Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me : An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students [1 ed.] 9781443870375, 9781443865401

Citation preview

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

By

Stephanie Ann Houghton

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students, by Stephanie Ann Houghton This book first published 2014 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2014 by Stephanie Ann Houghton All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-6540-0, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-6540-1

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................... vii Note to the Teacher ........................................................................................................................... ix 1. What is Research? .......................................................................................................................... 1 A typical task plan and the main parts of a thesis MINI-THESIS: PROJECT OVERVIEW The cover page and the table of contents Defining stereotypes and identifying possible research questions 2. Defining Stereotypes across Disciplines ........................................................................................ 7 Exploring variation between dictionary definitions of key terms Exploring varying definitions of key terms across disciplines Developing a working definition of a key term Identifying core meaning across definitions 3. Defining and Reflecting upon Stereotypes .................................................................................. 15 The nature of stereotypes Self-reflection: My ideal English teacher Self and other: Comparing and contrasting stereotypes 4. Exploring and Illustrating Stereotypes ......................................................................................... 27 Self-reflection: Your stereotypes of Americans, British and Koreans Some Chinese university students’ stereotypes of Americans, British and Koreans Self and other: Comparing and contrasting stereotypes 5. The Transmission of Stereotypes and Critical Incident Analysis ................................................ 33 The transmission of stereotypes through connotation and colour Summarising an extract Analysing critical incidents based on stereotypes 6. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 41 Analysing the content of an Introduction List of steps to follow in your Introduction Analysing and assessing sample Introductions by applying specific criteria MINI-THESIS: WRITING THE INTRODUCTION 7. Literature Review ......................................................................................................................... 49 Analysing the content of a Literature Review Referring to the work of others Analysing and assessing sample Literature Reviews by applying specific criteria MINI-THESIS: WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

vi

Contents

8. Research Methods 1 ..................................................................................................................... 61 Defining and distinguishing questionnaires and interviews Good and bad question types Eliciting stereotypes: Approaches and techniques Answering, analysing and evaluating a questionnaire 9. Research Methods 2 ..................................................................................................................... 71 MINI-THESIS: QUESTIONNAIRE STRUCTURE MINI-THESIS: PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND RESEARCH ETHICS MINI-THESIS: QUESTIONNAIRE AND FOLLOW-UP INTERVIEW ANALYING AND ASSESSING SAMPLE RESEARCH METHODS SECTIONS BY APPLYING SPECIFIC CRITERIA MINI-THESIS: WRITING THE RESEARCH METHODS SECTION 10. Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 81 Coding and interpreting qualitative data Defining and distinguishing analysis and interpretation Steps in qualitative data analysis Analysing and assessing sample Data Analysis sections by applying specific criteria MINI-THESIS: WRITING THE DATA ANALYSIS SECTION 11. Data Presentation ....................................................................................................................... 95 Defining and distinguishing fact and interpretation Language use when describing fact and interpretation Using data to illustrate points Analysing and assessing sample Data Presentation sections by applying specific criteria MINI-THESIS: WRITING THE DATA PRESENTATION SECTION 12. Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 119 Analysing the content of a Discussion section Strategies for writing the Discussion section Analysing and assessing sample Discussion sections by applying specific criteria MINI THESIS: WRITING THE DISCUSSION SECTION 13. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 125 Analysing the content of a Conclusion Analysing a combined Discussion and Conclusion section Analysing and assessing sample Conclusions by applying specific criteria MINI-THESIS: WRITING THE CONCLUSION 14. References and Appendices ..................................................................................................... 133 Defining and distinguishing source types, references and appendices Writing references according to a given style MINI-THESIS: WRITING THE REFERENCES AND COMPILING THE APPENDICES 15. Mini-Thesis Grading Sheet ...................................................................................................... 141 MINI-THESIS: ASSESS YOUR OWN MINI-THESIS BY APPLYING SPECIFIC CRITERIA References .................................................................................................................................. 143

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all the students who took part in the project that led to the publication of this book, and for letting me use extracts from their work for the benefit of future students. I also want to thank the editorial staff at Cambridge Scholars Publishing for their professionalism and support. —Stephanie Ann Houghton 29 July 2014

NOTE TO THE TEACHER

This textbook was developed for the benefit of international students in their penultimate year of study who are planning to write a graduation thesis in English related to stereotypes in their final year with little or no prior knowledge of the subject, or of thesis-writing itself. While many such books tend to provide general advice with illustrative examples, this book aims to help students to develop their thesis-writing skills through experiential learning by conducting a research project based on questionnaire and interview-based research, and reporting on it in a mini-thesis, the length of which has been left to the teacher’s discretion. This textbook was developed in a classroom research project that was conducted during a thesis writing course, and includes extracts from students’ work with their consent. More broadly, it results from my own research into the development of intercultural pedagogy that bridges theory and practice, and in particular from one of my co-edited books (Houghton, Furumura, Lebedko & Song, 2013), which explored theoretical understandings of stereotypes and ways of addressing them through education. Since many extracts from that book have been included in this textbook to illustrate some of the teaching points, Houghton, Furumura, Lebedko & Song (2013) can be used as an accompanying handbook for extensive reading, although it is not necessary as this textbook stands alone.

1. WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Overview ΠA typical task plan and the main parts of a thesis ΠMINI-THESIS: PROJECT OVERVIEW ΠThe cover page and the table of contents ΠDefining stereotypes and identifying possible research questions

Task 1 What is research? Read and discuss the two definitions below. Cambridge Dictionaries Online Œ

Research is “a detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new) information or reach a (new) understanding”

Oxford Dictionaries Online Œ

Research is “the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions”

Task 2 Check the meaning of the words in the table and underline them in Passage 1 below.

English word 1

spiral

2

reliable

3

backtrack

4

cautious

5

circular

6

linear

7

cycles

8

investigation

9

revise

10

alternatively

Translation into your language

1. What is Research?

2

Passage 1 Research can be conducted in many different ways, but it always seeks “planned, cautious, systematic and reliable ways of finding out or deepening understanding” about the matter under investigation. (Blaxter, Hughes & Tight, 2001: 5) Research may be conceptualised as a fixed, linear series of stages, with a clear start or end, perhaps allowing for different routes to be taken between particular stages. Alternatively. it can be conceptualised as a circular process with various entry and exit points, which allows for the possibility for backtracking to review and revise earlier stages as the research project progresses. More complex research designs conceptualised in this way may incorporate a number of cycles any of which may influence later cycles during the research process. Having reviewed and distinguished such approaches, they suggest that research is best conceptualised as being spiral in nature. Within this view, research “is cyclical, can be entered at almost any point, is a never-ending process, will cause you to reconsider your practice, will return you to a different starting place”. (Blaxter, Hughes & Tight, 2001: 9)

Task 3 A thesis is basically a long essay that reports on a research project. A thesis tends to be circular in nature insofar as it often starts with a specific research question, describes how it was investigated, and presents research findings that enable the researcher to answer the research question. It also tends to be spiral in nature in that old research questions can often generate new ones that propel the researcher forward into further research. Structurally, theses can be very similar. The main parts of a thesis are listed below. What kinds of information should you put in each section? Match the thesis sections listed on the left of the table below to the section descriptions listed on the right. Write the answer in the column shaded grey.

Thesis Section 1

Introduction

Section Description A

Describe how you designed and conducted the research project to collect data to help answer your research question.

2

Literature Analysis

B

Present the results of data analysis objectively perhaps using charts and tables to help readers understand easily

3

Research Methods

C

Describe how you analysed the data you collected.

4

Data Analysis

D

Provide extra supporting information not needed in the main thesis such as raw data

5

Results

E

Present the research question and explain why it is interesting and important.

6

Discussion

F

Provide a list of the sources you used (e.g. books, journals, internet sources etc.)

7

Conclusion

G

Analytically review what other people have already written about the topic to show your research question has not already been answered.

8

References

H

Discuss the results by making links back with the academic literature giving your opinion. Answer the research question clearly

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

9

Appendices

I

3

Summarise the thesis and its main conclusions perhaps identifying the limitations of the project and possibilities for future research.

Task 4 What is a stereotype? Read and discuss the two definitions provided below. Cambridge Dictionaries Online Œ

A stereotype is “a fixed idea that people have about what someone or something is like, especially an idea that is wrong”

Oxford Dictionaries Online Œ

A stereotype is “a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing”

Task 5: Mini-Thesis Overview Read the passage below and answer the questions beneath. In this course, you will conduct a research project related to stereotypes to help you to develop your research skills. You will write up your research in a mini-thesis. The purpose of the project, adapted from Houghton, Lebedko and Song (2013), is to help you to explore the stereotypes of those around you through questionnaire and interview-based research with one or more interviewees. Researchers usually set their own research question(s) based upon a preliminary reading of the academic literature but examples of the kinds of research question(s) you might investigate are presented below. Whatever research question(s) you set, you must investigate them consistently throughout the project and answer them clearly at end of your mini-thesis. Here are examples of a main research question and a related sub-question: “What kinds of stereotypes do people around me hold of Japanese, Russian, Chinese, British and American people?” and “What are the sources of their stereotypes?” You will investigate question(s) of your own by developing a questionnaire and distributing it to a group of your choice. You will then analyse the data to draw preliminary findings before investigating the data in more depth through individual and/or focus group interviews with a view to answering your research question(s) clearly at the end of your mini-thesis. Questions 1.

What is the purpose of the project?

2.

From whose research is this project adapted?

3.

What kind of research instrument will you develop and distribute to a selected group of people?

4.

Having analysed the questionnaire data, what will the next stage of data collection be?

1. What is Research?

4

Task 6 The cover page of your thesis should contain your name, the title of your mini-thesis and your student number. After the cover page, you need to present the Table of Contents (TOC). Look at the three examples below. Which one do you think gives the reader the clearest overview of the contents of the thesis, and why?

Table of Contents 1 1. Introduction ............................................................... 3 2. Literature review ....................................................... 3 3. Research Method ....................................................... 5 4. Data Analysis............................................................. 5 5. Results ....................................................................... 5 6. Conclusion ............................................................... 12 7. References ............................................................... 13 8. Appendices .............................................................. 13

Table of Contents 2 1. Introduction

2

2. Literature Review

2

3. Research Methodology

2

4. Data analysis

3

5. Results

3

6. Conclusion

6

7. References

6

8. Appendices ࣭Appendix 1: Questionnaire

7

࣭Appendix 2: Data Analysis Practice Sheet

8

࣭Appendix 3: Interview Transcription

11

Table of Contents 3 1. Introduction ࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭

2

2. Literature review ࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭

2

3. Research methodology ࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭

2,3

4. Data analysis ࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭

3

5. Results ࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭

3 to 8

6. Conclusion ࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭࣭

8

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

Task 7 Read the list of possible research questions below. Find two that do not focus on stereotypes. Rewrite them to focus them clearly on stereotypes.

Possible research questions 1

What kinds of stereotypes do people have of minority groups in my hometown?

2

What are the main minority groups in country X?

3

How do stereotypes against group X differ between generations in my local area?

4

How are women treated in country X?

5

What stereotypes do I hold of group X?

6

Which news stories seemed to influence people’s stereotypes against group X in 2013?

7

How do people manage their own stereotypes in intercultural communication?

Task 8 What interests Fumi about stereotypes, and why? Read and discuss Passage 1 below.

Passage 1 People seem to have a lot of stereotypes when they don’t much know about another culture. I am interested in four main areas related to stereotypes. Firstly, what kind of stereotypes do foreigners have of Japanese girls? This interests me because when I talked with a French friend of mine, he said he found it difficult to date Japanese girls because they are so shy. I agreed with him somewhat, but his point of view seemed rather stereotyped because there are certainly many Japanese girls who are not shy these days. Secondly, what kind of stereotypes do foreigners have of Japanese people? As far as I know, stereotypes may be positive, neutral or negative in nature, but I am interested in learning more about other kinds of stereotypes, and how to classify them. Thirdly, what kind of stereotypes do foreigners have of Chinese people? I am interested in this because one of my stereotypes of Chinese people has always been that they are loud, but is it true or not? Is my stereotype right or wrong? I would like to reflect on my own stereotypes to learn more about the way I think, and how to manage my own stereotypes. Fourthly, what kind of stereotypes do Japanese and Korean people have of each other, especially in my generation? I am interested in this question because Japan and Korea still have serious historical disagreements that continue to undermine communication today. To overcome such problems, we need to understand them. Understanding the relevant stereotypes is an important first step to developing mutual understanding, no matter how uncomfortable it might be. I am also interested in gender issues related to stereotypes. For example, what kind of stereotypes do men and women have of the opposite sex? Finding out more about that might help me to understand gender bias better. And what kind of stereotypes do people have of gay and lesbian people? In my view, they just love people who are the same sex as them, but some people misunderstand them or even feel prejudiced against them. Again, to solve the stereotype-related problems, we need to understand the roots of such attitudes.

5

1. What is Research?

6

Task 9 What interests you about stereotypes, and why? Make a list of possible research questions below. Also explain why the questions interest you, and why you think they are important.

Possible research question 1

2

3

4

Why it interests you

2. DEFINING STEREOTYPES ACROSS DISCIPLINES

Overview

࣭ Exploring variation between dictionary definitions of key terms ࣭ Exploring varying definitions of key terms across disciplines ࣭ Developing a working definition of a key term ࣭ Identifying core meaning across definitions

Task 1 What does the term ‘stereotype’ mean to you? Write a definition in the box below without checking the dictionary. Then, discuss your definition with your group. Did everyone write the same definition or not?

What is a stereotype?

Task 2 If you check the meaning of the same word in various dictionaries, you may find some variation between the definitions, which may cause misunderstandings if you assume that words have fixed meanings. Read Extract 1 below. What similarities and differences can you find between the definitions? Does there seem to be a core definition common to them all or not? Make notes in the table beneath the extract.

Extract 1 Any attempt to understand and deal with stereotypes presupposes an understanding of the essential meaning(s) of the term. Stereotypes have been defined by scholars from a range of disciplines, each capturing the nature, content and functions of stereotypes in interpersonal, interracial, intercultural and international relationships. However, I’d like to cite some dictionary definitions here as they usually offer information about the origins, the more basic

2. Defining Stereotypes across Disciplines

8

meanings and the everyday usage of the concept. The following descriptions of stereotypes are taken from some online dictionaries:

Online Etymology Dictionary 1798, "method of printing from a plate," from Fr. stéréotype (adj.) "printing by means of a solid plate of type," from Gk. stereos "solid" (see sterile) + Fr. type "type." Noun meaning "a stereotype plate" is from 1817. Meaning "image perpetuated without change" is first recorded 1850, from the verb in this sense, which is from 1819. Meaning "preconceived and oversimplified notion of characteristics typical of a person or group" is recorded from 1922. Stereotypical is attested from 1949. (stereotype, n.d.)

Oxford Dictionaries 1. a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing: 2. a relief printing plate cast in a mould made from composed type or an original plate. (stereotype, 2012)

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 1. A conventional, formulaic, and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image. 2. One that is regarded as embodying or conforming to a set image or type. 3. Printing A metal printing plate cast from a matrix molded from a raised printing surface, such as type. (stereotype, 2000)

Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged 1. (Communication Arts / Printing, Lithography & Bookbinding) a. a method of producing cast-metal printing plates from a mould made from a form of type matter in papier-mâché or some other material b. the plate so made 2. (Communication Arts / Printing, Lithography & Bookbinding) (Psychology) another word for stereotypy 3. an idea, trait, convention, etc., that has grown stale through fixed usage 4. (Sociology) a set of inaccurate, simplistic generalizations about a group that allows others to categorize them and treat them accordingly. (stereotype, 2003)

Dictionary.com 1.a process, now often replaced by more advanced methods, for making metal printing plates by taking a mold of composed type or the like in papier-mâché or other material and then taking from this mold a cast in type metal. 2. a plate made by this process. 3. a set form; convention. 4. Sociology, a simplified and standardized conception or image invested with special meaning and held in common by members of a group. (stereotype, n.d.)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

All of these definitions include the primary meaning, and the metaphorical meaning of the word “stereotype”. Originating in 1798 from the field of technology, the word stereotype refers to the method of printing from a plate, or the printed image thus produced. Since the plate is usually metal cast from the same mould, the printed image is inevitably fixed, formulaic, and conventional, with a set form or image; as no distinction or change is involved in the process, what is stereotyped is the same. When applied to people, stereotypes take the whole social groups as possessing the same traits. And when the same stereotypes are duplicated through various channels of media and interpersonal communication, those stereotypes become widely shared, leaving little to no room for individuation and diversity. A notable point is that in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, the metaphorical meaning of stereotype as “conventional, formulaic, and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image” is placed first as the primary meaning. Indeed, it is from this meaning of stereotype that scholars from sociology, psychology, linguistics, media studies and other fields have embarked on the exploration of this pervasive, and often times detrimental practice, in human society. (Song, 2013: 86-88)

Similarities

Differences

Task 3 People, including students and researchers, may sometimes have different working definitions of key terms used in the academic literature, which may cause misunderstandings if readers assume that such terms have fixed meanings. Researchers from various disciplines (i.e., academic fields) who are studying a particular phenomenon may understand a key term such as ‘stereotype’ in different ways. This means that when you read the work of other researchers, you have to pay attention to ways in which terms are defined and used. In any case, you have to define the key terms you use in your thesis carefully and clearly to help readers to understand exactly what you mean when you use them. And you should use the terms consistently yourself throughout the thesis to avoid causing confusion. Which disciplines are concerned with stereotypes? Using words from the table below, read and complete the sentences beneath to define some disciplines that are concerned with research into stereotypes. You can check the answers in the passages that follow.

Some academic disciplines concerned with stereotypes Sociology

Psycholinguistics

Social psychology

Ethno-linguistics

Cognitive linguistics

Memetics Semiotics

9

2. Defining Stereotypes across Disciplines

10

1.

(…………………..): studying the concepts of memes and the way they are imitated and transmitted in culture

2.

(…………………..): studying signs and symbols, and their function in both artificial and natural languages as well as signs and symbols of communicative behavior expressed both in language and nonverbal communication

3.

(…………………..) or psychology of language: studying the mental aspects of language and speech, linguistic ideologies and the influence of psychological factors that enable humans to acquire, understand and produce language

4.

(…………………..)/ethnic linguistics: studying language as an aspect of culture, the influence of language on culture and vice-versa, and cultural/ethnic identity

5.

(…………………..)/Cognitive linguistics: studying the relationship between cognition and the human mind, linguistic behavior and cognitive abilities, and the way language reflects patterns of thought

6.

(…………………..): studying aspects of individuals and people’s emotions, social perception and interactional behavior

7.

(…………………..): studying society, individuals, groups and human social interaction. (Lebedko, 2013a)

Task 4 Read the passage below, and answer the questions beneath.

Defining Stereotypes across Various Disciplines Stereotype definitions vary depending on the trends in scholarly research and approaches. Since the intercultural communication paradigm is becoming more fundamental and multidisciplinary, and as scholars draw on findings from related disciplines in the humanities, it is essential to include views on stereotypes from a variety of these contiguous fields. Lippmann’s (1922) basic definition of stereotypes as “pictures in our heads” (p.3) remains the generally accepted and classical sociological definition to date. They are reinforced in the following way: In some measure, stimuli from the outside, especially when they are printed or spoken words, evoke some part of a system of stereotypes, so that the actual sensation and the preconception occupy consciousness at the same time… If what we are looking at corresponds successfully with what we anticipated, the stereotype is reinforced for the future, as it is in a man who knows in advance that the Japanese are cunning and has the bad luck to run across two dishonest Japanese. (Lippmann, 1922, p.54)

According to Bottom and Dejun (2007), however, there is evidence that by the start of the 20th century, and in the early 1920s, the words stereotype and stereotypic had been in use before the term was introduced by Lippmann (1922) in expressions metaphorically meaning “mental process” such as stereotyped combinations, “stereotypic” thought, and stereotyped (p. 6). Lippmann redefined the term stereotype to mean “[a] preconceived and oversimplified idea of the characteristics which typify a person, situation, etc.; an attitude based on such a preconception and a person who appears to conform closely to the idea of a type” (cited from Bottom & Dejun, 2007, p.6). This definition is less well-known than the one presented above. (Lebedko, 2013a)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

1.

Why do stereotype definitions vary?

2.

How did Lippmann define stereotypes in 1922?

3.

Was the word ‘stereotype’ used before 1922?

4.

How did Lippmann redefine it?

5.

Why do think researchers definitions sometimes vary?

6.

Do you think it is important for everyone to define terms in the same way? And do you think it is possible?

11

Task 5 Check the meaning of the words in the table and underline them in Passages 1-4 in Task 6 below.

English word 1

ethnocentric

2

reverse

3

prejudice

4

oversimplified

5

inter-group

6

folklore

7

category

8

derogatory

9

trait

10

slur

Translation into your language

Task 5 Read Passages 1-4 below about ways in which stereotypes are viewed within four different disciplines and answer the questions beneath.

Passage 1 In linguistics, theoretical interest has recently turned to the study of language representations of stereotypes considered to be cognitive constructs. Stereotypes are often realized by ethnophaulisms/ethnic slurs (derogatory or disparaging words) creating negative mental images of alien groups in linguistically diverse patterns such as transformations, associations, metaphorical and metonymical transfer (e.g., rom ‘gypsy’ (from Romany); acey ‘Englishman’ (Russian from English ‘I say’); aizer ‘a person from Azerbaijan’; cent ‘North American’ (Fofin, 2008, pp. 46-49). Stereotypical invectives are often applied to minorities. Many stereotypes are linguistically represented in folklore by sayings, proverbs, and idioms such as ‘to see Indians’ meaning “to be in a delirium” and ‘to be a regular Indian’ meaning “to be an habitual drunkard” according to Mieder (1995). (Lebedko, 2013a: 7) 1.

How can stereotypes manifest themselves in language patterns?

2.

Who are stereotypes often applied to?

2. Defining Stereotypes across Disciplines

12

Passage 2 Sociology (studying society, individuals, groups and human social interaction) defines stereotypes as cognitions held by one social group about another social group (Elligan, 2008), or as oversimplified standardized images (Moore, 2006). Psycho-sociology focuses on psycho-sociological functions ascribing negative characteristics to the stereotype regarded as stable, reinforcing prejudices and stipulating the barriers in communication according to BartmiĔski (2009), the head of the Ethno-linguistic School of Lublin (Poland), who also highlights the unstable and changeable character of stereotypes and the connection between hetero-stereotypes (perception of others) and the history of neighboring countries. For example, immediate neighbors perceive Poles negatively, but the farther away the country, the more positive is the stereotype. Wide-ranging, research-generated illustrations are presented below. Lithuanians consider Poles cunning and arrogant; Belarusians think Poles are haughty and loving domination; Russians earlier saw them as rioters and later as trading Catholics; Germans viewed them as poor, retarded thieves... For French, Poles are hardworking Catholic-alcoholics; for Americans, they are silly, but industrious and hospitable traditionalists (BartmiĔski, 2009, p.15). (Lebedko, 2013a:6)

1.

In what kind of images are stereotypes contained, according to Moore (2006)?

2.

What do stereotypes reinforce, according to BartmiĔski (2009)?

Passage 3 Social psychology (studying aspects of individuals and people’s emotions, social perception and interactional behavior) treats stereotypes on the basis of the relationship between individuals and groups, considering them to be central factors of any society and of importance in inter-group perceptions. “These perceptions of groups are called stereotypes” according to McGarty, Yzerbyt and Spears (2002, p.1), who developed three guiding principles for understanding stereotypes: (a) “stereotypes are aids to explanation” implying that their formation may help the perceiver make sense of a situation; (b) “stereotypes are energy saving devices,” implying that they may reduce the cognitive effort of the perceiver; and (c) “stereotypes are shared group beliefs” (p. 2), implying that norms of social groups and views are shared by the perceiver. Social psychology also treats stereotypes as units on which ethnocentric perception is based; a form of social perception or unique perceptual experience (Stewart & Bennett, 1991). Generalizations ignoring subtle differences among members of groups, individuals in a society and the application of broad categories can all lead to stereotyping. Stewart and Bennett (1991) offer the following illustration: It occurred in the Portland, Oregon Rose Parade, where a float was entered honoring Sapporo, Japan, Portland’s sister city. Dignitaries flown from Japan were quite upset when they observed that some of the young women waving from the float were Chinese, not Japanese. The parade director, when questioned on the point, responded with a statement of stereotypic perception: “Japanese…Chinese—close enough” (p.164). (Lebedko, 2013a:6-7)

1.

What kind of relationship do social psychologists interested in stereotypes tend to focus on?

2.

What tends to be ignored in the stereotyping process?

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

13

Passage 4 Cognitive linguistics (studying the relationship between cognition and the human mind, linguistic behavior and cognitive abilities, and the way language reflects patterns of thought) regards the stereotype as a mental category that people easily apply to all members of that category. “A stereotype is, thus, a socially determined minimum set of data with regard to the extension of a category” (Geeraerts, 2006, p.157). Pinker (2003) assumes that “…people’s ability to set aside stereotypes when judging an individual is accomplished by their conscious, deliberate reasoning” (p.205). However, being distracted or in need to respond quickly, people “… are more likely to judge that a member of an ethnic group has all stereotyped traits of the group” (p.205). Though stereotypes are relatively stable, they can also be reversed as illustrated below: During World War II, when the Russians were allies of the United States and the Germans were enemies, Americans judged Russians to have more positive traits than Germans. Soon afterwards, when the alliances reversed, Americans judged Germans to have more positive traits than Russians (Pinker, 2003, p.205). (Lebedko, 2013a: 7)

1.

How are stereotypes regarded by cognitive linguists?

2.

Are stereotypes completely stable?

Task 7 Read the different definitions and key aspects of stereotypes in the academic fields listed in the table below (Lebedko, 2013a) and discuss them your group. Identify any similarities between them. Do you think a core meaning unites them despite the differences, or not, and why?

Field Classical

Definition of stereotypes Pictures in our heads

Key aspects Stimuli from the outside, especially when they are

(sociological)

printed or spoken words, evoke some part of a

definition

system of stereotypes

Sociology

Cognitions held by one social group about

Human social interaction

another social group; oversimplified standardized images Psycho-sociology

Social psychology

Stable, reinforcing prejudices and

Psycho-sociological functions ascribing negative

stipulating the barriers in communication

aspects

Group perceptions relationship between

Aspects of individuals and people’s emotions,

individuals and groups; units on which

social perception

ethnocentric perception is based Linguistics

Cognitive linguistics

Negative mental images of alien groups in

Verbal representations of stereotypes; language

linguistically diverse patterns

bases of stereotypes

A mental category that people easily

Linguistic behavior; cognitive abilities;

transfer to all the members of this category

language reflects patterns of thought

the way

2. Defining Stereotypes across Disciplines

14

Ethno-linguistics

A mental construct correlating with naïve

Language as an aspect of culture; language

worldview;

influence on culture and of culture on language;

a stable complex of naïve beliefs about a

cultural / ethnic identity

nation, reflecting specific features of folk xenopsychology Psycholinguistics

Based on different levels of language,

The mental aspects of language and speech; speech

including paralanguage

perception and peculiarities of various levels of language

Semiotics

Signs and symbols, their function in both

Process and result of communicative (behavior) in

artificial and natural languages;

accordance with semiotic patterns

communicative behavior expressed both in language and nonverbal communication Discourse analysis

Cultural ideological statements and

Reading key (the tone of communication)

overgeneralization Memetics

Memes as behavioral rules; generalisations

Stereotyping based on culturally learned

of certain (positive or negative) opinions

behavioral rules ignoring fixed, assumed, deduced

attached to individuals

or imagined characteristics

Task 8 Review this unit and develop the definition of stereotypes you wrote in Task 1. Use the paragraphs above to help you. What is a stereotype?

Task 9 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

3. DEFINING AND REFLECTING UPON STEREOTYPES

Overview ࣭ The nature of stereotypes ࣭ Self-reflection: My ideal English teacher ࣭ Self and other: Comparing and contrasting stereotypes

Task 1 Check the meaning of the words in the table and underline them in Extracts 1-5 below, and answer the questions beneath each one. English word 1

flawed

2

a double-edged sword

3

attributes

4

ethnocentrism

5

distort

6

valence

7

exaggerate

8

bias

9

self-esteem

10

prejudice

Translation into your language

Extract 1: Defining stereotypes The term stereotype was originally coined by Lippman (1922) to liken the cognitive stereotyping process to the way a printing press works when it prints the same identical symbols repeatedly, but the definition was later developed by Allport (1954) who explained it as “an exaggerated belief associated with a category”. Dovidio, Brigham, Johnson and Gaertner (1996) review definitions of stereotypes that have been presented since the term was first introduced, noting that earlier definitions tended to focus on their flawed nature, whereas later definitions emphasised their status as necessary cognitive processes that help us make sense of a highly complex world. Stereotypes can be seen in terms of advantages and disadvantages. Brislin (1986) defines stereotypes as a double-edged sword: on the one hand, a “useful and important aspect of intelligent and efficient thinking” and on the other “any categorization of individual elements concerned with people that mask differences among those elements” (Brislin, 1981, p. 44). Dovidio et al. (1996) more recently defined it as “a generalization about beliefs about groups

3. Defining and Reflecting upon Stereotypes

16

unjustified because of faulty thought processes, over-generalization, factual incorrectness, inordinate rigidity, inappropriate attributions, rationalization from prejudiced attitude or discriminatory behaviour”. (Houghton, 2013: 158-9) 1.

Who originally coined the word stereotype, and when?

2.

How did Allport define it in 1954?

3.

How did the way stereotypes were viewed by researchers change over time?

4.

Why did Brislin describe stereotypes as a double-edged sword?

5.

Does the definition formulated by Dovidio and his colleagues focus on the merits or demerits of stereotypes?

Extract 2: How stereotypes are formed To avoid the potential negative effects of stereotyping processes, one needs to understand the process through which stereotypes are formed. Categories are often based on visually obvious attributes such as race or gender and may vary in saliency, relevance or differentiation according to the social context. Once a category has been set up in the mind, knowledge, beliefs and expectancies are added and individuals within the category are thereafter imbued with the characteristics attached to the category (Hamilton & Neville Uhles, 2000). Such categorisation processes form and maintain the group boundaries that underpin ethnocentrism and prejudice (Brislin, 1986; LeVine & Campbell, 1972; Rubovits & Maehr, 1973). Through interaction with people who do not fit into the broader category, category sub-types are set up to account for the differences. Though still general in nature, category sub-types contain more detail than the main category and can have one of two effects upon the main category. They may isolate atypical members from the main category, thus preserving the existing stereotype, or they may “increase perceived diversity of the group diminishing ability to make sweeping generalizations” (Hamilton & Neville Uhles, 2000, p. 469). Thus, stereotype categorisation may or may not break down in response to new information. (Houghton, 2013: 161) 1.

How can the negative effects of stereotypes be avoided?

2.

What are stereotypical categorisations often based on?

3.

What happens after a stereotype has been set up in the mind?

4.

What do such categorisation processes form and maintain?

5.

Does stereotypical categorisation always break down in response to new information or not?

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

17

Extract 3: The effects of stereotypes Though the very idea of stereotypes is often negatively valenced, their effects are not always bad. Information held in the category can be considered a source of knowledge used to make inferences about people when other kinds of information are not available, which can be useful if the information is correct (Hamilton & Neville Uhles, 2000, p. 466-470), and stereotypes are basic to human thought (Brislin, 1986). Additional adjectives are necessary when referring to wrongs such as prejudicial stereotypes or hostile stereotypes. On the other hand, stereotypes are beliefs that are over-generalized (Barna, 1985) and since the categories become the focus of response, individual elements are glossed over and the information held in the stereotype may be inaccurate. ΠStereotypes are over-generalized beliefs that can distort perception adversely affecting communication as they disrupt the objectivity of perceptual processing (Barna, 1985). ΠSince they are based upon exaggerated points of difference, stereotypes form a source of inaccurate information (Campbell, 1967; Harding, Proshanksy, Kutner & Chein, 1969), distorting perception of the other and increasing the likelihood of misunderstanding. ΠPeople tend to seek confirmation of stereotypes during interaction, which not only constrains communication but also encourages others to behave in line with the stereotypes thus creating a self-fulfilling prophecy in the process (Hewstone & Giles, 1986). ΠStereotypes have an adverse effect upon memory, causing people to see and remember behaviour that confirms their stereotypes favouring in-group members and disfavouring outgroup members in the process (Hewstone & Giles, 1986). ΠStereotypes can lead to inaccurate predictions about behaviour (Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988; Kim & Gudykunst, 1988). (Houghton, 2013: 158-9) 1.

Are the effects of stereotypes always negative or not?

2.

According to Barna, what is a main problem with stereotypes?

3.

Why do stereotypes form a source of inaccurate information?

4.

How can stereotypes create a self-fulfilling prophecy?

5.

How do stereotypes affect memory?

Extract 4: Stereotypes and group boundaries In addition to the effects of stereotyping upon individual perception listed above, stereotyping (or categorization) processes also contribute to the formation and maintenance of group boundaries, which relates directly to ethnocentrism (LeVine & Campbell, 1972; Rubovits & Maehr, 1973). Negative evaluations can be accentuated by illusory correlation, a form of cognitive bias, which takes place when distinctive but unrelated events are associated during information processing. Behaviours of out-group members noted and evaluated negatively on different

3. Defining and Reflecting upon Stereotypes

18

occasions may bias the observer to associate and remember them as beliefs about the group (Hamilton & Gifford, 1976). This may lead to a tendency to evaluate those members negatively on every occasion thereafter, reinforcing the in-group and out-group distinction, and enhancing the self-esteem of the individual concerned in the process. Stereotypes thus play a role in the definition of group boundaries. Social Identity Theory suggests that stereotypical categorisations help define group boundaries and lie at the heart of inter-group attitudes. A person’s identity consists of both personal and social identity. Personal identity refers to “self-categories that define the perceiver as a unique individual in contrast to other individuals”, whereas social identity “refers to social categorisations of self and others, self-categories which define the individual in terms of his or her shared similarities with members of certain social categories in contrast to other social categories” (Turner, 2000, p. 341-343). Social categorisation of people into distinct groups can cause discrimination as the in-group is favoured over the out-group, which is rooted in a basic human need for self-esteem (Tajfel, Billig, Bundy & Flament, 1971; Tajfel, 1982; Turner, 1987), although the universality of this tendency has been questioned by Wetherell (1982). It seems to be generally accepted, however, that stereotypical categorizations do lie at the heart of inter-group attitudes. Negative evaluation of the out-group can be seen as a mechanism for forming and maintaining group boundaries, which relates to the ethnocentric need for positive social identity. (Houghton, 2013: 160) 1.

What do stereotypes contribute to the formation and maintenance of?

2.

What is illusory correlation and what tendency can it lead to?

3.

What is suggested in Social Identity Theory?

4.

How can personal and social identity be distinguished?

5.

What can the basic human need for self-esteem cause in intergroup relations?

Extract 5: Stereotypes and prejudice Prejudice, or unfair negative attitude toward out-group members (Dovidio et al, 1996), also relates to group identification processes. Brislin (1986) identifies key aspects of prejudice as pre-judgment based upon labels applied to people originating in factors differentiating people such as race, sex, skin colour, occupation, religion or political affiliation, whereby people are judged based on perceived membership of the labelled category, rather than as individuals. Brislin (1986) highlights the point that prejudicial judgments are evaluative. In addition to making judgments about facts, individuals also make judgments about the goodness, worth or desirability of other people based on the labels applied which are sometimes so strongly held that they are impervious to the introduction of new facts which, from a rational point of view, should affect attitudes towards others. Prejudice thus finds its roots in social categorisation and involves the tendency to evaluate negatively. (Houghton, 2013: 160-1) 1.

How did Dovidio and colleagues define prejudice in 1996?

2.

According to Brislin, upon what can prejudice be based?

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

3.

On what kind of membership may prejudiced judgments be based?

4.

What might people make judgments about?

5.

What does ‘impervious to the introduction of new facts’ mean in this context?

19

Task 2 What would your ideal English teacher be like? Why would you like to have that kind of teacher? Also, what would your ideal English teacher not be like, and why? Write a short description of each, with reasons, in the box below and discuss them with your group. 1) What would my ideal English teacher look like? 2) Why would I like to have that kind of teacher? 3) What would my ideal English teacher not look like? 4) Why would I not like to have that kind of teacher?

Task 3 Read Ayaka’s answers to the questions below, and discuss them with your group. Do you find her reasons acceptable, or not, and why?

Ayaka’s answers 1) What would my ideal English teacher look like? ࣭ My ideal English teacher would be female. She would have white skin, look happy and have a kind expression on her face. She would look intelligent and of course she would be good looking. I wouldn’t care if she wore glasses or not. 2) Why would I like to have that kind of teacher? ࣭ I’m female, so if my English teacher was the same sex as me, I would be able to ask her questions easily and study without feeling anxious because she looks kind. The way she looks would also motivate me to study in class! 3) What would my ideal English teacher not look like? ࣭ My least ideal English teacher would be an Asian man with a strict expression on his face, and whose clothes didn’t look so clean.

3. Defining annd Reflecting up pon Stereotypess

20

4) Why wou uld I not like to have that kind of teach her? ࣭ I’m fem male, so I wouuld feel a littlee nervous with th a male teach her. When I was w a high schhool student, my m English teacherr was a womaan but she wass strict and heer classes werre a little stressful, so I donn’t want classees like that. Also, I wouldn’t waant an Asian teacher becausse I am Asian n. I don’t wan nt to learn a fooreign languag ge from an Asian tteacher. I thinnk the impresssion of cleanliiness is generaally importantt for students bbecause they don’t want to go nnear teachers who w don’t seem m clean.

Task 4 Would you like the teachhers shown in n each of the pictures belo ow1 to be you ur English lannguage teacheer? Write a m 1-6 in the ranking r colu umn of the tabble below (1 = no, not at all /6 = yes, vvery much so o) and give number from reason(s) forr your answerrs in each casee.

Picture No.

Ran nking

1 (Asian/fem male) 2 (White/fem male) 3 (Black/fem male) 1 (Asian/m male) 2 (White/m male) 3 (Black/m male)

1

Source: thee Face Researchh Lab Database

Reason((s)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

21

Task 5 Would Ayaka like the teachers shown in each of the pictures in Task 4 to be her English teacher? Read her answers below and compare them with your own.

Pic. No. 1 (Asian/female) 2 (White/female) 3 (Black/female)

1 (Asian/male) 2 (White/male) 3 (Black/male)

Rank

Reason(s) She is a woman / She is Asian = I’m a woman so I would prefer a female to a male

5

teacher. But she is an Asian and I’m also Asian, so I have some competitive feelings against her. I don’t know what they are exactly, but that is why I ranked her at No.5.

6

She is a woman / She is good looking = She is the same sex as me and I guess she is an ideal English teacher for Japanese students. She looks just right for an English teacher. She is a woman / She looks kind = She is a woman and her eyes look kind, so she

3

seems like a good teacher and a mother figure. But she has black skin and some Asians have a bad impression about that, so I ranked her at No. 3. He is a man. / He is an Asian = This teacher may suit other students but as for me, I am

1

Asian so I feel the same way as I do about the lady in picture 1, which is why I ranked him at No.1.

4

He is a man. / He is good looking = I feel the same way about him as I do about the lady in picture No. 2 but he is a man, so I ranked him at No.4. He is a man and looks funky, but that is not good for helping us to study. Being funky

2

and joking around is really good for making friends but not for being a teacher. Also, his eyes are little bit wild, so I ranked him at No.2.

Task 6 In a study conducted in 2013, Rivers & Ross asked twenty Japanese students (S1-S20) whether they would like the teachers shown in each of the pictures presented in Task 4 to be their English teacher. They were also asked to give reasons. Read a summary of their answers below (which focus on race but not gender). Make notes in the box below.

1.

Does anything interest or surprise you about what the students wrote and why?

2.

What can we learn about your stereotypes, and those of the twenty students who took part in the study?

3. Defining and Reflecting upon Stereotypes

22

Positively Intended Comments Asian Teachers 1.

If he can talk American English then I do not mind what he looks like (S3)

2.

I think it may be easy to talk to her because she is a woman and she looks Japanese (S5)

3.

I can get information efficiently (S11)

4.

He looks Japanese so I might be able to speak to him easily (S15)

5.

It doesn’t matter that he looks Asian as long as he is a native-speaker of English (S18)

6.

She looks Asian but she is an American so she should be a good teacher (S18)

7.

I guess his experience is enough to be able to correct my mistakes (S19)

White Teachers 8.

He looks like my English teacher on Monday, and he always makes me enjoy class (S1)

9.

He looks just like an English teacher in my opinion (S4)

10. He is a good person I think (S5) 11. Matches the image of a good English teacher (S6) 12. Her class will be interesting (S6) 13. He is true to my image of an English teacher. He looks American. (S7) 14. She looks kind and beautiful (S8) 15. He looks like he can use English very well (S9) 16. He looks like a foreign person (S10) 17. I want to talk about the United States with him (S11) 18. She seems intelligent (S12) 19. He looks like a real American so I can learn true English (S15) 20. He looks like he knows many things (S16) 21. He looks intelligent (S16) 22. He has the look of a real American (S20) 23. She seems to be very cheerful and attractive (S20) Black Teachers 24. He reminds me of an NBA player (S2) 25. American people of this skin-colour are usually full of energy (S4) 26. His class would definitely be funny (S6) 27. I do not care if his pronunciation is not perfect (S6) 28. Her class will be lively (S7) 29. I think her class will be very fun (S7) 30. He seems funny (S10) 31. He seems to be a funny man (S13) 32. He looks like fun (S16) 33. She looks energetic (S16) 34. He looks funny (S17)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

23

Negatively Intended Comments Asian Teachers 1.

He looks a little strict (S1)

2.

I do not know any Asian female English teachers (S2)

3.

I know he is from the United States but he looks too Asian (S4)

4.

I want to be taught by a more foreign looking teacher (S5)

5.

He is Asian, the same as me (S5)

6.

Asian...arrogant Asian (S6)

7.

She looks like Japanese and I do not trust Japanese-English at all (S6)

8.

He looks Asian and she looks Chinese (S7)

9.

He looks like a Japanese and this is not good for me (S8)

10. She looks kind but too much like a Japanese (S8) 11. She looks a little Japanese (S9) 12. I would like the chance to have a more foreign looking teacher (S10) 13. He should be more fresh (S11) 14. She looks too Japanese (S11) 15. He looks unreliable (S12) 16. His class does not seem to be fun (S13) 17. I don’t want to be taught be someone who looks Asian (S14) 18. He looks too young so his teaching will not be good (S20) White Teachers 19. No negative comments were made Black Teachers 20. He looks a bit strict (S4) 21. I do not know about the character of women of this appearance (S6) 22. I am a little scared (S11) 23. The man and the woman both look African (S12) 24. I feel he could be a little strict (S14) 25. He looks African so I think I might not have a good relationship with him (S15) (adapted from Rivers & Ross, 2013: 50-51)

3. Defining and Reflecting upon Stereotypes

24

Task 7 Read what interested and/or surprised Ayaka about the students’ responses in the Rivers & Ross (2013) study.

Ayaka’s response 1.

Does anything interest or surprise you about what the students wrote and why? a.

There weren’t any negative comments about White Teachers. Can we infer that Japanese are trust and like them?

b.

The comment “I do not know about the character of woman of this appearance (S6)” (about Black Teachers), this totally surprised me because this answer shows how the student characterises people based on appearance.

c.

I thought the same thing about the comment “I don’t want to be taught be someone who looks Asian (S14)” (about Asian Teachers), so this was interesting.

d.

The comment “She seems intelligent (S12)” (about White Teachers) seems to be connected to the question below.

e.

The comment “He looks funny (S17)” (about Black Teachers) also seems to be connected to the question below.

2.

What can we learn about your stereotypes, and those of the twenty students who took part in the study? a.

I think Japanese people feel competitive towards other Asian people, which may be ethnocentric.

b.

While I have a stereotype of White people being friendly, kind or intelligent, I have a stereotype that Black people are funky or like enjoying themselves, which is not good for the study scene. I guess Japanese people have stereotypical ideas about White and Black people, and I guess we think that White is better than Black. It can’t be changed easily because it is a stereotype, so if we want to change it, we should meet someone who can break it.

Task 8 Compare the stereotypes associated with your image of your ideal language teacher (in Task 2) with those of your partner. Identify similarities and differences between them, and complete the table below.

Similarities 1 2 3

Differences

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

25

Task 9 Write a paragraph summarising some of the main similarities and differences between your stereotypes of your ideal language teacher with those of your partner in the box below. On the first line, leave a 2cm indent.

Task 10 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

4. EXPLORING AND ILLUSTRATING STEREOTYPES

Overview ࣭ Self-reflection: Your stereotypes of Americans, British and Koreans ࣭ Some Chinese university students’ stereotypes of Americans, British and Koreans ࣭ Self and other: Comparing and contrasting stereotypes

Task 1 Following the instructions for each of the three sentence patterns used below, complete the sentences to reflect on your stereotypes of American, British and Korean people. 1. Write three sentences stating your general impressions of Americans, British and Koreans. a.

The Americans ……………………………….………........

b.

The British …………………….…………………………...

c.

The Koreans ……………………………………………….

2. Write three sentences stating what you think the Americans, the British and the Koreans always do. a.

The Americans always………………………………………

b.

The British always………………………………………….

c.

The Koreans always…………………………………………

3. Write three sentences stating what you think the Americans, the British and the Koreans never do. a.

The Americans never………………………………………

b.

The British never…………………………………………..

c.

The Koreans never…………………………………………

4. Exploring and Illustrating Stereotypes

28

Task 2 In a study conducted by Song (2013), fifty-five Chinese university students’ stereotypes of Americans, British and Korean people were investigated using questionnaire-based research. Read the questionnaire data (from the three items presented in Task 1) presented in the tables below with the corresponding descriptions below each table. Does anything interest or surprise you about the data? Do the comments seem positive, negative, or a mixture of both? Make notes in Boxes 1-3 (below the summary paragraphs in each case). Table 1: Chinese respondents’ views of the Americans

Views of the Americans (N=55x3=165) Main category

1

2

Illustrative examples 1.

Open (22)

2.

Easy-going (7)

3.

Active-minded (6)

4.

Daring (5); enthusiastic (5);

5.

Cheerful (4); humorous (4)

1.

Individualistic (16)

2.

Upholding democracy (8)

Value

3.

Strong sense of ethnicity, patriotism (6)

(46; 27.9%)

4.

Multiple cultures (3)

5.

Sensitive to power (2); self-protection by law (2); individual

Character (71; 43%)

development(2); little respect for courtesy (2)

3

4

1.

Showing creative spirit (8)

Behaviour

2.

Following principles (5)

(18; 10.9%)

3.

Enjoying life (3)

4.

Fast pace of life (1); fond of recreation (1)

1.

High living standard (3)

2.

Anti-China (1); badly affected by economic crisis(1); discriminative (1)

Socio-political (6; 3.6%)

The examples in Table 2 indicate that the Americans were most frequently identified by the Chinese respondents as having the character of “being open” (22/55), holding the value of “individualistic” (16/55), and “showing creative spirit” (8) in their behaviour, and being a society with a “high living standard” (3) . (Song, 2013: 99)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

29

BOX 1 1.

Does anything interest or surprise you about the Chinese respondents’ stereotypes of Americans?

2.

Do the comments seem positive, negative, or a mixture of both?

Table 2: Chinese respondents’ views of the British

Views of the British with top 5 examples (N=55x3=165) Main category

1

2

Character (79; 47.9%)

Value (18; 10.9%)

Illustrative examples 1.

Gentlemanly, genteel (22)

2.

Conservative (12)

3.

Precise (9)

4.

Noble temperament (7)

5.

Traditional (5)

1.

Emphasizing courtesy (9) ;

2.

Strong sense of social hierarchy (3)

3.

Royal culture (1); ruling consciousness/ imperialist (1); strong sense of family (1); upholding national belief and history (1); having strong sense of responsibility (1); holding interpersonal feelings as important (1)

3

4

Behaviour

1.

Enjoy life (3)

2.

Like drinking tea (2); love classics (2); multiple but merging folk-customs (2); fond of recreation (2);

(16; 9.7%)

Socio-political (13; 7.9%)

having creative spirit (2) 3.

Like wearing hat (1); following America (1); act on principles (1)

1.

Having profound culture (8);

2.

Class society (2)

3.

Small population (1); highly developed country (1); beautiful scenery(1)

The examples in Table 3 indicate that the top perceptions of Chinese respondents’ of the British regarding character, value, behaviour and socio-political aspects were “genteel character” (22), “value of courtesy” (9), “enjoying life” (3) and “having a profound culture” (8), respectively. The response rate for the British was also notably lower than that for the Americans (126 vs 141), which may be accounted for by the more pervasive influence of American culture in the world, and in the Chinese English teaching materials. (Song, 2013: 99)

4. Exploring and Illustrating Stereotypes

30

BOX 2 1.

Does anything interest or surprise you about the Chinese respondents’ stereotypes of British people?

2.

Do the comments seem positive, negative, or a mixture of both?

Table 3: Chinese respondents’ views of the Koreans

Views of the Koreans with top 5 examples Main category

1

Character (32; 19.4%)

N=55x3=165)

Illustrative examples 1.

Self-conceited (9)

2.

Uncivilized (3); civilized (3)

3.

Open (2); friendly (2); precise (2)

4.

dishonest(1); cheerful(1); impetuous(1); humorous(1); simple and modest(1); self-abasing(1); selfish(1); cowardly(1) wanting to dominate the world (1); united (1)

2

3

4

1.

Courtesy (8)

Value

2.

Seeing men as superior to women (3); sense of national pride (3)

(28; 17%)

3.

Patriotism (2); respect elders (2); conservativeness (2)

4.

Assiduity (1); individualistic (1); strong sense of family (1); self-esteem (1)

1.

Pursuit of fashion (13)

2.

Love face-lifting and cosmetics (8)

3.

Emphasize extrinsic things (4); having special dietary culture(4)

4.

Strong desire to be in possession (2)

5.

Forgery (1); not conforming to morality (1)

1.

Anti-China (8)

2.

Good preservation of traditional culture (4)

3.

Cultural vacuity (2); not having own culture (2); deny history (2)

4.

Anti-foreign (1); modernization of life (1); high economic level (1); serious government

Behaviour (27; 16.4 %)

Socio-political (22; 13.3%)

corruption (1)

The examples in Table 4 indicate that the Chinese respondents’ views of the Koreans appeared to be more evenly divided in terms of content. At the top of the list of stereotype categories were “self-conceited” (9), “value of courtesy” (8), “pursuit of fashion” (13) and “Anti-China” (8). (Song, 2013: 99)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

31

BOX 3 1.

Does anything interest or surprise you about the Chinese respondents’ stereotypes of Korean people?

2.

Do the comments seem positive, negative, or a mixture of both?

Task 3 Compare and contrast your stereotypes of American, British and Koreans with those of Chinese people presented in Tables 2-4 above. List any similarities and differences you find in the table below.

Similarities Americans

British

Koreans

Differences

32

4. Exploring and Illustrating Stereotypes

Task 4 In the box below, write a paragraph summarising some of the main similarities and differences between your stereotypes of American, British and Koreans with those of the Chinese students presented in Tables 1-3 above. On the first line, leave a 2 cm indent before starting the paragraph.

Task 5 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

5. THE TRANSMISSION OF STEREOTYPES AND CRITICAL INCIDENT ANALYSIS

Overview ࣭ The transmission of stereotypes through connotation and colour ࣭ Summarising an extract ࣭ Analysing critical incidents based on stereotypes

Task 1 Check the meaning of the words in the table and underline them in Extracts 1-3 below.

English word 1

connotation

2

symbolism

3

impurity

4

confront

5

innocence

6

ironically

7

unleashed

8

cohesion

9

paradox

10

stigmatised

Translation into your language

Extract 1 One of the negative influences of stereotypes takes place through transmission of images contained in language use. The movie Malcolm X very clearly points to the implications of stereotypes used in language, not only in proverbs and sayings, but also in connotations that go with colour adjectives, such as black or white. In a discussion between Malcolm X and his Muslim mentor, mention is made of the connotations of terms and proverbs around black and white. Making students search for colour symbolism by looking up terms and sayings associated with colour in dictionaries is a rewarding exercise. Take the connotations of impurity that go with the sayings around black: the future looks black, a black day/week, to give somebody a black look, a black deed, the Black Death, the black economy, and confront them with expressions and representations denoting innocence: Snow White (in the fairy tale) whitewash and others, especially when the pictures and connotations and images represent positive or negative values. (Vief-Schmidt, 2013: 139)

34

5. The Transmission of Stereotypes and Critical Incident Analysis

Extract 2 Bernard Malamud’s short story Black is My Favorite Color very ironically and intelligently draws a portrait of (auto and hetero) stereotypes dominating discourse between people of black and white backgrounds (Vief-Schmidt, 2007) like the ones dominating relationships between black people and the white Jewish shop owner in the story, which carry evaluations and affects passed on again and again in dealings with each other, and which have a share in the failure of communication between them. The prejudices are the result of age-old stereotypes (German= nazi, Japanese=disciplined in a Prussian way, French=savoir vivre expert, Muslim=terrorist, Jewish= smart business (wo)man) that in real life are often reinforced through feelings unleashed by lack of real information, misinformation, moods, exploitation of perceptions and myths about the members of an out-group through stories, through media coverage, and even distortion of the ‘typical’ features of a group, in order to secure domination, to strengthen group cohesion, to respond to and make use of imagined or real threats, mainly in the face of economic and social crises and social difference. (Vief-Schmidt, 2013: 139)

Extract 3 The paradox about many prejudices is the fact that very often, the stronger the prejudice, the less frequent the contact with members of the stigmatised group is found to be. In parts of Eastern Germany, xenophobia is extremely persistent and strong, although there is a weak presence of members of minority groups in many villages and towns affected by right-wing extremism. Raising cultural awareness is one goal that should underlie the teaching of foreign languages and intercultural learning. It may serve as a leitmotiv that can guide intercultural learning through the comparison of texts, experience, attitudes and/or the rewriting of texts in plural settings (rewriting a xenophobic article in a national newspaper by attaching the xenophobic labels, descriptions or attributes to the in-group members and culture of xenophobic authors, for example). (Vief-Schmidt, 2013: 139)

Task 2 Review the three passages in Task 1. Summarise them in a 200-word paragraph entitled Transmission of stereotypes through language: The role of connotations and colour symbolism in the box below. On the first line, leave a 2cm indent before starting the paragraph.

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

35

Task 3 Read the descriptions below of three problems identified by Russian students that seem to have been based on stereotypes. What is the problem in each case? Summarise the problem in your own words in the box beneath each description.

Problem 1 My close relative experienced this extremely bitter clash with stereotypic perception of our nation during his first visit to the USA. He was looking for a job, filled out a lot of application forms and paper documents; his interview was great, everything seemed perfect. When he went through all these ordeals he found out that he was rejected by all companies where he had applied. When he asked his American close friend why he could not get a job, to his great astonishment, he heard that production companies in the US do not accept Russians just because of officials’ beliefs in inherent unpunctuality, hot temper and determination adjoining with stubborn disposition. (Lebedko, 2013b: 258)

Problem 2 In a day, I sensationally performed my highly complex combination on the parallel bars and became the Olympic champion. In spite of all the American spectators’ loud cries (as during all the previous days) and stamping their feet with such strength that the sport platform rocked. But this time the Americans could not impede. (Lebedko, 2013b: 259)

Problem 3 I am working as a half-pay at a pizzeria in a small town in New England. The owner of the pizzeria comes from Lebanon, everybody calls him Jim to make it easy to pronounce because it is too difficult to say it in Arabic. An American, Mike who also works here is a simple unsophisticated guy who was born and grew up in this little town

5. The Transmission of Stereotypes and Critical Incident Analysis

36

and maybe will die here without seeing Boston that is only one hour from this place. Once, Jim preparing the food to-go for one local company was filling the boxes with French fries. At this moment, Mike comes up to him and pronounces such a phrase: “Don’t be too Jewish on the fries, put a little more.” The Arab’s face strained and twisted, but he decided not to inquire into Mike’s words. (Lebedko, 2013b: 260)

Task 4 Read the four-step guide to reflecting on problems caused by stereotypes. Fill in the blanks with phrases from the box below.

Cultural analysis Identification of the problem Causal factors Finding indicators

1.

(…………………………………….): The first step in identifying critical incidents based on stereotypes requires the ability to critically evaluate the situation involving intercultural contact in which something serious, stressful and unexpected has happened which led to a problem with an unsuccessful outcome either because the interlocutors felt uncomfortable or were not satisfied with the outcome.

2.

(…………………………………….): The second step involves finding and recognizing indicators of stressful situations revealing affective and/or behavioral components of attitudes, and emotional feelings including paralinguistic and nonverbal ones that might be expressed both explicitly and implicitly.

3.

(…………………………………….):The third step focuses on identifying the root cause of the critical incident, a task that is cognitive in nature as it involved the identification of anticipation, prejudice, simplification and generalization focused on establishing exactly what caused the critical incident.

4.

(…………………………………….): The fourth step involves the analysis of critical incidents in the context of two interacting cultures and the identification of cultural categories involved in intercultural communication processes. This requires analytical competence based on theoretical understandings of culture contact, and deep knowledge of specific interacting cultures. (Lebedko, 2013b: 256)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

37

Task 5 Read and discuss the Russian students’ analysis of two of the three problems based on stereotypes described in Task 4. Indicators are highlighted in bold. Causal factors are italicised. Answer the questions after each one in your own words.

Problem 1 My close relative experienced this extremely bitter clash with stereotypic perception of our nation during his first visit to the USA. He was looking for a job, filled out a lot of application forms and paper documents; his interview was great, everything seemed perfect. When he went through all these ordeals he found out that he was rejected by all companies where he had applied. When he asked his American close friend why he could not get a job, to his great astonishment, he heard that production companies in the US do not accept Russians just because of officials’ beliefs in inherent unpunctuality, hot temper and determination adjoining with stubborn disposition. (Lebedko, 2013b: 258) This critical incident was analysed by Student 8 as follows: 1. Identification of the problem: A Russian man was looking for a job in the USA. He thought that everything was perfect with his interviews and papers, but as it turned out he was rejected by all companies. The problem was that the officials had preconceived ideas about Russians. 2. Indicators: Explicitly expressed emotions: extremely bitter clash (great degree of the impact on the person); to his great astonishment (explicitly expressed evaluative attitude to what had happened). 3. Causal factors: Stereotypical perception (employers stereotyped Russians as unpunctual, hot tempered and having stubborn disposition). 4. Cultural analysis: In this interaction between two cultures, there seems to be a great difference in job admittance. In Russia, during the interview, an interviewee may often guess if the officials are going to take [them] or not, because interviewers usually state their decision directly, and they often say right away what specifically a potential employee is lacking. At least, they always inform potential employees. There are cases when employers take their time to choose from several candidates, but as soon as employers choose the candidates, they inform the unsuccessful. As for American culture (Anglophone cultures), the waiting period may last for a very long time; judging from the blogs, the waiting period is too long: “a sick waiting game”: “And then…you wait. And you wait. And you wait some more until you just want to scream!” writes one of the bloggers” (http://www.workcoachcafe.com/2009/05/06/what-the-heck-goes-on-after-a-job-interview/). (Lebedko, 2013b: 258-9)

5. The Transmission of Stereotypes and Critical Incident Analysis

38

Questions 1.

What is the basic problem?

2.

What indicates the problem exists?

3.

What is the basic cause of the problem?

4.

How can it be explained/analysed?

Problem 2 In a day, I sensationally performed my highly complex combination on the parallel bars and became the Olympic champion. In spite of all the American spectators’ loud cries (as during all the previous days) and stamping their feet with such strength that the sport platform rocked. But this time the Americans could not impede. (Lebedko, 2013b: 259) 1. Identification of the problem: The famous Russian woman gymnast understood that Americans tried to impede her performance of the cartwheel, they cried loudly, stamped their feet, because they themselves wanted to be the best. In spite of all this she became the Olympic champion. I qualify the situation as a critical incident because a kind of conflict occurred and Khorkina regarded it as an abuse by Americans’ behavior. 2. †‹…ƒ–‘”•ǣ But this time the Americans could not impede. The indicator reveals the gymnast’s feelings, implicitly expressed in repetitions (but this time means that it was one of many times) of the same behavior. One can also conclude that she thought that all Americans are too loud and aspire to be the best (i.e. a generalization. ͵Ǥ ƒ—•ƒŽ ˆƒ…–‘”ǣ ƒ… ‘ˆ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ ‘ˆ „‡Šƒ˜‹‘”ƒŽ ’ƒ––‡”•Ǥ Š‡ …”‹–‹…ƒŽ ‹…‹†‡– ‘……—””‡† „‡…ƒ—•‡ –Š‡ —••‹ƒ ‰›ƒ•– †‹† ‘– ‘™ ƒ›–Š‹‰ ƒ„‘—– †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ƒ’’Žƒ—•‡ ’ƒ––‡”• ‹ ‡”‹…ƒ …—Ž–—”‡Ǥ Š‡ ™‘—Ž† ‘– Šƒ˜‡ Šƒ† •—…Š ˆ‡‡Ž‹‰• ‹ˆ •Š‡ Šƒ† ‘™ ‹– „‡ˆ‘”‡Ǥ  –Š‹ –Šƒ– –Š‹• ‹• ƒ •–‡”‡‘–›’‡ ‘ˆ ‡”‹…ƒ•ƒ•‡ƒƒ†–”›‹‰–‘‹’‡†‡–Š‡‰›ƒ•–Ǥ  4. Cultural analysis: Two cultures met, the unexpected behavior occurred, which led to a conflict or at least to extreme irritation as it happened in this critical incident. This “strange” behavior may be interpreted as a custom of applause. The Wikipedia helped me find the information about stamping one’s feet that means to show approval of the performance. In Russia, we approve a performance by clapping our hands. (Lebedko, 2013b: 260)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

39

Questions 1.

What is the basic problem?

2.

What indicates the problem exists?

3.

What is the basic cause of the problem?

4.

How can it be explained/analysed?

Task 6 Review Lebedko’s (2013b) four-step guide to reflecting on problems caused by stereotypes described in Task 4. Describe a problem based on stereotypes that you have experienced in your life in the box below and analyse it using the four steps listed beneath.

A critical incident: A problem based on stereotypes that I have experienced in my own life

Critical Incident Analysis 1.

What is the basic problem?

2.

What indicates the problem exists?

3.

What is the basic cause of the problem?

4.

How can it be explained/analysed?

40

5. The Transmission of Stereotypes and Critical Incident Analysis

Task 7 Write up your notes in a 10 sentence paragraph. On the first line, leave a 2cm space before starting the paragraph.

Task 8 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

6. INTRODUCTION

Overview ΠAnalysing the content of an Introduction ΠList of steps to follow in your Introduction ΠAnalysing and assessing sample Introductions by applying specific criteria ΠMINI-THESIS: WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

Task 1 Read and discuss the thesis structure flowchart below focusing on the content of the introduction.

6. Introduction

42

Task 2 What is an introduction? Read and discuss the paragraph below. Echoing Swales and Feak’s (1994) point that the role of a thesis introduction is to create a research space for the writer, Paltridge and Starfield (2007) suggest that thesis authors should establish the significance of their study and provide an outline of the main parts of the thesis in the introduction. Regarding the former, they claim that it is important, for example, (1) to establish a research territory by highlighting the importance of the research, (2) to establish a niche by identifying a gap in existing research, and (3) to occupy the niche by outlining the aims of the study. Move 1: Establish a research territory Move 2: Establish a niche Move 3: Occupy the niche

Task 3 Read Introductions 1 and 2 below. Answer the questions beneath each one.

Introduction 1 Emerging in the 1950s, the concept of the critical incident technique gave rise to an expanding body of research and practical application in education, particularly in intercultural communication. It can be effective in stereotype management for its affective role in critical incidents that have an impact on students who tend to identify themselves with a person who is being stereotyped. This personal participation brings an emotional constituent to the activity, not only motivating and raising students’ concern for the outcome of intercultural communication, but also stimulating them to consciously reflect on what happened and what stereotypes are because students usually empathize with a person who experienced a critical event. The development of this kind of emotional attitude can increase students’ sensitivity to the “other,” helping them to gradually develop the ability to interpret critical incidents refining their critical cultural awareness, along with intercultural communicative competence more generally, in the process. Effective stereotype management basically depends on how deeply students understand burning issues connected with stereotypes. Therefore, the goal of the study described in this chapter is to focus on the development of stereotype management in intercultural communication. To reach this goal, this chapter has been structured around three objectives: 1) to teach students to analyze critical incidents; 2) to develop their critical cultural awareness; 3) to help them acquire intercultural communicative competence. The analysis of critical incidents is one of the instruments that can help achieve the goal. Following the introduction, the literature review examines studies on critical incidents from a historical perspective, and the use of critical incidents in education in relation to critical cultural awareness and intercultural communicative competence. The description of participants and procedures is followed by the data analysis of critical incidents based on stereotypes. Results are discussed and conclusions are drawn to highlight problems related to stereotyping that are due to the affective mode of critical incidents. Several key findings are focused on that shed light on the students’ development of the ability to critically evaluate a stressful situation, their sensitivity,

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

43

and their ability to identify the precise causes of a critical incident, along with their development of analytical skills. (Lebedko, 2013b: 249-250) 1.

What do you think is the purpose of the first paragraph?

2.

How is the purpose of the study described?

3.

Is the research question clearly stated?

4.

Do you think the introduction highlights the importance of the research?

5.

Do you think the introduction identifies a gap in existing research?

6.

Do you think the introduction outlines the aims of the study?

Introduction 2 Exploring cultural prejudices and stereotypes plays an important role in one’s development of critical cultural awareness, which in turn is one of the components of intercultural communicative competence (Byram, 1997; 2009). The process of introspection, as well as trying to understand the perceptions of representatives of other cultures, requires a lot of effort and skill. Therefore, foreign language students and teachers alike need to be given both encouragement and practice in undertaking awareness-raising tasks. Such an opportunity was offered to the students (mainly future school teachers) of several universities in the US and Europe who participated in the EU-US Atlantis Program (2009-2011), ‘Dissemination and Adaptation of the ABC’s of Cultural Understanding and Communication’. Reflection on the self and other, including cultural stereotyping, was the focus of ‘The ABC’s of Cultural Understanding and Communication’ educational project, which additionally inspired a number of practical teaching ideas. Incorporating the so-called ABC’s Model in teacher education programs in order to “assist teachers in becoming culturally responsive instructors” (Schmidt & Finkbeiner, 2006) involved creating consciousness-raising experiences, such as writing one’s cultural autobiography and another person’s biography, as well as a cross-cultural analysis, and designing activities for developing intercultural awareness. The following chapter will discuss some of the Polish ABC’s research results and the potential of using similar educational models in the development of participants’ skills for intercultural understanding and communication as individuals, language students, and teachers. Sixty-four university students were asked to reflect on their own and the interviewed partners’ experiences that shaped them as cultural beings, as well as to study selected texts concerning intercultural communication. They had a chance to document their stereotypes awareness development in their essays, and finally, to exemplify their professional awareness and practical teaching skills in the last stage of the project, in which they were asked to design intercultural activities to facilitate the development of their future foreign language students’ critical cultural awareness. The collected data were analysed to answer the following two research questions:

6. Introduction

44

Œ

How do the students demonstrate their critical awareness of stereotyping in their cross-cultural analysis essays?

Œ

How do the students demonstrate their ability to design intercultural teaching activities to help their language learners develop their awareness of stereotyping? Examples provided from the final stages of the project will illustrate the students’ growing awareness of the

process of stereotyping, and the conclusions they drew for their teaching profession. (Bandura, 2013: 180-181) 1.

What do you think is the purpose of the first paragraph?

2.

How is the purpose of the study described?

3.

Do you think the introduction highlights the importance of the research?

4.

Is the research question clearly stated?

5.

Do you think the introduction identifies a gap in existing research?

6.

Do you think the introduction outlines the aims of the study?

Task 4 Read and discuss the list of steps to follow in your mini-thesis in the table below. How do they differ from the three moves listed in Task 2 above?

List of steps to follow in your introduction 1.

State the purpose of the chapter

2.

State your research question

3.

Explain why it is important and interesting

4.

Chapter overview

Task 5 Review the overview of your mini-thesis project paying special attention to the research questions. Which of the three introductions written by other students presented below the box follow the guidelines for writing the introduction to your mini-thesis given above, and which do not? In the table below, circle Yes or No in each case, and explain why.

Mini-thesis Project Overview In this course, you will conduct a research project related to stereotypes to help you develop research skills. You will write it up in a mini-thesis. The purpose of the project, adapted from Houghton, Furumura, Lebedko and Song (2013), is to help you to explore the stereotypes of people around you through questionnaire and interview-based

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

45

research. Usually researchers set their own research questions based upon a preliminary reading of the academic literature but in this case, some research questions are suggested (though you may adapt them to suit your interest in stereotypes). In any case, whatever research question(s) you set, you must investigate them consistently throughout the project, and answer them clearly at end of your mini-thesis. Suggested research questions are as follows: (1) What kinds of stereotypes do people around me hold of American, British and Korean people? (2) What are the sources of their stereotypes?

Does each introduction (below) follow the guidelines given? Introduction 1

Yes/No because

Introduction 2

Yes/No because

Introduction 2

Yes/No because

Introduction 1 People have a lot of stereotypes about people from other cultures when they don’t much know about them. A stereotype is a fixed idea or image that many people have of a particular type of person or thing, but which is often not true in reality. In other words, stereotypes are a form of generalization about a group of people. In this mini-thesis, I’m going to explore the following research questions: What kinds of stereotypes do people around me have of gay people? And what are the sources of their stereotypes? I think it is important to know how people think and how they are judging each other because I have some gay friends who told me that it is sometimes difficult to express their love for another person for fear of social prejudice against homosexuals, which I think it is really sad. I would like to help address this problem in the future, so I hope to develop my understandings of people’s stereotypes against gay people through this study.

Introduction 2 It is important to notice other people’s images of people from other cultures because many people have misunderstandings about them and biases against them. The purpose of this mini-thesis is to explore the stereotypes of people around me through questionnaire and interview-based research, and to examine their sources. Through this project, I hope to develop my intercultural competence by developing my awareness of stereotypes. I have two research questions, which are listed below. 1.

To what extent am I intercultural competent in my communication?

2.

How do I assess my intercultural competence (i.e. what are my standards?)

Introduction 3 Did you know that people with blood type O are supposed to be kind and tidy, while people with blood type AB are considered strange but often geniuses? I have blood type B. Do you know what kinds of stereotypes are associated with blood type B? It is associated with egoism, doing things in your own way and not working well with others well, so it has very negative connotations! Whenever I am asked my blood type, most people react negatively. Conversely, people with blood type A are said to be good people with leadership qualities who are popular with

6. Introduction

46

everyone. Most Japanese people believe this, so people with blood type A are popular. It may be because most Japanese have blood type A. In my opinion, Japanese people should not judge people their blood type, but by their character. I want to research about stereotypes related to blood type because they are rooted in superstition. While most Japanese people believe blindly in this stereotype, I don’t for three main reasons. Firstly, I don’t think that people can be divided into four basic types because if it were possible, people with the same blood type would have the same personality, but they clearly do not as people have unique characters. There is no relationship between blood type and personality. Secondly, people in many other cultures don’t even know their blood type, and certainly do not categorise other people based on them. Thirdly, there is no scientific evidence to connect blood type and personality. The stereotypes must be generated by people, so I want to know who generates them and why.

Task 6 Assess the three introductions above by applying the assessment criteria below. Give each introduction a mark out of 5 and explain why you think it deserves that mark.

Grading Sheet 1

Introduction

Mark out of 5 Introduction 1

Introduction 2

Introduction 3

Œ

Did the author explain the purpose of the research?

Œ

Did the author explain why it is important and interesting?

Œ

Did the author state the research questions clearly?

Reason

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

47

Task 7 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

Task 8 Mini-Thesis (Writing the Introduction) In the main research question below, fill in the blank with a group of your choice to finalise your research theme. (1) What kinds of stereotypes do people around me hold of (……………….) people? (2) What are the sources of their stereotypes? Then, draft the introduction to your mini-thesis in the box below by following steps 1-3 below. You can develop it later by adding a chapter overview when you have almost finished writing your mini-thesis. Integrate the research questions into the introduction.

List of steps to follow in your introduction 1.

State the purpose of the chapter

2.

State your research question

3.

Explain why it is important and interesting

4.

Chapter overview

7. LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview ΠAnalysing the content of a Literature Review ΠReferring to the work of others ΠAnalysing and assessing sample Literature Reviews by applying specific criteria ΠMINI-THESIS: WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Task 1 Read and discuss the thesis structure flowchart below focusing on the content of the literature review.

Introduction

Literature

Œ

Provide relevant background

Review

Œ

Define key terms

Œ

Analyse and evaluate the literature

Œ

Cite sources appropriately

Research Methods

Data Analysis

Data Presentation

Discussion/ Conclusion

References/ Appendices

7. Literature Review

50

Task 2 What is a literature review? Read the paragraph and answer the questions below. According to Cooley and Lewcovicz (2003), one purpose of the literature review section of a thesis is to analyse and evaluate what others have written about the topic to build the foundations for the rest of the study. They claim that you should show readers that you are familiar with the previous work done in the field and draw together different strands related to various aspects of your study. “Through analysing and evaluating the work of others, you clarify the current state of knowledge and justify the research being conducted by showing what has not been done, i.e. where there remains a gap in knowledge. This establishes a need for the research and shows that the study will, indeed, add something new to the existing body of knowledge”. (Cooley and Lewcovicz, 2003: 20-21) 1.

What is one purpose of a literature review?

2.

What two things should you show readers?

3.

What should you draw together?

4.

In practical terms, what do you think it means to “add something new to the existing body of knowledge”?

5.

Can you think of any research projects that have been reported in the news recently that add something new to the existing body of knowledge?

Task 3 Why is it important to refer to the work of others? Fill in the gaps in the passage below with verbs from the box noting that some words may be used interchangeably, so there is more than one possible correct answer in some cases and some words may be used more than once. Also, consider the relative strength between the words recognise, highlight and emphasise.

emphasise

recognise

define

highlight

Cooley and Lewcovicz (2003) (1……………..) the importance of referring to the work of others in the literature review partly to avoid being accused of plagiarism, which Oxford Dictionaries online (2……………..) as “the practice of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own”. While they (3……………..) the need to demonstrate familiarity with the field, they also (4……………..) the point that it is not enough to simply report other people’s work as analysis and evaluation are also required. They also (5……………..) the need to create a research space by establishing a clear need for the research (i.e. a gap in the existing body of knowledge).

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

51

Task 4 What should a literature review focus on? Read the paragraph and answer the questions below. According to Paltridge and Starfield (2007), the literature review should focus on key issues underlying the research project, the major findings on the topic, the main points of view on the issues and a critical evaluation of them (identifying strengths and weaknesses), and any general conclusions informing the field at the time of writing. They claim that in this process, it is important not only to provide background information but also to report, summarise and critique previous studies, and to adopt a stance towards them by expressing an opinion about them. Further, they claim that paraphrasing is an important strategy partly to avoid plagiarism. According to Cambridge Dictionaries Online, when you paraphrase something, you “to repeat something written or spoken using different words, often in a humorous form or in a simpler and shorter form that makes the original meaning clearer”. 1.

What should the literature review focus on?

2.

What is it important to do in the literature review?

3.

What problem can paraphrasing help to prevent?

Task 5 Paraphrase the paragraph that follows in the box below. The Travel Guides activity uses stereotypes to achieve the educational goals of intercultural foreign language education. To provide context for the teaching activity, the two sections that follow offer: (a) a brief theoretical background for IFLE and for the concepts of intercultural competence (IC) and critical cultural awareness (CCA); and (b) the socio-psychological principles behind the concept of “stereotype” as envisaged in the “Travel Guides” activity. (Borghetti, 2013: 116)

7. Literature Review

52

Task 6 Read the list of techniques for citing other people’s work in the literature review (adapted from Swetnam and Swetnam, 2009). Match them to the underlined parts of Extracts 1-3 below. Write the number of the relevant example in the brackets. There may be more than once answer in each case.

Techniques for citing other people’s work A) Acknowledged paraphrase of an author’s words or ideas [Extract(s): …..…..] B) Short quotations that are incorporated into the author’s own text (i.e. sentences) and contained within quotation marks. [Extract(s): …..…..] C) Long quotations of more than one line, separated from the main text and usually single-spaced. Quotation marks are unnecessary. [Extract(s): …..…..]

Extract 1 The implicit assumption underlying the elimination of stereotypes and prejudice lies in reducing social injustice and developing democratic attitudes for social change. However,

reducing the negative thoughts (stereotypes), attitudes (prejudice), and actions (discrimination) of individuals represents only one potential route to increase social justice. (Wright, 2010, p.577). (Yulita, 2013: 212)

Extract 2 Stereotyping and essentialism lead to othering. For Holliday, Hyde and Kullman (2010, p.2), othering means “imagining someone as alien and different to ‘us’ in such a way that ‘they’ are excluded from ‘our’ ‘normal’, ‘superior’ and ‘civilized’ group”. Othering can take many forms, from direct and overt hatred to more subtle indirect ways, which can be hard to identify, notice or be aware of. (Yulita, 2013: 207)

Extract 3 By exposing themselves and others to difference, to analysis and criticism, learners may open up to “critical self-reflection”, as shown in Houghton’s ID Model (Houghton, 2010, p.215ff), complementing inter-student dialogue with intra-student dialogue. This process “carries profound implications for self-development in that students make decisions about how they want to become, as people, in the future, which may involve some students attempting to bring order to internal chaos” (p.225). While Houghton rightly claims that savoir se transformer is a competence to supplement savoir, savoir faire, savoir être, savoir apprendre and savoir s’engager in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001), I would like to refer to a larger extent to the moral aspect of having to be open to change through complex cultural dialogue as suggested by Benhabib, and the importance of the intellectual, emotional and moral implications of empathy in the process of “stepping outside

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

53

own perspective (Barnett, cited in Houghton, 2010, p.222) and orienting “self to other” (Houghton, 2010, p.224), through transformative thinking, drawing links with complex cultural dialogue. (Vief-Schmidt, 2013: 144)

Task 7 Read Extract 1 below and identify eight examples of citation techniques A, B and C. Write A, B or C in the square brackets in each case.

Techniques for citing other people’s work A) Acknowledged paraphrase of an author’s words or ideas B) Brief, exact quotations incorporated within the author’s text C) Full quotations of more than one line, separated from the main text and usually single-spaced which makes inverted commas unnecessary

Extract 1 To understand the nature of stereotyping, and to use this knowledge in practice, is essential in intercultural communication. Our self-perception as members of a particular culture, and our perception of others, both have a strong influence on the shape of our intercultural contacts, irrespective of the level of our linguistic competence. Adopting this perspective together with Byram’s (1997) [1…..] model of intercultural competence, which comprises such elements as knowledge, skills, attitudes and critical cultural awareness, would mean that foreign language syllabi should involve not only learners’ linguistic development, but also knowledge of both theory and examples of cultural stereotypes, skills to identify them, attitudes to address them, and critical cultural awareness, which helps learners to evaluate cultural phenomena. It is the fourth of the above-mentioned components, i.e. “an ability to evaluate critically and on the basis of explicit criteria perspectives, practices and products in one’s own and other cultures and countries” (Byram, 1997, p.63) [2…..] that seems particularly important and challenging for teaching. Criticality, viewed as one of the most important transversal and transferable skills in higher education and other spheres of life (Barnett, 1988; Barnett, 1997; Brumfit, Myles, Mitchell, Johnston & Ford, 2005; Johnston, Ford, Mitchell & Myles, 2011), cannot be neglected in language education, and may be even considered its focus. Pegrum (2008) [3…..] calls for changes in language pedagogy, and proposes a model of critical intercultural literacies, defined in terms of “the skills necessary to read cultures in a variety of sources and languages, as well as to reflect on them and oneself critically in light of one’s own previous knowledge, experiences and perspectives” (p.137) [4…..]. According to Lima, in order to develop critical literacy in foreign language education pupils need to develop abilities to: Œ see things from different perspectives, Œ examine

the origins and implications of worldviews, values, beliefs and attitudes,

Œ question what is presented as universally true, Œ analyse the construction of knowledge, cultures, identities and relationships, Œ make connections between global and local contexts, Œ ask questions about the world, themselves and others, Œ think more independently (Lima, 2006, p.1). [5…..]

7. Literature Review

54

Similarly, for the purpose of her study among foreign language learners, Yamada defines criticality as comprising skepticism, question-raising in response to new knowledge, suspended judgment as well as reflection on what has been taken for granted (Houghton & Yamada, 2012; Yamada, 2010) [6…..]. Hence, critical investigation of stereotypes will require the students to question available sources of information, including their informants, to be inquisitive about the basis of stereotypes, including self-stereotypes, or to distinguish between unfair stereotypes and necessary research-based cultural generalisations (Bennett, 1998, p.6) [7…..]. Last but not least, in the context of teacher education, criticality development is most desirable for many different reasons either as an academic skill necessary for persuading and justifying one’s claims, or as a tool used by critical citizens, who actively engage in transformative actions (Yamada, 2010) [8…..], as well as a quality to be fostered among school pupils thanks to their teachers’ critical pedagogic competences. What is needed is the development of teaching methodology that can help trigger teacher trainees’ critical intercultural development, not only in terms of enhancing their cultural awareness of self and other, but also of providing them with an opportunity to transfer this awareness to classroom practice. (Bandura, 2013: 181-183)

Task 8 Read Extracts 1-3 below, and the references and page numbers provided for each. Select a part of each passage to cite. Using the citation technique provided in each case, write an in-text citation in the box provided.

Techniques for citing other people’s work A) Acknowledged paraphrase of an author’s words or ideas B) Brief, exact quotations incorporated within the author’s text C) Full quotations of more than one line, separated from the main text and usually single-spaced which makes inverted commas unnecessary

Extract 1 One of the negative influences of stereotypes takes place through transmission of images contained in language use. The movie Malcolm X very clearly points to the implications of stereotypes used in language, not only in proverbs and sayings, but also in connotations that go with colour adjectives, such as black or white. In a discussion between Malcolm X and his Muslim mentor, mention is made of the connotations of terms and proverbs around black and white. Making students search for colour symbolism by looking up terms and sayings associated with colour in dictionaries is a rewarding exercise. Take the connotations of impurity that go with the sayings around black: the future looks black, a black day/week, to give somebody a black look, a black deed, the Black Death, the black economy, and confront them with expressions and representations denoting innocence: Snow White (in the fairy tale) whitewash and others, especially when the pictures and connotations and images represent positive or negative values. Reference: Vief-Schmidt, G. (2013) Managing Stereotypes through Complex Cultural Dialogue and Transformative Processes. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., and Song, L. (Eds.) Critical Cultural Awareness:

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

55

Managing Stereotypes through Intercultural (Language) Education (pp. 135-157). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Page number: 139. Technique to use: Technique A (Acknowledged paraphrase of an author’s words or ideas) Your citation:

Extract 2 Tess’s stereotyped assumption that Banerji is a representative of all Indians applies to the American family as well. For her, the family represent the American family in general (“el fragmento nos muestra también que se trata de una cultura hospitalaria la de la familia, que se esmera por hacer sentir bien al invitado y que no pase solo las fiestas; “the fragment also shows us that the family’s is a welcoming culture, and that they do their best to make the guest feel good and not to leave him alone during the celebrations”; Tess, post-reading written response, Cat’s Eye). Reference: Porto, M. (2013) In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., and Song, L. (Eds.) The Visual Representation: An Instrument for Research and Instruction on the Cultural Dimension of Foreign Language Reading. (pp. 221-248). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Page number: 239. Technique to use: Technique B (Brief, exact quotations incorporated within the author’s text) Your citation:

7. Literature Review

56

Extract 3 This result showed that contact with a person from another culture just through the internet, not face to face, may effectively change their stereotypes, and help them to develop friendships, which supports Allport’s (1954) original contact hypothesis that prejudice can be reduced if the following four conditions are met: ࣭Equal status of the groups in the situation ࣭Intergroup cooperation ࣭Common goals ࣭Authority support. In Japan, although young people have few opportunities to contact with people from other cultures, students can communicate with foreign students through CMC2 in ways that meet Allport’s four conditions listed above. However, without that, Japanese students who have had little contact with foreign people might have developed stereotypes of foreign people only through the media (e.g. movies, TV, books), or talk with family members or school education. In this case, such stereotypes might differ from stereotypes developed through actual contact. Reference: Furumura, Y. (2013) Remedying Negative Stereotypes by identifying the Origins of Stereotypes: From Semantic or Affective Learning? In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., and Song, L. (Eds.) Critical Cultural Awareness: Managing Stereotypes through Intercultural (Language) Education (pp. 24-41). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Page numbers: 26-27. Technique to use: Technique C (Full quotations of more than one line, separated from the main text and usually single-spaced which makes inverted commas unnecessary) Your citation:

2

Computer-mediated communication

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

57

Task 9 Read and assess Literature Reviews 1-3 below by applying the assessment criteria below. Give each one a mark out of 20 and explain why you think it deserves that mark.

Grading Sheet 2

Literature

Œ

Is relevant theoretical background provided?

Review

Œ

Did the author define key terms?

Œ

Did the author cite sources appropriately?

Œ

Did the author use the three referencing styles?

Mark out of 20

Reason

Literature Review 1 (family type)

Literature Review 2 (gender)

Literature Review 3 (Japanese people)

Literature Review 1 (family type) To understand a family, we should know how the word is defined in the dictionary. A family can be defined as a group of people who are related to each other, especially a mother, a father, and their children (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2003). We often think about a family in those terms, but statistically, it is no longer true that a mother, a father and their biological children living together under one roof constitutes the only type of family, and certainly not with the father going off to work and the mother staying home (Belkin, 2011). Divorced or separated parents who live alone, but have children who usually live elsewhere, are not considered to be a family, even though they are part of a family. Unless they live in the same household, they don’t form a family for the purpose of some official statistics (Labour Force Status and Other Characteristics of Families, June 2011). The definition of family is changing in the world.

7. Literature Review

58

Literature Review 2 (gender) Gender plays a role in the everyday sexual discrimination that most people are familiar with, but rather than drawing on my own inaccurate opinions and observations, let us consider some data from the World Economic Forum (WEF). The Global Gender Gap Index (2013) was developed by the WEF to measure gender-based gaps in access to resources and opportunities in individual countries. According to the survey, Japan came 105th out of 136 countries in the gender gap rankings, which is four ranks lower than in 2012. Since the survey started in 2006, the rank of Japan has been declining gradually year by year, and 2013 was the lowest point. Table 1. Japanese gender gap rankings from 2006 to 2013

Year

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Rank

80

91

98

101

94

98

101

105

The result goes against typical expectations for Japan as one of the earliest Asian countries that historically came into contact with western ideas. Many people, including me, tend to believe that Japan has been embracing equality between the sexes as an idea generated by western countries and assimilated into Japanese society. However, the outcome reflected in the data presented above shocked me, and suggests that the opposite tendency is true nowadays. Another survey reviewing the Japanese average yearly income has also been released. According to the National Tax Administration Agency, the average yearly income of Japanese in 2012 was approximately 4 million yen. At first glance, the average income seems very high, which led me to believe that the salary for one person is enough to support a family in Japan. However, if we take a careful look, we can see that the average yearly income of males is 5.02 million yen, while for females, it is merely 2.68 million yen. Besides, in the 30 years that passed between the first survey in 1978 and 2012, the wage gap between the two hardly reduced. This shows that the wage gap between males and females is around 1 million yen regardless of the type of jobs. It seems to reflect classical gender discrimination in the form of unequal pay for the same job. I think it is understandable that some people get different pay for the same job; or in other words; in the same position. It’s reasonable for those who are more efficient or productive to receive higher payment. However, that line of reasoning seems to suggest that females are less productive than males, which is probably not true. What are the root causes of such an unfair outcome? Investigating gender-related stereotypes can potentially shed some light on this issue.

Literature Review 3 (Japanese people) I found two articles on the internet that illustrate some of the impressions non-Japanese have of Japanese people. First, let us consider a recent advertisement campaign by Air France, one of Europe's largest airlines. According to The Huffington Post Canada (2014), Air France's advertising campaign featured eighteen visuals, highlighting some of the airline's new developments and some of the destinations the carrier travels to. Some of the images exhibit mostly Caucasian women wearing costumes that express the cultures of the destinations concerned. For locations like Paris and Italy, the women were fairly nondescript, but for destinations like Tokyo, Beijing and Dakar, white

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

59

women with wild eye makeup, headdresses and modified costumes were used. The latter have now become the target of criticism. Visual images of Asians, including Japanese, emphasize their weirdness. When it comes to Japanese, the typical image used is that of geisha, which presents an over-generalized view of Japanese people. Also, sex appeal is emphasised through the exposure of shoulders. Since they are based upon exaggerated points of difference, stereotypes form a source of inaccurate information, distorting perception of the other and increasing the likelihood of misunderstanding (Campbell, 1967; Harding, Proshanksy, Kutner and Chein, 1969, cited in Houghton, 2013: 159). Second, let us consider an article about a music video by Avril Lavine (Newsphere, 2014). It is well known that she loves Japan, and her new song is entitled Hello Kitty, which is her favourite Japanese character. Her new music video, which was filmed in Tokyo, has been criticised by foreign media because it misrepresents Japanese culture by using images of ninja, geisha, and certain other idols and characters. The description of Tokyo seems unnatural because the video emphasizes an easygoing image with cartoon-like and hilarious female high school students. Such descriptions were regarded as prejudicial against Japanese culture and criticized on that basis. Avril Lavine dressed in Harajuku style, which is common in one particular part of Tokyo, but it is by no means common to the whole of Japan. In this sense, Japan as a whole is misrepresented by the images concerned. Such stereotypes can make people feel uncomfortable and some people regard them as prejudicial in nature.

Task 11 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

Task 12 Mini-Thesis (Writing the Literature Review) Referring to original sources, draft the literature review for your mini-thesis trying to avoid the problems highlighted above.

8. RESEARCH METHODS 1

Overview ΠDefining and distinguishing questionnaires and interviews ΠGood and bad question types ΠEliciting stereotypes: Approaches and techniques ΠAnswering, analysing and evaluating a questionnaire

Task 1 Read and discuss the thesis structure flowchart below focusing on the content of the research methods section.

Introduction

Literature Review

Œ

Describe the research design clearly

Œ

Define questionnaires and interviews, and their use in research

Œ

Describe your questionnaire design

Œ

Explain how you formulated the

Research

questionnaire and interview questions, and

Methods

why

Data Analysis

Data Presentation

Discussion/ Conclusion

References/ Appendices

Œ

Describe data gathering procedures carefully

Œ

Cite sources appropriately

Œ

Explain participant selection

Œ

Address ethical issues clearly

Œ

Refer to any information contained in the Appendices clearly

8. Research Methods 1

62

Task 2 Questionnaires and interviews are both used to ask questions in research, but what are the differences between them? Without consulting a dictionary, define them below in your own words. A questionnaire is….

An interview is ….

Task 3 Read the definitions of questionnaire and interview from Cambridge Dictionaries Online below. What is the main difference between the two? Œ

questionnaire: a list of questions that several people are asked so that information can be collected about something

Œ

interview: a meeting in which someone asks you questions to see if you are suitable for a job or course

Task 4 How do you think questionnaires and interviews can be used in research? Make notes in the box below and discuss them with your group.

Task 5 Read Extracts 1 and 2 below and decide whether they report on questionnaire or interview-based research. Also, in what languages was the interview conducted and reported? How are the languages presented in relation to each other?

Extract 1 In Data 4, gathered later in the interview, Tess explained what she meant by the phrase “words and ideas” that she had used in the visual representation. For her, the conversation at the dinner table represented a point of contact. This is revealing again of her view that there is a link between language and culture, specifically language as a bridge to culture (“vía de contacto”; “channel for contact”).

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

63

Data 4: Original data in Spanish M.: Hm. (Pausa) "Palabras e ideas." Esto no lo entiendo, ¿qué significa o a qué te referís? T.: Me parecía que por ahí ellos en el diálogo, en la conversación que tienen en la mesa eso es una vía de contacto para ellos. M.: Una... T.: Vía de contacto. M.: Vía de contacto...Ah, que las palabras e ideas son el contacto, está bien. (Tess, interview, Cat’s Eye)

English translation of Data 4 M.: Hm. (Pause) "Words and ideas." That I don’t understand, what does it mean or what do you refer to? T.: It seemed to me that maybe they in the dialogue, in the conversation they have at the table that is a channel to make contact for them. M.: A... T.: Channel for contact. M.: Channel for contact...Ah, that words and ideas are the contact, OK. (Porto, 2013: 237)

Extract 2 Results Comparable data gathered from sections 1 and 2 of the questionnaire for each of the three studies will be presented in turn. Questionnaire: Section 1 While the Japanese study had 119 subjects, the Russian and Chinese studies had 59 and 55 subjects respectively. While all the subjects who took part in the Japanese study were Japanese, 52 of the 59 subjects who took part in the Russian study claimed to be Russian, seven students identified themselves as Armenian (1), Azerbaijani (1), Korean (1), Russian German (1), Russian Jew (1), Ukrainian (1) and Uzbek (1); all of the 55 subjects who took part in the Chinese study claimed to be Chinese. The subjects who took part in the Japanese study were aged from 18 to 28, and the group consisted of 84 females and 35 males. The subjects who took part in the Russian study were aged from 17 to 21, and the group consisted of 50 females and 9 males. The subjects who took part in the Chinese study were aged from 19 to 22, and the group consisted of 10 males and 45 females. The data presented below reflect the actual number of responses gathered from each group. (Houghton, Lebedko & Song, 2013: 68)

8. Research Methods 1

64

Task 6 Read Extract 2 in Task 6 again to find out about the questionnaire respondents in Houghton, Lebedko & Song’s, (2013) study. Complete the table below, and answer the questions beneath.

No. of subjects

Age range

Gender Female

Male

Japanese group Russian group Chinese group

1.

Do you think these three groups are comparable or not, and why?

2.

Can you see any possible bias in favour of particular groups? If so, what kind, and what are its possible causes?

Task 7 Read the passage below, and answer the questions beneath. According to McDonough and McDonough (1997), asking questions is one way to gather research data. This may be done by distributing questionnaires and/or conducting interviews. Questionnaires can be designed in different ways and may contain one kind of question or a mixture of different types including factual questions, yes/no questions, multiple choice questions, ranked questions, open-ended questions and scaled questions. Generally speaking, questionnaires should be clear, easy for the respondent to answer and easy for the researcher to analyse later. Cohen and Manion (1989, cited in McDonough and McDonough, 1997) suggest that when writing questionnaires, researchers should avoid writing questions that are easily misunderstood, ambiguous or lead respondents to answer in a certain way (i.e. biased questions). As for interviews, they may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured. Structured interviews are closest to questionnaires in terms of their structure. “In other words, using questions that are specified tightly in advance, they aim to survey relatively large populations by asking the same questions in the same order” (McDonough and McDonough, 1997: 182). Semi-structured interviews also have a structured framework but allow for flexibility within that, so the order of questions may be changed, or new questions may be added during the interview. Unstructured interviews, however, only start with a rough agenda in the form of a checklist that provides a general outline for the interview. 1.

What are two ways of asking questions in research?

2.

What different kinds of questions may questionnaires contain?

3.

What kinds of questions should researchers avoid?

4.

How do structured, semi-structured and unstructured interviews differ in nature?

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

65

Task 8 Read the question types you might find in a questionnaire below, and match each one with an example by writing A-F in the brackets in each case.

Question types A)

factual questions

B)

yes/no questions

C)

multiple choice questions

D)

ranked questions

E)

open-ended questions

F)

scaled questions

Examples 1.

How far do you agree with the following statement? English teachers should only speak English in the classroom. strongly disagree disagree no opinion agree strongly agree [Question type: ______]

2.

Do you enjoy watching the news on TV? Please answer on a scale of 1-5 (1 is low and 5 is high). [Question type: ______]

3.

Are you single? [Question type: ______]

4.

How many Brazilian friends do you have? a.

none

b.

less than five

c.

six to ten

d.

eleven or more [Question type: ______]

5.

How old are you? [Question type: ______]

6.

What do you think of your teacher? _________________________ [Question type: ______]

Task 9 Mini-Thesis (Review) Review your research project and fill in the blank in the first research question below. In this course, you will conduct a research project related to stereotypes to help you to develop your research skills. You will write it up in a mini-thesis. The purpose of the project, adapted from Houghton, Furumura, Lebedko and Song (2013), is to help you to explore the stereotypes of people around you through questionnaire and interview-based research. Usually researchers set their own research questions based upon a preliminary reading of the academic literature but in this case, some research questions are suggested though you may adapt them to suit your interest in stereotypes. In any case, whatever research question(s) you set, you must investigate them consistently throughout the project, and answer them clearly at end of your mini-thesis. Review your research questions:

8. Research Methods 1

66

(1) What kinds of stereotypes do people around me hold of …………………………. people? (2) What are the sources of their stereotypes?

Task 10 Considering your research focus (stated in Task 9 above), write one question you might include in your questionnaire for each question type below. A)

factual question: __________________________________________

B)

yes/no question: __________________________________________

C)

multiple choice question: ___________________________________

D)

ranked question: __________________________________________

E)

open-ended question: ______________________________________

F)

scaled question: __________________________________________

Task 11 Check the meaning of the words in the table, and underline them in the passage below.

English word 1

elicit

2

ascribe

3

structured

4

associate

5

frequency

6

prompt

7

rate

8

scale

9

antonym

10

denote

Translation into your language

The content of people’s stereotypes can be elicited in various ways that are more or less structured in approach. The Free Descriptions elicitation technique is a variety of the Ascribing Qualities method introduced by Katz and Braly in the 1930s to elicit qualities out of a set of personal traits represented by adjectives denoting psychological characteristics. In contrast to the Ascribing Qualities method, the Free Descriptions technique aims to gather unstructured information more relevant to the actual subjects (Stefanenko, 2006). Another unstructured approach used in psycholinguistics is the ‘free association method which asks the subjects to freely write down their associations of specific groups before they are classified by frequency to establish where the stereotypes lie. The main purpose of this approach is to probe into what subjects have in their minds about other groups, which is why psycholinguists ask subjects to write down the first reactions that come to mind. A more structured variant of this method is Kobozeva’s (2000) ‘lexico-semantic experiment’, which also elicits subjects’

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

67

associations of specific groups limiting them to expressions of semi-free compatibility in specific diagnostic constructions. In this case, subjects may be asked to complete a sentence starting with a phrase like ‘In a Russian way, he is…’ A similarly semi-structured approach is the ‘pushing to stereotyping’ method used in psycholinguistics (Leontovich, 2003), which presupposes that the given context ‘pushes’ informants to stereotype. In this case, subjects may be asked to write a definite number of typical traits to describe specific cultural groups, and to complete sentences starting with phrases like ‘Chinese people always…’, in which the adverbs always or never act as prompts that ‘push’ people to stereotype. A more structured approach that can be used to elicit stereotypes is the original approach used by Lippmann (1922), in which subjects are asked to match adjectives that describe human traits with ethnonyms that denote specific social groups (Bennett, 1993; Kohls, 1984; Pinker, 2002; Stephan & Abalakina-Paap, 1996). Another structured approach called the ‘semantic differential’ instrument can be used; it asks subjects to rate their impressions about specific groups on bi-polar evaluative scales delimited by antonyms, such as interesting vs. boring (Heise, 1970), as shown in Figure 1 below.

interesting

boring

1 2 3 0 1 2 3 Figure 1: An example of a ‘semantic differential’ scale

The scale, introduced by Osgood, Suci & Tannenbaum (1957), consists of paired adjectives with 0 denoting neutral, and the other numbers (1, 2, 3) denoting slightly, quite and extremely, respectively at each end of the scale. Adjective antonyms are chosen depending on the goals of a survey or a questionnaire. The main advantage of the semantic differential approach is its almost unlimited applicability to any concept (feelings, reactions, stereotypes, marketing, etc.), and the structure of the scale makes it easy to obtain data. (Houghton, Lebedko & Song, 2013: 63-65)

Task 12 Read the question types you might find when the techniques described above are used in research. Match each one with an example by writing A-F in the brackets in each case.

Question types A)

Lippmann’s technique

B)

pushing to stereotype

C)

free association

D)

lexico-semantic

E)

free description

F)

semantic differential

8. Research Methods 1

68

Examples 1.

Match the following adjectives describing human traits with groups X, Y and Z. kind – polite – pushy - cold (Lippmann’s technique [Technique: _____________]

2.

Complete the statement with a word of your choice. In a Russian way, he is… [Technique: _____________]

3.

Write down whatever words come to mind when you think of X people. [Technique: _____________]

4.

Choose from the following set of traits to describe X people. kind – polite – pushy - cold [Technique: _____________]

5.

Complete the statement with a word from the scale below. British people are _______________ very interesting - interesting - no opinion - uninteresting - very uninteresting [Technique: _____________]

6.

Complete the statement with a word of your choice. Chinese people always… [Technique: _____________]

Task 13 Read the three approaches to eliciting stereotypes below and match them to the techniques listed beneath, referring back to the passage in Task 11 above. Write A, B or C in the brackets for each technique given.

Approaches to the elicitation of stereotypes A)

unstructured

B)

semi-structured

C)

structured

Techniques used to elicit stereotypes 1.

Free association [Approach: _____________]

2.

Lexico-semantic (e.g. In a Russian way, he is…) [Approach: _____________]

3.

Semantic differential (e.g. interesting vs. boring) [Approach: _____________]

4.

Pushing to stereotype (e.g. Chinese people always…) [Approach: _____________]

5.

Free description [Approach: _____________]

6.

Lippmann’s technique [Approach: _____________]

Task 14 Complete the questionnaire below. What kinds of questions are contained in each section? How easy or difficult is it to answer the questions, and why? Which parts would you amend, if any, and why? What kind of data would this questionnaire generate, and how easy to do you think it would be to analyse?

Questionnaire Part I: Your Background 1.

Name:

2.

Age:

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

3.

Gender:

4.

Nationality:

5.

How much do you know about the following groups? (Circle the best answer.) Œ

Russian people: nothing / a little / a lot

Œ

Chinese people: nothing / a little / a lot

Œ

British people: nothing / a little / a lot

Œ

American people: nothing / a little / a lot

6.

How many members of the following groups have you met? (Circle the best answer.) Œ

Russian people: nobody / a few / many

Œ

Chinese people: nobody / a few / many

Œ

British people: nobody / a few / many

Œ

American people: nobody / a few / many

7.

How many friends do you have from the following groups? (Circle the best answer.) Œ

Russian friends: nobody / a few / many

Œ

Chinese friends: nobody / a few / many

Œ

British friends: nobody / a few / many

Œ

American friends: nobody / a few / many

Part II: Your ideas about Japanese, Russian, Chinese, British and American people 8.

Write 3 sentences about Japanese people in general. Œ

They

Œ

They

Œ

They

9.

Write 3 sentences about Russian people in general. Œ

They

Œ

They

Œ

They

69

8. Research Methods 1

70

10. Write 3 sentences about Chinese people in general. Œ

They

Œ

They

Œ

They

11. Write 3 sentences about British people in general. Œ

They

Œ

They

Œ

They

12. Write 3 sentences about American people in general. Œ

They

Œ

They

Œ

They

13. What do you think the following people always do? (Complete the sentences). Œ

Japanese people always

Œ

Russian people always

Œ

Chinese people always

Œ

British people always

Œ

American people always

14. What do you think the following people never do? (Complete the sentences). Œ

Japanese people never

Œ

Russian people never

Œ

Chinese people never

Œ

British people never

Œ

American people never

Task 15 Mini-Thesis (Writing the Research Methods section) Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

9. RESEARCH METHODS 2

Overview ΠMINI-THESIS: QUESTIONNAIRE STRUCTURE ΠMINI-THESIS: PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND RESEARCH ETHICS ΠMINI-THESIS:

QUESTIONNAIRE

AND

FOLLOW-UP

SAMPLE

RESEARCH

INTERVIEW ΠANALYING

AND

ASSESSING

METHODS SECTIONS BY APPLYING SPECIFIC CRITERIA ΠMINI-THESIS: SECTION

WRITING

THE

RESEARCH

METHODS

9. Research Methods 2

72

Task 1 Mini-Thesis: Linking the Literature Review and Research Methods sections Read and discuss the research flowchart below focusing on the link between the literature review and methodology sections. Introduction

ΠLiterature

Review research on stereotypes and the research question(s)

Review

Œ

Select the question types to use to investigate the research question(s), and write the questions

Research Methods

Œ

Describe your questionnaire design

Œ

Explain

how

you

formulated

the

questionnaire and interview questions, and

Data

why

Analysis

Œ

Describe data gathering procedures carefully

Œ

Cite sources appropriately

Data

Œ

Explain participant selection

Presentation

Œ

Address ethical issues clearly

Œ

Refer to any information contained in the

Discussion/

Appendices clearly

Conclusion

References/ Appendices

Task 2 Mini-Thesis (Questionnaire Structure) Read and discuss the guidelines for structuring your questionnaire for the first stage of your research project, and answer the questions below. In the previous unit in this book, you learned about different ways of structuring a questionnaire in terms of the kinds of questions is contains, and how structured it is. You also learned about different ways of framing questions to explore people’s stereotypes that have been used by other researchers in the past. However, what kind of general approach and what kinds of question types do you prefer, and why? How many questions do you think your questionnaire needs to gather sufficient data to help you answer your research question(s)? Do you think that some kinds of question suit particular sections of a questionnaire? Do you think that some kinds of questions may be easier to answer than others? Can you think of any other question types or approaches you might use that were not covered in the previous section? Do you think that the kind of data, and the amount of data, generated by your

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

73

questions are important to consider at the research design stage when you design your questionnaire? And at the data analysis stage, how easy do you think it would be to analyse the data gathered using your questionnaire? Also, how would you want to present it? In tables? Numerically? In patterned data contained in words and sentences? Next, you will design a questionnaire to distribute to at least twenty people around you to gather data for your mini-thesis. Later, you will use the questionnaire as a basis for an interview with one or more questionnaire respondents. Think of the questionnaire as a springboard for the interview. To design your questionnaire, review the previous unit considering your research question(s). 1.

What kind of general approach and what kinds of question types would you like to use in your questionnaire, and why?

2.

How many questions do you think your questionnaire needs to gather sufficient data to help you to answer your research question(s)?

3.

How many sections do you want your questionnaire to have, and why?

4.

What kinds of questions do you want to use in each section of your questionnaire?

5.

How will you analyse the data generated by your questionnaire?

Task 3 Mini-Thesis (Questionnaire Design) Read and discuss the three questionnaires below, which are designed to investigate stereotypes about various groups. Answer the questions below for each questionnaire. 1.

What kind of general approach and what kinds of question types are used?

2.

How many questions does the questionnaire have, and do you think it is sufficient, or not?

3.

How many sections does the questionnaire have, and is the structure clear?

4.

What kinds of questions does each section contain?

5.

How easy do you think it would be to analyse the data generated by the questionnaire?

6.

How easy is it to answer the questions from the standpoint of the respondent?

7.

Would you change the questionnaire in any way, and why?

8.

Do any of the questions seem more suitable for follow-up questions in the post-questionnaire interview, and if so, why?

9. Research Methods 2

74

Questionnaire 1 1. Name:

__________________

2. Age:

__________________

3. Gender:

__________________

4. Nationality:

__________________

5. How much do you know about British people? (Circle the best answer.) Œ

nothing / a little / a lot

6. How many British people have you met? (Circle the best answer.) Œ

nobody / a few / many

7. How many British friends do you have? (Circle the best answer.) Œ

nobody / a few / many

8. What do you think about British people? (Circle the best answer.) Œ

British people are: gentle / kind / polite / cool / other

9. What do you think the following people always do? (Complete the sentence). Œ

British people always

__________________

10. What do you think the following people never do? (Complete the sentence). Œ

British people never

__________________

11. What food do British people eat? (Circle the best answer.) Œ

British people eat: rice / bread / maize

Questionnaire 2

Part 1:

Your background

1.

Name:

__________________

2.

Age:

__________________

3.

Gender:

__________________

4.

Nationality:

__________________

5.

How much do you know about following groups? (Circle the best answer) i.

A typical family composed of a father, a mother and child(ren): Œ

ii.

A family composed of a single parent and child(ren): Œ

iii.

nothing / a little / a lot

A family composed of a same sex parents and child(ren): Œ

6.

nothing / a little / a lot

nothing / a little / a lot

How many members of the following groups have you met? (Circle the best answer) i.

A typical family composed of a father, a mother, and child(ren): Œ

ii.

nothing / a little / a lot

A family composed of a single parent and child(ren): Œ

nothing / a little / a lot

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

iii.

A family composed of a same sex parents and child(ren): Œ

7.

nothing / a little / a lot

How many friends do you have from the following groups? (Circle the best answer) i.

A typical family composed of a father, a mother, and child(ren): Œ

ii.

nothing / a little / a lot

A family composed of a single parent and child(ren): Œ

iii.

nothing / a little / a lot

A family composed of a same sex parents and child(ren): Œ

nothing / a little / a lot

Part 2: Your ideas 8.

Write 3 sentences about a typical family composed of a father, a mother, and child(ren) in general. 1) They _____________________ 2) They _____________________ 3) They _____________________

9.

Write 3 sentences about family composed of a single parent and child(ren) in general. 1) They _____________________ 2) They _____________________ 3) They _____________________

10. Write 3 sentences about composed of a same sex parents and child(ren)in general. 1) They _____________________ 2) They _____________________ 3) They _____________________ 11. Do you think that “the new type” of family is more common in your home country? (Circle the best answer, and write the reasons in space given below.) Œ

Yes / No because _____________________

Questionnaire 3 Part 1: Your background 1. Name

_____________________

2. Age

_____________________

3. Gender

_____________________

4. Nationality

_____________________

5. How much do you know about the following groups? (Circle the best answer.) ࣭White people: nothing / a little / a lot ࣭Black people: nothing / a little / a lot

6. How many members of the following groups have you met? (Circle the best answer.)

75

9. Research Methods 2

76

࣭White people: nobody / a few / many ࣭Black people: nobody/ a few / many

7. How many friends do you have from the following groups? (Circle the best answer.) ࣭White people: nobody / a few / many ࣭Black people: nobody/ a few / many

Part 2: Your ideas about White people and Black people 8. Write sentences stating your general impressions of White people. 1) They _____________________ 2) They _____________________ 3) They _____________________

9. Write sentences standing your general impressions of Black people. 1) They _____________________ 2) They _____________________ 3) They _____________________

10. If a group of White people stopped you in the street to ask for directions to the train station in the street, what kind of impression would you have of them? 1) They _____________________ 2) They _____________________ 3) They _____________________

11. If a group of Black people stopped you in the street to ask for directions to the train station in the street, what kind of impression would you have of them? 1) They _____________________ 2) They _____________________ 3) They _____________________

12. If your answers to questions 10 and 11 are the same/different, explain why in the space below. Œ

My answers are the same/different because __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

77

Task 5 Mini-Thesis (Participant Selection and Research Ethics) Read and discuss the paragraph about participant selection, and answer the questions below.

Participant selection Find at least twenty people around you to answer your questionnaire. Choose people who can help you answer your research question. They should be able to understand, write and speak English but do not need to be from an English-speaking country. If you need help, ask your teacher or your class mates. The research project involves collecting information from human subjects, so you should follow basic ethical guidelines. Firstly, your questionnaire respondents must sign a consent form like the one presented below to indicate agreement to participate in the research. You will be asked to submit this to your teacher along with your mini-thesis. Secondly, your respondents have the right to withdraw from the research at any time, and are not required to answer questions if they do not want to. You should also include a section at the end of the questionnaire to ask if the person is willing to be interviewed in English (for a maximum of twenty minutes) about their answers. Include a section at the end of the questionnaire where they can write their contact details for that purpose. 1.

What considerations should you keep in mind when selecting your questionnaire respondents?

2.

If you have trouble finding someone, what should you do?

3.

What kind of guidelines do you need to follow?

4.

What must your respondents sign to indicate agreement to participate in the research?

5.

Can your respondents withdraw from the research at any time?

6.

Can your respondents refuse to answer questions?

Consent Form (Questionnaire) I (respondent name) permit (researcher name) to use my questionnaire data for research purposes at (university name). I understand that all the data will be kept completely confidential, that my name shall remain anonymous and that I have the right to withdraw from the research at any time. I am/am not willing to be interviewed in English about my answers*. Signature

………………………………….

Date

…………………………………

9. Research Methods 2

78

*If you are willing to be interviewed, please fill in the contact details below. Contact details Email address

………………………………….

Tel. no.

………………………………….

Task 6 Mini-Thesis (Conducting and Transcribing the Interview) Interview one of your questionnaire respondents in English about their answers to the questionnaire to find out the sources of their stereotypes. Ask them to sign a consent form like the one below. The interview should last twenty minutes. Record the interview using recording equipment. Then, transcribe the interview (i.e. listen to the interview again and again, and write it all down).

Consent Form (Interview) I (respondent name) permit (researcher name) to use my interview data for research purposes at (university name). I understand that all the data will be kept completely confidential, that my name shall remain anonymous and that I have the right to withdraw from the research at any time. Signature

………………………………….

Date

…………………………………

Task 7 Read and assess Research Methods sections 1-3 below by applying the assessment criteria below. Give each one a mark out of 10 and explain why you think it deserves that mark.

Grading Sheet 3

Research

Œ

Did the author describe the research design clearly?

Methods

Œ

Did the author define questionnaires and interviews, and their use in research

Œ

Did the author describe your questionnaire design

Œ

Did the author explain how you formulated the questionnaire and interview questions, and why

Œ

Did the author describe data gathering procedures carefully

Œ

Did the author cite sources appropriately

Œ

Did the author explain participant selection

Œ

Did the author address ethical issues clearly

Œ

Did the author refer to any information contained in the Appendices clearly

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

Mark out of 10

79

Reason

Research Methods 1

Research Methods 2

Research Methods 3

Research Methods 1 The two research methods used in this assignment are survey and interview. A survey is a set of questions that asked of a large number of people in order to find out about their opinions or behavior (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2003). The participants included twenty-one students at a university in Japan. The data were gathered using a questionnaire with a follow-up interview. As for the questionnaire, each person was asked to fill it in without discussing it with other people. Moreover, the interview was recorded and transcribed for data analysis. According to Cambridge Dictionaries online, a questionnaire is a list of questions that several people are asked so that information can be collected about something, and an interview is a meeting in which someone asks you questions to see if you are suitable for a job or course. I chose three types of question including scaled questions, open-ended questions, and yes/no questions to gather data, because I wanted to know how much people knew about three types of family, and what images they had about them.

Research Methods 2 In order to gather general opinions from participants, I distributed a questionnaire limiting the age and the range of participants, and then I conducted a follow-up interview to gather further information from one of the participants. I distributed questionnaires randomly to twenty students, both male and female, at a university in Japan. The questionnaire was divided into two parts. Part 1 focused on background information by exploring the family roles of respondents’ parents and their own family types. Part 2 focused on respondents’ views on family roles. In my survey, the family roles were divided into the following six categories: housewife, house husband, mother/full-time worker, father/full-time worker, mother/ part-time worker, and father/ part-time worker.

Research Methods 3 The main research method for this assignment was the survey in an attempt to gather information objectively from a group of people. Respondents included twenty students aged twenty to twenty-three from a university in Japan. I asked them to answer the questions without discussing them with other people. I then chose one person for a follow-up interview, which was recorded and transcribed prior to data analysis. In conducting this investigation, I followed basic ethical guidelines. Firstly, I gave a consent form to all respondents to get written agreement to

80

9. Research Methods 2

participate in the research. Secondly, the subjects were informed that they had the right to withdraw from the research at any time, and were not required to answer questions if they did not want to.

Task 8 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

Task 9 Mini-Thesis (Writing the Research Methods section) Referring to original sources, draft the research methods section of your mini-thesis in the box below.

10. DATA ANALYSIS

Overview ΠCoding and interpreting qualitative data ΠDefining and distinguishing analysis and interpretation ΠSteps in qualitative data analysis ΠAnalysing and assessing sample Data Analysis sections by applying specific criteria ΠMINI-THESIS: WRITING THE DATA ANALYSIS SECTION

Task 1 Read and discuss the thesis structure flowchart below focusing on the content of the data analysis section Introduction

Literature Review

Research Methods ΠData Analysis

Data Presentation

Discussion/ Conclusion

References/ Appendices

Describe data analysis procedures carefully (i.e. how did you analyse the data in practice?)

10. Data Analysis

82

Task 2 Choose a nationality. Write it in the space below, and answer the questions below in English. Nationality: ……………………………………….. 1.

What are people of this nationality like?

2.

What is important to people of this nationality?

3.

What do people of this nationality like to do? (i.e. what are their habits/behaviour patterns?)

4.

What is the social and political background of people of this nationality like?

Task 3 Read the three codes below. Which ones refer to questions 1-3 above? Complete the table below. Œ

socio-political

Œ

character

Œ

behaviour

Œ

values

Question

Code

1

What are people of this nationality like?

2

What is important to this people of this nationality?

3

What do people of this nationality like to do?

4

What is the social and political background of people of this nationality like?

Task 4 Read the data from three students below. Analyse the information using the four data analysis codes (i.e. character, values, behaviour & socio-political background). Choose a colour to represent each code. Code the data by underlining each type of information in the relevant colour. Œ

Student 1: Japanese people are reserved and polite. Modesty is important to them and they don’t like speaking out in public for this reason. The Japanese educational system is often criticised for encouraging this type of behaviour, but it is still valued by Japanese people and the Japanese government for various reasons.

Œ

Student 2: British people are reserved and polite but not so modest. Honesty is important to them, and they seem ready to speak their mind if someone asks for their opinion. Teachers are always asking students what

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

83

they think and expect students to answer clearly, and parents do the same. The same pattern can be observed in the way politicians are often challenged about their views quite aggressively in public. Œ

Student 3: French people are very attractive and fashionable. Enjoying food is an important aspect of life. They like to enjoy long lunches of more than two hours to socialise with people they know. I don’t know much about the social or political background of France.

Task 5 Having coded the data, look for patterns. Write a paragraph below to report the kind of information you found in each category using the codes to help you identifying any patterns by highlighting any similarities and differences you notice. Write objectively about the data and do not give your personal opinion about it.

Task 6 Having analysed the data objectively, reflect on what it means to you. What does it tell you? What can you learn from it? What do you think it means? Write a paragraph about this below.

Task 7 Read the definitions of analyse and interpret from Cambridge Dictionaries Online below. How does analysis differ from interpretation? Which one is objective, and which one is subjective? Œ

analyse: to study or examine something in detail, in order to discover more about it

Œ

interpret: to decide what the intended meaning of something is

10. Data Analysis

84

Task 8 Read the passage below and answer the questions beneath. According to Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (2001), questionnaire data collected may be qualitative or quantitative, but questionnaires lend themselves well to the latter partly because they mostly gather discrete items of information in numbers and/or words that can be coded and represented as numbers. There are various ways of analysing interview data. However, Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (2001) highlight Glaser and Strauss’ grounded theory approach, first developed in the 1960’s, which involves coding the interview transcript by identifying and coding key concepts arising in the data. Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (2001) define interpretation as “the process by which you put your own meaning on the data you have collected and analysed, and compare that meaning with those advanced by others” (p.219). They highlight the need for researchers to recognise, and make explicit, the influences of their own personal biases upon the research they conduct. They also recommend researchers to take steps to avoid mixing up their own views with those of their research subjects. 1.

Why do questionnaires lend themselves well to quantitative data analysis?

2.

What is the main process in analysing interview data?

3.

How should researchers manage their biases when they write?

4.

How should researchers manage their viewpoints when they write?

Task 9 Using a questionnaire, Houghton, Lebedko and Song (2013) explored the stereotypes of Japanese, Chinese and Russian students had of each other by pushing them to stereotype. The data was grouped into the four main categories listed in the box. Match them with the category descriptions below by writing the category label in the brackets at the start of each description.

Social-political aspects Behaviour

Character Values

1. (………………….). All statements describing specific qualities or statements that qualify to answer questions like “what are they like” are grouped into this category, which covers physical features (tall/short, beautiful), personality (upright, loyal), temperament (friendly, introverted), emotional and mental traits (indifferent, intelligent), and behavioural traits ( efficient, civilized)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

85

2. (………………….). All statements indicating what a cultural group holds as important are grouped into this category, including attitude towards tradition, the old and young, men and women, history, family, etc. 3. (………………….). All statements describing how the cultural group do things, what they like to do, and what habits they have, are grouped into this category, ranging from how people work (working hard), learn (study hard), to what people are good at (imitating, organizing events) to eating and drinking habits (like to drink alcohol) to communication styles (speaking fast ). 4. (………………….). All statements related to the specific society, its history, geography, attitudes towards social, political and historical issues are grouped into this category, such as comments on a cultural group’s history (having a long history, attitudes towards historical issues), economic development (highly developed, backward), cultural and environmental protection, etc. (Houghton, Lebedko and Song, 2013: 67-8)

Task 10 Quickly scan the passages below which provide overviews of the groups investigated in the study described above. Which points catch your attention, and why? Make notes in the boxes at the end of each section. Then discuss how far you think the three groups are (or are not) comparable, and why. The Japanese study Regarding how much the Japanese subjects claimed to know about Russian and Chinese people, 72 (60.5%) claimed to know nothing, 44 (36.97%) to know a little and 3 (2.52%) to know a lot about the former group, and 20 (16.8%) to know nothing, 87 (73.11%) a little and 12 (10.08%) to know a lot about the latter group. Regarding the number of Russian and Chinese people they had met, 98 (82.35%) claimed to have met nobody, 16 (13.45%) few, 4 (3.36%) a few and 0 (0%) many of the former group, and of the latter group, 16 (13.45%) claimed to know nobody, 34 (28.57%) few, 46 (38.66%) a few and 13 (10.92%) many. Regarding the number of Russian and Chinese friends they had, 116 (97.48%) claimed to have none, 3 (2.52%) to have some, 0 (0%) to have many in the former group, and in the latter group, 78 (65.55%) claimed to have none, 39 (32.77%) to have some, and 2 (1.68%) to have many. (Houghton, Lebedko & Song, 2013: 68-69)

86

10. Data Analysis

The Russian study About Chinese people, 1 (1.69%) of the subjects who took part in the Russian study claimed to know nothing, 40 (67.8%) to know a little and 18 (30.51%) a lot. And about Japanese people, 1 (1.69%) claimed to know nothing, 39 (66.1%) to know a little and 19 (32.2%) to know a lot. When asked how many Chinese people they had met, 1 (1.69%) claimed to have met nobody, 10 (16.95%) few, 2 (3.39%) a few, and 46 (77.97%) many. As for meeting Japanese people, 11 (18.64%) claimed to have met nobody, 14 (23.73%) few, 19 (32.2%) a few, and 15 (25.42%) claimed to have met many. As for the number of Chinese friends they had, 41 (69.49%) claimed to have none, 14 (23.72%) some, and 4 (6.78%) to have many, while 47 (79.66%) claimed to have no Japanese friends, 10 (16.95%) some, and 2 (3.39%) many. (Houghton, Lebedko & Song, 2013: 69)

The Chinese Study In the Chinese study, subjects were also asked about their familiarity with the cultural groups. As for how much they knew about the target groups, 28 (50.9 %) of the subjects claimed to know nothing about the Russians, 23 (41.81%) to know a little, and only 1 (1.81%) claimed to know a lot about the Russians. Regarding the Japanese, 2 (3.64%) claimed to know nothing, 41 (74.55%) claimed to know a little, and 10 (18. 18%) claimed to know a lot about them. As for the number of Japanese people they had met, 31 (56.36%) of Chinese subjects claimed to have met none, some 21 (38.18%) and 1 (1.82%) many. As for the number of Russian people they had met, 31 (56.36%) claimed to have met none, 23 (41.82%) to have met some and 0 (0%) to have met many. 46 (83.64%) of Chinese subjects claimed to have some Japanese friends, and 8 (14.55%) to have many. And as for Russian friends, 52 (94.55%) claimed to have none, and 2 (3.64%) some. None of the Chinese subjects claimed to have many Japanese or Russian friends. (Houghton, Lebedko & Song, 2013: 69)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

87

Task 11 Read the passages about data analysis in the Japanese and Russian parts of the study below. Underline the categories .

applied in each case. Then, look at the examples presented in the tables to see whether or not you think the data illustrates the category well or not (i.e. do the data provide good examples of the category, or not?) Make notes in the boxes provided under the each table, and discuss your reasons with your group. 1.

The Japanese study Japanese subjects’ statements about what Russian people do in general were broken down into the categories of

Physical Characteristics (75), Cold Climate (67), Character (52), Clothing (33), Food & Drink (31), Physical Beauty (23), Communication Patterns (21), Socio-political System (12), Artistic Expression (8), Values (8), Geography (7), Relationships with Other Countries (4) and Beliefs (3). The top 5 categories are presented in Table 1 with illustrative examples. (Houghton, Lebedko & Song, 2013: 70-1) Table 1: Japanese subjects’ assumptions about what Russian people do in general

Top 5 categories with illustrative examples Physical Characteristics (75) Π1

They have (very) white skin (16), white (6), fair skin/complexion (5), light-skinned (2), milky skin (1), clear white skin (1), white face (1)

Œ

(Very) tall (19), big (5), taller than Japanese (2)

Œ

Have blue eyes (9), have dark eyes (1)

Cold Climate (67) Œ

Live in (very) cold places/region, area/country (22), living so cold (1), live in cold place than Japan (1), are in/have snow (2), live snowy area 81), have much snow all year round (1), spend very cold

2

season in a year (1) Œ

Are strong against/can stand/adapt to/don’t mind/are used to the cold (22)

Œ

Like /play ski (2), are good at skating (4), like winter sports (1)

Character (33) 3

Œ

Cool (4), a little cold (2), cold-hearted (1)

Œ

Patient (3)

Œ

Strong (2), look intelligent (2), proud (2), kind (2), powerful (2)

Clothing (33) 4

Œ

Heavily clothed/dressed (8), dress warmly all seasons/in winter (3) , wear thick/fluffy/fur/animal skin clothes (5)

Œ

Wear a big/warm/same hat (4), knit hat/cap (4) , fur hat/cap (2)

Food & Drink (31) 5

Œ

Like/strong against /drink much/alcohol/liquor (11), vodka (5)

Œ

Borscht (3)

Œ

Hot food (2), piroshky (2)

10. Data Analysis

88

Notes

Japanese subjects’ statements about what Chinese people do in general were broken down into the categories of Character (89), Behaviour (47), Food & drink (44), Socio-political (38), Values (34), Physical characteristics (25), Communication Patterns (22), Skills (21), Physical Beauty (18), Relationships with Other Countries (15), Clothing (7) and Likes & Dislikes (4). The top 5 categories are presented in Table 2 below with illustrative examples. (Houghton, Lebedko & Song, 2013: 71-2) Table 2: Japanese subjects’ assumptions about what Chinese people do in general

Top 5 categories with illustrative examples Character (89) 1

Œ

Clever (4), intelligent (2), smart (3)

Œ

Aggressive (4), like fighting (1)

Œ

Obstinate (3), stubborn (1), unyielding (1), strong-willed (1)

Behaviour (47) 2

Œ

Work/work hard/hard-working (9), study hard (7), diligent (4), industry (1), always work (1)

Œ

Normally/often/like to ride bikes (13), go to the office by bike (1), have a lot of bikes (1)

Œ

Don’t/can’t line up (2)

Food & drink(44) 3

Œ

Drink a lot of/like to drink Chinese/oolong tea (6)

Œ

Hot, spicy food (9), kimchi (1)

Œ

Don’t like cold food/drink( 3), eat/like Chinese food (3)

Socio-political(38) 4

Œ

Large population (8), largest race in world (1)

Œ

One child (3), many children (3), no brother & sister (1), many sister & brother (1), have little brother (1)

Œ

Many ethnic groups (4), don’t unite as one country (1)

Values (34) Π5

Like/love/are proud of their country/culture /tradition (14), pride of Chinese (1), think China is no 1 in Asia (1), persist their country (1)

Œ

Have a long history (6), think much of history (2), rate old convention seriously (1)

Œ

Respect parents and elders (/relatives/relations (4)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

89

Notes

Russian subjects’ assumptions about what Chinese do in general were classified into the categories of Character (84), Behaviour (50), Communication Patterns (18), Socio-political (15), Values (13), Food (6), Physical Characteristics (2), Beliefs (1), Skills (1), and Attitude toward Time (1). The top five categories are presented in Table 3 with illustrative examples. (Houghton, Lebedko & Song, 2013: 73-4) Table 3: Russian subjects’ assumptions about what Chinese people do in general

Top 5 categories with illustrative examples 1

Character (84) Œ

Sly/cunning (8), hypocritical and sly/cunning, their main virtue is deception (1)

Œ

Clever/ smart(1), are known for their ancient wisdom(1), ingenious (1)

Π2

3

(Sometimes) intrusive (3), somewhat intrusive (1), unceremonious/ impudent

Behaviour (50) Œ

Hardworking (31), laborious (3); cannot imagine life without work (1)

Œ

Are able to live and work in a team (2), work in a team (1), close knit (1)

Œ

Gallant (1), well-bred (1)

Communication Patterns (18) Œ

(Very) sociable (2), communicative/very communicative (2), non-communicative (1)

Œ

Often do not understand Russians (1), do not express any definite point of view, which is a great concern (1), closed about their personal life (1)

Π4

5

Open enough (1), reluctant to yield in something (1)

Socio-political (15) Œ

Numerous (3), they are everywhere!!! (1), the most multitudinous nation in the world (1),

Œ

Have done much for the whole world (1), do not register children in villages (1)

Œ

Their nation is very nice (1)

Values (13) Œ

Respect/ venerate/observe their (cultural) traditions (3),

Œ

Respect the elderly / and take care of the elderly (3),

Œ

They try to live in harmony with nature (1), they cruelly treat animals

(1)

10. Data Analysis

90

Notes

Russian subjects’ assumptions about what Japanese do in general were classified into the categories of Character (114), Behaviour (26), Values (19), Communication Patterns (18), Skills (13), Attitude toward time (4), Food (4), Socio-political (3), Physical Characteristics (1), Beliefs (1), and Unclear (1). The top five categories are presented in Table 4 below with illustrative examples. (Houghton, Lebedko & Song, 2013: 74-5) Table 4: Russian subjects’ assumptions about what Japanese people do in general

Top 5 categories with illustrative examples 1

2

Character (114) Œ

Smart (15), intelligent/intellectual (7), wise (3)

Œ

Reserved (8), a little bit reserved (1), secretive (3)

Œ

Friendly (8); amicable (1)

Behaviour (26) Œ

Hardworking (16), laborious (2), very hardworking (1)

Œ

Well-bred (5)

Œ

Nurture children under 5 allowing them to do whatever they like to but after 5 they discipline them (1)

3

Values (19) Œ

Venerate their history and traditions (2), very anxiously follow customs, traditions and family (2), love their country (2)

Œ

Value each tiny patch (1), keep their country clean (1), put the nature higher than a human being (1)

Œ

Very closely connected with their family (1), love their home, family and work (1), take care of their elderly people

4

Communication Patterns (18) Œ

Sociable (2), non-sociable (1), affable (1)

Œ

Have a respectful attitude toward people (2), cannot reject a request (1), try not to solve world problems through conflict situations (1)

Π5

Reserved and not open people (1), not open people (1), self-contained (1)

Skills (13) Œ

Creative (3), creators of the newest technologies (1); progressive (2), a modern progressive nation (1);

Œ

Innovators (1), tend to innovation (1), astound the world with their technical achievements (1)

Œ

Technically educated (1), produce good cars (1)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

91

Notes

To what extent are the groups comparable?

Task 12 Read the illustrative data analysed in the Chinese parts of the study (Houghton, Lebedko & Song, 2013: 75-8) in the tables below. Write a one paragraph summary of the data in the box provided beneath. Table 1: Chinese subjects’ views about the Japanese people in general

Top categories with illustrative examples Characteristics (59)

1

Œ

Precise (13)

Œ

Civilized (7); s

Œ

Hypocritical (5); conservative (5); diligent (5)

Œ

Unyielding (4);

Œ

Male chauvinism (3); aggressive (3); persevering, conservative (3)

Values (34)

2

Œ

Courtesy (14)

Œ

Diligence, industriousness (5)

Œ

Militarism, warrior spirit/chivalrous (4)

Œ

Patriotism (3)

Œ

Reservedness (2); team spirit (2)

Behaviour (21)

3

Œ

Being creative, showing creativity (6)

Œ

Good at learning from others’ experience (4)

Œ

Being clean and tidy (3)

Œ

Good at imitating (2);

Œ

Having special customs (1); making good cartoons (1); well-behaved (1); well-organized (1); disrespectful for women (1) short (1); fashionable (1)

10. Data Analysis

92

Socio-political (13)

4

Œ

Dare not face history (4)

Œ

Cultural abnormality/twisted mentality (3)

Œ

Anti-China (2)

Œ

Good human environment (1); highly developed economy (1); highly developed technology (1); cultural vacuity (1)

Table 2: Chinese subjects’ assumptions about the Russian people in general

Top categories with illustrative examples Characteristics (60)

1

2

Œ

Uninhibited and generous (18)

Œ

Enthusiastic (8)

Œ

Beautiful girls (6)

Œ

Tall (5)

Œ

Uncivilized, barbarous (4)

Values (2) Œ

Woman as inferior to men (1) ; value entertainment (1)

Behaviour (28)

3

Œ

Like drinking alcohol (10)

Œ

Fond of recreation (5)

Œ

Having special customs (3)

Œ

Casual living habits (2); able to stand cold weather(2); unsanitary (2)

Œ

Not interfering/meddling (1); daring to take action (1); speaking fast (1); wearing too much perfume (1)

Socio-political (13) Π4

Harmonious with China (2); great economic disparity among different areas (2); domestic instability (2) undeveloped light industry (2)

Œ

Large territory (1); great military strength (1); affluent material life (1); rich (1); having a long history

natural gas reserves

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

93

Summary of the two tables

Task 13 Read and assess the three Data Analysis sections below by applying the assessment criteria presented in the table. Give each one a mark out of 10 and explain why you think it deserves that mark.

Grading Sheet 4

Data

Œ

Analysis

Did the author describe data analysis procedures carefully (i.e. how they analysed the data in practice?)

Mark out of 10

Reason

Data Analysis 1

Data Analysis

2

Data Analysis 1 I analyzed the data from the questionnaire and made graphs to represent the data by age, gender, and nationality. I also made graphs of the data generated by questions 1 to 4, and I categorized the data from question 5 to 7 using the following: social, condition, finance, work, and living. I interviewed one student and transcribed the conversation (see Appendices 2 and 3).

10. Data Analysis

94

Data Analysis 2 For Part 1 of the questionnaire, which focused on the basic background information of participants, I made graphs as follows: a pie chart to represent participants’ gender by percentage, a pie chart to represent the respondents’ parents’ family roles including twenty mothers and twenty fathers, and bar charts for each type of family role for question 3. For the questions in Part 2, I presented the top three categories along contrasting opinions by way of illustration. In addition, I interviewed one of the participants by email in Japanese, and translated it into English (see Appendix 1).

Task 14 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

Task 15 Mini-Thesis (Writing the Data Analysis section) Draft your Data Analysis section in the box below.

11. DATA PRESENTATION

Overview ΠDefining and distinguishing fact and interpretation ΠLanguage use when describing fact and interpretation ΠUsing data to illustrate points ΠAnalysing and assessing sample Data Presentation sections by applying specific criteria ΠMINI-THESIS: WRITING THE DATA PRESENTATION

SECTION

11. Data Presentation

96

Task 1 Read and discuss the thesis structure flowchart below focusing on the content of the Data Presentation section

Introduction

Literature Review

Research Methods

Data Analysis

Œ

Present the data clearly and objectively

Œ

Interpret the data separately

Œ

Use quotations from your data to illustrate

Data

your points and provide evidence for your

Presentation

analysis Œ

Discussion/ Conclusion

References/ Appendices

Refer to any information contained in the Appendices clearly

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

97

Task 2 What is the difference between fact and interpretation? Read and discuss the definitions (taken from Cambridge Dictionaries Online below). Œ

A fact is something that is known to have happened or to exist, especially something for which proof exists, or about which there is information:

Œ

An interpretation is an explanation or opinion of what something means

Task 3 Read the extract from Porto’s (2013) chapter on the cultural dimension of foreign language reading. Answer the questions below. 1.

Which of the two underlined statements in Extract 1 below states fact, and which one expresses researcher interpretation? Circle the best answer in brackets after each statement below.

2.

In which language was the interview conducted, and in which languages is the data presented? How well does it work as a presentation technique? How easy did you find it to understand and connect the data to the paragraph itself?

3.

To what extent do you think the data supports the claims made by the researcher in the paragraph?

Extract 1 In Data 4, gathered later in the interview, Tess explained what she meant by the phrase “words and ideas” that she had used in the visual representation. [(1) fact/interpretation] For her, the conversation at the dinner table represented a point of contact. This is revealing again of her view that there is a link between language and culture, specifically language as a bridge to culture (“vía de contacto”; “channel for contact”). [(2) fact/interpretation]

Data 4: Original data in Spanish

M.: Hm. (Pausa) "Palabras e ideas." Esto no lo entiendo, ¿qué significa o a qué te referís? T.: Me parecía que por ahí ellos en el diálogo, en la conversación que tienen en la mesa eso es una vía de contacto para ellos. M.: Una... T.: Vía de contacto. M.: Vía de contacto...Ah, que las palabras e ideas son el contacto, está bien. (Tess, interview, Cat’s Eye)

11. Data Presentation

98 English translation of Data 4

M.: Hm. (Pause) "Words and ideas." That I don’t understand, what does it mean or what do you refer to? T.: It seemed to me that maybe they in the dialogue, in the conversation they have at the table that is a channel to make contact for them. M.: A... T.: Channel for contact. M.: Channel for contact...Ah, that words and ideas are the contact, OK. (Porto, 2013: 237)

Task 4 Read the extracts from Bandura’s (2013) chapter on developing teachers’ critical pedagogic competence. 1.

How many examples of data are provided for each of the three extracts? And what role do the data codes serve?

2.

How easy did you find it to connect the data with the points made in the paragraph?

3.

To what extent does the data presented support the claims made by the researcher in each case?

Extract 1 Almost half of the sixty-four participants referred in their essays to the phenomenon of stereotyping, often making repeated general cliché statements about the necessity to avoid it in intercultural communication, and declaring their change in views or behaviours. Without quoting specific examples or literature, the students qualified stereotypes as “detrimental and unfair” (09/10TT04), “mostly misleading and wrong” (09/10TT13), “amiss” (10/11TT09), “false” (09/10TT33), or “simplistic” (10/11MA34) typically ascribing stereotyping to ignorance, superficiality, overgeneralisation or fear and uncertainty as illustrated below.

Ignorance: Stereotypes mainly exist in societies with poor education standards and low living level (09/10MA26) I based my judgement just on some short conversations with people from other countries (09/10MA25) Superficiality: We don’t try hard to find out something more (09/10TT09) Students when learning languages are prone to remembering simplistic stereotypes concerning the target language culture (10/11MA34) Overgeneralisation: We tend to group people and generalize too much (09/10MA22) Fear and uncertainty: Fears and uncertainty in relations with other nations’ based on our past experience (09/10TT09). (Bandura, 2013: 189)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

99

Extract 2 Some students pointed to the dangers of stereotyping in various situations, e.g.:

Œ

I believed that people in a foreign country which know hardly nothing about my country and culture would perceive me through stereotypes which are mostly misleading and wrong (09/10TT13)

Œ

It can lead to international tensions between countries and its inhabitants (09/10TT33)

Œ

An unskilled teacher might perceive them [students from various ethnic groups] by certain categories, which exist within a sociocultural context, and judge them by amiss stereotypes (10/11TT09)

Œ

The stereotypes of a given culture create the danger that ‘an outsider’ will have a distorted picture of a particular country and its culture (Byram, Gribkova & Starkey, 2002, p.15) (10/11MA28). (Bandura, 2013: 190)

Extract 3 In equally general terms, the participants often suggested solutions for the future, e.g.:

Œ

People should acquire the ability to understand other cultures’ disparities rather than judge and criticise them (09/10TT18)

Œ

We must see the problems and dangers where they really exist, not where we think they might be because everyone says so. In other words, we must be ready and we must be more conscious of the things that really ‘are’ and are not the creation of our imagination (…) Of course educate in a wise way, not by statistics and telling people what to do. We, as teachers, have to be role models (09/10MA26). (Bandura, 2013: 190)

Task 5 Read Extract 1 below from the data analysis section of Houghton’s (2013) chapter on stereotype management. The paragraph below presents some data analysis, and the quotations from student data are used to illustrate points made in the paragraph. In the paragraph, underline the points illustrated by the quotation.

Extract 1 Many students reflected back on their summer interviews identifying their own stereotyping tendencies. Students B6 and B12 noticed that they sometimes talked about “what Japanese people do” during their interviews, highlighting their tendency to categorise people by perceived group membership in their minds when they knew little about them. Similarly, student C7 recognised how she tends to group up foreigners in her mind stereotyping them in the process, and resolved to change in the future. Student B2 made similar points, but added that her interviewee did not stereotype Japanese people in the way that she had expected, which caused her to reflect upon the different ways in which people can organize information in their minds. She concluded that she should pay more attention to information accuracy and think more flexibly.

Student C7 Although I learned it before, I had stereotype thinking when I’m doing summer assignment to foreigner, so I think it is difficult to change or delete for them….I feel stereotype about myself in the interview. I cannot explain where it is, but I have big vague images for foreigner. I think it sometimes causes stereotypes thinking, so I try to change it.

11. Data Presentation

100 Student B2

I felt that how I am controlled by stereotype. And I also felt the difficulties of managing stereotype. Because even after this class, I tried to ask "It is said that we Japanese don't have our opinion. What do you think about it?" during the interview. But she said "I don't feel that. Who is saying that? I know there are many Japanese who have their opinions." From her words, I realized I have organized the information in categories in my mind as stereotype. But she organized her information based on her experience. That's the difference. I should really always check the accuracy of the information and think flexibly. (Houghton, 2013: 169).

Task 6 Read the three extracts below (Extracts 1-3) and then read the quotations from student data (Data 1-3) beneath. Which quotations illustrate points made in which extracts? Complete the table below.

Data No. Extract 1 Extract 2 Extract 3

Extract 1 Stereotype change was frequently discussed by students in their week 15 diaries. Students A10 and C7 noted that their stereotypes of Italy had changed after the discussion about stereotypes of Italians, but student A4 reported hers to be rather fixed and concluded that the only way to change them was to see Italy with her own eyes. Students A7 and C8, both reflecting on the process of stereotype change, seemed to agree that people should allow their stereotypes to change flexibly in response to new information without prejudice. Student C9 claimed that during the course of the interview with a Canadian, she had moved from a state of not knowing any Canadians, and not having any stereotypes of them, to becoming more informed about Canada and Canadians after the interview, which illustrates the point made by students A7 and C8. (Houghton, 2013: 171)

Extract 2 Several students were critical about the idea of getting a true, non-stereotypical picture of a culture from only one informant. They noticed the danger of fossilising stereotypes, or inductive stereotyping, as a result of single intercultural contacts, which actually happened to a few participants. They emphasised the need to consult a variety of sources to construct a more unbiased representation of a culture, as can be seen in the following four examples. (Bandura, 2013: 192)

Extract 3 In the interview extract presented in Data 5, Tess attempted to present her rationale for the stereotyped generalization of Banerji as an exemplar or prototype from India, and she expressed uncertainty in this respect (highlighted in bold in the extract). (Porto, 2013: 238)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

101

Data 1 Œ

The majority of character attributes are revealed after a long time of having contacts with someone. We are not able to state what kind of person he or she is after first meeting, because appearances can be deceptive and we should not always believe them. (09/10TT07)

Œ

A couple of short conversations cannot let you understand and get to know somebody well enough to figure him/her out. You need to go and see this person in their own surroundings, observe how she/he is really acting and how their relationships with other people look like. Similarly, if you want to ‘experience’ new culture, you cannot limit yourself to watching documental programs or reading books about it. You must take it with your hands, feel it with all your senses giving an output for stereotypes. (09/10TT16)

Œ

We can look through a variety of diverse books and magazines about customs and traditions of people, although this often creates a false sense of understanding (09/10TT09)

Œ

I have never been to America so my assumptions cannot be entirely reliable. But every American I met smiled. And those smiles were not faked. (09/10TT12). (Bandura, 2013: 192)

Data 2 Data 5: Original data in Spanish M.: Cuando ponés: "Las personalidades de los indios...", de los "indios", ¿querés decir de la India o de los indígenas? T.: De la India. M.: De la India. "Como una humildad y recatamiento" ¿Por qué pensás que es posible generalizar? ¿Por qué son los hindúes, o por qué asociás a los hindúes con la humildad y el recatamiento? T.: No sé, me pareció... M.: Está bien, yo te pregunto... T.: No sé, es que... como en el texto él se presenta más como indio que como persona individual, me parece que todo lo que se dijera de él se aplicaba... desde la mirada del texto para la familia se aplicaba a toda la población de la India, en general. Él estaba representando a su cultura. (Tess, interview, Cat’s Eye) English translation of Data 5 M.: When you write: "Indian people’s personalities...", "Indian", do you mean from India or indigenous? T.: From India. M.: From India. "As characteristically humble and demure". Why do you think it is possible to generalize?" Why are Hindu people, or why do you associate Hindu people with humbleness and demureness? T.: I don’t know, it seemed to me... M.: It’s all right, I’m asking... T.: I don’t know, it’s that... since in the text he is presented more as an Indian than as an individual, it seems to me that all that was said about him could be applied...from the point of view in the text for the family, it could be applied to the whole of India’s population, in general. He was representative of his culture. (Porto, 2013: 239)

11. Data Presentation

102

Data 3 Student C8 I think our stereotype should not be same all the time, it should be changed. We can get many information and news about anything, so our stereotype can be always changing. And I think we should never have a prejudice, and we should think about what is the true or not. (Houghton, 2013: 171)

Task 7 Read and assess the two Data Presentation sections below by applying the assessment criteria presented in the table. Give each one a mark out of 20, and explain why you think it deserves that mark.

Grading Sheet 5

Data

Œ

Did the author present and analyse the data clearly and objectively?

Presentation

Œ

Did the author interpret the data separately?

Œ

Did the author use quotations from the questionnaire and interview data to illustrate and provide evidence for the analysis?

Œ

Did the author refer to any information contained in the Appendices clearly?

Mark out of 20 Data Presentation 1

Data Presentation 2

Reason

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

Data Presentation 1 Part 1: Your Background (Question 1-4)

Age of Participants 6 4 2 0 18 years old 19 years old 20 years old 21 years old 22 years old 23 years old 24 years old Vietnamese: 21 years old Taiwanese and a Chinese: 22 years old Swede and 2 Chinese: 23 years old

Nationality Vietnamese 1

Japanese: 15 (12 female and 3 male) Chinese: 3 (1 female and 2 male)

Swede 1

Taiwanese: 1 (Female) Swede: 1 (Male)

Taiwanese 1

Vietnamese: 1 (Female) Chinese 3 Japanese 15

Q.1 How much do you know about following groups? Father, mother and their children family A father or a mother and his/her children family

nothing a little

Same sex couple family

a lot 0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

103

11. Data Presentation

104

Q.2 How many members of the following groups have you met? Father, mother and their children family A father or a mother and his/her children family

nothing a little

Same sex couple family

a lot 0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Q.3 How many friends do you have from the following groups? Father, mother and their children family A father or a mother and his/her children family

nothing a little a lot

Same sex couple family 0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Most of the participants don’t know much about same sex couple families. In particular, almost none of the participants have friends in a same sex couple family. This data suggests that same sex couple families are not common in these five countries. Q.4 Which kind of family is more common in your country? Most of participants chose “Father,

0% 5%

Same sex couple family A father or a mother and his/her children family

95%

Father, mother and their children family

mother and their children family”. From this data, the “Father, mother and their children family” seems to be the most common family style not only in Japan, but also other countries. All of the foreigners

who

answered

this

questionnaire chose it too, even though there may be many same sex couple families in their countries.

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

105

Part 2: Your Ideas (Question 5-7) Q.5 Write 3 sentences about father, mother and their children family in general. 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

This data suggests that respondents do not have any negative images of the “Father, mother and their children family” type. They seem to think that this type of family seems happy, warm and comfortable. I was interested in one point in particular. That is the division of labour by gender role. Four people answered that the mother works inside, and the father works outside. It is one of the stereotypes about this type of family. The categories for Question 5, and the number of entries per category, are presented in Appendix 1.

Q.6 Write 3 sentences about a father or a mother and his/her children family in general. 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

There are many negative images, especially surrounding family finances. Most participants wrote that this type of family is poor, busy, and has many difficulties. One interesting point is that single mothers seem to outnumber single fathers. In Japan, most of the divorced or unmarried mothers raise their children by themselves. The categories for Question 6, and the number of entries per category, are presented in Appendix 2.

Q.7 Write 3 sentences about same sex couple families in general. 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

The remarkable point in the data is “deep love”. One respondent answered that they love each other more deeply than male/female couples. This result emerged in the interview (see Appendix 4). One reason seems to be that in same sex couples, they face the same problems, so they can understand each other well. Also, same sex couples and families are not admitted by many countries, especially in Asia and Africa. The questionnaire data suggests that there is prejudice toward them. The categories for Question 7, and

the number of entries per category, are presented in Appendix 3.

106

11. Data Presentation

Appendix 1 Q.5 Write 3 sentences about father, mother and their children family in general. 1. Socially ࣭typical style in Japan (1) ࣭general family style (1) ࣭common (3) ࣭standard (1) ࣭a type of good family (1) ࣭the most ideal family (2) ࣭perfect and complete (1) ࣭a unit in society (1) 2. Condition ࣭happy (5) ࣭warm (1) ࣭calm down (1) ࣭always success (1) ࣭love each other (1) ࣭father and mother get along well (1) 3. Finance ࣭usually rich (2) ࣭save money (1) 4. Work ࣭work hard (1) ࣭balance of work and parenting is difficult (1) 5. Living ࣭hard to raise children (1) ࣭don’t have enough time to spend with children (1) ࣭children play alone (1) ࣭live as hard as they could (1) ࣭often have troubles (2) ࣭have less conversation (1) ࣭don’t know how to love people (1) ࣭help each other (1) ࣭grandparents take care of their grandchildren (1)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

Appendix 2 Q.6 Write 3 sentences about a father or a mother and his/her children family in general. 1. Socially ࣭supported by government (1) 2. Condition ࣭happy (2) ࣭warm (1) ࣭calm down (1) ࣭more freedom (1) ࣭tough (2) ࣭busy (3) ࣭pitiful (1) ࣭hard (1) ࣭needy (2) ࣭have difficulty (1) ࣭struggle for life(1) ࣭child is lonely (1) 3. Finance ࣭hard to keep finances (1) ࣭hard to make their living (1) 4. Work ࣭work hard (1) ࣭balance of work and parenting is difficult (1) 5. Living ࣭hard to raise children (1) ࣭don’t have enough time to spend with children (1) ࣭children play alone (1) ࣭live as hard as they could (1) ࣭often have troubles (2) ࣭have less conversation (1) ࣭don’t know how to love people (1) ࣭help each other (1) ࣭grandparents take care of their grandchildren (1)

107

108

11. Data Presentation

Appendix 3 Q.7 Write 3 sentences about same sex couple family in general. 1. Socially ࣭not admitted by many society and in law (4) ࣭suffer prejudice by some people (1) ࣭criticized from others (1) ࣭little/rare/can hardly see(1) ࣭fight for the equal right (1) ࣭suffer from stress so much (1) ࣭should be respect (1) 2. Condition ࣭happy (4) ࣭warm (1) ࣭calm down (1) ࣭free (1) ࣭enjoy (1) ࣭true love (1) ࣭deep love/love each other very well (3) ࣭get along well (2) ࣭special (1) ࣭quiet (1) 3. Finance (0) 4. Work ࣭share housework (1) 5. Living ࣭can’t have children (3) ࣭keep their relationship secret (1) ࣭may not keep a long marriage (1)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

109

Appendix 4 (Interview Transcription) S: subject (Vietnamese) / A: author (greeting) A: I’m interested in your answers especially this part and here (look at the answer of questionnaire). So, I want to ask you about this question. First, you answered question no.2, “How many members of the following groups have you met?” Your answer is “a lot” of same-sex couple families. Are there many same sex couple families in Vietnam? S: In Vietnam, there are many same sex couple families. A: Oh, really? I didn’t know. That’s interesting. So, in Vietnam, can they marry, or not? S: Umm… A: You don’t remember? S: They can marry. A: Can they get married legally? Or do they just have a common-law marriage? S: Let’s see… Some couples get married, but some couples don’t get married. There is no law prohibiting same sex marriage, so they can get married. A: Ok, I understand. Can they have children, or not? For example, can they adopt? Is there an adoption system? S: For lesbian couples? A: For both gay and lesbian couples. Same sex couples can’t have their own children, but do some couples find other ways of having children like adoption or something like that? S: Yes, there is. A: Yes!? S: Yes. It is common in the southern part of Vietnam. There are few couples in the northern part of Vietnam. In the northern area, same sex couples keep their relationship secret, because they don’t want to be stared at by others. So they keep silent, and love each other secretly. A: Ok, secretly? I was very surprised at this. S: Yes, in our generation, this situation is common. But in my parents’ generation, it was less common than now. A: Is it because Thailand is near your country? S: No. it’s because young people are influenced by Europe and America. A: So, they love someone freely? S: Yes. A: That’s interesting. S: How about Japan? A: In Japan, same sex couples aren’t accepted at all. We don’t know who is gay or who is in a same sex relationship, even if they are close to us. People don’t say they are a gay or lesbian couple, even if their parents don’t find out about their child. S: What about yaoi?

11. Data Presentation

110

A: Yaoi? Ah, that’s in the virtual world where same sex couples are very popular among some groups of young people, especially women. Young boys and girls have started to accept same sex couples today. But, in our parents’ generation and further back, it was not common, so they couldn’t accept it so easily. And same sex couple seem few on the surface, but there may be are many couples we don’t know about, I suppose. S: Now, in the southern part of Vietnam, there are many couples like that. So, there are many men who seem like women. A: Do womanly men wear women’s clothes? S: No, but their movement and voices are womanly. And in Vietnam, light colours like pink are seen as a woman’s colour, so the men wear light-coloured clothes like that, move like women, and have soft voices. A: Wow. S: The opposite is also true. There are manly women, but such women are liked by others, because they seem strong and have good figures. It’s cool if women wears men’s clothes, but seems strange if men wear women’s clothes. In show business in Vietnam, originally, men are at the centre of the business world although women sometimes find their place too. Men who think “I am a woman” want to change their own gender. A: Are they transgender? S: Yes, Yes. A: Ok, I understand, so there are many people like them. Is it common? Do they usually walk in the street? S: It’s common for young people. A: For young people. Do you have friends like that? S: Yes, many. In one couple that I remember well, one was from Vietnam, and the other was from Japan. They were very nice people, and gay. A: They were very smart, cool, and…? S: They played the guitar very well. One was a very good dancer. Very cool! A: But they can’t love women? S: Well, they hugged each other when they were together. When I saw them, I always thought I wanted to have a boyfriend, because they seemed so happy. A: It’s good. In Japan, if same sex couples hug each other in public, people think “What are they doing here?” Same sex couple culture hasn’t spread in this society yet, so I think Vietnam is wonderful because everybody expresses their true feelings in the street, in school, and so on. S: Vietnam is influenced by foreign countries. Everything! Culture, fashion style, etc… A: That’s why same sex couple culture has spread so fast...? S: Yes. It can be difficult for women to find a man these days. I’m not so pretty, so I just can’t get a boyfriend no matter how much time passes. A: You are pretty. Don’t worry. Then, I want to ask you about this answer, “everyday like honey moon.” This is very interesting for me. What do you mean? S: Same sex couples understand each other very well, because they are the same sex. In gay and lesbian couples, they quarrel about small things, and break up quickly. But same sex couples are different. They don’t break up so easily. A: They can be together for a long time, because they can understand each other very well. It’s very interesting. S: Also, gay couples seem to outnumber lesbian couples.

Reseaarching the Stereeotypes of Peop ple Around Me : An Introducto ory Thesis Writing Course for IInternational Students

111

A: Why? S: Maybe, w women basicaally like men. There are maany great men n today who think t that “theere is no wom man who is good enoough for me” and attract wo omen who waant to marry th hem. A: That’s innteresting too. I had a lot of culture shockk today. It’s veery interesting g. S: But, the m most commonn family type is i “Father, moother and theirr children fam mily” in Vietnaam, because the parents’ generatioon tends to bee against sam me sex coupless. And it’s co ommon for meen to love woomen, and forr women to love menn in Vietnam. A: So, male female couplles are the most common styyle. S: Yes. A: Ok. Thannk you so mucch. S: Thank yoou.

Dataa Presentatio on 2 PartϨ: You ur backgroundd (Q1~4) All subjects are students of o the universiity including tten Japanese students s and teen internationnal students.

㸨Age ࣭Japanese ࣭ : 10 0 (8 female annd 2 male) ࣭Taiwan ࣭ : 5 (aall female) ࣭Korea ࣭ : 1 (feemale) ࣭Australia ࣭ : 1 (female) ࣭Sweden ࣭ : 1 (male) ࣭China ࣭ : 1 (m male) ࣭Thai ࣭ : 1 (malle)

Q5. How m much do you know k about th he following ggroups?

11.. Data Presentation

112

Q6. How m many memberrs of the follow wing groups have you mett?

Q7. How m many friends do d you have from f the folloowing groupss?

Many off the internattional students only know a little abou ut Japanese peeople. In partticular, hardly y any of the international students seem m to know ab bout old Japannese. Thereforre, the data colllected in this research may y be based on fixed ideas oor images in thhe form of steereotypes.

Reseaarching the Stereeotypes of Peop ple Around Me : An Introducto ory Thesis Writing Course for IInternational Students

113

PartΤ: You ur image abou ut Japanese people nowadaays

Japanesse men … ‫ޣ‬Japannese‫ޤ‬ ࡮are skkinny(2) ࡮have llong hair(2) ‫ޣ‬Foreiggner‫ޤ‬ ࡮are weell-dressed(3)) ࡮wear ssuit(2) Q8. Write 2 sentences ab bout Japanesse men nowad days. The view wpoints of Jappanese respond dents seem to have somethiing in commo on with those oof foreigners. For example,, they are skinnny, short, annd like accesso ories. On the oother hand, many m internatio onal students tthink that Jap panese people are well-dressed and fashionable, but feew Japanese sstudents answered that. bout Japanesse women now wadays. Q9. Write 2 sentences ab

Japaneese women … ‫ޣ‬Japannese‫ޤ‬ ࡮put on make-up (4) ࡮shortt (2) ‫ޣ‬Foreiigner‫ޤ‬ ࡮skinnny (3) ࡮put on make-up (2) Over haalf of the answers were ab bout facial feeatures. In paarticular, many y subjects seeem to hold the t image of Japanese woomen putting on make-up. There is not m much differen nce between th he views of Ja Japanese and foreigners f on this point.

11.. Data Presentation

114

Q10. Write 2 sentences about a young Japanese peoople nowaday ys.

Young JJapanese … ‫ޣ‬Japannese‫ޤ‬ ࡮use sm martphone(4) ࡮wear m miniskirt(2) ‫ޣ‬Foreiggner‫ޤ‬ ࡮fashioonable(2) ࡮dye haair(2)

Young JJapanese fashiion seems to be most fam miliar to both Japanese and foreigners. H However, Japanese people have negativve images of young Japaneese people beecause they arre dressed unttidily. This is why wearing g saggy pants and having too many acccessories offen nds many peoople. In addition, almost alll young Japannese people allways have a cell phone aand fiddle wiith it often, which w also givves a bad im mpression. On the other hannd, many forreigners have positive imaages of young Japanese. Th hrough the inteerview, I learn ned that these images are af affected by thee media. (See Appendix 1 *1) a old Jap panese peoplee nowadays. Q11. Write 2 sentences about

Old Jappanese … ‫ޣ‬Japannese‫ޤ‬ ࡮look yyoung ࡮misera rable ‫ޣ‬Foreiggner‫ޤ‬ ࡮wear K Kimono (2) ࡮look yyoung

ng, facial feattures and atm mosphere. I guess g reason ffor this resullt seems that Many annswers were about clothin international students havve little inform mation about oold Japanese.

Reseaarching the Stereeotypes of Peop ple Around Me : An Introducto ory Thesis Writing Course for IInternational Students

115

PartΥ: You ur image abou ut Japanese people (Time) Q12. Write 2 sentences about a the app pearance of JJapanese about 100 years ago.

Japanesse about 100 years aggo … ‫ޣ‬Japannese‫ޤ‬ ࡮wear K Kimono (6) ࡮Samur urai (3) ‫ޣ‬Foreiggner‫ޤ‬ ࡮are sm mall (3) ࡮wear K Kimono (2)

Half of tthe subjects answered a that about 100 yeears ago, Japaanese people wore kimonoos, and many international students ansswered “Samuurai”. They seeem to be affeccted by historiical textbooks, Japanese hisstorical dramaas or cinema. Q13. Write 2 sentences about a the app pearance of JJapanese now wadays.

Japanesse nowadays… … ‫ޣ‬Japannese‫ޤ‬ ࡮dye haair (2), ࡮tall (22) ‫ޣ‬Foreiggner‫ޤ‬ ࡮fashioonable (3) ࡮skinnyy (2)

Japanesee clothing stylle seems to bee the most fam miliar to foreig gners, and man ny subjects annswered “idoll” or “otaku”. Sometimes tthese images give g a negativ ve impression.. (See Append dix 1 *2,*3) I think many off these imagess are affected by the mediaa or social nettworking services (SNS).

116

11. Data Presentation

Appendix 1 S: subject (Taiwan female) /A: author (Greeting and self-introduction) A: My research question is “what kind of stereotypes do foreigners have of Japanese people in appearances”. This is the questionnaire you answered. I'll ask you three questions. First, you wrote "They are dressed in their own style"(Q10 About young Japanese people). What kind of clothes do they wear? Please give a concrete example. S: Umm, for both boys and girls, they all wear like public entertainers in TV. For example, all the girls almost wear short skirt and well-dressed in fashion style (*1). Girls always do make-up and choose "a set of beautiful clothes" from head to toe. A: I see. Public entertainers… You mean idols like AKB48? S: Uh... I think the two are little different... If there is a girl dressed like AKB in real life, she probably won’t have any female friends. AKB style is a bit over the top for normal people, in my opinion. Umm.... do they dress like people in Japanese dramas? Even they only go outside to put the rubbish out, they still put their make-up on, and wear fancy clothes as if they are going shopping or to school. A: I see...thanks. OK! Judging from Japanese clothes, do you think Japanese people admire Western people? S: Do you mean that Japanese wear foreign styles? A: Yes! S: Oh, I don’t think so because all the styles get changed in Japan anyway. I mean... Japanese make those styles much cuter than the original style. A: Oh, I see! You mean that Japanese people are wearing Japanese styles...? S: Even though Japanese LIKE the style and try to dress like them, the outcome is still Japanese style. I like the Japanese style! A: Really I’m glad! Do you know kyary pamyu pamyu? She is very popular in Japan and some other countries. Do you think she wears the Japanese style? S: I think she wears Japanese teenager style, but not the traditional one. A: Do you think it is a new Japanese style? S: To me, the Japanese teen girl style is cute. They try to make their eyes look as big as possible, and dye their hair brown. Umm, it has been around for really long time. A: I see. Thank you! Now, let's move on to the next question. Here, you wrote "super star from anime" (Q13 appearance of Japanese nowadays). I'm interested in it, so could you tell me more about "super star from anime"? S: Umm, I think Japanese girls dress like some girls in anime. Actually, I don't know if the girls in anime are drawn like girls in real life... A: Do you think girls in Japanese anime are similar to Japanese girls in the real world? S: On the contrary, I think the girls in the real world are similar to girls in anime. A: I see. Real girls try to look their eyes as big as possible. S: Exactly! Besides, some people model their hair style on anime... A: Hair style! I often see girls with pigtails.

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

117

S: For example, like this. (She shows me two pictures; one is a picture of a real boy, and the other is a picture of his anime character.) A: Oh! I know! Many Japanese boys are particular about their hair style. He looks just like an anime character! (*2) S: Ha ha. I didn’t know that until I came to Japan, so I was very surprised. A: Uh… It may be a new Japanese style I think. S: And yet, Japanese girls like such Japanese men’s style, don’t they? I think Japanese dress to attract boys or girls. A: This is a very interesting idea!! I guess so. OK, I’ll ask you last question. Do you think otaku is a positive or negative image? S: Well, negative.... A: Many Japanese think that too. S: To me, otaku are people who love anime, always dress in check or the same clothes. It’s related to dirty shirts or not taking bath for days... (*3) or to put it positively, they are people who know nothing about fashion, so they always dress the same wearing checked shirts, jeans, sneakers and a backpack like the ones used by primary school students. A: What do you think about Japanese anime and manga? Japanese anime/manga is sold all over the world, and they are so famous. But do they also have a negative image? S: I think some of them are good and some of them are bad. Because I choose manga that can teach me something, I believe they are positive. We can learn unusual things through beautiful and funny pictures. A: There are many kinds of manga in Japan. Ok. Thank you so much. I’m very interested in ideas. Thank you very much. S: You’re welcome. Thank you.

Task 10 Review the two interviews presented above in relation to the relevant Data Presentation section, and answer the questions below. 1.

How well did the author use the interview data to illustrate points made in the paragraphs in the Data Presentation section?

2.

How easy was it to identify which part of the interview data supported which points?

3.

Do you think the author could have made better use of the interview data?

4.

Did the interview data shed any light on the sources of the stereotypes expressed in the questionnaire data?

5.

What kinds of questions could the author have asked during the interview to gather more information about the sources of stereotypes?

118

11. Data Presentation

Task 11 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

Task 12 Mini-Thesis (Writing the Data Presentation section) Draft your Data Presentation section in the box below.

12. DISCUSSION

Overview ΠAnalysing the content of a Discussion section ΠStrategies for writing the Discussion section ΠAnalysing and assessing sample Discussion sections by applying specific criteria ΠMINI THESIS: WRITING THE DISCUSSION SECTION

Task 1 Read and discuss the thesis structure flowchart below focusing on the content of the Discussion section

Introduction

Literature Review

Research Methods

Data Analysis

Data Presentation

Œ

Discuss the data analysis by making links back with the academic literature

Discussion/ Conclusion

References/ Appendices

Œ

Give your opinion where relevant

Œ

Answer your research questions clearly

Œ

Reflect on what you learned

Œ

Consider the implications of the study

12. Discussion

120

Task 2 Drawing upon the work of Rudestam and Newton (2001), Paltridge and Starfield (2007) suggest that a good discussion chapter typically contains the components listed in the box. Read the Discussion section of Houghton’s (2013) chapter below. Which components does it contain? Circle YES or NO in each case.

Component 1

An overview of the significant findings of the study

YES/NO

2

A consideration of the findings in the light of existing research studies

YES/NO

3

Implications of the study for current theory

YES/NO

4

A careful examination of the findings that fail to support or only partially support the hypotheses outlined in the study

YES/NO

5

Limitations of the study that may affect the validity or the generalisability of the results

YES/NO

6

Recommendations for further research

YES/NO

7

Implications of the study for professional practice or applied setting (optional)

YES/NO

Discussion Now, let me summarise and discuss the findings presented above. In week 14, some students recognised not only the existence of stereotypes but also that there is something negative about their nature that needs to be overcome (but learners were not drawing any links between stereotypes and their upcoming summer interviews since the teacher herself had not drawn any). After the summer interviews, the theme of stereotypes was revisited in the first class of the second term (week 15). In their week 15 student diaries, many students reviewed the definition of stereotypes presented in task 15.2 for review purposes. Their post-class reflections sometimes identified the different features of stereotypes along with their advantages and disadvantages, and learners sometimes linked stereotypes with their past experience. Learners also reflected on their own stereotypes of people from specific countries, the stereotypes of people around them (including both university students and teachers) and the nature of stereotypes, sometimes identifying their own stereotyping tendencies (including those that emerged during the summer interviews) with some students resolving to change in the future (perhaps specifying how they wanted to manage their stereotypes in the future), which indicates that attempts were being made at meta-cognitive control. One learner reflected upon how her stereotypes had changed flexibly in the past in response to new information, perhaps from life experience. Another noted how she consciously refused to rely upon the stereotypes of those around her (with students perhaps viewing these processes as examples of good cognitive practice). Some learners reviewed the advice given on how to manage stereotypes provided in task 15.4 but whereas some students seemed to have accepted it, others expressed uncertainty, questioning whether or not it was a good idea to seek differences between people, one bearing in mind the conflict she thought may be caused, and another wondering whether or not it was ever possible to gather “correct” information upon which to judge given the role of personal and cultural difference in the interpretation of social phenomena. It was suggested that people can only ever aim to gather more accurate information than they already have, but that this has to be tempered by the understanding that information can never be completely accurate.

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

121

Stereotype change was frequently reflected upon by learners in their week 15 diaries. After the discussion about stereotypes of Italians, the stereotypes of some students seemed to have altered but others seemed more rigid. However, there was some agreement that people should allow their stereotypes to change flexibly in response to new information without prejudice, with some learners reflecting upon how this had happened to them in the past, perhaps during the summer interview, as their stereotypes had been broken by their interviewees in different ways, or when travelling abroad years before. The teacher wondered whether this cognitive shift was reflected in sentence construction, which seemed to change from “all” to “some” during plenary discussion. Let us review the findings above in the light of the learning objectives related to stereotyping that the teacher hoped would be met in weeks 14 and 15 of the courses, and in relation to the theoretical background presented at the start of the paper. Stereotypes need to be defined clearly and many definitions are available for use by foreign language teachers (Allport, 1954; Dovidio et al, 1996). 1.

The advantages (Brislin, 1986) and disadvantages of stereotypes (Brislin, 1981) need to be highlighted but the pitfalls in particular need to be tackled through education to correct faulty thought processes generally promoting higher and more critical levels of thought (Paul & Elder, 2002) with a view to reducing prejudice (Brislin, 1986), and its social effects.

2.

Highlighting the problems posed by stereotypes also highlights the need for the development of meta-cognitive awareness and control (i.e. the awareness of one’s own cognitive processes and the ability to take conscious control of one’s own cognitive tendencies) to develop critical cultural awareness (Byram, 2008), judging others based upon correct and accurate information.

3.

Part of this involves comparing and contrasting information gathered from a person from any given group with existing information held in one’s stereotype of that group before identifying differences between them (i.e. distinguishing the individual from the perceived group) (Hamilton & Neville Uhles, 2000), generally promoting cognitive development (Bennett, 1993; Kohlberg, 1969), even if this takes place within the conceptual limitations of the target language in the foreign language classroom.

It seems to be possible for learners to define stereotypes clearly and to learn to recognise their own stereotypes and stereotyping tendencies, as well as those of people around them. The role of memory came to the fore more than had been anticipated by the teacher as learners related what they were learning about stereotypes to their past experience, reinterpreting it in the process. Indeed, reflectively drawing links between stereotypes and past experience involves the kind of reinterpretation of memory encouraged in the Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters (Byram et al., 2009). It also seems to be possible for learners to appreciate the advantages and disadvantages of stereotypes, and to make an effort to recognise and overcome the potential pitfalls. This seemed to involve recognition of their stereotyping tendencies, again by reflecting upon past experience (sometimes from the summer interviews, which came to count as recent past experience by the time we had reached week 15). For this reason, experiential learning seems to be one way in which meta-cognitive awareness and control may be developed in relation to stereotypes. The biggest problem with the approach taken by the teacher related to the advice provided on ways of managing stereotypes. Whilst learners did not seem to take issue with the need to flexibly revise information held in the mind in response to new information about people (there was plenty of evidence of learner

12. Discussion

122

stereotypes being broken by their summer interviewees), the possibility of ever having correct and accurate information about people was brought into question. And the author tends to agree that that people can only ever aim to gather more accurate information than they already have, but that this has to be tempered by the understanding that information can never be completely accurate. Judgment itself should thus be revised along with the information it is based upon, which should be as correct and accurate as possible. (Houghton, 2013: 172-174)

Task 3 Read Tables 1-3 below each of which provides a possible structure for a Discussion section. Which ones appeal to you the most and why?

Table 1 1

Discuss the data analysis by making links back with the academic literature

2

Give your opinion where relevant

3

Answer your research question(s) clearly

4

Reflect on what you learned

5

Reflect upon whether you would use the same data analysis categories again, or not, and why

6

Consider the implications of the study

Table 2 1

Summarise your research

2

Spell out your contribution

3

State the limitations of your study

4

Suggest potential areas of further research Source: Cooley and Lewkowicz (2003)

Table 3 1

An overview of the significant findings of the study

2

A consideration of the findings in the light of existing research studies

3

Implications of the study for current theory

4

A careful examination of the findings that fail to support or only partially support the hypotheses outlined in the study

5

Limitations of the study that may affect the validity or the generalisability of the results

6

Recommendations for further research

7

Implications of the study for professional practice or applied setting (optional) Source: Paltridge and Starfield (2007)

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

123

Task 4 Drawing upon the components listed in Tables 1-3 in Task 4 above, decide how to structure your own Discussion section. Complete the table below, but you do not need to fill in all of the boxes.

The structure of your Discussion section 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Task 5 Read and assess Discussion sections 1 and 2 below by applying the assessment criteria in the table. Give each one a mark out of 10 and explain why you think it deserves that mark.

Grading Sheet 6

Discussion

Œ

Did the author discuss the data analysis by making links back with the academic literature?

Œ

Did the author give their opinion where relevant?

Œ

Did the author answer their research questions clearly?

Œ

Did the author reflect on what they had learned?

Œ

Did the author consider the implications of the study?

Mark out of 10 Discussion 1

Discussion 2

Reason

12. Discussion

124

Discussion 1 In this study, I noticed that everyone has their own ideas and images of people with different blood types. Why is this so? They seem to be rooted in the mass media, and also in fortune-telling because many Japanese people like visiting fortune-tellers for fun. Also, after World War 2, many Japanese people were informed of their blood type when they were injured, so I guess that people started to attribute meaning to it in those times. Finally, I conclude that Japanese history is one source of stereotypes related to blood type.

Discussion 2 Through this assignment, I found that Japanese people have common stereotypes related to husbands and wives. Basically, over half of the participants think that the household is the domain of females, and males need to have a job to prove their capability. However, many participants also recognized that the situation is changing nowadays. In the survey, husbands who also do housework seem to be considered gentle and attractive; however, wives who work while taking care of the family are considered unable to handle both, and are really busy as a result. I think, in Japanese society, males are encouraged to more housework than in the past. However, Japanese people still treat females according to traditional standards, so more work is needed to change the situation. Besides, it is not only males who need to change their adherence to old ideas, but also females. In this survey, the answers were gathered mostly from females. This suggests that stereotypes of housewives and working husbands are held by females too.

Task 7 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

Task 8 Draft your Discussion section in the box below.

13. CONCLUSION

Overview ΠAnalysing the content of a Conclusion ΠAnalysing a combined Discussion and Conclusion section ΠAnalysing and assessing sample Conclusions by applying specific criteria ΠMINI-THESIS: WRITING THE CONCLUSION

Task 1 Read and discuss the thesis structure flowchart below focusing on the Conclusion section.

13. Conclusion

126

Task 2 Read the extract and answer the questions below. What kind of information should go into a concluding section? Swetnam and Swetnam (2009) suggest that it should complete the circle begun in the introduction, which means that the results of the study should not be repeated but summarised and related to the research question(s). They emphasise the point that researchers should be honest about anything that went wrong during the study, which is a matter of academic integrity. Researchers can also take the opportunity to highlight possible avenues for future research in the conclusion based on the main findings of the study reported. 1.

In what way is the thesis-writing process circular in nature?

2.

What kind of information should the Conclusion not contain?

3.

What does academic integrity mean in this context?

4.

Why do you think it is useful to highlight possible avenues for further research in the Conclusion?

Task 3 Paltridge and Starfield (2007) review Thompson’s (2005: 317-318) list of sections typically contained in a Conclusion. Read the sections below, and discuss whether you think any of them can be covered in the Discussion section, or whether the Discussion and Conclusion sections should be combined into one section. 1.

introductory restatement of aims, research questions

2.

consolidation of present research (e.g. findings, limitations)

3.

practical applications/implications

4.

recommendations for further research. (Paltridge and Starfield, 2007: 151)

Task 4 Read the Conclusion and answer the questions below.

Conclusion In this chapter, I have proposed that the visual representation, complemented by the follow-up interview, is a form of textual intervention that is suitable for the investigation of, and instruction on, the cultural dimension of foreign language reading. I have exemplified the visual representation with one student sample, complemented with interview data. I have mentioned the possibilities that this instrument offers for instruction, and I have suggested that it can be particularly useful for the investigation of and instruction on the imaginative and emotional dimension of cultural understanding. This is an area in which theories of schemata have weaknesses. In this study, concomitantly

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

127

with the emergence of stereotypes as fixed categories, the visual representation and interview showed the elements of criticality, reflexivity and critical cultural awareness which are revealing of a conceptualization of stereotypes as fluid and open categories instead. On this basis, I have argued that its pedagogic value lays in the fact that it can be used as an instructional tool to address stereotypes in the foreign language classroom and consequently foster critical cultural awareness. (Porto, 2013:244) 1.

Is the main point of the study summarised in this Conclusion? If so, what is it?

2.

Is the contribution of the study described clearly? If so, what is it?

3.

Are any limitations of the study highlighted? If so, what are they?

4.

Are potential areas of further research suggested? If so, what are they?

Task 5 Read the conclusion and answer the questions below.

Conclusion At its crux, critical pedagogy questions students’ personal experiences and text-mediated responses and shifts the position of the teacher from being an (inter)cultural ambassador, holder of cultural knowledge, to that of a cultural worker and transformative intellectual, in dialogue with the students. The teacher as an (inter)cultural ambassador risks transmitting a static, fragmented, and incomplete picture of culture, taught as if it was something out there to be learnt as a set of facts in parrot-like manner. This type of teaching would only provide learners with a decontextualised, stereotyped and misleading picture of the culture under study (Crozet & Liddicoat, 2000). By contrast, the cultural workers and transformative intellectuals that critical pedagogy advocates develop Houghton’s (2010) addition to Byram’s model of savoir se transformer: knowing how to become, for they deal with a more fluid concept of culture allowing students to learn to develop themselves by exploring and interrogating their own values, beliefs and attitudes. The critical pedagogue facilitates the tools to deconstruct taken-for-granted assumptions and gives voice to students who have suffered from discrimination, marginalisation and stereotyping. For students to live and experience critical pedagogy, teachers should allow for a social and intellectual space in the classroom for them to talk about their own experiences of intercultural conflict, and to examine their own discourses of otherness. Critical pedagogy calls upon us to reflect critically on them, and on the ways we think and talk about others, so that we can act in new ways. In sum, to understand the role of the critical pedagogue, there is a need for language educators to raise awareness of the fact that by participating in the perpetuation of stereotypical social myths, we are implicitly legitimising processes of oppression. Therefore, developing critical pedagogical approaches for reducing biased behaviour and unmasking unjust power relations in an unequal world becomes a central issue in the teaching of foreign languages for a more egalitarian society less oppressed by stereotypical bias and prejudice. (Yulita, 2013: 215-216)

13. Conclusion

128

1.

Is the main point of the study summarised in this Conclusion? If so, what is it?

2.

Is the contribution of the study described clearly? If so, what is it?

3.

Are any limitations of the study highlighted? If so, what are they?

4.

Are potential areas of further research suggested? If so, what are they?

Task 6 Compare and contrast Thompson’s (2005: 317-318) list of sections typically contained in a Conclusion with those suggested by Evans and Gruba (2002) (both cited in Paltridge and Starfield, 2007: 151). Identify similarities and differences between them, and complete the table below.

Evans and Gruba (2002) 1

2

Thompson (2005)

The Conclusions are what the Discussion section has

introductory restatement of aims, research

been arguing for

questions

The Conclusions may be a separate chapter or they

consolidation of present research (e.g. findings,

may be combined with the discussion chapter, labelled

limitations)

‘Discussion and Conclusion’ 3

The Conclusions reached in this chapter should be

practical applications/implications

drawn from the Discussion chapter 4

There should be no further discussion in the

recommendations for further research

Conclusions chapter 5

The Conclusions should respond to the aims that were stated in the first chapter

Task 7 Some researchers separate the Conclusion from limitations of the study and recommendations for future research. Read the Conclusion, and Limitations and Future Research sections, below. Underline the main conclusions in each section

Conclusion It can be concluded that stereotypes are still common among the Chinese students of English. As shown by the questionnaire survey results, character, value, behaviour and socio-political related views make up the content of stereotypes of the Chinese student subjects and their stereotypes are presumably related to their foreign language learning experience and influence of the media. The study implies that stereotyping and de-stereotyping remain two critical tasks for ELT in China. As a cognitive strategy, stereotyping is a necessary process and a way of learning about the target cultural groups, especially when the students have limited access to the target culture. On the other hand, stereotyping is unreliable due to its nature of oversimplification and overgeneralization. De-stereotyping is

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

129

therefore important for overcoming the weaknesses of stereotyping. However, new stereotyping is easily formulated if the learner runs into oversimplification and overgeneralization again, or if the learner fails to follow the changes of the target culture and sticks to the old perceptions. This “paradox of cross-cultural communication” (Gao, 1995) seems to accompany the students throughout their language learning process. In China, teaching knowledge of the target culture and its people has also been emphasized to encourage the re-construction of cultural stereotypes (e.g. Wen, 2003; Zhang, 2007). However, the dialectic constructive/deconstructive view of stereotype management works well only if a dynamic approach is adopted. A dynamic approach to stereotype management recognizes change as the underlying force for intercultural learning, for which de-stereotyping is an effective strategy and productive process of learning. Since the danger of stereotyping lies in static and fixed perceptions, de-stereotyping entails a dynamic perspective in viewing one’s own, as well as other, cultural groups. This means that the old perceptions must be de-constructed and replaced by new ones with old stereotypes being constantly updated. The dynamic within the dialect-constructive approach to stereotype management is change, which involves the willingness and readiness to update one’s stereotypes, and being sensitive to changes in the perceived target cultures. As perceivers learning to become interculturally competent speakers of English, Chinese university students will have to keep alert to the changes of the perceived target cultures and make efforts to accommodate established stereotypes to changes in the perceived cultural groups. Without the recognition of and adaptation to stereotyping and destereotyping as a dynamic process, students will never acquire the critical cultural awareness that requires the ability to make justified evaluations of the self and the cultural other. (Song, 2013: 109-110)

Limitations and Future Research To orient English language education towards the development of learners’ intercultural communicative competence, it is necessary to have a general profile of the Chinese students’ cultural stereotypes and to diagnose what hampers their intercultural learning and understanding. However, the number and the representativeness of the subjects in this study are rather limited. A larger-scale survey needs to be rigorously conducted in the future. The complexities of students’ stereotype formation and correlations between factors that influence students’ stereotypes should also be analyzed. In-depth interviews should be conducted for a more comprehensive understanding of the English learners’ cultural stereotypes. The recommended dynamic approach to stereotype management as a solution for the stereotyping and de-stereotyping problem in the Chinese ELT context still needs further theoretical development and experimental verification. I have personally tried to adopt the counter-exemplification principle in bringing a dynamic perspective into the classroom. Specific methods used involved individuation (paying attention to intra-group diversity), experientialization (learning through experience) and contextualization (contextualizing stereotypes). However, these methods have not been applied in a systematic manner, though they seemed to be very effective among small groups of students. Nonetheless, these remain worthwhile topics for future research, especially when they are explored in relation to critical cultural awareness in interculturally-oriented foreign language programs. (Song, 2013: 110-111)

13. Conclusion

130

Task 8 What kind of information is presented in the Conclusion, and Limitations and Future Research, sections of Song’s (2013) chapter above? Circle the areas covered in the table below.

Evans and Gruba (2002) 1

2

Thompson (2005)

The Conclusions are what the Discussion section has

introductory restatement of aims, research

been arguing for

questions

The Conclusions may be a separate chapter or they

consolidation of present research (e.g. findings,

may be combined with the discussion chapter, labelled

limitations)

‘Discussion and Conclusion’ 3

The Conclusions reached in this chapter should be

practical applications/implications

drawn from the Discussion chapter 4

There should be no further discussion in the

recommendations for further research

Conclusions chapter 5

The Conclusions should respond to the aims that were stated in the first chapter

Task 9 Discuss with your partner whether to have separate Discussion and Conclusion sections in your mini-thesis, or a combined Discussion and Conclusion section. Which do you think would work best in your case, and why?

Task 10 Read and assess Conclusions 1 and 2 below by applying the assessment criteria below. Give each one a mark out of 5 and explain why you think it deserves that mark.

Grading Sheet 7

Conclusion

Œ

Did the author summarise the thesis and its main conclusions?

Œ

Did author identify the limitations of the project?

Œ

Did author identify possibilities for future research?

Mark out of 5 Conclusion 1

Conclusion 2

Reason

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

131

Conclusion 1 In this final section, I will summarise the main findings of the study, and consider some implications. From the data above, it can be seen that both housewives and househusbands are characterized as patient and caring. Many male students do not seem willing to be a househusband. And many female students do not seem willing to give up their career after having a baby. The data suggest that participants seem inclined to avoid child-care. Also, through the interview, my interviewee expressed many opinions about why women are better suited to take care of babies. Generally speaking, I think men don’t know how to take care of babies. You know, hmm, like when a baby cries, men don’t know how to deal with it, and they easily get angry. As for me, emotional people so not make good baby carers. (Interview data) This illustrates the central point emerging in the data in connection to people’s gender-related stereotypes. Generally, the participants seem to think that women are better suited to baby-care than men. However, the research also highlights limitations in the influences of stereotypes. Further, the research only investigated what images people have of househusbands and housewives without attempting to construct the larger framework that influences the possible impact of stereotypes on people’s future lives. Therefore, I want to study this more deeply in the future.

Conclusion 2 Through this assignment, I found that stereotypes related to smokers are connected to deep and complex images. I focused on differences between the images people have of male and female smokers, and I conclude that such gender-related stereotypes were developed by men and the male-dominated society more generally (see Appendix 2). A stereotype can be defined as a fixed idea or image that many people have of a particular type of person or things (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 2010), but they are often not true in reality. The data suggest that the bias of many people reflect their stereotypes, and if group is labelled with a negative stereotype, its member worry about what other people think of what they do. All stereotypes, not only those related to tobacco, extend their roots deeply into culture and society, so they are very difficult to remove. Therefore, we must not make judgments driven out of selfishness and bias. We have to know and understand other people and cultures well, and if we have stereotypes, we need to consider whether they are biased or not.

13. Conclusion

132

Task 11 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

Task 12 Mini-Thesis (Writing the Conclusion) Draft your Conclusion in the box below.

14. REFERENCES AND APPENDICES

Overview ΠDefining

and

distinguishing

source

types,

references

and

appendices ΠWriting references according to a given style ΠMINI-THESIS:

WRITING

THE

REFERENCES

AND

COMPILING THE APPENDICES

Task 1 Read and discuss the thesis structure flowchart below focusing on the References and Appendices below.

14. References and Appendices

134

Task 2 What is the difference between a reference and an appendix? Read and discuss the definitions from the Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online below. Œ

Reference: a source of information (as a book or passage) to which a reader or consulter is referred

Œ

Appendix: a section of extra information added at the end of a book

Task 3 Read the extract below about the kinds of sources researchers might refer to in their work. Answer the questions below. Researchers make use of various kinds of sources during the course of their research. They refer to them in their publications in the running text in citations in the literature review, for example. They also provide the full reference in the reference list at the end to help readers who want to read them to find the sources afterwards if they wish. While the use of internet sources is increasingly common, researchers often refer to books in their publications, but there are two different kinds. If a researcher has written a book alone, they are considered the author. If they wrote the book with one or more other people, they are considered the co-author. These two kinds of books are basically treated the same in the reference list, and are referred to in the same way. However, if the researcher did not actually write the book but gathered and edited a collection of chapters written by other people, they are considered the editor (or co-editor) of the book, but not the author or co-author. Authored and edited books need to be referred to differently in the reference list. Researchers also often refer to articles in their publications. These may appear in an academic journal or in a set of conference proceedings if the paper was presented at an academic conference. The presentation itself may also be referenced independently as a conference presentation. The referencing style can vary considerably from journal to journal, so it is important to check in advance if you want to submit an article for publication. (Houghton, 2013: 139) 1.

What six kinds of sources are mentioned in the paragraph?

2.

What is the difference between authored and edited books?

3.

In what kinds of publications might articles be published?

Task 4 Read the references below and answer the questions after each one.

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

135

Book Tajfel, H. (1982). Social identity and intergroup relations. London: Cambridge University Press. 1.

What is the author’s surname?

2.

What are the author’s initials?

3.

In what year was the book published?

4.

What is the title of the book?

5.

In which city was the book published?

6.

What is the name of the publisher?

Journal article Schwartz, S. H. & Sagiv, L. (1995). Identifying culture-specifics in the content and structure of values. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26(1), 92-116. 1.

What are the authors’ surnames?

2.

What are the authors’ initials?

3.

In what year was the article published?

4.

What is the title of the article?

5.

In which journal was it published?

6.

In which volume of the journal was it published?

7.

On which pages was it published?

8.

What is the name of the publisher?

9.

Is the title of the article or the title of the journal italicized?

Chapter in an edited volume Bennett, M. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R.M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 21-71). Maine: Intercultural Press. 1.

What is the chapter author’s surname?

2.

What is the chapter author’s initial?

3.

In what year was it published?

4.

What is the title of the chapter?

5.

In which edited book was it published?

6.

Who edited the book? (i.e. who was the editor?)

7.

On which pages was it published?

8.

In which city was the book published?

9.

What is the name of the publisher?

10. Is the title of the chapter or the title of the edited volume italicized?

14. References and Appendices

136

Internet source Byram, M., Barrett, M., Ipgrave, J., Jackson, R. & Mendez Garcia, M. (2009). Autobiography of intercultural encounters. Language Policy Division: Council of Europe. Retrieved January 13 2010, from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/autobiography/default_EN.asp? 1.

How many authors are there?

2.

In what year was it published?

3.

What is the title of the internet publication?

4.

Is the URL provided?

Conference proceedings publication Cormeraie, S. (1998). From theoretical insights to best practice for successful intercultural education: The crucial transmission. In D. Killick & M. Parry (Eds), Cross-cultural capability: The why, the ways & the means: New theories & methodologies in language education. Proceedings of the conference at Leeds Metropolitan University, December 1997 Leeds: Leeds Metropolitan University. 1.

What is the author’s surname?

2.

What is the author’s initial?

3.

In what year was it published?

4.

What is the title of the article?

5.

In which set of conference proceedings was it published?

6.

Where was the conference held?

7.

When was it held?

Task 5 Read the list of references below. Categorise them using the list of source types below and write the number in the box for each. Source type 1

Journal article

2

Book

3

Chapter in an edited volume

4

Internet source

5

Conference proceedings publication

Branch, W. (2005). Use of Critical Incident Reports in Medical Education. A Perspective. Journal of General Internal Medicine 20(11). Retrieved November 11, 2012 from http://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/ PMC1490252/(a..............) Brookfield, S. (1990). Using critical incidents to explore learner's assumptions. In J. Mezirow (Ed.) Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood: A Guide to Transformative and Emancipatory Learning (177–93). San Francisco:

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

137

Jossey-Bass. (b..............) Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. (c..............) Chen, G.-M. (2010). A Study of Intercultural Communication Competence. Wanchai, Hong Kong: China Review Academic Publishers Limited. (d..............) Collins, N. M. & Pieterse, A. L. (2007). Critical incident analysis based training: an approach for developing active racial/cultural awareness. Journal of Counseling & Development 85, 14 - 23. (e..............) Fantini, A. (2007). Exploring and Assessing Intercultural Competence: Research Report 07-01. Washington University in St. Louis. Retrieved November 12, 2012, from http://csd.wustl.edu/Publications/Documents/ RP07-01.pdf(f..............) Fielder, F.E., Mitchell, T. & Triandis, H. (1971). The Culture Assimilator: An Approach to Cross-Cultural Training. In Journal of Applied Psychology, 55, 95-102. (g..............) Finch, A. (2010). Critical incidents and language learning: Sensitivity to initial conditions. System 38 (3), 422-431. (h..............) Flanagan, J. E. (1954). The critical cultural technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51 (4), 327-359. (i..............) Hodge, B. & Matthews, I. (2011). Critical incident analysis and the semiosphere. The curious case of the spitting butterfly. Cultural Studies Review 17 (2), 300-25. (j..............) Houghton, S. (2008). Harmony versus critical cultural awareness: A case study of intercultural language education in Japan. Intercultural Communication Studies XVII (2), 222 – 234. (k..............) Lebedko, M. (2007). Developing intercultural awareness through critical incidents analysis. In H. S. Sohng, (Ed.), “Emerging Issues and Challenges in English Education” Conference Proceedings, September 8, 2007 (pp. 141-146). Kongju National University, Korea: Kongju National University, Korea. (l..............) Thomas, A. (2005). Kultur und Kulturstandards. In A. Thomas, E.U. Kinast & S. Schroll-Machl (Eds.), Handbuch Interkulturelle Kommunikation und Kooperation, Band 1, Grundlagen und Praxisfelder. (pp.19-31). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. (m..............) Tripp, D. (1993). Critical Incidents in Teaching: Developing Professional Judgment. New York, NY: Routledge. (n..............)

Task 6 Read the paragraph about Appendices and answer the questions below. At the end of your thesis, you may include various kinds of supplementary materials in an Appendix such as questionnaires, interview data and consent forms. The plural of Appendix is Appendices, so the latter term should be used if there is more than one Appendix. Usually, Appendices are not included in the word count for the thesis. Read the Appendix from a classroom research report (Houghton, 2013: 179) presented below. What kind of information does it contain?

14. References and Appendices

138

Appendix Tasks and learning objectives (week 14) Task 14.5

Task 14.6

Task 14.7

Task 14.8

Homework

Œ

Read a paragraph about stereotypes and answer questions about it ¾

Œ

Reflect on your stereotypes of Germany and makes notes in the box ¾

Œ

Learning objective: Develop meta-cognitive awareness & control

Read an article about German stereotypes of Italians and answer questions about it ¾

Œ

Learning objective: Identify & describe own stereotypes

Read a paragraph about problems caused by stereotypes and answer questions about it ¾

Œ

Learning objective: Define stereotype

Learning objective: Identify and describe foreigner stereotypes of a different group of foreigners

Interview a foreigners about their values ¾

Learning objective: Elicit the values & concepts of a foreigner in real-time communication

Tasks and learning objectives (week 15) Task 15.1

Task 15.2

Task 15.3

Task 15.4

Task 15.5

Task 15.6

Œ

Reflect on your stereotypes of Italy and makes notes in the box ¾

Œ

Read a paragraph about stereotypes and answer questions about it (review) ¾

Œ

Learning objective: Develop knowledge to help develop meta-cognitive awareness & control

Listen to teacher talk about her stereotypes of Italians were broken during her trip to Italy ¾

Œ

Learning objective: Identify teacher stereotypes

Read a paragraph about ways of managing stereotypes and answer questions about it ¾

Œ

Learning objective: Define stereotype (review)

Listen to teacher talk about her stereotypes of Italians before her trip to Italy ¾

Œ

Learning objective: Identify & describe own stereotypes

Learning objective: Identify change in teacher stereotypes

Reflect on summer interview with a foreigner and whether or not stereotypes were broken in some way ¾

Learning objective: Develop meta-cognitive awareness

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

139

Task 8 Review this unit independently. Note down any new words, phrases, expressions and sentence patterns you find in the box below.

Task 9 Mini-Thesis (Writing the References and Compiling the Appendices) List your References and Appendices in the box below.

15. MINI-THESIS GRADING SHEET

Overview ΠMINI-THESIS: ASSESS YOUR OWN MINI-THESIS BY APPLYING SPECIFIC CRITERIA

Task 1 Once you have finished writing your mini-thesis, assess it using the criteria in the table below before submitting it to your teacher for the final assessment.

Grading Sheet 1

2

3

Introduction

Œ

Did you explain the purpose of the research?

( …. of 5)

Œ

Did you explain why it is important and interesting?

Œ

Did you state your research questions clearly?

Literature Review

Œ

Did you provide relevant theoretical background?

( …. of 20)

Œ

Did you define key terms?

Œ

Did you cite sources appropriately?

Œ

Did you use the three referencing styles?

Research Methods

Œ

Did you describe the research design clearly?

( …. of 10)

Œ

Did you define questionnaires and interviews, and their use in research?

Œ

Did you describe your questionnaire design?

Œ

Did you explain how you formulated the questionnaire and interview questions, and why?

4

Data Analysis

Œ

Did you describe data gathering procedures carefully?

Œ

Did you cite sources appropriately?

Œ

Did you explain participant selection?

Œ

Did you address ethical issues clearly?

Œ

Did you refer to any information contained in the Appendices clearly?

Œ

Describe data analysis procedures carefully (i.e. how did you analyse the data in

( …. of 10) 5

Data Presentation ( …. of 20)

practice?) Œ

Did you present and analyse the data clearly and objectively?

Œ

Did you interpret the data separately?

Œ

Did you use quotations from your diary data to illustrate and provide evidence for your analysis?

Œ

Did you refer to any information contained in the Appendices clearly?

15. Mini-Thesis Grading Sheet

142

6

Œ

Discussion ( …. of 10)

7

8

literature? Œ

Did you give your opinion where relevant?

Œ

Did you answer your research questions clearly?

Œ

Did you reflect on what you learned?

Œ

Did you consider the implications of the study?

Conclusion

Œ

Did you summarise the thesis and its main conclusions?

( …. of 5)

Œ

Did you identify the limitations of the project?

Œ

Did you identify possibilities for future research?

Œ

Did you provide a list of the sources you used (e.g. books, journals, internet

References ( …. of 5)

9

sources etc.)?

Appendices

Œ

Did you list all the sources in the references?

Œ

Did you write the references following the style given?

Œ

Did you provide extra supporting information not needed in the main thesis (e.g.

( …. of 5) 10

Did you discuss the data analysis by making links back with the academic

whole data sets, consent form, interview transcript etc.)?

Structure, presentation

Œ

Are the sections and chapters balanced and well structured?

and

Œ

Is the English comprehensible?

impression

Œ

Is there a definite coherence in the finished product?

( …. of 10)

Œ

Does the study make a satisfying contribution to understanding, knowledge and

overall

practice?

REFERENCES Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. NY: Doubleday. analyse (2014).Cambridge dictionaries online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-japanese/analyse?q=analyse appendix (2014). Merriam-Webster dictionary online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/appendix applause (n.d.). Retrieved December 15, 2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applause Asahi Shinbun Digital (2013) ⏨ዪᖹ➼ࠊ᪥ᮏࡣ㐣ཤ᭱ప㸯㸮㸳఩ 㹕㹃㹄ሗ࿌ [danjo byodo , nihon wa kako saitei 105i WEF hokoku]. Retrieved 29 July 2014 from http://www.asahi.com/articles/TKY201310250012.html Australian Bureau of Statistics (Jun 2011). Labour force status and other characteristics of families. Retrieved 29 July 2014 from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/Lookup/6224.0.55.001Main+Features1Jun%202011?OpenDocument Bandura, E. (2013). Developing teachers’ critical pedagogic competence: From teacher autobiography to teacher-designed intercultural activities. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical cultural awareness: Managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 180-204). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Barna, L. M. (1985). Stumbling blocks in intercultural communication. In L. Samovar & R. Porter, Intercultural communication: A reader, pp.330-338. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Barnett, R. (1988). Does higher education have aims? Journal of Philosophy of Education, 22(2), 239-250. Barnett, R. (1997). Higher education: A critical business. Buckingham: Society for Research into Higher Education: Open University Press BartmiĔski, E. (2009). Bazovye stereotypy i ikh profilirovaniie [Basic stereotypes and their profiling]. In L. L Fɺdorova (Ed.). Stereotipy vyazyke, kommunikatsii i kul’ture [Stereotypes in language, communication and culture](pp.5-21). Ɇoscow, Russia: RGTU Press. Belkin, L. (2011). A ‘normal’ family. Retrieved 29 July 2014 from http://parenting.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/02/23/a-normal-family/?_php=true&_type=blogs&_r=0 Benhabib, S. (2002). The claims of culture. Equality and diversity in the global era. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards ethno-relativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In M. Paige (Ed.) Education for the intercultural experience (pp.21-73). Yarmouth, Me.: Intercultural Press. Bennett, M. J. (1998). Intercultural communication: A current perspective. In M. J. Bennett (Ed.), Basic concepts of intercultural communication: Selected readings (pp. 1-34). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Blaxter, L. Hughes, C. & Tight, M. (2004). How to research. London: Open University Press. Borghetti, C. (2013). Unmasking stereotypes in travel guides: A teaching activity for intercultural foreign language education. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical cultural awareness: managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 114-135). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

References

144

Bottom, P. W. & Dejun, K. J. (2007). The palimpsestic syndrome in management research: Stereotypes and the obliteration process. Retrieved December 12, 2011 from http://apps.olin.wustl.edu/workingpapers/pdf/2007-01-002.pdf Brislin, R.W. (1986). Prejudice and intergroup communication. In W. Gudykunst (Ed.), Intergroup communication. London: Edward Arnold. Brumfit, C., Myles, F., Mitchell, R., Johnston, B. & Ford, P. (2005). Language study in higher education and the development of criticality. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15( 2), 145-168. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. (2008). From foreign language education to education for intercultural citizenship. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Byram, M., M. Barrett, J. Ipgrave, R. Jackson & M. Mendez Garcia (2009). Autobiography of intercultural encounters. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Retrieved July 23, 2013 from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/autobiography/default_EN.asp? Byram, M., Gribkova, B., & Starkey H. (2002). Developing the intercultural dimension in language teaching. A practical introduction for teachers. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Campbell, D. (1967). Stereotypes and the perception of group differences. American Psychologist 22, 817-829. Cohen, L. & Manion, L. (1989). Research methods in education. London: Routledge. Cooley, L. & Lewcovicz, J. (2003) Dissertation writing in practice: Turning ideas into text. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Crozet, C. & Liddicoat, A. (2000). Teaching culture as an integrated part of language: implications for the aims, approaches and pedagogies of language teaching. In Liddicoat, A. & Crozet, C. (Eds.), Teaching languages, teaching cultures (pp. 1-18). Melbourne: Language Australia. Don’t be too Jewish. (n. d.; n. au.). Retrieved November 11, 2012 from: http://usa.worlds.ru/humor/331.shtml Dovidio J.E., Brigham J.C., Johnson B.T. & Gaertner S.L. (1996). Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination: Another look. In N. Macrae, M. Hewstone & C. Stangor, Foundations of stereotypes and stereotyping. New York: Guildford Press. Elligan, D. (2008). Stereotypes. In Encyclopedia of race, ethnicity and society. Retrieved November 5, 2012 from http://sage-ereference.com/ethnicity/Article_n532.html Evans, D. & Gruba, P. (2002). How to write a better thesis. Carlton South Vic.: Melbourne University Press. fact (2014). Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-japanese/fact?q=fact Fofin, A. B. (2008). Russkiye i frantsuzskiye etnofolizmy kak verbal’nyie znaki netolerantnosti [Russian and French ethnofolisms as verbal signs of national non-tolerance]. Vestnik Irkutskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Seriya Filologiya [Herald of Irkutsk State Linguistic University Philology Series] 1, 45-51. Furumura, Y. (2013). Remedying negative stereotypes by identifying the origins of stereotypes: From semantic or affective learning? In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical cultural awareness: Managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 24-41). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

145

Gao, Y.H. (1995). wenhua dingxing yu kuawenhua jiaoji beilun [Paradox of cross-cultural communication]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 2, 36-42. Geeraerts, D. (2006). Cognitive linguistics: Basic readings. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter. Gudykunst W. & Hammer M. (1988). Strangers and hosts: An extension of UR theory to intercultural adaptation. In Y. Kim & W. Gudykunst (Eds.), Cross-cultural adaptation. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Hamilton, D.L. & Gifford, R.K. (1976). Illusory correlation in interpersonal perception. A cognitive basis for stereotypic judgments. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 12, 392-406. Hamilton, D. & Neville Uhles A. (2000). Stereotypes. Encyclopedia of Psychology 7, 466-469. Harding, J., Proshanksy H., Kutner B. & Chein I. (1969). Prejudice and ethnic relations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.) The handbook of social psychology. Reading Mass.: Addison-Wesley. Heise, D. R. (1970). Semantic differential and attitude research. In G. F. Summers (Ed.), Attitude management (pp. 235-253). Chicago: Rand McNally. Hewstone, M. & Giles H. (1986). Social groups and social stereotypes in intergroup communication. In W. Gudykunst (Ed.), Intergroup communication. London: Edward Arnold. Holliday, A., Hyde, M. & Kullman, J. (2010). Intercultural communication: an advanced resource book for students. Oxon: Routledge Applied Linguistics. Houghton, S. (2010). Savoir se transformer: Knowing how to become. In Y. Tsai & S. Houghton (Eds.) Becoming intercultural: Inside and outside the classroom. (pp.194-228). Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Houghton, S.A. (2013). Managing stereotypes through experiential learning. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical cultural awareness: Managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 158-180). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) (2013). Critical cultural awareness: Managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 135-157). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Houghton, S.A., Lebedko, M. & Li, S. (2013). Comparing stereotypes of Chinese, Japanese and Russian people: Mutual perceptions of students from neighbouring countries. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical cultural awareness: Managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 62-86). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Houghton, S. & Yamada, E. (Eds.) (2012). Developing criticality in practice through foreign language education. Oxford: Peter Lang. HuffPost Society (2014). ዪᛶࡢᖺ཰ࠊపࡍࡂ㸽 ᪥ᮏࡣࡇࡢ30ᖺࠊ⏨ዪࡢ᱁ᕪࡀᇙࡲࡗ࡚࠸࡞࠸࠙ࢹ࣮ࢱࠚ [josei no nenshu, hikusugi? Nihon wa kono 30 nen, danjo no kakusa ga umateinai [deta]] Retrieved 29 July 2014 from http://www.huffingtonpost.jp/2014/05/06/woman-in-japan_n_5274351.html interpret (2014). Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-japanese/interpret?q=interpret interpretation (2014). Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-japanese/interpretation?q=interpretation interview (2014). Cambridge Dictionaries Online Retrieved 29 July 2014 from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-japanese/interview_1?q=interview

References

146

Johnston, B., Ford, P., Mitchell, R., & Myles, F. (2011). Developing student criticality in higher education: Undergraduate learning in the arts and social sciences. London: Continuum Studies in Educational Research. Kim, Y. & Gudykunst W. (1988). Theories in intercultural communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Kobozeva, I. M. (2000). Lingvisticheskaia semantika. [Linguisticsemantics]. Moscow: Editorial URSS. Kohlberg, L. (1969). Kohlberg: Stage and Sequence. In D.A. Goslin, Handbook of socialization theory and research. Chicago: Rand McNally. Kohls, L. R. (1984). Survival kit for overseas living. Yarmouth, ME:Intercultural Press. Lebedko, M. (2013a). Theory and practice of stereotypes in intercultural communication. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical cultural awareness: Managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 4-24). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Lebedko, M. (2013b). Stereotype management in intercultural education through the analysis of critical incidents. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical cultural awareness: Managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 249-276). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Leontovich, O. A. (2003). Rossiia i SsHa: vvedeniie v mezhkul’turnuiu kommunikatsiiu. [Russia and the USA: Introduction to Intercultural Communication]. Volgograd, Russia: Peremena. LeVine, R. & Campbell, D. (1972). Ethnocentrism: Theories of conflict,ethnic attitudes and group behaviour. New York: Wiley. Lima, C. (Ed.) (2006). A brief introduction to critical literacy in English language education. Retrieved November 14, 2012 from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/Booklet_A%20Brief%20Introduction%20to%20CL_%2020 06edition.pdf Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: MacMillan. McDonough, J. & McDonough, S. (1997). Research methods for English language teachers. London: Arnold McGarty, C., Yzerbyt, V. & Spears, R. (2002). Stereotypes as explanations: The formation of meaningful beliefs about social groups. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mieder, W. (1995). “The only good Indian is a dead Indian.” History and meaning of a proverbial stereotype. Electronic Journal of International Proverb Studies: Deproverbio 1(1). Retrieved December 12, 2012 from http://www.deproverbio.com/display.php?a=4&f=DPjournal&r=DP,1,1,95/INDIAN.html Moore, J. R. (2006). Shattering stereotypes: A lesson plan for improving student attitudes and behavior towards minority groups. The Social Studies (ERIC Accession # EJ744210), 35-39. My Navi News (2014). ࣐࢖ࢼࣅࢽ࣮ࣗࢫ ࢸ࣮࣐ࠕࢱࣂࢥࠖ[mai navi nyusu tema [tabaco]] Retrieved 29 July 2014 from http://news.mynavi.jp/articles/2014/04/30/tabacco/ NewSphere (2014) ࠕ࢔ࣦ࣭ࣦࣜࣝࣛ࢕࣮ࣥࡢ͆J-POP㢼͇᪂᭤ࠊᾏእ࡛㓞ホ ḷモࡶࢲࣥࢫࡶ࠸࠸࡜ࡇ࡞ࡋࠖ [Avril Lavine no “J-POPfu” shinkyoku, kaigai de kokuhyo kasha mo dansu mo ii took nashi] Retrieved 29 July 2014 from http://newsphere.jp/entertainment/20140424-6/ Osgood, C.E., Suci, G.J., & Tannenbaum, P.H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana, USA: University of Illinois Press. Paltridge, B. & Starfield, S. (2007). Thesis and dissertation writing in a second language: A handbook for supervisors. Oxford: Routledge.

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

147

paraphrase (2014). Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/paraphrase?q=paraphrase Paul, R. W. & Elder, L. (2002). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your professional and personal life. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Pegrum, M. (2008). Film, culture and identity: Critical intercultural literacies for the language classroom. Language and Intercultural Communication, 8(2), 136–154. Pinker, S. (2003). The blank slate. The modern denial of human nature. New York: Penguin Books. plagiarism (2014). Oxford Dictionaries Online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/plagiarism?q=plagiarism Porto, M. (2013). The visual representation: An instrument for research and instruction on the cultural dimension of foreign language reading. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical cultural awareness: Managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 221-248). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. questionnaire (2014). Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Retrieved 29 July 2014 from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-japanese/questionnaire?q=questionnaire reference (2014). Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/reference research (2014). Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-japanese/research_1?q=research research (2014). Oxford Dictionaries Online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/research?q=research Rivers. D.J. & Ross, A. (2013). Uncovering stereotypes: Intersections of race and English native-speakerhood. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical cultural awareness: Managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 42-62). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Rubovits, P. & Maehr, M. (1973). Pygmalion black and white. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 25 (2), 210-218. Rudestam, K. & Newton, R. (2001). Surviving your dissertation: A comprehensive guide to content and process. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Schmidt, P. & Finkbeiner, C. (2006). ABC’s of cultural understanding and communication: National and international adaptations. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Song, L. (2013). Stereotyping and de-stereotyping in the Chinese ELT context. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical Cultural Awareness: Managing Stereotypes through Intercultural (Language) Education (pp. 86-114). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Stefanenko, Ɍ, G. (2006). Ơtno-psikhologicheskii praktikum. [Ethno-Psychology. Practicum]. Moscow: Aspekt Press. Stephan, W. G. & Abalakina-Paap, M. (1996). Russia and the West. In D. Landis & R. Bhagat (Eds). Handbook of intercultural training (pp. 366-382).Thousand Oaks: Sage. stereotype (2014). Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/stereotype_1?q=stereotype

References

148

stereotype (2003). Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged. Retrieved December 22, 2012 from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/stereotype stereotype (2014). Dictionary.com. Retrieved December 11, 2012, from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/stereotype stereotype (2000). The American heritage dictionary of the English language. Retrieved December 12, 2012 from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/stereotype stereotype (2014). Online etymology dictionary. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=stereotype&searchmode=none stereotype (2014). Oxford dictionaries online. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/stereotype?q=stereotype Stewart, E. & Bennett, M. (1991). American cultural patterns. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, Inc. Swetnam, D. & Swetnam, R. (2009). Writing your dissertation. Oxford: How to books Ltd. Tajfel, H. (1982). Social identity and intergroup relations. London: Cambridge University Press. Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R.P. & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorisation and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology 1, 149- 178. The Huffington Post Canada (2014). ࢚࣮ࣝࣇࣛࣥࢫ⯟✵ࡢCMࠊࠕே✀ᕪู࡛ࠖ㠀㞴ࠖ[Air France koku no CM, [jinshu sabetsu] de hinan] Retrieved 29 July 2014 from http://www.huffingtonpost.jp/2014/04/15/air-france-racist-ads_n_5156880.html The Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (2014). ཌ⏕ປാ┬ [kosei rodosho] retrieved 29 July 2014 from http://www.health-net.or.jp/tobacco/product/pd090000.html Turner, J.C. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorisation theory. Oxford ; New York : Basil Blackwell. Turner, J. (2000). Social identity. Encyclopedia of Psychology 7, 341-343. Vief-Schmidt, G. (2007). The little prince/ Black is my favourite color. In I. Lázár, M. Huber-Kriegler et al (Eds.), Developing and assessing intercultural communicative competence, CD Rom 4.5 and 4.6. Graz: Council of Europe Publishing. www.ecml.at/Resources Ѝ Login ECML Publications, Developing and assessing intercultural communicative competence, see also ICCinTE website. Vief-Schmidt, G. (2013). Managing stereotypes through complex cultural dialogue and transformative processes. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical cultural awareness: Managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 135-157). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Wen, W.P. (2003). kuawenhua jiaoji zhongde dingxing guannian [Stereotypes in intercultural communication]. Foreign Language Education, 23( 3), 12-18. Wetherell, M. (1982). Cross-cultural studies of minimal groups: Implications for the social identity theory of intergroup relations. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. World Economic Forum (2013). The global gender gap report 2013. Retrieved 29 July 2014 from http://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2013 Wright, S. (2010). Collective action and social change. In J. Dovidio et al (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination (pp. 577-595). London: Sage.

Researching the Stereotypes of People Around Me: An Introductory Thesis Writing Course for International Students

149

Yamada, E. (2010). Developing criticality through higher education language studies. In Y. Tsai & S. Houghton (Eds.), Becoming intercultural: Inside and outside the classroom (pp. 146-166). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Yulita, L. (2013). Critical pedagogy: Stereotyping as oppression. In Houghton, S.A., Furumura, Y., Lebedko, M., & Song, L. (Eds.) Critical cultural awareness: Managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education (pp. 204-221). Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Zhang, H.L. (2007). kua wenhua waiyu jiaoxue [Intercultural Foreign Language Education]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.