Remote sensing and geographical information systems : environment risk prediction and safety 9781536198577, 1536198579

Table of contents :
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1
Natural Disaster
I. Natural Hazards and Disasters
I.I. Classification of Natural Hazards and Disasters
I.I.I. Geologic Hazards
I.I.II. Atmospheric Hazards
I.I.III. Other Natural Hazards
I.I.IV. Anthropogenic Hazards
I.II. Effects of Hazards
I.III. Vulnerability to Hazards and Disasters
I.IV. Assessing Hazards and Risk
I.IV.I. Hazard Assessment Consists of Determining the Following
I.IV.II. Risk Assessment
I.V. Prediction and Warning
I.V.I. Prediction
I.V.II. Forecasting
I.V.III. Early Warning
I.VI. Frequency of Natural Disasters
I.VI.I. First - Size Matters
I.VI.II. Second - Location
Meteorite Impacts
Earthquakes
Frequency Status of the Natural Disasters
References
Chapter 2
Geographic Information System (GIS) Framework for Disaster
I. Introduction
I.I. GIS Support for Disaster Assessment
I.II. Natural Disaster Mitigation
I.III. Natural Disaster Preparedness
II. GIS Platform for Data Management
II.I. GIS for Visualizing Situational Awareness
III. Response
III.I. Recovery
III.II. Forecasting
IV. Field Operations
IV.I. GIS Helps Building a Common Operating Environment
V. GIS Architecture for Disaster Management: Overview of the GIS Framework
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3
Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System Application
I. Introduction
II. Sabail Fortress (Baku, Azerbaijan)
III. Caspian Sea Behavior
III.I. Description of the Studied Area
IV. Architectural Regeneration Aspects
IV.I. Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System Environment
IV.II. Caspian Sea Costal Line Rising Behaviour
IV.III. Seismic Behaviour of the Area
IV.IV. Caspian Sea Underwater Flows
IV.V. Fauna and Flora of the Area
IV.VI. Climatic of the Area
IV.VII. Seabed Topographical Data
V. Space Technology Application
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4
Innovation and Innovation Technology: Approach and Implementation
I. Introduction
II. Contribution of Innovation and Innovation Technology in Business Development
III. Innovation and Innovation Technology Application Stages
IV. A Wide Scale Network Needs
V. Encouragement of Innovation and Innovation Technology
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5
Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System as an Environment for Management of Engineering Activities
I. Introduction
II. Design and Construction as a Uniform System of Engineering Activity
III. Features of Application of Space Technology in Engineering
IV. Geographical Information Systems
V. Stages of Application of GIS in Engineering
V.I. How Is It Possible to Achieve Success in the Main Areas of Engineering?
V.I.I. Description of the Resource’s Segments
V.I.II. Remote Sensing and GIS
V.I.III. GIS Development
VI. Methods
VI.I. Information Selection
VI.II. Geodetic Measurements
VII. Results
VIII. Positioning System/Geographic Information System Environment for Engineering Infrastructure Facility Safety
VIII.I. Introduction
VIII.II. Geomorphologic and Geotectonic Setting
VIII.III. Earthquakes in the Vienna Basin
VIII.IV. Local Site Conditions
VIII.V. Methods
VIII.VI. Land Use Assessment
VIII.VII. Evaluations of Digital Elevation Model Data (DEM) for the Extraction of Causal Factors
VIII.VII.I. Digital Image Processing and Evaluations of Satellite Imageries
VIII.VII.II. Evaluations of Shear Wave Velocity Data
VIII.VIII. GIS Integrated Evaluations of Remote Sensing and Different Geo-Data
VIII.VIII.I. Results of the WOSAD Approach
VIII.VIII.II. Neotectonics Movements
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6
Global Positioning System/Geographic Information System Environment for Engineering Infrastructure Facility Monitoring
I. Introduction
II. Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS)
II.I. Investigated Area
III. Data Collection
III.I. Equipment/Method Used for Topographical Survey and Image Processing
III.I.I. Field Works
III.I.II. Establishment Datum Monuments (DM)
IV. Measurement
V. Geospatial Data and GIS Interpretation
VI. Digital Elevation Model
VII. Satellite Data Processing
VIII. Geological Map
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7
River Flood Monitoring for Prediction of Hazards for Pipeline System
I. Introduction
II. Methodology
III. Study and Analysis
III.I. Problem Description
IV. River History
V. River Banks Erosion
VI. Discussion
VII. Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System for Natural Disaster Management
I. Introduction
II. Disaster Management
III. Space Technology and GIS Tools
Example 1: Flooding
Example 2: Earthquakes
Example 3: Volcanic Eruptions
Example 4: Landslides
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9
Geographic Information System Environment in Flood Crisis Management
I. Introduction
II. Looking to Geographic Information System in Flood Crisis Management
II.I. Analytical Capabilities of Geographic Information System in Flood Crisis Management
II.I.I. Search Capability
II.I.II. Demographic
II.I.III. Preparing Combined Maps
III. Flood Zoning Using Geographic Information System
III.I. Advantages and Usage Capabilities of Geographic Information System in Preparing Flood Zoning Maps
III.II. Flood Zoning Maps Usage
III.III. Flood Hazard Map
III.III.I Usages and Advantages of Preparing Flood Hazard Maps
III.III.II. Prepared Maps for Officials, Crisis Managers and Assistance Teams
IV. Geographic Information System Application in Topology for Urgent Settlement Places for Flood Crisis Damaged People
V. Geographic Information System Application in Managing Debris Removal After Flood Crisis
VI. Geographic Information System Application in Managing Diseases in Flooded Regions
VII. Geographic Information System Application in Damaged Regions Restoration
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System for Natural Hazards Assessment
I. Introduction
II. GIS Components
1. Hardware from Centralized Servers to Desktop Application
2. Software
3. Data
4. Vector Data
5. Human Resource Component
6. Methods and Procedures
III. Vital Place of How GIS Use
IV. Remote Sensing Information Source: GPS Data and Satellite Images
V. Global Positioning System (GPS)
V.I. Mobile Phones as a Source of GPS Data
VI. Remote Sensing
1. Digital Globe
2. Terra Server
3. USGS
4. Earth Sat
VII. Google Maps and Google Earth
VIII. Implementing a GIS System
VIII.I. Initial Stage
VIIII.II. Technical Requirements: Software and Hardware
VIII.II.I. Software
VIII.II.II. Free Software
IX. Hardware
X. Human Resources in GIS: Requirements and Skills Needed
X.I. Technical Skills Required
XI. Additional Source for Support
XII. Costs Efficiency of GIS
XIII. Limitation of GIS and the Use of GIS as an Appropriate Technology
XIV. Limitation and Constraints of the Use of Remote Sensing and GIS
XV. Cost Constraints
XV.I. Infrastructure Constraints
XV.II. Educational Constraints
XV.III. Data Constraints
XV.III.I. Existence of Data
XV.III.II. Accessibility of Data
XVI. Political Stability
XVII. Options Needed to Be Undertaken
XVIII. Recommended Steps for a GIS Project
XIX. The Use of GIS and Remote Sensing for Disaster Risk Reduction/Disaster Risk Reduction: Risk, Vulnerability and Hazard Assessment
XIX.I. Use of Satellite Images in DRR
XX. Overview of Approaches
XX.I. GIS in Flood Emergency
XXI. GIS on Line for DRR Application: General Information and Useful Web Links
Management and Emergency Response
XXII. Future Developments
XXIII. A case study of Disaster Prevention and Preparedness
XXIII.I. Phase I: National Maps
XXIII.II. Phase II: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Maps
XXIII.III. Phase III: GIS Maps: From GPS Data Collection to Maps Creation for a Better Orientation in Case of Floods
XXIII.IV. Phase IV: Use of Satellite Images in DRR Projects
XXIII.V. Phase V: Population Database and GIS Representation: GIS - Database Link
Case Study for Cost Analysis
References
About the Author
Index

Citation preview

NATURAL DISASTER RESEARCH, PREDICTION AND MITIGATION

REMOTE SENSING AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS ENVIRONMENT RISK PREDICTION AND SAFETY

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NATURAL DISASTER RESEARCH, PREDICTION AND MITIGATION Additional books and e-books in this series can be found on Nova’s website under the Series tab.

NATURAL DISASTER RESEARCH, PREDICTION AND MITIGATION

REMOTE SENSING AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS ENVIRONMENT RISK PREDICTION AND SAFETY

RUSTAM B. RUSTAMOV

Copyright © 2021 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. We have partnered with Copyright Clearance Center to make it easy for you to obtain permissions to reuse content from this publication. Simply navigate to this publication’s page on Nova’s website and locate the “Get Permission” button below the title description. This button is linked directly to the title’s permission page on copyright.com. Alternatively, you can visit copyright.com and search by title, ISBN, or ISSN. For further questions about using the service on copyright.com, please contact: Copyright Clearance Center Phone: +1-(978) 750-8400 Fax: +1-(978) 750-4470 E-mail: [email protected].

NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN: 978-1-53619-857-7

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

CONTENTS Preface

vii

Chapter 1

Natural Disaster

Chapter 2

Geographic Information System (GIS) Framework for Disaster

15

Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System Application

35

Innovation and Innovation Technology: Approach and Implementation

49

Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System as an Environment for Management of Engineering Activities

63

Global Positioning System/Geographic Information System Environment for Engineering Infrastructure Facility Monitoring

97

Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7 Chapter 8

1

River Flood Monitoring for Prediction of Hazards for Pipeline System

113

Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System for Natural Disaster Management

133

vi Chapter 9 Chapter 10

Contents Geographic Information System Environment in Flood Crisis Management

155

Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System for Natural Hazards Assessment

167

About the Author

237

Index

239

PREFACE Earth observation satellites collect information about our planet by use of advances of space science and technology. It demonstrates actual picture of Earth features with implementation of satellite data processing and application to a specific task realization for appropriate Earth segment classification. For example, remote sensing technology can be used for detection of the environmental changes, satellite communication can assist with remote services and natural disaster monitoring, forecasting and reduction of their consequences based on timely access and achievement of satellite information. This book is mainly focused on description of application space technology advances for natural disaster studies. This book would be useful for researchers and experts whose research interests are related to study of the Earth natural phenomena, in particular the study of natural disaster with approach of the use of space technology, capability building in natural disaster prevention and possibilities of overall management processes. It is expected to enhance vision, knowledge and background of space science and technology applications based on the overview of recent the achievements in natural disaster studies. At the same time the book provides useful sources of information for scientists and specialists interested in Earth features interpretation and classification.

Chapter 1

NATURAL DISASTER I. NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS Natural disaster is one the main events relating to the natural processes of the Earth. Consequences of the natural disaster might cause loss of life or property damage, and typically leaves economic damage in its wake. When we are speaking about severity level of natural disaster it depends on the resilience level of affected population, or ability to recover. If the population of the affected area by natural disaster is not vulnerable, then the event will not leave any destructive ramification behind. However, there are lands so-called vulnerable areas that are sensitive to certain kinds of natural disaster such as an earthquake, landslide, and soil erosion. Natural disasters might have catastrophic strikes on vulnerable areas, and recovery might require years [1]. Below the list of the natural hazards and possible disasters has been provided: • • • • •

earthquake; volcanic eruption; tsunami; landslides; subsidence;

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Rustam B. Rustamov • • • • • • •

floods; droughts; hurricanes; tornadoes; asteroid impacts; coastal rising; and others.

All of these processes are part of the history of Earth from its formation up to the present day, and these processes are deemed hazardous only because it impacts human beings negatively. In other words, if there was no human being on Earth, then there would be no term called “natural disaster” and can be noted only as “natural event”. The risk is characteristic of the relationship between humans and geologic processes. It takes risks every day. The risk from natural hazards are inevitable and cannot be eliminated but, in some cases, it could be understood to the extent allowing us to reduce its negative impact on human beings. The risk investigation requires the risk operation process assessment and examination of the required energy for the process. Ultimately, selected right way measurements could be taken into consideration in order to reduce the risk impact. This procedure as a whole is called “hazard mitigation” [2 - 4]. It is also possible that natural disasters can be influenced by humans and oil and toxic material spills, pollution, massive automobile or train wrecks, airplane crashes. At the same time, human induced explosions can be an example regarding this, and these are interpreted as technological disasters. This section does not consider technological disaster unless they are a secondary result of a natural disaster. In fact, some of general aspects can be reflected for each possible natural disaster: • • •

possible site of each type of hazard and existential reason of the hazard; scientifically investigation the operating processes causing the disaster; investigating frequency of hazards to evolve into disaster; and

Natural Disaster •

3

assessing methodologies in order to predict and mitigate each type of disaster.

Natural disasters are part of Earth formation life. In fact, they are beneficial in terms of making the Earth a habitable planet for humans. For example: •

•

•

throughout Earth history, volcanism has been responsible for producing much of the water present on the Earth’s surface, and for producing the atmosphere; earthquakes are one of the processes responsible for the formation of mountain ranges which direct water to flow downhill to form rivers and lakes; and erosional processes, including flooding, landslides, and windstorms replenishes soil and helps sustain life.

Such processes are only considered hazardous when they adversely affect humans and their activities.

I.I. Classification of Natural Hazards and Disasters Natural hazards that are resulting natural disasters can be divided into several different categories as it described below:

I.I.I. Geologic Hazards These are the main subject of this course and it includes: • • • • • • •

earthquakes; volcanic eruptions; tsunami; landslides; floods; subsidence; and impacts with space objects.

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I.I.II. Atmospheric Hazards There are also natural hazards whose processes are operating mainly in the atmosphere and they are called “Atmospheric Hazards”. They will also be considered in this section, and include [5]: • • • • •

tropical cyclones; tornadoes; droughts; severe thunderstorms; and lightening.

I.I.III. Other Natural Hazards Under the name of “Other Natural Hazards”, the hazards that do not fall into either of the categories above are meant. None of below listed hazards are going to be considered to any great extent in this section, but below listed topics will be included: • • •

insect infestations; disease epidemics; and wildfires.

Natural hazards might also bring some devastating consequences to large numbers of people, or they might have impact on large space objects, might cause volcanic eruptions/world - wide epidemics/world wide droughts. Such hazards are called catastrophic hazards. However, less likely such hazards could occur. Natural Hazards have their subcategories of “rapid onset hazards” which includes Volcanic Eruptions, Earthquakes, Flash floods, Landslides, Severe Thunderstorms, Lightening, and wildfires that evolves with little warning and strike rapidly. “Slow onset hazards” which includes drought, insect infestations, and disease epidemics that evolves with years [6 - 7].

I.I.IV. Anthropogenic Hazards Anthropogenic Hazards refers to the type of hazards that are the outcome of human interaction with the environment. Anthropogenic Hazards includes Technological Hazards resulting from exposure to

Natural Disaster

5

hazardous substances such as radon, mercury, asbestos fibers, and coal dust as well as other hazards such as acid rain, contamination of the atmosphere or surface waters with harmful substances, and the potential for human destruction of the ozone layer and potential global warming that are caused by humans.

I.II. Effects of Hazards Hazardous processes of all types can have primary, secondary, and tertiary effects. •

•

•

Primary Effects occur as a result of the process itself. For example, water damage during a flood or collapse of buildings during an earthquake, landslide, or hurricane; Secondary Effects occur only because a primary effect has caused them. For example, fires ignited as a result of earthquakes, disruption of electrical power and water service as a result of an earthquake, flood, or hurricane, or flooding caused by a landslide into a lake or river; and Tertiary Effects are long - term effects that are set off as a result of a primary event. These include things like loss of habitat caused by a flood, permanent changes in the position of river channel caused by flood, crop failure caused by a volcanic eruption etc.

I.III. Vulnerability to Hazards and Disasters Vulnerability refers the way a hazard or disaster will affect human life and property. Vulnerability to a given hazard depends on: • • • •

proximity to a possible hazardous event; population density in the area proximal to the event; scientific understanding of the hazard; public education and awareness of the hazard;

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Rustam B. Rustamov • • • •

existence or non - existence of early - warning systems and lines of communication; availability and readiness of emergency infrastructure; construction styles and building codes; and cultural factors that influence public response to warnings.

Poverty is one of the main reasons making any country or population vulnerable to the natural hazards given the fact that lack of education, poor building structure, increased population density, and lack of communication and infrastructure can easily be affected by any natural disaster. In view of this fact, it can be said that less developed countries are more vulnerable to the natural hazards [8 - 11]. Human intervention in natural processes can also increase vulnerability by: •

•

development and habitation of lands susceptible to hazards. For example, building on floodplains subject to floods, sea cliffs subject to landslides, coastlines subject to hurricanes and floods, or volcanic slopes subject to volcanic eruptions; and increasing the severity or frequency of a natural disaster. For example: overgrazing or deforestation leading to more severe erosion (floods, landslides), mining groundwater leading to subsidence, construction of roads on unstable slopes leading to landslides, or even contributing to global warming, leading to more severe storms.

Affluence is another one of the main reasons leading to vulnerability to natural hazards. For example, habitations that are located along coastlines or on volcanic slopes, societies that burn the most fossil fuels, meaning making contribution to CO2 in the atmosphere and etc.

I.IV. Assessing Hazards and Risk Hazard Assessment and Risk Assessment are 2 different concepts [12].

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I.IV.I. Hazard Assessment Consists of Determining the Following • • • • •

when and where hazardous processes have occurred in the past; the severity of the physical effects of past hazardous processes (magnitude); the frequency of occurrence of hazardous processes; the likely effects of a process of a given magnitude if it were to occur now; and making all this information available in a form useful to planners and public officials responsible for making decisions in event of a disaster.

I.IV.II. Risk Assessment Risk assessment involves not only the assessment of hazards from a scientific point of view, but also the socio - economic impacts of a hazardous event. Risk is a statement of probability that an event will cause x amount of damage, or a statement of the economic impact in monetary terms that an event will cause. Risk assessment involves: • • • •

hazard assessment; location of buildings, highways, and other infrastructure in the areas subject to hazards; potential exposure to the physical effects of a hazardous situation; and the vulnerability of the community when subjected to the physical effects of the event.

Risk assessment is a branch of study having key focus on comparison and evaluation of potential hazards, setting priorities, then taking possible measurements for mitigation and targeting new spots for resources and further studies.

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I.V. Prediction and Warning Though right assessment of predictions for hazardous events, risk and vulnerability can sometimes be reduced [13, 14].

I.V.I. Prediction Prediction involves: • •

through scientific observation, assessment of possibility of an event might occur; such observation usually involves monitoring of the process in order to identify some kind of precursor event(s) - an anomalous small physical change that may be known to lead to a more devastating event. Examples: − hurricanes are known to pass through several stages of development: tropical depression - tropical storm hurricane. Once a tropical depression is identified, monitoring allows meteorologists to predict how long the development will take place and the eventual path of the storm. − volcanic eruptions are usually preceded by a sudden increase in the number of earthquakes immediately below the volcano and changes in the chemical composition of the gases emitted from a volcanic vent. If these are closely monitored, volcanic eruptions can often be predicted with reasonable accuracy.

I.V.II. Forecasting The term “forecast” sometimes can be used interchangeably with “prediction”. One well - known example of “forecasting” could be weather forecast which is the prediction of floods, hurricanes, and other weather-related phenomena. In this example “forecast” refers to short term predictions in terms of the magnitude, location, date and time of an event. In the example of prediction of earthquakes, the term

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9

“forecast” refers to long-term probability without being specific with the exact time of the event occurrence.

I.V.III. Early Warning A warning is a statement that a high probability of a hazardous event will occur, based on a prediction or forecast. If a warning is issued, it should be taken as a statement that “normal routines of life should be altered to deal with the danger imposed by the imminent event”. The effectiveness of a warning depends on: • • •

the timeliness of the warning; effective communications and public information systems to inform the public of the imminent danger; and the credibility of the sources from which the warning came.

In case of untrustworthy data or sources, warning being issued late or with no means of disseminating information of the warning might be ignored or there might be no adequate time to respond to the warning, which in turn can lead to potential disaster.

I.VI. Frequency of Natural Disasters It is important to understand that natural disasters result from natural processes that affect humans adversely.

I.VI.I. First - Size Matters It can be reflected as below example: •

normally, humans benefit from different types of water resources for direct and indirect purposes such as bathing, drinking, cooking, agriculture, transportation, electricity and etc. However, if the volume of water within a body of water increases to the flooding level, then the result is going to lead a disaster; and

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Rustam B. Rustamov •

while large earthquakes cause disasters, small earthquakes have neglectable effects even though their occurrence frequency is quite often.

I.VI.II. Second - Location In this matter below example can be reflected: • • •

a volcano on an isolated uninhabited island will not result in a natural disaster; a large earthquake in an unpopulated area will not result in a disaster; and a hurricane that makes landfall on a coast where few people live, will not result in a disaster.

Main concern areas should be the ones where humans live while there is a high probability of being strike by large events. However, statistical analysis show that occurrence probability of large events is far less compared to small events. In natural hazards studies size often referred to a magnitude. An assessment of the relationship between frequency and size of the event is crucial. Statistical analysis of some types of events for specific locations allow one to determine the return period or recurrence interval.

Meteorite Impacts Meteorological studies show that occurrence probability of impacts from large asteroids (1 km or larger) is once in every 10 million years. Earthquakes It is a statistical fact that large earthquakes whose magnitude is greater than 8.5 occur once every 3 years on average and this frequency is quite low compared to the occurrence frequency of smaller earthquakes (occurs several hundred times a day) whose magnitude is 2.

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11

Frequency Status of the Natural Disasters It is very important to mention that natural disasters are becoming more frequent as it seems from news reports. The fact is that natural disasters are increasing in frequency and raises some questions about the World circumstances to be answered before drawing conclusion: 1. Is the frequency of hazardous events increasing? 2. Why is the frequency of natural disasters increasing (what could explain the trend)? First, is the frequency of hazardous events increasing? This is much more difficult to answer since natural events leading to natural disasters have been occurring throughout the 4.5 billion - year history of the Earth. Nevertheless, there is no evidence to suggest that hazardous events are occurring more frequently. What about global warming? There is evidence to suggest that weather related disasters are becoming more frequent, compared to other disasters like earthquakes. For example, the frequency of disasters from tropical cyclones and floods has been increasing, the frequency of earthquakes has not big changed. Although this is what has been predicted that global warming will cause, there is not yet enough statistical data to prove this subject right now. Second, is there another explanation for the frequency of natural disasters increasing? First it is required to consider the following facts: •

•

human population has been increasing at an exponential rate. With more people, vulnerability increases because there are more people to be affected by otherwise natural events; and human population is moving toward coastal areas. These are areas most vulnerable to natural hazards such as tropical cyclones, tsunami, and, to some extent, earthquakes.

The ability of humans to communicate news of natural disasters has been increasing, especially since the invention of the internet. Earlier in human history even though there may have been as many as disasters in today’s works, lack of ways to pass news of such disasters were a real impediment.

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Meanwhile it has to be indicated that deaths from natural disasters have decreased in developed countries and increased in developing countries.

REFERENCES [1] [2]

[3]

[4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

[11]

[12] [13]

Abbott, Patrick L., 1996. Natural Disasters. Wm. C. Brown Publishing. Anderson, J.G., P. Bodin, J.N. Brune, J. Prince, S.K. Singh, R. Quaas, and M. Onate. 1986. Strong ground motion from the Michoacan, Mexico earthquake. Science. v. 233. Browning, J.M., 1973. Catastrophic rock slides. Mount Huascarán, north-central Peru. May 31, 1970. Bulletin American Association of Petroleum Geologists. v. 57. Coch, Nicholas K., 1995. Geohazards. Natural and Human. Prentice Hall. Eagleman, J., 1983, Severe and Unusual Weather. Van Nostrand Reinhold. Francis, Peter, 1993. Volcanoes. A Planetary Perspective. Oxford University Press. Keller, Edward A. 1985. Environmental Geology. 4th Ed. Charles E. Merril Publishing Co. (Keller 1985, 480) Kiersh, G.A. 1964. Vaiont reservoir disaster. Civil Engineering, v. 34. Murck, Barbara W., Brian J. Skinner, and Stephen C. Porter. 1997. Dangerous Earth, an Introduction to Geologic Hazards. Skinner, Brian J. and Stephen C. Porter. 1995. The Dynamic Earth. An Introduction to Physical Geology, 3rd Ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Available Online at http://www.recentscientific.com Prafulla Kumar Panda and Suchitra Kumari Panda. 2015. Space Technology for Disaster Management. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research., v. 6, Issue 1. Stephens, J.C. et al. 1984. Organic soil subsidence. Geological Society of America Reviews in Engineering Geology. v. vi. Swanson, D.A., T.H. Wright, and R.T. Helz. 1975. Linear vent systems and estimated rates of magma production and eruption

Natural Disaster

[14]

[15] [16] [17]

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for the Yakima basalt on the Columbia Plateau. American Journal of Science. v. 275. Tilling, Robert I. 1984. Eruptions of Mount St. Helens: Past Present and Future. Department of the Interior. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S. Geological Survey. 1989. Lessons learned from the Loma Prieta, California, earthquake of October 17. Williams, Howell and Alexander R. McKinney. 1979. Volcanology. Freeman and Cooper Co. Williams, Howell. 1951. Volcanoes, Scientific American.

Chapter 2

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS) FRAMEWORK FOR DISASTER I. INTRODUCTION Disaster management means the range of activities, prior to, during and after the disasters, designed to maintain control over disasters. In the meantime, is to provide a framework for helping people at risk and/or for communication to avoid, minimize or recover from the impact of the disasters. Disaster management organizations are government agencies at central, state, and local levels that are in charging of reducing community vulnerability and establishing capabilities to manage and quickly recover from emergencies. There is no doubt that, disaster management has become more complex. Large - scale emergencies seem to be more prevalent, and new threats exist. The need to plan for, prevent, and reduce the consequences of emergencies is greater activity for minimising impact of natural disaster. Emergency managers have the responsibility to collaborate and coordinate/facilitate with number of state departments for planning, response, and recovery [1 - 3]. The objective of this chapter is to illustrate how Geographic Information System (GIS) technology effectively improves the workflow

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in all phases of disaster management and defines an effective architecture to implement framework on the ground.

I.I. GIS Support for Disaster Assessment Disaster management activities as grouped under into four phases that are related in time and function to all types of emergencies and disasters i.e., Mitigation, Preparedness, Response and Recovery (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Disaster operations lifecycle.

I.II. Natural Disaster Mitigation Mitigation efforts attempt to prevent hazards from developing into disasters altogether or reduce the effects of disasters when they occur. The mitigation phase differs from the other phases because it focuses on long - term measures for reducing or eliminating risk. Successful mitigation is a direct result of comprehensive planning and analysis. Disaster management planning is the process of analysing a community's hazards, risks, and values to determine its vulnerabilities to natural, technological, and terrorist based disasters. A comprehensive risk and hazard analysis provide the foundation for the development of mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery

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17

plans. Disaster management planning requires acquiring, integrating, and analysing vast amounts of information and data in a variety of disparate formats to develop a comprehensive risk - based emergency management program. GIS technology provides the capability to map and analyse hazards of all types and visualize their potential impacts. If hazards are fused with critical infrastructure, population densities, and other community values, then vulnerabilities can be observed, modelled, and better understood. Based on the potential impact of any particular hazard to critical values, priorities for mitigation can be established. Contingency and response plans can also be developed based on important values at risk [4 - 6]. The risk and hazard assessment provide the foundation for the overall emergency management program. GIS optimizes the planning analysis process as follows: a. Identification and mapping of natural and technological hazards: • Natural hazards may include: − Earthquake faults; − Storm surge exposure; − Flammable vegetation; − Areas prone to severe weather events; − Landslides; and − Floods • Technological hazards may include: − Hazardous materials locations; − Transportation corridors where hazardous materials are routinely − shipped (rail, highway, etc.); − Nuclear power plants; and − Petroleum processing and storage facilities. b. Identification and mapping of critical values at risk: • Population densities; • Critical infrastructure including government facilities, hospitals, utilities, and public assemblies; and

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Natural resource concerns including scarce natural resources and plant and animal habitats. c. Identification values at risk that reside within the impacted areas of natural and/or technological hazards. GIS is used to model potential events: • plumes; • explosions; • floods; • earthquakes; and • others. GIS is used as well to display projected areas of extreme, moderate, and light damage that could be caused by the event. Casualties can also be projected. Priorities for mitigation and emergency contingency and response plan development are highlighted through the use of GIS. d. Site development - specific strategies for mitigation considers: • reduce losses; • mitigation includes activities that prevent an emergency; • reduce the chance of an emergency; and • reduce the damaging effects of unavoidable emergencies. Mitigation activities take place before and after emergencies. Other mitigation functions may include enforcing building and fire codes, designating specific routes for hazardous materials shipments, requiring tie - downs for mobile homes, and shipping regulations for hazardous materials. Evaluate and model alternative mitigation strategies. Determine the best strategy for protecting critical assets from catastrophic damage or loss and reduce casualties [7 - 12]. Mitigation encompasses the comprehensive steps taken to prevent emergencies, reduce loss, and provide a proactive approach to the overall emergency management program. The hazard and risk assessment within the planning process provides the framework for decisions that are made in the preparedness phase.

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19

I.III. Natural Disaster Preparedness Emergency managers develop plans of action for disaster strikes. Priorities for action plan development are identified in the planning and analysis process. Common preparedness measures include some of the following: • • • • •

•

critical facility emergency contingency plans; communication plans with easily understandable terminology and chain of command; development and practice of multiagency coordination and incident command; proper maintenance and training of emergency services; development and exercise of emergency population warning methods combined with emergency shelters and evacuation plans and the stockpiling, inventory, and maintenance of supplies and equipment; and developing the facilities, staff, equipment, and tools necessary to plan, monitor, and facilitate emergency management decision making and information sharing.

GIS technology is utilized for preparedness as follows: •

•

•

Site selection for adequate evacuation shelters with consideration of where and how extensively an emergency might occur; Selecting and modelling evacuation routes: − Considerations for time of day; and − Considerations for road capacity versus population, direction of travel, etc. Identification and mapping of key tactical and strategic facilities: − Hospitals; − Public safety facilities; and − Suppliers to support response (food, water, equipment, building supplies, etc.).

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Rustam B. Rustamov •

•

Training and exercises to test preparedness: − Identify incident locations and impacts; map incident perimeters; − Model the incident (plumes, spread, etc.); − Collect damage assessment, identify casualties, and prioritize for allocation of public safety resources; and − Develop and distribute incident action plans. Providing a key capability for the command and control information system that enables situational awareness and incident management support.

An achievement comprehensive preparedness, a great deal of information must be gathered and managed. When disasters strike, the right information must be available at the right place to support emergency decision requirements. GIS is a powerful data management system for supporting of the preparedness workflow.

II. GIS PLATFORM FOR DATA MANAGEMENT Data management is the development, execution, and supervision of plans, policies, programs, and practices that control, protect, deliver, and enhance the value of data and information assets. In the context of emergency operations, data management is gathering, managing, processing, and distributing information to users and across systems when and where needed. It is the capability to store, manage, update, and provide access to all of the unit's data through well - designed computer system architecture to meet the emergency management mission and expectation. GIS provides a platform for the management of geographic data and disparate documents (plans, photographs, etc.) necessary to meet the emergency management mission. GIS provides a capability to access information based on the geographic location to which it pertains.

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GIS allows users to get various types of information from the map display. This could include emergency response plans, mitigations plans, and contact lists. The management of resources is essential to support the emergency management mission. Resources include public safety resources, as well as civilian resources (and their locations), such as dump trucks, buses, dozers, hardware suppliers, and food and water resources. When these types of assets are inventoried and accessible through GIS, the appropriate resources (proximity to an emergency) can be contacted for timely response. One of the most complex challenges of incident management is managing the location, status, and capabilities all of the resources needed to meet incident requirements. Managing resources requires current and accurate data. GIS provides the ability to visualize all types of resources and their current availability and location for effective incident management. In addition to managing existing data assets, GIS can access and display relevant dynamic data (camera feeds, weather, traffic, hospital status, automated vehicle location (AVL), incidents, sensors, etc.) to provide situational awareness for decision support. Without comprehensive data management, it is difficult to achieve and maintain accurate situational awareness [13].

II.I. GIS for Visualizing Situational Awareness •

Situational awareness is being aware of what is happening around you to understand how information, events, and actions will impact your goals and objectives both now and in the near future. This is especially important where information flows are high and poor decisions may lead to serious consequences. In the context of a Disaster/Emergency Operations Centre (EOC), achieving timely situational awareness is essential to maintain an understanding of events, incidents, and developments to anticipate, respond to, and manage actual or potential emergencies. GIS provides situational awareness through a

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•

common operating picture. A GIS map display with relevant GIS data such as: − critical infrastructure; − imagery; − hazards; and − other. Integrates dynamic event data such as: − sensors, as cameras; − traffic; − incidents; and − other

It is important to represent the current situation throughout the jurisdiction, region, or nation. Comprehensive situational awareness provides the capability for emergency management personnel being able to make better decisions that can be further quickly displayed, shared, and understood by those who need to take decision and action [14 - 18]. The common operating picture can be enhanced when response plans, contingency plans, and other documents are linked to the location(s) for which they were developed. Rapid access to planning information through the common operating picture begins to “operationalize” the planning process. Below are examples of how GIS provides accurate situational awareness through a common operating picture: • • •

Maintaining and displaying the status of emergency and nonemergency events; Designating and mapping incident locations/perimeters; Site selection analysis for: − hot zones; − Incident Command Post (ICP); − locations; − additional evacuation sites; − staging areas; − logistical support and supply caches; − drop points;

Geographic Information System (GIS) Framework …

• • • •

• •

23

− division and branch boundaries; − heliports; and − temporary medical facilities. Maintaining and displaying the status of public safety resources both locally and in adjoining jurisdictions; Modelling and displaying plumes, weather events, wildfires, floods, etc.; Analysing consequences and losses; Determining intersections that should be closed (based on incident perimeter or plume) and transportation routes that avoid closures; Importing and displaying damage assessment from mobile devices; and Displaying and printing appropriate incident command system (ICS) incident action plan maps: − Operations maps; − Logistics maps; − Tactical maps; − Air deployment maps; − Transportation maps; and − Incident prediction maps.

III. RESPONSE Emergency management assists in the mobilization of emergency services and resources to support first responders for complex emergencies [19]. This can include specialist rescue teams, logistical support, public safety, volunteers, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and others. There are number of approaches how effectively manage the process. Development Emergency Operation Centre (EOC) is one of them to achieve expectations in the area. The EOC is responsible to support needs of incident management operation and to maintain continuity of operations for the community. Acquiring, managing, and maintaining status of resources from various locations is an important function.

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Rustam B. Rustamov GIS supports the response mission as follows: •

•

•

• •

•

• •

• • • •

provide warnings and notifications to the public and others of pending, existing, or unfolding emergencies based on the location or areas to be impacted by the incident. Areas in harm's way can be identified on the map, and mass notification can be performed from a GIS; determine appropriate shelter activations based on the incident location and optimum routing for affected populations to access appropriate shelters; maintain shelter location continuity of operations: supply inventories, external power requirements, shelter population capacities, etc.; identify the locations and capabilities of existing and mutual aid public safety resources; provide facilities for the assembly of department heads to collaborate, make decisions, and develop priorities. Provide the capability to create remote connections to the command centre for officials and others who need to participate but are unable to come to the command centre; establish the capability to collect and share information among department heads for emergency decision making to support emergency operations and sustain government operations; establish the capability to share information and status with regional, state, and federal agencies; support incident management operations and personnel, provide required resources, and exchange internal and external information; maintain incident status and progress; facilitate damage assessment collection and analysis; assure the continuity of government operations for the jurisdiction considering the impacts of the emergency; and prepare maps, briefs, and status reports for the executive leadership (elected officials) of the jurisdiction.

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III.I. Recovery The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area to its original state. It differs from the response phase in its focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions that must be made after immediate needs. Short - term recovery is focused on restoring essential services and support [20 - 25]. Long - term recovery efforts are concerned with actions that involve rebuilding destroyed property, reemployment, and the repair of essential infrastructure. GIS is integral for recovery by providing a central information repository for assessment of damage and losses that provides: •

• • •

identification of damage (triage based on degree of damage or complete loss). GIS allows inspectors to code parcels with the degree of damage in order to visualize specific problems as well as area trends. GIS on mobile devices expedites the difficult damage assessment problem and can include photographs and damage reports linked to the specific geographic sites; overall damage costs and priorities for reconstruction efforts based on appropriate local criteria; locations of business and supplies necessary to support reconstruction assess overall critical infrastructure damage and determine short - term actions for the following: − first aid and health; − additional shelter needs; − optimum locations for public assistance; − alternate locations for government operations if government facilities are damaged; − alternate transportation routes for continued operations; − monitoring progress by specific location of reconstruction efforts for both long-term and short - term needs; and

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publishing maps to share information with the public and other government organizations of progress toward recovery objectives.

III.II. Forecasting The natural hazards are difficult to predict, and their forecasts are uncertain. The uncertainty depends on the poor understanding of the phenomena that control the nature of hazard basically on the inherent complexity and chaotic behaviour. This is similar to all types of the natural hazards, including hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and droughts. Due to the severe impact of natural disasters on the population, environment, and economy, their forecasting is relating to the scientific interest and societal factors. This approach demands integration efforts and achievements of science, decision-making, and the society [26]. The problems can be effectively solved by focusing of individual scientists and groups of scientist’s knowledge and experience in the area, and evaluating/assessment performances of individual scientists, research teams, and their institutions. For the successful management of the process it is required to create best environment between scientist and decision makers where authority takes responsibility for financial aspects of the problem. This circumstance opens opportunities for a best understanding each other which is the excellent way for achievement expected outcomes of natural hazards problem.

IV. FIELD OPERATIONS Both response and recovery require close coordination and information exchange between the field and EOC. These requirements are often needed under stressful, chaotic conditions, when good information is required to support critical operations. GIS provides the capability for rapid data exchange that is easy to assimilate, understand, and act on. GIS is really good instrument for achievement

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best information sources for further use. This capability allows EOC to provide elected officials, department heads, and other stakeholders with accurate situation status and data about actual and potential impacts. Current and timely information is also essential in order to provide the public information such as shelter locations, evacuation routes, road closures, and hazard areas [27 - 29]. Mobile GIS data can be easily integrated into the common operating picture and visualized, shared, and acted on without delay. When the common operating picture is current, better decisions can be made. These capabilities are important during response but can play a very important role during recovery. Using mobile GIS in field recovery operations provides the EOC with a capability to rapidly integrate and display damage impacts from field inspectors in various locations. It can be fixed by GIS change detection, and field information. In nonemergency situations, mobile GIS benefits data collection for planning, analysis, mitigation, and response. Data collected using mobile GIS in the field can be downloaded wirelessly or with physical docking as required. Detailed geospatial and other data (pictures, forms, etc.) can be collected and added to EOC's enterprise GIS for use in planning, preparedness, response, and recovery (Figure 2).

Figure 2. GIS development with integration of field measurements.

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IV.I. GIS Helps Building a Common Operating Environment Satellite data accessed by use of remote sensing method allows to collect needed information with further GIS development GIS, which can be used effectively manage Response and Recovery of natural hazards consequences.

Figure 3. GIS as an instrument for flexible operation.

V. GIS ARCHITECTURE FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT: OVERVIEW OF THE GIS FRAMEWORK A robust GIS server that maintains the data from various sources, allows planning and analysis tasks and supports field workers for suitable disaster management applications [30]. An ArcGIS Server Advanced Enterprise will be deployed at the Data Centre. This Server shall have access to data pertaining to entire state infrastructure, utilities, important buildings, hospitals, transportation network, industrial centres, population/demographics as well as administrative boundaries within the state etc. This server shall be administered by the respective State Disaster Management Authority. Use of the latest satellite imagery to understand the nature and extent of the disaster is taking utmost importance. Such imagery is uploaded in the Server. It makes possible to use information source for immediate analysis at any needed time.

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GIS Analysts shall have ArcGIS desktops in order to perform various GIS analysis tasks as part of the overall planning process. The overall plans prior and during a disaster shall be updated on the Server in due time with access to all stake - holders. Plans shall be available on a pictorial form to prevent duplication and make the overall task of coordination much more transparent. During a disaster, an Emergency Operation Room (EOR) shall be activated which have one or more terminals to get latest updates from the field to show the ‘Common Operating Picture’ to all level of decision makers. All government and non-government organizations shall have terminals which they would be able to access the GIS Server in order to obtain the latest status of the hazard or calamity [31]. Select Field Support workers shall have hand - held devices to forward updates and pictures from the affected area for EOC in order to they can take appropriate decisions on the relief and rescue efforts that need to be directed to various locations. Movement of all - important mobile vans containing relief material and those involved in law and order (police) are tracked on a continuous basis to get their latest position. Tracking such assets would ensure proper distribution of relief material and adequate response to the entire affected area. Table 1. Bill of Material (GIS Software Part only) 1.

ArcGIS Server Advance Enterprise Arc GIS Desktop ArcEditor with DI, Spatial, 3D, ENVI and Network extensions Web GIS application

2

4.

ArcGIS Mobile Application

1

5.

ArcGIS Explorer

-

2.

3.

10

1

Deployed at State Data Centre and DR site in an active - active configuration Used for Administrator and GIS Analyst only (Qty 3)

This is a web - GIS application deployed on a centralized Server and accessed on a browser across all terminals This is mobile GIS application deployed on a centralized Server and accessed by handheld devices available with field workers Free Client application for visualization purposes and generic use

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CONCLUSION An emergency management profession continues to be refined, the requirements to deal with complex issues across a variety of disciplines and stakeholders increase. Disaster events are increasing, in the meantime, populations are moving into more disaster - prone landscapes, and creating new threats for nature and human. In order to meet the demands, professional tools and advances technology are required for reducing disaster consequences and impact. GIS technology can serve a variety of purposes in supporting the workflows and mission of the emergency management profession. Comprehensive disaster management requires coordination and collaboration among main stakeholders - department heads, elected officials, privately held business, the community, and others who directly engaged into the process. The collection of information, analysis of community vulnerabilities, development of mitigation strategies, and overall risk management preparedness are daunting. When emergencies occur, key stakeholders must share information on the scope of the event and collaborate on the most effective way to manage the incident and maintain government operations. Emergency Operations Centres have to activate their operations using all capacity and cabality with sharing all accepted information delivering to decision makers. GIS provides a platform for the common operating picture, where dynamic data can be integrated to create a picture of events. Their relationship to critical infrastructure can be shared with remote locations, which reduces the need to have everyone in one location. It creates excellent environment for staff life safe and minimise of risks. GIS provides a platform for the storage and management all types of achieved data that can be easily accessed for emergency decision support. The use of GIS shall ultimately enhance how emergency management professionals do their work.

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REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

Fausto Guzzetti. Forecasting natural hazards, performance of scientists, ethics, and the need for transparency. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry. 2016 v. 98, No. 9, 10431059, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2015.1030664. Alvioli Massimiliano, Guzzetti Fausto, Rossi Mauro. Scaling Properties of Rainfall Induced Landslides Predicted by a Physically Based Model. Geomorphology. 2014. doi: 10.1016/j. geomorph.2013.12.039. Benchekroun T.H., Pierlot S. Whistle-blowers. An Essential Resource for the Sustainable Prevention of Risks in Sociotechnical Systems. 2011. doi: 10.3233/WOR-2012-05633051. Bilotta G.S., Milner A.M., Boyd I. On the Use of Systematic Reviews to Inform Environmental Policies. Environmental Science Policy. 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2014.05.010. Brunetti M.T., Guzzetti F., Cardinali M., Fiorucci F., Santangelo M., Mancinelli P., Komatsu G., Borselli L. Analysis of a New Geomorphological Inventory of Landslides in Valles Marineris, 2014. Mars. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. doi: 10.1016/ j.epsl.2014.08.025. Council of the European Union Council Decision of 3 December 2013. Establishing the Specific Programme Implementing Horizon 2020 – the Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2014–2020) and Repealing Decisions 2006/971/EC, 2006/972/EC, 2006/973/EC, 2006/974/EC and 2006/975/EC. 2013 http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/ legal_basis/sp/h2020-sp_en.pdf. Giulio D'Agostini. 2011. “Probably a Discovery: Bad Mathematics Means Rough Scientific Communication.” ArXivorg preprint, arx. iv:1112.3620. Dondi F., Moser F. “University and the Risk Society. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry. 2014 doi: 10.1080/02772248. 2014.968160. Errami M., Garner H.R. A Tale of Two Citations. Nature. 2008. doi: 10.1038/451397a;

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[10] Fenton N. Improve Statistics in Court. Nature. 2011. [11] Guangmeng G. Jie Y. Three Attempts of Earthquake Prediction with Satellite Cloud Images. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 2013. 91–95. doi: 10.5194/nhess-13-91 – 2013. [12] Guzzetti Fausto. Il dovere di comunicare l'incertezza delle previsioni [The duty to communicate the uncertainty of forecasts]. Ecoscienza. 2013.26. [13] Guzzetti F., Ardizzone F., Cardinali M., Rossi M. and Valigi D. Landslide Volumes and Landslide Mobilization Rates in Umbria, Central Italy. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2009. doi: 10. 1016/j.epsl.2009.01.005. [14] Guzzetti F., Mondini A.C., Cardinali M., Fiorucci F., Santangelo M. and Chang K.-T. Landslide Inventory Maps: New Tools for an Old Problem. Earth-Science Reviews. 2012. doi: 10.1016/j. earscirev.2012.02.001. [15] Guzzetti F., Zoboli R., Salvati P., Bianchi C. and Mazzanti M. Quanto sono costate e quanto costano le calamità idrogeologiche in Italia [How much have hydrogeological disasters cost and how much do they cost in Italy]. 2014. Proceedings XIII Giornata Mondiale dell'Acqua, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Rome. 22 March 2013. Atti dei Convegni Lincei, v. 283. [16] Harrison R.G., Aplin K.L. and Rycroft M.J. Brief Communication: Earthquake–Cloud Coupling Through the Global Atmospheric Electric Circuit. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 2014. doi: 10.5194/nhess-14-773-2014. [17] Harzing Anne-Wil. The Publish or Perish Book. Melbourne: Tarma Software Research Pty Ltd; 2011. [18] Hungr O., Leroueil S. and Picarelli L. The Varnes Classification of Landslide Types, an Update. Landslides. 2013. doi: 10.1007/ s10346-013-0436-y. [19] Matteucci R., Gosso G., Peppoloni S., Piacente S. and Wasowski J. A Hippocratic Oath for Geologists. Annals of Geophysics. 2012. doi: 10.4401/ag-5650. [20] Mergili M., Marchesini I., Alvioli M., Metz M., Schneider-Muntau B., Rossi M. and Guzzetti F. A Strategy for GIS-Based 3-D Slope Stability Modelling Over Large Areas. Geoscientific Model Development. 2014. 10.5194/gmd-7-2969-2014.

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[21] Nosengo Nicola. On the Fault Line. Nature. 2012. [22] Nursey-Bray M.J., Vince J., Scott M., Haward M., O'Toole K., Smith T., Harvey N. and Clarke B. Science into Policy. 2014. Discourse. Coastal Management and Knowledge. Environmental Science Policy. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2013.10.010. [23] Picarelli Luciano. Understanding to Predict. In: Sassa Kioji., editor; Canuti Paolo., editor. Landslides–Disaster Risk Reduction. 2009. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin. [24] Pozzati Piero. Il Convenzionalismo nel Calcolo Strutturale Sismico [Conventionalism in Seismic Structural Calculation]. Inarcos. 2004. [25] Raia S., Alvioli M., Rossi M., Baum R.L., Godt J.W. and Guzzetti F. Improving Predictive Power of Physically Based RainfallInduced Shallow Landslide Models: A Probabilistic Approach. Geoscientific Model Development. 2014. doi: 10.5194/gmd-7495-2014. [26] Rees Martin. A Longitude Prize for the Twenty-First Century. Nature. 2014. [27] Salvati P., Bianchi C., Fiorucci F., Giostrella P., Marchesini I. and Guzzetti F. Perception of Flood and Landslide Risk in Italy: A Preliminary Analysis. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Discussion. 2014. doi: 10.5194/nhessd-2-3465-2014. [28] Sidle R.C., Benson W.H., Carriger J.F. and Kamai T. Broader Perspective on Ecosystem Sustainability: Consequences for Decision Making. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2013. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1302328110. [29] Stein Jerome L. Stein Seth. Gray Swans: Comparison of Natural and Financial Hazard Assessment and Mitigation. Natural Hazards. 2014. doi: 10.1007/s11069-012-0388-x. [30] Trigila A. Iadanza C. Spizzichino D. Quality Assessment of the Italian Landslide Inventory Using GIS Processing. Landslides. 2010. doi: 10.1007/s10346-010-0213-0. [31] Wyss Max. Peppoloni Silvia. Geoethics. 1st ed. 2014. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Chapter 3

REMOTE SENSING AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM APPLICATION I. INTRODUCTION For the time being the use of technology advances take a vital place in solving a wide range problem. It becomes necessary due to the needs to acquire the data with high accuracy and fruitful content. The demand of current circumstance makes it necessary to apply reliable methods for data collection that are able to minimize any possible risks and uncertainties. There is no doubt that high technology application particularly remote sensing methods with further geographic information system development makes it attractive in appropriate data collection and processing as one of the best instruments for authorities in the decision – making stage. This chapter is dedicated for study of the ancient monument regeneration by use of space technology advances. It is a conceptual approach of high technology application for design of ancient monuments for the regeneration aims. This study is important from the point of view of enhancement of cultural heritage as a subject of transformation of cultural values, both tangible and intangible. The aim is to define how effectively to build up all lines of regeneration processes being able to achieve expectation in

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restoration of monuments based on high technology particularly remote sensing method and GIS development. No doubt that it will depend how successful expected to gather required information starting from the site area – field measurements up to the construction or regeneration phases. It is vital to select the method of data collection integrated into local area natural behaviour, creating circumstances for the correct decision-making in all stages of executions. This study demonstrates opportunities of remote sensing and geographical information system developments in regeneration of the ancient monument of Sabail fortress area in Baku, capital of Azerbaijan.

II. SABAIL FORTRESS (BAKU, AZERBAIJAN) One of architectural monuments of the Middle Ages in the territory of Absheron, Azerbaijan which remains within centuries has been hidden under water in the Baku bay as called “Sabail lock”. The name of the fortress in different historical sources was designated as “Bailov Stones”, “Shakhri Saba”, “Nowshahr”, “The Bailov lock”, “The Underwater City”. The reason is the lack of written sources with an exact indication of the name. Therefore, researches leaned generally from available national legends. Researcher B. Dorn [1] considers that the fortress has been constructed at Alexander of Macedon since his name is mentioned in legends. The other researchers are believing that Sabail fortress was related to the period of the Middle Ages at 12 - 13 centuries. In particular, the famous researcher of history of medieval Baku Sara Ashurbeyli specifies the date of completion of construction - 1234/5 years [2]. The fact is that starting in the X century the role of Baku city considerably increased. It has become sensible after transferring the capital of Shirvanshah to Baku as a result of a Shamakhi earthquake that took place in 1192. Baku as the new capital of Shirvanshah started to be a significant city and increased new large constructions and number of populations. However, Baku has been poorly protected by natural strengthening and by the system of protection consisted of a fortification of the city,

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strengthening on Bailov and Sabail fortress and also the line of alarm towers along the coast and on adjacent islands [3]. The Sabail fortress settled down out of Baku. Therefore, the first of all fortresses needed rather reliable fencing which would be able to stay off attacks of small gangs and to maintain short time sieges. Besides, the Sabail fortress was located at an entrance to the Baku bay and had to protect access to the Baku fortress. However, it did not have sufficient fortification strengthening to sustain a long siege and the real storm. At the same time, there was no source internally of fresh water, which made it necessary to provide from the outside of the area. Therefore, it was impossible to call it as Sabail fortress [4]. The fact is that the Sabail fortress was the seaport of Baku confirms also the stone plate found in its walls with an inscription of Bender Baku that in translation from Farsi means “Port of Baku”. The ships of merchants, diplomats and other guests of Shirvan were coming up to Baku, staying in the morning to the walls of the Sabail fortress and became attached to their “ears”.

III. CASPIAN SEA BEHAVIOR Scientists have revealed regularly that the coastal level of the Caspian Sea rises each 200 - 250 years and then it takes the same period of years for falling to the level that is about 5 - 6 m lower. For the last 2 thousand years low sea levels were observed in I - II, VI - VII, 11th and 16th centuries [5]. The next minimum level is expected in this century. At the high level of the Caspian Sea, his waters flooded the lower part of the city (at the beginning of the 14th century reached Juma mosque). At that time, the ships could stick nearly to the Baku city streets. It was enough to build only new moorings on city streets.

III.I. Description of the Studied Area For the time being, using space science and technology advances is possible to make out images of the monitored area of features as

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houses or any facilities with remotely high - resolution satellite information. The fact is that it has been now appeared contours of the construction on the coast of Caspian Sea from satellite in Baku bay. It has begun from the island of the Sabail lock and proceeds to the west. The structure of the island has a rectangular shape up to 75 m wide and with a visible length up to 300 m. It is limited from the North and South two rows of walls with a general width up to 5 m. The island is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The area of the Sabail fortress.

As it is indicated above the change of the coastline of Caspian Sea has demanded to relocate the seaport regularly. It has been assumed three possible locations of the port - very high, low and medium sea levels. There is no doubt that it also exists at the intermediate sea level. Quite possibly discovered construction was such an intermediate port, which can be only assumed. Today it is impossible to determine the century of the discovered construction since the last 2 thousand years Caspian Sea level has changed four times. An available written information relevant to Baku history for the indicated periods is not enough, or almost is absent.

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Today the island has become visible due to the lowering of the sea level and looks out from the seawater. There is an opportunity to start a new stage of study processes of both the Sabail fortress and all possible underwater constructions of Baku. Up to date technology advances open a wide challenge for a deep exploration of the selected area. It is obvious that conducting investigations in Baku bay close to the area of Bayil up to the depth of 5 - 8 m can lead to discover huge historical knowledge which has a vital importance as well as to use a new approach to study significance of facilities constructed during the historical period of Baku. It could be an excellent source and bases for starting new scientific research investigations in the area as a fundamental contribution of historical processes study. In a southwest part of Baku bay was located the stone island extended from the South to the North, separated from the Bail cape by the passage 150 - 200 m wide. On the surface of the island, a defensive facility was constructed. It was reflected by many authors of 17 - 18 centuries. However, it has been described as an underwater construction since at that time the facility was drowned into the Caspian Sea. In the XX century, the history of the island has been shrouded in the legends related to the construction and drowning the island. In the 30th of the 20th century with the reason for the decrease of the level of the Caspian Sea, the island “has emerged”. Due to the new circumstance in 1938 an exact layout of the defensive monument and 35 stone plates are found with bas-reliefs. In the 1939, 1940 and further in 1962 the archaeological excavations were carried out which have allowed to understand through this ancient monument the history of Azerbaijan. Defensive ancient monument had a strongly extended layout with a length of 180 x 40 m, consisting of external walls, as well as internal constructions/facilities and a tower of the Donjon. From the outside of the monument the wall with towers has been covered by tape from stone plates with reflection of pictures and inscriptions. It has been found about 636 plates and identified that the inscription began from the east end of the southern gate. It was continued along all perimeter and came to the end at the western end of the southern gate. When it is talking about Sabail fortress, it should be noted that scientists disagree on definition, arguing on the time period of its construction and definition. Many of them believe that it was

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constructed in the period of the Middle Ages (in particular, at 12 - 13 centuries). A group of researchers are considered it a defensive fortress, some of them – customs fortresses, other scientists evidenced a fire worshippers temple which has a temple adapted into the Islamic traditions. It has been assumed the flood of the island in 1306 as a result of a strong earthquake. Thus, most likely, in 12 - 14 centuries the ship, which was swimming up to Baku from the North, was approaching to Bail fortress for control by custom. After the permission by the appropriate authority custom staff the ship could approach to the Baku city berth.

IV. ARCHITECTURAL REGENERATION ASPECTS For preservation historical monument, it is necessary to study materials related to the design related to the indicated period. It can be found and discovered from the literatures where reflected approximate sizes and dimensions of the fortress as pointed out 180 - 40 m. The fortress was surrounded by fortifications with 1.5 - 2 m thickness and had 15 towers, where 3 of them were big, and 12 were semi - circular. An internal part of a monument i.e., an interior should be developed and designed in Eastern style. In the internal area of the monument, it is expected to build a mini - hotel for those who would like and desire to integrate into the Azerbaijani culture, get a place for relaxation and have a restaurant with local cuisine.

IV.I. Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System Environment Reconstruction such type of infrastructure demands to provide all necessary maintenances such as power supply, water supply, the sewerage and any other related for operation and functioning of facility of communication systems. Figure 2 shows location of the selected area on the map of the Sabail fortress.

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Figure 2. The map of selected area.

Figure 3. The counters of the Sabail fortress in Caspian Sea.

Figure 3 illustrates the current condition of the Sabail fortress. Obviously, it is necessary to consider all tectonic and natural circumstances of the area if it is expected to regenerate the fortress. The main factors can be reflected as below: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Coastline rising behaviour; Seismic behaviour of the area; Underwater flows; Urban communication network study; Fauna and flora of the area; Alternative power energy supply opportunities; Climatic of the area (typical seasonal temperature of the air and water, wind speed etc.); 8. Drink water supply (outsourcing supply or marine water processing); 9. Seabed topographical data; and 10. Any others.

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IV.II. Caspian Sea Costal Line Rising Behaviour As it has been indicated above the rise of costal line of the Caspian Sea is significantly affecting all the surrounding area. It is necessary to estimate/control damages of the sea surface process of the rising of Caspian Sea coastline based on permanent monitoring. There is no doubt that remotely sensed data achieved from Earth observation satellites could be used for accurate information as an excellent instrument for state authority decision makers.

IV.III. Seismic Behaviour of the Area The Caspian Sea, as well as neighbouring onshore areas belong to the strong seismic active zone in the Iran – Caucasus - Kopet Dekkson region. The seascape of Caspian Sea is also seismically very active. Unfortunately, this natural disaster is not yet seascape sufficiently studied from the seismic point of view.

IV.IV. Caspian Sea Underwater Flows Seawater circulation in the Caspian Sea is connected with a drain and winds. The northern water flows have the main impact since the most part of the drain takes place in the Northern part of Caspian Sea. The intensive Northern water flow takes out waters from the Northern Caspian Sea along the Western coast to Absheron peninsula where the flow is divided into two branches. One of them moves further along the West coastline, and another one flows to the Eastern part of Caspian Sea [6, 7].

IV.V. Fauna and Flora of the Area The fauna of Caspian Sea is presented by 1809 types and of which 415 are related to the vertebrata [4]. In Caspian Sea 101 types of

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fishes are fixed. A majority of world reserves of sturgeon. In the meantime, fishes such as pikeperch can be discovered in Caspian Sea. Caspian Sea - the habitat of fish such as a carp, mullet, a sprat, bream, salmon, and perch. The marine mammal also lives in the Caspian Sea [8 - 10]. There are 728 types of flora of Caspian Sea and its coast. A prevalent vegetation of Caspian Sea is the seaweed mainly blue green, red, brown, choral and others as well as from floral are eelgrass and rupee.

IV.VI. Climatic of the Area Climate of the Caspian Sea is continental in the northern part, moderate in the middle part and subtropical in the southern part. During the winter period average monthly air temperature changes from below 8 - 100C0 in the northern part to above 8 - 100C0 in the southern part, during the summer period from +24 - 25C0 in the northern part to +2 27C0 in the southern part. The maximum temperature of +44C0 degrees is recorded on the east coast Caspian Sea. The average annual amount of precipitation is 200 millimetres and from 90 - 100 millimetres in the droughty east part up to 1700 millimetres at the southwest subtropical coast. An evaporation of water from the surface of the Caspian Sea is about 1000 millimetres a year, the most intensive evaporation near Absheron peninsula and in the east part of the Southern Caspian Sea is up to 1400 millimetres a year [11]. Average annual speed of wind is 3 - 7 meters per second, in a wind rose norths prevail. In autumn and winter months winds amplify, the speed of winds quite often reaches 35 - 40 meters per second. The windiest territories of Absheron peninsula are vicinities of Makhachkala and Derbend cities and the highest wave 11 meters is recorded in the same place.

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IV.VII. Seabed Topographical Data A seabed relief of a northern part of the Caspian Sea is the shallow wavy plain with banks and accumulative islands, the average depth of the Northern Caspian Sea is about 4 - 8 meters with the maximum depth 25 meters. The Mangyshlaksky threshold separates the Northern Caspian Sea from the Average Caspian. The Central Caspian Sea is rather deep - water, where the depth of the sea in the Derbent hollow reaches 788 meters. The Apsheron threshold divides the Central and Southern Caspian Sea. The Southern Caspian Sea is considered deep - water where sea depth in the Southern Caspian hollow reaches 1025 meters from the surface of the Caspian Sea [12, 13].

Figure 4. Sabail fortress regeneration.

It is important to consider all circumstances of above factors during regeneration of the Sabail Fortress. It is a suggested example of regeneration of the ancient monument in the selected area (Figure 4). The next step of development is dedicated to the method for successful restoration of the Sabail Fortress.

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V. SPACE TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION It becomes vital to use high resolution satellite images in order to ensure reliable and timely monitoring over ancient monuments located in areas affected by natural disaster, ecological damages, ongoing conflicts etc. In the meantime, many of ancient monuments face an increasing risk from urbanization, economic development and implications of unanticipated changes. The fact is that satellite archive imagery provides a unique opportunity to compare and assess the damages that these sites may have suffered over time and makes it possible to protect in time. It is of national importance. The systematic database development can be regenerated and protected by creating of the Management Plans based on using space technology advances. This Management Plan development can consist of appropriate measures in: • • •

conserving; preserving; and monitoring activities.

The state authorities who are responsible for the upkeep of ancient monuments can operationally use such developed systems. Figure 5 shows the space image of the Sabail fortress area.

Figure 5. Space image of Sabail fortress area.

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It is necessary to point out how the process of space technology application can be used for regeneration of Sabail fortress (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Space technology application in regeneration of ancient monuments.

The first stage of regeneration required to be started from the identification and collection available of both filed data of the investigated area and satellite image(s). It has to be provided initially

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analyses of collected data with further integration and processing. The final stages are to produce the final product for the users as the source for appropriate personals/engineers decision - making and execution.

CONCLUSION This chapter is dedicated to the use of space technology for ancient monuments regeneration. It has demonstrated conceptual approach of satellite data processing for successful integration of architectural infrastructure into the engineering facilities.

REFERENCES [1] [2]

“Caspian”, SP (b), 1875. Ashurbayli S. “History of Baku City”, 1992. Azerneshr, Baku, Azerbaijan. [3] Karelin G.S. “A Travelling of Griqoriy Silich Karelin along Caspian Sea”. 18833. Western Russian Geographical Society. v. 10. [4] Philippov N.M. “About Changing of the Caspian Sea Level”, 1890. Western Russian Geographical Society. [5] Shlyamin B.A. “Caspian Sea”, M.: Geography. 1954. Russia, p. 128, 1954. [6] Proshkina-Lavrenko A.I., Makarova I.B. “Caspian Sea Seaweed Plankton”. 1968. [7] Aghamaliyev F.G. “Infusorians of the Caspian Sea: Systematization. Ecology, Zoogeography”. Science. St. Petersburg. Russia. 1983. [8] Yablonskaya E.A. “Caspian Sea: Fauna and Biological Efficiency”. Science. St. Petersburg. Russia. 1985. [9] Baydin S.S., Kosaryev A.N. “Caspian Sea: Hydrology and Hydro Chemical”. Science. St. Petersburg. Russia. 1986. [10] Krilov N.A. “Caspian Sea, Geology and Oil – and - Gas Content”. 1987. Science. St. Petersburg. Russia.

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[11] Belyayeva V.N. “Caspian Sea: Fish Fauna and Trade Resources”. 1989. Science. St. Petersburg. Russia. [12] Kosaryev A.N. “Caspian Sea Structure and Dynamics of Waters”. 1990. Science. St. Petersburg. Russia. [13] Ivanov V.P. “Fishes of the Caspian Sea: Systematization, Biology, Trade”. 2012. Publication of ASTU. Astrakhan. Russia.

Chapter 4

INNOVATION AND INNOVATION TECHNOLOGY: APPROACH AND IMPLEMENTATION I. INTRODUCTION Innovation and innovation technology are the instrument of economic and social progress. It is the predominant source of: •

•

•

new or improved products, processes, and methods of marketing and organization that drive the competitiveness of the business sector; and generate the income that sustains existing standard of living; alter the way it interacts with each other and the natural world; and solve (and sometimes create) the technical and social problems human face.

The key challenges for most economies – intensifying global competition in product markets, increasing demand for energy and other natural resources, and aging of the workforce - render economic competitiveness transient and easily eroded. As a result, this threats potentially wealth of nations that fail to combat them. In addition, the

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growing pressure of complex, global challenges, such as climate change and financial system stability, suggests that harnessing the innovative capacity of humanity is more critical than ever before. This chapter reflects the general aspect of innovation and innovation technology with concern of importance for the countries in the transit economy. It is necessary to classify the type of innovation for the case depending on used innovation behaviour. The fact is that it demands to describe innovation technology applications for any expected study. It can be demonstrated following type innovation technology classification [1, 2]. Associated innovation technology – it is an innovation technology that has been applied on the base of early achieved and checked challenges (knowledge, system, facilities etc.) with optimized integration of innovation technology. Basic innovation technology – this innovation technology covers the area of applications (systems, machines, technologies, facilities, etc.) based on a new scientific discovery for a future generation scientific production. Enhancement of innovation technology – this innovation technology is ordered innovation technology with considering the market behaviour and circumstances. It is expected to improve product or service based on application of scientific advances, project design - technological achievements, as well as use of new approaches to management processes. Improvement of innovation technology – it is development of a new generation machine, materials, specific type of materials and methods based on improvement of products (goods, work execution and services). Innovation processes – it is the whole stage of period in transformation of scientific knowledge, ideas, discoveries and inventions into innovation technology.

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II. CONTRIBUTION OF INNOVATION AND INNOVATION TECHNOLOGY IN BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT For the time being it is obvious that innovation and innovation technologies are important to achieve major developmental challenges, such as development sustainability, and shared prosperity. At the same time, innovation and innovation technologies provide contribution for a high productivity and economic dynamism. Today famous financial Worldwide institutions spending a big investment for successful use of achievements of innovation and innovation technologies advances in the variety of areas of business in a large geography [3 - 5]. It is necessary to mention that this approach of innovation and innovation technology is important for the young countries in transit economy such as Azerbaijan and other countries of the former Soviet Union. It makes possible effectively integrate into the international system with meeting those requirements and standards. Existing circumstances demand the necessity of consideration of a new business development instead of existing picture in the past. It starts from the initial stage business development and includes employment growth as well as enhances competitiveness and productivity by introducing new products, developing novel business models. Obviously it opens a new markets within regional, in some cases worldwide scales with reflection innovation and innovation technologies application. Innovation and use of innovation technology allow firms to specialize, meet international best-practice standards and upgrade quality as it has pointed out above. Each of these areas is essential for business to compete/analyse process reached information and thrive in the global economy. It is very important in developing economies or transition economies, which need innovators that create new or improved products and services accessible to underserved populations. The growth of a firm depends on how external and internal factors affect the business at all stages of enterprise development. Internal constraints include the capabilities and capacity of the business, the

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management and organization of the companies, as well as the companies’ capacity and capability to innovate. There is an advantage for the companies that have selected philosophy of learning organization. Investments in research and development, innovation and other types of knowledge capital improve a company’s product quality and reduce production costs. It can be referenced that external constraints include the business environment, characteristics of the particular industry, the companies’ access to capital, labour, technology, and markets. The aim and target of innovation and innovation technology use is to point out areas needed to be considered in the first stage development. For achievement expectations of innovation and innovation technology application are necessary to create an appropriate environment. In this regard following options would be vital to consider: • • • • • • •

human capital; research and development institutions; financial capital; the industrial base; the legal and regulatory environment; business and innovation culture; and the quality of networks.

It is a comprehensive innovation policy approach, which undertakes all existing variety of factors and contaminations, and relations between all segments. There is an important point necessary to understand what is required to reach expectations in this area. There is an offer of bringing ideas in order to help countries in the innovation and innovation technology effective development applications: • • •

global experience; knowledge; and research and investments.

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For this task is required to develop: • • • •

policies; strategies; regulations and institutions; and foster investments and jobs opportunities.

There are diversity instruments of encouragement in innovation and innovation technology applications provided by different international institutions. It is [6, 7]: • • • •

advisory services; loans; funded programs; and business development consultancy.

It builds an environment on a global network involvement of innovation and innovation technology practices. As far as it was indicated above innovation can contribute to address for creating needed environmental challenges through the introduction of new technologies and non - technological innovations for achievement of expected outcomes in business development. The fact is that these indications, for instance, in non - technological innovations in particular, organization innovation, which is the main aspect of business development. It is the step needed to be effectively oriented into technological innovation. The use of innovation can be faced in a large area. For example, evidence shows that innovation in climate change mitigation technologies is accelerating. In recent years manufacturing companies have also been upgrading their efforts towards sustainable manufacturing, from introducing pollution prevention to designing integrated approaches. It takes into account product lifecycles and wider impacts. Definitely, it demands to use advances of technologies of the traditional and non - traditional methods with large scale consideration of innovation and innovation technology application.

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III. INNOVATION AND INNOVATION TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION STAGES Development of strategy of innovation and innovation technology is one of the main stages of the segment of the innovation development program as a whole. This innovation and innovation technology strategy program depends: • • • • • •

level of business; business environment; culture of business services; type of business; existing law, legislation and regulation; and any others related options.

The fact is that all above indications operate based on the following issues: •

innovation and innovation technology with segments: − identifying current performance, opportunities for growth and addressing constraints for successful, innovation and innovation technology application for business.

This includes assessment of opportunities and ability of the business to access into: • • •

innovation and innovation technology; knowledge of markets and management trends; and access to international markets.

It opens an opportunity to appraise the business environment, including access to key inputs such as capital, labour, infrastructure and technology as well as any other subjects, which can significantly influence the achievement of innovation and innovation technology application.

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The development of innovation and innovation technology financing mechanism has an important place of business environment and consists the following processes: • • •

seed funding; angel and venture investing; and facilities and training to support the investment - readiness of innovation and innovation technology.

It is very important to find suitable and convenient circumstances to build up capacity and a worldwide network for the business environment. It has to be embraced: • • •

accelerators; incubators, innovation and innovation technology centres and clusters; and governmental interventions such as: − indirect and direct subsidies to innovation; and − research and development investments.

As far as it was mentioned above, strengthening and appropriate state policy design and governance for policy effectiveness is one of the key points in innovation and innovation technology development. It should be impacted such aspects as below being able to achieve effective outcomes in this area: • • • • • •

to help governments review; their overarching innovation strategies; their public expenses spending on science, technology; expenses spending on innovation and innovation technology; design and implement policy programs for innovation and innovation technology; and establish an effective institutional framework for innovation policy.

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IV. A WIDE SCALE NETWORK NEEDS This is the point related to the juridical aspects of innovation and innovation technology cultivation. It is mainly emphasizing the description of innovation and innovation technology in private sector policies with improvement of outcomes in health or the environment. It considers to provide a learning process in order to aware and share knowledge in innovation and innovation technology [8]. Obviously, growth in any economy has a number of stages and mainly comes from: • • •

growth in inputs of production; improvements in the efficiency of allocation of inputs across economic activities; and innovation that creates new products and devices, new uses for existing products, and increases the efficiency of input use.

Based on different information and analysis of available sources of economic growth it has been found out that the biggest differences between developed and developing economies as well as in the countries with transit economy depends on innovation and innovation technology performances. Today it is accepted and understood that the innovation and innovation technology is a critical point for economic growth. At the same time, it also becomes increasingly important for addressing major development challenges, such as inclusion and sustainability. Understanding and recognizing the importance and necessity of this option, many countries are trying to promote innovation and innovation technology in business development. There is no doubt that the use of advances of technology with approach of innovation and innovation technology aspect is impossible to build up capacity building meeting up to date requirements in the market. It especially appears in case of developing countries as well as in countries with transit economies. The business in any area needs to consider innovation and innovation technology in order to be able to use a new technology and processes. The success in this will depend on who successfully takes

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risks, looks for finance, and brings new products and processes into market. This is not so easy to use innovation and innovation technology in the developing and in the countries with transit economies. There are a number of obstacles making it difficult to apply. They are: • • • •

human factor (knowledge, education, experience not enough for innovation and innovation technology understanding); limited technological facilities; adaptation to a new modern technology environment; and limited working environment and to be ready to adapt to any market changes (mental problems).

However, innovation and innovation technology can be offered/implemented from local geography with a low - and middle income countries. It is vital step of country desire for consideration of innovation and innovation technology use as the evidence of development and enhancement of business income and benefit. It is discovered that processing accessed information and investment is substantial, but effectiveness in general is not enough, and needed to be enhanced through broad, systemic efforts on a set of complementary actions. There are main concerns required to be considered in innovation and innovation technology application: • •

how innovation will be used to solve major development problems; and how this vision can be transformed into workable solutions.

It has to be undertaken in the fast - changing development context. Urgent action is necessary to enhance innovation and innovation technology in such areas as: • •

coordination; and consultation, or linkages.

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One more challenge is to develop practical solutions for people. Sustained efforts are required to experiment with different mechanisms and implementation arrangements. It is also important to monitor and evaluate systems to be facilitate scale of promising interventions and mechanisms in order to effectively capture and share knowledge from operations providing appropriate services.

V. ENCOURAGEMENT OF INNOVATION AND INNOVATION TECHNOLOGY The fact is that income levels are correlating with innovation and innovation technology outputs and inputs. Consequently, on average, innovation and innovation technology performance is stronger in high income countries than in middle - and low - income countries. In many developing countries and countries with transit economies like Azerbaijan, innovation and innovation technology would be developed on the base of knowledge and technologies advances of outsourcing intervention. For instance, foreign sources or other users in the economy, as well as innovation might be developed by use of the domestic research capacity from public institutions, universities, and private entities. Strengthening innovation and innovation technology capacity is an important factor in countries that have experienced rapid and sustained economic growth. Emerging economies and developing countries seeking to pursue development strategies that foster growth must build up the capacity to acquire, disseminate, and use technologies to promote innovation. At the same time, it is necessary to encourage new and existing companies to invest for business opportunities. In general, international financial and appropriate organizations engage implementation process of innovation and innovation technology development and application. It plays vital role in helping and supporting countries to build up their capacity in innovation and innovation technology. How to achieve expectations in this important aspect? This is the option needed to be considered in the innovation approach of business

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development, in particular space science and technology application. In accordance with this approach it can be undertaken following steps as: •

•

• • •

support public investment in research and development that focuses on improving efficiency and relevance to end users as well as on strengthening the use of research results in public policy decisions; build up domestic science, technology, and capabilities in innovation and innovation technology to make effective use of global knowledge; strengthen linkages between public research and development and private sector users of technology and knowledge; build up a strong enabling environment, including effective use of information and communications technology; and provide flexible financing arrangements to encourage innovative firms to develop new products, processes, and services.

Four types of targeted innovation and innovation technology can be used to support innovation and innovation technology within a broad based enabling environment [9, 10]: • • • •

Support for public and private research and development; Strengthening business environmental capabilities; Financial support and encouragement (consultancy or any other sources) for early - stage start-ups; and Fostering linkages between actors in the innovation and innovation technology system.

There are a variety of ways and mechanisms to execute and support innovation and innovation technology. Competitive research grants are also an opportunity to improve performance in public research systems, improve research - industry linkages, and promote private sector participation in public sector research. Matching grants can be facilitating development of new products through collaboration between companies and organizations providing research and

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development to bring innovation and innovation technology to the market that is integration efforts of sides in it. The financial support and business cost efficiency consultancy is also important subject in innovation and innovation technology application, which opens opportunities for business development services, export promotion activities, and technology upgrading. By providing a range of business support and services, incubators can be helpful for company growth, improvement and bring innovation and innovation technology to the market.

CONCLUSION This chapter is dedicated to the aspects of innovation and innovation technology development mainly oriented in the developing countries and countries in the transit economy. It has been described the importance of innovation and innovation technology in business development, influence of innovation and innovation technology in achievement of expectations in business related to the research and development activities. An influence to the market of innovation and innovation technology is also undertaken in this chapter. The stages, factors impacting to the business environment are also subject of this study. An issue of support and encouragement as well as the way of financial and any other related options are the area of consideration of the chapter.

REFERENCES [1]

[2]

Ejsing A.-K., Kaiser U., Kongsted H.C. and Laursen K. 2013. The Role of University Scientist Mobility for Industrial Innovation. IZA DP No. 7470. Heblich S. and Slavtchev V. Parent Universities and the Location of Academic Start-ups in: Small Business Economics. 2013. doi: 10.1007/s11187-013-9470-3.

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Lester R.K. Universities, Innovation, and the Competitiveness of Local Economies: A Summary Report from the Local Innovation Systems Project - Phase I. 2005. Cambridge, MA: MIT Industrial Performance Center Working Paper. [4] Lopez-Garcia P. and J.M. Montero. Spill overs and absorptive capacity in the decision to innovate of Spanish firms: the role of human capital. 2012. Economics of Innovation and New Technology, v. 21. [5] Mansfield E. Links Between Academic Research and Industrial Innovations, in: David. P. and E. Steinmueller (Eds.). A Production Tension: University-Industry Collaboration in the Era of Knowledge-Based Economic Development (Stanford University Press, Palo Alto). 1997. [6] Moretti E. and D. Wilson. State Incentives for Innovation, Star Scientists and Jobs: Evidence from Biotech. 2013. NBER Working Paper Series. Working Paper. 19294. [7] Mowery D.C. and Nelson, R.R. Sources of Industrial Leadership. 1999, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. [8] O’Shea R., Allen T., Chevalier, A. and Roche F. Entrepreneurial orientation, technology transfer and spinoff performance of U.S. universities. 2005. Research Policy. V. 34. Issue 7. [9] OECD. Turning science into business. 2003. Patenting and licensing at public research organizations. OECD Publications, Paris. [10] Rothaermel F.T. and Ku D.N. Intercluster innovation differenti-als: The role of research universities. 2008. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management 55(1).

Chapter 5

REMOTE SENSING AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM AS AN ENVIRONMENT FOR MANAGEMENT OF ENGINEERING ACTIVITIES I. INTRODUCTION Advances of space technology application play a vital role in a variety of areas. It successfully uses in engineering, especially with the means of remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS). This chapter is dedicated to the use of remote sensing and GIS technology in the process of management of the Upgrade of Oil Petroleum Terminal and modernization of the filling complex of the oil refinery plant. This is conceptual approach of demonstration importance collection of required information for engineering management activities.

II. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION AS A UNIFORM SYSTEM OF ENGINEERING ACTIVITY It is necessary to state that there is a close link between design and construction stages during planning of the engineering facility

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development. These processes should be considered as an integrated system. Generally speaking, designing is the process of creating a description of a new production facility, usually represented by detailed plans and technical requirements, such as construction planning. This process contains stages for identifying the actions and resources required to make the design physically functional. Consequently, construction is the implementation of design offered by architects and engineers coming from different engineering disciplines. In both design and construction activities, numerous operational tasks must be taken into account and implemented with multiple factors and engineering segments containing complex tasks. It is worth noting that some aspects of planning during the production facility development process should be considered even at a very early stage of the project cycle. They include the following: •

• •

• •

each engineering activity – design and construction are considered as an individual project with a set project execution time; design and construction stages of the project have to meet conditions, specifics of the selected area; the project has to reflect natural, social and other geographical features of the selected area, such as climate, human resources, local construction standards, norms and regulations, etc.; the created structures provide for their long - term operation, which demand high requirements; and technological complications and market requirements lead to a change in design plans during construction.

In an integrated system, design and construction planning can begin almost simultaneously, and various alternatives should be considered to eliminate the need to revise the project budget. In addition, it is necessary to evaluate the projects regarding their reliability in the implementation from planning to construction.

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III. FEATURES OF APPLICATION OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING Remote sensing method allows registration scene on the surface of the surveyed area by means of electronic scanning, using the visible range of radiation, as well as electromagnetic waves outside the visual range of sensors and microwave cameras, radar, thermal, infrared, ultraviolet, and multispectral special technical instruments for further processing and interpretation of remote sensing images. The result of processed data presents in the form of conventional and thematic maps, which find their application in fields such as: • • • • • •

agriculture; archaeology; forestry; geography; geology; and etc. [1].

The purpose of the use of remote sensing in construction is to obtain land use maps that help create an initial hierarchy of the surveyed territory and also provide geographic information that will allow to determine the boundary of the site, optimize the construction process and achieve an improved assessment of the entire process. Satellite imagery is very useful for preparing the necessary fieldwork materials.

IV. GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS The Geographic Information System (GIS) is a unique way of collecting, storing, transforming and displaying spatial data for solving various tasks, depending on the goals set [2].

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It should be noted that actions related to the construction works can be successfully linked into a geographic information system. Thus, it is a very good tool making possible controlling/monitoring and management of collected/processed databases most effectively and efficiently use on the basis of satellite images. It can be used as a tool to determine the boundary of the selected construction area, features of terrain, etc. The initial data within the GIS is very important information in the building for subsequent process management, including the preparation of materials and the collection field data. The next step after collection and processing of information is subsequent analysis for decision-making. Through technological advances in electronic notebooks, a tablet and GPS devices in data collection makes possible to achieve high accuracy results. It is best way starting from collection of primary data and field data for significantly reducing time and costs comparatively existing traditional methods.

V. STAGES OF APPLICATION OF GIS IN ENGINEERING Figure 1 illustrates stages of engineering activities using remote sensing techniques with the subsequent creation of GIS technology. There is no doubt that any engineering activity originates from the tender stage. After the tender announcement, the tender participants submit their proposals on all aspects within the framework of the tender requirements covering the main segments of the tender package. It is obvious that success of any tender participant depends of the quality and quantity of tender circumstances information. This circumstance directly affects the quality of the tender with more specific technical proposals in terms of engineering solutions, which affects the cost of the tender proposal. There is no doubt that both factors play a decisive role in the evaluation and decision-making in the final stage of the tender processes.

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Figure 1. Description of stages of engineering activities and application of space technologies during implementation of the engineering project.

Data collected during the tender stage can play a significant role in the design phase. This will allow a clear approach and more precise definition of directions and ways of solving engineering problems. Certainly, this environment will lead to a reduction financial expenses, which is a very significant factor in the commercial part of the project.

V.I. How Is It Possible to Achieve Success in the Main Areas of Engineering? The application of space technology, in particular methods of remote sensing and GIS technologies, can significantly affect all

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aspects of engineering activities in terms of providing high - quality and accurate information covering a fairly wide area. To achieve the planned successes and efficiency of engineering activities in process management, it is necessary to create an appropriate environment for managing the resource segments that are a part of engineering activities. As shown in Figure 1, such major resource segments are the technological, technical, human, time spend for each phase, financial and other possible costs that may appear in the design and construction process.

V.I.I. Description of the Resource’s Segments Technological resources - a set of resources that allow to conduct of production activities in the construction area. This group of resources can include: • • • • • •

objects of economic and non - economic purpose; number and quality of the human workforce; level of transport development and location of the main transport routes; development of communication media (types of communication, accessibility and quality of communication); availability of industrial infrastructure facilities; and territory (including the development of business services).

Technical resources - a collection of material values, meaning, parts of production that participate and serve the production process for a long time in many production cycles, retain their original form in the production process, transfer their parts in parts to their value for products made with their participation or with the participation of their services. From the economic point of view, these resources can be divided into active and passive groups [3]. The active part of technical resources consists of tools of labour: •

machines and equipment directly engaged in the technological process.

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Passive technical resources consist of: •

buildings and structures that provide conditions for the normal flow of the production process, but do not directly participate in it.

Human resources define the quantity of personnel of the project involved in the project realization process. Time for each stage is the spend time for each stage of engineering activity. The set of all financial expenses during implementation of the project contains financial resources as a whole.

V.I.II. Remote Sensing and GIS The remote sensing data with the subsequent creation of the GIS allows to integrate all the data into the appropriate format, which is a good tool for managing the engineering process. This includes the collection of primary data with a valid field data. The next step is the processing and presentation of data in the form of maps or digital data in the format of printed materials or in electronic form. The obtained data allows personnel in the decision making to be involved in the management process of engineering activities. V.I.III. GIS Development This section presents the results of using remote sensing methods with the subsequent development of GIS for the “Upgrade of Oil Petroleum Terminal” project. The project scope of the includes: 1. Conceptual design; 2. Detailed design; 3. Procurement and supply of materials and equipment according to the project specifications; and 4. Construction in one stage. The information reflection layers is created by GIS demonstrate quality of collected and processed information. From this point of view, the following conditions are included in the information base, such as:

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construction with seismicity of 8 points; average annual temperature varies from + 13.50°C to + 14,4°C; July temperature is varying from + 24,7°C to + 25,6°C; January temperature is varying from +2,9°C to +3,8°C; frost penetration in the soil 0,3 m in depth; northern wind stream (North); average annual wind speeds of 6 - 7 m/s; average annual rainfall of 247 mm; and average relative humidity: 70 - 73%.

Figure 2. The developed temporal diagram of the executed construction works using “Microsoft Project” software.

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The work at the Upgrade of Oil Petroleum Terminal was performed in the following directions: • • • • • • •

equipment foundations; buildings and warehouses foundations; pump station foundations; foundation supports; reservoirs foundations; foundation bases; and funds of pipes for poles.

Figure 2 shows the schedule for construction works that was part of the information layer of the GIS.

VI. METHODS VI.I. Information Selection The satellite image of the area where work was intended to be done was used during the project execution. Detailed analysis and study of the terrain from the image and the linking of data with it through fieldwork were part of the work on development of the GIS in this work [4]. Work was not confined to the study site.

Figure 3. The space image of the territory where expected construction was to be carried out.

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All features of the area around this plant have also been studied in detail. The purpose of this work was to possess information. It has made possible successfully integrate all engineering structures and systems within the plant with the appropriate communication facilities and engineering systems in the outside of the terminal territory (Figure 3).

VI.II. Geodetic Measurements Geodetic works were carried out in the terminal for establishment of coordinate network system and elevation data. This work has been executed using the following equipment:

Figure 4. Graphical representation of the terrain created on the basis of a topographic map.

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1. GPS - Leica SR20 TS 2. Leica of TC 09+ The created coordinate network allowed to accurately tie the space image with the topographic map, as shown in Figure 4.

VII. RESULTS Figure 5 presents the results of the work done on the overhaul and modernization of the oil refinery plant at the terminal. A legend was created for the site of the plant, where work is planned on overhauling and modernizing the filling complex of the oil refinery using space information with all stages of its processing [5].

Figure 5. The results of remote sensing data and GIS for the upgrade and modernization of the filling complex of the oil refinery plant at the Terminal.

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The presented data were refined and confirmed by field measurements, and analysed and compared, which created the necessary conditions for the implementation of the project for overhaul and modernization of the bulk refinery complex.

VIII. POSITIONING SYSTEM/GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT FOR ENGINEERING INFRASTRUCTURE FACILITY SAFETY VIII.I. Introduction Remote sensing technologies provide information in large areas of Earth. Technologies to properly exploit the information given in the images are desired to be used in subsequent risk management. A comprehensive set of tools has been developed to quantify a major number of parameters and established information on key performance indicators. These tools are introduced in the GIS based software platform. The World is experiencing an increasing number and impact of disasters due to natural hazards and technological accidents caused by a combination of changes in its physical, technological and human/social systems. Natural risks may interact with the risks coming from the industrial plants, especially from the high - risk ones, and may give rise to a negative synergism. In order to get an almost complete evaluation of the interactions between industrial settlements and environment, it is necessary to consider their double connection: • •

the effects both of a natural event on the plant; and the plant itself in the surrounding environment.

Therefore, information about features, like hydrogeological and geomorphologic factors, and suitable safety measures are needed. Industrial facilities and critical infrastructures, as well as individual

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production or service areas are subject to different levels of risk from natural events. An assessment of potential natural hazards is fundamental issue for planning purposes and risk preparedness, especially with regard to supervision and maintenance of industrial facilities and extended lifelines. Areas at particular risk include: • • • • •

networks; buildings; production; extracting and processing plants; and non-electronic data records.

Technical interdependencies between infrastructures have the potential for initiating widespread cascading effects of failure or loss of service. The clash of climate change increases flooding hazards such as storm surge and flash floods with explosive, uncontrolled urban sprawl and changing urban patterns constitutes a further increasing risk. Industrial accidents triggered by natural events, such as e.g., earthquakes, floods, lightning etc. are referred to accidents called “Natech”. Natech accidents have occurred in relation to natural hazards and disasters and have resulted in the release of hazardous substances leading to fatalities, injuries, environmental pollution and economic losses. One of the principal problems of most Natech accidents is the simultaneous occurrence of a natural disaster and a technological accident. A require simultaneous response efforts in a situation in which lifelines needed for disaster mitigation are likely to be unavailable. Natech risks from technological or natural risk as its multi hazard nature requires an integrated approach to risk management. As an example, the catastrophic events in March 2011 in Japan have demonstrated this process. When natural hazards happen and affect cities, settlements and infrastructure, immediate and efficient actions are required to ensure the minimization of the damage and loss of human life [6]. Proper mitigation of damages following disastrous events highly depends on

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the available information and the quick and proper assessment of the situation. Responding local and national authorities should be provided in advance with information and maps where the highest damages due to unfavourable, local site conditions in case of stronger earthquakes and earthquake - related secondary effects such as landslides, liquefaction, soil amplifications or compaction can be assumed. The better pre - existing reference database of an area at risk is needed to be prepared and elaborated, the better crisis - management can react in case of hazards and related secondary effects [7]. Hence it is imperative to identify those areas that are most susceptible to different types of natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, flooding or storms. The ability to undertake this natural hazard assessment, monitoring and modelling can be improved to a considerable extent through the current advances in remote sensing and GIS technology. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) provide the appropriate platform for the registration and management of information on natural hazards and their impact on industrial facilities. Meanwhile development of GIS for disaster have been implemented in nearly all around the World. However, there is still different standards and definitions, terminology, databases and details, in spite of the on going for instance European INSPIRE activities. Therefore, the compatibility of data and information is one of the major problems. The consideration of property rights of data is another obstacle for the international use and data exchange. In case of larger accidents, changes often become visible by comparing a reference database with most actual satellite imageries, that can be evaluated and, then, be part of decision processes. For example, RapidEye – or Sentinel – satellite data can form an important part of such a reference database before and after an event providing data within several hours. There are number of projects are conducting for these purposes. Hence, the aim of projects is to elaborate an approach, in which GIS used with integrated remote sensing data, contribute to the analysis and representation of information required for the geo - hazard assessment, that could cause industrial accidents and cascading, interfering effects affecting the safety of industrial facilities. Objective is the detection of areas susceptible to natural hazards and, thus, as a

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consequence, the susceptibility assessments of industrial facilities to these hazards according to a standardized, systematic and clearly arranged approach that can be used in any area due to the meanwhile standardized, open - source availability of the basic data input. Causal or critical environmental factors influencing the disposition of industrial and infrastructural facilities to be affected by natural hazards and the potential damage intensity can be analysed interactively in a GIS database. The interactions and dependencies between the different causal factors can be visualized and weighted step by step in this GIS environment. Objective is to elaborate susceptibility maps for the detection of areas that are assumed to be more adapted by natural hazards due to aggregation of causal/preparatory factors and merge these maps with data of industrial facilities. A next objective is the investigation of the question how the elaboration of a database for factors of local site conditions, which influence the damage potential of hazards. For example, in case of earthquakes the shock intensities, could become part of a comprehensive industrial risk management system in the future. Maps of European countries were created providing an overview of areas that are more susceptible to earthquake shock or flooding due to regional and local site conditions following the standardized work flow developed in the scope of the project. The potential of social and economic losses due to earthquake events and secondary processes triggered by them is increasing. Technical interdependencies between infrastructures have a potential in triggering widespread cascading effects of failure or loss of service. The fact is that in some areas, for example, where it has more than two million inhabitants and sensitive infrastructure, seismic hazard assessment and mitigation is an important task [8].

VIII.II. Geomorphologic and Geotectonic Setting A long - term information of geodynamic processes, for instance, in the Eastern Alps and its environments (uplift, subsidence, horizontal movements) are a basic need for the maintenance of buildings, infrastructure and industrial facilities in the Vienna area. As the

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geodynamic processes are linked with the morphologic development in the Vienna area, its morphometric properties required to be taken into account as well. Austria can be considered as the most vulnerable area from a sensitivity point of view. Vienna is situated at the western margin of the Vienna Basin, a pull - apart structure formed due to lateral extrusion between the Eastern Alps and the Western Carpathians. It has developed during the Miocene and was reactivated in Pleistocene times [9]. The Vienna basin is surrounded by the Eastern Alps, the West Carpathians, and the western part of the Pannonian Basin. It strikes roughly southwestnortheast, is 200 km long and nearly 60 km wide. It extends from Gloggnitz (Lower Austria) in the SSW to Napajedl (Czech Republic) in the NNE [10]. Major NE - striking fault systems of the Vienna Basin are related to the seismically active Vienna Basin Transfer Fault System (VBTF). The Vienna Basin fault system is a slow moving (1 - 2.5 mm/y) active sinisterly fault extending from the Alps through the Vienna Basin into the Carpathians [11]. This is a good agreement with GPS data showing about 2 mm slip per year and precise levelling proving surface subsidence up to 1 mm/y. Three of these branch faults, which have at least been active through the Pleistocene, pass through the urban centre of Vienna. The landscape of large parts of the city of Vienna is dominated by Quaternary terraces of the Danube river.

VIII.III. Earthquakes in the Vienna Basin The Vienna Basin is one of the main seismic active areas in Austria. During the 20th century 345 earthquakes in the Vienna Basin and adjacent areas in Styria could be felt, 17 earthquakes caused building damage [8, 12]. Most of the epicentres line up along the Vienna Basin Transfer Fault System (VBTF). The region at the VBTF is in general characterized by moderate seismicity with almost medium sized earthquakes (Magnitude: ML 5.0 - 5.5). A stronger event, the Neulengbach earthquake, 1590 AD (ML about 6) was recorded in historic times [11]. The earthquake in the wider area of Neulengbach in 1590, about 30 km northwest of Vienna, had an epicentral intensity of about 9, according to the analysis of historical documents [13].

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The available seismic hazard estimates for Austria were established on probabilistic and statistical analyses of historical earthquake data [14]. Such approaches assume that the future seismicity will be the same as past observed activity, implying higher earthquake probabilities in areas, where historical earthquakes occurred and lower probabilities for areas, where only few or small earthquakes occurred [11]. However, maps of active faults and computed seismic slip deficits indicate that previous hazard analyses for the surroundings of Vienna may both underestimate the probability of severe earthquakes and the maximum credible earthquake. The subsurface geologic structure of the Vienna basin has the potential to amplify and lengthen the duration of strong shaking in some places, such as in areas with surficial and shallow deposits of artificial fill and youngest, unconsolidated alluvium (Danube river deposits).

VIII.IV. Local Site Conditions Local site conditions play an important role when considering earthquake shaking and damage intensities and their local variations. The ground - shaking during an earthquake predominantly depends on several factors such as: • • • •

magnitude; properties of fault plane solutions; distance from the fault; and local geologic conditions.

An estimation of expected ground motion is fundamental for earthquake hazard assessment. Generally, ground motion and damages are influenced by the magnitude of the earthquake, distance from the seismic source to the site, and local ground conditions [15]. Empirical attenuation relation, a practical way to estimate ground motion parameters, gives information about how these parameters depend on the above - mentioned source, path, and site. This, namely ground condition, must be considered, because the same earthquake recorded at the same distance may

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cause different damage according to ground conditions [16]. The most intense shaking experienced during earthquakes generally occurs near the rupturing fault area, and decreases with distance away from the fault. Within a single earthquake event, however, the shaking at one site can easily be stronger than at another site, even when their distance from the ruptured fault is the same. Local geologic conditions are the cause of difference in shaking intensity, but often there is a little certainty of the particular conditions in a specific area that are most responsible, and the degree to which they cause earthquake shaking. The variability in earthquake - induced damage is mainly determined by the local geologic and hydrogeologic conditions. These conditions, internally influence the amplitude, the frequency and duration of ground motion at a site. Groundwater level variations and associated saturation changes in sand layers within near - surface aquifers can influence local response spectra of the ground motion, through modification of shear-wave velocity. Changes of the groundwater level can also have a considerable influence upon the liquefaction potential of the region. Special attention is drawn to in - situ pore - water pressure responses in aquifers during earthquakes, to observe and explain the triggering mechanism of liquefaction [17]. Previous earthquakes have indicated that the damage and loss of life are mostly concentrated in areas underlain by deposits of soft soil and high ground water tables as for example Mexico City earthquake in 1985 [18]. Soft soils amplify shear waves and, thus, amplify ground shaking. Wetlands have a higher damage potential during earthquakes due to longer and higher vibrations. The fundamental phenomenon responsible for the amplification of motion over soft sediments is the trapping of seismic waves due to the impedance contrast between sediments and underlying bedrock. When the structure is horizontally layered, this trapping reacts body waves, which travel up and down in the surface layers. When the structure is a 2D or 3D structure, i.e., when lateral heterogeneities are presenting (such as thickness variations in sediment - filled valleys), this trapping also affects the surface waves, which develop on these heterogeneities. The interferences between these trapped waves lead to resonance patterns, the shape and the frequency of which are related with the geometrical and mechanical characteristics of the structure.

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Factors such as lithology (loose, unconsolidated sedimentary covers), faults, or steeper slopes (landslide susceptibility) or areas with higher groundwater tables were analysed in the Vienna area. Special attention was focused on the detection of depressions filled with youngest sedimentary covers, wetlands, meanders, landslide areas and traces of sub - surface structures as these specific site conditions play an important role related to the earthquake ground motion. It has been visualized that the influence of varying ground conditions within ancient river meanders due to even small grain size and thickness variations of the layers, or height level differences. Maps of seismic site conditions on regional scales require substantial investment in almost detailed geological and geotechnical data acquisition and interpretation. However, detailed macro - seismic maps, that can help to detect local site conditions, are often covering only selected areas and based on different standards and scales. In many seismically active regions of the world, information about surficial geology and shear - wave velocity (VS) either, does not exist, varies dramatically in quality, varies spatially, or is not easily accessible. There is a strong need to improve the systematic, standardized inventory of areas that are more susceptible to earthquake ground motions or to earthquake related secondary effects such as landslides, liquefaction, soil amplifications or compaction.

VIII.V. Methods The hazard assessment derives places, which might be prone to higher earthquake damage during earthquakes. When searching for areas susceptible to soil amplification, liquefaction or compaction the so - called causative or preparatory geo - factors have to be taken into account such as lithologic and hydrogeological conditions and structural/tectonic conditions. The existing data for this study includes ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model (DEM) - data. To automatically identify the landform types that eject site conditions, the relief elements are grouped into terrain features. Terrain features can be described and categorized into simple topographic relief elements or morphometric units by

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parameterizing the digital elevation model (DEM) such as in height levels, slope gradients, and terrain curvature. The prerequisite for natural hazard preparedness is the collection, georeferencing and storage of available maps and data in a geographical information system (GIS) environment. GIS and related technologies can be used for monitoring and responding to disasters, as well as for planning community rebuilding or even for relocation in extreme cases. For disaster preparedness, the almost detailed detection and documentation of settlements, infrastructure, industrial facilities, etc. that might be exposed to earthquake and other hazards, especially their different exposures to soil amplification, landslides or active tectonic processes is necessary. Thus, in the scope of this study spatial data layers come from various sources such as topographic maps and thematic maps (soil maps, geologic and hydrogeological maps, land use/land cover etc.) and field survey were included and stored in a Geoinformation System (GIS) as well as documents of past hazards such as landslides or flooding events. Using web - services of the actual land use information was derived from evaluations and classifications of the available LANDSAT, ASTER and Google Earth data, in addition available open source data such as open – street map, Google Earth and ESRI - geodata. The workflow for the GIS database creation is described below. An important aspect was the availability of satellite data in order to create a most current, high spatial resolution GIS integrated reference database, aiming at visualizing critical points and areas and providing information about damage in case of emergency due to natural hazards as fast as possible, as the civil protection units need this information for their management.

VIII.VI. Land Use Assessment Some data layers, such as land use/land cover and forests, are dynamic in nature and needed to be updated frequently. For risk assessment and mapping at a regional scale, information about the land use and/land cover building stock distribution in the Vienna area was derived from high resolution QuickBird satellite data, aerial images

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and from available information such as of the Vienna City Map (access: www.wien.gv.at/stadtplan). Data for hospitals and health centres, schools, governmental buildings, police, fire stations and industrial buildings were stored in the GIS database. The tools of ArcScene/ESRI were used to exaggerate the artificial height (extrusion tools) of industrial and commercial facilities, mapped based on QuickBird imageries, and derived from the city map of Vienna as well as from open - street - map data.

VIII.VII. Evaluations of Digital Elevation Model Data (DEM) for the Extraction of Causal Factors The GIS integrated geodata is used in order to visualize causal/preparatory factors related to the occurrence of higher earthquake shock, and earthquake induced secondary effects such as lithology (loose, unconsolidated sedimentary covers), faults, or steeper slopes (landslide susceptibility) or areas with higher groundwater tables. Information of QuickBird – satellite images were merged with actual city maps or open - source data for getting information on the functions of the different land use types and buildings. Maps of hazard prone areas such as flood maps were superimposed on the land use maps, especially merged with available data of industrial, commercial and infrastructural facilities. The factors influencing the occurrence, type and intensity of earthquake induced secondary effects that can be separated into causal and triggering. The causal factors determine the initial favourable conditions for the occurrence, while the triggering factors such as high precipitation rates principally determine the timing. Causal factors are among others, the slope gradient, curvature, lithology and groundwater table level. The triggering mechanisms are quite unpredictable, as they vary in time. However, some of the causal factors can be integrated as layers into a GIS. The influence of causal factors on earthquake ground motion is not equally important in the analysis. It varies according to the specific local settings (surface geology, structure) or according to the distance of the earthquake source. The percentage of influence of one factor also

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changes in consideration of seasonal and climatic factors. In very hot and dry seasons the risk of liquefaction and landslides is generally lower than in wet seasons with high precipitation. Depressions filled with youngest sedimentary covers, wetlands and meanders, landslide areas and traces of sub - surface structures play an important role related to the earthquake ground motion. Those areas are considered to be more susceptible to soil amplification wherein the following causal factors are summarizing and aggregating their effects: • • •

lowest height level of the terrain combined with relatively high groundwater tables; flat morphology with low slope gradients and no curvature; and loose sedimentary covers within a basin topography or within flat areas.

Deriving morphometric properties of a terrain from Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data such as the minimum curvature or lowest slope gradient and the lowest local height level helps to detect flat accumulation zones: areas with almost recent, unconsolidated sediments, the ones that are generally prone to relatively higher earthquake shock and to secondary effects as liquefaction or compaction. Some of the causal factors were determined systematically: from slope gradient maps those areas with the steepest slopes, and from curvature maps the areas with the highest curvature were extracted as these are more susceptible to landslides. Height level maps helped to search for topographic depressions covered by almost recently formed sediments, usually linked with higher groundwater tables. Flat areas with no curvatures of the terrain and low to no slope gradients and the lowest areas were extracted. In case of stronger earthquakes those areas often show the highest earthquake damage intensities. Some of the causal factors can be determined systematically from SRTM and ASTER DEM data such as: •

slope degrees 1, highest flow - accumulations, providing information about areas with higher surface water - flow input.

The morphometric maps derived from DEM data were combined and merged with lithologic and seismotectonic information as layers in the GIS database. • • •

• •

quaternary sediment distributions and faults derived from geologic maps; lineaments derived visually from LANDSAT ETM+ and RapidEye imageries; earthquake data downloaded from International Earthquake Centres (International Seismological Centre – ISC, US Geological Survey – USGS, etc.); Vs30-IDW-interpolation (data from USGS); and shake maps, macro seismic observation records and further available data.

The different factors were converted into ESRI – GRID - integer format and summarized/aggregated and weighted in per cent in the weighted overlay - tool of ArcGIS according to their estimated influence on the local specific conditions. For example, as a stronger earthquake during a wet season will probably cause more secondary effects than during a dry season, the percentage of the weight of the different

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factors has to be adjusted to seasonal effects and to the local geomorphologic and geologic settings. The integration of different factors in a GIS environment using weighting procedures serves as one of the key objectives in the GIS application within the frame of this study. The weighted overlay method takes into consideration the relative importance of the parameters and the classes belonging to each parameter (ESRI, online support in ArcGIS). The application of a weight - linear - combination in susceptibility assessment has been identified as a semi - quantitative method, involving both expert evaluation and the idea of ranking and weighting factors. The basic pre-requisite for the use of weighting tools of GIS is the determination of weights and rating values representing the relative importance of factors and their categories. The efficacy of the weighted overlay - method lies in the fact that human judgements can be incorporated in the analysis. The weights and ratings are determined using the expert’s subjective knowledge. The method starts by assigning an arbitrary weight to the most important criterion (highest percentage), as well as to the least important attribute according to the relative importance of parameters. The sum over all the causal factors/layers that can be included into GIS provides some information about the susceptibility to the amplification of seismic signals. This susceptibility is calculated by adding every layer, as described below, to a weighted influence and summing all layers. After weighing (in percent) the factors according to their probable influence on ground shaking, susceptibility maps can be elaborated, where those areas are considered as being more susceptible to higher earthquake shock intensities, where “negative” causal factors occur aggregated and are interfering with each other. The resulting maps are divided into susceptibility classes. The susceptibility to soil amplification is classified by values from 0 to 6, where the value 6 stands for the strongest, assumed susceptibility to soil amplification due to the aggregation of causal factors. The approach mentioned above is described as the Weighted - Overlay for Soil Amplification Detection (WOSAD) approach using ArcGIS and ENVI - software. Comparing the results of the weighted overlay - calculations with geologic maps, there is a clearly visible coincidence of areas with

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higher susceptibility values and the outcrop of unconsolidated, quaternary sediments in broader valleys and depressions. Whenever an earthquake happens, it can now be better derived where the “islands'' of higher ground shaking are most likely to occur in the affected areas by adding the specific information of the earthquake to the susceptibility map using the WOSAD - weighted overlay approach. The approach hereby presented is proposed to serve as a first basic data stock for getting a perception of potential sites susceptible to higher earthquake ground motion, including in the next steps of further integration, available data such as: • • • • •

movements along active faults; focal planes; 3D structure; lithologic properties; and thickness of lithologic units or shear wave velocities.

The analysis method and integration rules can be easily modified in the open GIS architecture as soon as additional information becomes available. The limitation of the approach, however, lies in the constricted accuracy of the SRTM and ASTER DEM data sets up to several metres. At least, it is suited to obtain a first basic overview on the susceptible areas and hazard perspectives according to a standardized approach. This might be of interest especially for countries with low financial resources where such maps are still unavailable. The information of the industrial/commercial facilities was overlaid in ArcGIS with the results of the WOSAD approach. Thus, those facilities that are situated in potentially endangered areas in case of stronger earthquakes were visualized.

VIII.VII.I. Digital Image Processing and Evaluations of Satellite Imageries In order to deliver information about disaster in near real time is important in order to save the lives of people involved and prepare/conduct measurements. High resolution satellite data are needed to use for this purpose. However, most of them are available

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with a time delay. An important aspect is the delivery of satellite data for both for: • • •

creating a most actual, high spatial resolution; GIS integrated reference database visualizing critical points and areas; and providing information of damages in case of emergency due to an accident in an industrial plant or due to natural hazards as fast as possible, as the civil protection units need the information for their management.

For a better overview of seasonal influences on earthquake ground motion and on secondary effects multi - temporal analysis of different satellite data and aerial images were carried out in combination with: • • • •

evaluations of geotechnical data; climatic data; long - term soil moisture and groundwater table measurements; and data of vegetation status. 1. Digital image processing tools for the different satellite data providing the best results for this purpose were investigated. 2. Based on multispectral satellite data, combinations of different RGB combinations of the spectral bands were tested. 3. Low pass and high pass filters and directional variations were used for the detection of subtle surface structures such as meanders or landslides. 4. The visibility of linear features in the images that might be related to sub - surface structures was enhanced. 5. Lineament analysis based on LANDSAT imageries or DEM derived morphometric maps such as hill shade or slope maps helped to detect possible fault and fracture zones in the subsurface. 6. Merging the “morphologic” image products derived from “Morphologic Convolution” image processing in ENVI

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software with the RGB - satellite imageries, the evaluation feasibility was improved. 7. Tectonic features (GBA, Vienna) were included to focus on the potential influence of sub - surface structures on seismic wave propagation and on their important role for horizontal and vertical movements, especially for subsidence in the Middendorf – Graben - area. 8. Earthquake damage can be amplified by guided seismic waves along fault zones. 9. Seismic waves travel - ling in the subsurface might be refracted at sharply outlined discontinuities as faults, and, thus, arrive at a summation effect that influences the damage intensity. Fault segments, their bends and intersection are more concentrate stress and amplify seismic shock and, thus, provide an assumption where summation effects can be expected.

VIII.VII.II. Evaluations of Shear Wave Velocity Data In order to provide a first - approximation of local site conditions, an approach was developed to characterize potential ground motions on the basis of known correlations between variations in shear - wave velocity and topographically distinctive landforms by applying geomorphometry, a quantitative description of landforms based on DEMs [19]. Hereby, Vs30 - measurements (the average shear-velocity down to 30 m) are correlated against topographic slope. It has been compared topographic slope - based Vs30 maps to existing site condition maps based on geology and observed Vs30 measurements, where were available, and found favourable results. Thus, for getting a first impression of shear velocities in the Vienna area, the estimated Vs30-data provided by USGS was used. The Vs30 - data were converted into point - shapefiles, serving as a base for interpolations. From the interpolated Vs30 contour lines the values below 300 m/sec were extracted as lower, Vs30 - values are correlated in their position with unconsolidated Quaternary sediments, with what is assumed to contribute to higher earthquake damage. The resulting interpolation contour - lines were merged with other data such as geologic, geophysical and hydrogeological maps as for example provided by

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GBA Online. The Vs30 - interpolation results were combined as well with the weighted overlay results.

VIII.VIII. GIS Integrated Evaluations of Remote Sensing and Different Geo-Data According to the described methods the WOSAD approach was investigated based on SRTM - and ASTER DEM data providing an overview of areas with aggregation of causal factors in the Vienna area, where the susceptibility to damages can be assumed to be higher in case of stronger earthquakes due to local site conditions.

VIII.VIII.I. Results of the WOSAD Approach The overlay of industrial/commercial facilities with the results of the WOSAD approach contributes to the detection of those facilities that might be exposed to higher soil amplification due to the aggregation of causal factors. However, whether these facilities are exposed in fact to higher damages in case of stronger earthquakes, depends on factors such as the building construction type, function, the age, or the used material. Therefore, an almost detailed inventory of building properties is required. Based on the developments of the MaeViz - software in the United States and an innovative disaster management platform, the software EQvis was created in the scope of the EU-funded IRIS project by VCE allowing quick reactions in case of disasters as well as simulations for the improvement of disaster preparedness. Simulation and visualization can be performed on the EQvis platform. By introducing various hazard scenarios, the response of the infrastructure can be computed. When combining the results of the weighted overlay - approach (summarizing factors with influence on earthquake shock), and the estimated shear wave velocities (Vs30), a better understanding and visualization of differences and “islands” of higher earthquake damage and potentially affected areas can be achieved. There is a clearly visible coincidence of areas with lower Vs30 - values such as assumed Vs30