Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable and Circular Economic Approach [1 ed.] 111962049X, 9781119620495

Citation preview

Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106 Publishers at Scrivener Martin Scrivener ([email protected]) Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles A Sustainable and Circular Economic Approach

Edited by

Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava

This edition first published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Wiley Global Headquarters 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no rep­ resentations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchant-­ ability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representa­ tives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further informa­ tion does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organiza­ tion, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN 978-1-119-62049-5 Cover image: Pixabay.Com Cover design by Russell Richardson Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines Printed in the USA 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is dedicated to Almighty GOD and my parents for their blessings Dr. Pintu Pandit

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Contents Preface xxi 1 Overview on Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable and Circular Economic Approach 1 Pintu Pandit, Kunal Singha, Sanjay Shrivastava and Shakeel Ahmed 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Importance of Recycling 3 1.3 Challenges in Designing With Post-Consumer Clothing and Benefits of Recycling 4 1.4 The Market for Upcycled Fashion Garments 6 1.5 Recycling Fashion Manufacturers 6 1.6 Sustainable Fibers and Technologies in Textiles and Fashions 7 1.7 The Circular Economy 9 9 1.8 The Main Characteristic of the Economy 1.8.1 Natural Fibers 10 1.8.1.1 Cotton 10 1.8.1.2 Bast Fibers: Flax, Linen, Jute, and Hemp 10 1.8.1.3 Wool 11 1.8.1.4 Silk 11 1.9 Eco-Labels Concerning Bringing Sustainability 12 1.10 Technological and Sustainable Measures Under Fashion Industry 13 1.11 Consumer Consciousness Along With Corporate Social Obligation 13 1.12 Sharing Economy and Collaborative Consumption 14 1.13 Technological Amendments in Textiles Making It More User Friendly and Environment Friendly 15 1.14 Conclusions 16 References 17

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viii  Contents 2 Challenges for Waste in Fashion and Textile Industry Jayant Kumar, Kunal Singha, Pintu Pandit, Subhankar Maity and Amal Ray 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Annual Global Fiber Consumption (2000–2012) 2.2 Major Challenges in Managing Textile and Fashion Wastages 2.3 Usage of Renewable Resources to the Maximum 2.4 Increase the Life of the Product 2.4.1 Machinery/Equipment Related 2.4.2 Process Related 2.4.3 Chemicals and Dyes 2.4.4 Wastewater Treatment 2.5 Conclusions References

19 20 21 24 29 29 29 30 30 30 31 31

3 Solutions for Sustainable Fashion and Textile Industry 33 Ritu Pandey, Pintu Pandit, Suruchi Pandey and Sarika Mishra 34 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Sustainable Fashion Industry and Green Solutions 35 3.2.1 Sustainable Textile Fibers 36 3.2.2 Reuse 36 3.2.3 Restyling 39 3.2.4 Used and Upcycled Garment Circulation Businesses 41 3.2.5 Clothing Rental 41 44 3.3 Recyclable Used Clothing 3.3.1 Fabric Reconstruction 44 3.3.2 Household Rags 45 45 3.3.3 Fabric Reprocessing 3.4 Obstacles of Fashion Reuse Businesses 46 3.4.1 Quality Parameters 46 3.4.2 Government Regulations 47 3.5 Solutions for Sustainable Textile Industry 47 3.5.1 Environmental Problems Relating to Production and Processing of Textile Fibers 48 3.6 Key Points of Counter Measures for Sustainability in Textile Industry 49 3.6.1 Eco-Innovations in Textiles 53 3.6.2 Eco-Selection, Production, Logistics, Care, 53 and Recycling 3.6.3 Textile Waste Utilization and Existing 56 Recycling Practices

Contents  ix 57 3.7 Textile Waste 3.8 Use of Textile Production House By-Products, Chemicals, and Water 58 3.8.1 Agrotextiles 58 3.8.2 Geotextiles 58 3.8.3 Water and Chemical Recovery and Reuse in a Textile Industry 58 60 3.9 Textile Industry Effluent and Sludge Treatment Processes 3.10 Recent Trends in Wastewater Treatment 62 3.10.1 Reverse Osmosis 62 3.10.2 Electrocoagulation 62 3.10.3 Activated Carbon 62 62 3.10.4 Chemical Precipitation 3.10.5 Nanofiltration 63 3.10.6 Bio-Filtration 63 3.10.7 Sludge Treatment Processing 63 3.11 International Framework of Environmental Standards, 64 Regulations, and Labels for Sustainability 3.11.1 Global Organic Textile Standards (GOTS) 64 3.11.2 Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) 64 3.11.3 Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA) 64 65 3.11.4 Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 2050 3.11.5 Indian Standard for Organic Textiles (ISOT) 66 3.11.6 Organic Crop Improvement Association (OCIA) 66 3.11.7 Government Green Procurement (GGP) in Taiwan 66 66 3.11.8 Sustainable Resolution (Su.Re) in India 3.11.9 Eco-Labels for Sustainable Textiles 69 69 3.12 Conclusion References 70 4 Opportunities of Agro and Biowaste in Fashion Industry Seiko Jose, Lata Samant, Archana Bahuguna and Pintu Pandit 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Agro/Biowaste for Textiles 4.2.1 Classification of Agro Residue 4.2.2 Type of Value-Added Products Manufactured 4.2.3 Agricultural Waste Management Approaches 4.2.4 Challenges and Issues Associated With Agro-Waste 4.3 Agro/Biowastes for Textile Manufacturing 4.3.1 Agro-Waste for Textile Application

73 74 75 75 76 78 78 79 79

x  Contents 80 4.3.2 Industrial Interventions 4.3.3 Few Case Studies 81 4.3.3.1 GCA 2018 Winner: Made Bio-Textiles From Crop Waste 81 4.3.4 Designers Initiatives 82 4.3.5 Circular System (Waste to Usable Material) 82 4.3.5.1 Closed-Loop Recycling 83 83 4.3.6 Sustainable Future 4.4 Agro/Biowastes for Textile Wet Processing 84 4.4.1 Importance of Agro/Biowaste to Generate EcoFriendly Natural Dyes: Its Environmental Concerns 84 4.4.2 Role of the Fashion Industry in the Current Scenario 85 and Its Relation to Natural Dyes 4.4.3 Sources of Natural Dyes From Various Agro/ Biowastes 86 4.4.4 Application of Natural Dyes in Fashion Industry 87 4.4.4.1 Few Case Studies 88 89 4.4.5 Agro-Wastes for Color Removal 4.4.5.1 Removal of Dyes by Low-Cost Sorbents: 90 Few Case Studies 4.4.6 Consumer Approach Towards Naturally Dyed Fashion Garments 93 4.4.7 Fashion Brands Approach to Promote Natural Dyed Apparels 94 4.5 Conclusion 94 References 95 5 Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands by Using Textile 101 Waste for Better Fashion Vandana Gupta, Madhvi Arora and Jasmine Minhas 102 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Textile and Apparel Industry 103 5.3 Carbon Foot Prints and Waste Generation From Textile 105 and Apparel Industries 5.3.1 Carbon Foot Prints 105 107 5.3.2 Fashion and Waste Facts 5.4 Fashion Brands Working Towards Sustainability Using Textile Waste 109 5.4.1 Anokhi 110 5.4.2 Wills Vegan 110 5.4.3 Everlane 112

Contents  xi 5.4.4 Doodlage 5.4.5 Abraham and Thakore 5.4.6 Osklen 5.4.7 Raeburn 5.4.8 Stella McCartney 5.4.9 Bottletop 5.4.10 Rustic Hue 5.4.11 Zero Waste Daniel 5.4.12 Raw Mango 5.4.13 Patagonia 5.4.14 Ka-Sha 5.5 Conclusion References

112 113 114 115 115 115 116 116 116 116 117 117 118

6 Challenges and Opportunities of Waste in Handloom Textiles 123 Pintu Pandit, Sanjay Shrivastava, Sankar Roy Maulik, Kunal Singha and Lokesh Kumar 124 6.1 Introduction 6.2 History of Handloom Textile Industry 126 6.2.1 Independent Power Loom or Decentralized Textile Sectors 127 6.3 Types of Weaving Traditions 127 129 6.4 Approaches to Rejuvenate the Handloom Weavers 6.5 The Performance-Based Factors for Handloom Sector 129 6.6 Challenges for Handloom Textile Waste 131 6.7 Opportunities Towards Handloom Textile Sector 131 6.8 Unraveling the Weaver’s Scenarios: A Case Study on Bhagaiya, Jharkhand 132 133 6.8.1 Preparation of Ghicha Silk Yarns 6.8.2 Bobbin, Pirn Winding, and Weaving 133 6.8.3 Design Innovations and Market Analysis 136 6.8.4 SWOT Analysis of Bhagaiya Weaver’s, Jharkhand in India 138 6.9 Opportunities for Handloom Weavers Using 139 Natural Resources 6.9.1 Opportunities for Dyeing of Handloom Textile 139 Using Natural Waste Plant Resources 6.9.2 Opportunities for Value Added Handloom Fabric 144 Using Natural Resources 6.10 Conclusions 147 Acknowledgments 147 References 147

xii  Contents 7 Business Paradigm Shifting: Opportunities in the 21st Century on Fashion From Recycling and Upcycling 151 Pintu Pandit, Kunal Singha, Lokesh Kumar, Sanjay Shrivastava and Vinayak Yashraj 7.1 Introduction 152 7.2 Importance of Recycling 152 7.2.1 Benefits of Recycling and Upcycling 153 154 7.2.2 The Creators of the Recycling and Upcycling World 7.3 Fast Fashion and Slow Fashion Consumers 154 7.4 Impact of Fast Fashion in the Development of Sustainable Materials 155 7.5 Sustainable Fabrics 156 7.6 Challenges in Designing With Post-Consumer Clothes 158 7.7 Market for Recycled Fashion Garments 159 7.8 Indian Upcycling/Recycling Brands: Case Study 160 161 7.9 International Upcycling/Recycling Brands: Case Study 7.10 Fashion Designers: Keeping Textiles and Fashion Alive 164 7.11 Future Prospective for the Fashion Illustration 166 7.11.1 Concept 1. Installation: Rekha (The Lines) 166 7.11.2 Concept 2. Installation: The Voice of First Rainfall 167 7.11.3 Concept 3. Installation: Terraforming 167 7.11.4 Concept 4. Installation: Psychedelic 169 7.12 Current and Future Scope of Industry 170 7.13 Conclusions 174 Acknowledgments 174 References 175 177 8 Sustainability in Fashion and Textile Pintu Pandit, Bhagyashri N. Annaldewar, Akanksha Nautiyal, Saptarshi Maiti and Kunal Singha 177 8.1 Introduction 178 8.2 Sustainability 8.2.1 People: The Social Pillar of Sustainability 179 8.2.2 Planet: The Environmental Pillar of Sustainability 179 8.2.3 Profit: The Economic Pillar of Sustainability 179 8.3 Environmental and Social Impacts of Textile and Fashion Industry 180 182 8.4 Sustainability in Fashion and Textiles 8.5 Sustainable Solutions in Textile and Fashion 182 8.5.1 Going Organic Way 182

Contents  xiii 182 8.5.2 Textile Waste: Recycle, Reduce, and Reuse 8.5.2.1 Recycle 183 8.5.2.2 Reuse 184 8.5.2.3 Reduce 184 8.5.3 Upcycling 185 8.5.4 Slow Fashion Versus Fast Fashion 185 8.5.5 Sustainable Wet Processing of Fabrics 186 187 8.5.6 Eco-Finishing and Bio-Processing of Textiles 8.6 Advance Technologies 188 8.6.1 Foam Technology 188 8.6.2 Supercritical Dyeing of Textiles 188 8.6.3 Plasma Technology 189 189 8.6.4 Microwave Energy in Textile Wet Processing 8.7 Eco-Labeling 189 8.8 Barriers in Sustainable Fashion and Textiles 190 8.9 Economic Issues and Product Design 190 8.10 Sustainable Fashion Fibers 190 191 8.10.1 Cartina 8.10.2 Coffee Ground Fibers 191 8.10.3 Orange Fiber 191 8.10.4 Piñatex 192 8.10.5 Polylana 192 193 8.10.6 Seacell 8.10.7 QMilk Fibers 193 8.11 Technological and Sustainable Measures Under the Fashion Industry 193 194 8.12 Conclusions References 195 9 Sustainable Strategies From Waste for Fashion and Textile Kunal Singha, Pintu Pandit, Subhankar Maity, Rajni Srivasatava and Jayant Kumar 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 The Problems With Unsustainable Fabrics 9.1.2 Factors Affecting Sustainable Fashion 9.1.3 Sustainable Development in Beauty Over the Years 9.2 Sustainable Fashion for Brands 9.2.1 Example of Sustainable Fashion Brands 9.3 Sustainability and Internal Organization-Marketing Strategies 9.4 Conclusions References

199 199 200 200 202 203 203 204 210 211

xiv  Contents 10 Utilization of Natural Waste for Textile Coloration— Innovative Approach for Sustainability Pradnya Prashant Ambre and Pintu Pandit 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Natural Dyes for Their Soothing Shades 10.2.1 Natural Dyes for Sustainability 10.2.2 Utilization of Natural Waste for Coloration 10.3 Research Studies for Potential Use of Natural Colorants 10.4 Functional Health Care Properties of Natural Dyes and Natural Mordants 10.5 Innovative Approach Towards Utilization of Natural Waste 10.5.1 Indigo—Potential Natural Dye 10.6 Conclusion References 11 Circular Economy in Fashion and Textile From Waste Subhankar Maity, Kunal Singha, Pintu Pandit and Amal Ray 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Linear Economy 11.3 Shortcomings of Linear Economy 11.4 Circular Economy 11.5 Principles of Circular Economy 11.5.1 Need for Circular Economy in Textile and Fashion Industry 11.5.2 Benefits of Circular Economy 11.5.3 Current Challenges for Circular Economy 11.5.4 Opportunities 11.6 Conclusion References

215 216 218 218 219 220 222 225 226 230 231 235 236 236 238 238 241 242 244 245 247 248 249

12 Marketing Strategies for Upcycling and Recycling of Textile and Fashion 253 Suruchi Pandey, Pintu Pandit, Ritu Pandey and Sanjay Pandey 253 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Marketing Mix 255 12.2.1 Product 256 12.2.2 Price 257 12.2.3 Place 258 12.2.4 Promotion 258 12.3 Market Analysis 259 12.3.1 Industry Overview 260

Contents  xv 260 12.3.2 Target Market 12.3.3 Competition 261 12.3.4 Pricing and Forecast 261 12.4 Marketing Strategies for Upcycling and Recycling Textile and Fashion 263 12.4.1 Position Defense Strategy 266 12.4.2 Flanker Strategy 266 266 12.4.3 Confrontation Strategy 12.4.4 Market Expansion Strategy 267 12.5 Innovative Ways to Market 268 12.6 Conclusions 273 References 274 13 Economical and Sustainable Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Marketplace 277 M. D. Teli, Pintu Pandit and Kunal Singha 278 13.1 Introduction 278 13.2 Sustainable Business Strategies for Fashion Industry 13.3 Materials and Methods 280 13.3.1 Steps Involved in Upcycling of Garments 280 13.3.1.1 Collection of the Old Garments 280 13.3.1.2 Segregation of the Old Garments 280 280 13.3.1.3 Cleaning of Old Garments 13.3.1.4 Refurbishing of Old Garments 280 13.3.1.5 Visual Testing and Analysis of Garments 281 13.3.1.6 Cost Analysis 281 13.3.2 Results and Discussions 281 13.4 Low-Cost Sustainable Upcycling Based on Waste Natural Resources 289 13.5 The Sustainable Fashion Communication Model 290 13.6 Marketing Landscape of Low Cost Fashion and Apparel 291 Consumable Products 13.7 Conclusions 295 References 296 14 Sustainability Innovations Coupled in Textile and Fashion Vikas Kumar, Kunal Singha, Pintu Pandit, Jayant Kumar and Subhankar Maity 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Life Cycle Perspective 14.2.1 Cotton

299 299 300 303

xvi  Contents 14.2.2 Synthetics (Non-Cellulosic) 14.2.3 New Fibers 14.3 Sustainability in Textile Industry 14.3.1 Technological Developments in Tagging 14.3.2 Technological Power to the People 14.3.3 Application of Textile Finishes 14.3.4 Thermal Regulation Finishes 14.3.5 Easy Care Finishes 14.3.6 Self-Cleaning Finishes 14.3.7 Super Absorbent Finishes 14.3.8 Medical, Cosmetic, and Odor-Resistant Finishes 14.3.9 Hydrophobic and Oleophobic Finishes 14.3.10 Ultraviolet Protection Finishes 14.3.11 Radiation Protection Finishes 14.3.12 Biological and Chemical Protection Finishes 14.3.13 Ballistic and Stab Protection Finishes 14.3.14 High Performance Apparel 14.4 Future Textiles for Space Age Materials 14.4.1 New Fibers and New Look 14.4.2 Space Suit 14.4.3 End of Life 14.5 Conclusions References 15 Future Mobilizations and Paths of Waste—Towards Best Solution Subhankar Maity, Manoj Kumar Mondal, Pintu Pandit and Kunal Singha 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Waste Management Hierarchy 15.2.1 Prevention 15.2.2 Minimization 15.2.3 Reuse 15.2.4 Recycling 15.2.5 Energy Recovery 15.2.6 Disposal 15.3 Textile Materials 15.3.1 Textile Solid Waste 15.3.2 Strategies of Textile Waste Management 15.4 Circular Economy/Zero Waste 15.4.1 Resell and Reuse of Textiles

303 304 306 308 308 310 310 310 310 311 311 312 312 313 313 313 314 315 316 316 316 317 318 321 322 323 323 324 324 324 324 325 325 326 326 327 328

Contents  xvii 329 15.4.2 Recycling of Textile Waste 15.4.2.1 Mechanical Process of Recycling Textile Waste 330 15.4.2.2 Chemical Processes of Textile Recycling 330 15.4.3 Innovation in Textile Waste Management 331 15.4.4 Sustainability in Textiles 333 15.5 Energy from Waste Strategies 336 337 15.6 Challenges 15.7 Conclusions 337 References 338 16 Golden Fiber Jute: A Treasurable Sustainable Material Amarish Dubey, Vinay Kumar Chauhan, Ritu Pandey, Mayank Manjul Dubey and Sanjoy Debnath 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Jute Cultivation, Distribution, and Production 16.3 Indian Jute Industry: An Overview of Glitches and Compensations 16.4 Environmental Aspects of Jute 16.5 Traditional Applications of Jute 16.6 Scientific Mechanical Applications of Jute 16.7 Electrical and Electrochemical Applications of Jute 16.8 Geotextile Application of Jute 16.9 Agro Textile Application of Jute 16.10 Medical Textiles Applications of Jute 16.11 Jute as a Replacement of Wood 16.12 Jute Paper Pulp 16.13 Bioenergy Application of Jute 16.14 Value Addition of Jute Fibers 16.14.1 Blending Process in Jute 16.14.2 Chemical Treatment Process in Jute 16.15 Conclusion Acknowledgement References 17 Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes from Plant Wastes for Textiles Shahid Adeel, Nimra Amin, Fazal-ur-Rehman, Tanvir Ahmad, Fatima Batool and Atya Hassan 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Classification of Natural Dyes

341 342 343 345 346 347 348 349 350 350 351 352 353 353 355 355 356 356 357 357 363 364 364

xviii  Contents 364 17.3 Medicinal Uses of Natural Colorants 17.3.1 Alizarin 364 17.3.2 Berberine 365 17.3.3 Bixin 366 17.3.4 Brazilein 368 17.3.5 Carotenoids 368 17.3.6 Carminic Acid 369 370 17.3.7 Carotene 17.3.8 Crocetin and Crocin 371 17.3.9 Curcumin 371 17.3.10 Ellagic Acid 372 17.3.11 Indigoids 373 373 17.3.12 Indigo 17.3.13 Juglone 374 17.3.14 Lawsone 374 17.3.15 Lycopene 375 17.3.16 Morin 375 376 17.3.17 Quercetin 17.4 Mordanting of Natural Dye 376 17.4.1 Pre-Mordanting 377 17.4.2 Meta-Mordanting 377 17.4.3 Post-Mordanting 377 377 17.5 Chemical Mordanting 17.6 Biomordanting 377 17.7 Recent Advances Used in Natural Dyes 378 17.7.1 Conventional Method 378 379 17.7.2 Modern Methods 17.7.3 Ultrasonic Radiation 379 380 17.7.4 Microwave Radiations 17.7.5 Gamma Radiation 381 17.7.6 Ultraviolet Radiation 381 17.8 Different Plant Source of Natural Dyes 381 17.8.1 Harmal Plant (Peganum harmala) 381 17.8.2 Arjun (Terminalia arjuna) 382 17.8.3 Neem 383 17.8.4 Coconut Coir (Cocos Nucifera) 384 17.8.5 Logwood (Haemtoxylum campechianum) 384 385 17.8.6 Process Optimization 17.9 Conclusion 385 References 385

Contents  xix 18 Agro-Waste Applications for Bioremediation of Textile Effluents 391 Shumaila Kiran, Tanvir Ahmad, Tahsin Gulzar, Asma Ashraf, Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Saba Naz 392 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Wastewater Treatment 392 18.2.1 Physical Methods 393 18.2.2 Chemical Methods 393 18.2.3 Biological Methods 393 393 18.3 Agro-Waste Materials 18.3.1 Composition of Agro-Waste Material 394 18.3.2 Sources of Agro-Waste Materials 394 18.4 Kinds of Agro-Waste Materials 395 18.4.1 Straws 396 18.4.1.1 Role of Different Types of Straw 396 in Wastewater Treatment 18.4.2 Leaves Powder 398 18.4.2.1 Role of Different Plant Leaves 398 in Treatment of Wastewater 18.4.3 Stems 401 18.4.3.1 Role of Stems in Textile Water Remediation 401 18.4.4 Barks 403 18.4.4.1 Role of Different Barks in Treatment 404 Methods of Textile Wastewater 18.4.5 Nut Shells 404 18.4.5.1 Role of Nutshells in Wastewater Remediation 407 18.4.6 Peels 407 18.4.6.1 Role of Peels in Textile Water Treatment 408 18.4.7 Bagasse 409 18.4.7.1 Role of Bagasse in Effluent Treatment Methods 410 18.4.8 Husks 411 18.4.8.1 Role of Different Husks in Wastewater Treatment 411 18.5 Conclusion 412 References 412

xx  Contents 19 An Insight Into Herbal-Based Natural Dyes: Isolation and Applications 423 Shahid Adeel, Mahwish Salman, Ameer Fawad Zahoor, Muhammad Usama and Nimra Amin 424 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Classification of Natural Dye 424 19.2.1 Animal-Based Natural Dyes 424 19.2.2 Plant-Based Natural Dyes 424 19.2.3 Mineral-Based Natural Dyes 425 19.2.4 Microbial-Based and Fungal-Based Natural Dyes 425 19.3 Extraction of Natural Dye 426 19.3.1 Conventional Method 426 19.3.1.1 Aqueous Extraction 426 19.3.1.2 Acid and Alkaline Extraction 426 426 19.3.1.3 Solvent Extraction 19.3.2 Modern Method 427 19.3.2.1 Ultrasonic and Microwave Extraction 427 19.3.2.2 Enzymatic Extraction 427 19.3.2.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 427 19.4 Mordanting 427 19.4.1 Chemical Mordanting 428 19.4.2 Biomordanting 428 19.5 Herbal-Based Dye Yielding Plants 428 19.5.1 Marigold 429 431 19.5.2 Pomegranate 19.5.3 Safflower 432 434 19.5.4 Acacia 19.5.5 Neem 436 19.5.6 Arjun 438 19.5.7 Saffron 439 19.5.8 Hermal 441 19.5.9 Turmeric 442 19.5.10 Annatto 443 19.5.11 Madder 445 19.5.12 Ratanjot 446 19.6 Conclusion 448 References 448

Index 457

Preface The alarming level of greenhouse gases in the environment with the fast depleting natural resources such as water or even petroleum products have reached to an increasing level of industrial effluents which turned every single manufacturing activity come under the scrutiny of sustainability. Moreover, all kinds of waste such as clothes, carpets, shoes, paper, food, and agro wastage ends up in the landfill. On the other hand, only a few of them are naturally decomposed. Thus, a large majority remain as non-­ biodegradable products. It is for the same reason; efforts should be concentrated to reduce the burden on earth by caused by this wastage. As far as used textile products are concerned, there are now several techniques have been made by recycling or up cycling. It can be outlined that people in third world countries do not have access to sufficient clothing, whereas developed countries are depending on the policy of “Make-Use-Throw”. “Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable and Circular Economic Approach” is the book covering the best possible fashion and textile materials collected from all types of waste in order to ensure their sustainable applications. This book addresses the role of sustainability in fashion and textile with respect to challenges, opportunities, and marketing for industrial sectors. It comprises the collective experience and knowledge of academicians, researchers, fashion/creative designers, and industrialists. A wide range of organizations are working towards the eco-friendly and sustainable manufacturing of garments for better market. This book provides various challenges, opportunities, approaches, techniques, marketing opportunities, and alternative procedures/sustainable routes to develop sustainable apparel in a more sustainable manner for the future. The book comprises of 19 chapters and will be useful for academicians, industry personnel, and to textile and fashion students and scholars who wish to explore their knowledge and innovations in the field of sustainable

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xxii  Preface fashion and textile product manufacturing and processes. Chapter 1 is a general introduction to recycling from waste in fashion and textile within the circular economic approaches. Chapter 2 presents challenges due to the waste in fashion and also for the textile sector in step by step. Chapter 3 deals with sustainable solutions in fashion/textile industries. Chapter 4 introduces the potential opportunities in agro and bio waste in fashion sector. Chapter 5 is a critical review on innovating fashion brands by using textile or fashion wastages. Chapter 6 provides clear evidences on diverse challenges and opportunities of wastages in handloom sector. Chapter 7 shows business option or prospects on 21st century in the domain of fashion from recycling and upcycling. Chapter 8 highlights on the overall all important concepts and realms on sustainability in fashion and textile. Chapter 9 focuses on formulation of critical sustainable strategies from waste for fashion and textile. Chapter 10 introduces innovative approaches to utilize natural waste in textile dyeing or coloration process in order to deal sustainability at their best possible ways. Chapter 11 bestows a sound knowledge based on circular economy in fashion and textile from waste. Chapter 12 provides a critical analysis on marketing strategies for upcycling and recycling in the field of fashion and textile. Chapter 13 features some important ideas on low cost sustainable consumerism aided communication in fashion and apparel marketplace. Chapter 14 emphasizes on the various important connections for sustainability and innovations coupled actions which are especially necessary in textile and fashion. Chapter 15 outlines the future mobilizations and pathways for wastages production and how to grasp by making a clear control over those to build the best-practiced solution. Chapter 16 deals with jute fiber and its importance as an upcoming and promising sustainable material. Chapter 17 provides vital information on sustainable encapsulation of natural dyes extracted from various plants as a case of normal wastes, usually. Chapter 18 includes of agro-waste applications for bioremediation of textile effluent. Chapter 19 concludes with the fundamental and vital comments or insights of herbal-based natural dyes with their isolation and numerous applications. We express our deep thanks to Scrivener Publishing and Wiley for accepting and publishing this book. We are very thankful to every faculty or staff member of the National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), Patna and the entire NIFT campuses-based fraternity for motivating us throughout the rigorous time during writing this book. We would also like to thank our families and all well-wishers who stood with us all the time, as they always do. We are very thankful to all the authors for their excellent

Preface  xxiii contributions. In the end, all the thanks to Almighty God for directing us with his omnipresence power and positive force. Editors Dr. Pintu Pandit Dr. Shakeel Ahmed Dr. Kunal Singha Prof. Sanjay Shrivastava May 2020

1 Overview on Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable and Circular Economic Approach Pintu Pandit1*, Kunal Singha1, Sanjay Shrivastava1 and Shakeel Ahmed2,3 National Institute of Fashion Technology, Ministry of Textiles, Govt, of India, Mithapur Farms, Patna, India 2 Government Degree College Mendhar, Mendhar, Jammu and Kashmir, India 3 Higher Education Department, Government of Jammu and Kashmir, India

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Abstract

Recycling is a procedure where rejected and older materials are converted into something of higher quality and include value in their life. It has been increasingly recognized as one of the good method to decrease energy and substance use and contribute to sustainable production and consumption. The notion of upcycling and recycling have got more attention from many designers and business professionals in the past few years. The value flows for accumulated post-­ consumer textiles continue to be analyzed over the global challenge to develop and use eco-friendly, yet sustainable and moral approaches within the fashion market. Recycling is a present strategy related to style creation, with waste and rejected materials utilized to design and create increased value goods, keeping them productive use for more. Recycling enables a sustainable layout alternative for reuse techniques to be employed for greatest environmental and economic benefit, where used garments and fabrics are sourced for the creation of freshly designed fashion solutions. The concept of taking waste and reimagining, reusing, and reinventing it is really a new-fangled idea since the substances are liberated and in frightful abundance, the after effects about the environment are none or minimal and consumers obtain the satisfaction of buying and using something potentially wasteful at a new and thrilling circumstance. This chapter focuses the recycling

*Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (1–18) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

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2  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles of various textile materials in the waste and unused cloths by providing fresh and improved shape and creating new products. Keywords:  Recycling, textile waste, design, production, sustainability, fashion, marketing

1.1 Introduction Recycling is essential as a substitute for creating new things to meet the increasing demands being a greener means of recycling. Recycling projects involve innovative ways of using old products and materials by using pre-consumer or post-consumer waste or even a blend of both “Upcycling” is that the advanced stage of cyclic utilization, a sort of value-added to waste or old materials, and the redesigning target of sustainable design. For instance, China as the biggest developing country in the world, the garbage and waste are multiplying daily, and its carbon emission requires the first all around the planet, so it has to be helpful for China’s building resource conservation and environment-friendly culture to upcycle wasted or old substances. Additionally, recycling has its own potential economic value, for the recycling target is wasted or old materials which cost low, and the recycling technique may present its more added value. Products have been upcycled from waste and unused materials by giving a variety of remedies to them such as washing, stripping, bleaching, dyeing, printing, etc., converting them into fashionable goods [1–3]. Sustainability is a huge challenge in the fashion industry and textile waste can be used as the raw material such as value-added products. Reusing and remaking of used clothes is a long-standing practice which started as a means of creating the most of valuable tools, for example, Sujani and Kantha embroidery supplied an esteemed avenue for recycling valuable materials that would be passed through generations [4]. Textile waste can be described as the substance which becomes unusable following the end of the manufacturing process of any textile product. Wastages are made in every stage of the textile production process, like spinning, weaving, knitting, dyeing, finishing, and clothing. Textile wastage is an heavy risk for any textile industry and the environment as well. The huge cotton waste generated during spinning or in the blow room area is one of the main hurdles as economic risk. At a dyeing mill, plenty of fabric dyed and tons of wastewater produced which is a great threat for the surroundings. In the clothing industry, you will find different kinds of sections including cutting, bundling and sorting, sewing, printing, embroidery, and

Overview on Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles  3 finishing. The cutting section is the major section to produce wastage in a clothes factory. Due to several functions and mark utilization, an enormous quantity of wastages produces in the cutting section. After cutting, all of the body parts are inspected and then sorted and bundled. Due to this reason, some faulty pieces may remain within this section since wastage. Then, the loaders choose these bundled pieces and distribute in the sewing section. Right from the sewing section, if any faulty piece finds out by a worker, he rejects it. As a result of this reason, wastage generated from the sewing department. It can be noticed that in the printing section if any printing does not match with the conventional, the garment piece will be a waste and also of no usage. In the embroidery part, if the embroidery isn’t performed on the correct location, the garment is going to be treated as a defective piece. The proper corrective measurement of garment materials are done at the final quality level [4, 5]. Kinds of textile waste, starting with pre-consumer waste, and it’s also known as post-industrial waste and is that the material left over from the creation of clothing. The substance can be cutting edge leftovers, roll finishes, rejected cloths, and surplus inventory in the garment industry. The next one is production waste which is created in the garment industry at distinct phases like cutting, bundling and sorting, sewing, printing, embroidery, and finishing. The next one is post-consumer waste could be a household article or a garment which the owner does not need any more and has made a decision to discard [1].

1.2 Importance of Recycling Recycling is discovering another use for a present garment, or in the case of textiles, it occasionally also signifies converting (waste) into reusable materials. Garment recycling normally involves finding another user or use by devoting a brand new stage for its life starting. The loop recycle consequently closes towards the end of the distribution chain and often re-enters the marketplace via charities and collection points. The procedure for recycling textiles can also incorporate the grinding or breakdown of high quality materials in their purest raw forms or substrates. Recycling technology is regarded as important in combating the scarcity of raw materials and also offers companies added ways of managing their source of raw materials [3, 6]. Recycling, however, includes the performance of a self-study action about the substance or sterile garment in such a way as to make a product of higher quality or value than the first. Additionally recycling, the new life

4  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles cycle commences with design and may call for a comprehensive production cycle using a new item. The time frame for recycling can be extended to allow for sourcing, disassembly, and reconstitution. Recycling plays a major role in the sustainability criteria of economic, environmental, and social dimensions. Since the market goes away from staple and towards continuous filaments, the chances to grind blend and extrude fibers offers tremendous potential for innovation in recycling technology along with economic stimulus and employment [1, 2, 7]. Preventing constant supply would also possess a flow-on result to recycling which often commences at the beginning of the material development process. Recycling hence includes an inherent position in additional sustainable activities such as design for reuse, reduction of carbon and water footprints, reduction of air pollution (greenhouse gases), usage of renewable energy, ethical treatment of labor, adoption of product security standards, safe use of dyestuffs and compound remedies, use of biodegradable packaging, and elimination of animal cruelty from the processing of fiber, leather, and furs. The fashion sector simply needs to find a way to deal with the issues it’s facing, a lack of distribution of raw materials and also an abundance of waste merchandise.

1.3 Challenges in Designing With Post-Consumer Clothing and Benefits of Recycling Heralds the most attention and in many ways has come to symbolize one of the very first steps on the journey to sustainability. Designing with recycled garments can be something where users can actively participate through donation. Each of the trend market segments of haute couture, ready-towear (prêt-a-porter), mass-market such as superior, mid-market, quick fashion, and discount marketplace experience layout difficulties in recycling. At the high end, the problems are in translating designs to scale and in the very low end, they’re in securing a consistent source of materials to repeat for a mass market. Sorting concerning size, style, color, and cloth requires person creative responses to unique challenges. The requirement of innovative substance answers lends itself to creative solutions; therefore, it’s no surprise that the field of recycling used clothing is dominated by small to medium enterprises. The cases of legislative levers which are or may be used to encourage sustainability (recycling/upcycling) include waste redirection through post taxation; tax deductions for donations to charities to accumulate waste and harmonized system codes that facilitates commerce uniformity

Overview on Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles  5 and could make additional provision for upcycled items; more powerful anti-dumping legislation to prevent trans-shipment and abandonment of responsibilities; merchandise stewardship incentives to promote return of goods to their source where recycled merchandise data is stored; global apparel size criteria to reduce returns of online purchases; regulation to encourage third-party verification and standards as a solution to the problem of non-standardized substances and ultimately programs to promote R&D in upcycled materials, etc., and high tech labeling to assist in sorting materials. Additionally, qualitative approaches can also be employed to quantify impact and improve quality of process and outcome product including ­packaging/ transportation of products bearing in mind however that recycling/upcycling provides a further layer of complexity in what is fast becoming a crowded market place of textile accreditations and certifications [2, 8]. Recycling is utilizing various different products to create something fresh, but not the same product for instance; you may upcycle your old T-shirts into buying bags by sewing the bottom and producing a couple cuts on the arms/neck. This is giving a new life to the t-shirt and prolonging the period of time it’s possible to use it. Recycling will be turning the T-shirt back real-sized newly produced T-shirt article and it can be seen that upcycled items might still be recyclable at the end of the second life based on the thing in question. Both recycling and upcycling reduce the amount of waste which ends up in landfills across the world. Also, both activities decrease the demand for the production of new substances, so that there will be less pollution and carbon emissions generated by manufacturers [9]. Recycling has several other unique benefits like when you have children recycling can be an enjoyable way to introduce them to a greener lifestyle. Moreover, it doesn’t seem fun to separate waste to various recycling bins and kids will love using their own imaginations to come up with strategies to reuse items around the home. As soon as they become interested in recycling, it will be easier to have them engaged with other green methods. Many individuals have made a living by recycling things and selling them for a profit, especially on sites like Etsy; therefore, recycling can assist the economy as well. Because there are many benefits to both recycling and upcycling, then there’s no need to choose one over the other. However, remember that not every item may be upcycled. Depending upon your creativity, you may find it difficult to consider new approaches to repurpose certain items you no longer need. When this happens, turn into recycle/ upcycle rather than throwing the item away in the garbage [10]. The garments that are used were procured and then the gathered garments were analyzed depending on the standard of clothing, fiber composition

6  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles (such as cotton, polyester, tricot), color (dark or light), sex of user (male or female), age class (children, young, etc.), after the segregation, clothes were exposed to washing with detergent to remove the dust, dirt, and dirt within the surface of the goods. Moreover, due to regular use of their clothes, most of the garments become faded or torn at a particular area or have stained because of that they cannot be used further for wearing. Refurbishing is a means to generate the garments again beautiful and attractive in appearance. The ways of refurbishing of older clothes include soaping, bleaching, dyeing, printing, finishing, stitching, etc. Once the garment has been treated as per the requirement to upcycle, the final product is about to use.

1.4 The Market for Upcycled Fashion Garments The market for upcycled clothes is hard to assess. It’s being driven by a generation that’s been educated regarding the effects of excess and is conscious of the limited resources of the planet. The concept of recycling and upcycling is not new. Since then “fabric jobbers” have offered mill endings and charitable organizations have fostered the development of classic and second-hand garments markets. What’s sure is that when a garment can be made and delivered to store in under a couple of weeks and continue for as long as eight years, the pile of product in the close of the clothing supply chain will continue to innovate. Upcycled item re-enters the industry particularly at retail store, it re-establishes a cheaper value for clothing in the heads of the customer. This puts huge lower downward cost reduction towards the front end of their distribution chain and will induce new sustainable models to get an apparel firm [11, 12].

1.5 Recycling Fashion Manufacturers Abraham and Thakore label is known to craft modern yet non-conforming style that lasts seasons. They believed that real luxury lies in specially crafted merchandise in limited quantities of premium quality. They create layouts using lost coke cans, discarded buttons, X-ray movies, etc. Their collection played on Kantha work that’s a traditional method of using old fabrics, done on grey, charcoal, and ivory fabrics. This brought a fresh change to Kantha function which is otherwise said to be done on printed fabrics. This can be state as recycling is serving us at its best. Péro by Aneeth Arora generates apparel that’s mad enough to surprise people, but is wearable and stylish at the same time. She believes

Overview on Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles  7 in producing hand-crafted pieces which are unique to the new aestheticlight, fresh and embroidered designs. Her recycling project “Mended with Love” obtained oodles of praises over its quirky, colorful pieces. Doodlage by Kriti Tula is a brand whose soul is located in recycling, where sustainability intersects with innovativeness, born from a simple idea of producing exceptional and environment friendly goods. The brand employs eco-friendly fabrics such as organic cotton, corn fabric, banana fabric etc., to create their products. House of Wandering Silk was founded by Katherine Neumann, the brand’s base is its usage of upcycled, handcrafted, and vintage materials to not just create clothing, but also jewellery, tote bags and more. In partnership with skilled teenager and women across self-help groups and NGOs from India and Asia, the brand aims to enable women artisans. It’s retailing a range of garments bags, scarves, and home decor items through their website. Celebrity fashion designer Amit Aggarwal started his tag AM.IT with recycling being the central idea. They also mix and match different materials from natural to handmade to make new designs. The designer used everything from recycled plastic sheets into industrial materials for his prêt line AM.IT. They upcycled vintage Benarasi borders, hand block prints, recycled disks, molten recycled plastic, plastic bags, bindi sheets, toy parts, and Benarasi cloths which were no longer usable as saris.

1.6 Sustainable Fibers and Technologies in Textiles and Fashions The textile industry generated waste of products and effluents in every point. Recently, textile market is one of the most polluting industries to the environment. In general, textile industry deals primarily with the sizing, desizing, and processing of both yarn and also generation of cloths and apparel (Figures 1.1 and 1.2). Sustainable development is a polygenic theory that manages fulfilling the requirements of the current generation without compromising the ability to meet the requirements of their future generations. Textile fiber means any spinnable materials synthetic or natural having a length more than its thickness and using appropriate resources for spinning and weaving. Around six thousand years ago linen was utilized for rapping the mommies at Egypt Civilization. China was trading the raw silk by silk route. The technique uses of cotton have been developed in ancient India. Sisal was utilized as textile fiber with animal fiber such as vicuna and llamas in the making of clothing from pre-Columbian civilizations. The end of the 19th century, fiber utilized as raw material for producing cloth fabrics.

8  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Syntheti Fiber [66%] Plant Fiber [27%] Regenarate Fiber [6%] Animal Fiber [1%]

Figure 1.1  Total sustainable fiber uses in textile and fashion. Textile Fibers Design

Spinning

Weaving

Finishing

Fabrics Design

Cut and Assemble

Finishing

Garment/Apparel Online

Buy/Sell

Stores

Wear

Figure 1.2  Tools for circular economy.

The  very first manmade fibers were invented or engineered in 1885. The pulp extracted from hard wood and transformed by various methods to regenerated cellulose fiber or rayon, known as “artificial silk”. Since then, various sort of fibers are developed in research laboratories with the purpose of fulfill the demands of the industries. The different kinds of materials play a significant function in our current knowledge of what constitutes fabrics sustainable. The textile sector is a really important part of human beings everyday life and the global economy [13, 14]. The intention of this chapter is to analyze how to enhance textile industry, regarding the circular economy in addition to sustainable innovation or invention.

Overview on Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles  9

1.7 The Circular Economy The circular economy intends to continuously keep products, components, and materials at their highest value. It is a long-term method in which today’s products are tomorrow’s materials as shown in Figure 1.3. The circular economy avails of prudence and equity to recreate development and economy together with environment and society. Industrial processes are no longer threat to this ecosystem, but on the contrary, they attempt to revalorize resources, thus promoting sustainable development. It’s a new approach to consider the connection between market, customers, and natural sources, right focused on sustainable growth. The United Nations General Assembly declared the schedule, which sets up transformational perspective to societal, economical, and ecological sustainable. The agenda comprises the 17 goals in 2015 to 2030 [15–17].

1.8 The Main Characteristic of the Economy The circular economies have four main characteristic. These are as follows: i.

Embrace green technology and concentrate on the responsible utilization of natural-born inputs to create. ii. Increasing use of business assets. It is about increasing assets and product life in the current market, by completely increasing usage through innovative answers and turning waste into raw materials such as other businesses.

Direct application:

Goal & scope definition

Inventory analysis

Product development

Interpretation

Product improvement Public policy making Marketing

Impact assessment

Figure 1.3  Tools for circular economy.

Others

10  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles iii. Circulated products, product components, and materials based on recycling, reuse, and remanufacturing in order to maintain good quality products. iv. Gradually reduce phase out negative externalities, in other words, environmental and social damages (In case the first three principles are met, externalities could be reduced, resulting zero to negative impact).

1.8.1 Natural Fibers Natural fibers are mostly coming from natural sources. Natural fiber divided in two types. To begin with is cellulose fiber or plant fiber or vegetable fiber and next one is animal or protein fiber, for example, the protein fibers which are obtained from animal resources, such as wool, silk, and hair. The cellulosic fibers may be classified on the grounds of different part of the plant from where the fibers have been collected. For example, fibers extracted from the stem cells are known as bast fibers. The fibers gathered from the leaves are known as leaf fibers. And other pieces of the plants, including, seed, fruit, stalk, or grass. Flax, jute, date palm, and cotton are referred to as cellulose fiber.

1.8.1.1 Cotton Cotton is renewable, biodegradable, environment friendly and non-toxic, and also the main natural polymer. It has a high molecular weight linear molecular chain configuration. Eco T-shirts were in comparison to the traditional shirts concerning impacts to global warming, acidification, aquatic and terrestrial eutrophication, and photochemical ozone formation. The results revealed the Eco T-shirts were more eco-friendlier compared to conventional shirts, with lower impacts across the effect categories considered. Usage of sustainable raw materials, focus on consumer behavior, and sustainable practices in the use phase are suggested to be chased. The naturally colored cotton is one of the marvelous innovations of biotechnology that is the production of colored cotton through genetic engineering, though color range is limited.

1.8.1.2 Bast Fibers: Flax, Linen, Jute, and Hemp Among the all bast cellulosic fibers, cultivation of flax is oldest fiber. Long time ago, in Missourian civilization flax utilized for wrapping mummies in pyramid. Formerly, flax was cultivated with less waterless amount of

Overview on Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles  11 fertilizer in addition to fewer quantities of pesticides together with cranberry plants. In 8 weeks, the height of this plant becomes 10–15 cm after sowing of flaxseeds. Flax plant grows very fast rate until it reaches on to the optimum height (70 and 80 cm) within 50 days [18].

1.8.1.3 Wool The complexity and diversity of wool textiles and apparel were unraveled throughout the life span. They’ve introduced challenges in the research especially in the allocation techniques for the consequences and the resource use between co-products. In the case study, the comparative contributions of the two merino wool apparels were determined. The study assessed not only the GHG (Greenhouse gas) emissions but also other effect categories like energy demand and water use. Wool-polyester blended material is revealing greater properties afterward wool yarn. But throughout the chemical procedure or existence of water, wool fiber fragmented from the main structure of the cloth. Enzyme treatment can remove this sort of fiber fragmentation [19].

1.8.1.4 Silk Indian silk manufacturing is higher in environmental impacts compared to other fibers that are conducive to the present production practices. Resource efficiency is emphasized in the new research direction. The role of government institutions are acknowledged in modernizing sericulture. In conclusions, it could be carried that sustainable agricultural practices could be designed to enhance agricultural land conditions, promote biodiversity and soil nutrition, and provide a variety of types of natural fabric fibers. These three methods in cotton crops are: (i) crop rotation, (ii) agro-ecological intermediate cultures, and (iii) agro-forestry. The results focus on the agro-forestry potential for the cultivation of textile fibers and show that there are only a few cases worldwide. This suggests that cotton is the main test species, generally cultivated in consortium with two other species. They also show different manufacturing challenges regarding the evolution of machines for mixed crops, groups of ideal species that do not compete with one another, the economy and scalability of processes. Though agro-forestry seems to be widely employed for good creation, various researches on fibers continue to be required that take into consideration the proper integration, distribution, and management of species, quality, and quantity of fiber production. New systems can be designed to enhance the states of degradation products, to promote biodiversity and

12  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles soil nutrition and to supply many types of natural textile fibers. This choice would turn agriculture from a threat into a conservation prospect. In light of these questions presented, this document is a starting point for further studies. Besides raising awareness of these intricate agricultural systems and establishing good agricultural techniques and quantifying fine agricultural practices, it’s likewise essential to design targeted public policies and effective solutions and to coordinate the interests of stakeholders.

1.9 Eco-Labels Concerning Bringing Sustainability Green purchasing is a complex process, given the dynamic and diverse context of purchasing situation, involving the interplay of price, awareness, confidence, and the complexity and access to information, and of course product availability, societal practices and customs, brand identity, and reputation. Eco-label takes up and consumer/producer approval can be highly variable, with even well-funded labels sometimes unable to achieve significant marketplace penetration. It is apparent that eco-labels can impact consumer choice even though it is not as clear whether this leads to decreased environmental influences [20]. Qualitative differences exist between the eco-labels studied and this may affect their effectiveness given the following findings: i.

Consumers are attracted to simple eco-labels because they provide for clear decision making, but simplicity can undermine efficacy of environmental claims; ii. Criteria consistency and difficulty of making direct functional comparisons between products can operate against simplicity aims; iii. Commercial independence and multi-stakeholder involve­ ment are critical precursors to significant uptake; iv. Self-funded voluntary eco-label schemes can suffer from poor/slow processes and resultant declines in reputation; Government involvement in eco-labels generally improves uptake, and governments have also used other mechanisms like procurement policies to encourage eco-label strategies. However, eco-labels can simply usefully form part of a sustainable consumption strategy, since they say little about consumption itself, plus they essentially are limited to providing product information. As Charter remarks: “Education and information campaigns to increase client awareness, as well as other instruments, should be utilized in conjunction with ecolabelling to ensure the effectiveness of the scheme”.

Overview on Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles  13

1.10 Technological and Sustainable Measures Under Fashion Industry The fashion sector underwent a remarkable growth in the previous two decades, particularly with the possession of the fast fashion strategy, which highlights an entrepreneurial modus operandi of accelerated disposal and acquisition of bulk-produced, optional, and standardized fashion items. However, by arousing widespread consumption of readily replaceable garments, fast fashion includes a significant bottleneck with regard to ecological and societal sustainability. Consumers appear to know about those problems, according to increasing interest in green goods. As an answer, large-scale retailers like H&M and Zara have spent in sustainable activities and there are grounds to think this trend will expand. At precisely the exact same time, cultural and socio- economical macro-trends like circular sharing and economy market are challenging standard mass manufacturing paradigms, forcing the demand for fresh and innovative business models which consider sustainability less an afterthought, but as a vital design element. Additionally, technological invention in garment materials and production processes allow a new approach to consider business models which extends beyond scale savings and scope benefits generated by rapid trend. It’s a time of chance for trend entrepreneurs to construct innovative business models which research these tendencies while pursuing not just economic but also environmental and social value development [13, 21]. There’s still much doubt about how sustainable and innovative fashion industry models must be organized, as study concerning the internal dynamics of effective models remains scarce and mostly centered on individual scenarios. No systematic approach which synthesizes the drivers of success to sustainable and innovative business units in the fashion market was set forward.

1.11 Consumer Consciousness Along With Corporate Social Obligation One of recent developments in customer habits and tastes, the tendency of greater consciousness about sustainability is among the most significant elements on the other side of the surge in options to quickly trend. Evidences of this a behavioral modification would be the higher interest in green goods, the proliferation of bottom-up initiatives like the manufacturer and do-it-­ yourself motions, the utilization of ex-sharing and change platforms, as well as the developing belief that younger generations have a tendency to reevaluate

14  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles experiences more than possession. Impacts of the tendency in the fashion sector have been observed as quickly fashion businesses have undergone a decrease in earnings. All these businesses have reacted with initiatives such as H&M’s 2015 partnership with all the Ellen MacArthur Foundation to boost the growth of circular economy and C&A’s 2014 program to promote circular economy and zero waste. Movements like non-consumerism and slow fashion are direct consequences of shifting customer tastes about intake that directly affect how firms layout style and change their own business models. The idea of sweatshop free involves transparency regarding operating conditions in the production firm and resistance to the custom of outsourcing manufacturing to emerging nations in search for low wage labor. This tendency addresses the social part of sustainability and affects the company design parameters of consumer relationship, crucial sources, and essential tasks. Fair trade aims at supplying a worthy wage for many employees involved, in addition to healthful workplace environments and societal investment to your communities. It addresses the increasing awareness about societal sustainability one of trend consumers and so necessitates the adoption of advanced customer relationship practices. The locally sourced driver is made up of prioritizing product manufacturing in areas geographically near its consumption. The best way to quantify “closeness” remains debatable and depends upon the specific circumstance, but this alternative will create sustainability by reducing costs and environmental impact related to transport and stimulating local companies, thereby improving labor in nearby communities. BMI derived out of this driver involves how data is conveyed to clients and how clients respond to it. It affects consumer connection and value proposal but, moreover, it influences key partner selection.

1.12 Sharing Economy and Collaborative Consumption Sharing market and collaborative mindset for a adoption of sustainable and innovative business models in vogue, cooperation denotes the adoption of a collaborative approach with stakeholders engaged at a sustainable value system: providers, vendors, clients (who are often involved with co-­creating initiatives), as well as competitions. In reality, it doesn’t look unusual to see COO-request attempts among sustainable fashion startups. Collaboration permits the introduction of a supportive ecosystem which drives knowledge and resource sharing, encourages the diffusion of renewable practices, and finally enables business design experimentation. Second hand identifies customers donating or selling clothes no longer in usage to other customers, hence

Overview on Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles  15 promoting reuse and decreasing requirement for newly manufactured objects and the related natural resources intake [21, 22]. The fashion library (or clothing library) driver is fundamentally a subscription support for apparel. Cases of powerful small business models according to this driver are such that rent the runway along with the Dutch company LENA. By using sharing mechanisms, things which would be utilized only several times if possessed individually reach a broader audience, thus potentially decreasing need for new clothes. The decisions affecting the entire merchandise are created throughout the design phase regarding quality, look, materials, production procedures, and related costs. Therefore, design choices affect the entire business design but have especially crucial influence about the interpretation of sustainability principles into the value proposal. In this way, adoption of eco-friendly substances (e.g., maintain capable fibers or recycled substances) and manufacturing procedures (e.g., natural dyeing methods), and zero waste mechanics (slow fashion techniques) can yield applicable company benefits. But, the choice to embrace these substances nevertheless represents an obstacle for trend firms that still don’t comprehend this as a strategic priority to the business. Using nanomaterials in fabrics is pushed by the constraints in conventional business, like the demand for (i) market in electricity and water usage, together with the capacity to operate smaller manufacturing batch dimensions, (ii) enhanced functionality parameters for operational property, for example, moisture transfer, hydrophobicity, by tuning accuracy and uniformity of finishing treatment with nominal thickness or add on, (iii) environmental sustainability with biobased or biodegradable products and churns out substances damaging to health, including formaldehyde, phthalates, etc. Textile materials have inherent features which make them worthwhile—they’re versatile and light weight, strong, soft, etc. Because of this, they are desired goals for modification using added functionalities. There are still challenges to conquer concerning the reproducibility and robustness of these “smart fibers” unique response properties regarding mechanical, chemical, electric, and thermal performances [22, 23].

1.13 Technological Amendments in Textiles Making It More User and Environment Friendly Sustainable and green advanced materials Plasma technology is utilized for creating water repellent, hydrophilic, anti inflammatory, fire retardant, UV protective, and antistatic textile materials and their dyeing and printing. Cellulosic fabric substrates are modified with low pressure in addition to atmospheric pressure plasma utilizing various non-­polymerizing liquid or

16  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles gaseous precursors. A special quality of plasma modification is the surface arrangement of this polymer can be modified for a particular program without changing the bulk properties of this polymer. The surface specificity of plasma modification is exceptionally distinct from the essence of the compound changes with traditional treatment methods. Hydrophobic cloths are important in most applications since liquids are about us in the kind of rain water, including meals, drinks, chemicals, and additives. UV radiation is among the key causes of degradation of fabric materials owing to its very big surface volume ratio. Sustainable textile materials with natural resources properties, it’s really fine character and a larger amount of fibers from the cross section of yarn lead to greater swelling because of capillary absorption and consequently less UV transmittance. The UV protection abilities of these fabric materials are substantially influenced depending on the kind of pigment or dye, the more absorptive groups within the dyestuff, depth after dyeing, the uniformity, and additives [14, 24–28].

1.14 Conclusions Recycling is an effective way to reuse and recycle waste or by-products into fresh substances which are of high quality. Recycling has become a fashion trend in manufacturing and design market. Researching about the redesign principle of this waste beneath the recycling concept can help us to comprehend the goal and significance of recycling, also contains a particular guiding significance for practice and design. By decreasing this requirement, we could lower air pollution, water pollution, and landfill usage, and sometimes even greenhouse gas emissions. Emerging technologies that are non-poisonous to environment ought to be utilized largely from the business and the consumer consciousness and a suitable budget preparation is also necessary for the mass approval of such creations. Elements such as green raw materials, fashion libraries, and electronic vulnerability media ought to be put into place in most of the industries weather fashion or cloth, so it can’t be surroundings repellent. Invention of new cloths that consists of nano technologies will probably be great since it will raise the durability and availability of this garment but the cost of these clothing must also be considered to be able to make it more user friendly and sustainable. There’s a good deal more issues in establishing of brand new and advanced fabrics on account of the high cost and demand of top care taking. Sometimes, the newest technology established material also endures a lot on account of the involvement of excess carbon emission rate that makes it toxic to our environment. Hence, it needs to be understood that the technology ought to be favorable to both to surroundings and to

Overview on Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles  17 humanity. There is a belief that: “Always give back the amount resources you take from the nature, in order to maintain the balance in the ecosystem.”

References 1. Pandit, P., Nadathur, G.T., Jose, S., Upcycled and low-cost sustainable business for value-added textiles and fashion, in: Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp. 95–122, Elsevier, Woodhead Publishing, United States of America, 2019. 2. Sung, K. and Sung, K., A review on upcycling: Current body of literature, knowledge gaps and a way forward, in: World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 2015. 3. Han, S., Tyler, D., Apeagyei, P., Upcycling as a design strategy for product lifetime optimisation and societal change, In: PLATE (Product Lifetimes And The Environment) Conference, Nottingham Trent University, pp. 1–12, 2015. 4. Smith, P., Baille, J., McHattie, L.-S., Sustainable Design Futures: An open design vision for the circular economy in fashion and textiles. Des J., 20, sup1, S1938–47, 2017. 5. Yi, Z., Li, X., Xu, X., Luo, B., Luo, J., Wu, W. et al., Green, effective chemical route for the synthesis of silver nanoplates in tannic acid aqueous solution. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp., 392, 1, 131–6, 2011. 6. Han, S.L.C., Chan, P.Y.L., Venkatraman, P., Apeagyei, P., Cassidy, T., Tyler, D.J., Standard vs. upcycled fashion design and production. Fash. Pract., 9, 1, 69–94, 2017. 7. Teli, M.D., Valia, S.P., Maurya, S., Shitole, P., Sustainability Based Upcycling and Value Addition of Textile Apparels, in: Proceedings of the International Conference on Multidisciplinary Innovation for Sustainability and Growth, Kuala Lumpur, Full Paper Proceeding MISG-2014, vol. 1, pp. 41–47, 2014. 8. Wang, J., Upcycling Becomes a Treasure Trove for Green Business Ideas. Entrep. Mag., 22, 2011. https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/219310. 9. Ma, Y., Hummel, M., Määttänen, M., Särkilahti, A., Harlin, A., Sixta, H., Upcy­ cling of waste paper and cardboard to textiles. Green Chem., 18, 3, 858–66, 2016. 10. Fraser, K., ReDress: Reducing Textile waste through Component Reuse, Unmaking Waste 2015 Conference Proceedings 22–24, Adelaide, South Australia, pp. 36–46. https://core.ac.uk/reader/85256170 2015. 11. Myers, G.J., Design and Selling Recycled Fashion: Acceptance of Upcycled Second­hand Clothes by Female Consumers, Age 25-65. Circulation, 701, 8888, 2014. 12. Kemppainen, J., Sustainable Fashion Business Strategies: Opportunities for circular economy in the textile industry, Lahti University of Applied Sciences, Degree Programme in Business Studies, Bachelor’s Thesis in Business Administration, 60 pages, 4 pages of appendices, 2016. 13. Allwood, J.M., Laursen, S.E., Russell, S.N., de Rodriguez, C.M., Bocken, N.M.P., An approach to scenario analysis of the sustainability of an industrial

18  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles sector applied to clothing and textiles in the UK. J. Clean. Prod., 16, 12, 1234– 46, 2008. 14. Pandit, P., Gayatri, T.N., Maiti, S., Green and Sustainable Textile Materials Using Natural Resources, in: Green Sustain Adv Mater Process Charact, Shakeel Ahmed et al. (eds.) vol. 1, pp. 213–61, Scrivener Publishing LLC, USA, 2018. 15. Balanay, R. and Halog, A., 3 - Tools for circular economy: Review and some potential applications for the Philippine textile industry, in: Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp. 49–75, Elsevier Ltd, 2019. 16. Stahel, W.R., The circular economy. Nat. News, 531, 7595, 435, 2016. 17. Chamberlin, L. and Boks, C., Marketing approaches for a circular economy: Using design frameworks to interpret online communications. Sustainability, 10, 6, 2070, 2018. 18. Debnath, S., Flax Fiber Extraction to Fashion Products Leading Towards Sustainable, in: The UN Sustainable Development Goals for the Textile and Fashion Industry, pp. 47–57, Springer, Singapore, 2020. 19. Waheed, M.F. and Khalid, A.M., Impact of Emerging Technologies for Sustainable Fashion, Textile and Design. W. Karwowski and T. Ahram (Eds.) p. 684–689, Springer Nature Switzerland AG, 2019. 20. Horne, R.E., Limits to labels: The role of eco-labels in the assessment of product sustainability and routes to sustainable consumption. Int. J. Consum. Stud., 33, 2, 175–82, 2009. 21. Moorhouse, D. and Moorhouse, D., Sustainable design: Circular economy in fashion and textiles. Des J., 20, sup1, S1948–59, 2017. 22. Todeschini, B.V., Cortimiglia, M.N., Callegaro-de-Menezes, D., Ghezzi, A., Inno­ vative and sustainable business models in the fashion industry: Entrepreneurial drivers, opportunities, and challenges. Bus. Horiz., 60, 6, 759–70, 2017. 23. Van Bommel, H.W.M., A conceptual framework for analyzing sustainability strategies in industrial supply networks from an innovation perspective. J. Clean. Prod., 19, 8, 895–904, 2011. 24. Pandit, P., Maiti, S., Gayatri, T.N., Mallick, A., Applications of Textile Materials Using Emerging Sources and Technology: A New Perspective, in: Green and Sustainable Advanced Materials. Shakeel Ahmed et al. (eds.) vol. 2, pp. 49–83, 2018. 25. Teli, M.D. Pandit, P., Multifunctionalised silk using Delonix regia stem shell waste. Fibers Polym., 18, 9, 1679–1690, 2017. 26. Teli, M.D. Pandit, P., Application of Sterculia Foetida Fruit Shell Waste Biomolecules on Silk for Aesthetic and Wellness Properties. Fibers Polym., 19, 1, 41–54, 2018. 27. Teli, M.D. Pandit, P., Novel method of ecofriendly single bath dyeing and functional finishing of wool protein with coconut shell extract biomolecules. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng., 5, 9, 8323–8333, 2017. 28. Teli, M.D. Pandit, P., Development of thermally stable and hygienic colored cotton fabric made by treatment with natural coconut shell extract. J. Ind. Text., 48, 1, 87–118, 2018.

2 Challenges for Waste in Fashion and Textile Industry Jayant Kumar1, Kunal Singha2*, Pintu Pandit2, Subhankar Maity3 and Amal Ray4 Department of Fashion Technology, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Patna, Bihar, India 2 Department of Textile Design, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Patna, Bihar, India 3 Department of Textile Technology, Uttar Pradesh Textile Technology Institute, Kanpur, U.P., India 4 Department of Textile Technology, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab, India 1

Abstract

A pulse of the fashion industry report found that the fashion generates 4% of the world’s waste each year, contributing a whopping 92 million tons annually. Most of the clothes that are produced by fast fashion are inorganic and synthetic. So, they are unable to degrade properly and these chemicals in the fabrics pollute water. This redundant issue can be solved by adopting various marketing strategies taking into account both environmental and socio-economic aspects. It implies ethics and reuse of products in the new field of “sustainable fashion” which can increase the value and price of local product and even play crucial role to increase life of fashion or textile or fiber materials. Keywords:  Sustainable fashion, marketing strategies, fashion, textile materials

*Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (19–32) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

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20  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

2.1 Introduction The last 150 decades of industrial revolution happen to be dominated by a linear version of manufacturing where substances are pulled from resource-endowed nations and goods are produced utilizing these virgin tools. Consumers subsequently use, drop, and finally replace these mass produced merchandise with brand new ones. The present financial model is basically one of “take-make-dispose” where companies accrue profits by creating products which will later on finish from the landfill [1]. This kind of version sees nature as a source to be utilized for the advantage of consumers and corporations and supposes resource intensive economic development can be accomplished without any restraints. But in contrast to prevalent beliefs of unlimited planetary boundaries, we’re living in times affected by numerous environmental issues, including climate change, resource scarcity, biodiversity reduction, and increasing amounts of contamination. If we seem at macro level, land use change, climatic fluctuations, and degradation of biosphere ethics, along with an overload of poisonous gases such as N and P in chemical and biological cycles are already contributing more to worldwide threat zone [2]. In the intermediate level, several organizations have started to observe that the inherent financial method increases their vulnerability to dangers, most especially via volatility in resource costs and exposure to provide limitations [3, 4]. In the end, at the customer level, it’s anticipated approximately 3 billion people will soon join the ranks of the middle course by 2030, representing the greatest and fastest growth in disposable income and customer need ever seen [26]. More wealthy OECD customers, whose footprint is that a multi­plier of these in middle courses, are also anticipated to join with this middle course upsurge in customer demand. With this speedy underpinning of organic resources, it isn’t tough to forecast the ecological degradation quicker than anticipated. The industrial strain on the produces isn’t helping [5]. The textile and clothing sector can be regarded as largely socially contested and polluting sector in Earth. By taking a look at the huge quantity of waste made by the business and recycling textile waste, it’s the principal challenge to the way to keep up the essence of the fibers in parallel [6–9]. It’s so because most cloths now are a mix of different fiber types (e.g., cotton and polyester). Although mixes give the cloth desired qualities such as breathability, available technology are now unable to correctly ascertain the precise material makeup of blended cloth heaps, therefore producing the parting of fibers a hopeless endeavor. In the conclusion, away from

Textile and Fashion Wastages’ Challenges   21 being recycled, many cloths now are “down”, so getting changed, for example, into carpeting underlay or rags.

2.1.1 Annual Global Fiber Consumption (2000–2012) There are various ways of options for clients. When they want to give their garments that are used, for example, drop or donate or market, to dedicated organizations like charitable trust associations, collectors (professionals or retailers) and municipalities, majority, at Europe, the waste product are ruined or burnt and soil stuffed with municipal good waste. The contributed or sold fabrics are sorted and shipped later to recycling or reuse plants based upon their quality. The significant chunk of textiles/garments that retain enough grade for reuse are shipped to East African or European states [9, 10], and also the remainder flow is delivered for recycling in recycling plants. Nearly, all the leak is downward cycled into insulation fabrics, rags and wipes, simply because we’ve got a very few procedures for fabric recycling. The remaining used accumulated fabrics are land destroyed or filled. Sometimes, the garments which are no longer in utilizing gathered in closets or traded unofficially between family or friends person of those working personnel of their business [10, 11]. Currently, only 25% of the fabric waste is gathered by NGOs or other businesses in EU area for the only aim of recycling and reusing. The left more than is thrown to the landfill or methods to municipal waste incineration but perish to the shortage of comprehension and access to technical technologies for recycling, and many forms recycling methods obtained delayed for artificial and natural fiber [12]. In India, in addition—the story is exactly identical—the article consumer Apparel generally lands around NGOs or the manufacturers or even the small scale market. The Brands upward bicycles the goods and also the small scale businesses recycle them into fabrics and fibers. A poll has been conducted among the a variety of garment factories located in Himachal Pradesh and Delhi NCR area to unearth the degree of waste production at different phases in garment production. The study completed was descriptive in character. A sample of 50 respondents in eight factories functioning in a variety of capacities has been interviewed. Judgmental and ease sampling method was utilized for the choice of respondents. Primary data was gathered through the interview and monitoring of their work procedures in the factories. Among the crude finding in the evaluation of the information gathered from the respondents showed that the significant offender and participation in waste generation has been in the leading section. The identical thing was confirmed with weight proportion of the input material and last output product.

22  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles According to the survey ran, the waste created at cutting section is donating more waste when compared with another section. It’s this waste that’s subsequently sent to land the businesses that are creating carpets, pillow substance or very low excellent blanket. Again, the practice creates waste concerning cloth dyes, dyes, and color used as well as also the energy utilized. Thus, the system isn’t getting shut; actually it’s a continuous loop, so making a few or another manner, leading to this waste. As explained previously, to begin decreasing the impact of ours action on the earth, it’s crucial to build up the method of production or intake that believes each element involved [13]. The textile and fashion business is among the most polluting sectors on earth, because it absorbs a supply chain that’s resource intensive which creates enormous waste and discharged huge amount of poisonous chemicals that circulate water, air, and dirt [14]. This has an influence on business employees that, subsequently, have too long working hours in poor states, in many cases risking their own lives to generate more clothing and reducing cost and on the people of this location where they operate. Each period of fabric product life cycle creates considerable quantities of waste, and which are currently lost. As stated earlier, the fabric markets a part of how fashion system which boosts mass and speedy consumption, folks buy clothing to wear for a brief time period, so that they quickly become fabric waste. Waste consists of substance that reaches at the end of its life span for a person or business, which is normally disposed of, in addition to other wastes, at a landfill, and that, in turn, creates difficulties for the environment and different sectors of society. Textile waste could be classified into three classes [15, 16]. i.

Preconsumer cloth wastes: They’re the remains of each manufacturing procedure. From the textile and style industry, these include of bits of cloth, leather, along with other raw materials discarded during the fabric processes. ii. Postconsumer textile pushes: They’re clothing no more desired for the consumer because of to aesthetic, practical purpose, or style reasons, or as they’re ripped. Normally, in the best case situation, these clothes are fixed and marketed as secondhand clothing in developing countries. iii. Postindustrial cloth wastes: They’re made during the production processes. These may be fluids, gases, or solids. One of these, we could cite dyes and compounds dumped into water flows and also the carbon footprint of each procedure and transportation, etc.

Textile and Fashion Wastages’ Challenges   23 As introduced by the round market theory, mass garment ingestion involves purchase decision procedure somewhat briefer than the mindful purchase of clothing. Consequently, timing is just one of those vital facets. As soon as we get dressed, we all reveal something around us, however, when we understand about the source of this garment, we’re also embodying its foundation [17]. Thus, we can honor the circumstance, source, and creation process of this garment, which transforms into an exceptional piece, and also the choice procedure gets longer conscious. On the opposite, in the event of mass garment buy, the procedure for garment purchase, wear, and also drop happens over a really short time period, like its manufacturing procedure. There’s even less understanding of garment source, wear, and destination. This is why the new notions are suggesting not only product recycling but additionally upcycling, that adds value to this conclusion product unlike recycling, that normally includes reusing substances, but maybe not always hoping to improve the quality of this new item. Moreover, recycling is a portion of their 3Rs: Reduce, Recycle, and Reuse, that is only the beginning point. To decrease the intake or use of resources is a temporary alternative [18], and it’s not enough to attain a true improvement. Conversely, it’s crucial to make products produced of materials which may be continuously changed and reused [19], improving end merchandise quality each moment. Sustainable fashion manufacturers with business models predicated on round economy are currently confronted with a trend, because they market messages of much more aware consumption to modify clients’ consumption patterns while attempting to market more products [20]. Fashion manufacturers that genuinely wish to execute an approach based on round economy should create their inventiveness, imagination, flexibility, and resilience among additional abilities to possess the cheapest potential footprint while offering attractive consumer goods [20] and placing the example for both other manufacturers and their clients. Patagonia is a major manufacturer concerning sustainability and circular market which being attentive to the effect of human action, particularly in the fabric industry not only educates its clients how to fix their clothes but also asks them to come back the garments they no longer wear to mend and market them into new clients. Another fantastic illustration is Pratibha Syntexa Indian fabric manufacturer that began to recycle fabrics, turning garbage into recycled yarns and clothing. In this manner, the business hasn’t made gain from the production of original goods but also managed to decrease waste and, even more to the point, its recycling and value-creation initiatives have significantly changed the disposition of people that are a part of

24  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles the business, who place creativity in the service of their available sources, rather than the other way round [21]. Particular accessories or clothes communicate an idea, a message, or even a notion. Fashion as a vocabulary is an intricate strategy, with codes which vary over time and also varies depending in your culture or circumstance. Based on Umberto Eco, following representation, the garment has been always altered, “improved” [22] and, then, that the meaning tends to be altered from the circumstance. In bulk trend, the significance of clothes becomes plain and vague. The materials and resources utilized in construction, the same as the design process, therefore are conducive into a business that seems to market a larger amount from the short-term and in the lowest possible price, leaving the worth of every procedure, together with the value of individual labor. Slow fashion appears within this “slow” motion which promotes precisely giving consciousness back to every procedure. Materials are appreciated, as well because handicraft local and work manufacturing [22], which flip the finished product to an exceptional piece. To concentrate design on round economy would be always to proceed beyond the material facet and implement positive cultural and social changes. And, as cloths are closely related to civilization, they have got individuality and reflect both memory and heritage.

2.2 Major Challenges in Managing Textile and Fashion Wastages The present situation in the style and textile production and ingestion follow a routine which contributes to huge quantity of cloth waste, since they are left after being used for a relatively shorter period. Overproduction is yet another dilemma; from 100% clothes produced, just 30% of which is sold at the retail cost cited, another 30% are sold from the sales, and the residual 40% stays solid or fails to make it to the destination. Textile waste could be categorized generally according to its origin, into three main kinds: i.

Post-industrial squander: its side impact of garment production. ii. Pre-consumer squander: poor high quality garments in the production company or in retail homes as well as the product that remains unsold in shops. iii. Post-consumer squander: it’s made by those users: worn out, unwanted, or damaged clothes [21–23].

Textile and Fashion Wastages’ Challenges   25 The significant challenge for the aforementioned three kinds of wastages would be to deal with the burned or territory filling issues. Fixing these three kinds of waste is to lower their levels and also to minimize waste that’s currently being burned off or land filled. The flows of fabric waste material which must be any diminished or removed manner as the essential activities for disposal could be marked as significant actions in the value string. The Worldwide Fashion Agenda and The Boston Consulting Group is in their most recent report, predictions that moving by precisely the exact same degree of present waste production rate from assorted trend or manufacturing procedures and end-of-use processes, there’ll be a rise of waste roughly 60% from 2015 to 2030 due to additional 57 million tons of waste being generated annually. Accordingly, the aggregate degree of style waste increases to 148 million tons by 2030, which figures to 17.5 kg per capita yearly through Earth. Italy, Germany, the United Kingdom, Poland, Belgium, France, Spain, Netherlands, the Czech Republic, and Portugal will be the top 10 manufacturers of textile waste from the European Union at 2014 (based on Euro stat data). By 2004, most of those nations have capable to suppress about the pollution speed I line but with the exclusion of Poland, Belgium, and Germany, in which the dimensions of fabric waste amplified amid 2004 and 2014. The issue that waste introduces depends not simply in the quantity of its own kinds, but how it’s handled. Just 20% of attire waste is gathered globally for recycling or reuse gradually but the remainder of 80% is dropped or soil filled that impacts in a massive reduction in raw materials and additionally tenderness energies [24]. This is quite catchy for all of the stakeholders, manufacturers, and customers to agree about the economical and functional calculation based on a lot of factors such as the access to proper infrastructure, the sort of fabric product and its bodily state, the level of use, fiber composition, end, garment structure, logos and emblems, accessories, and the way of design, and also, last but not least, the way the garment has been kind of. The item performance needs to be described from the first design phase. Majority of work is about on fiber composition and material finishes. Nevertheless, nothing substantial was attained. You will find success however they aren’t economical feasible. The engineers and designers are facing great struggle of cleaning optimal recycling choices and sustainable solution, together with sustainable design. Fully renewable and biodegradable goods appeal less to some consumer consequently has a minimal need, finally drops of their achievement [24, 25]. Another important and difficult point in the evolution of a sustainable method is verdict; the remedy to this topic about-how cloth waste should

26  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles be constructed and assembled. Thus, for doing this issue particularly successful retrieval, reprocessing of infrastructure via successful communicating by way of the distribution chain are most very crucial points that will need to be examined thoroughly. The opened and closed loop supply chain in cloth and garments industry is blocked by various categories of obstacles: • Consumer entry practices: schooling degree and behavior pattern. • Group, sorting, and afterwards on disposal clinics: needed infrastructure and processes such as waste assemblage along with categorization. Customers seem to understand less they are not as conscious with coping with end-of-life clothes and fabrics than they’re in the example of newspaper, glass, or plastics the most important issue with this can be your up-scaled efficacy during sorting and collecting cloth and clothes waste. Consequently, inferior-quality fabric materials alongside their combinations are extremely dominating in the recycling marketplace. There are many trial and error procedures are moving on to restrain the enormous strain on the commercially workable recycling technology on account of the rapid development of inferior-grade fabrics and combinations. Additionally, only 15% to approximately 20% of fabrics (based on the area) procedure to recycling and remainder of all substances is land filled or incinerated. According to the newest prescription from the EU, 27 speed for recycled or stained garments is just 18%, which in the United States is much worse. They clearly comparison with the prices for different commodities (for packaging it’s 98% in Germany and 79% in Belgium). Nowaday’s marketing of fabric product is really a profit making company. Due to the primary rationale is unawareness of individuals. The clients that are fiscally week are searching for inexpensive fabric product. The recycle goods may be utilized in industrial industry like packaging, cleaning, shield, agro industries essentially in horticulture and animal husbandry. A lot of center man (collector) concentrate on re-wearable fabric product without difficulty with this eliminating procedure for west out of recycling cloth is quite high costly. They have less consciousness and absence of infrastructure in regional level. Commercially, the price of recycling technologies is dependent on various elements. To start with, there’s deficiency of recycling technologies for non grade fabric materials. Next is overlook idea about parting of fiber from mixed mixes and composite construction. The minimal quality recycling

Textile and Fashion Wastages’ Challenges   27 substances dominate the marketplace due to the end products is extremely low cost although the first recycling method is quite high. Among the significant cost effective variables are a costly transportation and less accessibility of fabric recycling businesses at the local or regional location. The mainstream recycling technology and essential resolutions that may eradicate barriers into this outline of an international closed loop from the textiles industry continue to be a few. The remedy for this problem is only going to come when all of the relevant sectors, NGOs, academia, and research figures will collaborate around the frequent platform to tackle this burning problem as quickly as possible. The recycle procedure is equilibrium between the environment and ecosystem. All these kind of recycle businesses utilize natural and artificial both variety of fiber. The artificial fibers produced by primitive oil and atoms have been comprised various noxious element. A few of textile companies are cited in our conversation under: a. BIONIC: Some of the top businesses BIONIC made high quality fabrics using the marine and coastal waste plastic of sea. The advanced technology transforms that the recycled artificial substances to reusable and high-tech fabrics materials. This procedure reaches to new criteria aesthetics fabric materials to meet consumer demand. They utilized blow mold injection technologies to generate polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and also higher density polyethylene (HDPE) cloth fiber from 40% to 100% of marine and coastal vinyl. By employing the recycling procedure, the BIONIC firm is helping to protect marine ecosystems. They quote that seven thousand plastic bottles have been collected from sea shore across the globe to generate yarn in last 3 decades. b. Tonlé: They look and generation of fabric waste to create trendy garment or clothing. Tonlé goal is to produce zerowaste style products from surplus fabric from larger manufacturers firms. Tonlé accomplishes zero-waste by creative pattern-making engineering using a practice of creating new clothes from the excess fabrics. More than 97% of the fabric cloth was utilized by business and the surplus or garbage left additionally used for paper manufacturing. Tonlé utilized 90% of the cloth from pre-consumer cloth waste and the rest 10% from upcycled elements of local garment squander. They’ve succeeded to reach 10 lots of fabrics materials wastage in landfilling at 2014.

28  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles c. BV International: BV International produced sand jeans by utilizing recycling technology according to a “rent a jean” ingestion model. Following a year of renting of jeans, clients may maintain it, change to some new version, or ship it back to recycling. Normally, Mud Jeans sells the most secondhand clothes as classic objects or recycles the cloths into new goods. The production procedure utilizes less water at the effective manner and reduces chemical applications. It eased to transition into a circular market in the fashion market. The most important objective is to advertise the use of leasing a jean to your user. d. G-Star: G-Star is financing firm in creating of denim cloth. G-Star is creating brand new denim fabrics which may compete with virgin cotton lace on cost, quality, and aesthetics. They use to attempt to establish the making company and assist the ecological by recycling of lace. A maximum of 30% of recycled fibers may be utilized as yarn. However, it is ensured that the yarn keeps the potency of weaving and finishing. A denim cloth has around 12% of recycled material. Therefore, it’ll have considerably lesser environmental impact than fresh substances. Water intake can be used by 9.8%, and energy intake declines by 4.2% and CO2 emissions decrease by 3.8%. The Circle Economy is that the pilot project of Wieland Textiles tore cover waste recycling and collection into re-introduce denim goods. The marketplace plan of G-Star is promoting lace fabrics and put out to integrate recycled material in the creating of the cloth. The aim was to expand the upcoming effect of the project beyond one capsule set and create recycled denim component of their sourcing plan in the long run. Engineered lace cloth has a cost premium of 12.5% compared to virgin equal. e. ReShare: ReShare develops a brand new technology for sustainable and secure solution for around 600 tons of older military work wear is given by the Dutch Ministry of Defence. They utilized 50:50 cotton/cotton mixtures typical article was blended with virgin Polyester (PET) fiber and also automatically recycled into fresh yarn to create blankets for relief diplomatic. They also recycle a few heaps of older Dutch navy and military uniforms were changed into new kind of yarns such as blankets. The yarns produced with 80% recycled army uniforms demonstrated a decrease in water consumption from 87%, diminished energy usage

Textile and Fashion Wastages’ Challenges   29 by 42%, and a decrease in CO2 emissions by 33%, compared using a non-recycled yarn. Project partnered with Circle Economy and Recover Recycling technology to recycle used labor usage of the Dutch army into fresh cloth products to demonstrate the marketplace that used work wear could be changed to fresh, higher quality goods, while achieving important environmental savings.

2.3 Usage of Renewable Resources to the Maximum There are many rising technologies for the material of recycling of fabric waste. The instance is of this kind of advancement was created by Swedish firm Renewcell. It regenerates viscose fibers out of lost cellulosic fabrics. They’ve utilized mechanical chopped procedure, cut into little pieces and separated dissolved into alkali alternative. Finally, they had to generate regenerated viscose on small mixed fabrics but the modest evaluation on various fiber cloths modest evaluations on unique blends. But little information is accessible and it’s still under development. Presently, lyocell (regenerated cellulose) established procedure for recycling artificial fibers was quickly adopted in the sectors. Within this lyocell procedure cellulose wood pulp is excavated. Then, the artificial fiber wastage is blended with this last alternative and the last option is filtered to create spun yarn thus. The NMMO has been recovered and shipped back into the procedure for reuse and recycling and separation of NMMO continue under future study query [24, 25].

2.4 Increase the Life of the Product There are different ways and methods that have been widely used and published worldwide for recycling and improving the life of the fashion and textile products. Markets are filled with the commercially used products which have been supplied by different industries. Some of the major areas of work are as follows:

2.4.1 Machinery/Equipment Related • There are machines which uses less water as compared to the other one for the process of dyeing, scouring, bleaching, and washing. Thus, these reduce the chemical uses in the treatment plant and ultimately saving the energy.

30  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles • Use of solar panels to reduce consumption of others nonrenewable energy sources for heating of water for dyeing. • Additional insulation in the machines to avoid energy loss in the dyeing and drying process. • Increase in recycling process of water for reusing it.

2.4.2 Process Related • Lot of textile process of pretreatment and after treatment have been combined, like bleaching and scouring to reduce the consumption of water eventually saving the energy. It also reduces the number of process. • New dyeing process like cold pad wash has been used for energy conservation. • Continuous processing of knits. • Decreasing the number of process before dry finishing. Increase in the usage of more dry finishing techniques. • Foam dyeing, finishing, and coating. • Installing stringent quality parameter so that dyeing is completed right at the first time. Rather using hit and trial method.

2.4.3 Chemicals and Dyes • Leading enzymes suppliers are developing a biodegradable enzyme which readily dissolves in the process of softening and gradually washed off. It also reduces consumption of water. • New technique of salt free dyeing of cotton with reactive and direct dyes have been developed and used. • High fixation reactive dyeing with reduced salt for exhaustion. • Usage of digital inkjet printing in printing process. • Low-temperature curing pigment printing.

2.4.4 Wastewater Treatment • Use of physical, biological, and activated carbon systems. • Now, the sludge generated from the wastewater treatment has been used as fuel.

Textile and Fashion Wastages’ Challenges   31

2.5 Conclusions In the last few years, the linear-based version of waste management and usage has become a significant drawback to the trend and textile businesses. Thus, it is a clear end-to-end limit as much as possible. You will find more than sufficient motive that’s led to it, out of the throw off attitude of manufacturers and consumer towards rapid trend, to the briefer active lifetime of their clothes, or the falling costs of clothes. This has created a much better need for trend materials or cloth in a lower disposable price. Textile manufacturing eco-hazardous process due to the newest progress of unconventional technologies which may increase the innovativeness of brand new production of fiber or even industrial methods to provide a guarantee to accomplish sustainability. On the opposing side of this coin, fresh treads are emerging circular market and, moreover, because the development of renewable fashion tendencies textile sector faces new challenges. Additionally, bigger issues could be solved according to this particular propaganda over circular economy. A change towards a circular market ought to start with waste reduction as well as the minimization of wastage sorting, powerful recycling, soil filled waste, and merchandise design.

References 1. Koszewska, M., Circular economy—Challenges for the textile and clothing industry. Autex Res. J., 18, 4, 337–347, 2018. 2. Danigelis, A., Retailers bank on environmentally friendly clothing for increased sales, in: Environmental Leader, Business Sector Media LLC, USA, 2017. 3. Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Towards the circular economy. J. Indust. Ecol., Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2, 23–44, 2012. 4. Ellen MacArthur Foundation, A New Textiles Economy: Redesigning fashion future, Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017. Recuperado de: https://www. ellenmacarthurfoundation. org/assets/downloads/publications/A-New-Textiles-​ Economy_Full-Report. pdf. Fecha de acceso, 5. 5. Dahlbo, H., Aalto, K., Eskelinen, H., Salmenperä, H., Increasing textile circulation-consequences and requirements. Sustainable Prod. Consumption, 9, 44, 2017. 6. Claudio, L., Waste couture: Environmental impact of the clothing industry. Environ. Health Perspect., 115, 449, 2007. 7. Blackburn, R. ed., Sustainable Apparel: Production, Processing and Recycling. Woodhead Publishing, 2015. 8. Dahlbo, H., Aalto, K., Eskelinen, H. and Salmenperä, H., Increasing textile circulation-consequences and requirements. Sustainable production and consumption, 9, pp. 44–57, 2014.

32  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 9. Black, S. (Ed.), The Sustainable Fashion Handbook, p. 259, Thames & Hudson, London, 2012. 10. Resta, B., Gaiardelli, P., Pinto, R., Dotti, S., Enhancing environmental management in the textilesector: An organisational-life cycle assessment approach. J. Cleaner Prod., 135, 620, 2016. 11. Prieto-Sandoval, V., Jaca, C., Ormazabal, M., Towards a consensus on the circular economy. J. Cleaner Prod., 179, 605, 2018. 12. De Paoli, A., 2015. Towards the circular economy: Identifying local and regional government policies for developing a circular economy in the fashion and textiles sector in Vancouver. Canada. [verkkodokumentti][viitattu 4.7. 2016.2016] Saatavilla: http://www. vancouvereconomic. com/wp-content/ uploads/2016/04/Textiles_policyreport. pdf. 13. Agrawal, Y., Barhanpurka, S., Joshi, A., Recycle textiles waste. Textile Review magazine, Fiber2fashion, 2013. 14. Bell, N. C., Lee, P., Riley, K. S., Slater, S., S., Tackling problematic textile waste streams, in: RESYNTEX, 2018. RESYNTEX online document: http://www. resyntex. eu. (Accessed 26 July 2018). 15. Vadicherla, T., Saravanan, D., Ram, M.M. and Suganya, K., Fashion renovation via upcycling. In Textiles and Clothing Sustainability, pp. 1–54. Springer, Singapore. 16. Radhakrishnan, S., Denim recycling, in: Textiles and Clothing Sustainability, S.S. Muthu (Ed.), p. 79, Springer, Singapore, 2017. 17. Weetman, C., A Circular Economy Handbook for Business and Supply Chains, Kogan Page, London, 2017. 18. Gullingsrud, A. and Perkkins, L., Designing for the circular economy: Cradle to Cradle®design, in: Sustainable Fashion What’s Next?, J. Hethorn and C. Ulasewicz (Eds.), p. 293, Bloomsbury, New York, 2015. 19. Twigger, A., Shifting perceptions: The Reknit revolution, in: Centre for Circular Design Circular Transitions, p. 57, University of the Arts of London, London, 2016. 20. Hussain, T., 2018. Re-fashioning the garment industry: Exploring innovations for a circular economy. Clothing Cultures, 5, 1, pp. 61–86. 21. Fletcher, K. and Grose, L., Gestionar la Sostenibilidaden la Moda. Diseñar para Cambiar, Blume, Barcelona, 2012. 22. Mikerina, D., Re-thinking the place of semiotics in Fashion Studies, in: Fashion on the Move: Rethinking Design, A. Urgelles Molina (Eds.), p. 31, Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, 2016. 23. Niinimäki, K., Fashion in a circular economy, Sustainability in Fashion, p. 151, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2017. 24. Wheeler, A., Textile recycling in the UK, in: The Sustainable Fashion Handbook, S. Black (Ed.), Thames & Hudson, London, 2012. 25. Payne, A., Open- and closed-loop recycling of textile and apparel products, in: Handbook of lifecycle assessment (LCA) of textiles and clothing, p. 103–123, Woodhead Publishing, 2015. 26 Schwab, K. and Sala-i-Martín, X., The global competitiveness report 2013– 2014: Full data edition. World Economic Forum, 2016.

3 Solutions for Sustainable Fashion and Textile Industry Ritu Pandey1*, Pintu Pandit2, Suruchi Pandey3 and Sarika Mishra4 Department of Textiles and Clothing, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, India 2 National Institute of Fashion Technology, Department of Textile Design, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Mithapur Farms, Patna, India 3 Symbiosis Institute of Management Studies, Symbiosis International University, Pune, India 4 Ramnivas Mahavidyalay, Chhatrapati Shahuji Maharaj Univesity, Department of Home Science, Kanpur, India 1

Abstract

Sustainable fashion practices are pro-environment and contribute to reduction in the environmental impact associated with its production, usage, and disposal compared with other conventional practices and products. Sustainable fashion industry offers products with high potential for saving energy, natural, and non-renewable resources. Eco-fashion characteristics are determined by renewability of the raw materials, ecological footprints of the resources, and amount of chemicals required to process textiles. Eco-fashion textiles meet the environmental and quality criteria with suitability for recycling and biodegradability of the material and thus reduce the amount of chemicals dumped into the eco-­system. This chapter deals with the growing needs and ever emerging current eco-friendly solutions for fashion and textile industries. The outline of this chapter contains sustainable fashion and textile industry and green solutions including eco-innovation, eco-selection, effluent treatment, eco-labelling, utilization of textile wastes, reuse and prevalent recycling practices. International regulations governing recycling laws are also described. Keywords:  Sustainable fibers, eco-innovations, sustainability, textile manufacturing, green solutions, waste utilization *Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (33–72) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

33

34  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

3.1 Introduction Sustainable textiles are greener than conventional products with the same functionality and characteristics such as recyclability and resource saving. Sustainable fashion and textile industry contribute to environmental safety and conservation of nature [1, 2]. As a concrete step to promote the sustainability in all dimensions, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) leaders adopted vision statement on partnership for sustainability for not only human security but also economic growth, stability, and prosperity. ASEAN, 2019 in Bangkok also recognized sustainability initiative by the ASEAN vision 2025 and the UN 2030 Agenda for sustainable development to benefit people of the region [3]. Until last century, all the

Garments Geotextiles Agrotextiles Green solutions Sustainable Fashion industry

Textile industry

Recycle

Reuse

Eco-innovation

Eco-selection

Fabric reconstruction

Restyling Upcycling of Used garment circulation

Reduction

Reuse and recycle

Household rags Water

Fabric shredding

Clothing rental

Disposal

By-Products utilization

Wastewater treatment

Sludge Treatment Stabilization

Physical Filtration Sedimentation Gravity Separation Centrifugation Floatation Equalization Precipitation Adsorption Cavigulation

Conditioning

Chemical Neutralization Oxidation Reduction Hydrolysis Electrical Catalytic oxidation Ozonolysis Ion exchange Electrochemical

Chemical

Dewatering

Biological Aerobic Digestion Anaerobic Digestion Plant Absorption Percolation Filters Bio scrubbers Biofiltration Bioaugmentation with microbes Immobilized microbes

Figure 3.1  Green solutions for fashion and textile industry [4, 5].

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  35 textile materials, their processing, and coloring was being done by natural raw materials and finest clothing was produced using natural fibers by employing hand spinning, weaving, crocheting, and knitting techniques. Such practices were helpful not only in saving the environment but also harmless to the skin. The art of synthetic textiles and dyeing, despite being only a century old, has captured the global textile market in a huge way that survival of already existing sustainable textile practices became extinct in larger parts of the world [6]. Some of the age-old sustainable textile practices survived due to individual efforts and through government support for the preservation of cultural heritage and art. As a result, we have sustainable pina, banana, ramie, hemp, lotus, bamboo, yak, and camelid fabrics available in selected niche market. Currently, global textile market has emerged into $1 trillion consisting of clothing, furnishing, domestics, and technical textiles [7]. Recycling textile is also an evolving industry having edge over textile industry as it is less polluting, requires less energy and water consumption, and saves virgin fibers, landfill space, and dye. Eco-selection of raw materials together with seven R’s, namely, reduce, reuse, restyle, repair, rent, recycle, and reprocessing, together make an effective strategy for sustainable fashion and textile industry as shown in Figure 3.1. Recycling and reprocessing of pre- and post-consumer textile waste will contribute to achieve zero waste circulation in the planet.

3.2 Sustainable Fashion Industry and Green Solutions Growing textile markets in the present scenario compulsorily demand to address consumer and environment rather focusing only on production for the benefit of consumers as well as planet [8]. It is reported that most important single factor which affect the environment is the choice of textile raw materials and non-polluting processing at every step [9]. Therefore, affordable skin-friendly textiles for all should be motto of the production industries by using eco-materials involving eco-friendly processing technology. Considering the skin-friendliness and environmental advantages of sustainable raw materials, Levi’s plan to launch cottonized hemp denims by next 5 years [10]. Hand weaving, natural dyeing, crocheting, embroidery, lace making, etc., are pollution free techniques for fabric construction and embellishments. Such traditional practices are valuable as they generate employment, save energy, and have no adverse effect on nature. Sustainability solutions address the environmental and social problems caused by fashion and textile industry.

36  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

3.2.1 Sustainable Textile Fibers Eco-materials and a few eco-designers promoting slow-fashion in the present aggressive consumer market are listed in Figure 3.2 and Table 3.1, respectively. Common natural fibers with their sources is briefly described. Cellulosic fibers: Organic plant fibers are environment friendly with considerably smaller ecological footprints than that of other fibers. This group consists of large number of diverse fibers known for their distinctive characteristics. Cellulose content, physical properties, and extraction procedure of lignocellulosic fibers determine their surface morphology and application for various purposes [11, 12]. Protein fibers: Protein fibers derived from animal hairs and insects are one of the wonderful resources produced by caring farmers. Silk worms are not killed during manufacturing of peace silk. Melange spun silk developed from the silk production processing waste is utilized for various diversified applications. Mineral fibers: Naturally occurring mineral fiber asbestos is valued for its flame retardancy and used for curtain and furnishings in industries where inflammable materials are handled or manufactured. Regenerated fibers: Fibers under this class are sourced from plant cellulose, grains, and milk protein. Recycled fibers: Recycled fibers are one of the most emerging classes of fibers utilizing the used textiles and plastic bottles. Recycling prevents the huge quantity of used textiles and plastic bottles from being discarded into landfill. Around 70 million barrels of oil is used every year to produce polyester fiber, causing water pollution and CO2 emissions. Therefore, recycling of used polyester fabrics and plastic bottles is more preferable option to manufacturing new petroleum-based fibers [13, 14].

3.2.2 Reuse Companies marketing used clothing are hidden giants in terms of positive economic impact by saving raw materials and energy used in manufacturing plants. Reuse is a key to realize sustainable society as it increase fabric use as such or by restyling it for similar or various purposes. In the past, used clothing was largely recognized as materials to be donated for charity. But over the years, used clothing recycling and upcycling has become a profitable business worldwide. About 45% of the used textiles collected by reuse merchandiser are sold as secondhand garments, whereas 30% is utilized as wiping cloth for industrial, automobile, and domestic uses [5]. Around 5% unusable textile material is shredded into fibers again for filling

Stem

Leaves

Insert/ rare species Peace silk, Tussah Wild golden silk Camphor silk Spider silk Wolf spider Byssal Mink Ermine Shahtoosh (Antelope) Modal, Kevlar, Orange Cocona, 37.5

Rayon, Viscose, Cupramonium Acetate, Triacetate Tencel, Layocell, Spinnova

Cellulosic

Protein fibers

Pineapple Corn husk Sisal Typha Sansevieria Mendong

Figure 3.2  Eco-friendly textile materials.

Animal Wool Pashmina Vicuna Camel Llama Yak Rabbit Alpaca Kombucha

Cotton Flax, Quinoa, Canola Kapok Jute, Hemp, Roselle Bamboo, Moonj Coconut Palm Sun Hemp, Nettle Ramie, Okra Milkweed Lotus Oleander

Seed

Cellulosic fibers

Casein Qmilch Vicara Ingeo

Protein Basalt Ceramic Glass fiber

Minerals

Regenerated fibers

Eco-friendly Textile Materials

ECO2Cotton Martex Evrnu Melange Lenzing Eco Vero

Ocean waste/ Pet bottles

Mipan regen EcoAlf EcoSmart Ecocircle Regen

Synthetic waste

Natural fiber waste SeaQual EcoAlf Econyl Nike Camtex REPREVE FORTREL, R Elan ECOUSE

Recycled fibers/yarn/apparel/ brand/company

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  37

38  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Table 3.1  Eco-designers carrying the legacy of sustainable textile production and dissemination. Brand/label/studio

Designer/owner

Working on/speciality

Patan Patola

Salvi brothers

Patola (double ikat) heritage since 11th CE, use of sustainable fiber and dye

EO

Edric Ong

Hand weaving, hand printing, batik, ikat, eco-material, natural dye, tie & dye

Merdi

Merdi Sihombing

Hand weaving, ikat, natural dye from marine plants

Samatoa

Awen Delaval

Sustainable textiles including lotus textiles

Bashoufu

Taira Toshiko

Banana fiber cloth

Neel

Neil Lee

Natural indigo dye, Batik, shibori technique

Gondwana Color

Susan Fell Mclean

Textile artist, plant dye, tie & dye

Sutra

Amrita Mukerji

Sustainable dye production and application

Kim Ji-hee

Natural dye

Ajrakh

Abdul Jabbar Khatri

Azarkh printing, natural dye on fabric

Threads of Life

Balinese artists

Textile motifs, rituals, culture, weaving, sustainable processing, dyeing and care

Living blue

CARE Bangladesh

Indigo dyeing, Kantha embroidery

Creative Bee

Bina Rao

Kalamkari, dye from plant sources

Grassroot

Anita Dogre

Sustainable raw materials

From Somewhere

Orsola de Castro

High-end upcycled textiles (Continued)

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  39 Table 3.1  Eco-designers carrying the legacy of sustainable textile production and dissemination. (Continued) Brand/label/studio

Designer/owner

Working on/speciality

Asif

Asif Shaikh

Finest aari work (hand embroidery) on sustainable materials

Aranya Naturals

Victoria Vijayakumar

Natural dye on textiles, tie & dye

Indigo

Jenny Balfour Paul

Projects on revival of natural dye

Kasuri dyeworks

Yoshiko Wada

Naturally dyed textiles, tie and dye

Hong Silk

Sophie Hong

Sustainable material and dye

Aranya

Ruby Ghuznavi

Sustainable and cost-effective dye, Kantha

Osklen

Oskar Metsavaht

Organic cotton, environmentally-friendly fabrics (e-fabrics)

Adiv pure nature

Rupa Trivedi

Use of discarded temple flowers for dyeing textiles

The Colors of Nature

Jesus Cirizia Larraona

Organic textiles, naturally colored denims

Kit Sunn Yin workshop

Women group

Local handicrafts, lotus cultivation in Inle lake, lotus fiber spinning, and weaving

in mattresses or remanufactured into yarn and fabrics. Three categories of reuse businesses, viz., restyling, used and upcycled garment circulation, and clothing rental, are commonly recognized.

3.2.3 Restyling Many tailors and boutiques specialize in converting old garments and fabrics by re-cutting and embellishment into new and useful products. Junky from UK is a popular brand providing services of wardrobe surgery and

40  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles twisting the old garments to give new life [15, 16]. Reworking of various textile materials and some common reasons for restyling are presented in Table 3.2. Common reasons for restyling include edge abrasion, thread puckering, pilling, burning, staining, and fading in certain areas making the garment unattractive. Old exquisite and casual Indian sarees measuring Table 3.2  Textile restyling practices prevalent for garments and accessories. Textile materials

Restyled garments/accessories

Reasons for restyling

Saree

Lehenga, skirt, salwar-kameez, long dresses (Fig), scarves, yokes, decorative patches, sash (stoles), patchwork quilt using kantha embroidery, handbag, vanity case, braided rope, dolls, figurines

Edge abrasion at hemline, thread puckering, pilling, over-used, burnt while ironing, color staining

Ladies kameez/ shirt

Sleeveless top, apron, shopping bags, saree cover, bamboo fan cover, applique work on dress, wall hanging and furnishing

Worn out, fading, color bleeding, pilling

Trousers

Altered to make trousers by grading into smaller size, cosmetic bags, trendy skirt (Fig)

Worn out, hot iron marks

T-shirt

Bags of different sizes and styles

Stains, laddering, burn marks, fading

Bed sheets

Flared outfit, several old sheets layered and punched to make attractive articles of book wrap, hand bag, patchwork quilt, diwan cover, rugs, duvet, vanity bag

Ripped, worn out, pilling

Curtain

Cushion covers, upholstery covers

Fading, puckering of the thread

Stockings

Doormats, rugs, artificial flowers, small leggings for kids

Laddering, snagging, Miss-shaped edges

Dupatta

Saree cover, shrugs, scarf, decorative rope, artificial flowers

Color bleeding, moth/silverfish infested holes

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  41 five and a half meters are transformed into customized designer lehenga, salwar-kameez dresses, and sash. New garment is also made out by parts of old sarees cut into design pieces and sewn into new garment using applique technique. Decorative laces, bows, belt, and embroidered embellishment are largely used to recreate the new look of retro garment. Over used fabrics and garments are also given makeover sometimes to crank up one’s creativity and give old garment a fresh look in terms of style and design before redonning.

3.2.4 Used and Upcycled Garment Circulation Businesses Upcycling is a design solution to environmental problems says fashion designer Orsola de Castro, who runs a sustainable fashion brand from used garment shops. Used garments are the reality of today’s flourishing market and must be encouraged to safeguard our precious natural resources [7]. Huge environmental benefits of textile upcycling can be understood by the fact that, 1 kg of textile waste upcycling saves not only 20,000 L of water but also prevents 20 kg of CO2 emission in the environment [17]. About 60% of the collected used textile is exported to several African countries [18]. Some of the leading companies utilizing the used clothing for resale, upcycling and textile manufacturing are listed in Table 3.3. Companies involved in used garment trade generally own a team of expert quality management professionals and technicians to grade the used garments. Traid, a UK-based unit, deals in merchandising of donated cloth after surface embellishment. Garments are enriched with the use of embroidery, crochet, appliqué work, printing, and dyeing. The items are sold online and retail both way with list ranging from dress, shirts, necktie, handkerchiefs, scarves, jackets, pants, shoes, and blankets. Organized household clothing waste collection system may obviate the obstacles in the way of reuse business possibilities.

3.2.5 Clothing Rental Global acceptance of fast fashion and single use disposable fashion clothing is a dangerous trend for the already depleting environment [14]. According to Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP), average household of UK spend £4,000 annually on clothing and 30% of average wardrobe is not worn in a year. Unused garments donated for charity, ultimately end up in fashion stores again [19]. Therefore, clothing on rent for certain occasion is a good option for consumers rather than stuffing the wardrobe due to impulse buying. An old and common practice during school functions is

Jackets, shoes, fabric made of discarded fishing nets, tyres, pet bottles

Apparels, shoes, bags

Used summer clothes (Price: 1 USD)

Used clothes (Price: 0.75 USD)

Used clothing in bales (Price: 0.59 USD)

Ecoalf

DAEYOUN

Luancheng District Yaol Clothes Factory

Trend world Enterprises

Fh Deniel Sass

0.59 USD per cloth

0.75 USD per cloth

1 USD per cloth

5.0

7.24

209

1.5

Trash to fleece, reprocessing of waste textiles, recycled wool products, cutting room scrap

Old clothing and shoes

1971 Associates LLc

3

Patagonia

Clothes

Komehyo

3

11.8

Clothes

For You

Annual sales (M USD)

Beyond retro

Trade goods supply

Company

Table 3.3  Leading enterprises engaged in marketing of used garments.

Warszawa, Poland

Kowloon, Hong Kong

Shijiazhuang, China

Busan, South Korea

Spain

USA

UK

Sanford, Florida

Japan

Japan

Country

42  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  43 to rent the fancy and exquisite dresses by children for one time use during dance and drama performances. Many Indian brides also rent the precious wedding costumes and jewelleries to don during wedding at a price of 10% of the actual costume (saree, lehenga) cost. Exquisite traditional outfits are also rented for pre-wedding photo shoots in several countries. This practice is now accepted by leading fashion designers to rent their exquisite high-end clothing, formal wears, and accessories to fashion lovers. The advantages of clothing rental are saving money and space in wardrobe. Rental clothing during certain physiological life stages like in pregnancy is a good borrow for temporary period. Similarly, children grow so fast that expensive kids costume on rent for certain occasions is a wise experiment. The cost of the rental clothing is a fraction of the retail price and if the customer wants to keep the dress or accessories with them, they can pay the retail price to own the dress. Since luxurious designer pieces are required for special occasions only, it’s a good decision to rent and return them instead of keeping in wardrobe for rest of the days. Clothing rental concept is providing the luxurious experience to the masses through online and retail mode (Table 3.4). Table 3.4  Clothing rental brands, designer, and garments. Brands/company

Designer

Clothing items

Avelle

Lloyd Lapidus and Greg Pippo

Fashion garments and accessories

Rent the runway

Jennifer Hyman and Jenny Fleiss

Luxurious clothing for members only (Price: 10% of retail price)

Belly bump boutique

Julie Ann Christoi Siksa

Maternity formal clothing

Borrow Mini Couture

Heidi and Alex Leiske

children’s special occasion clothing

Flyrobe

Shreya Mishra, Pranay Surana and Tushar Saxena

Branded and designer outfits for wedding, parties, etc.

Bridezilla (wedding blog)

Bridal site (WordPress blog)

Wedding rentals (Dress, theme, accessories, Hall, furnishing, décor)

44  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

3.3 Recyclable Used Clothing Recycling of post-consumer textiles is the process to redesign fabric waste that cannot be reused. Garments, upholstery, display hoardings, and furnishing fabric recycling not only reduce environmental burden but also increase profit margin in terms of saving energy, raw materials (85%), and cost (40%). As per UK industry report, 50% of used garments are recycled. Leather and textile waste disposal in UK (2015) are 30% of the total municipal solid waste composition involving issues such as limited land area [5]. Even though 100% textile is recyclable, a total of 16 million tons of textile waste is generated in United States every year. Out of this only 2.62 million tons was recycled, whereas, 10.46 million tons ended up in landfills. Besides, textile recycle industries of United States extract every year almost 2.5 billion pounds of discarded used textiles from the waste stream generating around 17000 employment opportunities [7]. Several private players, like kapadawala.com, collect household textile waste directly from home and supply to various industries including automobiles industry for use as wiping cloth. Materials are broadly segregated in natural and manmade as per fabric components as well as stage of recycling and color for ease of utilizing in different sectors. Recycled textile waste is economical and based on quality; the material is categorized and utilized after small repair of the cloth or sent for wiping (20%), upcycling, recycling, reconstruction, and other such uses (26%). About 90% footwear from Terra Plana and Anti-apathy is made from recycled clothing and furnishing. Recycling and recovery rate of material are quantified as per ISO 22628 and under EU WEEE directives:





Recycle  rate =

Recovery  rate =

()

()

Total  mass  of   1 Reuse + 2 Material  recycle Collected   product  mass  

()

()

()

×  100

Total  mass  of   1 Reuse + 2 Material  recycle + 3 Energy  ecovery Collected   product  mass 

×  100

Several measures have been suggested to overcome waste generation including reuse, recycle, upcycle, recovery, and reconstruction process in apparel manufacturing units [20]. Recycling would be easier if textile cut piece waste is sorted into natural and synthetic fabrics. Instead of dumping old worn-out textile pieces along with household waste, discarded clothing materials can be utilized in fabric reconstruction, manufacturing household rags, and fabric reprocessing.

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  45

3.3.1 Fabric Reconstruction Fabric reconstruction provides higher recycle and recovery rate as compared to fabric shredding for re-spinning mechanically or re-spinneret chemically. Old fabrics including apparels, denims, bed sheets, and socks are cut into stripes and converted into rugs for household uses by employing handloom weaving, hand knitting, braiding, and knotting techniques. Worn-out unused cotton and linen clothing make a soft, absorbent diaper and dust cloth. Old hessian and sack cloth can be used in agro-textiles as seedling sleeve and for mulching applications. Tailor house generated cut pieces of fresh materials are used as filling material as well as for bags, applique work, and decorative pieces.

3.3.2 Household Rags Due to lack of any separate regulations for household textile waste disposal, large amount of worn-out textile materials usually goes to landfill together with other household waste causing overflow of landfill. However, in many countries, large amount of dumped household waste is segregated into paper, fabric, plastics, and metal pieces by independent rag collectors. Collected items are supplied to secondhand scrap shops, workshops, or small fabrication units for creative projects or reprocessing. WRAP, UK study, shows average expenditure on clothing in UK is £44bn, out of which, clothing worth £140m goes to landfill [19]. Japanese company JEPLAN has developed bioethanol from the discarded cotton clothing. The bioethanol so produced is being sold as ethanol heavy fuel and is being used in a boiler of a dyeing plant in the city of Imabari, Japan [21, 22]. Large waste management facility like H-Power (Covanta Honolulu Resource Recovery Venture) in Hawaii (Figure 3.3) removes glass, dirt, sand, and metals present in the trash through sifts and electromagnets. The remaining garbage along with textile materials is incinerated to provide renewable electricity sufficient to 60,000 Hawaiian homes and thereby saving the landfill space and reducing dependence on precious oil [23, 24]. In United States alone 3.14 million tons of clothing waste was incinerated for energy use in the year 2014, whereas, 10.46 million tons landed in landfill [7].

3.3.3 Fabric Reprocessing Pre- and post-consumer waste fabric reprocessing has large environmental benefits. It restores the discarded products giving it a new life, look, and usefulness [15]. Fabric shredding to convert the fabric waste into smaller unit is done by either cloth manufacturing industry itself to utilize the factory waste or by the independent remanufacturers who handles household fabric waste. Shredding machine unravels waste, torn, scrap

46  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 3.3  H-Power waste to energy plant at Hawaii. (a) Automated conveyer belt carrying trash; (b) Trash collected for combustion; (c) Trash combustion viewed through large screens; (d) Ash collected is safe and being studied for reuse.

from tailoring shops, and unusable household fabrics into smaller units. Segregation of waste textile materials based on its composition prior to shredding obviates the discomfort in handling fibers post-shredding. Shredded fabric pieces are mainly used for filling materials, insulation, padding mattresses, furniture cushions, or re-spun. A major breakthrough in utilization of old textiles is manufacturing of dye pigments from shredded denims [25]. Reprocessing of textiles by re-spinning or felting involves energy requirements based on fiber quality and constituents.

3.4 Obstacles of Fashion Reuse Businesses 3.4.1 Quality Parameters Quality and awareness about used clothing is one of the main concerns for its popularity. Mass acceptance of old and used cloth purchasing practice is lacking in many countries due to non-availability of standards and awareness regarding its environmental benefits. Low quality of reuse clothing is a big issue for consumers. To resolve this problem, quality parameters and standards for used clothing have to be established. During natural calamities, food and clothing items are the first to be provided in the affected area.

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  47 Quality assurance of used clothing being donated for charity will ensure improved serviceability and satisfaction to both the donor and the receiver. Inclusion of sustainable textile practices in the syllabus of environmental studies is important to make the people aware of its benefits.

3.4.2 Government Regulations In some countries, government regulations are halting the streamlining of used clothing supply chain. Promotion of local textile manufacturing business in the East African nations has forced their government to bring out policies to ban import of used textiles. Even though China was the fifth largest importing country of used textiles in the world, they too have banned the reuse of textiles in their county at the cost of rising environmental pollution.

3.5 Solutions for Sustainable Textile Industry Sustainable solution for the textile industry is to integrate environmental aspects from obtaining raw materials till its disposal and its further use as a raw material for the new product. Textile industry is one of the most polluting industries emitting 1.2 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent per year [26]. About 10% carbon emission in the world is through textile industry and it is also the second biggest polluter of the ecosystem next to oil industry [14]. It is classified into cotton, woolen, and synthetic fiber sector. The pre-treatment, coloration, and post-production processing treatment of these fibers and fabrics usually require large amount of water and a variety of chemicals. Several ways have been used to reduce waste during the production since the waste is generated in all the steps including carding, spinning, weaving, and finishing of textiles. The environmental problems associated with these processes are also related to water pollution caused by discharge of untreated effluents, thus harming the ecological balance. If the pollution is organic in nature, then it is relatively harmless. If it is bio-degradable then it is suitable for biological treatment. If it is difficult to biodegrade, then physical and chemical treatment system is required. Dyestuffs and polymers are generally difficult to biodegrade and thus unsuitable for conventional biological treatment. Therefore, a textile factory’s effluent treatment system may be a combination of techniques because of complex and changing nature of the textile waste and effluent. It also pertains to proactive management that prevents production loss as well as minimizes environmental impact. In the present scenario, environment friendly textile is valued as it reduces environmental burden to the society (Figure 3.4).

48  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Raw material- production- use- waste- collectionRemanufacturing, reuse, recycle Nature

Disposal

Figure 3.4  Textile manufacturing system.

3.5.1 Environmental Problems Relating to Production and Processing of Textile Fibers Many sustainable raw materials like cotton also cause health problems due to floating cotton microfibers in the cotton textile industry. Around 2 million cases of byssinosis and cough have been reported among the employees of textile and cotton industry. Similarly, fine fibers of asbestos choke the respiratory tract and lungs causing asbestosis [27]. Synthetic fibers and dyes cause skin and health problems to the wearer and are non-biodegradable in nature. Water is used extensively throughout textile processing operation but water scarcity and water pollution pose a critical challenge in many developing countries. The textile industries use synthetic organic dyes like acid dye, direct dye, basic dye, vat dye, sulphur dye, and reactive dye. Textile wastewater includes a large variety of dyes and chemicals that make the environmental challenge for textile industry [28]. Large variety of chemicals used in bleaching and dyeing process render the effluents very complex and has become a subject of environmental concern [14]. Some chemicals, such as starch, are biodegradable, while others such as dyes are non-biodegradable. Effluents could have lower dissolved oxygen concentration that is higher values of BOD and COD. Major pollutants in textile wastewaters are high suspended solids chemicals oxygen demand, heat, color, acidity, and other soluble substances. Generally, effluent from textile processing units does not confirm to the stipulated norms. Therefore, water pollution due to discharge of liquid effluents from textile processing units on sewers, ponds, rivers, or on irrigation land poses serious threat to the environment [29]. The average water consumption per kilogram of fabric processed varies from 20 to 25 L. As a result, effluent treatment is essential before discharging the effluent into receiving bodies. Water and wastewater treatment are of paramount importance to mitigate the environmental hazards due to discharge of untreated effluents.

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  49 Textile manufacturing can produce air, water, and soil pollution, whereas laundering of textile requires the use of detergents, soaps, and auxiliaries that pollute ground water. Several small and medium dye houses reported 25% to 35% dye absorption by the textiles while rest is discarded in the ecosystem [4]. The dye escaped in treated water even at 5% concentration contributes adversely to the local ecology. Almost all the synthetic dyes are non-biodegradable and their use and disposal has become a menace to the health and ecosystem. Recycling of polymers or synthesis of biodegradable polymers are the two ways to combat this situation. Home laundering is draining out not only large amount of laundry chemicals but also fiber components into water streams. According to an estimate domestic washing machine also washes off 1,900 microfibers from a single garment into the ocean through waterways. These fibers also carry the chemical imprints of the fabric to the water surface and the environment [14]. Finally, discarded textiles may create problems of waste disposal. Existing harmful chemicals used in textile industry and their green solutions are presented in Table 3.5. Several classes of synthetic dyes are considered to be allergic to skin as well as carcinogenic in nature. However, commercially available natural dyes are safer alternatives for use in textiles, food, and cosmetic industries [30]. A list of alternative safer dyes for sustainable textile industry is presented in Table 3.6. Different stages of life cycle of the textiles manufacturing and uses which impact the environment significantly are [9]: –– Selection of raw materials (fibers and chemicals) –– Production and finishing processes (eco-friendly, bio based) –– Final packing, transportation, and dissemination of the end products –– Use, care procedures—use of household detergents, dry-­ cleaning, finishes, vacuum cleaning of furnishing materials –– End of life management (end of first use), reverse logistics, and disposal of the waste textiles.

3.6 Key Points of Counter Measures for Sustainability in Textile Industry Requirements for sustainable solution in textile manufacturing industry lie in identifying the effect of textile production and processes on environment. EARTH summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 alarmed the manufacturers to adopt production processes of consumer products with

After treatment of dye Printing gums, fabric sizing

Phenol based surfactants

Pentachlorophenol

Dermatitis, liver and kidney damage, carcinogenic banned

After treatment of direct dye

Copper sulphate

Textile finishing, fixing agent

Harmful, internationally banned

Bleaching

Formaldehyde resin (Fixapret CPN) and benzidine

Skin itching, harmful

Sodium hypochlorite, chlorine

Pesticides

Pigment printing

Soil and groundwater pollution

Pesticides, fertilizers

Use in textile production & processes

Kerosene

Hazards

Chemicals used in textile industries

(Continued)

Dalton Fix N62

Low formaldehyde resin (Fixapret Eco)

Thickeners, odourless kerosene

Hydrogen peroxide

Organic manure/bio compost

Eco-friendly substitutes

Table 3.5  Harmful chemicals used in textile manufacturing and processing and their eco-friendly substitutes [1].

50  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Dyeing

Banned in Europe still used in India in household detergents Carcinogenic, internationally banned

Polyphosphates like trisodium, polyphosphate, sodium hexameta phosphate

Azo dyes, amino acid liberating groups

Heavy metals

Sequestering agents

Toxic to aquatic organisms, boosts COD

Oxalic acid

Rust stain removal

Stain removal

Ozone depletion

Solvents

Fabric care and laundering

Use in textile production & processes

Problem of biodegradation, generates toxic metabolites highly poisonous to fish

Hazards

Detergents

Chemicals used in textile industries

Natural and reactive dyes

Eco-friendly substitutes

Table 3.5  Harmful chemicals used in textile manufacturing and processing and their eco-friendly substitutes [1]. (Continued)

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  51

29,120

Violet 66

Black 24

Violet 13, 72

Orange

26,370

16,640, 42,665

1,914,690 Violet 66

Orange 102

Yellow 15

Red 4, 23, 31, 81, 120

Black 51

29,156

Orange 102

17,045, 17,990, 14,730, 17,900

Direct dye

Black

29,165, 29,160, 29,100, 27,720, 29,166

Yellow 4, 15, 23, 31, 51, 112

Red 37, 157, 191

C.I. Number

Brown 112

28,160, 25,275

Red 81, 120

Acid dye

Brown

C.I. Number

Disperse dye

Table 3.6  Safer alternatives for common dyes with C.I. number [1].

27,720

29,166

29,120

29,156

29,165, 9,160, 29,100, 28,160, 25,275

C.I. Number

Black-Iron rust, Neem bark

Brown-teak leaves, cow dung

Blue-Indigofera timctoria

Orange-Peanut testa

Yellowturmeric, Berberis aristate

Red-Lac, Annatto

Natural dye

52  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  53 minimum damage to the environment to preserve natural environment flora and fauna. Re-engineering production technology, redefine quality, re-think resources, and revive waste are 4R’s of textile industry to achieve sustainable production. Re-engineering production technology: Develop and improve pro-environment new production processes that reduce materials, energy, and cost besides causing minimum pollution and harmful effluents. Redefine quality: Invent environmentally friendly textiles that satisfy the quality required with minimum input of resources and energy. Re-think resources: Use natural, renewable, recycled, and sustainable raw materials. Revive waste: Utilize waste textiles efficiently to reuse, recycle, upcycle, reprocess into domestic fabric, technical textiles, or filling materials and contribute to reduction of the discarded waste.

3.6.1 Eco-Innovations in Textiles Sustainability is the key to innovations in textile production and processes. Development of sustainability model in textiles with cradle to cradle concept [31] is being discussed in various forums and conferences by textile experts and key players. Latest technical textile innovations promote sustainable development by replacing existing harmful textile production and processing technology that impact the environment. Environmental and health problems due to textile production, processing, effluents, care, handling, and disposal are reported in Table 3.5. Energy crisis and effluent disposal are the problems that compelled the scientists to evolve the eco-friendly and energy saving processing of the materials. Latest textile innovations and its impact in solving the existing problems are presented in Table 3.7.

3.6.2 Eco-Selection, Production, Logistics, Care, and Recycling Despite preventive measures being taken by textile manufacturing industries, CO2 emission currently reached 1.2 billion tonnes annually. Elimination of environmentally sensitive material is required to promote textiles with reduced resources, easy care, and green recycling. Eco-friendly production technology in textile industry is being given preference by global textile manufacturers and specialists to curb the pollution and harmful effluents. Selection of raw materials that help in minimizing environmental impact without compromising quality enables sustainability in textile production. Environmentally sustainable raw materials promote saving of natural resources by reduce, reuse, and recycle of resources throughout the

54  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Table 3.7  Eco-innovations in textiles to sustain environment. Textile innovation

Features/environmental solutions

Nano polymer coating

Impart functional properties such as superhydrophilicity, water and oil repellence

Easy care fabric, decrease maintenance time and cost

AirDye

Dye is transferred directly from paper to fabric

85% less energy consumption than traditional dyeing, Saves water, harmless by-products

Digital printing

Printer is used to transfer colored prints on fabric directly

95% and 75% saving of water and energy respectively as compared to traditional printing, waste minimization

Amni Soul Eco

100% recyclable, helps in quick decomposition of discarded textile

Discarded textiles get decomposed in just 3 months thus saving the landfill spaces and control pollution

Sensing T-shirts

Textile pressure sensors

Provide support and comfort to spine and body

Oedema stockings

Textile sensors which monitors accumulation of the fluid

Prevent swelling in the lower limb

EQ-Top Seismic wall paper

Strong and pliable wall panel made of interwoven glass fibers

Earthquake resistance

New life polyester yarns

100% Recycled PET bottles are used to manufacture yarn by mechanical process instead of chemical spinning

Waste reduction, recycling, upcycling, and reprocessing

Impact

(Continued)

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  55 Table 3.7  Eco-innovations in textiles to sustain environment. (Continued) Textile innovation

Features/Environmental solutions

Bio-plastic

Environmentally safe biomaterial, Natural, renewable and Bio-degradable

Check pollution problems like degradation of the packaging waste

Tech infused wearables

Infrared heat energy distributed in coats/blazers

Body warmth

Creora-eco soft elastane, Ecovero

Eco-friendly, comfort performance, lower heat setting

Energy saving, softer touch

Waterless stone washing

Jeans finishing

28% to 97% Water conserving

Foam finishing and dyeing

Fabric finishing and dyeing

Water saving

Smart tailoring

Garment parts with shape, size, color and pattern designed on it are doffed from the computerized loom and parts are stitched to form garment

70% to 80% energy saving, 15% increase in efficiency, and 50% reduction in lead time, no fabric cutting room waste generation

ECOROOM

Cold pad batch dyeing for knitted textiles

Saves water, chemical, dye, energy

Impact

production and use of textiles. Negative effects on the environment during production can be systematically shifted towards clean technology by:



Avoid > Reduce > Reuse > Recycle > Biodegrade

Sustainable raw materials are beneficial to manufacturers, employees, suppliers, consumers, health, and economy. Efficient use of textiles can be measured using equation [32]:



E=

P I 

56  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles where E is efficiency, P is performance, and I is the impact on human health and environment. Eco-selection includes not only procurement of green raw materials but also production processes, care properties, end of life followed by its reuse, upcycle, recycle before treating it as a waste. It also includes minimizing input of raw materials, energy, and toxic emissions during manufacturing. Furthermore, use of renewable materials and improvement in fabric serviceability, longevity, and material recyclability have to be ensured. Buying of recycled raw material will promote consumption of recycled textiles and encourage reprocessing of used textiles thereby working towards sustainable development and zero discharge of textile waste to the landfill. Packaging materials used for sold goods constitute about 30% of the total waste [33]. The care to be taken is that the packing material should be free from hazardous materials, reusable, recoverable, and having minimum design (ink) on it. Simple packing made by recycled colorless materials requiring minimum volume and resources is considered best and pro-environment. Individual consumers can also utilize the packing materials to solve the problem of overflowing landfill space. Japan enacted law for recycling packaging materials and containers in the year 2000. As a result, 95% of corrugated cardboards and 88% of beverage cans are being efficiently recycled in Japan [20]. Packing materials of textiles include garment boxes made of corrugated card boards, butter paper, plastic covering, and paper bags. Readymade garment’s multiple tags are also trash which is usually dashed to dustbin every time before donning new apparel. Packing materials like large corrugated hard boards have been designed to make visitors sofa, tables, toy train, trees, masks, and miscellaneous materials at a design studio of certain sustainable packaging company in Taiwan (Figure 3.5). Similarly, dumped garment tags can be converted to utilities such as cards, designer book marks, and stickers of various shapes and designs (Figure 3.5c). Easy care self-cleaning, stain guard finishes extend the end of life (EOL) of the textile. Improvement of reuse ratio will facilitate cost reduction. Easy recyclability and advance technology are required for improvement in recycling ratio. Green raw materials ensuring low carbon world for textile industries is presented in Figure 3.2. Some eco-friendly green substitutes of harmful chemicals and dyes used in textile manufacturing and processes are reported in Tables 3.5 and 3.6.

3.6.3 Textile Waste Utilization and Existing Recycling Practices Yarn and fabric cost are determined by the cost of raw materials [34]. Ever increasing cost of raw materials calls for the measures to optimize raw materials and available resources. One such possibility to reduce cost is recovery of fibers from blow room and carding waste (Table 3.8).

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  57

(a)

(b)

(c)

(e)

(d)

Figure 3.5  Reuse of packaging materials. (b) Sofa carved out of corrugated cardboards at the ambience of Pegatron, Taipei; (b–e) Corrugated cardboard table and toy train at Cheng Loong Corporation (CLC) design studio, New Taipei City; (c) Utilization of apparel tags to prepare book marks.

Table 3.8  Small spinning mill blow room and carding droppings. Raw material

Production/price

Raw material processed

10,000 t/year

Blow room and carding waste

800 t/year

Recoverable waste

360 t/year

Raw material cost

$1.32/kg

Saving on raw materials

$475,000

Utilization of recovered fibers is economical as it converts waste into useful products and saves virgin fibers [35].

3.7 Textile Waste Textile waste is largely classified as pre-consumer waste, which is generated at manufacturing stage and post-consumer waste which is discarded by downstream users. Textile and clothing industry recycle 75% of industry generated pre-consumer textile waste, whereas, only 15% of post-­ consumer waste is recycled [7]. Reclaimed pre-consumer waste is reused

58  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles in many industries such as coarse yarn, mattress, automobile upholstery, non­wovens, and paper (Table 3.9). Jute caddies are used as bio-gas [36]. Post-consumer waste is sometimes used as such or upcycled, recycled, and reused after artistic makeover.

3.8 Use of Textile Production House By-Products, Chemicals, and Water Textile manufacturing unit generates large amount of broken fiber of different lengths during textile processing generally known as pre-consumer textile waste [38]. Indian textile minister highlighted the large environmental benefits of pre-consumer silk processing waste reuse for producing Melange spun fabric, through Twitter. Central Silk Board (CSB) India developed Melange spun silk from the by-products of raw silk production process waste for diversified applications. Cotton spinning waste is utilized as filling material in quilts and duvet covers. Waste fiber from wool processing is mixed with coarse wool to manufacture blankets, shoddy wool products, doormats, toys, and carpets. Recovery and utilization of textile by-products is not only a source of additional income for manufacturers but also ensures environmental sustainability.

3.8.1 Agrotextiles Cellulosic and protein fiber processing lint is also recommended to fertilize the soil [39]. Lint is first mixed with farm waste and allowed to turn into manure. Since wool absorb moisture up to 30% of its weight so it holds the water sprinkled for irrigation and let the soil moist for longer duration. The possibility for lesser number of irrigation requirements with wool compost use is under investigation.

3.8.2 Geotextiles Nano fibers prepared from cellulosic and synthetic waste are successfully being utilized in geotextile applications. Nano fiber mulching of soil by spraying nanofiber film is considered advantageous as the textile layer on soil allow air and water permeability besides maintaining soil temperature [44].

3.8.3 Water and Chemical Recovery and Reuse in a Textile Industry In cotton processing, about 15% of process water can be reused. Synthetic textile finishing industry can re-use about 10% of its process water.

Concrete reinforcement

Synthetic

Restyled, re-embellished upcycled garments, backing cloth, bags, stuffed toys, insoles Wiping cloth, seedling sleeve, Patch work stoles, applique work on garment, bed sheet, geo-textiles, dye pigments

Biogas

Jute caddies

Used textiles, old clothing, curtains, bed sheets, bags, etc.

Paper, Web for lining sanitary napkin

Flax carding waste

Post-consumer waste

Nonwoven, carpet backing, mattress and furniture webs, insulating web, Course yarn, blended yarn, coarse fabric for carpet backing, felts, blending, agrotextiles, cloth underlining, shoe soles, napped fabric, plastic reinforcement, biocomposites, bio-fertilizer, cattle feed

Carding and spinning waste, clothing, and felting waste, noils, winding, and doubling waste, carpet mill ends, Cutting waste in clothing industry, scraps, damaged pieces

Pre-consumer waste

Application of recycled waste

Type of waste

Waste generation

Table 3.9  Waste generated in textile manufacturing facility and secondhand waste.

[25, 43]

[42]

[36]

[40, 41]

[35] [37] [38] [39]

Reference

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  59

60  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

(b)

(a)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Figure 3.6  Honouliuli wastewater treatment plant at Oahu, Hawaii. (a) Water recycling treatment facility; (b) Flow chart of RO and R1 grade recovery water; (c) Secondary effluent (d–e) flocculators.

Synthetic textile industry by-products are used to make glue and other utilities. Lanoline may be recovered via solvent extraction from wool waste and zinc from viscose rayon process waste through ion exchange, precipitation, and floatation. Grease recovered in woolen industry is sent to automobile industries. Honouliuli wastewater treatment facility (Figure 3.6), which is one of the major facilities at Hawaii, processes 26.83 million gallons of wastewater (domestic and industrial discharges) per day producing 13 million gallons of recycled water per day (FY 2019). Recycled water is used for five golf courses of Oahu island, landscape projects, agriculture, highways, boiler for processing petroleum, and cooling towers in the industry [45]. Reuse would result in reduced water consumption and wastewater volume. Recycled water is good for the environment and costs less than on the new water sources.

3.9 Textile Industry Effluent and Sludge Treatment Processes Effluent treatment is mandatory to eliminate toxic substances present in wastewater, recycling of chemicals and water and to appropriately dispose of treated effluents and sludge. A typical textile industry effluent contains pesticides, fats, oil, grease, waxes, size, enzymes, bleaching agents,

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  61 spinning oils, vegetable and protein fiber impurities, chemicals, natural pigments, salt, and metals [4]. Standards recommended for aqueous discharge are reported in Table 3.10. Effluent treatment plants (ETPs) are designed to achieve color and grease removal using dissolved air floatation (DAF) and decrease of effluent and hazardous substances discharge. Discharged effluent is finally filtered with sand filter. Effluents must meet the consents for discharge. Technology for wastewater treatment is presented in Table 3.11. Table 3.10  Standard wastewater discharges applicable for textile industry. Parameters

Standard/allowed

Temperature

Below 42°C at the point of discharge

pH

Between 5 and 9 at the point of discharge

BOD

30 mg/L to surface waters

COD

50 mg/L to surface water consented to sewer

Suspended solids

20 mg/L to surface water consented to sewer

Color

Below 1 ppm consented

Toxic substances

Restricted by legislation

Table 3.11  Technologies applicable to textile wastewater treatment [4]. Physical

Chemical

Biological

Filtration

Neutralization

Aerobic digestion

Sedimentation

Oxidation

Anaerobic digestion

Gravity separation

Reduction

Plant absorption

Centrifugation

Hydrolysis

Percolation filters

Floatation

Electrolysis

Bio scrubbers

Equalization

Catalytic oxidation

Biofiltration

Precipitation

Ozonolysis

Adsorption

Ion exchange

Cavigulation

Electrochemical

62  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

3.10 Recent Trends in Wastewater Treatment Wastewater treatment plant at Honouliuli (Figure 3.6) with primary, secondary, and tertiary level treatment facility uses biological and chemical treatments for water reclamation. The treatment produces two grades of recycled water: RO grade water, which is suitable for use in industry and R1 grade water, suitable for irrigation and landscape development (Figure 3.6b).

3.10.1 Reverse Osmosis Used extensively in Rayon industry processing wastewater. About 80% of textile dye house effluent is recovered for recycle by reverse osmosis (RO). The life of RO membrane is 2 or 3 years. Treated water quality is suitable for industrial use.

3.10.2 Electrocoagulation Electrocoagulation is a feasible process for the effluent treatment for obtaining satisfactory color removal. The treated water, after neutralization, is useful for the subsequent dying process with higher dye uptake than original sample. In case of direct dyeing, the recycled dye water, treated by electrocoagulation, can be reused several times in a dyeing cycle.

3.10.3 Activated Carbon Carpet mills are using carbon adsorption to treat and then cycle 80% of about 350 gpm of wastewater back to mill. The carbon is thermally regenerated to reactivate it and burn off the adsorbed organics to CO2 and water. No biological sludge is formed. Solid waste disposal is minimized and space is saved.

3.10.4 Chemical Precipitation Heavy metals are removed from wastewater by precipitation in various forms (carbonates, hydroxides, sulphides) at different pH values. The presence of other metals and chemicals, acids, and enzymes, etc., affects the solubility of heavy metal hydroxides and determines residual concentration value after treatment.

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  63

3.10.5 Nanofiltration Nanofiltration helps in decoloring of effluents and removal of heavy metals, spent mineral acids from effluent stream containing organic and inorganic acids or bases. Nanofiltration effectively separates the dye and concentrates it, thereby effecting a reduction on ETP load.

3.10.6 Bio-Filtration Dye effluent is treated with microorganisms, which process the toxic waste. The process helps in removing toxic textile dye waste by breaking down the chemicals using ozone treatment. The process reduces more than 80% sludge than conventional bio-filters.

3.10.7 Sludge Treatment Processing Sludge treatment process in a textile industry essentially consists of following four steps: Conditioning: addition of chemical or heat treatment to improve separation Dewatering: Separation of solids and water Stabilization: use of biological process to stabilize organic solids so they can be used as soil conditioners without hazard Reduction: Reduction of solids to a stable form by use of incineration or wet oxidation Traditional sludge conditioners use high chemical doses [29]. Use of chitosan-based flocculants for sludge conditioning improved the anaerobically sludge dewatering performance [46]. Ultimately, solids must be returned to the land. Solids removed during wastewater treatment process can also be treated for recycle or soil enhancers. Grease recovered in wool processing industry through flocculation is supplied to automobile industries. Sludge is heated and water is squeezed out of the organic matter to form a more concentrated and compressed product called bio-solid. Biosolid mixed with sludge and green waste is a good compost for landscaping and agricultural use. Biosolids provide nutrient values competing with chemical or animal derived fertilizers [47]. Many developed countries are working to process the solids into a useful product. Recycling of the solids will help to conserve dwindling landfill space.

64  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

3.11 International Framework of Environmental Standards, Regulations, and Labels for Sustainability International directives and standards for efficient use of resources and restricted chemical substance management help in achieving the goal of safe sustainable production by ensuring reuse, recycle, recoverability. Environmental regulations for small, medium, and large textile industries are required to protect the human and environmental health by minimizing the use of harmful substances. Removal of harmful substances from production cycle will ensure the safety from hazards during production, exposure, and handling. Regulations help in risk characterization and identification of the possible substitute for harmful chemical. These regulations also ensure that information regarding fabric use and care must be provided to the consumers through labelling. Following international association is working responsibly to achieve sustainable environment and promote renewable energy.

3.11.1 Global Organic Textile Standards (GOTS) GOTS certification is a universally accepted comprehensive textile standard to assure the organic status of textile raw materials from its production till it reaches the users. The advantages of this certification are manifold for the consumers such as tracking of sowing, bio-composting, harvesting details, eco-friendly manufacturing, as well as eco-labelling.

3.11.2 Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) Reach regulations are to protect the human health and environment from hazardous substances. It restricts use of harmful chemical substances and substitute substances of very high concern (SVCH) in products. REACH regulations enable the downstream users with information regarding hazardous chemicals used in the products. SVHS include prohibited harmful substances that need individual authorization for its use (Table 3.12).

3.11.3 Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA) TSCA is US Environmental Protection Agency for management of chemical substances in manufacturing and use at different sectors including

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  65 Table 3.12  Harmful SVHS chemicals used in Textile production and process. Chemicals

Effect

Boric acid

Toxic for Reproduction

Ammonium dichromate

CMR

Disodium tetraborate anhydrous

Toxic for Reproduction

Potassium dichromate

CMR

Potassium chromate

CMR

Sodium chromate

CMR

Trichloroethylene

Carcinogenic

Lead chromate

CMR

Lead chromate molybdate

CMR

Trichloroethyle

Toxic for reproduction

Sodium dichromate

CMR

Cobalt dichloride

Carcinogenic

Alkanes

PBT and vPvB

Aluminic silicate refractory ceramic fibers

Carcinogenic

Coal tar

Carcinogenic, PBT and vPvB

CMR: Carcinogenic, mutagenic and toxic for reproduction PBT: Persistent, bio-accumulative and toxic vPvB: very persistent, very bio-accumulative ED: Endocrine disruptor

agriculture and polymers. TSCA inventories were first compiled in 1979 to describe substances and guidance document.

3.11.4 Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 2050 PAS 2050 in collaboration with BSI devised methods to identify and quantify life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during product manufacturing, transportation, storage, use, recycling, and disposal. The aim of PAS 2050 is to create awareness and enable corrective measures accordingly for reduction in GHG emissions.

66  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

3.11.5 Indian Standard for Organic Textiles (ISOT) India is the largest producer of organic cotton, a desirable fiber which is in high demand in European countries and USA. Textile products made with 95% certified organic fiber (natural and devoid of GMO) and rest 5% with man-made cellulosic fibers and post-consumer recycled textiles, are labeled as organic textile material.

3.11.6 Organic Crop Improvement Association (OCIA) It is one of the first organic certification system mandated in 1985. It is a non-profit organization to certify organic cotton and other fiber yielding crop. India and Bangladesh are major cotton and jute producer. The certification and technical assistance provided by OCIA help farmers in cotton and jute export to US and Canada.

3.11.7 Government Green Procurement (GGP) in Taiwan Textiles and apparels are among the items, which are procured by the government in large amounts for offices and defence needs. GGP regulation along with resource recycling act to procure eco-friendly products in Taiwan government offices, schools, and hospitals has remarkably improved the production of eco-friendly textiles at competitive prices. CGP has demonstrated effectiveness and created demand for eco-friendly textiles. As a result, Code of Good Practice for Green Stores was developed with the technical assistance from experts. There are currently 10,000 registered Green Stores in Taiwan [48, 49]. Such a step will also effectively influence the general consumers and businesses to adopt ecofriendly textiles [49].

3.11.8 Sustainable Resolution (Su.Re) in India Su.Re project is an ambitious initiative launched by Textile minister, Govt. of India, to save the planet. It is the first time that clothing manufacturing association of India (CMAI) with 16 signatories having combined industry value of 30,000 crore rupees, pledged to use sustainable raw materials, and processes for their apparel brands. Project Su.Re aims to develop complete sustainable sourcing and a sustainable chain by the year 2025 [50].

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  67 Table 3.13  Eco-textiles: labels and certification for textiles [52, 53]. Eco-labels

Products

Company/Country

MADE IN GREEN

All forms of textiles- raw materials, semi-finished, and end products

OEKO-TEX, Germany

DETOX TO ZERO

Wastewater, sludge treatment and chemical management system in textile industry

OEKO-TEX, Germany

Leather standards

Leather garment and accessories production

OEKO-TEX (Germany)

Blue angel

Textiles and apparels

Umweltbudesamt (Germany, father of eco labels 1978)

Miljoval

Criteria for eco-friendly processing, laundry reagents and energy use

Good environmental choice (Sweden)

Coop Naturaline

Entire textile chain including pure organic cultivation and pollution tests

Eco-label from Switzerland

Eco

Eco-textiles, footwear and leather

Migros for health, environment and trade fair (Switzerland)

NF Environment

Textile & apparels

French standardisation organisation (1991)

Organic

Textiles containing 95% certified organic fiber

ISOT, India

Made with organic fiber

Textiles containing 70 to 94% organic fiber

ISOT, India

Otto versand

Clothing, home furnishing

Germany

Hessnatur

GOTS and Fair-Wear Foundation certified garments

Hess Natur

Green Cotton

Organic cotton production

Denmark (Continued)

68  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Table 3.13  Eco-textiles: labels and certification for textiles [52, 53]. (Continued) Eco-labels

Products

Company/Country

EKO-Seal

Textiles from inorganic fibers, undergarments, diapers, furnishing fabrics

Holland

Eco Mark

Fabric, reusable diapers, towels, bed linen, bags,

Korea

Green Mark

Unbleached fabric, reusable diapers, shopping bags

Taiwan

Environmental choice

Organic cotton products

Canada

Environmental labelling

Silk products

China

Eco-label

Garments and furnishing for domestic use

European countries EU-label

Nordic environmental labelling (Milijomarkt)

Organic and man-made textiles

Scandinavian countries Nordic Eco-label

AENOR Medio Ambiente

AENOR, Spain

Weiber schawan

Scandinavia

Body wholesome textiles

Textile and its effect on human skin

Denkendorf

Sticheting Milieukeur

Textiles for apparels

Netherlands

Trees

Textiles and apparels

Austria

Cleaner and greener Eco-mark

South Korea Natural and man-made textiles

India (Continued)

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  69 Table 3.13  Eco-textiles: labels and certification for textiles [52, 53]. (Continued) Eco-labels

Products

Company/Country

Eco-mark

Fresh and used Textiles, nappy from used textiles, furnishing fabrics, PET clothing, Unbleached fabrics, bags

Japan

1000

Eco management

Germany

Soil association organic standard

Organic textiles

UK

3.11.9 Eco-Labels for Sustainable Textiles Several big brands and designers are reforming the fashion industry by using organic, sustainable fibers [13]. German blue angel is the grandfather policy in ecolabelling in the world. EU Flower and Nordic Swan are applicable in several countries [51]. Eco-labels are effective in influencing the purchasing decision by consumers. Different types of ecolabelling are mandatory, voluntary, and self-declared. There are more than 50 countries promoting eco-labeling having transparent criteria and development processes (Table 3.13). Eco-labels follow international standards and are operated by public or government agencies. GGP and Green Consumption Movement are the support system for ecolabelling.

3.12 Conclusion Sustainable solutions for fashion and textile industries are a powerful tool to improve the life of not only those involved in its production, consumption, and supply chain but also nature. The aim of sustainable fashion and textile industry solution is to consider the environmental consequences throughout each stage of fabric production, processing, and garment construction along with serviceability, aestheticism, and care properties. Textile industry must innovate sustainable ways of processing textiles and must utilize eco-friendly raw materials. Large amount of textile waste discarded in landfills not only contaminant environment but also causes severe waste of resources. Waste reduction through upcycling, recycling, and other methods described in the chapter will be useful to consider waste as a raw material to create value added products. Waste textile upcycling is profitable as well as solve the environmental problem.

70  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Production and process efficiency of textile industries around the globe is dangerous for both financial and ecological efficiency of the environment. The solution lies in establishing eco-innovations and identifying eco-friendly raw materials and sustainable ways of processing, which may help in improving textile quality and energy saving. Sustainability, green procurement, and ecolabeling should be promoted by providing incentives for eco-friendly manufacturing. The present situation demands that pressure be built upon stakeholders towards activities of cleaner value chain for sustainable textile production.

References 1. Chavan, R.B., Indian textile industry – Environmental issues. IJFTR, 26, 11–21, 2001. 2. Sharma, K.D., Sustainable textile processing, in: International Conference on Textile & Clothing; Present and Future Trends, D. Das (Ed.), pp. 314–323, Textile Exchange, Washington, 2017. 3. Advancing Partnership for Sustainability, The 34th ASEAN Summit Bangkok, ASEAN Secretariat, Thailand, 23 June 2019. 4. Vankar, P., Textile Effluent, NCUTE Publication, New Delhi, 2002. 5. Pandit P., Nadathur, G.T., Jose, S., Upcycled and low-cost sustainable business for value- added textiles and fashion. In Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp. 95–122, Woodhead Publishing 2019. 6. Devi, A.S., Sumandini, G.P., Kumari, P.A., An overview of value chain in natural dyes, in: A Value Chain in Natural Dyes, A.S. Devi (Ed.), pp. 1–8, B.S. Publications, Hyderabad, 2014. 7. Leblance, R., Textile and garment recycling facts and figures, https://www. thebalancesmb.com/2878122, New York, 2019. 8. Guan, Z., Fabric reconstruction based on sustainable development: Take the type of fabric recycling as an example. JAH, 6, 1215, 2017. 9. Gwilt, A. and Rissanen, T., Shaping Sustainable Fashion: Changing the way we make and use clothes. Earthscan, UK, 2012. 10. Feloni, R., Levi’s found a way to make hemp feel like cotton and it could have big implications for your wardrobe, https://www.businessinsider.com. au/levis, 2019. 11. Smole, M.S., Hribernik, S., Kleinschek, S. K., Kreže, T., Plant fibers for textile and technical applications, in: Advances in Agrophysical Research, S. Grundas (Ed.) IntechOpen, Poland, 2013. 12. Pandey, R., Sinha, M.K., Dubey A., Cellulosic fibers from Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) peduncle. J. Nat. Fibers, 17, 298–309, 2020. 13. Leonas, K.K., The use of recycled fibers in fashion and home products, in: Textiles & Clothing Sustainability, S.S. Muthu (Ed.), pp. 55–77, Springer, Singapore, 2017.

Solutions for Fashion and Textile Industry  71 14. Sweeny, G., Fast fashion is the second dirtiest industry in the world, next to big oil. EcoWatch, August 17, 2015. 15. Palmer, A., Clark, H., Eicher J.B,. Old clothes, new looks: Second-hand fashion. No. 35. Berg Publishers, 2005. 16. Well Dressed: The present and future sustainability of clothing and textiles in the UK, http://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/sustainability/, 2006. 17. McDonough, W. and Braungart, M., The upcycle: Beyond sustainability— Designing for abundance. Macmillan, UK, 2013. 18. Brooks, A. and Simon, D., Unravelling the Relationships between Used-Clothing Imports and the Decline of African Clothing Industries. Dev. Change, 43, 6, 2012. 19. Rodgers, L., Where do your clothes go, BBC News, 11th Feb 2015. 20. Filho, W.L., Ellams, D., Han, S.L., Tyler, D.G., Boiten, V., Finisterra do Paco, A.M., Moora, H., Balogun, A. L., A Review of the socio-economic advantages of textile recycling. J. Clean Prod., 218, 1, pp. 10-20, 2019. 21. Ohno, T., Report: Clothing Recycling in Japan. http://www.japanfs.org/en/, 2011. 22. Jeihanipour, A., Karimi, K., Niklasson, K., Taherzade, M.J., A novel process for ethanol or biogas production from cellulose in blended-fibers waste textiles. Waste Manage., 30, 12, 2504–2509, 2010. 23. Covanta Honolulu, https://www.covanta.com/Our-Facilities/Covanta-Honolulu 24. Department of Environmental Services http://www.opala.org/solid_waste/ archive/ How_our_City_manages_our_waste.html 25. Hirsch, G., Patton, R., Hall, D., Dye removal from denim scrap with a forced circulation kier. Patent US20030056296A1, 2003. 26. The price of fast fashion. Nat. Clim. Change, 8, 1, 2018. 27. De, A.K. and De., A.K., Environmental Chemistry, New Age International Publisher, New Delhi, 2010. 28. Robinson, T., McMullan, G., Marchant, R., Nigam, P., Remediation of dyes in textile effluent: A critical review on current treatment technologies with a proposed alternative. Bioresour. Technol., 95, 1–3, 163–169, 2001. 29. Ghoreishi, S.M., and Haghighi, R., Chemical catalytic reaction and biological oxidation for treatment of non-biodegradable textile effluent. Chem. Eng. J., 77, 3, 247–255, 2003. 30. Cardon, D., Natural Dyes, Our Global Heritage of Colors, in: Textile Society of America Symposium, 12, 2010. 31. Braungart, W. and McDonough, M., Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way we Make Things USA: North Point Press, 2002. 32. Masuda, F., Current trends and issues related to Eco-design, In: Proceedings of conference on Eco-design, Taipei, 2010. 33. Evans, S., Gregory, M., Ryan, C., Bergendahl, M.N., Tan, A., Towards a sustainable industrial system: With recommendations for education, research, industry and policy. University of Cambridge, UK, 2009. 34. Recycled cotton., http://www.rieter.com/cz/rikipedia/articles/fiber-preparation/ the-blowroom/waste-management/economy-of-raw-material-utilization/, 2015.

72  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 35. Bhatia, D., Sharma, A., Malhotra, U., Recycled fibers: An overview. Int. J. Fiber Text. Res., 4, 4, 77–82, 2014. 36. Nayak, L.K., Ammayappan, L. Ray, D.P., Conversion of jute caddies (jute mill waste) into value added products: A Review. Asian J. Text., 2, 1, 1819–3358, 2012. 37. Roznev, A., Puzakova, E., Akpedeye, F., Sillstén, I., Dele, O., Ilori, O., Recycling in Textiles. HAMK University of Applied Sciences, Supply Chain Management. Finland, 2011. 38. Rabinovich, R.S., Waste Spinning. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition, 1970–1979. 39. Hossain, M.M., Waste management in spinning mills. IOSR-JESTFT, 12, 10, 01–10, 2018. 40. Korselt, E. and Thomas, A., Process for Manufacturing Yarns and Fabrics by the Special Utilization of Washed Flax Waste. US Patent 951251 A, 1910. 41. Mishra, S., Pandey, R., Singh, M.K., Development of sanitary napkin by flax carding waste as absorbent core with herbal and antimicrobial efficiency. Indian J. Sci., Environ. Technol., 5, 404–411, 2016. 42. Wang, Y., Utilization of recycled carpet waste fibers for reinforcement of concrete and soil, in: Recycling in Textiles, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, UK, 2006. 43. Bradley, J.P. and Serji, N.A., Utilization of waste fibers in stone matrix asphalt mixtures. Resour. Conserv. Recycl., 42, 3, 265–274, 2004. 44. Chang, Y., Chen, H., Francis, S., 1999. Market applications for recycled postconsumer fibers. Fam. Consum. Sci. Res. J., 27, 3, 320–340, 1999. 45. Culling, A., Wastewater reuse treatment for industrial water reuse at Hawaii WWTP. http://blog.miox.com/wastewater-reuse-treatment-for-honouliuliwwtp/, 2013. 46. Zhang, W., Wang, H., Li, L., Wang, Q., Xu, Q., Wang, D., Impact of molecular structure and charge property of chitosan-based polymers on flocculation conditioning of advanced anaerobically digested sludge for dewaterability improvement. Science of the Total Environment, 670, 98-109, 2019. 47. Babcock, R., Honolulu Membrane Bioreactor Pilot Study, Water Resources Research Centre, www.wrrc.hawaii.edu/research/project_babcock/Babcock membrane2.htm, 2003. 48. Yu, N., The policies and outcomes of promoting the product eco-design in Taiwan, in: Workshop on Eco-design, 2010. 49. The Rules and regulations of green procurement in Taiwan, https://greenliving. epa.gov.tw/Public/Eng/GreenPurchase. 50. Textiles Minister Launches Project SU.RE, A Joint Project Of CMAI And IMG Reliance, On Sustainable Fashion Day At The Lakme Fashion Week. http://indiaeducationdiary.in. 51. Kalliala, E.N., Environmental Indicators of textile products for ISO (Type III) Environmental product declaration. Autex Res. J., 3, 4, 206–218, 2003. 52. Chavan, R.B., Eco Label. https://www.slideshare.net/nega2002/eco-labels, 2011. 53. Verma, M., International environmental legislation. https://www.slideshare. net/monaverma1, 2017.

4 Opportunities of Agro and Biowaste in the Fashion Industry Seiko Jose1*, Lata Samant2, Archana Bahuguna2 and Pintu Pandit3 Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Govt. of India, Avikanagar, Rajasthan, India 2 Department of Clothing and Textiles, College of Home Science, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India 3 National Institute of Fashion Technology, Department of Textile Design, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, NIFT Campus, Mithapur Farms, Patna, India 1

Abstract

Natural resources have been used throughout ages for human use in every prospect. Increasing global awareness on environment and global competition on sustainability has established an eco-friendly production and processing a major niche for the industries. All over the world and especially for countries that do not have a large area under forests, more efforts are being made to create awareness for the utilization of natural waste resources and educate people to increase the consumption of eco-friendly products. It is important and also it has been a keys issue for the research and finding the proper solution for treatment, transfer, storage, proper waste collection, and utilization in a better and effective way for most valuable applications for green nature. Development of the agro-sector for providing viable resources has been discussed in this chapter by different research and renovation from different scientists, researchers, and professors in the existing technologies. In this chapter, following key point has been discussed in details such as agro/biowaste for textiles, classification of agro residue, application of various agro-wastes, and type of value-added products manufactured. Moreover, challenges and the issues associated with

*Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (73–100) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

73

74  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles agro-wastes for applications of different textile and fashion industries have also been discussed in this chapter. Keywords:  Agro-waste, textile, fashion, industry, environmental pollution

4.1 Introduction Agriculture is the backbone of the economy of many countries. Agro industries such as edible, construction materials, clothing, medicines, cosmetics, etc., are booming at the fast rate due to their versatile properties. Many developing countries have agriculture as there major economy to fulfill their basic needs. From food to shelter to clothing, we are completely dependent on agriculture which is giving major cause to industrialists and manufacturers to exploit the resource as much as possible, but what is happening to the waste that is left after use? These residues are the output of the production and processing of the agro-based industries. The waste obtained by the industries or the local vendor or any other sector using the agro product is either left to degrade or burnt in an open environment which is causing significant environmental problems, affecting human health, disturbing ecological chain, and degrading landfills, etc. These issues have gained the great attention of environment policymakers and researchers to effectively utilize waste into valuable products. These wastes, if used in an innovative manner will prove to be a potential resource for sustainable living and reduce environmental problems by contributing to waste disposal management. Natural resources have been used throughout ages for human use in every prospect. For textiles, basic unit is fiber, varying in the properties determine whether to use it in making fabric, nonwovens, composites, filling, or ropes, etc. In the past few decades, the choice of raw material shifted from natural to synthetic because of durability, ease of manufacturing, good strength, and yield, unaware of its slow harmful impact. Increasing global awareness on environment and global competition on sustainability have established an eco-friendly production and processing a major niche for the industries. As a result, agricultural crop residues are becoming a source of fibers due to their enormous amounts all over the world and especially for countries that do not have a large area under forests. Use of unexplored natural fibers from crop waste is not only major issues in the international scenario but are also the need of the hour in developing countries to search out a suitable approach for which separate spinning system is not widely available [1].

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  75 This situation calls for the reorientation of thoughts amidst aware customers of today’s, particularly towards the negative impact of the environment and on the process and production of the products they are using. To satisfy the need of today’s customers, industries worldwide have to modify their technology and production process in order to contribute to an environmental friendly output. This shift of customers has directed the focus of designers and manufacturers to work on bio-based resources. More efforts are being made to create awareness for the catastrophic situation and educate people to increase the consumption of eco-friendly products. So far, it is important findings that proper waste collection, storage system, treatment process, transfer, and utilization of residue in the various alternative ways are a panacea to a healthy environment. Effective utilization of agro residues will help in developing our agricultural sector and provide viable resources. More conversion of this waste requires more research and renovation in the existing technologies [2].

4.2 Agro/Biowaste for Textiles 4.2.1 Classification of Agro Residue • Field residues: Residue left after harvesting of the crop, the waste that is left after the major product from the crop is collected. A few examples are cotton stalk, straws, corn husk, etc. • Processed residue: These are the materials that are collected after the processing of the product either from industry or domestic. Examples are fruit peels, sugarcane bagasse, bran, etc. The by-products of the agricultural wastes are emerging as a potential source of the textile and manufacturing industries. These residues are used as an alternative in the various sectors for making a cleaner production. Some major residues from agro-waste which can be used in textiles are listed below: i. Cotton linters: The small fiber in the cotton seed after the removal of staple fiber is called cotton linters. It consists of 90% cellulose and resins and minerals. The high cellulose content of the cotton linter improves its strength to be used in other products [3]. ii. Cotton stalk: Fibers in the cotton stalk are held tightly because of the lignin matrix. Delignification of the cotton stalk is done to remove the fiber from the stalk. The

76  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles stalk consists of 25% bark and 75% wood by the weight of the whole stalk. The woody core contains about 42% of alpha-cellulose, 21% of lignin, 21% of pentosans, and 2 % of ash. The bark contains less lignin but more ash [4]. iii. Wheat/rice/corn straw: It is an agriculture by-product consists of dry stalk after removal of grains. The straw can be used for various purposes because of its flexibility [5, 6]. iv. Sugarcane bagasse: Fibrous mass left after extracting sugar from the sugarcane stem. It contains 45% cellulose, 33% hemicelluloses, 20% lignin with uneven, and uncontrolled fiber length. The high fiber content of bagasse makes it a sustainable fiber [7, 8]. v. Husk: Husk or hull is any protective outer covering of a seed, fruit, or vegetable such as coir, peanut, etc. [9].

4.2.2 Type of Value-Added Products Manufactured The major constituents of the agricultural remnants are cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin; besides these, they also contain waxes, salts, fat, starch, tannins, etc. Agricultural as well as the agro-industrial activities exploit a large number of lignocellulosic by-products including fruit peel, straw, stem, stalk, cobs, husk, and bagasse, etc. Such wastes are mainly composed of cellulose (35%–50%), lignin (25%–30%), and hemicellulose (25%–30%). These components are also the primary structural components of natural fiber and hence become an important yield for textile material. The agricultural by-product can be used in various textile products based on their characteristics such as extraction of fiber when meeting primary properties of fiber otherwise used in nonwovens, enzymes, etc. [10]. • Fiber: Textiles industries have been using fiber from the plant, animal sources, etc., from centuries but recently due to issues of sustainability and greener production the researchers have been looking for sustainable sources from alternative sources. Fibers like casein from milk, zein from corn, gelatin from collagen, etc., are gaining popularity [11]. • Enzymes: Certain agro-industrial wastes can be fermented and result in the valuable enzyme by encouraging microbial growth. Waste rice bran, wheat bran, and sugarcane are the abundantly available carbon source for the production of

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  77

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

enzymes. Advances in biotechnology and bioprocesses are used to produce various enzymes. Agri product has greater potential for production of food grain enzymes [12, 13]. Organic acids: Agro-wastes are enriched with sugar and carbohydrates. The nutrients and carbon available in the waste are effectively utilized for the production of an array of upgraded products. Acids like lactic acid, oxalic acid, citric acid gluconic acid, etc., are produced from tea waste, sugarcane bagasse, carrot processing waste, peels of fruits like banana, orange, and potato starch residue, and various other wastes [14, 15]. Polymers: Increasing interest in the exploitation of agro/ biowaste has attracted the interest of researchers in the preparation of bio-based polymers, such as from potato peel, cellulose, and limonene [16]. Pigments: Bio-based colorants are gaining more attention due to the carcinogenic effect of synthetic pigments. Fruit by-products have become an important source of colors and pigments, as they have high stability, biodegradability, and non-toxic effect [17, 18]. Biosorbents: Various eco-friendly biosorbent is used in textile industries for the removal of dyes from the aqueous solution. Biosorbent like wheat bran, peanut, sugarcane bagasse, rice hull, etc., are used as a substitute for activated carbon in wastewater treatment from dye industries [19, 20]. Nanofiber/Nanocrystals: Agro-waste is used as a renewable resource in many fields. Pineapple fiber is used for preparation nanocrystals. Rape, hemp, and rice husk are used for cellulose fiber extraction by removal of non-cellulosic compounds using agro-waste nanofiber/nanocrystals that are creating a new trend in textiles future [21, 22]. Sustainable products: Availing a process innovation plastics are being substituted by the products from rice/paddy straw by converting agro-residue or lignocellulosic mass into holocellulose fibers or pulps. Various recyclable and biodegradable products like tableware, toys, mats, etc., are made out of these non-usable agricultural products [23]. Packaging material: The cuticle from non-lignified parts of plants like stem, leaves, and fruits are used as packaging material. It acts as a cutin matrix and prevents the water loss, protect from pathogens, injuries, and UV rays. It is considered an idol for food packaging [24].

78  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

4.2.3 Agricultural Waste Management Approaches Managing agricultural waste has been of great concern to the scientist and policymakers due to the sustainable development and eco-friendly environment. This approach of managing waste needs technological advancement, innovative approach, and change accepting attitude. The agricultural waste management system consists of six functions as a remedial measure, i.e., generation, collection, storage, treatment, transfer, and utilization. The generation of waste from any source should be collected as per the end product to be generated. The collected product is then temporarily stored in a proper place for the required time. Treatment of the waste is done to reduce its harmful effect and increase its potential benefit and transfer the waste to be utilized for its beneficial purpose. Waste minimization is achieved by reducing unnecessary exploitation of waste products, reusing and recycling it to be consumed in a more effective way [40].

4.2.4 Challenges and Issues Associated With Agro-Wastes Due to the increasing population, interns increased the consumption of manufactured products that created a global challenge in issues of waste disposal. Given are the few issues faced in waste bio-waste management [2]. • Growing urbanization and booming economy has substantially raised the standard of living globally that has greatly accelerated waste generation. • Lack of innovative approaches, resource utilization, and unexplored potential creates a pool of problems in waste management. • Heterogeneity of the waste makes it difficult to separate them according to the composition required by the end product. • The perishability of various food/fruit waste complicates the processing of the bare material if delayed. • Planning and development issues. • Improper waste management alters the ecological system including air, water, and soil pollution causing a threat to human health. • Lack of awareness, knowledge, and innovative initiative suppress the diversified potential of the waste resource. • Primitive practices have constrained the mechanization and productivity.

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  79 • Lack of detained policy concerning the regulations on agricultural waste. • Improper mobilization of resources from rural areas to industries or research centers. • Lack of interest/involvement of stakeholders in waste management. Only a few NGOs and private industries have taken initiative.

4.3 Agro/Biowastes for Textile Manufacturing 4.3.1 Agro-Waste for Textile Application Agriculture waste management has become a great issue over time. Utilization of this waste in making various products for textile will not only help in curbing this problem but also help in increasing inclination towards organic and natural products. Various researches have confirmed the possibility of such usage. Parts of plants like roots, fruits, stem, etc., are being used (Table 4.1). With the increasing demand for conventional Table 4.1  Application of various agro-wastes. Plant part

Source

Product

Reference

Stem

Banana, Lotus, Sugarcane, Pineapple

Fabric, Polymer, Composite, Paper, Absorbent

[25–27]

Root

Madder, Turmeric

Natural Dye

[28, 29]

Fruit/seed

Peanut Husk, Chick pea Husk, Banana Peel, Jack Fruit Peel

Shoe, Absorbent, Nanofiber

[30–33]

Leaf

Pineapple Leaf 

Table Linens, Bags, Mats, Clothes, Handmade Paper

[34–37]

Stalk

Soya Hulls, Sugarcane Bagasse, Corncob Wheat Straw, Rice Bran, Wheat Bran

Enzyme, Fiber

[12, 13, 38]

Industrial waste

Orange Peel, Grape Marc, Fiber, Leather, Enzyme Sugarcane Bagasse

[39]

80  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles fiber mainly cotton, silk, and wool, there is a need to look for an alternative resource for cellulose and protein. Agriculture being the largest sector of many of the counties, tonnes of post-harvesting, and processing residues engage a large area of land for disposal or burning. This wealth can be effectively utilized for the textile industry for product diversification. Exploring a feasible application of agro residues will lead to the environment and socio-economic benefits to the farmers. Few textiles/fashion companies and stakeholders have started seeing the waste as commodities.

4.3.2 Industrial Interventions An increase in the catastrophic change in the environment has given rise to green approaches. In attaining the cleaner environment, positive economic development of industries are crucial. Industries are following antiquated laws to curtain harmful emissions in the environment. Many innovative approaches are taken by the industries and few of those are mentioned below: • Mango Material: Used natural occurring biopolymer methane to feed bacteria that can produce fully biodegradable bio-polyester fibers. After consuming methane, they produce (Polyhydroxyalkanoate) PHAs, a kind of plastic that can then be spun into thread. Clothes made from this material are biological versions of polyester. • H&M: H&M in collaboration with Puma to trial a technology that separates the polyester and cotton blends from a used fabric and also aims to separate dyes from polyester and cellulose and the recaptured raw material is then used to spin a new fabric. • VAUDE: This outdoor brand used QMILK felt, which is made of 20% cow’s milk and 80% wool. This material is used in straps, back, and hip of belt padding of backpacks and green core collection footwear. QMILK is made up of polymer from casein. • Oregon: Made jackets with 37.5 insulation and with properties like wicking, temperature, and odor control, the source used for insulation was coconut husk. The process begins with the incineration of coconut husks, the ash obtained is blended with recycled polyester, which creates combined fiber for cloth insulation.

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  81 • Ecocircle: It is a fiber produced from recycled polyester. The process is a fiber-to-fiber polyester recycling system that was developed by Teijin Fibers. It is a closed-loop recycling system for polyester products and chemical recycling processing is used. The fabrics produced from Ecocircle® are innovative and developed for use in the men’s and women’s activewear markets. • Singtex: Made first commercially available textile S-Café, which was made up of 25% coffee oil, extracts from used coffee grounds. The company offered a variety of products made of these extracts and oils including air membrane, which provides better odor control, windproof, water-resistant, and breathability. • Morden Meadow: Company is growing leather in lab using yeast fermentation using collagen. This initiative will reduce the negative impact of tanning by reducing the chemical involved and save wildlife.

4.3.3 Few Case Studies 4.3.3.1 GCA 2018 Winner: Made Bio-Textiles From Crop Waste The H&M Foundation’s annual sustainable innovation challenge, the Global Challenge Award, is to help accelerate the industry’s shift to a new circular and sustainable launch for the fashion industry. The company has invented a closed-loop system that takes the waste from crop harvests, such as oil-seed flax, hemp, sugarcane, bananas, and pineapple, and turns it into the biological fiber which can be further used in making fabric. Previous year, this award was given to Vegea, they, after investigating different agro-industrial by-product, discovered that the grape marc, the leftover skin, and stems from the wine-making process made the perfect base for technical fabric as an alternative for synthetic and animal leather. Helsinki and Bengs recycle the used fabric into fiber once again. Material is carded, spun, and turned into new clothes and reduces the step of dyeing as the material is already dyed. As the massive volume of textile is produced by the factories all over, trash left from these factories are turned into fabric. This process saves resources, arable land, and water. Living organisms like fungi, algae, weed, etc., are used to make biodegradable fabric that will degrade after wear off. Theanne Schiro’s organization used algae to create a yarn, dyed with insect shell and knitted into

82  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles apparel. A sugar (alginate) is produced from a multicellular algal seaweed, and the algal powder is changed into the water-based gel and dyed with natural color (carrot juice, insect shell etc.) and extruded into yarn. Schiros has also explored bacteria to grow cloth materials. They grew a baby size moccasin from bacteria culture, fungi, and compostable waste. The bacteria grew into the fibrous mat that filled the shoe shape mold to form footwear.

4.3.4 Designers Initiatives Due to the negative impact of agro/bio-waste disposing, designers are taking the challenge to use bio-based material. Though many innovations are still in development still many successful attempts have been implemented to make a move towards sustainability. • Tierra’s Deterra: Launched a 100% biodegradable jacket. The jackets consist of polyamide made from castor bean oil and also utilize lavalan wood padding, corozo nut buttons, and tencel thread. • Chieza: Working of methods that use bacteria secreted pigments to dye fabric. This technique will greatly reduce the use of water during dyeing. • Stacy Flynn: They launched Evrnu made by using used cotton garment waste to create a fiber having high quality. After removing the dyes and other contaminants from the cotton garments, it is made into a pulp with fiber molecules. The molecules are then recombined and extruded as a new fiber which is finer than silk and robust than cotton. • Issac Nichelson: Converted agri waste from crops like banana, pineapple, flax, sugar, and spine into fiber and remarked that agraloop is changing fabric industry towards sustainability.

4.3.5 Circular System (Waste to Usable Material) The circular system is a pioneering technique to convert agro-waste into a wearable. Moving to a circular economy lessen the consequence of a linear economy by creating a different system. A circular economy is known to be recuperative and the concepts of “reduce, reuse, and recycle,” “make/ remake,” “use/reuse,” and “repurpose.” It uses products, components, and

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  83 materials to their highest value by recovering and restoring in the technical cycle [41]. • KollerAgraloop: Agraloop biorefinery that turns crop waste into textiles. The farmers after harvesting their crop can use agraloop system to create revenue from the crop waste. • Texloop: Texloop converts textile scraps and used clothes into new fiber. It blends the fiber of any variety into new thread or fabric. • Orbital: It converts food crop waste fiber and textile waste fiber together into new yarn.

4.3.5.1 Closed-Loop Recycling Closed-loop recycling approach is to retrieve the raw material that was used to fabricate a polymer product and then reprocess it into the same product of comparable quality as that from virgin material. Closed-loop recycling is an alternative and more sustainable strategy in green production. It converts the used product back to raw materials and makes the identical product again. Biodegradable products are also a segment of the closed-loop recycling system also known as cradle-to-cradle. It emphasizes on innovative circular and regenerative technology. The concept is to use the maximum potential of waste to create a high-value product [42, 43].

4.3.6 Sustainable Future An increase in global need and environmental pollution is a driving force on the utilization of agro/biowaste as valuable products. The shift towards clean production emphasizes the sustainable use of renewable resources. Turning waste into potential is a great way of dealing with the increasing problem. Agro and biowaste are currently on a talk to use it as an alternative for many fields, considering it a futuristic sustainable material. The utilization of such resources will not only provide sustainable and economical material but also will contribute to the waste disposal management and also overcome environmental problems. Global perception about agro-industrial, biodegradable, or any kind of waste is changing rapidly in response to the need for sustainable environmental. Researchers have highlighted few ways to utilize waste in a number of ways and many studies have shown its potential implementation. The main applications of recycled wastes include biofuel production, enzyme production, fiber

84  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles extraction, bio-absorbent, organic acid isolation, pigment extraction, agricultural composting, bioactive compound production, etc. The restoration of agri wastes to valuable resources may not only provide future dimension to researchers but also edge off the current environmental challenges [44].

4.4 Agro/Biowastes for Textile Wet Processing Textile wet processing is facing challenges on the ground of environmental deterioration, as large amounts of water chemical and harmful effluent discharges from the industries. The harmful effect of these effluents has resulted in serious efforts for the sustainable growth of the environment as well as industries. To tackle this issue, many researchers have suggested the use of agro-waste as a potential resource for the treatment.

4.4.1 Importance of Agro/Biowaste to Generate Eco-Friendly Natural Dyes: Its Environmental Concerns Besides the purposeful cultivation of dye plants for the production of natural dyes, there is a much more progressive option, and that is the utilization of agro/biowaste from the food industry, forestry, and agricultural production and processing industries. There is a huge production of biological wastes, i.e., molded fruits, distillation residues, pomace, and other residual by-products from food and beverage industries which contains a large number of vegetable dyes that can be used in the fashion industry. Most of them are from fruits rich in anthocyanins (red and black currants, cherries, purple grapes) and waste from colorful vegetables containing anthocyanins or betalains (red cabbage, beetroot, red onion). Timber harvest yields a huge amount of wastes in the form of bark which is a rich source of tannins. These can serve not only as mordants but also as textile dyes because bark (e.g., oak, birch, alder, and chestnut) has the ability to dye especially natural fibers to various shades of brown color. From ancient times, the use of natural dyes is well known for coloring not only leather but also natural protein (wool, silk) and cellulosic (cotton) fibers. Natural dyes primarily produce unusual, soothing, and smooth shades in comparison with synthetic dyes. Moreover, though synthetic dyes are widespread on the market at a cheap worth and turn out a large form of colors but produce a harmful impact on humans, i.e., dermatitis, eczema, etc. [45]. The main sources of synthetic dyes are limited (oil, coal), the production and processing of synthetic dyes pollute the water and the environment by toxic wastes. On the other hand, sources of natural dye are

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  85 continually renewed in nature and therefore natural dyes evoke the idea that their production and use are clean, non-toxic, non-allergic, harmless, and eco-friendly. It is essential to remember that the use of agricultural and forestry waste products also has its own hazards. For example, the grape peel often contains high concentrations of copper, zinc, and other organic toxic substances of sprays protecting vines from pests and fungi. Also, bio­ accumulation of heavy metals, radioactive elements, and various pollutants in plants is well known. Barks of trees have this accumulation ability in relation to some metals—as evident from studies monitoring the different concentrations of radioactive cesium [46] or hexavalent chromium in oak bark, depending on the area from which the analyzed samples originated [47]. The continuous monitoring of heavy metals and other harmful substances and pollutant content would be necessary for dyeing with natural dye, and especially with the colored waste. However, the wastes generated from organic farming can be considered as free from above-said pesticides.

4.4.2 Role of the Fashion Industry in the Current Scenario and Its Relation to Natural Dyes The fashion or textile industry occupies a unique place in developing countries like India as the second largest employment generator after agriculture. Textile trade is providing one among the foremost basic desires of individuals and holds the importance of maintaining sustained growth for enhancing the quality of life. Its unlimited potential for the creation of employment opportunities in the different fields like agricultural, industrial, organized and localized sectors, and rural and urban areas, notably for ladies, are noteworthy. The outstanding growth of the textile trade led to prosperity but additionally also deteriorates environmental surroundings known as pollution. Apart from the air pollution due to chimney gases, fiber dust and noise pollution, it is the water pollution due to the discharge of liquid effluents into public sewers; inland surface water like ponds, rivers, and lakes, or irrigation land is creating a threat to the surroundings. Textile wet processing (i.e., preparation, dyeing, printing, and chemical finishing) has always been considered one of the major industrial sectors in terms of water consumption and pollution [48]. Natural dyes provide not only a wealthy and diverse source of dyes but also a revenue obligation, though viable harvesting and selling of these dye crops [49]. Several dye zone units that can be accessed from tree waste or can simply be fully grown in market gardens. In areas where synthetic

86  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles dyes, mordants (fixatives) and other additives are imported, natural dyes can therefore provide a beautiful option that is comparatively expensive. Recently, owing to global environmental awareness, there is a resurgence of increasing interest in natural dyes on natural fibers [50]. They also noted that a number of commercial dyers and tiny textile export houses have lately begun to explore the options of using natural colors for regular dyeing and textile printing to beat environmental pollution associated with synthetic coloring.

4.4.3 Sources of Natural Dyes From Various Agro/Biowastes All sources of coloring pigments and colors are the plant’s roots, nuts, and flowers that grow in our backyard. Most natural dyes come from such areas of crops that blackberries, flowers, leaves, and roots are used as another source of natural dyes by seeds, fruits, and young shoots. Color is also produced by the outside, internal bark, and core wood of trees. Some of the agro residues which can be used as a dye are given in the Table 4.2. Table 4.2  Sources of agro-wastes as a dye for textiles. Source

Color

Reference

Peanut skin

Brown

[51]

Pomegranate rind

Yellow

[52]

Turkish red pine wood dust

Brownish yellow

[53]

Henna leaves

Orange-red

[54]

Fustic wood

Yellow

[45]

Walnut bark

Brown

[55]

Safflower

Yellow

[56]

Marigold flower

Yellow

[57]

Teak leaves

Yellow

[58]

Anatto

Red

[59]

Cassia tora lac

Brown

[60]

Logwood

Black

[45]

Saffron

Yellow

[45]

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  87

4.4.4 Application of Natural Dyes in Fashion Industry Globally, the use of natural colors for textile dyeing has been mainly restricted to artisan/craftsman/cottage level dyers and printers on smallscale exporters and manufacturers managing highly valued, environmentally friendly textile manufacturing and sales. However, today, a number of commercial dyers and small fashion export houses have recently begun to explore the options of using natural colors to regularly dye and print textiles to reduce pollution [45]. The most standardized dyeing methods must be implemented without sacrificing the necessary quality of colored textiles for commercial use of natural dyes. Thus, in order to obtain bright and new colors with the finest colorfastness behavior and reproducible color yield, relevant science techniques have to be derived from scientific research on coloring methods, coloring process variables and selective natural color compatibility [45]. It is also essential to re-investigate and reconstruct traditional natural dyeing techniques to regulate each therapy and pre-dyeing method (preparatory, mordanting) and dyeing process variables in order to produce unique colors with balanced color fastness [61]. The molecular structure of most natural dye is not ideal for interacting with fibers—nature did not create them for this purpose. Mordants are auxiliary dyeing substances that are able to form complexes with molecules of dyes. This results in increased exhaustion or low-affine dye from the bath and thus improving the color-fastness. This particularly improves the wet fastness and sometimes the light fastness. The complexes are formed by reaction with mordant salts where a metal ion exhausted into the fiber is simultaneously bound with dye by coordinate bond and these complexes induce a bathochromic and hyperchromic shift in the color. Mordant may be applied before dyeing or as an additional stabilizer of the dye after dyeing or may be applied directly to the bath during dyeing. The problem is that most commonly used mordants are metal salts (e.g., sulphates or chlorides of iron, tin, and copper, or even chromium and lead) and often in concentrations up to 15 g/L. Indeed, here arises a paradox: improved stability and deeper color of fabrics can often be achieved only at the cost of using a high concentration of metal salt. With the use of metal salts, it is possible to differentiate variants with different toxicity, burdening the environment more or less. Perhaps, the most controversial is the use of lead salts and chromates (potassium, sodium, or ammonium dichromate). Compounds of lead and hexavalent chromium are toxic and carcinogenic. Traditional inorganic mordants include alums that are hydrated double sulphate salts, commonly found in nature.

88  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

4.4.4.1 Few Case Studies Turkish red pine bark (Pinus brutia Ten.) wood was obtained in aqueous medium and applied to cotton, flax, wool, silk, tencel, polyamide, and acrylic fibers along with synchronous alum and natural ash mordants. Color characteristics have been studied, including the efficiency of rubbing, lighting, and washing. The dyed samples showed distinct beige, brown, and brownish-yellow colors, based on the mordant and fiber. Samples of alum mordant showed better color characteristics. For alum mordant silk and wool samples, the highest (63.4) and the second lowest (45.3) color yield (K/S) values were noted, respectively. Dyed fabrics reveal excellent wash fastness, low staining, and moderate light and rubbing fastness [53]. Improving methodologies of extraction and application and generating cost-effective processes are currently challenging because of the large diversity of natural dye sources. Enthusiastic studies discussed in the present article assert that the current incompatibility of commercial exploitation of laboratory-scale results can be carried off with some serious efforts. The data generated from the present study may devise the basis for the economic viability of natural dye production in commercial scale for sustainable utilization of Bioresources, i.e., agro/biowaste. Extensive R&D in the area of natural dye applications is underway worldwide, but practical implementation to adopt new technologies for making natural dyes, a compatible co-partner with synthetic dyes in different spheres of our life is a long-term prospect [62]. The extract of orange peel and lemon peel has been used as a bio-waste source for the dyeing of cotton. The aim of the work is to achieve effective recycling of waste from the food industry and to extract and apply natural dyes from fruit waste as well as to improve the performance characteristics of the dye materials. 1:1 Ethanol: water mixture was chosen for dye extraction and the extraction was performed at room temperature. Alum and sodium carbonate were used for pre mordanting in three proportions, viz., 10%, 20%, and 30%. Of these, 30% of the mordant specimens showed a greater absorption of the dye [63]. Four distinct sources of agro-waste, i.e., walnut bark, madder, buckthorn, and indigo, have been used for this purpose. Pigment printing was chosen during the printing phase and printing was done on wool and cotton fabrics without any mordants being used. The values of color and the fastness of prints have been assessed. It was found that natural  dyes are often used in procedures of pigment printing and yield distinct color values with varying fastness levels [64].

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  89 In another study, cotton fabric was colored by pigment printing method with the use of the extracts obtained from the five different bio-waste sources “pomegranate peel, nutshell, orange tree leaves, alkanet roots, and dyer’s chamomile”. In this way, it was planned to show the coloration of cotton with natural dye sources. For the environmentally friendly production, no mordanting has been applied, but good colors with sufficient fastness were observed from the printed fabrics nonetheless. In the printing process, a binder was used instead of mordanting agents for the fixing of the dyestuff [65]. Peanut skin is one of India’s most abundant agro-wastes. Most of the peanut manufacturing goes to the peanut processing sector, where the peanut’s internal red peel is usually removed after shelling the kernel to prepare peanut meals and roasted peanut. The red skin is usually tossed as waste or used in animal feed as low-cost fillers. Per kilogram of shelled peanut kernel is produced an estimated 35 to 45 g of peanut skin. As a by-product of the peanut processing sector, over 0.74 million metric tons of peanut skin are generated annually globally. Textile grade dye was extracted from roasted peanut skin (Arachais hypogaea) by aqueous extraction. Crude dye yield was found to be 22.8%. The dye was characterized using phytochemical analysis, visible UV spectroscopy, and FTIR analysis. Cotton, silk, and wool fabric substrates have been dyed without using any mordants at distinct temperatures. The color values, fastness characteristics, and ultraviolet protection factor of the dyed fabrics were evaluated. The dye showed excellent affinity in all the fabrics. With an ultraviolet protection factor of up to 65, the dyed materials showed good to very excellent fastness characteristics [51].

4.4.5 Agro-Wastes for Color Removal In sectors such as textiles, rubber, plastics, printing, leather, cosmetics, etc., synthetic colors are commonly used for coloring. As a consequence, a significant quantity of colored wastewater is produced by these colors. It is estimated that more than 10,000 commercially accessible colorants with more than 7 or 105 tons of coloring material are generated annually from which 2% are removed from fabric effluents [66]. The textile industry ranks first among diverse sectors in the use of fiber collaring dyes. The global textile industry’s complete dye consumption is well over 107 kg/ year, and an estimated 90 % of this ends up on fabrics. As a result, the textile industry worldwide discharges 1,000 tons/year or more of the dyes into waste streams [67]. The dye-bearing wastewater discharge into natural

90  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles streams and rivers presents serious issues with aquatic life, food web, and causes harm to the environment’s aesthetic nature. Dyes absorb and reflect sunlight that penetrates the water and interferes with bacterial growth and impedes aquatic plant photosynthesis. These issues arise mainly because of the complicated aromatic constructions of the colors that make them ineffective in the presence of heat, light, microbes, and even color degradation [68]. These present a severe danger to the quality of human health and water, thus becoming a problem. Before dumping into the water bodies, the companies concerned are needed to treat the dye-bearing effluents in order to maintain the essential color removal. Therefore, it is the duty of the scientific community to contribute to the therapy of wastewater by creating efficient techniques for removing dye. Adsorption is quickly gaining prominence as a treatment technique among multiple water treatment techniques owing to some benefits such as possible low-cost regeneration, accessibility of known process facilities, sludgefree operation, and adsorbent recovery [69]. Owing to its micro-porous structures, expanded surface area, elevated adsorption ability and surface reactivity, activated carbon is mostly used as an adsorbent for dye removal. Activated carbon, however, is extremely expensive and has a high regeneration cost while being exhausted [70]. This has led to a search for cheaper substances. Researchers are now focusing on developing activated carbon from more appropriate, more effective, and cheaper kinds of adsorbents that are readily accessible, especially from bio-waste products. Agro-residues have little or no economic value and are often an issue for farmers and processing companies to be disposed of. It is of excellent importance to use agricultural waste to remove dye from the effluent. An amount of agricultural waste products such as coir pith, orange peel, banana peel, rice husk, straw, date pit, oil palm trunk fiber, durian peel, guava leaf powder, almond shell, pomelo peel, broad bean peel, peanut hull, and Citrullus lanatus rind has been reported to remove various colors from aqueous solutions under various working circumstances. The adsorption capacity of these sorbents is listed in Table 4.3.

4.4.5.1 Removal of Dyes by Low-Cost Sorbents: Few Case Studies Garlic peel was used to remove methylene blue from aqueous solution. Using the isotherms Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin, equilibrium isotherms were determined and analyzed. The peak adsorption capacity of monolayers was discovered to be 82.64, 123.45 and 142.86 mg g−1 at 303, 313, and 323 K, respectively, during batch experiments. For methylene

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  91 Table 4.3  Reported adsorption capacities qm (mg/g) of different agricultural wastes.

Adsorbent

Dye

Maximum adsorption capacity (mg/g)

Coir pith

Congo red

2.6

[71]

Orange peel

Acid violet

19.88

[72]

Banana peel

Basic blue 9

20.8

[73]

Rice husk

Acid yellow 36

86.9

[74]

Straw

Basic blue 9

19.82

[75]

Date pit

Basic blue 9

17.3

[76]

Oil palm fiber: activated carbon

Malachite green

149.35

[77]

Durian shell: based activated carbon

Methylene blue

289.26

[78]

Guava (Psidiumguajava) leaf Powder

Methylene blue

185.2

[79]

Almond shell

Direct red 80

90.09

[80]

Pomelo (Citrus grandis peel)

Methylene blue

344.83

[81]

Broad bean peel

Methylene blue

192.7

[82]

Peanut hull

Reactive dye

55.5

[83]

Citrullus lanatus rind

Crystal violet

11.9

[84]

References

blue, the author found that owing to the existence of a polar functional group, the adsorption capability was greater [27]. Pineapple stem was studied to adsorb methylene blue from aqueous solution. The effectiveness of color removal was researched at various dyes, contact time, and pH concentrations and was discovered to follow the Langmuir isotherm. The authors proposed that adsorption would benefit from the acidic pH. The peak adsorption capability was discovered to be 119.05 mg g−1 on the pineapple stem to remove methylene blue [85].

92  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles The jack fruit peel was explored as adsorbents to remove methylene blue. They discovered that low methylene blue levels favored elevated percentages of adsorption and that 4.0 were discovered to be the optimum pH value for dye adsorption. Biosorption information for equilibrium was analyzed using various kinds of linearized Langmuir isotherm, Freundlich isotherm, and Temkin isotherm. Type 2 Langmuir model acquired the best fits. Methylene blue’s absorption capability on jack fruit skin was discovered to be 285,713 mg g−1 [32]. Feasibility study on the removal of malachite green from water using petroleum palm trunk fiber as an adsorbent has been reported. The adsorbent was sufficiently effective without any pretreatment method and was pre-use sieved into distinct size ranges. Malachite green’s monolayer coverage on absorbent (oil palm trunk fiber) at 30°C was 149.35 mg g−1 [77]. Extensive bean peels, industrial waste, were discovered to remove cationic dye (methylene blue) and 192.7 mg g−1 adsorption ability. Adsorption values of dye were discovered to fall with a rise in the original concentration of blue methylene. According to the Langmuir adsorption model and pseudo-first-order kinetic model, dyes adsorption has been recorded [82]. Groundnut shell, an agricultural solid waste, as an adsorbent for Malachite Green has been investigated. The writers also evaluated the capacity of the adsorbents by treating it with ZnCl2 to understand the impact of chemical therapy and its efficacy. The simulation experiments for contact time impact, adsorbent dose, and original concentration of dye were also found along with this. The findings showed that at a dose of 0.5 g L−1 and an original concentration of 100 mg L−1, activated coal groundnut shell powder showed 94.5 % removal of the dye in equilibrium moment of 30 min [86]. Maize starch was used as a binder and a low-cost adsorbent for methylene blue removal from textile wastewater to apply sawdust, areca nut, and guava leaves in the powdered and pelletized form. Batch experiments were conducted at a neutral pH 7 and other parameters included adsorbent dose, original concentration of dye, and contact time. The research showed that agro-waste powdered and pelletized has less adsorption than agrowaste powdered. It was noted that for a dye concentration varying from 5 to 25 ppm, pelletized sawdust showed 32% removal for a dosage of 2.0 g at a contact moment of 120 min. Whereas, for a dye concentration of 5–25 ppm, powdered and pelletized areca nut showed 58% removal for a dose of 3.2 g at a contact moment of 120 min. Powdered and pelletized guava leaves showed 90% removal at 120 min for a dye concentration of 5–25 ppm for a dosage of 2.4 g [87].

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  93

4.4.6 Consumer Approach Towards Naturally Dyed Fashion Garments Sustainable fashion has become a trending topic today, with synonyms such as eco-fashion or green fashion or ethical fashion or slow fashion. Naturally dyed fashion garments also come under the same focus nowadays; consumers have a positive approach towards them because of the fact, i.e., sustainability and eco-friendliness. In addition, “Fashion sustainability” is a trend to gain attention and credibility as a buzzword; fashion brands are rethinking their business models and shifting to more sustainable approaches to manufacturing and operation. Consumers with increasing motion awareness support products that are eco-conscious and ethically producing. With environmental concerns, company plans, and methods, the favorable attitude of consumers towards sustainable products is growing. Over the previous few years, the fashion sector has experienced notable sustainability changes. Fashion “sustainability” has become the main focus for longterm development and effect on the environment. The fashion industry is placed in landfills every year as the second most environmentally damaging sector with 1.5 million tonnes of waste [88]. Sustainable fashion becomes an expectation as brands, designers, distributors, and producers become aware of the disastrous impact of quick fashion on the environment. By maintaining them informed, fashion movements like #WhoMadeMyClothes are attempting to introduce transparency to the consumer’s back-end production process. Today, consumers want to meticulously select styles not only to feel good about themselves but also how much they add to the lives of the person making them. Due to the increasing awareness of customers about the ecosystem, sustainability is now essential for fashion companies [89]. The idea of the lifecycle of fashion products indicates that each fashion product undergoes a cycle through various phases such as introduction, development, maturity, and decrease with a definite period of time, and the cycle is a bell-shaped curve. Sustainable clothing or textiles, for instance, are regarded as classics or timeless, hand-loom weaves. Sustainable fashion goods (i.e., naturally dyed clothes) have strong longevity and will not “go out of fashion” or be “in fashion” occasionally. With multiple types of sustainable fashion and consumers’ conscious apparel choices, sustainable products last in a loop or circular manner for lengthy movement, where materials are retrieved again and again decreasing waste.

94  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

4.4.7 Fashion Brands Approach to Promote Natural Dyed Apparels Environmental sustainability is now regarded as an agenda for leadership. There are many fashion brands that place a high priority on it. The aim is to maximize benefits while minimizing adverse effects. Designers have effectively utilized natural dyes as a design tool. The non reproducibility and non uniformity of shades make each creation a unique piece. Various kinds of design production methods such as tie and dye or stitching (Shibori), resist printing, stencilling, batik, Indian Ajrakh, kalamkari, ikat, and many more such techniques are being practiced by the designers to create unique products. In many countries, the handicraft industry has evolved local people talent in the field of art and craft, i.e., dyeing yarn with natural dyes and weaves them to produce specialty fabrics. Currently, there are a number of fashion brands who are online to promote naturally dyed apparels, viz., Khadi, Fabindia, Manyavar, IndiGreen, Tvach, Anokhi, etc. Last few decades saw the consumers to be highly cognizant regarding the eco friendliness and functionality of the textiles. Natural dyed fabrics which were a way of life in the past history of our country now fall under the category of concept selling. This is a relatively unique concept in the market and it carries a specific quality or benefit that the buyer is looking for or made to look at. When you sell a concept, you are adding value to the market, and it will be far less price sensitive. This point has been proven by the fact that consumers are willing to pay more for eco-friendly products.

4.5 Conclusion “Sustainability” in fashion is nowaday a key and important point of focus from the societal and environmental point of view. Different design production methods such as tie and dye or stitching (Shibori), resist printing, stenciling, batik, Indian Ajrakh, kalamkari, ikat, and many more such techniques are being practiced by the designers to create unique products to create more market. Agricultural crop residues are becoming a source of fibers due to their enormous amounts all over the world and especially for countries that do not have large areas under forests. Different agro-waste sources such as banana peel, coir pith, rice husk, straw, orange peel, date pit, Citrullus lanatus rind, etc., have been utilized now on textile materials as the source of coloration materials. Agro-residues have very less or almost negligible economical value and create a problem for the disposal

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  95 of the farmers and processing industries. In the textile and fashion sectors, therefore, the use of agro-waste for the extraction of dye from waste products and as a source of natural dye for the dyeing and printing of textile fabric plays a major role. Currently, there are a number of fashion brands that are in line to promote naturally dyed apparels, viz., Khadi, Fabindia, Manyavar, IndiGreen, Tvach, Anokhi, etc., and it will augment more due to its availability and socio-economic values.

References 1. Dungani, R., Karina, M., Subyakto, A.S., Hermawan, D., Hadiyane, A., Agricultural waste fibers towards sustainability and advanced utilization: A review. Asian J. Plant Sci., 15, 1–2, 42–55, 2016. 2. Wang, B., Dong, F., Chen, M., Zhu, J., Tan, J., Fu, X., Chen, S., Advances in recycling and utilization of agricultural wastes in China: Based on environmental risk, crucial pathways, influencing factors, policy mechanism. Procedia Environ. Sci., 31, 12–17, 2016. 3. Mustafa, A. H. M. E. D., Dawoud, A., Fahmy, Y., Nitratability of differently treated cotton linters. Tappi, 43, 725–9, 1960. 4. Fahmy, Y., Fahmy, T.Y., Mobarak, F., El-Sakhawy, M., Fadl, M., Agricultural residues (wastes) for manufacture of paper, board, and miscellaneous products: Background overview and future prospects. Int. J. Chemtech Res., 10, 2, 424–448, 2017. 5. Fahmy, Y. and Fadl, M.H., Digestion of wheat straw for the economical preparation of cellulose, low in silica. Textil-Rundschau, 13, 709–19, 1958. 6. Fahmy, Y. and Fadl, M.H., Digestion of rice straw for the economical preparation of cellulose, low in silica. Textil-Rundschau, 14, 259–60, 1959. 7. Fahmy, Y. and El-Ashmawy, A.E., Pulp and paper from sugar cane bagasse. Indian pulp and paper, XIV, 5, 1–7, 1959. 8. Fahmy, Y., Saleh, T.M., Hafez, O.M.A., On the Delegnification of rice straw and sugar cane bagasse. Egypt. J. Chem., 15, 6, 591–599, 1972. 9. Basu, G., Mishra, L., Jose, S., Samanta, A.K., Accelerated retting cum softening of coconut fiber. 2015. Ind. Crops Prod., 77, 66–73, 2015. 10. Tochi, B.N., Wang, Z., Xu, S.Y., Zhang, W., Therapeutic application of pineapple protease (bromelain): A review. Pak. J. Nutr., 7, 4, 513–520, 2008. 11. Gogoi, N., Minti, G., Swapna, C., Utilization of agro-waste-okra and its potentiality. Asian Journal of Home Science, 12, 1, 250–256, 2017. 12. Krishna, C., Solid-state fermentation systems—An overview. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol., 25, 1-2, 1–30, 2005. 13. Salim, A.A., Grbavčić, S., Šekuljica, N., Stefanović, A., Tanasković, S.J., Luković, N., Knežević-Jugović, Z., Production of enzymes by a newly isolated Bacillus sp. TMF-1 in solid state fermentation on agricultural by-products:

96  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles The evaluation of substrate pretreatment methods. Bioresour. Technol., 228, 193–200, 2017. 14. Torrado, A.M., Cortés, S., Salgado, J.M., Max, B., Rodríguez, N., Bibbins, B.P., Domínguez, J.M., Citric acid production from orange peel wastes by solid-state fermentation. Braz. J. Microbiol., 42, 1, 394–409, 2011. 15. Loh, C.W., Fakhru’l-Razi, A., Hassan, M.A., Karim, M.I.A., Production of organic acids from kitchen wastes. Artif. Cell Blood Sub., 27, 5-6, 455–459, 1999. 16. Kapritchkoff, F.M., Viotti, A.P., Alli, R.C., Zuccolo, M., Pradella, J.G., Maiorano, A.E., Bonomi, A., Enzymatic recovery and purification of polyhydroxybutyrate produced by Ralstoniaeutropha. J. Biotechnol., 122, 4, 453–462, 2006. 17. Yusuf, M., Khan, S.A., Shabbir, M., Mohammad, F., Developing a shade range on wool by madder (Rubiacordifolia) root extract with gallnut (Quercusinfectoria) as biomordant. J. Nat. Fibers, 14, 4, 597–607, 2017. 18. Yusuf, M., Shahid, M., Khan, M.I., Khan, S.A., Khan, M.A., Mohammad, F., Dyeing studies with henna and madder: A research on effect of tin (II) chloride mordant. J. Saudi Chem. Soc., 19, 1, 64–72, 2015. 19. Sulak, M.T. and Yatmaz, H.C., Removal of textile dyes from aqueous solutions with eco-friendly biosorbent. Desalin. Water Treat., 37, 1–3, 169–177, 2012. 20. Gong, R., Ding, Y., Li, M., Yang, C., Liu, H., Sun, Y., Utilization of powdered peanut hull as biosorbent for removal of anionic dyes from aqueous solution. Dyes Pigm., 64, 3, 187–192, 2005. 21. Kopania, E., Wietecha, J., Ciechańska, D., Studies on isolation of cellulose fibers from waste plant biomass. Fibers & Textiles in Eastern Europe., 20, 96, 167–172, 2012. 22. Santos, R.M.D., Neto, W.P.F., Silvério, H.A., Martins, D.F., Dantas, N.O., Pasquini, D., Cellulose nanocrystals from pineapple leaf, a new approach for the reuse of this agro-waste. Ind. Crops Prod., 50, 707–714, 2013. 23. Yu., G., Hung, C.Y., Hsu., H.Y., An Agricultural Waste Based Composite to Replace or Reduce the Use of Plastics. International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 9, 7, 167–172, 2018. 24. Hirvikorpi, T., Vähä-Nissi, M., Nikkola, J., Harlin, A., Karppinen, M., Thin Al2O3 barrier coatings onto temperature-sensitive packaging materials by atomic layer deposition. Surf. Coat. Technol., 205, 21–22, 5088–5092, 2011. 25. Reddy, N. and Yang, Y., Biofibers from agricultural byproducts for industrial applications. Trends Biotechnol., 23, 1, 22–27, 2005. 26. Guimarães, J.L., Frollini, E., Da Silva, C.G., Wypych, F., Satyanarayana, K.G., Characterization of banana, sugarcane bagasse and sponge gourd fibers of Brazil. Ind. Crops Prod., 30, 3, 407–415, 2009. 27. Hameed, B.H. and Ahmad, A.A., Batch adsorption of methylene blue from aqueous solution by garlic peel, an agricultural waste biomass. J. Hazard. Mater., 164, 2-3, 870–875, 2009. 28. Gupta, D., Kumari, S., Gulrajani, M., Dyeing studies with hydroxyanthraquinones extracted from Indian madder. Part 2: Dyeing of nylon and polyester with nordamncanthal. Color. Technol., 117, 6, 333–336, 2001.

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  97 29. Mirjalili, M. and Karimi, L., Antibacterial dyeing of polyamide using turmeric as a natural dye. Autex Res. J., 13, 2, 51–56, 2013. 30. Safarik, I. and Safarikova, M., Magnetic fluid modified peanut husks as an adsorbent for organic dyes removal. Physics Procedia, 9, 274–278, 2010. 31. Khawas, P. and Deka, S.C., Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanofibers from culinary banana peel using high-intensity ultrasonication combined with chemical treatment. Carbohydr. Polym., 137, 608–616, 2016. 32. Hameed, B.H., Removal of cationic dye from aqueous solution using jackfruit peel as non-conventional low-cost adsorbent. J. Hazard. Mater., 162, 1, 344–350, 2009. 33. Jose, S., Pandit, P., Pandey, R., Chickpea husk – A potential industrial agro residue for the coloration and functional finishing of textiles. Ind. Crops Prod., 142, 111833, 2019. 34. Bansal, S. and Sodhi, P., Pineapple Leaf Fibers: Eco Souvenir. Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 5, 2, 141–147, 2014. 35. Hazarika, D., Gogoi, N., Jose, S., Das, R., Basu, G., Exploration of future prospects of Indian pineapple leaf, an agro-waste for textile application. J. Cleaner Prod., 141, 580–586, 2017. 36. Hazarika, P., Hazarika, D., Kalita, B., Gogoi, N., Jose, S., Basu, G., Development of apparels from silk waste and pineapple leaf fiber. J. Nat. Fibers, 15, 3, 416– 424, 2018. 37. Jose, S., Das, R., Mustafa, I., Karmakar, S., Basu, G., Potentiality of Indian pineapple leaf fiber for apparels. J. Nat. Fibers, 16, 4, 536–544, 2018. 38. Jecu, L., Solid state fermentation of agricultural wastes for endoglucanase production. Ind. Crops Prod., 11, 1, 1–5, 2000. 39. Pandey, A., Soccol, C.R., Nigam, P., Soccol, V.T., Biotechnological potential of agro-industrial residues. I: sugarcane bagasse. Bioresour. Technol., 74, 1, 69–80, 2000. 40. Hai, H.T. and Tuyet, N.T.A., Benefits of the 3R Approach for Agricultural Waste Management (AWM) in Vietnam, IGES, Hayama, Japan, 2010. 41. MacArthur, E., Towards the circular economy, economic and business rationale for an accelerated transition. Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Cowes, UK., 2013. 42. McCrum, N.G., Buckley, C.P., Bucknall, C.B., Bucknall, C.B., Principles of polymer engineering, Oxford University Press, USA, 1997. 43. Payne, A., Open-and closed-loop recycling of textile and apparel products, in: Handbook of life cycle assessment (LCA) of textiles and clothing, pp. 103– 123, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, 2015. 44. Obi, F.O., Ugwuishiwu, B.O., Nwakaire, J.N., Agricultural waste concept, generation, utilization and management. Niger. J. Technol., 35, 4, 957–964, 2016. 45. Alemayehu, T. and Teklemariam, Z., Application of natural dyes on textile: A review. International Journal of Research-Granthaalayah, 2, 2, 61–68, 2014. 46. Fogh, C.L. and Andersson, K.G., Dynamic behaviour of 137Cs contamination in trees of the Briansk region, Russia. Sci. Total Environ., 269, 1–3, 105–115, 2001.

98  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 47. Minganti, V., Drava, G., De Pellegrini, R., Anselmo, M., Modenesi, P., Malaspina, P., Giordani, P., The bark of holm oak (Quercus ilex, L.) for airborne Cr (VI) monitoring. Chemosphere, 119, 1361–1364, 2015. 48. Moses, J. and Ammayappan, L., Growth of textile industry and their issues on environment with reference to wool industry. Research Gate., 1–18, 2006. 49. Jothi, D., Extraction of natural dyes from African marigold flower (Tageteserecta L.) for textile coloration. Autex Res. J., 8, 2, 49–53, 2008. 50. Samanta, A.K. and Agarwal, P., Application of Natural Dyes on Textiles. IJFTR, 34, 384–399, 2009. 51. Pandey, R., Patel, S., Pandit, P., Nachimuthu, S., Jose, S., Coloration of textiles using roasted peanut skin-an agro processing residue. J. Cleaner Prod., 172, 1319–1326, 2018. 52. Kulkarni, S.S., Gokhale, A.V., Bodake, U.M., Pathade, G.R., Cotton Dyeing with Natural Dye Extracted from Pomegranate (Punicagranatum) Peel. Univers. J. Environ. Res. Technol., 1, 2, 135–139, 2011. 53. Avinc, O., Celik, A., Gedik, G., Yavas, A., Natural dye extraction from waste barks of Turkish red pine (Pinusbrutia Ten.) timber and eco-friendly natural dyeing of various textile fibers. Fibers Polym., 14, 5, 866–873, 2013. 54. Boruah, G., Phukan, A.R., Kalita, B.B., Pandit, P., S Jose., S., Dyeing of Mulberry silk using binary combination of Henna Leaves and Monkey Jack bark. J. Nat. Fibers, 167–172, 2019. 55. Sharma, A. and Grover, E., Color fastness of walnut dye on cotton. Indian J. Nat. Prod. Resour., 2, 2, 164–169, 2011. 56. Shin, Y.S., Son, K.H., Yoo, D.I., Optimization of Wool Dyeing with Yellow Dye from CarthamusTinctorius L. J. Korean Soc. Cloth. Text., 33, 12, 1971– 1978, 2009. 57. Jha, C.K., Kumar, R., Kumar, V.S., Devi, R.V., Extraction of natural dye from marigold flower (Tageteserecta l.) and dyeing of fabric and yarns: A focus on colorimetric analysis and fastness properties. Der Pharmacia Lettre, 7, 1, 185–195, 2015. 58. Vankar, P.S., Singh, L.W., Tiwari, V., Shanker, R., Potsangbam, L., Chemistry of tectona leaves dye and its dyeing properties for cotton and silk fabrics. Research Gate, 12, 86–88, 2003. 59. Meena Devi, V.N., Ariharan, V.N., Prasad, N., Annato: Eco-friendly and potential source for natural dye. Int. J. Pharm., 4, 6, 106–108, 2013. 60. Vankar, P.S., Chemistry of natural dyes. Resonance, 5, 10, 73–80, 2000. 61. Gyanendra, T., Mukesh, K.Y., Prabhat, U., Shardendu, M., Natural dyes with future aspects in dyeing of textiles: A research article. International Journal of Pharma Tech Research, 8, 1, 096–100, 2015. 62. Mansour, R., Natural Dyes and Pigments: Extraction and Applications. Handbook of Renewable Materials for Coloration and Finishing, 75–102, 2018.

Agro/Biowaste in the Fashion Industry  99 63. Kumar, C.S.S. and Dhinakaran, M., Extraction and application of natural dyes from orange peel and lemon peel on cotton fabrics. Int. J. Res. Eng. Technol, 4, 237–38, 2017. 64. Bahtiyari, M.I., Benli, H., Yavas, A., Printing of wool and cotton fabrics with natural dyes. Asian J. Chem., 25, 6, 3220, 2013. 65. Bahtiyari, M.I., Benli, H., Yavaş, A., Akca, C., Use of different natural dye sources for printing of cotton fabrics. Journal of Textile & Apparel/ TekstilveKonfeksiyon, 27, 3, 259–265, 2017. 66. Allen, S.J. and Koumanova, B., Decolorisation of water/wastewater using adsorption. J. Univ. Chem. Technol. Metallurgy, 40, 3, 175–192, 2005. 67. Marc, R., Asian textile dye makers are a growing power in changing market. Chem Eng News, 74, 3, 10–12, 1996. 68. Pearce, C.I., Lloyd, J.R., Guthrie, J.T., The removal of color from textile wastewater using whole bacterial cells: A review. Dyes Pigm., 58, 3, 179–196, 2003. 69. Kapdan, I.K. and Kargi, F., Simultaneous biodegradation and adsorption of textile dyestuff in an activated sludge unit. Process Biochem., 37, 9, 973–981, 2002. 70. Waranusantigul, P., Pokethitiyook, P., Kruatrachue, M., Upatham, E.S., Kinetics of basic dye (methylene blue) biosorption by giant duckweed (Spirodelapolyrrhiza). Environ. Pollut., 125, 3, 385–392, 2003. 71. Namasivayam, C. and Kavitha, D., Removal of Congo Red from water by adsorption onto activated carbon prepared from coir pith, an agricultural solid waste. Dyes Pigm., 54, 1, 47–58, 2002. 72. Sivaraj, R., Namasivayam, C., Kadirvelu, K., Orange peel as an adsorbent in the removal of acid violet 17 (acid dye) from aqueous solutions. Waste Manage., 21, 1, 105–110, 2001. 73. Annadurai, G., Juang, R.S., Lee, D.J., Use of cellulose-based wastes for adsorption of dyes from aqueous solutions. J. Hazard. Mater., 92, 3, 263–274, 2002. 74. Malik, P.K., Use of activated carbons prepared from sawdust and rice-husk for adsorption of acid dyes: A case study of Acid Yellow 36. Dyes Pigm., 56, 3, 239–249, 2003. 75. Kannan, N. and Sundaram, M.M., Kinetics and mechanism of removal of methylene blue by adsorption on various carbons—A comparative study. Dyes Pigm., 51, 1, 25–40, 2001. 76. Banat, F., Al-Asheh, S., Al-Makhadmeh, L., Evaluation of the use of raw and activated date pits as potential adsorbents for dye containing waters. Process Biochem., 39, 2, 193v202, 2003. 77. Hameed, B.H. and El-Khaiary, M.I., Removal of basic dye from aqueous medium using a novel agricultural waste material: Pumpkin seed hull. J. Hazard. Mater., 155, 3, 601–609, 2008a. 78. Hameed, B.H. and Hakimi, H., Utilization of durian (Duriozibethinus Murray) peel as low cost sorbent for the removal of acid dye from aqueous solutions. Biochem. Eng. J., 39, 2, 338–343, 2008.

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5 Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands by Using Textile Waste for Better Fashion Vandana Gupta1*, Madhvi Arora2 and Jasmine Minhas3 Department of Fashion & Design, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India 2 Gap International Sourcing India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India 3 Department of Fashion & Design, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India

1

Abstract

In the last few decades, introduction of fast fashion has led to the production of clothes at shorter time frames with new designs, satisfying the demands of the market, but it has also lead to increased landfills and carbon footprints of the fashion industry. Considering the long supply chain, a huge amount of waste is generated at different levels which are discussed in this chapter and clearly explains the harmful impact on human as well as the environment. Fashion is not necessarily about labels or brands, it is actually about something which comes from within the designer. The creative aspects that collaborated with an ethical approach towards the environment can lead to a sustainable and better fashion. The existence of such innovations and efforts need to be shared with masses by communicating the message of sustainability which will help designers and brands to compete by developing new and recycled or upcycled garments. This chapter analyzes the innovative opportunities explored by different brands and designers to reduce textile waste which is relatively small in terms of waste when compared to other waste streams, yet it has a huge impact on the environment and life. Keywords:  Fashion brands, textile waste, innovation, sustainability, carbon foot prints

*Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (101–122) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

101

102  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

5.1 Introduction From the last few decades, the global textile and apparel industry has become one of the influential sectors in terms of financial power and how it shapes wider trends, behavior, culture, attitude, and identity. The Indian textile and apparel industry is one of the largest and oldest sectors in the country and is primarily concerned with the design and production of yarn, cloth, garments, and their distribution [1]. It contributes approximately 5% of India’s GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and 14% to the overall index of Industrial Production (IIP) [2]. It contributes a significant share to the economies of many countries and has created mega brands such as Nike, Zara, and LVMH while producing many billionaires and the number is still growing [3]. This growth has come with a high environmental and social cost which includes water pollution, labor abuses, high use of pesticides and insecticides, along with other negative practices that tend to increase as the industry grows. The gradually growing population and booming economy, rapid increase in need and use of textile products have resulted in huge amount of textile and apparel waste. The disposal behavior of these wastes affects the environment, society & economy. The prevention of waste through appropriate designing and using waste management techniques can lead to revenue generation in the context of the economic, social, and environmental point of view. In today’s scenario with a global focus on sustainability, extending a fashionable product’s life beyond the recognized horizon will certainly have a positive impact for which the designer and consumer can play an important role. Before discussing the harmful effect and waste generated by the textile and apparel industry, it would be appropriate to summarize the stages of the global textile and apparel chain as well as the environmental impact caused by them. The heaviest impact can be seen in different areas of textile industry which are listed below and explained in Table 5.1. Studies also reveal that the industrial effluents discharged from textile industries of Sanganer (in north), Tirupur (in south) etc. contains large amount of alkali, residual dyes, starch cellulose, soluble salts mainly of sodium and calcium, silicate, oil, and other impurities. The industrial effluent, which is being generated from these fast emerging textile and dying units, is generally discharged untreated on ground surface. As a result, there is a deterioration of soil and even of ground water quality and has potentials for contamination of other biophysical resources along the discharged area [4]. Another comparative toxicological study of textile dye wastewater (untreated and treated) on a freshwater fish, Gambusia affinis, revealed a marked reduction in mortality and cytotoxic effects on RBCs,

Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands  103 Table 5.1  The heaviest impact can be seen in different areas of textile industry. Different areas of textile industry

Harmful impact

Raw materials:

• Use of pesticides in cotton fields has an enormous negative environmental impact. Cotton growing, pulp for viscose and packaging, animal husbandry (inc. feed), oil and gas extraction, as well as use of pesticides in cotton fields leads to environmental impact which includes GHG (Green House Gasses) emissions, water pollution, biodiversity loss, etc.

Manufacturing:

• The process such as weaving, knitting, printing, dyeing, bleaching, laundry, etc., is a high volume and high impact source of water pollution and CO2.

Goods movement:

• Shipping long distance by air emits CO2 more than 40 times then using a container ship.

Consumer Care:

• Washing clothes in hot water has large environmental costs and dry cleaning require toxic solvent [5].

which led to reduction in their count and change in their shape (poikilocytosis) and variation in their size (anisocytosis), after subjecting them to both physicochemical and biological treatments [6]. On contrary to this, if textile waste is appropriately recycled or reused, it can lead to a number of benefits like raise economy of the country by creating jobs, and generate business, can provide clothes to needy people reduce environmental burden, reduces the amount of chemical and pesticides in different textile and garment processes, and save natural resources by reducing energy consumption, pressure on virgin materials, as well as pollutant emissions.

5.2 Textile and Apparel Industry The textile and apparel industry is always evolving and the lastest evolution is the transformation from a local or regional business into a global industry involving multiple companies and inter-related business partnerships, spanning many countries. It is characterized by a complex production network which spans many businesses usually across International boundaries. Each industry has its own network to obtain the raw material and for the development and distribution of products to the consumer. In the last

104  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 30 years, the source and methods utilized by textile and apparel professionals for producing textile and apparel products for their customers have undergone profound changes. In the mid-20th century, the vast majority of textile and apparel products available to consumers in developed countries were produced within the domestic economy of each. As we progressed through 1980s to 1990s and the 21st century, however, the source of these products has changed from domestic to international to multinational to global. Most of the time, the raw material is obtained from one part of the world, the manufacturing is done thousand of miles away and the end products are shipped to an apparel supplier in an entirely different market half way around the world. Seen from a more pragmatic viewpoint, global trade might simply involve 2,000 pairs of Khaki pants which are designed and developed in Chicago, made with fabric woven in South Korea, cut and sewn somewhere in Honduras (Central America), and sold in departmental stores of rural and suburban United States. In each country, individuals of different cultural background are employed; different languages are spoken; diverse task requires different set of performance skills and resources (from pesticides and petrochemicals to water and machinery). This clearly explains that the textile and apparel industry are using all possible potential resources from all around the world to increase its economic value and to satisfy consumers [7]. The textile and apparel professionals sought the ever elusive suppliers of merchandise that would both satisfy their customers and generate the levels of profit necessary to sustain their business. Taking an example of Esquel group of companies which is one of the world’s largest producer of cotton shirts, with an output of more than 60 million garments each year. The firm vertically integrated operation starts in China where it overseas nearly 4,700 acres of cotton farm, which supply cotton material to Esquel’s spinning, dyeing, and knitting facilities and produce 90 yards of highquality cotton fabric annually. Esquel has manufactured clothing on behalf of brands that include Banana Republic, Tommy Hilfiger, Hugo Boss, Nike, as well as private label items for retailer such as Marks & Spencers. It transform fabric into premium men’s and women’s wear at plants in China, Hong Kong, Malasiya, Mauratius, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam [8]. India’s growing population has been a key driver of textile consumption in the country. The increase in young population complemented with an increasing female workforce who has resulted in change of taste in regard to their fashion preferences. The Textile Committee, Ministry of Textiles, conducted a survey in 2008 on National Household revealed that 22.41 meters of textiles is purchased by Indian’s in a year, which included reduction in market of dhoti by 8.59%, unabated saree demand, and increase in

Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands  105 demand of jeans in rural areas [9]. Shakya (2016) stated that the worldwide pressures on environmental issues are steadily increasing. As global data reveals that around more than 2 billion t-shirts and 124 million denim jeans are sold every year. This suggest the translation of accelerated population growth along with high level of consumption leading to generation of greater volume of textile and apparel waste. It is important to note that the developed countries like Europe, Japan, and The United States hold the knowledge intensive part of the value chain related to what to produce and how much to charge. Whereas developing countries like Bangladesh, Veitnam, India, etc., still deal with labor intensive part in textile and apparel supply chain. At the same time, due to the complex nature of supply chain of textile and apparel industry, overall functioning is obscured [3].

5.3 Carbon Foot Prints and Waste Generation From Textile and Apparel Industries 5.3.1 Carbon Foot Prints Just like the actual footprint, carbon foot print is the mark you leave upon the environment, not with your shoes but with your every action which releases harmful gases like CO2 which are pumped down by burning oil and natural gasses. The more fuel one uses, bigger will be the footprint. It is not only about gas emitted through a car but it is about the manufacturing of car to the transportation of goods which leads to carbon foot print. Carbon footprint can also be defined as the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emission caused directly or indirectly by an individual or organization during production of products. Carbon footprint, also called carbon profile, defines the overall amount of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions associated with a product throughout the entire supply chain, from raw materials to end-of-product life as well as disposal and is expressed as carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent or tons of CO2. Every industry contributes to the world’s carbon footprint in its own way. However, the fashion industry is often overlooked as one of the primary polluters in the world, second only to oil [10]. Looking into different processes, material used, and marketing aspects related to fashion including textile and apparel, all have their own role to play in creating a print on mother earth. Clothing production is a multi-step procedure that often includes spinning, weaving, knitting, pre-treatment, dyeing or printing, finishing, and makeup (cut-sew-trim). During these stages, the apparel product is subjected to various chemical treatments,

106  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles many of which have been highly toxic and non-degrading [11]. The carbon footprint of fashion industry can be calculated by considering several data such as fiber and its origin, loss of fiber during ginning, spinning and weaving, sizing, type of dyes used, marker efficiency during cutting, chemical used in washing, type and weight of package material, as well as mode of transport with respect to entire supply chain. The assessment of carbon footprint is done in two layers: • Primary footprint which monitors carbon emission directly through energy consumption such as burning fossil fuels for electricity, heating, and transportation, etc. • Secondary footprint which relates to indirect carbon emissions such as the entire life cycle of product including packaging and disposal [12]. Let’s look into manufacturing of most favorite classic of all time—jeans. A single pair of jeans need 9.500 liters of water to be produced which is used to grow cotton it is made from and for the finishing steps [13]. Real denim is made of 100% cotton, but today, fast fashion is using petrol based fibers like nylon, polyester, spandex, etc., to develop super stretchy jeans, jean leggings, and jeggings. Developed during the second half of the last century, these synthetic materials have revolutionized several industries and are widely adopted as a low-cost material that allow brands to churn out a variety of colorful apparel at low prices. Petrochemical  textile materials are immensely toxic and pollute the environment, as they require significant energy, water, and chemicals to produce. Fossil fuels are the biggest contributors to climate change, and 90% of the fabrics of the clothes we wear today come from oil [14]. To manufacture a single pair of jeans, on average, 34 kg of CO2 is emitted which is similar to CO2 produced by car derived for 111 km. Likewise, other fashion items, being fossil-fuel dependent, produce enormous amounts of CO2 and other GHGs which contribute to global warming. The way we treat our jeans and clothes after purchase can have a significant impact on their carbon footprint, including the way and frequency with which we wash them. Fashion supply chains are often spread all around the world and moving material such as fabrics, accessories, and clothes from one place to another involve enormous amount of energy and use of fossil fuel. A t-shirt made in China, for example, before hitting the shelves of a store in the US, is already responsible for the emission of 1 kg of CO2 [15]. A study reveals that 0.5-lb t-shirt requires 700 gallons of water during processing, uses 0.2 lb of fertilizers and 0.01 lb of pesticides, and emits 6 lb of CO2 [11, 16].

Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands  107

1 KG Fabric

23 Kg greenhouse gases

2,000 Liters of water

4 kWh of energy

Figure 5.1  Environmental impact of textile and apparel industry.

The environmental impact of textile and apparel industry in Figure 5.1 clearly explains that one kilogram of fabric uses 2,000 liters of water and 4 kilowatt hours of energy which generated 23 kilograms of GHG. Around 8,000 synthetic chemicals are used to turn raw material into textiles which are discharged and released in freshwater sources. 22.5% of the world’s insecticides are used to grow non-organic cotton and 10% of all pesticides on 2.5% of the world’s agricultural land. The levels of CO2 emissions and water and land use are projected to increase in the coming years [3]. Thus, the most effective way to decrease a carbon footprint is to either decrease the amount of energy needed for production or to decrease the dependence on carbon emitting fuels. Thus, for the purpose of reducing wastes, waste prevention, or waste management is one of the best option for saving environment [3].

5.3.2 Fashion and Waste Facts Waste can be defined as any product or substance that has no further use or value for the person or organization that own it and which will be discarded. However, what may be discarded by one party may have value to another. Thus, the definition for waste can be redefined considering this waste as a potential reusable resource for others [17]. The amount of waste generated, and its actual or potential negative effects on the environment, are matter of concern to government industry and the community. As literature reveals that of all fashion products (which are considered as waste), only 15% are recycled or upcycled and around 85% are disposed off into landfills where they take approximately 40–200 years to decompose.

108  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles This is because maximum amount of textile used for development of different products are synthetic fibers [18]. Another important point which needs to be considered is that along the stages of decomposition of such chemical based fiber; the soil is polluted due to the presence of different types of chemicals and heavy metals which make soil unsuitable for agriculture, construction, etc. Waste is perceived to be a problem for many reasons, but the three most often cited are: • Waste disposal can harm environment and human health • Space for landfills is becoming scarce • Excess use of natural resources leading to their depletion. The waste generated can be categorized as pre-consumer and post-­ consumer waste. Pre-consumer waste refers to the left-over materials generated during the manufacturing process of textile, dyeing printing and garment industries. Most of the pre-consumer waste is considered as clean waste except the dye and printing but if wastewater treatment is provided to the same it can also be listed as clean waste. The industrial scale fashion production has material wastage rates ranging from 5% to 20% which is largely generated at the marker planning, cutting, and stitching stages [9]. Marker planning is explained as a process which helps in determining the most efficient layout of pattern pieces for a particular style of fabric and size distribution. It includes plotting all the pattern pieces for all the sizes of a particular style of garment on a thin piece of paper in such a way that maximum fabric will be used and minimum fabric will be wasted [19]. Rissanen (2008) reported that when fiber was limited and textile processes were time consuming, fabric material was cut as little as possible and clothing was designed in order to avoid waste during cutting. But now with conventional designing and pattern cutting techniques, 15% fabric is being wasted, depending upon the garment design [20]. Waste containing (metals, NaOH, suspended solids, etc.) from textile dyeing and printing industries has led to the pollution of water reservoirs and increased health issues not only to human being but also to plants and animals [21]. Postconsumer textile waste refers to the unwanted apparel or other household products which are made from the manufactured textiles and is discarded by the consumers [9]. It is an important observation done in last few years that post-consumer waste is a more serious problem as compared to pre-consumer waste, as postconsumer waste is more difficult to separate and collect as large amount of post-consumer waste is generated due to the consumers personal reasons which makes waste collection and identification difficult [22]. An article discusses the reasons for disposal of garments

Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands  109 in which the respondents gave their preferences among different choices and changes in garment size and fit was found to be the most dominant reason for disposal as compared to functionality, situational, taste, and fashion [23]. It should be noted that sustainable production cannot be achieved without sustainable design. Designer’s decisions about fabric, construction and production techniques constrain or facilitate the activities throughout the supply chain. Also in a report, WARP 2017, the opportunities of change for garment industry towards sustainability were discussed. The finding suggested few areas which need to be focused are listed below: a. Behavioral change among consumer can make a big difference to the impact of clothing; b. Reducing clothing in residual waste is a key area of focus; c. Less wasteful practices in the supply chain can significantly reduce impacts [24].

5.4 Fashion Brands Working Towards Sustainability Using Textile Waste As we know that textile, fashion, and apparel industry interact with many other industries and also among various spheres within these industries which are responsible for their high working speed and a system that is equipped with faculties to work well with fast changing products that bear higher risk of being obsolete. This fast-changing system leaves an ecological and social impact which is also known as its footprints. A brand signifies fulfillment of certain parameters of quality and price and assure wearer of a certain status quo that comes from buying that particular brand. When we talk about a brand, it is a much larger entity than a fashion label in terms of quantity of production and workforce. A brand generally creates and sells prêt-e-porter collections and a fashion label ranges from luxury to prêt-e-porter line of garments. A brand has a wider reach than a fashion label and a fashion label is run by a fashion designer and its team whereas a brand is owned by a company (manufacturer or trading). In past decade, the working scenario of fashion industry had began to alter in a sense that the above-mentioned definitions have been impacted by the kind of approach they are taking towards producing and selling their products. The concept of slow fashion and eco-brands has been more evident. Brands have been acting and claiming to be more conscious in use of natural resources and reducing wastages done in process of production.

110  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Number of fashion brands and labels has taken steps towards sustainable methods which are discussed below. It is important to note that sustainability can be broken down in three aspects to get clarification: Three main areas to cover: • Sustainable fashion:  Clothes made from materials and practices that are earth-friendly. • Slow fashion:  Clothes that are not governed by seasonal trends, classics, and investment pieces. • Ethical or fair fashion: Clothes that pay a fair wage to their producers, garment workers, etc. [24].

5.4.1 Anokhi No sustainable brand list is complete without the mention of Änokhi brand. This brand is in existence from 1984 and its roots lie in Jaipur, a city whose founders were enlightened patrons of the arts and crafts. Skilled craftsmen were invited to settle here and were ensured a secure livelihood. In the Jaipur tradition, Anokhi tries to maintain an open and honest relationship with its craft persons. It help them to work in conditions of their own choice and showcase commitment towards sustained work. Its factory unit—The Anokhi museum is a UNESCO world heritage site. It constantly seeks to create an environment in which traditional textiles have their place and value. Anokhi uses sustainable fabrics like cotton and vegetable dyes to produce high-quality clothing. Vijayalakshmi Nachiar of Ethicus, a farm-to-fashion initiative based in Pollachi, near Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu, is one of the organic cotton supplier to Anokhi. To support the craft, craftsmen, and traditional method of dyeing and printing which are certainly sustainable, Anokhi runs a museum where not only craft is displayed but one can also interact with craftsmen and experience block printing and carving on woods to prepare wooden blocks. Moreover, it also organizes workshops from time to time to spread awareness about the ancient craft and empowering craftsmen [25].

5.4.2 Wills Vegan A brand established in 2012 with clear intension to develop products which are ethical, sustainable and vegan in nature. The London based Designer Will Green had marked his presence by producing shoes, knitwear for men

Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands  111 and women as well as accessories with sustainable material which are registered under Vegan Society and is awarded as one of the PETA approved company. The products developed are certified Carbon Neutral and had made their presence in ethical clothing moment. Apart from products and certifications, the brand also cares about their workers and fulfills their corporate social responsibilities which include: • • • • • • • •

Working hours, time off, and annual leave Equal pay Maternity leave Parental leave Anti-discrimination Compensation for discrimination victims Agency worker protection Health and safety

The Unique feature of Vegan products such as leather is the use of bio oil which is sourced from North Europe where organic cereal crops are grown and used in creation of shoes as well as accessories. Different names are given to Vegan leather such as faux, leather, leatherette, synthetic leather, PU leather, and fake leather and is embedded with features like soft, hard wearing, breathability and water resistant. The care label of the product explains the comfort it provide to the consumer in terms of handling and use. It needs less care and little attention to retain its aesthetic appeal. As it display the feature of hardwearing, it is known to remain unaffected when it comes in the contact with road salt and snow in winter season. The Vegan leather is produced in Italy and Spain and meets OEKO Tex 100 & REACH regulations. Another important feature of the brand is that eco-friendly materials are used for packaging and deliveries of products like: • • • •

Paper shipping bag Cardboard boxes Paper Parcel tape Biodegradable document packs with water-based adhesive and backing paper from sustainable sources.

With all these steps & majors taken, brand is well aware of their total carbon emission. They are well motivated to preserve the environment by using appropriate amount of only renewable resources. This brand also motivate their customers to understand the importance of less and responsible buying [26].

112  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

5.4.3 Everlane With a view of giving the right choice to consumers, Everlane collaborate with factories who are working ethically and source finest material which is sustainable (in one or the other way) and can be used to develop high quality product. Sustainability must be connected with ethical work place therefore each factory sourced, is then rated by evaluating their corporate social responsibility in terms of wages, working hours, environment. Also, to reach to the desired goal the team must work in synchronization and thus the factories and companies sourced must have the same ideology as that of Everlane. They believe that plastic production and use of virgin plastic to be reduced (as they are the major polluter especially when it comes to water bodies) and this move will not only come from government initiatives but also it needs to be disseminated and embedded at the lower geographical level like cities. Fashion companies/brands/designer can make a difference by introducing the concept among consumers by marketing and selling the ethical products. With all this and more, Everlane has announced in 2018 to eliminate all virgin plastic from their supply chain by 2021 and work on more sustainable & recycled material. The company uses 75 percent of synthetic fiber materials like polyester, nylon, elastane etc. for developing outerwear, innerwear and some sweaters. These products are now made by using recycled substances and virgin plastic is replaced with recycled plastic which is obtained from poly bag used for shipment and distribution. The overall consumption of plastic is only 10 percent and rest all natural, recycled or sustainable material is utilized and explored, which definitely requires time, energy and research based understanding to develop high quality products. Moving from bottom to top is a great challenge but company by maintaining the zeal work with their partners and look for solutions in terms of use of less fabrics, push innovation and research into what change occur in product during each step of product development and use. The company is working on maintaining the integrity of the quality and aesthetic of product by challenging themselves and their creative ability. Considering the landfill and waste disposal issues, Everlane works to design products which can and will last for years in coming decades and can be worn during different trends [27].

5.4.4 Doodlage The garments are made from factory waste and it comes in all shapes and sizes—squares, side wastages, and more. Designers and skilled craftsmen

Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands  113 put these pieces together, almost like a puzzle. Just like everyone has a unique way of DOODLING and they never know what the end result of doodle will be. The designs are unique and that exactly what adds character and individuality to their garments. Hence, the name DOODLAGE. A brain child of Kriti Tula, who is co-founder and creative director of this brand creates only upcycled and recycled garments using leftover pieces of fabric from various factories and states that it’s high time that someone starts thinking about wastage and solutions thereof. As per her, a big factory discard around 45,000 meters of fabric every day that all either ends up in landfill or used to make dhurries, etc. So, they started buying this industrial waste in lots varying from 100 meters to few meters of fabrics which is bought at 1/3 or 1/4th of its actual price and then mended and cleaned to make a fresh designed garment. Their collections include limited edition and hence quite exclusive unlike other fast fashion brands. The developed collections are mostly modern and chic which are for both men and women. Participation in fashion shows helped the brand to introduce themselves to masses and sharing their concept and process of zero waste where the waste during the production process is also well utilized by using them for patchwork and other embellishments. Further, leftover pieces are used to make accessories like bags and clutches. Also, it is important to note that minute waste/leftover are converted into a paper which is used as tags for the brand and also stationery items. The brand also takes care of minute things like not adding carbon footprints while mending fabrics by indulging in hand embroidery and other techniques that involve the use of hand skills rather than using other energy resources. Also, they are currently focusing on sourcing waste from nearby places of their production unit to reduce logistical costs.  Their latest development is that they are working to do more with pre-consumer waste which can be repaired, recycled, upcycled, and sold [28].

5.4.5 Abraham and Thakore The journey of their designs include the unique elements of sensibility for less known ways of developing unique collections. Their inner self has always been affected with the thought of waste produced during the process of garment production. With this thought they have developed and presented a sustainable collection line by collaborating with LENZING group. Abraham & Thakore has explored the modern sustainable fiber LENZING™ECOVERO™, which is made by manufacturing a

114  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles particular type of viscose obtained from certified forest where trees which have grown over the life span are used as a raw material. Along with this the ECOVERO fiber is also eco friendly in terms of waste, as only 12 percent of total water used for producing cotton is being utilized in the manufacturing of ECOVERA. Thus the entire footprint and carbon emission is less. They have collaborated with LENZING AG and showcased their collection in LFW, in which garments displayed were made with ECOVERA and were hand block printed: combining futuristic technology with Indian traditional art and craft [29]. Sustainability is part of the Designer duo’s work in three main ways. • A daily practice throughout their supply chain, majorly focusing on wastage, reuse, and minimizing wastage of energy resources. • They are of the belief that sustainable fashion can be inculcated in creativity. So, sustainability themes are explored and integrated within collections, not separately. • Essentially, they recognize the influence they can exert on people and the environment around them, leading by example with actions. They also understand that Indian society has a strong history of reuse at home, starting with hand-me-down clothes, and repairing worn clothes being the preferred alternative of throwing them away. But, it goes much deeper, for example, traditional embroidery “Kantha” evolved in Bengal where old saris and fabrics are layered and stitched to create completely new attractive fabrics. There typical collection might include: antique recycled brocade trims and ribbons; reclaimed cotton, wool, nylon, and polyester fabrics; Kantha-made borders; discarded x-ray sequins; and recovered bottle cap trim. In addition to the above mentioned brands, there are many more brands and designers who are contributing to the field of brand consciousness for sustainability. Here is a summary of such brands and their actions [30].

5.4.6 Osklen Orthopedic surgeon turned fashion designer “Oskar Metsavaht founded a Brazilian Luxtury brand “Osklen” in 1989 with a philosophy “as sustainable as possible & as soon as possible”. The brand has its own ideology and working method. Leaving the traditional method of developing a design

Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands  115 or garment, the brand is working on reverse process. Instead of first developing a design and then use the fabric, the brand first collect the fabric material and then create the design of the garment around the collected fabrics. With its E-Brigade collection in 2000, brand founded a non-profit organization “Instituto-e with a goal to make Brazil a sustainable development hub. New fabrics are innovated and researched by this organization and tries to contribute in academics and other research work by engaging with government and non-government organizations [31–33].

5.4.7 Raeburn Christopher Raeburn, a British Designer is well known for his philosophy “Remade”, through which he works on the concepts like remade, recycled & reduced. He direct his work towards sustainable choices by doing localized manufacturing and reworking with surplus materials; thus helping to reduce carbon foot print and providing a fresh and unique products to the customers [34].

5.4.8 Stella McCartney Stella McCartney is a brand name whose core depends on sustainable and ecofriendly garments and products. To develop recycled and sustainable material by using new technology is not new at all to McCartney. It has showcased several zero waste collections by using cutting edge technologies. Its new collection for Adidas has qualified as brands most sustainable collection with 50 percent of the total material as recycled [35, 36].

5.4.9 Bottletop This brand was launched in collaboration with British bag brand Mulberry in 2002 and from then it is transforming the concept of sustainability. It comprises of a foundation who is known to create sustainable accessories using recycled material collected by unprivileged community of Brazil and crafted by artisans of developing countries; thus providing livelihood to them. Apart from designing the luxury products brand it known as NGO in its own way as it raises funds and educate teenagers about the sensitive issues like HIV and teenage pregnancy by perfectly using the contemporary art and music. The brand is an example of high quality, sustainable products which are made and shared with masses by keeping the ethics of environment protection Sin mind [37].

116  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

5.4.10 Rustic Hue The Bhubaneswar based brand “Rustic Hue” is working on the traditional handloom textiles with a motto to revive the unique and diversified Indian traditional textile art. The brand is working with the artisan and producing products through innovative ideas. Also the post production fabrics are upcycled and converted into accessories that are where the fabric scraps are the part of their “Jugaad” [38].

5.4.11 Zero Waste Daniel The Luxury fashion brand got its kick start when the designer and founder were invited to design garments by using upcycled materials in partnership with UK Charitable Cancer Research. The challenge of working in limitations in terms of fabrics helped them to explore their creativity by reinventing fabrics and reimagining designs with new techniques and methods of designing. Brands’ collection was then showcased at LFW and other marketing platform which includes garments like evening wear, accessories etc. made by recycled materials [39].

5.4.12 Raw Mango An Indian band is reviving the use of Indian traditional textiles “saris” in a more conventional method. The saree which was once worn by masses on regular basis are now lying in the wardrobe, untouched. The brand with its design intervention in craft cluster have been able to introduce new look in different Indian textiles such as Chanderi, Mashru etc. These textiles are converted into western garments which is the choice of today’s consumers. This step towards the diversified use of sarees or handloom textiles also gives an indication to other designers and consumers about reuse of waste old textiles (sarees) which can be converted to required and desired garments as per today’s fashion [38].

5.4.13 Patagonia Patagonia is the brand well known for its ethical work in the field of design and fashion. Along with many initiative taken and work done by the brand in last decade, recently in 2017 the brand has opened an online platform “WORN WEAR” in which the customer can buy the second hand products of Patagonia and can sell their old garments, which are then recycled and

Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands  117 redesigned by the brand, thus making a huge contribution in reducing the landfill waste [40].

5.4.14 Ka-Sha Karishma shahni is well known designer and is believed to be grown with each design, she produces. Her brand Ka-Sha explains and explores her aesthetic understanding about colors, fabrics and is well synchronized with her philosophy of educating the customers about the textile, garment and design they wear. Her brand also focuses on ethical values by recreating new design and style by asking her customers to bring their old heirloom pieces and get it designed and stitched in a more conventional form. This helps customers to see their inner creative idea coming out beautifully in 3D form. This initiative of Ka Sha is helping to save environment by utilizing old unused textiles as well as to stop excess buying and increasing landfill [41]. John Galliano is a designer who has developed his line of collection by using upcycled material including shells, broken mirror, waste/end fabrics, costume jewellery etc., thus committed to sustainable fashion through the use of textile and other waste. Other designers like Bottega Venetta and Gucci developed shoes by using waste leather. Viktor and Rolf in 2016 have designed their collection by using all fabrics from their previous collection and weaving them into a new innovative design [34]. It can be noted that where many designers are adding the wings to their repertoire work like Abraham & Thakore who are working on the fabric off cuts and employing traditional techniques like patch work or kantha, the awareness among consumers regarding reuse, recycle of old textile and textile waste also includes many celebrities like Cate Blanchett, Michelle Obama and Duchess Kate Middleton who have explored & discussed the concept of wardrobe recycling re-design and restyle their heirlooms to conventional designer looks or to popularize the redesigned garment by showcasing in different platforms like fashion shows. The theme of Oscars 2020 red carpet was sustainability and biggest Hollywood stars like Saoirse Ronan, wore dress by keeping the concept of ecofriendliness sparkle all night and turning red carpet green [42–44].

5.5 Conclusion The designers as well as brands are working towards the sustainable development and designing of different products. But, it is important to

118  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles understand that the full supply chain of the textile and fashion industry needs to work hand in hand to make the environment a healthy and safe place for the present and future generation. Taking into consideration the current scenario of textile, apparel, and fashion industry, logistic is one of the important factors leading to environmental pollution and use as well as discharge of certain chemical, and synthetic material in point and non-point sources is another factor. As number of fashion designers and brands such as H&M, Ka-Sha, Mehera Shaw, etc., are modifying their supply chain to provide ethically sustainable products but apart from focusing on how to convert the textile waste into an usable product, it is also important to understand that how much products are actually required, i.e., a detailed understanding of demand and supply. Converting one material to another will definitely reduce the landfill but again the number of products is increasing. Along with the corporate social responsibility (CSR), the coming decade will definitely demand for human (consumer and others) social responsibility to attain sustainable fashion for sustainable life.

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Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands  119 7. Ha-Brookshire, J., Global sourcing in the textile and apparel industry, Bloomsbury Publishing USA., pp. 1–75, 2017. 8. Plunkett, J.W. ed., Plunkett's Apparel & Textiles Industry Almanac 2008. Plunkett Research, Ltd., 2008. 9. Shakya, A., Integrated Waste Minimization Techniques in Apparel Design, A sustainable perspective, Thesis for Doctor of Philosophy, Dayalbagh Education Institute, Dayalbagh, India, 2017. 10. Sumner, S., Fashion Industry’s carbon footprint wearing on our environment, Climate Action Business Association, 2018. https://cabaus.org/2018/02/22/ fashion-industrys-carbon-footprint-wearing-environment/. 11. Khan, M.M.R. and Islam, M.M., Materials and manufacturing environmental sustainability evaluation of apparel product: Knitted T-shirt case study. Textiles and Clothing Sustainability. Text Cloth. Sustain., 1, 1, 1–12, 2015. 12. Athalya, A., Carbon foot print in textile processing, The Indian Textile Journal, 2012. https://indiantextilejournal.com/articles/fadetails.asp?id=4652 13. Valero, R., L is for Lifestyle: Christian Living That Doesn't Cost the Earth, Paperback, Inter-Varsity Press Publisher, 2008. 14. What my Jeans Say about the Garment Industry, Resources, Fashion Revolution, 1–10, 2019. https://www.fashionrevolution.org/wpcontent/uploads/2017/02/ What-My-Jeans-Say-About-the-Garment-Industry.pdf 15. Remy, N., Speelman, E., Swartz, S., Style that’s Sustainable: A New FastFashion Formula, Mckinsey & Company, 2016. https://www.mckinsey. com/business/­f unctions/sustainability/our-insights/style-thats-sustain​ able-a-new-fast-fashion-formula 16. Pereira, A., The route of circular economy, INDITEX: A Circular Economy Business Model Case, 1–16, 2019. http://www.r2piproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/​ 2019/05/Inditex-Case-Study_1.pdf 17. Sakthivel, S., Ramachandran,T., Vignesh,R., Chandhanu,R., Padma P.J., Vadivel, P., Source & Effective Utilization Of Textile Waste In Tirupur, Indian Textile Journal, 1–4, 2012. https://indiantextilejournal.com/articles/FAdetails.asp?id=4236 18. Yavari, R., Analysis of a Garment–Oriented Textile Recycling System via Simulation Approach. University of Windsor, Theses, Dessertation, and Major Papers, Windosr, Ontario, Canada, 2019. https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/cgi/viewcontent.​cgi?article=1096&context=major-papers 19. Puranik, P., Jain, S., Garment Marker Planning-A Review. IJARET, 4, 2, 30–33, 2017. 20. Rissanen, T.I., Creating fashion without the creation of fabric waste. Suatainable Fashion why Now? A Conversation About Issues, Practices and Possibilities, Fairchild Books, 184–206, 2008. 21. Jayanth, S.N., Karthik, R., Logesh, S., Srinivas, R.K., Vijayanand, K., Environmental issues and its impacts associated with the textile processing units in Tiruppur, Tamilnadu, in: 2nd international conference on Environmental Science and Development, IPCBEE, IACSIT Press, Singapore, 4, 120–124, 2011.

120  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 22. Rani, S. and Jamal, Z., Recycling of textiles waste for environmental protection. Int. J. Home Sci., 4, 1, 164–168, 2018. 23. Laitala, K.M., Boks, C. and Klepp, I.G., Making clothing last: A design approach for reducing the environmental impacts. Int. J. Des., 9, 2, 93–107, 2015. 24. Gray, S., Mapping clothing impacts in Europe: The environmental cost. WRAP: Banbury, UK, 1–41, 2017. 25. Shankar R.K., The Truly Anokhi Story, The Hindu: Business Line, 2003. https:// www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-life/article29156203.ece 26. The Rise in Ethical Fashion, Vegan Life, Vegan Life Magazine, 2018. https:// www.veganlifemag.com/the-rise-in-ethical-fashion/ 27. Cernansky R., Everlane has eliminated 75% of virgin plastics from its supply chain. Vogue business newsletter, 2019. https://www.voguebusiness.com/­sustainability/ everlane-ceo-michael-preysman-eliminate-virgin-­plastic-oceana-partnership 28. Pal, A., Weavers of Change, The India Today Magazine, 2019. https:// www.indiatoday.in/magazine/supplement/story/20190916-weavers-ofchange-1596​284-2019-09-06 29. Sharma, R., Sustainable garments need not be expensive: Abraham & Thakore, Outlook: The News Scroll, 2019. https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/­ sustainable-garments-need-not-be-expensive-abraham--thakore/1602146 30. Khanna, J.M., Abraham &ThakoreGive The Kurta A Sustainable Upgrade At Lakme Fashion Week, VOGUE, 2019. https://www.vogue.in/fashion/ content/­abraham-thakore-kurta-lenzing-ecovero-sustainable-lakme-fashionweek 31. Laird Borrelli-Persson, Spring 2000 Ready To Wear, Vogue, 2019. https://www. vogue.com/fashion-shows/spring-2020-ready-to-wear/osklen 32. Poldner, K., Ivanova, O. and Branzei, O., Osklen: The aesthetics of social change. Emerald Emerging Markets Case Studies, 6, 2, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1108/ EEMCS-06-2015-0112 33. Zara-Jade-Bestwick, Brazilian Soul, Sublime the first International Sustainable Life style Magazine, 2011. https://sublimemagazine.com/issue-29-maximise/ brazilian-soul 34. Moorhouse, D. and Moorhouse, D., Sustainable design: Circular economy in fashion and textiles. Des. J., 20, 1, S1948–S1959, 2017. 35. Athwal, N., Wells, V.K., Carrigan, M. and Henninger, C.E., 2019. Sustainable Luxury Marketing: A synthesis and research agenda. Int. J. Manag. Rev., 21, 4, 405–426, 2019. 36. Farra, E., I Need a Few More Colleagues Linking Mt Arm-Stella McCartney Sounds off on Sustainability, Faux Leather, and the Lack of Honesty Around Both, VOGUE, 2019. https://www.voguebusiness.com/companies/ stella-­mccartney-sustainability-kering-and-chloe 37. Small, D., The Bottle Shop Just Opened And It’s Beyond Awesome,Eluxe Magazine, 2017. https://eluxemagazine.com/fashion/bottletop-shop/

Innovating Opportunities for Fashion Brands  121 38. Khandual, A. and Pradhan, S., Fashion brands and consumers approach towards sustainable fashion, in: Fast fashion, fashion brands and sustainable consumption. Springer, Singapore, pp. 37–54, 2019. 39. Moorhouse, D. and Moorhouse, D., Creating a Sustainable Luxury Fashion Brand. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019. 40. Brower, R., Gear News: Patagonia Launches Worn Wear Used clothing site. Men’s Journal, 2017. https://www.mensjournal.com/gear/gear-news-patagonia-­ launches-worn​-wear-used-clothing-site/ 41. Priyadarshini, P., KarishmaShahani: Her Design Yatra, The Hindu, 2016. https:// www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/fashion/karishma-shahani-her-design-​yatra/article6365198.ece 42. Kapoor, A., How a quiet minimalist revolution is taking place in India's fashion scenario, ET Contributors, 2017. https://m.economictimes.com/ industry/cons-products/fashion-/-cosmetics-/-jewellery/how-a-quietminimalist-­revolution-is-taking-place-in-indias-fashion-scenario/articleshow/58980241.cms 43. Geczy, A. and Karaminas, V., Fashion Installation: Body, Space, and Performance. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019. 44. Abbas, T., Oscars 2020: Sustainable Fashion Was the Red Carpet’s Best Trend. Glamour, 2020. https://www.glamour.com/story/oscars-2020-sustainable-fashion-trend

6 Challenges and Opportunities of Waste in Handloom Textiles Pintu Pandit1*, Sanjay Shrivastava1, Sankar Roy Maulik2†, Kunal Singha1 and Lokesh Kumar1 National Institute of Fashion Technology, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Mithapur Farms, Patna, India 2 Department of Silpa-Sadana (Textile Section), Visva-Bharati (A Central University), Sriniketan, W.B., India 1

Abstract

The handloom fabric is highly fragmented and labor-intensive textile segment. This business has been dominated by unorganized industry, small and medium businesses. Nowadays, more than ever, customers are purchasing less handloom clothing and storing them for longer time. Today, we are in need of a system which unites brand new business models with advanced design, materials and technologies that remove waste out of handloom fabrics and to produce sustainability in handloom products. Within this phase, a low-cost and eco-friendly technology for extraction of natural dyes from identified resources has been developed. This aqueous way of extraction of dyes along with its use for dyeing and printing of all handloom cloths at different process parameters by harnessing for every natural resource to be able to acquire maximum dyes in certain parameters. New sustainable handloom substances have emerged and recycling schemes have become more conspicuous, to move away from the linear ‘take-make-waste’ model towards a circular approach. The chapter attempts to offer insights to the handloom textile business and tries to explain the challenges and opportunities that lie inside it. Keywords:  Dyes, fashion, handloom, natural fibers, sustainability, textile

*Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected] † Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (123–150) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

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124  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

6.1 Introduction Boost in green legislations globally and an increase in consumer taste for eco-friendly sustainable goods have produced the handloom cloths in demand. The handloom industry is now a significant concern for the fabric market and total economic inclusive development for the world. The ever-increasing importance of holistic growth in the handloom sector indirectly affected by several things like human development of structured and organized textile businesses, political and social impacting parameters, and from various governmental policies particularly in the textile industry. The general findings and facts can enable the stakeholder from this sector to formulate apt strategies with the addition of vast knowledge into the present literature of handloom present state. Handlooms are not highly automated or mechanized, electric consumption is minimal, and also the sector utilizes less energy compared to other textile industry. The industry also brings itself to sustainable growth policies targeted at reducing negative impacts on the environment and ecology. The potency of handloom can be found in the introduction of innovative design, which can’t be replicated from the powerloom. The handloom businesses are based mostly on a domestic setup. It’s spread and dispersed across the villages and towns within the country. The handloom industry was continuing by transferring skills from one generation to the next. The strength of the sector lies in its own uniqueness, flexibility of manufacturing, openness to inventions, adaptability into the provider’s requirement, etc. The weavers of the handloom industries are primarily in the vulnerable sections of society. The rise of power looms needed a de-skilling influence in the handloom weavers and handloom sectors suffer from specific perennial issues. This business faces challenges on account of the adoption of contemporary methods, weak infrastructure, and fragile supply chain due to the unavailability of raw materials at the right time and regular rates, economic liberalization, inefficient advertising and marketing tools, and sales procedures. At present, the business is currently at stake for finding a sustainable way of existence due to the change in customer’s preferences and purchasing behavior. The same products can be found in the marketplace on account of the fast technological intervention and reduced price. Handloom industries involve larger labor and including more prices in a variety of heights of the supply chain, leading to higher cost of manufacturing [1–3]. Back in India, the handloom industry is one of the biggest decentralized rural-based financial actions after farming. Indian handloom has captivated the entire world and closely related to the civilization of the nation

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  125 and specifically to a particular community. Indian handloom market has an overpowering presence in the financial life and among the primary contributing industries of export earnings. The conventional handloom weaving is part of the nation’s cultural ethos and it creates a valuable portion of their generational heritage. This business also illustrates the diversity and richness of the nation along with the artistry of their weavers. It supplies large employment and almost 15% of the overall materials made in the nation are out of this industry. Ninety-five percent of the world’s hand woven cloth comes in India. The deficiency of market need for its handloom goods and an excessive amount of government interventions has resulted in the diversity of the industry. It has created the weavers reliant and negatively impacts the potentiality of entrepreneurial spirit. Government have handled this business as rural venture and have provided different options because of its rival as well as the “Make in India” initiative might be one of these possible regions to generate more chances in the market. The supporting actions, viz., the prestigious conventional action through handloom, shouldn’t be diminished on account of the industrialization. The handloom employees were the weakest, least admired, socially and economically deprived, residing in debts and nearly living to be an island from the society in the 21st century. In any case, in massive sections of India, handloom weaving dropped its popularity and prosperity. Fundamentally, handloom weaving is a men’s domain name, but in this step, we should not neglect to acknowledge the function of women’s importance from the handloom industry in accordance with the handloom census 2013. India’s Government has set up great attempts to produce khadi and handloom garments attractive using the most recent and advanced design. The rural market in India must be strengthened to materialize Gandhiji’s fantasy of Ram Rajya and resolute actions have to be taken to promote the young generation to measure the ideals of Mahatma Gandhi for the employees of Khadi and Gramodyog Board to stick to the principles of Mahatma Gandhi and perform to reevaluate its expansion [2–4]. The challenge of creating sustainable growth to nullify or reduce the poisonous effluents produced during the processing of fabrics with traditional dyeing process has become a significant concern for its handloom weavers of India. Several innovative solutions are developed to solve these essential problems. The results suggest that waste biomolecules have exceptional potential as natural colorants for handloom fabrics without and with the use of mordants. In general, fastness properties for its treated natural cloths are found to be in the range of good to very good. This

126  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles chapter attempts to explore real and potential associations among handloom industries and strategies for sustainable improvement. It examines the potential commitments of handloom and craft to the change to progressively economical social orders. The chapter, consequently, contributes both to alternative and increasingly creative significance of “sustainability” out of handloom sector industries and its occupation at “present-day” societal situations.

6.2 History of Handloom Textile Industry The mention of this term handloom certainly arouses the reader’s head to believe for handloom fabric weavers. This relies on the simple fact that it has definitely been crucial in the increase of the country to the scope of becoming crucial to its history. The definition of this word means only the loom which is pushed by the legs or hands or from the blend of the two. This is predicated on the simple fact it was of considerable effect and it’s definitely been critical in driving the country’s culture in addition to the market through recent years. India is a nation that has produced a market of its own in regard to producing high-quality materials. For example, the handloom artisans from Bihar of India is still use to work by their honing skills like hand spinning and they used to feed themselves by employing in this occupation since back from 18th century. The handloom industry in India almost provides indirect or direct employment to over 43 lakhs weavers and allied employees. This is the time once the cotton fabrics and weaving looms discovered its powerful presence. This is the exact same time that individuals intentionally used homespun cotton in regard into weaving looms and other textile products. The products were finely woven cotton in addition to the dyed cotton materials. The shuttles were those which were found at the excavated sites in the shape of the unused material that was majorly in raw material type. One of those sites that surely stand out is unquestionably the Mohenjodaro site that’s among the famous areas when it comes to the textile industry in India. Through the years, there were images which were taken of their very first Indian cloth which was really effective for several decades. The sector might have shifted with the coming of engineering, but really there’s a lot of history of the initial handloom sector ahead of the present modernization which has occurred over time.

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  127 The business’s successes positively depended on the accessible industry. This relies on the simple fact that over the decades, there’s been exporting of the fine materials to other parts of the world especially China and Indonesia in addition to the Far East. This was the situation back from the 13th century before the Europeans had begun making inroads to India. Afterwards available on the industry also expanded into parts of Europe. The textile sector provides job in India after agriculture also it eases 14% of the whole industrial production and also occupies to approx 30% of the total export and import of India. Therefore, say, we can definitely look after this industry and it’s every part of the textile sector ought to be cared for in the utmost to ensure the nation’s growth and financial progress [2­, 3].

6.2.1 Independent Power Loom or Decentralized Textile Sectors The handloom region assumes a vital part of the country’s Economy. The financial liberalization, uniqueness, flexibility of manufacturing, openness to innovation, adaptability into the supplier’s desire, cluster strategy, approaches to competitive marketing, and execution of different social welfare dimensions have proven the positive indication of growth in Indian handloom industries. The standard of handloom lies from the introducing innovative outlines, which cannot be replicated from the power loom fabric manufacturing anyhow. This way, handloom contours a bit of this heritage of India and reflects the product and design color pattern invention with an adequate variety of nation and aesthetic of the weavers (refer Table 6.1).

6.3 Types of Weaving Traditions Wider and diverse dimensions of the current market, it had been split into three distinct weaving classes or traditions. There was that the rural, the classical and the tribal. The rural group of the weaving tradition favorably represented recognizable and unchanging patterns which were so synonymous with the rural lifestyle of the Indians [1]. The design of the weaved material exhibited figures of items which were really so familiar and readily recognizable with any Indian that had been residing in the rural part of the country. This is really clear in regard to the sort of pictures of the creatures, plants, and human beings that appealed to all.

61,761

59,605

61,949

62,624

64,332

64,584

63,480

43,520(p)

2010–11

2011–12

2012–13

2013–14

2014–15

2015–16

2016–17

2017–18 (upto Nov.’17) 5,134(p)

8,007

7,638

7,203

7,104

6,952

6,901

6,907

11.8

12.61

11.82

11.19

11.34

11.22

11.57

11.18

Share of handloom in total cloth production

*The total cloth production includes handloom, powerloom, and mill sector excluding hosiery, khadi, wool, and silk.

Total cloth production*

Year

Cloth production by handloom sector

Table 6.1  Cloth production by Indian handloom sectors (in million sq. meters) [2].

1:4.92

1:4.45

1:482

1:5.24

1:5.24

1:5.47

1:5.42

1:5.5

Ratio handloom to powerloom (in terms of cloth)

128  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  129 This is why those are precisely what surely summed up the majority of the designs. The second class as originally cited is classical. This weaving tradition revolved round court and royal life. The symbols, in addition to the kinds of these weaving designs, were determined on who had been in the place of power as the ruler. It is so apparent that it was really an integral factor in the feeling it was a kind of paying patronage to the ruler of the country and sometimes the ruler of the region, hence a few special designs dependent on the character and character in addition to the diverse collection of these things that the ruler enjoyed. The geographic place came to being because each and every area had its leader; hence, the fabric which was woven into some extent needed to possess the kind of sophistication or elements which surely exhibited this. The last class is none apart from the tribal. Contrary to the insinuation caused by the title of this weaving heritage, this has been done to show the geometric patterns. These patterns have been largely done in solid primary colors and mostly on simple looms which were composed of bamboo.

6.4 Approaches to Rejuvenate the Handloom Weavers The few approaches required to rejuvenate the handloom weavers are as follows: marketing and promotion service; welfare steps; infrastructure supports; composite development–based approaches; modernization and machines up-gradation in engineering; development in export and import strategy; wages, livelihood, and employment problems; competition and unjust competition from manufacturers and energy; budget allocations; intermediaries (individuals/institutions); cooperative method; patenting designs/varieties; layout developments; raw material supply and costs; adequate and timely credit supply; supports of raw materials and management; protections through commodity reservation; extensive analysis; economy expansions; corrective misperceptions, etc. [2].

6.5 The Performance-Based Factors for Handloom Sector The employment structures in the handloom sectors that rely on several vital variables and that are extremely crucial for its profitability and

130  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles financial rise of the artisans near future are as follows: complete workforce participated in handloom industry; number of men, women and children engaged in this sector; distribution of handloom employees by job status; distribution of weaver by sex and by character of participation (full period to part time); exports of allied employees by sex and by character of participation (total time-part time); supply of employees by age-groups; supply of handloom families by number of days worked annually; admissions of weaver families by percent of overall income based on handloom; contribution of hand­loom to complete family income; average earning of handloom families; Competition from power loom industry; struggling of co-operatives societies; ineffective implementation of government plans; illiteracy and poverty among weavers, etc. [1–3, 6]. Various schemes have been launched by Ministry of Textiles, Government of India to cater those issues as: National Handloom Development Programme; Concessional Credit for Handloom SectorsWeavers Mudra Scheme; Block Level Cluster Projects; Marketing Incentives; Handloom Marketing Assistance; Deendayal Hastkala Sankul (Trade Centre & Museum), Vanarasi; Promotion of India Handloom Brand (IHB) and Handloom Mark; Yarn supply Scheme; ERP and E-Dhaga App; Handloom Welfare measures; Handloom weavers Comprehensive Welfare Scheme (Mahatma Gandhi Bunkar Bima Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana, and Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana); Health Insurance Scheme; Educational facilities to the children of handloom weavers by IGNOU and National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) and 75% fee concession for SC, ST, BPL, and women weaver’s families. Outreach Programmes for weavers; Bunkar Mitra helpline; Comprehensive Handloom Cluster Development Scheme; Implementation of Handlooms (Reservation of Articles for Production Act, 1985); and Awards and Recognitions (Sant Kabir Award, National Merit Certificates) [2]. The high economic growth has resulted in higher disposable income. This has resulted in an increase in demand for goods developing a massive domestic sector. The national market for clothing and lifestyle goods, now estimated in US$ 85 billion, is anticipated to achieve the US $160 billion by 2025. The Indian cotton textile market is forecast to exhibit a steady increase in FY2017–18, supported by steady input costs, healthy capacity usage, and continuous domestic demand. However, India remains on the rear seat. It’s noted that Asian countries export the majority of the fabric and apparel to Europe, North America, USA, etc.

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  131

6.6 Challenges for Handloom Textile Waste Handloom textile business struggles for waste production from soft fiber wastes, yarn spinning (hard fiber) wastes, beaming wastes, off-cuts, packaging, spools, and creels. Wastes made after spinning and twisting and at the practice of weaving are known as hard waste. Handloom weaving was performed by both genders but men outnumbered women. The women of the home would spin the thread they desired and done finishing. Later, women chose to weave; then they got their thread from the spinning mill, and working as out workers on a piecework contract. Over time competition from the power looms drove down the piece rate and they existed in increasing poverty [7].

6.7 Opportunities Towards Handloom Textile Sector Handloom and handicraft industries employ 15 million individuals and provide a livelihood to a number of the weakest segments of their society. They embody the cultural heritage and customs of India. With advancement, raising per capita incomes and change in popular tastes, the scale and share of production in this sector are experiencing a decline. It’s required to make sure that the poorer sections that are dependent for their livelihood handloom and handicraft don’t encounter distress. It’s also required to make certain these wealthy crafts and customs endure with higher wages as per capita income from the country rises. This could be possible only as long as the requirement for those products at higher costs reflecting higher salary is cultivated both at the domestic as well as global sector. This might demand imaginative and ongoing promotional campaigns. Recognizing the value and employment addition possible for the textile and handloom industry, many State Governments have come out for their particular Textile policies tailored to bring investment in particular sub-segments and specific regions within the State. This is a good development for the industry. To accomplish their whole potential, the programs and schemes of the Ministry of Textiles require the collaboration and assistance of the State Government. All these are helpful and are contributing to the rising growth and evolution of the business. For the scale, and expansion momentum that’s envisaged, these strategies have to be scaled up considerably. In addition, they require re-engineering and re-­calibration to match the ambitious aims being adopted.

132  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Ayisha Enterprises Hyderabad based Indian company established in 1991 and reckoned among the most well-known producers of quality ensured handloom waste material. Handloom waste material is broadly utilized in a variety of industries like automobile, printing, and many more. Aside from that, handloom waste material could be availed with the prestigious customers at economical rates. This company is largely engaged in production, trading, and provides a quality guaranteed variety of cotton yarn waste, banian yarn waste, white denim yarn waste, color hosiery, and overlock stitching waste in a variety of colors and sizes according to customer requirements. Range, created from notable garment mills and spinning mills in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and various textile regions in India. It gathered in strict compliance with the requirements of customers and marketplace requirements. It set up a solid manufacturing unit in our assumptions, which sprawls over an area of 11,000 sq. ft. Outfitted with the requisite machines and technology, it’s a high manufacturing capability of 100 MT per month. In addition, the most essential component of its development and achievement is a well-organized warehousing section, wherein complete range of accumulated yarn waste and hosiery cutting is correctly manufactured, segregated, and sorted for prepared dispatch [8].

6.8 Unraveling the Weaver’s Scenarios: A Case Study on Bhagaiya, Jharkhand The main aim of this survey was to study every data and lively component of the craft status in Bhagaiya, Jharkhand which may bring an important role in the progression of the craft and the craftsmen. The attention of the crucial purpose of this research is to understand about the present distribution chain, to acquire insight via a diagnostic research to particular realities, learning and resources, and the insight of the handloom sector. Moreover, we’ve also focus on the region to aware of the gap between the past and the current scenario of this craft, to examine the difference between the supply and demand, to find out the changes and advancement in the design of the products. Bhagaiya is a village Panchayat at Thakurgangti block at Godda district of Jharkhand. The area is called “Teen Jilo ka Sangam” as three districts: Bhagalpur, Godda, and Sahibganj boundary the region of the area. Bhagaiya is the hub of traditional handloom silk manufacturers and weavers. Throughout survey for a week, we discovered that a large

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  133 part of the households were involved in weaving. The village men use to weave the cloth while the females of this village have been involved in the pre-weaving procedure. Once the cloth was woven, it had been delivered to Bhagalpur for final finishing and market of the item. Survey on weaver’s practice shows that the story of the weavers who’ve been practicing their tradition since the beginning. The craft has sustained in Bhagaiya for many years. It has run down in the family as tradition. Each and every weaver has his very own narrative on how they hold on to this pitlooms and traditional designs, which is represented from the case analysis. This survey can help give a stage to understand and believe the strength, weakness, opportunity, and threats of this weaver society of Bhagaiya, Jharkhand to ensure relevant agencies may approach to provide essential aids for the specific situation so that the status of weaver’s existence in India. The main job of these people of the area is beautifully weaving, silk production, and farming and that’s the reason it’s called Resham Nagar. Weaving has come to be the family action of these people. Each of the members of this household brings about the weaving action. The region is abundant in the creation of Tussar yarn, even aside from this, Eri, Muga, and Mulberry can also be utilized. The production is currently marketed in India and as well as overseas.

6.8.1 Preparation of Ghicha Silk Yarns The dry cocoons are brought from the marketplace of Jagdalpur, Chattisgarh at the rate of Rs.6-7 per piece. The cocoons are known as “Goti” in the local language. The dried cocoons, soda, water, and sugar are boiled together. The quality of silk depends on the time given to the boiling process, more the boiling, more the softness of silk. The ghicha silk threads are subsequently extracted out of the boiled cocoons by pulling and rubbing on the thighs, or tile called Khapra in the local language. This job is completely performed manually from the female members of their household. No part of cocoon get wasted, the left overs are dried and again sold in the market and used as design innovation by the weavers.

6.8.2 Bobbin, Pirn Winding, and Weaving i.

Natua: A wooden framed conical spool used to wrap the yarn around it. ii. Rehti: A wooden small-sized charkha.

134  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles iii. Bobbin or Pirn: Small cylindrical spool to wrap yarn around it so that it can be used in weaving. iv. Charkhi (Wooden or iron): A tool used to transfer yarn from hank to bobbin. v. Winding Machine: An iron-framed machine that runs from electricity and does the work of Charkhi. It is very efficient and systematic compared to charkha. After the yarn is extracted from cocoons, they are dried in sunlight. The dried yarns are then wrapped on a tool, locally called as “Natua”. From Natua, it is transferred to “Rehti” which does the work of charkha for the making of the hank. The hanks are tied in bundles and dried in sunlight and then transferred to bobbin with the help of Charkhi. Now, this bobbin is used in the shuttle which in the later stage as the weft thread (refer Figure 6.1). In the weaving process, the male members of the village were involved from setting up loom till the fabric was woven which involved the use of Korean silk yarn used as warp. The reason why they use Korean silk is because of the translucent nature and higher strength of the yarn. The translucent nature of the warp yarn gives the fabric an even and more colorful tone. Mainly, the fabrics were woven in the plain weave but some members of the village also practiced twill and its derivative weave types (Figure 6.2). There are mainly three types of products which are: Tussar ghicha dress material, Sarees, and Stole. Mostly, Tussar Ghicha which is also called as TG, is always in demand in India. Most of the weavers weave

Figure 6.1  Pirns with ghicha silk winding.

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  135

Figure 6.2  Artisan preparing the loom for weaving.

this product only. It is the fabric containing tussar as warp yarn and ghicha as weft yarn. This dress material is mainly used for shirts and kurta. The materials are exported to Delhi, Bangalore, and Kolkata, mostly where the demand for TG is high. Earlier only plain sarees were weaved in the loom but in the past few years, weavers and designers have introduced new designs. Sarees are made of various designs, some are made totally using ghicha silk, some are made with pallu having ghicha silk, and some have borders of zari (Figure 6.3).

Figure 6.3  Tussar silk saree.

136  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

6.8.3 Design Innovations and Market Analysis One of the recently introduced design is creating Madhubani painting on the sarees. These sarees are weaved along with the Madhubani painting that is performed on it from the artist. The colors used for the painting are all acrylic colors. In the beginning, the artist sketches the entire painting with black color or pen and after that they begin filling colors in it. Once the painting is finished, it’s retained to dry. Following the drying process, it’s packed and delivered to the marketplace. Largely, this painting has been performed on the background of light colors, i.e., original ghicha silk sarees. It includes a huge demand and higher range. Another newly introduced layout is the design created from the remaining portion of this cocoon. After the thread is produced of the cocoon, the remaining portion is dried and then utilized in the sarees aanchal area to make a gorgeous texture. It’s chiefly performed on colored sarees. They are put so at a regular space to make a lovely dashed design. The pieces of cocoons are put between the warp yarns at equal distance and then beating has been completed. It takes 4–5 days to weave this design in saree. They are getting Rs. 550 per saree to weave that particular design. Embroideries can also be done on silk cloth. Sarees and shawls could be observed with exquisite embroideries. Embroidery requires a new pair of colored threads and distinct artists are required do this job, the rate for materials needed and labor price makes the product costly. This is why fewer individuals make these products. No one wants to buy this costly material in the local area so they basically make it only when order is given to them. But very few weavers weave these new designer products. Most of them still want to follow the traditional design that was made by their earlier generation. Some young weavers wish to modify the old school weaving design and introduce some fresh and innovative ideas so that weaving can sustain in the future (refer Figure 6.4).

(a)

(b)

Figure 6.4  (a) Artist Monica Kumari with her Madhubani painted saree (b) weaver working with leftover cocoons in the saree.

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  137 The market for the ghicha silk sector in the Jharkhand area is negligible in comparison to the produce. Market gains mainly during festivals and marriages. The average cost of one meter of cloth is Rs. 300/-. The marketplace for the typical weavers is depends on Mahajan or even the dealers who reside in the same village as the weavers. The Mahajan supply these weavers with the yarns and take the finished product from them. The majority of the weavers within this area are working as labor for all those Mahajan or dealers. They work for the salary wages as per the saree. The labor cost of weaving a saree is Rs.275 to Rs.350. A sari price is around Rs1000–1500 locally, which, when delivered to the bulk market, were Rs1800–2500. Though there are a few weavers that are making an effort to create their own living by purchasing raw materials and making their own products. The weavers also take the support of these e-commercial platforms. Predominantly, there are male members of the village who are involved in weaving and the females of the village were responsible for thigh reeling. The majority of the weavers belonged to the middle age group. Optimum income bracket is Rs.4000–7000. The maximum numbers of the weavers obtain the education higher than the primary level. Most of the weavers are well experienced (refer Figure 6.5). AGE 15-30

30-50

ABOVE 50 0%

18%

EDUCATION

GENDER

0-15

MALE

Primary Secondary Illitrate

FEMALE

14%

27%

34% 86%

55%

INCOME 0-4000 4001-7000 7001-Above 20%

7% 73%

50%

16%

EXPERIENCE 0-20 Yrs 20-40 Yrs 40-Above 17%

38%

45%

Figure 6.5  Market survey analysis for the ghicha silk in the Jharkhand region.

138  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

6.8.4 SWOT Analysis of Bhagaiya Weaver’s, Jharkhand in India Strength i. ii. iii. iv.

Availability of skilled handloom weavers. Involvement of the whole family in the weaving process. Ancient traditional technique is still preserved. Weaving is done in their home so no extra rent expense is made for a work station. v. The demand for silk products in the higher income group. Weakness i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Unorganized sector. Lack of credit for the weavers. Lack of awareness about the modern world’s demands. Lack of a platform to showcase products outside the village. Weavers do not have direct contact with the consumers. The finishing of the products is not done in the same unit.

Opportunity i. ii. iii. iv.

Product diversification. The popularity of outfits designed with silk. Changes in designs according to the trend. Organizing small fairs or markets so that weavers can interact directly with the consumers. v. Linking weavers to the market directly. Threats i. Power loom is the biggest threat to the sector. ii. Competition from the silk of China and other southern states of India. iii. Lack of interest among weavers as they do not get sufficient wages. iv. Weavers do not want their future generations to carry. The handloom industry in India has gained everlasting set up by rise in its market demand. Considering that the Jharcraft was set up, the weavers including their families are provided with various subsidies and

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  139 government policies. They’re also provided with skill education in a variety of areas of fabrics. The majority of the weavers have looms installment in their homes provided by the Jharcraft institution. The most recent change and advancement in patterns and design have created a trend and demand of these products. This reveals the narrative of the weavers who’ve been practicing their own customs generation after generation. The way they still hold on to pit looms and traditional designs are mesmerizing and every weaver has their own story.

6.9 Opportunities for Handloom Weavers Using Natural Resources Handloom fabrics attained functional properties from the waste natural plant sources like coloration, antibacterial, ultraviolet protection, and fire retardant properties with coconut shell extract, Sterculia foetida fruit shell extract, Delonix regia stem shell extract, temple flower waste extract, etc. Employing natural sources on fabric materials dependent on the use of plant, starch, protein, chitosan, banana pseudostem sap, coconut shell extract, fruit shell extract, stem shell extract, etc., based natural biomolecules are critically summarized and reviewed. Waste was used as plant organic sources such as coloration of cloth materials utilizing Delonix regia stem shell extract, Sterculia foetida fruit shell extract, coconut shell extract, etc. on various handloom cloth [5, 9–12].

6.9.1 Opportunities for Dyeing of Handloom Textile Using Natural Waste Plant Resources Natural coloration in cloth materials mostly work performed with flowers, bark, roots, etc. Waste was used as plant natural sources for coloration of fabric materials utilizing Delonix regia stem shell extract, Sterculia foetida fruit shell extract, coconut shell extract, and temple waste flower on various handloom textiles. Natural dyes have gained significance due to their easy accessibility, the very simple procedure for application, color uniformity, and much better fastness properties. Natural dyes are eco-friendly as they are biodegradable, renewable, skin-friendly, and helpful to the health of the wearer. Natural dyes can be used for dyeing almost all types of handloom yarn and fabrics. Typically, the dye isn’t substantive into the fiber and so an additional measure of mordanting is demanded, which makes it a two step

140  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles procedure. Natural dyes are classified into three groups: vegetable, animal, and mineral source. About 500 vegetable source dyes and coloring matter derived from the bark, root, leaf, or fruit of plants as revealed in Table 6.2. Handloom fibers, mainly cellulosic, do not have much affinity for most natural dyes, and hence, these are treated with a mordant salt. Mordants are the substances that have an affinity for both textile fibers as well as a dyestuff. Thus, they perform to connect the fiber to the dyestuff. The dyes that do not have any affinity or have a minimal affinity for fiber can be applied through mordants. In the case of dyes possessing an affinity for the fiber, the usage of mordants increases the fastness properties by forming an insoluble complex of the dye and the mordant within the fibers, which enhances the color. Mordanting is almost compulsory for cotton as it is more difficult to dye than wool due to the absence of amino and carboxyl functionalities that could act as attachment sites for dye molecules. The mordants are categorized into metal salts or metallic mordants, oil mordants, and tannins. Different colors from the same dyestuff can be obtained by varying the metal ion in metallic mordants, but they may also vary in fastness properties. Vegetable oils or turkey red oil (TRO) are such a class of mordants. TRO as mordant is mainly used in the dyeing of deep red color with madder. Tannins are polyphenolic compounds having a capacity of condensation. Hydroysable pyrogallol tannins exemplified by “tannic acid” belong to this class of compounds. More commonly used tannins are myrobalan (harda) and galls/sumach.

Table 6.2  Natural dyestuffs obtained from the different vegetable origin. Plant origin

Dyestuff

Root

Turmeric, Madder (Manjistha), Onions, Beetroot

Bark/Branches

Purple bark, Sappan wood, Shillicorai, Khair, Red, Sandalwood

Leaf

Indigo, Henna, Eucalyptus, Tea, Cardamon, Coral Jasmine, Lemon Grass

Flowers (Petals)

Marigold, Dahlia, Tesu, Kusum

Fruit/Seeds

Latkan, Pomegranate rind, Beetle nut, Myrobolan (Harda)

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  141 Sterculia foetida is a tropical plant belonging to the Sterculiaceae family. Species distribution of Sterculia foetida as documented in agroforest tree database in which the native range in India, Taiwan, Thailand, United States (Hawaii), Indonesia, Ghana, Australia, Mozambique, Togo, Bangladesh, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malaysia, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Uganda, and Yemen [13]. Tree, seeds and fruit of the Sterculia foetida are shown in Figure 6.6. The open segments look a lot like woody, valentine-heart-shaped bowls as shown in Figure 6.6 (c). The Latin name Sterculia foetida is a tropical skunk tree, belonging to the Sterculiaceae family, with a straight trunk that can grow 50–70-feets tall, which has 2,000 types of species also known as Javaolieve, Kelumpang, Bangar, and Indian almond. The open segments of fruit look a lot like woody, heart-shaped bowls, and found in most of the countries. Alum, myrobalan (harda) and copper sulphate were used as mordants. The coloring substances of Sterculia foetida fruit shell contain saponins, phenols, tannins, terpenoids, glycoside, and flavoinds, and the positive test results on the phytochemical constituents of the same have been reported in literature [12]. Tannins and flavonoids are considered to be very useful substances during the dyeing process because of their ability to fix dyes on handloom fabrics. The Delonix regia tree (refer Figure 6.7) gives the warmth of a tropical climate but can also withstand drought and salinity. It sheds leaves during the drought, but in other areas, it retains its leaf coverage to be virtually evergreen. The plant specimen Delonix regia stem shell was collected from the carpenter shop. Alum and myrobalan (harda) were used as mordants. Color depth increased with an increase in Delonix regia stem shell extract (DSE) concentration indicating DSE have coloration properties. It has been reported on past literature that adding a mordant like DSE in case of natural color based textile dyeing or finishing can

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6.6  Sterculia foetida (a) tree, (b) fruit with seeds, and (c) dry fruit shell.

142  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles (a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6.7  Delonix regia (a) tree, (b) stem, and (c) outer layer of stem.

drastically enhance color value or (K/S vlaue or also called as Kubelka Munk value) for the final product. DSE in combination with alum and myrobalan (harda) mordant on handloom silk fabric produced good improvement in color depth as they showed shifts in their tones resulting in the beautiful gamut of color. The coloring substance of DSE contains natural tannins, polyphenols, and other phytochemical constituents. Tannin contains phenolic compounds that can form hydrogen bonds with the carboxyl group of protein fibers. Additionally, there is a possibility that the anionically charged phenolic groups form an ionic bond with cationic (amino groups) in the silk protein substrate [11]. The overall fastness ratings reported in terms of washing fastness, light fastness, and rubbing fastness achieved good to very good in range for most of the fabrics used in handloom textiles. As a green coconut shell is widely available in India and all other developing countries, it is mainly considered as a waste product as it is thrown away after drinking coconut water as shown in Figure 6.8. Green coconut waste was collected from the local market and the mesocarp of green coconut was cut into pieces, and then the sap was extracted out using an extractor. Waste coconut shell extract (CSE) was yellowish-brown in color and showed a pH value of 4.5. It was made (a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6.8  (a) Coconut tree, (b) green coconut fruit, and (c) green coconut fruit shell.

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  143 neutral (pH 7) and alkaline (pH 10) by the addition of anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) as shown in Figure 6.9. Fresh scoured jute fabrics were then impregnated with different concentrations of CSE [original as it is extracted (CSE-A), double concentrated (CSE-B) by evaporating the extract to half of its volume] at 90°C with material to liquor ratio of 1:15 for 60 min. Treated jute fabric was then dried in air at room temperature. The color obtained for CSE-treated handloom fabric showed a good result. The highest color depth value was obtained in the case of pH 10 both for CSE-A and CSE-B. The color depth (K/S) values increased with an increase in pH and concentration as the coloring substances of CSE are the natural tannins and polyphenols present in it. Handloom textile yarn/fabric dyed with CSE due to the tannin richness and the presence of polyphenols. The fastness rating of CSE-treated handloom cotton and silk fabric dyed at different pH and concentrations were found to be very good [9, 10]. Natural dyes are colorants derived from plants based on the survey report reveals that 40% of the total productions of the flower are unsold and wasted everyday which is thrown in water or dumped which also creates water pollution. An attempt was made to isolate natural dyes from the flowers of hibiscus and marigold and apply them on cotton and cotton/ silk blend fabrics with the help of different mordants like alum, harda, and ferrous sulphate. Cotton and cotton/silk samples were dyed with yellow and orange marigold in fresh, dry and pulverized form. The depth of shade of marigold was studied using K/S values. Dry petals gave the highest color yield as the K/S values obtained on the fabric were maximum. It was also confirmed that alum as metal mordant gave brighter shades with both yellow and orange marigold flowers, while hardaand FeSO4 gave darker and duller shades. Hibiscus flowers which were obtained as temple waste have also good coloration properties. The fastness properties of all these dyeing were found to be well within the accepted limits. Thus, waste

pH = 4.5

Figure 6.9  Extraction process and color of CSE at different pH.

pH = 7

pH = 10

144  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles flowers of both these types can be used for the coloration of cotton and cotton/silk [5].

6.9.2 Opportunities for Value Added Handloom Fabric Using Natural Resources Cotton fabric was printed with Rubia cordifolia, Laccifer lacca, Acacia catechu, Punica granatum, Terminalia chebula, Curcuma longa and Camellia sinensis in presence of aluminum sulphate, ferrous sulphate, and copper sulphate as mordants employing a simultaneous mordanting technique followed by steaming of the printed fabric at 102°C for 30 min, whereas Indigofera tinctoria was applied in absence of any such salts. Such printing technique appears to be superior as compared to traditional processes with respect to ease of application, the storage stability of paste, color fastness to light, rubbing, and wash. It appears that such hand-printed fabric has the potential for giving a crafty look to various handloom fabrics used for apparel and home furnishing purpose. In fact, it can also be used for embellishing finished garments such as t-shirt, jackets, etc., also for many other products like bags, pillows, cushion cover, or anything made up of fabrics just by adding designs and colors to them. In view of the use of various salts at concentrations much below their respective maximum permissible limits, such painted cotton fabrics can also be considered as eco-friendly product and is worth as labeled eco-textile [14]. Efforts were also made to create khadi cloths more appealing with advanced layouts through printing using colorants extracted from organic sources. Within the following guide, a low-cost and user-friendly technology for extraction of natural dyes from native all-natural sources of southern portion of our nation was invented. These dye options will be used for printing of eri cotton and silk cloths in existence of different eco-friendly mordants so as to come up with innovative designs for markets using great color fastness possessions [4]. Batik’s work on fabric stuff has gained fame among the young generations that immediately adapted the easy-to-do way of individualizing their tops, pants, jeans, and casual clothes. Consequently, product diversification through batik use natural dyes is among those strategies to make a rewarding effect in the handloom goods for ever-changing trend marketplace [15]. As a fact, among distinct mordanting procedures, a simultaneous use of salt generates the most balanced enhancements in relation to dye receptivity and color fastness properties evaluated when it comes to light and

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  145 washing of their dyed substrates. Among the mordanting agents utilized, aluminum sulphate and ferrous sulphate are found to be superior in comparison with magnesium sulphate [16]. Acacia auriculiformis could be efficiently utilized for simultaneous dyeing and finishing protein and cellulosic fabric substrates. Silk and wool fabrics dyed with Acacia auriculiformis show excellent color fastness to washing and good light fastness properties. The phytochemical studies suggests the existence of saponin, phenols, tannin, and glycosides from the aqueous extract of this colorant. There’s an improvement in surface color strength (measured concerning K/S values) for most of the dyed fabrics with the increase in dye concentration. The values of a* and b* indicate the color of the dyed cloths, which are at the red-yellow quadrant [17]. Delonix regia stem shell (DSE) extract inherently showed quite good antibacterial properties both against S. aureus along with E. coli on various cloth fabrics. The percentage (%) decrease in bacteria increased from the use of various mordants. To check the durability of house laundering, the antibacterial action of post-mordanted and with no mordanted dyed cotton and silk cloths were analyzed after ten washes. It was noticed that the greatest colonies decrease % was detected in the instance of myrobalan accompanied closely by alum mordants against E. coli. The reduction percent in colonies from S. aureus along with E. coli was more than 90%, even after 10 washes in the case of samples mordanted with alum and myrobalan of this dyed sample. The coloring element in DSE has strong potential of antibacterial action not only in the presence of two chosen mordants but also when no mordant has been utilized [11]. Sterculia foetida fruit shell extract (FSE) dyed on different fabrics (silk, cotton, wool, linen) without and using three distinct mordants of alum, copper sulphate, and myrobalan. The results clearly imply that the treated cloth dyed with FSE inherently revealed excellent antibacterial properties both against S. aureus and E. coli. The percentage reduction in bacteria with the use of various mordants. It could be observed that the highest colonies drop % was detected in the presence of copper sulphate mordant followed closely by myrobalan along with alum mordants against E.  coli. Even after 10 washes, the decrease percent in colonies was very good to good for distinct fabrics. The antibacterial property of the treated fabric may be a result of the tannins, within FSE that was discovered to be 4.71% and those polyphenolic compounds which have been shown to possess antibacterial action. The existence of flavonoids from the extraction, in addition to terpenoid along with saponin, has

146  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles been also found in fruit shell extract, out of which terpenoid behave as an antibacterial agent against the S. aureus along with E. coli whereas saponins that are glycosides offer inhibitory effects on S. aureus bacteria. The EDS analysis additionally noted that FSE comprises metal ions like chromium, aluminum, magnesium, potassium, calcium, and chlorine which could be accountable for getting good antibacterial property even after 10 washes for FSE dyed fabric [12, 18]. Coconut shell extract (CSE) revealed quite good antibacterial properties against S. aureus and E. coli with over 90% bacterial reduction. Additionally, numerous metallic salts and metallic oxides also help in improving the antibacterial property present in CSE. Tannin-like polyphenolic compounds have been reported to possess antibacterial action. Flavonoids are hydroxylated polyphenolic compounds known to be produced by plants in response to microbial infections. Terpenoids although chiefly used because of their aromatic qualities also have been proven to be a possible agent for preventing bacteria. Green coconut shell (mesocarp) is full of various kinds of plant secondary metabolites notably antioxidants, that are crucial for microbial infection resistance to protect the coconut from biotic attack. Fiber has a powerful capability to make chelating complexes using metal ion as a result of presence of -OH and -COOH groups. Hydroxyl (-OH) group of jute and cotton fiber can form hydrogen bonding along with small Van der Waals interaction if it’s treated with tannin. Additionally, metal ions, tannin along with the hydroxyl group of jute and cotton fiber form strong coordinate bond between them on treatment with metallic salts [9–10, 19]. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is one of the primary causes of degradation of textile materials due to its very large surface volume ratio. Textile fibers (mostly for silk) having poor swelling properties due to its very fine nature and a greater number of fibers in the cross-section of yarn results in higher swelling due to capillary absorption and, in turn, less UV transmittance. Ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) of untreated cotton and silk cloth which revealed no protective abilities and causes transmission of solar radiation. There’s an improvement of UPF rating of cotton and silk fabric after dyeing with Delonix regia stalk shell extract, coconut shell extract and Sterculia foetida fruit shell extract in the case of without mordant and also with different mordanted fabric. Analysis of results revealed that silk and cotton cloth mordanted with myrobalan revealed an excellent UPF rating. After 10 washes, treated silk along with the cotton fabric showed good UPF property not just with various mordants but also without mordant. Deep shade dyeing as a result of presence of tannin also can help increase in UPF

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  147 property. Additionally, good to very good UPF property after dyeing might be a result of this very thin coating layer of the colored cloth. UPF property increased with a deep coloration which could be a result of the abundance in tannin. Polyphenols and anthocyanins are reported as possible effective agents to prevent ultraviolet radiation present in these extracts [9–12].

6.10 Conclusions The handloom fabric is highly fragmented and labor-intensive. It’s highly competitive and the current situation needs the handloom weavers benchmark their goods with the finest not only in India but also into the entire world and try to update the quality and manufacturing processes. Driven by insatiable consumer desire for newness and variety, the model of how we make and buy challenges and chances are constantly with handloom textile. Nowadays, more than ever, customers are purchasing fewer handloom clothing and maintaining them for longer time. Today, we are in need of a system which combines brand new business models with advanced design, technologies, and substances that remove waste out of handloom fabrics. Cost-effective and ecofriendly technology to the extraction of natural dyes from recognized resources was developed.

Acknowledgments The authors sincerely acknowledge to third year students from the department of Textile Design of National Institute of Fashion TechnologyPatna, namely, Diksha, Kriti Verma, and Ankita Dasgupta, for helping and sharing their valuable information about the “Unraveling Weaver’s Scenario: A Case Study on Bhagaiya, Jharkhand”, a parallel classroom exercise.

References 1. Agnihotri, M.P., Dead End at the Silk Road: The Possible Revival of the Banaras Handloom Industry. Prabandhan Indian J. Manage., 8, 8, 30–38, 2015.

148  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 2. Annual Report, Ministry of Textiles, Government of India, 2017–18. http:// texmin.nic.in/documents/annual-report 3. Bhalla, K., Kumar, T., Rangaswamy, J., An Integrated Rural Development Model based on Comprehensive Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) of KhadiHandloom Industry in Rural India. Procedia CIRP, 69, 493–498, 2018. 4. Banerjee, A.N., Pandit, P., Maulik, S.R., Eco-friendly approaches to rejuvenate the Khadiudyog in Assam, Indian J. Tradit. Know., 18, 2, 346–350, 2019. 5. Pandit, P., Gayatri, T.N., Maiti, S., Green and Sustainable Textile Materials Using Natural Resources. Green Sustainable Adv. Mater. Process. Charact., 1, 213–262, Scrivener Publishing LLC, USA, 2018. 6. Ramchandra, K.P., Towards improving productivity of solapur based textsitles SMEs, Solapur University, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10603/ 73575. 7. Burnette, J., Women Workers in the British Industrial Revolution, 26 March 2008. EH.net. http://eh.net/encyclopedia/women-workers-in-the-british-industrial-revolution/ [Retrieved 15 April 2019]. 8. Handloom Waste Cloth, India mart. https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/ handloom-waste-cloth-2358634755.html 9. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., Novel method of ecofriendly single bath dyeing and functional finishing of wool protein with coconut shell extract biomolecules. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 5, 9, 8323–8333, 2017. 10. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., Development of thermally stable and hygienic colored cotton fabric made by treatment with natural coconut shell extract. J. Ind. Text., 48, 1, 87–118, 2018. 11. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., Multifunctionalised silk using Delonixregia stem shell waste. Fibers Polym., 18, 9, 1679–1690, 2017. 12. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., Application of SterculiaFoetida Fruit Shell Waste Biomolecules on Silk for Aesthetic and Wellness Properties. Fibers Polym., 19, 1, 41–54, 2018. 13. Pimbert, M.P. (Ed.), Food sovereignty, agroecology and biocultural diversity: constructing and contesting knowledge, Routledge, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, United States, 2017. 14. Maulik, S.R. and Agarwal, K., Painting on handloom cotton fabric with colourants extracted from natural sources. Indian J. Traditional Knowl., 13, 3, 589–595, 2014. 15. Maulik, S.R., Bhowmik, L., Agarwal, K., Batik on handloom cotton fabric with natural dye. Indian J. Traditional Knowl., 13, 4, 788–794, 2014. 16. Maulik, S.R., Application of Natural Dyes on Protein Fibers Following Pad– Steam Methods. J. Inst. Eng. (India) Ser. E, 100, 1, 1–9, 2019. 17. Chakraborty, L., Pandit, P., Maulik, S.R., Acacia auriculiformis-A natural dye used for simultaneous coloration and functional finishing on textiles. J. Cleaner Prod., 118921, 1–7, 2020.

Challenges of Handloom Textiles’ Waste  149 18. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., A novel natural source Sterculiafoetida fruit shell waste as colorant and ultraviolet protection for linen. J. Nat. Fibers, 15, 3, 337–343, 2018. 19. Teli, M.D., Pandit, P., Basak, S., Coconut shell extract imparting multifunction properties to ligno-cellulosic material. J. Ind. Text., 47, 6, 1261–1290, 2018.

7 Business Paradigm Shifting: Opportunities in the 21st Century on Fashion From Recycling and Upcycling Pintu Pandit*, Kunal Singha, Lokesh Kumar, Sanjay Shrivastava and Vinayak Yashraj National Institute of Fashion Technology, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Mithapur Farms, Patna, Bihar, India

Abstract

Textile waste has become an alarming challenge for the textile and apparel sector. The effect of the exponential growth of waste with long-term decay time, toxic leaching, and methane emissions is significantly harmful to landfill areas. There is an environmental responsibility for designers and manufacturers to acknowledge this level of textile waste and address these issues with solutions that intersect the traditional design, production and end-use approaches or create new ones. In today fast-lifestyle based world where everything upgrade itself in a faster pace, the idea of upcycled or refashioned apparel is become a need of the hour. Moreover, it is a continuously growing trend and is one of the most sustainable things people can do in fashion. As upcycling makes use of already existing pieces, it often uses few resources in its creation and actually keeps “unwanted” items out and the waste stream. The fashion industry is under danger for its massive waste problem and; the big business is frequently called out for being one of the largest polluters globally. Keywords:  Recycling, sustainable, textile waste, fashion industry, upcycling

*Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (151–176) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

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152  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

7.1 Introduction Sustainable fashion has a few names, such as repurposed clothing, reused clothing, and recycled clothing. Recycled clothing is a great way to spruce up old worn out or damaged materials into the brand spanking new pieces. Recycling is one of the most sustainable ways to produce clothing. There are massive benefits to upcycling and recycling clothes as availability of raw materials required, limiting environmental damages, saving water use, chemical use, and reducing carbon emissions. The biggest benefit of all is that conscious consumers and ethical shoppers know that together they have assisted in helping out our planet and end up with exceptional individual pieces to match their needs [1]. Recycling can be done using either pre-consumer or post-consumer waste or a combination of the two. Pre-consumer waste is produced while items are being manufactured and post-consumer waste results from the finished product reaching the end of its useful life for the consumer. If not discarded as trash, unwanted apparel is often donated to thrift stores. In addition, massive amounts of donated clothing that are not deemed as “re-sellable” in the U.S. are shipped to developing countries. Many people have the idea that they are helping cloth the poor in these countries, access to the Internet and cell phones has made many of these countries more fashion-forward recently, and they may have no interest in our American cast-offs. Since this model relies on a waste economy where instead of mending clothes or leasing clothes, items are bought and discarded [1, 2].

7.2 Importance of Recycling Recycling is finding another use for an existing garment, or in the case of textiles, it sometimes also means converting (waste) into reusable materials. Garment recycling generally involves finding another use or user by re-entering a new phase for its life beginning at retail. The loop to recycle therefore closes towards the end of the supply chain and frequently re-­ enters the market through charities and collection points. The process of recycling textiles can also include the breakdown or grinding of high-grade materials into their purest raw forms or substrates. Recycling technology is seen as important in combating scarcity of raw materials and offers companies additional ways of managing their supply of raw materials. Recycling however includes the performance of a value-added activity on the material or disassembled garment in such a way as to create a product of higher quality or value than the original. In recycling, the new life

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  153 cycle commences with design and may require a extensive manufacturing cycle as with a new product. The time frame for recycling can be extended to allow for sourcing, disassembly, and reconstitution [2].

7.2.1 Benefits of Recycling and Upcycling Recycling stops adding stuff to world that is already overwhelmed with material things. It also reuses materials that end up in the landfill in creative and innovative ways—producing original often one-of-a-kind items from what many consider to be waste. It is a way for companies and designers to be more efficient with leftover materials such as upholstery scraps or vintage textiles and to give new life to worn-out jeans and tattered T-shirts. Everyday apparel or runway exhibition pieces, recycling can challenge cultural codes—questioning what we consider to be trash versus fashion or beautiful versus ugly. For some, it can also be a connection to our heritage—incorporating vintage clothing or using a family heirloom to create an original piece preserving a bit of history. Recycling or upcycling plays a major role in the sustainability criteria of economic, environmental, and social dimensions. They underwrite a closed-loop model that create idea for most eternally in a universe of limited resources. For the fashion sector, recycling contributes to the elimination of waste through reuse of materials and finished garments, conservation of the environment in particular reduction in landfill and pollution through redirection of waste to alternative uses and preservation of natural resources including water and natural fibers through a model in which the same materials can be used over and over again. As the market moves away from staple and towards continuous filaments, the opportunities to grind blend and extrude fibers offer enormous potential for innovation in recycling technologies in addition to economic stimulus and employment. Securing continuous supply would also have a flow-on effect to upcycling, which often commences at the beginning of the material development process. Upcycling therefore has an inherent stake in other sustainable activities such as design for reuse, reduction of carbon and water footprints, reduction of air pollution (greenhouse gases), use of renewable energy, ethical treatment of labor, adoption of product safety standards, safe use of dye stuffs, and chemical treatments; use of biodegradable packaging and elimination of animal cruelty in the processing of fiber, leather, and furs. There is one other global incentive driving the recycling/upcycling trend. According to the United Nations report released in June 2013, World Population Prospects: the 2012 Revision, the current world population

154  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles of 7.2 billion is projected to reach 9.6 billion by 2050. With the rise in affluence of the emerging countries, fear mounts about the strain on finite resources particularly natural resources. The questions being asked are “Where will the fiber, materials, and items be derived to meet the demand and how much will be needed?” The fashion sector simply must find a way to deal with the issues it is facing, a scarcity of supply of raw materials and an abundance of waste products. To do this, it must identify and measure the extent of the problem by quantifying and reporting on global trade using units and weight.

7.2.2 The Creators of the Recycling and Upcycling World The world of recycling has exploded in the past few years, and there is a plethora of inspirational design inside this face of eco-fashion. An excellent summary of many designers throughout the world can be found in the newly released book “ReFashioned” by Sass Brown. In addition, a few companies are recognizing the combination of nostalgia and sentimentality many people have about their clothing and seizing the opportunity to create memorable objects from apparel. The value-added benefits that are gained with upcycling are quickly driving it to a good position in the aspirational fashion market. As a result, it is slowly consigning recycling/ upcycling to mass consumer-driven activity in the sustainability continuum. As efforts to grapple with continuity of supply of recycled materials (feedstock) grind their way up the sustainable innovation ladder, “upcycling” is enjoying the freedom to soar into truly innovative materials and thanks mainly to the talent of emerging designers. These designs are hard to replicate and herald a new challenge for the luxury markets that is one of sustainable design leadership.

7.3 Fast Fashion and Slow Fashion Consumers Fast fashion is derived from the principals of quick response and refers to the way in which designs move quickly from the catwalk to store in order to capture current fashion trends. There are sustainability benefits to quick response principals in that they more accurately meet the needs of the market and reduce the risk of markdowns. However, on the down side, fast fashion has also acquired a reputation for excess and feeding an insatiable consumer demand. Slow fashion, on the other hand, is a program of designing, creating, and consuming garments for quality and longevity.

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  155 Slow fashion has gained a reputation for inspiring lengthier production schedules, ethical treatment of labor and fair payment, lower carbon footprints, and zero waste [3, 4]. It’s all for the consumer and the need for wanting the latest fashion and brands. Clothing and fashion become two different ideals. Some fashion brands try and initiate some kind of sustainable intent into their brands. However, as purchasers acknowledge the environmental attempt, they still stick to the same style and quality. Fast fashion allows our desires of luxury clothes to come true and sustainability is not something style-conscious consumers’ link to fashion. Sustainability, is what consumers need to do to conquer fast fashion. It can be explained by “making a current generation’s needs, without compromising those of future generations”. Brands that promote sustainable fashion should target the needs and wants of this generation’s style, size, and quality. Slow fashion comes with sustainability, this is a process where they support and empower workers, promote up recycling, renewable, and eco-friendly raw materials. The industry is developing “eco-fashion” to overcome the high demand, according to International Organization for Standardization (ISO), they will develop labels that can examine clothing to meet the criteria of environmentally friendly and sourced. This will allow the identification of sustainably sourced and manufactured garments to be recognized within a brand [3–6].

7.4 Impact of Fast Fashion in the Development of Sustainable Materials Fast fashion is ever increasing which puts a strain on the promotion of sustainable materials. Most sustainable fabrics are often made from natural materials that use less water and contain fewer chemicals, these are the materials, which need to be made more aware of, that they take more time to create but are worth sacrifice [7]. Most retailers have a fast fashion strategy, make it, sell it, buy it, and then dispose it. However, this is causing a major backlash on our environment from the people who produce it [8]. Fast fashion is a term that has come from high street retailers, such as Topshop, H&M, and the Spanish retail giant Zara, creating and producing their own versions of luxury fashion products. These imitations of luxury items form the basis for their trends for each season and are produced on a mass scale to sustain the “deeply held desires” among young consumers. The industry works at such a fast speed and such a huge scale that the time period from the luxury products being

156  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles shown on the catwalk to being imitated and produced by the various high street retailers and ending up in our hands is very little and in turn puts a huge strain and pressure on every part of the industry. As these garments are being made at a fast rate, the quality of fabrication and production has been compromised, and thus, the products become more disposable as new stock is always being made available to the consumer. This is the core concept of fast fashion and its function in the fashion system. The beginning of the garments starts with the actual materials used. The most used fabric is cotton that uses a quarter of pesticides used in the US. Not to mention the amount of water and energy used to wash and dry it, the environmental waste impact, and this is before it has been shipped to another country for the actual making process. There are efforts to make these more sustainable by using organic cotton, here pesticides have been removed and are made using non-toxic farming methods. Modified (GM) cotton farming sparks a huge debate, as an environmental and an ethical impact. Organic and sustainable fabrics are available which reduce energy and water consumption while keeping down CO2 emissions, these fabrics are left out by the big fast fashion brands, as they take longer to make and are carefully traced from seed to product. Other materials have been used to encourage the ethical process of sustainable fabrics; however, when looking into these fabrics, one has to take the energy use for production into consideration and the pollution it in turn gives off [9]. Even in the dyeing process, a raw material can take anywhere between 80 and 800 L of water. To conquer this, Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) have made legislation within the European Union to make manufacturers and producers to identify and verify the chemicals used in the products.

7.5 Sustainable Fabrics Going back to traditional methods of processing fabric is eco-friendlier compared to the waste just from dyeing the fabrics alone, but it is harder to cater to the mass market; however, it gives one more of an appreciation to the design and process of the fabric designer brands tend to use local handcrafted methods more as this gives the items more durability, style and quality, and also effects the economic and social side to sustainability. This works for traditional methods that use animal by-products such as wool, leather, and silk, but this costs more than making cheaper manmade fabrics that can mimic these materials.

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  157 Another method to help sustainable fabrics make an impact is ­upcycling/ recycling. Old clothes, bottles, and other manufacturing castoffs can all be included in sustainable fabrics, also high street giant Marks and Spencer’s created a suit line all made from recycled materials. Topshop has a sustainable extension line, “Reclaim” which is made by upcycling other garments, from vintage buttons to a simple cotton t-shirt and leftover stock. The clothes that get left behind are of good quality and durability that we can swap with friends or others giving that item a new lease of life. Donating and buying from charity/thrift shops is an easy way to help sustainable materials get the long use out of them and, even if they are made in a fast fashion environment and by donating these garments to third world countries that resale them on market stalls or give them to local people who need clothes that they can endure. Organic cotton is of course the obvious material that should be promoted more even if one has to pay more for it. Organic cotton is free from hazardous pesticides that damage the environment and cause severe health conditions. For a garment to be 100% organic cotton, it is not to be genetically modified (GM), which accounts for 30% of cotton increased as per ecological and societal standards [10–11]. Linen, a natural material, made from flax, which is plant-based. Linen is more difficult to iron than cotton which makes it consume more energy, but in terms of water use and harmful toxins, which makes it have much smaller “environmental profile” than organic cotton. At this point, consumers are fully aware of the environmental and social awareness in the fashion industry. To address the issues of how a brand can be sustainable they should keep in mind the “Triple Bottom Line” effect that looks at sustainability in three ways, “environmental, economic, and social sustainability”. An example of a high street store that adheres to the TBL effect and continues to develop its sustainability within its brand is H&M, the Swedish multinational retail store. They have their own sustainable program “Conscious Action”, this initiative makes consumers donate unwanted clothes to any H&M store in return for a 15% off coupon to spend in their stores. This system is made to create more jobs in less developed countries, use more recycled and environmentally friendly fabrics and to educate consumers to be more ethical to carry out this sustainable concept. They also work closely with the suppliers and include information, so that it can be tracked along the whole process. Every year, H&M releases a report on how they can promote sustainability and be a fair trade company. H&M is a massive successful retailer with more than five other sister producers [8]. They have really paved the

158  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles way for being a sustainable high street store. In the report, they outline how they are continuously trying to develop new technologies to help recycle garments; they want to find a way to make renewable blended fibers and a way to capture carbon, by investing in start-up companies such as Swedish company who help people sell their unwanted clothes. Normal retailers work in a linear model, they create the product, and the customer buys it and then throws it away. H&M works in a circular way, by-products staying in the system longer and then recycled into a new product [8]. Fast fashion and its harsh outputs not only into the environment but also the horrendous social side. Sustainable fashion help to create and reach out to a wider consumer base, which promotes their responsibility for society and the environment. Natural fibers use less energy than their synthetic counterpart but some use a bit more water; however, when using these materials, it is more beneficial because they are made in a fair trade surrounding. Like the H&M report, we should also look towards recycling as a renewable source, as it is something we can already do by clearing out our wardrobes and sending these unwanted clothes to H&M stores or places where they buy these second-hand clothes [8–13].

7.6 Challenges in Designing With Post-Consumer Clothes Reuse of post-consumer clothes heralds the most attention and in many ways has come to represent one of the first steps on the journey to sustainability. Designing with recycled garments is also something in which consumers can actively participate through donations. Each of the fashion market segments of haute couture, ready to wear, mass-market including premium, mid-market, fast fashion and discount market experience design challenges in recycling and upcycling. At the high end, the issues are in translating designs to scale, and at the low end, they are in securing a consistent supply of materials to replicate for a mass market. Sorting in terms of style, size, color, and fabric requires individual creative responses to unique challenges. The requirement of innovative material responses lends itself to creative solutions, so it is no surprise that the area of upcycling used garments is dominated by small to medium enterprises. While fashion tends not want to bother with the arduous complexities of legislation, it does operate in an artificial construct of legislation,

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  159 regulation, tax incentives, tariffs, concessions, awards, standards, provision of services, compliance, and audits introduced by all levels of Government. There are many policy changes Governments can make (NGOs and advocacy groups can undertake in persuading them) to create incentives for behavioral change within the sector. Examples of legislative levers that are or could be used to promote sustainability (recycling/upcycling) include: • waste redirection through landfill taxes; • tax deductions for donations to charities to collect waste; • harmonized system codes which facilitate trade uniformity and could make further provision for upcycled items; • stronger anti-dumping legislation to avoid trans-shipment and abandonment of responsibilities; • product stewardship incentives to encourage the return of goods to their origin where recycled product information is held; • global apparel size standards to reduce returns of online purchases; • regulation to support third-party verification and standards as a solution to the problem of non-standardized materials; • programs to encourage R&D in upcycled materials, etc., and high tech labeling to assist in sorting materials. Furthermore, quantitative methods can also be used to measure impact and improve quality of process and end product including packaging/ transportation of goods, e.g., benchmarks, indices, metrics, testing, auditing, reporting, and accounting, bearing in mind however that recycling/ upcycling adds a further layer of complexity in what is fast becoming a crowded marketplace of textile accreditations and certifications [14].

7.7 Market for Recycled Fashion Garments The market for recycled garments is difficult to assess. It is being driven by a generation that has been educated about the consequences of excess and is conscious of the finite resources of the planet. The concept of recycling is not new. In the 19th century “Rag and Bone” men scavenged for household waste and on-sold to merchants. Since then, “fabric jobbers” have sold mill ends and charitable organizations have fostered the growth of vintage and

160  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles second-hand clothing markets. According to the Textile Exchange Quick Truth, the US over 70% of the world’s population use second-hand clothing and the supply of women’s clothes is seven times greater than men. Nearly half of the municipal waste flow in developed countries is textile waste and the recovery rate comes in at approximately 15%. As a recycled item reenters the market particularly at retail, it reestablishes a cheaper value for clothes. This puts enormous downward price pressure on the front end of the supply chain and will drive new sustainable models for an apparel business [15].

7.8 Indian Upcycling/Recycling Brands: Case Study Like everything else, fashion is changing too and for the good. Many designers are taking a sustainable route and giving us reasons to take a break from fast fashion. These game-changing brands play on the concept of upcycling—a method wherein leftover fabric is used to create new products. Abraham and Thakore collection was created using discarded coke cans, discarded buttons, and X-ray films which were repurposed into sequins, etc. Their collection played on Kantha’s work (a traditional way of using old fabrics) done on grey, charcoal, and ivory fabrics. This brought a fresh change to Kantha’s work which is otherwise said to be done on printed fabric and upcycling at its best. Péro by Aneeth Arora uses local material and skills to carefully craft their awe-worthy pieces of clothing. Designer Aneeth Arora believes in creating hand-crafted pieces that are unique to the brand’s aesthetic—light, fresh, and embroidered designs that we don’t seem to get enough of. Her upcycling project “Mended with Love” received oodles of praises over its quirky, colorful pieces. Doodlage by Kriti Tula is born from a simple concept of creating unique and environmentally friendly products; Doodlage is a brand where sustainability intersects with innovativeness. The brand uses eco-friendly fabrics such as organic cotton, corn fabric, banana fabric, etc., to create their products. The brand’s soul lies in upcycling and their pieces are absolute must-haves. House of Wandering Silk brand’s foundation is its use of upcycled, handmade, and vintage materials to not only create clothing, but also jewellery, bags, and more. What we also love about this unique brand is their way of working—by choosing to partner with skilled women across selfhelp groups and NGOs from India and Asia, the brand aims to empower

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  161 women artisans. You can shop an array of clothing bags, scarves, and home décor items from their website. Fashion designer Amit Aggarwal started his label AM.IT with upcycling being the central idea. The designer used everything from recycled plastic sheets to industrial materials for his prêt line AM.IT. Crafted by Karishma Shahani, KaSha takes upcycling to a whole new level with discarded plastic bags turned into jackets, second-hand sneakers chopped and revamped into stilettos, and discarded chandeliers converted into beautiful jewellery. Skirts are hemmed with old Benarasi sari borders, and crop tops are fashioned out of discarded T-shirts and leftover fabric at this hip clothing brand, where a new style is spun out of every piece of “junk”. Boro, which is Japanese for “too good to waste”, is Paromita Banerjee’s upcycling fashion label with three distinct collections paying homage to the name it stands for. Making a case for Indians to stop seeing recycling as “jugaad”, she uses a mix of fabrics, especially Ajrakh prints, with weaves and Bagh-printed textiles in Khadi featuring in her designs. “She always think about how she could take recycling to the next level”. Since each of these garments is created with a mix of different discarded materials in fabric, color, or texture, the composition of each piece is different. It is like creating kind of couture in tiny way, says Banerjee, talking about the latest set Boro Part II. Designers Mayank Anand and Shraddha Nigam pride themselves on sustainable luxury fashion. Starting off their line of women’s wear in 2010, their goal was to give the country’s small scale artisans and craftsmen, whose businesses were suffering at the hands of imported western fabric, a platform to showcase their work. Built upon the philosophy of natural and organic clothing, their local weaves reuse, recycle, repurpose, and recreate, earning their entire line the label of upcycled fashion [16, 17]. Well established in the luxury space, 11:11 or eleven eleven focuses on eco-friendly and sustainable fashion, bringing together contrasts in a unique way. Traditional and new age, urban and natural, modernity and pre-­ modernity—duality is the brand’s ethos, with the revaluation of discarded materials at the core of their philosophy. Spearheaded by Shani Himanshu and Mia Morikawa, this upcycling clothes label attempts to ignite a dialogue to challenge the conventional idea of consumption, and they do it in style.

7.9 International Upcycling/Recycling Brands: Case Study Past Retro is a vintage retailer. Their sources search through 1,000s of vintage pieces to find those that are timeless and ideal for us. But only 1 out

162  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles of 1,000 pieces make it to the shop floor. Beyond Retro creatively found a solution to the other 999 pieces that didn’t make. They created their own upcycled. Label made only from second hand fabrics.Taking the pieces that didn’t make the cut and sort them into huge piles of fabrics. They then redesign them based on future fashion trend predictions, turning the past into the future. Another key feature is the price range, making it easier for conscious consumers to shop ethically. Patagonia has been paving the way forward in the ethical fashion space since 1973. The outdoor wear brand started using recycled plastic bottles to make their garments back in 1993. Patagonia uses this recycled plastic to create their fleeces, shorts, and jackets in their recollection. They also have a really cool recycling scheme. If you own one of their clothes, and it can’t be repaired, you can hand it to one of their shops to be recycled and reused. Saving tonnes of clothing from ending up in the landfill and making the fabric lifetime last much longer. London-based brand Lyme Terrace takes plastic bottles and recycles them into strong pieces. They then combine that with organic cotton clothing to create some of their jumpers. For each jumper, 18 bottles have been saved from ending up in landfills! That really does add up and it doesn’t stop there either. They use the surplus material from the production of their jumpers to make the short sleeve version. Good Krama goes around buying up these old, leftover fabrics from the local warehouses, and reuse these upcycled materials to create timeless pieces. They literally go around cleaning up the place. and create something awesome while doing it. With these upcycled materials, they try and place it everywhere, from the packaging to the tags to shipping materials. No stone is left unturned with Good Krama. Ruby Moon makes some of the most beautiful activewear pieces. Their gym and sustainable swimwear are created from used fishing nets and plastic bottles taken from the ocean. By turning polluting waste into their beautiful garments, they have reduced their carbon footprint by 42%. They are also dedicated to a circular economy. So they re-claim swimwear and other stretch fabrics to re-use in their upcycled clothing line. Ruby Moon also has its own take-back scheme. Zero Waste Daniel is one of the most interesting brands, founded by the New York design Daniel Silverstein. Every single piece is made from 100% scrap material. Because of this, it has a very distinctive patchwork design. Yet, Daniel makes his pieces look so sleek that creates both your basics and one of the kind pieces. Re/Done are a classic brand that focuses mainly on denim. They take the vintage denim apart at the seams and repurpose them into new jeans,

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  163 updating their fit to match a modern fit while keeping its character. All their jeans are made in Downtown Los Angeles using water-conserving methods and they make sure to not use harsh chemicals. Re/Done also make sure to keep the original stitching where possible. This preserves the years of history and stories stored in the pockets, faded coloring, and torn knees. Each piece is limited in number as they are handpicked and hand-cut. Ecoalf started in 2009 with a view of paving the way for a new generation of fabrics—recycled fabrics. Ecoalf has started many projects to clean up the oceans from plastic. The number of plastics polluting the oceans is breath taking, and they’re in a really poor state. So it’s great to see a fashion brand tackling this head-on. They actively collect junk from the ocean and recycle them, turning them into timeless designs for us to wear. Antiform is an English brand based in Bristol. They take reclaimed materials and mix that with traditional heritage crafts. The brand started in 2007 by the founder Lizzie Harrison and use local expertise where possible from the materials to the workmanship. Antiform focuses mainly on knitwear and produces fresh designs that can be worn throughout the year. Like some of the other big-name high street brands, Urban Outfitters doesn’t have a good track record for their production practices. That’s why it is interesting to find that they have introduced their very own upcycled range. Using their team of resources they find surplus materials or deadstock—products that companies make but aren’t able to sell. The fate of deadstock and surplus materials normally ends up in landfills, but the team at Urban Renewals revamps them. Because of that, each piece is created in very limited numbers. Another big brand catching on to the upcycling scene is ASOS. ASOS has been making moves making their clothes more ethical as seen by their ASOS Eco Edit range. But they have taken it a step further with their ASOS Reclaimed line. The sourcing teams source the globe to find authentic vintage clothing and rework and update them into modern designs for the 21st century. One of the great things about this line is that is actually affordable for both men and women. Last, on the list, Insecta Shoes, are a fabulous shoe brand made in Brazil. They take old vintage fabrics and recycled plastic bottles and repurpose them into spectacular shoes, from shoes to boots to sandals and slippers. Insecta used the fabrics that they have salvaged and used the remarkable prints to create stand out pieces. The rubber soles are made from shredded rubber from excess taken from the shoe industry. Even the insoles are made from 100% recycled plastics and fabrics made from their own production process.

164  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles There are massive benefits to upcycling and recycling clothes because less raw materials are needed, limiting environmental damage, saving water use, chemical use, reducing carbon emissions, upcycling is one of the most sustainable ways to produce clothing. The biggest benefit of all is that conscious consumers and ethical shoppers know that together they have assisted in helping out our planet and end up with amazing individual pieces to suit their needs.

7.10 Fashion Designers: Keeping Textiles and Fashion Alive The fact is, today, we may not be keen to wear our mom’s old denim bell-bottoms straight out of the 70’s with their tweeds and pinstripes, but we would never say no to our grandmother’s beautiful handcrafted silk saree. Something like that would be considered classy and vintage; and even if we don’t wear sarees often, the idea of converting that silk saree into a gorgeous evening dress is irresistible. Yet, until recently, wearing handlooms was considered uncool and old fashioned. If you were a Khadi-loving person, then you would be dubbed a tree-hugging activist, a politician. All that was needed to complete the look was a jute tote bag. As a result, the handloom sector declined, sales dropped, and artisans turned to other lucrative professions. It seemed like this sector was doomed to a downward slide, until the fashion industry stepped into this vacuum. There are some who frequently combine elements of handloom with western fashion to create Indo-Western designs while some designers work exclusively with Indian textiles. One of India’s foremost designers and a revivalist, Ritu Kumar draws upon museology and art history background to create clothing using ancient designs and traditional crafts. Preferring to work with fabrics like silk, cotton, and leather, Ritu Kumar’s outfits are stunning in their richness, elegance, and intricacy of embroidery. Her campaign, Beautiful Hands, encourages the purchase of garments and accessories that showcase ethnic Indian styles of embroidery. To go with this campaign, she has started a line of clothing known as “The Revivalist”. The premise of this clothing line is to resurrect traditional Indian crafts and integrate them into mainstream fashion. Sustainability is a big part of the creative story of these Indian origin designers with presence across the world. An important focus for them is the use of handloom textiles as they have a smaller carbon footprint.

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  165 Additionally, they also recycle their materials. What’s more, the credit goes to them for changing the way the West views Indian clothing and textiles. Although they work a lot with sarees and Kurtis, their lines and drapes are contemporary and edgy, making them the perfect examples of fusion. The famous Indian designer has worked with several types of hand­ woven textiles including Banarasi and Kanjeevarams. Neeta Lulla goes beyond teaming Indian handwoven textiles with modern designs. Indian textiles with western fabrics like chiffon, gauze, and georgette to create exquisite creations. Her outfits are worn by Bollywood’s leading ladies on the red carpet and she has won several national awards for her costume work in movies, including historical based film Jodhaa Akbar. More recently, she has turned towards experimenting with Paithani, the ancient Maratha technique of tapestry that combines multiple threads of different colors and incorporates gold and silver threads woven together to create a dynamic piece of silk. One of her most notable Paithani collections was shown in February 2016 at the Make in India initiative. At this show, she showcased a wide range of pieces including flowing lehengas, long kurtas, jackets, dhoti pants, sarong skirts, all of which were embroidered according to the Paithani style. Known for his exquisite bridal wear, Sabyasachi pioneered the use of Indian textiles in a modern context. His unique contribution was the use of indigenous methods like bandhani, gota work, block-printing, hand dyeing, and more in construction of modern silhouettes. The designer uses rich ethnic fabrics in his collection including extensive use of Banarasi fabric. He also started a project called “Save the Saree” where he retails handwoven Indian saris on a non-profit basis. Over the past two years, he has also been involved in reviving cotton Banarasi sarees in pure khadi and natural hand block prints from Bagru. What’s more, he handcrafted the entire trousseau collection of around 18 sarees for Bollywood actress Vidya Balan's wedding for which he specially sourced the silk from Chennai, primarily Kanjeevaram silk. Having established her name in the couture and prêt-a-porter circles, Anita Dongre first went organic and then eco-friendly. She has recently launched a haute couture clothing brand called “Grassroots”, which features clothing made of eco-friendly fibers, textiles, and natural dyes with unique creations like bamboo jackets. She also launched a prêt line called “InterPret” with simple off-the-rack clothes using traditional dyeing techniques like Bandhani, Leheriya, and block prints from Rajasthan and Chikankari embroidery from Lucknow.

166  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Based in Hyderabad, Shravan Kumar a “textile revivalist and artist” specializes exclusively in handlooms. He has made his life goal to bring sustainability to the weaver community and his collections include the use of handlooms like Kalamkari, Mangalagiri, Madhavaram, Narayanpet, Chirala, Venkatagiri, and Chunnur Khadi. Yet, while the fabrics he uses are traditional weaves, his designs are contemporary, and give an appearance that’s desi bohemian.

7.11 Future Prospective for the Fashion Illustration These are some inclusive fashion illustrations in the upcoming trend or vogue.

7.11.1 Concept 1. Installation: Rekha (The Lines) The depiction of different types of lines, their properties, and the patterns and the angles forming out of various line combinations. Material used are iron wheel, iron rods, cycle gear, clamp, nut bolts, wooden blocks, iron rods, and threads. Different types of lines used like a line segment, horizontal, vertical, parallel, perpendicular, and oblique lines. Through this installation tried to depict the different types of lines and their properties used as shown in Figure 7.1. Since the theme is based on lines and lines is omnipresent and is a very vast topic to deal with. Immensity of line is clearly avoided and tried to focus on the more simple terms. In the installation, there are hundreds of threads overlapping one another, intersecting each other at various angles and making symmetrical patterns, shapes, and illusions (Figure 7.1). Types of line used in installation are horizontal, vertical, perpendicular, oblique, intersecting, diverging, converging, etc. The concentric wheels that hold the rod are different

Figure 7.1  Line form beautiful patterns, shapes, and compositions (Developed by NIFT Patna, India).

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  167 diameters. The inner wheel is smaller in diameter and it rotates so that it forms patterns with the outer wheel. Also, the motive behind rotation can also be attributed to the movement of the lines to continuously. After all, line is infinite and can form beautiful patterns, shapes, and compositions.

7.11.2 Concept 2. Installation: The Voice of First Rainfall The installation on the theme “The voice of first rainfall” is inspired by the beauty of nature and the emotions related to the first drop of rainfall. Materials used are wire, different types of colors, plastic sheets, and papers. The color chosen here is red, orange, yellow, green, and blue, which as a whole gives us a feeling of very refreshing. “Look up rather than down. Without the rain, there would be no rainbow”. This is basically one, a device that records to reproduce sounds similarly the first rainfall allows us to rejuvenate our long lost memories different memories related to the rainfall which gets recreated and refreshing again by the first drop of the first rainfall. Rainfall recreates nature, restores nature, and reproduces it. The structure of the flowers resembling the gramophone is taken as an inspiration because it itself seems as we are about to listen to the voice of nature. The shape of the horn itself depicts the shape and essence of the flower, the most beautiful element of nature (Figure 7.2). The upper shed is made by taking inspiration from peacock’s feathers along with the shape of a droplet. As peacock opens its feathers before the rain to attract her mate, similarly nature on its first rainfall attracts us to enjoy and feel the refreshing beauty of nature. The roots like structures are shown emerging out from the bottom of the gramophones is to depict the root of happiness and the germinating or growth of nature which gets enhances by the rain. It is all about how beautiful and refreshing it is the rain after the dust and heat; similarly, rain also removes all the dirt and impurity from our heats and brings back the joy within us. Everything has a fresh start, a new beginning and refreshing. This transformation of nature is very magical getting all the fragments of memories together.

7.11.3 Concept 3. Installation: Terraforming Terraforming is an amalgamation of two words, Terra stands for earth and forming meaning to create. So, terraforming literally means earth shaping and refers to the process of engineering a planet, or other celestial bodies to sustain human life. Materials used are old waste cloth, thermocol, paints, iron wires, and paper (Figure 7.3).

168  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Figure 7.2  The installation on the theme “The voice of first rainfall” (Developed by NIFT Patna, India).

Through this, installation tried to depict the condition of our earth that is going to be a reality, a very harsh one at that, in the near future. Truly, that day is not far off when we human, because of our ever-growing greed, are going to be the death of this planet. We talk about technologies and resources but all we have ever seen and done, seemed to have caused damage to the environment. It is amazing to witness such growth in the field of science and technology so why not for once, use that said technology to restore our earth glory back? Make it all reversible? And that is what depicted through installation; the use of science and technology to make our earth. Earth again, so that, we don’t have to terraform other planet and leave our home for another.

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  169

Figure 7.3  The installation on the theme “Terraforming” (Developed by NIFT Patna, India).

7.11.4 Concept 4. Installation: Psychedelic A burst of colors and crazy hallucinations; that’s what comes in our minds in a jiffy when we hear the word “Psychedelic”. Psychedelic in Greek means “mind revealing” and it implies an altered state of consciousness induces by the consumption of psychedelic drugs. Materials used are iron rods, wood, old used CD disk, and mirror (Figure 7.4). Through the installation, we have attempted to emulate some of the psychedelic attributes. The two main components of the installation include vision-distortion and color burst. The overall shape of the installation, i.e., triangle, implies power (powerful nature of hallucinations). The apex pointing upwards represents high energy and euphoria (induced by the consumption of psychedelic drugs). The individual circular shape of CDs represents the sense of movement like rolling and spinning (the state of confusion due to hallucinations). The two types of CDs and DVDs are used in the installation wherein, white CDs are reflection Dominant, DVDs are

170  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Figure 7.4  The installation on the theme “Psychedelic” (Developed by NIFT Patna, India).

color dominant, and the greenish CDs have the combined properties of both, which goes completely with the theme (as it has both hallucinatory reflections as well as colors).

7.12 Current and Future Scope of Fashion Industry The prevailing mood of fashion leaders is one of anxiety and concern. One of fear and worry is the prevailing attitude of the fashion leaders. On the one hand, the changing platforms, shifting markets, and ground-breaking research offer opportunities for sales and the potential for revolutionary innovation are never able to push the market global economic growth which is much slower and more intense competition than ever before. Companies have to think strategically, sharpen their decision-making, and keep their fingers on the pulse of customer demand to succeed in that climate. It needs to get digital rights and tackle increasingly concerned customers about the climate change agenda. It must cater to local tastes across multiple markets and cultures at the same time. These are some of the findings, written in partnership with The Business of Fashion (BoF), from the latest report (The State of Fashion 2020) (Figure 7.5). This is the fourth in annual series that analyzes major fashion economy themes and breaks new ground to explain the dynamics that drive the industry [18]. The survey of 290 global fashion executives and interviews with members and pioneers has helped the

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  171 By segment 180 160 57

140 120

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100

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80 39

60 40 20 0

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12 34 Value

Midmarket

Premium/Luxury

By geographical region 100 90 80 70

61

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59 Worse Same Better

60 50 40 30

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20 10 0

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Figure 7.5  Fashion industry forecast, 2020 [18].

Mckinsey & Company Retail has recognized 10 key themes that will set the agenda in the coming year, 2020 (Figure 7.5). Meanwhile, the latest reading of the McKinsey Global Fashion Index (MGFI) reveals new insights into the success of fashion companies by category, segment, and area (Figure 7.6).

172  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles The MGFI expects growth in 2020 would slow down to 3% to 4%, slightly below the projected 2019 rate. Strikingly, only 9% of respondents agree that the situation will change next year, compared to 49% last year. For the second year running in 2018, economic profit rose, despite consecutive annual declines from 2012 to 2016. The improvement of 16% year-on-year was primarily due to improved operating margins powered by cost-cutting. The average (earnings before interest, taxes, and amortization) margin for the industry was 10.8%, a tick up on 2017 and the highest since 2014 (Figure 7.6). Fashion-industry fortunes are strongly urged against this backdrop. The sun is shining for an exclusive community of “Super Winners” these 20 firms have contributed more to the industry’s bottom line

Nike 315

400 413

401

Inditex

371

KLVMH

483

TJX Companies

2980

515

Kering

532

Hermes

568

Fast Retaing 641

2910

Adidas Ross

861

VF 897

Pandora

1008

2316

Richemont Anta Sports

1059

Next 1669

1311 1513

L Brands HLA H&M Lululemon

Figure 7.6  The major winning companies as future leaders in fashion industry [18].

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  173 through economic profit in 2018 than all the others combined. The Super Winners include three new entrants—Anta Sports, Heilan Home (HLA Corporation), and Lululemon—reflecting the power of sportswear as well as Chinese players’ growing influence. Kering made an impressive rise in luxury through the ranks, powered by Gucci’s double-digit growth in sales and strong performance in Asia Pacific markets such as Japan. They are not only extremely value-creating leading companies but also at the cutting edge of creativity. It has established a group of “hidden champions” alongside public companies. These privately owned jewels frequently dominate their fields of the sector and generate significant revenue. Some are household names, while others are less noticeable but still hit. Chanel is a major player among the well-known brands, with sales of over $10 billion, while Rolex is one of the few remaining large independent and private luxury watch brands. Primark, whose commitment to its core value proposition has made it a formidable competitor, is at the other end of the price spectrum. Such players show that outside the spotlight there is a lot of market interest and the “hidden champions”.

Digital recalibrations Unconventional conentions Cross-border challengers Inclusive culture Material revolution Sustainability first In the neighbourhood Next-Generation scocial Beyond China On high alert

Figure 7.7  The most key top ten themes for the fashion industry in 2020 [18].

174  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Consumers and advocates also call on the industry to become more inclusive. It can be seen that 2020 as a milestone for “Inclusive Culture,” with increasingly diverse races, genders, and sexual orientations present across organizations and in leadership roles. The less cautious investors will face new disruptors in the year ahead. Tech companies’ stock-market valuations have reached dizzying heights, while a number of private businesses have achieved unicorn status. In 2020, the trick will be to show investors that they can turn opportunity into income (Figure 7.7). The future role of the brick-and-mortar stores is at the forefront for many. Though some fashionists call them off as “too much of the 20th century,” we take a more positive view. Especially in the digital revolution, local stores building a role as partners, helping customers gain, feel and experience in convenient locations as they browse online and offline. The bottom line for sustainable fashion themes in the coming year will be challenging as the digital shakeout is gathering speed, consumers are demanding more on sustainability, and slower growth is putting margin pressure [18]. There will be possibilities, however. Brands that can sync with the prevailing patterns and keep innovating are more likely to face the challenges and emerge ahead.

7.13 Conclusions Recycling is the process of taking something old and worn out and trans­ forming it into something new, usually, with an increased value. With a little help, recycling has the ability to make the Earth a greener place. In most cases, the products that are made through recycling or upcycling are very profitable. More and more people prefer the more rustic, vintage look now, so upcycling can change the culture and style of people’s homes. Upcycling/ Recycling has many benefits for the economy and provides new jobs. Upcycling/Recycling benefits not only the earth but also the economy and people. It helps the Earth by keeping things out of landfills and not allowing toxic fumes to be released. More consumers are showing a desire for an alternative, creative fashion that is made in limited numbers. The rise of these upcycled garments not only contribute to sustainable shopping as a whole, but also serve as art pieces, cultural commentary, and a sense of connection.

Acknowledgments The authors acknowledgement first year students from the Foundation Programe (FP-3, batch 2019) of National Institute of Fashion Technology-

Opportunities From Recycling and Upcycling  175 Patna, India, for helping and sharing their valuable information about the future prospective for the fashion illustration, a parallel classroom work.

References 1. Pandit, P., Nadathur, G.T., Jose, S., Upcycled and low-cost sustainable business for value-added textiles and fashion, in: Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp. 95–122, Elsevier, Woodhead Publishing, USA, 2019. 2. Muthu, S.S. (Ed.), Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel: Processing, Manufacturing, and Design, Elsevier, Woodhead Publishing, USA, 2018. 3. Abeles, P. and T., Fast fashion and the future. On the Horizon, 22, 2, 157–160, 2014. 4. Hill, J. and Lee, H.H., Sustainable brand extensions of fast fashion retailers. J. Fash. Mark. Manag., 19, 2, 205–222, 2015. 5. Joy, A., Sherry, J.F., Jr., Venkatesh, A., Wang, J., Chan, R., Fast fashion, sustainability, and the ethical appeal of luxury brands. Fash. Theory, 16, 3, 273– 295, 2012. 6. Park, H. and Kim, Y.K., An empirical test of the triple bottom line of ­customer-centric sustainability: The case of fast fashion. Fashion and Text., 3, 1, 25, 2016. 7. Shen, B., Sustainable fashion supply chain: Lessons from H&M. Sustainability, 6, 9, 6236–6249, 2014. 8. The H&M Group, Sustainability Report 2016, The H&M Group, Stockholm, 2016. 9. Aakko, M. and Koskennurmi-Sivonen, R., Designing sustainable fashion: Possibilities and challenges. Res. J. Text. Apparel, 17, 1, 13–22, 2013. 10. Black, S., The sustainable fashion handbook, Thames and Hudson, USA, 1, 2012. 11. Chapman, D.A., Hollins, O.R., C., Enviromental footprint of different textiles and comparison of cotton and linen (flax) fabric, OakdeneHollind research and consulting, Aylesbury, UK, 2010. 12. Henninger, C.E., Alevizou, P.J., Oates, C.J., What is sustainable fashion? Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal, 20, 4, 400–416, 2016. 13. Lee, M., Moral Fiber’s: What’s the most sutainable fabric? Ecologist, 1, 39, 2009. 14. Whitfield, J., Sustainable Fashion. Nature, 459, 915–916, 2009. 15. Kellock, J.,R ecycling and Upcycling in the Apparel Industry, Fiber2Fashion. 2014. https://www.fiber2fashion.com/industry-article/7279/recycling-andupcycling-in-the-apparel -industry 16. Almeida, R., 9 Gorgeous Indian Upcycling Brands We Love, Homegrown. 2017. https://homegrown.co.in/article/46995/where-fashion-meets-sustainability-9-gorgeous-indian-upcycling-brands-we-love)

176  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 17. 5 Indian upcycling brands you need to know about, BeBEAUTIFUL. 2018. https://www.bebeautiful.in/articles/5-indian-upcycling-brands 18. Amed, I., Balchandani, A., Berg, A., Hedrich, S., Poojara, S., Rölkens F., The State of Fashion, Navigating uncertainty Report, Mckinsey & Company, November 2019 report, 2020. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/retail/ our-insights/the-state-of-fashion-2020-navigating-uncertainty.

8 Sustainability in Fashion and Textile Pintu Pandit1*, Bhagyashri N. Annaldewar2, Akanksha Nautiyal3, Saptarshi Maiti2 and Kunal Singha1 National Institute of Fashion Technology, Department of Textile Design, Patna, India 2 Department of Fibres & Textile Processing Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, India 3 National Institute of Fashion Technology, Department of Textile Design, Mumbai, India 1

Abstract

Clothing is one of the largest chunks of human consumption. However, textile and fashion are known to be the most polluting industries. The increasing senses of social responsibility and public awareness about the environment have forced the textile manufacturers to produce more environmentally friendly products. Many companies are focusing on the use of sustainable production ways. This chapter gives a brief overview of understanding the term sustainable fashion and textiles. It also discusses the recent trends in sustainable practices in the textile and fashion sector along with challenges. Keywords:  Sustainability, textile, fashion, challenges, environment-friendly

8.1 Introduction Clothing is the fundamental requirement of all human beings. The textile and fashion industry is one of the largest industries in the world in terms of its production and employment. Textile industries have high-value added sectors where design, research, and development are important competitive factors. However, the textile industry is responsible for an excessively *Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (177–198) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

177

178  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles large amount of environmental damage. In recent years, the issues such as global warming, caused by an increase in carbon dioxide emission from the burning of fossil fuels, depletion of natural resources, toxic waste disposal, and water, air and, soil pollution from textile industries have gained attention by people as well as the government [1]. The alarming environmental issues have forced textile manufacturers to improve all processes to sustain the environment. Sustainability is known as a holistic answer to these global issues which demands day-to-day operations to be more beneficial for business as well as society. Sustainability in textile and fashion industries can be implemented at various stages such as from manufacturing to end-use consumers. The “Three Rs” of sustainability such as Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle are effective for textile industries [2]. There are sustainability benefits to quick response principals in that they more accurately meet the needs of the market and reduce the risk of markdowns. However, on the downside fast fashion has also acquired a reputation for excess and feeding an insatiable consumer demand. Slow fashion on the other hand is a program of designing, creating, and consuming garments for quality and longevity. The clothes that get left behind and are of good quality and durability that we can swap with friends or others give that item a new lease of life. Donating and buying from charity/ thrift shops is an easy way to help sustainable materials get the long use out of them and, even if they are made in a fast fashion environment and by donating these garments to third world countries that resale them on market stalls or give them to local people who need clothes that they can endure. This chapter gives an overview of sustainability in fashion and textiles. It helps to understand the concept of sustainability and provides various solutions for sustainable development in the textile and fashion industries. It also focuses on current barriers to sustainable textiles.

8.2 Sustainability Numerous definitions have been suggested for sustainability. The most usually recognized is found in the Brundtland report. It states that “Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Veiderman suggested another definition of sustainability such as “It is a vision of the future that provides us with a road map and helps us focus our attention on a set of values and ethical and moral principles by which to guide our actions” [3–5].

Sustainability in Fashion and Textile  179 One approach to see sustainability is by thinking of the three pillars of sustainability [6, 7].

8.2.1 People: The Social Pillar of Sustainability It refers to fair and useful business practices towards workers and the community. The social aspect of sustainability emphasizes balancing the requirements of the individual with the requirements of the group.

8.2.2 Planet: The Environmental Pillar of Sustainability It refers to sustainable ecological practices. Global warming is a serious issue faced by global industries. Environmental sustainability arises when systems and processes reduce the environmental impact of industries, goods, and operations.

8.2.3 Profit: The Economic Pillar of Sustainability It refers to the capability of an organization to create financial surpluses. Economic sustainability is used to characterize approaches that encourage the usage of economic resources to their best potential benefits. A sustainable economic prototype suggests an impartial distribution and effective allocation of resources. The concept is to encourage the usage of those resources in an effective and responsible manner that provides long-term benefits and increase profitability. An approach to sustainability is that if one emphasizes on social and environmental issues, profitability will be achieved. Figure 8.1 shows the correlation between the three pillars of sustainability.

PEOPLE Social

PLANET Environmental

Figure 8.1  Three pillars of sustainability.

PROFIT Economical

180  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

8.3 Environmental and Social Impacts of Textile and Fashion Industry Figure 8.2 shows the environmental and social impacts of the textile and fashion industry. The raw materials used for clothing has huge impacts on the environment. Natural fiber, for example, cotton, is usually considered to be more environmentally friendly; however, this is not actually true. Cotton is well known for its intensive usage of pesticides and water [1]. Most of the synthetic fibers are derived from a non-renewable resource such as oil. The whole textile chain, from spinning to finishing, consumes a large amount of water and energy. These processes also utilize a huge amount of chemicals. Some of these chemicals may evaporate into the air and discharged into wastewater stream without any treatment. Wastewater from the production and processing of textiles may contain total suspended solids (TSS), resins, dyestuffs, fats and waxes, heavy metals, phosphates, sulphates, silicates, oils, etc. These compounds are classified as organic and inorganic pollutants. Inorganic compounds react with water and decrease its quality. Some of the organic pollutants are biodegradable and consume oxygen during their degradation which decreases water quality and affects the survival of aquatic life. The organic pollutants which are non-biodegradable remain in the environment for a long time and enter the food chain. This in turn leads to bioaccumulation which may have adverse effects on human being such as they can cause allergies, cancers, neurological disorders, etc. [8, 9]. Maltreatment at work places is usually observed at various phases of these industries, for example, violation of human rights on the shop floor is done by low payment and excessive working time. Also, improper health and safety arrangements are generally seen [8]. The fashion and textile industries are worldwide distributed which involves the routine transfer of raw materials and garments from factories to market via air, water, and land transport routes. These transportation practices also contribute to environmental pollution such as air, water, and noise pollution. After procurement, the manner in which consumer cleans and maintains clothing can have a huge impact on water and energy usage. In general, clothes that are frequently washed or dry-cleaned adversely affect the environment [1]. Textiles thrown into the landfills have turned into a major worldwide issue. Natural fibers take a very long time to break down while synthetic fibers do not decompose. Synthetic garments in the landfill release nitrous oxide into the air. During decomposition, woolen

Fabric Production

• Toxicity of chemicals (dyes and additives) • Wastewater pollution • Water and energy use • Adverse effect on human health

Dyeing and Finishing

Figure 8.2  Environmental and social impacts of textile and fashion industry.

• Energy intensity • Minimum wages to labour

Spinning

• Intensive use water and pesticides in cotton growing • Use of oil and chemicals in man made fibers • Fair prices for growers

Fiber production

Distribution and retail

• Energy use • Minimum wages to labour • Child labour

Garment Production

• Energy use (Washing, drying and ironing) • Water use for washing • Detergents

Use

• Textile waste going to landfill • Early disposal

Disposal

Sustainability in Fashion and Textile  181

182  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles garments release carbon dioxide and methane into the air. These greenhouse gases cause global warming. Also, toxic substances contaminate groundwater and soil. The unwanted garments are increased due to the short fashion life cycle and low cost. As garments are becoming less expensive and out of fashion in less time, more garments are procured. Finally, the numbers of textiles in landfills are increasingly contributing to more environmental pollution [10].

8.4 Sustainability in Fashion and Textiles Sustainable textiles suggest that all resources and procedures, inputs and outputs, are safe for humans and the environment, in all stages of the product life cycle and all the energy, resources, and procedures inputs originated from renewable or recycled sources. It also means that products can be returned safely to either natural or industrial systems and all phases in the product life cycle could improve social prosperity. Sustainable textile means producing more sustainable products and technologies as well as improving recycling in the industry [11].

8.5 Sustainable Solutions in Textile and Fashion 8.5.1 Going the Organic Way Of the many natural fibers such as cotton, silk, linen, jute, wool, bamboo, etc., cotton is the most commonly cultivated and utilized amongst all. Cotton is well known for its intensive usage of pesticides and water. The term “Organic fibers” refers to fibers that are cultivated as per national organic standards without the use of toxic and persistent pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, or genetic engineering. Organic fibers biodegrade naturally over time. Hence, industries are concentrating on manufacturing apparel and home textile products based on organic cotton, markets wool, or other organic fibers [12, 13].

8.5.2 Textile Waste: Recycle, Reduce, and Reuse Textile waste is classified as mentioned below: Pre-consumer waste: It is also termed as manufacturing waste and clean waste. These are the wastes produced during the processing of fibers, yarn,

Sustainability in Fashion and Textile  183 fabric, and garments. It includes fiber lint, discarded yarn, and defective fabrics during manufacturing; clothing trims during garment manufacturing and discarded garments during production. Post-consumer textile waste: It is also called household waste and dirty waste. The textile product which is damaged, out of fashion, and never again being used by the wearer comes under this category. These products are either donated to charities or dumped into garbage by the consumer [14].

8.5.2.1 Recycle One feasible option for fashion industries is the recycling of non-toxic solid waste. The textile recycling is one of the oldest and most recognized processes. Recycling is the reprocessing of waste materials into new or reusable products [15]. Recycling techniques are divided into primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. In primary recycling, the recyclable product is recovered without changing its original form and reused for the same purpose, for example, production scraps. Secondary recycling produces a new product by mechanical (melt) processing of the post-consumer plastic product. A new product has inferior physical, chemical, and mechanical properties than original. Tertiary recycling converts plastic wastes into basic monomers or fuels by hydrolysis or pyrolysis. Quaternary recycling produces the heat required for the various processes by burning of fibrous waste [16]. Recycling can also be divided into two types: chemical and physical recycling. Chemical recycling includes the conversion of high molecular weight polymers into low molecular weight substances by chemical reactions. The obtained substances can be utilized as the reactants in the production of other polymers and chemicals. Physical recycling produces new products from pre- and post-consumer wastes using commingled plastics waste processing techniques. Advantages of recycling • Reduces the requirement for landfill space • Reduces load on virgin resources • Raw materials obtained by recycling are of low cost which makes their use alluring to manufacturers. This contributes to the growth of new markets for recycled fibers. • Recycling saves energy and reduces pollution [17].

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8.5.2.2 Reuse Textile reuse alludes to numerous methods for extending the serviceable life of fashion products by handing over to new owners, with or without prior alteration. Textile reuse can remarkably reduce the environmental load. It can be done by leasing, exchanging, swapping, etc., through secondhand shops, charities, street, and online markets. Platforms for textile reuse include reuse enterprises, materials exchanges, online platforms, and direct exchanges [18–20]. • Reuse enterprises: These are non-profit or profit organization that possesses storerooms as well as outlets. They collect and store secondhand products from donors and give them to the respective consumers. • Materials exchanges (ME): Material exchanges transfer the secondhand products from donors to respective consumers completely online with the help of the broker. They do not possess warehouses to store the products. • Online platforms: Online platforms (OP) facilitate exchanges of secondhand products between donors and consumers through the website without any broker, for example, eBay. • Direct exchanges: Direct exchanges (DE) refer to the direct exchange of products between users without the help of a broker or the internet.

8.5.2.3 Reduce Reduce refers to lowering use from the beginning. Lowering consumption and waste generation are the two approaches to reducing. Lowering waste generation includes qualitative and quantitative reduction of waste at source and reuse of products. Lowering consumption means reducing the use of physical substances as well as natural resources, such as energy and water. Decreasing superfluous purchases save the energy and transportation cost which was raised when a product was produced and sold. In fashion industries, fabric procurement from local vendors instead of global vendors can save the transportation cost as well as lower environmental pollution. In fashion, this could, for example, mean to look more carefully on the fabric sourcing. Another way to reduce fabric wastage during the garment manufacturing process is by the use of planning software which estimates the quantity of fabric required for garment [21–23].

Sustainability in Fashion and Textile  185

8.5.3 Upcycling Upcycling is a technique where waste or useless products are transformed into new fashion products of better quality or a higher environmental value through craftsmanship and design [24]. Upcycling in the fashion industry is a new eco-friendly concept which repurposes textile waste and reintroduces them once again into the marketplace. It is an enhanced form of recycling that used the products in their original form and gives them a new purpose and better quality. Upcycling primarily requires vision and creativity along with environmental awareness [25]. Compared to recycling, upcycling consumes less energy as recycling requires additional energy and natural resources for the processing of waste. Upcycling is a simple recreation technique that does not need any additional natural resources [26]. The degree of transformation done in upcycling depends on the wearer’s requirements and limitations of original clothing. For instance, just including a beautifying trim could rejuvenate clothing, adjusting it to current fashion trends. On the contrary side, upcycled could deconstruct useless garments completely to prepare another clothing article for different use, for example, from old jeans to bolster [27].

8.5.4 Slow Fashion Versus Fast Fashion The term “Fast fashion” relates to the low-priced clothing products designed according to highly-priced recent fashion trends. It is a fast-­ moving practice that promotes disability. A fast-fashion retailer designs products quickly as per the current fashion trend and consumer requirement. The total time a retailer takes to design and deliver a fast fashion product to store is less than or equal to one month. Fast fashion stores utilize electronic communication to meet consumer requirements within a short period of time. The major disadvantage of fast fashion products is their short shelf life which increases textile waste and labor exploitation [28, 29]. In order to overcome these drawbacks, a more sustainable concept of “Slow fashion” has emerged. Unlike fast fashion, “Slow” in slow fashion does not represent time but refers to the reduction in a number of fashion trends. It boosts the preparation of high-quality garments to reduce disability. As there is no time limit in slow fashion, dealers can make a proper plan to design a product [30]. The amount of waste generation and utilization of resources are drastically reduced as products are prepared in small batches slowly. Labor exploitation is also reduced as they do not

186  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles need to work overtime. Slow fashion produces the products of high quality which are durable in terms of their physical properties and designs that are less affected by rapid moving fashion trends. Slow fashion helps the user to understand their clothing in a better way by gathering information from local resources which reduces the gap between producer and consumer. It enables better coordination between local designers, manufacturers, and buyers which helps in community development. This in turn achieves social sustainability. As products are produced locally, it saves energy and reduces environmental pollution by avoiding long-­ distance transportation [31].

8.5.5 Sustainable Wet Processing of Fabrics Textile wet processing uses a huge amount of water and chemicals. It causes several health hazards and environmental pollution. The residual chemicals and water after processing are subjected to effluent treatment and discharged into the nearby water stream. The composition of effluent such as unfixed dyes, heavy metals, formaldehyde-based compounds, etc., decides its sustainable nature. In recent years, several efforts have been taken in order to save water and energy and reduce effluent load [32]. Many industries have adapted various sustainable practices such as chlorine-free bleaching, eco-friendly bleaching, eco-friendly dyeing, and printing, eco finishing, etc. Few of them are discussed in brief as below: Chlorine free bleaching: In this, fabric whitening is carried out using hydrogen peroxide instead of hypochlorite. Peroxide disintegrates into oxygen and water during processing without leaving any harmful residue on the cloth as well as in the effluent. It is also termed as green bleach. Eco bleach: In this, fabric whitening is carried out with the help of natural silicates and phosphate in cow dung under sunlight. Eco-friendly dyeing: It includes low impact dyes, natural dyes, and azo free dyes. Azo-free colorants: Dyes and pigments which are free of nitrogenbased aromatic amines (Azos) are known as Azo-free colorants. Azo compounds are highly toxic and banned by European Union because of their carcinogenic, mutagenic nature. Azo dyes are non-biodegradable. Low impact dyes: As the name implies, these dyes have a lower impact on the environment. These are petroleum-based,

Sustainability in Fashion and Textile  187 synthetic dyes having more than average absorption rate (70%–80%, depending on the color). The natural components of these dyes are soluble in water which in turn reduces the water requirement for rinsing. Low-impact dyes neither contain heavy metals (like copper, chrome, and zinc) nor they need toxic dye-fixing agents. Auxiliaries required for dyeing with low impact dyes are biodegradable. The dyebath after dyeing can be reused. Hence, these dyes are considered eco-friendly. Natural dyes: These dyes are extracted from bark, flowers, leaves, microbes, and other natural materials. The use of natural dyes is increased in recent years due to their low toxicity, better biodegradability, and high compatibility with the environment. The use of heavy metal mordants during natural dyeing limits their application. Several attempts are reported on the substitution of metal mordants with natural mordants in the natural dyeing of textiles [33, 34].

8.5.6 Eco-Finishing and Bio-Processing of Textiles A textile finishing which meets the requirements of eco-label standards is termed as eco finishing [33]. Few examples of eco finishing are given below [35–39]: • Use of polycarboxylic acid for wrinkle-free finishing of cotton instead of formaldehyde-based resins. • Use of chitosan and herbal extracts for antimicrobial finishing of textiles in place of triclosan. • Use of vegetable oil, stearic acid, and silicones for water repellent finishing of textile in place of fluorinated compounds. • Use of herbal essential oil for insect repellent and aroma finishing of textiles. Bio-processing can be defined as the application of living organisms and their components to industrial products and processes, which are primarily based on enzymes. Bio-processing saves the water and energy and reduces the effluent load. Enzymatic desizing, enzymatic scouring, enzymatic bleaching, bio polishing, and enzyme-based softeners are few examples of bio-processing of textiles [11].

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8.6 Advance Technologies Techno-economic trend encompassing various technological innovations, enabling improved sustainability in fashion. Among the technological innovations that currently impact business models in fashion, sustainable or alternative fibers seem to be the most prominent innovations. Impacts include improvements in clothing durability, reduced waste from cleaning processes and the use of alternative (synthetic) raw materials instead of scarce natural resources. An already mature technology making important inroads in fashion is additive manufacturing also known as 3-D printing. Short-to-medium term technological trends that have the potential to impact fashion business models include wearable technology and augmented reality.

8.6.1 Foam Technology Textile processing is known for its huge consumption of water and energy. A large portion of this energy is utilized for heating and drying (removal of water from fabric) operation. Foam finishing is an alternate method where dilution of chemicals is carried out using air in place of water. As air is used instead of water, it results in saving in energy required for drying operation and reduction in water consumption as well as wastewater. Foam is a colloidal system containing a mass of gas bubbles dispersed in a liquid. Foam can be produced mechanically by air blowing or excess agitation, chemically using foaming agents, or by a combination of these techniques. After the foam application on fabrics, it is usually destroyed using padding, vacuum, or a combination of both. Foam technology is widely used in fabric preparation, dyeing and printing, softening, durable press finishing, mercerizing, soil-release finishing, etc.

8.6.2 Supercritical Dyeing of Textiles All materials above their critical temperatures and pressures are known as supercritical fluids. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is commonly used as a solvent in the supercritical process because of its non-toxic and non-corrosive nature. It is easy to attain critical temperature and pressure of CO2 compared to other gases. The use of supercritical CO2 as a dyeing medium is an emerging technique. Supercritical CO2 is capable of dissolving hydrophobic substances which makes its use in the dyeing process. A typical dyeing mechanism using supercritical CO2 includes the heating of the substrate and transfer of dyes. Dissolved dyes that diffuse into the boundary layer

Sustainability in Fashion and Textile  189 of supercritical CO2 get absorbed and diffused into the fiber matrix. This technique doesn’t need water which saves water and energy.

8.6.3 Plasma Technology Plasma comprises a mixture of partially ionized gases; this means that it contains gases that are disintegrated as a result of high induced electrical energy. Atoms, radicals, ions, and electrons are the constituents of plasma. Low-temperature plasmas are generally used for surface treatment of fibers which contain electrons with high kinetic energy. The electrons in the plasma can cleave covalent chemical bonds. Hence, plasma technology is widely used for physical and chemical modification of various natural and synthetic fibers. As it is a physical process, it creates zero effluent. Few applications of plasma technology in textiles are pre-treatment (degreasing of wool), changes in wettability of substrate (hydrophilic, hydrophobic properties), etc.

8.6.4 Microwave Energy in Textile Wet Processing Microwaves are electromagnetic radiations with frequencies from 1,000 MHz to 1,000,000 MHz. It is used as a substitute for conventional heating methods because it provides rapid, uniform, and effective heating. Microwave energy can be used in textile for drying, heating, pressing, etc. [40].

8.7 Eco-Labeling Eco-labels are rising as an essential means in marketing which provides information about “green products” to the consumer. An “ecolabel is a label which recognizes overall environmental preference of a product within a product category based on life cycle consideration”. Eco-labels are assigned to products by an impartial third party that deals with environmental criteria. An eco-label creates ecological awareness regarding products amongst the consumer. It is the most accepted practice which differentiates sustainable textile products from non-sustainable [41]. Government involvement in eco-labels generally improves uptake, and governments have also used other mechanisms such as procurement policies to support eco-label schemes. However, eco-labels can only usefully form part of a sustainable consumption strategy, since they say little about consumption itself, and they essentially are limited to providing product information.

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8.8 Barriers in Sustainable Fashion and Textiles The first barrier is the limited knowledge of the consumer about sustainable fashion. It was found that, in general, consumers have little information about environmental hazards related to apparel products. Because of this, consumers are unable to differentiate between eco-friendly and non-eco-friendly apparel. The development of multifaceted education/training programs for consumers can improve their knowledge about sustainability [42, 43]. The second barrier is the supply sources for sustainable fashion. In the retail market, there is an inadequate supply of sustainable products even though there is consumer demand for sustainable products. The solution to this barrier is an improvement in marketing policies such as designing new marketing messages which highlight the environmental advantages of sustainable fashion [43].

8.9 Economic Issues and Product Design In general, sustainable apparels are costlier than general apparel because of ecofriendly processes and materials, because of which consumers can’t afford it. The most significant barrier for sustainable fashion is the design of the products. Most fashion designers are unaware of designing sustainable fashion. Also, there is a common prejudice that sustainable fashion products are unattractive and unfashionable and do not meet consumer demands [43].

8.10 Sustainable Fashion Fibers Over the centuries, cotton, wool, silk, and leather have dominated the textile and fashion industry but the sudden increase in demand for apparel and fashion products has put immense pressure on the limited natural resources. Synthetic fabrics are extensively used for producing cheaper and durable fashion products. However, they are the non-biodegradable and major contributor to toxins and microfibers to the environment [44]. Their dependence on petrochemicals for raw material and energy-intensive manufacturing processes leads to fossil fuel depletion and methane emission causing irreparable damage to the environment. In recent times, consumers are embracing sustainability and conscious lifestyle. Their demand for sustainable products has pressurized the companies to reconsider their material and production processes along with the environmental impact and recyclability of their products. The textile

Sustainability in Fashion and Textile  191 and apparel industry is now focussing more on sustainable products and technologies to meet the ecological, economic, social, and cultural aspects [44]. New fibers are emerging which doesn’t require harmful chemicals and can replace the conventional fibers. These eco-friendly fibers are environmentally benign and exhibit better functional features [45]. The sustainable raw materials driver contemplates the development and adoption of different types of environmentally-friendly raw materials such as organic cotton, hemp, bamboo, lyocell, and recycled fibers.

8.10.1 Cartina Cartina is the first material in the industry produced from recycled paper to be used as an alternative for leather in fashion products. One of its kinds is Cartina® fabric that exhibits the same features as of animal skin and is sustainable, sturdy, durable, and waterproof. The material offers endless design possibilities as any pattern, texture, color, and picture can be precisely printed on Cartina®, thus producing exclusive products. Humour.noir, a German brand uses Cartina® to manufacture bags that are vegan, sustainable, and luxurious. Their satchel bag “Glory” made from Cartina® and cork won the special mention in the German Design Award for 2019 [46].

8.10.2 Coffee Ground Fibers Coffee ground is generally discarded by coffee drinkers after its purpose is fulfilled but it is a vital raw material in the manufacturing of multi-functional coffee ground fibers. Taiwan-based textile company Singtex® has patented a process to transform the discarded coffee ground into S. Café® yarn. The technical composite fiber is obtained by combining dried and pyrolyzed coffee ground waste and recycled plastic bottles through low temperature and high-pressure methods and re-polymerizing them to create master batches through which coffee yarn is drawn. The yarn has excellent anti-odor, UV protective, and rapid drying properties and can be used in apparel, active wear, and home furnishing. S. Café yarn has been attractive to various sustainable and active wear companies. Leading fashion brands like Patagonia, Timberland, American Eagle, North Face, Puma, and Victoria’s Secret have used coffee fabric in their products [47–49].

8.10.3 Orange Fiber An innovative business model built upon this driver is orange fiber, an Italian startup that creates sustainable fibers using waste from orange juice

192  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles production. Orange fiber is a unique material that is made from 700,000 tons of oranges by-product that was either thrown away or fed to the cattle. It was innovated by Adriana Santonocito in collaboration with University Politecnico di Milano and patented the citrus yarn in 2013 and extended in 2014. She then with her university colleague Enrica Arena founded the Orange Fiber brand in 2014. Today, Orange Fiber® transforms the waste of citrus fruit into a sustainable and eco-friendly textile and creates silk-like cellulose yarn that is soft, lightweight, and ethereal material which can be blended with other fibers according to the needs of the designer. These high-quality fabrics were first used by Salvatore Ferragamo, a famous Italian fashion label in their spring-summer 2017 collection [50, 51]. Orange Fiber® fabrics were among one of the innovative and sustainable materials to be introduced in the new spring 2019 H&M Conscious Exclusive collection [52].

8.10.4 Piñatex Piñatex is a natural leather alternative made from discarded pineapple leaves. Since, the leaves are the by-product of pineapple harvest; therefore, no additional resources are required for its production. Piñatex substrate is made of cellulose fibers extracted from discarded leaves and polylactic acid fibers (PLA). This non-woven substrate is pliable, lightweight, breathable, and water-resistant durable material and is suitable to be used in fashion, home furnishing and upholstery, automotive, and aeronautic industries. Piñatex® was developed by Dr. Carmen Hijosa, a leather goods expert and ethical entrepreneur with a vision for developing an eco-friendly, vegan, and ethical textile with societal and ecological benefits [53, 54]. This leather alternative is produced by Ananas Anam Ltd. and is quite popular among many vegan fashion labels as well as brands like H&M and Hugo Boss.

8.10.5 Polylana Polylana is a low environmental impact alternative to 100% acrylic and wool fibers which is manufactured with 76% less energy, 85% less water, 76 % less waste, 19% less CO2, and 32% less microfiber release. It is a patentpending staple fiber made from a mixture of innovative modified polyester pellets mixed with rPET pellets. This proprietary blend makes Polylana® fiber suitable to be dyed at a low temperature and provides the yarn a unique loft and feel when knitted [55]. Polylana® explores the new avenues of fiber creation with reduced environmental impact and improved performance characteristics [56]. The fiber is used by Arvin, forever 21, Esprit, Tommy Hilfiger, Zara, and Dorthy Perkins in their products.

Sustainability in Fashion and Textile  193

8.10.6 Seacell Seacell fiber is produced from renewable raw materials—wood and seaweed using the eco-friendly Lyocell production process in a closed-loop without the release of any chemicals as waste [57]. The seaweed comes from Ascophyllum nodosum which contains nutrients that slow down the process of ageing, reduces skin damage, and maintains the skin fresh [58]. These eco-friendly fibers are produced for smart fiber AG in production plants at Lenzing AG, Austria. The seaweed is firmly embedded within natural cellulose fiber through a patented process which results in wash durable anti-inflammatory properties. SeacellTM is a soft, breathable, completely biodegradable, and carbon neutral fiber that can be combined with any other fiber. It is suited for intimate wear, lounge wear, active wear, and home textiles [59].

8.10.7 QMilk Fibers Microbiologist, turned entrepreneur, Anke Domaske is the CEO and Founder of the QMilk and has developed a sustainable textile fiber by recycling undrinkable German milk. The manufacturing process utilizes casein from the flakes of sour milk which is mixed with other natural raw materials. The mixture is then heated, kneaded, and extruded through spinnerets to obtain fibers. These fibers are then dried and spun into yarns [60]. These milk fibers are bio-degradable, skin-friendly, and feel smooth as silk against the skin. Their antibacterial property and high hydrophilicity make it suitable for people with sensitive skin [61]. QMilk fiber’s thermos-­ bonding properties enable other natural fibers to be combined without the use of phenolic resins or plastics. Using natural renewable resources and eliminating chemical processing in fiber production, Qmilk is a sustainable option for consumers with chemical sensitivities [62].

8.11 Technological and Sustainable Measures Under the Fashion Industry The fashion industry underwent a remarkable expansion in the last 2 decades, especially with the consolidation of the fast-fashion approach, which emphasizes an entrepreneurial modus operandi of rapid acquisition and disposal of mass-produced, homogeneous, and standardized fashion items. However, by stimulating the widespread consumption of easily replaceable garments, fast fashion has a significant downside in terms of environmental and social sustainability. Consumers seem to be aware of these issues, as evidenced by the

194  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles growing interest in green products. As a response, large-scale retailers such as H&M and Zara have recently invested in sustainable actions and there are reasons to believe this trend will grow. At the same time, cultural and socio-economic macro-trends such as the circular economy and the sharing economy are challenging traditional mass production paradigms, driving the need for new and innovative business models that consider sustainability not as an afterthought, but as a crucial design element. Moreover, technological innovation in garment materials and manufacturing processes enables a new way to think about business models that go beyond scale economies and scope advantages generated by fast fashion. It is a time of opportunity for fashion entrepreneurs to build innovative business models that explore these trends while pursuing not only economic but also social and environmental value creation [63]. There is still much uncertainty about how innovative and sustainable fashion business models should be structured, as research about the inner dynamics of successful models is still scarce and largely focused on individual cases. No systematic approach that synthesizes the drivers of success for innovative and sustainable business models in the fashion industry has been put forward. A key challenge is to rethink the design phase of sustainable product development. Decisions affecting the whole product are made during the design phase concerning quality, appearance, materials, manufacturing processes, and associated costs. As such, design decisions impact the whole business model but have a particularly critical influence on the translation of sustainability principles to the value proposition. In this sense, the adoption of environmentally-friendly materials (e.g., sustainable fibers or recycled materials) and production processes (e.g., natural dyeing techniques, zero-waste mechanisms, slow fashion methods) can yield relevant business benefits [64–66]. However, the decision to adopt such materials still represents a challenge for fashion firms that still do not perceive it as a strategic priority for the industry.

8.12 Conclusions Among recent changes in consumer habits and preferences, the trend of increased awareness about sustainability is one of the most important elements behind the surge in alternatives to fast fashion. Elements like green raw materials, fashion libraries, and digital exposure media should be implemented in all the sectors whether fashion or textile, so that these can not be environment repellent. The invention of new fabrics and technology advancement increases the durability and accessibility of the garment but the price of such garments should also be considered in order to make it more consumers

Sustainability in Fashion and Textile  195 friendly and sustainable. There are a lot more problems in launching new and innovative textiles due to the high price and need for high care taking. Ecolabel uptake and consumer/producer acceptance is also highly variable, with even well-funded labels sometimes struggling to achieve significant market penetration. It is clear that eco-labels can affect consumer choice although it is less clear whether this leads to reduced environmental impacts. Technology should be friendly to both the environment and to mankind.

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9 Sustainable Strategies From Waste for Fashion and Textile Kunal Singha1*, Pintu Pandit1, Subhankar Maity2, Rajni Srivasatava1 and Jayant Kumar1 Department of Textile Design, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Patna, Bihar, India 2 Department of Textile Technology, Uttar Pradesh Textile Technology Institute, Kanpur, U.P., India 1

Abstract

A pulse of the fashion industry report found that the fashion generates 4% of the world’s waste each year, contributing a whopping 92 million tons annually. Most of the clothes that are produced by fast fashion are inorganic and synthetic. So, they are unable to degrade properly and these chemicals in the fabrics pollute water. This redundant issue can be solved by adopting various marketing strategies taking into account both environmental and socio-economic aspects. It implies ethics and reuse of products in the new field of “sustainable fashion” which can increase the value and price of local product and even play crucial role to increase life of fashion or textile or fiber materials. Keywords:  Sustainable fashion, marketing strategies, fashion, textile materials

9.1 Introduction “Sustainable fashion” (SF) is a process to change and foster the fashion products and also to ensure the fashion and ecological integrity of these products. The social justice and viability factors are also needs to be count in all the involved processes. SF can be seen as a buzzword and it comprises *Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (199–214) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

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200  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles with dealing with three main independent factors such as social, economic, and environmental (ecological) aspects. Sustainability in fashion is a sensible perspective for all the stakeholders, users and fashion garment products. The responsibility for all the citizens in public or private sector and all living species are the key peoples for this system thinking and “thinking in fashion” is the key psychology for this kind of initiative [1]. The fiber class (natural/synthetic) can be one crucial criterion for making contemporary fast or slow fashion based product level initiative, replacing the harmful option. The adjacent term to SF is “Ecofashion” [2, 3].

9.1.1 The Problems With Unsustainable Fabrics a. Unsustainable fabrics are the major reason for environmental pollution and water pollution. b. It hampers soil composition and various inorganic dyes used during fabric making process can do severe harmful changes in the soil due to their non-biodegradable. c. These types of fabrics are non-reusable and non-­recyclablebasically making these materials as waste product after usages [4­–6]. d. The “fast” pattern-based consumption is primarily noticed for unsustainable fabrics (textiles) and the conspicuous consumption is the major problem on a massive scale. This type of long consumption rate was not reaching god public attention for a long time which has become one major roadblock for this unsustainability issue. e. Due to fast rate of production of unsustainable fabrics than sustainable fabrics, workers are much more interested in unsustainable practices due to higher employment and better wages also. This may open some more new avenues for short-term employment but long-term sustainable revenue cannot be achieved over these practices [7].

9.1.2 Factors Affecting Sustainable Fashion a. High rate of deforestation b. Faster adaptation of mining operation c. Dumping of waste in the rivers d. Demolition of natural resources [8] e. Non-renewable resources-extra usages

Sustainable Strategies From Waste  201 f. Hefty costing for sustainable fabrics g. Slow rate of innovation and social adaptation [7, 9, 10] The various solutions can be addressed to this critical issue by various ways, such as: a. By ensuring more usages of more sustainable fabrics b. Awareness of uses and daily based applications by the government and different public organizations c. Detail securitization of different involved processes d. Spreading more consumer awareness on sustainability certification for any fashion/textile product e. Banning of inorganic chemicals and dyes f. Assurance of decent wages and availability of suitable jobs g. Usage of natural fiber/yarn or fabric at the maximum level h. Imposing mandatory compliance of recycling and reusing processes at each step [11–13] The role and importance of stakeholders like different non-profit organizations, all the manufacturing companies, consumers from diverse strata of society, farmers, artisans, government, related agencies, and business partners are very vital to spread sustainable textile or fashion marketing. The expression “slow fashion” was coined in a 2007 article by Kate Fletcher published in The Ecologist. The idea behind this was to compare the eco/sustainable/ethical fashion industry to the slow food movement. The key elements behind this slow fashion philosophy comprising purchasing old-fashioned classical clothes, restyling time worn clothes, do shopping from smaller manufacturers, making cloth and home accessories at home and buying garments. Latest ideas and product innovation are now redefining the slow fashion using static definition of product innovations. On the other hand, fast fashion production confirms quality manufacturing to ensure the life of the apparel. Slow fashion may be considered a revolt or action against the fast fashion movement. Taxation in early stages of development in order to deter fashion companies from purchasing or producing materials that are not made with recycled, organic, or re-­purposed materials and utilizing materials already made will reduce the industry’s carbon footprint [14]. According to the UN’s “Our Common Future” report in 1987, the environmental activities done by human have been the main reason for catastrophic impact over the natural atmosphere. Most precisely apparel and fashion or textile, where the manufacturing production involved toxic

202  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles wastes at almost all stages, has become a major concern for world environment. Moreover, a major part of textile production is named as “fast fashion” and also trended as inexpensive fashion items that are being disapproved only after using for some period. Due to all these issues, fashion is tagged as one of the most polluted sectors among various industries. These problems are threatening the future of fashion, and its future depends on the ability to adoption of sustainability concept to the common man’s mind. SF can empower the consumer feelings by making conscious choice and their consumption of SF has the potential to empower consumers’ feeling of fulfilment by making more conscious choices and their consumption of SF garments. “Sustainable beauty” is the fierce combination of imagination and is the science to evaluate the long-term atmospheric impact. There are four large aspects to make sustainable product and all have to be taken into account when formulating and distributing new products: a. Ethical sourcing for natural raw materials b. Aesthetic production (energy and water consumption, waste management) c. 3BL (three bottom line)–aided packaging system (biodegradable, compostable, recyclable) d. Enhancement of biodegradability featured finished product

9.1.3 Sustainable Development in Beauty Over the Years a. Weleda, Dr. Bronner, and Dr. Hasuka were few of the early adopters at the grass root level of the economy. b. Anita Roddick’s The Body Shop was founded in 1976 and many others emerged as a response to the synthetic chemicals found in everyday cosmetics. c. The green beauty market has changed dramatically from “the days of poorly pigmented ‘makeup’ products” to skincare that smells like a greenhouse. Instead of harsh chemical products, alternative ingredients are found in nature to get better results. d. Recently, many cosmetic brands, retailers, suppliers, spas, and salons are starting to realize that incorporating sustainability into their overall business strategy is the right thing to do. e. Social responsibility is beneficial not only to large corporations but also to small and medium sized businesses who want to differentiate themselves from their competition.

Sustainable Strategies From Waste  203 f. Studies have shown that implementing sustainable actions has it benefits, including enhanced brand image, increased sales, and customer loyalty [14–16].

9.2 Sustainable Fashion for Brands This is to create the best way to formulate sage and humanitarian sense attitude and actions suitable for the environment. The goal is to generate stable system without leaving a negative footprint. The implied meaning is that whatever we purchase that need to be support the 3BL concept at the root through our purchases. The fashion industry has a clear advantage to act separately through making profit and achieving business growth which can contribute heavily to society and world economy. It comes with an urgent need to place environmental, social, and ethical improvements on managerial agenda. The goal of SF is to create flourishing ecosystems and communities through its activity. This may include increasing the value of local production and products, prolonging the lifecycle of materials and increasing the value of timeless garments which help to reduce amount of waste. This philosophy can actually produce the practice for promoting the “green consumer” [17–21].

9.2.1 Example of Sustainable Fashion Brands a. Bloggers: Jen Brownleo (The Sustainable edit) b. Media: Magazines – Verve Magazines, Darling Magazines c. Branding: i. Apolis ii. Christopher Raeburn iii. Aday iv. Everlane d. Fashion weeks: San Francisco Sustainable Fashion Week. e. Berlin fashion Week f. LakmeIndia Fashion Week (Summer/resort 2019) g. Celebrities: Emma Watson—She support fair trade. As the UN Women. She is co-founder of the site “Feed Good style” dedicated to SF. h. Stella McCartney—Eco-friendly designer. Her designs are sustainable without compromising on style. i. “Upasana” supports the weaving community of India. House of Wandering Silk uses handmade and upcycled materials [22–24].

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9.3 Sustainability and Internal OrganizationMarketing Strategies The “sustainability agendas” can be resolved in a great extent by taking stakeholder views, clean outputs, and social fairness by ensuring the social, environmental, and economic pillars. Sustainable humanitarian supply chain has been very promising to the fashion segment in terms of focus on strategies, product/process innovations. Stakeholders are much more benefitted from grabbing the market segments by encouraging the technological advancement like nanotechonology, orange fiber, designing advanced fashion arena related software, etc. The diaspora of latest methodologies such as sonic welding, automated knitted, or ink-jet printing facility or nested electronic fashion dress cater high end uses in the market segments [25]. The challenges under this internal organization can be categorized under several as design phase strategy, customer education, customer expectations, aligning the supply chain along the value chain, and contribution of traceability to sustainability. In the next section, we will discuss these different pivotal segments in a detailed way [26, 27]. Design phase strategy: This become a critical challenge for the textile and fashion industry to rethink and ensuring tailor-made sustainable product quality [28]. Such design can affect the entire concept including materials, cost, quality, and manufacturing process. The value proposition and product adaptation are majorly influenced by sustainable design and principles. Dissanayake and Sinha (2015) [29] have pointed out that design concept development must be there in any textile or apparel or fashion item manufacturing process to cut down waste, excessive color, shape, type, inventory material stocking, and production time. Moreover, the “process creativity” is very much dependent high level of design innovation and implied strategies for all fashion and textile garments. For example, a European fashion farm named Contextura has built upon this type of sustainable design innovation to their current product line. ii. Consumer education: This is another important role play in design strategies that is the consumer education which acts as catalyst to control the purchasing behavior for all products. The dimensions of slow/fast or even no fashion i.

Sustainable Strategies From Waste  205 are dependent on consumer’s conviction and worthwhile and that is the first step of any fashion or textile business model. The key component of this step is to convince the consumer to increase the value of existing garments and expending their lifespan and creativity findings. In this same chord, consumer should be enlightening with latest process and their significance, motive, and competitive advantages of newest process over traditional process in a detailed energy intensive way. Thus consumer must be educated on cloth’s durability like natural dyeing frontier, hand washing rather than machine washing [30–34]. Consumer orientation toward better sustainable supply chain, behavior pattern, collaborative solutions, and making sustainable-upcycling-downcycling-recycling initiative is the key manifest to response in the current market. Two of European firms, namely, Preza and Revoada, have exhibit higher green products with new value proposition to leverage the maximum profit towards the targeted consumer. This move actually has seized the market sharing opportunities for these two farms and helped them to educate their consumer explicitly than ever before. iii. Customer expectations: This is one close challenge to address the consumer expectation on sustainability against green washing. There is a clear need of education to all segments of consumers about SF and apparel usages or even fast or slow fashion. It may be require shifting the brand image and promotion through certification. Price taking strategy may help the farm to offer cannibalization and lower performance in this line and also farm should come forward to adopt proactive innovative-responsive supply chain model to attract the niche consumer at a wide crowd base [35]. iv. Dissipating value through supply chain: It is very crucial that each fashion or apparel farm should keep close supervision to add value into existing supply chain base and building stakeholder commitment through sharing knowledge. The sense of sustainability can be applied to the supply base by adding secondhand items for selling from past collection at a lower price. Therefore, the reverse supply chain should be very active and effective from consumer to manufacturer level and all participant/

206  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles actors should be connected in business network. To sell the secondhand item in great scale, logistics and commercialization creativity should be at its best apart from the marketing logos, strategies, or sharing knowledge via channel operation. Moreover, the business farm can look upon on creating good public images by setting up rules on every existing aspects and thus putting up organizational values derailing strategic potential partnership with valuable partner having higher environmental impacts. v. Green retailing: Green retailing is made to pay attention to cluster user experience and rethinking of value creation which is actually beyond the green product and marketing. Ethical consumer can be targeted by innovation of SF goods. This actually guarantees customer interest and loyalty. Many of the past literature has given immense focus on purchasing eco-fashion products, green retailing, branding, green packaging, and availability of recycling products in stores. The product’s sustainability strategies include all such as manufacturing process, green distributional channeling, and sound pollution diminution. Past literatures have also confirmed that the proper flow of transparent information in supply chain is very pivotal to attract consumer for buying any green product [36–39]. H&M launched clothing collection worldwide in 2013, with an ethical concept in retailing for all the conscious consumers. As consumer can return any old garment/ apparel to all H&M stores across 54 countries and in return they will get 15% off coupon in their next visit. Thus, this reward system has encouraged many less ethical consumers to return their old garments, and thus, as successful result in 2013, H&M has amassed a huge 3047 tons of used clothing, such as old jeans and tops. They have successfully converted them in recycled fiber and have used them in new garments. This all information has been regularly updated on their website to attract more and more consumer awareness. Consumers are given offers such as participating in various ecofriendly games, quizzes, donate to local charities, reinvest initiatives, or donate their referral coupon etc. Thus, a perfect win-win situation has been created by H&M over last few years.

Sustainable Strategies From Waste  207 vi. Eco-friendly material formulation: Cotton fiber can be used for most of the SF goods and especially biocotton (without any pesticide used) can serve that aim. Renowned farm like H&M, C&K, and Zara used Better Cotton Initiative (BCI) that drives in their regular manufacturing operations [40]. BCI provides better farming techniques to cotton farmers and even H&M is planning to provide 100% recycled polyester garments to Hollywood glamour collection by 2020. Many farms are following World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) in their production strategy to save water along the whole textile production line. H&M and Zara are using recycled polyamide-nylon, recycled plastic, and even recycled wool in produce many fashion garments with latest and modern design. The nature of these organic garments is very much standardized as per greenhouse emission norms acted internationally and certified by Global Recycling Standard (GRS) and Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS). In addition to that, H&M has launched three types of sustainable product line such as Re-wear (clothing that can be sold as secondhand goods after wearing), Re-use (textile products which are no more suitable to wear and converted to other products), and Recycles (textile/fashion goods which are collected by the company and converted to basic materials like fiber/ yarn and can be used as insulator or reinforcement matrix in automobile and construction industries) [41–44]. vii. Sustainable manufacturing: Fashion or apparel manufacturing is a labor intensive industry; therefore, it is most suitable for those countries with comparative lower labor costs. Therefore, it becomes extremely important to develop right awareness of environmental aspects and human rights in those developing nations. H&M promotes the significance of maintaining fair working conditions and environmental performance. They used to provide vital information about their suppliers and process snapshots to consumers and thus try to make transparent information flow along their value chain. They also provide mandatory compliance, supplier evaluation, and tough selection process throughout their production. H&M offer free work training to their suppliers and workers and do treat

208  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles them like another wing in their organization. Moreover, frequent visit in supplier plants, supplier development program, supplier integration, and adaptation to quick response has been key features of H&M across the last one decade towards various garment market. Local sourcing and distribution with highly responsive humanitarian supply chain was implied in Bangladesh garment market by H&M since early May, 2000. The lower carbon emission strategy with high agility stability has been adopted in China and Turkey also by H&M official [45]. viii. Relationship of supplier selection: Suppliers are examined by various fashion farms through their Sustainable Society Index (SSI) with some statistical approaches. In 2012, SSI has been checked by H&M, C&K, Zara, GAP, and Levi & Strauss in different countries such as Latvia, Poland, Greece, Sweden, Thailand, Tunisia, and Pakistan. It was found that human well-being is positively related to number of supplier base and negative elated to SSI practices in those counties. This means that manager should choose lower human wellbeing aided countries having lower supplier base but providing maximum quality insurance, such as China, India, and Bangladesh. China and Bangladesh have become important manufacturing warehouse for global apparel industries with tremendous benchmarking in terms of quality, trust, and profit making. ix. Enriched focus on CSR: The fashion sustainability has become a enhance focus of corporate social responsibility (CSR) these days [46]. Consumer prospects are improving on daily basis for sustainability and recycling perception. The importance of CSR communication has become a stand-out practice for expansion and improvement for all cradle-to-cradle process. Many organizations have started recruiting women (mostly without any source of income) and artisans at home. These drives are tailored-made particularly for ensuring that the sustainability message should travel to all level of society. In case of few fashion houses like Armadio Verde, Preza, Lanieri, Contextura, and Revoada, these efforts are made as born-­sustainable fashion startups. Two-way feedback and committed design cum process development team has been involved to act like catalyst into the whole manufacturing process.

Sustainable Strategies From Waste  209 Knowledge management and networking developing practices has been two key challenges in this domain [47]. x. Traceability: Traceability is the “ability” to verify the history, application, or location of any item by mean of documented and recorded identification. Therefore, it helps in finding the “made-in” origin information for any item for its consumer. The fiber origin and mediator information for any textile goods can help the local vendor to compete with any global vendor and thus assist to build blue-ocean strategy inside business value chain [48]. Due to the use of traceability by various modalities as RAFEX system, RFID system, there has been a clear shrink of 31% of faulty products was noticed by All American Clothing Co. in 2003– 2013. It is projected to decrease with another 13% by the end of 2015. Nudie Jeans Co. is another perfect example who has applied traceability in their supply chain and supplier evaluation by disclosing the name and materials used in their own manufacturing processes. VRIN and VRIO strategies can be applied to ensure the outmost traceability. Resource-based logic (RBL) is less significance than service-based logic (SBL) in here. This is due to that sustainability and traceability are the two side of a coin and these are the consumer based philosophy which are basically came to play their role in business better when we treat them as service, not as any goods. Product can be regarded as position action by contributing and removing all harmful issues from it [49]. A beautiful and informative traceable product can build brand equity and brand value and later on brand recalling in customer mind by frequent purchasing intent. In fact, traceable product can enhance loyal behavior, belief, and intent into any consumer mindset. xi. Supervising simplicity: In the fast fashion model, the consumers are usually distant from all the manufacturing processes, and thus, a proper and simplifying marketing appealing about the product is very useful for a large-scale consumption. Voluntary simplicity focuses on logical uses of apparel and fashion items to decrease repletion of natural resources. Contextura is a perfect example farm who has made their fashion startup to intimate this issue to their consumers with minimum usages of technology.

210  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles They  have made four different lines of products such as classic, versatile, timeless, and, meanwhile, to foster exchange of secondhand goods by using different minimum technological aided platforms like websites, play app, etc. [50].

9.4 Conclusions Although past literature has shown promising works in SF field, but still, the awareness level and overall consumer satisfaction level is in its initial stage “Statue nacenti”. This is a long journey to overcome for all the leading fashion or textile brands in the coming days. Stakeholders show more emphasis on technological development such as innovation, sonic welding, automated knitting or production system, nanotechnology, clean work environment, heat and bacteria proof water sewerage system, medical uniform, best-in-class ergonomics, mind firemen, just to mention a few. In addition to that, two things are very crucial to reinforce the sustainability strategies more “made-in-national” as creativity and versatility. These two key success factors are essential in delivering many multidisciplinary terms such as employability of worker, ecological analysis, skill development, talent retention, and new product development. Others elements like quality, cost, scheduling, minimum time-to-market, communication, minimum rework load, reduction of risk, stock outs issues, end-of-season markdowns, coloring decision, point of sale and efficiency of cross functional team, etc., are truly dependent on simplifying formalizing of the manufacturing and purchasing system. Yamana, a French-based non-profit organization, has come out with a program “Fiber Citizen” to apply social and environmental quality in textile and apparel supply chain. This program is particularly associated with new material like Orange fiber, recycled plastic bottles and latest weaving methods, strategic partnership with upstream and downstream chain. British Standards Initiative (BSI) has launched in 2006 to foster Community of Practice (CoP) on ethical frontier. BSI plays key role in moderating the cross-consensus built apparel and fashion project globally. In France, “Initiative Clause Sociale” (ICS) was established for monitoring environmental audits onto their subcontractors [51]. Integrated logistics system can act like a leverage item for eco-­ fashioned industries by controlling the supply chain at a real buffering level. Inter­modal transport solutions and clean transport can also contribute to set up a clear logistics system from a physical and technical

Sustainable Strategies From Waste  211 view point. Lambert, 2001, has argued that information and communication technology (ICT) can play major role in innovation and consequence changes in a fashion supply chain. Moreover, with the help of ICT mode, government can impose minimum tax scheme for producer as “Emmaus tax” just to ensure the recycling and reusing capabilities through post-­production time.

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10 Utilization of Natural Waste for Textile Coloration—Innovative Approach for Sustainability Pradnya Prashant Ambre1* and Pintu Pandit2† Dr. B.M.N. College of Home Science, Matunga, Mumbai, India National Institute of Fashion Technology, Department of Textile Design, Patna, India 1

2

Abstract

Textiles, one of the basic needs of human beings, require special attention today in terms of sustainability. With the growing technological advancements in the field in the past few decades, the textile industry is becoming one of the major contributors of pollution to the environment. The industry started realizing this fact only after seeing its hazardous effects on human kind. As the environmental laws became stricter at the beginning of the 21st century, the stakeholders started taking small steps towards preventive majors to protect the environment. As the manufacture and utilization of synthetic dyes are becoming the greatest worry for the environment worldwide, natural dyes are reviving in their own way. The importance of cleaner and greener production in the recent era is well known by designers worldwide. Therefore, eco-fashion  in a broader context is a trend of creating a design that follows sustainable process production, care, and disposal including carbon footprints. Also, it doesn’t appear to be a short-term trend; but one which could last for many more years to come. In this chapter, the attempt has been made to review such efforts taken by various stakeholders who are constantly working towards achieving high standards in terms of sustainability as far as textiles and fashion is concerned. Keywords:  Textile, fashion, sustainability, natural waste, coloration

*Corresponding author: [email protected] † Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (215–234) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

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216  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

10.1 Introduction Textiles are an integral part of human life since ages; they have been always valued for their colors, shades, prints, and other value addition techniques. There has been a lot of archaeological evidence which found dyeing as an ancient craft and as old as human civilization. In the past, this value addition of coloration to textiles was done by the effective use of various natural resources. There have been lots of evidence of man using natural colorants for textile, wall, and body coloration. Thus, the dyeing is an ancient craft as old as human civilization. The definition of natural dyes, as given by the Society of dyers and colorists, is in accordance with the idea of human ecology theory implying to “unity and harmony with nature”. According to it, natural dyes are dyes and pigments obtained from animal or herbal sources, acquired by using no or minimal chemical treatments [1]. Natural dyes are derived from natural resources and based upon their source of origin; these are broadly classified as a plant, animal, mineral, and microbial dye although plants are the major sources of natural dyes [2–4]. The majority of natural dyes are vegetable dyes from plant sources such as roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood, and other organic sources such as fungi and lichens. Natural dyes can be used on most types of material or fiber, but the level of success in terms of fastness and clarity of color varies considerably. The well-known ancient dyes include red dye from roots of Rubiatinctorum L., blue indigo dye from leaves of Indigo feratinctoria, yellow dyes from stigmas of saffron (Crocus sativus), and rhizome of turmeric (Curcuma longa) [5]. As early as more than 5,000 years ago, our ancestors in India, East Asia, and Egypt used the blue dye derived from the Indigo feratinctoria plant to dye their clothes. Natural dyes are preferred even today as they have many advantages such as they are derived from natural resources; therefore, non-toxic/organic in nature, also they can be obtained from renewable resources as well as from natural wastes. They are non-allergic; therefore, no health hazards. They are easily degradable and therefore ecofriendly. At the same time, they can produce a variety of shades depending upon the type of mordant used. Also, the method of application of natural dyes is simple and handy. Each shade produced by natural dyes is unique, soft, and soothing shades. Cultivation of natural dyes provides livelihood to many farmers and dyers. Remainders of natural dye extracts and dye liquor are degraded naturally, therefore no disposal issue; also, it is considered to be the fertility of the land and soil. (e.g., indigo). Some of the natural dyes have medicinal properties (e.g., turmeric, indigo) and some possess functional properties such as ultraviolet (UV) protection, antimicrobial, etc. Some of the natural dyes sources are shown in Figure 10.1.

Harda

Onion Peel

Figure 10.1  Different sources of natural dyes (Source: Google image).

Marigold

Indigo

Indian Madder

Hibiscus

Pomegranate Rind

Cutch

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10.2 Natural Dyes for Their Soothing Shades The most striking feature of the textiles colored or printed with natural dyes is they produce soothing and cool shades. Range of red, pink, and orange is possible from natural dyes such as madder, manjistha, and heena. Different hues of yellow can be obtained from marigold, kamala, turmeric, and himalayan rhubarb. Brown can be obtained from cutch, harda, amla, pomegranate, etc. Leading designers in the fashion industry too are keen on incorporating natural dyes in their creations. Another innovative feature of these dyes is that some of the natural dyes can be applied as dyes as well as mordants and some of the natural mordants can be applied as mordants as well as dyes. Therefore, there is a wide scope of creating a number of shades on different varieties of textile material [4].

10.2.1 Natural Dyes for Sustainability The coloration of textiles is an area of constant research and innovation. After the invention of synthetic dyes in mid of 19th century, they received faster acceptability due to their ease of application in dyeing, reproducibility, and good to excellent fastness properties. Thus, the popularity of synthetic dyes obtained from coal tar caused the rapid decline in the use of natural dyes. But after a few decades, it was realized that the release of synthetic dyes into industrial wastewater stared causing serious environmental problems, as their chemical structure gives them a persistent and recalcitrant nature. The utilization of synthetic dyes for dyeing of textiles turned out to be problematic as they found to be toxic and non-­biodegradable; also, some of them have serious health hazards such as allergenicity and carcinogenicity [6–8]. The environmental regulations became stringent during the beginning of the 21st century. Germany was the first to take initiative to put a ban on numerous specific azo-dyes for their manufacturing and applications. Netherlands, India, and some other countries also followed the ban [9]; even then, the large numbers of synthetic dyes are in use [10]. This in turn resulted in the great demand for natural substances for coloration. Although known for a long time for dyeing as well as medicinal properties, the structures and protective properties of natural dyes have been recognized only in the recent past. Many of the plants used for dye extraction are classified as medicinal and some of these have recently been shown to possess remarkable antimicrobial activity. Thus, natural dyes are recovering their lost importance by giving safe coloration property, innovative printing possibilities, and compatibility with various natural mordants too.

Natural Waste for Textile Coloration  219 The growing global trend of conservation of environmental resources and quality of life is reflected in the textile industry as a whole, since the differentiation in products and processes have been seen as a means for consumer satisfaction. Eco-friendly clothing is created from resources that are environmentally friendly and sustainable [11]. Textile coloration industry is a service industry that alters the appearance and aesthetics of textile materials, particularly important for apparel fabrics and many other ends use [12]. No doubt, this bright-colored material has changed the world; however, the chemicals used to produce dyes are often toxic, carcinogenic, or even explosive [13]. At present, large- and small-scale industries have begun exploring the use of natural colorants as a possible means of producing an ecologically sound product which would also appeal to the Green-minded [14]. Today, dyeing is a complex and specialized science. Though applications of natural dyes do not provide a complete alternative for synthetic dyes technically and commercially, they can be considered as best suitable at the cottage level, for small-scale industries, hobby groups, and craftsmen. Natural dyes can produce special aesthetic qualities, which combined with the ethical significance of a product that is environmentally friendly, gives added value to textile production as craftwork and as an industry [15].

10.2.2 Utilization of Natural Waste for Coloration In the past few years, studies have been conducted by many researchers for exploring the potential of natural dyes. Also, the research area of different sources of natural mordants, use of safe limits of metallic mordants, and combination of natural and metallic mordants is being explored. The focus of these studies is to find colorants from natural waste materials, e.g., temple waste flowers, fruit peels from the beverage industry, etc. As in India, various types of fresh flowers such as marigold and hibiscus are used for offering them to deities or at different religious occasions. Fresh flowers are also used daily in temples and also for household worshipping purposes. As India is land of festivals and fresh marigold flowers are considered to be auspicious, they are used in large quantities by people for decoration in homes and at commercial places too. These offered flowers, after their use become “waste” and a substantial amount of waste is generated after fulfilling their purpose. Therefore, the efforts have been taken by the various stakeholders for the protection of the environment and they have started using these waste flowers and other natural wastes that is created fruit and beverage industry for the effective colouration of textiles and fashion outfits.

220  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Adiv Pure Nature (social venture) is a Mumbai, India–based NGO that uses only natural dyes for dyeing and certain medicinal herbs as its aim is to propagate the use of natural dyes on textiles to create a sustainable, green fashion supply chain. It endeavors to contribute to the conservation of nature by adopting the waste recycling method that uses recyclable flowers from temples, coconut husks, and other such materials and convert it into natural dyes. Thus, Adiv Pure is also providing livelihood to youngsters and women from nearby community by involving them in activities such as collection of temple waste flowers and further processing it for textiles coloration under experts’ supervision. One more such initiative taken by Avani, a voluntary organization based in Kumaon village in Uttarakhand, India. Avani began with the aim of working with empowerment and skill enhancement of socially vulnerable women and young girls to become financially independent.  Avani is involved in exploiting various natural recourses of the mountain region, as the natural dyes and engaged in beautiful craft creations which have created good demand worldwide. Walnut is the major fruit crop of Himalayan region; thus, the large amount of walnut shell is collected as natural waste which is used as a source for natural dye. Eighty percent of the plants that they use for dyeing are from this area: turmeric, marigold, myrobolan, pomegranate and eupatoriumtesu, indigo, lac, etc. These plants are grown and collected by women’s groups, thereby providing additional income in the villages which is used as natural colorants.

10.3 Research Studies for Potential Use of Natural Colorants Marigold flower (Tageteserecta L.) is a rich source of carotenoids and lutein which is a major constituent used as a yellow color pigment for dyeing of fabrics [6]. Marigold is a herb of ancient medicinal repute. In traditional and homeopathic medicine, it has been used for skin complaints, wounds, and burns, etc., and recently on textiles, it’s been proved to be giving antimicrobial property [16, 17]. Experiment on ethanolic extracts of marigold flowers at different concentrations and applied this dye extracts using alum as mordant by pad-dry-cure method on 100% cotton honeycomb fabrics and tested the treated samples for their anti-microbial efficiency. They found that 100% extracts lasted up to 18 washes durability [18]. Marigold is being studied by many researchers; in a study reported, marigold is used as natural dye on 100% cotton using harda, tannic acid, alum, ferrous sulphate, copper sulphate, potassium dichromate, and stannous

Natural Waste for Textile Coloration  221 chloride as mordants. Cotton first treated with harda and tannic acid and then treated mentioned chemical mordants with pre- and post-mordanting technique. Results showed that in case of pre-mordanting, cotton treated with tannic acid first and then mordanted with ferrous sulphate showed higher color strength where as in case of post-mordanting, cotton treated with harda first and then mordanted with copper sulphate showed higher color strength [4]. Eco-friendly dyeing and antibacterial finishing of soyabean protein fabric using waste marigold flowers collected from Temples. The mordants used for the study were alum, amla, tamarind seed coat, and harda. Results clearly indicated that K/S values increased with the increased concentration of mordant and dye (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%). Therefore, 15% and 20% of mordant concentration and 20% of dye concentration (optimized) was taken for further antibacterial study. All the three natural mordants and alum used for the study gave more or less similar extent of overall antibacterial activity when dyed with marigold as compared to unmordanted. It was also found that among the three natural mordants tried, washing durability of the antibacterial property was slightly better in case of tamarind seed coat and amla, as compared to Harda [19]. In an another study, dyeing of eco-friendly hygienic casein fabric (Milk Fiber) was carried out with marigold and turmeric using alum, copper sulphate, and tamarind seed coat as mordants. The study revealed that the use of natural mordant which is from natural fruit waste, i.e., tamarind seed coat, represents the potential for a very high antibacterial activity on milk fiber [20]. India is blessed to have various beautiful flowering plants, one such commonly found is Tesu (Palas). It was reported in the study that aqueous extracts of tesu (Palas flower petals) for dyeing of 100% jute fabric using myrobalan as natural mordant and potash alum and aluminum sulphate as chemical mordants. Double mordanting method was used for dyeing process along with variables pH, time, temperature, MLR, mordant concentrations, etc. Fastness to washing, rubbing, and light and color strength were tested. Pre-mordanting with 20% myrobalan followed by 20% aluminum sulphate was found to be most potential pre-mordanting method; pH 11 offered overall good color yield and fastness properties. Light fastness and wash fastness ratings were improved nearly by 1 unit with certain post treatments [21]. Another source of natural waste is onion skin which is very easily available and it contains it contains a dyestuff called “Pelargonidin” (3, 5, 7, 4 tetrahydroxyantocyanidol). Onion is a major food crop grown worldwide and used as one of the main ingredients of many delicious food preparations. Onion skin is peeled off as it is inedible and thrown as waste.

222  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Apart from craftsmen using this effective as a natural dye, scientific study was also done where they extracted the natural dye from onion scale and applied on 100% cotton, wool, and silk fabrics using alum, stannous chloride, ferrous sulphate, copper sulphate, and potassium dichromate as mordants. Pre-, post-, and simultaneous mordanting techniques were used. As the concentration of dye increased, K/S values obtained were increased. A very good light fastness achieved with copper sulphate mordant [4]. In another study, it was reported that natural dye was extracted from onion skin and used to dye cotton fabrics using selected synthetic and natural mordants. The synthetic mordants used for the study were potassium dichromate, iron sulphate, copper sulphate, and alum, whereas the natural mordants were aloe vera and lemon. Cotton fabrics were dyed using each of the selected mordants under three different conventional mordanting techniques: pre-mordanting, simultaneous mordanting, and post-mordanting. A wide range of soft and light colors were obtained using the various mordants considered, also the mordanting technique was found to influence the results of the dyeing process. Natural mordants gave pale yellow colors, while synthetic mordants such as copper sulphate and alum also gave yellow colors. On the other hand, iron sulphate gave darker shades of colors. The results reported were very encouraging, it was concluded that onion skin dye with iron sulphate as mordant under post-mordanting technique gave the best results as far as color fastness is concerned [22].

10.4 Functional Health Care Properties of Natural Dyes and Natural Mordants Globally, as many countries have been enforcing a ban on textiles that have been colored using synthetic dyes obtained from petroleum products as they have serious health hazards, textiles dyed using natural vegetable dyes, especially with herbal medicinal plants, getting more attention and have huge market due to their obvious advantages. Therefore, in last few years researchers are trying to find more and more natural resources possessing the various functional properties such as antimicrobial, UV protection, healing benefits as the demand for safe health care textile products is increasing. Also, nowadays, much of the stress in textile industry is given on herbal natural plants and minerals for all steps of the production process. Though there are excellent synthetic antimicrobials available, their effect on ecology is always a question [19, 23, 24]. Functional property achieved with the use of natural dyes is environmentally a better option than synthetic ones because: I) in natural materials, all synthesis processes

Natural Waste for Textile Coloration  223 are accomplished by nature with no pollution of environment and II) these materials are readily biodegradable and do not produce hazardous effluent upon degradation in environment, and so, there is no need for further treatment of effluent before discharging into the environment [25]. Various natural extracts impregnated wellness garments are now coming up claiming to be helpful in curing various diseases like hypertension, heart ailments, arthritis, asthma, and diabetes. Such products include herbal dyed bed linens, mattresses, healing herbal blankets, socks, gloves, scarves, sun white towels, comforting apparels, aprons, night wears, and so on [26]. As UV rays are too having serious health hazards, there is an increased need for UV protective clothing too. Some studies have been already proven that the natural materials when used as dyes and mordants help in inhibiting the microbial growth on textiles and some selected natural dyes also found to be giving well UV protection property to textiles. Studies have been reported by many researchers about the effective use of natural waste for coloration of textiles, and at the same time, they are providing some healthcare benefit such as UV protection and antibacterial efficiency. The effect of dye extracted from green tea and its application on cotton using chitosan as mordanting agent and examined the UV protection property of the dyed cotton fabric. The results clearly showed that chitosan mordanted green tea dyed cotton showed better dyeing characteristic and higher UV protection property compared with the unmordanted green tea dyed cotton. As the chitosan concentration in mordanting increased (1 gpl to 10 gpl), K/S values increased; thus, at the same time, UVA and UVB protection factor also increased [27]. Marigold is been studied in the past by many researchers for its color strength and fastness properties with the use of various mordants. Worked on ethanolic extracts of marigold flowers at different concentrations. They applied this dye extracts using alum as mordant by pad-dry-cure method on 100% cotton honeycomb fabrics and tested the treated samples for their anti-microbial efficiency. They found that 100% extracts lasted up to 18 washes durability [18]. In another set of study, it was found that amla (Emblica officinalis G. fruit) giving good anti-microbial property on 100% cotton and silk when dyed with natural dyes such as turmeric, pomegranate rind, henna, and Indian madder. K/S values obtained were also high. Anti-microbial property was durable up to 20 washes. In another study, efficiency of tamarind seed coat as natural mordant was studied as self and in combination with copper sulphate for dyeing of turmeric and pomegranate rind on 100% cotton, wool and silk fabrics. The most promising result was tamarind seed

224  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles coat giving the anti-microbial property which is durable up to 20 washes when used in combination with CuSO4. Highest K/S values achieved, along with good fastness properties [28, 29]. The effect of Catechu as natural dye (5%, 10%, 15%, 20% conc.) on 100% soyabean protein knitted fabric using alum, harda (myrobalan), tamarind seed coat (TSC), amla as natural mordants with pre-mordanting technique. Higher K/S values obtained with pre-mordanting with natural mordants as compared to alum mordant. Wash fastness was very good to excellent, rub fastness very good and light fastness was satisfactory. All natural mordants showed more or less similar extent of anti-microbial activity. Eco-friendly dyeing and antibacterial finishing of soyabean protein fabric using waste marigold flowers collected from temples. The mordants used for the study were alum, amla, tamarind seed coat, and harda. Results clearly indicated that K/S values increased with the increased concentration of mordant and dye (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%). Therefore, 15% and 20 % of mordant concentration and 20% of dye concentration (optimized) was taken for further antibacterial study. All the three natural mordants and alum used for the study gave more or less similar extent of overall antibacterial activity when dyed with marigold as compared to unmordanted. It was also found that among the three natural mordants tried, washing durability of the antibacterial property was slightly better in case of tamarind seed coat and amla, as compared to Harda [19]. Dyeing of eco-friendly hygienic casein fabric (milk fiber) with marigold and turmeric using alum, copper sulphate, and tamarind seed coat as mordants and found that the use of natural mordants represents the potential for a very high antibacterial activity [20]. An attempt was made to develop sun protective dyeing and finishing of cotton fabric by Teli, Shaikh and Kamble using temple waste marigold flowers with mordants such as alum, copper sulphate, ferrous sulphate, tannic acid. and pomegranate rind. As property of UV protective finish of marigold was not explored earlier, this study was promising as the results revealed that all the mordanted samples showed higher UV protection factor along with coloration property. Also, the color fastness properties achieved were in acceptable range [19]. Teli and Pandit investigated the potential of Delonix regia stem shells (gulmohar) extract for dyeing of silk fabric and its effect as multifunctional properties. Extraction was done in three mediums, i.e., water, methanol, and ethanol. Phytochemical analysis of dye extract found the presence of bioactive chemical constituents such as saponin, terpenoid, flavonoid, glycoside, phenol, and tannins. Dyeing of mulberry silk fabric was carried out using Delonix regia stem shell extract (extracted in distilled water) by pre-mordanting and post-mordanting of silk fabric using alum and

Natural Waste for Textile Coloration  225 myrobalan as mordants. Treated fabrics showed a substantial increase in color depth (K/S) and good wash, light and rubbing fastness properties. Quantitative antibacterial analysis by AATCC 100 method was done on dyed silk fabric which showed very good resistance both against bacteria S.  aureus and E.coli bacteria. Dyed silk fabric also showed good to very good UV protection property. Also, durability to washing was also measured of dyed silk fabric for antibacterial and ultraviolet protection (UPF) properties which showed satisfactory results [24, 30]. Thus, it has been successfully reported by many researchers that natural wastes materials such as marigold flowers, pomegranate rind, tesu flowers, walnut shell, amla, tamarind seed coat, and chitosan, when used as a natural dye or a mordant, possess some healthcare properties which may benefit the wearer.

10.5 Innovative Approach Towards Utilization of Natural Waste The coloration of textiles is an area of constant research and innovation. The increased realization in the textiles industry as well as among the conscious consumers to develop and demand eco-friendly methods of dyeing textiles has led to reviving the old traditions of natural dyes, as these are safer in use with minimum health hazards [31]. For using natural dyes on an industrial scale, the appropriate and standardized extraction methods and dyeing techniques must be developed without sacrificing the required quality and quantity of dyed textiles. Therefore, to obtain stable shades with acceptable colorfastness behavior and reproducible color yield, appropriate extraction, identification, dyeing, and finishing techniques need to be derived from the current scientific studies [25]. Scope for the use of natural wastes as a dye or a mordant is tremendous as it is a need of time. Global environmental regulations in almost all the sectors of the textile industry show a great demand for such innovation. More and more scientific inventions will definitely help achieve the global targets for eco-friendly and sustainable innovations in the coloration of textiles. The focus of the studies should be not only on providing the data on color strength and their fastness properties but also on reproducibility and value addition for such dyed textile materials. Also, the promotion of healthier, cleaner, and safer dyed and printed textiles will sustain the demand in the near future because of consumer awareness. As we have seen, most of the studies focus on obtaining single shades of natural dyes which again gives a limitation to the use of natural dyes at the industrial level. The compound

226  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles effect or mixed shades effect can be also obtained by mixing two or more natural dyes to get more variations in colors and shades. Also, if we use natural mordants for fixation, the effect achieved becomes more sustainable from the environmental point of view. Natural dyes and mordants used, if are obtained from natural wastes, can save the cost of the natural dyeing process, and at the same time, it can help in protecting the environment. In view of a large number of flowers being used for worship in temples and household purposes, also during festivals and occasions, huge amounts of wastes are collected after their purpose is served. Marigold and hibiscus are two very important in this case and can be effectively used for extracting natural dyes and use them for coloration. As an innovative thought, colors extracted separately can be combined together to get a mixed colored effect. It can be understood in such a way, marigold extraction gives a yellow coloring component, and hibiscus extraction gives a reddish-­purple coloring compound, if both the colors mixed together, a wide range of shade gamut can be achieved [6]. Also, it depends on which type of mordant is used for fixation of a natural coloring compound on various natural fibers, maybe it is chemical based mordants which give bright shades and maybe it is natural mordants which give duller shades. Similarly, marigold can be combined with natural dyes, i.e., Indian madder which gives the red color to the textile fiber, marigold, and Indian madder in mixed form or in a compound form give a range of yellowish-orange shades, along with yellow and red as selfshades. At the same time if rich source of red colour from Indian madder is mixed with hibiscus , it gives a range of dull orange to beige shades (as shown in Figure 10.7), if used along with natural mordants [6].

10.5.1 Indigo—Potential Natural Dye Indigo is one of the oldest natural substances used for textile dyeing and printing (refer to Figure 10.2). Probably, the ancient known dye to the world is the blue dye indigo also known as Indigofera tinctoria, obtained in Europe from the leaves of the dyerswoad herb, and in Asia from the indigo plant. It is an organic compound with a distinctive blue color. In India, indigo is called as Neel. Indigo has very good dyeing properties, and it remains a favored dye for denim, although synthetic indigo has replaced the natural material [9]. Economical as well as eco-friendly natural indigo can be applied to fibers such as cotton, silk, and wool with no requirement of mordant. Unlike many other natural dyes that require a high temperature, natural indigo works at low temperatures. It works so quickly that you can get blue fabric after just 10 minutes in the indigo vat. It is believed that the land in which indigo plantation is grown increases its fertility.

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(b)

(a)

Indigo Plant

(c)

Indigo Powder

Indigo dye stock solution

Figure 10.2  (a) Indigo Plant, (b) Indigo dye powder, and (c) stock solution of indigo dye.

Fibers such as cotton, silk, and wool can be dyed easily using indigo to give rich blue color. Natural indigo is such a natural dye that doesn’t require a mordant for fixation and it can be dyed at room temperature. Dyeing of indigo goes in two-step reactions called reduction and oxidation [32, 33]. Natural indigo is a dark blue crystalline powder and is not readily soluble in water. The dye is soluble in an alkaline vat solution. Dyeing process of natural indigo can be understood by the following steps: Step 1. Blank vat solution is prepared by using 20 gpl of 40% NaOH and 10gpl hydro use at 50°C. The required amount of indigo dye is pasted using Turkey Red Oil and the volume is made to 100 ml by adding blank vat solution to the paste which becomes green in color. This solution is filtered and used for dyeing. Step 2. The substrate (ready for dyeing, may be cotton, wool, or silk) is dipped in the blank vat solution for 10 min and then taken out and squeezed. The indigo dyeing solution can be prepared for different shades (e.g., 1%, 2%, and 4%). Textile substrates are dipped in the indigo solution for 10 min at room temperature. The soluble indigo thus combines with the fiber. Fabrics are then removed from the dye bath and are exposed to oxygen. On oxidation, it is observed that the color of the fabric changes from greenish-yellow to blue (as shown in Figure 10.3). Fabrics can then be neutralized with acetic acid and then washed with a soap solution for 10 min, squeezed and dried. For compound shade effect, indigo-dyed textile materials can be top dyed with any other natural dyes such as Indian madder, marigold, and hibiscus, and so on. The process of mixed or compound shade effect is as follows: Step 1 and Step 2 are the same as mentioned above. Step 3. Indigo dyed fabrics (1%, 2%, and 4%) have to be first mordanted (pre-mordanting) with natural or safe chemical mordant extracts (may be at 10% to 20% level) in the machine called as Rota dyer at laboratory

228  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Figure 10.3  Process of indigo dyeing.

scale (refer to Figures 10.4 and 10.5). The temperature for mordanting is 95°C and the time is 60 minutes. The mordanted fabrics are then squeezed and removed from the mordant solution. Now, this indigo dyed and then pre-mordanted fabrics can be dyed using the extract of natural dye for various percentages of shades to achieve the compound effect of indigo topped with another natural dye. The dyeing process parameters can be referred to in Figure 10.4, step II. The combined effect of indigo and top dyeing with other natural colors produces a very unique range of shades. Thus, natural indigo plays a very important role as far as bright beautiful blue shades are concerned. The top dyeing with another natural dye is a very unique approach towards producing more number of shades. For example, as the bright green is very difficult to obtain by any natural dye on textile material, it is possible to achieve by first dyeing with natural indigo and then top dyeing it

Step IV

Step II • Blank Vat Solution Step I

• Reduction and • Oxidation

• Premordanting Step III

Figure 10.4  Process of indigo top dyeing for compound shade.

• Top Dyeing with other natural dye

Natural Waste for Textile Coloration  229 with marigold which results in the bright green shade (refer to Figure 10.6 for green shades). Similarly, extractions of Indian madder and hibiscus, if mixed together in certain proportions will produce beautiful range of orange to light orange and beige shades on cotton as shown in Figure 10.7. Thus, the beauty of natural dyes can be enjoyed and experimented along with a wide range of shade gamut which gives more possibility for their use by craftsmen and designers in the traditional as well as in modern textile and fashion forms. Step I • Premordanting • In Rota Dyer • MLR – 1:30 • Temperature – 95º • Time – 60 min

Step II • Dyeing • In Rota Dyer • MLR – 1:30 • Temperature – 95ºC • Time – 60 min

Figure 10.5  Process of indigo top dyeing for compound shade.

Indigo % shade

Marigold 30% Shade

1%

30%

2%

30%

4%

30%

Amla 20%

Mordant Concentration Harda 20%

Pomegranate rind 20%

Figure 10.6  Compound shades obtained by indigo top dyed with marigold using different mordants.

230  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Indian madder: Hibiscus

Amla 20%

Harda 20%

Pomegranate rind 20%

100 : 0

70 : 30

50 : 50

30 : 70

0 : 100

Figure 10.7  Compound shades obtained by mixing Indian madder and hibiscus using various mordants.

10.6 Conclusion The coloration of textiles is an area of constant research and innovation. The increased realization in the textiles industry as well as among the conscious consumers to develop and demand eco-friendly methods of dyeing textiles has led to reviving the old traditions of natural dyes, as these are safer in use with minimum health hazards. Fibers such as cotton, silk, and

Natural Waste for Textile Coloration  231 wool can be dyed easily using indigo to give rich blue color. Natural indigo is such a natural dye that doesn’t require a mordant for fixation and it can be dyed at room temperature. Scope for the use of natural wastes as a dye or a mordant is tremendous as it is a need of time. Global environmental regulations in almost all the sectors of the textile industry show a great demand for such innovation. More and more scientific inventions will definitely help to achieve the global targets for eco-friendly and sustainable innovations in the coloration of textiles.

References 1. Belemkar, S. and Ramachandran, M., Recent trends in Indian textile ­industry-Exploring novel Natural dye products and resources. Int. J. Text. Eng. Process, 1, 33–41, 2015. 2. Basak, S., Saxena, S., Chattopadhyay, S.K., Narkar, R., Mahangade, R., Banana pseudostem sap: A waste plant resource for making thermally stable cellulosic substrate. J. Ind. Text., 46, 1003–1023, 2016. 3. Pandit, P., Maiti, S., Gayatri, T.N., Mallick, A., Applications of Textile Materials Using Emerging Sources and Technology: A New Perspective. Green Sustain. Adv. Mater., vol. 2, pp. 49–83, Scrivener Publishing LLC, USA, 2018. 4. Pandit, P., Gayatri, T.N., Maiti, S., Green and Sustainable Textile Materials Using Natural Resources. Green Sustain. Adv. Mater., vol. 1, pp. 213–262, Scrivener Publishing LLC, USA, 2018. 5. Visalakshi, M. and Jawaharlal, M., Healthy Hues-Status and Implication in Industries–Brief Review. J. Agric. Allied. Sci., 3, 42–51, 2013. 6. Teli, M.D. and Ambre, P.P., Development of Compound Shades of Indigo and Marigold using Natural Mordants on Cotton and Cotton/Viscose Blend. J. Text. Assoc., 78, 1, 15–20, 2017. 7. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., Novel Method of Ecofriendly Single Bath Dyeing and Functional Finishing of Wool Protein with Coconut Shell Extract Biomolecules. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng., 5, 8323–8333, 2017. 8. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., Development of thermally stable and hygienic colored cotton fabric made by treatment with natural coconut shell extract. J. Ind. Text., 48, 87–118, 2018. 9. Satyanarayana, D.N.V. and Chandra, K.R., Dyeing of cotton cloth with natural dye extracted from Pomegranate peel and its fastness. Int. J. Eng. Sci. Res. Technol., 2, 10, 2664–2669, 2013. 10. Sanjeeda, I. and Taiyaba, A.N., Natural dyes: Their sources and ecofriendly use as textile materials. J. Environ. Res. Dev., 8, 683, 2014. 11. Eryuruk, S.H., Greening of the textile and clothing industry. Fibers Text. East. Eur., 22–27, 2012.

232  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 12. Holme, I., Recent developments in colorants for textile applications. Surf. Coatings Int. Part B Coatings Trans., 85, 243–264, 2002. 13. Sharma, P., Kaur, H., Sharma, M., Sahore, V., A review on applicability of naturally available adsorbents for the removal of hazardous dyes from aqueous waste. Environ. Monit. Assess., 183, 151–195, 2011. 14. Jothi, D., Extraction of natural dyes from African marigold flower (Tagetes erecta L.) for textile coloration. Autex Res. J., 8, 49–53, 2008. 15. Kanchana, R., Fernandes, A., Bhat, B., Budkule, S., Dessai, S., Mohan, R., Dyeing  of textiles with natural dyes, An ecofriendly approach. Int. J. ChemTech. Res., 5, 2102–2109, 2013. 16. Teli, M.D., Pandit, P., Ugale, P., Sterculia foetida fruit shell for multiple wellness properties to organic cotton. Asian Dyer, 13, 4, 31–35, 2016. 17. Teli, M.D., Viveki, S.B., Pandit, P., Standing bath technique for cost reduction in silk dyeing with marigold. Asian Dyer, 14, 2, 25–30, 2017. 18. Krishnaveni, V., Amsamani, S., RajKumar, G., Development Of Eco-friendly Antimicrobial Finish On Cotton Using Calendula Officinalis (Marigold). Man-Made Text. India, 53, 10, 373–376, 2010. 19. Teli, M.D., Sheikh, J., Kamble, M., Ecofriendly dyeing and antibacterial finishing of soyabean protein fabric using waste flowers from temples. Text. Light Ind. Sci. Technol., 2, 2, 78–84, 2013. 20. Teli, M.D., Sheikh, J., Valia, S.P., Yeola, P., Dyeing of milk fiber with marigold and turmeric dyes. J. Text. Assoc., 74, 12–17, 2013. 21. Samanta, A.K., Konar, A., Chakraborti, S., Dyeing of jute fabric with tesu extract: Part 1—Effects of different mordants and dyeing process variables. Indian J. Fiber Text. Res., 36, 63–73, 2011. 22. Zubairu, A. and Mshelia, Y.M., Effects of selected mordants on the application of natural dye from onion skin (Allium cepa). Sci. Technol., 5, 26–32, 2015. 23. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., A Novel Natural Source Sterculia foetida Fruit Shell Waste as Colorant and Ultraviolet Protection for Linen. J. Nat. Fibers, 15, 3, 337–343, 2018. 24. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., Multifunctionalised silk using Delonix regia stem shell waste. Fibers Polym., 18, 9, 1679–1690, 2017. 25. Kasiri, M.B. and Safapour, S., Natural dyes and antimicrobials for green treatment of textiles. Environ. Chem. Lett., 12, 1–13, 2014. 26. Hossain, M.F., World pineapple production: An overview. African J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev., 16, 11443–11456, 2016. 27. Kim, S., Dyeing characteristics and UV protection property of green tea dyed cotton fabrics. Fibers Polym., 7, 255–261, 2006. 28. Prabhu, K.H., Teli, M.D., Waghmare, N.G., Eco-friendly dyeing using natural mordant extracted from Emblica officinalis G. Fruit on cotton and silk fabrics with antibacterial activity. Fibers Polym., 12, 753–759, 2011.

Natural Waste for Textile Coloration  233 29. Prabhu, K.H. and Teli, M.D., Eco-dyeing using Tamarindus indica L. seed coat tannin as a natural mordant for textiles with antibacterial activity. J. Saudi Chem. Soc., 18, 864–872, 2014. 30. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., Delonix Regia stem shell waste for natural dyeing and UV protection of linen fabric. Asian Dyer, 15, 2, 34–37, 2018. 31. Makkar, P., Singh, J., Rose, S.S., Goyal, S. Eco friendly dye extraction technique for silk with manjeestha Roots. Man-made Textiles in India, 269–271, 2012. 32. Teli, M.D., and Ambre, P.P., Innovative compound shades of indigo top dyed with indian madder using natural mordants. Asian Dyer, 15, 4, 29–35, 2018. 33. Teli, M.D., and Ambre, P.P., Innovative discharge printing of compound shades of indigo and indian madder on cotton and cotton/viscose blend. Asian Dyer, 15, 5, 29–34, 2018.

11 Circular Economy in Fashion and Textile From Waste Subhankar Maity1*, Kunal Singha2, Pintu Pandit2 and Amal Ray3 Department of Textile Technology, Uttar Pradesh Textile Technology Institute, Kanpur, India 2 National Institute of Fashion Technology, Department of Textile Design, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, NIFT Campus, Mithapur Farms, Patna, India 3 Department of Textile Technology, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab, India 1

Abstract

The concept of the circular economy has a direct connection with sustainable development which requires balanced coordination among the technological, economic, environmental, and social aspects of a manufacturing process. The process yields products as well as waste. After completion of service life, a product may become waste. Therefore, it is required to make the optimum generation and reuse of the waste by adopting zero waste strategies for no disposal, and here, the concept of the circular economy grows for production and manufacturing of the textile and garment sector in the future. The waste and circular economy are two terms that are essentially like the two sides of a single coin since each implies the other. In this context, a comprehensive discussion of the circular economy in fashion and textiles from waste is conceived in this chapter. Various strategies of waste management and the most important generation energy from the waste of fashion and textile industries are described here. Essential barriers of the circular economy such as technical, operational, financial, knowledge, information, societal, etc., are identified. This chapter also deals with the recent global trend, market, and opportunities of circular economy at the end. Keywords:  Circular economy, no disposal, zero waste, sustainable fashion, waste, and economy *Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (235–252) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

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236  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

11.1 Introduction The concept of economy realizes trading systems, companies, financial systems, investments, profits, losses, GDP, figures, etc., which, eventually, give us a view of either the growth or decline of a company, country, or region. The concept of the circular economy was introduced several decades back in 1976 by “Stahel and Reday” [1]. They described the circular economy as an economy of loops which is related to the life cycle of products and the ecology behind their manufacturing process. A circular economy is the pillar of the sustainability paradigm. The circular economy leads to a comprehensive understanding of the context of fashion and textiles and reappraises the resources to conduct an undertaking. It guides us to a more frugal, less fictitious way of living, considering every activity within its scope and awareness of the impact of every action taken. Thus, the circular economy is a change of paradigm, maybe not to save the planet or to save humanity, but just to learn about the care and respect to every living being deserves [2]. The operation of the fashion and textile industry is evidenced by this economic paradigm. For a few decades, leading textile industries and brands have geared up production and season sales and try to follow an economic cycle for promotion and success. However, somehow they lack the process require to follow the circular economy due to some reasons. In order to meet increasingly tight deadlines, most fashion brands decide to manufacture their clothes outside the country of origin, choosing Eastern countries for this process, where production costs are much lower and labor rights are less respected as well. In these countries, the working conditions are unhealthy. However, such working conditions are not restricted to manufacturing in Eastern countries. Surprisingly, fashion consumers are generally unaware of raw material sourcing, production, transport, promotion, and sale of the clothes or accessories they wear. It is ethical that if this information is given to the consumers, they surely take account of it and judge their future purchase by making decisions on these aspects [3].

11.2 Linear Economy The “linear economy model” has been the most accepted version of the economic model since the industrial revolution in the 18th century. During that era of industrialization, raw materials were abundantly available in cheap prices, and the linear economy model was the only model of business with

Circular Economy in Fashion and Textile  237 the available technologies. This model manifested the growth of industrial production, employment, cities’ development, living standard, profit, and the demand for all goods [2]. The model comprises resource extraction, production, distribution, consumption, and, ultimately, waste as shown in Figure 11.1. Industries extracted raw material from the resources, converted them into products, and distributed them to the society. The consumers of these products use them for a given period of time which is called the life of the product. Once the customer’s need or the lifetime of the product ends, the product is disposed of as waste ultimately. The only possible way to discard the disposed of wastes is through either landfill or incineration. In this model, the attempt of extracting or recovering useful raw materials or resources is merely absent, and therefore, there is linearity in this economic model that exists which is giving birth of waste from the product. When the model started during the beginning of the 18th century, there were plenty of resources available at a cheap rate and labor cost was also cheap. As well as, lack of awareness and poor technology ultimately motivated the manufactures to adopt the linear economy model, which used extensive raw materials, energy, and more profit with less capital and human labor. As the manufacturing companies ultimately used to neglect the process of recycling, reusing, and waste management methods focusing toward higher profit. Unluckily, no government rule has emphasized the issues to the manufacturing sector and no protocols followed related to the recycling, reuse, and waste disposal methods [4]. The major adverse effect of this linear economic model on the society and environment is material scarcity and pollution. Other negative environmental impacts are climate change, destruction of natural habitats, generation of waste, etc. Later on, many organizations realized that this linear economy was enhancing the risk in all aspects of business and strikingly rising resource costs and supply disturbances [4]. The scarcity of resources, pollution, damages to the soil, water, air, and biodiversity is the yield of this economy which is giving trouble to mankind and other living beings. Overpopulation, poverty, epidemics, diseases, the pace of life, wars, forms of employment, and food are all consequences of past decisions regarding

Resource Extraction

Production

Distribution

Figure 11.1  The principle of a linear economy.

Consumption

Waste

238  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles resource management. This economic system involves a business system based on mass production, use, and throw after usage. Therefore, the linear economy could be defined with the slogan “use-dispose,” since it takes large amounts of resources using them, at a low economic cost for immediate use and generates a large amount of waste loading in the environment. Accelerated consumption of products and resources have significantly worsened the environmental problem. Therefore, it is required to reuse or recycle the waste to create raw materials or generate energy so that the manufacturing process and product use cycle are connected with a never-ending circular loop yielding zero waste. This is the concept of the circular economy gradually derived from the linear economy.

11.3 Shortcomings of Linear Economy The growth of industries depends on raw material availability at cheap cost and price volatility of other resources. Therefore, there is uncertainty in the linear economy regarding raw material availability. Even price volatility on the commodity had been increased significantly in recent times due to the linear economy. There are risks gradually developed in the market to gain profit, and as a result, a businessman is less likely to invest in this system. This ultimately leads to a long-term increase in raw material and end-product prices [5]. Another way, with an increase in the world population and the number of consumers, there has been a huge demand and consumption of consumer products. This will lead to the ultimate conversion of raw material to useless waste and misbalances environment and ecosystem. The research reports by several agencies mentioned that the resource consumption in the world has doubled in the period of 1980 to 2020 and they had assured it will triple in the period up to 2050 if the linear business model continued. The major factor behind the increased material consumption and waste of that is the short lifetime of the product. With this linear model, the service or life of the products makes the customer look for new products frequently which is highly undesirable [4].

11.4 Circular Economy The fundamental concept of the circular economy is the extension of the use-life of the goods. It is a gradual transition towards a sustainable society by utilizing finite resources of the world and various strategies adopted by the industries to regenerate the resource consistently. The amount of

Circular Economy in Fashion and Textile  239 consumption of natural resources for the manufacturing of products or goods and the amount of waste they create governs the product-life or the period over which products and goods are used. Shortening of product-life increases demands replacement of products with new one and old product goes to waste. Extending product-life optimizes and reduces the depletion of natural resources and consequently waste. Therefore, it builds on and increases wealth. Longer use of products will thus contribute to the transition towards a sustainable society. Other strategies like reuse and recycling of products are described as the waste reduction and resource conservation strategies recommended by Stahel for industrial production. He described two circular economy concepts as: (1) product specific and (2) material specific. The first concept basically focused on product reuse and life extension and the second concept is based on a material-specific loop focused on a post used waste and resources [6]. Stahel mentions four spiral loops in this context, viz., (i) reuse loop, (ii) repair loop, (iii) reconditioning loop, and (iv) recycling loop, where reuse is simply extending the life of the product by multiple uses even if its effectiveness reduces from the desired or expected level. In this approach, consumers have to compromise the product performance up to a certain level of recommendation or acceptance. In case of a repair loop, after completion of a preceding product cycle, certain damage control or repair is required to make the product ready for successive cycles. Therefore, the product is not incurred as waste rather considered for the next cycle of use after rectification, hence, extending its life, where reconditioning means the use of the used product as a raw material for the manufacturing of a new product. By this principle, the life span of the goods and products extended with the available resources and without consuming extra resources or costs. In the recycling loop, waste generated is collected and reprocessed to prepare to start material for the production of other useful products. All these four strategies explain the concept of zero waste following a never-ending path of product cycle as depicted in Figure 11.2 [4]. McDonough and Braungart developed “design for sustainability” principles in connection with the World’s Fair Expo 2000, which encourages designers to apply sustainable elements in their design so as to extend the product life [7]. They also wrote books entitled “Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things” and “The Upcycle,” in the year 2002 and 2013, respectively. In these books, a clear understanding of the linear economic model and vis-a-vis of the circular model was explained. They researched this area and findings are reported as a cradle-to-cradle (C2C) design model for designers [8–10]. The vision of the circular economy they mentioned in these books is once a product reached its end of life it either

Manufacturing

240  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Used

1. Reuse

Waste

Virgin Resources 2. Repair 3. Reconditioning

4. Recycle

Figure 11.2  Stahel’s spiral loop for circular economy.

should become a “biological nutrient” or “technical nutrient.” This concept differentiates between the technical and biological pathways of the products as illustrated in Figure 11.3. In the biological cycle, the consumption of resources is high and the products are designed to back-feed into the system by different processes like composting and anaerobic digestion. This cycle regenerates living systems, such as soil, which provide renewable resources for the economy. The

Product

Production

Plants

use

Biological Nutrients

Biological degradation

(a) Biological Cycle for Product Consumption

Production

Product

use

Plants

Disassembly

Return to Producer

(b) Technical Cycle for Product Consumption

Figure 11.3  (a) Biological cycle for products for consumption and (b) Technical cycle for products for services.

Circular Economy in Fashion and Textile  241 technical cycle recovers and restores products, components, and materials through strategies like reuse, repair, remanufacture, or recycling. However, the concept of a circular economy is much broader than that of a simple waste administration process [11]. It requires a much more comprehensive look at the design of radically alternative solutions, over the entire life cycle of any process. It is also essentially the interaction between the process, environment, and economy in which all are associated. The regeneration is not only applicable for material or recovery of energy but it becomes an improvement of the entire living and economic model compared to the previous business-as-usual economy model like the linear model and resource management. The concept of the circular economy has a direct connection with the sustainable development concept. It requires balanced coordination with the economic, environmental, technological, and social aspects of a process. It also provides interaction among all these aspects [4, 12].

11.5 Principles of Circular Economy The circular economy is defined as an industrial system that is restorative or regenerative by intention and design. It replaces the “end-of-life” concept with restoration, shifts towards the use of renewable energy, eliminates the use of toxic chemicals, which impair reuse, and aims for the elimination of waste through the superior design of materials, products, systems, and, within this, business models. Technically, the concept of the circular economy is driven by three principles [4]. Principle 1: Preserve and enhance natural capital by controlling finite stocks and balancing renewable resources. For example, replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy. Principle 2: Optimize resource yields by circulating products, components, and materials in use at the highest utility at all times in both technical and biological cycles. For example, sharing or looping products and extending product use cycles. Principle 3: Foster system effectiveness by revealing and designing out negative externalities, such as water, air, soil, and noise pollution; climate change; toxins; congestion; and negative health effects related to resource use. In order to implement a circular economy system, it is necessary to understand that we are all responsible for the materials, products, or

242  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles services that we use, as well as for everything we discard. This involves designers, producers, industries, transport, users, etc. The circular economy is a process to transform social and cultural paradigms, rooting out customs, and habits learned throughout generations so as to include others that align with the guidelines posed by it [2].

11.5.1 Need for Circular Economy in Textile and Fashion Industry The textile and fashion industries are the most polluting industries in the world, since they follow a resource-intensive supply chain that produces massive waste and releases a huge amount of toxic substances that pollute air, water, and soil. Moreover, it has a direct impact on industry workers who used to spend long working hours in unhealthy conditions. In many cases, they through their lives at risk to produce more clothes at a lower cost and on the inhabitants of the place where they operate [2, 13]. In each stage of the life cycle of the textile product, a huge amount of waste is discarded. Since the textile industry is part of a fashion system that promotes mass and fast consumption, people buy clothes to wear for a short period of time, so they quickly become textile waste. The waste consists of material that reaches the end of its life cycle for an individual or organization, which is generally disposed of, along with other wastes, in a landfill, which, in turn, pollute for the environment and spoil the society. Textile waste can be classified into three categories: (i) The remnant of every production process in textile and garment production such as pieces of cloth, yarn, leather, motifs, and other raw materials that are discarded. These are called pre-consumer textile wastes. (ii) The second type is called post-consumer textile wastes those are clothes no longer desirable for the user due to loss of aesthetic appeal, intended functional purpose, back-dated fashion, or because they are torn. Generally, those waste garments are mended and sold as seconds in developing countries. (iii) The third category is called post-industrial textile wastes. They are generated during the manufacturing processes as by-products. These may be gases, liquids, or solids like dyes and chemicals released into water streams, the carbon footprint of every process and transport, etc. As inspired by the concept of a circular economy, mass consumption of garment entails a purchase decision through conscious purchase of clothes. There is a big difference between wearing clothes and getting dressed. When we get dressed, we express ourselves or convey some message through us. During dressing, we are concern about the origin of the garment embodying its history. Whereas wearing clothes is simple using

Circular Economy in Fashion and Textile  243 the product without consciousness and awareness. The lifetime of the garment is more important in this context. A user should sue the garment as much longer it is possible. In the case of mass garment purchase in any country, the process of garment purchase, wear, and discard takes place over a very brief period of time. Its production process is also faster. In this case, there is quite a possibility of less knowledge about garment origin, wear, and disposal. Therefore, the circular economy proposes not just product recycling but also product upcycling, which adds value to the end product unlike recycling, which generally consists of reusing materials, but not necessarily trying to improve or upgrading the quality of the new product [14]. The recycling is part of the 3Rs: Reduce, Recycle, and Reuse. Reduction of the consumption or use of resources is a short-term solution and it is not enough to achieve a real improvement of effective [15]. On the contrary, it is required to reproduce products made of waste/rejects that can be constantly transformed and reused as well as improving end-product quality every time [16]. In this context, the sustainable fashion brands follow business models based on circular economy and promote messages of more conscious consumption of garments to change customers’ consumption patterns while trying to sell more products [3, 17]. The fashion brands that truly want to implement an approach based on circular economy should develop their inventiveness, creativity, versatility, and resilience among other abilities to have the lowest possible footprint while offering appealing consumer products and setting an example for both other brands and their customers [3, 18]. Sustainable fashion brands follow principles of circular economy and aware of the impact of human activity, especially in the textile industry. They not only teach how to mend their clothes to their customers but also ask them to return the clothes those they no longer want to wear so that those can be mended, rectified, and resell them to new customers. Textile manufacturers in many countries started to recycle garments, utilizing waste into recycled yarns and textiles. In this way, a company has not only made a profit from the waste by the creation of consumer products but also manage to zero waste. This practice of recycling and value-creation initiatives in the industry has changed the mindset of the workers of the company which is establishing a vital positive social effect [19, 20]. Conventionally, the textile materials, fabrics, and tools used during garments are considered only instrumental to an industry that intends to sell a larger quantity of garment in a short time at the lowest possible cost, without regarding the value of each process along with the dignity of human labor. Whereas, slow fashion now emerges as part of the slow movement

244  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles that promotes precisely giving awareness and consideration to each manufacturing stage or process. Materials that are used during production are valued such that even a small handicraft work and local production are counted [21]. It is required to think beyond the material aspect and implement positive social and cultural changes for focusing on the implementation of the circular economy. As textiles are closely related to culture, they have an identity and represent both memory and legacy. To redesign them becomes an act of creativity, respect, and evolution [22]. In a way, it is all about focusing on the present practice in an ethical and sustainable way and enjoying every single moment for the circular economy to slowly become a usual form of trade [2].

11.5.2 Benefits of Circular Economy A linear economy is based on mass production and marketing, which speed up production and seconds or waste. Conversely, the circular economy is based on natural laws, emulating the natural cycles of drawing waste into the process of reproduction. It is regenerative and restorative to resources, societies, and the environment. The circular economy is based on four principles: (i) preservation of the natural capital; (ii) optimization of the available resources; (iii) risk reduction; and (iv) renewable flow of resources and products [23]. The preservation of natural capital implies an optimum use of natural resources as well as good labor management. Available natural resources are currently over-exploited by different industries. Risk reduction is regarding the overexploitation of natural resources that we could not survive without natural resources. By overexploiting resources, there is no time for their regeneration, which has an adverse effect on the ecosystem. The renewable flow of resources and products is urgently required and evidenced gradually over time due to increasing consciousness [24, 25]. As soon as the time is recognized as an essential factor in every part of the production and consumption process, it becomes vivid that a real solution is to allow more time to produce goods and services following a sustainable process that generate a positive impact on the environment, the societies, and the global economies. There are instances of declaring and publishing of detail process of manufacturing of products open for the customers so that customers can understand and judge the sustainable and ethical practices to manufacture the products. For example, Nudie Jeans is a Swedish brand that manufactures and sells jeans based on a philosophy of intimacy, both with the garment and with customer communication. On its website (nudiejeans.com), customers can find out where and how garments are manufactured. The brand also describes its raw materials for

Circular Economy in Fashion and Textile  245 each product, means of transport and packaging in each stage, country of origin, and suppliers. The brand is focused on transparency to build a bond of trust and intimacy with its customers [2]. According to Weetman (2017), in the United Kingdom and the United States, consumers accumulated on average around 28 kg and 30 kg of textile waste, respectively, per year [26, 27]. Companies like Worn which is a British company is determined to optimize this situation through recycling and upcycling of the waste and minimizing overproduction, for attaining a closed-loop system. It was estimated that in the United Kingdom at least between 30% and 40% of textiles or garments were recycled and that consumers are increasingly curious to learn more about recycling or customized clothing [28, 29].

11.5.3 Current Challenges for Circular Economy The biggest challenge to develop a circular economy is our wrong behavior and lake of taking responsibility for finding solutions. It is important to understand our responsibility towards society and the environment and about the course actions to be taken. To sustain longevity, design for reuse, and useful for services are the ways to plan for the consumption of the materials for the future. It required more attention regarding waste generated during the production process and final disposition after use, i.e., post-consumer wastes. That is the reason why the action of Patagonia toward its customers is so important, training them to mend and reuse their clothes or to return them for refurbishment and resale. Post-consumer wastes are generally yielded from products that we use on a daily basis and hence create the problem at a level detrimental to our lives. This has a hugely adverse effect on our environment. However, they could be managed in such a way that they become the raw material for a new product [2]. Fibers, yarns, and fabrics are the main raw material used in the textile sector. They can be natural (plant or animal origin) or manmade (based on cellulose or petroleum raw materials) [26]. Natural or man-made resources do not guarantee quality or resource efficiency [26]. In the case of cotton, for example, which is spun from the dry fruit of the plant, it requires very intensive farming using large stretches of land and large amounts of water. Moreover, conventional cotton usually requires irrigation systems that wastewater, in addition to pesticides and fertilizers that damage soil, air, and water, and therefore deteriorate human health beings around the crop area. In turn, the farming method of organic cotton which was developed as an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional cotton is very expensive due to the number of resources used [2].

246  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles In the context of a circular economy, it is necessary to establish a business model as shown in Figure 11.4. The business model includes the company’s production, internal and external communication, and marketing models. These may consist of either repairing, reusing, recycling, or reselling goods. Sometimes, approaches like developing goods rental or trade services to replace their possession would be useful to prevent daily waste. In years ago, when fast fashion emerged in the 1990s in response to an increasingly accelerated demand, it started as a latent core of constant, accelerated production, and consumption. Therefore, it was the production of waste ultimately along with products. Now, multi-brand companies are attempting to compete against each other regarding strategies of competitive selling clothing items and accessories at supermarkets, as well as the growth of online clothing sales, and the increased number of licenses granted by top brands and even their forgery. They all result from an accelerated market that has lost control both over itself and its environment. It is vital to come down to the natural pace within the fashion system, since the downside to the profit, success, and glamour achieved by these brands is labor exploitation, like child labor or unhealthy working conditions; human

Design

Waste sector

Supply Chain

Consumer

Figure 11.4  A circular business model.

Distribution channel

Circular Economy in Fashion and Textile  247 rights violations; neglect; and overexploitation of the resources used as raw materials in the production process. However, there are nations which are either excluded from or completely absorbed by this system, due to their geographic location, economic situation, or religion. This is the case of the African continent, which, over the past years, has made progress in terms of technology, energy, and agriculture, including the textile industry in such progress. Some countries like South Africa or Tanzania, among others, are even participating in the Fashion Weeks of London or New York and holding fashion events as well [30]. The African continent has a long tradition of dressing, dyeing, and knitting that is closely related to craftsmanship and rituals. African fashion shows the continent’s history and represents its present. Therefore, fashion brands know about its tradition and find the most creative ways to blend ancient techniques with modern technology. One Nigerian brand, NKWO, is aware of the waste generated by the textile industry and uses it as raw material both for garments and textile accessories [30]. The brand only launches one collection a year, which has a strong Nigerian identity and highlights the positive attributes of its culture. From its conception, African design embodies the meaning of circular economy: to respect the past, adding value to it in the present so that it survives into the future. Fashion is a social process that is conceived by and expressed through people, and, as a material object, it bears a direct relationship to the environment [31]. A circular economy system offers tools to companies, entrepreneurs, designers, producers, consumers, and users while raising awareness. Awareness helps take responsibility to bring about change. Just like with the sustainability paradigm, we can now assert that companies are implementing business models that are migrating toward a circular economy. Consumers should be informed about the production process of the goods they use to improve their decision-making power [2].

11.5.4 Opportunities The circular economy offers the opportunity to claim back our position and reconnect with nature. When we follow the circular economy into our business models, we generally raise this question of performing better. Therefore, we are looking for information and getting the desired results through trial and error. Every strategy has its own development process. Collections of information, understanding background, and pioneering in the field are as important as the manufacturing of the product and then selling a product comes in the scenario. At the time of a sale, the goods are not only exchanged for money but communication with customers is also strengthened, offering information, and, if possible, the story of the

248  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles product which is the vital strategy in the context. This is the reason why the circular economy is a comprehensive strategy that puts all the steps together. It is important to know and follow each and every step in this context. Beyond bonding between manufacturer and consumers and getting a deeper knowledge of our society and environment, the implementation of the circular economy offers us ways to sustainability. Making the most of resources and, in turn, adding to their value without overexploitation creates a healthier environment that sets the stage for new production methods. The opportunity of creating value from products or materials in different conditions is worthwhile. The circular economy is a method for the responsible creation of new products either from waste or discarded/ discontinued products. While there are examples of business models based on the circular economy, a system needs to be developed. For such purpose, we should take one step further and, first, arrange the collaboration among the existing projects; that is, to develop a network of circular economy projects which allows for a more comprehensive environmental and social impact. On the one hand, this would establish increased visibility for each company [32]. Co-engagement is a vital step for a circular economy system based on the principles of nature. Fashion is a social process that deserves to become a tool to bond with and feed on, the environment in a reciprocal relationship. The fashion industry needs to be reasserted, giving a new meaning to getting dressed and restoring its own value, along with a recognition process, in order to coexist with a system and an industry that prove healthy for our lives. The circular economy can offer an approach to sustainable development by fostering resource preservation, taking care of the environment and the society at large, and generating economic resources. Production and consumption processes (including all their related activities) need a new thinking pattern other than the current fast system [2].

11.6 Conclusion Implementation of the circular economy is a vital step as it is a strategy that can slow down the accelerated pace of goods and services consumption. Reducing the pace involves permission to think things over and becoming aware of every action. Reducing the pace of production and resources requires changes in every part of the process. This, as well as its results, may take years to realized which does not mean that it is either impossible or that the process is not worthwhile. Learning again to value resources and have a healthy interaction with our environment when we were used

Circular Economy in Fashion and Textile  249 to doing just otherwise is a great lesson that we need to learn. While our desire is that fashion really becomes a form of expression and identity, we should turn to get dressed into conscious action. Consequently, making, buying, selling, educating, learning, using, and giving need to become conscious processes. The conscious action takes place in a context where human beings are regarded as such treating their own kind fairly. This means to live in harmony with those surrounding us, respecting and even encouraging both our fellow humans and the future generations to express themselves freely, without forcing anyone or being forced. It is time to implement a holistic approach and thinking about how each part of the production process works to create better, from the design perspective, and to find alternative materials and processes. This is about looking for a new way to build and cooperate while passing on knowledge. The circular economy would be the resource and wealth management in the most economical and sustainable way.

References 1. Stahel, W., The product-life factor, in: An Inquiry into the Nature of Sustainable Societies: The Role of the Private Sector, S. Grinton Orr (Ed.), pp. 72–96, HARC, Houston, TX, 1981. 2. Gardetti, M.A., Introduction and the concept of circular economy, in: Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp. 1–11, Woodhead Publishing, United Kingdom, 2018. 3. Han, S.L.C., Chan, P.Y.L., Venkatraman, P. et al., Standard vs. Upcycled Fashion Design and Production. Fash. Pract., 9, 69, 2017. 4. Rathinamoorthy, R., Circular fashion, in: Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp. 13–48, Woodhead Publishing, United Kingdom, 2018. 5. Mathews, B., Closing the Loop: Circle economy work. 16, 05, 54–62, 2015, available at: www. circle-economy. com/wp-content/uploads/20. 6. Stahel, W.R., The utilization focused service economy: resource efficiency, in: The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems, B.R. Allenby and D.J. Richards (Eds.), pp. 178–190, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1994. 7. McDonough, W. and Braungart, M., The Upcycle e Beyond Sustainability e Designing for Abundance, Melcher Media, New York, 2013. 8. Niinimäki, K., Fashion in a circular economy, in: Sustainability in Fashion: A Cradle to Upcycle Approach, pp. 151–169, Springer Nature, Switzerland, 2017. 9. Ainamo, A., Rethinking textile fashion: New Materiality, Smart Products, and Upcycling. Swed. Des. Res. J., 12, 53, 2016. 10. Pandit, P., Nadathur, G.T., Jose, S., Upcycled and low-cost sustainable business for value-added textiles and fashion, in: Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp. 95–122, Woodhead Publishing, United Kingdom, 2018.

250  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 11. Ghisellini, P., Cialani, C., Ulgiati, S., A review on circular economy: The expected transition to a balanced interplay of environmental and economic systems. J. Clean. Prod., 114, 11, 2016. 12. Raftowicz, M.F., From sustainable development to circular economy. Econ. Environ. Stud., 16, 103, 2016. 13. Almond, K., Zero Waste Fashion Design. Fash. Pract., 10, 119, 2017. 14. Cattermole, A., How the Circular Economy is Changing Fashion. AATCC Rev., 18, 37, 2018. 15. Manickam, P. and Duraisamy, G., 3Rs and circular economy, in: Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp. 77–93, Woodhead Publishing, United Kingdom, 2018. 16. Singh, J. and Ordoñez, I., Resource recovery from post-consumer waste: Important lessons for the upcoming circular economy. J. Clean. Prod., 134, 342, 2016. 17. Chiaroni, D. and Urbinati, A., Circular Economy Business Models: Towards a new taxonomy of the degree of circularity. J. Clean. Prod., 168, 487, 2017. 18. Aneja, A., Pal, R., Kupka, K. et al., Towards a circular economy in textiles: Resyntex and the european union. Vlakna Text., 23, 15, 2016. 19. Seeger, M., Arnold, R., Hermann, U., New types of technical waste produced from strips of textile waste. Tech. Textilien, 43, 282, 2000. 20. Sethi, D. and Walia, A., Product Development using Textile Waste. Int. J. Text. Fash. Technol., 7, 33, 2017. 21. Daukantienė, V., Editorial Ecology in Fashion Industry: From Use of Ecological Materials to Promotion of Slow Fashion. Impressions from the Conference Industry Engineering. Environ. Res. Eng. Manage., 71, 3, 2015. 22. Smith, P., Baille, J., McHattie, L.S., Sustainable Design Futures: An open design vision for the circular economy in fashion and textiles. Des. J., 20, 1938, 2017. 23. Bartl, A., Circular Economy: Cycles, Loops and Cascades, ISWA Resource Management Task Force Report No. 2. International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), Vienna, Austria, 2015. 24. Fischer, A. and Pascucci, S., Institutional incentives in circular economy transition: The case of material use in the Dutch textile industry. J. Clean. Prod., 155, 17, 2017. 25. Franco-García, M.L., Carpio-Aguilar, J.C., Bressers, H., Towards Zero Waste, Circular Economy Boost: Waste to Resources, pp. 1–8, Springer, Cham, 2018. 26. Weetman, C., A Circular Economy Handbook for Business and Supply Chains, Kogan Page, London, 2017. 27. Koch, K. and Domina, T., The effects of environmental attitude and fashion opinion leadership on textile recycling in the US. J. Consum. Stud. Home Econ., 21, 1, 2007. 28. McDowall, W., Geng, Y., Huang, B. et al., Circular Economy Policies in China and Europe. J. Ind. Ecol., 21, 651, 2017.

Circular Economy in Fashion and Textile  251 29. Bhaskar, T., Chang, J.S., Khanal, S. et al., Waste Biorefinery - Advocating Circular Economy. Bioresour. Technol., 215, 1, 2016. 30. Shaw, J., Fashion Africa: A Visual Overview of Contemporary African Fashion, pp. 178–183, AFG Publishing, London, 2011. 31. Amaral, M.C., Zonatti, W.F., Silva, K.L. et al., Industrial textile recycling and reuse in Brazil: case study and considerations concerning the circular economy. Gest. Prod., 25, 431, 2018 . 32. Boiten, V.J., Han, S.L., Tyler, D., Circular economy stakeholder perspectives: textile collection strategies to support material circularity, Available in http:// resyntex.eu/images/downloads/ValrieJBoiten_Textile_collection_strategies. pdf, 2017.

12 Marketing Strategies for Upcycling and Recycling of Textile and Fashion Suruchi Pandey1*, Pintu Pandit2, Ritu Pandey3 and Sanjay Pandey4 Symbiosis Institute of Management Studies, Symbiosis International University, Pune, India 2 National Institute of Fashion Technology, Department of Textile Design, Mithapur Farms, Patna, India 3 Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Department of Textiles & Clothing, Kanpur, India 4 Head Marketing, CL, Pune, India 1

Abstract

The circular economy is an evolving model of fashion and textile. Recycling and Upcycling lead the way to a world that is sustainable today and in the future. Marketing plays a crucial role in creating demand and fulfilling it. It has other functions of spreading awareness, branding and communication, addressing customer’s queries, and post-sales support. Many start-ups have captured the need for an hour and are doing a remarkable job in this field. Big brands too have realized the potential and tapping the market. In this chapter, four P’s theory of marketing has been carried out in the context of recycling and upcycling of textile. This includes discussion on price, promotion, place, and product. Strategy, target, and positioning of textile recycling and upcycling are crucial in the entire process. Keywords:  Upcycling, recycling, reuse, sustainable textile, marketing mix, strategies

12.1 Introduction Circular economy promises a new paradigm to the existing world. It is a relationship presenting huge opportunities and challenges for brand owners. *Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (253–276) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

253

254  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Circular economy is a boon over the linear and recycling economy (Figure 12.1). Linear economy produces for consumption adding to the huge loss of natural resources. The recycling economy is thought full of wasting natural resources and hence recycles before disposing of the resources. Circular economy is conscious of sustainable production, recycle, reuse, redesign, and repair before discarding resources into the waste bin, in turn leading to the minimal waste of natural resources and sustainable development [1]. Fashion is supposed to be seasonable in nature. It is a style quotient. The fashion and textile industry is ever-changing, In fact, changing rapidly over the past few years and sources quote that textile production has grown multiple times from 2000 to 2015. State of fashion report of Mckinsey 2019 mentioned people buy 60% more clothes than they bought 15 years ago. The average number of times people use the bought clothes has reduced to 36% says Mckinsey and Co Report 2018 adding to this recent report says people consider cloth to be old if they have worn it for more than two times. The number of people purchasing is also increasing as there are a population rise and rise in the number of working populations, including more females being added to the working class [2, 3]. “Circular Fibers Initiative report in 2015 showed that greenhouse gas emissions from textiles production globally totaled 1.2 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent, which is more than the emissions of all international flights and maritime shipping combined” Quoted Femina. Sustainable practices need to have strategies encouraging the consumption of upcycling and recycled products than associating them with low value. It needs its customers to be eco-conscious. Companies should have it in their vision and mission statement and should proudly propagate it [4].

Produce

Produce

Produce recycle reuse redesign repair

use use

WASTE

LINEAR ECONOMY

recycle

WASTE

RECYCLING ECONOMY

WASTE

CIRCULAR ECONOMY

Figure 12.1  Pictorial presentation linear, recycling, and circular economy (Image adopted: https://www.thenewdenimproject.com/upcycling).

Marketing Strategies for Textile and Fashion  255 Upcycling and recycling is a philosophical and design principle adopted by the textile and fashion industry for sustainability. This is a vast system that includes recycling, reuse, redesign, and repair. It encourages swapping, renting, or borrowing of cloths. Upcycling and recycling of textiles is a great boon. This helps in environment protection, saving water, saving green belt, reduce waste, pollution of air and water. It is said the greenhouse emission cost by the textile industry is more than the aviation and maritime industry. It is all about being eco-conscious and sustaining growth. Responsible organizations respond to the changes needed by society [5, 6]. Today’s era people believe in a sustainable fashion. As it is an opportunity for a course correction from mindless consumption to a mindful shift. Shift towards sustainable choices for conserving and preserving the environment, heritage and craft, eco-friendly practices, respectable livelihoods for people. Many believe that investing in a few high-quality pieces though expensive have a timeless appeal is better than shopping decision than having many cheap quality garments which need to be disposed of soon. People in general are environment conscious but for them using sustainable textiles would be an organic or eco-friendly product or fabric. Recycling and upcycling still have to gain its momentum. According to Femina fashion magazine, less than 1% of clothes are recycled into new clothes and 12% are recycled into other products.

12.2 Marketing Mix All important marketing decisions are based on the marketing mix or four P’s of marketing. The marketing mix forms the base of all marketing decisions with an objective to maximize from the targeted market. The components of the marketing mix are blended optimally, by organizations, to achieve desired results from the targeted market. The marketing mix is considered as the strategies devised and adopted by a business to attain the marketing objectives of its products in an effective manner to a certain customer group. Figure 12.2 represents the four P’s of the marketing mix. Before even beginning your entrepreneurial venture, knowing your target market is essential. Who is going to be the consumer? Which need of theirs is the offering going to satisfy? How much are they ready to pay? Where and how would they like to procure the offerings? The marketing mix attempts to answers some of these questions. Textile and fashion industries are unique in nature as compared to other industries. Unlike other industries, while selling fashion products, it is

256  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles • Functions • Appearance • Quality features • Packaging •Brand • Service/Support • Size • Durability • Warranty • Returns • Variety

• Brand Ambassador • Advertising • Personal selling • Public relations • Message • Social Media • Budget • Corporate Communication

• List price • Discounts • Allowances • Financing • Schemes • Credit terms • Payment options

Product

Price Marketing Mix

Promotion

Place

• Channel members • Channel motivation • Market coverage • Locations • Logistics • Service levels

Figure 12.2  Four P’s of marketing mix.

important to create the need in the first place. As the need is very basic in nature, fashion products do not fit the bill. Fashion products for the customer usually stem from wants or desire (rarely as need). Because of this, fashion industry has to rely heavily on marketing for the sale to materialize [7].

12.2.1 Product Product, simply put, is an item built or produced to satisfy the needs of the target market. Ideally, extensive research should be carried out during the product development stages. Being part of the fashion/apparel industry, this research becomes all the more important. It begins with answering a question as simple as “what can be done to offer a superior product to the targeted group of customers than the competition”. Remember we are, probably, dealing with wants and desires which may be more abstract in nature. For fashion/apparel industry, understanding of trends and functionality the target market is looking for guides the product or the offering. Quality, product design, and packaging are some of the important components here. Also, of great importance are branding and the value associated with the product. Product, although being tangible, also carries intangible attributes. Brand name, customer service, etc., are some of the intangible components

Marketing Strategies for Textile and Fashion  257 of the product. Product-oriented strategy, of the early years, assumed that a good product will sell itself. In today’s era, there is no such thing called good or bad product. All that is required is to create products and offerings that satisfy the demands/requirements of the consumers. In essence, the product characteristics must encompass the functionality and quality along with other features like service, support, and warranty. With respect to the fashion industry, product design, quality, and tag style are important considerations. Also, of great importance is the seasonality. In essence, marketers have to create an appropriate product mix to improve the profitability of the company.

12.2.2 Price Another important component in the marketing mix is pricing. The price of the product is the amount that the customer pays to possess and use it. This is the component in the marketing mix which actually generates revenue for the entire company. Setting the price right is very crucial as it has a direct bearing on the company’s survival and profitability. A slight tweak in the pricing has the potential to impact the entire marketing strategy thereby impacting the entire sales and demand of the product. When company introduces a new product or enters a new market, customers may not be willing to pay a higher price as the product is new and they are not aware of its uses or features or performance. Pricing has the ability to influence the perception, in the consumer’s minds, regarding the product as well. Low priced products may create an impression of inferior products. On the flip side, the high priced products may create a perception of being overpriced. In such a scenario, while setting the price, one can research the competitor’s pricing and similar/alternative products. Within the fashion/apparel industry this point needs to be additionally taken care of. For fashion related products “Skimming” can be an apt strategy. You create a quality product, brand it as a product that people aspire for and set a premium price. The cost of producing the product customer’s perceived value derived from the product, besides other things, is to be considered while getting the pricing correct. While setting the pricing, one must consider the value addition the product brings in. There is a very thin line between overpricing and under-pricing. Hence, the company needs to set the pricing right. The point here is that if you get your pricing right with respect to your overall marketing strategy, it will contribute to your sales and brand value. Many

258  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles wonderful products loose out due to incorrect pricing. In the fashion business, if you want your product to carry a cheap and chic image, you may procure raw material at a less expensive rate and infuse cheaper labor. Here, the product needs to be positioned for the masses. In case you want the product to carry the upper-class image, you may target a niche segment with a price point beyond the actual costs involved. In the case of apparel and fashion products, pricing is to be carefully evaluated. Premium pricing can be considered if the product caters to the niche segment and has an aspirational value attached to it. Unlike other products companies dealing in fashion products need to worry about competitive pricing provided they have positioned their product correctly.

12.2.3 Place The place is an important component of the marketing mix which involves decisions with respect to distribution channels. While certain brands targeting the niche markets will sell well through small and luxurious boutiques, other brands, targeting the common people, can be sold through the traditional channels. While deciding on the place, the company needs to position and make available the product at locations that are easily accessible to the intended end-users. Apart from the other P’s in the marketing mix, the place of distribution/ distribution channel needs to be chosen carefully. Distribution process and channel partners must be chosen carefully else even a wonderful product is bound to failure. Many a time, a mere change in location has done wonders in improving sales. Some of the elements to be taken into consideration are location, channel member and their motivation, service standards and logistics. The fashion and apparel industry is perception based. The ambiance in a chic boutique influences the consumer’s buying mood. Design and fixtures, lighting and temperature, music being played, and smell are few factors that influence consumer’s buying behavior. Visual mechanizing will bring in a revolution in this field.

12.2.4 Promotion Promotion is all about disseminating information about your brand. It helps in spreading a positive image of your brand and company’s vision in general. Promotion is largely achieved through advertisements. The right promotion strategy helps in positioning your brand to the targeted

Marketing Strategies for Textile and Fashion  259 segment. Potential customers relate with the messaging and thus identify with the brand before even seeing or touching the product. Even before the actual roll out of the product, promotion begins. It continues throughout the product life cycle (of course the involved may vary). In integrated communication, promotion is an essential and integrated part of the marketing mix. This is truer for the fashion and apparel industry as the right promotion strategy helps in creating the desired impression in the consumers’ minds. The consumer of today is looking for trust in information and transparency of the process. The customer is aware and looking to know about how the product is made? What has gone into it? The entire supply chain. Fashion product, to be accepted by the masses, requires the product to be adopted by a set of influential people. It pays if the early adopters are influential people of society. Celebrities are the most influential of the lot with respect to fashion products. They have the power to influence public opinion. It would be an apt promotional strategy if celebrities endorse and accept the product. This would also ensure positive word of mouth. With the world going digital, it would be apt to involve social media tools for defining the promotion mix. The fashion industry has a short life cycle; it is refashioned or looking for new fashion. The consumer can’t wait from discovery to delay in a purchase. Technology has to be exploited to reach digital natives and satisfying product-related queries. Artificial intelligence (AI) is also been used in some retail stores. AI can help track the consumer’s interest and make suggestions for the next purchase. These technologies are already being used by many retailers and tech companies. The same can reach consumers online or through the app. It should be as simple as clicking a pic and doing a search to purchase like the Shazam music app or trial of an outfit through the virtual dressing room. Technology will lead to better governance of the product. A circular economy can also create custom-fit/made to fit with few alterations, the author believes this will be the nirvana (bliss) stage for any user of fashion. To summarize, a good marketing mix is one which has all the four P’s: product, price, place, and promotion strategy combined in appropriate proportion. The end objective is to create a brand image that contributes to the profitability of the company [8].

12.3 Market Analysis Market analysis is essential to carry out before deciding on the marketing strategy for any product and services. It is a detailed qualitative and

260  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Industry Overview

Customer Analysis Market Analysis

Competitors Analysis

Pricing and Forecast

Figure 12.3  Market analysis steps.

quantitative evaluation of the market. A marketing analysis is a study of the dynamism of the market and presents information regarding the market (Figure 12.3). Further strategies are dependent on the results of the analysis. The most common tools to do analysis are the SWOT analysis and the PESTLE analysis [9]. The market analysis covers the following dimensions of business. Understanding the customers and their needs is the key to success for any business.

12.3.1 Industry Overview This describes the industry and the goal that it’s headed. Major parameters for industry measurements such as the scale of operations, size, trends, projected growth rate, profitability etc., are predicted.

12.3.2 Target Market The target market is a critical part of this analysis. This talks about the target customer profile • Market size: Market size about knowing the present and potential customers for the product or service. The large or small market size has influence over other marketing strategies like pricing, promotion, branding, etc. • Demographics: It covers details of customer’s age, gender, education, income, expenditure pattern, location, and social. • Psychographics and behavior: Describes customer’s likes and dislikes, lifestyles, and personalities. Explain customers shopping and purchasing patterns for similar products.

Marketing Strategies for Textile and Fashion  261 • Trends: Customer behavior is dynamic. If there are trends that are noticeable details of a target market, it can’t be ignored and need to be captured. • Distribution channel. • Different types of customers required market segmentation. This is where groups of similar categories of customers are made into divisions and describes the attributes of each division leading to segments.

12.3.3 Competition This goes beyond understanding what other businesses are competing with, it also points out the competitor’s weaknesses that the company can take advantage of. With this knowledge, product differentiation can be offered or a unique selling proposition can be made. • Direct competition: Companies offering very similar products and services are direct competitors. The current customers of competitors are probably the company’s potential customers. • Indirect competitors: Think of indirect competition, the peripheral area of the product or market. This is particularly useful and important for companies that are inventing brand new products or services. • Barriers to entry: Describe trade protections that are existing to prevent new companies from competing. Maybe a great location, trade agreements or perhaps have patents that help protect the business.

12.3.4 Pricing and Forecast The final step in market analysis is to figure out the cost and pricing scheme and to create a sales forecast to better understand the share of the market that can be captured. Price has to be more than cost. But, beyond that price also sends to message consumers. Often pricing is linked to quality. However pricing on the higher end of the spectrum, needs to make sure the rest of marketing is also signaling that are delivering a high-quality product or service. It has to lead to positive customer experience from end to end. High prices should come with a high-quality experience during the entire sales process. It also relates to the brand image of the company.

262  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles On the other end of the spectrum is competing as a low-priced alternative to other products or businesses. It has to make sure marketing and other messaging are also delivering that same, unified message. Low prices should not be linked to compromise in quality but higher value for the product. The customer looks for the value proposition of the price being charged. Once pricing is decided, it is clear for business prediction of sales needs to be carried out. Industry research will come into play here as to how much of the overall market is expected to capture. Any prediction in business should be data-driven and backed by high-quality reliable data. Based on the market analysis, businesses often use the technique for developing marketing strategies referred to as STP (Figure 12.4). Based on STP business strategies, the marketing mix is applicable to the product. Businesses catering to different and diversified customers may create sub-groups called segments. Segmentation is based on the geographic, psychographic, and demographic profile. Targeting customers based on segmentation leads to effective marketing. Promotion, pricing, and place (distribution) get more focussed due to target marketing. The business organization needs to focus on how they want customers to perceive their product, this is called positioning. The positioning also depends on the competitor’s strategy. Positioning strategy depends on product attributes, its benefits to customer, usage occasions, users, against a competitor, away from a competitor, and product classes. The promotion and communication strategies of the companies help build

Segmentation

Targeting

Figure 12.4  STP concept.

Positioning

Marketing Strategies for Textile and Fashion  263 up market positioning. This helps to develop a brand for the product in the market that helps distinguish the company from its competitors. Companies having established brand names are able to make their way in the market with a different products [7, 10].

12.4 Marketing Strategies for Upcycling and Recycling Textile and Fashion The marketing mix has to be used effectively to stimulate attention, interest, desire, and action from consumers. Many researchers have used qualitative techniques to explore and elaborative the application of marketing principles and strategies for reused and recycled textile industry. The need for a circular economy is almost in all fields; however, the fashion industry is far more evil than what is known in general. It does damage to the environment by growing cotton and jute, production process, use of chemical, and waste treatment textiles and garment. Recycling of textiles is win-win proposition and way forward. In the paper, Chang et al. [11] discussed that recycling of textiles is usually transferred product to poor countries from rich countries. The scrap recycling agency of US in their report 2018 mention that 45% of textile waste from the US gets exported as recycled material to developing countries. About recycled markets, authors also believed that recycling is driven as customers are awaken and concern about environmental issues, they also emphasized on need for market research and role of academicians in spreading awareness. Retail forum for sustainability has been doing a remarkable job in this field still it has miles to go. The forum spreads awareness through its newsletter and is actively suggesting implementable and viable measures for recycling. In its newsletter, Aug 2013, perspective to low recycling were discussed, it is interesting that they bought issue of not having enough drop locations to collect recycle products as reason for low recycling. It gave range of suggestions to retails to encourage recycling as communication to consumers to add value of sustainability, efficient wash cycles, provide recycled cloths for their own employees, and include sustainability issues in staff training. Producers were suggested to increase information exchange with retailers about sustainability issues and also to improve care labels on product that will lead to better communication with customers, communicate to consumers about sustainability efforts. Pandit et al. [6] debated of market and strategies for reuse textile, consumer responsible to control waste, and agrees that segment of consumers exists for such market. Branding is equally critical for reused textile as

264  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles for other commodities. Perception, image, experience, and attitudes play a great deal to form brand image. Perceived quality and value for money are decisive factor in buying behavior. Consumer is aware and is also brand conscious. Paper also discussed textile waste adding to major waste generated industrial and domestic. People are looking for respectable process and products said Maniere et al. [12], in the book chapter “Circular economy: A necessary revolution”. Highlighting CSR initiative can be good technique for branding and distinguishing corporates. Many existing companies use it as advertising and branding strategy. To further work on branding and image building, color and logo is powerful tool to communicate to world outside. Sustainable product can use green and a name which associates to eco-friendly. Social media is a great influencer in branding and buying. Endorsing a model who believes in sustainability goes a long way in building image helps spread a word around. Good example is preloved; they tout the photographs of eco-conscious stars like Julia Roberts, Kate Hudson, and Kirsten Dunst. Authors claim that circular economy is opportunity for business, innovation, design, process, and market. Social marketing and Green marketing concepts were highly recommended by Chamberlin and Boks, [13]. The authors recommend marketing and communication strategy for circular economy. Newness, convenience/availability, owner, cost/ value, environment, brand image, quality, customer service, warranty, and peer review were keys to converting positive customers. Storytelling and testimony were highlighted as communication style. Fashion or purchasing is inspired by friends, relations, celebrities, or media, Mckinsey millennial survey explored social media, friends, TV as major influencer of purchasing. The need of marketing in this field was emphasized by saying “this makes idealise marketing prudence.” Low price is suggested strategy is key to stimulate sales. Prices of commodities are growing up almost 19% each year [3] so to rent or recycle is economical option. This is urbanization of consumption in fashion and textile. In this competitive environment, the firms can only compete either by leveraging costing by offering low cost or better value or by continuous innovation. There are no guaranteed formulae for success. What works for one company in one market doesn’t work for other company or situation. What is inevitably is a risk-based activity. Innovation is a poorly explored area with respect to textile—innovation in product design, packaging, utility, or process. Both criteria are met in recycling and up cycling of textile and fashion. Abrar et al. [14] in their paper argued various e-marketing strategies for organic textile. E-marketing is the future place of making buyer

Marketing Strategies for Textile and Fashion  265 and seller meet. It has potential in educating customer, branding, userfriendly, and cost effective. Trail and testing opportunity are missed in the online way also knowledge of sales person plays important role in answering customer’s queries and help making decision. In times to come, various apps and artificial intelligence can help cater to these issues. Abrar et al. in their paper promoted niche market strategy for organic textiles in developing countries. Most of the traditional textile items are at maturity life cycle stage and there is a tough competition in the mass market to sell out these products even at nominal profits, to revive the market and profits there lies an opportunity for recycled textile to earn higher profit margins from the niche market. It starts from the need for a few customers and then builds the market. Identifying the customers in niche having a distinct set of needs, greater profit margins due to premium price, gaining certain economies through specialization is characterizing niche market. Niche has a size, profit, growth potential, and restrictions to competitions [15]. Parrish, Cassil, and Oxenham [10] recommended niche marketing pull and push factors for the fashion industry. This is niche marketing as well as market segmentation. Sull and Turconi [16] favored pull than push factors for recycling garments. G. J. Myers [17] presented customers’ perspectives on recycling textiles in her academic paper. Customers value the design and the excitement and freshness of the design itself, maybe even more so from recycled clothing because it is one-of-a-kind and affordable. Eco-fashion is like marrying fashion design and the future of the planet, a marketing challenge and a real necessity. If clothing is a necessity, fashion is a luxury. I. Cone [18] presented the new generation perspective and they have social awareness and desire to improve the world. They are more open to recycled products. However, Mainiery et al. [19] discuss the reverse trend for age and that environmental concerns. Marketing studies say that consumer purchases would be impacted if they had more information about their social responsibility. Carrigan et al. [20] explain, the importance of brand image comes before ethical criteria for each generation. Different generations felt that reputed brands will be preferred. Upcycling is innovation and to stand apart in fashion a segment of the population prefers it. Even if it pinches the pocket, they would like to an ahead with purchases. They are of opinion that investing in a few high-quality pieces which have a timeless appeal is better than shopping many cheap quality garments that need to be disposed of soon. The textile organization can use either an incremental strategy approach or a radical strategy.

266  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Marketing strategy basically tells actions to be done for the marketing of the product or organization. Marketing strategy is a small yet integral part of business strategy. Marketing strategy addresses decisions due to the marketing mix, business environment, distribution, and other marketing aspects. Out of the market analysis, companies decide are they followers in the market or the leader. Experts recommend a different set of strategies for follower companies and pioneer (market leader) companies. Pioneer companies are market leaders, well established, and known to their customers for the product or services. These companies need to maintain their position in the market, give tough competition to new entrants, and keep developing their product. The strategies are fortress, flanker, confrontation, market expansion, etc. These strategies can be adopted in combination or single.

12.4.1 Position Defense Strategy The position defense strategy is usually adopted by market leaders. It is also called fortress strategy. Fortress means building boundaries around the business to form protection against competitors. It is done to safeguard the business and retain the present position in the market. Market leaders in their branding campaign claim that they are the best and remind current and potential customers why the product or company is the best and should be chosen. What is reminded again and again stays fresh in the customer’s minds and has a recall value. Deterring customers from other products or businesses or signing exclusive contracts with key vendors also works.

12.4.2 Flanker Strategy Another strategy is the flanker strategy, where the company creates a “flanker” brand that somewhat competes with existing current brands but appeals to a different market. It may be slightly lower quality, but its affordability increased the overall market share of the main company. Having recycling or upcycling products along with existing brands is a good concept. For few companies like H&M, shoppers stop have adopted it.

12.4.3 Confrontation Strategy When the market has are active competitors against the company the confrontation strategy is recommended, which has active working to confront

Marketing Strategies for Textile and Fashion  267 competition that arises contributes less to social welfare than would more innovative responses. The confrontation would give a tough time to competitors, for example, a sudden price drop discourages vendors from supplying that competitor, but these methods come with some risk and a general feeling of overall bad will, which can backfire.

12.4.4 Market Expansion Strategy If the business has reached its peak, the company still needs to search for new markets for expansion. That’s called market expansion strategy to branch out to similar markets. For follower companies, there are leapfrog, flanking, etc., strategies. When companies surpass or overthrow competitors in business field, it is called Bypass Strategy or Leap Frog strategy. This is done by engaging in massive, firm, ruthless, and brilliant jump over a superior competitor that results in changing market position along with growth and profit. Diversification of products and services usually is done to achieve growth and expansion. Mainly, companies have a core market for their product or services but may not be capturing the market in every category, while companies may earn some profit in peripheral markets where they are not the dominant players. When companies prepare to target the peripheral product or market with full aggression and strategy it is called flanking attacks. Generally, flanking strategy is adopted to capture a market segment that is not well served by existing competition so it helps displace a competitor from the peripheral market. As the flanking company makes moves to capture the market, the existing competitors for that market or product end up surrendering those customers to the flanking company or allocate more resources to keep their market, this too, in any case, makes it difficult for them. Innovative businesses adopt flanking against larger competitors. Smaller companies can act more quickly and secretly contradicting large companies making a risky move [11, 21]. Flanking maneuver is difficult for large companies to adopt. Now, for the product that is recycled or refurbished clothes if already there are many alike products in the market, then follower strategy is recommended. It is to use strategies that successful companies are using. Making refurbished clothes itself is a strategy. Now, to advertise this to the consumer’s TV ads, Youtube ads, newspapers, exhibitions, etc., is crucial. Changing the perception of people to wear recycled dress is also a challenge. Everyone wants a brand new clothes and the latest fashion. High-class customers may go for upcycled clothes if of the vintage collection. The middle class may have a mental block towards

268  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles using recycled products. What is workable is marketing and advertising recycled products to the lower class people. Setting up stores in villages and towns as those people would buy [22].

12.5 Innovative Ways to Market Some suggested ways to market recycle and reuse textile include some well-established ways along with newer ways: • Drop off location for used cloths works best to create awareness and market • Advertising has been key to spreading the word faster • Sales promotion and special campaign design • Events to give experience to the participants • Personal selling and convincing • Interactive marketing media to engage customers • Direct marketing initiative to reach out to customers • Publicity at large scale through pamphlet, etc. • Take back scheme or award offers to customers • The module on sustainability should be taught in each textile education • Interdisciplinary in nature research should be encouraged • Management modules should be taught in textile courses • Add reuse and recycle of textile in sustainability agenda • Free samples distribution • Exhibitions display specially organized • Participation in popular trade fairs • Government sponsor small and medium-size firms • Government mela’s (fair) and showcase in exhibition • Websites to reach out to customers and information link • Apps to cater to niche customers • Membership and discounts offer to regular customers • Awareness messages about sustainability through celebrity endorsing Over the past 5 years, many startups have taken up the opportunity of circular economy in fashion across the globe. To name a few, Ycloset, Express Style Trial, Bash, Yerdle. The names are new but they are competing with some of the big established brands. Interestingly, it’s not just start-up but big fashion brands acknowledging new ways of doing things

Marketing Strategies for Textile and Fashion  269 and encouraging sustainability [13, 22]. Some practices adopted by the textile and fashion industry on upcycling and recycling are quoted below for an example [23]: • Lakme cosmetic brand in India celebrates fashion week days that are dedicated to sustainability. Sustainable fashion day presents a circular fashion design and challenges. It is India’s largest sustainable fashion challenge and the response has been getting tremendous for the past few years. • Femina magazine encourages discussion on sustainability and long-term use. It has been spreading awareness about embracing eco-friendly, sustainable, and green fashion. • Sustainable Clothing Action Plan UK – SCAP 2020 – commitment, run by the charity WRAP (The Waste and Resources Action Programme). The retailers involved in the scheme are rated on their commitment to implementing actions and initiatives relating to the environment.  • ReGAIN app, Already finished your spring closet clearing. Let us take care of the clothes you no longer need. Recycle with ReGAIN app and get access to unique discount coupons for your favorite brands. ReGAIN ensures that all clothes are either reused and reworn, recycled, upcycled, or burned for energy production. So far, the brands of Miss­ guided, Superdry, and Forever 21 have partnered with the app (Figure 12.5). ReGAIN app is having a vibrant social media presence and has been successful in influencing people to use recycle and recycle clothes. They post an interesting video to reinstate their vision to recycle. ReGAIN keeps on putting the latest videos and pictures to encourage customers and spread awareness. This also leads to deepening customer’s engagement. • H&M is aggressively promoting and positioning itself as a leader in the sustainable brand. They work along recycle and donated cloth collecting company I: CO. H&M stores also collect recycle clothes and they advertise it in a big way. The collected clothes are taken to plan where they sort them into 400 categories. Approximately, 60% of these clothes go around as recycled & rewear and upcycled & vintage collections. Left over clothes are reused for cleaning and other purposes, some 10% of clothes are recycled into the fabric

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Figure 12.5  Spreading awareness about circular fashion “facts and process” Facebook add of reGAIN app (https://www.facebook.com/reGAINappUK/).

and mixed with raw material to produce new clothes. The remains are downcycled like insulation. H&M has set the example of the business model for others to follow and the brand has been doing exceedingly well. Example of its recycled product pitch: “H&M’s new range made from recycled shoreline waste, Rewear, reuse, recycle — give your clothes a new life and support a sustainable fashion future.” #HMGarmentCollecting #HM http://hm.info/1c7gh

Marketing Strategies for Textile and Fashion  271 H&M uses a lot of green color on its website and visual advertisement to in line with its business vision. • Depop taps into the desire for vintage or secondhand clothing, allowing users to buy and swap clothing and accessories Like OLX. @depop app company has presence over social media: Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram (Figure 12.6). • Marks & Spenser: the reputed brand has launched a recycled polyester pack-away mac made with 50% recycled polyester, which has been sourced from used plastic bottles.

Figure 12.6  Website of depop.com https://www.depop.com/.

Figure 12.7  M&S collection box close to billing counter at their store in Pune.

272  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles M&S launched its marketing week celebration and dedicated it to recycle (Figure 12.7). They launched cloths exchange plans in some parts of the world. Their retail stores in India have recently started to have a collection box for old clothes. They aggressively marketed the proposition of recycling by reaching out the members through SMS on phones. • Shoppers Stop along with other retail stores has partnered with GOONJ NGO to promote sustainable fashion by reusing, recycling, and upcycling of old garments collected through its new CSR initiative launched with this campaign. As part of the initiative, customers are invited to participate in the cause by giving away their old clothes as they are buying new clothes to celebrate the festivities. The old clothes/textiles collected at Shoppers Stop stores will be sorted into three categories: • Rewear: good condition wearable material will be added to family kits made by GOONJ (clothing for the entire family). • Reuse: cotton material old clothes will be used for making reusable cloth sanitary pads for women. • Re-cycle: non-usable clothes will be shredded and woven into quilts, mats, and multi-purpose reusable cloth bags. This retail store is getting popular by giving offers to its customers. • Give your old garment/s and earn reward points on select brands • Shop for Indian Rupees. 5,000/- and get discount vouchers worth INR. 2,500/• Members’ Exclusive offer: Get American Tourister cabin luggage worth INR. 8,500/- at INR. 2,499/- on shopping worth INR. 10,000/-   • Karishma conducts workshops on mending techniques, narrative embroidery, and textile collage. Give her a shirt with a stain and she’ll do a patchwork embroidery on the portion. She has come up with interesting innovations by transforming her mother’s old saris into a summer flare dress, a wrap-on skirt, a jacket, and a coat. Reuse, repurpose, and reconstruct are a few words that Karishma Sehgal reiterates in her visible mending workshop. She started The Baksa (box) Project to practice and propagate sustainable fashion that can be in circulation to encourage recycling of clothes, instead of making compulsive purchases.

Marketing Strategies for Textile and Fashion  273 • Green Inspiration BC Ltd., based out of Richmond BC, is extremely excited about what their business is doing to help the environment and lessen the impact of fast fashion on global climate change. The rest goes to rags, and for purposes such as stuffing for car seat insulation. They also add that many of the collected clothes have a lot of plastic in them and are hard to upcycle or recycle. He says that he is proud of the work his company does, not only because items are being diverted from landfills, but because “less affluent people can’t afford new clothes, and this helps them out.” • Swedish brand Weekday and Spanish upcycling company Recover, the collection considers a more progressive way for the industry to recover and reuse textile waste to create new fabrics. The process unites science and technology with design: post-industrial cotton waste is first collected and separated by color, so no recoloring is needed, before being shredded into fibers and blended with recycled polyester (made from recycled PET plastic bottles).

12.6 Conclusions Today’s various generations and customers possess more knowledge and awareness about environmental issues and their impact on society. This is the time of transition from old practices to environmentally friendly practices. The only way today’s generation can retain the environment for the future is by curbing on their unwanted desires and judicious use of available resources. Mckinsey 2019 in its state of fashion report quoted various trends along with the young generation pattern of consumption for fashion, a generation has more craving for new clothes but consciously choosing sustainable fashion. By 2020, Gen Z will contribute to approximate 40% of the market. They are the vanguard of fashion and style. If you can’t make the world a better place to live for future generations, at least don’t ruin it further. Sustainable economy practices are encouraging for a better future. Reuse and recycle of textile and fashion are a noble and elegant way in this direction. Marketing strategies in this area need farsightedness and ideal marketing philosophy. It may be a noble cause but marketing will have to create a need to sell it. Constant communication and awareness will have to evolve by all stake holders and to reach out to the message to people in general. More detail studies and research in this field are required to further

274  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles elaborate on this topic. Existing best practices need to be highlighted and shared to all and encourage others in the industry to adopt. Innovation in uses of textile and marketing of these products has to be an ongoing endeavor. The mindfulness of having a sustainable economy needs to be embraced with small steps in this direction. Authors are of the opinion circular economy in the fashion industry is a disruption. It is a sustainable business model and here to stay. Ownership is now not associated with fabric. It will be pre-owned, rented, or circulated. The fashion industry is no exception when the world is transforming towards a sustainability mission.

References 1. MacArthur, E., Towards the circular economy. J. Ind. Ecol., 2, 23–44, 2013. 2. Rockett, E., Trashion: An Analysis of Intellectual Property Protection for the Fast Fashion Industry, The Plymouth Law & Criminal Justice Review, vol. 11, p. 80–102, 2019. 3. Amed, I., Balchandani, A., Beltrami, M., Berg, A., Hedrich, S. and Rölkens, F., The State of Fashion 2019: A year of awakening. Europe, US and Asia, McKinsey & Company, 2019. 4. Cainelli, G., D’Amato, A., Mazzanti, M., Resource efficient eco-innovations for a circular economy: Evidence from EU firms. Res. Policy, 49, 103827, 2020. 5. Han, S., Tyler, D., Apeagyei, P., Upcycling as a design strategy for product lifetime optimisation and societal change, In: PLATE (Product Lifetimes And The Environment) Conference. Nottingham Trent University, Manchester Metropolitan University, 2015. 6. Pandit, P., Nadathur, G.T., Jose, S., Upcycled and low-cost sustainable business for value-added textiles and fashion, in: Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp. 95–122, Woodhead Publishing, USA, Elsevier, 2019. 7. Parrish, E.D., Cassill, N.L., Oxenham, W., Niche market strategy in the textile and apparel industry. J. Fash. Mark. Manag. An Int. J., 10, 420, 2006. 8. Zeithaml, V.A., Consumer perceptions of price, quality, and value: A meansend model and synthesis of evidence. J. Mark., 52, 3, 2–22, 1988. 9. Market-Global, O.T.F.D., Forecast, Market Share, Size, Growth and Industry Analysis 2014-2020, Transparency Market Research, 2014, 2015. 10. Parrish, E.D., Cassill, N.L., Oxenham, W., Opportunities in the international textile and apparel marketplace for niche markets. J. Fash. Mark. Manag. An Int. J., 8, 1, 2004, 41–57. https://doi.org/10.1108/13612020410518682, 2004. 11. Chang, Y., Chen, H., Francis, S., Market applications for recycled postconsumer fibers. Fam. Consum. Sci. Res. J., 27, 320–340, 1999.

Marketing Strategies for Textile and Fashion  275 12. Coste-Maniere, I. et al., Circular economy: A necessary (r) evolution, in: Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp. 123–148. Woodhead Publishing, USA, Elsevier, 2019. 13. Chamberlin, L. and Boks, C., Marketing approaches for a circular economy: Using design frameworks to interpret online communications. Sustainability, 10, 2070, 2018. 14. Abrar, M., Tian, Z., Deng, X., Exploration of niche market and innovation in organic textile by a developing country. Int. J. Bus. Manag., 4, 10, 2009. 15. Kotler, P., Philip Kotler's contributions to marketing theory and practice. Review of Marketing Research: Special Issue–Marketing Legends, 8, 2011, 87–120. 16. Sull, D. and Turconi, S., Fast fashion lessons. Bus. Strat. Rev., 19, 4–11, 2008. 17. Myers, G.J., Design and Selling Recycled Fashion: Acceptance of Upcycled Secondhand Clothes by Female Consumers, Age 25-65. Circulation, 701, 8888, 2014. 18. Cone, I., The 2006 Cone Millennial Cause Study, 21, 3, 2006, 211–225, 2006. [http//download. 2164. net/PDF-newsletters/2006MillennialCause. pdf, acedido em01/09/2013] 19. Mainieri, T., Barnett, E.G., Valdero, T.R., Unipan, J.B., Oskamp, S., Green buying: The influence of environmental concern on consumer behavior. J. Soc. Psychol., 137, 189, 1997. 20. Carrigan, M. and Attalla, A., The myth of the ethical consumer–do ethics matter in purchase behaviour? J. Consum. Mark., 18, 560, 2001. 21. Shani, D. and Chalasani, S., Exploiting niches using relationship marketing. J. Consum. Mark., 9, 3, 33–42, 1992. https://doi.org/10.1108/07363769210035215. 22. Todeschini, B.V., Cortimiglia, M.N., Callegaro-de-Menezes, D., Ghezzi, A., Innovative and sustainable business models in the fashion industry: Entrepreneurial drivers, opportunities, and challenges. Bus. Horiz., 60, 759, 2017. 23. Caine, T., Recycling vs. Upcycling: What is the difference, 2010, Intercon, viewed June, 3, 2011. https://intercongreen.com/2010/02/17/recycling-vsupcycling-what-is-the-difference/

13 Economical and Sustainable Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Marketplace M. D. Teli1*, Pintu Pandit2† and Kunal Singha2 1

Department of Fibers and Textile Processing Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, N.P. Marg, Mumbai, India 2 National Institute of Fashion Technology, Department of Textile Design, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Mithapur Farms, Patna, India

Abstract

Efforts are concentrated to reduce the burden on earth from waste, and as far as used textile products are concerned, there are now attempts being made to recycle or upcycle. Low investment sustainable business can be generated by using the process of converting products which have lost service life into materials of better quality, and the present chapter deals with such an attempt of converting once used clothing by refurbishing and value addition. A sustainable fashion communication is unquestionably dependent on the consumer focus, belief, and attitude which can posit a future value for every purchase they want. Modified conceptual framework model hypotheses prepared according to TRA theory which has been proposed in this paper. Theory of reasoned behavior which posits that personal belief and surrounding decision-maker, peer group pressure (i.e., social pressure), and self-efficacy will help to achieve the final adoption and consumerism of any sustainable apparel textile items. The concern and regard towards the environment, creating a sustainable business model for the cost-conscious consumer of fashion, is reflected in this chapter. Keywords:  Sustainability, upcycling, consumerism, fashion communication, value addition, natural resources, low-cost fashion garments

*Corresponding author: [email protected] † Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (277–298) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

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13.1 Introduction The world is facing a series of challenges including resource degradation, climate change, and global economic crisis. Europe had taken the lead and contributed guidance to the rest of the world concerning commitments to limiting climate change [1]. Today’s consumption is more “use and throw”, since the prices are relatively lower and so also the quality. Human created an abundance of clothes through textile manufacturing and he only could bring an end to it. It is our responsibility to get the abundance under control and eliminate it as soon as possible [2]. Textile waste is basically divided into three groups: post-consumer waste, pre-consumer waste, and production waste based on their sources [3]. Textile industries rise and fall, partly in relation to factors in their home country particularly in relation to worldwide factors as of today’s globalized fashion market. An increase in demand and decrease in supply is, therefore, a challenge for the textile industry independently on where it is positioned. People choosing to deal with recycling instead join the implementation of the strategy of change, towards the concept cradle to cradle. A key step in the cradle to cradle practice is consequently recycling where closed-loop cycle ideates from the theoretical possibility of producing an unlimited number of products from the same resources [4]. Similarly, value chain analysis and recycling strategies in the field of textile and fashion sector is not a new but an old concept that has gained focus recently. The sector unifies two main branches, the distinction between the two product areas “textile”, which includes every kind of product made of textile fibers, and “fashion”, which refers to the area of activity that involves styles of clothing and appearance. However, textile and fashion together contribute good business dynamics. There are many fashion designing professionals as well as textile engineers who have worked in this avenue successfully, yet many solutions remain to be explored. In the present chapter, an attempt is made to review the upcycling of the waste garments by refurbishing it with various chemical processing and technological methods [5].

13.2 Sustainable Business Strategies for Fashion Industry The circular economy is a concept used to address the sustainability challenges originating from environmental economics, general systems theory, and industrial ecology [6, 7]. The rapid advances in technology can

Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Market  279 be used to help solutions that build a circular economy. Initiatives were taken to utilize the textile waste products on the basis of sustainable strategies through the method of upcycling or recycling of the thrown away textile, and attempting to shift from a linear flow model to a circular one. The concept of sustainable development of the business is explained, and requirement of coherence between three bottom lines (TBL) of measuring the success of business-financial, social, and environmental is emphasized. There was a time when the success of business used to be measured only in terms of swelling profits the balance-sheet of the company showed to the shareholders. In fact “generating the profit” was considered as only the sole purpose of business, and thus, many of our practices in the business could be questioned when it comes to looking at the corporate social responsibility/commitment or environmental protection is concerned. Over the years, the business success has come to the measurement of TBLs: financial, social, and environmental, and in all these three aspects, a successful business organization is expected to do well. This corresponds to the factors, a sustainable fashion system has to involve a successful business strategy with respect to profit, people, and planet, as shown in Figure 13.1 [8, 9]. Strategies for upcycling of damaged textiles goods could be carried out through various ways such as dyeing, e.g., reactive, vat, sulphur, direct dyeing (for white and light goods); printing, e.g., tie and dye, batik, transfer, novel printing, etc.; finishing process, e.g., softener, resin; stitching of goods (sticker, bag, belt, etc.); fashion technology, e.g., a ramp walk, fashion show; stain removal treatment, e.g., by washing with peroxide solution or an organic solvent.

PROFIT New business models, profit with less manufacturing

PEOPLE

SUSTAINABLE FASHION SYSTEM

Product safety, product satisfaction, safety working condition

Figure 13.1  Sustainable fashion system [5].

PLANET Cleaner production, less impact, less waste, less industrial production

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13.3 Materials and Methods The old clothes used for upcycling were purchased from local market, India. It basically contains the garments made of cotton, polyester, and cotton/polyester blended fabric. It involves a lot of variety of goods like jeans, Kurtis, top, T-shirt, pajamas, leggings, shirt, etc. Some of the goods were also collected by friends. All the dyes and chemicals involved in upcycling of garments were of laboratory grade.

13.3.1 Steps Involved in Upcycling of Garments 13.3.1.1 Collection of the Old Garments The used garments were procured from the local garment market, procured at a price rate of Rs.10/piece and few of them procured at the rate of Rs.5/ piece. Cost variation in the price of the garment was observed on the basis of initial quality and overall appearance of the garment during purchasing. Most of buyers belonged to the third party who purchased the garments at a lower price from the market and would sell them to the other party, who process the garment as per their need and again resell the garments.

13.3.1.2 Segregation of the Old Garments The collected garments were segregated based on the quality of clothes, fiber composition (like cotton, polyester, tricot), color (light or dark), the gender of user (male or female), age group (kids, young, etc.), etc.

13.3.1.3 Cleaning of Old Garments After the segregation, garments were subjected to washing with detergent to remove the dust, dirt, and soil present on the surface of the goods. Washing was carried out in two ways: hand washes in some cases and machine wash or both techniques depending upon the requirements. Hand wash basically was given for cuffs, collar, and underarm portion of the garments. Otherwise, machine wash was sufficient to make the garment clean.

13.3.1.4 Refurbishing of Old Garments Due to regular usage of the garments, most of the garments get faded or torn at a particular area or get stained due to which they can’t be used further for the wearing. Refurbishing of the old garments can be carried out

Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Market  281 in a physical as well as chemical way. Physical way involved the darning of garments or clothes while chemical way can be divided into four groups like bleaching, dyeing, printing, and finishing. The ways of refurbishing of old garments include one or more processes such as soaping, bleaching, dyeing, printing, finishing, stitching, etc.

13.3.1.5 Visual Testing and Analysis of Garments Testing of a garment was carried out by visual observation to analyze that the improvement in the quality of the garment did take place. The performance was rated according to the improvements in the quality of each garment. The rating was done on the basis of overall aesthetics, attractiveness, and acceptability compared to the original article. The rating was given as follows. Rating 1 showed 10% improvement whereas rating 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 showed improvement of 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100%, respectively.

13.3.1.6 Cost Analysis Cost analysis was carried out to find the percentage profitability of the upcycled goods. It involved the total cost of upcycled goods which includes purchase cost, water cost, power cost, dyes and chemical cost, labor cost, along with miscellaneous cost, etc.



Profitability (%) =

(Upcycled goods selling price – Totaal cost involved for upcycle good ) ×100 Total cost involved for upcycled good

13.3.2 Results and Discussions Once the garments were treated as per the need to upcycle them, they were then subjected to the evaluation of improvement in performance in terms of the process efficiency and effectiveness in addition to aesthetic attractiveness and acceptability. A total of 65 people were involved in the evaluation. It consisted of approximately of 60% females and of 40% males spread across different age groups between 20 and 40 years. After a very stringent observation, everybody analyzed different articles very carefully and gave the ratings to their respective products along with the estimated approximate cost, at which they may prefer to buy. The ratings of products were given in a range of 1 to 10 in which 1 is for poor (10% improvement) while 10 was excellent (100% improvement). Similarly, approximately estimated price was decided by the perception of the viewer. The average value quoted

Dyeing Dyeing Print

Stitch Enzyme wash

Girl

Girl

Boy

Girl

Girl

Boy

Boy

Boy

Lady

White Jacket

Baby Frock

Baby Top

Printed Shirt

Violet Top

White Frock

Torn jeans

Torn jeans

Violet T-Shirt

Black Top

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Dyeing + Print + Stitch

Stitch

Print

Dyeing

Dyeing

Boy

Product

Processes carried out to upcycle

Sample no.

Gender category to which dress belonged

6.44

6.56

6.73

6.83

6.72

6.83

6.84

7.55

7.02

7.41

Rating (1–10)

Table 13.1  Summary of 10 samples in terms of their processes, ratings, and profitability.

257.88

156.44

181.94

106.35

501.00

250.39

90.80

93.30

63.60

68.93

Profitability as upcycled product (%)

444.24

250.01

344.76

199.09

766.09

409.64

191.47

133.29

146.76

142.89

Profitability as a new product (%)

282  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Market  283 by 65 different persons and the mean value of the product rating as well as approximately estimated price were taken into consideration for profitability analysis. Cost analysis was carried out to find the percentage profitability of the upcycled goods. It involved the total cost of upcycled goods which includes purchase cost, water cost, power cost, dyes and chemical cost, labor cost, along with miscellaneous cost. It is to be noted that all prices quoted by the dummy purchasers (respondents) were lower when they knew that the products were actually upcycled and not first hand, indicating the influence of psychological barrier on their purchase price. Thus, profitability calculated on this purchase price is considered to be the most assured profitability (Refer Table 13.1). However, the upcycled goods have a lot of potentials to get sold in tier 2 and tier 3 cities and towns where the purchase price will be higher, as the customer gets access to recent fashion at lower cost, and in that case, the initial profitability will be increased many folds. Upcycling is not only an environmentally friendly and sustainable operation, but also it can open up another avenue for an entrepreneur to obtain a high level of profitability and work on it as a solid business model. The present textile business, even the most modern composite mill, cannot make more than 20% profit. In this backdrop, the profitability of upcycling business will surely be attractive and ecologically sound proposal. These practical experiments with the illustrations, which have been shown in the Table 13.1 and described in details, are out of 72 experiments carried out with old garments originally. The refurbished garments after a survey showed product ratings as 5.58 for a t-shirt and 5.74 for Ghaghara, respectively. The estimated upcycled purchase price was for t-shirt approximately Rs.85.09 (Figure 13.2.1) and Rs.95.75 for Ghaghara (Figure 13.2.2). The total input cost per article including purchase, labor, power, chemical, water, and miscellaneous cost was Rs.54.59 and profitability (%) was approximately 55.88% for t-shirt and 75.41%% for white Ghaghara respectively had it been a fresh article, it would fetch a price of Rs.124.5 and Rs.140.5, making the profitability of 128.06% and 173.8%. In other words, the psychological factor influences the purchase price. The jeans (Figure 13.3.1 and Figure 13.4.1) were faded due to the regular usage which gave the dull look to all jeans with the undesirable surface appearance. In order to improve its appearance topping with reactive dye was carried out by using the Drimarene black and Drimarene blue (1:4) 1.5% shade in combination. All three jeans were put together for topping in m/c and continue dyeing for next 1 hour. after dyeing each jeans differ in color as compare to other because of the impact of the parent color of jeans. All three jeans show uniform coloration throughout the garment. The jeans (Figure 13.3.2) were

284  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Figure 13.2.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.2.2  Upcycled sample.

Figure 13.3.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.3.2  Upcycled sample.

Figure 13.4.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.4.2  Upcycled sample.

Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Market  285 further subjected to an enzyme wash using 1.5% enzyme conc. at 60°C for 30 minutes. After a survey, it was found that its product rating was 6.89 and the estimated price was approximately Rs.163.58 for wide jeans (Figure 13.4.2). The total input cost per article including purchase, labor, power, chemical, water, and miscellaneous cost was Rs.60.62 for first two jeans and Rs.102.99 for enzyme treated jeans and profitability (%) was approximately 169.85% and 181.99% respectively had it been a fresh article, it would fetch a price of Rs.268.67 and Rs.261.83, making the profitability of 343.2 and 331.93, respectively. In other words, the psychological factor influences the purchase price. Uneven blue color stains (Figure 13.5.1) were present on the trouser which was not removed by simple soaping. Hence, it was subjected to vat dyeing using Indanthrene vat dye 1.5% shade to hide the stain as well as uniform coloration. After survey, it was found that its product rating was 7.48 and the estimated price was approximately Rs.198 (Figure 13.5.2). The total input cost per article including purchase, labor, power, chemical, water, and the miscellaneous cost was Rs.121.44 and profitability (%) was approximately 63.06%, had it been a fresh article, it would fetch a price of Rs.301.67, making the profitability of 148.41%. In other words, the psychological factors influence the purchase price. The jacket (Figure 13.6.1) was randomly contaminated by fungi and rust attack giving blackish spots which were even unable to be removed during soaping, hence subjected to reactive dyeing in order to hide the black spots by using the reactive orange with 2% shade. After dyeing, it gave a beautiful look to the garment. After a survey, it was found that its product rating was 7.41 and the estimated price was approximately Rs.198.68 (Figure 13.6.2). The total input cost per article including purchase, labor, power, chemical, water, and the miscellaneous cost was Rs.117.61 and profitability (%) was approximately 68.93%, had it been a fresh article, it would fetch a price of

Figure 13.5.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.5.2  Upcycled sample.

286  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Figure 13.6.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.6.2  Upcycled sample.

Rs.285.67, making the profitability of 142.89%. In other words, the psychological factor influences the purchase price. Some brownish stains (Figure 13.7.1) were present on edges of Ghaghara at bottom side; hence, it was subjected to the naphthol base coupling to achieve a fancy look. The fabric was first dipped into Naphthol and squeezed followed by drying after that base was applied using the brush. It gave a different color according to the combination of different naphthols with different bases. After a survey, it was found that its product rating was 5.85 and the estimated price was approximately Rs.112.3 (Figure 13.7.2). The total input cost per article including purchase, labor, power, chemical, water, and the miscellaneous cost was Rs.72.95 and percentage profitability was approximately 54.02%, had it been a fresh article, it would fetch a price of Rs.154.5, making the profitability of 111.79%. In other words, the psychological factor influences the purchase price. The originally printed baby t-shirt (Figure 13.8.1) and yellow color stained baby frock (Figure 13.9.1) were subjected to soaping followed by

Figure 13.7.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.7.2  Upcycled sample.

Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Market  287

Figure 13.8.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.8.2  Upcycled sample.

Figure 13.9.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.9.2  Upcycled sample.

dyeing using Coracion G. Yellow HER with 1.5% shade to enhance the aesthetic value. Dyeing easily covers the yellow spot giving the uniform coloration effect (Figure 13.8.2). After the survey, it was found that its product rating was 5.70 and the estimated price was approximately Rs.66.98 for the printed baby t-shirt (Figure 13.9.2) and 7.2 with an estimated price of Rs.99.34 for a baby frock. The total input cost per article including purchase, labor, power, chemical, water, and the miscellaneous cost was Rs.60.72 and profitability (%) was approximately 10.31% and 63.6% respectively, had it been a fresh article, it would fetch a price of Rs.103 and Rs.149.83 making the profitability of 70.73% and 146.76%. In other words, the psychological factor influences the purchase price. Off white pajama (Figure 13.10.1), original printed top (Figure 13.11.1), original dull color top (Figure 13.12.1), and original fabric contain the rust stain (Figure 13.13.1). All four together were subjected to cold brand reactive dye using reactive red cold FNR with 1% for getting the attractive look and improve the aesthetic value by enhancing the depth of color. After a survey,

288  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Figure 13.10.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.10.2  Upcycled sample.

Figure 13.11.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.11.2  Upcycled sample.

Figure 13.12.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.12.2  Upcycled sample.

Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Market  289

Figure 13.13.1  Received sample.

Figure 13.13.2  Upcycled sample.

it was found that product rating was 6.40 with an estimated price of approximately Rs.122.26 for (Figure 13.10.2), 6.13 with an estimated price of approximately Rs.97.06 for (Figure 13.11.2), 5.77 with the estimated price was approximately Rs.84.25 (Figure 13.12.2), and 6.23 with the estimated price was approximately Rs.117.26 (Figure 13.13.2), respectively. The total input cost per article including purchase, labor, power, chemical, water, and miscellaneous cost per piece was Rs.35.87 and profitability (%) was approximately 240.85%, 170.58%, 1343.86%, and 226.91%, respectively, had it been a fresh article, it would fetch a price of Rs.166.83, Rs.128.2, Rs.119.17, and Rs.168.7, making the profitability of 365.11%, 257.4%, 232.22%, and 370.31%, respectively. In other words, the psychological factor influences the purchase price. Out of 72 samples, upcycles of 29 of them gave profitability of the order of 99.34. However, rest of all samples (43 samples) gave the profitability of the order of 821.93%, making the upcycling business financially sustainable model. It is to be noted that all prices quoted by the dummy punchers (respondents) were after they have known that the products are upcycled. Naturally, their physiological barrier did influence their purchase price and it could be considered a minimum price an article will fetch, and thus, profitability calculated on this purchase price is considered to be assured profitability.

13.4 Low-Cost Sustainable Upcycling Based on Waste Natural Resources Considering upcycling of used materials, redyeing and refinishing is an important component in it. Achieving the same by using the natural

290  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Coconut

CSE

Waste Natural Resources Sterculia Foetida

FSE Untreated fabric

Delonix Regia

Extraction

Treated fabric

DSE

Modification

Multifunctional Fabric

Figure 13.14  Natural dyeing and finishing of fabric using natural waste resources.

coloration and natural finishing of textile materials has been made possible using different natural resources derived from plants for a low-cost sustainable product. Delonix regia, Sterculia foetida fruit, green coconut shell can be successfully employed as a natural source of colorant and functional finishing for textile materials as shown in Figure 13.14. Using natural resources treated fabric showed excellent antibacterial, ultraviolet protection, and with fire retardant properties to the different natural fabric. Flame retardancy in the plant-based biomolecule treated textile material is attributed to the presence of inorganic metal salts, metal oxides, phenolic groups, etc., which helped in the production of more char and non-flammable gasses. Such a sustainable research approach might lead to excellent value addition through the upcycling of the textile fabrics from waste natural resources [10–13]. Thus, it offers a feasible alternate path to upcycling the engineering applications of low-cost fashion garments.

13.5 The Sustainable Fashion Communication Model A sustainable fashion communication is unquestionably dependent on the consumer focus, belief, and attitude which can posit a future value for every purchase they want. Therefore, we postulate the theory of reasoned behavior which posits that personal belief and surrounding decision maker peer

Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Market  291 group pressure (i.e., social pressure) and self-efficacy will help to achieve the final adoption of any sustainable apparel textile items. Moreover, we have used the modified conceptual framework model hypotheses prepared according to TRA theory which has been proposed by Aizen (1991). The term “Environmental knowledge” encompasses the level of environmental awareness among the individuals, linkages between different aspects of the environment, and a sense of awareness to keep the environment intact for future generations. Here, hypotheses H1 to H6 have the following perception (refer Figure 13.15). H1: A highly acknowledged sustainable low-cost fashion apparel leads to better purchasing attitude inside a consumer. H2: A positively built attitude will tend to better purchasing intention in case of sustainable low-cost fashion apparels. H3: In order to gain positive purchasing intention, a positive subjective norm is required for sustainable low-cost fashion apparels. H4: A positively built attitude for control on availability leads to sustainable low-cost fashion apparels. H5: In order to create successful purchase intention for sustainable low-cost fashion apparels, higher perceived consumer effectiveness is necessary. H6: Higher purchase behavior is required in order to achieve better purchase intention is essential for sustainable low-cost fashion apparels [14, 15].

13.6 Marketing Landscape of Low Cost Fashion and Apparel Consumable Products It’s hard to imagine living in a world without clothes. The fabric and cloth provide us comfort as well as protection and allow expressing our individuality. The fashion industry is also a large sector of the global economy that provides jobs for millions of people around the world. However, the way we design, manufacture, and use clothing is less than ideal [16]. First, the textile system works in an almost linear fashion: according to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 98 million tonnes of non-­ renewable raw materials are extracted each year to produce garments which are often only used for a short period, then sent to landfill or burned. Total greenhouse gas emissions from textile production are 1.2 billion tonnes per year. This is more than all international and sea flights combined. The consumption of water and the use of chemicals in the fashion industry also exceed the safe operating space, especially in cotton production. Less than 1% of the material used to make clothes is converted into new clothes, which means an annual loss of material of more than 100 billion dollars. This brings us to the second problem:

292  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Environmental Knowledge - Refurbish old garment - Waste natural resources i.e. coconut shell, gulmohar tree bark etc. - Cost effective - Funtional properties enhancement - Coloration easiness - Safe guard from external hazards, i.e. fire property, UV protection, anti bacterial property etc.

Attitude H1

- Upcycling - Value Addition - Wallet friendly

H2

Subjective Norm - Younger generation (teenager to middle aged person)

H3 Purchase Intention H4

Perceived Behaviroal Control Control on Availability - Brick & mortar store - Tier 2 & Tier 3 cities & suburbans

Perceived Consumer Effectiveness - Profitability 50% of margin - Highly competitiveness

H5

H6 Purchase Behavior

- low cost - Value attained product - Service based product - Fast fashion product - Trend based customer - Higher customer retain value - Ceteris paribus in economic utility behaviour

Figure 13.15  Conceptual framework based on the theory of planned behavior [14].

overproduction and underuse. Clothing production has almost doubled in the past 15 years, mainly due to the phenomenon of “fast fashion”, a rapid transition to new models, an increase in the number of collections offered per year and a price drop. At the same time, more than half of the fast fashion produced is eliminated in less than a year [6–8, 17]. Fashion is a reflection of society and as such has joined the shift towards sustainability. Many fashion companies are looking for solutions: use of renewable raw materials, production on demand, and recycling. For example, circular fashion helps to network recycling technologies with circuit designers and retailers. Reverse resources allows manufacturers of brands and clothing to manage waste for industrial cycling. Share cloth is a solution to simplify the production of brands on demand and is perfect for customers. There are also a growing number of startups experimenting with biodegradable substances. We think we will see more in the near future [3, 18]. The lack of understanding and the lack of implementation of the production and consumption systems of the circular economy do not allow “waste”. Imagine a textile and fashion industry that uses renewable raw materials produced from regenerative carbon dispersive agriculture. Imagine that the industry is designed to endlessly recycle non-compostable

Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Market  293 materials like nylon and polyethylene. (By the way, sports shoes are already made from recycled plastic. The interface also turns Pacific fishing nets into carpets.) And it spreads. The fashion industry is one of the main drivers of the circular economy—for good reason. Not only because of emissions but also because research from the Ellen Macarthur Foundation for Europe has shown that the circular economy will save 1.8 trillion Euros in the efficient use of resources in the sector by 2030 [19]. Over the last years, the term circular economy has spread to Europe, North America, and Asia. Some people and organizations have made the concept and its principles particularly accessible to a wider audience, including Dame Ellen MacArthur of the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Walter Stahel of the Product Life Institute, and Michael Braungart and William McDonough, in part through Cradle to Wiege Products Establishing Innovation [6, 19]. The circular economy refers to an industrial economy that is intentionally recovering; relies on renewable energies; minimize, monitor, and eliminate the use of toxic chemicals; and eliminates waste through careful planning. In essence, a circular economy means that all of society’s materials and products are used for as long as possible, in an environmentally responsible, efficient and fair manner and disseminated among their users. Waste as we know it, it is not. Instead, waste is considered to be a resource or nutrient for other social processes. Natural resources, including energy, are used efficiently in both production and consumption. The use of new goods is minimal. Unwanted environmental impacts are avoided or minimized, and all materials are free from hazardous chemicals and substances to enable a safe and clean of materials in society, and even harmless particles cannot accumulate in society in a way or to a level that works the notion of ecosystem [20]. The concept of circular economy also includes the distinction between biodegradable components or nutrients that decompose naturally in nature and technology or synthetically produced components that cannot decompose naturally. In a circular economy, therefore, we can distinguish two types of cycles, for example, biological and technical. For the fashion industry, this means that natural fibers such as cotton, silk, wool, viscose, and wood are considered organic nutrients and flow in separate biological cycles or can be separated from technical components. On the other hand, polyester, nylon, acrylic, metals, and plastics are considered as “technical components” and must be recycled in separate streams. Since synthetic and biological or natural technical components must be treated separately, products containing two or more types of material must be designed so that the different parts can be easily separated. This makes it easier to repair

294  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles and replace components as well as redesign or recycle and finally recycle different types of materials at the end of use. This so-called dismantling is a central principle of the circular economy [21]. The various infrastructure forms of cooperation and new economic models should be created to support a circular economy. It also introduces new design practices and provides new services to customers. The goal is to maximize product longevity and durability through various design and supply priorities and to support repair, overhaul, and recycling services. For a fashion company, this can mean that customers can rent or rent clothes instead of buying them. It can also be a repair service where customers can deliver defective products for repair or receive a repair kit for home repair. The redesign is another service business can offer. Another possible service that the Ellen MacArthur Foundation sometimes calls purchasing is the supply of on-demand, for example, custom and custom products. The circular economy supports the need for a “functional service model” in which manufacturers or retailers increasingly retain ownership of their products and, where possible, act as service providers who sell the use products, not their unidirectional consumption. This change has a direct impact on the development of effective and efficient distribution systems and on the dissemination of business models and product design practices that lead to more sustainable products that facilitate disassembly and renewal and possibly take into account product or service layers [6, 22]. In all of this, circular way of thinking and working brings many new and exciting opportunities for the fashion and textile industry. The way to apply the principles of the circular economy in the fashion industry is known under the concept of the circular economy in fashion. The circular fashion is designing, sourcing, and producing clothes, shoes, and accessories with the next use in mind. Circular fashion tries to minimize the impact of the fashion industry on the environment only less than 1% of clothing is recycled into new clothing. In a circular economy in fashion industries, the products should be designed with the concept of resource efficiency, non-toxicity, biodegradability, and recyclability in mind. H&M companies initially focus on recyclable materials and design, with an emphasis on longevity before considering a sustainable production process related to chemicals and water management. The brand was also among the first to offer an in-store recycling program that offered buyers a £ 5 voucher in return for delivery of the clothes to be recycled. According to Waltier, becoming 100% circular for the H&M group means applying a circular approach to every aspect of our value chain. We are also examining

Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Market  295 our operations from our stores and logistics centers to our transport to ensure that the way in which we carry out these operations can help us reach our positive climate goal in 2040. A circular approach along our chain of value allows us to maximize resources and minimize waste, thereby reducing our negative impact on the environment and society. H&M and Marks & Spencer have both launched large collection projects for the reuse and recycling of fabrics. H&M launched its “Long Live Fashion” initiative in 2013 and currently has collection boxes in 53 markets. The north wall also installed collection boxes (“Dress up the loop”). Another company is Rapanui Clothing, which aims to use a cradle-to-cradle approach. Over the past 2 years, various articles have been written on the potential of a circular approach in the fashion industry. For more information, online articles have been published by The Guardian (by Will Henly and Gunter Pauli, etc.), Di Ecotextile News (October and November 2013), The Los Angeles Times, The Refining Blog, Waste Management World (WMW), and Innocent Lifestyle [23].

13.7 Conclusions Upcycling is not only a sustainable process but also has strong financial profitability if properly employed with producing garments to meet the increasing demands by the consumers at low cost. However, these research work idea have a lot of potentials to get sold in tier 2 and tier 3 cities and towns, and here, no buyer will have doubts with regard to quality of upcycled product, and in that case, the purchase price in absence of prior knowledge of them being upcycled product will be much higher and in that case the initial profitability which ranged from 100% to 893% will increase in many folds. In other words, upcycling is not only environment-friendly and sustainable operation but also it can open up another avenue for an entrepreneur to obtain high level of profitability and enable him to work on it as a solid business model. The present textile business, however, modern way it is, run by composite mills cannot make more than 20% profit. In this backdrop, the profitability of upcycling business of this order, i.e., between 100% and 800% will surely be something economically very attractive and ecologically sound proposal. Current challenges to the environment, market status, and outdated existing paradigms ranging from the manufacturer to consumer attitude need to be overcome while marching on the pathway to a circular economy. Modified conceptual framework model hypotheses prepared according to TRA theory has been also proposed.

296  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

References 1. Nilsson, M., Varnäs, A., Kehler Siebert, C., Nilsson, L.J., Nykvist, B., Ericsson, K., A European eco-efficient economy: governing climate, energy and competitiveness: report for the 2009 Swedish Presidency of the Council of the European Union, SEI, Stockholm Environment Institute, Kräftriket 2B, 10691, Stockholm, Sweden, 2009. 2. Wilkie, C.A. and Morgan, A.B., Fire retardancy of polymeric materials, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, London, New York, 2009. 3. Caine, T., Recycling vs. Upcycling: What is the difference, Intercon, 2011, Viewed June. 3 (2010). https://intercongreen.com/2010/02/17/recycling-vsupcycling-what-is-the-difference/ 4. McDonough, W. and Braungart, M., Cradle to cradle: Remaking the way we make things, North Point Press, 2010. 5. Pandit, P., Nadathur, G.T., Jose, S., Upcycled and low-cost sustainable business for value-added textiles and fashion, in: Circ. Econ. Text. Appar, pp. 95–122, Elsevier, Woodhead Publishing, USA, 2019. 6. MacArthur, E., Towards the circular economy. J. Ind. Ecol., 2, 23–44, 2013. 7. Stahel, W.R., The circular economy. Nat. News, 531, 435, 2016. 8. Niinimäki, K., Ethical foundations in sustainable fashion. Text. Cloth. Sustain., 1, 3, 2015. 9. Niinimäki, K., Sustainable consumer satisfaction in the context of clothing, in: Prod. Syst. Des. Sustain, pp. 218–237, 2014. 10. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., A novel natural source Sterculia foetida fruit shell waste as colorant and ultraviolet protection for linen. J. Nat. Fibers, 15, 3, 337–343, 2018. 11. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., Multifunctionalised silk using Delonix regia stem shell waste. Fibers and Polymers, 18, 9, 1679–1690, 2017. 12. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., Novel method of ecofriendly single bath dyeing and functional finishing of wool protein with coconut shell extract biomolecules. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 5, 9, 8323–8333, 2017. 13. Teli, M.D. and Pandit, P., Development of thermally stable and hygienic colored cotton fabric made by treatment with natural coconut shell extract. Journal of Industrial Textiles, 48, 1, 87–118, 2018. 14. Ajzen, I., The theory of planned behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process., 50, 179–211, 1991. 15. Ajzen, I., Attitudes, personality, and behavior, McGraw-Hill Education, UK, 2005. 16. Leal Filho, W., de Brito, P.R.B., Frankenberger, F., International Business, Trade and Institutional Sustainability, Springer Nature, Switzerland AG., 2019. 17. Stahel, W.R., The circular economy. Nature, 531, 7595, 435–438, 2016.

Price Sensitive Fashion and Apparels Market  297 18. Cainelli, G., D’Amato, A., Mazzanti, M., Resource efficient eco-innovations for a circular economy: Evidence from EU firms. Res. Policy, 49, 103827, 2020. 19. Gardetti, M.A., Introduction and the concept of circular economy. In Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp. 1–11, Elsevier, Woodhead Publishing, 2019. 20. Andersen, M.S., An introductory note on the environmental economics of the circular economy. Sustain. Sci., 2, 133–140, 2007. 21. Zhijun, F. and Nailing, Y., Putting a circular economy into practice in China. Sustain. Sci., 2, 95–101, 2007. 22. MacArthur, F.E., A new textiles economy: redesigning fashion’s future, 2017. Recuperado de: https://www. ellenmacarthurfoundation. org/assets/downloads/publications/A-New-Textiles-Economy_Full-Report. pdf. Fecha de acceso, 5. 23. Yi, S., Wu, N., Luo, P., Wang, Q., Shi, F., Zhang, Q., Ma, J., Agricultural heritage in disintegration: Trends of agropastoral transhumance on the southeast Tibetan Plateau. Int. J. Sust. Dev. World Ecol., 15, 273–283, 2008.

14 Sustainability Innovations Coupled in Textile and Fashion Vikas Kumar1, Kunal Singha2*, Pintu Pandit2, Jayant Kumar1 and Subhankar Maity3 National Institute of Fashion Technology, Department of Fashion Technology, Patna, Bihar, India 2 National Institute of Fashion Technology, Department of Textile Design, Patna, Bihar, India 3 Department of Textile Technology, Uttar Pradesh Textile Technology Institute, Kanpur, U.P., India 1

Abstract

The sustainability has been a burning issue in the field of fashion and textiles over the last decades due to various issues such as greenhouse gases emission, carbon foot prints, rising of global temperature, etc. The life cycle assessment of all fashion garments or even textile products needs to be thoroughly analyzed by relevant industries from time to time. The sustainability think-tank and know-how are required to address this holding issue by channelling few factors like machineries used, new fibers innovativeness, and inventing latest eco-friendly dyes and chemicals. This current chapter deals with the various parameter and innovativeness matrixes relevant to sustainability in the field of modern fashion and textile manufacturing in details. Keywords:  Sustainability, innovations, machineries, new fibers, dyes, pigments

14.1 Introduction A significant job of technological development is to manage the breaking points put on industry naturally restricted asset base, the need to prevent contamination, to reduce negative social effects and keep products *Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (299–320) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

299

300  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles reasonable. Scientific advancements’ job is to suggest where technological advancement can go, and evaluating whether the advancements really improve matters. The proof of weaving exercises dates back to around 5000 BC. For thousands of years, the textile industry has developed the process to change natural fibers into garments to shield from chilly climate or solid sun presentation. Today, the textile industry makes more plastic waste than Germany’s urban waste also, devours more oil than the entire of France. This can be ascribed to the huge changes of the most recent 150 years [1–3]. The modern upheaval, the innovation of engineered filaments and eventually fast fashion, has enhanced the effect of the textile business beyond the limits of our closets. An effect has even extended to incorporate modern applications as planes, vehicles, apparatus, and construction goods. There is a long venture from rural fields and oil fields through to processing, dyeing, weaving, finishing, and distribution. Along these lines, individuals regularly don’t appreciate the intricacy of the worth chain behind a coat, a bathing suit or a parachute, to name only a few modern textile items. When we purchase a couple of pants we once in a while consider how they have been made and we surely disregard the ecological impression when we toss them into the garbage canister [4]. The textile industry has played a focal job throughout the entire existence of humanity: from the wool industry during medieval Britain to the Silk Road in Asia and the cotton manors in southern US. These models help us to remember major chronicled occasions or periods of history. Over the centuries, raw materials were totally made from natural fleece, silk, and cotton from animal or plant materials. The same was valid for significant creation consumables, for example, dyes. Materials frequently express value in their possess nature. Silk, for instance, is the exemplification of value among material materials: its irregularity and cost is gotten from its long venture through Asia to arrive at western markets. In old Rome, the Tyrian purple was the shading of the Senators’ robes, the enormous expense of which was identified with pounding a large number of ocean snails to separate a couple of grams of dyes [5]. The German expression for cotton, Baumwolle, truly signifies “tree wool”. Between the mechanical insurgency and the financial blast after the Second World War, the industry was totally reshaped.

14.2 Life Cycle Perspective The life cycle perspective is a way to deal with the administration of products and procedures that means to intercede in the plan procedure

Sustainability Innovations in Textile and Fashion  301 to dodge part of the bargain for contaminating ventures. It incorporates a scope of techniques from generally subjective life cycle thinking to formalized, quantitative controls like life cycle appraisal (LCA). From a unique spotlight on vitality protection, LCA has expanded to a strategy which can conceivably think about ecological, social, and money-related components of supportability; however, the last is typically named life cycle costing. The most outstanding LCA pointer is the carbon footprint, utilized in global atmosphere exchanges and product labels. Another is the water footprint, an indicator especially applicable to the cotton-based fashion industry [6]. The more extensive church of life cycle thinking has such a large number of components to make reference to here, yet some key methodologies utilized by the style business and other assembling enterprises incorporate Cradle to Cradle and The Natural Step [7]. Numerous methodologies don’t require the utilization of a specific quantitative appraisal strategy in item configuration, yet depend on contemplations like item recyclability and agendas with respect to parts of the provenance of crude materials. This makes them snappier and less expensive

10000

1000

all fields building food water clothing clothing since 2004

R2 = 0,954

Publications per year

R2 = 0,9321 R2 = 0,9481 R2 = 0,9553 100 R2 = 0,7763 R2 = 0,5364 10

1 1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Fiber production

Figure 14.1  Growth in LCA activities in different fields from 1993 to 2012 [9].

2015

302  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles to apply, at some expense to exactness or accuracy. A typical component is simply the need to consider the design item itself as ecologically pertinent material with a utilization stage and part of the arrangement, than concentrating only on practical administration of fields and manufacturing plants (Figure 14.1). Three main changes impacted the industry: a.  Productivity enhancements from technological innovation in machinery and the introduction of new synthetic materials From the mid-eighteenth century, the flying shuttle, the turning jenny, and the Crompton’s mule drove down the expense of cotton yarn to somewhere near 90% also, diminished the quantity of laborers required to transform wool into yarn by 80% in the decades paving the way to 1830. This made ready for the advancement of an enormous textile industry in England and the development of worldwide exchange to encourage the developing upper class fashion demand. Raw cotton imports from the Americas expanded eight times and refined cotton turned out to be half of England’s exports at the time. b. Dyes In the late nineteenth century, the issue of the accessibility and cost of dyes was illuminated when the first synthetic dye for mauveine was incidentally found by William Perkin in 1856 and the first synthetic indigo was made by BASF in 1897. Up to that point, all hues depended on costly also, flimsy normal materials, for example, plants (for indigo) or creature, (for example, for Tyrian purple). These developments were significant to the point that they reshaped entire worth chains in 15 years: the generation of plant-based indigo dropped from 19,000 tons in 1897 to 1,000 tons in 1914. c. Fibers Moreover, the introduction of man-made fibers gave a definitive shakeup to the business worth chain. Experiment with semi-­synthetic artificial silks, viscose rayon, and acetates in the late nineteenth century prompted the advancement of the first fully synthetic fiber, nylon, by Wallace Carothers, a researcher at DuPont during the 1930s. Polyester, the most utilized manufactured fiber today in the garments part, came to life in 1941. Following 70 years, man-made filaments have come to command the market in light of the fact that their cost, the availability of raw materials (mainly oil), and specific properties such as higher durability, workability with dyes, or consumer-friendly functions such as stretching, waterproofing, and stain resistance [8–10].

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14.2.1 Cotton Cotton utilization has been falling since 2007 as the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) information in below figure shows. Cotton production is additionally influenced by rivalry with sustenance creation for water and irrigable land. The OECD predicts that cotton costs will prevent consumption from surpassing its 2007 top until at least 2022 [9]. The primary innovative advancement defying the cost of cotton is the improved yield accomplished utilizing genetically modified organism (GMO). The implantation of qualities from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into the Biological Cotton (Bt cotton) makes it dangerous to the cotton bollworm caterpillar (Pectinophora gossypiella). An ongoing study of Indian ranchers recommended that this development has prompted 24% higher yields, even in the wake of redressing for the expanded utilization of water and manures that frequently goes with the interest in the GMO cotton [11, 17]. Numerous individuals accept that utilizing GMOs speaks to the arrival of extraordinary DNA into the earth, likened to the presentation of the stick frog (Bufo marinus) to Australia for crop production.

14.2.2 Synthetics (Non-Cellulosic) Today, man-made fibers account more than 70% of global production, weighing 70 million tons per year (equivalent to the weight of about 30 million cars, one third of global car production per year). Progressively, present day fibers, similar to carbon fibers or aramid fibers, have thus defined the fragment of “specialized material”, which is today the quickest developing section and speaks to 20% of worldwide fibers generation. These materials have progressed toward becoming basic materials for space and aeronautical applications, dentistry or orthopaedic surgery, wind turbines, optical links, and fire safety garments (Figure 14.2). One of the most sensational mechanical developments to influence the petrochemical style industry has been actualized in agreeable earthly locales: hydraulic fracturing or “fracking”. The innovation includes pumping water, sand, and chemicals under high pressure into gas or oil-bearing strata. This is keeping the expense of nylon and polyester down and is anticipated to empower the USA to surpass Saudi Arabia as the world’s biggest oil maker by 2017 [12].

304  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 80

global fibre consumption (Mt/year)

70 60

Wool Cellulosic Non-cellulosic Cotton

50 40 30 20 10 0

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Figure 14.2  Fiber consumption by type 1993–2012 [9].

14.2.3 New Fibers Ongoing thoughts incorporate CelluNova. a cellulosic fiber expected to be an all the more ecologically inviting adaptation of viscose [13], and Qmilk and the radical-sounding, -biomimetic alternative of hagfish slime [14]. The utilization of 1,’3-propanediol created from corn-inferred glucose by recombinant Escherichia coli bacteria. At the point, when this responds with petrochemical terephthalic acids, 37% of the subsequent fiber mass is bio-based, so the carbon footprint of this fiber is less than 100% petrochemical synthetics. Three advancements referenced above are at the centre of the specialized development that has bolstered industry development for over a century. Over the most recent 15 years, two new factors have come into the image on the customer side: the blasting middle class in creating economies and the fast fashion consumer model. They have multiplied yearly attire unit deals from 2000 to 2016 (Figure 14.3). In 2015, worldwide apparel deals arrived at 100 billion units, twofold the figure of 50 billion units in the year 2000. It is speaks to a yearly increment of nearly 5% during the 2008–2009 worldwide monetary emergency. Worldwide development of consumer benchmarks has surely played a conclusive job, as it has done in numerous other enterprises since 2000. Supply side technological development and the accessibility of shoddy raw materials, such as plastics, combined with interest side fast fashion

Sustainability Innovations in Textile and Fashion  305 120 100

Million

80 Natural fibres

60

Man made fibres 40 20 0

1970

2000

2016

Figure 14.3  The tremendous growth of man-made fibers over the last 50 years [1].

trends, have made an ideal tempest in the garments business. Attire has turned out to be incredibly reasonable and this has pushed individuals to own more things, some of the time just to wear them a couple of times. The adjustment in usage rate is a pretty basic pattern among present day buyers, however is especially relevant from an ecological viewpoint to the clothing industry. This is since the garments industry is a very linear industry, normal of low esteem things whose opportunity cost for gathering and reusing exceeds the generation of a pristine thing [15]. The clothing business utilizes over 97% virgin feedstock, from both natural and synthetic inception (principally plastic), and just 12% of yield is recycled into another item after disposal. All the more ordinarily, articles of clothing are reused into lower esteem applications such as insulation materials or sleeping cushion stuffing. These stages can suit around 12% of creation misfortunes between manufacturing plant offcuts and overload liquidation, an assume that in certain enterprises speaks to the entire worth chain financial edge. Also, 73% of worldwide apparel deals are landfilled or burned. This speaks to about 40 million tons of assets squandered each year, equal to the yearly waste delivered by German urban communities. The water associated with the developing of cotton, the turning and coloring of an article of clothing, what’s more, the residential washing of an article of clothing can without much of a stretch be in excess of 10,000 liters for each thing. The cumulated water need of the apparel industry involves about 4% of worldwide utilization, equal to 40% of worldwide household

306  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles utilization which incorporates water for drinking and cooking. Apparel represents up to 2% of worldwide oil request and in this manner a critical portion of the 300 million tons of plastic created universally consistently which is equal to the yearly oil utilization of around 50 million vehicles every year (Figure 14.4). The production of fibers, their dyeing and washing to get the ideal impact, and the chemicals used to acquire explicit properties, all add to the striking 20% of worldwide modern water contamination credited to the segment [16].

14.3 Sustainability in Textile Industry The textile value chain is a perplexing one where material sciences and chemistry meet customers and business necessities as far as usefulness or product appearance. According to Ambienta’s key methodology, every one of its structure squares must be investigated in the light of the ecological issues that it presents. The ecological effect of the production procedure is identified with a huge number of issues, for example, the measure of water utilized, the energy utilized, the sum and sort of chemicals utilized, and so on. In the use period of traditional textiles for attire or insides, the natural effect primarily originates from washing and cleaning. Chlorine-based chemicals, which are persistent pollutants of waterways, are still relevant consumables for the dry-cleaning. No new low-pollution generating chemicals can enter the market on the off chance that it doesn’t discover a machinery manufacturer that empowers its use in the production procedure. No sustainability-driven material development will be embraced at gradual expense if customers are not willing to pay for it. Fortunately, consumer awareness is developing. The more the environmental effect of the industry is visible, the more new sustainable arrangements will be developed and adopted. In 2016, Adidas began to create shoes from plastic recuperated from seas. In 2017, it built up a full collection, and in March 2018, Adidas reported that they had sold one million sets of shoes at generally $200 per pair. It is a genuinely modest number when contrasted with the 23 billion shoes delivered each year, yet it shows that there is an interest for these items [14, 17]. Long time, the air jet loom (a sort of loom that utilizes compacted air) developed as the winning innovation, supplanting the rapier loom (a more seasoned specialized arrangement which does not require blowers yet it is typically less productive), because of its lower all out expense of proprietorship. Its higher profitability rate made up for the shorter future of the hardware and for the expanded vitality utilization because of its need of blowers.

97% Virgin Feedstock Plastic (63%) Cotton (26%) Other (11%)

2% Recycled feedstock from other industries

12% Cascaded recycling

73% Landfill or incinerated

0.5 million tonnes microfiber leakage

Use

2% Losses during collection and processing

Sustainability Innovations in Textile and Fashion  307

308  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles It is fascinating to note activities like the ACIMIT Green Label, the activity of Italian textile machines producers to evaluate the carbon impression of machines during its activity and name them appropriately. There are several solutions and components explicitly designed to diminish the vitality utilization of the workshop through, for instance, the expulsion of blowers on account of the rapier looms, or the removal of cooling or refrigeration hardware expected to keep up viability of the winders. Similarly machinery and procedures that diminish water consumption or asset consumption, as imperfections or scrap, represents a growing opportunity. The Green Carpet Awards, built up by the Italian Chambers of Fashion, or the Detox crusade from Greenpeace to tidy up value chain which was embraced by firm as Inditex and Benettonare case of activities that fortify our idealism (Figure 14.5).

14.3.1 Technological Developments in Tagging One of the current innovative tend which has the ability to essentially change the style business is “Internet of Things”. This articulation has been utilized for around 15 years to depict a world in which items are associated with the web utilizing labeling advancements. The most well-known are radiofrequency identification (RFID) and traditional one-dimensional optical barcodes. Labels can likewise be coupled to sensors that read for example encompassing temperature or dampness, position, time, speed, or mechanical pressure, nearly anything can be read, put away, and imparted by a sensor-tag-web framework.

14.3.2 Technological Power to the People Conventional 1D standardized tags and new 2D scanner tags containing special IDs can be examined by cameras in many cell phones. More current models take into account less complex perusing by holding the cell-phone near without battery “near field communication” (NFC) labels. Since the cell phone has a remarkable ID that is firmly associated with its client, the tags empower the likelihood to explore connection between close to personal inclinations and objects. One advantage of this computerized strengthening is the potential for shoppers to effortlessly get to various information channels (for example, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 4G) and materials, for example, film, music, games, and writing. Dress could likewise associate with other people’s attire and give feedback to social networks or web games, various styles could trigger various media to play at an exhibition hall, etc.

Fiber

Thread

Production Machinery

Chemicals

Finished Fabric

Figure 14.5  Simplified textile value chain with business model examples [13].

Fiber

Service Providers

Technical Textile

Interior & Home

Clothing

Clothing

Private Consumer

Product Manufacturing or application

Retail & Distribution

Dispose and Recycle

Sustainability Innovations in Textile and Fashion  309

Display Recycle

310  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

14.3.3 Application of Textile Finishes There are different textile finishes chemicals are utilized to change over a material into a specialized material with useful properties. In textile industry, finishing is typically done in the last phase of material handling, because of which they increase a few useful qualities. A wide variety of chemicals are presently accessible in the market that meet or surpass the desires of the customer. Novel finishes have high demand in the market as it provides high value addition to the garments.

14.3.4 Thermal Regulation Finishes The new materials and new finishing procedures for thermal regulation of textile have been widely examined. Microencapsules containing the phase change materials (PCM) utilize the chemicals, for example, nonadecane and other medium chain length alkanes in their core. The encompassing temperature increases over their liquefying point, the microencapsulated substance melts, and latent heat is consumed along these lines intruding on the increase in temperature of a piece of clothing. When the encompassing temperature falls the PCMs set and the latent heat is discharged giving a warming impact. The PCM materials with dynamic warm protection are presently utilized for a wide scope of modern applications explicitly in aviation, car, horticulture, biomedical, guard, sports, and casual fabrics.

14.3.5 Easy Care Finishes The clothing containing cotton or other cellulosic filaments, the achievement of easy care, strong press, or wrinkle free finishes is basic to keep up the picture of cotton in superior attire materials. Simple consideration is the property related with an improved maintenance of cellulosic-based materials particularly regarding wrinkling and thus pressing. There are new approaches which can be utilized to create formaldehyde-free chemical cross-linking agents, for example, the polycarboxylic acids.

14.3.6 Self-Cleaning Finishes As of late, there is a general propensity to impersonate the nature by utilizing nanomaterials and different ways to deal with new utilitarian materials. The self-cleaning activity of the outside of the lotus leaf has offered ascend to the purported “lotus impact” which is being used to create super­ hydrophobic wraps up. Another intriguing methodology with regard to

Sustainability Innovations in Textile and Fashion  311 self-cleaning is the nanocoating of materials with nanoparticles of anatase titanium dioxide, which can adequately decolorize recolors within the sight of water, oxygen, and sun oriented radiations. Beginning from the idea of superhydrophobicity, the extent of self-cleaning surfaces has now additionally stretched out to photocatalytic just as superhydrophilic impacts. Aside from titanium dioxide, bismuth vanadate and benzophenone are presently being tried for their self-cleaning impact [18].

14.3.7 Super Absorbent Finishes A superabsorbent is a material that demonstrations like a super wipe and can ingest watery liquids ordinarily its own weight shaping a gel. They can digest up to 300 times their weight in water and, once retained, don’t subsequently discharge it. They are, in this way, a perfect material for use in items which are intended to contain liquids, for example, infant diapers, incontinence items, and so forth. Fluid assimilation rate and retention are the two most significant superabsorbency parameters. However, different parameters identified with the general execution of the materials, for example, mechanical quality and stimuli responsiveness are likewise significant in deciding the adequacy of the material item. Superabsorbent finishes are basic apparatuses for building materials to create practical materials with cutting edge properties, explicit specialized prerequisites, and included functionalities for applications in regions, for example, agribusiness, biomedicine, sanitation, geotextiles, and protective clothing.

14.3.8 Medical, Cosmetic, and Odor-Resistant Finishes Textiles are in contact with the skin so they can act as bioactive compounds delivery system. Henceforth, they are presently broadly utilized for medicinal, sterile, well-being, and restorative purposes. Medicinal materials are turning into an inexorably significant territory in specialized materials. They can give a controlled moderate arrival of the dynamic therapeutic fixings to be retained through the skin. Cosmetic textiles are the materials which are inserted with corrective fixings that must be moved to the wearer’s skin and the sums moved must be adequate enough to guarantee that restorative advantages are conceivable. There are open doors for well-being and prosperity by utilizing cosmetic textiles in which substances that improve skin appearance, or nutrients can be consumed by the skin. Meanwhile, odor-resistant materials contain undesirable smells. Among different conceivable outcomes, cyclodextrins consolidated into materials can retain or expel smell. The scent particles being hydrophobic

312  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles turned out to be caught in the pits of the cyclodextrins and are evacuated during washing.

14.3.9 Hydrophobic and Oleophobic Finishes Water- and oil-repellent material completions are presently winding up progressively significant and customarily these completions depend on fluorinated mixes. These mixes are ordinarily connected on materials by the ordinary cushioning and depletion forms. The material textures that don’t permit ingestion or infiltration of water or oil for a fixed timeframe are considered as hydrophobic or oleo phobic materials, individually. An assortment of new age synthetic substances and procedures, including nanomaterials and plasma systems, are presently accessible to create hydrophobic and oleophobic material surfaces. A super hydrophobic surface created on materials can show “lotus effect,” as the material surface acts like a lotus leaf. There is incredible pushed in the examination for growing new hydrophobic and oleo phobic material completions, and new materials, for example, carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, and hydrophobins, are presently being attempted with the intend to supplant the traditional fluorinated compounds.

14.3.10 Ultraviolet Protection Finishes Textiles have been utilized for protection from sun powered radiations since the hour of antiquated civic establishments. Material structures render extraordinary qualities required for the sun screening attire, for example, malleability, great mechanical quality, non-abrasiveness, feel, and other built properties. In any case, materials in that capacity will most likely be unable to give compelling security and it ought to be treated with bright (UV) blocking agents to guarantee that the textures redirect the unsafe UV beams. A few UV blocking agents are being created to add or to improve the UV security capacity of the materials. There are both natural and inorganic UV blockers. The natural blockers are otherwise called UV safeguards as they ingest the UV beams, while the inorganic blockers proficiently dissipate both UVA and UVB beams, the fundamental driver of skin malignant growth. As of late, imaginative nanotechnology-based material completing systems are picking up significance to grow progressively proficient and savvy UV defensive textiles. These UV blocking agent can be joined with other defensive finishing chemicals to create multifunctional materials.

Sustainability Innovations in Textile and Fashion  313

14.3.11 Radiation Protection Finishes The introduction to both ionizing and nonionizing radiations can be perilous to people. So, there is an expanding request to develop new shielding materials that can be altered by explicit application or radiation type. A successful radiation shield should cause a huge energy loss in a small penetration distance without discharge of increasingly perilous radiation. The focal point of the examination is to investigate the potential use of nanotechnology on materials for accomplishing radiation protecting just as to pick up insurance from different risks. It has been exhibited that by consolidating different nanoparticles with other natural and inorganic substances, the material textures can be adjusted to accomplish impressively more noteworthy electromagnetic security alongside other insurance properties. Adjustment of filaments dependent on conductive polymers is by all accounts another fascinating methodology for empowering these new functionalities.

14.3.12 Biological and Chemical Protection Finishes Not at all like in prior occasions, presently, there is an expanding need to create defensive wear against chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) dangers. The atomic calamities, worldwide upsurge in fear monger exercises, and the necessities of the military to ensure their staff against biological and chemical assaults have stimulated improvements in this field of textile research. There is an expanding request to create multifunctional defensive textile materials and garments as a countermeasure to biological dangers. There is additionally incredible enthusiasm for growing profoundly effective methods for insurance against chemical substances, either from the dangers made by mishaps and spillages or from purposeful assaults. The field of defensive measures against biological and chemical dangers is dynamic and always developing. The protective garments should offer different functionalities not exclusively to give the fundamental security, yet additionally encourage the troopers and specialists on call for do their exercises in a powerful manner.

14.3.13 Ballistic and Stab Protection Finishes Generally, ballistic or stab assurance is credited to multilayer materials containing elite fibers or metallic parts. However, a few innovative solutions to secure the people against weapons and different effects by chemical

314  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles finishing additionally exist, yet the vast majority of them are still in research arrange. At present, the most encouraging innovation depends on the utilization of shear-thickening fluids, comprising predominantly of exceptionally moved nanoparticles scattered in fluids. A shear-thickening liquid can solidify in a couple of milliseconds, when it experiences mechanical pressure or shear and will begin acting like a strong. Some other extremely intriguing choices to shear-thickening liquids incorporate fired or metallic shower coatings and silicon-based dilatant powders. Other useful completions can likewise be connected in blend with ballistic and stab resistant completions to present additional properties onto them.

14.3.14 High Performance Apparel The literature on high performance materials and clothing has featured a few significant regions for the end uses of these materials. The thermal insulation and properties of textile fabrics can assurance under the threatening situations by protecting some portion of the necessity and to shield the wearer from boundaries of temperature. For an insulating garment to be completely compelling, it needs to enable the wearer to move uninhibitedly so it can do its proposed action productively. Traditional materials accomplish their insulation by catching air inside the structure along these lines constraining warmth misfortune by convection as well as utilizing the low warm conductivity of air to case the wearer inside a comfortable environment [1, 11, 12]. The performance apparel represents one of the quickest developing segments of the universal textile and apparel industry. Market development is being impacted by the advancement of new filaments, new textures, and creative handling innovations. The market is additionally being helped by an adjustment in buyer ways of life. Individuals are living longer and investing more energy in relaxation exercises. New fabrics are being produced for dynamic games, for example, high impact exercise, games, climbing, cycling, mountaineering, cruising, skiing, snowboarding, swimming, and windsurfing. Investigation into these territories has detonated throughout the most recent 10 years [19]. Numerous analysts have been at the cutting edge of material structure and research which envelops a wide scope of orders including composite materials, electronic, and smart textiles. Past researchers have designed a temperature detecting texture (TSF) which acts on principles of NFC along with the assembling strategies required to create the textile on a flatbed weaving machine. Nickel, copper, and tungsten wire components were

Sustainability Innovations in Textile and Fashion  315 delivered. A mathematical relationship was inferred between the temperature and obstruction sensors and this can be utilized to advance its measurements to accomplish a focused on reference opposition. They depict a circumstance where both knitted and woven textiles are utilized for the advancement of sensors and as detecting stages for wearable well-being checking frameworks. However, in those sensor applications where close contact to the body is required, for instance, breath or ECG sensors, the knitted structures are typically favored over woven structures because of their capacity to comply with body shape. Also, the breathability of knitted structures makes them agreeable to wear. The knitting innovation offers noteworthy favourable circumstances over other fabric forming frameworks as for the advancement of textile sensors, for instance, basic preliminary preparing, the procedure capacity of a wide determination of conductive yarns, one step piece of clothing assembling, and careful situating of exact position of sensing patches. Considering the previously mentioned advantages and the required application (human body skin temperature estimation), the weaving innovation has been observed to be an undeniable decision to create a TSF by implanting a detecting wire into a sewed structure [20].

14.4 Future Textiles for Space Age Materials At present, astronauts on board the international space station (ISS) wear generally cotton articles for clothing, which includes polo shirts and cargo pants for TV appearances and for everyday work, rest wear, and underwear. Cotton was utilized effectively in the Apollo mission time when astronauts visited the moon and has demonstrated to be a helpful material in light of the fact that it doesn’t dissolve or dribble when it burns. During the 1970s, cotton was treated with flame-retardant materials and aramids, for example, Nomex were utilized. Other fire resistant materials were utilized, for example, polybenzimidazole (PBI) and Durette-a specific, chemically treated fiber that does not burn or create unsavory exhaust which was developed by Monsanto for Johnson Space Centre. As present missions, for example, ISS enable space travellers to live in a situation like the Earth. The cotton has to a great extent gotten the job done in the course of the most recent couple of decades alongside polyester for exercise garments. In fact, a lot of these materials of garment are not even particularly intended for astronauts, and as such, a significant number of the fibers that were created for the moon never again exist [16].

316  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

14.4.1 New Fibers and New Look Extensive researches are conducted by NASA to develop new materials which would be suitable for a Mars mission. Fibers, materials, and articles of the garment should be produced that are reasonable for the new condition to shield the astronauts from the warmth and from bursting into flames. This is a noteworthy need in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere. NASA is exploring the utilization of modacrylic fibers which hardly ignites and can extinguish them. They are likewise light weight and are presently utilized in the defense by the United States Forces, to make garment another level of being fire resistant.

14.4.2 Space Suit A spacesuit means a pressurized garment worn by space travelers during space flights. It is intended to shield them from the possibly harming conditions experienced in space. Spacesuits are otherwise called Extravehicular Mobility Units (EMUs) to reflect the way that they are additionally utilized as portability assistants when a space traveler takes a space stroll outside of a circling shuttle. They are made out of various customized parts that are created by an assortment of producers and gathered by the National Aeronautics Space Agency (NASA) at their central command in Houston.

14.4.3 End of Life The apparel industry is moving towards “fast fashion”: faster production with lower quality and shorter style cycles. Moreover, for a progressively sustainable future, this pattern must invert. On the other hand, for effective close loop, the materials must be similarly great, better, or less expensive in the wake of reusing [2]. The main enormous scale recycling process accessible today for blended textile waste are mechanical strategies dependent on shredding. It can be interesting fact to note that that during use of garment, fibers are gradually degraded primarily by washing yet in addition by friction and wear. The degradation, which lessens fiber and polymer chain lengths, is further heightened by mechanical recycling (Figure 14.6). Another real challenge is the mixing of fibers. It isn’t only garments use yarns of various sorts—singular yarns are frequently cellulosic/engineered mixes. Three issues emerge here. Firstly, sorting is as of now unimaginable in light of the fact that there is to date no business online logical procedure for recognizable proof of the fiber content in pieces of clothing. Secondly,

Sustainability Innovations in Textile and Fashion  317 More preferred Prevention Minimisation Reuse Recycling Energy recovery

Less preferred

Disposal

Figure 14.6  The waste hierarchy: a general classification of options by environmental impact [16].

mechanical reusing winds up troublesome in light of the fact that (for instance) polyurethane fibers get tangled up in the shredder, and polyester filaments are solid, tearing them demands energy. At last, chemical disintegration and partition is troublesome in light of the fact that it is difficult to tune the chemical procedure to a specific blended fiber in a stream of blended fibers. The chemical recycling of garments is intriguing, on the grounds that it could possibly restore fiber quality. The appraisal recommends that synthetic reusing of these fibers offers noteworthy natural advantages over energy recovery. Disintegration of cotton utilizing frameworks like the viscose procedure, which is upgraded to break up cellulosic fibers, will beat the degradation issue as new equivalent fibers can be spun from the polymeric solution [9, 21].

14.5 Conclusions In conclusion, it can unbeatably postulate that the current textile or even fashion industry is going through tough challenges and issues over product and process sustainability, such as the green house emission, carbon foot prints, and rising of atmospheric heat. The detailed classification product life cycle needs to be entirely required for solving these all sustainability related problems and to make all the involved articles or processes ecofriendly at the simultaneous manner. The water and dye or other chemicals

318  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles consumption pattern also need to be investigate properly and industries or fashion houses or merchandisers should be cautiously look upon this aspects with a stint scutinity throughout their business routes.

References 1. Bartl, A., Hackl, A., Mihalyi, B., Wistuba, M., Marini, I., Recycling of fiber materials. Process Saf. Environ. Prot., 83, 4, 351–358, 2005. 2. Braudel, F., Civilization and Capitalism 15th – 18th Century, in: The Structures of Everyday Life, vol. 1, William Collins Sons & Co Ltd., London, 1981. 3. Lieder, M. and Rashid, A., Towards circular economy implementation: A comprehensive review in context of manufacturing industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 115, 36–51, 2016. 4. Hughes, T.P., The evolution of large technological systems, in: The social construction of technological systems, W.B. Bijker, T.P. Hughes, T.J. Pinch (Eds.), pp. 51–82, MIT Press, Mass, 1987. 5. Jansen, R., Oil & gas: The shale revolution. TCE The Chemical Engineer, 863, 34–36, 2013. 6. Kounina, A., Margni, M., Bayart, J.-B., Boulay, A.-M., Berger, M., Bulle, C., Frischknecht, R., Koehler, A., Milà i Canals, L., Motoshita, M., Núñez, M., Peters, G., Pfister, S., Ridoutt, B., van Zelm, R., Verones, F., Humbert, S., Review of methods addressing freshwater use in life cycle inventory and impact assessment. Int. J. LCA, 18, 707–721, 2013. 7. Negishi, A., Armstrong, C.L., Kreplak, L., Rheinstadter, M.C., Lim, L.-T., Gillis, T.E., Fudge, D.S., The Production of Fibers and Films from Solubilized Hagfish Slime Thread Proteins. Biomacromolecules, 13, 11, 3475–3482, 2012. 2012. 8. Kwon, H., Collier, B.J., Collier, J.R., Pends, A., Recycling cotton from Cotton/ Polyester Fabrics. Text. Chem. Color., 30, 6, 31–35, 1998. 9. OECD, “Cotton” in OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2013, OECD Publishing, 2013, accessed 20131126. 10. Peters, G.M., Granberg, H., Sweet, S., The role of science and technology in sustainable fashion, in: Routlegde Handbook of Sustainability and Fashion;, Fletcher, K. and Tham, M. (Eds.), pp. 181–190, 2014. 11. Robèrt, K.-H., Strategic sustainable development – selection, design and synergies of applied tools. J. Cleaner Prod., 10, 197–214, 2002. 12. Sandin, G., Peters, G.M., Svanström, M., Moving down the cause-effect chain of water and land use impacts: An LCA case study of textile fibers. Resour. Conserv. Recycl., 73, 104–113, 2013. 13. Sterlacci, F. and Arbuckle, J., 2017. Historical dictionary of the fashion industry. Rowman & Littlefield.

Sustainability Innovations in Textile and Fashion  319 14. Frigelg, E.L.C., Pereira, D.C., Curi, R.P., Sustainable Innovation in the Brazilian Textile Industry. In: Corporate Social Responsibility in Brazil, pp. 367–391, Springer, Cham., 2019 15. McLoughlin, J. and Paul, R., Future textiles for high-performance apparels. In: High-Performance Apparel, pp. 223–244, Woodhead Publishing, 2018. 16. Tornquist, S., What’s happening to the military market? Special. Fabr. Rev., m11, 40–49, 2016. 17. Ko, E., Taylor, C.R., Sung, H., Lee, J., Wagner, U., Navarro, D.M.C., Wang, F., Global marketing segmentation usefulness in the sportswear industry. J. Bus. Res., 65, 11, 1565–1575, 2012. 18. Vaidyanathan, G., Genetically modified cotton gets high marks in India. Nature, 2013, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273372982 19. Schneegass, S. and Amft, O., 2017. Smart textiles. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. 20. Venkataraman, M., Mishra, R., Kotresh, T.M., Militky, J., Jamshaid, H., Aerogels forthermal insulation in high-performance textiles. Text. Prog., 48, 2, 55–118, 2016. 21. Zamani, B., Svanström, M., Peters, G., End-of-life management: LCA of textile waste recycling. Proceedings of The 6th International Conference on Life Cycle Management, Gothenburg, Sweden, 25–28 August, 2013.

15 Future Mobilizations and Paths of Waste—Towards Best Solution Subhankar Maity1*, Manoj Kumar Mondal2, Pintu Pandit3 and Kunal Singha3 1

Uttar Pradesh Textile Technology Institute, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India 2 GHCL Limited, Survey No 191/192, Mahala Falia, Bhilad, Umbergaon, Gujarat, India 3 Department of Textile Design, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Patna, Bihar, India

Abstract

The textile and garment industry is the most polluting industries in the world, producing massive waste and releases a large amount of toxic substances that pollute air, water, and soil. This chapter deals with management and politics of the textile waste and addresses various innovation to facilitate reuse and recycling of the same and a transition towards the circular economy. In this context, the concept of Waste Hierarchy is incinerated as a framework for waste management that has become widely adopted in recent years. Linear economy is converting to circular economy, leading to zero waste and no disposal. The waste is treated towards as no longer waste polluting environment; rather they are reused in useful purpose as valuable products. Waste can be nutrients and food for other beings for the soil. Energy harvesting from waste is another promising option. Nevertheless, textile hard waste can be useful raw material for other industries such as paper, rug, or leather. Henceforth, management and characterization of the waste are necessary, and the possibilities for the promotion, arrangement, and enhancement of textile waste that can become a source of raw materials in the market are presented in the present chapter. Keywords:  Waste politics, circular economy, waste hierarchy, energy harvesting, waste to energy

*Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (321–340) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

321

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15.1 Introduction With growing rate of human population throughout the world, the people are accumulating more and more waste in towns and cities. The movement of country people from the country to towns has been remarkable for every nation due to the industrialization, and it will be continuing in the future. According to the UN’s World Urbanization Prospects of 2014, the proportion of the world’s population that lived in cities was 54%, and this is expected to rise to 66% by 2050. Obviously, waste is generated by both rural and urban populations; however, the waste generated in cities and towns are in more concern [1, 2]. In many cities it is a normal practice of placing waste in rural waste dumps, which is called landfill sites. There are still mountains of waste around some of the world’s cities, which are often called landfills. In some advanced economies, particularly those that have limited space for landfill, burn the waste as an alternative way. In the present century, the approach to waste is changing, and at the same time, waste has necessarily become a political issue. As the world’s population grows and as resources are limited, and in many cases depleted, waste is increasingly being seen as a resource that must be exploited as efficiently as possible. This has led to the evolution of strategies such as zero waste and the circular economy. These strategies are encouraging the reuse of all waste as resources [1]. The strategy of achieving zero waste in an industrial production involves the changes in traditional practice of manufacturing that has been in use ever since the industrial revolution. The traditional practice is called the linear system, which consists of resource extraction, manufacturing, distribution, use, and then disposal. In a zero waste approach, the final stage, disposal, is no longer permitted. Instead, everything must be reused in some way, or they can be converted to resource for other products. This new approach is like following a circular path, where once resource materials enter never rejected and process through an endless cyclic path or chain. This approach is called the circular economy because when a product has reached the end of its useful life, it is returned to the beginning of the production chain through some form of recovery, incurring zero waste. Zero waste is a utopian ideal. In practice, it is unlikely ever to be achieved. But it is necessary to achieve this goal for the sake of our extinction. Throughout the world, many countries are struggling to implement various strategies to achieve this goal of zero waste. This has led to the governments adopting waste management policies that are based on this aspects of the zero waste. In some cases, these

Future Mobilizations and Paths of Waste  323 are aspirational; however, in others, they are enshrined in legislation. This is likely to have an important influence on the management of waste in the future [1, 3].

15.2 Waste Management Hierarchy Waste Hierarchy is a framework for waste management, which has become widely adopted in recent years in some nations. According to this framework, a hierarchy is established in the order of priority of the way by which waste need to be handled or managed to achieve the minimum environmental impact. The principle of the waste hierarchy is that any material that is consigned to waste should be reutilized in the best efficient and sustainable way. Keeping this in mind, the hierarchy sets out six levels of waste management as shown in Figure 15.1. In descending order of preference, these six levels are (i) prevention, (ii) minimization, (iii) reuse, (iv) recycling, (v) energy recovery, and (vi) disposal.

15.2.1 Prevention The first step in the waste management hierarchy is prevention. The idea behind prevention is that products are designed from the outset to generate less waste. This may be by designing so that a whole product or components within it are reusable. Another approach is extending the lifetime of products, which will also reduce the amount of waste generated.

Most favored option

Prevention Minimization Reuse Recycling

Least favored option

Figure 15.1  Hierarchy for waste management.

Energy recovery Disposal

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15.2.2 Minimization Minimization of waste is the similar approach like prevention but is sometimes considered as a separate stage in the hierarchy, although it broadly overlaps with prevention. In this context, minimization is the healthy practice in the manufacturing process where there will be maximum output efficiency with minimum discarding. Other than this healthy manufacturing practice, the packaging of products is also another issue where packaging materials are discarded. To address these issues, packaging should be minimized or avoided completely where possible.

15.2.3 Reuse This is the third stage in the hierarchy. When a product reaches the end of its life, it should wherever possible be reused. Simple examples of this include the reuse of bottles after their contents have been consumed. It has been good practice in some countries to reuse the glass bottles of beverages and drinks. In textile and garment sector, old and torn clothes are refurbished and mended for reuse to extend its like. This approach seeks to rebuild a product to match its original specifications using a combination of original, recycled, and new parts. Mending and repairing of products generally come under this reuse category.

15.2.4 Recycling When there is no longer the possibility of reusing a product, the next preferred option is to recycle it. This will involve using the material in the product to make something new. Used and old clothes and industrial textile waste can be exploited to create new products. Textile wastes are, nowadays, used for preparation of household carpets, rags, domestic quits etc. Recycling is also applied to the organic component of waste. Biodegradable materials such as natural fiber waste should be allowed to decay into compost so that the nutrients that remain within the residual material can be returned to the soil [1, 4, 5].

15.2.5 Energy Recovery The process of energy recovery will be considered when all reuse and recycling options have been exhausted. This is the most efficient and desirable strategy compatible with the waste category available. For much organic

Future Mobilizations and Paths of Waste  325 waste, some form or anaerobic digestion to produce a biogas may be the best option. Gasification and pyrolysis are also considered to be relatively energy efficient process. The waste can be burnt to produce combined heat and energy when such waste would not release harmful or toxic gas in the environment. If none of these options are viable, then combustion with energy recovery for electricity generation can be considered.

15.2.6 Disposal This is the last option of the waste, though not desirable. Disposal might involve incineration of the waste without any energy recovery or sending it directly to a landfill site to be buried [1].

15.3 Textile Materials Textile materials are broadly classified in two groups, natural and synthetics. Fibers from natural sources can be divided into plant sources, i.e., cellulose compounds and animal sources, i.e., protein compounds. Cellulose fibers like cotton, jute, flax, hemp, ramie etc. are made of carbohydrate polymer. Cotton is the most widely used fober in textile sector and is used to produce about 40% of the world’s fabrics. Protein fibers like wool is available from animals such as sheep, goats, alpacas, camels, llamas, rabbits etc. Silk is a protein fiber obtained from silkworm cocoons. Other than these natural fibers, there are regenerated fibers manufactured from natural cellulosic resources. Cellulose resources are extracted especially from trees. For these categories, rayon, Tencel, acetate, triacetate, and Lyocell fibers are already commercially popular. There are fibers manufactured from non-cellulosic resources, i.e., they are made entirely of chemical materials, known as synthetic fibers. They are broadly polyesters, nylons, acrylics, olefins, etc. Cotton is the raw material most used within the industries surveyed. In Turkey, cotton represents 29% of the raw materials used, followed by polyester with 24% of contribution. In most of the countries, pure cotton is the most common textile materials, with 50% of consumption, while 8.14% of companies work only with synthetic materials. It is noteworthy that waste from clothing and garment sector is new and clean and does not require any special treatment before recycling. In addition to recycling technology, the basic prerequisite for waste recycling is to collect and sort clothes by color and fiber content.

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15.3.1 Textile Solid Waste Solid waste management is defined as a set of actions aimed at finding solutions to solid waste considering political, economic, environmental, cultural, and social issues, with social control and under the premise of sustainable development. Textile waste incurred by textile and fashion industries may have potential in forming a new production chain through direct sales with the recycling industries or the intermediary general wastes, thus valuing the wastes. Textile solid waste belongs to the industrial and non-dangerous waste category and defined as “waste of raw material referred to as fabric trims, scraps, or parts rejected by defects” in manufacturing processes of the clothing industry. In Brazil, the National Solid Waste Policy (PNRS) was formulated in 2010. This policy aims to regulate as well as provide principles, objectives, instruments, and guidelines for integrated management and solid waste management in order to promote strategic actions that enable processes capable of adding value to waste, thereby increasing the competitiveness of the production sector and reducing the volume of disposable waste. Solid waste management is defined as a set of actions aimed at finding solutions to solid waste considering political, economic, environmental, cultural, and social issues, with social control and under the premise of sustainable development.

15.3.2 Strategies of Textile Waste Management There are many choices for the consumers when they want to give up their garments. Conventional practice is just to discard the garments after use, which causes waste and pollute environment. Nowadays, there are many retail and professional collectors, charity organizations, and municipalities that collect used garments and either resell them or donate to needy ones. Even non-reusable garments are recycled to manufacture valuable items by the professional collectors. Discarded garments are usually either incinerated or send to landfill as solid waste. The solid waste can be sorted and send for recycling [6]. After recycling, textile waste can be converted to rags, blankets, wipes, carpets, insulation materials etc. However, this recycling process is not a vast technology, and only 25% of solid textile waste has been recycled today [7]. Though this statistic varies county to countries. For example, in UK, only 13% of textile waste is recycled to produce valuable products and 74% is send to landfills and 13% is sent to incineration for energy recovery [8]. Figure 15.2 shows various strategies of textile waste management.

Future Mobilizations and Paths of Waste  327 Garment and Textile Waste: Worn out; Partially worn; Never worn, Out of Fashion Second hand shops, Charities, Cloth banks, Etc.

Chemical Recycling

Reuse

Resell in second hand shops

Recycling plants

Donation

Resell via swap websites, online auctions, informal family swap.

New fiber

Mechanical Recycling

New products: Wipes, Rags, Insulation materials, bags etc.

Bins

Incineration

Disposal

Energy Recovery

Landfill

Figure 15.2  Strategies for textile waste management.

15.4 Circular Economy/Zero Waste Zero waste strategies and the circular economy are ambitious concepts for production and manufacturing in the future. At present, the waste management hierarchy seeks to make optimum use of the waste as discussed. Zero waste and circular economy are the two terms like the two sides of a single coin since each implies the other. The adoption of the zero waste strategy at government level has wide-ranging implications for industry to follow [1]. By adopting the strategy of waste to energy (WtE), a severe reduction in the amount of waste material would be possible with conversion of waste into energy. However, there are still limitation to the amount of waste unused even after adopting best strategy of zero waste economy. As an example, the Scottish Government produced a zero waste plan in 2010, which targeted 70% recycling by 2025 and less than 5% of waste material going to landfill. The European Union (EU) has also adopted a circular economy strategy that targets the recycling of 65% of municipal waste by 2030 and at the same time the recycling of 75% of packaging waste. The use of landfill is also restricted. Few countries and regions have more stringent targets. For example, New Zealand is hoping to achieve a zero waste target by 2020 of no landfill and no waste incineration. It is likely to utilize waste for energy recovery, particularly if landfill is prohibited for most types of waste [1, 9, 10]. A pictorial demonstration of circular economy is shown in Figure 15.3.

328  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

Mining/materials manufacturing

Farming/collection1

Biological nutrients

Restoration

Biochemical feedstock

Biosphere

Technical nutrients

Parts manufacturer Product manufacturer

Recycle

Service provider

Biogas

Refurbish/ remanufacture Reuse/redistribute

Cascades Anaerobic digestion/ composting Extraction of biochemical feedstock2

Maintenance Consumer

User

Collection

Collection

Energy recovery Leakage to be minimised Landfill

1 Hunting and fishing 2 Can take both post-harvest and post-consumer waste as an input Source: Ellen MacArthur Foundation circular economy team

Figure 15.3  The principle of the circular economy [9].

15.4.1 Resell and Reuse of Textiles After collection of the used garments from the consumers, charity organizations and professional collectors sort them as per various criteria such as quality, size, types etc. and send then in secondhand shop in a very cheap price so that needy and poor people can buy and wear [11]. Figure 15.4 represents a scheme of reuse and recycling of textile waste, and Figure 15.5 presents share of top 10 used textile exporters. The professional collectors also sell them in poor nations. A large amount of secondhand garments are shipped to poor nations of Eastern Europe, Africa, South Asia, etc. Sweden donated 26,000 tonnes of used clothes and shoes to Africa and Eastern Europe in 2008 [12]. There are new trend of reselling old or unused garments through online selling in various websites and auctions [13]. With Second hand shops or donation centres Collection

Sorting

Transport Recycling centres

Figure 15.4  Life cycle of textile products during recycling.

Future Mobilizations and Paths of Waste  329

5% % 5% %

4%

USA

4%

Germany 27%

United Kingdom Korea

6%

Japan Netherlands

9%

Malaysia Belgium

18%

10%

China

12%

France

Figure 15.5  Top 10 exporters of used textiles (share of total mass exported globally) (adapted from WRAP 2016) [14].

these approaches, life cycle of garments can be extended before they are recycled, incinerated, or sent for landfill.

15.4.2 Recycling of Textile Waste Recycling is the best future of textile waste after completion of its service life. A suitable recycling process manufactures a valuable product from waste and extends the life cycle of the consumer product as shown in Figure 15.6.

Raw materials

Production process Fiber & Yarn spinning

Compostable garments biological cycle (C2C)

Garment production/ Textile manufacturing

Retailer

Recycling of Pre-ConsumerWaste

ReUse User

Disposal Open-Loop Recycling

Figure 15.6  Textile recycling approaches [21].

Collection /Sorting Separation

Preparation for Recycling (e.g. Shredding, Discoulering)

330  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Therefore, there is always a struggle to design and develop a suitable recycling process to use a waste as raw material for manufacturing a valuable product. There are several recycling technologies that are available at present to reuse textile waste as raw materials for recycling the same and manufacture some new consumer products. These recycling techniques are discussed below.

15.4.2.1 Mechanical Process of Recycling Textile Waste Depending on the types and quality of textile waste, there are various methods of mechanical recycling of textile waste. One of the most important mechanical recycling processes cut the textile material into pieces and prepare the web fibrous material that can be used as filler for mattress blanket quilt and upholstery. In the process, textile material is fast cut into pieces and then add roller card for individualizing the fibers from the fabric. The fibers are produced in the open form in a web form. Fiberweb can be needle punched to produce blanket, carpet, and other materials [15]. Open fibers are used as filler materials for blankets, upholstery, and manufacturing of disposable diapers, napkins, insulation materials etc. Open fibers are slow spun into yarns which are used as raw materials for rope and carpet manufacturing. Another mechanical recycling process is called shredding, where high quality textile garments are cut into pieces and used for preparation of various products such as t-shirts and carrier bags made of textile. These processes are called as of up cycling or remanufacturing [6, 16].

15.4.2.2 Chemical Processes of Textile Recycling Chemical recycling process of textile materials is suitable for both synthetic materials such as polyester, polypropylene, and nylon fibers and for natural fibers such as cotton, wool, silk, and jute fibers. In case of synthetic textiles and blended textiles, synthetic part is chemically separated and degraded to the molecular level by some chemical reaction. After that, the synthetic feedstock produced is easily re-polymerized and spun into new fiber. In various countries, there are closed loop polyester recycling techniques that have been developed where synthetic textile materials and blended textile materials are collected from the consumers and cut into small pieces or broken down into small granules by some mechanical means. By applying certain chemical reaction, the small pieces of garments and the granules are decomposed to form the precursor of synthetic polymers. For example, in case of polyester materials, dimethyl terephthalate is produced after decomposition. However, the actual chemical reaction and the reagent

Future Mobilizations and Paths of Waste  331 used for the degradation of the textile material are not disclosed by the manufacturer in most of the cases. However, the polymerization reaction methodology if follows a closed loop process, then no chemical waste or bi-product has been generated during the recycling in this chemical route [17, 18]. Natural fiber textiles such as cotton fabrics are collected and cut into pieces and recycled to manufacture regenerated cellulose fibers such as viscose. In this process, waste cotton textiles are cut into small pieces by some mechanical means, and cellulosic part is chemically separated by dissolving the same into alkaline solution. The solutions are used for wet spinning to manufacture regenerated viscose fiber. The process is also suitable for cotton blended textile where the synthetic part is separated from the process. Lyocell fibers are produced by the same process of recycling of discarded textile. In the process, cellulosic part of the waste textile is dissolved in N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) to prepare a solution, and the solution is then filtered for separating the fibers. Fibers are then washed and spun into yarns. NMMO can be recovered from the process and reused. The synthetic part of the west textile can also be recycled to produce recycled synthetic fibers [19, 20].

15.4.3 Innovation in Textile Waste Management Innovative waste management and recycling methods in textile manufacturing make it possible to reduce and reuse waste. It helps cutting production costs while protecting the environment. In this direction, Expert Network on Textile Recycling (ENTeR) formulated by EU under the Interreg Central Europe Programme works in five central European countries that are involved in the textile business to promote innovative solutions for waste management that will result in a circular economy approach to making textiles. They launched seven pilot cases for waste management towards its best solution as shown in Table 15.1. In case of pilot case 1, German companies are looking for solution of their logistical (regular disposal/take away of waste by external providers, easy and non-bureaucratic handling of waste), economical (disposal of unmixed (pure) waste free of charge), and technological (shredding/ cutting of waste directly at the point of origin (online processing), technical development of such a shredding unit, finding solutions where such chopped pieces can be used, finding solutions for the use of shearing dust) needs. In case of pilot case 2, where the recycling technologies for processing of conventional textile waste such as the old clothing or home textiles are

332  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Table 15.1  Innovative waste management pilot cases adopted by European Union. No.

Title of the pilot case

Partner

1.

From residues to raw material – New recycling approach to handle textile waste from a finishing company

Germany

2.

Generation of waste from manufacturing of technical textiles

Czech Republic

3.

Reduction of the waste generation through prolongation of the service life of textile products

Czech Republic

4.

Recollection, recycling and waste management of stock post-industrial and used post-consumer workwear finished garment

Italy

5.

System of segregation and preparation of postproduction waste

Poland

6.

“Wool Waste” raw material development

Hungary

7.

Development of the waste management related in-house logistic system

Hungary

traditional and well available as cutting and tearing. The processing and utilization of waste from technical textile industries such as coatings, laminations, composites etc. are often difficult or costly due to their technical nature. There are Czech companies those are manufacturing the heavycoated and technical textiles are looking for the processing and reuse opportunities for their waste. The typical technical textile waste are selvedges (edge strips), cuttings, pieces of yardage textiles with or without coatings or yarns, and fibers etc. In the pilot case 3, the length of the service life of textiles is extended by repeated washing and re-using. One hundred percent cotton and blended textiles, which are used in hospitals and medical sectors, are designed for the repeated washing. The aim is to demonstrate the prolongation of the service life of textile products and thereby reduction of raw materials consumption and reduction of textile waste at the end-of-life. In the pilot case no. 4, Italian producer of work and protective garments and uniforms deals with the management of old (and expired)

Future Mobilizations and Paths of Waste  333 garments stocked in their storehouse and with the used garment recollected from their customers after use. The company finds various methods to recycle the disposed garment such as disassembling method, automatic disassembling machine development, recycling techniques for some components with special finishing or associated composites etc. The Polish Pilot Case no. 5 is “System of segregation and preparation of post-production waste.” The post-production textile waste consists of yarn remains, cutting waste, and dust. The main objectives of the Polish pilot case are finding the solution for recycling and use of this waste together with waste analysis, segregation, labeling, pre-treatment for recycling, and staff training. Hungary was selected for the pilot case no. 6 for only felting company. The textile waste consists of edge cuttings mainly from 100% wool or from wool blended with viscose, often painted. The cutter edges of the woolfelt are too small to be sold as felt for decoration or industrial use. As these small parts contain the good quality wool, they might be potential raw materials for other type of usage. The seventh pilot case aims to find a solution for the post-production waste generated by a company, which is the manufacturer of mattresses, upholstered bedroom furniture, and home and household textiles. Their waste consists of cutting waste and textile fabrics, latex, coco-latex or PU foam, and foils and films. The pilot activity shall support the mineralization of the storage cubage of the waste—increasing the storage capacity— and create an easily movable formats of the waste. Having an appropriate cubage (m3), volume, and mobility, there will be a possibility to transfer the waste to the waste management company and store/warehouse of the waste inside the company until the delivery.

15.4.4 Sustainability in Textiles The scope of the textile industry is one of the largest industries in the world to 3R (Reuse, Reduce, & Recycle) concept. Sustainability is not only an important concept but also companies have the opportunity to make a huge difference environmentally, economically, and socially. Sustainability is frequently illustrated through the idea of reduce, reuse, and recycle, encouraging individuals and businesses to reduce their consumption of resources, such as energy, water, land, and oil; reusing products, such as a refillable water bottle; and recycling materials, such as paper, glass, and aluminium etc.

334  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles The textile industry has many reasons to place an emphasis on sustainability, including reduced costs, protection of the environment, and sustained goodwill from its customers for eco-friendly practices. To contribute something toward into account, regularly focuses on holistic approach of innovation, which enhances the consumption of organic or sustainable fiber. In addition, new innovative bedding sheets, which are made up with recycled post-consumer PET bottles, mix with virgin cotton along with DNA tagging that enabled tracing of the product from fiber to finished product, is another technique from waste cotton t-shirt and PET bottle to make bedding sheets which impact to environment reducing landfill space and reduce crude oil consumption and carbon emissions. There are lot of activities now taken into account of carbon neutral, which means much more carbon is being removed from the atmosphere and the target is to achieve zero carbon footprints [22]. Sustainable living is becoming more and more of a concern in the 21st century, as the impacts of human production and waste are becoming inescapably apparent. It applies in terms of food production, international trade, commercial industries, and now textiles. But, what exactly is sustainable living? The goal of sustainability is the creation of cycles of behaviour with the greatest long-term benefits for the greatest number of people. There are three defining elements of this: environmental, social, and economical sustainability. Environmental sustainability may be the most obvious. This means to encourage habits that will not have negative long-term impacts on the environment, including the preservation of resources. Social sustainability refers to create a balance of social equity of fairness to avoid practices that are inherently exploitative or which are only beneficial to some communities at the detriment to others.  Economical sustainability  means creating products that can realistically be incorporated into existing markets. The textile industry has historically been associated with environmentally harmful processing. The demand for sustainable products is now growing. Public awareness and the demand for traceability have increased, and many global brands already have a dedicated fashion collection made from sustainable content derived from organic, recycled, or sustainable material. The Global Recycled Standard (GRS) is a holistic certification for products with recycled content (Figure 15.7). The desired effect of the GRS is to provide brands with a tool for more accurate labeling to encourage innovation in the use of reclaimed materials, to establish more transparency in the supply chain, and to provide better information to consumers.

Future Mobilizations and Paths of Waste  335

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TextileExchange

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Global Recycled Standard

STANDARD

Figure 15.7  The Global Recycled Standard (GRS).

The main objectives of the GRS are: • Track and trace recycled input materials. • Provide customers (both brands and consumers) with a tool to make informed decisions. • Reduce harmful impact of production to people and the environment. • Provide assurance that materials in the final product are actually recycled and processed more sustainably. • The process cover—Processing, manufacturing, packaging, labeling, trading, and distribution of all products made with a minimum of 20% recycled material. • To apply GRS logo, minimum content of recycled material should be 50%. • Post-Consumer Material—Any waste which is re-used after end use for its intended purpose. • Pre-Consumer Material—Material diverted from the waste stream during the manufacturing process excluded is the reutilization of materials such as rework, regrind, or scrap generated in a process and capable of being reclaimed within the same process that generated it. The Recycled Content Standard (RCS) applies to products that contain 5%–100% recycled material. The standard applies to any material used in a

336  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles product for which the manufacturer is making a claim about the recycled content and type of material in the final product.

15.5 Energy from Waste Strategies Incineration with energy recovery is one of the strongest methodologies of better utilization of textile waste. Many countries successfully adopted such incineration strategies for waste management. Textile solid wastes are collected from the consumers or garbage and sent to incineration either alone or with some other municipal wastes. Heat energy is produced and recovered power can be utilised for various works, and this methodology can be a potential alternative of conventional energy sources [12]. While few nations adopted zero waste or circular economy targets, the best way of recovering energy from the waste materials is found to be controversial topic with respect to an efficient environmental strategy. Is it better from an environmental perspective to recover energy or to simply bury the waste? Other than simply useless burning, it is better to convert waste into a new fuel either gaseous or liquid form. There are methods to generate a new fuel include anaerobic digestion and various ways of treating waste to generate liquid fuels. Pyrolysis and gasification can produce fuel products, and these processes are preferable to simple combustion. However, the emissions implications of these processes must also be taken into account [1]. Another approach is recovering heat energy from the process and utilising the same for fruitful purpose. For the dyeing of synthetic textiles, temperature of dyeing liquor is about 135°C–150°C, and after dyeing, the liquor is cooled down and discharged. Recently, textile mills in Surat, India are reusing the exhausted dye liquor for dyeing the textiles with added advantage of utilizing remaining amount of dye and other chemical ingredients as well as heat [12]. Municipalities of many countries adopted WtE strategy that is an easy going solution to get rid of all the waste problems in a city. WtE plant can finance its costs exclusively through the sale of recovered energy. With a WtE plant in operation, a big fraction of the energy demand of a city can be covered. Another myth is making gold from garbage. Even unsorted waste can be sold with profit to be used for further energy and material recovery. Qualified and experienced international companies are queuing up to invest and operate large WtE plants in developing and emerging countries at their own risk.

Future Mobilizations and Paths of Waste  337

15.6 Challenges Based on literature review and above discussion, a wide range of challenges could be identified, which inhibit the transition towards a circular textile economy. It is an era quick fashion change where the concept of fast fashion dominates the market with rapid change in garment collection and permanent change in trend and style. As a result, backdated fashion leftover in the wardrobe of the consumers and over consumption and consumer habits greeding over new fashion in cheap price. This is non-sustainable and non-circular approach of use of garments and usual practice where 25% of garments in wardrobe are not worn by the consumers. The concept of sustainable purchase decision by the consumer is highly complex, and in fact majority of the consumers cannot follow the same. Only they choose their products on the basis of price and quality. However, various countries and industries are aware of the sustainable process and fashion, and a good number of products are available in retail market with sustainability label since few decades. But the conventional manufacturing infrastructures cannot follow the circular economy model due to lack of their facility. Therefore, they need various changes in their infrastructure to install recycling machine and technology and facing challenges. The extent of recycling ability textile waste depends on the quality of the textile product, types, physical condition, and presence of various accessories like motifs, buttons, logos, labels etc., which require sorting and segregation before sending for the process of recycling. It is a major task before obtaining value from waste by recycling [23]. During the process of recycling, the cost of the process and emission of pollutants are also great concern.

15.7 Conclusions The tremendous rise in production and consumption of garments and textile products also produces huge waste leading to increasing public concerns with regard to the resultant health and environmental impacts. For fruitful and full utilization of textile waste, as resources are limited and in many cases depleted, manufacturing waste is increasingly being seen as a resource that must be exploited as efficiently as possible. This has led to the evolution of strategies such as zero waste and the circular economy. In many countries throughout the world, there is struggle towards implementation of various strategies to achieve this goal of zero waste or waste to value. In this line, Waste Hierarchy as a framework

338  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles for waste management has been widely adopted in recent years in some nations with the six levels concept, i.e., (i) prevention, (ii) minimization, (iii) reuse, (iv)  recycling, (v) energy recovery, and (vi) disposal. There are many choices for the consumers when they want to give up their garments. Other than simply discarding them to landfill waste, they can be donated or sold for reuse. Even good quality used garments are exported to poor countries and distributed in retail market in cheap price for needy ones. The garments that become unsuitable for wearing are recycled. Manufacturing waste of garment and fashion, textile, and technical textile industries such as leftover stocks of yarns, fabrics, motifs, labels, threads, and all other textile products can be recycled to produce useful products. There are mechanical and chemical means of recycling the textile waste. By the mechanical means, textile yarns and fabrics are opened to form fibers and spun into yarn to manufacture valuable products. The fibers are can also be used as raw materials for carpet and blanket industries. By the chemical means, textiles are decomposed to their polymeric form and spun into recycled fibers. In this way recycles polyester, viscose fibers are manufactured from suitable waste. Developed European nations adopted some pilot cases for better mobilization, showing future paths of textile wastes. The GRS and RCS are available for certification of consumer products made of recycled waste. WtE is a new concept, which is adopted by municipalities of many nations to recover and regenerate energy from solid waste. Today’s consumers are also gradually conscious about the sustainability and interested to buy products that are manufacturing following sustainable process and materials.

References 1. Breeze, P., The Politics of Waste, in: Energy from Waste, pp. 11–17, Academic Press, London, 2017. 2. Misra, V. and Pandey, S.D., Hazardous waste, impact on health and environment for development of better waste management strategies in future in India. Environ. Int., 31, 417, 2005. 3. Singh, S., Ramakrishna, S., Gupta, M.K., Towards zero waste manufacturing: A multidisciplinary review. J. Clean Prod., 168, 1230, 2017. 4. Lepawsky, J., Araujo, E., Davis, J.M. et al., Best of two worlds? Towards ethical electronics repair, reuse, repurposing and recycling. Geoforum, 81, 87, 2017. 5. Latić, B. and Popović, B., Ecology in textile: Textile waste recycling. Tekst. Obleklo, 58, 328, 2010.

Future Mobilizations and Paths of Waste  339 6. Palm, D., Ealender, M., Watson, D., Kiorboa, N., Salmenpera, H., Towards a Nordic Textile Strategy - Collection, Sorting, Reuse and Recycling of Textiles, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute Ltd., Stockholm, www4.ivl. se/download/18.6cf6943a14637f76eab2776/1402668343852/C28+TN20145 38+web.pdf. Accessed December 2014. 7. Briga-Sa, A., Nascimento, D., Teixeira, N., Pinto, J., Caldeira, F., Varum, H., Paiva, A., Textile Waste as an Alternative Thermal Insulation Building Material Solution. Constr. Build. Mater., 38, 155, 2013. 8. Allwood, J. M., Laursen, S. E., de Rodriguez, C. M., Bocken, N., Well dressed?: The present and future sustainability of clothing and textiles in the United Kingdom, J. Home Econom. Inst. Australia, 22, 42, 2015. 9. MacArthur, E., Towards the circular economy. J. Ind. Ecol., 2, 23, 2013. 10. Mokeev, A.N., Iljin, V.A., Gradova, N.B., Biotechnological degradation of the radioactive cellulose containing waste. J. Mol. Catal.: B Enzym., 5, 441, 1998. 11. Latifah, A.M., Basri, H., Basri, N.E.A., Multi-criteria Approach for Selecting the Best Solid Waste Management Technologies. Sains Malays., 39, 417, 2010. 12. Palm, D., Improved waste management of textiles, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute Ltd., Stockholm, www.ivl.se/download/18.7df4c4e812d2da6a416800080103/B1976.pdf. Accessed December 2014, 2011. 13. Cassidy, T.D. and Sara, L.C.H., Upcycling Fashion for Mass Production, in: Sustainability in fashion and textiles, Greenleaf Publishing Limited, Sheffield, Routledge, 2013. 14. Anonymous, Textiles Market Situation Report 2016, online available at http:// www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Textiles_Market_Situation_Report_2016. pdf. Retrieved on 01.01.2020 15. Watzl, A., Nonwovens from recycled waste, in: Recycling Textile and Plastic Waste, pp. 89–99, 2011. 16. Fletcher, K., Sustainable Fashion and Textiles:design Journeys, Earth Scan, London, 2008. 17. Yang, Y., Lu, Y., Xiang, H., Xu, Y., Li, Y., Study on Methanolytic Depolymerization of PET with Supercritical Methanol for Chemical Recycling. Polym. Degrad. Stab., 75, 185, 2002. 18. Anonymous, Patagonia´s Common Treads Garment Recycling Program: A Detailed Analysis, 2011. Online available at: www.patagonia.com/pdf/en_ US/common_threads_whitepaper.pdf. Accessed December 2019. 19. Shen, L. and Patel, M.K., Life cycle assessment of man-made cellulose fibers. Lenzinger Ber., 88, 2010, Online available www.lenzing.com/fileadmin/ template/pdf/konzern/lenzinger_berichte/ausgabe_88_2010/LB_88_2010_ paper_1.pdf. Accessed December 2019. 20. Jeihanipour, A., Karimi, K., Niklasson, C., Taherzadeh, J.M., A Novel Process for Ethanol or Biogas Production from Cellulose in Blended-Fibers Waste Textiles. Waste Manage., 30, 2504, 2010.

340  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 21. Anonymous, Circular Economy in the Textile Sector, Online available at: https://www.adelphi.de/de/system/files/mediathek/bilder/GIZ_Studie_ Kreislaufwirtschaft_Textilsektor_2019_final.pdf Accessed on 15th Dec 2019. 22. Sule, A.D. and Bardhan, M.K., Recycling of Textile Waste for Environmental Protection-An overview of some practical cases in the textile Industry. Indian J. Fiber Text. Res., 26, 223, 2001. 23. Hvass, K.K., Weaving a Path from Waste to Value, Online available at: http://libsearch.cbs.dk/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.do?docId=C BS01000731165&vid=CBS&afterPDS=true. Accessed on 15th Jan 2020.

16 Golden Fiber Jute: A Treasurable Sustainable Material Amarish Dubey1*, Vinay Kumar Chauhan2, Ritu Pandey3, Mayank Manjul Dubey4 and Sanjoy Debnath5 Gemtex Laboratory, Human Center Design, École Nationale Supérieure Des Arts et Industries Textiles, Roubaix, France 2 Department of Textile Technology, Uttar Pradesh Textile Technology Institute Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India 3 Department of Textiles & Clothing Kanpur, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Uttar Pradesh, India 4 Department of Manufacturing Technology, Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India 5 ICAR-National Institute of Natural Fibre Engineering & Technology Kolkata, West Bengal, India

1

Abstract

Golden textured jute is one of the most potential agro materials of innovative design applications. This fibrous material is having extensive applications in all innovative fields with upholding its traditional and cultures values. Even though the jute is having primitive electrical, mechanical, chemical, and aesthetic appearing qualities, but it is facing stiff design challenges. The jute industries are biased to produce mostly the traditional products and less attention towards the innovative applications, so there is revamp required in design culture of jute technologies. In this chapter, the main concentration is on the innovative applications of jute by which a jute grower and jute industry can achieve proper monetary benefits by it. The jute is having very high prospective as it can serve in multiple innovative directions such as energy mitigation in rural world, bioenergy, geotextile, agro textile, medical utensils, pharma applications, and many more, but it is very important for designer and researcher to focus on the multiple directional and innovative

*Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (341–362) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

341

342  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles applications by jute. The proper use of jute can provide a big support to rural world for being self-sustainable. The change in design attitude can change the condition of Jute grower and perform makeover in the jute industries. Keywords:  Jute fiber, jute cultivation, blending, bioenergy, jute hollow tube, jute charge storage, energy generation

16.1 Introduction There are a big number of natural products, which are seeking design innovation to fit in the current and future era products generation [1]. Especially, natural fibers are the most compromised agricultural products which are seeking designing revamp for the betterment of its grower and industries [1, 2]. India is very fortunate that it has very nice and diverse climate to support different agricultural yield, and in fact, India is known for its natural fibers farming [3]. In lot of natural fibers cultivation, India is holding top position, but the miserable part is that the growers are unable to achieve the proper benefits and the natural fibers industries are slowly shutting down day by day [4]. There are lot of natural fibers such as silk cocoon, coconut husk, hemp, flax, sisal, corn hair, and jute, which are facing stiff challenges for getting new avenues, yet they all are having a big number of applications in different sectors. Among them, the golden fiber jute is one of the widely used natural fiber for different material applications [5]. In this chapter, we will discuss the different aspects of jute and its various innovative applications. There are two varieties of jute primarily tossa (Corchorus olitorius) and white jute (Corchorus capsularis) available in India, Bangladesh, and other parts of the world [6]. jute is also called as pat, jhota, chanapai, janumu, chanambu, moti, and patsan in different Indian dialects. Jute is separated from the bark of the jute plant and encounters different manual and mechanical processes before transforming into a finished jute item. It is a significant cash crop for India and Bangladesh, traded to numerous outside nations [2–6]. With more purchasers driving a move towards utilizing naturally well-disposed items, numerous entrepreneurs are turning out to be eco-cognizant as well—particularly with regards to bundling. One of the star entertainers in the eco-accommodating material stakes is jute. Jute is one of the most established customary bundling material and specialists trace its earliest use as far back as the third thousand years BC [7]. The history of jute is very old, but the trade mark of jute as

Golden Fiber Jute  343 packing materials still carries on, although the jute is having the extensive applications in the different domain [8]. There are three aspects of jute commerce: jute cultivation, jute industry, and the environmental benefits of jute. This chapter covers the different viewpoints that make jute such a significant common asset.

16.2 Jute Cultivation, Distribution, and Production Ganga’s delta is the prime location for cultivation of jute, and more than 85% of jute cultivations happen across the Ganga’s delta [9]. Jute cultivation is largely restricted in India and Bangladesh constituting about 97%–98% of the global jute production [9]. It flourishes in tropical swamp regions with mugginess of 60%–90% [3, 6, 9]. Gangetic plains, Teesta plains, and Kasi-Mahananda flood-affected plains offer conducive conditions for jute crop [10]. Jute is largely rain fed crop that requires 120 days to develop fully to the height of 3 m–4 m. Jute is a downpour bolstered crop with little requirement for manure or pesticides. Yields are around 2 tons of dry jute fiber per hectare [11]. Jute is one of the most moderate normal strands and considered second just to cotton in sum created and assortment of employments of vegetable fibers. India and Bangladesh are two major producers of jute on the planet, producing 1.9 million tonnes and 1.4 million tonnes of jute, respectively, by FAO 2017 (Table 16.1). Roughly 60% of the all of the world produce of jute are developed in India, with a yearly production of approximately 11,494 bales of jute. West Bengal is the biggest producer of jute in India with over 73% of the jute fiber (8349 thousand bales) and products. Bihar comes at the second spot with 1690 thousand bales parcels of jute created in the year 2016–2017. Territory of Assam involves the third spot with a creation of 823 thousand bales of jute in the year 2016–2017. Odisha comes next in the rundown of top jute creating states with an expected 177.8 thousand bundles of jute, intently pursued by Andhra Pradesh and Telangana with 225 thousand parcels of jute in the year 2016–2017 as per report of 2017 of Food and Agricultural Organization, United Nations [9]. A little measure of jute is likewise created in Uttar Pradesh and furthermore in waterfront locale of Maharashtra [9]. It is a very motivating fact to observe that India is having sovereignty in jute production across the globe by producing 55% of total jute of the world. Bangladesh is also trying to increase the jute production. In the year 2019, the production of jute in Bangladesh was 1,544,000 tons, which

344  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Table 16.1  Annual jute production in the world (FAO 2017). Rank

Country

Annual jute production (tonnes)

1

India

1,931,954.5

2

Bangladesh

1,420,108

3

People’s Republic of China

30,375

4

Uzbekistan

16,229

5

Nepal

11,628.5

6

South Sudan

3,547

7

Zimbabwe

2,595

8

Egypt

2,131

9

Vietnam

809

10

Bhutan

343

Table 16.2  Annual jute production state wise in the India (FAO 2017). Rank

Indian State

Annual jute production (thousand bales)

1

West Bengal

8,349

2

Bihar

1,690

3

Assam

823

4

Andhra Pradesh and Telangana

225

5

Odisha

177.8

6

Meghalaya

86.31

7

Nagaland

40.2

8

Tripura

11

9

Uttar Pradesh

4.5

10

Maharashtra

~2

Golden Fiber Jute  345 was 42.3% of the world production [12]. There are scarcely any different nations, which have noteworthy degrees of jute generation. These nations incorporate China, whose yearly jute creation is assessed to be around 29,628 tonnes. China is additionally one of the world’s biggest purchasers and shippers of the normal fiber. China is the third biggest producer of the jute, and in 2008, its creation was 990 metric tons, which was 3.07% of the world generation and now it is decreased to 0.85%. Other jute producers incorporate Uzbekistan (20,000 tons), Nepal (14,890 tons), and South Sudan (3,300 tons) (Tables 16.1 and 16.2).

16.3 Indian Jute Industry: An Overview of Glitches and Compensations In India, this industry endured a genuine misfortune in 1947 because of the segmentation of the subcontinent [3]. After separation, around 80% of the jute-producing zones went to East Pakistan (Bangladesh), while almost 90% jute plants stayed in India. In 1959, the global interest of jute items diminished generously because of which 112 jute processing plants were shut down. At present, there are just 60 jute-delivering factories in India [2, 7, 13]. The vast majority of these factories are along the Hooghly River, particularly towards the north of Kolkata. The greater part of the jute-based ventures still today is being creating the deep-rooted items, for example, jute sacking and hessian as bundling material and somewhat cover backing. These items in absolute record contribute around 95% of the all-out generation of the business [2, 7, 13]. Just countable enterprises are associated with diversified item advancement process for business purposes. These items are generally overlaid jute texture, geotextile, modern materials, and so on. In India, jute industry that experiences distinctive political obstruction, work issue, and jute plants proprietor is, for the most part, headed by business network instead of business visionaries, as well as deficiency of jute fiber supply because of low rain, which likewise lead against the maintainability of the jute business. Even the companies are lacking on the side of innovative product development, still they are relying on the old traditional product development and procurement [13]. The jute business involves significant place in the Indian economy [14]. The Indian jute industry is an extremely old and dominating in the eastern piece of India. The Government of India has incorporated the jute business for uncommon consideration in its National Common Minimum

346  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Program. It frames a necessary part of the Indian textile industry. Further, the jute business adds to the national exchequer from trades and charges [13, 14]. Although the government is trying to promote the jute products in India (especially as a packing material), but still a lot more are required to form the side of Indian Government in the support of new invention and new technologies development for jute products and its promotion.

16.4 Environmental Aspects of Jute Jute texture displays a great deal of advantages because of its brilliant property and contamination-free condition, and it particularly adds to an economical improvement. Studies have demonstrated that 1 hectare of jute development can assimilate as much as 15 tons of carbon dioxide and discharge 11 tons of oxygen during the jute developing procedure (around 100 days), an advantage for our planet, for a green and practical advancement. Plastic packs are being replaced by jute sacks to keep environment free from contamination. Plastic sacks have been successfully restricted in India and in numerous different nations because of their unsafe segments. Plastic and poly sacks are produced using oil. Use of jute sacks lowers the burden on natural oil reserves. Processing of jute sack requires a smaller amount of space as compare to synthetic sacks. One hectare of field can create considerably more jute fiber than 1 hectare of cotton development. This real estate decrease permits more food crops. Jute is for the most part developed in the regressive zones of India and Bangladesh close to the shore of Bay of Bengal. The structure of jute enterprises in these districts would expand business and improve in reverse rustic and remote zones and subsequently less movement to urban regions. Jute crop requires less manure, herbicide, pesticide, and land in comparison to cotton crop. After a jute yield, leaves and under­ lying foundations of jute plants stay into the field, which have the property to the soil fertility. Jute has higher production level compared to cotton. Incorporating all these positive side of jute, we can say that jute may be the better and less expensive alternative of cotton, just by alleviating to its traditional demerits. During jute crops, numerous supplements are renewed in the field soil, making the field rich to profit the following yield. Every year, a huge number of trees are cut for paper and furniture businesses. Use of jute fiber for paper and furniture can save millions of trees worldwide as well as tackle the issues of soil erosion, floods, and natural life territories. So the jute is having positive impression on environment at one side, and on the other

Golden Fiber Jute  347 side, it can also be a fruitful replacement of different costlier affairs of daily life care products of human being.

16.5 Traditional Applications of Jute Jute is utilized mostly to make packing material and to make sacks and coarse fabric [8]. The strands are additionally woven into drapes, seat covers, rugs, carpets, and hessian material [8–10]. The jute fibers are utilized alone or mixed with different kinds of fiber to make twine and rope. Jute butts, the coarse parts of the bargains, are utilized to make reasonable material. On the other hand, fine strings of jute can be isolated out and made into impersonation silk. As jute filaments are likewise being utilized to make mash and then paper, it can mitigate the worry of unstable tree cutting and further land annihilation, so the economically viable jute can be the most perfect solution of paper industry with environment protection [15]. Jute’s single biggest use, nonetheless, is in sacks and packs, those of better quality being called burlap, or hessian. Burlap packs are utilized to ship and store grain, products of the soil, flour, sugar, creature nourishes, and other farming items. Jute packaging is mandatory for sugar and other fine grains [16]. Top notch jute materials are the chief textures used in tufted rugs and oriental carpets. Jute strands are likewise made into twines and cordages [7, 8]. Today, the jute has been defined as eco-accommodating regular figer with most extreme adaptability going from low-esteem geotextiles to high-­ esteem rugs, brightening, attire [17, 18], composites, upholstery goods, and so on [19]. In a similar line of improvement, Sengupta and Debnath [20, 21] archived jute-based items for upholstery application. They additionally contrasted their created jute-based items and business non-jute comparable items. Debnath et al. created jute and empty ­polyester-mixed built yarn for warm textures, for example, sewed sweater and coat, and they found that the cumbersomeness of the jute-polyester-built yarn is better than jute yarn [17, 18]. One can investigate the significant properties of jute fiber since it has colossal broadening possibility. Points of interest of jute incorporate great protecting and antistatic properties, just as having low warm conductivity and a moderate dampness recover [22]. So the promotion of jute in daily life can support the life towards eco-friendly system, preferment of in house made product, and in resultant, the daily life products will be very cost effective and luxuries at the same time. Besides this, the daily use of jute product can promote the local vendor and product manufacturer, which can ultimately give the benefits to its grower.

348  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

16.6 Scientific Mechanical Applications of Jute The jute fiber is economical, inexhaustible, biodegradable, simple to deal with, and dispensable, just as has great solidarity to weight proportion, which is significant for composite applications. It has high elasticity and low extensibility and guarantees better breathability of textures. Different focal points of jute incorporate great protecting and antistatic properties, moderate dampness recapture, acoustic protecting properties, and production with no skin disturbances. Jute-based composite can be utilized for a wide scope of utilizations [23]. The jute fiber has the mechanical properties as density (1.30–1.45 g/ cm3), tensile strength (393–800 MPa), and elastic modulus (10–30 GPa), which is helpful to supplant engineered fibers in polymer composites [24]. Mixing of polymer and jute can create a very esthetical good structure, and specifically, both reused and new textures produced using jute fiber yarns were found to fundamentally build the Charpy and Izod sway vitality of a polyethylene grid [25, 26]. Concerning the plausibility of utilizing jute fiber composites as ballistic safe material, Wambua et al. researched the presentation of polypropylene network fortified with 46 vol% of jute plain woven [27]. Their composites were either confronted or sandwiched by mellow steel sheets. Regarding vitality ingestion, they reasoned that the sandwiched (steel/composite) have advantage over flawless steel and plain jute composite [27]. Luj et al. examined the ballistic trial of multilayered protective layer with halfway epoxy composite fortified with jute texture [28]. Rajesh and Devakumar assessed the mechanical properties of jute and Kevlar fiber– fortified materials [29]. They inferred that jute fiber can be utilized in all uses of kevlar for the most part in the arrangement of impenetrable vests, vehicle bodies, and so on so as to diminish the kevlar use and the expense of the material. The development of electrically semiconducting multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on jute fiber surfaces was affirmed, which caused the development of jute/epoxy interphases with exceptionally focused MWCNTs [30]. Although there are lot other application of the jute carbon nanotube, which will be further discussed in subsequent section. Chakraborty et al. investigated the impact of jute as a characteristic fiber fortification on the setting and hydration conduct of concrete [31]. They saw that expansion of jute fiber in concrete grid expands the setting time and standard water consistency esteem. The hydration energy of concrete hindered with expansion in jute substance in concrete framework. The delayed setting of these fiber strengthened concrete composites would be

Golden Fiber Jute  349 helpful for applications where the premixed concrete panels are required to be moved from afar off spot to the building site.

16.7 Electrical and Electrochemical Applications of Jute Zequine et al. built up a carbon nanotube productive adaptable supercapacitor via carbonizing plentifully accessible and recyclable jute [32]. A. Dubey et al. have done a wonderful work to make carbon tube by biocharring process of raw jute [33]. The cost of carbon nanotube is very high in the worldwide market because of its explicit applications and superior electrical, mechanical, thermal, and electrochemical applications [34]. The current research is moving towards the abundant and eco-friendly materials because generated technologies by these materials will be very cost effective and environmental benign and especially lot of work is happening in the side of charge storage devices. These materials can be divided in two parts: first is ore-based materials (Iron Pyrite [35–37], Cerium Oxide [38, 39], Molybdenum Sulphide [40], etc.), which is easy to synthesize also, and second is plant and animal generated materials (jute [33], coconut husk [41], corn husk [42], silk cocoon [43], etc.). The researchers have made several charge storage device by these abundant and eco-friendly materials, few of them are Iron Pyrite, Cerium Oxide, Molybdenum Sulphide, and silk cocoon. Similarly for jute, A. Dubey et al. have made a charge storage device which can show 300 F/g capacity even after 10,000 cycle of run [33]. So this application of making jute nitrogen-doped carbon nanotube material by biocharring process and manufacturing the flexible, robust, and higher life cycle charge storage device by jute nitrogen-doped carbon nanotube material can provide revolutionary benefit to the jute farmers. B. Tulachan et al. has performed a very nice research for generating electricity by silk cocoon, which shows a nice step for utilization of ecofriendly animal-generated fiber [44]. The A. Kumar et al. group has shown the application in which the jute and corn hair can generate electricity by using waste cooking vapor [45]. In this research, they have shown how much this application is useful for village people, as the manufacturing process of making this device is very simple and it is using only the house materials for the energy generation. Further, the researchers are trying to blend multiple materials with jute to improve the application of charge generation and charge storage [46]. This application can provide the new face of current design research for jute innovative applications. Sengupta and Sengupta estimated electrical opposition of jute canvas, hessian, and cross-laid needle-punched nonwoven fabrics [47]. Effect of

350  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles measure length, voltage, dampness, fiber direction, temperature, and territory thickness was examined and dissected. It was seen that electrical obstruction increments with the expansion in check length and diminishes with the increment in input voltage, dampness, temperature, and region thickness. Length-wise electrical resistance was higher than width-wise obstruction of jute needle-punched nonwoven texture. All the above wonder will structure specialized materials out of jute where it tends to be utilized as electrical protector. Jute strands [48] functionalization with silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) was applied onto jute textures by two diverse manageable techniques: bright (UV) photoreduction and by utilizing polyethylene glycol (PEG) as a diminishing specialist and stabilizer. The resistivity esteem acquired by the twopoint test strategy for the jute texture without functionalization is about 1.5 × 107 Ωm, though after NPs functionalization, it diminished right around multiple times, arriving at an estimation of 1.0 × 103 Ωm. This accomplishment can be a tremendous potential for use in savvy material composites.

16.8 Geotextile Application of Jute Jute geotextile is one of the most significant enhanced jute items. Jute geotextiles is advantageous since it has high dampness retaining limit, flexibility, biodegradability, and economical. It tends to be applied in numerous fields like structural building, soil disintegration control, street asphalt development, and insurance of waterway banks [49]. The biodegradability of jute geotextile helps in the speedy regrowth of uprooted vegetation by mixing with the dirt, expanding its porousness, holding the suitable moistness as «mulch», and making a miniaturized scale atmosphere that is helpful for vegetative development. Biodegradability is considered by certain specialists to be a hindrance. Be that as it may, despite everything, it has a generally excellent future as it has a compelling life expectancy of two season cycles, which is adequate for normal combination of the dirt by framing a merged layer known as «channel cake». Biodegradability of jute geotextile is, in this way, not a disheartening variable. It is generally utilized in street development [49, 50].

16.9 Agro Textile Application of Jute Jute agro material is a characteristic texture made of jute fiber, which can be utilized to hold soil dampness, stifle the weed development, and

Golden Fiber Jute  351 capture the dirt misfortune especially in regions helpless against soil disintegration. Jute agro textiles is an eco-accommodating material made of jute fiber containing 85% cellulose, 11.5% lignin, 1.6% debris, 1% nitrogenous compound, and 0.9% different constituents. It has wide application in insurance of banks and trenches, incline the board, street reinforcing, dike adjustment, and so on. There are two sort of jute agro materials, in particular, open work woven ‘jat’ and nonwoven ‘jat’, which can be use in horticulture in different ways [51]. Geotextiles or agro textiles mulches, porous textures produced using biodegradable materials like jute and different textures are best in adjusting soil condition, smothering weed, and expanding crop yield [52]. Jute agro material, produced using 100% common bast fiber, has a similar potential to improve crop yield just as soil fruitfulness and profitability status. Utilization of jute agro material mulches expanded the yield of capsicum and pointed gourd [54] and that of sweet lime and turmeric [53] contrasted with control where no mulching materials were utilized. Adhikari et al. [55] led a field analyze at the focal research ranch under Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Gayespur, Nadia locale of West Bengal to explore the impact of different quality (gram per meter square) of jute agro materials on yield and changes of soil properties of tomato. Five treatments mixed, viz., T1-800 GSM jute agro materials, T2-600 GSM jute agro materials, T3-400 GSM jute agro materials, T4-200 GSM jute agro materials and T5 control (rancher’s training), were spread before transplanting of tomato seedlings alongside the degrees of N-P-K at 20-40-40 Kg/ha in randomize square plan with four replications. The yield of tomato essentially expanded with the use of every one of the various kinds of medications over control (rancher’s training). The outcome indicated that the diminished mass thickness and expanded porosity under all medicines additionally improved the dampness maintenance limit in soil. They additionally improved dampness use proficiency. Better collection and their adjustment just as tomato yield happened with applied T2-600 GSM jute agro material medicines. So in resultant the jute can help in a very potential way in agro textile and geotextile applications.

16.10 Medical Textiles Applications of Jute Utilization of materials in the field of medication is perhaps the most established use of technical textiles, (meditech) beginning with bandages and healthcare items has now ventured into multi-billion-dollar industry with items running from dynamic material dressings for wound healing

352  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles to generation of implantable scaffolds for tissue recovery and from fake organs to portable and off-site health monitoring frameworks on attire [56]. Jute has a moderately high dampness recapturing limit (14%). Furthermore, its assimilation can be expanded by decreasing crystallinity of it. At the point when jute and jute items are treated with sodium hydroxide and fluid smelling salts in a specific technique, its assimilation can be extended numerous folds. Jute is a composite fiber, hydrogen bonds assume an indispensable job in deciding its growing and assimilation limit. At the point when jute and jute items are synthetically altered by woolenization (mercerisation/slack cansticization), their fluid holding limit increments commonly. This retention intensity of jute fiber relies upon capillarity, dissemination, and extremity of the filaments. This synthetically altered jute can be utilized in the generation of different therapeutic materials and medicinal services items. Medicinal materials are a huge and quickly creating division where both woven and nonwoven systems are applied for the generation of different spongy materials, for example, clean cushions, nappies or diapers, and window hangings [57, 58].

16.11 Jute as a Replacement of Wood Cutting a tree is not at all an option for getting household things done. In a daily use everywhere, we can see the implication of wood is happening; in resultant day by day, the cutting of tree is happening to fulfil the need of wood made products. So in the quest of replacement of wood, the jute can be a very potential material. Timber assets are consistently drained, while need is expanding. As indicated by Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the necessity of Indian enterprises for wood is around 12 million tons, while supply is just 5.7 million tons [59]. Jute Stick board falls under the industrial grouping of cellulosic overlaid materials such as pressed wood, chip board, hard board, fiberboard, and so forth [60, 61]. Das, Dey, and Pandey [62] depicted procedure for the usage of jute stick, in the arrangement of an assortment of sheets, usable for in furniture, table tops, building materials, parcelling, ceilings, and so forth. Jute stick, an agro-waste, has colossal degree for usage in the creation of assortments of molecule sheets at a lower cost than from wood. Goswami et al. [63] arranged jute-fiber glass-molecule board composite with shellac containing sheet forming compound. Overlay of the compressed wood and particle board was additionally attempted with jute-fiber glass, which yielded improved mechanical properties. Application of jute in this area will be

Golden Fiber Jute  353 very nice steps towards the protection of unnecessary cutting of tree and in consequence a big step towards the sustainability.

16.12 Jute Paper Pulp Jute could discover energizing new applications as an earth cordial crude material in paper production [64–67]. Researchers at the Central Pulp and Paper Research Institute (CPPRI) in Saharanpur have found jute mash as nearly in the same class as wood mash for making paper. Jute has every one of the traits of value paper, which are long, thick-walled cumbersome fibers and low cellulose and lignin content. Investigators accept that if jute can be formed into an industrially reasonable crude material for paper production, it could rescue the paper business of a crude material emergency. With expanding interest for paper and diminishing woodland assets, paper makers are turning out to be increasingly more subject to imported waste paper and mash. It was found that in 2015, crude material imports cost to the nation was $2,000. Jute has been accepted better than bagasse, which is presently the most widely utilized agro-based crude material for making paper. Bagasse fiber is shorter and requires the expansion of other long strands to make quality paper, cigarette tissues, diapers, and protection and oil verification papers. Besides, pulping bagasse is expensive. Jute mash doesn’t need to be dyed with chlorine, which creates the poisonous compound dioxin. Maruf J. et al. [68] did similar investigations of retted jute fiber, jute cuttings, and jute caddis in creating dissolving and paper grade mash. Pulping of these crude materials was done in soda anthraquinone process. Higher mash yield and lower kappa number were seen in jute fiber than that of jute cuttings and caddis. Jute fiber mash demonstrated preferable papermaking properties over jute cuttings and caddis. The tear list of these crude materials was like softwood. The bleachability of jute fiber mash was likewise superior to that of cuttings and caddis. Again, it is an application of saving the tree and step towards the environmental sustainability.

16.13 Bioenergy Application of Jute Jute stick, agro waste, and jute caddies, factory squander are potential crude materials for age of biovitality. Jute stick, the woody biomass comprises around 40% of the green plant with a yearly creation of 4.0 million tons; though jute industry creates 40,000 tons of handling waste as result,

354  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

te

Pa p

er

normally known as jute caddies. Both jute stick and jute caddies are generally utilized as fills for cooking in rustic network and feed material in boilers in jute plants for direct ignition [69]. Jute stick can be utilized for bio-oil creation utilizing a cutting edge innovation. The bio-oil can be utilized in different vitality divisions as fluid fuel. Many pilot plants particularly in Europe have just been started for bio-oil generation, in spite of the fact that they have restricted biomass assets [70]. Biomass has consistently been a significant vitality hotspot for the nation considering the advantages it offers [71]. It is sustainable, broadly accessible, and carbon impartial, and can possibly give huge work in the provincial territories. Biomass is equipped for giving firm vitality. About 32% of the all of essential vitality use in the nation is as yet gotten from biomass. Service of new and renewable energy has started various projects for advancement of productive advances for its utilization in different divisions to guarantee induction of most extreme advantages. Biomass control and cogeneration program are actualized with the principle target of advancing innovations for ideal utilization of nation’s biomass assets for matrix control age and hostage control generation [72].

Jute Plywood

Ju

Bio Energy

Ap Me pl dic ica al tio ns

Jute Geo Textile

E St ner or gy ag e

Energy Generation

ro Ag e te til Ju Tex

Jute Application (India covers 55% total production of Golden texture fibrous crop Jute)

Figure 16.1  Applications of jute: Jute is having application in all innovative areas starting from energy generation to medical applications.

Golden Fiber Jute  355 Bioenergy frameworks open doors for nations with land assets appropriate for vitality crop development to build up a national wellspring of sustainable power source income generation [73]. Figure 16.1 depicts the applications coverage of Jute.

16.14 Value Addition of Jute Fibers 16.14.1 Blending Process in Jute Jute can be mixed with different fibers, both engineered and normal, and acknowledges cellulosic dye classes such as natural, basic, vat, sulphur, reactive, and pigment dyes. In request to accomplish the best usage of the positive properties of jute fiber and to decrease its negative traits to the extent practicable. Blending is done to bestow extravagant impact, diminish cost of final result, discover appropriate admixture of characteristic, and compensate the scarcity of raw materials [74]. The stapled or stretch broken jute fiber has been mixed with cotton, ramie, and flax, carded, drawn, and spun in cotton and woollen spinning system for upholstery and outfits [75–81]. Unique systems were produced for preparing jute and pineapple leaf strands mix (Ananas comosus) in jute hardware. Mixing of pineapple leaf strands with jute improves the nature of mixed yarns. A base 10%–15% pineapple leaf fiber in the mix can deliver a better yarn than the jute fiber alone. White jute, tossa jute, and kenaf were mixed independently with 75 and half of banana sheath fiber (Musa sapientum) at the jute finisher card. In spite of the fact that yarn quality weakened insignificantly with the expansion in level of banana (trunk sheath) fiber in the mix, the jute-banana fiber mixed yarn made with reasonable mix proportion could effectively be utilized as hessian weft and sacking twist [75, 82]. Ganguly, P. K. et al. [82] analyzed the mechanical conduct of jute and polypropylene mixed needle-punched textures. Cross-laid needle-punched nonwoven textures were set up from 100% jute and mixes of jute and polypropylene having jute as a significant constituent. Mixing of polypropylene with jute made the nonwoven textures bulkier, more grounded, harder, and progressively adaptable. Basu et al. [83] prepared jute—high-density polyethylene (HDPE)–blended geotextile samples using HDPE slit film in the machine course and jute yarn in the cross bearing for use in the development of unpaved provincial streets.

356  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

16.14.2 Chemical Treatment Process in Jute Jute treatments with sodium hydroxide swell the fiber and make it appear like wool [84]. Chemically modified jute fibers are conceivably helpful as characteristic support in composite materials. Roy et al. [85] treated jute fibers with 0.25%–1.0% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for 5–48 h. Soluble base treatment improved the rigidity and elongation at break by 82% and 45%, separately, however diminished the hydrophilicity by 50.5% and the width of the fibers by 37%. The mechanical properties of composites like pliable and bowing qualities expanded because of surface adjustment. Among all alterations, antacid treatment and cyanoethylation brought about improved properties of the composites. SEM examinations demonstrated that the surface adjustments improved the fiber-network association [86, 87]. Khan and Ahmad [88] artificially altered the normally endured jute filaments and yarns utilizing different treatments. The effects of dewaxing with hot benzene, bleaching with sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) and hydrogen peroxide, and delignification by sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide treatments were studied. The splendor of jute was seen as improved most adequately with least loss of rigidity by bleaching with H2O2. The fluorescence of jute is credited fundamentally to the shades but present in low fixations and to the lignin. Different novel natural fiber such as Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus) [89] is close to jute fiber lengthwise. Lotus also has long line fibers similar to jute and can be investigated by researchers to apply different techniques of chemical treatment and blending to get fruitful results. A big number of Indian agencies are working for upliftment of jute in India as well as in the world; the agencies are Centre Research Institute for Jute & Allied Fibers, Gunny Traders Association, Indian Jute Industries Research Association, Jute Manufacturers Development Council, National Institute of Natural Fiber Engineering and Technology, and many other small and larger agencies. Use of jute region must be expanded. India needs to take a shot at quality by embracing new innovations. The government has to provide a big support to jute industry and its grower because the jute is a pride for nation. There should be a different and very innovative vision for jute industry and different product development by it.

16.15 Conclusion India is having domination across the world in jute growing and traditional jute product manufacturing. At one side, the jute is having the wide

Golden Fiber Jute  357 variety of traditional products design, and on the other side, it is having a lot of innovative and modern scientific products design as well. A lot of significant scientific applications can be observed by jute which is providing a special privilege over other fibrous material. As the jute is largely growing on the remote areas or developing areas of India, it can provide direct benefit to these rural people. If the design culture and tradition moves towards the more monetary applications such as carbon tube manufacturing by jute, energy generation and storage by jute, jute herbal use, jute medical utensils, jute geotextile, jute agro textile, jute paper, jute board, jute wall decoration, etc., it can deliver direct uplift to the jute grower economical condition. And if the common person is able to apply these applications in their daily life, then it could be a big move towards self-sustainability. As India is very rich in terms of jute cultivation, the proper channelization of jute application can revamp its older pride.

Acknowledgement We acknowledge all those persons who directly or indirectly involve in collecting the data.

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360  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 38. Dubey, A., Himanshi, J., Pandey, M., Dubey, M.M., Verma, S., Roy, M., Singh, S.K., Bhargava, K., Philip, D., Sarkar, S., Das, M., An eco-friendly, low power charge storage device from bio-tolerable nano cerium oxide electrodes for bioelectrical and biomedical applications. Biomed. Phys. Eng. Express, 4, 2, 025041, 2018. 39. Arya, A., Sethy, N., Gangwar, A., Bhargava, N., Dubey, A., Roy, M., Srivastava, G., Singh, S.K., Das, M., Bhargava, K., Cerium oxide nanozyme modulate the ‘exercise’ redox biology of skeletal muscle. Mater. Res. Express, 4, 055401(1–13), 2017. 40. Gusain, M., Dubey, A., Das, M., Singh, S.K., Facial surfactant-free hydrothermal synthesis of MoS2 microflower and its effect in electrochemical properties. J.  Solid State Chem., 274, 58–63, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssc. 2019.03.010. 41. Jain, A., Aravindan, V., Jayaraman, S. et al., Activated carbons derived from coconut shells as high energy density cathode material for Li-ion capacitors. Sci. Rep., 3, 3002, 2013. 42. Song, S. et al., Facile self-templating large scale preparation of biomass-­ derived 3D hierarchical porous carbon for advanced supercapacitors. J. Mater. Chem. A, 3, 18154–18162, 2015. 43. Jangir, H., Pandey, M., Jha, R., Dubey, A., Verma, S., Philip, D., Sarkar, S., Das, M., Sequential entrapping of Li and S in a conductivity cage of N-doped reduced graphene oxide supercapacitor derived from silk cocoon: A hybrid Li–S-silk supercapacitor. Appl. Nanosci., 8, 3, 379–393, 2018. 44. Tulachan, B., Meena, S. et al., Electricity from the Silk Cocoon Membrane. Sci. Rep., 4, 5434, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep05434. 45. Kumar, A., Jash, A., Dubey, A. et al., Water mediated dielectric polarizability and electron charge transport properties of high resistance natural fibers. Sci. Rep., 8, 2726, 2018. 46. Roy, M., Dubey, A., Singh, S. et al., Soft magnetic memory of silk cocoon membrane. Sci. Rep., 6, 29214, 2016. 47. Sengupta, S. and Sengupta, A., Electrical resistance of jute fabrics. Indian J. Fiber Text. Res., 37, 55–59, 2012. 48. Ferreira, D., Ferreira, A., Fangueiro, R., Searching for Natural Conductive Fibrous Structures via a Green Sustainable Approach Based on Jute Fibers and Silver Nanoparticles. Polymers, 10, 1, 63, 2018. 49. Dutta, U., Application of Jute Geotextiles. J. Nat. Fibers, 4, 3, 67–82, 2007. 50. Choudhary, N., Jute Geotextiles as Substitute to Synthetic Geotextiles. Adv. Mater. Res., 85, 89, 821–822, 2013. 51. Datta, M. et al., ICAR- Jute agrotextiles: Its uses in agriculture, Trpura Publication, pp. 1–6, 2005, http://tripuraicar.nic.in/publication/AGRICULTURE%2002/ JUTE%20AGROTEXTILE.pdf. 52. Manna, K., Kundu, M.C., Saha, B., Ghosh, G.K., Effect of nonwoven jute agrotextile mulch on soil health and productivity of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) in lateritic soil. Environ. Monit. Assess., 190, 2, 82–92, 2018.

Golden Fiber Jute  361 53. Saha, B., Prasad, L.K., Harris Abul, A., Sikka, A.K., Batta, R.A., Effect of geo-textile mulch on soil moisture, temperature and yield of vegetable crops grown in planes of Bihar. Int. J. Trop. Agric., 24, 1-2, 153–157, 2006. 54. Nag, D., Choudhury, T.K., Debnath, S., Ganguly, P.K., Ghosh, S.K., Efficient management of soil moisture with jute non-woven as mulch for cultivation of sweet lime and turmeric in red lateritic zone. J. Agric. Eng., 45, 3, 59–62, 2008. 55. Tarafdar, P.K. and De, S.K., Efficient use of jute agro textiles as soil conditioner to increase tomato productivity. J. Crop Weed, 14, 1, 122–125, 2018. 56. Islam, Md., Biochemistry, medicinal and food values of Jute (Corchorus capsularis L and C. olitorius L) leaf: A review. Int. J. Enhance. Res. Sci. Technol. Eng., 2, 11, 135–144, 2013. 57. Olufemi, H., Ahoton, A. et al., Ethnobotanical Knowledge of Jute (Corchorus olitorius L.) in Benin. European J. Med. Plants, 26, 1–11, 2018. 58. Al-Snafi, A.E., The contents and pharmacological importance of Corchorus capsularis- A review. IOSR J. Pharm., 6, 3, 58–63, 2016. 59. Singh, S.P., Proc National Seminar on Building Materials - Their Science and Technology, 111, 14, 1–4, 1982. 60. S.N. Pandey, A.K. Mehata, H.M.A. Tanhankar, Process for the manufacture of particle boards from cotton plant stalks, Indian Patent No. 145886, 1977. 61. Pandey, S.N. and Mehta, A.K., Particle boards from cotton stalks. Res. Ind., 25, 2, 67–70, 1980. 62. Das, R.N., Dey, A., Pandey, S.N., Particle boards from jute stick. Biol. Wastes, 20, 309–313, 1987. 63. Goswami, D.N., Ansari, M.F., Day, A., Prasad, N., Jute-fiber glass-plywood/ particle board composite. Indian J. Chem. Technol., 15, 4, 325–331, 2008. 64. Nahar, N., Studies on carbohydrates in jute and pigeon pea, p. 42, Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences, Uppsala, 1987. 65. Akhtaruzzamen, A.F.M. and Shafi, M., Pulping of jute. Tappi J., 78, 2, 106, 1993. 66. Sarwar Jahan, M., Al-Maruf, A., Quaiyyum, M.A., Comparative Studies of Pulping of Jute Fiber, Jute Cutting and Jute Caddis. Bangladesh J. Sci. Ind. Res., 42, 4, 425–434, 2007. 67. Roy, T.K., Mohindru, V.K., Behera, N.C., Kulkarni, A.G., Prasad, A., Jute for speciality pulp. IPPTA, 10, 3, 81–86, 1998. 68. Jahan, M.S., Al-Maruf, A., Quaiyyum, M.A., Comparative studies of pulping of jute fiber, jute cutting and jute caddis. Bangladesh J. Sci. Ind. Res., 42, 4, 425–434, 2007. 69. Nayak, L., Ray, D.P., Shambhu, V.B., Appropriate technologies for conversion of jute biomass into energy. Int. J. Emerging Technol. Adv. Eng., 3, 3, 570–574, 2013. 70. Asadullah, M., Rahman, M.A., Ali, M.M., Motin, M.A., Sultan, M.B., Alam, M.R., Rahman, M.S., Jute stick pyrolysis for bio-oil production in fluidized bed reactor. Bioresour. Technol., 99, 1, 44–50, 2008. 71. Hassan, M.K., Pelkonen, P., Pappinen, A., Assessment of bioenergy potential from major crop residues and wood fuels in Bangladesh. J. Basic Appl. Sci. Res., 1, 9, 1039–1051, 2011.

362  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 72. Wang, L., Guan, H. et al., Jute-based porous biomass carbon composited by Fe3O4 nanoparticles as an excellent microwave absorber. J. Alloys Compd., 803, 1119–1126, 2019. 73. Ferdous, J., Praveen, M. et al., Biofuel from jute stick by pyrolysis technology. AIP Conf. Proc., 1851, 020088, 2017. 74. Pandey, R. and Dayal, R., Value Addition of Flax (Linum usitatissimum) Fibers. Curr. Adv. Agric. Sci., 1, 1, 41–43, 2009. 75. Basu, G. and Roy, A.N., Blending of Jute with Different Natural Fibers. J. Nat. Fibers, 4, 4, 13–29, 2008. 76. S.O. Perum, B.N. Iliev, H.A. Zoneva, B.L. Ilieva, Method for the production of fine (hemp) jute yarns. Priority application: Bulgaria, Patent classification D01G EP 0, 129, 724, 1985. 77. Srinathan, B., Sathe, A.S., Parthasarathy, M.S., Sundaram, V., Spinning of ­cotton-jute blends on the cotton system. Indian J. Text. Res., 3, 72–75, 1978. 78. Bhattacharya, G.K. and Gupta, N.P., Jute-cotton blend khadi-A promising horizon. J. Text. Assoc., 1, 264–268, 1990. 79. Doraiswami, I. and Chellamani, P., Jute/cotton blends. Asian Text. J., 1, 8, 53–56, 1993. 80. Gokarneshan, N., Performance evaluation of juco-rotor Yarns. J. Text. Assoc., 63, 2, 67–70, 2002. 81. Dey, S.K. and Bhattacharya, S.K., Prospective Use of Ramie Fiber in Blends with Jute, in: Proc 24th IJIRA Technological Conference, p. 123, 2002. 82. Ganguly, P.K., Sengupta, S., Samajpati, S., Mechanical behaviour of jute and polypropylene blended needle-punched fabrics. Indian J. Fiber Text. Res., 24, 1, 34–40, 1999. 83. Basu, G., Roy, A.N., Bhattacharya, S.K., Ghosh, S.K., Construction of unpaved rural road using jute synthetic blended woven geotextile – A case study. Geotext. Geomembr., 27, 506–512, 2009. 84. Pandey, R. and Dayal, R., FIax-Jute and Flax-Cotton Blended Fabric. Asian Text. J., 11, 7, 51–55, 2003. 85. Roy, A., Chakraborty, S., Kundu, S.P., Basak, R.K., Majumder, S.B., Adhikari, B., Improvement in mechanical properties of jute fibers through mild alkali treatment as demonstrated by utilisation of the Weibull distribution model. Bioresour. Technol., 107, 222–228, 2012. 86. Saha, P., Manna, S., Chowdhury, S.R., Sen, R., Roy, D., Adhikari, B., Enhancement of tensile strength of lignocellulosic jute fibers by alkali-steam treatment. Bioresour. Technol., 101, 3182–3187, 2010. 87. Ray, D., Sarkar, B.K., Basak, R.K., Rana, A.K., Study of the thermal behaviour of alkali-treated jute fibers. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 85, 2594–2599, 2002. 88. Khan, F. and Ahmad, S.R., Chemical modification and spectroscopic analysis of jute fiber. Polym. Degrad. Stab., 52, 3, 335–340, 1996. 89. Pandey, R., Sinha, M.K., Dubey, A., Cellulosic fibers from Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) peduncle. J. Nat. Fibers, 17, 2, 298–309, 2020.

17 Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes from Plant Wastes for Textiles Shahid Adeel1*, Nimra Amin2, Fazal-ur-Rehman2†, Tanvir Ahmad3, Fatima Batool4 and Atya Hassan5 Department of Chemistry, Govt. College University Faisalabad, Pakistan Department of Applied Chemistry, Govt. College University Faisalabad, Pakistan 3 Department of Statistics, Govt. College University Faisalabad, Pakistan 4 Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan 5 Department of Chemistry Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science and Technology, Karachi, Gulshan-e-Iqbal Campus Karachi, Pakistan 1

2

Abstract

Sustainability is nowadays the global demand due to the spread of awareness about the lethal effects of synthetic dyes and their dyed products. The revival of natural dyes is due to the global community who is not only the health-conscious but also keen to save their cultural heritage. For isolation of these dyes, many dyes yielding plants rich in coloring matter have been processed by the traditional isolation method. But owing to cost, time, energy & labor these methods have been replaced with modern tools such as radiation methods. This chapter will deal with the encapsulation of functional molecule (colorant) from Arjun bark, Neem bark, harmal seeds, rose petals & licorice root using modern tools and their application onto sustainable chemical and bio-mordanted natural fabrics. The addition of biomordants will open a new way for researchers to improve the coloring behavior of these potent isolates for fabric dyeing. Hopefully, this chapter will give an overview of isolation of colorant from plants for fabric dyeing to traders, academicians, and consumers and will give a possible solution to overcome the problems of low isolation yield & poor fastness of natural dyes through these eco-friendly modern tools. Keywords:  Arjun, bio-mordant, gamma radiation, harmal, licorice, neem, microwave, sustainability, ultrasonic radiation *Corresponding author: [email protected] † Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (363–390) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

363

364  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

17.1 Introduction Natural dyes which are obtained without any intense processing are called natural dyes. Natural colors have become a necessary part of applied fields [1, 2]. Plants, insects, fungi, algae, and minerals are a big source of natural colorants. Plant parts such as bark, leaves, flower, stem, root, shoot, fruit, rind, hulls, and husks serve as a natural dye source. These bio dyes of natural origin are gaining worldwide fame as dyes have not only excellent anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-deodorant, antifungal characteristics, but also cover with the spectrum of colors with bright hues [3]. Around the globe, these colorants have also a special place in textiles as these dyes no disposal problem and also there is no need for special care of their isolation and utilization [4]. Due to such benefits now, these dyes have found their excellent place information about textile, food, flavor, cosmetics, and revival of cultural heritage [5]. Hence, the revival of natural dyes is due to their aesthetic and soothing nature around the global village.

17.2 Classification of Natural Dyes Natural dyes are classified in various ways mainly depending on their structure, source, and color that has been given in (Figures 17.1 and 17.2) [6].

17.3 Medicinal Uses of Natural Colorants 17.3.1 Alizarin This colorant is isolated from Rubiatinctorum L. and Rubiacordifolia L. Alizarin (Figure 17.3) extracted from this plant is well known as turkey red. The plant is the basic source of different naphthoquinone pigments such as alkannin and its derivatives. The phytochemicals present in this plant possess anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-leishmanial, anti-proliferative, and cytotoxic properties. It has been used to cure urinary and menstrual disorders and its extract is effective in the treatment of kidney and bladder stones, etc. [7].

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  365

Natural Dyes

Source

Structure

Color

Plants

Minerals

Animals

Cochineal

Cinnabar

Flowers

Seeds

Barks

Leaves

Lac

Kermes

Roots Alkanan

Merigold Indigo

Harmal

Henna Arjun

Anatto

Neem

Figure 17.1  Classification of natural dyes [6].

17.3.2 Berberine Berberine is extracted from Berberis L., Berberineasistata, Mahonia Nutt, and Hydrastis Canadensis L. having a yellow color. Among the several compounds, Berberine (Figure 17.4) is the main constitutes containing various pharmacological actions. It’s a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid, occurs as an active constituent in numerous medicinal plants, and has an array of pharmacological properties. It is used as a tonic, alterative, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic, used in the treatment of chronic rheumatism, diarrhea, jaundice, skin diseases, syphilis, and urinary disorders. It has been used in Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine due to having anti-angiogenic, anti-clastogenic, anti-cancer, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, anti-rheumatic,

366  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Natural Dyes

Indigo

Stucture

Color Red

Anthraquinone Blue

Indigofera tinctoria Alpha-napthaquinone

Lawsonia inermis Anthocyanin

Bignonia chica Crocus sativus

Caroteniods

Carthamus tinctorious

Rubia tinctorum Acacia nilotica Flavons

Yellow

Orange Punica granatum

Reseda luteola Dihydropyran Paubrasilia echinata

Bixa orellana

Black color

Brown color Coccuslacca Catechu Green

Tectona grandis

Figure 17.2  Classification of natural dyes based on structure and color [6].

Alizarin

Figure 17.3  Chemical structure of Alizarin.

antiprotozoal, and anti-trachoma activity also several disorders including cardiological, metabolic, neurological, and problems [8–10].

17.3.3 Bixin Bixin (Figure 17.5) is extracted from Bixaorellana L. popularly known as “urucum”. It has many advantages in medicines. It acts as an Aphrodisiac,

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  367 Berberine H2 C O

CH2

O

NH

H2C CHO

OCH3 OCH3 Aldehyde form H2 C O

CH2

O

N

H 2C

OH

OCH3 OCH3 Amonimum form

Figure 17.4  Chemical structure of Berberine.

COOH

H3COOC Bixin

Figure 17.5  Chemical structure of Bixin.

antibiotic, blood diseases, cold, cardiotonic, and cough and cleanses blood used in treatment of bronchitis, burns, diarrhea, diabetes, diuretic, blood sugar, dysentery, digestive, eye inflammation, expectorant, Gonorrhea, headache, hepatitis, hypotensive, heartburn, insect repellant, pulmonary, respiratory, sore throat, sunscreen, stomach distress, gastric ulcers, laxative, labor pains, and wound healing. Also, it has anti-inflammatory,

368  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles anti-bacterial, anti-parasitic, anti-pruritic, anti-hepatic activity, increases urination, lowers blood pressure, stimulates digestion, and reduces fever used to cure and stomach discomfort. The pulp, which includes the seed, is used for soft drinks and febrifuge also used from ultraviolet radiation [11, 12].

17.3.4 Brazilein Caesalpiniaviolacea L. (brazilin) is a plant of Leguminosae family, commonly known as Brazil or Sappan wood. It is distributed in Southeast Asia and its dried heartwood has been used as a traditional ingredient of food and has a wide variety of medicinal properties. Brazilian (Figure  17.6) is the main coloring component of the brazilin plant. It has anti-acne, anti-allergic, antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, antithirst, anti-tumor, anti-photoaging, hypoglycemic, hepatoprotective, analgesic effects [13–15].

17.3.5 Carotenoids The most abundant natural pigment available in nature is carotenoids; these bioactive compounds obtained from different sources such as β-carotene (green leafy plants, several vegetables, and certain fruits), Canthaxanthin (mushrooms), b-Cryptoxanthin (Flowers petals and several fruits), Fucoxanthin (brown algae, seaweeds), Lycopene (Figure 17.7a) (tomatoes), Lutein (Figure 17.7b) (spinach, carrot), Zeaxanthin (Figure 17.7c)

HO

O

OH

HO Brazilin

Figure 17.6  Chemical structure of Brazilin.

OH

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  369 CH3

H3C CH3

CH3

CH3

Lycopene (a) H3C

CH3

H3C

CH3

HO H3C

HO

CH3

CH3

CH3

Luetin (b) CH3

CH3

CH3

H 3C H3C

CH3

Zaezanthin (c)

CH3 OH

H 3C

CH3

CH3 CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH3 OH

CH3

Figure 17.7  Chemical structure of Lycopene (a), Luetin (b), and Zeaxanthin (c).

(corn, saffron, wolfberries), and Violaxanthin (brown algae, pansies) Carotenoids have good effect on human health, such as pro-vitamin A, and exhibit antioxidant and pro-oxidant, antiaging, anticancer (lung cancer), anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, and antihapatic effect; it is also used to enhance the bone growth, and reproduction, cure cardiovascular and many chronic diseases, such as help to normalized the calcium levels in the body by ability of having vitamin D. It also acts as a stimulant and stimulate the production of saliva and stomach acid which enhances the digestion process, also used in the treatment of headache, itchy skin, fatigue, hypervitaminosis, liver damage, loss of hair, appetite lumbago rheumatism and neuralgia, and vomiting. It maintains the surface linings of eye and respiratory, urinary, and intestinal tracts and prevents the body from bacterial infection, the risk of developing diabetes reduced, and fights against Alzheimer’s disease by protecting nerve cells from deterioration by using mixed carotenoid supplement along with vitamins C and E [16–19].

17.3.6 Carminic Acid Carminic acid is derived from DactylopiuscoccusCosta, D. confuses Cockerell, and D. indicus Green. Carminic acid (Figure 17.8) is used in

370  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles O

OH HO

OH

O

OH

HO

HO

OH

O

OH

O

CH3

Carminic acid

OH

Figure 17.8  Chemical structure of Carminic acid.

pharmaceutical products. In Chinese and Greek community, carminic acid used as medicine because their extracts are used to cure many diseases such as anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-fungal, as well as anti-bacterial and hemolytic activities [20, 21].

17.3.7 Carotene Carotene (Figure 17.9) is isolated from Daucuscaota var. Sativa Haffm. It is used as a colorant in food and ingested drugs. A component of most carotenoid-containing foods and is found in fruits and vegetables is a well-known nutrient exhibiting pro-vitamin A activity. This compound is precursor of vitamin A, which is well known to capable of preventing serious eye diseases, such as night blindness, anti-oxidant and pro-­oxidant, anti-cancer, enhancement of immune system, cardiovascular disease, age-related macular degeneration, cataract formation, anti-obesity, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes, has a stimulatory effect on bone formation and an inhibitory effect on bone reabsorption in humans, which is beneficial H3C CH3

CH3

CH3 H3C

CH3 CH3

Alpha-Carotene

Figure 17.9  Chemical structure of Alpha-Carotene.

CH3

CH3

CH3

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  371 in menopausal woman, Carateniods use for lung cancer in smokers and workers exposed to asbestos [16, 22, 23].

17.3.8 Crocetin and Crocin Crocetin (Figure 17.10a) is a natural Apo carotenoid dicarboxylic acid that is present in the crocus flower and Gardenia Jasminoides (fruits). Crocin (Figure 17.10b) is also one of the few naturally occurring carotenoid chemical ingredients easily soluble in water, which is primarily responsible for the strong color imparting characteristics of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Its pharmaceutical uses are to enhance the memory, for developing happy mood, loss the body weight, anti-cancerous, ant-cardiac, anticonvulsant, anti-catarrhal, anti-oxidant, anti-depressant, antispasmodic, anti-­ hypertensive, used to treat the atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s, aphrodisiac, alopecia, colon adenocarcinoma, diabetes, diaphoretic, depression, eupeptic, insomnia, leukemia, nerve sedative, ovarian carcinoma, Parkinson disease, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic, and emmenagogue medicinal properties [24].

17.3.9 Curcumin Curcumin (Figure 17.11) is extracted from Curcuma longa (Turmeric). Curcumin is used on a large scale in the medicine industry. It is used in the treatment of various diseases such as bronchitis, itchy skin, fibromyalgia, leprosy, lung infection, menstrual problems, and recovery after surgery and prevents from the blockage of arteries that cause a heart attack. It has

CH3

CH3 COOH

HOOC CH3

CH3

(a)

CH3

CH3

O-gentiobiose

O

O CH3

O-gentiobiose

CH3

(b)

Figure 17.10  Chemical structure of Crocetin (a) and Crocin (b).

372  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles H3C

CH3 O

O

HO

OH

O

O

Curcumin

Figure 17.11  Chemical structure of Curcumin.

anti-cancer activity, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-­ oxidant properties. It also acts as an antiseptic for wounds healing [25, 26].

17.3.10 Ellagic Acid It is extracted from Terminilaarjuna, which belongs to the Fabaceae family. The main coloring constitute is Ellagic acid (Figure 17.12). It has medicinal importance because it can cure many diseases such as asthma, cardiac problem, dysentery, skin and wound eruptions, red and swollen mouths. OH HO

O O O O

OH OH Ellagic acid

Figure 17.12  Chemical structure of Ellagic acid.

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  373 It also exhibits anti-acne, anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-mutagenic, anti-oxidant, and anti-viral properties [27, 28].

17.3.11 Indigoids Indigo is the oldest dye known to the world for about 400 years. Glucoside of indican (Figure 17.13) is the main component and it occurs in leaves of Indigoferatinctoria, Eupatorium leaves, and Isatistinctoria. It is a blue color dye. In medicine, it is used as an anti-cancer, anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory (inflammation of the throat and larynx) property, also used in treatment of hepatoma effect (the function of liver drop the blood temperature by eliminating toxic heat from body), relieves convulsions, different ailments, and epidemic disease, and cure hemoptysis bleeding from nose, sun stroke, hay fever, eczema, psoriasis, saliva gland adolescent convulsions, ulcers in mouth and gingivitis, chest pain, mumps, and bleeding from nose [29, 30].

17.3.12 Indigo Indigo has extracted from Indigoferatinctoria L. The main coloring components are indigotin (Figure 17.14). The medicinal uses of its colorant known as indigotin are that it acts as anti-hepatic, anti-cancer, anti-­inflammation, and anti-oxidant and prevents bleeding from the nose epidemic, treat larynx disease, cough, chest pain, children convulsions epilepsy, sore throat, sunstroke, mouth ulcers, eczema, saliva gland, gingivitis, mumps, ulcers, OR HO

OH

O

O

N

Figure 17.13  Chemical structure of indican.

OH

Indican

374  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles O

H

C

N C

C

N

C H

O

Indigotin

Figure 17.14  Chemical structure of Indigotin.

and anti-leukemia effect, which results in the elimination of toxic heat from the body and a drop of bloods temperature [29].

17.3.13 Juglone Juglone (Figure 17.15) is isolated from Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae). This colorant shows anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, antifungal, antioxidant properties, and cytotoxic potential; it is also used to cure Alzheimer’s disease, abdominal pain, allergic reaction, indigestion, improve cardiovascular status, cardiac injury, cell signaling, diarrhea, headache, kidney fibrosis, liver fibrosis, rash, severe skin reaction, tighten the skin, and relieve irritation [31–33].

17.3.14 Lawsone Lawsone (Figure 17.16) is extracted from Lawsonia inermis. The structure of the main coloring component is used in medicine as it acts as an antiarthritic, analgesic, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antiulcer, anti-coagulant, anticarcinogenic, antifertility, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antipyretic, anti-trypanosomal, antiviral, and anti-sickling, properties. It is also used to cure many diseases such as abortifacient, O

OH

O

Juglone

Figure 17.15  Chemical structure of Juglone.

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  375 O OH

O Lawsone

Figure 17.16  Chemical structure of Lawsone.

enzyme inhibitory, diuretic, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, wound healing, skin irritation, protein glycation inhibitory, nematicidal, nootropic, molluscicidal, and tuberculostatic actions [30, 34, 35].

17.3.15 Lycopene Lycopene is extracted from Lycopersicon esculentum (Tomato). Lycopene (Figure 17.17) as a therapeutic agent, such as cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, chronic inflammation, diabetes, hepatoprotection anti-oxidant, lung cancer, male infertility, osteoporosis, and prostate cancer, reduces risk of preeclampsia [36, 37].

17.3.16 Morin Morin is a yellow colored pigment extracted from heartwood of jackwood (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam), dyers Mulberry (Maclura tinctoria L.), (Kala Lakuch Tree), Morin (Figure 17.18), that is helpful in therapeutic effect such as its show anti-gout, anti-bacteria, anti-depressant, anti-cancer, anti-stress, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-proliferative potency. It is also used to cure Alzheimer’s disease, normalized blood glucose, cerebral ischemia, and cardiovascular complications, help in weight loss, increase blood circulation, build bone tissues, boost the immune system, diabetes, improve digestion, lower cholesterol, hyperglycemia, suppresses lipid peroxidation, and protective role in Parkinsonian pathology [38–40]. CH3

H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C CH3

Lycopene

Figure 17.17  Chemical structure of Lycopene.

376  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles OH

HO HO

O OH OH

O

Morin

Figure 17.18  Chemical structure of Morin.

17.3.17 Quercetin Quercetin is the main colorant extracted from the bark of Quercus velutina Lam and also occurs in many plants, namely, Allium cepa (onion), Arachis hypogaea L. (groundnut), etc. Quercetin (Figure 17.19) is useful for medicinal purpose as it has been used to cure allergy, asthma, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, immunity and infection, injury, pain, prostatitis, arthritis, metabolic syndrome traits, mood disorder, sleep, sports nutrition, hepatoprotective, neurological, exhibit anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, anti-obesity, property, diabetes and diabetic complication, gastroprotective, and oral mucosa effects; it also affects positively the development of embryo, fetus, and placenta [41–43].

17.4 Mordanting of Natural Dye In the mordanting method, the metal salt is used which generates a bridge between the fiber and the pigment. When mordant is being applied to the fabric, it is attached itself to the molecule of the fabric as well as attached OH OH

HO

O

OH OH

O

Figure 17.19  Chemical structure of Quercetin.

Quercetin

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  377 to the colorant of the dye. Mordanting improves dye affinity and colorfastness properties. Several shades are obtained when different mordants are applied by using the same colorant [44, 45]. Mordanting process have three different types.

17.4.1 Pre-Mordanting This is the process in which the first fabric treated with mordant and then exposed to the colorant.

17.4.2 Meta-Mordanting In meta-mordanting, mordant and colorant are applied at the same time onto fabric.

17.4.3 Post-Mordanting In the post mordanting process the fabric dyed firstly and then exposed to the mordant solution. Based on their mode mordants are classified as chemical and bio ones (Table 17.1).

17.5 Chemical Mordanting In chemical mordanting, several chemicals are used such as salts of Aluminum (Al), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), and Tannic acid (T.A), etc. Proposed mechanism for interaction between chemical-mordant, fabric, and colorant is given in (Figure 17.20).

17.6 Biomordanting Some of the metallic mordants are hazardous so, this environmental problem is solved by replacing metallic mordant with bio-mordants. Natural dyes can produce special aesthetic qualities, which combined with the ethical significance of a product that is environmentally friendly, gives added value to textile production as craftwork and as an industry [46]. Some biomaterials such as acacia, henna, pomegranate, and turmeric have the potential to work as mordant in the textile industry [46, 47]. The proposed mechanism for interaction between bio-mordant, fabric, and colorant is given below in (Figure 17.21).

378  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles OH HO O O O

O

OH H2O

OH OH2

Mn+

Mn+ = Al, Fe, T.A, etc. O

O

H N

H N

N H CH3

N H O

CH3

O

Figure 17.20  Proposed mechanism for interaction between chemical mordant, fabric and colorant.

17.7 Recent Advances Used in Natural Dyes Since ancient times for better extraction and dyeing, different conventional methods have been employed. There are two basic methods used for the extraction of the natural dye.

17.7.1 Conventional Method (i) Soaking (ii) Stirring heating (iii) Boiling (iv) Refluxing (v) Heating at boiling (vi) Maceration (vii) Soxhlet extraction

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  379 OH O

CH3

O

O

HO

OH

HO

OH

O HO

Carminic acid

O

O

O

O O

O

O (Ellagitannins) O

NH HC

O

O O

O C

O

R Silk fiber

Figure 17.21  Proposed mechanism for interaction between bio-mordant, fabric, and colorant.

17.7.2 Modern Methods Modern methods are used to enhance the fabric substantivity towards natural dyes and showed their intense role in improving the color yield as well as the tuning or modification of the fabric surface. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Ultrasonic radiation Microwave radiation Gamma radiation Ultraviolet radiation

17.7.3 Ultrasonic Radiation These rays used for the numerous purposes commonly used for the isolation of natural products. Ultrasonic radiations have many useful advantages such as it is time, solvent, cost, and labor effective.

380  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Table 17.1  Name of some metallic and bio-mordants. Metallic mordants

Bio-mordants

Iron sulfate

Turmeric rhizomes

Cobalt chloride

Pomegranate rind

Cobalt sulfate

Henna leaves

Aluminum sulfate

Acacia bark

Aluminum chloride

Marigold flowers

Potash Alum

Arjun bark

Copper chloride

Neem bark

Stannous sulfate

Myrobolan bark

Manganese sulfate

Eucalyptus spp.

Stannic chloride

Entada spiralis

Magnesium sulphate

Acacia catechu

Zinc sulphate

Emblica officinalis

Zinc Chloride

Memecylon utellatum

Nickel sulfate

Punica granatum

Ferric chloride

Quercus infectoria

Calcium hydroxide

Rhuscoriaria

Zinc tetrafluoroborate

Rumex hymenosepolus

Zirconium oxy chloride

Tamarindus indica

Rhenium trichloride

Prosopis spp.

Neodymium trichloride

Terminalia bellerica

Lanthanum oxide

Terminalia chebula

17.7.4 Microwave Radiations Being the commercially sustainable heating source, microwave radiations are found everywhere for the domestic as well as industrial purposes. These radiations have a unique mode of action which reduces the system

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  381 temperature and labor as well as causes less consumption of solvent due to the fast treatment process [48].

17.7.5 Gamma Radiation Being a powerful source of heating, these radiations are used for different purposes. The application of these radiations has been observed in either isolation of ultimate colorant from food and natural dyes helpful in dye degradation.

17.7.6 Ultraviolet Radiation These are electromagnetic rays having a range from 200–380 nm and impart their role in textiles. These radiations facilitate the isolation of the natural dye as well as modified the surface of the fabric; these radiations are found energy, time, and cost-effective.

17.8 Different Plant Source of Natural Dyes 17.8.1 Harmal Plant (Peganum harmala) Harmal plants belong to Nitrariaceae family and commonly known as Esfand. The seeds of this plant are used for various purposes. Frequently, it is used in medicine for the treatment of pain, cure the disease of the central nervous system, cancer, depression, fever, inflammation, hallucinations, malaria, stimulant, and wound healing, and useful in the treatment of body lice, etc. [49]. Harmal plants also exhibit anti-cancer, anti-infective, anti-helminthic, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, anti-oxidant, anti-protozoal, and anti-viral properties and also have the potential to cure the parasitic worms, etc. [50]. The components which are associated with color properties are harmine, harmane, harmaline, and harmalol in the harmal seed (Peganum harmala) to produce Turkey Red color (TR), which was originally obtained from madder (Rubia tinctorum) [51]. Sustainability is one of the major factors which have attracted the globe to move towards natural dyes. The utilization of effective eco-friendly and clean tools for the isolation of colorant for enhancing its yield to maximum extract onto fabric is, nowaday, primary concern of researchers and traders. Adeel et al. [52] utilized microwave radiation for Harmal seeds in various media employed at variable conditions. They reveal that extracted dye after microwave treatment has given good results onto cotton fabric when employed at 85°C for

382  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 45 min under acidified methanolic extract. The utilization of eco-friendly electrolyte of Al and as chemical mordant and extract of Acacia has given good quality shades onto cotton fabric when employed before and after dyeing. Based on the method of the isolation and the application, Haji [51] extracted the natural colorant from Harmal seeds and employed onto the wool fabric. He found that by changing the pH, temperature, and mordant concentration (Alum), not only the good tinctorial strength was obtained but also the firm shades with the bright hues were obtained. Based on his studies, he concluded that Harmal seeds were a good source of the natural colorant for wool fabrics at given at optimum conditions.

17.8.2 Arjun (Terminalia arjuna) Arjun plant belongs to Combretaceate family. It is an evergreen plant. In Chinese and Greek, it is widely used in the field of medicine as it exhibits excellent anti-acne, anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-ischemic, anti-oxidant, anti-mutagenic, and anti-viral activities. It’s also used to cure asthma, cardiac stress, dysentery, oral cavity, and skin allergies infection. Arjun acid, baicalein, ellagic acid, flavonoids, gallic acid, saponins, sterol, tannin, and triterpenoids, etc., are the components present in Arjun. Whereas, among all these, baicalein and ellagic acid are the main components. The utilization of microwave treatment has given excellent color yield onto wool fabric. Studies done by Adeel et al. [53] show that extracts examined in various solvents have given variable tinctorial strength. They found that owing to the nature of the fabric, the acidic extract has given good results when mordant with the salt of iron as chemical mordant and turmeric extract as bio mordant employed before and after dyeing. The studies proved that microwave treatment has not only reduced the dyeing variables but also reduced mordant concentration. The inclusion of bio mordant has made the process greener and ayurvedic. In another study came out by Adeel et al. [54] onto silk fabric using Arjun bark reveal that contains the potential of potent molecules isolated from Arjun bark in various media after microwave treatment upto 6 min has given good tinctorial strength. In this study, the powder was irradiated to encapsulate the colorant owing to compatibility with solvent acidify methanolic extract has given excellent color yield onto silk fabric when dyed under lower condition. Again, in their studies, eco-friendly chemical mordant, i.e., salt of Fe and bio mordant, i.e., turmeric extract has given high color strength with new shades. The fastness rating reveals that

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  383 mordant of fabric dyed at reduced condition has given well to excellent fastness ratings under influence of Mw treatment. Adeel et al. [55] utilized ultrasonic rays for Arjun bark in various media employed at variable conditions. These studies reveal that extracted dye-forming after US treatment has given good results onto silk fabric when employed at 65°C for 65 min under acidic conditions. The utilization of eco-friendly electrolyte of Al and Fe as mordant and extract of pomegranate and turmeric has given good quality shades onto fabric when employed before and after dyeing.

17.8.3 Neem The Neem plant belongs to the Meliaceae family; it is an evergreen tree, and it has been extensively found in sub-continent region. Neem is considered as one of the greatest blessings of nature as it is frequently used in various medications such as anti-androgenic, anti-aging drugs, anti-­ cancer, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-malarial, anti-stress, and anti-viral. Epicatechin, catechin, gallic acid, margolone, and tannins are the main bioactive components of the neem bark. The main functional component of neem bark is Tannin. Our group has employed ultrasonic radiation for isolation of colorant (tannin) for neem bark for cotton dyeing [3]. The isolation was carried out by boiling powder with water, acidic solution, and acidify methanolic medium followed by the US heated up to 60 min. The medium of the dye bath and salt as exhausting agents were optimized to get excellent results. We found that US treatment for 45 min to acidify methanolic extract from 5 pH that contains 3% of table salt has given high strength. For impressive colorfastness characteristic, 3% of Al, 5% of Henna extract, and 9% of acacia bark have given excellent results. It has been found that US treatment has a result potential for isolation of colorant from neem bark followed by biomordanting for cotton dyeing. Owing to the wonderful benefits of US treatment [56] employed this tool for silk dyeing using Neem bark extract. They isolated the colorant in methanolic medium and expand to US treatment up to 60 min. It was found that US treatment for 30 min was the effective stimulation time to encapsulate the colorant from neem bark from 4-g powder for dyeing of silk at 70°C to 60 min. Similarly, bio-mordants like extract of Henna, acacia, pomegranate, and turmeric were employed to get new shades and improve fastness rating from good to excellent. They conducted that US treatment can also be used for isolation of colorant from neem bark for the silk dyeing.

384  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Zuber et al. [57] investigated their role for the application of tannin isolated from neem bark of silk dyeing. They employed aqueous, acidic, and organic media to have used the extract of turmeric, Henna, and pomegranate as bio mordants. Through their studies that reduced that acidify methanolic extract natural be Mw treatment for 2 min for application on to silk at 75oC for 65 min having 3g/100 ml of salt. At their condition, mordant employed not only given extract color characteristics but also new shades with good fastness rating. Hence, they concluded that biomordanting besides MW treatment is now influencing the world of natural dyes because Mw being rapid treatment tool and bio mordants being sustainable shades development process are making dyeing of natural fabrics more green, clean, and aesthetics.

17.8.4 Coconut Coir (Cocos Nucifera) The plant-based natural colorants, such as coconut coir (Cocos Nucifera), are the recently introduced source. It exhibits excellent antimicrobial and antifungal property. The main coloring constituent present in coconut coir is tannin [58]. Adeel et al. [59] revealed that ultrasonic treatment is used for the better extraction of colorant from coconut coir. Their studies revealed after US treatment, the dye extract obtained has given good results when employed at 65°C for 45 min onto the wool fabric by using the acidified methanolic extract. The utilization of eco-friendly electrolyte of Fe as a 5% pre and 1% post chemical mordant and extract of turmeric has given good quality shades onto fabric when employed 1% before and 3% after dyeing.

17.8.5 Logwood (Haemtoxylum campechianum) Logwood (Haemtoxylum campechianum) belongs to the legume family Fabaceae which is an excellent source of the natural colorant for the wool dyeing. The main coloring component is present in its wood known as hematein which is made up of the oxidation of the Haematoxylum. In the medicinal field, its bark and gum have been used as a sub-stringent and enema to cure dysentery [60]. Azeem et al. [61] investigated that ultrasonic rays are used as a modern tool for the extraction of the colorant by using the Logwood (Haemtoxylum campechianum) plant as a source of natural dyes. They found that by using different media such as aqueous, acidic and organic media are used along with the extract of zeera, harmal and turmeric is used as bio mordants. Through their studies, they found that methanolic extract used after the

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  385 ultrasonic treatment for 45 min for application on to wool at 75°C for 45 min. They concluded that bio-mordant employed not only given extract color characteristics (K/S) but also new shades with good fastness rating.

17.8.6 Process Optimization Response surface methodology is a powerful optimizing tool. This is a set of mathematical and statistical tools that are employed to get an optimum response along with having factor settings within the permissible ranges. Shahid (Thesis) found optimum conditions of Arjun bark, Neem bark, harmal seeds, etc., experiments under ultrasonic, microwave, and gamma rays treatments. The optimization was also done with the addition of bio-­ mordants. The results can be highly useful for future research.

17.9 Conclusion Day by day, the increasing demand of natural products in all fields, the extraction and application of natural colorants from natural sources has gained a lot of fame. The particular groups of researchers are now finding new sources of dyes to overcome the demand of global community as well searching such sustainable methods for their isolation and application which are not only cost, energy, and time effective but also can give variety of shades with excellent shade fastness. Using modern methods such as radiation tools like microwave and ultrasonic rays for isolation of colorant is the need of the hour, which could only solve the isolation yield of colorant through less consumption of economy, power and labor, where the utilization of new anchors in shade development process can help to resolve the problem of poor fastness properties. In nut shell, both radiation tool and biomordanting should be employed to make natural dyeing process more sustainable and soothing for global community.

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388  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 32. Abedi, P., Yaralizadeh, M., Fatahinia, M., Namjoyan, F., Nezamivand-Chegini, S., Yaralizadeh, M., Comparison of the Effects of Juglansnigra Green Husk and Clotrimazole on Candida albicans in Rats. Jundishapur J. Microbiol., 11, 2, 2018. 33. Strugstad, M. and Despotovski, S., A summary of extraction, synthesis, properties, and potential uses of juglone: A literature review. J. Ecol. Manag., 13, 3, 2013. 34. Ponugoti, M., A pharmacological and toxicological review of lawsoniainermis. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res., 9, 3, 902–915, 2018. 35. Lozza, L., Moura-Alves, P., Domaszewska, T., Crespo, C.L., Streata, I., Kreuchwig, A., Puyskens, A., Bechtle, M., Klemm, M., Zedler, U., Ungureanu, B.S., The Henna pigment Lawsone activates the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor and impacts skin homeostasis. Sci. Rep., 9, 1, 1–21, 2019. 36. Madhava, R.A., Banji, D., Banji, O.J., Kumar, K., Ragini, M., Lycopene and its importance in treating various diseases in human. Int. Res. J. Pharm., 2, 31–37, 2011. 37. Nasir, M.U., Hussain, S., Jabbar, S., Tomato processing, lycopene and health benefits: A review. Sci. Lett., 3, 1, 1–5, 2015. 38. Choudhury, A., Chakraborty, I., Banerjee, T.S., Vana, D.R., Adapa, D., Efficacy of morin as a potential therapeutic phytocomponent: Insights into the mechanism of action. Int. J. Med. Res. Health Sci., 6, 175–194, 2017. 39. Olonode, E.T., Aderibigbe, A.O., Adeoluwa, O.A., Ajayi, A.M., Protective Effects of Morin Hydrate on Acute Stress-Induced Behavioral and Biochemical Alterations in Mice. Basic Clin. Neurosci., 9, 3, 195, 2018. 40. Kadam, R.S., Dhumal, N.D., Khyade, V.B., The Mulberry, Morusalba (L.): The Medicinal Herbal Source for Human Health. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci., 8, 4, 2941–2964, 2019. 41. Kelly, G.S., Quercetin. Altern. Med. Rev., 16, 2, 172–195, 2011. 42. Kumar, V., Sharma, N., Sourirajan, A., Khosla, P.K., Dev, K., Comparative evaluation of antimicrobial and antioxidant potential of ethanolic extract and its fractions of bark and leaves of Terminalia arjuna from north-western Himalayas, India. J. Tradit. Complement. Med., 30, 1–7, 2017. 43. Ożarowski, M., Mikołajczak, P.Ł., Kujawski, R., Wielgus, K., Klejewski, A., Wolski, H., Seremak-Mrozikiewicz, A., Pharmacological effect of quercetin in hypertension and its potential application in pregnancy-induced hypertension: Review of in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies. Evid-Based Complement. Alternat. Med., 1–19, 2018. 44. Haji, A., Dyeing of cotton fabric with natural dyes improved by mordants and plasma treatment. Progress Color Color. Coat. 12, 3, 119–201, 2019. 45. İşmal, Ö.E. and Yıldırım, L., Metal mordants and bio-mordants, in: The Impact and Prospects of Green Chemistry for Textile Technology, pp. 57–82, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, England, 2019. 46. Rane, S., Hate, M., Hande, P., Ajitkumar, B.S., Datar, A., Dyeing of cotton with Tectona grandis leaves and Terminalia arjuna bark extracts. Int. J. Text. Sci., 6, 2, 72–77, 2017.

Sustainable Isolation of Natural Dyes  389 47. Haji, A., Natural dyeing of wool with henna and yarrow enhanced by plasma treatment and optimized with response surface methodology. J. Text. Inst., 1–9, 2019c. 48. Adeel, S., Naseer, K., javed, S., Mahmmod, S., Tang, R.C., Amin, N., Naz, S., Microwave-assisted improvement in dyeing behavior of chemical and bio-mordanted silk fabric using safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L) extract. J. Nat. Fibers, 17, 1, 55–65, 2020. 49. Niroumand, M.C., Farzaei, M.H., Amin, G., Medicinal properties of Peganum harmala L. in traditional Iranian medicine and modern phytotherapy: A review. J. Tradit. Chin. Med., 35, 1, 104–109, 2015. 50. Moloudizargari, M., Mikaili, P., Aghajanshakeri, S., Asghari, M.H., Shayegh, J., Pharmacological and therapeutic effects of Peganum harmala and its main alkaloids. Pharmacogn. Rev., 7, 14, 199, 2013. 51. Haji, A., Wool dyeing with Harmal Seed as a Natural Dye: Investigation of influencing factors using response surface methodology. J. Color Sci. Technol., 1811–1007, 2019a. 52. Adeel, S., Zuber, M., Rehman, F.U., Zia, K.M., Microwave-assisted extraction and dyeing of chemical and bio-mordanted cotton fabric using harmal seeds as a source of natural dye. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 25, 11, 11100–11110, 2018b. 53. Adeel, S., Rehman, F.U., Zia, K.M., Azeem, M., Kiran, S., Zuber, M., Irfan, M., Qayyum, M.A., Microwave-Supported Green Dyeing of Mordanted Wool Fabric with Arjun Bark Extracts. J. Nat. Fibers, 1–15, 2019a. 54. Adeel, S., Rehman, F.U., Hameed, A., Habib, N., Kiran, S., Zia, K.M., Zuber, M., Sustainable extraction and dyeing of microwave-treated silk fabric using arjun bark colorant. J. Nat. Fibers, 1–14, 2018b. 55. Adeel, S., Rehman, F.U., Iqbal, M.U., Habib, N., Kiran, S., Zuber, M., Zia, K.M., Hameed, A., Ultrasonic assisted sustainable dyeing of mordanted silk fabric using arjun (Terminalia arjuna) bark extracts. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy, 38, s1, S331–S339, 2018c. 56. Adeel, S., Zia, K.M., Abdullah, M., Rehman, F.U., Salman, M., Zuber, M., Ultrasonic assisted improved extraction and dyeing of mordanted silk fabric using neem bark as source of natural colourant. Nat. Prod. Res., 33, 14, 2060–2072, 2018d. 57. Zuber, M., Adeel, S., Rehman, F.U., Anjum, F., Muneer, M., Abdullah, M., Zia, K.M., Influence of Microwave Radiation on Dyeing of Bio-mordanted Silk Fabric using Neem Bark (Azadirachta indica)-Based Tannin Natural Dye. J. Nat. Fibers, 1–13, 2019. 58. Madhu, S., Rajni, Y., Megha, G., Ccoconutcalynx (husk): A natural source of dye for textiles. J. Environ. Res. Develop., 10, 121, 2015. 59. Adeel, S., Kiran, S., Habib, N., Hassan, A., Kamal, S., Qayyum, M. A., Tariq, K., Sustainable ultrasonic dyeing of wool using coconut coir extract. Text. Res. J. 90, 7–8, 744–756, 2020.

390  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles 60. Bronzato, M., Zoleo, A., Biondi, B., Centeno., S.A., An ınsight into the metal coordination and spectroscopic properties of artistic fe and fe/cu logwood ınks. Spectrochim. Acta A, 153, 522–529, 2016. 61. Azeem, M., Adeel, S., Zahoor, A.F., Habib, N., Rehman, F.U., Saeed, M., Amin, N., Liaqat, S., Hussaan, M., Sustainable utilization of ultrasonic radiation in extraction and dyeing of wool fabric using logwood (Haematoxylumcampechianum) extracts. Tekst. Konfeksiyon, 29, 2, 181–185, 2019.

18 Agro-Waste Applications for Bioremediation of Textile Effluents Shumaila Kiran1*, Tanvir Ahmad2, Tahsin Gulzar1, Asma Ashraf3, Syed Ali Raza Naqvi4 and Saba Naz1 Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan 2 Department of Statistics, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan 3 Department of Zoology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan 4 Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan 1

Abstract

The wastewater of textile industry comprises of synthetic dyes that discharge into the environment. It decreases the photosynthetic activity and increases the toxicity to living beings. In the current scenario, the elimination of textile dyes from industrial effluents becomes a great environmental threat worldwide because water pollution is the source of some chronic diseases to human beings. There are many techniques that proficiently used for treatment of textile effluents. The textile effluent goes through various physical, chemical, and biological treatment methods for its maximal detoxification. The main aim of this chapter is to describe the technical and economic feasibility of integrated processes for treatment of textile effluents. Agro-waste materials have the ability to efficaciously remove the toxicants from textile effluents being cost-effective and energy saving process. This chapter highlights the usage of agro-waste materials to treat textile effluents in an effective manner and their advantages over other textile effluent treatment processes. Keywords:  Textile wastewater, toxicity, agro-wastes, remediation

*Corresponding author: [email protected] Pintu Pandit, Shakeel Ahmed, Kunal Singha and Sanjay Shrivastava (eds.) Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles: A Sustainable & Circular Economic Approach, (391–422) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

391

392  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

18.1 Introduction The water is a blessing for all living beings for survival of life on earth. Most of the biological processes in living beings are dependent on water. As water is a universal solvent, it is uniquely prone to the pollution because, it has capability to solubilize more elements as compare to other solvents present on earth. Water is also used as a solvent in different industries. Human beings are deteriorating the eco-balance of earth by disposing off it directly in to the environment [1]. Contamination happens as soon as the detrimental toxic substances and the biological species pollute the river, groundwater, ocean, stream, lake, aquifer, or other water body, degrading the quality of water and can pose danger for the health of living beings and the atmosphere. Furthermore, the water pollution may also be because of the chemicals that entered into water bodies as a consequence of several human activities [2]. When, in the fields, agriculturalists use fertilizers, the chemical substances used by them are slowly eroded out by rain into the nearby surface waters or underground water [3]. The chemical substances came out from chimneys can arrive into atmosphere and after that fall back to earth in the form of rain, entering lakes, rivers, and seas, instigating water contamination which is called  the deposition in atmosphere. The water contamination has several other sources and that’s hard to solve  [4]. The influences of water contamination may appear instantly after the exposure and be less or more dangerous in the case of water intake with huge quantity of contaminants. The health effects of consuming polluted water can range from little intoxication and abdominal pains to fatal infections or unexpected death [5]. Numerous water bodies close to the cities and towns are extremely contaminated. This is the consequence of trash discarded individually and hazardous substances discarded by health centers legally or illegally, industries, markets, and schools. The influences of water contamination include death of aquatic life, disturbance of food-chains, damage of ecosystems, and different diseases [6].

18.2 Wastewater Treatment Numerous treatment approaches including physical, chemical, biological, and combine treatment operations have been well-known for wastewater treatment in a beneficial manner and economical way before its final discharge.

Agro-Waste Applications for Bioremediation  393

18.2.1 Physical Methods The common physical operations are screening, coagulation-flocculation, sedimentation, homogenization, adsorption, and membrane process. The major limitation of the membrane treatments is that their lifetime is limited before membrane fouling happens and the periodic replacement cost must be counted in any analysis of their economic viability [7]. According to the available literature, liquid-phase adsorption is one of the most significant methods for the exclusion of contaminants from effluents since appropriate scheme of the adsorption procedure may generate a good-quality treated wastewater [8].

18.2.2 Chemical Methods The chemical procedures are always employed with physical operations and may also be applied with biological methods, although it is possible to have only physico-chemical plant without biological remediation. The chemical methods bring about changes in wastewater quality by the addition of chemicals. They include precipitation, neutralization, electro-­ chemical process, oxidation, ion exchange process, etc. [9].

18.2.3 Biological Methods The biological approaches, for example, fungal degradation, microbial decolorization, adsorption by microbial biomaterial, and biological treatment, are generally applied to treat the industrial wastewater because numerous microbes like bacteria, fungi, algae and yeasts have ability to gather and decompose various contaminants. These microorganisms use pollutants of the effluent as their “food” and in consequence break down them into less complex and less toxic molecules. In the procedure, microorganisms increase in their number. These include bacterial decolorization, fungal degradation, algae degradation, and microbial fuel cells [10]. These remedies are proved to be extremely powerful for remediation of effluents. But all approaches have their own limitations; the combination of these methods is very noteworthy for deletion of dyes and heavy metals [11].

18.3 Agro-Waste Materials These are the waste outputs of manufacture and the handling of farming food stuffs which may comprise the stuff that can be valuable to humans

394  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles but their economical rates are lower than the collection cost, transportation cost, and processing cost for favorable use. Agro-wastes are high in different types of nutrients and their disposal is tough to manage because of extra nutrients in them can cause leaching in field as a compost. They are disposed of via incineration [12]. The gathering of agricultural waste materials can cause safety, health, environmental, and esthetic problems [13]. Hence, there is continually a high demand of discovering an agro-waste management method which should be cost-­ effective and contribute to control the environment pollution. About the 998 million tons of agricultural waste material is formed per annum. The organic waste materials contain 80% total solid waste stuff generated in any farm from which compost formation contains 5.27 kg per day/1,000 kg live mass, on wet mass basis [14].

18.3.1 Composition of Agro-Waste Materials Their composition depends upon the kind and scheme of agricultural processing and this can be in terms of slurries, liquids, or solids. Agricultural waste products comprise insoluble constituents such as lignin and cellulose and soluble constituents such as amino acids, sugar, and organic acids. The other constituents are waxes, resins, oil, fats, protein, minerals, and pigment [15]. 

18.3.2 Sources of Agro-Waste Materials Agricultural growth is normally accompanied by wastes from the irrational application of farming techniques and misuse of the chemical substances applied in farming, notably influencing the rural atmosphere specifically and the worldwide environment generally. The waste produced depends on the kind of agricultural activities carried out. These wastes are currently applied for numerous applications through the “3R” strategy of waste management (Figure 18.1). Agricultural waste has a toxicity potential to plant, animals, and human via numerous direct and indirect networks [16]. Sources

Cultivation

Aquaculture Livestock

Figure 18.1  Sources of agro-waste material.

Agro-Waste Applications for Bioremediation  395

18.4 Kinds of Agro-Waste Materials Agricultural waste material consists of animals left-over (such as compost and animal corpses), waste stuff of food processing (for example, 20% of maize is preserved and 80% is waste), field waste (sugarcane bagasse, corn stalks, culls, and drops from the fruits or vegetables, pruning), dangerous or poisonous agro-waste (herbicides, pesticides and insecticides, etc.) as shown in Figure 18.2 [17]. In current ages, the necessity for secure and costly effective techniques for removal of heavy metals from effluents has demanded more investigation on less-cost agricultural waste products for instances sawdust, sugarcane bagasse, coconut husk, rice husk, neem bark, oil palm shell, etc. [18]. The treatment methods such as electro-kinetic coagulation, electro-­ floatation, and coagulation combined with floatation and filtration, oxidation by radiations, oxidizing agents, and electro-chemical procedures, etc., all are the techniques that include in chemical approaches [19]. These methods, however, have disadvantages such as inadequate removal of materials, high energy, and reagent requirements and production of poisonous sludge [20, 21]. Recent researches have proved that removal of heavy metals can be done by using agro-waste materials such as empty palm oil fruit bunch, sour soup seeds, sugarcane bagasse, sawdust, and duck weed [22–25]. The agro waste can be employed for deletion of lead and copperions from Agro industrial residue

Industrial residue

Agricultural residue

Peels Field residue

Straw

Stem Leaves

Barks

Figure 18.2  Kinds of agro-waste material.

Process residue

bagasse

Nut shells

husks

396  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles aqueous solutions [26–29]. The gathering of agricultural waste materials may cause safety, health, environmental, and aesthetic problems. So, the use of agro-waste materials for wastewater remediation is very beneficial and safe, not only for water pollution but also for land pollution [30]. The activated carbon’s generation from bio-material provides dual purpose: by transforming undesirable extra agro-waste products to significant and an effective adsorbent to treat effluents and decrease in health and environmental threats related to openly burning of bio-material residues [31, 32]. The main focus of this chapter is on dyes and heavy metals seradication from the effluents.

18.4.1 Straws It is an agro-waste product consists of dry stalks of cereal plants after the removal of grain and chaff. The kinds of straws attained from agro-waste are coffee straw, wheat straw, rice straw, cotton straw, wood straw (sawdust), etc. There are about 1,580 million tons of crop straws production in 2016, mainly from Europe (barley and oat), the United States (sorghum and corn), and China (wheat and rice). The crop stalks are rich in nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and various organic matters can be used as valuable biomass resources [33]. Moreover, crude fibers are composed of cellulose, lignin, and hemicelluloses, which are the major constitutes of plant cell walls. Because of the large quantity of active functional groups (carbonyl, hydroxyl, carboxyl, etc.) on the surface of hemicelluloses, cellulose and lignin, chelating, ion exchange, and other reactions may occur when they come into contact with heavy metal ions, such as Cd(II), and in this way, these heavy metals may be extracted from the solution [34]. Table 18.1 shows the constituents of different kinds of straw.

18.4.1.1 Role of Different Types of Straw in Wastewater Treatment The deletion of Reactive Blue dye (H3 R) employing locally accessible cost-effective adsorbent wheat straw and improved wheat straw having cationic surfactant has been reported in previous studies [39]. Coffee husk contains some amount of caffeine and tannins that can make it poisonous and slow degradation in nature, resulting in the disposal problem. Coffee husk is a high source of lignocellulosic materials [40]. In a study, the husk waste was used for the removal of Crystal Violet (CV) dye by adsorption [41]. Sawdust not just removed COD but also the color [42]. It is reported from a research that the Direct Red 23 (DR 23) dye was found to be stable, with no changes in its spectrum with the variation in the pH of the

Agro-Waste Applications for Bioremediation  397 Table 18.1  Composition of different straws. Sr. no.

Type of straw

Constituents

Percentage (%)

References

1

Wheat

Cellulose

40%

[35]

Hemicelluloses

39%

Lignin

13

Protein

1

Cellulose

41

Lignin

14

Nitrogen

0.8

P2O5

0.25

K2O

0.3

SiO2

6

pH

6.9

Total sugars

22.8

Total fibers

24

Cellulose

43

Lignin

9

Protein

11

Moisture

13

Carbohydrate

65.15

Lignin

17.60

Protein

3.5

Unidentified residual organic matter

5.56

Carbon

60.8

Hydrogen

5.2

Oxygen

33.8

Nitrogen

0.9

2

3

4

5

Rice

Coffee straw

Cotton

Wood straw (sawdust)

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

398  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles solution. Furthermore, the dye demonstrated greater affinity to sawdust at pH 2.50 [43]. The research was done for the removal of Brilliant Green dye by hydrolyzed rice straw that was attained from lingo-cellulosic bioethanol procedure. Rice straw biochar showed the maximum adsorption capacity at 111.11 mg/g. These results showed that it can be efficiently applied as a low cost adsorbent for removal of dyes [44]. A possible alternative for better adsorption of heavy metals and dyes is the use of cotton stalks along with activated carbon [32, 45], which have gained much attention due to their large surface area, porous structure, and fine mechanical possessions [46].

18.4.2 Leaves Powder The wood and other plant materials contain lignocellulose. Many plants shed their leaves in critical situations that can be applied as biosorbents. The chemical constituents of different plant leaves are represented in Table 18.2.

18.4.2.1 Role of Different Plant Leaves in Treatment of Wastewater Among all natural adsorbents the neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves have high ability to eradicate heavy metals from wastewater. Cr (VI) has been deleted by powder of neem tree leaves [55, 56]. Neem tree leaves are very significant in the wastewater and well water purification [57]. The Physic nut (Jatropha curcas L.) leaf bio-material is an environmental friendly and low cost bio-sorbent for deletion of heavy metal ions such as Cr6+, Cu2+, and Zn2+ from textile effluents [58]. An adsorbent synthesized by using mucilaginous leaves from  Diceriocaryum eriocarpum  plant (DEP) was applied for lead(II) ion adsorption from aqueous solution [49]. A continuous research on adsorption by employing phoenix tree leaf powder as bio-sorbent in fixed-bed column was processed for the removal of methylene blue from synthesized aqueous solution [59]. The leaves of Ashoka [Polyanthia longifolia  (Sonn)] improved with form­aldehyde and sulphuric acid were applied as a bio-sorbent for removing Malachite Green, Acid Blue, and Acid Red dyes from synthesized aqueous dye solution. The significant adsorption was obtained at pH in range of 3.5 to7.2, initial concentration (1 × 10−5 to 5 × 10−5 M), adsorbent dose 0.5 to 0.8 g and temperature in range of 308 to 318 K. The study revealed the high adsorption of allacidic dyes on Ashoka leaf powder lies in between 58.70% and 83.70% [60]. The coconut leaf powder was applied as bio-sorbent in order to remove heavy metals like

Agro-Waste Applications for Bioremediation  399 Table 18.2  Composition of different plant leaves. Sr. No

Plant leaves

Phytochemicals

Percentage

References

1

Neem

Protein

7.1

[47]

Carbohydrates

22.9

Calcium

–

Phosphorus

–

Vitamin C

–

Carotene

–

N

1.99

P

0.14

K

1.08

Carbohydrates

2.95

Protein

12.46

Na2O

1.17

MgO

6.93

Al2O3

6.15

SiO2

23.6

P2O5

2.42

SO3

5.68

Cl

1.09

K 2O

11.7

CaO

23.9

Fe2O3

12.8

N

0.65

C

44.46

H

5.95

2

3

4

Physic nut

Diceriocaryum eriocarpum plant (DEP)

Phoenix tree

[48]

[49]

[50]

(Continued)

400  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Table 18.2  Composition of different plant leaves. (Continued) Sr. No

5

Plant leaves

Ashoka

Phytochemicals

Percentage

S

0.36

O

41.56

Alkaloids

References

[51]

Steroids Flavonoids Tannins Saponins Polyphenolics Many carbohydrates 6

7

8

Coconut leaf

Sugarcane leaf

Jackfruit

Oxygen

19.15

Nitrogen

0.59

Sulphur

0.58

Fixed carbon

4.72

Ash

3.33

Moisture content

6.90

Volatile content

85.05

Lignin

36.1

Glucan

33.3

Xylan

18.1

Arabinan

3.1

Mannan

1.5

Sapogenins Cycloartenone Cycloartenol β-sitosterol

[52]

[53]

[54]

Agro-Waste Applications for Bioremediation  401 cadmium, chromium, and lead from textile effluent. Coconut leaf powder was used for removing 87%, 90%, and 85% of chromium, lead, and cadmium, respectively [61]. In a study, the potential of powder obtained from sugarcane leaf as a bio-sorbent was investigated to remove heavy metals like lead, cadmium, and chromium from synthesized aqueous solution. Highest adsorption capacity of lead, cadmium, and chromium was revealed to be in the range of 86%, 64%, and 62% of the metal ion solution of 100-ppm concentration [62]. Batch sorption experiments were carried out using leaf powder of jackfruit in order to remove Methylene Blue (MB) dye from synthesized aqueous solution. Highest dye uptake was found to be 326.32 mg/g, indicating that powder of jackfruit leaf may be applied as an outstanding cost-­ effective adsorbent for MB dye removal. From experimental data, it was found that removal of MB followed pseudo second order kinetics [63]. The Crystal Violet (CV) and Rhodamine B (RHB) dyes adsorption onto Acacia nilotica leaves was investigated. It has the capability to be applied, as cost effective, environmental friendly bio-sorbent for the removal of CV, and RHB dyes from prepared aqueous solution of known concentration [64, 65]. In another study, the poplar tree leaves were investigated in order to remove some hazardous elements such as lead, cadmium, and uranium from aqueous solutions. The obtained highest sorption capability of leaves for uranium metal was 2.3 mg g−1 [66].

18.4.3 Stems The stems are also beneficial for the treatment of textile wastewater. In this scenario, the processing industry generates a large amount of residual biomass that consists of barks of different plants like cotton, grapes, banana, tobacco etc. The composition of different plants stems is given in Table 18.3.

18.4.3.1 Role of Stems in Textile Water Remediation The eradication of Erichrome Black T dye from aqueous solution using cotton stem activated carbon as bio-sorbent has been investigated under optimization of conditions, for example, concentration, pH, and contact time. By using batch adsorption technique, the influence of several experimental conditions has been studied at 39±1°C. The result showed that cotton stem activated carbon significantly adsorbs EBT dye [70]. When banana stem extract is added to 1/4th of volume of the wastewater, the amount of suspended solids decreased at a percentage of 96%.

402  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Table 18.3  Composition of different stems. Sr. no.

Stems

Composition

Percentage (%)

Reference

1

Cotton

Holocellulose

68

[67]

Lignin

26

Ash

7

Cellulose

50

Lignin

17

Ash

4

Holocelluloses

67.79

Alpha-cellulose

39.20

Lignin

18.90

Ash

6.86

2

3

Banana

Tobacco

[68]

[69]

The hardness value of wastewater is decreased by 66%. The turbidity also decreased by a percentage of 78% due to the adsorption capacity of banana stem extracts [71]. The sorption of Pb+2 ions on tobacco stems has been studied to analyze the influence of adsorbent dosage, initial concentration of lead ion, time of contact, temperature, and pH on the Pb(II) eradication. The optimum pH of lead ions sorption on the tobacco stems was found to be 5.0. The removal of Pb(II) for concentrations 10, 30, and 50 mg L−1 employing 0.8 g adsorbent for 120 min. contact time and at temperature of 26°C were 94.3%, 92.1%, and 90.4%, respectively [72]. The Methylene Blue dye removal was studied by application of dry biomass from stems of Haloxylon recurvum plant, from synthetic solution. The dye adsorption on the stem enhanced with rising pH, contact time, and concentration of dye. Pseudo first and second order kinetics models were used for this study. The obtained qmax by using Langmuir and Freundlich equilibrium models was 22.93 mg/g. The variations in ΔGo (free energy) and ΔHo (enthalpy) values showed that it is the feasible, spontaneous, and exothermic operation [73]. The grape stem biosorbent, after simple chemical modification with H2O2, H2SO4, and NaOH, exhibits different values for pH,  possible functional groups like amine, carboxyl, phenolic, and other groups, modifications on adsorbents texture, but with same thermal stabilities. These

Agro-Waste Applications for Bioremediation  403 outcomes recommend that treatments processed with H2O2, H2SO4, and NaOH caused certain modifications on the grape stems. The modified adsorbents of grape stem exhibited superior adsorption rates to its precursor biosorbent [74].

18.4.4 Barks The bark of plants is also used for eradication of heavy metals from synthetic aqueous solution. The composition of different plant’s bark is given in Table 18.4. Table 18.4  Composition of different barks. Sr. no.

Bark

Composition

Percentage (%)

Reference

1

Oak

Lignin

28.2

[75]

Ash

14.6

Suberin

2.9

Total extractives

13.2%

Nimbn

(0.04%)

Nimbinin

(0.001%)

Nimbidin

(0.4%)

Nimbosterol

(0.03)

Tannins

(6.0%)

Essential oil

(0.02%)

Lignin

45%

Cellulose

25%

Hemicellulose

15%

Cellulose

22.6

Hemicellulose

46.4

Lignin

31

Extractives

3

2

3

4

Neem

Pine

Syzygium

[76]

[77]

[78]

404  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles

18.4.4.1 Role of Different Barks in Treatment of Textile Wastewater Researchers carried out the continuous adsorption experiments in a fixedbed in order to remove Cr(VI) with other metal ions such as Cu & Zn from the aqueous solution to assess the potential of low-cost bio-sorbent, activated neem bark [79, 80].  The wood residues of Pine bark (PB) were improved chemically and applied as an anion exchange resins to eradicate from wastewater. The batch adsorption revealed the phosphate PO3− 4 that the improved PB has highest PO3− 4 uptake capability of 2.09 mmol/g (64.8 mg g−1) [81]. In a previous investigation, the removal proficiency of chromium from synthesized sorbent from bark of Syzygium cumini was calculated. In the batch treatment method at optimized conditions, 3 g adsorbent was added into 75 mL chromium comprising effluent, then stirred it for 15 min. and settled. Then, chromium content was measured by using the titrimetric technique. The chromium contents in the effluent and filtrate were 2,920.2 and 3.47 mg/L, respectively. The deletion efficacy of chromium was found to be 99.9%. The decrease in COD, BOD, and chloride were 94%, 97%, and 56%, respectively. The application of cost-effective natural adsorbent might be a choice for the eradication of chromium from tannery effluent [82]. In a previous research, the adsorption of chromium was studied by employing the Syzygium cumini bark. The sorption capacity of this plant bark were investigated under several parameters like pH, time of contact, adsorbent dose, and concentration of metal ion. The highest adsorption capability was obtained at pH 4 by using 1g of bark, onto which 46.82 mg chromium was removed in 2 h. Moreover, it was observed that adsorption process was linear and rose with time [83]. The Pongamia pinnata tree’s bark was applied for removal of ferrous or ferric ions from its prepared aqueous solution and the effluent having heavy metals. The Freundlich and Langmuir models for adsorption were used for the analysis. The Langmuir models were greatly suited for the equilibrium data. The obtained highest sorption was 146 mg/g in effluent at 30°C that is in agreement comparable to the adsorption potential of various adsorbents described in literature. Pseudo second order model of adsorption was best fitted for both ferrous and ferric ions sorption [84].

(

)

18.4.5 Nut Shells The nutshell is a huge yield of crop remains that is usually thrown away or burnt. That’s not only contaminates the environment, but also wastes a huge

Agro-Waste Applications for Bioremediation  405 Table 18.5  Composition of nut shells. Sr. no

Type of nut shell

Nutrients

Percentage (%)

Reference

1

Cashew

Dry mass

92.20

[87]

Protein

5.50

Fiber

22.75

Ether

39.20

Ash

1.09

Protein

1.4

Lignin

46.2

Cellulose

44.7

Others

7.7

Cellulose

38.48

Hemicellulose

28.82

Lignin

29.54

Extractives

10.6

Lignin

30.1

Polysaccharides

49.7

Extractives

4.5

Lignin

40.5

Polysaccharides

48.7

ash

0.6

Cellulose

26.7

Pentosans

27.6

Moisture

8

Lignin

29.4

Uronic anhydrides

3.5

2

3

4

5

6

Ginkgo

Almond

Walnut

Pine nut

Coconut Shell

[88]

[89]

[90]

[90]

[91]

(Continued)

406  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Table 18.5  Composition of nut shells. (Continued) Sr. no

Type of nut shell

Nutrients

Percentage (%)

Reference

7

Peanut

Organic matter

92

[91]

Ash

3.8

Crude protein

5.4

Crude fat

0.1

Lignin

36.1

Hemicellulose

5.6

Cellulose

44.8

Cellulose

28.4

Xylan

7.9

Lignin

41.7

Cellobiose

0.3

Galactose

2.8

Arabinose

2.2

Proteins

6.7

Tannins

18.2

Lignin

30.2

Cellulose

28.9

Hemicellulose

11.3

Ash

4.8

Carbon

51.2

Oxygen

42.5

Hydrogen

5.3

Ash content

0.8

Moisture content

4.92

8

9

10

Chestnut

Hazelnut

Pistachio

[92]

[93]

[94]

Agro-Waste Applications for Bioremediation  407 quantity of resources. To prevent this, many researchers have commenced research into its possible applications, counting the use of bio-material nut shells to generate activated carbon. The efficiency of ligno-cellulosic stuff as bio-sorbent from the prepared aqueous solution is because of attraction in between the water molecule and constituents of cell wall. These materials have greatly porous structure and a large surface area. Different types of nut shells such as Cashew, Almond, Ginkgo, Coconut, Walnut, Pine nuts, Peanut, Pistachio, Chestnut, Hazelnut, etc., are used for the textile effluent remediation [85, 86]. The composition of different nut shells is described in the Table 18.5.

18.4.5.1 Role of Nutshells in Wastewater Remediation Researchers applied the peanut shell for adsorption of trichloroethylene in order to clean water [95] and for the synthesis of activated carbon [96]. Researchers used walnut shells for the synthesis of activated carbon and analyzed its properties [97] and the microwave radiations were used for the formulation of activated carbon from coconut shells with greater surface area [98]. In another study, pistachio shells were used for the formulation of activated carbon [99]. Researchers studied that macadamia nut shell could be used as magnetic nano-sorbents [100] and adsorption of Cd by using coconut shells [101]. The activated carbon prepared by Cashew nut shell was applied in order to remove Methylene Blue dye from textile effluent [102]. The Mucuna puriens seed shells, were processed, treated and activated using 60% orthophosphoric acid for eradication of Malachite Green and Congo Red dyes from an aqueous solution [103]. In a previous study, adsorption of copper, zinc, cadmium, and lead that were present in industrial effluent on the carbon formed from the nutshells of pistachio, walnut, hazelnut, apricot stone, and almond has been explored [104]. In a previous research, removal of lead from wastewater was done using fluted pumpkin seed shell activated carbon [105]. In another investigation, the copper ions removal from prepared aqueous solutions was done by hazelnut shell [106].

18.4.6 Peels The waste stuff of peel is plentifully available from the agriculture and the food processing industry that has been researched as an adsorbent in recent years. The composition of different peels is given in Table 18.6.

408  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Table 18.6  Composition of different peels. Sr. no.

Peel

Composition

Percentage (%)

Reference

1

Orange

Soluble sugars

16.9

[107]

Cellulose

9.21

Hemicellulose

10.5

Pectin

42.5

Moisture

5.2

Ash

9.8

Cellulose

12.1

Hemicellulose

10.2

Lignin

2.9

Cellulose

12.72

Hemicellulose

5.30

Lignin

1.73

Ash

1.92

Pectin

3.4

Cellulose

2.2

Protein

14.7

Starch

66.8

Ash

7.7

2

3

4

Banana

Lemon

Potato

[108]

[109]

[110]

18.4.6.1 Role of Peels in Textile Water Treatment In an investigation, banana peels were used for the treatment of heavy metals, for example, Zn, Cr, and Pb. The batch series of experiments and the conditions (adsorbent dosage, size of particle, pH, and time of contact) were studied. The adsorbent stimulated by using 0.5 M sulphuric acid exhibited the maximum removal percentage 88.9% of chromium ion at 6 pH [111].  In the previous study, the adsorption potential of

Agro-Waste Applications for Bioremediation  409 the peels of Citrus limonum (lemon) as a bio-sorbent in order to eradicate two anionic dyes such as Methyl Orange (MO) and Congo Red (CR) from their prepared solutions was investigated. The maximum bio-­sorption using peels of lemon for MO and CR dyes was found to be 50.3 and 34.5 mg/g, respectively [112]. The study was carried out for the wastewater treatment by means of low cost bio-sorbents. By carbonization method, the banana and lemon peels were applied as adsorbents. The carbonization process is considered to be highly effective for both the lemon and banana peels, the lemon peel showed 60% as its maximum percentage of BOD removal [113]. Orange peels showed the maximum efficiency for removal of heavy metals [114]. The peels of potato were investigated for elimination of poisonous metal ions from textile effluent has been investigated. The potato peels modified with charcoal (PPC) was studied as bio-sorbent of Copper from the prepared solutions. The isotherm and kinetic models were employed to study the influences of different conditions, for example, solid-liquid ratios, pH, and temperature. The optimize pH for copper adsorption was found to be 6.0. The thermodynamic conditions such as enthalpy, entropy, and the Gibb’s free energy were calculated by employing the Van’t Hoff equation [115].The heavy metals bio-sorption onto the burnt potato peels (BPP) and raw potato peels (RPP) was described. Both adsorbents were evidenced to be effective in eradicating Co+2, Cu+2, Cd+2, Fe+2, Ni+2 Pb+2, and La+3 from the prepared solutions. BPP was found to be more competent adsorbent as compared to RPP.  The adsorption capacity (qm) was 239.64 mg/g for BPP [116]. The bio-sorption ability of potato peels was studied in order to remove Cd+2, Zn+2, and Pb+2 ions from synthesized aqueous solutions. The sorption of heavy metal ions under investigation is strongly dependent on time of contact, initial concentration metal ion, pH, and temperature, while independent on particle size of adsorbent. The percentage removals were 92%, 75%, and 42% for Pb+2, Cd+2, and Zn+2, respectively at 100 mg/L initial concentration of metal ions at room temperature. The eradication was done in following the order of Pb+2 > Cd+2 > Zn+2 [117].

18.4.7 Bagasse From the waste by-product of plants, it is a highly waste matter that was produced as by-product from the sugarcane industry. Bagasse is the fiber residual after the withdrawal of sugar-bearing juice from  the sugarcane. The composition of different bagasses is given in Table 18.7.

410  Recycling from Waste in Fashion and Textiles Table 18.7  Composition of different bagasses. Sr. no

Bagasse

Composition

Percentage (%)

Reference

1

Sugarcane

Cellulose

45–55

[118]

Hemicellulose

20–25

Lignin

18–24

Ash

1–4

Waxes