Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea: Tongguk sesigi by Toae Hong Sŏk-mo 9780824891596

Citation preview

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

KOREAN CLASSICS LIBRARY: HISTORICAL MATERIALS

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea Tongguk sesigi by Toae Hong Sŏk-mo

translated, annotated, and with an introduction by

Werner Sasse

University of Hawai‘i Press/Honolulu Korean Classics Library

© 2022 The Regents of the University of California All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 27 26 25 24 23 22    6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Hong, Sŏng-mo, author. | Sasse, Werner, translator, annotator,   writer of introduction. Title: Record of the seasonal customs of Korea = Tongguk sesigi / by Toae   Hong Sŏk-mo; ; translated, annotated, and with an introduction by   Werner Sasse. Other titles: Tongguk sesigi. English | Korean classics library.   Historical materials. Description: Honolulu : University of Hawai‘i Press, 2021. | Series: Korean   classics library. Historical materials | Includes bibliographical   references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021023727 (print) | LCCN 2021023728 (ebook) | ISBN   9780824891589 (hardback) | ISBN 9780824891602 (epub) | ISBN   9780824891619 (kindle edition) | ISBN 9780824891596 (pdf) Subjects: LCSH: Seasons--Korea--Folklore. | Folklore--Korea. |   Classification: LCC DS904 .H6713 2021 (print) | LCC DS904 (ebook) | DDC   951.9--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021023727 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021023728 Korean Classics Library: Historical Materials Series Editors: Robert E. Buswell, Jr., University of California, Los Angeles John B. Duncan, University of California, Los Angeles Namhee Lee, University of California, Los Angeles Series Editorial Board: Donald Baker, University of British Columbia Sun Joo Kim, Harvard University James B. Lewis, Oxford University A. Charles Muller, Tokyo University Young-chan Ro, George Mason University Kenneth R. Robinson, Aichi University Edward Shultz, University of Hawai‘i, Mānoa Senior Editor: Jennifer Jung-Kim, University of California, Los Angeles This work was supported by the English Translation of 100 Korean Classics program through the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the Korean Studies Promotion Service of the Academy of Korean Studies (AKS-2010-AAA-2102). University of Hawai‘i Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources.

In memory of Chŏng Sŭng-mo (1953–2012), former director of the Research Center of Regional Culture

Contents



List of Tables

ix



Chronology

xi

Part I Translator’s Introduction

3

Part II Translation: Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea (Tongguk sesigi) Preface by Yi Cha-yu First Lunar Month Second Month Third Month Fourth Lunar Month Fifth Month Sixth Month Seventh Month Eighth Month Ninth Month Tenth Month Eleventh Month Twelfth Month Intercalary Month

17 17 19 36 38 42 45 49 52 52 54 54 57 59 63



65

Abbreviations

Notes

67



Bibliography

131



Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

155



Index of Government, Offices, and Titles

169



Index of Geographic Names (Administrational Units) and Place-Names Mentioned in the Tongguk sesigi

173



Index of Food, Beverages, and Ingredients

179

Tables

Table 1. Number of Paragraphs in the Three Representative Texts about Korean Seasonal Customs Table 2. Geographical Distribution of Regional Rituals and Customs Table 3. Number of Rituals and Customs per Month Table 4. Number of Paragraphs for Special Days in the Tongguk sesigi Table 5. The Twelve Earthly Branches and the Corresponding Animals of the Twelve-Year Cycle Table 6. Birth Years in the Twelve-Year Cycle and the Corresponding Calamity Years Table 7. The Sixty-Year Cycle (the Ten Celestial Stems Combined with the Twelve Earthly Branches)

9 10 11 11 75 76 84

ix

Chronology

The following chronology lists only empires and kingdoms mentioned in the introduction, translation, notes, and/or bibliography.

China Xia 夏 (?–17th c.? BCE) Zhou 周 (1045–221 BCE) Chu 楚, originally named Jing 荊 (ca. 11th c.–221 BCE) Yan 燕 (ca. 11th c.–221 BCE) Qi 齊 (ca. 11th c.–221 BCE) Qin 秦 (? –206 BCE) (first unification of China 221–206) Western Zhou 西周 period (ca. 11th c.–771 BCE) Spring-and-Autumn period 春秋 (771–476 BCE) Warring States period 戰國 (475–221 BCE) Qin 秦 (221–206 BCE) Former Han 前漢 (206 BCE–8 CE) Later Han 後漢 (25–220 CE) Three Kingdoms period 三國 (220–280) Wei 魏 (220–265) Han 漢 (221–263) Wu 吳 (222–280) Jin 晉 (265–420) Western Jin 西晉 (265–317) Eastern Jin 東晉 (317–420) Sixteen Kingdoms period 十六國 (304–439) Former Yan 前燕 (337–370) Later Yan 後燕 (384–409) Southern Yan 南燕 (398–410) Northern Yan 北燕 (409–436) Eastern Wei 東魏 (534–550) Northern Zhou 北周 (557–581) Sui 隋 (581–618) Liao 遼 (916–1125) xi

xii

Chronology

Five Dynasties period Later Jin 後晉 (936–947) Later Zhou 後周 (951–960) Song 宋 (960–1279) Northern Song period 北宋 (960–1126) Southern Song period 南宋 (1127–1279) Jin 金 (1115–1234) Yuan 元 (Mongol) (1279–1368) Ming 明 (1368–1644) Southern Ming 南明 (1644–1662) Qing 淸 (Manchu) (1644–1912)

Korea Kaya 伽倻 (1st c.?–532/562 CE) Paekche 百濟 (trad. 18 BCE–663 CE) Silla 新羅 (trad. 57 BCE–935 CE) Koguryŏ 高句麗 (trad. 37 BCE–668 CE) Parhae (Ch. Bohai) 渤海 (698–926) Later Paekche 後百濟 (892–936) Koryŏ 高麗 (Wang 王 dynasty) (918–1392) Chosŏn (Yi 李 dynasty) (1392–1910)

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Translator’s Introduction

The Tongguk sesigi, literally “Record of the Seasonal Customs of the Country in the East,” a manuscript completed in 1849, is the most comprehensive summary of traditional Korean customs and festivals found in premodern Korean literature. In almanac form it records palace events, rituals, entertainments, seasonal foods, special food and drink consumed on special days and holidays, and farm work, all discussed in separate chronological sections divided according to lunar months and the intercalary month. In many of his descriptions of Korean habits and customs, the author looks to Chinese sources for similarities and contrasts and possible origins, often critically assessing notions generally accepted within the culture. Quotations that are accompanied by such assessments start with “an 按,” the equivalent of nota bene. The language of the text, written in literary Chinese, is for the most part descriptive and matter-of-fact, interspersed with the occasional poetic flourish. There have been several translations into modern Korean in the last few decades, indicative of the text’s wide use today in Korea as a readily available source for both popular and scholarly descriptions of traditional Korean food, customs, farmers’ work, and entertainments. The author of the Tongguk sesigi is Hong Sŏk-mo 洪錫謨 (pronounced Hong Sŏngmo) (1781–1857), writing under the pen name Toae 陶厓, one of eight pen names he used.1 Until recently, little was known about his life other than that he was a prolific writer whose collected works, Toaejip 陶‌厓‌集, and poetry collection, Toae sijip 陶厓詩集, survived in libraries. Chŏng Sŭng-mo, one of the modern translators of the Tongguk sesigi, discovered that Hong Sŏk-mo belonged to the influential P’ungsan Hong family 豊山洪氏 of the city of Andong in Kyŏngsang Province, with a family tree going back to 1242. In several generations daughters of this family were married into the court, among them Lady Hyegyŏng 恵慶 (1735–1816), also known as Queen Hŏn’gyŏng 獻敬王后. She was the wife of the murdered crown prince Sado 思悼世子 (1735–1762) and mother of King Chŏngjo 正祖 (r. 1776–1800) as well as the author of the famous autobiography Record of Sorrowful Days 3

4

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

(Hanjungnok 閑中錄).2 Chŏng Sŭng-mo also found Toae Hong Sŏk-mo to be an eighteenth-generation descendant of the family’s founder in the lineage of the Ch’uman’gong 秋巒公 branch of the Hong family, and Lady Hyegyŏng in the seventeenth generation was his aunt.3 During his youth, and indeed throughout his life, Toae Hong Sŏk-mo traveled extensively around the country, visiting some places several times;4 he also traveled to China as a member of a regular diplomatic mission. He had passed the lower civil servant examination in 1804 and for some time worked as magistrate (junior 3rd rank) in the city of Namwŏn in North Chŏlla Province.5 As an administrator and scholar, his writings include philosophical treatises, essays, and poetry, many of them about the customs and life in the countryside of the Korea of his day. Among his verse compositions is a cycle of 126 poems, each seven characters per line, entitled Toha sesi kisoksi 都下歲時紀俗詩 (Poems recording the seasonal customs in the capital).6 His prose composition Tongguk sesigi, which collects similar materials from all over the country, can be seen as the ultimate product of this long-standing interest.7 Since the Toha sesi kisoksi was finished in 1847 and the Tongguk sesigi two years later, it has been argued that the prose Tongguk sesigi is a kind of commentary on the poetry cycle,8 although the latter’s preface does not make any such implication. In the Tongguk sesigi’s preface, written by an otherwise unknown Kogyang Yi Cha-yu 縠瀼 李子有 (1786–1850?),9 reference is made to the Chinese sixth-century CE Jing Chu suishi ji (Record of the seasonal customs of the Jing Chu region) as a model for the text, in which the Chinese text is actually quoted nine times, second only to the ancient Liji. The Liji, one of the Five Classics (Wujing 五經) of the Chinese Confucian tradition, was known to everyone in the educated class because it was one of the texts used in the government examination system. The original of the Jing Chu suishi ji is lost, the available editions having been reconstructed from quotations found in later encyclopedias. Chu 楚, originally named Jing 荊, was one of the Warring States (475–221) in the south of China (modern Hubei and Hunan). In thirty-seven sections, “Zong Lin describes annual festivals of the region in short and adds commentaries to the origin as seen from different literary sources. Some festivals can be traced back to historical events or persons, some to agricultural activities, others to the veneration of deities or ancestors; irregular festivities are related to diseases and their curing, marriage and childbirth, dances and bodily activities, or to the expelling of evil ghosts.”10 In general terms the Jing Chu suishi ji belongs to a genre of annual calendars called Ch. yueling 月令, “monthly ordinances” or “monthly decrees,” so called after the yueling in the Liji. The oldest extant example



Translator's Introduction

5

is the Xia xiaozheng (The small calendar of the Xia), also transmitted in the Liji, considered to date from the second millennium BCE. The Xia state—if it existed at all—was based around the mid-eastern part of the Yellow River. In this small text of only 473 Chinese characters with obvious omissions and some errors, there are “twelve months subdivided into sections on astronomical configurations, phenology, and agricultural, hunting, sericultural and stock-raising activities.”11 About the first month, for example, it is said that the star Ju 鞠 appears. At the beginning of dusk, the constellation Shen 參 [reaches the zenith]. The tail of the Northern Dipper (beidou 北斗) points downwards. At that time favorable wind prevails. It is necessary that there [be] thunder in the first month. The farmer goes out as soon as the snow is melting. The frost fades, and people remove the remaining dirt. The hibernating animals wake up, the wild geese appear in the northern villages, the pheasant cries excitedly, the fish appear and break the ice, in the gardens sprouts the leek, the voles come out, the otters “offer” fish, the eagles behave like turtledoves. The willows push, the plums, apricots and peaches begin to flower, nodules cover the herb gao 縞, and the chicks breed and feed.12

The poem “Qiyue” 七月 (Seventh Month) in the Shijing (Classic of odes), book 15, Odes of Bin 豳, which is also quoted in the manuscript, is another of the early texts of the tradition of the yueling. The contents reflect agricultural activities and phenological observations at the lower reaches of the Yellow, Huai, and Yangtze Rivers dating from the Western Zhou (‌西周, ca. 11th c.–771 BCE). The title is misleading; according to Chinese traditional citation practice, “Seventh Month” refers only to the two first characters of the poem, which actually relates information for the first to the tenth lunar months.13 The early yueling texts, with their concentration on the cosmological foundation and phenological observation of the annual changes, of court rituals, and of farmers’ work, evolved over time in two distinct ways. The first evolution was to extend and correct astronomical observations, which were made necessary because, during the long expanse of Chinese history, the astronomical calculations had to follow the cosmological changes.14 Another accommodation was to the reality that the beginning of the lunar year changed several times in Chinese history. In the agricultural society of traditional Korea, the necessity of exact calculations for each year is reflected by the fact that, as Hong Sŏk-mo reports in the second paragraph of the “Winter Solstice” section of the Tongguk sesigi, the king himself

6

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

bestowed calendars on all officials on this day. This custom is based on Chinese p ­ ractice, where the emperor had the exclusive right to promulgate the calendar, which had been prepared by high-ranking ministers. The second evolution accommodates the fact that the different yueling were written for states located in climatically different areas of China. In the course of things, the texts also increasingly incorporated later philosophical principles and elaborated on the prescriptions for the rituals. There was, as well, a shift of focus from prescriptions for the king or emperor and the people regarding rituals to more detailed descriptions of the practical aspects of the rituals, customs, and habits of farmers, thus adding a kind of social dimension. These texts with their ethnological data, of which the Jing Chu suishi ji is an example, are sufficiently different from the earlier monthly ordinances that they arguably constitute a new genre, which we may call “farmers’ calendars.” The Tongguk sesigi, being purely descriptive, belongs to this new genre. Although in these farmers’ calendars most months start with events at court, much of the information is about customs that take place in the countryside. The meaning of the Chinese word yueling (K. wŏllyŏng) has also broadened from “monthly ordinances” or “monthly decrees,” which were originally connected with the emperor or king, to a general meaning of “monthly procedures,” as, for example, in the Nongga wŏllyŏng ka (The farmers’ monthly procedures), a long poem (K. kasa) of uncertain authorship that describes farm life and work as well as various agricultural festivities. This poem was obviously written originally by a landlord and was transmitted orally in eleven versions, the shortest one having 310 lines, the longest, 519 lines.15 In the later eighteenth century, several poetry collections named wŏllyŏng were published both in the style of the Korean vernacular and of Chinese poetry. These collections were also variously called kisok-si (記俗‌詩, “poems describing customs”), like the Toha sesi kisoksi by Hong Sŏk-mo mentioned above, pungyo (風謠, “popular songs”), wŏlsok-si (月俗詩, “poems describing monthly customs”), and so forth. As mentioned above, Hong Sŏk-mo’s text not only described Korean events and customs, but it also compared them with Chinese farmers’ calendars and other literary and philosophical sources. Many rituals and customs, he suggests, were imported from China, even as he notes similarities and differences between Korea and China. Quotes from almost fifty Chinese sources, most of them identified by either title or author’s name, were used in making these comparisons, while only thirteen from Korea served to give some of the Korean customs antiquity. He tries to find the origins of rituals and customs, often remarking that a custom has been part of Korean culture for a long time. For interpretation and evaluation



Translator's Introduction

7

in these comparisons, he uses fourteen different classification phrases, a sign of the critical precision of his scholarship.16 This critical approach is an example of anti-orthodox scholarship, which, since the late sixteenth century in China, Korea, and Japan, had advocated, in addition to textcritical philological studies, that reality should be examined and activities judged by the possibility of their practical application. This scholarship, often characterized as scientifically modern, is known as “practical learning” or “pragmatic learning” (‌實學, Ch. shixue, K. sirhak,17 J. jitsugaku). The parallel development in the intellectual scene in the three countries was possible because of the close interactions facilitated by diplomatic missions. The author of the Tongguk sesigi, as mentioned above, traveled to China several times as an envoy of the Korean court. In Korea, this trend in scholarship met with a growing awareness of Korean reality and culture as being different from the facts and circumstances in China. But this awareness actually started earlier still, an outstanding example being the scholarship on the many diverse fields King Sejong the Great (r. 1418–1450) initiated. The famous opening lines of the Hunmin chŏngŭm (Correct sounds for the instruction of the people), which promulgated the newly invented Korean alphabetic syllabary, may suffice to show his attitude. “The sounds of our language differ from those in China,”18 the text proclaims. While the awareness of difference was in evidence as early as the fifteenth century, it became stronger at a time when intellectual circles in China, Korea, and Japan were in close interaction, and the general trend in scholarship was to interpret culture through historical research, looking for a basis in antiquity of a common cultural sphere with China as the center. Important sources for this universalistic research were the encyclopedias brought from China by diplomatic missions and other travelers. Evidence of extensive use of this material by Toae Hong Sŏk-mo is his inclusion of many quotations from sources that had been lost long before his time and available only in encyclopedias. A sentence in Kogyang Yi Cha-yu’s preface, “The book will certainly be used as a reference for many generations,” points to the author’s hope for its practical application at a time when “growing self-confidence among Koreans, as Chosŏn (Yi dynasty, 1392–1910) survived into its third century, led to new directions in Korean scholarship. One such trend was a stronger interest in identifying and promoting distinctive Korean components of Korean civilization.”19 Even so, for whatever reason, there are no known handwritten copies or print versions of the Tongguk sesigi before the Chosŏn Kwangmun-hoe edition of 1911 (discussed below), when the manuscript had been handed over for publication by the author’s great-grandson Hong Sŭng-kyŏng 洪承敬 (1876–1947).

8

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

The notion that “the book will certainly be used as a reference for many generations” also raises the question of authorial intent: Might one of the author’s goals have been to save, or even revive, customs he only knew from literature? Were all the customs he described actually observed during Toae’s time? While answering these questions seems impossible today, it would be especially important for ethnological and historical research in cases of the information about areas far removed from the capital given in quotations that are taken from the Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam (Newly enlarged geographical survey of Korea). The final version of this gazetteer is from 1612, printed 240 years, or about eight generations, before Toae’s time, but based on versions dating from 1486, 1499, and 1531. All other early Korean sources quoted, starting with the Kim Kŭk-ki chip (Collected works of Kim Kŭk-ki) (12th c.) and up to a poem by Yi Kwang-nyŏ (1720–1783), are illustrating examples from literature given only after an event or custom has been described by Toae. But the quotations from the Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam are matter-of-fact descriptions of the events themselves and normally quoted verbatim. It is difficult to decide whether the customs described were still being followed in Toae’s time. At least one case, however, the drinking party and archery contest at the Dragon Pond or Chestnut Wood at [North Chŏlla] Namwŏn in spring, seems to indicate that the author’s quotation from the Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam was intended to show that customs observed in his day were time-honored. After all, Toae had been magistrate in the city, and he could have given a description of the ritual as he himself had witnessed it rather than quoting from a book published eight generations before his time. The Tongguk sesigi is regarded as the premier source for descriptions of traditional Korean culture and is the text most often cited in the recent trend to recover Korean cultural roots and revive moribund traditions. It must also be viewed as part of the previously mentioned general trend in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, when research into the history and cultural studies was seen as one way to establish distinctive Chinese, Korean, and Japanese national identities in a common East Asian cultural sphere. The Kyŏngdo chapchi (Miscellaneous notes on the capital) and the Yŏryang sesigi (Record of the annual seasons of Yŏryang [Seoul]), discussed below, were also part of this effort. It was therefore understandable why the Chosŏn Kwangmun-hoe published the three together as a single volume in 1911.20 Unfortunately, for technical reasons, the Chosŏn Kwangmun-hoe publication had to be issued machine set in modern printing, which resulted in quite a number of occasionally serious mistakes. These mistakes were not corrected in the many modern translations and in research papers for almost a century, until finally Chŏng Sŭng-mo decided to have a look at the origi-



Translator's Introduction

9

nal manuscript and published corrected versions. He also published annotated translations, this time based on the original, photocopies of which he appended in Chosŏn tae sesigi III (hereafter given as KMP), so they can now easily be used by anyone eager to produce serious scholarship by quoting from the original rather than from secondary material or translations.21 While much similar information on annual customs can be found scattered among many sources, especially from the second half of Chosŏn,22 some of which are quoted in Toae’s text, the comprehensive account of the Tongguk sesigi is unsurpassed. Other important source materials are descriptions found in diaries or poetry as well as in official reports, but their scope is restricted both geographically and temporally. As already mentioned, most important are the two earlier similar calendars, which are often quoted together with the Tongguk sesigi, namely, the Kyŏngdo chapchi and the Yŏryang sesigi.23 But the focus of the two texts is limited to the court and the capital area and they describe fewer days and activities, as is shown in Table 1.24 The Tongguk sesigi is not only more detailed, it is also more comprehensive in that it covers customs and events in many areas over the whole of Korea. Leaving aside information on the court and the king’s activities, with appear at the beginning of some months’ entries, the number of descriptions for places in the various provinces is shown in Table 2. Many quotations about events in the provinces are taken almost

Table 1  N  umber of Paragraphs in the Three Representative Texts about Korean Seasonal Customs

1st month 2nd month 3rd month 4th month 5th month 6th month 7th month 8th month 9th month 10th month 11th month 12th month Intercalary month

Kyŏngdo-chapchi

Yŏryang-sesigi

Tongguk-sesigi

55  4  2  3 10  4  1  2  1  1  3  8  0

55 10  5  2  9  6  2  2  1  5  3  9  0

108   9  31  10  25  11   5   4   3  13  14  24   4

10

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Table 2  Geographical Distribution of Regional Rituals and Customs Province

Number of rituals/customs

Kyŏngsang Province Ch’ungch’ŏng Province Kyŏnggi Province P’yŏngan Province Chŏlla Province Cheju Province Seoul City (outside of the palace) Kangwŏn Province Hwanghae Province Hamgyŏng Province

29 15 13 10 10 10  9  7  5  4

­ erbatim from the Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam. And it is open to specuv lation whether the outstanding number of events from Kyŏngsang Province reflects the fact that the home of the P’ungsan Hong family lies in the P’ungsan district in the city of Andong in this province. As for the court and the capital, many entries are adopted, also verbatim, from the earlier two calendars mentioned above. There is an uneven distribution of subjects over the different months. This distribution is important because it shows which months, and by extension which cosmic events related to farm work (many rituals and customs being a continuation in a different context of the hand labor of farm work), carried special significance for the agricultural society of traditional Korea (see Table 3).25 The greater detail in the paragraph counts shown in Table 4 reveals the significance of special dates within the months in Hong Sŏk-mo’s opinion. At the end of most months, there is a section titled “[Also] within the month” (月內) for events with unfixed dates, another special feature of the text. It must be noted, however, that not all special days were traditionally calculated according to the lunar calendar; some are solar calendar days, for example Clear and Bright Festival and Cold Meals Day. It is interesting to see here a difference in traditional and modern emphasis. Autumn Full Moon Evening (Chusŏk 秋夕), for instance, which in modern times is a major holiday bringing public life almost to a standstill and resulting in endless traffic jams, is of minor importance in Toae’s text, it being given only three paragraphs, while First Full Moon Day 上元日 (1.15) has fortyeight paragraphs, New Year’s Day 元日 (1.1) twenty-three, and Tano 端午 (5.5) eighteen paragraphs.

Table 3  Number of Rituals and Customs per Month Month

Number of rituals/customs

1st month 2nd month 3rd month 4th month 5th month 6th month 7th month 8th month 9th month 10th month 11th month 12th month Intercalary month  Total

 98  12  34  12  21  18   6  10   3  17  14  22   2 269

Table 4  Number of Paragraphs for Special Days in the Tongguk sesigi Days

First Month New Year’s Day 元日 (1.1) “Spring Begins” 立春 Birth of Man Day 人日 Day of the Pig and Day of the Rat 上亥上子日 Day of the Rabbit and Day of the Snake 卯巳日 First Full Moon Day 上元日 (1.15) Also within the Month 月內  Total Second Month New Moon Day 朔日 (2.1) Also within the Month 月內  Total Third Month Third Day (Samjit-nal) 삼질날 (3.3) Clear and Bright Festival 淸明 Cold Meals Day 寒食 Also within the month 月內  Total

Number of mentions

23  7  3  5  4 48  8 98  8  4 12  4  2  3 25 34 (continued)

Table 4 Number of Paragraphs for Special Days in the Tongguk sesigi (continued) Days

Fourth Month Eighth Day 初八日(4.8) Also within the month 月內  Total Fifth Month Tano 端午 (5.5) Also within the month 月內  Total Sixth Month Yudu Day 流頭 (6.15) Three Heat Days 三伏 Also within the month 月內  Total Seventh Month Seventh Evening (chilsŏk) 七夕 (7.7) One Hundred Seeds Day 中元 (7.15) Also within the month 月內  Total Eighth Month Autumn Full Moon Evening 秋夕 Also within the month 月內  Total Ninth Month Ninth Day (Chungyang) 重陽 (9.9)  Total Tenth Month Horse Day 午日(馬日) Also within the month 月內  Total Eleventh Month Winter Solstice 冬至 Also within the month 月內  Total Twelfth Month Winter Sacrifice Day 臘日 Evening of Riddance 除夕 (12.28) Also within the month 月內  Total Intercalary Month  Total

Number of mentions

 5  7 12 18  3 21  6  2 10 18  1  4  1  6  3  7 10  3  3  1 16 17  3 11 14  7 11  4 22  2  2



Translator's Introduction

13

About the Translation Before the edition of 1911 mentioned above, there does not seem to have been a printed version of the Tongguk sesigi. There existed only the original manuscript, which today is in the library of Yonsei University in Seoul (a photolithographic reproduction having been made available by Chŏng Sŭng-mo in KMP.) It comprises forty-two sheets of 31 × 20.5 cm,26 ten lines with space for 210 characters per page. The manuscript is not damaged, and the handwriting of the author is easily readable. While sentences in the text are not marked, headlines separate special days and holidays, and paragraphing subdivides these sections according to events, rituals, customs, and places. Paragraphs in my translation follow the segmentation of the original text. Not only does the Tongguk sesigi provide insights into the history of social customs in Korea, but it also helps to place Korean customs within a kind of universal context, thanks to its constant references to Chinese customs and sources. The translation that follows this introduction will make it possible for researchers in Japanese, Chinese, and Vietnamese studies to gain deeper insight into similarities, differences, and mutual exchanges in the East Asian cultures that have traditionally used the Chinese written language as their lingua franca. While this scholarly interest may already be enough justification for making the Tongguk sesigi available in an English translation, the wealth of information on seasonal customs is interesting also for the general reader looking, for instance, for information on special food and beverages, which are available all year round today but which originally were bound to specific seasons and festivals. The appendixes and glossary at the end of the book provide a wealth of information meant to provide easy availability for reference. Korean culture was in turmoil for over one hundred years, beginning in 1910 with colonization by the Japanese and continuing after liberation with the modernization that transformed Korea from an agricultural into an industrialized country. The result is that knowledge of the way of life and worldview before this period of rapid change is almost forgotten. To render the translation understandable for the modern reader, both Korean and foreigner, extensive explanatory information is given in the notes. These days we see in South Korea a move to recover forgotten elements of traditional culture and reinterpret them to fit our time. People are searching for their Korean identity in the globalized world, and politicians and scholars are trying to define a “Korean culture theory.” This process started during the Cold War as an attempt to create a national cultural ­ideology

14

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

against the threat of communist internationality and continues today in reaction to economic and cultural diversification coincident on international exchange.27 Tongguk sesigi is one of the most important sources for understanding the origins and signification of Korean identity, as evident from the number of times it is quoted in books and articles about special features of regional cultures, a revival movement having gained political significance since the 1990s.28

Translation

Preface by Yi Cha-yu For years on New Year’s Day and on First Full Moon Day I have composed prose poems and many verses describing some of our customs in truncated style,1 and those who saw them have regarded them as perfect or smiled [approvingly]. I therefore thought of recording our old seasonal customs one by one following the flow of the seasons. But idling, I wasted my time and did not find enough leisure for all these years. Now I am weak, and the power of the pen has left me so that I can no longer write down whatever comes to my mind. Then one day my friend Toae Hong [Sŏk-mo] came and presented a manuscript, saying, “This is a description of the Eastern Country’s [Korea’s] seasonal customs. In China, there have been not a few who wrote such books since the one by Zong Lin, but up to now there have been none for our country. Therefore, I have, albeit with limited success, followed his example and written down our different local customs. Any book needs a preface [for it] to be trusted, however, so please look at [my manuscript] and write one for me.” I accepted and read the manuscript through to the end—all twenty-three chapters from the First until the Twelfth Month. Cases where the exact date could not be ascertained are listed separately at the end of each [chapter], and the requirements of the intercalary month are added in a final chapter. From the near capital to the faraway poverty-stricken borders, even the most vulgar events have been recorded meticulously as long as they take place on a festival day, no matter how rough and rustic they may seem. And whenever customs and written records collected from far and wide were the same [in Korea and in China], evidence of the original sources is indicated. Sufficient proof is given, recording also all mistakes, omissions, and change, by going back to the original [sources]. In this way, not only are the customs of our country 17

18

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

described in comparison with the splendid antiquity of China, but it also becomes clear in many instances how strictly they retained the same written wording. [Toae Hong’s] power of expression is masterly. The book will certainly be used as a reference for many generations. However, having tasted just one small piece of meat from a large bowl of soup, how can I write an exposition about the real taste of the soup [in total]? Alas, when Mr. Hong was in his youth, what did those hoping for his future say to themselves? [Did they say,] “Among all men, it would not be overestimating that in the palace secretariat2 he would be an outstanding talent?”3 But in the end he suffered many a setback and was blocked from advancing. He took leave from the Palace Library and the king’s books, with their brilliant and elegant writings worth reciting to others, and sojourned without office, white haired and idle. But how could it be wrong to relieve oneself from boredom with poetry, expressing one’s loneliness and discontent? What he has written here—[the product of] his whiling away time to overcome boredom—likewise contains all customs of the entire country throughout the year along with references to written sources about them. I dare say, in many respects it exceeds the common views [of these customs] and the sketchy treatises of Mr. Zong [Lin] and others. For days, I have indulged in enjoyment of this work, and now, unable to return it empty-handed, I send it back having written this much. In the year Kiyu [1849 CE], four days after the Double Yang Day4 Idler Kogyang Yi Cha-yu5



Tongguk sesigi

19

RECORD OF THE SEASONAL CUSTOMS OF KOREA Compiled by Toae Hong Sŏk-mo and respectfully submitted First Lunar Month New Year’s Day On New Year’s Day the ministers of the state council lead all government officials to the royal palace to pay their respects to the king and to present written memoranda6 and cloth.7 [They] gather in front of the Royal Audience Hall for the Great Morning Congratulatory Ceremony.8 The governors of the eight provinces, army and navy commanders, and the city magistrates present memoranda and special products of their locality. All high officials of cities, greater and lesser counties, and districts also come and take their place according to their ranks. The ceremony of presenting memoranda is also held [at the time of] the winter solstice. In the capital the custom [on New Year’s Day] is to go and worship at the head family’s shrine in what is known as the tea ceremony.9 Young boys and girls are dressed in new clothes called [New] Year’s dress.10 They visit the head and the elders of the family, a custom known as paying respect on the [new] year.11 [The name for the] special foods prepared for entertaining guests on this day is [New] Year’s delicacies,12 and the beverages are called [New] Year’s liquor.13 Cui Shi in his [Simin] yueling wrote that on New Year’s Day people purified and worshiped the ancestors, drinking “pepper-thuja liquor” and “dispel-and-revive liquor,”14 and the Jing Chu suishi ji by Zong Lin reads that “on New Year’s Day ‘dispel-and-revive liquor’ and sweet toffee15 are offered.”16 This is the origin of [New] Year’s liquor and [New] Year’s delicacies. The married women of the family send well-adorned young maids, so-called well-wishing maids, to wish each other a peaceful new year. Ch’ambong Yi Kwang-nyŏ wrote in a poem, “Whose house’s well-wishing maid enters whose house for New Year’s greetings?” Clerks and slaves17 of all government offices as well as officers and common soldiers of all barracks write their names on a list on paper [that they fold] and present it at the house of their superior or master. At the house, a lacquer plate, called a [New] Year’s box (seham), is provided to receive the papers. This is also the [custom] in provincial public offices. Wang Qi wrote in his Yupu zaji, “It is customary in the capital that every New Year’s morning all masters go to pay [their] respects. But if only an empty guestbook, a brush, and an ink stone are provided on a small table for the well-wishers to write

20

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

down their names, it is not really welcoming them.”18 This is probably the origin of the [New] Year’s box. Steamed rice flour is put on a large board, pounded with a wooden mallet for a long time, and then formed into long rolls called white rice cakes.19 These are cut into thin slices about the size of a coin, cooked in water with soy sauce, with beef or pheasant meat added, and spiced with Chinese pepper. [The dish] is called rice cake soup. As this soup is offered in ancestor worship as well as when entertaining guests, it will never be missing from the New Year’s delicatessen. Because [the rice cake slices] are cooked in soup, they are what in the old days were called soft noodles.20 In the marketplaces they are also sold as seasonal food. On somebody’s birthday a common congratulation is “How many bowls of rice cake soup have you eaten?” An annotation to Lu Fangweng’s “Epic Poem on the New Year” says,21 “It is a custom in the countryside without fail to have cake soup at [New] Year, which is called ‘winter wonton’ or ‘[New] Year wheaten noodles,’ ”22 [This is] apparently an old custom. Flour of non-glutinous rice is steamed in an earthenware steamer together with cooked red bean bran in alternating layers of more-or-less equal thickness. Flour of glutinous rice can be used instead. This is called rice steamer cake.23 It is used to pray to the gods on New Year’s Day, at memorial rites on the first and the fifteenth of the month, and actually also when praying to the gods on any other day. The Royal Secretariat selects civil officials among the chamberlains and other officials of senior 4th rank and below to create and present congratulatory poems to the king. The [Secretariat] gives promoters of learning in the Office of Royal Decrees and the Office of Special Councilors (Kwan’gak 館‌閣) the order to create poems in the short style with five or seven syllables per line.24 These are examined and graded, and the accepted ones are written on paper and pasted on the main beams and pillars of all halls in the palace and on the door lintels. Spring folded poems25 on Spring Begins Day26 and folded poems on Tano Day27 follow the same procedure. The Duke of Wen wrote in his Daily Records,28 “Specialists29 in the Imperial Academy of Calligraphy30 are asked to write spring poems,31 which on New Year’s Day are pasted on the door screens inside the imperial palace.” And Lü Yuanming wrote in his Suishi zaji32 that “one month before Duanwu [K. Tano], folded poems are composed at the Institute of Academicians33 for the palace doors and pasted there,” apparently an old usage. The Office for Painting produces New Year’s paintings, [that is,] paintings of the Longevity Star, of immortals, and of the god-general of the [respective] day;34 they present them to the king and also exchange them among themselves to wish each other every blessing. Two generals in golden armor



Tongguk sesigi

21

more than ten feet tall are also painted, one carrying an ax (K. pu 斧, Ch. fŭ), the other a halberd (K. chŏl 節, Ch. jié), which are mounted on both wings of the palace gate. They are called door guardians (munbae).35 And the picture of a figure dressed in a robe of a deep red color36 wearing a crow hat37 is pasted on the larger doors in the palace; a picture of Chonggyu38 catching evil spirits [is pasted] on single-leaf doors. They draw pictures of the heads of ghosts to be pasted on the lintels to ward off harmful plagues. While all these are pasted on the doors of the palace and the quarters where the in-laws of the king live, all commoners imitate this custom. The pictures of the generals in golden armor are also considered to be images of the Four Heavenly Kings39 or of Wiji Kong and Chin Sukpo,40 and the one in the robe of deep red is also said to be Wi Chŏng Kong.41 According to Song Minqiu in his Chunming tuichao lu, a Daoist petitioned the emperor to commission paintings of the guardians of the Celestial Gates42 in golden armor, General Ge43 holding a flag, and General Zhou44 holding a halberd.45 As today’s munbae resemble these generals Ge and Zhou, it is a farfetched explanation when they are customarily connected with the strange story from the time of Emperor Wen of Tang.46 At the new year, court officials as well as ladies who have received a rank (myŏngbu 命婦)—whether living inside the court or away from it— when they are seventy years or older are customarily granted rice, fish, and salt. Court officials aged eighty and common people aged ninety are raised one grade (cha 資), and those aged one hundred are raised one rank ( p’um 品). Every New Year’s, supporting old people by giving them supplies, discussing the petition about their personal matters (chŏngp’um 政稟), and granting a written reply (habi 下批) are all royal favors showing kindness toward older people and respect for age. The common people paste paintings of a cock or a tiger on the wall to drive off evil spirits. In Dong Xun Wen lisu47 it is written that “the first day is the Day of the Cock,”48 and in the Jing Chu suishi ji49 it is written that on the first day of the First Month a cock is painted and pasted on the door. Today’s custom originates from there. The painting of a tiger seems to take its meaning from the tiger month.50 In the year when men and women enter their so-called three calamity [years],51 they paste a charm with three hawks on the door lintel. The calculation of the three calamity [years] is as follows: For those who are born under the snake, cock, or ox, the years are pig, rat, and ox; for those under monkey, rat, or dragon, the years are tiger, hare, and dragon; for those under pig, hare, or sheep, the years are snake, horse, and sheep; for those under tiger, horse, or dog, the years are monkey, cock, and dog. In conventional fortunetelling practice, [advice to paste] this [charm] is used in the hope of averting

22

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

calamities. The birth years when the three calamity years are entered again come every nine years. In the respective three years, one should be careful in all matters and avoid offending anyone. Whenever one happens to meet relatives and old friends of a younger age, greetings are exchanged with remarks of well-wishing like “pass the examinations,” “become a government official,” “have a son born to you,” or “become a wealthy man.” When going out into the street early in the morning, the first sound one hears from whichever direction is used as an omen for good fortune or ill during the year. This they call “listening prophecy.” In Yanjing52 it was customary to pray in front of the kitchen stove on New Year’s Eve to ask for a direction, [then] take a mirror, go outside, and listen to the talk in the street in order to prophesy good or bad luck for the year. Our custom is the same. Five-Phases Sticks are thrown to foretell the New Year’s fortune. Each of the Five Phases53 denotes an omen. Resembling chess pieces, the [Chinese characters for] metal, wood, water, fire, and earth are carved on wood. The pieces are thrown at the same time and, depending on whether they face up or down, the result is the prophecy. Men and women over the year save all the hair [they] lost when combing; [they] collect it in a hair box and invariably burn it outside the gate at sunset on New Year’s Day to fend off epidemic diseases. Sun Simiao said in his Qianjin fang that to burn white hair on the [first] Day of the Tiger in the First Month brings luck. This is where burning one’s hair on New Year’s Day originated. According to legend, a ghost by the name of Ya-gwang54 descends on peoples’ houses everywhere and slips into children’s shoes. If he finds ones that fit, he quickly puts them on and disappears, which brings bad luck to the owner. This is why children are afraid of him. They hide their shoes and keep the lamps burning while they sleep. Or they hang a sieve on the wall of the central hall55 or at the stairs to the yard [because,] it is said, the ghost Ya-gwang endlessly counts the holes in the sieve, forgetting about slipping into the shoes, and when the cock crows he disappears. It is not known what kind of ghost Ya-gwang is; [the name] may be a homophone of Yag-wang,56 whose ugly appearance may have frightened children. Monks take a drum and, beating it, go out into the streets, [a practice] called dharma drumming;57 or they present letters for collecting alms (for the Buddha ‘s work), beating gongs and reciting invocations while people eagerly hand out money. They also exchange one piece of rice cake for two. It is believed that giving a piece of a monk’s rice cake to a child will be good against blains. By the king’s order, ordinary monks and nuns are forbidden from entering the capital; this custom therefore exists only outside of it. In the capital only the head monks of all temples beg for sacrificial rice



Tongguk sesigi

23

everywhere. They go around from early morning with their sacks, singing outside the gates of houses, [whereupon] people come out and offer rice. This, they say, spells happiness and luck for the new year. In Kyŏngju58 it is the custom [for people] to congratulate each other and to worship the gods of the sun and the moon59 (see Geographical Survey).60 In Cheju it is customary to build shrines at mountains, woods, brooks, lakes, hills, graves, flatlands, trees, rocks, practically anywhere, and every year from New Year’s Day to the First Full Moon Day, shamans61 lift up spirit banners62 and hold exorcism rites.63 Led by gongs and drums they walk the neighborhoods carrying their spirit banners, and the people eagerly contribute money or cereal as thank-you offerings to the spirits, a custom called “exorcism walk-around” (see Geographical Survey).64 Spring Begins Spring folded poems are pasted up in the palace, as well as at the houses of high-ranking officials, nobility, ordinary people, and on market stands. Everywhere, they paste spring couplets as good-luck prayers called spring blessings (ch’unch’uk 春祝). In the Jing Chu suishi ji65 it says that on Spring Begins Day they paste the characters for “May spring be as it should be” on the door. This is the origin of today’s spring couplets. The Office for the Inspection of Natural Phenomena (Kwansanggam 觀象監) makes ­cinnabar-colored rubbings of texts to drive away evil spirits and presents [the rubbings] to the court to be pasted on the gate lintel. [The rubbings] read as follows: Jiazuo devours calamities, Feiwei devours tigers, Xiongbo devours demons, Tengjian devours mischief-making things, Lanzhu devours adversity, Boji devours dreams, Jiangliang and Zuming together devour the dead whose bodies were mutilated, Wei-sui swallows what he sees, Cuoduan gulps down a myriad, and Qiungji and Tenggen together devour insects and worms.66 These twelve gods are herewith ordered to chase you away, evil and misfortune, to scorch your bodies, seize your bones and joints, cut your flesh into pieces, and tear out your lungs and bowels. So, if you do not get away quickly, the ones lagging behind will become fodder, as is hereby proclaimed.

This is from the Treatise on Rites and Music (Xu Hanshu),67 where it says that one day before Winter Sacrifice Day68 there is a great exorcism69 to expel epidemics in which young eunuchs chant this song. Today these phrases are used as charms on Spring Begins Day and also pasted about on Tano Day

24

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

During the reign of King Chŏngjo,70 true words71 from the Fumu enzhong jing were printed and distributed, and the text was pasted on door lintels to ward off calamities. [The true-words text] reads, “Nangmo sammanda molt’aenam amaanang sabuga.”72 Or [there is] the Tano door charm made with the four Chinese characters 神荼鬱壘 (Ch. Shen tu Yu lei, K. Sindo Ullu).73 In antiquity peachwood charms and pictures of Shentu and Yulei were put on gates and doors on New Year’s Day to ward off evil spirits. This started with a regulation by the Yellow Emperor,74 and they are now used on spring folded poems. There are other couplets, such as Door God and Gate God, Yell and silence ill omens.75 May the country flourish and the people live in peace, The family enjoy a rich life, and everyone be without dearth.76 May the rain be favorable, the wind fair,77 the seasons timely, and the crop in the year be abundant.78 Ordinary people normally use antithetical couplets like Long life like a mountain, Wealth like the sea.79 Go away, a thousand calamities, Come, a hundred blessings. Spring has come, great luck, Yang is established,80 good fortune galore. May the seasons be regulated as [they were] by Yao, And heaven and earth be in accordance as under Shun.81 Loving our king, hoping for the pervading Dao,82 Caring for our country, wishing for a year of abundant harvest. May the parents have a thousand years’ long life, May the offspring have ten thousand glorious generations. A peaceful spring on earth, No calamities anywhere.



Tongguk sesigi

25

In our country, we have the good luck of favorable winds and clouds, In our home we have no worries about firewood and rice.83 May calamities follow the melting snow in spring, And good fortune come like rising clouds in summer. Behind the northern quarters the forget-all-worries lilies are green,84 At the South Pole the Star God of Longevity is shining brightly.85 The three yang86 are approaching in the sky, The Five Blessings87 are coming to the people. The rooster is crowing, bringing favors for the new year, The dog is barking, sending away the calamities of last year.88 Sweeping the floor89 makes wealth go away, Opening the gate makes many blessings come in. The phoenix sings in the moon at South Mountain, The kirin roams in the wind at North Peak.90 May the gate welcome the blessings of all seasons, And be wealth in the four corners of the house. The six sea turtles bow respectfully and bring longevity from South Mountain, The nine dragons bring treasures from the Four Seas.91 A new year is added to nature, And long life to man. A prosperous spring fills the universe, Bringing luck to this family. And to the crossbeams of single-leaf doors, [blessings in a] single [line were] pasted, such as Spring coming to our door, increasing riches and honor. The light of spring is coming forth, going to families in luck. . . . high above, sweet birds sing melodiously together . . .92

26

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

May spring’s harmonious powers of nature fill our family’s home . . . when you have made your name famous in the emperor’s capital . . .93 Scholars and men of high birth (sabu 士夫) compose new ones or select beautiful words by men of ancient times. From steep valleys in six areas94 of the Capital Province, bunching onions, mountain mustard,95 and piquant sweet greens96 are sent to the court. Mountain mustard is the mustard that grows wild in the mountains when the snow melts in early spring. It is parboiled in hot water, seasoned with soy sauce and vinegar, and tastes extremely spicy. It should be taken when eating meat. Piquant sweet greens are sprouts of the Chinese angelica97 grown in dug-out cellars. Cleaned, they resemble silver hairpins and are excellent when eaten steeped in honey. In the Zhiyi98 it is said that Li E (‌李 鄂, n.d.), who lived during the Eastern Jin dynasty, on Spring Begins Day ordered that salads be made with radish and dropwort sprouts to celebrate together [with other people]; the Zhiyan99 says that the commandery prince of Anding100 made dishes with the Five Spices101 on Spring Begins Day; Du Fu wrote in his poem, “spring plates with chopped fresh vegetables on a day in spring,”102 while in one of Dongpo’s poems,103 it reads, “let us try spring dishes with green mugwort and yellowish leek.”104 All these are customs said to be handed down to us. In North of Pass Province it is customary to make a wooden cow on this day and carry it from the government offices to the villages. This is said to be an imitation of the system of carrying a clay cow around105 and is meant to encourage farming and to pray for good harvest. Birth of Man Day106 The king presents the members of the Royal Library with Bronze [Birth of] Man [Day] talismans,107 [which are] small round mirrors with the characters for “immortal” (sŏnin 仙人) inlayed in the handles. In the Jing Chu suishi ji108 it says that Chen, the wife of Liu Zhen109 of Suí, on Birth of Man Day presented [Birth of] Man [Day] headdresses110 cut from colored silk or engraved in gold foil. These [Birth of] Man [Day] headdresses are similar. By order of the king, promoters of learning are summoned to give tests called the Birth of Man Day Examination (Inil-chesi 人日製試). Students at the Highest Institute of Learning, having [received] round stamps111 for attendance at the eating hall for at least thirty days, are for the first time [in the year] allowed to [take] the examination. They select to be tested on subjects at their own discretion from among poetry, rhymed prose-poetry, memorials, scripts, exhortations,



Tongguk sesigi

27

inscriptions, eulogies, regulated prose-poetry, and extended regulated verse.112 Those with the highest marks, those having been promoted by the king, or those who had passed the first stage of the national examinations are awarded the prize of having graduated. The examinations are held at the Confucian Academies (Pan’gung 泮宮) or as an intimate examination at court, and students from the countryside are also included. Scholar’s examinations on festival days start from the Birth of Man Day, and Double Three Day examination (samilche 三日製), Seventh Evening examination (ch’ilsŏkche 七夕製), and Double Nine Day examination (kuilche 九‌日‌製) are similar. This is what is known as a seasonal system. Day of the Pig and Day of the Rat The first hae day is the Day of the Pig; the first cha day is the Day of the Rat.113 An old court tradition had several hundred eunuchs walk abreast in a line dragging torches behind them, shouting, “Let the pig be scorching! Let the rat be scorching!” The king prays for a good harvest and presents to high ministers (chaejip 宰執) and court secretaries (kŭnsi 近侍) pouches filled with singed grains, from which the terms pig pouch and rat pouch originate. They are made of silk, the pig pouch being round in shape and the rat pouch elongated. When King Chŏngjo ascended the throne [1776], he revived the old custom of presenting pouches on the first Day of the Pig. Common people roast beans while chanting, “scorching the rats’ mouths, scorching the rats’ mouths.” In West of Lake Province, [people] gather in groups with burning torches, a custom called “burning rats fire.” The [custom of] washing the face with crushed beans on the first Day of the Pig [is meant] to gradually whiten dark skin; the idea comes from the contrast with the pig’s [usual] dark color.114 Day of the Rabbit and Day of the Snake The first myo day115 is the Day of the Rabbit. People make a cotton thread, which they call a rabbit thread, and tie it to their belt to prevent misfortune. They do not allow strangers or wooden objects into the house and dread that a female would enter first. On the Day of the Snake,116 people refrain from combing their hair for fear of bringing snakes into the house. First Full Moon Day117 People cook glutinous rice, mix it with jujubes, chestnuts, oil, honey, and soy sauce, and then steam it seasoned with pine nuts. This so-called medicine

28

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

rice ( yakpan 藥飯, vernacular yakpap 약밥) is auspicious food for the First Full Moon Day; it is also used as an offering in worship, said to be an old custom going back to the times of Silla. According to the Tonggyŏng chapki,118 on the fifteenth of the First Month in the tenth year of King Soji of Silla,119 luckily, a flying crow came to warn the king at the Pavilion of Heaven Well (Ch’ŏnch’ŏn-chŏng 天泉亭). It became a national custom to make the First Full Moon Day a Crow Taboo Day and to prepare a dish of glutinous rice as an offering to the crows as a reward. Therefore, it is today a seasonal food. On the day before the First Full Moon Day the people in the countryside braid straw [into the form of] a large military banner into which they wrap [paper bags with] rice grains and ears of glutinous millet, various cereals, and unhusked millet. [The straw banner is rolled up and] together with cotton bolls is affixed to the top of a long pole and erected at the side of the house, secured with long straw ropes. Called “stack of grain stalks,” it acts as a prayer for good harvest. In steep mountain valleys it is the custom to erect a wooden pole with many branches behind the cow stable and affix to it ears of grain and cotton [bolls]. Children get up at daybreak to surround the pole and sing, worshiping in this way until the sun is up. It is an old tradition of the current dynasty to build a left and a right [team] on the fifteenth of the First Month and to let them contend for victory by mimicking sowing and harvesting, similar to the ode “Seventh Month” in the “Odes of Bin.”120 It is said that this is also a prayer for the year, the same as the village grain poles.121 When their age reaches a year of Nahu, the fate-governing star,122 both men and women make a straw effigy (ch’uryŏng 芻靈). In our language it is called cheung.123As an offering, coins are put into [the effigy’s] head, and at nightfall of the day before First Full Moon Day, it is thrown into the street to ward off hazard. Everywhere, bands of children roam outside the gates shouting, “Throw the cheung.” When they get one, they break open the head and fight for the coins. [They then] throw the doll down in the street and beat it, in what is called “knocking-the-straw game” (tach’u-hŭi 打芻戱). The term cheung is derived from [ch’ŏyong], the name of the East Sea Dragon’s son124 [who lived] at the time of King Hŏn’gang in the Silla [capital].125 [The East Sea Dragon’s son] is the same as in the ch’ŏyong dance126 in the Native Korean Music Section (Hyangak-pu 鄕樂部) of the Royal Music Institute (Changak-wŏn 掌樂院). It is said that ch’ŏyong is [also] the source of the effigy cheung. Those of an age governed by the sun or the moon influencer who believe in the advice of soothsayers cut paper images of the sun or the moon, fasten them with wood onto the house beam, and when the moon rises, welcome [the influencer] by lighting a torch. Those of an age governed by the Jupiter influencer wrap rice with paper and as a sacrifice throw [the



Tongguk sesigi

29

packet] into the well in the middle of the night. Traditionally, the Nahu influencer is the one most feared. From the beginning of winter onward,127 youngsters, both boys and girls, carry three small objects resembling beans made of green-, red-, and yellow-colored wood or gourd. They tie [the object] to their belts with varicolored ribbons of silk. In the middle of the night before First Full Moon Day, they secretly throw [these tokens] away in the street, [a ritual] that is called “clearing away misfortune.” On the eve before the first full moon, gruel from small red beans is boiled and eaten. The Jing Chu suishi ji says that “in the countryside a sacrificial rite at the gate is held on the full moon of the First Month by first affixing willow branches to the gate and then offering bean gruel into which chopsticks have been stuck.”128 This is the origin of today’s custom of preparing this dish. The north gate of the Seoul fortress wall is called the Gate of Silent Purity (Sukch’ŏng-mun 肅淸門).129 It is always closed and unused. The brook in the narrow ravine is tranquil. Womenfolk from the villages visit the gate three times before First Full Moon Day, claiming that this prevents misfortune. Collecting earth from the street at the Bell Pavilion130 crossroads at daybreak, scattering it in the four corners of the house, and rubbing it to the furnace are a way of seeking riches. “Cracking blains”131 is the name [for the custom of] early-morning chewing of raw chestnuts, walnuts, gingko nuts,132 pine nuts, or turnip root while inwardly wishing that “one year, twelve months, be without accidents, be peaceful, and no carbuncle develop.” [The practice] is also considered a method to strengthen the teeth. In [North P’yŏngan] Ŭiju there is a custom called “teeth competition,”133 where youngsters of both sexes in the early morning eat toffee. Drinking a cup of refined rice liquor without warming it up clears one’s ears, [a practice] called “liquor to clear the ear.”134 In the Hailu suishi by Ye Tinggui it says that on sacrifice day135 they drink “liquor to prevent deafness.”136 Today it is customary to do this on First Full Moon Day. Meat, gourd, cucumber, and shiitake mushrooms in bamboo baskets, all of them dried,137 together with soybean sprouts, turnip, and radish, are called assorted aged vegetables.138 Without fail, these vegetables must be prepared and eaten on this day. Likewise, cucumber stalks, eggplant peel, and turnip leaves are not discarded but dried in the sun and [then] cooked and eaten. It is said that [these dishes] guard against diseases. Rice wrapped in cabbage leaves or laver is called wrapped luck rice.139 In the Jing Chu suishi ji it is said that “on Birth of Man Day a soup is made of seven kinds of vegetables.”140 The [the date of the] custom was moved [and is on] First

30

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Full Moon Day today. Is this not “the winter’s fine collection of vegetables” from the “Airs of Bei”?141 Eating five-grain rice,142 sharing it with others, is also a custom in South of the Pass Province. Eating five-grain rice all day is said to have come down from the ancient custom of sharing sacrificial rice. After getting up early in the morning, one usually says in response to someone’s greeting, “Buy my heat,” [a practice] known as heat-selling.143 Selling one’s heat with these words is supposed to prevent being inflicted by the summer heat. Avoiding payback by a hundred and one tricks is great fun. Fan Shihu in his poem “Selling Foolishness” wrote, “New Year’s Eve is nearly finished but still people don’t sleep, . . . they shout ‘foolishness for sale!’ to entice some customers.144 An annotation to [lines] in a poem by Lu You, “there is gambling in the inner yard, shouting ‘New Year,’ / and children wanting to sell145 their fatigue get up between 3:00 and 5:00 a.m.,”146 says, “before daylight on Spring Begins they shout ‘selling my spring fatigue’ at each other.”147 Today’s custom of selling one’s heat on First Full Moon Day is of the same kind. When small children look sallow and are weak because of a spring disease, in order to prevent the disease from returning, they go begging for rice at a hundred houses on First Full Moon Day. [They] then sit on a mortar facing a dog, one spoon feeding the dog, one spoon for themselves. On this day, the dogs should not be fed. Feeding them would attract many flies, which would make them haggard. It is common to mockingly call someone who is hungry a First-Full-Moon-Day dog. Putting stones into the crotches of the branches of fruit trees makes them bear abundant fruit. This is known as mating the trees (kasu 嫁樹). Xu Guangqi,148 in his Nongzheng quanshu,149 reported this method only for plum trees, and Yu Zongben150 barely mentions under “Cultivating Fruit” the method of mating plum trees on the first or fifteenth of the First Month. Also, Chen Hao[zi] in Huali xinzai writes under “Mating Plum Trees” about the great positive results of beating the crotches of plum trees with a long bar between [the hours of] 3:00 and 5:00 a.m. (K. ogyŏng 五更, “fifth watch”) on New Year’s Eve. He then says about the method of mating the pomegranate tree, “Softly putting a cobblestone into the crotches of a pomegranate tree on New Year’s morning will have great positive results, and this can also be done on New Year’s Eve.”151 For mating trees, either New Year’s Eve, New Year’s morning, or First Full Moon Day seem to be suitable. The current custom originated here. Children list the names of all members of the household on the back of a paper kite, add “May all this person’s misfortune disappear,” and let it fly. At sunset, they send it flying away by cutting the string and letting go.



Tongguk sesigi

31

The kites are made by gluing paper on a bamboo frame, [the end result of] which slightly resembles a flag, and decorating it with the Five Colors.152 But there are many other designs, such as a checkerboard kite, a kite with the upper part painted black, a kite like a round server plate, a kite resembling a warrior shield, a kite with a cat’s eye painted on it, a magpie-wing kite, a fish-scale kite, and a dragon-tail kite. The game of making a string reel and then letting the kite fly in the air according to the direction of the wind is called kite in the wind.153 In China they make strange and skillful shapes and play [with them] from winter till late spring. In our custom, [kites] are sold in the market from winter until First Full Moon Day. According to common tradition, the origin is with Ch’oe Yŏng, who used [kites] in his attack on Tamna.154 [Kite flying] continues to be our custom until today. People make strings and dip them in glue to be neat as a white horse’s tail hair or dye [the string] yellow with gardenia. They fly the kites without fixed positions, letting them sweep sideways and intercept somebody else’s kite. When cutting [the other kite] off completely, the sound of it fluttering in the wind gives great joy. Those who want to be best at [intercepting another’s kite] attach shards of porcelain or bits of copper [to the kite strings], yet it is skill that decides victory or defeat. If a youngster in the capital becomes famous for being good at such intercepting, powerful and rich families often invite him so as to watch his skill. Every year one or two days before First Full Moon Day, people watching the kite fighting crowd together like a wall up and down the river at Water-Level-Indicator Bridge.155 Bands of children wait to steal the severed strings or chase after the falling kites, looking into the air, rushing into the waves, jumping over low walls and even houses. As there is no way to stop them, everyone is terrified. After First Full Moon Day there is no further kite flying. Paper in the Five Colors is pasted with glue on all kinds of bamboo frames with no standard shape, round or square, large or small. Children play with [something called a] todŭrae,156 which is tied to a handle and revolves in a favorable wind. It too is sold in all markets. Small children fix a fine goose feather to a single thread of silk and let it fly, floating in the wind. This is called kogomae, the Mongolian word for phoenix.157 The children bind stones to leftover string, and when they fly their kites, they throw them over each other’s strings and pull hard. The [string] that is snapped by this [method means the] game is lost. A hole is made in the ground, and grown-ups and children form teams and throw coins into the middle of it [aiming at] a larger coin [that has been] thrown into the middle. Whoever hits the [large] coin wins and takes the money. If one misses, one has lost. This game is especially popular on First

32

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Full Moon Day. Children also use porcelain shards as currency to play the same game. Going up a mountain with torches before daybreak is called welcoming the moon (S.K. yŏngwŏl 迎月, K. tal-maji 달맞이), and the one who sees the moon first will have good fortune. People moreover divine by the color of the moon—red indicating drought and white indicating rain—as well as by the time she is rising, her shape and size, whether she rises steadily or lingers, and her height [in the sky]. They also take her contour in the four directions to prophesy events in the corresponding four directions, her thickness signaling bumper crops and thinness a bad year, but this is not seldomly erroneous. The night patrol158 lifts the nightly curfew in their patrol areas. Wei Shu of Tang writes in his Xidu zaji, “An imperial decree allowed the chamberlain for the imperial insignia159 to cancel the nightly curfew one day before and after the night of the fifteenth of the First Month.”160 This was called an open night ( fang ye 放夜). Our regulation follows this example. Citizens of the capital, men and women, come swarming out into the city to hear the evening ringing at the bell tower on Examining-Clouds Street.161 They then cross all of the bridges [over nearby Ch’ŏnggye River 淸‌溪川], going to and fro all through the night [in a ritual] known as treading bridges (tapkyo 踏橋, K. tari-papki 다리밟기). Probably because in Korean the appellations162 for the Chinese characters “bridge” and “leg” are identical,163 it is customarily said that this [activity] will prevent leg problems for the entire year. Since the Wide-Thoroughfare Bridge164 and the Water-Level-Indicator Bridge are about the most crowded ones, countless masses of people create an uproar with pipes and drums. The Yingli lu by Yong Luo says that in the Tang, for three nights around the fifteenth of the First Month, men and women were allowed to walk around at night, and there was no night when the streets were not blocked by roaming people and horses.165 And Lu Qihong166 says in his Beijing suihua ji that “on the night of the fifteenth of the First Month all married and unmarried women leave the gates and walk on the bridges.”167 Yu Yizheng, in Dijing jingwu lue,168 writes that on New Year’s Eve “women and girls follow one another to walk in the night in order to drive away sicknesses, which is called ‘walking away all diseases’(zou bai bing 走百病).” Shen Bang writes in Wanshu zaji, “On the eve of the sixteenth, women and girls roam in groups, and when there is a bridge, they follow each other by twos and threes to cross over, which they call ‘warding off evil.’ ”169 Our custom of treading bridges is following this model. Yi Su-kwang says in Chibong yusŏl, “The play of treading bridges on First Full Moon Day originated during the former dynasty170 and in peaceful times was flourishing to a great extent. Men and women joined together in throngs endlessly through the night, but



Tongguk sesigi

33

the judiciary succeeded in forbidding it and making arrests. That is why the women and girls no longer continue treading bridges.”171 People living outside the Three Gates172 and people from Ahyŏn173 gather in groups and form teams. Yelling loudly, they go at each other with clubs or by throwing stones in a hand-to-hand manner of combat at Ten Thousand-Li Hill.174 This game is what is called a border fight,175 and the retreating team loses. Customarily it is said that there will be a good harvest in the Capital Province176 when the people from outside the Three Gates win, and good harvest everywhere if the Ahyŏn people win. Young ruffians from the Dragon Mountain and Flax Harbor177 districts join in to help the Ahyŏn side. When the fighting gets fiercer, the roar makes the earth tremble. They wrap something around their heads and attack each other, and fractured foreheads, broken arms, or visible blood will not stop them. Even when the result is death or injury, nobody feels remorse. Because there is no law for compensation in case of death, everybody is afraid of stones [flying around] and avoids them. The authorities should forbid this [kind of fighting] and take charge of the matter, but while some have by their own initiative forbidden it, they have been unable to stop this dreadful habit completely. Young servants in the capital imitate it at places like Bell Street and Lute Pavilion.178 Outside the city walls, Ten Thousand-Li Hill and Rainwater Hill179 are the places for border fights. In the custom of [North Kyŏngsang] Andong, every year on the sixteenth of the First Month, people who live in the county spread out on both sides of the central river and fight by throwing stones at each other to determine the winner.180 In the custom of Yang-Sŏ (Two Western [Provinces]), there are also stone-fighting games on First Full Moon Day. According to the “Reports on Ko[gu]ryŏ” in the Book of the Tang [Dynasty],181 “At the beginning of every year they meet together for a game at Pei River,182 where they splatter each other with water and throw stones at each other but after two or three chases they stop.” This is where our custom of stone fighting started. In all houses, oil lamps are set up until dawn, just as at the New Year’s vigil (suse 守歲) and the Evening of Riddance (Chesŏk 除夕) [see the section “Twelfth Month” below]. Starting from the day before First Full Moon Day, sometime within this month a blind musician183 is invited, and the Ant’aek-kyŏng is recited all night to avert calamities and to pray for good fortune.184 A wooden stick of one foot185 in length is erected in the yard and its shadow measured at midnight to divine abundant or bad harvest in the year. A shadow of eight inches foretells plenty of wind and rain, seven or six inches [portends] good fortune overall, five inches bad luck, four inches humidity and attacks by worms and insects, and three inches crops will not

34

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

ripen. This method is said to have started with Tongbang Sak.186 And the Huali xinzai says, “On the eve of the First Full Moon Day a pole of one zhang is erected. The moon shadow at midnight is watched, and six or seven feet foretell abundant crops, eight or nine feet too much rain, and three to five feet invariably drought.”187 It is from there that measuring the shadow at First Full Moon night comes. People put ashes into a bowl and place it on the roof at midnight to see which seeds of grain fall from heaven. The morning of the next day they examine which kind of grain has fallen down, [thus] foretelling which crops will be bumper crops.188 At daybreak people wait for the first crowing of the cock and count the number of times [it crows]. Exceeding ten times foretells a year of plentiful crops. This is a custom in the countryside. In the Two Western Provinces they wait for the cock’s crow on the night of First Full Moon Day,189 and in every house they take dried gourds and fight for who will be first to draw fresh water from the well. This is called fishing for dragon eggs.190 The one who draws water first is said to farm most successfully. They also mark the months on twelve soybeans, put them into sorghum191 stalks, tie the [stalks] fast, and dip them into the well, a practice called months divination.192 In the morning, they take [the beans] out and examine them. Whether they are swollen or not is taken as evidence for excessive rain or drought during the respective month. They also take as many soybeans as there are households in the village, put a mark on each [that stands] for the master of a household, stick them into straw, and dip them into the well. This is what is called a household divination.193 When examined the next day, whichever bean is swollen, that household will see an abundant yield during the year. Among the customs of West of the Lake Province there are torch fights (kŏjŏn 炬戰, K. hwaetpul-ssaŭm 횃불싸움). [Farmers] also twist a large rope and divide into two teams. [Each team] grabs [an end of the rope] and pulls.194 Those [in the team that is] not pulled over are the winners and are prophesized to have a good harvest. This is the tug-of-war195 of older times. In the Capital Province it is customary that monks also play this game. In the mountains of the area [known as] East of the Pass, the children in groups shout all together the names of all the birds and mimic chasing them, which has the meaning of praying for grain. It is the custom of [Kangwŏn-to] Ch’unch’ŏn to have cart fights. The [people] form neighborhood teams with single-wheeled carts, and the ones [happening to be] in front [when they meet] fight each other to foretell what will be happening during the year. [The team that is] driven back will have bad luck [during the year].This is also a custom in [Kyŏnggi-to] Kap’yŏng.



Tongguk sesigi

35

Among the customs of South of the Pass Province is arrowroot fighting,196 where a large rope is made from arrowroot that can reach the size of forty to fifty fathoms. [The people] divide into teams and pull until one of them wins. This they call “divining for a bumper harvest.” In the custom of [North Kyŏngsang] Andong, frail old village women go in groups outside the walls in the evening. They walk bent over, looking like fish on a string,197 the one behind always close to the one in front, thereby forming an uninterrupted column. They have a young girl walk over their [bent] backs. The girl is supported left and right by her arms. Singing and shouting as she walks to and fro resembles treading bridges. First, the girl [walking] on top shouts, “What kind of bridge is this?” Then the bent-over women underneath [her] shout all at once, “It is the brass bridge of Clear Creek Mountain.”198 Following the wide road199 eastward and westward, they do not stop until deep into the night. In the customs of P’unggi [in North Kyŏngsang, Yŏngju] on First Full Moon Day, the head of the local civil functionaries mounts a black cow facing backward and, carrying a zither,200 rides to the government office to do obeisance to the officials. When he leaves he does so holding up a parasol. I do not know the meaning of this, but it must have something to do with praying for good fortune. Also within the month201 The market stalls [which had been closed since New Year’s Day] are reopened on a specially selected day, which has to be the day of a furred animal.202 The day is selected for the [animal’s] abundant hairs [in its fur],203 and the [first] Day of the Tiger is the best. The students living and studying at the Highest Institute of Learning (T’aehak 太學) and the Four Schools (Sahak 四學) who have refectory attendance tokens204 are given oral and written examinations. The oral one is on one of the Three Classics;205 the [students] must also write poetry. In other words, this is one example of the festival-day examinations.206 Those coming out first in the oral and written examinations are given graduation certificates by the king. This [examination] is called the spring attendance token examination, and the one taking place on a special day in autumn is called autumn attendance token examinations [respectively, ch’un-togi-kwa 春到記科 and ch’u-togi-kwa 秋到記科]. In terms of the customs of [North Kyŏngsang] Kyŏngju, [people] are afraid of doing anything and dare not act on anything or work on the first days of the rat, dragon, horse, and pig in the First Month, all of which are days of devotion (sinil 愼日). It is said that King Soji207 of Silla in his tenth year on the fifteenth of the First Month avoided misfortune [by heeding] the

36

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

strange behavior of the crow, rat, dragon, horse, and pig in advance of [the matter of] the zither case.208 That is why our people made the days of crow, rat, horse, and pig days of devotion. Colloquially, taldo209 refers to “sorrow and worry” as well as to the taboo.210 Kim Chong-chik211 created the “Sorrow and Worry Song” (see Geographical Survey).212 On the sixteenth it is a custom in the countryside not to do any work or accept wooden objects. Making it a taboo day resembles what is transmitted from the customs of [North Kyŏngsang] Kyŏngju. Every year the twenty-fourth is a dark and gloomy day. It is said that during the Japanese invasion,213 when the Japanese troops had captured the capital, the Imperial Expeditionary Army advanced victoriously,214 surprising the Japanese enemy, who fled in the middle of the night, setting fires and slaughtering everyone in the city so that not one [person] was able to survive. When this day comes, [the gloom and darkness] is due to the spirit of hatred.215 The eighth is erroneously called “ruining day” ( p’aeil 敗日). That is because “eight” and “ruin” have the same pronunciation in Chinese.216 This day is customarily a taboo day on which men do not leave their houses. In Koryŏ it was customary that on the eighth of every month married and unmarried women would enjoy themselves both inside and outside the city while the men stayed at home. This custom, as transmitted, is erroneous in that nowadays it is improper [for women] to leave the house. The days of the first quarter moon and the third quarter moon217 are known as neap-tide days.218 Every month without fail people let these days pass [because they] are afraid of doing anything unpleasant around the house or [of doing] things they are reluctant to do. This begins with meeting people strolling by whom one does not want to see and are [consequently] received only after these days are past. The fifth, fourteenth, and twenty-third days are called the three ruining days.219 Every month people are afraid to do anything, any work, or of leaving the house. It is said that since Koryŏ, customarily the king made these three days [ruining days], and therefore the ministers and all people made them into taboo days. Originally, they were not ruining days.

Second Month New Moon Day The king bestows harmony [day] yardsticks220 on high ministers and chamberlains. The yardsticks are made from speckled bamboo or larch wood. King Chŏngjo in his twentieth year221 is said to have established this origi-

36

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

strange behavior of the crow, rat, dragon, horse, and pig in advance of [the matter of] the zither case.208 That is why our people made the days of crow, rat, horse, and pig days of devotion. Colloquially, taldo209 refers to “sorrow and worry” as well as to the taboo.210 Kim Chong-chik211 created the “Sorrow and Worry Song” (see Geographical Survey).212 On the sixteenth it is a custom in the countryside not to do any work or accept wooden objects. Making it a taboo day resembles what is transmitted from the customs of [North Kyŏngsang] Kyŏngju. Every year the twenty-fourth is a dark and gloomy day. It is said that during the Japanese invasion,213 when the Japanese troops had captured the capital, the Imperial Expeditionary Army advanced victoriously,214 surprising the Japanese enemy, who fled in the middle of the night, setting fires and slaughtering everyone in the city so that not one [person] was able to survive. When this day comes, [the gloom and darkness] is due to the spirit of hatred.215 The eighth is erroneously called “ruining day” ( p’aeil 敗日). That is because “eight” and “ruin” have the same pronunciation in Chinese.216 This day is customarily a taboo day on which men do not leave their houses. In Koryŏ it was customary that on the eighth of every month married and unmarried women would enjoy themselves both inside and outside the city while the men stayed at home. This custom, as transmitted, is erroneous in that nowadays it is improper [for women] to leave the house. The days of the first quarter moon and the third quarter moon217 are known as neap-tide days.218 Every month without fail people let these days pass [because they] are afraid of doing anything unpleasant around the house or [of doing] things they are reluctant to do. This begins with meeting people strolling by whom one does not want to see and are [consequently] received only after these days are past. The fifth, fourteenth, and twenty-third days are called the three ruining days.219 Every month people are afraid to do anything, any work, or of leaving the house. It is said that since Koryŏ, customarily the king made these three days [ruining days], and therefore the ministers and all people made them into taboo days. Originally, they were not ruining days.

Second Month New Moon Day The king bestows harmony [day] yardsticks220 on high ministers and chamberlains. The yardsticks are made from speckled bamboo or larch wood. King Chŏngjo in his twentieth year221 is said to have established this origi-



Tongguk sesigi

37

nally Tang-dynasty custom of the so-called harmony day.222 Li Mi223 said in a report to the emperor in the first month, “It is not proper to be unclear about holidays. I request to make the first of the Second Month a ‘true harmony holiday’ and give all officials books on agriculture to make them see the basics of their duties.” Bestowing the yardsticks has the same meaning. The grain from the grain poles224 erected on the First Full Moon Day is taken down to make white rice cake; the larger ones are the size of the palm of a hand, the smaller ones are the size of an egg. All are shaped like the half of a jade badge.225 With stuffing made of steamed beans, they are put into a steamer on a bed of pine needles. After steaming them until very hot, they are taken out, washed with water, and anointed with sesame oil. Called pine cakes (songbyŏng 松餠), they are offered to the slaves according to their age, and therefore this day is customarily called slaves’ day.226 The springtime work is beginning, which is said to be the reason for this treat. Shops selling rice cakes use red, black, and green beans to make a stuffing that is seasoned by adding honey. Or the stuffing [may be made] with steamed dates and boiled dropwort. From this month on this is a seasonal special food. People clean their houses; they cut a piece of paper on which they write the eight characters for “Miss Signorina Fragrant, hurry to go a thousand miles away.”227 “Miss” is our language for girl, and “Miss Signorina Fragrant” all together is a word for millipede, a euphemism because of the [creature’s] unpleasantness. In the customs of the province of South of the Pass, every house holds a shaman ritual for the Goddess of the Wind.228 The goddess descends on the shaman and goes out roaming the streets; people take pains to welcome and entertain her. From the first to the fifteenth or twentieth there are taboos to avoid certain things or people. In the customs of Cheju, in Kwidŏk and Kimnyŏng, they erect twelve wooden poles on the first of the Second Month for the ritual to welcome the god. The people in Aewŏl make rafts, shape them like a horse’s head, decorate them with colorful silk, and perform what is called jumping horses play229 to entertain the goddess until the fifteenth. This is called the burning lantern [ritual]230 (see Geographical Survey).231 Also within the month At twilight on the first evening [of the month], the three stars of Orion’s belt (samsŏng 參星) resemble dragging reins in front of the moon; when [the moon and the three stars] are far apart, it is a sign of a bumper harvest. That is like “twilight in the second month is the twilight for the Orion’s belt,” as in the Nongjia yan232 by Cui Shi.

38

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Ice is offered at the shrine of the Royal Ancestors (Chongmyo 宗廟). In the Yueling of the Liji it says for the Second Month of spring that “the Son of Heaven opens the icehouse and first offers some [of the ice] at the inner ancestral shrine.”233 Our procedure is the same. If it rains on the twentieth, a bumper harvest is prophesized; if it is cloudy, the omen is also lucky. In Cheju it is customarily forbidden to [travel] by boat during the month (see Geographical Survey).234

Third Month Third Day235 (Samjit-nal) Azaleas are plucked and added to glutinous rice and rice powder, [which are] formed into round cakes and fried with sesame oil. Called flower cakes,236 they are the cooked rice cakes237 and the Chinese cold cakes238 of old. When mixed with mung bean powder, cooked, cut finely, and put into five-flavor-berry239 water seasoned with honey and pine nuts, [the dish] is called flower noodles (hwamyŏn 花麵). Or they can be made from azaleas mixed with mung bean powder. Also, when mung bean or reddish-colored noodles are made and put in honey water, [the dish] is called water noodles (sumyŏn 水麵). All of these are seasonal foods offered at rituals. Between Samjit-nal and the eighth of the Fourth Month [the Buddha’s birthday], it is customary in [North Ch’ungch’ŏng] Chinch’ŏn that women take shamans to the East Dragon King Shrine, the West Dragon King Shrine,240 or the shrine of the Three Gods241 at Oxen Lake242 to pray for a son. These processions are endless; women come from all directions to pray and look to eyewitnesses like a [gathering at a] marketplace. This [custom] takes place regularly every year. Clear and Bright Festival243 Fire from elm and willow wood is bestowed on every officer.244 This is a procedure that has been handed down from the Offices [of Summer] of Zhou giving out fire245 and from the “bestowing fire” (Ch. ci huo 賜火, K. sahwa) in Tang and Song times. The farmers [now] start their springtime work. Cold Meals Day246 It is customary in the capital to visit graves and pay respect by pouring liquor ( yo chŏn 澆奠) [on them]. The delicacies on the four holidays—New Year’s

38

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Ice is offered at the shrine of the Royal Ancestors (Chongmyo 宗廟). In the Yueling of the Liji it says for the Second Month of spring that “the Son of Heaven opens the icehouse and first offers some [of the ice] at the inner ancestral shrine.”233 Our procedure is the same. If it rains on the twentieth, a bumper harvest is prophesized; if it is cloudy, the omen is also lucky. In Cheju it is customarily forbidden to [travel] by boat during the month (see Geographical Survey).234

Third Month Third Day235 (Samjit-nal) Azaleas are plucked and added to glutinous rice and rice powder, [which are] formed into round cakes and fried with sesame oil. Called flower cakes,236 they are the cooked rice cakes237 and the Chinese cold cakes238 of old. When mixed with mung bean powder, cooked, cut finely, and put into five-flavor-berry239 water seasoned with honey and pine nuts, [the dish] is called flower noodles (hwamyŏn 花麵). Or they can be made from azaleas mixed with mung bean powder. Also, when mung bean or reddish-colored noodles are made and put in honey water, [the dish] is called water noodles (sumyŏn 水麵). All of these are seasonal foods offered at rituals. Between Samjit-nal and the eighth of the Fourth Month [the Buddha’s birthday], it is customary in [North Ch’ungch’ŏng] Chinch’ŏn that women take shamans to the East Dragon King Shrine, the West Dragon King Shrine,240 or the shrine of the Three Gods241 at Oxen Lake242 to pray for a son. These processions are endless; women come from all directions to pray and look to eyewitnesses like a [gathering at a] marketplace. This [custom] takes place regularly every year. Clear and Bright Festival243 Fire from elm and willow wood is bestowed on every officer.244 This is a procedure that has been handed down from the Offices [of Summer] of Zhou giving out fire245 and from the “bestowing fire” (Ch. ci huo 賜火, K. sahwa) in Tang and Song times. The farmers [now] start their springtime work. Cold Meals Day246 It is customary in the capital to visit graves and pay respect by pouring liquor ( yo chŏn 澆奠) [on them]. The delicacies on the four holidays—New Year’s



Tongguk sesigi

39

Day, Cold Meals Day, Tano, and Autumn Full Moon Evening—of liquor, fruits, dried meat, minced pickled meat, rice cakes, noodles, soup, and fried meat, are so-called seasonal offerings. They may vary according to family tradition, but [the selection of delicacies] on Cold Meals Day and Autumn Full Moon Evening are the most complete. Endlessly, men and women are everywhere outside of the towns and villages. Zheng Zhengze of Tang says on the details of the spring sacrifice ritual,247 “There is no record of ceremonies at graves in antiquity,248 but Confucius allowed visiting graves for seasonal ceremonies.” It is said that this is the origin of the grave-site sacrifice. Also, an imperial decree from Emperor Xuanzong of Tang249 allowed visiting graves on Cold Meals Day, and in the Later Zhou of the Five Dynasties,250 they burned paper money on Cold Meals Day during rituals at the graves. Therefore, the grave ritual on Cold Meals Day must have started from the Tang. The people of Qi251 called this day “cold holiday” or “pre-cooked meals” (Ch. leng-jie 冷節 or Ch. shou-shi 熟食). [Cold Meals Day] is said to be the tradition of a fire taboo [as a display of] remorse over Zi Tui252 having been burned to death. Our country’s custom today is to make Cold Meals Day, along with New Year’s Day, Tano, and Autumn Full Moon Evening, one of the four sacrifice holidays. At court, winter solstice is added so there are five sacrifice days. On the farms, they go to the vegetable garden on this day to plant seedlings. Also within the month Making jelly from mung beans,253 cutting it in slices and adding pork, dropwort sprouts, and laver, and seasoning [the dish] with vinegar and soy sauce makes the best [meal] one can eat on a cool spring night. It is called harmony salad.254 Eggs put in boiling water, cooked slightly, and seasoned with vinegar and soy sauce are called water eggs (suran 水卵). Also eaten is soup made of clams255 or croaker (S.K. sŏksu-ŏ 石首魚, K. chogi 조기). Herring256 is caught in the inner bay near [Kyŏnggi-to] Ansan; anchovy,257 commonly called reed fish (S.K wiŏ 葦魚), is caught at [Kyŏnggi-to] Koyang and Haengju, at the lower reaches of the Han River. In late spring, the members of the royal kitchen catch [these fish] with nets and offer them to the king, and fish sellers roam the streets yelling, “Buy, and make raw minced fish.” The most delicate soup, made before the peach blossoms have fallen, is of blowfish (hadon 河豚, vernacular pok 복, or pogŏ 복어) cooked with dropwort, oil, and soy sauce. The blowfish caught at Noho258 is the best coming on the market. Those who are afraid of its poison substitute with red snapper.259 This red snapper is a seasonal item of superior quality.

40

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Yam is gathered and eaten steamed or chopped and seasoned with honey. In liquor stores they make, and then sell, “liquor to pass the summer.”260 Seasonal liquors, which are all brewed in spring, have names like small chrysanthemum blossom liquor, azalea liquor, peach blossom liquor, and pine sprout liquor.261 Among the distilled liquors, the so-called Three Pig Days’ liquor,262 brewed in innumerable earthen jars between Kongdŏk and Ongmak,263 is the one most highly praised. Sweet red dew,264 jadegreen fragrant liquor265 from West of the Pass Province, pear and ginger liquor266 from West of the Sea Province, bamboo-sap liquor,267 cinnamon and angelica root liquor268 from South of the Lake Province, and Mount No liquor269 from West of the Lake Province, all are seasonal items of superior quality and may also be given as presents. Shops selling rice cakes make small white cakes from non-glutinous rice in the shape of small bells; they insert [in the cakes] a stuffing made of beans and put on top five small bits of glutinous rice in the Five Colors that look like beads. Or they make green and white half-round rice cakes, stringing together five small ones or two big ones, [both sizes of] which are called fried rice cakes.270 They also make round rice cakes in the Five Color; [those] with pine bark271 or swallow mugwort272 are called ring cakes;273 the bigger ones are called horseshoe cakes.274 And they flavor glutinous rice with pitted jujube to make steamer cakes. All this is seasonal food in the spring. In the Suishi zaji275 it is said, “On the two earth days276 one eats pastry, also those made with jujubes.” This is now also our custom. In the capital city they say “liquor in the south and rice cake in the north” because, under its South Mountain, they brew alcoholic beverages at their best. In its northern quarters, everyone makes the most delicious rice cakes. Rice liquor prepared by adding fermenting stuff at four Days of the Horse is ripe toward the end of spring. It does not spoil for one year and is called Four Horse Days’ liquor.277 Tongak Yi An-nul,278 when drinking with Namgung Chŏk (南宮績, n.d.), wrote in his “Poem on Four Horse Days’ Liquor,”279 “Your famous liquor, stored for one year, its way of brewing must be passed on from the ‘Jade Mist.’ ”280 In every house, they are now cutting mulberry leaves to feed the silkworms. Groups of vegetable sellers carry cabbage roots with young sprouts and yell “Selling,” which is called “trading green roots,” and also turnips, having just come out, are shouted out for selling. These are seasonal foods. In the capital it is customary to wander out to mountaintops and valleys with brooks [running through them]; [these outings] are called “blossoms and willows.”281 This [practice] originates from the “treading the green on the [first] Day of the Snake.”282 Everyone is getting together in the places with the best sights: the apricot blossoms on Supporting the Clouds Heights,283



Tongguk sesigi

41

the peach blossoms in North Village,284 and the willows outside of the Gate of Uplifting Benevolence.285 Outside the capital, soldiers and village people erect targets, divide into teams, hold archery contests, and enjoy drinking liquor. This is also done in the autumn. Young girls collect green grass and bind it to make a chignon. They clean some wood to which they attach [the chignon] and then add to it a red skirt. [Their creation] they call a “bride doll.”286 They then make a cushion, a mat, a pillow, and a folding screen to play [with the doll]. Young boys cut a willow branch to make an oboe287 called a willow mouth-organ and blow on it. In the customs of [Kangwŏn-to] Kangnŭng they honor the aged whenever the weather is good by inviting those over seventy years to meet and take their comfort at scenic spots. This is called “meeting to honor the aged in early spring. “All, even those as low as slaves, when they are age seventy are allowed to attend the meeting (see Geographical Survey).288 In the customs of [North Kyŏngsang] Kyŏngju there are [what are called] four seasons’ pleasure grounds,289 special places to wander according to the four seasons starting with spring. [They go] in spring to the Eastern Fields Lieu, in summer to the Kongnyang Lieu, in autumn the Kuji Lieu, and in winter the Kai Lieu (see Geographical Survey).290 In [North Chŏlla] Namwŏn in spring the people of the district customarily gather at Dragon Pond or in Chestnut Wood to drink liquor and [engage in] archery contests. They do this as a ritual (see Geographical Survey).291 In [North Chŏlla] Yongan292 in spring the custom is for the townspeople to arrange for the community liquor-drinking ritual.293 Those in their ­eighties and nineties [gather] in one place, those in their sixties and ­seventies in another, those under fifty in yet another, and someone is asked to read the following pledges: Those without filial piety shall be expelled, older and younger brothers not in harmony shall be expelled, friends without trust shall be expelled, those ridiculing the ones in political power shall be expelled, those opposing administrative functionaries shall be expelled. First, mutual encouragement of virtue and virtuous acts, secondly, mutual correction of wrongful conduct, thirdly, fellowship with one another according to rules of decorum and customs, and fourthly, mutual aid in case of illness and disaster.294 Filial piety, friendship, loyalty, and trust of everyone from the same vicinity will be strengthened again.295

42

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

After finishing the reading, all make two obeisant bows and then engage in the rituals of drinking and archery. They do the same in the autumn296 (see Geographical Survey).297 In the customs of Cheju, every spring men and women gather at the Kwangyang Shrine298 and the Ch’agwi Shrine299 and make a sacrifice to the gods with liquor and meat. There are many snakes and centipedes on the ground,300 and anyone who sees a gray snake is not allowed to kill it, since it is the god of Ch’agwi. The sacrifice is held in autumn as well (see Geographical Survey).301 In Ch’ŏngan302 it is the custom for the head of the local civil functionaries to lead the townspeople to meet the National Preceptor gods, a husband and wife [pair], at a large tree on top of Changap Mountain (Changap-San 長鴨 山) in the east and bring them into town. They induce shamans to prepare alcoholic beverages303 and food and, with a noisy tumult using gongs and drums, they hold rituals in the streets and at every government office building. After about twenty days [the townspeople] bring the gods back to the tree. This takes place every two years.

Fourth Lunar Month Eighth Day304 The eighth is Bathing the Buddha Day.305 According to our custom, on that date lanterns are lit, [which is why the occasion] is called lantern night. Several days earlier people in every house erect a lantern pole, attach a pheasant tail feather to the top, and make a flag from colored silk. In smaller huts they affix many twigs from an aged pine tree to the top. In every house lanterns are hung according to the number of children [in the household] so that the bright gleam [of the lanterns] might bring good luck. On the ninth the [ritual] is stopped. Extravagant people tie together about ten long bamboo poles and carry them on horses to the Five Riversides,306 [where, by attaching them to] the masts of a ship, they make lamp posts. Or they fasten [what is called] a sun and moon wheel,307 which, when moving with the wind, turns around dizzyingly. Or they hang lamps [whose lights], when they turn, resemble sparks. Or gun powder is wrapped in paper and attached to the rope so that, when [the packet is lit and] lifted quickly, it looks like a fire arrow, sparks falling downward like rain. Or paper, cut into the length of ten outstretched arms,308 is attached, fluttering in the wind, resembling a dragon. Or they hang baskets. Or a puppet is made, clothed, and hung from the rope [so it can] be played with. Tents, standing in a row, must win in a competition for height. The small and low [tents] are ridiculed

42

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

After finishing the reading, all make two obeisant bows and then engage in the rituals of drinking and archery. They do the same in the autumn296 (see Geographical Survey).297 In the customs of Cheju, every spring men and women gather at the Kwangyang Shrine298 and the Ch’agwi Shrine299 and make a sacrifice to the gods with liquor and meat. There are many snakes and centipedes on the ground,300 and anyone who sees a gray snake is not allowed to kill it, since it is the god of Ch’agwi. The sacrifice is held in autumn as well (see Geographical Survey).301 In Ch’ŏngan302 it is the custom for the head of the local civil functionaries to lead the townspeople to meet the National Preceptor gods, a husband and wife [pair], at a large tree on top of Changap Mountain (Changap-San 長鴨 山) in the east and bring them into town. They induce shamans to prepare alcoholic beverages303 and food and, with a noisy tumult using gongs and drums, they hold rituals in the streets and at every government office building. After about twenty days [the townspeople] bring the gods back to the tree. This takes place every two years.

Fourth Lunar Month Eighth Day304 The eighth is Bathing the Buddha Day.305 According to our custom, on that date lanterns are lit, [which is why the occasion] is called lantern night. Several days earlier people in every house erect a lantern pole, attach a pheasant tail feather to the top, and make a flag from colored silk. In smaller huts they affix many twigs from an aged pine tree to the top. In every house lanterns are hung according to the number of children [in the household] so that the bright gleam [of the lanterns] might bring good luck. On the ninth the [ritual] is stopped. Extravagant people tie together about ten long bamboo poles and carry them on horses to the Five Riversides,306 [where, by attaching them to] the masts of a ship, they make lamp posts. Or they fasten [what is called] a sun and moon wheel,307 which, when moving with the wind, turns around dizzyingly. Or they hang lamps [whose lights], when they turn, resemble sparks. Or gun powder is wrapped in paper and attached to the rope so that, when [the packet is lit and] lifted quickly, it looks like a fire arrow, sparks falling downward like rain. Or paper, cut into the length of ten outstretched arms,308 is attached, fluttering in the wind, resembling a dragon. Or they hang baskets. Or a puppet is made, clothed, and hung from the rope [so it can] be played with. Tents, standing in a row, must win in a competition for height. The small and low [tents] are ridiculed



Tongguk sesigi

43

by the people, so with a “Heave ho!” the [attached ropes] are pulled to raise them. In the Koryŏsa it says, “From the palace and the capital down to every country town, lanterns were lighted at the full moon of the First Month for two nights.” Ch’oe I309 lighted lanterns on the eighth of the Fourth Month. It was originally a Chinese practice to light lanterns on the First Full Moon Day, [but] this is no longer our custom. And the Koryŏsa also says,310 “In our custom the eighth of the Fourth Month is Shakyamuni’s birthday, and in every house they light lanterns. For tens of days before that day groups of boys cut paper and affix it to a bamboo stick to make a flag. They walk around shouting in every street in town, asking for rice or cloth to cover their expenses. This is called ‘shouting with a flag.’ ” Today’s custom of hoisting flags on the lantern pole has been handed down from that “shouting with a flag,” so the shift to the eighth must have started with Ch’oe I. The lanterns carry names like watermelon, garlic, lotus flower, Five Phases [see n. 53 above], sun and moon, ball, ship, cup, drum, pavilion, railing, flowerpot, palanquin, mountain sleigh, jug, jar, bell, egg, dragon, phoenix, crane, carp, turtle, freshwater turtle, long life, luck, peace, ten thousand years, and South Mountain, the names of these lanterns indicating their shapes. [People] color the paper or else use red and green silk or attach mica, and they paint [on the lanterns] flying fairies or “flowers and birds.”311 Onto every side and edge they glue rolled-up paper or paper strips in three colors, the fluttering being a romantic and joyful sight. On a drum lantern, they always paint a general on horseback, alluding to the ancient fables from the Three Kingdoms.312 And then there are silhouette lanterns, each with a pinwheel inside,313 where they add images such as a horseback hunting scene with a falcon and dog, a tiger, a wolf, a deer, a roebuck, a pheasant, or a rabbit cut from paper. Because of the pinwheel, the [images] rotate when the airflow heats up, and the silhouettes can be seen from outside. Dongpo says in his “Letter to Wu Juncai,”314 “Not having seen silhouette lanterns before, now that you see them, what do you think? Is it not like reading the San guo zhi?” From this it is clear that the silhouettes are based on the ancient fables from the Three Kingdoms. Shihu in his poem “Burlesque on Festival Items Presented in Wu on First Full Moon Day,”315 wrote “rotating silhouettes of riders on horseback moving horizontally” and in the commentary “mounted horse lantern.”316 It is said that this practice has been established since Song times. Where lanterns are sold in the city, they are in multitudinous forms and shapes, brilliantly adorned in all colors, expensive, and in boastfully strange ways. And on Bell Street the spectators are [as dense] as a wall. Mythical birds,317 cranes, lions, tigers, deer, carp, freshwater turtles, and male and female super-beings on horseback are fabricated. Bands of children compete to buy and play with them. Following precedent, the nightly

44

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

curfew is lifted and, when the time of night to light the lanterns comes, men and women pour out into the city. At nightfall they climb up everywhere on the northern and southern foothills to watch the hanging lanterns, or they wander around with wind and string instruments. The sea of people makes it a city of light amid a clamorous rolling sound till dawn. Old women from the villages outside of town struggle to come, holding each other by the hand, eager to climb Silkworm-Head Hilltop318 to watch. Each child fastens steamer cake in rhododendron leaves, boiled black beans, and dropwort leaves to the lantern stick, saying that this is vegetarian food for the Buddha’s birthday, which they enjoy offering to strangers. A gourd bowl is set afloat in a basin of water, and people knock on it with a broom handle to make a clear sound in what is called a water-jar game.319 Zhang Yuan320 in his Ao zhi says, “It is customary that the head monks of the capital use beans to record the number of times they chant the name of Amitabha. On the eighth of the Fourth Month, the Buddha’s birthday, they cook beans with a very little salt and offer some to the people in the streets to eat so that they can connect with their karma.”321 It is said that today’s custom of cooking beans originates from this. The Dijing jingwu lue says, “On New Year’s Eve the children beat drums from dusk till dawn, which is called drumming for peace.”322 Today’s custom of the water-jar game has the meaning of drumming for peace, and because lantern night is on [Bathing the] Buddha Day, this game has been moved here. Also within the month Shops selling rice cakes take rice flour and knead it; [they then] divide [the dough] into small portions and let them ferment and rise by means of [rice] liquor323 to the form of little bells. [They] cook beans flavored with honey for stuffing, which is put into these little bells, with some jujube flesh added onto the top. This [dish] is what is called steamed rice cake. It comes in two colors, white and green; for the green ones, minced Chinese angelica is used. In the Yiyuan cihuang it says, “On Cold Meals Day they take dough and make steamed rice cake in the shape of a bell adding jujube. They call this jujube cake.”324 Today’s customs are in accord with this. Any portions that do not rise to form bells are also steamed and eaten. Yellow rose petals and royal fern are plucked to make cakes that are fried in oil to eat. They are the same as the flower cakes [eaten] on the third of the Third Month. Fish is sliced thin, cooked, and then mixed with Manchurian wild-rice vegetable,325 chrysanthemum leaves, leek sprouts, lichen,326 well-cooked abalone, and egg. [The dish] is called fish salad. Thicker fish filets stuffed with meat and boiled are called fish dumplings, which are eaten spiced with soy sauce mixed with



Tongguk sesigi

45

vinegar. Boiled dropwort is seasoned with leek and raw minced fish and prepared and seasoned to taste with fermented red pepper mash. This is eaten as a side dish with alcoholic beverages. All these are dishes to eat in early summer. Women, old and young, as well as children color their fingernails with touch-me-not ( pongsunga 봉숭아, Impatiens balsamina) and alum. In [South Kyŏngsang, Ch’angwŏn-si] Ungch’ŏn there is a shrine for the spirit of Ung Mountain (Ungsan-sin 熊山神).327 It is the custom of the people to invite the god to come down from the mountain each Fourth Month. They arrange various performances with bells and drums. From far and near people make sure to come and take part in the ceremony, which also takes place in the Tenth Month (see Geographical Survey).328

Fifth Month Tano329 The king bestows upon members of the Palace Library mugwort tigers (S.K. aeho 艾虎, K. ssuk-horangi 쑥호랑이), which are made by binding small straw stalks and attaching to them flowers made of silk. They flutter in the wind like the tassel of sweet flag. In the Suishi zaji it says, “On Duanwu they take mugwort and make tigers or cut small tigers from silk, glue on mugwort leaves, and put them on their heads.”330 Our custom originates from there. In the Ministry of Works (Kongjo 工曹) they make Tano fans and offer them to the king, who bestows them upon the court servants, high ministers, and chamberlains who are living in the palace. The larger ones have forty to fifty white bamboo ribs and are called white folding fans ( paek-ch’ŏp 白‌貼), and when they are lacquered, lacquered folding fans (ch’il-ch’ŏp 漆貼). Those who receive [such a fan] write on it [the phrase] “ten thousand two hundred peaks of the Diamond Mountains.”331 Or, acrobats and shamans who hold [folding fans] these days draw [on them] twigs, peach blossoms, lotus flowers, a tiger, butterflies, silver carp, or herons. The Rongan manbi332 says, “On Duanwu the king gives palace fans made of bamboo ribs covered with paper to the officials in the capital. Everyone paints wild animals or birds on them and wraps them in cotton cloth of the Five Colors.” This is the same as with the mugwort tigers. The provincial governors and the regional naval commanders333 of the two provinces South of the Lake and South of the Pass present the season’s fans (chŏlsŏn 節扇) to the king and, following this example, send them also to court officials and to each other. Among the heads of the towns where [these fans] are produced are some who present them to the king and to each other. The ones made in [North



Tongguk sesigi

45

vinegar. Boiled dropwort is seasoned with leek and raw minced fish and prepared and seasoned to taste with fermented red pepper mash. This is eaten as a side dish with alcoholic beverages. All these are dishes to eat in early summer. Women, old and young, as well as children color their fingernails with touch-me-not ( pongsunga 봉숭아, Impatiens balsamina) and alum. In [South Kyŏngsang, Ch’angwŏn-si] Ungch’ŏn there is a shrine for the spirit of Ung Mountain (Ungsan-sin 熊山神).327 It is the custom of the people to invite the god to come down from the mountain each Fourth Month. They arrange various performances with bells and drums. From far and near people make sure to come and take part in the ceremony, which also takes place in the Tenth Month (see Geographical Survey).328

Fifth Month Tano329 The king bestows upon members of the Palace Library mugwort tigers (S.K. aeho 艾虎, K. ssuk-horangi 쑥호랑이), which are made by binding small straw stalks and attaching to them flowers made of silk. They flutter in the wind like the tassel of sweet flag. In the Suishi zaji it says, “On Duanwu they take mugwort and make tigers or cut small tigers from silk, glue on mugwort leaves, and put them on their heads.”330 Our custom originates from there. In the Ministry of Works (Kongjo 工曹) they make Tano fans and offer them to the king, who bestows them upon the court servants, high ministers, and chamberlains who are living in the palace. The larger ones have forty to fifty white bamboo ribs and are called white folding fans ( paek-ch’ŏp 白‌貼), and when they are lacquered, lacquered folding fans (ch’il-ch’ŏp 漆貼). Those who receive [such a fan] write on it [the phrase] “ten thousand two hundred peaks of the Diamond Mountains.”331 Or, acrobats and shamans who hold [folding fans] these days draw [on them] twigs, peach blossoms, lotus flowers, a tiger, butterflies, silver carp, or herons. The Rongan manbi332 says, “On Duanwu the king gives palace fans made of bamboo ribs covered with paper to the officials in the capital. Everyone paints wild animals or birds on them and wraps them in cotton cloth of the Five Colors.” This is the same as with the mugwort tigers. The provincial governors and the regional naval commanders333 of the two provinces South of the Lake and South of the Pass present the season’s fans (chŏlsŏn 節扇) to the king and, following this example, send them also to court officials and to each other. Among the heads of the towns where [these fans] are produced are some who present them to the king and to each other. The ones made in [North

46

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Chŏlla] Chŏnju and in [South Chŏlla, Naju-si] Namp’yŏng334 are the best. Depending on their shape, they are called monk’s-head fan, fish-head fan, snake-head fan, sliced-bamboo fan, speckled-bamboo fan, fan with bone at the outside of the holder, fan with bone at the inside of the holder, threedifferent-holders fan, two-different-holders fan, bamboo-nodes-holders fan, Indian-redwood-holders fan, ornamented bone-holders fan, plain bone-­ holders fan, broad-margin fan, narrow-margin fan, fan with a ring, fan without a ring.335 There is no fixed color that they would not be made of: the Five Colors are used, but so too are purple, green, and dark blue; [the colors can be] opaque as clouds (unam 雲暗) or transparent [like water running between stones] (sŏngnin 石磷). However, traditionally there were two fans: in the two colors of white and black or pasted with yellow and black paint, and also dipped in oil. [Currently, there are] blue ones for bridegrooms, plain ones for those in mourning, and ones in all the colors, which are carried by married women and children. Round ones come in the Five Colors, and there are fans speckled in the Five Colors. Some also resemble paulownia336 leaves, lotus leaves, lotus flowers, or plantain leaves, either dipped in oil or in dark or yellow lacquer. Men wave [these lacquered ones] when they are at home, whereas women and children hold colored ones. Then there are wheel fans, [which are] colored paper on large bamboo ribs [spaced] wide apart and with an extended handle like an umbrella’s [that are] made as a parasol for small children. Large, round fans with a long handle are made to drive away flies and mosquitos from the sleeping place. A bride covers her face with a fan made of skin-colored silk with speckled bamboo holders and adorned with precious stones. Fans resembling a large plantain leaf are part of a high official’s ceremonial dress. And among the fans that are traded by merchants, some are carefully worked, some made carelessly, some are fancy, some simple, but none is like any other. Recording this custom, the Chinese called the people of Koryŏ “those carrying fans even in winter.” The Office for the Inspection of Natural Phenomena makes rubbings of the red Tano charm337 and presents them to the palace. They are pasted on the doors and crossbeams to ward off bad luck. They are also pasted up in the houses of the chief ministers. The text [of the rubbing] reads, “Fifth Month, fifth day, Day of the Zenith, from above may come Tian Lu,338 from below the blessing of the earth, the god Chi You, copper head and iron forehead,339 red mouth and red tongue,340 all ailments,341 let them vanish in one stroke. Promptly, promptly, in accordance with the regulations and orders.”342 In the Han343 dynasty’s practice they took peach seals344 to fend off evil influ­ences, and according to the Baopuzi, “red spiritual power charms were made.”345 These are old practices for Tano and the origin of today’s charm practices. In the Royal Dispensatory they prepare dehydrated butterfat-and-



Tongguk sesigi

47

cream elixir,346 which they offer to the king. They also make Precious Support Drugs,347 and plate [the pills with] gold leaf. To drive away calamities these [drugs] are carried on the belt, tied with a silk thread in the Five Colors. The king bestows them on the court secretaries. In the Fengsu tong[ yi] we read that “to wear five-colored silk—called long-life thread, lengthen-life thread, or fend-off-troops string—on the arm on the fifth of the Fifth Month keeps away ghosts and military calamities.”348 Today’s custom of tying a Precious Support Drug to the belt is said to be the same. Men, women, and all children take water boiled with calamus349 to wash their faces, and all dress in new red and green clothes. They pare calamus root to make hairpins and sometimes paint the Chinese character for longevity or happiness with rouge at the end or the sides. The [pins] are put in their hair to ward off sickness and are called Tano adornments. In the Da Dai Liji350 it says that on the fifth day of the Fifth Month orchids are gathered to make a bath. And according to the Suishi zaji, “Calamus and mugwort are carved into puppets or the form of a calabash and worn on the belt to ward off evil.”351 This is said to be the origin of today’s custom of taking a calamus bath or wearing calamus in the hair. And in the Wanshu zaji it says that in the capital of Yan352 from the first to the fifth day of the Fifth Month, small girls in the women’s quarters dress up as beautifully as possible, as do those already married, who go to their maiden home to greet their parents. This day is therefore called Women’s and Girl’s Day.353 Our custom is similar to the one from Yan. Making up the face and dressing up seem to be inherited from the Yan customs as well. Many men and women everywhere play swinging games. The Gujin yishu tu says that, when Cold Meals Day comes, the Rong and Di354 tribes in the northern region perform swinging games, experiencing [what it is] to be light and agile;355 later, Chinese women learned [to do] this, too. And the Tianbao yishi says, “In the palace, when Cold Meals Day comes they hasten to build swings for what they call the game of fairy-like [players].”356 [The day] has now been moved to Tano. Young men in the full vigor of youthful manliness meet at the Japanese Fields on South Mountain357 and behind the Divine Prowess Gate at North Mountain358 to hold wrestling matches, [each] competing to be the winner. The rules are that two men kneel facing each other, each using his right hand to pull the other’s waist while each with his left hand pulls on the other’s right thigh. Standing up at the same time, they lift each other up and attack; the one falling and lying down loses. There are several moves, among them inside-leg reaping, outside-leg reaping, and throwing [the opponent] over onto the ground. The one with a quick hand and great force and who has often competed and often won is called “the one bringing the

48

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

game to an end.”359 The Chinese have imitated this [contest], calling it the Koryŏ game,360 or wrestling.361 There are games like these aplenty on Tano Day, and they are played in the capital and all over the country. In the Yueling of the Liji it says that in the first month of winter “the generals are ordered to explain military matters and let archery, chariot driving, and wrestling be practiced.”362 It is the same with today’s wrestling games, and they are being held [to build] military strength. The “Western Capital Rhapsody” by Zhang Pingzi363 says that “there was the marvelous entertainment of horn-butting.”364 They had the same kind of [thing] in [Hou] Han times. The vulgar name for Tano is Surŭi Day.365 Surŭi means carriage in our language. On this day mugwort leaves are plucked, minced, ground, and mixed with non-glutinous rice powder until [the combination] turns green. This is then beaten and made into rice cakes, formed round like a wheel, and eaten. That is why the day is called Surŭi Day.366 These rice cakes are sold in shops as seasonal food. The thousand-year mugwort367 [listed] in the Bencao gangmu,368 which the Chinese call dog’s-tongue herb ( gou she cao 狗舌草).369 The mugwort that has leaves with a white back and is dried in the sun to make tinder is called surŭi.370 The Yanbei zaji371 by Wu Gui says, “In the customs of Liao372 the cooks of Bohai373 offer mugwort rice cakes on the fifth of the Fifth Month.” Our custom seems to follow this. At midday (osi 午時, 11:00 a.m.–1:00 p.m.), Chinese motherwort and paulswort374 are plucked and dried in the sun to be used as medicine. And jujube trees are mated (kasu 嫁樹). The Huali xinzai says, “Mating jujubes is best done on Duanwu at midday,”375 and also, “reducing the number of fruit-bearing twigs by chopping off several of them with an ax at midday on Duanwu in reality increases the yield.”376 This is the source of today’s custom. In [South Kyŏngsang] Kimhae,377 it is customary that every year from the eighth of the Fourth Month on, boys form gangs to practice stone fighting south of the fortress. And on Tano Day all men assemble, divide left and right, erect banners, and noisily beat drums. Shouting, yelling, and jumping up and down, they throw stones like rain, stopping only after it is clear who wins and who loses. Although it results in deaths and injuries, it is not repented, and the administrative functionaries cannot forbid it (see Geographical Survey).378 In [North Kyŏngsang, Kimch’ŏn-si] Kŭmsan,379 groups of youngsters meet at Chikjisa380 on Tano to participate in wrestling games. From far and near, people come together and compete to win. There are hundreds and thousands of spectators who have heard about it, so this is normal every year. In [North Kyŏngsang] Kunwi, at the West Mountain Peak in Hyoryŏng is Kim Yushin’s Ancestral Shrine,381 commonly called Three Generals’ Shrine.382



Tongguk sesigi

49

Every year at Tano the [village] heads and other local civil functionaries lead the townspeople on horseback to invite with banners and drumming the gods to wander the streets of the villages (see Geographical Survey).383 “In [Kangwŏn-to] Samch’ŏk it is the custom to put an ornamented hairpin made of copper and gold alloy384 into a small box and hide it under a tree in the eastern corner of the government office. Every year when Tano comes, the clerks and the people dig it up, pay it respect, and perform a ritual. At daybreak they hide it again. According to legend this is something stemming from the times of King T’aejo of Koryŏ,385 but the explanation for why this ritual is observed has not been investigated. However, since it is an old custom, the authorities do not forbid it” (see Geographical Survey).386 In Anbyŏn387 there is a shrine to the Sangŭm Guardian God.388 According to legend, every year on Tano the wife of King Sŏnwi the Great389 invites Sŏnwi [to accompany her] to a worship ceremony (see Geographical Survey).390 Also within the month The tenth is the day of the T’aejong death memorial.391 There is always rain on this day, which [is the reason it] is called T’aejong rain. T’aejong on his deathbed said to Sejong,392 “The drought catastrophes are severe nowadays. When I die and it comes to my attention, I will definitely make it rain on this day.” Thereafter this indeed has been the case. Seeds of barley and wheat are offered at the Royal Ancestors’ Shrine and also in the chief ministers’ residences. In the Yueling of the Liji, section “First Month of Summer” (“Mengxia zhi yue” 孟夏之月), it says, “When the farmers bring wheat to the Son of Heaven, he tastes it and first offers [some] in the inner ancestral shrine.”393 And in his Simin yueling Cui Shi writes, “On the first Heat Day (Ch’obok 初伏) wheat and Manchurian wild rice are offered to the ancestors.”394 Our procedure is the same. As a preparation to survive the winter, it is customary in the capital to steam beans seasoned with salt and store the paste in earthen jars. The Peng Zu baiji says, “On days with the Celestial Stem number eight,395 do not touch fermented preparations.”

Sixth Month Yudu Day The fifteenth, according to our customs, is called Yudu.396 In the Kim Kŭk-ki chip397 it says, “In the customs transmitted from the Eastern Capital,398 people wash their hair in eastward-flowing water on Full Moon Day of the Sixth Month to exorcise and remove bad luck. Because there is also ceremonial



Tongguk sesigi

49

Every year at Tano the [village] heads and other local civil functionaries lead the townspeople on horseback to invite with banners and drumming the gods to wander the streets of the villages (see Geographical Survey).383 “In [Kangwŏn-to] Samch’ŏk it is the custom to put an ornamented hairpin made of copper and gold alloy384 into a small box and hide it under a tree in the eastern corner of the government office. Every year when Tano comes, the clerks and the people dig it up, pay it respect, and perform a ritual. At daybreak they hide it again. According to legend this is something stemming from the times of King T’aejo of Koryŏ,385 but the explanation for why this ritual is observed has not been investigated. However, since it is an old custom, the authorities do not forbid it” (see Geographical Survey).386 In Anbyŏn387 there is a shrine to the Sangŭm Guardian God.388 According to legend, every year on Tano the wife of King Sŏnwi the Great389 invites Sŏnwi [to accompany her] to a worship ceremony (see Geographical Survey).390 Also within the month The tenth is the day of the T’aejong death memorial.391 There is always rain on this day, which [is the reason it] is called T’aejong rain. T’aejong on his deathbed said to Sejong,392 “The drought catastrophes are severe nowadays. When I die and it comes to my attention, I will definitely make it rain on this day.” Thereafter this indeed has been the case. Seeds of barley and wheat are offered at the Royal Ancestors’ Shrine and also in the chief ministers’ residences. In the Yueling of the Liji, section “First Month of Summer” (“Mengxia zhi yue” 孟夏之月), it says, “When the farmers bring wheat to the Son of Heaven, he tastes it and first offers [some] in the inner ancestral shrine.”393 And in his Simin yueling Cui Shi writes, “On the first Heat Day (Ch’obok 初伏) wheat and Manchurian wild rice are offered to the ancestors.”394 Our procedure is the same. As a preparation to survive the winter, it is customary in the capital to steam beans seasoned with salt and store the paste in earthen jars. The Peng Zu baiji says, “On days with the Celestial Stem number eight,395 do not touch fermented preparations.”

Sixth Month Yudu Day The fifteenth, according to our customs, is called Yudu.396 In the Kim Kŭk-ki chip397 it says, “In the customs transmitted from the Eastern Capital,398 people wash their hair in eastward-flowing water on Full Moon Day of the Sixth Month to exorcise and remove bad luck. Because there is also ceremonial

50

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

drinking, these customs are called the Yudu feast. Since this is a traditional holiday in our country’s customs, it is still the habit in [North Kyŏngsang] Kyŏngju. Non-glutinous rice is steamed until it almost becomes starch. It is then pounded and formed into a rice cake shaped like a leg, cut up as small as beads, which are sprinkled with honey water until they shine like icicles. They are then eaten as a worship offering. They are called water beads (sudan 水團); there are also dry beads (kŏndan 乾團). The ones not put into water are a kind of cold rice cake (to 𩛽, Ch. tao).399 Or glutinous rice powder is used to make them. The Tianbao yishi says, “Every year at Duanwu they make rice-flour beads and angular millet400 in the palace and affix each one with a spike to a metal disk. Whoever hits the rice-flour bead with an arrow shot from a very small bow [decorated with] animal horn may eat it.”401 And in the Suishi zaji,402 “At Duanwu, water beads, also called white beads (bai tuan 白團), are made.” The most refined ones are called dropped-powder beads, and a poem by Zhang Wenqian describes “powder beads, ice cold, dipped in sugar.”403 People in antiquity sent each other angular millet and dumplings as Tano presents.404 It is said they were of the same kind [as our water beads], the cone-shaped ends being the only difference. Today this [ritual] has been moved to Yudu. Wheat dough is kneaded, bean and sesame seasoned with honey stuffed inside, and [the whole is] then steamed. [These dumplings] are called frost-white flower rice cakes (sanghwa-pyŏng 霜花餠, vernacular sanghwa-ttŏk 霜花-떡). The dough is also made into a roll and cooked in oil with stuffing made of Manchurian wild rice. Or, [when the dough with] the stuffing of honey-seasoned bean and sesame is curled and twisted into strange shapes, it is called tied rice cake ( yŏnbyŏng 連餠, i.e., milssam 밀쌈). Folded leaf-shaped [cakes] with Manchurian wild rice stuffing are steamed in a wicker basket and eaten dipped in soy sauce mixed with vinegar. All of these are both seasonal foods and worship offerings. The commentary on a line from a poem by [Lu] Fangweng ([陸]放翁),405 [which goes] “wiping the tray and piling up lianzhan,”406 says that “this is what the people along the Huai407 call wheat dumplings (mai er 麥餌).” What is called lianzhan is therefore the same. People make yeast breads from wheat dough, which are called Yudu beads. They are colored in the Five Colors, and three of them are strung on a colored silk thread and worn on the belt or hung at the gate crossbeam to exorcise. Three Heat Days408 Dog meat and scallions boiled until soft is what is called dog paste. When chicken and bamboo sprouts are added, [the paste] is even more delicious. When it is made into soup seasoned with spicy pepper flakes409 and [combined



Tongguk sesigi

51

with] watered white rice, it becomes a seasonal dish. It makes one perspire and can dispel heat and restore one from fatigue. It is also sold in great quantities in the markets. In the Shiji410 it says, “In the beginning of the second year of Duke De of Qin,411 a heat-day sacrifice was offered by dismembering a dog at the four city gates to ward off insect scourge.” Dismembering a dog on the heat days apparently is an old custom, and therefore it has become today an auspicious food on the Three Heat Days. Cooking red gruel from adzuki beans as a meal is done on all Three Heat Days. Also within the month Various cereals, glutinous and unhusked millet, and rice are offered at the Royal Ancestors’ Shrine. In the Yueling of the Liji it says that in the second month of summer “the farmers present glutinous millet.412 The Son of Heaven tastes the millet and makes an offering in the inner ancestral shrine. In the first month of autumn, farmers present grain. The Son of Heaven tastes the new crop and makes an offering in the inner ancestral shrine.” Our procedure is the same. The king bestows on every officer wooden tokens for ice, to be picked up when they go to the icehouse. Noodles made from wheat are put into velvetleaf soup413 with young Manchurian wild rice414 and chicken meat. Or brown seaweed415 soup seasoned with chicken meat is made, cooked with noodles and some more water, and eaten. Some also take pumpkin together with pork, then slice white rice cake and boil it until soft or boil it together with the head of a dried croaker.416 Or they take wheat noodles mixed with pumpkin slices and fry them in oil. All of these are the most appropriate among the summer seasonal dishes. Melon417and watermelon are necessary to dispel the heat. It is a time when vegetables and fruits in the East Market and fresh fish in the Seventh Company Market418 are most abundant. At the Water Lily Pond of the Heavenly Nature Pavilion, the Spring Purification Tower in the district of the Three Pure Ones, and the landscape decoration rock in the district of the Grave of the Virtuous One419 gather lovers of a cup and poetry420 in order to re-enact the drinking at He Shuo.421 It is also a custom in the capital to enjoy washing one’s feet in the creeks and brooks of the North and South Mountains. In the customs of [South Kyŏngsang] Chinju, men and women on the last day of the month go to the [Nam-kang 南江, “South River”] riverbank to hold a ritual of purification in consequence of the fall of the fortress [situated there]. From far and near spectators come together as in a marketplace. It is said to be because the Japanese sacked the fortress in the old days during the Japanese invasion (Imjin waeran 壬辰倭亂, or Hideyoshi Invasions).

52

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Seventh Month Seventh Evening422 People dry their clothes in the sun, which is said to be an old custom. One Hundred Seeds Day The fifteenth is called in our custom One Hundred Seeds Day.423 Monks and disciples prepare monks’ meals424 and offer them to the Buddha, which makes an important festival day. In the Jing Chu suishi ji it says, “On Center Full Moon Day monks, nuns, disciples who have renounced their families, and laymen425 without exception prepare bowls and offer them to temples and monasteries.”426 Also, in the Ullambana Sutra427 it says, “Monk Maudgalyayana,428 take one hundred fruits in the Five Tastes, put them in a bowl and offer them to the virtuous ones everywhere.”429 Today’s appellation “One Hundred Seeds Day” seems to point to these one hundred fruits.430 In Koryŏ, when they venerated the Buddha, they always had Ullam­ bana meetings.431 Today’s custom of “preparing monks’ meals” is the same. In our custom, Center Full Moon Day is also the Day of the Lost Souls (Manghon-il 亡魂日). It is said that in the bright moon of this day respectable and humble people prepare vegetables, fruits, liquor, and cooked rice to welcome the spirits of their deceased relatives. Yi Tongak An-nul in a poem wrote, “Seeing that in the market vegetables and fruits are abundant / I think that the townspeople everywhere present offers to the spirits of their dead.”432 In the customs of West of the Lake Province, old and young go out into the town on the fifteenth to drink and eat, play music, and hold physical strength competitions433 (see Geographical Survey). Also within the month In the chief ministers’ residences, early ripening rice is being offered as sacrifice, generally either on the first or the fifteenth day.

Eighth Month Autumn Full Moon Evening434 The fifteenth is called in our custom Autumn Evening (Chusŏk 秋夕) and also Kabae.435 Originally a Silla custom, it is for the farmers in the countryside

52

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Seventh Month Seventh Evening422 People dry their clothes in the sun, which is said to be an old custom. One Hundred Seeds Day The fifteenth is called in our custom One Hundred Seeds Day.423 Monks and disciples prepare monks’ meals424 and offer them to the Buddha, which makes an important festival day. In the Jing Chu suishi ji it says, “On Center Full Moon Day monks, nuns, disciples who have renounced their families, and laymen425 without exception prepare bowls and offer them to temples and monasteries.”426 Also, in the Ullambana Sutra427 it says, “Monk Maudgalyayana,428 take one hundred fruits in the Five Tastes, put them in a bowl and offer them to the virtuous ones everywhere.”429 Today’s appellation “One Hundred Seeds Day” seems to point to these one hundred fruits.430 In Koryŏ, when they venerated the Buddha, they always had Ullam­ bana meetings.431 Today’s custom of “preparing monks’ meals” is the same. In our custom, Center Full Moon Day is also the Day of the Lost Souls (Manghon-il 亡魂日). It is said that in the bright moon of this day respectable and humble people prepare vegetables, fruits, liquor, and cooked rice to welcome the spirits of their deceased relatives. Yi Tongak An-nul in a poem wrote, “Seeing that in the market vegetables and fruits are abundant / I think that the townspeople everywhere present offers to the spirits of their dead.”432 In the customs of West of the Lake Province, old and young go out into the town on the fifteenth to drink and eat, play music, and hold physical strength competitions433 (see Geographical Survey). Also within the month In the chief ministers’ residences, early ripening rice is being offered as sacrifice, generally either on the first or the fifteenth day.

Eighth Month Autumn Full Moon Evening434 The fifteenth is called in our custom Autumn Evening (Chusŏk 秋夕) and also Kabae.435 Originally a Silla custom, it is for the farmers in the countryside



Tongguk sesigi

53

the most important festival day because the new crop is already ripe and the completion of the harvest not far off. They and their neighbors enjoy getting drunk on a yellow chicken and white[-rice] liquor.436 In the customs of [North Kyŏngsang] Kyŏngju in the time of King Yuri437 of Silla the six districts438 were divided into two, and two princesses were ordered to lead the women in these halves as teams. From the sixteenth of the Seventh Month onward, every morning they assembled in the yard of the larger district to spin hemp until the second night watch.439 On the fifteenth of the Eighth Month their results were examined, and the losers prepared food and drink to reward the winners. On this occasion there was singing and dancing and the hundred plays were performed in what was called Kabae. During this time a woman from a losing family would rise to dance and lament, singing “hoeso, hoeso,” a sound both sad and beautiful that later was made into a song called the “Hoeso Song” (會蘇曲 [words and melody are not transmitted]). This custom is observed until today (see Geographical Survey).440 It is the custom of Cheju that every year on the fifteenth of the Eighth Month men and women come together to sing and dance. They divide to form a left and a right team and pull a large rope from both ends to decide a winner. In case the rope breaks in the middle, both teams fall to the earth, causing great laughter among the spectators. This is called a rope game.441 On this day, they also swing on swings and play catch-the-chicken games442 (see Geographical Survey).443 Also within the month There is a local custom in West of the Lake Province of holding wrestling matches on the sixteenth. They prepare food and drink for their enjoyment. It is said that with farming labor over, it is natural that effort eases. Every year it is the same. In the shops selling alcoholic beverages they make alcohol from new rice. Shops selling rice cakes make pine cakes from early ripening rice as well as rice steamer cake with turnip root and pumpkin. They also make a cake by steaming glutinous rice flour and pounding it. They coat [this cake,] which is called injŏlmi,444 with black bean, yellow bean, or sesame powder and sell it. This is the sacrificial cake of old, the sesame cake of Han times. They steam glutinous rice powder and form rice cakes [shaped] like eggs. [These cakes] combined with cooked chestnut flesh and seasoned with honey are called chestnut balls.445 The Suishi zaji446 says that on the two Earth Days and the Double Yang Days they take chestnuts and make a cake. This is the original of today’s custom. There are also taro447 balls made in the same way as chestnut balls. All these are seasonal foods for autumn.

54

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Ninth Month Ninth Day Yellow chrysanthemum petals are plucked and glutinous rice cakes are made. They are the same as the azalea cakes for Samjit-nal and are also called flower cakes. According to the Xijing zaji, the maid Jia Pei-lan at the court of Emperor Wu of Han448 ate er (餌)449 on the ninth.450 In our language er are white rice cakes.451 Meng Yuanlao452 wrote in his Dongjing menghua lu that on Double Nine Day “the people in the capital steam cakes made of flour dough and present them to each other.”453 It is said that today’s chrysanthemum cakes come from [this practice]. [The combination of] finely sliced pear and yuzu454 together with pomegranate and pine nuts in honey water is called flower punch. All these are seasonal foods offered in worship. In the customs of the capital, people climb the northern and southern mountains and eat and drink as an enjoyment. It is said this comes from the old [Chinese] custom of ascending heights.455 Green Maple Creek Valley,456 Hall of the Trees Last Losing Their Leaves,457 the North Han [River], South Han [River], Tao Peak, and Water-Falling Mountains458 have spectacular maple trees.459

Tenth Month Horse Day O-il, the day with the seventh of the Twelve Earthly Branches,460 is customarily called Day of the Horse (Ma-Il 馬日, K. Mal-Nal 말날). Steamer cake with red beans is made and offered to the gods in the stable to pray for the health of the horses. However, out of fear of horse sicknesses, a Day of the Horse in combination461 with the third of the Ten Celestial Stems is not used because [the name] sounds like “sickness.”462 The day with the combination of the fifth of the Ten Celestial Stems463 and the seventh of the Twelve Earthly Branches is most useful. Also within the month From the first of the Tenth Month till the First Month, the Royal Dispensatory makes milk gruel464 for the king. The Agency for the Elderly makes gruel to support the aged officials until First Full Moon Day. Common people call the Tenth Month the “month for those above” (sangwŏl 上月, K. sangdal 상달)465 and ask a shaman to invite the house god.466

54

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Ninth Month Ninth Day Yellow chrysanthemum petals are plucked and glutinous rice cakes are made. They are the same as the azalea cakes for Samjit-nal and are also called flower cakes. According to the Xijing zaji, the maid Jia Pei-lan at the court of Emperor Wu of Han448 ate er (餌)449 on the ninth.450 In our language er are white rice cakes.451 Meng Yuanlao452 wrote in his Dongjing menghua lu that on Double Nine Day “the people in the capital steam cakes made of flour dough and present them to each other.”453 It is said that today’s chrysanthemum cakes come from [this practice]. [The combination of] finely sliced pear and yuzu454 together with pomegranate and pine nuts in honey water is called flower punch. All these are seasonal foods offered in worship. In the customs of the capital, people climb the northern and southern mountains and eat and drink as an enjoyment. It is said this comes from the old [Chinese] custom of ascending heights.455 Green Maple Creek Valley,456 Hall of the Trees Last Losing Their Leaves,457 the North Han [River], South Han [River], Tao Peak, and Water-Falling Mountains458 have spectacular maple trees.459

Tenth Month Horse Day O-il, the day with the seventh of the Twelve Earthly Branches,460 is customarily called Day of the Horse (Ma-Il 馬日, K. Mal-Nal 말날). Steamer cake with red beans is made and offered to the gods in the stable to pray for the health of the horses. However, out of fear of horse sicknesses, a Day of the Horse in combination461 with the third of the Ten Celestial Stems is not used because [the name] sounds like “sickness.”462 The day with the combination of the fifth of the Ten Celestial Stems463 and the seventh of the Twelve Earthly Branches is most useful. Also within the month From the first of the Tenth Month till the First Month, the Royal Dispensatory makes milk gruel464 for the king. The Agency for the Elderly makes gruel to support the aged officials until First Full Moon Day. Common people call the Tenth Month the “month for those above” (sangwŏl 上月, K. sangdal 상달)465 and ask a shaman to invite the house god.466



Tongguk sesigi

55

They prepare rice cakes and fruits [as an offering] and worship to divine for peace in the house. Every year on the twentieth there is a strong wind and chill called a Sondol wind.467 It is said that when the Koryŏ king had to take the sea route to [Kyŏnggi-to] Kanghwa,468 a sailor by the name of Sondol steered [the boat into] a dangerous passage. The king suspected treason and had him beheaded. The dangerous situation was overcome before long. Today the area is called Sondol Strait, and it is Sondol’s resentment at his tragic death that causes this [wind] on this day.469 It is the custom in the capital to burn charcoal in a fireplace, put a frying pan on top, and roast beef seasoned with oil, soy sauce, egg, scallions, garlic, and red pepper flakes. [The dish] is eaten sitting around the fireplace in what is called a fireplace meeting (nallo-hoe 煖爐會). From this month on, this is the dish [eaten] to fight the chill of the season. It is the so-called warming gathering470 of old. Or beef or pork is mixed with turnip, Manchurian wild rice, strong-smelling spices,471 and egg to make a soup, which is then seasoned with soy sauce. This is called “that which is pleasing to the mouth” ( yŏl-gu-ja 悅口子) or “Daoist immortal stove.”472 In the Suishi zaji it says, “On the first of the Tenth Month they brew liquor in the capital and roast sliced meat at a fireplace and sit in a circle, drinking and having a bite,”473 which is called “fireplace.” And the Dongjing menghua lu says, “On the first of the Tenth Month someone in charge prepares a fireplace and coal, and the people bring alcoholic beverages and have a ‘fireplace meeting.’ ”474 Today’s custom is the same. Dumplings are made with buckwheat dough and a stuffing of vegetables, scallions, chicken, pork, and beef meat, and bean curd. It is heated in soup seasoned with soy sauce and eaten. Also, they make with wheat dough triangle-shaped dumplings called dumplings à la Pyŏn.475 It is said the name was given because a person named Pyŏn made them first.476 The Shiwu jiyuan jilei477 says, When Duke Zhuge478 attacked Meng Huo,479 someone advised him, “According to the customs of the Southern Barbarians you should kill some people and offer their heads, which the gods enjoy and [in return] send heavenly troops.” The duke did not comply with this, but because he mixed mutton and pork and stuffed it into dough in the shape of a human head as a sacrifice for the spirits, [the gods] enjoyed it and so sent soldiers. Therefore, people in later generations made mantou dumplings.480

They put them in baskets and steamed them. This is why they are called steamed rice cake or basket rice cake.481 They are the [dumplings] that, when

56

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

Hou Si-zheng482 ate them, he would without fail “reduce the scallions and add meat.”483 And while there are non-glutinous rice dumplings, pheasant meat dumplings, and salt-pickled vegetable dumplings, it is the pickled vegetable dumplings that make the most appropriate seasonal food. Investigating the reason shows that while the origin is from the Marquis of War (Wu Hou 武侯, i.e., Zhuge Liang), today this dish is used as the most auspicious food. Bean curd is finely mashed then cooked with chicken meat, making a thick soup called “soft foam,”484 where foam means bean curd. This was invented by the king of Huainan.485 The commentary to [the line] “they clean a vessel and cook laiqi”486 in a poem by Fangweng says, “This is what the people of Shu487 call ‘bean curd.’ What was called laiqi, today is called ‘soft foam.’ ” The soup that is cooked with plucked soft buds of winter mugwort488 along with beef and egg is called mugwort soup. [Mugwort] chopped up and put into glutinous rice powder to make cake balls that are then covered with baked bean powder seasoned with honey are called mugwort balls.489 Honey balls (miltan-ko 蜜團餻) are glutinous rice powder that is made into cake balls and covered with cooked beans seasoned with honey for the red color. All these are seasonal foods from early winter on. [The dough made from] glutinous rice powder mixed with rice liquor is cut into smaller and larger pieces and dried in the sun. When fried in oil the leaven rises and makes blisters, [which are] hollow inside. A powder of black sesame seed, yellow beans, and green beans is applied with sweet syrup.490 This [confection] is known as dry stacking cake.491 The [so-called] Yuanyang cocoons,492 among the names and descriptions of the Lü of Lantian’s493 household, are the same. And in the Binger xiantan494 it says that “mashed bean cakes (suibing 䭉餅) are made from beans mixed with sugar.” Also, when flaxseed is added, [the result is] ho-cake or ma-cake,495 which is the same. All these are seasonal foods starting from this month and are sold everywhere in the cities. There are also dry stacking cakes in the Five Colors (osaek-kŏnjŏng 五色乾飣). Pine nut mash added to pine nut crumbs is called pine nut dry stacking cake (songja-kŏnjŏng 松子乾飣). Glutinous rice is boiled and, after it rises, is formed into the shape of a flower and glued with sweet syrup onto [the dry stacking cake], which is then called apricot flower dry stacking cake (maehwa-kŏnjŏng 梅花乾飣, i.e., maehwa-kanjŏng). Dry stacking cakes in red and white colors arranged alongside fruits are used in sacrificial rites in all peoples’ houses on New Year’s Day and in spring. And when inviting guests for [New] Year’s delicatessen, they are an item not to be neglected. It is customary in the capital to use turnip, cabbage, garlic, red pepper, and salt when preparing salted vegetables in earthen jars. [The making of]



Tongguk sesigi

57

the soy sauce and pastes in summer and the salty fermented vegetables in winter are the great projects of each year in every house. Among the customs of [North Ch’ungch’ŏng] Poŭn, there is the shrine of the Absolute Heaven King496 on top of Removed from the Vulgar World Mountain (Songni-san 俗離山), whose god comes down to the Monastery Where the Dharma Abides497 every year on the [first] Day of the Tiger in the Tenth Month. The mountain people welcome the god with music and perform a ritual. After staying for forty-five days the spirit departs (see Geographical Survey).498

Eleventh Month Winter Solstice The winter solstice day is called Minor New Year’s Day.499 People cook gruel from red beans (S.K. chŏktu-chuk 赤豆粥, but normally K. pat’chuk 밭‌죽). They take glutinous rice flour, form it into the shape of birds’ eggs,500 and put them into the gruel as dumplings.501 Sweetened with honey, this is both a seasonal food and an offering at sacrificial rituals. The bean soup is also applied to the door’s wooden planks in order to fend off calamity.502 In the Jing Chu suishi ji it says, “Gonggong503 had a son of no talents, who died on a winter solstice day and became a smallpox spirit. [The spirit] had been afraid of small red beans, and therefore this gruel is made on winter solstice day as a sacrifice to banish him.”504 Liu Zihui in his poem “Solstice”505 wrote, “It is the custom in Jing to appease the spirits with red bean gruel.” Today’s custom is the same. The Office for the Inspection of Natural Phenomena provides the king with calendars. Yellow-cover and white-cover [calendars]506 stamped ­standard-text seal507 are bestowed by the king on all officials, including every officer, clerk, and petty official of whom [the officials] were in charge. There are examples of [calendars going to] related households when requested. The clerks in the Ministry of Personnel (Ijo 吏曹) write letters of appointment to the family members of a bureaucrat who has received a nomination [to some office]. In the case where someone has been appointed a local governor, [the clerks] receive some compensation.508 A blue-cover calendar is given on such an occasion. It is said to be an old custom in the capital that the officers give fans to the clerks on Tano [Day], and the clerks give winter solstice calendars to the officers. The saying “fans in the summer, calendars in the winter” means dispensing small favors among close friends in the rural areas and grave-keeper villages as well as among tenant farmers. The Royal Dispensatory takes cinnamon, red pepper, sugar, and honey



Tongguk sesigi

57

the soy sauce and pastes in summer and the salty fermented vegetables in winter are the great projects of each year in every house. Among the customs of [North Ch’ungch’ŏng] Poŭn, there is the shrine of the Absolute Heaven King496 on top of Removed from the Vulgar World Mountain (Songni-san 俗離山), whose god comes down to the Monastery Where the Dharma Abides497 every year on the [first] Day of the Tiger in the Tenth Month. The mountain people welcome the god with music and perform a ritual. After staying for forty-five days the spirit departs (see Geographical Survey).498

Eleventh Month Winter Solstice The winter solstice day is called Minor New Year’s Day.499 People cook gruel from red beans (S.K. chŏktu-chuk 赤豆粥, but normally K. pat’chuk 밭‌죽). They take glutinous rice flour, form it into the shape of birds’ eggs,500 and put them into the gruel as dumplings.501 Sweetened with honey, this is both a seasonal food and an offering at sacrificial rituals. The bean soup is also applied to the door’s wooden planks in order to fend off calamity.502 In the Jing Chu suishi ji it says, “Gonggong503 had a son of no talents, who died on a winter solstice day and became a smallpox spirit. [The spirit] had been afraid of small red beans, and therefore this gruel is made on winter solstice day as a sacrifice to banish him.”504 Liu Zihui in his poem “Solstice”505 wrote, “It is the custom in Jing to appease the spirits with red bean gruel.” Today’s custom is the same. The Office for the Inspection of Natural Phenomena provides the king with calendars. Yellow-cover and white-cover [calendars]506 stamped ­standard-text seal507 are bestowed by the king on all officials, including every officer, clerk, and petty official of whom [the officials] were in charge. There are examples of [calendars going to] related households when requested. The clerks in the Ministry of Personnel (Ijo 吏曹) write letters of appointment to the family members of a bureaucrat who has received a nomination [to some office]. In the case where someone has been appointed a local governor, [the clerks] receive some compensation.508 A blue-cover calendar is given on such an occasion. It is said to be an old custom in the capital that the officers give fans to the clerks on Tano [Day], and the clerks give winter solstice calendars to the officers. The saying “fans in the summer, calendars in the winter” means dispensing small favors among close friends in the rural areas and grave-keeper villages as well as among tenant farmers. The Royal Dispensatory takes cinnamon, red pepper, sugar, and honey

58

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

and boils it in a cow skin and lets it coagulate. This is a decocted medicine (chŏnyak 煎藥) and is offered to the king. Every government office also makes [such decoctions] for distribution. Also within the month Herring are offered at the Royal Ancestor’s Shrine as well as at chief ministers’ residences. In the Yueling of the Liji it says, “In the last month of winter, the Son of Heaven tastes fish and offers it at the inner ancestral shrine.”509 Our procedure is the same. Herring fishing is most productive in [South Kyŏngsang] T’ongyŏng and [South Hwanghae] Haeju, and in winter and spring herring are offered to the king. When the fishing boats come and anchor at Kyŏnggang,510 all over the city the fish sellers along the streets yell out “Buy!” In [South Kyŏngsang] T’ongyŏng there is also abalone (kapsaengpok 甲生鰒) and codfish,511 which are offered to the king. Any surplus after that offering is customarily presented to high civil officials.512 The county (mok 牧) of Cheju513 presents the king with tangerines, yuzus, and mandarin oranges514 to be offered at the Royal Ancestor’s Shrine; the king [then] bestows them on court servants, high ministers, and court secretaries. In the old days, when the Comet Lord of Tamna515 sent this offering, a state examination was arranged in appreciation. Continuing this in the current dynasty, the students of the Highest Institute of Learning and the Four Schools take an examination called the mandarin orange examination516 because the king presents [the examinees] with mandarin oranges. Examination and selection follow the system of the festival day examinations, so the best [students] are inevitably graded as “passed” by the king. Every year in winter there is the strange phenomenon of dragon ploughing517 on Haptŏk Lake518 near Hongju in West of the Lake Province [today South Ch’ungch’ŏn Hongsŏng-kun]. Furrows running lengthwise from south to north and extending to the shore are the sign of an abundant year; from west to east with the track interrupted in the middle points to drought; and running north, south, east, and west with no clear direction [portends] half abundance and half drought. Dragon ploughing is also used at South Lake in Miryang in South of the Pass Province to foretell happenings in the year. Buckwheat noodles with salt-pickled turnip and salt-pickled cabbage and seasoned with pork are called cold noodles. And noodles mixed with various vegetables, pear, chestnuts, and minced beef and pork, seasoned with sesame oil and soy sauce, are referred to as koltong (leftover) noodles.519 The noodles of West of the Pass Province are the best. The Old Man of Luofu in Ying520 took all kinds of drink and edibles and mixed and cooked them [to



Tongguk sesigi

59

make a dish] called gudong soup (Ch. gudong geng, K. koltong-kaeng 骨董羹), gudong meaning mixed. The dish is similar to what today are noodles with assorted ingredients (chammyŏn 雜麵, normally K. pibim-myŏn 비빔면). “The people of South of the River521 like to prepare the pursuing-pleasure dish ( panyoufan 盤遊飯), which is salted minced fish, dried meat, raw minced fish, and all sorts of fried ingredients mixed in with the rice.” This dish is koltong rice (S.K. pan chi koltong 飯之骨董, normally K. pibim-pap 비빔밥), a dish that remains from the olden days. Turnip roots that are chopped and pickled in salt are called winter pickles (tongch’im 冬沈, modern K. tong-ch’imi 동치미). Dried persimmons put into boiling water and seasoned with fresh ginger and pine nuts are called watery confections.522 All of these are seasonal foods in winter. The clarified juice of shrimp in salt [mixed with] turnip, cabbage, garlic, ginger, red pepper, red algae,523 abalone, conch shell, oyster, croaker fish, and salt are made into blended pickles.524 Stored in earthen jars and kept covered with liquid until the end of winter, [the mixture] becomes spicy and can be eaten. Also pickles from turnip, cabbage, dropwort, ginger, and red pepper in soy sauce are eaten.

Twelfth Month Winter Sacrifice Day525 Our dynasty established the third Day of the Sheep after winter solstice as Winter Sacrifice Day, [the day when] a great sacrificial ceremony is held at the Royal Ancestors’ Shrine and the Earth and Grain Altar.526 The Chibong yusŏl527 says, citing Cai Yong‘s Duduan,528 “The Blue-Green Emperor made a Day of the Sheep the Winter Sacrifice Day, the Red Emperor made a Day of the Dog the Winter Sacrifice Day, the White Emperor made a Day of the Ox the Winter Sacrifice Day, the Black Emperor made a Day of the Dragon the Winter Sacrifice Day.”529 In our country a Day of the Sheep is the Winter Sacrifice Day because the east direction is associated with wood.530 The Royal Dispensatory makes medicinal pills and offers them to the king. They are called Winter Sacrifice Day medicine (Nabyak 臘藥). The king bestows them upon close attendants (kŭnmil 近密). Clearing-theheart medicine531 is effective against heartache,532 “tranquilizer”533 against pathogenic heat,534 Storax medicine535 against sudden unconsciousness (kwak 癨). These three are the most necessary ones. King Chŏngjo in his allwise mind had two further kinds: “helping-the-masses elixir” (chejung-tan 濟衆丹) and “extensive-relief pills” (kwangje-hwan 廣濟丸), newly made in the year 1790,536 which, compared with Storax medicine, brought about much quicker results. The king bestows these on all barracks so that the



Tongguk sesigi

59

make a dish] called gudong soup (Ch. gudong geng, K. koltong-kaeng 骨董羹), gudong meaning mixed. The dish is similar to what today are noodles with assorted ingredients (chammyŏn 雜麵, normally K. pibim-myŏn 비빔면). “The people of South of the River521 like to prepare the pursuing-pleasure dish ( panyoufan 盤遊飯), which is salted minced fish, dried meat, raw minced fish, and all sorts of fried ingredients mixed in with the rice.” This dish is koltong rice (S.K. pan chi koltong 飯之骨董, normally K. pibim-pap 비빔밥), a dish that remains from the olden days. Turnip roots that are chopped and pickled in salt are called winter pickles (tongch’im 冬沈, modern K. tong-ch’imi 동치미). Dried persimmons put into boiling water and seasoned with fresh ginger and pine nuts are called watery confections.522 All of these are seasonal foods in winter. The clarified juice of shrimp in salt [mixed with] turnip, cabbage, garlic, ginger, red pepper, red algae,523 abalone, conch shell, oyster, croaker fish, and salt are made into blended pickles.524 Stored in earthen jars and kept covered with liquid until the end of winter, [the mixture] becomes spicy and can be eaten. Also pickles from turnip, cabbage, dropwort, ginger, and red pepper in soy sauce are eaten.

Twelfth Month Winter Sacrifice Day525 Our dynasty established the third Day of the Sheep after winter solstice as Winter Sacrifice Day, [the day when] a great sacrificial ceremony is held at the Royal Ancestors’ Shrine and the Earth and Grain Altar.526 The Chibong yusŏl527 says, citing Cai Yong‘s Duduan,528 “The Blue-Green Emperor made a Day of the Sheep the Winter Sacrifice Day, the Red Emperor made a Day of the Dog the Winter Sacrifice Day, the White Emperor made a Day of the Ox the Winter Sacrifice Day, the Black Emperor made a Day of the Dragon the Winter Sacrifice Day.”529 In our country a Day of the Sheep is the Winter Sacrifice Day because the east direction is associated with wood.530 The Royal Dispensatory makes medicinal pills and offers them to the king. They are called Winter Sacrifice Day medicine (Nabyak 臘藥). The king bestows them upon close attendants (kŭnmil 近密). Clearing-theheart medicine531 is effective against heartache,532 “tranquilizer”533 against pathogenic heat,534 Storax medicine535 against sudden unconsciousness (kwak 癨). These three are the most necessary ones. King Chŏngjo in his allwise mind had two further kinds: “helping-the-masses elixir” (chejung-tan 濟衆丹) and “extensive-relief pills” (kwangje-hwan 廣濟丸), newly made in the year 1790,536 which, compared with Storax medicine, brought about much quicker results. The king bestows these on all barracks so that the

60

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

soldiers may be cured of diseases. Also, the Agency for the Elderly makes Winter Sacrifice Day medicine (napche 臘劑) and distributes it among the aged officials. And all offices make and distribute [this medicine] and [the clerks] also present each other with the surplus. For Winter Sacrifice Day, meat of pork and rabbit are used. Since days of old, Sacrifice Day boars were offered to the court from the mountain counties in the Capital Province. People were sent out to catch [the animals]. However, King Chŏngjo (r. 1776–1800) gave a special order to stop this [practice] and sent court hunters to places like Yongmun and Chŭngnyŏng Mountains537 to hunt. Hunting sparrows and feeding them to small children is a remedy against pockmarks. On this day bird-catching nets are stretched out or bullets shot and carrying weapons for hunting in the alleys is allowed. In case of snow on Winter Sacrifice Day, its water is collected and taken for medicine. Insects will not develop if it is used to soak something. Evening of Riddance Court officials of 2nd rank and above and chamberlains go to the palace to pay [their] respects for the past year (kuse-munan 舊歲問安). In the families of scholars and men of high birth, the youngsters visit their aged relatives, including relatives by marriage. This is called past-year bowing. From twilight until deep in the night, lamps moving in the streets follow each other endlessly. In the palace, great cannons are fired from the day before the Evening of Riddance, [a practice] called year-end cannons, fire arrows are shot and noise is made with gongs and drums. This is the great exorcism, the ancient transmitted way to expel epidemics. It resembles the burning of bamboo [whose] crackling [sound] is to frighten away evil spirits on the Evening of Riddance and on New Year’s morning. In the customs of Yanjing [Beijing], the roaring sound at year’s end ceases only after the Lantern Festival (Dengjie 燈節). This [custom] is known as “gongs and drums for the new year.” In Yan, this is a custom within the city; in our country it is only performed at the palace. One or two days before the Evening of Riddance, the ban on slaughtering cows538 is lifted and all law departments withdraw the signboards until New Year’s Day. It is meant to facilitate the townspeople having a hearty meal, and sometimes [the ban] is not implemented. People light oil lanterns in white porcelain bowls with a wick of twisted cotton in the center in every space of the house—the loft, the central hall, all rooms, and the kitchen. Placed even in the stables and the outhouse, the brightness is like daylight. Nobody goes to bed until dawn on what is called



Tongguk sesigi

61

the New Year’s vigil,539 a custom passed down from the vigil on the fiftyseventh night.540 In the Fenmen suosui lu541 by Wen Ge542 it reads that on New Year’s evening the whole house is brightly illuminated with lamps until dawn in front of statues of the gods and buddhas and in lofts, halls, rooms, and the outhouse. According to the Dongjing menghua lu, on the Evening of Riddance the people light a lamp in the kitchen furnace, calling it “illuminating the disarrayed void,”543 and the common people sit in a circle around a fireplace, which they call the New Year’s vigil. Dongpo, recording the customs of Shu, said, “They invite each other for food and drink to see off the year. And they do not close their eyes on New Year’s evening to celebrate the New Year’s vigil.”544 This is the origin of today’s custom. According to common tradition, sleeping on New Year’s evening will make both eyebrows turn white. All children look for someone pretending not to sleep, and when [they find] someone dozing, the other children smear flour on his eyebrows, wake him up, and make him face a mirror, causing great laughter. Two sticks of the chaste tree are split in two, making four yut.545 They may be as long as three inches or as small as soybeans and are thrown in a competition called the Yut game. All four [sticks] facing down is called mo, all four facing up is called yut, three down and one up to, two down and two up kae, one down and three up kŏl. On the board are twenty-nine circles. Two players opposite each other cast the sticks, each playing with four horses (ma 馬, tokens in the game). To moves one circle, kae moves two circles, kŏl moves three, yut moves four, and mo moves five circles. [On a wooden board, twenty] small circles are drawn in a ring and [ten circles] are building a cross inside, and by moving the “horses” slow or fast, the winner is decided. This is the most popular game of the New Year’s season. [The Chinese character used for yut], the Shuowen [ jiezi]546 explains, means “spoon,” but in this case, referring to “four” and “wood,”547 it means yut. In the Chibong yusŏl it says, “It is a ritual entertainment,548 like Chŏp’o. The game of Yut is just some kind of Chŏp’o.”549 It is common practice on New Year’s Eve and New Year’s morning to use yut sticks to cast diagrams to foresee the fortune for the new year, good and ill. The divination method is to match the [numbers thrown] with the sixty-four diagrams [in the Yijing], each of which has an interpretation. Normally three throws are done. “Baby gets milk” and “rat enters granary” mean good luck.550 Some also say that the first throw among three is to be observed in the old year and then combined with the throws at the beginning of the [new] year and at First Full Moon Day for telling the future. Commoner girls and women take a clean wooden plank, set it horizontally on a bag [full] of straw, and step, opposing each other, at the ends

62

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea

of it. Rising and descending by jumping up some feet, they play this game until exhausted. It is called the jumping game551 and is also played at the beginning of the year. Zhou Huang in Liuqiu guoji lüe552 relates that their women dance upon a plank, which is called a plank dance. These customs are similar. It is the custom in North of the Pass Province to set up ice lanterns. Like a surrounding fence they arrange oil and wicks, and when the evening comes, they make noise with gongs, drums, and the blowing of trumpets as ritual entertainment. This they call spring altar.553 In West of the Pass Province they set up ice lanterns in every district and town, a playful custom at year’s end. In [North P’yŏngan] Ŭiju it is a custom to make noise with paper pop guns in the villages, an imitation of a custom in Yanjing [Beijing]. Also within the month On New Moon Day, the Selection Departments make and present to the king a list of those among the court officials who had resigned or been removed from office in what is called a year-end pruning. Those marked by the king are either reinstated or demoted in rank. This is also done on the New Moon Day of the Sixth Month, and thus there is a great reshuffling554 in the Sixth Month and on Winter Sacrifice Day. And because extra lists are also prepared on special festival days, this regulation is said to be unspecific. In the provinces of West of the Pass and West of the Sea the military commanders have the habit of sending a [New] Year’s delicatessen to the homes of people of high status and close acquaintances. All provincial treasurers, military commanders, and magistrates555 follow the habit of making [New] Year’s gifts. They insert in the letter envelops a separate small sheet of folded paper, called an itemization paper,556 listing all the different local products. Each officer, petty official, and servant also sends greetings and gifts—a pheasant or dried persimmon, for instance—to his parents’ home. The Fengtu ji by Zhou Chu says, “It is the custom of Shu to send each other gifts and greetings on the night before New Year’s, [a practice] called [New] Year’s gifts.”557 Because in one of Dongpo’s poems558 it says that “a large carp flat on a plate, or a pair of rabbits when opening a basket,” it is clear that this is an old custom. Grown-ups and youngsters play hacky sack.559 The ball looks like a large projectile of a firearm with pheasant feathers attached on top. Two people stand opposite each other, and the skill is to kick [the ball] vigorously [back and forth] to each other without letting it fall to the ground.



Tongguk sesigi

63

Liu Xiang wrote in his Bielu,560 “The Yellow Emperor invented playing ‘kick-kick’ on Cold Meals Day. Some say it emerged during the Warring States period, in those days a war-like demonstration. Another name is ‘fighting without weapons.’ ”561 This is the origin of today’s custom. It is played from early winter onward and especially at year’s end. In the county shrine of [Kangwŏn-to] Kosŏng, officers hold a ritual on the first and the fifteenth of every month. A mask of the god is made with elegant satin and kept in the shrine. After the twentieth of the Twelfth Month the god descends to the townspeople. They wear the mask and, stamping their feet, dance in official places as well as in the town and the villages. Every home welcomes and entertains [the dancers], and by the eve before the First Full Moon of the First Month the god returns to its shrine. This happens regularly every year. [This spirit] is said to be one of the gods driving away plague and evil spirits.

Intercalary Month Customarily the month is well suited for marrying and making shrouds, and there is no taboo regardless of the undertaking. In every intercalary month, women from the capital hasten to come to Pongŭn Temple in [Kyŏnggi-to] Kwangju562 to make an offering to the Buddha, putting money before the seat of the Buddha, and [this coming for offering continues] until the end of the month. They say that doing this will [assure one’s] return to the paradise. Old women from all directions rush there in waves, gathering eagerly. This custom [prevails] everywhere at all temples outside the capital.



Tongguk sesigi

63

Liu Xiang wrote in his Bielu,560 “The Yellow Emperor invented playing ‘kick-kick’ on Cold Meals Day. Some say it emerged during the Warring States period, in those days a war-like demonstration. Another name is ‘fighting without weapons.’ ”561 This is the origin of today’s custom. It is played from early winter onward and especially at year’s end. In the county shrine of [Kangwŏn-to] Kosŏng, officers hold a ritual on the first and the fifteenth of every month. A mask of the god is made with elegant satin and kept in the shrine. After the twentieth of the Twelfth Month the god descends to the townspeople. They wear the mask and, stamping their feet, dance in official places as well as in the town and the villages. Every home welcomes and entertains [the dancers], and by the eve before the First Full Moon of the First Month the god returns to its shrine. This happens regularly every year. [This spirit] is said to be one of the gods driving away plague and evil spirits.

Intercalary Month Customarily the month is well suited for marrying and making shrouds, and there is no taboo regardless of the undertaking. In every intercalary month, women from the capital hasten to come to Pongŭn Temple in [Kyŏnggi-to] Kwangju562 to make an offering to the Buddha, putting money before the seat of the Buddha, and [this coming for offering continues] until the end of the month. They say that doing this will [assure one’s] return to the paradise. Old women from all directions rush there in waves, gathering eagerly. This custom [prevails] everywhere at all temples outside the capital.

Abbreviations

Full citations of the sources listed below may be found in the bibliography. CT

Chinese Text Project, edited by Donald Sturgeon

CTS

Tongguk sesigi 동국세시기, translated by Chŏng Sŭng-mo

CTT

Tongguk sesigi 東國歲時記, translated by Ch’oe Tae-rim

CWTTT Zhongwen Da Cidian 中文大辭典 EKSC

Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture, edited by National Folk Museum of Korea

HMSJ

Han’guk minsok tae paekkwa sajŏn 한국민속대백과사전, edited by Kungnip minsok pangmulgwan

HMTS Han’guk minsok taesajŏn 한국민속대사전, compiled by Han’guk minsok sajŏn P’yŏnch’an wiwŏnhoe HST

Han’guk singmul taebogam 韓國植物大寶鑑, edited by Song Chut’aek, Chŏng Hyŏn-pae, Kim Pyŏng-u, and Tae Hŭi-sŏng

HSP

Han’guk-ŭi sesi p’ungsok 韓國의 歲時風俗, by Kim Sŏng-wŏn

HSPK

Han’guk sesi p’ungsok ki 한국세시풍속기, by Kang Mu-hak

KKY

Yŏkchu Tongguk sesigi 역주 동국세시, translated by Chosŏn minjuchuŭi inmin konghwaguk Kwahakwŏn Kojŏn yŏn’gusil

KMP

Chosŏn tae sesigi III 조선대세시기 III, published by Kungnip minsok pangmulgwan

TYS

Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam 新增東國輿地勝覽, by Yi Haeng

WHO

WHO International Standard Terminologies on Traditional Medicine in the Western Pacific Region, by World Health Organization

YTS

Tongguk sesigi/Yŏryang sesigi/Tongdo chapchi/Tonggyŏng chapki 東國 歲時記/洌陽歲時記/京都雜志/東京雜記, translated by Yi Sŏk-ho

YTSW Tongguk sesigi (wae) 東國歲時記 (外), translated by Yi Sŏk-ho

65

Notes

Translator’s Introduction 1. See Han’guk yŏktae inmul chonghap chŏngbo sisŭt’em,한국역대인물종합정보시 스템, s.v., “홍석모” (http://people.aks.ac.kr/index.aks). 2. See the translation in Haboush, Memoirs of Lady Hyegyong. 3. For a genealogical table, see KMP, 163. 4. For a list of the places he is known to have visited, see again “홍석모” in Han’guk yŏktae inmul chonghap chŏngbo sisŭt’em. 5. KMP, 161. 6. Hong Sŏk-mo 洪錫謨. Seoul sesi hansi, 63. 7. KMP, 160–163; HMSJ, “홍석모.” 8. Hong, Tongguk sesigi, Chang trans., 15. 9. CTS, 8. 10. www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Jing-Chu suishi ji.” 11. Kaichen Dong, “Preliminary Discussions,” 232. 12. www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Xia xiaozheng.” 13. For an easily available copy of the poem with the translation by Legge, see http://ctext.org/book-of-poetry/qi-yue. 14. Eberhardt, “Untersuchungen,” 217. 15. For a description of the various versions, see Haftmann, Textzeugen, 20–34, 42. 16. Chin Kyŏng-hwan, “Sesigi,” 64–65. 17. Korean scholarship and popular writings tend to downplay or even ignore the parallel development in China, Japan, and Korea and explain the Sirhak school (Sirhak-p’a 實學派, often transliterated Silhak-p’a) as indigeneous. This is an uncritical continuation of early twentieth-century scholarship, when originally independent scholars who followed the contemporaneous scholarly trend in East Asia but in several competing political factions were grouped together for the first time under the newly coined designation “school” (-p’a 派). In Korea the sirhak tendency in scholarship started as a reaction to the cultural unease caused by the Manchu invasions of 1627 and 1636, just as the trend in China was the result of the change from the Ming to the Qing dynasty, which had shaken Chinese cultural leadership. In Korea, many of the important scholars grouped in this way were, at least part of their time, living in political exile because of the mentioned factional strife among the followers of competing scholar-bureaucrats and philosophers. 18. Lee and de Bary, Sourcebook of Korean Civilization, 516. 19. Ch’oe, Lee, and de Bary, Sources of Korean Tradition, 181. 20. The Chosŏn Kwangmunhoe 朝鮮光文會 (“Society for Korea’s Glorious/

67

68

Notes to Pages 9–18

Illustrious Literature,” also translated “Society for Promoting Korean Books”) was founded in 1910 by Ch’oe Namsŏn 崔南善 (1890–1957) to republish important books from Korean literary culture in an effort to enhance the knowledge of Korean culture and to safeguard against the policies of the Japanese colonial administration, which was trying to Japanize Korea. In addition to ethnological books like the Tongguk sesigi, altogether twenty historiographical, geographical, literary, and similar sources were printed before the society was forced to stop publishing. Chosŏn Kwangmunhoe’s translation of Tongguk sesigi is sometimes bibliographically listed as Sesigi samjong 歲時記三種 (Three kinds of records of the annual seasons), but Sesigi samjong is the title only of the table of contents on p. 4. The three kinds of records are the Tongguk sesigi, the Kyŏngdo chapchi, and the Yŏryang sesigi. 21. Photocopy of the Tongguk sesigi in the appendix of KMP, 103–190. 22. Chŏng Sŭng-mo discusses many of them, showing changes through time (in his “P’ungsŏk-ŭi pyŏnhwa”). For a list of other similar works, together with a list of collections of seasonal poetry, that were in fashion in later Chosŏn times, see Hong, Tongguk sesigi, Chang trans., 12. 23. Yŏryang 洌陽 is another name for Hanyang 漢陽, which was the name of today’s Seoul during Chosŏn. The first character 洌 in Yŏryang with the meaning of “crystal clear water” refers to the river Han 漢 and Yŏryang is wordplay on the river’s name, which is the first syllable of Hanyang. 24. Chŏng Sŭng-mo compared the events that are mentioned in the three books in detail (KMP, 268–272). 25. My calculation is different from the one in KMP, where a number of paragraphs were split up and sometimes Hong Sŏk-mo’s explanatory notes within paragraphs were separated. I instead strictly followed the paragraphs given by Hong Sŏk-mo in his text. 26. KMP, 160; CTS, 256. 27. For an outline of the history and shift of focus, see Kweon, “Discourses of Korean Culture.” 28. Yim, “Cultural Identity,” 41.

Tongguk sesigi 1. Jueju 絶句, “truncated verse” or “terminated sentences,” grew popular in the 6th and 7th centuries during the Tang dynasty. Jueju poems are always matched pairs of couplets, with each line consisting of five (wujue 五絶) or seven (qijue 七絶) syllables. 2. Shi zhang si lun 世掌絲綸, lit. “for generations being entrusted with ‘silk and cord.’ ” Si lun 絲綸, lit. “silk and cord,” is an unofficial reference to the zhongshu sheng 中書省, the palace secretariat, where often father and son or grandfather and grandson served successively. Si lun has the meaning of “imperial utterances”; the unofficial names for the secretariat are lun ge 綸閣 and si lun ge 絲綸閣 (Hucker, Dictionary of Official Titles, 3872, 5711, 1619). Shi lun, lit. “silk and cord,” is based on



Notes to Pages 18–19

69

the Liji: “The king’s words are like silk thread, when spoken, they are cords 王言如 絲 其出如綸” (chap. 33, “Ziyi” 緇衣 “Black Robes”). 3. Fengmao 鳳毛, lit. “phoenix feather,” i.e., someone with talents or of an imposing, stately, or fine-looking appearance. The phrase in the Tongguk sesigi 以世 掌絲綸之池上 鳳毛也, lit. “On the pond (chi shang 池上), where generations manage ‘silk and cord,’ there is a phoenix feather ( fengmao 鳳毛)” is based on a pun: feng chi 鳳池, “phoenix pond,” is yet another name for zhongshu sheng 中書省, the palace secretariat. The phrase resembles the last two lines of Du Fu’s poem “In Reply to Jia Zhi’s Morning Levee at Daming Palace” 奉和賈至舍人早朝大明宫 in Du shi lunwen (CT, 杜詩論文, [像]杜詩論文, 杜詩論文三 [p. 37/168], 10:1a.9), “the beauty of ‘generations managing silk and cord,’ / there are phoenix feathers on the pond” 世掌絲綸美 池上于今有鳳毛, meaning “the beauty of the palace secretariat, with its members of great talent.” 4. 重陽, K. chungyang, “double yang,” refers to a date when the numbers of the month and of the day are the same and both are odd numbers. In yin-yang thinking even numbers are yin and odd numbers are yang. The yang days are considered full of positive energy; special yang days are the first of the First Month (New Year’s Day), the third of the Third Month (Samjit-nal), the fifth of the Fifth Month (Tano), the seventh of the Seventh Month (Seventh Evening), and the ninth of the Ninth Month. The last date is considered the most important and is referred to as Chungyang (Day). Four days after the Double-Ninth Day in the year Kiyu 己酉 corresponds to October 28,, 1849, in the Western calendar. 5. 李子有 (1786–1850?), pen name Kogyang 縠瀼, is an otherwise unknown scholar (CTS, 8; KMP, 164). 6. Chŏnmun 箋文, lit. “letter” written in special New Year’s greeting style (Sŏng Wŏn-kyŏng, “Tongguk sesigi yŏn’gu,” 9n15). Many Korean Chinese character dictionaries explain this term more generally as formal letters sent by the capital city and local administration to the king on the occasion of special positive or negative events, which is close to the original Chinese meaning of “official memorandum or report” (Kroll, Student’s Dictionary). 7. Cloth, pyori 表裏, is lit. “outside-inside,” describing the various fabrics comprising an inner and outer official garment. 8. Choha 朝賀, an abbreviation for Taejo-harye 大朝賀禮, or Great Morning Congratulatory Ceremony, offered on the morning of New Year’s Day, on the winter solstice, and on the birthdays of the king and Confucius (CTS, 17). 9. Ch’arye 차례, var. tarye 다례 茶禮, also chŏngwŏl-ch’arye 正月茶禮, “First Month tea ceremony” (CTT, 20), chŏngjo-tarye 正朝茶禮, “first morning tea ceremony,” or sŏl-ch’arye 설-茶禮, “New Year’s Day tea ceremony” (Jung Jongsoo 鄭鍾秀, “New Year’s Offering Ceremony,” in EKSC). “Capital,” which refers to today’s Seoul, has been the capital of Korea since 1392, although in its history under various names. 10. Sejang 歲粧, “[New] Year’s dress.” The word in native Korean is sŏlbim 설빔, which is written in hybrid script as 歲庇廕. In this combination of Chinese characters, the native Korean word sŏl 설, “year,” is written in its Sino-Korean (S.K. hereafter) semantic equivalent 歲, disregarding its S.K. pronunciation 세. The two following

70

Notes to Pages 19–20

Chinese characters are used only for their pronunciation, S.K. pi 庇 and S.K. ŭm 廕. 廕 indicates that the final consonant of the word to be read is –m, as in K. sŏlbim, and not –ng, as in S.K. sejang. 11. Sebae 歲拜, “paying respect on the [new] year,” refers to bowing to the elders by kneeling down, bending forward and touching the ground with the forehead. 12. Sech’an 歲饌, “[New] Year’s delicacies,” are special dishes. Though they may vary from family to family, the one indispensable part of the meal is rice cake soup prepared with slices of rice cake (coin-shaped noodles made of glutinous rice) in beef, pheasant, or chicken broth seasoned with eggs, pepper, seaweed, and the like. 13. Seju 歲酒 refers to the liquor imbibed at New Year’s. There is no special recipe under this name, and any kind is acceptable as New Year’s liquor. The Chinese character S.K. chu 酒 is a general term for all kinds of beverages with low or high alcohol content and irrespective of the recipe or brewing method. I have therefore decided to translate the word as “liquor” even in cases where the reading is somewhat clumsy. 14. This is not a direct quotation but rather a short summary of a longer description (Herzer, “Das Szu-min,” 64; Simin yueling in Suishi xisu ziliao huibian, 1:3). “­Pepper-thuja liquor,” jiaobai jiu 椒栢酒, K. ch’obaek-chu 초백주, is seasoned with pepper and leaves of the eastern white cedar 側柏 (K. Ch’ŭkpaek, Thuja tree) (Sŏng Wŏn-kyŏng, “Tongguk sesigi yŏn’gu,” 9n18); meanwhile, “dispel-and-revive liquor,” tusu jiu 屠蘇酒, K. toso-chu, meaning “dispel [evil influences] and revive,” is seasoned with medicinal herbs for which various recipes exist. Originally the herbs were mainly cinnamon, Chinese pepper, rhizome of large-headed atractylodes (Atractylodes macrocephaia), balloon flower, and fang feng (CWTTT, 7927.94, 7927.95). This liquor is first offered at the ch’arye and afterward drunk (CTS, 18). The spices are also said to be Chinese pepper, fang feng, atractylodes, tangerine peel, and cinnamon (CTT, 28; Yi Kang-no, Sesi p’ungsok, 33). The ingredients seem to vary greatly (Chŏng Tong-hyo, Urisul sajŏn, 145). 15. “Sweet toffee,” Ch. jiaoya tang 膠牙餳, a candy or sweet cake made of glutinous rice, sorghum, corn, or sweet potatoes, often with beans, nuts, sesame, sunflower seeds, walnuts, or pumpkin seed added. In other sources it is written jiaoya tang 膠牙糛. 16. The quotation from Jing Chu suishi ji is shortened here. The original can be found in the Siku quanshu version 2b.7–8, not in the Sibu beiyao version (Sang, Hyŏng Ch’o sesigi, 63). 17. People on the bottom layer of traditional Korean class society were called nobi (奴婢), no for male and bi for female slaves, which were bought, sold, and inherited. Slavery in Korea had special features, permitting at times some slaves to own land, receive pay, or even own slaves themselves. Therefore, some scholars argue that the term “slave” is misleading and prefer to call them serfs. I will continue to use slave because they were traded and owned, and their status was hereditary. For a detailed description of the status and changes over time, see Peterson, “Slaves and Owners.” 18. This is a direct quotation, slightly changed from the Yupu zaji: 於几 instead of 於幾上 (http://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/寓圃雜記, vol 10, no. 11.8 “鐘馗詩”).



Notes to Page 20

71

19. S.K. paekpyŏng 白餠, “white rice cake,” K. hŭin ttŏk흰 떡, also called karaettŏk 가래떡. 20. Almost all translators into modern Korean render 濕麪, “soft noodles,” in Han’gŭl (the Korean alphabet), spelling the term sŭmmyŏn 습면, which is simply the modern Korean pronunciation of the two characters resulting in a “word” that is not part of the Korean vocabulary. Only Kang Mu-hak translates it as kuksu 국수, the normal modern word for “noodles” (HSPK, 138). But the two characters were translated as chŭn kuksyu 즌국슈, “wet or soft noodles,” in pre-modern Korean (Chung-Cho taesajŏn, 6:164). The word(s) 즌국슈 may have become chin kuksu 진국수 in modern Korean, which, however, today refers to noodles in rich soup. 21. “Suishou shushi shi” 歲首書事詩, “Epic Poem on the New Year,” in Jiannan shigao 38, in Sibu beiyao. The comment given here is a shortened direct quotation of an annotation in Sibu beiyao Ji bu, “belles letters,” 四部備要 集部38.11b. 10–11. For S.K. t’angbyŏng 湯餠, lit. “hot water, soup, or gravy,” and “cakes” as well as pyŏngt’ang 餠湯 are in use. For another quote from the poem, see n. 147 below. 22. Ch. nian botuo 年餺飥: “[New] Year” + botuo, “flour-based bread” (Rong, Eighteen Lectures, 308) or “short noodles” (Kroll, Student’s Dictionary). In pre-­modern K. kuksyu kŏnji 국슈건지, “solid stuff in soup” (Chung-Cho taesajŏn, 1:436 鎛[sic]飮食 2:2b) with a reference to a Kwangmulbo 廣物譜, which is not in the bibliography and seems not to be known anywhere. In the Kyujang-kak library there is an undated anonymous 4-vol. manuscript titled Kwang-chaemulbo 廣才物譜, which is an enlarged Chaemulbo 才物譜 (1798), which was written by Yi Man-yŏng 李晩永 (b. 1748) (Han’guk kosŏ ch’onghap mongnok). 23. Chŭngbyŏng 甑餠, vernacular K. siru-ttŏk 시루떡 < siru 시루 “rice steamer” + ttŏk 떡, “cake.” 24. 律詩, K. yulsi, Ch. lüshi, “regulated verse,” quatrain stanzas with five or seven syllables per line, developed by Chinese scholars in Tang times and since then very popular also in Korea. The text refers specifically to the short type of regulated verse called K. chŏlgu, Ch. jueju, 絕句, “terminated sentences” or “truncated verses.” 25. Ch’unch’ŏp 春帖 were eulogies, poems of well-wishes, and slogans written by scribes of lower rank (chesul-kwan 製述官), mainly from the Office of Diplomatic Correspondence (Sŭngmun-wŏn 承文院). Chesul-kwan is also used for scribes with temporary appointments. The poems were located between pictures of lotus leaves on top and lotus flowers at the bottom of the paper (YTS, 31n22; YTSW, 31n22). The paper was then folded to look like a booklet, called ch’ŏpcha 帖子, chŏpch’aek 摺册, or chŏlch’ŏp-chang 折帖裝 (Im Ki-chung, Uri Sesi, 250). 26. Ipch’un 立春 (Ch. Lichun), the day of the first of the Twenty-Four Solar Terms. For the significance of this day and special customs, see below under the festival day “Spring Begins.” Solar term, or seasonal term, refers to twenty-four points in the traditional East Asian lunisolar calendar that match astronomical events or signify natural phenomena. The points are calculated by dividing the ecliptic into equal sections of 15 degrees each, resulting in two points per lunar month. 27. 端午, Tano, the fifth of the Fifth Month. For the significance of this day and special customs, see the section “Fifth Month” in the translation.

72

Notes to Page 20

28. Wen Gong 溫公, i.e., Sima Guang 司馬光 (1019–1086), whose honorific feudal title is Sima Wen Gong 司馬溫公, Sima, Duke of Wen. He was a historian, scholar, and high chancellor of the Song, and author of, among others, Zizhi tongjian 資治通鑒 (Comprehensive mirror to aid in government), one of the most influential traditional histories of China. All translators treat “Daily Records”日錄, as the Tongguk sesigi does here, as a book title, but I was unable to locate such a publication among Wen Gong’s writings. Occasionally, however, this sentence had been quoted in literature as being from the “daily records of Sima Wenzheng Duke of Wen” 司馬文正公日‌錄, where 日錄 is not a title (Wenzheng is his posthumous name). The quotation supposedly found in “Daily Records” is the opening sentence of the last paragraph in Wen Gong Riji 溫公日記 (Wen Gong’s diary) (https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki​/溫‌公日記) and can also be found quoted in Qingbo zazhi, 10:1b.1. 29. A “specialist,” shu daizhao 書待詔, was an editorial assistant for calligraphy, a non-official specialist in the Imperial Academy of Calligraphy (Hanlin Yuan 翰‌林‌院) (Hucker, Dictionary of Official Titles, 437). 30. Ch. Hanlin 翰林, or Hanlin yuan 翰林院, lit. “Brush Forest Court,” i.e., court with many brushes. Membership in the academy was confined to the elite of scholars, who were responsible for the correct interpretation of the Confucian Classics and performed literary tasks for the court, such as the drafting of official documents. It was staffed with varying numbers of so-called academicians (hanlin xueshi 翰林學‌士). In Song times the name Hanlin yuan also applied to the Institute of Academicians (‌學士院, Xueshi yuan), occasionally combining the two terms to read Hanlin Xueshi yuan 翰林學士院. There was an Artisans Institute of the Palace Domestic Service, which was also called Hanlin Yuan. 31. K. ch’unsa 春詞. The word 詞, Ch. cí, K. sa, may have the general meaning “poem” or refer more specifically to Ch. changduanju 長短句, “lines of irregular lengths,” and Ch. shiyu 詩餘, “something besides shi 詩 (regulated poetry).” 32. Suishi zaji by Lü Yuanming, where, however, the quotation cannot be found. Hong Sŏk-mo seems to have mixed up some among the various books that had the same or similar titles. None of the commentators or translators have tried to verify this quotation except for KMP, which refers to Gujin shiwen leiju as the source, where indeed a similar quotation can be found in the qianji 前集, “Former Collection” (KMP, 179n17). The quotation in the Tongguk sesigi, however, is rephrased from Huangchao suishi zaji as quoted in the Suishi guangji, “Composing Spring Folded Poems” (CT, 歲時廣記, [像], 歲時廣記七, 7.4a. 2–3; “撰春帖”). 33. Xueshi yuan 學士院. See n. 30 above. 34. Longevity Star painting (K. Susŏng-to 壽星圖) refers to a painting of the god of longevity, the deification of Canopus, the brightest star of the constellation Carina. Other names for Susŏng include K. Susŏng-kong 壽星公 (Duke Longevity Star), K. No-Susŏng 老壽星 (Old Longevity Star), K. Namgŭk-noin 南極老人 (Old One from the South Pole), and many similar names. “Immortals’ paintings” (sŏnnyŏ-to 仙女圖) depict merrymaking Daoist immortals, who never age or suffer, and the painting of the “god-general of the [respective] day” (K. chigil-sinjang-to 直日神將‌圖) depicts the guardian spirit of the day.



Notes to Page 21

73

35. The word munbae 門排 (door guardians) is explained in dictionaries and commentaries as being synonymous with sehwa. A more literal translation would be “door[side] repudiator.” 36. Kangp’o 絳袍 is not a technical term attested in traditional sources. It simply means “deep red robe,” although all translators into modern Korean render the two characters as “official full dress attire.” The color red stands for life, energy, good fortune, and happiness. 37. Omo 烏帽, “crow hat,” is a black hat once worn by government officials and by anyone when dressed as the bridegroom during the wedding ceremony. A more common name is samo 紗帽, “gauze hat” or “fine silk hat.” The main body is divided in two parts, both round at the top, a lower one in front and a higher one in the back. The name “crow hat” comes from the color and from the two oval shaped wings extending ca. 15–20 cm sideways right and left from the back. 38. Ch. Zhong Kuí 鍾馗, a popular Chinese god and door guardian, king of eighty thousand demons, vanquisher of evil ghosts. 39. K. Sach’ŏnwang 四天王, Ch. Si Tian Wang, the name of the guardian spirits of the four cardinal directions. Originally from Buddhism, they are called Skt. lokapāla, spirits in the group of spirits protecting Buddhism. In Daoism they are called “(Ch). hufa sisheng 護法四聖 ‘The Four Saints Protecting the Standards’ . . . offering help to the emperor and the common people” (www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Hufa sisheng”). 40. Two generals who warded off evil spirits from the bed chamber of Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 627–649), who thereupon had their pictures painted at the gate for protection, a custom then adopted by the people. The first general was 尉遲恭 (Ch. Yuchi Gong, K. Wiji-kong), aka 尉遲敬德 (Ch. Yuchi Jingde, K. Wiji-kyŏngdŏk), aka 鄂忠武公 (Ch. E Zhongwu Gong, K. Ak-Ch’ungmu-kong), “Duke Zhongwu of E” (585–658). The second was 秦叔寶 (Ch. Qin Shubao, K. Chin Sukpo), aka 秦瓊 (Ch. Qin Qiong, K. Chin Kyŏng), aka 胡壯公 (Ch. Hu Zhuang Gong, K. Ho-Changkong), “Duke Zhuang of Hu” (d. 638). 41. 魏鄭公 (Ch. Wei Zheng Gong, K. Wijŏng-kong), aka 魏徵 (Ch. Wi Zheng, K. Wijing), aka 玄成 (Ch. Xuancheng, K. Hyŏnsŏng), aka 鄭文貞公 (Ch. Zheng Wenzhen Gong, K. Chŏng-Munjŏng-kong), “Duke Wenzhen of Zheng” (580–643), a chancellor for about thirteen years during the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang. Among his achievements was the supervision of the writing of the Suishu, the official history of the preceding dynasty. 42. 天門 Tianmen, K. Ch’ŏnmun, in this case Three Celestial Gates guarded by the three generals Zhou 周, Ge 葛, and Tang 唐” (Gesterkamp, “The Heavenly Court,” 99). The “guardians of the Celestial Gates in golden armor” is in some translations into modern Korean mistranslated as “the guardians Kŭm (金, ‘Gold’) and Kap (甲, ‘Armor’) of the Celestial Gate” (YTSW, 25; HSPK, 139). 43. General Ge, Ch. Ge 葛, K. Kal, in translations into modern Korean is identified with Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮 (181–234 CE), aka Zhuge Kongming 諸葛孔明 and Wolong 臥龍 (Sleeping Dragon), a high minister and adviser to Liu Bei 劉備, founder of the Han dynasty of the Three Kingdoms period (YTS, 33n33; YTSW, 33n33; HSP,

74

Notes to Page 21

162n35; KMP, 180n25; CTT, 29n11; CTS, 23n***). But the original in the Chunming tuichao lu actually refers to “three people guarding the Celestial Gates” (‌其天門有 三人守衞之), Ge and Zhou being two of them. The Three Generals Tang, Ge, and Zhou (唐葛周三將軍) are also called “spirit soldiers of the three Primes [三元, i.e., 1.15th, 7.15th, and 10.15th ], Tang, Ge, and Zhou” (唐葛周三元銅馬), and “three Marshals of the Primes Tang, Ge, and Zhou” (唐葛周元帥) (Huang Jianxing, “Research on Shijiao,” 90, 110, 184), and they are also identified with the three True Masters Zhenjun 真君 (Huang, “Research on Shijiao,” 78n133). They are gods of folk religion and Daoism since early Chinese antiquity. For an English translation of one of many similar tales about them and for the ritual text on a local altar in Chinese, see Huang, “Research on Shijiao,” 77. 44. Ch. Zhou 周, K. Chu, in translations into modern Korean identified with Zhou Yu 周瑜 (175–210), aka Zhou Gongjin 周公瑾, an important general of the warlords Sun Ce 孫策 and Sun Quan 孫權 at the end of the Later Han period (YTS, 33n33; YTSW, 33n33; HSP, 162n36; KMP, 180n26; CTT, 29n12; CTS, 23n***), but for the original in the Chunming tuichao lu, see n. 43 above. 45. Shortened literal quotation; for the original see Chunming tuichao lu, 3:16a.5–6. 46. Emperor Wen of Tang is the posthumous title of Emperor Taizong of Tang. The “strange story” refers to the story of the generals Yuchi Gong and Qin Shubao mentioned above (n. 40), who warded off evil spirits from the emperor’s bed chamber. 47. Dong Xun Wen lisu, in Huangshi yishu kao, 1b.7. 48. [正月]一日爲雞. According to the same source, different animals were created on six successive days. They are, in order, the chicken, dog, boar, sheep, cow, and horse, and on the seventh day the human being was created. In Chinese tradition the first seven days of the lunar year are considered the respective common birthdays. 49. Jing Chu suishi ji (Sang, Hyŏng Ch’o sesigi, 60; Siku quanshu version 2a.1; Sibu beiyao version 2a.11). 50. 寅月 Ch. yinyue, K. inwŏl, must be read “first of the months,” but the association of First Month and yin 寅, which means “third in the Earthly Branches,” needs some explanation. The Earthly Branches 地支 (Ch. Dizhi, K. Chiji), also called Twelve Branches 十二支 (Ch. Shi Er Zhi, K. Sibi Chi/Sibiji), is one of the systems of counting time, like counting of twelve double hours in a day, twelve months in a year, etc. These branches are also associated with the animal symbols in the Twelve-Year Cycle, which is often called the Chinese zodiac (K. sudae 獸帶), although these animals have no connection with any star constellations as is the case with the symbols in the Western zodiac. The Twelve Branches and the corresponding animals of the TwelveYear Cycle will be introduced together in Table 5. (The names of the Earthly Branches and the animals are given in their Korean pronunciation in the table, but the same system with different pronunciations is traditionally used in all East Asian cultures.) In this system, for example, the character yin 寅 is used as “no. 3,” so 寅月 literally means “Third Month”; in the corresponding system of Twelve-Year-Cycle animals the Third Month is the Month of the Tiger. In Chinese antiquity there had



Notes to Pages 21–22

75

Table 5 The Twelve Earthly Branches and the ­Corresponding Animals of the Twelve-Year Cycle Earthly branch

1 cha 子 2 ch’uk 丑 3 in 寅 4 myo 卯 5 chin 辰 6 sa 巳 7o午 8 mi 未 9 sin 申 10 yu 酉 11 sul 戌 12 hae 亥

12-year-­c ycle animal

associates with associates with associates with associates with associates with associates with associates with associates with associates with associates with associates with associates with

sŏ 鼠 rat u 牛 ox ho 虎 tiger t’o 兎 rabbit yong 龍 dragon sa 巳 snake ma 馬 horse yang 羊 sheep hu 猴 monkey kye 雞 cock ku 狗 dog chŏ 豬 pig

been several calendars, many of them starting the year on the month with the winter solstice as the First Month, the Month of the Rat. In 104 BCE, however, the beginning of the year was shifted by two months to better correspond to the agricultural year. In this new calculation the First Month corresponded to the older system’s Third Month, the Month of the Tiger; so the tiger and the character yin 寅, not the rat 鼠 (Ch. shu, K. sŏ), became the symbol and guardian spirit for what from then on was the First Month in the lunar calendar. 51. 三災 K. samjae, “three calamity [years],” refers to a period of misfortune or distress, the exact itemization of the misfortunes varying greatly in Buddhist, Taoist, and folk religious interpretations. A person born in a year with the animal sign of the coming new year enters a period of three years in which bad experiences are to be expected. For the birth years, the Twelve-Year Cycle is divided into four times three animals connected in an equilateral triangle when the animal signs are drawn in a circle, but the corresponding calamity years follow the succession of the TwelveYear Cycle, as shown in Table 6. The two series are connected, the connection points being the ones listed last in the respective groups of three. 52. 燕京, lit. “capital of Yan,” the old name for Beijing. Yan was a vassal state of Zhou, located in modern Hebei and Liaoning. There were also four Yan kingdoms during the Sixteen Kingdoms period: Former Yan, Later Yan, Southern Yan, and Northern Yan. 53. Ch. wu xing 五行, K. o haeng, namely, fire 火, water 水, wood 木, metal 金, and earth 土 (K. hwa, su, mok, kŭm, t’o, respectively). These phases, also referred to as the five agents, five movements, five processes, or five elements, comprise a system

76

Notes to Pages 22–23

Table 6 Birth Years in the Twelve-Year Cycle and the Corresponding Calamity Years Birth years

巳 6 snake 申 9 monkey 亥 12 pig 寅 3 tiger

酉 10 cock 子 1 rat 卯 4 rabbit 午 7 horse

Calamity years

丑 2 ox 辰 5 dragon 未 8 sheep 戌 11 dog

亥 12 pig 寅 3 tiger 巳 6 snake 申 9 monkey

子 1 rat 卯 4 rabbit 午 7 horse 酉 10 cock

丑 2 ox 辰 5 dragon 未 8 sheep 戌 11 dog

used to classify all material and immaterial objects and aspects in this world as well as correspondences among them. They are not static classes and, depending on the subject matter, are thought to influence each other both positively (generation, production) and negatively (conquest, destruction). 54. 夜光, lit. “night light,” also Yagwanggwi 夜光鬼, Yanggwaengi 양괭이, Ampaengi 암팽이. 55. The text reads 廳, “(audience) hall,” the only room in a traditional house resembling a hall being the maru 마루, a one-sided open space under the roof with a wooden floor and normally located between the kitchen and the small sleeping rooms, which have underfloor heating. Many larger houses, however, close off the opening in harsh weather with folding doors, which can be hung under the roof in summer. 56. 藥王, Medicine King, the Medicine Buddha Bhaiṣajya-rāja. In pronunciation, Yagwang 야광 (夜光) (lit. “night light”) and Yak-wang 약왕 are almost homophonic with a slightly different stress and length of the first syllable. 57. “Dharma drumming,” pŏpko 法鼓. Normally this combination refers to the large dharma drum, or “drum of the law,” used in temple ceremonies to encourage all to advance in virtue. 58. Kyŏngju 慶州, the capital of the Silla kingdom, is a name still used today. Situated in North Kyŏngsang Province in southeast Korea, it is one of the country’s most important archaeological sites. 59. “Gods of the sun and the moon,” irwŏl-sin 日月神, Ch. riyue shen. The earliest reference is in the Suishu, vol. 81, liezhuan 46 Tongi, “Silla,” 8b.7 / CT, 隋書, [‌共] 隋書, 81.卷八十一列傳第四十六 東夷, “新羅,” 8b.7. The phrase “to congratulate each other and to worship the gods of the sun and the moon” in the Tongguk sesigi resembles 元日相慶 是日拜日月神 from the Xin Tangshu (CT, 新唐書, [共]新唐書, 236.列傳第 一百四十五, 東夷, no. 31). 60. The parenthetical cross-reference here and throughout the balance of the text is to Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam (TYS). The citation in this case is to TYS, 21:5b.3–4 (quoting Tangshu). 61. Mugyŏk 巫覡, lit. “female and male shamans,” is a term that may also have to be read “male shamans,” referring to today’s normally male shaman, called shimbang



Notes to Page 23

77

in Cheju, because the first character 巫 can be used for both male and female shamans, but the second one, 覡, applies only to males (CWTTT, 35698). 62. Sindok 神纛 are banners onto which pictures of shamanic gods and spirits were painted. 63. Nahŭi 儺戱 is here a performance to expel evil spirits, today usually a masked dance. The word is difficult to translate, combining na 儺, “exorcism,” with hŭi 戱, “theatrical play,” possibly indicating that a performance that originally was a ritual was in the process of becoming more secularized by stressing the entertainment aspect. 64.  Hwaban 花盤, lit. “flower table” (and translated as such in Pettid, “Shamans,” 211) does not make sense in the context of walking around to collect contributions. Translators into modern Korean simply use the two Chinese characters or their transcription in the Korean alphabet without explanation. The two Chinese characters, however, probably render a Cheju dialect word that is difficult to decipher. The translation “exorcism walk-around” follows an explanation that the two characters are an ad hoc auxiliary writing in Chinese characters by reading hwa 花, “flower,” (K. kkot, Cheju dialect kot) as kut 굿, “exorcism,” and pan 盤, “[round] table” but also “wind round, turn around, coil” (cf. 盤桓, “circling round and round” as tori 돌이, “moving around” (Cheju Palchŏn yŏn’guwŏn, Cheju munhwa, 56, citing Hyŏn, Cheju-to, 237–238). The parenthetical cross reference is to TYS, 38:4b.4–5; the Tongguk sesigi is directly quoting from the source except that 祭, “sacrifice,” has been changed to 賽‌神, “thanks-offering to the spirits.” Also, the last four characters 名曰 花盤, “which is called ‘exorcism walk-around,’ ” are not in TYS, 38: 4b.4–5, but have been added by Hong Sŏk-mo. These facts have not been verified or mentioned by any of the translators into modern Korean, although some of them refer to TYS, vol. 38, in a footnote (YTS, 34n46; YTSW, 35n46; CTS, 33). 65. Siku quanshu version 7a.4; Sibu beiyao version 3b.11; Sang, Hyŏng Ch’o sesigi, 60. 66. In Chinese, the gods are, respectively, Jiazuo 甲作, Feiwei 胇胃, Xiongbo 雄伯, Tengjian 騰簡, Lanzhu 攬諸, Boji 伯寄, Jiangliang 强梁, Zuming 祖明, Weisui 委隨, Cuoduan 錯斷, Qiungji 窮奇, and Tenggen 騰根. 67. Xu Hanshu, chap. “Ceremonial and Music Treatises Li Yue Zhi” 禮樂志. The treatises were later reprinted in the Hou Hanshu, where this quotation can be found (CT, 後漢書, [文] Histories→Hou Han Shu, 志, 5. 禮儀中, no. 18). Li 禮, “rites,” and yue 樂, “music,” were the “two basic activities of social coordination” (Kroll, Students Dictionary, s.v. “禮”) 68. K. Nap/Rap/Lap 臘, short for Nabil 臘日, Winter Sacrifice Day. See the section titled “Twelfth Month” of the translation. 69. Ch. danuo 大儺, K. taena, “great exorcism.” Most commentators translate 大‌儺 in general terms as “a great-scale exorcism” (YTS, 36; YTSW, 37; HSP, 169; HSPK, 143; CTT, 32), or as a great-scale exorcism to expel evil ghosts (KKY, 121). Chŏng Sŭng-mo correctly indicates that it is the name of an old Chinese exorcism and adds a summary of the mask that characters used in the ritual based on the

78

Notes to Page 24

­ escription in the Xu Hanshu (KMP, 185n56; CTS, 37, 41). The ritual was adopted in d Korea as one of the court rituals from the Koryŏ period on. 70. Lit. Kŏllŭng 健陵, is the name of the grave of King Chŏngjo 正祖 (r. 1776– 1800), twenty-second king of the Yi dynasty. “Naming taboo (避諱) culture prevented the use of characters from a king’s name. So people used the posthumous name (‌諡‌號) and temple name (廟號). And the name of the royal tomb (陵號) was also used to indicate the owner of the tomb” (personal communication, Sangwoo Han, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona). 71. Chinŏn 眞言, a term used for dhāranī (mnemonic device), mantra (spell, magic formula), and charms. 72. K. pronunciation of the Skt. Namaḥ samanta buddhānām a gagana svāhā or samanta buddhānām bhah gagana svāhā; in Chinese characters 曩謨 三滿多 沒駄喃 唵 誐誐曩 娑嚩訶. The phrase can be rendered as “I become a devout believer in all buddhas” (personal communication, Oksun Kim, Wonkwang Digital University, Iksan/Korea) or “Hommage to” for Namaḥ (personal communication, Robert Buswell, University of California, Los Angeles). 73. Shentu 神荼 and Yulei 鬱壘 are the names of two brothers who, from under a peach tree on Dushuo 度朔 Mountain, guarded the North Gate, where ghosts would pass through. They caught the evil ones and threw them to the tigers to be devoured. In the Tongguk sesigi, the second character of the name Shentu 神荼 is written cha 茶, “tea,” instead of tu 荼, “bitter vegetable,” a simple writing error. 74. Huangdi 黃帝 (trad. 2697–2597 BCE), the third legendary emperor of Chi­ nese antiquity. 75. In the article on spring folded poems in HMSJ (“춘첩”), Chŏng Yŏn-hak 鄭‌然‌鶴 takes “yell and silence ill omens” 呵禁不祥 as an example of couplets where only one line, in this case the second one, is quoted from literature and as a source gives a certain Quan Tangshu 全唐書. I was unable to find a publication with this title, but, in any case, both lines of the couplet can be found in the works of Han Yu. “Door God and Gate God” is from Song qiong wen 送窮文, “Goodbye to penury” (https://​zh.wikisource.org/wiki/送窮文_(韓愈). “Yell and silence ill omens” 呵‌禁 不祥 is from Song Li Yuan gui Pan’gu xu 送李愿歸盘谷序, “Preface of Seeing off Li Yuan, Who Is Returning to Pangu” (CWTTT, 3528.24). Han Yu 韓愈 (768–824), aka Tuizhi 字退, was a poet and prose essay writer, a “major figure in the history of Chinese literature, comparable to Dante, Shakespeare, or Goethe in their respective literary traditions” (Nienhauser, Indiana Companion, 1:397). 76. See Huainan zi, “When clothing and food are plenty, families are well looked after and everyone is satisfied,” 衣食有餘, 家給人足 (CT, 淮南子. 8.本經訓, no. 14). 77. Yu shun feng tiao 雨順風調, an often-used idiomatic phrase the origin of which seems to be the reverse feng tiao yu shun 風調雨順, “May the wind be fair, the rain be favorable” ( Jiu Tangshu, 20:1a.8). 78. Shi he sui feng 時和歲豊, a phrase originally from the preface 序 to the ode “Huashun” 華順 in the Minor Odes 小雅 in the Shijing (CWTTT, 14222.138), but later widely used by various poets and prose writers. 79. Su yŏ san, pu yŏ hae 壽如山 富如海. There is a pun: K. su-san, Ch. shou shan



Notes to Pages 24–25

79

(‌壽‌山), “longevity [high as a] mountain,” and Ch. fu hai, K. pok-hae (福海), “happiness [deep as the] sea,” are “two small images, five or six inches in height, [which] are sometimes placed by the side of incense burners in temples. . . . and are the images of the two Spirits of Longevity and Happiness” (Werner, Dictionary of Chinese Myth­ ology, 431). Exchanging 福, K. pok, “happiness,” and 富 K. pu, “wealth,” are due to homophony. The two Chinese characters are not homophone in Korean pronunciation, but both are fu in Chinese, hence the replacement. 80. Divination is based on the interpretations of sixty-four symbols made of six lines (hexagrams) of either unbroken lines ( yang lines) or broken lines with a gap in the middle ( yin lines) in the Yijing. In the hexagram for the first month of the year the yin and yang elements are arranged in such a way that three yang (unbroken) lines are at the bottom, where the divination with the hexagrams starts, therefore signifying the First Month, the beginning of spring. 81. Yao 堯 and Shun 舜, the legendary first two rulers from the beginning of Chinese history, were role models for rulers because they are said to have governed their people by virtue of their exemplary behavior. Yao is also credited with having invented the calendar and Shun is also said to have organized the country geographically and ritually. 82. 道泰. Hexagram no. 11 in the Yijing, which is the hexagram for the First Month, is named Ch. tai 泰, “pervading,” with the connotations of peace and greatness. Its bottom, or “inner,” trigram is ☰ (乾 qian) “force = (天) heaven,” and its outer trigram is ☷ (坤 kun) “field = (地) earth.” 83. The two phrases are also in the short poem (sijo) no. 513 in the early 18thcentury version of the Chinbon Ch’ŏnggu yŏngŏn. See Han’guk sijo taesajŏn, no. 2588, and Sijo munhak sajŏn, no. 1312. 84. Xuancao 萱草, “daylily, tiger-lily,” and various similar names, used to be grown behind the mother’s quarters (bei tang 北堂) in large traditional houses. When children went away from home, the daylily was said to make the mother forget her worries. Other Chinese names include wang you cao 忘憂草, “forget worries,” and liao qiu 療愁, “cures worries.” 85. Ch. Nanjí 南極, the South Pole, is the abode of Shou xing 壽星, the god of longevity (see also n. 34 above). 86. In the Yijing, hexagram no. 11, named Ch. tai 泰, “pervading,” is the hexagram for the first month (see n. 82 above); the three bottom lines (aka “inner trigram”) are yang lines (unbroken lines, ), hence “three yang.” 87. The Five Blessings (K. O Pok 五福) are long life, wealth, health and composure, virtue, and to die a natural death in old age. Another popular set consists of good fortune, a government official’s salary, long life, joy, and property. 88. The rooster (cock) and the dog, both being animals of the Twelve-Year Cycle, as symbols have many meanings, among them that both are guardian spirits protecting against evil spirits, symbols that were imported from China. Just as in Korea, in Chinese symbolism the rooster can not only chase evil spirits away (Eberhard, Lexikon, 139), the crowing of the rooster also means merit and fame (Eberhard, 123), and in northern China dog figures made of paper were used on special occasions

80

Notes to Pages 25–26

to chase evil spirits away. The figurines were thrown into the water on Tano Day (05.05) and were also placed on the corpses at funerals (Eberhard, 139). 89. As sweeping or dusting the floor is taboo during the first days of the new year, the house should have been cleaned the day before New Year’s Day. 90. The appearance of a phoenix or a kirin (a mythical deer with an ox tail and horse hoofs), or of both, would be seen as an auspicious omen. See their absence as being negative in the poem “I Pass through the Lu Dukedom with a Sigh and a Sacrifice for Confucius” by Emperor Xuanzong 宗玄 of Tang (r. 712–756): “You foretold that when phoenixes vanished, your fortunes too would end, / You knew that the captured kirin would be a sign of the close of your teaching” (Bynner, Three Hundred Poems, 39). They are especially signs of a benevolent and righteous king ruling the country in peace and prosperity. In geomancy, the phoenix is associated with the south, the kirin normally with the west. To associate the kirin with the north in this couplet is probably due to selecting a perfect poetic match north-south in the parallelism 鳳鳴南山月 麟遊北岳風. And South Mountain = Nam-san and North Peak = Pugak(-san) are also the two main protecting mountains of the capital. When selecting a perfect site for a palace, a dwelling, or a grave, the north mountain protects against negative influences coming from this direction and the southern mountain keeps the positive energy in the site. 91. The sea turtle, Ch. ao 鰲, K. o (occasionally translated “sea monster”), is a mythological animal and symbol of longevity just like South Mountain in the line above it. “Six sea turtles” refers to a fable in chap. 5, “Tang wen” 湯問 (“Tang asks”), of the 4th c. BCE (?) Daoist classic Lie Zi, in which a giant from the Land of the Dragon Earl catches the six turtles that supported the five islands of the immortals in the eastern sea with a huge fishhook (Graham, Lieh-Tzŭ, 97–98). “Nine dragons” refers to the nine forms of the dragon. The number nine, which is three times the talismanic yang number three, is in many ways closely associated with the dragon, for example, in the fact that it has nine sons or that it has 117 (9 × 13) scales, i.e., 81 (9 × 9) yang and 36 (9 × 4) yin scales. “Four Seas” means “all the world” because the earth was seen as surrounded by seas in all four directions. The dragon is also associated with water, rain, and spring. 92. From “A Poem Composed at the Imperial Command in the Spring Garden, While Looking at the Newly Green Willows by the Dragon Pond and Listening to the Hundred-Fold Notes of the First Nightingales” 侍從宜春苑奉詔賦龍池柳色初青 聽新鶯百囀歌 by Li Bo. For the full translation, see Obata, Works of Li Po, translation no. 9, Chinese text no. 九 in the appendix. 93. From “Song of Mount Emei’s Moon: For Yan, a Monk from Shu, on his Way to the Central Capital” 峨眉山月歌送蜀僧晏入中京 by Li Bo, which expresses the hope of reunion after the monk Yan will have “made his name famous in the emperor’s capital.” Here the phrase evokes the joy of reunion, in this case of the return of spring. For a full translation of the poem, where this phrase is translated as “Once you’ve stirred your lofty name to fill the Emperor’s Metropolis,” see Hargett, Stairway to Heaven, 34. 94. P’och’ŏn 抱川, Yŏnch’ŏn 漣川, Chŏksŏng 積城, Yanggŭn 楊根, Sangnyŏng



Notes to Page 26

81

朔寧, and Majŏn 麻田 (KMP, 189n58), or P’och’ŏn , Yŏnch’ŏn, Yanggŭn, Sangnyŏng, Chip’yŏng 砥平, and Kap’yŏng 加平 (YTS, 41n16; YTSW, 39n16). 95. “Bunching onions” in the Tongguk sesigi is S.K. ch’onga 蔥芽, normally called K. ump’a 움파. “Mountain mustard” has many locally used names, such as san’gae 山芥, K. metkat 멧갓, san-kyŏja 산겨자, and nado-naengi 나도냉이. 96. Sin’gam-ch’ae 辛甘菜, lit. “piquant sweet greens,” is in the dictionaries given as lemon fragrant ostericum, lemon fragrant angelica root, or Ostericum koreanum. Other K. names include sŭnggŏm-ch’o 승검초, sŭngyŏm-ch’o 승염초, kanghwal 羌活, and sin’ga-sam 신가삼. 97. Tanggui 當歸, Angelica sinensis, also known as dong quai and female ginseng. 98. Zhiyi 摭遺, of which three translations into modern Korean fail to give any information at all (HSPK, 145; CTT, 35), while other translations say that both author and contents are unknown (YTS 41n17; YTSW, 39n17; HSP, 172). The quotation is also claimed to be from a certain Zhiyi as part of a Nanjiang yishi by Li Yao (KMP, 190; CTS, 42). But the author of the Nanjiang yishi was Wen Ruilin, and Li Yao authored the Nanjiang yishi kanben, where indeed thirty volumes are followed by eighteen volumes of supplements called Zhiyi. I was unable to find the quotation in either of the two. It is, however, contained with reference to a Zhiyi in the Gujin shiwen leiju 前集, 6.13b.4. 99. Zhiyan is often claimed to be short for Tang Zhiyan (YTS, 39n19; YTSW, 42n19; HSP, 172; HSPK, 145; KMP, 190; CTS, 4; KKY, 25). I was unable to find it in any of the Tang Zhiyan editions available to me. One translation does not give any information (CTT, 35). There is, however, a quotation identical to the one in the Tongguk sesigi that is said to be from an unspecified Zhiyan, which can be found in Gujin shiwen leiju, 前集, 6.14b.8. 100. Anding(-jun) 安定(郡) was a commandery established in 114 BC, which covered parts of present-day Ningxia and Gansu; jun-wang 郡王, “commandery prince” was a “high title of nobility . . . ordinarily pre-fixed with a place-name designating the noble’s real or nominal fief” (Hucker, Dictionary of Official Titles, 1800). The “commandery prince of Anding” is described as “a man from Song” (KMP, 190; CTT, 35; CTS, 44), and some add that he was a man from the imperial lineage with the name of Zhao 趙 (YTS, 39n20; YTSW, 42n20). The reference must be to Zhao Lingzhi 趙令畤 (1051–1134) (aka Zhao Jingkuang 趙景貺, Zhao Delin 趙德麟, Liaofuweng 聊‌複翁, and Cangliu jushi 藏六居士), whom Emperor Gaozong 宋高宗 (r. 1127–1162), founder of the Southern Song, made “commandery prince of Anding” 安定郡王. Another commentary claims that the man in question was Yu Wen-gui 宇文貴 (d. 567 CE) , aka 永貴 and 穆 of Bei Zhou 北周, “Northern Zhou” (HSP, 172). Since the story cannot be substantiated elsewhere, there is no way to know, and Kang Mu-hak gives no explanation (HSPK, 145). 101. Five Spices, Ch. Wu Xin 五辛, K. O-sin, are spicy vegetables—namely, garlic, three kinds of onions, and leeks—that are forbidden or avoided in Buddhist temple food as they tend to excite the senses. 102. The opening line of a poem entitled “Spring Begins” 立春 (see Fenmen jizhu Du Gongbu shi, 3:1b.10).

82

Notes to Page 26

103. The line is the second line of “Seeing off Fan Deru 送范德孺,” So Dongp’a chŏnjip, 13:42a.4). 104. 靑蒿黃韭, Ch. qing hao, huang jiu, K. ch’ŏngho, hwanggu, “green mugwort and yellowish leek.” The first two characters can also be read binomially as another name for K. chebi-ssuk 제비쑥, Artemisia japonica Thunb (Taehan singmul togam, 756, no. 3021). I have here decided to separate the two characters in order to save the parallelism of “green mugwort” and “yellow leek” in the phrase. 105. “The system of carrying a clay cow around” 倣出土牛之制 is slightly confusing because the custom itself as well as the date seem to have changed, leaving as identical only the purpose. All commentaries refer to the Yueling of the Liji, where a custom of “sending a clay ox out” 出土牛 is reported, which, however, took place not on Spring Begins, but in the last month of the lunar year. In the Tongguk sesigi this ox is called 土牛, which can mean “ox made of clay” or “ox of the soil.” Legge translates the whole sentence as “[The Son of Heaven] issues orders to the proper officers to institute on a great scale all ceremonies against pestilence, to have (animals) torn in pieces on all sides, and (then) to send forth the ox of earth, to escort away the (injurious) airs of the cold.” (CT, 禮記, [文] Confucianism → Liji, “月令- Yue Ling” in 禮記- Liji, no. 106 [文] Confucianism → Liji, “月令- Yue Ling” in 禮記- Liji, no. 17; Legge, Li Ki). One commentary explains the rite as meaning to send the cold away (KKY, 27). 106. According to Chinese creation mythology, after the creation of the chicken, dog, boar, sheep, cow, and horse, came human beings on the seventh day, so the seventh of the First Month is the common birthday of all human beings. 107. 銅人勝 K. Tongin-sŭng. For want of any translation in the secondary literature, I have translated the term as “Bronze Birth of Man Day talisman” based solely on the context. Tong 銅 is “bronze” and insŭng 人勝 (see n. 110 below) is originally the word for a woman’s or shamans’ headdress, which in connection with Birth of Man Day has a magical function, hence the translation as “talisman” here. 108. Suishi ji 歲時記, short for Jing Chu suishi ji (KMP, 192n70; CTS, 46). The Tongguk sesigi reads 人日 instead of 七日 as in the Jing Chu suishi ji, where the full original phrase reads “ ‘meeting ceremonies’ (進見儀) by Chen, the wife of Liu Zhen of Suí, offering [Birth of] Man [Day] headdresses to people on the seventh (七‌日)” 劉‌臻妻陳氏進見儀曰七日上人勝于人. See Jing Chu suishi ji in the Siku quanshu version (Siku quanshu 6a.4) rather than the Sibu beiyao version, where it is not quoted. Identifying which Suishi ji the Tongguk sesigi is referring to has caused problems for some modern translators, who either give no commentary (HSPK, 145; CTT, 36) or explain it to be “a book about various events in nature and human affairs following the seasons of the year” (HSP, 175n4). A closer guess is a reference to the 13th-century Suishi guangji (YTS, 41n4; YTSW44n4), where indeed the quote can be found in vol. 3, 3a7–8, with, however, reference to the 6th-century Jing Chu suishi ji. 109. Chen 陳, the wife of Liu Zhen 劉臻妻陳 ( Jinshu, vol. 96, liezhuan 66, “Women of Outstanding Virtues” / CT, 晉書, [共]晉書 96, 列傳第六十六, “列女”). 110. 人勝 Ch. rensheng, K. insŭng. Again, for want of any translation in the secondary literature, “[Birth of] Man [Day] Headdress” is my coinage because I suspect



Notes to Pages 26–27

83

it is shortened from renri sheng 人日勝 (renri 人日 “Birth of Man Day” + sheng 勝 “headdress”). The Chinese word in the Tongguk sesigi is a binominal construction of K. in 人, “man,” and K. sŭng 勝, the latter with its normal meaning “vanquish, overcome, surpass, equal to one’s task, capable of” is also used as loan for “head ornament” (Karlgren, Grammata Serica Recensa, 238, no. 893; Kroll, Student’s Dictionary). In this sense, 勝 (Ch. sheng, K. sŭng) is originally the ornamented headdress of the shamanic and daoist Xi Wangmu 西王母, the Goddess of Immortality, and thereby of magical power. Xi Wangmu can be translated as “Mother of the Western King” or “King’s Mother in the West,” but “grandmother” is also linguistically correct for 母 in the connotation of “(spirit of) a female ancestor,” as in the oldest surviving dictionary Erya (see 釋親 there). Further research may be necessary, but looking at insŭng 人勝, “[Birth of] Man [Day] Headdress,” and 銅人勝 tongin-sŭng being a bronze mirror (see n. 107 above), suggests that sŭng, “headdress,” is the basic meaning and “talisman” the connotation. Another word used for insŭng is 花勝, Ch. hua-sheng, K. hwa-sŭng, originally ornamental flowers or figures originally cut from colored paper or woven material and used as presents on the seventh of the First Month (CWTTT, 31461.373). 111. Wŏnjŏm 圓點, are given when students went to meals as a token of attendance. 112. 詩 shi, K. si, “lyric poetry”; 賦 Ch. fu, K. pu, “rhymed prose-poetry” (also translated as “rhapsody”); 表 Ch. bia, K. p’yo, “memorials”; 策 Ch. ce, K. ch’aek, “scripts”; 箴 Ch. zhen, K. cham, “exhortations” (also translated as “admonitions”); 銘 Ch. ming, K. myŏng, “inscriptions”; 頌 Ch. song, K. song, “eulogies” (also translated as “odes”); 律賦 Ch. lüfu, K. yulbu, “regulated prose-poetry”; 排律 Ch. pailü , K. paeyul, “extended regulated verse”; and 律詩 lüshi (see n. 24 above). 113. 上亥爲豕日 上子爲鼠日. Another system used in counting and in astrology is the (Ten) Celestial Stems (Ch’ŏn’gan 天干). Table 7 gives a complete list of components of the system that results when the signs of the Twelve-Year Cycle (or Twelve Earthly Branches, see n. 50) are used in combination with the Ten Celestial Stems for astrological calculations. The result is a cycle of sixty years, which when completed— because ten comes more often than twelve—means the first combination is repeated. This system of sixty is used also for counting days, and it is customary to give special significance to the days when a Twelve-Year-Cycle sign comes up as the first of the two Chinese characters’ combination for the first time in the year. Hae (亥), the last in the Twelve-Year Cycle, is associated with pig, and cha (子), the first one, is associated with rat. I choose to read 上 in this sentence in the meaning of “first” or “number one” rather than the translations of others, who prefer “High” Pig Day, “High” Rat Day (Cheon Jinki 千鎭基, “Twelve Zodiac Days,” in EKSC). 114. Unlike the typical Western pig, the traditional Korean pig is black. 115. Myo-il 卯日, also Sang-myo-il 上卯日, lit. “First Day of the Rabbit” or “High Rabbit Day.” Myo 卯, the fourth of the Twelve-Year-Cycle signs, is associated with the rabbit. 116. Sa-il 巳日 or Sang-sa-il 上巳日, lit. “First Day of the Snake” or “High Snake Day.” Sa 巳, the sixth of the Twelve-Year-Cycle signs, is associated with the snake. 117. Sangwŏn 上元, “First Primary Element Day,” K. Tae-porŭm 大.보름. In the Daoist worldview there are three primary elements of the universe—heaven, earth,

84

Note to Page 27

Table 7 The Sixty-Year Cycle (the Ten Celestial Stems Combined with the Twelve Earthly Branches) Ten celestial stems

+

Twelve earthly branches

1 kap 甲 1 cha 子 (= rat) 2 ŭl 乙 2 ch’uk 丑 (= ox) 3 pyŏng 丙 3 in 寅 (= tiger) 4 chŏng 丁 4 myo 卯 (= rabbit) 5 mu 戊 5 chin 辰 (= dragon) 6 ki 己 6 sa 巳 (= snake) 7 kyŏng 庚 7 o 午 (= horse) 8 haeng 幸 8 mi 未 (= sheep) 9 im 壬 9 sin 申 (= monkey) 10 kye 癸 10 yu 酉 (= cock) 1 kap 甲 11 sul 戌 (= dog) 2 ŭl 乙 12 hae 亥 (= pig) 3 pyŏng 丙 1 cha 子 (= rat) . . . 9 sin 申 (= monkey) 1 kap 甲 . . . 5 mu 戊 1 cha 子 (= rat) . . . 7 o 午 (= horse) 1 kap 甲 . . . 7 kyŏng 庚 1 cha 子 (= rat) . . . . . . 10 kye 癸 12 hae 亥 (= pig) (60th combination, whereafter the cycle starts again) 1 kap 甲 1 cha 子 (= rat) (61st identical with 1st combination)

=

Combined SixtyYear-Cycle name

kapcha 甲子 ŭlch’uk 乙丑 pyŏngin 丙寅 chŏngmyo 丁卯 mujin 戊辰 kisa 己巳 kyŏngo 庚午 haengmi 幸未 imsin 壬申 kyeyu 癸酉 kapsul 甲戌 ŭlhae 乙亥 pyŏngja 丙子 kapsin 甲申 muja 戊子 kabo 甲午 kyŏngja 庚子

kyehae 癸亥 kapcha 甲子

Note: In the Tongguk sesigi the cycle is used only for designating years and is therefore referred to as Sixty-Year Cycle here. This cycle has applications in addition to that for counting periods of sixty days. Chinese characters are given in their Korean pronunciation.

and water, K. samwŏn 三元—personified as Three Official Emperors, K. Samgwantaeje 三官大帝, whose birthdays fall on the full moon days of the First, Seventh, and Tenth Months. Accordingly, these days are called K. Sang-won(jŏl) 上元(節), First Primary Element Day (see the section “First Full Moon Day” in the translation; K. chung-won( jŏl) 中元(節), Center, or Second Primary Element Day (see translation



Notes to Pages 28–29

85

section “Center Full Moon Day”); and K. Ha-won(jŏl) 下元(節), Last, or Third Primary Element Day (see translation section “Latter Full Moon Day”). 118. The original story is actually first recorded in Samguk yusa, 1: 54–55 (see n. 208 below); see also “Crow Taboo Day” in Shaffer, Seasonal Customs of Korea, 57. 119. Soji Maripkan 炤知 麻立干, twenty-first king of Silla (r. 479–500). See n. 207 below. 120. Shijing, bk. 15, “Odes of Bin” 豳 (Legge, She King, 226), wherein the first ode describes the works during the year in a farm household. The first line of the ode starts with qiyue 七月 “[In the] Seventh month,” and as usual in Chinese practice the first two characters have been taken as the name (or appellation, rather than a title referring to its content) of the ode, which covers the works in all months of the year. 121. “Grain poles,” hwagan 禾竿 or pyŏt-karit-tae 볏가릿대; also hwajŏk 禾積, or togan 稻竿. 122. K. Nahu 羅睺, or Nahu-chiksŏng 羅睺直星, Skt. Rāhu. “Nahu, the fate-­ governing star,” the one who causes eclipses. It’s influence is supposed to be the worst among the Nine Influencers (Skt. Navagráha, lit. naha, “nine,” plus graha, “to seize, lay hold of”) often translated as “luminaries” or “nine planets,” although only five are planets in the modern sense and two, the northern and southern lunar nodes, are nonphysical points in the sky. The Korean pronunciations are il-chiksŏng 日直星 (sun), wŏlchiksŏng 月直星 (moon), hwa-chiksŏng 火直星 (Mars), su-chiksŏng 水直星 (Mercury), mokchiksŏng 木直星 (Jupiter), kŭm-chiksŏng 金直星 (Venus), t’o-chiksŏng 土‌直星 (Saturn), nahu-chiksŏng 羅睺直星 (north lunar node), and kyedo-chiksŏng 計都直星 (south lunar node, alternatively also a comet). These Nine Influencers originated in India, enlarging the Iranian system of five or seven and are also associated with a region in the sky and with bodhisattvas. All of them are considered in East Asia to have negative influence, which follows Iranian astrology (see Kotyk, “Astrological Iconography”; and Kotyk, “Iranian Elements”). In Korea, every ninth year of a person’s age—for boys at age ten, ninteen, twenty-eight, and so on; for girls starting at age eleven—the purpose of the custom was said to be to ward off the negative influence of Nahu. 123. In the Tongguk sesigi the characters are 處容, which is ch’ŏyong in ­present-​ day Korean pronunciation, but the form cheung 제웅 is the more common word to refer to this doll. The two syllables che-ung may be a fossilized pronunciation of the Chinese characters 處容 from before the vowels with a y-offglide changed into mutated vowels. 124. The name of the East Sea Dragon’s son had been 處容, Ch’ŏyong in ­present-​ day pronunciation. See Samguk-yusa, vol. 2, “Ch’ŏyong-rang Manghae-sa” 處容郞 望海寺. 125. Hŏn’gang, 憲康, the forty-ninth king of Silla, r. 875–886. 126. Ch’ŏyong-mu 處容舞 is a ritual dance supposed to have developed from a dance by one performer with a red mask to a dance performed by five masked dancers, their robes in colors associated with the five directions, namely, blue (east), white (west), red (south), black (north), and yellow (middle). Later descriptions suggest even more dancers. 127. Hong Sŏk-mo has written 自冬, which can be read as “from winter onward” or “from the Eleventh Month onward.”

86

Notes to Page 29

128. Jing Chu suishi ji. The quotation in the Tongguk sesigi is shortened (Sang, Hyŏng Ch’o sesigi, 80; Siku quanshu version 8b.1–3; Sibu beiyao version in different wording, 4a.2–4). 129. Sukch’ŏng-mun 肅淸門 was built in 1396. Later, in the early 16th century, the name was modified to an almost homophonic Sukchŏng-mun 肅靖門, but the Tongguk sesigi has the first version. In the original name, sukch’ŏng literally means “tranquilized” or “silent purity”; the near-homophonic second name means “majestic and peaceful.” Being situated so close to the royal palace, it was rarely used for receiving visitors. 130. Bell Pavilion, or Chonggak 鐘閣, which is still standing at the Bell Street crossroads (Chongno-1-ka, today houses a replica of the bell that traditionally announced the opening and closing of the city gates. The first pavilion was built in 1398, but after many incidents of destruction and rebuildings, the current two-story pavilion was erected in 1980. The official name was changed to Posin’gak 普信閣, Universal-Trust Pavilion, in 1895. 131. The text reads K. chakchŏl 嚼癤, “cracking blains,” a phrase that must be an attempt to render the idea of a cracking sound to chase away bad luck. The phrase in vernacular Korean is purŏm kkaemulgi 부럼 깨물기, where kkaemulgi means “biting, gnawing,” and purŏm is said to be related to modern Korean pusŭrŏm 부스럼, ”boil, abscess,” but is more likely a nominalization of a verb that seems no longer to exist except in compound verbs like purŏ-ttŭrida 부러뜨리다, “break (off),” and purŏ-chida 부러지다, “get broken.” 132. Lit. “gingko nuts in their shell” (K. ŭnhaeng-p’i 銀杏皮). There is a cracking sound when the shell is broken like the chewing of raw chestnuts saengyul 生栗 and walnuts hodo 胡桃. 133. The text reads ch’igyo 齒較, “teeth contest” or “teeth competition,” which in various translations and articles on folk customs is called i-kuch’i 이굳히, “hardening the teeth,” ippal-kyŏrugi 이빨겨루기, “competing with teeth,” ippal-naegi 이빨 내기, “teeth gambling,” or i-takki 이닦이, “teeth brushing.” 134. The text reads yurong-chu 牖聾酒, “liquor to clear deafness,” but the normal Korean word is kwibalgi-sul 귀밝이술, “liquor to clear the ear.” There is no special recipe for liquor for this purpose; any refined rice liquor would do. 135. “Sacrifice day,” Ch. sheri 社日, K. sa-il, may refer to the sacrifice on the birthday of local deities or to the spring and autumn sacrifice performed by a village, K. ch’unsa 春社 and ch’usa 秋社. 136. Zhilongjiu 治聾酒. See Hailu suishi, 2:19a.4–6. 137. 畜 Ch. chu, K. ch’uk (meat), 匏 Ch. pao, K. p’o (gourd), 瓜 Ch. gua, K. kwa (cucumber), and shiitake mushrooms, 蔈 Ch. biao, K. p’yo. All were sliced and dried in the sun for the winter. 138. “Assorted aged vegetables,” chinch’ae 陳菜, in genuine Korean is muknamul 묵나물. Muk-namul-pap 묵나물-밥, “rice with old vegetables,” with soybean sprouts is 大豆黃卷 K. taedu-hwanggwon (kong-namul 공나물), with turnip 蔓菁 K. manch’ŏng (sunmu 순무) and raddish 蘿葍 K. nabok. If eaten on First Full Moon Day, chinch’ae supposedly helps with the heat in summer (HMTS, 1333). As follows, cu-



Notes to Pages 29–30

87

cumber stalks 瓜顱, K. kwaro (vernacular oe-kkokchi 외꼭지), eggplant peel 茄皮, K. kap’i (vernacular kaji-kkŏpchil 가지껍질), and turnip leaves 蔓菁葉, K. manch’ŏng-yŏp (vernacular muip 무잎) were also dried. Actually, many other vegetables were also dried according to region (Sŏ Hye-kyŏng 徐惠卿, “묵은나물,” in HMSJ). 139. “Wrapped luck rice,” pokkwa 福裹, normally called pokssam 복쌈, was a special dish on that day cooked from dried cabbage stuffed with rice. 140. The quotation in the Tongguk sesigi is slightly altered (Sang, Hyŏng Ch’o sesigi, 71; Siku quanshu version 5b.3; Sibu beiyao version 3a.4). 141. 而抑亦 衛[!]風 御冬之旨蓄也. In this line in the Tongguk sesigi, two lines from the Shijing, vol. 1, Guofen 國風 (Airs of the states), chap. “Airs of Bei” 邶風, are rephrased, but instead of “Airs of Bei” (邶風) “Airs of Wei” (衛風) is written in the Tongguk sesigi. In the “Airs of Bei,” in the beginning of air no.10, “Gufeng” 谷風 (“East wind ”) the beginning of the sixth verse reads, “I have a fine collection of vegetables 我有旨蓄 / it is for the winter 亦以御冬,” from which “the winter’s fine collection of vegetables” 御冬之旨蓄 in the Tongguk sesigi is rephrased. For an easily accessible translation of the entire air “East Wind,” see Legge, She King, 58. 142. Ogok-chappan 五穀雜飯, “five-grain mixed dish,” today called ogokpap 오‌곡밥, is steamed rice mixed with soy beans and grains like barley, foxtail millet, and millet. 143. This custom is intended to pass on one’s uncomfortable heat in summer to someone else, who then will have to try to sell it to another person. 144. 除夕更闌人不睡 云有癡獃召人買 in the poem “Selling Foolishness” (“Mai chidai ci” 賣癡獃詞) (Siku quanshu, 1159; Shihu shiji, 30:5b.7–8). The quotation consists of the first line and the second part of the fourth line of the poem, where also “young lads” are the ones following this custom. See the translation in Schmidt, Stone Lake, 164: New Year’s Eve is nearly finished but still people don’t sleep: Time to exorcise last year’s misfortunes and welcome the New Year. Young lads race down the long street and shout out loud, “Foolishness for sale!” to entice some customers. Foolishness is hardly in short supply anyplace in this world, But here in Suzhou we have more than our share. So neither north nor south of my alley can the boys find any takers, And amid gales of laughter they poke fun at one another. 145. There is an error in the Tongguk sesigi: the author wrote Ch. mai 買, “buy,” instead of mai 賣, “sell,” as in the original poem. 146. 五更, “fifth watch,” K. o-gyŏng, 3:00 to 5:00 in the morning. Traditionally there were five so-called watches in the night, double hours starting at 7:00 p.m. 147. This is a direct quotation of a couplet from the poem “Suishou shushi shi” and part of the commentary in Jiannan shigao, 38.11b.5–7, in Sibu beiyao. The same poem as cited above in n. 21. 148. Xu Guangqi 徐光啟 (1562–1633) was a Chinese scholar and bureaucrat,

88

Notes to Pages 30–31

agricultural scientist, astronomer, as well as mathematician who also worked with the Jesuit missionaries in Beijing. 149. Nongzheng quanshu, 37:16b.1, in the Qinding Siku quanshu version. 150. Yu Zongben 兪宗本 (1331–1401), aka Guo Tuotuo, author of Zhongshu shu, where, however, the quotation 正月一日或十五日 cannot be found. Commentators variously say that Yu Zongben’s identity is unknown (YTS, 53n16; YTSW, 63n16; HSP, 188), provide no commentary (CTT, 48; HSPK, 150), state that the author lived during the Tang (KMP, 199), or write that “he was Chinese” (CTS, 62). But the phrase is anyway originally from a 6th-century book by a different author (Qimin yaoshu, 種梨 “Cultivating Plums,” vol. 35, 4:9a.3–4). 151. Huali Xinzai, 52a. 6–7, slightly rephrased. 152. The Five Colors 五色, Ch. Wu Se, K. Osaek, are blue, yellow, red, white, and black, which have symbolic significance in connection with the Five Phases (see n. 53 above). 153. P’ungjaeng 風錚, which is most likely a writing error by the author because 風 “wind” plus 錚 “metallic sound” does not make sense here. Probably the author wanted to write the homophone 風箏, where 箏, whose basic meaning is “string instrument,” especially in connection with 風 “wind,” has the secondary meaning of “kite.” The normal Korean word for “kite flying” is yŏn nalligi 鳶 날리기. 154. Ch’oe Yŏng 崔瑩 (1316–1388) was an influential general in the declining years of the Koryŏ period. When he attacked the Tamna 耽羅 Kingdom, which was then in the hands of Mongol troops, he is supposed to have used kites to transport the seeds of reeds to scatter around the main fortress. He waited until the seeds had sprouted and the reeds had grown and withered and then set fire to the dry reeds in advance of his attack on the fortress. In another story he had huge kites made, with which he landed troops on a coast with high cliffs. Tamna is the original name of Cheju Island and the independent kingdom there, which as late as the early 15th century became incorporated into the kingdom of Chosŏn and has remained part of Korea ever since. 155. Sup’yo-kyo 水標橋, a bridge over the Ch’ŏnggye River in central Seoul, was originally built in 1420 and called Horse-Market Bridge (Majŏn-kyo 馬廛橋) after the nearby horse market. It was renamed after water-level indicators were added in 1441. The original bridge, now Seoul Tangible Cultural Property no. 18, was moved to Changch’ungdan Park, and a replica carrying the old name now spans the reconstructed Ch’ŏnggye River. 156. The author has written 回回兒, K. hoehoea 회회아, for “pinwheel.” All translations use the modern word param-kaebi 바람개비 or p’allang-kaebi 팔랑개비 or simply use the modern Korean pronunciation of the Chinese characters, which, however, seems to be neither a Chinese nor a Korean word. Further designations in Korean are p’ungch’a 풍차, p’aengdori 팽돌이, ppaengdori 뺑돌이, and todŭrae 도드‌래 (HMTS, 590). Probably the author has written this todŭrae in an idu-like writing by twice using 回 “turn around, rotate,” K. tol-da, and the nominalizer 兒, K. a, implying *tol-tol-a > *toldora > todŭrae, which looks like the etymology of this word. 157. K. kogomae 姑姑妹. In the earlier Kyŏngdo chapchi, the transcription is



Notes to Pages 32–33

89

苦‌苦‌妹, which is like the word listed in the 16th-century Sino-Mongolian glossary Beilu yiyu, see “no. 506, feng-huang 鳳凰 ‘phoenix’, kügümei” (ku-ku-mei) (Apatóczky, Yiyu; personal communication, Ákos Bertalan Apatóczky email, forwarded by Alexander Vovin, July 3, 2014). 158. Night patrols, sulla-kun 巡邏軍, were patrol forces enforcing the curfew in the palace and the capital area from the second to the fifth double hour (9:00 p.m.– 5:00 a.m.) in order to discourage thieves, watch out for fire, and take other measures to ensure quiet and peaceful nights. 159. 金吾, translated here as “imperial insignia,” is short for 執金吾 zhi jinwu (Hucker, Dictionary of Official Titles, 964), 執 (those who hold) + 金吾 (a ceremonial baton made of copper, the symbol of authority for maintaining law and order in the capital). 160. Xidu zaji, 60 (2).112, 71a.3–4. 161. Yŏrun’ga 閱雲街, a name not otherwise attested, but there is a semantically close name, Cloud-Following Street 雲從街, as one recorded old name for what is today Bell Street 鍾路 (Chongno). 162. Sŏgŭm 釋音. In Korea, when learning Chinese characters, each character was learned by saegim 새김, “appellation” or “name of the character” plus pronunciation. Saegim 새김 is often confusingly translated as “meaning,” but the appellation is normally too broad semantically compared with the actual meaning of the character. 163. The words for “bridge” and “leg” are homophone in Korean, both are tari. The saegim together with the modern K. pronunciations for bridge and leg are tarikyo 다리-교 (橋) and tari-kak 다리-각 (脚), respectively. 164. “Wide-Thoroughfare Bridge,” Kwangt’ong-kyo 廣通橋, historical site no. 461, built in 1410 and rebuilt in 1762, was once the largest bridge over the Ch’ŏnggye River. During the restoration of the river in 2003–2005 the bridge was restored once more. 165. The phrase, from Yong Luo Yingli lu, is shortened from a quotation in the Gujin shiwen leiju, where the source is given as Yong Luo Yingli xiaolu (CT, 古今事文 類聚前集, [共] 古今事文類聚前集 [search “唐朝正月十五夜”], 卷七, 1b.2). 166. 陸啓浤, 17th c., exact dates unknown. 167. The date given in this quote—and in all other Korean texts on the ­internet— is the fifteenth, but Chinese texts give the date as the sixteenth (Chen Hsi-yuan, “Zhongguo ye weimian,” 26). 168. Dijing jingwu lue. The quotation is from vol. 2, Dengshi 燈市 (Lantern market), 3a.5–6. 169. The quote has been slightly altered. See Wanshu zaji, minfeng 民風1, tusu 土俗 “Local Customs,” 1961 ed., 167, and 1982 ed., 190. 170. Wang dynasty, which began in 918 when General Wang Kŏn 王建 (d. 943 CE) successfully defeated his rivals and founded Koryŏ, the Buddhist kingdom lasting from 936 to 1392. Often Western literature describes the period as the Koryŏ dynasty, but the dynasty was the Wang 王 dynasty and Koryŏ the country’s name. 171. The quotation has been slightly edited from Chibong yusŏl, 1:18b.5–8.

90

Notes to Page 33

172. Sammun 三門, referring to Sungnyemun 崇禮門, or Gate of Exalted Ceremony (aka Nam-taemun 南大門, Great South Gate); Tonŭimun 敦義門, Gate of Abundant Righteousness (aka Sŏ-taemun 西大門, Great West Gate); Soŭimun 昭 義門, Gate of Bright Righteousness (aka Sŏ-somun 西小門, Little West Gate) (KMP, 204n102; CTS, 70). Other translators claim Hŭnginmun 興仁門, Gate of Uplifting Mercy (aka Tong-taemun 東大門, Great East Gate) instead of Tonŭimun (YTS, 54n30; YTSW, 65n31; CTT, 54; HSP, 193n31), but only the first three are close together and near Ahyŏn. 173. Ahyŏn 阿峴, originally the area just outside the Soŭi-mun (Sŏ-somun), which today is a neighborhood not far west of the center of Seoul. The name comes from the so-called Ai-kogae 아이고개 “A-I Ridge” > Ae-kogae 애고개 “Ae Ridge.” 174. Malli-hyŏn 萬里峴, Ten Thousand-Li Hill, is located between today’s ­Malli-tong in Chung-ku and Kongdŏk-tong in Map’o-ku. It is a branch of Inwangsan 仁王山, geomantically White Tiger Mountain, which guarded the palaces in Seoul. One li is equivalent to ca. 400 m, but the phrase “ten thousand li” has simply the connotation of far distant. 175. Pyŏnjŏn 邊戰, “border fight,” in other sources is also written p’yŏnjŏn 便‌戰. Vernacular Korean words for the game are p’yŏn-ssaŭm 편싸움, sŏkchŏn-nori 石戰놀이, sŏkchŏn-kŭk 石戰戱 (stone-fighting game), or tol-p’almae-nori 돌팔매놀이, sŏkch’ŏkhŭi 石擲戱 (lit. “stone-throwing game”). 176. Ki 畿 may mean “royal domain(s)” or be short for Kyŏnggi(-to) 京畿, the Capital Province. 177. Yongsan 龍山 and Map’o 麻浦 are both located south of Ahyŏn outside the old city walls of Seoul, left and right of the Han River. 178. Pip’a-chŏng 琵琶亭, a now-obsolete pavilion in today’s Chongno-2-ka. 179. Usu-hyŏn 雨水峴, Rainwater Hill, a branch of Inwang-san. 180. The Tongguk sesigi does not indicate as such, but this is a quotation from TYS, 24:3b.4–5. 181. Tangshu, Gaoli zhuan 高麗傳. Gaoli is the Chinese pronunciation of K. Koryŏ, which here stands for Koguryŏ. Translators claim that the quotation is from the Xin Tangshu, vol. 210, liezhuan 145, Gaoli zhuan 高麗傳, and there is indeed a Gaoli zhuan in the Xin Tangshu, but the quotation cannot be found there (YTS, 53n34; YTSW, 65n34; HSP, 194n35; KMP, 204n104; CTT, 55; CTS, 71). Kang Mu-hak did not bother to give a reference (HSPK, 155). The attribution of the quotation to Tangshu, Gaoli zhuan, in the Tongguk sesigi is an author’s mistake. A shortened version of the quotation can be found in the Suishu, 81:2b.8–3a.2. 182. Peishu 浿水, K. P’ae-su. The name referred to the Yalu River (K. Amnokkang), but in Tang times the name was used for the Taedong River (CWTTT, 17899.1), which flows through Pyongyang, the capital of Koguryŏ after its move southward in 427 CE and today the capital of North Korea. 183. “Blind musician,” yogo 邀瞽. Many blind males, and occasionally blind females are considered to have spiritual power and often work as soothsayers or healers. 184. This short sentence refers to an elaborate ritual where normally one or



Notes to Pages 33–34

91

several shamans address not only the individual house gods but also the ancestors and the village gods (HMTS, “안택”). 185. Ch’ŏk, 尺 (Ch. chi), “foot.” There are ten 寸 ch’on (Ch. cun), “inch(es),” to a ch’ŏk, and, ten ch’ŏk make a 丈 chang (Ch. zhang). The values of these measures vary greatly according to the dynasty and at times also to what is being measured. 186. Tongbang Sak 東方朔 is the Korean pronunciation of Dongfang Shuo (160–93 BCE), an alias made up from “east” and “new moon.” He was a scholar and official, said to have been both a Daoist immortal and a jester at court. His reputedly miraculous deeds and his witty stories were very popular throughout East Asia. 187. Huali xinzai, 2b.1–2. 188. This divination is called “ash-in-a-bowl divination” (sabal-chae-chŏm 사‌발 재‌점) or “bowl divination” (sabal-chŏm-ch’igi사발점치기, S.K. uhoe-chŏm 盂灰占). Rather than the “falling from heaven” explanation in the text, a more plausible description is reported from a village in North Ch’ungch’ŏn Province. In that telling, seeds of various kinds were put into the ashes, and the next morning, if many seeds were gone or none at all were left, it would mean a bad year; if the seeds were still there, it would be a good year (Kim Tong-sŏp 金東燮, “사발재점,” in HMSJ). With mice and rats around the farmhouse, this divination would work. 189. This may also refer to counting the number of times the cock grows. More than ten times would predict a bumper crop (Sŏng Wŏn-kyŏng, Tongguk sesigi yŏn’gu, 16). 190. No-yongnan 撈龍卵, K. yongal-kŏnjigi 용알건지기. The dragon is associated with water, male power, and the procreating elemental force. 191. The text uses a made-up “Chinese” character consisting of 禾 (radical 115, “standing grain”) and 蜀 (Shu, the name of several short-lived dynasties, used also for Sichuan), which is not to be found in any Chinese or Korean dictionary. From other descriptions of this custom we know that the plant must be sorghum, and possibly the made-up character was inspired by the name of Sichuan sorghum, shushu 蜀黍, K. ch’oksŏ, but this is a mere guess. All modern translations simply use susu 수‌수, which is kaoliang or millet. 192. “Months divination,” wŏlcha 月滋 in Tongguk sesigi. It is not a Korean word but the writing of the Korean word tal-puri 달불이 in Chinese characters, which are made of 月, “moon,” and cha 滋, “produce, cultivate, multiply.” Regional variants are tal-purŭm 달부름, tal-pulgŭm 달불금, tal-purigae 달부리개, and tal-puni 달부니. Other names are k’ong-purŭm 콩부름 and k’ong-chŏm 콩점, both meaning “bean divination.” 193. “Household divination,” hoja 戶滋, in the text is again not a Korean word but writing of the Korean word chip-puri 집불이 in Chinese characters, which is made of 戶, “door, household,” and again cha 滋, “produce, cultivate, multiply.” The fact that in the chip-puri the beans are put into straw rather than a sorghum stalk as in talpuri is a practical pun, because chip 집, “house/household,” and chip 짚, “straw,” together with puri, “divination,” make a near homophone, chip-puri. 194. “Twist a rope,” 綯索, S.K. tosaek, in the phrase 又以綯索分隊 把持相牽引 seems to have become a lexical ghost, being claimed in mistranslation to be one of the regional names of this competition (Yi Changsŏp 李長燮, “줄다리기,” in HMSJ). This

92

Notes to Pages 34–35

is, however, a misinterpretation of the Tongguk sesigi, because tosaek is a verb-object construction in this phrase and does not appear in any dictionary, encyclopedia, or older text as a binominal noun. 195. “Tug-of-war,” sŏrha-hŭi 挈河戱. Most modern translators of the Tongguk sesigi change the character sŏl 挈, “help, leading by the hand, drag, pull,” in the text, which makes perfect sense, to hyŏl 絜, “marking line” (YTS, 49; YTSW, 58; HSP, 196; HSPK, 156; CTT, 57); hyŏlha-hŭi 혈하희 (絜河戱) is also the form found in modern dictionaries. Another possible pronunciation of this 絜河戱 is kyŏlhahŭi (CTS, 74 ; KMP, 207n110), which is possible because 絜 hyŏl and 潔 kyŏl have been exchanged in other texts as well. They further refer to the river Jie-he 潔河 in Nanpi County 南‌皮縣 in the prefectural city of Cangzhou 滄州, where in one of the many legends about the origin of the tug-of-war, it is supposed to have been invented as a military exercise. However, the form sŏrha 挈河, as in the Tongguk sesigi, is also attested in another mid-19th-century text (Im Ki-chung, Uri Sesi, 119). In the footnote there, Im erroneously claims that the Tongguk sesigi writes hyŏl 絜; but obviously this error is taken over from the wrong “corrections” in the translations into modern Korean. There are many different names for this game according to region, but the most common words for “tug-of-war” today are chul-tarigi 줄다리기 and chul-ssam 줄쌈. 196. “Arrowroot fighting,” kalchŏn 葛戰, also chik-nŏngk’ul-ssaum 짉넝쿨싸움, “arrowroot-vine fighting.” 197. To dry them for storing, fish are hung in the sun, woven into the strings of straw ropes so that they resemble pearls on a necklace. During the drying process the fishes’ heads and tails bend downward, giving each fish the shape of a human being bending down at the waist. The row of women bending over at the waist with each woman grabbing the waist of the woman in front of her resembles these chains of fish. 198. “Ch’ŏnggye-san tonggyo,” 淸溪山銅橋, but the phrase is in vernacular Korean in the song of the game, namely, “Ch’ŏnggye-san-e not-tarilse” 청계산에 놋다 릴세, “it is the not-tari of Ch’ŏnggye-san.” This phrase is puzzling because, although there are several mountains by the name of Ch’ŏnggye-san (Clear Creek Mountain) in Korea, none seems to be near Andong. Mountain (san 山), however, may be a misunderstanding of the original text of the song, where sang 上, “above, over,” instead of san, “mountain,” would make perfect sense as “bridge over the clear creek” (Ch’oe Sang-su, Sesi p’ungsok, 75). Writing 銅橋 tonggyo, “brass bridge,” for not-tari is based on a folk etymology of the usual Korean name of this game, not-tari pabgi 놋‌다리 밟기 “treading the not-tari,” for which there are mainly two folk etymologies. 놋 “brass” + tari “bridge” 銅橋 can mean “brass bridge” or “bridge as hard as brass.” According to another theory, not-tari is a phonetic variation of nodalgi (K. 노달기, “off-month,” a period of resting from work, which is the name of the First Month in the Andong dialect (Sung Byunghee 成炳禧, “Andong Bronze Bridge Walking,” in EKSC). Legend has it that the origin of the game is a bridge formed by women across the Soya River (所夜川/蘇耶川) near Andong (then Pokchu 福州). By forming this human bridge, the women sought to help King Kongmin (恭愍王 r. 1330–1474) of Koryŏ and his wife, Noguk-kongju 魯國公主 (Noguk-taejang-kongju 魯國大長 公主, Mongolian name Borjigin Budashiri 孛兒只斤氏 寶塔實里), flee an attack in



Notes to Pages 35–36

93

the year 1361 during the Chinese Red Turban revolt. In another version, the women prostrated themselves before the king and queen in this manner. Not-tari pabgi was designated in 1985 as North Kyŏngsang Province Intangible Cultural Treasure no. 7. 199. K. chun taero, Ch. zun da lu 遵大路, “following the wide road,” in this description is not to be taken literally, as there were no “wide roads” in the vicinity. One possible explanation is that it may be a set phrase, which then could also be a hint at one of the meanings for this communal game. For instance, the phrase is the title of a simple song in the Shijing where someone holds onto someone else at a “wide road,” pleading that old relationships and old friendships should not “hastily be broken off” (Shijing, Guofeng 國風, Zheng 鄭; Legge, She King, 133). 200. Kŭm 琴 (Ch. qin), “zither,” is the name of a family of chordophones. According to all translations into modern Korean, probably the kŏmun’go, aka hyŏnhak-kŭm (玄鶴琴), hyŏn-kŭm (玄琴), “dark zither,” is the instrument referred to here. This is a six-stringed zither of ca. 150 cm in length, which was preferred by men of nobility for its deep, sonorous sound. 201. This section, added after every month except the Ninth Month, describes either customs for which no fixed day within the month is set, or the author deemed the customs either less important or too general, or the customs were observed on the same day in more than one month. 202. Moch’ung[il] 毛蟲[日], also yumo-il 有毛日, K. t’ŏllal 털날, are days with the Twelve-Year-Cycle signs of a furred animal, referring to all but the days of the dragon and snake (see n. 50 above). 203. The abundance of hair signals the hope for wealth. 204. “Refectory attendance tokens,” siktang-togi 食堂到記, were given to students who attended morning and evening meals at the refectory as proof that they had attended school that day. They had to present fifty of these before they were admitted to any of the examinations. 205. Shijing, Shujing, and Yijing. 206. Chŏlche 節製, short for chŏrilche 節日製, were the state examinations given on the festival days: Birth of Man Day 人日節, First Day of the Snake 上巳節, Seventh Evening Day 七夕節, and Double Nine Day 重陽節. 207. King Soji, 炤智王, but the title wang 王 was used only later. Known as Soji Maripkan 炤知麻立干 in his own time, he was the twenty-first king of Silla 新羅, r. 479–500. 208. The Samguk yusa is the earliest source for the story of how the king saved his own life and killed both his unfaithful wife and the monk he found with her, both hiding in a zither case in loving embrace. He had been warned by the strange behavior of these animals and had followed the advice of a fortuneteller. See Samguk yusa, vol. 1, Wonders 紀異, “Shooting at the Zither Case” 射琴匣; for a translation, see Ha and Mintz, Samguk Yusa, 66–67. 209. Taldo 怛忉, a combination of 怛, “grieved, saddened, worried,” and 忉, “grieved, distressed in mind,” is the title of a song in connection with this story by an unknown author. The lyrics, however, are not transmitted. The song is only mentioned as having been sung in Silla on the memorial days.

94

Notes to Page 36

210. 俚言怛忉言悲愁而禁忌. This is a quotation from Samguk yusa at the end of “Shooting at the Zither Case.” Its seemingly abrupt insertion in the text can be explained by the fact that these days were colloquially called taldo days. 211. Kim Chong-chik 金宗直 (1431–1492), pen name Chŏmpilchae 佔畢齋, was a scholar, poet, and one of the leading politicians in the early Yi dynasty. He is also the compiler of the first draft of the Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam (TYS). 212. TYS, 21:5b.5–6. 213. Waeran 倭亂, that is, Imjin Waeran 壬辰倭亂, meaning “Japanese invasion [starting at the] Imjin [year].” 壬辰, imjin, are the Chinese characters in the Sixty-Year Cycle in Korean for the year 1592, the first year of the invasion that lasted until 1598. In Western literature Hideyoshi Invasion is in use, named after Toyotomi Hideyosi 豊臣 秀吉 (1536/1537?–1598), the ruling general who led the invasions. Hideyoshi’s original intention had been to conquer Ming China, but Korean and Chinese forces stopped the advance. He died in 1598 and the Japanese were forced to retreat, but Korea was completely ravaged at the end of the campaigns. 214. Ch’ŏnbyŏng 天兵, lit. “army from heaven” or “army sent by the Son of Heaven,” 天子, i.e., the Chinese emperor, who, when the Japanese troops had captured most of Korea in 1593, sent troops, who recaptured the capital. 215. The “spirit of hatred” that causes the gloomy day may refer to a general atmosphere or to the souls of those who were killed in this tragedy and in their unresolved anger cannot find peace after death. 216. In the pronunciation of their primary meaning 八, “eight,” and 敗, “to injure, ruin, defeat,” are normally not homophone, their being 八 (Ch. ba, K. p’al) and 敗 (Ch. bai, K. p’ae), where only the middle vowel [a] is identical (note that [ai] is not a diphthong, the [i] is originally an offglide). The Liushu benyi, however, gives a secondary meaning “to separate” for 八 with an offglide, glossing 音背 分異也, where the two have almost the same pronunciation (and anyway differences of tone in Chinese are elided in Korean pronunciation). 217. Sang-hyŏnil 上弦日 and ha-hyŏnil 下弦日 are when the two half-moons occur on approximately the eighth and the twenty-third of a lunar month. 218. “Neap-tide days,” chogam-il 潮減日, with the first two Chinese characters used only phonetically, an idu writing of what in oral language is chogŭm-nal 조금‌날. On these days the tides are lower than on New and Full Moon Days because the moon’s position is at a right angle to that of the sun, and their gravitational pulls on earth’s waters, coming from two directions, weaken each other. 219. “Three ruining days,” sam-p’aeil 三敗日. The fifth, fourteenth, and twentythird are special days in most East and Southeast Asian countries; in some they are lucky days, in others unlucky days. The sequence of nine days is reminiscent of the Nine Influencers from Indian cosmology, but the origin remains unexplained except for folk etymologies. 220. Chunghwa-ch’ŏk 中和尺 are wooden sticks bestowed on high ministers and chamberlains to remind them of their duties and necessary loyalty (Chi Ch’un-sang 池春相, “중화척,” in HMSJ). 221. Lit. Kŏllŭng pyŏngjin 健陵丙辰. Kŏllŭng 健陵 is the name of the grave of



Notes to Pages 37–38

95

King Chŏngjo 正祖 (r. 1776–1800), the twenty-second king of the Yi dynasty in the Western calendar the year pyŏngjin 丙辰 corresponds to 1796. 222. A “harmony day,” chunghwa-chŏl 中和節, Ch. zhonghe jie, was supposedly an ancient agrarian holiday made an official holiday during the Tang dynasty. The name of the holiday consists of K. chung (Ch. Zhong), “middle,” and K. hw (Ch. he), “peace,” referring to the idea in several Chinese Weltanschauungs that harmony lies in the avoidance of extremes. 223. Li Mi 李泌 (722–789) served as an adviser under three Chinese emperors. The sentence is an abridged quotation from the Xin Tangshu, vol. 139, liezhuan 64 (CT, 新唐書, [共]新唐書, 152. 列傳祭六十四 房張李 no. 24). 224. “Grain poles,” S.K. hwagan 禾竿 or K. pyŏt-karit-tae 볏가릿대, also hwajŏk 禾積 or togan 稻竿. 225. K. pyŏk 璧, Ch. bi, is a round piece of jade with a hole in it, once used as a badge of rank. 226. Slaves’ day, nobi-il 奴婢日, or mŏsŭm-nal 머슴날, adŭret-nal 아드렛날, or hari-adŭret-nal 하리아드렛날. 227. Hyangnang kakssi sokkŏ ch’ŏlli 香娘閣氏 速去千里. In the phrase hyangnangkakssi 香娘閣氏, nang 娘 is an S.K. loanword and kakssi 閣氏, vernacular Korean (written here in Chinese characters, disregarding the meanings and utilizing the pronunciation only), both meaning “young girl.” In an attempt to render this bilingual double use I have translated “Signorina” for S.K. nang, and “Miss” for K. kakssi. 228. Yŏngdŭng-sin 靈登神, lit. “divine ascending spirit,” is actually not a Chinese but a Korean name, which is also transcribed 嶺登 or 迎燈; my translation “Goddess of the Wind” refers to her realm of responsibility. This custom actually exists all over the southern parts of Korea under various names like P’ungsin-­ halmoni 風神할모니, Grandmother Wind Spirit; and Yŏndŭng 然燈, Yŏngdong 靈‌童, Yŏngdu 영두, Iwŏl-halmoni 二月할모니, all referring to Grandmother Second Month (HMT, 2:1046; Nam, “Yŏngdŭng halmŏni,” 293). 229. “Jumping horses play,” yangma-hŭi 躍馬戱, refers to the small rafts dancing on the waves like horses jumping in the meadow. 230. “Burning lantern [ritual],” yŏndŭng 然燈, is a folk etymology for this ritual where the writing of the vernacular Korean word with Chinese characters is used only for the characters’ pronunciation, not for their meaning, as no “burning” is involved. The Cheju dialect word for this game is t’eu-nori 테우노리, and the standard language verb 태우다 means “to set on fire,” which led to this Chinese character version. Possibly the meaning behind t’eu-nori is tte-mori nori 떼몰이 노리 is “group game” (Hyŏn Yong-chun 玄容駿, “약마희,” in HMSJ). An even better explanation, in my opinion, is that, according to local informants speaking Jeju language, t’eu 태‌우 is the local name for small wooden rafts used for fishing near the coast. 231. TYS, 38:4b.5–6. 232. Nongjia yan, in Shuofu (120-vol. version), vol. 74下, 50a.2. 233. Slightly altered quotation. The original reads “ [offers] a lamb and opens the ice[house]” (CT, 禮記 Liji, [文] Confucianism → Liji, “月令- Yue Ling” in 禮記Liji, no. 17).

96

Notes to Page 38

234. TYS, 38:4b.6. 235.  Samil 삼일 三日, but the day is today actually written 삼짇날 and ­pronounced Samjit-Nal > Samjinnal. Nal 날 is the Korean word for “day,” which is the translation of the second Chinese character, modern K. il 日. But this second syllable 日, K. il, “day,” in the fossilized name of the day is written and pronounced jit 짇, reflecting the Middle Korean pronunciation, the form before the initial nasopalatal sibilant ᅀ in the Korean pronunciation of Chinese characters changed in the beginning of the 16th century; and the final [t] is the fossilized final of the old Chinese pronunciation. Samjit-nal is one of the yang days, see n. 4 above. 236. “Flower cakes,” hwajŏn 花煎, also called kkotchŏn 꽃전, replacing the S.K. hwa 花, “flower,” with the equivalent vernacular Korean word kkot 꽃. 237. Obyŏng 熬餠, lit. “cooked rice cakes,” is a term identified with ttŏk-pokki 떡‌볶이, broiled rice cakes in hot seasoning (YTS, 62; YTSW, 73), or with chijimi-ttŏk 지짐이 떡, a pancake with varying ingredients (CTS, 96; KMP, 215). Other translations simply use the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese characters. 238. The name “cold cakes,” K. han’gu 寒具, Ch. hanju, lit. “cold preparation,” is identified with sanja 饊子, i.e., puffy wheat cakes or fried round cakes of wheat flour (YTS, 62; YTSW, 73), or with cakes made of a mix of glutinous rice and wheat flour fried in sesame oil (KKY, 57). Others just use the word han’gu without explanation (CTS, 96; CTT, 67). There is a Chinese cake with this name (KMP, 215). 239. “Five-flavor berry,” omija 五味子, Maximowiczia chinensis Repr. (HST, 1:308, no. 995), aka Schisandra chinensis. The five flavors are sweet, bitter, sour, spicy, and salty. 240. Respectively, Tong- and Sŏ-Yongwang-tang 東西龍王堂 are two dragon spirits of which there are four, one for each of the four directions, all associated with water. 241. Samsin-tang 三神堂. Samsin—often Samsin-halmoni, “Grandmother Samsin,” also called Sambul, “Three Buddhas”—are responsible for childbirth and protection during the first seven years. 242. Udam 牛潭 is part of a small brook on the border of Ch’op’yŏng-myŏn 草坪面 and Munbaek-myŏn 文白面 in today’s [North Ch’ungch’ŏng] Chinch’ŏn County, where none of the shrines have survived (CTS, 98). According to local informants in Ch’op’yŏng-myŏn, it is the place where the bed of the river coming down from the mountain widens for the first time. The water there is supposed to always be very clear. 243. Ch’ŏngmyŏng 淸明, Ch. Qingming, is the fifth of the solar terms (see n. 26 above), 104 days after the winter solstice. It is also a spring festival in China, which falls around the same time as the Cold Meals Day (see “Cold Meals Day” under the “Third Month” section of the translation) and therefore the two have been connected in the popular perception. 244. At court, torches lighted with fire from rubbing a willow branch against an elm trunk were given to the functionaries and distributed all over the country down to every household. These torches were meant to start a new fire, and in all the country the old fire had to be extinguished on this day. Cooking was only allowed after the new fire had arrived, which is the origin of the custom of Cold Meals Day.



Notes to Pages 38–39

97

245. “The Offices [of Summer] of Zhou giving out fire,” zhouguan chu huo 周官 出火, refers to the phrase “in late spring fire is given out,”季春出火 (Zhouli 7. 26b. 5–8). The Offices of Summer dealt with military affairs. 246. Hansik 寒食, or Cold Meals Day, falls on the 105th day after the winter solstice, varying during the Second or Third Month. 247. “Spring sacrifice ritual,” ci xiang yi 祠享儀. Ci 祠 refers to “sacrifice, esp. spring sacrifice” (Meyer, Ritendiskusionen, index 3, “ci 祠”). The dates of Zheng Zhengze 鄭正則 are unknown, but his position is given in the quotation as “attendant censor,” shiyushi 侍御史 (Hucker, Dictionary of Official Titles, 431, no. 5350). The phrase 祠享儀, “details of the spring sacrifice ritual,” is interpreted by Korean commentators as the title of an unknown book (YTS, 63, 64n1; YTSW, 75, 76n1; HSP, 212; CTT, 69; CTS, 100), one commentator adding that the book consisted of a single volume and the original could be found in the Gujin shiwen leiju (KMP, 216). The phrase quoted in the Tongguk sesigi can indeed be found in the Gujin shiwen leiju in Siku quanshu, where, however, “origin of the grave-site sacrifice” looks like a subject heading rather than a book title (CT, 古今事文類聚, [像]古今事文類聚前集, 古今事 文類聚前集卷七~卷九 [page 85/175], 8:13b.5–14a.7). 248. According to Kunyu Dong, In the pre-Qin Period, mu 墓 (grave) and zhong 冢 (burial mound or tumulus over grave) are two exclusively different concepts: mu was a burial place without a mound, and a general term for the burials of common people and minor nobles; zhong was a large-scale burial with an artificial mound, and the term specially used for the royal or high-ranking elite burials. The meanings of these two terms began to be mixed up since the Spring-and-Autumn Period. In the pre-Qin Period, the zhongji 冢祭, which were sacrifice offering ceremonies held on the sites of the mounded royal or high-ranking elite tombs, did unquestionably exist; but the muji 墓‌祭, which were sacrifices held on the sites of the graves of common people or some nobles, was only one step in the procedure of funeral ceremonies and not held regularly as a rule. The opinion of “in the ancient times, muji was not held” by the scholars in the Han to Jin Dynasties (221 BCE–420 CE) was held just on this aspect. (Dong, “Reexamination,” 125) 249. Kaiyuan 開元, the first era name of the reign of Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–756) of Tang. 250. After the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907, five short-lived dynasties were established in northern China, among them the Later Zhou. 251. Qi 齊 was a powerful vassal state of Zhou located on the lower reaches of the Yellow River. 252. Zi Tui 子推, i.e., Jie Zi Tui 介子推, had gone into seclusion because of the disloyal behavior of Duke Wen of Jin 晉文公 (r. 636–628 BCE) and refused to follow a later call to come to court. Duke Wen, when he then tried to force Zi Tui out of the mountains by smoke, accidently set the whole wood on fire and Zi Tui was killed. Out

98

Notes to Pages 39–40

of remorse the duke forbade lighting kitchen fires on this day. For a ­literary-historical development of the story, see Milburn, “From Storytelling to Drama.” 253. “Mung beans,” noktu-p’o 菉豆泡, K. noktu-muk 녹두묵 or ch’ŏngp’o-muk 청‌포‌묵. All commentaries erroneously take 菉, “a green kind of lentil,” for 錄 “green.” 254. “Harmony salad,” t’angp’yŏng-ch’ae 蕩平菜, lit. “wash-away-and-level salad.” Ch’ae means “salad” and t’angp’yŏng originally meant “to overcome strife and party competition.” The following is from the poem “Hong Fan” 洪範, “Great Plan,” in the Book of Zhou 周書 of the Shujing. “Without partiality, without deflection, / The Royal path is level and easy; / Without perversity, without one-sidedness, / The Royal path is right and straight” (Legge, Shoo King, 331). The origin of the dish as well as of the name are unknown. In Korean general knowledge, including scholarly works and encyclopedias, a connection is made to t’ang-p’yŏng-ch’aek 蕩平‌策, “policy of impartiality,” with which King Yŏngjo 英祖 (r. 1724–1776) and others tried to settle the factional strife within the ruling class. But this is most likely a folk etymology. The salad contains mung bean jelly and leaves of various vegetables and is also called muk-ch’ŏngp’o 묵-淸泡. 255. Hwang-chŏhap 黃苧蛤, other names are hwang-chogae 황조개, hwanghap 黃‌蛤, and mosi-chogae 모시조개, a small yellow clam. 256. K. soŏ 蘇魚, vernacular paendaengi K. 밴댕이, a large-eyed herring. 257. Cheŏ 鮆魚, vernacular ungŏ 웅어, an estuarine tapertail anchovy of up to ca. 30 cm in length. 258. Noho 露湖 is a place difficult to verify. Some guess that it must have been somewhere in today’s Noryangjin neighborhood in Seoul (YTS, 67n3; YTSW, 82n3; CTS, 103). 259. Tokmi-ŏ 禿尾魚 is identified with sungŏ 숭어, “gray mullet” (YTS, 65; YTSW, 77; HSP, 213), or with tomi 도미, “red snapper”(KMP, 218; CTS, 103). 260. Kwaha-chu 過夏酒. The commentaries in translations into modern Korean explain that it is strained rice liquor, t’akchu 濁酒, mixed with distilled liquor, soju 燒‌酒. The term, however, is also used as a generic term for different kinds of beverages made by adding any fruit to soju (Chŏng Tong-hyo, Urisul sajŏn, 80–83). 261. The names refer to additions for the flavor, such as small chrysanthemum blossom (soguk 小麴), azalea (tugyŏn 杜鵑), peach blossom (tohwa 桃花), and pine sprouts (songsun 松荀) (Chŏng Tong-hyo, Urisul sajŏn, 163, 147, and 330). 262. Samhae-chu 三亥酒. Preparation starts on the first Day of the Pig (Hae-il 亥 日) in the First Month, and more ingredients are added on the first Day of the Pig of the following two months, therefore Three Pig Days’ liquor (Chŏng Tong-hyo, Urisul sajŏn, 291). According to a newspaper report, the Seoul Metropolitan Government designated Ms. Kwon Hee-ja, who kept making Samhae-yakchu 三亥藥酒 according to a recipe handed down in her family and engaged in demonstrations of her skill as a cultural asset in 1993 (“Passing on ‘samhae yakju’ court wine,” Korea Times, November 12, 2014). 263. Kongdŏk 孔德 and Ongmak 甕幕 in today’s Map’o-ku in Seoul. 264. Kamhong-ro 甘紅露, a liquor seasoned with cinnamon, longan fruit, dried tangerine peel, a kind of parsnip, and dried clove (Chŏng Tong-hyo, Urisul sajŏn, 49).



Notes to Page 40

99

265. Pyŏkhyang-chu 碧香酒, a name for several different liquors with a slightly greenish color that are made from glutinous rice and polished rice (Chŏng Tonghyo, Urisul sajŏn, 242). 266. Igang-ko 梨薑膏, made of non-glutinous rice, barley, pear, ginger, wild turmeric, cinnamon, and honey (Chŏng Tong-hyo, Urisul sajŏn, 420). 267. Chungnyŏk-ko 竹瀝膏, the sap for which is produced by heating chips of green bamboo (Chŏng Tong-hyo, Urisul sajŏn, 472). 268. Kyedang-chu 桂當酒, distilled liquor seasoned with cinnamon and angelica root (Chŏng Tong-hyo, Urisul sajŏn, 69). 269. Nosan-ch’un 魯山春, a fast-ripening clear liquor made from polished rice and glutinous rice with no additives (Chŏng Tong-hyo, Urisul sajŏn, 119). 春, whose basic meaning is “spring,” is a literary-style expression for “special liquor,” which has been used since the Tang dynasty (see “春,” CWTTT, 14146). Some other examples from Korea are Yaksan-ch’un 藥山春 from Seoul and Hosan-ch’un 壺山春 from Yŏsan in North Chŏlla. 270. This sentence is confusing because “fried rice cakes,” sanbyŏng 饊餠, are not, as the text has it, either green or white. Commentators and translators write either the modern pronunciation of the Chinese characters in Korean script or simply the Chinese characters (HSPK, 164; CTT, 73), also writing san 散 without radical 184 食, just as in the modern dictionaries (KMP, 218). The fact that san 散 without the radical 食 means “to scatter, disperse, break up” does not help to solve the riddle. Those who attempt to identify the vernacular Korean word suggest kkopchang-ttŏk 꼽장떡 (YTS, 65; YTSW, 78; HSP, 214; CTS, 104), again as most modern Korean dictionaries also do. However, kkopchang-ttŏk and the similar-sounding kkojang-ttŏk 꼬장떡 today refer to a variety of cakes in all shapes but seldom half-round ones. 271. Songp’i 松皮, more precisely the inner bark. 272. “Swallow mugwort” 靑蒿, K. ch’ŏngho, Ch. qinghao, is normally identified with vernacular Korean chebi-ssuk 제비쑥 (YTS, 65; YTSW, 78; HSP, 215; CTT, 73), which is Artemisia japonica Thunb. (Taehan singmul togam, 756, no. 3021), or ssuk (CTS, 104; KMP, 218). Following chebi-ssuk, “swallow mugwort” is my coinage, as there seems to be no English equivalent yet and chebi, meaning “swallow,” may refer to the forked shape of the leaves. It is a plant used in traditional Korean medicine to lower a fever and cure problems related to “heat” in the traditional examination terminology. The identification with chebi-ssuk needs further research, but writing only ssuk 쑥 is less precise, as this is the commonly used generic term for all kinds of ssuk. But vernacular Korean “dog-shit mugwort,” kaettong-ssuk 개똥쑥, Artemisia annua L. (Taehan singmul togam, 756, no. 3023), may actually be the best identification (see also n. 488 below). In 2015 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to the Chinese pharmaceutical chemist Tu Youyou for her discoveries concerning a novel therapy for malaria. She discovered artemisinin and the best method of extracting it from the leaves of qinghao (ch’ŏngho). She and her team found the leading hint by testing the cold-water extraction of 靑蒿 (in the reports “Artemisia annua L.”), which is described in the 1,700- year-old works of Ge Hong, the author of the Baopuzi. 273.  “Ring cakes,” hwanbyŏng 環餠. Normally translators give only the

100

Notes to Page 40

­ ronunciation in the Korean alphabet, but some interpret it as vernacular Korean p kori-ttŏk 고리떡 (KMP, 218; CTS, 104). I was unable to find such a word, but since kori means “ring,” this may be an ad hoc coinage by the translators. 274. “Horseshoe cakes,” majebyŏng 馬蹄餠, by some interpreted as a supposedly vernacular Korean word, malkup-ttŏk 말굽떡 (KMP, 218; CTT, 73; CTS, 104). This is, however, simply translating the Chinese characters, because such a word could not be found in dictionaries or elsewhere. 275. Suishi zaji. It is not specified which it is of the various books with the same title. The quotation is from the same sentence as below (n. 446). Only the first phrase is partially a direct quotation; the second is a short free rendering. The full sentence can be found in the Gezhi jingyuan (CT, 格致鏡原, [共]格致鏡原, 27.卷二十五 no. 7). 276. Isa 二社, i.e., the Ch’un-sa(il)] 春社(日), “Spring Earth Spirit [Day],” and the Ch’u-sa(il)] 秋社(日), “Autumn Earth Spirit [Day],” at which ceremonies for the earth spirit, sa 社, were held. The days fall on the fifth day after ipch’un 立春 (spring begins) and ipch’u 立秋 (autumn begins), the first and the thirteenth of the Solar Terms (see n. 26 above). 277. Four Horse Days’ liquor, or Sama-chu 四馬酒 is the result when glutinous rice and mung bean are added for further mashing on the year’s first four Days of the Horse (O-il 午日) and the developing rice wine is kept stored in the earth to maintain an even temperature until it is ripe in March (Chŏng Tong-hyo, Urisul sajŏn, 264). 278. Yi Tongak An-nul, 李東岳安訥, i.e., Tongak Yi An-nul 東岳 李安訥 (1571– 1637), is the Korean author of more than five thousand poems in the Chinese language and style (Kugŏ kungmunhak sajŏn, 510). 279. “Sama-chu-si” 四馬酒詩. In Tongak sŏnsaeng chip 17, Tongjŏnnok 2 東遷錄 下, sawŏl isipp’a l 四月二十八, ŭm Namgung Chŏk sama-chu 飮南宮績四馬酒 (Yi P’il-yŏng, Tongak sŏnsaeng chip, 534). 280. Yuxie 玉薤, or Jade Mist, was a famous medicinal liquor brewed for the Chinese emperor, yu 玉, “jade,” being “an epithet of items associated with the gods or the emperor” (Kroll, Student’s Dictionary). The liquor could be stored for ten years without losing its taste (see [Hedong xiansheng] Longcheng lu in CWTTT, 21296.792). The second Chinese character in the name of the liquor, 薤, meaning “scallion, shallot,” is a homophone exchange character for 瀣, meaning “sea mist,” “cold northern fog.” 281. The expression hwaryu 花柳, “blossoms and willows,” is associated with enjoying the pleasures of spring at outings, as in the poem “To the Honorable Justice Hsin” 流夜郞贈辛判官 by Li Bo (Obata, Works of Li Po, translation no. 118, Chinese text no. 一一八 in appendix). Translators into Korean render it as kkot-nori 꽃놀이, “flower game” (YTS, 66; YTSW, 79; HSPK, 165; CTT, 74); hwaryu-nori 화류놀이, “flowers and willows game” (Yi Kang-no, Sesi p’ungsok, 128; CTS, 107; KMP, 220); or they simply write the pronunciation of hwaryu in the Korean alphabet (HSP, 216). 282. Sangsa-tapch’ŏng 上巳踏靑. Originally in Chinese antiquity it was the custom on the first Day of the Snake to go on an outing to enjoy the freshness of spring. The custom was shifted to the third of the Third Month (Samjit-nal), which after the Wei dynasty was no longer connected with a Day of the Snake (CWTTT, 17.10).



Notes to Pages 40–41

101

283. Pirundae 弼雲臺. Pirun Mountain is another name for today’s Inwang-san 仁旺山, or Flourishing Benevolence Mountain, in the northwest of the old capital. 284. Puktun 北屯, North Village, is today north of Sŏngbuk-ku, Sŏngbuk-2tong, in the north of the old capital. 285. Hŭngin-mun 興仁門 in the east of the old capital, commonly Tongdaemun 東大門, Great East Gate (benevolence is associated with the direction east in the Five Phases, see n. 53 above). 286. “Bride doll,” kaksi 각시, in the text written with Chinese characters 閣氏 used only for the sound. The original meaning of this word is “doll,” and a derived meaning is “bride.” In the current context, the two meanings blend. 287. Pillyul, which is written in the Tongguk sesigi with two Chinese characters, one is pronounced pil, a combination of the radical 118, 竹 “bamboo,” + 觱 and lyul 篥, and pillyul is by all commentators interpreted as being the same as the modern word piri 피리, which is a kind of oboe. Pillyul is indeed given in Korean dictionaries as a way to write the Korean word piri, with Chinese characters, but the first character, pil- 觱, is always written without the radical 118. The character pil with the bamboo radical, which Hong Sŏk-mo wrote, is a Korean invention rarely used. In the Han’guk hanchaŏ sajŏn, the only dictionary I found listing it, where normally a character is given many sources, there is only a single text given as a source (3:736). The second Chinese character, -lyul 篥, is first explained in the dictionaries as a kind of bamboo, and then explained as 觱篥, Ch. bili (S.K. pillyul), a Central Asian kind of oboe (made from bamboo) (CWTTT 26921). Pillyul, in other words is not a way to write the Korean word piri, but is the Chinese original word for this oboe, and it turns out that K. pillyul, piri, and Ch. bili all refer to an oboe made from bamboo. But according to the Tongguk sesigi the children use a branch of a willow tree instead of bamboo and then call it a yusaeng 柳笙, which does not mean “willow oboe” but “willow mouth organ,” the mouth organ again being an instrument made from bamboo. 288. TYS, 44:5a.2–3, 3–4, with omissions in the quotation from TYS. 289. Sajŏl-yut’aek 四節遊宅. “Pleasure grounds” is a free translation of yu 遊, “to roam,” and t’aek 宅, “dwelling,” the word used in the Samguk-yusa (vol. 1, kii 紀‌異 2, “Chin-Han” 辰韓), from which Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam (TYS) is quoting verbatim and which is repeated in the Tongguk sesigi. In the “Chin-Han” section of the Samguk-yusa one part refers to the “heydays of Silla” 新羅全盛之時, listing all settlements 宅 and adding the seasonal pleasure grounds 春東野宅, 夏谷良宅, 秋仇 知宅, 冬加伊宅. Of these names only Eastern Fields Lieu for the spring season can be translated from the meaning of the Chinese characters, the other three names are as yet unreconstructed words of the Silla language written in Chinese characters employed for their sound only. 290. TYS, 21:27a.5–7. 291. TYS, 39: 2a.8–2b.1. 292. 龍安, “in [North Chŏlla] Iksan-si.” It is puzzling why the introduction of the following rituals, the community liquor-drinking ritual and the archery ritual, are localized in this way, as they are supposed to have been held all over Korea. 293. The community liquor-drinking ritual (hyang-ŭmju-ye 鄕飮酒禮) was

102

Notes to Pages 41–42

intro­duced from China during the late Koryŏ period together with the community archery ritual (hyang-sa-ye 鄕射禮) (Park Kyungha 朴京夏, “Community Archery Rite,” in EKSC), but they were not easily accepted by the people because of the complicated procedures. 294.  一曰德業相勸 二曰過失相規 三曰禮俗相成 四曰患難相恤. These four maxims are the major aims of the so-called village contracts or community contracts, K. hyangyak 鄕約. They are taken verbatim from Lü shi xiangyue, except for 成, “to be successful,” in the third maxim, where the Chinese original has 交, “to exchange, mutual.” The translation of the maxims in the translation is quoted from Ch’oe, Lee, and de Bary, Sources of Korean Tradition, 149. 295. 咸歸于厚, cf. 民德歸厚矣, “the virtue of the people will resume its proper excellence” (Legge, Analects, 141). The implication is that “virtue is naturally proper to the people” (Legge, 142n9). 296. In the explanations in dictionaries, encyclopedias, and elsewhere, the community liquor-drinking ritual is more often thought to have been held during the Ninth or Tenth Month rather than in the Third month. 297. TYS, 34:28b.8—29a.3. 298. Kwangyang Shrine 廣壤堂, lit. “Wide-Territory Shrine,” used to be situated in a neighborhood called Kwangyang in today’s Ido-tong in Cheju City, on the northern coast of the island. The god worshiped there was the god of the central Mount Halla, the guardian god of the island. 299. Ch’agwi Shrine, Ch’agwidang 遮歸堂, used to be situated in Han’gyŏngmyŏn, Kosan-ri, on the west coast of Cheju Island. The name Ch’agwidang, the Chinese characters reading “Protect-Return Shrine,” may also be the rendering of a different underlying Cheju-language place-name in Chinese characters, because it is also the modern place-name of the whole beach area and the name of a small island cluster, today uninhabited, near the coast there. Also, the syllable gwi, written 歸 here, is part of many place-names in Cheju, either as a second or a first syllable, where often it is written with different Chinese characters having the same pronunciation. 300. Ch. she, hui, wu, gong; K. sa, hue, o, kong, 蛇虺蜈蚣. This enumeration is a quotation from the Bencao gangmu, “zhuzhi” 主治 (“Indications”), in vol. 4, Baibing zhuzhi yao 百病主治藥 (Various ailments, their indications and treatments), “Zhu chong shang” 諸蟲傷 (insect and crawler bites), where it is the subtitle under which come the entries for “snake bites” 蛇虺傷 and “centipede bites” 蜈蚣傷 (Paek, Ponch’o kangmok, bk. 4, 51, no. 1106). 301. TYS, 38:4b.6–7. 302. Ch’ŏngan 淸安, formerly a lesser county, hyŏn 縣, now Ch’ŏngan-myŏn in Kwaesan-kun, North Ch’ungch‘ŏng Province. 303. Today alcoholic beverages are normally not an important element in shamanic activities, although they may be placed on the altar. 304. P’aril 八日, but normally called P’ail 파일 or Ch’o-p’ail 초파일, “First P’ail.” 305. Yok-Bul-il 浴佛日, Bathing the Buddha Day. On the Buddha’s birthday a ritual is held where buddha statues are washed or sprinkled with perfumed water. According to legend many auspicious signs appeared when the Buddha was born,



Notes to Pages 42–43

103

among them dragons coming down and washing the baby Buddha by spurting forth hot and cold perfumed water. 306. Ogang 五江, five important shipping piers at and around the capital, namely, Han’gang 漢江, Yongsan 龍山, Map’o 麻浦, Hyŏnho 玄湖, and Sŏgang 西江. Except for Hyŏnho, all are still place-names in Seoul, and while Han’gang is normally referring only to the river, there is an area called Han’gang-chin 漢江鎭 (Han’gang Market) on the river southeast of Namsan (South Mountain) with a section called Han’gang-chin Harbor (Han’gang-chin narut’o). KKY, 69, gives Chiho 支湖, instead of Hyŏnho, and in the secondary literature Chiho and Sŏho서호, today no longer used as area names, are also given instead of Hyŏnho and Sŏgang (Son In-ae 孫仁‌愛, “경기선소리,” in HMSJ). 307. “Sun and moon wheel,” il-wŏl-kwŏn 日月圈. A wooden T-shaped cross with a stick in the middle that is placed inside the bamboo on the top of a high bamboo pole. It is attached loosely so that it can spin. At the ends of the wooden cross two red and two white small paper balls are hung, and the cross will start rotating in the wind. 308. P’a 把, the character has been given this special meaning in Korean (kukcha 國字), the vernacular Korean word being pal 발. Also written p’a 爬. 309. Ch’oe I 崔怡 (d. 1249), aka Ch’oe U 崔瑀, was the second of the military rulers of the Ch’oe family at the time of the Mongol invasions of Korea. Ch’oe I was the one who saved the dynasty by moving the king to the island of Kanghwa at the mouth of the Han River. 310. The previous sentence between the two quotes from the Koryŏsa reveals that the author did not quote from the Koryŏsa directly (Koryŏsa, 69:11b.2–3, and 40:37b.2–4), but copied from the Kyŏngdo chapchi (10b.3–7), which again did not quote from the Koryŏsa directly but rather from the Chibong yusŏl (1:18b.1–2). In the Kyŏngdo chapchi one phrase from the Chibong yusŏl before this sentence had been omitted, and the same omission is found in the Tongguk sesigi (KMP, photocopy in the appendix, p. 151, line 10, and p. 152, lines 1–4). 311. 花鳥. 花鳥魚蟲 “flowers, birds, fish, and insects” is a genre in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean traditional painting. 312. K. Samguk Kosa 三國故事. The Three Kingdoms (Ch. San guo 三國, K. Samguk) were competing in claiming legitimate succession after the downfall of the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 CE), namely Wei, Han, and Wu. The generals mentioned for the most part are Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮 (181–234), Guan Yu 關羽 (d. 219), aka Yunchang 雲長, and Zhang Fei 張飛 (d. 221), aka Yide 翼德, all three from Shu Han. Samguk-kosa 三國故事, “Ancient Fables from the Three Kingdoms,” in the Tongguk sesigi refers either to the San guo zhi, or more likely to the San guo yanyi. 313. A construction inside the lantern, similar to the one in a Christmas pyramid; a carousel moved by the heat of a lit candle. 314. “Yu Wu Juncai shu” 與吳君采書, i.e., “Yu Wu Juncai, Two Poems” 與吳 君采 二首 in Su Shi quanji, suppl. 11 補遺(十一). The quotation is from the first poem [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/與吳君采二首 (之一)]. 315. “Shangyuan wuxia jiewu paiti” 上元吳下節物俳體 (as given in the Tongguk

104

Notes to Pages 43–44

sesigi) is an abridgment of the title Shangyuan ji wuzhong jiewu paixieti sanshi er yun 上元紀吳中節物俳諧體三十二韻, “Writing a Burlesque in Thirty-two Rhymes about Festival Items in Wu on First Full Moon Day”(Siku quanshu, 1159, Shihu shiji, 23:4b.3). Fan Chengda was born in Pingjiang 平江, Wu 吳 County, today’s Suzhou 蘇州, Jiangsu 江蘇 Province, and also worked and lived in Wu. 316. The second phrase of the twelfth line in the poem reads zhuanying qizhong heng 轉影騎縱橫, “rotating silhouettes of riders on horseback moving horizontally,” and the commentary, maqi deng 馬騎燈, “mounted horse lantern” (Siku quanshu, 1159, Shihu shiji, 23: 5a.5). A drawing of the lamp, called “trotting-horse lamp / figure riding on horse,” can be found in Lu, History of Chinese Science, 3:309. 317. K. nan 鸞, Ch. luan, one of the five different forms of the phoenix, also K. nanjo 鸞鳥, Ch. luanniao. 318. Chamdu 蠶頭, or Chamdu-pong 蠶頭峰, a rocky hilltop to the west of South Mountain in Seoul, named so for its shape. 319. “Water-jar game,” subu-hŭi 水缶戱. The gourd bowl is floated upside down. 320. Zhang Yuan 張遠 was a Song-dyasty painter and scholar (CTT, 83; CTS, 118). His pen name was Xingzhi 行之, and he lived in seclusion in the mountains sometime between 1111 and 1118 (YTS, 73n11; YTSW, 89n11; KMP, 225). His authorship of the Ao zhi seems to be an assumption by the author of the Tongguk sesigi. 321. The quotation from Ao zhi can be found in the Qinding Rixia jiuwen kao (CT, 欽定日下舊聞考, 316. 欽定日下舊聞考卷一白四十七, nos. 125 and 126), where, however, the source given is “suppl. to the Beijing suihua ji.” My translation “the head monks of the capital” 京師僧 follows the text in the original, which the quotation in the Tongguk sesigi omits. 322. Dijing jingwu lue, vol. 2, 燈市 (Lantern market), 3a.3–4. 323. “[Rice] liquor” is my interpretation based on the commonly used recipe. The text says chu 酒, which can mean any alcoholic beverage. 324. Yiyuan cihuang. The quotation in the Tongguk sesigi reads 寒食以麵爲蒸餠 樣團棗附之 名曰棗餻. I was unable to find the source for this quotation in any of the Yiyuan cihuang versions available to me, but, in any case, Yan Youyi seems to have quoted from the now-lost 2nd-century CE Simin yueling, but with a quotation that does not appear in the reconstructed versions of the latter. However, it is quoted as such in the CWTTT under “zaogao” 棗糕 (CWTTT, 15260.23). The Tongguk sesigi’s is a literal quotation, exchanging only alternative characters, 麵 for 麴 and 餻 for 糕. 325. Koch’ae 苽菜, 苽 K. ko, Ch. gu. “Manchurian wild rice,” or Zizania latifolia (Taehan singmul togam, 107, no. 426). Also known as Canada rice, Indian rice, and water oats, it is not directly related to rice but is, rather, a wild aquatic plant of which either the swollen stems or the seeds are eaten. Another Chinese name for Manchurian wild rice is 蔣 K. chang, Ch. jiang. One Korean name is chul 줄, and therefore the translation “chul vegetable” 줄나물 is correct (YTS, 74). Unfortunately, in YTSW, 90, this is changed to 외나물, “cucumber vegetable,” obviously misreading K. kwa 瓜 for K ko 苽, an error copied by many later translators (HSP, 226; HSPK, 170; CTT, 84; Shaffer, Seasonal Customs of Korea, 92). Other commentators give a non-existent Korean word, komi-namul 고미나물 (KMP, 227; CTS, 119), where komi is probably a misprint for kyomi 茭米, another name for this plant derived from



Notes to Pages 44–46

105

combining 茭, Ch. jiao, K. kyo, Zizania aquatic, a similar aquatic grass, with mi 米, “rice.” 326. Sŏgi 석이 石耳, commonly called sŏgi-pŏsŏt 석이버섯 石耳—, “sŏgi mushroom,” Umbilicaria esculenta. 327. Ungsan-sin-tang 熊山神堂. The shrine is no longer in existence. Ungch’ŏn 熊川 was formerly a county in South Kyŏngsang near Chinhae; it is now integrated into Ch’angwŏn-si. Ung 熊 means “bear,” and the spirit of the 710-meter-high Ungsan, “Bear Mountain,” was the spirit protecting the county. 328. TYS, 32:51a.2–3. 329. 端午, Ch. Duanwu, K. Tano, “fifth day in the beginning [of the Fifth Month],” vernacular K. Surit-nal > Surinnal 수릿날, “Suri Day.” The etymology of the Korean word suri has given rise to many different (folk) etymologies, with none up to now found convincing. I therefore use the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese characters, which is also the most common designation in modern Korean. Tan 端 has the meaning of “extreme, right, correct, first, beginning,” and o 午 is number seven in the Twelve-Year Cycle, but 午 and 五 (five) are homophones and often interchanged. Among various other names, chungojŏl 重午節, “Double-Five Day,” is also quite common. 330. The quotation from Suishi zaji in the Tongguk sesigi is shortened and slightly altered from a quotation from a not-further-specified Suishi zaji in Suishi guangji, 6:99b.3–4. 331. Kŭmgang[-san] 金剛[山] is a mountain range on the east coast stretching ca. 60 km from today’s North Korea into South Korea, proverbial for its majestic views and a very common subject in traditional painting. 332. 戒菴漫筆. There is a scribal error in the Tongguk sesigi, replacing the original jie 戒, “purify oneself,” with rong 戎, “military implements.” The correct title is Jiean manbi, shortened from the full original title, Jiean laoren manbi. Direct quotation with parts of the commentaries is in Xuxiu Siku quanshu, 1173.2.42b.1–2. 333. Paek kŭp t’onggon 伯及統閫. Paek 伯 is short for tobaek 道伯, “provincial ­governor,” and t’onggon 統閫 is the title of the military naval commanders in the three southern provinces since 1593. 334. Chŏlla (Chŏn + ra/na) Province in the southwest of the peninsula is named after the first Chinese characters of the provincial capitals Chŏn-ju 全州 of North Chŏlla and Na-ju 羅州 (old name Namp’yŏng 南平) of South Chŏlla. The exact location is today a township (myŏn) in Naju City. 335. Monk’s-head fan, sŭngdu-sŏn 僧頭扇 (i.e., round like a monk’s shaved head; fish-head fan, ŏdu-sŏn 魚頭扇 (pointed like a fish head); snake-head fan, sadusŏn 蛇‌頭扇 (shaped like the Western heart symbol but with a broadened bottom); sliced-bamboo fan, hapchuk-sŏn 合竹扇 (folding fan made with ribs of thin bamboo slices); speckled-bamboo [holders] fan, panjuk-sŏn 斑竹扇 (holders of the folding fan made of speckled bamboo); fan with bone at the outside, waegak-sŏn 外角扇 (holders of the folding fan adorned with bone at the outside); fan with bone at the inside, naegak-sŏn 內角扇 (holders of the folding fan adorned with bone at the inside); three different holders fan, samdae-sŏn 三臺扇 (holders made of bone, bamboo, and wood); two different holders fan, idae-sŏn 二臺扇 (holders made of two materials);

106

Notes to Pages 46–47

bamboo nodes holders fan, chukchŏl-sŏn 竹節扇 (holders made of bamboo slices with nodes); Indian redwood holders fan, tanmok-sŏn 丹木扇 (holders made of Indian redwood); ornamented bone holders fan, ch’aegak-sŏn 彩角扇 (holders made of bone and sculptured or painted); plain bone holders fan, sogak-sŏn 素角扇 (holders made of bone without ornamentation; broad margin fan, kwangbyŏn-sŏn 廣邊扇 (unfolded, large as a half circle); narrow margin fan, hyŏppyŏn-sŏn 狹邊扇 (unfolded, smaller and less than a half circle); fan with a ring, yuhwan-sŏn 有環扇 (at the foot of the fan the ribs have holes at the pivot, the ribs being held together by a metal ring where a cord is attached for carrying); fan without a ring, muhwan-sŏn 無環扇 (without a ring at the pivot). 336. Tongyŏp 桐葉. Tong 桐 actually refers to a number of mostly evergreen trees, but probably odong-namu 梧桐나무, “paulownia,” is meant. 337. Ch’ŏnjung-chŏkpu 天中赤符. Ch’ŏnjung[-chŏl] 天中[節] is another name for Tano; ch’ŏnjung literally means “center of the sky, zenith,” the name being based on the association of “middle” and the number five in Chinese traditional thinking. 338. 天祿, K. ch’ŏllok, is a mythical creature, a winged lion with one horn. It is auspicious, mainly helping to keep or acquire wealth. 339. Ch. Chi You, K. Ch’i-u 蚩尤, fought against the Yellow Emperor in Chinese mythology and is supposed to be fearsome and invincible, making him a god of war at times. Chi You had a human body but a bull’s head and horns made of bronze and an iron forehead, four eyes, and six arms with weapons in every hand. His head became proverbial as tong tou tie e 銅頭鐵額, “brass head and iron forehead—to be courageous and cruel” (Huang, Idiomatic Phrases, 1028). Tong 銅, however, in light of archaeology more likely refers to copper or bronze here. 340. 赤口赤舌. The phrase is changed from “red mouth and white tongue,” 赤‌口白舌, a Tano-charm cited in Mengliang lu, vol. 5. It reads “Fifth month, fifth day, Day of the Zenith, away with all red mouth, white tongue” (meaning groundless or irresponsible talk, CWTTT, 37843.7). 341. Sa paek sa pyŏng 四百四病 lit. “404 diseases,” according to a Buddhist explanation, “the 404 ailments of the body; each of the four elements—earth, water, fire, and wind—is responsible for 101; there are 202 fevers, or “hot humours, caused by earth and fire; and 202 chills, or ‘cold humours,’ caused by water and wind” (Soothill and Hodous, Buddhist Terms, 178). 342. Kŭpkŭp yŏ yullyŏng 急急如律令, originally used in Han official documents, later by Daoists and shamans in charms and as an incantation to ward off evil spirits. 343. 漢, of which there are two, 206 BCE–8 CE (Qian Han 前漢, Former Han, or Xi Han 西漢, Western Han), and 25–220 CE (Hou Han 後漢, Later Han, or Dong Han 東漢, Eastern Han). 344. Tao yin 桃印, K. toin. Peach twigs or wood—referring both to its color and as paintings of peaches—and the Chinese character 桃 in seals or calligraphy are used to ward off evil and as a symbol for long life, a Daoist concept that has been generalized in all of the Asian cultures. 345. Chi ling fu 赤靈符, K. chŏk-nyŏng-pu, in Baopuzi Neipian zaying, vol.15.5a.10. 346. Cheho-t’ang 醍醐湯, Ch. ti hu tang, “one of the most commonly prescribed



Notes to Page 47

107

drugs for treatment of the heat stroke accompanied by high fever, severe sweat and thirst, it is effective for quenching thirst, strengthening the stomach, stopping diarrhea and regulating intestinal function. It is also known to play a role in activating the growth of useful microbes in the intestine and in multiplying intestinal immune cells” (Kim and Kim, “Chehot’ang,” 446; Shaffer, Seasonal Customs of Korea, 104). The main ingredients are powder of smoked plum (omaeyuk 烏梅肉), white sandalwood ( paektanhyang 白檀香), ginger-like Amomum villosum (sain 砂仁), and Katsumadai ginger (ch’ogwa 草果) (KKY, 81; Cho Hu-chong 趙厚鍾, “제호탕,” in HMSJ). 347. Okch’u-tan 玉樞丹, Ch. Yu shu dan, lit. Jade-Pivot Drug. For the recipe and the prescription see https://tcmwiki.com/wiki/yu-shu-dan. 348. The three names for the thread listed in this quotation from Fengsu tongyi are ming chang ming lu 名長命縷, yiming xu ming lu 一名續命縷, and yiming pi bing zeng 一名辟兵繒 (Fengsu tongyi, in vol. 31 of the Taiping yulan). The beginning of the sentence, 以五綵絲繫臂者, is also a slightly altered quotation of 以五彩絲系臂者 from Fengsu tongyi (CT, 太平御覽, [文] Song-Ming→太平御覽, 31. 時序部十六 in 太 平御覽, 五月五日, no. 14). 349. Ch’angp’o 菖蒲, Acorus calamus var. angustatus bess. (Taehan singmul togam, 183 no. 732). 350. Da Dai Li 大戴禮, short for Da Dai Liji, in which the quotation is from 五月 五日, Fifth Month, Fifth Day” in the Xia xiaozheng (CT, 禮記, [文] Confucianism, Da Dai Li Ji, 夏小正, 5.夏小正: 五月). 351. The quotation from Suishi zaji in the Tongguk sesigi is shortened and slightly altered from a not-further-specified Suishi zaji in Suishi guangji, 6:98a.1–2. The Tongguk sesigi has “calamus and mugwort” 菖艾 in the first part of this quotation, a free rendering of 蒲, “calamus,” in the original. 352. Yandou 燕都, like Yanjing 燕京, is an old name for Beijing. 353. In the Tongguk sesigi the quotation is slightly altered from Wanshu zaji, minfeng 民風 1, tusu 土俗 (Local Customs) (Beijing chubanshe ed., 168; Beijing guji chubanshe ed., 191). 354. 北方戎狄. There have been attempts to translate the names 戎 and 狄 based on the Chinese characters that were created by pejorative graphic punning, but they are really just phonetic representations of the names of tribes without any other meaning. 355. The quotation from the Gujin yishu tu in the Yiwen leiju is slightly different (CT, 藝文類聚, [文] Sui-Tang→藝文類聚, 卷四 歲時中, 寒食, no. 6). 356. 半仙之戱, see Kaiyuan Tianbao yishi, vol. 3 (CT, 開元天寶遺事, [共]開元天 寶遺事, 3.卷三, no. 12). 357. Namsan chi Waejang 南山之倭場, an open space at the northern slopes of South Mountain in Seoul where, in addition to wrestling, archery contests used to be held. 358. Puksan chi Sinmu-mun 北山之神武門. Puksan, or North Mountain, stands for Pugak-san 北岳山, Northern Peak Mountain, the protecting mountain to the back of Kyŏngbok Palace. Sinmu-mun is the North Gate, the rear gate of the palace, bearing the same name as the North Gate of the Forbidden City in Beijing.

108

Notes to Page 48

359. To-kyŏlguk 都結局, lit. “the one bringing the game to an end by winning it,” not a term in the Korean language but rather an ad hoc writing in Chinese characters of the Korean word p’an-magŭm (KMP, 232; CTT, 93; CTS, 130). Other translators do not bother to find the Korean word and simply write the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese characters in the Korean alphabet. And Yi Kang-no translates into a newly created word taemaru-kkun 대마루꾼, “the one being [like the] ridge of the roof” or “the one being the threshold” (Yi Kang-no, Sesi p’ungsok, 150). 360. Gaoli ji 高麗技, Ch. Gaoli, K. Koryŏ, the name of Korea between 935 and 1392, but here, as in many early Chinese sources, short for Koguryŏ 高句麗, the Kuryŏ 句麗 (later > Koryŏ 高麗) of the Ko 高 [dynasty]. 361. “Wrestling,” liaojiao 撩跤, K.yogyo, lit. “lifting up and falling down.” The Korean word is ssirŭm 씨름. 362. Direct quotation (CT, 禮記, [文] Confucianism → Liji, 月令- Yue Ling in 禮‌記- Liji, no. 93). 363. “Xijing fu” 西京賦. The author, Zhang Pingzi, 張平子 (78–139 CE), aka Zhang Heng 張衡, was a mathematician, astronomer, and famous author of fu 賦 (rhapsody). For a translation of the “Xijing fu,” see Hughes, Two Chinese Poets, 35–47; the quotation is in Hughes, 44. 364. Regarding jiaodi 角觝, “horn-butting,” some modern translators are careful to give no explanation (KMP, 233; CTS, 130); or they equate it with Korean wrestling, ssirŭm 씨름 (YTS, 78; YTSW, 97; CTT, 96n9). But it is an ancient Chinese sport in which contestants wore horned headgear with which they tried to butt their opponents (for the horned headgear, see n. 339). In the phrase 呈角觝之妙戱 in the Tongguk sesigi, the first character 呈, “to present to a superior, to submit,” has been used instead of the original 程, “rule, norm” (Zhang Hejian ji, vol. 1, fu 賦, Xijing fu 西京賦, in HanWei liuchao baisan mingjia ji, 498). 365. For Surŭi-il 戌衣日 the Chinese characters are used phonetically to write the Korean-language word without taking the meaning of the characters into account. 366. This is a folk etymology, because the word for this day and for “carriage” are almost homophone. 367. Thousand-year mugwort (qiannianai 千年艾), Chrysanthemum decaisneanum (CWTTT, 2744.85) and Crossostephium chinense (L.) Makino (http://www.zysj.com​ .cn/zhongyaocai/yaocai_q/qiannianai.html). Some translators into modern Korean translate these three characters as “1,000-year-old mugwort” in order to avoid confusion, see nn. 370 and 371 below, which, however, semantically is a slightly awkward solution (YTS, 78; YTSW, 97; HSP, 237; HSPK, 175; CTT, 94). 368. Bencao 本草 is short for Bencao gangmu. See Kim Chong-ha (Ponch’o kangmok, 5:43) for qiannianai, but there is no reference to “dog’s-tongue herb.” 369. This equation of thousand-year mugwort and dog’s-tongue herb is confusing because qiannianai 千年艾 does not seem to be one of the other names for dog’s-tongue herb and there is also another plant with this name, Tephroseris kirilowii (http://www.plantphoto.cn/species?species=32829). I was unable to find a source for this equation in other texts, but for a suggestion see n. 370 just below. 370. Surŭi-ch’o 戌衣草, synurus (a kind of Asian thistle), is in vernacular Korean today surŭi-ch’i 수리치 or suri-ch’wi 수리취(HST, 2:360, nos. 4015–4020). Other



Notes to Page 48

109

names include ttŏkch’wi 떡취, because it is used as a spice in a special rice cake, and kaech’wi 개취, which may be the reason for equating thousand-year mugwort and dog’s-tongue herb. Ch’wi is the second syllable in names for a variety of edible and fragrant plants, and kae- is a noun postposition denoting “wild, uncultivated.” Possibly, here lies the solution for the confusion, because as a noun kae meaning “dog” is homophone, it could have made the author looking for a Chinese plant name containing “dog” come up with dog’s-tongue herb. 371. Yanbei zazhi, a mistake in the Tongguk sesigi that has caused confusion among the translators into modern Korean. There is a single-volume Yanbei zazhi 燕‌北 雜志, but the author is Lu Youren (Shuofu, vol. 22 in the 120-vol. version). The quotation, however, is actually abbreviated from the Yanbei zaji 燕北雜記 by Wu Gui. The original text comprised five volumes, but only a few brief excerpts survive (Qinding Siku quanshu,欽定四庫全書,·子部十,·雜家類, in Shuofu, 5:2a.1 in the 120-vol. version). There, however, instead of Ch. aigao, K. aego, 艾餻, “mugwort rice cakes,” is written 艾膏, the homophone second character meaning “greasy, fat(ty), ointment.” Written this way it is normally referring to medicine prepared from mugwort. The title of the source has been misread as Yanbei zalu 燕北雜錄 (KMP, 234). Chŏng Sŭng-mo changes the last character correctly to ji 記 instead of zhi 志 in his translation of the Tongguk sesigi, but he then also says that the title should be Yanbei zalu (CTS, 134), a title I could not verify. Kang Mu-hak changes the title to Yanjing zazhi 燕京雜志 without explanation, a title that I also could not verify (HSPK, 175). Some write the title without any comment (YTS, 78; CTT, 94). 372. 遼, Liao dynasty, a federation of proto-Mongol peoples (Qidan) in the northeast of China. 373. Bohai 渤海 (698–926), K. Parhae, was the successor state to Koguryŏ. It was called K. Chin 振, Ch. Zhen, until 713. Established in northern Korea and southern Manchuria, the nobility came from Koguryŏ, ruling over several tribes, some of which later became Korean, others Manchurian. After having been defeated by the Qidan in 926, the northern area was ruled by the Liao dynasty, while the southern areas became part of Koryŏ. Since in this quotation the custom of the “cooks of Bohai” is said to be a “Liao custom,” the name Bohai must have persisted here as a regional or an ethnic designation after the fall of Bohai. 374. Chinese motherwort, ingmoch’o 益母草, Ch. yimucao, “honeyweed” or “Siberian motherwort,” lit. “herb, beneficial for mothers” (Leonurus sibiricus L.) (Taehan singmul togam, 651, no. 2604). Paulswort, hŭiryŏm 豨薟, Ch. xilian, lit. “swine vine,” a noxious weed plant (Sigesbeckia).The Korean name is chindŭkch’al 진득찰, of which three variants are listed in Taehan singmul togam, 762–763, nos. 3048–3050. 375. Huali xinzai, 15b.9. 376. Huali xinzai, 16a.1. 377. Kimhae 金海, city in South Kyŏngsang Province near the sea, was an important local center beginning with its establishment as the capital of Kŭmgwan Kaya 金官伽倻 (aka Pon Kaya 本伽倻), the strongest kingdom of the federacy of Kaya. During all of Korea’s history until today important cultural and political leaders have come from clans originating in this area. 378. TYS, 32: 2b.1–2.

110

Notes to Pages 48–49

379. Kŭmsan 金山 is the name of a county that existed from the second half of the first millennium until 1914, when it was united with other districts as part of the newly established city of Kimch’ŏn 金泉 in North Kyŏngsang Province. 380. Chikjisa 直指寺, located at North Kyŏngsang Province, Kimch’ŏn(-si), at the foot of Mount Hwangak 黃嶽山, is one of the earliest temples in Korea, founded in the 5th century. 381. Kim Yushin’s Ancestral Shrine 金庾信祠堂 honors the Silla general Kim Yushin (595—673), who is supposed to have been the decisive leader in the successive wars against Paekche and Koguryŏ, which led to the unification of the southern part of the Korean peninsula. He was the great-grandchild of King Kuhae 仇亥‌王, aka King Kuhyŏng 仇衡王 (r. 521–532 or 562), the last ruler of Kŭmgwan Kaya 金‌官伽‌倻 in the area of Kimhae. His success is attributed to supernatural powers bestowed upon him during an initiation journey, which many scholars interpret as a shaman initiation (Lee and de Bary, Sourcebook of Korean Civilization, 59–61, 109–111; Hogarth, Korean Shamanism, 295–297). 382. Sam-changgun-tang 三將軍堂, Three Generals’ Shrine. In addition to the Korean general Kim Yushin, this shrine honors two Chinese generals, Su Dingfang 蘇定方 (592–667), K. So Chŏngbang, aka Duke Zhuang of Xing 邢莊公, and Li Mao 李茂 (715–755), K. Yi Mu, who had come with their armies to help Silla destroy Paekche in the year 660. 383. TYS, 25:29b.6–7. 384. Ogŭm 烏金, copper with 1 to 10 percent gold. Having a shiny dark red color, it was widely used in jewelry. 385. Koryŏ T’aejo 高麗太祖, lit. Great Patriarch of Koryŏ, r. 918–943. T’aejo is a title of respect given to many founders of a dynasty. Koryŏ T’aejo’s name was Wang Kŏn 王建. After successfully putting an end to the power struggle following the downfall of Silla, he became the founder of the Wang 王 dynasty, which ruled Koryŏ. 386. TYS, 44:25b.6–8. A direct quotation except for the insertion of “copper and gold alloy,” which is taken from the paragraph’s tag word 祭烏金簪 and the writing of in 人 instead of min 民 for “people.” 387. Anbyŏn 安邊, a district located formerly in South Hamgyŏng, and since 1946 made Anbyŏn-kun 安邊郡 in the North Korean part of Kangwŏn Province. 388. Sangŭm-Sin-Sa 霜陰神祠. Sangŭm is the name of an area that was originally part of Anbyŏn County in South Hamgyŏng Province and part of neighboring T’ongch’on County 通川郡 in Kangwŏn Province, but today, because of administrative reforms, the shrine is located in the North Korean part of Kangwŏn Province in T’ongch’ŏn County, Haksam township 鶴三面, Sangŭm Village 桑陰里. 389. Sŏnwi-taewang 宣威大王, “The Great King Showing Might,” is the guardian spirit of Anbyŏn worshiped at Sŏnghwang Shrine 城隍祠 on Haksŏng Mountain 鶴‌城 山, where there is also the Haksŏng mountain fortress (TYS, 49:2a.1–2). 390. TYS, 49:2a.5–6. 391. T’aejong-kisin 太宗忌辰. T’aejong (r. 1400–1418) was the third king of the Yi dynasty. 392. Sejong 世宗, the fourth king of the Yi dynasty (r. 1418–1450), is called



Notes to Pages 49–50

111

Sejong the Great because he was a renaissance man who renewed Korean culture and, among many achievements in various fields, created the Korean alphabet. 393. The Tongguk sesigi has “he tastes the wheat” 嘗麥, but in the original it says that “he tastes the wheat together with some pork” 乃以彘嘗麥 (CT, 禮記, [文] Confucianism → Liji, 禮記- Liji, 月令- Yue Ling, no. 37). 394. A direct quotation of 初伏薦麥苽于祖禰, but in the “originals” reconstructed from quotations and references in other works (if they have this entry at all, it is under “Sixth Month”), it says 瓜 gua, K. kwa, “melon, cucumber,” instead of 苽 gu, K. ko, “Manchurian wild rice” (Herzer, “Das Szu-min,” 84; Simin yueling in Suishi xisu ziliao huibian, 1:21; Miao, Simin yueling jishi, 68). 395. Sin 辛, number eight in the Ten Celestial Stems. The original of the quotation reads 辛不合酱，主人不尝, “On days with the Celestial Stem number eight, do not touch fermented preparations, and, owner, do not taste it.” 396. Yudu 流頭. The name of this day, a compositum of “to flow” and “head,” is generally explained as an abbreviation of “washing one’s hair in eastward flowing water” 東流水頭沐浴. East “stands for blue (a symbol of youth and activity) and is also the direction of positive (yang) energy” (Kim Myungja 金明子, “Water Festival of the Sixth Lunar Month,” in EKSC). 397. The text of Kim Kŭk-ki chip has not itself survived, but it is interesting that the quotation can be found in the Koryŏsa with only minor editorial changes, such as writing 流頭飮 instead of 流頭宴 for “Yudu Feast” and 十五日 instead of 望日 for the date (Koryŏsa, 20;19b.1–2). 398. Tongdo 東都, Eastern Capital, refers to today’s Kyŏngju, the old capital of Silla, in North Kyŏngsang Province, southeast Korea. 399. See Kangxi Zidian, s.v., “𩛽” and “饀.” 400. Fentuan 粉團, “rice-flour beads,” and jiaoshu 角黍, “angular millet,” which, however, are in dictionaries always explained as cooked rice in bamboo leaf, shaped like small triangular pyramids. Jiaoshu 角黍, K. kaksŏ, has also been explained as common millet in leaves of wild [Indian] rice (KKY, 91), which, however, is puzzling, because the leaves are slender and small. 401. An abbreviated quotation from Kaiyuan Tianbao yishi (CT, 開元天寶遺事, 2. 卷二, no. 51). 402. This is a direct quotation from an unspecified Suishi Zaji, which can be found in the Gezhi jingyuan (CT, 格致鏡原, [共]格致鏡原, 28.卷二十六, no. 4). 403. The quotation is literally taken from the closing doublet of a poem titled “Duanwu” 端午 in Gujin hebi shilei beiyao (CT, 古今合璧事類備要, [共]古今合璧事 類備‌要 [search “水團”], 卷十六, no. 19). Zhang Wenqian 張文潛, aka Zhang Lei 張‌耒 (1054–1114), aka Keshan 柯山, Wanqiu Xiansheng 宛丘先生, Youshi 右史, and Longge 龍閣, was a follower of Su Dongpo. Frequently exiled or demoted to minor positions away from court, in the end he died in poverty (Nienhauser, Indiana Companion, 2:233). 404. This information is rephrased from the Bencao gangmu, “Cereals 4” 穀四. For zong 粽, “wrapped rice dumplings,” see 糉 in Kim Chong-ha, Ponch’o kangmok, 7:213.

112

Notes to Pages 50–51

405. The phrase 拭盤堆連展, “wiping the tray and piling up lianzhan,” is the third line of the poem “Air on the Neighbors” (“Lin Qu” 鄰曲) ( Jiannan shigao, 56.10a.4, in Siku quanshu huiyao). For the line that follows, see n. 486 below. 406. 連展 lianzhan is the modern Chinese pronunciation, but the word is not Chinese. 407. Huai 淮 is a river south of the Yellow River in central China. 408. Sambok 三伏 is the name for three days in summer—called Ch’obok 初‌伏, Chungbok 中伏, and Malbok 末伏 (First, Middle, and Last Bok)—that are considered to be the hottest days of the year. In ancient China a week consisted of ten days, the Ten Celestial Stems, and the bok days are always on a day with the number seven, kyŏng 庚, in the Sixty-Year Cycle (see Table 7 in n. 113 above). Ch’obok is the third day starting with kyŏng after summer solstice, Chungbok is ten days later, and Malbok is on the first kyŏng day after “beginning of autumn” 立秋, the thirteenth of the Twenty-Four Solar Terms (see n. 26 above). 409. “Spicy pepper flakes,” pŏnch’o-sŏl 番椒屑. Pŏnch’o is a very general term for various plants of Capsicum. While all other translations into modern Korean have koch’u-karu 고추가루, the “red pepper powder” widely used in Korean cuisine, two translations have 산초가루, “Chinese pepper (Zanthoxylum) powder” (KMP, 240; CTS, 144). 410. The quotation, attributed to the Shiji 史記, consists of slightly revised phrases from ”Basic Annals of Qin” (CT, 史記, [文] Histories→Shiji, 史記-Shij, 本‌紀Annals, 5. 秦本記, no. 14), and from “Treatises of Religious Sacrificial Ceremonies” (CT, 史記, [文] Histories→Shiji, 史記-Shij, 書, 28. 封禪書, no. 9). 411. Qin De Gong 秦德公 (710–676 BCE) was the eleventh ruler (r. 677–676 BCE) of the feudal state of Qin. 412. Direct quote from Liji (CT, 禮記, [文] Confucianism → Liji, 月令-Yue Ling in 禮記- Liji, no. 44). 413. “Velvetleaf soup,” paengmaja-t’ang 白麻子湯, K. ŏjŏgwi-kuk 어저귀국. Ŏjŏgwi, “velvetleaf,” is the Korean name for paengma 白麻 (Abutilon avicennae Gaert.) (HST, 1:642, no. 2367), in English called China-jute, buttonweed, butterprint, or pie marker. 414. Ch’ŏnggo 靑苽. For the confusion about Manchurian wild rice 苽, see n. 325 above. Some translators exchange 菜 for 苽 and write ch’ŏngch’ae 靑菜, “young vegetable” (YTS, 87; HSPK, 179; HSP, 246), HSP explaining in the note that it was p’utnamul 풋나물, the vernacular Korean word for “young vegetable,” which is also the translation in CTT, 102. Other translators say oi 오이, “cucumber” (CTS, 146; KMP, 241), or “green leaves of cabbage,” paech’u-ŭi p’urŭn ip 배추의 푸른잎 (Chu, Sikt’ak wi-e Han’guksa, 143). 415. Kamgwak 甘藿 is one of the names the herb doctors use for the seaweed called miyŏk 미역 in Korean; it is also known in English as sea mustard or under its Japanese name wakame. 416. Kulbi 굴비 (YTS, 87; YTSW, 107; HSP, 246; KMP, 241; CTS, 146), but Ch’oe Tae-rim writes marŭn pogŏ 마른 복어, “dried swellfish” (CTT, 102). 417. Ch’ŏmgo 甜苽, K. ch’amoe 참외, Cucumis melo var. makuwa, a yellow melon with white, juicy, and sweet flesh, egg-shaped, ca. 10 cm (HST, 2: 264, no. 3546).



Notes to Pages 51–52

113

Colloquially also chin’gwa 眞瓜, the pronunciation of an idu writing, where K. chin 眞, “real, actual, true, genuine,” is translating K. ch’am 참 with the same meaning, possibly a folk etymology. 418. East Market (Tongbu 東部) and Seventh Company Market (Ch’ilp’ae 七牌) were names of unofficial street markets. Tongbu (lit. “eastern section”) was given this name because it was situated in the eastern of the five sections of the capital; Ch’ilp’ae (lit. “seventh company”), near the official South Market, was called thus because the seventh of the eight companies of the night patrol was stationed in the vicinity. 419. Water Lily Pond and the Heavenly Nature Pavilion (Ch’ŏnyŏn-chŏng hahwa 天然亭荷花). Both the pond and pavilion of the name were situated outside the city walls near the Small West Gate. Spring Purification Terrace (T’angch’un-tae 蕩春臺) is the name of an area with a steep valley just outside the city walls north of Seoul with the remains of a castle built in the 16th century. The name of the Three Pure Ones District (Samch’ŏng-tong 三淸洞) is a reference to the Daoist Triad, the three highest gods residing in the three highest heavens, for whom there used to be shrine, Samch’ŏng-chŏn 三淸殿, in the district. Grave of the Virtuous One District (Chŏngnŭng) takes its name from the name of the grave, not far outside the old capital city wall in the north, of Sindŏk Queen Kang 神德王后 康氏 (d. 1396), one of the two wives of T’aejo 太祖 (personal name Yi Sŏng-kye, r. 1392–1398), the founder of the Yi dynasty, which ruled Korea under the name of Chosŏn. 420. Sang yŏng cha 觴詠者, shortened from il sang il yŏng 一觴一詠, “one cup (of wine) and a line (of poem),” means a gathering of poets for drinking and writing poems. Its origin is the Lanting ji Xu: “Even without accompaniment of string or wind instruments, one cup (of wine) and a line (of a poem) are sufficient for a free exchange of deep feelings” (Huang, Chinese Idiomatic Phrases, 459). 421. He-Shuo 河朔 was a district to the north of the Yellow River. According to the Tang encyclopedia Chuxue ji, there is an old story about how at the end of the Later Han period an imperial aide and adviser, Liu Song 劉松, escaped the heat on the Three Heat Days by drinking together with the sons of the warlord Yuan Shao 袁紹 (d. 202 CE) at He-Shuo (see “河朔飮,” CWTTT, 17834.115). 422. Ch’ilsŏk 七夕, the seventh of the Seventh Month, originally a Chinese holiday (Ch. Qixi) is connected to the folktale of two lovers, the weaver girl Zhinu 織女, K. Chingnyŏ (Vega), and the cowherd Niulang 牛郎, K. Urang (Altair). They had been banished to opposite sides of the Milky Way (Silver River) but were able to meet once a year on this day via a bridge formed by magpies. 423. One Hundred Seeds Day, Paekchong-il 百種日, also Manghon-il 亡魂日, “Day of the Lost Souls” (see the next paragraph of the translation). Paekchong refers to the great variety of fruits and cereals used as offerings, and manghon refers to the lost souls in hell for whose rescue the offerings are made. The story in the Ullambana Sutra is the source of today’s custom, which is often compared to the Christian All Souls’ Day. It is a good example of the blending of Buddhism and Daoism in Korean culture: the fifteenth of the Seventh Month is also called Hundred Primordial Day

114

Notes to Page 52

百中日 (K. Paekchung-Il), a corruption by way of the older Daoist Middle Primordial Festival 中元節 (K. Chungwŏnjŏl, Ch. Zhongyuan Jie) on this day, one of the dates for making offerings to the dead. From there comes another folk etymology, the homophone 百衆日, Hundred Masses Day or All Peoples Day. In all these names the Chinese word il 日 can also colloquially be replaced by the Korean word nal 날, both meaning “day.” 424. 齋 chae is a Chinese character with the basic meaning of “fasting for purification” and by extension refers to “monk’s meal” and “vegetarian food.” 425. K. sŭng ni to sok 僧尼道俗, Ch. seng ni dao su. The phrase can be found in the opening section of the Liuzu tanjing. In most translations, including English translations, of the Liuzu tanjing, the third Chinese character dao 道 is translated as “Daoists,” which indeed is one of its many possible meanings, but it does not really make sense here or in the Liuzu tanjing. The translation I have selected is taken from Wing-tsit Chan’s Platform Scripture (27). Chan gives the following further explanation for 道: “It is a Buddhist term used together with su 俗 (worldly), the latter denoting Buddhist disciples who retain their family ties, and the former denoting those who have renounced their families” (Chan, 172n5). 426. Jing Chu suishi ji. The quotation in the Tongguk sesigi is slightly altered (Sang, Hyŏng Ch’o sesigi, 131; Siku quanshu version 20b.8; Sibu beiyao version 9b.1). 427. 盂蘭盆經, Ch. Yulanpen jing, K. Uranbun-kyŏng. The Ullambana Sutra is a short apocryphal sutra that seems to have been composed during the 6th or 7th century in China. Tradition claims that it is a translation from the Sanskrit, but since no original text has been found it is generally believed that the sutra is a Buddhist reaction to the important concept of filial piety (孝, K. hyo, Ch. xiao) in Confucian philosophy. For a description of various attempts to decipher the name, see Buswell and Lopez, Dictionary of Buddhism, 939. 428. Maudgalyayana,目連, Ch. Mu-lian, K. Mongnyŏn 목련, was one of the ten closest disciples of the Buddha. 429. These words of the Buddha to Maudgalyayana are slightly altered. In a fuller translation, the Buddha tells Maudgalyayana, Your mother’s offenses are deep and firmly rooted. You alone do not have enough power. . . . The fifteenth day of the seventh month is the Pravarana Day for the assembled Sangha of the ten directions. For the sake of fathers and mothers of seven generations past, as well as for fathers and mothers of the present who are in distress, you should prepare an offering of clean basins full of hundreds of flavors and the five fruits, and other offerings of incense, oil, lamps, candles, beds, and bedding, all the best of the world, to the greatly virtuous assembled Sangha of the ten directions. (The Buddha Speaks the “Ullambana Sutra,” translated into English by the Buddhist Text Translation Society, http://www.cttbusa.org/ullambana/ullambana.asp) 430. In o-mi paek-kwa 五味百果, “one hundred fruits in the Five Tastes,” the order of “hundred” and “five” is reversed from the order in the Ullambana Sutra,



Notes to Pages 52–53

115

namely, baek-mi o-kwa 百味五果. Baek-mi in the Ullambana Sutra original means “all (good) tastes, or flavours” (Soothill and Hodous, Chinese Buddhist Terms, 217), and the Five Fruits are “with stones, pips, shells (as nuts), chaff-like (as pine nuts), and with pods” (Soothill and Hodous, 121, 五果 III). 431. The Ullambana meetings, Uranbun-hoe 盂蘭盆會, include both the offering ceremony and the merrymaking afterward. 432. 記得市廛蔬果賤 都人隨處薦亡魂 are the two final lines of “Sitting at Night Watching the Moon [on the Fifteenth of the Seventh Month]” 夜坐對月, Tongak chip, vol. 17, 七月 十五日 (YTS, 89n5; YTSW, 11fn5), also Yi P’il-yŏng, Tongak sŏnsaeng chip, 558. 433. “Physical strength competitions,”角力之戱, is a free rendering, not a direct quotation from the Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam (TYS) as the Tongguk sesigi claims it to be. All translators identify it with “wrestling,” and while it is indeed used as such in many traditional and modern texts, it is also a more general term for any competition in physical strength without specification of rules. Only two translators identified the location that the Tongguk sesigi claims to be located in the province “West of the Lake” (Ch’ungch’ŏng Province) (KMP, 244n87; CTS, 152n***). However, they refer to an entry not into any place in Ch’ungch’ŏng Province but on Yŏsan 礪‌山 in Chŏlla Province 全羅道 (TYS, 34:2a 7–8). There, under sanch’ŏn 山‌川, “mountains and rivers,” it says that in Yŏsan (since 1914 a district in Iksan-kun 益‌山‌郡 in North Chŏlla Province) there is a village called Chakchi 鵲旨, which lies near the border of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, and people from both provinces meet on this day to “compete in physical strength.” TYS actually has subak 手搏, not 角力之戱. Subak 手‌搏 is a combination of 手, “hand,” + 搏, “to grab, seize” and “strike, beat,” which is also often used as one of the words for wrestling. This usage, however, is not unambiguous, since the Korean martial art T’aekkyŏn 태껸/택견 is also claimed to derive from subak. 434. Chusŏk 秋夕, lit. “autumn + evening/night,” refers to the important evening of the full moon in the Eighth Month. It is also called Chungch’u 仲秋 or 中‌秋, both meaning “middle of autumn.” These names are loan words from Chinese, where the same festival day is recorded as having been observed since earliest antiquity. 435. In Kabae 嘉俳, both characters are used for their sounds only in order to write an old vernacular Korean word with the meaning of “middle.” Today the date is normally called Chusŏk 秋夕. The word kabae is in Korean sources first attested in the Samguk-sagi and has evolved into modern Korean as kawi 가위, most frequently combined with han 한, “great,” resulting in han’gawi 한가위, “middle of autumn.” It is a translation of the name for this festival day in Chinese custom, i.e., Zhong qiu 仲秋 or 中秋, K. Chungch’u. 436. “Yellow chicken and white[-rice] liquor,” 黃鷄白酒, is a set phrase in Korean literature, cf. nos. 491, 4590, and 4679 in Han’guk sijo taesajŏn, and “Ninth Month” in the anonymous Nongga wŏllyŏng ka (Haftmann, Textzeugen, 285). I was unable to find a definite source for the phrase, but it originated in China; see Li Po “On the Road of Ambition 南陵別兒童入京” (Obata, Works of Li Po, translation no.

116

Notes to Page 53

79, Chinese text no. 七九 in the appendix). “Yellow chicken” is in Korean poetry commentaries most often explained as referring to the color of the feathers, but it is also claimed to be a chicken hatched in spring and slaughtered on Autumn Full Moon Evening. “White liquor” 白酒 is claimed to be the name for a special liquor made of glutinous rice and also called sindo-chu 新稻酒, “new rice liquor” (Pak Nok-dam 朴‌碌潭, “신도주,” in HMSJ), but dictionaries and poetry commentaries give only the general meaning in vernacular Korean. There is a list of liquors called by this broad term as well (Chŏng Tong-hyo, Urisul sajŏn, 227), where in the following page it is also mentioned that the term was used in Koryŏ for liquors imported from China. 437. Yuri 儒理 (r. 24–57 CE) in traditional historiography is the third king of Silla. The Tongguk sesigi gives the Chinese title wang 王 for “king,” which in this case is an anachronism because 王 was only used after 500 CE in Korea. Yuri’s title was a Korean word, in modern pronunciation nisagŭm 尼師今 and also written 尼 斯今, both mostly pronounced isagŭm today. Other attempts to write this Korean word in Chinese characters include ijilgŭm 爾叱今, ijilgŭm or nijilgŭm 尼叱今, and ch’ijilgŭm 齒叱今 (where 齒, “tooth,” modern Korean pronunciation ch’i, must be read semantically with the vernacular Korean word i, 이). This word is generally associated with the modern Korean word imgŭm 임금 for “king,” but a linguistic reconstruction yields something like nisgŭm/isgŭm (modern pronunciation) because the second Chinese character, 師, 斯, or 叱, was in pre-alphabetic Korean writing systems used to write the genitive –s. The third character 今 is possibly related to the Mongolian word khan and similar words for “king” or “leader” in languages often grouped together under the label Altaic. 438. King Yuri had divided the capital into districts or villages based on clan relationship. 439. This is a slightly altered quotation from the Samguk sagi (vol. 1, Yuri Nisagŭm, “King Yuri,” Year 9). In this sentence the phrase “yard of the larger district” 大部之庭 is slightly puzzling. While most translators stick to the text and write tae bu-ŭi ttŭl 대부의 뜰, “yard of the large district,” one translation writes taejŏn ttŭl 대 전 뜰, “in the yard of the palace” (HSPK, 181). My translation follows Shultz and Kang, Silla Annals, 37. 440. While the author quotes from TYS, 21:5b.7–6a.2, the quotation is an only slightly altered one from the Samguk-sagi (Samguk-sagi, vol.1, Silla-pon’gi, “Yuri Nisagŭm,” year 9). 441. “Rope game,” chori-chi-hŭi 照里之戱, in modern Korean is chul-tarigi 줄-다 리기. Chori 照里 does not make sense when read as Chinese, so the Chinese characters must have been employed exclusively for their sound to write the word that in modern Korean is chul 줄, “rope.” 442. The exact rules for the “catch-the-chicken games,” pogye-chi-hŭi 捕鷄之戱, K. tak-chapki-nori 닭잡기노리, are difficult to establish, but there are today a number of children’s games throughout Korea in which one child is the chicken and the others have to catch the child, or one child is the chicken and another one is a raccoon trying to catch the chicken, with the other children trying to help the chicken. 443. TYS, 38:5a.2–4.



Notes to Pages 53–54

117

444. The text gives inbyŏng 引餠, “in rice cake,” with the first Chinese character in 引, lit. “to pull,” phonetically hinting at the kind of rice cake called injŏlmi 인절미, a Korean word for which many folk etymologies are offered but none of them clear. 445. Yul-tanja 栗團子, more often pam-tanja 밤단자, is a hybrid word consisting of K. pam 밤, “chestnut,” and S.K. tanja 團子, “ball,” hence “chestnut balls.” 446. This is again a quotation from an unspecified Suishi zaji, from the same text as above (n. 275), and again only the first phrase is a direct quotation, the second is a short free rendering. The full sentence can be found in the Gezhi jingyuan (CT, 格‌致 鏡原, [共]格致鏡原, 27.卷二十五, no. 7). 447. K. t’oryŏn 土蓮, “earth lotus,” because the plant looks like a lotus but is grown on land, refers to the root vegetable plant called taro, kalo, dasheen, or godere in Western languages (Colocasia esculenta). In vernacular Korean it is called t’oran 土‌卵, “earth egg,” for the shape of the edible corm. 448. Han Wudi 漢武帝, the sixth emperor of the Former Han, r. 141–87 BCE. 449. 餌 Ch. er, K. i. In Korean the appellation for this character is hŭin ttŏk i 흰‌떡‌이, “white rice cake i.” See n. 451 below. 450. 漢武帝宮人賈佩蘭 九日食餌, the original Xijing zaji text reads 戚夫人侍兒 賈佩蘭 . . . : 九月九日 佩茱萸,食蓬餌, “the maid Jia Pei-lan [at the court of Emperor Wu of Han] tied dropwort to the belt and ate mugwort dumplings on the ninth of the Ninth Month” (CT, 西京雜記, [文] Histories→Xijing zaji, 第三 no. 15). 451. “White rice cakes,” K. ko 餻, Ch. gao. In Korean the appellation for this character is hŭin ttŏk ko, “white rice cake to.” Both Chinese characters, 餻 and 餌 (n. 449 above), are already in China regionally and temporally not well defined. Other words for K. hŭin ttŏk are S.K. paekbyŏng 白餠 and K. karae-ttŏk 가래떡. 452. Meng Yuanlao 孟元老 (ca. 1090–1150). When in 1126 the Jurchen Jin ­conquered the capital Kaifeng of the Northern Song, he fled with the court to today’s Hangzhou 杭州. It is there that he wrote down his memories of daily life in the old capital of Dongjing. 453. A slightly rephrased quotation from Dongjing menghua lu, vol. 8, chongyang (CT, 東京夢華錄, [共]東京夢華錄, 第八卷, 重陽). 454. K. yuja 柚子, Ch. youzi, J. yuzu, the Japanese pronunciation is the most common name in Western languages for this small hybrid citrus looking like a small grapefruit, Citrus junos Sieb. The bush or small tree has ca. 3-cm-long thorns (HST, 1:552, no. 1959). 455. Deng gao 登高, “to ascend heights—as is done on the ninth of the ninth month with a view to longevity” (Mathews, Chinese-English Dictionary, 6167.42). One commentator refers to the story of Huan Jing 桓景 of Runan 汝南 “south of the river Ru” (a district in Henan 河南) climbing high mountains and receiving a prophecy from his teacher Fei Changfang 費長房 (KKY, 103). In this story, Huan Jing, a simple village boy, receives from Fei Changfang some leaves of the dogwood plant, a jug of Chrysanthemum wine, and a green dragon sword, the last enabling him to kill the plague monster. With this, the custom of climbing mountains on the ninth of the Ninth Month began. Chrysanthemum, 菊 Ch. ju, is a symbol of long life and immortality, its pronunciation being similar to 久 Ch. jiu, “for a long time,” and 九 Ch.

118

Notes to Pages 54–55

jiu, “nine.” The ninth of the Ninth Month, two times nine, is an especially powerful date because of the number nine being three times the positive yang-number three. 456. Ch’ŏngp’ung-kye 靑楓溪, a valley to the north of Seoul at the foot of Inwang Mountain. 457. Hujo-tang 後凋堂, whose location is unknown. The name refers to 子曰 歲 寒然後知松柏之後调也, “We know that when the year becomes old, pine trees and cypresses are the last to lose their leaves” (Legge, Analects, 225). 458. Namhan/Pukhan, Tobong, Surak-san 南北漢, 道峯, 水落山, respectively. Namhan Mountain, the site of a fortress, is south of the capital; Pukhan Mountain is north; Tobong (Tao Peak) and Surak (Water-Falling) Mountains are also north of the capital. 459. Maple trees turn bright red in autumn, a sight so dear to a Korean’s heart that even today the evening TV news covers the spectacular sights each day during the season. 460. O-il 午日, the corresponding animal of which in the Twelve-Year Cycle is the horse. 461. The combination is the third of the Ten Celestial Stems, pyŏng 丙, and the seventh of the Twelve Earthly Branches, o 午 (associated with the Twelve-Year-Cycle symbol horse), which makes pyŏngo 丙午 number forty-three in the Sixty-Year Cycle. 462. Pyŏng 丙 sounds like pyŏng 病, “sickness.” 463. Associating mu 戊, fifth of the Ten Celestial Stems, with mu 茂, “flourishing, abundant, healthy,” makes mu-o 戊午, “flourishing, healthy horse,” number fifty-five in the Sixty-Year Cycle. 464. “Milk gruel,” uyu-rak 牛乳酪, is translated in commentaries as parhyo-uyu 발효우유, “fermented milk” (KMP, 250; CTS, 171), uyu-chuk 우유죽, as “milk gruel” (CTT, 114), uyu 우유, “milk” (YTS, 94; YTSW, 117; HSPK, 184) (without explaining the strange expression that the milk was “made,” as it says in the Tongguk sesigi), or simply the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese characters uyu-rak 우유락 (HSP, 259). Trying to find yurak 유락 乳酪 in lexica did not yield a result, but urak 우락 牛‌酪 turned up occasionally with the explanation “butter,” or “butter” and “gruel cooked with milk 우유로 끓인 죽. 465. Korean dictionaries say that sangwŏl 上月 (K. sangdal 상달) is an antiquated name for the tenth month, which is also the month to offer the new crop to the spirits. CWTTT, 17.104 explains “month for offerings.” 466. Sŏngjo-chi-sin 成造之神 “house god,” K. Sŏngjo-sin or Sŏngju-sin 성주신, is the name of the main house god, who normally inhabits the main beam of the house. 467. “Songdol wind,” or Sonsŏk-p’ung 孫石風, is named after Sondol, the Korean sailor mentioned in the next sentence who helped the Koryŏ king flee to Kanghwa Island (see also n. 469 below). The name is written with two Chinese characters in the text, son 孫, meaning “grandchild” but used for its sound only, and S.K. sŏk 石, “stone,” which in native Korean is /tol/, resulting in son + tol = sondol. 石 for -tol is in many sources also written with 乭, a character created in Korea that combines 石 for the meaning with K. ŭl 乙 as an indication that the Korean word should be read. 468. Kanghwa, 江華, an island at the mouth of the Han River. King Kojŏng 高‌宗



Notes to Page 55

119

(r. 1213–1259), the twenty-third king of Koryŏ, moved the court to this island in 1232 during the Mongol’s invasions. The court remained there for about thirty years. 469. Sondol was innocent of the cause of his execution, and it is his hatred that causes the strong wind and chill. 470. Nannan-hoe 煖暖會, “warming gathering,” is a term nowhere to be found in the commentaries, although all refer to the similar term nallo-hoe 暖爐會. The translation from the Academy in Pyongyang claims without citing a reference that the custom of nallo-hoe originated in Bailudong 白鹿洞 in Lushan 廬山 (KKY, 107). There are a few Chinese web pages quoting Jing Chu suishi ji in connection with nallo-hoe and Lushan Bailudong, but I was unable to verify this in any Jing Chu suishi ji edition available to me. See also Park Inkyung 朴仁璟, “Brazier Dinner Party,” in EKSC. 471. “Strong-smelling spices” is K. hunch’ae 葷菜, which refers to the Ch. wu huncai 五葷菜 or wŭ hūn 五荤, “five spicy or strong-smelling vegetables,” or wu xin 五辛, K. osin, “five spices,” which are taboo in Buddhist cuisine because they arouse the senses. The five are garlic, three kinds of onions, and leeks. 472. “Daoist immortal stove,” sinsŏllo 神仙爐, is a dish cooked for each person individually in a small stove that looks like a bundt cake pan turned upside down with a hot charcoal placed in the small furnace in the middle; it is also the name of the pan. The dish is commonly associated with stories about Daoist immortals. 473. The phrase “sit in a circle, drinking and having a bite” is written 團坐飮‌㗖, whereas the Suishi zaji as quoted in Suishi guangji, 10:6a.5–6, has 圍[sic]坐飲㗖, also translated “sit in a circle, drinking and having a bite.” 474. Slightly rephrased from Dongjing menghua lu (CT, 東京夢華錄, [共]東京夢 華錄, 第九券, 十月一日). 475. Pyŏnssi-mandu 卞氏饅頭, which can be translated as “dumplings à la Mr./ Ms. Pyŏn” or “dumplings à la Pyŏn’s family,” is a compound word or phrase that in this combination is not part of any Chinese text. Translators into modern Korean simply write either the Chinese characters or their pronunciation in the Korean alphabet 변씨만두 without further elaborating on the origin of this combination (YTS, 95; YTSW, 118; CTT, 115; HSPK, 185; HSP, 262; CTS, 173). In modern dictionaries—if the entry exists at all—Pyŏnssi-mandu is equated with a word p’yŏnsu 편수 (no Chinese characters), meaning “food similar to mandu, eaten in summer” (cf. Sim Chae-wan, Sae kugŏ taesajŏn). “Eaten in summer” in this entry is given without further explanation, and it must be noted that in the text here we are told that Pyŏnssi-mandu are a special food in the Tenth Month. Some dictionaries add that they are made with thinly beaten wheat dough, stuffed with vegetables, shaped like ears, and eaten in soup flavored with soy sauce. It is also said that this dish was especially eaten in the area around Kaesŏng, the old capital before it was moved to Seoul. Most likely, however, Pyŏn Ssi 卞氏, “Mr. Pyŏn” or “Pyŏn family,” is a folk etymology coined in Korea based on 扁食 Ch. bian shi, K. p’yŏn sik, lit. “flat food,” one of the many names in use since the Song dynasty for this dish and in Korea then explained by adding the word mandu. Bian shi is originally a word from a language in southern China, and since the stuffed dumplings are not flat, “flat food” is probably also a folk etymology. The vowel shift from bian (Wade-Giles transcription pien) to pyŏn in

120

Notes to Pages 55–56

the Korean modern pronunciation is due to the vowel change [e] >[ŏ] in the Korean language, which took place between the 13th and 15th or 16th centuries. The other Korean name, p’yŏnsu 편수, is most likely also a Korean malapropism of bian-shi. The mention of “shape like ears,” which often is added in the dictionaries, goes back to folktales telling that jiaozi 交子, later 餃子, another name for this kind of dumpling similar to mandu, were invented by Zhang Zhongjing 張仲景 (150?–219 CE), aka Zhang Ji 張機, one of the greatest practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine in history. They were originally called jiaoer 娇耳, “tender ears,” with the explanation in the tales that the herb stuffing was used to treat frostbitten ears. 476. The author of the Tongguk sesigi guessed this from the term Pyŏnssi-mandu 卞氏饅頭. No known person by the name of Bian/Pyŏn from either Chinese or Korean history has anything to do with inventing mandu. 477. Shiwu jiyuan, Qinding Siku quanshu ed., 9:14.b.1–2. Shiwu jiyuan is also known as Shiwu jiyuan jilei. 478. Zhuge gong 諸葛公, i.e., Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮 (181–234), was chancellor of the state of Shu Han, famous as a military strategist, scholar, and inventor. One of his military campaigns was successful in subduing a rebellion started by the Nan-Man 南蠻, the so-called Southern Barbarians, i.e., tribes of non-Chinese peoples in the southwest of China. 479. Meng Huo 孟獲 was a rebel leader of one of the Nan-Man (see n. 478 above). Occasionally Nanzhong 南中, the old name for the area of this tribe, is given instead of Nan-Man (KKY, 107). 480. Mantou 饅頭 in this passage refers to a very popular folk etymology for the Chinese word for “dumpling” or “steamed bun.” Mantou 饅頭, lit. “steamed bread head,” is based on the homophone “southern barbar’s head” 蠻頭. The text can be found in Shiwu jiyuan, Qinding Siku quanshu ed., 9:14.b.2–15a. 2. In another version Zhuge Liang was not helped by “heavenly troops”; rather, a sacrifice helped to ease the strong wind and high waves that had blocked him and his victorious troops from crossing a river. 481. “Basket rice cake,” zhengbing 蒸餠, K. chŭngbyŏng, or lungbing 籠餠, K. nongbyŏng. 482. Hou Si-zheng 侯思正, whose dates are unknown, lived during the Tang dynasty. See Taiping guangji, vol. 258, chibi 1 嗤鄙 1, “Absurdities,” (CT, 太平廣記, [‌文] Song-Ming→太平廣記, 太平廣記, 259.嗤鄙一, 侯思正) Some commentators misleadingly suggest that instead of Hou Si-zheng another Tang scholar named Hou Si-zhi 侯思止 (d. 693 CE) should be read (YTS, 96n7; YTSW, 121n7; HSP, 263n6; CTS, 173; KMP, 252). 483. “Reduce the scallions and add meat,”縮葱加肉, is from the chapter about Hou Si-zheng in the Taiping guangji, vol. 258, chibi 1, where it says, “The lung-bing from the market contain too many scallions and too little meat. Therefore, I have the scallions reduced and meat increased,” 市籠餅. 葱多而肉少. 故令縮葱加肉也. 484. Yŏnp’odang 연포당, or yŏnp’oguk 연포국, yŏnp’o being the K. pronunciation of Ch. ruan pao 軟泡, “soft foam, soft suds.” 485. Huainan wang 淮南王. The title “king/prince [of the land] south of [the



Notes to Page 56

121

river] Huai” was held by various people, but here refers to Liu An (164–122 BCE). The legend that Liu An invented bean curd (tofu) is not the only one about the origin of bean curd, which may already have been part of Chinese cuisine before him. 486. Laiqi is a Cantonese word written with the characters 黎, “name of a people of Hainan Province, China,” and 祈, “to pray.” The characters are used here for their Cantonese pronunciations 黎 [lai] and 祈 [qi, or gui]. In Mandarin the pronunciation of 黎祈 today would be liqi. The line 洗甗煮黎祈, “they clean a vessel and cook laiqi,” is the fourth line in the poem “Lin Qu” 鄰曲, “Air on the Neighbors” in vol. 56 of the Jiannan shigao by Lu Fangweng 陸放翁 ( Jiannan shigao, 56:10a.4–5, in Siku quanshu huiyao). The preceding line is quoted in n. 405 above. 487. Shu was the name of a kingdom in western Sichuan. The name was also adopted later by several short-lived states in the area and was also used as a general designation of the area. 488. Tongae 冬艾, lit. “winter + mugwort,” a word not found in any dictionary or botanical encyclopedia. One commentator therefore gives only the pronunciation of the Chinese characters, implying “winter mugwort” (HSP, 263), while other translators overlook tong, “winter,” and simply write ssuk, “mugwort” (YTS, 119; YTSW, 95; CTT, 116). An ad hoc coinage, kyŏul-ssuk 겨울쑥, “winter mugwort,” is another solution (KMP, 252; CTS, 174), just as is “still-growing mugwort,” 직 자라 나는 쑥 (HSPK, 186). But because of the similar pronunciation of the syllables tong, “winter,” and ttong, “shit,” a special variety of mugwort may have been intended, i.e., kaettong-ssuk 개똥쑥 (Artemisia annua L.), “dog-shit mugwort,” a hardy variety that folk etymology claims refers to the fact that it smells like dog shit when cut (cf. n. 272 above). 489. “Mugwort balls,” ae-tanja 애단자 艾團子, more commonly called ssuktanja 쑥단자. 490. I 飴, “taffy, sugar,” is the end product when, traditionally, rice, glutinous rice, glutinous sorghum, corn, sweet potatoes, or mixed grains are steamed, fer­ mented, and boiled for a long time to turn the starch into a sweet syrup called choch’ŏng 造淸, “taffy preparation,” or muryŏt 물엿, “taffy liquid.” When dried, often together with nuts, beans, and sesame or sunflower seeds, it becomes taffy, yŏt 엿. 491. Kŏnjŏng 乾飣 is not part of the Korean vocabulary but rather a way to write kangjŏng 강정 in Chinese characters. The word covers the cakes that I have translated as “dry stacking cakes,” but it applies as well to cakes and cookies made differently. A possible relationship between kŏnjŏng and kangjŏng (folk etymology or derivation?) is not clear. The second Chinese character 飣 has the meaning of “the shape of stacked cakes,” i.e., those used for sacrifice or for display in the market; kangjŏng, though not the kind described here, are cakes stacked into a pyramid as part of the sacrificial table. Kŏn 乾, however, has a variety of meanings, none of which make much sense in connection with kangjŏng. 492. Yuanyang jian 元陽繭. Yuanyang 元陽 is the name of a county in Yunnan in southwestern China, and jian 繭, originally “(silkworm) cocoon, callus, blister,” is also used as a name for some rice cakes and sweets (CWTTT, 28604.19). 493. Lantian Lü shi 藍田呂氏, i.e., Lü Dalin 呂大臨 (1044–1091), aka Yushu 與‌叔,

122

Notes to Pages 56–57

was from Lantian 藍田 in Shaanxi, the place of the Lü family residence famous for the Lü shi xiangyue 呂氏鄕約 (Community contracts of the Lü family). Also called Lantian xiangyue 藍田鄕約 (Community contracts of Lantian), it was the basis of the community contracts that regulated village life in Yi-dynasty Korea. Most commentators add that the same Lü Dalin is also the author of Kaogu tu (written with the variant 攷 for 考) (Illustrated investigation of antiques), where, however, no reference to Yuanyang jian can be found (KMP, 252; CTT, 178; CTS, 176; YTS, 97n10; YTSW, 122n10; HSP, 264). 494. Binger xiantan 餅餌閒談 (in other sources also written 餅餌閑談). Commentators state that the author and content of a Chinese book with this title are unknown (YTS, 97n11; YTSW, 122n11; HSP, 264); or they give no explanation (HSPK, 186; CTT, 117). But reference is also made to the Yuanjian leihan (KMP, 252; CTS, 176). Part of the quotation can indeed be found in Yuding Yuanjian leiha,n vol. 189, not in connection with mashed bean cake suibing but with another flat dumpling, tangbing 湯餅 (CT, 御定淵鑑類函, [像]御定淵鑑類函 《御定四庫全書本》, 卷三白八十八~三白八 十九, p. 106, which is the photocopy of 卷三白八十九, p.11 in the printed book; the quotation is in the third line). 495. 胡餅麻餠 hobŏng, mabŏng. The word for flax is 胡麻, K. ho-ma, Ch. hu-ma, where the more general term ma 麻, which can mean “hemp, jute, flax, or sesame,” is specified by 胡, “wild,” K. ho, Ch. hu, to designate “flax.” The flax cakes are called either ho-cakes (hobŏng 胡餅) or ma-cakes (mabŏng 麻餠), alternative names, where ho-bŏng 胡-餅 takes the first syllable of ho-ma 胡麻, and ma-bŏng 麻-餠 the second. One commentator gives hottŏk 호떡 for hobŏng and kkaettŏk 깨떡 for mabŏng as Korean names (CTT, 117). 496. Absolute Heaven King, Tae-chajae-ch’ŏnwang 大自在天王. Tae-chajae means “self-existent, sovereign, independent, absolute” and is used for buddhas and bodhisattvas, Skt. īśvara (Soothill and Hodous, Chinese Buddhist Terms, 94a). 497. Pŏpchu-sa 法住寺 was founded in 553 and today is one of the largest temples in Korea, with over sixty buildings and seventy hermitages. It is home also to national treasures (Buswell and Lopez, Dictionary of Buddhism, 650). 498. TYS, 16:20a.7–20b.1. 499. “Minor New Year’s,” S.K. Ase 亞歲, also K. Chagŭn Sŏl 작은 설. The winter solstice was originally in all of East Asia a festival as important as the Lunar New Year because from then on the period of daylight hours gets longer. Until the Han dynasty the new year started at winter solstice (see also n. 50 above). 500. Choran 鳥卵 in the text can be read in Chinese but it is also a way to write the two syllables of the vernacular Korean word saeal 새알, “bird’s egg.” In this case the characters must be read with the pronunciation of the Korean meaning: cho 鳥, “bird,” read K. sae 새; and ran 卵, “egg,” read K. al 알. 501. Sim 심, as can be seen from the dialect words that follow, is a Korean word for “dumpling,” written here with the Chinese character sim 心, “heart,” used for the pronunciation. The meaning of sae-al-sim, “bird’s-egg dumpling,” is a folk etymology, obviously based on the size of the dumpling, but at the beginning of a year, the egg as a symbol for birth also makes sense. Other dialect words for saeal-sim include



Notes to Pages 57–58

123

saelsim 샐심, ongsim 옹심, ongsimi 옹시미, and ong-sŏraemi 옹서래미, where ong means “small.” From writing saeal-sim as choran 鳥卵 (n. 500 above) comes choran > choraengi 조랭이 as another common name for these dumplings. 502. Actually, bean soup was also applied to the walls of every room, and often bowls of bean gruel were placed in a corner of every room, in barns, and in all other storage places. 503. Gonggon 共工氏 (K. Konggong-ssi), also Kanghui 康回, is the Chinese water god, tamer of the floods. 504. This quotation, slightly altered in the Tongguk sesigi, is not found in the Sibu beiyao version of the Jing Chu suishi ji but rather in the Siku quanshu version, where the phrase “gruel is made” (作粥) reads “red bean gruel is made” 作赤豆粥 (Siku quanshu, 23a.6–8; Sang, Hyŏng Ch’o sesigi, 143). 505. “Zhiri” 至日 is the Chinese title of the poem by Liu Zihui (Pingshan ji, 16:10b.6–7.1). 506. Hwangjang baekchang 黃粧白粧 is short for hwangjang-nyŏk 黃粧曆 and baekchang-nyŏk 白粧曆, nyŏk meaning “calendar.” The contents of these calendars (including the blue-cover calendar ch’ŏngjang-nyŏk 靑粧曆 discussed further down in the same paragraph of the translation) was identical, the difference being the color of the cover and the quality of the paper. 507. The standard-text seal, tongmun-chi-po 同文之寶, was created as one of the state seals during the reign of King Yŏngjo 英祖 (r. 1724–1776). The seal went out of use under King Kojong 高宗 (r. 1863–1907) but was revived in 1889. It was used for books and documents bestowed by the king (Kuksa taesajŏn, Yi Hong-jik, ed., 485). Tongmun 同文, lit. “identical script, letters, texts, etc.,” refers to something that is standardized. The phrase originates in the Zhongyong, where it says, “Now over the kingdom, carriages all have wheels of the same size; all writing is with the same characters; and for conduct there are the same rules” (Zhongyong, 28.3; translation in Legge, Doctrine of the Mean, 424). 508. Tangjam-ch΄ae 堂參債 was money provided to petty officials whenever a member of the ruling class was appointed to a local governorship. 509. The quotation is from the Liji (CT, 禮記, [文] Confucianism → Liji, 月‌令-Yue Ling in 禮記- Liji, no.107). James Legge’s translation, also given there, is “In this month orders are given to the master of the fishermen to commence the fishers’ work. The son of Heaven goes in person (to look on). He partakes of the fish caught, first presenting some in the apartment at the back of the ancestral temple.” 510. Kyŏnggang 京江, lit. “the river at the capital,” is often used as a name for the Han River. More specifically, it refers to the area between Ttuksŏm 뚝섬 and Yanghwado 楊花渡, originally outside the city walls, where there were several small harbors with warehouses. Today it refers to a part of the river near the center of the city of Seoul. 511. Taegu-ŏ 大口魚. In Korea taegu refers to codfish (Gadus macrocephalus), which in many dictionaries is listed without Chinese characters, thereby signaling that it is considered to be a vernacular Korean word. The Chinese characters taegu 大口 may then be understood as a way to write this Korean word in texts in written

124

Notes to Page 58

Chinese. There is, however, also a Chinese word, dakou/daikou 大口, written with the same Chinese characters but referring to a kind of carp, mostly Luciosoma setigerum, living in the waters of East and South Asia. 512. Kyŏng 卿, short for kyŏngjae 卿宰, refers to scholar-officials from the civil elite class (munban 文班, aka tongban 東班) of the 1st and 2nd rank (Han’guk hanchaŏ sajŏn, 1:715). 513. Cheju-mok 濟州牧 is the northern of the three traditional counties on Cheju Island. It was established in 1416 and was the seat of the provincial government. The other two counties were Chŏngŭi-hyŏn 旌義縣 in the east and Taejŏng-hyŏn 大靜縣 in the west. 514. Tangerines, kyul 橘 (HST, 1:554, no. 1967); yuzus, yuja 柚子 (HST, 1:552, no. 1959); mandarin oranges, kamja 柑子, aka honggyul 紅橘 (HST, 1:552, no. 1965). 515. Tamna Sŏngju 耽羅星主. Tamna is the old name for the kingdom on Cheju Island that lost its independence as late as the early 15th century, and sŏngju became the title of its kings, a title later used as a term of obeisance for its governors. An etymology of this title given in the Koryŏsa is based on the story of one king of Tamna traveling together with his two brothers to Silla in order to bow to the Silla king. When the three travelers had crossed the sea and arrived at the southern shore of the peninsula, a comet appeared. The king of Silla was so delighted when he heard of this that he conferred the title of sŏngju, or comet lord (lit. star lord), on the king of Tamna. 516. Kam-che 柑製 is a short form of hwanggam-chesi 黃柑製試, “yellow mandarin orange examination,” where yellow refers to the intense color of the wellripened fruit. 517. Dragon ploughing refers to one or more cracks in the ice. The dragon is associated with water. 518. Haptŏk-chi 合德池, is an artificial lake ca. 9 km in circumference in today’s Tangjin-si 唐津市 (city), Haptŏk-ŭp 合德邑 (township), Sŏngdong-ri 城‌東‌里 (village) in South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, which was built during the reign of King Kyŏnhwŏn 甄萱 (r. 892–935), founder of Later Paekche, and reverted to its original shape in 1964. 519. Koltong-myŏn 骨董麵. Koltong is the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese characters 骨董, Ch. gudong, a word from a non-Chinese minority language. Origi­ nally gudong referred to “old objects, curios, antiques,” extended to mean “trifles, leftovers.” In connection with the Tongguk sesigi, the idea of noodles or rice with mixed ingredients originally meant that “families must get rid of all their leftovers before the year draws to an end” (Joo Youngha 周永河, “Rice with Leftovers,” in EKSC). 520. Luofu Ying lao 羅浮潁老, K. Nabu Yŏng no, Old Man at [Mount] Luofu in Ying[zhou]. Mount Luofu is an important sacred mountain in Gwandong, China. In Korean scholarship these four Chinese characters have yielded a variety of transla­ tions and explanations, some interpreting the first three or the last two characters as a name: “Nabuyŏng is the name of a Chinese, whose dates and life are unknown” (YTS, 101n4; YTSW, 127n4); “Nabuyŏng, when he was old” (YTS, 101; CTT, 123); “the old man called Nabuyŏng” (HSP, 270); “Yŏngno of Nabu” (KMP, 257); and “old man living on Nabu Mountain” (CTS, 186, 244). The last two also mistake 潁



Notes to Page 59

125

(radical 85) for 穎 (radical 115, with a graphic variant 頴, radical 113), thereby missing the geographical name Yingzhou 潁州. One commentator takes yŏngno 穎老 to be a writing mistake for K. yŏnno(-hada) 年老, “getting old” (HSPK, 189), and one says that it is unclear whether it is a personal name or the title of a book (KKY, 115). The quotation is, however, from the Qiuchi biji by Su Shi, who had been exiled for a short time in 1091 to Yingzhou in modern Anhui Province and had built his home at the foot of Mount Luofu 羅浮山, hence “Luofu Ying lao, Old Man at [Mount] Luofu in Ying[zhou].” It is here that he wrote his Qiuchi biji, from which this sentence is an almost literal quotation, just as is another one after a short commentary in the following sentence. The Tongguk sesigi has reversed the two quotations from the original, which reads, “The people of ‘South of the River’ like to prepare the ‘pursuing-pleasure dish’ of salted minced fish, dried meat, raw minced fish, and all sorts of fried ingredients mixed in with the rice. . . . The Old Man at Luofu in Ying took all drinks and edibles [and] mixed and cooked them, which is [a dish] called gudong soup” (CT, 仇池笔记, [共]仇池笔记, 2. 卷下 no. 44). 521. Jiangnan 江南, lit. “south of the river,” refers in this case to the area south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in China. 522. Su-chŏnggwa 水正果, lit. “watery chŏnggwa,” chŏnggwa being a general term for many different confections made by boiling fruits, roots, and/or seeds in honey or a taffy liquid. The drink is usually translated “punch,” “cinnamon punch,” or “persimmon punch.” 523. Ch’ŏnggak 靑角 is a red-colored alga, a glue plant (Gloiopeltis furcata var. intricate). 524. “Blended pickles,” chapchŏ 雜菹, as a word is not part of the Korean vocabulary. It is difficult to find a Korean word behind this ad hoc coinage, and even the homepage of the World Institute of Kimchi (www.wikim.re.kr) does not contain this catchword. Rendering this term as “mak-kimchi,” as many translators starting with YTSW and YTS do, is incorrect, because “mak-kimchi” refers to kimch’i made from a simple recipe of sliced cabbage (YTSW, 127; YTS, 101). KMP preferred not to translate this term at all. Against this background, another possibility is to translate chapchŏ as “various kimchis” made from any small number of the many ingredients mentioned. 525. Nap 臘, short for Nabil 臘日, Winter Sacrifice Day, is celebrated on the third day with the sign mi 未 (number 8 of the Twelve Branches, associated with sheep) after the winter solstice. The Chinese character 臘, “winter sacrifice,” was also associated with the graphically similar and originally almost homophone character 獵, meaning “to hunt,” making Hunting Day another common name for this day, when, indeed, some hunting restrictions were eased. 526. Myo-sa-taehyang 廟社大享. Myo-sa, standing for [Chong]myo 宗廟 (Royal Ancestors’ Shrine), and Sa[jik-tan] 社稷壇 (Earth and Grain Altars), was later commonly changed to chwa-mo-u-sa (左廟右社, “[Chong]mo on the left (of the palace) and Sa[jik-tan] on the right”). In the Chongmyo the king informed the spirits of past kings how the country had fared during the past year. Meanwhile, farming results were stated during the service held at Sajik-tan. These two rites were respectively

126

Notes to Page 59

referred to as Chongmyo-taeje 宗廟大祭 and Sajik-taeje 社稷大祭 (Jung Seungmo 鄭勝謨, “Nabil Rite,” in EKSC). 527. Chibong yusŏl, 1:17a.9–10. 528. The quotation 靑帝以未臘 赤帝以戌臘 白帝以丑臘 黑帝以辰臘 is slightly altered from 青帝以未臘卯祖, 赤帝以戍臘午祖, 白帝以丑臘卯祖, 黑帝以辰臘子祖, 黃 帝以辰臘未祖, and reference to a yellow emperor has been deleted in the Tongguk sesigi (http://ctext.org/duduan, vol. 1, no. 61). 529. Chinese history in traditional Chinese historiography begins with three demigods and five mythical emperors with varying names and assumed reigning dates. The five emperors are—among many other names—named for the Five Colors in the Five Phases (n. 53 above). Other than in the Chibong yusŏl, the Yellow Emperor, who like the Black Emperor also used a Day of the Dragon, is left out in the Tongguk sesigi, see preceding n. 528. 530. “East is associated with wood” is a quotation from the Zhuzi yulei (CT 朱 子語類, [文] Song-Ming→朱子語類, 朱子語類 [Jin] 1270, vol. 72, chap. 易八, no. 2) explaining that the direction east is associated with wood in the system of the Five Phases (see n. 53 above). The mythical Blue Emperor, who is said to have made a Day of the Sheep the Winter Sacrifice Day, is also associated with wood, hence the association of Blue Emperor with the direction east and the element wood. 531. “Clearing-the-heart medicine,” ch’ŏngsim-wŏn 淸心元. For ch’ŏngsim WHO has “clear[s] the heart—a therapeutic method to treat a pathogen entering the heart or pericardium in a warm disease” (WHO code 4.2.31). For “warm disease” 溫病, the WHO’s explanation is “a general term for acute externally contracted diseases caused by warm pathogens, with fever as the chief manifestation, also known as warm pathogen disease” (WHO, code 3.1.26). 532. The literal translation of minsaek 憫塞 (which I have translated as “heartache”) is “concern, sorrow, anxiousness” and “obstruct, block, restrain.” Some translate it as “mental disorder” and also change the name of the medicine from ch’ŏngsim-wŏn 淸心元 to ch’ŏngsim-hwan 淸心丸 (YTS, 102; YTSW, 128; HSP, 275) or explain ch’ŏngsim-wŏn to be “effective against indigestion because of too many worries” (KMP, 259; CTS, 190). One commentator gives the explanation: “medicine used to ease heat in the acupuncture heart meridian (or ‘heart channel’ 心經)”(CTT, 126, which seems to come closest to the WHO explanation of ch’ŏngsim given in n. 531, just above. 533. “Tranquilizer,” ansin-wŏn 安神元. WHO explains ansin/tranquilizer as “a general term for tranquilizing measures” (WHO, code 4.2.259). 534. Yŏl 熱, “heat,” 熱邪, which, according to WHO is “a pathogenic factor that causes heat pattern syndrome, also called pathogenic heat” (WHO, code 1.6.170). 535. Sohab-wŏn 蘇合元. Sohap. “Styrax (common names storax or snowbell), a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styrax). Many of them have a strong aromatic smell. Traditional medicine uses sohap-hyang 蘇合香, balsam from the trunk of the storax tree (Liquidambar orientalis Mill., Styrax Liquides), and sohap-hyangwŏn 蘇合香元, “styrax big pill,” which additionally contains fourteen further ingredi-



Notes to Pages 59–61

127

ents (Han-Chung-Yŏng Tongyang ŭihak sangyong taesajŏn, s.v., “소합향원 (蘇合香元) Sohabhyangwon”). 536. Kŏllŭng kyŏngsul 健陵庚戌, Kŏllŭng being the name of the grave of King Chŏngjo 正祖 (r. 1776–1800), twenty-second king of the Yi dynasty, and the year kyŏngsul 庚戌 is the fourteenth year of his reign, or 1790. 537. 龍門山 (height 1,157 m) is in Yangp’yŏng-kun, and 祝靈山 (height 886 m) in Kap’yŏng-kun, both in the Capital Province near the upper Han River. 538. At times of insufficient food supply, a ban on slaughtering cows was proclaimed (ugŭm 牛禁). This ban was normally lifted around important holidays. 539. New Year’s vigil, K. suse 守歲 (Ch. shou sui), also called sŏttal-kŭmŭm 섣‌달‌그믐. 540. Su-kyŏngsin 守庚申, kyŏngsin, Ch. genshen, is the number fifty-seven in the Sixty-Year Cycle. According to one aspect of Daoist thinking that had begun earlier but became widespread in the Tang dynasty, on the fifty-seventh night in the SixtyYear Cycle, the “three corpses” (Ch. sanshi 三尸) leave the body and report to the Director of Destinies (司命) any misbehavior or sin, which will result in punishments. “Corpse” (shi 尸) must in this context be read as “death-bringing entity” and is probably short for shigui 尸鬼, “corpse ghost,” shishen 尸神, “corpse spirit,” and the like, and is another expression for chong 蟲, “worm, bug,” meaning “small organ” in traditional medicine (see shichong 屍蟲, “corpse bugs/worms” as an alternative expression for sanshi 三尸). The three corpses live in the head, the heart, and the stomach. Three vigils on a fifty-seventh night are said to weaken them and seven vigils to make them give up altogether. This custom was adopted by Buddhists, and around the 7th or 8th century entered Korea (Pregadio, Encyclopedia, s.v., “Genshen 庚申,” 446). 541. The name of this text, Fenmen suosui lu 分門瑣碎錄, appears in the Tongguk sesigi in the corrupted abbreviation Suisuo lu 碎瑣錄. This corrupted version also appears in the Kyŏngdo chapchi. The sentence in the Tongguk sesigi is a direct quotation from an unspecified Suishi zaji, which itself quotes the Suosui lu, and is transmitted in the Yangsheng yuelan, 74a.4. 542. Wen Ge 溫革, aka Shupi 叔皮 (n.d.). 543. “Illuminating the disarrayed void,” zha xuhao 照虛耗, in Dongjing menghua lu, vol. 10 (CT, 東京夢華錄, [共]東京夢華錄, 第十卷, 十二月). 544. Slightly altered from “Suiwan” (歲晚, “Year End”), the introduction to the poem “Kuisui” (饋歲, “Gift for the New Year”) (Ryu, Chŏngbon wanyŏk, 273). See also n. 558 below. 545. Yut 윷 is written in the Tongguk sesigi with the Chinese character sa 柶, used in Korea—and only there—to write the Korean word yut, the name for the dice used in the board game of the same name. Originally the character means “spoon,” as is explained in the Tongguk sesigi, where he also explains that this character acquired this special meaning in Korea. (See nn. 547 and 548 just below.) 546. The character 柶 is listed in Shuowen jiezi, vol. 6, 木部, where it says《禮》 有柶。柶 匕也。 从木四聲, and referred to again in Shuowen jiezi 匕部: 匕：相與比 敘也。从反人。匕，亦所以用比取飯，一名柶。凡匕之屬皆从匕.

128

Notes to Pages 61–62

547. The character 柶, pronunciation [sa], is combining the radical 木, “wood,” and 四, pronunciation [sa], meaning “four.” 548. “Ritual entertainment,” nahŭi 儺戱, see n. 63 above. There is some confusion in modern scholarship regarding this passage. All translators and authors of articles with reference to nahŭi in the Tongguk sesigi change 儺 (K. na, radical 9), as in the Tongguk sesigi , into 擹 (K. t’an, radical 64) and translate it as “yut.” They write— without any explanation for the change—K. t’an 擹, although this character means “to open and spread out, as for sale. To apportion; to divide amongst; to distribute, a stall or mat on which goods are displayed for sale” (Mathews, Chinese-English Dictionary, 6082), instead of the original K. na 儺, which means “to exorcise demons; to drive away pestilence” (Mathews, 4746). See naegi-norŭm 내기놀음[攤戱], “betting game” (KMP, 262; CTS, 194), or tanhŭi 탄희 (攤戱) , “mat game” or “throwing dice game” (CTT, 130; HSP, 278; YTS, 104; YTSW, 132; HSPK, 193). This interpretation is based on an error in the phrase in the Chibong yusŏl, which the Tongguk sesigi gives in a shortened and altered quotation. In the Chibong yusŏl, 18:12a.6, it indeed reads 曰擹戲, the character 擹 with radical 64, and as reference there is the commentary: “Hunmong chahoe says t’an 擹 [with radical 64], which is chŏpo 樗蒲” (see n. 549 just below). The reason for the confusion seems to be that in the Hunmong chahoe the character na 儺 (with radical 9), as in the Tongguk sesigi, is not listed, but t’an 擹 (with radical 64) is listed along with the explanations of yut and 蒲 Ch. pu, K. p’o (see Hunmong chahoe vol. 3, 10a.6, in the Yesan ed. and vol. 3, 22b.1, in the Tokyo University ed.). 549. 樗蒲, Ch. chupu, K. chŏpo (also wumu 五木, zhilu 掷卢, hulu 呼卢). The game Chŏp’o is mentioned under “miscellaneous games” (chapki 雜技) in the section “crafts” (kiye-pu 技藝部) in vol. 18 of Chibong yusŏl: “Men and women gather and cut bone or wood into four pieces, throw them, and decide on a winner. This is called the ‘throwing [dice] game’ ” (Yi Su-kwang, Chibong yusŏl 芝峯類說, Nam Man-sŏng, trans., 2:602). Without indication of references, all commentaries refer to Chŏp’o as being a game played in the Korean kingdom of Paekche. This is probably based on, among later sources, reports in the 7th-century Suishu, vol. 81, liezhuan 46 (CT, 隋書, [共]隋書 (武英殿二十四史本), 81.卷八十一列傳第四十六, no. 12). However, the game, originally an Indian game, Chaupar, had already been recorded in China earlier. 550. The numbers resulting from throwing the sticks are taken for divination numbers, namely, 徒 to (one), 開 kae (two), 杰 kŏl (three), 流 yut (four), 牟 mo, and 徒 to (five, but taken as four). Three throws result in three numbers, which then are matched with omens relating to the sixty-four pairs of trigrams of the Classic of Changes. Sequence 2–3–1 is the omen “Baby gets milk,” relating to hexagram number thirty-four, and 1–1–2 is the omen “Rat enters granary,” relating to hexagram number ten. For a complete list of omens and their relationships, see Pratt and Rutt, Cultural Dictionary, s.v., “Divination with Yut Sticks.” 551. Top’an-hŭi 跳板戱, “seesaw,” or, as translated here, “jumping game,” lit. “game of jumping on a plank,” K. nŏl-ttwigi 널뛰기. 552. Liuqiu guoji lüe 琉球國記略, a misspelling in the Tongguk sesigi of Liuqiu guozhi lüe 琉球國志略, in which the compiler in vol. 4(b) 四下, 12.b rephrased a description in the Zhongshan chuanxin lu, 6:2a.6–7, with an illustration in 6:6b.



Notes to Pages 62–63

129

553. “Spring altar,” ch’ŏngdan 靑壇 (CWTTT, 43517.707). Ch’ŏng 靑 also has the connotation of “young, pure,” etc. 554. “Great reshuffling,” taejŏng 大政, refers to an administration reshuffle based on an evaluation of merits and defaults. 555. 道藩閫守令: pŏn 藩 stands for pŏnsa, 藩司, “provincial treasurer,” kon 閫 for konsa 閫師, “provincial military commander”; suryŏng 守令 means “magistrate.” 556. I could not find the word ch’ongmyŏng-chi 聰明紙, which I have translated as “itemization paper,” in any dictionary. However, there is a ch’ongmyŏng-ki 聰明‌記 that has the meaning of “list, when making presents.” 557. This quote from Fengtu ji appears in the Tongguk sesigi as 蜀俗晩歲相饋問謂 之饋歲, which is slightly different from 蜀之風俗晩歲相與餽問謂之餽 in Shuofu 說‌郛 (120-vol. version), vol. 60(1).45b.3 (http://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=66482​ &page=92, Shuofu sanzhong 說郛三種 2787 bottom b.3). 558. From the poem “Kuisui” 饋歲, “Gift for the New Year.” In this poem, which Dongpo sent to his brother Ziyou 子由 as a New Year’s gift, he says that, depending on the natural environment and on whether the people are rich or poor, New Year’s gifts vary in kind and size 山川隨出產 貧富稱小大 寘盤巨鯉橫 發籠雙 兔‌臥 (Ryu, Chŏngbon wanyŏk, 273). Ziyou 子由 is the style name of Su Shi’s younger brother Su Che 蘇轍 (1039–1112), who was one of the “Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song” (Nienhauser, Indiana Companion, 727). See also n. 544 above. 559. Ch’ukkuk 蹴鞠, Ch. cuju, lit. “kicking the ball,” K. chegi-ch’agi 제기차기, which I have, for want of an established translation, rendered as “hacky sack.” The term cuju, however, refers to various games where a ball is kicked. One oversimplification that is lately becoming commonly accepted is the idea that modern soccer originated from China (http://footballnetwork.org/history-of-football/history1/). Except for the fact that a ball is being kicked, no direct connection can be established between modern soccer and the various Chinese games with their different rules. 560. The quotation can be found in the Taiping yulan (CT, 太平御覽, [文] SongMing→太平御覽, 太平御覽, 30.時序部十五, 寒食 no. 7). 561. “Fighting without weapons,” baida 白打, lit. “empty” and “to strike,” is also a very general term for different competitive games that were originally military exercises and empty-handed martial arts, including boxing and wrestling. 562. Pongŭn Temple 奉恩寺 is an important temple built originally in 794 in what used to be a part of Kwangju 廣州 in the Capital Province. Today, after suburbanization, it is situated in Seoul, Kangnam-ku, Samsŏng-tong.

Bibliography

Annotated Bibliography of Primary Sources Ant’aek-kyŏng 安宅經 (Ch. Anzhai jing) [Scripture for pacifying the house]. A title referring to several scriptures used by shamans. Among the titles of these scriptures are K. Ant’aek-sinju-kyŏng 安宅神呪經 (Ch. Anzhai shenzhou jing) [Spiritspell scripture for pacifying homes] and K. Ant’aek-t’araniju-kyŏng 安宅陀羅尼 呪經 (Ch. Anzhai tuoluo nizhou jing) [Dharani-spell scripture for pacifying homes] (Buswell and Lopez, Dictionary of Buddhism, 56). Ao zhi 隩志 [Records from a far-removed territory]. Anon., existing today only as a fragment, generally understood to be from either the Ming or early Qing. Baopuzi 抱朴子 [The Master, who embraces simplicity]. Also written as 抱樸子. By Ge Hong 葛洪 (283–343 or 363 CE), aka Ge Zhichuan 葛稚川. According to his own words, the so-called inner chapters, which deal with Daoism, comprised 20 vols., the outer chapters, dealing with Confucianism, 50 vols. He saw the two philosophies as complementing rather than contradicting each other. “Daoism is, in the words of Ge Hong, the ‘fundament’ of Confucianism, and the latter only a branch of Daoism” (www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Baopuzi”). Beijing suihua ji 北京歲華記 [Record of the seasonal customs of Beijing]. By Lu Qihong 陸啓浤 (17th c., exact dates unknown). No longer extant except in the form of quotations, e.g., in Dijing jingwu lue, 2:24a.6–7 (Naquin, Peking, 273n83). Beilu yiyu 北虜譯語 [Words of the northern savages, translated (into Chinese)]. A Chinese-Mongolian glossary contained in the 40-vol. encyclopedia of military literature, the Dengtan bijiu 登壇必究 [Necessary research for advancing to command], compiled by Wang Minghe 王鳴鶴 (n.d.), dated 1599. Bencao gangmu 本草綱目 [Guidelines and details of materia medica]. By Dongbi Li Shizhen 東璧 李時珍 (1518–1593) is the most comprehensive traditional book on Chinese pharmaceuticals. It describes in its 27 vols. 1,892 pharmaceutical ingredients and 11,096 formulations and treatment methods. Along with his studies of medical effects, as a practicing physician he studied and corrected descriptions and recipes from 800 earlier works as well as collecting information from “peasants, fishermen, travelers and craftsmen about drugs, their preparation and their effects” (www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Bencao gangmu”). Bielu 別錄 [Separated records]. Compiled by Liu Xiang 劉向 (79–6 BCE), b. Liu Gengsheng 劉更生, aka Zizheng 子政, a famous librarian and historian of the Former Han dynasty. “The result of the bibliographic work in the imperial library is the annotated catalogue Bielu 別錄, based upon which Liu Xiang’s

131

132

Bibliography

son Liu Xin 劉歆 later compiled the Qilüe 七略 [Seven epitomes], China’s oldest book catalogue” (www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Liu Xiang”). Binger xiantan 餅餌閒談 [Leisurely talk about rice cakes and dumplings]. I was unable to find any information about author and content. Chibong yusŏl 芝峯類說 [Topical discourses of Chibong]. A 20-vol. collection of 3,435 treatises by Yi Su-kwang 李睟光 (1563–1628), pen name Chibong 芝‌峯 (Immortality Mushroom Peak), about a wide range of subjects arranged in sections covering natural science, social and political matters, arts, and linguistics. Yi Su-kwang was an Yi-dynasty military official and diplomat who on three missions to Beijing met Catholic priests and thereby came into contact with European scholarship. He became one of the early scholars—if not the founder—of what these days is called the Practical Learning school, Sirhak-pa 實學派 (see 67n17), whose members, while working according to Confucius’ teaching, turned away from abstract and speculative philosophy to pursue studies of nature and society (see Tai-jin Kim, Bibliographical Guide, 309–315). Ch’ŏnggu yŏngŏn 靑丘永言 [Chanted words of the Green Hills]. The so-called Chinbon 珍本 version of the Ch’ŏnggu yŏngŏn of 1728, containing 580 short poems, is considered to be the original of several compilations under the same title. It was compiled by a musician named Kim Ch’ŏn-t’aek 金天澤 (ca. late 17th–early 18th c.) and is one of the most important collections of Korean sijo, or short sung poetry. Chunming tuichao lu 春明退潮錄 [Records from Spring Morning after withdrawing from the court]. A 3-vol. collection of small notes and ideas about a variety of scholarly subjects by Song Minqiu 宋敏求 (1019–1079), aka Cidao 次道, a scholar and bureaucrat of the Northern Song, for which reason he is also known as Song Cidao 宋次道. Spring Morning is the name of his study, where he jotted down these brush notes (biji 筆記) (www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Chunming tuichao lu”). Chuxue ji 初學記 [Notes for first learning]. An encyclopedia published in 30 vols. in 728 under the supervision of Xu Jian 徐堅 (659–729). A textbook intended for imperial princes, it covers 313 topics organized into 23 parts. It contains quotes from earlier sources, many of which are lost, as well as general introductions to the topics, explanatory double pairs of sentences, and quotes from poetry and prose belles lettres. The existing copies date from the 15th c. (www​ .­chinaknowledge​.de, s.v., “Chuxueji”). Da Dai Liji, also Da Dai Li. See Liji. Dijing jingwu lue 帝京景物略 [Brief survey of scenery and monuments in the imperial capital]. An 8-vol. description of gardens, residences and temples, and famous workshops for crafts, as well as customs and habits in the capital, finished 1635 by Liu Tong 劉侗 (1593–1637), aka Tongren 同人 and Gean 格庵, and coauthors and compilers Yu Yizheng 于奕正 (1596–1636) (aka Yu Sizhi 于司直 and Ji-lu 繼魯), Zhou Sun 周損 (aka Yuan Hai 遠害), and Yu-shuo 迂收 (www​ .­chinaknowledge​.de, s.v., “Dijing jingwu lue,” vol. 2). Dongjing menghua lu 東京夢華錄 [Record of dreaming of the Ancient Land of Per-



Bibliography

133

fection in the Eastern Capital]. By Meng Yuanlao 孟元老 (ca. 1090–1150), a detailed description in 10 vols. of daily life in the Song capital of Kaifeng (in the modern province of Henan). Kaifeng was designated as “eastern” (dong 東) in the title because it was located more to the east than Chang’an 長安 (modern Xi’an, Shaanxi Province); the old western capital, or Luoyang 洛陽 (modern Luoyang/Henan). Hua 華, here translated as Ancient Land of Perfection, refers to the supposed golden age in early mythological antiquity. There is no known detailed personal data for the author. For the full text, see Project Gutenberg (www.gutenberg.org, search, “東京夢華錄”). Dongpo xuji 東坡續集 [Poetry by Dongpo, continued]. A collection of poems by Su shi. Dong Xun wen lisu 董勛問禮俗 [Dong Xun asking about rites and customs]. The original is lost, but fragments are collected in the Huangshi yishu kao. Dong Xun’s exact dates are unknown, but we know that he lived sometime during the Wei and Jin eras. Duduan 獨斷 [Independent decisions]. By Cai Yong 蔡邕 (132–192 CE). A collection of regulations about communication with the emperor, his relationship with vassals and other subjects, the calendar, and related magico-religious prescriptions and practices. Cai Yong was known to be a Chinese scholar of the Eastern Han who was well versed in calligraphy, music, mathematics, and astronomy, although his authorship of the Duduan is disputed by some scholars today (see Giele, Imperial Decision-Making, 45). Du shi lunwen 杜詩論文 [Discussion of the literary aspects of Du Fu’s poetry]. 56 vols. by Wu Jiansi 吳見思 (1622–1685). Available in CT, Post-Han, “杜詩論文.” Erya 爾雅 [Approaching the correct]. A dictionary in 3 vols. and 19 semantic fields presumed to have been compiled during the Former Han period by members of the National University (Taixue 太學) entrusted with the teaching of the Confucian Classics. The title signifies that the book provides the proper meaning of terms, as was stressed by Confucius in his concept of the rectification of names (zhengming 正名) (www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Erya”). Fengsu tongyi 風俗通義 [Comprehensive meaning of habits and customs]. An encyclopedia compiled by Ying Shao 應劭 (d. ca. 203 CE), aka Ying Zhongyuan 應仲瑗. Fengtu ji 風土記 [Record of local customs]. By Zhou Chu 周處 (236–297), aka Ziyin 子隱, a general of the Western Jin with the reputation of being so upright that he made many enemies. Fenmen jizhu Du Gongbu shi 分門集註杜工部詩 [Classified collection of annotations to Du Fu’s poems]. The Fenmen jizhu Du Gongbu shi was collected by Wang Zhu 王洙 (997–1057), aka Wang Yuanshu 王原叔, comprising 25 vols. with 72 categories using topics and rhymes as organizing principles. Du Fu 杜甫 (712–770) was often called Shisheng 詩聖, Poetry Sage. Together with Li Bo 李白, he was one of China’s greatest poets. Although born into an elite family, he lived a rather poor and insecure life during the turbulent period of the Tang dynasty culminating in the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763). These circumstances are reflected in many of his ca. 1,500 poems, which express bitterness about political and social matters as well as concerns about his poor health. He is also known

134

Bibliography

by other names, among them Du Gongbu 杜工部, i.e., Du from the Ministry of Public Works, where he held a position while in Chengdu in 764/765. Fenmen suosui lu 分門瑣碎錄 [Categorized record of trivial matters]. A book on agriculture by Wen Ge 溫革 (1006?–1076), of which only fragments are known today through quotations in other works. Fumu enzhong jing 父母恩重經 [Sutra on the profundity of filial love]. An apocryphal scripture by an anonymous author, considered to have been written in China as a Buddhist answer to the Confucian discourse on filial piety. The text is also known in translation by various titles, such as Sutra on the Profound Kindness of Parents. Geographical Survey. See Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam. Gezhi jingyuan 格致鏡原 [Mirror of origins in science and technology]. A 100-vol. encyclopedia compiled by Chen Yuanlong 陳元龍 (1652–1736), organized in 30 categories with 886 subheadings. Gujin beiyao. See Gujin hebi shilei beiyao. Gujin hebi shilei beiyao 古今合璧事類備要 [Compiled and categorized essentials from ancient and present times]. Short title Gujin beiyao 古今備要 [Essentials from ancient and present times] is a 366-vol. encyclopedia with 2,300 themes in 165 categories, written by the Southern Song scholar Xie Wei-xin 謝維新, finished 1257 (www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Hebi shilei beiyao”). Gujin shiwen leiju 古今事文類聚 [Classified collection based on ancient and present facts and on literature]. The first collections of this encyclopedia (qianji 前 集) consisting of 60 vols., the second collection (houji 後集) 50 vols., the third collection (xuji 續集) 28 vols., and the fourth (bieji 別集) 32 vols., making a total of 170 vols., were compiled by the Song scholar Zhu Mu 祝穆 (d.1255), dated 1246. A “new collection” (xinji 新集) in 36 vols. and an ”outer collection” (waiji 外集) in 15 vols. were added by Fu Dayong 富大用 in 1326, and “leftovers” ( yiji 遺集) by Zhu Yuan 祝淵 in 15 vols. All collections together, the so-called Gujin shiwen leiju 古今事文類聚, thus totals 236 vols. (cf. Teng and Biggerstaff, Annotated Bibliography, 90; www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Shiwen leiju”). Gujin yishu tu 古今藝術圖 [Tableaus of ancient and present artworks]. A 50-vol. work compiled by the second emperor of Sui, Emperor Yang 煬帝 (r. 604–617), aka Yang Guang (楊廣), Ying (英), and Emperor Ming (明帝). Hailu suishi 海錄碎事 [Abundant records of trivial matters]. Written by Ye Tinggui 葉‌廷珪 (also written as 葉庭珪) (fl. 1115–1152) with a preface dated 1149. “Original name Yisilu 一四錄, is a collection of strange phenoma. . . . The Hailu suishi is 22 juan “scrolls” long, according to contemporary sources, 23 juan (including the half-scrolls, 33), and includes 16 (or 75) categories and 584 themes” (www​.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Hailu suishi”). Han-Wei liuchao baisan mingjia ji 漢魏六朝百三名家集 [Collection of 103 writers from the Han, Wei, and Six Dynasties]. A work in 118 vols. collected by Zhang Pu 張溥 (1602–1641) A modern edition was published in 1964 by Song bo chubanshe (Taipei). [Hedong xiansheng] Longcheng lu. See Longcheng lu.



Bibliography

135

Hou Hanshu 後漢書 [Book of the Later Han (dynasty)]. Official dynastic history (zhengshi 正史) of the Later Han; 120 vols., compiled by Fan Ye 范曄 (398–445), aka Weizong 蔚宗, governor of Xuancheng 宣城 (modern Xuancheng, Anhui). Huainan zi 淮南子 [Masters from south of the River Huai]. A collection of treatises by several authors and compiled by Liu An 劉安 (ca. 179—122 BCE), whose grandfather was the founder of the Han dynasty, who had been given the title Huainan wang 淮南王, King of Huainan. The Huainan zi is one of the important books in Daoist literature and favors pluralism in the debate with philosophers who advocated centralism. Originally published as Huainan honglie 淮南鴻‌烈 [Grand illumination from Huainan], of the original 62 vols. only 21 have survived. Huali xinzai 花曆新栽 [Flower calendar for new cultivation]. By Chen Haozi 陳淏子 (n.d.). Vol. 1 of the 6-vol. Michuan huajing 秘傳花鏡 [Esoterically transmitted flower mirror], also known as Huajing 花鏡 [Flower mirror], dated 1688. Huangchao suishi zaji 皇朝歲時雜記 [Miscellanea of seasonal customs in the imperial dynasty]. Anonymous, no longer extant, but some fragments are quoted in the Suishi guangji. Huangshi yishu kao 黃氏逸書考 [Questions about rites and customs by Mr. Huang]. The name in the title, Mr. Huang 黃氏, refers to the author, Huang Shi 黃奭, who was a scholar of the early 19th century. The Huangshi yishu kao can be found in the Xuxiu siku quanshu. See Xuxiu siku quanshu. Hunmong chahoe 訓蒙字會 [Collection of (Chinese) characters to teach the uneducated]. A textbook published in 1527 consisting of 3,353 Chinese characters with basic meanings and their Korean pronunciation in the Korean alphabet by Ch’oe Se-chin 崔世珍 (1473?–1542), an official translator and important linguist. It was published in 1527 as the most widely used primer of the Yi dynasty. Since then, it has been reprinted in various editions. In 1971 Tan’guk University 단국대 학‌교 reprinted two important editions in one volume, titled according to the locations in Japan where copies are held, namely, the Tokyo University edition 東京大学本 and the Yesan edition 叡山本, Yesan being the Korean pronunciation of the second and third Chinese characters for Hieizan 比叡山, or Mount Hiei, the location of the temple, Enryaku-ji 延曆寺, where the edition is held. Jiannan shigao 劍南詩稿 [Poetry manuscripts of Jiannan]. By Lu Fangweng 陸‌放‌翁 (1125–1210), aka Lu You 陸游. A collection of 9,220 poems compiled chronologically by the author and his son. Lu was often in minor administrative positions, but for some time he was also head of the imperial library in Hangzhou. Jiannan is the name of a place near Chendu in Sichuan where he lived for some time. Jiean laoren manbi 戒菴老人漫筆 [Random jottings by the Old Man from the Purification Hermitage]. A collection of historical anecdotes compiled by Li Xu 李詡 (1505–1593). Also known as Jiean manbi 戒菴漫筆. Jing Chu suishi ji 荊楚歲時記 [Record of the seasonal customs of the Jing Chu region]. By Zong Lin 宗懍 (ca. 500–ca. 563). The original of the text is lost; the available editions have been reconstructed from quotations in later encyclopedias. Chu, originally named Jing, was one of the Warring States. The version used by Hong

136

Bibliography

Sŏk-mo in his Tongguk sesigi is that transmitted in the Siku quanshu. The Jing Chu suishi ji was also printed in the Sibu beiyao, but in a slightly different version. A translation into modern Korean with commentaries and photo­copies of both versions was published in 1996 (see Sang Ki-suk, Hyŏng Ch’o sesigi). Jinshu 晉書 [Book of the Jin (dynasty)]. Edited by Fang Xuanling 房玄齡 (579–648). The official history of the Jin dynasty. Jiu Tangshu 舊唐書 [Old book of the Tang (dynasty)]. The first official dynastic history (zhengshi 正史) of the Tang in 200 vols., compiled during the Later Jin period by Liu Xu 劉昫 (888–947), aka Yao Yuan 耀遠, and Zhang Zhaoyuan 張昭遠. Before the Xin Tangshu 新唐書, New Book of Tang, was compiled, the Jiu Tangshu was simply called Tangshu 唐書, Book of the Tang. Kaiyuan Tianbao yishi 開元天寶遺事 [Matters of the Kaiyuan and Tianbao eras (ignored in the official histories)]. A 4-vol. collection of folklore and oral history (minyan 民言) about Emperor Xuanzong (713–756), edited by Wang Renyu 王‌仁‌裕 (880–956). Kaiyuan 開元 and Tianbao 天寶 are the emperor’s reign mottos (nianhao 年號). Kangxi Zidian 康熙字典 [Kangxi (reign) dictionary of (Chinese) characters]. Compiled by Zhang Yushu 張玉書 (1642–1711) and Chen Yanjing 陳延敬 (1638–1712). Completed in 1716, it contains 49,030 characters, making it the largest character dictionary of traditional China. The arrangement, which uses 214 radicals plus additional strokes, has become the most common arrangement in character dictionaries. Kaogu tu 考古圖 [Illustrated investigation of antiques]. The oldest Chinese description of antiques, compiled in 1092 by Lü Dalin 呂大臨 (1044?–1092), aka Yushu 與叔. In its 10 vols., it depicts 224 tripods, vessels, bottles, beakers, and the like, arranged according to type. Kim Kŭk-ki chip 金克己集 [Collected works of Kim Kŭk-ki]. Kim Kŭk-ki, aka Nobong 老峰, lived sometime in the latter part of the 12th or early part of the 13th century. His Collected Works, which are said to have consisted of 135 or 150 vols., are lost, but some of his poems can be found, for example, in the Tongmunsŏn 東文選 (1478), the 130-vol. collection by Sŏ Kŏ-jŏng (1420–1488), and in the Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam. Other titles of Kim Kŭk-ki’s works that have come down to us are Kim Kŏsa chip 金居士集 and Kim Hallim chip 金翰林集; a North Korean publication claims the existence of a Kim Wŏnwae chip 金員外集, which, however, does not seem to have been verified (see http://encykorea​ .aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0008610). Koryŏsa 高麗史 [History of Koryŏ]. After the fall of the Wang dynasty of Koryŏ, the new Yi dynasty ordered that an official history of Koryŏ be written. After rejecting several manuscripts deemed inappropriate, the history, patterned after Sima Qian’s Shiji, was finally completed in 1451 in 139 vols. Kyŏngdo chapchi 京都雜志 [Miscellaneous notes on the capital]. Written as the first book on seasonal customs in Korea by historian Yu Tŭk-kong 柳得恭 (1748– 1807), it describes in the first volume items and general habits of the ruling class in the capital and in the second volume festivals, leisure activities, and rituals in



Bibliography

137

the sequence of the months. It describes only seasonal customs in the capital and is only about half the size of the Tongguk sesigi, in which some phrases reveal that Hong Sŏk-mo knew and used the Kyŏngdo chapchi (see n. 310 in the translation). Yu Tŭk-kong is famous for having advocated, in his Parhae ko 渤海考 [Treatise of Parhae] and other works, for the inclusion in Korean history writing the history of the Manchurian area north of the Korean peninsula. The kingdom of Parhae, Ch. Bohai (698–926), had been founded in Koguryŏ territory and had been ruled by parts of the Koguryŏ nobiliy. While most of Yu Tŭk-kong’s works are historiographical, his Kyŏngdo chapchi must be interpreted as one further example of his effort to stress the identity of Korea as being independent of China. Lantian xiangyu. See Lü shi xiangyue. Lanting ji Xu 蘭亭集序 [Preface to the “Orchid Pavilion collection (of poems)”]. An often-copied text originally written in a semi-cursive style of calligraphy by Wang Xizhi 王羲之 (ca. 303–ca. 361), aka Danzhai 澹斋. The original is lost, but there are many collections based on stone rubbings and copies. Li Bo 李白 (701–762). Poetry quoted in the Tongguk sesigi. Many of Li Bo’s poems were about friends, both of high and of lower social standing, places he visited, and of a nostalgic mood. In the West he is also known as Li Po, Li Bai, or Li Pai, and from his courtesy name Taibai 太白 as Li Tai-pai and Li Tai-po, with “Tai” occasionally written “T’ai.” As his pen name he selected Qinglian Jushì 靑蓮 居士, “Retired Scholar from Qinglian” (Qinglian being the name of the village in Sichuan where he lived in childhood), and he is often referred to as Shixian 詩仙, “Immortal of Poetry,” or Jiuxian 酒仙, “Immortal of Wine.” Lie Zi 列子 [Master Lie]. A collection of tales in 8 chapters about Daoist immortals attributed to Lie Yukou 列御寇 (also written 列圄寇 or 列圉寇), aka Lie Zhoukou 列周寇 (4th c.?). Liji 禮記 [The book of rites]. A selection of descriptions of ritual matters written during the late Warring States and Former Han periods. There are two books titled The Book of Rites, which are distinguished by adding the name of the author: Da Dai Liji 大戴禮記 [The book of rites by Dai Senior] is by Dai De 戴‌德, aka Dai Yanjun 戴延君; Xiao Dai Liji 小戴禮記 [The book of rites by Dai Junior] is by his nephew Dai Sheng 戴聖, aka Dai Cijun 戴次君 (exact dates are unknown but both senior and junior lived during the 1st c.). The latter of the two Lijis later became one of the Confucian Classics. The Zhongyong [Doctrine of the mean] was originally one of its chapters, and the Yueling 月‌令 [Proceedings of government in the different months] can be found in chap. 6 (bk. 4), while the Xia xiaozheng [Small calendar of the Xia] is transmitted in the Da Dai Liji. Liuqiu guozhi lüe 琉球國志略 [Summary of the annals of the kingdom of Liuqiu]. A 16-vol. report by the envoy Zhou Huang 周煌 (1714–1785), who was part of the Qing investiture mission to Ryukyu, 1756–1757. Liushu benyi 六書本義 [The six types of characters and their original meaning]. Twelve vols., by Zhao Guze 趙古則 (1351–1395), aka Huiqian 撝謙, a philosopher and scholar of phonetics.

138

Bibliography

Liuzu tanjing 六祖壇經 [Platform sutra of the sixth patriarch]. An aphoristic Zen text attributed to the Chinese monk Huineng 惠能 (638–713), sixth patriarch of Zen Buddhism. The story goes that, although he was illiterate, he nevertheless attained the position of patriarch by winning a poetry contest. Longcheng lu/ [Hedong xiansheng] Longcheng lu [河東先生]龍城錄 [Records of Long­ cheng (by Master Hedong)]. Collection of Daoist tales in 2 vols., attributed to Liu Zongyuan 柳宗元 (773–819). Lunyu 論語. Lunyu, or Confucian Analects, is a collection of sayings mainly attributed to Confucius (551–479 BCE) (Chinese name Kong Qiu 孔丘, aka Zhongni 中尼, often referred to as Kongzi 孔子 or Kongfuzi 孔夫子, “Master Kong”). The collection was incorporated in the Sishu 四書 [Four classics] during the Song. The compilation normally used today was probably compiled in the 4th c. BCE, but originally there were different versions reflecting regional traditions, due to the fact that written forms were not compiled until centuries after Confucius’ death (www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Lunyu”). Lü shi xiangyue 呂氏鄉約 [Community contracts of the Lü family]. Regulations for the community of the Lü family written by one of three brothers: Lü Dajun 呂‌大‌鈞 (1031–1082), Lü Dazhong 呂大忠 (d. 1082), or Lü Dalin 呂大臨 (1044–1091). The place of residence of the Lü family was Lantian 藍田 in Shaanxi; the text is therefore also called Lantian xiangyue 藍田鄕約 [Community contracts of Lantian]. The regulations are the basis for the community contracts that regulated family and village life in Yi-dynasty Korea and that were renewed every year in order to maintain harmony in the village. Mengliang lu 夢梁錄 [Record of the millet dream]. By Wu Zimu 吳自牧 (dates unknown). Describes in 20 vols. the customs in the capital Linan 臨安 (modern Hangzhou 杭州, Zhejiang) during the Southern Song period (Nienhauser, Indiana Companion, 1:833). “Millet dream” is a reference to a Tang novel in which a traveler dreams of happy times while only a humble pot of millet is cooking on the stove. Michuan huajing 秘傳花鏡 [Esoterically transmitted flower mirror]. A description of roughly three hundred flowers and fruit trees and their cultivation, published in 1688 by Chen Haozi 陳淏子 (exact dates unknown), aka Fu Yao 扶摇, aka Xihu huayin weng 西湖花隱翁. Interestingly, it advocates conquering nature rather than trying to interfere as little as possible. See also Huali xinzai. Nanjiang yishi 南彊繹史 [Continuous history of the South]. A history of the Southern Ming dynasty by Wen Ruilin 溫睿臨 (early 18th c.). A fragment of 20 vols. was the basis of Li Yao’s Nanjiang yishi kanben. Nanjiang yishi kanben 南疆繹史勘本 [Investigations into the Continuous History of the South]. An unofficial history about the transition from Ming to Qing in 30 vols., with an 18-vol. supplement, called Zhiyi 摭遺, by Li Yao 李瑤 (early 19th c.), based on the Nanjiang yishi 南彊繹史 [Continuous history of the South]. Nongjia yan 農家諺 [Farmers’ sayings]. A 1-vol. collection of proverbs by Cui Shi 崔‌寔 (103?–170 CE), aka Cui Tai 崔臺, Cui Zizhen 崔子真, Cui Yuanshi 崔元始. See also Simin yueling.



Bibliography

139

Nongzheng quanshu 農政全書 [Comprehensive treatise on agricultural administration]. An agricultural encyclopedia by Xu Guangqi 徐光啟 (1562–1633), aka Xu Zixian 徐子先 and Xuanhu 玄扈, one of several works on agriculture by this author. Xu was a high official scholar in the academy and among those who helped Matteo Ricci translate European books on mechanics, mathematics, and astronomy, as well as Euclid’s Elements. Peng Zu baiji 彭組百忌 [The one hundred taboos of the ancestor of Peng]. Peng Zu, aka Jian Keng 籛铿, is a Daoist immortal supposed to have lived for many hundreds of years during the time of the mythical beginning of Chinese history. His health, outstanding sexual energy, and healing powers are attributed to his diet and observation of many taboos. Despite the easy access of this important list of Chinese superstitious practice both in print and on the internet, I was unable to locate an original source. Pingshan ji 屛山集 [Collected works of Pingshan]. A 20-vol. collection of works by Liu Zihui 屛山 劉子翬 (1101–1147), aka Pingshan 屏山 and Yanchong 彦冲. He was the early Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi’s guardian and mentor after Zhu Xi’s father’s death in 1143. Qianjin fang 千金方 [Prescriptions worth a thousand pieces of gold]. By Sun Simiao 孫思邈 (?–682). Short for (Beiji) Qianjin yaofang (備急)千金要方 [Invaluable prescriptions (for emergencies) worth a thousand pieces of gold], it is a work of 30 vols. with 5,300 recipes organized into 233 categories. Sun Simiao was a famous doctor and Daoist master. He declined several calls to take official positions, but with his writings on clinical medicine, he influenced all later treatises on the subject. In addition to various other works, he wrote a Qianjin yifang 千金翼‌方 [Supplement to the formulas worth a thousand pieces of gold], which often is combined with, and also called, Qianjin fang . Qimin yaoshu 齊民要術 [Essential techniques for (the welfare) of the people]. By Jia Sixie 賈思勰 (exact dates unknown, but lived during the Eastern Wei). The work consists of 10 vols., 92 chaps, on all aspects of producing and preserving agricultural products, including recipes for preparing food and drink. Qinding Rixia jiuwen kao 欽定日下舊聞考 [Complete anecdotes from ancient times about “Under the Sun” (i.e., the capital) by imperial commission]. Published in 1688 by Yu Minzhong 于敏中 (1714–1779), a revision of Rixia jiuwen 日下 舊聞 by Zhu Yizun 朱彝尊 (1629–1709) and Zhu Kuntian 朱昆田 (1652–1699). Qinding Siku quanshu 欽定四庫全書 [Complete collection of the Four Libraries by imperial commission]. See Siku quanshu. Qingbo zazhi 清波雜志 [Miscellaneous notes (by one who lives near the Gate of the) Clear Wave]. Anecdotes and essays by Zhou Hui 周煇 (1126–1198?), 12 vols. Qiuchi biji 仇池筆記 [Qiuchi brush records]. A collection of 138 brief notes with ideas about a variety of scholarly subjects by Su Shi 蘇軾 (1037–1101). Su Shi was known by many names, among them Su Dongpo 蘇東坡, “Su [from the] Eastern Slope”; and Dongpo 東坡, or Dongpo jushi 東坡居士, “Hermit from the Eastern Slope.” He was one of the major poets of the Song era, with ca. 2,600 of his poems known today, as well as a gifted calligrapher and author of many

140

Bibliography

treatises, mainly about administration, technical issues, and food. While he was admired by many, his critical mind and outspokenness often made his life difficult, and he spent time in jail and in exile. Qiuchi biji was written during one of his exiles, while he was living at the foot of Mount Luofu in Yingzhou, hence, another of his epithets, Old Man at [Mount] Luofu in Ying[zhou] (Luofu Ying lao 羅浮潁老). Qiuchi is the name of one of the “lesser heavenly caves,” dongtian 洞天, that are homes of Daoist immortals. The poet Du Fu had wanted to retire there to live a life of spiritual cultivation, and Su Shi, in a dream that later became famous through some of his poems, took this as an inspiration for his own Daoist leanings (Smith, “Dream of Ch’ou-ch’ih,” 260–262). Rixia jiuwen. See Qinding Rixia jiuwen kao. Rongan manbi 戎菴漫筆. Scribal error for Jiean laoren manbi 戒菴漫筆. Samguk sagi 三國史記 [Historical record of the Three Kingdoms]. The Samguk sagi is the official history of the Korean “Three Kingdoms,” compiled in 50 vols. patterned after the Shiji under the supervision of Kim Pu-sik 金富軾 (1075–1151) and officially presented to the king in 1145. The Three Kingdoms are Silla, Koguryŏ, and Paekche, but the kingdom of Kaya, which had been conquered by Silla, is normally included in this designation. Traditional historiography always belittled the fact that Kaya had for centuries been culturally and politically independent and different from the other three kingdoms. Samguk yusa 三國遺事 [Matters of the Three Kingdoms ignored (in the official histories)]. A collection of legends, myths, and tales relating to early Korean historical events compiled by the Buddhist monk Kim Kyŏng-myŏng 金景明 (1206–1289), aka Iryŏn 一然 in his later years (ca. 1285). It has survived in a version of 5 vols. dated 1512. For Samguk, “Three Kingdoms,” see Samguk sagi. San guo yanyi 三國演義 [Romance of the Three Kingdoms]. By Luo Ben 羅本 (ca. 1330–ca. 1400), aka Lu Guanzhong 羅貫中 and Huhai Sanren 湖海散人. One of the most important epics of Chinese literature, telling of events and heroes in the war between the Three Kingdoms (San guo), for which see San guo zhi. San guo zhi 三國志 [Records of the Three Kingdoms]. By Chen Shou 陳壽 (233–297), aka Chengzuo 承祚. Consists of 65 vols. on the history of the so-called San guo 三國, the Chinese Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Han, and Wu. Chen Shou, after serving in high positions during the Han, became a historian in the Jin. Shan hai jing 山海經 [Classic of mountains and seas]. A compilation of geographic features, mythologic tales, and fables about supernatural beings. Authorship is attributed to Emperor Yu 禹, the mythological founder of the Xia, or Bo Yi 伯‌益, one of his ministers, but most likely it is the result of many additions over the course of time. The oldest material may date from the 4th c. BCE, and while different versions of various size are described in the literature, the current version of 18 vols. has been the standard since the Northern Song. Shihu shiji 石湖詩集 [Collection of poems from the Stony Lake]. By Fan Chengda 范‌成大 (1126–1191), aka Zhineng (致能), also aka Shihu jushi 石湖居士, Retired Scholar from the Stony Lake, which is why in the secondary literature the collection is also called Shihu jushi shiji 石湖居士詩集 [Collection of poems



Bibliography

141

by the retired scholar from the Stony Lake]. Although Fan Chengda is one of the best-known poets of the Song dynasty, this collection of 34 vols. is all that remains of the 136 vols. of his prose and poetry, which he, himself, edited. Shiji 史記 [Records of the historian]. A work of 130 vols. started by Sima Tan 司馬談 (d. ca. 110 BCE) and finished by his son Sima Qian 司馬遷 (145–86 BCE). It is the first of the official dynastic histories (zhengshi 正史) and the model for the works of later historians. It covers Chinese history from the mythical beginnings to Sima Qian’s time. Both authors held the title of grand scribe or grand historian, taishi 太史, which is why the original title of the history was Taishiji 太史記 [Records of the grand scribe] or Taishigong shu 太史公書 [The book of the master grand scribe]; hence, it is also known in the Western literature as Records of the Grand Historian. After annals (benjì 本紀) and chronological tables (biao 表), come monographs (shu 書), which describe rituals, music, astronomy, geography, and finance, followed by a description of hereditary aristocratic houses (shijia 世家) and biographies (liezhuan 列傳), including information on foreign countries, which are also important sources for the study of early developments on the Korean peninsula. Shijing 詩經 [Classic of odes]. One of the Five Confucian Classics (Wu Jing 五‌經), the Shijing is the oldest collection of airs, court hymns, sung eulogies, and folk songs. Also known by other titles—among them Classic of Poetry and Book of Songs—the collection consists of 305 texts dating from the 11th to 7th c. BCE. Most authors are anonymous, although authorship of some of the collection was attributed to some men and women. Tradition has it that Confucius made the final selection. Among various versions, the one that became standard is that used by Mao Heng 毛亨 (2nd c. BCE) in his commentary; hence, the Shijing is also known as Maoshi 毛詩 [Mao’s (version of the book of) songs]. Shiwan juan lou congshu 十萬卷樓叢書 [Collectaneum of the Studio of a Hundred Thousand Volumes]. Compiled by book collector Lu Xinyuan 陸心源 (1834– 1894), aka Lu Gangfu 陸剛甫/ 陸剛夫, Lu Qianyuan 陸潛園, Cunzhai 存齋, and Qianyuan laoren 潛園老人. The collection in 50 vols. contains fifty-three rare prints from the Tang, Song, and Yuan. Shiwu jiyuan. See Shiwu jiyuan jilei. Shiwu jiyuan jilei 事物紀原集類 [Sources of records of matters and things]. An encyclopedia compiled in 10 vols. by Gao Cheng 高承 (fl. 1078–1086). A Ming edition says that the author is not known. The book was finished and printed in 1197. There are several revised editions with slightly different texts. Shujing 書經 [Book of documents]. Also titled Shangshu 尚書 [Hallowed documents], it is one of the Five Classics and consists of speeches and other documents issued by rulers and important politicians. It is organized chronologically in four parts: mythical emperors Yao 堯 and Shun 舜, Xia dynasty, Shang dynasty, and Zhou dynasty. Earlier versions of the book have been lost, and there was controversy over authorship and the authenticity of transmitted texts, resulting in two traditions, old text and new text. According to tradition, it was Confucius himself who selected and edited today’s standard texts with ­commentaries

142

Bibliography

about the historical circumstances, therefore the book is occasionally also called the Book of History. Shuofu 說郛 [Persuasion of the suburbs]. A collection of short stories and fables to be used to educate the masses “in the suburbs,” compiled by Tao Zongyi 陶‌宗‌儀 (1316–1403). The original version is lost, but various reconstructions were compiled beginning in the Ming period. The most popular versions are that by Tao Ting 陶珽 (17th c.) in 120 vols. and the one by Zhang Zongxiang 張‌宗‌祥 (1882–1965) in 100 vols. Shuowen jiezi 說文解字 [Explaining simple and analyzing compound characters]. Shuowen 說文 for short. The oldest and therefore one of the most important character dictionaries of ancient China, explaining different writing styles of the characters and presenting a theory of six types of characters according to the principles of their creation. It was compiled in 15 vols. during the Later Han by the scholar Xu Shen 許慎. The dictionary was finished in 100 CE but was only submitted to the court in 121 by the author’s son, Xu Chong 許衝. Originally there were 9,353 characters and 1,163 variant forms. The earliest complete version available today is a woodblock edition from the Song. Sibu beiyao 四部備要 [Complete essentials of important writings of the Four Categories]. A compilation of what was assumed at the time to be the most important writings from Chinese culture. Published in 11,305 vols. between 1920 and 1936 by the Zhonghua Publishing House 中華書局, Shanghai, it consists of 351 books. The Four Categories, which date from the Former Han or Jin period, are Confucian Classics, history and statecraft, masters and philosophers, and belle lettres and collections. Sibu congkan, chubian 四部叢刊初編 [Collected publications in the Four Categories, first series]. Collected by Zhang Yuanji 張元濟, aka Zhang Junsheng 張菊生 (1867–1959), this collection consists of 350 facsimiles of old Chinese publications. Its first printing was in 1919; it was revised and reprinted in 1929, and two further series with, respectively, 81 and 73 facsimiles followed. Siku quanshu 四庫全書 [Complete collection of books in four storehouses]. The Qianlong Emperor 乾隆 ( r. 1735–1795) established the Siku quanshu guan 四 庫全書館, office for the Siku quanshu, in 1773 for the purpose of collecting and editing, with introductions, all books considered appropriate according to instructions given by the emperor. (The ones deemed inappropriate, e.g., antiManchu publications, were burned.) The collection, the result of the work of 361 scholars, was finished in 1782 and revised in 1792. In the following years, copies were made and stored in the libraries of all imperial palaces. The “four storehouses” of the title refer to the Four Categories into which books were divided in libraries (see Sibu beiyao) (Wilkinson, Chinese History, 945–954). The edition used in my translation was Qinding Siku quanshu 欽定四庫全 (Shanghai guji chubanshe 上海古籍出版社, 1987). Siku quanshu cunmu congshu 四庫全書存目叢書 [Complete collection of works from the catalogue of books in four storehouses]. A collection of 4,508 works whose titles were listed in the imperial catalog but not published.



Bibliography

143

Siku quanshu huiyao 四庫全書薈要 [Concise essentials of the complete collection of books in four storehouses). A compilation by Cinggui 慶桂 (1737–1816) of 473 books selected from the Siku quanshu and assembled into a kind of extract. Simin yueling 四民月令 [Monthly decrees to the four [groups of] people]. By Cui Shi 崔寔 (103?–170), aka Cui Tai 崔臺, Cui Zizhen 崔子真, and Cui Yuanshi 崔‌元‌始, who was yilang 議郞 (court gentleman for consultation) serving without regular administrative appointments (Hucker, Dictionary of Official Titles, 2972) and later became prefect of Wuyuan 五原 at the northern border of the territory of the Later Han, where he revolutionized the region’s agriculture (Herzer, “Das Szu-min,” 20). Among his other works is Nongjia yan 農‌家‌諺 [Farmers’ sayings], also quoted in the Tongguk sesigi. The “four groups” are scholar, farmer, artisan, and merchant, a system dating back to Chinese antiquity. The original text is lost; the various texts known today under this name are reconstructions based on quotations in other works. See the lists of sources and reconstructions in Herzer, “Das Szu-min,” 22–24. Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam 新增東國輿地勝覽 [Newly enlarged geographical survey of Korea]. The Tongguk sesigi abbreviates the title, citing it as Yŏji sŭngnam 輿地勝覽, or Geographical Survey. First compiled in 1481 in 50 vols., the king subsequently ordered Kim Chong-chik 金宗直 (1431–1492) to prepare a revised version, which was finished in 1486 in 55 vols. The final revision, which was done by Yi Haeng 李荇 (1478–1534) in 1499 and included five supplementary volumes, was printed in 1530 with the prefix sinjŭng 新增, “newly enlarged,” added to the title. Suishi guangji 歲時廣記 [Extensive records of seasonal customs]. A collection of seasonal customs and imperial edicts that were regularly proclaimed on special days following the flow of the seasons. Compiled by Chen Yuanjing 陳元靚 (n.d.) during the reign of Emperor Lizong of Song 宋理宗 (r. 1224–1264), three different versions have come down to us, two of 4 vols. each, and one of 40 vols. Suishi zaji 歲時雜記 [Seasonal customs’ miscellanea]. Some quotations in the Tongguk sesigi under this general title could not be verified and must be considered anonymous pending further research. One Suishi zaji, also called Lü shi zaji 呂氏雜記 [Lü family miscellanea], was written by Lü Yuanming 呂原明 (1039–1116), aka Lü Xizhe 呂希哲. He was “lecturer in the Hall for Veneration of Governance chongzhengdian shuoshu 崇政殿設書, participating in tutoring the emperor” (Yao, Encyclopedia of Confucianism, 401). Suishu 隋書 [Book of the Sui (dynasty)]. The official history (zhengshi 正史) of the Sui dynasty, completed in 636 in 85 vols. It was compiled under the supervision of Wei Zheng 魏徵 (580–643), aka Xuancheng 玄成, and Zheng Wenzhen Gong 鄭‌文貞公, “Duke Wenzhen of Zheng,” who was chancellor under Taizong 太‌宗 (r. 626-649), the second emperor of the Tang. Wei Zheng later became venerated as a door god, see n. 41 of the translation. Suisuo lu 碎瑣錄. See Fenmen suosui lu. Suosui lu 瑣碎錄. See Fenmen suosui lu. Taiping guangji 太平廣記 [Extensive records of the Taiping era]. Compiled by Li Fang

144

Bibliography

李昉 (925–996), aka Mingyuan 明远. Completed in 978 in 500 vols. comprised of ca. 7,000 tales of a supernatural nature from the Han to Song dynasties. Taiping yulan 太平御覽 [Imperial digest of the Taiping (reign period)]. Compiled by Li Fang 李昉 (925–996), aka Mingyuan 明远. Completed in 983, a 1,000-vol. encyclopedia (leishu 類書) of 2,579 texts in 55 sections, organized by category. Tangshu. See Jiu Tangshu. Tang zhiyan 唐摭言 [Collected Tang sayings]. Compiled by Wang Dingbao 王定保 (870–940), 15 vols. of anecdotes and comments about Tang literati along with details of the examination system. Tianbao yishi. See Kaiyuan Tianbao yishi. Tongak chip 東岳集 [Collected works of Tongak]. Also Tongak sŏnsaeng chip 東岳先 生‌集 [Collected works of Master Tongak], 26 vols., completed in 1640. Tongak Yi An-nul 李東岳安訥 (1571–1637), aka Yi Tongak An-nul 李東岳安訥, worked as an administrator and was part of an official mission to China. But he also experienced exile for some time before returning to high government positions. He concentrated on literature and, together with learned friends, he formed a literary club, the Tongak Poetry Court (Tongak sidan 東岳詩壇). Many of his 5,000 poems in the Chinese language and Chinese poetry style (KKS, 510) were composed on the subject of places or people he visited in the countryside, thereby becoming a kind of reference to the customs and habits of ordinary life of his day. Tongguk sesigi 동국세시기 [Record of the seasonal customs of the Country in the East (Korea)]. By Toae Hong Sŏk-mo 洪錫謨 (1781–1857) (see my translator’s introduction for biographical information). The many full translations of this text into modern Korean are listed under the name of the translator for easier identification in the “Bibliography of Secondary Sources” section below. Tonggyŏng chapki 東京雜記 [Miscellanea from the Eastern Capital]. Compiled by Min Chu-myŏn 閔周冕 (1629–1670) on the occasion of his appointment as magistrate (junior 2nd rank) of the Special Eastern Capital (North Kyŏngsang, Kyŏngju) in 1669. The text is based on a no-longer extant Tonggyŏng chi 東京誌 [Eastern Capital records] by an unknown author of the Koryŏ period. Ullambana Sutra 盂蘭盆經 (Ch. Yulanpen jing 盂蘭盆經, K. Uranbun-kyŏng). A short apocryphal sutra that seems to have been composed during the 6th or 7th c. in China. Tradition claims that it is a translation from Sanskrit, but no original text has been found. Because in this sutra Gautama Buddha advises Maudgalyāyana to rescue his mother from hell by an especially grand offering, it is generally believed that this sutra is a Buddhist reaction to the important concept of filial piety in Confucian philosophy. Wanshu zaji 宛暑雜記 [Miscellanious records of the Wanping County Office]. Published in 1593 by Shen Bang 沈榜 (1540–1597), aka Er-shan 二山, magistrate of Wanping, a part of Beijing in the 1590s. Reprinted 1961 by Beijing chubanshe and 1982 by Beijing guji chubanshe. Xia xiaozheng 夏小正 [Small calendar of the Xia]. Xia is the first dynasty in traditional historiography (ca. 17th–15th c. BCE), and this is the oldest non-fictional text of



Bibliography

145

China. It survives in only 463 Chinese characters in the Da Dai Liji and covers astronomical and weather phenomena, phenology, agriculture, and some political activities. See also Liji. Xidu zaji 西都雜記 [Western Capital miscellanea]. 1 vol. by Wei Shu 韋述 (d. 757), official historian under the Tang dynasty. Xijing zaji 西京雜記 [Miscellaneous records of the Western Capital]. Attributed to various compilers at different times, it contains stories from the Former Han dynasty not included in the official historiographical works. Different versions range from 2 to 6 vols. Xin Tangshu 新唐書 [New book of the Tang (dynasty)]. A new history of the Tang dynasty, commissioned because Emperor Renzong of Song (r. 1010-1063) deemed the existing Tangshu (which then, in contrast, came to be called Jiu Tangshu, or Old Book of the Tang) to be badly organized. The writing of the new version, finished in 1060 in 225 vols., was supervised by Ouyang Xiu 歐‌陽‌修 (1007–1072), aka Yongshu 永叔, Zuiweng 醉翁, Liuyi Jushi 六一居士, and posthumously, Wenzhong 文忠. He was a powerful politician, historian, poet, and calligrapher. Xu Hanshu 續漢書 [Sequel to the Book of the Han (dynasty)]. An extension of the official dynastic history of the Former Han of originally 80 vols, by the Western Jin scholar Sima Biao 司馬彪 (243–306). The text is lost except for the twenty chapters incorporated in the Hou Hanshu by Fan Ye, where they are titled Xu Hanzhi 續漢志 [Treatises of the Xu Han(shu)]. Xuxiu Siku quanshu 續修四庫全書 [Complete collection of books in Four Categories, continued]. A continuation of the Siku quanshu, compiled between 1931 and 1945 and published in Shanghai in 1,800 vols. between 1995 and 2002. It follows the Siku quanshu zongmu tiyao 四庫全書總目提要 [Catalog and important facts in the Complete Collection of Books in Four Categories], compiled in 1782 in 200 vols. by Ji Yun 紀昀, adding sources not found in the earlier collection, especially those from the 18th and 19th c. See Siku quanshu. Yanbei zaji 燕北雜記 [Miscellaneous notes on the lands north of Yan]. By Wu Gui 武珪 (n.d.), a Liao official who surrendered to the Song at Xiongzhou 雄州 (modern Xiong County in Hebei, northeast China) in 1061. He presented his Yanbei zaji to Zhao Zi 趙滋, governor of Xiongzhou, who in turn submitted it to the emperor at the court in Bianjing (modern Kaifeng) (West, “Khitan Life,” n.p.). The today lost original text comprised 5 vols., but a few brief excerpts are included in Qinding Siku quanshu, 欽定四庫全書,·子部十,·雜家類 (Shuofu 說‌郛, 120-vol. version). Yanbei zazhi 燕北雜志 [Miscellaneous notes about the lands north of Yan]. By Lu Youren 陸友仁 (13th c.) (Shuofu 說郛, vol. 22, 120-vol. version). Yangsheng yuelan 養生月覽 [Monthly readings for nourishing life]. By Zhou Shouzhong 周守忠 (early 13th c.). Daoist instructions for daily life and for health preservation and longevity based on the lunar calendar. Yi-Ch’ambong-chip 李參奉集 [Collected works of Yi Ch’ambong]. Ch’ambong Yi Kwang-nyŏ (1720–1783), aka Yi Kwang-nyŏ 李匡呂. Ch’ambong 參奉 was the

146

Bibliography

title of a government official in the lowest rank of the 18-rank system, 9 senior and 9 junior ranks. He was a scholar in the Practical Learning movement (see 67n17). His pen names were Moon Cliff 月巖 and Seven Rapids 七灘. In addition to his scholarly work he also searched for medicine for the people and worked to spread the practice of growing sweet potatoes as a measure against famine. Yijing 易經 [Classic of changes]. The Yijing, K. Yŏkkyŏng, is the most important Chinese divination book. Dating from the Zhou, it is therefore also called Zhouyi 周易 (K. Chuyŏk). Authorship is attributed to various rulers and philosophers in antiquity, but it must be the result of different compilators in the last millennium BCE. It is one of the Confucian Classics, and in the course of time, although based on the Daoist tradition, has been the subject for many Confucian commentaries. For a detailed description (www.chinaknowledge.de, s.v., “Yijing” ) and for a detailed history of the text, see Knechtges and Chang, Chinese Literature, 1882–1883. Yingli lu 靈異錄 [Record of mysteries]. By Yong Luo 雍洛 (n.d.). Also known as Yong Luo yingli xiaolu 雍洛靈異小錄 [Small record of mysteries by Yong Luo], the original has not survived and is known only by quotations in later sources. Yiwen leiju 藝文類聚 [Collection of literature arranged by categories]. Encyclopedia in 100 vols., compiled under the supervision of the calligrapher Ouyang Xun 歐陽詢 (557–641), aka Xinben 信本. It quotes from ca. 1,500 sources, many of them lost. Completed in 624 CE, the earliest extant print is from the 12th c. CE. Yiyuan cihuang 藝苑雌黃 [Critiques from the Art Garden]. A 20-vol. work by Yan Youyi 嚴有翼 (12th c.). While the original has been lost, quotations in other sources have been compiled into a 10-vol. version that contains critical corrections in poetry transmission and descriptions of divinities, plants, and animals found in other publications. Yŏryang sesigi 洌陽歲時記 [Record of the seasonal customs of Yŏryang]. By Kim Mae-sun 金邁淳 (1776–1840), aka Taesan 臺山. Written in 1819, it was transmitted as part of the Taesanjip 臺山集 [Collected works of Taesan] of 1879 and of the unpublished manuscript “Taesan ch’ogo” 臺山草藁 [Rough drafts by Taesan].Yŏryang is another name for today’s Seoul, see 68n23. Yuanjian leihan 淵鑑類函 [Classified repository of profound appraisals]. A 450-vol. book of quotations from antiquity to 1556 compiled by Zhang Ying 張英 (1637– 1708) and Wang Shizhen 王士禎 (1634–1711) and published in 1710. Yuding Yuanjian leihan 御定淵鑑類函. See Yuanjian leihan. “Yuding” refers to Emperor Kangxi 康熙 (1661–1722), who commissioned the work and in some library catalogues erroneously is given as its author/compiler. Yueling. See Liji. Yupu zaji 寓圃雜記 [Miscellanea from my garden]. Ten vols. by Wang Qi 王錡 (1433– 1499), aka Yuanyu 元禹. Reprinted in Siku quanshu cunmu congshu. Zhang Hejian ji 張河間集 [Collected works of Zhang Hejian]. Eleven vols. by Zhang Ping-zi 張平子, aka Zhang Heng 張衡 (78–139 CE), mathematician, astronomer, and famous author of fu 賦 (rhapsodies). Heijian was the administrative



Bibliography

147

center in Heibei, where he was chancellor under the Later Han dynasty from 136 to 138 CE. Zhiyan 摭言 [Collected sayings]. Quoted in the Gujin shiwen leiju. Zhiyi 摭遺 [Collected omissions]. Quoted in the Gujin shiwen leiju. Also see Nanjiang yishi kanben Zhongshan chuanxin lu 中山傳信録 [Zhongshan mission records]. By the envoy Xu Baoguang 徐葆光 (1671?–1723), aka Liangzhi 亮直, who in 1719 stayed eight months in Liuqiu. Zhongshu shu 種樹書 [Cultivating trees]. By Yu Zongben 兪宗本 (1331–1401), 3 vols. The title is misleading, because vol.1 is an agricultural calendar, vol. 2 provides advice for cultivating beans, wheat, bamboo, and trees, and vol. 3 for flowers, fruits, and vegetables. Zhongyong 中庸 [Doctrine of the mean]. One of the Confucian Classis, originally part of the Liji, often attributed to Zisi 子思 , aka Kong Ji 孔伋, a grandson of Confucius, but see Liji entry above. The concept of “the mean,” that is, of moderation in thought and activities, is central for Confucianism. Zhouli 周禮 [Rites of the Zhou (dynasty)]. Originally called Zhouguan 周官 [Offices of Zhou], it is a work on the theory and praxis of the bureaucratic organization during the Western Zhou period, probably anonymous, although attributed to Zhou Gong 周公, the Duke of Zhou (11th c. BCE). Zhuzi yulei 朱子語類 [Discourses of Master Zhu, arranged thematically]. By Li Jingde 黎靖德, 140 vols., published in 1270. A collection of records by several disciples of the oral teachings of Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130–1200) along with discussions with his students.

Bibliography of Secondary Sources Apatóczky, Ákos Bertalan. Yiyu: An Indexed Critical Edition of a Sixteenth-Century Sino-Mongolian Glossary. Kent: Global Oriental, 2009. Buddhist Text Translation Society, trans. The Buddha Speaks the “Ullambana Sutra.” http://www.cttbusa.org/ullambana/ullambana.asp. Bulag, Uradyn E. The Mongols at China’s Edge: History and the Politics of National Unity. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002. Buswell, Robert E., Jr., and Donald S. Lopez Jr. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014. Bynner, Witter. Three Hundred Poems of the T’ang Dynasty 618–906. Reprint, Taipei: Maling chubanshe, 1969. First published 1963. Chan, Wing-tsit. The Platform Scripture. New York: St. John’s University Press, 1963. Cheju palchŏn yŏn’guwŏn 제주발전연구원. Cheju munhwa sangjingmul 99 sŏn Hwar­ yong pangan yŏn’gu 제주문화상징물선99활용방안연구. JRI Cheju-yŏn’guwŏn, 2009. Chen Hsiyuan 陳熙遠. “Zhongguo ye weimian” 中國夜未眼. Zhongyang yanjiu-­yuan

148

Bibliography

Lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 中央硏究院歷史語言硏究所集刊 75, no. 2 (2004): 283–329. Chin Kyŏng-hwan 진경환. “Sesigi sŏsul-ŭi pangsik-kwa ŭimi—‘Tongguk sesigi’ŭi ‘chungguk kŭn’gŏ ch’atki’-rŭl chungsim-ŭro” 세시기(歲時記) 서술의 방식 과 의미—의 ‘중국 근거 찾기’를 중심으로. Ŏmun nonjip 어문논집 [Minjok Ŏmunhakhoe민족어문학회] 53 (2008): 57–82. Ch’oe Sang-su 崔常壽. Sesi p’ungsok 歲時風俗. Seoul: Sŏmundang, 1988. Ch’oe, Yŏng-ho, Peter H. Lee, and Wm. Theodore de Bary, eds. Sources of Korean Tradition, Volume Two: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Chŏng Sŭng-mo 정승모. “Sesi kwallyŏn kirok-tŭrŭl t’onghae pon Chosŏn sigi sesi p’ungsok-ŭi pyŏnhwa” 歲時關聯 記錄들을 통해 본 조선시기 歲時風俗의 變化. Yŏksa minsokhak 역사민속학 13 (2001): 50–69. Chŏng Tong-hyo 鄭東孝. Urisul sajŏn 우리술 사전. Seoul: Chungang Taehakkyo Ch’ulp’anbu, 1995. Chosŏnmal sajŏn 조선말 사전. Compiled by Chosŏn minju-chuŭi inmin konghwaguk Kwahagwŏn Ŏnŏ munhak yŏn’guso Sajŏn yŏn’gusil 조선 민주주의 인민 공 화국 과학원 언어 문학 연구소 사전 연구실. Pyongyang: Chosŏn minju-chuŭi inmin konghwaguk Kwahagwŏn Chosŏn minju-chuŭi inmin konghwaguk Kwahagwŏn ch’ulp’ansa, 1962. Chosŏn minju-chuŭi inmin konghwaguk Kwahagwŏn Kojŏn yŏn’gusil 조선 민주 주의 인민 공화국 과학원 고전연구실. Yŏkchu Tongguk sesigi 역주 동국세시기. Reprint: Seoul: Han’guk munhwasa, 1999. First published 1958, Pyongyang. Chu Yŏng-ha 주영하. Sikt’ak wi-e Han’guksa 식탁 위의 한국사. Seoul: Hyumŏnist’ŭ ch’ulp’an kŭrub, 2013. Chung-Cho taesajŏn 中朝大辭典. 9 vols. Edited by Chung Han pŏnyŏk munhŏn yŏn’guso 中韓飜譯文獻硏究所. Asan: Sŏnmun taehakkyo chulp’anbu 2002. Dong, Kaichen. “A Preliminary Discussion of Chinese Agricultural Treatises in the Style of ‘Monthly Ordinances’ Yueling.” Journal d’agriculture traditionelle et de botanique appliquée 28, no. 3 (1981): 231–251. Dong, Kunyu. “Reexamination of the Pre-Qin Muji (grave sacrifice) Institution.” Chinese Archaeology 12, no. 1 (Nov. 2012): 125–129. Dubs, Homer H., and Rafe de Crespigny, comp. and trans. Official Titles of the Former Han Dynasty. Oriental Monograph Series 2. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1967. Eberhard, Wolfram. Lexikon chinesischer Symbole. Köln: Eugen Diederichs Verlag, 1983. ———. “Untersuchungen an astronomischen Texten des Chinesischen Tripitaka.” Monumenta Serica 5 (1940): 208–262. Ebrey, Patricia. “Estate and Family Management in the Later Han as Seen in the ‘Monthly Instructions for the Four Classes of People.’ ” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 17, no. 2 (1974): 173–205. Gardiner, Kenneth H. J. “Standard Histories, Han to Sui.” In Essays on the Sources for Chinese History, edited by Donald Leslie, Colin Mackerras, and Wang Gungwu, 42–52. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973.



Bibliography

149

Gesterkamp, Lennert. “The Heavenly Court: A Study on the Iconopraxis of Daoist Temple Painting.” PhD diss., Leiden University, 2008. Giele, Enno. Imperial Decision-Making and Communication in Early China: A Study of Cai Yong’s “Duduan.” Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2006. Graham, Angus C. The Book of Lieh-Tzŭ. London: John Murray, 1960. Ha, Tae-Hung, and Grafton K. Mintz, trans. Samguk Yusa. Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1972. Haboush, Jahyun Kim. The Memoirs of Lady Hyegyong: The Autobiographical Writings of a Crown Princess of Eighteenth-Century Korea. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Haftmann, Anja K. Die handschriftlichen Textzeugen des Langgedichts Nonggawŏllyŏngka. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1999. Han-Chung-Yŏng Tongyang ŭihak sangyong taesajŏn 韓-中-英 東洋醫學常用大辭. Compiled by Gao Guangzhen and Zheng Nan. Seoul: Maeil Kŏn’gang Sinmunsa Ch’ulp’anbu, 2001. Han’guk hanchaŏ sajŏn 韓國漢字語辭典. Compiled by Tan’guk Taehakkyo Tongyanghak yŏnguso 檀國大學校 東洋學硏究所. Seoul: Tan’guk Taehakkyo Ch’ulp’anbu, 1992. Han’guk kosŏ ch’onghap mongnok 韓國古書總合目錄. Compiled by Kukhoe tosŏgwan Sasŏguk ch’amgo sŏjigwa 國會圖書館司書局參考書誌課. Seoul: Taehanmin’guk Kukhoe tosŏgwan, 1968. Han’guk minsok taesajŏn 한국민속대사전. Compiled by Han’guk minsok sajŏn P’yŏn­ ch’an wiwŏnhoe 한국민속사전 편찬위원회. Seoul: Minjok munhwasa, 1991. Han’guk sijo taesajŏn 韓國時調大事典. Compiled by Pak Ŭl-su 朴乙洙. Seoul: Asea munhwasa, 1991. Han’guk singmul taebogam 韓國植物大寶鑑. Edited by Song Chu-t’aek 宋柱澤, Chŏng Hyŏn-pae 鄭炫培, Kim Pyŏng-u 金炳友, and Tae Hŭi-sŏng 泰熙成. Seoul: Han’guk charyo singmul yŏn’guso, Cheil ch’ulp’ansa, 1989. Hanŭihak Han-Yŏng Sajŏn: Korean-English Dictionary of Oriental Medicine. Edited by Sajŏn p’yŏnch’an wiwŏnhoe 사전편찬위원회. Paju: Chimundang 지문당, 2004. Hargett, James M. Stairway to Heaven: A Journey to the Summit of Mount Emei. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2006. Harvard University. “Korean History Glossary.” http://projects.iq.harvard.edu​ /­files​/gpks/files/korean_history_glossary_201506__1.docx. Herzer, Christine. “Das Szu-min Yueh-Ling des Ts’ui Shih. Ein Bauern-Kalender aus der Spaeteren Han-Zeit.” PhD diss., University of Hamburg, 1963. Hogarth, Hyun-key Kim. Korean Shamanism and Cultural Nationalism. Korean Studies Series 14. Seoul: Jimoondang Publishing Company, 1999. Hong Sŏk-mo 洪錫謨. Seoul sesi hansi: Toha sesi kisoksi 서울 세시 한시: 都下歲時紀 俗‌詩. Translated by Kim Kyŏng-hwan 김경환. Seoul: Pogosa, 2003. ———. Tongguk sesigi 동국세시기. Translated by Chang Yu-sŭng 장유승. Paju: Ak’anet, 2016. ———. Tongguk sesigi 東國歲時記. Translated by Ch’oe Tae-rim 崔大林. Seoul: Hongsin munhwasa, 2008.

150

Bibliography

———. Tongguk sesigi 동국세시기. Translated by Chŏng Sŭng-mo 정승모. Seoul: Tosŏ ch’ulp’an p’ulbit , 2009. ———. Tongguk sesigi 東國歲時記. Translated by Chosŏn Kwangmunhoe 朝鮮光 文‌會. Keijō [Seoul]: Chosŏn Kwangmunhoe, 1911. ———. Tongguk sesigi (wae) 東國歲時記 (外). Translated by Yi Sŏk-ho李錫浩. Ŭryu mun’go 乙酉文庫 25. Seoul: Ŭryu munhwasa, 1977. Huang, Jianxing. “A Research on Shijiao: The Ritual Traditions of Fashi in South China.” PhD diss., Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. Huang, Yen-Kai. A Dictionary of Chinese Idiomatic Phrases. Taichung: Taiwan Donghai Publishing House, 1969. Hucker, Charles O. A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985. Hughes, Ernest R. Two Chinese Poets: Vignettes of Han Life and Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960. Hunmong chahoe 訓蒙字會. Seoul: Tan’guk taehakkyo ch’ulp’anbu, 1971. Hyŏn Yong-chun 현용준. Cheju-to musok-kwa kŭ chubyŏn 濟州道巫俗과 그 周邊. Seoul: Chimmundang, 2002 Im Ki-chung 임기중. Uri Sesi p’ungsok-ŭi norae 우리 세시풍속의 노래. Seoul: Chimmundang, 1993. Kang Mu-hak 강무학. Han’guk sesi p’ungsok ki 한국세시풍속기. Seoul: Chimmundang, 1995. Karlgren, Bernhard. Grammata Serica Recensa. Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, 1972. Kim Chong-ha 김종하. Sin chuhae Ponch’o kangmok 新註解 本草綱目. 17 vols. Seoul: Tosŏ ch’ulp’an yŏil, 2007. Kim Myŏng-sun 김명순 and Kim Chong-kun 김종군. “Munhŏn sok Chehot’angŭi chorihak-chŏk punsŏk yŏn’gu” 문헌 속 제호탕(醍醐湯)의 조리학적 분석 연‌구. Tong Asia siksaenghwal hakhoe chi 東아시아 食生活學會誌 18, no. 4 (2018): 446–454. Kim Sŏng-wŏn 金星元. Han’guk-ŭi sesi p’ungsok 韓國의 歲時風俗. Seoul: Myŏng­ mun­dang, 1994. Kim, Sun Joo. Marginality and Subversion in Korea: The Hong Kyŏngnae Rebellion of 1812. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007. Kim Tae-kil 金大吉. “Ch’osŏn hugi ugŭm-e kwanhan yŏn’gu” 초선후기 牛禁에 관 한 연구. Sahak yŏn’gu 사학연구 52 (1996): 157–209. Kim, Tai-jin. A Bibliographical Guide to Traditional Korean Sources. Seoul: Asiatic Research Center, Korea University, 1976. Kim Yŏng-t’ae 김영태. Yet maŭl sesi.chŏlgi p’ungsok 옛마을 세시ᆞ절기 풍속. Paju: Han’guk haksul chŏngbo, 2009. Knechtges, David R., and Taiping Chang, eds. Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference Guide, Part Three. Leiden: Brill, 2014. Kotyk, Jeffrey. “Astrological Iconography of Planetary Deities in Tang China: Near Eastern and Indian Icons in Chinese Buddhism.” Journal of Chinese Buddhist Studies 30 (2017): 33–88.



Bibliography

151

———. “Iranian Elements in Late-Tang Buddhist Astrology.” Asia Major 30, no. 1 (2017): 25–58. Kroll, Paul W. A Student’s Dictionary of Classical and Medieval Chinese. Leiden: Brill, 2015. Kugŏ kungmunhak sajŏn 國語國文學事典. Edited by Seoul Taehakkyo Tonga munhwa yŏn’guso 서울大學校 東亞文化硏究所. Seoul: Sin’gu munhwasa, 1974. Kugŏ taesajŏn 국어대사전. Edited by Yi Hŭi-sŭng 李熙昇. Seoul: Minjung sŏrim, 1990. Kuksa taesajŏn 國史大辭. Edited by Yi Hong-chik 李弘稙. Seoul: Paengmansa, 1975. Kŭm Pok-hyŏn 금복현. Chŏnt’ong puch’ae 전통 부채. Seoul: Taewŏnsa, 2006. Kungnip minsok pangmulgwan 국립민속박물관. Chosŏn tae sesigi III 조선대세시기 III. Seoul: Kungnip minsok pangmulgwan, 2007. Kungnip minsok pangmulgwan 국립민속박물관, ed. Han’guk minsok tae paekkwa sajŏn 한국민속대백과사전. Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture. https/folkency​ .nfm​.go.kr/kr/main. Kweon, Sug-In. “Discourses of Korean Culture amid the Expansion of Consumer Society and the Global Order.” Korean Anthropology Review 1, no. 1 (2017): 131–159. Lee, Peter H., and Wm. Theodore de Bary, eds. Sourcebook of Korean Civilization, Volume One: From Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. Legge, James. Confucian Analects, The Great Learning, and The Doctrine of the Mean. Vol. 1 of The Chinese Classics. Reprint, Taipei: Jinxue shuju, 1969. First Published 1892. ———. The Li Ki. Vol. 28 of Sacred Books of the East, edited by Max Müller. In CT. ———. The She King. Vol. 4 of The Chinese Classics. Reprint, Taipei: Jinxue shuju, 1969. First published 1871. ———. The Shoo King. Vol. 3 of The Chinese Classics. Reprint, Taipei: Jinxue shuju, 1969. First published 1865. Lu, Yongxiang. A History of Chinese Science and Technology, vol. 3. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press, 2014. Mathews, Robert H. Mathew’s Chinese-English Dictionary, Revised American Edition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1943. Meyer, Christian. Ritendiskusionen am Hof der Nördlichen Song-Dynastie 1034–1093. Monumenta Serica Monograph Series 58. Sankt Augustin: Institut Monumenta Serica, 2008. Miao Qiyu 繆啓愉 and Wan Guoding 萬國鼎. Simin yueling jishi 四民月令輯釋. Beijing: Nongye chubanshe, 1981. Milburn, Olivia. “From Storytelling to Drama: The Tale of Jie Zhi Tui.” SOAS Literary Review, AHRB Centre Special Issue (Autumn 2004): 1–15. Mollier, Christine. Buddhism and Taoism Face to Face: Scripture, Ritual, and Iconographic Exchange in Medieval China. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008. Nam Hyang 남향. “Yŏngdŭng halmŏni hoch’ing-ŭi ŭimi-wa sŏnggyŏk 영등할머니 호칭의 의미와 성. Yŏksa minsokhak 역사민속학 33 (2010): 293–326. Naquin, Susan. Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400–1900. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.

152

Bibliography

National Folk Museum of Korea, ed. Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture. http:// folkency.nfm.go.kr/en/main. Nienhauser, William H. The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature. 2 vols. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1986, 1998. O Sun-tŏk 오순덕. “Chosŏn sidae sesi ŭmsik-e taehan munhŏn-chŏk koch’al” 조선 시대 세시음식(歲時飮食)에 대한 문헌적 고찰. Han’guk sikp’um yŏngyanghakhoe chi 한국식품영양학회지 25, no. 1 (2012): 32–49. Obata, Shigeyoshi. The Works of Li Po. Reprint, Taipei: n.p., 1968. First published 1922 by E. P. Dutton & Co., New York. Paek Yun-ki 白允基. Ponch’o kangmok 本草綱目. Seoul: Komunsa, 1973. Palais, James B. Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996. Peterson, Mark. “Slaves and Owners; or Servants and Masters? A Preliminary Examination of Slavery in Traditional Korea.” Transactions of the Korea Branch, Royal Asiatic Society, 60 (1985): 31–41. Pettid, Michael J. “Shamans, Ghosts and Hobgoblins amidst Korean Folk Customs.” Key Papers on Korea: Essays Celebrating 25 Years of the Center of Korean Studies, SOAS, University of London, edited by Andrew Davis Jackson, 203–219. Leiden: Global Oriental, 2013. Pratt, Keith, and Richard Rutt, eds. Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Richmond: Curzon Press, 1999. Pregadio, Fabrizio, ed. The Encyclopedia of Taoism. New York: Routledge, 2008. Rong, Xinjiang. Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang. Leiden: Brill, 2013. Ryu Chong-mok 류종목. Chŏngbon wanyŏk So Dongp’a sijip kaejŏngp’an 정본완역 소동 파시집 개정판. Seoul: Seoul Taehakkyo Ch’ulp’an munhwawŏn, 2012. Sang Ki-suk 尙基淑. Hyŏng Ch’o sesigi 荊楚歲時記. Seoul: Chimmundang, 1996. ———. “ ‘Tongguk sesigi’-wa ‘Hyŏng Ch’o sesigi’-ŭi sesi p’ungsok pigyo’ ‘東國歲 時記’와 ‘荊楚歲時記’의 歲時風俗 比較.” Tongbanghak 東方學 3 (1997): 125–149. Schmidt, Jerry D. Stone Lake: The Poetry of Fan Chengda (1126–1193). New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Shaffer, David E. Seasonal Customs of Korea. Seoul: Hollym, 2007. Shin Myung-ho. Joseon Royal Court Culture. Translated by Timothy V. Atkinson. Seoul: Dolbegae Publishers, 2004. Shultz, Edward J., and Hugh H. W. Kang, trans. The Silla Annals of the “Samguk Sagi.” Seongnam: The Academy of Korean Studies Press, 2012. Sijo munhak sajŏn 時調文學事典. Compiled by Chŏng Pyŏng-uk 鄭炳昱. Seoul: Sin’gu munhwasa, 1972. Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty. Translated by Burton Watson. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hongkong, 1993. First published 1961 by Columbia University Press. Sim Chae-wan 심재완, ed. Sae kugŏ taesajŏn 새국어대사전. Taegu: Munjisa, 1977. Smith, Curtis Dean. “The Dream of Ch’ou-ch’ih: Su Shih’s Awakening.” Han xue yan yiu 漢學年久 18, no. 1 (Minguo 89 nian 6 yue [June 2000]): 255–289.



Bibliography

153

So Dongp’a chŏnjip 蘇東坡全集. 13 vols. Edited by Han’guk-munhwa-kanhaenghoe 韓國文化刊行會. Seoul: Kyŏngin-munhwsa, 1983. Song, Bang-song. Source Readings in Korean Music. Korean Traditional Music 1. Seoul: Korean National Commission for UNESCO, 1980. Sŏng Wŏn-kyŏng 成元慶. “ ‘Tongguk sesigi’ yŏn’gu—‘Yegi wŏllyŏng’-gwa-ŭi pigyo” 연구—과의 비교. Sŏnggok nonch’ong 省谷論叢 29, no. 1 (1998): 1–75. Soothill, William Edward, and Lewis Hodous, comp. A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms. Reprint, Taipei: Ch’eng-wen Publishing Company, 1960. First published 1937 by Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., London. Sturgeon, Donald, ed. Chinese Text Project. https://ctext.org. Suishi xisu ziliao huibian 歲時習俗資料彙編. Taibei: Yiwen yinshuguan, 1970. Taehan singmul togam 大韓植物圖鑑. Edited by Yi Ch’ang-bok 李昌福. Seoul: Hyang­ munsa, 1979. Teng, Ssu-yü, and Knight Biggerstaff, comp. An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Chinese Reference Works. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971. Uri mal k’ŭn sajŏn 우리말 큰사전. Compiled by Han’gŭl hakhoe 한글학회. Seoul: Ŏmun’gak, 1992. Werner, Edward Theodore Chalmers. A Dictionary of Chinese Mythology. Reprint, New York: Julian Press, 1969. First published 1932, Shanghai. West, Andrew. “Accounts of Khitan Life and Language.” BableStone (blog), 2014. http://babelstone.blogspot.com/2014/05/accounts-of-khitan-life-and​ -­language​.html. Wilkinson, Endymion. Chinese History: A New Manual. 4th ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015. Williams, C. A. S. Chinese Symbolism and Art Motifs: A Comprehensive Handbook on Symbolism in Chinese Art through the Ages. 4th ed. Rutland, VT: Tuttle Publishing, 2006. World Health Organization. WHO International Standard Terminologies on Traditional Medicine in the Western Pacific Region. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2007. Yao, Xinzhong. The Encyclopedia of Confucianism. New York: Routledge, 2003. Yi Kang-no 이강로. Sesi p’ungsok minsok nori 세시풍속 민속놀이. Seoul: Sejong Taewang kinyŏm saŏphoe, 2000. Yi P’il-yŏng 이필영. Tongak sŏnsaeng chip II 동악선생집 II. Seoul: Tŏksu Yissi munye kongp’a chonghoe. 2003. Yi Sŏk-ho 李錫浩, trans. Tongguk sesigi/Yŏryang sesigi/Tongdo chapchi/Tonggyŏng chapki 東國歲時記/洌陽歲時記/京都雜志/東京雜記. Seoul: Taeyang sŏjŏk. 1975. Yi Su-kwang 이수광. Chibong yusŏl 芝峯類說. Translated by Nam Man-sŏng 南晩星. Seoul: Ŭryu munhwasa, 1994. Yim, Haksoon. “Cultural Identity and Cultural Policy in South Korea.” The International Journal of Cultural Policy in South Korea 8, no. 1 (2002): 37–48. Zhongwen Da Cidian 中文大辭典. Edited by Chang Chi-yun (Zhang Qijun) 張其昀. Taipei: Zhongguo wenhua daxue chubanshe, 1973.

Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

Following each main entry are two sets of abbreviations in parentheses. The first is an abbreviation of the location where the event occurred or the custom practiced: RC stands for the rituals, customs, and games at the royal court; CAP for those in the capital; CUG, the largest group, is for those in the countryside, those locally unspecified in the Tongguk sesigi, and general rituals, customs, and games. The numbers that follow are for the dates when the rituals, customs, and games took place, written (month.day), with (month.var.) indicating days that are variable. Absolute Heaven King 大自在天王, ritual of welcome for. See rituals aeho 艾虎. See mugwort tigers animal symbols. See Twelve-Year Cycle ant’aek-cho 安宅兆. See divination: for peace in the house archery contest, sahoe 射會 (CUG) (3.var.; 5.5), 8, 41, 107n357 arrowroot fighting, kalchŏn 葛戰 (CUG) (1.15), 35, 92n196 autumn attendance token examination, ch’u-togi-kwa 秋到記科. See state examinations bean divination 콩부름. See divination: months divination bing (mokp’ae) 氷 (木牌). See tokens for ice Birth of Man Day examination, inil-chesi 人日製試. See state examinations blossoms and willows, hwaryu 花柳 (CAP) (3.var.), 40, 100n281 border fight, pyŏnjŏn 邊戰, sŏkchŏn-nori 石戰놀 (CUG) (1.15), 33, 90n175 bride doll, kaksi 각시 (CUG) (3.var.), 41, 101n286 Bronze Birth of Man Day talismans, Tongin-sŭng 銅人勝 (RC) (1.7), 87n107 Buddha, 22, 52, 61, 63, 78n72, 96n241, 114n428–429, 122n496 Bathing the Buddha Day, Yok-Pul-il 浴佛日(CUG) (4.8), 42, 102n305 birthday of, Sŏkka saengil 釋迦生日(CUG) (4.8), 38, 44, 102n305 cooking beans on birthday of, chadu 煮豆 (CUG) (4.8), 44 ritual offering to 設齋供佛 (CUG) (7.15), 63 shouting with a flag on the birthday of, hogi 呼旗 (CUG) (4.8), 43 burning lantern ritual, yŏndŭng 然燈. See rituals burning of lost hair on New Year’s, sot’oebal 燒退髮 (CUG) (1.1), 22 burning rats fire, hunsŏhwa 燻鼠火 (CUG) (1.var.), 27 calamity years 三災. See three calamity [years] calendars, changnyŏk 粧曆 (RC) (11.var.), 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 57, 75, 123n506 cart fights, sure-ssaum 수레싸움, ch’ajŏn 車戰 (CUG) (1.15), 34

155

156

Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

catch-the-chicken game, tak-chapki-nori 닭잡기노리 (CUG) (8.15), 53, 116n442 Celestial Stems. See Ten Celestial Stems chadu 煮豆. See Buddha: cooking beans on Buddha’s birthday Ch’agwi Shrine 遮歸堂. See rituals: sacrifice of liquor and meat ch’ajŏn 車戰. See cart fights chakchŏl 嚼癤. See cracking blains chanang 子囊. See rat pouch changnyŏk 粧曆. See calendars charye 茶禮. See tea ceremony chegi-ch’agi 제기차기. See hacky sack chejung-tan 濟衆丹. See helping-the-masses elixir cheung 제웅. See straw effigy chigil-sinjang-to 直日神將圖. See god-general of the [respective] day ch’igyo 齒較. See teeth contest chiji 地支. See Twelve-Year Cycle ch’ilsŏkche 七夕製. See state examinations: Seventh Evening examination chin chŏnmun 進箋文. See presenting memoranda Chinese zodiac, sudae 獸帶. See Twelve-Year Cycle chip-puri 집불이. See divination: household divination Ch’oe Yŏng using kites for attacking Tamna, Ch’oe Yŏng pŏl Tamna 崔瑩伐耽羅. See kites chogam-il 潮減日. See neap tide days Choha 朝賀. See Great Morning Congratulatory Ceremony chŏlche 節製. See state examinations: festival days ch’ŏn . . . u Taemyo 薦于太廟 (RC) (2.var., 6.var., 11.var., 12.var.), 49, 59, 125n526 ch’ŏn chodo 薦早稻. See early ripening rice, offering of ch’ŏn’gan 天干. See Ten Celestial Stems ch’ŏngch’am 聽讖. See divination: listening prophecy divination ch’ŏngdan 靑壇. See spring altar Chonggyu 鍾馗. See Zhong Kuí Chongmyo-taeje 宗廟大 a 祭 (RC) (12.var.), 125n526 chŏngp’um 政稟. See discussing petitions on New Year’s ch’ŏnjung-chŏkpu 天中赤符. See Tano: Tano red charm chŏnmun 箋文. See presenting memoranda chŏnyak 煎藥. See decocted medicine, distribution of Ch’o-p’ail 초파일. See First P’ail chŏrilche 節日製. See state examinations: festival days ch’ŏyong 處容: ch’ŏyong dance 處容舞. See straw effigy ch’ullyŏn 春聯. See spring couplets chul-tarigi 줄다리기. See tug-of-war ch’unch’ŏp 春帖. See spring folded poems ch’unch’uk 春祝. See spring blessings chunghwa-ch’ŏk 中和尺. See harmony [day] yardstick chunghwa-chŏl 中和節. See harmony day ch’unsa 春詞. See spring poems



Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

157

ch’un-togi-kwa 春到記科. See state examinations: spring attendance token examination ch’uryŏng 芻靈. See straw effigy chusa t’ap 朱砂搨. See cinnabar-colored rubbings at New Year’s chusŏk 秋夕 (CUG) (8.15), 10, 115n434 chuyuk-chesin 酒肉祭神. See rituals: sacrifice of liquor and meat at Kwangyang Shrine 廣壤堂 and at Ch’agwi Shrine 遮歸堂 cinnabar-colored rubbings at New Year’s, chusa t’ap 朱砂搨 (RC) (1.var.), 23 clay cow, to-u 土牛 (CUG) (1.var.), 26, 82n105 clearing away misfortune, soaek 消厄 (CUG) (1.1.), 29 coloring one’s fingernails with touch-me-not and alum 以鳳仙花調白礬染指甲 (CUG) (4.var.), 45 community liquor drinking, ritual of, hyang-ŭmju-ye 鄕飮酒禮 (CUG) (3.var.), 41, 101n292, 102n296 cracking blains, chakchŏl 嚼癤, purŏm kkaemulgi 부럼깨물기 (CUG) (1.15), 29, 86n131 dark and gloomy day 二十四日 每年陰曀 (CUG) (1.24), 36 decocted medicine, distribution of, chŏnyak 煎藥 (RC) (11.var.), 58 dharma drumming, pŏpko 法鼓 (CUG) (1.1), 22, 76n57 discussing petitions on New Year’s, chŏngp’um 政稟 (RC) (1.1), 21 divination, 61, 79n80 by ashes in a bowl, sabal-chae-chŏm 사발재점, sabal-chŏm-ch’igi 사발점치기, ­uhoe-chŏm 盂灰占 (CUG) (1.15), 34, 91n188 by counting cock crowing, sanmyŏng-su 筭鳴數 (CUG) (1.15), 34, 79n88 by dragon ploughing, yonggyŏng 龍耕 (CUG) (12.var.), 58, 124n517 by fishing for dragon eggs, yongal-kŏnjigi 용알건지기 (CUG) (1.15), 34 by Five Phases sticks, ohaeng-chŏm 五行占 (CUG) (1.1), 22 household divination, chip-puri 집불이 (CUG) (1.15), 34, 91n193 listening prophecy divination, ch’ŏngch’am 聽讖 (CUG) (1.1), 22 by measuring the shadow at First Full Moon night, mogyŏng-chŏm 木‌影‌占 (CUG) (1.15), 34 months divination, tal-puri 달불이; also called bean divination, k’ong-purŭm 콩‌부름 (CUG) (1.15), 34, 91n192 for peace in the house, ant’aek-cho 安宅兆 (CUG) (1.15), 55 by rain to predict a bumper harvest, ujŏm 雨占 (CUG) (2.20), 38 by three stars of Orion’s belt, samsŏng 參星 (CUG) (2.var.), 37 door guardians, munbae 門排 (RC) (CUG) (1.1), 21 Double Nine Day examination, kuilche 九日製. See state examinations Double Three Day examination, samilche 三日製. See state examinations early ripening rice, offering of in the chief ministers’ residences, ch’ŏn chodo 薦早稻 (CAP) (7.1 or 7.15), 52 Earth and Grain Altar, Sajik-tan 社稷壇 (RC) (12.var.), 59, 125n526 Earthly Branches. See Twelve-Year Cycle

158

Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

eating with a dog (weak children), soa yŏ kyŏn ilsi cha tam ilsi 小兒 與犬一匙自噉 一‌匙. See weak children eating with a dog eunuchs’ walk-around to scorch rats, hunsŏ 爋鼠 (RC) (1.var.), 27 Evening of Riddance, paying tribute for the last year, kuse-munan 舊歲問安 (RC) (12. last day), 12, 33, 60 exorcism: in Cheju 儺戱 (CUG) (1.1 – 1.15), 23 exorcism rites 儺戱 (RC) (1.1), 23 great exorcism, taena 大儺 (RC) (1.var. / 12. last day), 23, 60, 77n69 walk-around, hwaban 花盤 (RC) (1.1), 23, 77n64 extensive relief pills, kwangje-hwan 廣濟丸 (RC) (12.var.), 59 fireplace meeting, nallo-hoe 煖爐會 (CUG) (10.var.), 55 First Day of the Snake examination 上巳節製. See state examinations First P’ail, Ch’o-p’ail 초파일 (CUG) (4.8), 102n304 Goddess of the Wind, Yŏngdŭng-sin 靈登神. See rituals god-general of the [respective] day, chigil-sinjang-to 直日神將圖 (RC) (1.1), 20, 72n34 Gods National Preceptor, husband and wife, kuksa-sin pubu 國師神夫婦. See rituals gods of the sun and the moon, il-wŏl-sin 日月神. See rituals goose feather “phoenix” 姑姑妹. See kogomae grain poles, hwagan 禾竿, togan 稻竿, pyŏt-karit-tae 볏가릿대 (CUG) (1.15, 2.1), 28, 37, 85n12, 95n224 Grand (memorial) Rite, Sajik-taeje 社稷大祭 (RC) (12.var.), 20 granting of rice, fish, and salt to elders, sa mi, ŏ, yŏm 賜米魚鹽 (RC) (1.1), 49, 59, 125n526 graves: grave-site sacrifice, myoje 墓祭 ( CAP) (CUG) (1.1, 2/3.var., 5.5, 8.15, 12.21), 97n248 pouring liquor on, yo chŏn 澆奠 (CAP) (2. or 3.var.), 38 visiting on Cold Meals Day 上墓 (CAP) (2. or 3.var.), 39 great exorcism, taena 大儺. See exorcism Great Morning Congratulatory Ceremony, Taejo-harye 大朝賀禮, abbreviated Choha 朝賀(RC) (1.1), 19, 69n8 great reshuffling, taejŏng 大政 (RC) (12.var.), 62, 129n554 hacky sack, chegi-ch’agi 제기차기(CUG) (12.var.), 62, 129n559 haenang 亥囊. See pig pouch harmony day, chunghwa-chŏl 中和節 (RC) (2.1), 37 harmony [day] yardsticks, chunghwa-ch’ŏk 中和尺 (RC) (2.1), 36, 37 heat-selling 賣暑 (CUG) (1.15), 143, 87n143 helping-the-masses elixir, chejung-tan 濟衆丹 (RC) (12.var.), 59 hoehoea 回回兒. See pinwheel hogi 呼旗. See Buddha: shouting with a flag on the birthday of



Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

159

honoring the aged in early spring, meeting for 靑春敬老會 (CUG) (3.var.), 41 hunsŏ 爋鼠. See eunuchs’ walk-around to scorch rats hunsŏhwa 燻鼠火. See burning rats fire hwaban 花盤. See exorcism: walk-around hwaetpulssaŭm 횃불싸움. See torch fights hwagan 禾竿. See grain poles hwajŏk 禾積 (CUG) (1.15), 85, 95n224 hwanggam-chesi 黃柑製試. See state examinations: yellow mandarin orange examination hwaryu 花柳. See blossoms and willows hyangnan-kaksi sokkŏ ch’ŏlli 香娘閣氏速去千里. See millipede, charm against hyang-ŭmju-ye 鄕飮酒禮. See rituals: community liquor drinking hyŏlha-hŭi 혈하희 (CUG) (1.15), 92n195 i ugŭm 弛牛禁. See slaughtering cows, lifting the ban on il sang il yŏng 一觴一詠. See lovers of a cup and poetry il-wŏl-kwŏn 日月圈. See sun and moon wheel il-wŏl-sin 日月神. See rituals: gods of the sun and the moon immortals’ paintings, sŏnnyŏ-to 仙女圖 (RC) (1.1), 72n34 influencers, chiksŏng 直星 (CUG) (1.15), 94n219 inil-chesi 人日製試. See state examinations: Birth of Man Day examination ip mokkan sibi 立木竿十二. See twelve wooden poles Iwŏl-halmoni 二月할모니 (Grandmother Second Month). See burning lantern ritual jumping game, nŏl-ttwigi 널뛰기 (CUG) (12.last day), 62, 128n551 jumping horses play, yangma-hŭi 躍馬戱 (CUG) (2.1), 37, 95n229 ka ilja, il pumgye 加一資, 一品階. See raising one rank at New Year’s kaksi 각시. See bride doll kalchŏn 葛戰. See arrowroot fighting kangnyŏk chi hŭi 角力之戱. See wrestling games kasu 嫁樹. See mating trees kites, p’ungjaeng 風箏 (風錚), yŏn 鳶: Ch’oe Yŏng using kites for attacking Tamna, Ch’oe Yŏng pŏl Tamna 崔瑩伐耽羅 (CUG) (1.15), 31, 88n154 intercepting somebody else’s kite, yŏn . . . t’a sanggyo 鳶 . . . 他相交 (CUG) (1.15), 31 kite flying, piyŏn 飛鳶, yŏn nalligi 鳶 날리기 (CUG) (1.15), 31, 88n153 sending away kites with names of family members, 字於紙鳶之背 飛而放‌之 (CUG) (1.15), 30 kkot-nori 꽃놀이. See blossoms and willows knocking-the-straw game, tach’u-hŭi 打芻戱 (CUG) (1.15), 38 kogomae (goose feather “phoenix”) 姑姑妹 (CUG) (1.15), 31, 88n157

160

Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

kŏjŏn 炬戰. See torch fights k’ong-purŭm 콩부름. See divination: months divination kuilche 九日製. See state examinations: Double Nine Day examination kuksa-sin pubu 國師神夫婦. See rituals: Gods National Preceptor kuse-munan 舊歲問安. See Evening of Riddance, paying tribute for the last year kwail-namu sijip-ponaegi 과일나무 시집보내기. See mating trees kwangje-hwan 廣濟丸. See extensive relief pills Kwangyang Shrine 廣壤堂. See rituals: sacrifice of liquor and meat at lantern night, tŭngsŏk 燈夕 (CUG) (4.8), 42, 44 lantern pole, tŭnggan 燈竿 (CUG) (4.8), 42, 43 Longevity Star painting, Susŏng-to 壽星圖 (RC) (1.1), 20, 72n34 lovers of a cup and poetry, il sang il yŏng 一觴一詠 (CAP) (6.var.), 51 mating trees, kasu 嫁樹, kwail-namu sijip-ponaegi 과일나무 시집보내기 (CUG) (1.1, 1.15, 5.5, 12.last day), 30 Medicine King, Yagwang 藥王, 夜光 (CUG) (1.1), 76n56 memorial rites on the 1st and the 15th 朔望禱神 (1.1, 1.15), 20 milk gruel, uyu-rak 牛乳酪: given to the king and aged officials (RC) (10.1 - 1.1), 54, 118n464 millipede, charm against, hyangnan-kaksi sokkŏ ch’ŏlli 香娘閣氏速去千里 (CUG) (2.1), 37 mimicking sowing and harvesting 耕穫狀 (CUG) (1.15), 28 “Miss Signorina Fragrant, speedy go 1,000 miles away,” hyangnan-kaksi sokkŏ ch’ŏlli 香娘閣氏速去千里. See millipede, charm against mogu 木牛. See wooden cow mogyŏng-chŏm 木影占. See divination: measuring the shadow at First Full Moon night mŏsŭm-nal 머슴날. See slaves’ day mountain climbing 登高 (CUG) (9.9), 54 mounting a black cow facing backward by local civil functionaries 邑首吏倒騎 黑‌牛 (CUG) (1.15), 35 mugwort tigers, aeho 艾虎, ssuk-horangi 쑥호랑이 (RC) (5.5), 45 mugyŏk 巫覡. See shamans munan-bi 問安婢. See well-wishing maids munbae 門排. See door guardians myoje 墓祭. See graves: grave-site sacrifice Nabil 臘日. See Winter Sacrifice Day Nabyak 臘藥. See Winter Sacrifice Day medicine nahŭi 儺戱. See exorcism: in Cheju 儺戱; exorcism rites 儺戱 nallo-hoe 煖爐會. See fireplace meeting nannan-hoe 煖暖會 (CUG) (10.var.), 119n470 Napche 臘劑. See Winter Sacrifice Day medicine neap tide days, chogam-il 潮減日 (CUG) (1.var.), 36, 94n218



Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

161

[New] Year’s Box, seham 歲銜/歲啣 (CUG) (1.1.), 19 New Year’s paintings, schwa 歲畵 (RC) (1.1), 20 New Year’s vigil, suse 守歲, sŏttal-kŭmŭm 섣달그믐 (CUG) (12.last day), 33, 60, 127n539 nightly curfew, lifting of, 弛夜禁 (CUG) (1.15), 32, 44 nine influencers, ku chiksŏng 九 直星. See influencers nobi-il 奴婢日. See slaves’ day nŏl-ttwigi 널뛰기. See jumping game no-yongnan 撈龍卵 (CUG) (1.15), 91n190 offering pine cakes to the slaves 饋松餠 (CUG) (1.1), 37 offering red bean cake in the horse stables 作赤豆甑餠設廐中以禱神. See rituals offering seeds of barley and wheat on T’aejong death memorial day (RC) (5.10), 49 offering seeds of barley and wheat on T’aejong death memorial day in chief ­minister’s residences (CAP) (5.10), 49 ohaeng-chŏm 五行占. See divination: Five Phases sticks Okch’u-tan 玉樞丹. See Precious Support Drugs p’ae-il 敗日 (CUG) (1.8), 36 p’ail 파일 (CUG) (4.8), 102n304 paintings of a cock to drive off evil 鷄畵 (CUG) (1.1), 21 paintings of a tiger to drive off evil 虎畵 (CUG) (1.1), 21 param-kaebi 바람개비. See pinwheel p’aril 八日. See ruining day paying respect to a hairpin on Tano 藏簪於治所東隅樹下. See rituals paying respect on [New] Year’s, sebae 歲拜 (CAP) (1.1), 19, 70n11 peachwood charms, tobu-to 桃符畵 (RC) (1.var.), 24 “phoenix” 姑姑妹, made from a goose feather. See kogomae physical strength competitions 角力之戱 / 撩跤. See wrestling pig pouch 亥囊 (RC) (1.var.), 27 pinwheel, todŭrae 도드래, param-kaebi 바람개비(CUG) (1.15), 43, 88n156 piyŏn 飛鳶. See kites: kite flying planets. See influencers planting seedlings on Cold Meals Day 下田圃種子 (CUG) (2. or 3.var.), 39 pŏpko 法鼓. See dharma drumming praying for a son 祈子. See rituals Precious Support Drugs, Okch’u-tan 玉樞丹 (RC) (5.5), 47, 107n347 presenting cloth at New Year’s, pyori 奉表裏 (RC) (1.1), 19 presenting (bestowing) fire, sahwa 賜火 (RC) (3.var.), 38 presenting memoranda, ceremony of, chin chŏnmun 進箋文 (RC) (1.1; 11.var.), 19 p’ungjaeng 風錚/風箏. See kites purification ritual of fall of the fortress in Chinju 陷城祓除. See rituals purŏm kkaemulgi 부럼깨물기. See cracking blains pyŏnjŏn 邊戰. See border fight

162

Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

pyori 表裏. See presenting cloth at New Year’s pyŏt-karit-tae 볏가릿대. See grain poles rabbit thread, tosa 兎絲 (CUG) (1.var.), 27 raising one rank at New Year’s, ka ilja, il pumgye 加一資, 一品階 (RC) (1.1), 21 rat pouch, chanang 子囊 (RC) (1.var.), 27 red bean gruel against calamities 赤豆粥 / 밭죽 (CUG) (11.var.), 29, 57 reopening market stalls on a day of a furred animal after 1.15 市廛擇日開市必用 毛‌蟲 (CUG) (1.var.), 35 rituals: Absolute Heaven King 大自在天王, ritual of welcome for (CUG) (10.var.), 57, 122n496 bathing of the Buddha 浴佛 (CUG) (4.8), 42, 44, 102n305 burning lantern ritual, yŏndŭng 然燈, t’eu-nori 테우노리 (CUG) (2.var.), 37, 95n230 community liquor drinking, hyang-ŭmju-ye 鄕飮酒禮(CUG) (3.var.), 41, 101n292, 101n293, 102n296 Goddess of the Wind, Yŏngdŭng-sin 靈登神, ritual for (CUG) (2.1), 37, 95n228 Gods National Preceptor, husband and wife 國師神夫婦, ritual for (CUG) (3.var.), 52 gods of the sun and the moon, il-wŏl-sin 日月神, ritual for (CUG) (1.1), 23, 76n59 offering to the Buddha 設齋供佛 (CUG) (4.8), 63 offering red bean cake to the gods in the horse stables 作赤豆甑餠設廐中以禱神 (CUG) (10.var.), 54 paying respect to a hairpin on Tano 藏簪於治所東隅樹下 (CUG) (5.5), 47, 49 praying for a son 祈子 (CUG) (between 3.3 and 4.8), 38 purification ritual of fall of the fortress in Chinju 陷城祓除 (CUG) (6.29), 51 reciting of the Scripture for Pacifying the House 誦安宅經 (CUG) (1.var.), 33, 90n184 sacrifice of liquor and meat at Ch’agwi Shrine 遮歸堂, chuyuk-chesin 酒‌肉祭神 (CUG) (3.var.), 42, 102n299 sacrifice of liquor and meat at Kwangyang Shrine 廣壤堂, chuyuk-chesin 酒肉 祭‌神 (CUG) (3.var.), 42, 102n298 Sŏnwi the Great 宣威大王, ritual for (CUG) (5.5), 49, 110n389 Ung Mountain spirit, Ungsan-sin 熊山神, ritual for (CUG) (4.var., 10.var.), 45, 105n327 Royal Ancestors’ Shrine, offering at 薦于太廟 (RC) (2.var., 6.var., 11.var., 12.var.), 49, 59, 125n526 ruining day, paeil 敗日; erroneously calling p’aril 八日 “ruining day” (CUG) (1.8), 36, 94n216 ruining days. See three ruining days sabal-chae-chŏm 사발재점, sabal-chŏm-ch’igi 사발점치기. See divination: ashes in a bowl



Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

163

sahoe 射會. See archery contest sahwa 賜火. See presenting (bestowing) fire Sajik Grand (memorial) Rite, Sajik-taeje 社稷大祭, Sajik-tan 社稷壇. See Earth and Grain Altar Sambok 三伏. See Three Heat Days sa mi, ŏ, yŏm 賜米魚鹽. See granting of rice, fish, and salt to elders samilche 三日製. See state examinations: Double Three Day examination samjae 三災. See three calamity [years] sam-p’aeil 三敗日. See three ruining days samsŏng 參星. See divination: three stars of Orion’s belt samŭng-ch’ŏp 三鷹貼. See three hawks charm sangsa chŏlche 上巳節製. See state examinations: First Day of the Snake examination sangsa-tapch’ŏng 上巳踏靑. See treading the green on the Day of the Snake Sangŭm Guardian God, Sangŭm-Sin-Sa 霜陰神祠 (CUG) (5.5), 49, 110n388 sanmyŏng-su 筭鳴數. See divination: counting cock crowing scattering earth from Chonggak (Bell Pavilion) 鐘閣 in the house (CUG) (1.15), 29, 86n130 schwa 歲畵. See New Year’s paintings scorching the rats’ mouths 鼠嘴焦 (CUG) (1.var.), 27 Scripture for Pacifying the House 誦安宅經, reciting of. See rituals sebae 歲拜. See paying respect on [New] Year’s seham 歲銜/歲啣. See [New] Year’s Box sending away kites with names of family members 字於紙鳶之背 飛而放‌之. See kites setting up oil lamps until dawn (CUG) (1.15) (also at suse 守歲 Chesŏk 除夕), 33 Seventh Evening examination, ch’ilsŏkche 七夕製. See state examinations shamans, mugyŏk 巫覡 (CUG) (1.1, 2.1, 3.3-8.4, 3.var., 10.var.), 23, 37, 38, 42, 45, 54, 77n64, 82n107, 92n184, 106n342, 110n381 Shentu and Yulei, K. Sindo Ullu 神荼 鬱壘 (RC) (1.var.), 24, 78n73 shouting names of all birds and mimicking chasing them 唱百鳥之名作驅逐之狀 (CUG) (1.15), 34 sibi chi 十二支. See Twelve-Year Cycle sibi mokkan 十二木竿. See twelve wooden poles sindok 神纛. See spirit banner Sindo Ullu 神荼 鬱壘. See Shentu and Yulei Sixty-Year Cycle. See table 7 slaughtering cows, lifting the ban on, i ugŭm 弛牛禁 (RC) (12.var.), 60, 127n538 slaves’ day, mŏsŭm-nal 머슴날, nobi-il 奴婢日 (CUG) (2.1), 37, 95n226 soaek 消厄, See clearing away misfortune sŏkchŏn-nori 石戰놀이. See border fight Sŏkka saengil 釋迦生日. See Buddha: birthday of Sŏnnyŏ-to 仙女圖. See immortals’ paintings Sŏnwi the Great 宣威大王. See rituals sŏrha-hŭi 挈河戱. See tug-of-war

164

Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

sot’oebal 燒退髮. See burning of lost hair on New Year’s sŏttal-kŭmŭm 섣달그믐. See New Year’s vigil spirit banner, sindok 神纛 (CUG) (1.1), 23, 77n62 spring attendance token examination, ch’un-togi-kwa 春到記科. See state examinations spring altar, ch’ŏngdan 靑壇 (CUG) (12.last day), 62, 128n553 spring blessings, ch’unch’uk 春祝 (CUG) (1.var.), 23 spring couplets, ch’ullyŏn 春聯 (CUG) (1.var.), 23 spring folded poems, ch’unch’ŏp 春帖 (RC) (1.var.), 20, 23, 24, 72n32, 78n75 spring poems, ch’unsa 春詞 (RC) (1.1), 20, 72n31 ssirŭm 씨름. See wrestling games ssuk-horangi 쑥호랑이. See mugwort tigers state examinations (RC): autumn attendance token examinations, ch’u-togi-kwa 秋到記科, 35, 93n204 Birth of Man Day examination, inil chesi 人日製試 (1.7), 26, 93n206 Double Nine Day examination, kuilche 九日製 (9.9), 27, 93n206 Double Three Day examination, samilche 三日製 (3.3), 27 on festival days, chŏlche 節製, chŏrilche 節日製, 27 First Day of the Snake examination, sangsa chŏlche 上巳節製 (1.var.), 93n206 Seventh Evening examination, ch’ilsŏkche 七夕製 (7.7), 27, 93n206 spring attendance token examination, ch’un-togi-kwa 春到記科 (1.var.), 35 yellow mandarin orange examination, hwanggam-chesi 黃柑製試, 58, 124n516 stone-fighting game, sŏkchŏn-nori 石戰놀이, tol-p’almae-nori 돌팔매놀이 (CUG) (1.15), 33, 90n175 straw effigy, ch’uryŏng 芻靈, cheung 제웅(CUG) (1.15), 28, 85n123 ch’ŏyong 處容: ch’ŏyong dance, ch’ŏyong-mu 處容舞 (CUG) (1.15), 28, 85n126 throwing away coins in the head of the cheung 棄銅錢以消厄 (CUG) (1.15), 28 subu-hŭi 水缶戱. See water-jar game sudae 獸帶. See Twelve-Year Cycle Sukch’ŏng-mun, visiting three times, samyu Sukch’ŏng-mun 三遊肅淸門. See ­visiting Sukch’ŏng-mun sun and moon wheel, il-wŏl-kwŏn 日月圈 (CUG) (4.8), 42, 103n307 sure-ssaum 수레싸움. See cart fights Surŭi Day, Surŭi-il 戌衣. See Tano 端午 suse 守歲. See New Year’s vigil Susŏng-to 壽星圖. See Longevity Star painting swinging game 鞦韆戱 (CUG) (5.5, 8.15), 47 taboos, kiji-il 忌之日(CUG): against accepting strangers 不納人 (1.var.), 27 against accepting wooden objects 不納木物 (CUG) (1.var.), 36 against combing one‘s hair, ibal 理髮 (CUG) (1.var.), 27 Crow Taboo Day 烏忌之日 (1.15), 28, 85n118 against feeding the dog on the First Full Moon 不飼犬 (CUG) (1.15), 30



Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

165

against a female entering the house first 忌女先入 (CUG) (1.var.), 27 against going by boat during the second month 禁乘船 (CUG) (2.var.), 38 against working or accepting wooden objects 多不動作多不動作 不納木物 爲 忌‌日 (CUG) (1.16), 36 against working on the first days of the rat, dragon, horse, and pig 正月上子上 辰上午 上亥等日 忌愼百事 不敢動作 (CUG) (1.var.), 35 tach’u-hŭi 打芻戱. See knocking-the-straw game Taejo-harye 大朝賀禮. See Great Morning Congratulatory Ceremony taejŏng 大政. See great reshuffling T’aejong’s death memorial day, T’aejong-kisin 太宗忌辰 (RC) (5.10), 49, 110n391 taena 大儺. See exorcism: great exorcism tak-chapki-nori 닭잡기노리. See catch-the-chicken game tal-maji 달맞이. See welcoming the moon tal-puri 달불이. See divination: months divination tangerines, yuzus, and mandarin oranges, presenting the king with 橘, 柚, 紅橘 (RC) (11.var.), 58, 124n514 Tano 端午 (5.5): Surŭi Day, Surŭi-il 戌衣 (CUG) (5.5), 48, 108n365 Tano adornments, tano-chang 端午粧 (CUG) (5.5), 47 Tano door charm, tano-pu 端午符 (CUG) (RC) (5.5), 24 Tano fans, tano-sŏn 端午扇 (RC) (5.5), 45 Tano folded poems, tano-ch’ŏp 端午帖 (RC) (5.5), 20 Tano red charm, ch’ŏnjung-chŏkpu 天中赤符 (RC) (5.5), 46, 106n337 tapkyo 踏橋. See treading bridges tari-papki 다리밟기. See treading bridges tarye 茶禮. See tea ceremony t’a sanggyo 鳶 . . . 他相交. See kites: intercepting somebody else’s kite tea ceremony, tarye 茶禮, charye 다례 (CAP) (1.1), 19, 69n9 teeth contest, ch‘igyo 齒較 (CUG) (1.15), 29, 86n133 Ten Celestial Stems, ch’ŏn’gan 天干. See table 7 t’eu-nori 테우노리. See rituals: burning lantern ritual three calamity [years], samjae 三災 (CUG) (1.1), 21, 75n51 three hawks charm, samŭng-ch’ŏp 三鷹貼 (CUG) (1.1), 21 Three Heat Days, Sambok 三伏 (CUG) (6.var.), 50, 113n421 three ruining days, sam-p’aeil 三敗日 (CUG) (1.5, 1.14, 1.23), 36, 94n219 tobu-to 桃符畵. See peachwood charms todŭrae 도드래. See pinwheel togan 稻竿. See grain poles tokens for ice, bing (mokp’ae) 氷 (木牌) (RC) (6.var.), 51 tol-p’almae-nori 돌팔매놀이. See stone-fighting games tongin-sŭng 銅人勝. See Bronze Birth of Man Day Talismans torch fights, hwaetpul-ssaŭm 횃불싸움, kŏjŏn 炬戰 (CUG) (1.15), 34 tosa 兎絲. See rabbit thread tosaek 綯索. See twisting a rope

166

Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

to-u 土牛. See clay cow treading bridges, tari-papki 다리밟기, tapkyo 踏橋 (CUG) (1.15), 32, 33, 35 treading the green on the Day of the Snake, sangsa-tapch’ŏng 上巳踏靑 (CUG) (3.var.), 40, 100n282 tug-of-war, chul-tarigi 줄다리기, sŏrha-hŭi 挈河戱 (CUG) (1.15), 34, 92n195 tŭnggan 燈竿. See lantern pole tŭngsŏk 燈夕. See lantern night Twelve Earthly Branches chiji 地支 , sibi chi 十二支. See table 5 twelve wooden poles, erecting of, ip mokkan sibi 立木竿十二 (CUG) (2.1), 37 Twelve-Year Cycle, sudae 獸帶. See table 5 twisting a rope, tosaek 綯索(CUG) (1.15), 34, 91n194 ugŭm 牛禁. See slaughtering cows uhoe-chŏm 盂灰占. See divination: ashes in a bowl ujŏm 雨占. See divination: rain to predict a bumper harvest ŭm-sa chi ye 飮射之禮 (CUG) (3.var.), 42 Ung Mountain spirit, Ungsan-sin 熊山神. See rituals: Ung Mountain spirit, ritual for uyu-rak 牛乳酪. See milk gruel visiting Sukch’ŏng-mun three times, samyu Sukch’ŏng-mun 三遊肅淸門 (CUG) (1.15), 29, 86n129 washing one’s hair in eastward flowing water, 浴髮於東流水 (CUG) (6.15), 49, 111n396 water-jar-game 水缶戱 (CUG) (4.8), 44, 104n319 weak children eating with a dog, soa yŏ kyŏn ilsi cha tam ilsi 小兒 與犬一匙自噉一匙 (CUG) (1.15), 30 welcoming sun and moon influencers, yŏng il wŏl chiksŏng 迎日月直星 (CUG) (1.15), 28 welcoming the moon, yŏng wŏl 迎月, tal-maji, 달맞이 (CUG) (1.15), 32 well-wishing maids, munan-bi 問安婢 (CUG) (1.1), 19 willow pipe, yusaeng 柳笙 (CUG) (3.var.), 41 Winter Sacrifice Day, Nabil 臘日 (RC) (12.var.), 23, 59, 60, 62, 77n68, 125n525, 126n530 Winter Sacrifice Day medicine, Nabyak 臘藥, Napche 臘劑 (RC) (12.var.), 59, 60 wooden cow, mogu 木牛 (CUG) (1.var.), 26 wrestling games, kangnyŏk chi hŭi 角力之戱, yogyo 撩跤, ssirŭm 씨름 (CUG) (5.5, 7.15, 8.16), 47, 48, 53, 107n357, 108n364, 115n433, 129n561 Yagwang 藥王, 夜光. See Medicine King yangma-hŭi 躍馬戱. See jumping horses play yellow mandarin orange examination, hwanggam-chesi 黃柑製試. See state examinations yo chŏn 澆奠. See graves: pouring liquor on



Index of Rituals, Customs, and Games

167

yogyo 撩跤. See wrestling games yok pal ŏ tong yusu 浴髮於東流水. See washing one’s hair in eastward flowing water Yok-Pul-il 浴佛. See Buddha: Bathing the Buddha Day yŏndŭng 然燈. See burning lantern ritual yongal-kŏnjigi 용알건지기. See divination: fishing for dragon eggs yŏng il wŏl chiksŏng 迎日月直星. See welcoming sun and moon influencers yonggyŏng 龍耕. See divination: dragon ploughing yŏng wŏl 迎月. See welcoming the moon yŏn nalligi 鳶 날리기. See kites: kite flying Yudu 流頭 (CUG) (6.15), 49, 50, 111n396 yusaeng 柳笙. See willow pipe Yut 윷 (CUG) (12.last day; 1.1), 61, 127n545, 128n548 Zhong Kuí 鍾馗 (RC) (1.1), 21, 73n38 Zodiac. See Twelve-Year Cycle

Index of Government, Offices, and Titles

Agency for the Elderly, Kiro-so 耆老所, 54, 60 established 1394, the agency responsible for taking care of officials at senior 2nd rank or above, those past 70 years of age, and aged kings (KSTSJ, 272) (called Agency for the Elderly in Palais, Confucian Statecraft, and Bureau of Superannuation in Sun Joo Kim, Marginality and Subversion) chamberlain, sijong 侍從, 20, 32, 36, 45, 60, 94n220 civil official of the senior and junior 4th and 5th ranks in the Office of the Special Councilors, senior 9th rank diarist of the Office of Royal Decrees, and recorder of the senior 7th rank in the Royal Secretariat Chongmyo 宗廟, Royal Ancestors’ Shrine, 38, 49, 51, 58, 59, 125n526 Confucian Academies, Pan’gung 泮宮, Ch. Pan gong, 27 in antiquity the name of national schools established by Chinese vassal states, later used as a collective name for the National Confucian College, Sŏnggyun-kwan (aka Highest Institute of Learning, T’aehak 太學), and the central Confucian shrine, Munmyo 文廟 court secretary, kŭnsi 近侍, 27, 47, 58 court servant, kungaek 宮掖, 45, 58 Four Schools, Sahak 四學, 35, 58 schools established in the four directions within the capital where students could prepare for entering the Highest Institute of Learning or for examinations government office, kwanbu 官府, 19, 26, 35, 42, 49, 58 head of the local civil functionaries: of a town, ŭp-suri 邑首吏, or of a lesser ­prefecture, hyŏn-suri 縣首吏, 35, 42 high minister, chaejip 宰執, 27, 36, 45, 58, 73n198, 94n198 Highest Institute of Learning, T’aehak 太學, 26, 35, 58 another name for Sŏnggyun-kwan, the National Confucian College Kwan’gak 館閣, collective name for the Office of Royal Decrees and the Office of the Special Councilors, 20 ladies who have received a rank, myŏngbu 命婦, 21 of two kinds: women working at court (nae-myŏngbu 內命婦) and wives of high officials on whom the queen has bestowed a rank (wae-myŏngbu 外命婦)

169

170

Index of Government, Offices, and Titles

law departments, pŏpsa 法司, 60 i.e., Ministry of Punishments (Hyŏngjo 刑曹) and the Capital Magistracy (Hansŏng-pu 漢城府) members of the Royal Library, Kaksin 閣臣, 26 men of high birth, 26, 60 Those in the countryside commonly were yangban or saw themselves as such; those in the capital were referred to as hereditary yangban (sajok 士族), scholar-officials (sa-taebu 士大夫 or sabu 士夫), or the powerful and distinguished ( pŏryŏl 閥閱), i.e., “capital-based prominent yangban families in the late Chosŏn” (Jun Soo Kim, Marginality and Subversion). Yangban 兩班 were of two classes, both elite: the civil (munban 文班) and military (muban 武班). Membership of families and individuals was due to a mix of rules based on inheritance and scholarly merit. ministers of the state council, ŭijŏng-taesin 議政大臣, 19 Ministry of Personnel, Ijo 吏曹, 57 Ministry of Works, Kongjo 工曹, 45 Munmyo 文廟, central Confucian shrine, 167, 168 naval commander of the three southern provinces (t’onggon 統閫), 45, 105n333 Office for Painting, 20 established 1392 under the name Tohwa-wŏn 圖畵院, later reduced in status to Tohwa-sŏ 圖畵署, whose members held from senior 6th rank on down (KSTSJ). Office for the Inspection of Natural Phenomena, Kwansanggam 觀象監, 23, 46, 57 institute researching astronomical, geographical, calendrical, and weather phenomena Office of Diplomatic Correspondence, Sŭngmun-wŏn 承文院, 71n25 Office of Royal Decrees, Yemun-kwan 藝文館, 20 Office of Special Councilors, Hongmun-kwan 弘文館, 20 Palace Library, Kyujang-kak 奎章閣, 18, 45 promoter of learning, chehak 提學, 20, 26 director of senior 2nd rank in the Office of Royal Decrees and Office of the Special Councilors as well as a scholar working at the Palace Library of senior 1st and 2nd rank. provincial governor, tobaek 道伯, 45, 105n333 provincial military commander, konsa 閫師, 45, 62, 129n555 provincial treasurer, pŏnsa 藩司, 62, 129n555 Royal Ancestors’ Shrine, Chongmyo 宗廟, 38, 49, 51, 58, 59, 125n526 Royal Dispensatory, Nae-ŭiwŏn 內醫院, 46, 54, 57, 59 royal kitchen, saong-wŏn 司饔院, 39



Index of Government, Offices, and Titles

171

Royal Music Institute, Changak-wŏn 掌樂院, 28 established 1458 and lasted until 1919 (Bang-song Song, Source Readings, 70n10) Royal Secretariat, Sŭngjŏng-wŏn 承政院, 20 Consisting of six royal secretaries of senior 3rd rank in charge of all direct written communication to and from the king. scholar-official, sa-taebu 士大夫, or sabu 士夫. See men of high birth scribe of lower rank, chesul-kwan 製述官, 71n25 Selection Departments, Sŏnbu 選部, 62 collective name for the Ministry of Personnel, Ijo 吏曹 and Ministry of War, Pyŏngjo 兵曹 Sŏnggyun-kwan 成均館. See Highest Institute of Learning

Index of Geographic Names (Administrational Units) and Place-Names Mentioned in the Tongguk sesigi

Traditional Names of the Provinces and Geographical Areas in English ­Translation Capital Province, Kyŏnggi(-to) 京畿(道), still a province today, 26, 33, 34, 60, 90n176, 127n537, 129n562 East of the Pass, Kwandong 關東, the part of today’s Kangwŏn Province 江原道 that lies east of the T’aebaek mountain range 大白山脈, 34 North of the Pass, Kwanbuk 關北, today’s South and North Hamgyŏng Provinces 咸鏡道 in northeast Korea, lit. “North of the [Manch’ŏng] Pass” 摩天嶺, 62 South of the Lake, Honam 湖南, today’s North and South Cholla Provinces 全‌羅‌道, which lie south of Pyŏkkolje Lake near Kimje in North Cholla, 40, 45 South of the Pass, Yŏngnam 嶺南, today’s North and South Kyŏngsang Provinces 慶尙道 in the southeast of the peninsula. The eponymous pass is the 530-­meter-high Hanŭl-chae 하늘재 ,“Heaven’s Pass,” aka Kyerip-nyŏng 鷄‌立‌嶺, in the Sobaek mountain range 小白山脈, 30, 35, 37, 45, 58 Two Western [Provinces], Yang-Sŏ 兩西, stands for West of the Sea (Hwanghae) Province and West of the Pass (P’yŏngan ) Province, 33, 34 West of the Lake, Hosŏ 湖西, today’s North and South Ch’ungch’ŏng Provinces 忠‌淸道 in the midwestern part of South Korea, west of Ŭirimji Lake 義林池湖 near Chech’ŏn 堤川, 34, 40, 52, 53, 58, 115n433 West of the Pass, Kwansŏ 關西, today’s North and South P’yŏngan Provinces 平‌安‌道) in northwest Korea. The “pass” in the name refers to the 685-meterhigh Ch’ŏllyŏng 鐵嶺 Mountain pass in today’s Kangwon Province, 40, 58, 62 West of the Sea, Haesŏ 海西, today’s Hwanghae Province 黃海道, which is situated in the northwest when seen from the sea at the mouth of the Han River, which floes through the capital Seoul, 40, 62

Place-Names Mentioned in the Tongguk sesigi Translation and Notes Names of premodern administrational units that no longer correspond to any modern unit after reorganization (in many cases several reorganizations) are marked (trad.), traditional. In most cases the location can be verified within today’s next highest administrative unit in the countryside, for example: a village (li 里) is within the next

173

174

Index of Geographic Names and Place-Names

highest unit, the township (myŏn 面); a township is within a county (kun 郡); in cities (si 市) a neighborhood (tong 洞) is in a district (ku 區); and all of these are within a province (to/do 道). Designations have been added in the following list anachronistically in parenthesis for easier reference, even though the administrative units have changed over time. There are instances where no administrative unit is added because the name today is used only for a general area, often in its Korean original, for example, Chakchi 鵲旨, colloquially Kkachi-mal 까치말, “magpie village.” (In Chakchi, the first Chinese character 鵲 is a translation of kkachi 까치, “magpie,” and chi 旨 is used phonetically to indicate the second syllable of the Korean equivalent.) Cheju Province 濟州道. “Cheju” may refer to the island Cheju(-to) 濟州(島), which is the province Cheju(-to) 濟州(道), with the capital city Cheju(-si) 濟州(市). The 1,849-km2 (714-square-mile) island is situated about 100 km off the southern shore of the Korean peninsula. Cheju(-to) 濟州(島/道), 10, 23, 37, 38, 42, 53, 77n61, 77n64, 88n154, 95n230, 102n298, 124n513, 124n515 Cheju(-si) 濟州(市), 37, 42, 102nn298–299 Aewŏl(-ŭp) 涯月(邑), 37 Kimnyŏng(-ri) 金寧(理), 37 Kwidŏk(-ri) 歸德(理), 37 Ido(-tong) 二徒(洞), 102n298 Kwangyang 廣壤, 42, 102n298 Han’gyŏng(-myŏn) 翰京(面), 102n299 Kosan(-ri) 高山(理), 102n299 Ch’agwi 遮歸, 42, 102n299 Chŏlla Provinces 全羅道. North and South Chŏlla are the provinces in the southwestern part of the peninsula. Chŏlla(-to) 全羅道, 4, 8, 10, 41, 46, 99n269, 101n292, 105n334, 115n433, 171 North Chŏlla 全羅北道, 4, 8, 41, 99n269, 101n292, 105n334, 115n433, 171 Chŏnju(-si) 全州(市), 46 Iksan(-si) 益山(市), 101n292 Iksan(-kun) 益山(郡), 115n433 Yongan(-myŏn) 龍安(面), 41, 101n292 Yŏsan(-myŏn) 礪山(面), 99n269, 115n433 Chakchi 鵲旨, 172, 115n433 Namwŏn(-si) 南原(市), 4, 8, 41 South Chŏlla 全羅南道, 46, 105n334, 171 Naju(-si) 羅州(市), 46, 105n334 Namp’yŏng(-ŭp) 南平(邑), 46, 105n334 Ch’ungch’ŏng Provinces 忠淸道. North and South Ch’ungch’ŏng are provinces situated in the midwestern part of South Korea. Ch’ungch’ŏng(-to) 忠淸(道), 10, 38, 57, 58, 96n242, 102n302, 115n433, 124n518, 171



Index of Geographic Names and Place-Names

175

North Ch’ungch’ŏng 忠淸北道, 38, 57, 96n242, 102n302, 171 Chech’ŏn(-si) 堤川(市), 171 Chinch’ŏn(-kun) 鎭川(郡), 38, 96n242 Ch’op’yŏng(-myŏn) 草坪(面), 96n242 Munbaek(-myŏn) 文白(面), 96n242 Kwaesan(-kun) 槐山(郡), 102n302 Ch’ŏngan(-myŏn) 淸安(面), 42, 102n302 Poŭn(-kun) 報恩(郡), 57 South Ch’ungch’ŏng 忠淸南道, 58, 124n518, 171 Hongsŏng(-kun) 洪城(郡), 58 Hongju 洪州 (trad.), 58 Tangjin(-si) 唐津(市), 124n518 Haptŏk(-ŭp) 合德(邑), 58, 124n518 Sŏngdong(-ri) 城東(里), 124n518 Hamgyŏng Provinces 咸鏡道. North and South Hamgyŏng are the northeastern provinces of the peninsula, today in North Korea. Hamgyŏng(-to) 咸鏡道, 10, 49, 110nn387–389, 171 South Hamgyŏng, 110n387 Anbyŏn 安邊 (today in Kangwŏn Province, Anbyŏn(-kun) 安‌邊‌(‌郡) in North Korea), 49, 110nn387–389 Hwanghae Provinces 黃海道. North and South Hwanghae are situated northwest of South Korea’s capital, Seoul. They are today in what is North Korea. Hwanghae(-to) 黃海(道), 10, 58, 171 Haeju(-si) 海州(市), 58 Kangwŏn Province 江原道. East and northeast of the South Korean capital Seoul and its surrounding province Kyŏnggi-to, Kangwŏn is the only province that today is divided, partially in South Korea and partially in North Korea. Kangwŏn(-to) 江原(道), 10, 41, 49, 54, 63, 110nn387–389, 171, 173 Anbyŏn(-kun) 安邊(郡) (today in North Korea), 49, 110nn387–389, 173 Kangnŭng(-si) 江陵(市), 41 Ch’unch’ŏn(-si) 春川(市), 34 Kosŏng(-kun) 高城(郡) (today divided between South and North Korea), 63 Samch’ŏk(-si) 三陟(市), 49 T’ongch’on(-kun) 通川(郡) (today in North Korea), 110n388 Haksam(-myŏn) 鶴三(面), 110n388 Sangŭm(-ri) 桑陰(里), 49, 110n388 Kyŏnggi Province 京畿道. “Capital Province.” Its name, Kyŏnggi, a combination of kyŏng 京 “capital” and ki 畿, means both “royal domain” and “Capital Province” and is the name of the province around the capital Seoul. Kyŏnggi(-to) 京畿(道), 10, 34, 39, 55, 63, 90n176 Ansan(-si) 安山(市), 39

176

Index of Geographic Names and Place-Names

Ch’ŏrwŏn(-kun) 鐵原郡 Sangnyŏng(-myŏn) 朔寧, 80n94 Kanghwa(-to) 江華(島), 55, 103n309, 118nn467–468 Kap’yŏng(-kun) 加平(郡), 34, 81n94, 127n537 Koyang(-si) 高陽(市), 39 Haengju(-tong) 幸洲(洞), 39 Kwangju(-si) 廣州(市), 63, 129n562 P’aju(-si) 坡州(市) Chŏksŏng(-myŏn) 積城(面), 80n94 P’och’ŏn(-si) 抱川(市), 80n94 Yangp’yŏng(-kun) 楊平(郡), 127n537 Chip’yŏng(-myŏn) 砥平(面), 81n94 Yanggŭn(-ŭp) 楊根(邑), 80n94 Yŏnch’ŏn(-kun) 漣川(郡), 80n94 Majŏn(-ri) 麻田(里), 81n94 Kyŏngsang Provinces 慶尙道. The North and South Kyŏngsang Provinces are situated in the southeast of the peninsula. Kyŏngsang(-to) 慶尙道, 3, 10, 33, 35, 36, 41, 45, 48, 50, 51, 53, 58, 76n58, 93n198, 105n327, 109n377, 110nn379–380, 111n398, 171 South Kyŏngsang 慶尙南道, 45, 48, 51, 58, 105n327, 109n377, 171 Ch’angwŏn(-si) 昌原(市), 45, 105n327 Ungch’ŏn 熊川(trad.), 45, 105n327 Chinhae(-si) 鎭海(市), 105n327 Chinju(-si) 晋州(市), 51 Kimhae(-si) 金海(市), 48, 109n377, 110n381 T’ongyŏng(-si) 統營(市), 58 North Kyŏngsang 慶尙北道, 33, 35, 36, 41, 48, 50, 53, 76n58, 93n198, 110n379 Andong(-si) 安東(市), 3, 10, 33, 35, 92n198 Kimch’ŏn(-si) 金泉(市), 48, 110n379 Kŭmsan 金山 (trad.), 48, 110nn379–380 Kunwi(-kun) 軍威(郡), 48, 110n379 Hyoryŏng(-myŏn) 孝令面, 48 Kyŏngju(-si) 慶州(市), 23, 35, 36, 41, 50, 53, 76n58, 111n398 Yŏngju(-si) 榮州(市), 35 P’unggi(-ŭp) 豊基(邑), 35 P’yŏngan Province 平安道. North and South P’yŏngan are the northwestern provinces of Korea near the Chinese border. The North Korean capital Pyongyang is also situated there. P’yŏngan(-to) 平安(道), 10, 29, 62, 171 North P’yŏngan 平安北道, 29, 62 Ŭiju(-kun) 義州(郡), 29, 62



Index of Geographic Names and Place-Names

177

Seoul/Capital. The city, which today is called Seoul, has been the capital of Korea since 1392, although in its history under various names. The following locations are in and around Seoul. When the Tongguk sesigi mentions “in the capital” it is often without further specific indication of location. As these entries are normally after entries of customs at the court and before customs in the countryside they can be found easily by the reader and will not be listed here. This list contains only places whose exact locations are mentioned in the Tongguk sesigi. Chongno(-ku) 鍾路(區), 86n130, 89n161, 90n178 Samch’ŏng(-tong) 三淸(洞), 113 Hyŏnho 玄湖(trad.), 103n306 Tongjak(-ku) 銅雀(區) Noryangjin(-tong) 鷺梁津(洞), 98n258 Noho 露湖 (trad.), 39, 98n258 Yongsan(-ku) 龍山(區), 90n177, 103n306 Map’o(-ku) 麻浦(區), 90n174, 90n177, 98n263, 103n306 Ahyŏn(-tong) 阿峴(洞), 33, 90nn172–173, 90n177 Kongdŏk(-tong) 孔德(洞), 40, 90n174, 98n263 Ongmak(-ri) 甕幕(里), 40, 98n263 Sŏgang-(dong) 西江(洞), 103n306 Yanghwado 楊花渡 (aka Yanghwajin 楊花津) (trad.), 123n510 Sŏngbuk-ku 城北區, 101n284 Chŏngnŭng(-tong) 貞陵(洞), 113n419 Puktun 北屯 (trad.), 101n284 Sŏngbuk-2-tong 城北2洞, 101n284 Sŏngdong(-ku) 城東(區) Ttuksŏm 뚝섬 (trad.), 123n510

Index of Food, Beverages, and Ingredients

This index is divided into four sections: English-language terms, Korean terms, Chinese terms, and botanical terms. Any term that has not been given a Korean or Chinese equivalent has not been translated from the text of the Tongguk sesigi but rather appears in the notes as part of an explanation drawn from another source.

English-Language Terms abalone 甲生鰒, 44, 58, 59 anchovy 鮆魚, 39, 98n257 angelica 當歸, 26, 40, 44, 81n97, 99n268 angular millet 角黍, 50, 111n400 assorted aged vegetables 陳菜, 29, 86n138 azalea 杜鵑花, 38, 40, 54, 98n261 balloon flower 桔梗, 70n14 bamboo 竹, 29, 31, 36, 40, 42, 43, 45, 46, 50, 60, 99n267, 101n287, 103n307, 105n335, 111n400 bamboo leaf, 111n400 bamboo-sap liqueur 竹瀝膏, 40 bamboo sprouts 笋, 50 barley 大麥, 49, 87n142, 99n266 beans 豆, 20, 27, 29, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 61, 70n15, 86n138, 87n142, 91n192, 91n193, 98n253, 98n254, 100n277, 121n485, 121n490, 122n494, 123n502, 123n504 adzuki beans 小豆, 51 bean curd 豆腐, 55, 56, 121n485 bean paste 醬 / 된장, 49 bean powder 豆粉, 56 black beans 黑豆, 44, 53 green beans 靑豆, 37, 56 mashed bean cake 䭉餅, 56, 122n494 mung bean jelly 菉豆泡, 39, 98n254

mung bean powder 菉豆粉, 38 red beans 赤豆, 20, 29, 54, 57, 123n504 soybeans 菽, 29, 34, 61, 87n142 soybean sprouts 大豆黃卷, 86n138 yellow beans 黃豆, 53, 56 beef 牛肉, 20, 55, 56, 58, 70n12 bird’s egg 새알, 57, 122n500, 122n501 black sesame seed 黑麻子, 56 blended pickles 雜菹, 59, 125n524 blowfish 河豚 / 복어, 39 bunching onions 蔥芽 / 움파, 26, 81n95 butter 牛酪, 118n464 buttonweed 白麻, 112n413 cabbage leaf 菜葉, 29, 112n414 carp 大ㅁ, 43, 45, 62, 124n511 chestnut 栗, 27, 29, 53, 58, 86n132, 117n445 chestnut, raw 生栗, 29, 86n132 chestnut balls 栗團子, 53, 117n445 chicken 雞 / 닭, 50, 51, 53, 55, 56, 70n12, 74n48, 82n106, 115n436, 116n442 China-jute 白麻, 112n413 Chinese angelica 當歸, 26, 44, 81n97 Chinese cold cakes 寒具, 38, 96n238 Chinese pepper 山椒, 20, 70n14, 112n409 Chinese pepper flakes 산초가루, 112n409

179

180

Index of Food, Beverages, and Ingredients

chrysanthemum leaves 菊葉, 44 cinnamon 肉桂, 40, 57, 70n14, 98n264, 99n266, 99n268, 125n522 clams 黃苧蛤, 39, 98n255 clove, 98n264 codfish 大口魚, 58, 123n511 croaker 石首魚 / 굴비, 39, 51, 59, 112n416 cucumber 오이, 29, 86n137, 111n394, 112n414 cucumber stalks 瓜顱, 29 cucumber vegetable 외나물, 104n325 Daoist immortal stove 神仙爐, 55, 119n472 dates 蒸棗, 37 dog (meat) 狗, 50, 51 dog paste 狗醬, 50 dog-shit mugwort 개똥쑥, 99n272, 121n488 dog’s-tongue herb 狗舌草, 48, 108n368, 108n369, 108n370 dropwort 芹, 26, 37, 39, 44, 45, 59, 117n450 dumpling (심), 44, 50, 55, 56, 57, 111n404, 117n450, 119n475, 120n480, 122n494, 122n501 dumpling à la Pyŏn 卞氏饅頭, 55, 119n475, 120n476 fish dumpling 魚饅頭, 44 pheasant meat dumpling 雉肉饅, 56 salt pickled vegetable dumpling 菹‌菜饅, 56 wheat dumpling 麥餌, 50 wrapped rice dumpling 粽, 50, 111n404 eastern white cedar 側柏, 70n14 egg 鷄子 / 卵, 39, 44, 55, 56, 70n12, 122n500, 122n501 water eggs 水卵, 39 eggplant peel 茄皮, 29, 86n138 fang feng 防風, 70 female ginseng 當歸, 81n97 fish filet 魚鮮細切 / 又厚切作片, 44 fish salad 魚菜, 44

five-flavor berry 五味子, 38, 96n239 five-grain mixed dish 五穀雜飯, 30, 87n142 five-grain rice 오곡밥 / 五穀雜飯, 30, 87n142 five spices 五辛, 26, 81n101, 119n471 flaxseed 胡麻, 56, 122n495 flower punch 花菜, 54 foxtail millet, 87n142 ginger 薑, 40, 59, 99n266, 106n346 glue plant 靑角, 125n523 glutinous sorghum, 121n490 gourd 匏, 29, 34, 44, 86n137, 104n319 gray mullet 숭어, 98n259 gruel 죽, 29, 51, 57, 118-464, 123n502, 123n504 gudong soup 骨董羹, 59, 124n519, 124n520 harmony salad 蕩平菜, 39, 98n254 herring 蘇魚, 39, 58, 98n256 ho-cake 胡餅, 56, 122n495 honey 蜜, 26, 27, 37, 38, 40, 44, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 99n266, 125n522 Indian rice 苽, 104n325, 111n400 Jade Mist 玉薤, 40, 100n280 jujube 棗, 27, 40, 44, 48 large-headed atractylodes 白朮, 70n14 leek 韭, 5, 26, 44, 45, 81n101, 82n104, 119n471 lichen 石耳, 44, 105n326 liquor, 19, 29, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 52, 53, 55, 70n13, 70n14, 86n134, 98n260, 98n264, 99n265, 99n266, 99n268, 99n269, 100n277, 100n280, 101n292, 101n293, 102n296, 115n436 azalea liquor 杜鵑酒, 40 bamboo-sap liquor 竹瀝膏, 40 cinnamon and angelica root liquor 桂當酒, 40 dispel-and-revive liquor 屠蘇酒, 19, 70n14 Four Horse Days’ liquor 四馬酒, 40, 100n277 jade-green fragrant liquor 碧香酒, 40



Index of Food, Beverages, and Ingredients

liquor, distilled 燒酒, 40, 98n260, 99n268 liquor to clear deafness 牖聾酒, 86n134 liquor to clear the ear 귀밝이술, 29, 86n134 liquor to pass the summer 過夏酒, 40 liquor to prepare against deafness 治聾酒, 29, 86n136 Mount No liquor 魯山春, 40 [New] Year’s liquor 歲酒, 19, 70n13 peach blossom liquor 桃花酒, 40 pear and ginger liquor 梨薑膏, 40, 99n266 pepper-thuja liquor 椒栢酒, 19, 70n14 pine sprout liquor 松荀酒, 40 rice liquor 酒 / 白酒, 40, 44, 56, 86n134, 98n260, 99n265, 104n323, 115n436 small chrysanthemum blossom liquor 小麴酒, 40 strained rice liquor 濁酒, 98n260 sweet red dew 甘紅露, 40, 98n264 Three Pig Days’ liquor 三亥酒, 40, 98n262 longan fruit, 98n264 Manchurian wild rice 苽 / 菰 / 蔣, 44, 49, 50, 51, 55, 104n325, 111n394, 112n414 mandarin orange 柑子 / 紅橘, 58, 124n514, 124n516 mandu 饅頭, 44, 55, 119n475, 120n476 meat 畜, 18, 20, 26, 29, 39, 42, 44, 50, 51, 55, 56, 59, 60, 86n137, 120n483, 125n520 melon 甜苽, 51, 111n394, 112n417 milk gruel 牛乳酪, 54, 118n464 millet 黍, 28, 50, 51, 87n142, 91n191, 111n400 monk’s meal 齋, 52, 114n424 mountain mustard 山芥 / 멧갓, 26, 81n95 mugwort 蒿, 26, 40, 45, 47, 48, 56,

181

82n104, 99n272, 107n351, 108n367, 108n369, 109n370, 109n371, 117n450, 121n488, 121n489 [New] Year’s delicatessen 歲饌, 20, 56, 62 noodles 국수, 20, 38, 39, 51, 58, 59, 70n12, 71n20, 71n22, 124n519 buckwheat noodles 蕎麥麵, 58 flower noodles 花麵, 38 koltong noodles 骨董麵, 58, 124n519 New Year’s wheaten noodles 冬‌餛‌飩, 20 noodles with assorted ingredients 雜麵 / 비빔면, 59 soft noodles 즌국슈, 20, 71n19 water noodles 水麵, 38 wet noodles 즌국슈, 71n20 ogok-pap 오곡밥 / 五穀-밥, 87n142 oil 油, 27, 37, 38, 39, 44, 50, 51, 55, 56, 58, 96n238, 114n429 pear 梨, 40, 54, 58, 99n265 pepper, 19, 20, 45, 50, 55, 56, 57, 59, 70n12, 70n14, 112n409 Chinese pepper 山椒, 20, 70n14, 112n409 Chinese pepper flakes 산초가루, 112n409 pepper-thuja liquor 椒栢酒, 19, 70n14 red pepper mash 椒醬, 45 red pepper powder 고추가루, 112n409 spicy pepper flakes 番椒屑, 50, 112n409 persimmon (dried) 乾柿, 62 persimmon punch, 125n522 pheasant 雉, 5, 20, 42, 43, 56, 62, 70n12 pine bark 松皮, 40, 99n271 piquant sweet greens 辛甘菜 / 승검초, 26, 81n95 pleasing-to-the-mouth soup 悅口子, 55 pomegranate 石榴, 30, 54 pork 猪肉 / 豬肉, 39, 51, 55, 58, 60, 111n393 pumpkin 南苽, 51, 53, 70n15

182

Index of Food, Beverages, and Ingredients

rabbit 兎, 27, 43, 60, 62, 83n115 radish 蘿葍, 26, 29 red algae 靑角, 59, 125n523 red gruel 赤粥, 51 red pepper mash 椒醬, 45 red pepper powder 고추가루, 112n409 red snapper 도미 / 禿尾魚, 39, 98n259 reed fish 葦魚, 39 rice, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 38, 40, 43, 44, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 59, 70n12, 70n15, 86n138, 87n139, 87n142, 96n238, 99n265, 99n266, 99n269, 100n277, 104n325, 111n394, 111n400, 112n414, 116n436, 121n490, 123n520 Canada rice 苽, 104n325 five-grain rice 오곡밥 / 五穀雜飯, 30, 87n142 glutinous rice 糯, 20, 27, 28, 38, 40, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 70n12, 70n15, 96n238, 99n265, 99n269, 100n277, 116n436, 121n490 glutinous rice powder / flour 糯‌米‌粉, 50, 53, 56, 57 medicine rice 藥飯 / 약밥, 28 polished rice, 99n265, 99n269 pursuing-pleasure dish 盤遊飯, 59, 125n520 rice powder 米粉, 38 rice with leftovers 骨董飯, 59, 124n519 rice with old vegetables 묵나물밥, 29, 86n138 wrapped luck rice 福裹, 29, 87n139 wrapped rice dumplings 粽, 111n404 rice cake, 20, 22, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44, 48, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 70n12, 71n19, 71n23, 96n236, 96n237, 99n270, 99n273, 100n274, 108n370, 109n371, 111n400, 117n444, 117n449, 117n451, 120n481, 121n489, 121n491, 121n492 apricot flower dry stacking cake 梅‌子乾飣, 56

basket rice cake 籠餠, 55, 120n481 cooked rice cake 熬餠, 38, 96n237 dropped-powder beads 滴粉團, 50 dry beads 乾團, 50 dry stacking cake 乾飣, 56, 121n491 dry stacking cake in the Five Colors 五色乾飣, 56 flower cakes 花煎, 38, 44, 54, 96n236 fried rice cakes 饊餠, 40, 99n270 frost-white flower rice cakes 霜花餠 / 霜花-떡, 50 honey balls 蜜團餻, 56 horseshoe cake 馬蹄餠, 40, 100n274 jujube cake 대추떡, 44 mugwort balls 艾團子 / 쑥단자, 56, 121n489 pine cakes 松餠, 37, 53 pine nut dry stacking cake 松子 乾‌飣, 56 rice cake 餠 / 떡 / 糕, 44, 48, 53, 54, 55, 70n12 rice cake soup 餠湯, K. ttŏkkuk 떡‌국, 70n12 rice-flour beads 粉團, 50, 111n400 rice steamer cake 甑餠, 20, 53, 71n23 ring cake 環餠, 40, 99n273 steamed rice cake 蒸餠, 44, 55, 120n481 tied rice cake 連餠 / 밀쌈, 50 water beads 水團, 50 white beads 白團, 50 white rice cake 흰 떡 / 餻 / 餌, 20, 37, 51, 54, 71n19, 117n449, 117n451 winter wonton 冬餛飩, 20 yuanyang cocoons 元陽繭, 56, 121n492 Yudu beads 流頭麯, 50 scallion 葱, 50, 55, 56, 100n280, 120n483 seaweed 甘藿, 51, 70n12, 112n415 sesame oil 香油, 37, 38, 58, 96n238 shiitake mushroom 蔈, 29, 86n137 soy sauce 醬, 20, 26, 27, 39, 44, 50, 55, 57, 58, 59, 119 spicy pepper flakes 番椒屑, 50, 112n409



Index of Food, Beverages, and Ingredients

strong-smelling spices 葷菜, 55, 119n471 sugar 糖, 50, 56, 57, 121n490 swallow mugwort 靑蒿, 26, 40, 82n104, 99n272 sweet potato, 70n15, 121n490 sweet red dew 甘紅露, 40 sweet syrup 造淸, 56, 121n490 sweet toffee 膠牙餳 / 膠牙糛, 19, 29, 70n15 taffy 엿, 121n409, 125n522 taffy liquid 물엿, 121n409, 125n522 taffy preparation 造淸, 121n409 tangerine 橘, 58, 70n14, 98n264, 124n514 tangerine peel, 70n14, 98n264 taro 土蓮, 53, 117n447 thousand-year mugwort 千年艾, 48, 108n367, 108n369, 109n370

183

turnip 蔓菁, 29, 40, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 86n138, 87n138 turnip leaves 蔓菁葉, 29, 87n138 turnip root 菁根, 29, 53, 59 velvetleaf 白麻, 51, 112n413 vinegar 醋, 26, 39, 45, 50 wakame 甘藿, 112n415 walnuts 胡桃, 29, 70n15, 86n132 water oats 苽, 104n325 wheat 麥 / 小麥, 49, 50, 51, 55, 96n238, 111n393, 119n475 wild turmeric, 99n266 winter mugwort 冬艾, 56, 121n488 winter pickles 冬沈 / 동치미, 59 yam 서여 薯蕷, 40 young vegetable 靑菜, 112n414 yuzu 柚子, 54, 58, 117n454, 124n514

Korean Terms aego 艾餻, 109n371 ae-tanja 艾團子, 56, 121n489 chae 齋, 52, 114n424 chammyŏn 雜麵, 59 ch’amoe 참외, 51, 111n394, 112n417 chapchŏ 雜菹, 59, 125.524 chebi-ssuk 제비쑥, 82n104, 99n272 cheŏ 鮆魚, 39, 98n257 chijibi-ttŏk 지집이떡, 96n237 chinch’ae 陳菜, 29, 86, 138 chin’gwa 眞瓜, 113n417 chin kuksu 진국수, 71n20 ch’obaek-chu 椒栢酒, 19, 70n14 choch’ŏng 造淸, 56, 121n490 chogi 조기, 39 chŏktu-chuk 赤豆粥, 57, 123n504 ch’onga 蔥芽, 26, 81n95 ch’ŏngch’ae 靑菜, 112n414 ch’ŏnggak 靑角, 125n523 ch’ŏnggo 靑苽, 112n414 ch’ŏngho 靑蒿, 26, 40, 82n104, 99n272 ch’ŏngp’o-muk 청포-묵, 98n253, 98n254

choran 鳥卵, 122n500, 123n501 chuk 죽, 29, 51, 57, 118-464, 123n502, 123n504 ch’uk 畜, 18, 20, 26, 29, 39, 42, 44, 50, 51, 55, 56, 59, 60, 86n137, 120n483, 125n520 chŭkpaek 側柏, 70n14 chul 줄, 104n325 chul-namul 줄나물, 104n325 chŭngbyŏng 甑餠, 20, 53, 71n23 chŭngbyŏng 蒸餠, 44, 55, 120n481 chungnyŏk-ko 竹瀝膏, 40 chŭn kuksyu 즌국슈, 20, 71n19 hadon 河豚, 39 han’gu 寒具, 38, 96n238 hobyŏng 胡餅, 56, 122n495 hodo 胡桃, 29, 70n15, 86n132 honggyul 紅橘, 58, 124n514, 124n516 hosan-ch’un 壺山春, 99n269 hottŏk 호떡, 122n495 hŭin ttŏk 흰 떡, 71n19, 117n449, 117n451 hwach’ae 花菜, 54

184

Index of Food, Beverages, and Ingredients

hwajŏn 花煎, 38, 44, 54, 96n236 hwamyŏn 花麵, 38 hwanbyŏng 環餠, 40, 99n273 hwang-chogae 황조개, 98n255 hwang-chŏhap 黃苧蛤, 39, 98n255 hwanggu 黃韭, 82n104 hwanghap 黃蛤, 98n255 i 餌, 20, 37, 51, 54, 71n19, 117n449, 117n451 igang-ko 梨薑膏, 40, 99n266 inbyŏng 引餠, 117n444 injŏlmi 인절미, 53, 117n444 kaech’wi 개취, 109n370 kaettong-ssuk 개똥쑥, 99n272, 121n488 kaji-kkŏpchil 가지-껍질, 87n138 kamgwak 甘藿, 51, 70n12, 112n415 kamhong-ro 甘紅露, 40 kamja 柑子, 58, 124n514, 124n516 kanghwal 羌活, 81n96 kap’i 茄皮, 29, 86n138 kapsaeng-pok 甲生鰒, 44, 58, 59 kangjŏng 강정, 121n491 karae-ttŏk 가래떡, 71n19, 117n451 kkaettŏk 깨떡, 122n495 kkojang-ttŏk 꼬장떡, 99n270 kkopchang-ttŏk 꼽장떡, 99n270 kkotchŏn 꽃전, 96n236 ko 餻, 20, 37, 51, 54, 71n19, 117n449, 117n451 koch’ae 苽菜, 104n325 koch’u-karu 고추가루, 112n409 koltong-kaeng 骨董羹, 59, 124n519, 124n520 koltong-myŏn 骨董麵, 58, 124n519 koltong-pan 骨董飯, 59, 124n519 komi-namul 고미나물, 104n325 kŏndan 乾團, 50 kong-namul 공나물, 86n138 kŏnjŏng 乾飣, 56, 121n491 kori-ttŏk 고리떡, 100n273 kuksu 국수, 20, 38, 39, 51, 58, 59, 70n12, 71n20, 71n22, 124n519 kuksyu kŏnji 국슈건지, 71n22 kulbi 굴비, 39, 51, 59, 112n416 kwa 瓜, 29, 86n137, 111n394, 112n414

kwaro 瓜顱, 29 kwibalgi-sul 귀밝이술, 29, 86n134 kyedang-chu 桂當酒, 40 kyomi 茭米, 105n325 kyŏul-ssuk 겨울쑥, 121n488 mabŏng 麻餠, 122n495 ma-cake 麻餠, 56, 122n495 maehwa-kanjŏng 梅花간정, 56 maehwa-kŏnjŏng 梅花乾飣, 56 malkup-ttŏk 말굽떡, 100n274 manch’ŏng 蔓菁, 29, 40, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 86n138, 87n138 manch’ŏng-yŏp 蔓菁葉, 29, 87n138 metkat 멧갓, 26, 81n95 milssam 밀쌈, 50 miltan-ko 蜜團餻, 56 miyŏk 미역, 112n415 mosi-chogae 모시조개, 98n255 muip 무잎, 87n138 muk-namul 묵나물, 86n138 muk-namul-pap 묵나물밥, 29, 86n138 mul-yŏt 물엿, 121n409, 125n522 nabok 蘿葍, 26, 29 nado-naengi 나도냉이, 81n95 noktu-muk 녹두묵, 98n253 noktu-p’o 菉豆泡, 39, 98n254 nongbyŏng 籠餠, 55, 120n481 Nosan-ch’un 魯山春, 40 obyŏng 熬餠, 38, 96n237 ŏch’ae 魚菜, 44 oe-kkokchi 외꼭지, 87n138 oe-namul 외나물, 104n325 ogok-chappan 五穀雜飯, 30, 87n142 ogok-pap 오곡-밥, 30, 87n142 oi 오이, 29, 86n137, 111n394, 112n414 ŏjŏgwi-kuk 어저귀국, 112n413 ŏ-mandu 魚饅頭, 44 omija 五味子, 38, 96n239 ongsim 옹심, ongsimi 옹시미, 123n501 ong-sŏraemi 옹서래미, 123n501 osaek-kŏnjŏng 五色乾飣, 56 paech’u-ŭi p’urŭn ip’ 배추의 푸른 잎, 112n414 paekbyŏng 白餠, 117n451 paendaengi 밴댕이, 98n258



Index of Food, Beverages, and Ingredients

paengmaja-t’ang 白麻子湯, 112n413 pam-tanja 밤단자, 117n445 parhyo-uyu 발효우유, 118n464 pat’chuk 밭죽, 57 pibim-myŏn 비빔면, 59 pibim-pap 비빔밥, 59 p’o 匏, 29, 34, 44, 86n137, 104n319 pogŏ 복어, 39 pok 복, 39 pokkwa 福裹, 29, 87n139 pokssam 복쌈, 87n139 pŏnch’o-sŏl 番椒屑, 50, 112n409 p’ut-namul 풋나물, 112n414 p’yo 蔈, 29, 86n137 pyŏkhyang-chu 碧香酒, 40 pyŏngt’ang 餠湯, 70n12 Pyŏnssi-mandu 卞氏饅頭, 55, 119n475, 120n476 p’yŏnsu 편수, 119n475 saeal 새알, 57, 122n500, 122n501 saeal-sim 새알심, 122n501 saelsim 샐심, 123n501 Sama-chu 四馬酒, 40, 100n277 Samhae-chu 三亥酒, 40, 98n262 Samhae-yakchu 三亥藥酒, 40, 98n262 sanbyŏng 饊餠, 40, 99n270 san’gae 山芥, 26, 81n95 sanghwa-pyŏng 霜花餠, 50 sanghwa-ttŏk 霜花-떡, 50 sanja 饊子, 96n238 san-kyŏja 산겨자, 81n95 sech’an 歲饌, 20, 56, 62 seju 歲酒, 19, 70n13 sim 심, 44, 50, 55, 56, 57, 111n404, 117n450, 119n475, 120n480, 122n494, 122n501 sin’gam-ch’ae 辛甘菜, 26, 81n95 sin’ga-sam 신가삼, 81n96 sinsŏl lo 神仙爐, 55, 119n472 siru-ttŏk 시루떡, 71n23 sŏgi 石耳, 44, 105n326 sŏgi-pŏsŏt 석이버섯, 44, 105n326 soguk-chu 小麴酒, 40 soju 燒酒, 40, 98n260, 99n268 sŏksu-ŏ 石首魚, 39, 51, 59, 112n416

185

songbyŏng 松餠, 37, 53 songja-kŏnjŏng 松子乾飣, 56 songp’i 松皮, 40, 99n271 songsun-chu 松荀酒, 40 soŏ 蘇魚, 39, 58, 98n256 ssuk 쑥, 26, 40, 45, 47, 48, 56, 82n104, 99n272, 107n351, 108n367, 108n369, 109n370, 109n371, 117n450, 121n488, 121n489 ssuk-tanja 쑥단자, 56, 121n489 sudan 水團, 50 sŭmmyŏn 습면, 71n20 sumyŏn 水麵, 38 sŭnggŏm-ch’o 승검초, 26, 81n95 sungŏ 숭어, 98n259 sŭngyŏm-ch’o 승염초, 81n95 sunmu 순무, 86n138 suran 水卵, 39 suri-ch’i 수리-치, 108n370 suri-ch’wi 수리-취, 108n370 surŭi-ch’o 戌衣草, 108n370 taedu-hwanggwŏn 大豆黃卷, 86n138 t’akchu 濁酒, 98n260 t’angbyŏng 湯餠, 71n21 tanggwi 當歸, 26, 40, 44, 81n97, 99n268 t’angp’yŏng-ch’ae 蕩平菜, 39, 98n254 to 𩛽, 50, 111n399 tohwa-chu 桃花酒, 40 tokmi-ŏ 禿尾魚, 39, 98n259 tomi 도미, 39, 98n259 tongch’im 冬沈, 59 tong-ch’imi 동치미, 59 t’oran 土卵, 117n447 t’oryŏn 土蓮, 53, 117n447 toso-chu 屠蘇酒, 19, 70n14 ttŏkch’wi 떡취, 108n370 ttŏkkuk 떡국, 70n12 ttŏk-pokki 떡볶이, 96n237 tugyŏn-chu 杜鵑酒, 40 tugyŏn-hwa 杜鵑花, 38, 40, 54, 98n261 ump’a 움파, 26, 81n95 ungŏ 웅어, 98n257 urak 牛酪, 118n464 uyu 우유, 118n464 uyu-chuk 우유죽, 118n464

186

Index of Food, Beverages, and Ingredients

uyu-rak 牛乳酪, 54, 118n464 yakpan 藥飯, 28 yakpap 약밥, 28 yaksan-ch’un 藥山春, 99n269 yŏl-gu-ja 悅口子, 50 yŏnbyŏng 連餠, 50

yŏnp’o 軟泡, 120n484 yuja 柚子, 54, 58, 117n454, 124n514 yul 栗, 27, 29, 53, 58, 86n132, 117n445 yul-tanja 栗團子, 53, 117n445 yurong-chu 牖聾酒, 86n134

Chinese Terms aigao 艾餻, 109n371 bai tuan 白團, 50 bian shi 扁食, 119n475 biao 蔈, 29, 86n137 chu 畜, 18, 20, 26, 29, 39, 42, 44, 50, 51, 55, 56, 59, 60, 86n137, 120n483, 125n520 dakou / daikou 大口, 58, 123n511 di fentuan 滴粉團, 50 dong quai 當歸, 81n97 er 餌, 20, 37, 51, 54, 71n19, 117n449, 117n451 fentuan 粉團, 50, 111n400 goushecao 狗舌草, 48, 108n368, 108n369, 108n370 gua 瓜, 29, 86n137, 111n394, 112n414 gudong geng 骨董羹, 59, 124n519, 124n520 hanju 寒具, 38, 96n238 huang jiu 黃韭, 82n104 jiaobai jiu 椒栢酒, 19, 70n14 jiaoer 娇耳, 120n475 jiaoshu 角黍, 50, 111n400 jiaoya tang 膠牙餳, 19, 29, 70n15 jiaozi 交子 / 餃子, 120n475

laiqi 黎祈, 121n486 lianzhan 連展, 112n405, 112n406 lungbing 籠餠, 55, 120n481 mai er 麥餌, 50 mantou 饅頭, 44, 55, 119n475, 120n476 nian botuo 年餺飥, 71n22 panyoufan 盤遊飯, 59, 125n520 pao 匏, 29, 34, 44, 86n137, 104n319 qiannianai 千年艾, 48, 108n367, 108n369, 109n370 qing hao 靑蒿, 26, 40, 82n104, 99n272 ruan pao 軟泡, 120n484 suibing 䭉餅, 56, 122n494 tao 𩛽, 50, 111n399 tusu jiu 屠蘇酒, 19, 70n14 wŭ hūn 五荤, 119n471 wu huncai 五葷菜, 119n471 wu xin 五辛, 119n471 youzi 柚子, 54, 58, 117n454, 124n514 Yuanyang jian 元陽繭, 56, 121n492 Yuxie 玉薤, 40, 100n280 zhengbing 蒸餠, 44, 55, 120n481 zhilongjiu 治聾酒, 29, 86n136 zong 粽, 111n404

Botanical Plant Terms Abutilon avicennae Gaert. 白麻, 112n413 Angelica sinensis 當歸, 26, 40, 44, 81n97, 99n268 Artemisia Annua L. 개똥쑥, 99n272, 121n488

Artemisia japonica Thunb. 제비쑥, 82n104, 99n272 Artemisia princeps 쑥, 26, 40, 45, 47, 48, 56, 82n104, 99n272, 107n351, 108n367, 108n369, 109n370,



Index of Food, Beverages, and Ingredients

109n371, 117n450, 121n488, 121n489 Chrysanthemum decaisneanum 千年艾, 48, 108n367, 108n369, 109n370 Crossostephium chinense (L.) Makino 千‌年艾, 48, 108n367, 108n369, 109n370 Cucumis melo var. makuwa 甜苽, 51, 111n394, 112n417 Gloiopeltis furcata var. intricate 靑角, 59, 125n523 lemon fragrant angelica (root) 辛甘菜, 81n95

187

lemon fragrant ostericum 辛甘菜, 81n95 Maximowiczia chinensis 五味子, 38, 96n239 Ostericum koreanum 辛甘菜, 81n95 Schisandra chinensis 五味子, 38, 96n239 Tephroseris kirilowii 狗舌草, 48, 108n368, 108n369, 108n370 Umbilicaria esculenta 石耳, 석이버섯 石 耳—, 44, 105n326 Zanthoxylum 산초, 112n409 Zizania latifolia 苽, 44, 49, 50, 51, 55, 104n325, 111n394, 112n414

About the Translator

Werner Sasse established the Korean studies departments at Bochum and Hamburg Universities in Germany and was chair professor at Hanyang University in Korea. Upon retirement he moved to Korea to continue research in traditional culture and its reinvention following Korea’s rapid modernization. Among his publications are a two-volume work on Korean poetry of the eighth to tenth centuries, Studien zur Entzifferung der Schrift altkoreanischer Dichtung; a co-authored translation of the first volume of the biography of the Buddha by King Sejong, Der Mond gespiegelt in tausend Flüssen; and a book of essays about traditional Korean culture and its interpretation today, Minnatchi yeppŭn Korean.

Korean Classics Library: Historical Materials

Imperatives of Culture: Selected Essays on Korean History, Literature, and Society from the Japanese Colonial Era edited by Christopher P. Hanscom, Walter K. Lew, and Youngju Ryu

A Chinese Traveler in Medieval Korea: Xu Jing’s Illustrated Account of the Xuanhe Embassy to Koryŏ translated, annotated, and with an introduction by Sem Vermeersch

Seeking Order in a Tumultuous Age: The Writings of Chŏng Tojŏn, a Korean Neo-­ Confucian translated and with an introduction by David M. Robinson

Korea’s Premier Collection of Classical Literature: Selections from Sŏ Kŏjŏng’s ­Tong­munsŏn translated, annotated, and with an introduction by Xin Wei and James B. Lewis

A Korean Scholar’s Rude Awakening in Qing China: Pak Chega’s Discourse on Northern Learning translated and annotated by Byonghyon Choi, Seung B. Kye, and Timothy V. Atkinson

Tales of the Strange by a Korean Confucian Monk: Kŭmo sinhwa by Kim Sisŭp translated, annotated, and with an introduction by Dennis Wuerthner

The Encyclopedia of Daily Life: A Woman’s Guide to Living in Late-Chosŏn Korea translated, annotated, and with an introduction by Michael J. Pettid and Kil Cha

Record of the Seasonal Customs of Korea: Tongguk sesigi by Toae Hong Sŏk-mo translated, annotated, and with an introduction by Werner Sasse

Korean Classics Library: Philosophy and Religion

Salvation through Dissent: Tonghak Heterodoxy and Early Modern Korea George L. Kallander

Reflections of a Zen Buddhist Nun Kim Iryŏp, translated by Jin Y. Park

A Handbook of Buddhist Zen Practice translated by John Jorgensen

Korea’s Great Buddhist-Confucian Debate: The Treatises of Chŏng Tojŏn (Sambong) and Hamhŏ Tŭkt’ong (Kihwa) translated and with an introduction by A. Charles Muller

A Korean Confucian Way of Life and Thought: The Chasŏngnok (Record of Self-­Reflection) by Yi Hwang (T’oegye) translated, annotated, and with an introduction by Edward Y. J. Chung

Numinous Awareness Is Never Dark: The Korean Buddhist Master Chinul’s Excerpts on Zen Practice translated, annotated, and with an introduction by Robert E. Buswell, Jr.

Doctrine and Practice in Medieval Korean Buddhism: The Collected Works of Ŭich’ŏn translated, annotated, and with an introduction by Richard D. McBride II

The Foresight of Dark Knowing: Chŏng Kam nok and Insurrectionary Prognostication in Pre-Modern Korea translated, annotated, and with an introduction by John Jorgensen

A Place to Live: A New Translation of Yi Chung-hwan’s T’aengniji, the Korean Classic for Choosing Settlements translated, annotated, and with an introduction by Inshil Choe Yoon