Renewable Materials and Green Technology Products: Environmental and Safety Aspects 1st Edition 9781771889278, 9781003055471, 2020048744, 2020048745

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Editors
Table of Contents
Contributors
Abbreviations
Preface
1. Green Synthesized Carbon-Based Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Properties
2. Microwave-Assisted Synthesis: A New Tool in Green Technology
3. Global Abatement of Air Pollution Through Green Technology Routes
4. Application of Green Technology in Water and Wastewater Treatments
5. Green Energy: Renewable Power Generation from Solar PV Cells
6. Green Synthesized Carbon-Based Nanomaterials: Applications and Future Developments
7. Development of Green Technology Through Renewable and Sustainable Materials
8. Green Technologies for Nutrient Cycles in Crop and Livestock Systems Management
9. Bionanocomposite Materials and Their Applications
10. A Study on Magnetic Metal Carbon Mesocomposites Green Synthesis Peculiarities with Point of Chemical Mesoscopics View
11. The Role of Nanostructure Activity in Selected Green Material Modification
Index

Citation preview

RENEWABLE MATERIALS AND

GREEN TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS

Environmental and Safety Aspects

RENEWABLE MATERIALS AND

GREEN TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS

Environmental and Safety Aspects

Edited by Shrikaant Kulkarni, PhD

Ann Rose Abraham, PhD

A. K. Haghi, PhD

First edition published 2021 Apple Academic Press Inc. 1265 Goldenrod Circle, NE, Palm Bay, FL 32905 USA 4164 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, ON, L7L 1A4 Canada

CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 USA 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN UK

© 2021 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Apple Academic Press exclusively co-publishes with CRC Press, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors, editors, and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors, editors, and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected] Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Title: Renewable materials and green technology products : environmental and safety aspects / edited by Shrikaant Kulkarni, PhD, Ann Rose Abraham, PhD, A.K. Haghi, PhD. Names: Kulkarni, Shrikaant, editor. | Abraham, Ann Rose, editor. | Haghi, A. K., editor. Description: First edition. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20200370723 | Canadiana (ebook) 20200370979 | ISBN 9781771889278 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781003055471 (PDF) Subjects: LCSH: Green technology. | LCSH: Nanostructured materials. | LCSH: Nanotechnology—Environmental aspects. | LCSH: Green chemistry. Classification: LCC TD145 .R46 2021 | DDC 628—dc23 Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Kulkarni, Shrikaant, editor. | Abraham, Ann Rose, editor. | Haghi, A. K., editor. Title: Renewable materials and green technology products : environmental and safety aspects / edited by Shrikaant Kulkarni, Ann Rose Abraham, A.K. Haghi. Description: First edition. | Palm Bay, FL : Apple Academic Press, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: "Renewable Materials and Green Technology Products: Environmental and Safety Aspects looks at the design, manufacture, and use of efficient, effective, safe, and more environmentally benign chemical products and processes. It includes a broad range of application-based solutions to the development of renewable materials and green technology. The latest trends in the green synthesis and properties of CNs are presented in the first chapter of this book for generating social awareness about sustainable developments. The book goes on to highlight the naissance and progressive trail of microwave-assisted synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles, for a clean and green technology tool. Chapters discuss green technological alternatives for the global abatement of air pollution, effective use and treatment of water and wastewater, renewable power generation from solar PV cells, carbon-based nanomaterials synthesized using green protocol for sustainable development, green technologies that help to achieve economic development without harming the environment, technical solutions to cut down the quantum of N losses, conventional processing techniques in developing the bionanocomposites as the biocatalyst, and more"-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020048744 (print) | LCCN 2020048745 (ebook) | ISBN 9781771889278 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781003055471 (ebook) Subjects: MESH: Nanotechnology | Nanostructures | Green Chemistry Technology | Sustainable Development | Renewable Energy Classification: LCC R857.N34 (print) | LCC R857.N34 (ebook) | NLM QT 36.5 | DDC 610.28/6--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020048744 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020048745 ISBN: 978-1-77188-927-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-00305-547-1 (ebk)

About the Editors

Shrikaant Kulkarni, PhD Assistant Professor, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Pune, India E-mail: [email protected] Shrikaant Kulkarni, PhD, has 37 years of teaching and research experi­ ence at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. He has been teaching subjects such as engineering chemistry, green chemistry, nanotech­ nology, analytical chemistry, catalysis, chemical engineering materials, industrial organization, and management, to name a few, over the years. He possesses master’s degrees in Chemistry, Business Management, Economics, Political Science; an MPhil and PhD in Chemistry; as well as other diplomas in HR, Industrial Psychology, Higher Education, Population Education, etc. He has published over 100 research papers in national and international journals and conferences. He has authored 18 book chapters in CRC, Springer, and Elsevier books. He has edited two books in green engineering and renewable materials, which are in the production stage to be published by Apple Academic Press/CRC Press in 2020–2021. Another three books—on carbon nanotubes for green environment and carbon-based nanomaterials for energy storage and artificial intelligence for chemical sciences—are in the process of development. He has coauthored four textbooks on chemistry as well. His areas of interests are analytical and green and sustainable chemistry. He is a reviewer and editorial board member of many journals in green and analytical chemistry of international repute. He has been invited by UNESCO to give a talk on “Green Chemistry Education for Sustainable Development” at the IUPAC international conference on green chem­ istry held at Bangkok (Thailand) in September 2018, which was well received. He is an esteemed team member of UNSDG working for the attainment of sustainable development goals. He was appointed as an innovation summit judge in a Conrad challenge competition for teams from across the world, sponsored by NASA. He has been instrumental in formulating and coordinating RIO & COP programs dedicated to

vi

About the Editors

sustainable development at his institute by UNCSD. He has worked as a resource person for various national and international events. Ann Rose Abraham, PhD Assistant Professor, Department of Basic Sciences, Amal Jyothi College of Engineering, Kanjirappally, Kerala, India E-mail: [email protected] Ann Rose Abraham, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Basic Sciences, Amal Jyothi College of Engineering, Kanjirappally, Kerala, India. Dr. Abraham was involved in teaching and also served as the examiner for valuation of answer scripts of Engi­ neering Physics at APJ Abdul Kalam Kerala Technological University. She has research experience at various national institutes, including Bose Institute, SAHA Institute of Nuclear Physics, UGC-DAE CSR Centre, Kolkata, and has collaborated with various international labora­ tories, such as the University of Johannesburg, South Africa; Institute of Physics, Belgrade; etc. She is a recipient of a Young Researcher Award in the area of physics. Dr. Abraham has delivered invited lectures and sessions at national and international conferences. During her tenure as a doctoral fellow, she taught and mentored students at the postgraduate level at the International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, India. She has co-authored many book chapters and co-edited books. She has a number of publications to her credit published in many peer-reviewed journals of international repute. Dr. Abraham has received her MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees in Physics from the School of Pure and Applied Physics, Mahatma Gandhi Univer­ sity, Kerala, India. Her PhD thesis was on “Development of Hybrid Mutliferroic Materials for Tailored Applications.” She has expertise in the field of materials science, nanomagnetic materials, multiferroics, and polymeric nanocomposites.

About the Editors

vii

A. K. Haghi, PhD Professor Emeritus of Engineering Sciences, Former Editor-in-Chief, International Journal of Chemoinformatics and Chemical Engineering and Polymers Research Journal; Member, Canadian Research and Development Center of Sciences and Culture E-mail: [email protected] A. K. Haghi, PhD, is the author and editor of 200 books as well as 1000 published papers in various journals and conference proceedings. Dr. Haghi has received several grants, consulted for a number of major corporations, and is a frequent speaker to national and international audi­ ences. Since 1983, he served as professor at several universities. He is former Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Chemoinformatics and Chemical Engineering and Polymers Research Journal; and is on the editorial boards of many international journals. He is also a member of the Canadian Research and Development Center of Sciences and Cultures (CRDCSC), Montreal, Quebec, Canada. He holds a BSc in urban and environmental engineering from the University of North Carolina (USA), an MSc in mechanical engineering from North Carolina A&T State University (USA), a DEA in applied mechanics, acoustics, and materials from the Université de Technologie de Compiègne (France), and a PhD in engineering sciences from Université de Franche-Comté (France).

Contents

Contributors......................................................................................................... xi

Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... xiii

Preface .............................................................................................................. xvii

1.

Green Synthesized Carbon‑Based Nanomaterials:

Synthesis and Properties ............................................................................ 1

Binila K Korah, Neena John Plathanam, Anu Rose Chacko,

Mamatha Susan Punnoose, Thomas Abraham, and Beena Mathew

2.

Microwave‑Assisted Synthesis: A New Tool in

Green Technology...................................................................................... 55

Sreerenjini C. R., Bhagyalakshmi Balan, Gladiya Mani, and Suresh Mathew

3.

Global Abatement of Air Pollution Through Green

Technology Routes .................................................................................... 75

Sijo Francis, Remya Vijayan, Ebey P. Koshy, and Beena Mathew

4.

Application of Green Technology in Water and

Wastewater Treatments ............................................................................ 95

Remya Vijayan, Sijo Francis, and Beena Mathew

5.

Green Energy: Renewable Power Generation from

Solar PV Cells.......................................................................................... 113

M. A. Asha Rani, M. Chakkarapani, and Pranjit Barman

6.

Green Synthesized Carbon‑Based Nanomaterials:

Applications and Future Developments................................................ 135

Anu Rose Chacko, Neena John Plathanam, Binila K Korah,

Thomas Abraham, and Beena Mathew

7.

Development of Green Technology Through Renewable and

Sustainable Materials ............................................................................. 167

Remya Vijayan, Sijo Francis, and Beena Mathew

8.

Green Technologies for Nutrient Cycles in Crop and

Livestock Systems Management............................................................ 183

Shrikaant Kulkarni

x

9.

Contents

Bionanocomposite Materials and Their Applications.......................... 211

Shrikaant Kulkarni

10. A Study on Magnetic Metal Carbon Mesocomposites Green

Synthesis Peculiarities with Point of Chemical Mesoscopics View..... 247

V. I. Kodolov, V. V. Kodolova–Chukhontzeva, N. S. Terebova, and I. N. Shabanova

11. The Role of Nanostructure Activity in Selected

Green Material Modification ................................................................. 255

V. I. Kodolov, V. V. Kodolova–Chukhontzeva, Yu V. Pershin, R. V. Mustakimov, G. I. Yakovlev, and A. Yu. Bondar

Index ................................................................................................................. 269

Contributors

Thomas Abraham

School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India

M. A. Asha Rani

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Silchar 788010, Assam, India

Bhagyalakshmi Balan

School of Chemical Sciences (SCS), Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam 696560, Kerala, India

Pranjit Barman

Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology, Silchar 788010, Assam, India

A. Yu. Bondar

M.T. Kalashnikov Izhevsk State Technical University, Izhevsk, Russia

Anu Rose Chacko

School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India

M. Chakkarapani

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Madanapalle Institute of Technology and Science, Madanapalle 517325, Andhra Pradesh, India

Sijo Francis

Department of Chemistry, St. Joseph’s College, Moolamattom, India

V. I. Kodolov

Basic Research, High Educational Centre of Chemical Physics and Mesoscopics, UD of RAS, Izhevsk, Russian Federation M.T. Kalashnikov Izhevsk State Technical University, Izhevsk, Russia

V. V. Kodolova–Chukhontzeva

Basic Research, High Educational Centre of Chemical Physics and Mesoscopics, UD of RAS, Izhevsk, Russian Federation Institute of Macromolecular Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, Russia

Binila K. Korah

School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India

Ebey P. Koshy

Department of Chemistry, St. Joseph’s College, Moolamattom, India

Shrikaant Kulkarni

Department of Chemical Engineering, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, 666 Upper Indira Nagar, Bibwewadi, Pune 411037, India

Gladiya Mani

School of Chemical Sciences (SCS), Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam 696560, Kerala, India

xii

Contributors

Beena Mathew

School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India

Suresh Mathew

School of Chemical Sciences (SCS), Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam 696560, Kerala, India Advanced Molecular Materials and Research Centre (AMMRC), Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam 696560, Kerala, India

R. V. Mustakimov

Basic Research, High Educational Centre of Chemical Physics and Mesoscopics, UD of RAS, Izhevsk, Russian Federation

Yu V. Pershin

Basic Research, High Educational Centre of Chemical Physics and Mesoscopics, UD of RAS, Izhevsk, Russian Federation

Neena John Plathanam

School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India

Mamatha Susan Punnoose

School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India

C. R. Sreerenjini

School of Chemical Sciences (SCS), Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam 696560, Kerala, India

I. N. Shabanova

Basic Research, High Educational Centre of Chemical Physics and Mesoscopics, UD of RAS, Izhevsk, Russian Federation

N. S. Terebova

Basic Research, High Educational Centre of Chemical Physics and Mesoscopics, UD of RAS, Izhevsk, Russian Federation

Remya Vijayan

School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India

G. I. Yakovlev

Basic Research, High Educational Centre of Chemical Physics and Mesoscopics, UD of RAS, Izhevsk, Russian Federation M.T. Kalashnikov Izhevsk State Technical University, Izhevsk, Russia

Abbreviations

AI AM AOPs AP AV AFM BDD CAS CB CDs CFRC CII CLIs CNs CNDs CNTs COD CSP CVD CCVD DLC EC ECM EDS EPA ESM FIELD FT-IR GbE GFPD GINC GO

Azadirachta indica air mass advanced oxidation processes ammonium perchlorate aloe vera atomic force microscopy boron-doped diamond conventional activated sludge conduction band carbon dots coir fiber reinforced concrete Confederation of Indian Industry crop–livestock integration carbon nanomaterials carbon nanodiamonds carbon nanotubes chemical oxygen demand composite solid propellants chemical vapor deposition catalytic chemical vapor deposition diamond-like carbon electrochemical extracellular matrix energy dispersive spectroscopy Environmental Protection Agency eggshell membrane farm-scale resource interactions, use efficiencies, and long term soil fertility development Fourier transform infrared Ginkgo biloba extract ground fault protection devices graphene-iron oxide nano composite graphene oxide

xiv

GTNC HIT HOMO HTT IR LAL LDHs LIVSIM LUMO MB MBR MFC MMS MOF MPECVD MPPT MRI MWPCVD MWCNTs NCD NIs NMR NTP OCPD OFI OSC PAHs PCB PECVD PGNSs PL PPNDs QY rGO RGs Rh B SAED SCWG

Abbreviations

graphene-TiO2 nanocomposite heterojunction with intrinsic thin film layer highest occupied molecular orbital hydrothermal treatment infrared laser ablation in liquid layered double hydroxides LIVestock SIMulator lowest unoccupied molecular orbital methylene blue membrane bioreactor microbial fuel cells manure management systems metal-organic framework microwave plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition maximum power point tracking magnetic resonance imaging microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition multi-walled carbon nanotubes nanocrystalline diamond nitrification inhibitors nuclear magnetic resonance nonthermal plasma processing overcurrent protection devices Opuntia ficus-indica organic solar cells polycyclic hydrocarbons polychlorinated biphenyls plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition porous graphene-like nanosheets photoluminescence photoluminescent polymer nanodots quantum yield reduced graphene oxide resource groups rhodamine B selected area electron diffraction supercritical water gasification

Abbreviations

STED SWCNTs TEM TMOs TP UCPL UNCD UV WAO WHO WO WPO XPS XRD ZC

xv

stimulated emission depletion single-walled carbon nanotubes transmission electron microscopy transition metal oxides tea polyphenol up-conversion photoluminescence ultrananocrystalline diamond ultraviolet wet air oxidation World Health Organization wet oxidation wet peroxidation X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy X-ray diffraction Zante currants

Preface

“Green products” refers to the promotion of safe, sustainable, and wasteminimizing chemical processes. Green chemistry is a scientific concept that seeks to improve the efficiency with which natural resources are used to meet human needs for chemical products and services. It encompasses the design, manufacture, and use of efficient, effective, safe, and more environmentally benign chemical products and processes. It can ensure eco-efficiency in everything we do, both individually and as a society. Green products also mean protecting and extending employment, exper­ tise, and quality of life. This book includes a broad range of application-based problems to make the content accessible for professional researchers and postgraduate students. This title expands upon presented concepts with the latest research and applications, providing both the breadth and depth researchers need. The book also introduces the topic of green products with an overview of key concepts. Scientists and graduate students in chemistry will gain a unique insight into the opportunities and challenges facing renewable materials today in its theoretical and practical implementation. Green nanotechnology is based on the 12 principles of green chem­ istry to synthesize new nanomaterials to attain, health, economic, envi­ ronmental, and social benefits. Carbon in its single entity and various forms has been used in technology and human life for many centuries. Since in the prehistoric times, carbon-based materials have been used as writing and drawing materials. In the past two and a half decades, carbon nanomaterials (CNs), especially carbon dots, carbon nanotubes, graphene, fullerenes, and carbon nanodiamond have been used as efficient materials due to their exclusive properties. The new green methods and technolo­ gies associated with CNs are put forward by the researchers all over the world have opened exciting opportunities for the revolution of green nano­ technology. Carbon nanomaterials such as graphene, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, nanodiamonds, and carbon dots synthesized from renewable organic resources have gathered a considerable amount of attention due to their outstanding properties and applications. The latest trends in the green

xviii

Preface

synthesis and properties of the CNs are presented in the first chapter of this book for generating social awareness about the sustainable developments. The naissance and progressive trail of microwave-assisted synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles, a clean and green technology tool have been highlighted in Chapter 2. This easy, facile, and fast environment friendly method ensures clean and controllable material production at the minimal expense of time and chemicals. Microwave radiations act as a noncon­ ventional heating source and several metal oxide nanoparticles and hybrid materials have been developed for photocatalysis, propellants, and superca­ pasitor applications. The adoption of microwave synthesis route is capable of fabricating fine quality products with significantly improved uniform and fine nanostructures with precise control over chemical composition surface area and interfacial characteristics. In metal oxide nanoparticle synthesis, controlling the nanostructuring of the metal oxide nanoparticle is indeed of great importance and microwave-assisted synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles transpires as a productive and effective tool in line with green technology and environment safety. Air pollution seems to be the major unsolved problem of the modern era. Chapter 3 deals with different causes of air pollution and proposes some possible remedies. The green technological alternatives for the global abatement of air pollution are also suggested. The health problems associated with air contamination were also discussed. Wastewater originated from various industries like textile, agriculture, food, petrochemical, polymer, pharmaceutical, etc. contains a large number of contaminants of oil and salt of inorganic and organic compounds. When this wastewater released into the ecosystem without any appropriate treat­ ments causes major ecological issues with high environmental impacts. Also, the natural fresh water resources are getting depleted because of the increased demand for fresh water supply. There are different physical, chemical, and biological methods developed for the treatment of water, but these methods cannot abolish the contaminants. And also most of these conventional methods are very expensive. The development of green tech­ nology for water treatments has received enormous interest over recent years due to its significant advantages to the environment, society, and economy. In Chapter 4, we discuss the various green technologies for the treatment of water and wastewater. Concern over the limited stock of conventional energy sources such as coal and other petroleum products has fuelled efforts toward the

Preface

xix

development of renewable sources of energy that have a lesser footprint on the environment. Materials and technology play a vital role that can offer promising solutions to achieve renewable and sustainable pathways for the future. Of these renewable sources, solar radiation is the most abun­ dant and freely available one, and can be directly harnessed by the use of Photovoltaic (PV) modules. This chapter on the whole discusses about renewable power generation from solar PV cells. The renewable power generation scenario, working of a solar cell, model of solar PV module, impact of photovoltaic cell material in PV characteristics, the effect of DC link capacitor material in power converters, challenges involved in solar power generation and their mitigation techniques; and green materials using green chemistry for fabricating the future solar PV cell and DC link capacitors are included in Chapter 5. Carbon-based nanomaterials are the most valuable materials used in the modern field due to its high potential of application in almost all areas of living. Increase in crisis for energy and environmental degradation are the foremost challenges of using nanotechnology for the sustainable develop­ ment. Here lies the importance of green nanotechnology, which focuses on the use of green natural precursors for the development of eco-friendly processes and products. In this scenario, researchers have started the use of renewable, inexpensive, and abundant carbon-based nanomaterials for the sustainable development. Even though there are enormous applications of carbon-based nanomaterials in various fields, this chapter proceeds with the applications of green synthesized nanomaterials for future perspec­ tives. The major applications of carbon-based nanomaterials outlined involve prevention of environmental degradation, improvement of public health, energy efficiency, optimization, and industrial development. Green synthesized carbon nanomaterials such as carbon dots, carbon nanotubes, graphene, fullerenes, and nanodiamonds are given special attention due to their excellent and efficient properties. Chapter 6 provides the reader the current progress, highlighting the application in environment and energyrelated fields of the carbon-based nanomaterials synthesized using green protocol. In recent times, environmental and climate problems are one of the daunting issues across the world. Economic development without consid­ ering the environmental concerns causes the depletion of natural resources particularly water resources and air. This results in extensive ecological, financial, and social impairment on a global level. Therefore, it is very

xx

Preface

essential to enhance the usage of renewable resources and reduce the usage of nonrenewable resources to protect the environment for future generations. This reiterates the need to develop green technologies, which are required to achieve economic development without harming the environment. In this chapter, we discussed the synthesis of renewable and sustainable materials by different methods and their application in the development of green technology. The synthesis of some renewable and sustainable materials by different methods and their application in the development of green technology is presented in Chapter 7. Nutrient cycle is made up of two important geochemical fluxes namely, nitrogen and phosphorous. The nutrient cycle asks for timely action on the environmental policy front in terms of soil management, farming systems, the sewage treatment, etc. The nutrient cycle unfortunately is not getting the necessary attention it deserves as the nutrients policy is vulnerable. Nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are essential for the growth and development of organisms. Ecosystems are responsible for controlling the flows and concentration levels of nutrients through a host of complex processes including biodiversity. Nutrients cycles have so far been modified to a substantial extent by human intervention mainly agriculture over the time, with its own consequences for not only a range of ecosystems but also to human well-being. The nutrients absorption and retention capacity of terrestrial ecosystems supplied by way of fertil­ izers or deposition has been depleted because of many large ecosystems into large scale but low diversity agricultural systems. Further with the reduction in the buffering capacity of ecosystems like riparian forests, wetlands, and estuaries, the nutrients in excess leach into groundwater, rivers, and lakes and are subsequently transported to coastal ecosystems. Although agriculture intensification is the only option to meet the future food demands and to check conversion of land from natural vegetation to agriculture, excessive flows of N have contributed to eutrophication, acidi­ fication of freshwater bodies, and coastal marine ecosystems. Nitrogen losses promote global warming and, to a certain extent, are instrumental in creating ground level ozone and depletion of stratospheric ozone layer. Chapter 8 take as overview of the sources of N losses at the different stages of N cycling in agroecosystems, technical solutions to cut down the quantum of N losses, and throw light on the analysis supported by integrated tools and indicators in two contrasting situations: a low-input and a high-input system from the developing and an industrial world,

Preface

xxi

respectively. Moreover, the research needs for better assessment of the expected benefits to be achieved at a global level, in land productivity and erosion in environmental impact by improving nutrient cycling manage­ ment discussed too. Bionanocomposite materials by virtue of their strength in terms of structural diversity hold lot much of promise and potential in terms of widespread applications in diverse fields ranging from sensing to energy production. The structural diversity can be put to advantage ranging from CNT’s to collagen. The diversity can further offer host of combinations of biomaterials derived from bionanocomposites. The compositional diversity is further of immense interest in designing materials with requisite shape, size, geometry, morphology to meet the specific challenges in biocatalysis on demand. However, structural diversity may lead to varied expectations often with lexicon and evolution of a lot much of literature. However, these materials are yet to be explored to their full potential. It is attributed to the nanotoxicity regulatory constraints and disparity in performance in terms of specificity in biocatalytic activity. However, biocatalysts with well-defined architectures exposed to chemical environments in tune with their biological activity can help increase yield by way of enhancing the substrate or mediator diffusion. Further, the right kind of architecture may present a soundness in stability in physicochemical conditions which otherwise may stifle the performance of catalysts. Chapter 9 emphasizes upon conventional processing techniques in developing the bionanocomposites as the biocatalyst. Further, it explains innovative processing technologies like electrospinning or bioprinting in order to shape living matter which could, in our knowledge, hasten the spectrum of applications of bionanocomposite materials for biocatalysis. In Chapter 10, a broad study on magnetic metal carbon mesocompos­ ites green synthesis peculiarities with point of chemical mesoscopics view is presented. The role of nanostructures activity in selected green materials modifi­ cation is investigated in Chapter 11.

CHAPTER 1

Green Synthesized Carbon-Based Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Properties BINILA K. KORAH, NEENA JOHN PLATHANAM, ANU ROSE CHACKO,

MAMATHA SUSAN PUNNOOSE, THOMAS ABRAHAM, and

BEENA MATHEW*

School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India *

Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Green nanotechnology is based on the 12 principles of green chemistry to synthesize new nanomaterials to attain, health, economic, environmental, and social benefits. Carbon in its single entity and various forms has been used in technology and human life for many centuries. Since in the prehis­ toric times, carbon-based materials have been used as writing and drawing materials. In the past two and a half decades, carbon nanomaterials (CNs), especially carbon dots (CDs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, fullerenes, and carbon nanodiamond (ND) have been used as efficient materials due to their exclusive properties. The new green methods and technologies associated with CNs are put forward by the researchers all over the world have opened exciting opportunities for the revolution of green nanotechnology. CNs such as graphene, fullerenes, CNTs, NDs, and CDs synthesized from renewable organic resources have gathered a considerable amount of attention due to their outstanding properties and applications. The latest trends in the green synthesis and properties of the CNs are presented here for generating social awareness about the sustain­ able developments.

2

Renewable Materials and Green Technology Products

1.1 INTRODUCTION Carbon which is the main component of living organisms has the inherent potential of combining with other atoms forming stable useful compounds and making it distinctive in all aspects. This uniqueness of carbon has led to the creation of numerous stable forms in all dimensions including carbon dots (CDs), nanotubes, graphene, graphene oxide (GO), fullerenes, and nanodiamond (ND). The use of carbon-based materials in all fields started long time before and continues to be so in a faster rate. The high cost of raw material and the pollution affected to nature are the two main obstacles that minimize the growth of carbon-based nanomaterials toward sustainable development. In most cases, we depend on petroleum and fossil fuel based-precursors which are not eco-friendly and also have a high chance of depletion in the near future. Researchers have recognized this and started developing carbon based nanomaterials from natural precursors, which are renewable, inexpensive, and environment friendly. This chapter deals with the synthesis and properties of carbon-based nanomaterials from green precursors including plants, microbes, biomol­ ecules, and minerals. The use of these sources as the starting material and the synthesis methods adopted offers many advantages over other conventionally used chemical methods. Among the different carbonbased nanomaterials, the green synthesis and properties of CDs, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, GO, fullerenes, and NDs are given special emphasis in the following sections (Fig. 1.1). We hope that this chapter leads a brief viewpoint on the properties and future advantages of carbonbased nanomaterials synthesized using green routes.

FIGURE 1.1 Schematic representation of green synthesized carbon-based nanomaterials.

Green Synthesized Carbon-Based Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Properties

3

1.2 CARBON DOTS (CDs) The preceding years have witnessed the development of CQDs, C-dots, or CDs outperforming other members of the carbon family. CDs have attracted a lot of attention due to their chemical inertness, resistance, high stability to photo-bleaching, bright fluorescence, low toxicity, excellent aqueous solubility, and biocompatibility. These accountable character­ istics have caused them to be applied several fields including sensing,1 bioimaging,2 optoelectronic,3 and medicine.4 CDs are primarily zerodimensional nanoparticles, defined by a quasi-spherical morphology and the characteristic size of