Report from Xunwu 9781503621688

Table of contents :
Acknowledgments
Contents
Introduction
Report from Xunwu
Preface
1. Administrative Jurisdictions in Xunwu
2. Transportation and Communication in Xunwu
3. Commerce in Xunwu
4. Traditional land Relationships in Xunwu
5. The Land Struggle in Xunwu
Appendixes
APPENDIX A Currency and Prices in Xunwu
APPENDIX B Weights and Measures in Xunwu
APPENDIX C Qing Examination Degrees Held by Xunwu Men
Reference Matter
Notes
Bibliography
Character List
Index

Citation preview

Report from Xunwu

Mao Zedong in 1931 at age 38

(from the Nym Wales Collection, Envelope Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University)

G,

Mao Zedong REPORT FROM XUNWU Translated, and with an Introduction and Notes, by ROGER R. THOMPSON

Stanford University Press STANFORD, CALIFORNIA

1990

Stanford University Press Stanford, California ©1990 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University Printed in the United States of America Original printing 1990 Last figure below indicates year of this printing: 02 01 00 99 g8 97 96 95 94 93 92 CIP data appear at the end of the book

To SARAH CHEAVENS MIDDLETON

and the memory of CHARLES BRYAN MIDDLETON

Acknowledgments This translation of Mao Zedong's Report from Xunwu would not have been possible without the contributions of a number of people. Two people both shared and helped to shape my vision of this project from the very beginning. The excitement of discovery was first conveyed to Melissa Walt Thompson, who helped me see the possibilities for the Report from Xunwu. Shortly thereafter, my editor at Stanford University Press, Muriel Bell, began to nurture this effort. Her enthusiasm, advice, and advocacy were constants that sustained this project. Like Mao, who had his informants in Xunwu, I have been fortunate in being able to draw on the knowledge and help of many people. Parker Po-fei Huang has fielded numerous queries with the patience and wisdom of the gentleman and scholar that he is. So too has Kate Hsun-mei Guan, whose contributions grace much of the text. Her help came with equal parts of energy, encouragement, and intelligence. The Chinese writer Ye Junjian helped in unraveling some of the more obscure references to local names and terms. Others who provided assistance are Wei Li, Song Haoshi, and Yue Zumou. The maps were developed in collaboration with Leslie Voit, who based the regional map on Japanese maps published in 1917-20 by the Toa Dobunkai. The map of Xunwu County is based on Japanese Army topographical maps, at a scale of 5o,ooo:1, that were compiled in 1928 and revised in

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1938. The maps in this book were produced on an Apple Macintosh Plus Personal Computer using the Adobe Illustrator '88 software program. My interesUn maps was well served by Ms. Voit's perceptive and committed work. To Neal Bousfield I express my gratitude for allowing me to publish some of the pictures taken by his father, Cyril Bousfield, who lived in Xunwu County, except during furloughs, from 1912 to 1928. I also thank Nancy Hearst, Helen Foster Snow, and Christopher Lee for their help with photographs, and Marilyn Young for suggesting the poster used on the dust jacket. A microfilm of the correspondence of Cyril Bousfield and his wife, Lillian ("Lillie"), with the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society was kindly provided by the American Baptist Historical Society. I greatly appreciate the efforts of Beverly Carlson and James Lynch, of the Historical Society, and Priscilla Shaw, of the American Baptist Foreign Mission Library. It gives me great pleasure to bring attention to the indefatigable efforts of Antony Marr, Associate Curator of the East Asian Collection in the Sterling Memorial Library at Yale University. He has kept abreast of the flood of books and joum~ls coming out of the People's Republic of China in the past decade, and several of his acquisitions were of significant importance in the writing of the Introduction. Thanks also are due Hideo Kaneko, Curator of the East Asian Collection, who obtained for the collection a microfilm copy of the 1901 edition of the gazetteer for Xunwu County. I also thank Richard Price, chair of the Department of History at the University of Maryland, College Park, who provided support at a crucial moment, thus making it possible to prepare maps, photographs, and a character list for publication. A number of scholars helped me while I was writing the Introduction. Foremost among them is Stephen Averill, who generously shared his deep knowledge of the Communist movement in Jiangxi during the 192o's and 193o's and also sent me useful citations and information on Xunwu County. Professor Averill has been an exemplar of collegiality. Helen Siu,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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Angus McDonald, Hong-Yung Lee, Nicholas Lardy, Harry Harding, and Timothy Cheek were kind enough to read and respond to a draft of the Introduction. There is one person who has contributed to the entire work with a commendable degree of professional and scholarly commitment. It has been my good fortune to have my manuscript placed in the skillful hands of John R. Ziemer, of Stanford University Press. This project was also influenced by a group of people who, early in my studies, shared their knowledge of Chinese history, language, and culture with me: my teachers at Stanford University, the late Kao Kung Yi, Chuang Yin, H. L. Kahn, and Lyman Van Slyke. During graduate training at Yale University, I ,was privileged to study Chinese history with Jonathan Spence. I hope this book displays the sense of adventure that Professor Spence brings to the study of history. Finally, to return to the person I mentioned at the beginning, I thank Melissa, who served as a knowledgeable and sensitive consultant and confidante throughout this project. She was also a wonderful companion during our exploration of an obscure, but not unimportant, place in China.

R.R.T.

Contents Introduction

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REPORT FROM XUNWU

Preface 1. Administrative Jurisdictions in Xunwu 2. Transportation and Communication in Xunwu 3· Commerce in Xunwu 4· Traditional lAnd Relationships in Xunwu 5· The LAnd Struggle in Xunwu

45 49

52 55 122

197

APPENDIXES

Currency and Prices in Xunwu B. Weights and Measures in Xunwu c. Qing Examination Degrees Held by Xunwu Men A.

221

224 226

REFERENCE MATTER

Notes Bibliography Character List Index Twelve pages of photographs follow p. 134. For maps of southeast China and Xunwu County, see pp. 5o-51.

Introduction

Introduction Mao Zedong made a key decision in May 1930. Rejecting urgent requests by the leaders of the Chinese Communist Party, (CCP) that he come to Shanghai for a major conference, Mao instead went to Xunwu County, in the southeastern corner of Jiangxi Province. At the place where Jiangxi, Fujian, and Guangdong meet, Mao found himself at a crossroads. The young Marxist was besieged with party directives (both Chinese and Russian) that he could not reconcile with the reality of the Chinese countryside he had been studying or fighting in since 1925. During the month or so that Mao spent in Xunwu County, he produced two compositions that would become key documents in CCP history. Together these documents represent Mao Zedong's effort to reconcile Marxist theory with Chinese reality. Mao began "The Work of Investigation" with a sentence that still echoes in China: "If you face some problems but have not made any investigations, then stop before you make any pronouncements on those problems." This essay, published for the first time in 1964 under the better-known title "Oppose Bookism" (Mao's original title for a shorter draft version), shared space on Mao's writing desk with the other key document he wrote in May 1930, the Report from Xunwu. Seeking to ground his own theoretical pronouncements in observable reality, Mao conducted a series of investigation meetings over a period of two weeks that al-

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lowed him to describe in fine detail the rhythms of both everyday life and revolutionary struggle in this border county. Originally scheduled for publication in 1937 and reported lost by 1941, Mao Zedong's Report from Xunwu was published for the first time at the end of 1982. We meet hundreds of people in this report, from Uncle Shitcrock, the most powerful man in the county, to peasants so poor that they sold their children to buy food. In between these extremes Mao sketched, among others, salt merchants, rich peasants, landlords, tailors, blacksmiths, butchers, firecracker makers, prostitutes, government officials, recipients of degrees granted by the now-distant Qing dynasty (16441912), young students, and women struggling to make a new life. We are told how much to pay for rice, wine, pork, and bean curd and how to borrow money, write a contract to rent land, and pay taxes. Local schools, temples, and ancestral halls are named and discussed, as are hair and clothing styles past and present, and lists of goods bought and sold at the periodic markets. Few details seem to have escaped Mao Zedong. Students of history, society, and culture, as well as students of revolution, Communism, Mao Zedong, and contemporary Chinese politics should find the Report from Xunwu illuminating. It opens a window on the process by which, at the local level, Mao and the CCP were able to transform the disasters of 1927, especially the split with the Nationalists (Kuomintang; KMT) and the failure of the Autumn Harvest Uprisings, into the triumphal establishment of a relatively secure revolutionary base in Jiangxi in 1931. The Report from Xunwu also sheds light on one aspect of the CCP's early history that has not received sufficient attention: the relationship between the national revolution implied in the "ris~ of the CCP" and the local struggles that were part of this broad picture. Too often these "local revolutions" have been reduced to footnotes in the history of the CCP. In order to understand one such local revolution, that in Xunwu

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County, some knowledge of the events in the bitter struggle for power that had split the ruling elite in Xunwu since at least 1916 is necessary. A key event in this particular narrative, the failed uprising that began on 25 March 1928, is described in some detail below, since the Report from Xunwu, written about two years later, is in part a record of vengeance. But the report is also a snapshot of local Chinese society at a critical point in the transition from late imperial times to the establishment of a new and viable regime. The Report from Xunwu can be mined for data on the society, economy, politics, and history of one county and region in China at this important juncture in Chinese history. Furthermore, the Report from Xunwu reveals an important stage in Mao's personal intellectual development. We can also place it in the context of the international attention paid to rural China by a wide range of observers in the 192o's and 193o's. This document was produced at an important moment in Mao Zedong's attempt to adapt Marxism to Chinese reality. The investigation meeting, and the insights that resulted, would become an important part of this ongoing effort. Mao's technique not only served his revolutionary purpose but directly challenged the methodology and perspectives of Western social scientists and their Chinese associates. We can trace the development of this aspect of Mao's thought and practice back to at least 1916. Finally, the 1982 publication of the Report from Xunwu is significant politically and adds to our understanding of the succession crisis following Mao's death in 1976. Deng Xiaoping used the Report from Xunwu to justify his assessment of the essence of this early period in the history of Chinese Communism. Deng knew the people and places of this period well, for he had been responsible for the administration of Xunwu from at least the spring of 1932 until April1933. Armed with this intimate knowledge, Deng was determined to write an unwritten chapter in Mao's life and highlight a time when Mao's adversaries in the CCP criticized him indirectly by

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lashing out at men like Deng and Mao's personal secretary, the Xunwu native Gu Bo. Deng proclaimed that visionaries like Mao, and himself, were "seeking truth from facts" and had been developing, from the earliest years, a specifically Chinese form of socialism. Given the contemporary significance of this document and the tortuous path, stretching over half a century, from composition to publication, the nature of the text itself, its compilation, and its authenticity and accuracy are important concerns. When Mao paused for about a month in Xunwu County, he had several goals dearly in mind. He wanted to survive, he wanted to protect the Fourth Army led by his comrade-inarms Zhu De, and he wanted the CCP, with a firm base in rural China, to lead a national revolution that would rid China of the twin scourges of warlords and imperialists. No one, not even Mao, could be absolutely certain what should be done, especially after the calamitous events of the previous three years. A lack of resolution was tearing the CCP apart in 1930. Founded some nine years earlier, the CCP had been allied with the KMT from 1923 to 1927. Their agreement allowed CCP members to join the KMT but retain their membership in the CCP. Although in retrospect a strange collaboration, at the time both the CCP and the KMT had rallied to the banner raised by the revolutionary hero Sun Yatsen. Adherents of both parties saw themselves as revolutionaries seeking to vanquish the warlords who had carved up China and to expel the foreign imperialists who wielded so much power. This fervor intensified after the May Thirtieth Incident in 1925. A student demonstration in Shanghai in support of a workers' strike ended in violence, with the death of eleven Chinese at the hands of the foreign-controlled police. This sparked protests, strikes, and boycotts by a broad segment of the Chinese population in Shanghai and elsewhere. A month later, on 1 July 1925, a Nationalist government was established

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in Canton, directly challenging the legitimacy of the warlord regime in Beijing that was the putative national government. The Canton government began consolidating its hold on the southern provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi in early 1926 and then, in July, turned its attention to nearby Hunan, sending troops to aid one of the claimants to power in that province. As the tide of battle turned in favor of the Canton government led by Chiang Kai-shek, and its new Hunan allies, Chiang declared, on 9 July, that the Northern Expedition had begun. With the goal of unifying China, Chiang left Canton for the north on 27 July. By the end of the year, political and military authorities allied with Canton had been established in the provincial capitals of Hunan (Changsha), Jiangxi (Nanchang), and Fujian (Fuzhou). But just as the armies making this possible traveled along three roads on their way north, so, too, the coalition fashioned under Sun Yatsen's leadership unraveled in three directions. The power of Sun's legacy-he had died in March 1925-was insufficient to bind these contentious revolutionary forces together. The more progressive wing of the KMT-the left wing-cooperated with the Communists, to the dismay of the KMT's right wing, led by Chiang Kai-shek. Relationships deteriorated. Throughout 1926 more and more Communists were pushed to the sidelines or deprived of their KMT membership. But not all-Mao Zedong was principal of the sixth class of the KMT's Peasant Movement Training Institute in Canton from May to October 1926.' Chiang Kai-shek's tolerance of Communists in the KMT camp decreased as his power increased. Nevertheless, the Nationalist government moved the capital from Canton to the city of Wuhan in Hubei, the center of power of the KMT's left wing, on 1 January 1927. But this arrangement did not last long. On 22 March Shanghai fell to Chiang's troops. Nanjing fell a day later. Then the front collapsed. On 12 April Chiang turned on workers in Shanghai, cutting down hundreds of them in cold blood. The specters of death or imprisonment

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stalked the CCP and its working-class allies in other places, and on 17 April the tension could no longer be tolerated. The Nationalist government in Wuhan dismissed Chiang as commander-in-chief. But Chiang had an army and could well afford to ignore the order; he established a new Nationalist government in Nanjing on 18 April. 2 Blood continued to flow. The Wuhan government, still under the control of the left wing of the KMT and its CCP allies, witnessed a further turn to the left in areas under its control. These leaders, impotent in the face of Chiang's might, were equally unable to influence the peasant movements under way in the countryside, especially to the south in nearby Hunan Province. Episodes of scattered violence became more numerous, and over one hundred landlords, duly tried and sentenced by Special Courts to Try Local Bullies and Evil Gentry, were executed in Hunan. But this was the beginning of the end. By 22 May 1927 Changsha had fallen to forces opposing the disintegrating Wuhan government, and in the ensuing White terror peasants were butchered in the tens of thousands.3 The CCP became more isolated. Purged from the ranks of even the KMT left in June and July,• the CCP, in defiance of reality, cloaked its action under the mantle of the KMT's left wing one more time. The failed Nanchang Uprising of 1 August 1927 marked the end of this alliance. The CCP was in shock. One final effort, this time in Hubei and Hunan, was the series of insurrections known as the Autumn Harvest Uprisings, which occurred from September to October 1927 and were led in part by Mao Zedong. These, too, were disasters, so much so that Mao called off a planned attack on Changsha. Instead, he gathered a thousand men and in October 1927 headed for Jinggangshan, a remote, mountainous area on the Hunan-Jiangxi border. There, in April1928, Mao combined his forces with those of Zhu De, a Northern Expedition commander who had recently led his troops into the CCP fold. Meanwhile, in Shanghai, Party Central was insisting, even

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after the tragedies of 1927, that a successful revolution still required gaining control of big cities, although it was now admitted that peasants and the Red Army could aid the urban proletariat and that radical redistribution of land-seizing the fields of landlords but protecting the fields of rich peasantswas the most effective means of mobilizing the peasants, especially poor peasants. At times Mao seemed sympathetic to these ideas, which are associated with Li Lisan, the dominant figure in the upper echelons of the CCP from June 1928 to October 1930. However, the degree of Mao's support for Li Lisan's policies is a hotly debated topic in China today.5 At the beginning of the mountain retreat of 1927-28, Mao advocated radical policies, but he was unable to maintain a secure base there and perhaps began thinking that prudence on the land question might be more advisable. Mao was still searching for answers when he and Zhu De left their mountain hideout on 14 January 1929. Leaving behind Peng Dehuai, like Zhu De a veteran of the Northern Expedition, to guard Jinggangshan, Mao and Zhu decided to skirt the enemy-controlled Gan River valley and moved south from Jinggangshan toward the Jiangxi-Guangdong border before turning their force of some 3,6oo men east toward Fujian. By 31 January they had reached Changpu, a market town in the southern part of Xunwu County. Mao and the Fourth Army paused to meet with local revolutionaries and to discuss how to overthrow the people who ran Xunwu County and establish a revolutionary base." Mao was speaking to a band of revolutionaries who were regrouping after a disastrous attempt in March 1928 to seize power in Xunwu. One of the survivors of that debacle, a young Xunwu revolutionary named Gu Bo, listened intently to Mao's comments.' The two men would meet again. After leaving Changpu, the main force of the Fourth Army turned north, skirting Xunwu City to the east at Jitan. There, on the morning of 2 February, Mao led this force against Jiangxi provincial troops in a desperate battle near the Xunwu

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INTRODUCTION

Gu Bo, circa 1930 (from Xia Daohan, "Gu Bo," in Zhonggong dangshi renwu zhuan, t')SJ, 12)

River. The survivors of this battle left Xunwu County the following day.• For the rest of 1929, Zhu and Mao would attempt to gain control of southern Jiangxi and parts of nearby Fujian. At the same time, Mao returned to some of the questions he had been asking on Jinggangshan. As he crisscrossed southern Jiangxi and western Fujian, Mao had numerous opportunities, like the one in Xunwu in January 1929, to test his theories against the experiences of local revolutionaries like Gu Bo. And by late 1929 and early 1930, there would be many successes to analyze in southern Jiangxi.9 But the record becomes sketchy at this point. In many of the standard histories of this period, which focus on leaders like Mao, Zhu De, and Peng Dehuai-all of whom were in the area-there is little information on the period December 1929 through May 1930. Only recently could scholars say for certain, for example, where Mao was in May 1930.10 We now

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know that he was in Xunwu making what was probably the most detailed investigation of local society he would ever make. Mao had many goals in mind. He did want to learn about social, economic, and political conditions in places like Xunwu, but he also wanted to gather data that would be useful to him as he sought to gain an advantage in the power struggle he was waging with Party Central in Shanghai. This explains, perhaps, the silences in the histories of this period for the first five months in 1930. What was to be done? Mao, like his Party Central colleagues in Shanghai, was still asking that question. Historians have pointed out the lack of significant policy differences between Mao and Li Lisan at this time. What seems more significant is Mao's opposition to Li Lisan's attempt to centralize party decisionmaking and ensure the responsiveness of lower-level cadres like Mao to the instructions of Party Central. This struggle over questions of power and responsibilities is symbolized, in fact, by the very existence of the Report from Xunwu, for Mao was in Xunwu at the precise moment when his presence was repeatedly requested by Li Lisan and Party Central at the National Congress of Delegates from Soviet Areas, held near Shanghai. 11 Mao refused to go, deciding instead to remain in southern Jiangxi, where he could study the cases of local revolution that were taking place under the leadership oflocal activists, and with the occasional assistance of the Fourth Army. Mao wanted to understand both how a revolution could be won through the efforts of peasants and how a mass-based party composed primarily of peasants could be built. This vision differed from the much smaller party organization advocated by men like Li Lisan and Wang Ming who were influenced by Moscow's plan for a party composed of intellectuals in alliance with an urban proletariat. 12 Xunwu County, in Jiangxi hill country, seemed to offer some answers to Mao's questions. The red flag hoisted over Xunwu City on 2 May 1930 had been raised in southern Xunwu by local Communists who had triumphed six months before Mao

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Zedong and Zhu De returned from the north. Mao would want to know everything about that victory. And in Comrade Gu Bo, a Xunwu native who at 24 years of age was thirteen years younger than Mao, he had a key to the history, the people, the economy, and the politics of the area. Gu Bo was the current leader of the revolution in Xunwu County that had consolidated the Communist grasp on the southern half of Xunwu. This contributed to the successful advance of the Fourth Army troops, which swept down from the north in late April. With the fall of Xunwu City on 2 May 1930, Gu Bo could survey once again the scene of the terrible defeat he and his comrades had suffered two years earlier, when the uprising begun on 25 March 1928 collapsed. This central event in the local history of the Communist movement in Xunwu defined the character of men and women; its shadow is cast throughout the Report from Xunwu. 13 It was part of a bitter factional struggle whose origins can be traced to the early 192o's. Glimpses of the struggle are captured in the Report from Xunwu, but it may be useful here to narrate salient events in the local history of Xunwu County from the early 192o's until the arrival of Mao in May 1930. In 1921 a group of young Xunwu students studying in nearby Mei County in Guangdong organized the Society of Fellow Students Studying in Guangdong. One founder of this group was He Zizhen, a teacher in Xunwu. Indeed he had taught Gu Bo, who also helped establish this society. As the political situation in China intensified, the tensions within the Society of Fellow Students became unbearable, and in 1925 radical students like Gu Bo left and organized a new society, the Xunwu Poor Peasant Cooperative Society. There were few poor peasants in this society, but its members felt they were fighting for the welfare of this segment of society. Gu Bo returned to Xunwu for summer vacation in 1925, and in June of that year the Cooperative Society held a large meeting in Xunwu City. According to information in the Report from Xunwu, this society attracted supporters from small-landlord

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families. The battle lines were forming, and the first blows came in 1927 in the national context of the KMT's purge of Communists in April, when the Cooperative Society faction clashed with He Zizhen's new organization, the New Xunwu Society. In the analysis of Mao and his informants, the New Xunwu Society represented the interests of middle and large landlords. Whatever its actual composition, the relationship between the factions identified with He Zizhen and his onetime student Gu Bo deteriorated further. This factionalism among the elite can be glimpsed in the societies just mentioned and the schools with which they were associated. The Cooperative Society faction sponsored the Sun Yatsen School (soon renamed the Sun Yatsen Middle School) in Xunwu City, with branches in five other places in Xunwu County. These schools appear to have been established in early 1928.14 Opposing this movement was a school associated with the New Xunwu Society led by men like He Zizhen. This was not a competition simply for students; there was a close correlation between educational ties, social connections, and political power. In early 1928, the balance of power tilted toward He Zizhen and his associates, who controlled the police and militia and some tax monies. Nevertheless, Gu Bo and his comrades tried to counter with armed forces gained by allying with a local secret society, the Three Point Society (Sandian Hui). This society, with adherents throughout Xunwu County, was apparently used as a cover for efforts at organizing peasant associations.15 Gu Bo had also secretiy established a committee of the Xunwu branch of the Chinese Communist Party early in 1928.'6 Although we have no evidence of the responsiveness of Gu and his associates to the leadership of either regional or national Communist organs, at this time, in one of the darkest hours of the CCP, official policy called for establishing revolutionary organizations called soviets that would seize administrative and political power wherever possible.'7 Whether or not people like Gu Bo were carrying out party directives, it is

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clear that southern Jiangxi was in the midst of troubled times in early 1928. A report dated 20 March in the North China Herald mentioned violence and unrest in areas north of Xunwu.' 8 This was the background for the 25 March 1928 uprising. Although the Report from Xunwu often refers to the uprising, it reveals little about the event itself. Nor was it covered in newspapers like the North China Herald, even though its correspondents discussed Communist activities in several other areas of Jiangxi.' 9 Fortunately, Dr. Cyril E. Bousfield, a medical missionary stationed in Xunwu since 1912, wrote detailed reports just after the uprising. Bousfield began his report of 29 March 1928: "The experiences of the past six days have been almost too terrible to write." 20 Bousfield's ideas on the lines of division in Xunwu differed from those of Mao. For Bousfield, attitudes toward Christianity and the West were the decisive criteria. The Sun Yatsen Middle School faction, anti-Christian and anti-imperialist, was opposed to the New Xunwu faction, whose supporters were favorable toward Christianity. Bousfield began with an account of the events of 23 March, when some one hundred "robbers," calling themselves "Communists," attacked the "Hsin-Sun [New Xunwu] school" and "destroyed everything in it." On the second day, according to Bousfield, the Sun Yatsen faction called up support from all quarters, and the following day a "new lot of robbers began to pour in." This third day in Bousfield's narrative-Sunday, 25 March-marks the beginning of the uprising in CCP historiography.2' Two days later one of Bousfield's Chinese associates made contact with a central committee, headed by Gu Bo, which declared that a soviet government had been established. One of the first orders of this new Xunwu soviet was that land deeds were to be handed over for burning, on pain of death. The goal of these men, or "boys" as Bousfield called them, was to destroy all government, family ties, and religion.22 To emphasize this rhetorical attack on local government, the Xunwu County yamen was torched during the widespread destruc-

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tion, looting, and killings in Xunwu City and the countryside that reportedly took place on 28 March. But the uprising ended as quickly as it began when word came during the night that government troops were on their way to Xunwu City. The insurgents fled, and quiet returned to Xunwu on 29 March 1928, followed by a White terror, with numerous executions of the insurgents and looting of their homes. Bousfield reported on 1 April that ten summary executions had been performed by afternoon. After a brief interrogation of a suspect, "there is a five minutes' walk to the river bank, and the crack of a rifle or two, and they walk back without him." Bousfield reprised the events of 2 April: "More were shot to-day. It was raining, so the river bank was considered too far. They took them to the South Gate, which is about 2 minutes' walk nearer, for execution." 23 Men like He Zizhen, who had fled the county, returned and re-established control, backed by provincial troops. Their counterrevolutionary attacks could be devastating. The Report from Xunwu tells us that in Datian, where Gu Bo had grown up, "nearly a hundred able-bodied men and dozens of elderly people and children were killed. In some cases, entire families were slaughtered. Some thirty people became Red Guards or went to other counties to participate in revolutionary work. The population of the township was reduced from Boo to 6oo, and much land was left uncultivated." Gu Bo survived the immediate suppression and fled to Guangdong. But he returned a few months later, in the summer of 1928, to continue the fight for control of Xunwu County. Forsaking Xunwu City, Gu Bo and his associates concentrated their attention on the countryside in southern Xunwu. Gu persuaded a comrade, Kuang Caicheng, to return from Singapore to help him organize the peasants to engage in rent resistance and to help build an armed force of guerrillas.24 It was this force that, in November 1929, established a Xunwu Military Committee on Yangtian Peak and changed the name of the Xunwu Chinese Communist Party Branch to the

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Xunwu Chinese Communist Party County Committee.25 Revolutionary activities intensified in the Datian area, where Gu Bo was able to supervise the redistribution of the land of one of Xunwu's eight great landlords, Mei Hongxing, Gu Bo's maternal grandfather and the man in whose home Gu had been raised. Mei Hongxing, who had reportedly just died, and the more affluent members of the Mei family, who had fled to Guangdong, were spared the humiliation of personally witnessing these events. With this triumph, the organs of revolutionary power-the Xunwu Military Committee, renamed the Xunwu County Revolutionary Committee, and the CCP County Committee-left their mountain stronghold and established their revolutionary headquarters in Datian.26 This land revolution in the southern part of Xunwu, discussed in great detail in Chapter 5 of the Report from Xunwu, was a prelude to the final assault that united the local Communist forces in the southern half of the county, referred to as the Second Battalion of the Fiftieth Regiment of the Red Army, and the Fourth Army. According to a recently published chronology of these events, on 11 April1930 Mao convened a meeting in Xinfeng (Jiangxi) of leaders of the Fourth Army that decided to march on the county seats of Huichang (Jiangxi) and Xunwu. Reaching Huichang first, on 17 April, Mao paused to receive a group of soldiers from the Xunwu battalion. The march on Xunwu continued, and by the end of April a major victory had been won in Chengjiang District, north of Xunwu City, by the Xunwu Red Army battalion and troops of the Fourth Army. At that time Communist forces reportedly captured over a thousand armed combatants, along with a large quantity of ammunition. But Mao himself did not witness this, having remained behind in Huichang. From afar Mao could hear of the Red Army's capture of Xunwu City on 2 May and the establishment of the Xunwu County Soviet on 6 May 1930. Shortly thereafter Mao arrived in the county. 27 As occupying troops had done in the past, Mao commandeered the compound of the American Baptist Tremont Temple Hospital, not

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far from South Gate of Xunwu City, for his headquarters. It was here that he conducted the investigations that resulted in the Report from Xunwu. 28 With the Red Army largely in control of the county-Mao mentions pockets of resistance in strongholds in Shuangqiao and Huangxiang districts-he could tum his attention to other projects. One was an investigation of Xunwu County; the other a theoretical essay whose central argument was the importance of informing theoretical speculations with careful empirical investigations. Desiring to investigate conditions in Xunwu County, Mao drew on the efforts to survey landholdings launched the previous November by Gu Bo and his comrades. This first investigation failed, however, because it asked for too much information, including population, class status, cultural level, ethnicity, age, landownership, land boundaries, land area, and yearly harvest. In January 1930 the procedure had been simplified: only the name of the household head and information on the number of family members, how many could farm, how many made a living in commerce or industry, the amount of land they owned, and the quantity of land they should receive in the land redistribution were required. According to the Report from Xunwu, this information was collected by "conferences on the redistribution of land" made up of one delegate from each household. A table was set up for each village, and a representative took down the required information. This information was then turned over to the township government, which would check the figures and then announce the redistribution. Subsequently, investigators dispatched by the township governments went to all the villages to check the validity of the peasants' reports. When we consider that Gu Bo had essentially set up a county government in exile in Datian at the end of 1929, a government he moved to Xunwu City in May 1930, we can get a better sense of the origin of much of the detailed information contained in theReport from XunwU. 29 When the Xunwu investigation began, then, in May 1930,

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many data had already been collected. But Mao sought additional information from a group of native informants. Relying on the connections of Gu Bo and introductions provided by him, Mao gathered together a recipient of a Qing civil service examination degree, a former president of the local chamber of commerce, an ex-bureaucrat who had been responsible for county government finances, some peasants and merchants, and several cadres. Mao encouraged the participation of these eleven people, who ranged in age from 22 to 61, in a series of investigation meetings held over a two-week period. These informants provided personal knowledge on a variety of topics and also contributed documents to the investigation effort. With the help of these people, Mao produced a report of approximately 8o,ooo characters that covered diverse subjects: administration, commerce, transportation, communication, education, land tenure, taxation, religion, and social practices. Much depended, of course, on the life experiences represented by Mao's informants, who brought their particular expertise to the investigatiqns. Especially detailed information probably derives from close quizzing by Mao of the firsthand experiences of his informants. For example, the information on the structure and operation of general stores was gained, most probably, from Guo Youmei, a store owner and a former president of the chamber of commerce. Guo was also the probable source of the intriguing discussion of the United Welfare Society, which had characteristics of a secret society, a religious sect, and a social club, for Guo had been a member of the by-then defunct society. The detailed information on taxation in Xunwu County may well have been provided by Liu Liangfan, who had been involved in county tax collection in the past. The extended discussion of foundries and blacksmithing could have been based on Zhao Jingqing's experiences, which included ironworking. Each of these men attended all the investigation meetings. Further examples

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19

include Mao's riveting discussion of the practice of selling children, drawn entirely from the testimony of three peasants who had firsthand knowledge of this practice, or Chen Zhuoyun, whose experience in a tailor's shop is probably evidenced in the detailed discussion of clothing styles, past and present, in Xunwu County. Mao's informants were more than sources of information, however; they could also be participants in the factional and revolutionary struggles that had been rending Xunwu for over a decade. For example, Guo Youmei may have been using Mao's investigations to settle old scores. As Mao pointed out in Chapter 3 of his report, Guo Youmei's shop had been ransacked by government troops, supporting one side of a factional battle, in a disturbance in June 1916. After the collapse of Xunwu's short-lived independence from the control of a Jiangxi provincial government backed by armies from the north, Guo Youmei's shop suffered a serious financial loss. The possibility that Guo's probable opponents in 1916 were members of the Pan lineage deepens our understanding of the portrayal of the anti-Communist Pan in the Report from Xunwu. 30 But these in-depth looks at local society, scattered as they are throughout the text, are accompanied by information that could not have been entirely uncollected before Mao's arrival, in particular the long lists of landlords, citing landholdings, political attitudes, and educational experience. We can find indirect evidence for this view when we study the list of middle landlords, which names 93 people whose holdings were in the southern part of the county, but only 23 from the northern half, including the county seat, which did not come under Communist control until April and May 1930. It is this information, and the probable way in which it was collected, that alerts us to the broader signficance of this text. Although we may indeed be justified in treating the text as source material for studies in the fields of, for example, history, anthropology,

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INTRODUCTION

sociology, commerce, agriculture, and education, it is well to keep in mind its significance as a political document, as a document of a revolution-in-the-making. I have attempted, in the preceding pages, to draw attention to some of the political, intellectual, social, and economic contexts of the Report from Xunwu. But there is one more interpretive key to use in opening this text: that of history. In many respects both Mao Zedong and Gu Bo confronted China's past, so embedded in the present, with a similar transformatory zeal. We can see evidence of this dialogue of past and present in the relationship established between teacher and pupil, one of the most fundamental personal connections in Chinese society. Mao was deeply influenced by his formal and informal relationship with Yang Changji, one of his teachers in Changsha and a man whose intellectual reputation extended far beyond Mao's home province of Hunan. Yang, who had moved north in 1918 to teach philosophy at Beijing University, opened doors for the young Mao in Beijing. This was more than an intellectual affair, for Mao would fall in love with his teacher's daughter, Yang Kaihui, and eventually marry her.3 ' Gu Bo's experience may have had parallels with Mao's. Our information about Gu is less complete,_but we do know that he was able to persuade one of Xunwu's leading scholars, Zeng Youlan, to serve as the titular head of the revolutionary Sun Yatsen Middle School. In the late Qing, Zeng had gone to Japan to study law, becoming the first person from Xunwu to go overseas to continue his education. On his return to China, he served in government positions in Fengtian, Beijing, and Hubei. When he finally returned to Xunwu, he turned his attention to local education and politics. In fact, Zeng Youlan had taught the man who was county magistrate in Xunwu in 1928.32 Ties such as this with an esteemed member of Xunwu's intellectual and political elite served to protect student activists like Gu Bo even as they attacked the established order. And like Mao, Gu may have married the daugh-

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21

ter of his patron; it is possible that Gu Bo's wife, Zeng Biyi, was Zeng Youlan's daughter. These tidbits of personal history illuminate an important feature in the personalities of men like Mao and Gu: their ability to converse on both an intellectual and a personal level with the older generation. For Mao, this became a formal part of his method of investigation: he explicitly directed cadres conducting investigation meetings to question and listen to old people, people who might be able to interpret today's reality in the light of past experience. Mao wanted more than facts; he wanted to know why things were the way they were. Mao had found in Gu Bo a comrade in spirit, for Gu seems to have entered into a dialogue with the past in both intellectual and personal terms. Because of this, we can see in the Report from Xunwu how things appeared in May 1930 and we can see why they did so. Gu Bo provided an array of connections to men rich in experience, men who may have seen in Gu Bo a path to the future that reached back into Xunwu's past. For Gu Bo was, they all knew, a Tangbei Gu; that is, he was born in the village of Tangbei in Huangxiang District. Huangxiang was a beautiful valley renowned for the scholarly achievements of its sons. In the section on culture in Xunwu, Mao writes, "Of the 6oo Gu in the single-surname village ofTangbei in Huangxiang, eleven are xiucai [imperial degree holders]. This is the place where xiucai are most concentrated .... In the whole county the old culture was richest among the Tangbei Gu. They occupied a central position in administration in the past." Gu's paternal grandfather, Gu Youyao, had won an examination degree (bagong) in 1897. So too had Gu's maternal grandfather, the powerful landlord Mei Hongxing, who had been granted an imperial degree (lingong) during the Qing. In a sense, Gu's collaboration with Mao in investigating Xunwu County carried on a family tradition, for Mei Hongxing had been an editor of the 1899 edition of the local history and gazetteer of Xunwu County.33 Lest we think that Tangbei native Gu Bo was misleading

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INTRODUCTION

Mao about his family's position, we can cite the words of Mrs. Lillie Snowden Bousfield on the people of Huangxiang: Among the many mountains and hills of the southern part of Kiangsi [Jiangxi] Province are valleys of great interest, with their towns and villages, tea gardens and rice fields. One of these valleys extends for some miles, between hills of beautiful scenery. But the most interesting part of the valley is not its scenery, but its people and their homes, unlike the ordinary, and also the family history behind them. . . . The people who lived in this valley were remarkable. In their pedigrees, a long line of ancestry, were many famous men who had won favor under ancient emperors and had received tokens of esteem. Their women were famous for their virtue, and were carefully trained, though few were taught to read and write. They had their high code of morals, and were very proud. 34 We do not know what Gu Bo thought of this heritage, although his activities were certainly those of a person groomed for leadership. Gu had shown scholarly promise as a youth, to the delight of his maternal grandfather in whose house he was growing up. Gu's father, an impoverished teacher in a village school, had been forced to send Gu Bo from Huangxiang, to nearby Datian. As one of Xunwu's eight great landlords, Gu's maternal grandfather, Mei Hongxing, was able to nourish the precocious Gu> By 1920, when Gu turned fourteen, he had exhausted the educational opportunities available in Xunwu, and he was sent, on Grandfather Mei's money, to nearby Mei County in eastern Guangdong Province. As he continued his studies at a middle school run by American missionaries, Gu became aware of the political and intellectual changes sweeping China and soon took his place in the vanguard, joining the CCP in 1925.35 With his growing radicalization, Gu became estranged from

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23

his family. He reportedly refused to use the "blood money" gained by his grandfather's "exploitation" of peasants to pay his tuition and living expenses. Instead, he supported himself by teaching Chinese at the Mei County Girls Normal School.'6 But this familial estrangement did not mean that Gu Bo cut his ties to the intellectual and political establishment in Xunwu. As we have seen, he was able to enlist the support of one of the most eminent men in Xunwu, Zeng Youlan, in sponsoring the Sun Yatsen Middle School. All of this explains, in part, the richness of the explications of traditional institutions and patterns of power in the Report from Xunwu. The section on the landholdings of lineages, religious associations, and administrative bodies and the section on culture give detailed information on these topics. We can be sure that Gu Bo was an important source, or at least introduced Mao to the sources, for much of these data. In the Report from Xunwu, we can see the struggle between the traditional political and intellectual elite and the new forces, represented by men like Gu Bo and, to some extent, He Zizhen. The world of late imperial China was still a real presence in Xunwu in 1930. Land that had been set aside for educational purposes in the previous century was still referred to in traditional terms: Confucian Temple land, Sojourning Stipend land, or Shrine for Esteeming Righteousness land. There were still men wearing their hair in queues, the hairstyle mandated by the Qing dynasty, and some of these men, according to Mao, still hoped for the restoration of a monarchy. Hundreds of holders of Qing degrees were still alive in Xunwu; the Report sets the number at 400. Although most of these men had little power, it had not been long since four of their number had been pushed from Xunwu's political stage by men like Gu Bo and He Zizhen. The Report from Xunwu is the earliest surviving example of a formal local investigation by Mao. He had displayed a passion for facts while attending normal school in Changsha. In

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INTRODUCTION

the summer of 1916, Mao and a friend from school set off on a walking tour of five counties in the vicinity of Changsha in Hunan Province. Possessing no money at the outset, the two young men roamed at will, depending on the hospitality of villagers. Mao's diary of this trip circulated among friends, and several dispatches were published in a Hunan journal.37 It was a pattern that would continue. On his way by rail to Beijing in 1918, Mao took advantage of a delay caused by the flooding of the Yellow River to make an impromptu investigation of local conditions in Henan Province.38 Mao's continued interest in local social and economic conditions was apparent in two investigations he made in 1920. During a tenday stop in Wuhan in early 1920 during a journey from Changsha to Beijing, Mao took extensive notes on local conditions, an effort he repeated in November of that year in Pingxiang County in Jiangxi. 39 Mao returned to Pingxiang County a year later, in the fall of 1921, and visited the Anyuan district. In an attempt to organize the miners in this area on the HunanJiangxi border, Mao spent a week in the fall of 1921 investigating the lives of miners and their families. Mao made subsequent visits and investigations in September 1922 and in the winter a few months later.40 But the series of investigations that became the best known was made in the early months of 1927 in and around his home county of Xiangtan in Hunan. Perhaps recalling the investigation he had made during a visit home late in 1924,4 ' Mao toured five counties in about five weeks early in 1927. Taking his notes on them north with him to Wuhan, Mao proceeded to write the famous "Report on the Peasant Movement in Hunan," which was published in March 1927.42 He continued to hone his technique. Forced to flee to a mountain stronghold on the Hunan-Jiangxi border in late 1927, Mao compiled two more reports on counties in western Jiangxi. None of the county investigations of 1927 are known to survive. Mao left his Hunan investigations with his wife, Yang Kaihui, and later surmised that her death in Changsha at the

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25

hands of the KMT in 1930 also meant the destruction of his reports. Likewise, the two reports on counties in Hunan and Jiangxi, entrusted to a colleague, were also lost, to Mao's particular regret. For fifty years the Report from Xunwu, too, appeared to have suffered this fate. Its remarkable re-emergence in 1982 will be discussed shortly. The Report from Xunwu represents the crystallization of a method of inquiry that Mao had been developing for almost fifteen years: the "investigation meeting" (diaocha hui), a method that would eventually become a key element in the "mass line" approach to establishing communications between the central leadership of the Communist party and China's millions. In a document entitled "The Work of Investigation" that was written in the same month as the Report from Xunwu, Mao instructed Communist cadres in the art of inquiry. In an "investigation meeting," a group of people, from three to two dozen, gathered to discuss a set agenda. As mentioned above, Mao stressed the importance of involving old people rich in experience, people who understood not only current conditions, but also the reasons for those conditions. Mao insisted that these investigations could not be delegated, subjects must be investigated in depth, and a record must be kept by the investigators. 43 Mao's rural investigations, which focused on market town economies as well, were conducted during a time when international attention was directed at China's agrarian crisis. Analytical tools from the social sciences and Marxism were being used by, among others, James Yen, John Lossing Buck, Sidney Gamble, Chen Hansheng, and Xue Muqiao. The efforts of these pioneers resulted in Gamble's Ting Hsien: A North China Rural Community and North China Villages, publications by Japanese scholars associated with the Research Department of the South Manchurian Railway Company,44 and articles by Chinese scholars in journals like Rural China (Zhongguo nongcun). An influential work by an outsider should be added to this distinguished list. The eminent British historian R. H. Tawney,

26 / INTRODUCTION

who had published a work on the transition to capitalist agriculture in England entitled The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century, was asked to turn his attention to twentiethcentury China's agrarian problems. The resulting work, Land and Labor in China, originated as a memorandum for a conference of the Institute of Pacific Relations in Shanghai in November 1931. Tawney synthesized current research, including work being done at the University of Nanking, Nankai University in Tianjin, James Yen's work in North China, and John Buck's rural surveys. 45 Mao took direct aim at the methodology of Western social science, for he feared its power to turn Communist party members engaged in research away from Marxist analysis. But even Marxist analysis had its pitfalls. What was maddening to Mao was the tendency of party members steeped in Marxist theory to become as "bookish" as scholars engaged in social science research. Mao had no problem with scholarly endeavors, but he insisted in "The Work of Investigation" that they be grounded in investigations of actual conditions.46 In a crucial passage in "The Work of Investigation," Mao criticized certain kinds of Communist investigators and social science-oriented scholars. The thrust of Mao's argument was to redirect the attention of investigators from the general to the particular. Mao, often accused of being a "mere empiricist" by more theoretically attuned rivals in the Communist party, disparaged some of the investigations being carried out under the auspices of the Red Army. It was as if the people in towns were being viewed by someone on a high mountaintop, he chided. Mao argued that investigators should be looking at more than land tenancy arrangements among peasant proprietors (zigeng nang), semi-peasant proprietors (ban zigeng nong), and tenants (diannong)-terms of analysis used in contemporary social science investigations-and he emphasized the importance of class analysis that identified rich peasants, middle peasants, and poor peasants. Mao reiterated this point in expressing his belief that trade and commerce should be

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27

analyzed not just in terms of the various trades but also in terms of the relative size and the characteristics of the strata of small, medium, and large merchants. 47 All researchers have agendas and Mao was no exception: the purpose of research was "to determine correct tactics for the [revolutionary] struggle, to determine which class is the mainstay of the revolutionary struggle, which class we ought to make an alliance with, which class we must strike down." 48 To this end, Mao had outlined what he felt was a correct method of investigation. In the Report from Xunwu, we have a record of Mao formulating this empirically based approach to revolution. Certainly aware of classical Marxist class analysis and the types of analysis being conducted by Westerners and Western-oriented Chinese scholars, Mao was attempting, in the Report from Xunwu, to make analyses of local power relations and politics take precedence over investigations that imposed theory on the facts. Mao's writings of May 1930-"The Work of Investigation" and the Report from Xunwu-are an important conjunction of theory and practice. The Report from Xunwu tells us not only about Xunwu Coun,ty, but also about the working out in practice of investigation methods that Mao felt were crucial to making revolution. The success of Communist mobilization efforts in the late 1930's and 194o's would rest on intimate knowledge of local power relations and politics; the theoretical definitions of class analysis could be applied creatively. What would matter was ensuring that the party's friends possessed the numbers and resources to triumph over the party's enemies.•• It is possible that the Report from Xunwu might have remained a mere footnote to history. But the fates of Mao Zedong, Gu Bo, the Report from Xunwu, and, significantly, Deng Xiaoping were intertwined in the early 193o's, a historical fact that may explain the publication of the report and the symbolic re-emergence of Gu Bo in the early 198o's. Gu Bo had left

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INTRODUCTION

Xunwu in June 1930 to assist Mao in his role as head of the Political Secretariat of the Front Committee of what would become, in August 1930, the First Front Army. This committee was responsible for southern and western Jiangxi, western Fujian, and eastern Guangdong. Gu Bo's close association with Mao contributed to Gu's demotion in 1931, when he lost his Front Committee post.50 Sometime in late 1931 or early 1932, Gu became county party secretary in Huichang, just north of Xunwu. Gu probably stayed on in Huichang after he was replaced by Deng Xiaoping, also a victim of factional infighting, in the spring of 1932.51 At this point, Deng was able to extend his control into Xunwu County as well as neighboring An yuan County. Mao himself had been in Anyuan County, where, on 24 June 1932, after hearing a report from rural cadres, he ordered an armed uprising and establishment of a revolutionary base. Mao also ordered the Red Army to supply the local partisans with guns and ammunition. 52 Sometime in July, at a meeting convened in Yunmenling, in southern Huichang County, representatives assembled from Huichang, Anyuan, and Xunwu decided that a committee headed by Deng would administer all three counties.53 These actions would ultimately lead to more attacks on Mao, Deng, and Gu. Wang Ming and the Twenty-eight Bolsheviks, Moscow's men in China, strengthened their hold on the Central Committee. With the transfer of the Central Committee from Shanghai to Ruijin, the county just north of Huichang, in early 1933, indirect attacks on Mao and direct attacks on his allies increased. The 4 April1933 directive by the Central Committee, attacking the so-called Luo Ming line, was an attack on men like Deng, Gu Bo, and Mao's brother Zetan. All were demoted from various posts in the Red Army and in the party and suffered the public humiliation of being stripped of their guns. 54 The Central Committee had been unhappy, in particular, with the resolutions issued by the special threecounty committee headed, until his demotion, by Deng Xiaoping.55 Gu Bo, who had been in Ruijin, was assigned to

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29

Deng Xiaoping (from Chinese Communist Party, Central Committee, Department for Research on Party Literature, and Xinhua News Agency, eds., Deng Xiaoping (Beijing: Central Party Literature Publishing House, t-

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