionally quite tame, inquisitive or fearless, occasionally approaching those fortunate to have encountered the species. Forages low down in or below dense vegetation, and on ground in search of invertebrates, also makes short aerial dashes for insects. May hold tail half-cocked when on ground, but perhaps in response to alarm or threat. Diet includes beetles, but otherwise unknown, though presumed to be mainly invertebrates and insect larvae. BREEDING Nothing known; probably breeds Apr–Jun based on period of greatest song activity. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Very scarce and local; rare in S China. In 1996 a large or fairly dense population was discovered in Lava region of West Bengal, NE India (Mauro & Vercruysse 2000). Occurs in E Himalayas of NE India, from N West Bengal (Darjeeling area) to Sikkim (Acharya & Vijayan 2007), N Assam and E Arunachal Pradesh, and northern Myanmar in Hponkanrazi and Hukaung Valley wildlife

?

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Rufous-bellied Shortwing

Rusty-bellied Shortwing, adult male. November, Tinsukia, Assam, India (Deborshee Gogoi).

Rusty-bellied Shortwing, adult female. November, Tinsukia, Assam, India (Deborshee Gogoi).

sanctuaries (BirdLife Inter­national 2015, James Eaton in litt., Pritam Baruah in litt.) and possibly adjacent W Bhutan (single record of three singing birds in western valleys, Apr 2002: Spierenburg 2005) and extreme S China (SE Tibet, plus one record of male and female, in 1973, Gongshan, NW Yunnan); may also occur in E Nepal.

drab brown tipped dull brown-white. Bill dark brown, extensively pale at base of mandible. Juvenile Unknown.

MOVEMENTS Poorly known: probably resident or under­ takes short-distance altitudinal movements; recorded at 1,100–2,050m in Apr–May, and 450–2,900m in Dec–Feb. DESCRIPTION Sexes differ. Adult male Forehead, crown and upperparts deep blue or blue-black; short silky-white supercilium (sometimes just a spot or oval patch above eye) from upper lores to just over or behind eye. Lores, cheeks, ear-coverts and malar blackish-grey, with lower border of malar sometimes finely tipped white, forming a thin stripe; lower cheeks, rear ear-coverts and neck-sides grade into blue-black upperparts. Wing-coverts fringed blue-black, more broadly on greater coverts and tertials; flight and tail feathers dull brown fringed deep blue; underwing-coverts and axillaries blackish-grey, broadly tipped orange. Tail, short and brownish-black, finely fringed blue-black. Chin and throat rich orange-buff, becoming rufous-orange over rest of underparts, deepest on breast and flanks, paler on centre of belly and vent; rear flanks tinged olive; undertail-coverts blackish-grey, broadly tipped orange; thighs blackish-grey tipped dull pale buff. Iris hazelbrown. Bill black, sometimes with paler base to mandible. Legs and feet flesh-pink to pale horn-brown. Differs very little in worn plumage, though underparts may average richer orange. Adult female Head and upperparts olivebrown tinged slaty, becoming dark brown on wings and tail; wing-coverts fringed cinnamon-brown; axillaries and underwing-coverts dull cinnamon-orange, finely tipped olive-brown. Lacks supercilium (feathers of superciliary show whitish shaft-streaks at base, but fully concealed). Lores and cheeks rufous or cinnamon-buff; ear-coverts and neck-sides olive-brown. Chin and throat pale orange edged dull olive-brown; breast and flanks rich orange tinged cinnamon, broadly tipped olive-brown on flanks, and rear flanks more uniform olive-brown. Centre of belly can be rich orange-rufous or pale whitish-orange to white; vent and undertail-coverts cinnamon-buff; thighs

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None. MOULT No information. ME A SUR EMENTS Wing male 63.5 – 65mm, female 62mm. Bill 14.8–15.9mm. Tarsus 27–29mm. Weight: no data (Ali 1962, Ali & Ripley 1983; BMNH, Tring).

RUFOUS-BELLIED SHORTWING Brachypteryx major Plate 4 Other names: Nilgiri Blue Robin, Western Ghats Short­ wing (when lumped with next species). Phoenicura major Jerdon, 1841, Madras J. Lit. Sci. 13: 170. Nilgiri Hills, India. A shy, scarce and little-known, medium-sized shortwing of restricted range in montane forest (including sholas or forest patches) in S Western Ghats of SW India. Considered Endangered (previously listed as Vulnerable) due to ongoing habitat loss and sensitivity to disturbance (Stattersfield & Capper 2000, Collar et al. 2001, Robin & Sukumar 2002). Monotypic. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 15cm. Almost entirely all dark or deep blue (can appear blackish or blackish-blue in undergrowth) of forest floor in S Western Ghats, India. Adults entirely deep blue or slate-blue (including tail and edges to wing-coverts and flight feathers), with blackish lores, pale orange to rufous flanks and undertail, and white belly and vent. SIMILAR SPECIES Differs from White-bellied Shortwing (the only conspecific in region) by much less white on forehead and orange or rufous on flanks to undertail (blue or greyish-blue in White-bellied). From very similar male Nilgiri Blue Flycatcher Eumyias albicaudatus by longer and thinner bill, longer legs, slightly shorter tail, and orange or rufous on flanks to undertail (blue or greyish-blue in the flycatcher), also by much more secretive foraging

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behaviour, whereas Nilgiri Blue Flycatcher is more conspicuous, making aerial sallies from low to mid-heights, or canopy level, and usually perches in open with fairly upright stance. From male White-bellied Blue Flycatcher Cyornis pallidipes by slimmer bill (lacking hooked tip), longer legs and orange or rufous on flanks to undertail (white or off-white in the flycatcher). VOICE Contact call a short, thin indrawn and far-carrying whistle, mostly heard in Jan–May, leading up to breeding season; calls usually audible at 50–70m inside forest and 100–120m in shola and grassland (Robin & Sukumar 2002); also a dry or harsh rattle, or chattering note possibly in alarm. Song, a short and fairly simple medley of fairly loud, high-pitched, penetrating whistles, often introduced by slower single or disyllabic notes, and usually descending towards the terminus, ssweee or tsee-du...ts-tsee-du-du-du, very similar to song of White-bellied Shortwing (not always separable), but individual notes and phrases usually shorter and less frequently repeated (Robin et al. 2011) HABITAT Not known to differ much from White-bellied Shortwing; undergrowth and floor of sholas or dense moist, tropical and subtropical, montane evergreen forest, in wooded ravines and grassland mosaic at higher levels, usually near streams and less frequently in Acacia, pine and wattle plantations, especially near shola forest, and usually avoids moist deciduous forest. A survey to determine status and habitat preferences in 2001 found that encounter rates with calling birds were four times higher in shola fragmented by human interference than those in natural shola; occurs between c.1,200m (mainly above 1,500m) to 2,200m (Robin & Sukumar 2002). BEHAVIOUR Like White-bellied Shortwing; usually alone or in pairs, but rarely seen together. Forages on ground and within low-growing vegetation, leaf litter, and fallen trees and branches. Secretive and shy, more likely to be heard than seen, but (like other shortwings) may be partially crepuscular, appearing at edge of trails, paths or quiet roadsides in twilight, foraging by walking slowly and searching ground for insects, rarely flying far. Diet largely unknown, but recorded taking flies and caterpillars, so presumably mainly invertebrates and insect larvae; also takes many fallen berries. BREEDING Very little-known and differences from closely related White-bellied Shortwing not fully described, as very few nests have been found. Season Mar–Jun, possibly into Aug, but requires clarification. Nest, constructed by adult female, a large, neat cup mostly of green moss and plant fibres, lined with finer moss and rootlets, and placed up to 2m above ground in a hole in a tree trunk or branch, or on ground on a bank, or in open between buttress roots of a tree beside forest trail. Eggs 2–3, off-white or with a brownish ‘cap’ at broad end, and incubated 16–17 days (Robin 2005); nothing further known. Longevity (from ringing data) nine years (Hussain 1991), but unclear whether refers to this species or White-bellied Shortwing. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Previously considered fairly common (Ali & Ripley 1983) or common, but difficult to detect when not vocalising. In SW India, S Western Ghats (Nilgiri Hills and nearby Bababudan and Brahmagiri Hills north of Palaghat Gap, S Karnataka and NW Tamil Nadu). MOVEMENTS Entirely sedentary.

DESCRIPTION Sexes similar. Adult male Lores to eye (sometimes marginally above or behind eye), sides of chin and upper throat blackish or deep blackish-blue; may show small or indistinct pale or whitish patch on lower forehead, or marginally towards eye above blackish lores; centre of forehead to crown and upperparts deep blue; bases to mantle and back feathers paler or greyer, sometimes visible in worn plumage. Tail deep blue or tinged blackish towards shafts. Wing-coverts (except alula and primary coverts) as mantle and scapulars; alula, primary coverts and flight feathers blackish on inner webs (and marginally on outer webs), broadly fringed deep blue, tips to flight feathers and inner web of tertials often blackish; chin and lower throat to lower breast deep blue, like upperparts, belly and vent white or whitish; axillaries and flanks to undertail-coverts rufous or rufous-orange, deepest on undertail-coverts (in some, upper flanks can be slightly paler orange). Eye brown to deep brown or reddish-brown. Bill black. Legs and feet dark flesh-brown, slate-grey or black. In worn plumage, head and upperparts slightly duller and flight feathers more contrastingly browner black. Adult female As male but slightly duller or less intense blue on upperparts, or tinged olive; fine whitish tips to centre of throat and upper breast, and rufous on flanks and sides of belly duller or browner. Juvenile Undescribed. First-year Similar to adult, but dull slate or greyish-blue head and breast, finely streaked pale buff, and mottled browner on mantle and scapulars, the extent of brown mottling variable and probably agerelated; uppertail-coverts tipped pale or whitish-orange. Underparts as adult, or can be greyer on throat and breast, finely streaked whitish or pale buff (usually on centre of throat and breast), and slightly duller rufous or olive-brown on flanks and undertail-coverts. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None. MOULT No information. MEASUREMENTS Wing male 76–83mm, female 73– 77mm. Tail 59–63mm. Bill (from skull) 17–18mm, (from feathers) 12–15mm. Tarsus 25–29mm. Weight 23–28g (Ali & Ripley 1983; BMNH, Tring). TA XONOMY Previously considered conspecific with geographically close but allopatr ic W hite-bellied Shortwing, which occurs immediately south of Rufousbellied, separated by a lowland gap in S Western Ghats (Robin et al. 2006, 2011). Has been included (together with White-bellied Shortwing) in Callene, and more recently

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White-bellied Shortwing

Rufous-bellied Shortwing, adult male. May, Tamil Nadu, India (Ramki Sreenivasan).

proposed, separately, for inclusion in genus Myiomela (under name Nilgiri Blue Robin) based on morphological similarities (Collar 2005, Rasmussen & Anderton 2005). However, wing shape (lack of primary projection) much closer to that of other Brachypteryx.

WHITE-BELLIED SHORTWING Brachypteryx albiventris

Plate 4

Other names: Palni Shortwing, White-bellied Blue Robin. Callene albiventris Blanford, 1868, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1868: 833, pl. 39. Palni Hills, India. A medium-sized, shy and secretive shortwing with a restricted range in extreme S Western Ghats, India. Sedentary or possibly a short-distance altitudinal migrant to lower levels in non-breeding season. Considered Endangered (previously listed as Vulnerable) due to ongoing loss of shola forest and sensitivity to disturbance (Stattersfield & Capper 2000, Collar et al. 2001, Robin & Sukumar 2002). Monotypic. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 15cm. Both sexes are almost entirely deep blue or slate-blue, including tail and edges to wing-coverts and flight feathers (can appear blackish or blackish-blue), with a white or bluish-white forehead reaching to eye, and white or whitish belly to undertail-coverts. SIMILAR SPECIES Differs from Rufous-bellied Short­ wing (the only conspecific in region) by more prominent white on forehead and blue sides to lower breast and flanks (orange or rufous flanks to undertail in Rufous-bellied). From very similar male Nilgiri Blue Flycatcher Eumyias albicaudatus by longer bill, slightly longer legs, shorter tail (lacking any white at base, though can be difficult to detect in some Nilgiri Blue Flycatchers), white forehead (blue or greyish-blue in the flycatcher) and white belly to undertail-coverts, also more secretive foraging behaviour; juvenile White-bellied Shortwing is also very similar to same-age Nilgiri Blue Flycatcher in coloration, both being

Rufous-bellied Shortwing, probably adult male. April, Tamil Nadu, India (Clement Francis).

slate-blue (slightly paler in the flycatcher), with brown mottling. Nilgiri Blue Flycatcher perches more erect and is more active and conspicuous, making aerial sallies from low to mid-heights, or canopy level, and usually perches in open. From male White-bellied Blue Flycatcher Cyornis pallidipes, which shares similar habitat and also has rather shy or inconspicuous behaviour, by slimmer bill (lacking hooked tip), longer legs, broader (or less rounded) head shape, shorter tail, blue or blue-grey flanks to undertail (white or off-white in White-bellied Blue Flycatcher) and white confined to belly, vent and undertail; black on chin of White-bellied Blue Flycatcher often more extensive, reaching upper throat. VOICE Calls include a high-pitched, melodic series of whistled phrases, often commencing with a soft single or repeated note su, seeeta a to latit, usually audible at 50–70m in forest and 100–120m in shola and grassland (Robin & Sukumar 2002); also a loud chattering. All calls are very similar or identical to Rufous-bellied Shortwing. Song a rich but fairly simple series of rather musical, highpitched whistled phrases similar to but usually longer than call notes, seet seet a plu plu plu suwa suwa sweee, but interspersed or varied with similar short rising and falling high-pitched whistled phrases and slurred whistles, suu sewa suwa cheewa see cheewa, and drier or harsher chatters or buzzes, repeated with slight variation, often for sustained periods. Song is very similar to Rufous-bellied Shortwing (not always separable), but individual notes and phrases usually longer and more complex. Some variation among different populations, some alternating high- and lowfrequency notes, with fewer repeated notes (Robin et al. 2011). Sings from low in vegetation, occasionally from a partially exposed branch. H A BITAT Not known to differ from Rufous-bellied Shortwing; undergrowth and floor of shola or dense moist, tropical and subtropical, montane evergreen forest, in wooded ravines, usually near running streams, and shola and grassland mosaic at higher levels; less frequently in Acacia, old pine and wattle plantations, especially near shola, but usually avoids moist deciduous forest; also in gardens (in Kodaikanal) with dense wooded areas near main habitat. Survey to determine status and habitat

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preferences in 2001 found that encounter rates with calling birds were four times higher in shola fragmented by human interference than those in natural shola. Occurs from c.1,000m (mainly above 1,500m) to 2,200m (Robin & Sukumar 2002). BEHAVIOUR As Rufous-bellied Shortwing; remains very little-known due to shy and secretive nature, and more frequently heard than seen, but is occasionally confiding. Most records are of singles or pairs, though rarely seen together but (like all shortwings), and perhaps partially crepuscular, appearing at edge of trails, paths or quiet roadsides in twilight. Forages by walking slowly on ground and in or among low-growing vegetation, leaf litter, fallen trees and branches, searching for insects, and rarely flies far. Diet largely unknown, but recorded taking flies and caterpillars, so presumably mainly invertebrates and insect larvae, possibly also small berries. BREEDING Little-known as very few nests ever found; differences between it and very similar Rufous-bellied Shortwing poorly known. Season Mar–Jun, mainly May– Jun, following onset of wet season; possibly also later in year as juveniles trapped in Jul, Sep–Nov and Jan (Robin in prep.). Nest undescribed, but presumably very similar to that of Rufous-bellied Shortwing – a large, neat cup mostly of green moss, lined with finer moss, small twigs and rootlets; nothing further known (Ali & Ripley 1983, Robin 2005). Longevity (from ringing data) nine years (Hussain 1991) but unclear whether this refers to present species or Rufous-bellied Shortwing.

lower in non-breeding season, having been recorded at 950m, at Thekkady, and down to 250m, near Pooyankutty (both Kerala) (Collar et al. 2001).

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Previously considered fairly common (A li & R ipley 1983) or moderately common, and possibly remains so within very restricted range; difficult to detect when not vocalising. Ringing surveys in Kodaikanal area of Palni Hills indicate that this species is third most numerous passerine in this area (Balachandran 1999). In SW India, extreme S Western Ghats (south of Palaghat Gap in Palni Hills, through Cardamom Hills to Ashambu Hills, Kerala, north to about Thirunelli, and W Tamil Nadu).

DESCRIPTION Sexes similar. Adult male Base of upper mandible and lores to just above eye black, in some extending to chin and upper cheeks; forehead and slightly towards eye white or pale bluish-white; rest of head and upperparts deep blue or slate-blue, including tail, which is fringed paler or brighter blue (shafts black), and wing-coverts and flight feathers, which are edged paler or bright blue, and inner webs and distally over tertials, primaries and secondaries blackish. Throat to breast, flanks and sides of belly as upperparts or slightly duller blue, or paler greyish-blue, and can show whitish bases to feathers; centre of belly to undertail-coverts white. Eye deep brown or reddish-brown. Bill black, Legs and feet dark horn-brown, slate-grey or black. Adult female Slightly paler or duller blue than male. Juvenile Similar to adult, but has dull slate-blue plumage mottled browner; extent of mottling varies and is probably related to age, varying from blotchy very young individuals to bluer older birds. Eye grey (Robin in prep.).

MOVEMENTS Mainly sedentary, but some may move

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None.

White-bellied Shortwing, adult. March, Kerala, India (Ram Mallya).

White-bellied Shortwing, adult. March, Kerala, India (Niranjan Sant).

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MOULT Very little known; in 65 adults, only tail moult was recorded in some, and wing moult commenced after first week of Jun (Balachandran 1999). MEASUREMENTS Wing male 78–83mm, female 73–78mm. Tail 61–68mm. Bill (from feathers) 13–15.5mm. Tarsus 28–29mm. Weight 24–28g (Ali & Ripley 1983; BMNH, Tring). TA XONOMY Previously considered conspecific with geographically close but allopatric Rufous-bellied Shortwing, which occurs immediately north of Whitebellied, separated by lowland gap in S Western Ghats (Robin et al. 2006, 2011). Has been included (together with Rufous-bellied Shortwing) in Callene, and more recently proposed, separately, for inclusion in genus Myiomela (under name White-bellied Blue Robin) based on morphological similarities (Collar 2005, Rasmussen & Anderton 2005). However, wing shape (lack of primary projection) much closer to that of other Brachypteryx.

LESSER SHORTWING Brachypteryx leucophris

Plate 5

Other names: Brown Shortwing; Caroline’s Shortwing, Mrs La Touche’s Shortwing (carolinae). Myiothera leucophris, Temminck, 1828, Planches Color livr. 76: pl. 448. Java. A small, extremely secretive, ground-loving, short-tailed and relatively long-legged chat with rounded wings, very similar in shape and actions to a small babbler. More likely to be heard than seen; inhabits moist and dense understorey of montane and submontane broadleaf forests of E Himalayas to C & S China and SE Asia to Indonesia. Resident or partly so, and some populations migratory, moving short-distances to lower altitudes in winter. Polytypic with five races recognised.

and underparts, with longer or more prominent white supercilium and lacks white on chin, throat and belly; females and immatures more likely to be confused, but female White-browed generally duller or darker brown, lacking warmth on flanks, darker on chin and throat, and white restricted to centre of belly and vent; legs also usually darker. Race sinensis similar to slightly smaller race nipalensis of Lesser Shortwing, but no overlap in ranges and sinensis has all-grey underparts (blue-grey breast and flanks, and white central lower breast and belly in nipalensis). Female White-browed Shortwing has pale buff supercilium (supercilium may be concealed on female Lesser) and generally has rufous forehead, lores and possibly eye-ring. Immature male White-browed as adult female but has long, fine white or buffish supercilium (to over ear-coverts), longer than on Lesser, also greybrown chin to breast and generally has less scalloping on breast. Abbott’s Malacocincla abbotti and Buff-breasted Babblers Trichastoma tickelli are larger, but often occur in similar habitat, are somewhat dumpier, longer-tailed and have warm buff on face, breast and around eye, also grey supercilium in Abbott’s; both babblers also have larger or stronger-looking bills, especially Abbott’s. Spot-throated Babbler Pellorneum albiventre is smaller than previous two babblers and has thinner bill (but still thicker than shortwing’s) with pale yellowish base to lower mandible, tail slightly longer than shortwing’s and rounded at tip; lacks supercilium, but face generally greyish, drab brown on upperparts, slightly warmer or more ochre-tinged on breast to undertail, chin to upper breast white, can be finely spotted brown. Confusion also possible with slightly larger and longer-tailed Rufous-tailed Robin (winters in same range), which has bright rufous rump and tail, pale lores and whitish eye-ring, with much paler, off-white underparts and distinct or prominent scaling on breast. Rufous-browed Flycatcher Anthipes solitaris is also similar, but longer in overall shape, has rufous spectacles and well-defined white chin and throat patch.

FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 11–13cm. Nominate race has warm or rufous-brown crown and upperparts, may show fine white supercilium, buffish-brown face to breast-sides and flanks, paler or whitish over rest of underparts, but considerable variation (females and immatures of all races little-known), from all brown or grey-brown, to those with paler chin and throat, or has more extensive or whiter areas on breast and belly; also considerable variation throughout range with darker blue-grey males in races nipalensis and wrayi.

VOICE Call a ringing turrr, turrr and high-pitched piercing tack or tuck alarm call, which may become a hard tock-tock and a soft or subdued note; also a high- pitched short, upslurred whistle psueet. Song a short fast, sweet or melodious, high- pitched warbling cadence of 10–12 notes, usually preceded by 1–3 sharp or emphatic notes, followed by a pause, then several rising and falling notes at increasing speed with a jumbled terminal flourish including buzzing notes and musical ringing jingles. Has softer subsong, often containing mimicry of other birds. Also a rapid series of buzzing, rattling notes, slightly rising or accelerating, without introductory notes and ceases or ends abruptly, before resuming after short pause. Song like that of White-browed Shortwing, but accelerating delivery and either a terminal flourish, abrupt ending or pause in song, and generally lacks fluty whistles and harsh notes. On Alor imitates Timor Stubtail Urosphena subulata (Trainor et al. 2012). Song period probably coincides with breeding season, but recorded singing in Laos in Mar (Timmins & Duckworth 2012) and on passage in Fujian in mid-Apr; in Bhutan sings late Mar or early Apr, and throughout summer to mid-Aug; on Alor singing in mid-Dec; responds to playback (but often remains in cover).

SIMILAR SPECIES Slightly larger and slightly longertailed White-browed Shortwing occupies similar range and habitat; male much darker slate-blue on upper-

HABITAT Ground and dense understorey of montane and submontane broadleaf forests and second growth, with preference for damp undergrowth often in vicinity of wet

B. l. nipalensis F. Moore, 1854. Himalayas of N & NE India, C & E Nepal, Bhutan and W, NW & E Myanmar and SW China. B. l. carolinae La Touche, 1898. W & NW Thailand, N & C Laos, N Vietnam and SE China; possibly also S Assam, NE India. B. l. wrayi Ogilvie-Grant, 1906. S Thailand and C & S Malay Peninsula. B. l. langbianensis Delacour & Greenway, 1939. S Laos, C Vietnam and W Cambodia. B. l. leucophris (Temminck, 1828). Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Alor, Wetar and Timor.

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gullies, slow-moving rivers and streams; in upper montane zone, often in dwarf or stunted trees and undergrowth. In Himalayas recorded at 1,500–3,900m, but in Assam generally above 900m (recorded down to about 600 m in Joypur RF, N Assam: P. Baruah in litt.) and in Bhutan mainly at 1,400–2,800m (occasionally to 3,200m); in S China at 1,000–3,200m; recorded down to 350m (if suitable habitat available) in Thailand and 480m in Laos (where usually above 740m); in Malaysia breeds above 970m; on Sumatra, Java and Bali at 900–2,100m; in Lesser Sundas at 600–1,220m on Lombok, 680–930m on Wetar, above 920m on Sumbawa 650–800m on Alor and 1,700– 2,100m on Gunung Mutis, W Timor; in S Annam, recorded at Langbian at 1,636–1,970m; in W Cambodia above 900m and in N Vietnam (E Tonkin) has been recorded in Dec at c.200m. In winter and on passage in similar habitat at lower elevations, to 250 m in Nepal, and also in scrub and bushes at edge of dense grassland and riverine woodland. BEHAVIOUR A shy and skulking bird, usually alone or in pairs, easily overlooked and much more often heard than seen, and rarely seen if not singing. Keeps to ground, usually within or below dense undergrowth of montane and submontane forest. Often holds tail erect. Forages on ground amongst leaf litter or decaying trunks, or searches low stems and branches. Diet presumed to be mainly invertebrates and insect larvae, but in Indonesia recorded taking snails, slugs, beetle grubs and pupae. BREEDING Season Apr–Jul (NE India and Nepal); Mar– Jun (Myanmar, Malay Peninsula and SE Asia) and Oct–Apr (Java). Territorial; in parts of Bhutan at 1,600–1,900m, mean density of 0.4 territories per km, but evidence of large annual fluctuations. Nest, a small, compact oval ball or dome with large side entrance, constructed of moss, leaves (including bamboo), fine roots and grass, lined with leaves, bryophytes, fern stems, grass, strips of bark, palm leaves and plant fibres, usually on ground, bank or tree trunk, amongst tree roots, rocks or in clump of rattan up to 90cm above ground. Eggs 2–4, olive-green to seagreen, occasionally pale olive-brown heavily speckled or spotted light reddish-brown usually at larger end (Caldwell & Caldwell 1931). Nest-building and incubation by both sexes (Ali 1962). Reported to be an occasional brood host of parasitic Large Hawk Cuckoo Hierococcyx sparveroides (Collar 2005). STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Generally common or fairly common, and a widespread, though rarely seen, resident or altitudinal migrant. Scarce or rare in Himalayas of N India and Lesser Sundas; in Nepal very rare but presumed resident; all records span period Jan–Apr, but only two post-1988 records (Inskipp 2013); common NE India and S Assam; locally common in SE China and Thailand; formerly a scarce winter visitor in Hong Kong (where first recorded Jul–Aug 2001: Robson 2002) and now a recent colonist and scarce resident (Hong Kong Bird Report 2009–2010). Breeding population in S & SE China estimated at 100–10,000 pairs (Brazil 2009). B. l. nipalensis Himalayas of Uttarakhand, N India and C & E Nepal (very rare but presumably overlooked), Sikkim, Bhutan and SE Arunachal Pradesh, NE India, south to S Assam (Meghalaya and Lushai Hills), Nagaland, Manipur and W, NW & E Myanmar (south to Tenasserim), east to SW China (SE Tibet to W Yunnan, also Emei Shan in S Sichuan); previously considered a rare winter visitor to NE & SE Bangladesh with six records to 2011 (Thompson

& Johnson 2003), subsequently revised to scarce winter visitor or resident in NE and SE (Thompson et al. 2014). B. l. carolinae W, NW & SE Thailand, N & C Laos, N Vietnam (Tonkin) and SE China (W, EC & S Yunnan to Guangxi, N Guangdong, S Hunan, W & NE Jiangxi and NW Fujian). Some in S Assam Hills also resemble this race (Rasmussen & Anderton 2005), but requires confirmation. B. l. wrayi Extreme S Thailand and Malaysia (Larut Hills, Perak) and Titiwangsa Range, south to Ulu Langat (Selangor); also on Gunung Tahan (Pahang) and Gunung Rabong (Kelantan). B. l. langbianensis S Laos and C Vietnam (C & S Annam) also Cardamom Mts, W Cambodia (Thomas & Poole 2003); possibly also in higher areas of NE Cambodia (Goes 2013). B. l. leucophris Highlands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Alor, Wetar and Timor. MOVEMENTS Not fully understood; resident or shortdistance altitudinal migrant, especially in Himalayas, where it winters at lower altitudes in foothills. DESCR IPTION Sexes alike in nominate race (see Geographical variation). Adult male Forehead to crown and entire upperparts deep ruddy or warm olive-brown (tinged more reddish-brown on Sumbawa and Timor); wing-coverts warm brown and edges to flight feathers also brighter or more chestnut-brown, uppertail-coverts and tail usually slightly brighter or more chestnut-brown than rest of upperparts. Short pale buff or whitish supercilium over lores to eye, either prominent (broadest in front of eye) or concealed, and narrow buffish eye-ring. Lores dark brown (often finely spotted paler or obscured by greyish tips), becoming paler or more buffish-brown on face and ear-coverts, and may show slight streaking on ear-coverts. Centre of chin and throat whitish, but sides of throat and neck pale buff-brown or warm brown, becoming duller and more extensively brown on breast, centre of breast tipped slightly darker brown; flanks warm or dull brown, becoming paler or whiter on belly and undertail-coverts. Eye brown or light brown. Bill dagger-like and stronglooking (for size), and is largest of races, dark brown or blackish with yellowish gape. Legs and feet brownish to grey, grey-brown, pink or pinkish-purple. Adult female Very similar to adult male. Upperparts (to rear ear-coverts and neck-sides) cinnamon-brown and may be tinged olive,

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rump and uppertail-coverts slightly more cinnamon. Wing and tail dark cinnamon-brown (alula slightly paler and greyer), fringed slightly paler and more broadly on median and greater coverts, tertials and secondaries. Supercilium more often concealed than in male. Chin and centre of throat to lower breast, belly and vent off-white, can be tipped cinnamon-brown (giving mottled pattern); sides or centre of breast (occasionally forming breast-band) and flanks pale cinnamon-brown, but variable in extent, on paler birds may appear scaly, whitish feathers with fine cinnamon-brown tips, in some pale or off-white restricted to centre or lower throat; undertail-coverts off-white to pale buff, or broadly tipped buff; thighs cinnamon-brown. Some, possibly older birds, have upperparts slightly darker and greyer, neck-sides and malar region (framing brownish ear-coverts), breast-band and flanks also slightly greyer. Juvenile Upperparts and ear-coverts dark brown with variable rufous to orange-rufous subterminal spots or shaft-streaks. Tail and wings dark brown, tail feathers broadly fringed rufous, wing-coverts broadly fringed and tipped orange-rufous, rest of wing as adult, but fringes slightly more russet or rufous-chestnut, especially on tertials and secondaries. Chin and centre of throat dirty buff, rest of underparts cinnamon-buff, feathers with slightly paler centres and dark or blackish-brown fringes, giving dark-spotted or scalloped appearance on dull buff ground. First adult plumage not well known and slightly variable, but similar to that of adult (or slightly duller or browner than male) and retains variable number of outer greater coverts, distinguished by broad cinnamon or rusty fringes and/or cinnamon-orange spot at shaft tip. Some birds can have more extensive moult, replacing all greater coverts, as well as tertials, secondaries and even some inner primaries, but usually retain an old alula and show moult contrast in wing. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION Marked in two races, other wise fairly slight, except in degree of sexual dimorphism. B. l. nipalensis Adult male has forehead to face and upperparts (including wing-coverts) slate-blue, with slightly darker feather centres; tail dark grey, but fringes of most outer feathers tinged slate-blue; flight feathers dark grey, primary coverts, smaller alula, tertials, secondaries and inner primaries fringed slate-blue, broadly on tertials and secondaries; axillaries and underwing-coverts mid–dark grey. Note: although requiring confirmation, many males appear to retain a brown, female-like plumage, and may never acquire blue feathering (Ali & Ripley 1983). Supercilium from mid-lores to rear of eye (slightly more extensive than in carolinae) white but frequently concealed. Lores as upperparts or slightly darker; cheeks and ear-coverts bluish-grey. Chin and centre of throat white (or flecked grey), throat-sides, neck-sides and upper breast mid–dark grey, forming breast-band, grading to mid grey on sides of lower breast and flanks, and off-white on centre of lower breast, belly, vent and undertail-coverts (bases of latter mid–dark grey). Bill dark brown, mandible yellowish; legs and feet flesh-white to purplish-flesh. Adult female Similar to and possibly indistinguishable in field from nominate female, but at close range is slightly lighter warm brown on upperparts or tinged pale chestnut on rump and tail, and paler or slightly whiter on chin, throat and neck-sides, and variably

grey or greyish-white across breast, belly-sides and flanks. Immature male (May–Aug) As adult female or slightly duller olive (with fine pale fringes) on forehead to crown, nape and upperparts, becoming more plain brown on back to tail, fringes to greater coverts (also spotted slightly paler at tips) and edges to flight feathers (broadly on tertials); underparts whitish on chin and throat, more extensively olive to olive-grey across breast. First-year male Progressively like adult as blue-grey feathers appear, upperparts slightly duller and more brownish-grey, with variable cinnamon-brown tips (often most conspicuous on crown, back and rump). Breast-band and flanks duller blue-grey or more drab brown. Adult plumage, as nominate race, acquired in first summer. B. l. carolinae Both sexes as female nipalensis, but upperparts including wing-coverts and edges of flight feathers of male average slightly richer or warmer cinnamon or cinnamon-brown, and underparts vary from mainly white or whitish on chin and throat, becoming heavily mottled with brown and paler flecks, often merging to form breast-band; short white supercilium over lores to just above eye (can be concealed); flanks (and sides of lower throat and breast in some) more uniform warm brown or tinged grey-brown, or tipped whitish, usually obscuring white on vent and undertail-coverts. Female as male or slightly more olive-tinged, but supercilium more frequently partially or fully concealed, usually has dull brown on sides of throat, breast and flanks, and belly also often washed brownish. Some or all females from Tonkin, NW Vietnam, average slightly darker and richer on upperparts (i.e. as female wrayi). Legs and feet pale flesh-pink to dark purplish-pink or pale bluish. Presumed first-year like adult, but head and upperparts slightly duller or dingy brown, with rich or warm cinnamon fringes to greater coverts and flight feathers, face and underparts dull grey-brown, becoming paler or whiter on belly and undertailcoverts. B. l. wrayi Adult male as male nipalensis but lower forehead and lores to eye black, upper forehead, crown and upperparts (including wing-coverts) slightly darker slate-blue, f light feathers black edged slate-blue; centre of chin and throat white, sides of neck and throat, breast and flanks as upperparts, or slightly darker grey, or greyish-blue (possibly somewhat variable, as most of breast and flanks often grey-blue, flecked or tipped paler especially in centre of breast), belly also varies from whitish tipped or flecked greyish or greyish-blue; short white supercilium from sides of forehead (where usually broadest) over lores to just above eye. Female as female carolinae but slightly darker and richer, more russet, on upperparts, and chestnut in wings and tail; may also show warmer brown or light chestnut on flanks (overlying white belly-sides). Males at N end of range on E mountains of Malay Peninsula are slightly larger and never become blue as in C and S populations; females also slightly deeper rufous-brown than other populations and perhaps distinct from race wrayi, but requires detailed review or comparison with other races including SE Asian carolinae (Wells 2007). B. l. langbianensis Adult male as nominate female, but lores, cheeks and ear-coverts greyish, or tinged olivebrown on ear-coverts; sides of throat, breast-band and upper flanks grey or bluish-grey (as nipalensis),

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Lesser Shortwing, adult B. l. leucophris. July, Taman Safari, Java, Indonesia (Boas Emmanuel).

Lesser Shortwing, adult B. l. carolinae. July, Chiang Mai, Thailand (Tadao Shimba).

Lesser Shortwing, adult B. l. carolinae. February, Doi Lang, Thailand (Peter Ericsson).

Lesser Shortwing, adult B. l. wrayi. June, Fraser’s Hill, Malaysia (Chris Hill).

becoming dull olive-brown on flanks (as carolinae). Supercilium possibly slightly more extensive over lores than carolinae. Adult female as carolinae.

Wing male 57–63mm, female 58–61mm. B. l. wrayi Wing male 58–64mm, female 55–62mm; tail male 35.7–38.1mm. Bill male 12.5–15.2mm, female 14–14.8mm. Tarsus male 14–15.2mm, female 14–14.8mm. B. l. langbianensis Wing male 60–61.5mm, female 60–62mm. Weight 13.8–22g (Robinson & Kloss 1918, Wells & Medway 1976, Ali & Ripley 1983, Wells 2007).

MOULT Adult post-breeding complete (Sep–Oct in Sikkim, Mar in E Java). Adult pre-breeding apparently occasionally partial. Post-juvenile partial or incomplete and poorly understood. In Sikkim replaces inner greater coverts, usually the tail, variable number of tertials and occasionally smaller alula feathers. Some birds in Malaysia have, by Jun, replaced some inner primaries and primary coverts, as well as secondaries, tertials and greater coverts; may retain a few scattered brown feathers on upperparts. Others in Malaysia retain juvenile outer greater coverts and tertials, but replace tail. MEASUREMENTS B. l. nipalensis Wing male 58–64mm, female 55–61mm. Bill (from feathers) 11.5–13mm, (from skull) 15mm. Tarsus 26mm. B. l. leucophris Wing male 58– 64.5mm, female 57–60mm. Bill 15.5–17mm. B. l. carolinae

TA XONOM Y Relationships among forms currently included in Lesser Shortwing lack detailed study and present arrangement possibly untenable in long term. Races nipalensis and wrayi (in which males are blue) may, on further analysis, merit consideration as separate species; race carolinae also considered a potential split by some authors. Males at M end of E mountains of Malay Peninsula are slightly larger than and never as blue as C & S populations; females are also slightly deeper rufousbrown than other populations of race wrayi, but further research required (Wells 2007).

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White-browed Shortwing

WHITE-BROWED SHORTWING Brachypteryx montana

Plate 6

Other names: Blue Shortwing, Himalayan Blue Shortwing (cruralis), Taiwan Shortwing (goodfellowi). Brachypteryx montana Horsfield, 1821, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 13: 157. Java. A shy, generally secretive and mid-sized shortwing (slightly larger than other short w ings, except the Sulawesi endemic Great Shortwing), with long legs, short tail, finely pointed bill and short rounded wings; more likely to be heard than seen, except when singing or displaying. Inhabits undergrowth of highland, dense, moist, broadleaf forest, including moss forest and edges of bogg y areas. Widely distributed throughout SE Asia, from C Himalayas to C China, Taiwan, SE Asia, Philippines and Indonesia, and largely resident or a short-distance altitudinal migrant; currently divided into 14 races, another, as yet undescribed, population occurs on Mindanao. B. m. cruralis (Blyth, 1843). C & E Himalayas, from C Nepal to NE India, Burma, S & SC China, extreme N Thailand and N & C Vietnam. B. m. sinensis Rickett & La Touche, 1897. S & SE China. B. m. goodfellowi Ogilvie-Grant, 1912. C Taiwan. B. m. montana Horsfield, 1821. Java. B. m. floris Hartert, 1897. Flores, Lesser Sundas. B. m. saturata Salvadori, 1879. Sumatra. B. m. erythrogyna Sharpe, 1888. N & C Borneo. B. m. sillimani R ipley & R abor, 1962. S Palawan, Philippines. B. m. poliogyna Ogilvie-Grant, 1895. N Luzon, Philippines. B. m. andersoni Rand & Rabor, 1967. C & S Luzon, Philippines. B. m. brunneiceps Ogilvie-Grant, 1896. Negros and Panay, Philippines. B. m. mindorensis Hartert, 1916. Mindoro, Philippines. B. m. mindanensis Mearns, 1905. Mindanao, Philippines. B. m. malindangensis Mearns, 1909. W Mindanao, Philippines. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 12.5–15cm. Males of most races are slate-blue with black lores, a long or prominent white supercilium (on Borneo and throughout Philippines, supercilium usually concealed unless agitated or singing) and ashy belly; male goodfellowi differs in being mostly olive-brown (like female). Female dark olive-brown and usually either lacks white supercilium or it is smaller and often concealed, with rusty lores and eye-ring, in four races has face, head and/or nape to mantle and scapulars also deep blue, underparts paler olive-brown, fulvous on belly, rufous on undertail-coverts. Male may breed in brown, female-type plumage (and may not acquire blue), but retain (and best distinguished by) white supercilium. More often detected by its song than seen. SIMILAR SPECIES Most likely confusion is with slightly smaller Lesser Shortwing as ranges overlap widely in Himalayas to CS China and from Sumatra to Lesser Sundas; for main differences between them, see latter species. On Sumatra and Java, differs from slightly larger Sunda Blue Robin by shorter wings and shorter tail with rounded tip, may show (often concealed) small white crescent over eye (male Sunda Blue Robin has white spot

or patch on central forehead), and has paler whitish or greyish-white vent to undertail-coverts. VOICE Single hard tack or tock note, usually accompanied by sharp flick of wings, and short, thin or high-pitched seeet or seeep often given with or followed by very soft (only audible at close range) tk note, e.g. seeep tk tk. Alarm a very hard and strident tt-tt-tt-tt or tik-tik-tik, like two stones being struck together, with last 2–3 notes given slightly more rapidly than first and frequently repeated. Usually silent in non-breeding season. Song of nominate, mainly a loud series of clear, rich but jumbled or random, rising and falling, thin or high-pitched whistles, rapidly repeated or more continuous, and often preceded by up to three individual wheez notes; may include some harsh or scratchy notes or phrases, and ends abruptly; variations include a series of loud, fluty, rising and falling whistles, interspersed by harsher notes and broken series of rambling notes, seei....sree...sree-ee... or seeeoo.....sooo sooo soo seeuu... or seee sa seedleu..., with each note rising and interspersed by harsher, popping and scratchy notes, or a shorter but more rapid, whistled phrase sissee-see-eee-see-eee. Considerable variation in songs across range with much variation between races and regions, but requires more extensive work as current understanding of variation within races unclear. Race sinensis has a slower or more measured sii soo sissisee or seeoo seeoo tsee tsee see series. Race brunneiceps has more varied see soo followed by a gently descending but more rapid si si si and seee sooo sooo sooo, with a slightly rattling tone to final two phrases, also a distinctive seeep seeat or seee see-at, see, see-at, seet see-at followed by very musical series of rising and falling whistled phrases and trills; race saturata has a lively and more bouncy series of short whistled phrases, alternating between rising and falling see soo si, see soo sis u, si suu, soo eee si. Race poliogyna has a long or drawn-out, a thin or more whispering, trilling or ethereal whistle, which only slightly rises and falls, but overall is more downslurred and includes or concludes in a series of short rising and falling, stuttering notes, with variations including a more rapid seee see see seelit seelit and interspersed by several dry or coarse notes and fast twittering phrases. Song of race andersoni is similar to poliogyna but has more slurred rising and falling phrases seeesoooo soooo seeee seewit, interspersed by single high-pitched or shrill whistles, with short pauses. On Palawan, song of race sillimani is a rapid swit, occasionally suwit, given continuously for up to half a minute, which may form part of a short rising and falling trill of rather slurred seeee weeee tseee tseeoo, or seee too seeeto see-wee see-too and whistled see wit notes, as well as a rather dry, thrushlike chattering tititit tititit titit titit. On Mindanao, race mindanensis utters a fast, rising and falling series of clear, musical but high-pitched whistles, tsooee tsee tsee too too soo tseelee tsee seetsoeee..., often accelerating and sustained, with notes reminiscent of a domestic canary in quality, duration and intensity, given for up to a minute; may start very softly and increase in volume. Variations include a slowing terminus, tsoo see tlew chuw chuw, the insertion of soft, dry tlit tlit wit tuc tuc tuc notes, and sharp, up and down tsu or chu-lu notes. Elsewhere on Mindanao (Zamboanga, ‘Siteo Siete’) birds of an unknown (probably undescribed) race sing a series of high-pitched melodic whistles, piping notes and trills, interspersed by coarse or harsh single notes, and short wit wit wit stuttering phrases, including see see wit wit wit see soo see weet see weet psee psee and rather downslurred

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whistles, and can be introduced slowly or by soft see see sooo or rising cheee-ew chee see wit, becoming a more emphatic seeee wee tweet wit wit. At ‘Siteo Siete’, the song is slightly more musical, a series of rising and falling notes (often downslurred, then rising) and may commence with a short trill, continuing with a series of slow whistled phrases or piping notes, wit see see tseeoo see tluu tluu, before concluding with a slightly faster, more run-together and descending series of 3–4 individual notes, often given for more than half a minute. Variations include a frequent insertion of tsee, tsoo-ee or wit notes, including tsooloo tssit sit sit, a rising si si seeee then a falling tlooooo-oo, tsoo lee see wit, followed by a rapid and descending see wit, see wit, see wit, a rising tsuulu tsulit and descending or downslurred tsee-leee-ee soo loo soo loo soo loo (based on James Eaton and Rob Hutchinson recordings). Song of goodfellowi (Taiwan) appears to dif fer considerably from other races, with a slower, hesitant or interrupted series of clear seee see seee whistles, followed by see seedlupl seedlupl seedle see seedle with a slightly slurred ending to each phrase, and may also contain some slight twittering notes. Sings with wings drooped beside body and tail slightly raised, or raised and slowly dipped; song usually given from dense cover on ground below dense overhanging vegetation, and very vocal, especially at start of and during breeding season, when males sing at boundaries of territory, usually at dawn and in overcast weather. H A BITAT Ground strata of montane, dense, moist broadleaf forest, including moss forest; in Himalayas and SE Asia favours oak and hemlock, oak and rhododendron, or Himalayan Maple and rhododendron, or fir and rhododendron, frequently in or close to bamboo, under fallen trees and branches near streams, edges of bogs, paddyfields, also thickets in gullies and ravines, and above tree-line in scrub, rocks and low vegetation. In N Philippines, race poliogyna occurs in forest, including selectively logged primary forest; on Flores race floris also found at forest edges and in adjacent areas of re-growth and Eupatorium scrub. In Himalayas found at 2,560– 3,660m in Nepal, at 2,200–3,400m in Bhutan (but most numerous in summer above 3,000m), at 1,500–3,600m in India (mainly above 2,000m), at 1,400–2,590m in N Myanmar, breeds above 1,800m in N Thailand (mostly 2,000–2,500m), at 1,400–3,000m in S China and Sumatra; in SE Asia at 1,400–2,590m, and 885–3,600m on Borneo, on Philippines at 600–2,000m (mainly above 1,000m), and on Flores at 610–2,100m, though most numerous above 1,200m. Winters generally at lower levels (but some overlap with breeding range), below 2,400m down to 305m in N Myanmar, at 300–2,400m in foothills of Himalayas (exceptionally 245m) and at 600–2,000m in Bhutan. BEHAVIOUR Shy and secretive, usually solitary, skulks on ground or in low, dense vegetation; crepuscular and more likely to be heard than seen, but occasionally, especially in early morning, ventures into open in small sheltered clearings beside roads, tracks, streams or rocky slopes in mountains. In N Thailand, more often seen in open at roadside during breeding season. Flicks wings and partially spreads or fans tail, together with pronounced or exaggerated head-bobbing in presence of intruder when agitated or alarmed. Actions on ground clearly those of a chat, with series of rapid hops interspersed by brief pauses, makes quick dashes ‘running like rat or mouse’

across fallen bamboo or in open over small boulders and fallen branches, to seize prey before returning to cover. Males appear to defend territories year-round. Forages on ground mostly in search of invertebrates, especially beetles, snails and worms, also caterpillars and other insect larvae. BREEDING Monogamous and territorial. Season Apr–Jul in Himalayas, but mid-Apr to mid-Oct in Bhutan; Mar to at least early Aug in N Thailand; Feb–Aug in Philippines; at least May–Jun in Taiwan; at least Feb in N Borneo and Oct–Apr in Java. Displaying male chases female on ground, through branches and even canopy of trees up to 8 m above ground (possibly higher), interspersed with brief bowing display by male close to female, with tail fanned and while singing a low, throaty warble (Round 1982). Nest large but well-hidden cone or domed structure with top or side entrance, usually concealed and camouflaged, constructed of grasses, twigs, moss, bamboo leaves, fern fronds and fine roots, usually placed low, close to ground and in deep moss on rocks or in grass clumps or creepers in fallen bamboo or against tree trunks (standing or fallen). Eggs 2–4, glossy white or tinged pink or pinkish-buff, and can be finely spotted brown; probably double-brooded (Caldwell & Caldwell 1931). Previously considered (possibly erroneously) to be host of parasitic Lesser Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus. STAT US A ND DIST R IBU TION Generally scarce, uncommon or locally common (but easily overlooked); scarce or very uncommon in Nepal, with very few known localities outside protected areas post-1990; in Laos, very few records, but considered a rare or scarce (and frequently overlooked) resident (W. Duckworth pers. comm.); fairly common NE India; common on Taiwan, Philippines and Borneo; rare Thailand and Java. B. m. cruralis Himalayas, from C Nepal (A nnapurna Conservation Area), Sikkim and Bhutan to Arunachal Pradesh, south to Assam including Meghalaya, Nagaland and Manipur, also Myanmar (south to Chin Hills and Karenni), S China (SE Tibet, NW, W & SE Yunnan and C, SW & S Sichuan, including Emei Shan), N Thailand (Doi Pha Hom Pok, Doi Lang; Doi Chiang Dao, Doi Inthanon; Doi Phu Kha; Doi Kajela, Tak province; and possibly also Doi Ang Khang: P. Round pers. comm.), Laos and Vietnam (W & E Tonkin south to S Annam). In N India, range formerly considered to reach Simla in Himachal Pradesh, and Garhwal, Uttarakhand, but now considered doubtful and no recent records from either area (Roonwal & Nath 1947). Similarly, although listed for Bangladesh (Rashid 1967), no confirmed records. B. m. sinensis S & SE China, in Tsinling Shan of S Shaanxi, Shennongjia of W Hubei, W & S Hunan, N Guizhou, N Guangdong, Hong Kong, NE Jiangxi and NW Fujian. B. m. goodfellowi Mts of C Taiwan. B. m. montana Java. B. m. floris Flores, Lesser Sundas. B. m. saturata Sumatra, restricted to Mt Leuser, Mt Singgalang, Mt Kerinci and Mt Dempu (van Marle & Voous 1988). B. m. erythrogyna N & C Borneo; Mt Kinabalu; Mt Trus Madi; Mt Tamboyukon; Crocker Range; Lotung, Rinangisan; Sinsuran road, Sabah; Mt Mulu National Park, Sarawak, and Kayan Mentarang Nature Reserve and Mt Menyapa, E Kalimantan (Mann 2008). B. m. sillimani S Palawan, Philippines, on Mt Mantalingahan and Mt Victoria. B. m. poliogyna N Luzon, Philippines, including the Sierra Madre and Zambales Mts. B. m. andersoni C & S Luzon, Philippines, on Mt Banahaw and S Sierra

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White-browed Shortwing

cinnamon on undertail-coverts. Juvenile Head dark brown with paler orange-brown mottling, back and mantle dark brown, rump tinged yellowish, uppertail-coverts washed rufous. Wings also dark brown with fine yellowish-buff shaft-streaks on scapulars, and rich or deep brown edges to flight feathers. Face, chin and throat brown, but lower throat and breast paler or greyer-brown, or finely streaked yellowish- brown, belly heavily spotted yellowish to rustbrown. Legs dark grey or grey-brown. First-year male As adult female, but has white supercilium from just in front of eye and tapering just behind eye or over ear-coverts (usually concealed except when alarmed), retained juvenile greater coverts fringed cinnamon-orange.

Madre (including to Ipo Dam), Mt Bulusan, Mt Isarog and Mt Mayon. B. m. brunneiceps Mts of Negros and Panay, Philippines. B. m. mindorensis Mindoro, Philippines. B. m. mindanensis Mindanao, Philippines (except Mt Malindang and Zamboanga Peninsula) on Mt Apo, Mt Busa, Mt Hilong-Hilong, Mt Kitanglad, Mt Matutum, Mt Pasian, Mt Puting Bato and Mt Kampalili. B. m. malindangensis W Mindanao, Philippines, on Mt Malindang; also in the Pasonanca watershed, but unclear in latter case which taxon is involved, perhaps an undescribed form (R. Hutchinson pers. comm.). MOVEMENTS Sedentary and short-distance altitudinal migrant; winters generally at lower levels (some overlap with breeding range), below 2,400m and down to 300m in foothills of Himalayas (exceptionally 245m); in N Thailand recorded down to 1,400m on Doi Inthanon. In Nepal, race cruralis is rare winter visitor to Chitwan National Park, Shivapuri in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, and Phewa Tal, Kaski District (Inskipp 2013). DESCRIPTION Sexes differ. Adult male (nominate race) Almost entirely dark slate or indigo-blue on upperparts and tail, wings similar, with feathers fringed dark indigoblue, broadest on coverts and tertials; axillaries and underwing-coverts dark grey. Short, white supercilium from over lores (not reaching bill) to eye, often reduced or absent (concealed), and raised or more prominent if agitated or alarmed. Base of bill, lores and cheeks sootyblack; chin and centre of throat greyish-white, grading to dark grey-blue on sides of throat, lower breast and flanks, becoming paler on belly, palest or greyish-white on lower belly and vent; undertail-coverts dark bluishgrey (feather tips on upperparts, throat and breast may be slightly iridescent); thighs dark grey. Eye brown. Bill black. Legs and feet dark grey-brown to olive-brown, horn-brown or black. Adult female Entire head to nape and mantle as male, or slightly paler and duller, with shorter white supercilium mostly above or just in front of eye. Lower mantle to scapulars, back and rump rufous or rust-brown. Tail and wings dark rufous-brown, feathers broadly fringed rufous. Chin and throat to belly and flanks as male, becoming paler on lower belly and vent, cinnamon-rufous on rear f lanks, and slightly deeper

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION B. m. cruralis Adult male as nominate montana but has slightly longer white supercilium extending from over lores to just behind eye, and underparts more uniform slate-blue. Lores to cheeks, uppertail-coverts and tail mostly blackish-blue; edges to flight feathers dusky brown and inner webs greyish-brown; chin to upper breast dark indigo-blue, becoming paler on lower breast, belly (where some feathers tipped white) and lower f lanks, undertail-coverts have slightly paler feather tips giving mottled appearance. Legs and feet as nominate or slightly paler, or greyer to blackish-grey. Adult female has crown and upperparts dark olive-brown; uppertail-coverts and tail as upperparts or more russet-brown, all outer tail feathers fringed cinnamon; wings dark brown except russet or cinnamon-brown fringes to wing-coverts, tertials and edges to flight feathers. Lower forehead and lores to just behind eye and eye-ring rufous or cinnamon-orange, and supercilium (short, indistinct or concealed) pale golden-brown overlying white bases. Cheeks, chin and throat warm or cinnamonbrown, or have dull cinnamon-orange tips; ear-coverts as upperparts with fine pale buff streaks, sides of neck, throat, upper breast, flanks and undertail-coverts pale cinnamon-brown mottled slightly paler, grading to dull mid-grey on sides of lower breast; centre of breast, belly and vent white, with grey or dark grey tips and brownish shaft-streaks; thighs, axillaries and underwing-coverts pale cinnamon-brown. Legs and feet orange-brown or pinkish. Juvenile as same-age nominate but has deep brown or chestnut forehead and face, with short white supercilium in immature male, and rich cinnamon edges to wings and tail. Firstyear male initially as adult female with pale buffishorange tips to some or all greater coverts; mainly differs by blue bases (underlying olive-brown tips) to crown, nape and upperparts, to inner webs of wingcoverts and flight and tail feathers, which become progressively deeper blue on head and upperparts; sides of head and face also as female, before becoming darker or blue of adult plumage. B. m. sinensis Male similar to nominate, but lores paler (dark grey or blackish-grey), upperparts slightly paler and greyer-blue (more plumbeous), underparts distinctly paler, from clean mid–light grey to slightly paler or whiter on centre of breast and belly, and whitish on vent; may show white ‘shoulder’ patch at wing-bend. Female similar to female cruralis, but has forehead, lores and eye-ring duller and much less contrastingly orange-cinnamon, more uniform with rest of upperparts, appears to lack supercilium

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Brachypteryx

White-browed Shortwing, adult male B. m. cruralis. July, Doi Inthanon, Thailand (Tadao Shimba).

White-browed Shortwing, adult female, B. m. cruralis. July, Doi Inthanon, Thailand (Tadao Shimba).

White-browed Shortwing, adult male B. m. erythrogyna. April, Mt Kinabalu, Borneo (Cherry Wong).

White-browed Shortwing, adult female, B. m. erythrogyna. November, Mt Kinabalu, Borneo (Jordan Sitorus).

White-browed Shortwing, adult female B. m. andersoni. March, Mt Banahaw, Luzon, Philippines (Ramon Quisumbing).

White-browed Shortwing, juvenile. August, Doi Inthanon, Thailand (Wanna Tantanawat).

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White-browed Shortwing

or may show fine pale brownish line above lores to eye; upperparts dull or more olive-brown, and wings and tail edged rufous; slightly paler or buff-brown on throat and breast, becoming pale brown on lower breast and upper flanks, and whitish on belly. B. m. goodfellowi Both sexes similar to but slightly darker than female sinensis on head and upperparts, generally lacking orange on face or slightly darker on forehead and crown, but with long and broad white supercilium from upper lores to over ear-coverts (may be narrowly pale buff above upper lores), and rump and uppertail-coverts tinged rufous or rusty; underparts as female cruralis (and darker than sinensis), or pale or whitish-buff, or tinged orangebuff. Female differs from male by apparently shorter supercilium, but may be either quite broad over eye or less obvious. Slightly longer bill (broader at base) than other races. B. m. floris Male similar to nominate male, but paler blue with darker or slate-blue forehead, lores and forecrown; may show fine or narrow pale supercilium, but often absent; hindcrown and ear-coverts, nape and neck-sides to mantle, scapulars, back, rump and uppertail-coverts, and outer webs of wing-coverts pale or dull indigo-blue, inner webs dark grey-blue; tail dark indigo-blue; chin and throat whitish or whitishgrey, becoming pale grey-blue on breast, and paler or whiter on flanks, belly and vent; undertail-coverts same or tinged bluish. Female mostly warm or rufousbrown on upperparts including outer edges of wings (inner webs darker brown) and tail, with brighter or chestnut rump and outertail-feathers; slightly darker brown on forehead and crown, face buffish-brown. Chin and throat whitish, becoming pale grey on breast to upper flanks, white on belly to vent, and deep or warm buff-brown flanks to undertail. B. m. saturata Male as male cruralis with indigo-blue upperparts, black wings and tail, but black band on forehead averages slightly more extensive, supercilium slightly reduced or possibly entirely concealed; underparts slightly variable, either as cruralis or duller and tinged grey, or more uniform dark indigo-blue. Female as male, but duller and less heavily bluishblack; throat and breast as upperparts, or slightly duller or greyer, and lacks white supercilium. B. m. erythrogyna Male as males of saturata and cruralis, and supercilium either reduced or absent. Female distinct with dark rufous-brown crown; forehead, supercilium and head-sides orange-cinnamon; nape and rump dark brown, uppertail-coverts paler and more cinnamon; mantle, back and scapulars dark indigo-blue (may also extend to back, rump and nape, and fringes to greater coverts), and uppertail-coverts and tail dark chestnut-brown. Lesser and median coverts dark indigo-blue, fringed dark rufescentbrown, rest of wing very dark brown, tinged rufescentbrown. Underparts orange-cinnamon, paler and more orange on belly, darker and browner on rear flanks, breast-sides may show indigo-blue, undertail-coverts cinnamon. B. m. sillimani As race poliogyna but male has dark greyishblue head, and blue of upper- and underparts much brighter, bill slightly longer. Female also similar but has rustier throat and greyish-blue underparts, except dull rust-brown undertail-coverts (Ripley & Rabor 1962).

B. m. poliogyna Male similar to nominate male and male erythrogyna with lores and forehead black; upper- and underparts deep grey-blue, with black wings and tail, on closed wing shows grey-blue edges to flight feathers; belly washed pale grey. Female similar to female erythrogyna but wings and tail dark grey-blue as male, rump and uppertail-coverts blue. Forehead to crown, nape and ear-coverts dark chestnut or reddishbrown. Chin and throat bright or pale cinnamonorange with neck- and breast-sides olive-brown (framing paler throat), rest of underparts as male or slightly paler, greyer and less blue; undertail-coverts dark reddish-brown. B. m. andersoni Female as poliogyna but crown darker brown, belly darker grey and undertail-coverts slate. B. m. brunneiceps Both sexes very similar to race poliogyna and male erythrogyna, but male has crown and throat blue-black, female with darker underparts. B. m. mindorensis Adult male as nominate and erythrogyna, but some have slightly better-defined white supercilium (others show no supercilium) and underparts more uniform dark blue or tinged grey on belly and vent. B. m. mindanensis Very similar to race brunneiceps but slightly larger; male as male poliogyna but has slightly warmer or brighter upperparts, and belly slightly darker and less grey. B. m. malindangensis As race mindanensis but upperparts much darker and white supercilium reduced. On Mindanao separate, and as yet undescribed, populations (probably this species), at lower elevations (850–1,200m) on Mt Pasian and Mt Apo, and possibly at two other locations, all of them characterised by different songs including short, varied phrases and some mimicry (Morris 1996). MOULT No information. ME A SUR EMENTS Wing male 66.5 –71mm, female 64 –68mm. Bill 15–15.8mm. Tarsus 29–34mm. B. m. cruralis Wing male 64–73mm, female 63–70.5mm. Bill (from skull) 15–16mm. Tarsus male 31–34mm, female 29–31mm. B. m. goodfellowi Wing male 59–67mm, female 62–65mm. Bill 11.4–12.1mm. Tarsus 28–32mm. B. m. saturata Wing 63–68mm. Tail 52–56mm. Bill (to feathers) 19.5–21mm. Tarsus 30.5–33mm. B. m. poliogyna Wing male 65–68.5mm, female 60.5–68.5mm. B. m. andersoni Wing male 66–71mm, female 63.5mm. B. m. sillimani Wing male 68–70.5mm, female 63–68mm. Bill 14–16mm. Tarsus 26–29.5mm. B. m. brunneiceps Wing male 64mm. B. m. mindanensis Wing 66–70mm. Tarsus 30mm. Weight 13–23g (Roonwal & Nath 1947, Ripley & Rabor 1962, Ali & Ripley 1988, Severinghaus et al. 2010). TAXONOMY Current taxonomic arrangement possibly untenable and includes several taxa/allospecies that could merit species status, e.g. races goodfellowi and floris differ considerably in plumage and the former also in voice (and are occasionally treated specifically); considerable vocal differences between races (see Voice), necessitating detailed review of all taxa (Alström & Eaton in prep.).

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Heinrichia

GREAT SHORTWING Heinrichia calligyna

Plate 5

Other names : Giant Shortwing, Celebes Shortwing, Sulawesi Shortwing. Heinrichia calligyna Stresemann, 1931, Orn. Monatsber. 39: 9. Latimodjong Mountains, Sulawesi. The largest shortwing, generally shy, secretive, rarely seen and consequently little-known; the nest, eggs and young are undescribed. A rotund or stocky chat, with fairly deepbased bill, rounded wings and fairly long tail (compared to other shortwings), also long and strong legs. Restricted to undergrowth and thickets in montane forests on Sulawesi. Polytypic, with three races currently recognised, but additional and, as yet, undescribed populations occur in NC & E Sulawesi, which may represent undescribed races, or significant range extensions. H. c. simplex Stresemann, 1931. N Sulawesi. H. c. calligyna Stresemann, 1931. SC Sulawesi. H. c. picta Stresemann, 1932. SE Sulawesi. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 17.5cm. Males of all races are entirely dark blue (face and throat can appear blackish), except small white patch at sides of base of tail, but considerable variation among females; nominate similar to adult male, but has slightly duller underparts, large white spot on lores, and chestnut-brown face to throat, upper breast and ear-coverts. SIMILAR SPECIES The only shortwing on Sulawesi and unlikely to be confused with any other species, except perhaps Geomalia Geomalia heinrichi, a much larger and longer-tailed ground-dweller, with plumage similar to the browner and shorter, square-tailed female Great Shortwing; lacks white pre-ocular patch of female Great Shortwing. VOICE Thin, high-pitched piping contact note and rapid thrush-like chattering alarm; most frequently calls around dawn, but also in late afternoon. Song a rather slow series of up to six loud, high-pitched and penetrating, slightly wavering, drawn-out and rising, or upslurred and descending, musical whistles that increase in volume and pitch, are melancholy in tone, and may conclude with 1–2 high-pitched notes given rapidly, oooe-ee, oooe-ee, ooo-ooeeo or wooo-ooo-ooee, the entire song repeated continuously for up to one minute, and given from perch on ground or low in bush; may respond to playback (Gibbs 1990, Holmes & Phillipps 1996). Sings from deep cover mostly in early morning; also duets with second bird (female?) that include softly uttered harsh or scratchy notes. HABITAT Dense tangled undergrowth and rattan thickets in primary montane forest at 1,500–3,500m, including partially logged and regenerating areas with groundstrata vegetation, rocky gullies and valleys with moss, often near streams. BEHAVIOUR Not well known, shy and very skulking; occurs alone or in pairs, most active in early morning. Keeps low to ground, usually in undergrowth, recalling European Robin in behaviour and movements; may occasionally venture into open along trails or paths, and hops on ground. Forages among leaf litter, mossy clumps and lichen-covered logs and stones. Diet little-known, but presumably mostly invertebrates and insect larvae.

BREEDING Unknown. Juvenile recorded Lore Lindu National Park, early Sep. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Uncommon and very infrequently seen or heard, possibly widely overlooked (most frequently recorded on Anaso track to Danau Tambing, Lore Lindu National Park). H. c. simplex N Sulawesi, in Tentolo-Matinan Mts (NE peninsula of island). H. c. calligyna SC Sulawesi, in Latimodjong Mts. H. c. picta SE Sulawesi, in Mengkoka Mts. Additional, perhaps undescribed, populations occur in NC & E Sulawesi (including Gunung Rorekatimbu and Lore Lindu National Park), but the subspecies concerned are unknown. MOVEMENTS Sedentary. DESCRIPTION Sexes differ. Adult male Entirely dark blue except slightly brighter or metallic blue tips to sides of crown, ear-coverts and throat (only visible at close range and in good light), blackish lores, indistinct white patches at sides of base of tail, and rust-brown tinge to edges of primaries and on lower flanks, becoming more prominent on vent and undertail-coverts. Eye deep red. Bill black. Legs and feet grey. Adult female Head and upperparts dark blue except white pre-ocular spot or crescent, and rust-brown rump; cheeks and ear-coverts chestnut or tinged browner, extending to throat and upper breast; belly slate-blue tinged greyish, becoming more slate-grey tinged rufous on vent and undertail-coverts. Juvenile Unknown. Immature has head and upperparts dark brownish-blue; chin and throat dark brown streaked paler, becoming bluer on breast, belly grey-brown and dark rufous-brown on lower belly and vent. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION H. c. simplex Adult male as race picta with dark blue or bluish-black vent and undertail-coverts; adult female generally dark sepia or olive-brown on head and upperparts, including rump, wings and tail; small white or whitish pre-ocular spot or crescent-shaped patch, chocolate-brown or rust-brown chin and throat to breast (though latter may be tinged olive), and greyish-white to dark grey belly. H. c. picta Adult male like male simplex but has larger bill, bluish-black vent and undertail-coverts, adult female

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Great Shortwing

as nominate but rump blue and concolorous with rest of upperparts, and has small whitish pre-ocular spot; chestnut on throat extends to breast and upper belly, rest of belly to vent bluish-grey.

picta male 92–98mm, female 89–92mm; simplex male 86–91mm, female 79–85mm. Weight: no data.

MEASUREMENTS Wing male 93mm, female 84–86mm;

TAXONOMY Present classification may conceal a separate species, as race simplex shows considerable differences from the other races, but is linked via picta to nominate; further research is required to support or deny full species status.

Great Shortwing, adult male, H. c. simplex. August, Lore Lindu, Sulawesi (Stijn de Win).

Great Shortwing, adult female, H. c. simplex. August, Lore Lindu, Sulawesi, Sulawesi (Ben Schweinhart).

MOULT No data.

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Genus Alethe Two species. This genus previously included the four species in Pseudalethe which are very similar in size and shape, but the two species now in Alethe can be separated on erectile crest, slightly brighter plumage and longer legs. Genetically, they are possibly not each other’s closest relatives. Medium-sized African chats with fairly short, stout bills; plumage is mainly dull and inconspicuous. Both species are shy and often elusive, usually on or within a few feet of the ground in dense primary forest, most often around ant swarms. Songs are mainly simple liquid whistles.

FIRE-CRESTED ALETHE Alethe castanea

Plate 7

Napothera castanea Cassin, 1856, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 8: 158. Moonda River, western Africa. A medium-sized chat with fairly long tail and more horizontal perch stance than other alethes; fairly common but secretive and more often heard than seen (except when attending ant columns), the frequently given call is a familiar sound in dense undergrowth of lowland primary and secondary forest from S Nigeria and SW Sudan, W & S Uganda, NW Tanzania south to N Angola. Forms a species pair (has been considered conspecific) with White-tailed Alethe. Polytypic, with two races recognised. A. c. castanea (Cassin, 1856) S Nigeria to SW Central African Republic S to PR Congo and NE Angola. A. c. woosnami Ogilvie-Grant, 1906. N & C DR Congo to extreme SW Sudan, W & S Uganda and NW Tanzania. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 18cm. Adults have forehead and crown to hindneck rich or deep brown; when agitated raises bright rust-orange central crownstripe (otherwise entirely or partly concealed); upperparts from hindcrown to scapulars, wings and uppertail-coverts rich or warm cinnamon-brown; tail mostly dark brown fringed chestnut; face to neck-sides grey; chin and most of underparts white except grey sides to breast and upper flanks. SIMILAR SPECIES Similar to Brown-chested Alethe but lacks long white supercilium, Fire-crested has pale grey face and rich or deep brown (not greyish) forehead and crown with prominent central crown-stripe (when alarmed, otherwise usually concealed by browner tips), whiter underparts (Brown-chested Alethe often washed duller or brownish) and is often mainly silent. Spotted young very similar to Brown-chested Alethe, though slightly larger, but not always separable in field without adults. Very similar to White-tailed Alethe but lacks white in tail and has forehead and crown-sides dark brown, nape and upperparts (including wing-coverts) warm or bright cinnamon-brown (not olive-brown); flight feathers finely edged bright chestnut and outer webs of outer tail feathers also edged chestnut. VOICE Contact calls, used most frequently when foraging at ant columns, include a clear or liquid heer occasionally drawn-out and increasing slightly in volume, or a shorter hoo-heer or hoe-fear whistle, the second note higher than first, a sharp or rasping kssss and a grunting chah or chaff, in alarm a harsh, clicking chatter and during interspecific aggression displays gives a grunting chahh, followed by a series of up to ten chip notes, may also give a soft or low, nasal taaaaa recalling a bush-shrike. Song a series of 3–4 liquid whistles rising in scale, huu wuu see-it or variably hoo-hah-her-hueee or a more alternating hoo-heen-hoo-heer;

also a subdued subsong comprising a continuous series of whistles and rattles that may also include mimicry of other birds’ vocalizations. Sings year-round, most often at dawn. Responds to playback by singing or giving series of soft short hoo whistles. HABITAT Mainly ground and undergrowth of lowland to mid-altitude primary and old secondary forests, gallery and seasonally dry swamp forest, also re-growth in areas of old cultivation with Musanga and Afromomum, forest patches in savanna, and cocoa plantations (Bioko); often near ant-trails. Mainly in lowlands, up to 900m in Guinea, reaching 1,200m on Bioko, 1,500m in Liberia, in Cameroon at 50–1500m (850–1,350m on Mt Kupe), to 1,500m in DR Congo and 700–1,500 m in Uganda. BEHAVIOUR Usually in pairs, or pair with single young, but joins mixed-species flocks, especially at army ants; attends ant swarms more closely than other alethes. Numbers of birds present at ant swarms largely governed by occurrence of swarms, when these are abundant, only a few birds follow each one, but if swarms are few, up to 25–50 birds congregate. Forages in search of ant swarms in early morning and evening, visiting active colonies; habitually follows ants widely, including through adjacent territories. At swarms, stands on ground ahead of ants or perches above them on low horizontal branches; hops rapidly, makes darting runs or drops down to capture prey flushed by ants; snatches prey from among swarming ants, but frequently attacked by them and flutters, jumps and hovers to escape, before removing them from plumage. In feeding hierarchy at swarms dominated by bristlebills Bleda and White-tailed Ant Thrush Neocossyphus poensis; spotted young also often indulge in aggressive displays and known to dominate parents and older birds. Aggression display includes chases with grunting and chipping notes, also short squeak accompanied by flicking and fluttering wings, with raised crest, fluffs out white throat and belly feathers, holds bill open showing gape colour, and may give subsong; display sometimes ends in combat, birds grappling each other with feet and raising wings to show white underside. Away from swarming ants, forages on ground in and beneath low vegetation, usually within 2m of ground, also digs into leaf litter or takes prey by making short dashing f lights from logs, tree trunks, branches, lianas, leaves and tangles of debris; occasionally makes short dashing sally from low perch to take insects in air; large prey items battered or dismembered against ground. Also recorded gleaning arthropods from ears of young male Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekeii and perching on animal’s back in between feeding (Maisels 2003). In dry season, when ants not swarming, forages as part of mixed-species flocks. Flicks wings and tail when nervous or agitated, and spreads tail to reveal white corners. Diet almost entirely insects, takes mainly beetles, grasshoppers and crickets, also flies, moths, caterpillars, cockroaches, termites, driver, black and army ants; spiders; small snails and small frogs.

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Fire-crested Alethe

BREEDING Season: May, Aug, Oct (juveniles Nov) in Cameroon; Dec–Mar, mainly in dry season between Dec and Jan, but juveniles Jan–Aug in Gabon; Apr–Dec in N DR Congo and Sep–May in E highlands (Itombwe); Mar–Jul and Nov in Uganda and at least Feb in Angola. Territorial, mean size of territory (Gabon) 5–6ha. Nest a fairly shallow cup, either compact or loosely constructed, mostly strips of bark, rootlets, moss, dead leaves, twigs and a little mud, lined with small black rootlets and strands of Marasmius fungus, usually up to 3.3m above ground in large cavity, in living or dead trunk or stump, log on ground, termite mound, or on ground below decaying log. Eggs 2–3, variably green, beige, pinkish-ochre or pinkish-white, heavily blotched or spotted brown, chestnut, rich maroon, pale reddish and violet-grey, or dull lilac. Incubation by female, but period unknown; fledging period 12–13 days. Usually single- brooded, occasionally two (Brosset & Érard 1986). Mean lifespan >4 years and one individual known to have lived over eight years (Thomas 1991).

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Common to abundant resident, widely distributed in range. A. c. castanea S Nigeria (north to Ife and Okwango Forest Reserve), Cameroon (north to Korup National Park and Mt Kupe), Bioko, SW Central African Republic, Gabon, PR Congo (but absent from large parts of west), Cabinda and NE Angola (Lunda Norte south to Lovua River at Capaia (Mills & Dean 2013) and W DR Congo (throughout

Fire-crested Alethe, adult. July, Budongo Forest, Uganda (Pete Morris).

lowland forest). A. c. woosnami N & C DR Congo to extreme SW Sudan (Bengengai Forest), W & S Uganda (Budongo and Jinja to Impenetrable, Malabigambo and Mabira, and forests on N shore of Lake Victoria) and NW Tanzania (Minziro Forest). MOVEMENTS Sedentary, birds in Korup National Park, Cameroon, re-trapped after eight years only up to 750m from original location (Thomas 1991). DESCRIPTION Sexes alike. Adult Forehead and face grey, crown-sides to hindneck rich or deep brown; central crown-stripe rusty-orange with feathers tipped brown and partly concealed when not raised in short erectile crest. Hindcrown, nape and mantle to scapulars, wings and uppertail-coverts warm cinnamon-brown or chestnut; tail mostly dark brown with broad chestnut fringes to outer feathers. Flight feathers dark brown edged like rest of upperparts on outer edge; axillaries and underwingcoverts grey-brown. Face, cheeks, ear-coverts and necksides grey; chin and most of underparts white except grey on breast-sides and upper flanks. Eyes brownish-orange to chestnut-reddish. Bill black. Legs and feet bluish-grey, slate-grey or greyish-purple. Juvenile Forehead to crown and head-sides blackish-brown streaked broadly pale orange; upperparts blackish-brown tipped with large pale orange spots; wings and tail as adult, but inner secondaries have small pale spots at tip, greater coverts tipped with large orange spots, narrowly fringed black. Face and eyering orange, cheeks and ear-coverts mottled black and orange. Most of underparts pale orange with fine black streaks on throat, more heavily streaked blackish-brown on breast, with dark rufous spots on lower belly and vent. Bill, hooked at tip, brownish-horn with yellow edges to mandible. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION Slight. A. c. woosnami Very similar to nominate castanea but has grey-brown forehead and slightly duller brown crownsides to nape and upperparts; flight feathers blackishbrown with dull chestnut fringes to secondaries; axillaries and underwing-coverts grey with white fringes. Eyes dark brown to deep reddish-brown.

Fire-crested Alethe, adult A. c. woosnami. July, Uganda (Niall Perrins).

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Alethe

SIMILAR SPECIES Similar to Brown-chested Alethe but has grey face lacking supercilium, duller olive-brown upperparts, and blackish tail with broad white tips to outer three tail feathers, and whiter underparts; when alarmed shows prominent central crown-stripe (otherwise usually concealed by browner tips); spotted juvenile very similar to same-age Brown-chested Alethe, though slightly larger, but not always separable in field. Also similar to Fire-crested Alethe and shares prominent central crown-stripe, but has olive-brown (not chestnut) upperparts to rump and uppertail-coverts, darker tail (lacking chestnut fringes) with broad white tips to outer three tail feathers; spotted juveniles are very similar, but White-tailed usually is extensively white over chin, throat and belly.

Fire-crested Alethe, juvenile. November, Mt Cameroon, Cameroon (Tomas Grim).

MOULT Little known; in Cameroon, moults Oct–Dec on Mt Kupe (Bowden 2001). M E A SU R E M E N T S W ing ma le 92– 98mm, fema le 85–92mm. Tail male 66–80mm, female 59–69mm. Bill 17–20mm. Tarsus male 23–26.5mm, female 22–25mm. Weight 22–39g (Ripley & Heinrich 1966, Friedmann & Williams 1969, Keith et al. 1992, King 2011). TA XONOM Y Follows Sibley & Monroe (1990) and Beresford (2003). Previously considered conspecific with White-tailed Alethe (Mayr & Paynter 1964, Hall & Moreau 1970, Jensen 1990, Keith et al. 1992, Dowsett & ForbesWatson 1993) based on similarities in song and behaviour, but plumage differences of adults and juveniles, together with mtDNA analysis, support separation at species level.

WHITE-TAILED ALETHE Alethe diademata

Plate 7

Bessonor nis (Turdus) diadematus Bonaparte, 1850, Conspectus Aves 1: 302. Guinea. A medium-sized, fairly long-tailed chat of forest floor and understorey of primary and secondary forests in W Africa, between SW Senegal and Togo; locally common, but elusive and very secretive, more often heard than seen (except when attending ant columns), the monotonous or frequently given call being a familiar sound of dense undergrowth. Forms a species pair (and has been considered conspecific) with Fire-crested Alethe. Monotypic. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 18cm. Adult has crown to hindneck dark brown; when agitated raises bright rustorange central crown-stripe (otherwise entirely or partly concealed), hindcrown and upperparts (including edges to flight feathers) mainly olive-brown, tail slightly darker or blackish, with broad white tips to outer three feathers, greyish face, breast-sides and flanks, and white over rest of underparts.

VOICE Continuous series of monotonous low whistled hoo or huu notes (similar to start of song), repeated at regular intervals or a hoo-heer or hoe-fear, and a more rapid, rising huu wut see-it, all very similar to calls of Firecrested Alethe. In alarm gives harsh, clicking chatter and, during interspecific aggression displays, a grunting chahh followed by series of up to ten chip notes, and sometimes a soft or low, nasal taaaaa recalling a bush-shrike. Song a slightly longer series of 3 –4 liquid, slightly rising whistles then the call note hah-her-hueee or a more alternating hooheen-hoo-heer, very similar to song of Fire-crested Alethe; also a similar subdued subsong, comprising a continuous series of whistles and rattles, wee-were-chiwowo-huee-herdzit-what-your-titic or a slightly more lively herdy-hear-wereturder-tatata-hear-her-do, which may also include mimicry of birds such as Forest Robin Stiphrornis erythrohorax, Emerald Chrysococcyx cupreus and Black Cuckoos Cuculus clamosus, Chocolate-backed Kingfisher Halcyon badia, Finsch’s Flycatcher-Thrush Stizorhina finschi and several malimbe Malimbus spp. (Willis 1986, Keith et al. 1992, Demey & Fishpool 1994). HABITAT Mainly the ground, undergrowth or midstorey vine tangles in lowland to mid-altitude primary and old secondary forests, gallery forest, also regenerating forest patches in savannas; often near ant trails. Mainly in lowlands, up to 900m in Guinea and 1,500m in Liberia. BEHAVIOUR Usually in pairs, or pair with single young, but congregates in larger numbers of up to 50 and in mixed-species flocks, especially at army ants, also in dry season when ants are not swarming. Often most active in early morning and evening, visiting active ant colonies, but secretive and easily overlooked when silent; habitually follows ant trails including into adjacent alethe territories. Forages on ground, in and below vegetation usually within 2m of ground, also digs into leaf litter or takes prey in short dashing flights from logs, tree trunks, branches, lianas, leaves and tangles of debris; occasionally makes short sally from low perch to take insect in air; large prey battered or dismembered against ground, often joins mixed-species foraging flocks. Flicks wings and tail when nervous or agitated, and spreads tail to show white corners. At swarms, hops rapidly on ground, makes darting runs, or drops down from low branch to take prey flushed by ants; snatches prey from among swarming ants, but when attacked by ants, flutters, jumps and hovers to escape. Aggressive towards smaller species and Brown-chested Alethe, including chases with grunts, chipping and short squeaky notes, flicking and fluttering wings, and raising crest in aggression. In feeding hierarchy, dominated by bristlebills Bleda and White-tailed Ant Thrush Neocossyphus

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White-tailed Alethe

poensis; spotted young often indulge in aggressive displays and known to dominate parents and older birds. Diet almost entirely insects, mainly grasshoppers and crickets, also f lies, moths, caterpillars, beetles, cockroaches, termites, driver, black and army ants; spiders; also small snails and small frogs. BR E E DI NG Possibly breeds year-round: Jun– Sep (recently fledged juveniles Aug, Oct and Nov, and birds in immature plumage Sep–Feb) in Liberia and Ivory Coast. Territorial, mean size of territory 5–6ha. Nest a fairly shallow cup, either compact or loosely constructed, mostly of bark, rootlets, moss, dead leaves, twigs and a little mud, lined with small black rootlets and strands of Marasmius fungus, usually up to 3.3m above ground, in large cavity, in living or dead tree trunk or stump, log on ground, termite mound, or on ground below decaying log. Eggs 2–3 variably green, beige, pinkish-ochre or pinkish-white, heavily blotched or spotted brown, chestnut, rich maroon, pale reddish and violet-grey, or dull lilac. Incubation by female, but period unknown; fledging period 12–13 days. Occasionally two broods (Collar 2005). Mean lifespan > 4 years. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Locally common and widely distributed resident. SW Senegal (Casamance National Park) discontinuously south to Guinea and east through Liberia to C, S and NC Ivory Coast (to about Korhogo), C, S & E Ghana and S Togo; also recorded Benin (Forêt Classée de Ouari Maro) in Mar 1999 (Demey 2006), but record subsequently doubted (Dowsett & DowsettLemaire 2011, 2014).

pale orange spots; wings and tail as adult, including white tips to outer tail feathers, median and greater coverts broadly tipped with large orange spots, narrowly fringed black. Face as crown, eye-ring orange, cheeks and earcoverts warm brown or orange-brown mottled or broadly fringed black. Chin and throat white or finely fringed black; breast tawny or orange-brown fringed or scalloped blackish-brown; centre of lower breast to belly whitish or off-white. Bill hooked at tip, brownish-horn with yellow edges to mandible. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None. MOULT In Liberia, adults in wing moult Sep–Dec, with fewer in Jan–Feb; most adults on Mt Nimba in fresh plumage Dec–Jan onwards, at same time as juveniles moulting into adult plumage, while birds from Zwedru were in fresh plumage Mar–Jun (Gatter 1997). M E A SU R E M E N T S W ing ma le 92– 96mm, fema le 84–94mm. Tail male 69–78.5mm, female 68.5–78.5mm. Bill (to feathers) male 15–16.5mm, female 13.5–16.5mm. Tarsus 22–25.5mm (BMNH, Tring). Weight 27–36.8g. TA XONOM Y Follows Sibley & Monroe (1990) and Beresford (2003). Previously considered conspecific with Fire-crested Alethe (Ripley 1964, Hall & Moreau 1970, Jensen 1990, Keith et al. 1992, Dowsett & Forbes-Watson 1993) based on similarities in song and behaviour, but plumage differences of adults and juveniles, together with mtDNA analysis, support separation at species level.

MOVEMENTS Sedentary. DESCRIPTION Sexes alike. Adult Forehead grey-brown, becoming rich or deep brown on crown-sides; central crown a narrow strip of pale orange, with feathers tipped brown, and orange patch partially concealed when feathers not raised in short erectile crest. Hindcrown, nape and mantle to scapulars, wing-coverts and uppertailcoverts olive-brown; tail mostly blackish-brown with broad white tips to outer three feathers (increasing slightly in extent outwards and visible from below); flight feathers dark or blackish-brown broadly edged as rest of upperparts on outer edge; axillaries and underwing-coverts greybrown. Face to lower crown-sides, cheeks, ear-coverts and neck-sides grey; chin to undertail-coverts white; breastsides and upper flanks grey. Eyes variably greyish-brown, brown, brownish-orange to chestnut-brown or reddish. Bill black. Legs and feet bluish-grey, slate-grey or greyishpurple. Juvenile Forehead to crown and head-sides brown or warm brown, flecked or streaked darker on fringes or tips; upperparts dark brown boldly tipped with large

White-tailed Alethe, adult. April, Kakum, Ghana (Nik Borrow).

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Genus Pseudalethe Four species. Previously included in Alethe and very similar in size, shape and behaviour but separated by lack of an erectile crest, slightly duller plumage and slightly shorter legs. Genetically, they are possibly not each other’s closest relatives.

RED-THROATED ALETHE Pseudalethe poliophrys

Plate 7

Alethe poliophrys Sharpe, 1902, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 13: 10. Ruwenzori, Uganda. A medium-sized chat with fairly long tail and distinctive head and face markings, restricted to undergrowth of montane and submontane forests in the Albertine Rift of E Africa, between E DR Congo and W Uganda, W Rwanda and W Burundi. Locally fairly common, often shy or elusive, but may perch briefly in open when crossing clearings, tracks or paths, or at start of breeding season. Polytypic with two races recognised. P. p. poliophrys (Sharpe, 1902). NE & E DR Congo, W Uganda, W Rwanda and W Burundi. P. p. kaboboensis (Prigogine, 1957). Mt Kabobo, E DR Congo. F I E L D I DE N T I F IC AT ION L eng t h 15 cm. Adu lt distinguished by blackish-grey face and black forehead to nape, divided by broad grey supercilium extending to sides and rear of nape; bright reddish-brown upperparts and wings, broad reddish-chestnut edges to tail feathers, and distinctive red or reddish-orange throat, rest of underparts whitish washed grey or dull buffish-brown on flanks. Juveniles heavily spotted above and below, and streaked blackish on throat to belly. SIMILAR SPECIES Similar to but slightly larger than Brown-chested A lethe, with broad grey (not white) supercilium extending to nape; much richer or warmer brown upperparts and wings, reddish tail (blackish in Brown-chested), and prominent red throat. Juvenile also similar to same-age Brown-chested, best distinguished by paler and generally more extensive spots on upperparts and tail; throat to belly streaked blackish (no pale spots). Race woosnami of Fire-crested Alethe (which overlaps in range) has similar upperparts, but lacks face pattern (plain grey), has bright red centre of crown, and generally has whiter underparts. Juvenile Fire-crested Alethe very similar to same-age Red-throated and possibly not safely separable on their own. VOICE A single loud, piping peu, often given repeatedly when agitated or softly in mixed-species flock as contact call. Alarm a soft raa-chaa-chaa-chaa chaa, unlike alarm or scold notes of other alethes; also a faint wer. Song usually consists of whistling call note, clear or slightly slurred, given repeatedly at intervals of 2–3 seconds, with a downslurred peeeyoo or peeeyurr or with slight upslur in middle wooiyoo, or several different notes mixed to form more continuous but random song, including an upslurred fueee; also known to include mimicry of two-note call of Black-tailed Oriole Oriolus percivali (Dowsett-Lemaire 1990). Song given for relatively short period when most actively displaying or at start of breeding season. H A BITAT Undergrowth of dense montane forest at 1,300–3,000m, to lower edge of bamboo zone, also high-

altitude gallery forest and wooded ravines. In Ruwenzori Mts, at 1,500–2,740m, but most numerous at 1,800–2,400m (Dehn & Christiansen 2001). BEHAVIOUR Generally very shy, elusive and difficult to observe; occurs alone, in pairs or small parties, and often within mixed-species foraging flocks, frequently in company of Brown-chested Alethe in overlap zone (SW Uganda and W Burundi). Forages on ground in dense undergrowth and occasionally (but not invariably) follows army ants, with prey taken mostly on ground, usually following short flights or dashes. Typically antagonistic towards conspecifics, and may displace smaller chats and thrushes also attending ants, e.g. Pogonocichla, Sheppardia. Away from ants, digs into rotting vegetation and tosses leaves away from foraging area; also takes insects in short sallies from tree trunks, branches or lianas in manner of large flycatcher. In dry season joins mixed-species foraging flocks comprising Narina Trogon Heterotrogon narina, Emerald Cuckoo Chrysococcyx cupreus, Lemon-rumped Tinkerbird Pogoniulus bilineatus, bulbuls (Andropadus, Pycnonotus), chats (Pogonocichla), thrushes (Neocossyphus), flycatchers (Terpsiphone, Melaenornis, Muscicapa), warblers (Prinia, Bathmocercus), babblers (Alcippe), white-eyes (Zosterops), sunbirds (Anthreptes, Cyanomitra, Chalcomitra and Cinnyris), waxbills (Estrilda), orioles (Oriolus) and starlings (Onychognathus). Nervous or often alarmed away from cover, and when nervous or agitated raises one or both wings to reveal white linings, flicks tail, and scolds or chirps. On approach of predator, usually moves quickly into dense vegetation; some, however, can be curious, and will approach intruder, especially if quiet, and may be called into view by imitating its whistle. Diet mostly ants, but other small invertebrates widely taken, including flies, beetles, spiders, earthworms and snails. BREEDING Season poorly known but may breed yearround, nest with eggs in Mar in Uganda and juveniles in Jul, Aug and Oct; Sep–Jul in DR Congo and Sep–Oct in Rwanda. Considered to occupy extensive home range, rather than defending territory, as army ants move fast and swarms are usually widely spaced (c.1–2km) apart. Only a single nest and clutch described. Cup-shaped structure of green moss, lined with dry brown stems, and placed c.1 m above ground, in moss-covered tree trunk (Kalina & Baranga 1991). Eggs two, dark green with faint brown speckles at large end. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Common or locally common. P. p. poliophrys Mts of NE & E DR Congo (north to Ruwenzori Mts), W Uganda (Rwenzori Mts, Bwindi Impenetrable Forest and Echuya Forest Reserve), W Rwanda and W Burundi. P. p. kaboboensis Mt Kabobo, E DR Congo. MOVEMENTS Sedentary. DESCRIPTION Sexes alike. Adult Forehead to crown and nape black, broad grey supercilium from sides of maxilla to over eye, ear-coverts and sides of hindneck; lores, cheeks and ear-coverts grey-black. Upperparts

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Red-throated Alethe

white, or fringed black on upper belly with pale orange subterminal band; wings as adult with orange spot and blackish fringe at tips of coverts. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION P. p. kaboboensis As nominate but upperparts to rump much duller or browner, and generally lacks warm or chestnut tones, with upperwing-coverts and edges to flight feathers olive-brown; edges to tail-feathers slightly or only narrowly rufous at edges; also reddishorange on throat generally paler. MOULT No information. MEASUREMENTS Wing male 95–104mm, female 88– 102mm. Bill male 19.5–21mm, female 19–21mm. Tarsus male 28.5–31.5mm, female 28–30.5mm. P. p. kaboboensis Wing male 100–104mm, female 96–98mm. Weight 30–45g (Keith et al. 1992). TA XONOM Y Follows Beresford (2003): previously included within Alethe and has also been included within Chamaetylas; may form a superspecies with Brown-chested, White-chested and Cholo Alethes. to rump and scapulars warm brown to bright reddishchestnut; wing-coverts as scapulars, but greater coverts have bright brown inner webs and chestnut or warm reddish-brown outer webs; flight feathers brown, inner primaries, all secondaries and tertials edged reddishchestnut; axillaries and underwing-coverts off-white. Tail warm brown, outer webs to feathers broadly edged bright chestnut. Chin narrowly dark grey, throat bright orange or reddish-orange, rest of underparts white or off-white, can be almost pure white on centre of belly, and breast and upper flanks variably washed grey, lower flanks variably washed buffish to brown; may also show faint narrow brown barring, varying in extent, from breast to undertail-coverts. Eyes reddish-brown to dark brown. Bill black or brownish-black. Legs and feet from whitish to pale pink, greyish-pink or brownish-grey. Juvenile Heavily or boldly spotted on upper- and underparts, entire head to mantle, upper back, throat and breast black with broad orange central shaft-streaks; lower back and rump edged or fringed reddish-chestnut; belly and undertail-coverts

Red-throated Alethe, juvenile. February, Nyungwe Forest, Rwanda (Oscar Campbell).

Red-throated Alethe, adult P. p. poliophrys. Rwanda (Ariadne Van Zandbergen).

Red-throated Alethe, adult P. p. poliophrys. September, Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, Uganda (Nik Borrow).

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Pseudalethe

BROWN-CHESTED ALETHE Pseudalethe poliocephala

Plate 8

Trichophorus (Criniger) poliocephalus, Bonaparte, 1850, Conspectus Aves 1: 262. Dabocrom, Ghana. A plump, stout-bodied and medium-sized chat, with a rather upright stance and long pale pinkish-flesh legs; common and widespread, but generally shy and secretive, inhabiting undergrowth and floor of coastal, lowland and lower montane primary and old-growth secondary forests, from W Guinea and SW Central African Republic S to W Angola; also extreme S Sudan and NE DR Congo to SW Kenya, SE DR Congo and SW Tanzania. Polytypic, with nine races recognised; variation between races fairly slight and mainly concerns colour of head, face and upperparts, some races have breast and flanks paler, or only faintly washed brown. P. p. poliocephala (Bonaparte, 1850). W Guinea to Sierra Leone and S Ghana. P. p. compsonota (Cassin, 1859). Bioko, S Nigeria to Cameroon and SW Central African Republic, S to PR Congo and NW Angola. P. p. hallae (Traylor, 1961). W Angola. P. p. carruthersi (Ogilvie-Grant, 1906). Extreme SE Central African Republic, N & E DR Congo, W & S Uganda and W Kenya. P. p. akeleyae (Dearborn, 1909). Central highlands of Kenya. P. p. giloensis (Cunningham-van-Someren & Schifter, 1981). Extreme SE Sudan and possibly NE Uganda. P. p. kungwensis (Moreau, 1941). W Tanzania. P. p. ufipae (Moreau, 1942). SE DR Congo to SW Tanzania. P. p. vandeweghei (Prigogine, 1984). E Rwanda and SW Burundi, possibly NW Tanzania. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 14.5–16cm. Adult has dark grey to grey-brown face (blackish lores and cheeks), and broad white supercilium from base of bill to over eye and ear-coverts, and variably greyer to grey-brown or blackish on forehead and crown; upperparts mostly rich chestnut or duller, tinged olive except blackish-brown tail; white throat, washed brown on breast and flanks, forming distinct breast-band in some races, less distinct in others. SIMILAR SPECIES Similar to, and often in mixed-species foraging flocks with, Fire-crested Alethe, especially at ant swarms; Fire-crested is slightly larger, with orange stripe on crown (usually concealed except in alarm or aggression), lacks supercilium on all-grey face, generally whiter underparts with grey, not brown, breast-sides and flanks. Nominate Fire-crested from West Africa has white corner spots on tail and browner back. White-chested Alethe is noticeably larger with much whiter underparts and all-dark brown head; mantle, rump and tail brighter chestnut-brown. Immatures of Brown-chested, Firecrested and White-chested are very similar to one another and best separated by size, colour of underparts and tail; immature of nominate Fire-crested has white spots in tail. Blackcap Illadopsis Illadopsis cleaveri is also similar in plumage and behaviour, though slightly smaller (with a smaller or thinner bill), but has distinct olive-grey to black crown to nape, and pale greyish forehead, lores and face. Song of Brown-chested Alethe very similar to both Yellow Longbill Macrosphenus flavicans and Sabine’s Puffback Dryoscopus sabini.

VOICE Generally silent. Calls include tu-iit or soft, hollow keu as contact between pair members, repeated at intervals, and double-noted tseeeeep tyerrr, with first note high-pitched and thinner; more frequently gives aggressive calls at ant swarms, including growling raagh, a softer karr-karr and seiz-seiz-seiz-seiz; alarm a rising nasal whistle seeeleeeeeh or schleeee, often accompanied by wing-flapping or fluttering; also a chattering note similar to Grey-headed Bristlebill Bleda canicapilla when latter approached its nest. Song a rarely heard series of 5–8 pure, widely spaced or slow and rather mournful, descending, single whistles, alternating with a double note that becomes softer towards end, pew......pew-pee.....pee.....tew-tee.....pee....pew-pee, or a more rapid series of descending whistles pee pee pee pee pee pee (Zimmerman et al. 1996). Subsong a softer, buzzing reizeiz-serrt-serr-riz-sez-seees or razz-raah- zaeid-zerr. HABITAT Undergrowth, bamboo and forest floor of primary lowland (including coastal) and lower montane forest, occasionally older secondary growth, swamp forests and open forest–grassland mosaic, often near streams or ant trails; in Angola also in old coffee plantations. To 1,600m in Liberia, at 800–2,000m on Bioko, to 1,900m in DR Congo, 2,200m in Cameroon, 2,500m in Sudan, to 2,000m in Uganda (but mostly below 1,500m), to 1,100m in Angola and at 700–2,800m elsewhere in E Africa. BEHAVIOUR Generally alone, in pairs or small family parties, but regularly attends ant swarms, where up to 12 individuals gather and joins mixed-species foraging parties. Shy, secretive and easily overlooked, often more heard than seen; may be most active at dawn and dusk; bathes in forest streams and may give subdued snatches of song, scolds and chatters while preening. Forages on ground and in low tangles, particularly among fallen branches and trees; sifts through fallen leaves in manner of larger chat, also drops to ground from elevated perch to pounce on insect before returning to perch. Most prey taken on ground, either directly or after a few quick hops or short flights. Forages at ants up to 15m ahead of swarm, catching arthropods fleeing the ants. Aggressive at ant swarms and frequently engages in aggressive squabbles with Fire-crested Alethe, ant thrushes Neocossyphus spp. and bristlebills Bleda spp., which may result in chases accompanied by growling notes or bill-snapping; following successful chase, flicks one or both wings, and may also give faint subsong. Immatures are especially aggressive and frequently attack adults. Diet mostly invertebrates and insect larvae, including beetles, termites, ants, molecrickets, mantises, millipedes and spiders, also small molluscs and tiny frogs. BREEDING Season probably year-round: Sierra Leone, Jul; Liberia (birds in breeding condition May–Jun, juveniles Jun–Jan); Ghana (birds in breeding condition Sep); Nigeria (birds in breeding condition Jun); Cameroon (juveniles Apr, Nov, birds in breeding condition Jul–Sep and Dec–Jan at higher altitude); Gabon, Dec–Mar (juveniles Jun and Aug), breeding possibly continuous Oct–Jun; Central African Republic (breeding condition Jun); DR Congo, Sep–Apr (juveniles Jul); Uganda (birds in breeding condition in Jan, Feb, Apr, Jun and Nov, juveniles in Apr and Jul); Angola (birds in breeding condition Aug); Sudan, Mar; Kenya, Mar–May and Oct–Nov. Nest a deep cup of moss, reinforced with rootlets and strands of fungus Marasmius or these are incorporated into lining; placed up to 7 m above ground in cavity, e.g. hole or crack

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Brown-chested Alethe

in tree trunk, disused woodpecker hole, atop dead stump or on termite mound against side of tree. Eggs 1–3, green, greenish-brown or chocolate-brown, heavily spotted chestnut and violet-grey. Incubation by female alone for up to 17 days, commencing with second egg. Average lifespan unknown, but one individual was at least ten years and two months old (see Movements). STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Common to abundant (though more frequently heard than seen); uncommon or scarce in W Africa and Angola, rare NE Ivory Coast; restricted-range race akeleyae considered generally scarce, especially around Nairobi (where formerly occurred in suburban areas). P. p. poliocephala Extreme SW Guinea to Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast (north to Comoé National Park, Sipilou) and S Ghana. P. p. compsonota Bioko, S Nigeria (Lagos to Obudu Plateau and north in E to Gashaka-Gumti National Park), S Cameroon (throughout forest zone, including Mt Kupe, Korup National Park and Mt Oku), SW Central African Republic, Gabon, S PR Congo (Mayombe) and NW Angola (Quiculungo in Cuanza Norte); one or more (presumed to be of this race) were recorded on two dates in June 2011 in Luki FR, Bas-Congo province, western DR Congo (Ayer et al. 2014). P. p. hallae Kumbira Forest and around Gabela, Cuanza Sul, W Angola (Traylor 1961). P. p. carruthersi extreme SE Central African Republic, N & E DR Congo (south to Mt Kabobo where considered intermediate between carruthersi and ufipae: Prigogine 1984), W & S Uganda (Kalinzu, Budongo and Bwamba to Bwindi Impenetrable, Kibale and Malabigambo Forests, east to Kifu and Mabira) and W Kenya (Mt Elgon to Kakamega, Nandi, West Mau and Trans Mara Forests). P. p. akeleyae Kenya, C highlands from Ngaia Forest, Nyambenis, Mau and Embu Forests south to Kieni, Gatamayu and Kiambu District; formerly to suburbs around Nairobi (where last recorded 1976: Zimmerman et al. 1996). P. p. giloensis extreme SE Sudan (Imatong Mts: Nikolaus 1987, 1989), possibly also this race (or carruthersi) NE Uganda (Mt Lonyili in Kidepo Valley National Park: Elliott 1972). P. p. kungwensis W Tanzania (Mt Kungwe). P. p. ufipae SW Tanzania (Mt Mahari, Ufipa Plateau) and Kibara Plateau, Katanga, SE DR Congo (including Upemba National Park); intergrades with race carruthersi in region of Mt Kabobo (Prigogine 1984). P. p. vandeweghei E Rwanda and SW Burundi, possibly NW Tanzania (Minziro Forest). MOVEMENTS Mainly sedentary, one ringed in Kenya was recaptured nine years later 100m from original site; another ringed at 1,200m on Mt Kupe, Cameroon, in Feb 1984 was re-trapped in same locality in Nov 1992 and May 1994 (Bowden 2003); lowland birds of race giloensis move to higher altitudes in S Sudan during dry season (Nikolaus 1989).

DESCRIPTION Sexes alike. Adult Forehead to nape dark grey or tinged brown; narrow but usually fairly prominent whitish supercilium extending from base of bill over eye, becoming greyish and tapering behind eye. Lores blackish, becoming slightly paler or greyer on cheeks and ear-coverts. Lower neck-sides to mantle and upperparts, including wing-coverts, deep or dark chestnut (can be duller or browner on back, scapulars and wing-coverts, and brighter on rump and uppertail-coverts). Tail almost entirely blackish-brown, fringed chestnut at bases to outer feathers. Chin black, throat to neck-sides, breast and flanks same or washed dull buff-brown or brownish, belly and undertail-coverts creamy-white. Flight feathers blackishbrown, finely edged warm or light chestnut-brown; axillaries and underwing-coverts creamy-white. Eyes red-brown or chestnut. Bill black, occasionally hooked at tip. Legs and feet pale pinkish-flesh, occasionally tinged grey or brown. Juvenile Forehead and crown to nape dark brown, streaked or finely spotted pale cinnamon (spots or streaks remain until most features of immature plumage have been replaced); mantle, back, lesser and median coverts dark chestnut-brown with large pale buff fringed orange or brown subterminal spots (finely edged blackish at tip), greater coverts blackish becoming cinnamon subterminally and narrowly tipped black; rump and tail as adult but uppertail-coverts have paler shaft-streaks. Cheeks and ear-coverts to neck-sides brownish, mottled or finely spotted cinnamon or cinnamon-buff; chin and throat buffish with broad brown fringes, breast boldly spotted, with tawny-buff or pale yellowish-orange centres and dark brown fringes, forming a heavily mottled or scalloped pattern, flanks dull buffish or tinged orange; belly and undertail-coverts pale creamy. Flight feathers like adult. Bill dark brown, basal half of mandible yellowish. Eyes dark brown or greyish-brown. Legs and feet pinkish-white. First-year as adult, but often shows some vestigial orange tips to greater coverts. GEOGR A PHICA L VA RIATION Slight and not well marked, mainly refers to colour of head, face and upperparts, some races have breast and flanks paler or only faintly washed brown; at least one other race (‘nandensis’ from N Nandi Forest, Kenya) proposed, but considered to differ only slightly from, and within range of variation of, race carruthersi. P. p. carruthersi Very similar to nominate poliocephala but has slightly paler grey crown, blackish lores and cheeks, browner ear-coverts to nape and neck-sides, and upperparts slightly browner or less prominently chestnut or reddish-brown. P. p. compsonota Crown and face darker grey than nominate, ear-coverts blackish-brown; upperparts brighter reddish-chestnut. P .p. akeleyae Similar to carruthersi but head and face greyer and upperparts somewhat duller, tinged olive or less rich reddish-brown. P. p. hallae Forehead and crown brighter or more reddisholive, and ear-coverts tinged light chestnut-brown, like poliocephala; upperparts chestnut or dull reddishbrown or tinged olive like akeleyae. P. p. giloensis Crown and head-sides blackish except brow ner ear- covert s ; mant le, back and r ump cinnamon-brown; pale drab-brown breast-band, belly washed grey-brown, and flanks darker greyish-brown. P. p. kungwensis Forehead and crown to head-sides dark grey (not black) or washed olive, and upperparts as

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Pseudalethe

Brown-chested Alethe, adult P. p. vandeweghei. March, Bururi, Burundi (Matthias Dehling).

Brown-chested Alethe, adult P. p. carruthersi. June, Kakamega, Kenya (Adam Scott Kennedy).

80–86mm; compsonota 85–102mm; akeleyae 94–102mm; vandeweghei male 98.5 –101mm, female 93 – 96mm; carruthersi male 84–95mm; kungwensis male 96mm; hallae male 95–97mm. Tail male 48–57mm, female 48–54mm; hallae 64mm. Bill 15.5–19mm. Tarsus 24–27mm; hallae 29mm. Weight 22– 46g (Traylor 1961, Friedmann & Williams 1971, Keith et al. 1992). TA XONOM Y Follows Beresford (2003); previously included within Alethe and has also been included within Chamaetylas; may form a superspecies with Red-throated, White-chested and Cholo Alethes. Type locality originally claimed to be Bioko, but later corrected to Ghana (Mees 1988). Nomenclature of subspecies recently amended, with western poliocephala (Bonaparte, 1850) as nominate race (replacing castanonota Sharpe, 1871) and birds in Bioko to S Nigeria, Cameroon, SW Central African Republic to NW Angola taking name compsonota (Cassin, 1859) (Collar 2005). Brown-chested Alethe, adult P. p. compsonota. March, Mt Cameroon, Cameroon (Nik Borrow).

nominate, yet darker and redder than carruthersi or akeleyae. P. p. ufipae Similar to carruthersi but forehead, crown and head-sides olive-brown, upperparts slightly redder. Birds from Mt Kabobo considered intermediate between carruthersi and ufipae (Prigogine 1984). P. p. vandeweghei Similar to carruthersi but has paler back, duller or less reddish than kungwensis and ufipae, and browner or darker and more olive than akeleyae; also paler breast-band. MOULT In Liberia adults commence wing moult in Aug–Sep, with most birds in advanced stages Oct–Dec, but some do not start wing moult until Dec–Jan, and one in early stages as late as early Mar; birds in fresh plumage from Jan–Feb; immatures in Dec had almost attained adult plumage (Gatter 1997). M E A SU R E M E N T S W ing ma le 82– 88mm, fema le

WHITE-CHESTED ALETHE Pseudalethe fuelleborni

Plate 8

Alethe fuelleborni Reichenow, 1900, Orn. Monatsber. 8: 99. Peroto-Ngosi, Tandalla, Tanzania. A large-sized mainly brown-and-white chat, common or locally common but shy and elusive in forest undergrowth (can be more visible at ant swarms). One of only two alethes in montane forests of E A frica, between N Tanzania and N Malawi; also lowland and coastal forests of SC Mozambique. Mainly sedentary or a short-distance altitudinal migrant to lower levels in non- breeding season. Regarded as monotypic, but evidence of morphological variation, voice and egg colour indicates further research is required. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 17–20cm, with smaller birds in S of range. Dark head and face (no supercilium), chestnut or russet-brown upperparts and bright chestnut

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White-chested Alethe

tail; underparts mostly pure white except brown or greyish-brown flanks; some show weak or pronounced dark tips or crescents on breast-sides. Some variation in upperparts coloration among various populations; N populations proposed as race ‘usambarae’ due to lack of scaling on breast, but inconsistent, as weak scaling clearly present on some individuals throughout range. SIMILAR SPECIES Most likely to be mistaken for very similar but allopatric Cholo Alethe, which has white tips to outer tail feathers and generally less white underparts, which are washed buffish-brown. From similar (but also allopatric) race woosnami of Fire-crested Alethe by larger size, longer bill, darker upperparts and whiter underparts; from Brown-chested Alethe by larger size, lack of supercilium and whiter underparts; confusion also possible with poorly seen Spot-throat Modulatrix stictigula, but larger size, stout shape, heavy bill and whiter underparts diagnostic. VOICE Calls include a loud, far-carrying, piping wooeeooo or whiiu as contact between pair, mostly given at dawn and dusk, birds in C Mozambique differ in giving a slightly quivering or wavering double-noted wheee-whirrr (Chittenden 2007) and do not respond to playback of N birds. Alarm a loud rattling shreeeeeeeh; in aggression gives whistled siiiiiiih and fragments of subsong, wi-wecherseet-wipwipwip -eup-shreee or seee-herrr-reeeeeeeih-wheroe. Aggressive disputes over food at ant swarms accompanied by rattles, whistles and bill-snapping, occasionally subsong. Song (only given during breeding season) in Malawi usually commences with contact call, followed by series of mainly pure or slightly trilled whistles, given at intervals of c.1 second, e.g. wooeeoo, peeoo, weeowip, torweeyurr, pweeurr, wurrweeyu, wiptowee, prrreee; song of Tanzanian birds a more burry wer-ter-wii followed by rising weii-wer-ee or a longer series of notes that usually includes an upslurred wurrrreee. Song usually given from low to mid-height perch in forest, linked to breeding, with no strong territorial connection; playback provokes little reaction, except when bird very close or within 10–20m of nest. HABITAT Ground strata of tall montane rainforest with open understorey and saplings, but little or no other vegetation, in coastal sand forests of C Mozambique usually in dense cover; in Tanzania breeds in lower montane forest at 900–2,600m (down to 750m in Chita Forest, S Udzungwa escarpment), but in cooler non-breeding season occurs down to 250m; occurs at 1,600–2,400m in Malawi, 1,800–2,200m in NE Zambia; juvenile recorded at c.1,125m on Mt Gorongosa, Mozambique.

ants (especially army ants Dorylus) and their larvae; also spiders, millipedes, worms, snails and small amphibians; occasionally small berries. BREEDING Monogamous and territorial, size of territory varies from 0.5–5 ha (mean size of territory of four pairs in lowland Mozambique 1.6ha), small number of territories held at least two years and possibly as long as eight. Season Oct–Jan in NE Zambia and Malawi, Oct–Mar in Tanzania, Nov in Mozambique (at end of dry season, start of wet season). Nest a thick cup of green moss, fine roots, dead leaves and Usnea lichen; usually placed up to 8m above ground in fork of tree, in liana tangle, or atop creeper-covered stump (Carter 1978, Jensen et al. 1985). Eggs 2–3, pale green with brown to dark green spots; breeders in N Mozambique (proposed race ‘xuthura’) are browner or heavily blotched chocolate-brown (Chittenden 2007). Incubation by female alone, but young fed by both parents up to at least six weeks post-fledging. Singlebrooded. Success depends on source of army ant activity; the majority of breeding territories contain an active ant colony; rarely breeds in successive years, since ants undependable. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Common or locally not uncommon, and widespread in N of range; uncommon E Usambara and Nguru Mts, Tanzania, uncommon or local in Malawi and C Mozambique; in C Mozambique, thought to be declining due to habitat destruction by logging, firewood collection and charcoal-burning (Hockey et al. 2005, Chittenden 2007). In NE Tanzania (South Pare Mts, Usambara Mts, Nguru Mts, Ukaguru Mts, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mts to Mahenge, Livingstone Mts and Mt Rungwe), NE Zambia (Mafinga Mts and Nyika Plateau) and N Malawi (Nyika Plateau and Misuku Hills south to South Viphya Plateau: Dowsett-Lemaire & Dowsett 2006). In C Mozambique (coastal forests between Zambezi River south to Sofala and Chiniziua Forest, formerly Beira area) has also occurred on Mt Gorongosa. MOVEMENTS Mainly sedentary, but some altitudinal movement apparent, though not well understood, mainly by females, in non-breeding season (Apr–Sep) in NE Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania and probably Mozambique. In some areas entirely absent from breeding areas (Kimboza

BEHAVIOUR Generally shy, unobtrusive or elusive, and easily overlooked, usually low vegetation or on ground (rarely >2m above it) and very difficult to see except at ant swarms, moving ahead of swarm and gleaning invertebrates flushed by driver ants. Hops and runs to take prey on ground, or makes short aerial sallies; also takes insects from trunks, low branches and forages on ground among leaf litter; when alarmed f licks wings and tail; flight rapid and low. In dry season, or when ants inactive, forages alone or occasionally joins mixed-species foraging flocks. Fairly aggressive towards conspecifics, at ant swarms especially dominant over smaller chats (Cossypha, Pogonocichla, Sheppardia) and Mountain Greenbul Andropadus tephrolaemus; aggressive display accompanied by various rattles, whistles and bill-snaps. Diet mainly insects, including beetles, moths,

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Pseudalethe

Forest, Tanzania) and non-breeding adults frequently present in breeding areas during nesting season. In Tanzania recorded to 250m in foothills of East Usambara Mts in Jun–Jul, common down to 400m in Mwanihana Forest on NE escarpment of Udzungwa Mts in Aug, and to 300m in Magombera Forest in Sep. In Mozambique, birds in coastal forests in Jun may have come from Mt Gorongosa (Jensen et al. 1985). In Malawi, evidence from 39 ringed birds, maximum distance moved was just 480m, while in NE Zambia 22 out of 25 birds ringed were re-trapped in same area up to seven years later (Dowsett et al. 2008). DESCRIPTION Sexes alike. Adult Forehead to lores, cheeks and fore ear-coverts blackish-grey; crown, rear ear-coverts and neck-sides grey-brown or olive-brown, becoming bright chestnut or russet-brown on mantle, back, scapulars and wing-coverts; rump and uppertailcoverts similar or slightly darker rufous. Tail deep or bright chestnut, all outer webs edged reddish-chestnut. Greater coverts dark brown broadly edged chestnut or russet; alula, primary coverts, primaries and secondaries grey-brown finely edged paler, tertials and inner secondaries broadly edged cinnamon-rufous; axillaries and underwing-coverts white. Chin and throat pure white except grey breast-sides and upper flanks, in some entire breast fringed with brown tips, creating scaly or scalloped pattern (weakest or absent in N of range). In worn plumage may be slightly darker due to wear of cinnamon or rufous edges. Eyes hazel, red-brown to dark brown. Bill black. Legs and feet pale, grey or greyish-pink. Juvenile Crown and face dark brown, feathers with pale orange shaft-streaks; rest of upperparts blackish-brown with large pale orange spots or centres to feathers; throat dark grey-brown with some white flecks, becoming off-white or pale orange with fine or narrow dark barring or scales on lower throat; breast mostly pale orange, with variable dark brown or blackish fringes forming prominent scaly pattern; belly paler or yellowish-white with

paler brown scaly fringes, flanks pale grey-brown with pale orange wash, and undertail-coverts pale yellow to orange. First-year more closely resembles adult, but some retain blackish tips on mantle, back and scapulars. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION Considerable individual variation in back colour among populations, and size variation is clinal, with larger birds in N of range; scaling on breast feathers generally lacking in N birds (proposed race ‘usambarae’), but weak scaling present in other individuals from same areas (Jensen et al. 1985). Proposed race ‘xuthura’ from C Mozambique (Clancey & Lawson 1969) also considered synonym of nominate, and species widely regarded as monotypic, but recent evidence of differences in voice and egg colour indicates further research, including genetic analysis, required (Chittenden 2007). ME A SUR EMENTS Wing male 106 –112mm, female 103–107mm (nominate, unsexed 110–115mm, ‘usambarae’ unsexed 102–120mm: Jensen et al. 1985). Tail male 76–83mm, female 70–82mm. Bill 20.5–26mm. Tarsus 32–35mm. Weight 41.6 –63g (Sclater & Moreau 1933, Dowsett & Dowsett-Lemaire 1984, Keith et al. 1992). MOULT Adults moult wing and tail feathers post-breeding, Dec–Mar (Malawi), and is completed before onset of cold or wet weather, when food in short supply, although moult may be delayed by birds with dependent young as late as Feb; mean duration of individual moult is 126 days (Keith et al. 1992, Hockey et al. 2005, Dowsett-Lemaire & Dowsett 2006). Juveniles have partial moult of body and some wing feathers within three months of fledging. TA XONOM Y Follows Beresford (2003); previously included within Alethe and has also been included within Chamaetylas; may form a superspecies with Red-throated, Brown-chested and Cholo Alethes.

White-chested Alethe, adult. December, Inhamitanga, Mozambique (Hugh Chittenden).

White-chested Alethe, adult. August, East Usambaras, Tanzania (Adam Scott Kennedy).

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Cholo Alethe

CHOLO ALETHE Pseudalethe choloensis

Plate 8

Other name: Thyolo Alethe. Alethe choloensis W. L. Sclater, 1927, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 47: 86. Mt Thyolo, south Malawi. A medium- to large-sized chat, like all alethes usually shy, elusive and more often heard than seen (can be more visible at ant swarms), endemic to montane forests of S Malawi and N Mozambique. Endangered but locally common; declining due to habitat destruction, with total population currently estimated at 1,500–7,000 mature individuals (BirdLife International 2015). Polytypic with two races, but differences between them weak or slight. P. c. choloensis (W. L. Sclater, 1927). S & SE Malawi; also N Mozambique. P. c. namuli (Vincent, 1933). N Mozambique. FIELD IDENTIFIC ATION Length 17–19cm. Adult has head and face cinnamon-brown, becoming slightly deeper or reddish-brown on upperparts and wings, tail dark brown with white spots at tips of outermost feathers, underparts white with grey and buff wash to breast and flanks (nominate race) or mainly white (namuli). SIMILAR SPECIES Very similar to closely related, but allopatric and slightly larger White-chested Alethe of N Malawi, Tanzania and SC Mozambique, which has uniform chestnut tail without white tips to outer feathers. Oliveflanked Robin-Chat is smaller, has reddish tail without any white spots, prominent supercilium, grey breast, russet flanks and undertail-coverts, and very dissimilar song. VOICE In Malawi and on Mt Namuli, N Mozambique, calls include a loud, downslurred peeeyoo in contact and a rattling sriiiiiiiih, similar to that of White-chested Alethe, most frequently used in defence of food and in aggressive display; on Mt Mabu, N Mozambique, main call is a distinctive, rising whistle (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010) or a single downslurred whistle often followed by a shorter, lower-pitched and slightly quavering note from a second bird (Spottiswoode et al. 2008); alarm a thin seeee. Song usually begins with contact call and runs into a series of up to four notes tyerr ... wor-tyer-chee (with second note lowest) or wor ... tee-tyer-tyurr (with first note lowest, second highest and third and fourth descending), or a softer yerrr-tuwee tyurrr and werrr-cheeya. Overall, song softer, higher-pitched and more varied than White-chested Alethe.

from ant swarms forages by sifting through decaying vegetation and frequently tosses leaves on ground; also takes insects from trunks, branches, lianas and foliage in short sallies. Fairly aggressive in defence of food source from similar-sized species, attacking smaller chats, e.g. White-starred Robin. An occasional member of mixedspecies foraging flocks, usually with Cabanis’s Greenbul Phyllastrephus cabanisi. Diet mostly insects, especially ants (including army ants), beetles and their larvae. BREEDING Almost unknown; only single nest found; recently fledged immature late Nov. Season Sep–Jan. Nest, cup of green moss and fine dry tendrils placed up to 4 m above ground in fork of tree. Eggs three, green, heavily mottled dull and light chestnut over lilac and pale grey. STAT US A N D DI ST R I BU T ION Endangered but locally common. Total population currently estimated at 1,500–7,000 mature individuals; declining due to habitat destruction (BirdLife International 2015), especially on Mt Mulanje, Malawi. Known from just 16 areas of montane forest, 13 in SE Malawi and three in adjacent Mozambique; three additional areas were destroyed between early 1970s and early 1990s. By 2003, reports indicated that population in Malawi was confined to five areas; also reported (Nov 2002) from forest atop Mt Soche, Malawi, but may have subsequently disappeared there as forest was being felled (Demey 2003). By 2000 most forest on Mt Thyolo (a reserve of c.10km²), Malawi, had been illegally felled, with just a single fragment of 0.27km² remaining (Dowsett-Lemaire & Dowsett 2006, Spottiswoode et al. 2008). The most important extant populations in Malawi are probably on Chikala Hill and in Ruo and Chisongeli Forests on Mt Mulanje (Spottiswoode et al. 2008). In Mozambique, the habitat at one site suffered severely from forest fires in 1995–1996, while large areas on Mt Namuli are being selectively logged and Mt Chiperone may also be scheduled for logging or resumption of tea farming. In Nov 2007, a survey of two forests on Mt Namuli concluded that the alethe was very scarce in the large Manho Forest (‘a few dozen pairs’) but common in Ukalini Forest, while the region’s total population (excluding the unexplored plateau south of Malema River) was estimated at 2m above forest floor, where keeps in deep shade, hops on ground and over fallen branches; not shy or secretive and often confiding and approachable, when foraging vigorously tosses leaf litter; alert, usually inquisitive, except when defending young; attends driver ant columns, where several gather to forage by pouncing from low branches on disturbed invertebrates. Tail often held slightly elevated (45° angle) showing white undertail-coverts. When alarmed or defending territory, puffs out breast feathers, making crescent obvious. Diet mainly ants, termites, beetles, bugs, bees, wasps, spiders, f lies (including stoneflies), moths and larvae, centipedes, woodlice and small forest frogs, occasionally small fruits. BREEDING Monogamous and probably pairs for life (Hanmer 2008). Territorial (year-round) and solitary, but 4–6 pairs/ha in Chirinda Forest; territories frequently maintained by same pair for several years, from ringed individuals in E Zimbabwe up to eight years (Hanmer 2008). Territory advertised by singing male with breast puffed out, displaying prominent white crescent on lower throat. Displaying male bobs head and flicks wings and tail in presence of female. Season mid to late Sep or Oct–Jan or early Feb, but mostly Nov–Dec. Nest, built mainly by female, a moderately shallow to deep cup of dead leaves, plant fibres, moss and fine plant tendrils (including tree-ferns), well hidden up to 2m above ground in hollow stumps, shrubs (especially at base of leaves of large Dracaena), in holes or crevices in trunks or among creepers, lianas and epiphytes on trunks and in forks of shrubs. Eggs, two exceptionally three, glossy blue-green, spotted or blotched green, pale buff and mauve, and spotted rufous-brown, often forming a ring at larger end. Incubation by female alone, 15–16 days and fledging period 14 days, nestlings fed and cared for by both adults (Manson 1990). One or occasionally two broods; possibly an occasional host to parasitic Red-chested Cuckoo Cuculus solitarius. Evidence from ringing in E Zimbabwe suggests young do not develop a brood patch or breed until two years old (third-calendar year) (Hanmer 2008). Longevity c.10 years. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Vulnerable: uncommon or scarce; locally common in Chirinda Forest. Total

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Swynnertonia

MOVEMENTS Considered to be largely sedentary, but evidence from ringed birds in E Zimbabwe indicates that females disperse short distances from breeding areas during moulting period or for entire non-breeding period.

population considered to be >10,000 individuals, and probably declining in widely separated montane forests comprising in all c.1,000ha that are being destroyed (Stattersfield & Capper 2000). Population of nominate race considered to be 10,000 mature individuals (Stattersfield & Capper 2000). Endemic to SW Tanzania (Ukaguru Mts and south of Iringa and Dabaga to Mufindi and Chita in Ndundulu, Nyumbanitu, Udzungwa Mts, south to Njombe area and Mdando Forest in Livingstone Mts) (Jensen & BrøggerJensen 1992, Dinesen et al. 1993, Evans & Anderson 1993). MOVEMENTS Sedentary. DESCRIPTION Sexes similar Adult Forehead to nape and upperparts dark or dingy olive-brown. Tail dark olive-brown, outer webs broadly fringed warm brown. Scapulars and wing-coverts dark brownish-olive, all, as well as fringes to primary coverts, tertials and secondaries, edged brown or slightly warmer brown, becoming slightly paler on otherwise dark brown primaries; axillaries and underwing-coverts dull olive-brown. Short and usually indistinct yellowish-olive (tipped dull cinnamon or buff-brown) streak from above lores to eye (white bases concealed unless feathers erected); lores dark grey, earcoverts grey-brown becoming warmer brown on cheeks, eye-ring and neck-sides olive-brown. Chin and throat warm yellowish-buff, becoming warm brown or tinged olive on breast, flanks and thighs; belly and vent off-white,

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Grey-winged Akalat

head and face patterns, as well as vocalisations. Like all akalats, a shy and elusive bird, and usually only easily seen if singing; inhabits sub-Saharan lowland to montane moist evergreen forests, as well as forest patches in dry savanna, where it is locally common or scarce. Polytypic; three races recognised, but differences between them weakly defined. S. p. nigriceps (Reichenow, 1910). Discontinuously in W Africa from Guinea and Sierra Leone to E Nigeria, W & C Cameroon and W Central African Republic. S. p. tessmanni (Reichenow, 1921). E Cameroon. S. p. polioptera (Reichenow, 1892). Discontinuously from S Sudan south to S Burundi, E DR Congo, NW Zambia and NW & E Angola.

Iringa Akalat, adult. May, Udzungwa Mts, Tanzania (David Moyer).

undertail-coverts pale buffish-olive or broadly tipped warm olive-brown. Eye dull hazel-brown. Bill (and rictal bristles) black (hooked at tip). Legs and feet cold pale pinkish to pinkish-brown, sepia or brownish-grey. Juvenile Head and upperparts dark or blackish-brown, feather centres pale buff with blackish fringes creating mottled appearance. Lower back and rump to tail and wings as adult. Underparts similar to adult but more mottled, with feathers fringed blackish, centres off-white on chin, throat and belly, and pale buff face, breast and flanks. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None. MOULT Adult post-breeding complete, but no data on timing. Post-juvenile no information, but presumably partial. MEASUREMENTS Wing 67–76.5mm. Tail 54mm. Bill 16–17mm. Tarsus 28–31mm. Weight 16.2–21.2g. (van der Willigen & Lovett 1981, Keith et al. 1992). TA XONOMY Previously considered conspecific with Usambara Akalat and included within genus Dryocichloides by Irwin & Clancey (1974); also been classed in Alethe. Forms a superspecies with Usambara Akalat (Hall & Moreau 1970, Jensen 1989, Roy et al. 2001). Molecular studies appear to indicate separate generic status may be appropriate pending further study, but retained in Sheppardia due to overall, size, structure and plumage – especially shared features such as concealed loral spot (Beresford 2003).

GREY-WINGED AKALAT Sheppardia polioptera Plate 21 Other names: Grey-winged Robin, Grey-winged RobinChat, Grey-winged Ground Robin. Cossypha polioptera Reichenow, 1892, J. Orn. 40: 59. Bukoba, Lake Victoria, Tanzania. A medium to large-sized akalat with a striking head pattern, which may be mistaken for a small robin-chat (with which frequently treated as congeneric) based on

FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 14–15cm. Adult has striking head pattern of slate-grey or black forehead and crown, broad white supercilium, and black lores to around eye; upperparts mostly olive-brown except grey wingcoverts, becoming rufous-brown on rump and uppertail and reddish-brown on tail; underparts mostly rich orange except for whitish centre to belly. SIMILAR SPECIES Differs from all other akalats by prominent and broad white supercilium from base of bill to over or slightly behind eye, black lores and upper ear-coverts, and generally brighter and more extensively orange underparts. In Impenetrable Forest, SW Uganda, occurs with Equatorial Akalat, but separated by altitude, Equatorial usually occurring much higher than Greywinged, but possibly some overlap at 1,500–1,800m. From similar-sized Archer’s Robin-Chat by slate-grey (or black) head, lack of blackish face, has olive-brown (not reddish-brown) upperparts and paler or brighter orange underparts. Cape Robin is slightly larger with black face, olive-grey upperparts and extensively grey flanks. Both White-browed and Rüppell’s Robin-Chats have broad white supercilia and have extensively rufous-orange underparts, but are much larger, have black faces and slate or blackish-grey upperparts, contrasting orange outer and black central tail feathers. The same is also true of Blue-shouldered Robin-Chat, which additionally shows a bluish patch on lesser coverts. VOICE Contact call a soft series of whistles, tii-taa-tu-tutwiiii; a more sibilant alarm kwick-kwiick-kwick-kwick-kwick, becoming a repeated soft chut in anxiety. Song a variably fast or slow series of high-pitched, sustained, musical or fluty whistles twiit-twiit-twiit turr-turr-turr siwiit-siyuur siit-siit titiur-titiur turii-turii-turii or a more discordant or rambling weet-tu wee tur tur, weee too too tur wee, cherwee cherwee-tur, s-sseee t-tur, see sooo tur tur tit tee..., which can be interspersed by several high-pitched whistles, together with imitations of other birds. Mimicked notes may comprise entire song, especially of pigeons, cuckoos, shrikes, bee-eaters, thrushes, orioles, bulbuls and some flycatchers. Also gives a mournful or melancholy three-note descending whistle. Most song given from open perch, usually under or within canopy of tree or bush. In breeding season sings in early morning, occasionally throughout day (Oatley & Arnott 1998). In Liberia mostly sings Mar–Apr and least in dry months of Dec–Jan (Gatter 1997). H A BI TAT Forest f loor, dense u nderg row t h a nd occasionally midstorey of lowland to mid-altitude or montane moist evergreen forest, including dense tangles in clearings and edges of secondary forest, throughout much of disjunct range occurs near or along streams or in

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Sheppardia

riverine, gallery and swamp forest, as well as forest patches in dry savanna. In N Zambia occurs in mushitu moist (or boggy evergreen swamp) forests and in S Burundi in riverine forest at 1,200–1,460m. In W Africa occurs in lowland forest to c.400m, but numerous to very abundant in forest and low scrub at 1,000–1,500m on Mt Nimba, Liberia; to 1,800m in S Sudan and DR Congo; generally 1,100–2,150m in S Uganda, NW Tanzania and SW Kenya; in Angola to c.1,250m. BEHAVIOUR Usually solitary, except when breeding; shy, fairly elusive and more frequently detected only when singing; immatures occasionally less secretive and may feed in more open areas. Spends long periods inactive in dense undergrowth and forages in leaf litter, especially in alongside streams, hopping and foraging for small invertebrates, frequently flicking wings and tail, especially when nervous or agitated, and white supercilium possibly also used as visual signal in undergrowth. Also ventures to midstorey; flight quick or darting and silent through dense undergrowth. Diet mostly insects, probably mainly ants, but also bugs, beetles, moths (both adult and larval), small wasps, tipulid flies and orthopterans, occasionally small scorpions and spiders. BREEDING Very little known. Possibly breeds throughout year; in W Africa adults in breeding condition in Jan and fledged young in Mar in Liberia (immature in Dec had juvenile crown feathers), breeding-condition adults in Jun in Nigeria; in DR Congo nests in Sep–Oct; in Zambia Aug–Nov; in Uganda nests in Apr, Jun and Oct, and juveniles Aug–Sep; juveniles in Zambia in Sep–Nov. Nest (few known), a shallow cup of moss, grasses, plant stems and vegetable fibres, either placed in small hollow on sandy bank, or up to 0.5m above ground in cleft of small tree trunk (Rainey & Oatley 2003). Eggs two (Ivory Coast) or three (Zambia), either uniform olive-brown (Ivory Coast), olive-green (Uganda) or mottled greenish turquoise-blue (Zambia). Incubation and fledging periods unknown. STATUS A ND DISTR IBUTION Resident in widely scattered populations; overall rather scarce, but locally common (e.g. S Sudan, NW Zambia) or abundant (on Mt Nimba, Liberia, and Mt Tonkoui, Ivory Coast), though rare in Guinea. In Uganda previously (early 1900s) more common or numerous on N shore of Lake Victoria, but now scarce and considered to have been displaced by Blue-shouldered Robin-Chat (van Someren 1916, Hamel 1980, Carswell et al. 2005). S. p. nigriceps Discontinuously in W Africa from Guinea (west to about Daralabé) and Sierra Leone to W & C Cameroon; occurs in mountains of Sierra Leone, on Mt Nimba on Liberia/Ivory Coast border and nearby Mt Tonkoui, Mont Sangbé National Park in Ivory Coast, very locally in NC Nigeria from Birnin Gwari to Loko and Pandam, in E Nigeria on Mambilla Plateau and Gashaka-Gumti National Park; in Cameroon in Bamenda Highlands and Adamawa Plateau, extending east into adjacent W Central African Republic. S. p. tessmanni E Cameroon (Upper Kadei River). S. p. polioptera From S Sudan (where possibly only nonbreeding visitor) south to S Burundi, E DR Congo, NW Zambia and NW & E Angola. In S Sudan occurs south from Imatong Mts and Aloma Plateau, in W Kenya from Mt Elgon, the Cherangani Mts, Kakamega, Kaimosi and Nandi to Sotik, Mau Forest, Rapogi and Tarang’anya; in extreme NW Tanzania in Kibondo and at Bukoba; in W & CS Uganda from Mabuku Valley (Ruwenzori Mts) and

Impenetrable and Lugalambo Forests and N shore of Lake Victoria; in E DR Congo on Lendu Plateau and Mt Kabobo, and in S DR Congo in Katanga at Kolwezi, and adjacent NW Zambia in extreme N Mwinilunga District south to Hillwood and source of Zambezi, Lisombo Stream, Sakeji Stream, and west to about Luacano in E Angola; also extreme N Zambia around Kasangu, between Lakes Mweru and Tanganyika (Dowsett et al. 2008). Also NW Angola between N’dalatando (Cuanza Norte) and Calendula (Malanje). MOVEMENTS Largely resident, but possibly only a nonbreeding visitor to Imatong Mts and Aloma Plateau, S Sudan, in Jul–Oct (Nikolaus 1989). DESCRIPTION Sexes similar, but female’s crown often tinged olive. Adult Forehead to nape blackish-slate; lores to eye broadly black, continuing and tapering behind eye across upper ear-coverts, supercilium from base of bill to just over eye white, may be partly concealed by erectile feathers on lores with black tips. Mantle to scapulars and rump olive-brown, uppertail-coverts similar or tinged rufous-brown. Tail uniform reddish-brown. Wing-coverts greyish or bluish slate-grey, becoming dull brown on primary coverts and tertials; primaries and secondaries dull brown broadly edged olive-brown; axillaries and underwing-coverts pale rufous-orange. Chin to earcoverts, neck-sides, breast and flanks rich or deep orange, slightly paler on flanks, belly-sides and undertail-coverts; centre of belly to vent whitish. Eye dark brown. Bill black. Legs and feet grey-brown. Juvenile Head and face rufousbrown with dark or rufous-brown streaks on crown, tawny or pale rufous supercilium (sometimes absent) and paler lores; mantle, back and wing-coverts dark brown, with broad orange or rufous-brown shaft-streaks and spots at tips (blue-grey on wing-coverts following post-juvenile moult); tips of median coverts and fringes of greater coverts also orange-rufous; rest of flight feathers edged warm brown or rufous; rump and tail as adult but duller. Chin and throat to upper belly and flanks paler orange than adult, with some darker fringes on upper breast, and belly to undertail-coverts off-white to pale orange-buff. Legs and feet pale pink to pinkish-purple. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION Slight and race tessmanni possibly untenable; proposed race ‘grimwoodi’ (SE DR Congo, N Zambia, N Angola) reportedly differs from nominate by more olive and less russet upperparts, top of head lighter or clearer grey, less tawny on rump, but possibly only apparent in fresh plumage, though

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differences appear inconsistent in specimens at BMNH (Keith et al. 1992). See Taxonomy. S. p. nigriceps Like nominate, but crown black and supercilium extends further behind eye, meeting rufous ear-coverts; on some hindneck slightly more rufous and can form collar. S. p. tessmanni Ver y poorly known and doubt fully d i st i ng u i sh a b le (not r e co g n i s e d b y s e ver a l authorities); very similar to nigriceps but darker, especially on cheeks. MOULT No detailed data, adults presumed to moult postbreeding; an adult in Zambia had commenced moult in Nov (Dowsett et al. 2008); in Liberia, birds on Mt Nimba showed no signs of moult in Dec–Mar, but three in Apr were in different stages of moult (Gatter 1997). M E A SU R E M E N T S Wing ma le 78 – 82mm, fema le 74–79mm; nigriceps male 79–83mm, female 74–76mm. Tail male 60–70mm, female 55–60mm; nigriceps male

64–70mm, female 60–62mm. Bill 16 –17mm; nigriceps 15–19mm. Tarsus 23–26mm; nigriceps 24–28mm. Weight 15–23g (Keith et al. 1992). TAXONOMY Unresolved; frequently maintained as a Cossypha based on similarity in plumage, behaviour, vocal mimicry and egg coloration (Dowsett et al. 2008), but also included in Dryocichloides (Irwin & Clancey 1974); inclusion in Sheppardia more recently supported by molecular studies, supported by overall size, structure and plumage – especially shared features such as normally concealed but erectile loral feathers, uniform tail and juvenile plumage ( Jensen 1989, Beresford 2003). Subspecies ‘grimwoodi’ (White 1954, 1962) from E DR Congo (Mt Kabobo) and extreme NW & N Zambia, based on clearer grey forehead and crown, and more olive-brown back and rump, considered indistinguishable from nominate (Keith et al. 1992) or possibly only apparent in fresh plumage, and maintained by others such as Dowsett et al. (2008).

Grey-winged Akalat, adult S. p. polioptera. December, Kakamega Forest, Kenya. (Adam Scott Kennedy).

Grey-winged Akalat, adult S. p. polioptera. August, Buhoma, Uganda (Lee Hunter).

Grey-winged Akalat, juvenile S. p. polioptera. April, Kakamega Forest, Kenya (Adam Scott Kennedy).

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Genus Erithacus Monotypic. Previously thought to be closely related to Luscinia (and Tarsiger) on size, structure and behaviour, but more recent analysis indicates a closer relationship with the exclusively African Pogonocichla and Swynnertonia. Entirely Old World in distribution (mainly Europe and Asia), with slim or slender bill, inconspicuous rictal bristles, legs slightly (but not disproportionately) long, wings of medium length and blunt-tipped, and tail also of medium length. Sexes alike; plumage mainly soft brown above and characterised by bright red face to throat and breast; juveniles spotted.

EUROPEAN ROBIN Erithacus rubecula Plate 12 Other names: Robin, Redbreast. Motacilla Rubecula Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. 10th edn. (1): 188. Sweden. A small to medium-sized, fairly plump chat, with round head, slender tail, red throat and breast, and distinctive melodious song, given year-round. Common or locally common, and widely known as a familiar garden or suburban bird in Europe, often celebrated as symbol of winter on Christmas cards. Also widespread in woodlands throughout Scandinavia to W Siberia, and south to N Africa and parts of Middle East to Gulf States and S Iran. Resident and migratory populations occur throughout range: eight races recognised, with limited variation, and widely intergrades where races overlap. E. r. melophilus E. Hartert, 1901. Britain and Ireland; partial winter migrant to C & S Europe (Netherlands to France and Spain). E. r. rubecula (Linnaeus, 1758). Azores, Madeira, W Canary Is, Morocco, C, S & E Europe to Moldova and NC Ukraine, to N Scotland and Scandinavia east to Urals; winter range extends to S Ukraine, E Mediterranean and Middle East, also coastal NW & N Africa. E. r. superbus Koenig, 1889. C Canary Is. E. r. witherbyi E. Hartert, 1910. NW Tunisia and N Algeria. E. r. tataricus Grote, 1928. W Siberia east of Urals to W Siberia; winters to W & SE Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and N, C & W Iran. E. r. valens Portenko, 1954. Crimea. E. r. caucasicus Buturlin, 1907. N & E Turkey to Azerbaijan (except SE). E. r. hyrcanus Blanford, 1874. S & SE Azerbaijan to N Iran; winters to Middle East. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 14cm. Adult has head, upperparts and tail brown to grey-brown, with bright orange to reddish-orange forehead and face to breast, bordered, often indistinctly, with band of ash-grey (most prominent in fresh plumage and varies individually) and fairly large dark eye in centre of face. Juvenile all brown, finely streaked or spotted paler or buffish, with larger or bolder spots on wing-coverts, throat and breast, and tail unspotted but feathers usually pointed (in adult, feathers broader with squarer tips). Pale spots at tips of greater coverts no indication of age, although adults either lack spots or have rather small spots, in some restricted to central greater coverts alone, while juvenile/first-year has large, sharply defined, triangular or rounded spots on middle and outer coverts. SIMILAR SPECIES Combination of brown crown and upperparts, and bright orange face and breast, diagnostic

and unlikely to be confused with any other species, except in extreme E of range, where confusion with allopatric Japanese Robin possible, but European Robin has more extensive orange to centre of lower breast, lacks any black or dark grey breast-band below orange, and has grey band from sides of forehead to breast-sides (lacking in Japanese Robin). Female Japanese Robin similar to male, though lacks black breast-band, but has more extensive orange on sides of face and neck, and less on centre of breast. VOICE Most frequently given call a sharp or abrupt tic or tip, with varying emphasis, in contact between pair or family group to defend territory or in anxiety and alarm, occasionally a short, slightly rapid series, tic-tic-tic, or slightly rising and falling tic-tic-tk-tk-tk..., and longer ticeritititititit if disturbance prolonged. In territory defence or alarm at predator near young, may also give continued series of tic notes in clockwork-like repeated manner; also a thin, high-pitched or wheezing tseeeee or tsweeee, similar to Eurasian Blackbird Turdus merula. Distress or extreme anxiety calls include a sharp hissing note and screaming notes when attacked by predator. Contact by migrants (given both diurnally and at night) a soft sip or seep, occasionally tic. Call of adults and young a softer or squeakier tsee or tswee, similar to Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata. Calls of young being fed by adults include hissing notes, a rising seez eez eez and zlee-zlee-zlee or downslurred zee-zee-zhweeeeeed. Song a melodious, wistful, lilting series of up to three, fairly slow or unhurried, liquid, musical, high and low whistles, and twittering notes, given in phrases broken by short pauses, with each series varying slightly from previous one and individual singers have extensive repertoires, overall fairly mellow, wistful or mournful in quality especially on autumn and winter evenings, when usually the only bird singing. Phrases can either begin and end softly or fade away at end, siddle liddle dee....seeo sooo dee lee...., or start higher pitched, with a sharp, rising seeedle-ee’seee, and may introduce phrase with high whistle followed by high and lower notes, occasionally with slightly harsher notes. Song given during territorial disputes often loud and aggressive, including slurred notes and series, or continual phrases of sharp tic notes as in tic tic tikeritititititit..., may include bill-snapping, and is given until one bird retreats. Song of some continental and insular populations may have shorter, less diverse or less complex musical phrases, e.g. spring song of race superbus consists mainly of short phrases and has slower delivery than continental races, often commencing with 1–2 sharply rising phrases, followed by a lower note, and usually repeated, occasionally as a trill, including see sit sit sit....whirrli whirrli tit chew, recalling song of Song Thrush Turdus philomelos, and a strident or sharp see see-sit see-sit, but overall with same quality. Song of race superbus also includes good imitations of other species, including Red Kite Milvus milvus, Blue Tit Cyanistes caeruleus teneriffae, Song Thrush Turdus philomelos, Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs

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canariensis, Blue Chaffinch F. teydea and Canary Serinus canaria (Lack & Southern 1949); also surprisingly imitates song of Common Nightingale, a rare or scarce passage migrant through Canary Is (and mostly through E islands). Subsong a longer or more rambling series of subdued phrases and whistles, often including some slurred, drawn-out or discordant notes, and may also include some mimicry or attempted mimicry of Eurasian Blackbird or Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs; subsong occasionally given from low cover for long periods. Sings year-round, though much less, or not at all, during wing moult, and mostly given in early morning, but can sing throughout day and at night, especially in well-lit areas, though singing in unlit locations is known. Song in autumn differs slightly from spring by containing softer, longer and mellower phrases, and often considered to possess sad quality, while others find late autumn and winter song cheerful. Song (and subsong) given by both sexes, but that of male usually longer and more diverse, with most song in spring by males and in early mornings, declining during day; most song given by females in autumn defence of territory; following pair-formation, females rarely sing except to defend territory and, in some populations, very little or no song is given by females in winter (Lack 1948, 1965). Sings from open or concealed perches within bushes or trees, occasionally on treetops c.12–13m above ground, but also of other perches, including buildings, posts and aerials. HABITAT Wide variety of forests, woodlands, copse and hedgerow habitats, from sea level to 2,200m in Europe, in both conifer and deciduous woodlands of medium density and with some open areas, also plantations, orchards, cemeteries, gardens and parks; often in small woods, shelterbelts and edges of cultivation. In parts of Europe, a frequent garden bird in urban and city centres, providing sufficient open space exists for feeding. In Russia mainly a forest or woodland bird, only occasionally found in urban areas. In NW Africa, more restricted to montane forest of Quercus ilex, Q. faginea and Q. suber with well-developed undergrowth, often near streams or gullies, at 700–2,000m, occasionally to 2,450m in Morocco (Thévenot et al. 2003). Spring and autumn migrants often occur on islands and in coastal and hillside scrub and bushes, where no residents present. BEHAVIOUR In pairs in breeding season, usually more solitary at other times, though loose concentrations may occur during passage and in winter. In Europe, an active and conspicuous bird, especially in parks and gardens where food is provided, occasionally very tame and often accompanies gardeners when digging, but in other areas a shy woodland or forest dweller, only occasionally appearing at edges or in glades. Actions quick and alert, tail raised and lowered, or held partly erect when searching for insects from elevated perch; flicks wings and tail, and when agitated bobs or bows head. Passage migrants occasionally skulk in low scrub, also more secretive during primary moult. Flight usually low (rarely at any height except during nocturnal migration), fast and direct, or slightly undulating. Sedentary birds defend territory yearround (especially males, often for duration of life), others mainly during breeding season, but males and females also have individual winter territories (juvenile can establish territory in first winter) and frequently aggressive in defence of it, except during moult and in severe winter weather (when territory may be abandoned); unpaired

males often evicted from territory by neighbouring pairs. In some, mainly sedentary populations, pair-formation occurs up to four months ahead of nest-building, and pair-members frequently are aggressive to each other (even causing physical injuries). In areas of high breeding densities, also aggressive to young of neighbouring pairs that intrude territory. For details of aggressive behaviour, see Cramp (1988). Forages mainly by scanning from prominent perch and flying to take prey (often some metres from perch) on open branches, trunks, outer edge of shrubs or on ground, before returning to perch, as well as by foraging on ground, in or below bushes, for insects and larvae, or takes ripe fruit from bushes, and airborne insects in short upward flights. Occasionally feeds at edges of streams or ponds, and migrants in coastal areas often feed on tideline, especially where rotting seaweed occurs. Diet mainly invertebrates up to 6mm long (especially beetles and ants), also some fruit and seeds. Insects include bugs, small grasshoppers and crickets, moths and small butterflies, earwigs, flies, sawflies, bees and wasps, mites, woodlice, sand-hoppers, millipedes and centipedes, plus spiders, small molluscs, slugs and earthworms; also small lizards and fish, including minnows and roach; fruit and seeds include those of apples, brambles, cherry, currant, elder, rowan, vine, privet, mistletoe, dogwood, bilberry, cotoneaster, honeysuckle, snowberry, strawberry, oleander, pistachio, buckthorn, sea-buckthorn, viburnum, mistletoe, nightshade, juniper and yew, also some cereal grains. Frequently takes foods from garden feeders including fat, cake, breadcrumbs, sunflower seeds, millet and mealworms. BREEDING Season mainly mid-Mar to late Jul in Britain, but nests often reported year-round; in C & S Europe Apr–late Jul; Scandinavia and S Russia mid to late Apr in S and mid to late May–Aug in N; Madeira, Canary Is and NW Africa mid or late Mar–Jun. Mainly monogamous but c.10% of breeding males in British Isles considered bigamous. Territorial, size of breeding territory varies from 0.84ha in British Isles, 0.9–1.5ha in Canary Is and 3.9ha in Morocco; territory used for nesting (including raising young) and feeding, but some foraging occurs elsewhere (including in other territories). Pairs form at start of breeding season (often in wintering area, or away from preferred breeding location) and bond endures to start or conclusion of post-breeding moult, and pairs rarely re-form subsequently; in well-studied sites in British Isles, up to 20% of males fail to attract mates. Displaying male has courtship song, but is frequently aggressive to female arriving in the territory (often driving them away), which approaches male with contact calls followed by active (occasionally prolonged) pursuit and chase of female by male, during which both birds may pause to sing loudly, while male restlessly flicks wings and tail at rest. Courtship-feeding of female by male usually only occurs when nest-building begun, and may feed female on nest, but this behaviour varies greatly between pairs, with some females driving male away from nest until eggs have hatched. Breeding densities in British Isles 250–300 pairs per km²; in Bialowieza Forest, E Poland, 7–48 pairs per km² and in N Morocco mean 25.8 pairs per km² in montane forest. Nest: site chosen and constructed entirely by female (male may bring material), a fairly large or bulky cup of dry grasses, plant fibres, moss, dead leaves, lined with finer material including animal hair, plant fibres, down and feathers, placed in hole or crevice in tree up

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to 5m (rarely higher) above ground, also among rocks, roots, hole in earth bank and wide variety of man-made locations including holes in walls (especially if covered by ivy or other creepers), disused buckets and kettles, etc., placed in outbuildings and hedges, also frequently uses nestboxes. Eggs 4–6 in nominate and melophilus, usually white or faintly pearl-bluish, and may be finely marked with pale to sandy-red spots, freckles or blotches, occasionally covering entire surface, but absent in some; in superbus creamy-white to pinkish-flecked or finely spotted deeper rust-red. Incubated by female alone for 12–21 days and fledging period 10–18 days, though young often leave nest before able to fly far; nestlings cared for by both adults (often dividing broods of three or more between them), in some cases most food provided by male; young self-feeding c.8 days after leaving nest and independent 16–24 days post-fledging. Usually two broods (in separate nests, exceptionally uses same one), rarely three, in C & S of range, but single-brooded in N. Breeding success in British Isles: 71% of 1,426 eggs hatched and 77% fledged, with overall success rate of 55% (53% in Mar–Apr, 61% in May and 46% in Jun–Jul). Breeds in first year and oldest known individual 17 years 3 months, but very few ringing recoveries beyond fourth calendar year. Annual adult mortality in British Isles 62% and of first-years (from Aug) 72%; overall annual mortality elsewhere in Europe 58–62%. Causes of mortality mainly domestic cats (50%), or human origin (mainly accidental) 36%, while large numbers are still killed around the Mediterranean in autumn/winter. STAT US A N D DI ST R I BU T ION C ommon a nd widespread in Europe; common passage migrant and winter visitor to most of Middle East (except C & S Saudi Arabia and uncommon in Kuwait); residents scarce in N

Africa but common to abundant winter visitors mainly to coastal areas; passage migrant through Kazakhstan (race tataricus) and rare w inter v isitor. European breeding population (including European Russia and Turkey) estimated in 2000 to be 43–83 million pairs, and considered relatively stable, with Spanish population estimated at 1.2–3 million pairs and that in UK at 4.2 million territories during Atlas survey of 1988–91, with a further 1.9 million in Ireland (Gibbons et al. 1993, Hagemeijer & Blair 1997). In addition the 2007-11 Atlas recorded a 2% range expansion (mostly in NW Scotland) and a 20% population increase in the UK, but in Ireland a 25% decrease had taken place between 1998 and 2010 (Balmer et al. 2013). E. r. melophilus Breeding Britain and Ireland, intergrades with nominate in S Denmark, N Netherlands, SE England, N & W France to NW Spain and N Portugal. Non-breeding In winter a partial migrant (with many remaining in breeding areas, especially in Britain and Ireland, where very few ringed as nestlings recovered abroad: Wernham et al. 2002) to C & S Europe (mainly Netherlands, France and Spain) and many of unknown origin return to same areas in Spain and Gibraltar in subsequent winters. E. r. rubecula Breeding Azores, Madeira, W Canary Is (La Palma, Gomera, El Hierro), C, S & E Europe to N Scotland (except Shetlands) and Scandinavia (continuously north to c.70°N, sporadically to North Cape) east into Russia, through Kandalaksha area, the White Sea and Urals (mainly at 45–67°N), to Ob River and valley of Tom River, and up to 63°N in Sos’va and Konda River basins; has also bred on Faeroes. In S from S Portugal, Spain and Morocco (south to High Atlas), Italy, Greece and N & NW Turkey, north around Black Sea to Moldova, W & NC Ukraine. Intergrades with melophilus from S Denmark, Netherlands, SE England, and W France to NW Spain and Portugal. Non-breeding In

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winter to SC & W Europe (including small number that winter in Britain and Ireland: Wernham et al. 2002), also Black Sea coast in S Ukraine, Spain, NW, coastal N & NW Africa, mainly Morocco (sporadically south to Anti-Atlas and vagrants reach border with Mauritania), N (mainly coastal) Algeria, NW & NE Libya (also single summer record, Tripoli, Jul 2005), N Egypt (Nile Delta south to Cairo and N & W Sinai), E Mediterranean (S Turkey, Israel, mainly in C & W), Lebanon, Syria and Jordan, and Middle East, mainly Iraq and W & SW Iran (where overlaps with hyrcanus); possibly also Armenia and this race (or hyrcanus) in Kuwait. E. r. superbus Resident Gran Canaria and Tenerife, Canary Is. E. r. witherbyi Resident in NW Tunisia and N Algeria, intergrades with nominate in NE Morocco, S Spain, Corsica and Sardinia. E. r. tataricus Breeding W Siberia east from Urals to middle and upper River Ob, to about Tomsk, southern boundary unclear but does not reach Kazakhstan (where only passage migrant). Non-breeding In winter to W (Aral Sea region), S (Tien Shan foothills), E (Dzungarskiy Alatau and the Alakol depression) and NE Kazakhstan (to the foothills of the W Altai), south to Kyrgyzstan and N, C & W Iran; possibly Armenia, N & C Israel and (this race or hyrcanus) SW Turkmenistan. E. r. valens Resident Crimea. E. r. caucasicus Resident (or short-distance altitudinal migrant) in N & E Turkey (where widely intergrades with nominate) and through Caucasus to Azerbaijan (except SE and Talish Mts) and extreme S Russia (S Kalmykia and Dagestan). E. r. hyrcanus Breeding S & SE Azerbaijan (Talish Mts and lowlands around Lenkoran) to N Iran. Non-breeding In winter to E Israel, presumably also Jordan, Iraq and W Iran (where overlaps with rubecula), possibly E Turkey, Armenia and Cyprus; small numbers presumably of this race (or possibly rubecula) in Kuwait. Also (race unknown) bred Syria in 2007 (Murdoch & Betton 2008). MOVEMENTS Resident, partial migrant and migratory populations occur. N populations of nominate almost wholly migratory, with breeders in Scandinavia, most of E Europe, Russia, Belarus, Moldova and N Ukraine (east of line from coastal S Sweden south to Austria and east to Balkans and N Romania) moving south or south-west to winter in C, W & S Europe and around Mediterranean (east to at least Israel), south to c.30°N in N Africa (or slightly further south along coast of Morocco), except for a few that winter in urban areas of Poland and E Germany. A high proportion of those breeding in Germany (except NW) and Belgium also migrate, as do those on higher ground in C Europe (mainly Czech Republic and Switzerland). Breeders in W Europe and W Canary Is, Madeira and Azores wholly sedentary, as are those that breed in montane areas of N Morocco. Passage through Baltic States and across North Sea to E Britain from mid-Aug to early Nov, with peak in late Sep to midOct. Further E, in European Russia (N to Arkhangelsk), passage from late Aug, and still present around Moscow to mid-Oct, but most have left by late Oct. Arrives in wintering areas in S France, Spain and NW Africa from early Sep, occasionally late Aug, but main influx not until late Sep or mid-Oct, and continues to mid-Nov. From ringing recoveries, Scandinavian and C & E European (east to Poland) breeders are widely distributed through C & S Europe, from coastal Germany south to France, Spain and east along N & S coasts of Mediterranean (east to Italy), south into Morocco, also (possibly exceptionally) to oases on N fringe of Sahara (mainly late Dec–early Mar);

birds recovered in Tunisia in winter were ringed in Europe north to Scandinavia and east to Latvia and Lithuania. On E Canary Is small numbers recorded late Sep–Nov (and again in Feb–early May) presumed to be rubecula of unknown origin, but could be from Madeira or possibly NW Africa. Some C European breeders move to winter in wide area from Czech Republic to Algeria, but mostly in S France and Spain and from Croatia to Hungary. Very few ringing recoveries of nominate wintering in Britain, but widespread on autumn passage, especially on E coast, and is thought likely that passage and wintering birds in Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland are rubecula. Frequent in autumn on Faeroes, occasionally in large numbers but none remain to winter. Breeders from European Russia winter mainly east of Scandinavian birds, with ringing recoveries in C & S Europe west to Spain, east to Turkey and south to Algeria. Passage into Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon and N Egypt at same time as further west, mainly late Sep– early Nov, with main arrival late Oct. Further east, rubecula is a common to scarce migrant through NW Kazakhstan (mainly Volga–Urals region) from mid-Sep to mid-Nov. Return passage from early Feb in S & coastal Morocco and Algeria, and later in month on Cyprus; departs wintering areas in N Egypt and Lebanon from early Mar and elsewhere along N African and Cyprus coast by late Apr (some still present early May). First returning birds in Switzerland, S Germany and occasionally S Norway in late Feb, and numbers increase in S Greece from early Mar. Main passage north during Mar, with birds reaching N Norway by end of that month. Passage across Baltic and into E Europe from mid-Mar, but Urals apparently not reached until early May, where can be delayed by late winter weather or spring thaw, small numbers also on passage through W Kazakhstan late Mar to late Apr or early May, and some areas of higher ground in S & C Europe (e.g. Alps) also not occupied until early May. Nominate is scarce or rare Afghanistan (first recorded Mar 1972: Smith 1974) and NW China (nominate, but more likely tataricus, listed as occasional visitor to Altai and NW Xinjiang (MacKinnon & Phillipps 2000, Zheng 2007); vagrant to Jan Mayen and Iceland, and regular but rare winter visitor to E Canary Is (Fuerteventura and Gran Canaria); also (race unknown) rare and irregular Bahrain and E Saudi Arabia (15 records to 1989) and vagrant to Cape Verde Is (São Jorge dos Órgãos, Feb 2007), Mauritania (four records to 2010), Qatar (five records to 2013), United Arab Emirates (has over-summered) and Oman (five records to 2012); one in Banjul, Gambia, in Mar 2008, was considered to have been ship-assisted. In British Isles, race melophilus largely resident, with most dispersing 250 phrases and single singer may deliver >400 phrases per hour, with each series of phrases differing either in their introduction or sequence in which they are followed. Some individuals (the proportion is not high) include mimicry of other birds, either as near-perfect or similar-sounding phrases, and in zone of overlap (N Germany to Romania and N Caucasus), some may have a slower or more measured song with repeated phrases and more similar to, or mimics parts of, Thrush Nightingale song. In winter gives more subdued or less rich version, mainly as subsong. Sings intermittently in winter, but increasingly towards spring and also sings on passage and from arrival on territory in early to midApr, reaching peak at end of Apr when females arrive and breeding territories established. Declines through May (especially in paired birds) and most song over by first week of Jun, though some, possibly unmated birds (in some populations as many as 50% of singing birds: Amrhein et al. 2007), sing to late Jun (especially in early morning), and has been recorded singing in Afghanistan until early Jul and around Mediterranean to late Jul. Fledged immatures may give brief subsong prior to autumn departure. Sings by day, mostly in morning, and during breeding season throughout night, usually until young hatch, but may cease in some areas after pair-formation or eggs laid. Territorial song most frequently given from dusk to around midnight, delivered with almost upright stance and wings beating rapidly. Daytime song usually shorter and contains less

variety and more repetition. On passage and in winter, sings from Oct (in Liberia subsong heard from late Nov and full song from mid-Dec), usually only by day and mostly in mornings. Song loud and far-carrying, especially at night, usually given from deep cover, e.g. hawthorn or hazel, or dense undergrowth and nettles, but occasionally sings in open from low perch. Daytime song usually given from several locations (usually within breeding territory), but nocturnal song mainly from single perch. Sings with head held up and bill fully open showing bright orange gape and whitish throat feathers puffed out, beating wings against body-sides and vibrating tail (Amrhein et al. 2002, 2004). Song differs from Thrush Nightingale, being much richer with wider variety of musical, rising flute-like phrases, generally lacking drier or scratchier notes of Thrush Nightingale, which includes several rattling or chattering phrases and usually ends with rising series of 3–4 short tocky tock tock notes. H ABITAT Breeds in wide variety of mainly lowland wooded habitats, from fairly dense undergrowth in copses, woods, hedgerows and thickets with heavy shrub layer. In N & C Europe prefers birch and hazel woodlands, also coppiced areas (mostly with 12–15-year rotation), especially hazel; also in oak (especially ancient) and beech woods with fallen trees; well-established hedgerows, thickets, overgrown parks and large gardens w ith hawthorn and other thorn scrub including sea buckthorn. In S Russia, Caucasus, C Asia and SW Mongolia usually in riverine and floodplain woodlands and thickets. In Belgium, Netherlands and S France breeds in bushy patches on coastal sand dunes. In S Europe also breeds in brambles, heath, pines, coastal maquis and cork oak on dry hillsides and orchards; in Spain and Morocco often most numerous in thickets of tamarisk and bramble along streams and rivers, but also in undergrowth of holm oaks and cork oak forests. In E Europe, Caucasus, N Iran and Kazakhstan, also foothill and steppe woodlands (even in villages or at edges of towns; in Armenia breeds in city parks in large towns and cities including Yerevan), and shows some preference for orchards and dense riverine alders, willows and hornbeams. In Europe breeds mostly below 1,000m, exceptionally to 1,100m in Switzerland, in Britain rarely above 200m; in Morocco regularly breeds up to 1,600m (occasionally to 1,850m, exceptionally 2,200m in higher valleys of Atlas); in Armenia breeds at 370–2,000m; in Kazakhstan up to 2,000m and elsewhere in C Asia up to 2,600m. Shows strong site fidelity, with many sites used for long periods, but also absent from, or very slow to colonise, apparently suitable areas. In winter occurs in undergrowth and at lower levels (from sea level to c.2,100m) in dry savanna woodlands from thorn scrub to dense forest edges, also second-growth thickets, edges and clearings in forests, dense scrub with creepers in open tallgrass savanna and around lakes and rivers. Where ranges of Common and Thrush Nightingales overlap, Common is more usual in drier open woodland undergrowth, and Thrush Nightingale is more likely to occur in damp or moist areas of riverine vegetation, including dense streamside thickets in valleys. BEHAVIOUR Secretive, usually keeping in low cover or on ground; easily disturbed and often difficult to locate, but can be confiding and spend time in more open areas. Usually sings from deep brush or dense vegetation, but in some areas occasionally sings in open from low perch or

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Common Nightingale

even from rooftops and roadside wires. On ground has distinctive stance, with head held high, tail either partly cocked or slightly drooped, and wings held drooped; flicks wings and cocks tail when nervous (apparently more often held cocked in E birds); hops or runs on fairly long legs, and flight usually low on fairly broad, rounded wings with rapid wingbeats, short glides, sudden turns and usually into cover. Towards end of breeding season, family parties can remain together until young fully dependant and disperse from breeding area. In non-breeding season, mainly solitary but loosely associated groups of c.10, exceptionally more, including >100 in Wadi Darbat, Oman, early Oct 2008 (Balmer & Murdoch 2008), can occur together on passage and in winter. Defends small territory in winter and up to four recorded singing within 10m in Togo. Forages by searching (often with head held to one side like European Robin) within or below dense undergrowth, often in leaf litter, occasionally in open (usually when feeding nestlings) on bare earth or among twigs and decaying vegetation; may drop onto prey from low perch, or less frequently pursue insects in flight. Diet mostly invertebrates, some berries and seeds. Insects include adult and larvae of beetles, ants and termites; also woodlice, flies, bugs, springtails, stoneflies, grasshoppers, lacewings, caddis f lies, millipedes and Lepidoptera caterpillars, plus small molluscs, earthworms and spiders. Berries and seeds mainly taken in late summer/autumn include elder, dog wood, alder buckthorn, currant, strawberry and bird cherry. BREEDING Monogamous, but small number of bigamous relationships recorded (Davis 1975) and small numbers hybridise with Thrush Nightingale (see Status and Distribution). Season mid-Apr to mid-Jul. Territorial, size of territory usually defined by number of song-posts, from 0.13ha to 1.9ha, and used for pair formation, nesting and most foraging for nestlings, but feeding and care of fledged young usually takes place outside it. Densities of breeding territories highly variable, from one pair per ha up to 100–150 pairs per km2 in optimal habitat in C Europe (Germany). Strong site fidelity shown by males, but less so by females, with many territories used for two or more years by same male, and evidence from ringing shows that most young males return to natal area to breed, whereas young females move further away. In some areas, breeding territories (with slight modifications to boundaries) used continually for many years. An adult ringed on territory in Suffolk, England, in 1988 was subsequently re-trapped there in five subsequent years up to 1996. Male establishes territory a few days ahead of arrival of female, and advertises territory by prolonged courtship song (mostly at night); displaying male has softer or quieter song than advertisement or courtship song, given near female while slowly raising and fanning tail, may also droop wings, and pair exchange soft krrr notes similar to alarm. Male also pursues female in flight on whirring wings with soft bleating calls, before landing and dancing around female on ground or on low perch, with tail fanned, wings drooped and quivering, and head lowered. Pairs form for duration of breeding season, with only small number re-forming in subsequent years. Nest a large cup or occasionally dome of dead leaves, dry grasses, feathers and animal hair, placed low down (within 0.5m of ground) or on ground and well concealed in dense vegetation, or at base of shrub or small tree; built by female. Eggs 4–5, pale blue finely speckled or spotted

reddish-brown, incubated by female for 13–14 days, with nestling period of 10–12, after which young leave nest before they can fly (3–5 days later), but although able to forage for themselves 8–9 days after leaving nest, they remain partly dependant for another 6–20 days, by which time they have left territory. Often double-brooded (but only single-brooded in England) and male may continue to care for first brood while female initiates second clutch. Some, possibly most, breed in first year; oldest known bird seven years 11 months. Breeding success fairly high, in English study 69% of nests produced at least one young, 23% failed during incubation and 10% at nestling stage (Morgan 1982); in study in Italy, 79% of nests hatched young and 85% of those fledged (Caffi 2004). Main causes of failure are predation of eggs and young by Common Magpies Pica pica and squirrels, plus domestic predators, especially cats, and human disturbance. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Common to locally common or even abundant (also secretive and easily overlooked, especially if not singing), but rare in NW China, scarce in Tunisia and rare in spring in Libya; uncommon in spring and very scarce in autumn in Lebanon, SW & E Saudi A rabia; has occurred in midsummer and overwintered in United Arab Emirates. In Oman, a common passage migrant in Apr–mid May and early Sept–late Nov, (except Dhofar where apparently more numerous in autumn); more rarely in winter (Eriksen & Victor 2013). In winter, uncommon or locally common in Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, N Nigeria and Uganda. On passage, generally scarce or uncommon on Canary Is (rare but regular, especially on E islands and in spring), Chad and Kuwait, where both nominate and golzii recorded (Cleere & Kelly 2009). Vagrant (race usually unknown) to Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Madeira, Cape Verde Is (megarhynchos, with another unknown, at sea 52 km north-west of islands), Niger, Benin, Djibouti, Eritrea and Socotra; race golzii has occurred twice (to 2005) in England (Isles of Scilly, Oct 1987, and Yorkshire, Oct 1991). Has declined as a breeder throughout Europe, N & C Ukraine and Caucasus since 1950s or even earlier, from at least 1910 in England and currently listed in UK as of conservation concern. Causes of decline poorly understood and may be related to climatic changes in both summer and winter ranges, but also due to reduction in suitable breeding habitat, e.g. coppiced woodland, clearance of scrub and undergrowth, and an increase in deer grazing, especially by Muntjac Muntiacus reevesi and Roe Deer Capreolus capreolus. There is also evidence to show that breeding success in England from 1984 to end of last century was low, and that insufficient birds are returning to sustain existing population or colonise new areas. The 2007–11 Bird Atlas recorded a decline of approximately 90% in England in the previous 40 years and by 52% in the period 1995–2010 (Balmer et al. 2013). The most recent dedicated survey of the English population in 1999 found 4,565 singing males, with an overall estimated population of c.6,700 singing males (Wilson et al. 2002), but censuses in C Europe found a high proportion of unpaired males, which may yield misleading estimates of breeding pairs. Breeding population in Europe (including European Russia and Turkey) estimated in 2000 as stable at 4,200,000–12,000,000 pairs, with most in Spain, France, Italy, Croatia and Bulgaria (BirdLife International 2004). In E Europe and S Russia, where breeding ranges overlap, small numbers (3–5%) hybridise

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with Thrush Nightingale producing fertile males (but apparently not females), which may breed with either parent species (Becker 1995, 2007, Reifová et al. 2011). L. m. megarhynchos Breeding W, C & S Europe north to CS & SE England east to S Denmark, N Germany, W & C Poland (absent from large areas of Alps in SE France, N Italy, S Germany and W & C Austria), south through Balkans and east to Romania, Moldova and possibly C & S Ukraine (including SE Crimean and Taman Peninsulas, where probably intergrades with africana), but may now be restricted to SW & S Crimea (Fesenko & Bokotei 2002); in south breeds throughout Portugal and Spain (except extreme NW & N coast) east to Greece, Bulgaria and W & NC Turkey (where also intergrades with africana); also on most large Mediterranean islands east to Crete and Cyprus (Troodos Mts). In NW Africa breeds from N Morocco (south to foothills of High Atlas), N Algeria (coasts south to N Atlas and aurès Mts) and N Tunisia (Kroumirie to Cap Bon and south to about Jebel Ousselat). Non-breeding Winters in Africa south of Sahara from SW Mauritania (small numbers around Nouakchott and along Senegal River), Senegal, SW Mali, S Burkina Faso to C & S Ghana (but absent from large areas in the SW), C & S Nigeria and C Cameroon (but absent or occasional passage migrant in extreme N Cameroon) to Central

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African Republic, N DR Congo, S Sudan, N Uganda (prior to 1970s more numerous and widespread: Carswell et al. 2005) and W Ethiopia. L. m. africana Breeding C, N & NE Turkey (where intergrades with nominate and birds in Crimea of S Ukraine probably also intergrades) through Caucasus in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan north to extreme S Russia (to Eya River basin, N margin of Stavropol Upland and Kuma River valley, and may also be intergrades with nominate) and south to NW Iran and Elburz Mts (south to Khuzestan), and east to Kopet Dag in SW Turkmenistan and C & N Afghanistan (east to Badakhshan); also Zagros Mts of WC & S Iran, Lebanon (first bred in 1996), NW Syria, N Israel and extreme W Jordan (along Jordan River), and possibly this race or golzii in N, E & C Iraq (Salim et al. 2011). Non-breeding Winters in E Africa from E Sudan and WC Ethiopia, S Somalia, C & E Kenya and NE Tanzania. L. m. golzii Breeding E Iran (Khorasan, Kerman and Baluchistan) to E Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, C & E Kazakhstan (north to Mugodzhary Mts, N Qostanay province in east to W & S Altai and around Markakol Lake; in south absent from most foothills of N & C Tien Shan, but present in Ili River) east to N Xinjiang, NW China (E Tien Shan and SE Altai) and extreme S Russia/Siberia (upper Chernyi Irtysh and Urungu Rivers) to W & SW Mongolia (Mongolian Altai in Khovd province). Non-breeding Winters in E Africa from E Sudan to C Ethiopia, S Somalia, E & SE Kenya and NE Tanzania; single winter record from Kampala, Uganda. MOV E M E N TS Migrator y. Nominate race depart s wintering area between mid to late Mar (exceptionally or very small numbers from late Feb) and early May (singles recorded into early Jun in Togo), with northern movement on broad front across Sahara and most of Mediterranean east to Egypt, Israel (where more numerous in spring than autumn) and Lebanon, though also fairly numerous on N African coast and at inland oases east to Libya from mid to late Mar. Passage through Mauritania (where much less common than in autumn) and Tunisia (where more numerous than autumn), from mid-Mar to early May; peak arrival in C Europe and England mid- to late Apr (exceptionally earlier), with smaller numbers arriving into mid-May. E races depart E Africa about same time, with passage though Israel, Jordan (mostly africana) and Gulf States from late Mar (has been recorded late Feb in Oman)

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to mid-May, and arrives in Georgia, Caucasus, N Iran and Kazakhstan from mid-Apr and early May. Birds ringed in Ethiopia in Apr had a high fat load (up to 50% above mean weight) indicating, at least by part of population, a single long-distance flight to breeding range. First birds to return to breeding areas usually adult males, up to one week or more ahead of females and first-year males. Return passage from late Jul (following moult) to early Sep, with peak departure from S England mid to late Aug; as in spring, movement through Europe on broad front, mainly across W Mediterranean; passage through Spain Aug–early Oct and (unlike spring migration) paucity of records in Libya and NW Africa indicates that main passage is concentrated along Atlantic coast, or that Mediterranean and Sahara possibly crossed in single long-distance flight. Departs breeding areas in Morocco from early Aug, with main movement south in late Aug–late Sep or early Oct, and only stragglers to late Oct; passage through Mauritania from mid-Aug (exceptionally earlier) to late Oct or early Nov. In Jul 2009 a bird fitted with a geolocator (weighing c.1g, containing a clock and light sensor) departed its breeding territory in Suffolk, England, on 25th, first south to France, then west of Pyrenees into Spain, and had passed Madrid by last week of Aug. By early Sep it was near Lisbon, where it remained until c.19th, before moving through Morocco and Mauritania, then spending another month in Senegambia (mid-Nov to mid-Dec), then moving to its final wintering grounds in SW Guinea from mid-Dec. The geolocator failed soon after the bird began its return journey, though it successfully returned to its breeding area, being re-trapped there in spring c.50m from where it was originally fitted with the geolocator (Stancliffe 2011). Also some indication of site fidelity in wintering areas in S Ghana with four individuals returning to the same site in the following winter and one bird returning in two successive winters (Dowsett-Lemaire & Dowsett 2014). Further east, passage through Cyprus and Lebanon, where generally scarce, late Aug or early Sep to mid-Oct, and through Egypt (where also scarce in autumn) in early Aug to mid-Oct. Arrives in Senegambia and N Nigeria from Sep (peak in late Oct, at same time as passage through Mali), in Chad and N Ivory Coast in Oct, and in Liberia from early Nov. E birds depart breeding areas mid-Aug to late Sep, pass through N Turkey and Caucasus from late Jul and early Aug (latest in Armenia late Sep, exceptionally Oct), and through Bahrain, United Arab Emirates and Oman early Aug–early Oct (to late Oct in Yemen, where more numerous than in spring), or mid-Nov in Oman. Less frequent than in spring through N Egypt, Israel and Jordan, early Aug to mid-Oct. Arrives Sudan (where much more numerous than in spring) from early Sep and continues into Oct, mainly via Nile Valley and westward, rare in E. Fairly common on passage through S Ethiopia in Oct and present in N Somalia from mid-Sep; in Kenya arrives mid-Oct, usually from 22nd, with peak arrival in Nov indicating some time spent at stopovers elsewhere in E Africa, and some continue to move further S into Dec. In N Uganda small numbers arrive in second week of Nov and are present to mid-Mar. DE SCR IP TION Sexes alike, but male larger than female. Adult Forehead to nape and upperparts to wings (including edges to flight feathers) warm brown, slightly warmer or more reddish-brown on rump, uppertailcoverts and tail (mostly outer tail feathers). Inner webs to tertials and flight feathers blackish. Lores pale grey to

greyish-buff, cheeks and ear-coverts as crown, fairly broad pale buff eye-ring and poorly defined (or absent) greyish supercilium, and neck-sides also greyish. Underparts whitish or off-white (whitest on chin and throat), with sandy-buff wash on breast and upper flanks, and rustybuff tinge to unspotted undertail-coverts. Underwingcoverts and axillaries buffish or creamy-buff. Eyes dark brown or black. Bill dark horn brown to blackish-brown, with paler pinkish to pinkish-grey basal half and cutting edges to mandible. Legs and feet flesh-pink to pinkishbrown. Juvenile (mid–late summer to Sep) Slightly duller or darker brown, tinged olive on head, and most of upperparts spotted subterminally golden-buff, with blackish fringe at tips, forming heavily speckled appearance, more finely on head; tips of median coverts and fringes to greater coverts pale buff, narrower on tips of primary coverts, fringes to flight feathers and tertials also pale buff, fine on former, broader on latter; rump, uppertail-coverts and tail either unspotted brighter rufous-brown, or rump and tail-coverts can show some dark bars; tail has pointed tips (rounded in adult) and these may be pale. Underparts warm or yellowish-buff with dark scaling on throat, breast and flanks, becoming more widely spaced on lower flanks; undertail-coverts plain to warm buff. Legs usually pale, from yellowish-grey to pinkish-grey or pinkish-yellow. First-winter Very similar to adult, but retains (and best aged by) pale tips to outer greater coverts and tertials, on former occasionally present into first-summer. In the hand shows pointed tips to tail feathers (rounded in adult). Bill as adult, but usually has more extensive pale base to mandible, and legs and feet browner or brownish-pink. First-summer as adult except for worn greater coverts, tertials, flight and tail feathers retained from juvenile plumage, and very similar to worn adult; can show some retained pale tips to greater coverts, and some also retain pale yellow gape line at base of bill (like same-age Thrush Nightingale). GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION Clinal, involving colour of upperparts and breast, and wing and tail lengths; birds with darkest upperparts and heaviest grey wash on breast in W of range, from Portugal through NW Spain, W France and Britain, becoming paler to C Asia. W birds also slightly shorter winged and shorter tailed. L. m. golzii Slightly larger and longer tailed than nominate. Crown and upperparts, including wings, paler sandy or colder, greyer brown, with pale or whitish-buff tips to median coverts and fringes to greater coverts, tertials and tips of inner secondaries, most noticeable in fresh (autumn) plumage, but still apparent in spring, and edges to flight feathers also pale buff; more distinctly pale buffish supercilium (usually most apparent in front of eye), face often greyer or greyish-white, extending to chin, throat and breast, or chin and throat whiter, becoming sandy-buff on breast and upper flanks, and rest of underparts white. L. m. africana Intermediate between nominate and golzii, with duller or darker brown upperparts (darker than nominate), with less rufous crown to uppertail-coverts and tail, paler or off-white underparts, with breast and upper f lanks washed greyish-brown. Slightly larger than nominate but tail shorter than golzii. In fresh plumage (autumn/early winter) has broad pale buff fringes to greater coverts and tertials, and fine pale fringes to alula and primary coverts; rump and uppertail-coverts also broadly fringed paler.

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Common Nightingale, adult L. m. megarhynchos. May, Gloucestershire, England (Gary Thoburn).

Common Nightingale, adult, L. m. africana. May, Tandoureh, Iran (Carlos Gonzalez Bocos).

Common Nightingale, adult L. m. golzii. April, Al Abraq Oasis, Kuwait (Mike Pope).

Common Nightingale, first-winter L. m. megarhynchos. September, France (Aurélian Audevard).

MOULT Adults (all races) undertake complete postbreeding moult, usually from late Jun, but may be delayed (especially those with second broods) to mid-Jul, and usually completed (within c.45 days) by late Aug to early Sep (Ginn & Melville 1983); evidently some individuals suspend wing moult during migration, completing it on arrival in winter quarters (Gatter 1997). Moult of juveniles into first-year plumage at age 5–6 weeks is only partial, involving head and entire body feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts, some inner greater coverts, and some or all tertials; depending on age, this moult begins as early as late Jun and is completed by late Jul–early Sep.

male 67–85mm, female 70–76mm; golzii male 74–88mm, female 76–86mm. Bill (all races, to skull) male 16–19mm, female 16–18mm; (to nostrils) 8–10mm, or male golzii 8–11mm. Tarsus megarhynchos male 25–29mm, female 23–28mm; africana male 24–30mm, female 25–28mm; golzii 25–29mm. Weight (breeders – megarhynchos) male 17–23g, female 17–24g, (passage) male 18–37g, female 16 –30g; africana 16 –23 g; golzii male 21–30g, female 21–28g; africana/golzii (Kenya, prior to spring passage, in Mar–May) 21.5–39.2g (Cramp 1988).

MEASUREMENTS Wing megarhynchos male 79–91mm, female 76 – 88mm; africana male 82–92mm, female 80–87mm; golzii male 85–98mm, female 84–97mm. Tail megarhynchos male 62–76mm, female 62–75mm; africana

TA XONOM Y Add it iona l r aces i nclud i ng ‘co rsa’, ‘luscinioides’, ‘caligiformes’, ‘tauridae’ and ‘baerhmanni’ have been proposed on basis of minor differences in plumage, but are included within nominate following Vaurie (1955a,b), while the name hafizi is now considered to lack precedence over golzii (Dickinson 2008).

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White-bellied Redstart

WHITE-BELLIED REDSTART Luscinia phaenicuroides

Plate 36

Other names: Hodgson’s Shortwing, Hodgson’s Blue Robin, Himalayan Blue Robin, Chinese Shortwing. Bradypterus phaenicuroides J. E. Gray & G. R. Gray, 1847, Cat. Mamm. Bds. Nepal: 70, 153. Nepal. A slim, short-winged, long-tailed and usually (except when singing) skulking chat of the Himalayas to C & S China and winters to N Indochina. Locally common in dense thickets of subtropical and subalpine rhododendron, birch and juniper, at or near treeline; winters in thick undergrowth, scrub and tangles on wooded slopes and valleys at lower levels. Shy and retiring, but occasionally perches on top of trees, bushes or boulders, mostly when singing. Resident and short-distance altitudinal migrant. Two races recognised, but differences between them are very slight. L. p. phaenicuroides ( J. E. Gray & G. R. Gray, 1847). Himalayas from NW & N Pakistan through N & NE India, Nepal and Bhutan to N & W Myanmar; winters at lower levels within breeding range in NE India to E Myanmar. L. p. ichangensis E. C. S. Baker, 1922. C & S China; winters lower and south to NW Thailand and N Laos. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 18–19cm. Adult male slate-blue with striking white belly and white spots at bend of wing (on alula, conspicuous in flight and when wings drooped); tail long and graduated, on ground held slightly cocked and fanned, with conspicuous, welldefined orange-rufous patches at base (often difficult to see on closed tail, best seen when singing and tail partially spread). Adult female has brownish-olive upperparts with fairly plain brown face and brownish-buff throat and underparts; tail dull rufescent-brown (base of outer tail feathers may be tinged warmer brown). Immature male as female but has orange-rufous tail patches. SIMILAR SPECIES Differs from all Phoenicurus redstarts by more long-tailed shape and horizontal stance, but similar in shape (not plumage) to Myiomela or Cinclidium robins. Adult male most similar to male Blue-fronted Robin, but lacks any white over lores and eyes, or pale blue patch on shoulder, and has white tips at bend of wing, bright rufous panels at basal tail-sides and white belly to vent. Adult female from very similar female Blue-fronted Robin by slightly smaller size, shorter wings, shorter and thinner bill, deep olive-brown (not rich dark brown) upperparts, paler (not fulvous) brown underparts, warm brown edges to bases of outer tail feathers, and whiter belly and vent. Adult male fairly easily distinguished from male White-tailed Robin by lacking pale blue on forehead and has white spots at bend of wing, white belly and orange (not white) panels at basal tail-sides; adult female from female White-tailed Robin by uniform dark brown tail lacking any white at sides, and usually a more uniform pale brown chin and throat. Adult male from male Blue-fronted Redstart by lack of bright rufous-orange on underparts, longer tail, rump and uppertail-coverts concolorous with rest of upperparts, white belly, and only base of outer tail feathers rufous. Females best identified by long tail, long legs, all dull brown plumage and horizontal stance reminiscent of other Luscinia. Usually has conspicuous yellow-flesh base to bill and flesh-coloured legs.

VOICE Mostly silent outside breeding season, but calls include a very deep, quiet, hard tuk, tek or tirk often given in alarm; also a soft or grating croak recalling similar note given by Red-flanked Bluetail, often rapidly repeated tuktuk-tuk or chack-chack-chack, or followed by short, thin and slightly upslurred whistles tuk-tuk, weet weet or tek tek tsiep tsiep. Song a series of short, distinctive phrases repeated haltingly or irregularly every few seconds; a melancholy or wistful cadence of 3–4 short, fairly high-pitched whistling phrases, the middle note highest, a prolonged rising and falling note, the last a short, slightly lower and more slurred and fading note, transcribed as teuuh-tiyou-tuh, seeuu sissiouu seesit, pe-pee-pit or sit-youu chee-chee-weechisup. Heard early/mid-May to early Aug. Sings mostly from deep cover of bush or low tree, occasionally from more open perch at top of bush particularly at start of breeding season, and mostly sings early morning and evening, also on moonlit nights. HABITAT Breeds in dense thickets of subtropical and subalpine rhododendron, birch and juniper, at or near treeline, often in bushes on open hillside at forest edge with good ground cover, e.g. thickets of Viburnum nervosum or tall herbaceous plants such as Berberis, roses and dwarf elder Sambucus ebulus or Himalayan paeony Paeonia emodi (Roberts 1992). In Himalayas breeds above 3,500m in N Pakistan, at 2,900–4,270m in Nepal, 2,440–3,900m in N India and Bhutan, and 2,180–4,270m in China. In winter usually in dense undergrowth on slopes and valleys at lower levels, including bamboo clumps at forest edge, second growth and dense grass and scrub in open country; in Himalayas winters from foothills to at least 1,500m in N India, above 915m in Nepal, at 305–610m in Bhutan, down to 1,200m in Thailand and above 1,300m in China. BEHAVIOUR Usually seen alone or in pairs in breeding season. Shy in summer, although may occasionally perch prominently, if undisturbed, on top of trees, bushes or boulders, mainly when singing. On ground, tail often held high or cocked almost vertically, recalling similar stance of Oriental Magpie-Robin, and partly spread, especially when calling, in males exposing bright orange bases, which are otherwise inconspicuous; at other times stance usually rather horizontal. Makes short, low and fairly direct flights between patches of cover. Forages on ground in and between dense cover, or in lower branches, hopping forward in spurts or runs, recalling a nightingale. Very skulking in winter, keeping to dense cover, although may respond to ‘pishing’ or playback. Diet mainly insects and larvae, but details poorly known, also berries in autumn. BR EEDING Monogamous. Season late May–Aug in Himalayas. Courtship behav iour little-known, but displaying male(s), often more than one per female, pursue female on ground with tail partly spread or raised, and often fan or spread it while calling (S. Sharma in litt.). Nest, constructed by both sexes, a large or deep cup of grass, dry leaves, plant fibres, roots, animal hair and a few feathers (inner lining denser in high-altitude nests), usually placed in low bush including tea Camellia sinensis, rose, bamboo or fir sapling up to 0.75m, exceptionally 1.5m, above ground, on sunlit slopes, sometimes on ground concealed by tall grass or among tall herbage at base of shrub. Eggs 2–3 (exceptionally four), deep sky-blue or blue-green. Incubation by female alone, 11–12 days, but high-altitude birds take up to 16 days, and fledging period 12–16 days (longest in high-altitude breeding birds: Lu et

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al. 2010). Both sexes care for young. Single brood, possibly two at lower elevations, where often a host to parasitic Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus (Lu et al. 2010). STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Locally common in summer in C & E Himalayas, though seldom recorded in winter; scarce in Pakistan; rare and only occasionally recorded in summer in Nepal (mostly in protected areas), very rare in winter in lowlands and uncommon on passage in Bardia National Park, W Nepal (Inskipp 2001, 2013); uncommon in Bhutan and China, rare in Myanmar and uncommon in winter in NW Thailand. L. p. phaenicuroides Breeding Himalayas from NW Pakistan (Palas, North West Frontier Province (Raja et al. 1999) and N Pakistan (Azad Kashmir in Kaz-i-Nag watershed above Salkalla and Kaghan Valley) possibly south to the Indus Kohistan, east through N India, Nepal, Sikkim and NC Bhutan (reportedly also to Arunachal Pradesh, but no recent breeding-season records); also N & W Myanmar (south to Mt Victoria). Non-breeding In winter at lower elevations within breeding range, also S Assam (Manipur and Lushai Hills), E Myanmar and possibly NW Thailand. Status in E Myanmar unclear, possibly only a scarce winter visitor; single (undated) collected at 2,070m on Mt Kambaiti in NE and two specimens (also undated) from hills east of

White-bellied Redstart, adult male L. p. ichangensis. December, Doi Inthanon, near Chiang Mai, Thailand (Tadao Shimba)

Fort Stedman in Southern Shan States (Smythies 1986). L. p. ichangensis Breeding C & S China (east of nominate), in E Qinghai (Minhe, Koko Nor), W & SW Gansu (Lanzhou), Ningxia (Liupan Shan), Shaanxi (Qinling Shan), Hubei (Yichang), S & SE Tibet (Nyalam, Nyingchi, Zogong), W, C & S Sichuan, NW & W Yunnan (Lijiang, Deqen, Yonde) and W Guizhou (Weining) (Cheng 1987); also recently, Aug 1999, in NW Guangxi and an isolated population in NE China in Hebei and Beijing (Dongling Shan). May also breed NW Vietnam (W Tonkin) but no recent records. Non-breeding In winter to lower elevations within breeding range and south to NW Thailand and N Laos (Phongsaly province); possibly also N Myanmar and NE India, where range overlaps with nominate, but requires confirmation. MOVEMENTS Poorly known, especially those of N & E populations. In subtropical forests of S China sedentary below 2,000m; breeders in Himalayas including Tibet are short-distance altitudinal migrants, moving to foothills between Sep and May. Recorded on passage on W edge of Kathmandu Valley in spring and autumn, but apparently absent in winter; spring passage through Bhutan in late Apr and early May; in Kashmir arrives in breeding areas from mid-May. No confirmed winter records in Pakistan, but unconfirmed reports from Bashkar Valley, on border of Chitral and Gilgit, at 3,000–4,250m, and just two winter records in Nepal. Recorded in winter in Arunachal Pradesh in Feb–Mar 1991 and Mar 2013, and on passage (at Eaglenest) in late Apr 2009 (Kaul & Ahmed 1992, Hendriks 2009, Jha 2013). DESCRIPTION Sexes differ. Adult male Head and upperparts to wing-coverts, long uppertail-coverts, breast and flanks slate-blue; can show fairly broad and slightly paler blue-grey eye-ring; in flight and when wings drooped, shows prominent white tips to alula; flight feathers and tertials blackish finely fringed brownish. Tail long and graduated, slate bluish-black, with base of outer tail feathers bright orange or orange-rufous. Centre of upper belly to undertail whitish, longest undertail-coverts black tipped white. Eye dark brown. Bill black or has pale yellowish cutting edges and base to mandible. Legs and feet brown to grey-brown, pinkish or purple-brown, soles paler. Adult female Head and upperparts deep olive-

White-bellied Redstart, adult female L. p. ichangensis. Doi San Ju, Chiang Mai, Thailand (Ayuwat Jearwattanakanok).

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Japanese Robin

brown or slightly warmer, or tinged rufous on forehead, and darker brown on wings and centre and tip of tail, bases and inner webs to mantle and lesser coverts bluish-grey; longest uppertail-coverts and outer tail feathers warm brown or tinged rufous. Underparts slightly paler or more fulvous than upperparts, chin and throat often paler or whitish, breast and flanks warm buff or orange-brown, and centre of belly to vent whitish; undertail-coverts buffish or have dark or olive-brown tips. Bill brown, base of mandible paler or yellowish. Legs and feet pinkish-flesh to pinkish-brown. Juvenile Head and upperparts to rump, including neck-sides and scapulars, brown with variable buff streaking, finest on crown but forming extensive buff centres to feathers of rump. Tail brown, tinged chestnutbrown at base of outer feathers. Wing-coverts and flight feathers brown, tertials and secondaries fringed warm brown and greater coverts tipped and fringed orangebrown. Throat buff with fine or diffuse dark scallops, upper breast and flanks similar or fringed darker, forming prominent dark scallops. Centre of lower breast and belly whitish, undertail-coverts and thighs buffish. First-year male As adult female or slightly darker brown, but mantle, lesser, median and outer greater coverts can be bluish-grey (from Aug); brown tail has slate tinge to base of central tail feathers and orange bases to outer feathers (much less well defined than adult), and may show slate-grey on breast and better-defined white belly. First-summer more adult-like, with grey crown, mantle and breast-band, and sings and breeds in this plumage (Jia et al. 2005). GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION Very slight. L. p. ichangensis Very similar to nominate but slightly smaller bill and wing, and adult male, on average, slightly darker blue or grey-blue, with slightly larger white tips to alula, and female/first-year male darker brown or olive-brown above and on flanks. MOULT First post-breeding moult from immature plumage occurs late Jun–late Jul. No other information. M E A SU R E M E N T S W ing ma le 72–77mm, fema le 69–72mm; ichangensis male 69–78mm, female 69–73mm. Tail male 77–82mm, female 75–78mm. Bill (from skull) 18–19mm (from feathers) male 15mm; ichangensis 13mm. Tarsus c.30mm. Weight 22–25 g (Baker 1922, 1924, Ali 1962, Vaurie 1972, Ali & Ripley 1983). TAXONOMY Unresolved. Formerly placed in monotypic genus Hodgsonius. Relationships to other redstarts unclear; has been considered a shortwing and a possible link between Phoenicurus and Myiomela. Structure and behaviour do not indicate close relationship to Phoenicurus redstarts, but similar to several in plumage and vocal characters, whereas slate-blue plumage of male and secretive behaviour are similar to Myiomela. Recent DNA analysis placed this species in a clade with Bluethroat, Common and Thrush Nightingales, and sister to Whitethroated Robin, thereby tentatively placing it in Luscinia (Sangster et al. 2010), although further support for this arrangement seems necessary.

JAPANESE ROBIN Larvivora akahige

Plate 12

Sylvia akahige Temminck, 1835, Planches Color livr. 96: 571. Hondo, Japan. A small or slender and rather perky chat with a bright red to reddish-brown face to breast, and bright rufous tail often held partly or slightly raised. Common to locally abundant, but fairly shy or elusive in montane deciduous and evergreen forests from C Sakhalin to Japan and S Kuril Is; resident and short-distance migrant, wintering on Nansei Shoto (Ryukyu Is) and SE China. Polytypic, but variation fairly slight, concerning the breast-band and underparts; two races recognised. L. a. akahige (Temminck, 1835). C & S Sakhalin, Japan and S Kuril Is; winters to SE China. L. a. tanensis (N. Kuroda, 1923). Izu Is and possibly islands S of Kyushu; small numbers possibly resident, otherwise winters to SE China. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 14 –15cm. Adults distinctive with bright orange face to breast (duller or tinged brownish in female), with large dark eye, crown and upperparts olive-brown and bright rufous-brown tail. Male also distinguished by broad dark grey or black line below orange breast (except in race tanensis), and usually greyer on belly and flanks. SIMILAR SPECIES No other robin or chat in range has combination of orange on face to breast, brown on crown to upperparts, and rufous tail. Could be confused with European Robin (vagrant in coastal NE China and Japan), but distinguished by extent of orange or reddishorange on face to breast, lacking any blackish or grey border, slightly paler or warmer crown and upperparts, and rufous-brown tail. VOICE Calls include a short, hard tun tun or tsu and a level high-pitched tseeeee or thin tsip. Song a distinctive, loud and far-carrying trill, usually introduced by a single or occasionally a repeated high seet note, running into a longer, drawn-out and slightly wavering trill weet or weesttyurr’r’r’r’r’r’r’r’r’r’r, or slightly more rattling, with variable, well-spaced phrases, e.g. tyurrrrrrrr.......pyorrrrrrrrr...... or hi ch’h’h’h’h’h hi-tu ch’i’i’i’i hi ch’h’h’h’h’h’h ts-ti ch’u’u’u’u’u tsi chuk’chuk’chuk; song of tanensis includes slower trills and some harsher notes (Robson 2000, Brazil 2009). Overall song similar to that of Siberian Blue Robin, but slower, softer with a less explosive quality; sings from undergrowth, mainly May–Jun, occasionally to early Aug. HABITAT Dense undergrowth of mature or old-growth damp, montane deciduous and evergreen forest, often along or near streams, occasionally in spruce, may also occur in bamboo, especially on migration; race tanensis also occurs in Cryptomeria forest. Usually at 600–1,600m on Hokkaido and 1,000–2,500m in C Honshu and Shikoku, mainly 1,100–1,900m on Izu Is, occasionally at lower levels. BEHAVIOUR In pairs during breeding season, or small family groups in short post-breeding period otherwise, usually mainly solitary. Shy and skulking, spending long periods foraging on ground in dense undergrowth and bushes, occasionally ventures into open areas (forest glades or paths), but often nervous. Flicks wings and frequently partially raises or erects tail. Diet mainly beetles and small invertebrates.

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Larvivora

BREEDING Poorly known. Season May to mid-Jul. Nest includes moss, small twigs, dried leaves, ferns and other plant fibres such as thin roots, usually placed in hollow on bank, sloping ground, or in hole in tree or stump. Eggs 3–5, pale greenish-blue, incubation 12–14 (occasionally 15) days, and young fledge at around 12 days; in captivity young remain with parents for up to one month before adults drive them away.

tanensis) possibly resident, and some of nominate race may remain in lower parts of breeding range in Japan in some years. Departs higher-elevation breeding areas in Japan from late Aug, but lower or coastal areas Sep–Nov, with peak departure in Oct. Main southbound passage through W Japan (Kyushu and Yakushima) and along E coast of China, mainly N Hebei, Beijing, Shandong, Jiangsu and Shanghai; considerable numbers recorded on passage on Shawaishan Is (Jiangsu) and reaches Hong Kong (where very scarce), Guangzhou and Zhuhai, Guangdong late Nov to late Mar. Return passage from late Mar and arrives in C Japan from mid Apr and early May, further north on Kuril Is from mid-May. Scarce annual migrant to South Korea (mainly in spring on S coast, also single Nov record Socheong I) and three records in Apr (2) and June (1) in North Korea (Duckworth 2006, Moores 2007), rare winter visitor to Thailand (almost annual, mainly in midwinter), rare winter visitor to Taiwan (20 records to 2008, all mid-Oct to mid-Apr), vagrant to SE Russia (Ussuriland), Laos (single Dec 1998 to Jan 1999), N Vietnam (Tam Dao National Park, E Tonkin, Feb 1995) and S Vietnam recorded in Cat Tien National Park, Cochinchina, Jan 2002 (Robson 2002b).

MOVEMENTS Migratory or small numbers (especially race

DESCRIPTION Sexes similar. Adult male Centre of forehead to crown, nape and upperparts olive-brown, tinged brighter or warmer brown on uppertail-coverts and rufous-brown on tail; in fresh plumage (autumn/ early winter) may show fine paler buff-brown tips. Wings as upperparts with brighter or warmer brown greater coverts and fringes to primaries and secondaries; alula and primary coverts similar or have darker brown tips. Sides of forehead (or entire forehead), lores to above eye (in some may appear to cover entire head), ear-coverts to sides of nape, chin, throat to centre of breast bright or deep orange, slightly paler orange on narrow eye-ring, broad dark grey or black breast-band, usually broadest in centre and greyish on lower breast-sides; flanks grey to greyisholive, belly to undertail-coverts white or whitish-grey. Worn plumage differs little, but may show broader blackish breast-band and more extensive grey bases, especially on lower breast, belly and flanks. Eye dark brown to black. Bill dark horn-brown to black. Legs and feet pale pink to pinkish-brown. Adult female Very similar to adult male, but

Japanese Robin, adult male L. a. akahige. February, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China (Cherry Wong).

Japanese Robin, adult female, L. a. akahige. May, Japan (Tadao Shimba).

STAT US A N D DIST R I BU T ION Common, locally common or even abundant in Japan; uncommon or scarce in China. L. a. akahige Breeding S Sakhalin, Japan (except range of tanensis) and S Kuril Is. Non-breeding In winter to SE China (NW Fujian south to Guangdong and Guangxi); possibly also N Thailand (where annual but rare). L. a. tanensis Breeding Izu Is and possibly islands south of Kyushu, including Tanegashima, but birds on Yakushima more closely resemble nominate race (Brazil 2009). Nonbreeding Small numbers possibly resident, otherwise winters SE China (where overlaps with nominate race).

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Ryukyu Robin

forehead, crown and upperparts generally duller brown, lacking bright warm tones but tail warm rufous. Wings also browner, with narrow warm brown fringes to greater coverts and flight feathers in fresh plumage. Face to breast also less extensively orange, flecked brownish on lores, earcoverts and breast; breast-band narrower and usually less distinct (if present) pale brown or grey-brown, breast-sides and flanks grey to olive-grey, and centre of belly to vent and undertail-coverts whitish. In worn plumage orange face to breast may be slightly duller, showing grey bases to breast, belly and flanks. Juvenile Similar to adult or slightly duller brown, with pale buff or rufous-buff flecks and small spots on head to mantle, tail as adult; face to chin and throat and neck-sides to upper breast dull rufous or orange-brown; lower breast and flanks paler or duller rufous, with broad grey-brown or olive-brown tips forming bars or scales; rest of underparts white or whitish.

SIMILAR SPECIES Seen well, the combination of rich rufous crown and upperparts, and black face (male) or grey underparts (female) are unmistakable, although in poor light or deep shade the upperparts may appear darker or browner. Within range, only likely to be mistaken for Japanese Robin, but the two are usually separated altitudinally.

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION Slight; birds from Rishiri I, Hokkaido, have been proposed as race ‘rishirensis’ (Kuroda 1965), but are considered to be within range of variation of nominate. L. a. tanensis As nominate, but darker above including wings and tail, lacks dark grey or black breast-band (some variation evident on Yakushima and Izu Is, where breast-band is distinct or blackish, and rest of underparts are slightly darker: Vaurie 1955) and belly and flanks paler grey. Adult female paler and duller on throat than adult male. Bill black with yellowish base to mandible.

VOICE For nominate komadori, most frequent contact between pair is thin, high-pitched tseee or swiiiii, or double-noted hii-hii; in race namiyei a shorter or more abrupt tsiii; komadori also has a soft, trilling grrrrrr and namiyei a rising grrick or krick-krick (Chikara 2013); alarm a repeated kirrick or harsh gu-gu, usually accompanied by nervous wing- and tail-flicking. Song a musical teet-see teetsee too, sometimes with slight pauses or breaks pyolololo..... trelululu.....tyululululu, often run into a longer seeet-seeet zeeto-zeeto seeet tsi ti-ti-ti-ti-took; most song is by male in early morning, but some females give weaker version, usually during breeding season and in response to male.

MOULT No information.

HABITAT Undergrowth and ground-strata vegetation in damp, shady, broadleaf evergreen forest, especially in bamboo, bushes, shrubs and ferns in glades, hollows or valleys, often near streams, also on tracks or roadside edges in early morning; usually at 100–200m, but to 600m on Yakushima.

MEASUREMENTS Wing male 74–79mm. Tail 50–54mm. Bill 15.5–17mm (Dement’ev & Gladkov 1968). Weight: no data. TAXONOMY Previously treated in Erithacus or Luscinia (Seki 2006). A revision of Luscinia based on DNA recommended that this species, together with Indian Blue, Siberian Blue, Rufous-headed and Ryukyu Robins be reassigned to Larvivora; alternatively Icoturus could be used for Rufous-tailed Robin, together with Japanese and Ryukyu Robins, which are more closely related to one another (Sangster et al. 2010).

RYUKYU ROBIN Larvivora komadori

Plate 12

Other names: Korean Robin, Ryukyu Robin, Temminck’s Robin.

L. k. namiyei (Stejneger, 1887). Okinawa and adjacent islands, C Nansei Shoto (Ryukyu Is). FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 14cm. Sexes very distinct, the male has a black face to breast (and forehead in nominate), and smudges on flanks (lacking or greyer in namiyei); the female is slightly duller rufous above, lacks the black face to breast, and has the underparts more uniformly grey and mottled, streaked or washed white or whitish.

BEHAVIOUR Usually solitary or in pairs. Keeps mainly in dense undergrowth, occasionally showing itself when crossing a gap and often most active in early morning, singing in open areas and foraging on paths and roadside verges, usually in close proximity to dense cover. In breeding season, possibly best located by tsee call and alarm call, usually accompanied by rapid wing and tail flicks; often raises tail almost vertically in alarm. Forages on ground and in low, dense vegetation; diet poorly known, mostly small invertebrates and their larvae. BREEDING Season Apr–Jul, mainly mid-May to mid-Jun. Nest mostly of dried leaves, including bamboo strips and moss, placed in hole in tree or on sloping bank, also readily accepts nestboxes and has been recorded nesting inside a building. Eggs 3–5, pale pinkish. Nothing else known.

A small but active, brightly coloured and long-legged robin with a fairly long bill, endemic to damp, broadleaf evergreen forest in the Nansei Shoto (Ryukyu Is) of S Japan. Common or locally common resident and shortdistance migrant; not especially shy and frequently forages or sings in open. Polytypic, with two races recognised, variation between them involving the forehead and underpart colorations of adult males.

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Common or locally common, most numerous on A mami- oshima and Okinawa, and scarce or rare in S Nansei Shoto in winter. Total population estimated in 1985 at 100,000 individuals, but has declined since in parts of range. L. k. komadori Breeding Danjo Is off SW Kyushu and N Nansei Shoto (Ryukyu Is) of Tanegashima, Tokara Is, Amami-oshima and Tokunoshima. Non-breeding To S Nansei Shoto, mainly Miyako-jima, Ishigaki-jima, Iriomote-jima and Yonakuni-jima. L. k. namiyei N Okinawa and adjacent Kerama Is, C Nansei Shoto.

L. k. komadori (Temminck, 1835). N Nansei Shoto (Ryukyu Is); winters to S Nansei Shoto.

MOVEMENTS Resident and migratory. Small numbers of nominate remain on Amami-oshima in winter, but

Sylvia komadori Temminck, 1835, Planches Color livr. 96: 570. Northern Ryukyu Islands and Tanegashima, Japan.

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otherwise migrates to S Nansei Shoto between late Oct and Nov to April; nominate also occurs as a passage migrant on Okinawa, and has been recorded at sea close to Okinawa. Race namiyei largely sedentary, with birds present year-round, but some disperse north and south of breeding areas, in winter north to S Kyushu and south to Yaeyama (Brazil 2009). Vagrant to Taiwan (six records to 2007, all mid-Oct to early Apr).

eye, cheeks, chin, throat to mid-breast jet-black, lower breast-sides and rest of underparts white except broad black smudges on flanks, and tips to some lower breast feathers may be greyish. Eye black. Bill black. Legs and feet pinkish to greyish-horn. Adult female Similar to adult male, but lacks black on foreparts. Forehead and crown duller brown or streaked brownish, sides of head, nape, upperparts and wings not as deep rufous, and fringes to flight feathers paler or yellowish-orange. Narrow pale orange or yellowish-orange eye-ring, lores and lower face whitish finely streaked or smudged greyish, and sides of lower throat and edge of upper breast may form greyish band or gorget, rest of underparts white or whitish, with variable grey tips forming scales, streaks or smudges on flanks and undertail-coverts. Juvenile First-winter plumage very similar to adult on head and upperparts; lores to chin, throat and cheeks, malar and neck-sides pale grey or whitish, heavily speckled or mottled with black tips, but centre of chin and throat can be pure white; breast and flanks also white, with broad dark grey or blackish tips forming bars or broad scales. Juvenile male has blackish feather bases and whitish to greyish-white tips.

DESCRIPTION Sexes similar. Adult male Upper forehead to rear ear-coverts, sides of nape and upperparts to uppertail-coverts, scapulars and wings (including alula, primary coverts and tertials) bright or rich rufous (varies with light, appearing slightly darker in undergrowth and brighter in direct sunlight). Tail square-tipped (or slightly rounded when worn) and rufous. Edges to flight feathers bright rufous, slightly paler on edges to primaries and inner webs of greater coverts, dark grey tertials and tips of flight feathers; inner webs of primary coverts rufous, becoming dark grey on centre of inner webs; primary projection slightly longer and wingtip more pointed than race namiyei. Lower forehead and lores to around

GEOGR A PH IC A L VA R I AT ION Main differences between races are forehead and underparts colorations. Birds on S Nansei Shoto of Ishigaki, Irimote and Yonakuni described from wintering individuals as race ‘subrufus’, based on paler upperparts than nominate, with black face to breast slightly broader and edges of wing feathers more orange-rufous, but now considered synonymous (Vaurie 1955). L. k. namiyei As nominate, but some may have less (or entirely lack any) black on forehead (present only on lores, from base of maxilla) and has slightly darker rufous upperparts and darker or greyer underparts, with small area of white below black breast, and lacks any black spots or smudges on the flanks; primary projection slightly shorter and wingtip less pointed than komadori; underwing-coverts grey. Adult female very similar to nominate, but underparts grey to lead grey, with paler tips when fresh, and white restricted to central throat and belly, some also show darker or blackish bases on breast.

Ryukyu Robin, adult male L. k. komadori. January, Amami Island (Tadao Shimba).

Ryukyu Robin, adult female, L. k. namiyei. May, Okinawa, Japan (Pete Morris).

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Rufous-headed Robin

MOULT No information. ME A SUR EMENTS Wing male 72.5 –79mm, female 71.5–76mm; namiyei (both sexes) 70–74mm. Tail male 45.5–52mm, female 42–48mm; namiyei male 48–53.5mm, female 47.5–51.5mm. Bill (from feathers) 12.5–16mm. Tarsus 23–28.5mm; namiyei 27.5–29mm (BMNH, Tring; Chikara 2013). Weight: no data. TA XONOM Y Previously treated within Erithacus or Luscinia (Seki 2006). A revision of Luscinia based on DNA recommended that this species, together with Indian Blue, Siberian Blue, Rufous-headed and Japanese Robins be reassigned to Larvivora; alternatively Icoturus could be used for Rufous-tailed Robin, together with Japanese and Ryukyu Robins, which are more closely related to one another (Sangster et al. 2010). Present species might, on more detailed assessment, warrant taxonomic revision; a recent molecular phylogeny found two distinct clades corresponding to komadori and namiyei (Seki et al. 2007, 2012).

RUFOUS-HEADED ROBIN Larvivora ruficeps

Plate 13

Luscinia ruficeps E. Hartert 1907, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 19: 50. Tai Pai Shan, Tsinling Mountains, Shaanxi, China. A strikingly beautiful but extremely rare, secretive and little-known chat; its breeding biology is undescribed, and the wintering area is unknown. One of the most powerful, beautiful and melodic songsters in Asia, and more likely to be heard singing during the early breeding season, in damp mixed coniferous and broadleaf (mainly birch and willow) subalpine forest, than seen. Considered Endangered and known from a very restricted breeding range in C China; presumed to be a short-distance migrant, but only three non-breeding records available, an adult male in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia, in Mar, an immature in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, in Nov and a female in Genting Highlands, Malaysia in Apr. Monotypic. FIELD IDENTIFIC ATION Length 14 –15cm. Male unmistakable, no other chat has deep rufous-chestnut forehead to nape, black lores to eye curving down necksides, dove-grey upperparts and blackish-grey tail with deep rufous bases to outer feathers, chin to upper breast white bordered below by narrow black breast-band above grey-smudged breast. Female very similar to congeners and possibly not always separable, unless at close range or in the hand; brown to grey-brown head and upperparts, with warmer or brighter rufous-brown edges to outer tail feathers, face pale or buffish-brown, with poorly defined eye-ring, chin and throat finely barred or spotted brownish, becoming more clearly or heavily barred or scalloped on breast-sides to flanks, otherwise washed buffish-brown to undertail-coverts and rest of underparts whitish. SIMIL A R SPECIES Adult female most likely to be confused with same-sex Firethroat, which also has warm brown edges to tail, but has paler or whiter, unbarred or spotted, chin and throat, and brownish (not pinkish) legs and feet. Female Blackthroat also very similar (and largely unknown), has warm or rufous-tinged tail, but

differs by whitish and unbarred throat, and lacks barring or scalloping on breast, is generally more extensively warmer buff-brown on breast and flanks, and has grey (not greyish-pink) legs. From female/first-year Rufoustailed Robin by lack of pale line on upper lores, paler or mid-brown (not dark brown) upperparts and wings, warm brown or rufous uppertail-coverts and edges to base of the tail (more prominent or extensive bright rufous-brown lower rump to tail on Rufous-tailed), less well-defined or smudged scaling on chin to breast, and greyish-pink (not flesh or bright pink) legs. From female Indian Blue Robin by paler brown (not olive-brown) upperparts and wings, lacks warm or rufous-brown rump, but has warm or brighter rufous-brown edges to outer tail feathers. From very similar female/first-year Siberian Blue Robin by slender and longer-tailed (less front-heavy) shape, warm brown or rufous uppertail-coverts and edges to base of tail (variably dark olive-brown to bluish in Siberian Blue Robin), heavier barring on throat to flanks, slightly darker grey or grey-brown (not mid-brown) mantle, back and scapulars, usually lacks paler tips to greater coverts and has greyish-pink (not pinkish-flesh) legs. Tail often raised and slowly lowered, but not quivered in manner of either Rufous-tailed or Siberian Blue Robins. In the hand or at very close range, the closed wing shows six evenly spaced primary tips beyond the tertials (seven on Siberian Blue Robin). VOICE Generally silent, but occasionally gives deep tuc or toc note, together with soft or thin si, similar to that given as part of introduction to song. Song unmistakable; a series of powerful, rich and musical phrases interspersed by brief pauses, and has an ethereal quality, with both rich flute-like whistles, and softer, high and low notes given simultaneously. Usually commences each series with a rising sii before continuing with main series of phrases, several of them repeated or with slight variation before short pause (occasionally a longer interval), then a slightly different series sii.. chulia chulia chulia chulia ........sii tlu tlu tlu wee tuuchuchu......sueechuuu sueechuuu sueechuuu.... siii tuweechu tuweechu chuchu-uuuuu....sii sissisissituu ....sii sooo choo chooo uii ui ui ..., some phrases, especially those concluding each sequence, may be slightly extended into a soft rattling. Usually sings from perch within bush or tree, occasionally from the ground or in more open canopy of low tree, but rarely higher than 4m above ground. Song given from dense cover, fairly loud and delivered with emphasis, head and bill held diagonally and whole body vibrating; most song given mid-morning and again in late afternoon/evening. Song period very short, from mid or late May to late Jun. HABITAT Lower levels of damp, mixed coniferous and broadleaf (especially birch and willow) subalpine forest at 2,400–3,000m, well-developed but not dense undergrowth of herbs, bamboo, shrubs and young saplings, mosscovered boulders and decaying vegetation; within fairly limited range, shows some preference for valley bottoms with streams and partially open areas. Considered to be specialised in some areas on successional scrub in valley bottoms, where flooding removes mature trees, but elsewhere present in areas of both young and mature trees. Perhaps some interspecific habitat competition with Indian Blue Robin, which generally occurs at lower elevations, but in one area their ranges abut. Winter habitat unknown, one of two occurrences outside breeding area was in ericaceous (heather-like) scrub at 2,010m in

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Mar and another was in a garden in Phnom Penh in Nov. BEHAVIOUR Little known. An extremely shy and elusive bird of subalpine forest in summer. Presence mainly detected by singing birds. Stands alert and upright, and bobs head in alarm or agitation, also raises the tail high over back. Moves silently and rapidly (and easily evades detection) between song posts, usually low above ground. Forages on ground, including areas of open mud on forest floor and in low-growing vegetation. Diet poorly known, presumed to take invertebrates, including spiders and insect larvae; small earthworm and plant fragments found in stomach of one individual. BREEDING Almost unknown. Season late May–Aug, pair recorded feeding young in Aug; only single nest known, placed within 0.5m of ground, in fork of small moss-covered tree. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Rare and extremely local, considered Endangered (previously listed as Vulnerable) (Birdlife International 2015, Stattersfield & Capper 2000, Collar et al. 2001). Breeding range S Shaanxi and N Sichuan, C China. Non-breeding or winter range uncertain, but probably S Malay Peninsula; only three records known, adult male, presumed winterer or migrant, in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia, in Mar 1963 (McClure 1963), a first-winter female in a garden in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, for five days in Nov 2012 (Mahood et al. 2013) and a female in the Genting Highlands, Malaysia, Apr 2014 (https://sites.google.com/site/mnsbccrc/Home/recordstatus-1/2014 20th April 2014). Very few locations within breeding range where considered to occur regularly; prior to 1980 known from just four localities, but only three have been occupied since 1980. Since 1985, almost all sightings have been in Jiuzhaigou National Park, Sichuan, where it occurs in three valleys, but in recent years appears to have declined, with sightings in just two valleys in summer 2010. Also occurred (and may still be present) in summer 1985 and 1986 in Wangling Nature Reserve, Sichuan, with single singing male in Huanglongsi Nature Reserve, Sichuan (100km south-west of Jiuzhaigou National Park) in May 1988 (Li Guiyuan & Zhang Qingmao 1987, Collar et al. 2001). First discovered (in 1905) and may still be present

Rufous-headed Robin, adult male. May, Jiuzhigou, Sichuan, China (Pete Morris).

? ?

in Taipai Shan National Nature Reserve, Qinling Shan, Shaanxi, but confirmation required. Entire population estimated in 2001 at 2,500–10,000 mature individuals, and the lack of records in breeding range and especially on passage or in winter, indicates that population is towards lower end of this, or even fewer. Possible threats include felling of trees and removal of understorey scrub by cattle grazing, which prevents growth of successional vegetation, and creation of flood-control dams, may have also reduced available habitat. Species may be more specialised than currently recognised, also may possibly be more widespread than currently known, as large areas of apparently suitable habitat still exist in reserves established to protect Giant Panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca; requires full survey, largely by counting singing birds, to determine exact status and habitat requirements (Collar et al. 2001). MOVEMENTS Migratory. Present in breeding range mid– late May until August, but presence difficult to detect once birds have ceased singing. Wintering range unknown, but presumed to be SE Asia, indicated by only known records in Peninsular Malaysia in Mar/Apr and Phnom Penh in Nov (Mahood et al. 2013).

Rufous-headed Robin, first-winter female. November, Pnomh Penh, Cambodia (James Eaton).

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Indian Blue Robin

DESCRIPTION Sexes differ. Adult male Unmistakable. Forehead to nape and neck-sides deep rufous-chestnut, lores to eye black continuing as a curve across ear-coverts, dove-grey upperparts to wing-coverts, with slightly paler fringes to greater coverts, flight feathers and tertials darker grey edged paler, or dove-grey to tips of flight feathers, tail blackish-grey with deep rufous bases to all outer feathers, but only seen well when spread. Chin to upper breast white, narrow black band across upper breast, above smudgy grey lower breast and more uniform grey flanks, rest of underparts whitish. Eye black. Bill black. Legs and feet pale or flesh pink. Adult female Forehead to crown and upperparts, including wings and tail, brown or grey-brown, with warmer or brighter brown edges to outer tail feathers, and fine pale edges to flight feathers, face pale or buffishbrown with poorly defined buffish eye-ring, chin and throat finely barred or spotted brownish, becoming more heavily barred or scalloped on breast-sides to flanks, undertailcoverts washed buffish-brown and rest of underparts whitish; bill and legs as male. Juvenile Unknown. Immature (known from single first-year female in Phnom Penh, Nov 2012: Mahood et al. 2013). Head and face to lower nape midbrown or olive-brown, tinged warmer brown on ear-coverts, forehead and crown to nape, finely tipped or streaked dark brown, broad pale buff eye-ring, and mantle, back and scapulars to rump mid-brown or tinged olive-brown; uppertail-coverts tinged warm or rufous-brown (extending to sides of base of tail); tail brown edged warm or brighter brown at sides of base of outer feathers; wing-coverts and flight feathers dark brown, broadly edged warm buff-brown on median and greater coverts, and finely on edges to dark brown tips of primary coverts, greater coverts also tipped pale buff, forming short wingbar. Chin whitish and throat pale buff, finely tipped dark grey or blackish at lower edge, centre of breast also pale buff, more heavily fringed or scaled grey-brown, breast-sides and flanks olive-grey, fringed or scalloped brown, becoming off-white over rest of underparts. Bill: horn-brown maxilla and tip to mandible, base of mandible pale or flesh pink. Legs pale greyish-pink. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None. MOULT No information. MEASUREMENTS Wing c.70–80mm. Tail c.52–56mm. Bill (culmen) 16–16.5mm. Tarsus 27mm. (Hartert 1907). Weight: no data. TAXONOMY Previously placed in Erithacus or Luscinia. A revision of Luscinia based on DNA recommended that this species, together with Indian Blue, Siberian Blue, Ryukyu and Japanese Robins be reassigned to Larvivora.

INDIAN BLUE ROBIN Larvivora brunnea

Plate 16

Larvivora brunnea Hodgson, 1837, J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 6: 102. Nepal. A small, slender, shy and retiring, colourful chat with fairly short tail and long legs, which breeds in lower montane and submontane broadleaf forest, predominantly in oak, and mixed fir and broadleaf forests with bamboo and rhododendron. In breeding season more likely to be heard than seen, at other times usually silent. Common

or locally common from NW Afghanistan to Himalayas, hills of W Myanmar and mountains of SC China. Partial resident and short-distance migrant, winters in S India and Sri Lanka; Chinese population considered largely resident or makes short-distance altitudinal movements. Polytypic, two races recognised. L. b. brunnea Hodgson, 1837. NW Afghanistan east through Himalayas of N India, Nepal, Bhutan and S Assam to C & S China. Small numbers resident at lower levels in Himalayas and S China; majority winter to S or SW India and Sri Lanka. L. b. wickhami E. C. S. Baker, 1916. W Myanmar. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 13–15cm. Adult male has slate bluish-grey top of head and upperparts, including wings and tail, fairly short but broad white supercilium, black face and rich rufous-orange underparts. Adult female much duller, mostly deep olive-brown on head and upperparts, including wings and tail, but has brighter warm or rufous-brown rump; face and underparts warm buffish-brown, with white chin and central belly. Juvenile similar to adult female, but mottled or spotted buff on upper- and underparts, and usually lacks or has only poorly defined supercilium; greater coverts and flight feathers edged blue in juvenile male and brown in juvenile female; first-year bird initially as adult female, but has pale rufous tips to greater coverts and become progressively more like respective adult. SIMILAR SPECIES Adult male most likely to be confused with male White-browed Bush Robin, which has very similar plumage pattern; Indian Blue Robin has shorter and usually straighter supercilium, more black on face, and shorter tail. Rufous-breasted Bush Robin is also initially similar, but lacks a supercilium, has smaller bill and is more intense blue on head, upperparts and tail. Adult male Firethroat also similar, but has darker upperparts, rich flame orange-red chin to lower breast, black sides to throat and breast, and white to dull white rest of underparts. Adult male Rusty-bellied Shortwing is smaller, has finer (or may entirely lack) supercilium in front of eye, no black on face, rufous-orange underparts from throat to undertail-coverts, and shorter wings. Separated from both sexes of Rufous-bellied Shortwing by broad white supercilium and bright rufous-orange underparts from throat to belly. From very similar Snowybrowed Flycatcher Ficedula hyperythra by larger size, longer bill and legs, uniform slate blue-grey wings including flight feathers (rufous-brown in Snowy-browed), male has white or whitish-orange chin (black in male Snowy-browed), and females differ by rufous-brown rump in Indian Blue Robin (uniform dark brown in Snowy-browed) and generally paler underparts (more heavily fulvous-brown in Snowy-browed); also differ in behaviour, Indian Blue Robin being more terrestrial and less likely to fly-catch from open perch. Adult female most likely to be confused with females of White-browed and Rufous-breasted Bush Robins, Rufous-headed Robin, Blackthroat, Firethroat and Siberian Blue Robin. Differs from female Whitebrowed Bush Robin by lack of supercilium and shorter tail, from Rufous-breasted Bush Robin by larger bill, rufous rump and brown not blue tail, also warm buffbrown (lacking any orange) on underparts; from Rufousheaded Robin by slightly smaller size, extensively warm buff-brown throat-sides, breast and flanks, small area of bars or spots on chin and throat, browner legs and feet,

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and female Rufous-headed Robin also has stronger rufous tail. Female Blackthroat also extremely similar (but very little known); differs by greyer-brown (not olive) crown and upperparts, slightly warmer or more prominently rufous-tinged uppertail-coverts, and generally more extensively pale or whitish-grey breast and flanks. Differs from female Firethroat by slightly dumpier shape, long legs, slightly longer bill, slightly darker upperparts except rufous rump, whitish (not orange-buff) lower belly to undertail-coverts (female Firethroat has warm or brighter rufous-brown edges to outer tail feathers) and darker or browner (not pink to pinkish-brown) legs. From female Siberian Blue Robin by browner upperparts and tail, warm or rufous-brown (not bluish) rump, more uniformly brown-washed breast and flanks, and usually lacks paler tips to greater coverts. VOICE Generally silent, but calls include thin or highpitched tsee or seet, which may be repeated and given as longer tsee-wee-tack-tack or tuck-tuck rapidly followed by a whistled twitch-tweech (Khan 1980). Alarm a hard grating trr or teck, a deeper teck or a longer sequence, tek-tek-tek or tuck-tuck-tuck. Song a fairly short series of simple phrases reminiscent of Siberian Blue Robin, but not as loud and more warbling, and Firethroat, without prolonged phrases or mimicry; begins with three simple sharp and dry (rather reminiscent of Common Redstart) zee zee zee or zer-zer-zer, occasionally higher pitched and increasing in volume, sii see seee, followed by a longer and slightly downslurred flurry of musical phrases, sissichee or zissiswee, a longer zisissisuseee or zissichweechee wee, which may be repeated several times. Song period possibly year-round, but mostly from territorial birds in spring, mid-May to mid–July, occasionally or infrequently to late Sep; also sings in wintering area in Mar–Apr, immediately prior to departure; also has a short, melancholic warbling subsong. Sings usually from deep cover throughout day except in brief period before nesting when sings from exposed perch, often high up in canopy and (in summer) may briefly respond to playback. HABITAT Nominate race breeds at 1,600–3,500m in birch scrub and undergrowth of lower montane and submontane oak, mixed fir and broadleaf forests, including bamboo, rhododendron and Berberis ; mostly on hillsides, but also ravines and appears to show some regional habitat preferences, e.g. in Kashmir breeds in Viburnum bushes in valleys, also patches of willows and sometimes near streams. In winter, occurs in similar habitat from lowlands to around 2,000m (mostly above 500m, or 1,000m in W Ghats), mostly in undergrowth of damp dense forests and secondary vegetation, including streamside vegetation and willows in mixed and conifer forests, sholas, tea, coffee and eucalypt plantations, frequently in bramble patches, Viburnum, Pandanus, Calamus and Lantana thickets. In W Myanmar, race wickhami occurs in dense undergrowth at forest edges, mainly above 2,000m, on Mt Victoria.

in both summer and winter, defended aggressively; birds in W Ghats occupied an area of c.2.65ha in winter (Khan 1980). Usually in pairs in summer and solitary in winter, forages alone searching leaf litter and low branches of trees, bushes and shrubs; also hops and runs. Diet mostly small invertebrates, including earthworms, molluscs and larvae, especially Lepidoptera caterpillars. BREEDING Monogamous. Season at least May–Jul in Himalayas, possibly later as egg-laying not recorded until late Jun in N Pakistan and China, but only singlebrooded; race wickhami may breed earlier ,from Apr to at least late May. Individual territories in N Pakistan c.1 ha. Nest a large, untidy or bulky cup of moss, dry grass and leaves, lined with animal hair and feathers, occasionally pine needles, and well hidden on ground, usually on a bank or under a fern, stone or among tree roots. Eggs 3 – 4, unspotted turquoise-blue and slightly glossed. Incubation by female alone, but both adults feed and care for nestlings. Incubation and fledging periods unknown. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Nominate race fairly or locally common throughout main Himalayan breeding range, but scarce or rare in NE Afghanistan and the Safed Koh, and uncommon or locally common in China, but its shy and secretive nature renders it often difficult to observe; in India rare (or rarely seen) outside of breeding and wintering areas. From surveys in breeding areas, density appears low, with pairs widely dispersed in areas of apparently suitable habitat. In summer often best located by song; in winter fairly common in W & SW India and Sri Lanka, where it is most numerous in wet zone. Race wickhami common or locally common. L. b. brunnea Breeding NW Afghanistan (Nuristan) through Safed Koh and Himalayas of N Pakistan (south to Palas Valley, Indus Kohistan) and Kashmir, east through N India (to Sikkim), Nepal, Bhutan (possibly Arunachal Pradesh) and S Assam (Nagaland, Meghalaya and Manipur), north through SE Tibet to NW Yunnan, W & N Sichuan and SE Gansu; also Taibai Shan, Shaanxi. Non-breeding In winter, most of Himalayan breeding population moves south or south-west to W Ghats and Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka, but small numbers also recorded in winter in Himalayan foothills and parts of E Ghats; Chinese breeders considered, on basis of a few scattered records, to make only short-distance altitudinal movements, but this requires confirmation. L. b. wickhami Resident mainly above 2,000m in Chin Hills and on Mt Victoria, W Myanmar.

BEHAVIOUR Shy, secretive and usually very hard to observe, within 1m of ground, rarely venturing into open except in some areas (e.g. botanical gardens) where they may become used to people; also occasionally seen in semi-open areas of forest floor below dense vegetation, or foraging in areas of fallen and decaying trees. Best detected by song, which is invariably given from deep cover, but also sings from top of tree or bush in early breeding season. Flicks short tail nervously or in agitated manner, and when perched wags it slowly up and down. Territorial

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MOVEMENTS Nominate race mainly migratory, either long-distance migrants to S or SW India, or short-distance altitudinal migrants, but number of records in valleys close to breeding range fairly small. Rare winter visitor and passage migrant in Bangladesh, eight records between 1978 and 2012 (Thompson et al. 2014). Some evidence from surveys that males and females winter separately, at least in some areas (Khan 1980, Prasad et al. 1995). Departure from breeding areas difficult to determine due to secretive nature, but majority have departed Himalayas between mid to late Sep. Widespread migrant throughout most of peninsular India (north to Assam), arrives in W Ghats from mid-Sep and in Sri Lanka early to mid-Oct, where most are juvenile females and present until Apr; departure from W Ghats usually by mid-Apr and arrives back in N Pakistan and N India late Apr/early May, with passage continuing later. Rare migrant through Gujarat (five records to Apr 2013), most between late Feb and early Apr (Mashru 2014). DESCR IPTION Sexes differ. Adult male Centre of forehead to crown, nape, neck-sides and upperparts, including wings and tail, deep or slate-blue, slightly glossy on upperparts; inner webs to wing-coverts and flight feathers black or brownish-black. Lores, lower forehead to cheeks, malar and ear-coverts black, rear of ear-coverts tinged slate-blue; broad white supercilium from above lores or sides of mid-forehead, ending abruptly above rear ear-coverts. Chin white or whitish-orange, becoming slightly more orange on central throat (on some white either absent or restricted to narrow malar stripe), and deep orange on lower throat to upper belly (may show some black on breast-sides); lower flanks occasionally greyish; central belly, thighs and undertail-coverts whitishorange or white. Eye black. Bill black in breeding season, but has pale base to mandible in winter. Legs and feet pink, flesh-pink or tinged greyish-pink. Adult female Forehead to crown and upperparts to lower back olive-brown, or tinged greyish on nape and mantle; rump warm or rufous-brown, wings and tail slightly deeper olive-brown, with warm brown edges to wing-coverts and slightly paler brown edges to flight feathers. Lores to ear-coverts pale brown or orange-brown, heavily or prominently flecked

Indian Blue Robin, adult male. March, Munnar, Kerala, India (Ram Mallya).

slightly paler, fairly broad pale buff-brown eye-ring; chin and throat white or whitish, heavily spotted, mottled or flecked brownish (whitish can be restricted to malar area); rest of underparts brown or olive-brown, with paler buffbrown centres to breast and belly, slightly browner on flanks to undertail-coverts; on some central belly, vent and undertail-coverts white. Bill, eye and legs as male. Juvenile Like adult female but duller brown, lacking any warm edges to flight feathers and head, face to back finely streaked pale buff, slightly longer streaks on mantle /back, and fine pale rufous-buff tips to greater coverts; tail of juvenile male blue or bluish; heavily flecked or spotted pale buff on dull brown across breast and flanks. First-winter lacks most of pale spotting on head, face and underparts, and has only fine pale tips to median coverts. First-year/ subadult male Variable, some as adult male but have bluish bases to forehead, crown and upperparts partly concealed by olive-brown tips or fringes, and browner wing-coverts (some even show retained rufous-buff tips to greater coverts) and flight feathers, others (older individuals) are more pale blue-grey on crown and upperparts, with only vestigial olive-brown tinge on mantle, back and scapulars, either lacks or has only weak or narrow pale buffish or whitish supercilium behind eye, and may show blackish lores to cheeks; underparts are paler or more buffish-orange, and may retain fine dark mottling on breast and flanks. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION L. b. wickhami Slightly smaller and, on average, slightly duller blue than nominate male, and vent and undertail-coverts are pure white; adult female has forehead to crown, upperparts including wings, rump and tail tinged dull slate-greyish blue (though some are only marginally darker than nominate), and underparts edged dull olive (Vaurie 1955). MOULT No information. MEASUREMENTS Wing male 72–80mm, female 71– 76mm; wickhami male 71–74mm, female 71–73mm. Tail male 43–53mm, female 44–50mm. Bill (from skull, both sexes) 15–17mm. Tarsus 26mm. Weight 14–20g (Vaurie 1955, Ali & Ripley 1983, 1997).

Indian Blue Robin, adult female. February, Thatekkad, Kerala, India (Amano Samarpan).

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TAXONOMY Previously placed in Erithacus or Luscinia. A recent DNA analysis (Sangster et al. 2010) placed this species in a clade with Siberian Blue, Rufous-tailed, Japanese and Ryukyu Robins, and reassigned these species to Larvivora, although an alternative arrangement would be to limit Larvivora to the present species and Siberian Blue Robin.

SIBERIAN BLUE ROBIN Larvivora cyane

Plate 15

Other name: Siberian Blue Chat. Motacilla Cyane Pallas, 1776, Reise Vers. Russ. Reichs 3: 697. Dauria, between the Onon and Argu Rivers, SE Transbaikalia, Russia. A fairly small, short-tailed and long-legged chat, which breeds in lowland and submontane conifer and mixed forests between the Altai of C Russia across E Siberia to Japan. Common or locally common, but generally shy and easily overlooked especially when not singing; can be more active and easily seen on passage and in winter. A long-distance migrant, wintering in SE Asia to Borneo; possibly also SE China. Polytypic; two races recognised, but distinction between them doubtful. L. c. cyane (Pallas, 1776). E Russia and Siberia, from W & NW Altai east through Sayan Mts to NE Altai, Tuva Republic to Lake Baikal and S through Amurland and Ussuriland to N Mongolia, NE China and Korea; winters in SE Asia, from S China and C & S Myanmar, and on Borneo. L. c. bochaiensis (Shulpin, 1928). E Siberia, S of nominate in Amur Basin, Ussuriland, Sakhalin and Japan, and possibly on S Kuril Is; winter range unclear, possibly SE China but mainly SE Asia to Borneo, and possibly S Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 13–14cm. Adult male distinctive with slate-blue head and upperparts, slightly blacker tail, broad black band across lores and face-sides to breast-sides (often obscured or merges with deep blue of upperparts in forest shade), pure or brilliant white underparts, and usually bright pink legs. Adult female has head and upperparts mainly dark olive-brown, with broad pale buffish eye-ring; rump and uppertail-coverts to base of tail dull blue or blue-grey, but can be deep blue like adult male in some; underparts creamy to whitish-cream, usually flecked with buff-brown on throat-sides, and more prominently scalloped or tipped brown on sides or across breast. Juvenile/first-year similar to adult female, usually with heavier buff underparts and pale base to bill. SIMILAR SPECIES In breeding range, male is confusable with Red-flanked Bluetail but has deeper blue (not greyblue) head and upperparts, a shorter and darker blue or blue-black tail, and brighter white underparts lacking any orange or rufous; from adult female/first-year Red-flanked Bluetail by shorter tail (with or without blue at base), fine or narrow darker scaling on breast and lack of orange or rufous at bend of wing. From male Blackthroat by much bluer crown and upperparts, and pure white chin and underparts. Female and immature also from same-sex/ age Siberian Rubythroat by shorter tail, lack of bold white supercilium or dark lores, fairly bold pale eye-ring, and

scalloping or dark bars on breast (plain brown to pale greyish-brown in the rubythroat). From Rufous-tailed Robin by shorter, darker olive-brown tail, duller uppertailcoverts, and more boldly or heavily scalloped on whitish underparts. Female/first-year from Rufous-headed Robin by shorter tail, more front-heavy stance, variably dark olive-brown to bluish-grey or deep blue uppertail-coverts and edges to base of tail (not warm or rufous-brown), pale buff face contrasting with olive-brown forehead and crown (more uniform in Rufous-headed Robin), slightly darker grey-brown mantle, back and scapulars, and longer pale pink (not greyish-pink) legs. Siberian Blue Robin also characteristically quivers tail when perched or walking, and Rufous-tailed Robin also has pronounced quivering tail action similar to a redstart but often more vigorous. In the hand, closed wing shows seven evenly spaced primary tips beyond the tertials (six in Rufous-headed and Rufoustailed Robins). In wintering area, from female Indian Blue Robin by slightly shorter tail, deep blue rump to base of tail, which may be concealed and is more uniform with rest of upperparts, but generally not as warm or rufous-brown as female Indian Blue Robin. In addition, female Indian Blue Robin is more extensively warmer buff on throatsides to flanks, and mottled slightly darker across breast. From female Firethroat by mainly whitish or pale buff underparts (except whiter chin and throat) not buffish to orange-buff undertail-coverts, pale not dark or greyish legs, and bill slightly shorter than Firethroat. First-winter similar to same-age Blue-and-white Flycatcher Cyanoptila cyanomelana (respective adults distinctive), which breeds in E Russia (Ussuriland), NE China, Korea and Japan, migrates through E China, and winters in SE Asia and Philippines. First-winter Siberian Blue Robin slightly smaller than the flycatcher, with longer pale pinkish (not short and black) legs, a shorter tail, and usually has slightly more horizontal stance, especially on ground, while Blueand-white Flycatcher is more likely to perch in canopy and has more upright stance. Although variable, first-winter Siberian Blue Robin tends to show less or certainly less deep blue on wings and scapulars to rump/tail than sameage flycatcher, and breast in Siberian Blue Robin washed buff or has darker tips forming slight scallops, compared to more uniform pale brown breast of the flycatcher. VOICE Main contact calls a variable chip, a low rather soft chuck and thin sae-ic or suae-ik, alarm a very short, hard tack, either given singly or a repeated tack-tack. Song usually introduced by series of several (up to 6–7) soft thin or high-pitched sip, sit or zit notes that increase in volume, followed by a longer and more musical series of 3–4 sibilant and slightly metallic, loud or explosive phrases sezweeet or chezweet chezweet chezweet, or variations including tri-tri-trii, sui-sui-sui, chiswee chisswee, or a longer sississui eee sississee zweee-eeee see, or zuweeet weet weeet and chuswee chswee zeet, sizzet sizzeet szer. Song usually given by male from deep cover or ground, including amongst tree roots, occasionally sings from tops of trees in forest; sings from arrival in breeding area until post-breeding moult. HABITAT Dense undergrowth in deciduous (mainly birch and aspen), coniferous (spruce, fir and pine) and mixed forests, occasionally midstorey of low-growing willows and saplings, also mature or regenerating lowland dry forests and secondary forests with moist areas and adjacent dense vegetation. On passage also in montane areas, forest and open steppe, edges of lakes and in river valleys, gardens in towns and cities; in Gobi Desert occurs at oases and

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bushy areas. In winter, in similar evergreen and semievergreen forest, but also in swamp forest, overgrown or abandoned plantations, along streams and damp areas of forest, edges of mangroves, occasionally reedbeds and (mainly on migration) in parks and gardens. Occurs at 1,000–1,600m in Japan and from sea level to c.1,500m in wintering areas, or occasionally to c.1,680 m on Borneo and even higher on passage (Mann 2008). BEHAVIOUR In pairs during breeding season, otherwise usually solitary but several pairs may occur in fairly close proximity in open mixed forest during breeding season, similarly single birds may loosely associate (3 m high; in C & N Japan breeds in subalpine evergreen and deciduous forests with dense undergrowth, often near streams, as well as in more open birch woods near treeline (at c.2,300m), but down almost to sea-level in conifer forests of E Hokkaido. On passage, in mixed forest and undergrowth, also areas with tall bushes, shrubs, scrub and desert edges in Mongolia. In winter mainly in lowlands and lower montane, broadleaf evergreen forests with dense undergrowth and thickets, including glades, clearings and tracks, often on ridges, also edges of cultivation, parks and gardens including suburban areas; occurs down to 500m (exceptionally 150m) in Laos (Thewlis et al. 1996), to 1,300m on Hainan and sea-level elsewhere in SE China and on passage.

BEHAVIOUR In pairs during breeding season and might form loose foraging flocks (family parties) prior to autumn departure, mostly solitary on passage and in winter though several, including presumed pairs, may occur together and establish territories in fairly close proximity in winter; some evidence from ringing of birds in Hong Kong returning to same areas in subsequent winters. Often shy and retiring, but in parts of range (especially in wintering areas) may become tame or approachable. Often active, nimbly moving between perches, flicks wings and tail when perched, and often has slight bobbing movement to head and upper body, especially if agitated, alarmed or about to fly, and habitually flicks tail down and occasionally spreads or partly fans it. Forages mostly on ground and in low trees and bushes, takes insects either on ground or by scanning from low to mid-height perch, dropping onto prey, and occasionally makes short dashing flight in pursuit of flying insects. Diet mostly small invertebrates and insect larvae, also some fruit and seeds; insects include beetles, bugs, flies (including crane flies), ants, small wasps and small moths; fruit, mostly taken late summer and autumn, include buckthorn and spindle, also Polygonum (dock) seeds. BREEDING Season May to at least mid-Aug. Monogamous and territorial, but size of territory unclear, may be fairly large in some areas, but elsewhere (E Finland) territories may be contiguous or within 300m of each other; defended by male, but mostly feeds outside territory. Density highly variable (including between years) in pine forests in W Siberia to taiga of River Ob, up to three birds per km², though up to eight birds per km² in N Urals and in mixed pine and birch woods of N Altai; in fir forests of C Siberia density 6–20 birds per km², though along upper Lena River may reach 48 birds per km²; highest densities of c.116 birds per km² recorded in Sikhote-Alin Mts of Ussuriland. Nest a neat cup of moss, dry grass, leaves, plant fibres, animal hair and may also utilise pine or larch needles, usually in hole in tree stump up to 1m above ground, or fallen trunk, also on ground within vegetation, in a hollow log or on bank or among tree roots. Eggs 3–5 occasionally seven, usually white or pale greenish-white, slightly blotched brownish or lightly spotted or freckled pinkish-red, reddish-brown or purple; incubation 15 days, by female alone, nestlings cared for by both adults; fledging period also 15 days, but young may leave nest before they can fly far. Usually double-brooded in Russia. Males breed in first year. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Common or locally common; scarce in summer in S Japan; common passage migrant in Mongolia, common passage migrant and winter visitor to Hong Kong, though numbers vary; uncommon in winter on Taiwan; rare passage migrant Kazakhstan. Breeding range in European Russia, west of Urals has expanded west since early 20th century and into E & NE Finland in 1940s (first recorded 1949), where in 2010 total breeding population was estimated (based on extrapolation from line transects) at c.4,500 pairs (A. Rajasärkkä pers. comm.). Has also bred Estonia (1980) NE Sweden (1980, close to Finnish border) and N Norway (2011 and 2012, near Russian border). Total European population (including Russia) estimated in 2000 at 10,000–21,000 pairs. Breeding EC & NE Finland (also Finnmark, N Norway) and discontinuously in NW Russia on C Kola Peninsula and from about Arkhangelsk to middle reaches of Pechora River (to c.65°N in Urals, 69°N on Yamal Peninsula and 68°N on Yana and Kolyma Rivers)

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Red-flanked Bluetail

and N & C Urals (south to c.59°N), then more continuously through Siberia north to c.67°N on Yenisei River to S Yakutia (north to c.63°N) and N coast and mountains of Sea of Okhotsk, Kamchatka and Commander Is, in south to the Altai (to c.56°N), including NE Kazakhstan, and east through Tannu Ola, Tuva Autonomous Region and Buryatia to N Mongolia (Hövsgöl, Khantai, Buteel and Hentii Mts, and along Selenge River) to Amurland, Ussuriland, Sakhalin, Kuril Is, N & C Japan (Shikoku and N Honshu to Hokkaido) and NE China (Nei Mongol and Heilongjiang) south to NE & C Korea. Non-breeding Winters in S Japan, South Korea, E, SE and WC China (mainly south of Yangtze River, between S Jiangsu to Hubei, south to E Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Hainan; in some years, depending on the severity of the weather, small numbers also winter along the Chiangjiang/Yangtze River); also Taiwan, N & C Vietnam (C & S Annam), Laos and N Thailand, but western limits unclear. MOV EMENTS Long-distance migrant. Breeders in westernmost parts of range, in E Finland and NW Russia, make longest movements, initially east through Russia and W Siberia, presumably as far east as Mongolia and N China (north of main C Asian mountains), before turning south to wintering areas; return movements in spring presumed to be reverse of autumn route. Departs N breeding areas in late Aug/early Sep and most have departed from by mid-month, but some still present S Siberia into early Oct; main passage through S & SE Siberia in late Sep or early Oct (usually triggered by first snowfall), and through Mongolia and China in Oct, but along NE coast (Beidaihe) and further east in Korea passage from late Sep to early Nov, with peak in Oct; in Japan passage Oct–Dec. Some evidence to suggest that adult males winter further north than females and first-years, most that winter in Hong Kong are females/first-years, and adult males only occur during midwinter influxes following severe winter weather. Arrives S China from early Oct, but southernmost areas including Hong Kong not reached until late Nov (earliest there in late Oct) and low numbers of birds re-trapped in late Nov/early Dec suggests degree of onward movement, also midwinter increases in numbers in Jan–Feb, and present until Apr (though most have departed by early Mar, scarce to mid-Apr). Part of breeding population in

Japan considered to make only short-distance movements to lower levels, between Oct/early Nov and mid-Mar, but most move further south. Return passage of main wintering population from late Mar or early Apr, with first birds back in breeding areas (males up to two weeks ahead of females) in N Korea and S Japan from mid-Mar, in Mongolia late Apr or early May and in S Siberia from mid–late Apr, with continuing movement to northernmost breeding areas in May–early Jun, arrives in W Altai in early Jun, in NW Russia and E Finland between 20 May and 4 Jun, and in Kamchatka in early Jun. Vagrant to W Europe mostly in Oct, with records from late Sep to early Nov (sometimes in exceptional numbers, e.g. autumn 2010, up to 30 in British Isles), also several in spring between Feb and May (Feb record strongly suggesting overwintering), with 15 records in Norway, 12 in Sweden, five in Germany, four in Holland, three in Hungary, two in France and Ireland, and singles in Denmark, Faeroes, Lithuania, Poland and Italy, also Portugal ( Jan 2012, previously ringed in Sweden in Oct 2011), Cyprus (Nov 1957and Oct 1987), Lebanon (Oct 1958), Israel (Oct 1967, Nov 2011), United Arab Emirates (Dec 2008–Mar 2009, late Jan–Mar 2011), Bangladesh (three records to Nov 2013 – the possibility that one or more were Himalayan Bluetail has not been confirmed); Borneo (Dec 1960) and in North America, where casual or irregular W Alaska (mostly W Aleutian Is), but also in California, on Farallon Is (Nov 1989) and San Clemente I (Dec 2011). Also a vagrant to Assam (undated, specimen in AMNH) and Philippines (Calayan, May 2004). DESCRIPTION Sexes differ. Adult male In fresh plumage (from mid Aug), forehead to upperparts, wing-coverts and neck-sides deep blue, partly or entirely concealed by olivebrown fringes, especially on crown, rear ear-coverts, nape, mantle and back, becoming more uniformly deep blue as olive-brown fringes wear off (very few individuals with olive-brown on head or upperparts by late autumn and early winter, but some more advanced). Uppertail-coverts and tail also deep cobalt-blue on central feathers and outer webs of outer feathers (except outermost, which may have blue restricted to tip). Lesser coverts bright blue, median coverts broadly fringed slightly deeper blue with dull black centres, greater coverts dull black broadly fringed deep

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blue (or fringed olive-brown on innermost when fresh); alula and primary coverts blackish fringed blue or olivebrown with fine bluish tinge; flight feathers and tertials blackish or greyish-black broadly fringed olive-brown on outer webs (broadest on secondaries), soon wears to more uniform deep blue on edges and tips, broadly on tertials and narrowly on outer edges to primaries and secondaries; axillaries and underwing-coverts creamy to orange-buff. Prominent white supercilium from base of maxilla to above eye or fading over ear-coverts; narrow pale buff or whitish eye-ring. Lores, cheeks to malar area and fore ear-coverts dull blue over blackish bases (finely speckled whitish in some). Chin, throat and breast white or creamywhite, bordered at sides of breast by dull blue-grey or deep blue, the feathers broadly fringed buff when very fresh. Lower breast-sides and flanks bright rufous-orange; rest of underparts buff or off-white, whitest on centre of belly and undertail-coverts. By mid to late autumn (late Sep/ early Oct) most olive-brown fringes to upperparts and wings abraded, or show only as fine traces, to reveal uniform dark blue upperparts, wing-coverts and tail feathers brightest, or brighter cobalt-blue on rump and uppertail-coverts; edges to primaries brown and blue, very few entirely blue or brown (Leader 2009). Supercilium white or creamy-white, flecked or bordered bright blue on crown-sides and some are bright pale blue behind eye. Lores, cheeks, ear-coverts and neck-sides dark blue, sometimes brighter blue on breast-sides. In very worn plumage (midsummer to early Aug) dull grey feather bases visible on upperparts, usually dull bluish-grey on breastsides and grey feather bases appear on lower breast and belly; lower breast-sides and flanks usually pale orange; flight feathers dull blackish or finely fringed off-white and pale greyish-olive. Eye brown or dark brown. Bill black. Legs and feet horn-brown or black, usually darkest in brightest males. Adult female In fresh plumage, forehead buff-brown becoming greyish-olive brown on crown to back and scapulars; rump and uppertail-coverts bright blue (generally less bright than adult male and may show fine olive-brown tips). Tail as male but averages slightly paler blue. Lesser and median coverts brown to olivebrown, greater coverts olive-brown (with darker inner webs), alula dark grey or blackish, primary coverts similar or edged olive-brown; flight feathers and tertials plain or fringed warm, slightly rufous-brown, heaviest on edges to flight feathers. Can show slight or poorly-defined buff to creamy-buff supercilium; fine or narrow whitish eye-ring usually broadest on lower half. Head- and neck-sides olivebrown tinged greyish, slightly paler than crown and mantle, very faintly mottled paler on lores, cheeks and ear-coverts; may show slightly darker olive-brown malar. Chin and throat creamy-white to pale buff, neatly bordered by darker malar; breast olive-grey or tinged brownish, mottled with whitish tips; lower breast-sides and flanks rufous-orange, slightly paler than male and fading on lower flanks, becoming whitish on belly, vent and undertail-coverts. Exceptionally, some adult females show blue on lesser coverts and scapulars, and are inseparable in this respect from first-winter males (Leader 2009). In worn plumage head and face to upperparts and breast duller and more greyish olive-brown or brown-grey, supercilium slightly paler and usually only present on upper lores; chin, throat and belly whiter, rump to tail paler or more greyish-blue, and fringes to flight feathers olive-brown to buff. Juvenile Head to rump brown to dark

grey-brown, finely flecked (on head) or boldly spotted buff or pale orange-buff; uppertail-coverts and tail as adult female or slightly deeper blue on uppertail-coverts, but tips of tail more pointed than rounded; wings similar to adult female, but has rufous-brown fringes to greater and primary coverts and secondaries, finely tipped (and tertials edged) pale or olive-buff, which may be retained into first-winter plumage. Throat to upper belly heavily or boldly mottled buff and blackish-brown, flanks pale or light brown, rest of underparts pale buff to off-white, finely tipped brownish forming bars or scales. Tail as respective adult. Bill greyish-brown with tip and gape-flanges yellowwhite. Legs and feet greyish-brown. First-winter male In fresh plumage (from mid–late Sep) very similar to adult female, with olive-brown head and upperparts to rump, and many not certainly separable in the field, but in the hand retained juvenile f light feathers, outer greater coverts, primary coverts and often some or all tertials, as well as more pointed (not rounded) tips to tail feathers diagnostic. Replaced lesser, median and greater coverts fringed brownish-olive (some may show bluish-grey tinge, usually concealed by brownish-olive tips and only evident in the hand), whereas retained juvenile wing and tail feathers are more worn and darker grey (lacking any blue edges) than adult at same season; greater coverts also can be finely tipped buff and, in well-marked individuals, may form wingbar; tertials fringed (and occasionally tipped) pale buff and slightly more pointed than adult (Leader 2009); uppertail-coverts and tail bright cobalt-blue (usually brighter than same-age female) but distal tail often blackish; face to neck-sides and nape often tinged greyish, and may show faint supercilium (either in front or behind eye) and narrow white eye-ring. Chin and throat white, usually well-defined by dark malar; breast has broad band of grey to grey-brown; lower breast-sides and flanks bright orange (brighter than same-age female) fading on lower flanks, belly-sides greyish to off-white, and centre of belly to undertail white. Bill dark horn-brown to black. Legs and feet pale brown to dark horn-brown or black, soles whitish. In addition to intensity of blue on uppertailcoverts and tail, depth of orange flanks and absence of blue on upperparts or wing-coverts, birds can also be sexed by wing length: ≥81mm in males and ≤75mm in females (Hellström & Norevik 2013). First-summer male (from late Dec) Most retain first-winter plumage throughout first year (no pre-breeding moult), but some can show bluish tinge to olive-brown scapulars and replaced wing-coverts and, on average, males have deeper blue uppertail-coverts and tail feathers than females (Leader 2009, Hellström & Norevik 2013). Blue in wing-coverts may only cover bases and be concealed by pale grey-brown tips, but possibly become more prominently blue (with vestigial grey tips) as spring progresses; replaced lesser, median and greater coverts have pale blue-grey centres and brownish-olive fringes, tips to greater coverts often paler or tinged rusty, and distinguished by retention of contrasting juvenile wing and tail feathers that are more worn and darker grey (lacking any blue edges) than adult at same season; also greater coverts and (if retained) tertials are fringed olivebuff or rufous, or occasionally have paler buff spot in centre (in adult female, fringes are uniform olive-brown), but sometimes hardly discernible, especially when worn. Underparts also as first-winter plumage, with orange flanks brighter, on average, than in females. Second-winter male As fresh adult plumage with forehead to crown, rear ear-

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coverts and upperparts, wing-coverts and neck-sides olivebrown, with deep blue bases to feathers, becoming more uniformly deep blue as olive-brown fringes wear off (some may show greyish tinge to blue but, as in adults, very few have olive-brown head or upperparts by late autumn and early winter). Supercilium often white or creamy-white in front of eye, tinged bright blue behind it; cheeks, earcoverts and neck-sides as upperparts, but face often remains dark grey or tinged bluish; rufous of flanks slightly deeper and more extensive; rest of underparts paler creamy-buff or off-white. First-adult female As adult female, but retains same juvenile feathers as same-age male. Very similar to first-adult male and many are inseparable in the field and hand (Leader 2009, Hellström & Norevik 2013); generally shows less or no bluish-grey tinge to lesser coverts, new inner greater coverts or scapulars; rump to tail either paler blue or greyer-blue (not as dark blue as male, but some overlap, especially in spring); orange on flanks averages paler and less extensive. Best distinguished from adult female by moult contrast and in the hand by pointed (not rounded) tips to tail feathers.

into violet-blue in some fully adult males) and have been named ‘ussuriensis’ or ‘pacificus’ (Portenko 1954), but overall differences insufficiently consistent to warrant subspecific recognition (Vaurie 1959). Some confusion evident over existence of ‘dull-morph’ males, possibly due to mistakes in ageing of breeding first-year males (in brown plumage) or variation in extent of blue in some adults, but in S Lake Baikal blue males are apparently rare during breeding season (Hellström & Norevik 2013).

GEOGR APHICAL VARIATION Slight; birds in E of range are, on average, slightly darker and bluer, or merge

MOULT Adults have complete post-breeding moult, in some as early as late Jul, but others not until Aug, and all are usually in fresh plumage by mid–late Sep (before autumn migration) (Svensson 1992). Juveniles undertake partial moult into first-year plumage, involving head and body feathers, lesser and median coverts and inner greater coverts, some or all of tertials and tail feathers, starting mid-Jul and usually completed by mid-Aug, but in some not fully complete until late Sep/early Oct (Cramp 1988). First-year plumage retained throughout first summer until post-breeding moult at c.1-year old, or slightly older depending on hatching date, in males adult plumage revealed (from mid–late Sep) by abrasion of olive-brown tips to head and upperparts.

Red-flanked Bluetail, adult male. January, Doi Lang, Thailand (Peter Ericsson).

Red-flanked Bluetail, adult male. October, Happy Island, China (Ian Fisher).

Red-flanked Bluetail, first-summer male. April, Hangzou Wan, Shanghai, China (Jonathan Martinez).

Red-flanked Bluetail, adult female. January, Japan (Tadao Shimba).

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MEASUREMENTS Wing adult male 74–85mm, adult female 70–83mm, first-winter male 72–82mm. Tail male 53.5–62mm, female 52.5–58mm. Bill (from skull) 12.7– 15mm. Tarsus (both sexes) 21–24.5mm. Weight 10–18g (exhausted migrants occasionally just 8.7g) (Vaurie 1955a, Dement’ev & Gladkov 1968, Leader 2009, Cramp 1988, Severinghaus et al. 2010). TA XONOMY Previously also included in Luscinia or Erithacus. Also previously considered conspecific with Himalayan Bluetail, but Lou et al. (2014) analysed mtDNA of both T. cyanurus and T. rufilatus, finding that they are reciprocally monophyletic and that the two may have diverged c.1.88 million years ago. Birds in E Siberia (Lake Baikal, Amurland, Ussuriland and Sakhalin) named ‘ussuriensis’ and ‘paciticus’ (S Kuril Is.)on basis of deeper blue upperparts (evident in some adult males) but overall largely indistinguishable from nominate (Kozlova 1932b, Vaurie 1959).

HIMALAYAN BLUETAIL Tarsiger rufilatus

Plate 18

Other name: Himalayan Orange-flanked Bush Robin. Nemura rufilatus Hodgson, 1845, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1845: 27. Central and northern regions of hills, Nepal. A slender chat with fine pointed bill and nimble actions; adult male has deep blue upperparts including wings and tail, pale blue supercilium, white throat and underparts, except orange sides to lower breast and flanks; adult female has brown head and upperparts, with blue restricted to rump, uppertail-coverts and tail. Often shy and retiring, but may become tame or approachable (especially in winter). Common or locally common resident or shortdistance altitudinal migrant in the Himalayas, from extreme E Afghanistan and N Pakistan to NE India, Bhutan and S & SC China, and winters in SE China, NE India, Myanmar, NW & NE Thailand and Laos. Monotypic. IDENTIFICATION Length 13–14cm. Adult male has deep blue forehead, crown to upperparts (including wings) extending to breast-sides, bright blue uppertailcoverts and tail, pale or bright blue supercilium, white throat and underparts, except bright orange lower breast-sides and flanks; late summer and early autumn adults have head and upperparts (except lesser and median coverts) to upper rump heavily fringed brown to olive-brown. Adult female and first-year male very similar (many inseparable, most reliably told by shape of tips to tail feathers), with head and upperparts buff-brown to brown, with blue uppertail-coverts and base of tail, throat and underparts as adult male except orange lower breast-sides and flanks (slightly smaller than adult male). SIMILAR SPECIES Very similar to Red-flanked Bluetail (ranges overlap in winter in S China, N Thailand and Laos), but has more rounded wingtip, slightly longer tail, differs in wing/tail ratio, and slightly longer tarsus; upperparts of adult male average slightly brighter or deeper blue, supercilium pale blue (not white) or has frosted blue tips, and usually lacks white or has white restricted to feather bases; throat and breast white (not buffish). Female and first-adult male average browner or

less olive-brown than same-age /sex Red-flanked Bluetail on head, upperparts, wings and breast, and whiter on throat and belly. In some areas (e.g. Kashmir), many adult males apparently retain first-summer or adult female-like plumage throughout life, and bright adult males are rare. Differs from male Bluethroat by lack of blue on throat or breast, and chestnut breast-band. From slightly larger White-throated Robin by blue (not black) tail, shorter supercilium, deeper blue upperparts, and orange only on lower breast-sides and flanks (not entire breast and belly), and from adult/first-year female, which share orange sides to lower breast and flanks, by tail colour, greyer head and upperparts, and by better-defined white throat above brown to grey-brown breast-band. VOICE Call as Red-flanked Bluetail. Song a fairly short, slightly wavering and reedy or tremulous zeele zee zuzee, tsee zu swee, cheechurr chee or trri tuu trri, the first and last notes with same tone, but middle notes slightly lower and recalling a bunting in overall quality, often given repeatedly for several minutes from same perch. Sings mostly early mornings, but throughout the day in some areas, mostly from low to mid-height perch in forest; from cover but also occasionally on more open perches; quivers tail; sings from start of breeding season from mid–late Apr (including immediately prior to leaving wintering grounds) or early May to mid-Jun (those singing later probably unpaired males), and amount of song declines as season progresses, when usually sings only in early mornings. HABITAT Breeds mainly in understorey of fir and mixed conifer and oak forests, often with rhododendrons, birch or poplars, often up to, but rarely above, treeline, at 2,400– 4,200m in Bhutan; in C China often in secondary forest with scrubby undergrowth and Viburnum thickets, and in N Pakistan in spruce or mixed deciduous forest of birch and poplar. In winter mainly in lower montane foothills, in broadleaf evergreen and mixed forests, and woodlands with dense undergrowth and thickets, including glades, clearings, tracks, edges of cultivation, orchards, parks and gardens including in suburban areas; mainly at 1,500–3,000m, occasionally to 600m in N Pakistan, 800m in Bhutan, 900m in E Arunachal Pradesh, and to 500m (exceptionally 150m) in Laos (Thewlis et al. 1996). BEHAVIOUR No known differences from Red-flanked Bluetail.

?

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Himalayan Bluetail

BREEDING Season May to at least Jul. Monogamous and territory densities of one pair per 3–4ha in fir forest in E Nepal. Nest a neat cup of moss, dry grass, leaves, plant fibres and animal hair, usually placed on bank or steep slope, or hole in tree stump up to 1m above ground or fallen trunk. Eggs 3–4, usually white, slightly spotted or freckled pinkish-red; incubation by female alone but period unknown, nestlings cared for by both parents; fledging period c.15 days, but young may leave nest before they can fly far. Males breed in their first year.

early Mar and most lowland areas vacated by late Apr, but reportedly still present in Chin Hills, W Myanmar, in early May (Ali & Ripley 1983). Vagrant to SE Bangladesh (Jan 2000) and Vietnam (single in Hanoi in winter: S. Mahood pers. comm.).

MOVEMENTS Migratory or partly resident; migratory populations moving either altitudinally or short distances to wintering areas; some individuals move further to winter in hills of S Assam, Meghalaya and E Mizoram, N Myanmar, NW & NE Thailand and throughout Laos. Breeders in Himalayas and C China move short distances to foothills and lower valleys, rarely extending far into plains of N Pakistan and India, between Nov and early or mid-Mar; in N Pakistan noted on passage to lower levels in Sep, but movement fairly protracted and lowest levels not reached until early Nov; in Bhutan birds arrive in wintering areas during Oct, but numbers vary annually, related to severity of weather at high altitudes; in Laos widespread in winter, with northbound movements from

DE SCR IP TION Sexes differ. Adu lt ma le In fresh plumage, forehead to upperparts, wing-coverts and necksides deep dark blue concealed by olive-brown fringes, especially on crown, rear ear-coverts, nape, mantle and back, becoming more uniform bright blue as fringes wear off; uppertail-coverts and tail deep cobalt-blue. Flight feathers and tertials blackish or greyish-black fringed olive-brown on outer webs (broadest on secondaries), becoming more uniform deep blue on edges and tips; axillaries and underwing-coverts white or creamy-white, in some, bright rufous-orange on flanks extends to axillaries. Pale or bright (electric) blue supercilium from base of maxilla to above eye or fades over ear-coverts, with paler frosted blue tips in some; narrow pale buff or whitish eyering. Lores, cheeks to malar and fore ear-coverts bright blue over blackish bases. Chin, throat and breast white or creamy-white, bordered on breast-sides by dull blue-grey or deep blue, feathers broadly fringed buff when very fresh. Lower breast-sides and flanks bright rufous-orange; rest of underparts white or tinged greyish on belly-sides and undertail-coverts. By mid to late autumn most olive-brown fringes to upperparts and wings have abraded or show only as traces, revealing uniform bright blue upperparts, wingcoverts and tail feathers, brightest or brighter cobalt-blue on rump and uppertail-coverts. Supercilium pale blue, tipped brighter or frosted blue behind eye; in some entire supercilium is bright pale blue. Lores, cheeks, ear-coverts and neck-sides dark blue, sometimes as bright as on head and upperparts. Eye brown or dark brown. Bill black. Legs and feet horn-brown or black. Adult female In fresh plumage, forehead to upperparts olive-brown with slight greyish tinge; rump and uppertail-coverts bright blue, tail as male but averages slightly paler blue. Wing-coverts brown to olive-brown, greater and primary coverts have darker inner webs; flight feathers brown to dark brown on inner webs, fringed warm or slightly rufous-brown; tertials olive-brown often without bright brown fringes. May show poorly defined pale or greyish-buff supercilium over and behind eye; narrow whitish eye-ring. Head- and

Himalayan Bluetail, adult male. January, Doi Lang, Chiang Mai, Thailand (Trevor Hardaker).

Himalayan Bluetail, adult female. January, Doi Lang, Chiang Mai, Thailand (Trevor Hardaker).

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Common or locally common; uncommon in winter Myanmar and N Thailand; scarce or rare in winter in NE India (Assam to Meghalaya, Tripura and Manipur). Breeding Extreme E Afghanistan and N Pakistan (Safed Koh) through N Pakistan (Indus Kohistan, Chitral and Murree Hills) and Kashmir east through Himalayas of N India and Nepal to Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan (possibly also in N Myanmar: Robson 2000) and north through S, C & NE Tibet to S, E & N Qinghai, SW Gansu, S Shaanxi (Tsinling Shan), N, W & C Sichuan and W & N Yunnan; may also breed at high altitude in W Tonkin, N Vietnam, but this requires confirmation (S. Mahood pers. comm.). Non-breeding Winters in S of breeding range or slightly beyond it, in CS China (parts of Guizhou and C, S, E & SE Yunnan), at lower levels in NE India (Assam south to Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram, in Lushai Hills), W, N, C and E Myanmar, NW & N Thailand and throughout Laos, but eastern limits of wintering range unclear.

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neck-sides olive-brown tinged greyish, slightly paler than crown and mantle. Chin and throat creamy-white, bordered by olive-brown throat-sides; breast olive-grey or mottled with whitish tips; lower breast-sides and flanks rufous-orange, slightly paler than male and fading on lower flanks, becoming whitish on belly to undertailcoverts. In worn plumage, head and face to upperparts and breast duller, more greyish olive-brown or brown-grey, supercilium (if present) usually less distinct; chin, throat and belly whiter, rump to tail paler or more greyish-blue, fringes to flight feathers duller brown or more olive-brown. Juvenile Head and upperparts to wing-coverts brown to dark grey-brown, finely flecked or boldly spotted buff or pale orange-buff; uppertail-coverts and tail as adult female, or slightly deeper blue on uppertail-coverts, but tips of tail pointed; wings similar to adult female, but has rufous-brown fringes to greater and primary coverts and secondaries, finely tipped (and tertials) edged pale or olive-buff. Throat to upper belly heavily mottled buff and tipped blackish-brown, flanks pale buff or light orangebuff, rest of underparts pale buff to off-white, finely tipped brownish forming bars or scales. Bill greyish-brown with tip and gape-flanges yellow-white. Legs and feet greyishbrown. First-winter male In fresh plumage (from mid–late Sep) very similar to adult female and many not certainly separable in the field, but in the hand retained juvenile flight feathers, outer greater coverts, primary coverts, often some or all tertials, and more pointed tips to tail feathers diagnostic for ageing; uppertail-coverts and tail bright cobalt-blue (usually brighter than same-age female), but distal part or tips of tail often blackish; face to neck-sides and nape often tinged greyish, and may show faint supercilium and narrow white eye-ring. Chin and throat white, usually well-defined by olive-grey throat-sides; breast pale grey or whitish tinged grey-brown; lower breast-sides and flanks bright orange (often brighter than same-age female), fading on lower flanks, belly-sides greyish to off-white, and centre of belly to undertail white. Bill dark horn-brown to black. Legs and feet pale brown to dark horn-brown or black, soles whitish. First-summer male (from late Dec) Remains in first-winter plumage throughout first year (no pre-breeding moult), but some show bluish tinge to olive-brown scapulars and replaced wing-coverts, and may have deeper blue uppertail-coverts and tail feathers than females. Blue in wing-coverts usually only on bases, but may become more prominently blue with wear during spring; tips to greater coverts often paler or tinged rusty, with contrasting juvenile wing and tail feathers more worn and darker grey. Underparts also as first-winter plumage, with orange flanks brighter, on average, than females. Second-winter male As adult male in fresh plumage. First-adult female As adult female, but retains same juvenile feathers as same-age male and many inseparable in the field and hand; orange on flanks averages paler and less extensive. From adult female by moult contrast and in hand by pointed (not rounded) tips to tail feathers. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION Birds in W Himalayas named ‘pallidior’ on basis of slightly paler blue or brighter blue to deep purplish-blue on head and upperparts in adult male; female and first-year male slightly paler olive-grey or olive-brown on upperparts, and olive-grey on throat-sides and breast, but many differ only slightly and (in direct comparison) are often indistinguishable from rufilatus. See Taxonomy. Some confusion apparent

over existence of ‘dull-morph’ males, possibly due to mistaken ageing of breeding first-year males (in brown plumage) or variation in extent of blue in some adults, but in Kashmir blue males are apparently rare in breeding season (Davidson 1898, Bates & Lowther 1952). MOULT No information, but presumably similar to that of Red-flanked Bluetail. M E A SU R E M E N T S W ing ma le 78 – 87mm, fema le 76–83mm. Tail male 60–70mm, female 56–65mm. Bill (from skull) 13–16mm. Tarsus 24–27mm. Weight 10–18g (Vaurie 1955a, Ali & Ripley 1983). TA XONOMY Previously also included in Luscinia or Erithacus. Also previously considered conspecific with Red-f lanked Bluetail, but Lou et al. (2014) analysed mtDNA of both T. cyanurus and T. rufilatus, finding that they are reciprocally monophyletic and that the two may have diverged c.1.88 million years ago. The same study was unable to confirm if ‘pallidior’ is a valid subspecies of rufilatus and its status remains uncertain. Other races including ‘albocoeruleus’ (NE Qinghai) and ‘practicus’ (S Yunnan) have also been proposed, but are now considered synonyms of rufilatus (Vaurie 1955a, 1959).

GOLDEN BUSH ROBIN Tarsiger chrysaeus

Plate 18

Tarsiger chrysaeus Hodgson, 1845, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1845: 28. Nepal. A small to medium-sized, rather plump, long-legged and brightly coloured bush robin of conifer forests in the Himalayas to CS China. Generally shy, keeping in low vegetation, especially in winter, its presence often given away by croaking call; usually more visible on passage and in spring/summer when singing or feeding young. A locally common altitudinal migrant, moving short-distances to lower levels within or slightly beyond the breeding range. Polytypic; two races recognised, but differences fairly slight and clinal. T. c. chrysaeus Hodgson, 1845. N India and Nepal to NE India, Bhutan and NW Myanmar and China; winters at lower levels in adjacent hills and south to SE Assam, Nagaland and Manipur, E Myanmar and possibly NW Vietnam. T. c. whistleri Ticehurst, 1922. N Pakistan and N India. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 14 –15cm. Adult male very brightly coloured, with olive-brown on crown and upperparts, broad black face mask, bright yellow supercilium, edges to scapulars, rump, uppertail-coverts and entire underparts; tail has bright yellow panels at sides of base, and inverted black T-pattern formed by black central feathers and tips to outer feathers. Adult female much duller olive to olive-brown, tinged yellowish on upperparts and wings, and brightest or most yellowish on chin to breast, may show narrow supercilium but lacks mask of adult male, and tail pattern is much less distinct than male. SIMILAR SPECIES Adult male unlikely to be confused with any other chat, several Seicercus warblers share same bright yellow underparts but are smaller, shorter tailed

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Golden Bush Robin

and have green to olive-green upperparts and wings. Adult female and first-year confusable with same-age/ sex White-browed Bush Robin and best distinguished by lack of long, narrow but prominent white supercilium (often only behind eye), yellowish fringes to outer tail feathers, which may form contrasting panel (tail uniform in White-browed Bush Robin), and brighter yellow or yellowish underparts, which are duller or brownish-ochre in White-browed Bush Robin. VOICE Most frequent call a series of rapid downslurred croaks or dry rattles reminiscent of a clockwork toy being wound-up trr-tr-tr-t-t-t-t and occasionally becoming single notes with almost spitting quality at end, often rather hollow or tinny in tone, similar to softer call given by European Robin, may also commence with, or be interspersed by, very thin seet; also a harsher chack or check, usually given as a doubled tcheck-tcheck in alarm or agitation. Song a fairly rapid, high-pitched, shrill or squeaky series of slightly slurred whistles, given in quick succession seewee sibitzeweee or se wee sibitzcheweezee-ee, and usually repeated with slight variation. Song given from cover, but may sing from low open or partially exposed perch, also from top of low bush or bamboo in spring, on passage from about mid-Apr and throughout breeding season; first-years sing in female-type plumage. HABITAT Breeds in dwarf rhododendrons, bamboo, birches, juniper and secondary scrub at or near treeline, usually in open coniferous forest including edges, clearings, rocky slopes and along trails, in some areas often in scrub with boulders or dense rhododendrons in conifer forest; occurs at 3,000–4,600m in Himalayas of N India (usually higher in east) and above 2,400m in Bhutan; in N Pakistan breeds only at c.3,350m. In winter in dense undergrowth of forests at slightly lower levels, from foothills to c.2,000m, occasionally to c.3,000m. BEHAVIOUR In pairs and family parties during breeding season, usually alone on passage and in winter. Generally shy and skulking, especially in winter, but more visible on passage and in summer when singing or feeding young. Forages on ground and in low, dense undergrowth including brambles and bamboo, on ground has fairly upright stance on long legs, runs and hops often with wings drooped and partly raised or erect tail; occasionally makes short dashing aerial pursuit of insects, and returns to inside low bush. Diet unknown in detail, but mainly

small invertebrates, including insects and their larvae, spiders and small molluscs. BREEDING Season late Apr or May to late Jul. Nest a small or compact cup of moss, dried leaves, fine grasses, animal hair and often some feathers, usually well concealed below grass or low vegetation on a slope or earth bank, possibly exceptionally may use a hole in tree. Eggs 3–4, unspotted, pale blue, but nothing further known; an occasional brood host to parasitic Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus and Indian Cuckoo C. micropterus. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Locally common N India and Bhutan (occasionally common on passage), rare summer visitor N Pakistan, uncommon or rare Myanmar and throughout range in China; rare in winter NW Thailand and N Vietnam (W Tonkin), but status uncertain. T. c. chrysaeus N India (Kumaon, Uttarakhand, where intergrades with whistleri) east through Nepal, to NE India (Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, may also breed Assam, where otherwise a winter visitor), Bhutan and NW Myanmar, and north in S & SC China, from SE Tibet, north to S Qinghai, SE Gansu, S Shaanxi, Sichuan, W Hubei and NW Yunnan (possibly S & E Yunnan). Winters at lower levels in adjacent hills and south to SE Assam (Nagaland and Manipur), also occasionally E Myanmar and NW Thailand, possibly also in small numbers W Tonkin, NW Vietnam (S. Mahood pers. comm.). T. c. whistleri N Pakistan (Kaghan Valley) and N India, in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, from Simla to Garhwal and Kumaon (intergrades with chrysaeus in latter); winters at lower elevations. MOVEMENTS An altitudinal migrant, moving short distances to lower levels within or slightly beyond breeding range; in some years, some may remain in lower levels of breeding range. Moves to wintering areas in Oct and early Nov, where usually remains to mid or late Mar, with passage during mid-Mar to late Apr; some evidence of birds returning to same wintering sites in Bhutan in subsequent years. DESCRIPTION Sexes differ. Adult male In fresh plumage (Oct onwards) forehead to nape, neck-sides, mantle, back and scapulars bright olive-brown, finely flecked darker or blackish (bases to feathers), with yellow inner webs (often obscured), upper scapulars bright or deep golden-yellow, older males may show more black at base of feathers and darker or deeper yellow; rump and uppertail-coverts to sides of tail bright or deep golden-yellow; central tail feathers and tips to outer feathers black. Wing-coverts black finely edged or fringed olive-brown, alula also black, but may be finely edged yellowish; flight feathers sooty-brown or blackish, finely edged deep yellow to pale olive-brown; tertials as flight feathers, but upper tertial may have outer web olive-yellow. Long and fairly broad bright yellow supercilium to over ear-coverts, where tapers; lores (from base of maxilla) to ear-coverts black forming prominent mask (may also extend onto neck-sides); rear edge of ear-coverts and sides of neck as upperparts. Entire underparts deep golden-yellow, either unmarked or have fine and (usually only visible at close range) slightly darker tips to breast and flanks, creating finely barred effect. Eye brown, dark brown or blackish. Bill dark horn-brown on cutting edges and maxilla, and yellow on mandible. Legs and feet pale flesh to flesh-yellow, pale pinkish-brown or olive-yellow. Yellow pigments darken with age, in fresh plumage bright golden-yellow, becoming deeper or

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Tarsiger

Golden Bush Robin, adult male T. c. chrysaeus. June, Wawushan, Sichuan, China (Tang Jun).

Golden Bush Robin, adult female T. c. chrysaeus. Doi Lang, Chiang Mai, Thailand (Peter Ericsson).

orange-yellow when worn or in older birds. Adult female In fresh plumage, head and upperparts to uppertail-coverts dull olive-brown or tinged yellowish, can appear brown in some lights; variable yellowish supercilium, either narrow and often indistinct, or broken, in some from base of maxilla to over eye, or more usually behind eye and may curve over rear ear-coverts; pale and fairly broad buffish eye-ring, lores dull olive, and ear-coverts olive mottled or streaked paler or yellowish, may also have some yellowish spots on neck-sides. Tail dark olive with broad yellowish edges to base of outer feathers, forming panels but often much less distinct than male, and some may appear as pale yellowish edges to base of dark olive tail, most prominent or longest on outermost feathers. Wing-coverts as upperparts or slightly browner olive on greater and primary coverts; flight feathers and tertials brown or dark brown, fringed yellowish to yellowish-olive (not reaching tips). Underparts yellowish or yellowish-olive, brightest on chin to breast, dullest or most heavily washed olive on lower breast-sides, flanks and belly. Worn plumage very much as fresh plumage, but yellowish edges to flight feathers duller or absent. Bare parts as male. Juvenile Almost entirely brown to dark olive-brown (paler on belly to undertail), broadly streaked pale buff or yellowish on head and face, more heavily on mantle, back and scapulars; tail as respective adult, either with distinct dull pale yellow or dark golden-yellow sides and brownish-black central feathers and tips to all outer feathers, or diffuse pale yellowish edges to outer feathers in juvenile female; wings (including coverts) dark olive-brown with broad dull yellowish shaft-streaks and yellowish-olive fringes to flight feathers. Underparts heavily mottled pale buff to yellowish-buff, with dark brown fringes forming bold (or less distinct) streaks on breast and flanks, becoming more scalloped on belly and rear flanks. First-year Similar to adult female but yellow of rump/uppertail-coverts and underparts brighter, and usually has well-defined pale yellow panels at sides of base of tail in first-year male.

but upperparts slightly paler or more yellowish-olive, with few or no black bases to mantle and back; goldenyellow of rump, uppertail-coverts and underparts slightly paler. Adult female slightly greener-olive on crown, mantle, back and scapulars, uppertail-coverts dull yellowish-olive, with yellowish-green to dark olive-green bases to outer tail feathers and underparts slightly brighter yellow. MOULT Very few data; post-breeding moult of adults completed Sep–Oct (Ali & Ripley 1983). MEASUREMENTS Wing male 64–73mm, female 60– 68mm. Tail male 49–57mm, female 48–54mm. Bill (from skull, both sexes) 14–16mm. Tarsus male 29–32mm, female 28–33mm. Weight 12–16.5g (Ali 1962, Ali & Ripley 1983). TA XONOM Y Previously also treated in Luscinia or Erithacus.

GEOGR A PH IC A L VA R I AT ION Slight, a cline of increasing colour saturation runs west to east through Himalayas; birds from E end of range have been named ‘vitellinus’ (Vaurie 1955). T. c. whistleri Adult male similar to nominate chrysaeus,

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Genus Irania Monotypic. Similar in size, shape and behaviour to the nightingales Luscinia, with slender bill, inconspicuous rictal bristles, and long and fairly strong legs; wings fairly long and blunt-tipped, and tail also fairly long. Sexes dimorphic. Old World distribution (breeding mainly in central and south Asia) and migratory (wintering in E Africa). Forages mainly on or close to the ground in scrub, thickets and sparse woodland.

WHITE-THROATED ROBIN Irania gutturalis

Plate 28

Other names: Irania, Persian Robin, White-throated Irania. Cossypha gutturalis Guérin-Méneville, 1843, Rev. Zool.: 162. Ethiopia. A slim, elegant, long-billed and long-tailed chat of dry or arid habitats in semi-desert areas from C Turkey and S Caucasus, parts of the Middle East to C Asia and NE Afghanistan. Common or locally common (scarce in C Asia), but shy or elusive, and easily overlooked, often spending long periods within dense vegetation, especially females in breeding areas; males sing from tops of bushes, though rarely permit close approach. A long-distance migrant, wintering in small area of E Africa. Monotypic. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 15–17cm. Adult male very distinctive, with pale or bluish-grey crown, upperparts and wings, long black tail, long white supercilium, black face and throat-sides, bold white throat, and rich orange or rufous (some individual variation) breast, flanks and belly. Adult female mainly grey-brown with black tail, white or whitish chin and throat (may also have submoustachial), pale greyish breast, and orange or orange-rufous breastsides and flanks. Juvenile like female, or slightly darker, and finely spotted or streaked pale buffish on head, more heavily spotted on mantle, back and scapulars, and tips to wing-coverts; first-year male like adult but upperparts duller grey or brownish-grey, sides of lower throat to breast dark grey or blackish-brown, with broad buff or orangebuff tips, and orange to bright orange on lower breast-sides and flanks, and first-winters have pale buff or off-white tips to some outer greater coverts, and tertials and flight feathers may be tipped pale buff to off-white (depending on wear). First-year female as adult female, but lower face, neck- and breast-sides barred or mottled grey or cream, and lacks distinct pale submoustachial and darker malar. SIMILAR SPECIES Adult male very distinctive, com­ bination of grey head and upperparts, black tail, white supercilium and chin, and orange or orange-rufous underparts diagnostic, though if seen from behind could be confused with slightly smaller and shorter tailed Blackstart, but separated by long white supercilium, darker grey upperparts (paler and ashy on Blackstart) and uppertail-coverts grey (black in Blackstart). Adult female could be confused with poorly seen Common or Thrush Nightingales, or robin-chats, but is much duller brown than both, with all-black tail and bright orange to rufous flanks (in some occasionally entire breast) and underwing-coverts. VOICE Calls include a fairly hard chak or chek, often with some emphasis as a double note in mild alarm, or followed by brief rattling churr, turrrr or more grating krrrk, similar to that of some Sylvia warblers and both nightingales,

which is also given on its own; contact between pair is slight variation, either chirk or chirric; alarm calls include a thin, repeated eet eet eet... or sharper chut....chut... and often interspersed by the rattling churr if remains alarmed, also a higher pitched and disyllabic tsee-chit or tzi-lit that recalls similar call of Pied/White Wagtail Motacilla alba. Main song is series of variable, mainly mellow, fluted and high-pitched or squeaky whistles, harsher warbled notes and slurred bubbling phrases, also some clicking notes, a rattling churrr or chattering trr-r-r-r-r phrases: skwee-churilee-cheek-cheek-cheek-chur-skweeilew-chur-chur-chur, skwer skweeeereri-tsik-tsik tsi-tsi tsi..., and may be introduced by shorter trills, and reminiscent of songs of Rüppell’s Sylvia rueppelli and Orphean Warblers S. hortensis, and that of Rufous Scrub Robin, but more melodious. Some include mimicry of other birds’ songs and calls, including Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus, Pied Wheatear and Sylvia warbler-like notes. Also a softer subsong of more warbled phrases, given in winter and on passage. Sings mostly from cover (especially in winter), but at start of breeding season males also sing from tops of bushes or low trees, occasionally in f light; main song only given by adult male, but adult females also reported to sing (though this requires confirmation). Period begins in wintering area, where heard infrequently, usually early mornings alone, exceptionally from Dec, more usually from Jan through to Jun or early Jul in breeding area, but in some areas full song only given at start of breeding and declines during incubation and feeding of young. Full song given mainly early morning and evening, little during heat of day, but in some areas apparently unaffected by heat or wind; sings repeatedly when newly arrived in breeding areas, from perch with tail held vertically and wings drooped, also during brief song-flight, rising into air from top of bush, and after brief flapping glides, often slowly, for some metres with tail spread, lands with tail still spread, then raised, before resuming perch. HABITAT Breeds in sparse and dense bushes, thickets and wooded clumps on arid open hillsides and lower slopes, often in tamarisks and acacias in semi-desert areas; in S Kazakhstan and C Asia on stony hillsides, scree and slopes, often in ravines and gullies with dense bushes, including junipers, tangled undergrowth and rank grasses, at 500–1,200m in WC Turkey and 2,000–3,000m in E; in Armenia and Azerbaijan, usually in dry montane scrub with pears, almonds, alder buckthorn, hawthorn and dog rose, also overgrown or abandoned orchards at 860–2,000m; in N Israel, breeds in scattered birch on dry hillsides at 1,350–1,600m; in Iran breeds up to c.2,850 m in oak forest with bushes, open hillsides with bushes, and at 1,800–2,100m, possibly to c.2,500m in Afghanistan. In winter in similar habitat including dry Acacia and Commiphora scrub in arid areas, in bushes at edges of cultivation, along drainage ditches and watercourses, usually at 300–1,500m. On passage also in similar habitat, but often at higher altitude, including above 1,820m in Eritrea; occasionally in large gardens with suitable cover.

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Irania

BEHAVIOUR In pairs during breeding season, or family parties for short period at end of season; occasionally in loose associations on passage and in winter (up to 72 at single location in Kuwait in early Apr), otherwise usually mainly solitary. In wintering area appears to hold territory, as individuals often present in same area for many weeks. Shy, elusive and easily overlooked, often very skulking, spending long periods on ground in or below dense vegetation, especially females in breeding areas, most visible during courtship, nest-building and feeding of nestlings. Males sing from open perch atop bush, though rarely permit close approach and readily dive into cover; some occasionally forage in more open areas at edge of scrubby areas. Forages on ground in leaf litter and soft earth, in low vegetation such as prickly pears, occasionally catches insects in flight; on ground, stance very reminiscent of nightingale, with long bounding hops, or long strides, and hops between rocks; very upright and holds tail raised high above back (vertically when singing), with wings drooped; when agitated, raises head and holds wings out or slightly drooped, and slowly spreads, raises and lowers tail, occasionally also slowly wagging it from side to side. Diet mainly invertebrates and insect larvae, with some fruit; beetles, bugs, ants, grasshoppers, moths, wasps and spiders; fruit includes honeysuckle berries. BREEDING Season late Apr or early May to Jul. Mono­ gamous and territorial, size of territory slightly variable, from 60–70m in some areas to 300–1,000m apart in others; occasionally vigorously defended by both members of pair and intruders aggressively evicted; same territories used in subsequent years (though unclear whether same birds involved). Displaying male sings from territory, while courtship appears to mainly involve prolonged series of rapid chases of female, interspersed by brief landings, with wings drooped and tail raised. Nest, constructed entirely by female, small flat cup of plant fibres and down, including grasses, leaves, twigs and bark strips, also animal hair, some feathers and may also include strips of rags or paper, usually placed low in bush, occasionally low tree or stump, occasionally in crevice of tree up to 1.25m above ground. Eggs 4–5, greenish or greenish-blue with yellowish to rust-brown spots, usually heaviest at the end; incubation, mainly by female, but male may spend do so when female away from nest, c.13 days and young fed by both parents, including for some time after leaving nest; fledging period c.9–12 days, but nestlings often leave nest before they can fly, which occurs at 16–18 days, with some young still fed by parents at 25–30 days old. Breeds in first year. Mainly single-brooded, but occasionally two in parts of range. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Common or locally common; uncommon Armenia; uncommon or scarce in Georgia and C Asia; uncommon on passage Kuwait, Saudi Arabia (numbers vary, occasionally common) and Bahrain, scarce passage migrant (mainly spring but not annual) Jordan and Oman, fairly common in spring but rare in autumn, E Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates; in Lebanon, a rare passage migrant (Apr–Jun and Aug–Oct), formerly bred, and recently confirmed breeding again on Jabal Qammouha in May–Jun 2003 and two other sites in 2005–2007 (Ramadan-Jaradi et al. 2004, 2008), in Israel away from small breeding area, locally scarce to rare mid-Apr to late May, also late Jun, and from late Jul to late Sept; scarce or locally common throughout East Africa in winter; rare Egypt (Sinai), South Sudan

and Yemen. Breeding population in Turkey estimated in 2000 at 410,000–920,000 pairs, and population apparently increasing. Breeding C & S Turkey, discontinuously south to S Syria and N Israel (Mt Hermon, where population very small; c.10 pairs in late 1980s), east to Armenia, S Georgia and SW & SE Azerbaijan (mainly within N foothills of Lesser Caucasus) to N Iraq, N & W Iran (mainly Elburz Mts to Kopet Dagh, Zagros and Kerman highlands); SE (possibly also S) Turkmenistan to C & N Afghanistan; E Uzbekistan (Hissor-Alai Mts) and Tajikistan east to foothills of Pamir Mts and south to NE Afghanistan; N Kyrgyzstan and S Kazakhstan, in the W Tien Shan from the Kirgizkiy Alatau to Ugam Mts in the east, the Karatau foothills (W to Mynzhilke Mts), and at the Kokpek pass in the Sugaty Mts; may have also bred in the Malaysary Mts - singing males recorded in early May 1984 (Wassink 2015). Perhaps also bred on Lesbos (Greece) in May 1994 (singing male), late May 1995 (carrying food or nest material) and 2012 (singing male possibly on territory). Non-breeding Winters in C & S Kenya (mainly north and east of highlands, but west to about Nairobi, where fairly rare) and NC Tanzania (west to Serengeti and south to about Dodoma); may also winter (possibly exceptionally) S Ethiopia (single record late Dec 1995). MOV EMENTS Migratory, moving south, south-east or south-west to E Africa; most movements nocturnal, but often spends some time at stopover sites. Available evidence from passage records (and absence of records in Egypt and scarcity in S Sudan) indicates fairly narrow front into NE Africa, across S Red Sea into Eritrea, Somalia and Ethiopia; breeders in WC Turkey first move south-east to meet with those moving south and south-west from S Caucasus, Iran and C Asia. Departs breeding areas in Armenia by late Jul and Turkey in mid–late Aug, and all have left by end of first week of Sep; departs S Kazakhstan and C Asia slightly later, between late Aug and mid-Sep. Generally uncommon or scarce across most of Arabia (west to Jordan), where usually more frequently observed in spring than autumn, indicating that the region is crossed in a single f light; recorded Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain,

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White-throated Robin

United Arab Emirates and Oman mid-Mar to early May (to mid-May in Kuwait); also recorded in Oman in Jun and Jul, Jordan in Jul and early Aug, with small numbers passing Kuwait late Jul–early Nov; also recorded twice in autumn in Bahrain (Aug and Oct) and around Riyadh, C Saudi Arabia in Dec suggesting some overwinter there; similarly, small numbers recorded Oman Aug–Oct and Dec. In Yemen (where more frequent in autumn than spring) passage late Jul to mid-Sep, with peak in Aug. Passage through Eritrea (where unrecorded in spring) late Aug–late Sep, but over longer period in both Ethiopia, mid-Aug to mid-Oct, and Somalia, where small numbers recorded in Sep and Oct. Some indication that some, if not many, birds spend some time in stopovers, as main arrival in N & C Kenya is in Nov–early Jan, with gradual movement towards N Tanzania evident as habitat becomes progressively drier; considerable numbers move south through Tsavo West National Park in Nov–Dec. Present in wintering areas until late Mar/early Apr; takes route the reverse of that in autumn, with passage through Ethiopia and Somalia early Mar to start of last third of Apr. Throughout Arabia more numerous at this season, though still scarce in Yemen, Jordan (mainly Apr), United Arab Emirates, Kuwait (late Mar to early May, mostly Apr) and Bahrain, where passage of males in late Apr thought to be first-years. Arrives in breeding areas (males usually up to one week ahead of females) of S Turkey and Armenia mostly in early May, exceptionally from second week of Apr, in Azerbaijan from mid-Apr, and in Kazakhstan and Kirgizstan from late Apr to late May. Vagrant to British Isles, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, mainland Greece (two records), Cyprus (12 records to 2006), Egypt (May 1984) and South Africa (Northern Cape, Jul 2006). DE SCR IP TION Sexes differ. Adu lt ma le In fresh plumage, forehead to uppertail-coverts, wing-coverts, rear ear-coverts and neck-sides mid-grey or tinged bluegrey; tail black fringed mid-grey towards base. Inner webs of greater coverts black, fringed and tipped mid-grey; longest alula feather prominently black (contrasts with wing-coverts), rest of alula and primary coverts greyishblack, broadly fringed and tipped mid-grey; flight feathers and tertials dark or blackish-grey, tertials broadly edged pale grey and flight-feathers finely fringed grey, broadest towards base of secondaries; axillaries and underwingcoverts as breast and flanks. Supercilium fairly broad from base of maxilla to over ear-coverts, where ends abruptly, pale grey behind eye. Lores to fore ear-coverts, lower cheeks and throat-sides black, forming broad black stripe from base of bill along sides of white throat, grading into grey on rear of upper cheeks and on lower neck-sides, and in small number of birds black may narrowly meet (2–3mm wide, exceptionally broader) on lower throat. Breast, belly and flanks usually deep rufous-orange, but slightly variable with some individuals pale orange-buff or creamy-yellow, becoming paler or whiter towards vent and rear flanks; undertail-coverts pale cream or white, thighs pale grey or greyish-white. Eye dark brown or black. Bill, legs and feet black. In worn plumage upperparts and wing-coverts slightly duller or greyish olive-brown, and less pure or blue-grey; fringes to tertials and flight feathers bleached slightly paler and partly abraded; underparts also paler and abraded. Adult female Forehead, crown and upperparts to uppertail-coverts, lesser and median coverts, and neck-sides grey to greyish-brown, greyer on rump and uppertail-coverts. Tail dark brown or

blackish-brown. Greater coverts and tertials dark grey, fringed and tipped slightly more buffish-grey; alula blackish finely tipped paler or greyish, primary coverts dark grey, but narrowly fringed and tipped paler grey; flight feathers also grey or greyish-black, secondaries and inner primaries fringed buffish-grey, finely or narrowly so on outer primaries; axillaries and underwing-coverts bright orange. Short, poorly defined pale buff supercilium from bill to eye, and meets narrow pale buff or whitish eye-ring. Lores to eye dark grey, fore cheeks and sides of chin finely mottled grey and pale buff or white, merging gradually into grey on ear-coverts, throat-sides may show pale buff or whitish submoustachial and deep grey-brown malar (ear-coverts may be faintly washed warm or rufousbuff). Centre of chin and throat white, upper breast grey or tinged buff in centre of breast; lower breast-sides and flanks bright orange-rufous, paler on belly-sides (but variable, from paler or whiter to those with deeper rufous to cinnamon across entire breast), merging into white of lower belly, vent and undertail-coverts; some grey feather bases often visible on lower breast. Bill, legs and feet black to blackish-brown. In worn plumage, upperparts purer ash-grey, orange on lower breast-sides and flanks paler or faded. Marked individual variation, probably to same degree as male. Females with rufous underparts at least approach rufous-bellied males in colour. Paler individuals have underparts (including underwing-coverts) white with faint cream-buff tinge, but throat- and breast-sides grey or pale-tipped, showing as indistinct scaling or fine barring; intermediate birds have grey-scaled chest with slightly rufous or cinnamon flanks. Juvenile Similar to pale adult female, but has fine pale buff or whitish-buff spots or streaks on crown, becoming larger and more triangular on mantle to upper back and scapulars; lower back and rump grey, finely flecked or tipped buff; uppertail-coverts slightly darker grey-brown, tipped olive-brown. Tail black or blackish-grey and may show pale rufous tips. Wing-coverts as scapulars or greybrown, boldly tipped with rufous triangular spots in fresh plumage, becoming pale buff (when worn), largest on median coverts, smallest on greater coverts and tips of primary coverts; flight feathers and tertials as adult, but tips of tertials have large or bold whitish-buff or pale rufous spots, and secondaries and inner primaries have pale grey tips or pale rufous-buff spots; axillaries and underwing-coverts deep rufous or pale cream. Fairly long and narrow but often poorly defined cream to whitish-buff supercilium (may be obscured by dark spots in very young birds); lores dark or blackish-grey, and ear-coverts grey finely flecked paler, may show fairly broad dark submoustachial (especially in juvenile male) and fine whitish malar; centre of chin and throat whitish or whitish-buff, finely flecked greyish; breast and flanks pale cream-buff, finely tipped darker or greyish, becoming paler or white on lower belly, vent and undertail-coverts. Eye dark brown. Bill, legs and feet brown. First-year male Similar to adult male, but upperparts duller grey washed brownish; lores, ear-coverts and neck-sides black or blackish; chin and throat white, sides of lower throat and breast dark grey or blackish-brown, with rather broad buff or orange-buff tips, becoming orange or bright orange on lower breast-sides and flanks, and creamy-white on centre of belly to undertail-coverts. Retained juvenile flight feathers, tertials, tail, primary coverts and some outer greater coverts; some wing-coverts, tertials and flight

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Irania

feathers have pale buff to off-white triangular or circular (depending on age and wear) spots at tip, contrasting with new feathers that lack pale tips. Bill, legs and feet black to blackish-brown. First-summer male In spring plumage as adult male (acquired via partial pre-breeding moult) from about Mar, but retained flight and tail feathers browner (may also retain a few greater or primary coverts, which may still show pale tips), more worn or abraded than adult, and contrast with replaced feathers in wings and on upperparts; inner webs of wing-coverts and tertials also browner black than adults. First-year female As adult female, but lower face to neck- and breast-sides barred or mottled grey or cream, and lacks distinct pale submoustachial and darker malar. Juvenile wing and tail feathers retained as in first-year male, and differs from adult female only in state of wear; first-winter may show pale or bleached tips to some greater coverts and tertials, but these usually absent from midwinter.

MOULT Adults have complete post-breeding moult between late Jun and Sep, before departure to wintering areas, but some birds suspend and replace outer four secondaries in winter quarters. Juveniles have partial (perhaps occasionally complete) moult beginning 10–15 days after fledging, body feathers replaced by late Aug, and alula, most or all greater coverts, tertials, up to three outer secondaries up to eight primaries and respective coverts, and occasionally some tail feathers replaced in wintering area. Details of pre-breeding moult poorly known, but some replace head-sides and underparts in Nov–Dec. M E A SU R EM ENTS Wing male 85 –102mm, female 82–99mm. Tail male 65–81mm, female 68–79mm. Bill (from skull) 18.8–21mm. Tarsus 24–27mm. Weight 16–32g (Dement’ev & Gladkov 1968, Cramp 1988, Keith et al. 1992, Svensson 1992, Adamian & Klem 1999).

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION None.

TAXONOMY DNA sequence analysis by Sangster et al. (2010) supported retention of the monotypic genus Irania, closely related to the nightingales in Luscinia.

White-throated Robin, adult male. May, Van, Turkey (Daniele Occhiato).

White-throated Robin, adult male showing pale variation in underparts. May, Van, Turkey (Daniele Occhiato).

White-throated Robin, adult female. April, Jebel Hafeet, UAE (Oscar Campbell).

White-throated Robin, first-summer female. June, Hartlepool, Cleveland, UK (Ian Fisher).

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Genus Cossyphicula Monotypic (see also Cossypha). Very similar to both the akalats (Sheppardia) and the robin-chats (Cossypha) with characters of both. Small size, with broad-based bill and prominent rictal bristles; plumage shows characters similar to that of the akalats except for the robin-chat characters of short (and non-erectile) white supercilium and black centre to rufous-orange tail; also vocally very similar to Forest Robin (Stiphrornis); foraging behaviour generally more aerial than any akalat.

WHITE-BELLIED ROBIN-CHAT Cossyphicula roberti Plate 19 Other names: White-bellied Robin, African FlycatcherChat. Callene roberti Alexander, 1903, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 13: 37. Bakaki, Bioko. The smallest of the robin-chats, short-tailed, broad-headed and round-bodied, with a short but broad-based bill. In size, shape and some plumage characters, similar to (and has been classed with) the akalats (Sheppardia), but main plumage characters (especially tail pattern) and habits more typical of Cossypha robin-chats, and vocally has more in common with Forest Robin. Uncommon or local in W Africa, slightly more numerous in E, but generally shy and unobtrusive, often difficult to locate unless vocalising. Polytypic, with two widely separated races in W & E Africa; racial differences slight and concern extent of bright orange on underparts. C. r. roberti (Alexander, 1903). SE Nigeria, W Cameroon and on Bioko. C. r. rufescentior (E. Hartert, 1908). E DR Congo to SW Uganda and Rwanda. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 12–13cm. Nominate has olive-brown head and upperparts, except dull rufousorange rump to tail-sides, centre of tail blackish, short white supercilium over lores to eye but not extending beyond, dark face, bright orange chin to lower breast, and white belly to vent; E birds (race rufescentior) show more orange and less white on underparts, and perhaps also show a less distinct supercilium. SIMILAR SPECIES Closely resembles an akalat: in E of range most likely to be confused with same-size Equatorial Akalat, which has similar amounts of white on belly, but has grey face, uniform tail pattern and lacks supercilium. In W of range Bocage’s Akalat is also similar, but has dark forehead to hindcrown, almost entirely orange to orange-rufous underparts (from cheeks and ear-coverts to neck-sides, with no white on belly) and uniform reddish tail. Mountain Robin-Chat is slightly larger, has narrow but slightly longer supercilium, darker or blacker face, and more extensively orange-rufous underparts without any white.

HABITAT Undergrowth to midstorey of primary and secondary, montane and submontane forests; occurrence in secondary forest usually in more established areas with substantial undergrowth; in Rwanda appears to prefer moist undergrowth on level ground, including along streams, and in stands of Mimulopsis arborescens (Acanthaceae). Occurs in Nigeria at c.1,300m, in Cameroon at 650–2,400m and on Bioko at 800–2,000m, in DR Congo at 1,150–2,200, in SW Uganda at 1,500–1,630m, and up to 2,000m in Rwanda. BE H AV IOU R Usua lly a lone or in pa irs, shy and unobtrusive, often difficult to locate unless vocalising; sp end s long p er io d s for a g i ng u nobt r u si vel y i n undergrowth, or up to 15m above ground in midstorey of forest trees. Forages on ground, by searching in undergrowth, and in trees where insects taken from leaves; frequently makes short dashing sorties for insects, usually returning to same perch like a flycatcher. Diet mostly small invertebrates and insect larvae, particularly beetles, together with some small fruits, especially Galmiera. BREEDING Almost nothing known. Birds in breeding condition (brood patches) recorded in Cameroon in Nov and Feb–Mar, and juveniles in Feb–Mar (Bowden 2001), also between Jan and May in DR Congo, and Mar–Apr and in Jun in Uganda (Keith et al. 1992), where a spotted juvenile seen in Aug. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Uncommon to locally common in W of range and not uncommon or fairly common in E. C. r. roberti SE Nigeria (Obudu Plateau), W Cameroon (Mt Cameroon, Rumpi Hills, Mt Kupe, Mt Nlonako and Bakossi Mts.) and on Bioko. C. r. rufescentior E DR Congo (Kivu Mts west of Lake Edward and Itombwe), SW Uganda (Bwindi Impenetrable Forest) and Rwanda (Nyungwe Forest). MOVEMENTS Largely sedentary, but may make some short-distance altitudinal movements. DESCRIPTION Sexes alike. Adult Forehead and most of upperparts to upper back, scapulars and wing-coverts olive-brown; rump and uppertail-coverts dull rufous-

VOICE Usually quiet, but contact and alarm call a rapid ti-ti-ti-ti-ti. Song a series of six or more, rapid high-pitched notes tsu-ti-tu-ti-tu-tu, frequently run together, repeated for >1 minute and may be introduced by long series of softer or more subdued phrases; song of rufescentior considered to be more rising and falling than nominate, also of slightly more muffled quality, and very similar to that of Forest Robin, which may also respond or react to a playback of this species’ song.

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orange; tail has blackish central pair and dull rufousorange outer feathers. Wings as upperparts but centres to greater coverts and tertials darker brown with olive-brown fringes; flight feathers more narrowly fringed brownish; underwing-coverts and axillaries orange-buff. Narrow white supercilium from base of bill to eye; lores to eye blackish, becoming browner or rust- brown on ear-coverts. Chin and throat to neck-sides and entire breast orangerufous; flanks olive, and belly to undertail-coverts white. Eye dark brown. Bill black. Legs and feet grey or dark grey. Juvenile Forehead and crown to most of upperparts brown, finely flecked on head with pale orange-buff, spotted rufous on mantle, back and scapulars; tips to wing coverts also rufous-buff forming indistinct or poorly defined wingbars; rest of wings and upperparts as adult, but rump and tail-sides duller. Face pale buffish, flecked or finely spotted darker, except dark lores; chin and throat whitish-cream to buff, becoming more orange-buff on breast and flanks, broadly fringed brown or buffishbrown, forming heavy scalloping; flanks paler and only faintly marked darker, belly to undertail buffish or pale orange. Legs paler or more pinkish than adult.

White-bellied Robin-Chat, adult. C. r. roberti. March, Kodmin, Cameroon (Nik Borrow).

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION Slight. C. r. rufescentior Similar to nominate, but has extensive pale orange on breast-sides to flanks and sides of undertail-coverts, only central belly is white. May also show faintly indicated (less white) supercilium. MOULT No information. M E A SU R E M E N T S W ing ma le 66 –70mm, fema le 66–68mm; rufescentior male 66–72mm, female 61–65mm. Tail rufescentior male 45–49mm, female 42–45mm. Bill 14 –16mm. Tarsus 18–22mm. (Chapin 1953, Keith & Twomey 1968, Keith et al. 1992). TAXONOMY Has been included in Sheppardia based on size and plumage, but tail pattern is like that Cossypha robin-chats, has more distinct supercilium and lacks partly concealed, erectile feathers over lores, thus often included in Cossypha based on plumage, whereas vocal characters are very similar to Stiphrornis. In recognition of these intermediate characters, the treatment of Chapin (1953) and Dowsett-Lemaire (1990) is followed here, in placing the species in a monotypic genus.

White-bellied Robin-Chat, adult, C. r. rufescentior. September, Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, Uganda (Nik Borrow).

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Genus Cossypha Thirteen species, but overall composition of the genus unresolved; some authorities include the monotypic ­Cossyphicula within the grouping, and Archer’s, Mountain and Olive-flanked Robin-Chats may belong elsewhere. All are medium-sized chats with fairly short thrush-like bills, inconspicuous rictal bristles, long and mainly strong legs, and fairly short and rounded or blunt-tipped wings; several of the larger species have long graduated tails; all (except White-headed) have long white supercilia, and almost all have extensive areas of orange on the underparts and (except Archer’s Robin-Chat and two races of Olive-flanked Robin-Chat) distinctive reddish-orange tails with dark or blackish central feathers. Songs are rich, powerful and well developed with mimicry of other species often included. All are endemic to sub-Saharan woodlands, thickets and forests, with some extending to parks and gardens. Largely sedentary though some populations make short-distance seasonal movements.

MOUNTAIN ROBIN-CHAT Cossypha isabellae Plate 19 Other names: Cameroon Mountain Robin, Cameroon Robin-Chat. Cossypha Isabellae G. R. Gray, 1862, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3)10: 443. Mt Cameroon, Cameroon. Fairly small-sized, short-tailed robin-chat; unobtrusive, but not secretive, resident of montane and submontane forests. Common to locally abundant, often present at ant swarms. Polytypic, with two races recognised, both with small ranges in W Africa; differences between them are very slight and concern overall plumage tones. C. i. batesi (Bannerman, 1922) SE Nigeria and W & C Cameroon. C. i. isabellae G. R. Gray, 1862. SW Cameroon. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 15cm. Brown or dark brown forehead to crown and upperparts, with slightly darker or blackish face and narrow white supercilium; bright rufous-orange rump and tail-sides and mostly deep orange underparts, though belly is slightly paler. SIMIL A R SPECIES Bocage’s A kalat (sympatric but usually at lower altitudes) is initially similar, but slightly smaller, with brighter rufous-brown upperparts, uniform rusty-brown tail and orange-rufous face and underparts; lacks white supercilium and dark face. White-bellied Robin-Chat is also similar but slightly smaller, with an olive-brown head, face and upperparts, and slightly shorter white line above lores to eye; lacks dark brown face, but has paler orange chin to lower breast, and prominent white belly to undertail.

ground or in more open areas in tangled undergrowth, usually taking cover when disturbed but not especially shy or secretive, occasionally tame or inquisitive. Forages among fallen trees and branches, around boulders and in low branches of shrubs and trees, occasionally as high as 9m above ground. Diet mostly small invertebrates including beetles and ants, but also takes small seeds. BREEDING Not well known, just two nests described. Season mostly Mar–Jun, at start of wet season, and birds with brood patches in Nov–Feb in Cameroon and recently fledged young in Dec–Mar (Bowden 2001, Grimes 1971), with family parties in Nigeria in Mar, Jun and Sep (Elgood 1994). Nest a large, domed cup of moss, leaves, lichens, plant fibres, grass stems and fine roots, placed in cleft or fork of tree trunk or branch, in rock crevice, or hollow stump up to 1.5m above ground, also in slight depression or hollow on ground. Eggs two, pale greenish-blue with pale rust-brown freckles or spots; incubation 14–17 days and fledging period 18–21 days (Oatley & Arnott 1998). STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Common to abundant, most numerous at higher elevations. C. i. batesi SE Nigeria (Gashaka-Gumti National Park, Obudu Plateau, Gotel Mts on Mambilla Plateau, and Chappal Hendu) and W & C Cameroon (Rumpi Hills, Mt Kupe, Bakossi Mts, Mt Manenguba, Bamenda Highlands and Benoué National Park). C. i. isabellae SW Cameroon (Mt Cameroon).

VOICE Not especially vocal, and song appears to be given mostly at onset of or in breeding season. Call a guttural churrr or grrr, given repeatedly, or more harshly in alarm or agitation. Song fairly loud but rather tuneless, a monotonous series of high-pitched trills tsri-tsrrrrr, repeated up to five times quickly or with slight variation tsri-tsrrrr-tsi-tsee or chiyyy-churrr-te-terrrr-whiiiiiiii, and recalls song of Archer’s Robin-Chat of C Africa. HABITAT Undergrowth and dense vegetation in montane and submontane forests, especially in ravines and among boulders in dwarf forest at higher elevations, occasionally in cultivated fields of coco-yams; occurs at 1,100–2,700m (mostly above 1,200m), but nominate race occurs locally down to 800m on Mt Cameroon. BEHAVIOUR Usually alone or in pairs, but up to 4–5 gather at driver ant swarms; forages unobtrusively on

MOVEMENTS Sedentary. DESCRIPTION Sexes alike. Adult Centre of forehead to crown and nape black or blackish-brown, slightly darker or greyer than olive-brown mantle, back and scapulars; rump and uppertail-coverts bright orange-rufous. Tail blackish-brown, central feathers and tips to outer feathers bright orange-rufous or slightly darker rufous, with dark brown or blackish outer web to outermost. Wing-coverts as

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Mountain Robin-Chat, adult C. i. isabellae. March, Mount Cameroon, Cameroon (Nik Borrow).

Mountain Robin-Chat, adult, C. i. batesi. March, Bamenda, Cameroon (Nik Borrow).

C. i. batesi Very similar to nominate but upperparts paler brown, lores to ear-coverts also dark brown; rump and uppertail-coverts darker rufous, central tail feathers and tips of outer feathers brown or blackish-brown, flight feathers browner, and underparts slightly paler orange, centre of belly to vent white. MOULT In moult Mar–Apr in Cameroon (Bowden 2001). No further information. M E A SU R E M E N T S W ing ma le 73 – 81mm, fema le 71–76mm. Tail male 54–60mm, female 51–54mm. Bill 17–19mm. Tarsus 27–32mm. Weight 19.5–28.2g. (Keith et al. 1992).

Mountain Robin-Chat, juvenile C. i. isabellae. April, Mount Cameroon, Cameroon (Nigel Voaden).

upperparts, but has darker edges to greater coverts, tertials and secondaries; underwing-coverts and axillaries pale buffish-orange. Prominent white supercilium from base of maxilla to over or just behind eye; lores to ear-coverts dark grey or blackish, slightly darker than crown. Chin, throat and underparts deep orange or tinged rufous, except belly, which may be paler or off-white. Eye brown. Bill black. Legs and feet grey, olive-grey or brownish. Juvenile Head and face brown, finely flecked or streaked buffish to buffish-brown; upperparts and wings also brown, with larger orange-buff central shaft-spots and streaks at tips of mantle, back and scapulars; rump to tail as adult or slightly duller. Wing-coverts have larger orange-buff spots at tips, forming indistinct or broken wingbars. Lacks supercilium, but may have indistinct or incomplete buffish eye-ring. Chin and throat pale buffish, slightly mottled darker; underparts heavily scalloped, with broad orange or rufous-buff centres and broad brown to blackish-brown fringes; vent and undertail-coverts paler orange-buff. Bill: maxilla blackish tipped horn, mandible horn. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION Very slight.

TA XONOMY Of uncertain affinities, maintained in Cossypha following Hall & Moreau (1970), Jensen (1989) and Keith et al. (1992); has also classified in Dryocichloides (Irwin & Clancey 1974) and monotypic Oreocossypha (Wolters 1983), though neither was used by subsequent taxonomic authorities. More recently, Beresford (2003) placed the species in Sheppardia based on size, shape and certain plumage characters, including concealed upper loral line or spot, which may be appropriate, but also recommended that ‘the genus Oreocossypha be used, at least until clear evidence of its sister relationships emerges’.

ARCHER’S ROBIN-CHAT Cossypha archeri

Plate 19

Other name: Archer’s Ground Robin. Cossypha archeri Sharpe, 1902, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 13: 9. Ruwenzori, Uganda. Fairly small to medium-sized, rather plump robin-chat restrict­e d to damp or swampy areas in montane and secondary forests around the Albertine Rift. Common to abundant within restricted range, but often secretive, spending long periods foraging within or below dense vegetation; occasionally joins mixed-species foraging flocks, but less frequently attends ant swarms than other robin-chats. Polytypic, with two races recognised, but variation slight.

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C. a. archeri Sharpe, 1902. SW Uganda, W Rwanda, W Burundi and E DR Congo. C. a. kimbutui (Prigogine, 1955). E DR Congo. FIELD IDENTIFICATION Length 14–15cm. Adult has blackish face to neck-sides and long, fairly narrow white supercilium; upperparts to edges of wings deep rufousbrown, with plain rufous-brown tail; bright or deep rufous-orange underparts; race kimbutui has darker or blacker head and face (and whiter chin, though often difficult to see). SIMILAR SPECIES Bocage’s Akalat is similar but slightly smaller with grey forehead and crown, lacks narrow white supercilium and orange underparts extend to cheeks, earcoverts and neck-sides. Equatorial Akalat also similar but smaller, with russet tinge to brown head and upperparts, grey face, orange of underparts extends to moustachial, and lacks white supercilium. White-bellied Robin-Chat has similar facial pattern, including slightly shorter white supercilium (not reaching over eye); orange underparts (except white belly to undertail-coverts) extend to cheeks and has blackish central tail feathers (not uniform rufousbrown). VOICE Contact note a frog-like, grunting chok, pop or donk, given singly or repeated up to three times; in flight a short, soft whit; alarm a sharp, rising siiiiiip. Frequently responds to ‘pishing’, often with a series of chok notes. Song, given throughout day, a loud far-carrying, but melancholy, series of piping trills and whistles wer ler we wer ler we wiiii or a similar but more metallic, rising and falling treeeee-wuu treeeee treeee-yuu; overall, song very like that of Mountain Robin-Chat of W Africa (Oatley & Arnott 1998). HABITAT Undergrowth and lower storey tangles, bamboo and tree-heath in montane and secondary forests around Albertine Rift. Most often in damp or swampy areas, and in drier forest usually only near streams; also in clumps of bracken, wild celery, moss and lichen-shrouded fallen trees and vine tangles; in Rwenzori Mts occurs in bamboo, tree-ferns, on scree-slopes and in giant heath to limit of tree-groundsel (Senecio) above treeline; occurs at 1,600– 2,400m, but mostly above 2,000m in Uganda, and up to 4,000m in Rwenzori Mts (Dehn & Christiansen 2001). BEHAVIOUR Usually alone or in pairs, but also joins mixed-species foraging f locks, occasionally (but less frequently than other robin-chats) at ant swarms. In alarmed or response to intruder (or ‘pishing’) gives sharp alarm note and raises tail to c.45°. Fairly shy or secretive and spends long periods foraging, mostly on ground, where it hops easily over moss-covered logs and fallen branches, but also takes to under- and midstorey (c.10m from ground) in some forests. Diet mostly small invertebrates, including ants, termites, bugs, beetles, wasps, moths (adults and larvae), and small millipedes. BREEDING Poorly known; very few nests found. Season, in Uganda, birds in breeding condition, Mar, Aug and Oct, and nests with eggs Jan and Oct; probably year-round except Jun–Aug dry season. Territorial, with mean size of territory (in Rwanda) estimated at 8 years, 10 months (rubicola) and four years, 11 months (hibernans). STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION ‘European Stonechat’ Common or locally common; uncommon or locally common Morocco, Red Sea coast of Egypt, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia; rare or scarce breeder in S Norway, S Sweden and Denmark; scarce and irregular winter visitor to Canary Is (mostly on E islands); rubicola is a scarce or rare winter visitor to Mauritania and Oman (16 records), and vagrant to Madeira (