Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans: A Transdisciplinary Approach 3662656574, 9783662656570

Table of contents :
Preface
Contents
About the Author
I: Fundamentals
1: Introduction to Restoration Ecology
1.1 Ecosystem Restoration and Restoration Ecology From a Historical Perspective
1.2 Ecological Terms and Key Concepts as a Basis for Ecosystem Restoration
1.2.1 Species and Populations
1.2.2 Ecosystems and Landscapes
1.3 Ecosystem Services
1.4 Degradation of Ecosystems
1.5 What Does Ecosystem Restoration Mean? A Definition
1.6 Scales of Restoration
1.7 Ecosystem Restoration in Relation to the Practice of Other Disciplines
2: Which Ecosystem Should Be Restored? Reference Systems for Restoration
2.1 Pristine or Historical Reference
2.2 Reference Ecosystems of the Present-Day Cultural Landscape
2.3 Potential or Hypothetical Reference State
3: Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration
3.1 Doing Nothing (Passive Restoration)
3.2 Stopping or Pushing Back Natural Succession
3.3 Removal or Reduction of Nutrients from Soil and Water
3.3.1 Terrestrial Sites, Wetlands, and Peatland
3.3.2 Lakes
3.4 Removal of Pollutants by Bioremediation
3.5 Restoration of the Water Balance, Rewetting, and Hydro-morphological Interventions
3.6 Erosion Control and Re-vegetation
3.7 Introduction and Re-introduction of Diaspores and Target Species
3.8 Inoculation with Mycorrhiza Fungi
3.9 Repression of Undesirable Species by Pesticides
3.10 Liming of Acidified Ecosystems
3.11 Fertilisation
3.12 Conclusion
4: Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species
4.1 Re-introduction of Plant Species
4.2 Re-introduction of Animal Species
4.3 Case Study: Re-introduction of the Brown Bear in Trentino, Northern Italy (EU Project LIFE Ursus)
5: Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration
5.1 Are Non-native Species Problematic?
5.2 Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration
5.3 Recommendations for Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration
5.4 With Rationality and Objectivity for the Alien
6: Monitoring and Success Control
6.1 Ecological Monitoring: Basics and Recommendations for Practice
6.2 When Is a Restoration Project Successful?
6.3 Ecological and Nature Conservation Parameters for Monitoring and Success Control
6.4 Case Studies and Best Practice
II: Restoration of Specific Ecosystems and Land-Use Types in Central Europe and the Alps
7: Forests
7.1 Forest History in Central Europe Under Human Impact: From Natural Forests to Intensive Timber Production
7.2 Vegetation and Ecology of Central European Forests
7.3 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Provided by Forests
7.4 Degradation of Forests and the Need for Restoration
7.5 National and International Frameworks and Restoration Goals
7.6 The Concept of Differentiated Forest Management
7.7 Assessment of Forest Naturalness
7.8 Use of Natural Processes for the Restoration of Forests and Forest Sites
7.8.1 Regeneration of Anthropogenically Degraded Topsoil and Atmogenic Nitrogen Input
7.8.2 Natural Regeneration of Target Tree Species in Coniferous Monocultures
7.8.3 On the Importance of Short-Lived Tree Species for Forest Restoration
7.9 Restoration of Wetland Forests
7.10 Restoration of Forest Landscapes
7.11 Preservation and Revitalisation of Traditional Forest Uses
7.12 Case Study: New Forest and New Forest Landscapes After Open-Cast Lignite Mining in the Rhineland—Recultivation in the Südrevier
8: Peatland
8.1 From Natural to Degraded Peatlands: The History of Peatland Use in Central Europe
8.2 Ecology and Typology of Peatlands
8.3 Ecosystem Services of Peatland
8.4 Assessing the Degradation of Peatland
8.5 Regional, National, and International Peatland Protection Initiatives
8.6 Initiating Peatland Restoration and Restoration Objectives
8.7 Restoration Measures
8.7.1 Rewetting
8.7.2 Shallow Peat Removal (Flachabtorfung)
8.7.3 Introduction of Target Species and Nurse Plants
8.7.4 Dynamics of Phosphorus and Nutrient Removal
8.8 Protection Through Peatland Use: Integrative Peatland Restoration
8.8.1 Reed as Multipurpose Plant Species on Peatlands
8.8.2 Forestry on Fens
8.9 Monitoring and Success Control
8.10 Case Study: The Dosenmoor in Schleswig-Holstein
9: Subalpine and Alpine Grassland
9.1 The Alps as a Living and Economic Space
9.2 Ecological Site Conditions of the High Mountains
9.3 Alpine Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the European Alps
9.4 Challenges of the Restoration of High-Altitude Mountain Sites
9.5 Restoration Objectives for the High Altitudes of the Alps
9.6 Restoration Measures in the Subalpine and Alpine Mountain Sites
9.6.1 Suppressing Forest and Shrub Succession
9.6.2 Re-vegetation of Ski Slopes and Degraded Pastureland
9.6.3 Nutrient Removal on Eutrophicated Sites
9.6.4 Re-introduction of Animal and Plant Species
9.7 Avoiding Interventions in the High Altitudes of the Alps
9.8 Case Study: The Restoration of an Alpine Cultural Landscape Through Pasture Management in Styria
10: Rivers and Floodplains
10.1 Ecology of Rivers and Their Floodplains
10.2 History of Use and Degradation of Rivers and Floodplains
10.3 Ecosystem Services of Rivers and Floodplains
10.4 Ecological Status Assessment of Rivers
10.5 International Initiatives for the Restoration of Rivers
10.6 Measures for River Restoration
10.6.1 Interventions in the River Morphology
10.6.2 Improvement of Physical and Chemical Water Conditions
10.6.3 Re-introduction of Target Species
10.6.4 Removal of Undesired Plant Species
10.7 Success Control
10.8 Case Study: Elbe Floodplain Near Lenzen—Natural Dynamics in a Cultural Landscape Shaped by the River
11: Natural and Anthropogenic Lakes
11.1 Diversity of Lakes in Central Europe
11.2 Ecology of Lakes
11.2.1 Stratification, Zonation, and Sedimentation
11.2.2 Flora and Vegetation of Lakes and Lakeshores
11.3 Anthropogenic Impacts on Lakes
11.3.1 Eutrophication and Pollution
11.3.2 Temperature Increase in Lakes
11.3.3 Obstruction of Lakeshores
11.3.4 Non-native Species in Lakes
11.4 Ecological Status Assessment of Lakes
11.5 Ecosystem Services of Lakes
11.5.1 Habitat for Species and Biocenoses
11.5.2 Fishery
11.5.3 Self-Purification of Water
11.5.4 Carbon Storage in Lakes
11.5.5 Quality of Life and Human Health
11.5.6 Lakes as Archives for Landscape History and Environmental Change
11.6 Restoration Measures in Lakes and on Their Shores
11.6.1 Restoration of the Lakeshore
11.6.2 Interventions in the Lake Sediment
11.6.3 Interventions in the Water Body
11.6.4 Biomanipulation as an Intervention in the Food Web of Lakes
11.6.5 Biological Lake Management with the Zebra Mussel
11.6.6 Harvesting of Submerged and Floating Macrophytes for Nutrient Removal
11.7 Concluding Assessment of Lake Restoration Measures
11.8 Case Study: Lake Tegel in Berlin as an Urban Water Ecosystem
12: Coastal and Inland Salt Grassland
12.1 Coastal Salt Grassland
12.1.1 Ecology and Vegetation of Saline Coastal Habitats
12.1.2 Ecosystem Services of Coastal Salt Grassland
12.1.3 Land-Use History and Environmental Changes of Coastal Salt Grassland
12.1.4 Environmental Policy Framework for the Protection and Restoration of Coastal Habitats in Central and Western Europe
12.1.5 Measures for the Restoration of Salt Grassland
Deconstruction and Opening of Dikes and Its Ecosystem Effects
Grazing as an Anthropo-Zoogenic Restoration Strategy for Salt Grassland
Introduction of Target Species
12.1.6 Case Study: Restoration of Salt Grassland in the National Park Wadden Sea on the North Sea Island of Langeoog
12.2 Inland Saline Habitats
12.2.1 Occurrence, Ecology, and Nature Conservation of Natural Inland Saline Sites in Central Europe
12.2.2 Secondary Inland Saline Habitats
12.2.3 Land-Use History, Degradation, and Threats to Inland Saline Habitats
12.2.4 Restoration Measures on Inland Saline Habitats
12.2.5 Case Study: Inland Saline Habitat Altensalzwedel in Saxony-Anhalt—Initial Success of a Restoration Project
13: Marine Habitats in the North Sea and Baltic Sea
13.1 Marine Ecosystems of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea
13.1.1 North Sea
13.1.2 Baltic Sea
13.2 Anthropogenic Evironmental Impacts on the Marine Ecosystems of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea
13.3 Ecosystem Services and Threatened Marine Habitats
13.4 International Marine Protection Initiatives
13.5 An Overarching Concept for the Restoration of Marine Ecosystem Services
13.6 Measures for the Restoration of Marine Habitats
13.6.1 Interventions in the Biotic Ecosystem Compartments
13.6.2 Interventions in the Abiotic Conditions
14: Lowland and Mountain Heaths
14.1 Vegetation Formation Heath and Its Distribution in Europe
14.2 Origin and Land-Use History of Heathland
14.3 Ecology and Dynamics of Heathland
14.3.1 Climate, Soil, Vegetation, and Fauna
14.3.2 Development Phases of Calluna Heaths
14.4 Reasons for the Restoration of Heathland
14.5 Restoration Measures
14.5.1 Restoration and Management of Dry Sandy Lowland Heaths
14.5.2 Restoration of Wet Lowland Heaths
14.5.3 Restoration of Coastal Heaths
14.6 Particular Challenges for the Restoration and Management of Heaths
14.7 Case Study: Land Use and Nature Conservation Between Past, Present, and Future—Restoration of Mountain Heaths in the Hochsauerland
15: Mesophilic, Wet, and Calcareous Grassland
15.1 Land-Use History of Grassland in Central Europe
15.2 A Short Glimpse into the Ecology of Grassland
15.3 Degradation of Grassland
15.4 Ecosystem Services of Extensively Used, Species-Rich Grassland
15.5 Initiatives and Environmental Programmes for the Restoration of Species-Rich Grassland
15.6 Measures to Restore Grassland Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
15.6.1 Restoration of Grassland After Other Intermediate Land Uses
15.6.2 Grassland Restoration by Mowing, Grazing, and Shrub Removal
15.6.3 Topsoil Removal and Inversion
15.6.4 Lowering the Nutrient Level After Eutrophication (Aushagerung)
15.6.5 Rewetting for the Restoration of Wet Grassland
15.6.6 Re-introduction of Target Species and Diaspore Transfer
15.6.7 Inoculation with Mycorrhizal Fungi
15.7 Case Study: Grassland Restoration in the Rhön Biosphere Reserve—An Initiative for Cultural Landscape and Regional Rural Development
16: Coastal and Inland Sandy Dry Grassland
16.1 Occurrence and Historical Development of Sandy Sites in Central Europe
16.1.1 Coastal Dunes
16.1.2 Inland Sand Ecosystems
16.2 Ecology and Dynamics of Sandy Dry Grassland
16.3 Protection of Species, Habitats, and the Cultural Landscape and Reasons for Grassland Restoration
16.4 Restoration Strategies and Measures for Open Sand Habitats
16.4.1 Grazing
16.4.2 Topsoil Removal and Inversion
16.4.3 Application of Low-Nutrient Deep Sand
16.4.4 Long-Term Nutrient Removal (Aushagerung)
16.4.5 Manual and Mechanical Diaspore Transfer of Target Species
16.4.6 Allowing for Natural Dynamics
16.5 Case Study: The Former Military Training Area Döberitz—Megaherbivores and Sheep Replace Military Tanks
17: Species-Rich Arable Land
17.1 History: From a Sea of Flowers to a High-Performance Field
17.2 Flora, Fauna, and Vegetation of Arable Land
17.3 Nature Conservation and Restoration Strategies: Species-Rich Protective Fields and Marginal Strips
17.4 Case Study: Extensification for the Restoration of Species-Rich Arable Land in North-Eastern Germany
18: Traditional Agroforestry Systems
18.1 Traditional Orchards (Streuobstwiesen)
18.1.1 Land-Use History and Current Status
18.1.2 Ecosystem Services and Nature Conservation
18.1.3 Conservation and Restoration Initiatives
18.1.4 Case Study: Europe Promotes Bird Conservation in Orchards in Baden-Württemberg
18.2 Larch Meadows and Pastures in the Alps
18.2.1 Occurrence and Land Use
18.2.2 Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity and Carbon Storage
18.2.3 Maintaining an Element of the Traditional Cultural Landscape
18.3 Tree Meadows in Scandinavia and the Baltic Region
19: Urban Ecosystems
19.1 Ecological Characteristics of Urban Ecosystems
19.2 Urban Environment and Human Health
19.3 Motivation and National and International Initiatives for the Restoration of Urban Nature
19.4 Restoration Measures in Urban Environments
19.5 New Approaches to Urban Greening and the Restoration of Urban Nature
19.6 International Perspective on Sustainable Urban Development
19.7 Case Study: Wilderness in the City Centre—The Schöneberger Südgelände in Berlin
20: Mining Sites and Landfills
20.1 Ecological Characteristics of Mining Sites and Post-Mining Areas
20.1.1 Area Size
20.1.2 Geomorphology
20.1.3 Geology and Soils
20.1.4 Water Balance and Water Quality
20.1.5 Flora, Fauna, and Vegetation
20.2 Planning and Legal Framework for the Restoration of Mining Sites
20.3 Passive and Active Ecosystem Restoration on Mining Sites
20.4 Restoration of Mining Heaps
20.5 Restoration of Landfills
20.6 Case Study: Chalk Quarries on the Island of Rügen—Anthropogenic Diversity of Species and Habitats
III: Ecosystem Restoration Serving Nature and Humans: Aspects from the Social Sciences and Humanities
21: Reasons and Motivations for Ecosystem Restoration
21.1 Environmental Facts and Figures
21.2 Degradation and Ecosystem Services: Costs and Benefits
21.3 Legal Obligations and International Conventions and Agreements
21.3.1 National Requirements
21.3.2 International Conventions and Agreements
21.4 Justification and Motivation Derived From Environmental Ethics, Religion, and Emotions
22: Actors and Stakeholders and Their Role in Ecosystem Restoration: Conflict Resolution and Acceptance Through Participation
22.1 Actor and Stakeholder Analysis
22.2 Actors and Stakeholders in Nature Conservation and Ecosystem Restoration
22.3 Lack of Acceptance as a Limiting Factor of Ecosystem Restoration
22.3.1 Re-introduction of Large Carnivores
22.3.2 Rejection of Natural Processes
22.3.3 Promoting Acceptance Through Information
22.4 Science and Practice Pull Together: Transdisciplinary Approaches
23: Restoration Economy: Costs and Benefits
23.1 Methods for the Assessment of Costs and Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration
23.1.1 Market Price and Cost-Based Methods
23.1.2 Methods for the Economic Valuation of Non-market Goods
23.1.3 Habitat and Resource Equivalency Analysis
23.1.4 Benefit Transfer
23.2 Opportunity Costs
23.3 Comprehensive Cost-Benefit Analysis: From Degradation to Restoration
23.4 What Factors Influence Restoration Costs?
23.5 Funding Sources for Ecosystem Restoration
23.6 Costs and Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration with Examples from Europe
23.6.1 Grassland Restoration: Introduction of Target Species
23.6.2 Heathland Restoration and Management in North-West Germany
23.6.3 Grazing for the Restoration and Management of Open-Land Habitats
23.6.4 Ecosystem Restoration for Climate Protection
23.6.5 Wild and Honey Bees as Pollinators in Agriculture
23.7 First Calculate Costs and Benefits, Then Act
24: Norms and Values in Ecosystem Restoration
24.1 Environmental Ethics and Implications for Ecosystem Restoration
24.1.1 Faking Nature? Criticism on Ecosystem Restoration From Environmental Ethics
24.2 Ecosystem Restoration as an Implementation of Strong Sustainability
24.3 Traditional Ecological Knowledge
24.4 Environmental Anthropology
24.5 Ecosystem Restoration as Active Responsibility for Creation
24.6 Restoration Measures Put to the Ethical Test Bench
24.6.1 Application of Pesticides in Ecosystem Restoration
24.6.2 Controlled Burning to Restore and Preserve Open Land
24.6.3 Topsoil Removal
24.7 Non-native Organisms and Xenophobia
IV: Synthesis
25: Conclusions and Outlook
25.1 Limiting Factors for Ecosystem Restoration
25.2 Degradation in the Long Term and Restoration in the Short Term?
25.3 Restoration of Eutrophicated Terrestrial and Aquatic Habitats: A Sisyphean Task?
25.4 Limits to Planability, Uncertainties, and the Unforeseen: Allowing for More Dynamics
25.5 Ecosystem Restoration in the Light of Current Trends
25.6 Ecosystem Restoration at Any Price?
25.7 Scientific Knowledge, Knowledge Transfer, and Socio-Political Decisions
25.8 Final Conclusion
Appendix: List of Species
List of Animal Species Mentioned in the Book
List of Plant Species Mentioned in the Book
List of Fungi, Lichens, Bacteria, Viruses, and Other Species Mentioned in the Book
References

Citation preview

Stefan Zerbe

Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans A Transdisciplinary Approach

Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans

Stefan Zerbe

Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans A Transdisciplinary Approach

Stefan Zerbe Faculty of Science and Technology Free University of Bozen-Bolzano Bozen-Bolzano, Italy

ISBN 978-3-662-65657-0    ISBN 978-3-662-65658-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65658-7 © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer Spektrum imprint is published by the registered company Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer Nature. The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin, Germany

V

The more clearly we can focus our attention on the wonders and realities of the universe about us, the less taste we shall have for destruction. (Rachel Carson, April 1952)

VII

Dedicated to my children

Preface In 2022, the “Earth Overshoot Day,” which indicates the date when humanity has exhausted nature’s budget for the whole year, fell on July 28th (Global Footprint Network 2022). Accordingly, this day has moved forward by about three weeks compared to 2020, thus indicating increasing, unsustainable resource consumption. One may argue about this approach, the data basis, and about the determination of an exact day. What is an undisputable scientific fact, however, is the overexploitation of our natural resources and natural capital, respectively, by the world’s human population and the subsequent trade-offs for the earth’s ecosystems, land-use systems, and the socio-economic conditions of the societies. Worldwide, these are, in particular, the loss of biodiversity, climate change, problems of water supply, not only quantitatively but also qualitatively in terms of eutrophication and pollution, the pollution of marine ecosystems, soil erosion, soil salinization with decreasing agricultural productivity, and desertification in arid and semi-arid regions and all this related to the growth of the world’s population, increasing energy demand, and the intensification of land-use and thus continuously increasing resource consumption. The fact that renewable natural resources should only be consumed to an extent that they can regenerate is not new and has already been practiced in some indigenous human populations since millennia to ensure their permanent livelihood (Diamond 2011). However, at the latest with the book The Limits to Growth, the Club of Rome (Meadows et al. 1972) insistently drew attention to the fact that certain natural resources cannot be regenerated and are therefore finite. Already 25 years ago, Daily (1995) pointed out that about 45% of the world’s land surface had a reduced capacity for land-use which means it was more or less anthropogenically degraded. She identified unsustainable land management as one major reason. This continuous degradation of many land-use types has been ecologically and economically quantified during recent decades, as illustrated in this book. The current discussion on the decline of insects (e.g., NEFO 2017; “Insektensterben”), for example, shows that, despite decades of environmental policy, the establishment of legal frameworks and international conventions, and the practice of nature conservation, the desired goals of nature conservation or environmental protection in Central Europe have hardly been achieved. Even if one does not want to follow this agitated terminology such as, “forest dieback” (“Waldsterben” during the 1980s and 1990s) and “insect dieback,” one cannot ignore the facts of the associated environmental problems and the urgent need for solutions. Apart from the local decline of forest stands due to high air pollution during the past decades (e.g., in the high altitudes of the Erzgebirge), the discussion about “forest dieback” has considerably stimulated forest ecosystem research in Central Europe and thus an increase in knowledge about the functions and services of our forest ecosystems. Consequently, also the discussion on “insect dieback” cannot be dismissed as mere emotional “hype.” The study by Hallmann et al. (2017), which found a decline in the biomass of flying insects of around 75% over the past 27 years for various habitat types, is just one of many scientific studies that document qualitatively and quantitatively the continuous and worldwide loss of species and biodiversity, respectively, and thus the loss of important ecosystem services.

IX Preface

Against this background, we must raise the question of how we can use natural resources more sustainably in the future, on the one hand, and how we can restore those resources or natural capital that have already been exploited or declined, on the other. The restoration of ecosystems, based on the scientific discipline of restoration ecology, offers one of the possible answers to this. While the practice of ecosystem restoration is as old as human settlements on earth, restoration ecology has been established as a sub-discipline of ecology since the second half of the twentieth century and, since then, has developed rapidly. Today, ecosystem restoration is based on several decades of scientific research and practical experiences. Consequently, restoration ecology provides a comprehensive and valuable body of knowledge for the practice of sustainable land-use, landscape management, and nature conservation. As this book demonstrates, there is no lack of data and facts on the state of many ecosystems and land-use systems in Central Europe, respectively, nor of concepts and tools for the assessment of this state and deriving recommendations for the practice of ecosystem restoration. Nevertheless, in many cases we are still far from having achieved the desired goals of restoring functioning ecosystems and sustainable land-­ use with the concepts and measures of ecosystem restoration within the set timeframes. When ecosystems are even “restored” by the application of pesticides, burning vegetation, or by completely removing topsoil and vegetation, one might sometimes be willing to protect these ecosystems from those “ecosystem restorationists.” This interdisciplinary textbook will present the scientific basics of restoration ecology in an introductory section. Reasons and motivations for the restoration of ecosystems as well as reference systems will be outlined. The various measures of ecosystem restoration will be presented in the first overview. Then, those measures will be specified in more detail using the examples of the diverse ecosystems and land-use types of Central Europe. The ecosystems and land-use types are briefly introduced regarding their land-use history and ecological site conditions. Their ecosystem services are highlighted, particularly those which have been lost through overexploitation and degradation. Then, the current scientific restoration knowledge and practical experiences regarding the particular ecosystems and land-use systems, respectively, are presented. The brief outline of the land-use history of near-natural ecosystems and land-use systems of the cultural landscape is indispensable for the identification of restoration goals and respective reference systems. This follows the premise that only with the knowledge of the historical, anthropogenic impact the current ecological state can be comprehensively assessed and recommendations for the practice of sustainable land-use can be derived. Although the practice of ecosystem restoration is essentially based on the concepts and knowledge of restoration ecology, it can only be successful if it is integrated into an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary context, respectively. Accordingly, considerations of environmental economics as well as environmental ethics, sociology, anthropology, and religious aspects must be taken into account. These aspects will be addressed in Part III of this textbook. The penetration of a natural scientist into human science disciplines bears a risk. The expert of the respective human and social science discipline, respectively, may stumble over terms, modes of argumentation, and a lack of thoroughness in his or her respective discipline. Nevertheless, this is precisely what is intended to bridge the natural and the social sciences in order to stimulate further discussions and to intensify the scientific ­discourse between the natural and social sciences. This is particularly needed for the solution of the global environmental problems and the joint development of strate-

X

Preface

gies to adapt to and mitigate global change. By stepping out of his or her own scientific discipline in order to investigate and understand both the ecological and human dimension of environmental problems and to develop possible solutions, the scientist enters the field of a transdisciplinarity (7 Chap. 22). Consequently, this textbook follows a transdisciplinary approach. The geographical focus of this textbook is on Central Europe, including the Alps, essentially with the countries Germany, Austria, Poland, Switzerland, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic. Thus, the most important ecosystems and land-use types are addressed for this geographical area. Forests, rivers including their floodplains, lakes, peatland, and alpine grasslands as natural or near-natural ecosystems are considered as well as the anthropogenic land-use types grassland, heaths, arable land, agroforestry systems, quarries, and settlement areas. Nevertheless, a comprehensive insight into restoration ecology and the practice of ecosystem restoration would fall short if concepts and experiences from other regions of Europe or the world were neglected. For example, a chapter on the restoration of coastal salt grassland would be incomplete without the numerous studies and experiences from Great Britain. The same applies, for example, to the extensive research and practical experiences on the restoration of heathland on the British Islands, in Scandinavia, and the Netherlands. Consequently, by considering scientific literature from whole Europe, an attempt is made to draw a comprehensive, up-to-date picture of restoration ecology and ecosystem restoration, respectively. The numerous literature references may be a hindrance to the flow of reading. However, this is necessary to demonstrate that a huge amount of data and facts relevant to the restoration of ecosystems have already been elaborated by scientific research. In addition, these references should enable the reader to deepen specific issues, also in light of the fact that data and facts can be interpreted in different ways. In the individual chapters, key terms are highlighted in bold. Case studies from the practice of restoration are presented for the respective ecosystem or land-use type. Those case studies not only reflect successful restoration projects but are also intended to highlight problems in practical ecosystem restoration. There should be no doubt that the selection of case studies has a subjective character, but it usually follows the criteria of a comprehensive documentation of the restoration process from planning to implementation and success control, including socio-economic aspects, such as costs and acceptance. Many of the case studies presented here can also be considered examples of best practice. This book was written in substantial parts during a sabbatical generously granted to me by the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano (South Tyrol, Italy). During this year, I was warmly welcomed by various hosts to whom I am grateful, namely (in chronological order) the Peria family on the Italian island of Elba, Prof. Dr. Ana Bozena Sabogal Dunin Borkowski De Alegria at the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú in Lima (Peru), David Unger in Cobán (Guatemala), Luz Marina Delgado in San Marcos (Guatemala), Prof. Dr. Victoriano Ramón Vallejo Calzada at the University of Barcelona and at the Center for Mediterranean Environmental Studies in Valencia (Spain), and Prof. Dr. Ingo Kowarik at the Technical University of Berlin. During this time, I was inspired by discussions with numerous people and colleagues, to whom I would also like to express my gratitude. For the review of particular chapters and suggestions for their improvement, I would like to thank (in alphabetical order) Prof. Dr. Christian Ammer (University of Göttingen, Germany) for 7 Chap. 7, Dr. Arthur Brande (TU Berlin, Germany) for 7 Chap. 8, Dr. Ralf Döring (Thünen Institute of Sea Fisheries, Germany) for  

 

 

XI Preface

7 Chap. 13, Prof. em. Dr. Ulrich Hampicke (University of Greifswald, Germany) for 7 Chaps. 17 and 23, Dr. Michael Hupfer (Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries in Berlin, Germany) for 7 Chap. 11, Prof. Dr. Jochen Kantelhardt (University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences in Vienna, Austria) for 7 Chap. 23, Prof. Dr. Ingo Kowarik (TU Berlin, Germany) for 7 Chaps. 5 and 19, Prof. Dr. Volker Lüderitz (Magdeburg-Stendal University of Applied Sciences, Germany) for 7 Chap. 10, Prof. Dr. Christoph Leuschner (University of Göttingen, Germany) for 7 Chap. 7, Prof. Dr. Konrad Ott (University of Kiel, Germany) for 7 Chap. 24, Dr. Markus Salomon (German Advisory Council on the Environment, Germany) for 7 Chap. 13, Prof. Dr. Jutta Zeitz (Humboldt University Berlin, Germany) for 7 Chap. 8, and Dr. Wiebke Züghardt (Federal Agency for Nature Conservation in Bonn, Germany) for 7 Chap. 6. For discussions, comments, and suggestions regarding specific topics, I would like to thank (also, in alphabetical order) Dr. Albin Blaschka (HBLFA Raumberg-­ Gumpenstein, Austria), Prof. Dr. Dietmar Brandes (University of Braunschweig, Germany), Prof. Dr. Eckhard Jedicke (Geisenheim University, Germany), Prof. Dr. Vera Luthardt (Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development, Germany), Forest Director Uwe Schölmerich (Regional Forest Department Rhein-Sieg-Erft, Germany), Heike Seehofer (Stuttgart Regional Council, Germany), Prof. Dr. Elisabeth Tauber (Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy), Dr. Werner Westhus (Thuringian Federal State Institute for Environment and Geology, Germany), and Prof. Dr. Dorothy Louise Zinn (Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy). For the interesting guided tour through the case study sites in Germany, I would like to thank Jörg Fürstenow (Heinz Sielmann Foundation) in the Döberitzer Heide, Werner Schubert, and Bettina Gräf (Biological Station Hochsauerland) on mountain heaths in the Sauerland, Jürg Bunje (National Park Wadden Sea, Lower Saxony) and Dr. Holger Freund (University of Oldenburg) on the Island of Langeoog in the North Sea, Gregor Eßer (RWE) on the restoration of post-mining landscapes in North Rhine-Westphalia, and Dr. Hanna Köstler (Büro Dr. Köstler) on the Nature Park Schöneberger Südgelände in Berlin. For the assistance with figures, I thank Dr. Luigimaria Borruso, Dr. Barbara Plagg, and Dr. Andrea Polo. I would like to thank Dr. André Terwei (Federal Institute of Hydrology in Koblenz, Germany) for his professional and sharp eye when proofreading the book manuscript. Last but not least, I would like to thank Springer Publishing and its staff for the professional preparation of this book for printing and the always pleasant cooperation and communication.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Stefan Zerbe

Berlin, Germany March 2022

Reference Global Footprint Network (2022) Earth Overshoot Day. Global Footprint Network. Advancing the Science of Sustainability. https://www.footprintnetwork.org/our-work/earth-overshoot-day/ Accessed 13.12.2022

XIII

Contents I Fundamentals 1

Introduction to Restoration Ecology................................................................................ 3

1.1 Ecosystem Restoration and Restoration Ecology From a Historical Perspective........... 8 1.2 Ecological Terms and Key Concepts as a Basis for Ecosystem Restoration....................... 12 1.2.1 Species and Populations...........................................................................................................................12 1.2.2 Ecosystems and Landscapes....................................................................................................................16 1.3 Ecosystem Services.............................................................................................................................. 22 1.4 Degradation of Ecosystems.............................................................................................................. 24 1.5 What Does Ecosystem Restoration Mean? A Definition.......................................................... 24 1.6 Scales of Restoration........................................................................................................................... 28 1.7 Ecosystem Restoration in Relation to the Practice of Other Disciplines........................... 29 2

 hich Ecosystem Should Be Restored? Reference Systems W for Restoration................................................................................................................................. 31

2.1 2.2 2.3

 Pristine or Historical Reference....................................................................................................... 34 Reference Ecosystems of the Present-Day Cultural Landscape............................................ 35 Potential or Hypothetical Reference State.................................................................................. 39

3

Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration............................................... 43

3.1 Doing Nothing (Passive Restoration)............................................................................................ 45 3.2 Stopping or Pushing Back Natural Succession........................................................................... 45 3.3 Removal or Reduction of Nutrients from Soil and Water....................................................... 47 3.3.1 Terrestrial Sites, Wetlands, and Peatland.............................................................................................48 3.3.2 Lakes.................................................................................................................................................................50 3.4 Removal of Pollutants by Bioremediation................................................................................... 51 3.5 Restoration of the Water Balance, Rewetting, and Hydro-morphological Interventions.........................................................................................................................................   52 3.6 Erosion Control and Re-vegetation................................................................................................ 53 3.7 Introduction and Re-introduction of Diaspores and Target Species.................................. 53 3.8 Inoculation with Mycorrhiza Fungi................................................................................................ 54 3.9 Repression of Undesirable Species by Pesticides...................................................................... 54 3.10 Liming of Acidified Ecosystems....................................................................................................... 54 3.11 Fertilisation............................................................................................................................................ 55 3.12 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 55 4

Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species............................................................. 59

4.1 4.2 4.3

 Re-introduction of Plant Species.................................................................................................... 60 Re-introduction of Animal Species................................................................................................ 65 Case Study: Re-introduction of the Brown Bear in Trentino, Northern Italy (EU Project LIFE Ursus)...........................................................................................   74

XIV

Contents

5

Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration............................. 79

5.1 5.2 5.3

 Non-native Species Problematic?........................................................................................... 81 Are Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration........................................................................... 83 Recommendations for Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration.............................................................................................................................................   86 With Rationality and Objectivity for the Alien........................................................................... 86

5.4 6

Monitoring and Success Control.......................................................................................... 89

6.1 6.2 6.3

 Ecological Monitoring: Basics and Recommendations for Practice.................................... 92 When Is a Restoration Project Successful?................................................................................... 95 Ecological and Nature Conservation Parameters for Monitoring and Success Control������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   97 Case Studies and Best Practice........................................................................................................ 103

6.4

II

Restoration of Specific Ecosystems and Land-­Use Types in Central Europe and the Alps

7

Forests................................................................................................................................................... 107

 Forest History in Central Europe Under Human Impact: From Natural Forests to Intensive Timber Production........................................................................................ 112 7.2 Vegetation and Ecology of Central European Forests............................................................. 118 7.3 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Provided by Forests..................................................... 121 7.4 Degradation of Forests and the Need for Restoration............................................................ 129 7.5 National and International Frameworks and Restoration Goals.......................................... 133 7.6 The Concept of Differentiated Forest Management................................................................ 134 7.7 Assessment of Forest Naturalness.................................................................................................. 135 7.8 Use of Natural Processes for the Restoration of Forests and Forest Sites......................... 136 7.8.1 Regeneration of Anthropogenically Degraded Topsoil and Atmogenic Nitrogen Input...............................................................................................................................................136 7.8.2 Natural Regeneration of Target Tree Species in Coniferous Monocultures.............................137 7.8.3 On the Importance of Short-Lived Tree Species for Forest Restoration...................................138 7.9 Restoration of Wetland Forests....................................................................................................... 142 7.10 Restoration of Forest Landscapes................................................................................................... 144 7.11 Preservation and Revitalisation of Traditional Forest Uses................................................... 144 7.12 Case Study: New Forest and New Forest Landscapes After Open-Cast Lignite Mining in the Rhineland—Recultivation in the Südrevier..................................................... 148 7.1

8

Peatland............................................................................................................................................... 153

8.1

 From Natural to Degraded Peatlands: The History of Peatland Use in Central Europe.......................................................................................................................... 155 Ecology and Typology of Peatlands............................................................................................... 159 Ecosystem Services of Peatland...................................................................................................... 164 Assessing the Degradation of Peatland....................................................................................... 170 Regional, National, and International Peatland Protection Initiatives.............................. 171 Initiating Peatland Restoration and Restoration Objectives................................................. 172 Restoration Measures......................................................................................................................... 172

8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7

XV Contents

8.7.1 Rewetting........................................................................................................................................................173 8.7.2 Shallow Peat Removal (Flachabtorfung)..............................................................................................174 8.7.3 Introduction of Target Species and Nurse Plants..............................................................................175 8.7.4 Dynamics of Phosphorus and Nutrient Removal.............................................................................176 8.8 Protection Through Peatland Use: Integrative Peatland Restoration................................ 178 8.8.1 Reed as Multipurpose Plant Species on Peatlands..........................................................................178 8.8.2 Forestry on Fens...........................................................................................................................................179 8.9 Monitoring and Success Control..................................................................................................... 180 8.10 Case Study: The Dosenmoor in Schleswig-Holstein................................................................. 182 9

Subalpine and Alpine Grassland......................................................................................... 185

 The Alps as a Living and Economic Space.................................................................................... 186 Ecological Site Conditions of the High Mountains................................................................... 188 Alpine Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the European Alps��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  191 9.4 Challenges of the Restoration of High-Altitude Mountain Sites.......................................... 192 9.5 Restoration Objectives for the High Altitudes of the Alps..................................................... 196 9.6 Restoration Measures in the Subalpine and Alpine Mountain Sites.................................. 196 9.6.1 Suppressing Forest and Shrub Succession.........................................................................................196 9.6.2 Re-vegetation of Ski Slopes and Degraded Pastureland...............................................................197 9.6.3 Nutrient Removal on Eutrophicated Sites...........................................................................................202 9.6.4 Re-introduction of Animal and Plant Species....................................................................................204 9.7 Avoiding Interventions in the High Altitudes of the Alps...................................................... 204 9.8 Case Study: The Restoration of an Alpine Cultural Landscape Through Pasture Management in Styria......................................................................................  204 9.1 9.2 9.3

10

Rivers and Floodplains............................................................................................................... 209

10.1 Ecology of Rivers and Their Floodplains....................................................................................... 211 10.2 History of Use and Degradation of Rivers and Floodplains................................................... 214 10.3 Ecosystem Services of Rivers and Floodplains........................................................................... 220 10.4 Ecological Status Assessment of Rivers........................................................................................ 222 10.5 International Initiatives for the Restoration of Rivers............................................................. 224 10.6 Measures for River Restoration....................................................................................................... 225 10.6.1 Interventions in the River Morphology................................................................................................225 10.6.2 Improvement of Physical and Chemical Water Conditions...........................................................228 10.6.3 Re-introduction of Target Species..........................................................................................................228 10.6.4 Removal of Undesired Plant Species.....................................................................................................229 10.7 Success Control..................................................................................................................................... 229 10.8 Case Study: Elbe Floodplain Near Lenzen—Natural Dynamics in a Cultural Landscape Shaped by the River............................................................................. 230 11

Natural and Anthropogenic Lakes...................................................................................... 235

11.1 Diversity of Lakes in Central Europe.............................................................................................. 238 11.2 Ecology of Lakes................................................................................................................................... 240 11.2.1 Stratification, Zonation, and Sedimentation......................................................................................240 11.2.2 Flora and Vegetation of Lakes and Lakeshores.................................................................................243 11.3 Anthropogenic Impacts on Lakes................................................................................................... 244

XVI

Contents

11.3.1 Eutrophication and Pollution...................................................................................................................244 11.3.2 Temperature Increase in Lakes................................................................................................................247 11.3.3 Obstruction of Lakeshores........................................................................................................................248 11.3.4 Non-native Species in Lakes.....................................................................................................................248 11.4 Ecological Status Assessment of Lakes......................................................................................... 250 11.5 Ecosystem Services of Lakes............................................................................................................. 250 11.5.1 Habitat for Species and Biocenoses......................................................................................................250 11.5.2 Fishery..............................................................................................................................................................251 11.5.3 Self-Purification of Water...........................................................................................................................251 11.5.4 Carbon Storage in Lakes............................................................................................................................252 11.5.5 Quality of Life and Human Health..........................................................................................................252 11.5.6 Lakes as Archives for Landscape History and Environmental Change.....................................252 11.6 Restoration Measures in Lakes and on Their Shores................................................................ 253 11.6.1 Restoration of the Lakeshore...................................................................................................................253 11.6.2 Interventions in the Lake Sediment......................................................................................................255 11.6.3 Interventions in the Water Body.............................................................................................................256 11.6.4 Biomanipulation as an Intervention in the Food Web of Lakes...................................................258 11.6.5 Biological Lake Management with the Zebra Mussel.....................................................................260 11.6.6 Harvesting of Submerged and Floating Macrophytes for Nutrient Removal........................261 11.7 Concluding Assessment of Lake Restoration Measures.......................................................... 261 11.8 Case Study: Lake Tegel in Berlin as an Urban Water Ecosystem........................................... 262 12

Coastal and Inland Salt Grassland...................................................................................... 265

12.1 Coastal Salt Grassland........................................................................................................................ 266 12.1.1 Ecology and Vegetation of Saline Coastal Habitats.........................................................................266 12.1.2 Ecosystem Services of Coastal Salt Grassland....................................................................................269 12.1.3 Land-Use History and Environmental Changes of Coastal Salt Grassland..............................272 12.1.4 Environmental Policy Framework for the Protection and Restoration of Coastal Habitats in Central and Western Europe.........................................................................275 12.1.5 Measures for the Restoration of Salt Grassland.................................................................................279 12.1.6 Case Study: Restoration of Salt Grassland in the National Park Wadden Sea on the North Sea Island of Langeoog...............................................................283 12.2 Inland Saline Habitats......................................................................................................................... 287 12.2.1 Occurrence, Ecology, and Nature Conservation of Natural Inland Saline Sites in Central Europe....................................................................................................287 12.2.2 Secondary Inland Saline Habitats..........................................................................................................290 12.2.3 Land-Use History, Degradation, and Threats to Inland Saline Habitats...................................290 12.2.4 Restoration Measures on Inland Saline Habitats..............................................................................292 12.2.5 Case Study: Inland Saline Habitat Altensalzwedel in Saxony-Anhalt—Initial Success of a Restoration Project.............................................................................................................293 13

Marine Habitats in the North Sea and Baltic Sea...................................................... 295

13.1 Marine Ecosystems of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea......................................................... 297 13.1.1 North Sea........................................................................................................................................................297 13.1.2 Baltic Sea.........................................................................................................................................................298 13.2 Anthropogenic Evironmental Impacts on the Marine Ecosystems of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea............................................................................................... 299

XVII Contents

13.3 Ecosystem Services and Threatened Marine Habitats............................................................. 306 13.4 International Marine Protection Initiatives................................................................................. 307 13.5 An Overarching Concept for the Restoration of Marine Ecosystem Services.................. 309 13.6 Measures for the Restoration of Marine Habitats..................................................................... 310 13.6.1 Interventions in the Biotic Ecosystem Compartments...................................................................310 13.6.2 Interventions in the Abiotic Conditions...............................................................................................312 14

Lowland and Mountain Heaths............................................................................................. 315

14.1 Vegetation Formation Heath and Its Distribution in Europe................................................ 316 14.2 Origin and Land-Use History of Heathland................................................................................. 317 14.3 Ecology and Dynamics of Heathland............................................................................................ 320 14.3.1 Climate, Soil, Vegetation, and Fauna.....................................................................................................320 14.3.2 Development Phases of Calluna Heaths..............................................................................................325 14.4 Reasons for the Restoration of Heathland................................................................................... 326 14.5 Restoration Measures......................................................................................................................... 330 14.5.1 Restoration and Management of Dry Sandy Lowland Heaths....................................................330 14.5.2 Restoration of Wet Lowland Heaths......................................................................................................335 14.5.3 Restoration of Coastal Heaths.................................................................................................................335 14.6 Particular Challenges for the Restoration and Management of Heaths............................ 336 14.7 Case Study: Land Use and Nature Conservation Between Past, Present, and Future—Restoration of Mountain Heaths in the Hochsauerland............................... 338 15

Mesophilic, Wet, and Calcareous Grassland................................................................. 343

 Land-Use History of Grassland in Central Europe..................................................................... 345 A Short Glimpse into the Ecology of Grassland......................................................................... 348 Degradation of Grassland................................................................................................................. 354 Ecosystem Services of Extensively Used, Species-Rich Grassland....................................... 357 Initiatives and Environmental Programmes for the Restoration of Species-­Rich Grassland................................................................................................................. 358 15.6 Measures to Restore Grassland Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services............................... 360 15.6.1 Restoration of Grassland After Other Intermediate Land Uses...................................................363 15.6.2 Grassland Restoration by Mowing, Grazing, and Shrub Removal..............................................364 15.6.3 Topsoil Removal and Inversion...............................................................................................................365 15.6.4 Lowering the Nutrient Level After Eutrophication (Aushagerung).............................................366 15.6.5 Rewetting for the Restoration of Wet Grassland...............................................................................367 15.6.6 Re-introduction of Target Species and Diaspore Transfer.............................................................367 15.6.7 Inoculation with Mycorrhizal Fungi.......................................................................................................370 15.7 Case Study: Grassland Restoration in the Rhön Biosphere Reserve—An Initiative for Cultural Landscape and Regional Rural Development....... 372 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5

16

Coastal and Inland Sandy Dry Grassland....................................................................... 375

16.1 Occurrence and Historical Development of Sandy Sites in Central Europe..................... 376 16.1.1 Coastal Dunes................................................................................................................................................376 16.1.2 Inland Sand Ecosystems............................................................................................................................377 16.2 Ecology and Dynamics of Sandy Dry Grassland........................................................................ 379 16.3 Protection of Species, Habitats, and the Cultural Landscape and Reasons for Grassland Restoration........................................................................................ 381

XVIII

Contents

16.4 Restoration Strategies and Measures for Open Sand Habitats............................................ 385 16.4.1 Grazing.............................................................................................................................................................386 16.4.2 Topsoil Removal and Inversion...............................................................................................................386 16.4.3 Application of Low-Nutrient Deep Sand.............................................................................................387 16.4.4 Long-Term Nutrient Removal (Aushagerung).....................................................................................387 16.4.5 Manual and Mechanical Diaspore Transfer of Target Species......................................................388 16.4.6 Allowing for Natural Dynamics...............................................................................................................388 16.5 Case Study: The Former Military Training Area Döberitz—Megaherbivores and Sheep Replace Military Tanks.................................................................................................. 389 17

Species-Rich Arable Land......................................................................................................... 393

17.1 17.2 17.3

 History: From a Sea of Flowers to a High-Performance Field................................................ 394 Flora, Fauna, and Vegetation of Arable Land.............................................................................. 397 Nature Conservation and Restoration Strategies: Species-Rich Protective Fields and Marginal Strips............................................................................................ 399 Case Study: Extensification for the Restoration of Species-­Rich Arable Land in North-­Eastern Germany....................................................................................... 404

17.4

18

Traditional Agroforestry Systems....................................................................................... 409

18.1 Traditional Orchards (Streuobstwiesen).......................................................................................... 410 18.1.1 Land-Use History and Current Status....................................................................................................410 18.1.2 Ecosystem Services and Nature Conservation..................................................................................411 18.1.3 Conservation and Restoration Initiatives............................................................................................412 18.1.4 Case Study: Europe Promotes Bird Conservation in Orchards in Baden-Württemberg.......414 18.2 Larch Meadows and Pastures in the Alps..................................................................................... 415 18.2.1 Occurrence and Land Use.........................................................................................................................415 18.2.2 Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity and Carbon Storage...................................................................417 18.2.3 Maintaining an Element of the Traditional Cultural Landscape..................................................417 18.3 Tree Meadows in Scandinavia and the Baltic Region.............................................................. 418 19

Urban Ecosystems.......................................................................................................................... 419

19.1 19.2 19.3

 Ecological Characteristics of Urban Ecosystems........................................................................ 422 Urban Environment and Human Health....................................................................................... 428 Motivation and National and International Initiatives for the Restoration of Urban Nature.................................................................................................................................... 431 Restoration Measures in Urban Environments.......................................................................... 432 New Approaches to Urban Greening and the Restoration of Urban Nature................... 434 International Perspective on Sustainable Urban Development.......................................... 437 Case Study: Wilderness in the City Centre—The Schöneberger Südgelände in Berlin.................................................................................................................................................... 437

19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7

20

Mining Sites and Landfills........................................................................................................ 441

20.1 Ecological Characteristics of Mining Sites and Post-Mining Areas..................................... 444 20.1.1 Area Size..........................................................................................................................................................444 20.1.2 Geomorphology...........................................................................................................................................444 20.1.3 Geology and Soils........................................................................................................................................445 20.1.4 Water Balance and Water Quality...........................................................................................................445

XIX Contents

20.1.5 Flora, Fauna, and Vegetation....................................................................................................................446 20.2 Planning and Legal Framework for the Restoration of Mining Sites.................................. 448 20.3 Passive and Active Ecosystem Restoration on Mining Sites.................................................. 449 20.4 Restoration of Mining Heaps............................................................................................................ 455 20.5 Restoration of Landfills...................................................................................................................... 457 20.6 Case Study: Chalk Quarries on the Island of Rügen—Anthropogenic Diversity of Species and Habitats................................................................................................... 459

III

Ecosystem Restoration Serving Nature and Humans: Aspects from the Social Sciences and Humanities

21

Reasons and Motivations for Ecosystem Restoration............................................ 465

21.1 Environmental Facts and Figures.................................................................................................... 466 21.2 Degradation and Ecosystem Services: Costs and Benefits..................................................... 467 21.3 Legal Obligations and International Conventions and Agreements.................................. 468 21.3.1 National Requirements..............................................................................................................................468 21.3.2 International Conventions and Agreements......................................................................................468 21.4 Justification and Motivation Derived From Environmental Ethics, Religion, and Emotions...................................................................................................................... 471 22

 ctors and Stakeholders and Their Role in Ecosystem Restoration: A Conflict Resolution and Acceptance Through Participation............................. 473

22.1 Actor and Stakeholder Analysis...................................................................................................... 474 22.2 Actors and Stakeholders in Nature Conservation and Ecosystem Restoration.............. 476 22.3 Lack of Acceptance as a Limiting Factor of Ecosystem Restoration.................................... 480 22.3.1 Re-introduction of Large Carnivores.....................................................................................................481 22.3.2 Rejection of Natural Processes................................................................................................................481 22.3.3 Promoting Acceptance Through Information...................................................................................482 22.4 Science and Practice Pull Together: Transdisciplinary Approaches.................................... 483 23

Restoration Economy: Costs and Benefits..................................................................... 487

23.1 Methods for the Assessment of Costs and Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration.............. 489 23.1.1 Market Price and Cost-Based Methods................................................................................................489 23.1.2 Methods for the Economic Valuation of Non-market Goods.......................................................490 23.1.3 Habitat and Resource Equivalency Analysis.......................................................................................490 23.1.4 Benefit Transfer.............................................................................................................................................491 23.2 Opportunity Costs............................................................................................................................... 491 23.3 Comprehensive Cost-Benefit Analysis: From Degradation to Restoration....................... 492 23.4 What Factors Influence Restoration Costs?................................................................................. 492 23.5 Funding Sources for Ecosystem Restoration.............................................................................. 494 23.6 Costs and Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration with Examples from Europe..................... 496 23.6.1 Grassland Restoration: Introduction of Target Species..................................................................496 23.6.2 Heathland Restoration and Management in North-West Germany..........................................498 23.6.3 Grazing for the Restoration and Management of Open-Land Habitats...................................499 23.6.4 Ecosystem Restoration for Climate Protection..................................................................................502 23.6.5 Wild and Honey Bees as Pollinators in Agriculture..........................................................................503 23.7 First Calculate Costs and Benefits, Then Act............................................................................... 504

XX

Contents

24

Norms and Values in Ecosystem Restoration............................................................... 507

24.1 Environmental Ethics and Implications for Ecosystem Restoration................................... 510 24.1.1 Faking Nature? Criticism on Ecosystem Restoration From Environmental Ethics................513 24.2 Ecosystem Restoration as an Implementation of Strong Sustainability........................... 515 24.3 Traditional Ecological Knowledge.................................................................................................. 515 24.4 Environmental Anthropology.......................................................................................................... 516 24.5 Ecosystem Restoration as Active Responsibility for Creation............................................... 518 24.6 Restoration Measures Put to the Ethical Test Bench................................................................ 519 24.6.1 Application of Pesticides in Ecosystem Restoration........................................................................520 24.6.2 Controlled Burning to Restore and Preserve Open Land..............................................................520 24.6.3 Topsoil Removal............................................................................................................................................523 24.7 Non-native Organisms and Xenophobia...................................................................................... 525

IV Synthesis 25

Conclusions and Outlook.......................................................................................................... 529

25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4

 Limiting Factors for Ecosystem Restoration................................................................................ 530 Degradation in the Long Term and Restoration in the Short Term?................................... 532 Restoration of Eutrophicated Terrestrial and Aquatic Habitats: A Sisyphean Task?...... 534 Limits to Planability, Uncertainties, and the Unforeseen: Allowing for More Dynamics............................................................................................................ 536 Ecosystem Restoration in the Light of Current Trends............................................................ 537 Ecosystem Restoration at Any Price?............................................................................................. 538 Scientific Knowledge, Knowledge Transfer, and Socio-Political Decisions...................... 538 Final Conclusion.................................................................................................................................... 539

25.5 25.6 25.7 25.8

Supplementary Information Appendix: List of Species..................................................................................................................... 542 References............................................................................................................................................... 566

XXI

About the Author Stefan Zerbe Professor of Environment and Applied Botany at the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano in South Tyrol (Italy) Stefan Zerbe studied biology at the Universities of Würzburg and Stuttgart-Hohenheim in Germany, specializing in vegetation ecology. He was a research assistant at the University of Würzburg and the Technical University of Berlin, where he received his doctorate in 1992. In 1998, he was awarded his habilitation in botany. He performed research and university teaching at the Institute of Ecology at the TU Berlin until 2005. After a guest professorship in biology and botany at the TU Berlin, he took the Chair of Geobotany and Landscape Ecology at the University of Greifswald in 2005, where he also became the Managing Director of the Institute of Botany and Landscape Ecology. In 2009, he followed a direct call to the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano in South Tyrol as a professor for Environment and Applied Botany. Stefan Zerbe developed and implemented two international Master’s programs, i.e., Landscape Ecology and Nature Conservation (LENC) at the University of Greifswald and Environmental Management of Mountain Areas (EMMA) at the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano. Numerous disciplinary and interdisciplinary research projects and cooperations on the national and international level have resulted in more than 300 scientific publications, book contributions, and monographs. In addition to a wide range of other interests and topics in research and teaching, Stefan Zerbe has been working on restoration ecology and the restoration of ecosystems since his doctoral thesis on the vegetation of Norway spruce monocultures and their conversion to mixed broad-leaved forests by integrating natural ecological processes. This textbook is, therefore, both a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in an inter- and transdisciplinary perspective as well as a reflection of the author’s own research work and experiences regarding sustainable land use, environmental protection, and resource efficiency.

1

Fundamentals Contents Chapter 1

Introduction to Restoration Ecology – 3

Chapter 2

 hich Ecosystem Should Be Restored? W Reference Systems for Restoration – 31

Chapter 3

 easures in the Practice of Ecosystem M Restoration – 43

Chapter 4

 e-introduction of Plant and Animal R Species – 59

Chapter 5

 ealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem D Restoration – 79

Chapter 6

Monitoring and Success Control – 89

I

3

Introduction to Restoration Ecology Contents 1.1

 cosystem Restoration and Restoration Ecology E From a Historical Perspective – 8

1.2

 cological Terms and Key Concepts as a Basis E for Ecosystem Restoration – 12

1.2.1 1.2.2

S pecies and Populations – 12 Ecosystems and Landscapes – 16

1.3

Ecosystem Services – 22

1.4

Degradation of Ecosystems – 24

1.5

 hat Does Ecosystem Restoration Mean? W A Definition – 24

1.6

Scales of Restoration – 28

1.7

 cosystem Restoration in Relation to  E the Practice of Other Disciplines – 29

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Zerbe, Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65658-7_1

1

4

1

Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

Ecosystem restoration has become an increasing challenge worldwide in recent decades to counteract the loss of ecosystem services and to restore natural resources and natural capital at the local, regional, and global level (Aronson et  al. 2007; Jackson and Hobbs 2009; Zerbe et al. 2009). There is

a comprehensive scientific basis and many decades of practice in ecosystem restoration. Restoration ecology, as a sub-discipline of ecology and landscape ecology, respectively, has made a considerable contribution to this (see overview of textbooks in . Table 1.1). However, there is also consenst today that an  

..      Table 1.1  Selection of thematically and geographically comprehensive textbooks on restoration ecology and ecosystem restoration from 1980 to 2022, arranged chronologically by the year of publication Authors

Year

Book title

Bradshaw and Chadwick

1980

The Restoration of Land: The Ecology and Reclamation of Derelict and Degraded Land

Jordan III et al.

1987

Restoration Ecology: A Synthetic Approach to Ecological Research

Berger

1990

Environmental Restoration: Science and Strategies for Restoring the Earth

Baldwin et al.

1994

Beyond Preservation: Restoring and Inventing Landscapes

Harris et al.

1996

Land Restoration and Reclamation, Principles and Practice

Elliot

1997

Faking Nature: Ethics of Environmental Restoration

Rana

1998

Damaged Ecosystems and Restoration

Harker et al.

1999

Landscape Restoration Handbook

Bradshaw

2000

Methods in Ecological Restoration

Gobster and Hull

2000

Restoring nature: Perspectives from the Social Sciences and Humanities

Throop

2000

Environmental Restoration: Ethics, Theory, and Practice

Urbanska et al.

2000

Restoration Ecology and Sustainable Development

Perrow and Davy

2002

Handbook of Ecological Restoration: Restoration in Practice

Mitsch and Jørgensen

2003

Ecological Engineering and Ecosystem Restoration

Higgs

2003

Nature by Design: People, Natural Process, and Ecological Restoration

Wong and Bradshaw

2003

The Restoration and Management of Derelict Land: Modern Approaches

Temperton et al.

2004

Assembly Rules and Restoration Ecology: Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice

Egan and Howell

2005

The Historical Ecology Handbook: A Restorationist’s Guide to Reference Ecosystems

Falk et al.

2006

Foundations of Restoration Ecology

Friederici

2006

Nature’s Restoration: People and Places on the Front Lines of Conservation

Aronson et al.

2007

Restoring Natural Capital: Science, Business, and Practice

Boyce et al.

2007

Reclaiming Nature: Environmental Justice and Ecological Restoration

Naveh

2007

Transdisciplinary Challenges in Landscape Ecology and Restoration Ecology – An Anthology

1

5 Introduction to Restoration Ecology

..      Table 1.1 (continued) Authors

Year

Book title

Walker et al.

2007

Linking Restoration and Ecological Succession

Hobbs and Suding

2008

New Models for Ecosystem Dynamics and Restoration

Lennartz

2008

Renaturierung: Programmatik und Effektivitätsmessung

Perrow and Davy

2008

Handbook of Ecological Restoration: Principles of Restoration

Morrison

2009

Restoring Wildlife: Ecological Concepts and Practice of Applications

Pardue and Olvera

2009

Ecological Restoration

Zerbe and Wiegleb

2009

Renaturierung von Ökosystemen in Mitteleuropa

Brown et al.

2010

Sustainable Land Development and Restoration: Decision Consequence Analysis

Comín

2010

Ecological Restoration: A Global Challenge

Tongway and Ludwig

2010

Restoring Disturbed Landscapes: Putting Principles into Practice

Egan et al.

2011

Human Dimensions of Ecological Restoration: Integrating Science, Nature, and Culture

Greipsson

2011

Restoration Ecology

Jordan III and Lubick

2011

Making Nature Whole: A History of Ecological Restoration

Allison

2012

Ecological Restoration and Environmental Change: Renewing Damaged Ecosystems

Andel and Aronson

2012

Restoration Ecology: The New Frontier

Galatowitsch

2012

Ecological Restoration

Howell et al.

2012

Introduction to Restoration Ecology

Prasad

2012

Restoration and Conservation Ecology

Carmen Santa-­Regina and Santa-­Regina

2013

Restoration and Ecosystem Consequences of Changing Biodiversity

Clewell and Aronson

2013

Ecological Restoration: Principles, Values, and Structure of an Emerging Profession

Van Wieren

2013

Restored to Earth: Christianity, Environmental Ethics, and Ecological Restoration

Rieger et al.

2014

Project Planning and Management for Ecological Restoration

Simonis et al.

2014

Re-Naturierung: Gesellschaft im Einklang mit der Natur

Chabay et al.

2015

Land Restoration: Reclaiming Landscapes for a Sustainable Future

Pereira and Navarro

2015

Rewilding European Landscapes

Palmer et al.

2016

Foundations of Restoration Ecology

Squires

2016

Ecological Restoration: Global Challenges, Social Aspects, and Environmental Benefits

Telesetsky et al.

2016

Ecological Restoration in International Environmental Law (continued)

6

..      Table 1.1 (continued) Authors

Year

Book title

Allison and Murphy

2017

Routledge Handbook of Ecological and Environmental Restoration

Zerbe

2019

Renaturierung von Ökosystemen im Spannungsfeld von Mensch und Umwelt

Akhtar-­Khavari and Richardson

2019

Ecological restoration law. Concepts and case studies

Kollmann et al.

2019

Renaturierungsökologie

Holl

2020

Primer of ecological restoration

Zerbe

2022

Restoration of multifunctional cultural landscapes. Merging tradition and innovation for a sustainable future

Practical contribution from ...

Ecology, Soil Science, Chemistry, Hydrology, Biology,

Restoration Ecology Landscape Ecology, Agricultural and Forest Sciences, etc.

Economics, Sociology, Anthropology, Historical Sciences, Ethnology, Psychology, Theology, Health Sciences, etc.

Nature Conservation

Ecosystem Restoration

Natural Sciences

Scientific contributioin from ...

Social Sciences/ Humanities

1

Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

Landscape Planning Landscape Architecture Biological/Ecological Engineering Environmental Chemistry

..      Fig. 1.1  The practice of ecosystem restoration in an interdisciplinary context, scientifically supported by the natural as well as the social sciences and humanities, respectively, and with practical contribu-

tions from applied research in various disciplines. The illustrated overlap of the natural sciences with the social sciences and humanities is intended to highlight the transdisciplinary character of restoration ecology

ecosystem or land-use type with its specific ecosystem services can only be successfully restored if not only ecological principles and fundamentals are taken into account, but ecosystem restoration is also embedded in a socio-economic context (Cairns and Heckman 1996; Higgs 1997; Gobster and Hull 2000; Throop 2000; van Diggelen et al.

2001; Aronson et al. 2007; Egan et al. 2011; Squires 2016). The practice of ecosystem restoration is thus interacting with numerous other scientific disciplines and their implications for practice (. Fig.  1.1). Restoring functioning ecosystems with their services on a former industrial site in an urban area, for example, especially if elaborate measures  

1

7 Introduction to Restoration Ecology

are applied, needs a cost calculation as well as the integration of stakeholders and decision-­ makers. Restoration ecology becomes transdisciplinary when it applies concepts and methodologies of the social sciences and humanities, respectively, or “goes beyond traditional system boundaries” (Rentz 2004, p.  150) to solve complex environmental problems (see Mittelstrass 2011; Bernstein 2015; on Mode 1 of transdisciplinarity, see Scholz 2011; Scholz and Steiner 2015a; 7 Sect. 22.4). One of the main drivers or justifications for ecosystem restoration is considered to be the loss and restoration of biodiversity at the species (including genetic diversity), ecosystem, and landscape level. This is highlighted repeatedly in review studies, for example for heathlands (. Fig.  1.2) and peatlands  

 

(Bonnett et al. 2009). There is no doubt that biodiversity loss is a global environmental problem that has been pointed out by science and the practice of nature conservation for decades (e.g., Ehrlich 1994; Tilman et  al. 1994; Pimm et  al. 1995; Sala et  al. 2000; Barthlott et  al. 2008/2009; Cardinale et  al. 2012; Hooper et al. 2012) and has been translated into environmental policies and actions in many countries around the world, at least since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Nevertheless, the focus of ecosystem restoration on the conservation and restoration of biodiversity falls short if the entire ecosystem services (7 Sect. 1.3) are not comprehensively integrated into a qualitative and quantitative assessment against the background of sustainability (7 Chap. 24).  

 

60 Biodiversity Nature conservation

Number of publicaitons

50

Restoration

40

30

20

10

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1990

0

Year ..      Fig. 1.2  Scientific publications on heathlands with a focus on biodiversity, conservation, and restoration in the period 1900–2011. (After Fagúndez 2013)

8

1

Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

First, this chapter presents important fundamentals of restoration ecology that are indispensable as a scientific basis for the following chapters. A brief historical overview of ecosystem restoration and restoration ecology is given. Basic ecological terms and key concepts are explained, which provide the scientific basis for the practice of ecosystem restoration. In particular, the concept of ecosystem services is addressed and the term degradation is discussed. An up-to-date definition of ecosystem restoration is derived from the current state of knowledge. Finally, this chapter outlines the different scales of ecosystem and landscape restoration. Part I of this book focuses on aspects of the natural sciences, and Part II bridges the gap to the social sciences and humanities, respectively, and their implications for ecosystem restoration. 1.1

Ecosystem Restoration and Restoration Ecology From a Historical Perspective

The “restoration” of ecosystems is as old and common as man started to create settlements and perform agriculture, i.e., in principle it goes back to the Neolithic Period, for nothing other than a type of restoration is fallow on cultivated agricultural land, where abiotic resources regenerate. As the brief outline of the history of agriculture in 7 Chap. 17 shows, fallow in the traditional three-field agricultural system only came to an end when mineral fertilizer was introduced, thus allowing for an increase in agricultural yields through a permanent nutrient supply. One of the largest and most comprehensive restoration projects in Central Europe was the afforestation of the open cultural landscape with coniferous trees about 200  years ago, after a period of over-­ exploitation of the timber resources. Grazing, forest clearance, litter gathering, and other

uses that depleted the natural abiotic and biotic resources had led to a large-scale loss of forests and thus of timber as a natural resource. Woodland had been largely vanished in many regions, and heathland and poor grassland covered large parts of Central Europe. The afforestation, especially with Scots pine in the lowlands and Norway spruce in the mountain ranges, particularly since the end of the eighteenth century, also marked the beginning of regulated forestry (7 Chap. 7) and the concept of sustainability (7 Chap. 24). Still without the theoretical foundations of modern restoration ecology, overused and degraded sites had already been restored since the beginning of the last century. For example, the neo-baroque Körnerpark in Neukölln (Berlin) was created between 1912 and 1916 as a recultivation measure on the site of a former gravel pit. The high significance of this park today in terms of ecosystem services in one of the most densely populated districts of Berlin (Statistical Report 2016 for Neukölln: 14,295 inhabitants per km2) is easily revealed to the visitor by the number of people there on a summer day (. Fig. 1.3). Experiences in ecosystem restoration through several decades are available, particularly for rivers, peatlands, lakes, and the large-scale open-cast lignite mining landscapes. Restoration ecology has developed  

 

 

 

..      Fig. 1.3  The Körnerpark in Berlin-Neukölln, created in the early twentieth century as the recultivation of a former gravel pit. (S. Zerbe, August 2017)

1

9 1.1 · Ecosystem Restoration and Restoration Ecology From a Historical…

conceptually and methodologically from all these different experiences in the various ecosystems and land-use types, respectively. The restoration of the characteristic prairies in North America since the 1930s are regarded as internationally trend-setting for the development of restoration ecology. In this context, the restoration of the Curtis Prairie of the University of Wisconsin-­ Madison Arboretum is considered as one of the first initiatives (Sperry 1983; Cottam 1987; Wegener et  al. 2008), even though this was not a scientifically documented experiment of restoration ecology (Anderson 2009) and has more the character of a founding myth of restoration ecology (Jordan III and Lubick 2011, p. 75). Looking at Central Europe, the first targeted attempts to restore ecosystems on a scientific basis also start during this period. If we disregard the first initiatives before 1920, more extensive recultivation measures with afforestation began in the lignite mining area of North Rhine-Westphalia between 1920 and 1945 (Schölmerich 2013). Today, these ­afforestations, some of which are very close to nature and represent interesting experimental areas of forest restoration, are already more than 80  years old (7 Chap. 7). Also, there are ecological studies on mining spoil heaps. In the 1960s, for example, Bornkamm (1985) established permanent plots for the investigation of vegetation development and natural re-colonization processes on the dumping sites of opencast lignite mining. Conceptually already well rooted in the natural sciences (e.g., biology, ecology, hydrology), lake restoration projects have been carried out e.g., in Sweden (Björk 2014) since the 1960s. The restoration of peatlands and rivers with their floodplains also has a long history of practical experience (e.g., Brülisauer and Klötzli 1998; Succow and Joosten 2001; Jürging 2006). Since the 1990s, the forestry sector in many German states has been promoting forest conversion and thus the restoration of near-natural forests with silvicultural programmes based on  

nature conservation and ecological principles. Apart from these near-natural ecosystems, the focus today is on the one hand on traditional land-use systems of the cultural landscape, such as meadows, pastures, dry grasslands, and heaths, and on the other hand on highly disturbed landscapes such as mining sites (e.g., brown coal), military training areas, and urban-industrial sites. In addition to a large number of local and small-scale restoration projects, which are unfortunately often insufficiently documented scientifically, large-scale restoration projects, in particular, have provided an impetus for the development of restoration ecology. For example, many of the large-­scale nature conservation projects funded by the German government, with a total area of all projects funded to date of approximately 3700 km2 (. Fig. 1.4), encompass habitat restoration (Doerpinghaus and Bruker 2016). Similar to what Jordan III and Lubick (2011) have published with a focus on North America, it would certainly also be worthwhile to comprehensively review the history of restoration ecology and ecosystem restoration in Central Europe, also integrating the interactions of the natural and human sciences as well as the interdisciplinary impulses that result from this interaction of the various scientific disciplines. For the development of restoration ecology as a sub-discipline of ecology, the foundation of the Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) in 1987 must be considered an international milestone. The society comprises representatives from science and practice and offers a platform for the exchange of information with regular international conferences. In addition, SER publishes a Newsletter that provides information on current activities in research, teaching, and restoration practice 7 (7 www.­ser.­org). In comparison to these international activities, a working group on restoration ecology was founded 10 years later in 1997 within the Society for Ecology (Gesellschaft für Ökologie), which formed the joint Working  

 

 

10

Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

1

..      Fig. 1.4  Completed and ongoing large-scale nature conservation projects in Germany (state: 1st July, 2016); many of these projects aim at habitat restoration. (From Doerpinghaus and Bruker 2016)

Group on Nature Conservation and Restoration Ecology in 2016. In addition to the scientific journal Restoration Ecology, which is published by SER, other international scientific journals also focus on restoration ecology and ecosystem restoration, such as Environmental

Management, Ecological Restoration, Ecological Engineering, Land Degradation and Development, Landscape and Ecological Engineering, Restoration & Management Notes, and Ecological Management & Restoration. Many English- and Germanlanguage journals for science and practice,

1

11 1.1 · Ecosystem Restoration and Restoration Ecology From a Historical…

including those in the disciplines of ecology, animal ecology, vegetation ecology, landscape ecology, ecological engineering, agriculture and forestry, and environmental sciences, increasingly report on ecosystem restoration projects and experimental restoration studies sensu latu (see Ormerod 2003; Fagúndez 2013). Since the 1980s, comprehensive textbooks with different thematic and geographical focuses have been published continuously (. Table 1.1). Information on practical restoration projects is also provided by the financial sponsors of the projects (7 Chap. 23), such as the European Union, nature conservation associations, foundations (e.g., Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt, Michael Otto Environmental Foundation, Michael Succow Foundation, German Wildlife Foundation, the foundations within the German Stifterverband) or the national offices for nature conservation and environmental protection. In addition, references to restoration projects can be found in the municipalities or on their websites. A problem for restoration  

 

ecology, especially with regard to the critical analysis of the manifold practical experiences and their evaluation for future restoration projects, is that information is often difficult to find in the grey literature. In contrast to restoration projects that are successful, at least in the short term, there is often insufficient or no reporting at all on the failures, which makes it difficult to learn from them and to consistently further develop and adapt the approaches, methods, and measures of ecosystem restoration. Courses or modules on restoration ecology or ecosystem restoration are meanwhile offered at Bachelor’s or Master’s level at many universities in Europe as part of the degree courses in biology, ecology, landscape ecology, environmental and resource management, environmental and ecological engineering, agricultural and forest sciences, landscape planning, etc. Study programs that focus exclusively on ecosystem restoration, possibly with a special focus (e.g., on wetlands), have been comparatively rare in Europe to date (. Table  1.2). In contrast,  

..      Table 1.2  Examples of study programmes (Master’s programme (MSc) or further education) with a focus on ecosystem restoration and restoration ecology in Europe (state: 2019) Study program

University

Country

Type of Higher Education

Biology – Biodiversity: Conservation and Restoration

Antwerp

BEL

MSc

Ecology, Environmental Management, and Restoration

Barcelona

E

MSc

Environmental Diagnosis and Management

London (Royal Holloway)

UK

MSc

Environmental Protection: Restoration and Management of Environment

Warsaw

PL

MSc

Land Reclamation and Restoration

Cranfield

UK

MSc

Landscape Restoration for Sustainable Development: a Business Approach

Rotterdam (School of Management)

NL

Further education

Wetland science and Conservation

Bangor

UK

MSc

BEL Belgium, E Spain, NL Netherlands, PL Poland, UK United Kingdom

12

1

Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

ecosystem restoration and restoration ecology can be studied at universities outside Europe e.g., at the Simon Fraser University in Burnaby in Canada as well as at the Defiance College and Paul Smith’s College, the Montana State University, the State University of New York, the University of Texas, and the University of Florida in the United States of America (SER 2017). 1.2

Ecological Terms and Key Concepts as a Basis for Ecosystem Restoration

Restoration ecology, as a sub-discipline of ecology is based on its scientific terminology and key concepts. Many of these key concepts are applied in practical ecosystem restoration (. Table  1.4). In many cases, ecological hypotheses are verified or falsified in a trial-and-error process in the context of restoration projects. Bradshaw (1987, p. 23) has aptly expressed this in the words “ecosystem restoration is an acid test for ecology”. Even if, in the case of the need for immediate action (e.g., against the invasion of undesirable species) or novel habitat conditions (e.g., on abandoned industrial sites) and thus a lack of thorough scientific research, ecosystem restoration is more of an “art” than science according to van Diggelen et  al. (2001, p.  115), restoration ecology, nevertheless, has achieved a comprehensive knowledge level in recent decades that can be profitably incorporated into restoration practice. In the following chapters, some important ecological terms and key concepts are briefly outlined. Thereby, it is distinguishing between the population and species level and the ecosystem and landscape level, although this is not always consistently possible. For further study, please refer to the numerous ecological textbooks available (e.g., Chapman and Reiss 1999; Odum and Barrett 2004; Begon et  al. 2005; Schulze et  al. 2005; Smith and Smith 2009; Loreau  

2010; Chapin III et al. 2011; Nentwig et al. 2012; Frey and Lösch 2014; Leuschner and Ellenberg 2017a, b) and the relevant chapters of this book, where specific reference to ecosystem restoration is made (Part II). 1.2.1

Species and Populations

z Species Pool

The number of species in a given spatial landscape section (e.g., a forest ecosystem) is determined by the available species at the next higher spatial level (e.g., forest landscape, biogeographic region) (Zobel 1997; Zobel et al. 1998; Herben 2000; Lepš 2001; . Fig. 1.5). The species pool of a geographical area is not static, but dynamic. Today, this dynamic is mainly influenced by humans, i.e., species can disappear from the species pool due to the influence of land use and habitat changes (for the global situation, see IUCN 2016), or the anthropogenic introduction of non-native (non-indigenous, alien, exotic) species (neobiota; Kowarik 2010) increases the species pool, such as in cities (7 Chaps. 5 and 19). The re-introduction of species can change both the local (e.g., re-introduction of grassland species to a meadow) and the regional species pool (e.g., re-introduction of megaherbivores or large predators) (7 Chap. 4).  

 

 

z Metapopulation

According to the metapopulation model, populations of a species are spatially separated as sub-populations within their range (Hanski and Gaggiotti 2004). In this system of populations, the extinction of a local sub-­ population and its re-establishment through immigration results in a constant change in the spatial distribution of a species within the potential settlement area (Nentwig et al. 2012). The exchange of individuals (gene flow) in this system of populations also helps to ensure that sub-populations do not become genetically impoverished. Different models assume sub-populations of different

13 1.2 · Ecological Terms and Key Concepts as a Basis for Ecosystem Restoration

Global species pool

Speciation Large-scale migration

Regional species pool

Small-scale migration

Local species pool Dispersal

Biocenoses depending on the abiotic and biotic site factors

1

Re-introduction of species

(Re-)Introduction of target species

..      Fig. 1.5  The species pool at different spatial scales and a possible influence of species re-introduction. (After Zobel 1997, adapted)

sizes e.g., the model of island biogeography assumes one large as well as various small sub-populations (MacArthur and Wilson 1967) or that of various sub-populations of similar size (Levins 1969). Knowledge of a species’ population biology and ecology, as well as population dynamics, dispersal vectors, and habitat requirements, is essential for understanding these metapopulations on the one hand, and for deriving species and habitat conservation strategies and measures, on the other. Ecosystem restoration often aims to stabilize sub-populations, especially in a landscape that is highly fragmented due to intensive land use, with its (often isolated) remnants of biotopes valuable for nature conservation. Accordingly, appropriate abiotic site conditions are restored, or the local-regional species pool is replenished by reintroducing individuals (Biere et  al. 2012; Van Wieren 2012). An appropriate management e.g., in the context of a functional habitat network, should promote the exchange of individuals between sub-populations. Further implications of the metapopulation model for ecosystem restoration are discussed by Maschinski (2006).

z Diaspores and Soil Seed Bank

Diaspores are the propagules of plants. These include fruits and seeds of vascular plants, respectively, and spores of cryptogams (mosses, fungi, lichens). The diaspores form a seed bank in the soil, which can be short-lived (a few years) to long-lived (many decades) depending on the abiotic site conditions and the type of vegetation or land use. The soil seed bank of Central European vegetation and land-use types, respectively, is well studied (e.g., Schmid and Stöcklin 1991; Thompson et  al. 1997; Bonn and Poschlod 1998; Wäldchen et  al. 2005; Baskin and Baskin 2014; Murphy 2016) so that the practice of ecosystem restoration can benefit from this biological and ecological knowledge. Target species in the soil seed bank, the depletion of diaspores in the soil due to intensive land use, or even the complete loss e.g., after topsoil removal, are among the most important factors to be considered in restoration. Despite the given theoretical basis, it is often advisable to analyse the current, local diaspore bank. Then, the necessity of an artificial introduction of target species within a restoration project can be assessed. However, such studies, which deter-

14

1

Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

mine the living diaspores qualitatively and quantitatively, are usually time-­ consuming (e.g., Skowronek et al. 2013).

z Life Forms

Raunkiaer (1934) differentiated the plants according to the positioning of the buds enduring the unfavourable season into the z Dispersal Types of Plants life forms phanerophytes (trees and shrubs), The dispersal of plant diaspores is species-­ chamaephytes (dwarf shrubs), hemicryptospecific and is differentiated into dispersal phytes (herbaceous perennials, which protypes (Müller-Schneider 1986; Frank and duce buds at the soil surface), cryptophytes Klotz 1990; Bonn and Poschlod 1998). (plants with tubers, bulbs or rhizomes in the Depending on the dispersal vector, a distinc- soil or under water) and therophytes (survivtion is made between zoochory (by animals ing as seeds). Kratochwil and Schwabe with endo- and exozoochory), anemochory (2001) define a life form as the entire com(wind), hydrochory (water), and hemero- plex of species-specific characteristics that chory (by humans). In addition, there is auto- have evolved in adaptation to the special chory, in which the plant itself ensures the physiographic conditions (e.g., relief, clidispersal of diaspores from the mother plant mate, light) of a particular habitat. Hereby, by appropriate mechanisms, as in the case of morphological and physiological characterImpatiens species. The types of dispersal can istics enable the survival of a species in a be differentiated in even more detail, and the particular habitat. Today, the system of life same species may also follow different strate- forms is much more differentiated (e.g., gies. Species dispersal often plays a critical Ellenberg and Mueller-Dombois 1967; Frey role in habitat restoration. Since slow natural and Lösch 2014) and is also applied in anidispersal of certain species (in forests, for mal ecology, which differentiates life forms example, by ants) is often a limiting factor in according to the mode of feeding, locomoecosystem restoration, the target species are tion, and habitat (Koepcke 1973/1974; often (re-)introduced directly (e.g., by seed- Kratochwil and Schwabe 2001). Ellenberg ing, the application of hay, or by planting) or and Leuschner (2010) highlight that the proindirectly (e.g., via grazing animals) into the portion of trees in the Central European life habitat to be restored. form spectrum is very low at 1.8%, whereas 45% account for hemicryptophytes z Safe Site (. Table 1.3). Information on the life forms The microsite that ensures safe germination of Central European plant species can be and seedling development of a plant seed found in the list of indicator values by under the given abiotic and biotic site condi- Ellenberg et al. (2001). tions (see below) is referred to as a safe site (Harper et al. 1961; Kratochwil and Schwabe z Strategy Types 2001). Urbanska (2000) has extended this Plants and animals have developed certain concept to vegetative dispersal units, espe- strategies to cope with abiotic and biotic site cially with regard to restoration ecology. In factors and thus to increase or optimize addition, the same microsite can represent a their competitiveness. These strategies are protective site for diaspores of several spe- differentiated into strategy types. Starting cies. In particular, when introducing target from a simple differentiation into r and K species via diaspores, the restoration site strategists, Grime (1974, 1979) introduced must ensure that the corresponding safe sites three strategy types related to disturbances are available e.g., through rewetting (e.g., wet and resource supply in ecosystems: meadow) or topsoil disturbance through 55 Competitors: mostly long-lived, highly grazing (e.g., heathland or dry grassland). competitive species.  

15 1.2 · Ecological Terms and Key Concepts as a Basis for Ecosystem Restoration

..      Table 1.3  Life form spectrum of approximately 2880 vascular plant species of Central Europe (According to Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010) Life form

Abbr.

Description

%

Phanerophytes

P

Trees

1.8

Nanophanerophytes

N

Shrubs

8.4

Chamaephytes woody

Z

Dwarf shrubs

4.8

Chamaephytes herbaceous

C

Buds above ground

6.0

Hemicryptophytes

H

Buds near the soil surface

45.0

Geophytes

G

Perennial plant with an underground storage organ

10.4

Therophytes

T

Annual species

18.9

Hydrophytes

A

Surviving under water

4.6

55 Stress tolerators: mostly slow growing species on extreme sites with poorly available resources. 55 Ruderals: short-lived, mostly herbaceous species, which have a high growth rate, invest mainly in generative production (high seed numbers) and are adapted to frequent disturbance. In this system of strategy types, there are multiple transitions between the three types (Frank and Klotz 1990). Strategy types represent functional groups (see below) that are taken into account, for example, in the selection of target species in a particular habitat and its management.

1

z Functional Groups

In recent years, functional groups have gained increasing importance, especially in biodiversity research. These include plants (plant functional types), animals, or microorganisms that are similar in one or more morphological, physiological or phenological characteristics (functional traits) within the ecosystem and can thus be grouped (see Poschlod et  al. 2003; Violle et  al. 2007). Examples of such traits in plants are life forms (see above) or growth forms, leaf area, seed properties (e.g., weight, size), dispersal type (see above), and vegetative or generative reproduction. The diversity of functional groups is discussed, for example, in terms of ecosystem stability and resilience (see below) (e.g., Eisenhauer et  al. 2011; Byun et al. 2013; Fry et al. 2013). By qualitatively and quantitatively assessing functional groups, the causalities of ecosystem processes and in particular the effects of anthropogenic impact, ecosystem management, or restoration measures can be better understood (e.g., Duckworth et  al. 2000; Roscher et  al. 2012; von Gillhaussen et  al. 2014; Piekarska-Stachowiak et  al. 2014; Müller et al. 2016). According to the recommendations from the SER (2004), a restored ecosystem is characterized by the presence of all functional groups necessary for ecosystem development and stability; or the missing groups can potentially (re-)colonize the habitat naturally without further intervention (see below). z Ecosystem Engineers

Species that strongly influence their habitat physically, shaping it and thus directly or indirectly altering resource availability for other species, are called ecosystem engineers (Jones et  al. 1994; De Visser et  al. 2013). These can occur in all groups of organisms. For example, the European beaver (Castor fiber) plays an important role in the restora-

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Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

tion of riverine landscapes, as it can strongly influence vegetation as well as alter the landscape water balance (7 Chap. 10). Ecosystem engineers also exist among smallsized organisms (e.g., invertebrates) that can nevertheless occur in large individual numbers in a habitat, such as ants and earthworms (Jones et  al. 1994; Folgarait 1998; Jouquet et  al. 2006). Ecosystem engineers can make a significant contribution to habitat restoration by, for example, promoting the decomposition of organic matter (e.g., earthworms, microorganisms) or contributing to the dispersal of target species (e.g., ants, birds). However, as the example of the beaver shows, undesirable ecosystem changes can also occur.  

z Nurse Plants

Certain plant species positively influence other plants in their germination or growth (facilitation), for example by providing protection (e.g., in terms of microclimate) during germination and the establishment of the seedling (Ren et al. 2008). Other benefits may include protection against herbivory or improved nutrient and water supply at the microsite (safe site; see above). Nurse plants can be used in ecosystem restoration to promote vegetation development at extreme sites or specific target species (Frey and Lösch 2014). For example, in peatland restoration, hare’s tail cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum), common cottongrass (E. angustifolium) and silvery sedge (Carex canescens) have been identified as nurse plants (Sliva 1997; Wendel 2010). Nurse plants can also contribute to the restoration of former open-cast lignite mining areas with their sometimes extreme soil conditions or on alpine sites (Anthelme et al. 2014). z Mycorrhiza

Mycorrhiza is a symbiosis between fungi and vascular plants for the exchange of nutrients. The mycorrhizal fungi provide the plant with minerals and water and receive part of the assimilates produced by the pho-

tosynthesis of the vascular plants. Mycorrhiza, among many other applied aspects in ecosystem restoration (Turnau and Haselwandter 2002), plays a major role especially in trees and forest development, but also on nutrient-poor sites where there is a site-­specific nutrient limitation (e.g., phosphorus on calcareous dry grasslands). For example, in the case of reforestation on bare soil after open-cast lignite mining, inoculation with the corresponding fungi may be necessary to accelerate forest development (7 Chap. 20).  

z Bet Hedging

Plants spread the risk of germination, in that the seeds do not all germinate under suitable environmental conditions. Some remain dormant. Thus, seedling mortality under highly variable environmental conditions can be compensated for by germination of a proportion of seeds in another year (Philippi 1993). Animals also follow this strategy e.g., birds with their egg clutch and their different development (Freese and Zwölfer 1996; Olofsson et  al. 2009), or microorganisms with their spores (Baskin and Baskin 2014). This strategy is important for populations in habitats that are subject to highly variable abiotic site conditions or are highly disturbed, such as arable land (7 Chap. 17).  

1.2.2

Ecosystems and Landscapes

z Ecosystem and Ecosystem Functions

An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of communities of plants, animals, and microorganisms and their abiotic environment, which interact as a functional unit (via energy and material flows) (Patten and Odum 1981; Begon et  al. 2016). The interrelationships of organisms exist in a food web of primary producers, consumers, and destruents. These functional relationships or processes within the ecosystem are referred to as ecosystem functions and include, for

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17 1.2 · Ecological Terms and Key Concepts as a Basis for Ecosystem Restoration

example, primary production, denitrification, mineralization, soil formation, self-­ purification and storage of water, biochemical cycles (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorous), pollen dispersal, and pollination (Groot et al. 2002; Jax 2005). In contrast to ecosystem services (7 Sect. 1.3), which are explicitly related to humans, ecosystem functions by definition do not require humans, even though they are very often influenced by humans. The size or boundary of an ecosystem can be defined spatially or functionally. In ecosystem restoration, the ecosystem is often equated with a biotope or land use type (e.g., forest, meadow, heath). A city can be understood as an ecosystem or ecosystem complex (7 Chap. 19).  

 

z Site and Site Factors

An ecological site is the sum of all abiotic and biotic factors that affect an ecosystem, habitat, or a biocenosis (see below). The abiotic site factors include climate (e.g., solar radiation, precipitation, snow cover, humidity, temperature, wind), soil and water (e.g., parent rock, soil type, water content, humus type and quantity, pH value, nutrient content, salinity, groundwater level), relief (e.g., slope inclination) and the biotic site factors plants, animals, and microorganisms. The biotic site factors also include human impact. In ecosystem restoration, the abiotic site factors are often strongly influenced (e.g., by topsoil removal on heaths or peat stripping from peatlands, rewetting of coastal salt grasslands) in order to create suitable habitat conditions for target species or target vegetation. z Biocenosis and Plant Communities

Animal and plant species that live together in a community and that at least partially interact directly or indirectly form a biocoenosis (Kratochwil and Schwabe 2001). The plant species assemblages under specific site conditions are referred to as plant communities. They are subject of plant sociology (phytocoenology) or vegetation ecology (e.g., Braun-Blanquet 1964; Dierßen 1990;

Dierschke 1994; Glavac 1996; Wilmanns 1998; Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010; Leuschner and Ellenberg 2017a, b). z Diversity

In ecology, diversity encompasses various aspects and scales of variety, multiplicity, variability, and complexity. As an object of biological and ecological research, the term and its analysis are by no means new (see the studies of C. von Linné, C. Darwin, A. von Humboldt; see also Whittaker 1972). However, since the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and with the addition of the prefix “bio” (= biodiversity), it has spread very rapidly in ecology and nature conservation and thus in science and practice. According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD 2016), biodiversity means “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems”. Here, in addition to species diversity, genetic diversity within species and the diversity of ecosystems are also explicitly included. For more detailed and comprehensive information on diversity and biodiversity and their threats, please refer to Wilson (1988), Kratochwil and Schwabe (2001), Streit (2007), Barthlott et al. (2008/2009), Reichholf (2008), Baur (2010), Neßhöver (2013), and Wittig and Niekisch (2014), among others. Restoring diversity at these different levels of biological organization is one of the main goals of ecosystem restoration worldwide (e.g., Isselstein et  al. 2005; EU 2011; Jørgensen 2015). z Hump-Back Model

The hump-back model assumes that there is a unimodal relationship (. Fig.  1.6) between the productivity or nutrient content (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium) of the site and phytodiversity (Grime 1979, 2001). Under nutrient-poor conditions, spe 

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Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

1 Species numbers

Land-use intensif ication

Restoration of species-rich biocenoses through nutrient removal

low

high

Resource availability

..      Fig. 1.6  Relationship between resource availability and species numbers; to restore species-rich habitats on nutrient rich (eutrophicated) sites, it is

necessary to lower the nutrient content or productivity of the site. (Adapted after Al-Mufti et  al. 1977; Grime 1979)

cies numbers tend to be low and initially increase with increasing resource availability. As productivity increases, there is a decline in species number. This relationship has been proven for several habitats (e.g., Al-Mufti et  al. 1977; Willems 1980; Day et al. 1988; Oomes 1990; Wheeler and Shaw 1991; Janssens et  al. 1998; Graham and Duda 2011; Fraser et al. 2015). For the restoration of species-rich habitats on eutrophicated sites, this means that appropriate measures must be taken to reduce the nutrient content of the soil (or water) in order to increase species diversity (Marrs 1993).

specific objectives e.g., pioneer stages of vegetation development on sandy dry grasslands (7 Chap. 16).

z Disturbance

In ecology, disturbance refers to a single, temporally definable event that impacts an ecosystem, biocenosis, or population and thus alters both abiotic and biotic site conditions, at least in the short term. Disturbance thus influences the structure and also the processes of an ecosystem (White and Pickett 1985; White and Jentsch 2004). Examples of disturbances of Central European ecosystems are fire, windthrow in forests due to a strong storm, or avalanches in the Alps. Artificial disturbances are applied in ecosystem restoration to achieve

 

z Stress

In contrast to disturbance as a spatially and temporally definable individual event, stress refers to a physical (e.g., wind, high or low temperature), chemical (e.g., eutrophication, heavy metal contamination), or biological (e.g., mowing, grazing) influence on plants or ecosystems over a longer period or permanently, which limits their productivity and development (Grime 1977). Among plants, animals, and microorganisms, there are numerous strategies for coping with stress (see strategy types in 7 Sect. 1.2.1). These range from tolerance to specific morphological, anatomical, physiological, and phenological adaptations (Brunold et al. 1996). The ecological concept of stress on plants, animals, and vegetation is applied, for example, to restore certain traditional land-use types with their specific biodiversity, such as pastures or heathland with the (re-)introduction of grazing animals or coastal salt grassland under the influence of seawater. If a certain type of stress is harmful to ecosystems, as in the case of severe eutrophication or pollution  

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19 1.2 · Ecological Terms and Key Concepts as a Basis for Ecosystem Restoration

of the soil, ecosystem restoration measures can help to reduce or eliminate this stress (e.g., through phytoremediation; 7 Chap. 3).  

z Succession

In ecology, succession means the directed development of vegetation or biocenoses at a given site along a time gradient. Succession can be triggered by a disturbance, whereby the abiotic site conditions and the availability of diaspores usually determine the vegetation development. In Central Europe, secondary succession prevails, i.e., vegetation and diaspores are already present. The typical succession in Central Europe is from naturally disturbed or anthropogenic open land to forest. In primary succession, a new and complete (re-)colonization occurs, in Central Europe for example on mining dumps or on

Pushing back or halting succession through mowing, grazing or removal of shrubs and trees Forests, shrubland, alpine grassland, forest-open land habitat complexes

former open-cast mining areas (7 Chap. 20). Succession can also be significantly influenced by the vegetation itself, as is the case, for example, with the colonization of the leguminous tree black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) on nutrient-poor sites. Due to the enormous nitrogen input of up to 300 kg per ha and year (Cierjacks et  al. 2013), species with a high nitrogen requirement such as stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) and black elderberry (Sambucus nigra) quickly establish, suppressing species with a low competitiveness. In ecosystem restoration, succession is either artificially promoted and accelerated (e.g., in forest restoration through afforestation or re-­ vegetation of slag heaps) or pushed back by appropriate measures, such as in the restoration and management of species-rich meadows or sandy dry grasslands (. Fig. 1.7).  

 

Grassland, heathland, open dry sandy habitats, salt meadows, arable fields, agroforestry systems

Promoting succession through passive restoration, seeding or planting shrubs and trees

..      Fig. 1.7  Promoting and accelerating or pushing back succession in the context of ecosystem restoration. (Döberitzer Heide; S. Zerbe, Sept. 2017)

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Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

z Critical Load

The critical load designates a threshold value of nutrient or pollutant input above which a significant change in the ecosystem or vegetation is to be expected. The critical load approach is often applied for nutrient-­ poor habitats, such as sandy heaths, nutrient-­ poor grassland, or oligotrophic peatland. There, anthropogenic nutrient input, for example via atmogenic deposits (especially nitrogen and phosphorous), can exceed the critical load and thus, lead to an increase in grass coverage of e.g., crinkled hair grass (Deschampsia flexuosa) and bush grass (Calamagrostis epigejos) (Bobbink and Hettelingh 2011). However, this concept is also applicable to heavy metals or organic pollutants and other ecosystem types, such as lakes. This threshold can be determined experimentally (de Vries et  al. 2015). The ecosystem-based pollution thresholds can be applied globally in a given geographical context for environmental policy decisions (Bobbink et al. 2010). If the corresponding threshold values are exceeded, which is the case for nitrogen in many regions of Central Europe, appropriate measures such as e.g., topsoil removal are applied for the restoration of ecosystems (7 Chaps. 14 and 15).  

z Habitat Fragmentation

Today, many of the habitats of high nature conservation value that were once widespread in Central Europe such as e.g., heathland, dry calcareous grassland or species-rich meadows only occur in remnants and on isolated locations. This has made genetic exchange of populations difficult or even impossible (7 Sect. 1.2.1). Habitat fragmentation has led to biodiversity decline worldwide and can result in the disappearance of populations on a local and regional scale (Zwick 1992; Bailey et al. 2010; Krauss et al. 2010). Additionally, a high degree of habitat fragmentation increases edge effects (Murcia 1995; Pfeifer et  al. 2017). Since the 1980s, nature conservation efforts have attempted  

to overcome this fragmentation by creating a habitat network with the enlargement of still existing valuable habitats as well as by establishing corridors and stepping stones (Jedicke 1994; Fuchs et  al. 2011). In this context, the creation of new habitat structures can be distinguished as a structural habitat network from a functional habitat network, in which, for example, migratory animal herds contribute to the zoochorous dispersal of species (7 Chaps. 14 to 16). The restoration of ecosystems in fragmented landscapes is an attempt to stabilize the still existing populations of target species and to create stepping stones or new habitats for the target species or target vegetation.  

z Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

The intermediate disturbance hypothesis assumes that the number of species increases with moderate disturbance of an ecosystem (e.g., by extensive and low-input agriculture) and decreases with an increase in disturbance or the intensification of land use (Grime 1973; Connell and Slatyer 1977; Connell 1978; Huston 1985; Wilkinson 1999). This hypothesis has been analyzed and critically discussed with respect to specific ecosystems and land-use types, respectively, and various degrees of anthropogenic impact (e.g., Padisak 1993; Wohlgemuth et al. 2002; Zerbe et al. 2003; Svensson et al. 2012). Although, this hypothesis is controversial or even rejected in some cases (Fox 2013), it is undisputed in ecosystem restoration that, especially in traditional cultural landscapes, a certain degree of disturbances (e.g., by agriculture) favour the desired target species and target vegetation in many habitats, such as sandy dry grassland and heaths (Zerbe 2022). z Resilience

In ecology, this term, which originated in psychology (e.g., Fleming and Ledogar 2008), refers to the ability of ecosystems to regain the original initial state after distur-

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21 1.2 · Ecological Terms and Key Concepts as a Basis for Ecosystem Restoration

bances (see above), rather than transitioning to a qualitatively different system state (Holling 1973; Connell and Slatyer 1977; Kratochwil and Schwabe 2001). The fact that this concept is under critical academic discourse will not be further explored here (e.g., Brand et  al. 2011). It is certainly problematic that an already ambiguous term is explained with other ambiguous terms such as “self-­organization”, “stability”, “elasticity”, “ecological integrity” or “adaptability”. Ecosystem restoration addresses system states that have moved out of the range of resilience due to a high degree of disturbances, over-exploitation, or degradation. Ecosystem restoration is

then intended to restore a state that can buffer disturbances or stress (see SER 2004). This is particularly problematic in the case of traditional land-­use types (e.g., heathland), which are under pressure of global change such as e.g., climate change, biological invasions, and eutrophication. Especially in these cases, Choi et al. (2008) argue for more flexible restoration goals and measures (see also White and Walker 1997; Suding et al. 2004; Suding and Gross 2006). . Table  1.4 shows examples of the application of ecological principles and key concepts, respectively, in ecosystem restoration.  

..      Table 1.4  Examples of ecological principles and key concepts and their application in ecosystem restoration Ecological principles and key concepts

Examples of their application in the practice of ecosystem restoration

Critical load

Continuous mowing, topsoil removal, or grazing to compensate for atmogenic nitrogen input

Dispersal types (plants)

Grazing with sheep to promote the zoochorous dispersal of target species on nutrient-poor and species-rich grassland; restoration of the longitudinal and transverse permeability of rivers and their floodplains to promote the dispersal of species typical of floodplains and rivers

Disturbance

Artificial ripping up the soil with machines to restore initial succession stages of sandy dry grassland, topsoil removal on grassland and heaths

Diversity

Maintenance or restoration of habitat conditions through appropriate management: introduction of target species, control of undesirable dominant species, artificial creation of ecological niches by keeping the habitat open; creation of a habitat network and increase of land-use diversity with positive effects on biodiversity

Ecosystem engineers

Re-introduction of the European beaver (Castor fiber) to promote natural river and floodplain dynamics

Functional groups

Introduction of species with a high capacity for vegetative reproduction to fix eroded slopes; promotion of halophytes through the opening of coastal dykes

Mycorrhiza

Inoculation of the soil with mycorrhizal fungi e.g., on former open-cast lignite mining areas or dumping sites in the course of reforestation

Nurse plants

Introduction of cotton grass (Eriophorum spec.) to promote peat moss (Sphagnum spec.) growth during peatland restoration

Soil seed bank

Re-introduction of target species after the depletion of the soil seed bank or after topsoil removal by sowing, planting, hay cover, or grazing (zoochorous dispersal); activation of the soil seed bank by cattle trampling on open land habitats (continued)

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Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

1

..      Table 1.4 (continued) Ecological principles and key concepts

Examples of their application in the practice of ecosystem restoration

Species pool

Re-introduction of plant and animal species into ecosystems and landscapes; control of neobiota

Stress

Targeted application of stress such as e.g., through grazing, mowing (decrease of nutrient level) or rewetting peatland or wet meadows; opening up dykes with the restoration of the natural coastal water dynamics

Succession

Stopping or pushing back shrub and forest succession to restore open land; accelerating forest development by planting trees

1.3

Ecosystem Services

Although, the services provided by ecosystems to humans and the society were the subject of scientific research long before that, the United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA 2005) boosted this issue worldwide on the agenda of environmental sciences and practice of sustainable land use and nature conservation and initiated a large number of studies from a wide range of scientific disciplines. Ecosystem services are defined as the benefits people obtain from ecosystems or according to CICES (Haines-Young and Potschin 2018, p.  3), “as the contributions that ecosystems make to human well-being, and distinct from the goods and benefits that people subsequently derive from them” (. Table  1.5). According to the MEA (2005), ecosystem services are differentiated into provisioning, regulating, and cultural services. Additionally, supporting services maintain the ecosystem functions and support the other services, although they are not recognised anymore in the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES; Haines-Young and Potschin 2018; for earlier classifications and definitions see e.g., Groot et al. 2002): 1. Provisioning services of e.g., edible and non-edible products from agriculture, forestry, and fishery, clean drinking  

water, or natural substances for the production of pharmaceuticals. 2. Regulating services of e.g., water and nutrient balance, soil processes (e.g., erosion control), and climate (e.g., microclimate in cities; 7 Chap. 19); this also includes self-purification of water (e.g., by reed stands; 7 Chap. 11), pollination of cultivated plants by insects and decomposition of organic waste. 3. Cultural services e.g., for recreation and tourism, human health and wellbeing, environmental education, scientific research, and cultural identity. 4. Supporting services, which essentially coincide with ecosystem functions such as e.g., photosynthesis, reproduction of organisms, nutrient cycling, mycorrhiza, and soil formation, as the basis for the above-mentioned ecosystem services.  

 

The concept of ecosystem services is increasingly determining the debate on biodiversity and sustainable land use and is one of the most important drivers for ecosystem restoration since the restoration of ecosystem services with corresponding influence on and manipulation of ecosystem functions is one of the main goals of ecosystem restoration. For the quantification of ecosystem services, an extensive source of indicators is available from ecology, agriculture and forestry, hydrology, soil science, economics,

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23 1.3 · Ecosystem Services

..      Table 1.5  Ecosystem services, their definition and examples (groups) according to CICES (Haines-Young and Potschin 2018) Ecosystem service category

Definition

Examples

Provisioning

All nutritional, non-nutritional material and energetic outputs from living systems as well as abiotic outputs (including water)

 

•  Terrestrial, freshwater, and marine biota

 

•  Freshwater for drinking

 

•  Freshwater for non-­drinking purposes

 

•  Fodder and fibres from all biota

 

•  Chemicals and other substances from all biota

 

•  Genetic materials from all biota

 

•  Bioremediation

 

•  Accumulation/storage, dilution and filtration (in biota and ecosystems)

 

•  Land and soil regulation

 

•  Freshwater regulation

 

•  Marine regulation

 

•  Lifecycle maintenance, habitat and gene pool protection

 

•  Pest and disease control

 

•  Recreation

 

•  Information and knowledge

 

•  Spiritual and symbolic

Regulating and maintenance

Cultural

All the ways in which living organisms can mediate or moderate the ambient environment that affects human health, safety or comfort, together with abiotic equivalents

All the non-material, and normally non-rival and non-consumptive, outputs of ecosystems (biotic and abiotic) that affect physical and mental states of people

and the social sciences (e.g., Grunewald and Bastian 2012: Tables 3.1 to 3.3 and Albert et al. 2015). In the further outline of the different ecosystems and land-use types, respectively, in Part II of this book, particular attention is paid to their specific ecosystem services. Increasingly, ecosystem disservices are also being qualitatively and quantitatively assessed (Lyytimäki and Sipilä 2009; Escobedo et  al. 2011; Pataki et  al. 2011; Swain et  al. 2013; von Döhren and Haase 2015). These include the negative impacts of ecosystems or their compartments on humans or the society such as e.g., through strong pollen emitters and associated prob-

lems for human health, or through carbon emissions due to the use of machinery and fuel in ecosystem management (7 Chap. 19). For the planning practice of urban green spaces and tree plantations in settlement areas, for example, it is helpful to find a sustainable balance between ecosystem services and disservices in qualitative and quantitative terms. This should not result in an eitheror decision but should be seen as a continuum of complex positive and negative effects of ecosystems with their compartments (Escobedo et al. 2011). Appropriate methodological tools for decision-making in planning practice have already been developed (e.g., Vogt et al. 2017; Speak et al. 2018).  

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1.4

Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

Degradation of Ecosystems

els of peatland can be differentiated (7 Chap. 8), and thus, the need for restoration can be identified and recommendations for practice derived. The gradient ranges from functioning peatlands that do not require restoration but do need protection, to severely degraded or destroyed peatlands that cannot be restored anymore.  

In both, restoration ecology studies and ecosystem restoration practice, degradation is often the trigger for research or practical action. In order to derive goals and measures for ecosystem restoration, degradation processes and states have to be analysed and understood (Hobbs and Norton 1996). Value-free ecological analyses have to be clearly distinguished from a value-based assessment of the facts, especially since in many cases there is no consensus on the meaning of ecosystem degradation. For example, Lund (2009) compiles more than 50 different definitions of forest degradation (see also, Simula 2009). Degradation of ecosystems and land-use systems, respectively, with negative impacts on abiotic (soil, water, air) and biotic resources (organisms, biocenoses) is usually linked to strong anthropogenic impact and the intensification of land use (Johnson et al. 1997; McIsaac and Brün 1999). The WHO (2017a) relates land degradation directly to the loss of ecosystem services. The FAO (2011) defines forest degradation as a reduced capacity to provide ecosystem services. The degradation of ecosystems can be qualitatively and quantitatively investigated and thus, assessed on this scientific basis. Quantifiable criteria include, among others, species number and composition, biodiversity and corresponding indicator species in all ecosystem compartments, productivity or biomass of biocenoses, vegetation cover, nutrient or pollutant content in soils and plants, the degree of soil salinization, the physical condition of the soil (e.g., pore volume, degree of soil sealing), soil loss through erosion and the degree of landscape fragmentation (e.g., Ravera 1989; Aronson et al. 1993; Furse et  al. 2009; FAO 2011; Miler et al. 2015; Modica et al. 2015; Seibold et al. 2015; Virto et al. 2015). Based on the criteria vegetation, fauna, peat accumulation, and hydrology, for example, the degradation lev-

1.5

 hat Does Ecosystem W Restoration Mean? A Definition

In science and practice, the term “restoration” often leads to controversy, especially when the prefix “re-” is associated with a “back” to something original. It is helpful here to bear in mind the Latin word origin, in which the meaning of the prefix “re-” goes much further and, in addition to “back”, can also express “again” or “in the right state” (PONS 2016), i.e., in addition to the regressive meaning there is also a progressive meaning, which might be more purposeful in ecosystem restoration. This is the more important if one assumes that in the Central European cultural landscape, in which there is hardly an ecosystem left that is completely unaffected by humans, the restoration of original ecosystems or historical land-use systems is often hardly possible, or at least only possible with considerable efforts. The Society for Ecological Restoration (SER 2004) defines ecosystem restoration as “the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed”. Aronson et  al. (2007) add that ecosystem restoration recovers or optimizes certain ecosystem functions that have been severely degraded or completely lost through the use of the natural resources (see also Cairns and Heckman 1996). Zerbe et al. (2009, p. 5) have modified this definition by stating that “ecosystem restoration […] supports the development or restoration of an ecosystem that has been more or less

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25 1.5 · What Does Ecosystem Restoration Mean? A Definition

severely degraded or destroyed by humans towards a more natural state. Thus, certain ecosystem services and structures are restored against the background of current ecological and socio-economic conditions and nature conservation frameworks.” However, this definition does not specify the measures to be applied. Against the background of the development of ecosystem restoration and restoration ecology, and in particular, the increasing use of ecosystem-degrading measures such as e.g., pesticides, fire or topsoil removal (7 Chap. 24), a further modification of the definition of ecosystem restoration has been introduced by Zerbe and Ott (2021), which also forms the conceptual framework for this book:

ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating, cultural) based on a functioning ecosystem, thus enhancing natural capital against the background of strong sustainability. It takes into account the transformative dimension of restoration seen as human-nature interaction. Ecosystem restoration gives priority to the conservation of certain desired species and habitats at selected sites as well as resource protection and/or the conservation of the cultural landscape.

 

The graphic representations of ecosystem restoration, for example by Bradshaw (1987), Zerbe et  al. (2009), and van Andel and Aronson (2012), form the basis for . Fig.  1.8 in which the processes of over-­ exploitation and degradation, respectively, are shown as well as the trajectories of ecosystem restoration, which lead to a rapid or delayed restoration of ecosystem services. The restoration of certain ecosystem services (e.g., carbon sinks due to peat accumulation in a peatland) is thus consequently  

Ecosystem and landscape services

Ecosystem restoration assists, with ethically acceptable measures and by activating or re-activating natural processes, the development of an anthropogenically degraded ecosystem or land-use type towards a state which provides the target

Ecosystems of the natural and cultural landscape Over-utilization and unsustainable use of natural resources

A B Degraded ecosystems/landuse types and landscapes

C D

time ..      Fig. 1.8  The restoration of ecosystems coupled with the restoration of ecosystem services which have been degraded or lost through the over-­utilization of the natural resources. a Successful restoration, b

delayed restoration success (e.g., peatland, see 7 Chap. 8), c unsuccessful restoration, d further degradation of the ecosystems or land-use system. (Modified according to Zerbe et al. 2009)  

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Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

..      Table 1.6  The three main objectives of ecosystem restoration with examples of ecosystems and land-use types where these objectives are essentially pursued Main objectives of ecosystem restoration

Examples of ecosystems and land-use types in Central Europe

Ecosystems and habitats of the natural landscape

Near-natural beech forests, rivers with their floodplains, reed stands on riverbanks and lakeshores, raised bogs and fens, lakes, salt grassland, alpine grassland

Ecosystems and land-use systems of the traditional cultural landscape

Arrhenatherum elatius and Trisetum flavescens meadows, wet grassland, calcareous grassland, sandy dry grassland, traditional orchards, species-rich arable land, extensively used lowland mires, heaths, grazed forests, coppice forests and coppice with standards, grazed coastal and inland salt grassland

Novel ecosystems

Vegetation and ecosystems on mining or waste dumps and on former industrial sites, urban vegetation rich in non-native species, new ecosystems in post-mining landscapes

linked to the corresponding ecosystem functions (e.g., groundwater dynamics of a wetland). According to Zerbe et  al. (2009), three main objectives can be differentiated with regard to the ecosystems and land-use systems to be restored (. Table 1.6): 1. The restoration of ecosystems of the natural landscape (or the closest possible approximation to them) such as e.g., rivers with their floodplains, lakes, raised bogs and fens, coastal salt grassland, and near-natural forests. In addition to possible initial interventions to create certain abiotic site conditions, this goal is primarily achieved by stopping or minimizing the use of the natural resources which means to allow natural ecological processes to take place as far as possible. According to van Diggelen et al. (2001, p. 116), this would be “true” restoration. 2. The restoration of land-­use systems of the traditional cultural landscape (Zerbe 2022) such as e.g., extensively used wet grassland, heathland, nutrient-­ poor grassland, species-rich arable land, orchards, or the traditional forms of forest management (see Swart et  al. 2001: Arcadian approach). This can only be  

achieved by reintroducing traditional types of management of the natural resources or by simulating them. This also includes concepts for the development of new cultural landscapes in which adapted uses and remnants of the natural landscape are integrated (on the restoration of cultural landscapes see e.g., Hobbs 2002; Moreira et al. 2006; Zerbe 2022; on the development of semi-open pasture landscapes see Redecker et  al. 2002). The objectives can be achieved both, through extensification (e.g., restoration of a species-rich meadow on an area of species-­poor intensive grassland) and through “intensification”, when, for example, succession is pushed back by removing woody plants to restore open land. 3. The creation of new ecosystems and land-use systems in highly disturbed landscapes such as e.g., post-mining landscapes or on urban-industrial sites. This includes the concept of creative conservation (Luscombe and Scott 2010), which means, for example, the introduction of wild plants into industrial sites, or generally all forms of revegetation on urban-industrial sites.

1

27 1.5 · What Does Ecosystem Restoration Mean? A Definition

Hobbs et al. (2006) introduced the term emerging or novel ecosystems for the creation of new ecosystems on sites that have been strongly altered by humans. The approach of the designer ecosystem (McDonald et  al. 2016), as the restoration of an ecosystem without a reference in the historical or current cultural landscape, can also be assigned here.

In the field of restoration ecology or the specific context of practical ecosystem restoration, a broad range of terms has meanwhile developed (. Table 1.7). The various terms reflect hereby different disciplines and their concepts, traditions, technologies or tools, objectives as well as the completeness and time frame of the restoration of certain ecosystem states or the extent to which techno 

..      Table 1.7  Different concepts and terms of ecosystem restoration sensu latu with references, an explanation, and examples Concepts and terms

Explanation and examples

Creation, designer ecosystem, fabrication (Jackson et al. 1995; MacMahon and Holl 2001; Clewell and Aronson 2013; McDonald et al. 2016)

Creation (design) of a novel ecosystem without historical or current reference

Extensification, de-intensification (Postma-Blaauw et al. 2012)

Conversion of previously intensively used grassland through the extensification of land use

Reconstruction (Bradshaw 1983)

Restoration of vegetation or ecosystems on strongly disturbed sites such as e.g., quarries, eventually by technical means (similar to recultivation)

Recovery of ecosystem health (Rapport et al. 2001; SER 2004)

Restoration of ecosystem functions according to a reference state so that the ecosystem can respond dynamically and resiliently to disturbances

Recovery of ecosystem integrity (SER 2004)

Restoration of ecosystem functions with the respective biodiversity, ecosystem structure, or species composition according to a reference state

Recultivation, reclamation (Clewell and Aronson 2013)

Restoration of agricultural, forestry, or other uses on mining sites (e.g., former open-cast lignite mining sites); often associated with the creation of new ecosystems and the restoration of provisioning ecosystem services

Regeneration (Clewell and Aronson 2013)

Reforestation or generally recolonisation with vegetation through natural succession

Rehabilitation (Aronson et al. 1993; Cooke 1999).

Geomorphological-­hydrological interventions for river and lake restoration; mostly with regard to natural ecosystem functions

Remediation, bioremediation, phytoremediation

Removal or demobilisation of pollutants from soil or water with the help of specific plants (phytoremediation) or other organisms such as bacteria (bioremediation)

Restitution (Rubarenzya et al. 2008)

Active restoration of a near-natural, possibly original ecosystem, in any case with technical means and measures, respectively (e.g., wetlands or rivers) (continued)

28

Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

1

..      Table 1.7 (continued) Concepts and terms

Explanation and examples

Restoration, renaturalization

In the broadest sense, the restoration of certain ecosystems and land-use systems with their specific ecosystem services, usually to achieve a more natural state

Revitalization (Hughes and Rood 2003)

Restoration of abiotic site conditions or ecosystem functions as a prerequisite for the establishment of biocenoses typical of the site e.g., in rivers and their floodplains or on peatland

Sanitation

Intervention into the physical or chemical water conditions of lakes or their catchment area, mostly by technical means, to improve the water quality and to restore biocenoses characteristic for lakes

Therapy

All measures to improve the ecological status of lakes, including technical interventions in the abiotic and biotic site conditions

logical interventions are performed. The fact that restoration is often interpreted very narrowly as the return to a natural, original state has certainly contributed to the diversification of terms (see e.g., Cooke 1999 and chapter above). Against the background of this diversity of terms, the controversies on the term “restoration” and the criticism of ecosystem restoration e.g., by environmental ethics (7 Chap. 24), the term “restoration” is used in this book as an umbrella with reference to the definition proposed here (7 Sect. 1.5). Specific implications in relation to particular ecosystem and land-use types are presented in the respective chapters of Part II.  

 

prehensive restoration project for an entire river catchment has been realized up to now, approaches and concepts for this already exist. In Germany, the EU-funded LIFE project “LiLa Living Lahn - one river, many demands” pursues this goal by contributing to the ecological upgrading of the river Lahn. Its use as a federal waterway as well as nature conservation and aspects of aquatic ecology are taken into account, by developing an comprehensive concept for the river, which is to be achieved in particular by integrating the numerous user interests (Land Hessen 2017). Restoration at the landscape level is also found, for example, in post-­ mining landscapes where brown coal was extracted by open-cast mining (7 Chap. 20), in cultural and natural landscapes designated as national parks (7 Chap. 7), or traditional cultural landscapes such as e.g., pasture landscapes or terraced landscapes (Zerbe 2022). Ecosystem restoration at the landscape level is particularly necessary where fragmented habitats or sub-­populations are to be reconnected by stepping stones or corridors (Hobbs and Norton 1996). So far, only the large-scale restoration of forests through coniferous afforestations about 200 years ago can be considered as a restoration project in Central Europe above  

1.6

Scales of Restoration

Most restoration projects focus on a specific ecosystem or land-use type. For example, a grassland or heath, a fen, a section of a river, a lake, a forest stand, or a slope in the Alps is restored at the local level. At the landscape level, for example, a hydrological catchment with its different ecosystems and land-use types and tributaries can be restored. Bannister et al. (2005), for example, state for Great Britain that although there no com-

 

1

29 1.7 · Ecosystem Restoration in Relation to the Practice of Other Disciplines

the landscape scale (7 Chap. 7). This initiative covered both, the mountain ranges as well as the lowlands and contributed to the fact that today about 30–40% of the land area in the Central European countries is covered with woodland. Further approaches exist with international restoration initiatives of Central European rivers, such as the Elbe and the Rhine (Moss and Monstadt 2008). The re-introduction of brown bears, for example in the Southern Alps, must also be considered as above the landscape scale since these animals can have a high mobility over large distances (7 Chap. 4). The restoration of marine ecosystems of the North and Baltic Sea would reflect the smallest geographical scale in Europe (Central, Western, Northern, and Eastern Europe), which encompasses several catchment areas of the major European rivers and numerous landscapes and landscape complexes in different climate zones. Impulses for an overarching concept for the restoration of European marine ecosystems are provided, for example, by the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (7 Chap. 13; Zerbe 2019). In conclusion, three main scales of restoration can be differentiated: 1. ecosystem or land-use type (large scale), 2. landscape or river catchment (medium scale), 3. landscape complexes or several river catchments (small scale).  

 

 

The global environmental problems to which restoration ecology and ecosystem restoration, respectively, can provide an important contribution, such as the eutrophication of soils and water, soil erosion in the intensively used mountain and valley areas, the worldwide loss of biodiversity, global climate change, desertification in arid and semi-arid regions and, in particular, anthropogenic pressures on marine ecosystems, can today only be solved with approaches above the landscape level and with international initiatives.

1.7

Ecosystem Restoration in Relation to the Practice of Other Disciplines

As a sub-discipline of ecology, restoration ecology is conceptually and methodologically well rooted and distinguishable from other natural science disciplines and makes use of other sub-disciplines such as e.g., population ecology, biocenology, geobotany or landscape ecology. In contrast, ecosystem restoration has numerous overlaps with the practice of other disciplines concerned with the planning, design, management, conservation of ecosystems or land use systems (. Fig.  1.1). For example, the practice of ecosystem restoration has many overlaps with species and habitat conservation (nature conservation and environmental protection). This applies on the one hand to the objectives, such as the protection or restoration of populations of endangered species and habitats of conservation value, and on the other hand to the nature conservation measures. Accordingly, measures such as grazing and mowing to restore a specific land-use system are also applied for the maintenance and continuous management of nature conservation areas (7 Chap. 3). In particular, various technical measures are applied for the restoration of near-­ natural rivers or at least, parts of it where it was previously strongly altered by engineering measures, or in strongly disturbed landscapes such as post-mining landscapes, on mining dumps or on urban-industrial sites, but also for the restoration of traditional land-use types. In this case, there is a considerable overlap with ecological engineering or engineering biology. According to Schiechtl and Stern (1994), engineering biology is defined as a construction technique that makes use of biological knowledge in construction on terrestrial sites and in aquatic environments for the stabilisation of slopes and banks (see also Hartmann 1992; Mitsch and Jørgensen 2003; Kangas  

 

30

1

Chapter 1 · Introduction to Restoration Ecology

2004; Zeh 2007; Hacker and Johannsen 2011; Florineth 2012). Technical interventions in the hydro-morphology of rivers (7 Chap. 10), the fixation of eroded slopes with geotextiles and by seeding (7 Chap. 9), topsoil removal or coverage, or the stabilization of river banks with organic materials (7 Chap. 10) are applied both, in ecosystem restoration as well as ecological engineering measures. However, while ecosystem restoration gives priority to environmental and resource protection as well as nature and landscape conservation (7 Sect. 1.5), engineering biology, as an engineering and technical discipline, focuses on the use of organic and inorganic materials, often for the protection against natural hazards. With regard to rivers, however, engineering techniques and objectives alone do not guarantee the restoration of ecosystem services and thus ecosystem restoration as defined  

 

 

 

previously (Gerstgraser et al. 2005; see also Clewell and Aronson 2013). Measures that environmental chemistry has developed for the purification of ecosystems contaminated with pollutants or nutrients can also be applied in ecosystem restoration, for example in lake therapy (7 Chap. 11) or phytoremediation on landfills and dumping sites (7 Chap. 3). Overlaps with landscape architecture arise in the design and technical interventions in highly disturbed or destroyed ecosystems, such as in post-mining or urban landscapes (see Clewell and Aronson 2013). Accordingly, the biophilia concept introduced by Wilson (1984) and Kellert and Wilson (1993), which is implemented in landscape architecture e.g., for the design of biophilic cities (Beatley 2010; Ignatieva and Ahrné 2013; Berr 2017), is related to ecosystem restoration in urban environments.  

 

31

Which Ecosystem Should Be Restored? Reference Systems for Restoration Contents 2.1

Pristine or Historical Reference – 34

2.2

 eference Ecosystems of the Present-Day R Cultural Landscape – 35

2.3

Potential or Hypothetical Reference State – 39

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Zerbe, Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65658-7_2

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Chapter 2 · Which Ecosystem Should Be Restored? Reference Systems for Restoration

For practical questions such as the identification of the restoration potential, the selection of suitable restoration or management measures, the coordination and, if necessary, the resolution of conflicts of land use with the stakeholders and the financing of ecosystem restoration activities, it is indispensable to determine the objectives in advance of a restoration project. Precise knowledge of the initial state before restoration and the desired target condition is also of great importance for the monitoring of the restoration project, in order to be able to evaluate the success or failure of the restoration and to apply the experience gained for similar restoration projects in the future (7 Chap. 6). The identification of one or more possible reference systems in Central

Europe against the background of the extensive ecological data available is not a major problem. It can be more difficult to reconcile the different land-use or nature conservation interests or conflicting goals. This is nicely illustrated in . Fig. 2.1 for a landscape that must have very different habitat structures and requirements for four different target species. The social sciences offer a wide range of methodological tools and instruments, respectively, for identifying and resolving such conflicting goals (7 Chap. 22). A further problem arises if the practice of ecosystem restoration leads to different, possibly unforeseen, results than those envisaged in the planning phase. For the identification of a reference system as the goal for restoration, three general  

 

 

a

b

c

d

..      Fig. 2.1  Four different restoration scenarios corresponding to the target species. a Elk (near-natural forests), b Black-tailed godwit (high proportion of grassland), c Harrier (rich-structured landscape with

open land, single trees, and shrub and forest patches, respectively), d Otter (open land with water corridors). (According to Harms et al. 1993)

33 Which Ecosystem Should Be Restored? Reference Systems for Restoration

approaches are possible, which include a time perspective: 1. The reference sysetem for ecosystem restoration is historical. The historical time slices here range from the immediate past (a few decades) to centuries ago in the traditional cultural landscape towards a pristine state without strong or even any human impact in a natural landscape. 2. Ecosystems or land-use types of the current cultural landscape can be taken as reference systems. These can also encompass still existing remnants of traditional land use such as e.g., heathland, grazed forests, traditional orchards, or a larch meadow in the Alps. 3. The reference system can be determined potentially or hypothetically. All of these approaches can draw on extensive and detailed data for Central Europe on the historical and current natural and cultural landscape with its ecosystems, vegetation, biocenoses, flora and fauna (e.g., Ozenda 1988; Wilmanns 1998; Kratochwil and Schwabe 2001; Oberdorfer et  al. 2001; Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010; Leuschner and Ellenberg 2017a, b; Zerbe 2019). In addition, recommendations are available on the methodological approach for determining reference systems in ecosystem restoration (Holl and Ciarns 2002; SER 2004; Clewell 2009). The synergy between ecosystem restoration, nature conservation, and landscape planning regarding guiding principles (Leitbilder) as a planning tool and the approaches for determining them (Wiegleb et al. 2013) is obvious. In certain cases, the reference system can correspond to a more or less exact “copy template”, in others it can only indicate a direction of restoration (Clewell et al. 2005). It is important to bear in mind that these reference systems represent a more or less specific and static state and generally leave little room for dynamics, processes, or uncertainty (see White and Walker 1997; Choi

2

et al. 2008; Hiers et al. 2012). However, these dynamics are an essential feature especially in ecosystems, such as rivers with their flooding regimes and floodplains, coastal ecosystems, or novel ecosystems in urban-­ industrial or open-cast mining landscapes. Dealing with this uncertainty, particularly in ecosystem restoration, remains a challenge (Samuels and Lockwood 2002; Darby and Sear 2008; McCarthy 2014). Approaches that allow for greater flexibility in ecosystem development or are more process-oriented may be useful here (Choi et al. 2008; Hiers et  al. 2012). For certain habitats, very specific and static targets can thus be set on the one hand, while for other restoration projects a range of possible target states emerges (. Fig. 2.2). The choice of an appropriate reference system for ecosystem restoration is not a scientific task. However, restoration ecology provides the scientific basis and supports the decision-making process with analyses, data, and methodological approaches. Ecological paremeters are applied for the operationalization of reference system’s determination (e.g., target or indicator species, groundwater levels, nutrient levels), which can then also be used for a qualitative and quantitative ecological assessment during monitoring (SER 2004; Clewell 2009; 7 Chap. 6). However, the final decision in favour of a certain reference system and thus a specific restoration goal is then normative and the result of the prioritization of options and scenarios as well as the coordination between stakeholders and possible land-use and nature conservation conflicts (7 Chap. 22). It is also important to bear in mind that guiding principles and references follow current paradigms and trends in nature conservation, and that these can change. For example, species and habitat conservation followed largely static approaches from its beginnings until the second half of the twentieth century. Then, since the 1990s, the con 

 

 

34

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Chapter 2 · Which Ecosystem Should Be Restored? Reference Systems for Restoration

a

b

..      Fig. 2.2  Restoration with a focus on a specific and static reference system, such as heathland or a calcareous grassland with a specific vegetation structure and

species composition a or with a focus on development processes with several possible target states b

servation of natural processes (Prozessschutz) has been introduced into the conservation debate (Sturm 1993; Felinks and Wiegleb 1998; Jedicke 1998). However, it is still difficult to accept the natural development of ecosystems and thus the unforeseen, the unplannable, or the wilderness not influenced by human impact anymore (see Piechocki et al. 2010; Schuster 2010).

vegetation in Europe was spatio-temporally different during centuries and millennia. While, for example, many Mediterranean landscapes were already more or less strongly altered by land use during the Roman Empire (Walsh 2013), many regions north of the Alps and in particular the mountain ranges were transformed from natural to cultural landscapes with the medieval settlement expansions and forest clearings (for the example of the German Spessart mountains, see e.g., Zerbe 2002a). Pollen analysis, supported by detailed historical maps since the seventeenth century, allows the reconstruction of vegetation and landscape in different time slices (Rubin et al. 2008), each of which can serve as reference states for ecosystem restoration. Also, soils, geomorphology, archaeological features, historical elements in the current cultural landscape (e.g., Wanja et  al. 2007), archival records, dendrochronology, as well as historical paintings, photographs, aerial photographs, and maps  – linked with interdisciplinary approaches  – can serve to recontruct landscape history. Traditional, indigenous, and local ecological knowledge, respectively, also supports the reconstruction of historical landscape development phases

2.1

 ristine or Historical P Reference

In the pristine natural landscape, humans have not yet profoundly altered the landscape. These landscapes can be reconstructed through pollen analysis in peatlands, lake sediments, or glaciers (7 Chap. 8). In large-scale peatlands, lakes, or glaciers with large pollen catchments, the landscape development and evolution, respectively, can be reconstructed on the supra-regional scale (e.g., Rösch 1993; Brande 2003), and in small forest bogs or lakes, local and regional vegetation development can be reconstructed (e.g., Weichhardt-Kulessa et  al. 2007; Rösch and Lechterbeck 2016). However, the naturalness of landscape and  

2

35 2.2 · Reference Ecosystems of the Present-Day Cultural Landscape

with its related human impacts (Berkes et al. conservation as well as ecosystem restora2000; Molnár et al. 2015; 7 Sect. 24.3). tion, as they are habitats for many rare and In Central Europe, it is hardly possible to endangered species (Pfadenhauer 2002). restore an ecosystem towards its original Furthermore, landscapes with these tradi(pristine) state. Particluarly, the supra-­ tional land-use systems such as e.g., the regional and continental-wide, in some Lüneburg Heathland in Germany and regions very high atmogenic nutrient inputs Veluwe in the Netherlands), the juniper (especially nitrogen) create new site condi- heaths (e.g., in the Swabian Alb), and the dry tions compared to historical and pristine and nutrient-poor pasture land (e.g., in the conditions, apart from the many other Lower Oder Valley in NE Germany and W anthropogenic influences over the past cen- Poland and the Vinschgau in South Tyrol, N tury and decades. However, with regard to Italy), have become a considerable economic specific parameters, it is possible to take factor for the rural development of those original conditions as a guideline, for exam- regions e.g., for recreation and tourism. ple, for the restoration of peatland, lakes, Many of these land-use types of the trarivers, and coastal salt grassland the natural ditional cultural landscapes in Europe have water balance or the natural flood dynamics, been very well studied from a historical perfor the restoration of near-natural forests spective (e.g., Küster 1998, 1999; Ellenberg the natural stand dynamics, structure, and and Leuschner 2010; Zerbe 2022). For regeneration, and for the re-introduction of example, comprehensive knowledge is availspecies the original species pool. able on the vegetation ecology, dynamics, In Central Europe, the open and forest-­ and regeneration of Calluna heaths in free pre-industrial cultural landscape created Western and Central Europe (7 Chap. 14), by large-scale clearing and grazing is often from which reference systems for their restoused as a reference or guiding principle for ration can be derived. Taking the example species and habitat conservation as well as of the permanently very high atmogenic ecosystem restoration (Redecker et al. 2002; nitrogen input in many areas of Europe and Zerbe et  al. 2009; Hampicke 2013; Haber thus the exceeding of the critical load 2014). By the mid-nineteenth century, exten- (7 Sect. 1.2.2), however, it should be reconsively used grasslands, nutrient-poor dry sidered whether references and guiding pringrasslands, and heathland reached their ciples for elements of the traditional cultural maximum extent (7 Chaps. 14 and 15), as landscape, should better be adapted to the vividly depicted in contemporary paintings current site conditions and oriented more (Makowski and Buderath 1983). However, it strongly to current ecosystem and landscape must be considered that the large-scale development processes. destruction of forests, intensive grazing of open land combined with vegetation and topsoil removel (sod cutting = “plaggen”) for 2.2 Reference Ecosystems of the Present-Day Cultural farming purposes in the lowlands, litter gathering in forests, forest grazing, charcoal Landscape burning, and other unsustainable agricultural or agroforestry uses over centuries have Using ecosystems or land-use types of the led to a Central European-wide degradation present-day cultural landscape as a reference of ecosystems and land-use systems for ecosystem restoration offers some advan(Plachter 1995; Pfadenhauer 2002). Today, tages compared to the “historical” and “hypooften these ecosystems, which have been thetical” (see below) approaches. On the one over-exploited in terms of soil and vegeta- hand, the target conditions with regard to abition, are in the focus of species and habitat otic (e.g., soil, water balance) and biotic fac 

 

 

 

36

2

Chapter 2 · Which Ecosystem Should Be Restored? Reference Systems for Restoration

tors (flora, vegetation, fauna, microorganisms) as well as the influence of land use and management on the biocenoses, their regeneration and dynamics can be directly recorded qualitatively and quantitatively and do not have to be reconstructed. On the other hand, socioeconomic parameters such as management costs can be determined directly and against the current socio-economic background. Furthermore, as in the case of the transfer of target species, the reference ecosystems can be directly linked with the restoration sites. Much biological-­ ecological information is meanwhile available from numerous databases (. Table 2.1). This approach of a present-day reference reaches its limits if these no longer exist in the  

intensively used and strongly altered cultural landscape. This applies, for example, to nearnatural forests in large-scale agricultural landscapes or to elements of the traditional cultural landscape that exist only in a few remnants and even then, however, strongly degraded. The extensive network of large protected areas (national parks, biosphere reserves), nature reserves, and FFH areas in Central Europe offers a sound basis for determining reference systems for restoration. For near-­ natural forest management and the restoration of near-natural forests, an extensive network of natural forest reserves has meanwhile been established in Germany (. Fig.  2.3). More than 700 natural forest reserves with a total forest area of approxi 

..      Table 2.1  Examples of national and international biological-ecological, landscape-­ecological, and nature conservation databases in Central Europe and worldwide (in alphabetical order of abbreviation), which can be used to derive reference systems for ecosystem restoration or the restoration of ecosystem services in general Database

Content

References

BERGWALD

Vegetation database for the Bavarian Alps

Ewald (2012)

Biological Flora of Central Europe

Biology and ecology of Central European plant species (published in the journal Flora)

Matthies and Poschlod (2000)

BioPop

Biological-­ecological characteristics of plant species of Germany (see FloraWeb)

Poschlod et al. (2003)

Dispersal Diaspore Database

Information on seed dispersal of currently over 5000 plant species

Hintze et al. (2013)

Ellenberg Indicator Values (EIV)

Indicator values for the Central European flora with regard to abiotic factors (soil, water, climate)

Ellenberg et al. (2001)

EM-DAT (International Disaster Database)

Database of worldwide natural disasters and their impacts since 1900

CRED (2009) and EEA (2012)

EUNIS (European Nature Information System)

Data on species, habitats, and site ecology of the European Natura 2000 network

Riecken et al. (2006) and EEA (2017a)

European Soil Database

Distribution and characteristics of European soils

EC (2003)

European Vegetation Archive (EVA)

Vegetation surveys in Europe

Chytrý et al. (2016) and European Vegetation Survey (2017)

Fauna Europaea

List of animal species in Europe with their distribution

Fauna Europaea (2013) and de Jong et al. (2014)

37 2.2 · Reference Ecosystems of the Present-Day Cultural Landscape

..      Table 2.1 (continued) Database

Content

References

Fauna Indicativa

Biological and ecological characteristics of the animal groups dragonflies, grasshoppers, ground beetles and butterflies

Klaiber et al. (2017a, b)

Flora Database of the Czech Republic

Occurrence and distribution of vascular plants in the Czech Republic

Danihelka et al. (2009).

Flora Fauna South Tyrol

Inventory of the flora and fauna of South Tyrol (N Italy) with distribution and biological-­ecological information

Naturmuseum Südtirol (2017)

Flora Indicativa

Ecological indicator values and biological characteristics of the flora of Switzerland and the Alps

Landolt et al. (2010)

FloraWeb

Wild plant species, plant communities, and natural vegetation of Germany

BfN (2016d)

Global Biodiversity Information Facility

International database on global biodiversity (e.g., species, publications)

Gbif (2017)

Global Index of Vegetation-­Plot Databases (GIVD)

Directory of more than 130 databases worldwide (>80 in Europe) with more than 2.4 million vegetation plots of 1–1000 m2 plot size

Dengler et al. (2011)

Info Flora

List of plant species in Switzerland with distribution, ecology, and protection status

ZDSF (2017)

LEDA

Database on biological-­ecological characteristics of about 3000 plant species in NW Europe

Kleyer et al. (2008)

LUCAS

Data on land use in Europe

EU (2017a)

Natural forest reserves in Germany

Forest and forest site data on the more than 700 natural forest reserves in Germany

Meyer et al. (2007) and Münch (2007)

Neobiota

Alien and invasive species in Germany

BfN (2016e)

NOBANIS

European network for the exchange of information on alien and invasive species with species profiles

NOBANIS (2015)

Red Lists of species and habitats in Germany

List of endangered plant and animal species as well as endangered habitats

e.g., Ludwig and Schnittler (1996), Riecken et al. (2006), BfN (2016d, 2018), and Finck et al. (2017)

SynBioSys Europe

Data on flora and vegetation in Europe

Schaminée et al. (2007)

TRY (Plant Trait Database)

Worldwide inventory of biological-­ecological traits of plant species (state 2017: ca. 148,000 taxa), including more than 90 databases with ca. 50 trait groups

Kattge et al. (2011)

WISIA

Protection status of internationally and nationally protected species

BfN (2017a)

2

38

Chapter 2 · Which Ecosystem Should Be Restored? Reference Systems for Restoration

2

..      Fig. 2.3  Natural forest reserves (Naturwaldreservate) in Germany which can serve as a reference for nearnatural silviculture. (From BLE 2015)

39 2.3 · Potential or Hypothetical Reference State

mately 35,000  ha have been designated in Germany up to now (BLE 2015). The widely occurring forest communities are represented more or less proportionally in terms of area, while small-scale and rare forest communities are represented with a minimum number (Meyer et  al. 2007). These stands are continuously and, depending on the financial resources available, more or less intensively monitored with regard to vegetation, structural development, and their regeneration dynamics. The results of this continuous monitoring and of specific research projects are increasingly used in near-natural silviculture (Bücking 1997; Ammer and Utschik 2004; Winter 2005; Meyer et al. 2007).

2.3

 otential or Hypothetical P Reference State

Especially for the restoration of forests, naturalness is of great importance (see above). Numerous concepts and approaches are available for the quantitative and qualitative assessment of naturalness (see the overview by Kowarik 1988; Walentowski and Winter 2007). One of those, which is applied in forestry and silviculture, respectively (e.g., Bončina et al. 2017), is the concept of potential natural vegetation (pnv) introduced by Tüxen in 1956. This concept and its implications for the practice of land use, landscape planning, and nature conservation became often subject to critical discussion and consequently, was modified several times (Stumpel and Kalkhoven 1978; Kowarik 1987; Härdtle 1995; Leuschner 1997; Zerbe 1997, 1998; Chytrý 1998; Moravec 1998; Chiarucci et al. 2010; Loidi et al. 2010; Loidi and Fernández-González 2012). Although, the pnv concept can be a useful tool at small scales (1:50,000). The latter leads to the following limitations for the practice of nature conservation and ecosystem restoration (see, Zerbe 1998): 55 Many maps of the pnv can hardly be reproduced due to the fact that the methodology of constructing a pnv remains unclear e.g., with regard to the consideration of reversible and irreversible ecological site changes by human impact. 55 The hypothetical character of the pnv increases with increasing anthropogenic impact and subsequent changes of the site ecology, especially in urban-­ industrial environments, but also in intensively used agricultural landscapes (. Fig. 2.4). 55 The landscape diversity created by multifaceted and multifunctional land-use types, respectively (see Zerbe 2022), which is positively perceived, for example, in the context of species, habitat, and cultural landscape conservation, is strongly leveled by the maps of the pnv. This does not only apply to agricultural cultural landscapes but also to the diversity of forest landscapes, as shown by the example of the Spessart mountains in SW Germany (Zerbe 1999a). Here, 23 forest communities of the present-day woodland, differentiated by means of phytosociology, are reduced to only eight forest communities of the potential natural vegetation constructed for this natural unit. 55 One of the most critical aspects, especially for nature conservation and ecosystem restoration practice, is that succession  

40

Chapter 2 · Which Ecosystem Should Be Restored? Reference Systems for Restoration

annual trampled lawns, pioneer vegetation of dumps and rubbish places

very high

hypothetical character of pnv-construction

2

segetal vegetation, intensively managed meadows and pastures, monocultures of coniferous trees

high

heaths, dry grassland

middle

low

forests with minor wood withdrawal, bogs

oligo-

meso-

eu-

polyhemerobic

hemeroby ..      Fig. 2.4  Increase in the hypothetical character of the potential natural vegetation (PNV) with increasing anthropogenic impact on ecosystems or land-use

is excluded within the original definition by Tüxen (1956). Accordingly, the pnv has to be hypothetically constructed “abruptly” (schlagartig) which means without any succession and subsequent vegetation and site development and changes, respectively. Strictly speaking, on a poor sandy site of the Northwestern German lowlands, which has been degraded to a Calluna heath by the traditional agriculture performed there for centuries (Plaggenwirtschaft), the “abruptly” constructed pnv would be a poorly growing pine stand. Nevertheless, in the course of a long-term succession, combined with an accumulation of organic material and nutrients, a mixed or pure beech forest can develop (Leuschner et  al. 1993; Leuschner 1997). For the restoration of a near-natural, self-­

systems according to the hemeroby concept (see Kowarik 2014). (After Zerbe 1998)

regenerating, long-term stable forest stand, however, it is precisely this succession that should be included, if necessary via an intermediate phase of a mixed oak forest (Zerbe and Jansen 2008). Despite these limitations, pnv maps can be applied for the assessment of naturalness and goal setting in nature conservation and ecosystem restoration, since a very large number of pnv maps at various scales are already available across whole Europe (Loidi and Fernández-González 2012). However, this should not be overestimated for practical purposes. Any pnv mapping must be based on near-natural remnants of vegetation in a cultural landscape that has been more or less altered by humans over centuries (for the methodology of pnv mapping, see Tüxen 1956 and Dierschke 1994).

41 2.3 · Potential or Hypothetical Reference State

Accordingly, remnants of natural forests (“primeval forests”; Korpel 1995; Scherzinger 1996) or such forest stands that naturally develop by excluding any further human impact (e.g., forests in national parks, natural forest reserves; 7 Chap. 7) have an important reference function for the restoration of near-natural forests in Central Europe (see above). Potential reference systems also play an important role in the restoration of rivers with their floodplains. The guiding principle for river restoration can be today’s potential natural water status (heutige potenzielle natürliche Gewässerzustand, hpnG), which can be derived from historical data and still occurring near-natural river sections with low human impact e.g., on the hydrogeomorphology, or is constructed hypothetically (EU 2000; Lüderitz and Jüpner 2009; Lüderitz et  al. 2009). The typification of Central European rivers also provides an important basis (7 Chap. 10).  

 

2

For the identification of reference systems and guiding principles on sites that have been strongly altered by human impact, such as urban-industrial environments and opencast mining landscapes, hypothetical objectives must sometimes be developed, as there are no corresponding references in the Central European cultural landscape (“novel ecosystems” according to Hobbs et al. 2006). For the restoration of forests on these novel sites, for example, abiotic site conditions (e.g., soil pH, water balance, nutrient content, pore volume) can be matched with the biology, ecology, and site requirements of Central European tree species and the regional tree species pool, respectively. Recommendations for the development of pioneer forests on former open-cast lignite mining areas are available, for example, from Tischew et  al. (2009). Particularly for post-mining landscapes, corresponding decision-making tools have been developed (de Vente and Aerts 2000; Ganas et al. 2004; Wagner et al. 2016).

43

Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration Contents 3.1

Doing Nothing (Passive Restoration) – 45

3.2

Stopping or Pushing Back Natural Succession – 45

3.3

 emoval or Reduction of Nutrients from Soil R and Water – 47

3.3.1 3.3.2

T errestrial Sites, Wetlands, and Peatland – 48 Lakes – 50

3.4

Removal of Pollutants by Bioremediation – 51

3.5

 estoration of the Water Balance, Rewetting, R and Hydro-morphological Interventions – 52

3.6

Erosion Control and Re-vegetation – 53

3.7

I ntroduction and Re-introduction of Diaspores and Target Species – 53

3.8

Inoculation with Mycorrhiza Fungi – 54

3.9

Repression of Undesirable Species by Pesticides – 54

3.10

Liming of Acidified Ecosystems – 54

3.11

Fertilisation – 55

3.12

Conclusion – 55

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Zerbe, Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65658-7_3

3

44

3

Chapter 3 · Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration

Many measures for the restoration of ecosystems are applied in different ecosystems and land use types, as they pursue the same goals. Measures of rewetting, for example, are carried out for the restoration of wet grassland, peatlands, and coastal salt grassland. Topsoil removal for the rapid reduction of excessive nutrient or pollutant loads in the soil is carried out for the restoration of species-rich grassland on eutrophicated agricultural sites, peatland (“shallow peat cutting”), heaths (sod cutting, “plaggen”), and urban-industrial ecosystems with sites contaminated with pollutants. If lake sediments are included, this measure is in principle also applied in aquatic systems by pumping out the nutrient-rich or polluted sediment. For this reason, an overview of measures applied in the practice of ecosystem restoration will be presented here. These will then be specified in the chapters of Part II regarding the particular ecosystem or land-use types. Measures influence abiotic site factors on the one hand, and biotic site

factors on the other, with both sets of measures, generally interrelated. Many of the measures presented below have been adopted for ecosystem restoration from other land-use practices, while others have been developed specifically for ecosystem restoration. For example, grazing and mowing have been applied in habitat and protected area management for decades (e.g., Wegener 1991; Jedicke et  al. 1996; Redecker et  al. 2002; Finck et  al. 2009; Plachter and Hampicke 2010). River restoration and the ecological fixation of eroded mountain slopes make use of the techniques provided by engineering biology (e.g., Hacker and Johannsen 2011; Florineth 2012; Grubinger 2015). Interventions in lakes to improve water quality and the habitat for aquatic organisms or phytoremediation bridge the gap to the practice of environmental chemistry (7 Chap. 11). Ecosystem restoration measures range from doing nothing (passive restoration) to extensive technical measures (. Fig. 3.1).  

 

Doing nothing Degraded ecosystem, land-use system or landscape

Mowing, grazing, selective removal of woody species Re-wetting through filling of ditches, erosion protection with geotextiles, tree plantation for forest restoration

Restored ecosystem, land-use system, or landscape

Topsoil removal, removal of lake sediment, dyke removal, transplantation of vegetation ..      Fig. 3.1  Measures for the restoration of ecosystems and ecosystem services with different intervention intensities, ranging from doing nothing to engineering biology, with some examples given

3

45 3.2 · Stopping or Pushing Back Natural Succession

 oing Nothing (Passive D Restoration)

different target states (7 Fig. 2.2) that are sometimes unpredictable under changing environmental conditions (e.g., the invasion Probably the simplest and often most cost-­ by non-native species). Although, doing effective measure to restore an ecosystem is nothing can lead to near-natural ecosystems to do nothing or passive restoration (Prach in the medium to long term and significantly and Pyšek 2001; del Moral et al. 2007; Prach reduce the costs of ecosystem restoration, it and Hobbs 2008). In this case, restoration is sometimes encounters problems of accepleft to natural ecological processes, often tance if, for example, natural processes lead combined with allowing natural succession to the age-related decay of forest stands or without further management and anthropo- the spread of undesirable species (7 Sect. genic impact, respectively. Passive restora- 22.3). Under certain conditions, however, tion is applied, for example, in the restoration doing nothing is not applicable as a restoraof near-natural forest ecosystems (7 Chap. tion measure. This is the case, for example, 7) or in the restoration of open-cast mining on terrestrial sites or in water bodies considareas or quarries (7 Chap. 20), whereby erably contaminated with pollutants e.g., specific restoration goals might be achieved with heavy metals or organic pollutants, and after only a few years (e.g., dry sandy grassthe self-purification capacity is ecologically, land with its characteristic flora, fauna, and spatially, and temporally insufficient to vegetation on a slag heap of open-cast ligrestore the ecosystem and its services by natnite mining) or after many decades (e.g., the restoration of near-natural forests). ural processes. Spontaneous succession can also be a restoration option when grassland is the target 3.2  Stopping or Pushing Back on former arable land (Prach et  al. 2014). Natural Succession Doing nothing in ecosystem restoration is in accordance with the nature conservation objective of the conservation of processes Central Europe would be naturally covered (“Prozessschutz”; 7 Chaps. 2 and 7), which by forests except for high mountain altitudes is implemented on a broad scale in national and very dry or very wet sites. After forests parks (. Fig. 3.2). Thus, passive restoration have been cleared for agricultural land use is strongly process-oriented and can lead to spontaneous and natural succession would lead to the re-establishment of woodland again in the medium to the long term when this land is abandoned. Accordingly, if habitats of the open cultural landscape are the subject of restoration, this succession is undesirable and is pushed back. In the case of grassland and heathland, this is achieved by regular mowing or continuous grazing. On fens, shrubs and trees are removed (“entkusselt”) if they become too dense and outcompete light-demanding plants or negatively influence the water balance of the fen. Guggenberger et al. (2014) compare the ..      Fig. 3.2  Natural development with dying old trees advantages and disadvantages of different and spontaneous regeneration in forest stands taken out of forestry use. (S. Zerbe, July 1991; in the Nature grazing management, taking alpine pastures as an example (. Table 3.1). Reserve Fauler Ort in Brandenburg) 3.1 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

46

Chapter 3 · Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration

..      Table 3.1  Advantages and disadvantages of different grazing management on alpine pastures (According to Guggenberger et al. 2014, modified and supplemented)

3

Grazing management

Advantages

Disadvantages

Free roaming herd

No fence necessary

Higher animal losses (e.g., due to large predators such as wolves)

Low personnel costs

Difficult control

Selective feeding possible

No targeted mountain grassland restoration

Good animal health

Animals can leave the alp

Hardly any parasite load Shepherding

Herding

Continuous stocking

Low animal losses

Increased personnel costs

Good forage utilization

Only limited restoration

Targeted mountain grassland restoration

High personnel costs

Optimum forage utilisation

Fence costs

Low animal losses

Higher exposure to parasites

Continuous monitoring of animal health

Costs for cottage and dog

Selective feeding possible

Costs for fence

Hardly any parasite load

No mountain grassland restoration

Animals cannot leave the alp Easy control of the fence Rotational grazing

Targeted grazing

Costs and effort for fencing

Good forage utilization

Increased workload

Easy control of the sheep

Possible parasite load No mountain grassland restoration

In the case of anthropogenic forest stands such as coppice forests and coppice with standards, respectively, or old-growth oak stands with a high nature conservation value, only appropriate silvicultural interventions can halt the natural succession that would lead to beech or mixed beech forests

on most Central European forest sites (7 Chap. 7; . Fig. 3.3). For the restoration of semi-open pasture landscapes with a mosaic of forest patches, grassland, and single old trees, the re-introduction of forest grazing can also be a socio-economically viable alternative (7 Chap. 7).  

 

 

3

47 3.3 · Removal or Reduction of Nutrients from Soil and Water

too dry for woodland

very dry (Pinus)

dry

(Pinus)

many light-demanding trees and shrubs

Quercus petraea, robur or pubescens

Acer species Fraxinus excelsior

Carpinus betulus slightly damp

Fagus sylvatica

Betula pendula

damp

a

dominance range of beech

Quercus species, Sorbus species, Tilia species

slightly dry

Quercus species

Fraxinus excelsior

Tilia cordata

slightly moist

Carpinus betulus

Acer pseudoplatanus Ulmus glabra

moist Betula pubescens slightly wet

b

Quercus robur Betula

wet (Pinus)

Acer pseudoplatanus

Carpinus betulus

pubescens

Fraxinus ex. Alnus glutinosa

Ulmus species

very wet too wet for woodland

water highly acid

acid

slightly acid

..      Fig. 3.3  Ecogram showing the tree species forming forests under natural competition in the Central European climate along the entire range of ecological site conditions, from dry to wet or strongly acidic to alkaline soils; only, on very wet and very dry sites forests cannot grow. Due to the wide ecological range and the competitiveness of European beech (Fagus sylvatica), it would be predominant on most forest sites in Central Europe, and additionally a on very

3.3 

 emoval or Reduction R of Nutrients from Soil and Water

Nutrient removal is particularly important in the restoration of traditional and formerly extensively used habitats that, prior to degradation due to eutrophication, were characterised by a high species diversity and the occurrence of rare and endangered species. This applies, for example, to extensively

nearly neutral

neutral

alkaline

poor and acidic soils with a thick humus layer and b on sites with stagnating wetness and sandy soils (from Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010). On sites, naturally dominated by beech, the restoration or preservation of forest types which developed under anthropogenic impact (e.g., oak forests due to forest grazing or hunting) is only possible with silvicultural interventions and through forest habitat management, respectively

used arable land (7 Chap. 17), grassland (7 Chaps. 15 and 16), or heaths (7 Chap. 14). Nutrient removal may also be necessary in the case of peatland restoration, especially after agricultural use (7 Chap. 8). In most cases, this involves the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus, which have accumulated in the topsoil as a result of direct or indirect inputs e.g., fertilisation or atmogenic depositions, and which promote the spread of species-poor, highly competitive  

 

 

 

48

3

Chapter 3 · Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration

vegetation. In the following, measures are presented that can be applied to remove nutrients from terrestrial sites or water bodies. These measures range from a continuous nutrient removal through appropriate longterm site management (Aushagerung) towards a rapid nutrient removal achieved by one strong intervention. 3.3.1

Terrestrial Sites, Wetlands, and Peatland

z Cultivation of Plants for Nutrient Removal

Through the cultivation of plants that have a high nutrient requirement and accumulate it in their above-ground biomass, nutrients (e.g., phosphorus) can be removed from the soil. Experiences with regard to ecosystem restoration are available for rye (Secale cereale), maize (Zea mays), and a couple of other grass species such as ryegrass (Lolium spec.) (Dyke et  al. 1982; Marrs 1993; Nie et al. 2010). Hereby, it is indispensable that the plant material is removed from the local nutrient cycle by mowing and harvesting. The addition of inorganic nitrogen can accelerate particularly the removal of phosphorus, as this increases biomass production and nutrient uptake (Marrs 1993).

z Grazing

Grazing is applied in particular for the restoration of species-rich, dry, or moist nutrient-­ poor pastureland under mesotrophic, acidic, or alkaline soil conditions or of anthropogenic heathland. Since the animals feed on the plants, grazing removes plant biomass and nutrients from the site. However, the animals must be removed from the restoration site after grazing, otherwise, their excrements will return the nutrients to the cycle of the target habitat. Grazing is a measure of ecosystem restoration with complex effects and serves to achieve various restoration goals, such as nutrient removal, halting succession towards shrubland and forests, diaspore transfer (functional habitat network through zoochorous dispersal), the re-introduction of local animal breeds, and/ or the restoration of traditional cultural landscapes. z Topsoil Removal and Topsoil Inversion

A very complex and often expensive measure of nutrient removal is topsoil removal on terrestrial sites or shallow peat removal on fens. Here, the heavily eutrophic topsoil is removed by machines to a depth of several decimetres and deposited elsewhere (. Fig.  3.4). This measure is applied in grassland (topsoil removal), heathland  

z Mowing

Repeated mowing and removal of the biomass can continuously remove nutrients from ecosystems on terrestrial and semi-­ terrestrial sites (Aushagerung). Depending on the natural site conditions (e.g., calcareous soils), the mowing frequency, and the nutrient load of the site, the success of this measure may only be achieved after decades or even not at all in foreseeable periods (e.g., Briemle 1999; Bakker et  al. 2002a, b). Accordingly, an efficient nutrient removal from the soil can only be achieved with a combination of other measures.

..      Fig. 3.4  Mechanical removal of vegetation and topsoil to restore a mountain heath in the Hochsauerland, Germany. (Photo with courtesy of W. Schubert)

49 3.3 · Removal or Reduction of Nutrients from Soil and Water

(choppering), and peatland restoration (peat stripping), partly as an application of traditional land-use practices such as sod cutting (plaggen) on heathland (7 Chap. 14). Topsoil removal leads to a sudden reduction in the nutrient load of the ecosystem to be restored but also has considerable disadvantages. Accordingly, the entire diaspore bank (7 Sect. 1.2.1) and the soil animals and microorganisms in the topsoil are also removed. The high costs of the measure (use of machinery, personnel costs) and, if necessary, the disposal of the removed soil material are limiting factors (7 Chaps. 23 and 25). Similar to the application of controlled burning or pesticides, such measures for the restoration of ecosystems must be reflected upon ethical principles and sustainability (7 Chap. 24). If only the uppermost centimetres or decimetres of the soil carry a heavy load with nutrients, ploughing or topsoil inversion and thus mixing the nutrient-rich topsoil with the nutrient-poorer subsoil can also lead to a reduction in nutrients. This measure is applied, for example, in the restoration of sandy dry grassland and at the same time creates open (safe) sites for the establishment of plant species with low competitiveness as well as site-specific insects (7 Chap. 16).  

 

 

 

 

z Controlled Burning

Controlled burning is also applied as a measure to reduce nutrient content, particularly for the restoration of heaths (7 Chap. 14), but with little success so far in terms of considerably changing the nutrient load (e.g., Marrs 1993; Härdtle et  al. 2009). The ­application of fire and topsoil removal as a measure of ecosystem restoration is discussed critically in 7 Chap. 24.  

 

z Artificial Soil Acidification

Marrs (1993) discusses artificial soil acidification in order, on the one hand, to increase the leaching of nutrients, which can be

3

achieved, for example, by adding acidic peat, sulphur, or pyrite. On the other hand, it is intended to create the site conditions for the establishment of target species on acidic soils. Elemental sulphur and ferrous sulphate, for example, have been applied in a restoration experiment on Calluna heaths (7 Chap. 14) in England to lower the soil pH on sites that have been used as arable land or grassland (Walker et  al. 2007a, b; Diaz et  al. 2008). Elemental sulphur is applied as pellets and microbially transformed to sulphuric acid in the soil. Ferrous sulphate also has an acidifying effect on soils. It binds phosphate into stable iron or aluminium complexes, thus reducing its availability to higher plants (Walker et  al. 2004a, b). This measure was intended to accelerate the development of abiotic site conditions (acidic and nutrient-poor soil) for the establishment of the characteristic heathland vegetation. However, such measures can also have negative effects on soil (e.g., release of toxic aluminium ions) and groundwater, so that their application, apart from the costs, must be considered very critically in ecosystem restoration.  

z Addition of Carbon

In addition to the removal of nutrients and soil, respectively, the addition of certain substances can also lead to a reduction in nutrients. Accordingly, the addition of carbon can reduce plant productivity in the restoration of species-rich meadows and pastures, sandy dry grasslands, mountain meadows, or heaths, especially after arable use, thereby giving those target species which have low nutrient requirements a competitive advantage (Morgan 1994; Török et  al. 2000; Blumenthal et al. 2003). Carbon addition e.g., in the form of sugar (Eschen et al. 2006), sawdust (Wilson and Gerry 1995; Reever Morghan and Seastedt 1999; Corbin and D’Antonio 2004; Spiegelberger et  al. 2009), or woodchips (Eschen et al. 2007), is intended to activate soil bacteria and fungi

50

3

Chapter 3 · Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration

to immobilize plant-available nutrients (Schmidt et  al. 1997; Blumenthal et  al. 2003). In this regard, experimental studies are available showing that carbon addition lowers the inorganic nitrogen concentration in the soil (Schmidt et al. 1997; Török et al. 2000) and reduces above-ground plant biomass (Michelsen et  al. 1999; Alpert and Maron 2000; Blumenthal et  al. 2003). Whether the observed changes in species composition (e.g., McLendon and Redente 1992; Michelsen et  al. 1999; Alpert and Maron 2000; Corbin and D’Antonio 2004; Perry et al. 2004) are actually related to the changed chemical soil conditions manipulated by the addition of carbon or are the result of other complex ecosystem processes (e.g., plant competition for light) must be revealed by further investigations, especially with regard to the functional groups of the plant species (Eschen et al. 2006). So far, this measure has hardly passed the experimental stage. Efforts and costs might be limiting factors for an application in practice. However, this measure offers an alternative to topsoil removal, especially in fragile ecosystems such as in alpine altitudes (Spiegelberger et al. 2009). z Application of Nutrient-Poor Substrate

To achieve more nutrient-poor site conditions in the topsoil after eutrophication, nutrient-poor substrate can be applied. This has been tested in practice, for example, in the restoration of sandy dry grasslands by applying nutrient-poor sand from deeper soil horizons (7 Chap. 16).

..      Fig. 3.5  The specialized boat “Manati” of the Ruhrverband for the removal of phytomass from water bodies. (Photo with courtesy of K. van de Weyer)

shores (e.g., Zerbe et al. 2013). Appropriate harvesting machines have been developed for this purpose (7 Chap. 11; . Fig. 3.5).  

 

z Suction of the Lake Sediment

In highly eutrophic lakes such as e.g., in urban areas or intensively used agricultural landscapes, the suction of the sludge from the lake bottom leads to nutrient removal (Roelofs et  al. 2002; 7 Chap. 11). Hereby, particularly the phosphorus load in the lake sediment should be considerably reduced. This measure is related with high efforts and costs. The sludge and lake sediments, respectively, may contain pollutants (e.g., heavy metals) and must therefore be carefully analysed under the given legal frameworks (e.g., Federal Soil Protection Act) before it is used, for example, in agriculture or disposed of.  

 

3.3.2

Lakes

z Harvesting of Phytomass

Similar to the mowing of terrestrial and semi-terrestrial habitats, the phytomass in lakes can also be removed frequently with the aim of nutrient reduction. Helophytes (e.g., common reed) or floating mats can be removed from the water body and lake

z Precipitation of Phosphorus

For the restoration of eutrophic lakes, also precipitating agents are applied, particularly iron and aluminium salts, which cause the precipitation of phosphorus through the formation of hardly soluble hydroxides and their sedimentation. In addition to an economic cost-benefit assessment, aspects of environmental ethics must also be taken into account in such lake restoration measures (7 Chap. 24).  

3

51 3.4 · Removal of Pollutants by Bioremediation

3.4 

 emoval of Pollutants by R Bioremediation

In addition to the approaches described above for the removal of nutrients, which - as in the case of topsoil removal and the suction of lake sediment, for example - can also be applied to soils and sediments contaminated with pollutants, certain organisms (plants, microorganisms) can also be used. These organisms either remove the pollutants from the soil, make them permanently immobile or transform pollutants into innoxious substances by chemical processes. Thus, formerly contaminated sites can be used for agriculture or forestry again (e.g.,

mining dumps) or as green space in settlement areas. These processes are summarized with the concept of bioremediation (Karigar and Rao 2011; Adams et al. 2015; Dzionek et  al. 2016). With phytoremediation, plants are used for the extraction of nutrients and pollutants from the soil (phytoextraction), for the accumulation in their biomass (phytoaccumulation), for the stabilization in the root zone through chemical processes (phytostabilization) or their precipitation in the root zone (rhizofiltration) (. Fig.  3.6). Other processes of phytoremediation encompass the degradation of pollutants by biochemical processes (phytodegradation) or the release of gaseous substances via the

..      Fig. 3.6  The different processes of phytoremediation in the plant and the soil. (Gomes 2012)

 

52

3

Chapter 3 · Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration

leaves (phytovolatilization). Phytoremediation is considered a cost-­effective and environmentally friendly measure to clean contaminated sites from e.g., heavy metals (Kumar et  al. 1995; Salt et  al. 1998; McGrath and Zhao 2003; Meuser 2012; Ali et  al. 2013; Dadea et  al. 2017). Worldwide, more than 500 plant species have been identified as hyperaccumulators up to now (Krämer 2010). The efficiency of the plant and the success of phytoremediation depends on various soil factors, such as soil type, pH, cation exchange capacity, and organic matter content (Rieuwerts et  al. 1998; Yoon et  al. 2006; Zeng et  al. 2011). Synergistic effects between higher plants and certain bacteria can be achieved when the microorganisms in the soil increase the availability of nutrients as well as pollutants to the higher plants (He et al. 2010; Misra et al. 2012; Oves et al. 2013; Ahemad 2015). The corresponding physiological and chemical mechanisms, respectively, underlying this interaction between higher plants and bacteria are outlined by Ahemad (2015). Hybrid poplars, for example, can be used for the remediation of soils with organic pollutants (e.g., atrazine, TNT, trichloroethylene) and willows (Salix spec.), hemp (Cannabis sativa s. l.) and linseed (Linum usitatissimum) can be applied for the remediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals (Pulford and Watson 2003; Kuzovkina and Quigley 2005; Gomes 2012). Common reed (Phragmites australis) as a “multipurpose” or “multifunctional” plant (Zerbe 2022) is not only applied in constructed wetlands due to its ability to purify water in the root zone (Gedan et  al. 2013; Köbbing et  al. 2013/2014) but can also be used for phytoremediation on terrestrial, semi-terrestrial, and aquatic sites (Windham et al. 2003; Mal and Narine 2004; Weis and Weis 2004; Kiviat 2013). In this context, root-associated bacterial communities play a crucial role (Borruso et al. 2015, 2016). In the future, bioremediation will play an increasing role with respect to novel con-

taminants such as pharmaceutical residues in water (e.g., Madukasi et  al. 2010; Rana et al. 2017). A potential for phytoremediation is also assumed for plants of salt grassland, especially in those coastal areas where there is an input of heavy metals and other pollutants from urban-industrial areas (Gedan et  al. 2009). The presence of oxygen in the rhizosphere leads to the mobilization and uptake of heavy metals by salt-grassland plants (Weis and Weis 2004). The tolerance of halophytes to salt stress is hereby considered to predispose them to stress due to heavy metal pollution (Williams et  al. 1994; Windham et al. 2003). Micro- and macro algae can be used for wastewater treatment. Under experimental laboratory conditions, species of the genus Chlorella and Scenedesmus, for example, very efficiently converted residues of pharmaceuticals and cosmetic products as well as caffeine from urban wastewater into volatile compounds (Matamoros et  al. 2015). The removal of heavy metals from wastewater by the algae (biosorption) also shows good results under laboratory conditions (Mehta and Gaur 2005; Shanab et al. 2012; Chekroun and Baghour 2013; Kipigroch et  al. 2016; see also Brenner et  al. 2008). After having used them for bioremediation, biofuels can be produced from these algae (Bohutskyi et al. 2016).

3.5 

Restoration of the Water Balance, Rewetting, and Hydro-morphological Interventions

Against the background of the very high importance of water as a natural resource for humans, the strong decline of water-­ influenced inland (wetlands, peatlands) and coastal habitats, and the numerous national and international initiatives to improve water quality and to restore aquatic habitats to a

3

53 3.7 · Introduction and Re-introduction of Diaspores and Target Species

“good ecological” status (e.g., European Water Framework Directive; 7 Table 21.1), the natural water balance and the restoration of near-natural water dynamics in the course of ecosystem restoration play an outstanding role. In the restoration of peatland and wet grassland, the rewetting of formerly drained sites is of great importance. The various measures, which can range from filling in drainage ditches to constructions for the artificial supply of water to the restoration sites, are described in detail in 7 Chap. 8. With regard to coastal salt grassland and the natural dynamics of rivers and their floodplains, the landscape water balance is restored by dyke deconstruction (7 Sect. 12.1). In the restoration of rivers with their aquatic and semi-terrestrial habitats, damming and other construction measures carried out in the past often have to be reversed or modified in a near-natural way. This may require strong interventions into the hydro-­ morphology with measures adopted from engineering biology, such as raising the bed of the river or introducing deadwood to influence the river course dynamics (7 Chap. 10).

3.7 

 

 

 

 

3.6 

Erosion Control and Re-vegetation

Introduction and Re-introduction of Diaspores and Target Species

In addition to the restoration of desired abiotic site conditions e.g., through rewetting or the reduction of soil nutrient content, the restoration of target vegetation, often combined with the re-introduction or stabilization of populations of rare and endangered species, plays a key role in ecosystem restoration. Thus, several decades of experiences on diaspore transfer as well as the introduction or re-introduction of target species are available in restoration ecology and restoration practice (e.g., Kiehl et al. 2010; 7 Chap. 4). Plant species can be introduced through the transfer of diaspores such as e.g., via seeds, mown material, or hay, or through planting (7 Chaps. 9, 15, and 20). The diaspores can be taken from donor sites which correspond in their species composition to the target vegetation of the restoration site. In general, it is recommended to use autochthonous seed material wherever possible. In addition, animals that have grazed on a donor site and carry diaspores in their hooves, fur, or faeces (endo- and exozoochorous dispersal; 7 Sect. 1.2.1) can contribute very effectively to the introduction of target species to a restoration site (7 Table 15.3). In the context of a functional habitat network, herds can thus also contribute to population exchange between grazed ecosystems. Similarly, the introduction of topsoil with an appropriate soil seed bank can promote the target vegetation on a restoration site. This is particularly emphasized in the restoration of subalpine and alpine ecosystems or the re-vegetation of raw soils (7 Chaps. 9 and 20), because this transfers not only the diaspores and soil nutrients but also vegetative plant parts, soil organisms, and the mycorrhizal fungi, the latter playing a particular role for the plant growth on the extreme sites of alpine altitudes (Lesica and Antibus 1986) or for the colonization of raw  

 

 

 

If vegetation cover needs to be restored e.g., on over-utilized, heavily eroded ski slopes at high altitudes in the Alps or on mining dumps, biological engineering measures are often applied. Eroded slopes can be fixed with geotextiles, grassland sods, rolled turf, or reed mats (7 Chaps. 9 and 20). Transplantation of vegetation together with the topsoil (sod transplantation) from a donor site can also accelerate the development of vegetation cover. In addition, plantings of shrubs and trees that have a high vegetative regeneration capacity (e.g., willows, genus Salix) can rapidly stabilize slopes at risk of erosion (Kuzovkina and Quigley 2005).  

 

54

3

Chapter 3 · Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration

soils of open-cast lignite mining sites. When revegetating raw soils on mining sites, Kirmer and Tischew (2006), by referring to relevant studies, recommend removing the seed-rich topsoil from the donor site to a maximum depth of about 20 cm and spreading it with a maximum layer thickness of 3–5  cm. In other restoration projects, humus-rich topsoil from existing forests was transferred to accelerate forest development on former open-cast lignite mining areas (Wolf 1987, 2000; Borchers et al. 1998).

3.8 

Inoculation with Mycorrhiza Fungi

target vegetation is to be restored or target species are to be introduced or their populations stabilised, the regulation of undesirable species might be of major importance. Undesirable species are, for example, woody plants in grassland, dominant grasses on heaths or sandy dry grassland, or invasive herbs, perennials, or woody plants which are considered non-native. This is achieved either through the measures already described for influencing the abiotic or biotic site factors (mowing, grazing, nutrient removal, diaspore transfer, etc.), or undesirable species are deliberately suppressed or eradicated, as is the case, for example, with the cutting of woody plants on peatland (7 Chap. 8). For invasive non-native species, in particular, multifaceted management recommendations are made for their suppression (see compilation by Kowarik 2010), although this practice and the considerations on which it is based are critically reflected in 7 Chap. 5. Increasingly, the application of pesticides is also reported in the context of “ecosystem restoration” such as, for example, for the repression of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) on coastal heaths (Måren et  al. 2008; Lewis and Shepherd 2009) or purple moor-grass (Molinia caerulea) on wet heathland (Todd et  al. 2000; Marrs et al. 2004; see also Pywell et al. 2011). However, as it will be discussed in 7 Chap. 23, the application of synthetic pesticides in ecosystem restoration can hardly be justified (see also Zerbe and Ott 2021).  

As already outlined in 7 Sect. 1.2.1, the symbiosis of higher plants and fungi is of crucial importance for vegetation development and plant growth on many sites. Many higher plants on nutrient-poor dry sites, such as calcareous grasslands, or on raw soils which have been produced during open-cast mining, are dependent on mycorrhiza. In order to accelerate the development of vegetation and the growth of target species e.g., in the re-vegetation process of mine sites or in afforestations on post-­mining areas, various practices of introducing or inoculating mycorrhizal fungi are recommended. Thus, the mycorrhizal fungi can be introduced, for example, together with the transfer of topsoil or the rooted soil horizon along with the seedlings and saplings when planting the target species (Lesica and Antibus 1986; van der Heijden et al. 1998; Renker et al. 2004; Gebhardt et al. 2007; Asmelash et al. 2016; Koziol and Bever 2017).  

3.9 

Repression of Undesirable Species by Pesticides

Particularly in the case of restoration projects in which, following a historical or current reference system (7 Fig. 2.2), specific  

 

 

3.10 

Liming of Acidified Ecosystems

Liming is a commonly applied measure to counteract the negative effects of acidification of, for example, peatlands (van Duren et  al. 1998; Sliva and Pfadenhauer 1999; Grootjans et al. 2006) or lakes (Hupfer and Hilt 2008; Björk 2014). Successful examples from the sanitation of acidified lakes

3

55 3.12 · Conclusion

with a low alkalinity are available from the Netherlands and Sweden (Roelofs et  al. 2002; Björk 2014). However, this measure is not without controversy, as direct massive liming of acidified lakes can lead to sedimentation of lime and an undesirable mobilization of nutrients due to increased decomposition rates of organic matter at the lake bottom (Roelofs et al. 1994; Hölzel et  al. 2009). These negative consequences are also known from forest ecosystems. In Central European forests, liming was widely applied as a countermeasure to soil acidification in the 1990s. After this short period of forest liming, this measure was stopped due to the undesirable rapid nutrient mobilization (on ecosystem processes following forest liming, see Meiwes 2013). Review studies taking into account longterm consequences of liming show that this measure may indicate success in the short term but are often ineffective in the long term or lead to negative environmental effects (7 Chap. 11).  

3.11 

Fertilisation

Large-scale fertilization on agricultural land, especially with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, the direct nutrient inputs from urban-industrial areas through groundwater and surface waters as well as atmogenic nutrient inputs lead to soil and water eutrophication throughout Central Europe which is one of the most important drivers of ecosystem degradation and species decline, particularly regarding habitats with a high nature conservation value. Under certain conditions, it can, nevertheless, make sense to add nutrients in the form of fertilization during ecosystem restoration. This has already been explained in 7 Sect. 3.3.1 with the example of grass cultivation for the extraction of nutrients from  

eutrophicated soils (e.g., phosphorus). Additionally, initial fertilisation is recommended for the restoration of subalpine and alpine grassland in order to accelerate vegetation development and vegetation cover, respectively, and thus, erosion protection in these high mountain altitudes (7 Chap. 9).  

3.12 

Conclusion

In many ecosystem restoration projects, different measures are applied simultaneously or successively. After topsoil removal, for example, seeds of the target species are often introduced. Those measures that are specific to the ecosystem or land-use type being restored are outlined in 7 Chaps. 7 to 20. An overview of the measures and procedures frequently applied in ecosystem restoration is given in . Table  3.2, which also highlights possible problems. When considering ecosystem restoration measures, it should not be overlooked that some of the interventions are precisely those that contribute or have contributed to ecosystem degradation. Anthropogenic heathland in Central Europe, for example, was created by the continuous removal of the vegetation and organic topsoil for agriculture (sod cutting or “Plaggenwirtschaft”; 7 Chap. 14), which led to an interruption of the natural nutrient cycles and a nutrient impoverishment of the soils. However, those measures are applied today to restore these heaths. Ecosystem degrading measures also include burning, artificial eutrophication, and the application of pesticides. These “restoration” measures may be appropriate from an ecological point of view, but whether they also meet socio-economic or environmental ethical requirements needs to be carefully considered before the restoration intervention (7 Chaps. 23 and 24).  

 

 

 

56

Chapter 3 · Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration

..      Table 3.2  Frequent measures of ecosystem restoration in Central Europe with objectives, examples of ecosystems and land-use types to be restored, and potential problems

3

Restoration measure

Objective

Examples of ecosystems and land-use types

Potential problems

Do nothing

Ecosystem development without direct human intervention (possibly, after initial measures), protection of natural processes

Near-natural forests, former open-cast mining areas, still largely functioning peatland, coastal salt grassland in combination with dike removal or relocation

Long time required to achieve restoration goals, natural ecosystem development deviates from the restoration objectives

Mowing

Keeping grassland open, repressing succession towards shrub and forest vegetation, nutrient reduction through biomass removal

(Wet) meadows, nutrient-poor grassland, heaths, traditional agroforestry systems

Costs, use or disposal of the grassland biomass, farm abandonment and thus, lack of agricultural practice

Grazing

Maintenance and management of a specific ecosystem or land-use type of an open or semi-open landscape, nutrient removal, diaspore input from grazing animals, re-introduction of old livestock breeds, restoration of traditional open land-forest habitat complexes

Pasture and pasture landscapes, heath, sandy dry grassland, calcareous grassland, forest pasture and traditional agroforestry systems, coastal and inland salt grassland, subalpine and alpine grassland

Different grazing behaviour of livestock, grazing intensity too low or too high, no availability of farmers (e.g., after farm abandonment) or herders, marketing of animal products difficult or not possible

Diaspore introduction or re-introduction through seeds, mulching or hay

Restoration of target plant communities and species assemblages, respectively, acceleration of vegetation development, erosion control

Meadows on mesotrophic, acidic, and base-rich soils, dry grassland, heath, mining and waste dumps, open-cast mining areas

Introduction of undesirable or invasive species, insufficient quantities of seeds, seeds eaten by animals, lack of safe sites for germination and seedling establishment

Re-introduction of certain plant and animal species through sowing, planting, and the re-introduction of reproductive animal individuals

Stabilization of populations of endangered species, increasing diversity (species pool)

In principle, all ecosystem and land-use types in near-natural landscapes or traditional cultural landscapes

Site conditions not suitable for the establishment of the species, biology and ecology of the target species not sufficiently investigated, costs, lack of acceptance (e.g., large predators)

3

57 3.12 · Conclusion

..      Table 3.2 (continued) Restoration measure

Objective

Examples of ecosystems and land-use types

Potential problems

Cultivation of plant species for phytoremediation

Nutrient removal after eutrophication, pollutant removal or immobilization

Arable land, nutrient poor grassland, mining and waste dumps, urban-industrial ecosystems

Long duration of nutrient removal, insufficient plant growth and biomass production, disposal of the harvested (eventually contaminated) biomass

Topsoil or shallow peat removal

Nutrient removal after eutrophication

Nutrient-poor meadows and pastures, heathland, lowland mires

Costs, disposal of soil or peat, removal of the soil seed bank, lack of acceptance

Topsoil coverage

Transfer of topsoil or nutrient-poor sandy soil from another site, diaspore transfer, transfer of mycorrhizal fungi

Subalpine and alpine grassland, open-cast mining areas, mining dumps, sandy dry grassland

Costs, soil erosion on steep slopes, damage to the donor ecosystem

Ploughing or topsoil inversion

Nutrient reduction in the topsoil, creation of bare soil and thus, safe sites

Arable land, nutrient-­ poor grassland, sandy dry grassland

Damage of the soil seed bank, promotion of ruderal or invasive species, disturbance of the soil structure

Controlled burning

Halting shrub and tree encroachment and forest succession on open land, nutrient reduction in topsoil

Heathland

Costs, release of carbon into the atmosphere, damage to populations of less mobile animal species, lack of acceptance, uncontrollable fire

Suction of lake sediment and sludge, respectively

Nutrient reduction or removal

Lakes

Costs, disposal of possibly contaminated sludge, only short-term effects in case of further nutrient input from the catchment area

Precipitants (e.g., iron and aluminium salts)

Reduction of phosphorus in the water body by artificial sedimentation

Lakes

Costs, only short-term effects with further nutrient input from the catchment area, phosphorus can be remobilised (continued)

58

Chapter 3 · Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration

..      Table 3.2 (continued)

3

Restoration measure

Objective

Examples of ecosystems and land-use types

Potential problems

Liming

Raising the pH value of acidified waters

Lakes

Rapid mobilisation of nutrients and subsequent eutrophication, only short-term effects

Rewetting (incl. dyke deconstruction and relocation)

Restoration of the natural landscape water balance and natural water dynamics

Peatland, wetland, sewage farmland (Rieselfelder), coastal and inland salt grassland

Unforeseen ecological processes, methane emissions from peatlands, lack of regeneration of target species, lack of acceptance

Interventions in the hydrogeomorphology of rivers

Restoration of the natural river dynamics and biocenoses of the floodplains, creating water retention areas

Rivers with their floodplains, oxbow lakes

Costs, lack of acceptance, unforeseen ecological processes, spread of undesirable species

Re-vegetation of bare soil with geotextiles, grassland sods, rolled turf, reed mats, sod transplantation, seeding, etc.

Erosion control, promotion of natural succession

Open-cast mining areas, mining and waste dumps, degraded ski slopes, river banks

Costs, lack of regeneration of target species

59

Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species Contents 4.1

Re-introduction of Plant Species – 60

4.2

Re-introduction of Animal Species – 65

4.3

 ase Study: Re-introduction of the C Brown Bear in Trentino, Northern Italy (EU Project LIFE Ursus) – 73

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Zerbe, Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65658-7_4

4

60

4

Chapter 4 · Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species

The re-introduction of species is understood as all measures for the support of a population threatened with extinction in a certain area or a restoration site (reinforcement) or when a plant or animal species that has disappeared within its natural range due to anthropogenic impact is artificially brought back (re-introduction; IUCN/SSC 2013). The latter means that the species in question is returned to the local or regional species pool (7 Fig. 1.5) after land-use impact or over-­exploitation of the natural resources has led to its disappearance or the species has been deliberately eradicated, such as large carnivores and megaherbivores. Re-introduction thus also compensates for the possibly low dispersal capacity of certain species in a highly fragmented cultural landscape. The re-introduced species may be Red List, target, key or umbrella species (7 Sect. 6.3). In addition to international agreements and recommendations (Rat der Europäischen Gemeinschaften 1992; UN 1992a; IUCN/SSC 2013), the German Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatschG § 37, paragraph 1 no. 3) also provides for the re-introduction of species by explicitly stating “the re-­introduction of animals and plants of displaced wild species in suitable habitats within their natural range”. Additionally to the general objective of restoring specific biocenoses in their habitats e.g., by introducing plant material containing diaspores, this chapter focuses on the reintroduction of specific species. The specific measures include, for example, in the case of animals, the release of reproductive individuals and, in the case of plants, the sowing or planting of the species concerned. While reinforcement and re-introduction are oriented towards the current, historical or original range of a species, species can also be established in an area outside their natural range for conservation purposes, which is referred to as translocation or assisted migration (Koch and Kollmann 2012a). This is justified, for example, as compensation for species extinction due to climate change (Thomas et al. 2004; Thomas  

 

2011). However, in contrast to re-introduction or stabilization of a population in its natural range, this is controversial (HoeghGuldberg et al. 2008; Loss et al. 2011; Weeks et al. 2011), especially when such translocations are linked to the problem of “biological invasions” (Ricciardi and Simberloff 2009; 7 Chap. 5). In recent decades, extensive experience has been gained worldwide with the re-­ introduction of animal and plant species, which has been compiled in review works (Falk et al. 1996; Seddon et al. 2005; Godefroid et al. 2011; Ewen et al. 2012; Maschinski and Haskins 2012; Jachowski et al. 2016). A search using the keyword “reintroduction” in the literature database for nature conservation and landscape management of the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, for example, yielded approximately 2100 literature references (BfN 2016c: cut-off date 08.01.2018). A database analysis by Koch and Kollmann (2012a) showed that there are only about 10% reintroduction projects for plants in Germany, but a disproportionately higher percentage of animals. Mammals and birds are more frequently the subject of re-­introduction projects than average (Seddon et al. 2005; Koch and Kollmann 2012a). A certain proportion of re-introductions of animal and plant species, especially by nature lovers or local nature conservation groups, is likely to elude literature research, as this is not documented.  

4.1

 e-introduction of Plant R Species

In an extensive literature review (including grey literature, i.e., literature not published in scientific journals), supported by surveys, Godefroid et al. (2011) identified over 230 re-­introduction projects for plant species in Europe (see . Table 4.1). They quantify the success of the re-introduction based primarily on the criteria of persistence and reproduction (flowering, fruiting) of the ­  

4

61 4.1 · Re-introduction of Plant Species

..      Table 4.1  Examples for the re-introduction of plant species in Central and Western Europe, including the Alps as a measure of restoration, with an assessment of re-­introduction success during the observation period (Based on the criteria of Primack and Drayton 1997) Plant species

Geographical region

Ecosystem or land-use type

Observation period or monitoring [years]

Assessment of the success of the measure during the observation period

References

Adenophora liliifolia (Ladybell)

Bavaria, Lower Isar Valley

Hardwood floodplain

6

+

Scheuerer and Späth (2005)

Aldrovanda vesiculosa (Waterwheel)

South Bohemia, Czech Republic

Mesotrophic fens rich in sedges

10

−

Adamec (2005)

Anthericum ramosum (St. Bernard’s-lily)

Bavaria, north of Munich

Calcareous grassland

3

+a

Röder and Kiehl (2007)

Arenaria grandiflora (Large-flowered sandwort)

Paris, Fontainebleau

South-exposed, calcareous sandy and rocky sites

7

−

Bottin et al. (2007)

Arnica montana (Arnica)

Bavarian Vogtland, northern Fichtelgebirge

Nutrient-poor meadows and matgrass grasslands

4

+

Blachnik and Saller (2015)

Asplenium scolopendrium (Hart’s tongue fern)

Harz, southern Lower Saxony

Gypsum doline with slope forest (Fraxino-­ Aceretum)

10

+

Becker and Becker (2010)

Calla palustris (Marsh calla)

Vosges

Alder forest, river banks

> 35

+

Muller (2009)

Cypripedium calceolus (Lady’s slipper orchid)

Middle Franconian Alb, Bavaria

Light pinespruce forests

3

+

Brunzel and Sommer (2016)

Gentianella lutescens (Carpathian gentian)

Eastern Erzgebirge

Mountain meadows or matgrass grassland

5

+

Brunzel et al. (2017)

Helosciadium repens (Creeping marshwort)

Schleswig-­ Holstein

Grazed floodplain grassland (Potentillion anserinae) on pond and lake shores

Until 2

+b

Burmeier and Jensen (2009) and Lütt (2009)

(continued)

62

Chapter 4 · Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species

..      Table 4.1 (continued)

4

Plant species

Geographical region

Ecosystem or land-use type

Observation period or monitoring [years]

Assessment of the success of the measure during the observation period

References

Juncus atratus (Black rush)

Northeast Germany

Floodplain grassland along the Havel (Potentillion anserinae)

1

−

Burkart et al. (2010)

Luronium natans (Water-­ plantain)

Schleswig-­ Holstein

Sparsely vegetated shores of shallow, nutrient-poor to moderately nutrient-rich peat ponds

1

+

Lütt (2009)

Myricaria germanica (German tamarisk)

Isar floodplain, Bavaria and along various rivers in Carinthia

Largely vegetation-free riverbanks disturbed by regular flooding

10 years). The overall goal must be to establish viable populations that can persist without further human support or with a habitat-specific management (Griffith et al. 1989; Sarrazin and Barbault 1996; Bell et al. 2003). Godefroid et al. (2011) also emphasize that the quantification of unsuccessful projects from literature data is almost impossible because they are too rarely published (see Berg 1996), which may in general hold true for unsuccessful restoration projects of any kind. Thus, the re-introduction of plant species still seems to follow the trial-and-error principle. Nevertheless, some examples of long-­ term monitoring and success control are available (7 Chap. 6). Becker and Becker (2010), for example, assessed the relocation of the hart’s tongue fern (Asplenium scolopendrium) from an active gypsum quarry to a nearby gypsum doline. Although, a few plants had died at the new site, the other plant individuals showed biomass growth and regeneration over an observation period of 10 years (. Fig. 4.1). The re-introduction of the common water nut (Trapa natans)  

 

25

a

b

20

80 Number of progeny per transplanted plant

Proportion of sporulating plants (%)

4

Chapter 4 · Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species

60 40 20 0

15 10 5 0

0a 0b

2

4

6

8

10

Years after planting ..      Fig. 4.1  Proportion of relocated individuals of hart’s tongue fern (Asplenium scolopendrium) with spores a and number of progenies per relocated plant b over a 10-years period (means and standard devia-

0a 0b

2

4

6

8

10

Years after planting tion are shown; ANOVA with repeated measures). 0a, spring 1999 (planting date), 0b, summer 1999. (From Becker and Becker 2010)

65 4.2 · Re-introduction of Animal Species

as a compensation for road construction in the Elbe floodplain, which was carried out between 1995 and 1999, was also considered successful by Bolender et al. (2015) after 19 years. There, preliminary studies on the ecology and water chemistry of potential restoration sites helped to identify 15 potential sites, in each of which up to 10 mature fruits, protected against herbivory by “protective enclosures”, were deployed. To monitor success, five vitality levels were differentiated, ranging from level 0 (no establishment of the plant) to 4 (extensive floating leaf formation, presence of numerous mature fruits). Population sizes of water nut ranging from 0.6 to 15 ha with the highest vitality levels of 3 and 4 were identified in six sites ranging in size from approximately 1 to 40 ha in 2014. Bolender et al. (2015) thus assume that the water nut population is stable on these restoration sites. In addition to ecological site factors, which can have a limiting effect on re-­ introduction success, costs or acceptance by people can also be problematic (7 Fig. 25.1). Kiehl (2009), for example, states the cost of seeding and planting selected target species on calcareous grasslands (e.g., Pulsatilla patens and Anthericum ramosum). Thereby, the costs of planting individuals which have been raised in a greenhouse are disproportional high compared to the reintroduction success (7 Sect. 23.6; 7 Table 23.3). The acceptance of re-introduction projects can be increased by appropriate strategies in the public. In a project for the re-introduction of arnica (Arnica montana) in the Bavarian Vogtland and the Fichtelgebirge, the nature conservation management of the species is specifically linked to its use, which can compensate for the costs and ultimately also lead to economic benefits (Blachnik and Saller 2015). In addition to the use of arnica as a medicinal plant, the public is also made aware of

such “services” of the plant species with appropriate information. . Table 4.1 lists selected re-introduction projects and studies on the re-introduction of plant species in Central and Western Europe. The target habitats are mostly wet meadows, peatland or spring sites, or dry and nutrient-poor grassland, i.e., habitats that have become rare in Central and Western Europe and whose existence is threatened. These re-introduction projects reflect various life forms and taxa, respectively, which range from mosses (e.g., Scorpidium scorpioides) and ferns (e.g., Asplenium scolopendrium) to grasses and rushes (e.g., Juncus atratus), herbs, and woody plants (e.g., Myricarica germanica). This compilation makes no claim to completeness, but clearly shows that monitoring and success control, respectively, hardly extend beyond a period of 10 years.  

4.2

 

 

 

4

 e-introduction of Animal R Species

Examples of the re-introduction of animal species in Central Europe and other parts of Europe are shown in . Table 4.2. These are often vertebrates which, as umbrella species, also reflect the quality of the restored habitats such as wetlands, rivers or forests (7 Sect. 6.3). For animal species, observation and monitoring periods of up to 50 years are much longer than for plant reintroduction projects. The international programme “Rhine” or currently “Rhine 2020” has been working since 1985 on the goal of enabling migratory fish species such as Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and sea trout (Salmo trutta trutta) to return to the restored river habitats of the Rhine and its tributaries (IKSR 2015). Part of the programme includes restoration measures to improve fish migration routes (e.g.,  

 

66

Chapter 4 · Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species

..      Table 4.2  Examples of the re-introduction of animal species (with a focus on Central Europe and the Alps) as a measure of restoration, with an assessment of the re-introduction success during the observation period (Based on the criteria of Primack and Drayton 1997) Animal species

Geographical region

Ecosystem or land-use type

Observation period or monitoring [years]

Assessment of the success of the measure during the observation period

References

Bison bonasus (European bison or wisent)

Rothaargebirge

Beech and spruce forests, < 10% open land

3

o

Kuemmerle et al. (2011) and Tillmann et al. (2013)

Castor fiber (European beaver)

Different regions of Europe

Rivers, floodplains, wetlands

> 50

+

For example, Sjöberg and Ball (2011) and Swinnen et al. (2017)

Mustela lutreola (European mink)

Saarland

River floodplain of the Ill and its tributaries

2

o

Peters et al. (2009)

Lynx lynx (Eurasian lynx)

Different regions of Europe

Large, contiguous woodland

> 45

−

For example, Engleder (2004), von Arx et al. (2009), and Schnyder et al. (2016)

Ursus arctos (Brown bear)

Trentino, Northern Italy

Mountain forests

15

+

For example, Tosi et al. (2015); see also case study in this chapter

Ciconia ciconia (White stork)

Various regions of Europe e.g., Rhineland-­ Palatinate

Open to semi-open landscapes such as e.g., river floodplains with wet meadows

> 50

+

For example, Bloesch (1956), Feld (2000), Schaub et al. (2004), and Stoltz and Helb (2004)

Falco peregrinus (Peregrine Falcon)

Hesse

Buildings

35

+

Brauneis (2011)

4 Mammals

Birds

4

67 4.2 · Re-introduction of Animal Species

..      Table 4.2 (continued) Animal species

Geographical region

Ecosystem or land-use type

Observation period or monitoring [years]

Assessment of the success of the measure during the observation period

References

Gypaetus barbatus (Bearded vulture)

Alps

Habitats above the timber line

30

+

For example, Frey and Walter (1989) and Schaub et al. (2009)

Strix uralensis (Ural owl)

Dürrenstein, Austria

Mixed spruce-fir-beech forest

5

+

Kohl and Leditznig (2014)

Tetrao urogallus (Western capercaillie)

Various federal states in Germany

Mixed coniferous-­ deciduous forests

6–30

−

Siano and Klaus (2013)

Tetrastes bonasia (Hazel grouse)

Franconian Forest in Thuringia

Spruce and beech forests

7

o

Klaus et al. (2009)

Bombina variegata (Yellow-­ bellied toad)

Hesse

Pasture in the floodplain with small spawning waters

6

+

Nicolay and Nicolay (2015)

Hyla arborea (European tree frog)

Lower Saxony, North Rhine-­ Westphalia

Natural and artificial small water bodies with reed belt

> 25

+

Clausnitzer and Clausnitzer (1984), Meier et al. (2000), Glandt and Kronshage (2004), Brandt (2007), and Durrer (2014)

Lacerta viridis (European green lizard)

Bandenburg

Heathland with pine trees on nutrient-poor sandy soils and road embankments

7

−

Schneeweiß (2012)

Natrix tessellata (Dice snake)

Saxony

Rocky banks of the Elbe river near Meißen

15

−

Strasser and Peters (2016)

Amphibians

Reptiles

(continued)

68

Chapter 4 · Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species

..      Table 4.2 (continued) Animal species

4

Geographical region

Ecosystem or land-use type

Observation period or monitoring [years]

Assessment of the success of the measure during the observation period

References

River Rhine with tributaries

River Rhine and its tributaries with spawning habitats

> 20

+

Roche (1994), Gerlier and Roche (1998), and IKSR (2015)

Aeshna viridis (Green hawker)

Lower Saxony

Small water bodies with water soldiers (Stratiotes aloides)

3

+

Kastner et al. (2016)

Euphydryas aurinia (Marsh fritillary)

Brandenburg

Nutrient-poor to moderately nutrient-rich calcareous lowland mires with extensive use

10

− (on 5 out of 7 re-­ introduction sites), + (on 2 sites)

Kretschmer et al. (2016)

Fishes Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon) and S. trutta trutta (Sea trout) Invertebrates

+ successful, o indifferent, − not successful

fish passes at barrages) and river habitats and riparian structures, respectively. As the salmon returns to its rivers of origin to spawn, stocking with “fingerlings” (juvenile salmon grown from eggs) is carried out. Within a continuous monitoring along the Rhine, adult salmons are counted. Thus, an increase in the salmon population was observed until 2007, but a decline thereafter (. Fig. 4.2). Although, the salmon has readopted the Rhine and some of its tributaries as spawning habitat, a stable population has not yet been reached in the Rhine catchment. Limiting factors for the re-introduc 

tion of salmon into the Rhine and its tributaries are illegal fishing (despite a fishing ban), the loss of juvenile salmons through predatory fish and cormorants, and high mortality rates during the passage of hydropower plants. In addition, increased “marine mortality” has been observed over the past two decades, without its causes and environmental mechanisms being sufficiently understood (IKSR 2015; 7 Sect. 13.2). Since the decline of salmon since 2007 correlates with the decline of sea trout, environmental factors across species (e.g., the lack of longitudinal river continuity) are  

4

69 4.2 · Re-introduction of Animal Species

900 800 Deltarhein 700 Niederrhein

Number

600

Mittelrhein Oberrhein

500

Hochrhein

400 300 200 100 0

Year Deltarhein Niederrhein

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 0

0

0

0

23

11

17

15

5

97

225

134

103

97

65

56

50

110

80

82

76

57

96

84

42

1

2

10

18

9

7

16

13

52

76

365

96

242

191

135

244

342

556

385

314

398

205

137

169

221

Mittelrhein

0

0

1

0

0

1

5

12

5

48

56

31

45

59

42

14

27

46

44

68

27

10

18

15

18

Oberrhein

0

0

0

0

0

9

24

5

7

3

76

61

96

93

73

49

70

93

161

108

57

120

92

36

159

Hochrhein

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

..      Fig. 4.2  Numbers of adult salmon in the Rhine and its tributaries in the period 1990–2014 within the continuous monitoring of the programme “Rhine” and “Rhine 2020”. (IKSR 2015)

assumed. The migratory fish species salmon and sea trout are regarded as indicator and umbrella species at the level of the entire river basin, as they allow an environmental assessment on the quality and functionality of the entire river system. Since they also depend on a transition between salt and fresh water, they link the river and sea habitats. Thus, according to IKSR (2015), special attention should be paid to migratory fish species not only in the implementation of the European Water Framework Directive (WRRL; EG 2000; 7 Sect. 10.5), but also in the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSRL; EU 2008; 7 Sect. 13.4). Probably no re-introduction of species is more emotionally and controversially discussed in Europe than that of the large carnivores lynx (Lynx lynx), wolf (Canis lupus) and brown bear (Ursus arctos). In northern Europe, there is also the wolverine (Gulo gulo), which is currently by far the rarest species of these large carnivores in Europe, with about 1200 individuals in Scandinavia  

 

(Linnell 2014). Numerous topographic names still attest to the fact that bear, lynx, and wolf were once widespread in Europe, such as e.g., “Bärental”, “Bärenbad”, “Bärenfalle” or “Wolfsgruben” (e.g., Broggi 1973; LAGIS 2016). However, these animal species were exterminated by hunting and poaching in Germany and many regions of Europe until the beginning of the twentieth century. In addition to the use of these animals and their products (e.g., meat, fur) and as hunting trophies, it was primarily the endangerment of livestock (e.g., sheep, goats) and a deep-­ rooted human fear of these animals that led to their extinction. Mythology, cult, fairy tales, and heraldry bear witness to the conflicting human perceptions of these large carnivores, ranging from a beast to a symbol of strength, freedom, or other positive human character attributes (Egger 2001). Today, brown bear as well as wolf and lynx are under international and/or national protection (Mech and Boitani 2010a; Breitenmoser et al. 2015; McLellan et al. 2017).

70

Chapter 4 · Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species

a

b

c

d

4

..      Fig. 4.3  Distribution of brown bear a, European lynx b, wolf c, and wolverine d (state: 2011). Dark blue areas indicate permanent occurrence, light blue spo-

radic occurrence in Europe; the numbers indicate the different populations and the orange lines their boundaries. (From Chapron et al. 2014)

4

71 4.2 · Re-introduction of Animal Species

.       Table 4.3  Size and status of current wolf populations in Europe (LCIE 2016) Populations in Europe (for the numbers, see . Fig. 4.3)

Countries

Population size (state: 2012)

Development trend

Scandinavia (1)

Norway, Sweden

260–330

Increasing

Karelia (2)

Finland

150–165

Declining

Baltic States (3)

Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland

870–1400

Stable

Central European Lowlands (4)

Germany, Poland

36 Packs

Increasing

Carpathians (5)

Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Serbia

3000

Stable?

Minarian Alps, Balkans (6)

Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria

3900

Stable?

Italian Peninsula (7)

Italy

600–800

Stable

Alps (8)

Italy, France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia

280

Increasing

Sierra Morena (9)

Spain

1 pack

Declining

Northwest Iberian Peninsula (10)

Spain, Portugal

2500 (estimate 2007)

Declining?

 

While the wolf is naturally re-establishing itself in Central Europe from its refuges in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe (Reinhardt et al. 2013; Chapron et al. 2014), lynx and bear, in addition to their natural migratory movements, have been deliberately re-­introduced into various regions of Europe through re-introduction programmes (. Table 4.2; case study in 7 Sect. 4.3). The current distribution of brown bear, lynx, wolf, and wolverine is shown in . Fig. 4.3, and the occurrence and status of the European sub-­ populations of wolves in . Table 4.3 (see also Kaczensky et al. 2012). It seems that these carnivores are re-occupying precisely those areas in the European cultural landscape which became abandoned due to current socio-economic devel 

 

 

 

opments, especially in peripheral regions and remote mountain areas, resepctively. In addition, there are the international initiatives of the EU to improve biological diversity as well as the quality and connectivity of habitats. Thus, these large carnivores do not seek proximity to humans at all, even if there are occasional collisions with humans. Scientific studies show that large carnivores generally avoid direct encounters with or proximity to humans (Sahlén et al. 2015). A problem for the coexistence of humans and large carnivores is that these animals at least potentially pose a threat to humans and that conflicts regarding agriculture and hunting can occur. However, the main problem of the coexistence of humans and large carnivores in Central Europe with the Alps

72

4

Chapter 4 · Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species

often lies in an insufficient or missing regional management concept and a lack of information of citizens, especially land users (e.g., Zerbe 2021). According to interviews with stakeholders and land users, respectively, it is repeatedly highlighted that information and communication are essential for the development of regional wildlife management strategies (e.g., Wallner and Hunziker 2001). Treves and Karanth (2003) also point out that sustainable wildlife management is as much dependent on biological-ecological knowledge as on the socio-political environment. The fact that the management of large carnivores is an international challenge and cannot be solved at regional and national levels results particularly from the habitat size and migratory movements of large carnivores (Chapron et al. 2014). Male brown bears, for example, can move over an area of up to 1600 km2. For wolves, migratory movements of individuals up to a distance of 1100 km have been revealed by applying modern telemetric methods (Wabakken et al. 2007). The threats posed to populations of large carnivores in the Central European cultural landscape are: 55 too small and isolated populations (risk of extinction, genetic impoverishment), 55 habitat fragmentation due to settlements and traffic routes, 55 hybridization with domestic animals (e.g., wolf and dog; Hindrikson et al. 2012; Randi et al. 2014), 55 low acceptance on the part of humans and thus, also endangerment by poaching and hunting. Chapron et al. (2014) make clear that only a coexistence model works to maintain stable populations of bear, wolf, and lynx (and

wolverine in Scandinavia) in the European cultural landscape, in contrast to North America, where very large protected areas (e.g., national parks) host stable populations and can be managed with a separation model. Management recommendations for large carnivores in Europe can be found, for example, in Linnell et al. (2008) and Reinhardt et al. (2013). That the re-introduction of large carnivores affects the food web and overall forest ecosystem development is well documented for North America (Ripple and Beschta 2012; Ripple et al. 2014). Large predators reduce large herbivores (. Fig. 4.4), which leads to a decrease in browsing pressure and thus, an increase in shrub and tree regeneration. Initial studies on this relationship also confirm this for Central European forest ecosystems (Kuijper et al. 2013; Schnyder et al. 2016). In many forest ecosystems in Central Europe, high browsing pressure from roe deer poses a significant problem for forest regeneration and particularly, the conversion of coniferous forests into mixed broad-leaved forests (7 Sect. 7.4). Heurich (2015), in his critical analysis of the effects of large carnivores on ungulate populations and ecosystems, calls for caution in transferring results from North American national parks to the Central European cultural landscape, but concludes that the return of large carnivores in our landscapes is an important approach to ecosystem restoration; “especially, in large protected areas, the goal should be to restore the natural species assemblage of predators to ensure the protection of natural processes”. Against the background of the many failures of projects to re-introduce plant and animal species, one may become more reserved about the practice of species con 

 

4

73 4.2 · Re-introduction of Animal Species

Lynx

7 6

Eradication of the lynx

5

10

4

8

3

6

2

4

1

2

0

1860

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000 Year

0

Population density lynx [N/100 km2]

Population density roe deer [N/km2]

Roe deer

..      Fig. 4.4  Development of roe deer and lynx populations in the Białowieża Forest (eastern Poland) over a period of about 140 years; the extermination of the lynx around 1900 and in the 1960s resulted in two unintended experiments to study the influence of

predators: The roe deer population responded with increases to the decline of the lynx population. (From Heurich 2015, modified according to Jędrzejewska and Jędrzejewski 1998)

servation and ecosystem restoration. However, for the increase of scientific knowledge with regard to the biology of the species concerned, interactions within ecosystems and land-use types, respectively, population dynamics, but also with regard to socio-­economic aspects such as costs and public acceptance, the case studies represent an asset if the re-introduction project is documented over the long term, from planning and implementation to monitoring and success control. Guerrant (2012) recommends the identification of best practices and taking benefit from them for the practice of re-­ introduction projects. Careful consideration is needed in advance of re-­ introduction, especially when (re-)introducing animal species that have a significant impact on habitats and regional socioeconomics as ecosystem engineers (7 Sect. 1.2.1) or as keystone species in ecosystems, and thus can lead to conflicts with humans and land use as well as to acceptance problems. Experience with beavers within the scope of water and

nature conservation law shows that conflicts can often be resolved (Albrecht 2016; Swinnen et al. 2017).

 

4.3

 ase Study: Re-introduction C of the Brown Bear in Trentino, Northern Italy (EU Project LIFE Ursus)

In the Autonomous Province of Trento in northern Italy, a residual population of brown bear (Ursus arctos) had been preserved until the early 1990s. From 1995 to 1997, a plan for the re-introduction and thus stabilizing the bear population was developed there, with a feasibility study and a cost estimate (Dupré et al. 2000). A survey revealed that about 70% of the people living in the province were in favour of the reintroduction. The re-­ introduction and accompanying measures were carried out within the LIFE-Ursus project funded by

74

the EU and the Province of Trento between 1997 and 2004. Thus, 10 animals which were captured in Slovenia were released in 1999. Within this re-introduction programme, the following accompanying measures were established, which can be considered as exemplary for similar projects: 55 continuous monitoring of the population development and migratory movements, 55 establishment of an emergency team, 55 prevention and financial compensation for damage caused by bears, 55 communication and information of the population, 55 cooperation with neighbouring regions and at international level, 55 training of technical personnel.

During the continuous monitoring since 2002, 100 bear individuals were counted in 2020 (. Fig. 4.5), with an average of about two cubs added annually to the population so far. While the habitat of the female bears is spatially limited with a density of 3.4 individuals per 100 km2, the male bears move significantly beyond this, which means also into the neighbouring Italian provinces as well as into neighbouring Switzerland (. Fig. 4.6). In 2015, 128 damages directly attributed to brown bears were reported to the Forest and Fauna Department of the Province of Trento, including beehives, agricultural land, and livestock, with a total financial compensation of about 66,000 EUR (Groff et al. 2016; . Fig. 4.7).  

 

 

100 90 80 Number of brown bear individuals

4

Chapter 4 · Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species

70 60 50

100 88

40 69

30 50 20 10 10

10

15

18

22

23

27

29

38

41

58 47

46

58

48

0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Year

..      Fig. 4.5 The brown bear (Ursus arctos) has been re-­ introduced to the Province of Trento in N Italy to stabilize the population and prevent extinction; after 10 individuals were transferred from Slovenia in 1999,

the continuous monitoring between 2002 and 2020 recorded an unexpectedly fast increase of the individual numbers (After Groff et al. 2016, updated with data from the yearly reports e.g., by Groff et al. 2020)

4

75 4.3 · Case Study: Re-introduction of the Brown Bear in Trentino, Northern…

..      Fig. 4.6 Movement range of female and male bears in the Province of Trento (Northern Italy) and adjacent regions in 2015. (After Groff et al. 2016)

250

120000

200

Euro

100000 150

80000 60000

100

40000

Number of damages

140000

50

20000 0

0

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06

20

20

07

8

0 20

09

20

10

20

11

20

12

20

13

20

14

20

15

20

Year Euro

Damages

..      Fig. 4.7 Number of damages caused by brown bears since 1990 and financial compensation. (After Groff et al. 2016)

76

4

Chapter 4 · Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species

In addition to the biological-ecological monitoring of the brown bear population and the movements of the individual animals in the territory, attempts are also made to continuously record and evaluate the opinion and behaviour of the population with regard to the increasing population size of the bears. Thus, it can be seen that in the period from 1997 (before the release of the bear individuals) to 2011, the perception regarding the reintroduction of the bear in the Southern Alps has changed to some extent. While the population is still largely positive about the coexistence with bears in their country, there seems to be no more support for a further increase of the bear population (. Table 4.4). A chal 

lenge for the future will be a management plan that integrates the protection of large predators and the needs of the local population. As the example of Croatia shows, autonomous hunting on the community level can be effective without calling species conservation into question in principle, especially if the revenues from regulated hunting are also used to finance species conservation (Majić et al. 2011). Top-down decisions, however, without the participation of the local ­communities might lead to rejection, especially when they go against decades- or even centuries-­old traditions. Here, participatory decision-making is more effective (see Bath and Buchanan 1989; 7 Chap. 22).  

..      Table 4.4 Results of surveys of residents in the Province of Trento (Trentino, Northern Italy) regarding the bear population stabilized by re-introduction in 1997 (before the re-introduction), 2003 (a few years after the re-introduction), and 2011; data in percent of respondents in the immediate re-introduction area (1997−2011) and in the whole Province (in parentheses; 2003 and 2011 only) (Adapted from Tosi et al. 2015) Question or proportion of the relevant opinion/population

1997

2003

2011

Presence of the bear in Trentino known

77.6

97.4 (80.3)

98.2 (97.7)

Perception of a larger bear population in Trentino

2.0

33.3

n.d.

Perception of the bear in Trentino as a rare species

69.0

32.0

n.d.

Consent to further increase the current population

68.0

n.d.

8.0 (2.0)

Consent to maintain the current population size of the bear

23.0

n.d.

62.0 (66.0)

4.0

n.d.

28.0 (32.0)

Consent to reduce the current bear population Positive perception of the presence of the bear in the country

70.0

70.0 (76.8)

30.0 (30.4)

Bears responsible for damage in agriculture

29.0

65.0

(63.0)

Bears responsible for damage to livestock

23.0

59.0

(63.0)

Bears responsible for damage to beehives

69.0

81.0

(79.0)

Bears responsible for damage to other wildlife

23.0

n.d.

30.0 (30.0)

10.6 (9.6)

11.7 (10.1)

People who remember an attack of a bear against humans

2.8

People who avoid forests with a bear occurrence

31.0

n.d.

53.0 (60.0)

Persons who specifically visit forests with a bear occurrence

15.9

n.d.

2.3

n.d. no data

77 4.3 · Case Study: Re-introduction of the Brown Bear in Trentino, Northern…

This re-introduction initiative aiming at the management and protection of brown bears was continued within the EU project LIFE DINALP BEAR (2014–2019), with an international cooperation of Italy, Austria, Slovenia, and Croatia. Due to the unforeseen rapid increase of the bear population and the damage to humans and their

4

agricultural land, the Italian Ministry developed the PACOBACE Action Plan (ISPRA 2010), which, in addition to the measures already foreseen in the LIFE-Ursus project, addresses in particular the management of problematic animals such as e.g., brown bears entering ­settlements.

79

Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration Contents 5.1

Are Non-native Species Problematic? – 81

5.2

Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration – 83

5.3

 ecommendations for Dealing with Non-native R Species in Ecosystem Restoration – 86

5.4

With Rationality and Objectivity for the Alien – 86

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Zerbe, Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65658-7_5

5

80

5

Chapter 5 · Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration

The worldwide direct or indirect transport of organisms by humans, anthropogenic habitat range expansion within or between continents, and the occasionally rapid spread of these non-indigenous animals, plants, and microorganisms (neobiota) in their new habitats are considered part of the global change, which can result in biodiversity decline and habitat degradation (Vitousek et  al. 1997; Wilcove et  al. 1998; Zedler and Kercher 2005). Conservationists, land users, and landscape managers spend large sums of money to push back or control non-native species (US Congress 1993; Wilcove and Chen 1998; Pimentel et  al. 1999; D’Antonio and Meyerson 2002; Charles and Dukes 2007; Sundseth 2014). Reinhardt et  al. (2003) quantify the “additional expenditures” associated with 20 selected non-native species in Germany with an average of EUR 167 million annually. This assessment encompasses tree species (e.g., red oak), herbaceous perennials (e.g., giant hogweed), invertebrates (e.g., saw-­ toothed grain beetle, flour moth, horse-­ chestnut leaf miner), amphibians (e.g., North American bullfrog) and vertebrates (e.g., muskrat, mink). For Europe, Kettunen et  al. (2009) estimate the annual costs of about 60 non-native species at about EUR 12.5 billion, with about 75% of the costs related to damage (e.g., from pests in agriculture and forestry) and about 25% to control measures. However, the success of control measures is often unsatisfactory or even non-existent (Schepker 1998; Kowarik and Schepker 1998). Based on the experiences of invasive species control to date, Kowarik (2010, p. 417) concludes that “control is not a panacea, but rather a stopgap solution to manage biological invasions”, especially when the invasion process is already well advanced. The biological and ecological foundations of these biological invasions and implications for the management of non-native species are outlined in detail by Böcker et al. (1995), Hartmann et al. (1995), Williamson

(1996), Shigesada and Kawasaki (1997), Nentwig (2007), Kowarik (2010), Richardson (2011), Simberloff and Rejmanek (2011), Schmiedel et  al. (2015), and Canning-­Clode (2016) and will not be further deepened here. For the terminology of “non-native” species, which differentiates between the time of immigration, the degree of establishment, and the mode of introduction (e.g., terms like neophytes, archaeophytes, agriophytes, xenophytes), please also refer to the explanations by Kowarik (2010). Non-native species are relevant for ecosystem restoration when 55 these are the reason for restoration, as the non-native species are considered problematic or ecosystem degrading, 55 these occur after a restoration measure and thus cause unforeseen problems, 55 the presence of the non-native species as a reason for restoration and its suppression have long-term consequences, for example, on soil chemistry or the soil-­ seed bank, or 55 non-native species are purposefully used for ecosystem restoration (D’Antonio and Meyerson 2002). Because artificial disturbance is often applied as a measure in ecosystem restoration (e.g., topsoil removal, alteration of the river’s hydromorphology, controlled burning) and disturbance of an ecosystem can promote the invasion of non-native species (Hobbs and Huenneke 1992; Lozon and MacIsaac 1997; D’Antonio et  al. 1999), conflict is often obvious and does not occur unanticipated. When discussing and dealing with alien species, a kind of botanical and zoological xenophobia, respectively, has crept into both nature conservation practice and ecology. Terms or expressions such as “invasion”, “combating”, “eradication”, “aggressive spread”, “biological pollution” or the oftenunreflective attribution of problems allegedly caused by non-native species speak for themselves in this regard. This has led to

81 5.1 · Are Non-native Species Problematic?

numerous critical discussions in both the natural and social sciences (Reichholf 1996; Eser 1999; Körner 2004; Davis et  al. 2011; Simberloff and Vitule 2014). Simberloff (2015) summarizes five categories of criticism: 1. The problems discussed in relation to non-native species, which give rise to management against the species concerned, are exaggerated and similar problems are caused by native species; most non-native species are not problematic. 2. Introduced non-native species can increase biodiversity on the regional scale. 3. Xenophobia has developed towards nonnative species. 4. In the age of globalisation, the spread of non-native species can hardly be prevented. 5. The control methods applied against certain animals (e.g., non-­native mammals) are ethically unacceptable. Despite all these fundamental and justified criticisms, it should not be denied that invasion biology and invasion ecology have significantly expanded our knowledge in areas such as biogeography, vegetation, animal and landscape ecology, ecosystem science, biocenology, population biology, evolutionary biology, biodiversity, and vegetation history, and have stimulated critical discussions and the further development of biological and ecological concepts (see Catford et  al. 2009; Pyšek and Hulme 2009; Gurevitch et  al. 2011). It also opens up interesting insights into the human-nature field of tension (e.g., Eser 1999). However, when it comes to normative decisions in nature conservation and environmental protection or ecosystem restoration, and to an assessment of “good” and “bad”, “desirable” and “undesirable”, or damage and benefit, solid and unbiased scientific foundations are particularly important.

5.1

5

 re Non-native Species A Problematic?

The problems that can be associated with the spread and invasion of non-native species, which in principle also apply to certain native species (Simberloff 2011), concern species and habitat conservation, human health, landscape management, and land use, with corresponding economic and socio-economic impacts, respectively (. Table 5.1). In fact, however, the criticism of Simberloff (2015) seems to be justified (see above). Problems, for example, are recorded for only 2% of the non-native plant species introduced into Central Europe (Kowarik 1996). In a pan-European perspective, problems have so far been documented for about 10% of the approximately 11,000 introduced non-native species (Vilà et  al. 2010). In addition, most non-native species introduced from other faunal and floristic regions and climates, respectively, may not establish at all or may do so only after a long time lag (Kowarik 1995a; Crooks 2005). This has been quantified for 182 woody species introduced intentionally or unintentionally to Berlin between 1787 and 1992. Kowarik (1995b) estimates that only 12% of these species were able to establish without further human support. That the perception of problems associated with non-native species and the actions derived from it can also change over time is illustrated by Starfinger et  al. (2003) using the example of black cherry (Prunus serotina) in Central Europe. At least, for the intentional introduction of plant and animal species, for example for land use (agriculture, forestry, horticulture, fisheries) or landscape management (e.g., ornamental plants, engineering biology), the risk of a possible large-scale spread and potentially associated problems can be assessed in advance. Ecological foundations (e.g., Rejmánek and Richardson 1996; Kowarik 2010) and methods and tools for  

82

Chapter 5 · Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration

..      Table 5.1  Problems perceived with the spread and invasion of non-native species (neobiota), with some examples and references to the literature (see also further examples and comprehensive references in Kowarik 2010), compared with similar problems caused by native species Areas concerned

Examples of non-native species

References

Examples of native species

Species and habitat conservation

Robinia pseudoacacia on nutrient-­ poor sites with undesirable site changes and the loss of biodiversity, dominance of Fallopia spec. or Heracleum mantegazzianum with the loss of biodiversity at least at the local scale

Pyšek and Prach (1993), Pyšek and Pyšek (1995), and Kleinbauer et al. (2010)

Spreading and competition of Fagus sylvatica in anthropogenic old-growth oak stands, encroachment of Calamagrostis epigejos and Carex arenaria on nutrient-poor grassland and heathland

Agriculture and forestry, horticulture, landscape management

Spreading of Solidago spec. on grassland fallow and in forest stands, Prunus serotina in pine forests with negative impact on natural forest regeneration, lowered litter decomposition of Quercus rubra leaves, damage by Arion vulgaris in home gardens, Viteus vitifoliae as pest in viticulture

Spaeth et al. (1994), Hartmann et al. (1995), Redl (1999), Dressel and Jäger (2002), and Kowarik (2010)

Dominance of Urtica dioica s. l. on grassland fallow, scrub encroachment of fallow land with Populus tremula, Crataegus spec., and Prunus spinosa agg.

Human health

Phototoxic effect of Heracleum mantegazzianum, pollen of Ambrosia spec. and Ailanthus altissima, transmission of diseases by Rattus norvegicus

Jäger (2000), von Mühlendahl et al. (2003), Taramarcaz et al. (2005), Easterbrook et al. (2007), and Kowarik and Säumel (2007)

Pollen of Betula pendula, Corylus avellana, and many native grasses

River management and hydraulic engineering

Destabilization of riverbanks by Populus x canadensis and Helianthus tuberosus s. l., economic and hydraulic-engineering problems due to the mass expansion of Elodea canadensis and E. nuttallii

Lohmeyer (1971), Lohmeyer and Krause (1975), and Kummer and Jentsch (1997)

Beaver with influence on the local-regional hydrology and landscape water balance

Fishery

Damage caused by Eriocheir sinensis

Yang et al. (2017)

Fishing by birds such as cormorants and herons

5

risk assessment (Sukopp and Sukopp 1993; Pheloung et  al. 1999; Londsdale 2011; Nehring et al. 2015a, b) are available for this purpose. These can also be applied to develop and implement laws, regulations or agreements in nature conservation and environmental protection at the national and international level prior to an active introduction of non-native species (e.g., BNatSchG

2009; UN 1992; Alpenkonvention 1995; see also Shine et  al. 2000; Doyle 2002; Hubo et al. 2007; Kowarik 2010). The approaches that have been developed for the risk assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can also be helpful in this regard (UBA 2001; Nöh 2002; Kowarik et al. 2008; Schütte et  al. 2013). However, in order to avoid an undesired spread and an invasion

83 5.2 · Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration

with subsequent problems, it should always be checked in advance of an introduction whether species of the indigenous species pool cannot fulfil the same tasks that are intended for the non-­ indigenous species (D’Antonio and Meyerson 2002).

5

lived diaspores (Newsome and Noble 1986; Kleyer et  al. 2008; Gioria et  al. 2012; Skowronek et  al. 2013). The activation of the soil seed bank in the context of ecosystem restoration through disturbances such as mechanical removal of species or vegetation, short-term grazing, or removal of the top soil layer can therefore lead to the germination and establishment of undesirable 5.2 Non-native Species species (Gioria and Osborne 2010; Pyšek in Ecosystem Restoration et al. 2010; Albrecht et al. 2011). This can be Pushing back invasive species is a frequent avoided if the soil seed bank is qualitatively objective in ecosystem restoration. Part II of and quantitatively investigated prior to the this book provides examples of this regard- restoration measure, although this has rarely ing the specific ecosystem and land-use been the case to date (Gioria et al. 2012). The suppression or control of non-native types. Sometimes measures are applied that species whether justified by a sound probalso have led to a degradation of ecosyslem analysis or not - incurs costs and is usutems. Pesticides or controlled burning, for ally associated with medium- to long-term example, are applied to control reed expanfollow-up measures. Accordingly, non-­ sion (genotypes of Phragmites australis), a native plant species may regenerate from the cosmopolitan species found worldwide on soil seed bank, from roots and rhizomes, sites close to groundwater, fens, and in floodrespectively (e.g., Solidago spec., Ailanthus plains, with the goal of “restoration” in the altissima, Robinia pseudoacacia), or from United States (Avers et  al. n.d.; Hazelton stumpshoots (e.g., Prunus serotina). et  al. 2014; Packer et  al. 2017; Rohal et  al. 2017). However, reed, as a multifunctional Continued management imposes further plant species, provides a variety of ecosys- costs (D’Antonio and Meyerson 2002). In north-eastern Germany, an extensive tem services when occurring in extensive database analysis (ca. 2300 vegetation samstands along rivers, at lakes, and on wetples) was applied to detect the occurrence of lands (7 Sect. 8.8.1). non-native species in (mostly anthropogenic) . Table  5.2 shows some examples of pine forests. The analysis revealed the occurnon-­native animal and plant species that are rence of, for example, herbaceous species considered a problem in the context of ecosuch as Canadian horseweed (Erigeron system restoration in Western and Central canadensis) and small-flowered touch-me-­ Europe. Given the high abundance of literanot (Impatiens parviflora) as well as woody ture on alien species and in particular their species such as Oregon grape (Mahonia aquirelevance for nature conservation and land folium), common snowberry (Symphoricarpos management (see above), only those examples are listed here that are explicitly men- albus), black cherry, and black locust (Zerbe tioned in the context of ecosystem and Wirth 2006). The assessment of the ecorestoration. One of the most common rea- logical indicator values according to sons given for controlling non-native species Ellenberg (Ellenberg et al. 2001) showed that is the displacement of indigenous species, most species are relatively light-­demanding and are therefore mainly found in pine stands vegetation, and biocenoses, respectively. It is well known that non-native species with open canopies. Thus, it is foreseeable can make a significant contribution to the that most of these species will decrease in soil seed bank, sometimes with very long-­ abundance or disappear under the shadier  

 

84

Chapter 5 · Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration

..      Table 5.2  Examples of non-native animal and plant species in Western, Northern, and Central Europe that are considered a problem and thus, are the subject of control measures in ecosystem restoration Species

Ecosystem or land-use type

Problem

References

Acer negundo (box elder)

Floodplain forest

Local displacement of native species

Vor (2015)

Fallopia japonica (Japanese knotweed)

Rivers, urban wastelands

Local displacement of native species

Moss and Monstadt (2008), Maurel et al. (2010), and Regierungspräsidium Gießen (2017)

Heracleum mantegazzianum (Giant hogweed)

Rivers, ditches, wet grassland fallows, floodplain grassland

Harmful to human health due to phototoxic effect, local displacement of native species

Strubenhoff (2008), Jürging and Kraus (2013), and Harnisch et al. (2014)

Impatiens glandulifera (Himalayan balsam)

Rivers

Local displacement of native species

Filzek (2008), Jürging and Kraus (2013), and Regierungspräsidium Gießen (2017)

Myriophyllum heterophyllum (variable-leaf water milfoil)

Lakes

Local displacement of native species, dominant stands

Hussner et al. (2005), Hussner and Krause (2007), and Hussner et al. (2014)

Prunus serotina (black cherry)

Pine and larch forests, mixed oak forests

Local displacement of native species and inhibition of forest regeneration

Petersen et al. (2015)

Rhododendron ponticum (Pontic rhododendron)

Heathland, oak forests

Local displacement of native species and inhibition of forest regeneration

Tyler et al. (2006)

Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust)

Nutrient-poor and sandy dry grassland

Eutrophication of the soil due to nitrogen input (legume symbiosis), shrub encroachment

Barnkoth (2013) and Kirmer et al. (2015)

Rosa rugosa (Japanese rose)

Coastal dunes

Local displacement of native species

Kollmann et al. (2011), Doody (2012), and Martínez et al. (2013)

Solidago canadensis (Canadian goldenrod)

Rivers

Local displacement of native species

Moss and Monstadt (2008)

Plant species

5

85 5.2 · Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration

..      Table 5.2 (continued) Species

Ecosystem or land-use type

Problem

References

Branta canadensis (Canada goose)

Natural and artificial rivers, ditches, and lakes, coasts, agricultural land, parks

Competition for food and nesting sites with native waterfowl, hybridization with native geese, eutrophication of water bodies by droppings

Allan et al. (1995), Watola et al. (1996), and Geiter and Homma (2002)

Cervus nippon (Sika deer)

Deciduous and mixed forests, coniferous forests, and arable land

Browsing damage, hybridization with native deer species

Linderoth (2005) and Pérez-Espona et al. (2009)

Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp)

Lakes and ponds, small streams

Water management, fisheries and tourism: severe decline of aquatic and riparian vegetation, massive changes of nutrient dynamics, water chemistry, and food web possible

Wüstemann and Kammerad (1994), Dußling and Berg (2001), and Wiesner et al. (2010)

Lepomis gibbosus (pumpkinseed)

Slow flowing streams, oxbow lakes

Fisheries: food competition with native fish, predation on spawn and juveniles

Wolfram-Wais et al. (1999) and Dußling and Berg (2001)

Mustela vison (American mink)

Natural and artificial waters

Displacement of the European mink (Mustela lutreola), feeding on birds and fish

Macdonald et al. (2002) and Ahola et al. (2006)

Myocastor coypus (nutria)

Shores of rivers and lakes

Destabilisation of water banks, feeding activity reduces habitat structure

Gosling and Baker (1989) and Bertolino et al. (2005)

Ondatra zibethicus (muskrat)

Lakes and rivers

Feeding on fish and agricultural crops, destabilisation of banks, disease vector (fox tapeworm, rabies)

Böhmer et al. (2001) and Reinhardt et al. (2003)

Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant)

Agricultural landscapes

Damage to agricultural crops, hybridisation with the native black grouse, transmission of parasites

Reichholf (1982) and Gebhart (1996)

Procyon lotor (raccoon)

Forests, agricultural landscape, settlement areas

Spatial competition with birds, damage in agriculture including animal husbandry, physical and psychological nuisance in settlements

Görner (2009) and Michler and Michler (2012)

Rana catesbeiana (North American bullfrog)

Rivers, lakes, ponds

Resource competition with and threats to native frogs, feeding on vertebrates and invertebrates, transmission of diseases to other amphibians

Laufer and Sandte (2004), Adams and Pearl (2007), and Geiger and Kordges (2011)

Animal species

5

86

Chapter 5 · Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration

forest stand conditions which are envisaged by the conversion of anthropogenic pine afforestations to near-natural mixed deciduous forests with oak, beech, and other deciduous tree species (7 Chap. 7).  

5.3

5

Recommendations for Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration

For an appropriate approach to and the management of non-native species, Kowarik (2010) suggests the following steps, which are generally transferable to ecosystem restoration: 1. Analysis and evaluation of conflicting goals: What conflicts does the non-native species cause in ecosystem restoration and its objectives in terms of abiotic and biotic resources, costs, and acceptance? 2. Control perspective: Examination of potential repression and control, respectively, or an integration of the species concerned into the objective of ecosystem restoration, which should be based on ecological studies on e.g., possible site changes caused by the alien species, spontaneous regeneration of the alien population e.g., from the seed bank, possible invasion from nearby near-natural habitats, possible collateral damage of the control measure as well as on a cost-benefit analysis (e.g., duration and intensity of the intervention, follow-­up interventions) and on the analysis of the restorability of the ecosystem’s target state. 3. Decision for or against control measures and its acceptance. This has to be evaluated for each individual case, not only with regard to the non-native species, but also with regard to the habitat under consideration. A non-native species can be problematic in one habitat, but beneficial in another, as the example of the

black locust clearly shows. On the one hand, its occurrence causes nitrogen enrichment on nutrient-poor grassland which degrades its nature conservation value. On the other hand, it can rapidly stabilize bare soils and slopes, respectively, which are under the risk of erosion (e.g., on mining sites and their dumps) due to its high vegetative reproduction capacity and can promote a fast formation of an organic layer (7 Sect. 5.4).  

5.4

With Rationality and Objectivity for the Alien

An unbiased approach to non-native species also opens up the perspective for using them to restore functioning and resilient ecosystems (D’Antonio and Meyerson 2002). The narrow-leaved ragwort (Senecio inaequidens), for example, native to South Africa, is one of the first colonizers of spoil heaps in the Ruhr region and contributes to humus and soil formation (7 Fig. 19.3). The legume Robinia pseudoacacia can add considerable amounts of nitrogen to nutrientpoor soils through its symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. A 4-year-old stand already fixes annually up to 30  kg  N per hectare (Boring and Swank 1984), and the yearly rate of older stands has been reported to be as high as 300  kg  N per hectare (Cierjacks et al. 2013). This leads to development of nitrogen-­ rich organic topsoils within a few years. This property can be used to recultivate post-mining sites for agriculture or forestry (Ashby 1987; Soni et al. 1989). In addition, there are the multifaceted other services of black locust stands, such as timber and fuelwood production (Naujoks and Ewald 2001; Knoche and Engel 2012), provision of flowers for honey production, its importance as an ornamental tree (particularly when flowering), and as protection against erosion and rockfall (Burylo et  al. 2012; Radtke et  al. 2013; Ambraß et  al. 2014; Mazurek and Bejger  

5

87 5.4 · With Rationality and Objectivity for the Alien

2014). Old-­ growth and structurally rich black locust stands can also support speciesrich breeding bird populations and other wildlife biocenoses (Tischew 2004). Annighöfer et al. (2015) and Zerbe et al. (2020) discuss options for managing non-­ native black cherry (Prunus serotina) in the Biosphere Reserve Valle del Ticino in northern Italy, whose development goals include the preservation and restoration of near-­ natural floodplain forests. With regard to economic efficiency and environmental sustainability, they identify management strategies to reduce the abundance of the invasive tree species and, in addition, to generate an income for the landowners by removing only trees with a higher diameter and sell them on the timber market. Intensive management interventions, especially to remove young trees, are counterproductive, as they are costand labour-intensive, lead to substantial nutrient depletion of the topsoils and, moreover, stimulate the vegetative regeneration of this pioneer tree species (Annighöfer et  al. 2012). On the one hand, this study shows that “precipitate” action to suppress non-native species might not be effective economically, ecologically, and regarding habitat conservation. On the other hand, it calls for strategies which have been well proven and are common in near-natural silviculture and are also applicable for non-­native tree species. In addition to ecosystems or sites that have been anthropogenically strongly altered due to land use (e.g., opencast mining areas, waste dumps), non-native species can also contribute to the restoration of ecosystem services in urban ecosystems (Kowarik 2011). In principle, this applies to the entire range of novel, anthropogenic ecosystems (see Hobbs et al. 2006, 2009; Seastedt et al. 2008). On urban brownfields, a new “wilderness” can develop with non-native plants (Kowarik 2017) which has been shown, for example, in Berlin with several decades old black locust stands which have developed on former housing areas destroyed during the Second World War. Körner (2004) addresses

this as a “new urban culture”. Ringenberg (2004) emphasizes that neophytes introduced by humans to Central Europe after 1500 A.D., just like the archaeophytes introduced before 1500, can potentially be endangered by land-use change and intensification and might therefore be potential future Red List candidates. In conclusion, non-native plant species can play an important role in the following cases of ecosystem restoration and thus, contribute to the restoration of ecosystem services: 55 After restoration interventions in the hydromorphology of rivers and their banks, and especially in urban-industrial areas, non-native species can rapidly establish on these sites. Using the example of the restoration of a section of the Wupper in Wuppertal, it becomes obvious that nature spontaneously initiated a re-vegetation with a dominance of non-­ native plants practically without further recultivation costs (7 Sect. 10.6.1). 55 The species pool in cities has been considerably increased anthropogenically by non-native species. The spontaneous vegetation in the Central European city centres is largely formed by non-native species. These can significantly contribute to the restoration of ecosystem services, together with native species (7 Sect. 19.1). 55 In novel ecosystems and under novel site conditions, such as on former open-cast mining sites or mining dumps, non-native plant species often establish themselves spontaneously, which, in addition to the aesthetics and cultural services of this natural re-vegetation, can contribute to erosion control, to soil formation including carbon sequestration, to the creation of new habitats for other organisms (animals, microorganisms), to the local micro-climate, and to the restoration of local nutrient cycles. Spontaneous vegetation can also offer the opportunity to investigate and exploit the potential for phytoremediation (7 Sect. 20.4), including non-native species.  

 

 

89

Monitoring and Success Control Contents 6.1

 cological Monitoring: Basics and Recommendations E for Practice – 92

6.2

When Is a Restoration Project Successful? – 95

6.3

 cological and Nature Conservation Parameters E for Monitoring and Success Control – 97

6.4

Case Studies and Best Practice – 103

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Zerbe, Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65658-7_6

6

90

6

Chapter 6 · Monitoring and Success Control

In the practice of nature conservation, environmental protection, and ecosystem restoration, it is necessary to evaluate the success (success control) of the measures taken and to determine whether the set goals have been achieved. This can be carried out once after a certain period of time or by means of a monitoring as a programme with regular or irregular sampling intervals (Hellawell 1991; Bürger and Dröschmeister 2001). The terms “monitoring” and “success control” are sometimes used synonymously, but the evaluation of success does not necessarily have to be linked to a monitoring, and a monitoring to investigate ecosystem developments, dynamics, and changes does not necessarily have to lead to success control. One of the most striking deficits of ecosystem restoration worldwide is the lack of an evaluation of success or a continuous monitoring of the project. This problem is repeatedly highlighted with reference to specific ecosystems or land-use types. Bernhardt et  al. (2005), for example, state that only 10% of more than 37,000 river restoration projects carried out in the USA were subject to success control. In North Rhine-Westphalia, according to the Ministry of Environment, Agriculture, Nature Conservation and Consumer Protection (MUNLV 2005), an evaluation of success has been carried out in less than 7% of river restoration projects, which has also been confirmed for other German federal states such as Bavaria (Pander and Geist 2013). Even if a monitoring is carried out, it usually only covers short periods of a few years. In Bavaria, for example, about 100 river restoration projects of various dimensions are documented for the period 1994–2011, but in less than 10% of the approximately 30 larger projects, a monitor-

ing of ecosystem development continued after 1 year (Pander and Geist 2013). Accordingly, a long-term monitoring of restoration projects that extends beyond 5 to 10 years must be considered very rare (see Hagen and Evju 2013). This general lack of long-term monitoring or a success control of restoration projects is also reflected in a comparatively low number of scientific publications on this topic (Nilsson et al. 2016). Also, the results of successful restoration projects are more likely to be published than those of unsuccessful ones (Bayraktarov et al. 2016). This makes it difficult to identify examples of best practice, especially regarding the assessment of the socio-economic impacts of ecosystem restoration (Wortley et  al. 2013). Best practices, however, could provide a template for future restoration projects, which can then be carried out more effectively and can be expected to better achieve the set goals. There is by no means a lack of scientific basics and practical guidelines for monitoring and success control in nature conservation. However, ecosystem restoration projects are often carried out as “trial and error”, whereby immediately after the restoration has been carried out there is either no further interest in the project, the restoration objectives were not clearly defined before the project was carried out, the initial condition before the measures were carried out was not sufficiently recorded, a monitoring has not been planned at all, or the financial and human resources are lacking to carry out a detailed long-term monitoring, which, in turn, would be the basis for a success evaluation. In addition, the success of a restoration project often has to be demonstrated to donors immediately after its implementation (Block et al. 2001).

91 Monitoring and Success Control

The evaluation of success requires, on the one hand, a precise reference (7 Chap. 2) and, on the other hand, criteria and measurable parameters with which success or failure can be qualitatively and quantitatively analysed and evaluated. A comprehensive monitoring programme includes ecological as well as economic and social aspects. Thus, an important criterion for the success of a restoration project is the acceptance on the part of the actors and stakeholders, which can be determined through a socio-economic monitoring (Feige and Triebswetter 1997; Oeschger 2000; Gätje 2004; 7 Chap. 22). Foundations of environmental economics for the monitoring of costs and the cost-benefit relationships of ecosystem restoration are presented in 7 Chap. 23. For a socio-­economic monitoring, which can also apply quality management tools from economy, reference is made to the corresponding literature and practical guidelines, respectively, such as e.g. Stockmann (2006), Holling and Schmitz (2010), Daschkeit and Schröder (2013), and Stahl (2010). Examples for an evaluation of success regarding socio-­ economic aspects are given by Macmillan and Duff (1998), Desaigues and Ami (1999), Mitani et  al. (2008), Currie et  al. (2009), Birch et  al. (2010), and Suding (2011). An evaluation of restoration success, based on a, preferably long-term monitoring, should answer the following questions: 55 Did the restoration project achieve the set goals regarding ecology, nature conservation, and socio-economic aspects? 55 If the restored ecosystem deviates from the previously defined target and reference, respectively, how can the restoration measures be modified and optimized  

 

 

6

in order to fully achieve the desired target state? 55 How can ecosystem restoration be done more efficiently in terms of costs and overall efforts to achieve the same goals? 55 Has the ecosystem restoration achieved the necessary acceptance by the community and stakeholders to ensure the restoration success in the long term and to prevent a future degradation of the ecosystem or land-use type through unsustainable management? A monitoring of socio-economic aspects can also include a transdisciplinary process (7 Chap. 22) to better understand and evaluate the interactions of actors and stakeholders and to learn from this for the planning and implementation of similar projects. Due to the significant lack of monitoring and success control in ecosystem restoration, all options and available information must be explored to optimize the restoration approaches and to lead ecosystem restoration to success. The following possibilities are available: 55 As best practice, a long-term (>10 years) monitoring concept is developed at the planning stage, which accompanies the restoration process and evaluates the development of the ecosystem or land-­ use type in the long term on the basis of ecological indicators and socio-economic parameters. 55 The donor or funding agency of the restoration project requests a proof of success at the end of the project and also finances a subsequent success control. The risk is hereby that any associated monitoring might remain superficial and might be very limited in time (200,000 m3 (••••), 50,000–200,000 (•••),10,000–50,000 (••), and  33

20–33

20–33

20–33

< 20

≤ 4.8

≤ 4.8

4.8–6.4

6.4–8.5

3.2–7.5

Peat-­ forming vegetation

Dwarf shrub-­ cotton grass- peat moss

Peat moss-sedge reed

Brown moss-sedge reed

Brown mossbogrush

Reeds, large sedge reeds, alder swamps

Woody vegetation

Scots pine-birch grove

Eared willow scrub, downy birch forest, downy birch-alder forest

Shrub birch-creeping willow, bay willow scrub, bay willow-­ downy birch forest

Shrub birch-­ creeping willow, bay willow scrub, bay willow-­ downy birch forest

Grey willow (alder) scrub, alder forest

Predominant peat types

Peat moss, cotton grass, Rannoch rush, pine

Peat moss, sedge, Rannoch rush, reed, birch, pine

Brown moss, sedge, reed, birch

Swamp sawgrass, brown moss, sedge, reed

Sedge, reed, alder; strongly decomposed peat

Predominant combination with hydrogenetic mire type

Kettle-hole mire

Siltation fen, swamp mire, spring mire, percolation mire, kettle-hole mire

Siltation fen, spring mire, percolation mire, kettle-­ hole mire

Siltation fen, spring mire, percolation mire

Siltation fen, flood mire, swamp mire, spring mire

KCL potassium-chloride solution

ing, has created the anthropo-zoogenic salt grassland characteristic of the southern Baltic Sea region (Härdtle 1984; Jeschke 1987; Jeschke and Lange 1991; 7 Sect. 12.1). 55 Percolation mires (Durchströmungsmoore): Percolation mires are mainly found in the valleys of glacial landscapes, wherever groundwater con 

tinuously flows out from the valley edge and leads to peat growth. A typical feature of this type of mire is the low degree of peat decomposition because of the continuous water flow. Percolation mires can naturally cover the entire valley (Succow and Lange 1984). The bog surface has a characteristic inclination from the valley edge to the stream.

162

8

Chapter 8 · Peatland

55 Slope mires (Hangmoore): Slope mires in northern Brandenburg with a mean are mainly formed in the low mountain annual precipitation of approximately ranges on slopes with low inclination 600 mm (Rowinsky 1995). In contrast to and with continuous water runoff. The the edge zone of kettle-hole mires, which peat is usually shallow ( 15 strepera), northern pintail (A. acuta), ruff Waterfowl and waders 1–3 (Philomachus pugnax), Eurasian spoonbill Songbirds 10–15 (Platalea leucorodia), black-crownd night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), western Abiotic components marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus), pied Sedimentation 1–3 avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta), common Nitrogen storage 3–5 ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula), little egret (Egretta garzetta), smew (Mergellus Phosphorus storage 1–3 albellus), and jack snipe (Lymnocryptes minCarbon sequestration 3–5 imus) (Beauchard et al. 2013). Natural dike Carbon mineralization 5–15 breach at the Sieperda Polder in the Scheldt Estuary (Netherlands) resulted in the obserMethane formation 5–15 vation of breeding of oystercatcher (H. Denitrification 5–15 ostralegus), shelduck (T. tadorna), greylag goose (Anser anser), Eurasian coot (Fulica atra), pied avocet (R. avosetta) northern lapsedimentation rates depend on the distance wing (Vanellus vanellus), common redshank to tidal mud flats off the coast as sediment (T. totanus), meadow pipit (Anthus pratensources, the distance to tideways, which sis), bluethroat (Luscinia svecica), Eurasian transport sediments, the elevation of the salt reed warbler (Acrocephalus scirpaceus), and grassland above the mean high water level common reed bunting (Emberiza schoenicand thus the flooding frequency, as well as lus) on the developing salt grassland in only the grazing intensity and thus the growth a few years (Eertman et  al. 2002). During height of the vegetation (Andresen et  al. the monitoring after the opening of the 1990; Esselink et  al. 1998; Schröder and summer dike of the Hauener Hooge in 1994, Lüning 2000; Kiehl et al. 2003a). The rewet- the arthropod fauna was investigated ting of coastal flood mires is intended to ini- (Götting 2001). Thus, increased salt water tiate a revitalization of peat formation influence has led to a change in the commu(7 Chap. 8). An example is the Mellnitz-­ nities, indicated e.g., by the significant Üselitzer Wiek on the island of Rügen, increase of the beach flea (Orchestia gamwhich was restored as a compensation mea- marellus) and a shift of the spider communisure for the construction of the Strelasund ties (Lycosidae, Tetragnathidae) towards hygrophilous species. In particular, the sea bridge (DEGES 2010). ..      Table 12.6  Estimation of the regeneration time of ecosystem structures and processes in salt marshes during restoration compared to the reference natural marshes. (After Broome and Craft 2009; see further references there for the time data)

12

 

281 12.1 · Coastal Salt Grassland

aster contributes to biodiversity as a host plant for numerous animal species (Meyer and Reinke 1998). Vegetation development with the aim of reintroducing and establishing the habitat-­ typical halophytes can also be re-initiated very quickly. During monitoring of the dike opening on Northey Island in the Blackwater Estuary in Essex (UK), for example, the halophytes Salicornia spec., P. maritima, and S. maritima were already observed again on the restored areas in the first vegetation season after the measure (ABP 1998; Brooke et al. 1999). In a 10-year succession on the Sieperda Polder in the Scheldt Estuary (Netherlands), Tripolium pannonicum subsp. tripolium and P. maritima occurred, followed by Bolboschoenus maritimus and Atriplex prostrata agg.; in the upper salt grassland zone on the former pastures with Agrostis stolonifera and Elymus athericus, in particular, T. pannonicum subsp. tripolium, Juncus gerardii, and P. maritima were added (Eertman et al. 2002). Monitoring after the dike deconstruction on Hauener Hooge in 1994, as one of the first projects of this kind on the North Sea coast, also showed the rapid development over a few years from a ryegrass community (Lolio-Cynosuretum hordeetosum) of the formerly intensively used cattle pasture towards typical salt grassland of Armerio-Festucetum litoralis, Agropyretum littoralis, Puccinellion maritimae, and Juncetum gerardii (Seiberling et al. 2009). Hereby, a vegetation zonation from the low elevation and more frequently flooded zone to the higher areas occurs after only a few years, with a larger plant species diversity in the latter zone. Nearby intact salt grassland contribute positively to the restoration of salt grassland vegetation via diaspore input, especially since the majority of salt grassland species do not establish a long-lived soil seed bank (Brooke et al. 1999; Wolters and Bakker 2002; Wolters et  al. 2005b). Hydrochory of target species plays a key role in this regard (Dausse et  al. 2008; 7 Sect. 1.2.1).  

12

The rapid success of vegetation development on restored salt grassland could also be demonstrated for restoration sites on the Baltic Sea coast. Dike relocation and extensive grazing on the Karrendorf meadows near Greifswald (. Table  12.5), for example, restored typical salt grassland vegetation on 75% of the area (350 ha) after only 5  years and increased species diversity (Bernhardt and Koch 2003). This rapid adjustment of target species and vegetation after restoration of water dynamics by dike opening is also confirmed by Wolters et al. (2005a) with a comprehensive evaluation of coastal restoration projects in Western and Central Europe. However, they find that after longer periods of time (> 20  years), species diversity and the proportion of target species decreases again. Long-term studies from Germany and the Netherlands indicate that in the course of succession, individual or a few tall-growing species become dominant e.g., A. portulacoides on the lower and sea couch (E. athericus) or saltmarsh bulrush (B. maritimus) on the upper salt grassland (Andresen et al. 1990; Bakker et  al. 2002a, b; Bos et  al. 2002; Schröder et  al. 2002; Gettner 2003; Kiehl et al. 2007). These competitive, tall-growing species displace the low-­growing ones, leading to a decrease in species diversity. Therefore, Wolters et  al. (2005a) suggest combining restoration through dike opening and restoration of tidal dynamics with continuous management, such as grazing or mowing (see below). The temporal and spatial restoration of typical salt grassland vegetation depends very much on the free inflow of tidal water, which, according to experience from restoration projects on the North Sea coast, is only possible through a large dike opening or complete removal of the dikes (Seiberling et al. 2009). If the ponds as former clay-extraction sites (Pütten) on the North Sea coast are reconnected to the tidal regime, they can fill with mud again after only a few years, but according to Seiberling et  al. (2009), they  

282

Chapter 12 · Coastal and Inland Salt Grassland

only reach the original terrain level again after 30  years. Observations on the North Sea coast show a development from a glasswort community (after 5  years) to a salt marsh grassland (with Puccinellia maritima) after another 5 years. After another 10 years, species of the upper salt grassland establish. The former clay-extraction ponds often show a small-scale hummock-hollow complex and thus a high structural diversity. However, Seiberling et  al. (2009) conclude that the former clay-extraction sites will be lost over decades as habitats for salt grassland with their typical breeding bird ­communities (7 Sect. 12.1.3). Rewetting as part of coastal restoration can also lead to undesirable consequences, at least for a short time. Thus, for example, heavy metals can be mobilized in contaminated marsh sediments by flooding and enter the surface water (Teuchies et al. 2012, 2013). These are then found in elevated concentrations in both plants and animals of the corresponding coastal habitats. The process of heavy metal mobilization as a result of flooding is complex, and further research is needed on this.  

12

Grazing as an Anthropo-Zoogenic Restoration Strategy for Salt Grassland Grazing has been a traditional form of land use on salt grassland for centuries. In the context of restoration measures, intensive grazing is changed towards extensive grazing, in addition to the abandonment of land use for the development of natural site and vegetation dynamics (see Bakker 1985). Kiehl (1997), for example, distinguishes between intensive sheep grazing with stocking densities of more than 3 sheep per ha and extensive grazing with an average of one or fewer sheep per hectare. Intensive grazing of salt grassland on the North Sea coast often results in monotonous vegetation with saltmarsh grass (Seiberling et al. 2009). In contrast to intensive grazing, extensive grazing

leads to higher species and structural diversity (Kiehl 1997; Bakker et  al. 2002a, b). According to Scherfose (1993), salt grassland species that benefit from extensive grazing are those that have a short life span (therophytes and biennial species), are small in size, flower and fruit early in the growing season, and are capable of vegetative reproduction. Bakker et al. (1997) have shown in studies e.g., on the restored Hamburg Hallig, that the grazing behaviour of geese is correlated with the intensity of use by the grazing animals. With the cessation or extensification of grazing, barnacle geese (Branta leucopsis) and brent geese (Branta bernicla) shifted their foraging to areas intensively grazed by sheep. Consequently, the geese prefer the low-growing vegetation, which is promoted by grazing, also with cattle (Olff et al. 1997; Bos et al. 2005a). Härdtle (1984) states for the salt grasslands of the East Holstein Baltic Sea coast that “the extraordinarily strong influence of grazing on the species assemblages of salt saltgrassland […] often [masks] the effect of other ecological factors”. While intensive grazing is considered as having a generally negative impact in terms of species, habitat, coastal, and climate protection (e.g., Dijkema et  al. 1984; Ovesen 1990; Kiehl 1997), careful assessment of development objectives and desired ecosystem services is required when considering extensive grazing or complete land-use abandonment. Especially in coastal national parks, such as the National Park Wadden Sea (see case study below), there arises therefore a conflict between natural development without further human impact and cultural landscape protection with an appropriate management. If halting the natural succession processes on restored salt grassland through permanent management, such as grazing, in the national park is “not compatible with the objectives of the national park” (Gettner 2003), conflicts regarding future development are inevitable. However, this is

12

283 12.1 · Coastal Salt Grassland

a conflict of interest in many European national parks, which have particularly maintained their diversity and distinctiveness through centuries of cultural and landuse impact, respectively, and which would be lost if the national park objective of natural development uninfluenced by humans were consistently implemented (IUCN 2018; Zerbe 2022). This also applies, for example, to the national parks Vorpommersche Boddenlandschaft and Lower Oder Valley. Such conflicting goals also exist, for example, on the salt grasslands of the Baltic Sea coast. Natural development without grazing would lead to large-scale reed stands with numerous ecosystem services (. Table 12.7).  

Introduction of Target Species Due to the generally short-lived soil seed bank of typical salt grassland plants, an acceleration of vegetation development can be considered. This is especially the case if there are no donor areas with target plant species in the vicinity or if these are intensively grazed and no mature diaspores

..      Table 12.7  Comparison of ecosystem services of coastal reed beds (with Phragmites australis) and anthropo-zoogenic salt grassland of the southern Baltic Sea region with an assessment in 0 = no to low degree of ecosystem service, + = medium, ++ = high Ecosystem service

Coastal reed

Salt grassland

Peat accumulation on coastal flooded mires

++

0/+

Breakwater function

++

+

Diversity of possible uses

++

+

Plant diversity

0/+

++

Bird diversity

++

+

develop (Wolters and Bakker 2002). In restoration projects in the UK, for example, plants have been introduced to accelerate vegetation development by seeding, planting or transferring sods or topsoil from donor sites. At Tollesbury (Essex), pre-grown plants of T. pannonicum subsp. tripolium and P. maritima were planted in the low salt grassland zone, but without success in permanent establishment (Brooke et  al. 1999). Test plots were sown with 500 to 5000 seeds per m2 of the species Armeria maritima subsp. maritima, T. pannonicum subsp. tripolium, A. portulacoides, Limbardia crithmoides, Limonium vulgare, Plantago maritima agg., Puccinellia maritima, Spergularia media, Suaeda maritima, and Triglochin maritima. In addition, vegetation sods were transplanted from a donor plot (Garbutt et al. 2006). 12.1.6  Case Study: Restoration

of Salt Grassland in the National Park Wadden Sea on the North Sea Island of Langeoog

Settlement history and land use in the southern North Sea region reaches back thousands of years. While local people initially used the coastal area for farming, livestock breeding, and fishing as it was naturally shaped, in the Middle Ages communities began to reclaim land artificially by diking and thus intensifying land use. Since then, the coastal area has been reshaped accordingly and changed through intensive use. For more than 25  years, however, species and habitat protection objectives in the international protected area Wadden Sea in the North Sea have led to initiatives to restore natural coastal dynamics even on areas that have been anthropogenically influenced e.g., by agriculture (. Table 12.5). An example of this is the North Sea island  

284

12

Chapter 12 · Coastal and Inland Salt Grassland

of Langeoog, a sandy barrier island off the mainland coast whose geomorphological development has been marked by major changes in recent centuries due to the effects of ocean currents, natural new land formation, and land erosion (Streif 1990; Kolditz et al. 2012b). On the East Frisian island of Langeoog, which is now part of the National Park Lower Saxony Wadden Sea founded in 1986, the summer polder located on the mudflat side of the island with an area of approx. 200 ha was enclosed by an approx. 5.5 km long and approx. 2 m high dike in 1936/1937  in order to intensify agricultural use and to protect grazing cattle from summer floods (Thorenz 2008; Barkowski et  al. 2009). Intensive grazing was performed there until 1992, sometimes with up to 400 cattle. In addition, sods were partially cut out for the use as building and fuel material and for dike repair (Barkowski and Freund 2006). Due to the diking, the summer polder was only flooded during storm surges with a maximum of 20 to 25 times per year (Fröhlich et  al. 2015). Large parts of the original and typical salt grassland vegetation on the mudflat side of the island were lost due to the now reduced salt water influence and lack of sediment dynamics. Both, the lower and middle salt grassland had almost completely disappeared after diking, and up to 70% of the area was now covered by upper salt grassland vegetation, i.e., plant communities with red fescue, couch grass, and sea wormwood, indicating a strong decline of salinity on the summer polder (Thorenz 2008). In the course of a compensatory measure for the construction of a natural gas pipeline, two tidal sluice structures in the summer dike were completely removed in 2003/2004, and the summer dike was almost completely removed (Bezirksregierung Weser-Ems 2001). The material was used to fill the artificial drainage ditch adjacent to the former dike in sections. As part of the

measure, remnants of former tideways were reactivated, tideway fillings were opened, and the drainage ditches were partially closed with the soil material. The aim of this compensatory measure was to restore the natural tidal dynamics and to initiate a near-­natural tideway system in the area of the summer polder. Particularly, the development of natural coastal salt grassland should be promoted without, however, impairing the existing areas of high nature conservation value, i.e., areas with species and habitats of the European Habitats and Birds directives (Thorenz 2008). After this restoration measure, salt grassland vegetation with its characteristic species had developed again after only a few years. The rapid development towards the target vegetation was mainly due to the natural water dynamics and the input of diaspores of target species still present in the coastal area. Today, grazing is only performed extensively in an approx. 35 ha section of the restored salt grassland (Bezirksregierung Weser-Ems 2002). Only a small part of the costs of this restoration measure was spent on the removal of the summer dike and the filling of ditches. The majority of the financial resources went into preparatory measures, such as the construction of a largely flood-proof driving embankment to the east of the island (. Fig.  12.3). The latter was necessary to obtain approval for the restoration from the Langeoog municipality and to increase acceptance of the measure (Fröhlich et  al. 2015; see also Myatt et al. 2003). Since the restoration measure, continuous monitoring has already been carried out for more than 10 years by planning offices or as scientific studies, in particular by the University of Oldenburg. This includes vegetation surveys - on the one hand, on 80 permanent plots (partly already established in the 1930s), on the other hand, via mapping of plant communities - and the recording of bird fauna (e.g., Freund et  al. 2003; Barkowski and Freund 2006; Barkowski  

12

285 12.1 · Coastal Salt Grassland

et  al. 2009; Nationalparkverwaltung Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer 2016). In the first few years after the restoration measures were carried out, nitrophytic halophytes, such as herbaceous seepweed (Suaeda mari-

tima), spear-leaved orache (Atriplex prostrata agg.), and sea wormhood (Artemisia maritima) established due to the high nitrogen content in the soil (Barkowski et al. 2009). Today, the zonation of the vegetation on the seaward side up to the main dike is characterized by a pioneer zone with the plant communities Spartinetum anglicae, Suaedetum maritimae, Salicornietum ­strictae, and Salicornietum brachystachyae to lower and middle salt grassland (Puccinellion) towards upper salt grassland with communities of Armerion and Saginetea maritima (. Fig.  12.4). Transitions to wet grassland and coastal dunes are found in the marginal area. All characteristic salt grassland species and plant communities, respectively, could by already found after a few years, however, not with a zonation described in the textbooks (. Fig.  12.2) but in a small-­scale mosaic  

..      Fig. 12.3  Land use and habitat zonation of restored salt grassland (upper half of photo) and areas that continue to be grazed in the northern part of the North Sea island of Langeoog. (S. Zerbe, September 2017)

..      Fig. 12.4  Development of the vegetation influenced today by the natural tidal water dynamics from upper salt grassland dominated by couch grass before the dike was relocated in 2002 to pioneer vegetation

 

shortly after the former dike was removed in 2005 and towards species assemblages of the lower salt grassland in 2013. (From Nationalparkverwaltung Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer 2016)

286

depending on the micro-relief. Thus, at ditches and water-filled hollows (e.g., former sod extraction sites), the species of the pioneer zone (e.g., Salicornia stricta, S. maritima) and of the lower and middle salt grassland (e.g., J. gerardii, P. maritima agg., L. vulgare) are often found side by side in a small-scale mosaic. In the higher elevation zone, sea couch (Elymus athericus) has become widespread after grazing was discontinued (Barkowski et al. 2009). Extensive grazing, however, could lead to a diversification of the vegetation and the suppression of undesirable dominant species (Barkowski and Freund 2006), but this would always be associated with the maintenance of the anthropogenic drainage system. Birdlife has also been benefited from this salt grassland restoration. The populations of most breeding bird species have increased, and new species have also established, including the rare species of spoonbill, Mediterranean gull, and gull-billed tern (. Table  12.8). The deconstruction of the former dike also re-initiated natural sedimentation, especially of organic material (Kolditz et al. 2012a), so that salt grassland is continuously increasing in elevation. In view of the ongoing sea-level rise, the restoration of salt grassland, thus, represents a contribution to climate change adaptation (Fröhlich et al. 2015; Nationalparkverwaltung Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer 2016). Restoring natural coastal and sedimentation dynamics also counteracts the loss of the Wadden Sea’s carbon storage function after decades of diking and land use in this coastal area (see Delafontaine et al. 2000). Although, numerous target species as well as the target vegetation of the pioneer zone as well as the lower and middle salt grassland have already been re-established within a few years after the removal of the summer dike, Barkowski et  al. (2009) conclude that the natural water dynamics and thus, also the natural sedimentation have  

12

Chapter 12 · Coastal and Inland Salt Grassland

..      Table 12.8  Breeding bird species on the summer polder of the island of Langeoog with those species having newly established after the removal of the former dike (in bold). (From Nationalparkverwaltung Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer 2016) Breeding bird species Common name

Scientific name

Arctic tern

Sterna paradisaea

Barn swallow

Hirundo rustica

Black-headed gull

Larus ridibundus

Black-tailed godwit

Limosa limosa

Common gull

Larus canus

Common moorhen

Gallinula chloropus

Common tern

Sterna hirundo

Cuckoo

Cuculus canorus

Egyptian goose

Alopochen aegyptiaca

Eider

Somateria mollissima

Eurasian curlew

Numenius arquata

Eurasian reed warbler

Acrocephalus scirpaceus

Eurasian wren

Troglodytes troglodytes

European herring gull

Larus argentatus

Grasshopper warbler

Locustella naevia

Greylag goose

Anser anser

Gull-billed tern

Gelochelidon nilotica

Jackdaw

Corvus monedula

Lesser black-­ backed gull

Larus fuscus

Linnet

Carduelis cannabina

Mallard

Anas platyrhynchos

Marsh warbler

Acrocephalus palustris

Meadow pipit

Anthus pratensis

Mediterranean gull

Ichthyaetus melanocephalus

287 12.2 · Inland Saline Habitats

..      Table 12.8 (continued) Breeding bird species Common name

Scientific name

Northern lapwing

Vanellus vanellus

Northern shoveler

Anas clypeata

Northern wheatear

Oenanthe oenanthe

Oystercatcher

Haematopus ostralegus

Pied avocet

Recurvirostra avosetta

Redshank

Tringa totanus

Reed bunting

Emberiza schoeniclus

Ringed plover

Charadrius hiaticula

Sedge warbler

Acrocephalus schoenobaenus

Shelduck

Tadorna tadorna

Short-eared owl

Asio flammeus

Skylark

Alauda arvensis

Snipe

Gallinago gallinago

Spoonbill

Platalea leucorodia

Stock dove

Columba oenas

Tufted duck

Aythya fuligula

Whinchat

Saxicola rubetra

Whitethroat

Sylvia communis

White wagtail

Motacilla alba

Wood pigeon

Columba palumbus

not yet been fully restored due to the anthropogenic ditch system. This may require further interventions, combined with the restoration of a meandering, near-natural tideway system, to accelerate the restoration of the entire salt grassland ecosystem, with corresponding positive effects on the biodiversity of this coastal habitat. Since its designation, numerous restoration projects have been carried out in the National Park Wadden Sea to restore the typical coastal habitats influenced by the

12

dynamics of the seawater level by reducing land use and accompanying measures. Examples include the backfilling of the anthropogenic trench system (= Grüppen as shallow artificial drainage ditches in the coastal area) in the salt grassland in the east of the island of Norderney and the deconstruction of the counter dike at Langwarder Groden. 12.2  Inland Saline Habitats 12.2.1  Occurrence, Ecology, and

Nature Conservation of Natural Inland Saline Sites in Central Europe

Under special geological or climatic conditions, salt-influenced sites with their typical, salt-tolerant flora and vegetation also occur naturally in inland areas (primary inland saline habitats). Although, mineral salts are natural components of soils, elevated concentrations of sodium chloride, in particular, occur in certain habitats far from the coasts, in addition to calcium, sulphate, and hydrogen carbonate ions (Hermsdorf 2010). Saline water, for example, can be transported to the soil surface with groundwater that has been enriched with salt when flowing through rock salt layers (Zechstein). Normally, these deep-lying layers are covered and sealed by younger deposits; however, due to special geological and geomorphological conditions, saline groundwater can penetrate through the upper soil layers to the surface, which then affects the vegetation e.g., at brine springs. In addition, salts can be transported to the soil surface by strong evapotranspiration during dry climatic periods e.g., in the Pannonian Plain in south-eastern Central Europe, and lead to natural topsoil salinization.

288

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Chapter 12 · Coastal and Inland Salt Grassland

Inland saline sites in Central Europe are found, for example, at the Kyffhäuser Mountains in Thuringia (TMLNU 2005), in the Luch meadows in Brandenburg (MLUL 2016), and at several sites in Central Poland (Piernik 2005, 2012). Site ecology as well as flora and vegetation characteristics of inland saline habitats have been described e.g., by Janssen (1986) and Preising et  al. (1990) in Lower Saxony, by Westhus et  al. (1997) and Pusch (2007) in Thuringia, by Herrmann (2007, 2010) in Brandenburg, by LAU (2012) and Brennenstuhl (2015) in Saxony-Anhalt, and by Piernik (2005, 2012) and Piernik and Hulisz (2011) in Poland, also pointing out the vegetation and site ecological similarity of natural with anthropogenic inland saline sites (see below). According to these studies, up to 50 species of higher plants, which belong to the halophytes sensu strictu as well as to the salttolerant species of Central Europe, can be found in inland saline habitats. For further information on the flora and vegetation of primary and secondary inland saline habitats in Central Europe, reference is made to the comprehensive bibliography by Brandes (1999a). In inland saline habitats in Central Europe, plant communities from two phytosociological associations within the class Asteretea tripolii are found, namely the common saltmarsh grasslands (Puccinellion maritimae) and the sea aster salt grasslands (Armerion maritimae), which also occur with similar species assemblages on the coasts of the North Sea and Baltic Sea (Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010; 7 Sect. 12.1). In addition, brackish reed beds of the association Bolboschoenion maritimi and salt-tolerant reed beds occur (Zimmermann 2010b). At inland saline sites, there is often a typical zonation depending on the salt concentration (Janssen 1986; Brandes 1999b). Around a vegetation-free central area, the plant communities Salicornietum ramosis 

simae are found in a ring around this central area with high salt concentrations, followed by the Spergulario-Puccinellietum distantis (e.g., with T. pannonicum subsp. tripolium) and the Juncetum gerardii with saltmarsh rush (Juncus gerardii) and sea milkwort (Glaux maritima) in the outer zone. In the transition to the sites that are hardly or no longer influenced by salt, less salt-tolerant plant communities join in e.g., with scentless mayweed (Tripleurospermum perforatum) and common reed (Phragmites australis). Similar to the anthropo-zoogenic salt grassland of the southern Baltic Sea coast (7 Sect. 12.1.3), the low-growing halophyte vegetation of inland saline sites is often the result of grazing and would naturally develop into reed beds (Westhus 1984; Brandes 1999b). Comparatively extensive surveys of the invertebrate fauna are available for the inland salt pans of Saxony-Anhalt. While the spider fauna of inland salt pans, with few exceptions, such as Argenna patula, Erigone longipalpis, and Sitticus caricis, consists of species that are not linked to salt sites (Süssmuth 2012), Trost (2012) lists 18 species of ground beetles (Carabidae) whose occurrence is closely linked to a high salinity of the site, including, for example, the Red List species Amara (Zezea) strandi, Bembidion tenellum, Dyschiriodes (Chiridysus) extensus, Pogonus iridipennis, and Tachys scutellaris. Natural inland saline sites with their typical halophyte vegetation are among the habitats of outstanding nature conservation value in Europe. In Brandenburg, for example, all natural inland salt sites are protected, irrespective of their area size and the number of salt-tolerant plant species present (Zimmermann et al. 2007). Due to the rarity and increasing endangerment of inland saline habitats on a European scale, they are also included in the European Habitats Directive as inland salt meadows  

289 12.2 · Inland Saline Habitats

(Code 1340). In addition to those already mentioned above, inland saline sites in Europe also occur in Denmark, France, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Bulgaria. In Europe, Poland has the highest area share with 1916  ha, followed by France with 965 ha, Germany with 654 ha, and Bulgaria with 412  ha (Krumbiegel and Hartenauer 2012). This habitat type occurs in almost all German federal states, with highest area shares in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (184  ha), Brandenburg (180  ha), Saxony-­ Anhalt (116 ha), and Thuringia (67 ha). Key conservation objectives for inland saline sites are the preservation and restoration of these habitats with their typical and endangered species (Zimmermann 2010a). Particularly in the case of the large-scale Pannonian salt pans and steppes, respectively, the preservation of the traditional, historically evolved cultural landscape with pasture use is also important (Šefferová Stanová et al. 2008). The flora and vegetation of the Pannonian salt steppes in the climatic transition zone of Central Europe and continental South-Eastern Europe differ fundamentally from the inland saline habitats described above. According to Molnár and Borhidi (2003), the plant communities are differentiated into three main types on the basis of differences in their physiognomy as well as species and life form composition (see also Chytrý 2007; Šefferová Stanová et al. 2008): 1. The plant communities of the class Thero-Salicornietea strictae occur with annual succulent halophytes of the genera Salicornia and Suaeda on those sites with very high salt concentrations, which become wet during the winter season and spring and dry out in summer. These communities are very poor in plant species. 2. The communities of the class Crypsidetea aculeatae with e.g., pricklegrass (Crypsis aculeata), Pannonian flatsedge (Cyperus

12

pannonicus), and swamp pricklegrass (Crypsis schoenoides) colonize the alkaline lakes that dry out in summer and consist mainly of grasses and sedges. 3. The communities of the class FestucoPuccinellietea are mainly found on grazed continental salt steppes and salt grassland, respectively. The vegetation cover, dominated by hemicryptophytes, is dense and comparatively species-rich. The salt concentration of the topsoil is lower than in the two above-mentioned community types. These plant communities are found especially in Hungary (Molnár and Borhidi 2003) and also in Slovakia (Stanová and Valachovič 2002), Austria (Mucina 2003), and Romania (Gafta and Mountford 2008). Šefferová Stanová et al. (2008) highlight the habitat-specific and rich fauna of Pannonian salt steppes and salt meadows. In the periodically water-filled saline lakes and ponds, plankton can be found e.g., the small crustaceans Branchinecta orientalis and B. ferox. In addition, these wetlands play an important role as resting areas for birds, such as red-breasted goose (Branta ruficollis) and lesser white-fronted goose (Anser erythropus). The western extension of the salt steppes in south-eastern Central Europe are habitat for red-winged pratincole (Glareola pratincola), Eurasian stone curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus), and greater short-­toed lark (Calandrella brachydactyla), among others. The occurrence of the great bustard (Otis tarda), which has a large population in the salt steppes of Hungary, is also noteworthy. Among the mammals, the steppe polecat (Mustela eversmannii subsp. eversmanii) and the southern birch mouse (Sicista subtilis) should be mentioned. Traditionally, these sites are grazed and represent, for example in Hungary, a cultural landscape of European significance, the Puszta (. Fig. 12.5).  

290

Chapter 12 · Coastal and Inland Salt Grassland

(7 Sect. 20.4), can contain high concentrations of water-soluble salts (KCl, NaCl, MgCl2, MgSO4) and thus, lead to the establishment of anthropogenic saline vegetation (Müller 1995; Koch 1996; van Elsen 1997; Westhus et al. 1997; Guder et al. 1998; Garve 1999; John 2000; Piernik 2003). Saline water also enters receiving waters  - indirectly via groundwater flow or by direct discharge - as has been documented, for example, for the Werra since the beginning of the twentieth century (Kahlert 1993) and has had considerable effects on biocenoses (Buhse 1993; Schwevers et al. 2006). Saline coal layers in lignite mining areas can also give rise to secondary saline habitats.  

..      Fig. 12.5  Typical cultural landscape of the Puszta in Hungary with an occurrence of halophytes at sites influenced by salt in the topsoil. (S. Zerbe, September 2013, near Kecskemét)

12.2.2  Secondary Inland Saline

Habitats

12

In the Central European cultural landscape, salt-affected sites of anthropogenic origin also occur (secondary inland saline habitats). Continuously high application of road salt in winter, especially in cities and along motorways, leads to soil salinization at roadsides and damage to salt-sensitive roadside flora and vegetation. Continuous anthropogenic salt input leads to vegetation changes associated with the occurrence of salt-­ tolerant plant species, such as sea thrift (A. maritima subsp. maritima), buck’s-horn plantain (Plantago coronopus), two-scale saltbush (Atriplex micrantha), glossy-leaved orache (A. sagittata), Tatarian orache (A. tatarica), Danish scurvy grass (Cochlearia danica), foxtail barley (Hordeum jubatum), broad-leaved pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium), roadside pepperweed (L. ruderale), seashore dock (Rumex maritimus), lesser sea-spurrey (Spergularia marina), and the weeping alkali grass (Puccinellia distans agg.; Adolphi 1975, 1999; Auhagen and Sukopp 1980; Gilbert 1991; Jackowiak 1996; Brandes 1999b). The seepage water from overburden dumps, especially from potash mining

12.2.3  Land-Use History,

Degradation, and Threats to Inland Saline Habitats

Historically, inland saline sites were integrated into agricultural, initially extensive use as meadow or pasture. Moreover, apart from the large inland salt pans of Central Europe (e.g., Janowitz 2003), salt used to be extracted locally at these sites (Zimmermann 2010a; Balaske 2012). Grazing has often led to the decline of natural reed stands, similar to coastal salt grassland on the Baltic Sea (7 Sect. 12.1.3). However, inland saline habitats have suffered a similar fate to peatland, wet meadows, nutrient-­ poor grasslands, and coastal salt grassland with land-use intensification since the mid-­ twentieth century. Drainage, eutrophication, ploughing up of grassland, and seeding (for example, in Brandenburg in the context of “complex amelioration”; 7 Sect. 8.1) contributed to a decline in inland saline habitats and the disappearance of halophyte vegetation. Only very few nutrient-poor sites were spared from this land-use change, partly due to their small size (Rößling 2010). Today, abandonment is also one of the endangering factors (see Zerbe 2022 on land  

 

291 12.2 · Inland Saline Habitats

abandonment). According to the Red List of endangered habitat types in Germany (Riecken et  al. 2006), near-natural inland saline sites are “threatened with complete destruction”. The conservation status of the FFH habitat type “inland salt meadow” can be determined with the following criteria: 1. Presence of the typical habitat structures,

12

2. occurrence of the typical species assemblages, and 3. existing impairments (. Table 12.9).  

According to this assessment, there is a need for restoration at the grade C. The Pannonian salt steppes were also traditionally grazed. However, over the past 150  years, drainage, conversion to arable

..      Table 12.9  Evaluation scheme of inland saline habitats (FFH Habitat Type with code 1340) according to the guidelines of the LAU (2010) in Saxony-Anhalt. (Slightly modified after Krumbiegel and Hartenauer 2012) Criteria

Assessment grade A

B

C

Completeness of habitat-­ typical habitat structures

Excellent

Good

Medium to poor

Structural diversity

Typical structural elements: Brine discharge, brine ditches, vegetation-­ free areas, glasswort vegetation, patchy salt grassland, brackish water reeds At least four structural elements

At least two structural elements

At least one structural element

Completeness of the habitat-typical species assemblage

Present

Largely present

Only partly present

Species assemblage

Ten characteristic species, including three species typical of this habitat type

Four characteristic species, including at least one species typical of this habitat type

One species typical of this habitat type

Impairments

None to low

Medium

Strong

Indicators of eutrophication, abandonment, and disturbance; neophytes

None

< 10% coverage

> 10% coverage

Impairment due to use, recreational activities, deposits

No or only selective impact

Not significant, maintenance measures not optimally effective

Significant (e.g., excessive livestock, fertilisation, seeding)

Alteration of the water balance (e.g., lowering of the groundwater table, alteration of the natural dynamics, water withdrawals)

Not recognizable

Water balance slightly to moderately disturbed

Water balance strongly disturbed

A = excellent, B = good, C = medium to poor

292

Chapter 12 · Coastal and Inland Salt Grassland

land combined with the application of mineral fertilizer, intensification of grazing, and afforestation with, for example, poplars increased and have led to significant vegetation and landscape changes (Šefferová Stanová et al. 2008; Melečková et al. 2013). This is well documented, for example, for Slovakia in the second half of the twentieth century (Sádovský et  al. 2004; Dítě et  al. 2008; Eliáš et  al. 2008). In contrast, traditional grazing, especially with sheep, declined sharply or was abandoned. The flocks of sheep driven by shepherds across the salt steppes for grazing have now been replaced locally and regionally, respectively, by intensive goose farming. Šefferová Stanová et al. (2008) also refer to the problems of wild boar hunting, especially when vehicles are used for this purpose, which leads to soil compaction, or when the animals are attracted by food, which promotes eutrophication and the spread of weeds.

12

site than from the fact that livestock farmers are no longer present in the area concerned (Rößling 2010). Hess (1976) reports on the re-planting of halophytes and the relocation of sods from still intact saline habitats in the Wetterau (Hesse). However, long-term monitoring and success control have not yet been carried out. In contrast, at the two most important inland saline sites in the northern Harz foreland of Lower Saxony, the Barnstorf and Seckertrift nature reserves, long-term monitoring of over 5 years was carried out, in particular, to determine the influence of grazing and topsoil removal (Evers and Zacharias 1999). After topsoil removal, S. europaea agg. Initially occurred as a pioneer plant, which was then replaced by P. distans agg. and T. pannonicum subsp. tripolium in the course of further succession. For the grazing of the salt grassland as a measure of habitat management, Evers and Zacharias (1999) recommend the use of cattle over sheep, as the latter have a negative impact on 12.2.4  Restoration Measures the seed production of the annual glasswort (see also Janssen and Brandes 1989). on Inland Saline Habitats For the Pannonian salt steppes, Šefferová Stanová et al. (2008) propose various strateFrom experiences in the restoration of gies for their restoration. The re-introducinland saline habitats with their typical flora tion of traditional grazing is one of the most and vegetation, for example, in Saxony-­ important measures. In the Hortobágy Anhalt and Brandenburg, recommendaNational Park in Hungary, located in the tions can be derived that are very similar to largest Central European steppe region the restoration of wet meadows (7 Sect. (Hortobágy Puszta), an approximately 15.6). If land-use intensification has led to the degradation of the inland saline habi- 2400 ha large reserve has been grazed with tats, measures, such as rewetting e.g., by Przewalski’s horses since 1997 (Zimmermann closing drainage ditches or removing top- et  al. 1998, 2005). The number of animals soil, are applied. In contrast, the re-intro- on the pastures depends on the precipitation duction of extensive grassland use with of the previous year and the current precipimowing or grazing and without additional tation, respectively, and thus on the vegetafertilizer applications is considered in cases tion development. Accordingly, grazing of abandonment and advanced succession intensity must always be adapted to current (Rößling 2010; Brennenstuhl 2015). moisture conditions and vegetation develParticularly in the case of restoring the veg- opment as part of a flexible management etation of inland saline habitats created by (see case study in 7 Sect. 16.5). Mowing is extensive grazing, often a limiting factor recommended to remove undesirable species results less from the ecological status of the (“weeds”). Backfilling of ditches or removal  

 

293 12.2 · Inland Saline Habitats

of dams may be necessary to restore the original hydrological conditions. Some halophytes with very low competitiveness, such as lesser sea-spurrey (S. marina), swamp pricklegrass (C. schoenoides), and pricklegrass (C. aculeata) require topsoil disturbance for regeneration. This can be induced by machine or by the trampling of grazing animals. In addition, seeding (e.g., of Festuca pulchra) is recommended. Studies of the spider fauna of Pannonian salt habitats at Lake Neusiedl show that both, the ungrazed and the grazed sites contain rare and site-typical species (Zulka et  al. 1997). From this it is deduced that a mosaic of different land-use intensities maintains species diversity. Adapted to local-regional conditions, a spatio-temporal mosaic of different grazing intensities is proposed, whereby non-grazed areas should also be included in the overall management concept. Certain halophytes, for example, such as grey aster (Galatella cana) and hog’s-­ fennel (Peucedanum officinale) do not tolerate grazing. Examples of conservation- and restoration-oriented grazing management are available for geese, sheep, Galloway cattle, and Przewalski’s horses (Šefferová Stanová et al. 2008). Melečková et al. (2013) do not come to satisfactory results after an experimental topsoil removal for the regeneration of halophyte vegetation typical for Pannonian salt steppes. Positive effects are only short-term and promote ruderal species. Rößling (2010) has formulated the following theses for the conservation of inland saline habitats in Brandenburg, which can also be applied to similar Central European inland habitats influenced by salt: 55 The special characteristics of the flora, vegetation, and fauna of inland saline habitats that have been created by extensive use can only be restored by resuming the same or similar land management. 55 The management concept must be adapted to the local and, in particular,

12

the hydrological characteristics of the inland saline habitats. 55 The agricultural use of inland saline sites must be economically viable for the farm using them and must have the ability to be integrated into the farm’s operations. 55 Land use must be supported by complementary funding instruments for nature conservation and cultural landscape protection. 55 The land user must have access to professional advice from nature conservation experts or to nature conservation-­ friendly landscape management. The nature conservation administration accompanies the restoration measures with monitoring.

12.2.5  Case Study: Inland Saline

Habitat Altensalzwedel in Saxony-Anhalt—Initial Success of a Restoration Project

While extensive literature is available on the restoration of salt grassland and salt marshes at the coasts in Western, Central, and Northern Europe, from which transferable recommendations for further restoration practice can be derived, restoration initiatives on inland saline habitats are still insufficiently documented by science and practice. In a special issue on “Inland saline habitats in the Natura 2000 network of protected areas”, for example, the State Department for Environmental Protection in Saxony-Anhalt has presented a comprehensive documentation of inland saline habitats in terms of flora, fauna, vegetation, and conservation status, including recommended maintenance measures (LAU 2012). On the inland saline site “Altensalzwedel”, located close to the city of Salzwedel, and according to Brennenstuhl (2015) “repre-

294

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Chapter 12 · Coastal and Inland Salt Grassland

senting a rather insignificant example compared to the classic saline habitats in Saxony-Anhalt […]”, various restoration measures have been carried out and their effects documented for several decades. This is a natural inland saline habitat with the typical characteristics of the FFH habitat type 1340, but only with “medium quality”. Information on the flora is available for the site as early as the second half of the nineteenth century; anthropogenic impacts and the state of development have also been documented since the 1960s (Burchardt 1963; Jage and Jage 1967; Brennenstuhl 2015). The saline site is fed by several brine springs and has a small-scale relief mosaic with gullies and hollows formed by clay-extraction pits as well as peatland. The interventions in order to promote agricultural use documented for the 1960s and later included drainage, cattle grazing on the grassland, some of which had been seeded after ploughing, and maize cultivation (Brennenstuhl 2015). These land-use interventions in a wetland site reflect the efforts at the time to meliorate such sites that were considered unfavorable for agricultural use (7 Sect. 8.1). 1969 was the last time glasswort (S. europaea agg.) was recorded. Land-use was intensified in the 1970s with site levelling and the creation of drainage ditches up to 1  m deep.  

Brennenstuhl (2015) sums up the loss of valuable species and “a devastating decline in the individual numbers of the remaining salt plants” for the period of agricultural use 1970–1989, “which was characterized by dramatic changes”. In 1999, the saline site was re-supplied with saline water by means of a short trench, and in 2002/2003, an initial small-scale topsoil removal (40 m2) was carried out, which was then supplemented by the removal of approx. 2000 m2 of topsoil. This led to the re-establishment and spread of the pioneer species S. marina as well as J. gerardii, P. distans agg., and Ranunculus sceleratus on the now created sites with bare soil, which were again influenced by saltwater. In the water-­ filled hollows created by the soil excavation, brackish water reed with B. maritimus and Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani occurred. The strong expansion of common reed and stinging nettle made it necessary to remove soil again in 2012. Although, the restoration measures to date have not been able to restore the high species diversity of before the heavy agricultural interventions since the 1960s – until 1970 the only occurrence of the red bulrush (Blysmus rufus) in Saxony-­ Anhalt (Hartenauer et al. 2012) - they have at least created more or less stable ­populations for 12 plants typical for saline habitats (Brennenstuhl 2015).

295

Marine Habitats in the North Sea and Baltic Sea Contents 13.1

 arine Ecosystems of the North Sea M and the Baltic Sea – 297

13.1.1 13.1.2

North Sea – 297 Baltic Sea – 298

13.2

 nthropogenic Evironmental Impacts A on the Marine Ecosystems of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea – 299

13.3

 cosystem Services and Threatened E Marine Habitats – 306

13.4

International Marine Protection Initiatives – 307

13.5

 n Overarching Concept for the Restoration A of Marine Ecosystem Services – 309

13.6

Measures for the Restoration of Marine Habitats – 310

13.6.1 13.6.2

Interventions in the Biotic Ecosystem Compartments – 310 Interventions in the Abiotic Conditions – 312

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Zerbe, Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65658-7_13

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296

Chapter 13 · Marine Habitats in the North Sea and Baltic Sea

In the past, it was assumed that the oceans could not really be damaged by human impact because of their large size and their natural ability in its self-regeneration. The oceans represented a kind of “commons” which, however, unlike social communities that use their common resources sustainably (Ostrom 1990), was overexploited and not used sustainably. Overfishing, direct and indirect inputs of nutrients and pollutants, and the continuous input of waste, which is washed into the seas from the mainland via rivers or directly from coastal cities, now constitute a global environmental problem. Another factor in the very delayed environmental policy initiatives to protect marine ecosystems is probably the fact that the effects of environmental stress are not directly perceived, as is the case, for example, with eutrophication of lakes and its environmental consequences (7 Sect. 11.3) or pollutant emissions in urban-industrial areas, but occur at a great geographical distance and are more ‘hidden’. The state of many marine ecosystems worldwide is worrying from the point of view of environmental protection and nature conservation. In Latin America, for example, around 85% (!) of urban wastewater is discharged untreated into rivers and seas, respectively, or used for irrigation in agriculture (Cavallini et al. 2005). In the megacity Lima with about 10 million inhabitants, more than 85% of urban wastewater is discharged untreated directly into the Pacific Ocean (Wirth 2010)  - and this against the current knowledge about ecological processes and environmental threats, but also the available technology and the high qualitative standard of water purification. Up to 50% of municipalities in the Eastern Baltic Sea region, i.e., especially in Russia, Poland, and Lithuania, are not yet connected to water treatment plants (COWI 2007; Haahti et al. 2010), so that large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus enter the Baltic Sea there (Hautakangas et al. 2014). Indeed, the  

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oceans are the collecting basins for all the water from terrestrial catchments and the nutrients and pollutants they contain, but also for the substances discharged directly into the sea - with the corresponding impacts on the quality of the seawater and the organisms living in it. Added to this are the effects of climate change on marine ecosystems, with changes in sea level and water temperatures (Hoegh-Guldberg and Bruno 2010) and the acidification of seawater (Doney et al. 2009). Whereas in the past the coastal areas and the sea close to the coasts were mainly used for fishing and other purposes, today there is also a high pressure of use and associated environmental stress on the deeper marine areas due to deep-sea fishing, offshore mining of raw materials, and waste disposal (Thiel and Koslow 2001; Ramirez-­ Llodra et al. 2011; Cordes et al. 2016). The restoration of marine ecosystems lags significantly behind that of terrestrial and inland aquatic ecosystems (Hawkins et  al. 2008). Although, anthropogenic impacts on the oceans and the resulting pressures on marine ecosystems and the organisms living in them represent a global challenge (Bax et  al. 2003; Shahidul Islam and Tanaka 2004; Kappel 2005; Halpern et al. 2008; Belim Imtiyaz et al. 2011; Pawar 2016; Visbeck et al. 2017), the focus here will be on the North Sea and Baltic Sea, which are directly relevant for Central Europe. According to Halpern et  al. (2008), the North Sea is among the most polluted seas on Earth when all anthropogenic impacts are cumulatively considered. For the Baltic Sea, it was already assumed at the beginning of this century that about 90% of marine and coastal habitats are endangered (von Nordheim and Boedecker 2000; HELCOM 2003). The current Red List of marine organisms assesses 30% of approximately 1750 considered taxa of fish, bottom-­ dwelling invertebrates, and large marine algae of the German coastal and marine areas as endangered (Becker et  al. 2013).

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297 13.1 · Marine Ecosystems of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea

Sustainable environmental management and restoration of the North Sea and Baltic Sea with their coastal ecosystems can be based on already existing comprehensive biological-ecological foundations, continuous monitoring, and recommendations for practice derived from this (e.g., Lozán et al. 1990; Liedl et  al. 1992; Schernewski and Schiewer 2002; Walday and Kroglund 2008a, b; Hupfer 2010; OSPAR 2000, 2010; Becker et  al. 2013; Furman et  al. 2013; Rheinheimer 2013; Rodriguez and Brebbia 2013). The reports on the implementation of the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive (7 Sect. 13.4), which provide an initial assessment and description of the state of the environment for each marine region and formulate environmental targets (e.g., BMU 2012a, b), are also of particular relevance to environmental policy.  

13.1  Marine Ecosystems

of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea

13.1.1  North Sea

The North Sea, with an area of about 750,000 km2, is a comparatively young sea, which was formed in the Holocene about 20,000  years ago by the flooding of land. The shallow sea depth (on average 90  m, max. 725  m) and the close interconnection with the European coasts make the North Sea one of the world’s most productive seas. In addition to the rich fish stocks, there is a direct and high exploitation pressure on the North Sea due to the occurrence of gas and oil in the seabed. Furthermore, there is an extraordinarily high level of shipping traffic from a global perspective. With the countries England, Scotland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and France directly bordering, the North Sea as an international sea has a

catchment area of 850,000 km2 (Walday and Kroglund 2008a), with a population of approximately 184 million people (OSPAR 2000). Coastal habitats are very diverse and include, for example, rocky fjords (Norway), cliffs and pebble beaches (England and Scotland), large sandy beaches and dunes (Denmark), the Wadden Sea with its typical salt marshes (Netherlands, Germany, Denmark; 7 Sect. 12.1) and numerous estuaries as the mouths of major European river systems. Large marine algae occur mainly on rocky substrates to depths of 15  m (in the southern part of the North Sea) to 30 m (in the northern area). For the British Isles, 820 macro-algal species (e.g., Ascophyllum nodosum, Laminaria hyperborea, and L. digitata) are reported, for the coast of Norway 370, in the Northern Kattegat 325, for Helgoland 274, and for the Netherlands 230 (Bartsch and Kuhlenkamp 2000). In marine zones dominated by macro-algae, these contribute up to 90% of primary production (Walday and Kroglund 2008b). In the benthic green, red, and brown algal stands of the coastal zones, many marine organisms find a habitat for protection from predators, for foraging as as mating sites. “Seaweed” is harvested mainly in Norway and England for industrial purposes and as fertilizer for agriculture. Similar to salt grassland (7 Sect. 12.1.2), also macro-algal populations in coastal areas are thought to act as breakwaters (Walday and Kroglund 2008a). Approximately 230 fish species occur in the North Sea, with generally higher species diversity near the coast, with many fish species showing migratory behaviour over the course of the year and their life cycle, respectively (Knijn et  al. 1993; Greenstreet and Hall 1996; ICES 2008). Some fish species link marine and riverine habitats through their life history. Atlantic salmon, for example, which spend about two-thirds of their life cycle in the sea, migrate to rivers, such as the Rhine, to spawn (7 Sect. 4.2). The total  

 

 

298

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Chapter 13 · Marine Habitats in the North Sea and Baltic Sea

biomass of fish in the North Sea has been estimated at 10–12 million tonnes in recent decades, with two to four million tonnes fished annually in the period 1950–2000 (Walday and Kroglund 2008b; ICES 2008; OSPAR 2010). In 2012, only about 1.4 million t of total catch is reported (ICES 2017a). Rare or endangered fish species in the North Sea include, for example, species of elasmobranchs, such as spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias), common skate (Dipturus batis), and thornback skate (Raja clavata; Teal 2011; Becker et al. 2013). The bird populations of the North Sea are considered to be of global significance (Walday and Kroglund 2008b). Approximately 30 species breed in the coastal area, and approximately 10 million birds reside there during most of the year. In particular, the Wadden Sea is of high importance as a habitat, with over 50 breeding and migratory bird species and up to 12 million individuals annually (OSPAR 2000, 2010; ICES 2008). The North Sea is also home to the mammals grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and harbour seal (Phoca vitulina), as well as 16 species of whales and dolphins, such as common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), long-­ finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas), Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus), Atlantic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus), and killer whale (Orcinus orca), which are frequently observed there (OSPAR 2000; Walday and Kroglund 2008b). 13.1.2  Baltic Sea

The inland sea of the Baltic Sea, with an area of about 370,000 km2 and a mean sea depth of 57  m (max. 459  m), with its low salinity (about 6–18‰) and the only narrow connection of the Kattegat and Skagerrak to the North Sea, is a brackish water system with only a small tidal range. Like the North Sea, the Baltic Sea is also a sea formed in the Holocene, after the retreat of the last

glaciation. The pronounced horizontal and vertical salinity gradients influence the diversity of biotic communities  - with the highest biodiversity in the southwest of the Baltic Sea. Freshwater species can co-occur with typical marine species. With the states of Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russian Federation, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland bordering, the Baltic Sea has an international catchment area of 1,650,000 km2, inhabited by approximately 80 million people (Walday and Kroglund 2008a). While icing of the surface water can occur in winter, especially in the eastern part of the Baltic Sea, comparatively high surface water temperatures are typical for late summer and autumn. Summer temperatures up to above 15  °C can lead to blooms of often toxic cyanobacteria (IOW 2014). In particular, eutrophication (see Hautakangas et  al. 2014) stimulates algal growth. The algae die, sink to the bottom, and bacterial decomposition contributes to a sharp drop in oxygen levels, especially in deeper water layers of the Baltic Sea. The zoobenthos is dominated by three groups of invertebrates, namely the molluscs, polychaetes, and crustaceans. In the central Baltic Sea, the common blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), the Baltic tellin (Macoma balthica), the amphipod Pontoporeia affinis, and the isopod Saduria entomon occur with large populations. In the phytobenthos of the western Baltic Sea, up to more than 350 species of macro-algae occur (Nielsen et al. 1995). The fish fauna of the Baltic Sea includes about 100 marine and freshwater species. Many of these species have their spawning and feeding grounds in the coastal zones. Marine species include Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), Baltic herring (Clupea harengus), and European sprat (Sprattus sprattus), freshwater species include pike (Esox lucius) and perch (Perca fluviatilis), and diadromous species include Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), sea trout (Salmo trutta trutta), and European eel (Anguilla anguilla).

299 13.2 · Anthropogenic Evironmental Impacts on the Marine Ecosystems…

Around 80 bird species use the Baltic Sea region as feeding and breeding habitat or for resting and wintering, especially the sandy shallow water areas and estuaries (HELCOM 2017b). Characteristic species of the Baltic Sea coasts include red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator), tufted duck (Aythya fuligula), common eider (Somateria mollissima), common sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos), European herring gull (Larus argentatus), common tern (Sterna hirundo), Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea), and cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo). If all bird species that use the Baltic Sea and its coastal areas as breeding and feeding habitat are included, about 40% of a total of 56 species are considered to be critically or potentially endangered, including dunlin (Calidris alpina), black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), Mediterranean gull (Larus melanocephalus), and terek sandpiper (Xenus cinereus; HELCOM 2013). In the Baltic Sea, as in the North Sea, the mammals grey seal (H. grypus) and harbour seal (P. vitulina) are frequently observed (OSPAR 2000; Walday and Kroglund 2008b). In addition, two populations of the common porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) and the Baltic ringed seal (Pusa hispida botnica occur.

13.2  Anthropogenic Evironmental

Impacts on the Marine Ecosystems of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea

Most types of environmental pressures are equally relevant for the marine ecosystems of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, but differ in part in their temporal and spatial extent. Although, fishing is one of the oldest human activities on earth for food supply, it is now practised in many marine ecosystems to an extent that has a highly negative impact on population sizes and on the repro-

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duction of fish and other marine animals. As fish consumption increases worldwide, so does the problem of overfishing (FAO 2016a). In the North Sea, this currently affects, for example, cod and sole (ICES 2017a) and in the Baltic Sea, cod, Atlantic salmon, and European eel (ICES 2017b). For the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, . Fig.  13.1 shows the development of fish catches, differentiated by fish categories and in each case for the fish species with the highest catch numbers. It becomes clear that many fish species have experienced declining catches over the past decades, but these seems to be a recent recovery. In addition to the commercial catch of fish for food and industrial purposes, there is also the unintentional by-catch and damage to marine organisms caused by fishing practices. This is particularly problematic from a species conservation perspective for harbour porpoises, rays, and seabirds. Up to 18% of local harbour porpoise populations in the Baltic Sea fall victim to by-catch in gillnets (Scheidat et  al. 2008). In the North Sea, approximately 30% of the cod and 50% of the plaice caught are discarded as unused by-catch (ICES 2010). Together with the fish waste that is disposed of directly into the sea, this increases the eutrophication problem (see below). Bird populations are also affected by by-catch (Žydelis et  al. 2009). High mortality from fishing nets, for example, has been observed in some bird species, such as long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis), velvet scoter (Melanitta fusca), common eider (S. mollissima), red-throated loon (Gavia stellata), and common scoter (Melanitta nigra) (Fedorov et al. 2011). For the northeast German Baltic Sea coast, Bellebaum (2011) estimates a by-catch of 17,000 to 20,000 birds during winter and spring. According to ICES (2017b), at least 76,000 birds were killed by gillnets as bycatch in the Baltic Sea during the period 1980–2005. Seals are found as by-catch in fyke nets and gillnets. These estimates still  

300

Landings (thousand tonnes)

a

Chapter 13 · Marine Habitats in the North Sea and Baltic Sea

1500

North Sea

1000 other herring

500

sprat

plaice

Norway pout saithe

cod

0 1950

b Landings (thousand tonnes)

sandeel mackerel

500

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

haddock

whiting

2010

Baltic Sea

400 herring

300 sprat

200 100

other

cod

undefined finfish

0 1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

flounder

2010

..      Fig. 13.1  Catch of major commercially exploited fish in the North Sea a and Baltic Sea b between 1950 and 2015. (Based on data from ICES 2017a, b)

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need to be corrected by exact figures. It is known for the common harbour porpoise that by-catch from marine fisheries can lead to threats to populations on the local scale (Žydelis et  al. 2009; OSPAR 2010). As a large proportion of the by-catch of fish dies after going overboard, this also poses an economic problem for fisheries (SRU 2011). Non-indigenous species (neobiota) reach the North Sea and Baltic Sea with the ballast water of ships, by adhering to ship hulls (fouling), through mariculture or by other means (LLUR 2014). At the end of the last century, more than 80 non-native species were already reported for the North Sea (Reise et  al. 1999). In the Baltic Sea, 120 non-native species occur today, of which about 90 are considered naturalized (Zaiko et  al. 2011; Furman et  al. 2013). In the North Sea, for example, the macro-algae Bonnemaisonia hamifera, Codium fragile, and Sargassum muticum, originally from

East Asia, have become established, the latter, probably introduced to France in the early 1970s by transport of goods (Critchley 1983), being considered highly invasive due to its high biomass production (Bartsch and Kuhlenkamp 2000). The Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), also native to East Asia, has spread throughout the North Sea and is considered invasive worldwide (Kochmann 2012). Ballast water has also introduced the Atlantic jackknife clam (Ensis directus) and polychaetes of the genus Marenzelleria (Walday and Kroglund 2008a). Shipping from North America is responsible for the introduction of the bay barnacle (Amphibalanus improvises) as early as the mid-­ nineteenth century (Furman et  al. 2013). Over the past three decades, the average temperature of the surface water of the North Sea has increased by about 2  °C (OSPAR 2010). Water warming can affect

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301 13.2 · Anthropogenic Evironmental Impacts on the Marine Ecosystems…

the distribution of organisms, their population sizes, and their phenology, and affects fish, zooplankton, organisms on or in the sediment (benthos), and birds. The higher CO2 content of the atmosphere, and consequently higher uptake by seawater, leads to acidification of the latter (Turley et al. 2006; Doney et  al. 2009). A recent study by a German research consortium looking at the possible consequences of seawater acidification highlights that this can both, alter marine biocenoses and cause the decline of certain organisms (especially those with calcareous skeletons) as well as alter trophic feeding relationships. Along with water warming, reproduction of certain fish species can be negatively affected and the ability of the oceans to sequester carbon can be reduced (Nicolai 2017). Although, the discharge of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus into the North Sea and the Baltic Sea has decreased significantly in recent decades (. Fig. 13.2),  

eutrophication of these two marine ecosystems is still considered one of the most significant environmental problems (OSPAR 2010; Hautakangas et al. 2014; Pyhälä et al. 2014; Arle et  al. 2017). Conley (2012) estimates the nitrogen input to the Baltic Sea over the last 50 years to be about 20 million tonnes, and the phosphorus input to be two million tonnes. Nitrogen is mainly discharged from agriculture in the catchment area through the major rivers, such as Elbe, Rhine, Ems, Weser, and Thames into the North Sea or via Oder, Vistula, Memel, Düna, Łeba, and Neva into the Baltic Sea. A high proportion of phosphorus inputs also originate from agriculture; in addition, there are those from settlement areas. Furthermore, there is also nitrogen input from the atmosphere, as is the case for terrestrial ecosystems. In marine ecosystems, however, one of the most significant contributors is shipping (Bartnicki et  al. 2011; Jalkanen et al. 2013; Raudsepp et al. 2013).

Tonnes 42,500 40,000 37,500 35,000 30,000

Total phosphorus input

27,500 25,000

Maximum Allowable (MAI)

22,500 20,000 a

1995

2000

2005

2010

2012

550,000 500,000 450,000

Total nitrogen input

400,000 350,000 300,000 b

Maximum Allowable Level (MAI) 1995

2000

2005

2010

2012

..      Fig. 13.2  Inputs of phosphorus a and nitrogen b to the Baltic Sea between 1995 and 2012, indicating the maximum allowable input (MAI) defined by HELCOM (2017a)

302

Chapter 13 · Marine Habitats in the North Sea and Baltic Sea

The input of nutrients leads to increased primary production, increased biomass decomposition and thus, increased consumption of oxygen in deep water layers and near the bottom of the sea, respectively. These processes then lead to hypoxic to anoxic conditions, which in turn can significantly alter biocenoses in these water layers and in the benthos (Sandén and Håkansson 1996; Eilola 1998; Frid et al. 1999; Raffaelli 2000; Carstensen et al. 2014a). Hypoxic conditions affect an average of 60,000  km2 of the Baltic Sea annually, according to Conley (2012). All higher benthic organisms die under anoxic to hypoxic conditions (Diaz and Rosenberg 2008; Rabalais et  al. 2010). Karlson et  al. (2002) estimate that due to oxygen depletion on the seabed of the Baltic Sea, the loss of biomass of benthic organisms is up to three million tonnes. Under anoxic conditions, phosphorus fixed in the sediment is also mobilized and contributes to further eutrophication despite reduced discharge of nutrients from terrestrial catchments (. Fig.  13.2) (Carstensen et  al. 2014b; Stigebrandt et  al. 2014; 7 Sect. 11.3.1). In addition, fish farms in coastal areas (mariculture), which are also responsible for some of the nutrient loads, also introduce antibiotics that can lead to antibiotic resistance in bacteria (Kerry et al. 1996; see also Singer et  al. 2016; Gillings et  al. 2017). The increased input of nutrients into seawater can lead to local algal blooms, some of which can be toxic (see IOW 2014). The strong growth of the alga Chrysochromulina polylepis in the spring of 1988, for example, starting in the Kattegat and Skagerrak and covering a total area of about 60,000  km2, led to mass mortality in coastal fish farms and of other marine organisms (Dahl et al. 1989; Skjoldal and Dundas 1991). Toxic effects are also known for the dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi and the alga Fibrocapsa japonica (Walday and Kroglund 2008a).  

 

13

Toxic cyanobacteria that may be widespread in the Baltic Sea include, for example, Nodularia spumigena and species of the genus Microcystis (Wasmund 2002). In addition to the environmental impacts, these algal blooms can also cause considerable economic damage to fisheries and tourism. As with the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus, a decrease in inputs of many inorganic and organic pollutants has been observed over the past two decades. Nevertheless, the concentrations of cadmium, mercury, lead, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in seawater and sediments are regionally above the defined thresholds. Moreover, some of these substances accumulate in the food web. Persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic pollutants (PBTs; see Klöpffer 2013) and endocrine disruptors, whose effects on ecosystems are still poorly understood, pose a particular problem. Tornero and Hanke (2016) list 276 chemical substances in European seas (including radionuclides) that must be considered contaminants. Shahidul Islam and Tanaka (2004) provide an overview of synthetic pesticides and chemicals, respectively, that can enter rivers from agriculture and thus, potentially enter the oceans and food web, and point out the link between these substances in the sea and diseases and tumours in fish in the North Sea. The harmful effects of tributyltin (additive to ships’ paints) on molluscs and gastropods (Nehring 1999), of PAHs and PCBs on fish and seals (Walday and Kroglund 2008a), and of copper on benthic fauna (Rygg 1985) have been documented. For many other pollutants, however, the retention time in the marine ecosystem as well as their effects on organisms and the food web are still poorly understood, if at all. In the Baltic Sea, contamination with organic and inorganic pollutants is particularly problematic due to its inland sea character, as complete water

303 13.2 · Anthropogenic Evironmental Impacts on the Marine Ecosystems…

exchange with the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, respectively, only takes place over relatively long periods of 25 to 35 years (Walday and Kroglund 2008b). In principle, this applies to all substances that are not biodegraded within short periods of time. Ocean dumping is the disposal of oil, acids, pollutants, and excavated material from shipping lanes and ports in the open sea. In the area of the north-east Atlantic, including the North Sea, over 100 million tonnes of industrial waste, sewage sludge, radioactive waste, and dredged material were dumped annually in the 1970s and 1980s (Nentwig 2006). Even though environmental awareness in Europe has changed today and the dumping of pollutants in European seas has been stopped (on the dumping of dilute acid, see Koch and Monßen 2006), excavated material containing pollutants (e.g., with heavy metals) from the port areas is still dumped in the sea today (OSPAR 2017). In addition, there are considerable quantities of pollutants that are illegally dumped at sea (see below). The waste residues of this former large-scale practice continue to be stored in the sea, as do the residues of ammunition dumped in the sea from both World Wars, which pose an ongoing threat to fisheries and coastal uses (OSPAR 2010; Greenberg et al. 2016). It is estimated that the Baltic Sea contains approximately 40,000 tonnes of chemical munitions that were disposed of at the end of the Second World War or afterwards (Knobloch et al. 2013). A particular environmental problem is oil that enters the North Sea and the Baltic Sea via shipping, oil drilling in the sea, from coastal settlement and industrial areas, and illegal disposal (Kostianoy and Lavrova 2014; Carpenter 2016). Walday and Kroglund (2008b) estimate the illegal discharge of oil into the Baltic Sea to be about 10% of the total oil discharge. Today, how-

13

ever, continuous monitoring, including the application of remote sensing, increasingly allows the precise localization of oil spills and slicks in the sea. Worldwide, about 80% of marine debris (marine litter), such as plastic objects, glass bottles, and packaging material, comes from terrestrial sources, and 20% is of marine origin e.g., from ships and oil platforms (Meith 2009; Trouwborst 2011). For the Baltic Sea, . Fig.  13.3 indicates the origin of marine litter. The items can cause external injury to marine animals or cause internal injury as they feed (Derraik 2002). Globally, over 250 marine animals have been documented to be impacted or killed by marine plastic litter, notably including sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals (Laist 1997; Thompson et  al. 2009). The wastes float in the ocean, sometimes washing up on shorelines or accumulating on the seafloor where they may not be degraded for centuries (Goldberg 1997). In addition to the environmental impacts, marine litter also poses economic, aesthetic, and health problems (UNEP 2006). Marine litter must also include ghost nets (derelict fishing gear), i.e., fishing nets that have been intentionally disposed of in the sea or have come loose unintentionally during fishing in the sea (e.g., in bad weather conditions) and are subsequently floating in the sea or lying on the seabed (Smolowitz et al. 1978). In the Baltic Sea, it is reported that 5500 to 10,000 gillnets are lost per year (NOAA Marine Debris Program 2015). Fish (Tschernij and Larsson 2003) and other marine organisms, some of which are protected (Laist 1987; NOAA Marine Debris Program 2015; Stelfox et al. 2016), become entangled in these nets, so that there is an urgent need for action not only from an ecological or nature conservation perspective, but also from an economic perspective (Gilardi et  al. 2010; Butler et  al. 2013) to remove them from the sea again. Remote sensing methods are applied for this purpose  

304

Chapter 13 · Marine Habitats in the North Sea and Baltic Sea

29 %

Sanitary sector

25 %

Coastal tourism 12 %

Household general Waste transport

7%

Recreational navigation

6%

Harbours

5%

Transport shipping

4%

Construction sector

3%

Fishery

3%

Reacreational fishing

3%

Others

2%

..      Fig. 13.3  Origin of marine debris in the Baltic Sea. (After HELCOM 2017a; with data from van Acoleyen et al. 2013)

13

(McElwee et  al. 2012; Pichel et  al. 2012). The scientific journal Marine Pollution Bulletin focuses on the increasing problem of marine debris. In addition to coarse marine debris, there is increasing discussion of the environmental impacts of anthropogenic microparticles that accumulate in water and sediment. Up to 100,000 particles can occur in one cubic meter of water (Wright et  al. 2013). According to HELCOM (2017a), 40  t of microplastics (particle size 5  years) to also fully restore the animal communities in brown algal stocks. Numerous restoration activities focus on the re-introduction of populations of marine species that have been severely depleted by catches and exploitation, respectively. The  

 

 

13

re-introduction of salmon and sea trout is discussed in detail in 7 Chap. 4. This restoration measure is also practiced for other fish species e.g., the houting (Coregonus oxyrinchus; Jepsen et  al. 2012). The European oyster (Ostrea edulis), which has been exploited since pre-Roman times (Yonge 1960), has strongly declined in abundance since the nineteenth century, partly due to reduced reproduction and partly due to habitat destruction caused by special harvesting techniques (Gercken and Schmidt 2014). The problem of over-exploitation of oyster beds was already known at the end of the nineteenth century (Möbius 1877; cited in Gercken and Schmidt 2014). Today, the European oyster is considered an endangered species, and the protection and restoration of oyster beds is being pursued - with a focus on the Wadden Sea and the German Bight. The restoration efforts focus, on the one hand, on reproduction and, on the other hand, on the restoration of the habitats (oyster beds). High population densities and water temperatures that are not too cold, which are considered optimal at depths of 20–30 m, are necessary for successful reproduction (Gercken and Schmidt 2014). The European oyster settles on hard surfaces, such as rock, gravel or on biogenic substrates (mussel shells). These can also be artificial, such as offshore wind turbines in the sea. However, for the restoration of oyster stocks, infection by the parasites Bonamia ostreae and Marteilia refringens can also be limiting. Mortality of over 90% due to bonamiosis has been observed, for example, in Ireland (Culloty and Mulcahy 2007). Consequently, care must be taken to ensure healthy organisms when transferring donor populations. For the restoration of stable oyster populations with the aim of species and habitat conservation, the profound experience of economically motivated introduction of larvae or adult oysters can be drawn upon (e.g., Kennedy and Roberts 1999; Laing et  al. 2006; Gercken and Schmidt 2014). However, long periods of up  

312

13

Chapter 13 · Marine Habitats in the North Sea and Baltic Sea

to 25 years must be expected for the restoration of stable populations (Laing et al. 2006; see also Hiscock et al. 2013). This rules out further commercial exploitation of oysters at the restoration sites, primarily in protected areas. Other initiatives to reintroduce species into marine habitats exist for eelgrass vegetation in the Wadden Sea. In the Dutch Wadden Sea, for example, the severe decline of the common eelgrass (Zostera marina) has been countered by attempts to reintroduce it (de Jonge et al. 1996, 2000). Eelgrass stands contribute to biodiversity in coastal areas of the North Sea and Baltic Seas e.g., by providing breeding and feeding habitat for marine fauna (Orth et  al. 1984; Heck et  al. 1995; Boström and Bonsdorff 1997), stabilizing sediment (Gambi et al. 1990) and providing a biological filter (Short et  al. 1984; Fonseca et  al. 2008). Already in the 1930s, a population decline of eelgrass was observed in the Danish Wadden Sea (Jespersen and Rasmussen 1994). In the Dutch Wadden Sea, the decline has been documented from 90 to 150 km2 in the 1930s to less than 1  km2 in the 1970s (de Jonge et al. 2000). Based on greenhouse and field experiments, de Jonge et  al. (1996) suggest initial plantings of eelgrass in the mudflats to a maximum of 40 cm below mean water level in sheltered areas. Initial plantings require a careful analysis of potential restoration sites to ensure establishment success of this rhizome grass (de Jonge et al. 2000; Meyer and Nehring 2006). That plantings or transplants of eelgrass can be successful with appropriate measures has been demonstrated by experiments in the Dutch Wadden Sea (Bos et  al. 2005a) and also outside Europe (e.g., Zhou et al. 2014). With regard to the costs of seagrass restoration, Fonseca et al. (2008) emphasise that monitoring and success control account for the largest budget item (approximately 60%), as this is, performed at a high monitoring standard, very labour-intensive and takes several years.

Attempts to reintroduce marine ­ rganisms (e.g., corals) e.g., through transo plantation, are available also from other marine ecosystems outside Europe and worldwide, respectively. However, MonteroSerra et al. (2017) point out that when reintroducing marine organisms into marine ecosystems, the biology, ecology, and life cycle of the species concerned should be very well known in order to increase the chances of success of ecosystem restoration. 13.6.2  Interventions in the Abiotic

Conditions

The cleaning of the seas from coarse waste, such as plastic objects, is mainly carried out on beaches used for tourism, where the waste is washed ashore. Watercrafts are used for mechanical removal from the water in coastal and port areas or on rivers (e.g., Županski and Gavrilović 2011). For the removal of coarse floating litter on the open sea, there are as yet no concepts that can be implemented on a large scale. This is because the waters are usually international and responsibility is unclear, there is no economic incentive for litter removal, and techniques (e.g., with nets) can also harm marine organisms. Due to the strong oxygen depletion in deeper layers (>70 m) of the Baltic Sea since the 1960s - a consequence of increased nutrient input and associated increase in algal growth (7 Sect. 13.2)  - it is proposed to pump water from less deep layers, which contain more oxygen, into the deeper layers using geoengineering methods (Stigebrandt and Kalén 2013). This would also prevent the remobilization of inorganically dissolved phosphorus under anoxic conditions (Gustafsson et  al. 2012; Stigebrandt et  al. 2014). Initial experiments as part of a 2.5year pilot project were conducted in Byfjord on the Swedish west coast with pumping of oxygenated surface water to deeper layers at  

313 13.6 · Measures for the Restoration of Marine Habitats

ca. 35  m (Stigebrandt et  al. 2015). This increased the oxygen content in the deep water and phosphorus fixation in the sediment. Other proposed methods include sediment removal (equivalent to topsoil removal in terrestrial ecosystems; 7 Sect. 3.3) or chemical binding of phosphorus in sediment. However, Conley (2012) gives to consider that an artificial oxygen supply to the seabed of the entire Baltic Sea would require about 100 pumps, with an operating time of several decades and an estimated financial volume of at least EUR 200 million. This rules out such a measure to oxygenate the seabed on a large scale. Bacteria (e.g., Alcanivorax spec.) that naturally degrade oil can potentially be used against oil spills in water and coastal areas (bioremediation); degradation by indigenous organisms or organisms introduced to the system from outside (bioaugmentation) can be accelerated by nitrogen additions (Lindstrom et  al. 1991; Bragg et al. 1994; Rosenberg et al. 1996; Atlas and Bragg 2009; Kube et  al. 2013). However, there are still considerable knowledge gaps  

13

with regard to the scientific basis (e.g., spatio-temporal degradation processes, bacteria involved, abiotic degradation conditions) and application practice (e.g., Chronopoulou et  al. 2015). Concerns also exist, particularly with the addition of nutrients and chemicals which should accelerate the process of bacterial oil degradation (Swannell et  al. 1996). Eutrophication and contamination of seawater could promote the already existing environmental threats on the seas. The general problem of applying such methods of engineering biology and environmental chemistry to restore ecosystems, which have also led or may lead to ecosystem degradation, is discussed in 7 Chap. 24. A general strategy to reduce pollution in the terrestrial catchment area of the oceans and on the coasts, however, does not solve the problem of waste, nutrients, and pollutants that have already accumulated in the sea and seabed. What is needed here, therefore, are restoration strategies and measures that intervene directly in the marine ­ecosystem.  

315

Lowland and Mountain Heaths Contents 14.1

 egetation Formation Heath and Its Distribution V in Europe – 316

14.2

Origin and Land-Use History of Heathland – 317

14.3

Ecology and Dynamics of Heathland – 320

14.3.1 14.3.2

 limate, Soil, Vegetation, and Fauna – 320 C Development Phases of Calluna Heaths – 325

14.4

Reasons for the Restoration of Heathland – 326

14.5

Restoration Measures – 330

14.5.1

 estoration and Management of Dry Sandy R Lowland Heaths – 330 Restoration of Wet Lowland Heaths – 335 Restoration of Coastal Heaths – 335

14.5.2 14.5.3

14.6

 articular Challenges for the Restoration P and Management of Heaths – 336

14.7

 ase Study: Land Use and Nature Conservation C Between Past, Present, and Future—Restoration of Mountain Heaths in the Hochsauerland – 338

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Zerbe, Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65658-7_14

14

316

Chapter 14 · Lowland and Mountain Heaths

Most people in Central, Western, and Northern Europe probably associate a positive perception with the landscape term “heath”: a wide, open, and quiet landscape that invites people to relax and wander or where animals can be observed grazing, combined with the impression of the heather, which occurs extensively and captivates with its vivid colour in the flowering season. Literature and painting have also been inspired by these impressions. However, heaths are also a good example of how an ecosystem that has been degraded by centuries of land use is now perceived as valuable from a nature conservation and socio-­ economic point of view because of its particular species assemblages, its landscape structure, and its services to society, and therefore, has become under protection and is the subject of ecosystem restoration. The disappearance of vast heathland, which was once widespread in Central Europe, can certainly be seen as a success of sustainable land use, but for nature conservation and socio-economic reasons it is logical to safeguard the remaining heaths and to restore potential heath areas through restoration and appropriate management.

addition, the term “heath” was also used more broadly in historical times, depending on the region. Thus, heath was formerly also understood as uncultivated or non-­ cultivable, forest-free land. In the north-east German lowlands, sparse pine forests are also referred to as “heathland” (Krausch 1969; on the Menzer Heide in Brandenburg, see Zerbe et al. 2000). These vegetation structures can occur naturally in Europe. Most of the heaths in Central Europe, however, are anthropo-­ zoogenic, i.e., they have developed as a result of the interaction between humans and animals over centuries to millennia (Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010). Apart from the natural arctic-alpine heaths in Northern Europe and the subalpine-alpine altitudes of the high mountains, the “Atlantic heaths” are bound to an oceanic climate with mild winters, i.e., they usually occur near the coast. The distribution of Atlantic heaths in Europe is shown in . Fig. 14.1.  

14.1  Vegetation Formation Heath

14

and Its Distribution in Europe

In vegetation ecology, “heathland” refers to open vegetation or land-use structures characterised by a dominance of dwarf shrubs, primarily from the heather family (Ericaceae). In Central Europe, heaths occur on sandy, nutrient-poor substrates, such as in the lowlands of Northern Germany, as well as on nutrient-poor, but also calcareous soils in the mountains. In this forest-free vegetation formation (Schroeder 1998), trees and shrubs occur only sporadically (Hüppe 1993; Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010). However, the term “heath” is also a historical legal term that means pastureland, which was used as common land (Hüppe 2011). In

..      Fig. 14.1  Distribution of Atlantic heaths in Europe. (From Haaland 2002)

14

317 14.2 · Origin and Land-Use History of Heathland

14.2  Origin and Land-Use History

However, the maintenance of open land and the creation of the extensive heathland of Heathland landscapes are largely due to grazing. Due Pollen analytic research reveals that dwarf to the general nutrient deficiency of the shrub heaths as a form of land use by com- heathland, only very frugal grazing animals munities practicing agriculture and animal could be used here, such as the sheep breed husbandry  - especially indicated by the “Heidschnucke” or goats. Occasionally, also increased occurrence of heather (Calluna cattle was found on the pastures. Burning of vulgaris) - were already occurring in Central the heath was applied to improve the quality Europe several millennia ago (Straka 1973; of the forage, to regenerate overaged heaths Hüppe 1993; Schnitzler and Muller 1998; (7 Sect. 14.3), and to suppress the common Behre 2001, 2008). In Western and Central juniper (Juniperus communis subsp. commuEurope, heathlands have expanded mainly nis; see Davies et al. 2008). Traditional heathland management during the Bronze Age and the Roman inserted a fallow period of several years into Imperial Period (Behre 1976b; Prøsch-­ the fields. Accordingly, a 6-year field cultivaDanielsen and Simonsen 2000; Karg 2008; tion was usually followed by a 4-year fallow Doorenbosch and van Mourik 2016). Four period (Keienburg et al. 2004). This can be different, temporally and spatially interreconsidered as a form of ‘passive restoralated modes of heath farming have led to tion’. Traditional heathland farming was large-scale expansion and the emergence of widespread throughout the north-western Central European heathland landscapes over the past centuries: Sod cutting, mow- German lowlands (. Fig.  14.2), but was ing, grazing, and burning (Gorissen 1998; also found in large parts of Atlantic Central, Webb 1998; Keienburg et  al. 2004; Behre Western, and Northern Europe, and thus in 2008; Härdtle et al. 2009). With sod cutting the British Isles, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, and Norway (so-called Plaggen, Plaggenhieb, France, (. Fig. 14.1). Typical of glacial sandy areas, Plaggenstechen), the above-ground biomass, the over-­ e xploitation of heathland and the organic layer, and part of the rooted sandy, nutrient-­ p oor grassland (7 Chap. 16) mineral soil were removed and used as bedin the nineteenth century led to large-scale ding in the stables. Mixed with the manure of the animals, the litter was then applied as vegetation destruction, resulting in the crefertilizer to the cultivated rye (Secale ation of bare sandy soils, so-called cereale), black oat (Avena strigosa) or buck- Sandschellen, and inland dunes (Koopmann wheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) fields and Mertens 2004; Behre 2008). This degra(Keienburg et al. 2004). In order to be able dation of heathland and a concurrent lack to easily obtain the manure, the grazing ani- of timber resources then, led to large-scale mals were brought into the barn at night and afforestation (7 Sect. 7.1). For the period of sometimes also during the day (Koopmann maximum distribution of heathland in and Mertens 2004). Hüppe (1995) empha- Central and Western Europe about 150 years sises the large area of land required for this ago, Ellenberg and Leuschner (2010), based type of farming (see also Behre 2008). on data from Graebner (1925) and de Smidt 2 Accordingly, a farming family needed up to (1979), estimate areas of up to 10,000 km in2 200 ha of land for this spatio-temporal land- north-western Germany and about 6000 km use cycle. In addition, the above-ground bio- in the Netherlands. With the development of regulated formass was removed by mowing and also used estry since the middle of the nineteenth cenas bedding, fodder for the animals or for tury, heathland in Central and Western roofing.  

 

 

 

 

318

Chapter 14 · Lowland and Mountain Heaths

..      Fig. 14.2  The decline of heathland landscapes from ca. 1800 to the year 2000. (From Härdtle et al. 2009, modified after Assmann and Janssen 1999)

14

Europe was afforested with fast-growing conifers, in the lowlands mostly with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and in the low mountain ranges with Norway spruce (Picea abies; 7 Sect. 7.1). This contributed significantly to the decline of open heathland (for the Netherlands see Verhagen 2007), although the historical land use is often still reflected today by the herb and shrub layer of the afforestation (. Fig. 14.3). Moreover, heaths often developed on moorland sites after interventions in the water balance and subsequent buckwheat-­ fire culture (Keienburg et  al. 2004; 7 Sect. 8.1). Since the vegetation of these wet ­heathlands was hardly suitable for grazing, the organic layer was cut and used either as  

 

 

..      Fig. 14.3  Juniper bushes and dwarf shrubs in the herb and shrub layer of pine afforestations as indicators of former open land and heathland vegetation in the Gottesheide in eastern Mecklenburg-­Vorpommern. (S. Zerbe, May 2007)

319 14.2 · Origin and Land-Use History of Heathland

14

fuel or as stable litter (Küster 1995; Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010). In addition to this traditional heath farming, many heaths also developed indirectly through the non-sustainable management and over-exploitation of forests and forest sites (7 Sect. 7.1). Since the Middle Ages, litter use in forests, forest grazing, and unregulated logging for firewood and timber production have led to the development of large areas of heath vegetation in heavily

thinned forests and on degraded forest sites, respectively. The increase in frequency and abundance of heather (C. vulgaris) due to the increasing land use and especially the traditional heathland farming with sod cutting, combined with a decline of forests, can be reconstructed by pollen analyses, as shown by Behre (2008) for Northern Germany (. Fig.  14.4). Heaths are found today, in addition to extensive sandy dry grasslands (7 Chap. 16), also on former or

..      Fig. 14.4  Averaged and selected pollen diagram for north-western Germany with woody plants and a selection of settlement and land-use indicators (from Behre 2008); the increase in heather (C. vulgaris),

combined with a decline in forest tree species (especially beech), clearly indicates the increase in land use over a wide area since the Middle Ages. (From Behre 2008)

 

 

 

320

Chapter 14 · Lowland and Mountain Heaths

currently used military training areas in the glacially formed landscapes of north-­eastern Germany (Deutscher Rat für Landespflege 1993; Zerbe et  al. 2004; Ellwanger et  al. 2012).

14.3  Ecology and Dynamics

of Heathland

14.3.1  Climate, Soil, Vegetation,

and Fauna

14

According to Gimingham et al. (1979), the typical climate of Atlantic heaths can be characterised as humid to oceanic with mild winters and relatively long spring and autumn seasons. Mean annual precipitation is generally between 600 and 1100 mm, with no prolonged drought periods. The mean temperature of the warmest month is below 22 °C, and at least 4 months have a temperature mean above 10 °C. Montane heaths, in contrast, occur under the climatic conditions of typical Central European low mountain ranges, with a mean annual precipitation of at least 1000  mm, a mean annual air temperature of about 5–7 °C, and a distinct winter, usually with snow cover. The heathland vegetation is dominated by dwarf shrubs (life form chamaephytes) both, in the species assemblage and in the vegetation cover; hemicryptophytes also dominate. Mean species numbers of higher plants usually remain low; however, depending on the development phases (see below), numerous moss and lichen species may occur. Many of the typical plant species of anthropo-zoogenic heaths have their natural occurrences in sparse coniferous and mixed deciduous forests, on natural heaths or forest-­ free, nutrient-poor mires. These include, in particular, the shrubs and dwarf shrubs heather (C. vulgaris), black crowberry (Empetrum nigrum agg.), bell heather (Erica cinerea), common juniper (J. commu-

nis subsp. communis), blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) and cranberry (V. vitis-idaea), and stiff club moss (Lycopodium annotinum), the fern species deer fern (Blechnum spicant), common polypody (Polypodium vulgare), and bracken (Pteridium aquilinum), the grasses common bent (Agrostis capillaris), wavy hair-grass (Deschampsia flexuosa), sheep’s fescue (Festuca ovina agg.), common woodrush (Luzula multiflora subsp. multiflora), and hairy woodrush (L. pilosa) as well as purple moor-grass (Molinia caerulea agg.), the herbs heath bedstraw (Galium saxatile), common cow-wheat (Melampyrum pratense), wood sorrel (Oxalis acetosella), Arctic starflower (Trientalis europaea), heath speedwell (Veronica officinalis), and dog-violet (Viola riviniana) as well as the bryophytes Dicranum scoparium, Hypnum cupressiforme, Leucobryum glaucum, Lophocolea bidentata, Mnium hornum, Pleurozium schreberi, Polytrichum formosum, Ptilidium ciliare, Ptilium crista-­ castrensis, Rhytidiadelphus loreus, R. triquetrus, Scleropodium purum, and numerous lichen species such as e.g., of the genus Cladonia. In Central, Western, and Northern Europe, four vegetation types of heaths can be differentiated (see e.g., Schaminée et  al. 1995, 1996; Wilmanns 1998; Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010): 1. Outside the forest climate, the natural arctic-alpine heaths (Cetrario-­ Loiseleurietea) are found in high mountain altitudes or in the tundra on mostly siliceous soils. Extreme site conditions result, among other factors, from the fact that the sites are frequently blown free of snow cover by the wind during winter, thus removing the protection of the snow. The various Ericaceae species are accompanied by eightpetal mountainavens (Dryas octopetala), alpine azalea (Kalmia procumbens), hermaphrodite crowberry (Empetrum hermaphroditum), dwarf birch (Betula nana), and dwarf

14

321 14.3 · Ecology and Dynamics of Heathland

juniper (Juniperus communis subsp. nana), often interspersed with a high proportion of lichens (e.g., Cetraria spec., Cladonia spec.). Intensive recreational use, especially through winter sports and intensive grazing, represent significant factors of threat. Even minor damages to the vegetation cover e.g., by animal or human trampling and by skiing, can rapidly spread and lead to more extensive damage (Körner 1980; Wilmanns 1998). Due to the extreme ecological site conditions and the specific adaptation of plant and animal species to this habitat, there have been hardly any approaches and measures for restoration to date (Hagen 2002; Aradottir 2012; 7 Sect. 9.2). 2. In the Atlantic, humid climate of Central, Western, and Northern Europe, the edaphically dry heaths are found with the phytosociological associations Calluno-­Genistion pilosae (broom heaths) and Empetrion nigri (crowberry heaths). In the broom heaths, the broom species Genista pilosa, G. anglica, and G. germanica occur. In addition to the heathers, shrubs, such as common juniper (J. communis subsp. communis), common gorse (Ulex europaeus), and Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) are also found, depending on the succession stage and the intensity of use. The dry heaths encompass natural stages that occur in the course of succession on dunes (coastal heaths with mainly E. nigrum agg.) and can develop without anthropogenic intervention e.g., on the north-east German coasts via pine forests into mixed deciduous forests of beech and oak (. Fig.  14.5). In particular, however, land-use-induced vegetation formation is found in inland heath landscapes. In the past, these dry sandy heaths, mostly poor in species of higher plants, represented the largest proportion of heathland in the lowlands. Today, the  

 

..      Fig. 14.5  Natural coastal heath with Calluna vulgaris, within a succession mosaic of sandy dry grassland and pine regeneration on the Darß. (S.  Zerbe, August 2005)

Lüneburg Heath Nature Reserve and the Veluwe National Park in the Netherlands are among the largest relicts of this anthropo-zoogenic vegetation type. Grasses, such as matgrass (Nardus stricta), wavy hair-grass (D. flexuosa), heath grass (Danthonia decumbens), and common bent (A. capillaris) typically belong to this dwarf shrub formation. Grass encroachment occurs when, for example, high atmogenic nitrogen inputs lead to eutrophication (7 Sect. 14.6). Ellenberg and Leuschner (2010) contrast the sandy heaths on podzol soils with the clay heaths (Genisto-Callunetum molinietosum), which have a better water and nutrient supply due to fine sand, silt, and clay in the soil, respectively, and thus bridge to the wet heaths. Therefore, in addition to the purple moorgrass (M. caerulea agg.), more nutrient-­demanding plant species occur here, such as leopard’s bane (Arnica montana), viper’s-­ grass (Scorzonera humilis) or lesser butterfly-­orchid (Platanthera bifolia s.l.). Clay heaths formerly were and today are rare, however, as these sites were mostly used for ­ agriculture due to the better nutrient supply. 3. In the low mountain ranges, such as the Hochsauerland and Weserbergland, and  

322

14

Chapter 14 · Lowland and Mountain Heaths

the montane altitudes of the Alps, anthropo-zoogenic mountain heaths of berry dwarf shrubs (Vaccinion myrtilli) are found on acidic and nutrient-­poor substrates over e.g., red sandstone, slate, and quartz porphyry, which would naturally be covered with deciduous or mixed deciduous-coniferous forests (e.g., Schubert 1960; Geringhoff and Daniëls 2003). Here, predominantly dwarf shrubs of the genus Vaccinium, such as V. myrtillus and V. vitis-idaea, and on wetter sites bog blueberry (V. uliginosum s. l.), are found, which were able to spread from their natural habitats in the mountain woodlands onto the heaths (Küster 1995). The mountain heaths were used for litter gathering and grazed by sheep, goats, and cattle. With decreasing use or land-use abandonment, succession to forest usually proceeds via pioneer trees, such as silver birch (Betula pendula), aspen (Populus tremula) or rowan (Sorbus aucuparia; Zerbe 2001). 4. Wet heaths are found on transitional sites from dry heaths and mires, both inland and coastal. In these oligotrophic moor heaths (Ericion tetralicis), the bell heath (Erica tetralix) dominates. Accompanying species may be bog asphodel (Narthecium ossifragum), heath rush (Juncus squarrosus), marsh Labrador tea (Rhododendron tomentosum), and bog myrtle (Myrica gale). Peat mosses (e.g., Sphagnum compactum, S. molle) may also occur here. Most of the wet heaths were created by clearing wetland and peatland forests, respectively. Accordingly, they develop towards woodland without further use or appropriate management, although this is usually slower than on dry heaths (Schaminée et al. 1996). The vegetation of wet heaths and dry heaths may occur mosaic-like due to a small-scale terrain relief with hollows and higher elevation patches. Wet heaths dominated by E. tetralix were

commonly occurring mainly in northwestern Germany, England, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Southern Sweden (Malmer 1965; Zonneveld 1965; de Smidt 1966; Schaminée et al. 1995), but have been often drained for grassland use (Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010). Although, the dwarf shrub heaths and grassdominated matgrass grasslands (class Nardo-Callunetea) have much in common in terms of flora and habitat characteristics, and often occur in close spatial proximity (Preising 1949; Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010), the latter are presented separately in 7 Chap. 15. For nutrient-poor, sandy soils far from groundwater in north-western Germany, Ellenberg and Leuschner (2010) illustrate the emergence of heaths under grazing with sheep and without grazing, as well as succession back to natural deciduous forest after abandonment (. Fig.  14.6); the various succession stages can be restored and permanently maintained by appropriate management, respectively. Heathland soils are generally very nutrient poor and acidic due to land use, with pH values of around 3.5–5.5 and a high carbon-­ nitrogen ratio. Soil types include podzols, oligotrophic brown earths, gleys rich in humus, rankers or peats, depending on the degree of moisture or waterlogging. Above the mineral soil, there are often thick layers of raw humus. Vegetation is determined by low nitrogen and phosphorus availability (Heil and Diemont 1983; Caporn et al. 1995; Härdtle et al. 2009). The nutrient dynamics on anthropogenic heaths are influenced by natural material flows of soil weathering, decomposition of organic matter and leaching, but particularly by the anthropo-­zoogenic impact of grazing, the removal of organic topsoil (sod cutting), controlled burning and, especially nowadays, also by nutrient inputs from the air (. Fig. 14.7).  

 

 

14

323 14.3 · Ecology and Dynamics of Heathland

Natural high forest Luzulo-Fagetum

plantation of broad-leaved trees pine plantation with broad-leaved second layer

,Coppice („Stühbusch“) Betulo-Quercetum

Pine plantation Pinus sylvestris

Juniper stage Juniperus communis; clear-cut or burnt stage

Dwarf shrub heath Genisto-Callunetum

senescent stage (with much Cladonia) regeneration stage Cut heath patches

colonisation by pine or birch

CallunaJuniperus stage

Eutrophication grass-dominated heath

Nardus stage Grassland fallow Festuca ovina stage:

BEE KEEPING fallow arable field (with dense weed stand) TURVES USED AS LITTER IN STABLES

Arable f ield manured with heath turves, with weed community Arnoseretum

Arable field with high mineral fertilizer input, very few weeds

Rye, oats, buckwheat, potatoes

Mainly potatoes, beets, wheat etc.

With sheep grazing

Without pasturing

..      Fig. 14.6  Vegetation development on sandy soils far from groundwater, naturally covered by nutrient-­ poor beech forests (Luzulo-Fagetum) in the north-­ western German lowlands with sheep grazing (left) and without grazing (right) and after abandonment. Possible restoration trajectories after land-use abandonment or the degradation of the land-use system

with a corresponding restoration of near-natural vegetation (forest) or various traditional land-use types (heath, arable land) and certain succession stages, for which experiences from scientific studies and restoration practice are available, are shown with red arrows. (From Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010, red arrows added)

The heather (C. vulgaris), typical of lowland heaths, roots in the upper organic layer, where it can access organic phosphorus and nitrogen sources with the help of ericoid mycorrhiza (Read 1996; Genney et al. 2002). It is, therefore, optimally adapted to sites where nutrients are mainly available in the organic layer and the upper sandy mineral soil is washed out and thus nutrient poor. This competitive advantage is shifted in favor of grasses (e.g., N. stricta) with arbuscular mycorrhiza when nitrogen is intro-

duced e.g., from the air or through fertilization (Terry et  al. 2004; Garg and Chandel 2010). Härdtle et al. (2009) highlight the significance of heathlands for nature conservation with regard to their characteristic fauna. Among vertebrates, numerous animal species use heathland as a habitat, even if they are not exclusively dependent on it. One of the most prominent bird species that use heathland as part of their habitat is the black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix). The habitat of

324

14

Chapter 14 · Lowland and Mountain Heaths

..      Fig. 14.7 Nutrient cycling in anthropogenic heathland ecosystems with nutrient stocks in living and dead biomass and mineral soil, nutrient inputs and losses. To nutrient losses must be added, in the

case of Central European heaths, periodically carried out choppering and sod cutting (7 Sect. 14.2). (According to Gimingham 1972)

the black grouse is characterised by a mosaic of open and wooded areas, which was characteristic of the traditionally used cultural landscape (Cramp and Simmons 1980; Baines 1990; Flade 1994). With the separation and intensification of agricultural and forestry land, suitable habitats for the black grouse have greatly diminished, so that the remnants of heathland are valuable refuges for this internationally protected species (IUCN 2016). The open landscape character also provides habitat for numerous other bird species, such as Eurasian skylark (Alauda arvensis), meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis), great grey shrike (Lanius excubitor), whinchat (Saxicola rubetra), European stonechat (S. rubicola), woodlark (Lullula arborea), European nightjar (Caprimulgus

europaeus), and Northern wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe). In the wet heaths, breeding birds include the Eurasian curlew (Numenius arquata) and the common snipe (Gallinago gallinago; Härdtle et al. 2009). Furthermore, some reptiles are mentioned that use heathland as a habitat, such as the sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) and the common European adder (Vipera berus). Amphibians such as e.g., the moor frog (Rana arvalis) or the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita), can be found in small water bodies and ponds on dry heaths or on wet heaths. Among the invertebrates, some insects are bound to heaths. Flea beetle (Altica longicollis), the tussock moth (Orygia antiquoides), heather beetle (Lochmaea suturalis), and silver-studded blue (Plebejus

 

14

325 14.3 · Ecology and Dynamics of Heathland

argus) are mentioned as phytophagous insects on dwarf shrubs (Härdtle et al. 2009). Other invertebrate species are linked to specific plant species of the heaths e.g., the Alcon blue (Phengaris alcon), which develops on the marsh gentian (Gentiana pneumonanthe; Habel et  al. 2007). The two bee species Andrena fuscipes and Colletes succinctus collect pollen on C. vulgaris and are parasitized by the cuckoo bees Epeolus cruciger and Nomada rufipes, which distinguishes these species as specific to Calluna heaths (Stuke 1997). Along with the numerous ground beetle species, the occurrence of the heath ground beetle (Carabus nitens), one of the most endangered ground beetle species in Central Europe, on dry and wet heaths is particularly highlighted (Assmann and Janssen 1999). The number of insect species occurring on heathland depends on the succession state, management, and structural heterogeneity of the landscape (e.g., Littlewood et al. 2006). The occurrence, for example, of the ground beetle species Bembidion nigricorne and Cymindis (Tarsostinus) macularis is promoted by sod cutting, whereas of C. nitens and Nebria salina is supported by mowing (den Boer and van Dijk 1994). Although, the number of higher plant species on Calluna heaths is rather low compared to other habitat types, this is not necessarily true for animal species. Usher (1992), for example, highlights the high species numbers of ground beetles and spiders of heathlands in England, accounting for 15% and 20%, respectively, of the countrywide species pool of these animal groups there. 14.3.2  Development Phases

of Calluna Heaths

Typical for Calluna heaths is their dynamics, which according to Gimingham (1972, 1988; see also Watt 1955; Kvamme et al. 2004) is differentiated into four phases (see also

Gimingham and Miller 1968; Gimingham et al. 1979). These phases differ in terms of their microclimates, mean species numbers of higher plants, mosses, and lichens, animal communities, productivity, and heather regeneration. The occurrence and population densities of some plant and animal species are characteristic of certain development phases e.g., the heath ground beetle (7 Sect. 14.3.1) for the building phase (Assmann and Janssen 1999; see also Usher and Thompson 1993): 1. In the pioneer phase (up to approximately 6  years), C. vulgaris establishes from seeds. The vegetation cover of the dwarf shrub layer is still very patchy (25  years), the cover of Calluna decreases strongly (up to 70%)

Herbaceous vegetation in larger proportions low-growing (30–70%)

Herbaceous vegetation only on partial areas low-growing ( 50%) Spread of non-native species (A = largely absent, B = in small proportions of area, C = in larger proportions of area) Encroachment with shrubs and trees Afforestation Abandonment of management or land use Fragmentation effects No impairments

Minor to small-scale impairment

Severe and large-scale impairment

A = excellent status, B = good status, C = medium to poor status

14

14.5  Restoration Measures

14.5.1  Restoration

In principle, a distinction must be made between the restoration of degraded heathland, such as grassy or over-aged heathland (. Table  14.2: Conservation status C), or the restoration of heathland on sites that have been converted to arable land, grassland or forest (mostly coniferous afforestation) after the end of traditional heathland farming (. Table  14.3), and the management of existing heathland. Nevertheless, the measures and procedures, respectively, are largely identical. While individual conservation efforts to preserve heathland date back to the 1930s (e.g., Schubert et al. 2008), extensive experience on the restoration and management of heathland has been available from science and practice for about three decades.

The restoration and management of anthropo-zoogenic sandy heaths of the lowlands basically follows the traditional measures of heath farming and consequently applies grazing, mowing, sod cutting (= topsoil removal), and controlled burning. Grazing, mowing, and sod cutting prevent succession towards woodland. On the one hand, the intensity of grazing should halt forest succession, but on the other hand, it must neither impair the growth of the dwarf shrubs nor the development phases of the heath vegetation in the long term. Accordingly, grazing densities for sheep of 0.8 to 1.5 and for cattle 5  m) after 13  years, no shrub or forest development could be observed on the slag of a steelwork during this observation period. On extreme sites (e.g., mining dumps), it may therefore be necessary to use accelerating measures, such as planting, seeding, humus application or inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi when re-­ establishing vegetation cover (7 Sect. 20.3). On fallow land created during World War II in German cities (Trümmerschuttstandorte), often an urban secondary forest has developed, provided that they have not been rebuilt after 1945. Both the novel, anthropogenic substrates and the often high proportion of non-native plant species (neophytes) give rise to emerging and novel ecosystems, respectively (Hobbs et al. 2006; Kowarik 2011) that did not yet exist in the natural or traditional cultural landscape. After the Second World War, black locust forests (Robinia pseudacacia) developed spontaneously over several decades in the “Diplomatenviertel” in the centre of Berlin, protected by the particular location and the political situation of a divided city. Due to the symbiosis of black locust with atmospheric nitrogen-fixing bacteria, a specific herbaceous and shrub vegetation with e.g., stinging nettle (Urtica dioica),  

19

Chapter 19 · Urban Ecosystems

great celandine (Chelidonium majus), cleavers (Galium aparine), and black elderberry (Sambucus nigra) has developed under this legume (Kowarik and Körner 2005). Thus, a kind of urban wilderness has developed via passive restoration (Kowarik 2017). In the past two decades, this development trend can also be observed on derelict industrial sites such as e.g., in the Ruhr area (see above and Rebele and Dettmar 1996; Rebele 2009). If one considers ecosystem restoration in cities in the broadest sense as the restoration of elements or compartments of natural and near-natural ecosystems with their corresponding services, then facade and roof greening must also be included in this. The vertical and horizontal greening of residential buildings can have a positive effect on the urban micro- and meso-climate e.g., by lowering the surface temperature due to cooling, reducing the heat flow through the walls due to the formation of air pockets between plants and house surfaces, or by reducing air pollution due to deposition on the plant surfaces (Kuttler 1998). Practical guidance on facade and roof greening can be found in numerous textbooks, review studies, and manuals (e.g., Althaus 1987; Köhler 1993; Dunnett and Kingsbury 2008; Hopkins and Goodwin 2011; Tabb and Deviren 2013; Tsarouhas 2014; Tan and Jim 2017).

19.5 

 ew Approaches to Urban N Greening and the Restoration of Urban Nature

For some years, the re-introduction of kitchen gardens and urban farming (urban gardening, urban food systems) for the production of fruit and vegetables in urban environments has been gaining in importance, which in the broadest sense can also be considered as ecosystem restoration. However, this should only be applied to approaches that do not use the means of

435 19.5 · New Approaches to Urban Greening and the Restoration of Urban Nature

intensive agriculture, i.e., the application of mineral fertilizers and especially pesticides, in order to increase production. Meanwhile, there are numerous approaches worldwide to regenerate or generate production areas for agricultural products, both horizontally and vertically, using the walls of buildings as additional production areas (Armstrong 2000; Smit et  al. 2001; Caridad Cruz and Sánchez Medina 2003; Van Veenhuizen 2006; Nordahl 2009; Redwood 2009; Rojas-­ Valencia et al. 2011; Krasny 2012; de Zeeuw and Drechsel 2015). Urban agriculture, also supported by international initiatives and agreements, such as the Milan Urban Food Policy Pact concluded in 2015 (FAO 2016b), can have multiple facets. Urban residents, for example, have adopted the abandoned airport in Berlin-Tempelhof as a production area for agricultural products, among other diverse leisure activities (. Fig. 19.8). Under keywords such as “new urbanity”, “local diversity”, “rediscovery of togetherness”, and “renaissance of do-it-­yourself”, urban gardens are being created that not only contribute to the greening of city centres but also positively influence social life in urban areas (Müller 2011). Intercultural gardens represent a special form, promoting communication, integration, and social interaction between different cultures, especially against  

the background of migration (Müller 2005, 2007; Neuner 2009; Moulin-Doos 2014). These novel forms of urban agriculture and urban gardening also find their historical models in the allotment garden movement with their origin in the nineteenth century (Evert 2001; Landesverband Berlin der Gartenfreunde e.V 2001; Doppler 2009). Gardening schools (Gartenarbeitsschulen) and school gardens are of particular importance for environmental education from childhood onwards (Birkenbeil 1999; Krüger-­Danielson et  al. 2010; von der Lühe and WolschkeBulmahn 2013; Lehnert et al. 2016). Originally a form of political protest and civil disobedience in public space, guerrilla gardening has evolved into urban gardening or urban agriculture, with which residents enhance their urban environment and, above all, fallow land according to their own ideas (Krasny 2012). Russo et  al. (2017) provide an overview of different approaches to edible green infrastructure. This concept goes far beyond the sole production of agricultural products and particularly includes other ecosystem services, such as environmental education. . Table  19.4 provides an overview of the different types of green infrastructure in cities. However, Russo et al. (2017) also highlight the problems or ‘ecosystem disservices’ associated with the production and use of agricultural products in urban environments (7 Sect. 19.2). These include, for example, contaminated soils and agricultural products, emissions of pollen and biogenic volatile organic compounds by plants, costs and fuel consumption of ecosystem management, increased water use, and the contamination of public spaces and hazards from fruit or leaf drop and branch breakage (Escobedo et  al. 2011; Pataki et  al. 2011; Dobbs et al. 2014; von Hoffen and Säumel 2014; Mitchell et  al. 2014; Warming et  al. 2015; Mårtensson et al. 2016). Even though some of these aspects must be taken very seriously, especially in the practice of sustainable urban development and with a view  

 

..      Fig. 19.8  New forms of urban agriculture and horticulture in public spaces, using the example of the former airport Berlin-Tempelhof. (S.  Zerbe, August 2017)

19

436

Chapter 19 · Urban Ecosystems

..      Table 19.4  Types of “edible green infrastructure” with a short description. (Modified after Russo et al. 2017)

19

Types of “edible green infrastructure”

Description

Ecosystem and land-use types

References

Edible urban forests and edible urban greening, urban food forestry

Woody plants or vegetation with fruit and nut trees

Parks, streets, and public spaces

Konijnendijk et al. (2006) and Clark and Nicholas (2013)

Edible forest gardens

Agroforestry systems with trees and ground vegetation for the production of fruit, vegetables, aromatic herbs, and ornamental plants

Private gardens

Perera and Rajapakse (1991), Jacke and Toensmeier (2005), and Kumar and Nair (2004)

Historic gardens and parks and botanical gardens

Gardens and parks with a composition of ornamental and edible plants for aesthetic purposes, environmental education, species protection and science

Private villas and residences, palaces and castles, landscape parks, public spaces, universities

e.g., Ehler (2003), LUA (2005), and Palliwoda et al. (2017)

Domestic gardens

Gardens directly associated to residential buildings

Private houses, housing estates, private areas

Cameron et al. (2012)

School gardens

Garden areas on the grounds of schools for environmental education and horticultural activities

Public or private schools

Lehnert et al. (2016)

Allotment gardens and community gardens

Parcelled land in the urban area for individual or community, non-­commercial use

Public or private grounds and yards

Alaimo et al. (2008) and Breuste and Artmann (2015)

Edible green roofs and vegetable raingardens

Green roofs on specific roof constructions, rain gardens as basins for the filtered collection of rainwater

Private and public buildings, schools, hospitals

Köhler (1993) and GSA (2011)

Facade greening

Climbing plants (e.g., cucumbers, pumpkins) on walls and “living walls”, respectively

Private and public buildings, schools, hospitals

Manso and Castro Gomes (2015) and Raji et al. (2015)

to human health (e.g., heavy metal pollution), the impression must not be given that urban greenery or urban ecosystems pose a danger to humans in principle (see Shapiro and Báldi 2014; Lyytimäki 2015; Conway and Yip 2016; Conway and Jalali 2017). Especially for the cities of Central Europe,

sufficient scientific evidence and practical recommendations are already available to find a sustainable and viable balance of services and disservices of ecosystems and ecosystem compartments in the context of urban green planning (e.g., Vogt et al. 2017; Speak et al. 2018).

437 19.7 · Case Study: Wilderness in the City Centre—The Schöneberger…

19.6 

International Perspective on Sustainable Urban Development

If the focus here is on Central European cities, it should not be overlooked that in many metropolises in Central and South America, Africa, and Asia, hardly any minimum standards of ecologically-oriented and sustainable urban development are achieved. One in six people on earth, for example, has no access to clean drinking water, and around 1.5 million people die each year as a result of contaminated drinking water (European Parliament 2011; see, Winkler 2014). Urban sprawl (Frumkin et al. 2004) as uncontrolled (and often unplanned) growth of cities into the surrounding countryside, lack of wastewater treatment, lack of urban waste management, rapidly progressing sealing or destruction of urban green spaces, and serious social disparities, which are also expressed in an unequal distribution of health resources (e.g., Hilmers et  al. 2012, Zerbe 2022), are major challenges in megacities on a global scale (Sorensen and Okata 2011). Simply transferring knowledge to the regions concerned on how to improve living conditions through environmental protection and ecosystem restoration would already be an important step.

19.7 

Case Study: Wilderness in the City Centre—The Schöneberger Südgelände in Berlin

The Schöneberger Südgelände is located in the Tempelhof-Schöneberg district of Berlin and has a history of many decades as a railway area. Initially used as a marshalling yard since the 1880s, a large-scale railway station Berlin-Südbahnhof was planned in the 1930s. However, its construction was never realized with the end of the Second

19

World War and the new political situation of Berlin and Germany as well as the special legal ownership of the area (Deutsche Reichsbahn). Instead, in the following decades, operations as a marshalling yard were resumed on a partial area. The planned extension of the railway use in the 1980s to the southern area, which had already become overgrown due to the natural succession of trees, was not implemented. Thus, the former railway area gained increasing importance as green space, urban wilderness, and local recreation area, also against the background of the post-war political situation of a divided city in the years 1945 to 1989. In 1999, the Protected Area Ordinance came into force, designating the Schöneberger Südgelände Nature Park with a total of about 18 ha as a landscape conservation area (12.9  ha) and parts of the area as a nature reserve (3.2 ha) and thus, as one of the first nature reserves in Germany in an inner-city area (Kowarik and Langer 2008). Mohrmann (2002) states the costs for planning, development, and implementation of the nature park at approximately 3.6 million German marks (= approximately 1.8 million €) and emphasises that the costs for this green space were thus only about 15% of the investment costs for conventional green spaces. In the meantime, it has been well documented by a large number of expert reports and research projects on ecology, species and habitat protection, and urban climate (see Sukopp 1990; literature database “Ökogrube” of the Senatsverwaltung für Umwelt, Verkehr und Klimaschutz Berlin 2008) that the Schöneberger Südgelände offers a valuable contrast to the densely populated and sealed areas in the inner city of metropolitan Berlin, not only with its biodiversity of plants, animals, lichens, and fungi, but also structurally and with regard to the positive influence on the urban climate. It is noteworthy that organisms occur there that one would not necessarily expect

438

Chapter 19 · Urban Ecosystems

..      Table 19.5  Species numbers of selected species groups on the Schöneberger Südgelände. (According to Kowarik and Langer 2008, Elvers et al. 1981 and various expert reports)

..      Table 19.6  Shift in the proportion of herbaceous vegetation to woody stands between 1981 and 1991. (From Kowarik and Langer 2008) Area size and vegetation

1981

1991

Investigated area size [ha]

22.4

20.0

Vegetation area studied [ha = 100%]

21.6

19.1

28

Macro-fungi

49

Herbaceous vegetation [%]

63.5

30.9

Grasshoppers and crickets

14

Woody vegetation [%]

36.5

69.1

Ground beetles

45

Dominant tree species [%]

Spiders

57

Black locust

11.2

21.3

Wild bees and wasps

208

Silver birch

13.7

23.8

Aspen

1.3

2.3

Norway and sycamore maple

0.2

1.4

10.1

15.0

Species group

Species number

Vascular plants

366

Breeding birds

in the interior of large cities, such as e.g., 11 epigeic and epiphytic lichen species, the spider species Nesticus eremita (Elvers et  al. 1981) and, since a few years, the European praying mantis (Mantis religiosa; Köstler, pers. comm.). Kowarik and Langer (2008) provide an overview of the species diversity of the Schöneberger Südgelände (. Table  19.5) and thus, demonstrate the nature conservation value of the area (see also Kowarik 1992; Prasse and Ristow 1995; Saure 2001). The dynamic development of this inner-­ city fallow land is very well documented. Kowarik and Langer (2008; see also Kowarik and Langer 1994), for example, quantify the succession of shrubs and forests between 1980 and 1990, showing that the proportion of forest and shrub vegetation in terms of area share doubled in only 10 years (. Table  19.6). In particular, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), which originates from North America and is spreading rapidly in inner cities in Central Europe, and the native silver birch (Betula pendula) as well as the aspen (Populus tremula) have benefited from this development (. Fig. 19.9). Oregon grape (Mahonia aquifolium) and yew (Taxus baccata) have been established from the

Other tree species [%]

 

 

19

 

..      Fig. 19.9  Succession towards urban forests on the Schöneberger Südgelände. (S. Zerbe, September 2017)

adjacent gardens. Today, the Schöneberger Südgelände is characterized by an extraordinary richness of trees and shrubs, including in addition to the species already mentioned - walnut (Juglans regia), Swedish whitebeam (Sorbus intermedia), the maple species Acer pseudoplatanus, A. platanoides, A. campestre, and A. negundo, common ash (Fraxinus excelsior), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), field elm (Ulmus minor), sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides), wild fruit

439 19.7 · Case Study: Wilderness in the City Centre—The Schöneberger…

19

(pear and apple), sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), and numerous berry bushes of the genus Rubus. For about 8 years, natural regeneration of beech (Fagus sylvatica) has been occasionally observed. Since 1997, vegetation monitoring has been carried out on the area, including over 100 permanent plots, in order to document the development of the vegetation, the population dynamics, and the increase or decrease of species worthy of protection such as e.g., the hawkweeds Hieracium bauhini, Hieracium cymosiforme, and Hieracium glomeratum as well as the endangered rose species eglantine rose (Rosa rubiginosa), dog rose (R. subcanina), and false hedge rose (Rosa subcollina). Furthermore, with this monitoring the effects of the restoration and management measures should be assessed (Köstler 2015). Since 2004, parts of the area have been grazed by Gotland pelt (sheep breed from Sweden) to keep it open (. Fig.  19.10), accompanied by mowing and clearing of shrubs and trees (1 m

Material and time consuming, wide foreland required

Soil cover 10  t/ha) and thus, to a value of greenhouse gas reduction of about EUR 30 million per year. This economic benefit will be further increased by extending the Peatland Protection Programme to other peatland and wetland areas, especially if peatland protection can be combined with sustainable agricultural and forestry use options (e.g., “paludiculture”; see, Wichtmann et al. 2016) without losing sight of the overarching environmental and nature conservation goals (see, BfN 2014; 7 Sect. 8.8). According to calculations by Wüstemann et  al. (2014), climate-related damage amounting to EUR 217 million annually could be avoided in Germany alone with a national programme of peatland protection and restoration on approximately 300,000  ha of peatland area (see also,  

 

503 23.6 · Costs and Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration with Examples from Europe

Wüstemann et al. 2017). According to Röder and Grützmacher (2012), about 940,000 ha of peatlands are currently used for agriculture, of which about 75% is grassland. Similar economic studies on the contribution of peatland restoration to climate change mitigation are available from other countries. Even if the increase in methane emissions after rewetting (7 Sect. 8.7.1) is taken into account (for Scotland, see e.g. Chapman et al. 2012), the balance of greenhouse gas reduction should be positive. Röder and Grützmacher (2012) conclude that “the rewetting of peatlands […] is a low-cost option for reducing greenhouse gases in Germany”. The avoidance of more than 21 million tonnes of CO2 equivalents would result in costs of EUR 835 million in the short term. Röder and Grützmacher (2012) hereby compare the promotion of energy production by biogas with at least 1.6 billion EUR per year (reference year 2009), which in the most favourable case led to a saving of 8.22 million t CO2 equivalents. Based on a socio-economic study on the implementation of climate-friendly peatland management in Germany, Schaller (2015) concludes that “an implementation of climate-friendly peatland management should rather take the form of the complete and optimised restoration of peatlands than via small extensification steps”. According to a study commissioned by the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (see, BfN 2014), Matzdorf et al. (2010) and Reutter and Matzdorf (2013) determined that the ploughing up of 5% species-­ rich grassland (high nature value grassland) to arable land in Germany results in climate-­ damaging emissions that, converted into damage costs, correspond to a value of up to approximately EUR 1500 per ha and year or a total of EUR 436 million per year based on an approach of avoidance costs of EUR 70 per tonne of CO2. In addition, the management of arable land leads to an increased release of nutrients, which in turn leads to the contamination of groundwater and sur 

23

face waters; to prevent this, approximately EUR 40–120 per ha would have to be spent annually. In addition to climate protection as an ecosystem service of grassland, a willingness to pay for species-rich habitats can be added, which was estimated here at approximately 1000 EUR per ha and per year. Agricultural production on species-­ rich grassland is lower compared to arable land, which has been estimated at a loss of approximately EUR 435 per ha annually. Consequently, BfN (2014) calculated a net value of maintaining species-rich grassland compared to a conversion to arable land to be EUR 890–2661 per ha annually, depending on the site conditions. In these calculations and the values given for the “climate costs”, it must be taken into account that economic estimates of future damage caused by climate change are included, which are then translated within a socio-political discourse into “tariffs”, threshold values or taxes to be paid. Such model-based calculations are thus dependent on the variables on which they are based and are also subject to considerable uncertainties. Calculations of climate costs or “tariffs” (social costs of carbon), for example, diverge by a factor of more than 10, ranging from about US$30 to over US$350 per tonne of CO2 (Hope 2006; Stern et al. 2006; Foley et al. 2013; Nordhaus 2017). Nevertheless, these scientific foundations are indispensable for the derivation of political recommendations for action and the development of sustainability strategies (see, Stern 2006; Nordhaus 2016). 23.6.5 

 ild and Honey Bees as W Pollinators in Agriculture

Globally, over 70% of the main agricultural crops, which contribute to 35% of global food production, rely on flowervisiting pollinators (Klein et  al. 2007; Geldmann and González-Varo 2018).

504

23

Chapter 23 · Restoration Economy: Costs and Benefits

Gallai et  al. (2009) estimate the value of pollination as an ecosystem service to be 153 billion EUR worldwide. Wild bees and honeybees are the most important insect group, but they are in decline worldwide. Major reasons for this are pollinator habitat loss, the application of synthetic pesticides, and the spread of parasites (Johansen and Mayer 1990; Kevan and Plowright 1995; Morse and Calderone 2000; Kevan and Phillips 2001; Potts et al. 2010; Cameron et al. 2011; Goulson et al. 2015). To compensate for the economic losses in, for example, fruit growing, some regions of the world have already switched to hand pollination of crops (Atkins and Atkins 2016) or are developing drones to take over insect pollination (Chechetka et al. 2017). That pollinator decline is associated with crop loss and hence economic loss has already been demonstrated for various agricultural products. Kevan (1997) shows for Canada that with an increase in the pollinator population both, the form and the quantity of apples produced are positively influenced, which translates into an increase in revenue of 250 Canadian dollars per ha. This relationship has also been confirmed, for example, by studies in apple growing in the UK (Garratt et al. 2014). Holzschuh et al. (2012) use the example of sweet cherry cultivation in Hesse to point out the greater importance of wild bees and habitat diversity for these pollinators compared to honey bees, the latter usually introduced directly into the crops in bee hives. An increased number of flower visits by wild bees, also promoted by appropriate habitat diversity close to the cultivation, resulted in higher fruit set (see also, Kremen et  al. 2002). However, competition for pollen between wild and honey bees can lead to losses in honey production (see, Schlindwein et al. 2005; Larsson and Franzen 2007; Cane and Tepedino 2017; Geldmann and González-Varo 2018).

23.7 

 irst Calculate Costs F and Benefits, Then Act

The large-scale restoration project in the Skjern river basin on the Danish mainland exemplifies the priority of preserving functioning ecosystems (Zerbe and Wiegleb 2009). As late as the 1950s, a near-­natural floodplain landscape covering several thousand hectares was found in this river basin. With the aim of agricultural use, the floodplain was drained and the river straightened in the 1960s (Pedersen et  al. 2007). These measures cost approximately EUR 30 million. As a result, not only near-natural habitats with high biodiversity were significantly impaired, but also the functionality of a floodplain and the estuary of the river (Ringkøbing Fjord). Due to the negative impacts on the floodplain ecosystem and the estuary, as well as the consequential costs of maintaining agricultural use (e.g., permanent pumping of water from the land as a result of peat compaction), a large-scale restoration project was initiated about 30 years later (Mant and Janes 2006). The goals were 55 the restoration of a floodplain of international value, 55 increasing the recreational and tourism potential of the landscape, and 55 an improvement in the quality of the estuary as a wetland. The costs of this restoration were similar to those of the “melioration” (Danish Ministry of the Environment and Energy 2007). Similar negative consequences in terms of natural resources and their use by agriculture were caused by the “complex melioration” in the GDR (7 Sect. 8.1). Today, such degraded land areas are the subject of peatland, river, and grassland restoration in north-eastern Germany, for example (7 Chaps. 8 and 15). An economic example calculation for creeks in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania that were piped in the course of agricultural  

 

505 23.7 · First Calculate Costs and Benefits, Then Act

melioration in the former GDR shows that restoration can indeed be more cost-­effective than further degrading use of ecosystems, which leads, for example, to the loss of biodiversity of rivers (Krämer 2006; cited by Hampicke 2009). Piping was carried out to drain wetlands and to gain unfragmented and contiguous farmland. Today, the alternatives are continued maintenance of the piping or complete repiping, conversion to open ditches, or river restoration. The calculation of costs includes planning, investment, reinvestment, and maintenance costs and also takes into account income losses for agriculture. At approximately 8.5 EUR per metre, the annual costs of piping according to this sample calculation are significantly higher than those of the “ditch” (approximately 4.4 EUR) and “river restoration” variants (approximately 4.8 EUR). If

23

one takes into account the other negative consequences of this former “melioration”, including the loss of species-rich wet grassland, a decline in yields due to peat and soil compaction, respectively, on lowland fen sites, and the release of greenhouse gases due to the decomposition of the organic matter (7 Sect. 8.1), high costs could have been avoided if a cost-benefit analysis had been carried out beforehand. It must be concluded that even when ecological knowledge is profoundly implemented in restoration projects, the socio-economic background is often insufficiently illuminated. This also applies to measures that lead to the degradation of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and whose follow-up costs are not considered (Zerbe and Wiegleb 2009).  

507

Norms and Values in Ecosystem Restoration Contents 24.1

 nvironmental Ethics and Implications for Ecosystem E Restoration – 510

24.1.1

F aking Nature? Criticism on Ecosystem Restoration From  Environmental Ethics – 513

24.2

 cosystem Restoration as an Implementation E of Strong Sustainability – 515

24.3

Traditional Ecological Knowledge – 515

24.4

Environmental Anthropology – 516

24.5

 cosystem Restoration as Active Responsibility E for Creation – 518

24.6

 estoration Measures Put to the Ethical R Test Bench – 519

24.6.1 24.6.2 24.6.3

 pplication of Pesticides in Ecosystem Restoration – 520 A Controlled Burning to Restore and Preserve Open Land – 520 Topsoil Removal – 523

24.7

Non-native Organisms and Xenophobia – 525

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Zerbe, Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65658-7_24

24

508

24

Chapter 24 · Norms and Values in Ecosystem Restoration

While restoration ecology, as a scientific sub-discipline of ecology, generates and analyses data and facts qualitatively and quantitatively and thus, provides restoration practice with a value-free basis for decision-­ making, concrete ecosystem restoration requires an assessment and a decision between different options. The “best” option is then also based (often probably decisively) on socio-political and socio-economic framework conditions, opinions and motivations, value concepts, normative objectives of nature conservation and environmental protection, current scopes of action or a certain, possibly culturally determined paradigm. Comparative environmental science studies of topsoils in the EU, for example, have found lead concentrations exceeding 40  mg per kg (maximum value 151 mg/kg) in some industrially dominated regions of Central Europe (Tóth et al. 2016; . Fig. 24.1). The heavy metal sources here are current or historical, punctual or diffuse. Particularly high values are found in former mining areas. These are the ecological facts. A suspected level of lead contamination in soils is given by the Federal Environment Agency as 50  mg per kg (UBA 2003). Although, this threshold can be justified by facts (e.g., from health science and medical studies), it ultimately undergoes a socio-­ political decision process and is thus, linked to current norms. This makes lead a pollutant in many areas and results in a compelling need to protect the environment from contamination and to protect human health. The derivation of options for action, such as the disposal of soil contaminated with heavy metals or soil restoration by means of phytoremediation (7 Sect. 3.4), is then a normative decision-making process based on science. Another very impressive example from the field of species conservation is the reintroduction or natural return of the large carnivores brown bear, wolf, and lynx in Europe (7 Sect. 4.2). Even if the scientifically established data and facts from wildlife  

 

 

biology or animal ecology, conservation biology, socio-economics as well as environmental ethics considerations speak in favour of the coexistence of humans and large carnivores in European cultural landscapes, a deep-­seated unease on the part of humans towards these animals and a lack of acceptance of this coexistence can ultimately doom species conservation efforts to failure, as is currently reflected in the heated and emotional discussions and press releases in some of the regions concerned (e.g., in South Tyrol; see, Zerbe 2020). Land-use concepts such as permaculture (Mollison and Holmgren 1978; Mollison 1990; Ferguson and Lovell 2014) or biodynamic farming (Steiner 1924; Sattler and von Wistinghausen 1992; Kirchmann 1994; Koepf et al. 1996), which can make a significant contribution to the restoration of ecosystems, may be representative of the diverse holistic, ethically or spiritually based approaches that link value concepts to land use. This important distinction between scientific ecology and norms or values is often blurred in terms of language or content in discussions about environmental protection and nature conservation, when “ecological” or “biological” is equated with “good” for people and the environment. In social discourses and practical life of nature conservation and environmental protection, but also in scientific studies, an “eco-slang” has sometimes become established, which is critically examined, for example, by Ott (2010, p. 59f.) from the perspective of environmental ethics. When “ecosystem health” (see, Winterhalder et  al. 2004) is used as a term and concept in restoration ecology (7 Table 1.7), it often remains unclear what a “healthy” ecosystem actually is. The problems arising from such hybrid concepts are often critically discussed (Kapustka and Landis 1998; Lancaster 2000; Potthast 2005; Ott 2009; Gregorowius 2016; Kirchhoff 2016). These concepts or terms mix ecological concepts and their specific definitions  

24

509 Norms and Values in Ecosystem Restoration

..      Fig. 24.1  Soil-borne lead concentrations in micrograms per kilogram of topsoil in the EU. Pb, lead. (From Tóth et al. 2016)

(here, “ecosystem”; 7 Sect. 1.2.2) with human science terms, here with the term “health” (on the Ottawa Charter on Health Promotion of 1986, see e.g., Eriksson and Lindström 2008; Jakob and Laepple 2014; Schramme 2017; WHO 2017a, b) or even with the “diagnosis of ecosystem diseases” (Rapport 1995: diagnosis of ecosystem ills). Ott (2009, p.  428) gives rise to particular concerns that hybrid terms “disguise [the]  

value references of restoration ecology if they give the impression that they are scientific concepts”. Similar hybrid terms or concepts are “ecosystem integrity” or the psychology-based concept of “resilience”, which has found its way into other disciplines, particularly ecology (7 Sect. 1.2.2). These considerations make it clear that in nature conservation and environmental protection, as well as in practical ecosystem  

510

Chapter 24 · Norms and Values in Ecosystem Restoration

restoration, there is no way around the need to justify goals in an evaluative manner, to negotiate them with the actors in a participatory approach (7 Chap. 22), and to define them discursively (Eser and Potthast 1997). In the following, some of the human-­ scientific foundations of normative decisions in ecosystem restoration are examined, and examples will illuminate the sometimes very difficult field of tension between science and practice. Environmental ethics provides a theoretical framework. In addition, the disciplines of environmental anthropology, theology and religious studies, sociology, and the science of history, among others, can be used to build a human-­ scientific bridge to ecosystem restoration in theory and practice, especially with regard to values and norms. It is recommended to follow Davis and Slobodkin (2004) who state: “[…] it is important that restorationists do their best to clearly distinguish between their science and their values in their discussions with the public and policy makers as well as among themselves.”  

24

basis for the identification of a reference system as a target for ecosystem or landscape restoration and for the selection of the corresponding restoration measures; however, what is ultimately “best” and is implemented in practice follows a decision-making process in which values and norms come into play. Thus, environmental ethics has a theoretical and practical dimension and should be pursued in an analytical way, “so that presuppositions are reflected, distinctions are made, conclusions are controlled, ambiguities are resolved, and arguments are reconstructed” (Ott 2010, p. 17). This critical analysis is guided by environmental ethical argumentation spheres, which include anthropocentric, physio-centric, and theocentric approaches (Yaling 2008; Ott 2010; Ott et al. 2017a). Anthropocentric approaches assume that nature should be protected because it is valuable to humans, differentiating between instrumental and eudaimonistic (i.e., the happiness of the individual or the community as the fulfilment of meaning in human existence) values (. Table  24.1). The concept of ecosystem services can be given here as an example (7 Sect. 1.3). In contrast, physio-­centric or bio-centric approaches assume that certain non-human natural entities (animals, plants, microorganisms) have moral self-worth and should therefore be protected as members of the moral community (Norton 1987, 1992; Jackson et  al. 1995; Ott 2010). These two approaches may arrive at quite different assessments in the particular case of pests, parasites, or pathogens, for example, especially if one follows a holistic approach that attributes intrinsic values to all organisms (Mayr 2003). In the latter case, it is considered problematic that ecosystem restoration with correspondingly strong interventions (e.g., the application of pesticides, fire, topsoil removal; 7 Sect. 24.6) leads to damage to “nature’s creatures” (see, Gorke 2010). It also leads to a difference in assessment whether restoration objectives are defined on the basis of the anthropocen 

24.1 

Environmental Ethics and Implications for Ecosystem Restoration

Whenever ecology (here: restoration ecology) addresses practical issues of nature conservation and environmental protection or ecosystem restoration, it enters into a relationship with environmental ethics or natural ethics, which, as application-based ethics, analyses, reflects, and justifies values and norms (Ott 1997, 2009; Ott et al. 2017a). For many decisions within concrete restoration projects, values and norms usually play a significant role, which is often overlooked in practice with a reductionist view of ecological principles alone and is then reflected, for example, in a lack of acceptance or even rejection of restoration (7 Sect. 22.3). Ecology, for example, provides the scientific  

 

 

511 24.1 · Environmental Ethics and Implications for Ecosystem Restoration

..      Table 24.1  Anthropocentric argumentation sphere of environmental ethics. (After Ott et al. 2017b) Value of nature

Argument

Dependence: Humans are existentially dependent on nature in order to survive or to be able to lead a good life Instrumental

Duties to future generations: Because nature has an instrumental value and/ or eudaimonistic value to humans, it should be preserved for future generations Nature aesthetics: Nature should be protected because of its aesthetic value for humans Biophilia: Humans are anthropologically constituted in such a way that they can (must) turn to nature in a positive way

Eudaimonistic

Homeland: Certain sections of nature represent homeland for people and should therefore be protected Transformative value: Experiencing nature can change (transform) a person’s existing values; the resulting transformations can go in a morally desirable direction Difference: Nature, as a pleasant (refuge) place, often represents a difference, perceived as positive and valuable, to the hard-to-bear constraints and almost exclusive functional purpose of urban civilisation

tric concept of ecosystem services or whether a habitat is restored for a specific species with a view to that creature. Theocentric approaches, use religious or spiritual arguments. The various religions of the world, such as Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Shamanism, Taoism, the religions of the Incas and Mayas, etc., might have a very different

24

understanding of nature. This can also be reflected in very different motivations and approaches to nature conservation and ecosystem restoration (Gobster and Hull 2000; Dearborn and Kark 2010; Clingerman and Dixon 2013; Van Wieren 2013). Particularly in view of the different understandings of nature of different ethnic groups, religious communities, and cultures, it becomes clear that there can be no universally binding environmental ethic worldwide. The general argumentation lines of environmental ethics must therefore be interpreted in each culture and embedded into the appropriate cultural contexts. Nevertheless, global environmental problems such as climate change, loss of biodiversity, the pollution of the oceans, the eutrophication of landscapes, and soil salinization, for example, speak in favour of arriving at a global ethos, at least in these areas (Crutzen and Schwägerl 2011). International initiatives, such as the global agenda of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs; e.g., Nicolai et  al. 2015), are dedicated to this goal. Some basic types of environmental ethics are illustrated in the so-called onion-skin model (. Fig.  24.2). For introductions to environmental ethics and further reading, it is referred to VanDeVeer and Pierce (1994), Katz et  al. (2000), Light and Rolston III (2002), DesJardins (2005), Yaling (2008), Keller (2010), Ott (2010), Paslak et  al. (2010), Boylan (2013), Brennan and Lo (2015), Demko et  al. (2016), and the comprehensive Handbook of Environmental Ethics (Handbuch Umweltethik) by Ott et al. (2017a). One school of thought in environmental ethics is the so-called deep ecology as a spiritual holistic environmental and natural philosophy, respectively, within the ecological philosophies (ecophilosophies, ecosophies), which has developed out of the worldwide environmental crises of resource pollution and consumption (see, Carson 1962) and seeks solutions. Deep ecology thus aims to replace conventional and technical envi 

512

Chapter 24 · Norms and Values in Ecosystem Restoration

Living beings + Inanimate + Natural objects with intrinsic value

Living beings

Supra-organismic entities

,,Higher“ animals Humans

24

Anthropocentrism Being human, personality, language

Physiocentrism Sentientism (Pathocentrism)

Biocentrism

Holism

(Pain-sensitivity) Criteria for direct moral consideration

Aliveness/ teleonomic structure

Without criterion of existence

..      Fig. 24.2  Onion-skin model of basic types of environmental ethics. (From Ott et  al. 2017b; after Gorke 2010)

ronmental protection, which is understood as “superficial” (shallow). Founded by the Norwegian philosopher Næss (1973), deep ecology sees human beings as living in harmony with nature and thus, combines anthropocentric and physio-centric approaches. It uses the biological-ecological term of a “symbiosis” between man and nature. Næss (1973) sees a limitation in scientific ecology and its methods, which can be overcome with deep ecology and the bridge to philosophy, opening the way to an “ecological harmony or [harmony] of equilibrium”. The concept of deep ecology is taken up, discussed, and further developed by, for example, Devall (1980), Devall and Sessions (1985), Fox (1990), Drengson and Inoue (1995), Sessions (1995), Clark (1996), Witoszek and Brennan (1999), Roszak (2001) and Kopnina (2012). This philosophical school of thought is mentioned here because, on the one hand, it links scientific ecology to norms and, on the other hand, it has implications for environmental protection and ecosystem restoration (McGinnis 1996; Katz et  al. 2000; Rosenblum 2002;

Palamar 2008), up to “deep restoration” (Sweeney 2000). However, the hypotheses of deep ecology and the consequences to be derived from it e.g., for human population growth, are controversial. This will not be explored further here, and reference is made to the critical discussions by Devall (1991), Johns (1992), Grey (1993), Anker and Witoszek (1998), Warren (1999), Katz et al. (2000), Taylor (2001), Glasser (2011), and Hendlin (2017), among others. Hendlin (2017, p.  202) suggests, with regard to the sustainable coexistence of humans and nature, that deep ecology should also pay more attention to “the role of humans in the context of restoration efforts”. In conclusion, environmental ethics, as well as other disciplines in the human sciences, not only make a valuable contribution to the theory and practice of ecosystem restoration but are sometimes essential (. Table 24.2). The diversity of environmental ethical schools and concepts, respectively, such as e.g., biophilia (Wilson 1984; Kellert and Wilson 1993; Simaika and Samways 2010), cannot be explored further here.  

513 24.1 · Environmental Ethics and Implications for Ecosystem Restoration

24

..      Table 24.2  Possible contributions of various disciplines of the human sciences to the theory and practice of ecosystem restoration (7 Fig. 1.1)  

Discipline

Possible contribution to ecosystem restoration

Environmental anthropology

Understanding of human-­environment relationships, sustainable land-use practices, traditional land-use practices

Environmental economics

Costs and benefits of land use and ecosystem restoration, economic valorisation of ecosystem services

Environmental ethics

Valuations, motivations, principles, attitudes

Environmental psychology

Human-environment interactions, environmental experience, human behaviour in and towards the environment

Ethnology

Understanding of nature of different ethnic groups and their possibly different handling and use of natural capitals

Health sciences

Interaction of environment and human health (7 Table 19.2)

History

Historical development of ecosystems and land uses, traditional forms of land use, historical reference systems

Pedagogy

Environmental education, communication of environmental protection and nature conservation goals and the concept of sustainability, communication of appropriate options for action

Religious Studies and Theology

Understanding of nature by different religions and religious communities, values and norms towards nature and the environment

Sociology

Actor and stakeholder analysis, participatory approaches

24.1.1 

 

 aking Nature? Criticism F on Ecosystem Restoration From Environmental Ethics

Since the 1990s, the discussion and criticism of environmental ethics has focused on ecosystem restoration. Initially dominated by the debate in the US (e.g., Hargrove 1989; Birch 1993; Elliot 1995; Katz 1992, 1996; Throop 2000; Higgs 2003), Ott (2009) and Ott et al. (2017a), in particular, have continued the discussion with a view to Central Europe and the European cultural context. Ott (2009) rightly states that this criticism of ecosystem restoration should not be fundamentally dismissed by ecologists, but should be reflected upon, also with regard to decision-­ making processes and especially the measures of practical restoration, which

can sometimes raise considerable ethical controversies (Throop 2000). The latter concerns, for example, the application of pesticides and fire to restore ecosystems (7 Sect. 24.6), the re-introduction of large carnivores in the cultural landscapes (7 Sects. 4.2 and 4.3), or the control of nonnative species against a background of latent xenophobia (7 Chap. 5). Katz’s (1992, 1996) criticism is directed against the anthropocentric approach that nature can be degraded or even destroyed for the purpose of resource use, since the damage can then be compensated or repaired, often by technical means. The restored nature is then an artefact that satisfies human needs. In this technological position (technological fix) he sees a similar process that has caused the environmental  

 

 

514

24

Chapter 24 · Norms and Values in Ecosystem Restoration

crises, combined with man’s claim to dominate nature by technical means and technology, respectively. This is considered as an overestimation of man’s ability to construct nature according to his will. Elliot (1982) argues in a similar direction, seeing restored nature as a fake or copy of the original state, but of lesser value than the original. Original wilderness cannot be restored even with ecosystem restoration (Elliot 1995; see also, Katz 2010). Elliot thus draws an analogy to artwork, but this seems questionable (Ott 2009). Elliot’s criticism must be reflected from the context that North America still has large-scale landscapes and national parks that have been little influenced by humans. In contrast, Central Europe is “an ancient cultural landscape [boldface by author] in which literally no piece of land has been able to retain its natural state unchanged” (Ellenberg and Leuschner 2010, p.  23). Consequently, many ecosystems that are the subject of restoration in Central Europe are historical (traditional) land-use types, such as extensive meadows and pastures, heaths, sandy dry grasslands, salt grassland, and certain forest-use types (Part II). This criticism may also have arisen from a too narrowly understood objective of restoration. In Central Europe, re-storation will rarely be the restoration of an original state or wilderness (see, Chapman 2006) (7 Sect. 1.5). This field of tension between natural and cultural landscapes also illustrates the fact, already explained above, that environmental ethics must be embedded in the cultural and also natural-geographical context. Criticism of environmental ethics is certainly also stimulated by an understanding of nature that differs, at least in part, between cultures and scientific disciplines (Higgs 2003). For practical ecosystem restoration, it is therefore helpful to deal with the sometimes very different reference systems (7 Chap. 2). Katz (1992) and Elliot (1982) are among the most important initiators of the environmental-­ethical debate on ecosystem  

 

restoration. Indeed, Katz’s (1992) critique refers to the paradigm in industrialized and highly technological societies that damage to nature can be easily repaired (Elliot 1982: restoration thesis). With this kind of ecosystem restoration, according to Ott (2009, p. 433) and by referring to Benjamin (1936), “nature enters the era of its (eco)technical reproducibility”. Although, Katz’s theses are discussed very critically or even rejected in philosophy and environmental ethics (Lo 1999; Light 2000; Ladkin 2005; Ott 2009), these nevertheless indicate that ecosystems cannot be arbitrarily altered, over-exploited, degraded or destroyed and then, restored again by technical means. The many failures in ecosystem restoration (e.g., 7 Chap. 11) proof this, as do examples showing that restoring an ecosystem with its ecosystem services can be much more expensive than leaving it in its historical or original state (7 Chap. 23). Referring to examples of companies that create “restored native nature” (e.g., around their location) in order to demonstrate their “closeness to nature” (see, Light and Higgs 1996), and looking at the “suggestive stagings” associated with this, Ott (2009, p. 434) expresses the concern that ecosystem restoration could become a “technocratic and commercialized enterprise” that “serves only as an alibi for the continuation of nature-consuming practices”. This risk also exists, in principle, in the case of interventions in nature or historically developed cultural landscapes and their legally regulated compensatory measures. The fundamental criticism of ecosystem restoration by Elliot (1982) and Katz (1992) is put into perspective by Light (2000), who considers ecosystem restoration not only in terms of the ecosystem, but also in terms of the restoration of the human-nature relationship. He distinguishes “malicious” restoration, which follows the restoration thesis (see above), from “benevolent” restoration, which is not carried out only to justify ecosystem damage that has already occurred or  

 

515 24.3 · Traditional Ecological Knowledge

24

through capital. Capital, as a term borrowed from economics, includes physical, natural, cultivated natural (e.g., agricultural land), social (e.g., institutions, administrations), human (e.g., education), and knowledge capital (Döring 2004; see also, Cirella and Zerbe 2015). Conceptually, a distinction is made between weak and strong sustainabil24.2  Ecosystem Restoration ity (Norton and Toman 1997; Döring 2004; as an Implementation Hanley et  al. 2007; Ott and Döring 2008; of Strong Sustainability Ott et al. 2011; Holden et al. 2014; Ott 2015, Although, the term sustainability is increas- 2017). The main difference between the two ingly watered down and also overextended concepts lies in the assessment of the substiand misused for non-sustainable actions  - tutability of natural capital. In the concept Ott (2010, p. 164) states “linguistic inflation” of strong sustainability, natural capital and “conceptual contourlessness”  - it pro- should be kept constant for future generavides a clear guiding principle when care- tions (constant natural capital rule; fully referring to definition and content. The Costanza and Daly 1992; Daly 1997), idea of sustainability goes back to Hans whereas in weak sustainability natural capiCarl von Carlowitz (1645–1714), a German tal can, in principle, be substituted by physimining councillor (Sächsische Carlowitz-­ cal capital without limit. With the concept Gesellschaft 2013). Through him, the prin- of strong sustainability, natural capital and ciple of sustainability found its way into thus, ecosystem restoration take on a very forestry and, in its original meaning, recom- special significance, namely when natural mends not harvesting more wood than will capital can be renewed with the restoration grow back (Karafyllis 2002). Setting the of ecosystems (Aronson et  al. 2007; tone for global and national environmental Crossman and Bryan 2009; Gradinaru 2014; policy, the term “sustainability” was newly Zerbe 2022). Döring (2004), for example, and comprehensively coined for all land uses considers the restoration of soil fertility, and land development by the Brundtland erosion control, the development of near-­ Commission in 1987 (Ott 2010). natural forests, the restoration of fish popuDevelopment is considered sustainable when lations, river restoration, and the it “meets the needs of the present without improvement of groundwater quality investcompromising the ability of future genera- ments in natural capital. Ecosystem restorations to meet their own needs” (WCED tion is thus directly related to the sustainable 1987). This enshrines the principle that peo- development of nature, environment, and ple are entitled to have their basic needs met land use. on a sustainable basis. Since the Environmental Conference in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, “the idea of sustainable develop- 24.3  Traditional Ecological Knowledge ment has been one of the guiding principles of environmental and development policy and has found its way into countless docu- For several decades, indigenous and traditional ecological knowledge, respectively, ments and agreements” (Ott 2010, p. 164). Sustainability encompasses the three pil- has been increasingly engaged with to lars of ecology, economy, and social affairs, advance the knowledge of human-­ whereby operationalisation takes place environment relations and to contribute to is still occurring. The latter is based on a physio-centric approach that attributes a value to the ecosystem independently of any direct (economic) benefit of ecosystem restoration for humans.

516

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the solution of land-use problems and sustainable land-use issues (Johannes 1989; Williams and Baines 1993; Dudgeon and Berkes 2003; Menzies 2006; Ramakrishnan 2007; Berkes 2012; McCarter et  al. 2014; Timaeus et  al. 2015; Zerbe 2022). Often brought into the discussion of sustainable land-use practices of pre-industrial societies in the context of indigenous non-European cultures (Berkes 1993), the general definition to be followed here is that traditional ecological knowledge encompasses the experiences and knowledge of a local population in direct contact with their environment, which has been accumulated and modified over centuries (Rinkevich et al. 2011). This knowledge concerns the relationships between plants and animals, but also natural phenomena and seasonal cycles and dynamics of a specific habitat, which was and is constantly developed and applied for land use (agriculture, forestry, hunting, fishing) in a process of cultural adaptation. This knowledge has been passed down through the generations in a local social network. Thus, traditional ecological knowledge touches the interface of the scientifically generated knowledge of ecology and experiences made by local-regional land users over a long period of land and water use, respectively. Thus, ecological facts can be profitably linked with normative aspects to meet the challenges of social-ecological systems (Ostrom et al. 2007). Zent and Maffi (2009) point out the extensive applications of traditional ecological knowledge with regard to science, medicine, agriculture, forestry, rural development, and environmental protection. For ecosystem restoration, traditional ecological knowledge can be applied because it not only provides ecological information, but also provides guidance on land management and promotes adaptive strategies in the face of a changing environment (McCarter et al. 2014). In addition, the use of traditional ecological knowledge catalyzes interactions between actors, stakeholders, and the scientific community (Ross et al.

2011; 7 Chap. 22). However, there is an increasing risk that rural development, urbanization, and globalization will lead to an erosion of this traditional knowledge (Benz et al. 2000; Brosi et al. 2007; Zent and Maffi 2009; Pungetti et  al. 2012; Erdmann and Kastenholz 2013). A revival of this knowledge is called for by both, the scientific community and practitioners (e.g., nature conservation; Zent 1999; Ford and Martinez 2000). In Central Europe, for example, traditional ecological knowledge can be integrated into the restoration of historical land-use systems such as heaths, woodland pasture, and mountain agriculture in the high mountains. This knowledge can also be applied in the restoration of forests and, in particular, to restore their services for the provision of non-timber products, especially in order to strengthen peripheral rural regions that are undergoing a social-ecological transformation due to the outmigration of the population. According to Thompson (1991) and the IUCN (1991), it is important to preserve traditional local knowledge for the following reasons: 55 Local knowledge plays an important role in gaining new biological and ecological insights. 55 Local knowledge is an important factor for sustainable resource management. 55 Local knowledge contributes to the establishment and management of protected areas and to environmental education. 55 Local knowledge is helpful in land-use planning.  

24.4 

Environmental Anthropology

Environmental anthropology or ecological anthropology examines the spatiotemporal relationships of humans to their environment, in both historical and contemporary perspectives (Glacken 1976; Salzman and

517 24.4 · Environmental Anthropology

Attwood 1996; Ingold 2000; Crumley et al. 2001; Harris 2001; White 2007; Townsend 2009; McGee and Warms 2012; Moore 2012; Descola 2013; Kopnina and Shoreman-­Ouimet 2013, 2017; Haenn et al. 2016). Cultural and social predispositions of different perceptions of nature as well as appropriation of nature are comparatively deciphered, for example. Cultural ecology was founded by Steward (1955, 1968, 2006) as a sub-discipline of anthropology in the first half of the twentieth century (Nowak 2003; Haenn et al. 2016). This was then further developed into environmental anthropology by Bennett (1976), Rappaport (1968), and Vayda (1969), among others, and also provided the impetus for other anthropological research directions such as political ecology, which was significantly influenced by Wolf (1972), Blaikie (1995), and Blaikie and Brookfield (1987; see, Townsend 2009; Haenn et al. 2016). In considering, for example, the adaptation of different cultures to their environment and its sustainable use (or unsustainable use; see Diamond 2011), the analysis of traditional ecological knowledge (7 Sect. 24.3), or the development of new land uses based on historical experiences (e.g., Birnbaum and Fox 2014), concepts and methods of cultural or environmental anthropology are linked, at least indirectly, to issues of ecosystem restoration. Studies examining this field of tension are mostly available from the US and often on indigenous ethnic groups (e.g., Casagrande 2004; Shebitz 2005; Jordan III 2006; Storm and Shebitz 2006; Trigger et al. 2008; Casagrande and Vasquez 2009; Egan et  al. 2011; Celentano et  al. 2014; Cuerrier et al. 2015). From Central Europe, there are environmental anthropological studies, for example by Reichel and Frömming (2014), on how Alpine inhabitants deal with natural hazards in the context of climate change. This also draws on traditional local knowledge about the environment. The analysis of user communities and common property or the  

24

commons (see, Ostrom 1990) and its traditional rights of use are also the subject of environmental anthropological studies, such as in the Romanian Eastern Carpathians, where “people regard the forest not simply as a resource, but as a powerful source of collective identity, social practice, and pride” (Vasile 2015). Environmental anthropology provides a significant impetus for the use of ecosystems and their restoration when it sheds light on human-environment relations and reflects on ecological facts against the background of value concepts in history and the present. Wahlhütter (2011), for example, states for soils in Austria that the “changes reflected by farmers, the linkage with religious values or the role of soil in the construction of an agricultural identity show that soil in agriculture is much more than the reduction of matter to purely material aspects”. This is illustrated, among other things, by the example of the different understanding of “soil fertility” and “soil quality”, which clearly goes beyond the scientifically measurable nutrient and water balance and other ecological parameters. Another aspect of the relationship between humans and the environment is illuminated by the ethnographic approach of multispecies ethnography (Haraway 2010; Kirksey and Helmreich 2010). Here, the biological concept of symbiosis is transferred to the relationship of humans to certain species in the natural and cultural landscape (companionship, interspecies collaboration; Tsing 2009) and the corresponding social and cultural phenomena are illuminated. Tsing (2012) illustrates this with the example of cereal cultivation, which has led to a “biological transformation” of humans and cereal plants since the Neolithic. The species considered in multispecies ethnography may be plants, animals, cryptogams or bacteria (Feinberg et  al. 2013; Pouliot and Ryan 2013; Locke and Münster 2015). The concept thus also links biodiversity to the cultural diversity of human societies (see, Martin et al. 2012).

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For the restoration of cultural ecosystems, environmental anthropologists propose cultural keystone species based on the concept of ecological keystone species (7 Sect. 6.3), which play a special or even central role for cultures and their land use e.g., as food, raw material, medicine or for spiritual practices (Garibaldi and Turner 2004; Petelka et al. 2022). Such cultural keystone species, in addition to ecosystem restoration, can also contribute to the restoration of social-ecological systems. In the European Alps, for example, in montane coniferous or mixed coniferous forests, the European larch (Larix decidua) in larch meadows and pastures can be considered as such a cultural keystone species, as this tree species offers a wide range of use options (7 Sect. 18.2). In many regions of Central Europe and the Alps (especially in the Southern Alps), the sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa) also plays this role (Bender 2002; Conedera et  al. 2004a, b; Bouffier and Maurer 2009; Schabacker et al. 2015; Pástor et  al. 2017). The concept of cultural keystone species thus bridges the gap between environmental anthropology and nature or cultural landscape conservation.  

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24.5 

Ecosystem Restoration as Active Responsibility for Creation

Gerten and Bergmann (2012, p. 4) note that religion offers a promising analytical approach to the multiple ways people perceive, act, think, and live in the context of global change. Reichel and Frömming (2014) complement this with mythology, using an example from the Swiss Alps to argue that myths prevented access or land use to areas at risk from natural hazards, such as avalanches. In Central Europe, Christianity has been the impetus for cultural-­historical developments as well as for values and norms for more than

1000  years (on the history, see Große Hüttmann and Wehling 2013). In particular, the Genesis as the creation story of the Bible has been interpreted and discussed intensively in theology, philosophy, and environmental ethics as the basis for human interaction with nature. Link (2012, p.  15) introduces his book “Creation” (Schöpfung) with the words that “no other theological topic […] has emigrated from the inner circle of theology into the public discussion of science and worldview in recent decades in a similarly tumultuous development as the problem of creation”. While the anthropocentric interpretation of man’s mission for domination over the earth (dominium terrae) in Genesis 1 was theologically trend-setting until the 1970s, calling “believers to craft and engineer the world” (Baranzke and LambertyZielinski 1995), growing criticism of this interpretation, coupled with an emerging socio-­political discussion related to increasing environmental crises (White 1967), has led to new interpretations (e.g., Auer 1985; Kay 1988; Baranzke and Lamberty-Zielinski 1995; Link 2012). According to Hardmeier and Ott (2015), this imperial anthropocentrism cannot be derived from the Genesis. An interpretation that follows a theocentric approach considers humans as a “tenant” of the earth who should cultivate and preserve it (Hardmeier and Ott 2017). After reflecting on the Genesis and its various translations and interpretations, Hardmeier and Ott (2017, p. 185) conclude that “the interpretation of an unrestricted license of exploitation of the earth by man […] has no support in the original text”, which nevertheless offers a “license of use”. The new interpretation of Genesis 1 should “[…] - translated in terms of natural ethics  - lead to a much richer understanding of what it means in the biblical tradition to live and manage cohabitatively and responsibly as human beings on earth in the present era of the Anthropocene” (Hardmeier and Ott 2015, p. 111). The ethical content of the entire creation narrative is

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519 24.6 · Restoration Measures Put to the Ethical Test Bench

summarized by Hardmeier and Ott (2015, p.  163) in a mnemonic formula: “Living as mandate holder of God in his blessings and moving gratefully and responsibly in his very good creation.” For a comprehensive nature ethics discourse of the biblical creation narrative, see Hardmeier and Ott (2015). With the Encyclical Laudato si’, Pope Franciscus (2015) became the first leader of the Roman-Catholic Church to comprehensively address global environmental problems in a way that had never been done before in this form, thus calling for activities of protection for “our common home” and for an urgent dialogue “about how we shape the future of our planet”. Even though ecosystem restoration is not explicitly mentioned in it, a recommendation for action can, however, be casually derived from it when it states therein to “repair the damage done by human misuse of God’s creation”. The environmental damages and problems mentioned in the encyclical, such as the loss of biodiversity, air, water, and soil pollution, the over-exploitation of natural resources, the accumulation of waste, climate change, urbanization, social injustice and the resulting burdens on human health, and the challenges to sustainable landscape development, have been documented by relevant environmental science studies and long-term environmental monitoring, respectively (Part II) and urge action. Additionally, the statement “[…] remediate all that we have destroyed […]” can be interpreted in this direction. If “no branch of science and no form of wisdom may be left aside,” this underscores the need for interdisciplinary approaches (Tucker and Grim 2016). While other encyclicals focus more on social and economic issues and problems, the encyclical Laudato si’ specifically targets a holistic human ecology (Nass 2017). For further ecological implications of the encyclical and relations to global environmental protection, see

Ceballos (2016) and DeWitt (2016) and, with regard to ecosystem restoration, Raven (2016). George (2017) summarizes numerous statements on the Pope’s encyclical from the perspectives of natural science, social science, and economics. 24.6 

 estoration Measures Put R to the Ethical Test Bench

As explained in 7 Chap. 3 and discussed in more detail with regard to the various ecosystem and land-use types (Part II), practical ecosystem restoration applies a wide range of measures in order to achieve the goals set as quickly as possible. If, according to the general objectives of ecosystem restoration, the services of anthropogenically degraded ecosystems are to be restored (7 Sect. 1.5), those measures in particular that have led or are leading to the degradation of ecosystems must be critically examined (Zerbe and Ott 2021). This will be discussed taking the example of the application of synthetic pesticides, controlled burning, and topsoil removal. If ecosystem restoration is generally questioned from an environmental ethics perspective (7 Sect. 24.1.1), this discussion and the practical implications derived from it must also extend to ecosystem restoration measures. The critical reflection on measures of restoration practice also makes it clear that interdisciplinary approaches of applied ecology and landscape ecology are useful here. Thus, on the one hand, environmental ethics is dependent on biologicalecological facts, and on the other hand, an implementation of restoration-­ ecological principles also depends on values and norms for which environmental ethics, anthropology, cultural history or, more generally, the human sciences offer theoretical and practical decision-­making frameworks and foundations.  

 

 

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24.6.1 

24

Application of Pesticides in Ecosystem Restoration

Over the past two decades, the application of synthetic pesticides in ecosystem restoration and management for the conservation and promotion of biodiversity has been increasingly reported worldwide. Pesticides are applied, for example, to “restore” water bodies (Finlayson et al. 2000) and reed beds (Cheshier et al. 2012; Hazelton et al. 2014), forests (Baer and Groninger 2004; Nakamura et  al. 2008), heathlands (Snow and Marrs 1997), and grasslands (Davy 2002; Lulow et al. 2007; Young and Claassen 2008; Rokich et al. 2009). Pesticides applied include glyphosate (Cornish and Burgin 2005), metsulfuron-methyl (Baer and Groninger 2004), rotenone (Finlayson et al. 2000), fluazifop-P-butyl (Rokich et al. 2009), and tebuthiuron (Olson and Whitson 2002), only part of these are approved for application in Germany. In North America in particular, pesticides are frequently applied against non-native species in order to suppress them and promote native species (7 Chap. 5). The suspicion arises that the occurrence and spread of non-native species justify any means of combating them under the guise of “restoration”. Although, numerous scientific studies are available on the adverse effects of pesticides on wild plant and animal species (e.g., Davidson et al. 2001; Relyea and Hoverman 2006; Schäfer et  al. 2007; Baldwin et  al. 2009; Mullin et al. 2010; Scholz et al. 2012; Brühl et  al. 2013; Goulson 2014) and on adverse health effects on humans (WHO 1990; Eskenazi et  al. 1999; Jaeger et  al. 1999b; Reichl 2002; Bradberry et  al. 2004; Hayes et al. 2006; Bassil et al. 2007; Sanborn et  al. 2007; Bjørling-Poulsen et  al. 2008; Alewu and Nosiri 2011; Mnif et  al. 2011; Osman 2011; Mostafalou and Abdollahi 2013; Pirsaheb et  al. 2015; Nicolopoulou-­ Stamati et  al. 2016), criticism of pesticide application in ecosystem restoration from  

the scientific community has so far been restrained. Wagner and Nelson (2014), for example, point to the fact that the application of aminopyralid and picloram negatively affects the diaspore bank of target grassland species in the context of restoration projects. Knapp and Matthews (1998) indicate when rotenone is used to manage fish populations in North American lakes, it also has a lethal effect on other organisms such as amphibians, zooplankton, and benthic invertebrates (Cushing and Olive 1957; Anderson 1970; Neves 1975; Chandler and Marking 1982) and a short-term negative effect on overall water quality (CDFG 1994). Against the background of the increasing application of synthetic pesticides in many parts of the world (Wilson and Tisdell 2001; FAO 2002; Alavanja 2009), the negative effects of many pesticides on the environment and, in particular, on biodiversity that have been known for decades (Geiger et  al. 2010; Beketov et  al. 2013; Goulson 2013), the increasing problem of harm to human health associated with the application of pesticides, the concentration and accumulation of pesticides in the food web, and restoration objectives that prioritize environmental and resource protection, nature conservation, and sustainability, completely preclude the application of synthetic pesticides in ecosystem restoration. Biological plant protection, in contrast, might be considered e.g., in the restoration and management of species-rich arable land or in the cultivation of plants for phytoremediation. 24.6.2 

Controlled Burning to Restore and Preserve Open Land

Controlled burning is applied or suggested in Europe for the restoration and management of open land in cultural landscapes,

521 24.6 · Restoration Measures Put to the Ethical Test Bench

often in particular for traditional land-use types that have a species composition and biodiversity valuable for nature conservation. Examples are available for heathland (Keienburg et  al. 2004; Niemeyer 2005; Härdtle et al. 2009), grassland (Wegener and Reichhoff 1989; Hansson and Fogelfors 2000; Kahmen et al. 2002; Moog et al. 2002; Wahlman and Milberg 2002; Page and ­Goldammer 2004; Köhler et al. 2005; Liira et al. 2009), dunes (Vogels 2009), former military training areas (Karlowski et  al. 2001; Goldammer et  al. 2012), and traditional vineyards (Bylebyl 2009). Controlled burning is intended to push back woody plants, remove an excessively dense herb layer, and/ or improve ecological site conditions for target species. Additionally, controlled burning is being considered for the restoration of temperate and boreal forests (Goldammer et al. 1997; Kuuluvainen et al. 2002; Stanturf et al. 2014; Bernes et al. 2015). This measure should influence ecological processes to achieve specific restoration goals. Goldammer et  al. (1997) conclude that “from the point of view of nature conservation, landscape management, and possibly also forestry […] several priority areas [arise] today in which one could consider a targeted use of fire in addition to conventional management measures”. In this context, heaths, mires, dry and nutrient-poor grasslands, fallow land, agricultural and viticultural “problem sites” and forests are mentioned. Apart from the numerous failures of this restoration and management measure for the restoration and maintenance of open land (see compilation by Valkó et al. 2014), there are several reasons why the use of fire in ecosystem restoration and in landscape management oriented towards nature conservation and environmental protection objectives in Central Europe should be carefully reconsidered, even though the specific character of fire (e.g., rate of spread, residence time, amount of fuel material) can vary greatly (Goldammer et  al. 1997). The following considerations are listed below

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and may stimulate further critical discussion: 55 Central Europe is not a region in which fire occurs naturally and frequently in a vegetation- and landscape-shaping manner, as it does, for example, in the Mediterranean climate and the subtropical and tropical savannahs (e.g., de Booysen and Tainton 1984; Myers 2006; Shlisky et al. 2007; Stanturf et al. 2014). In addition to fires that occur naturally e.g., due to lightning in the summer months, anthropogenic fires by far predominate, mainly due to negligence or arson. According to UBA (2016e), negligence and arson were the cause of about 44% of forest fires in 2015, while natural causes were the trigger for only 5% of forest fires (for Europe, see EC 2017d). The damage caused by forest fires is estimated by UBA (2016e) to average EUR 1.4 million per year in the period 1993– 2014. Climate change is expected to increase the risk of fires in Central Europe (Cimolino et  al. 2015). If it is argued that controlled burning (fire farming, slash-and-burn agriculture) was widespread in the historical cultural landscape (Goldammer et  al. 1997), it must also be perceived that this traditional way of farming still exists, especially in the tropics, and creates significant problems for humans and the environment. 55 Fire and the damage it causes are among the most significant environmental problems worldwide. Damage affects natural and semi-natural ecosystems and their biodiversity, the climate with the release of carbon, and human health. Van der Werf et al. (2010) quantify global carbon emissions from fire in the period 1997– 2009 at 2 Gt (= 1,000,000,000,000 kg) per year, with fires on grasslands and savannahs contributing 44%, forest fires in the tropics 36%, forest fires outside the tropics 15%, and the burning of agricultural residues and peat fires in the tropics

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Chapter 24 · Norms and Values in Ecosystem Restoration

(7 Chap. 8) 3% each. This means that fire is of considerable importance worldwide in the discussion on climate protection. In many regions of the world, an increase in temperature, longer drought periods, and an increase in extreme weather events will further increase the likelihood of fires occurring (Stocks et al. 1998; Westerling et al. 2006; Moritz et al. 2012), with the consequence of increasing carbon emissions. When applying controlled burning as a management measure in German nature reserves, Goldammer et al. (1997) quantify the release of carbon at an annually burned area of 1000 ha and assuming an average burning of a maximum of 20 t plant material (dry weight) per hectare at approximately 9000 t. Although, this value is considered comparatively low by the authors, burning contradicts the efforts to promote carbon storage and sequestration in Central European ecosystems for climate protection. Heathland, for example, contributes with about 20–30  kg of carbon per hectare for each kilogram of nitrogen input to sustainable carbon sequestration in aboveground biomass, given the current annual atmogenic nitrogen input of 5–15 kg per hectare (Evans et al. 2006; de Vries et al. 2009). 55 Although, a direct causal link between fire and smoke, respectively, in cultivated landscapes and human health is difficult or indirect to prove, numerous studies point to this negative effect, especially where the burning of agricultural residues is still practiced on a large scale or fire is part of traditional landscape management (Bowman and Johnston 2005; Goldammer et al. 2009; Johnston et al. 2012; Bowman et al. 2013; Marlier et al. 2013; Reddington et  al. 2015). 8–11% of fires worldwide are attributed to agricultural lands (Korontzi et al. 2006). The fact that land use-related fires are detrimental to people and the environment was already established 100  years ago with reference  

24

to the Central European buckwheat-fire culture, because “after all, the burning of peatland usually causes a very strong nuisance to the surrounding area through the smoke emission […], often to great distances” (Hoering 1915, p. 148). 55 Controlled burning may improve the abiotic and biotic site conditions for target species or the target vegetation of a restoration site, but it has a negative impact on other organisms (or even on certain target species themselves). Studies on heathland in Lower Saxony, for example, found that controlled burning permanently damaged mosses, but also most lichens (especially Cladonia species; Keienburg et  al. 2004), including Red List species such as Cetraria aculeata, Cladonia ciliate, and Ptilidium ciliare (Fottner et  al. 2004). Fire can also permanently alter animal communities. Experimental plots in Lower Saxony showed an outmigration of surviving phytophagous insects, which depend on living, above-ground Calluna tissue, and their predators, respectively (Schmidt and Melber 2004). Schmidt and Melber (2004) also recorded the almost complete extinction of the population of the small butterfly Coleophora juncicolella following burning. Particularly in the case of isolated heathland, recolonisation and stabilisation of populations with low dispersal ability can hardly be expected in the foreseeable future. Carried out during the breeding season, controlled burning can permanently damage populations of birds breeding on the ground or in low shrubs (Artman et  al. 2001). These examples illustrate that controlled burning and its impact on organisms must not only be analyzed in biological-­ ecological terms, but also touch on ethical issues. Why, for example, are certain populations of organisms severely damaged or wiped out (losers; see Moretti et  al. 2004) in order to promote target populations (winners), especially if this

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523 24.6 · Restoration Measures Put to the Ethical Test Bench

can be avoided by the application of other measures? 55 Fire can release large amounts of nitrogen bound in vegetation and soil. On heathland in Lower Saxony, it was determined that nitrogen in the order of 80–90% of the nutrient stock bound in the vegetation was released by the immediate fire event (Keienburg et  al. ­ 2004). This can be carried out by leachate and thus pollute groundwater (Pilkington et al. 2007). Following a fire on a 12-year-­old heathland stand in southern England, Chapman (1967) determined a nutrient outflow of approximately 170 kg of nitrogen per hectare. The amount of nitrogen loss depends on the ecosystem and land-use type, as well as on the season in which the fire occurs. In view of the already highly eutrophic landscapes in Central Europe (see, Kuylenstierna et al. 2012) and the pollution of groundwater and surface water by nutrients, these values must give cause for concern. With man’s deep-rooted fear of uncontrolled and uncontrollable fire (see, Böhme 2003; Böhme and Böhme 2010), the acceptance of controlled burning as a restoration and landscape management measure is of great importance (for Lower Saxony, see Müller and Schaltegger 2004). However, this need not be problematic in principle if the population and those affected are involved in the relevant decisions or are very well informed in advance about the ecological and nature conservation functions of fire (7 Chap. 22). In this context, participatory approaches for involving stakeholders and those affected have been proposed (Davies et al. 2008).  

24.6.3 

Topsoil Removal

It is unlikely to meet with any opposition if soil in urban habitats that is strongly contaminated with heavy metals or organic pollutants - because of the risk it poses to human

health - is cleaned or removed and disposed of by environmental engineering means and the site is re-vegetated with appropriate measures. This is all the more urgent if the pollutants are released into the air through dust formation and wind effects or leached into the groundwater. The situation is different with the re-introduction or continuation of sod cutting on heaths (7 Sect. 14.5), the removal of topsoil in the restoration of nutrient-poor and species-rich grassland (7 Sect. 15.6.3) or the accelerated restoration of peatland by shallow peat removal (7 Sect. 8.7.2). Some facts about the ecosystem compartment soil in Central European habitats may inspire to critically question these restoration practices. It should also be noted that the United Nations have declared 2015 the “International Year of Soil” in order to raise awareness and focus on soil and soil protection worldwide (UN 2014). As an interplay of chemical, physical, and biological processes, soil formation is a very slow process. Typical soil formation rates on permanent grassland under Central European temperate climate conditions, for example, are only 1–2  cm per 100  years (Jones et  al. 2012). Accordingly, it takes periods of several hundred to thousands of years to naturally make up for soil loss due to erosion, for example. Jones et  al. (2012) state in the context of a comprehensive status report on Europe’s soils that they are practically a non-renewable natural resource. The authors also highlight the high annual soil loss rate in Europe due to erosion at 10 tonnes per hectare. Even though soils in Central Europe are naturally very diverse in terms of soil type as well as water and nutrient balance, the figures presented by Jedicke (1989) may shed light on the high diversity of animals and microorganisms in soils, including mycorrhizal fungi (. Fig.  24.3). In addition, there are the seeds and fruits in the soil diaspore bank. On various dry grasslands of Central Europe, up to more than 50,000 seeds have been counted on 1 m2 in the first 10 cm of soil (Kiss et al. 2017), and  

 

 

 

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Chapter 24 · Norms and Values in Ecosystem Restoration

24

..      Fig. 24.3  Soil organisms in 1 m2 of soil in the top 30 cm of the soil layer. (From Jedicke 1989)

525 24.7 · Non-native Organisms and Xenophobia

up to more than 90,000  in wet grassland (Klimkowska et al. 2010a; Valkó et al. 2011). During topsoil removal, these organisms and the diaspore bank are completely removed to depths of 10–30 cm, depending on the depth of soil removal. Apart from this considerable intervention in a soil or peat that has developed over centuries and the consequences for the organisms and diaspores that occur in it, the topsoil or peat removed often has to be disposed of at great expense, which is associated with correspondingly high costs (7 Table 23.2). Even if the topsoil or peat removed can be used e.g., in horticulture or for other purposes, the high costs of topsoil removal are not necessarily compensated (Klimkowska et al. 2010b). Another aspect that must be included in an ethically reflected decision-making process for topsoil removal as a restoration measure is the diverse ecosystem services provided by soils. Apart from the biodiversity already mentioned above, these include the provision of habitats for antagonists of agricultural and forestry pests, soil as an agricultural and forestry production site, the regulating capacity of soils in the nutrient and water cycles, carbon storage and sequestration, soil as an environmental archive (e.g., archaeology, pollen deposition), and as a subject for environmental education and research (Daily et al. 1997; Dominati et al. 2010; Robinson et  al. 2012; Bouma 2014; Sauerwein et  al. 2015; Adhikari and Hartemink 2016). At the very least, before removing soil or peat as part of a restoration of certain ecosystem services that one wishes to restore, these must be weighed against the services of the soil that may be lost. Against this background, Harnisch et al. (2014) cannot share “the almost euphoric assessment of topsoil removal as a means of reducing nutrient levels” and state a scenario that should give cause for concern when considering this measure for the restoration of ecosystems. With a restoration area of 1 ha, a topsoil removal of 50 cm soil depth  

24

results in a soil volume of approximately 5000  m3, which increases to approximately 6000  m3 when a “loosening factor” of approximately 20% is taken into account. With an average weight of approximately 1.5  t per cubic metre, this means that 225 tours with a 40-t truck would be necessary to transport the soil material. In addition, the excavated soil must be tested for contamination on the basis of the Federal Soil Protection Act, the Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act, and the corresponding federal state regulations before it can be put to any possible use. This brief critical reflection on some of the measures that are now common practice in ecosystem restoration could be extended to other measures, such as technological interventions for lake restoration as a measure of improving water and sediment quality (7 Sect. 11.6).  

24.7 

Non-native Organisms and Xenophobia

In 7 Chap. 5 it was already outlined why the management of non-native species in ecosystem restoration needs to be carefully reconsidered  - not only from a natural science perspective, but especially from a human science or environmental ethics perspective. Both, in scientific studies and in practice, non-native species are often rejected per se, and the need to combat them is uncritically assumed. Eser (1999), for example, has shown that the language and choice of words about neobiota and biological invasions show parallels to xenophobic semantics. The discussion and management of non-native species exemplifies how ecological facts and anthropocentric evaluations (unconsciously) intermingle and thus, serious misjudgements may occur. So why, for example, should nonnative species not play a key ecological role in the restoration of ecosystems, strongly altered by anthropogenic impact such as e.g., urban-industrial sites?  

527

Synthesis Contents Chapter 25 Conclusions and Outlook – 529

IV

529

Conclusions and Outlook Contents 25.1

Limiting Factors for Ecosystem Restoration – 530

25.2

 egradation in the Long Term and Restoration D in the Short Term? – 532

25.3

 estoration of Eutrophicated Terrestrial and Aquatic R Habitats: A Sisyphean Task? – 534

25.4

L imits to Planability, Uncertainties, and the Unforeseen: Allowing for More Dynamics – 536

25.5

 cosystem Restoration in the Light E of Current Trends – 537

25.6

Ecosystem Restoration at Any Price? – 538

25.7

 cientific Knowledge, Knowledge Transfer, S and Socio-Political Decisions – 538

25.8

Final Conclusion – 539

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Zerbe, Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65658-7_25

25

530

25

Chapter 25 · Conclusions and Outlook

There must be no question that the condition of many ecosystems and land-use types, respectively, which is associated with the loss of ecosystem services, on the one hand, and orientation of land use and landscape development in Central Europe according to the principles of sustainability, on the other, make ecosystem restoration indispensable. With the legal obligations, also against the background of the multifaceted international agreements, and from environmental-­ ethical and socio-economic considerations, a requirement for action can be deduced without any constraint (7 Chap. 21). Ecosystem restoration must be neither a luxury nor ecosystem cosmetics, but a consistent implementation of nature, environmental, and resource protection as well as of strong sustainability (7 Chap. 24). The fact that overexploitation and degradation of ecosystems can cause considerable socio-economic damage, while ecosystem restoration can be economically beneficial, has been demonstrated by environmental economic studies from the local-regional to the global level (7 Chap. 23). In the following, some overarching facts will be reflected to elaborate general trends, identifying potentials and weaknesses of ecosystem restoration, and, in particular, to stimulate an interdisciplinary discussion. Experimental restoration ecology as well as the successes and failures of practical ecosystem restoration and its scientific analysis have considerably expanded our knowledge of ecosystems and land-use types of the cultural landscape in Central Europe in recent decades both, at the level of populations and species as well as at the level of biocenoses and ecosystems and landscapes. While certain land-use types, such as species-rich meadows, dry grassland, and heathland, have been more or less successfully restored for decades, the results for some near-­ natural ecosystems, in particular, are rather sobering. Lake restoration projects (lake  

 

 

therapy, lake rehabilitation), for example, often show no significant success in the long term (7 Chap. 11), or, as in the case of marine habitats (7 Chap. 13), there are still no comprehensive restoration concepts at all.  

 

25.1 

Limiting Factors for Ecosystem Restoration

Limitations for practical ecosystem restoration result from ecological, economic, and/ or social factors. The ecological limitations are described in detail by Hölzel et al. (2009), for example, and can be caused by abiotic or biotic site factors, also in mutual interaction. The water balance in a wetland, for example, may not be adjusted in such a way that the characteristic wetland species or biocenoses reestablish themselves naturally; or the nutrient content of the soil on terrestrial sites or in the waterbody or sediment of lakes is too high and favours competitive nitrophytes and strong algal growth, respectively. Even if the nutrient content is reduced by appropriate measures (e.g., topsoil removal), continuously high atmogenic inputs can have a permanently limiting effect, as they exceed the critical load. This has been shown, for example, for heathland (7 Sect. 14.6). Particularly on urban-­ industrial or mining sites, contaminant loads (e.g., heavy metals) may be too high to restore an ecosystem that provides ecosystem services to humans. Contamination with pollutants poses a health hazard to humans and a significant barrier to the production of agricultural food products. Limiting biotic factors result, for example, from an impoverished or “empty” soil seed bank. In particular, ecosystems of the open cultural landscape that are to be restored after a long, often intensive interim use, show that the soil seed bank of the target species is severely impoverished or  

25

531 25.1 · Limiting Factors for Ecosystem Restoration

that the corresponding species have disappeared from the local-regional species pool. Due to dispersal barriers or low dispersal potential, the input of target species into the ­ecosystem to be restored may be limited. Even with suitable abiotic conditions of wetlands and floodplains, for example, transport pathways for floating diaspores may be obstructed (Donath et al. 2003; Jensen et al. 2006; Nilsson et al. 2010; Lorenz and Feld 2013). If the diaspores reach the target area naturally or artificially supported by appropriate measures, however, the suitable micro-­sites (safe sites; 7 Sect. 1.2.1) where the diaspores could germinate and the plants could become permanently established may be lacking. In the case of large-scale measures such as topsoil removal or the re-­vegetation of slopes in the high mountains, the micro-relief important for plant and vegetation establishment may have been lost, which could provide a corresponding diversity of micro-sites. Other limiting factors include the fragmentation of ecosystems or landscapes, high anthropogenic land-use pressure, or the small size of the area to be restored. An economic limitation results from excessively high costs for a planned or already started restoration project. While the actual costs (not the opportunity costs; 7 Chap. 23) of passive restoration (7 Sect. 3.1) can be very low, for example, topsoil removal on grassland, the de-construction of a dike on a river or at the coast, or the pumping out of lake sediment contaminated with nutrients or pollutants are very expensive. The parameters on which restoration costs depend, and which items have to be included in the cost calculation are explained in 7 Chap. 23. Excessively high costs can lead to the failure of a restoration project already in the planning phase or even during implementation (cf. Manchester et al. 1999; Török et al. 2011b; Bayraktarov et al. 2016).  

 

 

 

However, even if the ecological facts, the measures to be taken, and the costs would ensure the feasibility of an ecosystem restoration project, social or cultural limitations may exist. This is discussed using the example of the re-introduction of large carnivores in 7 Chap. 4. Acceptance of the measure by the local population is essential for the long-­term success of such re-introductions. This may be the case at the beginning of the project but may also change in the course of a re-introduction (7 Table 4.4). In an intensively used cultural landscape, the lack of available land is also a limiting factor for ecosystem restoration. Pfadenhauer and Grootjans (1999), for example, point out that many restoration projects fail not because of ecological knowledge, but because of the lack of available land against the background of ownership in a fragmented landscape. A major cultural barrier may exist in the restoration of wilderness. After centuries of pushing back wilderness and cultivating the land for agriculture and forestry, it sometimes takes a great deal of persuasion to convince local people of the value and benefits of an untouched natural environment. The fact that this is not easy, and that nature conservation repeatedly suffers setbacks due to a lack of acceptance is vividly illustrated by the example of the Bavarian Forest National Park (7 Chap. 22). Ecological, economic, and social limitations can be identified in advance using participatory approaches (7 Chap. 22). On this basis, objectives, plans, and measures can be adjusted. However, despite the elimination of obstacles in advance, unforeseen obstacles or limitations can also arise during ecosystem restoration, which then leads to the failure of the project (. Fig.  25.1), especially if the environmental variables or the socioeconomic framework conditions change (Covington et  al. 1999; Choi 2004; Griggs 2009).  

 

 

 

 

532

Chapter 25 · Conclusions and Outlook

Limiting factors

social

25

economic

ecological

No limitation or limitation is overcome

Limitation occurs later

Existing limitation is not overcome ..      Fig. 25.1  Ecological, economic, and social factors can be limiting for the success of restoration, even after the beginning or during the implementation of the restoration project

25.2 

Degradation in the Long Term and Restoration in the Short Term?

With regard to the restoration of the Dosenmoor (peatland) in SchleswigHolstein, Müller (1985) concludes that “it will take centuries, or even millennia, until the wounds inflicted on the Dosenmoor have healed” (case study in 7 Sect. 8.10). This points to a fundamental problem of ecosystem restoration. In many cases, attempts are made and it is expected to reverse longterm processes of degradation within the shortest possible periods, often using drastic measures such as topsoil removal to reduce nutrient loads. About 30  years ago, Kaule (1986) estimated periods for habitat restoration ranging from short-term restorable (150  years) such as for raised bogs and fens, forests, and heaths  

(see also, Riecken et al. 2006). Today, these time specifications can be modified based on the experience gained over several decades from practical ecosystem restoration and knowledge gained from restoration ecology (. Table  25.1). The characteristic vegetation of coastal salt grassland, for example, can be re-established just a few years after the dike is opened, which even leads Turner (1995) to conclude that salt grassland and marshland are the easiest of the wetlands to restore. Similar positive experiences are also available for other ecosystems and land-use types, respectively. The forest stands on former opencast lignite mines in the Rhenish lignite mining area, for example, show a remarkable state of development after about 80 years, which leaves nothing to be desired in terms of many ecosystem services (e.g., timber production, species and habitat protection, local recreation) (7 Sect. 7.12). Nevertheless, it must be stated that certain habitats that have been severely degraded by over-utilization in the past cannot be restored in the foreseeable future.  

 

533 25.2 · Degradation in the Long Term and Restoration in the Short Term?

25

..      Table 25.1  Time periods in which ecosystem services and habitats, respectively, can be permanently restored, if necessary with appropriate management, derived from previous experiences of practical ecosystem restoration and from the knowledge of restoration ecology, differentiated into short term (50 years). This assessment is based on favourable initial conditions; for some habitat types or unfavourable initial conditions, the restoration of the habitat-­typical ecosystem services is not possible in the foreseeable future Habitat, land-use or vegetation type

Period [years] 50

×

for peat formation - but it will not be possible to restore the diverse ecosystem services of a bog (7 Table 8.2). Here, the criticism of Katz (1992, 1996) and Elliot (1982) from the perspective of environmental ethics may be justified, that in this case, the restored  

534

Chapter 25 · Conclusions and Outlook

peatland ecosystem can at best be an “artefact” or a “fake”. The time periods given in . Table 25.1 reflect only general trends for the respective ecosystems or land-use types. The actual regeneration time of the specific case under consideration depends on the degree of degradation, on the duration of an interim land use, on the type, duration, and intensity of the restoration or maintenance management, and on the goals set. Determining the actual regeneration times of ecosystems or land-use types is usually made very difficult by the lack of corresponding long-term studies. The longterm monitoring of peatland development in Denmark over a period of more than 150 years (Kollmann and Rasmussen 2012) or the success control of European beaver re-introductions after more than 50  years (7 Table 4.2) are rare exceptions. In restoration ecology, most research projects are short-­term ( 5000 ha). Surv Perspect Integrat Environ Soc 7(2):1–22

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