Representations of Animals in Sanctuaries of Artemis and other Olympian Deities, Parts i and ii 9781407388311, 9781407388328, 9780860544036, 9781407345857

Table of contents :
PART I
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Transliteration
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Table of Contents
ABBREVIATIONS
INTRODUCTION
1. BEARS
2. BIRDS
3. PIGS AND WILD BOAR
4. CATTLE
5. DEER
6. DOGS
7. FISH, DOLPHINS AND OTHER SEA-CREATURES
8. FROGS OR TOADS
9. TORTOISES
10. GOATS
11. HARES
12. HORSES
13. INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS
14. LIONS AND OTHER BEASTS OF PREY
15. RAMS AND SHEEP
16. SNAKES
17. FABULOUS ANIMALS
CONCLUSION
PART II
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Appendices
APPENDIX 1: Sanctuaries of Artemis
APPENDIX 2: Sanctuaries of Apollo
APPENDIX 3: Sanctuaries of Athena
APPENDIX 4: Sanctuaries of Hera
APPENDIX 5: Sanctuaries of Demeter
APPENDIX 6: Sanctuaries of Zeus
APPENDIX 7: Sanctuaries of Poseidon
APPENDIX 8: Animal-representations, and the remains of animals, discovered in sanctuaries
9. Ancient writers and works referred to in the thesis
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES AND PLATES

Citation preview

Representations of Animals in Sanctuaries of Artemis and other Olympian Deities

Elinor Bevan

Part i

BAR International Series 315(i)

1986

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -SJ15 (i), 1986: 'Representations of Animals in Sanctuaries of Arternis and other Olympian Deities', Part i

©

Elinor Bevan, 1986

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388311 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388328 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860544036 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407345857 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544036 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

Trans l i terat ion

I have t r ied t o b e a s c ons istent a s p oss ible i n t he s pe l ling o f Greek names; but t here a re c ases i n wh ich f ami l iar u sage c ont l icts w i th a bso iute c ons istency. ' thus ( tor e xamp le) 1 h ave r eferred t o " Knossos", but a lso ( fo l lowing C . T. Newton 's p ractice) t o " Cn idus".

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My t hanks a re d ue t o a number o f p eop le f or t he h e lp t hat t hey h ave g iven wh i le I was e ngaged o n t he r esearch f or t h is s tudy.

F irst

t o my s uperv isor, Dr Rob in Barber, f or h is g u idance o ver s evera l y ears, a nd f or e ncourag ing m e t o c arry o ut p art o f t he work i n Greece. Ia m a lso i ndebted t o P rofessor A .J. Beatt ie f or t a lk ing t o m e a bout t he n ature o f t he g oddess Artem is, a nd g iv ing a dv ice o n l i terary s ources; t o D r G lenys Dav ies f or r ead ing p art o f t he w ork, s uggest ions f or i ts l ayout ;

a nd mak ing h e lpfu l

a nd t o Ange l ik i S ach in i ( of t he Un ivers ity

o f Thessa lon ik i) f or h e lp ing me w i th s ome a r t ic les i n Greek j ourna ls. I n t he s pec if ic a rea o f a n ima l-representat ions, Dr L awrence K eppie o f t he Hunter ian Museum i n G lasgow k ind ly s ent m e t he photo o f ap otnia t heron a ntef ix f rom Capua ;

a nd D r W .C. C avanagh o f Nott ingham

Un ivers ity w rote w i th i nforma t ion a bout t he t ypes o f l ead f igur ines h e h ad b een s tudy ing a t t he M ene la ion o f S parta. Acknow ledgements a re a lso d ue f or h e lp I r ece ived wh i le i n Greece. A t t he Br it ish S choo l a t A thens, Dr Hector C a t l ing o ffered p ract ica l a dv ice a nd i nterest;

a nd t he f ac i l it ies f or r esearch a t t he S choo l w ere

o f c ourse i nva luab le.

Iam g ratefu l f or t he h e lp a nd s uggest ions o f

many s tudents t here:

i n p art icu lar, K en S heedy, who s ent m e pho to-

g raphs, a nd i nformat ion a bout h is r esearches i n P aros;

a nd H e len

Hatcher, who a lso h e lped m e w i th photographs. Outs ide t he Br i t ish S choo l, M rs V eron ica M i tsopou lou o f t he Austr ian Archaeo log ica l I nst itute p rov ided m e w i th i nformat ion ( and p hotographs) a bout h er r ecent e xcavat ions a t L ouso i , a nd w i th e xtreme ly u sefu l a dv ice o n h ow t o r each t he s i te.

Dr H ector W i l l iams , D irector o f t he C anad ian

I nst i tute, made a va i lab le t o m e t he most r ecent r esu lts o f h is s urvey i n

S tympha los.

And I a m g ra tefu l t o Mr E . Vanderpoo l o f t he Amer ican

S choo l f or f ind ing t ime t o t a lk t o m e o n t he s ub ject o f t he more r emote s anctuar ies i n G reece, a nd t he t rave ls o f P ausan ias.

Wh i le v is it ing

s anctuar ies o f Artem is, I was g rea t ly h e lped by t he p hy lakes o f Ka lamata, Maze ika, a nd V e lest inon, a l l o f whom w ere g enerous w ith t he ir t ime a nd h osp ita l i ty f ar b eyond t he d emands o f d uty, a nd w ithout whom Is hou ld not h ave b een a b le t o v is i t t he s i tes o f Artem is L imnat is ( near Artem is ia) , L ouso i a nd P hera i. F ina l ly, I s hou ld l i ke t o e xpress my t hanks t o M . D enn is Knoepf ler o f t he Un ivers i ty o f N euchate l , f or t ak ing t he t roub le t o w r ite t o m e i n d eta i l o n t he s ub ject o f Artem id Eubo ian s anctuary o f Amarynthos, o ut l in ing h is i deas o n i t s l oca t ion, a nd e ffect ive ly c lar ify ing t h is quest ion f or m e.

i v.

CONTENTS

p age

L ist o f a bbrev iat ions

v i .

I ntroduct ion

1

1 .

Bears

1 8

2 .

B irds

2 8

3 .

P igs a nd w i ld b oar

6 7

4 .

Catt le

8 2

5 .

Deer

1 00

6 .

Dogs

1 15

7 .

F ish, d o lph ins a nd o ther s ea-creatures

1 31

8 .

F rogs

1 50

9 .

Torto ises

1 59

1 0.

Goats

1 68

1 1.

Hares

1 84

1 2.

Horses

1 94

1 3.

I nsects a nd a rachnids

2 20

1 4.

L ions a nd o ther b easts o f p rey

2 31

1 5.

Rams a nd s heep

2 46

1 6.

S nakes

2 60

1 7.

F abu lous a n ima ls

2 93

Conc lus ion

3 19

Append ices: Artem is

e xam ined

3 38

1 .

S anctuar ies o f

2 .

I t

Apo l lo

3 40

3 .

t ,

A thena

3 41

4 .

t ,

Hera

5 .

! I

Demeter

3 43

6 .

T t

Z eus

3 44

7 .

t

P ose idon

3 45

I T

3 42

V .

Append ices ( cont.)

8 .

9 .

p age

L ist o f a n ima l-representat ions, a nd r ema ins o f a n ima ls, d iscovered i n t he s anctuar ies e xam ined 8 .1

Bears

3 46

8 .2

B irds

3 47

8 .3

P igs a nd w i ld b oar

3 71

8 .4

Ca tt le

3 78

8 .5

Deer

3 89

8 .6

Dogs

3 94

8 .7

F ish , d o lph ins a nd o ther s ea-creatures

4 00

8 .8

F rogs o r t oads

4 05

8 .9

Torto ises

4 06

8 .10

Goats

4 08

8 .11

Hares

4 14

8 .12

Horses

4 17

8 .13

I nsects a nd a rachn ids

4 36

8 .14

L ions a nd o ther b easts o f p rey

4 39

8 .15

Rams a nd s heep

4 54

8 .16

Snakes a nd g orgons

4 60

8 .17

F abu lous a n ima ls

4 70

Anc ient wr i ters a nd works r eferred t o i n t he t hes is

4 83

B ib l iography

4 87

•L ist o f f igures a nd p lates P lates

5 09

v i .

ABBREVIATIONS

T it les o f j ourna ls a nd o ther k ey works h ave b een a bbrev iated a ccord ing t o t he c urrent I nstruct ions t o Contr ibutors, i ssued b y t he e d itors o f t he Annua l Report o f t he Br it ish S choo l a t A thens.

Further

a bbrev iat ions u sed i n t he t hes is a nd i n Append ix 8 a re a s f o l lows:

AO

R . M. Dawk ins. A rtem is O rth ia ( supp lementary v o lume 5 , J HS). L ondon 1 929.

AP I

Antho log ia P a lat ina .

BM

Br it ish Museum.

BSA Supp l. 6

J ohn Boardman. E xcavat ions i n Chios 1 9251955 . Greek Empor io ( supp lementary v o lume 6 , BSA). Oxford 1 967.

B e i l .

Be i lage .

Bequ ignon

Y . Bequ ignon. R echerches a rchb.o log iques P heres d e T hessa l ie . P ar is 1 937.

B eschre ibung

A . Furtwäng ler. B eschre ibung d er V asensamm lung i m Ant iquar ium . Ber l in 1 885.

Boardman

J ohn Boardman. G reek S cu lpture: t he a rcha ic p er iod; a h andbook . L ondon 1 978.

Broneer

0 . Broneer. T emp le o f P ose idon ( lsthm ia . Vo l. I ) . P r inceton 1 971.

Buschor

E . Buschor. A ltsam ische S tandbi lder . 1 934-1961.

Carapanos

C . Carapanos. D odone e t s es r u ines . P ar is 1 878.

C ata logue I

G . D ick ins. C ata logue o f t he A cropo l is Museum . Vo l. I . A rcha ic S cu lpture . Cambr idge 1 912.

C ata logue I

S . Casson & D . Brooke. C ata logue o f t he Acropo l is Museum . Vo l. I. S cu lpture , Arch itectura l F ragments, a nd T erracottas . Cambr idge 1 921.

Chr .

Chronika ( in Archa io log ikon D e lt ion).

Co ldstream

J .N. Co ldstream. K nossos . T he S anctuary o f D emeter ( supp lementary v o lume 8 , BSA). Oxford 1 973.

* s a

5 Vo ls. Ber l in

v i i .

Conc ise Gu ide

Y . M i l iad is. A c onc ise Gu ide t o t he Acropo l is Museum . T rans la ted by H . Wace. A thens 1 965 .

DPA

H . Ga l let d e S anterre. D -l os p r im it ive e t a rcha ique . P ar is 1 958.

De los I -XXXIII

E co le F ranga ise d 'Athenes. E xp lorat ion Archeo log ique d e De los . 3 3 v o lumes. P ar is 1 909-1980.

Duca t

J . Duca t. L es Kouro i d u P to ion. P ar is 1 971 .

Dyggve

E . Dyggve & F . P ou lsen. Das L aphr ion . Der T empe lb ez irk v on K a lydon. Copenhagen 1 948.

E p.Chr .

E pe irot ika Chronika .

FdD V ( 1908)

Lo le f ra m ia ise d 'Athenes. H . P erdr izet. F ou i l les d e De lphes V : Monuments f igures . P et its b ronzes, t errecu ites , a nt iqu ites d iverses . P ar is 1 908.

FdD V .2

Lo le f ranga ise d 'Athenes. C . Ro l ley. F ou i l les d e D e lphes V .2 : L es s tatuettes d e B ronze. P ar is 1 969.

Fd 'E

P . Cavvad ias. F ou i l les dl 6 Didaure . A thens 1 891.

F estschr if t

S tud ien z ur R e l ig ion u nd Ku ltur K le inas iens . F estschr if t f ür K ar l Dörner . L e iden 1 978.

F r ickenhaus

A . F r ickenhaus. D ie Hera v on T iryns ( Tiryns . Vo l. I ). A thens 1 912 , Ma inz 1 976.

Furtwäng ler

A . Furtwäng ler..D as He i l igtum d er Apha la . Mun ich 1 906.

Hammond

N .G.L. Hammond. E pirus . Oxford 1 967.

H igg ins. I & I

R .A. H igg ins. C ata logue o f t he t erracottas i n t he Department o f G reek a nd Roman Ant iqu it ies . Br it ish Museum. V o ls. I & I . L ondon 1 954, 1 959.

Hogarth

D. G. Hogarth .E xcavat ions a t E phesus: Artem is ion. L ondon 1 908.

X I I nternat iona l Congress

Greece a nd I ta ly i n t he c lass ica l w or ld . Acta o f t he X I i nternat iona l c ongress o f c lass ica l a rchaeo logy . Ed. J .N. • Co ldstream & M .A.R. Co l ledge. L ondon 1 979.

J acob s tha l

P : J acobstha l. Greek p ins a nd t he ir c onnex ions w ith Europe a nd As ia . Oxford 1 956.

K i l ian

K . K i l ian. F ibe ln i n T hessa l ien v on d er Mykenischen b is z ur Archa ischen Z e it . Mun ich 1 975 .

L exlc

L exicon l conographicum Mytho log iae C lass icae . Vo ls. I& I . Z ur ich & Mun ich 1 981 , 1 984.

T he Archa ic

v i i i .

L indos I

C .S. B l inkenberg. L indos . F ou i l les d e l ' Acropo le 1 902-1914 . Vo l. I . L es p et its o b jets . B er l in 1 931 .

L indos I I

E . Dyggve & F . P ou lsen. L indos . F ou l I les d e L 'Acropo le 1 902-1914 e t 1 952 . Vo l. I I. L e s anctua ire d 'Athana L ind ia e t l ' Architecture L ind ienne . B er l in & Copenhagen 1 960.

My lonas

G .E. My lonas. E leus is a nd t he E leus inian Myster ies . P r inceton 1 961.

N aukratis I

W . M.F. P etr ie. N aukrat is I ( 1884-1885 ). ( Th ird m emo ir o f t he Egypt E xp lorat ion Fund). L ondon 1 886.

Newton. H istory I

C .T. Newton. A H istory o f d iscover ies a t Ha l icarnassus Cnidus a nd Branchidae . Vo l. I . L ondon 1 863.

Newton. T rave ls I

I d . T rave ls a nd D iscover ies i n t he L evant . Vo l . I . L ondon 1 865 .

O lympia I I

G . T reu. D ie B i ldwerke v on O lympia i n S te in u nd T hon. ( O lympia E rgebnisse I I). Ber l in 1 897.

O lympia I V

A . Furtwäng ler. D ie B ronzen v on O lymp ia . (O lympia . E rgebnisse I V). B er l in 1 890.

P ayne

H . P ayne & G .M. Young. Archa ic marb le s cu lpture f rom t he Acropo l is . L ondon 1 936.

P erachora I

H . P ayne & o thers. P erachora; t he s anctuar ies o f H era Akra ia a nd L imenia . ( Excavat ions o f t he B r it ish S choo l o f Archaeo logy a t A thens 1 930-1933). V o l . I . Architecture , b ronzes , t erracottas . Oxford 1 940 .

P erachora I

T .J. Dunbabin. I bid . V o l. I . P ottery , i vor ies , s carabs a nd o ther o b jects f rom t he v ot ive d epos i t o f H era L imenia . Oxford 1 962 .

R ichter

G . M.A. R ichter. Anima ls i n G reek s cu lpture . Oxford 1 930.

d e R idder

A . d e R idder. C ata logue d es B ronzes t rouvgs s ur L 'Acropo le d 'Ath nes . P ar is 1 896.

R oscher

W .H.R. R oscher. Ausführ l iches L ex icon d er g r iechischen u nd r öm ischen Mytho log ie . L e ipz ig 1 8841 937.

R ouse

W. H . D .R ouse. Greek v ot ive o ffer ings . Cambr idge 1 902.

Rubensohn

0 . Rubensohn. Das D e l /on v on P aros . W iesbaden 1 962.

S amos V II

G . S chm idt. S amos V II: Kypr ische B i ldwerke a us d em H era ion v on S amos . B onn 1 968.

i x.

S amos V III

U . J antzen. S amos V III: Agypt ische u nd o r ienta li sche Bronzen a us d em Hera /on v on S amos . Bonn 1 972.

Samos X I

B . F reyer-Schauenburg. S amos X I: B i ldwerke d er archa ischen Z e it u nd d es s trengen S t i ls . Bonn 1 974.

S inn

U . S inn. " E in Fundkomp lex a us d em Artem is He i l ig tum v on L ou s o i i m Bad ischen L andesmuseum". J ahrbuch d er S taat l ichen Kunstsamm lungen i n Baden-Wurttemberg. 1 7 ( 1980) pp. 2 5-40.

Theme l is

P . Theme l is. Brauron. Gu ide t o t he S ite a nd Museum . A thens 1 971 .

Van Buren

E . Van Buren. Greek f i ct i le r evetments i n t he Archa ic p er iod . Wash ington DC 1 973.

Wa ldste in I & I

C . Wa ldste in. The Argive Heraeum . Vo ls. I & I . Boston & New York 1 905.

Wa lter

H . Wa lter. Das Hera /on v on S amos . U rsprung u nd W ande l e ines g r iechischen He i l igtums . Mun ich & Z ur ich 1 976.

0 . Wa lter. Beschre ibung

0 . Wa lter. Beschre ibung d er Re l iefs i m k le inen Akropo l is museum i n A then. V ienna 1 923.

Wood

J .T. Wood. D iscover ies a t E phesus, i nc lud ing t he s i te a nd r ema ins o f t he Great T emp le o f D iana . L ondon 1 877.

The h or izonta l l i nes b etween s ome i t ems i n Append ix 8 i nd icate a d iv is ion b etween o ne d eity 's s anctuar ies a nd t hose o f a nother.

Where a number quoted i n af ootnote o r i n Append ix 8 i s unpref ixed by " p." o r ' . pp.", r eference i s b e ing made t o ac ata logue number i n t he work ( e.g . D e R idder. 5 30).

The n umbers i n t he marg in o f t he t ext ( 1-52) r efer t o t he p lates a t t he end o f t he s econd v o lume.

1 .

I NTRODUCTION ( 1)

A ims o f t he p resent s tudy The more l ast ing o b jects d ed icated by worsh ippers t o t he d e it ies

o f a nc ient Greece t ook many f orms, a nd v ar ied g reat ly i n s ize, v a lue a nd f unct ion.

Among t hese d ed icat ions a re a c ons iderab le g roup c ompr is-

i ng r epresentat ions o f d ifferent a n ima ls, f rom marb le s tatues t o s ma l l f igur ines o f c lay a nd o ther mater ia ls.

I n a dd it ion t o t hese i mages,

many a rtefacts whose f unct ion was not p r imar i ly r epresentat iona l c onsp icuous ly d ecorated w ith a n ima l mot ifs.

were

My o b ject i n t h is t hes is

w i l l b e t o e xam ine t he r eports o f f inds a t a number o f s anctuar ies, a nd t o s ee i f a ny c orrespondence b etween t he v ar ious s pec ies r epresented, a nd t he i dent ity o f t he d e it ies t o whom t hey were d ed icated, may b e d iscerned.

Is ha l l a ttempt t o d eterm ine whether c erta in k inds o f a n ima ls

were m ore f requent ly o ffered t o s ome d e it ies t han t o o thers;

a nd a lso

t o e xp la in t he mater ia l e v idence o f d istr ibut ion, i n t he l ight o f t he know ledge a bout r e l ig ious b e l iefs a nd p ract ices wh ich a nc ient l i terature a ffords . Th is i s s carce ly a n ew s ub ject f or s pecu lat ion,

s ince a rchaeo log-

i sts h ave o f ten n atura l ly l ooked f or r e l ig ious s ign if icance i n a rtefacts uncovered by t he e xcavat ion o f as anctuary;

a nd W .H. D. R ouse, i n

h is s tudy -of v ot ive o ffer ings, d iscussed t he t op ic a t s ome l ength l . Rouse b e l ieved t hat t he o ccupat ion a nd c ircumstances o f t he d ed icator were o f g reater i mportance i n h is e ho ice o f o ffer ing t han t he i dent ity o f t he g od;

a nd more p art icu lar ly, t hat a n ima l mode ls d o n ot a ppear

t o d iffer a ccord ing t o t he d e ity i n quest ion 2 . But Rouse 's work, v a luab le t hough i t s t i l l i s , was n ot b ased o n a ny s ystemat ic e xaminat ion o f a rchaeo log ica l e v idence;

a nd i n a ny c ase, s ince i ts publ icat ion much

n ew m ater ia l h as c ome t o l ight.

I n r e-exam in ing i n more d eta i l t he

2 .

s ub ject o f a n ima l-representat ions,

Is ha l l a ttempt t o s ee i f t here a re

a ny g rounds f or mod ify ing Rouse 's g enera l c onc lus ion i n c erta in a reas. Ih ope t hat i n t he p rocess s ome n ew l ight m ay b e s hed o n t he worsh ip o f O lymp ian d eit ies.

( 2)

The e v idence under e xam ina t ion

( a)

De it ies a nd t he ir s anctuar ies O f a l l t he O lymp ian d eit ies, i t i s Artem is who f rom t he t ime o f

Homer was a cknow ledged a s t he m istress o f w i ld a n ima ls 3 a nd a s t he g oddess o f hunt ing .

S he, more t han a ny o ther d e ity, i t i s t o b e s up-

p osed, was a l i ke ly r ec ip ient f or c erta in t ypes o f a n ima l, a s t heir k i l ler a nd p rotectress

Ih ave t herefore s tarted t h is i nvest igat ion w ith Artem is,

a nd e xam ined t he a rchaeo log ica l a ccounts o f a s many o f h er s anctuar ies a s p oss ib le, p r inc ipa l ly i n ma in land Greece a nd i n t he i s lands, but a lso i n As ia M inor a nd Afr ica, s o a s t o i nc lude h er i mportant s hr ines a t Ephesos a nd Cyrene.

As e xamp les o f c u lt-p laces i n t he W est, I h ave

a lso c ons idered t he f inds f rom h er sma l l c ave-sanctuary a t S ca la Greca i n S ic i ly, a nd l ooked a t t he r eports ( incomp lete a s t hey a re) o f t he s hr ine a t Ar ic ia b es ide L ake Nem i, wh ich w as known t o P ausan ias

5

( see

Append ix 1 ). The s anctuar ies e xcavated a t Phera i a nd Ka lapod i, whose patrond e it ies h ave n ot b een i dent if ied w ith c erta inty, h ave a lso b een i nc luded w ith t he known s anctuar ies o f Artem is,

s ince t he l i terary a nd i nscr ip-

t iona l e v idence, a nd t he n ature o f b oth s i tes ( outs ide t he n earest c ity a nd b es ide a s tream 6 ) c onst itute a b etter c la im f or Artem is t han f or o ther d e it ies.

Phera ian Artem is w as t he p r inc ipa l d e ity o f t he c ity ',

a nd h er s tatus i s c ons istent w ith t he i mpor tance o f t h is s anctuary a s i t h as b een r evea led by e xcavat ion 8 . The e xcavators o f t he K a lapod i

3 .

s anctuary b e l ieved t ha t i t may h ave b e longed t o Artem is E laphebo l ia o f Hyampo l is

9

.

No c lear o r c omp lete i nscr ipt ions h ave b een f ound o n

t he s i te t o c onf irm t h is i dent if icat ion

1 0 ,

but a l i berat ion d ocument wh ich

c ame t o l ight a t Va l tets i a bout a m i le t o t he E ast, s t ipu lates t ha t t he s te le w as t o b e p laced i n t he s anctuary o f Artem is E laphebo l ia a nd Apo l io n . The s i te i s a bout f ive k i lometres t o t he n orth o f a nc ient Hyampo l is

1 2

,

but a s t he c ity o f Aba i l ay o n ly a m i le t o t he e ast o f Hyampo l is, t he e xcava ted s anctuary m ight h ave b e longed t o t he p r inc ipa l d e ity o f t hat c ity, who was Apo 1 10 1 3 . Bu t wh ichever s anctuary t he Ka lapod i r ema ins a re t o b e i dent if ied w i th, i t i s p robab le t hat b o th Apo l lo a nd Artem is were w orsh ipped i n i t , t he quest ion b e ing o ne o f e mphas is. t emp les o f unequa l s ize h ave b een uncovered t here

1 4

Two a d jacen t

.

L iterary e v idence s hows t ha t Artem is was n o t t he o n ly d e ity t o b e a ssociated w ith c er ta in a n ima ls a nd b irds. s acr if iced t o a l l t he g ods; s anctuar ies o f many.

They w ere o f c ourse

a nd t he ir i mages h ave b een f ound i n t he

I n e xam in ing t he a n ima l-representat ions d ed ica ted

t o o ther d e it ies, I f ocussed s pec ia l a ttent ion o n Apo l lo a nd A thena , a s g ods whose c haracters s eemed t o p rov ide a c lear c ontrast t o t hat o f A rtemis:

Apo l lo a s t he ma le g od most f requent ly a ssoc iated w ith

h er , a nd A thena a s af ema le d e ity whose r o le a s ap ro tectress o f c i t ies ( ref lected i n h er many a cropo l is-sanctuar ies) d iffers most s harp ly f rom t ha t o f ag oddess o f h unt ing a nd w i ld c reatures.

These t wo , moreoever,

were i t s eems p art icu lar ly w e l l-endowed w ith s anctuar ies

1 5

; s o t hat

i t w as p oss ible t o l ook a t ac ons iderab le number o f t hem, b o th i n ma in land Greece a nd i n t he i s lands ( Append ices 2 a nd 3 ). D ed icated o b jects f rom s ome s anctuar ies o f Demeter, Z eus, H era a nd P oseidon h ave a lso b een c ons idered, i nc lud ing t he r ich a nd w e l ld ocumented s i tes a t O lympia, S amos a nd P erachora ( Append ices 4 -7);

4 .

but I h ave n ot i nc luded s anctuar ies o f Aphrod ite, D ionysos o r Hermes i n t h is s tudy, p r inc ipa l ly b ecause c ompara t ive ly f ew o f t hem h ave b een e xcavated a nd publ ished.

On t he o ther h and, t he Archa ic s anctuar ies

a t P r in ias a nd L ato i n Crete, a nd Apha ia 's s anctuary i n Aeg ina a re o f i nterest a s e xamp les o f c u lts wh ich n ever c ame t o b e i dent if ied w ith a ny O lympian d e ity ( a l though Apha ia a s a huntress a nd v irg in i s a ssoci ated w i th Artem is), but whose g oddesses w ere s im i lar t o O rth ia, L ind ia, a nd o ther l oca l d iv in it ies e ventua l ly t aken o ver by t he O lymp ians.

The

Cretan b ackground not o n ly o f t he L ato a nd P r in ias g oddesses, but a lso o f Apha ia

1 6

,

h as s ome r e levance t o t he quest ion o f t he B ronze Age

a ncestry o f O lympian g oddesses

1 7

.

The t ypes o f a n ima l-representat ions

d ed icated a t t hese t hree s anctuar ies h ave a lso t herefore b een e xam ined. I n t he a ssessment o f e v idence f rom s ome s anctuar ies, t he p rob lem a r ises t hat more t han o ne d e ity i s known t o h ave b een worsh ipped i ns ide t he s ame t emenos, s o t hat t he r ec ipient o f ad ed ica ted o b ject c annot b e i dent if ied w ith c erta inty.

Th is i s p robably t rue o f t he Ka lapod i s anctuary,

but t he most n otable e xamp le i s O lympia, where n ot o n ly Z eus, but Hera h ad a t emp le, a nd where s ixty-s ix s ubs id iary a l tars o f var ious d e it ies were known t o P ausan ias

1 8

( see F igure 1 ).

Artefacts were o ffered t o t he

d e it ies o f t hese a l tars a s w e l l a s t o Z eus, a s t he d iscovery a nd e xcavat ion o f o ne, t he a l tar o f Artem is n ear t he s outh-east bu i ld ing, m akes p la in

1 9

.

But t he p oss ibi l ity t hat o ne o r more f ema le d e ity may have b een worsh ipp ed a t O lymp ia b efore Z eus b eca r he t he c h ief p atron o f t he s anctuary h as a lso b een e nterta ined by v ar ious s cho lars, a nd t here a re s ome g rounds f or i t2 0 . T he s i te i tse lf b es ide t he r iver A lpheios i s o f at ype more o f ten a ssoc iated w ith a f ert i l ity-goddess l ike Artem is O rth ia , t han w ith a g od whose t yp ica l c u lt-p lace was o n a mounta in-top 2 1 . M t K ronos, wh ich o ver looks t he A ltis ( and o n wh ich s acr if ices w ere s t i l l made t o

5 .

Kronos i n P ausan ias ' t ime22 O lymp ian Z eus.

)

i s a more l ike ly s ett ing f or t he c u lt o f

Neverthe less, by t he e ighth c entury, dur ing wh ich

t he Games were i nit iated a ccording t o t rad it ion, Z eus was p robably e stab l ished a s t he p r inc ipa l d e i ty a t O lymp ia;

a nd i t s eems r easonable

t o a ccept most o f t he v ot ives a s h is, e xcept when t he e v ident p rop inqu ity o f t he ir f ind-spots t o t he a l tar o f a nother de ity

s uggests a r iva l c la im.

An a l ternat ive p rocedure wou ld b e t o om it f rom t he i nvest igat ion a l l s anctuaries where more t han o ne d ei ty i s known t o h ave h ad a c u lt; a nd t h is wou ld e xc lude not o n ly t he Acropo l is o f A thens ( where P ose idon a nd Artemis Brauron ia were worsh ipped a s we l l a s A thena) a nd t he S am ian

Hera ion

( where Aphrod ite a nd Hermes h ad t he ir t emp le), but

a number o f o ther s anctuar ies, i nc lud ing s ome o f Apo l lo, where Artem is was ( or may h ave b een) worsh ipped w ith h er t w in b rother 2 3 . I n f act, when t he h istory o f a lmost a ny s anctuary i s e xamined c lose ly, i t i s d iff icu lt t o b e s ure t ha t i t h oused o n ly o ne d e i ty.

The v ot ives o f O lymp ia,

t he A then ian Acropo l is e tc, w i l l t herefore b e c ons idered i n t h is s tudy; f or e ven when t he ir s ign if icance w ith r egard t o a n i nd iv idua l d e ity i s u ncerta in, t hey may h e lp t o d etermine t he c haracter o f as anctuary, a nd p erhaps i n d o ing s o t o i ncrease o ur understand ing o f t he d e i t ies ( by whatever n ame t hey were c a l led) who were worsh ipped i n t hat s pec if ic l öca l ity

2 4

.

( b) Objects o f d ed icat ion ( see Append ix 8 ) The a rchaeo log ica l e v idence e xam ined i n t h is s tudy i nc ludes t he o b jects d ed icated i n s anctuar ies wh ich e ither r epresent, o r a re d ecorated by a n a n ima l , w ith t he e xcept ion o f v ase-pa int ings.

Thus

f igur ines a nd r e l iefs, d ed icated f or t he s ake o f t he r epresentat ion i tse lf , w i l l b e c ons idered;

bu t a lso o b jects wh ich t hough d ecorated w ith a n

6 .

a n ima l-mot if , s erved purposes o f t he ir o wn, l i ke v esse ls, s ea ls a nd j ewe l lery.

A l arge p roport ion o f t hese o b jects w ere d ed icated d ur ing

t he Geometr ic a nd Archa ic p er iods;

but n o c hrono log ica l l im i ta t ion w i l l

b e i mposed o n t he mater ia l under d iscuss ion, p rov ided t ha t i t w as b rought i nto t he s anctuary a s a n o ffer ing t o i ts d e i ty.

Even l a te d ed ica t ions

c an t hrow s ome l ight o n t he t rad it ions a nd h istory o f as anctuary a nd t he e vo lv ing n a ture o f i ts d e i ty, a s we l l a s o n c ontemporary p ractice

2 5

.

On t he o ther h and, Bronze Age a n ima l-representa t ions d iscovered i n t he s anctuary o f a n O lymp ian d e ity h ave a lso b een t aken i nto a ccount, b ecause t hey w ere qu i te o f ten d ed icated t o t he d e i ty i n al a ter p er iod . F or e xamp le, s evera l Mycenaean g ems w ere d ed icated t o Artem is Orth ia , whose s anctuary i s n o t b e l ieved t o h ave b een t he s i te o f a ny Mycenaean s ett lement o r c u l t

2 6

.

The d epos it b eneath t he Archa ic Artem is ion o f

De los, wh ich c onta ined a c o l lect ion o f Mycenaean o b jects, was p robab ly p laced t here by t he bu i lders o f t he t emp le

2 7

;

but un l ike Ar tem is Orth ia 's

s anctuary, t he D e l ian Artemis ion was a pparent ly e stab l ished o n t he s i te o f a Bronze Age c u lt.

The p resence o f o b jects l i ke t h is i n as i te

u sed dur ing t he Mycenaean a nd h istor ic p er iods s uggested t o G a l let d e S anterre t ha t t here h ad b een c ont inu ity o f w orship;

a nd L ambr inoudak is

h as made a s im i lar c la im f or t he s anctuary o f Apo l lo Ma leatas, u nder whose Archa ic a l tar l ay a Mycenaean d epos i t o f a sh a nd v ot ive o b jects 2 8 . I t i s n ot t he a im o f t h is s tudy t o e xam ine t he q uest ion o f c ont inui ty, but t he quest ion i s i tse lf r e levant ' t o a ny a ssessment o f t he c haracter a nd o r ig ins o f ad e ity, i n s o f ar a s a n ima l-ded ica t ions may h e lp t o i nterpret i t . Mycenaean a rtefacts h ave b een f ound i n s evera l h istor ic s anctuar ies where Bronze Age o ccupa t ion i s i nd icated, a nd where t heir p resence may b e pure ly a cc identa l ;

but e ven h ere, t he worsh ippers o f a n O lymp ian

d e ity may h ave b een aware o f t hem, a nd p oss ib ly r egarded t hem a s t he p roperty o f t he d e i ty

2 9.

7 .

The i ndependent s tatuette o r r e l ief o f a n a n ima l may b e e xpected t o h ave more s ign if icance a s ad ed ica t ion t han t he a n ima l mot if wh ich d ecora tes a nother o b ject, s ince i n t he f i rst c ase t he d ed icator b ases h is c ho ice o n t he v a lue o f t he o b ject a nd o n wha t i t r epresents, wh i le i n t he s econd c ase i t s p ract ica l f unct ion may b e a n a dd i t iona l e lement i n h is c ho ice.

But t h is i nqu iry i s b ased o n t he hypothes is t hat d ecor-

a t ive f eatures may h ave a more t han d ecora t ive s ign if icance.

There

a re i ndeed s ome g rounds f or t he s uppos it ion, i n t ha t a mot if may r ecur i n d ifferent mater ia ls a nd f orms, a t t he s ame s anctuary.

A t E phesos,

f or e xamp le, r epresentat ions o f h awks w ere p resented t o Artem is n ot o n ly a s f igur ines, but a lso a s d ecorat ions f or b rooches a nd p endants. A t K a lymnos, where Apo l lo 's t emp le was p oss ib ly d ecorated w ith a f r ieze o f t he g r iff ins a ssoc ia ted w ith h im i n Hyperborean r eg ions, a s word w i th a g r iff in 's h ead h and le may a lso h ave b een r egarded a s a n a ppropr ia te d ed ica t ion f or t h is d e i ty

3 °

. Aga in, t he most c ommon t ype o f t erraco tta

f igur ine f rom t he Nemean s anctuary o f Z eus i s t he h orse w ith a r ider; s o t he s ame mot if s tamped o n t he h and le o f as tr ig i l may w e l l h ave h ad s ome s pec ia l s ign if icance f or t he s anctuary, a nd b e more t han a n a cc ide nta l d ecorat ion.

J . M. S tubbings b e l ieved t hat s ome i vory s ea ls o f

t he e ighth a nd s eventh c entur ies may h ave b een made s pec ia l ly f or d ed ica t ion

3 1

.

Thus a n o stens ib ly " usefu l" o b ject may n ever h ave b een

i ntended f or u se, s o t ha t t he worsh ipper who a cqu ired i t a s a n o ffer ing may h ave a ttached p r ime i mportance t o i t s d ecorat ive mot if , a nd a l i on e ngraved o n a button o r s ea l c ou ld h ave b een c hosen w ith a s much d e l iberat ion a s a n i ndependent b ronze f igur ine o f t he s ame a n ima l. The p oss ibi l ity t ha t t he d ecorat ion o f o b jects w ith a n o stens ib ly n onr epresentat iona l f unct ion h ad s ome r e l ig ious s ign if icance, i s o ne j ust if icat ion f or i nc lud ing t hem i n ad iscuss ion o f a n ima l-representat ions d ed icated

8 .

i n s anctuar ies.

But t he p ract ica l d iff icu lty o f mak ing a n a bso lute

d ist inct ion b etween i ndependent a nd d ecora t ive r epresentat ions i s a n a dd it iona l j ust if icat ion f or c ons ider ing b oth.

( c) Arch itectura l d ecorat ions The p r inc ipa l o b ject i ns ide a s anctuary wh ich may s omet imes b e d ecorated w ith r epresentat ions o f a n ima ls i s n ot t he o ffer ing o f a ny i nd iv idua l worsh ipper, but t he t emp le i t se lf , t he r eceptac le f or t he d e i ty 's c u lt-statue.

C . M. Robertson h as p o inted o ut t ha t t he g od t o

whom a t emp le b e longed was n ot n ecessar i ly s hown i n i ts e xter ior d ecorat ion, a nd t ha t s omet imes a nother g od m ight a ppear t here 3 2 . I n a ccord w ith t h is d ecorat ive f reedom, i t i s n ot t o b e e xpected t hat a n a n ima l d ep icted o n t he bu i ld ing ( for e xamp le, t he l i on 's h ead water-spout wh ich b ecame a n a ccepted c onvent ion) was a lways o f s ignf icance -w i th r egard t o t he d e ity.

A c rouch ing l i on, f or e xamp le, f i ts w e l l i nto t he

c orners o f a ny p ed iment, a nd a c har iot d rawn by h orses makes a n i mposi ng c entra l mot if .

Y et s ome a rch itectura l d ecorat ions a re c lear ly r e levant

t o t he d eity, a nd t o h is o r h er c u lt - l i ke t he p ed imenta l s cu lptures a nd f r ieze o f t he P arthenon.

The b easts o f p rey o n t he p ed iment o f Artem is '

Archa ic Temp le i n Corcyra must e xpress a n a spect o f t he p otnia t heron t o whom i t b e longed;

a s t he s ea-creatures o f P ose idon 's H e l len ist ic

t emp le i n T inos e xpress h is p ower o ver t he s ea .

No t o nly a n ima l-repres-

e ntat ions wh ich were d ed icated t o .t he g ods by t he ir worsh ippers , but a lso t hose wh ich s omet imes a dorned t he ir t emp les o r a l tars w i l l t herefore b e c ons idered i n t h is s tudy.

9 .

( d) An ima l r ema ins P erhaps t he mos t e ssent ia l o ffer ing t o b e made t o ag od i n most ( if n o t a l l) s anctuar ies was t he s acr if ic ia l a n ima l :

l i terature f rom Homer

t o t he e nd o f a nt iqu i ty p rov ides c lear e v idence o f t he i mportance o f burnt o ffer ings.

The P arthenon f r ieze d ep icts s acr if ic ia l v ict ims b e ing

l ed i n t he s acred p rocess ion;

a nd s ome d ed icat ions f ound i n s anctuar ies

t ake t he f orm o f r e l iefs s how ing s im i lar r i tua ls o n as ma l ler a nd p r ivate s ca le.

I t has i ndeed b een s uggested t ha t s ome s epara te mode ls o f a n ima ls

may c ommemorate o r t ake t he p lace o f al iv ing s acr if ice 3 . S ince t he quest ion o f s acr if ice i s r e levant t o ad iscuss ion o f t he s ign if icance o f a n ima l-representat ions , i t i s h e lpfu l t o l ook a t a ny d irect mater ia l e v idence o f t he p ract ice i n ap art icu lar s anctuary, t hat i s , a t t he a n ima l r ema ins wh ich h ave c ome t o l ight t here.

A h igh p roport ion o f t he b ones o f

a ny o ne a n ima l, when i tc o inc ides w i th a p reponderance o f t he s ame s pec ies among t he r epresentat ions o f a n ima ls i n as anctuary, w i l l s uggest t ha t t he i mages h ave a s acr if ic ia l mean ing ;

wh i le t he b ones o f a n unusua l

k ind o f a n ima l o r b ird m ay a lso s hed l ight o n t he c haracter o f ad e ity. Unfortunate ly, t he s anctuar ies where a n ima l-bones h ave b een d iscovered , a na lysed a nd r ecorded a re r e la t ive ly f ew, a nd t he e v idence t hey o ffer i s t herefore l im ited.

The p resence o f s uch r ema ins a s b oars ' t usks

o r t he a nt lers o f d eer m ay b e e v idence n ot o f s acr if ice, but o f t he d ed icat ion b y hunters o f p art o f t he ir quarry.

As i n as ense t he d ed icated

p art o f a n a n ima l s tood f or t he who le, t hey may a lso p roper ly b e c ons idered w ith v isua l r epresentat ions o f t he who le a n ima l.

( e) L iterary e v idence ( see Append ix 9 ) D ed icated o b jects , a rch itectura l d ecora t ions, a nd a n ima l r ema ins, a l l d iscovered i n s anctuar ies, t hus c onst itute t he a rchaeo log ica l d ata

1 0.

wh ich i s t he p r imary o b ject o f s tudy i n t h is t hes is.

The o ther k ind

o f e v idence, wh ich i n embody ing know ledge o f t he O lymp ian g ods a nd t he ir worsh ip , may t hrow s ome l ight o n t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l , i s l i terary.

Not t ha t Ih ave f ound a ny l i terary r eference t o t he s ma l l

v o t ives, t he f igur ines, p laques a nd o ther o rnaments p resented by w ors h ippers o f modest means, wh ich f orm t he g reater p art o f t he a rtefacts t o b e d iscussed h ere.

But t here a re a ccounts by wr iters s uch a s

Herodotus a nd P ausan ias o f more i mpos ing d ed icat ions ( few o f wh ich h ave s urv ived) a nd o f t he most s tr ik ing v isua l f eatures o f s anctuar ies, wh ich g ive a n i nd icat ion o f t he ir s pec ia l c haracter, a nd h ow t he v ar ious g ods worsh ipped i n t hem w ere r egarded.

S omet imes t h is i n i t s t urn

c an s uggest why sma l ler o b jects w ere d ed icated.

L i terature c an a lso

b e i nformat ive o n t he s ub ject o f burnt o ffer ings, f rom t he b u l ls c hosen by t he h eroes o f Homer a s as acr if ice t o P ose idon

3 4

,

t o t he w i ld a n ima ls

wh ich P ausan ias s aw t hrown o nto a b onf ire b y t he worsh ippers o f Artem is L aphr ia

3 5

P ausan ias ' a ccount o f t h is g oddess i s ar em inder t hat d e i t ies

w ere c a l led by a number o f t i t les i n a dd it ion t o t he ir g enera l n ame, a nd t hat s ome o f t hese t i t les ( for e xamp le, t he s im i lar-sound ing E laph ia, wh ich was a lso a pp l ied t o Artem is) were d er ived f rom t he n ames o f a n ima ls.

Ep ithets l i ke E laphia s uggest a r e la t ionsh ip b etween d e ity

a nd a n im a l , a nd l i terature ( supp lemented by i nscr ipt ions) i s av a luab le s ource o f i nforma t ion o n t he t op ic.

A f our th a rea o f l i terary e v idence,

wh ich i s n ot d irect ly c oncerned w ith s anctuar ies a nd c u lts, i s t he mytho logy wh ich g rew u p r ound t he g ods a bout t he ir r e lat ions n ot o n ly w ith e ach o ther a nd w i th human b e ings, but a lso w ith a n ima ls.

As a c ommentary

o n t he worsh ip o f t he g ods a nd o n v ot ive c ustom, t h is k ind o f l i terary d ata c annot b e i nterpreted w ith a ny c erta inty.

Neverthe less, l i ke

t he d iv ine e p ithets r eferr ing t o a n ima ls, i tc an p rov ide i ns ights i nto

1 1 .

ad e ity 's a ssociat ions w ith c erta in a n ima ls.

Ta les o f s ome metamorphoses,

i n p art icu lar, h ave b een i nterpreted by s cho lars s uch a s F razer a nd Cook a s memor ies o f ap r im it ive r e l ig ion i n wh ich g ods were worsh ipped i n t he s hapes o f a n ima ls a nd b irds.

Ib e l ieve t hat n ot o n ly d escr ipt ions

o f s anctuar ies a nd s acr if ice, but a lso myths, a nd i nformat ion a bout d iv ine t i t les may u sefu l ly b e c onsu lted i n ad iscuss ion o f v ot ive o ffer ings; a l though t he c onc lus ions t o b e d rawn f rom t he l ast t wo a reas o f know ledge c an o n ly b e t entat ive.

A t l east t he a n ima l a ssoc iat ions, a nd e ven t he

p art ly a n ima l n ature o f t he c omp lex d e it ies worsh ipped by t he Greeks, s hou ld not b e f orgo tten i n a ny a ttempt t o understand t he r epresentat ions o f b easts f ound i nt he ir s anctuar ies. The l i terature c onsu lted i n t h is s tudy h as n ot b een l im ited t o t he p er iod i n wh ich most o f t he v ot ives were d ed icated.

I t c overs t he

who le o f a nt iqu ity f rom Homer t o c hurch f athers l i ke C lement o f A lexandr ia, a nd e ven

e xtends t o s cho lar ly Byzant ine works.

Thus o n ly a f ew works

( such a s t hose o f Homer a nd Hes iod) c an b e r egarded a s a nyth ing l i ke c ontemporary w ith t he bu lk o f t he a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l.

P ausan ias '

i nva luable d escr ipt ion o f t he s anctuar ies o f Greece, i n wh ich d eta i ls o f c u lt-statues a nd t he ir a ttr ibutes, a nd o f t he l arger d ed icat ions a re g iven, was wr itten a t housand y ears l a ter t han Homer, when many o f t he a rteTacts t o b e d iscussed h ere w ere a lready h idden under t he e arth. Yet a l though h e v is i ted t he s anctuar ies dur ing t he I mper ia l p er iod, much o f what P ausanias s aw was c entur ies o ld;

wh i le s ome i f n ot a l l o f

t he s tor ies a nd t rad it ions wh ich h e was t o ld w ere p robab ly e qua l ly l ong-establ ished;

s o h is a ccount h as r etrospect ive v a lue.

S im i lar ly,

t he B ib l iotheca o f Apo l lodorus, wr itten p erhaps i n t he f i rst c entury AD, r ecords l egends a nd know ledge a bout r e l ig ion whose e ar l ier s ources a re n ow

l ost,

but

wh ich may

h ave e xisted f or a s l ong a s Homer ic

1 2 .

l egend i t se lf .

Th is may b e s a id o f Hesych ius ' l ex icon, a work o f t he

f i f th o r s ixth c entury AD i n wh ich a c ons iderab le number o f d iv ine t i t les a re l i nked t o t he d e it ies w ith wh ich t hey w ere by t rad i t ion a ssoci a ted ;

a nd e ven o f t he s cho l ia o n Homer, P indar a nd t he d ramat ists,

s ome o f wh ich ( l ike Eusta th ius ' c ommentary) w ere wr itten a s l a te a s t he t we lf th c entury AD.

I t i s c erta in ly p oss ib le t hat s ome myths i n

l a ter works were l i terary c once its o r r ecent i nvent ions;

but e ven s uch

f ab les may m irror ( a lthough p oss ib ly t hey a lso d istort) c oncepts o f d e it ies, e vo lved d ur ing c entur ies o f worsh ip. t hat s ome c u lt-pract ices w ere o f l a te i nvent ion.

I t i s p oss ib le, s im i lar ly, The f logg ing r i tua l

o f Artem is Orth ia, f or e xamp le, i s n o t ment ioned by a ny a uthor e ar l ier t han C icero 3 6 ; a nd d eta i ls o f t he s acred p rocess ion f rom E phesos t o t he Artem is ion a re known o n ly t hrough a f i ct iona l work o f t he s econd o r t h ird c entury AD

3 7

.

But l i ke t he myths o f al ater p er iod , t he p ract ices

wh ich d eve lop i n as anctuary w ith t he p ass ing o f t ime may w e l l e xpress a n a spect o f t he d e i ty a nd c u lt wh ich h as e x isted ( though n o t n ecessar i ly i n t ha t f orm) f rom t he b eg inn ing .

Ih ope t h is i s j ust if icat ion e nough

f or u s ing t he l i tera ture o f a l l p er iods o f a nt iqu ity a s as ource o f knowl edge a bout t he G reek g ods, t he ir l egends a nd t he ir c u lts, wh ich may b e a pp l ied t o a n e xam ina t ion o f t he v o t ives f ound i n t he ir s anctuar ies .

( f ) T he p otnia t heron There r ema ins a f ina l s ource o f i nformat ion wh ich i s r e levant t o t he a ssessment o f a n ima l-representat ions i n s anctuar ies :

t he i cono-

g raphy o f t he unnamed Bronze Age a nd Archa ic g oddess a ccompan ied b y a n ima ls,

g enera l ly

t he p o tnia t heron .

known by t he t i t le wh ich Homer a pp l ied t o Artem is, The t ype h as b een d escr ibed i n d eta i l b y P rofessor

C .A. Chr istou i n h is b ook o n t he s ub ject;

a nd a l arge number o f

1 3.

i l lustrat ions h ave n ow b een c o l lected by P rofessor L i l ly Kah i l i n t he s econd v o lume o f t he L ex icon l conographicum under t he h ead ing o f "Artem is"

3 8

,

a l though n e ither t he p otnia t heron a s d ef ined by Chr istou

nor a l l t he i l lustrat ions i n t he L exicon n ecessar i ly r efer t o Artem is. S ome r epresentat ions o f t he p otn ia w ith o ne o r more a n ima ls were f ound i n t he s anctuar ies e xam ined i n t h is s tudy, a nd a re t herefore l i sted w ith t he d ed ications.

Where t he a n ima ls d ep icted w ith t he g oddess

i n as anctuary, a re a lso r epresented i n i so lat ion t here, t he p oss ibi l ity t ha t t he an ima l-images were r egarded a s a n a ttr ibute o f t he d e ity, a nd d ed icated f or t h is r eason, w i l l t hen b e c ons idered.

But e xamp les

o f t he f e ma le w ith a n ima ls e ither n ot f ound i n as anctuary o r o f n o r ecorded provenance w i l l a lso b e c ited, when t hey h e lp t o i l lum ine t he quest ion o f g oddesses a nd t he ir a n ima l-assoc iat ions.

S ome Bronze

Age e xamp les a re o f s pec ia l i nterest i n ac ons iderat ion o f t he p reh istor ic o r ig ins o f O lymp ian g oddesses. I n t he i nterpreta tion o f s eparate a n ima l-representat ions i n s anctuar ies, t he c omplex n ature o f t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he p otn ia a nd h er a n ima ls o r b irds w i l l b e n ot iced; 4 0/ 4 1

f or t he g oddess many e ither h o ld t he c reature

by i t s n eck o r h indleg i n af i erce a nd d om inat ing manner, o r s tand w ith i t i n a more c ompan ionable o r p rotect ive a tt itude;

a nd t he mean ing

o f s eparate a n ima l-representat ions d ed icated i n as anctuary may b e s im i lar ly ambiguous. s o l i tera l:

But t he s ign if icance o f t he a n ima ls n eed n ot b e

a s Chr istou a nd o ther •scho lars have p o inted o ut, t hey s ym-

bo l ize a spects o f t he g oddess ' n ature a nd p owers.

I f t he g ods w ere

r ea l ly o nce c onceived a s a n ima ls, t he p otn ia t heron ( and h er r arer ma le e qu iva lent) may m ark a s tage i n t he ir a nthropomorph izat ion, t he a n ima l e lement i n t he ir n ature n ow b e ing e xterna l t o t he human f orm, but s t i l l w ith in t he d e ity 's g rasp.

The v ar ied i mage o f t he p otn ia,

1 4.

wh ich under l ines t he i mportance o f t he a n ima l wor ld i n Greek r e l ig ion, i s t herefore o f s ome r e levance t o t h is d iscuss ion o f t he a n ima l r epresentat ions f ound i n s anctuar ies.

F ootnotes 1 .

W .H.D. Rouse, Greek v ot ive o ffer ings, Cambr idge 1 902 .

2 .

I bid . pp. 6 3-69; pp. 3 80-384.

3 ,

" 1 16 T vl a Of lp

4 .

e .g. I l iad XX. 7 0-71 ; Homer ic Hymns XXVII.

5 .

P ausan ias I . 2 7.4.

6 .

W . M. L eake, T rave ls i n Northern Greece, L ondon 1 835 . Vo l. 4 , p . 4 40; Y . Bequ ignon, Recherches Arch & 3 log iques' a P heres d e T hessa l ie, P ar is 1 937, pp. 2 9-30; RE S upp l. V II ( 1950) 9 9. F or Ka lapod i, s ee AAA 8 ( 1975) p . 1 .

‚ f

Ap T Epis

p o -rp n ". I l iad. XXI. 4 70.

Three o f t he r ichest o f Artem is ' e xcavated s anctuar ies ( those o f Ephesos, Brauron a nd Artem is Orthia) have r ivers ide s ett ings o uts ide c it ies; among t hose s anctuar ies o f Artem is whose natura l s ett ing i s i nd icated by P ausan ias, more a re l ocated i n r ura l w e l lwatered p laces t han i n o ther k inds o f l andscape. 7 .

S ee Ca l l imachus, Hymn t o Artem is 2 59.

8 .

An a l ternat ive c la im h as b een made f or Z eus Thau l ios a s p atron o f t he s anctuary; s ince a n i nscr ipt ion t o t h is d eity w as f ound i n t he v icin ity, t hough n ot i ns ide t he t emenos ( see Bequ ignon Op. c it . p . 6 6). But a s te le i nscr ibed t o E nod ia was a lso f ound ( see PAE 1 924 p . 1 08). E nod ia was a Thessa l ian g oddess i dentif ied w ith Artem is a nd w ith Hekate, b oth o f whom were g iven h er n ame a s at i t le ( see T . Kraus, Hekate . S tud ien z u Wesen u nd B i ld d er Göt t in i n K le inasien u nd Gr iechenland . He ide lberg 1 960 p p. 7 7-8 ; ADe lt 1(1915) P ar . p . 5 6; Orphic Hymn t o Hekate,l ; Artem idorus One irocr it icon 1.37; P . Cavvad ias , F oui l les d 'Epidaure . Vo l. I A thens 1 891, p . 5 2, n o. 8 7; p . 5 7, n o . 1 26). Moreover, t he t emp le was d estroyed, p robäb ly i n t he f ourth c entury BC, a nd n ever r ebu i lt ( Bequ ignon Op. c it . p . 3 0); a nd t h is w ou ld e xp la in why t he a nc ient wooden c u lt-statue h ad b een t ransported t o S ikyon ( or a l ternat ive ly t o Argos) by P ausan ias ' t ime ( 11.10.6 ; 1 .23.5).

9 .

P lutarch , Mora l ia

1 0.

2 44e;

P ausan ias X .35.4;

AAA 8 ( 1975) p . 2 4.

An Archa ic s herd i s s cratched AP ( for Artem is?); a nd a Hel len ist ic marb le s tatue-base h as t he l e tters A I I0 ( for Apo l lo?) ( AA 9 5 ( 1980) pp. 4 1-42).

1 5.

1 1.

ADe lt 2 ( 1916) pp.

2 63-268.

1 2.

ND . P apahadz is, P ausanias ' Descr ipt ion o f Greece, A thens 1 9741 981, Vo l V , p . 4 39.

1 3.

S ee P ausan ias X 3 5. 2 -3 ;

1 4.

BCH 1 04 ( 1980) pp. 6 25-7.

1 5.

I n t he Geometr ic p er iod a t l east, t he known s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo a nd A thena were e as i ly t he most numerous ( J .N • Co ldstream, G eometr ic Greece, L ondon 1 977 p . 3 27).

1 6.

P ausan ias I. 3 0.3 .

1 7.

S ee b e low, Catt le pp. 9 3-94.

1 8.

K . Wern icke " D ie A ltäre v on O lympia"

1 9.

ADe lt 1 8 ( 1963) p p. 1 07-110;

2 0.

A t O lympia, a s a t De lph i, t here was a s anctuary o f E arth, a c hasm i n t he g round ( whose e xact p os it ion i s n ow unknown) s uggest ing a t l east t he t rad it ion o f a n e ar l ier f ema le d e ity [ Pausan ias V .14.10]. The myth o f E i leithy ia a nd t he s nake-ch i ld S os ipo l is ( who h ad ad ouble s anctuary) r ef lects a c u lt o f mother a nd c h i ld d iv init ies [ lbid V I.20.2-5]. The s anctuary o f Demeter Chamyne [ lbid V I.21.1] h ints a t as im i lar c u lt; s ince t he t i t le ( "She who l i es o n t he g round") p robab ly r efers t o t he myth i n wh ich Demeter l ay w ith I as ius o n at hr ice-p loughed f i e ld i n Crete, a nd g ave b irth t o P lutus a s ar esu lt [ Odyssey V .125-8; Hes iod, T heogony 9 699 71. Cf J G F razer , P ausan ias ' Descr ipt ion o f Greece L ondon 1 898. I V. p . 8 6]. I as ius was o ne o f t he Kouretes who g uarded t he i nfant Z eus i n Crete, a nd c ame t o O lymp ia where ( accord ing t o o ne t rad it i on) t hey f ounded t he Games ( Pausan ias V .7.6-7]. The s acred marr iage e lement i n Demeter Chamyne 's myth i s e choed i n t he s tory o f P e lops, s ince t he o b ject o f t he c har iot-race was t o w in ab r ide, a nd f ound a dynasty. Ludw ig Drees b e l ieved t hat P e lops a nd H ippodame ia, whose s anctuar ies P ausan ias s aw i ns ide t he A lt is [/ bid V .1 3.1-3 ; V .2 2.2] were f ert i l ity d e it ies s uperseded by O lympian Z eus a nd Hera [ L. Drees O lympia L ondon 1 968 p . 1 5].

AA 9 5 ( 1980) pp. 4 1-42.

I d ! 9( 1894) pp. 8 8-101.

0 1F orsch X II. p . 2 1.

A l l t hese myths s uggest t hat Z eus may h ave made h is a ppearance a t O lympia e ither a s t he c h i ld ( as i n Crete) o r a s t he c onsort o f af ema le d e ity. More t han o ne s cho lar ( apart f rom Drees) h as s upported t he i dea o f a n o lder g oddess a t O lymp ia. P apahadz is b e l ieves t hat b oth Hera a nd E i leithy ia were worsh ipped i n t he s anctuary b efore Z eus; n ot o n ly b ecause o f Hera 's o lder t emp le, a nd e nthroned c u l t-statue [ see P engu in P ausan ias Vo l 2p . 2 45, n ote 1 53; Boardman F ig. 7 3], but b ecause t he f em in ine f orm o f t he name O lymp ia i s t he t i t le o f af ema le d e ity, a nd was i n f act a pp l ied t o Hera a t o ne o f t he a l tars [ Pausan ias V .14.8; P apahadz is V o l II ( 1979) p . 3 72, n ote 1 ] . Wen iger b e l ieved t hat n ot o n ly t he E arth-goddess ( Ga ia), Demeter, E i le ithy ia a nd a bove a l l Hera w ere a t O lympia b efore Z eus, but a lso Artem is, t o whom ( apart

1 6.

f rom Z eus) t he g reatest number o f a ltars w ere s acred [ Neue J ahrbücher f ür d as k lass ische A ltertum G esch ichte u nd d eutsche L iteratur . 1 0 ( 1907) p p. 9 6 f]. U lr ich S inn s aw a rchaeo log ica l g rounds f or t h is o p in ion i n t he s im i lar ity o f t he c lay f igur ines d ed icated t o Artem is L imna t is a t Kombothreka t o t hose f ound i n t he A l t is; a nd c onc luded t hat t he e ar l ier o f t he O lymp ian f igur ines may a lso h ave b een d ed icated t o h er, a s a n a grar ian f ert i l ityg oddess. S inr w ent s o f ar a s t o s uggest t ha t Z eus w as n ot e stabl i shed a s t he p r inc ipa l d e ity o f O lymp ia u nt i l t he s ixth c entury BC [ AM 9 6 ( 1981) pp. 2 5, 4 0-43]. 2 1 .

P ausan ias ment ions o n ly o ne o ther r ivers ide s ett ing f or a s anctuary o f Z eus, i n L acon ia b es ide t he Eurotas ( 111.19.6); whereas h e makes n ote o f s ixteen mounta in-top s anctuar ies o r a ltars .

2 2.

P ausan ias V I.20.1 .

2 3.

There a re i nd icat ions, f or e xamp le, o f ac u lt o f Artem is a t De lph i . Aesch ines, wr it ing i n t he f ourth c entury BC, s tated t ha t t he g ods a ssoc iated w ith t he s hr ine o f De lph i w ere Pyth ian Apo l lo , Artem is, L eto a nd A thena P rona ia [ Aga inst C tes iphon 1 08 ( Loeb A esch ines p p. 3 93 a nd 4 03)]; a nd D iodorus S icu lus l a ter n oted t he p resence t here o f av ery a nc ient t emp le o f Artem is ( as w e l l a s t ha t o f A thena P rona ia) [ D iodorus XXII.9 .5]. A l ong i nscr ipt ion f rom t he s anctuary d at ing f rom t he l a te f i f th c entury, a nd l i st ing t he f eas ts t hat t he c onfra tern ity o f t he L abyada i w ere o b l iged t o a ttend, i nc ludes o ne o f Artem is E uk le ia, a nd o ne o f L aphr ia [ BCH 1 9 ( 1895 ) pp. 5 -69 , p p. 2 1-24 ; RA 1 973. pp. 6 0 a nd 7 7]. F ina l ly, t he f ragmentary f ourth c entury r e l ief o f ac u lt-scene f rom t he s anctuary, h as wha t i s e v ident ly t he b eg inn ing o f a n i nscr ibed d ed ica t ion t o Ar tem is ( APTE ..) i n t he t op l ef t-hand q uarter [ FdD I V.6 p . 3 7 F ig. 2 3].

2 4.

S ee ( for e xamp le) b e low: Horses p p. 2 04-206, a nd Dogs p p.

2 5.

F or e xamp le, t he i ron s ick les wh ich dur ing t he I mper ia l p er iod w ere a warded t o S partan y ouths who w on c ompet it ions h e ld i n h onour o f Artem is Orth ia, may h ave b een a r eference t o t he e ar ly a grar ian c haracter o f t he g oddess ( RM Dawk ins .Artem is O rthia ( JHS S upp l. 5 ) . L ondon 1 929 p . 3 12 F ig . 1 38; a nd p . 4 06).

2 6.

AO p p. 3 78-9 ,

2 7.

H . Ga l let d e S anterre , , De los p r im it ive e t a rcha ique , P ar is 1 958 p . 9 1 .

2 8.

l bid p . 1 27; P AE 1 976 p p. 2 06-8.

2 9 .

A t Demeter 's Knossos ' s anctuary, s ome o f t he Bronze Age a rtefacts w ere f ound w ith l a ter d ed icat ions, a nd l i ke t hem may h ave been o ffered t o Demeter; but a l ternat ive ly t hey " cou ld h ave b een c hurned u p f rom t he M inoan e arth b e low". J .N. C o ldstream. Knossos . T he S anctuary o f Demeter ( BSA S upp l. 8 ). Oxford 1 973 p . 1 80.

3 0.

C .T. N ewton . T rave ls a nd D iscover ies i n t he L evant . V o l I . L ondon

1 22-123.

P l . 2 04; p . 3 99.

1 865 p p. 3 08-9 ; 3 15-16.

1 7.

3 1.

P erachora I p . 4 11.

3 2.

C .M . Robertson .A h istory o f Greek a rt .L ondon 1 975 p .

3 3.

Rouse Op. c it p . 1 8.

3 4.

Odyssey 1 .25; 1 1.6;

1 1.178-182 ;

X I.131;

1 66.

X 111.181-2.

I l iad XX . 403-406. 3 5.

P ausan ias V II.18.6-7.

3 6.

C icero T uscu lanae D isputat iones 1.34; AO p . 4 05.

3 7.

X enophon o f Ephesos Habrocomes a nd Anthe ia 1 .2.6-7.

3 8.

CA ,Chr istou .P otn ia T heron . Thessa lon ik i 1 968; L exicon l conographicum Mytho log iae C lass icae I . Z ur ich a nd Mun ich 1 984. " Artem is" , e sp. n os . 2 -5; 9 -10; 1 2-18; 2 1-50.

1 8.

1 .

A .

BEARS

( see Append ix 8 .1)

L iterary e v idence

( i ) S acr if ice I n h is d escr ipt ion o f P atras, P ausan ias g ives a f irst-hand a ccount o f t he f est iva l o f Artem is L aphr ia, dur ing wh ich l ive g ame a n ima ls w ere t hrown o nto a b onf ire a s o ffer ings f or t he g oddess.

Among t hose v ict ims,

t he wr iter n otes t he p resence o f b ear-cubs, a nd e ven w itnessed t he a ttempts o f o ne b ear t o e scape t he f l amesl.

I t i s t hus ev ident t hat b ears,

wh ich i n a nc ient t imes l ived w i ld i n a l l p arts o f Greece, m ight o n o ccas ion b e s acr if iced t o ag od.

There i s a dd it iona l e v idence f or t he ir r o le a s

s acr if ic ia l v ict im i n t he S cho l iasts ' Commentary o n l i ne 6 45 o f Ar istophanes ' Lys istrata .

The c ommentator, o ffer ing a et ia f or t he Brauron ian a rkte ia,

t e l ls t he s tory o f I ph igeneia 's s acr if ice

by Agamemnon, i n r eturn f or

af avourab le w ind t o Troy 2 . Accord ing t o t he most c ommon v ers ion o f t he l egend, I ph igene ia 's p lace o n t he a l tar was t aken a t t he l ast moment by a d eer.

I n t he Lysistrata c ommentary, h owever, t he s ub-

s t itute v ict im i s ab ear 3 .

( i i) S acred b ears An ima ls wh ich a re s acr if iced t o ag od may a lso b e p rotected by t he s ame d e ity ( an ambigu ity p erhaps r ef lected e ar l ier i n t he d ifferent w ays i n wh ich t he Archa ic p otnia t heron h o lds h er w i ld b easts).

Artem is

a nd t he d eer wh ich s he hunts o r c aresses p rov ides t he c learest e xamp le o f t h is dua l r e lat ionsh ip. h er p rotect ion.

But t he b ear, t oo , c ou ld b e t he o b ject o f

The o ther a et ion g iven b y t he S cho l iast f or t he Brauron ian

a rkte ia, c oncerns t he g oddess ' a nger a t t he k i l l ing o f h er s acred b ear by s ome A then ian y ouths.

I n t h is s tory Artem is, i n r evenge, v is ited

1 9.

A thens w ith a p lague, a nd c onsented t o r emove i t o n ly i f a number o f s ma l l g ir ls f rom t he c i ty s erved a s a rkto i, o r b ears, i n h er Myster ies '. A v ery s im i lar b ear-myth was t o ld a bout t he s anctuary o f Mounych ian Artem is a t P iraeus;

a l though h ere t he e xp iat ion f or t he b ear 's d eath

i nvo lved not a b ear-cu lt, but t he s acr if ice o f ag ir 1 5. Thus i n o ne s tory e xp la in ing t he B rauron c u lt t he b ear i s f i erce ly p rotected by t he g oddess, wh i le i n t he o ther ( as i n t he c u lt o f Artem is L aphr ia) i t i s s acr if iced t o h er. A t Brauron, i n whose p rec inct I ph igene ia was s upposed t o h ave been bur ied, t he c u lt i s e ssent ia l ly b ased o n t he s acredness o f t he b ear.

The f est iva l h e ld t here was known a s t he a rk t e ia, a nd t he g ir ls

who w ere t emporar i ly s ervants o f Artem is, s acred t o h er, w ere t hemse lves c a l led b ears.

Two f ragments o f f i f th c entury A tt ic

k rater isko i pub l ished

by L i l ly Kah i l s eem t o c onf irm t hese l i terary i nd icat ions o f as acred b ear-cu lt, by s uggest ing t hat a r ea l b ear, o r s ome c lose i m itat ion o f o ne, may h ave p layed i t s p art i n t he r i tua l.

The f ragments b e long t o

ap r ivate c o l lect ion, a nd t he ir p rovenance i s unknown;

but P rofessor

Kah i l h as d emonstra ted t he c lose c onnect ion o f s uch k rater isko i, a nd o f t he s cenes p a inted o n s ome o f t hem, w ith t he A tt ic s anctuar ies a nd c u lts o f Artem is 6. One o f t he f ragments s hows s ome n aked g ir ls i n ar ace, a nd a b ear s tand ing by a p a lm-tree, wh i le a bove i s af r ieze o f d eer hunted by d ogs'. mask;

The o ther s hows a n aked man w ear ing a b ear 's

wh i le t o l i nk t he s cene cWar ly w ith Artem is, i t a lso s hows t he

g oddess, a ccompan ied by Apo l lo a nd L eto, s hoot ing a d eer 8 . The sma l l n aked g ir ls c ou ld b e i nterpreted a s mock-sacr if ic ia l v ict ims t o t he b ear, who s tands under Artem is ' s acred t ree.

( The i dea o f t he s acr if ice o f

ag ir l f or a b ear i s i mp l icit i n Eustath ius ' s tory o f Mounych ia.)

2 0.

A d e ity o uts ide t he O lymp ian P antheon, i n whose c u lt b ears a re i mag ined a s t ak ing p art, i s Cybe le.

Her n ight-fest iva l, d escr ibed

by Nonnus i n t he D ion y siaca, i t se lf s eems t o r esemb le a r out o f D ionysos ( whose d e l ight i n t he d anc ing o f w i ld b easts i s ment ioned by P indar 9) . Here, a ccord ing t o Nonnus, l i ons a nd b ears d anced l ° , wh ich may mean t hat human d ancers w ere masked a s b easts. i n wh ich l i ons w ere i m itated,

( Po l lux r efers t o d ances

i n c onnect ion w i th bo th D ionysos a nd

Artem is").

( i i i) O ther b ear-myths The s ubst itut ion f or I ph igene ia o f ab ear, a nd t he d es ignat ion o f l i tt le g ir ls a s a rkto i h ints a t t he c oncept t hat human b e ings may b e t ransf ormed t o b ears by d iv ine w i l l.

The d e ity who b rought t h is a bout, a t

Brauron a s a t Au l is, was Artem is;

a nd i n t he more e xp l ic it Arcad ian

l egend o f Ka l l isto, i t was aga in Artem is who c aused a metamorphos is. Ka l l isto was o ne o f h er nymphs, who t ransgressed by b ecom ing a mother, a nd t he g oddess, h av ing g iven h er a b ear 's s hape, s hot h er 1 2 . P ausan ias r eports t hat a s anctuary o f Artem is Ka l l iste n ear Sk ias i n Arcad ia,

was

a ctua l ly s i tuated o n t he mound t hat was Ka l l isto 's t omb 1 3 . A rcad ia p roduced a s econd b ear-myth; a ssociated w ith Artem is.

a nd a ga in, i tc oncerns a g ir l who was

A ta lanta was a v irg in huntress, a t ype o f t he

g oddess, who was t aught by h er t o h and le d ogs, a nd t o s hoot w e l 1

1 4

.

But i n h er i nfancy s he was a bandoned i n t he w i ld, a nd ( perhaps a lready under Artem is ' p rotect ion) s urv ived b ecause s he was s uck led by as he-bear 1 5 .

( iv)

T he b ear a nd motherhood Ka l l isto 's t ransformat ion i nto a b ear c ame a bout t hrough h er•

i mpend ing motherhood, a nd when Artem is w as g iven t he t i t le o f Ka l l iste, i t was p robab ly a s ag oddess o f c h i ldbirth:

i n h er A then ian s anctuary

2 1 .

o f t hat name, s evera l o f t he o b jects d ed icated make i t c lear t hat s he was r egarded i n t h is c haracter

1 6

.

The b ear a cted a s a mother t owards

A ta lanta; a nd I ph igene ia, Artem is ' p r iestess a t Brauron, was most l i ke ly i n o r ig in a c h i ldbirth g oddess' ' ' .

A t t h is s anctuary, t he s ett ing f or

ab ear-fest iva l, t he g arments o f women who h ad d ied i n c h i ldb irth were d ed icated

1 8

,

wh i le t he number o f marb le s tatuettes o f s ma l l b oys s uggests

t hat s ome vo t ive o ffer ings were made i n t he h ope o f , o r t hanks f or a more s uccessfu l b irth 1 9 . The a ssociat ion o f t he b ear w ith a mother-f igure l i ke Ka l l isto, a nd w ith t he c h i ldb irth d e ity I ph igene ia a t Brauron, i s n o d oubt r e lated t o t he o pin ion, p reva lent i n t he a nc ient wor ld, t hat t he a n ima l was a n emb lem and s upreme p attern o f motherhood.

Th is a spect o f t he b ear was

d iscussed more t han a c entury a go by J .J. Bachoffen 2 0 . I t s temmed f rom a b e l ief t hat b ears n ot o n ly g ave b irth t o a nd n our ished t he ir young, l ike a ny o ther a n ima l, but a lso l i cked t he s hape less c ubs i nto t he ir p roper f orm a nd b eauty, t hus b e ing d oubly c reat ive a s mo thers

2 1

.

A p last ic a nd much e ar l ier e xpress ion o f t he i dea o f t he b ear a s mother may p erhaps b e s een i n as eventh c entury Boeot ian f igur ine i n t he Nat iona l Archaeo log ica l Museum a t A thens.

Th is i s as ma l l s he-bear,

s eated w ith i t s c ub, i n a n a tt itude s im i lar t o t he human k ourotrophos

SO

w ide ly d ed icated i n s anctuar ies 2 . Bachoffen r efers t o t wo s arcophagus d ecorat ions where t he b ear a ppears t o f igure a s k ourotrophos a nd s ubs titute mother f or o rphaned humän c h i ldren.

I n e ach c ase a d ead o r

dy ing mother i s s hown p art ing f rom h er c h i ld, a nd watched o ver by ab ear

2 3

. Th is s eems p art icu lar ly r e levant t o t he c u lt a t Brauron, where

t he c lothes o f d ead mo thers were d ed icated, a nd i s a lso c ons istent w ith t a les o f a bandoned i nfants, l i ke A ta lanta, who w ere s uck led by s hebears .

P ar is o f Troy w as a nother c h i ld a dopted i n t h is way

2 4 .

2 2.

( iv)

I mages o f t he b ear i n as anctuary One l a te p iece o f wr itten e v idence r efers n ot t o mytho logy o r

t o s ymbo l ic a ssociat ions, but t o t he phys ica l a ppearance o f a n unspec if ied s anctuary o f Artem is;

a nd s uggests, I b e l ieve, t ha t r epresentat ions

o f b ears may h ave b een a f eature o f more t han o ne.

Th is i s p art o f

Ph i lostratus ' d escr ipt ion o f ab oar-hunt, i n wh ich t he hunters s top t o s ing a hymn t o Artem is Agrotera.

The t emp le h as a s tatue, s mooth

w ith a ge, but t he wr iter a lso ment ions " heads o f b oars a nd b ears"

2 5

.

I t i s p oss ib le t hat t hese a re t he h eads o f r ea l c arcasses, t he s po i ls o f t he hunt:

but p erhaps i t i s more l i ke ly t hat t hey a re t he d ecorat ive

marb le water-spouts wh ich more c ommon ly t ake t he f orm o f l i ons ' h eads. Marb le b oars ' h eads o f t h is t ype h ave b een f ound i n t he t emp le o f Artem is a t Ep idaurus, a nd a lso p erhaps o f Ephesos 2 6 ; a l though a s f ar a s I know, b ears ' h eads s erv ing t he s ame purpose have not y et b een d isc overed.

B .

Representat ion o f b ears i n s anctuar ies Bears a re among t he most r are ly d ed icated a n ima l-representat ions

i n Greek s anctuar ies.

Of t he s even s hr ines n oted by me, i n wh ich

i mages o f b ears ( or i n o ne c ase b ears ' t eeth) were f ound, t hree b e longed who l ly t o Artem is ;

t wo a re s anctuar ies where a l though s he i s not t he

p r incipa l d e ity, s he a lso h ad h er c u lt a nd t emp le

2 7

;

a nd i n o n ly t wo ,

t he Arg ive Hera ion, a nd t he s anctuary o f A thena A lea a t Tegea, i s s he n ot known t o h ave b een worsh ipped.

The mater ia l ev idence i s

s parse, but i n v iew o f t he f act t hat t he d istr ibut ion i n f avour o f Artem is i s e nt ire ly c ons istent w ith l i terary e v idence, Ib e l ieve i t a l lows us t o i nfer t hat r epresentat ions o f b ears w ere d ed icated t o h er more t han t o o ther d e it ies.

2 3 .

The o n ly o ne o f t hese d ed ica t ions i n wh ich t he g oddess a ppears w ith a n a ttendant b ear i s t he marb le r e l ief f rom C laros ( "ddd id s ans 1

d ou te ä Artem is C lar ia")

2 8

,

but L i l ly Kah i l h as s uggested t ha t t he marb le

b ear f rom t he Acropo l is o f A thens may h ave b een n ot a d ed icat ion, 2

but p art o f Artem is ' c u lt-sta tue g roup i n t he Brauron ion

2 9

.

S uch a

p rop inqu ity o f a n ima l t o g oddess may a rgue a s pec ia l r e la t ionsh ip wh ich i s p ara l le led i n t he f ar more c ommon mot if o f Artem is a nd t he d eer. The C laros r e l ief h as n ot b een d ated, but i t i s p robably p ost-Archa ic; a nd t he Acropo l is b ear ( i f i ndeed i t b e longed t o ag roup) i s f ourth c en tury i n d a te.

S o t he d irect i conograph ica l a ssoc iat ion o f t he g oddess

w ith t he b ear i s n ot o n ly r are, but q u ite l a te.

The i ndependent r epresen-

t at ions o f b ears f ound a t Artem is Orth ia, h owever, a re Archa ic, a nd s uggest t ha t a more g enera l a ssoc iat ion w ith Artem is o r h er l oca l p redecess or w as a lready f e lt a t a n e ar l ier p er iod, a t l east i n t he P e loponnese. The Acropo l is b ears may b e e spec ia l ly r e levant t o t he c u l t o f Brauron ;

but a s f ar a s t he pub l icat ions r evea l, n o r epresentat ions

o f t he a n ima l h ave b een f ound a t Brauron i t se lf : b ears f rom t hat s anctuary a re human a rkto i : s tatuettes o f s ma l l g ir ls. a et ion i s known;

t he o n ly s urv iv ing

t he f ourth c entury marb le

No e ar ly l i terary s ource f or t he B rauron ian

a nd i n my o p in ion i t i s c once ivab le t ha t t he b ear

i n t he c u lt may h ave c ome t o A tt ica f rom t he P e loponnese a t s ome t ime b efore t he f i f th c entury ( as t he k ra ter isko i f ragments d escr ibed a bove, a nd t he Lysistrata r eference t o t he a rkto i, i nd ica te);

a nd f ound f or

i tse lf a n a ppropr iate s ett ing t here i n a n o ld-estab l ished c h i ld-b irth c u lt. The A rcad ian myth o f K a l l isto ( wh ich s hows t he b ear a s a mother-f igure) i s a t l east a s o ld a s H es iod.

The A ta lanta myth ( wh ich i nc ludes t he

e pisode o f ab ear a s nurse t o a human c h i ld) i s a lso c onnected w i th Arcad ia, s ince A ta lanta was a n a t ive o f T egea;

a l though b y t rad it ion

2 4.

3

s he hunted a lso i n L acon ia

3 0

. The b ears o f A rtem is Orth ia m ay t hus

h ave r ef lected a n o ld a nd f a ir ly l oca l c onnect ion b etween b ears a nd motherhood;

a nd w ere a ppropr iate d ed ica t ions i n as anctuary where

b oth E i le i thy ia

3 1

a nd Artem is h erse lf 3 2

w ere worsh ipped a s g oddesses

o f c h i ldb irth.

The a dopt ion o f t he b ear i nto t he c u lt o f a no ther ch i ld-

b irth d e ity a t Brauron ( wh ich p ara l le led t ha t o f S parta i n i t s c la im t o t he wooden c u lt-sta tue b rought f rom Taur is b y h ave b een n atura l e nough.

I ph igene ia 3 ) wou ld

One o f t he o n ly t wo b earimages l i sted

h ere wh ich were d ed ica ted i n as anctuary where Artem is h ad n o cu lt ( i t i s p oss ib ly t he e ar l iest o f a l l t he r epresentat ions), i s t he s eventh 4

c entury b ronze human f igur ine w ith a b ear 's h ead, f rom Tegea .

I ts

p resence t here may b e e xp l icab le, p erhaps, i n t he l ight o f A ta lanta 's c onnect ion w ith t he c i ty ( her p art i n t he K a lydon ian b oar-hunt be ing r epresented o n t he E ast p ed iment o f t he t emp le

3 4

) .

But i t m ay, a lter-

n at ive ly r efer t o t he Arcad ian b ear-de ity, K a l l isto, w i th whose metamorphos is t he d ua l n ature o f t he f igure i s c ons istent.

An ima l-headed

d e it ies s eem t o h ave b een a f eature o f Arcad ian c u l ts:

Demeter , hav ing

o nce c hanged h erse lf i nto a mare, w as r epresented a t Ph iga l ia w ith ah orse 's h ead

3 5

. The d ecorat ive r e l iefs o n t he v e i l o f Despo ina 's

He l len ist ic c u lt-statue a t L ykosoura d ep ict b oth a h orse-headed a nd ab ear-headed f igure;

a nd t hese m ay a lso r ef lect t he l oca l t ransforma t ion-

myths, a nd t he c u lts a nd b e l iefs wh ich l i e b eh ind t hem

C .

3 6

.

Conc lus ion L iterary e v idence o n s acr if ice, t he o r ig in o f c u lts, t he t ransforma-

t ion o f h uman g ir ls i nto b ear s hape, a nd t he a ppearance o f a t l east o ne s anctuary, a ppears t o b e u nan imous i n l i nk ing t hese b e l iefs a nd s tor ies o f b ears w i th o ne d e i ty:

t he g oddess Artem is.

The f ew

2 5 .

r epresentat ions o f b ears, wh ich a ccord ing t o t he r eports h ave b een d iscovered i ns anctuar ies, were n ear ly a l l ( probably i f n ot c erta in ly) d ed icated t o Artem is;

a nd t he ir d istr ibut ion, c ons istent a s i t i s w ith

t he l i terary e v idence, s uggests t ha t t hey were f e lt by worsh ippers t o b e a ppropr iate o ffer ings f or t h is g oddess.

The b ear-headed f igur ine

a t T egea, t hough a pparent ly d ed icated t o A thena, may w e l l h ave r eferred t o Arcad ian Ka l l isto o r A ta lanta, who were b oth qu ite c lear ly c onnected, i f n ot i dent if ied, w ith Artem is.

As a g oddess o f hunt ing i t i s n ot s ur-

p ris ing t hat s he s hou ld b e a ssociated w ith a w i ld a nd hunted a n ima l : t he b onf ire a t P atras ,

a nd t he

b ears ' t eeth d ed icated a t L ouso i, must

h ave b een a cknow ledgements o f t h is f acet o f h er c haracter.

But t he

b ear 's r o le a s mother a nd k ourotrophos a lso makes i t as u itable a ttr ibute f or a d e ity o f ten i nvoked a s p atron o f r eproduct ion i n b o th a n ima ls a nd human b e ings, a nd a s a guard ian o f mothers a nd t he ir y oung.

F oo tnotes 1 .

P ausan ias. V II.18.7.

2 .

Eur ipides. 1 phigene ia a t Au / is. 1 587.

3 .

S cho l ia Graeca i n Lys istratam .

4 .

I b id . l oc . c it .

5 .

E ustath ius. Commentar i i ad Homer i ' Haden ? .

6 .

L i l ly Kah i l. " Que lques v ase gdu s anctua ire d 'Artem is ä Brauron" . Ant i < , Be ihef t 1( 1963) pp 5 -30; " Autour d e l ' Artem is A tt ique". AntK 8 ( 1965) p . 2 0; " L 'Arteh is d e Brauron: r ites e t mystbre". Antk 2 0 ( 1977) p .86; " La d e e sse Artem is. Mytho log ie e t i conograph ie". X I I nternat iona l C ongress pp . 7 3-86.

7 .

Antk 2 0 ( 1977) p . 9 0, p l. 1 9 ; p l. 3 4a.

X I I nternat iona l Congress p . 8 1,

8 .

Antk 2 0 ( 1977) p . 9 0, p l. 1 9 ;

X I I nternat iona l Congress p . 8 1,

p l. 3 4b.

6 45.

I . 7 32.

2 6.

9 .

D ithyramb f or t he T hebans 1 9-23.

1 0.

D ionys iaca 1 1.70-74.

1 1 .

P o l lux. Onomast ikon 1 03-104.

1 2.

P ausan ias V III.3.6; Hes iod Astronom ia 3 ( Loeb. Hes iod p . 6 9). I n Ov id 's v ers ion ( Metamorphoses 1 .400-530) s he i s s hot by h er s on Arkas. I n Hes iod 's v ers ion s he i s n ot s hot, but c hanged by Z eus t o t he c onste l lat ion o f t he b ear.

1 3.

P ausan ias .V III .3 5.8 .

1 4.

Ca l l imachus. Hymn t o Artem is 2 15-217 .

1 5.

Apo l lod o rus. B ib l iotheca . 1 1.9 .2 . A ta lanta i s i nc luded i n Hes iod 's C ata logue o f W omen ( 14), where s he i s d escr ibed a s s w if t-footed a nd v irg ina l. The b ear e p isode i s n o t m ent ioned.

1 6.

BCH 5 1 ( 1927) p p . 1 57-169. E spec ia l ly F ig. 4 ( p. 1 60), a nd p l. 8( p. 1 62).

1 7.

" Iph igen ia" means " strong-born" [ LSJ].

1 8.

Eur ip ides , . 1 ph igene ia i n T aur is 1 464-7 .

1 9.

S ee b e low, " Dogs", p . 1 24.

2 0.

J .J. Bachoffen. D er Bär i n d en R e l ig ionen d ee A ltertums . 1 863 ( esp. p p i4-5).

2 1.

S ee P lutarch . Mora l ia 4 94 ( on a ffect ion f or o ffspr ing): " And t he s he-bear, t he most s avage a nd s u l len o f b easts, b r ings f orth h er y oung f orm less a nd w ithout v is ib le j o ints, a nd w i th h er t ongue, a s w i th a t oo l, s he mou lds i nto s hape t he ir s k in; a nd t hus s he i s t hought, n o t o n ly t o b ear, but t o f ash ion h er c ub." [ Loeb P lutarch. Vo l. V I. p p 3 38-9] c f Ov id . Metamorphoses XV.379-381 ; P l iny. N atura l H istory V III.126.

2 2.

No: 1 8631 ( Room I , upsta irs).

2 3.

Bachoffen. Op . c it . p p 2 7-28.

2 4.

Apo l lodorus .Op . c it . I I .1 2 * .5 .

2 5.

P h i lostratus . I mag ines 1 .28.6.

2 6.

P AE 1 906. p . 9 6. P l. C .2 a nd D .1 ( Ep idaurus). J .T. Wood. D iscover ies a t E phesus L ondon 1 877 p . 2 60 .

2 7.

The f ragmentary t erracotta b ear f rom t he n orth s lope o f t he Acropo l is i s o ne o f a bout 5 00 f igur ines a nd f ragments, most o f wh ich were i n a l l p robab i l ity " ded ica ted t o t he d iv in it ies wh ich w ere e nshr ined o n t he t op o f t he h i l l". [ Hesper ia4 ( 1935 ) p . 1 891.

Base l

2 7.

2 8.

Char les P icard. E phese e t C laros . P ar is. 1 922 p . 4 55.

2 9.

AntK 2 0 ( 1977) p . 9 4.

3 0.

P ausan ias. 1 1.24.2.

3 1.

I b id .

3 2.

The c ommentators o n P indar 's t h ird O lymp ic Ode ( l ine 5 4) e xp la in Artem is ' s im i lar t i t le o f Orthos ia i n t erms o f h er c are f or women i n c h i ldbirth a nd n ew-born b ab ies. I t i s p erhaps r e levant t o o ur t op ic t hat t hey n ote t he p resence o f as anctuary o f Artem is O rthos ia i n t he K erame ikos o f A thens; s ince t h is may p robab ly b e i dent if ied w i th t he Artem is Ka l l iste s hr ine r eferred t o a bove ( p. 2 0 n ote 1 6) [ Boeckh ius. Vo l. I . 1 01-2].

3 3.

P ausan ias. 1 .23 .9 ;

3 4.

P ausan ias. V III.45.6.

3 5.

I bid . V III.25.5 ;

3 6.

BSA

1 1.17.1 .

1 .33.1 ;

1 1.7.1 .

V III.42.4.

1 3 ( 1906-7) p . 3 67. p l. 1 6.

2 8.

B IRDS A .

( see Append ix 8 .2 )

Categor iza t ion o f b irds B irds, a s p last ic o b jects i n t hemse lves, o r a s d ecorat ions o n

o ther i t ems, w ere v ery f requent ly d ed icated t o t he g ods, e spec ia l ly d ur ingthe Geometr ic a nd e ar ly Archa ic p er iods' .

J us t a s t hey were

af avour ite mot if o n L ate G eometr ic p a inted v ases, s o t he e ar ly b ronze f igur ines d ed icated i n s anctuar ies o f ten t ook t h is f orm. t hat t ime, t hey h ad l ong n ecks, b eaks o r l egs; 5

Typ ica l ly a t

a nd t h is t ype h as b een

i nterpreted by s ome s cho lars a s wa ter-b irds 2 . I t i s i mposs ib le t o b e c erta in i n e very c ase whether t he c reators o f t hese p r im it ive l i kenesses i ntended t hem t o r epresent a ny p art icu lar s pecies o f b ird.

The l ong

n ecks, b eaks a nd l egs may s imp ly h ave b een a s ty l ist ic f ash ion, a g enera l ized way i n wh ich many makers o f b ronze f igur ines, l i ke c ont emporary v ase-pa inters, l ooked a t b irds . t h is c ommon s hape;

But t here a re e xcept ions t o

a nd Ih ave t herefore a ccepted t he i dea t hat a l arge

number o f f igur ines d ed icated i n t he G eome tr ic p er iod were i ntended t o r epresent water-fow l, a nd a s f ar a s p oss ib le h ave a rranged my c ategor ies a ccord ing ly. a b le.

I n l a ter p er iods, s pec ies o f b irds a re more c lear ly d ist ingu ish-

L ess d iff icu lt t o i nterpret, e ven i n t he e ar l ier p er iod , a re f igurines

r epresent ing h awks o r e ag les, a nd c ocks a nd h ens. d escr ipt ion i n t he pub l ica t ion o f f inds h ag

But i nsuf f ic ient

i n many c ases made i t n eces-

s ary t o l i st a s i ndeterm ina te b irds, i mages wh ich m ight we l l b e long t o more s pec if ic c a tegor ies 3 . A t t he s ame t ime, t he f act t ha t i th as b een a rgued t ha t water-b irds may h ave a r e l ig ious s ign if icance ' h as p ersuaded m e t hat t h is i s ac a tegory worth d iscuss ing , a nd t herefore w orth i so lat ing , e ven when ( as i n t he Geometr ic p er iod) i t i s n o t d ef inab le w i th a bso lute c erta inty.

L iterature, wh ich r efers t o b irds b y t he ir d ifferent n ames

( as s wan, h awk o r c row) i s n atura l ly c learer i n i ts d ef init ion o f s pec ies -

2 9.

e ven i f t he n ames h ave n ot a l l b een c onc lus ive ly i nterpeted i n modern o rn itho log ica l t erms.

B .

L iterary e v idence:

( i )

Apo l lo a nd L eto

b irds a nd t he g ods

I n Ar istophanes ' B irds, Apo l lo i s d escr ibed a s t he Pyth ian a nd De l ian swan were f amed

5, a nd

i t was e v ident ly a s Apo l lo 's s ervants t hat s wans

( w ithout a ny r ea l j ust if icat ion) f or t he ir me lod ious s ong

a nd t he ir g if t o f p rophecy 6 . The ir a ssociat ion w ith Apo l lo may h ave b een due t o t he f act t hat t hey were known i n h is b irth-p lace o n De los. Accord ing t o Ca l l imachus, t he swans s ang s even t imes dur ing t he b irth o f t he g od, a nd t hen f l ew s even t imes r ound t he i s land.

Ae l ian l ater

p ictured t hem a s i nhab itants o f t he Hyperborean r eg ions;

a nd f anc ifu l ly

d escr ibed how dur ing Apo l lo 's r ites t here, i nnumerable s wans f l ew d own f rom t he mounta ins, c irc led h is t emp le, a nd j o ined i n t he hymns s ung t o h im, b efore f ina l ly d epart ing when n ight f e 1 1

7.

But i n r ea l ity,

swans wou ld h ave f ound a s u itable h ome o n t he s acred l ake o f De los b es ide wh ich L eto g ave b irth t o t he g od 3a nd where t hey were r egarded a s h is p roperty i n h istor ic t imes.

Yet i t i s more t han p oss ib le t hat

t hey h ad b een a ssoc iated w ith a f ema le d e ity who was worsh ipped i n h is b irth p lace b efore h e a ppeared t here h imse lf ( when Theseus c ame f rom C rete t o De los, i t was a g oddess, r eferred t o a s " Aphrod ite", whose s tatue h e b rought w ith h im . 9) .

The k eeping o f s wans a nd g eese

o n t he l ake ‚ °a nd t he p robabi l ity t hat L eto 's

t hrone i n h er own s anctuary

n ear t he l ake was s upported by t wo g eese ", may d er ive f rom a n e ar l ier t rad it ion o f worsh ip o n t he i s land.

Ga l let d e S anterre b e l ieved t hat

t he d e ity o r ig ina l ly worsh ipped t here was Artem is ( or . t he Bronze Age g oddess who h ad h er c u lt o n t he s i te wh ich l a ter b ecame t he Artem is ion);

3 0.

a nd h e c ons idered t ha t L eto was r ea l ly a d oub l ing o f t he e ar l ier D e l ian ( or Cretan) g oddess, mak ing h er a ppearance f rom t he E ast a t t he s ame t ime a s Apo l lo 1 2 . S wans h ad b een c ompan ions o f Bronze Age p otn ia i 7

t heron:

o n o ne e ngraved j asper, a g oddess i s d ep icted a bove w ater,

w ith a f ly ing s wan o n e i ther s ide o f h er; h o lds a p a ir o f s wans by t he ir n ecks

1 3

.

a nd o n t wo o ther g ems s he The t hrone o f ag oddess ,

f lanked by wa ter-birds l i ke L eto 's, i s s ure ly r e lated t o s uch a mot if . I t s eems t o me p robab le, t hen, t hat Apo l lo i nher ited h is s wans f rom t he l akes ide f ema le d e i ty o f whose i s land h e b ecame t he p r inc ipa l g od. One o f t he r i tua ls wh ich t ook p lace i n t he D e l ian c u l t w as t he g eranos, t he c rane-dance wh ich a ccord ing t o l egend was a lso b rought t here f i rst b y Theseus f rom C rete.

I n P lutarch 's a ccount, t he De l ians

s t i l l d anced r ound t he a l tar o f h orns i n s uch a way a s t o i m itate t he t w ists o f t he C retan l abyr inth.

The l egend m ay we l l r ef lect t he g reat

a ge o f t he r i tua l, a nd p erhaps i t s Cretan o r ig in;

but t he n ame o f t he

d ance s uggests t ha t i t was a n i m itat ion o f t he w ater-b irds wh ich m ight b e s een b es ide t he l ake, o r f ly ing i n f orma t ion a cross t he s ky.

The ir

e nc irc l ing o f t he a l tar, t he c entre o f t he c u lt, i s l i ke t he i mag ined c ircl i ng o f Apo l lo 's Hyperborean s anctuary by s wans.

The mean ing o f

t he r i tua l ( to p rotect, p erhaps t o r enew t he s anct ity o f t he p lace, o r e ven t o i nvoke f ert i l ity

1 4 )

c an o n ly b e g uessed a t;

but r itua l d ances

i n wh ich a n ima ls w ere i m itja ted a re known t o h ave t aken p lace i n o ther c u lts

15

.

Ib e l ieve t ha t t he c rane-dance i s a no ther i nd icat ion o f t he

i mportance o f water-b irds i n t he De l ian c u l t, wh ich may h ave b een o lder t han Apo l lo . Apo l lo was a lso a ssoc ia ted w ith t he p redatory h awk, a nd t he e ag le.

Two g o ld e ag les s tood o n t he ompha los a t De lph i

1 6

,a nd t he

a ssoc iat ion may h ave c ome a bout b ecause ( as w i th t he swans o f D e los)

3 1.

t he l i v ing b irds haunted t h is s anctuary.

But s ymbo l ism a lso p layed

i ts p art, t he h e ight a nd p ower o f t he e ag le 's f l ight i nv it ing o bv ious c ompar ison w ith t he s un.

I n h is d escr ipt ion o f Apo l lo 's s tatue a t

H ieropo l is, Macrobius i nterprets t he c ompanion o f t he s un

17

.

-e ag les a s a ttr ibutes

Yet t he e ag le i s more o f ten r egarded a s t he b ird o f Z eus

( who was s upposed t o h ave s ent t he p a ir t o De lph i . )

1 9

,

wh i le Apo l lo was

a ccorded t he p ossess ion o f as im i lar but l esser b ird, t he h awk. Aristophanes r efers r a ther j ok ing ly t o t h is d iv is ion o f a ttr ibutes

1 9

;

but e ven i n t he Odyssey, t he h awk i s d escr ibed a s Apo l lo 's s w if t mes5 enger 20

,

a nd i n o ne o f t he t a les o f metamorphos is t o ld by Anton inus

L ibera l is, Apo l lo t ook t he f orm o f t h is b ird i n t he f ight a ga inst Typhon

2 1

Sun-symbo l ism,too, b rought t he c ock i nto a ssoc iat ion w ith Apo l lo, s ince a s P ausan ias c omments, " the c ock i s t he s acred b ird o f t he s un, a nd c r ies o ut j ust b efore s unr ise" 2 . Th is e xp la ined why a s tatue o f t he g od , d escr ibed by P lutarch , h e ld a c ock:

i t was t o s how by s uggest ion,

t he w r iter s ays, t he h our o f s unr ise 2 3 .

( i i)

Artem is Artem is i s not g enera l ly l i nked w ith a ny d ist inct s pec ies o f b ird;

a lthough a s w i ld c reatures most b irds must h ave b een c ons idered s ub ject t o h er p ower.

F or t h is r eason, g ame-birds, l ike b ears, were p art

o f t he t r ibute burned o n t he L aphr ian f i re

2 1 +

.

I n l i terature i t i s w ith

r eference t o h er c u lts t hat Artem is emerges a s ap otnia t heron who, l ike t he d eity o f De los, was a ssoc iated w ith b irds.

There i s n o l i terary

e vidence t hat t he S tympha l ian b irds w ere s ent t o p lague human ity by Artem is o r by a ny o ther d e ity

2 5

;

but P ausan ias ' d escr ipt ion o f h er

s anctuary n ear t he l ake o f S tympha los i tse lf , s hows t hat t he ir i mages were f e lt t o b e a ppropr iate d ecorat ions f or t he t emp le o f Artemis S tympha l ia .

3 2.

Here t hey w ere c arved i n wood o r p laster r ound t he r oof , p resumab ly e i ther a s a n tef ixes o r a kroter ia 2 6 . P ausan ias a dds t ha t t he S tympha l ian b ird w as l i ke t he i bis i n a ppearance

2 7

;t hat i s , t hey w ere l ong-necked

water-b irds whose h ab itat was l akes a nd s wamps, l i ke t he b irds wh ich f requented a nd s t i l l d o f requent t he l ake o f S tympha los.

( Apo l lon ius

o bserved t hat Herak les was unab le t o c hase a way a l l t he b irds s w imm ing o n t he S tympha l ian l ake, t hus e qua t ing t hem w ith t he water-b irds wh ich s t i l l i nhabited i t2 8 . )

There i s s ure ly a p ara l le l b etween t he w ater-

b irds o f S tympha los a nd Artem is ' t emp le-decorat ions , a nd t he s wans o r g eese o f t he De l ian l ake, a nd L eto 's t hrone.

I n e ach c ase t he g oddess

o f al akes ide s anctuary a dopts a s h er a ttr ibutes t he w inged i nhabitants o f t he l ake.

On De los, t he g oddess o f h istor ic t imes h ad b een p receded

by a Bronze Age p otnia t heron, a t ype among whose a ttr ibutes were water-b irds;

but a t S tympha los t he t races o f a ny p reh istor ic c u lt h ave

s o f ar r ema ined h idden.

Tha t Artem is, t he O lymp ian g oddess , c ou ld

b e r egarded a s ap rotectress o f wa ter-b irds i n al ess s pec if ic c ontext t han S tympha los, i s d emonstra ted i n a n Archa ic l ekythos, o n wh ich 6

t he g oddess, w ear ing a qu iver a nd b ow, f eeds a swan 2 8 ; a nd h er a ssoc iat ion w i th t h is s ame b ird i s s hown i n af i f th c entury marble r e l ief o f unknown p rovenance, o n wh ich Artem is ( ident if ied by h er b ow a nd a rrows) ' r ides o n as wan 's b ack

3 0

.

Beh ind t he S tympha l ian t emp le, P ausan ias a lso n oted t he p resence o f wh ite marb le ma idens w ith b irds ' l egs;

a nd t h is h ybr id s uggests

a n e ven c loser i dent if icat ion o f b ird w ith d iv in ity - p oss ib ly e ven r ef lect ing t he memory o f af ema le d e ity wh ich was i t se lf b ird-shaped .

S ome

s upport f or t he c oncept o f Artem is a s ab ird i s o ffered by t he S cho l iast 's c ommentary o n Astophanes ' B irds.

Here t he w r iter, e n larg ing o n h er

t i t le o f " Aka lanth is" ( an e p ithet wh ich p oss ib ly means " go ld-f inch")

3 3.

r efers t o t he b irdl ike n ature o f Artem is Ko la in is, who ( he s ays) was worsh ipped a t Amarynthos, Brauron, Myrrh inus a nd Mounych ia

( i i i)

3 1

.

A thena The mytho log ica l a ssoc iat ions o f t he g oddess A thena w ith b irds

a re more e xp l icit a nd ( in t erms o f t ransformat ion) c loser;

wh i le t he

v ar iety o f s pec ies w i th wh ich s he h ad d ea l ings i s e spec ia l ly g reat. A thena i s c haracter ized a s ag oddess o f b irds i n t he e ar l iest l i tera ture: i n t he I l iad s he s ends a h eron t o gu ide Odysseus a nd D iomedes by n ight 3 2 ; a nd Homer n o t o n ly c ompares h er t o ap igeon a nd a h awk 3 , but a lso makes h er a ssume t he s hape o f a vu lture, a s ea-b ird, a nd as wa l 1ow 34 . Much l a ter, i n P ausan ias i t ime, i t s eems t hat s he was worsh ipped a t Megara a s ak ind o f s ea-b ird, under t he t i t le o f " Aithy ia" The a et ion f or t h is c u l t i s g iven i n Hesych ius ' g loss o n t he e p ithet: A thena, hav ing h idden t he h ero Kekrops under h er s ea-b ird 's w ings, t ransported h im s afe ly t o

Megara i n t h is way.

Even t he A then ian ow l, s o o f ten s een a s h er a ttr ibute i n v isua l r epresentat ions, may o n o ccas ion h ave b een r egarded a s a man ifestat ion o f t he g oddess.

The r epu lse o f t he P ers ians h av ing b een a ttr ibuted

t o t he f l ight o f a n ow l o ver t he s h ips

3 6

,t he s cho last ic c ommentary

o n A r istä phanes s uggests t hat t he ow l r epresented A thena 's v ictor ious a spect, o r e ven A thena h erse lf 3 7 . H omer d oes n ot i nc lude t he ow l among h is t ransformat ions f or A thena, a l though t he e p ithet " g laukop is", wh ich h e a pp l ies t o h er s o o f ten

3 8

,may b e i nterpreted a s " ow l-eyed".

P erhaps, l ike t he D e l ian s wan, t he b ird b ecame a n a ttr ibute o f t he d ei ty b ecause i t h aunted t he s anc tuary.

A thenaeus, quot ing t he f ourth

c entury c om ic d ramat is t Ant iphanes, n oted t hat ow ls l ived i n A thens a s p eacocks d id i n S amos

3

. The A then ians, h ear ing t he ow l

o ver t he

3 5

.

3 4.

Acropo l is by n ight, may h ave f e lt i t t o b e t he g oddess w ith t he p ierc ing e yes wa tch ing o ver h er c i ty.

A t s ome p o int b etween t he w r i t ing d own

o f Homer ( where t he ow l i s n ot r egarded a s A thena 's b ird ") a nd t he B irds o f Ar istophanes, where i t i s s a id t ha t A thena c arr ies a n o w l a s h er emb lem

4 1

,t he a ssoc iat ion was f ixed.

Bu t t he p rox im ity o f t h is

g oddess t o b irds i n a more g enera l s ense w as a lready e xpressed i n Homer. Cook b e l ieved t ha t o r ig ina l ly A thena w as i n f act c once ived a s ab ird, t hen a s ah a lf-b ird a nd h a lf-woman , a nd f ina l ly a s ag oddess w ith a b ird a s a ttr ibute

4 2

. He c ites i n s upport o f t h is v iew s evera l

a rtefacts i n wh ich a b ird w i th a woman 's h ead, w ear ing a h e lmet, i s r epresente d° . I n Archa ic t imes A thena w as o n o ccas ion p ortrayed a s b oth w inged a nd a rmed"", a nd Cook s ees t he w inged N ike, who h ad at emp le o f h er own o n t he Acropo l is o f A thens, a s al ast s urv iva l o f t he b ird-goddess 4 5 . I n h is o pin ion, a n Archa ic v ase-pa int ing s how ing ab ird w i th f ema le h ead a nd a rms p erch ing o n A thena 's a eg is, r epresents a n e ar l ier a nd more b irdl ike phase i n t he d eve lopment o f t he N ike ". The c row, wh ich Aesop ment ions a s as acr if ice t o A thena 4 7 ,w as a lso e v ident ly r egarded a s h er a ttr ibute , s ince a ccord ing t o P ausan ias, h er b ronze s tatue o n t he Acropo l is o f Korone h e ld t h is b ird o n i ts h and ". A t Korone, t h is must h ave b een a r eference t o ag ir l o f t he s ame n ame, t ransformed by A thena t o ac row b ecause s he w as t he b earer o f i l n ews. S he h ad, a s a human, e n joyed A thena 's f avour, a nd a s ab ird , c ont inued t o b e h er c ompan ion.

The n ews t o ld t o A thena by Koron is w as t hat

K ekrops ' d aughters, a ga inst h er c ommand, h ad d ared t o l ook a t t he s nake-ch i ld E r ichthon ius;

a nd i n a no ther v ers ion o f t he s tory, i t was

a ctua l ly a c row who i nformed t he g oddess.

As a r esu lt, t hese b irds

w ere b an ished f rom t he Acropo l is o f A thens ".

3 5.

P ausan ias was unab le t o p rov ide a n a et ion f or t he c ock o n t he h e lmet o f A thena 's g o ld a nd i vory s tatue i n h er Acropo l is s anctuary o f E l is

5 °

. He guessed t ha t i t m ight h ave b een put t here f or i t s b e l l icose

nature ( presumably t o e xpress t he c haracter o f a war-goddess);

o r

a lterna t ive ly b ecause ( be ing a n i ndustr ious e ar ly r iser, o f ten h eard i n t owns) i t m ight b e c ons idered s acred t o A thena t he worker.

But

i n h is d iscuss ion o f A thena a s b ird-goddess, Cook n otes t hat s he was s omet imes r epresented i n t he f orm o f t h is b ird, a nd c ites i n e v idence t he b ronze f igur ine o f ac ock w ith a f ema le f ace a nd h e lmet

5 1

.

The

f igur ine i s l ate ( perhaps Roman) but t he g enera l a ssoc iat ion d ates a t l east f rom t he l a te Archa ic p er iod, j udg ing by t he a ppearance t owards t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury o f t he t wo c ocks o n p i l lars f lank ing t he g oddess o n P anathena ic amphorae

( iv)

5 2•

O ther d e it ies There i s i ndeed s carce ly a d e ity who was n ot i n s ome way a ssoc iated

w ith b irds o f v ar ious k inds.

P eter L ev i n otes t ha t a t s ome r emote p er iod

o f Greek r e l ig ion most o f t he g ods a ctua l ly were b irds

5 3

.

P erhaps

t h is b ird-l ike n ature h as l ef t i t s c learest t races i n r epresentat ions a nd myths o f Athena ;

but t he s tor ies o f Z eus, i n wh ich h e a ssumes a b ird 's

s hape t o make l ove, s uggests t hat h e may h ave h ad a s im i lar h istory. The

t h ird c entury p oet

A lcaeus r efers t o Z eus ' t ransformat ion i nto

a n e ag le, when h e s natched Ganymede, a nd t ook h im t o O lympus

5 4

.

P o lyk le i tus ' c hryse lephani ine c u lt-statue o f Hera i n h er Arg ive s anctuary had a c uckoo p erched o n h er s ceptre, b ecause Z eus h ad f i rst e nt iced h er i n t h is f orm

5 5

.

I n t he s hape o f as wan, h e s educed L eda a nd b ecame

t he f ather o f h er c h i ldren, who were h atched f rom e ggs

5 6

. I n a n a l terna t ive

l egend, wh i le t he s wan Z eus was He len 's f ather, h er mother was Nemes is , who h ad t aken o n t he f orm o f ag oose

5 7

.

3 6.

But f rom t he t ime o f Homer, i t was t he e ag le t hat was r egarded a s Z eus ' s acred b ird.

More t han o nce, a s t he b ird d earest t o h is h eart,

h e s ent i t t o e ncourage human-be ings

5 8

. The e ag les which m et a t t he

ompha los o f De lph i h ad b een s ent t here by Z eus;

a f terwards, a s P indar

r ecords, t he ir e ff ig ies were k ept t here i n g o ld, a nd t hey w ere known a s h is b irds

5 9

.

A t l east f rom P indar 's t ime, t oo, Z eus ' s ceptre was

c rowned by a n e ag le 6 0 ,a nd we know f rom P ausan ias ' d escr ipt ion t ha t t h is i s h ow Phe id ias ' c u lt-statue a ppeared a t O lympia 6 1 . T he a l tar a t t he s tart o f t he h orse-races t here was a lso a ppropr iate ly s urmounted by a b ronze e ag le, wh ich r ose up a s t he s igna l t o s tart was g iven 6 2 . I n f act P ausan ias d escr ibes more t han o ne s anctuary o f Z eus where e ag les were e ither p rom inent a s d ed icat ions ( of ten a s a t De lph i, i n p a irs), o r f eatured a s a n a ttr ibute o f t he c u lt-statue

6 3

.

The s tory

t hat t he i nfant Z eus was b rought n ectar by a n e ag le i n Crete " , however, s ounds l ike a l a te i nvent ion t o g ive c o lour f or a l ong-estab l ished a ssoc iat ion, wh ich a rose f rom a n o bv ious p ara l le l ism o f c haracter.

What more

a ppropr iate messenger a nd emblem f or t he c h ief o f t he O lymp ian g ods, t han t he s trongest a nd most k ing ly o f b irds? The swan 's ( or t he g oose 's) a ssoc iat ion w ith Apo l lo 's b irth a nd w ith h is mother L eto, a nd a lso w ith t he p rocreat ion o f He len a nd h er b rothers, s uggests t hat i t may h ave s ymbo l ized a n a spect o f f erti l ity a nd o f b irth

6 5

. ( The swan o n a n e ar ly Archa ic Me l ian s tone, b es ide

an aked woman a nd a man " in o bscöner Grupp ier ing", may h ave c arr ied t h is mean ing 6 . )

S o i t i s n ot s urpr is ing t ha t Aphrod ite, t he g oddess

most o f ten p ictured w ith a sma l l c h i ld, s hou ld h ave b een s een by a wr iter a s e ar ly a s S appho,

a s t he d r iver o f as wan-drawn c har iot;

e ven t hough n o s pec if ic myth l i nks h er w i th t h is b ird 6 7 . T he swand rawn c har iot i s ac oncept p ara l le l t o L eto 's t hrone, a nd m ay b e ( as

3 7.

Ib e l ieve t hat i s)

t he i nher itance o f a Bronze Age p otnia t heron a nd

f ert i l ity-goddess, o ne o f whose a ttr ibutes was a p a ir o f water-birds. The s wa l low was a lso h e ld s acred t o Aphrod ite ( as a h ouseho ld g oddess)

6 8

;

but t he b ird w ith wh ich s he i s more c ommon ly a ssociated i s t he d ove, o r p igeon.

On M t. E ryx i n S ici ly, where Aphrod ite h ad a s anctuary,

t he p igeons wh ich h aunted i t v an ished a t t he t ime when s he was s upposed t o e mbark f or L ibya, a nd t he ir r eappearance was t aken a s as ign o f h er r eturn

69

.

The s ymbo l ism l i nk ing t he amorous d ove t o t he g oddess

o f l ove i s c lear e nough ;

a nd t he ir w ide ly a ccepted a ssoc iat ion l ed s cho lars

l ike Wa ldste in t o i dent ify t he t erracotta f igur ines o f f ema les h o ld ing d oves a s " Aphrod ites"

7 0

. But whatever t he mean ing o f t hese f igur ines,

Aphrod ite d id n ot e n joy a monopo ly o f t he d ove: who w as worsh ipped w i th Z eus a t Dodona

7 1

;

i t was s acred t o D ione,

a nd a lso t o Demeter , whose

h orse-headed s tatue a t Ph iga l ia h e ld a d ove i n i t s hand

7 2

. Demeter 's

a ssoc ia t ion w ith t he d ove may d er ive f rom t he b e l ief t hat i t was a b ird n ot o n ly o f l ove, but o f d eath

7 3

.

Dur ing t he f i f th c entury, when P o lyk le itus made Hera 's c u lts tatue f or h er Arg ive s anctuary, i t s eems t hat t he c uckoo was c ons idered t o b e t he b ird-attr ibute o f t h is g oddess.

But s ix c entur ies l ater, Hadr ian

t hought i t a ppropr iate t o d ed icate a g o ld p eacock i n t he s ame s hr ine

7 4

;

f or by t h is t ime t he p eacock h ad b ecome Hera 's most p rom inent a ssoc iate among t he b irds.

A thenaeus r ecords t hat p eacocks were s acred t o

Hera, a nd t hat t hey w ere k ept i n h er s anctuary o f S amos;

a nd a l though

h e w as wr it ing h imse lf o n ly i n 2 00 AD, h e was quot ing Ant iphanes a nd Menodo tus who p robab ly l ived i n t he f ourth a nd t h ird c entur ies BC, r espect ive ly

7 5

.

A t a l l e vents, dur ing t he s econd c entury BC, S am ian

c o ins b egan t o b e m inted o n wh ich b oth Hera a nd h er p eacock a re r eprese nted

7 6

. Both Ov id a nd t he c ommentator o n Eur ip ides e xp la ined t he

3 8.

a ppearance o f t he p eacock 's t a i l-fea thers b y r e lat ing t he s tory t hat when Argus was k i l led, Hera r emoved h is h undred e yes a nd p laced t hem i n t he t a i l o f h er b ird

7

. Th is l egend s hows h ow t he S am ian b ird

h ad b een a bsorbed i nto t he mytho logy o f A rgos, Hera 's o ther p r inc ipa l d oma in;

a nd e xp la ins why Hadr ian d ed ica ted h is j ewe l led p eacock;

but i t h appened l a te i n t he h istory o f t he s anctuary.

Ib e l ieve t hat

Hera may h ave p ossessed a n a ttendant b ird ( l ike most g oddesses who w ere h e irs t o t he p otnia t heron) l ong b efore i t was d es igna ted a s a p eacock;

a nd t ha t t he p eacock a ssoc ia t ion w as e stab l ished s imp ly b ecause

t he s pec ies was b red i n S amos a nd k ept i n t he Hera ion t here.

I n f act,

t he p eacock i s r are ly r epresented i n Greek a rt, a nd t he f i rst c erta in ly d ated i nstances o f Hera w i th t h is b ird a re S am ian c o ins o f t he s econd c entury BC

7 8

.

I t may b e a rgued, h owever, t hat t he a ssoc ia t ion was

e stab l ished much e ar l ier, d ur ing t he Archa ic p er iod;

o n t he e v idence

o f t he s cene p ortrayed o n a n i vory c omb m ade i n a bout 7 00 BC.

Th is

o b ject h appens t o h ave b een d ed icated t o A rtem is Orth ia i n S parta

7 9

;

h owever, I i ntroduce i t a t t h is p o int n ot a s ad ed icat ion, b ut a s ap iece o f i conograph ica l e v idence wh ich a ppears t o l end s upport t o t he l i terary c oncept o f Hera a nd t he p eacock.

The s cene i s t he J udgment o f P ar is ,

a nd s hows t he t hree r iva l g oddesses e ach w i th a t yp ica l a ttr ibute. Aphrod i te h o lds a d ove, A thena w ears a h e lmet, a nd t he t h ird g oddess , Hera ,is a ccompan ied by a b ird " wh ich mus t b e s upposed t o b e t he p eacock" But t here i s i n f act l i tt le r eason, a part f rom i t s l ong n eck, t o i dent ify t h is b ird a s ap eacock. e v idence o f al a ter d ate;

The s uppos it ion a ppears t o b e b ased o n e xterna l a nd Ib e l ieve i t p oss ib le t hat t he a r t ist i s

s imp ly d ep ict ing a water-b ird, a n a ppropr ia te e nough a ttr ibu te f or Hera, a s f or many a n unspec if ied Archa ic p otnia

t heron.

The s tory

t hat Hera t ransformed G erana ( or i n o ne v ers ion O enoe) i nto a c rane

8 0

3 9 .

b ecause s he s howed n o r espect f or h er o r f or Artem is, may b e i nterp reted a s t he r ef lect ion o f s ome k ind o f a ssoc iat ion b etween t h is g oddess a nd a t l east o ne s pec ies o f wa ter-b ird 8 1 . F or t he g ods o n s evera l o ccas ions c hanged t he ir v ict ims i nto t he s hapes o f t hose a n ima ls w ith whom t hey were a ssociated.

Thus Ka l l isto a nd A ctaeon, b oth o b jects o f Artem is '

a nger , b ecame r espect ive ly a b ear, a nd a d eer.

C .

B irds, g ods, a nd t he p otnia t heron L iterature t hus s hows t hat most o f t he O lymp ian g ods w ere a ssoc-

i ated w i th b irds o f o ne k ind o r a nother, a nd s omet imes w i th more t han o ne.

Gods a nd b irds s hared a mastery o f t he s k ies n ot p ossessed by

humans o r by o ther a n ima ls;

a nd i t was n ot s urpr is ing t ha t s ome b irds,

i n t he ir s treng th o r b eauty, s hou ld h ave b een r egarded a s d iv ine. I t s eems t hat g ods w ere o nce worsh ipped i n t he s hape o f b irds;

a nd

t his m ay l i e b eh ind s ome myths o f t ransforma t ion, a nd s ome r epresentat ion o f hybr id b e ings - p art human a nd p art b ird. 7

Wh i le t he B ronze

Age g oddesses o f C rete a nd Greece, who w ere s omet imes p ortrayed w ith b irds a s c ompan ions o r a ttr ibutes, w ere t hemse lves unw inged, many A rcha ic d e it ies o f e i ther s ex, n amed a nd unnamed ( and i nc lud ing n ika i) r esemb led s ome E astern g ods i n t ha t t hey h ad w ings; t h is r espect t hey s hared i n t he n a ture o f b irds

8 2

a nd i n

. The O lymp ian d e it ies

w ere b oth i dent if ied w i th b irds ( as i n t he t ransforma t ions o fA thena a nd Z eus), a nd e ndowed w i th t hem a s a ttr ibutes o r s ervants ( l ike A thena 8

w ith h er ow l, o r Z eus w ith h is e ag le).

The e ngrav ing o n as tone f rom

t he L ind ian s anctuary, wh ich r epresents a l arge b ird f ac ing a human f igure who knee ls o n o ne knee, may d ep ict a c u lt-scene, a nd s eems t o i nvest t he c reature ( i f o n ly by i t s s ize) w i th d iv in ity.

Thus i t l ends

s ome s upport t o Cook 's a rgument t hat A thena h erse lf w as o nce b irds haped .

4 0.

The Archa ic p otnia t heron was n ot o n ly o f ten w inged;

but s ome-

t imes, l ike h er Bronze Age p redecessor, s he h ad a p a ir o f b irds a s a ttr ibutes.

These s he m ight h o ld by t he n eck o r o therwise s upport,

o r t hey m ight s tand o r h over o n e ither s ide o f h er.

On a s eventh c entury

p a inted c offer f rom Thebes, f or e xamp le, t he w inged g oddess h o lds t wo water-birds by t he n eck

8 3

; wh i le o n a n amphora, a lso Boeot ian,

t he b irds h over a bove h er w ings 1 0

8 4

. On t he h and le o f t he l a te s eventh

c entury b ronze Grächw i l hydr ia , where t he w inged g oddess i s r epresented w ith s evera l p a irs o f b easts, t he b ird e lement o f h er a ttr ibutes i s i ntroduced r ather d ifferent ly:

i nstead o f ap a ir o f water b irds, s he h as

as ing le h awk o r e ag le j ust a bove h er h ead 8 5 . T he b irds o f t he Archa ic p otnia a re n ot t hemse lves g ods, but t hey e xpress a n a spect o f t he d eity.

Chr istou s ees t he water-b irds a s ap erson if icat ion o f mo isture,

a nd t he f ert i l ity a ssociated w ith i t8 6 . T he b irds o f p rey h e i nterprets a s as ymbo l ( l ike h er w ings) o f h er p ower i n t he h eavens, a s d ist inct f rom t he e arth;

a nd a lso a s as ign o f h er d om inion o ver w i ld n a ture,

a nd h er a bi l ity t o p rotect h e lp less d omest ic a n ima ls f rom p redators 8 3 . The p otnia t heron was a lso a g oddess o f h unt ing 8 ,a nd t he o bservable hunt ing i nst incts o f b irds l ike t he e ag le a nd t he h awk, a nd p oss ibly t he known u se o f h awks i n hunt ing by men, m ight h ave b een i ntended t o e xpress t h is a spect o f h er n ature t oo 8 9 . Because o f t he Bronze Age a ncestry o f t he Archa ic p otnia w ith b irds, B l inkenberg b e l ieved t hat numerous b ird-ded ications i n as anctuary i nd icated t hat t he d e ity was o f Mycenaean o r ig in 9 0 . Bu t b irds ( espec ia l ly b irds o f p rey) h ad a lso b een r epresented a s a ttr ibutes o f d e it ies o n e astern a rtefacts s ince t he t h ird m i l lenn ium

8 1

. There i s e ven a f oreshadow-

i ng o f O lympian A thena a nd h er ow l, i n aS umer ian c lay r e l ief o f t h is e ar ly p er iod, wh ich s hows a n aked g oddess f l anked by t wo o w ls92.

4 1 .

The g oddess i s w inged , but h er b irdl ike n a ture i s a lso i nd icated by h er b ird 's f eet, a f eature i n wh ich s he r esembles t he marb le g ir ls s een by P ausan ias i n t he s anctuary o f S tympha l ian Artem is.

R e l ig ious c oncepts

o f t he E ast, t oo, h ad t he ir e ffect o n t he c haracter o f t he O lymp ian g ods ;

a nd p erhaps o n t he v ot ive o ffer ings wh ich w ere made t o t hem.

D .

A rchaeo log ica l e v idence

( i )

S acr if ice o f b irds L iterary c omment o n t he s acr if ice o f b irds i s n ot p lent ifu l, p erhaps

b ecause o f t he modesty o f s uch burnt o ffer ings i n c ompar ison w ith l arger a n ima ls.

But t he p resence o f t he ir b ones i n s anctuar ies l i ke

t hose o f Ephesos, I sthm ia a nd t he s anctuar ies o f Demeter a t Cn ic lus a nd Cyrene i s c lear e v idence o f s acr if ic ia l p ract ice. b ones o f b irds w ere f ound i ns ide t he Archa ic

A t Ephesos, t he

b as is i tse lf , where many

f igur ines o f p rec ious m eta l r epresent ing b irds w ere a lso d epos ited. Benea th t he Archa ic A rtem is ion o f De los, t oo, where i t h as b een s uggested t ha t w ater-b irds w ere o f s ome i mportance i n t he c u lt, t he b ones o f s acr if iced b irds were f ound i n t he s ame d epos it t ha t p roduced Mycenaean i mages o f wa ter-b irds i n b ronze a nd g o ld.

I t i s o f p art icu lar i nterest

t ha t a mong t hese b ird-bones w as o ne l arge e nough t o b e i dent if ied by M .J. Cha ine a s ac rane

9 3

;

a n i nd icat ion, p erhaps, t hat t he l egendary

c rane-dance w as i n s ome way l i nked w ith t he s acr if ice o f t he b irds t hemse lves.

A f i f th c entury marb le r e l ief , n ot f rom a ny s anctuary

c ons idered h ere, but d iscovered i n Aeg ina, a ffords f urther e v idence n ot m ere ly o f b ird-sacr if ice, but o f t he s acr if ice o f a water-b ird t o Artem is. 1 0

Here, a p rocess ion o f worsh ippers b r ing a d eer a nd a g oose

t owards t he a l tar o f ag oddess w ith t wo l arge t orches

9 4

.

4 2 .

The t erraco tta f igur ines o f f ema les h o ld ing p igeons o r s omet imes d omest ic f ow l a re a f urther i nd ica t ion o f s acr if ic ia l c ustom;

s ince

a l though t he ir mean ing c annot b e e stab l ished w ith c erta inty, t he s ugg est ion t hat t hese f igur ines ( or a t l east s ome o f t hem) a re w orsh ippers h o ld ing a n o ffer ing i s t he most c onv inc ing e xp lana t ion f or t hem

95

.

B ird-

c arry ing f ema les o f t h is t ype w ere f ound a t s evera l s anctuar ies o f e very f ema le d e ity whose d ed icat ions h ave b een c ons idered h ere.

The ir p resence

i n t he s anctuar ies o f m a le d e it ies, t hough n o t unheard o f , i s r are ". The b ones o f p ou ltry a t t he I sthm ian s anctuary i nd icate t ha t P ose idon, n o d oubt l ike o ther ma le d e it ies

9 7

,was t he r ec ip ient o f b ird-sacr if ice.

But p erhaps t he f ema le s tatuettes ( even i f t hey d id c ommemorate s acr if ice) w ere i n t hemse lves r egarded a s more a ppropr iate o ffer ings f or d e it ies o f t he ir own s ex.

( i i)

Representat ions o f b irds i n s anctuar ies

( a)

B irds a s ag enera l c lass o f d ed icat ion: Over 1 000 r epresentat ions o f b irds c ame t o l i ght i n t he s anctuar ies

c ons idered i n t h is s tudy, i nc lud ing a pprox imate ly 3 00 water-b irds a nd 3 50 b irds o f p rey.

Accord ing t o t he e v idence a va i lab le, i ta ppears

t hat t hey were f ound i n f ar g reater numbers i n t he s anctuar ies o f f ema le, t han o f -ma le d e it ies.

O lymp ia h as y ie lded a bout t wenty G ecmetr ic o r

e ar ly Archa ic b ronze f igur ines o f b irds ( of t he t ype d escr ibed by e ar ly wr iters a s " pr im i t ive");

a nd i n a l l t here a re f rom t h is s anctuary a pprox i-

mate ly f i f ty b ird-representat ions o f v ar ious p er iods, i nc lud ing t he d ecorat ions o n o ther o b jects.

I n c ompar ison, 1 600 o r s o G eometr ic

b ronze f igur ines o f h orses were d iscovered a t O lymp ia ".

I n Apo l lo 's

s anctuary a t De lph i, o ut o f 2 00 b ronze f igur ines d escr ibed , t wentyo ne were b irds o f t he G eometr ic p er iod ;

wh i le o ver f i f ty ( inc lud ing

4 3.

f ragmentary d ed icat ions) w ere h orses o f t he s ame p er iod 9 . A t Dodona, where a ccord ing t o t he a ccounts pub l ished, a bout s ixty b ronze f igur ines o f a l l p er iods w ere f ound, o n ly o ne " pr im it ive" water-b ird, c ompared t o f our Geometr ic h orses

1 ° °

,a pparent ly c ame t o l ight, a nd b irds o f

l ater p er iods s eem e qua l ly s carce

1 ° 1

.

On t he o ther h and, t he s anctuar ies where o ver f i f ty b ird-represe ntat ions, i rrespect ive o f p er iod, h ave b een r eported a re ( in o rder o f f requency): a nd E phesos.

L indos, P hera i , S parta ( Artem is Orth ia)

1 02,

P erachora

A t Artem is Orth ia, t he r epresentat ions d o n ot g enera l ly

t ake t he f orm o f b ronze o r t erraco tta f igur ines, but o f Archa ic i vor ies, a nd t he d ecorat ive mot if s o n s ea ls a nd o ther o b jects;

a nd a t L indos

( where a ccord ing t o B l inkenberg 's d at ing v ery f ew, i f a ny a rtefacts o f t he Geometr ic p er iod, a nd f ew b ronzes o f a ny p er iod , w ere f ound), a nd E phesos ( where t he mater ia l i s a lmost e nt ire ly g o ld, s i lver a nd i vory), most o f t he b ird-representat ions d ate f rom t he Archa ic p er iod. A c ons iderab le number o f t he b irds f rom Artem is Orth ia may b e i nterp reted a s b irds o f p rey ( a lthough i t i s n o t a lways e asy t o c a tegor ize t he " d isp layed" b irds o n s ma l l o b jects l i ke s ea ls);

a nd a l though wa ter-

b irds a nd o ther s pec ies a re n ot e nt ire ly l ack ing a t L indos a nd E phesos, t he g reat ma jor ity o f b irds f rom t hese s anctuar ies a re h awks.

A t

P erachota, t oo, where t he b irds g enera l ly t ake t he f orm o f d ecorat ive mot if s o n Archa ic s ea ls a nd s carabs, r ather t han f igur ines, t here a re a t l east a s many b irds o f p rey a s water-b irds.

A t P hera i, h owever, a l l

t he b irds r eported a re b ronze f igur ines o f t he G eometr ic a nd e ar ly Archa ic p er iods, a nd m ost o f t hem a re o f t he l ong-necked, l ong-b i l led o r l ong-legged v ar iety g enera l ly a ccepted a s water-b irds. o f p rey, i n f act, w ere r eported f rom t h is s anctuary.

No b irds

4 4.

I f w e a ccept t he a ttr ibut ion o f t he P hera i s anctuary t o Ar tem is ( or t o ac lose ly r e lated Thessa l ian g oddess), a l l t hese f ive s anctuar ies where b ird-representat ions w ere d iscovered i n q uant ity, b e longed t o f ema le d e it ies.

A t a l l o f t hem, i n c ontrast t o O lymp ia, D e lph i a nd

P enteskouph ia ,b irds o utnumber h orses

1 ° 3

. L indos , where o ver 2 00

r ep -,r esentat ions o f b irds w ere f ound, p roduced f ewer t han t h irty h orses o f a l l p er iods.

A t Phera i , where a bout 1 50 b irds o f t he l ate G eometr ic

a nd e ar ly Archa ic p er iods w ere r ecovered , o n ly n ineteen h orses o f t he s ame p er iod c ame t o l ight;

a nd a t E phesos, wh ich y ie lded o ver

s ixty b irds, t here w ere a lmost n o h orses.

I n T egea, Ka lapod i , t he

Ar g ive Hera ion, S amos a nd t he s anctuary o f Apha ia ,where t he numbers a re s ma l ler, t he s ame p reponderance o f b irds t o h orses i s t o b e o bserved; a nd t he b r ief e xcavat ion r eports o n A thena 's s anctuary a t P h i l ia, wh ich r efer t o a n unspec if ied number o f Geometr ic b ronze b irds, c omment o n t he f act t hat a lmost n o h orses w ere f ound t here 1" .

A t K a lapod i ,

where more t han t wenty Geometr ic b ronze b irds h ave b een r eported , t here was o n ly a s ing le Geometr ic h orse

l ° 5

,a p roport ion wh ich may

we l l l end w e ight t o t he s uppos it ion t hat t h is s anctuary b e longed t o ag oddess ( that i s , t o Artem is) r a ther t han a ma le d e ity.

( b)

W ater-bii •ds Archaeo log ica l e v idence t hus s eems t o s uggest t hat b irds w ere

g enera l ly r egarded a s more a ppropr iate s ub jects f or d ed ica t ion t o f ema le t han t o ma le d e i t ies.

How f ar, i f a t a l l, i t must t hen b e a sked, d oes

t he l i terary e v idence d iscussed a bove h e lp t o e xp la in t h is b ias?

Apo l lo 's

a ssoc iat ion w ith t he s wan a pparent ly d id n ot r esu l t i n a n e spec ia l ly l arge number o f d ed icated r epresentat ions i n h is s anctuar ies ( a lthough af ew w ater-b irds, i nc lud ing s wans, c ame t o l ight a t De lph i a nd t he

4 5.

P to ion).

But I h ave s uggested t hat t he s wan c ame t o b e l i nked w ith

Apo l lo i n l i terature b ecause water-birds p layed s ome p art i n t he e ar l ier c u l t o n De los o f af ema le d e ity o f c h i ldbirth - L eto, Artem is, E i le ithy ia o r t he Hyperborean m a idens who a ss isted a t t he b irth o f t he g od l ° 6

;

a nd t hat t he c rane-dance, i nst ituted i n t he s anctuary i n what was f e lt t o b e ar emote age o f l egend, may h ave b een a f ert i l ity r i tua l.

The

p resence o f s evera l Mycenaean f igur ines o f water-birds i n t he Artem is ion ( where a Geometr ic b ronze b ird w ith a l ong n eck was a lso f ound) i s a t l east not i ncons istent w ith t h is p oss ibi l ity;

wh i le t he c rane-bone

a lso d iscovered t here s uggests t hat t he s acr if ice o f t h is s pec ies o f water-bird m ight h ave b een p art o f t he c u lt.

I t i s a lso o f s ome i nterest

t hat o ne o f t he more v a luable p ossess ions o f De l ian Artem is l i sted o n a s te le o f 2 79 BC i s ac rane made o f g o ld

1 ° 7

. The a ppearance o f t he

swan ( or t he g oose) i n t he De l ian myth, a nd i n t he l egend o f Z eus a nd h is e gg-hatched c h i ldren, a nd a lso i ts e ar ly ( though i n myth ica l t erms unexp la ined) a ssociat ion w ith Aphrod ite, s uggest t hat i t i s ab ird n ot o f mus ic o r prophecy, but o f d iv ine p rocreat ion.

But t h is was a c onnotat ion

wh ich i t s hared w ith w ater-b irds o f o ther o r i ndeterm ina te s pec ies. Chr istou has a rgued t hat water-birds were s ymbo ls o f mo isture a nd f ert i l i ty, a nd t hus p roper a ttr ibutes o f af ema le d e ity.

F rom P ausan ias

we know t hat t hey d ecorated Artem is ' S tympha l ian t emp le;

but a t t he

Thasos Artem is ion t he r ema ins o f Archa ic t erracotta a n tef ixes i n t he f orm o f ducks h ave a ctua l ly b een r ecovered;

wh i le t he l a te c lass ica l

l imestone r e l iefs o f s wans f ound i n t he E phes ian Artem is ion p robably d ecorated t he a ltar t here.

The u se o f water-birds a s d ecorat ions f or

t he s acred bu i ld ings o f ag oddess o f ten i nvoked f or f ert i l ity a nd i n c h i ldb irth, i s c ons istent w ith t he f act t hat a ccord ing t o t he r eports ( and e ven d iscount ing t he numerous e ar ly b ronzes o f Phera i) s he r ece ived

4 6.

i n d ed icat ion more i mages o f t h is t ype t han d id o ther d eit ies:

t hat i s

a bout s ixty, i n c ompar ison w ith f orty-three o r more o ffered t o A thena , a nd t h irty-four t o Hera.

Thus a l though Apo l lo 's l i terary a ssociat ion

w ith swans may b e i rre levant i n t he c ontext o f d ed ications i n h is s anet un es, t he De l ian t rad it ions wh ich l ay b eh ind i t , a nd wh ich r eferred t o t he c u lt o f a n e ar l ier g oddess, d id e xert a n i nf luence o n t he d ed icat ions made t o f ema le d e it ies, a nd e specia l ly t o A rtem is, whose c u lt o n De los e v ident ly p redated t hat o f h er b rother.

( c) B irds o f p rey: The water-birds s o o f ten d ed icated i n t he Geometr ic a nd e ar ly Archa ic p er iods d id n ot d isappear a s t he Archa ic p er iod p rogressed. They c ont inued t o b e d ed icated, a nd g rea ter r ea l ism i n t he p ortraya l o f a l l n atura l o b jects meant t hat t hey a re n ow unm istakab le a s waterb irds.

The c ut-out b one b irds w ith l ong n ecks a nd b i l ls f rom Artem is

Orth ia b e long t o t he s ixth c entury a nd l a ter;

a nd a t L indos a bout

t wenty Archa ic r epresentat ions o f water-b irds, i nc lud ing s wans, w ere d iscovered.

But dur ing t he Archa ic p er iod, w ith t he s pread o f E astern

mot ifs, t he h awk a nd e ag le b ecame i ncreas ing ly p opu lar s ub jects f or r epresentat ion; water-b irds.

a nd a t Ephesos a nd a t L indos h awks f ar o utnumbered

B irds o f p rey were a lso qu i te p rominent a t t he Hera ion

o f S amos a nd ( especia l ly a s mot ifs o n s ma l l o b jects l i ke s ea ls a nd s carabs) a t Artemis Orth ia a nd P erachora.

There i s n o l i terary ev idence t o

s uggest t hat t hese b irds were e ver a ssoc iated w ith f erti l ity;

a nd i t i s

p oss ib le t o e xp la in t he ir i mages a t f our s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo ( inc lud ing De lph i) a nd a t a l l t hree o f Z eus ' s anctuar ies e xam ined h ere, i n t erms o f t he ir s acredness t o t hese g ods o f t he s ky.

Yet l i ke o ther b irds,

t he p redatory k ind a re f ound i n l arger numbers i n t he s anctuar ies o f o f f ema le d e it ies.

Out o f a bout 3 60 b irds o f p rey, 1 58 ( near ly a l l l ime-

4 7.

s tone and p aste f igur ines f rom L indos) b e longed t o A thena ;

a nd a t

l east 1 10 t o Artem is, b oth f rom t he S partan s anctuary a nd f rom Ephesos, where more t han s ixty Archa ic h awk-f igur ines o f g o ld, s i lver, i vory, b ronze a nd t erracotta were r ecovered.

Ephes ian Artem is was a g oddess

o f h unt ing ( Xenophon o f Ephesos r e lates t hat d ogs a nd hunt ing w eapons were t aken i n h er p rocess ion l ° 8 ) ;

a nd h awks a s hunt ing b irds may

h ave been r egarded a s a ppropr iate a ttr ibutes a nd d ed icat ions f or h er. No d oubt A thena L ind ia was a g oddess o f s im i lar c haracter.

Yet f rom

t he t ime o f Homer, i t was a cknow ledged i n l i terature t hat t he e ag le b e longed t o Z eus, a nd t he h awk t o Apo l lo ;

a nd i t i s a lso e v ident t hat

i mportant a nd s tr ik ing r epresentat ions o f e ag les

( too v a luable

t o h ave s urv ived) w ere d ed icated i n Z eus ' s anctuar ies a t l east f rom t he f i f th c entury l ° 9 . I n f act i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he f ragments o f ab ronze s tatue w i th a b ird, d iscovered a t Nemea, may h ave r eprese nted t he g od w ith h is e ag le.

I t i s i n t he d ed icat ion o f sma l ler o b jects,

dur ing t he Archa ic p er iod, t hat t he c u lt o f t he p otn i a a s m istress o f b irds, ev ident ly o f g reater i nf luence i n r e l ig ious p ract ices t han t he c oncepts o f t he O lymp ians a s e xpressed i n l i terature, e xerted i t s i nf luence o n t he worsh ipper 's c ho ice o f d ed icat ion.

( d) Ow ls: The p resence i n s anctuar ies o f i dent if iable s pec ies o f b irds o ther t han h awks, e ag les o r water-birds r ef lects o n ly t o al im ited d egree t he s tor ies a bout g ods a nd b irds wh ich a re known f rom l i terature. Representat ions o f A thena w ith h er ow l c annot b e e xp la ined i n mytho log ica l t erms;

but t he a ssoc iat ion i tse lf i s a ttested by Ar istophanes a nd h is

c ommentators;

a nd t he f act t hat o ut o f f i f teen r epresentat ions o f ow ls

n oted h ere, t we lve w ere f ound i n h er s anctuar ies, d emonstrates t hat

4 8.

t hey were f e lt t o b e s u itab le a s d ed icat ions f or t h is g oddess, a nd a s o rnaments f or h er s anctuar ies. Acropo l is;

S even (most ly Archa ic) c ame f rom t he

where i n a dd it ion, a l arge number o f f ragmentary Archa ic

t erracotta p laques r epresented A thena i n h er c har iot, a ccompanied by a n ow l;

a nd a f ourth c entury marb le r e l ief s howed t he g oddess w ith a n

owl o n h er h and.

But t he ir l esser p resence i n h er s anctuar ies a t D e lph i,

S parta a nd Gortyn s hows t hat t he a ssoc iat ion was a cknow ledged i n c i t ies o ther t han A thens.

Gortyn a nd S parta were Acropo l is s anctuar ies;

a nd

i t i s poss ible t hat t he ow l, h av ing a ided t he A then ians i n t he P ers ian w ar, may h ave b een r egarded l i ke i ts p atroness a s ad efender o f c i t ies.

Ow ls

a re b irds o f p rey o f ap art icu lar k ind, a nd a s we h ave s een, w ere r eprese nted ( at l east o nce) w ith a g oddess o f t he E ast.

The g o lden ow l o f

S amos was p robab ly d ed icated t o Hera, t he S am ian p otnia t heron, a s a n a l ternat ive t o t he more c ommon h awks o f l imestone, b ronze a nd paste a lso f ound t here;

a nd i n much t he s ame way, a n ow l d ecorated o ne o f t he

s ea ls a t P erachora.

But t he a ssoc iat ion o f t he ow l a lmost e xc lus ive ly

w ith A thena wh ich c ame a bout dur ing t he c ourse o f t he Archa ic p er iod ( no d oubt b ecause o f t he l iv ing b irds wh ich h aunted A thens) a pparent ly d id i nf luence s ome o f h er worsh ippers i n t he ir c ho ice o f d ed ication.

( e) Cocks a nd h ens; c rows: Cocks a nd h ens must have b een a c ommon a nd n ot t oo e xpens ive f orm o f s acr if ice t o many g ods, a nd t he ir i mages have b een f ound, t hough n ot g enera l ly i n g reat numbers, a t t he s anctuar ies o f most;

a t

L indos, a nd Artem is ' s anctuary a t Kanon i, t oo, f igur ines o f w omen c arrying c ocks w ere d ed icated.

The l argest number o f c ock-representa-

t ions ( at l east t h irty-two), was f ound a t P hera i, where ( however) t hey a re f ar o utnumbered by water-birds.

Accord ing t o a rchaeo log ica l e v idence,

4 9.

t he s un-symbo l ism ment ioned by P ausan ias a nd P lutarch h ad n o e ffect wha tsoever o n d ed icat ions made t o Apo l lo ;

s ince s carce ly o ne r epresenta-

t ion o f t he b ird h as b een f ound i n h is s anctuar ies.

The i dea, i t i s t o b e

s upposed, c ame i nto e x istence o n ly a t al a ter p er iod.

I n c ontrast,

r epresentat ion Sof c ocks were d iscovered a t e ight o f A thena 's s anctuar ies, f rom t he Geometr ic p er iod o nwards;

a nd i f t he e xamp les f rom Phera i

a re s et a s ide, s he r ece ived more o f t he ir i mages t han a ny o ther d e ity. I t i s p robab le t hat A thena 's a ssoc iat ion w i th t h is b ird, i mp l icit i n t he p a int ings o n P anathena ic amphorae, a nd n oted a nd s pecu lated o n i n Roman t imes by P ausan ias, was e stabl ished a t a n e ar ly p er iod , a nd may we l l h ave d ictated t he c ho ice o f s ome d ed icat ions made t o h er.

I t i s

poss ible t oo, t hat t he t hree b ronze Archa ic c rows f ound o n t he Acropo l is m ight have b een o ffered w ith r eference t o t he myth o f Kekrops ' d aughters; but e ven a l low ing f or t he c hances o f s urv iva l a nd d iscovery, t h is t ype o f b ird c an s carce ly h ave b een a p opu lar mot if f or d ed icat ion;

s ince

a s f ar a s I know, i t h as b een f ound a t n o o ther s anctuary.

( f ) P eacocks: Accord ing t o t he l i terary e v idence c i ted a bove, t he p eacock c annot c erta in ly b e a ssoc iated w ith Hera a ny e ar l ier t han t he f ourth c entury, a nd t hen o n ly i n S amos.

Ib e l ieve i t p oss ible t hat t he S am ians may h ave

r egarded t he p eacocks o f t he Hera ion s imp ly a s mater ia l p roperty o f t he s anctuary, a nd n ot a t f i rst, a s s acred b irds i n ar e l ig ious s ense.

The

a et ion f or Hera 's p atronage o f t he p eacock was p robab ly ( as t he l i terary e v idence s uggests) o f l a te i nvent ion.

The o n ly p eacock-representat ion s

t o b e i dentif ied w ith c erta inty a t a ny o f t he s anctuar ies e xam ined h ere a re t he t erracotta a nd m arb le f ragments f rom t he Arg ive Hera ion, wh ich have n ot b een d ated, but may w e l l h ave b e longed ( l ike Hadr ian 's j ewe l led

5 0.

b ird) t o t he Roman p er iod.

I n t h is p er iod , t he p a inted t erraco tta p eacock 's

t a i l may h ave b een p art o f a n a kroter ion o r a n tef ix d ecorat ing t he t emp le. Wa ldste in r e jected h is own o r ig ina l d ef init ion o f t he Geometr ic b ronze b ird f rom t h is s anctuary a s ap eacock

1 °

,a nd a lthough t he b ird o n a n

Archa ic e ngraved s tone f rom P erachora c ou ld b e ap eacock ( w i th c rest a nd f an-shaped t a i l), i t i s r ather sma l l t o i dent ify w ith c erta inty.

Ih ave

s uggested t hat Hera, a s o ne o f t he O lymp ian s uccessors t o a n o lder p otnia t heron, may o r ig ina l ly h ave h ad t he a ttr ibute o f an u nspecif ied water-b ird;

a nd t ha t t h is b ird ( as I b e l ieve i t a ppears o n t he c omb f rom

Artem is Orth ia) b ecame a p eacock o n ly a f ter t he S am ian peacocks a cqu ired t he ir r eputat ion.

I n v iew o f t he f act t hat wh i le p eacocks a re k nown t o

h ave b een d ed icated a t t he Arg ive Hera ion, n o r ema ins o f t he ir i mages h ave c ome t o l ight a t t he S am ian s anctuary;

a nd s ince i t i s K ing Argus

who f igures i n t he a et ion f or t he p eacock 's t a i l, i t i s e ven p oss ib le t ha t Hera 's s pec ia l a ssociat ion w ith t he p eacock, t hough i nspired b y t he S am ian b irds, was a n Arg ive i nvent ion.

The s carc ity o f p eacock-representat ions

i n h er s anctuar ies i s t herefore n ot r ea l ly i ncons istent w ith l i terary e v idence a s i t h as s urv ived.

On t he o ther h and, n ear ly 2 00 r epresenta t ions o f

b irds o f v ar ious o ther k inds ( inc lud ing wa ter-birds) h ave b een r eported i n t he Hera ba c ons idered i n t h is s tudy.

( g) Doves, o r p igeons: The number o f d ove-representat ions i n t he s anctuar ies u nder e xam inat ion h ave not a lways b een s pec if ied :

a t Ka lydon, a nd a t Demeter 's

s anctuary a t Acrocor inth, f or e xamp le, t he ir p resence but n o t t heir number, i s n oted i n t he r eports;

moreover, what o ne e xcava tor s ees

a s ad ove o r p igeon, may a ppear t o a nother o n ly a s ab ird o f i ndeterm ina te s pecies.

I n f act many o f t he t erracotta " birds" d escr ibed i n t he

5 1 .

e xcavat ion r eports may h ave b een i ntended t o r epresent d oves.

But a t

l east f orty h ave b een p os it ive ly i dent if ied i n v ar ious s anctuar ies;

wh i le

t he n umber o f f ema le f igur ines ( and s omet imes s tatues) o f t he Archa ic p er iod a nd l a ter h o ld ing d oves, o r sma l l d ovel ike b irds, i s more t han s ixty.

None o f t he s anctuar ies c ons idered h ere b e longed t o Aphrod ite

a lone;

s o t hat i t i s n o t p oss ible t o a scerta in h ow f ar t he a ssoc iat ion o f

t h is g oddess w ith t he d ove, a s i t i s e xpressed i n l i terature, may b e r ef lected i n p atterns o f d ed icat ion.

But t he p resence b oth o f f ema les

w ith d oves, a nd d oves i n i so lat ion, i n t he s anctuar ies o f a l l t he o ther O lymp ian g oddesses, s hows a t l east t ha t i n t erms o f c u lt-pract ice, a ssoc iat ion was f ar f rom e xc lus ive.

t he

The f ema le f igur ines a lmost c erta in ly

r epresented n ot Aphrod ite, but a worsh ipper;

a nd t he p ract ice o f

s acr if icing a d ove t o t he d eity was p robably c ommon t o most s anctuar ies; a lthough not a l l r epresentat ions, e i ther o f t he b ird-carr iers, o r t he b irds i n i so lat ion, n ecessar i ly c ommemorate s uch a s acr if ice.

What t he

d istr ibution o f t hese i mages d oes s how, i s t hat n ear ly a l l o f t hem w ere d ed icated i n t he s anctuar ies o f f ema le d e i t ies.

The o n ly e xcept ions a re

O lymp ia, where t he b ronze " Aphrod ite" c ou ld h ave b een d ed icated t o a ny d eity who h ad a n a ltar t here

1 1;

Apo l lo Ma leatas, where i t i s p oss ib le

t ha t Artem is was a lso w orsh ipped, a nd may h ave b een t he r ec ip ient o f t he marb le d öve 12 ; a nd Dodona , where n ot o n ly Z eus was p atron, but a lso D ione, s omet imes ( as i t h as b een o bserved - i n n ote 7 1) r egarded a s a v ers ion o f Aphrod ite.

A t Dodona t hree d oves i n b ronze ( one p erched o n

af ema le hand) were r eported. The J udgment o f P ar is s cene o n t he c omb f rom Artem is Orth ia, which r epresents Aphrod ite w ith a d ove, s eems t o i nd icate t hat t he ir a ssoc iation was not a l a te i nvent ion.

But w e h ave s een t hat i t was n ot

r egarded a s e xc lus ive, e ven i n e ar ly t imes:

t he Ph iga l ian c u lt-statue o f

5 2 .

Demeter h o ld ing a d ove was s upposed t o b e t he c lass ica l r eproduct ion o f a much o lder i mage.

S o t he d oves ( and d ovel ike b irds) d ed icated

a t t he Acrocor inth, Knossos a nd E leus is may h ave b een f e lt t o be a ppropr iate f or Demeter a nd P ersephone;

a nd t he l arge marble h and ho ld ing a

d ove f ound a t t he ir Cyrene s anctuary, c ou ld b e p art o f as ta tue r epresenti ng o ne o f t hese g oddesses.

But d oves o r p igeons w ere a lso a n e ssent ia l

f eature o f e veryday d omest ic l i fe, k ept f or f ood but a lso a s p ets, a nd h av ing a r e lat ionsh ip w ith human b e ings ( especia l ly women a nd c h i ldren) mor e . i nt imate p erhaps t han a ny c reature, a part f rom t he d og.

A f ourth

c e •Itury f igur ine f rom L indos r epresents a woman k iss ing a d ove; l i tt le g ir l f rom Brauron h o lds h ers w ith l ov ing c are;

t he

a nd t he t erracotta

b irds n ow i n t he museum t here, s ome o f t hem unusua l ly l arge, may r epresent t he p et d oves o f t he c h i ldren who l ived a t t he s anctuary.

A l l

a n ima l f igur ines may b e r egarded i n t he l i ght o f human c oncerns a s w e l l a s r e l ig ious s ign if icance;

but t he d ove-f igur ines, more t han most, may

r ef lect a n a spect o f t he l ives o f women a nd c h i ldren, which r esu lted i n t he ir d ed icat ion t o a l l f ema le d e it ies.

The a ss iduous ly breed ing p igeon,

t oo, may o n o ccas ion h ave b een r egarded a s a n emb lem not o n ly o f l ove but o f matern ity, wh ich i s ac oncern o utside t he s cope o f n o g oddess. Most a n ima l t ypes a re s omet imes r epresented w ith t he ir o ffspr ing, a nd t he Arg i e Hera ion, where human k ourotropho i were a lso f ound '9 h as p roduced a sma l l t erracotta d ove s he lter ing i t s young under i t s w ings

1 14

.

I t i s e ven p oss ib le t hat Hera 's Archa ic c u lt-statue a t P erachora may h ave h e ld a d ove;

s ince a b ronze l i fe-s ized o ne f ound i n t he s acred poo l h ad

p ierced f eet a s t hough i t h ad b een f astened t o as tatue 15 . Th is w ide ' d iffus ion o f d ove-representat ions i n f ema le s anctuar ies, i n c on junct ion n ot o n ly w ith i mages o f worsh ippers but a lso w ith t hose o f t he var ious d eit ies, s eems t o e xpress t he r o le o f t he b ird i n human l ives, r ather t han i t s a cknow ledged p os it ion a s Aphrod i te 's s acred b ird.

5 3.

( i i i)

Representat ions o f t he p otnia t heron w ith b irds i n s anctuar ies I t h as b een o bserved t hat t he p otnia t heron, t he g oddess embody-

i ng t he powers o f n a ture, was s omet imes r epresented w ith t wo b irds, b oth dur ing t he Bronze Age, a nd i n t he Archa ic p er iod.

The b irds

h ave b een i nterpreted a s s ymbo ls o f c erta in d iv ine c haracter ist ics ( varyi ng a ccord ing t o whether t hey a re water-b irds, o r b irds o f p rey).

But

wha tever t he ir e xact m ean ing may b e, t hey w ere e v ident ly s een a s a ttr ibutes o f t he d e i ty ;

a nd t he a ssoc iat ion, s o c lear ly e xpressed i n

i c c- . ograph ica l t erms, o ffers a r easonab le e xp lana t ion f or t he ir p repondera r e ( in c ontrast, f or e xamp le, t o h orses) i n t he s anctuar ies o f f ema le r ather t han ma le d e i t ies:

t ha t i s , s imp ly, t hey w ere d ed icated t o a

f ema le d e ity b ecause t hey w ere s een a s h er a ttr ibutes.

The m ere e x ist-

e nce o f t hese p otnia i mages, whatever t he ir p rovenance , wou ld make t he s uppos i t ion f eas ib le.

But i t h appens t hat a number o f t hem w ere

f ound a s o ffer ings o r d ecorat ions i n t he s anctuar ies o f t he g ods;

a nd

l i ke b irds i n i so lat ion, n ear ly a l l i n t hose o f f ema le d e it ies. Out o f t wenty-two r epresentat ions o f t he t yp ica l h era ld ic g roup o f af ema le w i th t wo b irds

16

,t he g reatest number ( ten) c ame f rom

Artem is Orth ia where ( apart f rom L indos a nd P hera i) t he g rea test number o f s ing le b irds a re a lso r eported, a nd t hey t ake t he f orm o f r e l iefs i n i vory ,b one, s i lver a nd l ead.

A t Artem is Orth ia , where b oth h awks

a nd water-b irds a re r epresented i n i so lat ion, t here a re r ough ly e qua l numbers o f t hese t wo s pec ies a s a ttr ibutes o f t he g oddess;

a nd o n

t wo s eventh c entury i vory p laques s he i s a ccompan ied by a p a ir o f h awks, a nd a t t he s ame t ime h o lds t wo water-b irds by t he ir n ecks. I n t hese t wo r e l iefs s he i s ( unusua l ly f or Artem is Orth ia) w ithout w ings, a nd t he f act t hat t he h awks r ep lace h er w ings p rov ides s ome s upport

f or Christou 's o pin ion t hat t hese b irds a re s ymbo ls o f d iv ine c ontro l

5 4.

o f t he a ir.

A t Ephesos, h owever, where m ore t han s ixty h awks w ere

f ound, i n c ompar ison t o f our r epresentat ions o f wa ter-birds, o ne sma l l i vory s ea l d ep icts a w inged g oddess f lanked b y as nake a nd a w aterb ird ( a mot if f ound a lso a t Artem is Orth ia);

but i n t he o ther t wo c erta in

e xamp les o f h era ld ic g roups ( an i vory, a nd t he f ragment o f as i lver f igur ine) t he b irds a re h awks a nd t he g oddess i s u nw inged.

Accord ing

t o Hogarth, " a l l o r s ome" o f t wenty g o ld h awks may a lso have b een h e ld by f ema le s tatuettes; a s

ap oss ib i l ity wh ich wou ld make E phesos

i ch a s Artem is Orth ia i n d ed icat ions o f p otnia i w ith b irds.

But

a t E phesos t he p otn ia t heron a lso a ppears i n a no ther ( and u nhera ld ic) s ty le, wh ich i s p ecu l iar t o t h is s anctuary: t a l l p o le s urmounted by a s ing le h awk

1 17

.

s he b ears o n h er h ead a One i vory f igur ine o f t h is

t ype, a nd f ragments b e long ing p robab ly t o f our more, were r ecovered f rom t he Archa ic Artem is ion.

Thus a t S parta a nd a t E phesos a l ike,

t he l i nk b etween g oddess a nd b ird i s d irect ly e xpressed i n i conograph ica l t erms.

A t b o th s anctuar ies t here i s ac orrespondence b etween t he

p resence i n t he s anctuary o f i so lated b irds , a nd o f t he p otn ia t heron w ith b irds;

a nd i n e ach c ase t he s pec ies o f a ttr ibute r ough ly c orrespond

t o t he s pec ies o f b irds d ed icated o n t he ir o wn. A t L indos, t he s anctuary where t he g rea test number o f b irdr epresentat ions h ave b een f ound ( above a l l i n t he f orm o f Archa ic Cypr io t l imestone h awks) o n ly o ne p otnia o f t he t ype w ith t wo c reatures o f a ny k ind, h as c ome t o l ight;

but i n t h is s ing le e xamp le ( stamped o n

av ery s ma l l b ronze p laque) t he c reatures h e ld a re b irds, a nd moreover 1 2

t hey a re

b irds o f p rey.

Yet water-b irds, t hough l ess numerous,

a re n ot a bsent f rom t he s anctuary a t L indos, a nd t he Archa ic t erracotta f ema le w ith a wa ter-b ird p a inted o n h er t runk, r egarded a s ak ind o f p otnia t heron.

may

a lso

b e

The l a ter t erracotta f ema le

5 5.

ho ld ing a s ing le swan m ay n ot, o f c ourse, b e i ntended a s ag oddess; but a t Kanon i i n Corcyra t here i s c erta in ly a p recedent f or t he d iv inity i n s uch a gu ise, s ince t wo f igur ines s how Artem is, i dent if iab le by h er bow, h o lding o ne g oosel ike b ird.

S o i t i s p oss ib le t hat i n t h is t ype

o f f igur ine we h ave a n e ar ly f i f th c entury d eve lopment o f t he Archa ic potnia w ith h er t wo wa ter-birds.

A t a nother o f A thena 's s anctuar ies

a t E late ia, wh ich y ie lded s evera l e ar ly b ronze water-b irds, f ive undated t erracotta f ema les w ith a s ing le s wan o r water-bird w ere a lso r eported; and t hese may i nd icate t hat A thena Crane ia, t oo, b e longed t o t he o lder t rad it ion o f a water-b ird g oddess.

A t Tegea,

where n ear ly t h irty

b ird-representat ions w ere f ound ( most ly b ronze, i nc lud ing s even waterb irds) a r ound b ronze f ibu la-p laque was d ecorated w ith a n aked g oddess, s tand ing on a bu l l, a nd f l anked by t wo water-birds;

a nd f ina l ly, a t

Gortyn (where s evera l o w ls were d ed icated t o A thena) t here a re t wo hera ld ic r epresentat ions o f t he , p otnia w ith b irds ( in o ne o f t hem, a pa ir o f water-b irds i s s imp ly p a inted o n t he s k irt o f al arge t erracotta f ema le f igur ine

1 9

) .

The a ssoc iat ion o f A thena w ith water-b irds i s

not e nt irely w ithout a n e cho i n l i terature;

f or i t was a h eron, a nd

not a n ow l wh ich s he s ent a s a gu ide t o Odysseus ( Ae l ian, c omment ing on t h is, o bserved t hat t he l and r ound Troy was mo ist a nd w e l l-watered, and t he g oddess u sed wha t was a va i lab le). A t P erachora, wh ich a f ter L indos, Phera i a nd Artem is Orth ia has p roduced t he g reatest number o f b ird-representat ions, i nc lud ing water-b irds a nd b irds o f p rey, t hree e xamp les o f t he Archa ic p otnia w ith h era ldic b irds h ave a lso b een f ound, i n r e l iefs o n b ronze, l ead and i vory

19

. A t Ka lapodi,

where Geometr ic b ronze b irds o utnumber

horses by twenty t o o ne, n o p otnia t heron h as d ef in ite ly b een f ound; a lthough t he e xcavation r eport s uggests t hat a n e ar ly Archa ic b ronze

5 6.

p rotome s urmounted by a r am 's h ead may h ave b een p art o f s uch a g roup

20

I n s hort , n ear ly a l l t he s anctuar ies r ichest i n b ird-ded icat ions ( L indos , Artem is Orth ia, E phesos a nd P erachora) h ave a lso p rov ided p otniai mages w ith b irds.

The n otab le e xcept ion i s Phera i , w ith i t s h undred

e ar ly b ronze w ater-birds, where n o i mage o f t he p otnia t heron has a pparent ly b een f ound.

But i n a ny c ase t h is t ype o f r epresentation

h as n ever a ppeared i n g reat numbers o n a ny o ne s i te.

A l ack o f c ons tant

c orre la t ion h ard ly i nva l idates t he g enera l p ropos i t ion t hat b irds were d ed icated c h ief ly t o f ema le d e it ies, b ecause t hey w ere r egarded a s a ttr ibutes o f ap otnia t heron who h ad p ower o ver t he natura l w or ld a nd i t s s k ies a nd waters, a nd w as c oncerned w ith f ert i l ity. i n as ing le s anctuary b oth o f t he p otnia w i th

T he presence

b irds, a nd o f b irds

a lone, b ears w i tness t o t he a ssoc iat ion o f g oddess a nd b ird i n t he m ind o f t hose who worsh ipped t here.

E .

C onc lus ion The many r epresentat ions o f b irds wh ich w ere d ed ica ted t o t he

g ods, a nd wh ich m ight a dorn t he ir t emp les a nd s anctuar ies, s eem t o e xpress t he s ense t hat t hese w inged b e ings w ere i n s ome w ay a k in t o d e it ies;

o r a t l east t hat t hey embod ied s ome a spect o f t he d iv ine nature,

a nd t herefore p roper ly b e longed t o t hem.

I t was n o d oubt t h is s ame

s ense wh ich f ound e xpress ion i n l egends o f g ods who a ssumed t he s hape o f ap art icu lar b ird, o r i mposed i t o n ah uman; s enger o r p ortent.

o r u sed a b ird a s m es-

Thus Bronze Age g oddesses w ere r epresented w i th

wa ter-birds a s v ict ims ,c ompan ions o r a ttr ibutes;

a nd t he A rcha ic p otn ia

t heron f o l lowed s u i t, e xcept t ha t b irds o f p rey, p erhaps a s i mports f rom t he E ast, n ow s erved h er a s a l terna t ive o r s omet imes a dd i t iona l

5 7.

a ttr ibutes.

Both k inds o f b ird h ave b een i nterpreted a s s ymbo ls o f

t he g oddess ' p ower. f ert i l i ty;

Thus t he w ater-b irds embod ied mo isture a nd

a nd t he b irds o f p rey embod ied t he s ky a nd t he f i erceness

o f w i ld nature - i nterpretat ions wh ich wh i le t hey c annot b e p roved c onc lus ive ly, a re f eas ib le. I n t ime, n ear ly e very O lymp ian d e ity c ame t o b e a ssoc iated w ith as pec ia l b ird , l i ke t he e ag le, o w l o r p eacock:

emb lemat ic p a ir ings

which wh i le i n ag enera l s ense t he l egacy o f a n o lder d e ity 's a ttr ibutes, c ame a bout e i ther t hrough o bv ious s ymbo l ism, o r t hrough s uch n a tura l c hances a s t hat wh ich l ed t o t he b reed ing o f p eacocks i n S amos, o r a l lowed ow ls t o f lour ish i n A thens.

But t hese s pec if ic a ssoc iat ions

were p erhaps t oo t heoret ica l, t oo l i terary t o f ind a v ery e xtens ive e cho i n t he d ed ica t ion o f b irds i n i so lat ion f rom t he d e i ty.

The ow l, f or

e xamp le, was d ed ica ted t o A thena i n p reference t o o ther d e i t ies;

but

not n ear ly s o o f ten a s t he more g enera l t ypes o f w a ter-b irds, a nd b irds o f p rey.

Artem is, who a ccord ing t o l i terary e v idence i s n ot p a ired

w ith a ny s pec if ic k ind o f b ird, a ccord ing t o a rchaeo log ica l e v idence r ece ived more wa ter-b irds t han a ny o ther d e ity, a nd more b irds o f p rey t han a ny e xcept A thena i n h er L ind ian s anctuary.

Ih ave s uggested

t ha t Apo l lo 's a ssoc iat ion w ith t he s wan, wh ich i s e xpressed by Ca l l imachus a nd o ther wr i ters, but wh ich h as n ot b een ma tched by t he d iscovery o f many s wan-representa t ions i n h is s anctuar ies, c ame a bout b ecause t he

f ema le

d e ity

( or d e it ies)

p rev ious ly worsh ipped o n D elos

b es ide t he l ake, was a pd tn l a t heron ,a mo ther-goddess who was m istress o f w ater-b irds.

As L eto 's t hrone i n D e los was s upported by g eese,

t he c har iot o f Aphrod i te was i n t he p oet 's i mag ina t ion d rawn by s wans; a nd m ore t han o ne l egend a bout t hese b irds i s c oncerned w ith p rocreat ion a nd b irth.

Thus t he s wan was t he s acred b ird o f t he g od o f mus ic a nd

5 8.

p rophecy o n ly i n al i terary c ontext.

Accord ing t o a n o lder r e l ig ious

t rad it ion, i t b e longed l i ke o ther wa ter-b irds t o g oddesses o f f ert i l ity. I n v iew o f t hese s ymbo l ic a nd mytho log ica l c onnotat ions, t he p reponderance o f water-b irds i n f ema le s anctuar ies ( espec ia l ly t hose b e long ing t o Artem is) i s n ot s urpr is ing.

Bu t i t h as b een s een t hat

r epresentat ions o f a l l k inds o f b irds h ave b een d iscovered m ore f requent ly i n t he s anctuar ies o f f ema le t han i n t hose o f ma le d e i t ies.

Ih ave t r ied

t o s how t hat t h is may h ave b een b ecause a s i mportant a ttr ibutes o f t he p otnia t heron ( and n otw ithstand ing l i terary t rad it ion s uch a s t hat l i nki ng Z eus w ith t he e ag le), b irds o f a ny k ind w ere g enera l ly a ssociated i n t he m inds o f worsh ippers w i th g oddesses who r e igned o ver t he n a tura l wor ld.

Among t hese g oddesses, Artem is, a s Homer 's p otnia t heron a nd

a s g oddess o f hunt ing , r ece ived a l arge s hare o f b ird-ded ica t ions; a nd a t l east t hree o f h er t emp les a nd a l tars ( at Ephesos, Thasos a nd S tympha los) a re known t o h ave b een d ecorated by w a ter-b irds.

She

a lso r ece ived t he l argest number o f r epresentat ions i n wh ich t he p otnia i s g rouped h era ld ica l ly w i th b irds.

But t hough t he c h ief , A r tem is w as

n ot t he o n ly p otnia t heron among t he O lymp ians.

The g oddess o f L indos

f or e xamp le, l i ke Orth ia a nd t he E phes ian d e i ty, e x isted a s an a tureg oddess b efore t he O lymp ians i ncreased t he ir s way o ver e x ist ing s anct uar ies a nd c u lts

1 2 1

. And a t A thena L ind ia 's s anctuary more b ird-

r epresentat ions h ave b een d iscovered t han a t a ny o ther.

A l though

t he a rtefacts d ed ica ted t o h er a re o f ad ifferent t ype, s he s eems t o h ave b een i n p art a h awk-goddess l i ke Artem is E phes ia. n ot b ecome Artem is;

L ind ia d id

but, n o d oubt b ecause o f t he p os it ion o f h er s anctuary

o n wha t was e ventua l ly a f ort if ied h e ight, s he was i dent if ied w ith A thena i n p reference t o o ther O lymp ian d e i t ies. m ined t he O lymp ian n ame o f t he g oddess:

The n a ture o f t he s i te d eterbu t t he g oddess h erse lf

w as

5 9 .

i n a l l l i kel ihood a p otnia t heron a nd a m istress o f b irds b efore t h is d eve lopment c ame a bout.

The g oddess o f t he S am ian Hera ion, who

a lso r eceived a number o f b irds i n d ed icat ion, p robably h ad a s im i lar h istory;

h er i dent if ica t ion w ith Hera s eems t o h ave b een due t o t he

c om ing o f Arg ive c o lon ists who b rought w ith t hem t he c u lt o f t he ir own p r incipa l d e ity.12

2

Foo tnotes 1 .

Apart f rom t he e normous number o f b ronze h orses a nd c att le f rom O lympia ( wh ich f ar o utwe igh t he b irds d ed icated t here), t hey a re t he most f requent ly d ed icated c reatures dur ing t h is p er iod.

2 .

F or e xamp le, by P . P erdr izet ( FdD V ( 1908) p . 4 6); He i lmeyer ( 0 1Forsch X II 9 31-7).

3 .

F or e xamp le, t he r eport o n t he e xcavat ions a t Ka lapod i ment ions o ver t wenty Geometr ic b ronze b irds, but i lustrates o n ly t hree, wh ich I h ave c lass if ied a s water-birds b ecause o f t he ir a ppearance. Many, i f n ot a l l, o f t he o thers m ight h ave b een s o d es ignated. But t o d o s o wou ld b e un just if iable w ithout f urther e v idence ( AA 9 5 ( 1980) p . 5 7).

4 .

F or examp le, by Chr istou ( Potnia

5 .

Ar istophanes. B irds .

6 .

Ca l l imachus. Hymn t o De los . 2 49-255; P lato. P haedo. 8 4E; Ae l ian .De Natura Anima l /ur n. 1 .32, X IV.13; Eustath ius. I l iad. 1 .206.

7 .

Ae l ian. Op . c it . X 1.1 .

8 .

Theogn is. E leg ies .

9 .

a nd W .D.

T heron pp . 6 1-69 ; p . 1 88).

8 70.

5 -10.

P lutarch. T heseus. 2 1. S evera l g oddesses a re a ssoc iated w ith De los, i nc lud ing n ot o n ly L eto, Apo l lo 's mo ther, but a lso E i le ithy ia, t he g oddess o f c h i ldb irth. E i le ithy ia 's p resence a t Apo l lo 's b irth o n De los i s ment ioned a s e ar ly a s t he Homer ic Hymn t o De l /an Apo l lo ( 115). S he was known t o b e a Cretan d e ity, worsh ipped i n ac ave a t Amnissos ( Odyssey X IX . 188), h ence p erhaps t he s tory o f ag oddess ' s tatue b rought f rom Crete by Theseus. But a f ter t he Hyperborean l egend d eve loped, s he was b e l ieved t o h ave c ome f rom t hose n orthern r eg ions t o • h e lp L eto ( Herodo tus I V.35; P ausan ias 1 .18.5). S he was a ssoc iated w ith t he Hyperborean ma idens t hemse lves, who w ere a lso c oncerned w ith Apo l lo 's b irth. Both E i le ithy ia, a nd t he Hyperboreans w ere

6 0 .

worsh ipped o n t he i s land ( Herodotus 1 V.34-35 ; W .A. L a id law A H istory o f D e los . Oxford 1 933 p p . 3 6-37 ; F . Dürrbach I nscr ipt ions d e D -l os. P ar is 1 929. n o. 4 40, l i ne 6 9 ). 1 0.

R . Va l lo is. " Topograph ie D e l ienne". BCH 5 3 ( 1929) p . 22, n ote 1 ; Eur ip ides . 1 ph igene ia i n T aur is. 1 103-5 ; I on 1 60-170.

1 1 .

Va l lo is. Op . c it . pp .221-223. Two f ragmentary marb le g eese w ere f ound b es ide t he L etoon ( F ig. 2 5 ). Ano ther s im i lar f ragment f ound o n Mykonos a pparent ly f ormed p art o f at hrone, a nd t h is s uggests t ha t t he De l ian f ragments may h ave b e longed t o as im i lar g ooset hrone.

1 2.

DPA

1 3 .

A . Furtwäng ler. D ie Ant iken G emmen . L e ipz ig 1 900. p l. 2 .28 a nd 2 9 ; J HS 4 5 ( 1925) p . 2 3. F ig . 2 6.

1 4.

The d anc ing r ound t he a l tar i n modern G reek marr iage-ceremon ies may b e p erformed f or t h is purpose. But Ca l l imachus m ent ions a nother r i tua l wh ich t ook p lace a t t he De l ian a l tar: t he s e lf-f lage l lat i on o f t he worsh ipper, p erformed a s h e c irc led r ound i t ( Hymn t o D e los. 3 20-322). Th is i s r em in iscent o f t he f l ogg ing o f S partan y ouths a t Artem is Orth ia 's a l tar - wh ich h as a lso b een i nterpreted by s ome a s af ert i l ity r i tua l ( M.P. N i lsson. Gr iechische F este v on r e l ig iöser B edeutung . S tuttgart. 1 957 . p p . 1 90-192).

1 5 .

F or e xamp le, l i on-dances i n S ic i l ian c u l ts o f Artemis a nd o f D ionysos ( Athenaeus. De ipnosoph istae . 6 29 f ; P o l lux. Onomast ikon . 1 03-4).

1 6.

P indar. Pythian Odes . I V. 4 -6;

1 7.

Macrob ius. S aturna l ia .

1 8.

S cho l ia P ind . Pyth .

1 9.

B irds. 5 16.

2 0.

Odyssey . XV.525.

2 1.

Metamorphoses .

2 2 .

P ausan ias .V .2 5.9 .

2 3.

P lutarch . Mora l ia .

2 4.

P ausan ias. V II.18.7.

2 5 .

D iodorus . I V. 1 3; Apo l lodorus .B ib l iotheca . P ausan ias .V III .2 2.4 .

2 6.

I bid . V III.22.7 ;

2 7.

P ausan ias . V III .2 2.5 .

2 8.

Apo l lon ius. Argonaut /ca .

pp .

1 31 , 1 45-6.

S trabo. I X . 20 ( quot ing P indar).

1 .17.66-70.

I V.6.

2 8.

4 00c.

CQ 6 7 ( 1973) p . 1 56 .

1 .1052-4.

1 .92. 3 ;

6 1 .

2 9.

0Jh 1 6 ( 1913) P l. 2 ; P 1.4.

3 0.

L exlc I . " Artem is" 6 89.

3 1.

S cho l ia i n Ayes .

3 2.

I l iad X .274-6 ( Ae l ian [ X.37] was s urpr ised t hat i t was n ot a n ow l).

3 3.

I bid .

V .778; X IX.350.

3 4.

I bid .

V 11.58;

3 5.

P ausan ias. 1 .5.3.

3 6.

Ar istophanes. W asps .

3 7.

S cho l ia i n V espas .

3 8.

F or e xamp le, Odyssey .

3 9.

A thenaeus. 6 55b.

4 0.

Ae lian i s s urpr ised t hat A thena, whose f avour ite was t he ow l, s ent a h eron t o g u ide Odysseus a nd D iomedes t hrough t he d ark ( De Natura Anima l ium . X. 37) .

4 1.

B irds. 5 16. c f . S cho l ia i n Equ ites .

4 2.

A . B. Cook. Z eus. Cambr idge. 1 940. Vo l. I I. pp 7 76-832.

4 3.

I bid .

p . 8 01. F ig . 6 01;

4 4.

I bid .

pp. 8 05-809. F igs 6 16-618.

4 5.

I bid .

pp 8 11-812 .

4 6.

I bid .

F ig . 6 00.

4 7.

Aesop. F abu lae .

4 8.

P ausan ias. I V.34 .6.

4 9.

Antigonus. H istor ia M irabi l ia 1 2. c f Ae l ian. V .8.

5 0.

P ausan ias. V I.26.3.

5 1.

Op. c it . p . 8 04. F ig. 1 1.

5 2.

M . H irmer a nd P .E. Ar ias. A H istory o f Greek v ase-pa int ing ( trans lated B .B. S hef ton. L ondon. 1 962) P l. 2 8.

5 3.

P engu in. P ausan ias. Vo l. I . p . 2 2 . n ote 4 9.

5 4.

AP I

X II.64.

K . Hoenn. Artem is. Z ur ich. 1 946. p .96.

8 73.

Odyssey 1 1.371; XX111.239.

1 086;

P lutarch .

T hem istokles , . 1 2.

1 086. 1 .156.

1 093.

p . 8 04. F ig . 6 11.

1 71.

6 2 .

5 5.

P ausan ias. 1 .17.4;

1 .36.2 ;

5 6.

Eur ip ides , H e len. 1 6-21 . I n Homer, where Z eus ' a nd L eda 's p arent age i s ment ioned more t han o nce, t he s wan myth i s n o t i nc luded .

5 7.

Apo l lodorus. 1 1.10.7.

5 8.

l iacL VIII.427; XXIV.292.3, 3 10-320 . c f Eur ip ides, I on 1 58-160 ; Ca l l imachus. Hymn t o Z eus . 6 8 ; E tymo log icum Magnum ( "aetos").

5 9 .

P indar. Pyth ian Odes . I V.4-6 ( and S cho l ia);

6 0.

" The e ag le, k ing o f b irds, s leeps o n t he s ceptre o f Z eus ." Pyth ian Odes . 1 .6. c f Ar istophanes B irds 5 15 ,

6 1 .

P ausan ias. V .1 1.1

6 2.

I b id . V I.20.12.

6 3.

I b id . 1 1.17.4 ; ( cu lt-statue).

6 4.

A thenaeus 4 91b.

6 5 .

The s wan 's l ove f or i t s c h i ldren was p roverbia l ( see f or e xamp le, A thenaeus ( quot ing Ar isto t le) 3 93d).

6 6.

Furtwäng ler. D ie Ant iken G emmen. P l . 5 .39.

6 7.

S appho. I .1 .10 ( Lyra Graeca . L oeb ( 1922) Vo l. I . p .182) c f . Ov id . Metamorphoses. X .708-9 . F or v ase-pa int ings, f igur ines a nd meda ls d ep ict ing Aphrod i te r id ing o n as wan o r g oose, s ee L ex lc I. " Aphrod ite". 9 05-947.

6 8.

Ae l ian. X .34.

6 9 .

A thenaeus. 3 94F-395A. F or d oves a s s acred t o Aphrod i te, s ee a lso Apo l lon ius o f Rhodes. Argonaut ica. I I .5 41-552; P lu tarch . Mora l ia. 3 79D; A thenaeus ( quo t ing t he f ourth c entury A lex is) 3 95A-B; Ae l ian X .33 ; Eustath ius. I l iad . 1 .308.

7 0.

C . Wa ldste in. T he Arg ive H eraeum . B os ton a nd New York. 1 905 . Vo l. I . p . 3 4. n o . 1 66.

7 1 .

But D ione h erse lf was c lose ly a ssoc ia ted w ith Aphrod ite . I n t he I l iad ( V.370) s he i s r egarded a s Aphrod ite 's mother ( cf . E ur ip ides . H e len. 1 098; Theocr itus XV.106; XV II.36). But Ov id l a ter r efers t o h er a s t he mother o f Cup id, t hus a ctua l ly i dent ify ing h er w ith Aphrod ite [ Fast i 1 .461-464].

7 2.

Ae l ian. X .33 ; P ausan ias V III.42.4. The c u lt-statue o f P h iga l ia w as made by Ona tas o f Aeg ina d ur ing t he f i f th c entury . But i t was r eputed ly c op ied f rom a much e ar l ier s tatue [ Ib id . V 111.42 .7] ( see a lso RE 4 A2 ( 1932) 2 498-9).

V III.30.2 ;

S cho l ia i n T heocr itum . XV.64.

S trabo. I X.420.

V III.38.7 ( as d ed ica t ions); V I11.31.4

6 3.

7 3.

RE L oc . c it .

2 496 .

7 4.

P ausan ias 1 .17 .6 .

7 5.

A thenaeus 6 55A-B.

7 6.

RE 1 9.2 ( 1938) 1 416.

7 7.

M etamorphoses . 1 .722-3 ;

7 8.

RE 1 9.2 ( 1938) 1 416, a nd 1 419-20. A f ragmentary r e l ief , a lso f rom S amos, whose e xact p rovenance i s n ot r ecorded , d epicts H era s tand ing b es ide a p i l lar s urmounted by a p eacock ( and t he m iss ing s ect ion o f t he p laque p robab ly s howed a s econd p i l lar a nd b ird, l ike t he P anathena ic v ase-pa int ings o f A thena a nd t he c ock). I t i s p oss ib le t hat t he r e l ief i s af ourth c entury work, ad ate wh ich i s c ons istent w ith t he r eference t o Heras s acred p eacocks by Ant iphanes ( AM 2 5 ( 1900) p . 1 71 . n o . 4 4).

7 9.

AO p . 2 23. P l. 1 27.

8 0.

I b id . L oc . c it .

8 1.

A thenaeus 3 93 e -f ; Anton inus L ibera l is. Metamorphoses . XVI.1-3 A e l ian XV.29 ; Ov id. Metamorphoses . V I. 9 0-92.

8 2.

F or e xamp le, t he f o l low ing w inged Archa ic s tatues a nd f igur ines w ere f ound i n t he s anctuar ies e xam ined h ere:

S cho l ia i n P hoenissas .

1 114.

A rtem is ion o f D e los:

1 marb le w inged f ema le s tatue ( "Nike o f Achermos") [ BCH 3 ( 1879) p p. 3 93-99. P l. 6 & 7 ].

D e l ion o f P aros :

F ragments o f 2t erracotta w inged ( ? f ema le) f igur ines [ Md / 1 (1948) p p. 3 5-37. P l. 3 3.94].

A cropo l is o f A thens:

4 marb le n ika i [ Payne. P l. 1 19-120].

H era ion o f De los:

1t erracotta w inged f ema le [ De /os XXIII.60].

A rg ive H era ion :

2f ragments t erracotta w inged f ema le f igur ines [ Wa ldste in I . p . 2 8. F igs . 4 3-4 1 1.

N axos ( Demeter):

1f ragment ( ? Archa ic) marb le w inged s ta tue [ PAE 1 954 p . 3 36. F ig. 8 ].

These a re f igures i n t he r ound; t he ir number i s f ar e xceeded by r e l iefs o r e ngrav ings o f w inged d e i t ies i n b ronze, t erracotta, i vory, l ead a nd s tone.

8 3.

Jd l 3( 1888) p . 3 57.

8 4.

AM 5 0 ( 1925) p . 1 60. F ig. 1 .

8 5.

H oenn. Artem is . P l. I ;

L exlc I . " Artem is". 4 7.

6 4.

8 6.

C .A. Chr istou. P otnia T heron. p . 6 9 .

8 7.

I b id . pp. 5 3 a nd 6 4.

8 8.

A Mycenaean g o ld g em f rom Th isbe, f or e xamp le , d epicts a g oddess s hoot ing a s tag ; a nd a Cretan c arne l ian b ead h as a g oddess w i th ab ow ( JHS 4 5 ( 1925) p . 2 1. F igs 2 4-5 ).

8 9.

A t l east by t he f ourth c entury BC, h awks w ere u sed i n h unt ing by t he Thrac ians ( see Ar isto t le 6 20a).

9 0.

C .S. B l inkenberg . L indos . F ou i l les d e l ' Acropo le. 1 902-1914. Vo l. I ( Les p et its o bjets). Ber l in 1 931 p p. 5 79-580.

9 1 .

E .g . S outhesk C o l lect ion o f a nt ique g ems . L ondon 1 908 V o l. I p . 1 11, Q .d.l. ( Cypr io te o r H itt ite c y l inder s ea l, w ith e ag le a bove t wo f ema le d e it ies c . 1 500 BC); p . 9 3, Q .c.9 ( Assyr ian c y l inder s ea l w ith ma le d e ity h o ld ing i n e ach h and a s trugg l ing e ag le by i ts l egs).

9 2.

Cook. Op . c it .

9 3.

R . Va l lo is. L 'Arch itectecture H e l lenique e t He l lenist ique Vo l I . P ar is 1 944 p . 1 3.

9 4.

L exlc I . " Artem is". 4 61;

9 5 .

S ee, f or e xamp le, L indos I . p p . 2 8-9, 3 4 a nd 5 09-10.

9 6.

The Archa ic b ronze " Aphrod ite" w ith a d ove, f rom O lymp ia, was f ound n ear t he S outh-East bu i ld ing ; s o i t c ou ld w e l l h ave b een ad ed ica t ion made a t t he a l tar o f Artem is l a ter d iscovered i n t h is a rea .

9 7.

F or t he d ed icat ion o f c ocks t o Ask lep ios, s ee Artem idorus ,

V o l. I I p . 8 32 P l. 6 1.

bDelos

AE 1 901. p p . 1 13-120. p l. 6 .

One irocr it icon V .9 ; H erondas , M imes I V .15 -16 ; P la to , Phaedo 18a . 9 8.

0 1Forsch

X II. p . 1 85 .

9 9.

FdD V .2 4 6-98.

1 00 .

E rgon 1 958 p . 9 5 . F ig . 9 9 ; P AE 1 958 p . 1 05 . P l. 8 3b; Archaeo log ica l Museum o f A thens, n os . 6 40, 6 45-6.

N at iona l

1 01 .

On t he p a inted p laques f rom P en teskouph ia, d ed icated t o P ose idon, h orses f ar o utnumber b irds.

1 02 .

The number o f l ead c ocks ( a f avour ite s ub ject f or d ed ica t ion i n t h is mater ia l) a t Artem is Orth ia h as n o t b een s pec if ied. I f t hese amounted t o t h irty o r more, Artem is O rth ia wou ld s urpass Phera i i nt erms o f b ird-representat ion.

1 03.

I t must b e s a id t hat a mong t he b ronze a nd t erracotta f igur ines a t P erachora a nd a t Artem is Ortha, h orses d o o utnumber b irds.

6 5.

1 04.

ADe lt 1 9 ( 1964) B 2 p . 2 47.

1 05.

AA

1 06.

S ee a bove, p . 2 9

1 07.

BCH 1 5 ( 1891) p . 1 39.

1 08.

X enophon o f Ephesos. Habrocomes a nd Anthe ia . I . 2 .4

1 09.

The t wo e ag les i n t he t emp le a t S parta, were d ed icated by Lysander, f or v ictor ies won i n t he P e loponnes ian war ( Pausan ias 1 1.17.4).

1 10.

W a ldste in. I . p . 2 4.

1 11.

I t was f ound i n t he S outh-east c orner o f t he A lt is, a t t he S outh E ast bu i ld ing. The n earest a l tar wou ld b e t hat o f Artem is. ( Aphrod ite 's a ltar was s omewhere n ear t he S outh-west c orner o f t he A ltis. S ee P lan 1 . n o. 3 7).

1 12.

S ee be low, " Dogs", p . 1 23.

1 13.

E ight s tand ing k ourotropho i a nd f our s eated ( w ith f ragments o f s even more), a nd o ne p regnant woman, were f ound [ Wa ldste in I : p . 1 9. P l. 4 2.1 a nd F ig. 1 9 ; p . 2 1. P l. 4 3.4; p . 2 5. P l. 4 4.3. F igs. 3 7 & 3 8; p . 3 1. F ig. 5 2 1 1.

1 14.

The b irds w ith t wo y oung o n t heir b acks i n b one, wh ich d ecorated f ive f ibu la i a t Knossos, may a lso h ave b een i ntended a s d oves.

1 15.

H . P ayne. P erachora; t he s anctuar ies o f Hera Akra ia a nd L imenia . V o l .1 ( Architecture , b ronzcs, t erracottas). Oxford 1 940 pp. 1 33-4.

1 16.

I n t hree o f t hese g roups ( from Artem is Orth ia, a nd f rom Ephesos) o n ly one o f t he t wo a ttr ibutes i s ab ird, wh i le t he s econd i s as nake o r l i on.

1 17.

The i mage o f t he g oddess s urmounted by a s ing le b ird o f p rey i s n o t i n i tse lf unpara l le led: b oth t he Gra -c hwy l hydr ia, a nd t he H i tt ite c y l inder s ea l d escr ibed a bove ( see n otes 8 5 a nd 9 1) r epresent t h is mot if . S ee a lso t he Archa ic f igur ine f rom Apu l ia o f a knee l ing f ema le h o ld ing a d eer, a nd s urmounted by a l arge e ag le ( Lexlc. I . " Artem is". 5 63).

1 18.

The o ther, a r e l ief o n ac lay p laque, i s d amaged, but t he b irds a re probab ly l ong-necked. They a re l arge ( a lmost t he s ame s ize a s t he g oddess) - r eca l l ing t he b ird o n t he e ngraved s tone f rom L indos.

1 19.

P ayne r efers t o t he g oddess o n t he r e l iefs a s " Artem is" ( Perachora I . pp. 1 46 a nd 1 86); but t he d ed icators p erhaps r egarded h er, i n t h is c ontext, a s Hera.

1 20.

AA 9 5 ( 1980) p . 6 6. F ig. 3 2.

1 21.

L indos. I . pp. 9 -10.

9 5 ( 1980)

P .

5 9. F ig. 3 1. a nd n ote ( 9).

6 6.

1 22.

Accord ing t o t rad it ion, t he Arg ives h ad a p art i n t he f oundat ion, o r a t l east t he d eve lopment o f t he s anctuary. ( Wa ldste in I . p . 4 7 ; P ausan ias V II.4.4; A thenaeus XV, 6 72.) Above a l l t he l egend o f Admete ( to ld by A thenaeus) who f l ed f rom Argos t o S amos, a nd undertook t he c are o f t he s anctuary wh ich h ad b een f ounded e ar l ier by t he I i e leges a nd t he Nymphs, s uggests t he a ppropr iat ion by f ore igners o f t he s anctuary o f a n e ar l ier n ature-goddess. A ccordi ng t o P ausan ias, h owever, t he S amians b e l ieved t hat t he g oddess ( l ike Apo l lo i n De los) h ad b een b orn under a t ree i n t he s anctuary.

6 7.

P IGS AND W ILD BOAR ( see Append ix 8 .3 ) A.

C ategor izat ion I n t he f o l low ing d iscuss ion, a d ist inct ion w i l l b e made b etween

t he b oar and t he p ig, b ased not s o much o n t he s ex o f t he a n ima l, a s o n i ts w i ldness o r d omest icity. t ion, a boar i s a ma le p ig ;

Accord ing t o o ne l i ngu ist ic c onven-

a nd a t l east o ne wou ld b e k ept by t he b reeder,

a s t hey were by Odysseus ' swine-herd Eumaeus l. But w ith in t he c ontext o f G reek a rt a nd mytho logy, t he b oar 's i mage i s a ssoc iated w ith t he a ct iv i ty o f hunt ing, a nd w ith s tor ies l ike t hat o f t he Ka lydonian b oar, and Adonis ' d eath.

I n as anctuary, t he hunter m ight d ed icate t he

t usks o f t he b oar k i l led i n t he w i ld, p erhaps i n d angerous c ircumstances; wh i le t he d omest ic p ig wou ld b e purchased a nd b rought a l ive t o t he s acr if ic ia l a ltar.

Yet i n a ncient t imes, b efore t he d eve lopment o f t he

l arger domest ic a n ima l a s i t i s n ow known, t here wou ld p robab ly h ave been l i tt le, i f a ny, phys ica l d ifference b etween t he t wo c ategor ies o f beast.

The d ist inct ion l ay i n t he d egree o f human i nterference:

i n a

s tate o f nature p erhaps, more ma les wou ld b e l ef t a l ive t o g row t o matur ity, d eve lop t he ir d angerous t usks, a nd b ecome t he s po i l o f hunters.

When

a rchaeo log ists r eport o n t he f ind ing o f p igs ' b ones i n s anctuar ies, It ake i t t ha t t hey a re r eferr ing t o young d omest ic p igs;

s ince i t wou ld

probab ly be i mposs ib le t o d ist ingu ish b etween t he b ones o f w i ld a nd d omest ic a n ima ls who w ere f u l l-grown.

I n a l l l ike l ihood, i t i s o n ly t he

t usks which i dent ify t he w i ld b oar whose r ema ins w ere d ed icated by huntsmen. The d ist inct ion b etween w i ldness a nd d omest ic ity, t hough i t und oubted ly h as a mean ing i n t he c ontext o f v ot ive o ffer ings, i s t hus not a lways e asy t o d eterm ine w ith r egard t o t he a rtefacts t hemse lves. The d istinct ion c annot a lways b e made;

e i ther b ecause t he p r imary

6 8.

e v idence i s n ot c lear e nough, o r b ecause i ti s n ot p rec ise ly r ecorded . I n s p ite o f t he ir d ifferent i mp l icat ions, t herefore, i t i s necessary t o d iscuss w i ld b oars a nd d omest ic p igs under o ne g enera l h ead ing .

A t

t he s ame t ime, much o f t he e v idence i s u nequ ivoca l e nough t o make s ense o f t he d ist inct ion, a nd t o a l low a r ough d iv is ion o f t he m ater ia l .

B .

P igs:

l i terary e v idence

Accord ing t o l i terary e v idence, p igs w ere c ommon ly s acr if iced t o most d e it ies.

Eumaeus, h av ing k i l led a b oar f rom h is h erd, o ffered

p arts o f i t t o a l l t he g ods 2 ; a nd Odysseus i s o rdered t o g ive t o P ose idon a bu l l, a r am, a nd a d omest ic b oar ( a b oar t hat ma tes w ith s ows)

3

.

S uck ing p igs w ere s acr if iced t o Artem is Korytha l ia i n L acon ia; a tL ykosoura d omest ic b oars w ere s acr if iced t o Apo l lo i n t he m arket-p lace

5

a nd a n i nscr ipt ion f rom Kos r ecords t he o f fer ing o f ap ig t o Z eus 6. E ven Aphrod ite, t o whom p igs w ere n ot g enera l ly a cceptab le 7 , w as p leased w ith t he ir f l esh i n Cyprus ° . The b lood o f p igs, t oo, c ou ld b e u sed f or t he purpose o f r e l ig ious pur if icat ion:

f or e xamp le, t he s ix teen w omen

i n c harge o f Hera 's g ames a t O lymp ia, h ad t o pur ify t hemse lves w ith a p ig b efore t hey c ou ld c arry o ut a ny c eremony 9 . But p igs w ere r egarded a s e spec ia l ly s u i tab le o ffer ings f or underwor ld d e i t ies Myster ies ";

1 °

. Thus t hey w ere a lways s acr if iced d ur ing t he E leus in ian

a nd a t t he Thesmophor ia, a n a utumna l r i te o f D emeter

a nd Kore p erformed by women, y oung p igs w ere d ropped l i v ing i nto a c hasm o r c hamber i n t he e arth.

P ausan ias r efers t o t he c us tom a s

i t w as p ract ised a t P o tn ia i i n Boeo t ia, c hambers a s megara

1 2

;

a nd

d escr ibes t he underground

but t he f east was w ide ly c e lebrated , s ince

o ther w r iters r efer t o i t i n more g enera l t erms, a nd i n d ifferent p arts o f Greece

1 3

.

The a et ion f or t h is r i tua l i s t he s tory o f Eubu leus ' s wine,

;

6 9.

who d isappeared i nto t he e arth w ith Kore when s he was c arr ied o ff by P luto

1 4

.

F razer b e l ieved t hat Demeter a ndKore were t hemse lves o r ig ina l ly c once ived a s p igs;

s o t hat when Eubu leus ' h erd was e ngu lfed, i t was

" not a n a ccompan iment o f Kore 's d escent, but t he d escent i t se lf"

15

.

F razer b ases h is o pin ion o n t he g enera l t heory t ha t when a g od b ecomes a nthropomorph ic, t he a n ima l whose s hape t hat g od o nce h ad b ecomes i nstead t he s acr if icia l v ict im.

A myth i n wh ich Demeter o r P ersephone

were t ransformed i nto s w ine wou ld l end s upport t o F razer 's i dea; a s f ar a s I know none s urv ives.

but

However, F razer p o ints o ut t hat t he

d eta i l i n a poem o f Ov id , i n wh ich Demeter i s f o i led i n h er s earch f or Kore, b ecause t he g ir l 's f ootpr ints have b een o b l iterated by t he t racks o f ap ig , may b e i nterpreted a s t he v est ige o f s uch a myth

1 6

.

I t s eems t hat i n E uropean f o lk lore t he p ig i s ac ommon embod iment o f t he c orn-spir it Demeter.

1 7

;

a nd a s s uch, p roper ly wou ld h ave b e longed t o

I n f act Eubu leus was r egarded by s ome a s t he b rother o f

Tr ipto lemos, t o whom D emeter e ntrusted t he f i rst c orn-seed

1 8

.

The

a et ion f or a s acred r ite i nvo lv ing p igs o n M t. D ikte i n Crete, was t hat t he i nfant Z eus was n our ished by a s ow whose g runt ing d rowned h is c r ies

1 9

; a nd Cook s uggests t ha t D iktaean Z eus h imse lf may h ave b een

worsh ipped h ere a s ac orn-sp ir it 2 0 . C erta in ly t he f act t hat Z eus ' s anct uary o n M t. D ikte was a c ave, s uggests a n underwor ld c u lt 2 1 ; a nd t he r i te p ract ised may h ave b een a kin t o t he Thesmophor ia, i n wh ich p igs ( l ike c orn-seed) w ere .t hrown i nto t he e arth i n a utumn.

When

Ae l ian e xp la ined t he s acr if ice o f p igs dur ing t he E leus in ian Myster ies w ith r eference t o t he ir f requent d estruct ion o f c rops, h e may b e r ecordi ng a c ontemporary i gnorance a bout t he r ea l r easons f or t he c ustom.

7 0.

C .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence

( i )

Ev idence o f p ig-sacr if ice The c ustom o f s acr if ic ing p igs n ot o n ly t o Demeter a nd Kore,

but a lso t o o ther d e i t ies, h as b een p roved b y t he d iscovery o f t he ir b ones i n e ight s anctuar ies under e xam ina t ion i n t h is s tudy.

F our o f

t hese s anctuar ies, o n t he Acrocor inth a nd a t Cyrene , Knossos a nd Cn idus, b e longed t o D emeter;

a nd a t t he f i rst t hree, a v ery g reat q uant ity o f

p ig-bones, a nd n one ( or a lmost n one) o f o ther t ypes o f a n ima l were r eported

2 2

.

The ir p resence h as a lso b een n o ted a t t he Ephes ian Artem is ion

Ha l ie is a nd I sthm ia, a nd a lso a t Ka lapod i where b o th Artem is a nd Apo l lo may h ave b een w orsh ipped 2 3 . Bu t a t t hese s anctuar ies t he r ema ins o f o ther a n ima ls w ere e qua l ly i f n ot more n umerous 2 4 . S anctuar ies o f O lymp ian d e it ies where n o p ig-bones a re r ecorded h ave n everthe less a lso p roduced e v idence o f t he ir s acr if ice.

No t s ur-

p r is ing ly, a t l east o ne f ourth c entury marb le r e l ief f rom E leus is d ep icts p r iests o r v otar ies w ith a s acr if ic ia l p ig ;

b ut o n t he Acropo l is o f A thens,

a lso , t wo r e l iefs o f c u lt-scenes s how t hat a p ig m ight b e c hosen a s av ict im f or A thena .

F ina l ly, t he t erracot ta f igur ines o f w omen c arry ing

y oung p igs i n a l l p robab i l ity a lso r efer t o t he o ffer ings o f t hese a n ima ls t o t he d e i ty o f as anctuary. a t e ight o f t he s anctuar ies;

Th is t ype o f f igur ine h as b een r eported a nd by f ar t he l argest c o l lect ion w ere

e v ident ly d ed ica ted t o Hera a t T iryns, where F r ickenhaus s uggested t hat t hey may h ave b een u sed ( as a t O lymp ia b efore t he g ames o f H era) f or t he pur if icat ion r i tes wh ich w ere a f ea ture o f t he c u lt o f A rg ive Hera 2 5 . A thena a lso was t he r ec ip ient o f f ema le p ig-carr iers a t Tegea , E late ia, a nd ( espec ia l ly) a t L indos, where B l inkenberg s aw t hem ( l ike t he f ema le t orch-bearers a nd hydrophoro i a lso f ound h ere) a s c ommemorat ions o f marr iage r i tua ls

2 6

. But t he o ther f our s anctuar ies k nown t o

7 1.

have y ie lded t hese t erracottas a l l b e longed t o Demeter.

A t E leus is,

where n one o f t h is t ype were r eported, t he p ig-carr iers w ere y oung boys who t ook t he more i mpos ing f orm o f marble s tatuettes;

wh i le a t

Demeter 's s anctuary i n Cyrene, a n i nterest ing c ounterpart t o t he t errac otta v otary h o ld ing a p ig ( examp les o f wh ich w ere a lso f ound h ere) i s al imestone s tatuette o f as eated f ema le w ith a p late i n h er l ap, c ont a in ing a p ig 's h ead s urrounded by l oaves o r f ru it.

Th is h as t he a ppear-

a nce o f a s acred mea l, o ffered t o t he g oddess, o r s hared i n by h er worsh ippers, o f wh ich t he p ig f orms t he c entra l p art.

The p ig 's h ead

m ight b e r egarded a s a n o ffer ing t o t he E arth i n i t s d iv ine o r a nthropomorph ic s hape, p ara l le l t o t hat o f t he p igs t hrown i nto t he megara dur ing t he Thesmophor ia.

The h ead o n t he d ish may b e s urrounded by l oaves

t he p roduct o f c orn;

a nd i n t he s cho l i ast ic c ommentary o n Luc ian

2 7

,

i t i s s a id t hat c akes a s w e l l a s p igs were f lung i nto t he c hasm dur ing t he Thesmophor ia.

Bo th t h is s acr if ice, a nd t he s acred mea l o f t he

s tatuette, must b e p leas f or t he c ont inued f ru itfu lness o f t he E arth.

( i i)

R epresentat ions o f p igs i n s anctuar ies R epresentat ions o f p igs h ave c ome t o l ight i n n ineteen o f t he

s anctuar ies c ons idered h ere:

s even b e long ing t o Demeter, s ix t o Artemis,

f our t o Athena, a nd t wo t o Hera.

The h ighest e xact numbers r ecorded

a t a ny o ne s anctuary w ere t he t wenty-four t erracottas f rom L indos, a lthough a t Acrocor inth , " many" were f ound.

As a g enera l r u le, h ow-

ever, i mages o f p igs a re c ons iderably l ess c ommon t han b irds o r o ther domest ic an ima ls.

None were d iscovered a t O lymp ia, o r among t he

l ead f igurines o f Artem is Orth ia;

a nd a part f rom t he L indos f igur ines,

no e xact number l arger t han f ive h as b een r ecorded a t a ny o ne s anctuary.

7 2.

F ive i ndependent f igur ines w ere i n f act d iscovered a t T iryns - a n a mount wh ich d oes n ot match t he 1 20 f ema les c arry ing p igs wh ich a lso c ame f rom t h is s anctuary.

A t L indos t he p ig-f igur ines a re b a lanced by a

r ough ly e qua l number o f f ema les w ith p igs;

b ut a l though t hese a n ima ls '

b ones w ere d iscovered a t E phesos a nd Ka lapod i , n one o f Artem is ' s anct uar ies p roduced a ny p ig-carry ing f ema les ;

p erhaps b ecause a l though

t hey w ere undoubted ly s acr if iced t o Artem is a long w i th o ther a n ima ls , t h is was n o t r egarded a s ac entra l p art o f t he c u lt. Most o f Demeter 's s anctuar ies where i ndependent f igur ines o f p igs w ere d iscovered, h owever, a lso p roduced e i ther p ig-carry ing worsh ipp ers, o r b ones, s omet imes i n g reat numbers.

A t Acrocor inth numerous

p igs a nd p ig-carr iers a nd a lso b ones w ere r eported . p ig was d iscovered w i th b ones i n ap it;

One t erracotta

b o th i t , t he b ones, a nd t he

s ides o f t he p it i t se lf w ere c harred, s how ing t hat t he burn ing o f t he o ffer ings t ook p lace b e low g roundleve 1

2 8

. A t Cn idus p ig-bones a nd

marb le p igs w ere d iscovered i n t he s ame v au l ted c hamber;

a nd a lthough

t h is was n ot a pparent ly b eneath t he g round o r ig ina l ly, Newton b e l ieved t ha t i t c ou ld h ave b een a megaron a na logous t o t hose r eferred t o by P ausan ias a t P otn ia i2 9 . T he c ons ign ing o f t hese o ffer ings t o ap it o r c avernl ike c hamber i s r em in iscent o f t he Thesmophor ia c eremony, a nd a ppropr iate f or Demeter a nd Kore a s g oddesses o f t he E ar th a nd t he Underwor ld;

a nd t he m ing l ing o f s tatuet tes a nd f igur ines w ith

t he b ones o f r ea l a n ima ls b o th a t Cn idus a nd A crocor inth i mp l ies t ha t t he r epresentat ions s erved a s s ubst itutes f or , o r c ommemora t ions o f , burnt o ffer ings. R epresentat ions o f p igs a nd p ig-carr iers a re more l ike ly t o b e f ound i n s anctuar ies o f D emeter t han i n t hose o f o ther d e it ies.

Out o f

e leven o f h er s anctuar ies c ons idered h ere, a l l but t wo p roduced e xamp les

7 3.

o f o ne o r t he o ther o r b oth, s omet imes i n c on junct ion w ith a c ons iderable number o f p ig-bones.

A much sma l ler p roport ion o f t he s anctuar ies o f

Artem is a nd A thena p roduced a ny o f t hese o b jects;

a nd a t n o o ne

s anctuary, a part f rom t hose o f Demeter , h ave p ig-carr iers b een r eported a s we l l a s bones. There i s a lso a d ist inction b etween Demeter 's s anctuar ies a nd o thers, i n t he mater ia l o f t he r epresentat ions. f orm o f t erracotta f igur ines;

Most o f t hese t ake t he

but a t E leus is, Knossos, a nd Cn idus ( in

t he v au lted c hamber w i th t he b ones) marb le s tatues o f p igs c ame t o l ight; whi le a t Cyrene, a l imestone s tatue was f ound. s tatuettes o f t he b oy-in it iates a re marble.

A t E leus is, t oo , t he

Though n ot v ery numerous,

t hese s tone s tatues a re i n o ne s ense more s ignif icant t han t he ir t erracotta c ounterparts;

s ince t he ir g reater v a lue r ef lects t he i mportance o f t he

p ig i n D emeter 's c u lt.

D .

W i ld boar:

l i terary e v idence

I n nature t here may h ave b een n o g reat phys ica l d ist inct ion b etween d omest ic p igs a nd w i ld b oar.

But t he l egendary b east s ubdued by

Herak les, o r k i l led by Odysseus, Theseus o r Me leager o f Ka lydon, was i mag ined a s av ery d ifferent k ind o f c reature f rom t he s w ine o f E umaeus wh ich c ou ld b e s laughtered w ith e ase a nd a t w i l l.

The Ka lydon ian b oar

was h uge, a nd t he p oe t o f t he I l iad s tates t hat more t han a f ew men were n eeded t o k i l l i t3 0 . T he b east f rom Krommyon, i n s p i te o f b e ing o n ly a s ow, was " no i ns ign if icant c reature, but f i erce a nd h ard t o master"; a nd Theseus r eso lved t o k i l l i t b ecause a s ab rave man h e w ished t o r isk h is l i fe i n b att le w ith t he n ob ler b easts l ef t t he marks o f i t s t usks o n h im by Adon is l ed t o h is d eath

3 3

.

3 2

3 1

.

The b oar k i l led by Odysseus

; a nd t he f eroc ity o f t he b oar hunted

The w i ld b oar, i n s hort, was a f i t a dvers-

a ry f or h eroes, a quarry f or l egendary hunters

3 4

.

I t i s n o wonder t hat

7 4.

i ts t usks were s et o n warr iors ' h e lmets 3 5 ; o r t hat Herak les, who o verc ame t he E rymanth ia n b oar a s o ne o f h is 1 abours 3 6 ,a nd who was s t i l l t err ify ing i n t he underwor ld, s hou ld wear a g o lden b e lt d ecorated w ith l i ons, b ears a nd w i ld b oar, t he most d angerous o f a n ima ls

3 7

.

P ausan ias noted t hat b ecause o f men 's f ears o f t hem, t he d estruct ive w i ld b easts o f l egend were o f ten i mag ined t o b e long t o g ods, o r t o b e s ent by t hem t o pun ish t he human r ace 3 8 . T here i s n everthe less n o e v idence t ha t t he E rymanthi a n b oar, o r Phaea, t he s ow k i l led by Theseus, was s ent by a ny p art icu lar d e ity.

But Apo l lodorus r egarded

t he d eath o f Adonis a s t he r esu lt o f Artem is ' a nger, a lthough h e s uggests n o c ause f or i t .

The Ka lydon ian b oar, moreover, was f rom t he t ime

o f Homer r egarded a s a n i nstrument o f h er v engeance;

s ent by h er

a ga inst K ing Oeneus, b ecause h e h ad n ot o ffered h er t he f i rst f ru its o f h is h arvest

3 9

. I t was, p erhaps a ppropr ia te, t hen, t ha t A ta lanta,

Artem is ' p rotegee, s hou ld h ave b een awarded t he b oar 's s k in, b ecause s he h ad b een t he f i rst t o s tr ike i t4 ° . I n t he Odyssey Artem is i s a lready s een a s a n a rcher who l oved t he pursu it o f b oar a s we l l a s d eer ' ; a nd c entur ies l a ter, P ausan ias r ecords t ha t b oar were among t he g amea n ima ls s acr if iced o n Artem is L aphr ia 's b onf ire 4 2 . I n o ne o f t he d ed icat ory e p igrams o f t he Greek Antho logy ( a lso d at ing f rom Roman t imes) a mounta in b oar i s p rom ised t o h er, a s t he g oddess who w atches o ver w i ld c reatures 4 3 . T he t usks o f t he E rymanth ia n b oar were s upposed by t he p eop le o f Cumae t o h ave b een d ed icated not t o Artem is but i n t he ir s anctuary o f Apo l lo ; b oar 's h ead i n P ergamon

4 5

a nd D ionysos w as t he r ecip ient o f a n i ron

. But Artem is, a s t he g oddess o f hunt ing,

i s o f a l l d e it ies t he most c lose ly a ssoc iated w ith w i ld b oar;

a nd i t i s

a ppropr iate t hat s he s hou ld h ave b een t he d e ity who s ent o ne t o r avage Ka lydon.

The d escr ipt ion by Ph i lostratus o f at emp le o f A rtemis Agrotera

7 5.

makes i t c lear, t oo, t ha t b oars ' h eads w ere r egarded a s as u itable d ecorat ion f or h er s acred bu i ld ings.

I n t h is s anctuary, t he b oar-hunters

pause t o s ing a hymn t o i ts p atroness, b efore c ont inu ing t he hunt 4 6 .

E .

A rchaeo log ica l e v idence

( i)

R epresentat ions o f b oar i n s anctuar ies R epresentat ions o f w i ld boar a re among t he l ess c ommon ly f ound

votive o ffer ings. s anctuary.

They h ave n ot c ome t o l ight i n g reat number a t a ny

I n t he f orm o f f igur ines o r r e l iefs t hey h ave b een r eported

a t s even c u lt-p laces o f Artem is 4 7 ; o ne o f Apo l lo " ; t wo o f Demeter

5 °

t wo o f A thena4 3 ;

; o ne o f Z eus 5 1 ; a nd o ne o f P ose idon 5 2 . T he b ronze

boar f rom t he Acropo l is o f A thens m ight i n f act h ave b een a d ed icat ion t o Artemis Brauron ia ;

a nd Artem is c ou ld a lso h ave b een t he r ec ip ient

o f as im i lar f igur ine f rom O lymp ia 5 3 . O n t he o ther h and i t s eems t o me t ha t t he f igur ines a nd s tatues a t t he Knossos a nd Cn idus s anctuar ies o f Demeter were p robab ly s upposed t o r epresent t he b oar o f t he d omest ic h erd, t he boar t hat mates w ith s ows, a s Homer d escr ibed i t .

( At b oth

o f t hese s anctuar ies f igur ines a nd s tatues o f p igs, n ot b oars, w ere a lso f ound.)

I f t he e leven Kanoni t erracotta f igur ines o f Artem is w ith

a boar a re t aken i nto a ccount, a bout f i f ty r epresentat ions o f t he a n ima ls were d iscovered a t t he s anctuar ies o f t h is s tudy; be longed t o Artem is.

a nd t h irty o f t hese

C lear ly, t hey h ave b een f ound more o f ten i n

s anctuar ies o f t he g oddess o f hunt ing t han i n t hose o f o ther d e it ies; ap reponderance wh ich i s c ons istent w ith l i terary e v idence o f Artemis ' i nterest i n w i ld b oar. The h ighest number o f b oar-images d ed icated t o a ny d e ity a part f rom Artem is a re t he s even p a int ings o n t he p laques f rom P ose idon 's s anctuary a t P enteskouph ia.

P ose idon, t hough a h orseman, was n ot

7 6.

ag od e spec ia l ly a ssociated w ith hunt ing ;

a nd I b e l ieve t ha t t he boar-

p a int ings w ere d ed icated b ecause i t was t he c ustom a t t h is s anctuary f or men t o o ffer r epresentat ions o f t he ir own a ct iv it ies.

There were

many s cenes f eatur ing n ot o n ly s ea-farers, but p otters a nd m eta lworkers;

a nd f ive, a t l east, d ep icted men h unt ing b oar

5 4

.

The s eparate

b oars ( wh ich a re g reat ly o utnumbered by h orses, bu l ls a nd s ea-creatures) e pitom ize a human a ct iv ity, t he hunt ing o f aw i ld a n ima l, a nd d o not r ef lect a r e l ig ious a ssoc iat ion.

( i i)

Rema ins o f r ea l b oar

i n s anctuar ies

The t usks a nd t eeth o f r ea l b oar, wh ich a lso c ame t o l i ght i n af ew s anctuar ies, were t he d ed icat ions o f h unters, l i ke t hose i n t he Cumaean t emp le o f Apo l lo ment ioned by P ausan ias.

The hunter m ight

h ave d ed icated a t rophy i n h is l oca l s anctuary, p erhaps o r ig ina l ly n a i l ing up t he who le h ead t o b e s een by a l l.

Th is i s p robably how t he boar 's

j aw-bone c ame t o t he Nemean s hr ine.

But t he l arge number o f boars '

t usks f ound a t Ka lydon ( where a b ronze b oar a lso c ame t o l i ght), s hows t hat i n t h is s anctuary t hey w ere d ed icated more r egu lar ly;

a nd i n

v iew o f t he b oar-myth, i t i s e specia l ly f i tt ing t hat t hey s hou ld b e o ffered h ere.

The b onf ire o f Artem is L aphr ia wh ich P ausan ias s aw a t P atras,

must a lso .h ave b een a c entra l f eature o f t he c u lt a t Ka lydon b efore t h is s anctuary f e l l i nto d ecay.

A t L ouso i i n t he mounta ins o f Arcad ia,

where b oars ' t eeth w ere a lso f ound, Artem is w as p robably, a s i n Ka lydon, worsh ipped a s a huntress 5 ; but w ith h er t i t le o f Hemeras ia s he may h ave b een r egarded a lso a s at amer o f w i ld a n ima ls

5 6

.

A t t hese s anctuar ies,

t oo, t he e nt ire b oar 's h ead may h ave b een f astened t o wa l ls i n t he s anctuary; a nd i t i s e ven p oss ib le t ha t t he h eads r eferred t o i n Ph i lostratus ' d escr ipt ion o f Artem is Agrotera 's

t emp le

were

r ea l.

But a p ermanent

7 7.

d ecora t ion i n s tone i s more l i ke ly:

a t t he Ask lepie ion o f E pidaurus,

c erta in ly, t here were t wo marb le boars ' h eads wh ich s erved a s water2 2

s pouts a t e ach e nd o f t he f acade o f Artem is ' t emp le.

A long e ach s ide

o f t he t emp le were a r ow o fd og 's h ead water-spouts; c ompos i t ion was a n e p i tome o f t he a ct iv ity o f hunt ing .

s o t hat t he who le P erhaps t he

l arge m arble b oar 's h ead wh ich Wood s aw a t t he Artem is ion o f Ephesos had a s im i lar f unct ion. One s anctuary n ot b e long ing t o Artem is where numerous b oars ' t usks h ave b een r eported, i s t he Tegean s hr ine o f A thena A lea.

The

t usks n eed not i nd ica te t ha t t he g oddess t here was u surp ing Artem is ' posit ion a s a huntress, t hough n o d oubt s he was o r ig ina l ly a p otnia t heron.

But t he hunters who l ef t t hem t here may h ave b een p rompted

t o d o s o by t he l oca l l egend o f A ta lanta, wh ich was i l lustrated i n t he f ourth c entury p ed imenta l s cu lptures o f S kopas

5 7

.

Hav ing b een awarded

t he h ead a nd h ide o f t he Ka lydonian b oar, A ta lanta b rought t hem h ome t o Tegea, whence t hey w ere e ventua l ly r emoved t o Rome by Augustus

5 e

.

The s ub ject o f t he E ast p ed iment c ou ld h ave b een c hosen f or mot ives o f l oca l p r ide, r ather t han r e l ig ious a ssoc iat ion;

a nd t he r ema ins o f

t he h unted a n ima ls b rought t o t he s anctuary i n ap ara l le l c ommemorat ion o f t he l egend.

But i t i s a lso p oss ible t hat A ta lanta h erse lf h ad a n a l tar

i n Tegea % p r inc ipa l s hr ine, a nd r ece ived h er own o ffer ings t here. As a v ers ion o f Artem is, a v irg in huntress wou ld h ave b een s u itab le f or h er.

5 9

,

t he b oars ' t eeth o r t usks

But t here i s n o l i terary o r e pigraph ica l

ev idence o f s uch a c u lt.

F .

C onc lus ion R epresentat ions b oth o f p igs , a nd o f w i ld b oar, h ave b een f ound,

a lthough not i n g reat number, a t t he s anctuar ies o f s evera l d e it ies.

7 8.

I n g enera l, h owever, i t s eems t hat Artem is w as more l i ke ly t han o ther d e it ies t o r ece ive d ed icat ions wh ich r epresent o r a re p art o f t he boar. Th is p attern i s c ons istent w ith h er c haracter f rom Homer o nwards a s g oddess o f hunt ing a nd p otnia t heron ( one who n ot o n ly hunted but t amed w i ld a n ima ls);

a nd w ith t he p ower s he e xerc ised i n myth over

t he f amous b oar o f Ka lydon, a nd Adonis ' u nfortunate f ate.

B oth

Ph i lostratus ' d escr ipt ion, a nd t he marb le b oars ' h eads f rom E p idaurus, i nd icate t hat h er t emp les m ight p roper ly b e d ecorated w ith t he ir i mages. Moreover, Artem is s eems t o b e t he o n ly d e ity a ctua l ly r epresented w ith a b oar a s v ict im o r c ompan ion - a mot if wh ich t o my know ledge i s n ot t o b e s een i n t he e xtant Bronze Age o r Archa ic i mages o f t he p otnia t heron.

But e leven f i f th-century f igur ines f rom Kanon i d epict

t he g oddess, s omet imes w ith b ow i n h and, e i ther p rotect ive ly s upport ing as ing le b oar by i ts f ront f eet, o r more d om ineer ing ly g rasp ing i t by o ne h indleg.

P ou lsen s uggested t ha t t he b ronze b oar f rom Ka lydon

( undated a nd un i l lustrated i n h is publ icat ion) may a lso have b een p art o f ap otnia t heron g roup.

I f s o, i t may b e ad irect r eference t o t he

l egend o f t he Ka lydon ian b oar.

But j udg ing by t he Archa ic f igur ines

f rom Artem is Orth ia , Ephesos a nd Thasos, b oars i n i so lat ion w ere ev ident ly f e lt t o b e s u itab le d ed icat ions f or Artem is f rom qu ite a n e ar ly p er iod. As a n ima ls b oth f i erce a nd w i ld, t hey may b e s een a s as ymbo l o f o ne s ide o f h er n ature a s ag oddess o f mounta ins a nd f orests, c apab le a t t imes o f un leash ing v io lent d estruct ion o n men a nd p roperty. On t he o ther h and i t.h as b een s een t ha t t he d omest ic p ig, e ither a s ar ea l s acr if ice, o r i n mode l f orm, was d ed icated most o f ten t o Demeter. The c ustom o f t hrowing p igs b eneath t he e arth dur ing t he Thesmophor ia, wh ich s ome o f t he f igur ines a nd s tatues may h ave s erved t o c ommemora te, h ad i ts a et ion i n t he s tory o f Eubu leus '

s w ine;

al egend wh ich F razer

7 9 .

has i nterpreted a s t he r emnant o f a n o ld b e l ief t ha t D emeter a nd Kore were t hemse lves p ig-shaped.

The Thesmophor ia w as a f ert i l ity-r itua l,

d es igned t o p rosper t he s ow ing o f c orn;

a nd t he p ig i s p erhaps n earer

t o t he e arth t han o ther d omest ic a n ima ls, r oot ing a bout a nd t urn ing t he s o i l i n s earch f or i t s f ood.

I t a lso p roduces more o ffspr ing a t a

s ing le b irth t han d o c a tt le, s heep o r g oa ts.

The e arth iness a s w e l l

a s t he f ert i l ity o f t he b east makes i t a ppropr iate a s as acr if ice, a nd as ymbo l f or t he E arth g oddesses Demeter a nd Kore.

F oo tno tes 1 .

Odyssey . X IV. 4 18-424.

2 .

I b id . L oc . c it .

3 .

I b id . X I. 1 31.

4 .

A thenaeus 1 39 b .

5 .

P ausan ias. V III. 3 8.8.

6 .

J HS 9 ( 1889) p . 3 35 ( l ine 3 3).

7 .

A r istophanes. Acharnians. 7 93. ( "a p ig 's n o s acr if ice f or Aphrod ite") .c f . P ausan ias. I . 1 0.4.

8 .

A thenaeus. 9 5 f .

9 :

P ausan ias. V . 1 6.8. c f . Apo l lon ius o f Rhodes. Argonaut ica . I V. 7 02 f.

1 0.

RE 2 A l ( 1921) 8 12.

1 1.

S ee Ae l ian. De N atura Anima l /ur n . X . 1 6; i n Acharnenses . 7 47.

1 2.

P ausan ias. I X. 8 .1 .

1 3.

P lutarch. Mora l ia. 2 98 B ; Luc ian, D ia log i Meretr ic i i . I . 1 .9 ; A r istophanes. S cho l ia i n R anas . 3 38, a nd S cho l ia i n P acem . 3 74.

1 4.

C lement o f A lexandr ia. P rotrept icus . I . 1 4-15 .

Ar istophanes . S cho l ia

8 0 .

1 6.

F ast i .

1 7.

F razer. Op . c it . p . 4 4.

1 8.

P ausan ias. I . 1 4.2 .

1 9 .

A thenaeus. 3 75 f .

2 0.

J HS 1 4 ( 1894) p . 1 53.

2 1 .

c f . t he c ave o f Demeter o uts ide P h iga l ia ( Pausan ias. V III. 4 2.1).

2 2.

A t Knossos, i n b o th t he M inoan a nd G eometr ic p er iods , s heep a nd g oa ts w ere most c ommon ly d ed ica ted; but a f ter t he Geometr ic p er iod, t he p ig was " overwhe lm ing ly t he most c ommon ly o ccurr ing s pec ies". ( J.N. Co ldstream. Knossos . p . 1 77.)

2 3.

The p igs ' b ones f rom t he L ind ian s anctuary w ere f ound t o b e o f med iaeva l o r l a ter d a te. ( Lindos . I . p p. 1 83-4.)

2 4.

A t Ha l ie is t he r ema ins o f g oa ts w ere a lso numerous ( ADe lt. 2 9 ( 1973-4) B 2 Chr . p . 2 63); a t I sthm ia a nd Ka lapod i, b o th s heep a nd g oats w ere p resent. ( 0. Broneer . T emp le o f P ose idon . l sthm ia. Vo l. I . p . 5 6; AA 9 5 ( 1980) p p. 6 4-5 ); wh i le a t Ephesos g oats a nd c att le w ere more numerous t han p igs ( Festschr if t. I . p . 1 08).

2 5 .

P ausan ias. I . 1 7.1 .

2 6.

L indos . I . p . 5 79.

2 7.

S ee n ote 1 3.

2 8.

H esper ia 3 4 ( 1965) p . 1 0.

2 9

C .T. Newton. A H istory o f d iscover ies a t H a l icarnassus , Cnidus a nd B ranch idae . L ondon 1 861-3. Vo l. I . p . 3 91 , n ote e .

3 0

1

I V. 4 63-66.

I l iad . I X. 5 33-546.

3 1.

P lutarch . T heseus . 9( Loeb. L ives . V o l. I . p . 1 9). c f . Apo l lodorus. E p itome 1 .1 ; D iodorus I V. 5 9 .4 ; a nd P ausan ias I . 2 7 .9 . P ausan ias r efers t o t he a n ima l a s ab oar, n o d oubt b ecause o f i t s w i ldness .

3 2.

Odyssey. X IX. 4 39-466.

3 3 .

Orph ica ( Hymn 5 6);

3 4.

R ouse h as n oted t he r ecurrence o f t he b oar hunt mot if i n f unerary r e l iefs f or t he h ero ized d ead ( Greek v ot ive o ffer ings. p p. 2 5-26 ).

3 5 .

I l iad . X . 2 63-5.

3 6.

S ophoc les . T rach iniae . I . 5 .4.

3 7.

Odyssey . X I. 6 11.

Apo l lodorus. I I. 1 4.4;

1 097 ;

B ion. E p itaphs . i .

P ausan ias. V III. 2 4.5;

Apo l lodorus .

8 1 .

3 8.

P ausan ias, I . 2 7 .9.

3 9.

I l iad . L oc. c it .

4 0,

Apo l lodorus. I . 8 .1-2 ;

4 1 .

Odyssey. V I. 1 02-104.

4 2.

P ausan ias. V II. 1 8.7.

4 3.

AP I V I. 2 40.

4 4.

P ausan ias. V III. 2 4.5.

4 5 .

/ bid. X . 1 8.5 .

4 6.

Ph i lostratus.

4 7 .

Artem is Orth ia; Ephesos; a nd ( poss ibly) P hera i .

4 8.

Delph i.

4 9.

The Acropo l is o f A thens, a nd t he s anctuary o f A thena Cha lk io ikos a t Sparta. A t S parta ( as a t O lymp ia) t he war l ike n ature o f t he boar made i t ad ecorat ion f or a h e lmet ( cf . t he h e lmet d escr ibed i n I l iad X . 2 63-5).

5 0.

Knossos a nd Cn idus.

5 1 .

O lympia.

5 2 .

P enteskouph ia.

5 3.

I t was f ound S .E. o f t he Byzant ine c hurch. Th is wou ld b r ing i t w ith in t he g enera l a rea o f t he L eon ida ion, t o t he r ight o f wh ich s tood a n a l tar t o Artem is Agora ia ( Pausan ias. V . 1 5.4) ( see F ig. 1 ). On t he o ther h and, t he a th letes o f O lymp ia h ad t o s wear t o Z eus, o ver ad ismembered b oar, t o d o n o wrong t o t he Games; a nd t he b ronze f igur ine c ou ld h ave b een d ed icated i n c ommemorat ion o f s uch a n o ccas ion ( Ibid. V . 2 4.9). The h e lmet e ngraved w ith a b oar b etween t wö l i ons was f ound i n t he S .E. a rea, n ear t he a l tar o f Artem is, a nd may a lso have b een a d ed ication t o t h is g oddess.

5 4.

A. Fürtwang ler. Beschreibung d er V asensamm lung i m Ant iquar ium . Ber l in 1 885. 8 93-7.

5 5.

The f i f th c entury g o ld a nd i vory s tatue, wh ich was b rought t o P atras f rom Ka lydon, s howed Artem is a s a huntress ( Pausan ias. V III. 1 8.6).

5 6.

S ee P ausan ias. V III. 1 8.8.

P ausan ias. V III. 4 5.2.

I magines . I . 2 8.6. Ka lydon;

Thasos;

Kanon i ;

Ep idaurus;

5 7. C . Dugas. L e S anctua ire d 'Alea A thena b T eg6e a u I V S ièc le . • P ar is 1 924. pp. 8 0-86; P l. 9 6-98; P l. 1 08. 5 8.

P ausan ias. V III. 4 6.1.

5 9 .

P ausan ias i nterprets a s A ta lanta t he Artemisl ike f igure o f a woman ho ld ing a f aun, o n t he c hest o f Kypse los ( V. 1 9.2).

8 2.

CATTLE ( See Append ix 8 .4)

A .

L iterary e v idence

( i ) S acr if ice L iterature r ecords t hat c att le, a s t he l argest a nd most v a luab le k ind o f a n ima l s acr if ice, were o ffered t o m any O lymp ian d e it ies' .

I n

Homer, P ose idon a ppears a s t he c h ief r ec ip ient o f bu l ls, s omet imes i n l arge numbers 2 . The b lack bu l ls o f Py los were s acr if iced o n t he s hore, c lose b es ide t hat e lement r u led d irect ly by t he g od 3 ; a nd t he h ab it o f t hrow ing bu l ls i nto t he s ea f or P ose idon i s a ttested b y s evera l wr i ters o f a much l ater p er iod. 4

a bu l l d irect ly f rom t he ir s h ip;

The c o lon ists s a i l ing t o L esbos o ffered a nd A lexander t he Great, n o d oubt

c onscious ly o bserv ing a Homer ic t rad it ion, p a id h omage t o P ose idon i n t he s ame way a t t he mouth o f t he I ndus 5 . P ausan ias t e l ls t he s tory o f a bu l l a lready a ssociated w ith t he s ea, s ince b efore i t was o ffered t o P ose idon, i t h ad l ed t he f i shermen o f C orcyra t o ag ood c a tch 6 . But bu l ls were a lso s acr if iced t o Z eus', Apo l lo 8,a nd D ionysos 9. To i he g oddesses, o n t he o ther h and, i t was c ustomary t o o ffer f ema le c att le : i n Homer A thena i s o n s evera l o ccas ions t he r ecip ient

o f h e ifers, s ome-

t imes w ith t he ir h orn-t ips p a inted g o l d8. I n t he D ed icatory E pigrams, Hera a nd Demeter a re a lso i nvoked a s t he o b jects o f h eifer-sacr if ice, a nd i n o ne c ase Demeter i s o ffered c lay mode ls o f t he b easts ( who w ere n o d oubt under h er p rotect ion a s p lough ing-an ima ls) 1. P ausan ias, t oo , ment ions t he s acr if ice o f c ows, h e ifers a nd o xen t o t hese t wo g oddesses 1 2 ; a nd i t s eems t hat e ven bu l ls were n ot unknown a s as acr if ice f or f ema le d e it ies, f or a ccord ing t o D iodorus, i n S ic i ly t hey w ere t hrown i nto ap oo l f or Kore

1 3.

8 3.

( i i) Catt le a nd t he g ods But g ods were a ssoc iated w ith c att le i n o ther ways t han a s r ec ipi ents o f s acr if ice.

I n t he I l iad Apo l lo i s d escr ibed a s hav ing c ared

f or K ing L aomedon 's c att le w ith t he ir c rooked h orns 1 4 ; a nd h e had h imse lf b een t he owner o f c att le t i l l t hey w ere s to len f rom h im by Hermes 1 5 ( hence h is t i t le o f Nom ios, Apo l lo o f t he p astures 1 6 ) .

For t h is r eason,

P ausan ias b e l ieved, a b ronze Apo l lo i n t he Agora o f P atras r ested h is f oot o n t he s ku l l o f a n o x1 7 . Cook h as s uggested t hat Hera, c a l led by Homer o x-eyed

1 8

,

may

o nce h ave b een worsh ipped a s ac ow 1 9 . C erta in ly, s he t ransformed h er Arg ive p r iestess I o i nto a h e ifer 2 0 ; a nd t hose whom t he g ods m etamorphose

,t end t o b e v ers ions o f t he g od i n quest ion, a s b ear-shaped

Ka l l isto was a v ers ion o f Artem is.

S o i t i s a ppropr iate t ha t H era 's

p r iestess a t Argos was g enera l ly d rawn t o t he s anctuary b y y oked o xen 1 022

2 1

. Z eus was s upposed t o h ave t aken t he f orm o f a bu l l t o pursue

; a nd i n t he s ame s hape h e c arr ied E uropa t o Crete, t here t o f ound

t he bu l l-worsh ipp ing d ynasty o f M inos 2 3 . D ionysos, t oo, w as s omet imes r egarded a s bu l l-shaped.

P lutarch r ecords t hat t he Greeks made h is

s tatues i n a bu l l 's f orm 2 4 ,a nd t ha t h e was a ddressed a s ab u l l by t he women o f Argos 2 5 ,a nd a lso ( as Z eus ' s on) c a l led " son o f t he bu l l"

2 6

;

wh i le S trabo n otes t hat h e was d escr ibed by a c haracter i n S ophoc les a s o x-horned I acchus 2 7 . I t was N i lsson 's o p inion t ha t t he c a lf wear ing busk ins ( actors ' b oots) s acr if iced t o D ionysos a t T enedos 2 9 ,w as s upposed t o r epresent t he g od h imse lf 2 9 ; a nd t hat i t was a s ar ather w i ld f ert i l ity g od t hat h e was c once ived i n t h is f orm 3 0 . But a bove a l l, t he bu l l was t he a n ima l o f P ose idon, t o whose f est iva l i t g ave t he n ame o f T aur ia

3 1

.

J ust a s Artem is ' s ervants a t

Brauron were c a l led b ears, s o t he y oung m en who p oured w ine a t t h is

8 4.

f east i n Ephesos w ere known a s bu l ls 3 2 . T h is k ind o f r o le-p lay ing marks a s pec ia l r e lat ionsh ip, e ven a c ommon i dent ity, b etween g od a nd b east.

P ose idon i s s carce ly a f ert i l ity-god l ike D ionysos :

s o p erhaps

i t w as t he s treng th a nd a nger o f t he a n ima l whose t read s hakes t he g round, t ha t made i t as ymbo l f or t he g od o f e arthquakes ( whom Hes iod c a l led " bu l ll ike e arth-shaker" 3 ) . t o t err ify human-be ings;

P ose idon c ou ld s end a n e arthquake

a nd f or t he s ame purpose h e s ent a bu l l t o

r avage Crete, i n pun ishment f or M inos ' l ack o f r espect 3 4 . C ons ider ing t he d amage d one by e arthquakes a t Knossos, i t i s p oss ib le t hat t he myth i s ar eco l lect ion o f t h is k ind o f n atura l d isaster.

A t Theseus ' r equest,

P ose idon a lso s ent a b u l l f rom t he s ea wh ich maddened H ippo lytus ' h orses, a nd t he e p isode i n Eur ip ides i s l i ke t he d escr ipt ion o f at ida l wave

35

.

F or P ose idon was a lso a water-god, a nd S trabo s uggested

t ha t t he b e l low ing o f a bu l l r eca l ls t he v o ice o f s tormy waters 3 6 .

( i i i) Bul l-der ived t i t les, a nd Bronze Age r e l ig ion S ince t he T aur ia was a f est iva l o f P ose idon, i t i s n ot s urpr is ing t ha t T aure ios s hou ld h ave b een o ne o f h is t i t les 3 7 . T he n ame o f T aurobo los ( bu l l-s layer) s eems t o h ave b een a pp l ied o ccas iona l ly t o A thena, f or e xamp le o n Andros

3 8

.

But t he d e ity most o f ten e ndowed

w ith a bu l l-der ived t i t le i s Artemis, who was c a l led T auropo los ( interp reted v ar ious ly a s " drawn by bu l ls", " hunt ing bu l ls" a nd " worsh ipped a t T aur is") t h is name;

3 9

. A t Amph ipo l is s he h ad a n i mportant s anctuary under

a nd S trabo a lone r efers t o s ix o ther s anctuar ies i n Greece,

I ta ly and As ia wh ich b e longed t o Artem is Tauropo 1os

4 °

. Accord ing

t o C lement o f A lexandr ia s he was worsh ipped i n Phoka ia 4 1 ; a nd i n t he Acta Sanctorum i t i s n oted t hat T auropo los was a t i t le o f Artem is a lso i n S parta 4 2 . Th is s eems s urpr is ing, i n v iew o f t he f act t ha t l i terature

8 5.

o ffers l i tt le o ther e v idence o f as pec ia l a ssociat ion b etween Artem is and c att le. o f h erds;

A t Hyampo l is, i t i s t rue, s he was r egarded a s ap rotectress a nd t he a n ima ls wh ich w ere s acred t o h er t here, f lour ished

more t han t he o thers o f t he ir k in d° . But a s N i lsson p o ints o ut, i t i s s pec if ica l ly t he bu l l, a nd not t he o x o r c ow, wh ich i s a ttached t o Artem is i n t he t i t 1e

4

; a nd p erhaps t he a ssociat ion i s based o n t he w i ldness

o f t he an ima l ( once hunted by Theseus) a nd o n t he p rocreat ive f orce wh ich a lso l i nked i t w i th D ionysos.

The T auropo l ia, c e lebrated f or t he

g oddess a t Ha la i ( where t here was a D ionys ion qu ite n ear Artem is ' s anctuary) s eems t o h ave had s ometh ing i n c ommon w ith a D ionys iac r out.

Accord ing t o M enander, t h is n octurna l f east o f women was d isorder-

l y e nough f or a d runken a nd l i cent ious ma le t o b e p resent, a nd e ven t o c omm i t r ape w ithout a t tract ing much a ttent ion 4 5 . A n ight-fest iva l a lso s uggests t he c u lt o f a Hekatel ike d e ity;

a nd i n t he Orph ic Hymn t o

Heka te, i t h appens t ha t t he s ame t i t le was a pp l ied t o t h is g oddess 4 6 . The bu l l-der ived t i t les a pp l ied t o s ome O lymp ian g ods, a nd t he s tor ies o f t ransformat ion i nto c att le i n wh ich more t han o ne o f t hem t ook p art, may b e t he l egacy f or a p reh istor ic r e l ig ion i n wh ich bu l l-worsh ip was a n i mportant e lement.

I n h is a rt ic le o n a n ima l-worsh ip d ur ing

t he Mycenaean age , Cook h as p o inted o ut t he r ecurrence o f t he bu l l-mot if , a nd e specia l ly t he bu l l 's h ead, i n Bronze Age a rt 4 7 ; a nd s uggested t ha t t erracotta a nd s tone s tatuettes o f " bu l l-headed human ity" may r epresent t he bu l l-worsh ippers i n t he ir s acr if icia l c ostume 4 8 . C erta in ly t he s tory o f Z eus a nd Europa i s d irect ly r e lated t o Crete;

a nd i t i s

a lso p oss ib le t o i nterpret s ome e pisodes i n t he s tory o f Theseus a s a l legor ica l v ers ions o f t he d efeat o f t h is o ld r e l ig ion. t he h ero

d efeat

F or n ot o n ly d id

t he M inotaur, t he bu l l-headed man, i n h is underground

l a ir 4 9 ; bu t h e s nared t he Marathon ian bu l l wh ich was s ent f rom Crete,

8 6.

a nd s acr if iced i t t o Apo l lo, a g od o f t he s ky

5 0

; a nd a lso wh i le i n Crete

o utwrest led Taurus, a g enera l o f M inos whose r o le a s P as iphae 's s usp ected l over a s w e l l a s h is n ame, e quates h im w ith a bu l ls' .

S ince

d efeated g ods s e ldom d isappear w ithout a t race, t he t ransformat ions a nd t i t les o f O lymp ian d e it ies r eferr ing t o c a tt le may w e l l b e a n e cho o f t he r e l ig ious c u lts o f p reh istor ic C rete a nd G reece.

B .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence

( i ) S acr if ice There h ave b een f ew r eports o f t he d iscovery o f c att le-bones i n s anctuar ies t o match t he c lear l i terary e v idence t ha t t hey w ere w ide ly s acr if iced t o t he g ods.

But a t t he L ind ian s anctuary o f A thena , i ns ide

wh ich n o burnt o ffer ings w ere made, t he p resence o f t he ir b ones i nd ica te t hat c a tt le w ere c onsumed a t s acred mea ls , a nd must h ave b een s acr if iced s omewhere n ear a t h and, i n t he g oddess ' n ame

5 2

. The ir p resence h as

a lso b een r eported i n t he s anctuar ies o f D emeter a t Cn idus a nd Knossos, o f P ose idon a t I sthm ia, a nd o f Artem is a t E phesos a nd De los .

A t Dreros,

where Apo l lo w as worsh ipped, o x-teeth a nd a s ing le o x -horn w ere d isc overed. The s acr if ice o f c att le m ight a lso b e c ommemorated b y r epresentat ions o f t he r i tua l wh ich w ere s et u p i n t he s anctuary i tse lf .

The c a tt le

o f t he P arthenon F r ieze w ere l ed t o t he a l tar dur ing t he P anathena ic F est iva l;

but a t l east o ne d ed icatory r e l ief f rom t he Acropo l is d ep ict ing

as acr if ic ia l o x s hows t hat t hey w ere a lso o ffered t o A thena b y pr iva te i nd iv idua ls.

The i nterpretat ion o f af ragmentary marb le r e l ief f rom

P oseidon 's s anctuary a t S oun ion a s as cene o f bu l l-sacr if ice s eems t o b e b ased o n l i terary e v idence r ather t han t he d eta i ls o f t he s cu lpture i t se lf ;

but t wo marb le r e l iefs f rom Brauron d ep ict ing cu lt-scenes w i th

8 7.

ab u l l o r c ow a re c lear e nough, a nd i nd icate ( l ike t he b ones a t E phesos a nd De los) t hat a l though Artem is i s n ot m ent ioned e ither by Homer o r b y P ausan ias a s t he r ec ip ient o f c a tt le, t hey w ere s acr if iced i n h er c u l ts.

A more f anc ifu l s cene o f bu l l-sacr if ice ( in wh ich a n ike l eads

t he a n ima l) i s r epresented o n o ne o f t he f ourth c entury r e l iefs d ecorati ng t he p edesta ls o f c o lumns a t E phesos. The Archa ic m arb le moschophoros f rom t he Acropo l is s eems t o r e inforce t he e v idence o f t he F r ieze a nd d ed icatory r e l ief ;

a nd f rag-

m en tary Archa ic m arb le g roups f rom t he Hera ion o f S amos r epresent ing y ou ths h o ld ing c ows by t he ir h orns, t wo d amaged l imestone f igur ines o f a man w ith a bu l l f rom Apo l lo 's s anctuary a t Naukrat is , a nd t he G eometr ic b ronze g roup f rom De lph i , a re c ons istent w i th t he l i terary e v idence o f s acr if ices made t o Hera a nd t o Apo l lo.

I t must b e s a id,

h owever, t ha t wh i le c u lt-scenes o f a n ima l s acr if ice a re a c lear e nough i nd icat ion t hat t he a n ima ls d ep icted w ere o ffered t o t he g od o f t he s anctuary, s tatues o r f igur ines o f men w i th a n ima ls a re more e qu ivoca l. S uch a g roup m ight, a l ternat ive ly, h ave h ad a s im i lar f unct ion t o t hat o f t he p inakes d ep ict ing t rades g iven t o P ose idon a t P enteskouph ia, a nd s how s imp ly t ha t t he f armer o r b reeder w ished t o p lace h imse lf a nd h is h erds u nder t he g od 's p rotect ion.

( i i) R epresentat ions o f c att le i n s anctuar ies Ev idence t ha t c att le w ere s acr if iced t o t he g ods h as s urv ived b oth i n l i terary a nd i conograph ica l f orm.

S hou ld t he numerous r epres-

e nta t ions o f c att le wh ich w ere d ed icated i n s anctuar ies b e i nterpreted a s af urther e xpress ion o f s acr if ic ia l c ustom?

W ere t hey, t hat i s , c om-

memorat ions o f , o r s ubst i tut ions f or a burnt o ffer ing , o r w ere t hey o f fered t o t he d e i ty f or s ome o ther purpose?

S ince t he i mages o f a n ima ls

8 8.

d iscovered i n s anctuar ies d o n ot c arry w r itten e xp lanat ions , i t i s p oss ib le o n ly t o e xam ine t he ir d istr ibut ion, a nd a t tempt t o d eterm ine whether t h is i s a s e ven a s t he p ract ice o f s acr if ice . P rotomes o r masks o f c att le, made e i ther a s i ndependent f igur ines o r p endants, o r a s d ecora t ions f or Archa ic b ronze c au ldrons a nd o ther v ases, h ave b een d iscovered a t t he s anctuar ies o f most d e i t ies e xam ined h ere ( a lthough a pparent ly t he P ose idon s i tes p roduced o n ly t wo). Accord ing t o pub l ished r eports, t he g rea test number were f ound i n s anctuar ies o f Hera - f our o ut o f t he f ive e xam ined h ere h av ing p roduced t h is t ype o f d ed icat ion. 1 4

Most o f t hem c ame f rom t he S am ian H era ion,

where a t l east s ixteen w ere f ound, t ogether w i th a n unspec if ied number o f t erracotta r hyta i n t he s hape o f bu l ls ' h eads;

bu t t hey w ere a lso

p resent a t t he h era ia o f Argos, D e los a nd P erachora .

E ighteen c att le-

h eads a l together w ere r eported f rom f ive s anctuar ies o f A thena, whose a l tar o f T egea was d ecorated w i th t h is mot if , a nd f ourteen a t O lymp ia ; wh i le Apo l lo r ece ived t we lve , a part f rom a n i ndef in i te number o f L ate Geometr ic t erracotta o xheads wh ich w ere d ed icated t o h im a t D reros. I t s eems t hat c att le-heads w ere f ound i n f ew s anctuar ies o f A rtem is; a part f rom o ne e ach i n t he P hera i a nd Knakeat is s hr ines, a l l o f t hose d ed icated t o h er c ame t o l ight a t Artem is O rth ia, where t he e xact n umber o f Archä ic l ead-pendants i n t h is s hape h as n o t b een publ ished. The i mmed iate purpose o f t hese c att le-protomes was ( of ten) d ecorat ive;

a l though t hey may a lso

h ave r ef lected a c ustom o f n a i l ing

u p t he s laughtered a n ima l 's h ead t o a wa l l o r t ree

5 3

.

A t D reros, i n

p art icu lar, t he Geometr ic c lay o x-heads n eed n ot h ave b een v ase-decorat ions;

a nd t he numbers o f o x-teeth a nd t he h orn a lso d iscovered a t

t h is s anctuary s uggest t hat t he f igur ines m ight c ommemora te s acr if ice, o r i m i tate t he p ract ice o f r eta in ing t he h eads o f r ea l o xen.

Apo l lo 's

8 9 .

s ta tue a t P atras r ested i ts f oo t o n a n o xhead;

a nd i t i s p oss ib le t hat

t h is f orm o f d ed icat ion w as r egarded a s a cceptab le t o Apo l lo a s ag od o f h erds. The p resence o f who le c att le i n t he f orm o f s tatues, f igur ines a nd r e l iefs i s much more f requent, a nd e ven l ess e qua l ly d istr ibuted among t he s anctuar ies t han t ha t o f t he ir a bbrev iated f orm. 2 ,200 h ave b een r ecovered;

A t l east

a nd a l though t here a re e xamp les f rom

most s hr ines, i n c er ta in o f t hem t he numbers a re e spec ia l ly g reat. The s i te wh ich h as y ie lded by f ar t he g reatest number o f c att le-representat ions i s O lymp ia, where more t han 1 ,800 Geometr ic a nd e ar ly Archa ic bronze f igur ines, i nc lud ing f ragments, w ere f ound , 4 60 o f wh ich h ave b een c ata logued by H e i lmeyer 5 4 . J udg ing by He i lmeyer 's l i st, bu l ls o u tnumbered o ther c a t t le i n ap roport ion o f t wo t o o ne.

I n l a ter t imes,

P ausan ias s aw l arge b ronze s tatues o f bu l ls wh ich h ad b een d ed icated t o Z eus i n t he A lt is 5 ; but t here i s n o s uggest ion i n h is a ccount t hat t hey c ommemora ted s acr if ices t o t he d e ity.

On t he c ontrary, o ne

r epresented t he bu l l wh ich h ad b een s acr if iced t o P ose idon by t he p eop le o f C orcyra

5 6

. Nor i s i t g enera l ly c ons idered t ha t t he e ar ly b ronzes

h ave much t o d o w i th s acr if ice.

I t i s p oss ible t ha t t hey w ere

r egarded a s a ppropr ia te d ed icat ions f or Z eus a nd H era, b oth o f whom h ad a so iat ions w ith c att le wh ich w ere e xpressed i n mytho logy.

But t he

s uggest ion t hat ( l ike t he c ontemporary t erracottas f rom t h is s i te) t he b ronze c att le s imp ly r ef lect t he a gr icu l tura l l i fe o f t he e ar ly i nhab itants o f t he r eg ion, a nd t he i mportance t o t hem o f t he ir h erds, i s p erhaps am ore l ike ly e xp lanat ion

5 7

.

The o ther s anctuar ies where l arge numbers o f c att le-representat ions h ave b een f ound a re Apha ia 's i n Aeg ina ( where more t han 1 00, most ly Mycenaean , c ame t o l i ght), t he Hera ion o f S amos a nd p oss ib ly t he s anctuary

9 0.

a t L ato i n C rete, wh ich p roduced a l arge b u t unspec if ied n umber o f Archa ic t erracotta o xen.

A t S amos, where m ore c a tt le-pro tomes were

f ound t han a t o ther s anctuar ies, a bout s ix ty r epresentat ions o f who le c att le h ave b een r eported, b oth bu l ls a nd c ows, most ly t erracotta, but a lso b ronze, marb le a nd l imestone.

The p resence o f marb le " sacr i-

f i cers" l ead ing c ows o r bu l ls i n t he s ame s anctuary s uggest t ha t t he i mages o f c att le may i n p art r efer t o s acr if ice;

but a s l i terary e v idence

s hows t ha t t hese a n ima ls w ere s laughtered f or most o f t he O lympian g ods ( and f or o ther d iv in i t ies a s w e l l), i t i s u n l ike ly t hat t h is i s t he ir o n ly s ign if icance i n t he Hera ion.

Ev ident ly t he mot if o f t he b u l l o r

c ow was a c entra l o ne h ere, s ince i t a ppears i n av ar iety o f m ater ia ls, a nd d ecorates s evera l k inds o f v esse ls.

I n v iew o f t h is, i t m ay b e

s ign if icant t hat t he g oddess t o whom t he h e ifer was d ed ica ted i n Ep igram 2 43 s hou ld b e s pec if ica l ly Hera o f S amos.

But e ven P erachora a nd

t he Arg ive Hera ion were qu ite w e l l s upp l ied w i th r epresenta t ions o f t he a n ima l.

Ib e l ieve t ha t t he c onnect ion b etween o x-eyed H era a nd

c att le may b e more t han s acr if icia l.

The p redom inance o f t he ir i mages

a t S amos may r ef lect a n o ld b e l ief ( poss ib ly r ef lected i n t he myth o f I o ) t ha t H era was c ow-shaped.

P erhaps t he i dea o f at her iomorph ic d e i ty

was s lower t o d ie i n t he E ast, where c ontacts w ith Egypt a nd A s ia w ere c loser.

S evera l o f t he c att le d ed icated t here w ere e astern i mports,

a nd i t i s p oss ib le t hat a n Egypt ian i vory H athor c o lumn was c hosen f or d ed ica t ion b ecause i t s s urmount ing c ow 's h ead w as t hough t t o b e a ppropr iate f or Hera o f S amos, a s a Greek v ers ion o f t he E gypt ian c ow-goddess

5 8

.

A t S amos, a s a t O lympia, r epresentat ions o f c a tt le o utnumber b oth h orses a nd b irds. u ar ies .

But t h is p redom inance i s r are i n f ema le s anct-

F or e xamp le, a t P erachora, where t h irty-s ix who le c a tt le i n a l l

9 1.

were r eported, most ly a s r e l iefs o n p aste s ea ls, t hey a re l ess c ommon t han h orses o r b irds.

The o n ly e xcept ion t o t he g enera l r u le t hat i n

f ema le s anctuar ies b irds o utnumber c att le, a part f rom S amos, Apha ia 's s anctuary, a nd L ato, i s Kombothreka ( where t he numbers o f a l l a n ima ls r eported a re sma l l).

Even a t Apha ia, t here a re n ear ly t w ice a s many

b irds a s c att le among t he p ost-Mycenaean f igurines. But i n t he s anctuar ies o f ma le d eit ies t he p attern i s o f ten d ifferent. The p redom inance o f c att le a t O lymp ia h as a lready b een n oted. I n P oseidon 's s anctuary a t P enteskouph ia, where a t l east e ighteen p a inti ngs o f bu l ls d ecora te t he p inakes, t hey o utnumber b irds a nd a re s econd o n ly t o horses.

A t I sthm ia, o ne g o ld, a nd f ive b ronze bu l ls h ave b een

r eported, but n o b irds.

And a t at h ird s anctuary o f P oseidon, i n

Ka laur ia where t he number o f a n ima l-representat ions f ound i s v ery sma l l, t here a re e qua l amounts o f c att le a nd h orses, a nd a pparent ly n o b irds a t a l 15 9 . N o d eta i ls o f a n ima l-f igur ines h ave b een r eported f rom h is s anctuary a t S oun ion;

but i nterest ing ly e nough a lmost t he o n ly

i mage o f a n a n ima l d escr ibed i s t he e ngrav ing o f a bu l l c aught i n a s nare, on a Mycenaean g em .

I t i s t empt ing t o s ee i n t h is a r eference

t o t he bu l l o f Marathon, s ent by P ose idon, a nd c aught by Theseus. I n a ny c ase, t hough t he numbers a re n ot i n t hemse lves g reat, I b e l ieve t ha t t heir p rom inence i n P ose idon 's s anctuar ies ( in c ompar ison w ith most o ther a nima ls) d oes r ef lect t he t rad it ion t hat bu l ls were e specia l ly s acred 1 3

t o t h is g od.

The v a lue o f t he g o ld bu l l d ed icated a t I sthm ia, i n p art icu lar,

s eems t o i nd icate t he i mportance o f t he b east i n P ose idon 's c u lt. I n t he s anctuary o f Apo l lo a t De lph i, t he h orse i s t he most f requent ly d ep icted a n ima l;

but c att le were a lso p resent, i nc lud ing a s i lver bu l l

wh ich may h ave b een a n a cknow ledgement o f t he g od 's i nterest i n h erds; wh i le i n t he P to ion, D reros, Kato Phana a nd Kynour ia, where t he

9 2.

numbers r eported a re v ery sma l l, more c att le t han b irds o r h orses were f ound, a ccord ing t o t he a rchaeo log ica l a ccounts.

At Amycla i,

Apo l lo Ma leatas a nd Naukrat is, l ack o f d eta i l i n t he r eports u nfortuna te ly makes i ti mposs ib le t o d etermine t he p roport ion o f c att le t o o ther a n ima ls.

C .

The quest ion o f Artem is Tauropo los a nd t he bu l l-goddess o f Crete Despite Artem is ' t i t le o f T auropo los, a nd t he t ang ib le e v idence

a lready n oted t hat c att le were s acr if iced t o h er, t he s anctuar ies o f t h is g oddess h ave not p roduced a s pec ia l ly l arge number o f t heir i mages. A lthough t hey h ave b een f ound i n e ight o f h er s anctuar ies e xam ined h ere ( inc lud ing Ka lapod i, where t he f igur ines a re Mycenaean ), i ta ppears t hat s he r ece ived f ewer t han Z eus o r Hera a nd no more t han Apo l lo o r A thena 6 0 . M ost o f t he c att le-representat ions d ed icated t o Artem is c ome f rom t he s anctuary o f Artem is Orth ia , where more t han t hirty, i n b ronze, i vory, t erracotta a nd l ead were f ound, f rom t he G eometr ic p er iod t o t he t h ird c entury BC, but most ly Archa ic.

Yet t hese a re

g reat ly o utnumbered by h orses a nd b irds, a nd a t n o o ther s anctuary ( as f ar a s i s known) d id Artem is r ece ive s o many.

On ly a t Kombothreka,

where a bout t en Geometr ic c att le o f b ronze a nd t erracotta h ave s urv ived, d o t hey o utnumber h orses a nd b irds.

As a r u le, s anctuar ies o f Artem is

a re n ot a bundant i n r epresentat ions o f c att le.

S ome o ther k inds o f

a n ima l a re much more f requent a s d ed icat ions t o h er;

wh i le c att le w ere

o ffered i n g reater numbers t o o ther d e it ies. The i mportant s anctuary o f Artemis T auropo los a t Amph ipo l is h as n ot y et b een d iscovered , a nd n o e v idence o f a n ima l-f igur ines f rom h er s anctuary a t Ha la i, i f i t e xists, h as b een publ ished.

On ly a t Nas

i n I kar ia where s he was a lso Tauropo los, t he s o le ( and f ragmentary)

93.

animal reported may be a bull; and at her sanctuary in Aricia sorne bronze horns, apparently from bulls, were mentioned in the reports. Hogarth suggested, too, that the six gold ox or bull horns from Ephesos may have referred to Artemis Tauropolos 61; and bulls were certainly quite prominent in the externa! decoration of Croesus' temple, since they formed the motif sculptured on the columns in an tis.

In all, this

is rather scanty archaeological evidence for Artemis' character as a goddess of bulls. At Brauron, however, where no independent cattle­ represen tations are on display in the Museum, there are two fragmentary 15

clay plaques which depict Artemis seated on a bull. Brauron is very near to the Tau ropo/os sanctuary at Halai; and coins of a later period ( the second century BC) from Amphipolis, evidently referring to the city's principal cult of Artemis Tauropolos, depict the goddess in the same guise riding upan a gallop ing bull 6 2•

Mention has been made

of the Dionysiac atmosphere of the Tau ropo/ ia of Halai, as desc:;:aibed by Menander 6 3; and W. Technau has pointed out t:_at the t,-.1·:-riáing goddess ( w::atever her name) has associations with Dionysos and his rout because she is a goddess of the earth; and he cites a B-B crater from Orvieto where the moti{ forms part of a Dionysiac revel 64 • But the bull-riding female was a moti{ also during the Bronze Age. Fór example, glass plaques of the fourteenth century BC from a tomb at Dendra near Mycenae, show a goddess seated on what iooks like a bull 6 5• Reference has been made to the importance of the b 11 in Bronze Age religion; and I have suggested that it left mytho ogica traces in sorne of Theseus' heroic exploits. Moreover the co_ cep: 0f Europa, the mother of the Minoan dynasty, w:10 roe.e te, Crs�� v:;:-,. -�he

•�=

divine bull, seems to fit the image f a bl.�.J-?o �des.s :í.:�-s ::- ¿_: -:.2p:;.•:!tEd on the Brauron plaques.

Ths fact tn t at t:�v..:;�

e·--: .::.:-_.:·�-�-::..:-·:pe

9 4.

where Bronze Age f igur ines o r e ngrav ings o f a n ima ls h ave b een f ound, t hey a re a lmost a l l c att le, p robab ly a lso r ef lects t he i mpor tance o f t hese a n ima ls i n t he r e l ig ion o f t he p er iod 6 . The s anctuary where t he h ighest number o f Mycenaean c att le h as b een e xac t ly r ecorded i s Apha ia 's, i n Aeg ina ;

a nd i t h appens t hat among t hese f igur ines t here w ere t wo

bu l ls w ith r iders o n t he ir b acks.

The Mycenaean t erraco t tas i nd ica te

t he p resence o f a Bronze Age c u lt o n t he s i te o f Apha ia 's s anctuary ; a nd wh i le t here i s n o a rchaeo log ica l p roof o f c ont inu i ty o f w orsh ip h ere, i t i s o f s ome i nterest t hat Apha ia was r egarded a s a Cretan g oddess by t rad it ion 6 7 . R epresentat ions o f c a tt le w ere a lso d ed ica ted t o Apha ia i n h istor ic t imes, whereas s he r ece ived v ery f ew h orses;

s o i t s eems

p oss ib le t hat t he g oddess o f t h is s anctuary ( a f r iend t o A rtem is, who d e if ied h er) c ont inued t o b e a ssoc iated w i th c att le.

I n C rete i tse lf ,

a t L ato, where a p otnia t heron whom P ierre D emargne d escr ibed a s " a s ister o f Artem is Orth ia a nd o f Artem is o f E phesos"

6 8

,( and who

may h ave b een E i le ithy ia) h ad h er c u lt, n umerous r epresentat ions o f c a tt le ( more t han a ny o ther a n ima l) w ere d ed icated d ur ing t he Archa ic p er iod .

The c oncept o f a bu l l-r id ing g oddess, t oo , was a l ive i n C rete

a t t he t ime, a s as eventh c entury C retan h e lmet, d ecorated w ith t h is mot if , a nd f ound i n Apo l lo 's s anctuary a t D e lph i, m akes c lear . Artem is ' r o le a s ag oddess o f w i ld n ature a nd f ert i l i ty g ave h er a n a ff in ity w ith t he bu l l-r id ing g oddess o f B ronze Age Cre te , a s i t d id w i th Apha ia ( a v ers ion o f D iktynna o r Br i tomart is 6 9 )a nd w i th t he g oddess o f L ato .

Hence s he i s r epresented a s ab u l l-r ider a t Brauron, a nd

o n t he c o ins o f Amph ipo l is;

a nd e ven t he g oddess o f t he C retan h e lmet

f rom De lph i m ight h ave b een a ssoc iated i n t he d ed icator 's m ind w i th t he s ister o f t he s anctuary 's p a tron d e i ty.

There i s l i terary a nd e pigraph ica l

e v idence t hat Artem is h erse lf was worsh ipped t here ";

a nd i n t he

9 5.

mounta ins a bove t he s anctuary a n o rg iast ic women 's c u lt i n h onour o f D ionysos a nd Apo l lo was p ract ised

7 1

,i n wh ich Artemis a s a bu l l-

r id ing g oddess m ight a ppropr iate ly h ave t aken p art. The s carc ity o f c att le-representat ions wh ich h as b een o bserved i n A rtemis ' s anctuar ies c ompared w ith t hose o f s ome o ther d e it ies may s eem a t var iance w ith h er t i t le o f T auropo los.

But a s a n O lymp ian

g oddess Artem is was n ot i n g enera l p r imar i ly c oncerned w ith d omest ic h erds.

The g oddess o n t he bu l l was a w i lder t ype o f d iv in ity d er iv ing

her a ncestry f rom t he Bronze Age;

a nd t he t i t le may h ave b een a n

a cknow ledgement b oth o f t he e lement o f w i ldness i n Artem is ' c haracter, and o f h er d om in ion o ver i t i n t he n atura l wor ld.

I t was a lso t he e cho

o f a n o ld cu lt i n wh ich c att le, e specia l ly bu l ls, w ere o f p r ime s ign if icance. I n f act Artem is was n ot t he o n ly f ema le d e i ty t o i nher it a spects o f t he anc ient bu l l-goddess.

I t h as b een s een t hat A thena m ight b e c a l led

by t he s im i lar t i t le o f T aurobo los;

a nd a t h er Tegean s anctuary a n

Archa ic bronze d isk r epresent ing a p otnia t heron s tand ing o n a bu l l was d ed icated

D .

7 2

.

C onc lus ion No d e ity h ad a monopo ly o f c att le-representat ions i n h is s anctuar ies.

The l i v ing a n ima l was s acr if iced t o many g ods;

a nd i n many s anctuar ies

i t w as t o b e s een i n t he f orm o f s tatues o r f igur ines, o r a s ad ecorat ive mot if o n var ious o b jects.

Desp ite Artem is ' bu l l-der ived t i t le o f T auropo los,

which may h ave r eferred t o h er n ature a s f ert i l ity g oddess a nd t o h er Bronze Age a ncestry, a nd r ef lected a n o rg iast ic, e ven D ionys iac e lement i n h er c u lt, t he s anctuar ies b e long ing t o h er a re n ot i n g enera l s pecia l ly r ich i n c att le-representat ions.

But among t he d e it ies o f t he s anctuar ies

c ons idered i n t h is s tudy, b oth P ose idon a nd Hera h ad l i nks ( wh ich l ef t

9 6.

e choes i n r itua l a nd mytho logy) b eyond t hose o f s acr if icia l c ustom, w ith t he bu l l a nd t he o x o r c ow r espect ive ly.

To s ome e xtent t hese

l inks a re r ef lected i n t he numbers a nd p roport ion o f t he c att le-representat ions d iscovered i n t he ir s anctuar ies.

F ootnotes 1 .

RE 3 A 2 ( 1929) 2 512.

2 .

Odyssey. 1 .25 ; 1 1.6; 1 1.178-182; X I.131; X I11.181-2 ; I l iad. XX . 403-406.

3 .

Odyssey. 1 1.6.

4 .

P lutarch . Mora l /a .

5 .

Arr ian. Anabas is . V I.19.5. c f A thenaeus, 2 61.d-e ( the p eop le o f T iryns c ast a bu l l i nto t he s ea f or P ose idon).

6 .

P ausan ias .X .9 .2.

7 .

P ausan ias . I.2 4.4; I X .3 .4.

8 .

Theseus s acr if iced t he bu l l o f Marathon i n t he s anctuary o f Apo l lo De lph in ios [ P lutarch. T heseus. 1 4]. S ee a lso Xenophon. He l len ica . V I.4. 2 9.

9 .

P ausan ias . V III .1 9 .2;

1 0.

Odyssey . 1 1.418-452;

1 1.

AP I V I.40 a nd 2 58 ( Demeter); 2 43 ( Hera c f RE Op . c it . 2 514).

1 2.

P ausan ias. V .16 .3 ; I X . 3.4 ( Hera). 1 .35.4 ( Demeter). A t Herm ione, t he c ows s acr if iced t o Demeter Chthon ia were k i l led by o ld women w ith s ick les.

1 3.

D iodorus .V .4 .2.

1 4.

I l iad. XXI.446-448.

1 5.

Homer ic Hymn t o Hermes. 1 8.

1 6.

Nonnus. D ionysiaca .

1 7.

P ausan ias . V II .2 0.2.

1 8.

e .g. I l iad .

1 .551.

1 63B.

Ae l ian •X II . 34;

A thenaeus . 4 56D.

I l iad. X .292-4; V I.94, 2 74 a nd 3 08.

1 .330.

9 7.

1 9 .

" Hera i n t her io-morph ic g u ise was a s acred c ow" ( JHS 1 4 ( 1894) p . 1 32) c f Ov id . Metamorphoses . V .330, where J uno i s d escr ibed a s t ak ing t he f orm o f a wh ite c ow.

2 0.

Aeschy lus. Supp l iant W omen. Nonnus. D ionysicco . 1 .334-8.

2 1 .

Herodotus. 1 .31.

2 2.

Nonnus. L oc . c it .

2 3 .

Apo l lodorus. I I.1.1 .

2 4.

Mora l /a. 3 64F.

2 5 .

I bid .

2 99B.

2 6.

I bid .

3 64F.

2 7.

S trabo. 6 87.

2 8.

Ae l ian .X II .3 4.

2 9 .

M .P. N i lsson. G r iechische F este. p . 3 08.

3 0 .

I bid . p . 2 61.

3 1 .

I bid .

3 2.

A thenaeus. 4 25C.

3 3 .

Hes iod. T he S h ie ld o f Herak les .

3 4.

P ausan ias . I.2 7.9 ;

3 5 .

Eur ipides. H ippo lytus .

3 6 .

S trabo. 4 58. 1 378)-

3 7 .

S ee Hesych ius ' g loss o n t h is word.

3 8.

S ee t he g losses g iven by Hesych ius a nd S u idas.

3 9 .

S ee LSJ o n t h is w ord.

4 0 .

Amph ipo l is ( Thrace) Ha la i ( Att ica) I karos ( Greece) Ar icia ( Ita ly) I karus ( Pers ian Gu lf) Komana ( Cappadocia) Kastaba la ( Cappadocia)

4 1 .

P rotrept icus .

pp. 7 9-80.

2 91-301 ;

Nonnus. Op c it .

P ausan ias. 1 1.18.3 ;

1 .46-136.

S ee Hesych ius ' g loss o n " Taur ia".

1 04.

Apo l lodorus . I I .1 .3-4. 1 213-1248; 8 87-890.

Eur ipides r efers t o Oceanus a s bu l l-headed ( Orestes .

AP I V II.702 ; L ivy. XLIV.4. S trabo. I X . 1.22 (3 99) . X IV.1.9 ( 636). V .3.12 ( 239). XVI.3 .2 ( 765). X II.2.3 ( 535). X II.2.7 ( 537).

1 1.42.6, p . 3 2.6.

9 8.

4 2.

Acta S anctorum . V II.22.

4 3.

P ausan ias. X .3 5.4 .

4 4.

N i lsson. Op . c it . pp. 2 51-252.

4 5.

Menander. E pitrepontes .

4 6.

Orphia . Hymn t o Hekate . l i ne 7 .

4 7.

JHS 1 4 ( 1894) pp. 1 20-132.

4 8.

I b id . pp. 1 20-122.

4 9.

S ee P lutarch. T heseus .

5 0.

I bid .

5 1 .

P lutarch. Op. c it . 1 9. F or P as iphae 's l ove o f t he bu l l s ent by P ose idon, s ee Eur ip ides. H ippo lytus . 3 37-8; D iodorus. I V.77.1-4 ; Apo l lodorus. II. 1 .3-4.

5 2.

L indos .

5 3.

One o f t he d ed icatory e p igrams r ecords h ow G laucon a nd Corydon na i led o nto a p lane-tree t he h orns o f as teer wh ich t hey h ad s acr if iced t o P an ( AP I V I.96).

5 4.

0 /Forsch X II. pp. 1 85 a nd 1 96;

5 5.

P ausan ias. V .27.9.

5 6.

I b id . X .9.2 .

5 7.

0 /Forsch

5 8.

AM 7 2 ( 1957) p . 4 7.

5 9.

The c o l lect ion o f a bout s eventy b ronze f igur ines, a pparent ly c ons ist ing o n ly o f c att le a nd h orses, f ound a t P ose idon 's s anctuary a t -Ta inä iron, i s c ons istent w i th t he e v idence o f P enteskouph ia a nd Ka laur ia ( Bd I, 1 857, p . 1 55. C f F razer. P ausanias' D escr ipt ion o f Greece . I I. p . 3 97).

6 0.

The s tatement c an o n ly b e t entat ive, b ecause o f t he i mprecis ion o f s ome r eports. The numbers o f l ead bu l ls f rom Artem is Orth ia, a nd t he t erracottas f rom Ka lydon, h ave n ot b een s pec if ied.

6 1.

Hogarth. p . 3 37.

6 2.

B . V. Head. C ata logue o f Greek Co ins - Macedonia . L ondon. 1 879. p . 4 9 n o. 5 5; p . 5 2 n os. 7 3-76.

6 3.

S ee a bove, n ote 4 5.

1 4;

2 34-261.

1 5.

P ausan ias. 1 .27.9.

I . p . 1 1.

V II. pp. 8 7-8.

pp. 1 99-271 p assim .

Cf U . S inn AM 9 6 ( 1981) pp. 3 7-38.

( Br i t ish Museum)

9 9.

6 4.

W . Technau. " Die Gütt in a uf d em S t ier" MI 5 2 ( 1937) p . 7 7, F ig. 2 .

6 5.

I b id .

p . 9 9, F ig. 1 2.

6 6.

Horses, s o popu lar dur ing t he Geometr ic p er iod a nd l a ter, a re e xtreme ly r are. A t Apha ia 's s anctuary o ne f ragmentary Bronze Age t erracotta h orse was f ound; whereas c att le o f t he s ame p er iod w ere not o n ly p lent ifu l a t Apha ia 's s anctuary, but a lso p resent a t De lph i ( in t he s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo, a nd o f A thena), Ka lapod i, a nd Knossos. Engraved g ems d epict ing bu l ls were f ound a t Artem is O rth ia, P oseidon 's s anctuary a t S oun ion, a nd t he Arg ive Hera ion; a nd t he Hera ion o f S amos p roduced a b ronze Mycenaean bu l l.

6 7.

P ausan ias

6 8.

BCH 5 3 ( 1929) pp.415 a nd 4 27.

6 9.

P ausanias. L oc. s i t . Anton inus L ibera l is. Metamophoses . 4 0. Artemis was d irect ly a ssociated w ith t hese t wo d e it ies i n C rete ( Ca l l imachus. Hymn t o Artem is . 1 90-203).

7 0.

S ee a bove, I ntroduct ion, n ote 2 3.

7 1.

P ausan ias . X .32.5 .

7 2.

T echnau ( Op. c it . p . 9 5) h as a rgued t hat both Aphrod ite a nd D emeter, a s g oddesses a ssociated l ike Europa w ith f ert i l ity a nd

1 .3 0 .3 .

t he e arth, m ight a lso o n o ccas ion b e c once ived a s bu l l-r id ing g oddesses.

1 00.

DEER ( See Append ix 8 .5 )

A .

L i terary e v idence:

t he d eer a nd t he g oddess Artem is

I t h as b een s een t hat t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween a n a n ima l a nd ad e ity i s o f ten c omp lex. by t he g od.

The a n ima l may b e s acr if iced t o , o r p rotected

( Thus, t he Corcyra f igur ines s how Artem is e i ther g rasp ing

t he b oar by i t s h ind l eg, o r s upport ing i tb y i ts f ore leg.)

I t may b e

u sed a s as courge o f human ity, a s i n t he s tor ies o f t he Ka lydon ian b oar, a nd t he bu l l o f Marathon.

Or i t may b e i nvo lved i n am etamorphos is,

a s i n t he l egends o f Ka l l isto a nd I o ;

o r i n t he r o le-p lay ing o f t he

Brauron ian a rk t o i, a nd t he t auro i o f E phesos.

I n s uch myths a nd r i tua ls

t he a n ima l a nd t he d e ity, o r t he s ervants o f t he d e ity, s eem a lmost t o s hare a n i dent ity.

I n t erms o f t h is c omp lex ity, t he d eer i s no e xcep-

t ion.

( i ) T he d eer a s a hunted a nima l The d eer w as a n a tura l v ict im o f t he g oddess o f hunt ing, who a s e ar ly a s Homer was c haracter ized by h er d e l ight i n t he p ursu it o f b oars a nd s w if t d eer'.

Th is t ra i t c ont inued t o a ppear i n d escript ions

o f Artem is ' , a si td id a lso i n p ictor ia l r epresentat ions o f t he g oddess, i n wh ich t he s tag , d oe o r f awn b ecame a lmos t a s i na l ienab le a n a ttr ibu te a s t he b ow, a rrow o r q u iver 3 . I t i s at ra it wh ich was a lso r ef lected i n t he t i t le o f E 1aphebo 1os4 wh ich was a ccorded t o h er a t Hyampo l is a nd e lsewhere, a nd w as n ot s hared by a ny o ther d e i ty.

I t was t herefore

n atura l f or a hunter t o d ed icate p art o f h is q uarry t o Artem is.

One o f

t he D ed icatory E p igrams d escr ibes h ow L ykormas h ung up a d eer 's s k in a nd h orns i n as anctuary o f Artem is Agro tera

5;

a nd D iodorus r efers

t o t he t rad it iona l p ract ice o f h ang ing t he h eads a nd f eet o f d eer o n t rees,

1 01.

which w as o bserved by hunters i n S ic i ly a ssociated w ith h is s ister i n hunt ing. and w as a s layer o fw i ld b easts

7;

6

.

To s ome e xtent Apo l lo was

He a lso d e l ighted i n a rrows,

a nd i n a nother o f t he Ded icatory

Epigrams, i t i s h e who r ece ives t hree d eer-heads, w ith t he ir a nt lers, f rom t he hunter 8 . Even h is s tatues m ight h ave t he a ttr ibute o f ad eer, l ike t he bronze Apo l lo wh ich P ausan ias s aw a t De lph i 8; a nd t hat made by t he c lass ica l s cu lptor Ceph isodotus a t D idyma, wh ich P l iny d escr ibed 1 0 . Poss ib ly t hese s tatues r ef lect Apo l lo 's s upport o f Artem is a ga inst Herak les i n t he s tory o f t he C eryn it ian h ind.

( i i) D eer i n s anctuar ies a s v ict im , a nd a s p rotected a nima l D eer were n ot o n ly d ed icated a s t he s po i l o f t he hunter.

They

m ight a lso b e b rought l i v ing t o b e s acr if iced i n t he s anctuar ies o f t he g ods .

When I ph igene ia was a bout t o b e s acr if iced t o Artem is a t Au l is,

h er p lace a t t he a ltar w as t aken a t t he l ast moment by a h ind " ;

a nd

a t P atras, d eer a nd g aze l les were among t he g ame-an ima ls t hrown o nto Artem is Laphr ia 's b onf ire 1 2 . T he p ract ice o f o ffer ing " e lapho i", c akes made i n t he s hape o f d eer, a t t he f est iva l o f Artem is E laphebo los, must have b een a s ubst itute f or r ea l v ict ims 1 3 . Y et Artem is, t o whom d eer m ight b e s acr if iced, was a lso t he ir protectress.

I t was t he s hoot ing o f o ne o f t he h erd o f d eer k ept i n h er

s acred g rove a t Au l is, wh ich f i rst r oused t he g oddess ' a nger a ga inst Agamemnon , a nd l ed t o I ph igene ia 's f ate'.

When Herak les e ndangered

t he l i fe o f t he Ceryn it ian .h ind i n h is pursu it o f i t , h e was r ebuked by Artem is 1 8 ; a nd a lthough t he d eer a nd g aze l les k ept i n h er s acred prec inct a t S k i l lous w ere hunted dur ing t he f est iva l, t hey t oo were r egarded a s s acred t o t he g oddess

1 8

. I n t he s anctuary o f Artem is o n

t he i s land o f I carus n ear t he Euphrates mouth, d eer g razed unmo lested;

1 02.

a nd n o-one w as p erm i tted t o hunt t hen e xcept a s as acr if ice t o t he d e i ty

1 7

;

a nd i n Artem is Agrotera 's s hr ine , a s d escr ibed b y P hi lostratus,

t ame f awns a lso g razed 1 8 . P ausan ias n oted t he p resence o f ah o ly d eer, w ith a c o l lar r ound i t s n eck, i n Despo ina 's s anctuary a t Lykosoura; a nd a l though Despo ina , c lose ly a ssoc iated i n Arcad ia w ith A rtem is ( s ince b oth w ere r egarded a s Demeter 's c h i ldren) m ight h ave b een a s u itab le e nough p ro tectress f or t he a n ima l, Artemis w as a lso worsh ipped i n t he s ame p rec inct, a nd f ormed p art o f i ts c u lt-statue g roup 1 9 • E ven a t t he L aphr ian f east, when s o many w i ld a n ima ls w ere s acr if iced o n t he f i re, d eer w ere a lso k ept f or a l ess d ead ly r o le;

f or i n t he c eremon ia l

p rocess ion, a v irg in p r iestess, e nact ing t he g oddess , r ode i n ac har iot d rawn by y oked d eer

2 °

. Th is c ustom was e v ident ly n ot r estr icted t o

P atras, f or t he c oncept, a t l east, was known e lsewhere, a nd a t l east a s e ar ly a s t he c lass ica l p er iod ;

s ince Artem is ' d eer-char iot f orms part o f

t he f i f th c entury i nter ior f r ieze o f t he t emp le a t Bassa i -a nd h ere 1 6

h er b ro ther Apo l lo a lso r ides i n i t2 1 .

( i i i) P unishment a nd metamorphos is S uch a t im id a nd g ent le a n ima l a s t he d eer s eems a n u n l ike ly i nstrument o f d oom f or human b e ings, y et A rtem is a lso put i t t o t h is u se a t S aron is a nd a t S tympha los.

A t b oth t hese p laces ( where Artem is

h ad s anctuar ies) huntsmen w ere l ured by a f ug it ive d eer t o t he ir d eaths t hrough d rown ing 2 ; a nd a t S tympha los t h is f ate w as r egarded a s a pun ishment f or n eg l igence i n Artem is ' worsh ip.

S . W ide i nterprets t he

S aron myth a s a metamorphos is 2 3 ,a nd b e l ieves t ha t t he d eer was t he g oddess h erse lf .

F razer 's o p in ion t ha t when a g od b ecomes a nthropo-

morph ic, t he a n ima l whose s hape h e o r s he o nce h ad, b ecomes i nstead as acr if ic ia l v ict im

2 4

,i s a s a pp l icab le t o d eer a s t o p igs;

a nd t he

1 03.

s acr if ice o f d eer t o Artem is i s c ons istent w ith t he p oss ibi l ity t hat s he m ight on o ccas ion h ave b een worsh ipped a s ad eer.

The S aron s tory

d oes not r efer e xpl ici t ly t o ad iv ine metamorphos is, but t here i s s uch a myth c oncern ing t he d eath o f O tus a nd Eph ia ltes.

These y oung men

had a ttempted t o r av ish h er, a nd t o b r ing a bout t he ir pun ishment, Artem is c hanged h erse lf i nto a d eer.

S ee ing t he d eer b etween t hem,

t hey both s hot a t i t , a nd s o k i l led e ach o ther 2 5 . I n t he s tory o f Actaeon, h owever, i t was t he v ict im a nd n ot t he d e ity, who a ssumed t he d eer 's s hape

2 6

.

But Artem is a lso t ransformed h er f r iend Taygeta i nto a d eer,

t o s ave h er f rom Z eus ' pursu it;

a nd Taygeta, a w i ld mounta in nymph,

i s av ers ion o f Artemis h erse lf .

When Taygeta r esumed h er human f orm,

s he g ave t o t he g oddess a d eer w ith g o lden h orns, t he s ame a n ima l t ha t Herak les l ater c aptured 2 7 . A s im i lar s tory i s t o ld o f t he d aughter o f K ing Merops 2 9 . I ph igene ia 's s ubst itut ion a t t he s acr if ic ia l a l tar i s a lso c lose t o at ransformat ion-myth;

a nd Cook h as s uggested t ha t

aR ed-Figure c rater, d epict ing a d raped f ema le wear ing a s tag 's mask a nd f acing a y outh w ith a kn ife, may b e ar epresentat ion o f I ph igene ia, o r o f s ome c u lt a ssociated w ith h er 2 9 . T he wear ing o f a n a n ima l 's s k in t o s ome d egree i dent if ies t he wearer w ith t he a n ima l ( as Herak les i s i dent if ied w ith t he l i on);

s o t he d eer-sk in s omet imes worn by Artem is

( as i n her c u lt-statue . a t Lykosoura3 0 )l ends s ome p robab i l ity t o t he t heory o f h er d eer 's s hape.

( iv) Deer-der ived t i t les The e p ithet E laphebo los e xpresses Artem is ' c haracter a s a huntress; but h er i dent if icat ion w ith t he d eer i t se lf i s n o d oubt r ef lected i n h er t i t le o f E laphia

3 1

.

P ausan ias s upposed t hat t he E leans g ave t h is n ame

t o A rtemis b ecause o f d eer-hunt ing ;

but h e a lso n otes t hat t he l oca l

1 04.

e xp lana t ion was t ha t Artem is was r eared b y a woman c a l led E laph ius ( wh ich P eter L ev i t rans lated a s " deer-g ir l")

3 2

;

a nd t h is s ounds more

l i ke t he m emory o f az oomorph ic c u lt. D ionysos, a s an ature-god, h ad l i nks w i th more t han o ne w i ld a n ima l i n wh ich Artem is h ad a n i nterest 3 . H e i s t he o n ly o ther d e i ty t o b e i nvoked by t i t les a ssoc iated w ith d eer, a l though i n h is c ase t hey d er ive f rom t he f awn, a nd n ot t he f u l l-grown a n ima l.

Nonnus p ictured

h im a s af awn-s layer ( Nebrophonos), hunt ing by n ight w i th A rtem is E laphebo los 34

.

a hunt ing g od.

But un l ike Artem is h e i s n ot g enera l ly r egarded a s He i s s een r ather a s s har ing i n t he w i ldness o f t he

a n ima l by w ear ing i t s s k in ( as i ndeed Artem is d id), a nd i s c a l led n ebrodeas ( fawnl ike), n ebr idopep los a nd n ebr idosto los ( c lo thed i n a f awn-sk in) 3 5

B .

.

Archaeo log ica l e v idence

( i ) Ev idence o f s acr if ice a nd hunter 's d ed ica t ions The c ustom o f s acr if ic ing d eer t o Artem is, o r o f o ffer ing h er t he r ema ins o f a n a n ima l k i l led i n t he hunt , i s known f rom l i terary d ed icat ions, l egend la nd a ccounts l i ke t ha t o f P ausan ias ' d escr ipt ion o f t he L aphr ian c u lt.

F ew phys ica l t races o f t he a n ima l h ave c ome t o

l ight i n « t he s anctuar ies c ons idered h ere.

But t he b ones o f t wo d eer

( and o ne g aze l le) d iscovered by t he a l tar o f t he E phes ian A rtemis ion i s c ons istent b oth w ith t he l i terary e v idence o f g enera l s acr if ic ia l c us tom, a nd w i th i nd icat ions o n E phes ian c o ins t ha t t he d eer was o f p art icu lar i mportance i n t he c i ty 's c u l t o f Artem is

3 6

.

The p resence o f a nt lers

a t L ouso i a nd Ka lydon ( at b o th o f wh ich s anctuar ies b oars ' t usks w ere a lso d iscovered) c onf irms t ha t t he t rop ies o f t he hunt were d ed icated t o t he g oddess o f hunt ing .

Y et Artem is w as n ot t he o n ly d e i ty t o r ece ive

1 05.

s uch o ffer ings: a t Knossos;

av ery f ew d eer-bones were f ound a t Demeter 's s anctuary

a nd a lso a t L indos, where t hey must h ave b een c onsumed

( though not s acr if iced) i ns ide A thena 's p rec inct 3 7 . T he p resence o f as ing le ant ler a t Tegea i s n ot i ncons istent w ith t he numerous f ragments o f b oars ' t usks d iscovered t here;

f or A thena A lea 's s anctuary, i t h as

b een s uggested, was f requented by hunters, p oss ib ly b ecause o f i ts a ssoc iat ion w ith A ta lanta a nd t he Ka lydonian b oar 3 8 . P ictor ia l e v idence d ed icated i n s anctuar ies o f t he s acr if ice o f d eer s eems e ven r arer t han t he ir phys ica l r ema ins.

But t he f ragment

o f o ne f ourth c entury marble r e l ief, s how ing a b oy b r ing ing a d oe t o t he a l tar, was f ound i n t he s anctuary o f Artemis L oche ia i n De los. Th is a t l east i s ac onf irmat ion o f t he s acr if ic ia l p ract ice, a nd o f i t s s pec ia l i mportance i n Artem is ' c u lt.

The s anctuary i s l ocated o n M t.

Cynthos, where t he g oddess was r eputed t o h ave hunted i n h er e ar ly d ays

3 9.

( i i) E v idence o f p rotect ion But r e l iefs i n wh ich t he d eer a ppears a s Artem is ' s acr if icia l v ict im a re g reat ly o utnumbered by a rtefacts a lso d ed icated i n s anctuar ies, where i t i s s een a s h er f avoured c ompan ion.

I n a nother f ourth c entury

marb le r e l ief , f ound a t Brauron, i t s tands b es ide h er t hrone.

A s ixth

c entury t erracotta p laque f rom t he s ame s anctuary d ep icts a v ery s im i lar s cene;

wh i le i n a nother, a d oe r uns b es ide h er.

But more numerous

t han marble r e l iefs o r p a inted p laques a re t he t erracotta f igur ines r epresent ing t he g oddess ( usua l ly i dent if ied by h er qu iver) e i ther c lasp ing a f awn i n h er a rms, o r a ccompan ied by a s tag o r d oe a t h er f eet. More t han 3 00 s uch f igur ines, b e l ieved by L echat t o b e e ar ly c lass ica l 1 7

i n d ate

4 °

, were d iscovered a t Kanon i i n Corcyra.

No o ther s anctuary

1 06.

h as y ie lded s o many f igur ines o f t h is t ype , but i n s ma l ler n umbers t hey h ave b een f ound a t Brauron, Ka lydon, L ouso i, S ca la G reca i n S ic i ly, Knossos, K irrha, Cor inth, a nd p oss ib ly t he Acropo l is o f A thens ' ''. O f t hese n ine

s anctuar ies, f ive b e longed t o Artem is;

p oss ib ly a t Cor inth 4 3 ,s he was worsh ipped w ith Apo l lo; p rec inct o n t he A then ian Acropo l is;

a t K irrha 4 2

a nd

s he h ad a

a nd o n ly a t Demeter 's s anctuary

a t Knossos i s i t r ather s urpr is ing t hat a n i mage o f d eer-protect ing Artem is s hou ld h ave b een f ound.

Representat ions o f t he g oddess w ith

d eer, were t hus d ed icated a lmost e xc lus ive ly i n s anctuar ies where a c u lt o f Artem is was p ract ised , a nd i n t he E phes ian Artem is ion t he mot if a ppeared i n r e l ief o n o ne o f t he f ourth c entury c o lumn-pedesta ls.

Not

o n ly d o t hese i mages d emonstrate h er p ro tect ive r e lat ionsh ip w ith t he a n ima l ( as many a nc ient works o f a rt d o) but t hey a lso s how t hat wors h ippers b e l ieved s uch r epresentat ions t o b e a ppropr iate o ffer ings i n h er s anctuar ies.

Moreover, t hey may r ef lect t he p ract ice o f k eep ing

l ive d eer, s acred t o t he g oddess, i n t hose s anctuar ies. The d eer-char iot d r iven by Artem is o r h er p r iestess, t oo, a ppears t o h ave l ef t i t s mark o n d ed icat ions i n a t l east o ne s anctuary o f t he g oddess.

Two o f t he Corcyra f igur ines ( and f ragments o f a bout t en

more) r epresent h er w ith a p a ir o f d oes ( accompan ied by t wo p anthers) 1 8

i n r e l ief a ga inst h er s k irt;

a nd t h is was c onv inc ing ly i nterpreted by

L echat a s ac har iot d rawn by t he s trange ly matched b easts.

But L i l ly

Kah i l h as a lso s uggested t hat a n i ncomp lete marb le r e l ief o f t he f ourth c entury, f rom Brauron, m ight h ave d epicted a s im i lar mot if".

( i i i) Representat ions o f s eparate d eer i n s anctuar ies I n t he r epresentat ions o f d eer d iscussed s o f ar, t he a n ima l i s s een i n c on junct ion w ith a d e ity, a nd i n e very c ase t h is d e ity i s Artem is.

1 07.

Near ly a l l t hese r epresentat ions, moreover, w ere d ed icated i n s anctuar ies i n wh ich Artem is was worsh ipped.

S o f ar, a t l east, t he s pec ia l a ssoc ia-

t ion b etween t he g oddess a nd t he d eer wh ich i s e xpressed i n l i terature, i s r ef lected i n s ome t ypes o f i mages wh ich w ere d ed icated i n h er s anct uar ies .

But t he p resence i n s anctuar ies o f i ndependent r epresentat ions

o f t he a n ima l h as y et t o b e c ons idered.

How f ar, i t must n ow b e a sked,

i s t he ir d istr ibut ion c ons istent w ith t he s pec ia l r e lat ionsh ip b etween Artem is a nd t he d eer? O f t he s anctuar ies o f Artem is c ons idered h ere ( inc lud ing h er a l tar a t O lympia, a nd a lso K irrha, Phera i a nd Ka lapod i) t h irteen h ave y ie lded r epresentations o f d eer, most ly f igur ines. f ive s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo ; o f Hera;

Deer were a lso p resent a t

f ive s anctuar ies o f A thena ;

f our s anctuar ies

a nd t wo o ut o f t he t hree s anctuar ies o f Z eus e xam ined.

A t

none o f t he s anctuar ies b e long ing t o Demeter o r P ose idon, a pparent ly, have t hey b een d iscovered ( except f or a s ea l r epresent ing a d eer f rom Demeter 's s anctuary a t Cyrene).

The g reatest number o f d eer r eported

were f ound i n Artem is ' s anctuar ies, f or i n a dd it ion t o t he n ineteen s pec if ied i n a rchaeo log ica l r eports, " numerous" t erracotta d eer w ere a lso f ound a t Ka lydon, a nd a l arge number o f l ead f igur ines ( inc lud ing t wenty d ifferent t ypes) i n Artem is Orth ia 's p recinct.

Hera was t he

r ec ip ient o f s ixteen d eer-representat ions, a nd ( at P erachora) f i fteen paste s carabs d ecorated w ith g aze l les;

a nd Apo l lo, A thena a nd Z eus

( or p erhaps o ther d e i t ies worsh ipped a t O lymp ia) o f t we lve o r t h irteen e ach.

The o n ly t wo s anctuar ies where f igur ines o f d eer were f ound i n

l arge numbers b e longed t o Artem is.

Neverthe less, i t i s e v ident t hat

s he w as by n o means t he o n ly d e ity f or whom t hey were c ons idered a ppropr iate d ed icat ions; e xamp les.

a nd n ot a l l o f h er s anctuar ies h ave y ie lded

1 08.

( iv) T he c hrono logy o f d eer -r epresentat ions , a nd o f t he g oddess w ith a d eer The e xp lanat ion f or t he p resence o f d eer-representat ions i n t he s anctuar ies o f d e it ies o ther t han Artem is may i n p art b e r e lated t o t he ir c hrono logy.

The t erracotta f igur ines o f Artem is w i th h er d eer

f i rst made t he ir a ppearance i n t he L ate Archa ic p er iod;

a nd among

t he e ar l iest r epresentat ions o f g oddess a nd a n ima l ( dur ing h istor ic t imes) a re t he s ixth c entury t erracotta p laques f rom Brauron.

But

many o f t he i ndependent r epresentat ions o f d eer a re o f e ar l ier d ate. I n p art icu lar, most o f t he b ronze f igur ines, a nd s evera l e ngrav ings o n i vory o r g ems, b e long t o t he Geometr ic p er iod.

I n t he Odyssey a nd

t he Homer ic Hymn, Artem is was a lready a cknow ledged a s a huntress o f d eer;

but t here i s n o e v idence t hat t he o ther f acets o f t he ir s pec ia l

r e lat ionsh ip h ad y et d eve loped, s t i l l l ess b ecome p art o f r e l ig ious b e l ief o r c u lt-pract ice.

A t t h is e ar ly t ime, when hunt ing, l ike t he k eeping

o f h erds, was a n i mportant means o f s ubs istence f or many, a lmost a ny g od m ight b e o ffered i n g rat itude a mode l o f t he hunter 's q uarry. The c oncept o f t he g oddess w ith t he d eer was not i n i t se lf a n i nnovat ion o f t he L ate Archa ic p er iod.

The p otnia t heron o f p reh istor ic

Crete h ad h erse lf b een a ssoc iated w ith d eer-hunt ing :

o ne e ngraved

Mycenaean g o ld b ead-sea l s hows h er a im ing a n a rrow a t a n a nt lered s tag 4 5 . And a t l east by t he e ighth c entury, t he c oncept h ad r eappeared i n t he Greek wor ld a s ap ictor ia l mot if : 1 9

ac ut-out i vory p laque f rom

Smyrna d epicts a w inged g oddess h o ld ing a water-bird a nd a sma l l d eer by t he ir n ecks 4 6 . T he p otnia f l anked by l i ons o n t he Boeo t ian r e l ief p ithos h overs j ust a bove a d oub le f r ieze o f s tags a nd d oes 4 7 ; a nd a f r ieze o f d eer a lso f orms p art o f t he l imestone r e l iefs d ecorat ing Temp le A a t P r in ias, where t he p r inc ipa l f eature i s ad oub le p otnia t heron48

1 09.

But w e have n o g rounds f or s uppos ing t hat a ny o f t hese e ar ly r epresentat ions o f g oddesses i s t o b e i dent if ied w ith Artem is.

On t he c ontrary,

we h ave s een t hat s he was n ot t he o n ly h e ir o f t he p otnia t heron;

a nd

t he d ed icat ion o f d eer-f igur ines not o n ly t o Artem is but t o o ther g oddesses dur ing t he Geometr ic p er iod i s t hus h ard ly s urpr is ing.

A t t he De l ian

Artem is ion t here i s e ven s ome i nd icat ion o f t he c ont inu ing i mportance o f t he d eer f rom t he Bronze Age t o h istor ic t imes. l azu l i p endant o r s ea l i s e ngraved w ith a d eer;

A Mycenaean l apis

a nd a n Archa ic b ronze

deer-f igur ine was a lso d iscovered i n t he s anctuary.

The e xcavators o f

Ka lapod i note t hat t he sma l l d eer c rown ing a b ronze Geometr ic whee lpendant was a s u itable o ffer ing f or Artem is E laphebo los 4 9 . N o d oubt t hey a re r ight;

but s im i lar b ronze Geometr ic f igur ines were a lso f e lt

by t he ir d ed icators t o b e s u itab le f or Hera, A thena, Apo l lo, a nd f or a t l east o ne d e ity a t O lymp ia who c ou ld, but n eed n ot h ave b een, Artem is. A t s ome p o int dur ing t he Archa ic p er iod, h owever, t he a ssociat ion o f A rtem is w ith t he d eer b ecame more e xc lus ive.

T erracotta d eer a re

l ess c ommon a nd o f l a ter d ate t han t he b ronze f igur ines;

a nd a part

f rom t wo c ouchant d oes f rom t he Hera ion o f De los, t hey h ave b een r eported o n ly a t Ka lydon, a nd a t Artem is ' a l tar a t O lympia, where t he ir exact numbers h ave n o t b een s upp l ied 5 0 . Bu t i t i s t he l ead f igur ines o f d eer f rom Artem is Orth ia wh ich p rov ide t he c learest i ndex o f Artem is ' a ppropr iat ion o f t he a n ima l. f awn w as d iscovered;

A t t h is s anctuary, o ne b ronze Geometr ic

t he i ntag l io o n a Mycenaean c arne l ian c ons isted o f

a d eer a nd a t ree, a nd t wo e ighth c entury s tone s carabo ids a re a lso d ecorated w ith a d eer-mot if .

Representat ions o f d eer were t hus e v ident ly

t hought qu ite s u itab le f or Orth ia f rom t he e ar l iest t imes. t he g reatest quant ity o f d eer a re made o f l ead;

But by f ar

a nd a l though l ead

f igur ines b egan t o b e d ed icated a t t he e nd o f t he e ighth c entury 5 17 t he

1 10.

d eer d id n ot make i ts a ppearance i n t h is mater ia l t i l l t he s ixth c entury, when i t b ecame p opu lar a t o nce

5 2

. Af ter 5 00 BC, t he o n ly l ead an ima l

a part f rom t he d eer was t he c ock;

a nd a f ter 4 25 BC t he d eer a lone

s urv ived, a nd i n c ons iderable numbers.

I t was p robably a f ter 6 00 BC

t hat Orth ia b egan t o merge w ith Artem is a t t he s anctuary 53

;

a nd i t

was a lso a f ter t h is d ate t hat Artem is ' s pec ia l a ssoc iat ion w i th t he d eer was e stab l ished i n t he Greek wor ld.

I n t he Geometr ic p er iod , when

many o f t he d eer f ound i n t he s anctuar ies o f o ther d e it ies w ere d ed icated, t he r e lat ionsh ip h ad n ot y et b ecome s o e xc lus ive.

C .

Conc lus ion L iterary e v idence h as s hown t ha t t he a ssociat ion o f t he d eer

w ith Artem is was c loser a nd more c omp lex t han t ha t o f d e i ty a nd s acr if icia l v ict im, o r e ven o f huntress a nd quarry, a l though i t c ompr ises both t hese e lements.

I t i nvo lves o ther a spects o f c u lt-pract ice, s uch a s t he

u se o f d eer a s d raught-an ima ls i n s acred p rocess ions, a nd t he keep ing o f t hem i n s anctuar ies.

The c loseness o f t h is r e lat ionsh ip b etween

g oddess a nd a n ima l may have f ound e xpress ion i n l egends o f metamorphos is, i n wh ich Artem is a nd t he d eer p lay a p rom inent p art.

L iterature

d oes n ot r evea l as im i lar r e lat ionsh ip b etween o ther d e it ies a nd t h is a n ima l;

a lthough i t a ppears t hat Apo l lo , who l ike h is s ister w as a f ar-

s hoot ing d e ity, m ight s omet imes b e r epresented w ith a d eer.

I t i s

p oss ible t hat t he c reature was f e lt t o embody c erta in qua l it ies o f i ts p atron-goddess, s uch a s w i ldness a nd f l eetness o f f oot 5 4 ,w h ich b e longed t o h er r ather t han t o o ther d e it ies;

s o t hat t he a ssociation r ested p art ly

o n s im i lar ity. Representat ions o f d eer d iscovered i n s anctuar ies d o n ot e nt ire ly c onform i n t he ir d istr ibut ion t o t he p icture o f a n a lmost e xc lus ive

r e lat ionsh ip, a s i t i s s een i n l i terature.

Deer were r epresented i n

Bronze Age a rt, where a s Cook h as s uggested, t hey may s omet imes h ave h ad a r e l ig ious s ign if icance.

No d oubt hunt ing, l i ke o ther human

a ct iv it ies whose u lt imate mot ive was s urv iva l, r equ ired t he b enevo lence o f d iv ine b eings.

Thus i n t he Geometr ic a nd e ar ly Archa ic p er iods

i mages o f d eer were d ed icated ( perhaps by hunters) i n t he s anctuar ies o f av ar iety o f d e it ies ( inc lud ing Artemis o r h er p redecessors) who w ere h e irs t o a Mycenaean t rad it ion.

L ater, t he d eer c ame t o b e r egarded

a s s acred t o Artem is a lone, p erhaps b ecause h er r o le a s g oddess o f hunt ing

b ecame more c entra l t o h er c haracter;

o r p erhaps s imp ly i n

a ccord w ith a t endency f or c erta in a ttr ibutes t o b ecome more e xc lus ive ly t he p roperty o f s pecif ic d e it ies.

As t he l egends embody ing t h is r e lat ion-

s h ip b ecame w ide ly known, s o r epresentat ions o f t he g oddess a ccompan ied by t he d eer b egan t o b e d ed icated i n s anctuar ies s uch a s Kanon i a nd Brauron.

Af ter t he Archa ic p er iod, r epresentat ions o f i ndependent

d eer, unaccompan ied by Artem is, b ecame r arer;

a nd a l though t hey

a re n ot unknown i n t he s anctuar ies o f o ther g ods, t he ma jor ity h ave b een f ound i n t hose o f Artem is.

Thus t he d istr ibut ion o f d eer-representa-

t ions i n s anctuar ies i s t o b e s een i n t erms o f ac hrono log ica l d eve lopment. A t f i rst, t he i mages were d ed icated t o a number o f g ods ( though n ot g enera l ly i t s eems, t o D emeter o r P ose idon).

But a t s ome t ime d ur ing

t he Archa ic p er iod, when t he d eer b ecame a lmost e xc lus ive ly Artem is ' a ttr ibute, r epresentat ions o f d eer b egan t o b e d ed icated p r inc ipa l ly t o h er.

F ootnotes 1 .

Odyssey .

V I.102-104. Cf Homer ic Hymns . XXVII.6-10.

2 .

F or e xamp le, Ca l l imachus. Hymn t o Artem is .

9 4-109.

1 12.

3 .

F or e xamp le, a k rater iskos f ragment pub l ished by L i l ly Kah i l. ( AntK 2 0 ( 1977) p . 9 2, P l. 2 0).

4 .

Homer ic Hymns . XXVII.2; Anacreon, F ragment 1 ; Orphic Hymns . 3 6.10; S ophodes. T rachiniae . 2 13; E ur ip ides. 1 phigene ia i n T aur is . 1 113 ( t ' E laphoktonos " ); Artem idorus. One irocr it icon. 1.35 ( p. 1 32); P lutarch. Mora l ia . 2 44 c -e; 6 60 d ; Nonnus. D ionys iaca . XLIV. 1 97-8.

5 .

AP I V I.111 .

6 .

D iodorus. I V.22 ( 268).

7 .

AP I I X.525.3-14.

8 .

AP I V I.112.

9 .

P ausan ias. X .13.3.

1 0.

P l iny. Natura l H istory . XXXIV.75.

1 1.

P ausan ias. I X.19.5.

1 2.

I bid . V II.18.7.

1 3.

A thenaeus 6 46 e ;

1 4.

S ophoc les. E lectra .

1 5 .

Apo l lodorus. B ibl iotheca .

1 6.

Xenophon. Anabasis .

1 7.

Arr ian. Anabas is . V II.20.4.

1 8.

I mag ines .

1 9.

P ausan ias. V III.10.10.

2 0.

I b id . V II.18.7.

2 1.

G . M.A. R ichter. Anima ls i n Greek S cu lpture . Oxford 1 930. F ig . 1 46 ; S . Re inach. Reperto ire d e Re l iefs Grecs e t Roma ins . P ar is 1 909. p . 2 23.2. A l arge Roman r e l ief f rom E phesos ( not f rom t he Artem is ion) s hows Artem is i n ac har iot d rawn by d oes. I b id . p . 1 43.

2 2.

P ausan ias. 1.30 .7;

2 3.

S . W ide. L akonische Ku lte .

2 4.

J .G. F razer. T he Go lden Bough. L ondon 1 890. Vo l. I , pp. 4 4-46.

2 5.

Apo l lodorus. B ibl iotheca .

2 6.

I bid .

Bekker. Anecdota Graeca .

I . p . 2 49.7 .

5 66-572. 1 .5.3.

V .3.9-10.

1 .28.6.

1 1.4.4;

V I11.22.9. S tuttgart 1 973. p . 1 27.

1 .7.4.

D iodorus. I V.81.5.

1 13.

2 7.

S cho l ia i n P indarem .O lympian.

2 8.

Eur ip ides. He len.

2 9.

JHS 1 4 ( 1894) p . 1 35.

3 0.

P ausan ias. V III.37.4. Xenophon o f Ephesos ' h ero ine Anthe ia, who wa lked i n t he s acred p rocess ion t o t he Artem is ion d ressed a s t he g oddess, wore a f awn-sk in ( Xenophon o f Ephesos. Habroco rnes a nd Anthe ia . 1 .2.5-7). Ded icated r epresentat ions o f Artem is wear ing a d eer-sk in a re n ot v ery w ide ly known; but s evera l t errac ottas o ffered t o Artem is Orth ia dur ing t he Roman p er iod s how h er i n t h is d ress ( AO p . 1 61).

3 1.

S trabo ( 343) r efers t o a n a n ima l f est iva l o f t h is g oddess a t O lympia.

3 2.

P ausan ias. V I.22.11 ( Pengu in e d it ion. Vo l. I , p . 3 55).

3 3.

S ee Catt le, p .

3 4.

D ionysiaca . XLIV. 1 97-8.

3 5 .

Orphic Hymns. 5 2 .10; XX VI.28.

3 6.

There a re c o ins o f t he t h ird c entury BC wh ich s how Artem is ' h ead o n t he o bverse, a nd t he f orepart o f as tag o n t he r everse s ide. ( B . V. Head. Cata logue o f t he Greek c o ins o f I onia . ( Br it ish Museum) L ondon 1 892. pp. 5 7-60, P l. 1 0.8; P l. 1 1.1-3.) E lectrum c o ins o f t he s ixth c entury o r e ar l ier, wh ich a re p robab ly E phes ian, s howed t he f orepart o f t he s tag, but n ot t he g oddess ( Ib id . p . 4 7, P l. 3 .11). Cf Xenophon o f E phesos ' a ccount o f t he p rocess ion i n wh ich a g ir l d ressed l ike Artem is t he huntress c arr ied a b ow a nd a rrows. S ee a bove, n ote 3 0.

3 7.

S ee Catt le, p .

8 6.

3 8.

S ee Boars, p .

7 7.

3 9.

Ca l l imachus. Hymn t o Apo l lo. 6 0-61. A f i f th c entury d ed icatory marb le r e l ief f rom Aeg ina a lso s hows t he s acr if ice o f ad eer t o Artemis ( AE : 1 901 p p. 1 13-120, P l. 6 ).

4 0.

BCH 1 5 ( 1891) pp. 9 4-95. L i l ly Kah i l p laces t hem b etween t he e nd o f t he s ixth, a nd t he m idd le o f t he f i f th c entur ies. L exlc I .1. p . 7 43.

4 1.

Dorothea Brooke b e l ieved t hat t he a nima ls h e ld by f our l ate Archa ic f ema le f igur ines f rom t he Acropo l is a re n ot f awns but k ids. The s anctuary o f Aeto l ian Kora i ( where t he d e it ies worsh ipped h ave n ot b een i dent if ied w ith c erta inty) a lso p roduced t erracottas o f t h is k ind; a nd i t i s p robab le t hat Artem is a nd h er nymphs h ad a c u lt t here ( K . A. Roma ios. " Kora i t is A ito l ias" ADe lt 6 ( 1920-21) p . 6 9 , F ig. 4 ).

1 0

1 1.53.

3 81-383.

8 3 .

AP I I X.525.14.

Cf Nonnus. D ionys iaca .

1 14.

4 2.

P ausan ias. X .37.6.

4 3.

Apo l lo 's t emp le h ad t wo c hambers, a part f rom t he pronaos a nd o pisthodomos, a nd i t h as b een s uggested by J .B. Bury t hat Artem is may h ave b een worsh ipped i n t he s econd ( H istory o f Greece. L ondon 1 900. p . 1 52).

4 4.

L i l ly Kah i l. X I I nternat iona l Congress . p . 7 8, P l. 3 2.a.

4 5.

JHS 4 5 ( 1925) p . 2 1 , F ig. 2 4 ( Evans i dent if ies t he d e ity a s Artem is, Br itomart is, o r D iktynna).

4 6.

AM 5 0 ( 1925) pp. 1 62-3, P l. 7 .

4 7.

I bid .

4 8.

ASAtene

4 9.

AA 9 5 ( 1980) p . 5 9.

5 0.

The " doe" f rom Apha ia 's s anctuary c annot b e i dent if ied w ith c omp lete c erta inty.

5 1.

AO p . 2 51.

5 2.

I b id . p . 2 77.

5 3.

I b id . pp. 2 82-3. I t must b e s a id, h owever, t hat t he f ragmentary t erracotta f igur ine o f a huntress e qu ipped w ith a bow ( a t ype g enera l ly i dent if ied a s Artemis) was d ed icated a t t h is s anctuary dur ing t he s eventh c entury; wh ich s uggests t hat Orth ia was t hen a lready r egarded a s a n Artemisl ike d e ity ( p. 1 58, P l. 4 2.2).

5 4.

S ee RE 8 .2 ( 1913) 1 946.

p . 1 61, F ig. 2 . 1( 1914) pp. 1 9-111, F ig. 2 1.c.3.

1 15.

DOGS

A .

L i terary e v idence

( i )

Artem is a nd t he d og

( see Append ix 8 .6)

When d iscuss ing wh ich d e it ies were p atrons o f c erta in b irds a nd a n ima ls, P lutarch o bserved t hat t he d og was s acred t o Artem is'.

C erta in-

l y, i t i s a n a ppropr iate c ompan ion a nd u sefu l s ervant f or t he g oddess o f hunt ing, who a lready i n o ne o f t he Homer ic Hymns i s d escr ibed a s c heer ing o n t he h ounds 2 . Ca l l imachus d escribes t he d ogs g iven t o Artem is by P an, i n s ome d eta i l 3; a nd a ccord ing t o Xenophon o f E phesos ' a ccount o f t he s acred p rocess ion f or t he c ity t o t he Artem is ion, d ogs t ook p art i n i t , f o l low ing a g ir l who was d ressed t o l ook l ike Artem is t he huntress.

The g oddess p resented Cyrene, a hunt ing nymph l i ke

h erse lf , w ith t wo h ounds 5; a nd t aught A ta lanta ( another v ers ion o f h erse lf ) how t o h and le t hese l iv ing t oo ls o f t he ir t rade6 . The C retan g oddess D iktynna, w ith whom Artem is was i dent if ied

7,

was known t o

k eep a p ack o f h ounds 8; a nd h er t emp le i n Crete was a ppropr iate ly guarded by d ogs 9 . I n t he myth o f Actaeon, Artem is u sed d ogs f or a more s inister purpose t han hunt ing d eer;

a l though i t was i n ad eer 's s hape t hat

Actaeon was t orn t o p ieces by h is own p ack.

The f ate o f t he d eer,

a nd t he man a l ike may b e s een t o a pp ly t o a l l human ity, f or n o l iv ing c reature c an e scape d eath, wh ich c omes a bout t hrough t he w i l l o f t he g ods. w i l l;

I n Actaeon 's s tory, d ogs a re t he a gents o f Artemis ' d estruct ive a nd poss ib ly i t i s b ecause o f t he ir d eath-dea l ing c apac ity t hat

t hey w ere a lso r egarded i n a more g enera l s ense a s s ymbo ls a nd c onc om itants o f d eath" °. A t l east f rom t he t ime o f Homer a nd Hes iod, t he underwor ld was s a id t o b e guarded by a h ound, t he Cerberus whose

1 16.

f earfu l p ower was s ymbo l ized by h is many h eads " .

( On f unerary s te la i,

h owever, a nd r e l iefs d ed icated t o h eroes, t he d og i s p ortrayed a s a g ent ler c ompan ion o f d eath, o f ten p resent a t t he f east o f t he d eparted 1 2 . )

( i i)

Hekate a nd t he d og Artem is was a g oddess o f d eath a s we l l a s o f hunt ing, s o t he d og

i s a ppropr iate a s h er a ttr ibute i n more t han o ne s ense.

But a s ad eath-

s ymbo l i t i s p erhaps a ssoc iated more o f ten w ith Hekate, who r epresents Artemis ' d arker s ide, a nd whose n ame b ecame o ne o f h er t i t les

1 3

. L ike

Artem is a t Lykosoura a nd E leus is 1 4 ,H ekate w as a p rotectress o f g ates 1 6 , ar o le i n wh ich t he d og i tse lf h as a lways s erved man. g ate-keeper a nd d eath-power a re c lose ly c onnected;

But t he r o les o f i n Cerberus,

t he h ound o f He l l, t hey a re i ndeed o ne a nd t he s ame 1 6 . Thu s i n n ot ing t hat t he d og b e longed t o Artem is, P lutarch a dded t hat a s Eur ipides h ad s a id, i t was r egarded, a l ternat ive ly, a s Hekate 's s acred a n ima l. Chr istou ( d iscuss ing a f i f th c entury p laque f ound i n aL acon ian t omb, o n wh ich a f ema le w ith a d og i s r epresented) b e l ieved t hat t he s acred a n ima l o f Hekate ( or o f Artem is Hekate) e xpressed t he g oddess '

c hthon ic

p ower 1 7 . Th is wou ld e xp la in why Hekate w as s omet imes portrayed a s d og-shaped, o r d og-headed

1 8

.

I n s evera l o f h er c u lt-p laces ( for

e xamp le a t Ko lophon i n As ia M inor, a nd i n S amothrace) d ogs w ere s acr if i ced t o Hekate o r Enod ia1 3 . I n f act t he d og was s omet imes d escr ibed a s " the Car ian s acr if ice"

2 0

; a nd t h is i s p robably c onnected w ith t he

f act t hat Hekate w as o r ig ina l ly a d e ity o f C ar la, where s he h ad h er p r inc ipa l s anctuary a t L ag ina 2 1 . But Hekate was a lso a b irth-goddess.

I n t he Orphic hymn c omposed

i n h er h onour, s he i s a ddressed a s " Kouro trophos";

a nd when Artem is

Hekate i s i nvoked i n t he c horus o f t he Suppl iant Women

22

,

i t i s t o watch

1 17.

over women g iv ing b irth 2 3 . I n t h is c haracter s he i s a ssociated w ith I ph igene ia, t he c h i ldbirth d e ity o f Brauron, t o whom t he g arments o f women who had p er ished i n g iv ing b irth were d ed icated 2 4 . I n h is d esc r ipt ion o f

Megara, P ausan ias wr ites:

" I know t hat Hes iod .. s ays

t ha t I ph igene ia d id n ot d ie, but by t he w i l l o f Artemis, i s Hekate"

25

.

There i s s ome e v idence t hat d ogs were s acr if iced n ot o n ly a s s ymbo ls o f d eath, t o Hekate, but a lso t o p owers a ssoc iated w ith b irth.

P lutarch

r e lates t hat t he Romans s acr if iced a b itch t o ag oddess t hey c a l led Geneta Mana, " a s pir it c oncerned w ith t he g enerat ion a nd b irth o f be ings t hat p er ish".

And h e r efers t o S ocrates ' s ay ing t ha t a b itch was

s acr if iced t o t he Arg ive E i l ioneia ( a v ers ion o f E i 1e ithy ia 2 6 )" by means o f t he e ase w ith wh ich t he b itch b r ings f orth i ts young"

27

.

I t may

even h ave b een Hecuba 's o f ten r epeated motherhood t hat d eterm ined t he n ature o f h er f ina l metamorphos is.

( i i i)

Dog-der ived t i t les P o lybius r ecords t hat Apo l lo was worsh ipped under t he t i t le o f

Kynne ios a t Temnos i n As ia M inor

2 8

. Noth ing i s known a bout t h is c u lt;

but s ince Apo l lo was s omet imes r egarded a s a hunt ing-god l i ke h is s ister, i t i s l ike ly t hat h e m ight b e a ssoc iated o n o ccas ion w ith t he dog ( as

h e

was w ith i t s quarry, t he d eer 2 9 ) .

The e pithet o f S ky lak it is

( protectress o f d ogs) i s a pp l ied i n t he Orph ic Hymns t o Hekate a nd t o Artem is

3 0 ;

a nd aga in Nonnus i n h is D ion y s iaca u ses t he a d ject ive

Sky lakotrophos ( nurse o r r earer o f puppies) t o d escr ibe b oth Hekate 3 1 , and Artemis 3 2 ,b ut a lso P an ( from whom Artem is was f abled t o h ave r ece ived h er d ogs) l over)

3 1 f

3 3

.

Nonnus a lso c a l ls Hekate Ph i losky lakos ( dog-

. The a pp l icat ion o f s uch t i t les t o Artem is a nd Hekate i s c on-

s istent w ith t he b e l ief t ha t t he d og was s acred t o b oth t hese g oddesses;

1 18.

a nd t hey a re n ot i nappropr iate f or Apo l lo a s a hunter, o r P an a s a g od o f w i ld nature. A Thessa l ian d ed icatory i nscr ipt ion r efers t o ag oddess c a l led Kynag ia, w ithout a ny o ther n ame

3 5

,a nd W ern icke h as s uggested t ha t

Artem is was t he most l ike ly owner o f s uch a t i t le.

Cons ider ing t he

i mportance o f t he c hthon ic c u lt o f Hekate/Enod ia i n Thessa ly, a nd e specia l ly a t Phera i, i t m ight e qua l ly h ave a pp l ied t o o ne o f t hem: Hekate who i s s a id t o h ave b een d og-shaped.

a nd i t i s

I n a ny c ase, n e ither

Hekate ( as a g oddess o f b irth a nd d eath) n or Enod ia c an b e s eparated e nt ire ly f rom Artem is ,a nd t he t i t le m ight h ave b e longed t o a ny o r a l l o f t hese d eit ies.

B .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence

( i )

S acr if ice Non-l iterary e v idence o f d og-sacr if ice i s s canty.

The o n ly t wo

s anctuar ies among t hose under e xam ina t ion h ere, where a s ma l l quant ity o f t he ir b ones h ave b een r eported, a re E phesos a nd Knossos.

I t has

b een n oted t hat dur ing t he f east o f Ephes ian Artem is, d ogs f ormed p art o f t he p rocess ion t ha t went f rom t he c i ty t o t he s anctuary

3 6

.

The

i mportance o f t he d og i n t he Ephes ian c u lt may a lso b e e xpressed i n a Greek g em o f t he e ar ly I mper ia l p er iod, wh ich d ep icts t he m any2 0

b reasted Artem is f lanked by t wo b itches

3 7

. But i t i s a lso known t hat

Hekate, who a ppears i n l i terature a s t he r ec ip ient o f d og-sacr if ice, h ad h er c u lt w ith in t he Ephes ian p rec inct 3 8 ,a s s he d id n ear t he Artem is ion o f Cyrene

3 9

. I t i s n ot known t hat Hekate h ad a ny c u lt a t Knossos,

but a s a n underwor ld d e ity s he c lear ly h ad a ff init ies w ith Kore 4 ° ; a nd t he p resence o f i mages o f Hekate i n more t han o ne s anctuary o f Demeter a nd Kore may h ave b een a n a cknow ledgement o f t h is a ff in i ty w ith t he

1 19 .

underwor ld g oddesses ''.

I f t he b ones o f d ogs f ound a t Knossos a re

i ndeed t he r ema ins o f b urnt o ffer ings, t he s acr if ice m ight h ave b een made t here f or s im i lar r easons.

( i i)

R epresentat ions o f Artem is a nd t he d og I t i s Hekate, r a ther t han O lymp ian Artem is, who emerges i n

l i tera ture a s t he r ec ip ient o f d ogs a s burnt o ffer ings.

But Artem is '

a ssoc iat ion w ith t he d og a s a hunt ing-compan ion i s a lso g iven l i terary e xpress ion;

a nd i n af ew o f h er s anctuar ies i t i s c lear ly a cknow ledged

i n i conograph ica l t erms .

T erracotta f igur ines o f t he g oddess w i th a

d og a t h er f eet w ere d iscovered a t t he O lymp ian a l tar o f Artem is, a t S ca la Greca i n S ici ly, A r ic ia b es ide L ake N em i i n I ta ly, a nd a t Artem is Orth ia.

A t S ca la Greca f ragments o f a bout f i f ty s uch f igur ines, d at ing

f rom t he f ourth a nd t h ird c entur ies a re r ecorded. a re n ot f ound a t t he s anctuar ies o f o ther g ods;

I n g enera l, t hey

but o ne e xcept ion

i s A thena Cha lk io ikos i n S parta, where " severa l", l i ke t he Orth ia e xamp le o f R oman d ate, h ave b een r ecorded.

I t i s p robab le t hat l i ke t he f ew

l ead f igur ines o f d eer wh ich c ame t o l ight i n t h is s anctuary 4 2 ,t hey were made f or d ed icat ion t o Artem is, but t he ir a va i lab i l i ty i n S parta, o r s ome more p ersona l mot ive o n t he worsh ipper 's p art, c aused t hem t o b e b rought t o t he n earby s hr ine o f a nother d e i ty.

No t erraco tta g roups

o f g oddess a nd d og w ere f ound among t he numerous K anon i f igur ines ; a nd o ne c an o n ly c onc lude t ha t t he t ype h ad n ot e vo lved by t he e ar ly f i f th c entury.

Yet t he p ictor ia l c oncept w as n ot unknown, f or a t Brauron

at erracotta r e l ief o f t he l a te s ixth c entury d ep icts Artem is r unn ing b es ide h er d og .

A f ragmentary marb le r e l ief o f t he f o l low ing c entury

f rom Brauron h as t he s ame mot if ;

a nd a marb le s te le f rom t he A then ian

Acropo l is, o n wh ich a g oddess w ear ing a d eersk in a nd a ccompan ied by ad og i s s een, c ou ld a lso h ave b een d ed icated t o Artem is Brauron ia.

1 20.

( i i i)

Hunt ing mot ifs i n s anctuar ies Apart f rom t he Brauron p laque, r epresentat ions o f t he d og a s

Artem is ' a ttr ibute d ate f rom t he C lass ica l o r He l len ist ic p er iod .

But

t he mot if o f t he w i ld a n ima l hunted by d ogs was p opu lar i n t he a rt o f e ar l ier t imes, a nd i n t he s hape b oth o f f igur ines, a nd o f o rnamenta l e ngrav ings, was d ed icated i n s anctuar ies d ur ing t he Geometr ic a nd Archa ic p er iods.

Moreover, l ike t he Geometr ic d eer d iscussed e ar l ier

3,

a nd d oubt less f or t he s ame r easons, t hey h ave b een f ound n o t o n ly i n t he s anctuar ies o f huntresses l ike Artem is a nd Apha ia, but a lso i n t hose o f A thena, Hera, Apo l lo a nd Z eus. 2 1

I t i s n ot i mposs ible t hat t he

Geometr ic O lympian s tags a ttacked by h ounds were d ed icated t o Artem is, but n or i s i t n ecessary, f or a s we have s een, a hunter m ight g ive t hanks f or h is g ood f ortune i n a ny s anctuary.

By t he f ourth c entury, t he

r e lat ionsh ip o f Artem is t o h ounds a nd t he hunt h ad b ecome m ore exc lus ive, a s t he t erracotta g roups s how. 2 2

The f ourth-century marble d og 's h ead

water-spouts f rom h er t emp le i n t he Epidaur ian Ask lepieion , wh ich a re p art o f ap ortraya l o f b oar-hunt ing i n t he f orm o f a n a rch itectura l d ecorat ion, a lso g ive e xpress ion t o t h is r e lat ionsh ip.

S im i lar d ogs '

h eads were a f eature o f t he f ourth c entury t emp le a t Ka lydon;

a nd

at erracotta water-spout, a lso s haped l i ke a d og 's h ead, d iscovered i n Apo l lo 's -s anctuary a t Thermon, s uggested t o t he e xcavators t hat a t emp le o f Artem is may h ave s tood i ns ide t h is p rec inct t oo.

D a t ing f rom

t he e ar ly s ixth c entury, i t i s a much e ar l ier e xamp le o f t he t ype t han t he Ep idaurus o r Ka lydon marb les, a nd may ( l ike t he s l ight ly l a ter Brauron p laque) b ear w itness t o t he b eg inn ing o f Artemis ' more exc lus ive a ssoc iat ion w ith hunt ing.

The t heme o f hunt ing w ith d ogs m ay a lso

p oss ib ly h ave d ecorated a p re-Roman t emp le o f t he Cretan A rtemis D iktynna, whose s anctuary, a ccord ing t o P h i lostratus, was g uarded b y

1 21.

dogs;

a lthough, i f s o , t he mot if g ave s hape n ot t o water-spouts, but

t o a kroter ia. 3 0

No t race o f s uch a t emp le-decorat ion h as a ctua l ly s urv ived;

but a t hird-century s te le, o n wh ich t he g oddess a ppears a s a huntress, a lso d epicts a p ed iment w ith a kroter ia c ons ist ing o f ad og o n e i ther s ide a ttack ing t wo c entra l g oats.

I f t here was s uch a bu i ld ing i n t he

s anctuary, i t n eed n ot h ave b een a s l ate a s t he t h ird c entury.

( iv)

S eparate r epresentat ions o f d ogs i n s anctuar ies When t he d og i s r epresented w ith Artem is, i t i s i ntended a s a n

a ttr ibute o f t he g oddess o f hunt ing ;

l ess c ommon ly p ortrayed t han

her b ow a nd qu iver, but h av ing t he s ame f unct ion a s at oo l o f t he c hase. When f ound i n as anctuary, t h is i mage g enera l ly i dent if ies t he p atron d e ity a s Artem is, a nd i s a n a ppropr iate d ed icat ion t here.

But i t i s

by n o means c erta in t hat r epresentat ions o f t he d og w ithout t he d e ity c arr ied t he s ame mean ing . I mages o f s eparate d ogs a s v ot ive o ffer ings h ave b een f ound a t f our teen c u lt-p laces o f Artem is o ut o f t he t h irty o r s o i n t h is s tudy.

e xam ined

They h ave i n a dd it ion b een f ound a t O lymp ia ( where

s he w as worsh ipped a t o ther a l tars t han t he o ne i dent if ied a s h ers by e xcavat ion), a nd o n t he A then ian Acropo l is ( wh ich c onta ined t he c i tys anctuary o f Artem is Brauron ia).

Out o f t he f i f ty s anctuar ies o f o ther

d e it ies c ons idered h ere , t we lve ( apart f rom O lymp ia a nd t he Acropo l is) have y ie lded d ogs.

The e xact t ota l o f a l l t hose d ed icated i s n ot c lear,

a s s ome a rchaeo log ica l r eports f a i l t o s pec ify numbers; 1 18 w ere r ecovered f rom t he s anctuar ies i n quest ion.

but a t l east O f t hese, o ver

ha lf must h ave b e longed t o Artem is, s ince i n a dd it ion t o t he f i f ty-four s pec if ied i n h er s anctuar ies, unknown quant it ies c ame t o l ight a t Ka lydon and h er O lympian a l tar, a nd t hose o ffered t o Artem is Knakeat is w ere

1 22.

2 3

e spec ia l ly numerous.

Any o r a l l o f t he f ive r epresentat ions o f d ogs

r ecorded o n t he Acropo l is o f A thens c ou ld a lso h ave b een d ed icated t o Artem is.

A t Artem is Orth ia, where t wenty-e ight o f t he 1 60 Late

Geometr ic a nd Archa ic i vory c ouchant a n ima ls a re d ogs, t hey were t he s econd most c ommon i vory a n ima l f ound;

a nd a l though c onspicuous ly

a bsent i n l ead, were a lso f ound i n av ar iety o f o ther mater ia ls, i nc lud ing a Mycenaean s teat ite s ea l .

E ighteen r epresentat ions o f d ogs w ere d is-

c overed i n s anctuar ies o f Hera ( most ly a t P erachora); i n t hose o f A thena ( not i nc lud ing t he Acropo l is);

a t l east t we lve

a t l east t en i n Apo l lo 's

( i f t he d og 's h ead water-spout f rom Thermon i s i nc luded);

a nd t h irteen

i n s anctuar ies o f Z eus, a l l o f t hem but o ne f rom O lympia, where t wo e ar ly t erracottas p ortray ing Cerberus, t he d og o f t he underwor ld, a lso c ame t o l ight.

A s ing le t erracotta d og was f ound i n Demeter 's

s anctuary a t S ouva la .

The d istr ibut ion o f t hese v ot ives i nd icate t hat

a lthough i ndependent d ogs were not e xc lus ive ly d ed icated t o Artem is, t hey a re much more l i ke ly t o b e f ound i n h er s anctuar ies t han i n t hose o f o ther d eit ies.

( v)

T he d og a nd t he E pidaur ian d e it ies One o f t he s anctuar ies n ot b e long ing t o Artem is where r epresenta-

t ions o f d ogs w ere d ed icated, i s t he h i l l-top s i te o f Apo l lo Ma leatas. T erracotta d ogs ( wh ich h ave n ot b een e numerated), a nd a f i f th c entury b ronze d og wh ich w as p art o f am irror, w ere d iscovered h ere.

Th is

s hr ine o f Apo l lo o ver looked t he l a ter Ask lepie ion o f Epidaurus;

a nd

a l though t he d ed icat ions made t o Ask lepios d on o t f orm p art o f t h is s tudy, i t may b e s a id t hat a t l east o ne marb le r e l ief o n wh ich a d og i s r eprese nted was o ffered t o t he g od " ( whose ad og a s a ttr ibute 4 5 ) .

c hryse lephant ine s tatue a lso h ad

But Apo l lo ( to whom t he e p ithet o f Kynneios i s

123 .

known t o have b een a pp l ied) was a t Ep idaurus b efore Ask lep ios 4 6 ; a nd i t may b e s ign if icant t hat t he h i l l where h e was worsh ipped w ith t he t i t le o f Ma leatas

w as

c a l led Kynort ion

4 7

. The g od Ma leatas o ccup ied

t he h i l l-top b efore Apo l lo, a nd N i lsson b e l ieved h e was a d e ity t o whom d ogs w ere s acred 4 8 . B ut a s a number o f f igur ines a nd o ther o b jects s how, M t. Kynortion w as a lso a Mycenaean c u lt-p lace

4 9

.

A f ema le d e ity

was i n a l l p robab i l ity worsh ipped t here e ither b efore Ma leatas, o r i f h e w ere h er c onsort, a t t he s ame t ime.

Ib e l ieve t here i s r eason t o

s uppose t hat a g oddess c ont inued t o b e worsh ipped t here w ith Apo l lo, a nd t hat s he was Artem is.

Most o f t he c ons iderable number o f t erracotta

f igur ines, e ven a f ter t he Bronze Age, r epresent f ema les;

a nd a t l east

t wo o f t hem h ave qu iver-band a nd b ow, a nd must t herefore r epresent Artem is

5 0

. I n t he d ecorat ion o f h er t emp le i n t he Ask lep ie ion, d ogs

c ont inued t o b e a ssoc ia ted w ith Artem is, t hough n ow a pparent ly ( as a t Ka lydon) i n t he r o le o f hunt ing-an ima ls, pursu ing t he w i ld b oar. Cavvad ias, h owever, d iscuss ing t he t emp le water-spouts, n otes t ha t t he d og was s pec ia l ly a n a ttr ibute o f Artem is Heka te

5 1

.

And b etween

t he t emp les o f Ask lepios a nd Artem is, a marb le s tatuette o f t he t r ip le Heka te was f ound, i nscr ibed t o Artem is Heka te 5 2 ; w h i le t wo i nscr ipt ions t o Artemis Enod ia f rom t he s anctuary a lso c lose ly l ink t he g oddess w ith Heka te

5 3

:

I t s eems t ha t t he Artem is o f t he Ask lep ie ion was a c thon ian

d ei ty, a nd t hat h ere t he d ogs o f h er t emp le, a nd o f M t. Kynort ion may ( l ike t he l iv ing a n ima ls k ept i n t he h ieron

5 4

)h ave h ad a s ign if icance

b eyond t he s phere o f hunt ing, a nd embod ied p owers o f l i fe a nd d eath.

( v i)

T he d og a nd g oddesses o f b irth

• The mot if o f t he r unn ing g oddess w ith t he d og o n t he p laque f rom t he L acon ian t omb ( ident if ied by Chr istou a s Artem is Hekate) b ears s ome

1 24.

r esemb lance t o t hat o n t he e ar l ier t erracotta p laque f rom Brauron. Cou ld t he Brauron p laque a nd t he l a ter marb le r e l ief f rom t he s ame s anctuary t hen a lso r epresent Artem is a s H ekate, g oddess o f t he underwor ld, r ather t han a s g oddess o f hunt ing?

Though n ot f ound i n a

t omb, t hey c ame f rom a s anctuary a ssoc iated w ith women who h ad d ied i n c h i ldbirth.

And a s a t Epidaurus, s o a t Brauron a marb le Hekate

( w ith a l arge t orch) h as c ome t o l ight

5 5

.

Another o f t he marb le votive

r e l iefs f rom t h is s anctuary s hows Artem is h erse lf c arry ing a t orch 5 6 ; a nd P rofessor Kah i l h as s uggested t ha t i n a nother, a f ema le f igure who may a lso h ave c arr ied a t orch ( though i t i s m iss ing) was I ph igene ia ( ident if ied w ith

Hekate by a wr iter a s e ar ly a s Hes iod).

The o b ject

c arr ied by t he g oddess o f t he t erracotta p laque i s h ard t o i dent ify: i t c ou ld b e a weapon, but i t m ight a lso b e at orch.

The g oddess o f t he

p laque c ou ld e qua l ly b e Artem is t he huntress, o r Heka te t he Queen o f d eath. But I ph igene ia , c lose a s s he was b oth t o Artem is and H ekate, was p r imar i ly a b irth-goddess;

a nd t he marb le s tatuettes o f s ma l l boys

d ed icated a t t he s anctuary were e v ident ly t hank-offer ings f or a happ ier o utcome o f c h i ldbirth t han t he mother 's d eath.

I t h as b een o bserved

t hat d ogs were s acr if iced t o p owers a ssoc iated w ith b irth;

a nd i t may

h ave b een i n c onnect ion w ith t h is r ite t ha t ad og ( one o f t he f ew t errac otta a n ima ls o n d isp lay i n t he museu: :: , was d ed ic, • : 2 ,ad i n t he s anctuary a t Brauron.

There i s a lso a z n , c _r ; :ie d og wh ich may h ave b een p art

o f ag roup c ons ist ing o f b oy a nd d og ( for among t he marble s tatuettes t here i s as ma l l b oy w ith h is d og). p et a nd c ompan ion f or a c h i ld;

The a n ima l i s an atura l e nough

but i t i s a t l east p oss ible ( in v iew o f

l i terary e v idence) t ha t a t Brauron i t m ight a lso h ave b een r egarded a s as ymbo l o f b irth.

The mot if o f b oy a nd d og i s a lso f ound a t L indos

5 7

,

1 25 .

(where i n a dd it ion, i ndependent t erracotta d ogs h ave b een f ound) ; and A thena L ind ia, t oo,

was a f ert i l i ty g oddess t o whom k ourotrophos -

f igur ines o f mother a nd c h i ld w ere d ed icated, a s t hey were a t Brauron

5 9

O ther s anctuar ies wh ich h ave y ie lded b oth k ourotropho i a nd r epresentat ions o f d ogs a re Ka lydon , E phesos , Artem is Orth ia, Ar ic ia, t he A rg ive Hera ion , P erachora,

S amos a nd S ouva 1a

5 9

. I f t he d og-

r epresentat ions o ffered t o t hose g oddesses not p r imar i ly r egarded a s p atrons o f hunt ing h ad a ny s ign if icance a s d ed icat ions,

Is uggest

t ha t i t may l i e i n t he a ssoc iat ion o f t he a n ima l w ith " the b irth o f b e ings t ha t p er ish".

Most f ema le d e it ies, i nc lud ing Heka te h erse lf ,

i nvoked f or t he ir a id i n t he a ch ievement o f b irth. who l ly c oncerned w ith b irth was E i le ithy ia,

were

But t he g oddess

who h ad a c u lt a t O lymp ia" ;

and i n t he A lt is , where d og-representat ions were o ffered a t t he a l tar o f A rtemis, t we lve much e ar l ier f igur ines were d iscovered i n o ther parts o f t he s anctuary.

These may r efer t o hunt ing ( l ike t he b ronze

d eer a ttacked by h ounds) o r t o t he d efence o f h erds 6 1 . B ut i t i s known t hat b itches w ere s acr if iced t o Arg ive E i le ithy ia; not i mposs ib le t hat a t O lymp ia, t oo, w ith b irth.

a nd i t i s

s ome o f t he d ogs w ere a ssoc iated

The c erber i d ed icated a t O lymp ia dur ing t he s ame e ar ly

per iod c erta in ly s uggest a n awareness o f t he w ider s ymbo l ic c onnotat ions o f t he d og 's i mage.

C .

C onc lus ion I t i s e v ident t ha t t he d og was more c lose ly c onnected w ith Artem is

t han w ith o ther O lymp ian d e it ies :

a t Ant ikyra a nd Lykosoura , a ccord ing

t o P ausan ias , i t a ppeared a s a n a ttr ibute o f P rax ite les ' a nd Damophon 's cu lt-statues

6 2

;

a nd r epresentat ions o f i t h ave b een d iscovered more

f requent ly i n h er s anctuar ies t han i n t hose o f o thers.

Th is i s n o

1 26.

d oubt due t o Artem is ' r o le a s g oddess o f h unt ing - a r o le wh ich i s r ef lected b oth i n t he c u lt-statues d escr ibed by P ausan ias, a nd i n t he s urv iv ing t erracotta f igur ines where s he c arr ies a b ow a nd qu iver, a nd i s a ccomp an ied by a d og.

But Artem is i s a lso a g oddess o f b irth a nd d eath, a nd

t he d og i s ac hthon ic s ymbo l a s w e l l a s a hunt ing-an ima l.

I ndeed, t he

t wo s pheres a re n e ither l i tera l ly o r s ymbo l ica l ly qu ite d ist inct:

t he

Ant ikyra a nd Lykosoura s tatues c arr ied a n under-wor ld t orch, a s w e l l a s a hunt ing qu iver.

A t Artem is Orth ia 's s anctuary t he s upernatura l

o ther-wor ld ly p ower o f t he d og e ngraved o n a n i vory c omb i s e xpressed by i ts w ings.

As a s ymbo l o f d eath a nd o f b irth, t he d og w as a ssoc ia ted

i n p art icu lar w ith Hekate, but a lso w ith s uch d e it ies a s E i l ione ia o f A rgos, a nd t he Ep idaur ian g ods.

As f ar a s Iknow, i t i s n ot r epresented a s a n

a ttr ibute o f t he Bronze Age p otnia t heron;

a l though t here a re examp les

o f Archa ic g oddesses f l anked by a p a ir o f d ogs

6 3

.

But a l l t hese powers

i nher ited c haracter ist ics o f t he o lder p otnia t heron;

a nd a mong t he

O lymp ian g oddesses n ot o n ly Artem is but a lso Demeter, Hera a nd A thena ( espec ia l ly a t L indos) w ere h er h e irs, a nd c ou ld b e worsh ipped a s d e i t ies c oncerned w ith b irth a nd d eath.

Ib e l ieve t hat i t i s b ecause t hey were

s omet imes r egarded a s c hthon ic s ymbo ls t hat d ogs a re t o b e f ound i n t he s anctuar ies o f t hese g oddesses, a s w e l l a s i n t hose o f Artem is. F ootnotes 1 .

Mora l /a. 3 79 D .

2 .

Homer ic Hymns. XXVII. 1 .

3 .

Ca l l imachus. Hymn t o Artem is . 9 0-97.

4 .

Xenophon o f Ephesos. Habrocomes a nd Anthe ia. I . 2 .6-7.

5 .

Ca l l imachus. Op. c it . 2 06-7.

6 .

I bid. 2 15-217.

7 .

S ee b e low, " F ish", p .

1 31.

8 .

Ar istophanes. F rogs.

1 360.

1 27.

9 .

P h i lostratus. L ife o f Apo l lonius o f Tyana . V III. 3 0.

1 0.

C . Vermeu le. " Greek f unerary a n ima ls 4 50-300 BC". AJA 7 6 ( 1972) p p. 4 9-59 . c f . M .P. N i lsson, Gr iechische F este . p . 3 96.

1 1.

Homer g ives h im n o n ame a nd n o e xtra h eads ( I l iad V III. 3 68; Odyssey X I. 6 23); but Hes iod c a l ls h im " savage Cerberus, t he f i f ty-headed b ronze-vo iced d og o f Hades". ( Theogony. 3 11). L ater h e was g enera l ly c red ited w ith t hree h eads ( Pausan ias. I I. 2 5.6).

1 2.

R ouse. p . 5 .

1 3.

F or e xamp le, i n Aeschy lus ' Suppl iant Women ( 674).

1 4.

P ausan ias. V III. 3 7. 1 -6; I . 3 8.6.

1 5.

A s a t t he e ntrance t o t he Acropo l is o f A thens ( Ibid .

1 6.

I n Thessa ly, Heka te was worsh ipped under t he n ame o f Enod ia ( Theodore Kraus, Hekate. pp. 7 7-82). There i s s ome e p igraph ica l e v idence t hat t he s anctuary o uts ide t he wa l ls o f Phera i, wh ich w as e stabl ished o ver a Geometr ic c emetery, b e longed t o t h is d e ity ( see I ntroduct ion. Note 8 ).

1 7.

C . Chr istou. " Artemis Hekate" ( AE 1 953-4. P art I I. pp. 1 88-200).

1 8.

S ee Hesych ius ' g loss o n " Hekat is Aga lma"; Bekker, Anecdota G raeca . 3 36.31; N i lsson, Op . c it . p . 3 96, n ote 2 . Hecuba, s omet imes e quated w ith Hekate a s ad eath-goddess was f ina i :y t ransf ormed i nto a b itch. Eur ipides, Hecuba . 1 265 ; Apo l ioc iorus, E pitome. V .24; D io Chrysostom, 3 5.39 ; RE 8 .2 ( 1913) 2 578-9 .

1 9.

P ausan ias I I. 1 4.9 ; P lutarch, Mora l ia . 2 77B a nd 2 80C; A r istophanes, S cho l ia i n P acem . 2 77; Bekker , Op . c it . 3 27.13 ;

I . 3 0.2).

3 36.31. 2 0.

G .E. Bean. Turkey b eyond t he Maeander . L ondon 1 971 p . 9 4.

2 1.

I b id . pp. 9 4-98; c i t . * p . 2 0.

2 2.

S ee note 1 3.

2 3.

On t he e astern p ar t o f t he f r ieze o f I i ekate 's t emp le a t 7 . ag ina, s he a ppears a s a n a ss istant a t t he b irth o f Z eus, c arry ing t he s tone t o o ffer i n h is p lace t o Cronos ( Bean, Op. c it . p . 9 7; N ewton, H istory . I P l. 7 9). The s anctuary o f Ka : l iste, n ear t he Kerame ikos c emetery o f A thens, moreover, where t he v ot ive o ffer ings s how t he d e ity t o b e ac h i ldbirth g oddess, i s ment ioned b y Hesych ius ( in h is g loss o n t he word) a s b e ing s acred e ither t o Hekate, o r t o A rtem is. ( See a bove, " Bears", p .21 a nd Note 1 6). I n o ne marble r e l ief f ound i n t h is s anctuary a marr ied c oup le a pproach ag oddess c arry ing a t orch - a mot if wh ich may r efer b oth t o d eath, a nd t o human f ert i l ity. ( BCH 5 1 ( 1927) 1 58, P l. 8 , a nd pp. 1 64-169.)

N i lsson Op . c it . pp. 3 97 a nd 4 01;

Kraus Op.

1 28.

2 4.

Eur ip ides. 1 phigene ia i n T aur is.

1 464-1467.

2 5.

P ausan ias. I . 4 3.1.

2 6.

S ee RE 5 ( 1905) 2 112.

2 7.

P lutarch . Mora l ia . 2 77 B ( Loeb , MoraHa. Vo l. I V. p . 8 5 ). A thenaeus ' r eference t o ad og-s laughter a t Argos n o d oubt h as s omething t o d o w ith t h is c u lt ( Athenaeus. 9 9 E ).

2 8.

P o lybius. XXXII. 3 7.12. c f . a lso Hesych ius ' g loss o n t he name.

2 9.

S ee a bove, " Deer", p .

3 0.

Orphic Hymns .

3 1.

D ionysiaca . XLIV. 1 95 ( "Because t he n ight ly s ound o f t he hurry ing d ogs i s t hy d e l ight, w ith t he ir mournfu l wh imper ing").

3 2.

I bid . XLVIII. 1 5.

3 3.

I bid . XVI. 1 87.

3 4.

I b id .

3 5.

RE 2 ( 1896) 1 391.

3 6.

S ee a bove, p . 1 15 n ote 4 .

3 7.

Furtwäng ler. D ie Ant iken Gemmen. P l. 4 4.2.

3 8.

S trabo r efers t o t he Hekat is ion t here ( 641); a nd P l iny ment ions t he s tatue o f Hekate k ept b eh ind t he g reat t emp le ( Natura l H istory . XXXVI. 4 .32).

3 9.

EAA Vo l. 2 . p . 6 58. F ig. 8 85 ( no. 1 6).

4 0.

I n t he Homer ic Hymn t o Demeter ( l ines 2 5 a nd 5 2) s he i s s a id t o h ave h e lped t he g oddess t o s earch f or h er d aughter.

4 1.

They were f ound a t P ergamon ( AM 3 5 ( 1910) p . 5 04); S amothrace ( BCH 8 2 ( 1958) p . 7 75); a nd Cn idus ( base w ith t r iangu lar s ocket ? f or t r ip le Hekate ( Newton, H istory . I . pp. 3 85-6); 1R oman l amp w ith Hekate ( in s hort c h iton a nd b oots) a nd d og ( Ibid . p . 4 01 P l. 8 4.5)).

4 2.

There w ere f ewer t han a d ozen, i n c ompar ison w ith t ens o f t housands a t Artem is Orth ia.

4 3.

S ee a bove, pp.

4 4.

Rouse, p . 2 19.

1 01 .

I . 5 ; XXXVI. 1 2.

I I. 7 4-5.

1 06-108.

1 29.

4 5.

P ausan ias. I. 2 7.2 . Ask lep ios, a bandoned by h is mother i n t he E p idaur ian mounta ins,was g uarded by a s hepherd 's d og ( II. 2 6.4). Accord ing t o s ome v ers ions o f t he t a le, h e was e ven s uck led by ab itch ( Frazer, P ausanias ' d escr ipt ion o f Greece . Vo l. I I. p . 2 50).

4 6.

S evera l i nscr ipt ions t o Apo l lo ( some w i th h is t i t le o f Ma leatas) a nd many t o Apo l lo a nd Ask lepios t ogether, i nd icate t hat h e c ont inued t o b e worsh ipped i n t he h ieron a f ter i t h ad b ecome s acred t o Ask lepios [ P. Cavvad ias, F ou i l les d 'Epidaure . Vo l. I . p . 5 3, n o . 9 3 ; p . 5 7, n os. 1 30-131; p . 6 5, n os. 1 89 a nd 1 91 1

4 7.

P ausanias. I. 2 7.8.

4 8.

G r iechische F este . p . 4 07, n ote 7 .

4 9.

P AE 1 949, p . 9 4, F igs. 5 a nd 6 ; 1 950, p . 1 99, F igs. 5 -7 ; 1 974, p . 1 00, n o. 6 ; 1 975, p . 1 73. S ee a lso Hägg a nd Mar inatos. pp . 5 9-65.

5 0.

P AE 1 948, p . 9 9, F ig. 1 1;

5 1.

C avvad ias, Op . c it . p . 1 9 .

5 2.

I b id .

5 3.

I b id . p . 5 2, n o. 8 7; p . 5 7, n o. 1 26. Enod ia was t he Thessa l ian g oddess p robab ly worsh ipped a t Phera i; a nd i t i s o f s ome i nterest t hat near t he Ask lepie ion i n Argos t he o ld c u lt-statue o f Phera ian Artemis was r eputed ly k ept ( Pausan ias. I. 2 3.5).

5 4.

R ouse, p . 2 02 . The l i ck ing o f t he p at ient by d ogs was r egarded a s p art o f h is c ure.

5 5.

P AE 1 948, p . 8 9, F ig . 6 ;

5 6.

E rgon.

5 7.

E rgon. 1 958, F ig. 3 5; p . 7 8, P l. 3 2 a ,b.

5 8.

S ee L indos 1 864; 2 125; 2 145; 2 226-2230; 2 242-4; 2 252; 2 256-9; 2 946-50; 2 986-2997. I n No. 3 048 a p regnant woman i s r epresented. F or Brauron, s ee PAE 1 959, P l. 1 16; f or t he Acropo l is, C ata logue I. p . 3 94.

5 9.

K a lydon.

1f ragmentary k ourotrophos; 2n aked p regnant women. Dyggve, p . 3 48, p . 3 47, F igs. 3 16-317.

E phesos 4 th-cBC

6d raped s eated f ema les w ith c h i ld. Hogarth, p . 3 15, F igs. 9 1-2 ; c f . H igg ins I . 5 51-3 ; 5 55-7; 5 59.

p . 2 3, P l. 9 .27;

1 961, F ig. 2 4;

1 975, p . 1 75, n o. 2 5, P l. 1 53c.

p . 5 8, n o. 1 41.

BCH 7 3 ( 1949), p . 5 27, F ig . 1 0.

1 962, F ig . 4 4. L i l ly Kah i l. X I I nternat iona l Congress.

A rtemis Orth ia

1k ourotrophos;

8 th o r 7 th-cBC

i ng mother a nd c h i ld". AO p . 5 1, F ig. 2 9.

1" pa ir o f b irth d emons s upport-

Ar icia

" Many" k ourotropho i. MA 1 3 ( 1903) p . 3 47.

A cropo l is H e l lenist ic

3f ema les w ith c h i ldren. Cata logue I , p . 3 94.

1 30.

5 9.

Arg ive Hera ion E . Archa ic

1 9 s tand ing/seated k ourotropho i . W a ldstein I , P . 1 9, P l. 4 2.11, F ig. 1 8; P. 2 1, P l . 4 3.4; P . 2 5, P l. 4 4.3, F igs. 3 7-38. 1p regnant woman, p . 3 1, F ig. 5 2.

P erachora 6 th c BC

1s eated mother a nd c h i ld. P erachora I . p . 2 45, n o. 2 50, P l. 1 10.

S amos Archa ic

1f ragmentary Cypr io t k ourotrophos . S amos V II. p . 2 9, P l. 4 9.

S ouva la

1k ourotrophos ( or c lothed monkey w ith young). ADe It 2 7 ( 1972) B 2 .Chr . p . 3 87, P l. 3 24.

6 0.

P ausan ias. V I. 2 0.2-5.

6 1.

0 /Forsch. V II. p . 7 9.

6 2.

P ausan ias. X . 3 7.1; V III. 3 7.4.

6 3.

Chr istou. P otnia T heron. p . 1 67; L. 0. K .Congdon, C aryat id M irrors o f Ancient Greece . Ma inz. 1 981 , n o. 1 17, P l. 9 6.

1 31 .

F ISH, DOLPHINS AND OTHER S EA-CREATURES ( See Append ix 8 .7) 1 .

F ISH

A .

L iterary e v idence

( i ) T he d ed icat ion o f r ea l f i sh As a hunter wou ld d ed icate t he d eer 's a nt lers o r t he b oar 's t usks t o t he g ods, s o m ight a f i sherman o ffer p art o f h is c atch.

I n o ne o f t he

Ded icatory Ep igrams, Men is t he n et-f isher g ives a g r i l led r ed mu l let a nd ah ake t o Artem is L imenit is: t o t hy keeping " ;

" for a l l n ets, g rac ious g oddess, a re g iven

a nd a ccord ing t o A thenaeus, t he f i rst t unny-f ish o f

t he s eason c aught a t Ha lae were o ffered t o P ose idon 2 . P ose idon a s g od o f t he s ea i s t he most ly l ike ly o b ject o f f ishermen 's v enerat ion:

i ndeed,

t he r ecord c atch o f t unny-f ish a ch ieved by t he Corcyraeans was s een a s t he d irect r esu lt o f as acr if ice made t o h im 3 . But Artem idorus r ecords t hat Artem is a lso was h e lpfu l t o f i shers, a s s he was t o hunters;

a nd

t ha t wh i le a s huntress s he b ore t he t i t le o f Agrotera o r E laphebo los, a s p a tron o f f i shermen s he was Artem is L imnat is'.

He m ight h ave a dded

t ha t t hrough h er t i t le o f D iktynna, a s w e l l, Artemis was a ssociated w ith f i shermen a nd t he s ea.

D iktynna was o r ig ina l ly a Cretan d e ity, a hunt-

r ess who l i ke Artem is e spoused p erpetua l v irg in ity.

To e scape M inos '

pursu it; s he j umped i nto t he s ea, a nd was h idden ( or r escued) i n t he n e ts o f f ishermen;

h er n ame was b e l ieved t o d er ive f rom S ic ru o v(f ish ing-

n e t, o r hunt ing-net)

5.

She b ecame merged w ith Artem is, a nd many o f

h er s anctuar ies were s i tuated b es ide t he s ea, where i t i s l i ke ly t hat t hey w ere v is ited by s ea-farers a nd f i shermen 6 . Hekate, who was a nother c lose a ssoc iate o f Artem is ( shar ing w ith h er, a s we h ave s een, t he a ttr ibu te o f t he d og) was b e l ieved a lso ( by a wr iter a s e ar ly a s Hes iod) t o g rant t o f i shermen a l arge c atch, i f t hey p rayed t o h er7.

1 32.

( i i)

F ish a s t he p roperty o f g ods But l ike d eer a nd o ther a n ima ls, f i sh c ou ld s tand i n ar e lat ionsh ip

t o t he g ods o ther t han t hat o f t he p r ize o f m en, a nd t he t r ibu te p a id i n r eturn f or i t .

They w ere s omet imes r egarded , wh i le s t i l l l i v ing, a s

s acred t o ad e ity, a nd t herefore a s f ood f orb idden t o humans .

Accord-

i ng t o D iodorus S icu lus, t he f ounta in o f Arethusa a t S yracuse w as s acred t o Artem is, a nd t he l arge a nd p lent ifu l f i sh wh ich i t c onta ined w ere c ons idered untouchab le :

" and o n many o ccas ions, when c erta in

m en h ave e aten t hem am id s tress o f w ar, t he d e i ty h as s hown a s tr ik ing s ign, a nd h as v is ited w i th g reat s uffer ings s uch a s d ared t ake t hem f or f ood" 8 . P ausan ias d escr ibes a s hr ine o f P ose idon a t A ig ia i i n L acon ia , s i tuated b es ide a l ake f rom wh ich m en w ere a fra id t o t ake f i sh i n c ase t hey s hou ld b e t urned i nto o ne owned s acred f ish :

9.

But n ot o n ly P ose idon a nd A rtem is

P ausan ias t e l ls s im i lar t a les o f D emeter a nd Kore

i n A tt ica, a nd Hermes i n Acha ia l 8 ; a nd i n F razer 's c ommentary l , h e q uotes a nc ient s ources r eferr ing s im i lar ly t o Apo l lo i n Lyc ia 1 2 ,a s we l l a s P ose idon i n L ept is 1 3 ,a nd a number o f u nnamed d e it ies.

O ne o f

t hese was a g oddess o f Smyrna who i s i dent if ied by D ittenberger 1 4 a s A targat is, s eem ing ly by a na logy w i th t he S yr ian f ert i l ity-goddess o f t hat n ame, d escr ibed by Luc ian i n De S yr ia D ea 1 5 . L uc ian r efers t o al ake n ear h er s anctuary i n H ieropo l is i n wh ich f i sh s acred t o t h is g oddess w ere k ept.

Ev ident ly t he c ustom w as n ot c onf ined t o G reece,

a nd may e ven h ave o r ig inated i n t he E ast.

1 33.

B .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence

( i )

F ish-representat ions i n s anctuar ies:

d istr ibut ion

I t r ema ins t o c ons ider h ow f ar t he d istr ibut ion o f f i sh-representat i on i n s anctuar ies i s c ons istent w ith what l i terature h as t o s ay o n t he s ub ject o f f i sh a nd t he g ods.

Artem is i s t he o n ly d e ity m ent ioned

i n t he Ded ica tory E p igrams a s ar ec ip ient o f r ea l f i sh 1 6 ; a nd t he c ho ice o f M en is, who p resented p art o f h is c atch t o t he g oddess, i s e xp l icab le b oth i n t erms o f h er t i t les o f L imen i t is a nd L imna t is, a nd i n t he a ssoc iat i on o f Artem is D iktynna w ith n ets.

A t t he s ame t ime, P ose idon was

t he s upreme g od o f t he s ea, t o whom f i shermen n a tura l ly p a id t r ibu te 1 7 . I t m ight t hen b e e xpected t ha t ap reponderance o f s uch v o t ives was t o b e f ound i n t he s anctuar ies o f t hese t wo d e it ies, p erhaps a s s ubs t i tutes o r c ommemorat ions o f t he r ea l t h ing o ffered by f i shermen;

o r

a l ternat ive ly i n a cknow ledgement o f t he s acred f i sh r egarded a s t he ir p roperty.

To s ome e xtent t he d ata o f t he p resent s tudy f u lf i l

e xpectat ion. s pec if ied;

t h is

The number o f l ead f i sh d ed icated t o Artem is Orth ia i s n ot

but e ven i f t here w ere o n ly t wo ( the s ma l lest number p oss ib le

2 4

s ince t wo " types" a re r ecorded) i t wou ld m ean t ha t e ight r epresentat ion ' s

3 7b

o f f i sh h ad b een d iscovered a t t he s anctuary ;

a nd t ha t o ut o f at o ta l

o f a bout f i f ty f rom a l l t he s anctuar ies e xam ined, a t l east h a lf h ad b een d ed icuted i n t hose b e long ing e i ther t o P ose idon o r t o Artem is 1 8 . M oreo ver, i n a l l f i f teen r epresentat ions o f f i sh ( inc lud ing t wo e e ls a nd a n o ctopus) f rom P ose idon s anctuar ies, t he o b ject, whether p inax, b ronze 2 5

f igur ine, o r marb le s cü lpture, e x isted p r inc ipa l ly f or t he s ake o f what i tr epresented;

whereas s evera l o f t he t wenty-two ( or t wenty-four)

f i sh o ffered i n s anctuar ies o f A thena, Z eus, H era a nd D emeter w ere • decorat ive e ngrav ings o n a n o b ject l i ke a f ibu la, s carab , g em o r l amp w h ich h ad a s epara te u se - o r t hey g ave s hape t o ap last ic v ase.

The

1 34.

g reatest r ecorded number o f r epresentat ions f rom a ny o ne o f t he s anct uar ies t ook t he f orm o f mot ifs o n e leven p a inted p laques f rom P enteskouph ia ; a lthough i t i s a lways p oss ible t hat t he number o f l ead f ish f rom Artem is Orth ia 's s anctuary e xceeded t hat number.

I t may b e s a id t ha t P ose idon

a nd Artem is t ogether c la im t he ma jor ity o f t hese i mages o f f i sh.

The

r ema ins o f s he l l-f ish i n t he d epos it b eneath t he E ast wa l l o f t he Archa ic Artem is ion o f De los ( wh ich c ou ld h ave b een Mycenaean o r G eometric 1 9 )m ay a lso h ave b een o ffer ings made t o af i sherman 's g oddess o f t he s ea. Yet t he d ata o f t he s tudy a lso s how

t hat P ose idon a nd Artem is

were n ot t he o n ly d e it ies t o r ece ive f i sh-ded icat ions.

Above a l l, s im i lar

i mages h ave b een f ound i n f our s anctuar ies o f A thena ( not i nc lud ing t he A then ian Acropo l is, o r Asea, where P ose idon was a lso worsh ipped);

a nd

a t L indos t hey w ere more numerous t han a t a ny o ther s anctuary, a part f rom P enteskouph ia a nd ( probably) Artem is Orth ia.

I n a dd i t ion t o t he

r epresentat ions, b ones o f l arge f i sh were d iscovered i n t h is s anctuary, wh ich may i nd icate t hat t hey f ormed p art o f t he s acred mea ls c onsumed t here.

L indos i s a lso t he p rovenance o f ab lack s erpent ine s carab,

d ecorated w ith a n e ngrav ing i n l a te Geometr ic s ty le wh ich s eems t o i nvest t he f i sh w ith s ome d iv ine qua l ity.

I t d epicts a man s tand ing w ith h is

h and r a ised b efore a l arge e rect f i sh wh ich a s B l inkenberg c omments, " appears t o b e t he o b ject o f s ome a ct o f c u lt", p erhaps o f a dorat ion 2 0 . The L indos e ngrav ing, wh ich d oes n ot d epict t h is c reature a s t he f i sherman 's p rey, s uggests t hat n ot a l l t he i mages o f f i sh f ound i n s anctuar ies were i ntended a s s ubst itutes f or, o r c ommemorat ion o f ar ea l c atch; b ut may h ave c arr ied s ome o ther mean ing, p oss ibly r eferr ing t o ac u lt i n wh ich f i sh were r egarded a s s acred.

F ive Archa ic mar ine m onsters i n

Cypr iot l imestone a re a f urther v ar iat ion o n t he t heme o f t he s ea a t L indos. Yet a s f ar a s I know, l i terature t hrows n o l ight o n a ny s pec ia l a ssoc ia t ion o f A thena w ith f i sh.

1 35.

( i i)

Artem is Orthia A f ish was among t he e ar ly b ronze f igur ines d iscovered a t Phera i;

but o n ly a t Artem is Orth ia i n S partan L imna i, o f a l l t he c erta in ly i dent if ied s anctuar ies o f Artemis , were r epresentat ions o f f i sh d ed icated t o t h is g oddess.

I n t h is s anctuary t hey a re most ly o f e ar ly d ate,

i nc lud ing t he unspec if ied number o f l ead f igur ines, wh ich b e long t o t he f i rst a nd s econd p er iods, t hat i s t he s eventh c entury BC.

S evera l

o f t he i vory c ouchant a n ima ls o f t he e ighth a nd s eventh c entur ies a re d ecorated w ith f i sh i n i ntag l io o n t he ir b ases;

a nd t he l arge i vory

p laque o f t he s h ip d ep icts a man f ish ing w ith a l i ne f rom t he p row; wh i le t hree o ther f ish s w im b eneath t he s h ip.

S parta i s f ar f rom t he s ea,

but i t w i l l b e r emembered t ha t t he s anctuary s tood b es ide t he r iver Eurotas a t L imna i;

a nd Artem idorus, we h ave s een, r efers s pecif ica l ly

t o Ar tem is L imna t is a s ah e lper o f f ishermen.

The l a test o f t he f i sh-

l ike i mages f rom Artem is Orth ia may n ot b e ad ed icat ion, a nd a nyway i s n ot a f ish.

Neverthe less, i t may n ot b e i rre levant t o t he t opic, o r

t o t he n ature o f t he g oddess o f L imna i.

Th is was o ne o f t he l imestone

e ngrav ings made a bout t he y ear 6 00 BC, p erhaps f or a p ast ime r ather t han f or d ed icat ion, by t he bu i lders o f t he n ew t emp le. f ema le w ith t he t a i l o f af i sh.

I t s hows a

When P ausan ias i s d iscuss ing t he i dent ity

o f Artem is Eurynome, i n a nother r ivers ide P e loponnes ian s anctuary s ome w ay f rom t he s ea ( at t he j unct ion o f t he Lymax a nd Neda j ust o uts ide Ph iga l ia), h e e xpresses d isbe l ief t hat t h is g oddess, whose c u lts tatue was t hat o f a woman w ith a f i sh 's t a i l, c ou ld h ave h ad a nyth ing t o d o w ith Artem is 2 1 . B ut s ince D iktynna, Artem is ' p rotegee a nd o ther s e lf , c ou ld b e c aught i n f i shermen 's n ets;

a nd s ince Artem is a s L imna t is,

af r iend t o f ishermen, was a t h ome i n r ivers a nd l akes, P ausan ias c ou ld h ave b een m istaken.

The f ish-ta i led f ema le o f Artem is Orth ia, a s w e l l

1 36.

a s t he r epresentat ions o f f ish ing a nd f ish, may b e a n e xpress ion o f t h is a spect o f Artem is.

( i i i)

O ther d e it ies a nd f i sh I t h as b een s een, h owever, t hat f i sh-representations m ay b e

d ed icated t o o ther d e it ies t han t o P ose idon a nd Artem is.

The ir p resence

n ot o n ly a t L indos, but a lso a t P erachora, S amos , Kato Phana a nd S ounion ( s l ight t hough i t i s i n t hese s anctuar ies o f Hera , Apo l lo a nd A thena) may b e e xpla ined by t he f act t ha t t he s anctuar ies s tood b eside t he s ea, a nd must h ave r ece ived t he v enerat ion o f s ea-farers a nd f i shermen 2 . But a nother f actor t o b e r emembered i s A thena L ind ia 's c haracter a s af ert i l ity-goddess a nd h e ir o f t he p otnia t heron.

Th is i s ac haracter

wh ich, a s we h ave s een, s he s hared w ith Artem is Orth ia a nd w ith o ther f ema le d eit ies. The f i sh i s n ot c ommon ly a n a ttr ibute o f t he p otnia t heron, but i t a ppears o n a t l east t hree e ar ly r epresentat ions. 1 9

One, o n a n i vory

p laque f rom Smyrna, s hows t he w inged g oddess h o ld ing a d eer a nd ab ird;

a nd under h er f eet a re t hree f i sh, a nd what l ook l i ke waves 2 3 .

The s econd i s o n t he e ighth-century p a inted Boeot ian amphora, where t he w inged g oddess i s f lanked by b easts o f p rey a nd water-b irds: h ere t he -f i sh a ppears o n h er s k irt a s a n embro idered d ecorat ion 2 4 . The t h ird r epresentat ion i s o n a n e ar ly G eometr ic f unerary p ithos f rom Knossos, o n e ach s ide o f wh ich i s aw inged p otnia t heron o n a whee led p latform h o ld ing t wo b irds-, a nd f lanked by t rees.

On o ne s ide o f t he

v ase, t he t rees a re f lour ish ing, wh i le o n t he o ther t hey a re m ore l i fe less, a nd o ne o f t he b irds h as s l ipped f rom t he h and o f t he g oddess;

s o

t hat t he t wo s cenes a pparent ly r epresent s ummer a nd w inter, o r s ymbo li ze l i fe a nd d eath.

I t i s underneath t he h and les o f t he p ithos t hat t he

1 37.

t wo f i sh a re d epicted

2 5

.

The Smyrna i vory c ou ld we l l d ep ict t he

g oddess r eferred t o i n t he i nscr ipt ion f rom Smyrna a s t he owner o f s acred f ish, a nd i nterpreted by D ittenberger a s A targatis;

a l though

K ern i nterprets h er a s Hekate ( as o ne who i s i nvoked by f i shermen) 2 6 . Chr istou, c omment ing o n t he Boeot ian amphora, b e l ieves t hat t he emb ro idered f ish, l ike t he water-birds, s ymbo l ize t he g oddess ' d om in ion o ver water

2 7

.

The d e ity o n t he Knoss ian f unerary p ithos i s ag oddess

o f v egetat ion, a nd a lso o f l i fe a nd d eath, s o t hat t he f i sh-mot if wh ich d ecorates t h is v ase may c arry a c hthon ic mean ing 2 8 . I n a ny c ase, t he f act t hat f i sh c ou ld b e a n a ttr ibute ( however r are ly p ortrayed) o f t he p otnia t heron may e xp la in why i ts i mage was d ed icated n ot o n ly a t t he s anctuary o f Artem is Orth ia, but a lso a t s anctuar ies o f A thena, a nd t o al esser d egree, Hera a nd Demeter. p ithos has b een l ikened t o P ersephone;

The g oddess o n t he Knossos

a nd i t was a t Demeter 's s anctuary

o f Knossos t hat a M inoan g em e ngraved w ith f i sh was d iscovered.

P erhaps

t h is was c ons idered a n a ppropr iate o ffer ing f or Demeter o r P ersephone i n t he ir chthon ic a spect.

The b ones o f af i sh h ave a lso b een d iscovered

i n t he s anctuary. A f ew r epresentat ions o f f i sh h ave a lso b een f ound a t O lympia, Amyc la i, Bassa i a nd Dodona, i n s anctuar ies o f Z eus a nd Apo l lo n ot s i tuated -by t he s ea.

But i t may b e a s w e l l t o r eserve a ny f ina l a ssess-

ment o f t he s ign if icance o f f i sh-ded icat ions i n s anctuar ies unt i l t he r epresentat ions o f o ther s ea-creatures, p art icu lar ly d o lph ins ,and t he ir r e la t ionsh ip w ith Apo l lo, h ave b een c ons idered.

1 38.

2 .

DOLPHINS

A .

L iterary e v idence

( i )

T he Do lphin a nd P ose idon The r e lat ionsh ip o f d o lph ins t o t he g ods i s d ifferent f rom t hat

o f f i sh, i n t ha t t hey a re n ot t he p rey o r l i ve l ihood o f men, a nd c an h ard ly b e s acr if iced.

But t hey a re a ssoc ia ted w ith more t han o ne d e ity

i n mytho logy, a rt 2 9 o r by t i t le;

a nd a bove a l l w ith P ose idon, who i s

d escr ibed by A r istophanes a s t he r u ler o f d o lph ins 3 0 . I n a s e ar ly a work a s t he Odyssey, h is w ife Amph itr ite a ppeared a s t he k eeper o f h erds o f d o lph ins 3 1 ; a nd t he p oet Bacchy l ides r e lates t ha t when Theseus v is ited h is f ather 's p a lace under t he s ea, h e was c arr ied t here o n t he b acks o f t hese c reatures 3 2 . F or a lthough t hey a re n ot s eah orses, d o lph ins may b e s een a s t he e qu iva lent o f t he horse o n l and, a nd s o, l ike h orses, a s f i tt ing a ttr ibutes o f P oseidon.

I ndeed, t hey

a re s pec if ica l ly l i nked w ith P ose idon H ippios, a nd i t i s no d ecorat ive a cc ident t hat a b ronze d o lph in s hou ld h ave f ormed p art o f t he s tart ingmechan ism f or t he h orse-races a t O lymp ia, b es ide wh ich P ose idon H ippios h ad a n a l tar 3 . S im i lar ly, i t must b e b ecause o f h er a ssociat ion w i th P ose idon i n ah orse 's s hape t hat t he wooden s tatue o f Demeter a t P h iga l ia ( i tse lf h orse-headed) h e ld a d o lph in i n o ne h and

3 4

.

The c onnect ion o f t he d o lph in w ith P ose idon i n h is I sthm ian s anctuary was p art icu lar ly c lose, s ince P a la imon, who s hared t he s anct uary w ith h im, a nd t o whom t he I sthm ian Games were d ed ica ted, was o r ig ina l ly c arr ied t here by a d o lph in 3 5 . T he e nt ire I sthmus, s o n ear ly ap art o f t he s ea, was c ons idered t o b e long t o P ose idon

3 6

; a nd t he

d o lph in ( wh ich f eatured i n t he d ecorat ion o f t he s anctuary)

3 7

i s

e ssent i-

a l ly, i n s pite o f i t s a ff init ies w ith t he h orse, a s ea-creature a nd a s ymbo l o f t he g od o f t he s ea.

I ts g race a nd s treng th, i t s mastery o ver t he

1 39.

e lement i n wh ich i t l i ves, a nd i ts o ccas iona l b enevo lent i ntervent ion i n t he l i ves o f men

3 8

,

m akes i t af i tt ing c ompan ion f or P ose idon, a nd

a n emb lem o f h is d om in ion o ver t he s ea.

There i s as tory ( though

i t has n o e ar l ier s ource t han Ov id) t hat t he g od o nce a ssumed a d o lph in 's s hape i n o rder t o make l ove t o Me 1antho

3 9

.

S evera l o f t he monuments v is ited by P ausan ias b ore w itness i n mater ia l t erms t o P ose idon 's a ssociat ion w ith t he d o lph in.

The w r iter

ment ions a b ronze P ose idon i n Cor inth, under whose f oot a d o lph in s pouted water 4 0 ; a nd t he c u lt-statue f rom t he h arbour s anctuary a t Ant ikyra a lso r ested o ne f oot o n ad o lph in ' ''.

I n P ose idon 's s anctuary

a t Ta inaron, h owever, t he d o lph in i s b e ing r idden by An on, t he mus ic ian whom i t r escued f rom t he s ea

4 2

.

But many more o f t he s tatues o f

P ose idon wh ich P ausan ias s aw must h ave b een p ossessed o f a n a ttendant d o lph in:

t he a ttr ibute b e ing p robab ly t oc c haracter ist ic t o n eed much

r e iterat ion 4 3 . A t I sthm ia, where i n t he t emp le P ausan ias s aw P a la imon o n h is d o lph in, i n i vory a nd g o ld, t here were a lso r epresentat ions o f more f antast ic s ea-creatrues: on i t ;

a nd i n t he s anctuary was t he s tatue o f " a h orse l i ke a s ea-monster

f rom b e low t he b reast"

( i i)

t he t emp le h ad b ronze t r itons s tand ing

4

.

Apo l lo, Artem is a nd d e lphinia I n s pite o f h is a ssoc iat ion w ith t he d o lph in, t here i s n o i nd icat ion

i n l i terary o r e pigraph ica l s ources t hat P ose idon e ver r ece ived t he t i t le o f d e lphinios.

Th is Was r eserved f or Apo l lo, a nd o ccas iona l ly,

i n i t s f eminine f orm, f or Artem is.

F or a lthough t he s ea was n ot Apo l lo 's

home, h e c rossed i t a s at rave l ler a nd c o lon ist 4 5 ,a nd many o f h is s anct uar ies, e spec ia l ly i n h arbour t owns, were known a s d e lphinia .

They

a re a ttested i n Crete, a nd a lso i n Thera, Aeg ina, A thens, Oropos,

1 40.

K irrha, M i letus a nd Massa l ia, a nd, more s urpr is ing ly, i n S parta " . F rom t he p ort o f K irrha, t he c h ief o f a l l t he d e lphinia was f ounded a t Pytho, a nd t o t h is s anctuary i s a ttached t he myth wh ich c onnects Apo l lo w ith t he d o lph in. t o Pyth ian Apo l lo

47

,

The s tory, f i rst t o ld i n t he Homer ic Hymn

i s t hat t he g od c hanged h imse lf i nto a d o lph in

a nd was c arr ied i n a Knoss ian s h ip f rom C rete t o K irrha.

When t he

Cretan t rave l lers had a rr ived a t l and, Apo l lo o rdered t hem t o r ema in i n De lph i t o c are f or h is s anctuary, a nd t o worsh ip h im t here a s Apo l lo De lph in ios, b ecause h e h ad t aken o n t h is s hape " .

P lutarch, r at iona l-

i s ing t he s tory a l i tt le, s ays t hat t he g od h ad s imp ly s ent a d o lphin t o gu ide t he s a i lors 4 9 . T he s tatue o f ad o lph in wh ich P ausan ias s aw n ear Apo l lo 's a l tar a t De lph i i s n ot l ike ly t o h ave b een t he o n ly monume nta l r epresentat ion o f a mot if s o c entra l t o t he mytho logy o f t he s anct uary

5 0

. The metamorphos is o f t he Homer ic Hymn i s a pparent ly much

e ar l ier t han t he s tory t o ld by Ov id o f P ose idon a nd Me lantho ( a lthough h e may h ave f ound i t i n a n e ar l ier s ource);

a nd s ince s ome a n ima l

t i t les i mp ly t hat t he d e ity i n quest ion h ad o nce b een s een a s t he a n ima l i tse lf , t h is may e xp la in why d e lphinios was a ttached t o Apo l lo , a nd n ot t o P ose idon. A c haracter ist ic not o bv ious ly c onnected w ith t he s ea, wh ich was s hared by Apo l lo a nd t he d o lph in was t he ir l ove o f mus ic. c omments:

P lutarch

" We l l m ight t he g od b e f ond o f t he d o lph in, t o wh ich P indar

l i kens h imse lf, s ay ing t hat h e i s r oused, ' L ike a d o lph in o n t he s ea Who o n t he wave less d eep o f o cean I s moved by t he l ove ly s ound o f f lutes '."

5 1

I t i s p resumab ly by v irtue o f h er r e lat ionsh ip w ith Apo l lo, whose s anctuar ies, l ike t he De lphinion o f A thens, s he s omet imes s hared, t ha t

1 41 .

Artem is was a ccorded t he t i t le o f De lphinia. r ed t o t he A thens s anctuary a s s acred Artem is De lph in ia

5 2

I n a ny c ase, P o l lux r efer-

b o th t o

Apo l lo De lph inios a nd

. But P lutarch l inks t ogether a s s ea-gods Apo l lo

De lph in ios a nd Artem is D iktynna 5 3 ; a nd i t h as b een s een t hat a s D iktynna Artem is was a s ea-goddess w ithout t he h e lp o f h er b rother.

But many

o f t he s anctuar ies i n wh ich s he was worsh ipped w ithout t h is t i t le w ere a lso e stabl ished b es ide t he s ea-shore.

A t Ephesos h er mar ine p ower

was a cknow ledged i n t he f east o f Artem is Da it is, i n wh ich y oung g ir ls c arr ied h er c u lt-statue t o t he s ea-shore ( where i t was p robab ly b athed) a nd o ffered h er a g if t o f s a lt 5 4 . I n t he l egendary Taur ian s anctuary o f Artem is, where t he waves a re d escr ibed a s r each ing t he t emp le i t se lf , I phigeneia e xpla ins t o Thoas t hat s he must wash t he f amous c u lt-statue i n t he s ea

5 5

.

P erhaps t h is d eta i l o f Eur ipides i nd icates t hat a s im i lar

c eremony t ook p lace a t Ha la i, Brauron 's r iva l f or t he e ventua l p ossess ion o f t he Taur ian i mage 5 6 . A t Ha la i ( as i n t he Taur is i mag ined by Eur ip ides) t he t emp le i s v ery n ear t he s ea, s wept by t he s and ( i f n ot by waves) e ven t oday.

B .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence Twenty-f ive r epresentat ions o f d o lph ins ( apparent ly a lone),

a nd f our -r epresentat ions o f t he a n ima l a s ac ompan ion o f P ose idon, were r eported i n t he s anctuar ies under c ons iderat ion h ere.

Out o f

t h is t ota l o f t wenty-n ine, t we lve ( inc lud ing a l l t he r epresentat ions o f g od a nd d o lph in) were f ound i n s anctuar ies o f P ose idon, who r ece ived more o f t hese i mages t han o ther d e it ies, e ven t hough c omparat ive ly f ew o f h is s anctuar ies h ave b een e xam ined i n t h is s tudy.

Most o f t hem

were s ma l l d ed icat ions, l ike t he b ronze m in iature f rom I sthm ia;

but

t he He l len ist ic marble f ragments f rom T inos o nce d ecorated t he g od 's

1 42.

t emp le i tse lf , a long w ith mar ine monsters a nd s ea-dragons.

A lthough

t he t ota l number o f d o lph ins f ound i n o ur s anctuar ies i s not g reat ( there a re o n ly f our o f t hem o n t he Archa ic P enteskouph ia p laques c ompared w ith e ighteen bu l ls), t he ir d istr ibut ion i s c ons istent w ith t he ir r o le a s c reatures o f P ose idon.

They c ame t o l ight i n t hree o f t he f ive s anc-

t uar ies o f t h is s tudy wh ich b e longed t o P ose idon a lone;

a nd i t i s p robab le

t hat t he b ronze d o lph in w ith t he y outh o n i t s b ack, a nd t he b ronze w eight d ecorated w ith t wo d o lph ins i n r e l ief d iscovered o n t he A then ian Acropo l is, were a lso d ed icated t o P ose idon 5 7 . ( The b ronzes r epresent ing at r iton, a nd a mar ine g r iff in f ound t here wou ld b e s im i lar ly a ppropr ia te d ed icat ions f or t he g od o f t he s ea.)

C lear ly, d o lph in-representat ions

w ere r egarded a s s u itab le o ffer ings f or P ose idon; a nd t heir a ppropr iateness i s r ef lected i n t he ir s urv iva l a nd d iscovery ( l im ited t hough t h is i s) i n t he s anctuar ies where h e was worsh ipped. S even o f t he r ema in ing i mages o f d o lph ins l i sted h ere w ere d ed icated t o Apo l lo, but un l ike t hose b e long ing t o P ose idon, t hey were l im ited t o as ing le s anctuary.

Here d ed icatory p ract ice a ppears t o a ccord

w ith t he Homer ic myth o f Apo l lo De lph in ios , s ince t he s anctuary i s De lph i;

a nd t he mot if c e lebrated i n t he s tatue wh ich P ausan ias n ot iced

i s e choed i n t he more modest b ronze f igur ines, a nd e ven i n t he d ecorat ion s tamped o n s ome Roman l amps

5 8

.

But i t i s a lso p oss ib le t hat t he

b ronze d o lph in p endant f rom O lymp ia was a d ed icat ion t o Apo l lo Pyth ios; s ince i t was f ound o uts ide t he A lt is t o t he w est o f t he Bou leuter ion, a nd i n t h is a rea, o r n ear i t , t he g od ( whose t i t le o f Pyth ios s pec if ica l ly l i nks h im w ith t he De lph ian myth) h ad a n a l tar ( see F igure 1 )5 9 . A po l lo 's s tatus a s as ea-far ing g od ( and n ot s imp ly a s o ne who s a i led t o De lph i) c ou ld a lso e xp la in t he r epresentat ions o f f i sh d ed icated t o h im a t Amyc la i a nd Bassa i;

a nd t he t erracotta s ea-horse, a lso f rom Amyc la i, a nd t he

1 43.

g o ld r ing d ecorated w ith t he s ame mot if f rom Kato Phana 6 0 . I n f act a ccord ing t o S am W ide, Apo l lo De lph in ios was i dent ica l b oth w ith t he Amyc la ian g od, a nd w ith Apo l lo Pyth ios 6 1 . Representat ions o f d o lph in have b een f ound i n t wo s anctuar ies o f Artemis:

Brauron a nd Ephesos, b oth n ear t he s ea, a nd l i ke ly t o

have b een n earer i t i n a nt iqu ity.

A t Brauron, t wo d o lph ins a dorn

ar ound p inax, a d ecora t ion wh ich may p erhaps r efer t o t he mar ine e lement i n t he c u lt o f T aur ian Artem is a nd h er p r iestess I ph igene ia 6 2 . At Ephesos, where o ne m inute b ronze d o lph in f ormed t he h ead o f a n Archa ic p in, t he mot if w as a lso u sed t o d ecorate t he l ater a l tar c ourt, t o wh ich Bammer b e l ieved t ha t s ome b locks e ngraved w ith r osettes, swans, a nd d o lph ins must have b e longed 6 3 . T hese mot ifs a re a ppropr iate s ymbo ls o f Artem is a s g oddess o f v egetat ion, o f f resh water, a nd o f t he s ea " ;

a nd i t h as b een noted t ha t a t Ephesos, t oo, a c eremon-

i a l b ath ing o f t he c u lt-statue p robably t ook p lace a nnua l ly.

But e ven

a t Artemis Orth ia, wh ich i s f ar f rom t he s ea, t he e ar l ier o f t he t wo t ypes o f sma l l l ead f i sh r ecorded t here may b e i nterpreted a s ad o lph in 6 5 , a nd i t i s even p oss ible t hat t h is t ype o f f igur ine, a s we l l a s t he c learer r epresentat ions o f t he d o lph in a t Brauron a nd Ephesos, may b e a n a cknow ledgement o f Artem is ' o ccas iona l t i t le o f

De lphinia

. The f act

t hat t here was a s anctuary o f Apo l lo De lph in ios a t S parta l ends s ome f eas ibi l ity t o t h is not ion.

C .

Conc lusion C reatures o f t he s ea a re n ot among t he more c ommon t ypes o f

a n ima l-representat ion t o b e o ffered t o t he g ods o r t o d ecorate t he ir s anctuar ies.

But o f t hose wh ich have c ome t o l ight i n t he s anctuar ies

exam ined h ere ( rather l ess t han 1 00 i n a l l), more f ish, d o lph ins a nd

1 44.

o ther s ea-creatures were f ound i n s anctuar ies o f P ose idon t han i n t hose o f o ther d e it ies.

Artem is ( in S parta) a nd A thena ( especia l ly a t L indos)

r ece ived a lmost a s many a s f i sh a s P ose idon, but f ar f ewer d o lph ins a nd f antast ic s ea-creatures.

I t i s t he p rec inct o f Apo l lo a t De lph i wh ich

( apart f rom P ose idon 's s anctuar ies c ons idered a s a who le) h as y ielded more d o lph in-representat ions t han h ave s i tes b e long ing t o o ther d e it ies. And o ut o f at ota l t wenty-one r epresentat ions o f f abu lous monsters l i sted, f i fteen were f ound i n s anctuar ies o f P ose idon, i nc lud ing s evera l He l len ist ic marb les wh ich d ecorated h is t emp le i n T inos, a nd a re r em ini scent o f t he s im i lar mar ine f antas ies o bserved by P ausan ias a t I sthm ia . The r ema in ing s ix s ea-monsters were t erracotta f igur ines d ed icated i n L indos a nd P erachora b es ide t he s ea, where A thena a nd Hera a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een i nvoked t o g rant g ood f ortune t o mar iners. The d istr ibut ion i n s anctuar ies o f t he i mages o f s ea-creatures i nd icates t hat P ose idon, a s t he s ea-god o f mytho logy, a nd t he c h ief p atron o f f ishermen, was r egarded a s t he most p roper r ecip ient o f t hese ma ter ia l r epresentat ions o f h is c reatures.

A t t he s ame t ime,

t he d o lph in-images f ound a t De lph i may b e s een a s a n a cknow ledgement, l ike t he l egend i n t he Homer ic Hymn t o Pyth ian Apo l lo, o f t he s ign if ic ance wh ich i nvested t he d o lph in a t t h is s anctuary.

Neverthe less,

i t must a lso b e a ccepted t ha t t he s anctuary o f a lmost a ny d e ity m ight r ece ive a v ot ive wh ich e ither r epresented o r was d ecorated w i th a f i sh o r ad o lph in.

The i mages o f f ish wh ich Artem is r ece ived i n S partan

L imna i may h ave b een a ppropr iate d ed icat ions f or t he g oddess who under h er t i t les o f L imnat is a nd D iktynna w as a ssociated w ith water a nd w ith n ets;

wh i le t he f ew d o lph ins wh ich h ave c ome t o l i ght i n

Brauron a nd Ephesos may h ave b een p laced t here i n r ecogn it ion o f h er o ccas iona l t i t le o f De lphinia, a nd t he r o le o f s ea-goddess wh ich s he

1 45.

s omet imes a ssumed.

Bu t A thena, n ot g enera l ly a ssoc iated w ith f i sher-

men ,a ccord ing t o t he e v idence a va i lable r ece ived a s many f i sh a nd d o lph ins a s Artem is.

They were, moreover, f ound ( though n ot i n quant ity) i n

s anctuar ies o f Z eus a s w e l l a s i n t hose o f t he s ea-far ing Apo l lo ;

a nd

i n s anctuar ies f ar i n land l ike O lympia, E late ia o r Tegea, a s w e l l a s t hose by t he s ea l ike P erachora, L indos o r S oun ion. But wh i le t he d istr ibut ion o f t hese v ot ives i n t he s anctuar ies under d iscuss ion may n ot b e ap rec ise r ef lect ion o f t he b e l iefs e xpressed i n l i terature, e nough o f t hem w ere f ound i n P ose idon 's s hr ines t o b e c ons istent w ith h is c haracter a s as ea-god i n mytho logy;

wh i le t he ir

l esser but not n eg l ig ib le p resence i n s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo a nd Artem is i s a lso c ons istent w i th t he i nterest wh ich t hese d e it ies h ad i n t he s ea ( or a t l east i n water).

But t he f act t ha t t he r eason f or t he ir p resence

i n c erta in o ther s anctuar ies i s n ot a pparent t o u s n ow, i s n ot a c onc lus ive a rgument t hat t hey h ad n o s ign if icance t here.

As I h ave s uggested,

t he o ccas iona l a ssoc iat ion o f f i sh w ith t he p otnia t heron, a s as ymbo l o f h er d omin ion over wa ter a nd e ven - p oss ibly - o ver d eath, may a ccount f or t he d ed icat ion o f t he ir i mages i n s anctuar ies o f A thena a t L indos a nd e lsewhere, a nd ( to a l esser d egree) o f o ther g oddesses i nc luded among t he O lympians.

F ootnotes 1 .

AP I V I. 1 05 ( Loeb, Greek Antho logy .

1(1927) p . 3 57).

2 .

A thenaeus. 2 97 E .

3 .

P ausan ias .X . 9 .2.

4 .

One irocr it icon. 1 .35, p . 1 32. Whereas t he e p ithet " L imen it is" r e lates Artem is t o t he h arbour ( and t hus t o s a lt-water f i sh ing), " L imnat is" o r " L imna ia" c haracter izes h er a s ag oddess o f p oo ls a nd l akes ( and s o, p resumab ly, t o f resh-water f i sh).

1 46.

5 .

Anton inus L ibera l is. Metamorphoses . 4 0 ;

6 .

F or e xamp le, a t D iktynna i tse lf o n t he Rhodopou p en insu la i n Crete [ MA 1 ( 1901) pp. 2 95-304; F . Matz, F orschungen a uf Kreta 1 942 . Ber l in 1 951 ; K le ine P au ly 2 ( 1969) pp. 2 7-29]; a t Pha lasarna , n ot f ar away o n t he w est c oast o f Crete, where t here w as a h arbour a nd a t emp le s acred t o Artem is c a l led D iktynna [ D ionys ius Ca l l iphont is F i l ius. Descr ipt io Graec iae. 1 20-122 ( C. Mü l ler. Geographi Graec i M inores, P ar is 1 854 p . 2 42)]; a nd a t Hypso i i n L acon ia [ Pausan ias I I. 2 4.9]. There was a lso a n a l tar t o D iktys ( probably t he s ame d e ity) i n S er iphos, wh ich i s where P erseus a nd Danae w ere washed a shore [ Pausan ias. I. 1 8.1 1 1.

7 .

T heogony 4 40-443.

8 .

D iodorus. V . 3 .6 ( Loeb. Vo l. I I. p . 1 05).

9 .

P ausan ias. I I. 2 1.5. I . 3 8.1 ;

P ausan ias I. 3 0.2 .

1 0.

I bid .

V II. 2 .4.

1 1.

P ausanias' Descr ipt ion o f Greece . Vo l. I V. p . 1 53.

1 2.

Ae l ian. De Natura Anima l ium . X II. 1 .

1 3.

P lutarch. Mora l ia. 7 30 D-E.

1 4.

W . D ittenberger. Sy l loge I nscr ipt ionum Graecarum . L e ipz ig 1 883, p . 5 01, n o. 3 64 ( If a ny f ish s hou ld d ie, i t was t o be burnt o n t he a l tar.)

1 5.

De Syr ia Dea .

1 6.

A lthough P an r eceived t he o ffer ing o f ac rab [ AP I V I. 1 96].

1 7.

S ee Rouse, p . 6 0.

1 8.

Th is i s b ased o n t he a ssumpt ion t ha t t he s heet-bronze f i sh f rom Asea, a nd t he o ctopus f rom t he Acropo l is were more l ike ly t o have b een d ed icated t o P ose idon t han t o A thena.

1 9.

The c ontents o f t he d epos it were m ixed, a nd b e longed t o b oth p er iods ( R. Va l lo is. L 'Architecture H e l lg inique e t He l lgnist ique a De los . Vo l. I . p . 1 3).

2 0.

L indos. I . p . 1 60.

2 1.

P ausan ias. V III. 4 1.4-6.

2 2.

The d ed icat ions o f s a i lors may b e s een a t P erachora i n ab ronze f i sh-spear, t wo f i sh-hooks, a nd a n A rcha ic c lay b oat ( Perachora. I . p . 7 3, P l. 1 7.9 ; p . 1 82, P l. 8 0.6; p . 9 7, P l. 2 9.4); wh i le a t S amos a t l east t wenty-two Archa ic v ot ive wooden s h ips h ave b een f ound ( AM 9 5 ( 1980) p . 9 2, P l. 1 8-20). A lso a t S amos t here was t he s tone b ase f or a l arge s h ip ( AA 8 0 ( 1965) p . 4 32, F ig. 2 );

4 5 ( Loeb Luc ian. Vo l. I V. pp. 3 96-8).

1 47.

2 2.

a nd an Archa ic b ronze p laque o n wh ich Amph idemos r ecorded t he d ed icat ion o f c aptured s h ips t o Hera a nd P ose idon ( AM 8 7 ( 1972) p . 1 06, P l. 4 7). A t t he s ame t ime, t he c rab-mot if o n t he s ea ls f rom P erachora m ight b e r egarded a s a ppropr iate f or Hera, s ince i t was s he who p laced t he c rab i n t he s ky a s ac onste l lat ion, a f ter Herak les h ad k i l led i t (Hyg inus . Astronom ia . I. 2 3.1).

2 3.

AM 5 0 ( 1925) pp. 1 57-166, P l. 7 .

2 4.

I bid. p . 1 60, F ig. 1 .

2 5.

L ecture by P rofessor N . Co ldstream, " Ear ly Greek Knossos" g iven a t Ed inburgh Un ivers ity, 8 November 1 983.

2 6.

S ee note 2 3.

2 7.

P otnia T heron, p . 1 3.

2 8.

An e ighth-century l arnax f rom a nother o f t he t ombs a t Knossos i s a lso d ecorated w ith f i sh.

2 9.

Aphrod ite, a s ag oddess b orn o f t he s ea, i s s omet imes r epresented s i tting o n ad o lph in [ Lexlc. I. " Aphrod ite". 9 78 a nd 9 84].

3 0.

Knights .

3 1.

Odyssey. X II. 9 6-97.

3 2.

Bacchy l ides. XVI. 9 6-97.

3 3.

P ausan ias. V I. 2 0.10-12;

3 4.

I bid .

V III. 4 2.4.

3 5.

I bid .

I . 4 4.8.

3 6.

I b id .

I . 1 .6.

3 7.

I b id .

I . 1 .7.

3 8.

P lutarch r ecounts a number o f s tor ies a bout d o lph ins who s aved men f rom d rown ing, o r o therw ise s howed r egard f or t hem ( Mora l ia. 9 84A-985C).

3 9.

Ov id. Metamorphoses . V I. 1 20.

4 0.

P ausan ias. I. 2 .8.

4 1.

I bid .

X . 3 6.4.

4 2.

I bid .

I I. 2 5.7.

5 60.

V . 1 5.5.

1 48.

4 3.

F or e xamp le, Cor inth ian c o ins o f t he I mper ia l p er iod i nd icate t ha t t he b ronze P ose idon o f t he h arbour a t Kenchrea i , t o wh ich Pausan ias r efers w ithout ment ion ing a ny d o lph in, a ctua l ly c arried o ne i n h is h and, a nd r ested h is f oot o n a nother ( Pausan ias I . 2 .3; By. Head. Cata logue o f Greek c o ins Cor inth . ( BM) L ondon 1 889, p . 8 1, n o. 6 30, P l. 2 1.2).

4 4.

P ausan ias. I. 1 .7-8.

4 5.

N i lsson. Gr iechische F este . p . 1 04.

4 6.

RE 4 ( 1901) 2 514.

4 7.

Homer ic Hymns. I I. 3 91 f.

4 8.

I t wou ld b e i nterest ing t o know whether t he t rad it ion r eported by P ausan ias ( II. 3 3.2) t hat t he s anctuary a t De lphi o r ig ina l ly b e longed t o P ose idon, a rose f rom a l a ter f ee l ing t hat t he d o lph in was more p roper ly h is s ervant.

4 9.

Mora l ia .

5 0.

P ausan ias. X . 1 3.10.

5 1 .

Mora l ia 9 84 13-C ( Loeb. Mora l ia. Vo l. X II ,p . 4 71) . Both E ur ip ides a nd Ar istophanes r efer t o t he d o lph in a s af r iend t o t he f lute ( E lectra. 4 35-6; F rogs. 1 317-18). Ii mag ine t ha t t he i dea was b ased o n a n o bservat ion o f t he d o lph ins ' b ehav iour near s h ips whose r owers k ept t ime t o af lute.

5 2.

P o l lux. Onomast ikon. V III. 1 9. c f . t he g losses f or De lph inion i n I . Bekker. Anecdota Graeca. Ber l in 1 814-1821, Vo l. I , p . 2 55.19).

5 3.

Mora l ia .

5 4.

S ee E tymo logicum Magnum . G loss o n Da it is. The bath ing o f t he i mage i s not ment ioned s pecif ica l ly; but Char les P icard b e l ieved t hat i t c ou ld h ave b een c arr ied t o t he s hore f or n o o ther purpose ( Ephjse e t C laros . p . 3 12 ; pp. 3 15-16).

5 5.

Eur ip ides. 1 phigene ia i n T aur is .

5 6.

I bid . 1 452-4 ( the c la im f or Ha la i); f or Brauron).

5 7.

P ose idon h ad a l tars a t t he e ntrance t o t he E rechthe ion; a nd i ns ide t he bu i ld ing was a We l l c onta in ing s ea-water, f rom wh ich t he s ound o f waves s omet imes c ame, a nd t he mark o f at r ident i n t he r ock a l l b ear ing w itness t o h is r iva l c la im t o t he c ity a nd i ts s anctuary ( Pausan ias I . 2 6.6).

5 8.

The l arge b ronze f ibu la-p laque d ecorated w ith f our d o lph ins a nd pub l ished i n t he F ou i l les d e De lphes ( Vo l. V . ( 1908) p . 13, F ig. 4 06) c ame f rom a t omb o n t he s i te o f t he museum.

5 9 .

P ausan ias. V . 1 5.4;

9 84A.

9 84A.

s ee F ig. 8 .

1 196 ; 1 199. P ausan ias I . 3 3.1 ( the c la im

1 49 .

6 0.

P ausan ias s aw t he s ku l l o f a n e normous s ea-monster i n t he s anctuary o f Apo l lo Karne ios a t S ikyon ( II. 1 0.2); p laced t here p erhaps w i th t he g od 's s ea-far ing r o le i n m ind.

6 1.

W ide. L akonische Ku lte . pp. 8 8-89.

6 2.

S ee P ausan ias. I . 2 3.9.

6 3.

AA 8 3 ( 1968) p . 4 12.

6 4.

The d o lph in a ppears a s a n a ttr ibute o f a t l east o ne Bronze Age p otnia, o n ag em f rom Py los. Here i t may b e a ssumed t hat t he p a ir w ith wh ich s he i s f lanked e xpress h er c haracter a s a mar ine g oddess ( Lexlc. I . " Artem is". 5 ).

6 5.

AO P l. 1 84.17.

1 50.

FROGS OR TOADS ( See Append ix 8 .8)

A .

L iterary e v idence o f f rogs i n s anctuar ies I n h is De Pythiae Oracu l is, P lutarch g ives a n a ccount o f av is it

t o De lph i;

a nd o f ad iscuss ion a bout t he m ean ing o f ac erta in d ed icat ion

o bserved i n t he Treasury o f t he Cor inth ians l. The d iscuss ion i s o f g enera l i nterest t o a ny c ons iderat ion o f t he a ppropr iateness o f o b jects d ed icated i n s anctuar ies, s ince i t s hows t ha t a t l east by P lutarch 's t ime , s ome s uch a ppropr iateness was e xpected.

But i ti s a lso o f s pec if ic

r e levance t o t he s ub ject o f f rogs a nd t o t he r epresentat ions o f t hem wh ich h ave b een f ound i n c erta in s anctuar ies.

The Cor inth ian d ed icat ion

was a b ronze p a lm-tree, a t whose b ase w ere f rogs a nd water-snakes. A l l t he v is itors r ea l ized t hat t he p a lm-tree was a n emb lem o f Apo l lo, but t he mean ing o f t he f rogs was l ess c lear t o t hem.

I t was f ina l ly

s uggested t hat t he g roup s ymbo l ized " the b irth a nd e xha lat ion o f t he s un" ( that i s , t he p a lm-tree) " from mo isture" ( that i s , t he f rogs a nd s nakes)

2.

The s ymbo l ism i s n ot s urpr is ing, a s i t was g enera l ly r ecog-

n ized t hat t he v ery n ature o f f rogs was mo ist 3 ; a nd t hey were s een a s marsh-dwe l lers, a nd f requenters o f t he r eeds wh ich g row i n marshes 4. Th is a ssoc iat ion o f f rogs w ith mo isture i s g iven a nother r e l ig ious c ontext i n ad ed icatory e pigram wh ich c e lebrates t he d ed icat ion o f a b ronze f rog t o t he nymphs:

" Some t rave l ler, who s t i l led h ere h is t ormen-

t ing t h irst i n t he h eat, mou lded i n b ronze a nd d ed icated e x v oto t h is s ervant o f t he nymphs, t he d amp s ongster who l oves t he r a in, t he f rog who t akes j oy i n l ight f ounta ins;

f or i t gu ided h im t o t he water

a s h e wandered , s ing ing o pportune ly w ith i t s amph ib ious mouth f rom t he d amp h o l low.

Then, n ot d esert ing t he g u id ing v o ice, h e f ound t he

d r ink h e l onged f or."

5

.

1 51.

Rea l f rogs were e v ident ly a f eature o f t he L etoon o f Xanthos, w ith i t s a bundant water;

s o much s o t hat Ov id r e lated a metamorphos is

wh ich e xp la ined t he ir p resence 6. Wh i le L eto was s earch ing f or a r efuge i n wh ich t o g ive b irth t o Apo l lo a nd Artem is, s he c ame t o ar eed-fr inged p oo l where t he d iscour teous Lyc ian p easants p revented h er f rom d r inki ng .

To pun ish t hem, t he g oddess c hanged t hem i nto f rogs, a nd t hey

c ont inued t o l ive i n t he s ame p oo l where h er s anctuary was e stabl ished. I t h as b een s een t ha t d e it ies a re a ssoc iated w ith t he c reatures i nto wh ich t hey t ransform t he ir v ict ims;

s o P lutarch a nd h is f r iends, who

g uessed t hat t he b ronze g roup a t De lph i s ymbo l ized t he s un 's b irth f rom mo isture, m ight h ave e xpressed t he s ame i dea i n more pure ly mytho log ica l t erms by s uggest ing t hat i t s ymbo l ized Apo l lo 's b irth o f L eto . The d ed icatory e p igram makes i t c lear t hat f or t he a nc ients, t he f rog had a n a ssocia t ion w ith water a nd w ith mo isture, wh ich n o d oubt e ndeared i t t o t he i nhabitants o f ad ry c ountry.

I n Egypt, where

a n ima l-shaped g ods s urv ived f or l onger, t he f rog h ad a more s pec if ic r e l ig ious s ign if icance, a nd was a ccorded a d iv ine s tatus i n t he p erson o f H eget, t he f rog-headed g oddess.

Heget was t he g oddess o f b irth,

a nd f rogs i n Egypt w ere s ymbo ls o f b irth a nd o f r esurrect ion'.

I n

t he G reek wor ld, t he p referred h abitat o f f rogs, b es ide l akes a nd r ivers, a nd i n marshy p laces, m ight a lso b e c hosen a s as i te f or t he worsh ip o f f ert i l ity-de it ies.

I t h as b een o bserved i n t he d iscuss ion o f b irds

8

t ha t L eto, whose t hrone was s upported by water-birds i n h er s anctuary b es ide t he l ake i n De los, was s uch a f ert i l ity-de ity.

L ike t he De l ian

s anctuary w ith i ts a ssoc iated s wans o r g eese, t he f rog-haunted L etoon b es ide t he r iver Xanthos was c lear ly l i nked i n mytho logy w ith t he r o le o f t he g oddess a s a mother.

O ther e xamp les o f watery s i tes where

1 52.

f ert i l ity-goddesses h ad t he ir c u lts a nd f rogs t he ir dwe l l ings a re Brauron, L imna i i n S parta, Ephesos, a nd t he S am ian

Hera ion.

Kar l

Hoenn, d iscuss ing t he S partan s anctuary, n otes t hat mud a nd swamp was r egarded a s t he mater ia l o f f ert i l ity a nd mother-hood 9. The f rog who gu ided t rave l lers t o water, a nd who was r ecognized a s a marshdwe l ler, wou ld b e a ssociated w ith l i fe t hrough t he mo isture wh ich i s i ts e lement.

A t t he s ame t ime, i t must h ave b een t he r eproduct ive

c apac ity wh ich i s as tr ik ing f eature o f t he a n ima l, t hat made t he Egypt ians i dent ify i t w ith t he ir b irth-goddess;

a nd t h is a spect o f t he f rog, t oo ,

c an h ard ly h ave b een i gnored by t he G reeks.

B .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence

( i ) The d istr ibut ion o f f rog-representat ions i n s anctuar ies The number o f i vory f rogs f ound a t t he s anctuary o uts ide P hera i was n ot s pec if ied i n t he publ ished a ccounts o f t he e xcavat ion:

a l l t hat

c an b e d educed w ith c erta inty, i s t hat t here was more t han o ne.

I t i s

t herefore i mposs ible t o b e s ure o f t he t ota l number o f f rog-representat ions f rom a l l t he s anctuar ies under d iscuss ion h ere:

i t must have

b een a t l east n ineteen, but i s un l ike ly t o h ave b een much g reater t han t wenty.

E leven o f t he s anctuar ies h ave y ie lded t he ir i mages:

o f Artemis ( inc lud ing Phera i); Demeter;

t hree o f H era;

o ne o f Apo l lo a nd o ne o f Z eus.

were d ed icated t o Artem is;

t hree

t wo o f A thena ;

o ne o f

A t l east s even o f t hese i mages

s ix t o Hera, t hree t o A thena, a nd o ne

e ach t o Demeter, Apo l lo a nd a d e ity o f t he O lymp ian s anctuary.

Thus,

a l l but t wo o f t he e leven s anctuar ies where f rogs were f ound b e longed t o f ema le d e it ies.

The b ronze meda l l ion e ngraved w ith a f rog f rom

O lymp ia n eed n ot, o f c ourse, h ave b een d ed icated t o Z eus.

Accord ing

t o Furtw . a .n g ler, i t was d iscovered i n t he n orth-west p art o f t he A l t is;

a nd i n t h is g enera l a rea t here w ere t hree a l tars o f Artem is ( see F igure 1 )1 0 .

1 53.

( i i) Artemis a nd f rogs The f act t hat r ather more o f t he f rog-representat ions f ound i n s anctuar ies w ere d ed icated t o Artem is t han t o o ther d e it ies may ( s ince o n ly a s ma l l number o f t hese d ed icat ions a re under d iscuss ion) r ef lect t he c hances o f s urv iva l a nd d iscovery, r ather t han a ny d ef in ite r e l ig ious a ssoc iat ion.

Yet Artem is was a l eader o f nymphs, a ssoc iated w ith water

a nd f ert i l ity, many o f whose s anctuar ies were l ocated i n t he d amp a nd l owly ing p laces where f rogs a bound.

There c ou ld h ard ly h ave b een

a more s u itab le r ec ip ient among t he O lympians f or t he i mages o f f rogs. A l l h er s anctuar ies wh ich y ie lded t hese d ed icat ions were b es ide water; 2 6

t hey w ere a l l ( even) s ub ject t o f lood ing

1

. The " damp h o l low" o f t he

d ed icatory e pigram t o t he nymphs d escr ibes t he s anctuary o f Artem is Orth ia b es ide t he R iver Eurotas

p art icu lar ly we l l.

Artem is Orth ia,

a s af ert i l ity-goddess, was a lso a ssociated w ith c h i ld-birth.

Very n ear

t he s anctuary ( if n ot a ctua l ly i ns ide t he t emenos) was a n E i le ithy ion, a s t he t i les s tamped " IEpou EXEuai as" a nd t he b ronze d ie w ith a s cratched i nscr ipt ion t o E i le ithy ia, i nd icate

1 2

.

A f ragmentary e ar ly k ourotrophos

f igur ine, a nd a nother t erracotta r epresent ing " a p a ir o f b irth-daemons s upport ing

a mother a nd n ew ly b orn c h i ld" a lso g ive e xpress ion t o

t he r eproduct ive e lement i n t he c u lt

1 3

.

The o n ly known s urv iv ing r epresentat ion o f ap otnia t heron w ith af rog, i s as ixth-century b ronze m irror, whose h and le t akes t he f orm o f an aked g oddess.

The f igure i s h o ld ing a p a ir o f c ymba ls, a nd o n

e ach o f h er s hou lders a re t he h indlegs o f al i on ( now b roken) wh ich o r ig ina l ly must h ave s upported t he d isk; o f al arge f rog

1 4

.

a nd s he s tands o n t he b ack

I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he m irror ( l ike a number

o f o thers where t he n aked g oddesses s tand o n d ifferent a n ima ls) i s aS partan work

1 5

;

a nd Chr istou , a ccept ing t he o p in ion o f L an g lotz,

1 54.

b e l ieves t hat t he g oddess r epresents Artem is Orth ia, a t whose s anctuar ies d ances were p erformed; a nd t hat t he f rog a s h er a ttr ibute s ymbo l izes b oth water a nd f ert i l ity

1 6

.

Certa in ly t he f rog 's l ik ing f or r eeds ( wh ich Ar istophanes a lso r efers t o1 7 )l i nks i t w ith Artem is, i n s ome o f whose c u lts r eed c rowns were worn

1 8

;

a nd p art icu lar ly w i th Artem is Orth ia, whose c u lt-statue

i tse lf may h ave worn s uch a c rown 1 9 . S evera l o f t he i vory a nd b one p laques, a nd t he bone i do ls ,depict t he g oddess wear ing a r eed h eadd ress

2 0

,

a nd R . Herbig b e l ieves t hat t he o b long s tr ips o f b one w ith

p rongs, f ound " in e normous quant it ies" a t t he s anctuary, w ere a lso t oken r eed-crowns, d ed icated t o Artem is Orth ia a s o ne o f h er a ttr ibu tes 2 1 . The a n ima l f igur ines d iscovered a t Brauron, t he Artem is s anctuary most c lose ly a ssociated w ith c h i ldbirth, h ave not b een f u l ly p ubl ished. I t wou ld b e i nterest ing t o know i f t here w as a f rog among t hem:

r ea l

o nes, by t he ir c roak ing , a re e ven now much i n e v idence t here. Another p oss ib le i nd icat ion t ha t t he f rog ( or i ts n ear r e lat ion, t he t oad) was c loser t o Artem is t han t o o ther d e it ies i s t hat t he e pithet p hrynit is h as b een a pp l ied t o h er a ssoc iate Hekate.

Th is o ccas ioned

as uggest ion by M . We l lman t hat Hekate i n o ne o f h er gu ises m ight o r ig ina l ly h ave b een f rog-shaped

2 2

.

She was i n p art a g oddess o f c h i ld-

b irth 2 3 ,* a c haracter ist ic s he s hares w ith t he f rog-headed Egypt ian Heqet ( whose n ame i s r emarkab ly s im i lar), but s he a lso embod ied t he c hthon ic a spect o f t he p otnia t heron, a nd more s pec if ica l ly, t he c hthon ic a spect o f Artem is h erse lf .

I t was a t Phera i, where Artem is w as most

c lose ly i dent if ied w ith Hekate ( or Enod ia) , t hat more t han o ne i vory f rog was d iscovered.

1 55.

( i i i) Other d e it ies a nd f rogs But we h ave s een t hat Artem is i s n ot t he o n ly g oddess t o i nher it t he t ra its o f t he p otnia t heron.

I ndeed, R ichter 's i dent if icat ion o f

t he m irror-goddess a s Aphrod ite, a nd n ot Artem is, c an h ard ly b e d isp roved

24

.

Nor was Artem is t he o n ly d e ity t o whom f rogs w ere d ed icated.

H era, A thena, a nd Demeter, who a l l s hared i n t he p otnia i nher itance, a l l r ece ived f rog-ded icat ions.

The S am ian Hera ion was a s w e l l-watered

as anctuary a s Ephesos o r Artem is Orth ia, a nd t here t he b ronze f rog o n t he l i onshead wa ter-spout ( ev ident ly p art o f af ounta in) p rov ides a n a ppos ite p last ic i lustrat ion o f t he d ed icatory e pigram t o t he nymphs. The p assages i n P lutarch s how t ha t f rogs m ight a lso b e d ed icated t o Apo l lo ;

a nd a t erracotta f igur ine h as i n f act c ome t o l ight i n t he

M a leatas s anctuary.

P apad im itr iou s uggested t ha t i t m ight h ave r eferred

t o Apo l lo 's a bi l ity t o c ure s tammer ing.

The c horus o f f rogs i n

A r istophanes, h owever, ma inta ined t hat Apo l lo t ook d e l ight i n t he ir c roak ing a s a mus ic ian ( rather t han a h ea ler), a nd a lso l oved t hem f or t he r eeds wh ich g rew i n t he ir l ake, a nd were u sed i n t he c onstruct i on o f l yres

25

.

But t he i dea put f orward by M . F ranke l t ha t f rogs

w ere s acred t o Apo l lo b ecause o f t he ir p rophet ic a rts s eems t o b e b ased m ere ly o n t he o bserved f act

t hat

when t hey c roaked more l oud ly a nd

c l ear ly t han u sua l, r a in was i mm inent

2 6

. H is i dea i s d ism issed b o th

b y Rouse 2 7 a nd by J acobstha 12 8 . A s Ih ave s uggested, t here i s s ome r eason t o s uppose t hat Artem is, a s we l l a s Apo l lo, was worsh ipped o n M t. Kynort ion i n t he Ma leatas s anctuary

2 9

.

I t i s t herefore qu ite

p oss ible t hat t he t erracotta f rog was y et a nother d ed icat ion o f t he c reature t o h er.

1 56.

C .

Conc lus ion F ew r epresentat ions o f f rogs h ave b een f ound i n s anctuar ies ;

a nd t he ir s carc ity m ight h ave made i t h ard t o a ssess t he ir s ign if icance, w ere i t n ot f or t he f act t ha t l i terary s ources e xp l ic i t ly l ink t hem w ith w ater a nd hum id ity.

I n f act t hey h ave much t he s ame a ssoc ia t ions

a s t he f ar more c ommon ly d ed icated wa ter-b ird.

Un l ike t he w ater-

b ird , t hey a re n ot c ommon ly r epresented a s a n a ttr ibute o f t he p otn ia t heron;

but t he mot if o f t he

g oddess s tand ing o n af rog i s n ot unknown;

a nd l i ke t he water-b ird, i t p robab ly r epresents h er d om in ion o ver w a ter, a nd h er c haracter a s af ert i l i ty-goddess.

I t may a lso ( s ince p hryn it is

i s at i t le o f H ekate) r efer t o h er c hthon ic a spect.

Hence i t i s n ot s ur-

p r is ing t hat n ear ly a l l t he f rog-representat ions c ons idered i n t h is s tudy w ere f ound i n t he s anctuar ies o f f ema le d e it ies; t ions may h ave b een d ed icated t o Artem is . a re c omparab le t o t he water-birds.

a nd e ven t he t wo e xcep-

I n t h is t endency, t oo , t hey

Artem is, n ot o n ly a s p otnia t heron,

but a lso a s c h ief o f t he nymphs, i s e spec ia l ly w e l l-represented among t he r ec ip ients o f f rogs;

a nd t hose o f h er s anctuar ies a t wh ich t hey

h ave b een f ound a re w et p laces, a ppropr iate f or a f ert i l ity-goddess, a nd h aunted by r ea l f rogs.

F ootnotes 1 .

Mora l ia 3 99F-400D ( Loeb. Mora l /a . Vo l . V . p . 2 89).

2 .

The s ame quest ion a bout t he r e lat ion o f t he f rogs " to t he g od o r t o t he d ed icator" i s r a ised, but n ot a nswered, i n t he S eptem S ap ientum C on v iv ium ( Mora l ia 1 64a).

3 .

Ar istot le. 8 62A.

4 .

Ar istot le. 4 87A; Anton inus L ibera l is 3 5 ; N ikander. A lex ipharmaca . 5 78-9 .

5 .

AP I V I. 4 3 ( Loeb. Greek Antho logy . V o l. I . p . 3 21) c f AP I I X. 4 06, where a f rog i ns ide a c ra ter d ec lares i tse lf a f r iend t o wa ter .

1 57.

6 .

Metamorphoses V I. 3 25-6, 3 70-381. S ee Va l lo is ' Comment i n BCH 5 3 ( 1929) p . 2 23.

7 .

AJA 5 4 ( 1950) p . 2 55 ( Rev iew o f ab ook o n t he f rog-shaped l amps o f Roman Egypt, by L ou ise A . Sh ier).

8 .

S ee a bove,

9 .

Hoenn. Artem is . p . 3 2.

pp. 2 9-30, & 4 5.

1 0.

P ausan ias V . 1 5.7 . S ee F ig. 1 .

1 1 .

AA 8 3 ( 1968) p . 4 08 ( Ephesos) AO pp. 2 , 4 , 5a nd 1 6 ( Artem is Orth ia) RE Supp l . V II ( 1950) 9 77 ( Phera i).

1 2.

AO

1 3 .

I bid .

1 4.

G. M. A .R ichter. Handbook o f t he Greek Co l lect ion. ( Metropo l itan Museum o f Art) Harvard Un ivers ity P ress. 1 953. p . 3 4. P l. 2 2e. Congdon. Caryat id M irrors o f Anc ient Greece . P l. 6 . n o. 8 ; L exlc I . " Aphrod ite". 3 72.

1 5 .

W inifred L amb ( quot ing E . L ang lotz o n p . 9 1 o f F rühgr iechische B i ldhauerschu len) a ssociates t he n aked c aryat ids o n l a te Archa ic b ronze m irrors w i th t he c u lt o f Artem is Orth ia. ( W. L amb. Greek a nd Roman Bronzes . L ondon. 1 929 , p . 1 29 ). R ichter, h owever, d isagrees, a nd a ttr ibutes t he f rog m irror t o Cor inth, s uggest ing t hat t he g oddess may r epresent Aphrod ite. ( Ibid . L oc . c it .; AJA 4 2 ( 1938) pp. 3 42-4).

1 6 .

Chr istou. P otnia t heron.

1 7 .

F rogs . 2 31-234.

1 8 .

JHS

1 9 .

J dl

5 5 ( 1940) pp. 7 5-6.

2 0 .

AO

P l. 9 1.1 & 2 ;

2 1 .

J dl 5 5 ( 1940) pp. 7 5-6.

2 2 .

RE 7 ( 1910) 1 17.

2 3 .

S ee " Dogs". pp. 1 16-117.

2 4 .

S ee a bove, note 1 5.

2 5 .

F rogs . L ines 2 31-234.

2 6 .

Ae lian. De Natura Anima l ium. I X. 1 3. Theophrastus.

p . 5 1 , a nd p . 3 3, F ig. 1 8d;

p . 2 02.

p . 5 1. F ig. 2 9.

3( 1882) p . 5 4;

T empestatum .

1 5 .

pp. 1 21-3.

P otnia t heron pp. 3 0-31.

9 2.1 & '2;

1 12.2-4;

a nd 1 17-121.

Cf AO p . 2 37.

De S ignis

1 58.

2 7.

Rouse. p . 2 32. n ote 1 2.

2 8.

P au l J acobstha l. Greek P ins a nd t he ir c onnexions w ith E urope a nd As ia . Oxford. 1 956. p . 5 9.

2 9.

S ee " Dogs", p . 1 23.

1 59.

TORTOISES ( See Append ix 8 .9)

A.

L i terary Ev idence

( i) Myths a nd a nc ient s tatues P ausan ias ment ions t hat t he t orto ises o n M t. P arthen ion i n Arcad ia were r egarded a s s acred t o P an';

but t he g od who was most c lose ly

a ssoc iated w ith t he t or to ise i n mytho logy i s Hermes, who f i rst c onstructed t he l yre o ut o f i ts s he 1 1 2 . Then, i n o rder t o a ppease Apo l lo f or t he t hef t o f h is c att le, Hermes made h im a p resent o f t he f i rst t orto ise-she l l and Apo l lo i n r eturn made h im k eeper o f h erds 3 . The word f or " torto ise" even

b ecame a s ynonym f or " 1yre" 4; a nd a s t he l yre was o ne o f Apo l lo 's

a ttr ibutes, t he t orto ise, by a n emb lemat ic e xtens ion, was r egarded a s s acred t o h im a s we l l.

I t may h ave b een Apo l lo 's p red i lect ion ( as a

mus ic ian) f or t he a n ima l f rom wh ich h is l yre was made ‚ that p rompted t he g od t o c hange h imse lf i nto a t orto ise i n o rder t o r av ish t he nymph Dryope

5.

When P ausanias v is ited t he s anctuar ies o f Greece, h e s aw a n i conograph ica l e xpress ion o f Hermes ' a ssociat ion w ith t he t orto ise i n t he A rg ive s tatue where t he g od i s i n t he p rocess o f g r ipping t he a n ima l6; and when h e c ame t o t he t emp le o f Hermes i n Mega lopo l is, h e f ound noth ing l ef t o f i t but a s tone t orto ise

7

.

The Arg ive Hermes was a pprop-

r iate ly s i tuated i n as anctuary o f Apo l lo, who i nher ited t he t orto ise; but P ausan ias makes n o ment ion o f a ny r epresentat ion o f Apo l lo h imse lf w ith t h is a ttr ibute 8 ( frequent ly t hough h e must h ave a ppeared w ith al yre)

9

.

I n E l is, h owever, h e s aw Phe id ias ' i vory a nd g o ld s tatue

o f Aphrod ite Ouran ia , who r ested o ne o f h er f eet o n at orto ise

1 °

. There

i s n o known mytho log ica l e xp lanat ion f or t h is mot if , a nd P ausan ias l eaves i t t o t he r eader t o c on jecture o n t he mean ing o f t he a n ima l.

1 60.

P lutarch s uggested ( no d oubt i n j est) t hat i t was a h int t ha t women s hou ld s tay a t h ome a nd k eep s i lent 1 . 0 . Ke l ler o ffered t he more c onv inc ing s uggest ion t hat t he t orto ise was a ssociated w ith P hoen ician Astarte a s af ert i l ity-symbo l, b ecause o f t he l arge number o f e ggs i t p roduced;

a nd t hat i t b ecame a n a ttr ibute o f Aphrod ite o w ing t o

h er c lose a ff in it ies w ith t h is g oddess 1 2.

( i i) T he

d iv ine t i t le o f Che l it is

The t orto ise-der ived t i t le o f Che l it is, h owever, was g iven not t o Hermes, Apo l lo o r Aphrod ite ( in a ny c onf irmat ion o f t hese l i terary a ssociat ions) but s o le ly t o Artem is.

The r eference t o Artem is Che l it is

was made by C lement o f A lexandr ia, who s ays s he was venerated under t h is n ame i n S parta; "c ough ing

but h e o ffers t he s trange i nterpretat ion o f

Artem is" ( from X EX ÜGW

,

s p it o r c ough) 1 3

.

Th is d oes not

s eem t o h ave g a ined t he s upport o f modern s cho lars, who h ave a ssumed t hat Che l it is d er ives f rom

Xe /Xu s ( torto ise);

a nd t hat a s t he t orto ise

i s ac reature wh ich c l ings t o t he e arth, i t r efers t o Artem is ' c haracter a s a n e arth-goddess 1 4.

B .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence

( i ) Representat ions o f t orto ises i n s anctuar ies Representat ions o f t orto ises h ave b een f ound i n s ixteen o f t he s anctuar ies e xam ined i n t h is a ccount.

The e xact quant ity o f t hose

wh ich c ame t o l ight i n t he Thasos Artem is ion a nd a t Ka lydon h ave n ot b een pub l ished i n t he r eports, but i t may b e e st imated t ha t a bout f i f ty r epresentat ions i n a l l w ere d iscovered.

F our s anctuar ies e ach o f Artem is,

A thena, a nd Apo l lo, t hree o f Hera, a nd Apha ia 's s anctuary i n Aeg ina p roduced t h is t ype o f d ed icat ion, most ly i n t he f orm o f t erracotta o r

1 61.

bronze f igur ines d at ing f rom t he Archa ic p er iod.

Twenty-seven w ere

d ed icated t o A thena, o f wh ich t wenty-three ( of t he p er iod b etween 5 25 a nd 4 00 BC) c ome f rom L indos;

t we lve o r more w ere d ed icated

t o Artemis, f ive e ach t o Apo l lo a nd Hera, a nd t wo t o Apha ia.

J udg ing

by t he numbers o f i nd iv idua l r epresentat ions, A thena a nd Artem is r ece ived t hese v ot ives more f requent ly t han o ther d e it ies;

a nd i t i s

a lways poss ib le t hat Artem is was a lso t he r ec ip ient o f t he t erracottas d ed icated i n s ome s anc tuar ies o f Apo 1 10 1 5 . O n ly a t t he Ka lapod i s anctuary were t he s he l ls o f r ea l t orto ises d iscovered;

a nd t hese c ame f rom t he

Mycenaean c u ltleve l o f t he d epos it i n f ront o f t he S outh-East c orner o f t he f i fth c entury t emp le

1 6

.

I t i s e v ident t ha t n o d e ity h ad a monopo ly o f t orto ise-ded icat ions; a nd t hat Apo l lo, who a mong t he d e it ies o f o ur s anctuar ies i s most c lose ly a ssoc iated w ith t he t or to ise t hrough mytho logy, r ece ived f ewer i n d ed icat ion t han A thena o r Artem is.

Neverthe less, i t i s p oss ible t hat t he ir

p resence i n f our o f h is s anctuar ies may h ave r ef lected a c onsciousness i n t he m inds o f d ed ica tors t hat h e h ad a n i nterest i n t he c reature f rom wh ich h is l yre was made.

I n t he Ma leatas s anctuary where more t han

o ne t erracotta t orto ise was f ound, t he l yre mot if a lso o ccurs, b oth a s a n a ttr ibute o f b ronze Apo l lo f igur ines 1 7 ; a nd a s t he d es ign s tamped o n t wo t erracotta d iscs 1 5 . B ut t he p resence o f t he t orto ises i n a l l t hese Apo l lo s anctuar ies may h ave a nother e xp lana t ion, unconnected w ith t he l yre, wh ich I s ha l l p resent ly d iscuss. The s anctuar ies o f A r tem is have y ie lded more t orto ise-representat ions t han t hose o f h er b rother;

a nd t hey may h ave b een r egarded

a s a ppropr iate d ed icat ions f or a g oddess o f t he e arth t o whom t he t i t le o f Che l it is was g iven.

Moreover, t he f act t ha t i t was i n S parta t hat

Artem is Che l it is was v enerated ( accord ing t o C lement o f A lexandr ia)

1 62.

m ight a ccount f or t he number o f t orto ises f ound i n t he L imna i s anctuary. Th is s anctuary c onta ined t he o ldest o f a l l t he t orto ise-ded ications, a nd a lso t he h ighest r ecorded number o ffered t o Artem is.

They a re made

n ot o n ly i n t erracotta a s i n most o ther s i tes, but a re a r ecurring mot if 2 7

a lso i n b ronze, b one a nd l ead .

Thus i f Ar tem is L aphr ia ( or E laphebo l ia ) o f

Hyampo l is was t he g oddess worsh ipped a t Ka lapod i , a s t he e xcavators h ave s uggested

1 9

,

i t i s n ot i nappropr iate t hat s he s hou ld h ave b een

t he s uccessor t o a Mycenaean d e ity t o whom t he s he l ls o f r ea l t orto ises were o ffered.

As a w i ld c reature, t he t orto ise c ou ld have b een among

t he a n ima ls s acr if iced o n t he L aphr ian bonf ire;

a nd i t has a lready b een

n oted t hat a t De lph i, wh ich p roduced a b ronze t orto ise-shaped a labastron Artem is L aphr ia e v ident ly h ad a c u lt

2 °

.

I t must n everthe less b e a cknow ledged t ha t t he g reatest number o f t orto ise-representat ions f rom a ny o ne s i te were d iscovered i n t he L ind ian s anctuary o f A thena, who h ad no known mytho log ica l c onnect ions w ith t he c reature n , a nd who was n ever a pparent ly i nvoked by a ny n ame r eferr ing t o i t .

A sma l l number o f t orto ises were a lso f ound i n t hree

o f A thena 's o ther s anctuar ies a nd i n t hree o f Hera 's.

For n one o f t hese

d ed icat ions i s i t e asy t o f ind a n e xp lanat ion i n a nc ient l i terary s ources.

( i i) T he t orto ise, t he p otnia t heron, a nd B ronze Age c u lts I n Chr istou 's P otnia T heron, h e r efers t o t hree b ronzes i n wh ich ag oddess i s r epresented s tand ing o n at orto ise 2 . One i s a n e ar ly f i f th c entury m irror-hand le f rom Aeg ina, where t he g oddess (who w ears a n a pron) was t entat ive ly i dent if ied by D e R idder a s Aphrod i te 2 3 , Another m irror-hand le i n Ber l in, a pparent ly o f unknown p rovenance, s hows t he g oddess n aked

2 4

;

wh i le a t h ird f igur ine s hows s igns o f

1 63.

hav ing f ormed p art o f ag roup w i th s ph inxes 2 5 . C hr istou a ssumes t hat t hese f ema le f igur ines a re t o b e r egarded a s d e it ies, but r efra ins f rom i dent ify ing t hem e i ther w ith Aphrod ite ( on t he a na logy o f t he Phe id ias s tatue) o r w ith Artem is ( on t he g rounds o f t he e p ithet " Che l it is"), o r w ith a ny o ne O lympian g oddess.

The i mages s how s imp ly t hat t he

t orto ise c ou ld a ppear a s a n a ttr ibute o f t he Archa ic p otnia t heron, who c annot b e i dent if ied e xc lus ive ly w ith a ny O lympian g oddess.

As t o

t he mean ing o f t he t orto ise a s a n a ttr ibute, Chr istou b e l ieved t ha t s ince l i ke t he f rog, i t i s a n amph ibian r ept i le, p referr ing t o l ive i n d amp p laces, i t s ign if ies mo isture a nd f ert i l ity;

a nd s ince i t c reeps

l ow o n t he g round, i t a lso s ymbo l izes t he e arthy n ature o f t he p otnia. F arne l l, t oo, t hought t hat i t r eferred t o water

2 6

. Th is more g enera l

i nterpretat ion o f t he t orto ise a s a n a ttr ibute s eems r easonable.

Wh i le

Artem is may a ppropr iate ly b e g iven t he t i t le o f Che l it is b ecause o f h er c haracter a s g oddess o f t he e arth a nd o f water, a nd o f w i ld a n ima ls sma l l a s we l l a s g reat, o ther f ema le d e it ies c ou ld o n o ccas ion s hare a spects o f t h is c haracter.

Thus Aphrod ite a s af ert i l ity-goddess t ook

possess ion o f t he t orto ise a s av isua l a ttr ibute

2 7

;

a nd when Apo l lo

t ook o n i ts s hape t o g et p ossess ion o f Dryope, i t m ight h ave b een n ot s o much b ecause o f t he l yre-myth a s b ecause i t was a s u itable p layth ing ( or a ttr ibute) f or a nymph who was t he g rand-daughter o f t he R iver Sperch ios.

I t h as b een o bserved t hat a nother g oddess who r ema ined

ap otnia t heron e ven when g iven a n O lymp ian n ame was A thena L ind ia ; a nd t he c omparat ive ly l arge number o f t orto ises d ed icated a t h er s anct uary a re e xp l icable i n t erms o f t h is i nher itance. The p otnia t heron o f t he Archa ic p er iod h erse lf d er ives f rom t he n ature-goddesses o f t he E ast a nd o f Crete a nd Mycenae . B l inkenberg, i n e xp lanat ion o f t he L ind ian t orto ises, e xpresses t he o p in ion t ha t t he ir

1 64.

p resence ( l ike t hat o f t he many b irds 2 8 )i nd icated t hat t he d eity h ad a Mycenaean o r ig in2 3 . T h is t heory i s c erta in ly c ons istent w ith t he d isc overy o f t wo Archa ic t erracotta t orto ises a t t he s anctuary o f Apha ia, ag oddess o f Cretan o r ig in, whose p rec inct h ad e v ident ly b een t he s i te o f a Bronze Age c u lt

3 0

. None o f t he t orto ise - r epresentat ions a t

t he s anctuar ies e xam ined d ate f rom t he B ronze Age;

but t he r ea l t orto ise.

s he l ls f ound i n t he Mycenaean l ayers o f t he Ka lapod i s anctuary ( and a lso a t Phy lakopi) d o s uggest t hat t hey m ight h ave p layed a p art i n Bronze Age c u lts, a nd t hus l end s ome mater ia l s upport t o B l inkenberg 's t heory. A t l east t hey i nd icate t hat t he a ssoc iat ion o f t he t orto ise w i th c erta in O lymp ian g oddesses, a nd t he p resence o f i t s i mage i n a number o f s anct uar ies b e long ing t o f ema le d e it ies, h ad a l ong h istory. The o n ly ma le d e ity i n whose s anctuar ies t orto ise-representat ions w ere f ound i s Apo l lo, a nd t he s tory o f t he t orto ise a nd t he l yre o f t he mus ic ian-god s uggests a mot ive f or t he d ed icator 's c ho ice.

But i n

a l l o f h is s anctuar ies wh ich p roduced t hese i mages, t here i s a lso e v idence o f a Mycenaean p resence , a nd a t De lph i , D e los, a nd t he Ma leatas s i te, s pec if ica l ly o f a Mycenaean c u lt 3 1 . Ih ave s uggested t hat t he t orto ises f ound a t t hese s anctuar ies c ou ld h ave b een d ed icated t o Artemis r a ther t han Apo l lo, i n v iew o f t he i nd icat ions t ha t s he was worsh ipped w ith h im a t a l l o f t hem.

I n t he a bsence o f a n i nscr ibed o b ject, t h is c an

b e n o more t han s pecu lat ion;

but a t l east t he ir d ed icat ion c ou ld h ave

s temmed f rom t he t rad it ions o f a Bronze Age c u lt i n wh ich a f ema le d e ity w as worsh ipped, s im i lar t o t he o ne who r ece ived t orto ise - s he l ls a t Ka lapod i.

Th is n eed n ot e xc lude t he p oss ib i l ity t hat a n a ssoc iat ion

b etween Apo l lo, h is l yre, a nd t he t orto ise, may a lso h ave b een i n t he m inds o f t he d ed icators, e spec ia l ly o nce t he O lymp ian g ods h ad a ssumed t he ir p ost-Homer ic c haracters a nd a ttr ibutes.

1 65.

C .

Conc lus ion I t i s h ard t o a ccount f or t he p resence o f t orto ise-representat ions

i n s anctuar ies, i n t erms o f mytho logy.

Accord ing t o mytho logy, i t

i s Hermes a nd Apo l lo who a re a ssoc iated w ith t he t orto ise, b ecause Hermes f irst made t he l yre o ut o f i t s s he l l, a nd g ave i t t o Apo l lo.

Yet

wh i le t orto ise-f igur ines h ave b een f ound i n f our s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo, t he g reat ma jor ity were d ed icated t o A thena L ind ia, a nd t o Artem is. A more l ike ly e xplanat ion f or t he ir p resence i n s anctuar ies i s t he t heory, h e ld by B l inkenberg, a nd s upported by t he d iscovery o f r ea l t orto ises he l ls i n t he Ka lapod i s anctuary, t hat t he a n ima ls a re t o b e a ssoc iated w ith a Mycenaean g oddess , whose c onnect ion w ith e arth a nd w ith mo isture t hey may have s ymbo l ized.

Thus i t i s t o t he d e it ies, p art icu lar ly t he

f ema le d eit ies, who w ere most c lose ly l i nked w ith t he ir Mycenaean f orbears , t ha t t orto ise-representat ions were most c ommon ly d ed icated i n t he Geometr ic p er iod a nd l a ter.

Artem is, t he p otnia t heron o f h istor ic

t imes, who was s omet imes a ctua l ly c a l led Che l it is, a nd who may h ave i nher ited a s anctuary where t orto ise-she l ls w ere d ed icated t o a Mycenaean d ei ty, was t he c h ief o f t hese; a no ther.

but A thena L ind ia ( l ike Apha ia) was

Even t he Apo l lo s anctuar ies wh ich y ie lded t orto ises o nce

h oused Mycenaean c u lts ;

a nd t here a re r easons t o s uppose t ha t Artem is

was worsh ipped i n a l l o f t hese s anctuar ies a s we l l a s h er b ro ther.

I t

i s i n t erms o f a Mycenaean s urv iva l t hen, r ather t han t he mytho logy wh ich h as r eached u s i n l i terary f orm, t hat t he t orto ise-representat ions i n s anctuar ies may b e most u sefu l ly i nterpreted.

Th is i nterpretat ion,

a t l east, i s c ons istent w ith t he r e lat ive ly f requent d ed icat ion o f t he f igur ines t o A thena L ind ia, a nd t o Artem is.

1 66.

F ootnotes 1 .

P ausan ias. V III. 5 4.7.

2 .

Homer ic Hymn t o Hermes . 2 4-61 ;

3 .

Homer ic Hymn. 4 75-502.

4 .

S ee LSJ, XEXvs.

5 .

Anton inus L ibera l is. Metamorphoses . 3 2.

6 .

P ausan ias. I. 1 9.6.

7 .

I bid .

8 .

There i s, h owever, a b ronze s tatue o f Apo l lo i n F lorence, where t he s eated g od r ests o ne f oot o n at orto ise. ( RE 2 AI ( 1921) 4 32).

9 .

S ee P ausan ias. V III. 3 1.3.

P ausan ias. V III.

1 7.5 .

V III. 3 0.6.

1 0.

P ausan ias. V I. 2 5.1.

1 1.

P lutarch . 1 42D ( Praecepta Coniuga l ia 3 2 );

1 2.

0 . Ke l ler. D ie Ant ike T ierwe lt . L e ipz ig. 1 909-1913. Vo l. I . pp. 2 49-50. Astarte was i dent if ied s pec ia l ly w ith Aphrod ite Ourania ( RE 2 ( 1896) 1 777-8) c f L .R. F arne l l ( Cu lts o f t he Greek S tates . Oxford. 1 896-1909. Vo l. I . p . 6 74) who b e l ieved t hat t he t orto ise b e longed " to Astarte Aphrod ite a lone".

1 3.

C lement o fA lexandria. P rotrept icus . C ap. I . 3 3P ( Loeb (1 919) p . 8 3) .

1 4.

S ee RE 2 (1896) 1 401;

1 5.

The s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo where f igur ines o f t orto ises w ere d isc overed a re a t Thermon, De los, De lph i, a nd t he Ma leatas s anctuary. R eference h as b een made i n t he d iscuss ion o n d ogs t o t he p oss ibi l ity t hat Artem is h ad c u lts a t Thermon a nd M t . Kynort ion ( Dogs pp . 1 20 & 1 23).

3 81 .E ( De Is ide e t Osir ide 7 5 ).

W ide. L akonische Ku lte . p .

1 30, a nd note 1 .

The Artem is ion o f De los p redated Apo l lo 's t emp les i n t he h ieron Bergqu ist. T he Archa ic Greek T emenos . Lund. 1 967. pp. 2 6-30); a nd t here a re s evera l i nd icat ions o f ac u lt o f Artem is a t De lph i . S ee I ntroduct ion, n ote 2 3. 1 6.

AA 9 5 ( 1980) p . 4 6; BCH 1 05 ( 1981) p . 8 12 ; AR 2 6 ( 1980-1) p . 2 4. Torto ise-she l ls w ere a lso d iscovered a t t he Mycenaean s anctuary o f P hy lakop i ( C. R enfrew. " The s anctuary a t Phy lakop r. S anctuar ies a nd c u lts i n t he Aegean Bronze Age. Ed. R . Hägg & N . Mar inatos. S tockho lm 1 981. p p. 7 0-72. F ig. 1 8). A t t he M idd le M inoan p eaks anctuary o f P etsofa " severa l" s ma l l t erracotta t orto ises were a mong t he f igur ines d iscovered ( BSA 9 ( 1902-3) p . 3 77).

1 7.

PAE 1 975 p .

1 8.

PAE 1 978. p .

1 74. n o.

1 8. P l.

1 20. P l. 9 8C;

1 52C;

1 977 p . 1 92. P l. 1 22b,c.

BCH 1 03 ( 1979) p . 5 60. F ig. 8 2.

1 67.

1 9.

AA

9 5 ( 1980) p p. 3 8-42.

2 0.

S ee a bove, note 1 5.

2 1.

Ke l ler 's r eference t o A thena 's t ransformat ion t o at orto ise 's s hape ( Op. c it . p . 2 53), wh ich i s c ited i n RE 2 . AI ( 1921) 4 32, a ppears t o b e b ased o n am isread ing o f " swa l low" ( XE x i66v ) i n P hot ius, B ibl iotheca . 4 44a . 3 2.

2 2.

P otnia t heron .p p. 1 19-121.

2 3.

AE 1 895 P l. 7 .

2 4.

U . J antzen. Bronzewerkstätten i n Gros g r ieche land u nd S iz i l ien. J d l Supp lement 1 3 ( 1937) P l. 2 8.116; a nd G . Bruns. Ant iken Bronzen. Ber l in. 1 947. p . 2 7. F ig. 1 6.

2 5.

J antzen . Op. c it .

2 6.

Op. c it . p . 6 74 n ote ( a) ( "The a n ima l p robably a l ludes t o t he waterg oddess").

2 7.

A l imestone s lab d ed icated t o P aph ian Aphrod ite i n Cyprus, was c arved w ith t he mot if o f at orto ise ( JHS 9 ( 1888) p . 2 53).

2 8.

S ee a bove."Birds", n ote 9 0.

2 9.

L indos I . pp. 5 79-580.

3 0.

A . Furtwäng ler. Das He i l igtum d er Apha ia. Mun ich. 1 906. Bronze Age f igur ines o f f ema les a nd a n ima ls ( pp. 3 73-4); e ngraved s tones ( p. 4 32); a nd 5 0-100 f ragments o f Mycenaean v ases ( pp . 4 34-5) w ere d iscovered o n t he s i te.

3 1.

1 .

De lph i. S ee FdD V ( 1908): 5f ema le f igur ines, a nd f ragments o f a n ima ls ( pp. 1 4-15); p ottery ( pp. 1 5-19); p aste p endants ( p. 1 3); f ragments o f r hyton ( p. 3 ) a nd s erpent ine v ases ( p. 2 1).

2 .

De los. BCH 7 1-72 ( 1947-8) pp. 1 48-254. The Artem is ion d epos it.

P l. 2 8.117.

3 . • Apo l lo Ma leatas. Terracotta s herds a nd f igur ines ( PAE 1 949. p . 9 4. F igs. 5 & 6 ; 1 950. p . 1 99. F igs. 5 -7; 1 974. p . 1 00. n o. 6 ; 1 975. p . 1 73; 1 976. p . 2 07; 1 978. P l. 9 b; 1 979. P l. 9 1-2). 6s ea l-stones ( PAE 1 950. p . 1 99. F igs. 8 -9 ; 1 976. pp. 2 07-8. P l. 1 43 b ,d; E rgon 1 975. p . 1 06. F ig. 1 01). 1s teat ite r hyton ( PAE 1 950. p . 2 00. F ig. 1 0; p .

E rgon 1 976.

1 06. F ig. 1 02).

1b ronze d agger ( PAE 1 948. p . 1 03. F ig. 7 ). BA a l tar ( PAE 1 976. pp. 2 06-8. P l. 1 41). S ee V . L ambt inoudak is . " Rema ins o f t he Mycenaean p er iod i n t he s anctuary o f Apo l lon Ma leatas" . Hägg a nd Mar inatos . Op . c it . pp . 5 9-65 . The Mycenaean r ema ins a t Thermon i nd icate a s ett lement, but n ot n ecessar i ly a c u lt ( A De lt 1 ( 1915) p . 2 29. F igs. 3 6-8).

1 68.

GOATS ( See Append ix 8 .10 )

A .

L iterary e v idence

( i ) Goats a s s acr if icia l v ict ims Goats s erved a s s acr if ica l v ict ims t o most o f t he g ods. Z eus a nd Hera were t hus c a l led by t he t i t le o f A igophagos

1;

Both a lthough

i n Hera 's c ase, a ccord ing t o P ausan ias, t h is was o n ly i n S parta, where Herak les i s s a id t o h ave b egun t he c ustom o f g oat-sacr if ice b ecause h e h ad n o o ther v ict ims t o o ffer 2 . Apo l lo was o ffered g oats ( in add it ion t o s heep a nd c att le)

3;

t he s tory t o ld by P lutarch, i n wh ich Theseus

s acr if iced a s he-goat t o Aphrod ite s hows t ha t s he was no e xception t o g enera l c ustom k ; a nd o ne o f t he Ded icatory Epigrams c ommemorates t he s acr if ice o f ag oat t o D ionysos

5.

The i nformat ion a bout t he p ract ice o f g oat-sacr if ice t o Artem is i s r ather more d eta i led.

Th is h istory o f t he 5 00 g oats g iven y ear ly

t o Artem is Agrotera a f ter t he b att le o f Marathon i s r ecorded by more t han o ne wr iter s ; whi le i n S parta, i t was b efore a b att le t hat Artem is Agro tera r ece ived s he-goats f rom t he p eop le'.

But i t was n ot o n ly i n c onnect ion

w ith war t hat Artem is was o ffered t hese v ict ims:

a t Mounych ia g oat-

s acr if ice was t he r u le s ; a nd o ne o f t he D ed icatory Epigrams a lso c ommemorates t he p rom ise o f as he-goat t o Artemis 9 . I t a ppears t hat t he o ne O lymp ian d e ity t o whom g oats were not s acr if iced was A thena.

A thenaeus n otes t ha t t hey w ere not p ermitted

t o e nter t he Acropo l is o f A thens, a nd t ha t t hey were never s acrif iced t o A thena a t a l ll ° ( and t hey a re c erta in ly n ot r epresented a s s acr if ic ia l v ict ims o n t he P arthenon F r ieze).

A l aw r e lat ing t o t he s anctuary

a t L indos went s o f ar a s t o i mpose a n e ntry-ban o n a l l persons who h ad e aten g oat-f lesh dur ing t he p rev ious t hree d ays

"

. Cook b e l ieved t hat

1 69.

i t was b ecause A thena h ad o nce b een worsh ipped a s ag oat-goddess i n A tt ica ( a c u lt wh ich l ef t i ts t race i n t he a eg is wh ich s he c ont inued t o wear a fter s he h ad b een a nthropomorph ized) t hat g oats were n ever s acr if iced t o h er

1 2

But l i terature d oes n ot o ffer s upport f or t h is t heory.

.

( i i) Goats a nd t he g ods i n mytho logy A lthough g oats w ere s acr if iced t o Z eus, s o t ha t h e c ou ld b e c a l led " goat-eater", t he a n ima l was not r egarded a s o ne o f h is a ttr ibutes. H is ma in c onnect ion w i th i t i n mytho logy was t ha t a s a n i nfant h e was s uck led by t he g oat Ama lthea i n C rete 1 3 . S ome o f Apo l lo 's c h i ldren, i nc lud ing Ask lepios, w ere n our ished a s i nfants i n t he s ame way;

a nd

a ccord ing t o P ausan ias i t was t hought a ppropr iate b ecause o f t hese myths ( and a lso t o c ommemorate s acr if ice) t o o ffer b ronze s tatues o f g oats a t De lph i

1 4

.

I n D e los, Apo l lo c hose t o bu i ld h is a l tar o f g oat-

horns 1 5 . My tho logy d oes n ot a pparent ly l i nk Hera w ith t he g oat, e xcept i n t he n egat ive s ense t hat Herak les was a ct ing unusua l ly when h e made as acr if ice o f t he a n ima l t o h er i n S parta.

Nor d oes i t s at isfactor i ly

e xp la in why S kopas ' b ronze Aphrod ite P andemon a t E l is ( wh ich P ausan ias s aw) w as s itt ing o n ag oat 1 6 ,o r why s he was c a l led by t he t i t le o f Epitrag ia .

P lutarch 's e xp lanat ion t hat i t was b ecause t he s he-goat

wh ich Theseus was a bout t o s acr if ice t o h er was s udden ly t ransformed i nto a ma le, d oes n ot s eem qu ite s uff icient. As i n t he c ase o f l i terary r eferences t o g oat-sacr if ice, mytho logy o ffers more i nformat ion o n t he s ub ject o f Artem is t han o f o ther d e it ies, i n r e lat ion t o g oats.

I t was a s t he g oddess o f hunt ing t hat Artem is

s upp l ied t he h orns f or t he De l ian k era t on, f or s he h ad f i rst s hot t he a n ima ls o n M t. Cynthos;

a nd t he l i nk b etween De l ian Artemis a nd t he

hunt ing o f w i ld g oats i s l a ter c e lebrated i n ad ed icatory e pigram, i n

170.

which Echemmas dedicates his bow in the Artemision after shooting goats with it, for now "the goddess has rnade him consent to a truce" 17• Aelian reports that wild goats were plentiful near her temple on the island of Icarus in the Persian Gulf: to have success in catching thern, the hunters must first pray to the goddess 18• The domestic goat also played its part in myths connected with Artemis.

The aetion legend for the sanctuary of Artemis Agrotera

outside Aigeira links the goddess ( under this specific title) with the goat, and both of them with deliverance in war, an association consistent with the goat-sacrifices made to her in Athens and in Sparta.

When

attacked by the Sikyonians, the citizens tied torches onto the horns of a flock of goats, and lit thern at night, so deceiving the enemy into believing that these were the fires of allies come to aid the city.

The

Sikyonians therefore abandoned their attack, and the people founded the sanctuary of Artemis Agrotera where the most beautiful of the goats had lain down - this honouring the goddess for the delivery of Aigeira1 9 The custom of sacrificing goats at Mounychia also had its aetion. It began, like the Brauronian A rk teia, with the killing of a bear sacred to the goddess. Artemis sen t a plague to punish the A thenians, and would only be propitiated by the sacrifice of a girl in the Mounychian sanctuáry to which the bear had belonged. But Embaros, who offered his own daughter in return for a permanent family priesthood, saved her from the sacrifice by dressing up a goat in the girl 's clothes. For this reason, goats were ·always sacrificed to Artemis at Mounychia 20• We have already seen that both the bear and the deer play a p art in myths of substitution for sacrifices to Artemis. Another legen d ,· in which a goat also takes the place of a girl, though in a rather more indirect way, is told by Antoninus Liberalis about the city of Melitea

•

1 71.

i n Phth iot is.

The g ir l, Aspa l is, h anged h erse lf i n o rder t o p reserve

h er v irg in ity;

but h er b ody d isappeared, a nd i nstead h er s tatue a ppeared

i n t he t emp le o f Artem is, b es ide t ha t o f t he g oddess.

Every y ear t he

ma idens hung o n i t ay oung a nd v irg in s he-goat i n s acr if ice t o Artem is 2 1 . Here t he hanged g oat e nacts t he p art o f t he h anged v irg in, who i n h er pur ity was h erse lf a t ype o f Artem is;

a nd s uch a s ubst itut ion

may h int a t t he i dea o f ag oat-de ity l ike t hat s uggested by Cook w ith r eference t o A thena. Remin iscent o f t he Mounych ia a nd Aspa l is l egends a bout Artem is i s P ausan ias ' s tory o f ag oat b e ing s acr if iced t o D ionysos i n s ubst itut ion f or a human v ict im 2 . I n f act l i terary e v idence s hows t hat among t he ma le d e it ies i t i s D ionysos who i s c losest t o t he g oat, t he r e lat ionsh ip b eing man ifested i n t he g oat-footed a nd i thypha l l ic P ans a nd s atyrs o f h is t ra in; o f ag oat

2 3

.

a nd t here a re t a les o f D ionysos h imse lf t ak ing t he f orm The Ded icatory E pigrams s upport t he s pec ia l c la ims o f

Artem is a nd D ionysos t o t he g oat, by c ommemorat ing i t s s acr if ice o n ly t o t hese t wo, among t he O lymp ian g ods 2 4 .

( i i i)

T it les d er ived f rom t he g oat F ina l ly wh i le i t i s t rue t ha t t i t les o f Z eus a nd Hera s how t hem

t o b e g oät-eaters, a t l east upon o ccas ion, a nd t hat Aphrod ite Ep itrag ia s i ts u pon a g oat, i t i s Artem is under h er t i t les o f Knaka les ia, Knakeat is, Knagea a nd A ig ina ia 2 5 ,a nd D ionysos who was s omet imes c a l led E r iph ios 2 6 , whose e pithets i dent ify t hem most c lose ly w ith t he a n ima l i t se lf , a nd may l ook back t o t he g oat-shaped d e it ies o f ap r im it ive a ge 2 7 . N i lsson r e la ted Artem is ' t i t les t o h er c u lt a s an ature-goddess;

a nd w ent o n

t o ment ion t hat t he o rg iast ic r itua ls p erformed f or g oat-Artem is w ere a lso p art o f D ionys iac c u lts

2 8.

1 72.

The e v idence o ffered by l i terature a bout t he f a ir ly c omplex r o le o f t he g oat i n c u lts o f Artem is i s f u l ler a nd more s pec if ic t han t he r eferences t o i ts r e lat ionsh ip w ith o ther d e it ies, a nd s uggests a c loser a ssoc iat ion.

I t n ow r ema ins t o c ons ider h ow f ar l i terary e v idence i s

c ons istent w ith t he mater ia l p resence o f g oats ( both t heir i mages, a nd t he ir phys ica l r ema ins) i n s anctuar ies.

B .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence

( i )

Ev idence o f g oat-sacr if ice: b ones a nd s acr if ic ia l s cenes Horns o r b ones o f g oats h ave b een r eported a t e leven o f t he s anc-

t uar ies under d iscuss ion: f our o f Artem is, f our o f Apo l lo, t wo o f Demeter, a nd o ne o f P ose idon.

Horns, i n p articu lar , w ere d iscovered a t f ive o f

t hese s i tes, a l l o f wh ich b e longed e ither t o Apo l lo o r t o Artem is;

a nd

t he ir p resence s uggests a c u l t a ssoc iated w ith t he s tory o f t he De l ian k eraton, a nd Artem is ' hunting o f t he g oats n ecessary f or t he bu i lding o f t he a l tar.

A t Dreros, a l arge number o f g oat-horns were f ound not

m ere ly s cattered a t r andom, but i ns ide t he a l tar i tse lf .

The l i terary

e v idence o f g oat-sacr if ice t o Artemis i s b orne o ut by t he p resence o f t he ir b ones n ot o n ly b eneath h er Archa ic t emp le a t De los, where t he g odd ess hunted t hem o n M t. Cynthos;

but a lso by t he numerous b ones a nd

h orns d iscovered r ound t he a l tar a t Ephesos ( where t hey w ere ev ident ly t he most c ommon ly s acr if iced a n ima l) a nd a t Thasos ;

wh i le t he k id-bones

f ound a t t he Archa ic a l tar o f t he Ka lapod i s anctuary a re a t l east c ons ista nt w ith t he e xcavator 's o -p in ion t hat Artemis was worshipped t here. The o n ly s anctuar ies i n t h is s tudy where r epresentat ions o f g oat-sacr if ice c ame t o l ight a lso b e longed t o Artemis.

One f ourth c entury marble r e l ief

o f s uch a r i tua l i s a t Brauron, a nd t wo, a ppropr iate ly, were f ound a t t he s anctuary o f Artem is L oche ia, o n t he v ery s lopes o f M t. Cynthos i n De los.

1 73.

On ly t hree o f t he e leven s anctuar ies wh ich p roduced mater ia l ev idence o f g oat-sacr if ice d id n ot b e long t o Artemis o r Apo l lo.

S ince

A thena a lone i s known t o h ave r e jected s uch v ict ims, t he p resence o f t he ir bones a t I sthm ia a nd Cn idus i s n o s urpr ise.

But i t i s o f s ome

i nterest t hat s carce ly a ny o f t hose a t Demeter 's Knossos s anctuary d ate f rom a f ter t he Geometr ic p er iod, when p igs b ecame t he p r inc ipa l s acr if ic ia l v ict ims;

whereas t he ir b ones a re by f ar t he most c ommon

s pec ies both i n t he M inoan a nd i n t he Geometr ic p er iods.

I t a l lows

t he p oss ibi l ity t hat t he Cretan d e ity worsh ipped a t t h is s hr ine d id not a ssume t he c haracter o f O lympian Demeter unt i l a f ter t he Geometr ic p er iod.

( i i) R epresentat ions o f g oats i n s anctuar ies The s anctuar ies u nder e xaminat ion h ave y ie lded a t l east 1 00 r epresentat ions o f g oa ts a lone.

I t i s n ot p oss ib le t o b e more e xact,

ma in ly b ecause t he number o fl ead f igur ines f rom Artem is Orth ia i s r are ly s pec if ied i n Dawkins ' p ub l icat ion:

t here a re i l lustrat ions t here o f f ive

A rcha ic t ypes o f g oat i n l ead ,but t hese t ypes may h ave b een r epresented by more t han o ne e xamp le.

One b ronze h e-goat f rom a v esse l i s r ecorded

i n t he I sthm ian s anctuary, but i n t he museum o f t he s i te more t han o ne b ronze g oat-f igur ine i s v is ib le.

I n a dd it ion t o t hese r epresentat ions

o f s eparate g oats, a f ew l imestone a nd t erracotta f igures o f men ( and s ome women) c arry ing g oats c ame t o l ight i n c erta in s anctuar ies.

The

d ist inct ion b etween t he w i ld a nd t he d omest ic g oat i s n ot a l together c lear :

t hus Mar inatos, i n h is a ccount o f a n i nc ised s tone d ep ict ing

g oats f rom Apo l lo 's s anctuary a t Dreros, c annot b e s ure whether t he 2 9

s ub ject i s aw i ld-goat h unt, o r a n a ttack o n ad omest ic h erd

2 9

But

s ome d escr ipt ions g ive a d ef inite l abe l o f w i ld g oat ( or i bex) t o a

1 74.

p art icu lar r epresentat ion.

O f t he 1 00 o r more a rtefacts l i sted h ere,

t wenty-two h ave b een s pecif ica l ly i nterpreted a s r epresent ing t he w i ld a nd n ot t he d omest ic a n ima l;

n one o f t hese i s l a ter t han t he Archa ic

p er iod, a nd t hree ( on e ngraved s tones) a re Mycenaean .

I ndeed, t he

g reat ma jor ity o f a l l t he g oat-representat ions d ate f rom t he A rcha ic p er iod , e xcept when t hey a re Geometr ic ( as f ive o f t he e xamp les f rom O lymp ia).

On ly t hree ( and o ne g oat-carr ier f rom L indos) d ate f rom

t he f i f th c entury;

wh i le t he s te le f rom t he D iktynna ion i s e v ident ly

at h ird c entury work ( a lthough i f i t d ep icts a r ea l bu i ld ing d ecorated w ith g oat-akroter ia , t h is may we l l b e o lder t han t he s te le).

The f ew

g oats a ppear ing a s s acr if icia l v ict ims o r o therw ise i n c ompany w ith Artem is, h owever, d ate f rom t he f i f th, f ourth a nd t h ird c entur ies BC. O f t he r epresentat ions o f g oats i n i so lat ion f rom d iv ine o r human c ompan ions t wenty-f ive o r more ( inc lud ing t hree i bexes) w ere d ed icated t o Artem is, a nd s ix

( a lso i nc lud ing t hree i bexes) t o Apha ia , who w as

g enera l ly i dent if ied w ith h er.

Twenty-one g oats w ere d ed icated i n

s anctuar ies o f A thena, i nc lud ing s ix i bexes.

Most o f t hese i mages

were f ound i n t he s anctuary a t L indos, wh ich a lso p roduced a bout t h irty Archa ic ma les c arry ing o r h o ld ing g oats a nd o ne f ema le g oatc arr ier.

Dorothea Brooke b e l ieved t ha t a t l east o ne o f t he a n ima ls

c arr ied by s ix L ate Archa ic t erracotta f ema les f rom t he Acropo l is o f A thens may a lso h ave b een a k id

3 0

; a nd t he t erracotta g oddess w ith

t he w i ld-goat o n h er s k irt was f ound i n a nother Acropo l is s anctuary o f A thena, a t Gortyn.

About t wenty g oats w ere f ound i n s anctuar ies o f

Z eus, wh i le Hera r ece ived t wenty-seven, i nc lud ing n ine i bexes - t he g reat ma jor ity b e ing o r ienta l a rtefacts f ound i n h er S amian s hr ine. A f ew f igur ines o f g oats w ere f ound a t t he I sthm ian s anctuary, where t he ir b ones a lso c ame t o l ight;

but i n s pi te o f t he p resence o f g oat-

1 75.

bones a t Cn idus a nd Knossos, n o r epresentat ions o f t he a n ima l w ere r eported f rom t he s anctuar ies o f Demeter c ons idered i n t h is s tudy. On ly f ive g oat-representat ions, t oo, h ave b een r eported f rom t he s anct uar ies o f Apo l lo, a l though t he l arge number o f h orns d iscovered a t Dreros a nd Ha l ieis i nd icate t hat g oats were o f s ome i mportance i n h is cu lt.

( i i i) C ommentary o n t he d istr ibut ion o f g oat-representat ions 1 .

Z eus a nd Hera: The g reater p art o f t he g oat-representat ions d ed icated i n s anc-

t uar ies o f Z eus w ere f ound a t O lympia, where t hey may h ave b een d ed ica ted e i ther t o t he p atron g od, o r t o a ny o f t he d e it ies whose a l tars s tood i n a nd a round t he A lt is.

L ike most o f t hese, Z eus was a r ecipient

o f g oats i n s acr if ice a nd t he sma l l b ronze f igur ines may r epresent s acr if ic ia l v ict ims.

But whatever i t s s tatus a s av ict im, t he g oat c an

s carce ly b e r egarded a s af avour ite mot if among t he a n ima l f igur ines d ed icated a t O lympia.

The t we lve e xamp les i n b ronze o f t he Geometr ic

a nd Archa ic p er iods a re g reat ly o ut-numbered by b oth c att le a nd h orses; wh i le a pparent ly n o t erracotta g oats a t a l l w ere d iscovered i n t he s anctuary

3 1

The s tory o f Herak les ' s acr if ice t o S partan Hera i mp l ies t ha t u sua l ly s he h ad no a ssoc iat ion w ith t h is a n ima l, s o t he t wenty-seven r epresentat ions f ound i n h er s anctuar ies e xam ined h ere n eed s ome c omment. Hera ion.

F ive were f ound a t P erachora, a nd t wo i bex a t t he Arg ive None o f t hese w ere f igur ines, but d ecorat ive r e l iefs o n sma l l

o b jects l ike s ea ls, s carabs a nd buttons.

But t he r ema ining t wenty

were a l l d ed icated i n t he s anctuary o f S amos, a nd t he g reat ma jor ity o f t hese were f ore ign i mports, e specia l ly H itt ite b ronzes.

The o n ly

t wo i ndependent f igur ines were t wo t erracotta h e-goats o f t he s ixth

1 76.

c entury, f rom Cyprus;

t he H itt ite g oats s erved a s h and les, s ceptre-

h eads, a nd s ma l l d ecorat ive e ngrav ings o n h orse-b l inkers.

I t s eems

t hat t he g oat, o r g oat 's h ead, was a f avour ite H itt ite mot if , s u itable p erhaps f or d ed icat ion t o ap otnia t heron, a s S am ian Hera h ad b een f rom v ery e ar ly t imes 3 2 ,b ut p robably n ot s pec ia l ly made f or h er, o r n ot f or O lympian Hera a s s he was g enera l ly worsh ipped i n Greece. A t t he s ame t ime, i t i s a lways p oss ible t ha t t he g oa t-dedicat ions ( especia l ly t he Cypr iot t erracottas) may h ave b een o ffered t o Aphrod ite o r Hermes

3 3

,

whose j o int c u lt i s known t o h ave b een e stabl ished i n

t he s anctuary by t he l a te s eventh o r e ar ly s ixth c entury

2 .

3 1 +

.

A thena : Cook 's t heory t hat A thena was o nce a g oat-shaped g oddess,

r easonab le t hough i t s ounds, c annot b e s upported e ither by l i terary e v idence o r w ith a p ersona l e p ithet e vok ing t he a n ima l 's s hape, l ike t hose a pp l ied t o Artem is.

I f i t w ere c orrect, i t m ight e xp la in t he

r e lat ive ly l arge number o f g oat-representa t ions o ffered t o A thena; a nd a t t he s ame t ime r econci le t he a pparent i ncons istency t hat most o f t hese were f ound i n t he L ind ian s anctuary, where no-one who had l a te ly e aten g oa t 's f l esh was a l lowed t o e nter.

Yet d e it ies d o not c ommon ly

r efuse t he s acr if ice o f a nima ls w ith wh ich t hey a re i dent if ied;

a nd

If ind i t d iff icu lt t o a ccept t hat t he t heory o f ag oa t-shaped A thena i s t he most l i ke ly e xp lanat ion f or t he g oats i n t he L ind ian s anctuary. B l inkenberg b e l ieved t ha t L ind ia w as a Mycenaean g oddess ( though t he s uppos it ion i s n ot c onf irmed by a n s ign if icant mater ia l r ema ins o n t he s i te i t se lf)

3 5

; a nd I h ave s uggested t hat a s af ert i l ity-goddess

a nd p otnia t heron s he b ecame i dent if ied w i th A thena o n ly b ecause h er r ock s anctuary b ecame ( or r ema ined i n h istor ic t imes) a n Acropo l is

3 6.

1 77.

Goa ts were e v ident ly s acr if iced i n s ome number t o M inoan a nd Mycenaean g oddesses, a s t he e ar ly r ema ins o f g oats a t t he Knossos s anctuary o f D emeter s how.

One Mycenaean g em a ctua l ly d ep icts a h e-goat o r

i bex o n t he s acr if ic ia l a l tar 3 7 ; wh i le a nother, a s ardonyx f rom E l is, i s e ngraved w ith a f ema le i n af u l l s k irt h o ld ing a h e-goa t ( wh ich s tands o n i t s h indlegs) by t he h orn 3 8 . A s f ar a s Iknow, t here i s n o s urv ivi ng Archa ic p otnia f l anked by t wo g oats i n t he h era ld ic manner;

but

o ne s ixth-century h aemat ite s carab f rom Aeg ina s hows a w inged g oddess h o ld ing a h e-goat a nd a l i on by t he ir h indlegs, i n e ach h and;

wh i le

a nother Archa ic s carab d epicts t he g oddess, unwinged a nd r unn ing, h o ld ing a d eer a nd a h are - wh i le b eneath h er i s ah e-goat

39.

F rom

a much l ater p er iod, w e h ave a s i lver ( Roman) meda l l ion f rom Hercu laneum o n wh ich i s r epresented t he h ead o f Artem is ( ident if iab le by p arts o f h er b ow a nd qu iver) w ith a h e-goat s pr ing ing f rom e i ther s ide o f h er n eck;

a nd t h is mot if m ay r ef lect t he s urv iva l o f a n a nc ient t rad i t ion:

t he c u lt o f ag oat-goddess 4 ° . On ly t he f oreparts o f t he h era ld ic g oats a re r epresented o n t he Hercu laneum meda l l ion;

a nd i t i s notable t ha t ( apart f rom t he Cypr iot

l imestone g oat-carr iers) t he most c ommon t ype o f g oat-representat ion f ound i n t he L ind ian s anctuary i s t he s eventh-century b ronze p endant 2 8

i n t he f örm o f ad ouble g oat-protome.

The p endants may w e l l b e a

s horthand v ers ion o f t he p otnia t heron f lanked by g oa ts l i ke t hat s een o n t he s i lver meda l l ion.

There i s ap ara l le l f or t his k ind o f a bbrev iat ion

a t A rtemis Orth ia, where t he g oddess ' h ead a ppears o n i vory a nd 3 5

t erracotta p endants b etween t wo h orses ' h eads, but where t here a re a lso s evera l t ypes o f d oub le h orse-head p endants i n l ead, w ithout t he f ema le h ead ' .

Ib e l ieve w e may t ake i t t hat t he L ind ian g oddess r ece ived

g oa t-representat ions e ven t hough A thena d id n ot a ccept t he ir s acr if ice,

1 78.

b ecause s he was n ot o r ig ina l ly A thena , but a p otnia t heron o f t he Cretan t ype.

I n t h is c ase t he Cypr iot l imestone g oa t-carr iers wh ich c annot

r ef lect c ontemporary s acr if icia l p ract ice i n t he s anctuary, c ou ld s t i l l h ave b een r egarded a s a ppropr iate d ed ica t ions 4 2 . W hether o r n ot t h is o lder g oddess c ou ld o nce h ave t aken t he f orm o f ag oat ( accord ing t o Cook 's t heory a bout A thena i n A tt ica) c an h ard ly b e d educed f rom t he e x ist ing e v idence.

The g oddess o f Gortyn, t o whom t he s eventh

c entury p inax d ep ict ing a w i ld g oat was o ffered, a nd whose d aeda l ic s k irt ( on a f igur ine) was a lso d ecorated w i th a p a inted g oat, i s a nother i nstance o f t he Cretan p otnia who b ecame i dent if ied w ith A thena b ecause o f h er p os it ion o n a n Acropo l is.

Even o n t he Acropo l is o f A thens t he

g oddess may h ave h ad a s im i lar h istory;

but i n t h is s anctuary t here

i s t he a l ternat ive p oss ibi l ity t ha t t he Archa ic b ronze g oats a nd t he i bex p atera-hand le were d ed icated t o Artemis Brauron ia.

3 .

Apo l lo a nd Artem is: The t wo b ronze g oats wh ich s truck P ausan ias ' e ye i n t he s anctuary

o f Apo l lo a t De lph i, h ave not s urv ived;

a nd o n ly f ive o f t he s ma l ler,

a nd most ly Archa ic g oat-representat ions wh ich I have b een c ons ider ing were d ed icated i n s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo.

Ib e l ieve t hat t h is may b e

b ecause Apo l lo 's a ssoc iat ion w ith g oats, w e l l e stabl ished by P ausan ias ' d ay, o r ig ina l ly c ame a bout t hrough t he c u lts i n wh ich h e was l i nked w ith Artem is.

The h orns w ith wh ich t he g od bu i lt h imse lf a n a l tar

i n De los w ere s upp l ied by h is s ister, who s hot t he w i ld g oats o n M t. Cynthos.

A t Dreros, t he Geometr ic Cretan h i l l-top s anctuary where

s o many h orns o f y oung g oats were f ound i ns ide a nd o uts ide t he a ltar , 2 9

a nd where t he p oss ib le g oat-hunt ing s cene w as d iscovered, t here i s r eason t o s uppose t hat Artem is a nd L eto w ere worsh ipped a s w e l l a s

1 79.

Apo l lo

4 3

.

I t h as a lso b een s uggested t ha t Artem is h ad a t emp le i n Apo l lo 's

s anctuary a t Thermon , where k id-bones w ere f ound i n Megaron B . Even t he b ronze f igur ine f rom De lph i, wh ich may a lso d ep ict a h unt, s ince t he g oat i s b e ing a ttacked by a d og, c ou ld h ave b een d ed icated t o A rtemis, who i s known t o h ave b een worsh ipped i n t he s anctuary 4 5 . The s ame mot if o f d ogs a ttack ing g oats may h ave a dorned t he p ed iment 3 0

o f A rtemis D iktynna 's t emp le i n Crete, j udg ing by t he s te /e-engrav ing f ound i n t hat s anctuary. The e st ima te o f t wenty-f ive f or t he number o f g oats ( not i nc lud ing t hose r epresented w ith d e it ies o r humans) f ound i n s anctuar ies o f Artem is i s ac onservat ive o ne, i n v iew o f t he uncerta in quant ity o f l ead f igur ines f rom Artem is Orth ia.

Neverthe less, i n s p ite o f t he f act t hat i t i s

e xceeded by t he numbers d ed icated i n Z eus a nd Hera s anctuar ies ( the v ast ma jor ity r espect ive ly i n O lymp ia a nd S amos) , Ib e l ieve i t d oes r ef lect t he s pecia l a ssociat ion o f Artem is w ith t he g oat wh ich emerges f rom l i terary ev idence, a nd wh ich may b e e xpressed i n s ome o f h er t i t les. I t i s s ign if icant, moreover, t ha t o ut o f a l l t he d ed icat ions c ons idered h ere, t he o n ly o nes wh ich r epresent t he g oat w ith a d e ity a re f rom h er s anctuar ies, a nd r epresent h er.

The f ourth c entury r e l iefs f rom

D e los a nd Brauron d ep ict s acr if icia l s cenes, w ith t he g oat a s v ict im. But t he f i f th-century r e l ief f rom Brauron s hows Artem is i n a n a ppropr iate r o le f or t h is s anctuary, a s t he l ov ing p rotectress o f t he mother 3 1

g oa t a nd i ts y oung.

A f ourth o r t h ird c entury t erracotta f igur ine

i n wh ich t he g oddess h o lds a h e-goat, c ame f rom h er S ca la Greca s anctuary i n S ic i ly;

a nd t he t h ird c entury s te le f rom t he Cretan D iktynna ion,

d ep ict ing t he p ed iment w ith t he t wo hunted g oats, a lso r epresents t he g oddess w ith a g oat s tand ing more c ompan ionably b es ide h er " . I nc identa l ly, Artem is ' t emp le a t Brauron, l ike t ha t o f t he D iktynna ion,

1 80.

may h ave i nc luded t he g oat mot if among i t s d ecorat ions;

f or a marble

g oat 's h ead f ound o n t he s i te was t entat ive ly i dent if ied by P apad im itr iou a s a n a kroter ion . By t he f i f th c entury, i f n ot b efore, t he g oat h ad ev ident ly b ecome as pec ia l a ttr ibute o f Artem is.

Thus t he s i lver Roman meda l l ion o f

t he g oat-goddess r epresents t he g oddess o f hunt ing : qu iver put t h is b eyond d oubt.

t he b ow a nd

We c annot b e c erta in whether t he w inged

p otnia o n a n Archa ic Cor inth ian i vory p laque f rom S yracuse i s Artem is o r n ot;

o n t h is p laque, a g oat s tands b eh ind t he w inged g oddess,

a s t hough p rotected by h er, a nd Ors i c onf ident ly n ames t he d e ity a s Artemis Knag ia, a lthough s he i s n ot d ep icted w ith b ow o r qu iver 4 7 . I f h is a ssert ion w ere c orrect, i t wou ld mean t hat t he g oat was s een a s ac ompan ion o r a ttr ibute o f Artemis a s e ar ly a s t he Archa ic p er iod.

C .

Conc lus ion As a hunted a n ima l, t he g oat wou ld n atura l ly b e a ssoc ia ted w ith

t he g oddess o f hunt ing.

But t he r e l ig ious s ign if icance o f t he d omest ic,

a s we l l a s t he w i ld g oat, p robably l ay i n i t s s exua l p ower a nd i t s f ert i l i ty 4 8 . I n h istor ic t imes, t hese c haracter ist ics l inked i t w ith Aphrod i te a nd D ionysos, a s we l l a s Artem is.

He-goats, l i ke s atyrs, a re o f ten r epresented

a s i thypha l l ic ,a nd f rom Artem is Orth ia, t he s anctuary o f af ert i l ity g oddess where a number o f g oat-f igur ines a nd e ngrav ings w ere d ed icated, c ame a bout s eventy h andmade t erracotta men who a re i thypha l l ic ,a nd may r epresent s atyrs 4 9 . B ut t he p otency o f t he g oat, whether w i ld o r d omest ic, h ad p robably b een s ign if icant i n t he Cretan r e l ig ion o f t he Bronze Age.

Goats w ere c lear ly a ssoc iated w i th a nd s acr i-

f i ced t o M inoan a nd Mycenaean d e it ies;

a nd t hey c ont inued t o s erve a s

v ict ims f or a l l t he O lympian g ods w ith t he e xcept ion o f A thena .

The

1 81 .

M inoan o r Mycenaean g oat-goddess a pparent ly s urv ived f or a t ime o n t he L ind ian Acropo l is ( as w e l l a s i n Gortyn) a nd p oss ib ly i n t he S am ian Hera ion.

But i n g enera l h er more p ermanent h e irs were Aphrod ite,

s omet imes c a l led Epitrag ia a nd s hown s eated o n ag oat;

a nd p erhaps

even more p art icu lar ly Artem is, t hree o r f our o f whose t i t les p robably s tress t he a ssoc iat ion ,a nd whose t emp les a t Brauron a nd a t t he D iktynna ion were p oss ib ly d ecorated by g oat-akroter ia .

F ina l ly, t he p resence o f

g oats ' horns a nd b ones h as b een r ecorded i n f our o f Artem is ' s anctuar ies, wh i le t heir i mages ( inc lud ing s cenes i n wh ich t he g oddess a lso a ppears) have c ome t o l ight i n t en.

F ewer s anctuar ies b e long ing t o o ther d e it ies

have p roduced e ither r ema ins o r r epresentat ions o f g oats;

a nd I b e l ieve

t ha t t heir d istr ibut ion r ef lects t hat c loser a ssoc iat ion o f t he g oat w ith Artem is wh ich i s s uggested by l i terary e v idence.

1 .

N ikander. F ragment 9 9. F or g oat-sacr if ice t o Z eus, s ee Luc ian, T imon 9 .

2 .

P ausan ias I I. 1 5 .9 .

3 .

For e xamp le, Anton inus L ibera l is XX . 2 ; V I. 4 .29 ; P ausan ias X . 1 1.4.

4 .

P lutarch. T heseus. 1 8.

5 .

AP I V I. 1 34. I X. 8 .1.

6 .

Xenophon. Anabas is .

I I. 2 .11-12;

7 .

Xenophon. H e l len/ca . X III.8.

I V. 1 1.20. c f Respubl ica L acedaemoniorum

8 .

Eustath ius . I l iad . 1 .732. A s econd c entury i nscr ipt ion f or t he h ieron o f De los r efers t o t he a igo i a nd t rago i ( she-goats a nd h e-goats) o ffered t o Artemis a nd t o Apo l lo t here. [ BCH 6 ( 1882) p .

Xenophon, He l len/ca

c f Herondas. M imes . V III. 6 7-68. a nd P ausan ias

3 4, n o . 4 9].

P lutarch. Mora l /a. 8 62. A-C .

1 82.

9 .

AP I V I.157.

1 0.

A thenaeus 5 87A.

1 1.

I G X II. 1 .789.10.

1 2.

JHS

1 3.

Ca l l imachus. Hymn t o Z eus . 4 9 ; D iodorus. V . 7 0.3; S trabo ( 387) t e l ls a s im i lar s tory o f Z eus a nd a g oat o f Aeg ium i n S ic i ly.

1 4.

P ausan ias. X . 1 6.3;

1 5.

Ca l l imachus. Hymn t o Apo l lo .

1 6.

P ausan ias. V I. 2 5.1. S ee L exlc I . " Aphrod ite" 9 47-976, f or v ase-pa int ings, f igur ines a nd m eda ls w ith t he s ame mot if .

1 7.

AP I

1 8.

Ae l ian . De N atura Anima l ium . X I. 1 .

1 9.

P ausan ias. V II. 2 6.2-4.

2 0.

Eustath ius. I l iad. 1.732.

2 1.

Anton inus L ibera l is. X III. 6 & 7 .

2 2.

P ausan ias. I X. 8 .1.

2 3.

e .g . Apo l lodorus. I I. I V.3; Anton inus L ibera l is. XXV III.3; Ov id. Metamorphoses . V . 3 30.

2 4.

Two o f t he e p igrams ( nos. 3 2 a nd 9 9) r ecord g oat-sacr if ices t o P an.

2 5 .

The i nterpretat ion o f " Kva ,C t i s uncerta in. I t h as b een s uggested t hat i t d er ives f rom t he Dor ic word " tawny", a n e pithet a ppl ied by Theocr itus t o ag oat-sk in a nd t o ah e-goat ( Idy l ls . V II. 1 6; I I.5]. Hence F .G. We lcker 's i nterpretat ion o f t hese t i t les a s "oat-Artem is" ( see F razer. P ausan ias ' Descr ipt ion o f G reece . I I. p . 3 48).

2 6.

S ee Hesych ius ' g loss o n t h is word.

2 7.

Cook c i tes a M inoan s erpent ine s ea l wh ich d ep icts a g oa t 's f orepart, j o ined t o a man 's l egs. [MS 1 4 ( 1894) p . 1 50, F ig. 2 0].

2 8.

N i lsson. Gr iechische F este . p . 2 31.

2 9 .

BCH 6 0 ( 1936) p . 2 79.

3 0.

Cata logue I pp. 3 71-2. The r eport i n AA 8 ( 1893), p . 1 46, i dent if ies t he a n ima ls a s f awns, a nd t he f ema les a s Ar temis ( F igs. 2 3-24, a nd 2 6-27). D . Brooke t h inks t hat a l though o ne o f t hem may b e af awn o f Artem is, most were p robab ly k ids.

L indos I . p .

1 2.

1 4 ( 1894) p . 1 50.

V I.

I . 2 6.4 a nd 7 . 6 0-63.

1 21.

1 83.

3 1.

The proport ion o f c att le a nd h orses t o g oats i s v ery much more w e ighted dur ing t he Geometr ic p er iod. I n c ompar ison t o t hree g oat-f igur ines, 4 74 c att le a nd 4 40 h orses a re c ata logued by W .D. H e i lmeyer i n 0 /Forsch X II.

3 2.

Hans Wa lter . Das H era ion v on S amos . U rsprung u nd W ande l e ines g r iechischen He i l igtums . Mun ich a nd Z ur ich. 1 976, p . 1 5.

3 3.

H ermes i s ah erd-god, a nd l i ke Aphrod ite, i s s omet imes d ep icted a s r id ing o n ag oat. ( A.B. Cook i n J HS 1 4 ( 1894) p . 5 1).

3 4.

Wa lter. Op. c it . p . 5 6.

3 5.

L indos I . pp. 9 , a nd 6 1-66.

3 6.

S ee a bove, p . 5 8 .

3 7.

G .E. My lonas. Mycenae a nd t he Mycenaean Age . P r inceton. 1 966. F ig. 1 25.34.

3 8.

Furtwäng ler. D ie Ant iken Gemmen. P l. 2 .27. I n h is c ommentary, Furtwäng ler i dent if ies t he f ema le a s e i ther Aphrod ite o r Artem is.

3 9.

! bid P l. 7 .51 a nd 5 0. Artemis.

4 0.

W . H. R. Roscher. Ausführ l iches L ex icon d er g r iech ischen u nd r öm ischen Mytho log ie . L e ipzig . 1 884-1937. Vo l. 1 .566.

4 1.

S ee Append ix 8 .12.

4 2.

I n t hree o f t he l imestone g roups, t he g oat s tands o n h is h indl egs, a s o n t he Mycenaean s ardonyx [ 1761-3].

4 3.

Three s phyre laton s tatuettes ( c . 7 00 BC), t wo o f wh ich w ere f ema le, s tood o n t he a l tar c onta ining t he g oat-horns ( BCH 6 0 ( 1936) P l. 6 3. J ohn Boardman. Greek S cu lpture: t he a rcha ic p er iod; a h andbook . L ondon. 1 978, F ig. 1 6.)

4 4.

S ee a bove, p . 1 20 .

4 5.

S ee I ntroduct ion, n ote 2 3.

4 6.

Chr istou went s o f ar a s t o i dent ify t he a n ima l a ccompany ing t he w inged g oddess o n af ragmentary s ixth-century i vory p laque d ed icated t o Artem is Orth ia, a s ag oat ( Potnia t heron p . 1 30); but Dawk ins b e l ieved i t t o b e ah orse, a nd t he g enera l s hape o f t he a n ima l, w i th i t s a pparent ly unc loven h oofs, i s more c ons istent w ith t h is i nterpretat ion ( AO p . 2 14, P l. 1 07.1).

4 7.

NSc 1 895 pp. 1 19-20;

4 8.

RE

1 0A ( 1972) 4 20-421.

4 9.

AO

p . 1 56, P l. 4 0.1-7, a nd 9 -10.

The a uthor i dent if ies b oth f ema les a s

L exlc I . " Artem is" 5 6.

1 84.

HARES

( See Append ix 8 .11)

The h are i s a mot if wh ich r are ly t akes t he f orm o f as eparate f igur ine.

I t s omet imes d ecorates a s carab, s ea l o r d isc;

a nd more

c ommon ly i t g ives i t s s hape t o ap last ic v ase, o r d ecorates t he r im o f am irror

However, t he f act t hat i t a lso a ppears a s t he p et o r t he

s acr if ic ia l v ict im o f s ome f ema le f igur ines, m eans t hat i t s hou ld not b e e xc luded f rom a s tudy o f a n ima l-representat ions i n s anctuar ies.

A .

L iterary e v idence

( i )

Hares a s s acr if icia l v ict ims Ih ave f ound n o i nformat ion i n l i terature o n t he s acr if ice o f hares.

P resumab ly t hese s ma l l a n ima ls, l ike b irds, w ere o f l ess a ccount t han t he r icher o ffer ings o f c att le, s heep o r g oa ts.

Yet t he ir a ppearance

i n t he a rms o f s tatues o r t erracotta f igur ines d ed icated i n af ew s anctuar ies may ( somet imes, a t l east) h ave h ad a s acr if icia l mean ing.

No d oubt

t hey w ere t hrown o nto t he f i re o f Artem is L aphr ia a t P atras, w i th t he o ther l ive v ict ims, but P ausan ias d oes n ot i nc lude h ares i n h is l i st w i ld a n ima ls s acr if iced i n t h is way.

o f

However, t he a rchaeo log ica l ev idence

o f t he ir b ones i nd icates t hat t hey were s acr if iced i n t he s anctuary o f M t. Kot i lon.

The b ones were f ound i n t he North t emp le , wh ich Kouroun iot is

t hought b e longed t o Artemis' .

They were a lso a pparent ly c onsumed

i ns ide t he s anctuary o f A thena L ind ia.

( i i)

Mytho logy a nd a necdote As a w i ld a n ima l, t he t arget o f t he hunter 's a rrow, o ne w ou ld

e xpect t he h are t o b e a ssoc iated w ith Artem is.

I t i s ment ioned by Ae l ian

( as t he w i ld g oat i s) a s a numerous i nhabitant o f t he c ountry r ound h er

1 85.

t emp le o n t he i s land o f I carus, t o b e hunted o n ly by h er f avour 2 . I n her c apac ity o f huntress, Artem is may h ave b een g iven t he t i t le o f " lagobo los";

a t l east, i n t he s econd l i ne o f Ca l l imachus ' Hymn t o Artem is

s he i s d escr ibed a s o ne who l oves t he s laughter o f h ares ( " lagobo l ia"). I t i s n ot i ncons istent w ith t he ways o f hunt ing t hat s he s hou ld a lso pro tect t he ir y oung.

X enophon n otes t hat n ew-born h ares wh ich were

c aught by t he hunters w ere n ot k i l led, but l ef t t o t he g oddess 3 ; a nd i n t he s anctuary o f Artem is Agrotera d escr ibed by Ph i lostratus t here were h ares ( as we l l a s d eer) wh ich g razed t here w ithout f ear o f man 4 . The h are a lso h as a p art i n P ausan ias ' a ccount o f t he f oundat ion-myth f or t he c ity o f Bo ia i i n L acon ia 5. The p eop le h ad b een t o ld i n ap rophecy t ha t Artem is wou ld s how t hem where t o l ive;

a nd when t hey l anded o n

t he L acon ian c oast t hey c aught s ight o f ah are, f o l lowed i t , a nd bu i lt t he ir c i ty where i t d isappeared under a myrt le-bush.

F or t h is r eason,

i n P ausan ias ' d ay, t he Bo ia ians s t i l l worsh ipped Artemis S ote ira.

S am

W ide quest ions t he a ccuracy o f P ausan ias ' a ccount, s uspect ing t hat h e may h ave meant Aphrod ite, n ot Artem is;

s ince t he h are a nd t he myrt le

a re c ommon ly h e ld t o b e h er a ttr ibutes 6 . Certa in ly t he s pec ia l a ssoc iat ion o f myrt les w i th Aphrod ite i s w ide ly a ttested 7; a nd i t i s a lways p oss ib le t hat P ausan ias wrote d own t he w rong n ame.

A t t he s ame t ime t h is

p lant i s a lso s omet imes a ssoc iated w ith Hekate, who i s c loser t o Artem is t han t o o ther O lymp ian g oddesses.

I n s ome c o ins o f Phera i, f or e xamp le,

Hekate ( or Enod ia) i s s hown w ear ing a myrt le-wreath 8 . L iterature d oes n ot t o my know ledge p rov ide e v idence o f a ny s pec if ic myth l i nk ing Aphrod ite w ith t he h are;

a l though by t he t ime o f Ph i lostratus ( who

wro te i n t he s econd o r t h ird c entury AD) t he a ssoc iat ion was c lear ly r ecogn ized.

Ph i lostratus d escr ibes a p icture i n wh ich E rotes c hase

ah are i n o rder t o p resent i t ( l iv ing) t o t he g oddess;

t o whom ( he

1 86.

e xp la ins) i t w i l l b e a n a greeable o ffer ing b ecause o f i t s l asc iv iousness a nd f ecund ity 9 . Ph i lostratus ' work c ons ists o f as er ies o f d escr ipt ions o f p ictures - a nd i t may b e t hat Aphrod ite 's a ssociat ion w ith t he hare was e xpressed v isua l ly r ather t han i n t erms o f myth - f or e xamp le, o n wedd ing-r ings e ngraved w ith h ares, o r i n r epresentations ( l ike Ph i lostratus ' p icture) o f E rotes p lay ing w i th t he a n ima ls 1 9 . S uch a rtefacts a re g enera l ly o f Roman d ate, a nd t he ir s ymbo l ism s eems more l i ke ly t o h ave b een b ased o n as imp le o bservat ion o f n ature ( the h are 's f ert i l ity) t han o n a ny r e l ig ious c onnect ion w ith t he g oddess o f l ove.

And i n

Greek r e l ig ion, f ert i l ity was n ot t he e xc lus ive c oncern o f Aphrod ite. F ina l ly, P ausan ias s pecif ica l ly l i nks h is t a le w ith t he worsh ip o f Artem is S ote ira, a nd i t i s more p robable t hat Artem is, a nd n ot Aphrod ite, s hou ld h ave b een g iven t h is t i t le " .

B .

Representat ions o f h ares i n s anctuar ies

( i ) S eparate h ares On ly s even f igur ines o f h ares a re r ecorded f rom t he s anctuar ies under d iscuss ion:

o ne t erracotta d ed icated t o Apha ia ;

t hree b ronzes

f rom O lympia, o ne f rom t he A then ian Acropo l is, a nd o ne f rom Dodona ; a nd a p aste f igur ine f rom t he Arg ive Hera ion. i n t he Geometr ic o r Archa ic p er iods.

A l l t hese were d ed icated

But o ver t wenty hare-shaped

v ases were a lso f ound i n t he s anctuar ies.

E ight o f t hese w ere o ffered

t o Apha ia, a t l east f our t o A thena l 2 ,f our t o Hera, a t l east t wo t o Apo l lo, a nd o ne i n t he Ka lapod i s anctuary.

Artem is s carce ly s eems t o f igure

i n e ither o f t hese g roups o f d ed icat ions, t hough we may a ssume t hat t he Ka lapod i v ase b e longed t o h er.

However, s ome l ead r ings w ith

ah are o n t he ir b eze l were d ed icated t o Artem is Orth ia ( a L acon ian d e ity l ike t he Bo ia ian S ote ira), p erhaps i n h er r o le a s f ert i l i ty g oddess

1 87.

o n t he o ccas ion o f a marr iage; s ame s anctuary b ore t h is mot if .

a nd a t l east o ne b one s ea l f rom t he Artemis c ou ld a lso h ave b een t he

r ec ip ient o f t he Acropo l is b ronze, a nd t he h are-shaped l amps f rom t he M a leatas s anctuary; 3 2

a nd i t i s n ot i mposs ible t hat t wo o f t he O lymp ia

hares were d ed icated a t h er a l tars 1 3 . Bu t i t i s unden iable t hat t hese d ata , l imited a s t hey a re , t hrow l i tt le l ight o n a ny a ssociat ion t here may b e b etween t he h are a nd t he O lympian g ods.

The h are-vases w ere

ap leas ing s hape, a nd c ou ld a pparent ly b e d ed icated i n t he s anctuary o f a ny d eity.

One p o int o f i nterest, h owever, i s t hat e ight o ut o f t he

t wenty l i sted h ad s urv ived ( who l ly o r i n p art) i n t he s anctuary o f Apha ia, wh ich a lso y ie lded a t erracotta f igur ine.

An Archa ic b r ick

f rom t h is s i te was s tamped t w ice w ith t he mot if o f ar unn ing h are:

s o

i t i s p oss ible t hat t he a n ima l h ad a s pec ia l r e lat ionsh ip w ith t he g oddess o f t h is s anctuary.

Apha ia, l i ke h er c lose a ssoc iate Artem is, was a

huntress, s o t he Archa ic s teat ite c y l inder s ea l r epresent ing a h are c hased by a h ound, wou ld h ave b een a n a ppropr iate d ed icat ion f or h er.

( i i)

H ares w ith f ema les P erhaps more s ign if icant i n r e l ig ious t erms t han s eparate r epres-

e nta t ions o f t he h are a re t he i mages o f f ema les who a ctua l ly h o ld t he c reature;

a l though t he ir s ignif icance may b e qua l if ied by t he f act

t ha t n ear ly a l l o f t hem w ere f ound i n t he s ame p lace.

A l l but t wo a re

made o f t erracotta, t he e xcept ions b e ing t he f ourth c entury marb le s tatuette o f al i tt le g ir l, a n a rklos, f rom 1 3 rauron; marb le kore f rom t he S am ian Hendon.

a nd a n Archa ic

The g reat ma jor ity o f t he t erra-

c ottas were f ound a t K anon i i n Corcyra where t he a ttr ibutes h e ld by an umber o f t he f igur ines d iscovered t here make i t c lear t hat t h is was as anctuary o f Artem is.

A t l east f i f ty o f t he t erracottas f rom t h is s i te

1 88.

c arry h ares.

Not a l l n eed h ave r epresented Artem is:

i n f act i t was

L echat 's o pin ion t hat h ares, l ike f lowers a nd b irds, w ere not i n t hems e lves s ign if icant a ttr ibutes'' , a nd s ome o f t he f igur ines wh ich h e ld t hem may h ave b een i ntended t o r epresent worsh ippers a t t he s anctuary, h o ld ing t he ir o ffer ing 4 1

1 5

.

But f our o f t hem h o ld a b ow, a nd t hree h o ld

al i on a s we l l a s t he ir h are - i nd icat ions t hat t hey r epresent t he g oddess; wh i le t he t wenty l arge t erracottas wh ich h o ld a b ird a s we l l a s t he h are, a nd a re e xact ly l ike o thers where t he a n ima l i s ad eer, a re a lso c ons idered by L echat t o r epresent Artemis .

Two l arge f igur ines where

t he h are l eaps f rom t he s hou lder t o t he a rm o f i t s m istress, a nd t wenty o thers where i t i s h e ld by i t s f ront p aws, may a lso b e i nterpreted a s t he g oddess p rotect ing t he a n ima l, r ather t han a s a worshipper b r ing ing h er o ffer ing.

E ight more h are-carry ing t erracotta f ema les w ere r eported

f rom t he s anctuar ies c ons idered h ere.

F ive w ere f rom Artem is ' s anctuary

a t S ca la Greca i n S ici ly, where j udg ing by t he qu iver worn b y t he most c omp lete o f t he f ema les, t he h are-ho lders a ga in r epresented t he g oddess h erse lf .

A l l t he S ca la Greca h ares a re h e ld ups ide d own i n

t he g oddess ' g rasp, a s i f t hey were t he s po i ls o f t he hunt, r ather t han ap rotected c reature a s i n t he Kanon i f igur ines.

One f ema le h are-

h o lder c ame t o l ight i n e ach o f Demeter 's s anctuar ies o f Knossos a nd Ha l icarnässus;

wh i le o ne p oss ib le e xamp le ( together w ith a n umber

o f f ragments o f s im i lar f igur ines) was r ecorded a t t he Arg ive H era ion. O f t he s even s anctuar ies k nown t o m e wh ich p roduced h arec arry ing f ema les, t hree b e longed t o Artem is.

A t Kanon i, where t he

f igur ines h o ld a v ar iety o f a n ima ls, a t l east f i f ty o f t hese a n ima ls a re h ares, a nd i t s eems t hat f orty-seven o f t he f ema les w ere s upposed t o r epresent t he g oddess;

wh i le a t S ca la G reca, t oo, t he g u ise o f t he

f ema les i s c lear ly t hat o f a huntress a nd g oddess, n ot a worsh ipper.

1 89.

L im i ted t hough t he d ata may b e i n t erms o f t he number o f s anctuar ies wh ich p roduced t h is mot if , i t a l lows u s t o c onc lude t hat by t he e ar ly f i f th c entury, t he h are m ight b e r epresented a s a n a ttr ibute o f Artem is. I t c ou ld a lso a pparent ly b e d epicted a s a worsh ipper 's o ffer ing i n s anct uar ies o f Artemis ( where i ts a ppearance i s c ons istent w i th t he p resence o f h are-bones o n M t. K oti lon), but a lso i n t hose o f o ther g oddesses, a lthough f or t hese, t he e v idence i s s l ight i ndeed.

I t i s r ash t o c onc lude

f rom t he ev idence o f o n ly t wo o r t hree s anctuar ies t hat t he h are was a n a ttr ibute more p roper t o Artem is t han t o o ther d eit ies, but a t l east t h is p oss ibi l ity c annot b e e xc luded.

C .

The hare a nd t he Archa ic p otnia t heron L echat d ated t he h are-ho ld ing f igur ines o f Artem is a nd h er wor-

s h ippers f rom Kanon i t o t he f i f th c entury, a l though t hey w ere r ather Archa ic i n s ty le '6. The S am ian k ore, wh ich was made i n a bout 5 70 BC, i s t he e ar l iest c erta in e xamp le o f t he t ype t o b e c ons idered h ere, s ince t he a n ima l c arr ied by t he E ar ly Archa ic f igur ine f rom t he Arg ive Hera ion c anno t b e i dent if ied w i th c erta inty a s ah are.

I n a ny c ase, t he mot if

o f g oddess a nd h are was c lear ly n ot a f i f th-century i nnovat ion;

f or

a lthough I know o f n o Bronze Age e xamp le, t he h are was s omet imes r epresented a s a n a ttr ibute o f t he Archa ic p otnia t heron.

The w inged

g oddess o n t he h and le o f t he Grächw i l hydr ia i s a ccompan ied by a n e ag le, 9

f our l i ons a nd t wo s nakes;

but s he a lso h o lds a h are by i t s h indlegs,

wh i le a nother r a ises i t s p aws t o h er a t o nce

t he

s k irt

1 7

. Thus

s he s eems t o b e

s courge a nd t he p rotectress o f t he h are:

i s c ons istent w ith t hat o f Artem is i n l a ter t imes.

a r o le

wh ich

But t he Grächwi l

g oddess c annot c erta in ly b e e quated w i th Artem is, a ny more t han t he potn ia t heron o n t he e ighth c entury Boeot ian amphora 1 8 ,o r t he s eventh

1 90.

c entury Boeot ian c offer 1 9 ; o n b oth o f wh ich t he h are, a s w e l l a s t he d e ity, i s s een, t hough n ot i n s uch p rox im ity t o t he g oddess a s o n t he Grächw i l hydr ia. The h are was we l l-known i n a nt iqu ity f or i ts f ert i l ity 2 0 ,a nd i t i s a s as ymbo l o f t he p otnia 's d om inion o ver t he e arth a nd t he r eproduct ion o f humans a nd a n ima ls a l ike, t hat Chr istou i nterprets i t2 1 . Chr istou a lso s ees t he c aryat id-hand les o f a number o f s ixth a nd f i f th c entury b ronze m irrors, t he r ims o f whose d iscs a re d ecorated w ith f igur ines o f c ocks, h ares a nd d ogs o r f oxes, a s r epresentat ions o f p otn ia i t heron 2 ; a nd h e p o ints o ut t hat t he c aryat ids o f m irrors t hus d ecora ted w ith h ares a re a lways c lothed , whereas s ome o ther m irror-hand le f ema les a re n aked.

S ince n akedness was a n i nd icat ion o f f ert i l ity i n ag oddess,

h e s ees t he h are-decorat ion a s a n a l ternat ive s ymbo l f or t h is p roperty. P ersona l ly, I d o not b e l ieve t hat t hese m irror-caryat ids a re i n c lose e nough phys ica l a ssociat ion w ith t he f igur ines o n t he d isc, t o b e c onv inc ing r epresentat ions o f t he p otnia t heron.

The s ma l l r unn ing hares

a nd h ounds make a c onvenient f r iezel ike d ecorat ion f or t he r im o f t he d isc;

a nd i n t h is a rt ist ic c ontext t he a n ima ls may have h ad l i tt le

s ymbo l ic s ign if icance.

The h ares o n t he G rächw i l hydria, h owever,

a re more c onv inc ing a s af ert i l ity-symbo l;

s ince t hey a re s hown under

t he d irect c ontro l a nd p rotect ion o f t he d e ity. The a ssoc iat ion o f t he h are w ith f ert i l ity c erta in ly e xp la ins i ts l i nks w ith Aphrod ite;

but a s we h ave s een, Artem is, t oo, i nher ited

t he p otnia 's p ower o ver r eproduct ion, a s w e l l a s h er c ontro l o f t he b easts . As e ar ly a s t he s eventh c entury, t he p otnia t heron

a nd t he h are

o n t he Boeot ian c offer a re r epresented w ith in t he c ontext o f t he hunt; a nd when Artem is emerged a s t he O lymp ian g oddess o f hunt ing, a s w e l l a s t he p rotectress o f w i ld a n ima ls, t he h are wou ld c ont inue t o b e

1 91.

o ne o f h er n atura l a ttr ibutes.

The g oddess o f as ixth c entury c arne l ian

s carabo id, who i s s hown r unn ing a nd h o ld ing b oth a d eer a nd a h are (wh i le a h e-goat s tands b eneath t he g roup) h as b een i nterpreted by Furtwäng ler a s Artemis 2 3 . C erta in ly, t he d eer was t o b ecome Artem is ' c losest a ttr ibute, a nd i t may b e t hat by t he s ixth c entury, t h is t ype o f p otnia was a lready t hought o f a s Artem is.

I f s o, i t s hows t ha t t he

hare, t hough f ar l ess c ommon ly r epresented w ith h er t han t he d eer, o r e ven t he l i on, h ad a h istory o f c ont inuous a ssoc iat ion w ith t h is g oddess.

D . C onc lus ion S eparate r epresentat ions o f h ares ( except i n t he f orm o f v ases) have b een f ound o n ly i n sma l l numbers a t t he s anctuar ies e xam ined i n t h is s tudy;

a nd t he ir d istr ibut ion g ives u s l i tt le i nd icat ion o f t he ir

r e lat ionsh ip w ith p art icu lar d e it ies.

L iterature, t oo, i s s carce ly i nform-

a t ive, t hough t he h are i s ment ioned w ith r eference t o Artem is ' t emp le i n I carus a nd t o h er c u lt a s s av iour g oddess o f Bo ia i a s we l l a s t o a p a int ing o f Aphrod ite w ith E rotes.

But a s s ome r epresentat ions o f

t he A rcha ic p otnia t heron s how, t he h are was not d evo id o f r e l ig ious a ssoc iat ions;

a nd t he f ema le w ith t he h are c ont inued i n c lass ica l a nd

He l len ist ic t imes t o b e a mot if wh ich c ou ld a ppropr iate ly b e d ed icated i n s anctuar ies.

The s anctuar ies known t o me where t h is t ype o f f igur ine

has b een f ound a re a lso f ew i n number;

s o t he f act t hat more o f t hem

( and b y f ar t he ma jor ity o f t he f igur ines i n quest ion) b e longed t o Artem is t han t o o ther d e it ies, m ay b e t he r esu lt o f pure c hance.

But a t l east

i t s hows t hat t he h are was i ndeed a ssoc iated w ith t h is g oddess, a nd not o n ly a s as acr if ic ia l v ict im; s ib i l i ty t hat t he

a nd i t i s e ven c ons istent w ith t he p os-

h are was a ssoc iated

w i th o ther d e it ies.

w ith Artem is more t han

I n t h is c ase, Ib e l ieve i t i s unnecessary t o e xp la in

1 92.

P ausan ias ' a ccount o f t he r o le o f Artem is a nd t he h are i n t he f oundat ion o f Bo ia i a s am istake.

Accord ing t o t he e v idence o f t he v o t ive o ffer ings

which I h ave d iscussed, i t i s p erfect ly c red ible t hat s he s hou ld u se h er c reature, t he h are, a s a messenger a nd g u ide t o men.

F ootnotes 1 .

AE 1 903. pp.

1 86-188.

2 .

Ae l ian .De Natura Anima l ium . X I .9 .

3 .

Xenophon. Cyneget icus . V .14.

4 .

Ph i lostratus. I mag ines .

5 .

P ausan ias II. 2 2.12.

6 .

W ide. L akonische Ku lte . p . 1 22.

7 .

RE 1 6.1 ( 1933). 1 180-1181.

8 .

P .G Gardner. Cata logue o f Greek C o ins: T hessa ly t oA eto l ia. ( BM) L ondon 1 883. p . 4 7, P l. 1 0. 1 1 & 1 3; p . 4 8, P l. 1 0. 1 5 & 1 6.

9 .

I mag ines I . 6 .5.

I . 2 8.6.

1 0.

Ke l ler. D ie Ant ike T ierwe lt . Vo l. I . p . 2 16.

1 1.

Accord ing t o P ausan ias, Artem is was worsh ipped w ith t he e p ithet o f S ote ira i n t he f o l low ing c it ies: Megara ( I. 4 0.2); P e l lene ( VII. 2 7.1); Tro izen ( II. 3 1.1); Mega lopo l is (VIII. 3 0.10); a nd P h iga l ia ( VIII. 3 9.5); whereas t h is a uthor makes n o r eference t o a n Aphrod ite S ote ira.

1 2.

The number o f h are-vases f ound a t h er S oun ion s anctuary i s unspec if ied i n t he r eports.

1 3.

One c ame f rom t he P rytane ion ( O lympia. I V. p . 1 53) b es ide wh ich s he h ad t hree a l tars ( see F igure 1 , n os. 6 0, 6 2 a nd 6 5); a nd o ne f rom t he a rea west o f t he E cho c o lonnade ( 0 /Forsch X II. 9 29) where a n a l tar t o Artemis a nd A lphe ios o nce s tood ( Figure 1 , n o. 9 ).

1 4.

BCH 1 5 ( 1891) pp. 3 0-31, 4 3.

1 5.

I bid . L oc. c it .

1 93.

1 6.

I bid .

pp. 9 4-5.

1 7.

Hoenn. Artem is . P l. I ( oppos ite p . 4 8).

1 8.

0 . Kern. " E lfenbeinen a us K le inas ien". AM 5 0 ( 1925) p . 1 60, F ig. 1 .

1 9.

J . Boeh lau. " Böot ischen Vasen". MI 3 ( 1888) p . 3 57.

2 0.

RE 7 .2 ( 1912) 2 483.

2 1.

P otnia T heron p p. 5 3-4.

2 2.

F ifteen s uch m irrors a re d escr ibed i n Congdon 's C aryat id m irrors o f Anc ient Greece ( nos. 4 3, 4 6, 4 8, 5 1, 5 5, 6 4, 6 5, 6 8, 6 9, 7 4, 8 3, 8 5, 8 7, 8 9 a nd 9 0).

2 3.

D ie Ant iken G emmen. Vo l. I . P l. 7 .50 ;

Vo l. I. p . 3 5.

1 94.

HORSES ( See Append ix 8 .12 )

A .

L iterary e v idence

( i )

S acr if ice a nd d ed icat ion P ausan ias r e lates t hat i n a nt iqu ity ( though n o t a pparent ly i n

h is t ime) t he Arg ives u sed t o s acr if ice b r id led a nd b itted h orses t o P ose idon, by t hrow ing t hem i nto a n u nderground r iver wh ich l ed t o t he s ea l; a nd e ven i n P ausan ias ' own d ay, h orses w ere s acr if iced t o He l ios o n M t Taygetos 2 . On o ne o ccas ion, t oo , h orses were s acr if iced by H ippo lytus t o Ask lepios a t E p idaurus 3 . But t hese a re P ausan ias ' o n ly r eferences t o s uch a c ustom, a nd i t s eems t ha t t he s acr if ice o f h orses t o t he g ods w as c omparat ive ly r are.

One o f t he Ded icatory

Ep igrams r ecords t hat a h orse was o ffered t o Z eus " in memory o f t he m ight o fi t sl egs", but i t i s p oss ib le t hat a s ta tue, a nd not a r ea l h orse w as meant 4. The s acr if ice o f h orses t o t he d ead, h owever, w as a c ustom known s ince 7 : I omer ic t imes:

Ach i l les t hrew f our o f t hem o nto P atroc lus '

f unera l pyre:;. They h ave b een d iscovered i n t ombs ( for i nstance, a t L efkand i 6) ;

a nd t he h orses a nd h orses ' h eads s omet imes t o b e s een

i n f unerary r e l iefs may r ef lect t he s acr if ic ia l c ustom' . C erta in ly, t here i s n o l ack o f e v idence i n P ausan ias ' D escr ipt ion o f G reece f or t he d ed icat ion o f h orse-statues i n s anctuar ies , e spec ia l ly a t O lymp ia ;

a ccord ing t o h is a ccount, t he A l t is must h ave b een c rowded

w ith t he ir b ronze a nd marb le e ff ig ies.

Mos t o f t hese ( somet imes a ccom-

p an ied by t he ir r iders, o r h arnessed t o c har io ts) w ere d ed icated t o Z eus i n o rder t o c e lebrate a v ictory i n t he r aces h e ld t here 8 ; a nd o f ten t he ir n ames w ere r ecorded.

But h orses w ere a lso s et u p i n

s anctuar ies a s t hank-offer ings f or s uccess i n w ar 8: f or t h is r eason, t he Arg ives s ent t he c har iot o f Amph iaros t o D e lph i;

a nd K a l l ias o f

1 95.

A thens, t he p eop le o f T arentum a nd t he Phera ians a l l s ent s tatues o f h orses a nd r iders t here

1 °

. One o f t he Ded icatory E p igrams i s f rom

a n i nscr ipt ion wh ich o nce s tood o n t he Acropo l is o f A thens w i th s ome s tatues o f t he h orses b e long ing t o Boeot ians a nd Cha lk id ians v anqu ished by t he A then ians

1

.

( i i) H orses a nd t he g ods i n mytho logy ( a) P ose idon O f a l l t he O lymp ian d e i t ies, P ose idon i s t he most c lose ly a ssoci ated w ith h orses;

a nd i n h is s way o ver t hem, t hey a re i n t urn a ssoc-

i ated w ith t he s ea, t he ir manes w i th i ts wh ite f oam.

A y oung man who

h ad d ived i nto t he s ea t o s ave a g ir l f rom b e ing s acr if iced t o P ose idon, c la imed o n h is r eturn t ha t wh i le underneath t he waves, h e h ad a ctua l ly f ed t he h orses o f t he g od

1 2

.

I t i s P ose idon whose t ask i t was t o un-

h arness Z eus ' h orses o n O lympus 1 3 ; a nd i t was by h is n ame t hat Mene laus i ns isted Ant i lochus s hou ld s wear t o h is own f a ir p lay i n a c har iot r ace'.

P ausan ias r efers t o a number o f c it ies a nd s hr ines

where P ose idon was worsh ipped w ith t he e p ithet o f H ipp ios 1 5 ; a nd n otes t hat i t w as o ne o f h is u n iversa l t i t les ( the o ther t wo b e ing P e laga ios a nd A spha l ios) 1 6 . P ausan ias b e l ieved t hat t he g od h ad a cqu ired h is t i t le b ecause h e h ad i nvented h orsemansh ip;

but Arcad ian myths

r ecounted by t he w r i ter h imse lf s uggest t ha t P ose idon w as o nce a h orses haped d e ity, a nd t ha t " H ipp ios" r ef lects t h is o r ig in.

When Rhea g ave

b irth t o h im, s he s aved h is l i fe by t e l l ing Kronos t ha t t he b aby was ah orse, a nd g iv ing h im a f oa l t o s wa l low i n i t s p lace 1 7 . L ater, when Demeter had c hanged h erse lf i nto a mare t o e scape h is amorous pursu i t, h e c oup led w i th h er i n t he s hape o f as ta l l ion, a nd o f t he ir un ion w ere b orn D espo ina a nd a h orse c a l led Are ion 1 8 . T he o ther, more f amous horse-shaped s on o f P ose idon was P egasos, whose mother was M edusa

1 9 .

1 96 .

I t was i n Arcad ia t hat h orses w ere s acr if iced t o P ose idon, a nd t hey w ere s acr if iced by means o f a n u nderground r iver wh ich l ed t o t he s ea .

F razer h as p o inted o ut t ha t i n many c u ltures, h orses w ere

s acr if iced t o t he s p ir its o f s eas o r r ivers

2 °

.

I n c u ltures o ther t han

Greece, t oo, t he g ods o f s torm a nd w a ter w ere h orse-shaped 2 1 ,s o t hat t here i s al i nk b etween t he s hape o f t he s p ir it o r g od, a nd t he k ind o f a n ima l o ffered t o i t . T ier d er Gewässer"

2 2

;

N i lsson r eferred t o t he h orse a s " das

a nd i t i s c lear f rom P ausan ias ' d escr ipt ion o f

monuments, t ha t P egasos was s pec ia l ly a ssoc ia ted w ith s pr ings a nd f ounta ins .

I n Cor inth, wa ter was m ade t o f low f rom h is h oof 2 3 ,a nd

i t s eems t hat t here was as im i lar f ounta in a t T ro izen.

Bo th c ommemorated

t he l egend t ha t when P egasos f i rst t ouched t he e arth w i th h is f oot o n M t He l ikon , water g ushed f rom t he g round, a nd t he f ounta in o f H ippocrene c ame i nto b e ing 2 4 . T he w aters o f H ippocrene r ose f rom b eneath t he e arth;

s o t ha t i n t h is l egend t here i s as uggest ion t ha t

t he h orse may b e i n s ome m easure a ssoc ia ted w i th t he u nderwor ld.

( b) Demeter D emeter i s a ssociated w ith P ose idon H ipp ios i n t he Arcad ian l egend , undergo ing t he s ame metamorphos is, a nd g iv ing b irth t o Are ion t he h orse.

P ausan ias i nforms u s t ha t b ecause o f t h is, h er c u lt-statue i n

t he c ave o uts ide P h iga l ia h ad a h orse 's h ead 2 5 . D espo ina was t he o ther c h i ld o f t he t wo d e it ies;

a nd i t i s p oss ib le t hat t he h orse-headed f igure

wh ich i s among t hose d ecorat ing t he v e i l o f h er c u lt-sta tue a t L ykosoura i s ar eference t o h er b irthlegend 2 6 . D emeter i s a n e arth-goddess : t he s anctuary i nhab ited by h er h orse-headed s tatue w as a c ave;

a nd

s nakes s prouted f rom t he h ead a s a dd i t iona l s ymbo ls o f h er underwor ld n ature

2 7

.

The h orses s acr if iced t o P ose idon n ear Mant inea were f lung

1 97.

i nto t he r iver t hrough a c rack i n t he g round ;

a nd when P luto c arr ied

o ff P ersephone t o h is k ingdom, i t w as a lso t hrough a c hasm i n t he e arth t hat h e d rove h is h orses.

I t i s e v ident t ha t i n t hese s tor ies o f Demeter

a nd P ose idon, t he h orse i s c lose ly a ssoc ia ted w ith t he underwor ld 2 8 a n a ssoc ia t ion wh ich i s c ons istent w i th t he myth o f P egasos a nd t he H ippocrene f ounta in.

Th is c hthon ic s ymbo l ism o ffers a n a dd it iona l

e xp lanat ion f or t he a ppearance o f h orses, o r t he ir h eads, i n f unerary r e l iefs.

( c) Athena Desp ite h er h orse 's h ead, t here i s n o e v idence t ha t D emeter w as e ver c a l led b y a ny t i t le d er ived f rom t he h orse. o ccas iona l ly was :

A thena , h owever,

i n Acharna i, a nd n ear t he Academy o f A thens ( where

s he s hared P ose idon 's a l tar) s he was known a s A thena H ipp ia 2 9 ; a nd a lso a t O lymp ia, where h er a l tar b es ide t he s tart ing-p lace f or t he h orser aces was c lose t o t hat o f P ose idon H ipp ios

3 °

. The t wo d e it ies h ad

o ther c u lt-p laces i n c ommon ( the ir d ispute o ver t he A then ian Acropo l is w as l egendary), a nd i n h is Descr ipt ion o f A tt ica, P ausan ias r efers t o aL ibyan s tory wh ich s uggests a n e xp lana t ion f or t he l i nk, by mak ing P ose idon t he f ather o f A thena 3 1 . . I n Cor inth, A thena w as g iven t he t i t le o f Cha l in it is ( Athena o f t he b r id le) wh ich P ausan ias e xp la ins by t he myth t ha t A thena h e lped t he h ero B e l lerophon by g iv ing h im P egasos, f i rst master ing t he w inged h orse, a nd putt ing t he b i t i nto h is mouth, a s tory wh ich l i nks h er a ga in w i th P ose idon h is f a ther

3 2

The a ltar o f A thena H ipp ia b es ide t he r ace-course a t O lymp ia m ay b e ar em inder t ha t t he Homer ic g oddess w as a t h ome i n c har io ts, a nd c ou ld d r ive t hem w e l l.

On t he b att le-f ie ld o f T roy s he pu l ls D iomedes '

1 98.

d river f rom h is p lace i n t he h ero 's war-char iot, s e izes t he r e ins a nd wh ip, a nd d r ives f ur ious ly i nto t he t h ick o f t he f ight 3 . A thena 's t i t le o f H ippia may t hus b e s een t o s tem n ot o n ly f rom h er c u lt-shar ing w ith P ose idon, but a lso f rom h er r o le a s a war-goddess, e qu ipped w ith at eam o f h orses a s w ith h er h e lmet a nd a eg is

3 4

.

( d) Artem is Ih ave f ound no l i terary e v idence o f a mytho logy i n wh ich A rtemis i s s pec if ica l ly a ssoc iated w ith h orses, a s P ose idon o r A thena was; a s f ar a s Iknow, t he t i t le o f H ippia w as n ot g iven t o h er.

a nd

Yet t here

a re s ome l i terary i nd icat ions o f l i nks b etween g oddess a nd h orse;

i ndeed,

i t wou ld b e s urpr is ing i f t here h ad b een n o a ssociat ion b etween Homer 's p otnia t heron, a nd t he a n ima l wh ich w as s o v a lued i n t he wor ld o f t hose who a cknow ledged h er.

Even i f s he w as n ever c a l led H ipp ia, P indar

r efers t o h er a s H ipposoa ( dr iver o f h orses) 3 5 ; a nd t he t i t le i s c ons iste nt w ith t he l i nes i n t he Homer ic Hymn t o Artem is, where s he i s d escribed a s water ing h er h orses a t Me les, a nd s w if t ly d r iv ing h er g o lden c har iot t hrough Smyrna t o C laros

3 6

.

Her r o le a s p rotectress o f y oung c reatures

i s r eca l led i n af ragment o f Bacchy l ides, where s he i s a ddressed a s H ippotrophos, nurse o f s teeds

3 7

. I t s eems t hat s he was a lso s k i l led

a t f ind ing h orses wh ich were l ost.

When Odysseus, who h ad wandered

a l l o ver Greece i n s earch o f t hem, a ctua l ly f ound h is s tray ing h orses n ear Pheneos, h e f e lt h e h ad Artem is t o t hank.

S o h e f ounded a

s anctuary f or t he g oddess, a nd b estowed o n h er t he t i t le o f Eur ippa ( horse-f inder).

He a lso d ecided t o k eep a h erd o f mares i n t he t err itory,

a nd n o d oubt t hey w ere s acred t o Artem is, who must h ave watched o ver t he ir y oung, a nd s o f u lf i l led h er r o le a s h ip p otrophos

3 8.

1 99.

( e) O ther d e it ies P ose idon a nd A thena w ere n ot t he o n ly d e it ies t o h ave a l tars a t t he r ace-course o f O lymp ia : a lso r epresented.

Hera H ipp ia a nd Ares H ipp ios w ere

Ib e l ieve t ha t l i ke A thena 's, t he ir a l tars may h ave

b een p laced t here b ecause o f as pec if ica l ly Homer ic a ssoc iat ion:

t he

p art ic ipat ion o f t he O lymp ian g ods i n t he c onf l ict o f T roy m eant t ha t b oth Hera a nd Ares ( as w e l l a s A thena) d rove c har iots a s p art isans o f e i ther Greeks o r T ro jans.

Hera put t he g o lden h arness o n h er p a ir

o f h orses, a ttached t hem t o h er c har iot a nd ( w ith A thena a s p assenger) d rove t hem s w if t ly t o T roy, o n ac ourse b etween e arth a nd t he s tars

3 9

.

Once o n t he g round , s he h id t hem i n am ist b es ide t he r iver S im ios , where ambros ia s prang up f or t hem t o f eed o n.

Ares h ad a lso d r iven h is

h orses t o Troy, a nd h ad l ef t t hem t o r est o n ac loud, wh i le h e w rought h avoc o n t he f i e ld ° . F ina l ly, h e l ent t hem t o Aphrod ite s o t hat s he c ou ld e scape f rom t he b att le a nd r eturn s afe ly t o O lympus.

P erhaps

Aphrod ite 's l ess a ggress ive u se o f t he c har iot a nd i t s t eam, p revented h er i nc lus ion among t he h orse-dr iv ing d e i t ies o f O lymp ia. g oddess b orn o f t he s ea-foam

4 1

,

But a s a

s he was a ssoc iated w i th h orses, a nd

was s omet imes d epicted a s r id ing o n o ne

4 2

.

S he was e ven c a l led by

t he n ame o f H ippodame ia ( horse-tamer) 4 3 ; at i t le wh ich r eca l ls t he s to i 'y t hat P e lops, t he l egendary c har io teer, d ed icated a s tatue o f h ers e lf t o Aphrod ite a t T emnos, i n o rder t o o bta in h is marr iage w ith H ippodame ia, d aughter o f O inomaos '.

I n f act t here i s s carce ly a n

O lymp ian g od who i s n ot s hown a s r id ing o r d r iv ing h orses f rom t he e ar l iest t imes

45

.

w e l l a s c att le

4 6

,

Apo l lo, who was known a s ab reeder o f h orses a s d rove t hem i n h is c apac ity o f s un-god

4 7

,

a nd h is s on

P haeton c ame t o g r ief b ecause h e c ou ld n ot c ontro l h is f ather 's f i rey s teeds.

Z eus, l ike H era a nd Ares, u sed h is t eam t o d r ive f rom O lympus

2 00.

t o Troy a nd b ack

4 8.

P ose idon a nd Demeter were p erhaps t he o n ly d e it ies

t o a ssume t he s hape o f ah orse, t o h ave o nce e ven b een w orsh ipped a s o ne;

but t he o ther O lymp ians were a ccompan ied by horses much a s

t he s uccessfu l men o f t he Homer ic wor ld w ere:

t hey owned t hem, c ared

f or t hem, d isp layed wea lth t hrough t hem , a nd d rove t o w ar b eh ind t hem.

B .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence

( i ) Ev idence o f s acr if ice The d iscovery o f h orses ' phys ica l r ema ins i n s anctuar ies h as b een a s r are a s l i terary r eference t o t he ir s acr if ice.

The bones o f o ne h orse,

p erhaps a v ict im, were d iscovered a t t he Archa ic a l tar i n t he Artem is ion o f Ephesos;

a nd both h orse-teeth a nd b ones c ame t o l ight a t Ka lydon.

A t b oth t hese s anctuar ies Artem is was worsh ipped i n t he c haracter o f a huntress ( at Ka lydon b oars ' t usks w ere a lso d ed icated , a nd a t t he Ephesos a ltar t he bones o f d ogs were f ound).

The o ccas iona l s acr i-

f i ce o f ah orse u sed i n hunt ing may h ave b een r egarded a s a n a ppropr iate a ct i n t he c u lt o f ag oddess who p res ided o ver t h is pursu it, a nd whose s anctuary a t S partan L imna i p roduced t he g reatest q uant ity o f t erracottas r epresent ing a h orse-r id ing g oddess.

On t he o ther h and,

i t h as b een s een t hat h orses, l i ke d ogs, w ere a lso a ssociated w ith d eath; a nd a t Ephesos, where Hekate, a s Artem is ' d arker s e lf , w as a lso wors h ipped, t he ir s acr if ice m ight h ave b een made w ith a g oddess o f d eath i n m ind.

The ir a ssoc iat ion w ith t he underwor ld m ight a lso e xp la in

t he p resence o f h orse-bones ( as we l l a s d ogs) a t Demeter 's s anctuary i n Knossos.

I n a ny c ase, t he f ew bones a nd t eeth o f horses f ound

• i n t he s anctuar ies e xam ined i n t his s tudy a re a n i nd icat ion t hat P ose idon, Z eus a nd t he s un-god were n ot t he o n ly r ec ipients o f horses i n s acr if ice.

2 01 .

( i i) R epresentat ions o f h orses i n s anctuar ies ( a) D istr ibut ion Over 2 000 r epresentat ions o f s eparate h orses h ave b een r eported f rom t he s anctuar ies u nder c ons iderat ion h ere.

The e xact number

c anno t b e e st imated b ecause o f t he l ack o f d eta i l i n s ome r eports.

I f

g roups o f r ider a nd h orse ( over 3 50) a nd c har iot a nd h orses ( approx imate ly 3 00) a re a lso t aken i nto a ccount, t he h orse emerges c lear ly a s t he m ost f requent ly d ed icated a n ima l-representat ion i n s anctuar ies; a lthough unaccompan ied h orses a re e xceeded by c att le.

N ear ly 1 600

o f t he s epara te h orses c ons ist o f e ar ly b ronze f igur ines d iscovered i n t he s anctuary o f Z eus a t O lymp ia , 4 40 o f wh ich h ave b een c ata logued by H e i lmeyer.

Thus Z eus ( assum ing h e w as t he r ec ip ient h ere) i s

t he d e ity t o whom s epara te h orses w ere d ed icated i n g reatest number; a lthough most o f t hem w ere p roduced by a s ing le s anctuary.

S econd

i s A rtem is, f rom t we lve o f whose s anctuar ies a t ota l o f 1 50 r epresentat ions w ere r eported ( w i thout c ount ing t he Archa ic l ead f igur ines f rom Artem is Orth ia, o r t he s im i lar ly unrecorded number o f t erracotta a nd bronze horses f rom Ka lydon a nd t he Knakeat is s anctuary); 1 00 o f t hem

( and t wenty-two l ead t ypes o f r epresentat ion) c ome f rom

Artem is Orth ia.

A f ter Artem is i s A thena, f rom t en o f whose s anctuar ies

a t l east 1 20 a re r ecorded;

f o l lowed by Hera, who r ece ived a bout 1 10.

The s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo c ons idered h ere y ie lded a t l east s eventyf ive r epresentat ions o f h orses a lone, a nd t hose o f P ose idon a pprox imate ly f orty , wh i le i n t he s anctuar ies o f Demeter e xam ined, a lmost n one w ere a pparent ly d iscovered. When w e c ome t o c ons ider h orses d ed icated w ith t he ir r iders, •h owever, i t i s P ose idon who r ece ives t he g reatest number o f r epresentat ions :

more t han 1 00 f rom t hree s anctuar ies, most o f t hem i n t he f orm

2 02 .

o f p laques f rom P enteskouph ia.

R emarkab ly f ew h orses w i th r iders

c ame t o l ight a t O lymp ia, c ons ider ing t he number o f unaccompan ied h orses f ound t here;

but a t Z eus ' Nemean s anctuary t he Amer ican

e xcavat ion uncovered n ear ly 1 00 f ragments o f t erracotta r iders ( the r eport d oes n ot i nd ica te, h owever, h ow m any f igur ines t hese f ragments r epresent).

I t may b e t ha t d esp ite t he N emean f ragments b oth A thena,

i n whose s anctuar ies w ere f ound more t han f i f ty h orse a nd r ider r epresentat ions, a nd Hera, who r ece ived o ver s ixty, were more o f ten t he r ec ip ients o f t h is t ype o f o ffer ing t han was Z eus.

A rtem is h ad

f ewer, un less t he l ead f igur ines f rom Artem is Orth ia numbered f or ty o r more.

Th is i s a lways p oss ib le, but a par t f rom t he l ead f igur ines ,

o n ly f i f teen

r epresentat ions o f h orses w i th ma le r iders w ere d iscovered

i n h er s anctuar ies.

But o ut o f t wenty-three b ronze a nd t erracotta

f igur ines o f t he r arer s ide-s itt ing r ider wh ich i s g enera l ly i nterpreted ( reasonab ly e nough) a s af ema le, s eventeen w ere d ed icated i n s anc tuar ies 3 3

o f Artem is ( most ly Artem is Orth ia), t hree i n Hera s anctuar ies, a nd o ne e ach a t T egea, O lymp ia a nd Amyc la i. Horses f orm ing p art o f ac har io t g roup a re a f avour i te mot if o f t he a nc ient wor ld, a nd t hey a re f ound, b oth i n t he r ound , a nd a s e ng rav ings o r r e l iefs, a t t he s anctuar ies o f most d e it ies.

Over 1 00 b ronze

o r t erracotta p arts o f c har iot g roups d at ing f rom t he Geometr ic a nd 3 4

Archa ic p er iods w ere f ound a t O lymp ia, t hus mak ing Z eus t he d e ity who r ece ived t he g reatest number o f s uch d ed icat ions;

A thena r ece ived

more t han s eventy, most ly i n t he f orm o f L a te Archa ic t erracotta r e l iefs f rom t he Acropo l is, i n wh ich t he a rmed g oddess h erse lf i s t he c har io teer; wh i le a t P enteskouph ia f i f ty t o s ixty s ides o f t he s urv iv ing p a inted p laques d ep ict c har iots, n ear ly a lways d r iven by P ose idon - but o nce, a t l east, by A thena.

Thus Z eus a t O lymp ia , A thena a nd P ose idon w ere

2 03 .

t he t hree p r inc ipa l r ec ip ients o f c har io t-representat ions.

Artem is r ece ived

t wenty-four s uch i mages, n ot c ount ing a bout t wenty f ragments f rom Kombothreka ;

a nd Chr istou b e l ieved t ha t s ome o f t he l ead p endants

r epresent ing a f ema le b etween t wo h orse-protomes may a lso c onst itute as horthand v ers ion o f t he g oddess i n h er c har iot

4 9

.

F if teen c har iot-

r epresenta t ions w ere r eported f rom s anctuar ies o f Hera ;

a nd i t h as

b een s uggested t ha t t he wooden s too ls d iscovered a t S amos, whose s ides a re h orse-shaped, may b e y et a nother k ind o f c har io t-representat i on - a t hrone o f t he g oddess wh ich r eca l led h er c har io t5 0 .

( b) Commentary o n t he d istr ibut ion The l arge number o f h orse-representat ions d ed icated i n s anctuar ies c annot b e e xp la ined i n t erms o f c ommemorat ion o f , o r s ubst itut ion f or t he s acr if ice o f r ea l a n ima ls, s ince h orse-sacr if ice ( though n ot, a s w e h ave s een, unknown) i s r are

5 1•

R easons f or t he p resence o f t he ir

i mages i n t he s anctuar ies o f n ear ly a l l t he O lymp ian g ods, must b e l ooked f or e lsewhere ;

a nd may b e e xpected t o e merge i n a more d eta i led

e xam inat ion o f t he s anctuar ies i n quest ion. I f s eparate h orses, c har iots, a nd g roups o f h orse a nd r ider a re c ons idered t ogether, a s o ne c lass o f d ed icat ion, t he ir d istr ibut ion b etween s anctuar ies o f Z eus, P ose idon, A thena , Artem is a nd Hera wou ld b e f a ir ly e ven, i f i t w ere n ot f or t he v ery l arge number o f e ar ly b ronze f igur ines f ound a t O lymp ia .

S ett ing a s ide t he e ar ly O lymp ian b ronzes,

r ough ly 2 00 h orse-representa t ions w ere f ound i n t he s anctuar ies e xam ined h ere o f e ach o f t hese d e it ies.

S uch a d istr ibut ion i s n ot i ncons istent

w i th t he h orse-der ived t i t les a pp l ied t o a l l o f t hem but Z eus, o r w i th t he Homer ic t rad i t ion wh ich s aw t hem a l l a s c har io t-dr iv ing d e it ies.

2 04.

1 . Z eus a nd t he O lymp ian s anctuary: The O lymp ian f igur ines c annot, h owever, b e i gnored i n a ny d isc uss ion o f t he r epresentat ions o f h orses d ed icated t o t he g ods.

When

t hey a re c ons idered, w e must r ecogn ize t ha t Z eus, t he s upreme d e i ty o f O lymp ia, w as a p r ime r ec ip ient o f s uch o ffer ings;

a lthough a s h e

was n ot t he o n ly d e ity worsh ipped i n t he A lt is, h e n eed n o t h ave b een t he ir s o le r ec ip ient.

By t he f i f th c entury, a t l east, t he c har iot-mot if ,

s o w e l l r epresented a t O lymp ia i n e ar ly t imes, was i nd isputab ly a ssoc iated w ith t he p a tron o f t he s anctuary;

s ince i t f ormed t he s cu lptura l d ecora-

t ion o n t he E ast p ed iment o f h is t emp le.

Here t he d ead ly c har iot-race

o f P e lops a ga inst O inomaos i s a bout t o b eg in, p res ided o ver by Z eus h imse lf , ac entra l f igure o f more t han h uman p roport ions.

The p ed imenta l

s cu lptures o n t he w est f acade o f t he t emp le r epresent t he b att le b etween L ap i ths a nd C entaurs a t

P e ir ithoos ' w edd ing.

Th is i s af avour ite s ub ject

f or t he d ecorat ion o f Greek t emp les, a l though i t i s g enera l ly s hown i n af r ieze ( as o n t he P arthenon) r ather t han o n t he p ed iment.

But

a t O lymp ia Ib e l ieve i t may h ave b een c hosen t o e xpress a nother f acet o n t he t heme o f man 's d iv ine ly a ided mastery o f t he horse :

t he c entaurs,

h a lf men a nd h a lf h orses, b e ing t hemse lves s ubdued by h eroes.

A ccord-

i ng t o l egend, P e lops ' r ea l p atron i n t he c har iot-race was i n f act n ot Z eus, but P ose idon, who was h is l over, a nd who g ave h im a w inged c har iot, t he a x les o f wh ich s tayed d ry e ven when i t was d r iven t hrough t he s ea 5 2 . O n Kypse los ' c hest i n Hera ' :. ,t emp le, where t he s tory o f t he c hase w as a lso r epresented, P e lops ' h orses w ere g iven w ings

5 3

.

As a d ecorat ive mot if , w inged h orses o n ar ing , a nd o n A rcha ic s h ie lds d ed icated i n t he s anctuary, w ere a ppropr iate f or O lymp ia . The Greeks who won c har io t-races i n h istor ic t imes l e f t t he ir own monuments o f t r iumph i ns ide t he A l t is.

As P ausan ias ' d escr ipt ion

2 05 .

s hows, t here were a n umber o f s tatues o f h orses a nd c har io ts d ed icated t o Z eus but g lor ify ing t he morta l w inner.

S ome o f t he e ar ly f igur ines

o f c har iots, s o much m ore numerous a t O lymp ia t han a t o ther s anctuar ies, may a lso h ave c ommemorated t he r aces.

However, t he Games b egan,

a ccord ing t o t rad it ion, d ur ing t he e ighth c entury; f igur ines o f h orses b e long t o t he n inth c entury

5 4

c lay c har iots a nd d r ivers a re e ven e ar l ier i n d ate

,

5 5

a nd s ome b ronze wh i le s ome o f t he .

S o t he s pec ia l

a ssoc iat ion o f t he h orse w i th t he d e i t ies o f O lymp ia a ppears t o h ave b egun b efore t he Games, a ssum ing t hat t he Games w ere n ot a lready i n e x istence b efore t he e ighth c entury

5 6

.

I f t he d ed icat ions o f s ma l l h orses

a nd c har io ts p reda te t he Games, t hen i t i s v ery p oss ib le t ha t t hey s imp ly r ef lected t he c oncerns o f t he worsh ippers , a nd w ere h opefu l r epresenta t ions o f a n e steemed t ype o f p roperty ( as w ere t he s im i lar t erracottas d ed icated t o Artem is a t Kombo threka).

A t t he s ame t ime,

t he c u lt o f P e lops a t O lympia was r eputed ly a nc ient 5 7 ; a nd P e lops ' b r ide, t he p r ize f or w inn ing t he c har iot-race, w as H ippodame ia. p roduced f ew ma le r iders o f h orses:

O lymp ia

but o ne e xamp le o f t he much r arer

t ype o f f igur ine r epresent ing a f ema le h orse-woman ( da ted 7 75-750 BC) w as d iscovered t here.

A s ma l l e ngrav ing o n t he l eg o f aG eometr ic

t r ipod d ep icts a human f orm ( perhaps a g oddess) s tand ing o n ah orse 's b ack;

a nd W i l lemsen h as s uggested t hat t h is may b e ar eference t o

H ippodame ia 5 8 . H ippodame ia h ad h er own s anctuary i n t he A lt is when P ausan ias v is i ted i t ( though n o t race o f i t i s n ow known)

5 9

a nd m ight

h ave b een worsh ipped t here a s ah orse-tam ing d e ity i n much e ar l ier t imes - a s u itab le p otnia t heron f or a r eg ion o f Greece where t he r a is ing o f h erds o f h orses a nd c a tt le was e v ident ly i mportant.

I t i s n ot i mpos-

s ib le, t hen, t ha t t he c har io t-f igur ines ( some a s e ar ly a s t he t enth c entury) may h ave b een d ed ica ted t o H ippodame ia a nd h er c onsort;

o r a t l east

2 06.

t o ah orse-deity whose c u lt was i nher ited by Z eus, a nd e choed b oth i n t he P e lops myth a s P indar t e l ls i t , a nd i n t he e questr ian e vents o f t he Games

6 °

. When O lymp ian Z eus a nd Hera were e stab l ished, t he

o lder p a ir o f g ods d id n ot v an ish a l together, but b ecame h eroes 6 1 Th is i nterpretat ion o f t he d eve lopments a t O lympia i s n ecessar i ly s pecu la t ive;

but t here a re p ara l le ls a t o ther s anctuar ies 6 2 . Th e t heory,

i f v a l id, wou ld s uggest t hat i t was a s t he s uccessor t o H ippodame ia a nd P e lops t hat Z eus emerges a t O lympia a s s uch a n otab le r ec ip ient o f h orse-representat ions.

A t a l l e vents, t he c har iot-mot if a t O lymp ia

was e xcept iona l ly l ongl ived;

s ince more t han 1 000 y ears a f ter t he

d ed icat ion o f t he e ar ly c har iot-f igur ines, i t was c hosen t o f i l l t he c entra l p ane l o f t he mosa ic i n t he Octagon, j ust b es ide t he e ntrance t o t he r ace-course.

2 .

Artem is Orthia a nd t he p otnia h ippon Af ter Z eus, t he d e i ty t o whom most r epresentations o f h orses

w ithout r iders o r c har iots were d ed icated was Artem is.

The g reater

p art o f t hese were f ound i n h er S partan s anctuary, wh ich y ie lded 1 00 s uch r epresentat ions i n b ronze, t erracotta, l imestone a nd i vory , e ven a p aste box was e ngraved w ith a h orse 's h ead.

I n a dd it ion t o

t hese d ed icat ions t here was a n unspec if ied number o f l ead f igur ines o f c omp lete h orses, a nd o f t he ir h orses l a ter t han 5 00 BC; o r Archa ic d ate.

d oub le p ro tomes.

There were n o l ead

i n f act a l l t he d ed icat ions a re o f Geometr ic

The h orse i n i ts s uperhuman w inged f orm, t oo, i s

r epresented a t t he s anctuary:

af ew s eventh c entury l ead f igur ines

a nd t he d ecorat ion o n s ome l ead r ings a re p egas i , a nd an i vory c omb o f t he s ame p er iod i s d ecorated by o ne;

wh i le t wo o f t he c har iots o n

s ixth c entury b one a nd i vory p laques a re d rawn by a t eam o f f our

2 07.

w inged horses.

Representat ions o f t he h orse a ccompan ied by a f ema le,

ev ident ly t he g oddess , were a lso d iscovered.

Not o n ly d id s eventeen

o ut o f t he t wenty-three f ema le r iders wh ich I h ave l i sted c ome f rom Ar tem is ' s anctuar ies , but o ne i vory p laque o f t he l a te s eventh c entury s hows ah orse s tand ing b eh ind t he w inged g oddess;

a nd Ib e l ieve t hat t he

bone p laque i n t wo p ieces, a lso o f t he l a te s eventh c entury, wh ich d ep icts a p a ir o f h orses s tand ing o n t he ir h ind l egs i n ah era ld ic p os it ion, m ight have b een c omp leted by a c entra l p ane l i n wh ich t he g oddess was r epresented.

The mot if o f t he p otnia f lanked by a p a ir o f h orses

i s c erta in ly r epresented i n t he o ne i vory a nd n ine t erracotta p endants 2 5

where t he f ema le h ead a ppears b etween t wo h orse-heads;

a nd a t l east

t wo o f t he t ypes o f d oub le h orse-head p endants i n l ead a lso s how a s chemat ic c entra l f ema le f igure. The g oddess Orth ia o f S parta h ad many r o les;

a nd o ne o f t hem

was e v ident ly t hat o f ap otnia h ippon , , s uch a s H ippodame ia may h ave b een a t O lymp ia.

S uch a d e ity may b e e xpected t o h ave a M inoan o r

Mycenaean o r ig in ; a nd t here a re e ngraved g ems wh ich s how t hat t he h orse, o r a t l east t he h orse 's h ead, h ad a mean ing i n Bronze Age r e l ig ious p ract ices.

On o ne Mycenaean r ock-crysta l g em a n aked man i s f lanked

by t wo c reatures ( poss ibly human) w ith h orses ' h eads 6 3 ; a nd o n a Cretan pebble a f igure o f d oubtfu l s ex, a ga in w ith a h orse 's h ead, a nd wear ing a h orse 's s k in, c arr ies a s laughtered d eer 6 4 . T he Geometr ic a nd Archa ic r epresentat ions o f f ema le r iders c erta in ly h ad t he ir Mycenaean p rototype:

as urv iv ing e xamp le i s t he c lay f igur ine o f ap s i-goddess

s eated on a h orse w ith a s add le l ook ing l i ke h orns o f c onsecrat ion

6 5

.

But a pparent ly n o Bronze Age r epresentat ion o f t he p otnia f lanked by h era ld ic h orses, a s by l i ons o r b irds, i s known. i n t he Archa ic p er iod :

Yet t he mot if e xisted

i ts s hortened p rotome-vers ion was d ed icated,

2 08.

a s w e h ave s een, a t Artem is Orth ia 's s anctuary;

a nd a v ery s im i lar

Archa ic f ema le p rotome i n b ronze was f ound o n t he Acropo l is o f A thens, t hough h ere t he human h ead i s n ot f lanked, but s urmounted by t wo h orse-protomes l ike a n e laborate h eaddress.

The c omp lete p otnia t heron

w ith t wo h orses a lso a ppears o n o b jects d ed icated i n t hree C retan s anct uar ies dur ing t he Archa ic p er iod.

The s anctuary o f P r in ias was e v id-

e nt ly t he h ome o f ap otnia h ippon , s ince t he t emp le was adorned by af r ieze o f h orsemen, a nd t he h orse a lso f igures a s ad ecorat ion o n t he s k irt o f t he s eated g oddess a bove t he d oor.

But o n t he n eck o f a p ithos

d ed icated i n t he s anctuary, t he i mage o f aw inged p otnia , g rasp ing t wo h orses by t he ir f ront h oofs, i s s hown t hree t imes i n r e lief .

A t t he

s anctuary o f L ato where a g oddess s im i lar t o Artem is Orth ia was wors h ipped

6 6

,

t hree t erracotta p laques, a nd s even f ragments o f s im i lar

o nes, d ep ict a w inged f igure b etween t wo h orses.

F ina l ly, o n t he

Acropo l is o f Gortyn, a f ragmentary p a inted p laque d epicts a r ear ing s ta l l ion, whose f ore-hoof i s g rasped by a human h and;

a nd I b e l ieve

we may a ssume t hat t h is was a nother p otnia h ippon . P r inias, L ato a nd Gortyn were a l l Cretan s anctuar ies, a nd t he ir Archa ic r epresentat ions o f t he p otnia t heron f lanked by h orses a re a p ersuas ive a rgument t hat t h is t ype o f g oddess h ad h er f orebear i n Bronze Age Crete. We h ave s een t hat t he w inged h orse was a ssoc iated w ith f ounta ins a nd w ith water wh ich c ame f rom under t he e arth;

t hat horse-sacr if ice

i n a t l east o ne Arcad ian c u lt o f P ose idon l i nked t he h orse w i th t he underwor ld;

a nd t hat h orse-headed Demeter w as a c hthon ian d e i ty .

Chr istou

i n f act s ees t he h orse o f t he Archa ic p otn ia t heron a s a s ymbo l o f h er c hthon ian a spect, h er p ower o ver d eath a nd t he n ether wor ld 6 7 . H e s tresses t hat s he c annot t herefore b e a ssoc iated w ith a ny o ne O lymp ian g oddess, s ince a l l o f t hem s hared t o s ome d egree t h is a spect o f t he

2 09.

p 0tn1a

6 8

; a nd w e h ave s een t hat h orse-der ived t i t les w ere a pp l ied

t o most o f t hem. I t may b e o n ly b y c hance, t hen, t ha t Artem is O rth ia, whose s anctuary i s r ich i n a n ima l-representat ions o f s o many k inds, h as emerged s o c lear ly a s ap otnia h ippon .

But i t d emonstrates a t l east

t ha t Artem is, w i th whom Orth ia merged, h ad h er a ssured p lace a mong t he d e it ies o f h orses.

The h orse i s p art o f a hunter 's e qu ipment, a nd

a s s uch a n a ppropr ia te s ervant o f t he g oddess o f hunt ing .

An Archa ic

a ntef ix f rom Capua , wh ich t akes t he f orm o f t he g oddess r id ing a h orse, a nd c arry ing a b ow, s hows t ha t by t he t ime i t w as made, Artem is h erse lf ( ra ther t han a p re-O lymp ian p otnia t heron o f u nknown n ame) w as c lear ly a ssoc iated w i th h orses6 9

Cu ltrera b e l ieved t hat t he c en tra l a kroter ion

o f A rtem is ' t emp le i n Ortyg ia a t S yracuse a lso t ook t he f orm o f ah orse w i th i ts r ider;

a nd i ti s unfortuna te t ha t t he s urv iv ing f ragments

a re i nsuff ic ient t o i nd icate t he r ider 's i dent ity o r s ex.

A t a l l e vents,

t he number o f h orse-representat ions a nd f ema le r iders d ed icated i n h er s anctuar ies may b e u nderstood a s a n e xpress ion o f Artem is ' a ssoc iat ion w i th h orses

3 .

7 °

.

P ose idon P ose idon f igures e ven i n t he l egend o f P e lops, t he O lymp ian

h ero , by p rov id ing h im w i th h orses o f s upernatura l s peed;

a nd o f

a l l t he d e i t ies h e i s a cknow ledged a s t he s upreme g od o f h orses, i n t he s ea o r o n l and.

I t may t herefore s eem r ather s urpr is ing t ha t o f

t he d e it ies c ons idered h ere, h e s eems t o h ave r ece ived i n d ed icat ion f ewer r epresentat ions o f t he unaccompan ied h orse t han a ny, e xcept Demeter

7 1

.

But when t he r epresentat ions o f h orses under t he c ontro l

o f ar ider o r c har io teer a re c ons idered , ad ifferent p icture emerges.

2 10 .

As t he r ec ipient o f c har iot-ded icat ions, P ose idon i s e c l ip3ed o n ly b y Z eus a t O lympia, a nd A thena o n t he A cropo l is o f A thens.

A t

P enteskouph ia, o ver f i f ty s ides o f t he p a inted p laques h ave t his mot if . But a s t he r ec ip ient o f horses w ith t he ir r iders, h e i s f oremost among t he g ods:

a t l east 1 00 were d ed icated t o h im.

The e xp lanat ion f or

t h is p attern i n t he t ypes o f h orse-representat ions d ed icated t o P ose idon may l i e i n t he f act t hat most o f t he r iders a nd c har ioteers d epicted ( at l east o n t he P enteskouph ia p laques, where a t r ident o ften i dent if ies t he g od) a re P ose idon h imse lf .

S o g reat was h is c ontro l o f t he c reatures

who were i n p art s ymbo ls o f h is e lement, t he s ea, t hat i n h is s anctuar ies t hey a re more o f ten r epresented w i th t he g od, t han i n i so lat ion.

The

e v idence o f t he P enteskouph ia p laques a s t o t he i mportance o f t he c har iot a s a n a ttr ibute o f P oseidon , i s s upported by P ausan ias ' d escript ion o f Herodes A tt icus ' s umptuous g roup i n h is I sthm ian t emp le.

Here t he

g o ld a nd i vory P ose idon a nd Amph itr i te d o not s i t o n t hrones, but s tand i n t he ir c har iot, wh ich i s d rawn by a t eam o f f our g i lded h orses w ith i vory h oofs

7 2

A t I sthm ia, t oo, P ausan ias s aw a s cu lptured g roup

o f Be l lerophon, I no a nd P egasos;

a nd t h is a l lus ion t o P ose idon 's r e lat ion-

s h ip w ith t he w inged h orse a nd w ith B e l lerophon i s a lso e choed ( or p erhaps f oreshadowed) o n o ne o r t wo o f t he P enteskouph ia p laques.

4 .

A thena Representat ions o f h orses were d ed icated t o A thena i n a t l east

n ine o f h er s anctuar ies:

t he e xact number f ound a t S oun ion, Ph i l ia

a nd Gortyn i s n ot r ecorded;

but f rom t hose o f h er s anctuar ies c on-

s idered h ere, t he t ota l i s a t l east 1 00.

A g reater number o f horses

i n i so lat ion may h ave b een d ed icated t o Artem is, Hera, a nd t he d e ity o f O lympia ;

but A thena was a lso o ne o f t he most f requent r ecip ients

2 11 .

o f r iders, a nd a g reater number o f c har iot-representat ions, e specia l ly o n t he A then ian Acropo l is, were o ffered t o h er t han t o a ny o ther d e ity a part f rom t he o ne a t O lympia.

We have s een t ha t s he was a ssoc iated

w ith t he h orse i n mytho logy a nd by t i t le;

a nd t i t le a nd myths may

i nd irect ly r ef lect a n e ar ly r o le i n h er h istory a s p otnia h ippon .

Certa in ly

h er master ing o f P egasos, a s A thena Cha l in it is, i dent if ies h er a s a t amer o f h orses.

De R idder s uggested t ha t t he f ema le h ead s urmounted

by h orse-protomes f rom t he Acropo l is m ight b e ar eference t o t he P egasos myth

7 3

;

a nd h e c ou ld h ave made a s im i lar c omment o n t he b ronze w inged

h orse-protomes o f t he s ame p er iod.

The " numerous" p a inted p laques

f rom A thena 's s anctuary a t Gortyn, d epict ing t he f ight b etween Be l lerophon a nd P egasos, a nd t he Medusa, c erta in ly d o c ommemorate t he myth, a nd t he g oddess ' c onnect ion w ith i t .

The Geometr ic b ronze

f ema le r ider d ed icated a t Tegea i s n ot i ncons istent w ith t he r o le o f p otnia h ippon ;

n or i s t he p laque f rom Gortyn where t he s ta l l ion 's h oof

i s g rasped by a h and.

But Homer ic myth d ep icts A thena a s a war-

g oddess, d r iv ing h er c har iot a ga inst Ares h imse lf ;

a nd t he r epresenta-

t ion o f r iders a nd c har iots f rom t he A then ian Acropo l is ( where n ear ly f i f ty horses i n i so la t ion were a lso d iscovered) were p robably d ed icated, a t l east f rom Archa ic t imes, t o A thena i n h er war l ike c haracter. A thena 's r o le a s ag oddess o f war i s c lear ly e xpressed i n o ver s ixty L ate Archa ic t erracotta p laques f rom t he Acropo l is, where s he i s s hown c l imbing i nto o r d r iv ing h er c har iot, a rmed w ith a eg is, s pear a nd s h ie ld.

But h orse-ded icat ions i n wh ich t he g oddess was n ot r epres-

e nted a lso h ad r eference t o war, a s t he e pigram b e long ing t o t he s tatues o f v anqu ished Boeo t ian a nd Cha lk id ian h orses t est if ies

7 4

.

Even b efore

t he P ers ian war, A thena 's s anctuary must h ave b een l i bera l ly a dorned w ith equestr ian s tatues, a s t he s ix s urv iv ing Archa ic e xamp les ( inc lud ing

2 12.

t he Ramp in h orseman) i nd icate.

Where t hey d o n ot r epresent d efeated

e nem ies, s uch d ed icat ions c e lebrate t he f l ower o f A then ian y outh, a nd t he d efenders, a ctua l o r p otent ia l, o f t he s tate.

I n e ither c ase, t hey

e xpress t he m ight o f a rms, a nd t he c ourage o f men, wh ich w ere t he e ventua l c oncerns o f t h is g oddess i n h istor ic t imes.

The A then ian

Acropo l is was a s anctuary o f s pec ia l w ea lth a nd s p lendour;

but t he

more modest r ema ins o f r ider-f igur ines f rom t he Acropo l is s anctuar ies o f L indos, S parta , E late ia a nd Gortyn f or t he s ame r eason must h ave b een a ppropr iate d ed icat ions f or A thena .

Even t he horsemen o n t he

P arthenon 's i nner f r ieze e xpress t he s ame a spect o f t he g oddess a nd h er c u lt.

The P anathena ic p rocess ion w as a s tatement o f t he c i ty 's

s trength a s we l l a s i ts r everence f or t he p atron d e ity;

a nd i t h as b een

s uggested by J ohn Boardman t hat t he number o f men i n t he p rocess ion o f t he f r ieze i s t he s ame a s t he number k i l led a t Marathon

7 5

. Th is

i s t o s ay, t he P arthenon f r ieze w ith i ts h orses, s erved i n p art a s a war-memor ia l.

5 .

Demeter The p resence o f h orse-bones a t D emeter 's s anctuary o f Knossos

s uggests t hat h orses were o n o ccas ion s acr if iced t o h er:

p erhaps t hey

were f e lt t o b e s u itable o ffer ings f or a c hthon ian d e ity, l i ke t hose t hrown i nto t he underground r iver f or P ose idon i n Arcad ia.

I t i s a lways p os-

s ib le t hat t he h orse f rom a n e ighth c entury t erracotta c har iot g roup f ound i n t he s ame s anctuary may r efer t o P ersephone 's r ape a nd j ourney t o t he underwor ld, t hough a s ing le e xamp le i s s l ight e v idence f or s uch a n i nterpretat ion. Yet d esp ite Demeter 's c hthon ic a ssoc iat ion w ith horses, i n o nly o ne o f t he r eports o n t hose o f Demeter 's s anctuar ies c ons idered i n t h is

2 13.

s tudy, have I f ound a ny ment ion o f t he d iscovery o f h orse-f igur ines; a l though t here a re t wo t erracotta r iders i n t he Museum a t E leus is

7 , 6

a nd a marb le e questr ian s ' tatue was d iscovered i n h er s anctuary a t Cyrene.

Th is may b e t he r esu lt o f i ncomp leteness i n t he r eports;

but

s ince Demeter was n e ither a war-goddess n or, i t s eems, a p otnia h ippon, h orse-representat ions w ere p erhaps n ot g enera l ly f e lt t o b e a ppropr iate d ed icat ions f or h er.

Ev ident ly , h er a ssoc iat ion w ith t he h orse a s as ymbo l

o f c hthon ic p ower was o f ad ifferent k ind f rom t he e questr ian a ssoc iat ions o f o ther d eit ies.

Th is p art icu lar r e lat ionsh ip was e xpressed i n t he h orse-

h eaded c u lt-statue i n t he c ave n ear Ph iga l ia, wh ich P ausan ias d escr ibes; a nd i t i s o f s ome i nterest t hat t he Mycenaean g em e ngraved w ith t wo h orse-headed f igures was a lso f ound i n t he Ph iga l ia r eg ion

77.

The f igure

o n Despo ina 's v e i l, n ot f ar away i n Lykosoura, may r efer t o t he s ame c oncept ion o f ah orse-headed c hthon ian d e ity.

Thus i t i s s ure ly n ot

i rre levant t hat t he most s tr ik ing r epresentat ion o f ah orse f rom t he 3 6

s anctuar ies o f Demeter under e xaminat ion s hou ld b e al arge marble h orsep rotome w ear ing a c o l lar o f a canthus l eaves, d ed icated i n E leus is. o b ject b e longs t o t he He l len ist ic p er iod;

Th is

but t he Ph iga l ian c u lt-statue

wh ich was made ( accord ing t o P ausan ias ' a ccount) dur ing t he f i f th c entury, r ep laced a much o lder h orse-headed wooden s tatue; p rotome must embody a n a nc ient c oncept o f Demeter.

s o t hat t he E leus is The r ema ins o f

t he l imestone h orse 's h ead f rom Cyrene ( a lso s eem ing ly He l len ist ic) d o n ot i nd icate whether t h is was a n i ndependent p rotome, o r t he f ragment o f ac omp lete h orse.

I f i t were a p rotome i t wou ld c onst itute a n i nterest-

i ng p ara l le l t o t he E leus is marble.

2 14.

C .

Conc lus ion A v ery l arge number o f r epresentat ions o f h orses, e i ther a lone

o r w ith t heir r iders, o r h arnessed t o c har iots, w ere d iscovered i n t he s anctuar ies o f t he g ods e xam ined i n t h is s tudy.

They were c ommon ly

d ed icated n ot o n ly t o P ose idon, t he g od o f h orses, but t o a l l t he d e i t ies i n quest ion, a l though by f ar t he g reatest number w as f ound i n t he s anctuary a t O lympia.

Most o f t he g ods w ere a ssoc iated w ith h orses

i n mytho logy, i f o n ly a s d r ivers o f c har iots;

a nd P ose idon, A thena,

Hera, Ares, Artem is a nd e ven Aphrod ite were a ddressed by t i t les o r e pithets wh ich e xpressed t h is a ssoc iat ion.

Many f ema le d e it ies i nher ited

c haracter ist ics o f ap otnia t heron whose o r ig ins may l i e i n B ronze Age c u lts:

Artem is Orth ia i s o ne o f t hem, a nd t he numbers o f h orse-repres-

e ntat ions d ed icated a t h er S parta s anctuary, l i ke t he b irds a nd l i ons a lso f ound t here, r ef lect t h is i nher itance. I t h as b een s uggested t ha t h er a ttendant h orses s ymbo l ize t he p otnia t heron's p ower o ver d eath;

a nd t he p resence o f h orses o n f unerary

r e l iefs l ends s upport t o t h is t heory.

But t o t he a nc ients, t he horse

was a lso a weapon o f war, a s ign o f wea lth, a nd p art o f t he e qu ipment f or a d angerous a nd h onourable s port.

Thus t he p otnia 's h orses must

a lso h ave p o inted t o h er d om in ion o ver i mportant a spects o f men 's l ives i n t h is wor ld - o ver wea lth, p ower, a nd e arth ly s uccess.

Even a s

t he c ompan ion o f d ead h eroes, t he h orse r eca l ls t he b rave d eeds t hey p erformed i n l i fe.

The a ch ievements o f a man w ithout a h orse c ou ld

o n ly b e l im ited, a s t he c h iva lr ic h eroes o f al a ter a ge were t o know. Thus t he r epresentat ions o f h orses f ound i n t he s anctuar ies o f t he g ods were d ed icated t o t he ir p atrons f or a v ar iety o f r easons, a nd s o e xp ressed d ifferent a spects o f t he d e ity, a nd t he s anctuary i n quest ion. F or e xamp le, i t i s l i ke ly t hat a h orse d ed icated t o A thena m ight b e

2 15 .

r egarded a s as ymbo l o f s uccess i n war;

whereas a t O lymp ia where

t he c u lt o f ah orse-tam ing d e ity o r d e i t ies may h ave e x isted b efore t he i nst itut ion o f t he Games, a nd p erhaps e ven b efore t he a dvent o f Z eus, t he h orse c ame t o b e a ssoc iated b oth w i th P e lops ' l egendary c har io tr ace a nd w i th t he r ea l r aces h e ld d ur ing t he Games, wh ich t he v ictors c ommemorated w i th h orse-ded icat ions o f v ary ing g randeur .

W e may

c onc lude, i n f act, t hat t he l arge number o f h orse-representat ions wh ich h ave b een f ound i n s anctuar ies r ef lects t he a n ima l 's i mportance i n more t han o ne s phere o f l i fe o ver wh ich t he g ods o f t he a nc ient wor ld p res ided.

R eferences 1 .

P ausan ias V III.7.2.

2 .

I bid. I I 2 0.4. F or a s im i lar s acr if ice t o He l ios o n Rhodes, s ee N i lsson, Gr iech ische F este .p . 4 27.

3 .

P ausan ias. I . 2 7.4.

4 .

AP I V I.135 .

5 .

I l iad . XXIII. l i nes 1 71-2 .

6 .

AR 2 8 ( 1981-2) p . 1 7.

7 .

Ke l ler. D ie Ant ike T ierwe lt . Vo l. I . p p. 2 52-3. c f Rouse, p p. 1 8 a nd 2 5.

8 .

P ausan ias. V I.4.10; V I.2.8; V I.12.1 ; V I.12.6; V I.13.9 ; V I. 1 8.1.

9 .

S ee Rouse, p . 1 06. X .15 .2 ;

V I.9 .7; V I.10 .6-7; V I.14.4; V I.14.12 ;

1 0 .

P ausan ias .X . 10.2-3 ;

X .18.1.

1 1 .

AP I V I.343 .

1 2.

A thenaeus. 4 66 d . ( Loeb. Vo l. 5 . p . 3 4).

1 3 .

I l iad . V III.440-1.

1 4.

I bid . XXIII.581-585.

V I.11 .1 ; V I.16.9 ;

2 16.

1 5.

The Academy o f A thens. S parta. O lympia. P atras. Mant inea. Pheneos. Methydr ion . Lykosoura ( Sanctuary o f Despo ina) .

II V II V III V III V III V III

3 0.4 1 4.2 1 5.5 2 1.3 1 0.2 1 4.5 3 6.2 . 37.10

1 6.

P ausan ias. V II .2 1.3.

1 7.

I bid . V III.8.2.

1 8.

I bid . V III.25.5-7;

V III.37.10.

1 9 .

Hes iod. Theogony .

2 76-281.

2 0.

P ausanias ' Descr ipt ion o f Greece .

2 1.

N i lsson. Gr iechische F este .

2 2.

I bid . p . 3 49.

2 3.

P ausan ias. 1.3.5.

2 4.

I bid .

2 5.

P ausan ias. V III.42.4.

2 6.

S ee BSA

2 7.

Lykosoura i tse lf was e ssent ia l ly a s anctuary o f c hthon ian d eit ies : Artem is, who s tands w ith Demeter a nd Despo ina i n D amophon 's c u lt-statue g roup, i s a ccompan ied by s nakes a s we l l a s her d og ( Ibid . P l. 1 2).

2 8.

S ee Cook. JHS 1 4 ( 1894) p . 1 42. " The p rom inent f igure t hrougho ut Arcad ian l egend i s t he h orse, a nd t he h orse a s s ymbo l o f t he n ether wor ld".

2 9.

P ausan ias. 1 .31.3 ;

3 0.

I bid . V .15 .5.

3 1.

I bid .

3 2.

P ausanias. 1.4.1.

3 3.

I l iad .

3 4.

S ee RE 8 .2 ( 1913) 1 701.

3 5.

O lympian Odes . 1 1.26.

3 6.

Homer ic Hymns . I X . 3-5. ( cf many Archa ic B-F vase-pa int ings f rom t he s eventh c entury o nwards. L exlc I. Artem is 1 299-1281 ) .

1.31.12 ;

Vo l. I V. p . 1 97.

p . 6 6.

I X.31.3.

1 3 ( 1906-7) P l. 1 4.

1 .30.4.

1 .14.6.

V . 8 35-841.

2 17 .

3 7 .

R .C. J ebb. B acchy l ides . Cambr idge 1 905.

3 8.

P ausan ias . 1 4.5-6.

3 9 .

I l iad . V .719-777 . c f V III.381-396.

4 0 .

I b id . V . 3 52-369 .

4 1 .

The c u lt a ted w ith

4 2 .

Ke l ler. D ie Ant ike T ierwe lt . Vo l. I . p . 2 49 . c f Chr istou. P otn ia t heron. p . 1 57.

4 3.

S ee Hesych ius ' g loss o n H ippodame ia .

4 4.

P ausan ias . V .1 3 .7.

4 5 .

Ke l ler. Op . c it . p . 2 46.

4 6.

I l iad . 1 .766. Admetus ' h orses, d r iven by h is s on Eume lus, w ere t he b est i n t he G reek a rmy; t hey w ere mares r a ised i n P eraea by Apo l lo o f t he s i lver b ow, t o c arry p an ic t o t he b att le-f ie ld . c f Macrobius .S aturna l ia. 1 .17.45 .

4 7.

The E ast p ed iment o f t he l a te s eventh c entury t emp le o f Apo l lo a t De lph i s howed t he g od r id ing i n h is c har io t. FdD 1 ( 1927). F ig. 2 3 .

4 8.

I l iad . V III.438-9 .

4 9 .

P otnia t heron . p . 1 57.

5 0 .

AM 6 8 ( 1953) p p. 8 9-90.

5 1 .

Rouse.

5 2 .

P indar .O lymp ian Odes .

5 3 .

P ausan ias . V .1 7 .7.

5 4.

O lForsch

X II p p. 5 4-9 ;

5 5 .

O lForsch

V II p p. 2 0 a nd 3 5.

5 6.

Accord ing t o t he t wo a lternat ive l egends f or t he c reat ion o f t he Games ,by t he C retan Kouretes, o r by Herak les s on o f Amph itryon, t he ir i nst itut ion d ur ing t he e ighth c entury wou ld h ave b een a r ev iva l, n ot a n ew v enture ( E.N. Gard iner . O lymp ia . I ts H istory a nd R ema ins . Oxford 1 925. pp. 5 8-9 ).

P .

3 34.

E pinik io i X I.115 .

p l inth a t t he I sthm ian s anctuary b ear ing t he g o ld a nd i vory s tatue o f P ose idon a nd Amph itr i te i n t he ir c har iot, was d ecorw i th a s cene i n wh ich a S ea h o lds u p t he c h i ld Aphrod ite, Nere ids o n e i ther s ide [ Pausan ias 1 .1.7].

P .

6 7 . I.7 1-88 ;

7 3-6;

Apo l lodorus .E p itome .

I .3 .

1 39-141 .

2 18.

5 7.

P indar 's f i rst O lympian Ode ( 476 BC) i s t he e ar l iest s ource f or P e lops ' c har iot-race ( l ines 6 7-98); a nd i n i t h e notes t he p resence o f t he h ero 's t omb b es ide t he a l tar o f Z eus ( l ines 9 0-95). P ausan ias was t o ld t hat t he P e lop ion, wh ich h e v is ited, h ad b een f ounded by Herak les [ V.13.1-2]. I ts wa l l a nd p rop y la ion i n f act d ate f rom t he l a te f i f th c entury [ see P apahadz is. Vo l. I I. F igs. 2 62 a nd 2 63]; but b eneath t hese c lass ica l r ema ins, t here w ere t races o f t wo e ar l ier P e lop ia, o ne p o lygona l l i ke t he c lass ica l s hr ine, a nd t he o ther ( o lder) r ough ly c ircu lar. Between t he t wo l eve ls o f t he e ar l ier s hr ines, many f igur ines were d iscovered , d at ing a t l east f rom t he n inth c entury, i nc lud ing c lay char iots a nd c har iote ers [ W. Dorpfe ld. A lt-O lympia . Osnabrück 1 966. Vo l. I . pp. 1 18-22; a nd O lympia I V. p . 3 ].

5 8.

0 /Forsch I I. pp. 6 8-9.

5 9.

P ausan ias. V .2 2.2.

6 0.

S ee 0 /Forsch X II. p . 1 51, a nd note 1 96, where He i lmeyer r efers b r ief ly t o b oth t hese p oss ib le, a lternat ive e xp lanat ions f or t he c lay c har iots.

6 1.

S ee P apahadzis. Vo l. I I. p . 2 63, n ote 5 .

6 2.

F or e xamp le, t he s ame f ate a ppears t o h ave b efa l len I phigene ia, who h ad h er " tomb" a t Brauron [ Eur ip ides. 1 ph igene ia i n T aur is . 1 464-7], a nd Opis a nd Arge i n t he D e l ian Artem is ion [ Herodotus. I V.35]. The p re-Greek d e ity Hyak inthos a lso b ecame a h ero, s a id t o b e bur ied i n t he b ase o f Apo l lo 's s tatue a t Amyc la i [ Pausan ias 1 1.19.3].

6 3.

JHS 1 4 ( 1894) p . 1 38. F ig. 1 8.

6 4.

I b id . F ig. 1 9.

6 5.

My lonas. Mycenae a nd t he Mycenaean Age . F igs.

6 6.

BCH 5 3 ( 1929) p . 4 27.

6 7.

P otnia t heron. p . 1 58. Th is may b e t he mean ing o f t he f ema le f igure o n o ne s ide o f t he s eventh c entury Boeot ian c offer, o n wh ich a w inged p otnia i s a lso r epresented. The f ema le f igure i s p receded by a s nake, a nd l eads a h orse [ Jd l 3( 1888) p . 3 57].

6 8.

P otnia t heron. pp. 1 57 a nd 2 01.

6 9.

GazArch 7 ( 1881) P l. 1 4.

7 0.

Hekate, who r epresents Artemis ' d arker a spect ,is i n l a ter t imes d epicted o n c o ins s eated s ideways o n ag a l lop ing horse, a s i n t he Archa ic f ema le t erracottas [ Gardner. Cata logue o f Greek C o ins . ( BM). T hessa ly t o Aeto l ia . p . 4 8. P l. 1 0.16 ( 2nd c BC c o in o f Phera i)].

1 18-119.

2 19 .

7 1 .

The h orses d iscovered a t I sthm ia h ave n ot b een e numera ted, but i n g enera l P ose idon r ece ived a bout t he s ame number ( forty) a s Apo l lo.

7 2 .

P ausan ias . I . 1 .7 .

7 3 .

A . De R idder . C ata logue d es Bronzes t rouvgs s ur l ' Acropo le d 'Athenes . P ar is. 1 896. p . 1 60.

7 4.

c f Herodotos V . 7 7. A b ronze c har iot a nd f our mares w as made f or a t i the o f t he r ansom-money, a nd d ed icated t o A thena w ith at r iumphant i nscr ipt ion.

7 5 .

S ee V . Höckmann a nd A . Krug. F estschr if t f ür F rank B rommer . Ma inz. 1 977. p p. 3 9-49.

7 6.

I n t he f ourth c entury marb le r e l iefs s how ing T r ipto lemos i n h is c har iot, t he d raught a n ima ls a re w inged s erpents r ather t han horses [ G . E. My lonas. E leus is a nd t he E leus inian Myster ies . P r inceton 1 961 . p . 1 95. F ig. 7 4].

7 7 .

S ee n ote 6 3.

2 20.

I NSECTS AND ARACHNIDS ( See Append ix 8 .13 )

A .

L iterary e v idence The c lose r e lat ionsh ip o f s ome a n ima ls a nd b irds w i th v ar ious

d e it ies i s s carce ly s hared by most s pec ies o f i nsect a nd a rachn id: a ture, a t l east, o ffers l i tt le e v idence o f i t .

l i ter-

I t i s e as ier t o s ee d iv in ity

i n ah orse o r l i on, t han i n af ly o r g rasshopper, b oth o f wh ich s eem more l i ke ly t o b e r egarded a s p ests t han a s a ttr ibutes o r c ompan ions o f g ods. But a n e xam inat ion o f t he c omparat ive ly f ew r epresentat ions f ound i n s anct uar ies p rompts s ome a ttempt t o a ssess whether t hese had a ny r e l ig ious s ign if icance a s d ed icat ions , o r whether t hey s erved mere ly a s a ttract ive o rnaments.

( i )

F l ies I t i s p robab le t hat f l ies c ou ld b e ap ract ica l nu isance i n s anctuar ies,

where a n ima ls were b rought t o b e s laughtered, a nd t he ir c arcasses d ismembered.

I t must t herefore h ave b een i n p rop itiat ion, a s ap ersua-

s ion t o t he ir d eparture, t hat t hey were a ctua l ly o ffered a s hare i n t he o x s acr if iced t o Apo l lo o f L eukas l. A t O lymp ia, h owever, t he a ppea l was n ot made t o t he i nsects t hemse lves, but t o Z eus Apomy ios ( averter o f f l ies)

2

;

a nd a t A l iphera dur ing a n ight-fest iva l o f A thena, a b e ing c a l led

Myagros ( f ly-catcher) was i n it ia l ly i nvoked f or t he s ame r eason 3 . I n F razer 's c ommentary h e c on jectures t ha t i n s uch c ases t he g od o r h ero who was a sked t o k eep o ff t he i nsects w as o nce h imse lf a n i nsect, but a s t he ir k ing was a b le t o p rotect mank ind a ga inst h is s ub jects4 .

( i i)

L ocusts, g rasshoppers a nd c icadas L ocusts o r g rasshoppers, when s warm ing, a re a n e ven more

s er ious p lague t han f l ies;

a nd i t i s e v ident f rom P ausan ias ' e xp lana t ion

o f t he b ronze Apo l lo o f l ocusts o n t he A cropo l is o f A thens, t hat t h is g od

2 21 .

must have b een r egarded a s a b le t o c ontro l t hem 5 . I t was p robab ly f or t h is r eason t hat t he A eo l ians s acr if iced t o Apo l lo P ornop ios

8.

Apo l lo 's

p ower over t he l ocust o r g rasshopper may h ave b een a ssoc iated w ith h is r o le a s ag od o f mus ic.

One o f t he Ded icatory Ep igrams r ecords

t hat a bronze c icada was o ffered t o Lycorean Apo l lo by t he w inner o f a mus ic-compet it ion, who p laced h is f igur ine o n t he l yre c arr ied by t he g od 's s tatue'.

Th is w as b ecause wh i le h e was p laying, o ne o f t he mus ic ian 's

l yre-str ings b roke, a nd t he c icada p erch ing o n t he i nstrument, s ang i n i t s p lace

8

.

The w inged c icada i s i n f act d ist inct f rom t he g rasshopper

a nd l ocust, but i s n o t a lways c lear ly d ist ingu ished, b ecause t hey a re b oth t hought o f a s s ingers.

A number o f e p igrams ( most ly f unerary)

c e lebrate e i ther t he l ocust ( or g rasshopper) o r t he c icada wh ich h ad b een made i nto a p et b ecause o f i t s s ong 9 . Another o f t he D ed icatory E p igrams, wh i le s t i l l l i nk ing t he c icada w ith mus ic, r egards i t a s a n a ttr ibute o f A thena;

i t may b e s een p erched o n h er s pear b ecause i t i s as inger,

a nd A thena i nvented t he f lute n . But t he c ustom o f t he A then ians b efore S o lon 's t ime o f wear ing g o lden c icadas i n t he ir h a ir, a pparent ly s prang n ot f rom a d es ire t o h onour A thena f or h er i nvent ion, but f rom t he b e l ief t hat t hey were i nsects b orn o f t he e arth, a nd t herefore f i tting o rnaments f or a p eop le who c la imed a lso t o b e a utochthonous

( i i i)

1

.

S corpions a nd b ees The s corp ion, a s o ne o f t he most d ead ly o f s ma l l c reatures, was

u sed by a t l east o ne d e ity a s a n i nstrument o f v engeance, when Artem is s ent i t t o k i l l Or ion, h er wou ld-be r av isher

1 2

.

On t he o ther h and, i t

h appens t hat Artem is was a lso a ssoc iated w ith t he most b enevo lent a nd u sefu l o f i nsects, t he b ee.

P ausan ias r efers t o t he p r iests o f E phes ian

Artemis a s " essenes" o r k ing-bees, who f easted i n h onour o f t he g oddess a nd who were known f or t he pur ity o f t he ir l i ves wh i le i n o ff ice

1 3 .

2 22.

These w ere n o d oubt c onnected w ith t he b ee -keepers who w ere a t h and t o o pen t he d oors o f t he h ouse o f Artem is, a ccord ing t o Ar istophanes ' q uotat ion o f Aeschy lus 14

.

F razer s uggested t hat t he e ssenes m ight h ave been r egarded

a s c onsorts o f ab ee-goddess - a n i dea t ha t i s d ism issed by P icard 1 6 . T he c oncept o f ab ee-goddess , whether o r n o t s he was Artem is , a t l east r ece ives i conograph ica l s upport i n t wo Archa ic g o ld p laques f rom a t omb a t wh ich d ep ict a w inged f ema le who i s b ee-shaped b e low t he w a ist .

K ame iros , S im i lar

p endants f rom t he s ame n eck lace r epresent a w inged potnia t heron w i th l i ons , at ype o f g oddess wh ich i s c ons istent w ith E phesian A rtem is 1 6 . But t he b ee i s a ssoc iated t o s ome e xtent w ith o ther d e i t ies.

Rhea g ave

b irth t o Z eus i n ac avern s acred t o b ees 1 7 ; a s a n i nfant h e w as nour ished

by h oney a s w e l l a s g oats ' m i lk1 8 ; a nd h e was c a l led by t he t i t le o f M e l issa ios 1 3 . There i s n o l i terary p roof t hat Artem is ' p r iestesses a t Ephesos were k nown a s " Me l issa i"

2 0

,but p r iestesses a nd i nit iates o f Demeter d id h ave t h is t i t le2 1 ;

a nd b ees were s upposed t o bu i ld t he ir h oney-combs i n Demeter 's h onour 2 . The De lph i p r iestesses may a lso h ave b een known a s " me l issa i" 2 3 ; A po l lo 's s econd t emp le was s upposed ly bu i lt by b ees o ut o f wax 2 I 4 ; a nd t he Muses, who were i nhab itants o f M t. P arnassus, a nd a ssoc iated w ith Apo l lo, w ere r egarded a s a k in t o b ees

2 5

.

D ionysos, who a lso h ad h is c u l t a t De lph i2 6 ,

was f ed w ith h oney a s a n i nfant , a nd i n g enera l c onnected w i th t he b ee

2 7

.

Cook b e l ieved t hat t he Greeks r egarded b ees a s c h thon ian c reatures, b ecause t hey f requent ly i nhabited c aves, a nd t he c arcasses o f a n ima ls

2 8

.

Honey was o ffered a t t ombs, a nd t o Heka te9 a nd i t was C ook 's o p in ion t hat t he b ee m ight h ave b een s een a s a n embod iment o f t he s ou l, a nd a s ymbo l o f i mmorta l i ty.

I ts c onnect ion w ith Z eus ' b irth-cavern, a nd

De lph i 's underground o rac le wou ld t herefore b e n a tura l, b ut a lso s ymbo l ic; a nd i t s a ssoc iat ion w ith D emeter a nd D ionysos, t hemse lves c hthon ian d e it ies, i s a lso e xp l icab le.

A c hthon ian i nterpretat ion o f t he b ee, t oo,

2 23.

i s c ons istent w ith i t s r o le i n t he p r iest ly o rgan isat ion o f Ephesos;

s ince

a t t ha t s anctuary, Artemis was a ssoc iated w ith Hekate, a nd a s ap otnia t heron had p ower o ver d eath a s we l l a s l i fe.

B.

The d istr ibut ion o f i nsect a nd a rachn id r epresentat ions i n s anctuar ies I n t he a ccounts o f f inds a t t he s anctuar ies e xam ined h ere, I

have n oted f orty r epresentat ions o f i nsects a nd a rachn ids, o ver h a lf be ing s corp ions wh ich a re e ngraved o n Archa ic s ea ls a nd o ther o b jects. Beet les a re r epresented by s even e xamp les i n i vory, b ronze, t erracotta, o r e ngraved o n s tone;

a nd t here a re t hree b ees, t hree f l ies, t wo c icadas

o r g rasshoppers, a nd t wo e ngraved o r i ntag l io s p iders.

( i)

S corpions As J . M. S tubbings p o inted o ut, t he s corp ion was a n o r ienta l

mot if

c ommon ly r epresented i n Greek a rt 3 0 . D e R idder n oted i t s f requency i n A tt ic a nd Cor inth ian v ase-pa int ing, a nd b e l ieved t hat i t h ad a n a pot ropa ic mean ing ' .

I t d ecorates s ix o r s even a rtefacts f rom Artem is

Orth ia 's s anctuary, s ix f rom t he Acropo l is o f A thens, a nd f rom L indos, e ight f rom P erachora, a nd o ne f rom O lymp ia where i t i s e ngraved o n t he b ase o f ab ronze c ock.

Th is d istr ibut ion, s een i n c on junct ion w ith

i ts e astern o r ig in a nd w idespread d ecorat ive u se, s carce ly s uggests a s pec if ic a ssociat ion w ith Artem is a s a n a venger.

Y et t here i s a n

e ar ly I mper ia l g em o f unknown p rovenance wh ich s hows t he s corp ion a s a n a ttr ibute o f Ephes ian Artem is.

Th is i s ac onvex s tone o n wh ich

t he g oddess i s r epresented w ith o n ly t wo b reasts, but w i th a number o f p rotuberances o n h er g arment, g iv ing a s uggest ion o f t he manybreasted i mage.

S he i s f lanked by t wo b itches, a nd h o lds a p a lm b ranch,

wh i le t wo o b jects wh ich l ook l i ke a n ima l p rotomes s eem e i ther t o s prout f rom h er h ead, o r t o f orm h er h eaddress.

The s corpions a ppear a bove

2 24.

2 0

h er s hou lders 3 2 . I t s hou ld b e n oted t ha t f ive o f t he Artem is Orth ia s corp ions a re i ntag l i wh ich d ecorate t he b ases o f i vory c ouchant a n ima ls a nd t ha t i n e ach c ase t he a n ima l i s ad og .

The a ppearance o f t he s corp ion

i n t h is c ontext may r ef lect a n a ssoc iat ion b etween i t a nd A rtem is a nd t he d og :

a nd s ince t he d og i s af unerary a n ima l, a nd a n a ttr ibute o f

Hekate, a t h ome i n t he E phes ian s anctuary, i t m ight we l l h ave b een s een a s a n e xpress ion o f h er d eath-dea l ing p ower.

Neverthe less , i t d ecorated

o b jects o ffered t o Hera a nd A thena a s w e l l, a nd a s a n e xpress ion o f t he p ower t o c omm it h arm i s n o d oubt a ppropr iate t o a l l t hree o f t hese g oddesses.

On t he Acropo l is o f A thens where many o f t he d ed icat ions

r efer t o w ar, i t a ppears a bove b oth t he c har iots d ep icted o n ar e l ief p ithos;

t here, i t may e xpress t he s t ing o f d eath i n b att le, a nd A thena 's

p ower a s a war-goddess 3 .

( i i)

B eet les F our o f t he s even b eet les ( the most f requent ly r epresented i nsect

i n o ur s anctuar ies) w ere d ed ica ted t o A thena ;

but a ny a ttempt t o s ee

t hem a s a n a ttr ibute o f t h is g oddess ( for e xamp le, b ecause o f t he ir i ndustr ious c haracter) i s p robab ly m isp laced.

I n f act t hey h ave n o

known c onnect ion w i th a ny c u lt, a nd t he f igur ines n o d oubt s imp ly r ef lected t he p opu lar ity o f p aste s carabs i mported f rom t he E ast

( i i i)

3 4

.

G rasshoppers a nd c icadas The g o ld b rooch i n t he f orm o f ac icada a nd t he t erracotta g rass-

h opper w ere b oth f ound i n s anctuar ies o f Artem is;

' a lthough i f Apo l lo

s hared t he Ka lydon ian s hr ine, t he g rasshopper m ight have b een d ed icated t o h im, a n a ppropr iate o ffer ing a ccord ing t o l i terary e v idence.

But

i f i t w ere r egarded a s a utochthonous , l ike t he c icada, t hen a r epresentat ion

2 25.

o f t h is i nsect m ight h ave b een e qua l ly a ppropr iate f or a p otnia t heron c oncerned w ith f ert i l i ty a nd t he e arth ,a t Ka lydon a s a t E phesos.

( iv)

Bees The a ssociat ion o f t he b ee w ith v ar ious d e it ies, wh ich w e h ave

s een e xpressed i n mytho logy, a nd i n t he t i t les o f c erta in p r iest ly o ff icia ls, i s s carce ly r ef lected i n t he number o f r epresentat ions d iscovered i n s anctuar ies.

Ih ave n oted o n ly t hree, o ne g o ld Myceanaean p endant,

o ne Archa ic g o ld p inhead, a nd o ne e ngrav ing o n a Geometr ic i vory s ea l, f rom t he De los Artem is ion, Ephesos a nd Artem is Orth ia, r espect ive ly. I n a dd it ion, s even g o ld o rnaments c ons ist ing o f t he b od ies a nd w ings o f f our b ees j o ined t o as ing le h ead, a nd c a l led by Hogarth " bee-stars", were f ound a t t he E phes ian s anctuary.

Thus a l l t he b ee-representat ions

noted i n t h is s tudy w ere d ed icated t o Artem is, o r ( in De los) t o h er Mycenaean p redecessor. The t i t le o f " bee-k ing", g iven t o t he Ephes ian p r iests, s uggests t hat t he a ppearance o f t he mot if i n more t han o ne p iece o f j ewe l lery f rom t he s anctuary c an h ard ly b e a cc identa l.

The

s ame mot if a ppears o n Ephes ian c o ins f rom t he Archa ic p er iod o nwards 3 5 ; a nd i n He l len ist ic t imes t he b ee i s s omet imes r epresented w ith a s trung bow a nd qu iver, t hus c lear ly l i nk ing i t w ith t he p r inc ipa l r e l ig ious c u lt o f t he c ity

3 6

.

I f f urther c onf irmat ion o f t he a ssoc iat ion o f t he

b ee w ith Ephesian Artem is w ere n eeded, i t wou ld b e f ound i n a t l east t wo o f h er l ater i mages:

t he s ide p ane ls o n t he s k irt o f t he Vat ican

s tatue o f many-breasted Artem is a re d ecorated w ith b ees;

a nd t he

l owest pane l o n t he s k irt o f a n a labaster s tatuette f rom Nap les a lso c onta ins t h is mot if

3 7

.

Once, p erhaps, Ephes ian Artem is i n o ne o f h er

a spects was c once ived a s ab ee-goddess, l i ke t he o ne o n t he Kame iros p laques.

The p laque-goddess may e ven h ave b een t hought o f a s

2 26.

Ephes ian Artem is, a c hthon ian d e ity f i tted t o a dorn o r p ro tect t he d ead. S he i s f lanked by r osettes - a c ommon e nough mot if wh ich a ppears w ith t he b ees o n t he s ide p ane ls o f t he V at ican s tatue;

a nd a lso d ecorates

t he b locks o f t he a l tar i n t he Ephes ian s anctuary 3 8 The b ee-representat ions d iscovered a t t he s anctuar ies under e xam inat ion, f ew t hough t hey a re, may b e s een a s t he e xpress ion o f a n a ssoc iat ion b etween Artem is a nd t he i nsect whose natura l c haracteri st ics g ave i t as pec ia l s ign if icance i n t he m inds o f t he Greeks.

I ts

p resence i n t he Mycenaean d epos it o f t he D e l ian Artem is ion s uggests t hat t he a ssoc iat ion was a n a nc ient o ne, p redat ing p erhaps t he name o f Artem is, but n ot t he n a ture o f t he g oddess.

I ts a ppearance i n t he

Geometr ic p er iod i n t he s anctuary o f Artem is Orth ia may b e a n i nd icat ion t hat f or a l l t he l oca l d ist inct ions wh ich c haracter ize t he s anctuar ies o f t he g ods, t hese S partan a nd Ephes ian c u lts s hared c erta in t ra its, a nd t hat Artem is ' p rototype i n S parta was a s ister o f Artem is Ep l ies ia . Ih ave s uggested t hat t he s corp ion wh ich d ecorates t he b ases o f t he i vory d ogs i n Orth ia 's s anctuary may h ave b een a n a ttr ibute o f Artem is a lso i n Ephesos, t hough t o my know ledge n o r epresentat ion o f t he c reature h as b een f ound i n h er s anctuary t here.

The b ee, t oo, may b e s een

a s a mot if s hared by t he t wo c u lts, e ither t hrough d irect c ontact, o r t hrough a c ommon Mycenaean i nher itance3 The i conograph ica l c ontext o f t he b eeintag l io o n t he Orth ia s ea l 7

may i nf act t hrow a dd it iona l l ight o n t he m ean ing o f t he b ee i tse lf .

On

a nother s ide o f t he s ame s ea l i s t he i ntag l ioof a r obed woman h o ld ing at a l l p lant; bud " .

wh i le o n t he t h ird s ide i s as iren, a f i sh, a nd a pomegranate

Now a l though t he a nc ients were n ot aware o f t he p art p layed by

t he b ee i n t he p o l l inat ion o f p lants, t hey d id o bserve i ts d ependence o n f lowers a nd t rees f or n our ishment a nd f or t he f ormat ion o f t he c omb ';

2 27.

a nd i t s r e-emergence f rom t he h ive was c lear ly a ssociated w ith t he f lower ing o f t he f i e lds i n s pr ing-t ime.

When H ippo lytus makes a wreath

f or Artemis, i t i s f rom f lowers wh ich g rew i n a meadow v is ited o n ly by b ees

2.

I n my o p in ion i t i s c onceivable t hat t he b ee m ight h ave

b een r egarded, i f n ot a s as ymbo l o f v egetat ion, t hen a t l east a s ac onc om itant o f t he s easona l p rocess;

a n a ssociat ion wh ich i s qu ite c ons istent

w ith a ny c hthon ic mean ing i t m ight have h ad.

The b ee-goddess o f

t he Kameiros p laques was f lanked by r osettes, a s w ere t he b ees o n t he r obe o f Artem is E phes ia.

Artem is Orth ia was a g oddess o f v egetat ion

a nd a gr icu lture, a s t he i ron s ick les d ed icated t o h er i n Roman t imes s uggest, a nd t he f ema le w ith t he p lant may r epresent t he g oddess i n t h is r o le, wh i le t he b ee, l i ke t he p omegranate, may w e l l h ave b een r egarded a s o ne o f h er a ttr ibutes.

The p omegranate a lso h as a n under-

wor ld a ssociat ion wh ich i s r e inforced by t he a ccompany ing mot if o f t he s iren, a nd p oss ibly t he f i sh;

a nd t hese i n t he ir t urn a re c ons istent

w ith t he more g enera l c hthon ian i nterpretat ions o f t he i nsect a dvanced by C ook.

C .

Conc lus ion Representat ions o f t he s ma l lest o f a n ima ls, t he i nsects a nd a rachn ids,

have n ot b een f ound i n a ny g reat number i n t he s anctuar ies o f t he g ods.

The s l ightness o f t he a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l, when i t i s unsup-

ported by much r e levant l i terary i nformat ion, makes a ny f i rm j udgment a bout a ppropr iateness d iff icu lt.

The makers o f s ea ls , a nd o ther s ma l l

o b jects o f d ed icat ion , m ay h ave f ound i n t hese c reatures u sefu l d ecorat ive mot ifs;

s imp ly b ecause t he ir s ize a nd t he ir s pec ia l s ymmetry made

i t c omparat ive ly e asy t o r epresent t hem o n s uch o b jects.

On t he o ther

hand, a l l a spects o f n a ture w ere r e levant t o t he worsh ip o f t he g ods,

2 28.

a nd i nsects a nd a rachn ids t oo may h ave b een f e lt a s a ppropr iate i n c erta in c ontexts.

Externa l e vidence, b oth l i terary a nd i conograph ica l,

s hows t ha t t he b ee was o f s ome i mportance i n Greek r e l ig ion, a nd more p art icu lar ly, t hat i t was a ssoc iated w ith A rtem is o f Ephesos.

The b ee-

r epresenta t ions f ound i n t wo o f Artem is ' s anctuar ies b es ides Ephesos , t hough n ot n umerous, may b e s een a s ar ef lect ion o f t h is a ssoc iat ion The s corp ion, w ith i t s c onno tat ions o f d anger a nd d eath, m ay h ave b een f e lt a s t he e xpress ion o f t he t hreaten ing a nd d ead ly a spect n o t o n ly o f Artem is, but o f o ther d e i t ies.

1 .

Ae l ian. H istor ica An ima l ium . X I. 8 ; P rotrept icus . I . 3 4.P.

C lement o f A lexandr ia.

2 .

P ausan ias. V . 1 4.1.

3 .

P ausan ias. V III. 2 6.7.

4 .

P ausan ias ' Descr ipt ion o f G reece . V o l. I I. p . 5 59.

5 .

( Apo l lo P ornop ios) P ausan ias. I . 2 4 .8.

6 .

S trabo . 6 13.

7 .

AP I V I. 5 4.

8 .

The s ame s tory i s t o ld by C lement o f A lexandr ia ( Protrept icus. I .2P); S trabo ( 260-261); a nd i n o ne o f t he e pigrams ( AP I. I X. 5 84).

9 .

I b id . V II. 1 89-198.

1 0.

I b id .

V I. 1 20..

1 1.

P h i lostratus. I mag ines .

1 2.

S cho l ia i n Homer i .

1 3.

P ausan ias. V III. 3 1 .1. c f t he g loss o n " essene" Magnum .

1 4.

F rogs

1 273.

I . 1 7 ( 366K).

Odyssey . V . 1 21 . i n t he E tymo log icum

2 29.

1 5.

Ephese e t C laros . p . 2 37, n ote 3 .

1 6.

A .B. Cook. " The b ee i n Greek Mytho logy". JHS 1 5 ( 1895) pp. 1 112 ; A. Baume ister. Denkmä ler d es K lassischen A ltertums . Mun ich 1 885-1888. Vo l. I . F ig. 1 39.

1 7.

Anton inus L ibera l is X IX.

1 8.

D iodorus V . 7 0;

1 9 .

S ee Hesych ius ' g loss o n " Me l issa ios".

2 0.

P icard, Op . c it . pp. 1 83-4.

2 1.

Hesych ius ' g losson " Me l issa i" ; S cho l . P ind . Pyth. Ca l l imachus ' Ode t o Apo l lo . 1 10.

2 2.

N icander. A lex ipharmaca .

2 3.

P indar. Pythian Odes . I V. 5 9-60.

2 4.

P ausan ias .X . 5 .5.

2 5.

AP I I X. 5 05.5-6.

2 6.

P ausan ias .X . 6 .2.

2 7.

Apo l lon ius Rhod ius. Argonaut ica .

2 8.

Op. c it . pp. 1 9-23.

2 9 .

Apo l lon ius Rhod ius. Argonaut ica .

3 0.

P erachora .

3 1.

De R idder. p . 1 22.

3 2.

Fur twäng ler. D ie Ant iken Gemmen. P l. 4 4.2 .

3 3.

Thus i t i s a lso a n a ppropr iate s h ie ld-dev ice f or t he l ead warr ior f rom Artem is Orth ia.

3 4.

0 /Forsch X II. p .

3 5 .

Head. Cata logue o f t he Greek c o ins o f I onia . p . 4 8, n o. 6 , P l. 9 .2.

3 6.

I b id .

3 7.

Baume ister. Denkmä ler d es K lassischen A ltertums . Vo l. I . p . 1 31. F ig. 1 38; W . Roscher..L exicon. Vo l. I . p . 5 88.

3 8.

AA 8 3 ( 1968) p p. 4 10-412.

p .

Ca l l imachus ' Hymn t o Z eus ,

4 8.

I V. 6 0;

4 50-451.

I V. 1 129-34.

I I. 1 035.

I . p . 4 12.

1 90.

5 3, n o. 5 5, P l. 1 0.4.

2 30.

3 9.

I t i s o n t he i vor ies o f Artem is Orth ia t hat t he bee a nd t he s corpion a re r epresented. Another mot if c ommon t o b oth s anctuar ies i s t he p omegranate, w ith i ts underwor ld a ssoc iat ions. S evera l o ther s anctuar ies h ave y ie lded r epresentat ions o f t h is f ru i t ( for e xamp le, T iryns, S amos, t he De l ian Hera ion, L indos a nd Knossos) but t he i vory e xamp les f ound a t Ephesos a nd Artemis O rth ia a re uncommon. ( See AO p . 2 45, P l. 1 78.4; AS 3 2 ( 1982) p . 7 8, P l. 2 1c.)

4 0.

AO p . 2 29, P l. 1 68.3b & c .

4 1.

F or e xamp le,

4 2.

N ikander. A l ex ipharmaca . Ar istot le. 5 53b-554a. Co lume l la. De Re Rust ica .

Eur ip ides , . H ippo lytus .

7 3-77.

4 51. I X. 4 .2-7 ;

X I. 3 .39.

2 31 .

L IONS AND OTHER BEASTS OF PREY ( See Append ix 8 .14)

A.

L iterary e v idence Dur ing a nt iqu ity t he l i on was s t i l l aw i ld i nhabitant o f Greece',

and a d anger t o d omest ic a n ima ls;

t he hunt ing o f wh ich d emanded

c ourage, a nd p erhaps d iv ine a id.

I t i s n ot s urpr is ing t hat i t f igures

i n myths o f h eroes, a nd t hat i t s i mages were s een i n t he s anctuar ies o f t he g ods.

I ts awesome n ature, a nd i ts s trength must a ctua l ly h ave

s eemed t o b e a n a spect o f d iv inity, i n a n a ge when t he g ods w ere n ot noted f or m i ldness i n t he ir d ea l ings w ith men.

I t s erved a lso t o c om-

memorate c ourage i n b att le 2 , whether t he r esu lt was v ictory, a s i n Herak les ' Theban memor ia 1 3 ,o r d efeat, a s i n t he s tone l i on o f Cha irone ia. The k i l l ing o f al i on by o ne h ero l ed t o t he f oundat ion o f as anctuary i n M egara.

Th is a t l east i s t he a et ion g iven by P ausan ias f or t he s hr ine

o f A rtemis Agrotera a nd Apo l lo Agraeus, bu i lt by A lkathous s on o f P e lops a f ter h e h ad s la in t he l i on o f K itha iron 4 . When Herak les, t he most f amous o f l i on-k i l lers, s et up h is v ictory memor ia l i n Thebes, i t t ook t he f orm o f as tone l i on, a nd was d ed icated i n f ront o f t he t emp le . o f Artem is Euk le ia.

As a hunt ing g oddess, a nd a s Homer 's p otnia t heron,

Artem is was e v ident ly f e lt t o b e as u itable d iv in ity t o r ece ive s uch honours.

No s tory, a pparent ly, p resents t he g oddess h erse lf a s a

l i on-s layer;

but h er p ower t o d om inate t he a n ima l i s s hown i n s ome

l ines o f P indar, where s he i s d escr ibed a s " the l one huntress Artem is, who i n Bacch ic r eve ls h ath y oked t he b rood o f s avage l i ons f or Brom ius, who i s e nchanted e ven by t he d anc ing h erds o f w i ld b easts" 5. The nymph Cyrene moreover, who a s ag oddess o f h i l ls a nd s treams, a po ln ia ' heron a nd g uard ian o f f locks b e loved by Apo l lo , i s at ype o f Artem is, s ubdued a l i on w ithout a ny w eapons 6 . S he was t he n ame-de ity

2 32.

o f t he c i ty o f Cyrene i n L ibya, i n whose p r inc ipa l s anctuary Apo l lo a nd Artem is w ere worsh ipped s ide by s ide f rom Archa ic t imes. Artem is may b e ak i l ler o fw i ld b easts 7; but a s w e h ave s een, s he i s a lso

ap rotector, e spec ia l ly o f t he ir y oung.

S o i n Aeschy lus '

Agamemnon, Cha lkas a ddresses h er a s o ne who i s g rac ious t o t he c ubs o f f i erce l i ons 8 . F ina l ly, t he l i on i n i t s f i erceness must h ave b een r egarded a s a n embod iment o f t h is v ery qua l ity i n Artem is h erse lf ,

who f rom

e ar ly t imes h ad t he r eputat ion o f b e ing a l i oness among t he g ods 8. F or s uch r easons, p erhaps, l i ons ( l ike d eer) may s omet imes h ave b een k ept i n h er s anctuar ies.

There i s as uggest ion o f t h is c ustom, a t l east, i n

o ne o f Theocr itus ' i dy l ls, where t he v is it t o ag rove o f A rtemis i s d escribed.

On t hat d ay, many w i ld b easts w ere p araded a bout t he

g oddess i n h er h onour, i nc lud ing a l i oness 1 0 . I t may a lso b e i nferred f rom a f ragment o f A lkman quoted by A thenaeus t hat a t ame l i oness was k ept i n t he s anctuary o f ad e ity.

The p oet r e lates t hat d ur ing a n ight-

f est iva l t he mak ing o f ac heese f rom l i on 's m i lk t ook p lace

l

. I t h as

b een s uggested by s ome t hat t he unnamed d e ity i s D ionysos;

but S am

W ide b e l ieved ( for g rammat ica l r easons) t hat a f ema le d e i ty i s t o b e understood, a nd t hat t h is was Artem is h e ld i n aL acon ian s anctuary: was i n S ici ly;

1 2

. The f est iva l w ou ld h ave b een

but t he s anctuary d escr ibed by Theocr itus

a nd i t was i n S ic i ly, e v ident ly ,that s ome d ances w ere

p erformed i n wh ich l i ons w ere i m itated. r efer t o t hese l i on-dances;

Both A thenaeus a nd P o l lux

a nd j udg ing by t he c ontext o f t he r eferences

i t i s p oss ib le t hat l i ke t he p arade o f w i ld b easts, t hey w ere he ld i n h onour o f Artem is;

a l though P o l lux ment ions D ionysos a s w e l 1

Cook r e lates t hem t o t h is d e ity w i ld b easts.

1 4

,

1 3

,a nd

who w as p leased by t he d anc ing o f

2 33.

I t h as b een s een t hat D ionysos s hared w ith Artem is a n i nterest i n s uch w i ld a n ima ls a s t he d eer, a nd t he untamed bu l l;

a nd t he l i on

o r p anther t oo was a n a ttr ibute o f t h is g od, a nd t ook p art i n h is p rocess ion

1 5

: i ndeed, i t was f or h im t hat Artem is y oked t he s avage l i ons.

I n Eur ipides ' Bacchae h e i s i nvoked by t he c horus i n t he s hape o f a l i on 1 6 ; a nd P l iny r ecords t he f oundat ion o f o ne o f h is t emp les o n t he s pot where a man h ad not k i l led, but h e lped a l i on by r emov ing a t horn f rom i ts t hroat' ' ' .

S o t he d ed icat ion o f al i on 's h ead made o f i ron t o

D ionysos a t P ergamon, wh ich P ausan ias r efers t o, wou ld h ave b een a ppropr iate

1 8

.

But a s a n a n ima l wh ich was r egarded a s as ymbo l o f t he s un, t he l i on was a lso a ssociated w ith Apo l lo 1 9 . H e, a s we l l a s Artem is, w as worsh ipped b oth i n t he s anctuary a t Megara, a nd i n Cyrene, t he c i ty named a f ter t he nymph whom h e l oved, a nd who s lew t he l i on. The s ixth c entury Treasury o f t he Cyren ians a t O lymp ia was d ecorated 9

by t he f igure o f ag ir l c arry ing a s ma l l l i on, a nd pursued by Apo l lo 2 0 . S o Herodotus r ecords t hat Croesus s ent a g o lden l i on t o De lph i.

I t

must have b een k ept i n o r e ven o n t he t emp le, s ince i t f e l l when t he b u i ld ing was burned d own, a nd i n Herodotus ' d ay was k ept i n t he Treasury o f t he Cor inth ians 2 1 . And w hen t he Phok ians o f E late ia w ished t o g ive t hanks t o h im a f ter s uccessfu l ly w ithstand ing C assander 's s e ige, t hey s ent a b ronze l i on t o De lph i, n ot o n ly a s af i tt ing s ymbo l o f f ort itude i n w ar, h ut a lso p erhaps a s as u itab le g if t f or t he g od o f t he s anctuary 2 . The l i ons a ttacking t he ir p rey wh ich f i l l t he c orners o f t he e ast p ed iment o f Apo l lo 's s ixth c entury t emp le , may t hus h ave h ad a s ymbo l ic, a s we l l a s ad ecorat ive v a lue. Herak les, who k i l led a l i on, a lso d ed icated t he s tatue o f o ne i n c ommemorat ion o f v ictory, a nd c hose a s i t s r ec ip ient Artem is.

The l i on

2 34.

o f Nemea was i n f act t he most f amous i n Greek mytho logy, l end ing n ot o n ly i ts s k in but a lso p erhaps i t s n ature t o t he h ero who k i l led i t . I t must b e ment ioned i n c onc lus ion t hat t h is l i on w as d iv ine ly nurtured t o b e as courge t o men;

not h owever, a s m ight b e e xpected, by A rtemis,

who was k ind t o t he l i on 's young, but by Hera 2 3 .

B .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence

( i ) Genera l d istr ibut ion o f l i on-representat ions i n s anctuar ies The myths wh ich I h ave r eferred t o s uggest a c loser r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he l i on a nd Artem is, t he m istress o f w i ld a nima ls a nd g oddess o f hunt ing , t han most o ther O lymp ian d e it ies;

a l though t hey s how

a lso t hat Apo l lo t he s un-god, D ionysos who p res ided over w i ld r eve ls, a nd e ven o n o ccas ion Hera, c ou ld b e a ssoc iated w ith b easts o f p rey. P ausan ias r ecords n oteworthy d ed icat ions o f t he i mages o f l i ons wh ich were made t o Apo l lo a nd D ionysos; s im i lar d ed icat ions made t o Artem is.

but h e i s s i lent o n t he s ub ject o f I t i s t o a rchaeo log ica l e v idence

( wh ich i s g enera l ly c oncerned w ith l ess n otable o ffer ings) t hat we must l ook f or mater ia l i nformat ion o n t he s ub ject. Over 6 00 r epresentat ions o f l i ons a nd o ther b easts o f p rey w ere d iscovered i n t he s anctuar ies under e xam inat ion h ere, a bout f i fty o f which s how t he a n ima l pursu ing o r a ttack ing i ts v ict im.

By f ar t he

g reater number were d ed icated dur ing t he Archa ic p eriod, when t he i mage o f t he l i on, s t imu lated by t he i nf lux o f a rtefacts f rom t he E ast, made i t s r eappearance i n Greece a f ter a n a bsence o f s ome c entur ies

2 4

.

About 1 30 w ere r ecorded i n s anctuar ies o f A rtem is, o ver h a lf f rom Artem is Orth ia, where t here i s r eason t o s uppose t hat t he p ed iment 3 8

o f t he t emp le may h ave b een p rom inent ly d ecorated by hera ld ic l i ons 2 5 . But t h irteen o f h er o ther s anctuar ies, i nc lud ing Ka lapod i, h ave a lso

2 35.

p roduced t he ir i mages, a nd t he number e ven o f t hose l i ons wh ich w ere r ecovered was r ea l ly i n e xcess o f 1 30, s ince t he " numerous" t erracotta l i ons f rom Ka lydon a re n ot s pec if ied;

a nd o f t he l ead f igur ines f rom

Sparta, o n ly t he t ypes, a nd n ot t he i nd iv idua l e xamp les, h ave b een pub l ished.

The number i nc ludes t wenty-nine r epresentat ions o f b easts

a ttack ing t he ir p rey ( more t han h a lf t he t ota l o f t h is mot if );

a ga in,

most ly f rom Artem is O rth ia, where t hey t ake t he f orm o f i vory c ouchant a n ima ls.

About t he s ame number o f l i on-representat ions, h owever,

have b een r ecorded i n s anctuar ies o f Hera;

wh i le A thena ( in e ight

o f h er s anctuar ies c ons idered h ere) r ece ived a t l east 2 30 ( "numerous" c lay p laques f rom Gortyn b e ing unspecif ied), 1 70 o f wh ich c ame f rom L indos.

I n g enera l, i t s eems t hat ma le d e it ies r ece ived f ewer l i ons:

f i f ty-f ive o r s o were r ecorded i n s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo, a bout f i f ty i n Z eus ' s hr ines ( most ly a t O lymp ia) a nd s eventeen i n t hose o f P ose idon. The l arge number o f l i on-representat ions o ffered t o Artem is i s c erta in ly c ons istent w i th h er a ssociat ion w ith t he a n ima l a s i t i s r ef lected i n l i terature.

But t he s ame c annot b e s a id o f t he d istr ibut ion i n g enera l.

The c h ief d iscrepancy b etween a rchaeo log ica l a nd l i terary e v idence i s t hat dur ing t he Archa ic p er iod, a t l east, r epresentat ions o f l i ons w ere f e lt t o b e s u itable o ffer ings a lso f or Hera, whose l i terary a ssoc iat ion w ith t he a n ima l i s much s l ighter, a nd f or A thena, f or whom l i terature, whether e ar ly o r l a te, t o my know ledge s uggests n o s pec if ic l ink whats oever.

( i i) The l i on, t he c oncept o f t he p otnia t heron, a nd t he O lympian g oddesses We h ave h ad o ccas ion t o o bserve t hat t he a n ima l a ttr ibutes o f t he p otnia t heron may b e d ed icated a s s eparate a rtefacts t o more t han o ne O lympian g oddess

2 6

.

I t a ppears t ha t t he l i on i s n o e xcept ion;

s ince

2 36.

a lthough i n l i terature i t i s c h ief ly a ssoc iated w ith Artem is, i t s i mage was d ed icated i n c ons iderable numbers a lso t o Hera a nd A thena.

The

g oddess ( and t o al esser d egree t he g od) f l anked by l i ons i s a n o r ienta l a s we l l a s a Cretan mot if , a nd may o nce h ave r eferred t o s ome d iv ine o r h ero ic l i on-tam ing e xp lo it.

Yet t he g enera l i mpress ion g iven b y

M inoan a nd Mycenaean e xamp les i s t hat t he l i ons a re t he s ervants o r a ttr ibutes o f a nature-de ity:

aw e l l-known s ea l i mpress ion f rom Knossos,

f or i nstance, s hows a g oddess o n a mounta in, f l anked by t wo l i ons s tand ing o n t heir h indlegs 27

.

The Archa ic r epresentat ions o f t he

p otnia t heron a re s omet imes more l av ish i n t he number a nd t ype o f a n ima l t hat t hey d epict w ith t he g oddess.

The Boeot ian amphora g ives

h er h era ld ic water-birds a s w e l l a s l i ons 2 8 ; a nd t he g oddess o f t he 9

b ronze Grächw i l hydr ia n ot o n ly h as t wo p a irs o f l i ons, but t wo s nakes, t wo h ares, a nd a n e ag le o r h awk a bove h er h ead 2 9 . Chr istou r easonably s upposes t hat t he d ifferent a n ima ls s ymbo l ize d ifferent a spects o f t he d eity.

She i s t he m istress n ot o n ly ( l itera l ly) o f a n ima ls, but a lso

( symbo l ica l ly) o f a l l t h ings;

a nd wh i le t he hawk may s how h er mastery

o ver t he a ir, a nd t he water-bird o ver water a nd v egetat ion, t he l i on i s t he embod iment o f h er d ominion o ver t he e arth, a nd i n p art icu lar o ver t he w i ld a nd f i erce s ide o f n ature 3 0 . E ven when n ot portrayed w i th t he p otnia t heron, t he l i on m ight h ave r eta ined much o f i t s s ymbo l ic v a lue;

a nd s ince n ot o n ly Artem is i nher ited t ra its o f t he B ronze Age

d eity, i t c ou ld b e r egarded a s af i tt ing d ed icat ion t o o ther d e it ies l i ke Hera a nd A thena .

Chr istou n otes t hat a t P erachora i n p art icu lar ( where

n ear ly n inety r epresentat ions o f l i ons w ere r ecorded), Hera was a g oddess v ery s im i lar i n c haracter t o Artem is 0rth ia

3 1

. The s ame m ight b e s a id

o f S am ian Hera, who r ece ived a t l east t wenty-s ix s uch i mages;

a nd

whose s ixth-century a l tar was d ecorated by r e l iefs o f l i ons a ttack ing

2 37.

t he ir v ict ims - a mot if a lso p resent o n ab ronze Mycenaean e ngrav ing f ound i n t he s anctuary.

She t oo was a p otnia t heron, who may h ave

b een worsh ipped o n t he s ame s i te i n Mycenaean t imes 3 2 ; a nd i n t he h istor ic p er iod h er h ead a ppeared o n l oca l c o ins whose o ther s ide d ep icted a l i on 's mask, a pparent ly c onf irm ing t he a ssoc iat ion b etween g oddess a nd b east 3 .

B l inkenberg h as p o inted o ut, t oo, t hat t he

Cypr iot f igur ines o f l i ons d ed icated a t L indos may ( l ike t he b irds o f p rey) r efer t o t he d e ity 's o r ig ina l c haracter a s ap otnia t heron o f p reh istor ic a ncestry 3 4 ,i n s pite o f t he l ack o f e v idence o f Bronze Age worsh ip o n t he s i te.

Ih ave s uggested t hat h er i dent if icat ion w ith A thena c ame

a bout a t L indos a s a t Gortyn ( where numerous c lay r e l iefs d ep ict l i ons) c h ief ly b ecause o f t he p os it ion o f h er s anctuary o n a n Acropo l is.

Both

S am ian Hera a nd A thena L ind ia r ece ived a sma l l number o f ma le l i ont amers ( or t he ir f ragments), a lso i n Cypr iot l imestone;

g roups wh ich

a s t he e p itome o f w i ld n ature under c ontro l, m ight b e r egarded a s s u itab le d ed icat ions f or b o th t hese p otnia it heron. Cook a ttached a n e ven more s pec if ic s ign if icance t o l i ons i n Bronze Age c u lts.

He r efers t o a n e ngraved a gate f rom Vaphe io o n wh ich t wo

s tand ing l i ons h o ld v esse ls o n e i ther s ide o f at ree, a nd a nother s tone o n wh ich a s ing le l i on i s p ortrayed i n t he s ame way; t hat t hey may b e wa ter ing t he t ree.

a nd h e s uggests

F rom t h is h e i nfers t hat a l i on-

c u lt poss ib ly e x isted i n wh ich worsh ippers o r p r iests, d ressed i n t he s k ins o f t he a nima l, p erformed c erta in v egetat ion r i tes 3 5 . C ook b e l ieved t hat t he S ici l ian l i on-dances ment ioned by A thenaeus a nd P o l lux, may h ave been a s urv iva l f rom t hese Bronze Age r i tua ls 3 6 ; a nd t hat a l ink b etween l i ons a nd w ater a lso s urv ived i n h istor ic t imes, s o t hat t hey, l i ke horses, o ften s tood guard o ver s pr ings a nd f ounta ins

3 7

.

Cyrene,

who s ubdued t he l i on, was a water-nymph ( and t he g reat s anctuary o f

2 38.

Cyrene was e stabl ished r ound a s pr ing);

a nd Cook po inted o ut t hat

s evera l o f t he e xp lo its o f Herak les, who a lso wore a l i on-sk in, were c onnected both w ith water, a nd w ith t he underwor ld.

I n s hort, a ccord-

i ng t o Cook 's t heory, t he l i on emerges a s y et a nother s ymbo l o f water, f ert i l ity, a nd t he wor ld o f t he d ead:

ac hthonian b e ing whose c onnect ion

( expressed i n l i terature) w ith Herak les, D ionysos a nd d eath-dea l ing Artem is a re t hus e xp la ined. g rowing

3 8

Cybe le, who was a g oddess b oth o f v ine-

a nd o f g rave-yards, was a lso c ommon ly a ttended by a l i on

3 8

.

The c hthon ian n ature o f t he l i on wou ld e xp la in i t s c ustomary u se a s ag rave-marker;

a nd Chr istou, t oo, h as s uggested t hat i t r epresented,

among o ther a spects o f t he p otnia t heron, h er p ower over d eath 4 ° . T h is a spect, a lso, was p assed o n n ot o n ly t o A rtem is, but t o o ther O lymp ian g oddesses, s evera l o f whom, i nc identa l ly, w ere s omet imes i dentif ied w ith Cybe le

4 1

.

A l lowing t o t he l i on t he s ymbo l ic v a lue a rgued by C ook,

i ts i mage may b e s een a s as u itable o ffer ing f or Hera o r A thena, e ven i f t hey d o not s hare Artem is ' c loser mytho log ica l a ssoc iat ions w ith i t .

( i i i) Representat ions o f t he p otnia t heron w ith l i ons i n s anctuar ies S o f ar Ihave b een c ons ider ing t he t heory t hat l i ons, r epresented i n f so lat ion, may y et b e c ons idered a s a n a ttr ibute o f t he p otnia t heron, d etached f rom i t s m istress, but r eta in ing e nough o f i ts s ymbo l ic a ssoc iat ions t o b e a ppropr iate ly d ed icated i n t he s anctuar ies o f more t han o ne d escendant o f t h is g oddess.

The q uest ion n ow r ema ins a s t o h ow

o f ten r epresentat ions o f t he p otnia t heron h erse lf , a ccompan ied by h er l i on o r l i ons, were d ed icated i n .t he s anctuar ies o f O lymp ian d e i t ies; a nd whether t he d istr ibut ion o f t hese i mages b ears a ny r e lat ion t o t he n ature o r i dent ity o f t he d e ity.

2 39.

About 2 00 r epresentat ions o 77 -t he p otnia t heron w ith o ne o r more b easts o f p rey h ave b een r ecorded f rom t he s anctuaries c ons idered i n t h is s tudy.

I n most o f t hem t he g oddess s tands upr ight, e ither d omina t-

i ng, o r p rotect ing, o r b e ing h era ld ica l ly p rotected by t he a n ima ls;

a l though

as ma l l number s how h er s eated, w i th a d im inutive i j on i n h er l ap, o r i n s ome way a ttend ing h er t hrone. e ighth c entury

The i mages r anze i n d ate f ron- t he

t o wh ich a n i vory f ibu la-p laque f rom ! k rtem is Orth ia

b e longs) t o t he f ourth o r t h ird c entury ( accord ing t o t he d at ing o f t he t erracotta f igur ines f rom S ca la Greca i n S ic i ly);

a l though most o f t he

h era ld ic t ype w ith t wo b easts were made a nd d ed icated dur ing t he Archa ic p er iod.

They may t ake t he f orm o f ap ed imenta l s cu lpture ( as i n Artemis '

C orcyra t emp le) o r a marb le s tatue l ike N ikandre 's k ore; 4 0

t hey a re f igur ines o f t erracotta, i vory o r l ead;

but more o f ten

o r e ngrav ings o n p laques

m ade o f g o ld, s i lver, i vory, l ead, t erracotta o r b ronze, f or u se a s p endants o r a s d ecorations o n o b jects s uch a s f ibu la i , v ases a nd s h ie lds. Out o f t he 2 00 o r more r epresentat ions o f p otnia i t heron which Ih ave l i sted, a t l east 1 70 were d iscovered i n s anctuar ies o f Artem is. ( Ne ither t he t erracotta f ema les w i th l i ons f rom Ka lydon a nd C laros, n or t he l ead w inged f ema les h o ld ing o ne l i on, f rom Artem is Orth ia, h ave b een enumerated.)

Th irteen were d ed icated i n s anctuar ies o f Hera ( inc lud-

i ng f ive Syr ian o r H i tt ite b ronzes f rom t he S am ian Hera ion);

A thena 's

s anctuar ies p roduced t en o r e leven ( a lthough t he t hree f ragmentary s ea ted potnia i f rom t he Acropo l is c ou ld h ave b een d ed icated t o Artem is B rauron ia)

42

;

wh i le D emeter 's Ha l icarnass ian s anctuary p roduced more

t han one e xample o f t he s eated t ype.

F rom O lympia c ome a t l east t hree

b ronze r e l iefs o f v ary ing s ize d epict ing p otnia i w ith l i ons ( inc lud ing •o ne g orgon o n as h ie ld-hand le); f rom a Lacon ian p er irrhanter ion.

a nd a marble k ore h o ld ing a l i on 's t a i l The f orepart o f ac rouch ing l i on,

2 40.

a lso o f L acon ian marb le, was d iscovered i n f ront o f t he Treasury o f t he Cyren ians, a nd i dent if ied a s p art o f t he s ame v ase

4 3

. A ccord ing

t o t he r econstruct ion, t he b ow l was s upported by t hree s uch f ema les a nd l i ons;

a nd i f i t s tood o uts ide t he Cyren ian Treasury, w ou ld have

b een a n a ppropr iate c eremon ia l v esse l f or t he c ity whose n ame-d iv in i ty was t he l i on-taming water-nymph c e lebra ted i n t he p ediment o f t he bu i ld3 9

i ng.

P ose idon 's s anctuary a t I sthm ia a lso y ie lded a p err irhanter ion o f

t he p otnia t ype;

a nd t he mot if o f t he f ema le h o ld ing a l i on b y t he t a i l

d ecorates o ne p inax f rom P enteskouph ia. One hundred a nd f orty-three o f t he p otniai t heron d ed icated t o Artem is t ake t he f orm o f t erracottas f rom t he Kanon i d epos i t i n Corcyra, a nd f rom S ca la Greca , i n a l l o f wh ich t he g oddess i s s hown s tand ing . 1 8

Except f or t he Kanon i f igur ines where a c har iot t eam o f t wo d eer a nd t wo p anthers a re s hown i n r e l ief a ga inst t he s k irt o f t he g oddess ( ref lecti ng h er c haracter a s o ne a b le t o y oke s avage b easts), s he i s a ccompan ied

4 1

i n t hese r epresenta t ions by o n ly o ne a n ima l . l arge ly t o t he e ar ly f i f th c entury; t he f ourth o r t h ird.

The Kanon i f igur ines b e long

wh i le t hose f rom S ca la G reca a re o f

But a part f rom a f ragmentary s tatuette f ound i n

t he Ephes ian s anctuary, t he f ema le o n t he p anther f rom t he Thasos Artem is ion ( ident if ied a s Cybe le), t he t erracotta a ntef ix f rom Ar icia, a nd t he undated C laros e xamp les, t he r ema in ing t hirty o r s o p otn ia i f rom Artemis s anctuar ies d ate f rom t he Archa ic p er iod.

Apart f rom t he s ea ted

f ema les w ith s ma l l l i ons f ound o n t he A then ian Acropo l is, a nd a t L indos a nd Ha l icarnassus, a l l t he p otnia i t heron f rom t he s anctuar ies o f o ther d e it ies h ave a lso b een i dent if ied a s Archa ic i n d ate;

a nd a l l o f t hese

d e it ies t ogether r ece ived f ewer r epresentat ions t han Artem is a lone d ur ing t he s ame p er iod.

The Archa ic g roup o f p otniai a lso i ncludes s ome e xamp les

o f t he s eated t ype r epresented i n l a ter p er iods.

Th is e nthroned p otnia,

2 41.

o f ten a ssociated w i th t he Phryg ian mother-goddess Cybe le

4

,h as b een

r e lated t o Hera among t he O lympian g oddesses 4 5 ; al i nk wh ich f inds s ome mater ia l c onf irmat ion i n t he Archa ic f igur ines f rom t he De l ian Hera ion, a nd t he l arge marb le s tatue f rom S amos.

But ( in a dd it ion t o t he l ater

t erracottas f rom A thens, L indos a nd Ha l icarnassus) Archa ic e xamp les o f s eated p otnia ; w ere a lso f ound o n t he A then ian Acropo l is, a nd a t Ka lydon a nd Brauron ;

a nd t he i vory p a ir o f d e it ies under whose t hrone

al i on c rouches was d ed icated t o Artem is Orth ia.

S o i t i s c lear t hat t he

t ype i s not t o b e a ssociated o n ly w i th Hera, but c ou ld a lso r efer t o A thena , Demeter, a nd Artemis. The d istr ibut ion o f p otnia t heron : -representat ions i n s anctuar ies a l lows u s t o d raw c erta in c onc lus ions a bout d ed icatory c ustom;

a l though

t hey must, a s a lways , b e t empered by a r ea l isat ion o f t he p art ia l n ature o f a rchaeo log ica l e v idence.

F irst, a f ter t he e nd ing o f t he Archa ic p er iod,

s uch v ot ives t ook t he f orm o f f igur ines r ather t han d ecorat ive mot ifs; a nd a part f rom a v ery f ew s eated Cybe le-types, t hey were t hen a ssoc iated o n ly w ith Artem is, a nd o ffered o n ly t o h er.

But e ven dur ing e ar l ier

t imes, when many o f t he r epresenta t ions t ook t he f orm o f j ewe l lery o r d ecorat ions o n o ther o b jects, Artem is r ece ived more o f t hem t han a ny o ther d eity:

Hera i s t he o n ly o ne, a part f rom h er, t o r ece ive more t han

av ery f ew.

Even i n t he Archa ic p er iod, t hen, i t i s p oss ible t hat i n

d ed icating s uch a rtefacts, t he worsh ipper f e lt h e was mak ing a n a ppropr iate o ffer ing t o Artemis, t he p otnia t heron o f Homer.

N ikandre 's k ore, more-

over, whose h ands a re p ierced t o h o ld l eashes, p oss ibly f or marble l i ons l ike t he pa ir f ound i n t he s ame v ic in ity b es ide t emp le D 4 6 ,i s n o mere d ecorat ion, but a n i mportant v ot ive monument;

a nd t here a re mater ia l

i nd icat ions ( though a dmitted ly o f af ragmentary k ind) t hat a g igant ic p otn ia w ith l i ons may h ave s tood w ith in t he p recincts o f Croesus ' t emp le a t E phesos.

2 42.

F ina l ly, t he p ed imenta l s cu lpture o f Artem is ' Corcyra t emp le, d espite t he g orgon ian n ature o f t he c entra l f igure, s ure ly i dent if ies t he p atron o f t he s anctuary i n t h is f i erce p otnia w i th t he b easts o f p rey.

C .

Conc lus ion The d istr ibut ion o f p otnia i t heron i s c ons istent w ith t he l i terary

e v idence wh ich a ssoc iates Artem is c h ief ly , a nd t o a much l esser d egree, Hera, w ith b eats o f p rey

4 7

; whereas, a s we h ave s een, t he d istr ibut ion

o f l i ons i n i so lat ion p resents r ather a d ifferent p icture.

M any were i ndeed

d ed icated t o Artem is, e spec ia l ly i n h er S partan s anctuary ;

but c ons ider-

a b le numbers were a lso f ound i n s anctuar ies n ot o n ly o f H era but a lso o f A thena.

I t i s p oss ible t hat t h is d istr ibut ion may r ef lect t he part p layed

by i nst inct ive c ustom, a s o pposed t o d e l iberate a nd c onsc ious c ho ice, i n d ed icat ion.

Thus l i ons were o ffered i n g rea t quant ity t o A thena L ind ia,

b ecause s he had b een a p otnia t heron, a nd t he l i on i s a n a ttr ibute o f s uch ad e ity.

The l i ons o f L indos were a r es idua l a nd p erhaps u nconsc ious

a cknow ledgment o f h er o rig ina l n ature.

But t hey w ere r einforced b y no

c ontemporary i mage o f t he g oddess w ith l i ons ( a l though t wo f ourth c entury f igur ines f rom L indos d ep ict t he s eated p otnia).

I n t he d ed icat ion o f a

g oddess a ccompan ied by f i erce b easts, a c onsc ious i dent if ica t ion o f Artemis w ith Homer 's p otnia t heron, a nd w ith t he d e ity who y oked D ionysos ' l i ons, may g enera l ly have i nf luenced t he worsh ipper 's c ho ice.

S uch a c haracter

i s more a pt ly e xpressed by t he d ominant s tand ing p otnia, a l though b oth s tand ing a nd s eated t ypes were d ed icated t o Artem is.

S ome e xamp les o f

b oth t ypes f ound t he ir way t o s anctuar ies n ot b e long ing t o Artem is d ur ing t he Archa ic p er iod;

a nd t he more s tatic, r ega l d e ity o n h er t hrone w as

s t i l l d ed icated ( though r are ly) t o o ther g oddesses i n l ater t imes.

But by

t he f i f th c entury i t i s p robable t ha t r epresentat ions o f t he s tand ing g odd ess w ith t he l i on were d ed icated t o Artem is a lone.

2 43.

F ootnotes 1 .

P ausan ias. V I.5.4-5; Vo l. I V. p . 1 6.

F razer. P ausanias ' Descr ipt ion o f G reece .

2 .

Rouse, pp. 4 4 a nd 2 31.

3 .

P ausan ias. I X . 17.1.

4 .

I bid .

5 .

D ithyramb f or t he T hebans.

6 .

P indar. Pythian Odes . 1 7-28 ( Artemis p resented h er w ith t wo d ogs f or hunt ing. Ca l l imachus. Hymn t o Artem is . 2 06-7).

7 .

Eur ip ides. 1 ph igene ia i n Au / is. 1 570.

8 .

Aeschy lus. Agamemnon .

9 .

I l iad . XXI.483.

S ee a lso I l iad. X II. 4 1-48.

1 .41.4. 1 9-23 ( Loeb P indar. p . 5 61).

1 40-141.

1 0.

Theocr itus . I dy l ls . 1.66-68.

1 1 .

A thenaeus. 4 99a .

1 2.

W ide. L akonische Ku lte. pp. 1 31-2.

1 3 .

A thenaeus . 6 29f ;

P o l lux. Onomast ikon.

1 4.

JHS 1 4 ( 1894) pp.

1 16-117.

1 5.

RE

1 6.

Bacchae. 1 017.

1 7.

Nat . H ist .

1 8.

P ausan ias. X .18.5.

1 9..

RE 1 3.1 ( 1926) L oc . c it .; i n BCH 3 7 ( 1913) pp. 2 57-260, De latte s howed t ha t t he s o lar s ymbo l ism o f t he l i on c ame t o Greece f rom

1 03-4.

1 3.1 ( 1926) 9 83.

V III.21.56-58.

t he E ast. 2 0.

O lympia . I I. ( Georg. Treu. D ie B i ldwerke v on O lympia i n S te in u nd T hon. Ber l in. 1 897). pp. 1 9-23, F igs. 1 8-20, P l. 4 .4.

2 1.

Herodotus. 1 .50.

2 2.

P ausan ias. X .18.6.

2 3.

Hes iod. T heogony. 3 26-329.

2 4.

However, a Geometr ic e xamp le o f ap a ir o f h era ld ic l i ons d ecorated t he l eg o f ab ronze t r ipo d f rom O lympia. ( 0 /Forsch I I. P l. 6 3.1).

2 44.

2 5.

The f ragment o f al i on 's mane i n p a inted p oros ( found i n f ront o f t he t emp le) may h ave b een p art o f ap ed imenta l g roup ( AO p . 2 1, P l. 5 ). Two sma l l l imestone r e l iefs, c ontemporary w i th t he bu i ld ing o f t he s ixth c entury t emp le, r epresent p ed iments i n wh ich a p a ir o f c ouchant l i ons f ace e ach o ther h era ld ica l ly, e ach w ith o ne r a ised p aw [ ibid . p . 2 3, F ig. 1 1]. S im i lar s ma l l l imestone r e l iefs r epresent a rch itrave, metope a nd c ap ita l. A l l o f t hese, i nc lud ing t he p ed iments, may b e mode ls f or p arts o f t he c ontemporary t emp le. S ee P late 4 1.

2 6.

S ee a bove, B irds, pp. 5 3-56.

2 7.

W i l liam Tay lour. T he Mycenaeans . L ondon .

1 964 a nd 1 983. F ig .

1 9. Mycenean g ems d epict ing s im i lar s cenes a re i lustrated i n My lonas '. Mycenae a nd t he Mycenaean Age . F igs . 1 24.21; 1 25.32 ; 1 26.26. 2 8.

AM 5 0 ( 1925) p .

1 60, F ig . 1 .

2 9.

Hoenn. Artem is. p . 4 8, P l. 1 .

3 0.

P otnia T heron. pp. 1 3, 2 5, 5 2 , 5 5 a nd 1 00.

3 1.

I bid . p . 1 91.

3 2.

Wa lter. Das Hera ion v on S amos . p p. 1 3-15.

3 3.

Head. Cata logue o f t he Greek Co ins o f I onia . pp. 3 63-368, P l . 3 5.18; P l. 3 6.2-4.

3 4.

L indos .

3 5.

JHS 1 4 ( 1894) pp. 1 06-108, F igs. 6 a nd 7 .

3 6.

I bid . p . 1 16.

3 7.

I bid . p . 1 12. The b ronze l i on 's h ead o n wh ich a f rog p erches s erved t h is purpose i n t he S am ian Hera ion ( AM 5 5 ( 1930) p . 4 6, P l. 1 ).

3 8.

Cook. Op . c it .

3 9.

S ee BCH 1 3 ( 1889) pp. 5 43-560.

4 0.

P otnia t heron.

4 1.

The f i f th c entury h istor ian Charon, quot ing Phot inus, s ays t hat Kybebe w as t he n ame g iven by t he L yd ians a nd Phryg ians t o Aphrod ite [ C. M i l ler. F ragmenta H istor icorum Graecorum. P ar is. 1 841-70. Vo l. 4 , p . 6 271; a nd Hesych ius, i n h is g loss o n t he s ame d e ity, i dent if ies h er b oth w ith Aphrod ite a nd w ith Artem is, wh i le i n o ne o f h is c horuses, Eur ip ides e quates t he mo ther o f t he g ods ( Cybe le) w ith Demeter [ He len. 1 301-1352].

4 2.

The wr iter o f t he r eport i n AA 8 ( 1893) ( p. 1 46) s uggests t ha t t hey were d ed icated t o t he Mother o f t he g ods ( Cybe le); bu t as im i lar f igur ine was d ed icated t o Artem is a t Brauron.

I . p . 3 0.

p . 1 14.

p .

1 94.

2 45.

4 3.

O lympia .

I I. p . 2 9.

4 4.

S ee BCH 1 3 ( 1889) pp. 5 43-60.

4 5.

Chr istou. P otnia t heron. p .

4 6.

BCH 4 8 ( 1924) p . 4 15.

4 7.

As f or Apo l lo 's s ymbo l ic l ink, a s s un-god, w ith t he l i on, i t may b e more t han pure c hance t hat t he most n otable e xamp le o f t he f ar r arer p otnios t heron, t he E astern i vory ma le s tatuette w ith o ne l i on, was d ed icated i n h is s anctuary a t De lph i .

1 94.

2 46.

RAMS AND SHEEP ( See Append ix 8 .15 )

A .

L iterary e v idence

( i ) S heep a s s acr if icia l a nima ls There i s l i terary e v idence t o s how t hat t he s heep, a s o ne o f t he most r ead i ly a va i lable a n ima ls, was f requent ly s acr if iced , n ot o n ly t o t he O lymp ian g ods, but t o d iv in it ies s uch a s P an, t he Nymphs, Ask lepios, a nd t o h eroes l. Thus Agamemnon s acr if iced many s heep t o Artem is Ko la in is a t Amarynthos 2 ; L acon, o ne o f Theocr itus ' s hepherds, d ec lares t hat h e i s r ear ing a f ine r am f or Apo l lo 3 ; t he f amous g o lden-f leeced r am wh ich c arr ied Phr ixus t o Co lch is w as s acr if iced t o Z eus ';

a nd

i n t he Odyssey P oseidon a ppears a s t he r ec ip ient o f r ams a s w e l l a s bu l ls

5.

Aphrod ite r ece ived s heep a s v ict ims i n Cyprus d ur ing t he

month o f Apr i l, a nd a t h er s anctuary a t E ryx i n S ici ly 6 ; wh i le o ne o f t he Ded icatory Epigrams r ecords t he s acr if ice o f a ewe t o D emeter' .

( i i) S heep a nd t he g ods The r am

s hared w ith t he h e-goat a r eputat ion f or l ust a nd f ert i l ity

wh ich may h ave c aused i t t o b e a ssocia ted w ith Aphrod ite, a s Orth s uggests 8 . But l i terature a pparent ly o ffers n o i lustrat ion o r e xp lanat ion o f s uch a l i nk;

a nd f or t h is r eason N i lsson d ism isses a t heory, a dvanced

by Robertson Sm ith, t hat i t was b ecause o f i t s a ctua l i dent if icat ion w ith t he s heep-goddess Aphrod ite t hat i n Cyprus t he s acr if ic ia l a n ima l was burnt who le i n i t s f l eece 8 . However, i t s s upposed character ist ics o f l ust a nd f ert i l ity may e xp la in why a s tory was t o ld a bout H ermes a nd ar am i n c onnect ion w ith t he Myster ies o f Demeter, wh ich P ausan ias c ou ld n ot r epeat ' ° .

A t a le t o ld by C lement o f A lexandr ia o n purpose t o

i lustrate t he d eprav ity o f t he P agan Greek r e l ig ion, a lso c oncerns

2 47.

Demeter a nd a r am, a nd may b e c lose t o t he o ne ment ioned by P ausan ias. The o ther d e ity c oncerned i n t h is s tory was n ot Hermes, but Z eus, who h av ing o ffended Demeter by c omm itt ing r ape, t ore o ff t he t est ic les o f ar am, a nd t hrew t hem i nto h er l ap, c la im ing ( in f a lse r epentance) t ha t t hey were h is own

1

. Th is t a le s ounds v ery l ike a n a et ion f or a

f ert i l i ty r itua l i nvo lv ing r ams. Hermes ,who was o f ten p ortrayed a s i thypha l l ic, i s p erhaps t he g od most s pecif ica l ly l i nked w ith t he r am i n mytho logy.

I t was h e who

s ent t he g o lden r am t o r escue Phr ixus a nd He l le f rom s acr if ice 1 2 . H e a lso u sed a r am t o s ave t he p eop le o f Tanagra, by c arry ing i t r ound t he w a l ls o f t he ir c ity

1 3

. F or t h is r eason h e was g iven t he t i t le o f

Kr iophoros i n Tanagra, a nd t he Archa ic s cu lptor Ka lam is made a s tatue o f h im w ith t he r am o n h is s hou lders.

P ausan ias s aw a nother r am-

c arry ing s tatue o f Hermes i n t he Karnas ian g rove o f O icha l ia i n Messenia

1 4

;

where t he p resence o f as tatue o f Kore a ga in s uggests a

p oss ible l i nk w ith t he Myster ies.

But i n mytho logy, Hermes i s a cknow-

l edged f rom e ar ly t imes a s ah erd-god, a nd g iven t he t i t le o f Ep ime l ius, k eeper o f f l ocks

1 5

.

I t i s i n t erms o f t h is r o le t hat P ausan ias i nterprets

a nother s tatue o f t he g od o uts ide Cor inth, where a s eated b ronze Hermes h as a r am s tand ing b es ide h im

1 6

. P ausan ias quotes f rom t he I l iad,

where t he w ea lth o f t he Tro jan s heep-owner Phorbas i s i ncreased t hrough H ermes ' f avour 1 7 ; a nd n otes t ha t h e i s t he g od who s eems t o h ave most i nterest i n f locks a nd i n t he ir i ncrease. The o ther d e i ty t o b e c oncerned w ith f locks, a s w ith h erds, i s Apo l lo, whose s tatue s tood i n t he Karnas ian g rove w ith t hat o f Hermes

1 8

L ike Hermes, h e was g iven t he t i t le o f Ep ime l ius, a nd worsh ipped under i ti n Kame iros

1 9

; a nd i n L esbos h e was known a s Arnokomis ( "w ith

as heep 's f l eece")

2 0

,

a n e pithet wh ich s uggests t ha t h e may h ave worn

.

248 .

t he f l eece, a nd p oss ib ly e ven h ave b een i dent if ied w ith t he a nima l a t o ne t ime.

The t i t le o f Karne ios, wh ich was f requent ly g iven t o Apo l lo,

e specia l ly i n L acon ia, c erta in ly s uggests t he g od a nd t he

v ery c lose a ssoc iat ion b etween

P ausan ias r efers t c e leven p laces where Apo l lo

Karne ios h ad a ssctuary o r as tatue 2 1 ; a nd a ccord ing t o C a l l imachus h e was worsh ipped n ot o n ly i n S parta, but a lso i n Thera a nd Cyrene A t t he k arne ia, r ams were s acr if iced;

2

.

i n f act i t i s f or t h is f east t hat

Theocr itus ' s hepherd was k eep ing h is r am 2 3 . Accord ing t o mytho logy, Karneios h imse lf was a s on o f Z eus who was nurtured by Apo l lo a nd L eto

24

.

Bu t i n a l l p robabi l i ty h e was a

p r im it ive d e ity, worsh ipped i n t he P e loponnese b efore t he a dvent o f t he Dor ians, a s hepherd-god i n whom t hey s aw a manifestat ion o f t he ir own g od Apo l lo, a nd whose n ame t hey p reserved a s o ne o f h is t i t les

2 5

.

I n t he k arne ia ,a man d ecked w ith g ar lands was pursued b y young men wear ing c lusters o f g rapes 2 6 ; a r ite wh ich s uggests t hat Karne ios was a lso a d iv in ity o f v intage a nd h arvest

2 7

.

W ide s uggests t hat

o r ig ina l ly n ot a man, but a g ar landed r am wou ld h ave b een pursued a nd k i l led t o e nsure a s uccessfu l harvest ( a p ract ice wh ich l ef t i t s t race i n t he s acr if ice o f r ams).

P ausan ias ' s tory o f t he k i l l ing o f Apo l lo 's

p rophet Karnos ( whom h e d ist ingu ishes f rom Karne ios) b y H ippotes, i s n o d oubt a n a etio log ica l a ccount o f t he s ame r i te 2 8 . A t a l l events, Karnos, Karne ios a nd Kr ios ( in whose h ouse, a ccord ing t o P ausan ias, t he p re-Dor ian s anctuary o f Karne ios w as) a l l c arry t he s ame mean ing, d er iv ing f rom " ram"

2 9

,

a nd t he r am was s een a s t he i ncarna t ion o f t he

d iv in ity h onoured i n t he k arne ia

3 0

. Th is p re-Dor ian d iv in ity m ight

w e l l h ave b een c once ived a s h av ing a r am 's s hape 3 1 . The t heory o f ar am-god e ventua l ly i dent if ied w ith Apo l lo h as r ece ived s ome s upport i n t he d iscovery o f a n Archa ic marb le r am-headed

2 49 .

Her rn i n Las, o ne o f t he L aconian c it ies i n wh ich Apo l lo Karne ios was worsh ipped 3 2 . M oreover n ear S parta, where h e h ad more t han o ne s anctuary, a nd wh ich was e v ident ly t he c entre o f h is c u lt, a d ed icat ion t o Karne ios was f ound, b ear ing a bove t he t ext a r e l ief i nterpreted by A . M. Woodward a s ap a ir o f r am 's h orns 3 . F ina l ly, c o ins f rom c erta in c it ies r epresent a r am-shaped d e ity who may b e Apo l lo Karne ios. I n Cyrene, f or e xamp le, where t he k arne ia a re known t o h ave b een c e lebrated, a nd where t he c h ief s anctuary b e longed t o Apo l lo, s ome c o ins bore t he h ead o f ay oung man w i th r am 's h orns, who i s i dent if ied by E .S.G. Rob inson a s Karne ios

4.

I n a l l r espects s ave t he h orns,

t he y outhfu l h ead a ppears l ike Apo l lo 's.

I n s hort, a lthough t here a re

a pparent ly n o l egends s pecif ica l ly i nvo lv ing Apo l lo w ith s heep, a s t here a re f or Hermes i n t he s tor ies o f t he Go lden F leece, a nd t he s av ing o f Tanagra f rom p lague, i t i s e v ident t ha t h is r e lat ionsh ip w ith t he a n ima l was c lose.

L ike Hermes, h e was a g od o f f locks;

a nd l i ke h is p re-

Dor ian f orerunner Karne ios h e may e ven h ave b een worsh ipped i n a r am 's s hape.

B .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence

( i ) E v idence o f s acr if ice:

b ones, a nd c u lt-scenes

L iterary e v idence t hat s heep were a cceptab le a s v ict ims t o most d e it ies has r ece ived s ome c onf irmat ion i n t he d iscovery o f t he ir b ones a t af ew s anctuar ies, b e long ing t o d ifferent g ods.

They w ere f ound

b es ide t he a l tar o f Artem is a t Ephesos ( though n ot i n s uch quant ity a s g oats ' b ones), a nd b eneath t he Archa ic Artem is ion o f De los.

They

w ere s acr if iced ( l ike g oats) a t t he Ka lapod i s anctuary t o Artem is o r Apo l lo.

P oseidon 's s anctuary a t I sthmia, a nd Demeter 's a t Cyrene a lso

y ie lded s heep-bones ( though p igs were f ar more c ommon a t Cyrene),

2 50.

i n mater ia l c onf irmat ion o f t he e v idence o ffered i n t he Odyssey, a nd t he d ed icatory e p igram.

I ns ide t he L ind ian Acropo l is, where n o b urnt

o ffer ings were made, t he p resence o f t he ir b ones s uggests t hat s acred mea ls c onsumed i n A thena 's s anctuary i nc luded s heep 's f l esh. On t he Acropo l is o f A thens, where burnt o ffer ings d id t ake p lace ( a lthough a pparent ly n o a n ima l-bones s urv ived t here), t he s heep p ictured i n t he s acred p rocess ion o f t he P arthenon f r ieze a re i conog raph ica l e v idence o f t heir s acr if ice a t A thena 's f east;

t hough t hey

a re g reat ly o utnumbered by c att le o n t he f r ieze t hat s urv ives.

Three

d ed icatory r e l iefs o f c u lt-scenes f ound o n t he Acropo l is a lso d ep ict s heep a s s acr if icia l v ict ims;

a nd a lthough n o b ones were a pparent ly

d iscovered a t De lph i, t he p ract ice o f s heep-sacr if ice t here i s a ttested by a f ourth c entury marble r e l ief i n wh ich t he v ict im i s b e ing l ed i n p rocess ion t owards Apo l lo, Artem is a nd L eto.

F ina l ly, o ne o f t he c o lumn-

p edesta ls o f Ephesos, o n wh ich a n ike i s s hown l ead ing t he s acr if ic ia l s heep, o ffers s cu lptura l c orroborat ion o f t he e v idence o f t he b ones unearthed i n t he s anctuary. The k r iophoro i, t he s heep-carr iers t ermed by B l inkenberg ts acr if icateurs",

a nd f ound i n s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo, A thena, Hera,

Demeter a nd p oss ibly Artem is, may a lso b e i nterpreted a s e v idence o f S heep-sacr if ice.

But a lternat ive mean ings may b e a ttached t o t hem,

a nd w i l l b e d iscussed s hort ly.

( i i) Representat ions o f r ams a nd s heep i n s anctuar ies About 2 40 r epresentat ions o f s heep w ere f ound i n t he s anctuar ies under e xam inat ion.

Accord ing t o t he r eports, Z eus, Hera, A thena

a nd Apo l lo ( for whose s anctuar ies o f Ma leatas, Dreros a nd Naukrat is e xact numbers a re n ot g iven) r ece ived a pprox imate ly e qua l quant it ies

2 51 .

o f t h is t ype o f a n ima l-ded icat ion ( about t wenty o r t h irty e ach).

A lmost

none h ave b een r eported f rom t he s anctuar ies o f Demeter a nd P ose idon c ons idered h ere;

but r e lat ive ly f ew a n ima l-representat ions were d iscovered

i n t he ir s anctuar ies ( apart f rom P enteskouph ia, where s heep a re e nt ire ly unrepresented).

But n ear ly h a lf t he e nt ire t ota l o f r eported s heep-

r epresentat ions c ome f rom a s ing le s anctuary: Artem is Orth ia, where t here a re 1 06.

t he S partan s hr ine o f

The numbers o f s heep a t t he Artem is ion

o f Thasos have not b een s pecif ied, but i t s eems l ike ly t hat o ver h a lf t he t ota l f rom t he s anctuar ies l i sted were d ed icated t o Artem is, a l though w ithout t he Orth ia g roup, a bout t he s ame quant ity wou ld h ave b e longed t o h er a s t o Z eus, Hera , A thena a nd Apo l lo.

A t t he s anctuary o f Artem is

Orth ia i tse lf , n inety-four o f t he s heep ( that i s, a bout 9 0% o f t hem) t ook t he f orm o f i vory c ouchant r ams, p robably made i n S parta b etween 8 20 a nd 6 35 BC

3 5

.

I t may b e o bserved f rom t he f a ir ly e ven d istr ibut ion o f s heep-represe ntat ions i n t he s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo, Z eus, Hera, A thena a nd ( sett ing a s ide f or t he moment t he i vory c ouchant r ams f rom S parta) o f Artem is, t hat t he s pec ia l a ssoc iat ion o f Apo l lo w ith f locks wh ich i s e xpressed i n l i terature, i s s carce ly r ef lected i n t he p attern o f d ed icat ions.

Apo l lo

r ece ived h is s hare o f t h is t ype o f v ot ive, but a pparent ly i n no g reater f requency t han o ther d e it ies;

a nd i t s eems t hat h is c onnect ion w ith t he

r am-god Karne ios, a nd t he i mportance o f t he k arne ia i n h is worsh ip, has n ot r esu lted i n ap art icu lar ly l arge number o f s heep-ded icat ions i n h is s anctuar ies, e ven i n t he L acon ian o nes;

a lthough i t must b e s a id

t hat a t none o f t hese s anctuar ies ( apart f rom Cyrene p erhaps) was h e worsh ipped w ith t he t i t le o f Karne ios.

I f h is s anctuary a t L as

3 6

,

where

t he r am-headed h erm may h ave b een d ed icated, w ere c lear ly i dent if ied a nd e xcavated, more e v idence m ight emerge.

A s tr ik ing d ed icat ion wh ich

2 52.

was d iscovered i n o ne o f Apo l lo 's known s anctuar ies, h owever, a nd wh ich m ight r ef lect h is s pec ia l a ssociat ion w ith t he r am, i s t he g igant ic marb le k r iophoros f rom Thasos

3 7

. A t De lph i t he c ontrast ing ly sma l l b ronze f igur ine

o f a man a ccompan ied by a r am c ou ld r ef lect t he s ame a ssoc iat ion;

a nd

b e ing Geometr ic i t i s p erhaps t he e ar l iest e xamp le o f t his mot if t o b e f ound i n t he s anctuar ies under d iscuss ion. where Hermes was worsh ipped a lone;

Ih ave e xamined n o s anctuary

a nd c an t herefore o ffer n o e v idence

a bout s heep-representat ions o ffered t o t he g od most o f ten s hown i n mytho logy a s h av ing c ontro l o ver r ams, a nd c are f or t he i ncrease o f f l ocks. Hermes, l ike Aphrod i te, h ad h is c u lt i n t he S amian Hera ion, a nd i t i s p oss ible t hat s ome o f t he s heep-representa t ions r eported f rom t h is s anctuary may h ave b een d ed icated t o e ither o f t hese d e it ies i n p reference t o H era. But f i f teen r ams o r r ams ' h eads were c erta in ly d ed icated t o H era, a nd t o no o ther d e ity, a t P erachora, a nd t he s heep o f S amos m ight a l l e qua l ly h ave b e longed t o h er. I f t he e ven d istr ibut ion o f s heep-representat ions d oes n o t r ef lect t he p attern o f d iv ine a ssoc iat ion wh ich emerges f rom l i terature, may w e t hen c onc lude t hat t hey d o, h owever, c orrespond t o t he more g enera l c ustom o f s acr if icing s heep t o t he g ods?

The p oss ibi l ity c annot b e e xc luded;

but n e ither c an i t b e a ccepted w ithout h es i tat ion:

t he s heep-bones wh ich

b ear W itness t o s acr if icia l c ustom a t I sthm ia, f or e xamp le, a pparent ly h ave n o c ounterpart i n a rtefacts r epresent ing t he a n ima l, a part f rom t he d ecorat ive r ams ' h eads o n t he p er irrhanter ion.

On t he o ther hand,

t he h orse, wh ich was o ne o f t he a n ima ls l east o f ten s acr if iced, i s a lso o ne o f t hose most o f ten r epresented i n d ed icat ions.

A c orre lat ion b etween

r epresentat ions a nd s acr if ic ia l c ustom c anno t t herefore b e a ssumed. Ib e l ieve t hat t he r o le o f Hermes a nd Apo l lo a s h erd-gods wh ich i s r ef lected i n l i terature, but wh ich s eems t o r un c ounter t o t he g enera l d istr ibut ion

2 53.

o f r ams a nd s heep i n s anctuar ies, may i n r ea l ity o ffer a p oss ib le e xp lanat i on f or t heir p resence i n t he s anctuaries o f o ther g ods, a n e xp lanat ion wh ich i s n ot d irect ly c oncerned w ith t he p ract ice o f s heep-sacr if ice. I t was s uggested by He i lmeyer t hat t he e ar ly f igur ines o f c att le a nd h orses i n c lay a nd b ronze a t O lympia w ere a n i nd icat ion o f t he i mportance o f t hese d omest ic a n ima ls a nd t he ir nurture, i n t he l ives o f t he worsh ipp ers 3 8 . T he d iv in ity a t O lympia was r egarded a s o ne who h ad p ower t o h e lp t he husbandman, a nd p rosper h is h erds.

A d iv in ity a pparent ly

h av ing a s im i lar c oncern w ith husbandry was worsh ipped no t f ar away i n t he much sma l ler s anctuary o f Artem is L imnat is n ear Kombothreka, where t he s ame t ypes o f a n ima l-representat ion were f ound, t hough i n s ma l ler numbers t han a t O lymp ia 3 9 . I n f act t here i s p robab ly s carce ly a ny g od o r g oddess who i n e ar ly t imes was n ot i nvoked by t he b reeder o f d omest ic a n ima ls, a nd who d id n ot, a t l east o n o ccas ion, s hare t he r o les o f Apo l lo a nd Hermes a s d iv in it ies who t ook c are o f h erds a nd f l ocks.

P ose idon, whose r ea lm was n ot t he l and, may h ave b een a n

e xception:

but e ven h e, wh i le n ot a pparent ly c oncerned w ith s heep,

was a ssoc iated w ith bu l ls, a nd k ept h orses under t he s ea 4 ° . T he e ven d istr ibut ion o f s heep-representat ions i n t he s anctuar ies o f a number o f d e i t ies may s imp ly b ear w itness t hat t hese d e it ies s hared a c ommon r o le i n r e l ig ious p ract ice, wh ich i s n ot r ef lected i n t he mytho logy known f rom l i terature.

I n s hort, t he l oca l g od i n t he n earest s anctuary, a t l east i n

t he Geometr ic p er iod , was r espons ib le f or a l l a spects o f l i fe. The k r iophoro i wh ich were d ed icated i n af ew s anctuar ies, a re s im i lar ly o pen t o more t han o ne i nterpretat ion.

They w ere d ed icated t o

d e it ies who a lso r ece ived t he i mages o f s heep i n i so lat ion , t o A thena , Hera, Artemis Orth ia a nd Apo l lo - but a lso t o Demeter a t Knossos .

The g reatest

numbers r ecorded t ook t he f orm o f Archa ic l imestone s tatuettes , i mported f rom

2 54.

Cyprus a nd d ed icated t o A thena L ind ia.

The mot if o f t he m an c arry ing

ar am o n h is s hou lders f i ts P ausan ias ' d escr ipt ion o f t he s tatue o f Hermes Kr iophoros a t Tanagra, a nd t he p oss ibi l ity t hat t hese d ed icat ions, t oo, a re s upposed t o r epresent Hermes, o r p erhaps Apo l lo Epime l ius c annot e nt ire ly b e e xc luded.

Certa in ly, t he more t han human s ize o f t he Thasos

k r iophoros s uggests t hat i t i s ag od, a nd s ince i t was f ound o n t he e astern s umm it o f t he Acropo l is, where Pyth ian Apo l lo had a s anctuary, i t i s p robab le t ha t t he g od was Apo l lo h imse lf .

A t erracotta k r iophoros f rom

t he Hera ion o f S amos m ight h ave b een d ed icated t o Hermes, who was worsh ipped i n t he s anctuary, a s a n i mage o f h imse lf .

But i n g enera l,

t hese sma l l f igur ines, d ed icated i n s anctuar ies wh ich have n oth ing t o d o w ith e i ther Hermes o r Apo l lo, s hou ld p robab ly b e r egarded a s human b e ings.

I f t hey a re human, t hey may b e w orsh ippers br ing ing a v ict im

t o b e s acr if iced:

B l inkenberg, i n a cknow ledgement o f t h is i nterpretat ion,

r efers t o t he Cypr iot l imestone f igur ines f rom L indos a s " sacr if icateurs". But j ust a s t he s heep i n i so lat ion may n ot c ommemorate a burnt o ffer ing, but r ather i nvoke d iv ine p rotect ion f or t he f lock, s o t he k r iophoro i may r epresent a s hepherd c ar ing f or o ne o f h is f l ock.

B l inkenberg h imse lf ,

r ecogn iz ing t h is o ther i nterpretat ion, n otes t hat t he t erm " sacr if icateur" i s ac onvent ion, p art icu lar ly i n v iew o f t he f act t ha t n o a n ima l s acr if ice t ook P lace i n A thena 's s anctuary '.

He a dds t hat a s t he f igur ines a re

Cypr iot i mports, t hey may a nyway h ave n oth ing t o d o w ith t he c u lt; but i f t he Cypr iot l i ons a nd h awks may b e s een a s a ppropr ia te d ed icat ions f or t he L ind ian g oddess ( wh ich B l inkenberg b e l ieves) t hen t he k r iophoro i, o f wh ich a s many a s t wenty s urv ive i n p art, c annot n ecessar i ly b e d ism issed a s mean ing less.

The s ame t ype o f Cypr iot l imestone f igur ine w as

d ed icated i n t he S amian Hera ion e ither t o H era h erse lf, o r t o Hermes o r Aphrod ite.

But whether o r n ot t hese Cypr iot k r iophoro i h ad o r ig ina l ly

2 55.

been manufactured w ith t he worsh ip o f Aphrod ite i n m ind, t he ir d ed icat ion not o n ly i n t he s anctuary o f S amian Hera ( where Aphrod ite h ad h er c u lt), but a lso i n t he L ind ian s anctuary, may h ave b een f e lt a s a ppropr iate because both S am ian Hera a nd A thena L ind ia, l ike t he Cypr ian Aphrod ite, were f ert i lity-deit ies , c oncerned w ith t he i ncrease o f man a nd b east. Artem is Orth ia was e ssent ia l ly a g oddess o f a gr icu lture, a nd o f a n ima ls d omest icated a s w e l l a s w i ld, o f husbandry a s w e l l a s hunt ing 4 2 . The s ma l l handmade f igur ine

o f t he man c arry ing a b east may b e s een a s

a n e xpress ion o f t h is a spect o f h er c haracter t oo;

a nd i t i s understandable

t ha t r epresentat ions o f r ams a nd s heep i n av ar iety o f mater ia ls s hou ld have b een d ed icated i n h er S partan s anctuary.

That a s many a s n inety-

f our o f t he 1 62 i vory c ouchant a n ima ls f ound i n t he s anctuary s hou ld t ake t he f orm o f r ams, h owever, i s more s urpr is ing.

Most o f t he o ther

a n ima ls o f t h is t ype h ave a r ecogn ised a ssoc iat ion w ith Artem is : were s u itable f or a hunt ing g oddess; ap otnia t heron;

t he d ogs

t he l i ons d evour ing t he ir p rey f or

a nd t he b ear h ad a s pecia l p lace i n s ome c u lts o f Artem is.

But t he l oca l workshop wh ich p roduced t hese a n ima ls, qu ite p oss ib ly f or t he s pecif ic purpose o f d ed ication t o Artem is Orth ia 4 3 ,e v ident ly c hose t o m ake more r ams t han a ny o ther t ype o f b east .

I t may b e t hat t hey

were more e as i ly a nd e ffect ive ly r endered i n t he med ium; c ho ice was s imp ly a t echn ica l o ne.

a nd t hat t he

The maker may h ave p ossessed a n

e astern mode l, s im i lar t o t hose d ed icated i n t he Ephes ian Artem is ion, f or e xamp le, a nd f ound i t c onven ient t o make c opies o f t h is.

But I s ha l l

p erm i t myse lf t o make o ne s uggest ion a s t o ap oss ib le r e l ig ious mot ive f or t he ir d ed icat ion;

wh i le a cknow ledg ing t hat i t i s as pecu lat ion wh ich c an

hard ly b e s ubstant iated by s o l id e v idence a t p resent.

The c i ty where

t he k arne ia h ad t he ir most e stabl ished t rad it ion was e v ident ly S parta; a nd n ear i ts r ace-course was a s anctuary h e ld i n c ommon by Apo l lo Karne ios,

2 56.

Artem is Hegemones a nd E i 1e ithy ia 4 5 . T hus i t s eems t hat i n S parta , where Artem is was a ssociated w ith t he a gr icu ltura l g oddess Orthia , s he was a lso i n s ome measure a ssoc iated w ith t he c u lt o f t he r am-god Karne ios, who h imse lf b ecame i dent if ied w ith Apo l lo.

Nor, s urely, c an

i t b e by a cc ident t hat E i le ithy ia, whose c oncern i s w ith human r eproduct ion, s hou ld b e p resent b oth i n t he s anctuary o f Apo l lo Karne ios, a nd i n t hat o f Artem is Orth ia 4 6 . Ib e l ieve t ha t t he numerous i vory r ams f ound i n L imna i may p oss ibly b e a n a cknow ledgement o f Artem is ' S partan c onnect ion w ith t he k arne ia , wh ich r esemb led t he c u lt o f O rth ia i n i ts s trong ly a grar ian c haracter, a nd i n wh ich r ams p layed a n i mportant p art, n ot o n ly a s s acr if icia l v ict ims, but a lso , v ery poss ib ly, i n t he o r ig ina l a ppearance o f t he d e ity.

I n t he o ther s anctuar ies o f Artem is

e xam ined i n t h is s tudy, s heep-representat ions were f ound i n no g reater numbers t han i n t he s anctuar ies o f o ther d e it ies.

I f t he ir numerous

p resence i n L imna i h as a r e l ig ious s ign if icance, wh ich i s p oss ible, I b e l ieve i t must b e s een i n t erms o f t he i nteract ion o f l oca l c u lts.

C .

Conc lus ion Representat ions o f s heep, t hough n ot d ed icated t o t he g ods i n

s uch g reat numbers a s c erta in o ther a n ima ls, a re f ound i n r ough ly e qua l quant it ies i n s anctuar ies o f Z eus, H era, Apo l lo a nd A thena. r eceived a bout t he s ame amount o f t h is t ype o f d ed icat ion;

A rtem is

e xcept f or

t he l arge number o f i vory c ouchant r ams d iscovered a t h er S partan s anctuary.

Ne ither t h is e ven d istr ibut ion, o r t he numerous Orth ia

r ams, c orresponds d irect ly t o a ny mytho log ica l c onnect ion b etween s heep a nd t he g ods. i s a nyway s l ight;

The r o le p layed by t h is a n ima l i n known myths

t he d e i t ies most o f ten a ssociated w ith i t a re Hermes

a nd Apo l lo, who w ere r egarded a s g uard ians o f h erds a nd f l ocks;

a nd

2 57.

n e ither o f t hem a pparent ly r ece ived more s heep-representat ions t han o ther d eit ies.

Nor, i n s pite o f t he c ustom o f s acr if icing s heep t o a l l

t he g ods, d o Ib e l ieve t hat t he ir r epresentat ions w ere n ecessar i ly d ed icated i n o rder t o c ommemorate t he s acr if ice o f ar ea l v ict im.

I

h ave suggested t hat i n e ar ly t imes t he r o les o f Hermes Kr iophoros a nd Apo l lo Ep ime l ius a nd Karne ios a s k eepers o f f locks were s hared by m ost i f n ot a l l d e it ies;

a nd t hat t he p resence i n t he ir s anctuar ies o f

s heep a nd r ams, a nd o f t he l ess c ommon k r iophoro i, a re t est imon ies o f t he r e l iance o f t he husbandman o n t he ir d iv ine p rotect ion.

F ina l ly,

Ih ave t r ied t o s how t hat t here may b e ar e l ig ious mot ive f or t he f requent d ed icat ion o f r ams t o Artem is Orth ia, i n h er a ssoc iat ion i n S parta w ith Apo l lo Karne ios, i n whose h onour o ne o f t he p r inc ipa l S partan f easts, o nce s acred t o t he r am-god Karne ios, was h e ld.

F ootnotes 1 .

RE 2 Al ( 1921) 3 94-5.

2 .

Ar istophanes. S cho l ia i n Ayes.

3 .

Theocr itus . I dy l ls . V .82-83.

4 .

Apo l lodorus. B ib l iotheca . 1.1141-47.

5 .

Odyssey. 1 .25 .

6 .

Lydus. De Mens ibus .

F or Ask lep ios, s ee P ausan ias. 1 .11.7. 8 73.

1 .81-83;

I V.45;

Apo l lon ius Rhod ius. Argonaut /ca .

Ae l ian. De Natura Anima l /ur n . X .50

c f . N i lsson. G r iechische F este . p . 3 68. 7 .

AP I V I.258.

8 .

RE o p c it .

9 .

N i lsson. L oc c i t .

3 92 .

1 0.

Pausan ias . 1 1.3 .4 .

1.

C lement o f A lexandr ia. P rotrept icus .

1 .13.

2 58.

1 2.

Apo l lon ius a nd Apo l lodoros. L oc c i t . P ausan ias s ays i t was Z eus , but h e may h ave b een c onfused b ecause t he a n ima l w as e ventua l ly s acr if iced t o Z eus ( Pausan ias. I X . 34.4).

1 3.

P ausan ias. I X .2 2.2.

1 4.

P ausan ias. I V.34.4.

1 5.

P ausan ias. I X .3 4.2.

1 6.

I bid .

1 7.

I l iad. X IV.490.

1 8.

P ausan ias. I V .3 3.4.

1 9.

Macrobius .S aturna l ia. 1 .17.45.

2 0.

I b id .

2 1.

S parta ( two s anctuar ies), P ausan ias. 11.13.3-6; 1 .14.16. Gyth ion ( a s tatue o r s anctuary), 1 1.21.8. L as ( temp le), 1 1.24.8. O ity lon ( wooden s tatue i n t he Agora), 1 1.25.10. L euktra ( wooden s tatues), 1 1.26.5 . Kardamy le (s tatue) , I I .2 6.7. Phara i ( sacred g rove o f Apo l lo Karne ios), I V.31.1. O icha l ia ( statue i n t he Karnas ian g rove), I V. 3 3.4. S ikyon ( inner c hamber o f Apo l lo Karneios i ns ide t he s anctuary o f Ask lepe ios; s anctuary o f Apo l lo Karne ios), 1.10.2 ; I.11.2 .

2 2.

Ca l l imachus. Hymn t o Apo l lo .

2 3.

Theocr itus. I dy l ls .

2 4.

P ausan ias. 1 1.13.5.

2 5.

W ide. L akonische Ku lte . p . 7 4. P ausan ias n otes t hat Karne ios was worsh ipped i n S parta " even b efore t he r eturn o f t he c h i ldren o f Herak les" [ 1 11.13.3].

2 6.

Bekker. Anecdota Graeca .

2 7.

S ee F razer. P ausanias ' Descr ipt ion o f Greece . Vo l. I I, p . 3 32 ; W ide. L akonische Ku lte . pp. 7 8-80 ; N i lsson. Gr iech ische F este . p . 1 21.

2 8.

P ausan ias. 1 1.13.4.

2 9.

Hesych ius ' g loss o n Kapvos.

3 0.

W ide. Op c it . p . 8 4.

3 1.

RE 1 0.2 ( 1919) 1 990.

1.3.4.

L oc . c it .

7 1-3 c f P indar . Pythian Odes 6 8-76.

V .82-3.

I . p . 3 05.25.

2 59 .

3 2.

AM 2 9 ( 1904) P. 2 2, F ig. 1 . S chröder s aw t he h erm a s ar eprese ntat ion o f Apo l lo Karne ios ( pp. 2 3-4).

3 3.

BSA

3 4.

E. S. G. Rob inson. Cata logue o f t he Greek Co ins o f Cyrena ica . ( Br it ish Museum) L ondon 1 927. For e xamp le: p . 1 6, n o. 6 8, P l. 7 .29 ; p . 2 4, n o. 1 00, P l. 1 2 .14 ( a g o ld, a nd a s i lver c o in, dated b etween 4 35 a nd 3 08 BC). Another d e ity w ith r ams ' h orns r epresented o n Cyren ian c o ins i s Ammon, but h e i s a lways b earded, a s b ef its h is i dent if icat ion w ith Z eus.

3 5.

AO p . 2 31, a nd p . 2 48.

3 6.

Pausan ias . 1 1.24.8.

3 7.

Guide d e T hasos . pp. 5 5 a nd 1 15. The s tatue, s t i l l unf in ished, was f ound i n f ragments i n t he r eta in ing wa l l o f t he Pythe ion.

3 8.

0 /Forsch V II. p p. 8 7-8.

3 9.

AM 9 6 ( 1981) p p. 3 7-8, a nd pp. 4 0-41.

4 0.

S ee A thenaeus. 4 66 d. ( Loeb. Vo l. 5 , p . 3 4).

4 1.

L indos .

4 2.

AO pp. 4 02-3.

4 3.

They d o not a ppear t o h ave b een d ed icated i n t he S partan s anctuary o f A thena Cha lk io ikos.

4 4.

At P erachora, where t he g reatest number o f t h is t ype o f i vory has b een f ound a part f rom Artem is Orth ia, a nd where t he e xamp les a re p robab ly i mports f rom Sparta ( see P erachora. I. p . 4 08), t he r am i s a lso t he most c ommon a nima l, number ing f our o r f ive out o f at ota l o f t we lve.

4 5.

Pausan ias. 1 1.14.6.

4 6..

AO p . 4 02.

1 5 ( 1908-9) pp. 8 1-85.

S ee a bove, n ote 3 2.

I . pp. 4 29-30.

2 60.

SNAKES ( See Append ix 8 .16)

A .

L iterary e v idence a nd Bronze Age t rad it ion

( i ) T he M inoan s nake-goddess No l i terary e v idence c an i nform u s o f t he p art p layed b y t he s nake i n t he r e l ig ion o f t he M inoan a nd Mycenaean c iv i l izat ions .

But

s urv iv ing a rtefacts p rov ide a n unwr itten t est imony o f i ts i mportance i n Bronze Age c u lts.

Two M idd le M inoan f a ience s tatuettes f rom t he

Temp le Repos itor ies a t Knossos d ep ict f ema les wear ing t he f l ounced s k irt o f t he d ay, a nd h o ld ing s nakes.

One, g enera l ly i nterpreted a s

ag oddess, h as t hree o f t he c reatures c ur l ing r ound her b ody, a rms, a nd h ead;

t he o ther ( who may b e ap r iestess) h o lds up a s ma l l s nake

i n h er o ne r ema in ing h and

1.

F rom a L ate M inoan d omest ic s hr ine a t

Gourn ia c ame a b e l l-shaped t erracotta i do l w ith a s nake r ound h er b ody 2 ; a nd a t P r inias t wo a rms, b roken f rom f igur ines a nd e ntwined w ith s nakes, were d iscovered.

The P r inias f ragments may b e long t o t he s ub-M inoan

p er iod , a nd s how t he c ont inu ing r e levance o f t he s nake t o h uman c onc erns, a nd p robab ly t o r e l ig ion 3 . I n t he s ame a rchaeo log ica l c ontext a t Gourn ia 4 ,a nd a lso i n P r inias

5,

L ate M inoan t ubu lar v esse ls o n wh ich

s nakes w ere d ep icted i n r e l ief, a lso c ame t o l ight.

I n ma in land Greece,

t he . c onnect ion b etween s nakes a nd t he r e l ig ion o f t he pa lace i s s hown by t he l arge c o i led t erracotta s nakes d iscovered i n t he c u lt-centre o f Mycenae 6. A l l o f t hese a rtefacts w ere f ound i n d omest ic s hr ines o r w ith in a c itade l;

a nd N i lsson d rew a d ist inct ion b etween t he r ust ic

c u lts i nvo lv ing t rees a nd d ances, a nd t he mounta in-top p otn ia t heron c u lt, b oth o f wh ich a re d epicted o n g ems, but f or wh ich n o s hr ines o r i mages a pparent ly s urv ive;

a nd t he d omest ic c u lts, n ot i lustrated

o n t he g ems, but l eav ing t he ir t race i n i do ls a nd v esse ls d iscovered i n

2 61 .

p a lace s hr ines7 . I t i s w ith t h is l atter f orm o f worsh ip t hat t he s nake i s a ssociated;

a nd N i lsson t herefore s aw i t a s a guard ian o f t he h ouse,

t o b e honoured a nd p rotected by t he i nhabitants 8 .

( i i) T he s nake a nd t he O lympian g ods The p resence o f t he s nake i n t he l i terature o f t he h istor ic a ge, o f ten i n c onnect ion w ith g ods, s hows a new i ts s ign if icance i n r e l ig ion, as ign if icance wh ich v ery p oss ibly h ad n ever b een l ost. ad iv inity w ith wh ich i t i s n ot i n s ome way a ssoc iated;

There i s s carce ly a n i nd icat ion,

p erhaps, t hat t here i s s carce ly a n O lymp ian d e ity who d id n ot a bsorb a spects o f Bronze Age worsh ip.

Artem idorus l i sts Z eus, D ionysos,

Apo l lo, Demeter, Kore a nd Hekate a s g ods t o whom s erpents w ere s acred ( apart f rom Ask lep ios a nd t he h eroes 9) ;

but P lutarch n otes t hat i t

was A thena ( not ment ioned by Artem idorus) t o whom t he s nake was s acred 1 ° .

( i i i) The s nake a s ag uard ian i n s anctuar ies The Bronze Age r o le o f t he s nake a s a guard ian o f dwe l l ings e v ident ly c ont inued i n h istor ic t imes, a l though a s f ar a s l i terature i nforms u s, i t i s n ow a guard ian o f d iv ine, r ather t han human p roperty. The s erpent wh ich Apo l lo k i l led a t De lph i l ived i n t he c hasm o f a n o rac le wh ich be longed t o t he E arth-goddess i l . Bu t i t i s p oss ib le t hat a s acred s nake c ont inued t o b e k ept a t De lph i, a nd t o b e r egarded a s ar e incarnat i on o f t he o r ig ina l P ython.

A t l east, C lement o f A lexandr ia 's v ers ion

o f t he s tory o f Eunomus may b e t hus i nterpreted:

f or t he mus ic ian

whose broken l yre-str ing was r ep laced by a c icada 's s ong was s ing ing af unera l o de a t P ytho, i n h onour o f ad ead s erpent, a nd a f terwards d ed icated a b ronze c icada t o Apo l lo

1 2

. On t he o ther h and, t he f unera l

2 62.

o de may h ave b een a r etrospect ive o ne, s ung f or t he o r ig ina l Python s la in by t he g od.

But a ccord ing t o Ae l ian, a l ive s nake w as c erta in ly

k ept, a nd e ven worsh ipped li n as hr ine o f Apo l lo i n Epirus, where i t was n ot r egarded a s av ict im o f t he g od , but a s h is p et ( "athyrma")

1 3

.

Ib e l ieve t hat e ven t he s nakes a t Epidaurus a nd a t Kos, t he a ttr ibu tes a nd h ea l ing a gents o f Ask lep ios, may w e l l h ave b egun by b e ing guard ians o f t he o ld s anctuar ies o f Apo l lo'. I t i s p oss ib le t hat s nakes ( or a s nake) were k ept i n D emeter 's s anctuary a t E leus is.

A t l east, S trabo 's s tory o f t he s erpent Cychre ides,

who was d r iven o ut o f S a lam is, a nd g iven r efuge i n E leus is by Demeter, s ounds l ike t he a et ion f or s uch a p ract ice

1 5

.

But l i terary e v idence i s

unequ ivoca l a bout t he p resence o f a guard ian s erpent i n A thena 's s anct uary o n t he Acropo l is o f A thens :

s ince a ccord ing t o Herodotus, when

i t l ef t i t s h oneycake untouched b efore t he c om ing o f t he P ers ians, t he A then ians b e l ieved t ha t t he c ity h ad b een d eserted by t he g oddess, a nd s o a bandoned i t t hemse lves

1 6

. The s nake 's p resence o n t he Acropo l is

i s r ecorded a lso i n p ictor ia l t erms;

f or i n o ne marb le r e l ief d epict ing

as acr if ic ia l s cene, i t a ppears b es ide t he a l tar o f t he g oddess

1 7

.

( iv) T he s nake a s as ymbo l o f l i fe a nd d eath The c omp lete s ign if icance o f t he s nake i n t he d omest ic Bronze Age c u lts c annot b e known w ithout a c ontemporary l i terature.

Tha t

i t w as r egarded a s a guard ian s p ir it o f t he h ouse s eems e v ident f rom t he c ontext o f t he a rtefacts f ound.

But t he i mages a nd v esse ls c anno t

i nform u s a s t o whether i t m ight b e r egarded a s i n s ome w ay ensur ing t he f ert i l ity o f t he i nhab itants; t he d ead o f t hat h ouse.

o r a s al i nk b etween t he l i v ing a nd

The p resence o f i vory p omegranate f lowers

( wh ich were i n l a ter t imes known a s s ymbo ls o f t he underwor ld) i n t he

2 63.

Knossos Repos itory where t he s nake-goddesses were f ound, s uggests t hat i t may h ave b een

1 8

;

a nd t he mytho logy o f l a ter t imes, wh ich h ints

a t s uch a mean ing, may i tse lf h ave b een a Bronze Age l egacy. Greek wr iters a greed i n r egard ing s erpents a s c h i ldren o f t he e arth

1 9

;

t he o rac le g uarded by t he De lph ian P ython b e longed t o Ga ia

a nd Themis, p erson if icat ions o f t he E arth who, when Apo l lo was p atron o f t he s anctuary, r eta ined t he ir own i nner s hr ine i mmed iate ly t o t he s outh o f h is t emp le

2 0

. The e arth, i n wh ich t he d ead a re bur ied, a nd

s eeds g erm inate, b oth a bsorbs d eath, a nd i s t he s ource o f l i fe:

t he

s erpent, s pend ing much o f i t s t ime i n t he g round, was t hus a ssoc iated w ith b oth .

Th is a ssumpt ion p robably l ay b eh ind t he s tor ies o f i nfant

ma le d e it ies, s ons o f t he e arth, a nd o f ten c onnected w ith v egetat ion, who a ssumed a s erpent 's s hape:

A thena 's f oster-ch i ld E r ichthon ios,

whom Homer c a l ls a c h i ld o f t he f ru itfu l E arth

2 1

; a nd S os ipo l is, t he

c h i ld who s aved t he E le ians f rom t he ir e nem ies, b efore t urn ing i nto a s erpent a nd d isappear ing i nto t he e arth.

A t O lymp ia S os ipo l is was

worsh ipped w ith E i le ithy ia, t he g oddess o f c h i ldbirth, " because t he g oddess h erse lf h ad b rought t hat c h i ld i nto t he wor ld" 2 . On t he o ther hand, E r ichthon ios, o r E rechtheus ( Frazer c ons idered t hem t o b e t he s ame 2 3 )g rew t o a du l thood, a nd b ecame t he h ero ic k ing o f t he A then ians. As a n i nfant, h e w as r egarded e i ther a s h a lf-snake, h a 1f-human 2 4 ; o r a s e nt ire ly s erpent-shaped

25

;

o r mere ly a s a human c h i ld i n ac hest

o r b asket, r ound whom g uard ian-snakes w ere c o i led

2 6

. A f i f th c entury

s tatue o f A thena, f rom Crete, s hows A thena h o ld ing a s nake i n ab asket, a nd t hus f u lf i l l ing h er r o le o f f oster-mo ther t o t he c h i ld 2 7 ; a nd P ausan ias b e l ieved t hat t he s erpent c o i led a t t he f eet o f h er c hryse lephant ine s tatue i n t he P arthenon, m ight h ave b een E r ichthon ios

2 8

.

When t he

h ero c ame t o d ie, h e was bur ied i n t he E rechtheum 2 9 ; a nd v ery p oss ib ly

264. the sacred serpent, which according to Hesychius was kept in this building, was regarded as an incarnation of Erichthonios himself. In the legend of Sosipolis, birth is brought near to death:

the

disappearance of the snake into the ground implying the death of the child, supernatural being though he was 30• the dead being;

The snake in fact becomes

and there is no lack of iconographical evidence to

show that this was a concept which the Greeks had also about dead humans 31•

Alternatively, the snake might be seen as a companion of

the dead, or a protector of the tomb 32;

and Cerberus himself, who

guarded the en tire underworld, was sometimes depicted as partly snake­ shaped 33•

{v) The snake and the Archaic potnia theron

The snake's association with the earth and thus both with new life, and with death, ( which found mythological and iconographical expression during the historie period) may also have invested it with significance in Minoan and Mycenaean cults.

It is probable that the

snake-shaped Sosipolis and Erichthonios were prehistoric fertility-gods.3 4; while Ge, who kept the Python of Delphi, was a prehistoric earth­ goddess.

A t Olympia, the Athenian Acropolis and Delphi, the sanctuaries

associa ted with these serpen t

eities, there is indeed sorne archaeological

evidencc f r thc cxistcncc of Mycenaean cults35 •

During the Early Archaic

pcriod, w en thc polnia theron made her reappearance in Greek art, thc snakc was onc of' thc �rea·.. ures represented with her. 42

ccntury pi.V ux from the r_ort

A seventh

slope of ""he Areopagu.s depicts a goddess

with ruiscd , rms, between two standing snakes, and fragmen ts of four or five mo