Recent Research in Roman Yorkshire: Studies in honour of Mary Kitson Clark (Mrs Derwas Chitty) 9780860545552, 9781407318134
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English Pages [420] Year 1988
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Contributors
Anna Mary Hawthorn Kitson Clark (Mrs Derwas Chitty): An appreciation
Preface and Acknowledgements
PART 1: LOCAL AND REGIONAL STUDIES
A. The Humber and environs
1: REDCLIFF AND THE HUMBER
2: EVIDENCE FOR ROMANO-BRITISH SETTLEMENT IN HULL AND THE LOWER HULL VALLEY
3: LANDSCAPE AND ECONOMY: RECENT FIELDWORK AND EXCAVATION AROUND HOLME-ON-SPALDING MOOR
4: LATE ROMAN SETTLEMENT ON THE HUMBER AND ANGLIAN BEGINNINGS
B. The Wolds and the Vale of Pickering
5: ASPECTS OF THE ROMAN COUNTRYSIDE IN EAST YORKSHIRE
6: ROMAN RELIGIOUS REMAINS FROM ELMSWELL
7: THE ORIGINS OF THE ROMAN LANDSCAPE AROUND WHARRAM PERCY, EAST YORKSHIRE
8: FROM ROMAN TO SAXON AT WHARRAM PERCY
9: APPROACHES TO THE EXCAVATION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE ROMANO-BRITISH LANDSCAPE IN THE VALE OF PICKERING
C. The Vale of York, the Dales and Northeast Yorkshire
10: PLUS CA CHANGE...9 OR REFLECTIONS ON THE ROMAN FORTS OF YORKSHIRE
11: THE HINTERLAND OF ROMAN YORK
12: IRON AGE AND ROMAN AT DALTON PARLOURS
13: A PENNINE GAP? THE ROMAN PERIOD IN THE NORTH YORKSHIRE DALES
14: ROMANO-BRITISH SETTLEMENT IN THE SOUTH TEES BASIN
PART 2: MATERIAL EVIDENCE
15: THE STONES OF YORK BUILDING MATERIALS IN ROMAN YORKSHIRE
16: THE LITHOLOGY, ORIGIN AND DISPERSAL OF SOME QUERNSTONES FROM YORKSHIRE
17: AN AMPHORA SHERD FROM THE BEADLAM ROMAN VILLA, NORTH YORKSHIRE
18: ALL YORKSHIRE IS DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS, SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER ROMAN POTTERY DISTRIBUTION IN YORKSHIRE
19: ROMANO-BRITISH GLASS BANGLES FROM EAST YORKSHIRE
20: AN 'IVORY' FIGURE FROM NEAR MALTON
PART 3: DOCUMENTARY SOURCES
21: THE POLITICS OF BRIGANTIA
22: THE PLACE NAMES OF EAST YORKSHIRE IN THE ROMAN PERIOD
Citation preview
Recent Research in Roman Yorkshire Studies in honour of Mary Kitson Clark (Mrs Derwas Chitty)
J.
edited by
Price and P. R. Wilson with
C. S. Briggs and S.
J.
Hardman
BAR British Series 193 1988
B.A.R.
5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R: Walker, M.A.
BAR 193, 1988: 'Recent Research in Roman Yorkshire' © The Individua l Authors, 1988 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545552 paperback ISBN 9781407318134 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545552 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
C ONTENTS P age L ist o f F igures
i ii
L ist o f C ontributors
v ii
M ary K itson C lark:
a n a ppreciation
i x
P reface a nd A cknowledgements
P ART 1 :
x i
L OCAL A ND R EGIONAL S TUDIES
A .
T he H umber a nd e nvirons
1 .
R edcliff a nd t he H umber
2 .
E vidence f or R omano-British s ettlement i n H ull a nd t he l ower H ull v alley
3 .
4 .
D C rowther a nd P D idsbury
L andscape a nd e conomy: r ecent f ieldwork a nd e xcavation a round H olme on-Spalding M oor
3
PD idsbury
2 1
M M illett a nd P H alkon
3 7
L ate R oman s ettlement o n t he H umber a nd A nglian b eginnings
B W hitwell
4 9
B .
T he W olds a nd t he V ale o f P ickering
5 .
A spects o f t he R oman c ountryside i n e ast Y orkshire
H G R amm
8 1
6 .
R oman r eligious r emains f rom E lmswell
J SD ent
8 9
7 .
T he o rigins o f t he R oman l andscape a round W harram P ercy, E ast Y orkshire
C H ayfield
9 9
P A R ahtz
1 23
D P owlesland
1 39
8 .
F rom R oman t o S axon a t W harram P ercy
9 .
A pproaches t o t he e xcavation a nd i nterpretation o f t he R omano-British l andscape i n t he V ale o f P ickering
C .
T he V ale o f Y ork, t he D ales a nd N ortheast Y orkshire
1 0.
P lus c a c hange .. , o r r eflections o n t he R oman f orts o f Y orkshire
B R H artley
1 53
1.
T he h interland o f R oman Y ork
R F J J ones
1 61
1 2.
I ron A ge a nd R oman a t D alton P arlours
A S umpter
1 71
1 3.
1 4.
A P ennine g ap? T he R oman p eriod i n t he N orth Y orkshire D ales
R F W hite
1 97
R I nman
2 19
PC B uckland
2 37
SB riggs
2 89
A n a mphora s herd f rom t he B eadlam R oman v illa, N orth Y orkshire
V R igby
3 13
A ll Y orkshire i s d ivided i nto t hree p arts: s ocial a spects o f l ater R oman p ottery d istribution i n Y orkshire
JE vans
3 23
R omano-British g lass b angles f rom e astern Y orkshire
J P rice
3 39
P RW ilson
3 67
P T urnbull a nd L F itts
3 77
R omano-British s ettlement i n t he S outh T ees b asin
P ART 2 : 1 5.
1 6.
1 7.
1 8.
1 9.
2 0.
M ATERIAL E VIDENCE
T he s tones o f Y ork: i n R oman Y orkshire
b uilding m aterials
T he l ithology, o rigin a nd d ispersal o f s ome q uernstones f rom Y orkshire
A n
P ART 3 :
' ivory'
f igure f rom n ear M alton
D OCUMENTARY S OURCES
2 1.
T he p olitics o f B rigantia
2 2.
T he p lace n ames o f e ast Y orkshire i n t he R oman p eriod
i i
JC reighton
3 87
L IST O F F IGURES P age 1 .
D C rowther a nd P D idsbury 1 2 3 4 5
2 .
3 8 4 0 4 2
R omano-British s ettlement i n H umberside R oman B rough P lot o f a erial p hotographs a nd f inds a t W interingham R oman s ites a nd A nglo-Saxon c emeteries S outh F erriby a nd a djacent s ites P lot o f a erial p hotographs o f K irmington D eepdale, B arrow, w ith R oman s ites S ketch p lan o f .. a isled b uilding a t D eepdale R omano-British i ndustries a round H olme on-Spalding M oor
5 0 5 2 5 3 5 6 5 8 5 9 6 1 6 2 6 6
C ropmarks s outheast o f B urton F leming C ropmark p lans a t L angton
8 3 8 5
J SD ent 1 2 3 4 5
7 .
T he s tudy a rea a nd i ts e nvirons R oman s ettlement p atterns i n t he s tudy a rea M esolithic a nd N eolithic a xes a nd f lints
H G R amm 1 2
6 .
2 2 2 6 2 9
B W hitwell 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5 .
T he l ower H ull v alley B ronze f itting f rom R isby F inds i n H ull a nd d istrict
M M illett a nd P H alkon 1 2 3
4 .
4 6 8 1 0 1 4
PD idsbury 1 2 3
3 .
T he s tudy a rea o n t he H umber R edcliff, e astern e nd o f c liff s ection P osition o f T rench 1 P rovisional p hasing s cheme .. i n T rench 1 M atrix o f c ontexts i n T rench 1
T hree p ieces o f a r elief w ith f igures ( 1) T he t hree p ieces c emented t ogether ( 1) F ragments f rom t wo a ltars ( 2 a nd 3 ) A ltar ( 2) A ltar ( 3)
9 0 9 1 9 3 9 4 9 5
C H ayfield 1 2 3 4 5
L ocation o f t he e cclesiastical p arishes R oman l andscape f eatures o f t he W harram t ownships R elationship o f t he t ownship b oundaries M agnetometer s urveys o f t he W harram R oman v illas B irdsall H igh B arn f armstead
i ii
9 9 1 01 1 06 1 07 1 09
P age 6 7 8 9 1 0 8 .
C ropmarks .. b etween H eslerton a nd S herburn S herburn L odge
1 41 1 42
S ettlement i n t he h interland o f Y ork L ingcroft F arm, N aburn L ingcroft F arm, A rea A L ingcroft F arm, A reas B a nd C L ingcroft F arm, A rea D
1 62 1 63 1 65 1 66 1 67
A S umpter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 3.
1 23 1 24 1 25 1 26 1 28 1 31 1 35
R F J J ones 1 2 3 4 5
1 2.
E ast Y orkshire R oman v illas a nd r oads .. M alton T he W harram G range a nd W harram L e S treet R oman v illas R oman s ettlement i n W harram P ercy m edieval v illage R oman & e arly A nglo-Saxon f eatures .. N orth M anor M odes o f c ontinuity S ystems o perating a t W harram P ercy
D P owlesland 1 2
1.
11 13 15 17 19
P A R ahtz 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 .
W harram G range C rossroads c omplex B urdale T unnel T op f armstead R oman a nd p re-Roman f eatures a t W harram P ercy B irdsall B row l adder e nclosures R oman s ettlement a nd m anuring p atterns i n R aisthorpe
S implified p lan o f t he I ron A ge s ettlement R oundhouse 1 T wo o pposed-entrance r oundhouses i n E nclosure I I R oundhouse 7 S torage p its o utside w est d itch o f E nclosure I S implified p lan o f t he R oman v illa R oundhouse 6 B uilding B S unken-floored B uilding Q
1 72 1 74 1 75 1 76 1 77 1 83 1 84 1 85 1 87
R F W hite 1 2 3 4 5 6
D istribution o f a rchaeological a erial p hotographs P archmark i n g rass o f R oman f ort a t W ensley R oman s ites a nd f inds i n t he N orth Y orkshire D ales S ettlements a nd f ield s ystems E arthworks .. S waledale n ear R eeth S ettlement c omplex a t G reenber E dge, B ainbridge
2 01 2 02 2 06 2 07 2 08 2 09
7 8
S ettlement c omplex S ettlement c omplex
2 10 2 11
.. ..
T hornsber B arn, A rncliffe B lue S car, A rncliffe
i v
P age 1 4.
R I nman 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 5.
F ragment o f s houlder a nd h andle o f a mphora D istribution o f G allo-Belgic w ares i n n orthern B ritain
3 15 3 17
T he p redicted m arket a reas i n e ast Y orkshire
3 25
R omano-British g lass b angle f ragments i n e ast Y orkshire T ype 2 , G roups A a nd B T ype 2 , G roup C ; o ther b angles w ith c ords; t ype 3 A T ype 3 , F -J; u ndecorated b angles
3 40 3 43 3 46 3 50
P R W ilson 1 2 3
2 2.
2 91
J P rice 1 2 3 4
2 0.
D istribution o f M illstone G rit b oulders
JE vans 1
1 9.
2 38 2 40 2 43 2 46 2 56
V R igby 1 2
1 8.
R oman Y ork, s howing l ocation o f e xcavations G eology i n r elation t o R oman r oads a nd r ivers Y ork, C hurch S treet R oman s ewer T ower o f S t A ndrew's C hurch, K irkby G rindalythe Y ork, n orthwest w all o f t he f ortress
SB riggs 1
1 7.
2 20 2 24 2 25 2 27 2 29 2 30 2 31
P C B uckland 1 2 3 4 5
1 6.
T he s tudy a rea R oman c oastal f ortlets a t G oldsborough a nd H untcliff R oman p ottery f rom W hitby A bbey S ettlement a t P otto S ite T , H utton R udby S ite n ear G uisborough P ottery d istribution a t S ite S , H utton R udby
T he f igure, f ront v iew T he f igure, s ide v iew T he f igure, b ack v iew
3 68 3 69 3 70
JC reighton 1 2 3 4
S ites l isted i n N otitia S ites l isted i n R avenna H istogram .. d istances S ites i n e ast Y orkshire
D ignitatum C osmography i n A ntonine I tinerary a nd t he H umber r egion
V
3 91 3 93 3 94 3 96
L IST O F C ONTRIBUTORS
D r C S B riggs, R oyal C ommission o n A ncient a nd H istorical M onuments i n W ales, E dleston H ouse, Q ueens R oad, A berystwyth, D yfed S Y23 2 HP D r P C B uckland, D epartment o f A rchaeology a nd P rehistory, o f S heffield, S heffield S 10 2 TN M r J C reighton, D epartment o f A rchaeology, 4 6 S addler S treet, D urham D H1 3 NU
U niversity o f D urham,
M r D C rowther, H ull C ity M useums a nd A rt G alleries, Q ueen V ictoria S quare, H ull H U1 3 DX M r J SD ent,
2 L ockwood S treet, D riffield,
M r PD idsbury, S ervices H U17 9 BA D r
U niversity
T own D ocks M useum,
N orth H umberside Y 025 7 RUX
H umberside C ounty C ouncil A rchaeology U nit, P roperty D epartment, C ounty H all, B everley, N orth H umberside
J E vans, D epartment o f A rchaeology, 4 6 S addler S treet, D urham D H1 3 NU
U niversity
o f
D urham,
P rofessor R L F itts, C lassics D epartment, D ickinson C ollege, P ennsylvania P A 1 7013 U SA M r A P M H alkon, M r B R H artley,
2 07 B lenheim S treet, S chool o f C lassics,
C arlisle,
H ull H U5 B P4
U niversity o f L eeds, L eeds L S2 9 JT
D r C H ayfield, D epartment o f G eography, P O B ox 3 63, B irmingham B 15 2 TT
U niversity o f B irmingham,
M r R I nman,
C leveland
3 2 S pringfield,
S tokesley,
D r R F J J ones, S chool o f A rchaeological S ciences, B radford, B radford B D7 1 DP D r M M illett, D epartment o f A rchaeology, 4 6 S addler S treet, D urham D U1 3 NU
T S9 5 EU U niversity o f
U niversity o f D urham,
M r D P owlesland, T he H eslerton P arish P roject, T he O ld A bbey, Y edingham, n ear M alton, N orth Y orkshire Y 017 8 SW D r J P rice, D epartment o f E xternal S tudies, S chool o f C ontinuing E ducation, U niversity o f L eeds, L eeds L S2 9 JT P rofessor P A R ahtz, Y O6 4 JE M r H G R amm O BE,
T he O ld S chool,
1 46 S tockton L ane,
H arome,
Y ork
H elmsley,
N orth Y orkshire
Y O3 O BX
M s V R igby, D epartment o f P rehistoric a nd R omano-British A ntiquities, B ritish M useum , L ondon W C1B 3 DG
v ii
M r A B S umpter,
3 6 L ennox D rive,
W akefield,
M r P T urnbull, D epartment o f A rchaeology, 4 6 S addler S treet, D urham D H1 3 NU
W est Y orkshire
W F2 8 LW
U niversity o f D urham,
M r RF W hite, Y orkshire D ales N ational P ark, Y orebridge H ouse, B ainbridge, L eyburn, N orth Y orkshire D L8 3 BP D r J B W hitwell, D epartment,
H umberside C ounty A rchaeology U nit, P roperty S ervices C ounty H all, B everley, N orth H umberside H U17 9 BA
M r P R W ilson, C entral E xcavation U nit, P ortsmouth P O4 9 LD
,
v iii
F ort C umberland,
E astney,
A nna M ary H awthorn K itson C lark ( Mrs D erwas C hitty): a n a ppreciation c ontributions o f t he f irst i mportance t o s tudy o f t he R oman p eriod, ..
t he
s cientific
T hus w rote E ric B irley, i n h is r eview o f A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire ( Clark 1 935), a nd a nother v olume ( Corder a nd K irk 1 932) i n t he R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eports s eries ( Birley 1 936). M ore t han f ifty y ears l ater, f ew o f u s w ould q uestion t his e valuation o f A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire ; i t r emains t he e ssential f oundation f or a ny w ork o n t he R oman p eriod i n t he e astern p art o f Y orkshire. A t a t ime w hen w ork o n R oman Y orkshire w as a dvancing a t a r ate n ever s een b efore, M ary K itson C lark w as a s t he h eart o f i t, b oth a s e ditor o f t he ' Roman Y orkshire' s ection o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal a nd a s H onorary S ecretary o f t he R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety f rom 1 929 t o 1 943. A s s uch s he w as i n c lose c ontact w ith a ll t he a ctivities a nd w as i nstrumental i n t he i nitiation o f m any o f t he p rojects o f t he p eriod. N o o ne p resent a t t he d ay-school h eld i n h er h onour i n L eeds c ould f orget h er s plendid r esum6 o f t he a ctivities a nd t he p ersonalities o f t he t ime ( now p ublished; C hitty 1 987). F or t he m ost p art, M ary K itson C lark's e nergies w ere d irected t owards R oman Y orkshire. S he w as, h owever, a lso i nvolved i n e xcavation a nd r esearch i nto a spects o f l ater p rehistoric a rchaeology i n t he c ounty, a nd p ublished p apers o n a w ide r ange o f t opics, i ncluding t he I ron A ge s ites i n t he V ale o f P ickering, a B ronze A ge b urial a t B oston S pa, Y orkshire f ood-vessels, a nd t he B rigantes ( Clark 1 930; 1 932; 1 937; 1 939). S he w as e lected a F ellow o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o n 1 3 J anuary 1 938. H er ' blue p aper' w as s igned b y m any o f t he l eading a ntiquaries o f t he d ay, i ncluding JN LM yres, N P arker, J L K irk, AH T hompson, C P eers, S ir C harles C lay, M B irkitt, R E M W heeler, RG C ollingwood, P C order, J M d e N avarro a nd C H awkes, r eflecting t he e steem i n w hich s he w as h eld. S he m oved a way ' from Y orkshire a fter h er m arriage, b ut h as c ontinued t o i nterest h erself i n t he a rchaeology o f t he r egion. U ntil r ecently s he r etained c ommittee m embership o f t he Y orkshire P hilosophical S ociety, a nd s he s till c orresponds w ith t he R oman A ntiquities S ection o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety, a nd o ccasionally a ttends e vents o rganised b y t he s ection o r b y t he p arent s ociety, o f w hich s he i s a n h onorary m ember. S cholarship i s d ominant i n a ll h er w ork, b ut h er g reat s kills i n t he c ompilation a nd o rdering o f d ata a re m ost s trikingly d emonstrated i n A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire ; i t r emains a s ' a s timulus a nd m odel t o s tudents' ( Birley 1 936). T his v olume o f 2 2 e ssays w hich h as b een c ompiled i n h er h onour s hows c learly t he d ebt o wed t o M ary K itson C lark's w ork b y c urrent r esearch i n t his f ield.
i x
B IBLIOGRAPHY B irley, E 1 936 R eview o f A R oman V illa a t L angton, n ear M alton, E Y orks b y P C order a nd J L K irk, a nd A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire b y M K C lark. A ntiquaries J ournal 1 6: 3 40. C hitty, M K 1 987 A p ersonal r ecord o f R oman Y orkshire 1 906-1943. Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety, R oman A ntiquities S ection B ulletin 4 : 3 -13. C lark, M K 1 930 I ron A ge s ites i n t he V ale o f P ickering. A rchaeological J ournal 3 0: 1 57-162.
Y orkshire
C lark, M K 1 932 A B ronze A ge b urial, I nglebank G ravel P it, B oston S pa. Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal 3 1: 3 6-43. C lark, M K 1 935 A G azetteer o f R oman R emains R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 5 . L eeds: C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C lark, M K 9 4: 4 3-63.
1 937
T he Y orkshire f ood-vessel.
C lark, M K 1 939 W here w ere A rchaeological J ournal 3 4: 8 0-87.
t he
i n E ast Y orkshire. R oman A ntiquities
A rchaeological J ournal
B rigantes?
Y orkshire
C order, P a nd K irk, J L 1 932 A R oman V illa a t L angton n ear H alton, E ast Y orkshire. R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 4 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety.
P REFACE A ND A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T his b ook h as g rown o ut o f a d ay-school o n R oman Y orkshire h eld i n L eeds i n S eptember 1 985 t o c elebrate t he w ork o f M ary K itson C lark ( Mrs D erwas C hitty) a nd t o m ark t he 5 0th a nniversary o f t he p ublication o f A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire. T he d ay-school w as o rganised b y t he D epartment o f A dult a nd C ontinuing E ducation o f t he U niversity o f L eeds, a nd t he R oman A ntiquities S ection o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety; i t w as a ttended b y m ore t han a h undred p eople, f or a ll o f w hom t he p ersonal r eflections o f M ary C hitty h erself w ere a m ost m emorable e xperience. T he v olume i s a n e xpanded v ersion o f t he c onference. M ost o f t he p apers g iven h ave b een p resented h ere, a nd s everal p eople n ot a ble t o b e p resent t hen h ave o ffered a dditional c ontributions. T he w ork h as b een a rranged i n t hree s ections: L ocal a nd R egional S tudies, M aterial E vidence, a nd D ocumentary S ources, w hich r eflect b oth t he i nterests o f M ary K itson C lark, a nd m any o f t he s trands o f r esearch c urrent i n R oman Y orkshire, p articularly i n e ast Y orkshire. T he p roduction o f t his v olume w ould n ot h ave b een p ossible w ithout t he s ustained e fforts o f a g reat n umber o f p eople, a nd w e a cknowledge o ur d ebt t o a ll o f t hem. I n p articular, w e w ish t o t hank t he D epartment o f A dult a nd C ontinuing E ducation ( now t he D epartment o f E xternal S tudies) o f t he U niversity o f L eeds f or s upporting t he p roduction o f t he t ext, a nd B renda T aylor a nd S igrun T rotter f or t yping i t. H ilary C ool a nd B eryl P rice a lso a ssisted i n n umerous w ays. F inally, w e m ust e xpress o ur g ratitude t o t he c ontributors f or t heir p atience d uring t he d elays i n c ompletion o f t his v olume c aused b y u nforeseen c hanges o f f ortune.
x i
P ART 1 : A .
L OCAL A ND R EGIONAL S TUDIES T he H umber a nd e nvirons
1
1 :
R EDCLIFF A ND T HE H UMBER
D AVID C ROWTHER A ND P ETER D IDSBURY
I NTRODUCTION ' In 1 932, M essrs C W a nd E V W right, a cting o n M r S heppard 's a dvice, d ug i n t he H umber c liffs a nd f ound " three o r f our p atches o f b lack l oose e arth, e ach o f w hich c ontained p ieces o f p ottery, b roken b ones, o yster s hells," f ragments o f b ronze a nd ab rooch w ith t he A ucissa p rofile S o b egins M rs C hitty's a ccount, i n A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire , o f t he i nitial i nvestigation o f a n e roding c liff o f m orainic c lays, s ands a nd g ravels o n t he n orth b ank o f t he H umber w est o f N orth F erriby v illage ( Clark 1 935: 8 1). T he s ite, c alled R edcliff a nd s ince g enerally, a nd e rroneously, r eferred t o a s N orth F erriby ( as i t i s a ctually i n t he n eighbouring p arish o f W elton), s ubsequently s aw f urther i nvestigation i ncluding l imited e xcavation. F inds f rom t hese p re-war e xcavations a re l odged i n t he a rchaeology c ollections o f H ull C ity M useums. S adly t here a re n o e xtant c ontemporary p lans o r n otebooks, a nd t he c reditably p rompt p ublications r elating t o t his w ork t end t owards a d iscussion o f t he f inds - p articularly t he p ottery -r ather t han t he c ontexts f rom w hich t hey c ame ( Corder a nd P ryce 1 938; C order e t a l 1 939). T he f inds a lone, g iven t heir g eneral l ocation, h ave b een e nough t o e nsure t he s ite's w ide r ecognition: t he G azetteer e ntry f or t he s ite h ad m entioned c alcite-gritted s herds a nd f ragments o f f ine w hite w are a s w ell a s T erra N igra ( hereafter T N) p latters, a nd g ave a t ermination d ate f or t he m aterial i n t he t hird q uarter o f t he f irst c entury A D ( Clark 1 935: 8 1-82). T his i nitial i nterpretation b y M ary K itson C lark h as h eld g ood i n t he s ubsequent w ork o n s ite. A p reC laudian d ate w as f avoured b y t hose s cholars o f t he t ime w ho s tressed n ot o nly t he a rchaeological i nterest o f s uch ' Belgic' f irst c entury i mports o n t his s ite, b ut a lso d rew a ttention t o i ts p eril, g iven t hat t he c liff h ad ' been s eriously s ubject t o e rosion i n r ecent y ears ' ( Corder e t a l 1 939: 2 38). S ince t hen, i ntermittent p eriods o f c ollection o n s ite h ave a dded t o t he c orpus o f p ottery a s n ew f eatures h ave b een b riefly e xposed a nd d estroyed. R edcliff h as s ince e njoyed f requent m ention i n p ublished d iscussions o f t he p eriod b oth f or c omparative p ottery s tudies, w hich h ave n ow r evised t he p re-Claudian d ate t o o ne o f t he 4 0s-70 A D ( Rigby 1 976), a nd w ith r eference t o t rans-frontier r elations b etween R oman a nd n ative ( for e xample, C unliffe 1 974: 13). D espite t his l atent i nterest, a nd t he s ite's p recarious a nd c ollapsing p osition o n t he e dge o f ac liff s uffering r egular s torm d amage e xacerbated b y t reasure h unting, n o s trategy f or s tudying R edcliff w as i mplemented i n t he e nsuing h alf c entury. S ince l ate 1 984, R edcliff h as f ormed p art o f a s tudy a rea o n t he n orth b ank o f t he H umber w hich i s u ndergoing a ssessment a nd i nvestigation b y H ull C ity M useums a nd A rt G alleries ( Figure 1 .1). T he w ork i s i n p rogress, b ut i nitial r esults a re a lready p roviding n ew i nformation a bout t he e xploitation o f t he H umber a nd t he m arginal a nd d ryland a reas i n i ts v icinity ( Crowther 1 986; 1 987) i n t he l ater p re-
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h istoric a nd e arly R oman p eriods. T his p aper p resents s ome i nitial r esults b ased o n w ork a nd c omments u p t o a utumn 1 986. O ur t heme i s R edcliff a nd i ts p osition o n t he H umber i n t he c ritical d ecades o f t he f irst c entury A D w hen t he r iver l ay o n t he v ery e dge o f t he R oman E mpire, a nd t he t erritory t o i ts n orth a waited t he c oming o f ' great g enerals a nd s plendid a rmies ' ( Tacitus A gricola : 1 7), w ith t he s ocial a nd e conomic c hanges t hat w ould f ollow i n t heir w ake. T HE S ETTING:
T HE H UMBER I N T HE L ANDSCAPE
E astern Y orkshire i s f ringed b y t he l imestone u plands o f t he T abular a nd H owardian H ills a nd h as a s i ts h eart t he c halk u plands o f t he Y orkshire W olds. T he r egion c ombines t hese h igh a nd d ry l andscapes w ith t he p eriglacial l owland a nd m arginal/wetland l ands capes o f t he V ale o f P ickering, t he V ale o f Y ork a nd t he P lain o f H olderness. F ew r egions o f B ritain c an m atch s uch p hysiographical v ariety, y et i n t he c enturies b efore t he R oman c onquest a c ultural u nity f or m uch o f t he r egion i s i nferred b oth a rchaeologically a nd h istorically, f or h ere i s g enerally t aken t o b e t he t erritory o f t he P arisi ( Ramm 1 978). L ocated b etween t he B rigantes t o t he n orth a nd w est a nd t he N orth S ea t o t he e ast, t he t erritory h as a s i ts s outhern l imit t he R iver H umber, a b ody o f w ater s ome f orty m iles l ong t hat c arries t he c ombined o utfalls o f t he O use a nd T rent r iver s ystems. T he H umber h as l ong b een i nfluential i n s haping t he h istory a nd d evelopment o f p eoples i n i ts v icinity a nd, i ndeed, f urther a field. I n o ne s ense, t he H umber c an b e s een a s a f ormidable d ivision t hrough t he l andscape t hat h as o ften f eatured a s a t erritorial, p olitical o r c ultural b oundary. T his w as c ertainly t rue b y t he e ighth c entury A D w hen t he H umber d efined t he n orthern a nd s outhern E nglish, i n t he c ase o f t he f ormer g iving i ts n ame t o t he g reatest k ingdom o f A nglo-Saxon E ngland - N orthumbria. S even h undred y ears e arlier, i n t he l ate 4 0s A D, t he H umber c an b e s aid t o h ave f ulfilled a s imilarly f undamental d elimiting r ole: i n t he y ears f ollowing t he C laudian i nvasion o f s outhern B ritain, t he s o-called ' Fosse W ay f rontier' r unning f rom t he S evern t o t he T rent e xtended n orthwards e ither b y r iver f ollowing t he T rent d ownstream t o t he H umber, o r b y r oad f ollowing E rmine S treet n orth f rom L incoln t o W interingham, o verlooking t he s outh b ank ( Whitwell 1 970: 1 2). F rom t hese u pper r eaches t o t he s ea, t he H umber c an h ave s erved a s t he d e f acto f rontier. T hroughout i ts l ength a cross B ritain t he f rontier w as i n a ll p robability v ery b road ( though n o l ess w ell d efined f or t hat) a nd i s g enerally n ow s een a s a z one w ith s upporting r oad a nd r iver s ystems t o p rovide c onvenient l ateral a venues o f c ommunication f or m ilitary t raffic o n b oth s ides o f t he l ine ( Salway 1 981: 9 5), a nd d oubtless o ther f orms o f t raffic t oo. I n t his c ontext, t hen, t he H umber m ust b e s een a s s omething m ore t han a b arrier. T he i mports o f f inewares a nd c ertain b rooch f orms a t R edcliff s how a s triking s imilarity w ith m aterial f rom s ites o n t he s outh b ank ( see b elow) a nd p oint t o a ctive m ercantile o r d iplomatic t rading. T his t raffic c ould b e r unning s olely f rom b ank t o b ank, t hough t he p ossibility e xists t hat t he g oods o n b oth b anks w ere b eing l anded d irectly a fter t heir p assage u priver f rom t he N orth S ea.
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W hatever p osition o f a dvantage R edcliff o ccupied i n t he m iddle d ecades o f t he f irst c entury A D, t his p re-eminence o n t he n orth b ank w ould n ot b e s ustained i n t he y ears t hat f ollowed. W hen t he N inth L egion m oved a gainst t he B rigantes i n 7 1 A D s trategic n ecessity t ook t he a dvance a cross t he H umber s omewhere i n t he v icinity o f R edcliff : b oth t he S outh F erriby-North F erriby a nd W interingham-Brough c rossings a re p lausible. T he w idespread w etlands u pstream w ere i gnored a nd t he H umber, r ather t han b eing a voided a s a b arrier, w as e xploited a s a m eans o f c ommunication p roviding a s upply l ine w ith t he e stablishment o f B rough a s t he b ridgehead. T his c ombination o f r oles a s a l ine o f d ivision a nd a l ine o f c ommunication g ives t he H umber, l ike o ther g reat r ivers, a s pecial i mportance f or t hose l iving u nder i ts i nfluence. N ot o nly d oes i t d efine s ocial a nd e conomic p atterns t hrough t ime, i t a lso c reates t he s timuli t o c hange t hem. T HE S ITE:
F IELDWORK A T R EDCLIFF,
1 986
R edcliff i s t he h ighest p iece o f g round ( more t han 1 0 m etres a bove O rdnance D atum) o n t he n orth b ank o f t he c entral H umber. I t c ommands t he m arginal l and t o e ach s ide a nd o ffers r oad a ccess t o t he W olds b ehind ( Figure 1 .1). A s a f ocus f or p ermanent s ettlement a midst a s easonally f luctuating w ater t able, i t m ay e xplain t he d ensity o f p rehistoric a ctivity o n t he f oreshore i n i ts v icinity u p a nd d ownstream o ver t wo m illenia ( Crowther 1 987; W right 1 976). T oday R edcliff f aces a t wo-fold t hreat f rom n atural e rosion a nd t reasure h unting. F ieldwork c onducted s ince 1 984 i s a ssessing a nd m onitoring t hese t hreats s o t hat a n a ppropriate r esponse c an b e r ationally c hosen a nd i mplemented. P re-excavation s urvey A p ermanent d atum l ine h as b een e stablished b ehind t he c liff s o t hat i ts c hanging e dge i n p lan c an b e a ccurately r ecorded b y r egular o ffset m easurements. T his s erves a s t he e ast-west b ase l ine f or t he p roject, w ith e asting v alues r unning a long i t f or 150 m etres. T he c liff s ection h as b een s tudied a long t his l ength, a nd t he e asternmost p art h as b een d rawn. A t hirty m etre l ength o f t he s ection d rawing i s s hown i n F igure 1 .2 w hich r ecords t he l argest f eature o bserved i n t he c liff f ace, t ogether w ith t he c hanging p lan o f t he c liff e dge o ver a n e ighteen m onth p eriod b etween O ctober 1 984 a nd A pril 1 986. I t i s a pparent t hat t he c liff a t t his p oint h as b een c ut b ack b y u p t o a m etre o ver t his p eriod. T his i s i n p art t he r esult o f p ersons d igging i nto t he c liff f ace i n s earch o f a ntiquities. E lsew here a long t he R edcliff , n atural e rosion o ver t he s ame p eriod i s e stimated a t a pproximately 0 .5 m etre. T he n atural t hreat a lone i s a mongst t he m ore s erious e rosion l osses i n B ritain t hough n ot a s g reat a s t hat o n t he N orth S ea c oast o f H olderness ( Sheppard 1 912; V alentin 1 971), w here t he g lacial t ill i s e roding a t a n e stimated 1 .5 m etres p er y ear o n a verage. T he f eatures t hat w ere e xposed a nd r ecorded i n t he s ection d rawing a ppeared t o r epresent d itches c ut i nto g lacial s ands a nd g ravels ( layer 4 ) a nd c ontained a d istinctive c oarse g rey l oam f rom w hich s ignificant q uantities o f o ccupation d ebris w ere v isible. A h ollow a t t he e astern e dge o f t he d itch c ontained b urnt c lay. F or
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s ome m etres w est o f t he w esternmost d itch, t he i nterface b etween l ayers 3 a nd 4 w as m arked b y a l ine o f d eliberately l aid c obbles ( not s hown o n t he f igure) w hich d escended s ome w ay i nto t he d itch i tself . O ne o f t hese w as a l arge l ump o f m etallurgical d ebris. A t t he b ottom o f m aterial s ealing t his s urface w as a lmost h alf t he b ase o f a n i mported w all-sided g ritless m ortarium d atable t o t he m id-first c entury A D. F ragments o f B utt B eakers a nd T N p latters, p articularly C amulodunum F orms 13 a nd 1 6 ( Hawkes a nd H ull 1 947) w ere f ound a t t his l evel, a bove w hich w ere f ragments o f a nimal b one a nd s hell. W ithin 3 m etres o f t his f eature, a t 148E, t he s ection s howed a s ignificant a nd a brupt c hange i n t he n atural d rift d eposits w here t he g ravel, d ominant t o t he w est, l enses o ut c ompletely a nd w here t he m odern l and u se c hanges t o p lanted w oodland. G iven t he s cale o f t he t hreat a nd t he q uantity a nd r ange o f m aterial a vailable f or s tudy, t he d ecision w as t aken t o u ndertake l imited e xcavations a t t hree l ocations a t R edcliff . T he f ollowing d iscussion d eals o nly w ith t he p rincipal e xcavation, T rench 1 , l ocated b ehind t he a r3a o f c liff e dge w hich h ad g enerated s o m uch e vidence ( Figure 1 .3). T rench 1 e xcavations T he 1 986 R edcliff e xcavations w ere s upervised b y S teven W illis w hose p rovisional r eport a nd i nterpretation f orms t he b asis o f t he d iscussion i n t his s ection. A p rovisional f ramework o f p hases c an b e a ttempted a t t his e arly s tage; i n v iew o f t he s ite's o bvious i mportance t he p resentation o f t hese i nitial r esults i s a mply j ustified. I n t he l ight o f i nitial f inds d ating, a nd d istribution, a nd s ite s tratigraphy, t he f ollowing p hasing s cheme ( Figure 1 .4) i s o ffered: P rovisional P hase 1 p re-circa 4 3 A D. A s tructure o r y ard a rea c omprised t wo i nsubstantial g ullies ( 1016:1017) d elimiting a s urface o f l aid c obbles ( 24:77) s pread a bout ac ompacted s urface o f s and. T his a ppeared t o h ave b een t erraced o ut o f t he n atural h eterogeneous s ands, g ravels a nd c lays o f t he u nderl ying s ubsoil. N o a rtefacts w ere r ecovered t hat c ould b e p articularly a scribed t o t he p eriod w hen t he s tructure w as f unctioning; g iven t he d ensity o f m aterial d ebris f or t he l ater _ floruit p hase o f t he s ite, a p re-Claudian d ate c an b e t entatively s uggested. A n i solated p it ( 38) m ay b elong t o t his p hase. T he f eature c ontained f ragments o f a h andmade j ar, a nd q uantities o f a nimal b one. P rovisional P hase 2 a c irca 4 3-70 A D F or t his e xercise, c ontexts c ontaining R oman p ottery t ypes h ave b een t aken t o c onstitute a p hase d istinct f rom t hose s tratigraphically e arlier u nits t hat d o n ot. A bove
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s mall f ragment o f a s amian c up o f D ragendorff F orm 2 7 o r 2 4/25. A bove t his a s imilar m aterial, b ut m ottled, s uggestive o f a g ley p odzol, h ad f ormed. T his d eposit i s l imited t o t he a rea e ast o f d itches 4 0 a nd 5 5 ( Figure 1 .4). U pcast m aterial f rom t he c onstruction o f t hese f eatures m ay i n p art b e r esponsible f or t he b uild-up o f s oil a t t his e nd o f t he e xcavation. E qually, d ownslope s oil m ovement c ould a lso a ccount f or t he d epth o f d eposits h ere. T hese d eposits a ppear t o h ave b een c ut b y a g ully a nd a p it. T he p rincipal e arthfast f eature o f t he p hase, d itch 4 0, p roduced b utchered b one t ogether w ith a v ariety o f G alloB elgic T N a nd B utt B eaker f orms, a nd a L angton D own b rooch. T wo p its t o t he w est o f t his d itch a re a scribed t o t his p hase, o ne o f w hich ( 35) p roduced a nimal b one a nd p ottery i ncluding s herds o f a l arge s torage j ar o f p robable l ocal m anufacture a s w ell a s R oman t ypes, n otably T erra R ubra. T wo b rooches ( 1000, 4 6) w ere a lso f ound f rom t he f eature. A c remation b urial ( 34) w as a lso f ound w ith s herds o f m idf irst c entury A D p ottery i n t he f ill. P rovisional P hase 2 b c irca 4 3 -7 0 A D A m ajor d itch f eature ( 55) a ppears s tratigraphically c ontempora neous w ith a g ully ( 78) r unning p erpendicular t o i t. T his d itch, a ligned n orthwest-southeast i s 0 .8 m etre d eep a nd a pproximately 2 .5 m etres w ide, t hough a t l east t wo r ecuts w ere n oted w ith a p rogressive m ovement e astwards. G iven t he a lignment o f g ully 7 8 a nd i ts s imilarity w ith 1 017 o f P hase 1 , t here i s a c ase f or s eeing t his d evelopment a s a t l east r especting t he ' early ' e vidence o n s ite. P ottery f rom t he f ill o f t he d itch a ppears c ontemporary w ith t hat f rom d itch 4 0 t o t he w est. O nly f urther e xcavation t o e stablish t he r elationship b etween t he t wo c an r esolve t he o rder i n w hich t hese d evelopments o ccurred. P rovisional P hase 3 p ost-70 A D T he o nly a ctivity w hich m ay b e f irmly a ssigned t o a p rovisional t hird p hase i s t hat o f t he c utting a nd f illing o f a l arge p it ( 82). T his w as d ug t hrough t he u pper f ills o f d itch 4 0, a fter i t h ad c eased t o f unction a s a n o pen f eature. F inds f rom t his p it i ncluded a nimal b one, o ysters, a nd c arbonised m aterial. A l arge c arbonised v etch s eed ( 90) w as s potted d uring e xcavation. T hough o therwise i ntact, t he s urface o f t his s pecimen i s b adly d amaged a nd u nfortunately t he h ilum ( the f eature m ost l ikely t o b e d iagnostic o f s pecial t ype) i s a bsent. N otwithstanding t his, i t m ay b e s uggested w ith s ome c onfidence t hat t he s eed i s t hat o f V icia f aba , t he H orse o r C eltic B ean, w hich i s n ot u ncommon o n B ritish I ron A ge s ites. T he l ikelihood t hat i t i s o f t his s pecies, t ogether w ith t he s ize o f t he s pecimen, i ndicate a n e conomic c rop ( Carol P almer p ersonal c ommunication). T he P rincipal D ating E vidence I mported f inewares a nd b rooches a nd a C oritanian c oin T his s ection d eals l argely w ith t he G allo-Belgic a nd o ther i mported w ares, t ogether w ith a t otal o f f ive b rooches f rom f ieldwork a t R edcliff . A nimal b one a waits s pecialist e xamination, t hough i t m ay
1
b e n oted t hat f aunal r emains w ere r ecovered i n s ignificant q uantities f rom m ost c ontexts a nd t hat a n i nitial i nspection o f t he b one a ssemblage c ollected f rom t he c liff f ace i n t he y ears p receding t he e xcavation s uggested t hat i t d erived f rom u nimproved n ative b reeds o f a nimal ( Sue S tallybrass p ersonal c ommunication). F lint w ork f rom t he s ite a lso f alls o utside t he s cope o f t his d iscussion. M aterial c ollected f rom t he c liff f ace a nd t he f ield s urface b etween 1 984 a nd 1 986 i s r eferred t o w here n ecessary. G allo-Belgic a nd o ther i mported w ares T he b ody o f t his c lass o f m aterial f rom t he s ite, a s i t w as k nown a d ecade a go, w as d iscussed b y R igby i n t he c ontext o f a c omparison w ith s imilar w ares f rom O ld W interingham, o n t he s outh b ank o f t he H umber ( Rigby 1 976). T he r eport a lso i ncluded a n ote b y B R H artley o n a s mall a mount o f s amian w are f rom t he s ite ( Hartley 1 976), i ncluding a p latter o f L oeschke F orm 2 w hich C order a nd P ryce ( 1939) h ad a ssigned t o t he l ate A ugustan-Tiberian p eriod. R igby f ound t hat t he a ssemblages f rom t he t wo s ites w ere s trikingly s imilar, t he t wo m ain d ifferences b eing t he q uality o f t he T N f abric, w hich s uggested t he p ossibility o f a d ifferent s ource o f s upply, a nd t he a bsence a t N orth F erriby o f t hose F lavian-Antonine f orms o f f lagon w hich a re f ound a t O ld W interingham. G allo-Belgic c ups a nd p latters r epresented m ainly t hose f orms w hich a re m ost c ommon i n p ost-conquest c ontexts, a nd t he e ffect o f t he w hole s tudy w as t o s uggest a C laudio-Neronian f loruit, w ith p ossible a bandonment b efore t he F lavian p eriod, f or a s ite w hich C order a nd P ryce ( 1938; 1 939) h ad c onsidered p re-Claudian. I n h is d iscussion o f t he s amian, H artley f ound t he e arliest p iece t o b e t he p latter a lready m entioned, b ut s uspected i t o f b eing o f T iberian o r ' very e arly C laudian', S outh G aulish m anufacture, a nd t hat i t c ould h ave a rrived o n t he s ite a s l ate a s t he d ecade 4 0-50 A D. T he G allo-Belgic a nd r elated w ares f ound d uring t he p resent e xcavation a re s ummarised i n t abular f orm i n T able 1 .1. A t t his s tage, i dentification h as b een b ased a lmost e ntirely o n r im s herds, a nd i t i s l ikely t hat a ny f inal l ist w ill h ave u ndergone s ome m odification. F orm n umbers a re t hose o f t he C amulodunum s eries ( Hawkes a nd H ull 1 947). C ontexts a nd p hases c an b e r elated a gainst t he p rovisional s ite m atrix ( Figure 1 .5). C omparison o f t his t able w ith f igure 6 3 i n R igby ( 1976) i s r emarkable f or t he s imilarities r ather t han t he d ifferences. T he a bsence o f f orms a lready n oted b y R igb-y i s r estricted t o c up F orm 8 ( of w hich s he f ound a s ingle e xample), b eaker F orms 7 2/81, 8 2/84 a nd 14, a nd t he f lagon 1 54. G iven t he i nterim n ature o f t his p resent s tudy, s ome o r a ll o f t hese f orms m ay b e f ound t o b e p resent t hrough f urther f ieldwork o r p ost-excavation a nalysis. F orms r ecorded f or t he f irst t ime a t R edcliff - p latter F orm 2 a nd f lagon F orms 1 63 a nd 1 72 m ay b e c onsidered m ore c losely. T he F orm 2 p latter, l ike t he F orm 3 , i s g enerally c onsidered t o b e a p re-conquest i mport i nto B ritain. I t i s f ound a s a s ingle e xample a t O ld W interingham, s o t hat i ts a ppearance a t N orth F erriby i n a s imilar o verall a ssemblage i s n ot r emarkable. L ike t he a dditional F orm 3 h ere r ecorded i t d oes l ittle t o m odify t he C laudioN eronian b ias o f t he g roup a s a w hole. T he t wo-handled f lagons 1 63
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P hase l : p re A043
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g u l ley [ 10 16 1
c cbt ies [248 . 7] g u i le y [ 10 17 ]
P hase 2 a :AD43-70
P hase2b : AD 4 3-70 ›— d r tch ( 40 ]
d r tch [55]
g u l ley ( 78 J
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F igure 1 .5
M atrix o f c ontexts i n T rench 1 .
D rawing:
J C reighton
a nd 1 72, w hich w ere c ommonest i n p eriods 4 t o 6 a t C olchester ( Hawkes a nd H ull 1 947) m ay l ikewise b e s een a s c onsistent w ith a d ate i n t he 4 0s t o 6 0s A D , t he F orm 1 72 h aving a m uch l ess m assive r im t han F lavian e xamples, s uch a s t hat o ne f ound i n a s andy c lay r ampart o f t he f ort a t M alton ( Corder 1 930: f igure 1 .17). I t m ay a lso b e n oted t hat t he r atio o f t he l ater w hite-ware B utt B eaker 13, w hich i s t he c ommonest b eaker o n t he s ite, t o t he T iberian-early C laudian 12 ( in T erra R ubra) i s i n t he o rder o f 5 :1. I n a ddition t o G allo-Belgic w ares s ome h alf-dozen s herds o f A rretine/samian w ere f ound. T wo o f t hese h ave b een p rovisionally i dentified a s b eing D ragendorff 1 7/Ritterling F orm 4 ( probably C laudian) a nd a L oeschke F orm 2 A. T his m ust a wait s pecialist c onfirmation, b ut i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he f orms a re t wo o f t hose d iscussed b y H artley ( 1976), a nd a s imilar c onclusion a s t o d ating m ay w ell b e r eached. S mall a mounts o f s amian h ave a lso b een f ound d uring p reliminary f ieldwork, i ncluding t he v ery w orn f ootring o f a p latter o f A rretine o r v ery e arly S outh G aulish m anufacture. T hree f irst-century m ortaria a re a lso k nown f rom t he s ite, t wo f rom t he e xcavation a nd o ne f rom t he c liff f ace. A ll a re o f g ritless w all-sided t ypes w hich c ould b e p rovisionally d ated t o t he p eriod 4 0 5 5 A D. I t w ill b e e vident f rom t he f oregoing t hat t he e xcavation h as n ot p roduced a ny e vidence f or t he a rrival o f i mported w ares a t t he s ite
1 4
( as p resently k nown) b efore t he l ate T iberian t o e arly C laudian p eriod. T here a re h owever, s light i ndications t hat t he s ite w as n ot t otally a bandoned b efore t he F lavian p eriod. S herds o f r usticated w are f rom t he c liff f ace m ay i ndicate s ome c ontinued a ctivity, a nd a l arge c arinated b owl f rom t he u pper f ill o f t he l arge p it ( context 8 2) m ay b e p ost-Neronian. T his v essel i s i n a f ine h ard R oman g reyware w ith c ombed e xterior, a nd s eems i ntermediate i n f orm b etween c arinated b owls C amulodunum 3 41/243 a nd t he G illam T ypes 2 14/215 ( Gillam 1 970). T here i s i n a ddition a T N p latter f rom t he c liff f ace w hich i s s imilar t o a t ype f rom O ld W interingham ( Rigby a nd S tead 1 976: f igure 7 5.17) w hich i s p ossibly o f F lavian d ate. T here i s v ery l ittle, h owever, t o s uggest t hat a ctivity a t t he s ite w as a t a ll p ronounced a fter t he N eronian p eriod. A h andful o f p ossibly l ater g reyware s herds f ound i n t he p loughsoil p robably r epresents R omano-British a gricultural a ctivity. T he B rooches F ive b rooches f rom R edcliff w ere s ubmitted t o t he A ncient M onuments L aboratory, E nglish H eritage, f or a nalysis, c onservation a nd d escription. T he f ollowing d iscussion i s b ased o n a n i nitial e xamination b y S arnia B utcher. T wo ( 1000: 1 007) a re o f t he s tandard L angton D own t ype w ith r eeded b ow, s pring e nclosed i n a c ylindrical c rossbar a nd c entral c atchplate w ith l arge o penings. A n X -ray f luorescence a nalysis b y J ustine B ayley ( Ancient M onuments L aboratory R eport 0 8/87) r eveals t hat o ne ( 1000) s hows a f illing o f t in i n t he c entral f urrow o f t he b ow; a t echnique f or w hich i t i s d ifficult t o f ind a p arallel i n t his b rooch t ype. T he L angton D own t ype i s c onsidered c ommon i n t he s outheastern p art o f B ritain w here i t i s d ated b y s ite-finds t o t he p eriod c irca 1 0-60 A D, a nd i t a lso o ccurs q uite w idely o n t he c ontinent. R edcliff i s o utside i ts n ormal r ecorded d istribution. T wo b rooches ( 46:75) a re o f t he s tandard C olchester t ype w ith a o ne-piece s pring b ehind a s hort f lat c rossbar, t he c hord h eld b y a h ook t urned b ack a long t he h ead, a nd a p lain t apering b ow. O ne ( 75) h as a c haracteristic f retted c atchplate. T his i s aB ritish t ype f ound t hroughout t he o ccupation d ate r ange o f C amulodunum, a nd t his p eriod ( circa 1 0-65 A D) a ccords w ith m ost s ubsequent w ell-dated f inds t hough s ome h ave b een f ound i n r esidual c ontexts. I t i s c ommonest i n s outhe astern B ritain, b ut e xamples f rom L incolnshire a nd Y orkshire a re k nown. O ne b rooch ( 83) i s aC olchester d erivative t ype. T he s pring i s m issing a nd n o m ethod o f a ttachment s urvives t hough i t i s n ot u nlikely t o h ave b een h eld b y t he c hord p assing u nder a s mall h ook o n t he h ead a s i n n umerous s imilar s haped b rooches. T his t ype i s l ess w ell k nown t han t he C olchester t ypes, b ut a ppears t o h ave a s omewhat w ider d istribution a nd m ay d ate f rom s lightly l ater i n t he f irst c entury. A C oritanian C oin A s ingle I ron A ge c oin w as f ound d uring m etal d etecting o f t he s poil h eaps, o ne o f t he m ethods e mployed t o a id r ecovery o f s mall f inds. I t i s a s ilver u niface c oin b earing a s tylised h orse a nd t he
1 5
i nscription V EP [ OR ( the s econd w ord r etrograde). I t t hus b elongs t o t he C oritanian i nscribed s eries b earing t he a bbreviated n ames o f d ual ' rulers' a nd w ould, o n A llen's d ating, h ave b een m ade a round 2 5 A D ( Allen 1 962: t able 2 ). S upplementary D ating E vidence B rooches a nd C oins f rom t he F oreshore A l arge n umber o f m etal i tems f rom t he b each b elow t he c liff h as b een n otified t o H ull M useums i n t he l ast d ecade. T hese f inds h ave u sually b een m ade b y m etal d etector u sers, a nd m ost o f t hem r emain i n p rivate p ossession. A ny a nalysis o f m etal-detected b odies o f m aterial i s b edevilled b y a p lethora o f e thical q uestions a nd u ncertainties o f i nformation, a nd t he p ossibility h as t o b e b orne i n m ind t hat ' Ferriby F oreshore ' m ight o ccasionally h ave f unctioned a s a ' safe p rovenance' t o g ive w hen s eeking i nformation a bout a f ind m ade e lsewhere. A nalysis o f t he f inds, h owever, d oes n ot i ndicate t he p resence o f a ny u nlikely m aterial, a nd i t s eems p robable t hat t he m ajority o f t he m etal o bjects r eported f rom t he s ite w ere i ndeed f ound t here. P ersonal a cquaintance w ith s ome o f t he i ndividuals w ho h ave r eported t hese f inds t o t he m useum , a nd s ome o f w hom l ent t heir s ervices f reely d uring t he e xcavation, h as d one m uch t o c onfirm t he a uthors i n t his o pinion. T he m etal f inds f all i nto t hree c ategories: I ron A ge a nd R oman f ibulae, I ron A ge c oins, a nd R oman c oins. T hese a re d iscussed b elow: F ibulae T he f ibulae m ay b e d ivided a s f ollows: E arlier T ypes L a T Ane I II t ypes T histle A ucissa C olchester ( Debased) E ye
L ater T ypes 2 1 2 2 1
D olphin H ead S tud F owler T ype C D ragonesque
2 2 1 1
T he e ight b rooches i n t he l efthand c olumn w ould a ll g enerally b e r egarded a s p re-Flavian. O f t he s ix i n t he r ighthand c olumn, t hree a re o f t ypes ( Dolphin a nd D ragonesque) w hich, a lthough t hey w ould b e a vailable u ntil a bout 1 50 A D, h ave t heir b eginnings i n t he N eronian p eriod. A gain, t he T ype C p ennanular b rooch w as r egarded b y F owler a s ' the B elgic t ype p ar e xcellence ' a lthough i t p ersists t hroughout t he R oman o ccupation ( Fowler 1 960). W hen F owler p ublished h er s urvey t he d istribution o f t his t ype o f f ibula w as a lmost e ntirely r estricted t o t he B elgic a reas o f t he c ivil p rovince, t hose o utside t his a rea a ppearing o nly o n m ilitary s ites o r o n t hose s howing s igns o f B elgic i nfluence. W ith t he e xception o f t wo s uch s ites ( Great C hesters i n N orthumberland a nd E ldbottle i n E ast L othian) t he n orthernmost c oncentration o f f inds w as i n L incolnshire, w here t hree o ut o f f our r ecorded c ame f rom S outh F erriby. T he
o nly
b rooches w hich s hould d efinitely b e o f
1 6
s econd c entury
d ate a re t he t wo h ead s tud t ypes. T he e mphasis o f t he g roup a s a w hole f alls d ecidedly u pon t hose t ypes w hich w ere a vailable d uring t he p ostulated C laudian-Neronian o ccupation a t R edcliff . I ron A ge C oins S ome 2 8 I ron A ge c oins h ave b een r eported t o H ull M useums, o f w hich 2 5 a re C oritanian. T he i mportance o f t his b ody o f f inds c an b e g auged f rom t he f act t hat 1 6 C oritanian c oins f rom D ragonby a nd n eighbourhood f ormed, i n 1 970, t he l argest c ollection f rom a ny s ite i n t he C oritanian a rea a part f rom t he S outh F erriby h oard ( May 1 970). A f ull d iscussion o f t he F erriby c oins i s n ot a ppropriate h ere, b ut o ne o bservation a bout t he c omposition o f t he l atest, i nscribed s eries m ay b e m ade: o f t he e ight i nscribed C oritanian c oins f rom t he f oreshore s ix a re o f ' rulers ' ( AVN A ST, E SVP A SV, V EP C ORE) w ho b elong t o t he f irst q uarter o f t he f irst c entury A D a ccording t o A llen 's d ating, w hile o nly t wo ( VOLISIOS/DVMNOV a nd D VMN T IGIR) c an b e a scribed t o t he 3 0s a nd 4 0s o f t he c entury. A s imilar s ituation s eems t o h ave o btained i n t he D ragonby a rea, o n t he s outh b ank o f t he H umber, w here t he i nscribed c oins e nd w ith t hose o f V EP C ORE a nd n one o f t he l ater f our r ulers i s r epresented ( May 1 970: 2 42-243). I nterpretation o f t hese f acts i s f raught w ith d ifficulties, b ut i t i s w orth c onsidering w hether t he e conomic a ctivity r epresented b y t he c oinage m ay n ot h ave b een o n t he d ecline i n t he H umber a rea i n t he t wo d ecades o r s o p receding t he R oman c onquest, o nly t o r eceive a n ew s timulus w ith t he s udden a ppearance o f t he R oman p ower.
R oman C oins R epublican d enarius d enarius d enarius
S econd c entury B C Q A ntonius B albus, 8 2 B C ( base) L H ostilius S aserna, 4 8 B C
I mperial d enarius d enarius c lipped s iliqua
N ero H adrian ( ?) l ate f ourth c entury A D
O nce a gain t he e arly b ias o f t hese f inds i s n oticeable: t he R epublican c oins c ould h ave b een c irculating u ntil t he l ast q uarter o f t he f irst c entury A D a nd o nly t he c lipped s iliqua f alls o utside t he d ate r ange o f t he m etalwork a lready n oted. A c oin o f L icinius I , 3 083 24 A D, w as f ound i n 1 967 i n a g arden i n N orth F erriby v illage, s ome w ay n ortheast o f t he s ite. T he c oin i s n ow i n H ull M useum , ( KINCM:24.67). C ONCLUDING D ISCUSSION T he p ottery a nd b rooches f rom t he 1 986 e xcavations s upport R igby 's s tudy ( 1976) i n i ndicating a C laudio-Neronian f loruit f or t he s ettlement a s p resently k nown. T here i s a l ittle e vidence, b oth f rom t he e xcavation a nd f rom f ieldwork, t o s uggest s ome a ctivity i n
1 7
t he e arly F lavian p eriod, b ut n one w hich w ould i ndicate a c ontinuation o f s ettlement o n t he s ame s ite d uring t he r emainder o f t he R oman o ccupation. A n a nalysis o f m etal f inds f rom t he f oreshore b elow t he s ite s upports t he a bove c onclusions. T his b ody o f f inds d isplays a c omplete d earth o f t he c ommon c ategories o f s econd t o f ourth c entury f inds, i ncluding c oinage, w hich c haracterise m aterial s hown t o H ull M useums f rom o ther s ites i n t he a rea. T he I ron A ge c oinage a s aw hole s uggests t hat e conomic a ctivity h ad c haracterised t he s ite f or s ome t ime b efore t he p resence o f i mported m aterial s hows u p i n t he a rchaeological r ecord, b ut f eatures c onnected w ith t his p hase o f t he s ite h ave n ot y et b een r ecognised a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t hey h ave b een l ost t o e rosion. T he i nscribed c oinage m ay i ndicate a d iminution o f e conomic a ctivity d uring t he T iberian p eriod, a nd i mported p ottery w hich m ay b e o f t his d ate i s a t a m inimum. T he s implest e xplanation f or t he e xistence o f a s ettlement a t R edcliff i n t he C laudio-Neronian p eriod i s t he o pportunity f or t rade a fforded b y t he p resence o f t he R oman A rmy o n t he o pposite b ank o f t he H umber. W ith t he e stablishment o f am ilitary c rossing s ome w ay u pstream f rom a round 7 1 A D t here m ay h ave b een n o g ood r eason f or t he c ontinued e xistence o f t he s ettlement. D espite t he s teady a nd i nexorable e rosion o f t he c liff f ace, t he s urviving e vidence i s i n e xcellent c ondition. D ownslope s oil c reep p ossibly a ugmented b y s cattered u pcast f rom d itch m aintenance h as p reserved p arts o f t he s ite b eneath a c onsiderable d epth o f o verburden. G leying o f t hese d eposits p oints t o a n i mpeded d rainage o f g roundwater, a nd i ndeed, f rom t he b asal d eposits o f o ne f eature ( 40) a f ragment o f w aterlogged w ood w as f ound. T he c alcareous o rigins o f t he s ubstrate p rovide a b ase-rich b urial e nvironment f avourable f or t he s urvival o f aw ide r ange o f m aterial e vidence. F inally, i n i ts w ider s etting R edcliff i s c learly l ocated i n a p osition o f s trategic s ignificance i n t his p art o f t he H umber. T ogether, t hese f actors p rovide a s tudy a rea o f g reat p otential w hich, i t i s h oped, w ill b e r ealised t o t he f ull a s f ieldwork a nd a nalysis p rogress.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS F ieldwork a t R edcliff i s p art o f ap roject b y H ull C ity M useums a nd A rt G alleries e xamining a r ange o f e vidence o n t he n orth b ank o f t he H umber d own t o l ow w ater m ark. T he w ork a t R edcliff i s b eing c onducted w ith t he g enerosity a nd k indness o f t he l andowners, C apper P ass L imited, t he i nterest a nd g oodwill o f t he f armer, GE B ullass, a nd t he s upport o f t he f ollowing b odies: t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon, t he R oyal A rchaeological I nstitute, E nglish H eritage, t he E ast R iding A rchaeological S ociety, t he U niversity o f M anchester D epartment o f A rchaeology, t he U niversity o f D urham D epartment o f A rchaeology a nd H ull C ity C ouncil. T he a uthors a re g rateful t o t he s pecialists w ho h ave o ffered c omments a nd e xpertise s o p romptly a nd w ho a re c ited ' personal c ommunication ' o r o therwise m entioned i n t he t ext. T he a rchive, p art o f H ull M useums a rchaeology c ollections, b een a ccessioned u nder t he n umber K INCM:1480.1986.
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h as
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A llen, D F 1 962 A ge . C hessington:
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C lark, M K 1 935 A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire . R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 5 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C order, P 1 930 T he D efences o f t he R oman F ort a t M alton . R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 2 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C order, P a nd P ryce, TD 1 938 B elgic a nd o ther e arly p ottery f ound a t N orth F erriby, Y orks. A ntiquaries J ournal 1 8: 2 62-277. C order, P a nd P ryce, TD 1 939 A n A rretine p late f rom N orth F erriby, Y orkshire. A ntiquaries J ournal 1 9: 2 07. C order, P , W right, C W a nd W right, E V 1 939 T he P re-Roman s ettlement o f t he P arisi a t N orth F erriby. T he N aturalist S eptember 1 939: 2 372 43. C rowther, D 1 986 S ome r ecent f ieldwork b y t he A rchaeology D epartment o f H ull C ity M useums a nd A rt G alleries. I n V F airhurst ( ed) B ringing t he P ast u p t o D ate . H ull: E ast R iding A rchaeological S ociety: 1 4-17. C rowther, D 1 987 S ediments a nd A rchaeology o f t he H umber I n S E llis ( ed) E ast Y orkshire F ield G uide . C ambridge: R esearch A ssociation. C unliffe, B 1 974 a nd K egan P aul.
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H artley, B R 1 976 T he s amian w are f ound a t N orth F erriby. I n IM S tead E xcavations a t W interton R oman V illa a nd o ther R oman S ites i n N orth L incolnshire . D epartment o f t he E nvironment A rchaeological R eports 9 . L ondon: H er M ajesty's S tationery O ffice: 1 34. H awkes, C F C a nd H ull, M R 1 947 C amulodunum . A ntiquaries o f L ondon R esearch R eport 1 4.
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R igby, V a nd S tead, I M 1 976 C oarse p ottery. I n I M S tead E xcavations a t W interton R oman V illa a nd o ther R oman S ites i n N orth L incolnshire . D epartment o f t he E nvironment A rchaeological R eports 9 . L ondon: H er M ajesty 's S tationery O ffice : 1 36-190. S alway,
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V alentin, H 1 971 L and l oss a t H olderness 1 852-1952. I n JA S teers ( ed) A pplied C oastal G eomorphology . L ondon: M acmillan: 16-137. W hitwell, J B 1 970 R oman L incolnshire . H istory o f L incolnshire L incoln: L incolnshire L ocal H istory S ociety. W right, E V 1 976 N orth F erriby B oats . M useum M onograph 2 3.
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N ational M aritime
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E VIDENCE F OR R OMANO-BRITISH S ETTLEMENT I N H ULL A ND T HE L OWER H ULL V ALLEY P ETER D IDSBURY
I NTRODUCTION H ull h as n ot b een n oted f or i ts R oman r emains. F ifty y ears a go, o nly a s ingle f ind c ould b e r ecorded f rom t he c ity ( Clark 1 935: 9 3). T his, a g reyware j ar d iscovered w hile d igging t he f oundations f or a l aundry ( Sheppard 1 912: 1 88-189) w as a s e nigmatic a s i t w as u nique. ' Embedded i n H umber s ilt' i t m ust s urely, ' if i n s itu ', h ave ' been d ropped o verboard f rom a R oman s hip, a s t he H umber e xtended o ver t he p resent s ite o f H ull i n R oman t imes' ( Sheppard 1 931). Is hall h ave o ccasion t o d iscuss t his f ind b elow, b ut, f or t he m oment, i t w ill s erve t o i ntroduce t he t hemes o f t his p aper, w hich a re: t o s ummarise t he p resent s tate o f o ur k nowledge o f R omano-British s ettlement i n t he l ower p arts o f t he H ull v alley, a nd, i n p articular, t o d emonstrate t he u tilisation i n t hat p eriod o f a reas h itherto h eld t o h ave b een u na vailable, b y v irtue o f b eing u nderwater, f or s ettlement. T HE L OWER H ULL V ALLEY F rom i ts s ources n ear D riffield t he R iver H ull f lows s outh f or s ome t wenty m iles t o i ts c onfluence w ith t he H umber. I ts b road v alley s eparates t he u ndulating c laylands o f H olderness o n t he e ast f rom t he d ip s lope o f t he Y orkshire W olds t o t he w est. R eceiving c onsiderable v olumes o f w ater f rom b oth a reas, a nd e njoying o nly a s light g radient, i t c onstituted u ntil r elatively r ecent t imes o ne o f t he m ost e xtensive a reas o f m arshland i n E ngland. T he r iver i s a lso t idal. O rdinary t ides t oday p enetrate 1 7 m iles u pstream, a nd t idal i nfluence h as b een am ajor f actor c ontrolling t he v alley's c onstituent s oils ( Soil S urvey 1 983). M arine a lluvia o f t he ' Wallasea l ' A ssociation s tretch a s f ar n orth a s B everley, w here t hey t hen g ive w ay t o t he m ixed m arine a lluvia a nd f en p eat o f ' Downholland 3 ', w hich d ominates m ost o f t he r est o f t he v alley. T he c hange f rom o riginal s alt- t o p eat-marshland, r eflected i n t he i ncrease o f ' carr' p lacenames a s o ne t ravels n orth, p ermits a c onvenient d ivision o f t he v alley i nto U pper a nd L ower p arts. T he v alley i s f lanked o n b oth s ides b y c halky g lacial t ills, ' islands ' o f w hich a lso r ise u p t o 1 0 m etres a bove t he s ilts a t S utton, T ickton a nd W awne i n t he v alley i tself ( Figure 2 .1). A lthough t he h istorical w apentake o f H olderness l ay e ntirely t o t he e ast o f t he r iver, t he c laylands t o . t he w est a re v ery s imilar i n c haracter; t he g eographical e ntity o f H olderness s tretches f rom t he W olds t o t he s ea, w ith t he H ull v alley a s o ne o f i ts m ost d istinctive c onstituent p arts. G eologically, t he l andscape u nder d iscussion i s o f e xtremely r ecent o rigin, a nd a n a ppreciation o f t his i s e ssential t o a ny s tudy o f i ts s ettlement. U pper C retaceous c halk, d ipping e astwards f rom t he Y orkshire W olds t o t he c oast, i s b lanketed b y t he g lacial t ills o f H olderness, w hich t hemselves s upport a v ariety o f l ocalised p ostg lacial d eposits. H olderness w as f ree o f t he D evensian i ce b y a bout 1 3,000 B P, a nd d uring t he e arly F landrian, b efore t he w orld-wide r ee stablishment o f h igher s ea-levels, d rainage c hannels i n t he H umber B asin w ere i ncising t o b ase-levels w hich c ould h ave b een a s l ow a s 1 6
2 1
F igure 2 .1
T he l ower H ull v alley
2 2
m etres t o 1 8 m etres b elow O rdnance D atum ( hereafter O D) ( Gaunt a nd T ooley 1 974: 2 5). T he R iver H ull h ad i ts o rigin i n s treams r unning a long t he w esterly e dge o f t he r etreating i ce, a nd i n p arts o f t he L ower H ull v alley t he b oulder c lays h ave b een c ompletely e roded, s o t hat p ost-glacial d eposits r est d irectly o n t he c halk ( De B oer e t a l 1 958: 2 03). T he s ubsequent e ustatic r ise i n s ea-levels c aused w idespread a lluviation o f s uch d eeply i ncised c hannels, a nd t his i s a p rocess w hich h as c ontinued t o t he p resent d ay. I f ( Penny 1 974: 2 62) ' large a reas o f .. H umberside e xist o nly b ecause o f t he e vents o f t he Q uaternary', t hen t he L ower H ull v alley i s, e ven m ore s pecifically, a g ift o f t he F landrian. T hus, i n J une S heppard 's c lassic s tudy ( Sheppard 1 958: 1 -2), n o s ettlement i s e nvisaged o n t he v alley s ilts b efore t he e arly m edieval p eriod. T he p icture i s o ne o f a g radually a lluviating t idal h ollow, m uch o f i t b earing s alt-marsh v egetation a nd s ubject t o r egular f looding, w ith t he f irst s ites h igh a nd d ry e nough t o s upport s mall h amlets o nly a ppearing a s l ate a s t he e leventh c entury. F rom t he t welfth o r t hirteenth c entury o nwards t here c ommenced t hose d rainage s chemes a nd i mprovements w hich, i nitially u nder m onastic o r s eigneurial i mpetus ( Blashill 1 892: 4 ) a nd t hen o verseen b y C ommissions o f S ewers a nd s ubsequent s tatutory b odies, w ould a llow t he a rea t o b e c olonised a nd g ive r ise t o t he o rderly l andscape o f t oday. T his i s u ndoubtedly a ccurate a s f ar a s t he M iddle A ges a re c oncerned, b ut a s a n a ccount o f e arlier p eriods i t s tands i n n eed o f m odification. A d earth o f f inds o f R omano-British m aterial a t t he t ime o f w riting w as u nderstandably t aken a s a r eliable i ndicator o f a bsence o f s ettlement, a nd a lthough i t i s n ot s tated e xplicitly, a lluviation w as e vidently s een a s o perating i n r elation t o s ea-levels w hich h ad r emained m uch t he s ame f or c enturies. T here i s n ow, h owever, ag rowing b ody o f e vidence f or t he u tilisation o f t he v alley s ilts i n R oman t imes, a nd r esearch i nto f luctuating s ea-levels d uring t he F landrian h as p rovided a t heoretical b ackground a gainst w hich i t m ay b e e xamined. B efore d oing s o, h owever, i t w ill b e u seful i f w e c onsider s ettlement o n t he v alley's c layland f ringes. T he C lay M argins T hat H olderness w as o ccupied i n L ate I ron A ge a nd R oman t imes i s n ot i n d oubt. T he n ature o f t hat o ccupation, h owever, r emains r ather e lusive. T he c lays h ave n ot b een a menable t o a erial p hotographic s urvey, a nd m ost o f t he k nown s ettlement s ites i n t he a rea a re o f p ost-Roman d ate. A g lance a t t he m ap s upplied w ith M rs C hitty's G azetteer ( Clark 1 935) r eveals a s catter o f i ndividual f inds, m ainly i n t he c entral a nd e astern p arts o f t he d istrict. I ndeed, L oughlin p oints o ut ( Loughlin a nd M iller 1 979: 4 7) t hat a lthough s ettlement o f p re-medieval d ate i s h ardly r ecorded f or H olderness, i t h as n evertheless p roduced a w ealth o f r emarkable c asual f inds o f a ll p eriods. T he e namelled b ridle-bit f rom R ise ( Greenwell 1 906: 2 81, f igure 2 3) a rgues a c ertain l evel o f m aterial c ulture b y t he f irst c entury A D, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat i t d erives f rom a s y et u ndiscovered s ettlement o n t he e nclave o f w ell-drained A eolian s ands i n t he v icinity ( Soil S urvey 1 983). I t m ay a lso b e n oted t hat o ne o f t he f ew a reas w here a erial p hotography h as b een s uccessful e ast o f t he r iver i s i n t he n eighbouring p arishes o f S wine a nd S kirlaugh, w here a s ettlement c omplex o f e nclosures a nd d itch-systems, w ith a n a djacent s quare-barrow c emetery, o verlooks t he v alley s ilts ( Loughlin a nd M iller 1 979: 5 9-60).
2 3
T he o ccupation o f t hese w estern c laylands i s e videnced m ore f ully t han a ny o ther p art o f s outhern H olderness, a nd i t i s p robable t hat b y t he b eginning o f t he R oman p eriod t here w as a s tring o f s ettled c ommunities a long t he e astern m argin o f t he L ower H ull v alley. T he s ite a t S altshouse R oad, H ull ( on t he h igher ' island ' o f S utton) i s t he o nly s ite o f t his p eriod t o h ave b een e xcavated, w hich m akes i t a p ity t hat i t h as n ever b een p ublished i n f ull ( Challis a nd H arding 1 975). T he w ork w as u ndertaken b y t he E ast R iding A rchaeological S ociety i n a dvance o f d evelopment i n 1 962. T he p lans o f t hree c ircular h uts w ith c entral h earths, a nd t wo d itched e nclosures, o ne c ircular a nd o ne s ub-rectangular, w ere r ecovered ( Challis a nd H arding 1 975: 1 41, f igure 6 8), a s w ell a s c onsiderable q uantities o f h andmade a nd w heelturned p ottery o f t ypes w hich f it b est i nto a f irst c entury c ontext ( Challis a nd H arding 1 975: 8 0, 9 4-97, 1 41, f igure 4 1). T he l arge a mounts o f a nimal b one f rom t he s ite h ave n ot b een a nalysed, a nd t his i s u nfortunate s ince i t o ffers t he b est c hance o f u nderstanding t he e conomy o f s uch s ettlements. T he e quation ' animal b one + b oulder c lay = p astoral e conomy' i s t oo s implistic, b ut i t i s l ikely t hat t he b one r epresents a t l east a n e lement o f a nimal h usbandry w ithin a m ixed f arming s ystem . E ither w ay, s ites l ike S altshouse, a t t he i nterface b etween t he c lay a nd t he s ilt, a re a dmirably p laced. H aselgrove ( 1984 : 1 9) r egards i t a s p robable t hat t he c laylands o f n ortheast E ngland w ere a s d ensely o ccupied a s t he l ighter s oils b y t he l ater f irst c entury A D, a s ituation m ade p ossible b y i mproved t echnology, c limatic a melioration, a nd s uitable c rops. T here i s t hus n o n eed t o r ule o ut c ereal p roduction o n t he c lays. I f , i n a ddition, l arge a reas o f t he v alley f loor w ere a vailable f or e xploitation, a s Ih ope t o s how, t here w ould h ave b een a mple s ummer g razing f or f locks a nd h erds. I n t his c ase, t he p arallel w ith t he e arly m edieval p eriod w ould b e a lmost e xact, f or i t w as f rom t hese s ame i slands o f h igher l and t hat t he v alley w as m anaged f or p asture b y t he C istercian m onks o f M eaux f rom t he m id-twelfth c entury o nwards ( Blashill 1 892). W hatever t he b asic e conomy b eing p ractised, i t s hould n ot b e f orgotten t hat t here w ere a lso a vailable t hose r ich e cological r esources w hich H olderness, w ith i ts ' abundance o f w etlands a nd m ires ' ( Gilbertson 1 984: 1 ), h ad a fforded t o e arlier p opulations. T he w etter p arts o f t he v alley, l ikewise, c ontinued t o b e a n i mportant s ource o f r eeds, p eat, f ish a nd w ildfowl w ell i nto t he e ighteenth c entury ( Harris 1 959: 1 3). H ow t he o ccupation o f t hese h igher a reas t o t he e ast o f t he r iver d eveloped d uring t he r est o f t he R oman p eriod i s u nclear, t hough a l ittle e vidence i s a vailable f or a ll o f t hem . A 1 2 m etres l ength o f d itch c ontaining t hird c entury p ottery w as r evealed n ear W awne L odge i n 1 975 a nd c asual f inds f rom t he v icinity i nclude a s estertius o f M arcus A urelius a nd a s pindle-whorl ( Hull M useum S ites a nd M onuments R ecord ( hereafter S MR); L oughlin a nd M iller 1 979: 6 4). L ate I ron A ge a nd R omano-British p ottery a nd a q uernstone a re k nown f rom W eel i n t he p arish o f T ickton ( County S MR; L oughlin a nd M iller 1 979: 3 5); a nd a t E ske, i n t he s ame p arish, t he w riter h as r ecently r ecorded a s catter o f t hird a nd f ourth c entury p ottery i ncluding p ainted C rambeck p archment w are a nd H untcliff j ars. T he s ite h as a lso p roduced a d enarius o f S eptimius S everus d ated t o A D 2 01.
2 4
T he r emainder o f t he e vidence f or t he e astern e dge o f t he l ower v alley i s p rovided b y t he f our c oin h oards f rom t he a rea. T wo f rom S wine ( Clark 1 935: 1 30-132; L oughlin a nd M iller 1 979: 6 0) a re C onstantinian a nd c omprise s ome 4 ,500 s mall b ronze i ssues i n a ll. T he t hird, f rom W awne p arish ( Clark 1 935: 1 30, s ub S utton), i s i nadequately d escribed i n t he o riginal s ources, b ut a ppears t o c onsist o f s ilver d enarii t erminating w ith c oins o f M arcus A urelius a nd F austina J unior. I f s o , t hen t he h oard w as p robably a r eaction t o t he s harp d ecline i n t he s ilver c ontent o f t he d enarius f rom t he r eign o f M arcus o nwards ( Casey 1 980: 5 4). F inally, a nd a gain f rom S wine, t here i s a n i nteresting h oard o f d enarii a nd s estertii w hich m ay a lso h ave b een d eposited i n t he r eign o f M arcus A urelius ( Anon 1 941: 1 33). I t i s s upposed t o h ave b een p loughed u p i n 1 940 b ut i ts d iscovery i s c haracterised b y s uch a d earth o f i nformation t hat i t m ust u nfortunately b e r egarded w ith s ome c aution. M uch o f t he h igher l and a t S utton a nd W awne w as d eveloped a s p art o f H ull's B ransholme h ousing e state i n t he 1 970s. I t i s v irtually c ertain t hat R omano-British m aterial w ent u nnoticed o r u nreported d uring t hese o perations, a nd t o a g reat d egree t he o pportunity h as n ow b een l ost, t hough a n a wareness o f t he a rea 's a rchaeological p otential w hen c onsidering p lanning a pplications m ay s till b e u rged. T he c layl and a rable w est o f t he r iver, h owever, i s m uch a s i t w as f ifty y ears a go, d evelopment h aving b een l imited t o e xpansion a round H ull's d ormitory v illages i n H altemprice. N o s ymbols a t a ll g race t his a rea o n t he 1 935 m ap, M ortimer a nd G reenwell b arely e ncroached u pon i t, a nd i t h as s ignally f ailed t o a ttract t he i nterest o f s ubsequent w orkers. D espite a s teady t rickle o f c asual f inds d uring t he 1 960s a nd 1 970s, n otably a f irst o r s econd c entury b ronze s tatuette o f a n a ctor, w earing a G reek r obe a nd t he w ide-mouthed m ask o f a c omic c haracter ( Hull M useums S MR, s ub W illerby), t here w as l ittle r eason t o r eview t he r eceived n otion o f s ettlement w est o f t he H ull: t hat i t b elonged t o t he c halk W olds t hemselves, p rimarily t o t he w estern s lopes w here v illas s uch a s B rantingham a nd N ewbald f lanked t he r oad f rom B rough t o Y ork a nd M alton. I n r ecent y ears, h owever, t he p icture h as a ltered d ramatically. I n p articular, e xtensive a gricultural s ettlement c ropmarks h ave b een r evealed b y a erial s urvey o n f luvio-glacial g ravels b etween W oodmansey a nd C ottingham ( Loughlin a nd M iller 1 979: 2 1-22, 3 7-38). D etailed f ieldwork b y t he a uthor a t o ne o f t hese s ites, B urn P ark F arm, h as b een d esigned t o e valuate t heir o verall p otential f or r esearch. A s catter o f p rehistoric a nd R oman p ottery _ c overing s ome 5 0 h ectares h as b een d efined, a nd i s a t p resent u ndergoing a nalysis. T he m ajor q uestions b eing g enerated a t t he m oment c oncern t he a pparent e nlargement o f t he a rea r eceiving p ottery d uring t he f ourth c entury a nd t he p ossible e stablishment o f a s econd ' occupation ' a rea 0 .8 k ilometre f rom t he s ystem o f t rackways a nd c ellular e nclosures k nown f rom t he a erial p hotographs. S igns o f o ccupation a re a lso b eginning t o b e n oted a t s ome o f t he p ost-Roman c entres o f p opulation i n t he a rea. T hird c entury p ottery, i ncluding a s hell-tempered D ales w are j ar, h as r ecently b een f ound n ear S t M ary's C hurch i n C ottingham ( Hull M useum S MR), a nd a t W ylies R oad i n B everley a d itch c ontaining t hird a nd f ourth c entury g reywares w as f ound c ut i nto a h igh g ravel s ubsoil b eneath t he t own 's m edieval
2 5
d efences ( Hughes 1 985: 1 0-13, f igures 4 -5). A part f rom i ts i ntrinsic i mportance i t s erves t o p ut i nto c ontext t he m any c hance f inds o f R oman m aterial a lready k nown f rom t he t own. M oving s outh, s ome m ention m ust b e m ade o f a p ossible v illa s ite a t F ishpond W ood, R isby ( Didsbury 1 986: 2 8-29). D iscovered d uring a rea s ampling i n 1 982, i t l ies a t 4 5 m etres a bove O D o n a p lateau o f g ravelly d rift s urrounded o n t hree s ides b y t he v alleys o f t he R isby P ark g lacial s pillways ( De B oer e t a l 1 958: 1 92-193, f igure 6 , p late 1 0). T he a rea o f 1 .5 k ilometres s quare t hus e nclosed a ppears n ot o nly t o d efine t he l ands o f t he d eserted m edieval v illage o f R isby, b ut p ossibly t o h ave c onstituted a n a gricultural u nit d uring t he R oman p eriod, s upporting a n o verall l ow d ensity d istribution o f R omanoB ritish m aterial. A c ore a rea o f s ome 3 .6 h ectares i s m arked b y a d ense s catter o f f irst t o f ourth c entury p ottery a nd r oofing t ile, t he e dges o f t his s catter b eing v ery s harply d efined a nd n ot a ccounted f or b y d ifferential a gricultural p ractices i n t he m odern p eriod. T he s ite a ppears t o h ave g rown f rom b eginnings i n t he l ate I ron A ge, a nd t o h ave b een o ccupied, p ossibly w ithout i nterruption, u ntil t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod. T wo c ordoned A ylesford-type B elgic j ars a re o f a k ind o nly p reviously f ound, n orth o f t he H umber, a t B rantingham v illa ( Fairhurst 1 985: 1 6), t he e arliest s amian d ates t o a bout 7 0 A D, a nd o ther f ine w ares, b oth i mported a nd d omestic, w ere i n u se t hroughout t he s ite's h istory. A mong t he c oarse w ares, t he p resence o f m uch D ales w are m ay b e n oted. O nce t hought t o b e r are i n e ast Y orkshire ( Rigby 1 973: 1 06), i t i s n ow k nown f rom s everal s ites i n t he v alley, i ts f ormer a pparent a bsence f rom H olderness m ore l ikely r eflecting a l ack o f f ieldwork, a s L oughlin ( 1977: 14) s uggested. T he d ifferently t empered D ales types o f t he H olme on-Spalding M oor i ndustry a ppear f ar l ess f requently a nd t he a rea s eems t o h ave r emained a t l east p artially w ithin a L incolnshire c eramic o rbit d uring t he t hird c entury. I ntensive f ieldwork a t R isby o ver t hree s easons, i ncluding o ne i n w hich t he f ield w as h appily l eft f allow, h as r esulted i n f ar g reater a mounts o f m aterial b eing r ecovered t han i s u sual, i ncluding c lasses o f a rtefact w hich m ight n ot n ormally b e f ound a t a ll d uring r apid f ield-survey o n p artially w eathered p loughsoil. T hese i nclude s everal c oins, t hree q uernstones ( one o f t hem o f b eehive t ype), a d iscrete c oncentration o f i ron s melting w aste, a nd a n i tem o f b ronze o penwork m ilitary e quipment i n t he s hape o f a d ouble p elta ( Figure 2 .2). T he r easons f or t he p resence o f t his p articular i tem h ere w ill p robably r emain e nigmatic. A s i t i s, i t a dds t o t he i nterest o f a s ite w hich i s p otentially o f k ey i mportance f or u nderstanding t he R omanisation o f ' high s tatus ' l ate I ron A ge s ites i n t he a rea e ast o f t he W olds.
F igure 2 .2
B ronze f itting f rom R isby ( Scale 1 :1)
2 6
T he S ilts I t i s n ow g enerally a ccepted t hat r estoration o f s ea-levels d uring t he F landrian h as b een a ccomplished b y a s eries o f o scillations, s uccessively h igher m arine t ransgressions b eing s eparated b y r egressive p eriods o f l ower M ean S ea L evel ( hereafter M SL) ( Thompson 1 980: p assim ). M any l ocal f actors a ffect b oth t he e xact t iming o f t hese e vents a nd t he a ltimetric l evels a t w hich t hey o ccur, b ut e vidence f rom s everal p arts o f B ritain s uggests t hat t he R oman p eriod e ffectively c oincided w ith o ne o f t hese t ransgression p hases, o ccupation h orizons d ependent o n e arly l ow s ea-levels h aving t o b e a bandoned o r p rotected f rom t he m id-third c entury o nwards ( Devoy 1 980: 1 45; S immons 1 980). I n t he H umber i tself t he s hingle-bottomed h aven a t B rough p rovided a ttractive h arbourage i n t he f irst c entury b ut h ad s ilted u p b y t he m iddle o f t he f ourth ( Wacher 1 969: 8 0-81, f igure 3 3). F or s ome a reas, t ime/depth c urves o f c hanges i n M SL c an b e e stablished, o ne o f t he m ost d etailed o f t hese b eing t hat c onstructed b y T ooley ( 1980: 8 2, f igure 3 5) f or n orthwest E ngland, w here t en t ransgression m axima ( Lytham I - X ) h ave b een r ecognised b etween c irca 9 ,500 r adiocarbon y ears B P a nd t he p resent. A lthough s ea-level c hanges i n t he H umber e stuary a re n ot k nown i n c omparable d etail t here i s s ufficient e vidence t o s uggest a v ery s imilar p attern o f f luctuation. W here t ransgressions c an b e c ompared d irectly w ith t hose i n n orthwest E ngland, t hey a ppear t o o ccur s ome 4 m etres l ower ( Gaunt a nd T ooley 1 974: 3 9). T he l atest p eriod f or w hich t his s ystematic d isplacement c an b e d emonstrated i s t he I ron A ge t ransgression L ytham V III. I f i t w ere m aintained d uring L ytham I X, w hich b egan a round t he t urn o f t he m illennium a nd p eaked i n t he l ater f ourth c entury, t hen t he M SL a t t he b eginning o f t he R oman p eriod c ould h ave b een a s l ow a s 3m etres b elow O D i n p arts o f t he H umber e stuary. W acher ( 1969: 8 0-81) p ostulated a M SL o f 1 .6 m etres ( 5 f eet) b elow O D a t B rough i n t he l ate t hird c entury, a nd a lthough i t i s i mpossible t o b e m ore p recise t han t his, b oth s ets o f f igures m ay s erve t o i ndicate t he r ange o f s ea-levels u nder d iscussion. I n l ight o f t he f act t hat t wo-thirds o f t he v alley s ilts h ave a n u nderlying b oulder c lay s urface b etween 3 .8 m etres b elow O D a nd 0 m etres [ OD] ( see b elow), i t i s c learly n ot f ar-fetched t o s uggest t hat b y t he R oman p eriod, a fter s everal t housand y ears o f a lluviation, t hey a lready a fforded a n ' inhabitable' l and s urface. O ne f urther p oint o f c omparison w ith n orthwest E ngland i s a llowable: L ytham I X i s r eplicated a lmost e xactly i n h eight a nd d uration b y L ytham X , w hich r eached i ts h ighest l evels a bout 1 300 A D, a p eriod f or w hich t here i s d ocumentary e vidence f or s evere f looding i n t he L ower H ull v alley ( Frost 1 827: 3 2). A ny R omano-British c olonisation o f t he s ilts c ould t hus b e s een a s o ccurring a t a s imilar p oint i n r elation t o t he m arine t ransgression c ycle a s t he h istorically a ttested o ccupation i n m edieval t imes. I n 1 979 L oughlin a nd M iller l isted o nly n ine f inds o f l ate I ron A ge a nd R omano-British d ate f rom H ull. I n f act, o nly s even f inds a re r epresented, s ince o ne i s d uplicated a nd a nother d erives, i nexplicably, f rom t he C lark ( 1935: 1 33) e ntry f or T hwing. T his h andful o f c oins a nd p otsherds m ade u p t he s um t otal o f H ull's p rem edieval a rchaeology, a nd L oughlin c oncluded t hat ' in n o a rea h as s ufficient m aterial b een f ound t o s uggest .. t hat a m ajor R oman s ite
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e xisted e ither w ithin t he l ower r eaches o f a s a c rossing p oint o n t he r iver i tself ' 6 3-64). M useum a nd l iterature s earch b y y ears, h owever, h as r aised t he n umber o f t otal w hich w ould s urely e xcite i nterest s ize.
t he H ull v alley o r a ctually ( Loughlin a nd M iller 1 979: t he a uthor i n t he l ast t wo f indspots t o o ver f orty, a i n ar ural a rea o f s imilar
L ack o f s pace p recludes a d etailed l isting o f t hese f inds, s o a b rief d escription o f t he c orpus i s n ecessary. F or t he m ost p art i t c onsists o f s ingle c oins a nd s mall c ollections o f s herds, t he l arge a mounts o f p ottery f rom H aworth H all ( TA 0 87335) c onstituting a n otable e xception ( Eagles 1 979: 1 52). T here i s as ingle f ind o f l ate I ron A ge p ottery f rom t he L eads R oad a rea ( TA 10324) a nd a s word o f s imilar d ate f rom H ymers A venue ( TA 0 80294, D ent 1 983: 1 20,122). F rom j ust o utside t he C ity b oundary c ome a b ronze t erret o f t he f irst c entury A D ( TA 0 54321) a nd a s ilver t rumpet f ibula ( TA 0 82344). T he f inds c ome f rom a lmost e very p art o f t he m odern c ity, m any o f t hem b eing f rom d omestic g ardens, a llowing f or v ery a ccurate p lotting. N early a ll o f t he c oins w ere n otified t o H ull M useums b efore t he a dvent o f t he ' metal d etective', a nd t here i s n othing i ntrinsic t o s uggest t hat a ny o f t hem a re ' souvenir' l osses. A lthough f inds w ere b eing ' continually' r eported t o H ull M useums t hroughout t he p ost-war y ears ( Museum C orrespondence 1 959), a n a ttitude o f ' negative e xpectation' i n r egard t o R oman s ettlement w ithin t he c ity, c ombined w ith i nadequate r ecording s ystems i n u se b efore 1 975, c aused m uch o f t hese d ata t o b e i gnored a nd s ome t o b e l ost. S herds f ound i n t wo e xcavations i n H ull's O ld T own i n t he 1 960s p rompted J ohn B artlett t o s uggest t he l ikelihood o f ' a R omano-British l and s urface .. b elow t he t own a t c onsiderable d epth s ealed b y .. r iver a lluvium l aid d own i n S axon t imes' ( Bartlett 1 971: 2 6) b ut t he b ody o f d ata w hich w ould h ave a llowed t his c laim t o b e t ested w as s cattered a nd i ncomplete. S ettlement w ithin t he c ity w as g enerally t aken t o h ave b een r iparian, w ith s ites l ike H aworth H all b eing c onnected w ith r iver t ransportation, o r e ven w ith s easonal f ishing a nd w ildfowling ( Eagles 1 979: 1 52). I n 1 984, h owever, H ull M useums w ere a ble t o c onduct a d etailed e xcavation o f R omano-British d itches a t G reylees A venue ( TA 0 79341, C rowther a nd D idsbury 1 985), o n t he w est b ank o f t he r iver o ne k ilometre u pstream f rom H aworth H all. T hese d itches c onstitute e vidence f or c onsiderable l and-management f rom t he l ater s econd t o t he l ate f ourth c entury, a nd w ere p rolific o f p ottery, b uilding m aterials, a nimal b one a nd p ersonalia. T he p resence o f R omanised b uildings i n t he v icinity i s n ow t o b e c onsidered a d istinct p ossibility. N ot o nly h as t he s ite m ade p ossible s ome r einterpretation o f t he n ature a nd s tatus o f r iverside s ettlement, i t h as a lso p rovided t he l argest s tratified b ody o f p ottery i n t he r egion e ast o f B rough. I n a ddition, a nd p erhaps n ot l east, i t s erved a s a m ajor s timulus t o r eassemble t he d ispersed d ata r elating t o R oman s ettlement w ithin t he c ity. T he g reater p art o f t he s ilts o f t he L ower H ull v alley i s c ontained w ithin H ull a nd i ts w estern s uburbs i n H altemprice. T he d epths f rom w hich m ost o f t he f inds i n t he a rea o riginate a re n ot k nown a nd a bsolute d ata f or s ea-level d uring t he R oman p eriod a re
2 8
2 9
a nd D istrict
a nyway l acking, a s a lready r emarked. H owever, s urface t opography m ust i n b road t erms b e d etermined b y t he u nderlying t opography o f t he p rea lluvial b oulder c lay l and s urface, a nd t his c an b e e stablished w ith s ome c ertainty, a llowing u s t o c onsider t he r elationship o f f indspots t o t he h igher a lluvial a reas. H artmut V alentin ( Valentin 1 957: 3 3-34, K arte 2 ) u sed d ata f rom t he c onsiderable n umber o f b oreholes i n t he d istrict t o r econstruct t his b uried l andscape, d rawing c ontours w hich s howed t he d epth o f t he b oulder c lay b eneath O D a t 3 .8 m etres ( 12.5 f eet) i ntervals. T he r esulting m ap, u pon w hich F igure 2 .3 i s b ased, c an b e t aken a s r epresenting t he t opography o f t he a rea a t a bout 1 0,000 B P, a fter f luvial i ncision h ad t aken p lace b ut b efore t he o nset o f a lluviation. I t s hows d eeply i ncised p ost-glacial d rainage c hannels, i ncluding t hat o f t he R iver H ull, s et i n a b road p lain b etween 0 m etres a nd 3.8 m etres O D. T o f acilitate r eference i n t he d iscussion w hich f ollows t he a reas b etween V alentin 's s ub-surface c ontours a re r eferred t o a s Z ones 1 t o 5 , a s s et o ut b elow : Z one Z one Z one Z one Z one
1 2 3 4 5
0 m etres O D t o 3.8 m etres O D 3.8 m etres O D t o 7.6 m etres O D 7.6 m etres O D t o 11.4 m etres O D 11.4 m etres O D t o 15.2 m etres O D b elow 15.2 m etres O D
T hirtyfive s ites a nd f indspots f rom t he a lluvial a reas o f H ull a nd i ts n eighbouring p arishes, a ll t hose w hich a re s ufficiently a ccurately p lottable, a re a lso s hown o n F igure 2 .3. F or t he s ake o f c ompleteness, s ites a nd f inds o n t he n on-alluvial p arts o f t he m apping a rea a re a lso p lotted, w hile a s a n a id t o c larity o nly V alentin 's 0 , 3.8 a nd 11.4 m etre c ontours a re s hown. W hat f ollows d oes n ot p retend t o b e a s tatistical a ccount. I n m any w ays t he m aterial i s b etter s uited t o a d escriptive t reatment, a nd t he f igures s et f orth i n T ables 2 .1 a nd 2 .2 s erve m ainly t o f acilitate t his. T hree o f t he f inds s hown, f rom t he a rea a round t he p resent m outh o f t he H ull, h ave n ot b een i ncluded i n t he q uantification: t wo c oins b ecause d redged f rom t he r iver i tself, a nd a s herd f rom e xcavations i n F ish S treet ( TA 0 98285) b ecause o f s ome d oubt a s t o i ts R oman d ate. T he p ercentage o f t he t otal a lluvial a rea o ccupied b y e ach z one w as e stablished b y ac lose p oint-analysis, a nd p lotting w as c arried o ut o n l arge s cale p hotographic e nlargements o f V alentin 's o riginal p lan. T he f irst o bservation t o b e m ade i s q uite v isually a pparent: t he s eeming p reference f or t he h igher l and o f Z one 1 , w ith 6 8.9 p er c ent o f t he f inds. W hen c ompared w ith t he p ercentage o f t he a lluvial a rea o ccupied b y t he z one ( 64 p er c ent), h owever, i t i s c lose t o w hat o ne w ould e xpect i f a r andom d istribution w ere o perating. T he v ariables a ffecting t he r esults i n T able 2 .1(a), i n f act, h ardly p ermit t his c onclusion t o b e d rawn. D ifferential r ates o f a lluviation b etween t he z ones c annot b e e stimated, a nd o ccupation l evels w ithin Z one 1 , b eing n earer t o t he s urface, w ould a nyway b e p enetrated w ith g reater e ase a nd f requency t han t hose i n l ower z ones. A gain, c ontinued d isturbance o f s trata w ithin t he O ld T own, i ncluding a s hift i n t he c ourse o f t he H ull i n t he e arly m edieval p eriod ( Frost 1 827), m akes a ssessment
3 0
T ABLE
2 .1
( b )
( a)
Z one
6 4.0
6 8.8
2
2 2.9
3
3 .2
9 .4
3.8 m etres O D
7 1.0
9 .1
1 5.6
7.6 m etres O D
1 2.9
4
3 .2
3 .1
11.4 m etres O D
9 .7
5
0 .8
3 .1
15.2 m etres O D
3 .2
2 .2
0
% o f f inds ( n = 3 1)
m etres O D
D istances f rom 3.8 m etre c ontour
a ll f inds Z one 1
Z one
1 ( n=21)
( b)
N earest c ontour
% o f f inds p er z one ( n = 3 2)
1
T ABLE ( a)
Z one a s % o f a lluvial a rea
D istance
% o f f inds
0 -200 m etres 3 00-450 m etres 6 00 m etres +
7 1.4 2 3.8 4 .8
% o f z one w ithin 2 00 m o f c ontour
3 7
f inds f rom Z ones 1 & 2 w ith 3.8 m etres a s n earest c ontour
1& 2 ( n=23)
0 -200 m etres 3 00-450 m etres 6 00 m etres
7 3.9 2 1.7 4 .4
-
d ifficult. I t i s w hen w e c ome t o c onsider t he r elationship o f f inds t o t he e dge o f t he h igher l and t hat s peculation b ecomes m ore p romising ( Tables 2 .1(b) a nd 2 .2). N ot o nly d o 7 1 p er c ent o f t he f inds h ave t he 3.8 m etre c ontour a s t heir n earest c ontour, b ut 7 1.4 p er c ent o f a ll t he f inds i n Z one 1 a re w ithin 2 00 m etres o f t his c ontour; s ince o nly 3 7 p er c ent o f t he l and i n Z one 1 l ies w ithin 2 00 m etres o f t he c ontour t his m ay b e s ignificant.
3 1
T here a ppear t o b e n o f actors o perating w ithin t his l imited a rea w hich w ould a ccount f or a m uch h igher r ate o f d iscovery t han e lsewhere i n t he z one. I t i s t rue t hat t he c oncentration o f f inds s outh o f G reylees A venue o ccurs i n a n a rea d eveloped f or h ousing d uring t he l ast t wenty y ears, b ut m uch o f t he a rea t o t he w est, a s f ar a s O D, h as b een s imilarly d eveloped a nd i s ' empty' o f f inds. I t m ay t entatively b e s uggested, t hen, t hat t his c ontour, m arking t he e dge o f t he h igher a lluviated l and, w as s omehow f unctioning c ritically i n r egard t o s ettlement. O ccupation s ites a long t his c ontour w ould b e c lose t o t he m ain r iver c hannel a nd t o w hatever r emained o f t he o ther d rainage c hannels i n t he a rea, a nd w ould b e w ell p laced t o e xploit b oth t he t ransport f acilities a fforded b y t he r iver, a nd t he b road s ilt z one b ehind, w hich c ould h ave a fforded r ich p asturage f or c attle. L and l ower t han Z one 1 w ould p resumably h ave b een p rogressively s ubject t o t idal i nfluence. T here i s n o s atisfactory w ay o f e lucidating t he f inds i n t he l ower z ones w ithout k nowing r ates o f a lluviation a nd t he w orkings o f h istorical a ccident, b ut t he p ossibility s hould b e b orne i n m ind t hat m ost o f t he l and w ithin Z ones 2 a nd 3 w as a t l east i nter-tidal. I f s o, t hen t hese a reas c ould a lso h ave b een e conomically p rofitable. A s D evoy ( 1980: 1 44) h as p ointed o ut, a n i nter-tidal z one c an b e p articularly s uited t o l ivestock g razing d uring a t ransgressive p eriod. I t s hould a lso b e r emembered t hat V alentin 's c ontours w ill n ot b e r efined e nough t o d etect l ocalised a reas o f h igher r elief . T hird c entury p ottery f rom S altend ( TA 1 64284), f or e xample, i s a Z one 3 f ind b ut i s r ecorded ( Hull M useums S MR) a s h aving b een f ound i n c lay a t a d epth o f o nly 1 .5 m etres. T here i s, i n f act, s ome e vidence f or t he i nter-tidal n ature o f Z one 3 a t s ome p oint i n t he R oman p eriod. T he j ar f rom T horesby S treet ( TA 0 77296) r eferred t o i n t he f irst p aragraph o f t his p aper w as f ound e mbedded i n ' Humber s ilt' a nd i s r ecorded b y S heppard ( 1912: 1 88-189) a s b earing t he m arks o f t ree r oots u pon i ts s urface. A fter c lose e xamination, h owever, i t s eems v ery p robable t hat t hese m arks a re t he r emains o f t he f erric-oxide e nriched t unnels o f N ereis d iversicolor , o r r agworm, t he p resence o f w hich w ould b e f ully c onsistent w ith t he p ot h aving b een d eposited i n a n i nter-tidal z one ( Dr N eville J ones p ersonal c ommunication) T he j ar i s u sually c onsidered t o b e l ate f ourth c entury, a nd i ts p resence n ear t he l ower e dge o f Z one 3 m ay i ndicate t idal r anges w hen t he t ransgression w as r eaching i ts h eight. T he L a T ene 2 t ype s word f rom H ymers A venue w hich h as a lready b een m entioned c omes f rom v ery c lose b y i n t he s ame z one, a f act w hich m ay h int a t t he r easons f or i ts p resence. W hatever t he p recise c onditions p revailing t here i n t he l ater I ron A ge, t he s word ( if i t w as t ruly f ound i n s itu) d erives f rom a z one t hat i s l ikely t o h ave b een a l ittoral o ne n owhere f ar r emoved f rom w ater a nd i t m ay t hus b e t hat h ere w e h ave a nother e xpression o f t hose ' religious t raditions i nvolving w arriors a nd w etness ' n oted b y C hallis a nd H arding ( 1975: 1 76). C ONCLUSION T he u tilisation o f t he m arine a lluvia o f t he L ower H ull v alley m ay b e a sserted w ith s ome c onfidence, t hough m uch f urther w ork i s n eeded t o u nderstand i t i n d etail. T he m edieval s ettlement o f t he
3 2
s ilts b egan a t a s imilar p oint i n r elation t o t he m arine t ransgression c ycle a nd p robably r epeats a n e Erlier p attern o f c olonisation a nd e conomy, a p arallelism w hich B oon ( 1980: 2 8-29) h as s hown t o h ave o ccurred a lso i n t he G went L evels. T he e dge o f t he h ighest a lluvial z one c an b e p ostulated w ith r eference t o t he u nderlying b oulder c lay t opography, a nd m ay h ave b een c ritical f or s ettlement. C ertainly a ny f uture d evelopment w ithin 2 00 m etres o f t he 3 .8 m etres b elow O D c ontour s hould b e c arefully o bserved.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS M rs C hitty's g reat G azetteer i s t he i ndispensable s tarting p oint f or a ll w ho a re i nterested i n R oman Y orkshire. T o b e a ble t o p resent t his p aper i n h onour o f i ts c ompiler i s i tself a n h onour o f w hich I a m m ost s ensible. I s hould l ike t o t hank P rofessor G eorge D e B oer a nd D r N eville J ones f or t heir h elp a nd a dvice w ith a spects o f t his p aper. T he u se I h ave m ade o f t his r emains m y r esponsibility. T hanks a re a lso d ue t o M iss B elinda W hitwell, w ho k indly d rew t he R isby p elta .
B IBLIOGRAPHY
A non 1 941 R oman B ritain i n 1 940 . R oman S tudies 3 1: 1 28-139.
I .
S ites e xplored.
B artlett, J 1 971 T he m ediaeval w alls o f H ull. M useum B ulletin 3 - 4 : 1 -28.
K ingston
B lashill, T 1 892 S utton i n H olderness a nd t he L ondon: B ritish A rchaeological A ssociation.
M onks
J ournal o f
u pon
o f
H ull
M eaux .
B oon, G C 1 980 C aerleon a nd t he G went L evels i n e arly h istoric t imes. I n F H T hompson ( ed) A rchaeology a nd C oastal C hange . L ondon: S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon O ccasional P apers ( new s eries) 1 : 2 43 6. C asey, P J P ublications.
1 980
R oman
C oinage
i n
B ritain .
A ylesbury:
S hire
C hallis, A a nd H arding, D W 1 975 L ater P rehistory f rom t he T rent t o t he T yne. O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries 2 0. C lark, M K 1 935 A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire . R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 5 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C rowther, D a nd D idsbury, P d itch a t G reylees A venue, H ull.
1 985 E xcavation o f a R omano-British C BA F orum 1 984-1985:11-16.
D idsbury, P 1 986 R omano-British s ettlement i n t he L ower H ull v alley. I n V F airhurst ( ed) B ringing t he P ast u p t o D ate . H ull: E ast R iding A rchaeological S ociety: 2 6-29.
3 3
D e B oer, G , N eale, J a nd P enny, L F 1 958 A g uide t o t he g eology o f t he a rea b etween M arket W eighton a nd t he H umber. P roceedings o f t he Y orkshire G eological S ociety 3 1.2: 1 57-209. D ent, J S 1 983 W eapons, w ounds A rchaeological [ J ournal 1 40: 1 20-128.
a nd
w ar
i n
t he
I ron
A ge.
D evoy, R J 1 980 P ost-glacial e nvironmental c hange a nd m an i n t he T hames e stuary, a s ynopsis. I n F H T hompson ( ed) A rchaeology a nd C oastal C hange . L ondon: S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon O ccasional P apers ( new s eries) 1 : 1 34-148. E agles, B N 1 979 T he A nglo-Saxon S ettlement o f H umberside . B ritish A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries 6 8. F airhurst, V 1 985 N ews 2 0: 1 5-17.
T rench M outh.
O xford:
E ast R iding A rchaeological S ociety
F rost, C 1 827 N otices R elative t o t he E arly H istory o f t he T own a nd P ort o f H ull. L ondon. G aunt, G D a nd T ooley, M J 1 974 E vidence f or F landrian s ea-level c hanges i n t he H umber e stuary a nd a djacent a reas. B ulletin o f t he G eological S urvey o f G reat B ritain 4 8: 2 5-41. G ilbertson, H olderness . 1 34.
D D ( ed) 1 984 O xford: B ritish
G reenwell, W 1 906 6 0.1: 2 51-324.
L ate Q uaternary E nvironments a nd M an i n A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries
E arly I ron A ge b urials i n Y orkshire.
H arris, A 1 959 T he O pen F ields Y orkshire L ocal H istory S ociety.
o f
E ast
A rchaeologia
Y orkshire.
Y ork:
E ast
H aselgrove, C 1 984 T he l ate p re-Roman I ron A ge b etween t he H umber a nd t he T yne. I n P R W ilson e t a l ( eds) S ettlement a nd S ociety i n t he R oman N orth . B radford: S chool o f A rchaeological S ciences o f t he U niversity o f B radford a nd L eeds: R oman A ntiquities S ection o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety: 9 -25. H ughes, J 1 985 A n E xcavation o n t he T own B everley: H umberside C ounty C ouncil.
D efences
o f
B everley .
L oughlin, N 1 977 D ales w are: a c ontribution t o t he s tudy o f R oman c oarse p ottery. I n D P S P eacock ( ed) P ottery a nd E arly C ommerce . C haracterisation a nd T rade i n R oman a nd L ater C eramics . L ondon: A cademic P ress:
8 5-106.
L oughlin, N a nd M iller K R 1 979 A S urvey o f A rchaeological S ites i n H umberside . H ull: H umberside L ibraries a nd A menities. M useum C orrespondence H eroneau, O ctober 1 959.
1 959 C orrespondence b etween J B artlett a nd T U npublished.
3 4
P enny, L F 1 974 Q uaternary. I n D H R ayner a nd J E H emingway ( eds) T he G eology a nd M ineral R esources o f Y orkshire . L eeds: Y orkshire G eological S ociety: 2 45-264. R igby, V 1 973 A ppendix: t he p ottery. B rantingham R oman v illa: d iscoveries i n 1 962.
I n J L L iversidge e t a l B ritannia 4 : 1 03-106.
S heppard, T 1 912 S ome g limpses o f O ld H ull i n t he l ight o f e xcavations. T ransactions o f t he H ull S cientific a nd N aturalists ' S ociety 4 .4: 1 87-204.
r ecent F ield
S heppard, T 1 931 L etter. I n M K C lark 1 935 A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire . R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 5 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety: 9 3. S heppard, i A 1 958 T he D raining o f t he H ull Y orkshire L ocal H istory S ociety.
V alley.
Y ork:
E ast
S immons, B 1 980 I ron A ge a nd R oman c oasts a round t he W ash. I n F H T hompson ( ed) A rchaeology a nd C oastal C hange . L ondon: S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon O ccasional P apers ( new s eries) 1 : 5 6-73. S oil S urvey 1 983 S oils o f E ngland a nd W ales. S heet 1 . N orthern E ngland: S cale 1 : 2 50,000 . H arpenden: O rdnance S urvey, S oil S urvey o f E ngland a nd W ales. T ooley, M J 1 980 T heories o f c oastal c hange i n n orth-west E ngland. I n F H T hompson ( ed) A rchaeology a nd C oastal C hange. L ondon: S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon O ccasional P apers ( new s eries) 1 : 7 4-86. V alentin, E ngland.
H 1 957 G lazialmorphologische U ntersuchungen i n o sten A bhandlungen G eographischen I nstitut, U niversitat B erlin :
1 -86. W acher, J S 1 969 E xcavations a t B rough-on-Humber S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon R esearch R eport 2 5.
3 5
1 958-1961.
3 :
L ANDSCAPE A ND E CONOMY: R ECENT F IELDWORK A ND E XCAVATION A ROUND H OLME-ON-SPALDING M OOR M ARTIN M ILLETT A ND P ETER H ALKON
I NTRODUCTION M ary K itson C lark w as o ne o f t he f irst t o r ealise t he p otential o f t he R oman r ural a rchaeology o f t he E ast R iding; a s s uch i t i s a p leasure t o d edicate t his p aper t o h er i n a dmiration o f h er c ontribution t o t he s tudy o f R oman Y orkshire. O ur o wn w ork h as b een o n a f ar l ess e xtensive s cale, b ut w e t rust t hat o ur a ttempts t o u nderstand o ne b lock o f l andscape i n d epth w ill c omplement t he e xtensive k nowledge w hich h as a ccumulated s ince t he p ublication o f h er G azetteer i n 1 935 ( Clark 1 935), c ulminating i n t he p resent S ites a nd M onuments R ecords. O ur c ontribution i s a lso c onceived a s ap roduct o f t he ' mixed e conomy' i n w hich m embers o f l ocal a rchaeological s ocieties w orking i n h armony w ith a cademic i nstitutions a nd m useums c ontinue t o m ake n ew a nd w orthwhile c ontributions i n a reas w hich a re n ot f unded b y t he s tate o r l ocal a uthorities. I n t his p aper w e a im t o o utline t he a ims a nd m ethods o f o ur w ork a nd p rovide s ome i nterim c onclusions. T he a rea s elected f or s tudy h as b een k nown a s ac entre o f R oman p ottery p roduction s ince t he 1 930s ( Corder 1 930) b ut i n c ommon w ith m ost k nown R omano-British p ottery p roduction s ites, t he k ilns h ave b een i nterpreted i n i solation f rom t heir l andscape. T he b est w e u sually s ee a re a ttempts t o s eek t he s tructures a ssociated w ith t he k ilns; r arely i f e ver h as t heir p lace i n t he s ettlement s ystem , l et a lone t heir e conomic a nd e nvironmental c ontext, b een s ought ( Swan 1 984). A s a r esult, w hen a ttempts h ave b een m ade t o p lace t he R oman p ottery i ndustries w ithin a b roader s ocial a nd e conomic c ontext, i t h as b een n ecessary t o r ely u pon a nalogy r ather t han e mpirical e vidence ( Peacock 1 982). I n t he b roader c ontext, s tudies o f r ural s ettlement i n R oman B ritain h ave e ither l ooked a t l andscapes ( for e xample, F owler 1 975) o r a t s ites ( for e xample, T odd 1 978) r ather t han a ttempting a n i ntegration o f t he t wo. O ur a ims i n l ooking a t t he a rea a round H olme o n-Spalding M oor w ere t herefore f ounded o n a b road d issatisfaction w ith p revious a pproaches t o R oman B ritain a nd e mbody t he d esire t o e volve n ew a pproaches w hich t ake i nto a ccount t he f lows o f m aterials ( foodstuffs, p ottery ad o ther a rtefacts) b etween s ites ( Millett 1 982). T hese b ackground i deas h ave g enerated c ertain s pecific q uestions w hich c ould h ave b een a pproached t hrough t he i nvestigation o f a ny o ne o f as eries o f p articular l andscapes. W hat w as r equired w as a n a rea w here am ore o r l ess c omplete p icture o f t he R oman l andscape c ould b e b uilt u p a nd i n w hich t here w as a v ariety o f s ite-types, e ach o f w hich h ad t he p otential t o p roduce n ot o nly a rtefacts, b ut a lso p alaeobotanical s amples a nd f aunal r emains, t o a llow t he a gricultural e conomy a nd t he f lows o f a gricultural p roducts b etween s ites t o b e i nvestigated ( for e xample J ones 1 984; M altby 1 981). I deally t he a rea n eeded t o c ontain a n ucleated s ite, p referably a s mall t own, a s w ell a s a s eries o f r ural s ettlements, w hich c ould b e e xamined b y f ield s urvey a nd e xcavation.
3 7
--- --
�
Land OV., 76m
�"'liiiiiiiiii���iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiWU•• ���'-iiiiiii��'-iiiiiii� K.._..,..
Figure 3.1 The study area and its environs. PROJECT STRATEGY The area selected for study was that around Holme-on-Spalding Moor, not only because it fulfilled the above requirements, but also because one of us (Peter Halkon) was already engaged in fieldwork in the southern part of the area, around the kiln sites known from casual finds and previous excavations, which gave the added advantage of a group of friendly and co-operative farmers who were willing to give access to their land, making the whole project possible (Halkon 1983). Discussions between the two authors, initiated by Tim Schadla-Hall, then of Hull City Museums, led to the formal design of the project during 1982. It was agreed that the fieldwalking would be continued and developed to look at an evenly spread, systematically structured sample of a 10 kilometre by 10 kilometre block of countryside, centred on Holme-on-Spalding Moor (Figure 3.1), with the aim of establishing the nature and extent of Roman settlement -in the area around the known kiln sites. This area is low-lying, has an extremely variable pattern of soils, drainage and microtopography, and is comparatively marginal for modern arable agriculture without artificial drainage. As the
38
m odern s ettlement p attern i s s trongly c onstrained b y e nvironmental f actors a nd t he s ame s eems l ikely t o h ave b een t rue i n t he R oman p eriod, i t d id n ot s eem a ppropriate t o a pply a ny l ow i ntensity, r andomly b ased, s ampling s trategy. I nstead i t w as d ecided t o a im f or a h igh i ntensity o f c overage, a nd t o a ttempt t o m ake t hat c overage a s e ven a s p ossible t o p rovide t he m aximum d ata o n t he r elationship b etween e nvironment a nd s ettlement. T his a pproach w as p ut i nto o peration b y w orking t hrough t he e xisting t enurial s ystem, r ather t han b y a ttempting t o a pply a n a rbitrary s ampling f rame. T he m ethod a dopted w as t o w alk t he a vailable l ands o n o ne f arm w ithin e ach o ne k ilometre O rdnance S urvey g rid s quare. T he f ields s elected w ere t hen s ystematically l ine-walked ( Fasham e t a l 1 980) w hilst u nder p lough, a nd d istributions o f p ottery, s lag a nd k iln d ebris p lotted a nd c ollected. P articular c oncentrations, a ssumed t o r epresent s ites w here a ctivity h ad b een f ocused, w ere t hen g rid-walked ( Fasham e t a l 1 980) a nd i n s ome c ases s urveyed w ith g eophysical e quipment. T his c ombination o f m ethods w as s uccessful i n c overing m ost o f t he l andscape b lock. T he r esults o f t his d etailed w ork a re n ow b eing u sed t o e stablish t he r elationship b etween t he d ifferent f actors i nfluencing t he s ettlement p attern. T his s ample w as d esigned t o a nswer a s eries o f q uestions a bout t he e nvironmental a nd p hysical c onstraints o n s ettlement a s w ell a s e stablishing h ow t he l andscape h ad c hanged t hrough t he R oman p eriod. A t t he t ime o f w riting, t his s urvey i s n earing c ompletion ( see n ow H alkon 1 987). I n a ddition t o t he f ieldwalking, t he a erial p hotog raphic c overage o f t he l andscape b lock i s b eing c ollated a nd t he d etail p lotted t o f orm a f ramework w ithin w hich t o u nderstand t he s ettlement p attern. T he s econd p lanned e lement i n t he p roject w as a n i nvestigation, b y a s eries o f s mall s cale s ample e xcavations, o f a s eries o f t he t ypes o f ' producer s ite' d iscovered i n t he s urvey. T hese i nclude a k iln s ite, a f armstead a nd a n i ronworking s ite ( see b elow). I t w as f undamental t o t he p roject t hat t hese e xcavations s hould c ollect i nformation a bout t he d ate o f o ccupation, t he n ature o f t he s ites, a nd t heir p lace i n t he e conomy, i n s uch a s tructured w ay a s t o a llow i nter-site c omparisons t o b e m ade. T his a im h as b een f ulfilled a lthough i t i s a s y et t oo s oon t o p resent t he f ull r esults o f t his a pproach. W ithin t he s ample a rea, t hree s ites h ave s o f ar b een s ampled b y e xcavation w hilst o thers h ave b een e xamined o n a n a d h oc b asis i n r esponse t o s pecific o pportunities, g enerated, f or e xample, b y d rainage w orks. I n a ddition, s ince t he i nstigation o f t he p roject i t h as b een p ossible t o i dentify a n ucleated s ite a t S hiptonthorpe w here f inds f rom m etal-detector u sers m ade a vailable b y t he l andowner h ave b een c atalogued a nd t he s ite o f a R omano-British s mall t own f irmly i dentified ( Figure 3 .1). I t s eems p robable t hat t his s ite, w hich l ies o n t he R oman r oad f rom B rough-on-Humber ( Petuaria P arisiorum) t o Y ork ( Eburacum ), i s t o b e i dentified w ith t he t own o f D elgovicia l isted i n t he A ntonine I tinerary a nd h itherto i dentified r ather i mprobably a s W etwang ( Rivet a nd S mith 1 979: 3 31-332). [ Editorial n ote: a n a lternative i dentification o f D elgovicia i s s uggested b y C reighton: t his v olume].
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W ork a t S hiptonthorpe h as b egun a nd i s i ntegrated i nto t he w hole p roject, w ith o ur s tandardised s trategies b eing u sed i n t he e xcavation a nd s urvey. I n a ddition, i t h as p roved p ossible t o i nitiate a l arge-scale p rogramme o f g eophysical s urvey w hich m ay m ake i t p ossible t o e stablish t he s hape o f s ettlement w ithin t he s ite. F inally, a lthough t he p roject h as b een d eveloped w ithin a r esearch f ramework, i t h as a lso e ncompassed e lements o f r escue w ork. M ost n otable o f t hese h as b een t he d iscovery a nd e xcavation o f t he I ron A ge l ogboat a t H asholme. T his d iscovery w as f ortuitous, b ut d id r esult f rom o ur m aintaining a w atching-brief d uring l and d rainage w orks ( McGrail a nd M illett 1 985; M illett a nd M cGrail 1 987). T he b oat e xcavation h as n ot, h owever, b een i solated f rom t he m ain s tructure o f t he p roject, a s i t h as n ot o nly e nhanced p ublic i nterest i n t he a rea b ut h as p rovided t he o pportunities t o o btain e nvironmental i nformation t hat w ould n ot o therwise h ave b een a vailable t o u s b ecause o f t he f inancial c onstraints o n t he r emainder o f t he p roject.
F igure 3 .2
R oman s ettlement p atterns i n t he s tudy a rea.
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R ESULTS i )
E nvironment a nd S ettlement
T he a rea w ith w hich w e h ave b een c oncerned i s a griculturally m arginal, m uch o f i t b eing l ow-lying a nd s ubject t o f looding. I t i s a lso v ery v ariable i n i ts s oils a nd m icrotopography. I t b ecame c lear e arly i n t he s urvey t hat t hese e nvironmental f actors w ere h ighly i nfluential i n t he e volution o f t he l andscape, w hich h ad c hanged s ignificantly d uring t he h istorical p eriod w ith a s equence o f s ubstantial l and d rainage p rogrammes ( Sheppard 1 966). T he s urvey w ork s hows t hat R oman s ites s how a m arked p reference f or t he d rier s and h illtops, p articularly t hose c lose t o t he v arious r iver c hannels w hich a re f requent a cross t he a rea. T he r econstruction o f t he c ontemporary l andscape h as t hus b een a v ital s tage i n d eveloping a n u nderstanding o f t he R oman s ettlement p attern ( Figure 3 .2). T his h as r elied u pon u se o f t he s oil m aps a nd a ir p hotography t o m ap t he c ontemporary c oastline a nd r iver s ystem, w hich s how m arked d ifferences f rom t hose o f t oday. T he w ork h as b een g reatly a ided b y t he p alaeoenvironmental s tudies a ssociated w ith t he H asholme B oat e xcavation, w hich d emonstrate t hat t he m outh o f t he R iver F oulness w as e stuarine w ell i nto t he s tudy a rea i n t he l atter p art o f t he f irst m illennium B C ( Jordan 1 987). M uch o f t he a rea u nder s tudy w as t hus o n t he m argins o f a n e stuarine c reek s ystem w ith e asy a ccess t o t he r est o f t he H umber d rainage b asin v ia t he r iver s ystem . P ollen a nalysis f rom t he d eep p eat d eposits s ealed b y t he e stuarine c lay i n w hich t he l ogboat w as d eposited d emonstrates t hat t he a rea w as c overed b y o ak-alder w oodland, w ith s ome h azel, u ntil c omparatively l ate i n t he I ron A ge ( probably a round 4 00 B C: T urner 1 987). W e m ay c onclude t hat, i n c ontrast t o t he W olds, t he a rea a long t he e dge o f t he V ale o f Y ork w as n ot i ntensively e xploited b y m an u ntil a l ate p rehistoric d ate, a lthough t he d istribution o f N eolithic a xes a nd f lints ( Figure 3 .3), t ogether w ith u npublished B eaker p ottery f rom t he H asholme e xcavation i n 1 970 ( Hicks a nd W ilson 1 975), d emonstrates t hat t here w as s ome a ctivity a long t he m argins o f t he d rainage c hannels f rom t he N eolithic o nwards. T he n ature a nd e xtent o f t his a ctivity a re n ot k nown, b ut t he f inds a re w idely b ut t hinly s cattered a long t he m argins o f t he d rainage c hannels a nd s uggest a l ow d ensity o f a ctivity. T he c omparatively l imited e xtent o f t his a ctivity m ay e xplain i ts f ailure t o a ppear a s c learance i n t he p ollen r ecord. G iven t hese c onstraints o n s ettlement, a nd t he c omparatively p oor a rable p otential o f t he l and, i t i s uggested t hat t he a rea w as c leared o nly a s t he h igher q uality a rable l ands e lsewhere i n t he r egion c ame u nder i ncreasing s tress, p erhaps t hrough p opulation p ressure, i n t he l ater I ron A ge ( Dent 1 982). T he l ocalised v ariations i n t he n atural e nvironment i n t his a rea s hould u rge c aution i n i nterpreting t he r ate o f l andscape c learance w hich m ay h ave b een v ery l ocalised. T hus, f or e xample, e xamination o f t he g round s urface b eneath t he R oman r oad a t S hiptonthorpe i n 1 985 ( SE 8 53424) s howed t hat t rees h ad b een c leared a nd t he s urface p loughed a s p art o f t he c learance p rocess ( M J ones p ersonal c ommunication), i mmediately b efore t he r oad w as b uilt, p resumably d uring t he l ast d ecades o f t he f irst c entury A D.
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F igure 3 .3 M esolithic a nd N eolithic a xes a nd f lints i n t he s tudy a rea.
A fter c learance, t he t ypes o f s ettlement e stablished g enerally c omprised e nclosure s ystems w ith r ound h ouses l ocated o n t he s lightly h igher, b etter d rained s andy s oils b eside t he s tream c ourses, w here v aried r esources w ere a vailable f or a b road b ased e conomic s trategy. D uring t he R oman p eriod t he s ettlement s ystem s eems t o h ave e volved, a lthough t here i s l ittle e vidence f or a ny c hange b efore t he s econd c entury A D. T he e nclosed f armsteads d iversified t heir e conomies w ith t he p roduction o f p ottery, g lass a nd i ron, a ll o f w hich w ould h ave r elied o n t he m anagement o f t he t ypes o f w oodland k nown t o b e p resent i n t he p ollen r ecord o f t he p revious p eriod ( Turner 1 987). T his s trategy w ould b e p articularly a ppropriate t o t he s oils i n t he a rea, w hich a re n ot w ell s uited t o i ntensive a rable a ctivity. I n t his w ay t he e mergence o f i ndustry m ay b e s een a s a n a lternative c ash c rop ( Jones 1 982). I t i s c lear t hat a lthough t he a rea r emained w et, w ith s easonal f looding e xpected i n t he r elict w ater c hannels, t he a rea w as n ot s ubjected t o a ny t otal m arine i nundation a s w ould b e e xpected i f s ome
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o f t he c laims f rom f urther u p t he V ale w ere t o b e a ccepted ( Ramm 1 978: 1 24). N onetheless, i n s uch a m arginal a rea, e ven a m inor c hange i n c limate a nd/or s ea l evel c ould h ave m ade a s ignificant d ifference t o t he s ettlement p otential. T he p resent e vidence c ertainly s upports a c ontinuation o f s ettlement i n t he a rea i nto t he l ate f ourth c entury. B eyond t hat, t he a bsence o f d ating e vidence m akes i t d ifficult t o d raw c onclusions. N evertheless, t he p resent h amlets i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s tudy a rea l ie a t t he s ame l ocations a s t hose o f R omano-British s ites. T his c ontinuity m ay r esult f rom t he e nvironmental c onstraints, b ut d irect s ettlement c ontinuity c annot b e r uled o ut w ithout e xcavation. i i)
I ndustry a nd A griculture
O ur w ork o n t he r elationship o f a gricultural p roduction t o i ndustry h as r elied o n as ystematic s trategy o n t he e xcavated s ites w ith a r andomly s elected s ample o f t wenty p er c ent o f a ll e xcavated c ontexts b eing e xamined f or c arbonised r emains ( compare J ones 1 984). T he p rocessing o f t hese s amples i s a t p resent i n p rogress b ut i t i s a lready c lear t hat v aluable r esults w ill e merge, e nabling u s t o c haracterise t he c rops b eing g rown a nd s uggest w hat a gricultural r egime w as i n u se. O ur r ationale i s s traightforward. I t h as o ften b een c laimed t hat p otting a nd o ther r ural-based i ndustries i n R oman B ritain w ere i n a reas o f p oor a gricultural p otential, a nd t hat t he i ndustrial p roduction w as a n a lternative m eans o f f armers m aking a l ivelihood b y u ndertaking o ther w ork s easonally, i n s lack t imes. T his h as n ot b een t ested, a lthough i t s hould b e p ossible f rom t he c rop r esidues f ound t o s uggest w hether c rops w ere b eing p roduced o r o nly c onsumed, a nd w hether o r n ot s ome a ctivities w ere s easonal. O ur a pproach h as b een t o u se t he b otanical r ecord t o a nswer t hese q uestions. T he p reliminary r esults d o s uggest t hat t he k iln s ite a t B ursea H ouse ( SE 8 14338; M illett a nd H alkon 1 984; 1 985) w as n ear a n a rea e ngaged i n a griculture, w here a v ariety o f c ereal c rops w ere b eing p rocessed ( Palmer a nd J ones p ersonal c ommunication). T his w ould b e c onsistent w ith t he p attern w hich c an b e o bserved f rom t he s urvey o f t he s ite w hich s uggests t hat t he k ilns w ere p laced o n o ne e dge o f t he s ettlement c omplex, a way f rom t he m ain a reas l ikely t o h ave b een u sed f or c rop p rocessing. T he s ampling s trategy h as a lso i nvolved e xamination o f t he f abric o f t he k ilns a nd t he f uel r esidues w hich, a t a f irst a nalysis, c onfirm t hat m anaged w oodland ( coppiced o r p ollarded) w as u sed t o p rovide a r egular s upply o f k iln f uel. F urther w ork o n m aterial f rom a n i ronworking s ite a t W elham B ridge ( SE 7 93342) a nd f rom t he s mall t own a t S hiptonthorpe, s hould p rovide a v aluable c orpus o f m aterial f or r econstructing t he R omanoB ritish a gricultural s ystem i n t his a rea o f Y orkshire. F or t he f uture, i t i s v ital t hat s imilar s amples a re c ollected a nd p rocessed f rom o ther s ites, p articularly o n t he W olds, w here w e h ave v irtually n o e vidence f or t he n ature o r i ntensity o f t he a gricultural r egime ( Jones 1 981: f igure 1 00).
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I ndustrial p roduction w as c learly i mportant i n t he a rea, w ith p ottery a t t he p eak o f i ts m arketing p erformance i n t he e arly f ourth c entury A D ( [vans 1 985). N onetheless, w ith t he e xception o f t he T hrolam a nd T ollingham k ilns ( Corder 1 930), t he s cale o f p roduction w as c omparatively m odest. T hus, f or i nstance, a lthough t he q uantity o f k iln d ebris r ecovered f rom B ursea H ouse s hows t hat t he e xcavated k ilns w ere f ired m ore t han o nce ( Stempczyk 1 986), t here i s l ittle i n t hese d ata t o s uggest t hat p roduction w as o n a s cale c omparable w ith t hat i n o ther p roduction c entres i n l ate R oman B ritain - f or e xample, A lice H olt o r O xfordshire. T here i s a lso c onsiderable e vidence f or t he w orking o f i ron, b ut a lthough t his i s w idespread, i t s hows f ew s igns o f h aving b een o n a m assive s cale. O ne o f t he l argest s lag h eaps k nown i n t he a rea w as e xcavated a t W elham B ridge i n 1 985 ( SE 7 93342; M illett a nd H alkon 1 986) b ut p roduced o nly 5 338 k ilograms o f s lag i n t otal. T his d oes n ot s uggest a s cale o f p roduction c omparable t o t he W eald, f or i nstance ( Cleere 1 978). S imilarly t here i s s ome e vidence f or g lass p roduction p erhaps a s a s ideline t o o ther f urnace-based t echnology, b ut a gain t he e vidence d oes n ot j ustify i nterpretation a t a n i ndustrial s cale. T he b ulk o f t he e vidence c omprises s cattered f rit a nd i s m ost c onsistent w ith r eworking o f w aste g lass. T he f ew b lue g lass b angles, p erhaps m ade i n t he a rea, r epresent t he o nly p ossible i dentified e nd p roducts [ Editorial n ote: s ee P rice t his v olume]. A lthough w e a re s till a t a n e arly s tage i n t he p rocessing o f o ur r esults i t i s c ertain t hat t he e xcavation a nd s urvey w ill e nable u s t o g enerate a r eliable d istribution m ap o f i ndustrial s ites i n r elation t o o ther e lements i n t he l andscape: I t s hould f urthermore b e p ossible t o c haracterise t he a gricultural e conomies o f t he i ndividual p roduction s ites, t o e stablish t he e ffectiveness o f t heir p roduction, a nd e valuate w hether a griculture a nd i ndustry w ere i ndependent or i nterdependent s ystems. i ii) T own a nd C ountry T he i dentification a nd s ampling o f t he s mall t own a t S hiptonthorpe ( SE 8 53424; M illett a nd H alkon 1 986) p rovide t wo m ajor c ontributions t o t he p roject. F irst, b y e xamining a n ucleated s ite w e s hould b e a ble t o a ssess f urther t he e conomic a nd s ocial r elationships b etween t own a nd c ountry. T hus, t he i nformation p rovided b y s tandardi sing o ur a pproaches w ill e nable t he b otanical a nd c eramic a ssemblages f rom t he p roducer s ites t o b e c ompared w ith t hose f rom S hiptonthorpe. T his w ill b e e nhanced b y t he g ood a nimal b one p reservation a t S hiptonthorpe w hich s hould e nable u s t o e valuate t he n ature o f t he s ystems o f a nimal h usbandry a nd t he e xtent t o w hich t he m eat s upply w as c entralised ( Maltby 1 981). T he e ssential q uestion t o b e a nswered t hrough e xamination o f t his e vidence i s t he e xtent t o w hich t he s ettlement w as s elf-sufficient o r d ependent o n i ts h interland a nd t he m ore s ubstantial t owns i n t he r egion. T he s upply o f R omanised o bjects, i ncluding n on-local p ottery, c an p rovide s ome i ndex o f t he l atter, b ut t he f ormer i s b est t ackled t hrough a n e xamination o f t he b one a nd s eed i nformation w hich s hould e nable p arts o f t he e conomic s ystem t o b e r econstructed.
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B eyond t his, t he l onger s tratified s equences a t S hiptonthorpe, c ombined w ith t he a ssociation o f d ated a rtefacts, w ill a llow a m uch m ore r eliable d ated s equence f or t he a rea t o b e p roduced. T his s hould i n t urn p rovide a y ardstick a gainst w hich t he p rocesses o f c hange t hroughout t he a rea c an b e c harted. I n t his s ense, t he w ork a t S hiptonthorpe p rovides a u nifying e lement f or t he w hole p roject. T he o ther i mportance o f S hiptonthorpe l ies i n t he i nformation i t c an p rovide a bout t he n ature o f t he s ite i tself, a s a n e xample b oth o f t he l ittle u nderstood s mall t owns o f R oman B ritain i n g eneral, a nd t he s omewhat p uzzling l ack o f s ubstantial n ucleated c entres i n t he C ivitas P arisiorum . I n t his c ontext w e n eed t o b e v ery w ary o f i mposing p reconceived i deas o f w hat a ' Roman t own ' w as l ike o n a s ettlement l ike t his o ne. I nstead i t i s e ssential t o b egin b y t rying t o c haracterise t he n ature o f t he s ite a nd e stablish h ow i t c hanged t hrough t ime. T his a im i s b eing p ursued b y c ombining f ieldwalking, g eophysical s urvey a nd e xcavation i n a n a ttempt t o p roduce f irst a p lan o f t he s ite, t hen a n a nalysis o f t he w ay i t d eveloped t hrough t ime. I t i s a lready c lear t hat t he s ettlement c omprised a d iscontinuous r ibbon d evelopment. T hus, i n t he 1 985 e xcavation, c remation b urials, p robably o f t he t hird c entury, w ere f ound i mmediately a djacent t o h abitations, n ear w hat a ppears t o b e t he c entre o f t he s ite. T his i s b est i nterpreted a s a r esult o f f unctional d istinctions w ithin t he s ettlement w hich b reak d own t he e xpected s ettlement/burial d ichotomy n ormal i n R oman t owns. I ndeed t he p attern s uggests a s imilarity t o t he I ron A ge l adder s ettlements k nown f rom t he t erritory ( Dent 1 982). I t i s c lear t hat f urther e xcavation i s n eeded t o c larify t he c haracter o f t he s ite, w hich i s u ndoubtedly r ich b y c omparison w ith t he r ural s ites i n t he r egion. I t i s h oped t hat t his w ork w ill p rovide a p oint u pon w hich t he r emainder o f t he w ork d escribed h ere w ill f ocus. F UTURE P ROSPECTS A lthough o nly a n i nterim s ummary, w e t rust t hat t his s hort p aper h as g iven a n i ndication o f t he s cope a nd p otential o f o ur w ork. O ur f irst f ew s easons a re n ow d rawing t o a c lose, a nd w e i ntend t o p ublish a v olume o f c onsidered c onclusions b y t he e nd o f t his d ecade. T he c onclusions d rawn t here w ill g enerate t he q uestions t o b e a nswered i n t he n ext s tage o f w ork w hich w e t rust w ill f urther e xplore t he p otential o f t he a rea a long t he l ines f irst e stablished b y M ary K itson C lark. ( Note: t his p aper w as s ubmitted f or p ublication i n J une 1 986. A lthough r eferences h ave b een u pdated, n o a ttempt h as b een m ade t o i nclude t he r esults o f w ork i n t he 1 986 a nd 1 987 s easons.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS W e w ould l ike t o t hank a ll t he f armers w ithout w hose h elp o ur w ork w ould h ave b een i mpossible. W e a re p articularly g rateful t o M r a nd M rs A J ohnson, M r a nd M rs G M orris, M r a nd M rs J O liver, M r a nd M rs P
4 5
P ayne, a nd M r a nd M rs D S tephenson w ho h ave a llowed u s t o e xcavate o n t heir l and. J eremy E vans h as k indly r ead t his t ext i n d raft a nd a llowed u s t o q uote f rom h is t hesis . F inally t he i llustrations w ere d rawn b y Y vonne B eadnell.
B IBLIOGRAPHY C lark, M K 1 935 A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire. R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 5 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C leere, H 1 978 R oman S ussex, t he W eald. A rchaeology i n S ussex t o A D 1 500. L ondon: A rchaeology R esearch R eport 2 9: 5 9-63.
I n P L D rewett ( ed) C ouncil f or B ritish
C order, P 1 930 T he R oman p ottery a t T hrolam, H olme o n S palding M oor. I n P C order a nd T S heppard R oman P ottery a nd K ilns a t T hrolam, n ear H olme o n S palding M oor, E ast Y orkshire. H ull M useums P ublication 1 70: 6 -35. D ent, J 1 982 C emeteries a nd s ettlement p atterns o f t he I ron A ge o n t he Y orkshire W olds. P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 4 8: 4 374 58. E vans, J 1 985 N orthern E ngland .
A spects o f L ater R oman P ottery A ssemblages U npublished P hD t hesis, B radford U niversity.
F asham, P J , S chadla-Hall, R T , S hennan, F ieldwalking f or A rchaeologists . W inchester: A rchaeological S ociety. F owler, P J ( ed) A dams a nd D art.
1 975
R ecent W ork i n
i n
S J a nd B ates, P J 1 980 H ampshire F ield C lub a nd
R ural
A rchaeology.
L ondon:
H alkon, P 1 983 I nvestigations i nto t he R omano-British i ndustries o f H olme on-Spalding M oor. E ast R iding A rchaeologist 7 : 1 5-24. H alkon, P 1 987 A spects o f t he R omano-British L andscape a round H olme on-Spalding M oor . U npublished M A t hesis, D urham U niversity. H icks, J D a nd W ilson, J A 1 975 T he R omano-British H asholme, E ast R iding. E ast R iding A rchaeologist 2 : 4 9-70.
k ilns
a t
J ones, M K 1 981 T he d evelopment o f c rop h usbandry. I n G D imbleby a nd M K J ones ( eds) T he E nvironment o f M an . O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries 8 7: 9 5-128. J ones, M K 1 982 C rop p roduction i n R oman B ritain. I n D M iles ( ed) T he R omano-British C ountryside. O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries 1 03: 9 7-197. J ones, M K 1 984 T he p lant r emains. I n B W C unliffe I ron A ge H illfort i n H ampshire . L ondon: C ouncil A rchaeology R esearch R eport 5 2: 4 83-495.
4 6
D anebury: a n f or B ritish
J ordan, D 1 987 T he i nvestigation o f a m ineralogenic d eposit. I n M M illett a nd S M cGrail T he a rchaeology o f t he H asholme l ogboat. A rchaeological J ournal 1 44: 9 0-97. M altby, M 1 981 I ron A ge, R omano-British a nd A nglo-Saxon a nimal h usbandry. I n G D imbleby a nd M K J ones T he E nvironment o f M an . O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries 8 7: 1 55-204. M cGrail, S a nd M illett, 5 9: 17-120.
M
1 985
T he H asholme
l ogboat.
A ntiquity
M illett, M 1 982 T own a nd C ountry: a r eview o f s ome e vidence. I n D M iles ( ed) T he R omano-British C ountryside . B ritish A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries 1 03: 4 21-432.
m aterial O xford:
M illett, M a nd H alkon P 1 984 E xcavations a t B ursea H ouse, H olme onS palding M oor 1 983. U niversities o f D urham a nd N ewcastle u pon T yne A rchaeological R eports f or 1 983 : 4 5-48. M illett, M a nd H alkon, P 1 985 T he R omano-British l andscape i n H olme on-Spalding M oor. U niversities o f D urham a nd N ewcastle u pon T yne A rchaeological R eports f or 1 984 : 3 6-38. M illett, M a nd H alkon P 1 986 E xcavations a t S hiptonthorpe, W elhambridge a nd E ast B ursea F arm, E ast Y orkshire 1 985. U niversities o f D urham a nd N ewcastle u pon T yne A rchaeological R eports f or 1 985: 4 0-43. M illett, l ogboat.
M a nd M cGrail, S 1 987 A rchaeological J ournal 1 44:
P eacock,
D P S
1 982
R amm ,
1 978
T he P arisi.
H
R ivet, L ondon:
T he a rchaeology o f t he 6 9-155.
P ottery i n t he R oman W orld.
A L F a nd S mith, B atsford.
L ondon: C
1 979
L ondon:
H asholme
L ongman.
D uckworth. T he P lace-Names o f R oman B ritain .
S heppard, J A 1 966 T he D raining o f t he M arshlands o f S outh H oldern ess a nd t he V ale o f Y ork . Y ork: E ast R iding L ocal H istory S eries. S tempczyk, M 1 986 k iln a t B ursea H ouse .
A q uantified i nvestigation o f a R omano-British U npublished B Sc d issertation, D urham U niversity.
S wan, V G 1 984 T he P ottery K ilns o f R oman B ritain. o f H istorical M onuments S upplementary S eries 5 . C ommission o n H istorical M onuments ( England). T odd, M 1 978 U niversity P ress.
S tudies
i n
t he
R omano-British
R oyal C ommission L ondon: R oyal
V illa .
L eicester
T urner, J 1 987 T he p ollen a nalysis. I n M M illett a nd S M cGrail T he a rchaeology o f t he H asholme l ogboat. A rchaeological J ournal 1 44: 8 58 8.
4 7
4 :
L ATE R OMAN S ETTLEMENT O N T HE H UMBER A ND A NGLIAN B EGINNINGS B EN W HITWELL
W illiam S tukeley v isited t he a rea i n 1 724 a nd t he f ollowing q uotation s erves a s a k ey t o t he w atery p roblems o f s ettlement o f a ny p eriod a djacent t o t he H umber: ' We p assed b y t he o ld s pring o f W interingham a nd t he m arsh a t t he m outh o f t he A nkham, w hich i s av ast t ract o f l and l eft b y t he s ea, a nd c ame t o F eriby s luice, as tately b ridge o f t hree a rches, w ith s luices f or v oidance o f t he w ater i nto t he s ea, b ut n ow b roken d own a nd l ying i n d ismal r uins b y t he n egligence o f t he u ndertakers: w hence t ravellers a re o bliged t o p ass t he r iver i n ap altry s hort b oat, c ommanded b y a l ittle o ld d eaf f ellow w ith a l ong b eard: i n t o t his b oat y ou d escend, b y t he s teep o f t he r iver, t hrough a d eep m iry c lay, f ull o f s tones a nd s takes, n or i s t he a scent o n t he o ther s ide a ny b etter, b oth d angerous a nd d ifficult. .. W hen w e h ad m ounted t he p recipice a gain f rom t he w ater a nd p aid o ur n aul ( = n aulum, f are m oney) t o t he i nexorable f erryman, w e h ad s everal c layey l akes t o r ide o ver, u npassable i n w inter. T wo r oads l ead y ou t o t he t own ( South F erriby), as orry r agged p lace .. a nd s carce c ould t he p eople d irect u s t o i t ( Barton), t hough b ut t wo m iles o ff: a t l ength, a fter w andering s ome t ime b ackward a nd f orward, w e h it u pon t he r oad, a nd, a s m en e scaped t he S tygian p ool, w ith p leasure s urveyed B arton, r iding a ll t he w ay t hrough c orn f ields o verlooking t he H umber a nd H ull.' ( Stukeley 1 776: v olume 1 : 9 9-100). O bviously S tukeley h ad a b ad t ime c rossing t he R iver A ncholme a nd p oetic l icence a part, o ne c an a ppreciate t hat h e e ncountered v ery r eal p roblems i n g etting f rom t he h igh g round o f t he J urassic e scarpment o n t o t he W olds a bove B arton. N owadays t he v alley o f t he R iver A ncholme p resents n o h orrors t o t he t raveller s ince i t h as b een d rained. S imilarly o ther l arge l ow-lying a reas a djacent t o t he H umber h ave b een d rained r elatively r ecently b ut t hey a re a s y et l ittle u nderstood i n r elation t o t heir a ncient s ettlement a nd t he f luctuation o f t he w ater l evel d uring t he c ourse o f h istory. A k ey t o t he u nderstanding o f s ettlement o n t he H umber , , t herefore, i s b ound u p i nextricably w ith t he s tudy o f c oastal c hange a nd o f t he c hanging c ourses o f t he r iver i tself . T hese t wo f actors t ogether r uled t he p attern o f s ettlement i n t he a rea, a s t hey s till d o. I n 1 980 t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries p ublished a s eries o f p apers, t he p roceedings o f a c onference o n a rchaeology a nd c oastal c hange, a nd i n t his t here i s t he f irst s tatement o f w ork o n t he I ron A ge a nd R oman c oastlines a round t he W ash ( Simmons 1 980). S ubsequently w ork o n s ettlement c lose t o t he H umber i n l ow-lying a reas, n otably t he H ull v alley a nd t he I sle o f A xholme, h as e mphasised t he n eed f or c omparative s tudies o f c oastline c hange i n o rder t o a chieve a f uller u nderstanding o f a ncient s ettlement p attern a djacent t o t he r iver. T he r ecent d iscovery o f a n I ron A ge l ogboat a t H asholme, n ear H olme o n-Spalding M oor, h as l ed t o n ew i nformation o n a ncient c oastlines i n t his a rea, f or t he b oat w as l odged o n a n i nlet o ff t he H umber, c lose
4 9
t o t he p oint w here t he R iver F oulness d ischarges i nto t he H umber ( McGrail a nd M illett 1 985). I n s ome a reas s uch a s H olderness t he b lanket o f l ater s ilt a nd w arping w ill i nevitably m ake t his j ob m ore l ong d rawn o ut a nd d ifficult t o a chieve, b ut f ieldwork b y H ull M useums a nd t he o bservation o f n ew c learances o f t he d rainage w orks i n t his a rea, a long w ith t he p ollen w ork o f H ull U niversity's G eography D epartment, w ill e ventually l ead t o a m uch f uller u nderstanding o f t he i nterplay o f n atural f actors w hich g overned a ccessibility o f l and f or s ettlement. T hese i ntroductory r emarks a re a n ecessary p relude t o a v iew o f l ate R oman s ettlement o n t he H umber a s t his w as t o a v ery l arge d egree c ontrolled b y t he f luctuating w ater l evel a nd s uccessive f loodings a long t he H umber e stuary. F or t hose l ooking a t R oman s ettlement o n t he H umber f rom a n ational v iewpoint, t he R oman t own a t B rough s tands o ut a s t he b est k nown s ite, w ith W interingham o n t he S outh B ank a s hadowy s econd. O f t he R oman v illas o f t he a rea, W interton a nd H orkstow o n t he S outh B ank a nd B rantingham o n t he N orth B ank a re t he m ost f requently q uoted.
• •
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C a is to r
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R omano-British s ettlement i n H umberside.
5 0
9
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Y et, a s o ne m ight e xpect, t here a re a n umber o f o ther m ajor s ettlements a nd v illas a s w ell a s n umerous n ative a nd i ndustrial s ites k nown o n o r c lose t o t he H umber f rom w hich o ne c an d erive e vidence b earing o n t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod. T he p resent k nown d istribution o f R oman s ites a round t he H umber c learly s hows t hat t his m ajor e stuary a cted a s am agnet f or s ettlement i n R oman t imes a s i t h ad b efore a nd d id a gain l ater ( Figure 4 .1). T he a rea i s o f p articular i mportance f or t he p eriod u nder r eview b ecause, o f c ourse, i t c onstitutes o ne o f t he m ajor e stuaries o n t he e ast c oast, f acing t he c ontinent. I t c ould t herefore r easonably b e e xpected t o p rovide s ome v ital c lues t o t he v exed q uestion o f t he l ate R oman/early A nglian p eriod. T o s tart w ith B rough - t he o nly w alled R oman t own i n t he a rea a nd i dentified a s P etuaria - e xcavations h ave r evealed t o u s s omething o f i ts l ayout a nd h istory, s tarting w ith f irst c entury o ccupation w hich c ould b e e ither s ide o f t he C onquest, w ith s ubsequent R oman m ilitary i nstallations i n t he f irst c entury a nd t hen t he g rowth o f a t own i n s ucceeding c enturies ( Corder a nd R ichmond 1 942; W acher 1 969). A s mall a rea o f s ettlement w as d efended i n t he l ate s econd o r e arly t hird c entury w ith e arthwork d efences. S tone w alls w ere s ubsequently c onstructed d uring t he l ater t hird c entury, w ith b astions a dded e xternally i n t he f ourth c entury. T he s ite a ppears, o n t he e vidence f rom e xcavations s o f ar, t o h ave b een a bandoned b y a bout A D 3 70 ( Wacher 1 969). B ut i t m ust b e a dmitted t hat t he f ull p icture o f R oman s ettlement a t B rough i s f ar f rom c lear a s W acher h imself a dmits. S ubsequent e xcavation b y m y c olleague P eter A rmstrong a nd t he E ast R iding A rchaeological S ociety t o t he n orth a nd n orthwest o f B rough ( Goodburn 1 978b: 4 27; 1 979: 3 87), h as r evealed a s uburban s ettlem ent m any t imes t he s ize o f t he w alled a rea ( Figure 4 .2). I t r emains t o b e s een w hether W acher's t heory t hat t he s ettlement a cted a s a n aval b ase w hose v iability c ame t o a n e nd w ith t he s ilting u p o f t he h aven i n t he l ate f ourth c entury w ill b e s ubstantiated, f or o n t he e vidence s o f ar a vailable, R amm h as j ustifiably e xpressed c onsiderable r eservations a bout B rough's m ilitary r ole ( Ramm 1 978: 6 0-61). T he u nit s tationed a t M alton, a nd n amed i n t he N otitia i n t he l ate f ourth c entury, a s t he n umerus s upervenientium P etuariensium a ppears t o b e f rom B rough a nd m ay h ave b een t ransferred t o M alton w hen t he n aval b ase w as f inally c onsidered n o l onger u sable. I t h as t o b e a dmitted t hat e vidence f rom t he f ieldwork o f t he E ast R iding A rchaeological S ociety d oes n ot e xtend t he p eriod o f o ccupation a ny l ater i n t he f ourth c entury. O n t he S outh B ank t he s ite a t W interingham l ay a t t he n orthern e nd o f E rmine S treet a nd h as a lways t raditionally b een l inked w ith B rough. E xcavations h ere h ave u ncovered e vidence o f s tone b uildings o f t he s econd a nd t hird c enturies, b elow w hich w as a c omplex o f d itches i ndicating o ccupation i n t he f irst c entury, b ut t antalizingly n ot g iving c lear e vidence o f m ilitary o ccupation ( Stead 1 976). T hese b uildings l ay c lose t o t he j unction o f t wo a rms o f E rmine S treet. T he l ine o f t he e astern a rm p roceeding t owards t he p resent s horeline o f t he H umber, h as s ubsequently b een c onfirmed b y t he a erial p hotographs o f D errick R iley ( Riley 1 974). F urther e xcavations o n t he e astern s ide o f t he s ite a t O ld W interingham w ere u ndertaken a head o f t he e xtension o f S andhill Q uarry, b y t he H umberside A rchaeology U nit. T hese r evealed a c omplex o f d itches w hich a ppear f rom t he a erial
5 1
V i l la • C asua l F i nds R oads • B u r ia ls • E xcava t ions m T own Wa l l
F igure 4 .2
R oman B rough.
5 2
p hotographs t o b e t he b ack e nds o f p roperties w hich e xtended n orthwards b eyond t he l imit o f t he e xcavations, p robably w ith t heir f rontages o n a s econdary r oad o r d roveway l ying a t a n o blique a ngle t o t he m etalled a rm o f E rmine S treet h eading t owards t he H umber f oreshore. A r apid l ook a t t he p ottery f rom t hese d itches i ndicates t hat t he s ettlement c ontinued o n w ell i n t o t he l ater f ourth c entury, a nd o ther f inds f rom t he s ite a lso c ontinue l ate. T he h istograms p ublished b y P E C urnow ( 1976: f igures 1 29-130) i ndicate a c onsiderable n umber o f c oins l ost i n t he p eriod A D 3 64-388 a nd t his i s e nhanced v ery m uch b y t he s ubsequent w ork o f A lan H arrison ( personal c ommunication) w ho h as r ecorded o ver 2 00 c oins o f t his p eriod o ver t he s ite a s aw hole.
R oman Co in s '
R oman j e t ty ?
I r on 4 2 3 Age c o ins
r t. E xcave t ions 1 964-5 E xcava t ions 1 98 1-2
C unobe l inus .
+ C laud ian / c o in
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Road = —
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—
H igh g round B ur ia ls C rema t ion
2 0
1 4 1"
E rm ine S treet s ec iioned 1 982
F igure 4 .3
MO
O
C on tours i nf ee t
1 00
500
P lot o f a erial p hotographs a nd f inds a t W interingham.
5 3
200
Me tres
T he p lotting o f a erial p hotographs, o f s urface f inds a nd o f e xcavations i ndicates a n a rea o f R oman p eriod s ettlement e xtending o ver s ome 7 0 a cres a t W interingham ( Figure 4 .3). I t i s c lear t oo f rom t he c asual f inds o f I ron A ge c oins a nd o ther m etal o bjects t hat t here w as a lso a c onsiderable s pread o f I ron A ge s ettlement o n t he s ite. S ettlement h ere b oth i n t he I ron A ge a nd i n t he R oman p eriod w as a long t wo g ravel s purs o f h igh g round, o ne e xtending t o t he n orth a nd t he o ther t o t he n ortheast, a nd i t i s t his t hat S tukeley p ortrays i n a s omewhat e xaggerated f orm i n t he p assage q uoted a bove f rom I tinerarium C uriosum. A s i ndicated a bove, t he e astern a rm o f E rmine S treet d escends a long a d ecreasing s pur o f s and a nd g ravel t owards t he p resent c ourse o f t he H umber w here i t a ppears t o f inish a t a l ittle r ise o f h igh g round b eyond w hich t he g round s urface i s t otally l evel w ith t he H umber. A lthough i t i s i mpossible t o r econstruct t he p recise c onfiguration o f t he R oman c oastline a t t his p oint, i t i s s uggested t hat t his e astern a rm o f E rmine S treet m ay h ave b een d irected t owards a j etty o n t he H umber, w hich w ould h ave c arried t raffic a cross t o B rough a nd t rade i n a nd o ut o f t he H umber. S ome e ight t o n ine m iles s outh o f W interingham, l ies H ibaldstow, t he n ext R oman s ettlement o n E rmine S treet. H ere e xtensive e xcavations h ave s hown t hat s ome o f t he s trip b uildings w ere o ccupied d uring t he f ourth c entury a nd, o ver o ne a t l east, a r ubble f loor w as l aid o n w hich a z oomorphic b uckle, o f t he t ype d iscussed l ater i n t his a rticle, w as d iscovered. T his s uggests t hat o ver p art o f t he s ite t here i s a ctivity i n t he l ate f ourth o r e arly f ifth c entury, t hough i ts p recise n ature i s u nknown ( Goodburn 1 976: 3 24-325; F rere 1 977: 3 89; G oodburn 1 978b: 4 33). A nother m ajor s ettlement o n t he S outh B ank l ies a bout t hree m iles t o t he s outh o f O ld W interingham a t D ragonby, a s ite w hich o ccupies a s pur o f i ronstone o utcropping o n t he e dge o f t he l imestone e scarpment. E xcavations b y J effrey M ay f or N ottingham U niversity h ave r evealed a n o pen s ettlement o f t he I ron A ge w ith a s eries o f d itched e nclosures s et e ither s ide o f a d roveway. A s ucceeding R oman s ettlement w as o f a s imilar n ature, w ith i rregular b ut a pproximately r ectangular e nclosures t o e ither s ide o f a m etalled r oadway w hich r an b etween p lots. S ome o f t he p lots h ad s tructures o n t hem, p ossibly h ouses, a nd o thers p roduced e vidence o f i ndustrial a ctivity s uch a s p ottery m aking ( May 1 970). V ery l ittle u ndisturbed e vidence s urvives h ere f or o ccupation d uring t he f ourth c entury b ut t he w ork o f A lan H arrison o n t he c asual c oin l osses i s o nce a gain i nvaluable a s i t g ives e vidence o f a s ubstantial c oin l oss b etween A D 3 64 a nd 3 88. T he f inal p hases o f t he s ettlement's h istory a re a s d ifficult t o a ssess a s t hose o f O ld W interingham a nd f or t he s ame r eason; b oth s ites h ave b een s ubject t o p loughing f or a v ery c onsiderable l ength o f t ime w hich h as v ery l argely d estroyed t he e vidence f or t he f inal p hases o f R oman o ccupation. A t D ragonby o ne f eature, a g ully o n ad ifferent a lignment f rom a nd p ost-dating o ther R oman f eatures, p roduced f ourth c entury p ottery a nd i n t he e xcavator's o pinion a p ost-Roman d ate f or c onstruction c ould n ot b e e xcluded ( May 1 970: 2 30). A cross t he A ncholme v alley w hich S tukeley h ad s o m uch d ifficulty i n n egotiating, l ies t he I ron A ge a nd R oman s ite a t S outh F erriby, j ust t o t he n ortheast o f t he v illage, w hich o ccupied a p osition a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he W olds e scarpment a s i t c omes u p t hrough
5 4
L incolnshire. I ndeed, t he s ite a t F erriby i s a t t he e nd o f t he r oad n amed M iddlegate w hich, f ollowing t he c ontours a s i t d oes f or t he l ast f ew m iles o f i ts c ourse t o F erriby, m ay w ell b e i n o rigin a p rehistoric r oute w hich s imply c ontinued i n u se t hrough t he R oman a nd A nglo-Saxon p eriods a nd t hereafter r everted t o a r oute o f m ore l ocal i mportance. I ts e arlier u se m ay w ell h ave b een a s a m ajor l ine o f c ommunication t o s ettlements f urther s outh o n t he W olds s uch a s C aistor. A nother r oute, B arton S treet, o n t he e astern e dge o f t he W olds m ay a lso b e o f p rehistoric o rigin, b ut t he p oint a t w hich i t r eaches t he H umber i s s till a m atter f or s peculation. H owever b etween B arton S treet a nd M iddlegate l ies a nother r oad w hich g oes d own t o a f urther s ettlement o n t he H umber a t P oor F arm, B arton ( Figure 4 .4) t o w hich a ttention h as b een r ecently d rawn ( Bryant 1 981: 8 ). T his s ite w ill b e d iscussed l ater. T o r eturn t o S outh F erriby, t his s ite h as b een k nown s ince t he b eginning o f t his c entury w hen T ommy S heppard o f H ull M useum f irst p ublished s ome o f t he f inds o f I ron A ge a nd R oman d ate w hich h ad b een m ade a long t he H umber f oreshore w hen n ew e xposures o f a rchaeological m aterial w ere r evealed b y t he s couring a ction o f t he H umber. T o q uote S heppard: ' Between t he h all a nd t he c halk p it a t S outh F erriby t here i s a s mall p iece o f c liff, a bout a m ile i n l ength, w hich i s a lternately a ssailed o r n eglected b y t he w aters o f t he H umber, a ccording t o t he t rend o f t he c urrents i n t he e stuary.' ( Sheppard 1 907: 2 47). H e n oted i n t hat y ear t hat n ot m uch o f t he s ite w as a vailable c ompared w ith t wenty y ears p reviously w hen t hat m ost e nthusiastic c ollector o f m etal o bjects f rom t he S outh F erriby f oreshore, T homas S mith ( known l ocally a s C oin T ommy) w as b usy r escuing f inds. F rom t his a rea o f f oreshore l arge q uantities o f R oman b rooches, c oins a nd o ther m aterial h ave b een r ecovered o ver t he y ears. A h oard o f C oritanian c oins s uggests t he p ossibility o f I ron A ge s ettlement a nd o ther f inds o f f irst c entury b rooch t ypes m ay b elong t o t he p eriod b efore o r a fter t he R oman c onquest o f t he a rea ( Whitwell 1 982: 2 6). T he R oman c oin l ist f rom t he s ite i s c onsiderable, a nd o f t he l ist p ublished b y P ickersgill ( 1911), 5 9 o f t he c oins w ere o f t he E mperor A rcadius a nd 2 1 o f H onorius o ut o f a t otal o f 2 ,763. H e p ublished a h oard o f s ix s iliquae, f ound i n a g rey w are p ot t ogether w ith a s ilver r ing w ith d ove a nd o live s prig d ecoration w hich S heppard l ikened t o t he s tyle o f a nimal r epresentation o n S axon s ceattas ( Sheppard 1 910: 1 -3). I t a ppears t hat a f urther 2 28 c oins c ould b e a scribed t o t his h oard f rom t he o bservations o f O 'Neil ( 1935: 2 823 85). T he s iliquae e xtend i n d ate t o t he E mperors H onorius a nd A rcadius a nd t he f act t hat t hey a re c lipped m ight s uggest t hat t hey w ere d eposited a t a r ather l ater d ate. H owever, t he d ate o f d eposition i s n ow g iven a t c irca 4 00 i n a r ecent s urvey o f l ate R oman c oin h oards ( Archer 1 979: 5 6). T he n ature o f t he R oman s ite a t S outh F erriby i s u nknown, a s a ll t he d iscoveries h ave b een m ade i n t he e xposure o f f inds i n t he H umber m ud. A s t he m ajority o f t he f inds w ere m ade w ithin a f ew h undred y ards o f aw ell, k nown l ocally a s ' Caddles ', S heppard t hought t hese m ight h ave b een d eposited a s v otive o fferings i n t he w ell ( Sheppard
5 5
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5 6
1 907: 2 48-249) ( Figure 4 .5). H owever, ' fire p laces ' a nd q uern s tones a re r ecorded. T hese t end t o s uggest t hat t here m ust h ave b een a s ettlement o f s ome s ort a t t his s pot, t hough i ts p recise n ature r emains a m ystery, a nd i t i s o nly a n a ssumption t hat t his w as a n i mportant s ite f or l ate I ron A ge a nd R oman t rade o n t he H umber, b ased o n t he f act t hat M iddlegate L ane l eads t o i t a nd t he r ecord o f f inds, w hich t hough i mprecise, s uggests a l arge a rea o f s ettlement. I f t his a ssumption i s c orrect, a s ubstantial p art, p erhaps t he m ajority o f t he s ettlement i nvolved, m ust h ave g one i nto t he H umber i n t he e rosion o f t he R oman c oastline t o t he n orth a nd e ast o f F erriby H all. T he f inds C oin T ommy a nd T ommy S heppard r escued a t t he b eginning o f t he c entury m ay w ell h ave l ain t owards t he s outhern e dge o f t he s ettlement. G eophysical s urvey a nd f ieldwork i n t he f ields a djoining t he p resent s horeline m ay h elp t o d etermine t he l imit o f s ettlement s outheast o f t he H all. I t i s a t a ny r ate s ignificant t hat i t h as p roduced a h oard a nd n umerous c oins b elonging t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury. T here a re a lso b urials k nown o n t he s ite, a nd i t i s a t l east p ossible t hat s ome o f t hese b elong t o t he A nglian p eriod, a s w ill b e d iscussed l ater. I t i s w orth m entioning h ere t hat b etween W interingham a nd S outh F erriby i n t he A ncholme v alley i tself , a s ite w as d iscovered i n t he b rickyard a t S outh F erriby w hich l ies a djacent t o t he c ourse o f t he r iver. I n d igging f or c lay a t t he b rickyards M r BF ranks, w ho m anaged t he s ite, u nearthed a n umber o f h earths a nd o ther t races o f R oman o ccupation t ogether w ith c oins o f f irst a nd s econd c entury d ate ( Sheppard 1 926: 6 ,9). I t h as b een f urther o bserved t hat a round t he h earths t here w as m uch b urnt p ottery a nd c harcoal t ogether w ith m any f ragments o f b adly w arped w aster p ottery ( Dudley 1 949: 1 63-164, f igure 5 9). T his m akes i t l ikely t hat a p ottery i ndustry o f s ome s ize e xisted a t t he F erriby b rickyard i n t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies A D, b ut u nfortunately n o p lans s urvive. A mongst t he m aterial f rom t he b rickyard i n S cunthorpe M useum a f ew p ieces o f w aster p ottery s urvive, w hich w ere c ollected b y H ED udley i ncluding m aterial i llustrated b y h im ( Scunthorpe M useum C ode S FBA). I n 1 982 t he H umberside A rchaeology U nit u ndertook s ome t rial e xcavations i n p art o f t he b rickworks, f ollowing a r apid g eophysical s urvey b y t he G eology D epartment o f H ull U niversity ( unpublished). I n t he e arlier w ork i t h ad b een o bserved t hat t he R oman o ccupation o ccurred a t ah orizon o f ,dark b rown c layey p eat, o r b luish s ilty c lay c loser t o t he o ld w atercourses o f t he A ncholme, i n b oth c ases s ealed b elow a m etre o r m ore o f l ight b rown c lay -(Smith 1 958: 3 9-40, f igure 1). T he w ork o f 1 982 f ound n o p eat, b ut t he s ame s equence p revailed w ith b rown c lay a bove a l ayer o f b lue-grey c lay, e quivalent t o t he b luish s ilty c lay, c ontaining R oman p ottery a nd s ealing a ll t he f eatures f ound. I n t he e vent, t here w ere n o k ilns l ocated, b ut a s eries o f d itches o f R oman d ate. T he p ottery w as l argely o f l ate f irst o r s econd c entury d ate, w ith t hree s econd c entury c oins. T here w as a s mall a mount o f l ate s econd t o f ourth c entury p ottery, t oo. O f t he p ottery t hat s urvives i n S cunthorpe M useum f rom t he e arlier w ork, i t c an b e o bserved t hat t here a re a t l east t hree f orms o f a d istinctive l ocal t ype a s w ell a s o ne d efinite w aster, a ll o f w hich a re o f f irst o r s econd c entury d ate. It hink t his i s w hen t he p otting t ook p lace, w ith p erhaps s easonal o ccupation u ntil t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod.
5 7
5 8
F igure
4 .6
P lot o f a erial p hotographs o f K irmington ( adapted f rom R iley 1 977).
A f ew m iles i nland a nd c onnected w ith t he s ite a t S outh F erriby b y M iddlegate L ane, l ies t he s ite a t K irmington w hich i s k nown o nly f rom a erial p hotographs a nd e xtensive s urface f inds ( Riley 1 977, S t J oseph 1 977, W hitwell 1 982). I n s pite o f t his i t i s o f g reat i mportance i n ac onsideration o f R oman s ettlement i n t he H umberside a rea. T he s ite s tarts, a s a t W interingham a nd D ragonby, w ith a s ystem o f d roveways a nd e nclosures i n t he I ron A ge, w hich i s o verlain b y a f irst c entury R oman f ort, w hich i n t urn i s o verlaid b y a c ivilian s ettlement o f i rregular s treets a nd e nclosures, a ll o f w hich a re r evealed o n t he a erial p hotographs ( Figure 4 .6). T he w hole s ize o f t he s ettlement i s s omething i n t he r egion o f 5 0 t o 7 0 a cres a nd R oman o ccupation c ontinues t o t he v ery e nd o f t he p eriod t o j udge f rom t he m etal o bjects f rom t he s ite ( Whitwell 1 982: 1 57), a nd a lso f rom t he c oin l osses a s l isted b y A lan H arrison. O ut o f at otal o f 4 ,333 c oins f rom K irmington, H arrison r ecords 1 ,511 r ecovered f rom t he p eriod A D 3 64 t o 3 88, w ith 1 02 f rom t he p eriod 3 88 t o 4 02. T he n ature o f s ettlement i n t his l ate p eriod i s o nce a gain a n u nknown f actor a t K irmington. T here i s a lso f ourth a nd f ifth c entury G ermanic m etalwork f rom t he s ite i n s ufficient q uantity t o s uggest t hat i t h ad a s pecial i mportance i n t his p eriod, p erhaps a s a g arrison f or l aeti ( Everson a nd K nowles 1 978: 1 25, L eahy 1 984: 3 0-31, W hitwell 1 982: 1 57). I n d iscussing K irmington, i n i ts l ate R oman a nd e arly A nglo-Saxon c ontext, M yres m entions R omano-Saxon p ottery a s p art o f t he e vidence b earing o n t he p eriod i n q uestion. T he m aterial h e r efers t o i s i n a p rivate c ollection a nd c onsists o f s herds i n R oman g rey w are f rom a s tamped b owl a nd a b ossed v essel ( details o f t his p ottery p rovided b y G ordon T aylor).
5 9
T hough t here a re s ome g enuine h ybrids b etween t he R omanoB ritish a nd A nglo-Saxon p otting t raditions, r ecently d iscussed b y G illam ( 1979), t here a re f ew p ieces k nown b etween t he H umber a nd t he W ash w hich w ould q ualify f or c onsideration. V irtually a ll t he m aterial f rom L incolnshire w hich w ould h ave o riginally b een p laced a mongst h is c ategories o f R omano-Saxon w ares ( Myres 1 956), c an n ow b e s een t o b e p art o f t he s tandard r epertoire o f R oman p otters, a nd i n o ne c ase -S wanpool, n ear L incoln - e xamples h ave b een f ound o n a R oman k iln s ite ( Whitwell 1 982: 1 59). D ecoration i n b oth b osses a nd d imples h as a l ong t radition i n R omano-British p otting i n t his p art o f e astern E ngland a nd d oes n ot n eed t o b e a ccounted f or b y G ermanic i nfluence. O f t he r ural s ites o n t he S outh B ank, w e k now t hat a t W interton R oman v illa e xtensive a lterations w ere b eing m ade t o t he h ouse a nd t o t he f arm b uildings i n t he f ourth c entury w ith t he l aying o f t he f amous O rpheus m osaic i n t he a isled b uilding t o t he e ast o f t he m ain h ouse i n t he m id-fourth c entury. T he i ndications a re t hat o ccupation w as c ontinuing s trongly i nto t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury, t hough a t t his p oint o nce a gain p lough d amage t runcates t he r ecord ( Stead 1 976: 9 4). T here a re c onsiderable n umbers o f c oin l osses i n t he p eriod A D 3 64 t o 3 88, b ut t he p eriod 3 88 t o 4 02 i s r epresented b y l ess t han f ive c oins ( Curnow 1 976: f igure 1 30). T he s ubsequent w ork o f R oger G oodburn a t W interton h as a dded g reatly t o o ur k nowledge o f t he f ield s ystems a nd o utlying b uildings o f b oth t he I ron A ge a nd R oman p eriods ( Goodburn 1 978a). T hough t he e vidence i s f ragmentary i t i s c lear t hat t here w as f ourth c entury a ctivity o ver a w ide a rea o f t he s ite ( Frere 1 977: 3 91; F rere 1 985: 2 81; F rere 1 986: 3 87; R ankov 1 982: 3 51). T he R oman v illa a t H orkstow i s k nown f or i ts O rpheus m osaic, w hich b ears a f airly c lose r esemblance t o t he e xample f ound a t W interton d ated t o c irca A D 3 50 ( Stead 1 976: 4 9). I t i s s omewhat s urprising t hat H orkstow i s g enerally a ccepted a s a n e xample o f t he l ate f lourishing o f l uxurious v illas i n R oman B ritain, p urely o n t he s trength o f i ts m osaic, a s v irtually n othing i s k nown o f t he b uildings w hich t he m osaic a dorned. I t h as r ecently b een s uggested t hat, a s a t W interton, t he H orkstow m osaic c ould a ctually h ave b een t he f looring o f a r oom i n o ne o f t he a isled a ncillary b uildings r ather t han t he m ain h ouse. T he d imensions o f t he m osaic a t H orkstow a re n ot v astly g reater t han t hose o f t he W interton e xample a nd i t c ould b e t hat t he m osaic t here t oo w as i n o ne o f t he s ubsidiary b uildings ( Whitwell 1 982: 9 7-98). W hether t he v illa a t H orkstow h ad a ny p articular r elationship t o t he s ite a t S outh F erriby r emains a n o pen q uestion. S uffice i t t o s ay h ere t hat i t i s n ot t he o nly R oman v illa k nown i n t he v illages t o t he s outh o f S outh F erriby. T here a re i ndications o f R oman b uildings i n t he p arishes o f B onby ( Loughlin a nd M iller 1 979: 1 87; f urther f inds a re n oted i n t he H umberside U nit S ites a nd M onuments R ecord n umber 1 011), W orlaby, w here A nglo-Saxon b urials f ound a mongst t he e xcavated r emains o f a R oman b uilding s uggest t he p ossibility o f a f urther c emetery ( Wilson a nd H urst 1 967: 2 68), a nd E lsham, w here R oman b uilding d ebris a nd p ottery w ere d iscovered b y t he w riter w hen a t rench w as c ut f or a m ains g as p ipeline. S o i t i s p ossible t hat t he H orkstow v illa w as s imply o ne o f a s eries o f R oman f arms t aking
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1 01
roa ds
E xcavation a lone i s c apable o f a dding a s tratigraphical p erspective t o t hese s ites, y et m uch t ime a nd r esources m ust b e e xpended t o e xamine e ven t he s mallest o f s ites. A p rogramme o f s malls cale e xcavations w ithin t he t wo W harram p arishes h as b een o rganised. S o f ar, o nly t hree s ites o f t his p eriod h ave b een d ug, e ach t he s ubject o f s mall-scale s ampling e xcavations d esigned t o t est t he r ange o f s tratification a nd t he i nter-relationship o f t he f eatures s hown b y b oth c ropmarks a nd m agnetic s urvey. E xcavation s ampling c an p rovide a c omparatively l arge a mount o f i nformation f or a r elatively s mall e xpenditure o f r esources a nd c auses t he m inimum o f a rchaeological d amage t o t he s ite a s aw hole. H owever, s uch s ampling c an a lso b e e xtremely f rustrating f or i t i nvariably d emonstrates t he f ar g reater p otential f or i nformation t hat t he f ull-scale a rea e xcavation o f t hese s ites w ould r eveal. A s eries o f s ample e xcavations c arried o ut o n t he t wo v illa s ites i n W harram L e S treet h as n ow b een p ublished. T he r eport l inks t he e xcavation d ata f rom t hese t wo s ites w ith t hat f rom f ieldwalking, a ir p hotography, a nd m agnetometer s urvey, w hich t ogether p rovides a c omparatively b road p icture o f b oth t hese v illas ( Rahtz e t a l 1 986). S UMMARY O F T HE R OMAN L ANDSCAPE A T W HARRAM P ERCY T he a vailable e vidence f or t he R oman l andscape a t W harram P ercy i s s ummarised i n F igure 7 .2 w hich r eveals a l andscape o f s mall d ispersed s ettlements, s eries o f l adder-like e nclosures a nd d itched t rackways, w ith l arge ' blank' a reas b etween t hem. A ll t hese f eatures w ere p robably i n u se, t hough n ot n ecessarily i n c ontemporary u se, d uring t he R oman p eriod. T he g reater p art o f t his l andscape, c ertainly t he b ulk o f t he s ettlement s ites, w as t o s urvive t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod, e ventually t o b e s uperseded l ater i n t he S axon p eriod b y t he p lanned v illages a nd p lanned o pen f ield s ystems o f t he m edieval l andscape. Y et t he R omans d id n ot f ind t his p art o f t he W olds u ninhabited o r u nexploited; q uite t he c ontrary, t hey w ere t o f ind a n a ncient a nd t hriving a gricultural l andscape. T he w ildwood h ad l argely b een c leared f rom t his p art o f t he W olds d uring t he N eolithic ( Manby 1 976). N umerous f lint s catters a nd e ven m ore n umerous b urial t umuli a ttest t o t he a ctivities o f p rehistoric m an i n t his a rea. T he e xtensive n etwork o f p rehistoric l inear b ank a nd d itch e arthworks, o r ' entrenchments ', s how t hat t he l and h ere w as o rganised i nto a s eries o f u nits t hat h ad b een g iven f ormal r ecognition b y t he l aborious c reation o f p ermanent b oundaries. H urst h as r ecently d emonstrated t hat t he p lanning o f t he m edieval v illage o f W harram P ercy h ad t o b e t ailored a round a s eries o f e xisting l andscape f eatures i ncluding l ynchets a nd m inor t rackways ( Hurst 1 984). W ater h as a lways b een a k ey f actor i n s ettlement l ocation o n t he W olds, a nd t he e arliest e vidence f or s ettlement a ctivity i n t he W harram a rea i s a s mall s catter o f M esolithic f lints f ound c lustered a round t he s pring s ource o f t he G ypsey R ace a t W harram L e S treet. T he s pring s ource a t W harram P ercy c an n ow b e s hown t o h ave a ttracted s ettlement t o t his v alley f rom t he B ronze A ge, w hilst s catters o f N eolithic f lints i n t he v icinity r aise t he p ossibility o f e ven e arlier s ettlement h ere.
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A NALYSIS O F T HE A VAILABLE E VIDENCE R oads a nd T rackways T he i dentifiable R oman r oads a nd t rackways i n t he W harram a rea f all i nto o ne o f t wo c ategories; t hose w hose p ositions a re r ecorded b y c ropmarks l inking k nown R omano-British f armsteads, a nd s econdly, t hose r oads a nd f arm t rackways s till i n u se i n t he m odern l andscape w hich c an b e s hown t o h ave o riginated i n t he R oman p eriod o r e arlier. T he l atter c ategory i s t he m ore n umerous. M ost o f t he c ropmark t rackways r epresent c ontinuations o f e xisting r oads a nd t racks ( Figure 7 .2). T he e vidence s uggests t hat t he b ulk o f t he m odern r oad a nd t rack s ystem a round W harram w as p robably i n e xistence d uring t he R oman p eriod a nd t hat, i f a nything, i ts e xtent w as g reater t hen t han a t p resent. T he o nly m ajor d ifference i s t he s eries o f m inor r oads a nd d rives c reated d uring t he n ineteenth c entury t o p rovide a ccess t o t he n ew p ost-enclosure f armsteads. I n t he f irst p ublished a ssessment o f t he R oman r oads i n t he E ast R iding, t he R everend E M aule C ole ( 1899) i dentified t hree p robable R oman r oads i n t he W harram a rea b ased o n t heir d irection, a lignment a nd p roximity t o o ther k nown R oman s ites. D espite l imited s upportive e vidence, t hey h ave b een a ccepted a s R oman r oads, f irst b y t he O rdnance S urvey, t hen b y C lark ( 1935), M argary ( 1967) a nd R amm ( 1978). O f t he t hree, o ne p asses f rom N orth G rimston e astwards t hrough t he t op o f W harram L e S treet t ownship, t hrough D uggleby a nd d own t he G reat W old V alley. T he s econd, o riginating a t M alton, p asses s outhwards a long t he w estern p eriphery o f T hixendale, a nd t he t hird, w ith m inor m odification, i s t oday r epresented b y t he B 1248 f rom M alton t o W etwang, p assing t hrough W harram L e S treet v illage, a nd p ast T owthorpe. C learly, a s F igure 7 .2 s hows, C ole c onsiderably u nderstated t he n umber o f R oman r oads a nd t rackways i n t he a rea. I nevitably, t he r elative m odern i mportance o f t hese r oads i nfluences o ur i deas a s t o t heir v arying i mportance d uring t he R oman p eriod. I n r eality, w e h ave n o i ndication w hich o f t he r oads t he R omano-British c onsidered t he m ore i mportant r outeways, w hich o f t hem w ere m etalled a nd w hich o f t hem w ere, a s s o m any a re t oday, m erely d irt t racks. T he i dentification o f t he B 1248 a s a R oman r oad p roves o f c ritical i mportance. T he r oad w as c learly a f eature o f t he m edieval l andscape, t he o pen f ields r espected i t a nd t he m edieval v illage o f W harram L e S treet w as p lanned a long i t. H owever, a s F igure 7 .2 s hows, t he a lignment o f t he B 1248 a s i t p asses a longside T owthorpe a nd t hrough W harram L e S treet c uts a cross a n umber o f ' Roman ' f eatures, i ncluding t rackways a nd f ield s ystems. T he i mplications a re s ignificant, f or i f t he B 1248 w as i ndeed a R oman r oad, t hen t hese s lighted f eatures m ust b e e arlier. R amm, a ccepting t he r oad's R oman o rigin, s uggested t hat i t m ay h ave b een b uilt d uring t he f irst o r s econd c entury A D, a s p art o f a n etwork o f r oadways t o s ervice t he f ort a nd t own o f D erventio ( Ramm 1 978). F urther w ork t o c onfirm t he d ate o f t his r oad w ould c learly b e d esirable. I t p roves e ven m ore d ifficult t o b e c ertain o f t he o rigins o f t he n umerous m inor t rackways t hat l inked f armstead t o f armstead. I t c ould b e s uggested f rom F igure 7 .2 t hat t he m ajority o f t hese f arms teads h ad b een p laced a longside e xisting t rackways, r ather t han t he
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t racks p lanned s o a s t o t ake i n e xisting f armstead s ites. H owever, s uch a rguments a re i nevitably s ubjective. T here i s n ot t he s pace h ere t o e xamine t he c laims o f e very t rackway i n t he W harram a rea t o aR oman o r p re-Roman o rigin. I nstead, t wo o f t he m ore u nusual a spects o f t he c ontinuity o f t hese t rackways w ill b e e xamined. F igure 7 .2 a nd t he m ap o f R aisthorpe t ownship, F igure 7 .10, s how t he p osition o f am odern u nmetalled d irt f arm t rack l eading n orthwards u p t he d ale s ide f rom t he m odern f arm o f R aisthorpe M anor. I t i s a t ypically n arrow a nd d eeply r utted t rack, c utting a lmost l ynchet like i nto t he s ide o f t he d ale a s i t a scends o nto t he h igh w old. H ere, t he t rack t urns e astwards a nd c ontinues f or 0 .5 k ilometre u ntil i t r eaches t he t ownship b oundary w ith B urdale w here i t c hanges a lignment s lightly a nd c ontinues a s a f ootpath n ortheastwards t owards t he n ineteenth c entury F airy S tones C ottage j ust b elow t he b oundary w ith W harram P ercy t ownship. T his w as a lmost c ertainly a R oman, p robably p re-Roman t rackway, f or s tarting b ack a t t he R oman s ettlement u nder t he s ite o f R aisthorpe v illage, t he t rack p asses a long a f armstead a t R aisthorpe W old, a nd i f t he o riginal a lignment o f t he t rackway i s p rojected a cross f rom t he R aisthorpe/Burdale b oundary, i t f alls j ust b elow t he F airy S tones C ottage a nd e xactly o n t op o f a s mall R omanoB ritish s ite, T unnel T op f armstead ( Figure 7 .7). H ere i t a lso l inks u p w ith b oth a nother n orth-south R oman t rack a nd a m ajor p rehistoric r outeway. I t w ould s urely b e t oo m uch o f ac oincidence f or a t rackway o f m odern d erivation s o u nwittingly t o l ink t hree R omano-British s ettlement s ites. O ne o f t he o ther f armstead s ites w as a t W harram G range c rossr oads, a c rossroads n ow a nd i n R oman t imes. T he s outhern p art o f t he n orth-south r oute f rom W harram P ercy n orthwards t o t he c rossroads h as n ow g one; h owever, i ts p osition i s c learly s hown b y a s eries o f c ropmark p hotographs ( Figures 7 .2 a nd 7 .6). I t i s a n a rea t hat w as o verlain b y t he m edieval o pen f ields o f W harram P ercy w hose s elions p assed d irectly o ver i t. Y et s urprisingly, t he O rdnance S urvey a gain r ecords a f ootpath l eading f rom W harram P ercy t o t he W harram G range c rossroads, t he p osition o f w hich c orresponds a lmost e xactly w ith t hat o f t he c ropmark t rackway. I s t his m erely c oincidence, o r p erhaps a s urvival o f a n a ncient r ight o f w ay? B oundaries T wo t ypes o f e arthwork d ominate t he p rehistoric p ast o f t he Y orkshire W olds, r ound b arrows a nd l inear e arthworks o r ' entrenchments'. T he l atter r emained a c ommon l andscape f eature d own t o t he n ineteenth c entury; m ost h ave n ow b een p loughed o ut, s urviving o nly a long t he n arrowest v alley f loors, d ale s ides o r w here t heir p osition c orrelates w ith t hat o f am odern f ield o r t ownship b oundary. T hese ' entrenchments ' r emain e nigmatic f eatures, v arying i n c omplexity f rom a s ingle b ank a nd d itch t o n ear p arallel r ows o f u p t o f ive o r s ix b anks a nd d itches, s uch a s t hose a t F imber ( Mortimer 1 905). E xcavation h as s o f ar f ailed t o d ate t hem s uccessfully, w hile t heir c lose c orrelation w ith r ound b arrows h as l ed t o t hem b eing a ccepted a s p rehistoric, w ith a ttributions v arying f rom B ronze A ge t o I ron A ge. M ost, i f n ot a ll, w ould s eem t o h ave s erved a s e ither b oundaries o r t rackways o r p erhaps b oth. W hat i s c lear i s t hat a s a ' system ', t hey w ere h ighly c omplex a nd t hat, i n a ll p robability, t hey a chieved t hat
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c omplexity o ver a p eriod o f m any c enturies,
p erhaps m illennia.
A lthough m any m iles o f s uch ' entrenchments' s urvived t o b e m apped b y t he e arliest O rdnance s urveyors i n t he m id-nineteenth c entury, m any m ore m iles h ave b een a dded t o t his i n r ecent y ears b y a ir p hotography. N evertheless t he p icture i s a lmost c ertainly s till i ncomplete. I t i s i nteresting t hat s o m any o f t hese ' entrenchments' s hould h ave s urvived a s p hysical f eatures o f t he l andscape t hroughout t he m any l andscape c hanges t hat t ook p lace d uring t he R oman, m edieval a nd p ost-medieval p eriods. G reat l engths o f t he m odern t ownship b oundaries l ie a long s uch l inear e arthworks a nd t his r aises t he p ossibility t hat e lements a t l east o f t he m edieval t ownship u nits m ay r eflect t he p osition o f p rehistoric l and u nits. T here i s a lso s ome a rchaeological e vidence t hat c an s trengthen t his a rgument. F our o f t he s ix m edieval v illage s ites c an b e s hown t o h ave h ad R oman o cccupation, t he o ther t wo h aving y et t o b e i nvestigated. T hese ' village' s ites w ere a rguably o f a c onsiderable s ize d uring t he R oman p eriod, p erhaps e ven b eing n ucleated. W ithin f ive o f t he s ix t ownships t here w ere m anured a reas t hat w ere r estricted t o t hat t ownship, o ne e nd o f w hich l inked t o t he ' village' s ites. W ithin e ach o f t he t ownships t here w ere a lso o ne o r m ore f armstead s ites s ituated o n, o r c lose t o, t he t ownship b oundaries. I t w ould b e s urprising i f t he c orrelation w ere e xact b etween R oman a nd m odern l and u nits; i ndeed, t here h ave c learly b een c hanges. T he d ivision b etween W harram L e S treet a nd W harram P ercy m ay b e a p ost-Roman e state d ivision, a lthough t here m ust s urely h ave b een s ome d ivision b etween t he t wo v illa e states ( Figure 7 .2). I t c ould p erhaps b e s peculated t hat t he g reater p art o f t he m odern W harram t ownships r eflect n ot o nly t he m edieval t ownships, b ut a lso d iscrete R oman e state u nits, p ossibly w ith t he R oman s ettlements a t t he m edieval v illage s ites b eing t he ' central p laces' w ithin e ach. O ne a rea i n p articular n icely i ndicates t he s trength o f t he a rguments f or t he c ontinuity o f b oundaries i n t his a rea. F igure 7 .3 s hows p art o f t he p arish a t t he j unction b etween f our o f t he W harram t ownships. A s eries o f c ropmark p hotographs t aken b y T ony P acitto s hows a n umber o f l inear f eatures w hich r epresent a j unction o f t hree t rackways. T he a lignment o f t he n orthwestern a rm o f t his t rackway p rojects t owards B ella F arm a nd t he a ncient h ollow w ay d own t o W harram P ercy v illage t hat c ontinues o ut t o t he n orthwest t hrough W harram G range c rossroads t o W harram G range v illa; a r oute t hat w as c learly o f s ome l ocal i mportance d uring t he R t iman p eriod. C utting r ight t hrough t his t rackway j unction i s t he B 1248 ' Roman ' r oad; c learly t he c ropmark f eatures a re e arlier. T he t ownship b oundary b etween T owthorpe a nd F imber, a nd b etween T owthorpe a nd t he m ajor p art o f B urdale, r uns a long t he B 1248 ( Figure 7 .2). W hen i t r eaches t his t rackway j unction ( Figure 7 .3), i t b ranches o ff a nd f ollows i nstead t he a lignment o f t hese c ropmark f eatures. T his m ay a ccount f or t he c urious p iece o f T owthorpe t ownship l eft o n t he w estern s ide o f t he B 1248. I f t he B 1248 i s i ndeed a R oman r oad, t hen p art a t l east o f t he b oundaries o f t hese f our t ownships f ollows a n a lignment o f p re-Roman o rigin.
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F igure 7 .3
R elationship o f t he t ownship b oundaries t o t he R oman r oad
S ettlement T hree b asic t ypes o f s ettlement h ave n ow b een i dentified R oman W harram: v illas, f armsteads, a nd ' village' s ites.
a round
V illas T wo R oman v illas h ave b een d iscovered i n t he s urvey a rea, b oth w ithin t he p arish o f W harram L e S treet ( Rahtz e t a l 1 986). T he f irst, W harram L e S treet v illa, l ies i mmediately t o t he e ast o f W harram L e S treet v illage, w hile t he s econd, W harram G range v illa, i s a bout 1 k ilometre a way o n t he w estern b oundary o f t he p arish. B oth w ere i nitially r ecognised b y f ieldwalking a nd a ir p hotography, l ater t heir p lans w ere m ore f ully d elineated b y m agnetometer, a nd t heir s tratification i nvestigated b y s ample e xcavation. F igure 7 .4 s hows a c omparison b etween t he t wo m agnetometer p lots f rom t hese v illas. W harram L e S treet v illa W harram L e S treet v illa w as t he l arger o f t he t wo c omplexes, a nd w as l ocated i n c lose p roximity t o t he s pring s ource o f t he G ypsey R ace i n a s hallow d ale a t t he h ead o f t he G reat W old V alley. B oth M esolithic a nd B ronze A ge f lint s catters h ave b een f ound a round t his s pring. T he p rincipal b uildings o f t he v illa w ere c ontained w ithin a c entral e nclosure s ome 5 0 m etres s quare ( Figure 7 .4), b eyond w hich l ay a c omplex m aze o f m inor e nclosures, d itches, p its a nd t rackways. T he
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f ieldwalking m aterial f rom t he s urface o f t his f ield p roduced a r ange o f R omano-British c eramics f rom t he s econd t o f ourth c enturies. E xcavation r evealed l ittle e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he v illa h ad o riginated a ny e arlier t han t he s econd c entury, s ave f or t wo f ragments o f f irst c entury g lass b angles. A s econd t o f ourth c entury o ccupation o f t his v illa s ite w ould a llow s peculation t hat i t o riginated a s p art o f t he g rowing R omanisation o f t his p art o f t he W olds f ollowing t he e stablishment o f t he R oman f ort a t M alton ( Derventio) a t t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury, A r esidence p erhaps o f t he n ouveaux r iches w hose w ealth h ad o riginated e ither a t D erventio i tself, o r f rom s upplying a gricultural p roduce t o t he f ort a nd i ts v icus . I t m ay n ot b e a c oincidence t hat t his w as o ne o f t he v ery f ew R oman s ites i n t he a rea w ith a n e xtensive f ieldwalking s catter t hat p roduced n o e vidence f or S axon o ccupation.
F igure 7 .4
M agnetometer s urveys o f t he W harram R oman v illas
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W harram G range v illa T he p lan o f W harram G range v illa ( Figure 7 .4) b ears a s uperf icial r esemblance t o t hat a t W harram L e S treet, f or i t t oo w as l argely c onfined w ithin a l arge r ectilinear e nclosure, w ith t he p rincipal b uildings a gain l ocated w ithin a s maller c entral e nclosure. T he v arious d itches o n d iffering a lignments a nd t hose p rotruding b eyond t he o uter e nclosure, a ttest t o e arlier ( or l ater) p hases o f a ctivity. Y et i n t erms o f l ocation, t his v illa a t W harram G range i s q uite d ifferent f rom t he o ther, f or i t w as s ituated o n a s pur o f c halk w old p rojecting f rom t he e scarpment. A l ocation t hat g ave c ommanding v iews o f t he n orthwestern p arts o f t he W olds e scarpment a nd t he V ales o f B irdsall a nd P ickering. I t a lso l ay c lose t o t he i ntersection o f t he p arish b oundaries o f W harram L e S treet, N orth G rimston a nd B irdsall ( Figure 7 .2). E xcavations h ere s ampled a n umber o f t he d itches o f t he c omplex, i ncluding t hat o f t he c entral e nclosure, r evealing p ottery o f t he f irst/second t o t hird c enturies. T he b ulk o f t he f ourth c entury p ottery f rom t his s ite, a long w ith m ost S axon s herds, c ame f rom f ieldwalking; t he f ew e xcavated f ourth c entury s herds b eing a ssociated w ith t he m osaic f loor o f t he p utative b ath h ouse. T his m osaic w as b uilt o ver a s tone-lined d rain t hat h ad b een c apped w ith l arge, r eused, l ozenge-shaped l imestone r oofing t iles. E lsewhere o n t he s ite a r ammed c halk f loor s urface o verlay a s eries o f p ost h oles f rom a n e arlier t imber s tructure. E xcavation t hus c onfirmed t he i mpression g iven b y t he m agnetometer s urvey t hat t his w as a m ulti-phase s ite. T he e arliest p ottery f ound f rom e xcavation w as f irst c entury A D, b ut a n a ppraisal o f t he m any h undreds o f f ieldwalking s herds f rom t his s ite g ives a f ar g reater d ate r ange, e xtending b ack t o t he p re-Roman I ron A ge, p erhaps t he f ourth t o t hird c enturies B C. L ike t he W harram L e S treet v illa, a s eries o f f lints a nd f ragments o f L angdale s tone a xes a ttest t o e ven e arlier h uman a ctivity o n t his s ite. T his w as c learly a s ettlement s ite i n t he p re-Roman p eriod, b ut a t w hat p oint i n t ime d id i t b ecome a h igh s tatus s ite? T he s ize o f t he e nclosures h ere c ontrasts w ith t hose o f n eighbouring f armsteads, a nd a s t he d itches w ithin t his c omplex c ontained s econd c entury p ottery, t hey m ay h ave b een d ug e arly i n t he R oman p eriod. T here i s, h owever, n o e vidence a t p resent t o s uggest t he s ize a nd n ature o f t he p re-Roman s ettlement o n t his s ite. W hatever i ts c hanging s tatus, t his s ettlement w ith i ts t housand y ears o f o ccupation p roved a n e nduring f eature o f t he W harram l andscape. F armsteads T he b ulk o f t he k nown R omano-Britith s ettlement s ites i n t he W harram a rea w ere f armsteads. E leven p ossible f armstead s ites h ave b een i dentified s o f ar ( Figure 7 .2). N ine h ave p roduced f ieldwalking a ssemblages, a nd o f t hese, s even h ave a lso r evealed c ropmarks. U nlike t he t wo v illas, m ost o f t hese f armsteads h ad r ectilinear p lans, a ligned l engthways a long a t rack o r r oadway, s uggesting p erhaps t hat t he f armsteads p ost-dated t he t rackways. T heir p lans o ften l ack t he c oherence o f t he t wo v illas, b ut a lthough o f f ar s impler s tructure, s everal s how i ndications o f h aving b een m ulti-phase s ites. T he p rincipal m orphological e xception a mongst t hese f armsteads w as B irdsall H igh B arn s ite w here t he m agnetometer s urvey s uggested a s quare p lan ( Figure 7 .5).
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F igure 7 .5
B irdsall H igh B arn f armstead
T here w as a v ery s trong c orrelation b etween t he s ize o f f ieldwalking a ssemblages f rom t hese f armstead s ites a nd t heir c hronological r ange; t he b iggest a ssemblages h aving t he w idest d ate r ange. A ll n ine f armsteads p roduced p ottery o f t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies, m ost i ncluded s herds o f s econd c entury d ate, w hile s ix a lso h ad S axon s herds. T he t hree l argest a ssemblages, t hose f rom B irdsall H igh B arn, W harram G range C rossroads a nd B urdale T unnel T op, i ncluded a n umber o f c alcite-gritted s herds w hose f orms i ndicated a p re-Roman d ate o f s econd t o f irst c entury B C, o r p ossibly e arlier. E ven e arlier s tratified o ccupation m aterial m ay e xist a s y et u ndisturbed b y t he p lough o n a ll t hese f armstead s ites. I t m ay b e n o c oincidence i n t his r espect t hat t he t hree s ites t o p roduce t he l argest f ieldwalking a ssemblages w ere a ll s ituated o n t he W old t ops w here a c ombination o f t hin s oils a nd f airly r apid s oil e rosion m ay h ave l ed t o t he e xposure o f e arlier s ettlement l ayers. C onversely, s ome o f t he f armstead s ites p roducing t he s mallest a ssemblages l ay o n t he v alley f loors w here t he b uild-up o f c olluvium m inimised p lough d amage. B irdsall H igh B arn f armstead T he p lan o f t his s ite ( Figure 7 .5) d erives f rom a m agnetometer s urvey c arried o ut i n 1 984 b y A ndrew D avid o f t he H istoric B uildings a nd M onuments C ommission, E ngland ( hereafter H BMC). T he s ite i s l ocated o n t he e dge o f t he h igh w old o n B irdsall B row o verlooking t he V ale o f B irdsall. T he f ield b oundary t o t he s outh o f t he s ite a lso f orms t he p arish b oundary b etween W harram P ercy a nd B irdsall, a nd a s l ate a s 1 836, i t w as m arked o n a n e state m ap a s t he ' York R oad ' ( Birdsall E state O ffice). F urther t o t he w est, t his a lignment t akes t he f orm o f a b ank a nd d itch ' entrenchment ' l eading d irectly t o t he
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p rehistoric c amp a t A ldro. H ere a t B irdsall H igh B arn t hough, p resent f ield b oundary s eems t o t runcate t he s outhern p art o f f armstead e nclosure.
t he t he
T he s quare e nclosure s hown b y t he m agnetometer s urvey i s s ubd ivided b y a n umber o f n orth-south d itches ( Figure 7 .5). W hat i s u nclear i s h ow m any o f t hese d itches w ere o f c ontemporary c onstruction, a nd h ow m any, i f a ny, r epresent m orphological c hanges d uring t he c ourse o f s ettlement o n t his s ite. A s eries o f s mall p its a nd g ullies o bserved b y t he m agnetometer s urvey t ogether w ith t he f ieldwalking a ssemblage, c onfirms t his a s h aving b een a h abitation s ite. L ike m ost o f t hese f armsteads, t he a ssociated p ottery a ssemblage w as d ominated b y t hird a nd f ourth c entury m aterial, b ut a mongst t he h andmade c alcite-gritted s herds w ere a n umber o f p re-Roman f orms c omparable w ith t hose f rom o ther I ron A ge s ites i n t he v icinity, s uch a s S taple H owe ( Brewster, 1 963) a nd W etwang S lack ( Brewster, 1 976). I n 1 985, a s eries o f s ample e xcavations w as u ndertaken o n t his s ite a long a n e ast-west l inear t ransect. T wo o f t he n orth-south d itches r evealed b y t he m agnetometer s urvey w ere s ampled, o ne c ontained s econd a nd t hird c entury s herds, w hilst t he o ther w as n ot f ully b ottomed, b ut i ts l owest e xcavated l evels c ontained p ottery o f t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies A D. F ourth c entury m aterial w as r estricted t o t he p loughsoil a nd w as n ot e ncountered i n e ither d itch f ill. I n t his r espect, t hey w ere c omparable t o t he f inds f rom t he d itches o f t he W harram G range v illa c omplex. I f t hese e nclosure d itches o f B irdsall H igh B arn f armstead c ontained p ottery o f t he e arly R oman p eriod i n t heir f ills, w hen w ere t hey c ut? W harram G range C rossroads f armstead S ome 5 00 m etres t o t he e ast o f B irdsall H igh B arn f armstead l ies W harram G range c rossroads, w hich i s t he l ocation o f c ropmarks a nd f ieldwalking a ssemblages d ating f rom t he p re-Roman I ron A ge t o m iddle S axon. T he s ettlement p attern h ere ( Figure 7 .6) a ppears m ore c omplicated t han a t B irdsall H igh B arn. T he c rossroads i tself w as f ormed f rom t he i ntersection o f t wo t rackways. T he e ast-west t rack i s a c ontinuation o f t he ' York R oad ' o bserved a t B irdsall H igh B arn, w hich p roceeds e astwards p ast W harram L e S treet v illa, p ast D uggleby a nd t hen d own t he G reat W old V alley t owards R udston. T he s econd, n orth-south, t rackway c ame f rom t he d irection o f T owthorpe, n orthwest t hrough W harram P ercy v illage t o t his c rossroads f rom w here i t h eaded n orthwards p ast W harram G range v illa t o l ead o ff t he W olds t owards M alton. T hree s eparate s ettlement e lements h ave b een i dentified a round t his c rossroads, e ach o f d ifferent d ate. T he m ost r ecent l ay i n f ield 5 w here t he a rea o f t he f ield f rom t he c ropmarks n orthwards h as p roduced a m ixed s catter o f S axon a nd R oman p ottery. T he R oman s herds f rom t his f ield w ere s mall, a braded a nd e venly s cattered a nd m ost p robably d erive f rom m anuring. T he S axon s herds, h owever, w ere m ore r estricted i n t heir d istribution, a nd a lthough a lso s mall a nd a braded, m ost p robably d erive f rom s ettlement. I t i s n ot k nown w hether a ny o f t he c ropmarks i n t he s outhern p art o f t he f ield c an b e r elated t o t his S axon o ccupation. I n t he s outhwest c orner o f f ield 9 6
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F igure 7 .6
W harram G range C rossroads c omplex
l ay a t ypical r ectilinear f armstead e nclosure ( Figure 7 .6); t he s ubstantial f ieldwalking a ssemblage r ecovered f rom t his s ite b eing c onfined t o s econd t o f ourth c entury v essels. F inally, i n t he n orthernmost p art o f f ield 1 6, a longside t he m odern g rass v erge s ome 7 0-80 m etres t o t he e ast o f t he c rossroads, a t hird p ottery a ssemblage o f s ome 2 00 s herds h as b een f ound f rom a c omparatively s mall a nd r estricted a rea. T his a ssemblage c omprised l arge a nd u nabraded c alcite-gritted s herds, s ome s till r etaining t races o f s oot d epositr
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o n t heir s urfaces, w hose f abrics a nd f orms w ere t ypical o f t he p eriod f rom t he s econd t o f irst c enturies B C t o t he f irst o r s econd c enturies A D . T he l ack o f a ny r ecognisable ' Roman ' s herds o f t his d ate a mongst t his c ategory s uggests t hat t he a ssemblage b elongs t o t he p re-Roman I ron A ge. E lsewhere a t W harram t he o ther f armstead s ites s eem t o h ave b een r emarkably s table i n t heir l ocation. H owever, t he t hree s ettlement s ites a round W harram G range c rossroads f orm a c hronological s equence w ith l ittle o r n o o verlap b etween e ach a nd p erhaps r epresent t he m igration o f a s ingle f armstead. T he c hange i n l ocation f rom t he s econd t o f ourth c entury f armstead s ite t o t he p robable a rea o f S axon o ccupation w as q uite a s mall o ne, a s t hey a re i mmediately a cross t he r oad f rom o ne a nother. T he m ove f rom t he f ield 1 6 s ite w as s lightly g reater a nd m ay r eflect a c hange i n t he i mportance b etween t he t wo t rackways d uring t he R oman p eriod. T he e ast-west t rackway l inking A ldro e ncampment w ith D uggleby H owe a nd R udston m ay h ave b een t he m ore i mportant o ne d uring t he p rehistoric p eriod. H owever, t he g rowing i nfluence o f M alton d uring t he R oman p eriod m ay h ave m ade t he n orths outh t rackway l inking t he R oman s ettlement a t W harram P ercy w ith W harram G range v illa, a nd t he L angton v illas t o M alton, t he m ore i mportant. B urdale T unnel T op f armstead T he t hird c ase-study f armstead i s t hat a t B urdale T unnel T op ( Figure 7 .7), s ituated a t a r oad j unction c lose t o t he t ownship b oundary b etween W harram P ercy t o t he n orth a nd B urdale t o t he s outh. T his t ownship b oundary a lso f ormed p art o f t he a lignment o f a m ajor e ast-west p rehistoric t rackway l eading f rom t he c oast a t F iley t o t he V ale o f Y ork. B urdale T unnel T op f armstead l ay s ome 6 0 m etres t o t he s outh o f i t. A s econd, s outhwest-northeast, t rackway, o riginating a t R aisthorpe m edieval v illage s ite, c limbed u p t he w old s ide, p ast a nother f armstead s ite a t R aisthorpe W old, t o a p oint i mmediately t o t he n orth o f t he p resent f armstead s ite w here i t l inked u p w ith t he r idgeway. A t hird t rackway r an f rom t he B ella F arm f armstead s ite i n t he n orth, p ast t his s ite, t o B urdale ' village ' s ite i n t he s outh a nd b eyond t owards F imber a nd W etwang ( Figure 7 .2). C learly t he l ayout o f t rackways w as l ikely t o h ave b een a s ignificant f actor i n t he l ocation o f B urdale T unnel T op f armstead. Y et p erhaps a nother, u nrelated, f actor w as a lso o f i mportance i n i ts p osition. T his f armstead l ies o n f lat w old g round a t t he e dge o f a s teep s ided d ry v alley. O n t he v alley s ide i mmediately b elow t his f armstead l ies t he ' Fairy S tones ', a r are o utcrop o f f lint b reccia d eriving f rom a f ault l ine w ithin t he c halk ( P C B uckland p ersonal c ommunication). A s l ate a s t he n ineteenth c entury, t hese s tones r etained a m ythical s ignificance t o l ocal i nhabitants a nd i t i s t herefore p ossible t hat t hey m ay a lso h ave b een o f s uperstitious s ignificance d uring t he R oman p eriod. A s F igure 7 .7 s hows, t he c ropmarks f or t his s ite r eveal a f airly s imple r ectilinear e nclosure. T he a ssociated f ieldwalking a ssemblage w as l arge a nd r anged f rom S axon b ack t o t he p re-Roman I ron A ge. L ike B irdsall H igh B arn f armstead, t his r epresents s ome s even o r e ight h undred y ears o f o ccupation o n t he s ame s ite. T hese f armstead s ites
112
F igure 7 .7
B urdale T unnel T op f armstead
w ere f ar f rom b eing t ransitory f eatures o f t he l andscape, c reated a s p art o f t he ' Romanisation ' o f t he W olds. I nstead t hey w ould a ppear t o h ave e ndured b oth t he R oman a nd S axon i nvasions w ithout d ramatic c hanges o f f ortune. I ndeed t he o nly a rchaeological e vidence f or t hese m omentous h istorical e vents w as a s imple c hange i n p ottery t ypes.
' Villages' T he t hird c ategory o f R oman s ettlements i n t he W harram a rea i s r epresented b y t he s ites o f t he m edieval a nd m odern v illages. T hey h ave t herefore b een t ermed h ere ' village ' s ites. O f t he s ix m edieval v illages i n t he W harram a rea, f our c an b e s hown t o h ave b een t he l ocation o f s ome f orm o f R oman s ettlement, a f ifth i s s hrouded b y p ermanent p asture, w hilst t he s ixth, T hixendale, i s t he s ite o f a m odern v illage a nd h as a lso p roved u navailable f or i nvestigation. O f t he t hree t ypes o f R oman s ettlement i n t he W harram a rea, w e k now l east a bout t hese ' village ' s ites. T he v illas a nd f armsteads r epresent
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a reas o f a bandoned s ettlement t hat h ave n ow b een e xtensively p loughed a nd t herefore e xposed f or s tudy. I n t he c ase o f t hese ' village ' s ites, t hey a re c arpeted a nd o bscured b y t he m edieval a nd l ater v illage e arthworks a nd b uildings. T he t wo l argest ' village ' a ssemblages a vailable a t p resent a re t hose f rom W harram P ercy a nd B urdale, t he f ormer t he s ubject o f e xtensive e xcavation, a nd t he l atter t he l ocation o f a l arge s ilage p it t hat c ut s everal m etres d own i nto t he s ettlement s tratification i n t he v alley f loor. I n b oth c ases, t heir c eramic a ssemblages p rovide a n u nbroken s equence f rom t he p re-Roman I ron A ge t o t he p ost-medieval. T he ' village' s ite a ssemblages f rom R aisthorpe a nd W harram L e S treet a re b oth f ar s maller a nd d erive f rom s urface m aterial i n t he c ase o f R aisthorpe, a nd f rom c onstruction t renches f or a n ew ' Dutch ' b arn a t W harram L e S treet.
W harram P ercy v illage W harram P ercy v illage w ill b e u sed h ere a s ac ase s tudy o f t his t ype o f R oman s ettlement, a s t he s ite i tself i s w ell k nown a nd t he e vidence c omparatively a bundant. H urst h as s hown t hat t he m edieval v illage w as c ontained a nd o rganised w ithin t he c onstraints o f b oundaries o f R oman a nd p re-Roman o rigin ( Hurst 1 984). H owever, t his r euse o r c ontinued u se o f R oman b oundaries w as s elective. An umber o f c ropmarks o f R oman o rigin h ave b een s hown c ontinuing b eyond t he c onfines o f t he m edieval v illage e arthworks ( Figure 7 .8). T he r easons w hy c ertain f eatures w ere r etained a nd o thers d iscarded a re s till n ot f ully u nderstood. W hat i s c lear f rom F igure 7 .8 i s t hat t he R oman s ettlement b oth i n W harram P ercy m edieval v illage a nd i ts i mmediate v icinity w as b oth e xtensive a nd c omplex. I nitially, R oman s ettlement a t W harram P ercy w as t hought t o h ave b een c onfined t o a l arge d itched e nclosure i n t he n orthwest c orner o f t he v illage w hose p osition a nd a lignment w ould s eem t o h ave b orne l ittle r elationship t o t he l ater, m edieval v illage p lan ( Figure 7 .8). H owever, s ubsequent y ears o f e xcavation h ave r evealed m ore e xtensive e vidence o f R oman s ettlement h ere ( Hurst 1 984). T he p rincipal d ifficulty l ies i n t rying t o u nderstand w hat f orm t hat R oman s ettlement t ook. I n r ecent y ears, m agnetometer s urveys b y A ndrew D avid o f H BMC h ave p rovided v aluable n ew e vidence ( Figure 7 .8) f or t hey h ave s hown t hat t he a ncient h ollow w ay t hrough t he n orth o f t he v illage s ite, a lready i dentified a s b eing o f p robable p re-Roman o rigin, h ad a s eries o f ' ladder p attern ' e nclosures e ither s ide o f i t. S ample e xcavations b y t he U niversity o f Y ork a t s trategic p laces a long t his l adder h ave s uggested t hat i t w as l aid o ut i n t he I ron A ge w ith s ome m odifications d uring t he R oman p eriod. F urther s ampling s hould c larify t he v arious r elationships o f t hese m agnetometer f eatures. R ahtz h as r ecently s uggested t hat W harram P ercy v illage m ight h ave b een t he s ite o f a t hird R oman v illa, f ollowing h is d iscovery i n t he N orth M anor a rea o f a ' T ' s haped c orn-drying k iln c onstructed f rom l arge r eused b locks o f d ressed R oman s tone w hich, h e a rgued, m ust h ave d erived f rom a b uilding o f c onsiderable s ocio-economic i mportance ( Rahtz 1 985). A v illa c omplex, s imilar i n s ize a nd p lan t o t hat a t W harram L e S treet, f or e xample, w ould c onveniently e xplain t he
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a bundance o f R oman f eatures a t W harram P ercy. A lternatively, h owever, t he s tones f rom t he c orn-drying k iln c ould h ave b een r obbed f rom e ither o f t he t wo k nown v illa s ites. A s econd p ossibility i s t hat t here w as a f ar l arger R oman s ettlement a t W harram P ercy t han o n t he o rdinary f armstead s ites. H urst h as n ow p rogressed f rom i dentifying W harram P ercy a s t he s ite o f a s ingle R oman f armstead t o s uggesting t hat t here m ay h ave b een f ive o r s ix, t he n umber i ncreasing w ith e ach n ew a rea e xcavation o pened. D oes t his m ean t hat w e s hould b e t hinking o f W harram P ercy a s b eing t he s ite o f a R oman v illage i n t he s ense o f a n ucleated c ommunity? O r p erhaps i nstead t here w as a m ore i nformal s ituation, w hich R oberts m ight t erm ' a l oose f arm c luster' ( Roberts 1 982).
: . .1:- „, • •
F igure 7 .8
. „ . ,
R oman a nd p re-Roman f eatures a t W harram P ercy d eserted v illage
15
M agneto meter survey Possib le preh ist or ic f eature Preh ist or ic Occ upation
W hen s o m any o f t he f armstead a nd v illa s ites i n t he R oman l andscape w ere l ater a bandoned, t here h as a lways b een t he p roblem o f u nderstanding w hy t he R oman s ettlements o n t he f uture m edieval v illage s ites s uch a s W harram s hould h ave s urvived. I n m ost c ases t he m edieval v illages w ere l ocated o n t he m ost t opographically a dvantageous s ites b ut, p erhaps a s a v ery r esult o f t hose l ocational a dvantages, t hese m ay h ave a lways b een t he l argest, m ore d ensely p opulated, s ites i n t he R oman l andscape. T he f ieldwalking a ssemblages f rom t he t wo m edieval v illage s ites o f B urdale a nd R aisthorpe a lso i ndicate a n a rea o f R oman s ettlement f ar l arger t han t hat a ssociated w ith a ny o f t he k nown f armstead s ites. A lthough t he e vidence f rom t hese t wo s ites i s n ot y et a s c onvincing a s t hat f rom W harram P ercy, i t f urther s trengthens t he a rguments f or n ucleated R oman s ettlements w ithin t he R oman l andscape a t W harram . I f ' village' s ites s uch a s W harram P ercy w ere i n f act v illage s ites d uring t he R oman p eriod, i n t he s ense o f t heir b eing n ucleated c ommunities, w as t his a s ituation t hat a rose a s a r esult o f a ny s ettlement e xpansion d uring t he R oman p eriod? C ertainly t he m ajority o f t he R oman p ottery f rom W harram P ercy b elongs t o t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies, b ut f inds o f e arlier R oman w ares, i ncluding s amian, a re c ommon. D iscrete g roups o f I ron A ge p ottery a t W harram P ercy a re s till s carce, b ut t here a re a t l east t wo d emonstrable a reas o f p reR oman I ron A ge s ettlement o n t he s ite. O ne i s o n t he N orth M anor a rea w here M ilne a nd R ahtz h ave b een e xcavating, a nd t he s econd i s l ocated i n t he v alley t errace b etween t he c hurch a nd t he n ineteenth c entury c ottages. P erhaps t hese t wo a reas r epresent t wo d istinct I ron A ge f armsteads, o r a gain, a re t hey a n i ndication o f a m ore e xtensive s ettlement a t W harram P ercy d uring t his p eriod? J ust h ow f ar b ack i n t ime w as W harram P ercy a n ucleated c ommunity? L and U se T here a re t wo t ypes o f e vidence f or l and-use i n R oman W harram: f ield s ystems a nd m anuring. A cross t he p arish t here i s c onsiderable e vidence f or b oth. H owever, i t i s o nly p ossible t o l ook a t s pecific e xamples o f e ach. L adder s ystems A mongst t he v arious c ropmarks i n t he W harram a rea, t here a re s everal e xamples o f w hat h ave b een c alled ' ladder p attern ' e nclosures, w hich h ave b een v ariouslY i nterpreted a s e ither ' ladder s ettlements' o r a s f ield s ystems. F ieldwalking e vidence f rom t he W harram l adders w ould s uggest t hat h ere a t l east t he m ajority w ere f ield s ystems r ather t han s ettlements. T he l adder s ystem a t B irdsall B row ( Figure 7 .9) h as b een t he m ost i ntensively s tudied a nd l ies b etween t wo o f t he f armstead s ites d iscussed a s c ase-studies e arlier, B irdsall H igh B arn t o t he w est a nd W harram G range C rossroads t o t he e ast. T ony P acitto h as t aken s everal c ropmark p hotographs o f t his s ystem, i t h as b een f ieldwalked o n a n umber o f o ccasions, a nd, l ike t he t wo f armstead s ites, i t h as b een s ampled b y m agnetometer s urvey. T his l adder s ystem l ies a long t he s ame 1 836 ' York R oad ' a nd p arish b oundary a s d id B irdsall H igh B arn f armstead, a n a lignment w hich r uns p arallel t o t he W olds e scarpment, s et b ack s ome 1 00 m etres
16
F igure 7 .9
B irdsall B row l adder e nclosures
f rom t he s carp i tself . C ropmark a nd m agnetometer f eatures o f t his s ite a re i llustrated i n F igure 7 .9. T he r ung-like d ivisions o f t he s ystem a re c learly v isible y et t he w hole h as a n i rregular a spect t o i t a s i f i t h ad d eveloped p iecemeal, p erhaps b y p rocesses o f a ggregation. S ome o f t he e nclosures h ad i nternal d ivisions, o thers c ontained m agnetic a nomalies t hat A ndrew D avid h as s uggested m ight r epresent p its, a nd p erhaps e ven h earths. H owever, t he m agnetometer s urvey r evealed n o t race o f s tructures. V ery f ew o f t he e nclosures s eem t o h ave h ad g ateways t o p rovide a ccess b etween e nclosures o r o ut o nto t he ' blank ' a reas b eyond. O ther l adder e nclosures w ere u sually a ligned a long a t rackway. H owever, n o s ign o f at rackway w as v isible o n t he c ropmarks o f t his s ite ( Figure 7 .9), a lthough t he m agnetometer s urvey o f t he w estern p arts o f t his l adder d id r eveal s ections o f am inor t rackway l eading w estwards t o l ink t hese e nclosures w ith B irdsall H igh B arn f armstead. P erhaps t his w as s uch a n a ncient a nd w ell-established r oute t hat t here w as n o n eed f or t he c onstruction o f a f ormal d itched t rackway. O r p erhaps t he m odern f ence l ine c onforms e xactly t o t he p osition o f t he e arlier t rackway. F urther w est a long t his a lignment, a t V essey P astures, t he m odern h edge i s c arried a long t he t op o f a p rehistoric b ank.
17
F ieldwalking o f t he t wo f armstead s ites a t e ither e nd o f t his l adder s ystem p roduced a n a bundance o f p ottery a nd o ther a rtefacts. T he l adder e nclosures, w alked a t t he s ame t ime, u nder t he s ame a gricultural a nd w eather c onditions, p roduced n othing e xcept t he o ccasional u biquitous f lint f lake a nd n ineteenth c entury m anuring s herd. W hen a djoining d omestic s ites p roduce s o m uch p ottery a nd t hese l adder e nclosures n one a t a ll, i t s uggests t hat t he l atter w ere n ot u sed f or s ettlement. N one o f t he o ther l adder e nclosures i n t he W harram a rea, s ave t hat a t W harram P ercy v illage s ite ( Figure 7 .8), h as p roduced a ny m ore t han o ne o r t wo s mall a nd a braded R omano-British s herds, c ertainly n othing t hat w ould s uggest a ny f orm o f h abitation. H owever, a ll t he W harram l adder a lignments l inked k nown R oman f arms tead o r v illa s ites a nd w ere a ligned a long t rackways. A n a gricultural f unction w ould t herefore s eem t he m ost l ikely i nterpretation a t p resent. A s w ill b e s hown b elow, e lsewhere t here w ere s catters o f R omanoB ritish p ottery s herds w hich w ere p robably a ssociated w ith t he m anuring o f a rable a reas. T he d earth o f e ven m anuring s herds f rom l adders s uch a s B irdsall B row m ight t herefore s uggest t hat t hey m ay h ave b een l ivestock e nclosures r ather t han a rable f ields. H owever, i f t hey w ere s tock e nclosures, t he l imited n umber o f g ateways i s s urprising a nd t here w ould b e t he p roblem o f w ater s upply f or t he a nimals c orralled w ithin t hem. P erhaps i t i s w rong t o t hink o f t he l and w ithin t hese e nclosures b eing e ither a ll a rable o r a ll p asture a nd t he g reat t racts o f l ands b eyond t hem b eing t he o pposite. T here m ay h ave b een m ore s ubtle v ariations i n l and f unction. T he t wo v illas p robably h ad e xtensive t racts o f e state l and a ssociated w ith t hem w hich m ay h ave i ncluded s ome, p erhaps a ll, o f t he s maller f armstead s ites. T hese l adder e nclosures m ight p ossibly h ave b een t he R oman e quivalent o f m edieval c rofts, t hat i s s mall a reas o f a gricultural l and a ssociated s pecifically w ith t he i nhabitants o f t he f armstead s ites r ather t han w ith t he v illas. U nfortunately, t he l ack o f s urface a rtefacts f rom t hese l adder s ystems a lso l eaves t hem w ithout a ny d ating e vidence. T hey w ere a ll o verlain b y t he m edieval o pen f ield s ystems a nd t herefore c learly p red ate t hem . T heir p osition b etween R oman s ettlement s ites a nd t heir g eneral c onformity w ith o ther e lements o f t he R oman l andscape w ould s uggest t hat t hey t oo w ere p art o f t hat l andscape. H owever, i t h as b een s uggested a bove t hat a n umber o f t hese ' Roman ' s ettlement s ites o we t heir o rigins t o t he p re-Roman p eriod, w hilst m any o f t he t rackways a re d emonstrably e arlier i n d ate. H ow e arly m ight t he l adders b e? T he s ample e xcavations t hrough p arts o f t he l adder e nclosures a t W harram P ercy v illage h ave s uggested t hat t here a t l east t hey a re o f I ron A ge d ate, a lthough w ith e vidence o f m odification d uring t he R oman p eriod. M anuring A s F igure 7 .2 s hows, t hese f armsteads, l adder s ystems a nd t rackw ays l ink t ogether t o s uggest a c omparatively c omplete p icture o f t he R oman l andscape a t W harram. Y et a s econd l ook a t t his f igure r eveals t hat a ll t he c ropmark a nd f ieldwalking s ites a nd f eatures a ccumulated s o f ar f ill o nly a s mall p roportion o f t he a vailable l andscape, l eaving l arge ' blank' a reas. I t i s n ow w idely a ccepted t hat t he
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p rimeval f orests w ere l argely c leared f rom t he W olds b y t he N eolithic p eriod ( Manby 1 976). W ith t he c omparatively h igh n umber o f R omanoB ritish s ettlement s ites o n t his a rea o f t he W olds, a nd t he p resence o f a t l east t wo v illas, i t i s s urely i nconceivable t o s uggest t hat t hese v ast b lank a reas w ere n ot b eing e xploited d uring t he R oman p eriod. P arts o f t hese ' blank ' a reas o f t he w old t ops h ave p roduced a t hin s catter o f s mall, h eavily a braded, R omano-British p ottery s herds w hich p robably d erived f rom m anuring. D uring t he m edieval p eriod, p arts o f t he o pen f ield s ystem, u sually t hose a reas c losest t o t he s ettlement, w ere m anured w ith h ousehold a nd a nimal w aste w hich i ncluded d iscarded a rtefact d ebris. T his w as a p ractice c ontinued u ntil t he e arly p art o f t his c entury w hen m unicipal r efuse c ollection f inally p rovided a n a lternative m eans f or t he i nhabitants o f t he W olds t o d ispose o f t heir d omestic r efuse. U ntil t hen, a ll r efuse w as a ccumulated i n m iddens a nd t hen t ransported o ut t o t he f ields a t s pecific t imes o f t he y ear t o h elp m aintain t heir f ertility. T hese s mall, a braded R omano-British s herds s tand i n s harp c ontrast t o t he l arger, l ess w orn s herds d eriving f rom h abitation s ites w hich u sually a lso s how d istinct c lustering p atterns ( Hayfield 1 980). T hese m anuring s herds a re m uch s parser a nd m ore r andom i n t heir d istribution. R oman m anuring s herds h ave n ow b een i dentified f rom f ive o f t he s ix W harram t ownships. T he r esults f rom o ne o f t hose t ownships, R aisthorpe, w ill b e c onsidered h ere a s a c ase-study. F igure 7 .10 s hows t he t ownship o f R aisthorpe, t he b ulk o f w hich c omprises w old l and w hich s lopes s outhwards, d own t o ab road v alley f loor; t he l and t hen r ises s harply a gain a t t he t ownship's s outhern b oundary. T he f igure c ompares t he p osition o f k nown R oman s ettlement s ites w ith t he m anuring e vidence. A ll t he b lack d ots o n t he m ap r epresent f inds o f R omano-British p ottery, e ach d ot r epresenting n o
F igure 7 .10
R oman s ettlement a nd m anuring p atterns i n R aisthorpe t ownship
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m ore t han t wo o r t hree s herds. I t w ill b e i mmediately c lear t hat t his m anuring e vidence i s b ased o n c omparatively s mall a mounts o f p ottery, p erhaps a veraging o ne s herd f or e very f our o r f ive a cres. I f t his e vidence w as r estricted t o j ust o ne t ownship, i t m ight b e d ismissed a s u nimportant, b ut s imilar p atterns c an n ow b e d emonstrated f or f our o ther t ownships a t W harram . T he c ombined w eight o f t heir e vidence m akes t he a rguments f or R oman m anuring m ore c redible. W hen s uch s mall l evels o f p ick-up a re b eing c onsidered, i t i s a lmost i mpossible t o g ive p recise p arameters t o t heir d istribution. N evertheless, i n g eneral t erms, o f t he 4 56 h ectares ( 1128 a cres) o f R aisthorpe t ownship, a t l east 1 61 h ectares ( 400 a cres) w ould s eem t o h ave f allen w ithin t his m anured a rea. A s t hese p ottery s herds a re e ssentially a b y-product o f t his d omestic m anuring m aterial, t heir s carcity n eed n ot n ecessarily i mply t hat m anuring w as i nfrequent, m erely p erhaps t hat t he q uantities o f d omestic a rtefact d ebris t o f ind t heir w ay o nto t he R oman m iddens w ere c omparatively s mall. N or c an w e a ssume t hat t his w as t he o nly a rea t o h ave b een m anured a t R aisthorpe d uring t he R oman p eriod. I t i s q uite p ossible t hat l ivestock w ere d eliberately f olded o ver s tubble a nd f allow a reas, p articularly t hose t hat w ere l ess a ccessible t o t he s ettlements. L ike t he o ther t ownships, t he m anured a rea a t R aisthorpe l ies b etween t he R oman ' village ' s ite a nd a k nown f armstead s ite, a nd h as a r ecognisable R oman o r e arlier t rackway p assing t hrough i t o r a longside i t. E very ' village ' s ite a nd e very v illa s ite, b ut n ot e very f armstead, w as l inked t o o ne o f t hese m anured a reas. A way t o t he s outhwest o f R aisthorpe t ownship, o n t he b oundary w ith T hixendale, l ies C ow W old f armstead a nd t his h as t races o f i ts o wn s mall m anured a rea a round i t, a lthough i t w as i solated f rom t he m ain m anured a rea o f t he t ownship. I f t hese s cattered a nd a braded s herds d o i ndeed r epresent m anuring o f a rable a reas, t he e vidence b egins t o p rovide r ealistically l arge a reas o f p otential a rable l and t o h ave s upported t he s ize o f R oman p opulation t hat t he n umber o f f armsteads a nd v illas i mplies. B ut w hat o f t he u nmanured a reas o f R aisthorpe, s ome 6 0 p er c ent o f t he t otal a rea? D oes t his i mply t hat t hese u nmanured a reas w ere n ot f armed d uring t he R oman p eriod? D uring t he e ighteenth a nd n ineteenth c enturies, W old t ownships s uch a s R aisthorpe c oncentrated t heir m anuring a ctivities o nto o nly a s mall p roportion o f t he t ownship. T his m anured a rea w as c ropped c omparatively i ntensively, w hile t he r emaining a reas w ere c ropped l ess i ntensively, p erhaps o nce e very f ive o r s ix y ears ( Harris 1 961). T he m edieval o pen f ield s ystems o f t he W harram a rea w ere d emonstrably l arger t han t he a reas o f m edieval m anuring, a nd a gain, a s imilar s ort o f i nfield/outfield s ystem o f c ultivation m ay h ave o perated, t he f allow a reas p roviding v aluable g razing l and. P erhaps a c omparable s ort o f s ystem w as i n o peration w ithin t he R oman l andscape. E ven i f t his b road t hesis o f c ultivation d oes p rovide a f easible i nterpretation o f t hese R oman m anuring s herds, t he p ractical d etails o f s uch a s ystem s till r emain e lusive. T here a re n o i dentifiable p hysical b oundaries f or t hese m anured a reas. I ndeed t he b ulk o f t hese w old t ops r emain c ompletely d evoid o f c ropmarks o r a ny o ther r ecognisable R oman f eatures w hich m ight r epresent f ield d ivisions
1 20
w ithin t hese p utative a rable l ands. H ow w ere t hey o rganised, h ow w ere t hey c ultivated, w hat w as c ultivated, b y w hom, a nd f or w hom? T he s mall a nd a braded s tate o f t hese m anuring s herds, c ombined w ith t heir p aucity, m akes t hem v ery d ifficult t o d ate, p articularly t he h andmade c alcite-gritted s herds w here f orm i s a ll-important i n d ating. E ach t ownship's m anuring s catters c ontained t hird a nd f ourth c entury m aterial, a nd i n s everal t ownships o ne o r t wo s econd c entury v essels h ave b een r ecognised, b ut, a s y et, t here a re n one f rom R aisthorpe. C ould t his i mply t hat t his e xtensive a gricultural e xploitation o f e ach t ownship o nly b egan d uring t he R oman p eriod, o r p erhaps i nstead t hat t he o rganised m anuring o f s uch l arge a reas w as a R oman i nnovation i n a n a lready c ultivated c ountryside? C learly t here i s s till a l ong w ay t o g o t o u nderstand t he n ature o f R oman a griculture i n t his a rea, l et a lone t o u nravel i ts d evelopment. W e s till h ave l ittle i dea o f t he v arying i mportance o f a rable t o l ivestock i n t he W harram a rea, t he t ypes o f c rops g rown a nd t he s pecies o f a nimals. T he l ocation a nd o rganisation o f a ny a reas o f p ermanent p astures a nd w oodlands a re a lso u nknown. H owever, t hese m anured a reas d o a t l east g o s ome w ay t o f ill u p t he R oman c ountryside a t W harram . S UMMARY T wo t hings i n p articular w ill h ave e merged f rom t his p aper. F irstly, t hat t his i s ap articularly a ncient a nd c onservative l ands cape, a nd s econdly t o s uggest t hat m uch o f t he ' Roman l andscape ' m ay b e p re-Roman i n o rigin. T he b asic l ayout o f t he c ountryside a nd i ts o rganisation i nto d ispersed s ettlement p atterns, l inked b y t rackways, a nd o rganised i nto s ome f orm o f e state u nits, w ould s eem t o h ave a lready b een e stablished b efore t he R omans a rrived. W hatever a dministrative c hanges t he R oman o ccupation w rought o n t his a rea, t he s ame l andscape w as t o s urvive, l ittle c hanged i n f orm a t l east, i nto t he m iddle S axon p eriod. M uch m ore r emains t o b e l earned a bout t he R oman l andscape a t W harram. I t i s h oped t hat t he p rogramme o f f ieldwalking, a ir p hotography, m agnetometer s urvey a nd e xcavation w ithin t he s ix t ownships w ill c ontinue f or s everal m ore y ears, a nd p erhaps r esolve s ome o f t he p roblems o utlined a bove.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS Iw ould l ike t o t hank L ord M iddleton o f B irdsall a nd h is t enants, t he l ate M r P CM edford, a nd t he o ther f armers o f t he W harram a rea f or t heir a ctive s upport, a nd f or t heir p ermission f or m y c olleagues a nd m yself t o c arry o ut o ur s urvey w ork. Iw ould a lso l ike t o t hank M s K S toertz o f t he R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments f or p roviding d etails o f t heir c ropmark p lots a nd t o D r P CB uckland, D r S E C leary, P rofessor PA R ahtz, M r S R oskams a nd D r TR S later f or t heir i nvaluable c omments a nd s uggestions o n t his p aper. T he r esponsibility f or a ll e rrors o f f act a nd i nterpretation r emains m ine. A ugust 1 986
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B IBLIOGRAPHY
B rewster, T C M 1 963 T he E xcavation o f S taple H owe . W interingham , M alton: T he E ast R iding A rchaeological R esearch C ommittee. B rewster,
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1 04-116.
C lark, M K 1 935 A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire . R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 5 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C ole, E M 1 890 R oman r oads i n t he E ast R iding. E ast R iding A ntiquarian S ociety 7 : 3 7-46.
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D ent, J 1 983 T he i mpact o f R oman r ule o n n ative s ociety t erritory o f t he P arisi. B ritannia 1 4: 3 5-44. H arris, A 1 700-1850 .
i n
t he
1 961 T he R ural L andscape o f t he E ast R iding o f Y orkshire , O xford.
H ayfield, C 1 980 W harram P ercy P arish S urvey. I n C H ayfield ( ed) F ieldwalking a s a M ethod o f A rchaeological R esearch . L ondon: D irecto rate o f A ncient M onuments a nd H istoric B uildings O ccasional P apers 2 : 2 6-33. H ayfield, C 1 987 A n A rchaeological S urvey o f t he P arish o f W harram P ercy, E ast Y orkshire. I . T he E volution o f t he R oman L andscape . O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries 1 72. H urst, J G 1 984 T he W harram r esearch p roject: M edieval A rchaeology 2 8: 7 7-111. M anby, T G 1 976 R iding o f Y orkshire. 1 60. M argary, B aker.
ID
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r esults t o 1 983.
T he e xcavation o f t he K ilham l ong b arrow , P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 4 2:
R oman R oads i n B ritain .
R evised e dition.
M ortimer, J R 1 905 F orty Y ears R esearches i n B ritish B urial M ounds o f E ast Y orkshire . L ondon: B rown. O rdnance S urvey 1 978 M ap S outhampton: O rdnance S urvey. R ahtz,
P
1 985
o f
R oman
I nvitation t o A rchaeology .
B ritain .
O xford:
F ourth
E ast 11-
L ondon:
a nd
S axon
e dition.
B lackwell.
R ahtz, P , H ayfield C a nd B ateman, J 1 986 T wo R oman V illas W harram L e S treet. Y ork U niversity A rchaeological P ublications 2 . R amm,
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L ondon:
D uckworth.
R oberts, B K 1 982 T he a natomy o f t he v illage: e xtrapolation. L andscape H istory 4 : 1-20.
1 22
a t
o bservation
a nd
8 :
F ROM R OMAN T O S AXON A T W HARRAM P ERCY PA R AHTZ
R OMAN W HARRAM T he a rea u nder d iscussion c omprises t he t wo p arishes o f W harram L e S treet a nd W harram P ercy. T hey l ie i n t he w estern p art o f t he c halk w olds o f e ast Y orkshire ( Figure 8 .1). T hey a re a bout 1 0 k ilom etres s outhwest o f M alton, a n i mportant t own a nd s ettlement n ucleus, d eveloping a round a f ort ( Robinson 1 978). R oads r adiate s outhwest f rom M alton, a nd s everal v illas ( Figure 8 .2), a nd a n umber o f o ther s ites a nd f inds a re k nown i n t his a rea ( Ordnance S urvey m ap i n C lark 1 935, H ayfield t his v olume). T he W harram a rea h as b een u nder c lose s crutiny f or m any y ears. E xcavations h ave t aken p lace a t t he s ite o f W harram P ercy m edieval v illage f or o ver 3 5 y ears, u nder t he a egis o f t he M edieval V illage R esearch G roup a nd c entral g overnment a gencies ( currently H istoric B uildings a nd M onuments C ommission ( England) -h ereafter H BMC). T his w ork h as b een d irected b y J ohn H urst a nd M aurice B eresford ( Hurst 1 984). I n m ore r ecent y ears, t he U niversity o f Y ork h as b een
T EESS IDE
EA ST R .T ees
. • R E sk
•N or th
•
T H IRSK
Y ORKSH IRE
WH ITBY .
Y o rk M oo rs
.
• • • • : ••.
R .Swa le
.
" • • • •
•.
S CAR B OROUGH
V a le o f P i cke r ing . . -• -. •• .MALTON + -WHARRAM L E S TREET
V a le o f
R. Ure
Y ork
WOLDS
B R IDL IN GTON
d i D RI FF IELD
Y ORK R. N idd R . O use
R . Whar f e
R .Hu l l
H o ldemess
R .De rwen t L EEDS
H ULL
R .A i r e H UMBER 0
F igure 8 .1
1 0
KMS
5 0
E ast Y orkshire
1 23
MALTON MALTON F ORT r 1
AND
WHARRA M
N or ton ••••
A
9 0 19A 1 . V . 3P .A9 .
. . . . . .•
S e t tr ing ton
" P og o
N o r th G r ims ton R OMAN F Z OAD . 4 1
•
•
ong ton
D ugg leby
B i rdsa l l
WHARRAM L E STREET
• Wha r ram G range • Wha r ram P ercy
B u rda le
• V ILLA
0 F igure 8 .2
A BU ILD ING
0
P OTTERY
K ILN
1 0
KMS
R oman v illas a nd r oads i n t he n eighbourhood o f M alton
i nvolved u nder t he d irection o f S teve R oskams, J ulian R ichards a nd m yself . A nother i mportant d evelopment h as b een t he e xtension o f t he r esearch p roject i nto n eighbouring t ownships o f W harram P ercy a nd i nto t he p arish o f W harram L e S treet ( Hayfield 1 980, H ayfield t his v olume, R ahtz e t a l 1 986). I n t his w ider a rea, H ayfield, b y a c ombination o f a erial s urvey, f ieldwalking a nd l imited e xcavation, . has l ocated a n umber o f s ettlements: t wo v illas, a nd m ore m inor ' farmsteads ' a nd ' villages'. H e h as c onsidered t heir r elationship t o o ther l andscape d ata, s uch a s t he t opography a nd s catters o f R oman m aterial, t hese a spects a re d iscussed b y h im i n d etail e lsewhere i n t his v olume. T he t wo v illas, W harram L e S treet a nd W harram G range ( Figure 8 .3), a re c learly i mportant c omponents o f t he l ocal l andscape. T hey h ave b een s ubjected t o a erial s urvey, i ntensive f ieldwalking b y H ayfield, g eophysical s urvey o f h igh r esolution b y A ndrew D avid o f H BMC, a nd l imited e xcavation ( 25 m etres i n e ach c ase) b y H ayfield a nd m yself ( Rahtz e t a l 1 986).
1 24
F igure 8 .3
T he W harram G range a nd W harram L e S treet R oman v illas
T he b ackground d ata f or t he t wo v illas i s d iscussed b y H ayfield ( this v olume). F or t he c ontext o f t his p aper i t w ill b e s ufficient t o s ay t hat w hile t here i s s ome p rehistoric a nd e arlier R oman o ccupation o n b oth s ites, m ost o f t he e vidence i n e ach c ase i s o f t he l ater R oman p eriod ( from t he l ater t hird c entury o nwards). T he f inds i nclude b oth C rambeck a nd H untcliff p ottery, c onventionally a mong t he l atest R oman c eramics i n t he a rea, a nd C onstantinian a nd V alentinian c oins. B oth v illas w ere o f h igh s tatus w ith m osaics a nd o ther f inds, a nd h ad e xtensive t rading c ontacts w ith G aul, S pain, p ossibly I taly, a nd o ther p arts o f E ngland. I n H urst's v iew t he v illas m ay b e ' either t he c entres o f e states f ormed t o p rovide p roduce f or t he p opulation o f
1 25
t rapezo ida l e nc losure
NORTH MANOR • • ••
• .. . . . . • •
• •
•• •
• • •
• •
• • • •• •
p lan
. .. . . ..
• •
•
s ee e n larged
• • . . • •
•
•
:
?ma jo r V . b u ild ing
•
• •
h o l low way s tream
( church , a rea )
•
a reas o f R oman o ccupa t ion
R oman Wharram P ercy s pr ing
• 1 00
1 — tH 0
metres
7 00
AFTER HURST 1 984
F igure 8 .4
R oman s ettlement i n W harram P ercy m edieval v illage
12 6
M alton, o r t he c ountry h ouses o f M alton o fficials ' ( Hurst 1 984: 8 1), t hough b oth m ay h ave b een o n n uclei o f e arlier o rigin a nd p erpetuating a spects o f e arlier f unctions. A s e state c entres, t hey w ill h ave h ad d iscrete b oundaries, d efining r esource a reas w hich m ay h ave h ad e arlier i dentities, t he b oundaries a nd p ossibly t he e states m ay h ave s urvived m ajor p olitical, s ocial o r e conomic c hanges i n t he f ifth s ixth c enturies A D. A t W harram P ercy i tself ( Figure 8 .4) t here a re a t l east f our o r f ive R oman ' settlement u nits ' o ther t han t he p ossible ' villa ' a rea i n t he N orth M anor c omplex, t o b e d iscussed m ore f ully b elow . T he t rapezoidal e nclosure i n t he n orthwest c orner w as s hown t o h ave d itches 4 .6 m etres w ide a nd 1 .8 m etres d eep. O ther e nclosures, p ossibly f ields o r s tock-enclosures, h ave b een d efined b oth b y e xcavation a nd b y g eophysical s urvey i n 1 984-1985. O n t he l ower t errace, e ither s ide o f t he l ater c hurch, m ore R oman f eatures w ere f ound i n e xcavation, e xtending f or a h undred m etres a long t he t errace. T hese a re c lose t o t he s tream, a nd m ay b e a s eparate f arm c omplex. S everal o f t he d itches o n t he p lateau u nderlie m edieval b oundary e arthworks, m uch o f t he l ayout n ow r epresented b y t he m edieval v illage e arthworks c learly o riginated i n R oman t imes, i f n ot e arlier. R oman p ottery, c oins a nd o ther f inds h ave b een f ound i n s everal o ther a reas ( Hurst 1 984: 7 8-81, f igure 1 ). T he R oman f eatures i n t he v illage a re f urther d iscussed b y H ayfield ( this v olume). I n t he N orth M anor ( Figure 8 .5), a rea s tudents h as r ecovered d etails o f m any R oman b elieved t o b e a ssociated w ith a v illa o f t he T hese d id, h owever, o verlie a n i mportant I ron A ge
e xcavation b y Y ork f eatures w hich a re l ate R oman p eriod. n ucleus.
T he p rincipal f eature h ere i s ah ollow w ay, a z one o f l inear m ovem ent, w hich h ad i ts o rigins i n p rehistoric t imes. I n t he R oman p eriod t his w as p robably a n i mportant r oute f rom t he v alley u p o ver t he h ill t o M alton. A s inuous w orn p athway c omes u p o ut o f t his o n i ts n orth s ide a nd p asses t hrough a g ap i n a d itched e nclosure i nto e nclosures o r f ields. A ssociated w ith t hese e nclosures a re m inor t imber b uildings, m etalled s urfaces a nd o ther f eatures, a nd a lso n eonatal b urials. C lose t o t he d itches a nd p aths a re d ense a reas o f d ark ' occupation ' s oil, w hich h ave y ielded c oins d own t o t he l ate f ourth c entury, p ottery i ncluding H untcliff-type w ares, m etal a nd j et f inds, a nd s everal p robable t esserae. T he ' sinuous h ollow p ath ' r ising u p o ut o f t he h ollow w ay h ad o nly l ate R oman p ottery i n i ts s hallow f illing, i ncluding a n u nabraded h and-sized r im s herd o f H untcliff w are. T he s ignificance o f t hese w ill b e f urther d iscussed b elow. O n t he s outh s ide o f t he h ollow w ay i s a nother d itched e nclosure. T his i s o verlaid b y a s tone-based o ven o r f urnace, c onventionally a ' corn-drier ', b ut p ossibly f or m alting o r s ome o ther p urpose. T his i s i n t wo p hases, a T -shaped e xample b eing a dapted i nto a m ulti-flued s tructure. I n s tones.
t he w alls o f b oth p hases w ere i ncorporated m any l arge d ressed T hese i ncluded p arts o f a t hreshold, w ith s ockets a nd b olt-
1 27
F igure 8 .5
R oman & e arly A nglo-Saxon f eatures o n t he N orth M anor s ite
g rooves. T he s tones a re c learly r eused f rom a m ajor s tone b uilding o f ' villa ' s tatus. W hile t hey m ay h ave b een b rought 1 o r 2 k ilometres f rom e ither o f t he t wo v illas d iscussed a bove, i t i s c urrently b elieved ( 1988) t hat a t hird v illa a waits d iscovery. T HE F IFTH C ENTURY T here i s v ery l ittle m aterial f rom a ny o f t hese s ites w hich c an b e d ated t o t he f ifth c entury; t his ' ultimate R oman ' o r ' sub-Roman ' p hase ( the c hoice o f n ame d epends o n o ne 's p reconceptions) i s d ifficult t o r ecognise. T he l atest f inds f rom a ll s ites a re V alentinian c oins a nd t he l ater C rambeck a nd H untcliff-type w ares. I t i s n ot a t p resent k nown h ow l ong c eramic m anufacture ( in Y orkshire o r e lsewhere) o utlived t he c essation o f i mport o r c irculation o f c oinage; t he p ots t hemselves m ust h ave h ad a r esidual l ife, o f d ecades o r l onger ( Rahtz 1 985: 11-113). M y o wn b elief i s t hat t he m aterial c ulture s urviving f or a rchaeology f rom a c ontext o f, s ay, A D 4 75 w ill
1 28
n ot b e e ssentially d ifferent f rom w hat o ne w ould e xpect t o b e a ssociated w ith t he s ame s ite a round A D 4 00. T he t ime-span b etween t he t wo d ates c an b e a ssessed o nly i n t erms o f s tratigraphic, s tructural, a nd s tatistical c hanges f ollowing o n t ermini p ost q uem g iven b y l ate f ourth c entury c oinage. T o s um u p, l ater f ifth c entury c ontexts h ave u ndoubtedly b een e xposed i n e xcavation, b ut h ave b een a scribed t o t he l ater f ourth o r e arly f ifth c entury b ecause o f t he l ack o f a ny r ecognisable i nnovation i n a ny a spect o f m aterial c ulture i n t he f ifth c entury, a nd t he c ontinued u se o f t he m assive a ssemblages o f p ottery a nd o ther g oods w hich h ad b een s o p rolific a round A D 4 00. T here a re v ery f ew f inds a t W harram f or w hich a f ifth c entury d ate o f m anufacture c ould e ven b e s uggested. A t W harram G range v illa, s ome o rganic-tempered s herds c ould b e ' post-Roman, p re-Saxon ' ( Hayfield 1 986: s ection 2 6.10.6). T hey a re, h owever, d eeply s tratified a nd w ould i mply a h igh r esiduality a mong t he a ssociated h ard-fired ' late R oman ' c eramics, i f i ndeed t hey w ere n ot p re-Roman ! T here a re o ther h andmade f abrics i n p loughsoil w hich m ay b e s ub-Roman o r m ay b e ' Anglo-Saxon '. C ertainly, i n a rchaeological t erms, t he c eramic s equence w elld efined i n l ate R oman t imes e ventually m erged w ith, o r w as r eplaced b y, a r ange o f h andmade f abrics b y a bout A D 6 00. W hether t his c hange w as d ue t o G ermanic i mmigration, a s c onventionally b elieved, o r t o o ther f actors, i s am atter o f c ontinuing d ebate. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat w hen t he c eramic s equence i n e ast Y orks hire i s f ully d efined, s tatistical v ariation w ill b e f ound i n s tratified s equences f rom t he l ate f ourth c entury o nwards; o r t hat s cientific m ethods m ay h elp t o d ifferentiate i n p articular b etween t he a pparently h omogeneous r ange o f c oarse g ritty f abrics w hich a re s o c haracteristic o f t he a rea a nd b e a ble t o s uggest c hronological d ifferences. T hermoluminescence ( hereafter I L) d ating m ay b e o f u se h ere. T here a re s ome T L d ates w hich c entre i n t he f ifth c entury f rom W harram a lready, b ut t hese c annot b e r elied o n i n t he p resent s tate o f T L r esearch, w here t he p lus a nd m inus d eviations a re s o w ide. S tatistical c hanges m ay a lso b e d iscernible i n f aunal a ssemblages, o r i ndeed i n a ny a ssociated e nvironmental e vidence, s uch a s d endrochronological, p ollen o r m olluscan s equences. T he m ain p roblem i s f inding s ites ( or a reas w ithin s ites) w here s tratigraphic s equences a re c learly d efined a nd v ariegated, a nd w hich c an b e s hown t o s pan t he p eriod b etween t he f ounth a nd s ixth/seventh c enturies. A n e xample w ould b e a l arge d itch d ug i n t he l ate f ourth c entury, w hich g radually f illed u p i n a v ariegated w ay, i n a n a rea w hich w as c ontinuously o ccupied b y h umans; i n t he u pper s ilting o f w hich w as f inally d ug a l ate s ixth c entury g rave, f irmly d ated b y a ssociated g rave-goods. T HE E ND O F R OMAN W HARRAM P ERCY,
O R C ONTINUITY?
I t i s p ossible t o d iscuss t he ' end ' o f R oman W harram P ercy i n t he c ontext o f t wo s ets o f c ontemporary p erceptions, e ither t hose o f t he p ost-fourth c entury i nhabitants o f t he a rea, o r t hose o f p resent-day a rchaeologists. F or t he f ormer, t he e nd w ould h ave b een w hen t he i nstitutions a nd m aterial c ulture t hat t ypified l ife i n e ast Y orkshire i n ( say) C onstantinian t imes h ad l argely d isappeared, t he ' end o f
1 29
c ivilised l ife a s t hey k new i t'. T o s ome a rchaeologists, n otably t hose w ith i nterests p redominantly i n t he R oman e mpire, v iewing t he e vidence f rom a n i mperialist/colonialist s tandpoint, t he c essation o f t hese c omponents w ill c oincide w ith a d ecline i n t heir i nterest. F or t he s tudent o f p rocess, h owever, t he c hanges f rom p rehistoric t o R oman, a nd f rom R oman t o p ost-Roman, m ay a ppear o f f undamental i nterest; f ar m ore p erhaps t han c omparable s tates o f r elative s tasis . L ocal c ase-studies, s uch a s t hat o f t he W harram a rea, m ay p rovide d ata o f w ider c ross-cultural o r d iachronic i nterest ( Rahtz 1 982). T he d ebate m ay b e e xpressed i n t erms o f ' continuity' o r ' discontinuity' i n r elation t o s pecific a spects o f t he e nvironment a nd s ociety. I n t he p resent s tate o f t he a rchaeology o f t his p eriod, t he d ata a re i nsufficient f or f irm c onclusions t o b e d rawn. T hey a re, h owever, u nlikely t o b e f orthcoming u nless t he d ata r elevant t o t he d ebate c an b e d efined. T he w ays i n w hich s uch d ata w ould b e r ecovered b y d ifferent s trategies o f r esearch, a nd h ow t hey c ould b e r ecognised i n a rchaeological t erms, m ust b e e stablished. S uch p ossibilities c an b e s uggested b y g enerating i maginary d atas ets, w hich c an t hen b e i nterrogated ( Rahtz 1 988: e specially f igures 1 -4). I n t his w ay, t he r elevance o f o ur r eal d ata c an b e a ssessed o r s crutinised i n t he m ost f ruitful w ay. C ontinuity i s m uch d iscussed i n m odern a rchaeology. E xpressions o f t his t o b e e xpected a nd t ested a re i ndicated i n F igure 8 .6. C ontinuity i s c urrently t hought o f a s c ontinuous e xploitation o f r esources i n a g iven a rea, r anging f rom t he u se o f a s ingle f ield o r h ouse t hrough t o t hat o f m ajor s ectors o f B ritain. I n t he l atter c ase, t he d iscussion t ends t o c entre o n e thnic, p olitical o r e conomic f actors r ather t han o n r esource e xploitation. C ontinuity i s c onsidered i n r elation t o t he b asic l andscape a nd e nvironment; t o t erritorial b oundaries, o f f ield, f arm, v illage o r k ingdom; t o r outes o f c ommunication; t o t he s ocial o r p olitical e ntity o f r ural a nd u rban s ettlements; t o c emeteries a nd b urial p ractice; a nd t o a rtefacts w hether t hey b e m ajor i tems s uch a s b uildings, o r m inor o nes s uch a s p ottery. D ebate h as t ended t o p olarise t he d ifference b etween f unctional c ontinuity, i n w hich t here i s d emonstrably n o b reak i n t he l ife o f t hese c omponents ( even i f e xploitation i s b y s uccessive g roups o f p eople), a nd e thnic c ontinuity, i n w hich f unction i s a ssociated w ith t he s ame p eople, g eneration a fter g eneration, w hether c alled I ron A ge, R oman, o r A nglo-Saxon. C ontinuity i mplies t hat t here i s n o m ajor h iatus i n t he t opic u nder c onsideration, s uch a s t he t otal a bandonment o f at ract o f l and a nd i ts r eversion t o a ' natural s tate'. T his d oes n ot i mply a n a bsence o f c hange: c ontinuity m ay i ncorporate g radual t echnological c hanges, o r e ven s ome s o d ynamic a nd s udden t hat t hey m ay a ppear t o b e t he r esult o f e xternal i nfluence a nd d evelopment o ther t han i nternal. I n p ost-Roman c ontexts, w e a re c oncerned t o d etermine w hat m ay h ave s urvived t he w reck o f R ome, a nd h ow t his m ay h ave a ffected A ngloS axon s ettlement. A t W harram, o ur m ajor c oncern i s p erhaps t he e xtent t o w hich t here w as p olitical o r s ocial a narchy, a nd w hether t here w as a ny m ajor r eallocation o r r eordering o f l and u nits; o r c hanges i n t echnology o r t he s ize a nd a gency o f t he c reaming-off o f e conomic s urplus.
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MODES
O F
C ONT INU ITY
STAT IC
L AND USE
ENV IRONMENTALLY DETERM INED
EXPLO ITAT ION CHANG ING
ENV IRONMENT
/ CEMETERY
AGENTS OF CHANGE
?p ropor t ion
SA ME S ITE STAT IC SA ME L OCAL AREA
BOUNDAR IES
M ICROSH IFT
C ONT INU ITY OF S ITE
I
S LO W CHANGE
FUNCT ION
SH IFT T O NE W S ITE
GRADUAL CHANGE SYSTEMS COLLAPSE catas trophe t heory
ARCHAEOLOG ICAL EV IDENCE
' ? FAIL ED'
MACROSH IFT
TERR ITOR IAL UN IT
URBAN SETTLEMENT
I NTRUDERS M IXED
CONTROL OF
RURAL SETTLEMENT
I ND IGENES
EVOLUT IONARY
—
SPAT IAL RELAT IONSH IPS
FAIL ED
'
SOC IAL- ? - I DEOLOG ICAL
I NTERNALLY T R IGGERED
COMMUN ICAT IONS
o r
T RANSPORT
EXTERNAL FORCES
IROAD IR IVER MAR INE
S ITES BU ILD INGS
'
MATER IAL CULTURE SERIAT ION EXPLO ITAT ION P ATTERN
'7
SUDDEN CHANGE
EVOLUT IONARY
?SOC IAL
I NTERRUPTED
I
T ECHNOLOGY
e tc .
' INNOVAT ION STAGNAT ION
R ITUAL ANTHROPOGEN IC
ENV IRONMENTAL CHANGE
F igure 8 .6
MOD IF ICAT ION
' NATURAL'
M odes o f c ontinuity
T HE S IXTH A ND S EVENTH C ENTURIES I n t he w ider a rea o f t he p arish s urvey, ' Anglo-Saxon' f inds a re s parse c ompared w ith t hose o f R oman d ate, t his i s h owever, a t l east p artly d ue t o t he l ater p ottery b eing s ofter a nd m ore f riable, a nd t hus l ess l ikely t o s urvive p loughing. A t t he l ower l evel o f R oman ' farmstead ' s ettlements, ' Anglo-Saxon ' p ottery h as b een f ound i n f ieldwalking a t W harram G range C rossroads f armstead, a nd s ome c ropmarks i n t his a rea m ight b e p ost-Roman ( Hayfield t his v olume). S imilar m aterial h as a lso b een f ound a t B urdale T unnel T op f armstead, a t t he ' village ' s ite o f B urdale t he c eramic s equence b egins i n p reR oman t imes. H ayfield b elieves t hat t he R oman a nd e arlier ' landscape w as t o s urvive, l ittle c hanged i n f orm a t l east, i nto t he m iddle S axon p eriod '.
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O f t he t wo v illa s ites, o nly W harram G range y ielded ' Anglo-Saxon ' p ottery, l argely c onfined h owever t o t he p loughsoil; t here w as a lso s ome f rom o ne e xcavated c utting. ' The l arge d eposits o f d emolition m aterial w ere h owever r elatively c lean .. s uggesting p erhaps d eliberate d emolition a nd s alvage. T hese f ew S axon s herds m ay n ot r epresent s ettlement h abitation b ut r ather, t he o ccupational d ebris f rom a p rogramme o f s tone r obbing f rom t he s ite; t he p otential o f s andstone w alling m aterial, e ven i f o nly r oughly d ressed, w ould s urely n ot h ave b een l ost o n t he s urviving l ocal i nhabitants' ( Hayfield 1 986: s ection 2 7.3). A part f rom t his p ossible e vidence o f c ontinuing u se o f R oman s ites, ' Anglo-Saxon ' p ottery h as a lso b een f ound i n i solated l ocations w here R oman p ottery h as n ot o ccurred, p erhaps p ointing t o s ome e lement o f s ettlement s hift ( Hurst 1 984: 8 2); o r i t m ay d erive f rom m anuring. A t W harram L e S treet v illa s ite t here i s n othing d atable b etween t he f ourth a nd t he t hirteenth c enturies A D . Y et, p aradoxically, i t i s t his w hich s urvived a s a ' settlement p lace ', a s t he p resent ( shrunken) v illage, t hough W harram G range m ay h ave r etained i ts ' estate' i dentity a s p art o f a m onastic g range ( Rahtz e t a l 1 986: s ection 3 8). H ayfield 's w ork o n t he a rea h as o f n ecessity c oncentrated o n s ettlement s ites. T he m ajor e vidence f or s ixth-seventh c entury s ettlement i s s till h owever t hat o f c emeteries; a nd o f i solated b urials s uch a s t hose i nserted i nto p rehistoric b arrows. T hese g raves a re c onventionally r egarded a s t hose o f A nglo-Saxon G ermanic i mmigrants ( a v iew r ecently r einforced b y W elch 1 985), t hough i t m ay b e s afer i n t he p resent s tate o f k nowledge t o u se c hronological a nd l ocational l abels r ather t han e thnic o nes ( for e xample, e ast Y orkshire o r s ixth c entury). T he c emeteries o f t his p eriod i n t he a rea h ave n ot u nfortunately b een e xcavated i n m odern t imes. T he n earest c emetery t o b e i nvestigated w ith t he r esources o f c ontemporary a rchaeology i s t hat c urrently b eing d ug b y D ominic P owlesland a t W est H eslerton, b elow t he n orthern s carp o f t he W olds. T he e arlier d ata f or t he W harram a rea h ave h owever r ecently b een c ollated a nd r e-evaluated b y L aurel N ilsen ( 1985). A t W harram P ercy v illage i tself t here i s e arlier S axon p ottery f rom s everal l ocations, a lmost e xclusively f rom t he p lateau a rea, f inds o f t his p eriod b eing s urprisingly r are i n t he l ower t errace a rea b y t he s tream, w here t he l ater c hurch s tood. T he p rincipal s ixth-seventh c entury e vidence i s a ll f rom t he n orthern p art o f t he p lateau, i n t he N orth M anor a rea. T wo s unkenf eatured b uildings o r G rubenhäuser ( hereafter S FB) w ere f ound i n o ur a rea e xcavation ( Figure 8 .5). T hey c onsisted o f s hallow c ut-away a reas o f c haracteristic s ize a nd s hape, w ith a p osthole a t e ach e nd. A p rimary d eposit a t t he b ase o f t he e astern o ne y ielded a s ixth c entury i ron s trike-a-light a nd a c oprolite, p ossibly o f a d og ( provisional i dentifications r espectively b y T ania D ickinson a nd A ndrew J ones). I n t he s econdary ( post-abandonment) f ill w ere n umerous a nimal b ones, a d ouble-ended b one s poon, s everal d ozen s herds o f s ixth o r s eventh c entury d ate, a nd s ome o f R oman t ypes. S imilar m aterial
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c ame f rom t he o ther S FB. T he p roblems o f t he d erivation o f s uch s econdary f ills o f S FB a re w ell k nown b ut s till n ot f ully a ppreciated, t hough i t i s t en y ears s ince t he p rinciples o n w hich t hey m ay b e a ssessed w ere l aid d own ( Rahtz 1 976). A n a dmixture i ncluding R oman p ottery i n t hese f ills c annot i n t his c ase b e t aken a s e vidence o f c ontinuity o r ' acculturation '. T he S FBs a re b oth c ut t hrough l ate R oman ' occupation l evels ' ( see a bove) s o i t w ould n ot b e s urprising i f s ome R oman s herds f ound t heir w ay i nto t he s econdary f ills. T o m ake a p roper e valuation o f t he s ignificance o f R oman p ottery i n S FB f ills ( usually r egarded a s ' residual' w ithout d iscussion), o ne n eeds t o f ind a n S FB i n a n a rea w here t here i s n o R oman p ottery a round t he e dges. T he i mportant f act a bout t hese t wo S FBs i s, h owever, t hat b oth a re c ut i nto t he m ajor h ollow w ay o f p rehistoric a nd R oman d ate ( Figure 8 .5). T his i s a f eature w hich h ad a l ife o f s everal c enturies, w as a d ominant f eature o f t he l ocal t opography, a n i mportant r oute o f c ommunication, a nd b ecame s o a gain i n t he m edieval p eriod. T he t rack l ed t o M alton, a nd i ts d isuse m ay b e a ssociated w ith t he a bandonment o f t he f ort t here a nd a ny a ssociated v icus o r m arkets. T he b uilding o f t hese t wo s tructures i n t he h ollow w ay i s p ositive a nd d ramatic e vidence o f c hange o f u se o f t he a rea w ith p ossibly f ar-reaching i mplications c oncerning m ovement z ones o f p ersons a nd a nimals, l and m anagement, b oundary r ights, a nd o ther f undamental a spects o f t he W harram P ercy s ettlement a nd e conomic s ubsystems. T he c hange o f l ocal m ovement p atterns i s a lso s hown b y t he a bandonment o f t he ' sinuous h ollow p ath ' l eading u p o ut o f t he m ajor h ollow w ay t o p ass t hrough a g ap b etween t wo l ate R oman d itch s egments ( see a bove, a nd F igure 8 .5). I n t his, a s w e h ave a lready s een, t here w ere n o p ost-Roman s herds, b ut t here w as a l arge ' late ' R oman o ne, h inting a t a bandonment o f t he p ath w hile H untcliff c eramics w ere s till i n c urrent u se. T hese s tructural, s tratigraphic a nd c eramic r elationships a re n ot i n t hemselves e vidence s ubstantial e nough t o b ear t he w eight o f m ajor h ypotheses c oncerning c ontinuity a nd c hange i n t he W harram l andscape. B ut i t i s e vidence o f t his k ind, w hich, i f r epeated i n n umerous a nd p recisely-recorded c ontexts, c ould b e p ersuasive i n c onvincing u s o f t he n ature o f c hange b etween t he f ourth a nd e ighth c enturies i n t his a rea. T HE E IGHTH C ENTURY A ND L ATER F or l ater c enturies t he a rchaeological e vidence f or s ettled o ccupation o f W harram i s m uch m ore s ubstantial. M iddle S axon p ottery i s p resent a mong t he f ieldwalking m aterial i n t he p arish s urvey, b ut i t i s f rom r ecent e xcavation a t W harram P ercy i tself t hat t he b est e vidence h as c ome. I n t he s econdary f ill o f a t hird S FB i n t he e xtreme n ortheast c orner o f t he s ite w ere o ver t wo h undred s herds o f m iddle S axon
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p ottery. S ignificantly t his i ncluded a s herd o f t he r are T ating w are, i mported f rom n orthwest E urope; a nd a nother i mport f rom n orthern F rance. T hese f inds s uggest t hat b y t he e ighth c entury s ome a rea o f W harram P ercy w as a lready o f h igh s tatus. A s ixth c entury c omb a nd l ate R oman s herds f rom t his a ssemblage w arn o f t he p roblems o f r esiduality. I n t he a rea o f t he S outh M anor t here i s a lso e vidence f rom r ecent e xcavations o f a m ajor n ucleus o f t his p eriod, w ith o ver a t housand s herds a ssociated w ith a d itch, h earth a nd p ost-holes o f a s mithy a gain a h igh s tatus a ttribute. T he t hird m iddle ( or l ate) S axon e lement a t W harram i s t he m ill. T his i s n ear t he c hurch, c lose t o t he s pring. T he a rchaeological e vidence i s i ndirect, c onsisting o f w attle r evetments f or m illpond d ams. F ragments o f m illstones w ere a lso f ound, t ogether w ith c arbonised g rain a nd b oth p laster a nd f urniture b eetles. T he m ill i s a gain w hat s hould b e a ssociated w ith a h igh s tatus s ite. A fter t he N orman C onquest, t he a rchaeology o f W harram c an b e s upplemented f rom w ritten s ources. T wo m anors c an n ow b e l inked t o n amed f amilies. A t b oth m anor s ites a rchaeology h as s hown t he p resence o f s tone b uildings a nd o ther m ajor f eatures. T he h ollow w ay o n t he N orth M anor s ite c ame b ack i nto u se, e choing i ts f ormer p rehistoric a nd R oman f unction a s a n a ccess r oute. S ucceeding c enturies s aw t he l aying-out o f a p lanned v illage s ettlement, a gain e choing e arly R oman p atterns. C ONCLUSION A rchaeology i s b etter a t d efining p hases o f c omparative s tasis r ather t han a ntistasis . W ere W harram P ercy i tself t o b e e xcavated o n a l arge s cale ( even a fter 3 5 y ears, o nly f our p er c ent h as b een d ug), a nd w ere t here t o b e e xtensive e xcavation o f o ther s ites i n t he t wo p arishes, w e m ight h ope t o h ave a r elatively c omplete p icture o f t he p arish o f W harram i n ( say) t he l ate I ron A ge, t he l ate R oman p eriod, t he e ighth a nd n inth c enturies A D, a nd o f c ourse t he m edieval v illage, i ts m anors a nd i ts o utlying t ownships. I t i s f or t he l ater, h istorical, p eriod t hat o ur u nderstanding i s g reatest. T his i s p artly b ecause o f t he a vailability o f w ritten s ources, a nd p artly b ecause t he l andscape s till e xhibits f ossil r emnants o f m any m edieval b uildings a nd o ther f eatures, r emarkably p reserved b y t he e xigencies o f l ater l and-use. I t i s f or t he p eriods o f c hange, n otably f or t hat d iscussed i n t his p aper - t he t ransition f rom R oman t o A nglo-Saxon W harram - t hat u nderstanding i s l ikely t o r emain s ketchy, b oth i n t erms o f m aterial e vidence, a nd i n o ur a bility t o i nterpret t his. T he b est w e c an d o i s t o p ostulate v arious s cenarios a nd t he e vidence r elevant t o t hem, a s d iscussed a bove, a nd t hen l ook f or t he e vidence, o r a t l east b e a lert t o i ts r ecognition w hen i t a ppears. U nfortunately, i n t he p resent c limate o f o pinion t he W h vram R esearch P roject i s i n i ts f inal p hase, c oncerned m ore w ith p ublication o f t he d ata-sets a lready r ecovered f rom t he g round t han w ith a n ew p rogramme o f l arge s cale e xcavation. I t m ay b e l eft t o a f uture g eneration t o r econsider t he i deas p ut f orward i n t his p aper.
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CO I NS A ND W E IG HTS M ETAL- Bronze F IRED
I ron
L e ad
LA NDSCA PE MO RPHOLOGY
CL AY
COAL
SO IL
GLASS
FLORA
FA U NA
W ATE R SUPPLIES
BO NE
PAL AEOECOL OGY
DR IFT
SOLID GEOL OGY
GEOL OGY
CLI MATE
POTTE RY SE A FOO D
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I MPORTS CE RE MON IAL CE NTRES
M A R KETS COM MU N ICAT IO NS
T RADE/ E CONOMY
E XPORTS
S UR PL US
RELIGIO US
—REL IG ION
—
BELIE FS
M ORT UA RY
PRA C T ICE
S UB S I DIA RY b il lt ,CTLRES QUA RR Y I NG
L I ME BUR N ING
FORESTRY
COF 'F ' IC ING
TURF CUTT ING
FEED
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T ECHNOLOGY / CRAFT —
I RON l,vORK ING
H OUSE CONS TRUCT ION MILLI NG
POTT I NG
SP INN I NG
BONE WORK
W EA V ING
BACK
A
W OOD WORK
P AST L IFE WAYS/ S OC IAL H ISTORY
—
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F ARM ING — / FOOD H U NT I NG
GATHE R ING
BI R DS
F IS H FA R M I NG
S TOC K RAIS ING PLO UG H / NG
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COOK I NG H YG IENE
POSSE SS IO N S FUR NIT URE GA MES CUSTOMS M US IC
AR ISTOCRAT IC NUCLE I
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L IG H T I NG
H EALTH
PE R S O NAL CLOTH I NG
X
H EAT ING
D E MOG RA P H Y
P RE H ISTORIC RO MA N V IL LA S SAXON LORDS H I PS
TRACT IO N
M E DIEVAL
S ETTLEMENT H ISTORY
G RAI N
OTHE R FOODS
LA NDSCA PE MORP HOLOGY M ULT I PE R IO D
M ESOLJ T H IC N EOLITH IC
A REA UT ILISAT ON B RONZE AGE EA RTH WO R KS IRO N AGE RO MA N ( area ) RC IIA N ( s ite)
BO UNDA R IES A RE A S
P OS T
M A NO RS
ME D IEVAL
NÜCLE I
DA RK AGE EA RLY A NGL O - SA XO N MID DL E A NGLO- SA XON LATE
A NGLO- SA XON
M E DI E VA L L A TE
A ND
POS T M ED IE VAL
S PACE AND F UNCT ION I N MED IEVAL AND L ATER WHARRAM P ERCY GE NE RA L PEASA NT HO USES
POS T M E D IE VAL S PECIF IC
OM ISS ION
F igure 8 .7
F ROM
T H IS
TE RRACE
L AYO U T
Q UA RR IES
V ILLAGE G REE N
D IAGRAM
COTTAGE S A R EA
I MPL IES
P RO BL E M S
N O
E V IDENCE
A T
WHARRAM
PA R
1 980
S ystems o perating a t W harram P ercy
I m ay h ave g iven t he i mpression t hat t he h istory o f W harram i s t hat o f a s eries o f ' steady-state' p hases, p unctuated b y p eriods o f d rastic c hange. W hile t his i s t o s ome e xtent t rue, a nd m ay h ave b een s een t hus b y t hose w ho l ived t here, m odern a rchaeology t ends t o f avour e xplanations f or c hange b ased o n i nternal f actors r ather t han e xternal o nes. I n t he c ase o f t he t ransition d iscussed i n t his p aper, t he R oman p eriod w ould b e s een a s o ne o f a pparent s tability, b ut w as i n f act d eclining f rom i nternal c auses - a p rocess w hich m ay p erhaps b e t raced b ack t o t he l ater s econd c entury. T he A nglo-Saxon i mmigrants w ould b e s een n ot a s m ilitant c onquerors t aking o ver l and b y f orce
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f rom a d isorganised p easantry a nd w hatever t yrants m ay h ave b een i n p ower, b ut a s a r elatively s mall n umber o f G ermanic f armers w ho h ad f ound o ut, b y r eport o r v isitation, t hat e astern E ngland, i n t his c ase e astern Y orkshire, w as i n a r un-down s tate w here v igorous n ew h elp m ight h ave b een w elcome. H ope-Taylor h as s uggested t his f or B ernicia t o t he n orth, a s a r esult o f h is w ork a t Y eavering ( Hope-Taylor 1 977). S uch s light e vidence a s h as b een s et o ut i n t his p aper m ay b e i nterpreted a s p ointing t o a p eaceful i ntegration w ith t he l ocal c ommunity, s ome d ecades a fter t he d ecline o f t he s ocial a nd e conomic s ystems t hat m ust h ave b een c learly d efined i n t he f ourth c entury. W hile a ttention h as h ere b een f ocused o n a p articular p hase o f W harram 's p ast, s uch a n arrow-angle v iew w ill n ot, i n i solation, l ead t o g reater u nderstanding. T his w ill o nly c ome a bout b y v iewing W harram a s aw hole, f rom e arliest p rehistory t o t he p resent d ay, a nd l ooking a t i nterrelated a spects o f t he s ystems o perating i n t he a rea a t d ifferent t imes ( Figure 8 .7). O ne g lance a t H urst's m asterly s ummary o f t his m ulti-period d ata w ill s how h ow m uch s till r emains t o b e d one e ven t o u nderstand w hat w e h ave a lready ( Hurst 1 984).
B IBLIOGRAPHY
C lark, M K 1 935 A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire . R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 5 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. H ayfield, C 1 980 W harram P ercy P arish S urvey. I n C H ayfield ( ed) F ieldwalking a s a M ethod o f A rchaeological R esearch . L ondon: D irectorate o f A ncient M onuments a nd H istoric B uildings O ccasional P apers 2 : 2 6-33. illa 1 975-1982. H ayfield, C 1 986 W harram G range R oman V e S treet . Y ork e t a l T wo R oman V illas a t W harram L 5-28. A rchaeological P ublications 2 : s ections 1
I n PR ahtz U niversity
B 1 977 Y eavering: a n A nglo-British C entre o f E arly H ope-Taylor, D epartment o f t he E nvironment A rchaeological R eports 7 . N orthumbria . ajesty's S tationery O ffice. L ondon: H er M H urst, J G 1 984 T he W harram r esearch p roject: M edieval A rchaeology 2 8: 7 7-111.
r esults
N ilsen, L 1 985 A nglo-Saxon B urials a round U npublished M A d issertation, U niversity o f Y ork.
t o
W harram
1 983.
P ercy .
R ahtz, P A 1 976 B uildings a nd r ural s ettlements. I n D M W ilson ( ed) T he A rchaeology o f A nglo-Saxon E ngland . L ondon: M ethuen: 4 9-98. R ahtz, P A 1 982 C eltic s ociety i n S omerset A D 4 00-700. t he B oard o f C eltic S tudies 3 0: 1 76-200. R ahtz,
P A
1 985
I nvitation t o A rchaeology .
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O xford:
B ulletin o f
B lackwell.
R ahtz, P A 1 988 T he e nd o f R oman W harram P ercy. I n RF JJ ones e t a l ( eds) F irst M illennium P apers . O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports I nternational S eries 4 01: 2 95-301. R ahtz, P A , H ayfield , C a nd B ateman, J 1 986 T wo R oman V illas W harram L e S treet. Y ork U niversity A rchaeological P ublications 2 . R obinson, J F 1 978 T he A rchaeology o f M alton Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. W elch, M 1 985 R ural s ettlement p atterns i n t he A nglo-Saxon p eriods. L andscape H istory 7 : 1 3-25.
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a nd
N orton .
e arly
a nd
a t
L eeds:
m iddle
9 :
A PPROACHES T O T HE E XCAVATION A ND I NTERPRETATION O F T HE R OMANO-BRITISH L ANDSCAPE I N T HE V ALE O F P ICKERING D OMINIC P OWLESLAND
U ntil t he w ork o f t he H eslerton P arish P roject b egan i n 1 978 t he V ale o f P ickering h ad r emained a n eglected a rea i n t erms o f a rchaeological r esearch. A lthough i mportant w ork h ad b een u ndertaken a t S tar a nd F lixton C arrs d uring t he 1 950s a nd i mportant n ew w ork r eappraising t he r esults o f t hese e xcavations h ad b een b egun b y S chadla-Hall a t S eamer C arr, t his w ork w as p rimarily c oncerned w ith e arly p rehistoric d eposits ( Clark 1 954). O ther w ork i n t he a rea w as c onfined t o o bservations a nd s mall-scale e xcavations u ndertaken a t a n umber o f s ites a round t he m argins o f t he V ale b y B rewster, C lark a nd H ayes ( Brewster 1 957; C lark 1 931; H ayes 1 963). O n t he n orthern s ide o f t he V ale a t W ykeham, e xcavations u ndertaken b y t he S carborough A rchaeological S ociety u nder t he d irection o f M oore h ad i ncluded t he e xamination o f f ragments o f A nglian a nd e arlier s ettlement d eposits ( Moore 1 965). F urther A nglian f eatures h ad b een r ecorded d uring t he d evelopment o f a h ousing e state a t C rossgates, S eamer ( Pye 1 976). O ver t he l ast d ecade o ur u nderstanding o f t he a rea h as b een e nhanced b y t he l arge-scale r escue e xcavations a t H eslerton a nd b y a n a ssociated a nd i ntensive p rogramme o f a ir s urvey ( Powlesland 1 986). I n c ontrast t o t he e stablished v iew o f a m inimally u tilised l andscape w e c an n ow d emonstrate t hat t he m argins o f t he V ale s upported l arge p opulations f rom t he p rehistoric p eriod o nwards; a s ituation t hat s hould n ot h ave b een u nanticipated g iven t he n ature o f t he l andscape, i ts s oils a nd t he r ange o f d ifferent e cological z ones p resent f rom t he c entre o f t he V ale t o t he u plands o f t he N orth Y ork M oors t o t he n orth a nd t he Y orkshire W olds t o t he s outh. A lthough t he i mpetus f or t he o ngoing p rogramme o f w ork i n t he H eslerton a rea w as i nitially p rovided b y t he d iscovery a nd s ubsequent r escue e xcavation o f am ajor s ite a t C ooks Q uarry, W est H eslerton, a r esearch p roject w as q uickly e stablished t o p rovide a f ramework f or t he w ider e xamination o f t he l andscape i n t his l ittle r esearched a rea. I t w as f elt f rom t he o utset t hat a p eriodistic s tudy w ould o ffer l ittle a nd t hat w hat w as n eeded w as a b road a pproach t o e stablish t he p atterns a nd d ensity o f h uman a ctivity i n a ll p eriods a nd t he w ay i n w hich t hese h ad c hanged t hrough t ime. I f t hese b road a ims c ould b e s atisfied, t he r esults c ould b e u tilised b oth t o i nterpret t he h uman l andscape b eyond t he c onfines o f t he 1 0 k ilometre s quare o f t he s tudy a rea a nd t o p rovide a d atabase f or u se i n f ormulating m anagement p lans f or t he a rchaeological r esource i n t he a rea i n g eneral. T he a ccidental d iscovery o f t he i nitial s ite a t C ooks Q uarry a nd t he r esponse t hat w as r equired t o p reserve t his s ite i n r ecord r eveals t hat, a s a ll t oo o ften i n t he p ast, t he f ield a rchaeologist h as h ad t o r espond t o a l ack o f b asic i nformation r ather t han w ork f rom a n e stablished k nowledge b ase w hich c an h elp d etermine t hose a reas t hat c ould b enefit m ost f rom e xamination o r p reservation.
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T he l argest s ingle c ontributor t o o ur u nderstanding o f a ncient l andscapes a nd t heir e volution h as b een a ir p hotography a nd i t i s f rom t his t hat a b asic f ramework o f a ctivity i n t he e astern e nd o f t he V ale o f P ickering f rom t he l ater p rehistoric p eriod o nwards h as b een e stablished. A ir p hotography a lone, h owever, c annot o ffer a g olden s olution t o o ur l ack o f u nderstanding, u ltimately o nly i ntervention a t g round l evel t hrough s urvey a nd e xcavation c an f ill o ut t he s keleton o f c ropmark s ites, r evealing t heir f unction a nd p lace i n t he d evelopment o f t he l andscape a s aw hole. A lthough c oncerned w ith a ctivity o f a ll p eriods, t he d ate r ange o f e ach s ite m ust b e e stablished i f w e a re t o a ttempt t o u nderstand t he c hanges i n t he l andscape a nd i ts u tilisation t hrough t ime, o r t o c ompare a nd c ontrast t he e vidence f rom t his s mall a rea w ith t hat f rom o ther r egions. A round t he V ale o f P ickering, a s i n o ther a reas o f B ritain s uch a s t he m argins o f t he L incolnshire a nd C ambridgeshire F ens, e xtensive a nd f airly u niform g eomorphological z ones a re t o b e f ound, i ncluding l ight a nd w ell d rained s oils w ithin e asy a ccess o f aw ide r ange o f d iscrete a nd v ery d ifferent e nvironments a nd e cosystems, a s ituation p erfectly s uited t o p rehistoric a nd l ater s ettlement. E xcavation a nd a ir p hotography a t H eslerton h ave r evealed, n ot s urprisingly, t hat t he g eneral p attern o f p rehistoric a nd l ater l and u tilisation a nd o ccupation w ithin t his a rea i s g enerally u niform i n p attern a nd d istribution, a lthough t here a re c learly c ontrasts b etween t he d istribution o f a ctivity t o t he n orth a nd s outh o f t he R iver D erwent, t he p rimary d rainage s ystem i n t he e astern e nd o f t he V ale. A s t he a ir p hotographic r ecord h as e xpanded, a b asic p attern o f s ettlement h as e merged i n w hich o ne o f t he d ominant f eatures i s t he p resence o f a m ajor l inear s ettlement c omplex f ollowing t he 3 0 m etre c ontour o n b oth s ides o f t he V ale ( Figures 9 .1 a nd 9 .2). T he s ettlement z one, w hich m easures u p t o 5 00 m etres a cross, i s f ocused o n a p rincipal t rackway f ollowing t he c ontours o f t he l andscape a nd d efined b y s ubstantial d itches w hich h ave g iven r ise t o t he c ropmarks r ecorded f rom t he a ir. B esides t his m ajor t rackway, o thers l ink t his s ettlement z one w ith t he u pland h interlands t o t he n orth a nd s outh o f t he V ale. S mall a nd f requently o verlapping r ectangular d itched e nclosures a djacent t o t he p rincipal t rackway p rovide a m ore d etailed i ndication o f t he h igh d ensity o f t he s ettlement a ssociated w ith t hese m ajor t rackways. E xcavation b oth a t W ykeham a nd a t S herburn h as d emonstrated t hat t his l inear o r l adder s ettlement w as o ccupied f rom t he m iddle o f t he I ron A ge u ntil t he e arly A nglo-Saxon o r A nglian p eriod. I n 1 984, i n r esponse t o a n a ppeal f rom a l andowner, a s mall-scale r esearch e xcavation w as b egun a t S herburn, N orth Y orkshire. T he e xcavation, f unded b y t he c ontributions o f v olunteer m embers o f E arthwatch o f B oston, U SA, h ad m inimal i nitial o bjectives d efined n ot s o m uch b y m ajor n ational q uestions b ut i n r esponse t o t he r esults o f o ther e xcavations a nd t he a ir p hotographic w ork i n t he t en k ilometre s quare r esearch a rea o f t he H eslerton P arish P roject. T he o pportunity t o e xamine e ven a s mall s ection o f t he d ominant f eature i n t he c rop m ark r ecord w as w elcomed, s ince o nly s cattered s tray f inds d erived f rom c hance c ollections a nd a s mall q uantity o f m aterial g athered i n w alks t hrough t he a rea h ad f ailed t o d emonstrate w ith a ny p recision a nything o ther t han a g eneral R oman p resence.
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A lthough w ork i n t he H eslerton a rea h as b een i n p rogress f or a d ecade t he r escue n ature o f t he w ork h as d ictated w hich a reas h ave b een e xamined, w ith m any g eneral q uestions r egarding t he s ettlement a nd a ctivity d istribution r emaining u nanswered. A t H eslerton S ite e xcavation o f a f our h ectare ( ten a cre) a rea r evealed a w ealth o f p rehistoric a nd p ost-Roman d eposits i n a 7 50 x 1 00 m etre a rea a ligned n orth-south a nd c utting a cross t he c ontours o f t he l andscape. A lthough t wo t rackways a ctive d uring t he R oman p eriod t raversed t he s ite, t he l evel o f a ssociated a ctivity w as l imited i n s cale, r eflecting t he u tilisation o f t he a rea w ithin t he a ctive a gricultural
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l andscape o f t he l ate I ron A ge a nd R oman p eriods. D uring t he e arly I ron A ge t he s ite h ad s upported l imited o ccupation w hich h ad a pparently s hifted i ts c entre t o t he n orth d uring t he l ater I ron A ge u ntil, b y c irca 5 00 B C, t he s ettlement d istribution h ad b ecome f ocused u pon t he s ingle m ajor t rackway w hich p assed a bout 3 00 m etres t o t he n orth o f t he a rea e xcavated a t S ite 1 a nd c losely f ollowing t he 3 0 m etres c ontour. O ther t rackways, b oth m ajor a nd m inor, l inked t his r outeway, w hich p rovided a ccess t o t he V ale o f Y ork a nd t he c oast, t o t he r olling c halk h ills o f t he Y orkshire W olds a nd t o t he N orth Y orkshire M oors. T he p eaty d eposits i n t he c entre o f t he V ale a re n ot g enerally r esponsive t o a ir p hotographic p rospection a nd t hus r outes a cross t he m arshes w hich t hen e xisted a t t he c entre o f t he V ale h ave r emained d ifficult t o d efine. I t i s l ikely t hat t he m odern r outes a t S herburn a nd W est H eslerton r epresent a c ontinuation o f t hese e arly t rackways, u tilising s ome o f t he m any s light i slands i n t he c entre o f t he V ale t o p rovide a c omparatively d ry r oute. T he p rincipal f eatures o f t his s ettlement z one a re t he m any r ectangular e nclosure d itches w hich h ave p rovided t he b asis f or a n e xtensive s eries o f c ropmarks a nd c ontributed t he n ame o f ' ladder s ettlement' t o t he p henomenon. A s i s s o o ften t he c ase t he c rop m ark e vidence o nly g ives a h int a t t he c omplexity w hich l ies b eneath t he s urface. A d eposit o f b lown s and a long t he s outhern e dge o f t he V ale o f P ickering h as m eant t hat w hilst p arts o f s ome s ites h ave o ccasionally b een r emarkably w ell p reserved, o ther a reas r emain u nresponsive t o b oth a ir p hotographic a nd g eophysical s urveying t echniques. O nce e stablished, t his s ettlement z one c ontinued t o b e o ccupied t hroughout t he l ate I ron A ge a nd R oman p eriods w ithout a ny a pparent m ajor c hange i n p attern o r f ocus. T he i mpact o f t he R oman a dministration c annot b e r eadily i dentified w ithin t he a rchaeological r ecord i n t he s mall a reas e xamined. T he b roadening o f t he t rade n etwork h owever c an b e q uickly i dentified f rom t he w ealth o f c eramic e vidence a nd a s mall n umber o f c oins a nd p ieces o f m etalwork. B esides c eramics i mported f rom t he c ontinent a nd o ther p arts o f R oman B ritain, t he d evelopment o f t he K napton k iln c omplex l ocated 1 0 k ilometres t o t he w est a nd w ithin t he b road p arameters o f t his s ettlement z one i s w ell r epresented i n m aterial r ecovered f rom e xcavation a nd t hat g athered f rom f ieldwalking ( Swan 1 984: 1 09-111, 6 89). T he s heer v olume o f m aterial p resent i n t he s mall s ample a reas e xamined i mmediately d istinguishes t his s ite f rom t he o thers e xamined i n r ecent y ears i n t he a rea. B esides t he c eramics a w ealth o f f aunal e vidence s urvives, w ith a p reponderance o f c attle a nd h orse. U nusually f or a r ural s ite, v ertical s tratigraphic s equences u p t o 0 .5 m etre t hick s urvive a lthough t he s equences a re i nvariably c omplicated b y t he l arge n umbers o f d itches w hich h ave d ominated t he a reas s o f ar e xamined. T he c onstant c utting, c leaning a nd r ealignment o f t he e nclosure d itches h ad f ragmented t he s urviving s tructural r emains w hich i ncluded b oth s lot a nd s urface b uilt r oundhouses a s w ell a s p ost-built r ectangular s tructures. T he d iscovery o f t wo G rubenhäuser a nd a ssociated f eatures a nd m aterial d emonstrate t hat i n t he f inal p hase a n A nglian e lement h ad b een i ntroduced.
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A n umber o f m ortar c overed s tones i ndicate t hat t imber f ramed s tructures w ere n ot e xclusive a nd t hat m ore s ubstantial s tone b uildings m ust h ave f ormed a p art o f t he s tructural m ilieu d uring t he l ater p art o f t he R oman p eriod. R ather t han c oncentrate o n t he s tructural s equence, t he e xcavations a t S herburn h ave b een p rimarily c oncerned w ith q uestions o f s ite f unction a nd f ormation. T he s ample a reas r epresent a t iny f raction o f a v ery e xtensive s ite c omplex. I f , a s w e s hould, w e a re t o s elect p arts o f t he w hole c omplex e ither f or p reservation t hrough S cheduling o r t hrough m anagement a greements w e n eed t o d evise m ethods o f s ite a ssessment w hich w ill e nsure t hat t he a reas p ut f orward f or p reservation a re b oth r epresentative a nd w ell p reserved. A s econd o bjective w as t o r ecover d ata w hich c ould b e e xamined c omparatively w ith t hose r etrieved a t o ther s ites i n t he p roject a rea a nd p rovide a b asic s equence t o a ssist i n t he i nterpretation o f s ettlement s hift a nd c hanges i n l andscape u tilisation t hrough t ime. T he w hole c omplex w as o ccupied f or a bout a m illennium w ith a m ixed a rable e conomy d emonstrated t hrough t he f aunal r emains a nd t he p resence o f l arge n umbers o f s addle a nd r otary q uernstones. I n a ddition c raft a nd i ndustry a re r epresented b oth b y i ron w orking a nd b y t extile m anufacturing, b one w orking a nd o f c ourse b y t he p ottery m anufacturing w ith o ne m ajor c entre a t K napton t hough o thers m ay r emain t o b e d iscovered e lsewhere a long t he l ine o f t he s ettlement. I t w ould n ot, f or i nstance, b e s urprising t o f ind a s imilar p roduction c entre a t P otter B rompton u sing t he s ame r aw m aterials t hat c ontributed t o t he l ater d evelopment h ere o f am ajor m edieval p otting i ndustry. A p reliminary a ssessment s uggests t hat t he t rackways w hich f orm t he b ackbone o f t he s ettlement c omplex f unctioned a s d rove r oads a s w ell a s s imple l ines o f c ommunication. W hether t he t rackways l inking t he f en e dge s ettlements a nd t he W olds t o t he s outh i ndicate a t ranshumance e lement i n t he s tock r earing p atterns c annot a s y et b e d etermined; c ertainly t he o pen f enland t o t he n orth o f t he s ettlement w ould h ave p rovided e xtensive t racts o f f ree-range g razing a s w ould t he u ndulating l andscape o f t he W olds d ivided i nto l arge e nclosed t racts f rom a t l east t he l ate B ronze A ge o nwards. C rop, a nd i n p articular c ereal p roduction i s m ost l ikely t o h ave b een c oncentrated o n t he l ight s oils t hat e xtended f rom t he s ettlement z one t o t he f oot o f t he W olds o ver 1 500 m etres t o t he s outh, a s w as i ndicated b y t he p resence o f h aystack g ullies a nd m inor e nclosures o r f ield b oundaries a ssociated w ith t he R oman p eriod t rackways a t H eslerton S ite 1 . W ork o n t his c omplex w ould h ave t o c ontinue a t a m uch l arger s cale i f w e a re t o m easure t he i mpact o f-the e stablishment o f t he R oman m ilitary b ase a nd a ssociated m arket, v icus a nd i ndustrial c entre a t n earby M alton a nd N orton; c ertainly t his m ust h ave p rovided a n i mpetus f or s urplus p roduction. T he h igh l evel o f a ctivity a t t his s ite p rior t o t he R oman p eriod d emonstrates t hat a f lourishing e conomy w as w ell e stablished, t hough t o w hat d egree t his s upported a l arge-scale e xport e conomy c annot c urrently b e a ssessed. T he V ale o f P ickering l ies o n t he n orthern e dge o f t he a rea a ssociated w ith P arisian i nfluence, a s i s d emonstrated b y t he p resence o f a c halk f igurine o f d istinctive P arisian t ype. T rade c ontacts w ith t he B rigantian a reas f urther t o t he n orth a nd w est a re a ttested b y t he p resence b oth o f a b eaded t orc a nd a n e namelled b utton l oop. I n c ontrast t o a reas i n t he s outh a nd w est o f E ngland w here t he p re-Roman
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s ettlement f oci, w hether i n h ill f orts o r o ppida , a re e asily i dentified, t he l ack o f l arge-scale n ucleation i n e astern Y orkshire m akes e conomic a ssessment m ore d ifficult. T he s tability i ndicated b y t he l ack o f l arge-scale f ortified s ites m ay i ndicate a d ominant a nd s table P arisian h ierarchy, s omething p erhaps r eflected i n t he h igh s tatus b urials i n s quare b arrows d uring t he m iddle-late I ron A ge ( Stead 1 979). T o w hat e xtent t he c ontinued s uccess o f t he l inear s ettlements a round t he V ale o f P ickering, a nd t hose a lso i dentified f rom t he a ir, p articularly i n t he G reat W old V alley t o t he s outh, r eflects a h igh d egree o f c ontinued p olitical a utonomy c annot b e d etermined w ithout m uch m ore e xtensive r esearch; t he l imited d istribution a nd n umber o f v illas i n t he r egion a s a w hole m ust h owever b e s ignificant ( Ramm 1 978). T he e nclosure d itches, w hich a re t he d istinguishing f eature o f t he w hole o f t he s ettlement c omplex, e xhibit e vidence o f v ery f requent r ecutting o r c leaning, p articularly i n t he l atter s tages o f t he o ccupation w hen t he w ater-table m ust h ave b een v ery h igh, s omething h inted a t b oth b y ah igh d ensity o f f rog b ones i n t he u pper f ills o f t he l ater d itches a nd b y e xtensive m ineral p anning. I t i s l ikely t hat t he r ise i n t he g round w ater l evel w as a m ajor c ontributing f actor t owards t he d esertion o f t his s ettlement z one i n • f avour o f d rier m ore e levated s ites a t t he f oot o f t he W old e scarpment d uring t he f ifth c entury A D. F urther e vidence o f a n i ncrease i n r un-off , i f n ot n ecessarily r ainfall, i s i ndicated b y f looding o n t he s andy s lopes a t t he C ooks Q uarry s ite a t W est H eslerton w here s ilts a nd c lays d erived f rom a s tream e manating f rom t he f oot o f t he W olds h ad b een d eposited d uring t he R oman p eriod i n d itches c ut i nto w ell d rained s andy s oils o ver o ne h undred m etres a way f rom t he s tream i tself . A lthough a n i nitial r eaction w ould b e t o s ee t his a s a r eflection o f i ncreased r ainfall t he t rue p icture m ust b e m ore c omplex a nd a c hange i n l and u tilisation m ay h ave b een t he m ore i mportant c ontributing f actor. O n a n umber o f d ifferent o ccasions e xtensive b urning o f v egetable m atter h ad l eft t hick a sh d eposits i n t he d itches; t hese d istinctive a shy l ayers m ay s upport t he s uggestion t hat t he e nclosures p layed a v ery i mportant p art i n t he m anagement o f s tock. A lthough t he a sh d eposits w ere e xtensive i t m ust b e i mportant t hat t here w as l ittle s ign o f i ntensive b urning o n a ny o f t he g eneral s urfaces; i t i s p ossible t hat t hese d eposits m ay d erive f rom a ttempts t o c lean o ut r ancid s tock y ards b y b urning. T he e nclosures h owever c annot b e i nterpreted s olely a s s tock y ards e ither f or b reeding, r earing, o r v eterinary p urposes. S tructural e vidence, t hough g enerally f ragmented, i ndicates t hat t he s hape o f t he s ettlement w as c onstantly c hanging a s t he e nclosures w ere r edefined.. A lthough t he w hole c omplex a ppears t o h ave b een c ontinuously o ccupied t hroughout t he l ate I ron A ge a nd R oman p eriods t here w as c learly a c onsiderable a mount o f m ovement w ithin i t. I f o ne i s f orced t o p ropose a m odel f or t he s ettlement's e volution t he m ost l ikely p attern i ncorporates a d egree o f l ateral m ovement w ith e nclosures b eing u sed a s l iving a reas f or a w hile, t hen b eing t urned o ver t o s tock i n a c yclic s equence b efore r everting o nce a gain t o a s ettlement f unction. T he m ajor d itches, f requently o ver a m etre i n d epth, s eem a lmost e ntirely t o h ave b een r eplaced b y f ences s et i nto s lots c ut t hrough t he u pper d itch f ills b y t he t ime t he s ite w as d eserted. I n t he l ight
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o f t he r esults r eported f rom t he w ork u ndertaken a t W ykeham d uring t he 1 950s t he i dentification o f a n A nglian e lement i n t he e vidence f or t he l ate o ccupation a t t his s ite i s o f c onsiderable i mportance; n ot o nly a re G rubenhäuser p resent b ut a lso o ne o vate s tructure w ith f oundations b ased o n p ost p ads c omprising c halk r ubble a ppeared t o h ave c ontinued i n u se d uring t he f inal s tages o f t he o ccupation w hen A nglian p ottery i ncluding f ragments o f B uckelurne a ppears i n t he c eramic a ssemblage. B esides t he c eramic a nd s tructural e vidence a n A nglian p resence i s i ndicated b y a b one p in o f c lassic A nglian t ype. T here i s n o e vidence o n t he g round t o s uggest t hat t he i ntroduction o f t he A nglian c ultural m aterial i s a ccompanied b y a ny m ajor u pheaval t hough t he d esertion o f t he s ite o ccurs s oon a fterwards. T he i mportance o f t he A nglian e lement a nd i ts c onspicuous a ssociation w ith ' roundhouses' b oth h ere a nd a t W ykeham s hould n ot b e u nderestimated. T here a re g reat d ifficulties i nherent i n a ssigning p recise d ates t o t he l ate a nd s ub-Roman a ctivity; h owever a s ingle u ncalibrated r adio-carbon d ate o f A D 4 10 f rom o ne o f t he l atest f eatures o n t he s ite i s m ost s ignificant. T he e xcavations c urrently i n p rogress a t t he A nglian s ettlement a t W est H eslerton a re p roviding u s w ith a v ital n ew b ody o f i nformation c oncerning t he p ost-Roman s ettlement o f t he a rea. A lthough w e h ave n o e vidence t hat t he p opulation a t W est H eslerton w as d erived f rom t he S herburn s ite, p recisely c omparable a ctivity w here t he l inear s ettlement p asses t o t he n orth o f t he W est H eslerton s ite m ust b e a nticipated. M ore p recise d ating e vidence f or t he f oundation o f t his n ew s ite m ust b e f orthcoming i n t he c urrent e xcavation. W e a re f ortunate i ndeed i n t he V ale o f P ickering t o b e a ble t o d emonstrate, i f o nly i n o utline, a c omplete s equence o f s ettlement s hift f rom t he l ate B ronze A ge u ntil t he m iddle S axon p eriod. N o e vidence h as e merged d uring t he l ast d ecade o f i ntensive w ork i n t he a rea t o s uggest t hat t here a re o ther s ub-Roman o ccupation s ites w hich f all b etween t he g reat l inear s ettlement a nd t he d e n ova A nglian s ettlements o f w hich t he W est H eslerton s ite i s j ust o ne e xample. A m ean d ate f or t he d esertion o f t he l ate R oman s ites a nd t he c reation o f t hese n ew s ites m ust f all b etween c irca A D 4 50 a nd A D 5 00 i f w e a re n ot t o r un i nto s erious d ifficulties w ith t he i nterpretation o f t he f inal p hases o f o ccupation a t S herburn. C learly m uch r emains t o b e d one, t he w ork s o f ar i ndicating a venues w hich d eserve d etailed a ttention i n t he f uture. T he l inear f en e dge s ettlement s ites a nd t heir a ssociated, t hough a s y et u ndiscovered, c emeteries m ust r emain a p riority a rea f or a rchaeological e xamination i n t he f uture, o ffering, a s t hey d o a t p resent, a n a lmost u nprecedented l evel o f w ell p reserved d ata w ith r eference t o t he l ate I ron A ge a nd R oman s ettlement i n e astern Y orkshire. T he r emarkable s oil c onditions w hich p revail a long t he s outhern s ide o f t he V ale o f P ickering h ave c ontributed t o t he e xceptional s urvival o f t hese s ites b eneath a b lanket o f b lown s and. T his d eposit h as, h owever, f or t he m ost p art a lready b een s everely t runcated b y p lough d amage a nd e ach y ear f urther a reas a re b adly e roded b y c ontinued i ntensive p loughing a t b est a nd b y e xtensive s ubs oil p loughing i n s ome a reas. T he i ntegrated a nd m ulti-period a pproach t o t he e xamination o f t he a rchaeological l andscape a t H eslerton c learly o ffers m ore t han t he s ingle p rime s ite a pproach s o o ften a dopted i n t he p ast. T he s cale o f w ork r equired t o a ssess a nd i nterpret f ully t he l inear s ettlements i s c onsiderable, a s t he s mall
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s ample p artially e xamined a t S herburn h as s hown. T he f ragility o f t hese s ites i s s uch t hat s ome p art a t l east s hould b e p reserved e ither t hrough S cheduling o r t hrough s ome o ther f orm o f m anagement a greement. A ny s election o f a reas f or p reservation s hould n ot h owever b e m ade w ithout f urther s ampling a nd o pen a rea e xcavations a long t he l ine o f t he s ettlement a s aw hole. T o t he c asual r eader t he R oman p eriod f eatures a s p erhaps t he b est u nderstood o f a ll p eriods i n t he B ritish a rchaeological s equence. A m ore d etailed e xamination r eveals t hat w hilst t he R oman t own, t he v illa i n t he s outh o f E ngland a nd t he m ilitary o ccupation o f t he n orth a re c omparatively w ell u nderstood, t he l evel o f u nderstanding a nd a vailable d atabase f or t he i nterpretation o f t he R omano-British c ountryside i s i nconsistent, w ith t remendous b iases t owards p articular p arts o f t he c ountry. C ertainly e ven i n t hose a reas w here m ajor p roblems s uch a s t he r elationship b etween t he v illa ( or i ts a bsence) a nd t he c ountryside a t l arge h ave b een i nvestigated, a s tructured a pproach t owards t he r eduction i n t he n ational i mbalance i n t he R omano-British d atabase h as n ot b een a dopted, f or i nstance, s ee t he r egional s tudies i n M iles ( 1982: 1 51-402). S everal q uestions h ave a risen f rom t his s till i ncomplete w ork w hich r elate t o f ieldwork m ethods a nd a pproaches r ather t han t o t he d etailed i nterpretation o f t his h ighly c omplex s ite. T his p aper i s t hus i n p art c oncerned w ith m ethodological q uestions a rising f rom t his w ork r ather t han d etails o f t he R omano-British s ettlement o f t his a rea, s omething o thers a re b etter a ble t o p ursue. T he e xcavations a t S herburn w ere a pproached w ithin t he f ramework o f t he H eslerton P arish P roject a nd a t t he o utset i t w as d ecided t hat t he m ethods o f e xcavation a nd r ecording s hould f ollow t hose e stablished o ver a n umber o f y ears w orking o n p rehistoric a nd p ostR oman d eposits i n t he a rea. T he r esultant d atabase s hould c omplement t hat a lready g ained a nd b e r esponsive t o i nter-site c omparison. I n a m ulti-period l andscape s tudy t he e xcavator i s o bliged t o a dopt a u niform a pproach i f a nalysis i s t o t ranscend t he t raditional b ounds i mposed b y s ite t ype o r p eriod. I n s tudies i ncorporating b oth p rehistoric a nd l ater e lements t he n eed f or u niformity r aises p articular p roblems o n a ccount o f d ifferential s urvival a nd t he i nitial v olume o f t he a rchaeological r esource. I n c omparison w ith p rehistoric o r e arly m edieval s ites, s ettlements o f t he l ate I ron A ge, R oman a nd m edieval p eriods p roduce a v ery m uch l arger q uantity o f m aterial. I t i s t his d ifference i n t he q uantity o f t he m aterial r ecovered w hich h as i n t he p ast t o a l arge e xtent d efined t he m ethods u tilised o n a ny p articular t ype o f s ite. I f o ne c an a rgue f or t hree-dimensionally r ecording a ll m aterial o n a n e arly B ronze A ge s ite t he s ame a rguments m ust s tand f or a s ite o f a ny p eriod, a nd y et t he ' difficulties' i nvolved i n i mplementing s uch a s ystem h ave b een a ccepted a nd t hus c ontributed t o t he p roduction o f d ata s ets o f v ariable q uality a nd p recision. I f t he s heer v olume o f m aterial, i n p articular c eramics a nd f aunal r emains, h as d iscouraged u s f rom u tilising m ore p recise m ethods o f r ecovery, t he p oste xcavation p roblems a ssociated w ith t he l arge d ata s ets p roduced b y s ites o f t he l ate I ron A ge a nd R oman p eriods h ave m eant t hat s ites o f t his p eriod a re s een a s f ar m ore e xpensive i n t erms o f c ost f or r eturn
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t han f or t he e quivalent p rehistoric o ccupation s ite. O ver t he p ast f ive y ears a w ealth o f d ifferent s ampling s trategies h as b een a dopted t o c ircumvent t he p roduction o f t he l arge d ata s ets t hat m ay w ell t hrow i mportant n ew l ight n ot o nly o n t he p eriods c oncerned b ut a lso o n t he w hole p rocess o f s ite f unction a nd f ormation, s omething w hich m ust b e o f m ajor c oncern t o a ll e xcavators. I t i s d oubly u nfortunate t hat t he s heer v olume o f m aterial h as d iscouraged e xcavators c oncerned w ith R oman, m edieval a nd p ost-medieval s ites f rom a dopting a m ore d etailed a pproach t o r ecovery, f or i t i s w ith r eference t o t hese p eriods i n p articular t hat w e h ave t he b est u nderstanding o f t he m aterial r emains, a nd i n p articular t he c eramics, w hich o ffer g reat p otential f or d etailed a nalysis. G iven t he g enerally w ell e stablished k nowledge b ase f or t he R omano-British p eriod, w hich u nlike t hose b efore a nd a fter h as a w ell e stablished a nd d ated c eramic s equence, t he p otential r eturns f rom d etailed r ecovery m ethods s hould i n f act b e g reater t han o n s ites o f o ther p eriods. E ven a fter r emoving t he l ess w ell u nderstood n ative w ares f rom t he m aterial p roduced s o f ar a t S herburn, t he c eramic a ssemblage i s s till f ar g reater t han t hose f rom o ther s ites i n t he v icinity. I t w as n ot f ully r ealised a t t he s tart o f t he p roject t hat t his s mall e xcavation w ould b e e ither a s p roductive o r a s c omplicated a s w e n ow a ppreciate, t he c ropmarks r evealing o nly a s mall p ercentage o f t he l arger f eatures p resent. I t w as r ealised e arly i n t he p roject t hat i f w e w ere t o a ttempt t o i solate s ite f unction e ither g lobally o r a t a m acro-level, d etailed r ecording w ould b e e ssential, a nd i n t he s econd s eason a t hree-dimensional i ndividual a rtefact r ecording s ystem, u tilising a K ern E lectronic D istance M eter a nd h and-held c omputer, w as a dopted. A lthough t his w as p otentially b oth t imec onsuming a nd l abour-intensive i t w as f elt t o b e t he o nly w ay t hat w e w ould h ave a ny h ope o f u nderstanding b oth t he f lat s urfaces a nd t he f illings o f t he m any d itches. T his w ork c ould n ot h ave b een u ndertaken w ithout t he u se o f t he h and-held c omputers f or d ata c ollection i n t he f ield o r w ithout a p owerful m icro-computer f or m anagement, s torage a nd a nalysis o f t he r esultant d ata. I ndividual t hree-dimensional a rtefact r ecording i s s tandard p ractice o n m ost e arlier p rehistoric s ites, a lthough i n s ome c ases w here l arge l ithic a ssemblages a re r ecovered l ess d etailed m ethods a re o ccasionally a dopted. I ndividual a rtefact r ecording o ffers t he m aximum p otential i n s ites w ith a h igh d ensity o f m aterial. O ne a spect o f t his a pproach w hich h ad n ot b een f ully a ppreciated p rior t o t he a doption o f t his m ethod o n t he d ense d istributions a t S herburn w as t hat t he m ere p rocess o f t agging t he f indspot o f e ach a rtefact a s r ecovered m eant t hat t he d istribution o f m aterial w as i mmediately c lear, a s s urfaces w ere e xcavated. S ubtleties i n t he s tratigraphy c ould b e i dentified o n t he b asis o f f inds d istribution a lone e ven w here s oils w ere a pparently o f u niform t exture a nd c olour; s ubtle r elationships p resent i n t he v isible s tratigraphy w ere f requently e nhanced s imply t hrough a n e xamination o f t he d istribution o f t he t housands o f f inds t ags. T he t hree-dimensional r ecord i s o f c ourse j ust o ne p art o f t he d ata r ecovered; i n a ddition e ach a rtefact i s i ndividually r ecorded, u sing a s tandard r ecord f ormat t o p rovide t he g reatest p otential f or p ost-excavation a nalysis. T he r esultant d atabase c omprising t he a rtefact a nd c ontext d ata p rovides a b asis f or r econstruction a nd i nterrogation i n t he c omputer e nvironment.
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O ne o f t he p rincipal p roblems a ssociated w ith t he i nterpretation o f t he S herburn d ata h as b een t he r econstruction o f t he d itched e nclosures. T he l evel o f a ctivity h ad b een s uch t hat t here w as n o o bvious s urviving e vidence o f h edge b anks a ssociated w ith a ny o f t he d itch s egments e xamined. I f t he f unction o f t he e nclosures w as t o r estrict t he m ovement o f c attle t hen s ome s ort o f h edge o r f encing s hould h ave e xisted; a nd a lthough e vidence o f f ences s urvived w ell i n t he l ate o ccupation p hase t hese h ad r eplaced e arlier d itches r ather t han f orming a p art o f a c omposite d itch/fence b oundary. T he e vidence d erived f rom t he s nail d istribution m ay w ell b e t he s ole s urviving i ndicator o f t he p resence o f h edges; c ertainly i n o ne a rea t he s nail d istribution c ongregates a long o ne s ide o f a d itch s eries a nd n ot t he o ther. T he s nails h ave y et t o b e e xamined i n d etail b ut a p reliminary a ssessment s uggests t hat t his e vidence m ay i ndicate t he p resence o f h edges, t hus p roviding a n o pportunity f or u s t o e stablish w hich a rea c onstitutes t he i nside a nd w hich t he o utside o f a ny p articular e nclosure. T he l arge q uantities o f m aterial d erived f rom t he f illed d itches s hould e nable u s t o a ssess n ot o nly h ow t he d itches f illed i n b ut a lso w hat w as h appening i n t he a djacent a reas. P hilip B arker h as d emonstrated i n t he u rban c ontext a t W roxeter h ow d etailed r ecording o f p ebble s urfaces c an r eveal w hole n ew p hases o f o ccupation; s imilarly d etailed p lotting o f a ll m aterial c an o ffer s cholars t oday a nd i n t he f uture t he r esource r equired t o i nterpret s ite f unction i n aw ay t hat h as n ot b een p ossible i n t he p ast. W e m ay d isregard s uch a pproaches a s a ' waste o f t ime' a t o ur p eril, f or u ltimately t he e xcavator i s r esponsible s imultaneously f or t he r ecording a nd d estruction o f a ny e xcavated s ite. I f t he a rchaeology o f R omano-British r ural s ettlement i n t he V ale o f P ickering i s t o b e u nderstood t han w e s hould c ontemplate a m ajor a nd d etailed s urvey a nd e xcavation p roject. T he a rchaeological e vidence r emains a t p resent i n p art w ell p reserved, a s ituation t hat w ill n ot l ast f or e ver. T he w ork a t S herburn h as r evealed c omplexities w hich h ave m uch i n c ommon w ith d eeply s tratified u rban d eposits; o nly t hrough l arge-scale e xcavation a nd d etailed r ecording c an w e h ope t o g ain s ufficient u nderstanding t o a pproach t he m ajor q uestions w hich a rise o n a r egional b asis. T he b asic f ramework o f s ettlement e volution i n t he a rea h as b een e stablished t hrough a c ombination o f l arge-scale r escue a nd s mall-scale r esearch e xcavations. T his f ramework, h owever, d oes n ot c onstitute a f inal s tatement; o nly m uch m ore e xtensive w ork c an e stablish t he d evelopment s equence w ithin t he f en e dge s ettlement a s aw hole.
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1 0: P LUS f ; i l t C HANGE 9 O R R EFLECTIONS O N T HE R OMAN F ORTS O F Y ORKSHIRE B R H ARTLEY
S erious i nvestigation o f t he R oman f orts i n t he Y orkshire P ennines m ay b e s aid w ith f airness t o b egin w ith T homas M ay's w ork a t E islack i n 1 909 ( May 1 911). T here f ollowed t he e xcavations a t S lack ( Dodd a nd W oodward 1 922), T empleborough ( May 1 922), I lkley ( Woodward 1 925), B ainbridge ( Collingwood 1 928; D roop 1 929-1932) a nd M alton ( Corder 1 930), s ome o f t hem m ore c arefully c arried o ut a nd r ecorded t han o thers, i n t he p eriod b efore t he 1 939 w ar. I n a ddition t he w ork o n t he Y orkshire s ignal s tations ( usefully s ummarised i n C lark 1 935) a nd a t C awthorn ( Richmond 1 933) h elped t o e xpand t he p icture, a s d id i nvestigations o f f orts e lsewhere, s uch a s C astleshaw ( then i n Y orkshire: B ruton 1 908-1911), B rough-on-Noe ( Richmond 1 939), a nd P iercebridge ( Keeney 1 936; 1 941). S N M iller's w ork i n t he f ortress a t Y ork ( 1925; 1 928) a lso h ad c onsiderable i nfluence, b ut a bove a ll, t he t rend t owards a g eneral f ramework r esulting f rom I an R ichmond's f irst e ssay i n t hese m atters ( 1925) a nd f or H adrian's W all a fter t he B irdoswald w ork o f 1 929 ( Richmond a nd B irley 1 930) p rovided w hat m ay b e s een w ith h indsight a s t oo r igid a s ystem f or t he i nterpretation o f s ites e lsewhere. A p attern b ecame e stablished i n w hich A gricolan f oundation w as f ollowed b y T rajanic r ebuilding i n s tone, w ith h ere a nd t here a ctivity u nder H adrian, s ometimes a fter a p ostulated B rigantian r evolt a t t he e nd o f T rajan's r eign. T hereafter w as a p eriod o f r elative q uiet, p ossibly p unctuated b y a nother B rigantian r evolt i n t he 1 50s, b ut t he m ost s erious t rouble c ame a t t he e nd o f t he c entury a s a r esult o f C lodius A lbinus's b id f or t he E mpire. A fter a S everan r ecovery a nd r estoration, t he t hird c entury w as s een a s a p eriod o f p eace, i f n ot s tagnation, t erminated b y t he n eed f or C onstantius C hlorus t o r estore o nce m ore a fter d estruction o f s ites u nder A llectus. T hen i n t he f ourth c entury t here w as o nce m ore a m ajor e pisode o f d estruction, i n t he P icts' W ar o f A D 3 67. I n g eneral t he t heory w as t hat m ost, i f n ot a ll, o ccupied s ites s hould s how m uch t he s ame s equence o f c hanges. S ince t he l ast w ar t here h as b een a c onsiderable c hange i n a ttitude t o t he i nterpretation o f t he p eriods o bserved i n R oman f orts. O bviously t he a vailable h istorical e vidence h as t o b e t aken i nto a ccount, b ut o n t he w hole t hose c oncerned w ith i nterpreting s ites h ave t ried t o k eep t heir m inds o pen t o a ll t he p ossibilities. T rue , t here i s s ome d anger t hat t his a pproach m ay l ead t o i ndividual h istories f or s ites w hich i gnore t he w ider b ackground, b ut i n g eneral t his d ifficulty s eems s uccessfully t o h ave b een a voided. I t m ay n ow b e b est t o t hink c hronologically a bout s ome e xamples o f c hange w hich h ave e merged i n r ecent y ears. I n t he p ast t here w as o ften c onsiderable r eluctance t o a ccept p re-Agricolan, l et a lone p reF lavian, a ctivity b y t he R oman a rmy i n o ur a rea. A n h onourable e xception m ust b e m ade f or T homas M ay, w ho a cutely s potted l ong a go t hat t he f ort a t T empleborough ( or T emplebrough, a s h e i nsisted o n s pelling i t) h ad a s eries o f p ottery q uite d ifferent f rom a ny k nown e lsewhere f or Y orkshire s ites. H is d eduction t hat i t w as l ikely t o
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h ave b een f ounded b y D idius G allus i n t he m id-50s i s o ne t hat m ay n ow b e a ccepted w ith e ven h igher p robability, s ince b oth t he e arly s ite a t L ittle C hester ( Strutt's P ark) a nd t he m ore r ecently d iscovered f ort a t C hesterfield c an b e s hown t o h ave p ottery f rom t he e arly N eronian p eriod o nwards. O f o ther n orthern s ites, o nly t he v exillation f ortress a t R ossington B ridge, s outh o f D oncaster, h as a ny l ikely c laim t o p re-Flavian d ate o n h istorical g rounds, t hough a s y et u nsupported b y a rchaeological d ating. I t s hould p erhaps b e s tressed o nce m ore t hat Y ork h as n o c laim. M uch o f t he a lleged p re-Flavian p ottery a t Y ork i s t he l atest o f i ts k ind, a nd t his i s e qually t rue o f t he L yons w are a nd o f t he m arbled s amian, m ost o f w hich i s c learly F lavian. C onfirmation o f C erialis's a ctivities i n t he N orth, e ast Y orkshire a part, h as b een c uriously s low i n c oming. B rough-on-Humber n ow h as i ts f ort t o g o w ith t he e arly p ottery ( Wacher 1 969): w e c an a dd H ayton ( Johnson 1 978), a nd t hink s eriously o f S tamford B ridge a s a l ikely f ort ( Ramm 1 978: 3 4), b ut d oubts a bout t he p utative C erialian v exillation f ortress a t M alton ( Frere a nd S t J oseph 1 974: 6 -7) r emain u nresolved. A t Y ork, t oo, t he n ature o f t he f irst f ortress i s s till u ncertain. O bviously a v exillation s ite a t M alton i s l ikely t o h ave r equired o ne a t Y ork, t oo, a nd t he c onverse m ight a lso b e t rue. ( There r emains a s light p ossibility t hat p art o f t he n ew l egion s ent t o L incoln, L egio I I A diutrix , m ay h ave b een d etached.) B ut a t l east w e n ow h ave u ndoubted e vidence f or C erialian o ccupation a t D oncaster a nd C astleford, a nd a c ontemporary f ort a t T adcaster b ecomes a ll-them ore t o b e e xpected, o n t he s outh b ank o f t he W harfe, i f w e m ay p ress t he a nalogy w ith t he l ast t wo s ites. S o m uch i s c lear, b ut w e s till h ave n o f irm e vidence o f a ny f orts p lanted b y C erialis t o t he n orth o f Y ork. T he o ne d iscovered b y a erial p hotography a t W ensley h as b een c onsidered a s p otentially C erialian i n v iew o f i ts n earness t o B ainbridge, b ut i t c ould e qually w ell b e F rontinan, i f i ndeed i t w as a p re-Agricolan f oundation a t a ll. A s t he f irst s ite a t B ainbridge s eems t o h ave b een a f ortlet, t here w ould b e n o u ndue d ifficulty a bout h aving a n A gricolan f ort a t W ensley. E lsewhere ( 1971: 5 7-58) Ih ave s uggested t he p ossibility t hat F rontinus m ay h ave b een a ctive i n t he N orth a s w ell a s i n W ales. N o f urther d irect e vidence h as e merged, b ut t he m uch g reater q uantity o f p ottery n ow k nown f rom C arlisle s eems t o i ncrease t he p robability o f p re-Agricolan f oundation c onsiderably. I t i s s triking h ow c losely t he s amian m atches t he m aterial f rom t he Y orkshire C erialian f orts a nd t he F rontinan o nes i n W ales, r ather t han t he A gricolan s eries e lsewhere i n t he N orth, o r i n S cotland. I n t he P ennines t hemselves, a part f rom t he S tainmore c rossing, t here a re n o a rmy s ites w hich m ust b e p re-Agricolan n ow t hat t he t wo e arthworks a t K irklees a nd M eltham ( Toomey 1 976) h ave b een s hown t o b e I ron A ge e nclosures r ather t han C erialian f orts. W ith t heir d eletion t here i s n o e vidence t hat J ulius A gricola, w hen c ommander o f L egio X X u nder C erialis, c ampaigned w est o f t he P ennines, a n i dea s till o ccasionally m ooted. W hat h as n ot c hanged m uch s ince b efore t he l ast w ar i s o ur l ack o f d etailed k nowledge o f t he Y orkshire A gricolan f orts. I lkley a lone h as p rovided u seful i nformation f or s ome o f t he i nternal b uildings, a nd a lso i nteresting h ints o f h aste i n t he b uilding o f t he f ort ( Hartley 1 966). S lack r emains o ur b est e xample
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o f t he p lanning o f a f ort o f A gricolan d ate i n o ur a rea. E lsewhere d ating i s n ot a lways s o s ecure. A t L ease R igg, s ome 1 5 k ilometres ( nine m iles) s outhwest o f W hitby, a t erminal d ate o f a bout A D 1 20 i s c ertain, b ut t he f oundation d ate o f t he f ort c annot b e s tated p recisely. I t m ay h ave b een A gricolan, b ut i t c ould e qually b e s lightly l ater o n p resent e vidence. W hat i s n ot i n d oubt, h owever, i s t hat i t c ould n ever h ave h eld a f ull a uxiliary r egiment ( Hartley 1 982: 2 11-212) a nd p resumably a u nit w as s plit b etween i t a nd a f ort o n t he c oast, p erhaps a t W hitby, i n v iew o f t he f inds t here a nd t he p robability t hat i t w as t he m ost l ikely t erminal o f W ade's C auseway. M ention o f t he s plitting o f a uxiliary u nits s hould r emind u s t hat o ur v iews o n t he f lexibility o f t he R oman a rmy h ave h ad t o c hange c onsiderably i n r ecent y ears. A t o ne t ime w e t ended t o a ssume a utomatically t hat a l egion w as k ept t ogether u nless v exillations w ere d etached f or s pecial p urposes, a nd t hat t he s ame n ormally a pplied t o a uxiliary u nits. N ow w e r ealise t hat i n e arly d ays i n R oman B ritain l egions w ere f requently s plit p ermanently b etween s maller s ites, t he v exillation f ortresses, e ach t hought p robably t o h ave h eld a t hird o f t he u nit. W ith t he e xamples o f L ease R igg a nd t he p robable A gricolan f ortlet a t B ainbridge t o g uide u s, a nd r emembering t hat t hey i mply t wo m ore s imilar s ites, w e m ay b e m ore p repared t o w onder w hether t he s evere s hortage o f t roops w ith w hich A gricola w as f aced b y t he t ime t hat h e h ad r eached C aledonia m ay h ave l ed t o t he u se o f e ven m ore f ortlets i n t he h interland. T o p ut i t a nother w ay, p roven A gricolan o ccupation m ay n ot a lways i mply a f ull-sized f ort, o r a f ull u nit i n g arrison. O ne o f t he m ost s ignificant c hanges i n p ost-war y ears h as b een t he r ealisation t hat m any o f t he f orts i n Y orkshire w ere a bandoned e arly i n t he s econd c entury a nd n ot r eoccupied f or a c onsiderable t ime, i f a t a ll. I t i s a ssumed t hat t hey w ere e vacuated b y H adrian d uring t he b uilding a nd g radual e laboration o f h is n ew f rontier i n t he 1 20s. T hese f orts o ften h ave b urnt l ayers, o nce i nterpreted a s s igns o f aB rigantian r ebellion a t t he e nd o f T rajan's r eign ( for e xample, W oodward 1 925: 3 04), b ut i n r eality t he r esult o f d eliberate d emolition o f t he s ites b y t he a rmy. S ince t he a bandoned f orts o nly p roduce s amian f rom L a G raufesenque a nd t he T rajanic k ilns a t L es M artres-de-Veyre, a nd r arely h ave e ven t he e arliest f orms o f b lackb urnished w are, t heir t erminal d ates s hould f all b efore A D 1 25, w hen s amian f rom L ezoux a nd b lack-burnished w are w ere b oth b ecoming c ommon i n t he N orth. I n t heory i t w ould b e p ossible t o p ostulate s ome T rajanic e vacuations, b ut i n g eneral t he n ature o f t he d ating e vidence i s c losely s imilar a t m ost s ites, a nd a t p resent o nly C astleford a nd H ayton l ook l ikely c andidates f or e vacuations f alling n ear t o A D 1 00. O ur a uxiliary f orts o ffer a u seful c orrective t o t he o utmoded, b ut s till c herished, b elief t hat s uch s ites w ere r ebuilt i n m asonry, o r a t l east w ith s tone s ill-walls, u nder T rajan. N one i n Y orkshire h ad b een s o t reated b efore t he e vacuation o f t he 1 20s, e xcept p ossibly f or S lack, a nd t here t he e vidence i s b ound t o b e r egarded w ith s uspicion, e specially a s r ebuilding h ad n ot b een c ompleted a t t he t ime o f t he w ithdrawal o f t roops a bout 1 40. M uch t he s ame a pplies t o t he i dea o f t he p rovision o f aw all a round t he f ort a t M alton u nder T rajan ( Corder 1 930: 6 6). P erhaps h ere a nd t here s ome o f t he p rincipal b uildings h ad b een d ealt w ith, b ut i f s o t hey w ere e xceptions t o t he
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g eneral r ule. O f t he f orts w hich w e n ow k now t o h ave b een r etained b y H adrian, S lack a nd M elandra ( Derbyshire) w ere g iven u p e arly i n t he r eign o f A ntoninus P ius, b ut B owes w as h eld, p resumably w ith e ither B rough o r M aiden C astle a t t he w estern e nd o f t he S tainmore P ass. T hey w ere n o d oubt n eeded t o m aintain t he c hain o f c ommand f rom Y ork t o S tanwix, t he h eadquarters f ort o f t he W all. O therwise b y 1 40 t here w ere v irtually n o g arrisons i n t he P ennines o r t o t heir e ast, w here M alton, L ease R igg, H ayton, C astleford, C atterick, G reta B ridge a nd a lso, a lmost c ertainly, t he p resumed f ort a t A ldborough h ad a ll g one. T he d ifferent t reatment o f t he w est s ide o f t he P ennines i s c lear b oth u nder H adrian a nd P ius. I ndeed i f o ne m ust e xplain t he t roubles o f t he e nd o f T rajan's r eign a s i nternal o nes, t hen t hat i s t he a rea t o l ook t o, a nd i t m ay w ell b e t hat t he s ame a pplies a t t he n ext s tage, w hich w e m ust n ow c onsider. I n 1 903 t he d iscovery a t B rough-on-Noe o f a b uilding i nscription o f J ulius V erus a s g overnor o f B ritain s howed t hat t he f ort h ad b een r ebuilt i n t he m id-Antonine p eriod a nd l ed t o t he s uggestion t hat t here h ad b een a B rigantian r evolt i n t he 1 50s * (Haverfield 1 904). F urther w ork a t B rough s howed t hat i t w as a q uestion o f r eoccupation o f a f ort w hich h ad b een e vacuated u nder H adrian ( Richmond 1 939). P ost-war w ork a t s ome o ther s ites, a s w ell a s r eassessment o f t he f inds f rom o thers, h as n ow g iven u s a f ormidable l ist o f f orts r eoccupied i n t he m id-Antonine p eriod, a round A D 1 60. T hese i nclude E lslack, I lkley, B ainbridge, M alton a nd p robably b oth G reta B ridge a nd C atterick, o ther f orts t o n orth a nd s outh, a nd a lso t hose o n H adrian 's W all. T he e vidence f or t his s tatement i s n ot e pigraphic f or t he Y orkshire s ites ( except a t I lkley), b ut i s b ased o n t he a bsence o f c haracteristic H adrianic a nd e arly A ntonine p ottery a s w ell a s t he g eneral s imilarity o f t he A ntonine m aterial t o t hat f rom H adrian's W all, w here t he e pigraphic e vidence f or a b rief r eoccupation a bout A D 1 58 a nd a p ermanent o ne a f ew y ears l ater i s c ompelling. A s I h ave s hown e lsewhere ( Hartley 1 972), t his r eoccupation o f m any o f t he f orts i n B rigantia i s u ndoubtedly a ssociated w ith t he d ecision t o g ive u p S cotland, a pparently t aken b y C alpurnius A gricola. W hether t he t emporary e vacuation o f S cotland i n t he 1 50s i s t o b e a ttributed t o t he B rigantian r evolt o ften p ostulated i s a nother m atter a nd o ne o n w hich s cholars d iffer. H ow t he p ermanent r eturn o f g arrisons t o Y orkshire i s t o b e r egarded a lso d epends o n t he q uestion o f t he B rigantian r evolt. O n t he o ne h and t heir r eturn c ould b e s een a s t he n eed t o p olice r ecently d isaffected a reas f irmly, o n t he o ther h and s ome w ould a rgue t hat t hey w ere p laced w here t hey w ere s imply b ecause t hey h ad t o b e p ut s omewhere. P erhaps b oth v iews a re t rue i n p art. T he d iscovery i n 1 929 o f t he S everan i nscription o f A lfenus S enecio a t B irdoswald ( Richmond a nd B irley 1 930: 1 98-200) l ed f or a l ong t ime t o t he a utomatic a ssumption t hat t he e nd o f P eriod I o n H adrian's W all f ell i n 1 96-7. T his v iew i s n ow v ery m uch q uestioned i n s ome q uarters, t hough t hat n eed n ot c oncern u s g reatly h ere, b ecause t here c an s urely b e n o q uestion o f d estruction o f t he Y orkshire f orts i n t he e arly 1 80s, w hich i s n ow o ne s uggested d ate f or t he b reaking o f H adrian's W all. A n i nvading h orde f rom S cotland w ould s carcely h ave p enetrated s o f ar s outh, a nd s ince t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat t he Y orkshire f orts w ere u ngarrisoned a t t he t ime, l ocal
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B rigantian a ttacks w ould h ardly h ave h ad m uch s uccess. Y et s ome o f t he Y orkshire f orts w ere c ertainly d estroyed l ate i n t he s econd c entury. T his i s s urely b est s till t o b e s een a s a r esult o f t he r emoval o f t roops b y C lodius A lbinus b eing f ollowed b y l ocal a ctions a gainst s uch c aretaker d etachments a s r emained i n t he f orts. T his d ating f its m uch b etter w ith t he e pigraphic e vidence o f S everan r ebuilding a t I lkley, B ainbridge, B owes, G reta B ridge a nd B roughu nder-Stainmore. T here w ould n ow, Ii magine, b e g eneral a greement t hat t he n eed t o r ebuild t he f ortress w all a t Y ork h ad n othing t o d o w ith i ts d estruction i n 1 97, t hough i t d oes n ot n ecessarily f ollow t hat t he f ortress i tself w as i mmune f rom a ttack s ince, l ike t he f orts, i t w ould o nly h ave h ad a c aretaker f orce. T hird c entury h istory i s n otoriously d ifficult t o s ort o ut, n ot l east w hen a rchaeological e vidence i s a ll t hat i s a vailable. W e d o, h owever, h ave s ome u seful i nscriptions w hich s how t hat r efurbishing o f m any n orthern f orts c ontinued d own a lmost t o t he m iddle o f t he c entury, a lthough, a s w e n ow r ealise, t he f ocus o f m ilitary a ttention w as s hifting m ore a nd m ore f rom t he N orth t o t he c oastal d efences o f t he s outheast. W hat h appened i n i ndividual f orts i n Y orkshire i s r arely c lear a t t his p eriod. S ome, f or e xample E lslack, w ere p robably v acant f or m ost o f t he c entury, o nly t o b e r ecommissioned i n t he f ourth c entury. T he f eeling h as b een g rowing i n r ecent y ears t hat o n t he W all m any f orts w ere r un d own, a nd o nly l ightly g arrisoned o r e ven t otally a bandoned ( see B reeze a nd D obson 1 985: 1 3-15). C ould t he s ame h ave h appened w idely f urther s outh? T hat h as, i ndeed, b een s uggested f or t he t erritory o f t he c ivitas C arvetiorum ( Breeze a nd D obson 1 985: 1 5), b ut i n o ur a rea, w here t here h as b een r elatively r ecent e xcavation, t he e vidence s eems o n t he w hole t o b e m ore i n f avour o f c ontinued o ccupation i nto t he f ourth c entury. T his i s t rue o f B ainbridge, B owes, B rough-on-Noe, I lkley a nd M alton a t l east. I t w ould c ertainly b e d ifficult o therwise t o a ccount f or s uch p henomena a s t he c ontinued u se o f t he S everan p rincipia a t B ainbridge d own t o t he m iddle o f t he f ourth c entury. B ut i t i s s ignificant t hat n one o f t he r ecent e xcavations h as p roduced e vidence o f t erminal d estructions o f t he t hird c entury f orts. T he o ld i dea o f d estructions c onnected w ith t he u surpation o f A llectus s eems f inally t o h ave d isappeared. B elief i n w idespread d estruction i n t he N orth r esulting f rom t he b arbarica c onspiratio o f 3 67 i s s till v ery m uch w ith u s. T his i s n o p lace t o r eview t he e vidence i n d etail, b ut i t s hould b e s aid t hat t here i s a g ood d eal l ess e vidence o f d estruction t han i s o ften s upposed a nd t hat a r elatively s trong c ase c an b e m ade f or t hinking o f t he e vents o f 3 67 a s a ffecting t he S outh c onsiderably m ore t han t he N orth. A lthough t here i s, o f c ourse, n o d oubt t hat T heodosius w as r estoring m ilitary s ites w idely, i t s eems l ikely t hat m uch o f h is w ork w as n eeded b ecause o f t he n eglect o f p revious d ecades ( Hartley a nd F itts f orthcoming). T hat m any o f o ur f orts w ere h eavily o ccupied d own t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury o r l ater c an s carcely b e d oubted i n v iew o f t he l arge q uantities o f H untcliff a nd C rambeck w ares w hich t hey y ield. B ut t he e nd i s a lways s ilence. W e a re n ot a ble e ven t o g uess a t p recise d ates o f e vacuation, a nd n or d o w e k now w hat h appened t o o ur f orts a fter t he l ast t roops d isappeared. S ince I f irst b egan t o i nterest m yself i n t he R oman f orts o f Y orkshire t here h ave b een n ot a f ew c hanges i n o ur i deas a but t hem. I
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h ave t ried h ere t o s how h ow m any m ore c hanges t here h ave b een i n M rs C hitty's t ime. S he h as t aken t hem a ll i n h er s tride. M ay s he b e s pared t o u s t o d eal s imilarly w ith m any m ore o f t he o nes y et t o c ome!
B IBLIOGRAPHY B reeze, E ngland.
D J a nd D obson, B 1 985 B ritannia 1 6: 1 -20.
B ruton, F A 1 911 E xcavation M anchester U niversity P ress. C lark,
M
K
1 935
R oman m ilitary d eployment i n
o f t he R oman
A G azetteer o f R oman R emains
R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 5 . L eeds: o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C ollingwood, P roceedings 2 84.
F orts
i n
a t
n orth
C astleshaw .
E ast
Y orkshire .
R oman A ntiquities C ommittee
R G 1 928 E xcavations a t B rough-by-Bainbridge i n 1 926. o f t he L eeds P hilosophical a nd L iterary S ociety 1 : 2 61-
C order, P 1 930 T he D efences o f t he R oman F ort a t M alton . R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 2 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. D odd, P W a nd W oodward, A M 1 922 E xcavations Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal 2 6: 1 -92.
a t
S lack,
1 913-15.
D roop, J P 1 929 E xcavations a t B rough-by-Bainbridge: f irst i nterim r eport 1 928. P roceedings o f t he L eeds P hilosophical a nd L iterary S ociety 2 : 7 7-85. D roop, J P 1 930 E xcavations a t B rough-by-Bainbridge: s econd i nterim r eport 1 929. P roceedings o f t he L eeds P hilosophical a nd L iterary S ociety 2 : 2 34-245. D roop, J P 1 932 E xcavations a t B rough-by-Bainbridge i n 1 931 a nd r emarks o n t he B ainbridge f inds 1 928, 1 929, 1 931. P roceedings o f t he L eeds P hilosophical a nd L iterary S ociety 3 : 1 6-38. F rere, S S a nd S t J oseph, B ritannia 5 : 1 -129.
JK 1 974
T he R oman f ortress a t L ongthorpe.
H artley, B R 1 971 R oman Y ork a nd t he n orthern m ilitary c ommand t o t he t hird c entury A D. I n R M B utler ( ed) S oldier a nd C ivilian i n R oman Y orkshire . L eicester U niversity P ress: 5 5-69. H artley, 1 -55.
B R 1 972
T he R oman O ccupations o f S cotland.
B ritannia 3 :
H artley, B R 1 982 M ilitary a ctivity. I n D A S pratt ( ed) P rehistoric a nd R oman A rchaeology o f N orth-East Y orkshire . O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports B ritish s eries 1 04: 2 10-214. H artley,
B R a nd F itts,
R L
f orthcoming
1 58
T he B rigantes .
G loucester.
H averfield, F J 1 904 N otes o n t he i nscribed t ablet, a nd o n R omano-British n ame o f B rough. D erbyshire A rchaeological J ournal 1 97-203. J ohnson,
S 1 978
H ayton R oman f ort.
B ritannia 9 :
t he 2 6:
5 7-115.
K eeney, G S 1 936 E xcavations a t t he R oman f ort a t P iercebridge i n 1 935. T ransactions o f t he A rchitectural S ociety o f D urham a nd N orthumberland 7 : 2 67-277. K eeney, G S 1 941 E xcavations a t t he R oman f ort a t P iercebridge i n 1 938-9. T ransactions o f t he A rchitectural S ociety o f D urham a nd N orthumberland 9 : 4 3-68; 1 27-138. M ay, T 1 911 T he R oman f orts a t E islack. J ournal 2 1: 13-167. M ay, T 1 922 T he R oman R otherham: C ounty B orough.
F orts
M iller, S N 1 925 R oman Y ork: S tudies 1 5: 1 76-184. M iller, S N 1 928 R oman Y ork: S tudies 1 8: 6 1-99. R amm,
H G 1 978
T he P arisi.
R ichmond, I A 1 925 M emorial M useum. R ichmond, I A 1 933 R iding o f Y orkshire. R ichmond, I A 1 939 B rough, D erbyshire.
a t
Y orkshire
T emplebrough
A rchaeological
n ear
R otherham .
e xcavations o f 1 925.
J ournal o f R oman
e xcavations o f 1 926-7.
J ournal o f R oman
L ondon: D uckworth.
H uddersfield i n R oman T imes.
H uddersfield:
T he f our R oman c amps a t C awthorn, A rchaeological J ournal 8 9: 1 7-78.
i n t he
T olson
N orth
I nterim r eport o n e xcavations a t t he R oman f ort a t D erbyshire A rchaeological J ournal 5 9: 5 3-65.
R ichmond, IA a nd B irley, E B 1 930 E xcavations o n H adrian's W all, i n t he B irdoswald-Pike H ill s ector, 1 929. T ransactions o f t he C umberland a nd W estmorland A ntiquarian a nd A rchaeological S ociety 3 0 ( new s eries): 1 69-205. T oomey, J P 1 976 A n I ron A ge e nclosure a t O ldfield H ill, M eltham. B rigantian . H uddersfield. W acher, J S 1 969 E xcavations a t B rough-on-Humber 1 958-1961. S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon R esearch R eport 2 5. W oodward, A M 1 925 T he R oman A rchaeological J ournal 2 8: 1 39-321.
1 59
f ort
a t
I lkley.
T he
L eeds:
Y orkshire
1:
T HE H INTERLAND O F R OMAN Y ORK RF J J ONES
R oman Y ork l ies a t t he h eart o f a ny c onsideration o f R oman Y orkshire: a t t he h eart o f R oman Y ork l ay t he l egionary f ortress. A lthough t he R oman a rmy i s n ormally c redited w ith f ounding Y ork, s tudying t he a rmy's r ole i n t he l ife o f t he R oman c ity h as f allen o ut o f f ashion i n r ecent y ears. Y et w ork o n l egionary f ortresses e lsewhere i n t he R oman E mpire h as s hown h ow i mportant t hey w ere a s c entres o f a uthority a nd a dministration a nd a s s timuli t o t he g rowth o f R omanised c ivilian l ife. Y ears o f i nvestigation a t s ites o n t he R hine a nd D anube h ave r evealed l arge c ivilian t owns s uch a s t hat s outhwest o f t he O use a t Y ork, a s w ell a s e xtensive c anabae . I n a ddition, e ach l egionary f ortress m ust h ave h ad i ts p ottery a nd t ile k ilns, s tone q uarries, b lacksmithing d epots, p ractice c amps, m inor d efended e nclosures a nd f ood s upply s ystem. T he t ile a nd p ottery w orks a t H olt s erving t he f ortress a t C hester s ome 1 5 k ilometres a way s hows t hat s uch a ctivities w ere s ometimes l ocated a t a c onsiderable d istance f rom t he f ortress i tself ( Grimes 1 930). S imilar i nstallations a t H oldeurn w ere s ome 5 k ilometres a way f rom t he f ortress a t N ijmegen i n t he N etherlands ( Holwerda a nd B raat 1 946). A lthough t here a re i ndications o f p ot a nd t ile p roduction i mmediately a djacent t o t he Y ork f ortress ( King 1 974, R CHM 1 962: 6 5), i t i s v ery l ikely t hat o ther s igns o f t he l egion's a ctivities w ill b e f ound t hroughout t he r egion: a s h as a lready b een d emonstrated b y B uckland f or t he s ources o f b uilding s tones u sed i n t he C hurch S treet s ewer i n t he f ortress ( Buckland 1 976) [ editorial n ote: s ee B uckland t his v olume]. T he a rea a round t he f ortress w ill h ave b een l egally o rganised i nto a t erritorium o r p rata l egionis . T he e xact s ize a nd n ature o f m ilitary t erritoria h ave b een m uch d ebated, b ut t here i s l ittle f irm e vidence t hat c an b e a pplied t o l egionary s ites i n g eneral ( summarised b y S ommer 1 984: 1 3-14, W illems 1 986: 4 13-415). S ome o f t he m ost s pecific i nformation c omes f rom a s eries o f i nscriptions f rom t he T iberian p eriod i n n orthern S pain. T hey m arked t he b oundary b etween t he t erritorium o f l egio I V M acedonica a nd n eighbouring c ivilian c ivitates ( Jones 1 976). A lthough t heir f ind-spots o nly d efine o ne s ide o f t he t erritorium , a nd e ven t he s ite o f t he f ortress i tself i s u ncertain, i t s eems t hat.the t erritorium w as e xtensive, p erhaps s ome 3 ,000 k ilometres s quare. A t p resent t here a re n o c redible c lues t o t he e xtent o f Y ork 's l egally d efined t erritorium . I t s eems t hat i nformation o n t his m atter w ill o nly c ome f rom t he f ortunate d iscovery o f a ppropriate e pigraphic m aterial. W hat c an b e a chieved b y p lanned r esearch i s a n a rchaeological u nderstanding o f t he c ontemporary s ettlement s ystems i n t he h interland o f Y ork. B efore t he r esults o f a erial p hotography b ecame a vailable i n r ecent y ears, t he n ature o f s ettlement i n t he a rea i mmediately a round R oman Y ork h ad b een l argely u nknown. H owever i t i s n ow c lear t hat t he s andy s oil a round t he c ity w ere i ntensively o ccupied i n a ntiquity. A lthough t he g eneral p icture r ecently o utlined b y A ddyman i s i mpressive ( Addyman 1 984: f igures 1 , 2 ), w hen p lotted i n m ore d etail t he d istribution o f r ecognised a rchaeological f eatures r emains p atchy
1 61
F igure
1.1
K ey: I nset:
S ettlement i n t he h interland o f Y ork, a s r evealed i n c ropmarks. B ased o n a ir p hotographs b y P V A ddyman, p lotted b y P N C heetham. 1 . B uilt-up a reas 2 . R oman r oads 3 . C ropmarks o bserved 4 . R oman l egionary f ortress L ingcroft F arm, N aburn ( drawn b y K ate C lark)
1 62
i n t he i mmediate a rea o f t he c ity ( Figure 1.1). T here i s e nough t o s how t hat s ettlement e xisted, b ut n ormally n ot e nough t o e xamine t hat s ettlement c losely. I t i s a lso h ard t o b e c onfident a bout h ow f ar t he d istribution o f f inds i s a g enuine r eflection o f t he a ncient p attern o r a d istortion b y f actors s uch a s m odern l and u se a nd d rainage, a ffecting t he f ormation o f f eatures v isible f rom t he a ir. A p reliminary s tudy b y P aul C heetham h as b een u nable t o d emonstrate a ny f irm a ssociations b etween t he d rift g eology a nd t he f eatures o bserved; i t d oes s uggest t hat o bservations c an b e e xpected i n a ny p art o f t he z one a round Y ork. T HE F IELD P ROGRAMME I nterpretation o f t he a erial e vidence w as l imited b y t he l ack o f d ating m aterial. T o t ry t o r emedy t his, t he B radford U niversity p roject b egan i n 1 980 o n t he l argest c omplex o f f eatures v isible f rom t he a ir ( Figure 1.2). T his l ies s outh o f t he c ity a t N aburn, o n t he
L INGCROFT F AR M NABURN
I km
F igure 1.2
L ingcroft F arm,
N aburn:
1 63
c ropmark f eatures a nd e xcavations
e astern s ide o f t he R iver O use. T he m ain c omplex ( centred a round S E 6 13472) i s s ituated i n a t riangle b ounded o n o ne s ide b y t he O use, o n a nother b y t he m odern r oad t he A 19, a nd w ith a m ore i mprecise e dge t o t he s outh. T he t otal a rea o f t his c omplex i s a bout 3 k ilometres s quare. I t i s m ade u p o f a s equence o f f eatures, i ncluding m any d itched f ields, ah igh p roportion o f t hem o blong i n s hape, w ith a t l east s ix p olygonal e nclosures c ontaining r oundhouses t hat a re i ntegral t o t he s ystem. S ome f eatures a re l ocated o n N aburn L odge F arm , b ut t he m ain g roup i s o n L ingcroft F arm, w here m ost o f t he w ork s ince 1 980 h as t aken p lace, t hrough t he k indness a nd e nthusiasm o f t he f armer, M r G R ownthwaite. T he s cope o f w ork p ossible h as b een l imited: e ach y ear w e h ave h ad o nly a s ingle w eek d uring t he U niversity a utumn t erm, i ntended t o g ive f irst y ear s tudents a t aste o f w ork i n t he f ield. A t f irst w ork w as c onfined t o s urface c ollection. A t hin s catter o f f lints w as f ound a cross t he w hole a rea. M ostly t hese w ere w aste f lakes, b ut t here w ere s ome r ecognisable t ool f orms, i ncluding a rrowheads. V irtually t he o nly p ottery f ound w as t he r esult o f m odern n ight-soiling, w ith a v ery r are R omano-British s herd. F ieldwalking t hus p roved i nconclusive a s am eans o f d ating .t he a ir-photograph f eatures. T he f lints s uggested a p rehistoric d ate, p erhaps i n t he B ronze A ge, b ut c ould n ot b e t aken a s c onvincing p roof . E xcavation w as t herefore t he o nly w ay f orward, d espite t he d ifficulties i mposed b y t he t ight s chedule o f o nly a w eek i n t he f ield e ach y ear. N evertheless, t he s andy s oils o ffered e asy d igging, a nd t here w as s ome u rgency b ecause t he b uried a rchaeological f eatures w ere g radually b eing d estroyed a s w ind e rosion t ook a way t opsoil, m aking t he p lough c ut d eeper i nto t he s ubsoil. I n 1 982 t he f irst e xcavation w as c onducted e ntirely b y h and, p aying c areful a ttention t o f inds i n t he p loughsoil. T hese p roved t o b e f ew i n n umber, m ostly f lint f lakes s imilar t o t hose f ound o n t he s urface. H owever, s uch f lints w ere r are i n t he u ndisturbed f eatures c ut i nto t he s ubsoil. T hose f eatures i n 1 982 a nd s ubsequently h ave a ll b een d ated d irectly b y I ron A ge a nd R oman p ottery. E xcavation h as n ow p roduced a c onsistent p icture o f a l andscape d eveloping f rom b efore t he R oman c onquest i nto t he m iddle R oman p eriod. T he I ron A ge s ettlement T he d ivision o f t he.landscape h ere i nto f ields, a ssociated w ith e nclosures c ontaining r oundhouses, c an b e f irmly d ated b efore t he R oman c onquest. R oundhouses h ave b een e xamined i n t hree s eparate p laces ( Areas A , B a nd D ). I n e ach c ase t hey h ave b een a ssociated o nly w ith I ron A ge t radition p ottery. T he h ouses t hemselves a re a lso c onsistent i n f orm. I n A reas A , B a nd D , B uildings 1 , 2 a nd 4 w ere a ll o f s imilar s ize, a bout 1 5 m etres i n d iameter, w ith a s ingle e ntrance, a nd s imilar p osthole a rrangements. I n A rea B , B uilding 3 w as a s ubsidiary s tructure, o n as maller s cale, o nly 5 m etres i n d iameter. A ll t he l arge h ouses a lso h ad t heir e ntrances f acing n ortheast a way f rom t he p revailing w inds. E ach w as l ocated i n as ubr ectangular e nclosure, t aking i n a bout 1 200 m etres s quare. A lthough i t h as n ot b een p ossible t o e xamine t hese e nclosures t horoughly b y e xcavation, t here i s l ittle s ign e ither f rom e xcavation o r f rom a ir p hotographs t hat t hey n ormally c ontained a ny s ubstantial s tructures
1 64
S ITE
A
0
F igure 1.3
4 0m
L ingcroft F arm,
o ther t han t he h ouses t hemselves
A rea A
( drawn b y K ate C lark)
( Figures 1.3-5).
I t a ppears t hat t he l andscape w as o rganised i nto f ields a nd h ouse e nclosures i n a s ingle p hase. O nly a t S ite D i s t here e vidence f or a s equence o f s tructures ( Houses 4 a nd 5 ): o therwise t he b uildings w ere o f a s ingle p eriod. T he l ack o f r ebuilding o f t hese p rimary h ouses i mplies t hat t hey w ere n ot l ong l ived. T he a bsence o f R oman m aterial s uggests t hat t his p hase s hould b e d ated b efore t he i ncorporation o f t he r egion i nto t he R oman p rovince t hrough c onquest i n t he 7 0s A D. Y et t he f ield s ystems c ontinued i n m odified f orm i nto t he R oman p eriod. T he o rigins o f t his o rganisation o f t he l andscape s hould p robably t herefore b e p laced n ot t oo l ong b efore t he R oman c onquest, v ery l ikely i n t he f irst c entury A D, p erhaps e ven i n t he p eriod o f t he B rigantian c lient k ingdom b etween 4 3 a nd 7 1. A s imilar c ontext s hould p robably b e s ought f or o ther s ystems o f l and d ivision i n n orthern
1 65
F igure 1.4
L ingcroft F arm, A reas B a nd C
1 66
( drawn b y K ate C lark)
F igure 1.5
L ingcroft F arm,
A rea D
E ngland, s uch a s t hat o n t he B unter S andstone ( Riley 1 980, G arton a nd R iley 1 982). T he e stablishment o f n ew p atterns o f a griculture i n t he n orth, c omparable t o e arlier c hanges i n t he l andscape o f s outhern B ritain, c an b e s een a longside t he g rowth o f a s outhern-style o ppidum a t S tanwick. T he d etails o f t he a gricultural e conomy o f t his s ettlement g roup r emain o bscure, b ecause o f t he p oor p reservation o f b otanical m aterial a nd t he t otal d isappearance o f a nimal b one i n t he s oil. B urnt
1 67
d eposits i n t he d emolition o f B uilding 1 h ave h owever p rovided e vidence f or t he c ultivation o f b arley a nd b readwheat/clubwheat. R oman p eriod s ettlement C hanges t o t he l ayout o f t he f ield s ystems a re d ated b y t he p resence o f R oman p ottery. T he m ain e lements o f t he f ield s ystems r emained b ut w ere m odified o ver t ime. T he m ost i mportant c hange w as t he r emoval o f t he r oundhouses a nd t heir a ssociated e nclosures. T he p attern i s c ommon t o S ites A , B a nd D . T he h ouses t hemselves a ppear t o h ave b een d emolished: H ouse 1 a t S ite A w ith e vidence o f s ome f ire. T he e nclosure d itches w ere d eliberately f illed i n. A t S ite B t he e nclosure d itches s howed d eliberate f illing, b ut t he s ide o f t he e nclosure w hich w as a lso a s ection o f o ne o f t he m ajor d itches d efining t he f ield s ystem r emained o pen. T his d itch w as p robably r ecut, s ince i t c ontained R oman p ottery i n i ts p rimary s ilting. N o r eplacements f or t he r oundhouses h ave y et b een c ertainly i dentified. T he b est e vidence s o f ar f or R oman p eriod s tructural f eatures h as c ome f rom S ite D : a t rench f rom w hich a c losely s et r ow o f t imbers h ad b een r emoved. T he f unction o f, t he s tructure i s u nknown, b ut i t w as p robably n ot a b uilding s ince n o o ther t races w ere f ound. C learly s ome r esidential f ocus m ust h ave e xisted f or t he p eople w orking t he l and i n t he R oman p eriod, b ut t here a re n o i ndications f rom s urface f inds o r f rom a ir p hotographs o f e xactly w here i t w as. H owever t he m ost r ecent w ork a t S ite E i n 1 986 r evealed c lay s urfaces f rom s ome m odest s ized r ectangular s tructures, p ossibly o f R oman d ate. T he c hanges t o t he f ield s ystem d o n ot s uggest a ny w holesale r eorganisation i n t he R oman p eriod. A t S ite C a s mall e nclosure w as a dded t o a n e xisting f ield d itch, a nd t hen l ater i t w as r emodelled i tself ( Figure 1 1.4). A t S ite D t here w ere a gain t wo R oman p eriod p hases o f d itch l ayout ( Figure 1.5). E ven s o, t hese w ere l ittle m ore t hen m inor a djustments t o t he e xisting s ystem. U nfortunately n o s atisfactory s amples o f b otanical m aterial h ave b een r ecovered f rom t he R oman p eriod f eatures, l eaving n o r oom y et f or c omparison w ith t he e arlier p eriod. N evertheless, t he a rtefactual r ecord d oes s how s ome s ignificant c hanges. I t a ppears t hat R oman p ottery d id n ot r each L ingcroft F arm u ntil t he e arly y ears o f t he s econd c entury, d espite t he p resence o f t he l egionary f ortress 5 'k ilometres a way f rom 7 1 A D. W hen i t d id a rrive, i t w as t he f ull r ange o f R oman p ottery t hat w as i n u se. M uch o f t he p ottery w as E buracum w are, p resumably o btained f rom t he f ortress. H owever t he a ssemblage a lso i ncluded s amian w are, m ortaria, a mphorae a nd t egulae, a s w ell a s h igh q uality g lass v essels. T here w as s ome o verlap o f t hese p roducts w ith t he e arlier l ocally m ade w ares, b ut i t s eems t hat t he p eople l iving i n t his a rea r apidly a dopted t he k ey e lements o f t he R oman d omestic r epertoire. A lthough t he a mounts o f p ottery f ound a re s mall, t he p resence o f s uch h igh q uality f inds o n a r ural s ite i s r emarkable. Y et i ts p roper i nterpretation r emains d ifficult w ithout m ore c omparative e vidence f rom t he n eighbourhood. I t i s u nclear w hether t he n earness o f t he s ite t o t he f ortress i s a n a dequate e xplanation.
1 68
T he o ther i mportant p oint a bout t he c hanges i n t he p ottery i s t he l apse i n t ime b etween t he f oundation o f t he f ortress a nd t he a rrival o f R oman p ottery a t L ingcroft F arm. I t s eems m ost l ikely t hat t hat p ottery c ame t here a s a r esult o f e xchange o f g oods w ith t he m ilitary c ommunity i n Y ork i tself . A s s uch i t r epresents e vidence f or t he i ntegration o f t he r egional p opulation i nto t he R oman e conomic s ystem a nd h as a w ider s ignificance i n t he s tudy o f t he R omanisation o f n ewly c onquered a reas ( Jones f orthcoming).
C ONCLUSIONS T his c an o nly b e a r eport o n w ork i n p rogress. T he p rogramme h as a lready d emonstrated t hat u seful r esults c an b e a chieved b y q uite m odest a ctivity i n t he f ield, b ased u pon c areful p reliminary w ork. I t h as s hown t hat a s ettled l andscape e xploited b y a rable c ultivation e xisted i n t he a rea w hen t he R oman a rmy e stablished t heir l egionary f ortress a t Y ork, a nd t hat d uring t he R oman p eriod t hat l andscape w as m odified b ut r etained m any o f i ts e arlier c haracteristics. T he r esults h ave i lluminated t he d ifficult p roblem o f e xactly w hat h appened t o l ocal n ative s ettlement w hen t he R oman a rmy a rrived, a nd e xposed t he v ery f irst s tages o f c ultural c hange u nder t he n ew i nfluence o f R ome. I t i s a lso p ossible n ow t o d etermine t he m ain s pecific q uestions w hich r emain t o b e s olved: w here t he R oman p eriod p opulation l ived a nd w hat c rops t hey c ultivated. I t m ay t hen b e p ossible t o p ut f orward m ore c onvincing a rguments o n w hether o r n ot t hat R oman p opulation w as m ade u p o f t he d escendants o f t he p re-Roman f armers a nd t o e xamine f urther t he p rocesses o f i ntegration b etween t he r ural a nd u rban p opulations. W e m ay a lso b e a ble t o d iscover w hat h appened i n t he l ate R oman p eriod, s ince a t p resent t here a re n o f inds o f l ate R oman p ottery i n t he s ilted-up b oundary d itches.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T hroughout t he f ieldwork i t h as b een a p leasure t o r eceive t he e nthusiastic s upport o f M r a nd M rs R ownthwaite a nd e veryone e lse a t L ingcroft F arm. I a m a lso v ery g rateful f or t he e xcellent a ir p hotographs a nd c ontinuing i nterest o f P eter A ddyman o f t he Y ork A rchaeological T rust. F rom B radford, s uccessive s ets o f s tudents h ave b egun t heir a rchaeology a t L ingcroft F arm a nd f ollowed o n w ith v arious p rojects. T hey h ave b een s upervised t hroughout b y S teve D ockrill a nd a t d ifferent t imes b y J eremy E vans, D avid D evereux, G avin E dwards, C hris G affney a nd M ark G illings. Ia m a lso i ndebted t o P aul C heetham f or h is w ork o n t he a erial p hotographs a nd t o K ate C lark f or h elp w ith t he i llustrations.
B IBLIOGRAPHY A ddyman, P V 1 984 Y ork i n i ts a rchaeological s etting. A ddyman a nd V E B lack ( eds) A rchaeological P apers f rom Y ork t o M W B arley . Y ork: Y ork A rchaeological T rust: 7 -21.
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I n P V P resented
B uckland, P C 1 976 G eological a nd a rchaeological n otes o n t he r ocks u sed i n t he c onstruction o f t he s ewer. I n JB W hitwell T he C hurch S treet S ewer a nd a n a djacent b uilding . A rchaeology o f Y ork 3 /1. L ondon: C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology: 3 2-37. G arton, 4 3-48.
D a nd R iley,
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G rimes, W F 1 930 H olt, D enbighshire: T he w orks-depot T wentieth L egion a t C astle L yons. Y C ymmrodor 4 1. L ondon.
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H olwerda, J H a nd B raat, W C 1 946 D e H oldeurn b ij B erg e n D al, z entrum v an p ottenbakkerij e n a ardewerkindustrie i n d en R omeinschen t ijd. O udheidkundige M ededelingen u it h et R ijksmuseum v an O udheden t e L eiden 2 6: s upplement. L eiden. J ones, S pain.
R F J 1 976 T he R oman m ilitary o ccupation J ournal o f R oman S tudies 6 6: 4 5-66.
J ones, R F J f orthcoming r elationships. P roceedings C arnuntum, 1 986.
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N atives a nd t he R oman a rmy: t hree m odel o f t he 1 4th I nternational L imeskongress,
K ing, E 1 974 R oman k iln m aterial f rom t he B orthwick I nstitute, P easeholm G reen: a r eport f or Y ork E xcavation G roup. I n P VA ddyman E xcavations i n Y ork, 1 972-1973: f irst i nterim r eport. A ntiquaries J ournal 5 4: 2 13-217. R CHM 1 962 A n I nventory o f t he H istorical M onuments i n t he C ity o f Y ork, 1 . E buracum: R oman Y ork. R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments ( England). L ondon: H er M ajesty's S tationery O ffice. R iley, D S heffield:
1 980 E arly L andscape f rom t he A ir . D epartment o f P rehistory a nd A rchaeology.
S ommer, C 5 1 984 T he M ilitary V ici i n R oman B ritain . A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries 1 29.
U niversity
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W illems, W J H 1 986 R omans a nd B atavians. A R egional S tudy i n t he D utch E astern R iver A rea . A msterdam/Amersfoort.
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1 2:
I RON A GE A ND R OMAN A T D ALTON P ARLOURS A
S UMPTER
M ary C hitty's d istinguished c ontributions t o I ron A ge a nd R oman s tudies h ave p rompted t he s ubmission o f a p aper e mbracing b oth p eriods t o r epresent r ecent w ork i n W est Y orkshire. T his s hort a ccount o utlines t he r escue e xcavation o f t he o nly R oman v illa p ositively k nown t o h ave s urvived i n W est Y orkshire, a nd t he e xtensive I ron A ge s ettlement d iscovered b eneath i t. I NTRODUCTION I n W est Y orkshire R oman v illas a re t hin o n t he g round b y c omparison w ith t he E ast R iding, a nd D alton P arlours i s t he o nly v illa p ositively k nown n ot t o h ave b een d estroyed o r s ubmerged b y m odern h ousing ( Faull a nd J ames 1 981: 1 46-148). I t l ies 4 k ilometres ( 2.5 m iles) s outh o f W etherby i n t he r ural s etting o f C ollingham p arish, o n t he u ndulating M agnesian L imestone a t S E 4 02445. T he l ocation i s o n a s light h ill a t 8 4 m etres ( 275 f eet) a bove O rdnance D atum, w ith a c ommanding o utlook t o t he n ortheast o ver t he V ale o f Y ork. T he r emains o f w alls s urvived i n w oodland c oncealment i nto t he e arly n ineteenth c entury, w hen s tone w as r emoved f or b uilding p urposes a nd t he f ertile l and t urned o ver t o a rable f arming. R oman a rtefacts t hen b egan t o e merge u nder t he p lough a nd i n 1 854, f ollowing t he c ustom o f t he d ay, a p arty o f l ocal g entry c onducted e xploratory e xcavations. U nder t he d irection o f M r F C arroll w ith s upport f rom t he Y orkshire P hilosophical S ociety, t hree s tone b uildings w ere p artly u ncovered. O ne c ontained a h ypocaust, a nd a nother a m osaic f loor d epicting M edusa w hich w as r emoved t o t he Y orkshire M useum a t Y ork ( Procter 1 855). T hus i dentified, t he v illa w as m ore r ecently a fforded o fficial p rotection a s a S cheduled A ncient M onument. N o f urther e xcavation t ook p lace u ntil 1 976 w hen t he f armer, M rs P L angrick, i nvited t he C ounty A rchaeology U nit t o i nvestigate t he p loughing u p o f l arge g ritstone p ilae. S ince t he ' protected ' m onument w as e vidently i n t he t hroes o f d estruction t hrough n ormal p loughing, a r escue e xcavation w as l aunched t o e xpose f ully a nd r ecord w hat w as l eft o f t he b uilding c omplex. T he t opsoil w as s tripped f rom a n a rea o f 1 .42 h ectares ( 3.5 a cres) u sing a H ymac a nd a D rott i n t andem, f ollowed b y m anual e xcavation. I t w as t hen d iscovered t hat b eneath t he v illa w as a n e xtensive I ron A ge s ettlement, w hich h ad g one u nrecognised i n 1 854. S ince o nly o ne I ron A ge s ettlement i n t he d istrict h ad p reviously b een e xcavated, a t L edston n ear C astleford ( Sumpter a nd M arriott f orthcoming), t he D alton P arlours e xcavation a t o nce a ssumed a n a dded s ignificance. A gricultural w orking h ad r educed t he s oil c over a nd i n p laces e ven p enetrated b edrock, w hich c onsisted o f c ryoturbated r ubbly l imestone u p t o 1 .5 m etres t hick o verlying s olid l imestone. T he u niform s oil c oloration o bscured s maller f eatures a bove b edrock l evel a nd t he i nterpretation o f v ertical s ections, w hilst m any p its a nd p ostholes w ere u nassociated a nd u ndatable. Y et d espite t he d estruction o f s tratified l ayers, f loor l evels a nd s ome f oundations,
1 71
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i t p roved p ossible t o r ecover m uch o f t he v illa b uilding l ayout, a nd t o e lucidate a s ubstantial a rea o f t he I ron A ge s ettlement. T otal e xcavation i n s ome a reas w as p recluded b y p lans t o c onserve a nd d isplay t he s tructures p ermanently, f or w hich p urpose t he C ounty C ouncil p urchased t he s ite; b ut u ltimately t he l and w as b ackfilled a nd r estored t o a gricultural u se. P rogress w as a ffected b y r escue d emands a t o ther s ites, a nd t he p roject w as c oncluded i n 1 979. A nnual s ummaries w hich h ave a ppeared i n n ational a nd l ocal j ournals ( including S umpter 1 978; 1 979; 1 981) a re s uperceded b y t he p resent p aper. F ollowing t he a bolition o f t he C ounty C ouncil a f ull i llustrated e xcavation r eport i s u nder c ompilation w ithin t he A rchaeology U nit's s uccessor, t he W est Y orkshire A rchaeology S ervice ( Sumpter a nd T indall i n p reparation). I n t he p resent a ccount, c ondensed f rom c urrent p ost-excavation w ork, f eature n umbers a re w ithout c hronological i mplications. A ll t he r adiocarbon d ates g iven a re u ncalibrated. T HE E ARLIER P REHISTORIC P ERIOD A g eneral s catter o f f lintwork c ame f rom a rchaeological f eatures a nd p loughsoil. I t i ncluded o ne m icrolith, t wo p ossible l eaf a rrowheads, t hree p olished s tone a xes, f our b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads, s crapers, r etouched f lints a nd w aste f lakes. O ne o f t he a nimal b one s amples f rom a n I ron A ge e nclosure d itch w as r adiocarbond ated t o 1 000 b c ±1 00 ( HAR 6726). T his m aterial s uggested l ocal a ctivity d uring t he M esolithic, N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge. T HE I RON A GE S ETTLEMENT
( Figure 1 2.1)
F irst p eriod I nterrupted d itch T he e arliest s tructures b elonged t o t he I ron A ge, w hen a n a rea w as l imited b y a n i rregular i nterrupted d itch i n t welve o r m ore l engths w hich r an f or a t l east 1 00 m etres i nside t he s outhern b oundary o f t he e xcavation. A n e ntrance t owards t he w est w as f lanked b y t erminals s lightly o ut-turned t o t he s outh. R oundhouses N orth o f t he d itch e ntrance R oundhouse 1 w as r epresented b y a r ing-groove 1.5 m etres i n d iameter, e xceptional i n c onsisting o f f our r oughly e qual a nd i ndependent s egments ' ( Figure 1 2.2). T he g aps b etween t he s egments w ere c irca 1 m etre w ide t o e ast a nd w est, a nd c irca 4 m etres a cross t o n orth a nd s outh, t he s outhern g ap f acing t he e ntrance i n t he i nterrupted d itch. B eyond i nference f rom t his a lignment t here w as n o e vidence f or c ontemporaneity. S ome o f t he n umerous p ostholes i n t he a rea m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he r ingg roove. A p ostulated l arger s tructure, n ominally R oundhouse 5 , w as 1 8 m etres n orth o f R oundhouse 1 a nd s uggested s olely b y a r ing-gully 1 7 m etres i n d iameter w ith t hree o penings. S ince i t w as r espected b y t he c urve o f a l ater I ron A ge e nclosure d itch i t m ight a lso h ave b elonged
1 7 1 3
F igure
1 2.2
R oundhouse 1 l ooking s outh, w ith r ing-groove i n f our s egments. R ight o f c entre t wo s torage p its l ie i n d eep s hadow, a djacent a nd b elow, t wo e longated p ostpits m ark t he w est e ntrance o f R oundhouse 2 . ( 2-metre s cale).
t o t his f irst p eriod. f eatures, b ut i n t he p aramount.
S o t oo m ay o ther o f t he p rolific I ron a bsence o f s tratification u ncertainty
A ge w as
S econd p eriod E nclosures T he m ost c onspicuous f eatures w ere s ingle-ditched e nclosures, s uccessively a ttached o ne t o a nother t o f orm a n i rregular n etwork o ver m ost o f t he e xcavated a rea. T hey w ere s ubsequently r evealed a lso n orth a nd w est o f t he e xcavation d uring a erial r econnaissance b y D r D N R iley ( personal c ommunication), t hough c ropmarks w ere o f l imited c larity. I n s ize t hey a veraged c irca 0 .13 h ectare ( 0.33 a cre), a nd t hey c overed i n t otal a t l east 2 h ectares ( 5 a cres). T he d itches w ere c ontinuous a nd u ngoverned i n p lan, v ariable i n p rofile, u p t o 3m etres w ide a nd d ug t hrough t he b edrock t o am aximum d epth o f 1 .6 m etres. T he f illings p roduced n o e vidence f or a ssociated b anks, w hose a bsence w as a lso i mplied b y t he s iting o f o ther f eatures o n t he p eriphery o f e nclosures. T he d evelopment o f t he e nclosure s ystem w as b est i nferred i n p lan, s ince v ertical r elationships a t d itch i ntersections w ere c omplicated b y r ecutting. T he s outhern d itches o f E nclosures I I I a nd I II c losely f ollowed t he l ine o f t he i nterrupted d itch, a nd o f t hese E nclosure I I a ppeared t o b e p rimary. E nclosure I w as t hen e stablished t o t he w est, a nd t he s outh e nd o f t he i ntervening d itch 9
1 74
w as b ackfilled w ith f reshly d ug l imestone t o f orm a c auseway c irca 3 m etres w ide c onnecting t he t wo. T he n ext a dditions w ere p robably E nclosure I II t o t he e ast, a nd I V a nd V t o t he n orth. E nclosure V I m ay h ave b een s ited i ndependently b efore b eing l inked t o t he n etwork b y E nclosure V II. E ast o f E nclosures V a nd V II w as a c omplex o f d itches a nd g ullies d efining s maller a reas. O pposed-entrance r oundhouses W ithin t he e nclosures w ere r oundhouses o f a n u nparalleled d esign, e ach 9 .5 t o 1 0.5 m etres i n d iameter a nd c ategorised b y t wo o pposed p airs o f e longated p ostpits u p t o 0 .8 m etre d eep. S ections s howed t hat e ach p it h ad h eld t wo m assive u prights, w hich b esides a pparently f orming o pposed e ntrances w ere m ajor l oad-bearing m embers o f t he s tructure. T hey h ad b een f irmly p acked w ith e xcavated l imestone a nd i n s ome c ases a lso w ith g ritstone i ncluding b eehive q uern f ragments. T here w ere t wo v ariants o f t he o pposed-entrance r oundhouse: t ype A w ith s maller p ostholes d isposed a round t he p erimeter, a nd t ype B w ith f our l arge i nternal p ostholes i n a s quare f ormation. T ype A w as s een t o p re-date t ype B . M ost s triking w as t he a bsence o f a ny c ontinuous c ircular e lement, w ith o ne e xception w hich w as s urrounded b y a r ingg ully. I n E nclosure I I t he o riginal R oundhouse 3 w as o f t ype A ( Figure 1 2.3). I t w as s ubsequently r eplaced a nd p artly o verlain b y R oundhouse 4 o f t ype B , s lightly t o t he n orthwest. I n E nclosure I t he s ite o f
F igure 1 2.3
T wo o pposed-entrance r oundhouses i n E nclosure I I, l ooking e ast. R oundhouse 4 ( type B ) w ith a s quare o f i nternal p osts i n f oreground, p artly o verlying R oundhouse 3 ( type A ) w ith p eripheral p osts i n b ackground. ( 2-metre s cale).
1 75
t he e arlier s egmental R oundhouse 1 w as r eoccupied b y R oundhouse 2 , a pparently t ype A , t hough t here w ere m ore p ostholes t han c ould b e a ssigned t o j ust t he t wo b uildings ( see F igure 1 2.2). B y c ontrast E nclosure I II w as v irtually b ereft o f s tructural e vidence. I n E nclosure I V w as a t hird e xample o f o verbuilding w here t he l arge r ing-gully o f R oundhouse 5 w as i ntercut w ith a s maller p enannular r ing-gully a round t ype A R oundhouse 6 ( see F igure 1 2.7). T his w as a nother a rea w ith a p roliferation o f p ostholes. T he e ast e nd o f E nclosure I V w as d ivided o ff b y a l inear s lot w ith a c onstricted e ntrance p erhaps f orming a s tock p en; a nd i t w as p robable t hough u nproven t hat t his w as p ost-dated b y R oundhouse 7 o f t ype B ( Figure 1 2.4). E nclosure I V w as t he o nly o ne i n w hich t wo r oundhouses c ould h ave b een o ccupied c oncurrently. T he s mall E nclosure V t o t he e ast m ight h ave b een a dded a s a r eplacement a nnex f or l ivestock. E nclosure V II w as a lso c ompartmented, b y a l inear s lot t o t he n orth l inked w ith a c urving g ully t hough n o r elationship c ould b e e stablished w ith t he c onflicting s ite o f t ype A R oundhouse 8 . F our-post s tructures F our e xamples o f f our-post s tructures w ere r ecognised, o f t he t ype c onventionally p ostulated a s g ranaries o r s torehouses. T wo w ere j ust i nside t he w estern l imit o f e xcavation, w hile a t hird l ay i n E nclosure V II t o t he w est o f R oundhouse 8 . T he s ettings w ere s quares o f m ean s ide f rom 2 .4 t o 3 .9 m etres, a nd t wo o f t he s tructures
F igure
1 2.4
R oundhouse 7 ( opposed-entrance t ype B ) l ooking e ast. B etween t he 2 p airs o f e ntrance p ostpits a re 4 i nternal p ostpits i n s quare f ormation. T he g ullies c rossing t he c entre a re n ot c ontemporary. ( 2-metre s cale).
1 76
r etained g ritstone p acking f or a ll f our m embers. I n t he n ortheast a ngle o f E nclosure V II w as a f ourth s etting w ith t runcated p ostholes f orming a p arallelogram 2 .5 x 2 .0 m etres, i t l ay i n t he s ector b ounded b y a c urving g ully w ith a s ingle e ntrance. T he f our-posters w ere a ll p eripheral, n one b eing f urther t han 5 m etres f rom t he n earest e nclosure d itch. O ccasional p airs o f p ostholes c ould a lso b e p icked o ut, s ome o f w hich m ight h ave f ulfilled t he t raditional a ttribution a s d rying r acks f or c orn o r h ay, t hough h ere t his i s e ntirely c onjectural. S torage p its M any o f t he n umerous p its h ad n o i dentifiable f unction. B ut o thers w ere n eatly c ut w ith s teeply-sloping s ides, s ub-rectangular, s ub-trapezoidal o r n ear-elliptical i n p lan, f lat b ased a nd o ften s haped l ike a t in b ath. T hey w ere c losely s imilar t o p its a t L edston i nterpreted a s s torage p its, p rincipally f or g rain ( Sumpter a nd M arriott f orthcoming). A t b oth s ites e vidence f or l inings w as a bsent a nd s ome p its h ad b een t runcated. T he c apacities w ere d irectly c omparable: a t D alton P arlours m ost w ere w ithin t he r ange 1 .0-2.0 x 0 .6 t o 1 .2 x 0 .2-0.8 m etres ( compare L edston 1 .0-2.5 x 0 .7 t o 2 .0 x 0 .1-1.0 m etres). T he l argest p it a t D alton P arlours m easured i n p lan 3 .8 x 1 .9 m etres ( compare L edston 3 .4 x 1 .9 m etres) ( Figure 1 2.5).
F igure
1 2.5
S torage p its o utside w est d itch o f E nclosure I , b efore e xcavation. T he g roup i ncludes t he l argest s torage p it o n t he s ite.
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T wenty-three s torage p its w ere i dentified, i n c ontrast w ith 7 1 i n a m uch s maller a rea a t L edston s ampled f rom a c oncentration o f 2 00 o r m ore b etween f ield s ystem a nd s ettlement; b ut L edston i s u nique i n t he r egion i n t his r espect. F ifteen o f t he 2 3 p its w ere p eripheral, l ying a longside t he e nclosure b oundary d itches. O f t he r emaining e ight, s ix w ere c oincident w ith t he s ites o f r oundhouses a nd m ight i f c ontemporary h ave s erved a s i ndoor s toreplaces, p erhaps b oarded o ver r ather t han e arth- o r c lay-sealed. E nclosure I I c ontained t he m ost s torage p its, t en i n a ll, o f w hich f ive w ere o n t he e ast s ide a nd o ne o n t he n orth; i n t he s outhe ast a ngle a n u nusually l arge p it c ut t hrough t he i nterrupted d itch. T he o ther t hree s torage p its l ay w ithin t he l imits o f R oundhouse 3 , w here t hey w ere p lainly d istinguishable i n f inish f rom t he r ather s imilarly p ositioned i nternal p ostpits o f t he s ucceeding a djacent R oundhouse 4 . T he n orthernmost o f t he t hree w as c ut b y t he e ast e nd o f R oundhouse 4 ( see F igure 1 2.3). I n E nclosure I t here w ere t wo p eripheral p its o n o pposite s ides t o n orth a nd s outh, a nd t wo w ithin t he e arlier R oundhouse 1 , o f w hich o ne w as a lso i nside R oundhouse 2 ( see F igure 1 2.2); b ut a ssociation w ith t he o ccupation o f e ither b uilding c ould o nly b e s peculated u pon. T wo p its i n E nclosure I V w ere c lose t o, t hough o utside, R oundh ouses 6 a nd 7 r espectively, w hile a t hird l ay w ithin R oundhouses 5 a nd 6 . T he s ingle e xample i n E nclosure V II l ay a gainst t he n orth d itch. A n i solated p it b eyond t he s outhwest a ngle o f E nclosure V II c oincided w ith t he w est s ide o f t he d itch, b ut n o r elationship c ould b e d etermined. F our p its i n a g roup w hich i ncluded t he l argest o ne f ound, i mmediately w est o f E nclosure I ( Figure 1 2.5), w ere a djacent t o a f our-post s tructure. A t L edston t wo o f t he b igger s torage p its h ad b een i nhumations, a p ractice n ot m et w ith a t D alton P arlours.
r eused
f or
S unken h earths A nother r ecurring f eature w ith f our e xamples w as t he s unken h earth, p erhaps m ore a ppropriately t ermed a c ooking p it. T his w as t ypically a n ear-circular p it f rom 0 .7 t o 1 .1 m etres i n d iameter, w ith a lmost v ertical s ides a nd a f airly f lat b ase d ug a s m uch a s 0 .3 m etre i nto t he b edrock. T he p its w ere f illed w ith b lack a shy m aterial a nd b urnt d ebris, b ut t here w as n o e vidence f or e nclosed o ven s uperstructures. A ll w ere o ut o f d oors, a nd n o h eating s ource w as s een i n a ny o f t he r oundhouses. E nclosure I I r evealed o ne s unken h earth, t owards t he e ast s ide a nd w ell r emoved f rom R oundhouses 3 a nd 4 . I n E nclosure I a s imilarly i solated h earth n ear t he s outheast a ngle p roduced m any s herds o f a n I ron A ge c oarse b ead-rimmed j ar. A n i rregular e longated p it n earby w as a lso f illed w ith b urnt m aterial; b oth w ere c ut i nto t he f ill o f t he i nterrupted d itch. A nother s unken h earth w as l ess t han o ne m etre e ast o f R oundhouse 2 w hich s eemed t oo c lose f or c ontemporaneity, a nd j ust t hree m etres f rom R oundhouse 1 ; i t c ontained m uch o f a c losely s imilar I ron A ge j ar. T he o nly o ther e xample w as i n E nclosure I V, o val i n p lan a nd o verlying t he n orthern s ector o f t he r ing-gully f or R oundhouse 6 ; i t y ielded o ne s mall I ron A ge s herd.
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O ccasional u nassignable.
p atches o f b urning o n o r j ust a bove t he b edrock
w ere
O ther f eatures A t t he e ast e nd o f E nclosure V I a p air o f e longated p ostpits a t f irst s ight p resaged a nother o pposed-entrance r oundhouse, b ut t here w as n o c orresponding p air. T aking a ccount o f i ts c entral p osition a long t he e ast d itch, t he s tructure w as m ore p robably a m assive f ormal g ateway t o t he e nclosure, t hrough s ome b arrier o f w hich a ll t races h ad d isappeared. I f s o i t w as a u nique f eature o n t he s ite, a nd m ight i mply t hat t he o ccupants o f E nclosure V I h ad s pecial s tatus. B urials H uman r emains a re d ealt w ith b elow u nder t he R oman s ection, b ut a t l east o ne b urial w as o f I ron A ge d ate. T his w as a s hallow g rave i n t he n orthwest a ngle o f E nclosure I II w ith t he f lexed i nhumation o f a n a dult f emale, r adiocarbon-dated t o 1 20 b c ±9 0 ( HAR 6715). F inds T he a rtefacts c haracteristic o f t he I ron A ge w ere l imited t o t wo c lasses, p ottery a nd q uerns. N o m etal w as f ound, t hough m etal t ools s eemed t o h ave b een e mployed t o c ut a t l east s ome o f t he b edrock f eatures. T here w as a s mall q uantity o f p re-villa R oman f ine w are, g lass a nd b ronzework. P ottery T he n ative p ottery c ame f rom d itches, g ullies, h earths a nd r esidual c ontexts. I t w as s parse i n r elation t o t he a rea e xcavated, m ostly f ragmentary, a nd n ot a lways i ndisputably i dentifiable a s I ron A ge w hen s et a gainst s ome o f t he l ess s ophisticated o f t he R oman p roducts. V essels w ere h andmade i n a v ariety o f c oarse i ll-levigated m ineral-gritted f abrics, f ired t o v arying d egrees o f h ardness w ith n o a pparent c ontrol o ver o xidation/reduction c onditions. T he r esulting p oorly f inished w ares w ere g enerally s usceptible t o b reakdown i n t he s oil. M ost w ere j ars i n v ery b asic f orms, s ome q uite l arge, w ith u ndeveloped r ims w hich w ere e ither p lain, p inched t o l ightly e verted, b eaded, o r w ith a n i nternal l edge. D ecoration w as a bsent. T he a ssemblage i s h owever s ignificant a s i t r epresents t he m odest b eginnings o f a c eramic c orpus s till t o b e e stablished f or t he I ron A ge o f W est Y orkshire. T hin-section a nalysis b y M r R R unnacles a t t he U niversity o f B radford n oted t he p etrological v ariation o f i nclusions b ut w as u nable t o p oint c onclusively t o a reas o f o rigin. D espite t his, a nd w hile t here w as n o e vidence f or m anufacture o n s ite, t he f requency o f M illstone G rit i nclusions s uggested t he l ikelihood o f p roduction a t n o g reat d istance. T he v essels c ould n ot i n g eneral b e p aralleled o n E ast Y orkshire s ites ( the l ate T C M B rewster p ersonal c ommunication). S ome s imilar f orms h ave a ppeared a t T horpe T hewles i n C leveland ( Swain 1 987), b ut d irect c omparison o f t he f abrics h as y et t o b e c arried o ut.
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Q uerns T he e xcavation p roduced t wo s addle q uerns, a nd a n u nusually l arge n umber o f b eehive q uerns, a ll i n M illstone G rit: 2 1 u pper a nd 1 l ower s tones. I n a ddition t he f armer h ad p loughed u p m ore t han a d ozen. A t L edston, b y c omparison, o nly t wo u pper s tones a nd o ne l ower w ere f ound. W hilst s ome b eehives d ated f rom t he v illa p eriod w hen t hey w ere i n u se c oncurrently w ith d iscoidal q uerns, t he t ype i s e xamined h ere a s i t c onstitutes a m ajor t hough n eglected f actor i n t he e vidence f or t he I ron A ge, a nd t he s ize o f t he g roup i nvites s tudy. O ne l ower s tone w ith a n u nfinished g rinding f ace ( abandoned o wing t o n atural f aulting) i ndicated m anufacture o n s ite, t hough u ndated. I n t he I ron A ge m any i f n ot a ll o f t he b eehives w ere s eemingly d erived f rom l arge s ub-angular a nd s ub-rounded g ritstone e rratics w hich s till o ccur i n n eighbouring f ields. T heir n atural s hape w ould m inimise t he a mount o f d ressing r equired, w hich s uggests h ow t he b eehive f orm m ay h ave o riginated. C onventional t hickness/diameter p lotting w ould t herefore m erely t end t o r eflect t he d imensions o f t he p arent e rratics. U pper s tones w ere u sually m ore s moothly f inished t han l ower s tones, w hose e arthfastness i n u se w ould b e a ided b y r ough s urfaces. M ost h ad o nly o ne h andle s ocket, a nd t he o ccasional s econd s ocket w as e vidently a r eplacement t o e qualise a symmetrical w ear o n t he g rinding f ace r esulting f rom o scillatory r ather t han r otary m ovement. I t c ould b e s hown f rom t he w ear p atterns t hat s ome q uerns h ad b een o perated m ainly w ith t he r ight h and a nd o thers i n a l eft-handed f ashion. T here w ere m any e xamples o f r euse, n ot o nly a s r oundhouse p ostp ackings, a nd i n v illa f oundations a nd o ven w alls, b ut m ore e specially a s c hopping b locks a nd a nvils. F rom t he f requency o f t hese a nd s imilarly d amaged t hough u nremarked p arallels i n t he l iterature, a d iscarded b eehive m ay r eadily b e i magined a s t he I ron A ge o r R oman e quivalent o f a p ortable w orkbench. P arallels f or ' workmate ' q uerns h ave b een n oted a t, a mongst o ther s ites, T horpe T hewles, C leveland ( Heslop 1 987: f igures 5 4.4, 5 4.6, 5 5.13); H artburn, N orthumberland ( Jobey 1 973: f igure 1 3.4); a nd R othwell H aigh, W est Y orkshire ( Sumpter a nd Y arwood i n p reparation). O ther p re-villa a rtefacts P re-villa f ine w ares w ere l imited t o av ery f ew s herds o f S outh G aulish s amian w are, s ome f rom p revious f ieldwalking. T o t hese m ay b e a dded t hree g lass b angles a nd o ne g lass b ead o f F lavian/Trajanic d ate i dentified b y D r J P rice; a nd t wo b ronze f ibulae p ossibly o f F lavian d ate i dentified b y M r D F M ackreth, b oth o f w hose s pecialist c ontributions w ill a ppear i n t he f ull r eport [ editorial n ote: t he b angles a re i ncluded i n P rice t his v olume]. E ach o f t hese o bjects w as r esidual i n c ontext o r u nstratified. A nimal b ones A nimal b ones a wait t he c ompletion o f s tatistical a nalysis, b ut t he m ore c ommon f arm a nimals w ere p resent i ncluding c attle, s heep, h orse a nd p ig. S ome o f t he u ndated d og b urials m ay h ave b een I ron A ge i n o rigin.
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D ating T he s tructural s uccession i mplied a t l east s everal g enerations o f I ron A ge o ccupation. N one o f t he I ron A ge a rtefacts w as a t a ll c losely d atable, h owever, t hough t he n umber o f b eehive q uerns a ppeared t o p oint t owards t he l ater p art o f t he p eriod. T he n ative p ottery w as n ot a ccompanied b y i mports f rom t he R oman w orld t o t he e xtent r ecorded a t S tanwick i n N orth Y orkshire ( Wheeler 1 954), t hough t his m ay s ignal n othing m ore t han t he d ifferential s tatus o f t he t wo s ettlements. T he f ew f ragments o f F lavian f ine w ares a nd g lass a nd b ronze o rnaments n oted a bove s eemed i nsufficient t o g ainsay t he o verall e vidence f or a bandonment o f t he s ite b efore e xtensive R omanisation o f t he r egion h ad t aken e ffect. F urther i nformation w as p rovided b y r adiocarbon a nalysis. A lready d escribed i s t he i nhumation d ated t o 1 20 b c ±9 0 ( HAR 6715). O ther d eterminations o n a nimal b one f rom t he l ower f ills o f e nclosure d itches w ere 1 40 b c ± 8 0 ( HAR 6716), a nd 3 70 b c ±1 20 ( HAR 6727). A s imilar s ample f rom t he r ing-gully o f R oundhouse 6 g ave 3 70 b c ±9 0 ( HAR 6725). A ll w ere c omputed u sing t he 5 570 h alf-life. T he r adiocarbon d ates s uggested t hat I ron A ge o ccupation s panned t he f ourth t o t he s econd c enturies B C a t t he l east, a nd t he i mported i tems i mplied s ome d egree o f c ontinuity o f s ettlement i nto t he l ate f irst c entury A D.
T HE R OMAN V ILLA ( Figure 1 2.6) R elative c hronology a nd l ayout T here w as n o c ontinuity o f o ccupation b etween t he I ron A ge s ettlement a nd t he R oman v illa, f or a l ong h iatus i n t he p ottery a nd c oin e vidence i ndicated t hat t he v illa w as n ot f ounded u ntil t he l ate A ntonine p eriod o r t he e arly t hird c entury. N evertheless t here w as a d egree o f s tructural c ontinuity. B oundaries f or t he w estern h alf o f t he v illa c omplex w ere a pparently c reated b y r e-digging t he p artly s ilted e xtreme n orth a nd s outh I ron A ge e nclosure d itches, t hough f or a n u ncertain l ength, a nd b y r ecutting t he w estern d itch o f E nclosures I a nd I V a nd e xtending i t 4 0 m etres n orthward a s a s traight d itch a cross E nclosure V I. T he o nly s ign o f t he e astern l imit w as a p air o f p ostpits p acked w ith c lay a nd s ub-rounded e rratics, c onsidered t o f orm t he m ain g ateway i nto t he c omplex a ligned o n i ts e ast-west a xis. S cattered R oman m aterial i n t he u pper f ills o f I ron A ge f eatures s uggested t hat e xtensive l evelling h ad b een n ecessary t o c onstruct t he v illa. A lso s ome R oman b uildings h ad r eused t he s ites o f I ron A ge s tructures. T he l ayout w as b isected b y an orth-south p recinct w all 6 5 m etres i n l ength w ith a y ard t o e ither s ide f lanked b y b uilding r anges t o n orth a nd s outh, a nd s everal s unken-floored b uildings t o t he e ast. W all f oundations r ested o n b edrock o r i n t he s hallowest o f t renches c ut i nto i t, a nd f ew s urvived a bove o ne o r t wo c ourses o f m ixed l imestone a nd g ritstone. P arts o f w alls c rossing I ron A ge d itches w ere r etained b y t he a dhesion o f t he e arth f ills, b ut o ver t he b edrock s ome h ad d isappeared e ntirely. B etter p reservation w as f ound o nly
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b elow b edrock l evel - i n h ypocaust b asements ( see F igure 1 2.8), t he e asternmost s unken-floored B uilding Q ( see F igure 1 2.9).
a nd i n
W hile s ome b uildings h ad b een r eplaced a nd o thers m odified, v irtually a ll p roduced a m ixture o f t hird t o f ourth c entury m aterial, w ith o ccasional l ate s econd c entury p ottery; a nd t he d estruction o f o ccupation l evels r arely a llowed c loser d ating. I n t he a bsence o f a d erived o verall d evelopment s equence, t he s tructures a re d escribed h ere i ndividually r ather t han c hronologically. T he w est y ard B uilding J T he w est y ard w as b ounded o n t he n orth b y B uilding J , a w inged c orridor-house 2 9.6 m etres l ong, o r c irca 1 00 R oman f eet ( at 1.66 i nches t o t he R oman f oot), a t ypical d imension f or h ouses o f t his t ype. I t s tood o n t he h ighest p art o f t he s ite, a nd a n e xterior w all t o t he e ast l inked i t w ith t he p recinct w all. D espite i ts p oor c ondition m ost o f t he p lan w as r ecoverable, e ither f rom f oundations o r r obber t renches. A c entrally p ositioned e ntrance g ave o n t o t he c orridor a long t he s outh f ront, a nd t he t wo w ings e xtended u p t o 1 7 m etres n orthwards. T he s quare e nded e ast w ing h ad b een h eated b y ah ypocaust w ith f lue t o t he e ast, b ut t he a psidal w est w ing h ad s olid f loors w ith m osaics, o ne b eing t he s emi-circular M edusa m osaic l ifted i n 1 854 ( Procter 1 855; R ainey 1 973: 5 7). T he o ther, l arger a nd o f a bstract d esign, w as l eft i n s itu b y t he V ictorians; o n t his e xcavation i t w as b elatedly r etrieved a s d ispersed t esserae f rom t he p loughsoil. T he e xternal w all o f t he w est w ing c ontained u nusually m assive a nd w ell-dressed g ritstone b locks, o f w hich t hree a ppeared t o b e r eused q uoins. E ven o utside t he a rea e xcavated i n 1 854, p revious s tone-robbing a nd s ubsequent p loughing h ad r educed t he d eposits t o t he l evel o f t he h ypocaust b asement, w here t he p ilae p ositions s howed a s s light d epressions i n t he b edrock. O ne o f t he f ew s urviving f eatures i n t he b ody o f t he h ouse w as a s tone-lined o ven w ith a l ong f lue, w hich i ncorporated a b roken l ava d isc q uern i n t he o ven c hamber. B uilding A O n t he s outh s ide o f t he y ard B uilding A w as a r ectangular s tone r ange c irca 2 6 x c irca 7 m etres, b ut t oo b adly d amaged t o e stablish t he f ull p lan o r i ndeed i ts e xact w idth. I t w as j oined t o t he s outh e nd o f t he p recinct w all. I n t he w est p art o f t he b uilding t wo r ectangular o vens o r f urnaces w ere c ut i nto t he b edrock a gainst t he s outhern w all, o ne o f t hem s tone-lined a nd r e-using a g ritstone p ila. N earby a r ectangular p it 1 .8 x 1 .0 x 0 .6 m etres m ight f rom i ts p recise s hape h ave h eld a b uried c hest. N o w ood w as f ound b ut t here w ere t wo r estorable p ots, a D ales w are j ar ( Gillam t ype 1 57) o f t he t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury, a nd a l arge m ineral-gritted j ar o f f ourth c entury t ype ( Gillam t ype 1 61; G illam 1 970) b esides a n o rnate b ronze o penwork p laque 1 05 m illimetres s quare.
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-
0
N J
•
b . °
-9 1
• 1 1,
> CC s J C L )3 C > C D 0 -0 E C
0 _ I D E • H C C . f ) • — 1
A -
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C T
T he w estern h alf o f B uilding A w as u nderlain b y a t imber a isled b uilding a pparently o n t he s ame l ines, w ith s ix p airs o f o uter p osts f orming t he p rincipal m embers; t he s outhern r ow w as s ealed b y t he s tone w all o f t he l ater b uilding. H owever t here w as n othing t o d istinguish t he d ating o f t he t imber f rom t he s tone p hase. B uilding B W ithin t he y ard s tood B uilding B , ad etached L -shaped b ath h ouse m easuring 1 6 x 1 m etres o verall. T he b asements o f t he t wo h eated r ooms w ere 0 .35 m etre b elow b edrock l evel a nd w ell-preserved a part f rom t he r obbed e ast e nd, b ut t he t hird r oom t o t he s outh w as a ll b ut o bliterated ( Figures 1 2.7-8). A s tokepit o n t he n orth s ide h ad f ired a n o blique f lue, w ith a s econd f lue c utting t he c ross-wall i n w hich t wo b ox t iles r emained. M any o f t he o riginal g ritstone p ilae, r oughly d ressed t o a c haracteristic t apering s hape, s urvived i n s itu . R epairs h ad b een e ffected, p robably t wice, w ith r eplacement p ilae o f c oursed l imestone a nd t wo r eused g ritstone c olumn b ases; o ne o f t he l atter s ealed a b ronze a ntoninianus o f C arausius ( AD 2 87-293). C ollapsed d ebris s howed t hat t he s ub-floor w as o f l aminated s andstone i n f lat s labs b ridging t he p ilae, o verlain b y a s mooth m ortar f loor u p t o 0 .20 m etre i n t hickness w ith q uadrant e dgem ouldings. T he b asement f ill a lso i ncluded q uantities o f p ainted
F igure
1 2.7
R oundhouse 6 ( opposed-entrance t ype A ) w ith r ing-gully, l ooking e ast. T o l eft t he s lighter r ing-gully o f R oundh ouse 5 i s p artly v isible. T he v illa b ath h ouse ( Building B ) o verlies b oth s tructures. ( 2-metre s cale).
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F igure
1 2.8
B uilding B : t he t wo h eated r ooms o f l ooking e ast. ( 2-metre s cale).
t he
b ath
p laster, f rom w hich a s ubstantial c eiling p anel a nd t wo w all w ere r econstructed.
h ouse,
f riezes
T he r ubble o f t he s uperstructure s ealed s herds o f H untcliff j ars c onventionally d ated a fter A D 3 60, w hich a s D r P C B uckland ( personal c ommunication) h as s uggested s hould b e r evised t o c irca A D 3 40 o n t he e vidence o f t he C ridling S tubbs c oin h oard ( Pin e 1 968). T his s upplied a t erminus p ost q uer n f or t he u ltimate d emolition. B uilding E A djacent t o t he p recinct w all l ay B uilding E , o f w hich l ittle r emained e xcept t he f loor o f a h ypocaust b asement s moothly s urfaced w ith m ortar a nd s ome f ragmentary f oundations. T he b uilding m easured a t l east 9 x 7 m etres . T ile p ilae w ere m ortared t o t he f loor u p t o f our h igh. T he f lue t o t he n orth w as p aved w ith n arrow t iles o r t hin b ricks, a nd a mongst t he a shy f ill w as a f lat i ron b ar 0 .43 m etre i n l ength. T he e ast y ard B uilding M T he e ast y ard w as b ounded o n t he n orth b y B uilding M , t he l ongest r ange o n t he s ite a t 3 2 x 1 3 m etres, w hose e astern p art h ad b een e xcavated i n 1 854. T he b uilding a djoined t he p recinct w all t o t he w est a nd c omprised a l arge w ork h all w ith a s eparate r oom a t t he e ast e nd, a nd a b ath s uite a long t he s outh f ront. T he b ath s uite w as n ot b onded i n w ith t he m ain s tructure a nd m ight h ave b een a l ater a ddition.
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A gainst t he w est w all o f t he w ork h all w as a T -shaped k iln, 0 .50 m etre d eep a nd n eatly l ined i n g ritstone s howing b urning. S outh o f t his w as a s maller o ven o r f urnace, w hose i ncluded a n u pper b eehive q uernstone a nd w as a lso i ntensively T he e astern r oom m ay h ave b een f or d omestic u se, a s P rocter s uggested t he f ormer e xistence o f a t essellated f loor.
d rying h eavy l ining b urnt. ( 1855)
T he b ath s uite w as a r ow o f s even s mall r ooms o f w hich f ive s erved b y a h ypocaust, l eaving a n u nheated r oom t o e ither e nd. t hird r oom f rom t he w est w as t he p raefurnium, c onnected b y f lues i ts n eighbours 0 .60 m etre b elow b edrock l evel, i n w hich w ere p ilae s urviving u p t o 1 7 c ourses h igh. T he t iled f urnace f lue b een l engthened, a nd w as i n p art a lmost v itrified f rom h eat. p raefurnium a nd t he a djacent r oom t o t he w est w ere b ased o n n atural l imestone, b ut t he o ther t hree b asement r ooms t o t he e ast f loored i n m ortar.
w ere T he w ith t ile h ad T he t he w ere
T he w ork h all w as p re-dated b y a n a isled h all o f t he s ame w idth w hich h ad e xtended 2 .5 m etres f urther w est, m easuring 2 7.0 x 9 .5 m etres o verall. I ts s tone f oundations w here s een w ere s lighter, a nd w ithin i t w ere 1 1 p airs o f s ubstantial p ostholes f or a isle p osts. T his e arlier b uilding h ad t wo s tructural p hases, a s e ach a isle p ost w as a r eplacement f or a n a djacent e arlier p ost. B uilding F O n t he s outh s ide o f t he e ast y ard a nd a djoining t he p recinct w all w as B uilding F , a l ong r ectangular r ange m ostly r educed t o a s pread o f r ubble. I ts l ength w as u ncertain b ut c ould h ave b een u p t o 2 6 m etres. T he w idth w as 7 .5 m etres, t hough a t t he w est e nd t here w ere t races o f a n a dditional r oom t o t he n orth. S ix m etres f rom t he w est e nd l ay a c ross-wall. T he e astern h alf o f t he b uilding m ay h ave h ad a r oughly p aved f loor. T he o ther m ain f eatures w ere a s tone-lined f lue a t t he w est e nd, a nd a g roup o f h eavily b urnt c hannels i n t he b edrock e ast o f t he c ross-wall. B uilding Z B uilding Z l ay 8 m etres s outh o f B uilding M . I t w as a s mall r ectangular t imber s tructure w hich h ad n ot b een r ebuilt i n s tone. T he r emains w ere l imited t o f our p airs o f e qui-spaced p ostholes o f m ean d iameter 0 .4 m etre, o f w hich f ive h oles r etained s tone p acking, g iving e xternal d imensions o f 7 .2 x 5 .0 m etres. S unken-floored b uildings B esides t he c onventional a bove-ground s tructures t here w ere s ix d istinctive a nd u nusual s unken-floored b uildings, a ll d isposed o n t he e ast s ide o f t he c omplex a nd a ll o verlying I ron A ge e nclosure d itches. T hree o f t hem, B uildings 0 , P a nd Q , w ere s paced a long t he n orthernm ost d itch. B uilding R l ay w est o f B uilding F , a nd B uildings X a nd Y b oth u nderlay t he w est e nd o f B uilding M . A s w ith t he s urface b uildings t hey p roduced m aterial l argely o f t hird t o f ourth c entury d ate, e xcept B uildings X a nd Y f rom w hich t he f ew s herds r ecovered
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w ere m ainly t hird c entury w here d atable. T he b est-preserved w as B uilding Q , w hich w as e xceptional i n v arious r espects ( Figure 1 2.9). I t w as r ectangular i n p lan a nd 1 7.0 x 7 .3 m etres o verall, w ith m asonry w alling s urviving o n a ll f our s ides a nd a n e ntrance i n t he e ast e nd. T he e astern o ne-third w as r oughly p aved a t b edrock l evel a nd s eparated b y a c urving c ross-wall f rom t he r est o f t he b uilding, w hich w as d ug a s d eep a s 0 .8 m etre i nto t he b edrock. T his b asement a rea h ad a pparently b een f urther r educed b y t he c onstruction o f a n a psidal w all 1 .5 m etres w est o f t he f irst c ross-wall, w ith a c ontiguous i nner s outh w all n arrowing t he b asement b y 2 .0 m etres, f ollowed b y b ackfilling o f t he s pace b ehind t he r eplacement w alls. A T -shaped d rying k iln b uilt i nto t he n orthwest c orner i n t he t hickness o f t he w alls w as a f eature o f t he o riginal b uilding, a nd s howed c onsiderable b urning. I n t he b ase o f t he f lue w as a c lay p ipe s tem, c onfirming t hat t his w as t he t hird o f t he b uildings p artly e xposed i n 1 854. B uildings P , 0 a nd R w ere l ess u niform, a ll a ppearing a s s preads o f r ubble o ccupying r oughly s ub-rectangular h ollows i n t he b edrock u p t o 0 .5 m etre d eep. I n l ength t hey r anged f rom 8 t o 1.5 m etres a nd i n w idth f rom 4 .8 t o 7 .3 m etres. B uilding P w as a psidal-ended a nd s imilar i n s ize a nd p lan t o t he r educed b asement o f B uilding Q , t hough i ts w alls w ere l imited t o a s ingle c ourse o f g ritstone b locks s et o n a l edge c ut i nto t he b edrock 0 .3 m etre a bove t he f loor. B uildings 0 a nd R w ere w ithout a ny r ecognisable w alling. I nfrequent p eripheral p ostholes d efied v isualisation o f t he s uperstructures. I nternal f eatures s hared b y s ome o r a ll t he s unken-floored b uildings w ere r ough p aving, s hort h eated c hannels, s tone h earths a nd e arthfast b eehive q uerns, l eading t o i nterpretation a s a gricultural f arm w orkshops.
F igure 1 2.9
S unken-floored B uilding Q , l ooking w est. T -shaped d rier i s b uilt i nto f ar r ight-hand c orner. ( 2-metre s cale).
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B uilding X , o n t he n orth s ide o f B uilding M , w as r elatively l ong a nd n arrow: c irca 1 4 x4 .3 m etres, a nd 0 .5 m etre d eep a t t he w est e nd. L ittle w alling s urvived e xcept o n t he s outh s ide, w here i t u nderlay t he n orth w all f or t he f irst p hase o f B uilding M . T here w ere s everal p ostholes n ear t he e dges, a nd f our l ower b eehive q uernstones w ere b edded i n t he b ase. I mmediately t o t he s outh, B uilding Y w as n either c ompletely d efined n or f ully e xcavated, s ince i t l ay b eneath t he w est e nd o f B uilding M . I t w as c irca 1 5 m etres l ong, p ossibly 1 0 m etres w ide, a nd 0 .5 m etre d eep t o t he w est. T he o nly w alling l ocated w as a t t he e ast e nd. T hree p ostholes i n t he b edrock m ay h ave l ain o n t he l ong a xis; a nd i n t he n ortheast c orner a s mall s tone-capped d rain l ed o ut u nder t he w all. W ater s upply W ells I n e ach y ard w as a w ell w ith a c ircular r ock-cut s haft. T o t he w est, W ell 2 l ay i mmediately s outh o f B uilding E , b ut w as n ot e xplored b elow t he t op 2 m etres s ince t he s tructure a ppeared s imilar t o a nd t he f ill p ossibly c ontemporary w ith W ell 1 . I n t he e ast y ard W ell 1 w as n ear t he s outheast c orner o f B uilding M , a nd w as e xcavated t o i ts f ull d epth o f 1 7.5 m etres b elow b edrock. A round W ell 1 w ere e ight p ostholes t o s upport a s ubstantial t imber w ell-house 6 .7 x 5 .7 m etres a nd p erhaps t he l ifting g ear. T hey s urrounded a c onstruction p it 4 .0 m etres i n d iameter, d ug f or 1 .5 m etres t hrough t he f ragmented l imestone t o t he t op o f s olid b edrock. A n e ncircling w all o riginally a bove t his l evel h ad b een d emolished. T he s haft w as 2 m etres a cross, w ide e nough f or d ouble-bucket o peration w ith o ne o r m ore e mpty b uckets d escending t o c ounterbalance t he a scending l oad, a s s uggested a t R udston v illa i n e ast Y orkshire ( Pacitto 1 980). M uch o f t he f ill c omprised s tructural d ebris o stensibly f rom B uilding M : r oofing t ile, t onnes o f b uilding s tone, a nd a rchitectural f ragments s uch a s c olumn b ases a nd a c apital. T he b ottom 5 m etres w ere w aterlogged, y ielding w ood, l eather a nd p rolific e nvironmental e vidence; t hese d eposits w ere s ieved a nd s ampled o n s ite. Av ariety o f s mall f inds i ncluded s taves w ith i ron f ittings f rom a t l east e ight w ooden b uckets, a c hild's l eather s andal, m uch m etalwork a nd a g lass i ntaglio. A mongst t he a nimal b ones w ere t wo h orses' s kulls. T he p ottery f rom t he w ell r epresented i n b ulk a bout h alf t he t otal f rom t he e ntire s ite. I n t he l owest f ill a f ew l ate A ntonine s herds w ere o utnumbered b y l arge j ars, s ome r estorable, o f t hird c entury T hrolam t ype ( Corder a nd S heppard 1 930). B ut t he g reatest c oncentration w as a t a s lightly h igher l evel a nd a lmost c onfined t o t wo f ourth c entury v essel t ypes: C rambeck l ugged j ars w ith r ecurved r ims ( Gillam t ype 4 0), a nd H untcliff j ars o r c ooking p ots ( Gillam t ype 1 63; G illam 1 970). T he l ate m ortarium ( Gillam t ype 2 89 - d ated A D 3 70-400 o n t he n orthern f rontier) w as t he o nly p ainted C rambeck f orm p resent. M any p ots m ust h ave b een c omplete w hen c onsigned t o t he w ell. A t l east 1 6 l ugged j ars w ere r estorable a nd i n t hree c ases h ardly d amaged, c onstituting a g roup o f w ater-carrying v essels o f s ome u niformity,
t hough
a ll
b y
d ifferent
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p otters,
a s
i nferred
f rom
s tylistic d ifferences i n t he f ree-form a nd t herefore a utographic w avy o r l ooped l ine o n t he s houlder. O ne j ar r etained c ord t ied t o a l ug. F our H untcliff p ots w ere r estored a nd m any h ad t hick e xternal c arbonaceous d eposits b etween r im a nd s houlder, w ith i nternal s caling, i ndicative o f r egular u se f or b oiling w ater o n a n o pen f ire. S ince k itchen w ares i n t he w ell w ere f ew, t he h ot w ater m ay h ave b een f or a blutions i n t he a djacent b ath s uite. T he c oncentration i mplied t hat t he p ots h ad b een k ept i n q uantity i n t he w ell h ouse o r n earby, a nd d espatched t ogether. N othing o f p ost-Roman d ate w as r ecovered, a nd a ll t he s igns p ointed t o a o ne-shot f ill a t, o r s oon a fter, a bandonment o f t he v illa. A queducts T he e vidence f or w ater c onduction c ame a lmost e ntirely f rom t he 1 854 e xcavations ( Procter 1 855), a lthough t he w ells w ere t hen u ndiscovered. T he b ase f or a t ank h ad b een r ecorded a djacent t o t he e ast e nd o f t he b ath-suite i n B uilding M , n ow k nown t o b e 4 m etres n orth o f W ell 1 . F rom t he t ank a ' channel o f s tone' l ed n orthwards f or a bout 2 3.4 m etres t o a s mall c istern o f e dge-set s labs, s upposedly f ed a lso b y a s imilar a queduct t raced f or 3 6 m etres f rom t he n orth. N one o f t his h ad s urvived, t hough s mall s tone b asins w ere f ound a mongst d ebris i n t he w ell a nd e lsewhere. T he 1 855 a ccount m ay b e m istaken i n a scribing a s outhward f all t o t he m ore n ortherly a queduct, b ut t he a lignment m akes s ense i n t erms o f w ater d istribution f rom t he w ell t o t he b aths a nd p resumably f or f arm u se. G iven t he d epth o f t he w ater t able, aw ell-organised s upply s ystem w ould h ave b een e ssential t o t he r unning o f t he v illa. O ther f eatures T his p aper i s n ecessarily r estricted t o t he p rincipal s tructures o f t he v illa, b ut o ther f eatures t ended t o e mphasise t he d egree o f d estruction. T here h ad b een a b lacksmith's f orge 1 5 m etres n orth o f B uilding J , b ut a ll t hat r emained w as a s unken q uenching t ank o f e dges et s labs, w ith t wo p its c ontaining c oal r esidue a nd h ammer-scale r espectively. I solated p atches o f r ubble h inted a t o ther d estroyed b uildings, f or e xample o ne l ying s outhwest o f B uilding R , n ot f ar f rom a c ircular c lay-lined o ven f loored w ith s andstone r oofing s hingles. T wo i rregular d epressions i n t he b edrock 2 5 m etres s outh o f B uilding B m ay h ave b een q uarries, a s a lso a d eeper h ollow s outhwest o f B uilding Q . B urials H uman r emains d ispersed r ound t he s ite c omprised i n a ll f our a dult i nhumations r epresenting b oth s exes, t wo o ccurrences o f u narticulated b ones, a nd t en i nfant b urials. O f t hese o ne a dult a nd f our i nfants l ay t o t he n orth o f B uilding M , i n t he a rea w here t wo a dult a nd o ne i nfant b urials w ere f ound i n 1 854. O ne o f t he a dult b urials w as I ron A ge a s n oted a bove a nd a nother i s d escribed u nder t he A nglo-Saxon s ection, b elow. A t hird w as u ndated, w hile t he f ourth b urial, n orth o f B uilding M , w as R oman a nd d eserves s pecial c omment.
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T he i nterment w as o f a m ale a ged 2 5 t o 3 0 y ears a t d eath, l ying f ace d own w ith t he l egs f lexed u pwards b elow t he k nees, t he n eck i n e xtreme e xtension, a nd t he v ertebral c olumn m arkedly e xtended. T hese p oints w ere o bserved d uring i n s itu e xamination b y D r KM anchester w ho c omments f urther i n t he f ull r eport: ' This p osture c annot b e e xplained b y d eath d ue t o a ny p athological p rocess .. ( it) m ay s uggest b urial w hilst s till a live w ith a ttempt a t e scape f rom t he g rave'. R adiocarbon-dating o f a b one s ample g ave a d 1 70 ± 8 0 ( HAR 6714). I t s eemed l ikely t hat t he i nfant b urials w ere i n t he m ain R oman s ince m ost w ere e ither a mongst t he g roup n ear B uilding M o r e lse i nterred i n t he u ppermost f ills o f I ron A ge d itches. T he v illa e state E vidence f or t he v illa f ield s ystem a nd r outeways h as u ntil r ecently b een n egligible, d espite r egular a erial r econnaissance. B ut d uring 1 986 c ropmarks s howing f ield b oundaries w ere r ecorded b y D r R E Y arwood ( personal c ommunication), w hich i nduced h ope t hat t he e state l ayout m ight e ventually b e p ieced t ogether u nder f avourable c onditions. F inds O pen a rea e xcavation o f t he b uilding c omplex g ave a h igh a rtefact r ecovery, t hough n o m ore d ense t han i s u sually e ncountered o n v illa s ites. I nevitably m uch w as u nstratified t hrough p loughing, w ith v ertical r ather t han h orizontal d istribution. S ome a rtefacts h ave a lready b een i ncluded w ith t he s tructural d escriptions; o thers a re s ummarised h ere. P ottery A h igh p roportion w as v ery f ragmented. T here w ere a f ew A ntonine s amian a nd c oarse w are s herds, b ut m ost d ated f rom t he t hird a nd e specially t he f ourth c entury. T he l argest c omponent w as E ast R iding p ottery i ncluding C rambeck, H untcliff a nd T hrolam t ypes ( Corder 1 928; C order a nd B irley 1 937; C order a nd S heppard 1 931) a lthough t he l atest C rambeck f orms w ere v irtually a bsent. A lso p ervasive w ere s hellg ritted D ales w are j ars ( Loughlin 1 977), a nd s ome S outh Y orkshire p roducts w ere p resent ( Buckland e t a l 1 980). T here w ere n umerous s mall s herds i n c oarse i ndifferent g ritty f abrics o f w hich l ittle c ould b e s aid, e xcept f or o ne c ategory w hich w as m ore d efinable. T his c lass o f v essels h ad h andmade b odies b ut w heel-finished r ims, i n a b rittle f abric f illed w ith s mall m ineral g rits g iving a d istinctive s andpapery s urface; c olour v ariations f rom b lack t o b uff i ndicated a n u ncontrolled f iring a tmosphere. T he c haracteristic f orm, t hough n o c omplete p rofile w as o btained, w as a j ar w ith e verted r ectangular-section r im n ot u nlike s ome M iddle S axon p ottery, f or e xample f rom O tley ( Le P atourel a nd W ood 1 973: 1 34-136, f igure 1 0). P robable p arallels c ome f rom R oman s ites i n t he g eographical w estern h alf o f Y orkshire, a nd D r P C B uckland ( personal c ommunication) h as i dentified t he i nclusions a s d erived f rom M illstone G rit. T he n ame W est Y orkshire w are h as t herefore b een a ssigned t o t hese v essels, w ith a n a pparent d ate r ange f rom t he t hird t o t he m id-fourth c entury. N o
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R oman c ivilian p ottery m anufactories h ave y et b een l ocated i n W est Y orkshire, b ut t his w are s eems l ikely t o h ave b een a l ocal r esponse t o t he d ominating i mports f rom t he E ast R iding. C oins T he c oins h ave b een r eported o n b y M iss E J P in e a nd b arbarous i ssues b y P rofessor H B M attingly. E ighty-six i n t otal w ere r ecovered s panning t he p eriod A D 1 96 t o 3 64/378, o f w hich t he b iggest l osses h ad o ccurred i n t he t wo b ath s uites. F rom t he 1 854 e xcavation a f urther n ine f ell w ithin t he s ame r ange, e xcept f or a d enarius o f A ntoninus P ius o f A D 1 53/154. F our p reviously r eported s urface f inds d ated f rom A D 2 59/268 t o A D 3 60/363 ( Hayes 1 949). T he m ajority o f t he c oins o ccupied a r elatively n arrow b and, h owever, a nd M iss P in e c ommented t hat t he s eries r eflected i ntense a ctivity o n t he s ite o nly f rom c irca A D 2 60 t o c irca A D 3 70.
O ther a rtefacts A v ariety o f o ther f inds r epresented n ormal R omano-British d omestic a nd a gricultural l ife, w ith g lassware; o rnaments o f b ronze, b one a nd j et; i ron t ools; l ead o bjects; w ood, l eather a nd w orked s tone. C rucibles i ndicated b ronze-working. B eehive q uerns p ersisted i n u se u nchanged f rom t he I ron A ge a longside n umerous d iscoidal q uerns, m ostly o f M illstone G rit, t hough t wo i mported l ava e xamples a lso a ppeared. T he m ost n otable s ingle i tem w as o f h igh q uality, a b ronze c andelabrum 1 70 m illimetres h igh w ith a c alyciform h older s upported b y t hree s pirally-fluted r ods o n a c ircular b ase, m ounted o n t ripod f eet i n t he s hape o f d olphins. A nimal b ones S tatistics h ave y et t o b e c ollated b ut c attle, s heep, h orse a nd p ig a t l east w ere r epresented. O f s everal u ndated d og b urials, o ne h ad b een l aid o ut i n a c ircular p it, w ith a t rail o f s heep's l ongb ones a rranged e nd-to-end r ound t he g rave f rom t he d og's n ose t o i ts t ail. T his f ind m ay e qually w ell b elong t o t he I ron A ge o ccupation o f t he s ite. D ating O wing t o t he l imitations o f t he e vidence, t he f oundation o f t he v illa c ould n ot b e c losely d ated b etween t he l ate s econd a nd t he e arly t hird c enturies A D. A t t hat t ime d itches a nd o ther f eatures o f t he I ron A ge s ettlement, d eserted p robably d uring o r s oon a fter t he F lavian p eriod, w ere s till o pen b ut m ight h ave r emained i n a p artly s ilted c ondition f or c enturies w here a ffected b y n atural a gencies o nly. T here w as a p aucity o f c oins e arlier t han t he m id-third c entury, a nd i t i s q uestionable t o w hat e xtent t he l ate s econd c entury p ottery w as r esidual i n u se. T he q uoted r adiocarbon d etermination o f a d 1 70 ± 8 0 f or t he l ive b urial i s p roblematical i n t hat i t i s d ifficulty t o a ssociate s uch a n e vent w ith t he o ccupation o f t he v illa, o r i ndeed w ith a nything e lse.
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A lthough o verall s tages o f d evelopment o f t he v illa c ould n ot b e a dequately a ssessed, l ength o f o ccupation w as s hown b y r epeated r ebuilding a nd t he d ate r ange o f t he f inds, w ith t he i ndicated p eak o f a ctivity i n t he f ourth c entury. A fter A D 3 60 t here w as l ittle p ottery a nd o nly t wo c oins, t he l ater o ne d ated A D 3 64/378. H ence t he v illa m ay h ave t erminated b efore t he e nd o f t he R oman e ra. T HE A NGLO-SAXON P ERIOD T here w ere s igns o f t he s ystematic e limination o f p arts o f t he v illa a fter a bandonment. B esides t he b ackfilling o f W ell 1 w ith t he d emolished s uperstructure o f B uilding M , o ther b uilding d ebris h ad b een u sed t o l evel t he v illa b oundary d itches o n t he n orth a nd s outh. T he n orth d itch p roduced t he h eaviest c oncentration o f p ainted p laster o n t he s ite e xcept f or B uilding B . A mongst t he r ubble i n t he s outh d itch, t ogether w ith I ron A ge a nd R oman p ottery, w ere s everal c onjoining s herds o f a n A nglo-Saxon c inerary u rn w ith c rudely s tamped c hevron d ecoration. T his i s t he o nly v essel o f t he p eriod k nown f rom W est Y orkshire. E ast o f B uilding B a s pread o f s tone d ebris s ealed t he f lexed i nhumation o f a n a dult f emale w ith h ead t o t he w est, w earing a b ronze a nnular b rooch w ith i ron p in o f A nglo-Saxon t ype. C orrosion p roducts h ad p reserved t races o f t wo w oollen t extiles w hich M s E C rowfoot i dentified a s r epresenting w hat w as p robably a t ablet b raid f rom t he n eckline o f a g own, a nd a c oarser t will c loak o r b lanket. A s ilver f aceted-head p in f rom t opsoil w as o f a t ype o ccurring i n R oman a nd A nglo-Saxon c ontexts. H ere i t c ould h ave b een e ither. B eyond t he f unerary e vidence t here w ere n o d emonstrably p ostR oman s tructures t o d enote o ccupation a s o pposed t o a p resence i n t he a rea, a nd t he n ature o f c learance s uggested t hat t he s ite h ad b een r eclaimed f or a griculture. T hereafter i t a pparently r emained u ninhabited t o t he p resent d ay.
D ISCUSSION T his s ummary p aper i s m ore c oncerned t o o utline t he e xcavated e vidence t han t o d issect i t o r a nalyse p arallels, b ut a f ew s alient p oints s hould b e m ade. . T he I ron A ge s ettlement a t D alton P arlours s uperseded e arlier p rehistoric a ctivity a nd i s t he m ost e xtensive k nown i n W est Y orkshire, d espite h aving e scaped p revious d etection f rom t he a ir, a nd t he f irst t o u ndergo l arge-scale e xcavation. I t w as b ased o n m ixed f arming a nd d isplayed t he t ypical a ccessories o f a p reR oman c orn-growing e conomy, c ontrary t o r eceived t radition f or t he r egion. I n t his r espect t he e vidence c omplemented t hat f rom t he s maller e xcavation a t L edston ( Sumpter a nd M arriott f orthcoming), w hich h ad a lready d emonstrated t hat s torage p its w ere, i n f act, p erfectly p ermissible n orth o f t he J urassic Z one. E ach s ite, h owever, h ad a spects w hich t he o ther l acked. L edston r evealed n o l ayout t o c ompare w ith t he s ettlement p attern o f i nterlinked e nclosures a t D alton P arlours, w here a n e quivalent h as y et t o b e f ound t o L edston's
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r ectilinear f ield s ystem. A s D alton P arlours t ook p recedence i n b eehive q uerns, s o L edston e njoyed a h uge n umerical s uperiority i n s torage p its. T he f ew c oarse p ottery v essels f rom L edston w ere u nmatched a mongst t he m ore v aried c eramic a ssemblage a t D alton P arlours. C omparison i s p lainly r elevant s ince t he t wo s ites a re l ess t han 1 5 k ilometres ( 10 m iles) a part, g eologically s imilar, a nd r adiocarbon-dated t o t he s ame p eriod: 3 20-130 b c a t L edston, a nd 3 701 20 b c f or D alton P arlours. T hough L edston m ay h ave b een i n a s pecial c ategory f rom t he c entralised s torage a nd r edistribution f acilities a fforded b y i ts p it c apacity, t he d isparities e mphasise t he n eed f or m ore s ites t o b e i nvestigated b efore, o r i ndeed i f, g eneralisations a re t o b e f ormulated r egarding I ron A ge s ettlement t ypes i n l owland B rigantia. I n f act t he b est p arallel f or t he s uccession f rom i nterrupted d itch t o e nclosures c omes f rom f urther s outh i n t he t erritory o f t he C orieltauvi, a t W akerley i n N orthamptonshire ( Jackson a nd A mbrose 1 978). T he m ost n oteworthy I ron A ge s tructures i n t hemselves w ere t he v arious t ypes o f r oundhouse - a d esignation r etained h ere a lbeit s ometimes a t erm o f c onvenience, a s w ith R oundhouses 1 a nd 5 . A c autionary r eminder o n i nterpretation i s o ffered b y r ing-gullies f ound t o s urround f our-posters a t D anebury i n H ampshire ( Professor B W C unliffe p ersonal c ommunication), t hough a t D alton P arlours t he c urved g ully d ividing o ff t he f our-poster i n t he n ortheast c orner o f E nclosure V II w as o f c onsiderably l arger r adius. O f t he t wo r oundhouses p ossibly b elonging t o t he i nterrupted d itch p eriod, t he s egmental R oundhouse 1 w as u nique a nd r esisted i nterpretation, w hile t he t ripartite r ing-gully o f R oundhouse 5 a t 1 7 m etres d iameter w as a mong t he l argest k nown. T he o pposed-entrance r oundhouses w hich c haracterised t he e nclosure p eriod w ere u nparalleled e lsewhere, y et e vidently a t ried a nd t ested d esign b y t he t ime t hat s ix h ad b een e rected. O wing t o t he d ate o f a bandonment o f t he s ettlement a nd t he l ate e stablishment o f t he v illa, t he I ron A ge/Roman i nterface w as b arely g limpsed h ere a nd h as s till t o b e s atisfactorily e ncountered i n W est Y orkshire. T he s earch p ersists f or e vidence o f d irect B rigantian/Roman i nteraction w hich o ne m ight e xpect c ulturally a s w ell a s m ilitarily. T he R oman v illa, a mong t he m ost n orthwesterly e xamples i n t he E mpire, n onetheless e mbraced t he r efinements t ypically s een i n m ore s outherly R omano-British v illas w ith i ts o rganised p lan, f ormal a rchitecture, a isled b uildings, b aths, h ypocausts a nd m osaics. T he w inged c orridor-house w as a r esidence o f s tyle, i ts p lan a n i nversion o f t he m ore n ormal a rrangement. T he s unken-floored w orkshops w ere u nusual, w ith t he n earest c omparison a t W elton W old v illa o n N orth H umberside ( Mackey 1 973; p ersonal c ommunication). T he c onspicuous b isection o f t he c omplex b y t he p recinct w all, a nd t he t ypes o f s tructure i n t he w est a nd e ast y ards r espectively, i mplied t he c lassical f unctional a nd s ocial d ivision o f v illa u rbana a nd v illa r ustica . E lements o f t he l ayout a nd o ther r esemblances o ccurred i n t he f ourth c entury v illa a t L angton n ear M alton ( Corder a nd K irk 1 932), m ore s o t han a t R udston ( Stead 1 980).
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O f p articular n ote w as t he e vidence f or w ater c onduction f rom t he 1 854 e xcavations ( Procter 1 855) w hich m ust h ave b een c ommon t o o ther v illas, t hough u ltimately o bliterated a s a t D alton P arlours. I ndustrial e vidence i ndicated t hat t he e stablishment w ould h ave b een s elf-supporting o n a d ay t o d ay b asis. F rom D r Y arwood's a erial r econnaissance t he e state w as i n t he o rder o f a t l east 8 0 h ectares ( 200 a cres), a lthough p astoral/arable d istribution i s u nknown. I t i s n ot c lear w here t he v illa p roduce w as m arketed, a s l ittle i s k nown o f t he l ocal r oad s ystem o r t he s tatus a nd c hronology o f t he n earest s ettlements. I nside a r adius o f 8 k ilom etres ( 5 m iles) t here i s e vidence f or R oman o ccupation a t W etherby, T adcaster a nd N ewton K yme; s lightly f urther a field A del, C astleford, Y ork a nd A ldborough a ll l ie w ithin 2 2 k ilometres ( 14 m iles). A d iscussion o f t he o wnership o f v illas i n n orthern E ngland o n t he b asis o f e stimated p robability h as f avoured a rmy v eterans a s t he m ost l ikely h olders ( Branigan 1 980: 2 0-26). A t D alton P arlours t here i s n o s ubstantiation f rom o ther s ources f or E lgee's r eference t o h ypocaust f lue-tiles w ith S ixth l egion s tamps b eing f ound ( 1933: 1 40). N ote m ight p erhaps b e t aken o f t he d itched b oundaries o f t he v illa a nd i ts e levation, i deal f or a m ilitary s ite; L ucius A nnaeus S eneca s tated i n t he f irst c entury A D t hat a rmy o fficers i n R ome b uilt t heir v illas o n t he h ighest a vailable g round ( Epistulae M orales 5 1). B ut h ere t here i s a s y et n o f irm e vidence a nd t he q uestion r emains o pen. A t t he e nd o f t he v illa 's l ife t here w as e vidently n o f urther u se f or t he b uildings b ut t he l and w as r equired, a s s hown b y t he e xtent o f d emolition a nd l evelling. T he A nglo-Saxon c ross-shafts i n C ollingham c hurch ( Collingwood 1 915: 1 55-161), a nd t he D omesday m ention o f C ompton, i mply t hat t he c entre o f s ettlement m oved t o t he w est i n t he p ost-Roman p eriod. T his p aper h as b egged m any q uestions, o f w hich s ome s hould b e b etter s erved b y t he f inal r eport. B ut i n s ummation, t he e xcavation d emonstrated h ow a t hriving I ron A ge m ixed e conomy f arming s ettlement w as r eborn a s a p rosperous R oman v illa a nd s ubsequently r educed t o A nglo-Saxon a nd l ater o utfields.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS G ratitude i s f irst o wed t o M rs P L angrick a nd h er s ons f or i nviting a rchaeologists t o t heir f arm i n t ime t o f orestall o bliteration o f t he m onument. T he f ormer l andowner t he L ady E lizabeth H astings T rust c onsented t o r escue e xcavations b y t he W est Y orkshire C ounty A rchaeology U nit, n ow t he W est Y orkshire A rchaeology S ervice, a nd p resented t he f inds t o L eeds C ity M useum. T he q uality o f t he r ecord s prings f rom t he e fforts o f t he e xcavation t eam a nd l ocal v olunteers, a nd p articularly t he w ork o f t he A ssistant S upervisor M r A S T indall. T he s pecialist a nalyses b riefly q uoted h ere a re a ttributed i n t he t ext. T he p hotographs i n t his p aper w ere t aken b y M r SW ager. E xcavation f inance c ame f rom t he f ormer W est Y orkshire M etropolitan C ounty C ouncil w ith h elp f rom t he D epartment o f t he E nvironment a nd t he M anpower S ervices C ommission. P ost-excavation w ork i s f unded b y t he J oint S ervice C ommittee f or A rchives a nd A rchaeology u nder t he
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l eadership o f W akefield M etropolitan D istrict C ouncil, w ith g rant a id f rom E nglish H eritage. A ll t hese a nd m any o thers d eserve t hanks f or t heir a ssistance t owards t he s uccess o f t he p roject.
B IBLIOGRAPHY B ranigan, K 1 980 V illas i n t he n orth: c hange i n t he r ural l andscape? I n K B ranigan ( ed) R ome a nd t he B rigantes . U niversity o f S heffield: D epartment o f P rehistory a nd A rchaeology: 1 8-27. B uck l and, P C , M agilton, J R a nd D olby, M J 1 980 T he R oman p ottery i ndustries o f S outh Y orkshire: a r eview. B ritannia 1: 1 45-164. C ollingwood, W est R iding.
W G 1 915 A nglian a nd A nglo-Danish s culpture i n Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal 2 3: 1 29-299.
t he
C order, P 1 928 T he R oman P ottery a t C rambeck, C astle H oward . R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 1 . Y ork: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C order, P a nd B irley, M 1 937 A p air o f f ourth c entury R omanoB ritish p ottery k ilns n ear C rambeck, w ith a n ote o n t he d istribution o f C rambeck w are. A ntiquaries J ournal 1 7: 3 92-413. C order, P a nd K irk, J L 1 932 A R oman V illa a t L angton, n ear M alton, E ast Y orkshire . R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 4 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C order, P a nd S heppard, T 1 931 R oman p ottery a nd k ilns a t T hrolam, n ear H olme on-Spalding M oor, E ast Y orkshire . T ransactions o f t he E ast R iding A ntiquarian S ociety 2 7: 1 -35. E lgee, F a nd E lgee, H W M ethuen.
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T he A rchaeology o f Y orkshire .
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F aull, M L a nd J ames, H 1 981 T he R oman P eriod. I n M L F aull a nd S A M oorhouse ( eds) W est Y orkshire: a n A rchaeological S urvey t o AD 1 500 . W akefield: W est Y orkshire M etropolitan C ounty C ouncil: 1 41-170. G illam, B ritain .
J P 1 970 T ypes o f R oman C oarse P ottery V essels i n N orthern T hird e dition. N ewcastle-upon-Tyne: O riel P ress.
H ayes, R H G reene ( ed) 2 37-238.
1 949 C ollingham - ' Dalton P arlours' R oman v illa. I n D R oman Y orkshire. Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal 3 7:
H eslop, D H 1 987 T he E xcavation o f a n I ron A ge S ettlement a t T horpe T hewles, C leveland, 1 980-82 . L ondon: C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology R esearch R eport 6 5. J ackson, D A a nd A mbrose, TM 1 978 N orthants, 1 972-75. B ritannia 9 : 15-242.
E xcavations
a t
W akerley,
J obey, G 1 973 A n ative s ettlement a t H artburn a nd t he D evil's C ausew ay, N orthumberland. A rchaeologia A eliana ( fifth s eries) 1 : 1-53.
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L oughlin, N 1 977 D ales w are: a c ontribution t o t he s tudy o f R oman c oarse p ottery. I n D P S P eacock ( ed) P ottery a nd E arly C ommerce: c haracterisation a nd t rade i n R oman a nd L ater C eramics. L ondon: A cademic P ress:
8 5-106.
L e P atourel, J a nd W ood, P Y ork's m anor h ouse a t O tley. 15-141.
1 973 E xcavation a t t he A rchbishop o f Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal 4 5:
M ackey, R W 1 973 W elton W old v illa. I n D RW ilson B ritain i n 1 972 I . S ites e xplored. B ritannia 4 : 2 81-282.
( ed)
R oman
P acitto, A L 1 980 I ron o bjects f rom t he b ottom o f t he w ell. I n IM S tead R udston R oman V illa . L eeds: Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety: 10-116. P in e, R iding.
E J 1 968 A C onstantinian c oin h oard f rom W omersley, Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal 4 2: 1 27-129.
W est
P rocter, W 1 855 A n a ccount o f t he e xcavation o f t he r emains o f a R oman v illa n ear C ollingham. P roceedings. o f t he Y orkshire P hilosophical S ociety 1 : 2 70-281. R ainey, A 1 973 M osaics i n R oman B ritain: a g azetteer . D avid a nd C harles. S tead, I M 1 980 A rchaeological S ociety.
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S umpter, A B 1 978 D alton P arlours v illa. I n R G oodburn ( ed) R oman B ritain i n 1 977 I . S ites e xplored. B ritannia 9 : 4 28. ed) R oman S umpter, A B 1 979 D alton P arlours v illa. I n R G oodburn ( B ritain i n 1 978 I . S ites e xplored. B ritannia 1 0: 2 88, 2 90. S umpter, A B 1 981 B ritain i n 1 980 I .
D alton P arlours v illa. I n F 0 G rew ( ed) S ites e xplored. B ritannia 1 2: 3 30.
R oman
S umpter, A B a nd M arriott, JK f orthcoming A n I ron A ge g rain r edistribution c entre a t L edston. Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal. S umpter, A B a nd T indall, A S A ge S ettlement a nd R oman V illa .
i n p reparation
S umpter, A B a nd Y arwood, R E i n p reparation a nd R oman w ell a t R othwell H aigh . S wain, o f a n L ondon:
D alton P arlours I ron
A n I ron A ge e nclosure
H P 1 987 T he I ron A ge p ottery. I n D H H eslop T he E xcavation I ron A ge S ettlement a t T horpe T hewles, C leveland, 1 980-82 . C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology R esearch R eport 6 5: 5 7-71.
W heeler, R EM 1 954 T he S tanwick F ortifications, N orth R iding o f Y orkshire . O xford: S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon R esearch R eport 1 7.
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1 3:
A P ENNINE G AP?
T HE R OMAN P ERIOD I N T HE N ORTH Y ORKSHIRE D ALES RF W HITE
T he Y orkshire D ales, p art o f t he P ennine b ackbone o f E ngland, f orm t he w estern t hird o f t he p ost-1974 c ounty o f N orth Y orkshire. T he n atural b eauty o f t his a rea h as l ong b een r ecognised, m ost f ormally b y t he d esignation o f 6 80 s quare m iles a s t he Y orkshire D ales N ational P ark i n 1 954, b ut t he c ultural h eritage a nd i n p articular t he a rchaeology h ave n ot r eceived t he d etailed a ttention t hey d eserve. T his p aper w ill c oncentrate o n t he u pland a rea, m ost o f w hich i s i ncluded i n t he N ational P ark, b etween t he W harfedale-Skipton-Settle g ap i n t he s outh a nd t he N orth Y orkshire c ounty b oundary o n t he n orth, ab oundary w hich n ow l ies j ust t o t he s outh o f t he S tainmore g ap. I t i s p rimarily i ntended t o i ndicate t he c urrent s tate o f k nowledge o f a ctivity i n w hat c an l oosely b e t ermed t he R oman p eriod.
T HE P HYSICAL B ACKGROUND T he t opography, a s t he n ame o f t he N ational P ark s uggests, i s d ominated b y a s eries o f v alleys - t he d ales. T hese v alleys f orm n atural c orridors o f c ommunication a nd c ontain t he m ain a ctivities o f b oth s ettlement a nd a griculture. T heir w idth a nd c haracter a re s trongly i nfluenced b y t he s olid g eology a nd g lacial a ctivity. G eologically m ost o f t he Y orkshire D ales a rea c onsists o f a lmost h orizontally b edded C arboniferous r ocks. O f t hese t he m ost i mportant a re t he G reat S car L imestone, o verlain b y t he Y oredale s eries o f s oft m udstones a nd h arder s andstones a nd l imestones, w hich i n t urn a re o verlain b y M illstone G rit. M illstone G rit f orms t he c apping o f t he T hree P eaks, I ngleborough, W hernside a nd P en-y-Ghent, t he h ighest f ells i n t he a rea, a nd a lso d ominates t he t opography o f N idderdale a nd S waledale. T he v arying r esistance t o e rosion o f t he r ocks i n t he Y oredale s eries i s r esponsible f or t he c haracteristic t erraces o f W ensleydale, w hile d ifferential e rosion a long b edding p lanes i n t he G reat S car L imestone i s r esponsible f or t he s tepped v alley p rofile o f m uch o f W harfedale. A ll b ut t he h ighest p eaks w ere i ce-covered d uring t he l ast g lacial a dvance; g lacial e rosion a nd s ubsequent g lacial d eposits, p articularly m oraines, d rumlins a nd d rift t ails, h ave c onsiderably m odified t he t opography. T he v arying e ffects o f b oth g eology a nd g lacial a ctiQity m ean t hat t he p rincipal d ales e ach o ffer s lightly d ifferent o pportunities f or a griculture a nd s ettlement, o pportunities w hich a re r eflected i n t he e xtent a nd v ariety o f t he a rchaeological e vidence s o f ar r ecognised. S TRANDS O F
I NVESTIGATION
A rchaeological F ieldwork E vidence f or R oman a ctivity i n t he a rea f irst e nters t he a ntiquarian o r a rchaeological l iterature w ith C amden's r eferences t o t wo d edication s labs f ound i n t he f ort a t B ainbridge b efore A D 1 600 ( Collingwood a nd W right 1 965: 2 43). T he G argrave v illa w as f irst i nvestigated i n t he e arly e ighteenth c entury ( Whitaker 1 805: 1 69; 1 878: 2 99); o ther e arly f inds i nclude a c oin h oard n ear G iggleswick
1 97
( WE 1 784: 2 59) a nd t wo l ead p igs o n H ayshaw B ank ( Kirkland 1 735). V ictorian a ntiquarians e xplored a n umber o f s ites, p rincipally c aves i n t he C raven d istrict a round S ettle b ut a lso s ites i n W ensleydale a nd S waledale s uch a s t he v illa a t M iddleham, L ady A lgitha's C ave a t L eyburn a nd t he s mall f ortified e nclosure a t W hitcliffe S car, R ichmond ( Horne 1 887; S peight 1 897: 9 1; T opham 1 882). A l ocal t radition o f a rchaeological i nvestigation w as e stablished b y t he V ictorian c ave e xcavators i n t he C raven a rea. T his t radition , d eveloped b y, a mongst o thers, R aistrick a nd m ore r ecently K ing, i s r eflected a nd r einforced b y t he C raven m useum a t S kipton. T his m useum, s uccessor t o a p rivately r un m useum a t G rassington, i ncludes s tray f inds a nd d iscoveries o f a ll p eriods i n a ddition t o e xcavated m aterial i n i ts c ollections. T he P ig Y ard C lub m useum a t S ettle a lso r eflected t his t radition a nd c ontained s ignificant m aterial f rom t he a rea b ut i s n ow n o l onger r eadily a ccessible. T he a rchaeology o f t he f ormer N orth R iding a rea o f t he Y orkshire D ales h as b een l ess w ell s tudied a nd r ecorded. T wo p rivate m useums i n W ensleydale w hich c ontained a rchaeological m aterial h ave b een d isbanded a nd t he c ollections d ispersed, a lthough s ome o bjects w hich w ere i n b oth t he f ormer Hornets c ollection i n L eyburn a nd t he B olton C astle m useum a re n ow i n t he U pper D ales F olk M useum c ollection. R elatively f ew s tray f inds o f R oman o r o ther d ate h ave b een r ecorded i n t he n orthern d ales d uring t he t wentieth c entury a lthough a h oard o f 3 6 d enarii, i ncluding t wo o f D omitian ( AD 8 1-96), a nd o ne p robably o f F austina, w ife o f A ntoninus P ius ( AD 1 38-161) w ho d ied i n A D 1 41, w as f ound b y m etal d etectors a t G rinton i n 1 987 ( L P W enham p ersonal c ommunication) w hile s ome o f t he n ineteenth c entury r ecords a re o f d oubtful v alidity. T he m id- t o l ate n ineteenth c entury r eferences t o c oin h oard(s) a t C arperby c um T horesby ( Ordnance S urvey A ntiquity C ards ( hereafter O SAC) S E 0 8 N W 1 , 2 , S E 0 9 S W 5 , 6 , 7 ), a nd t o c oins f ound n ear n eighbouring B olton C astle i n t he f ormer m useum t here, f or e xample, c ould r efer t o f our h oards b ut t he s imilarities i n t he r eferences s uggest t hat o nly o ne h oard m ay h ave b een f ound ( Bogg 1 895: 2 41; S peight 1 897: 4 43). S ome s ites i n t he n orthern d ales h ave b een r eported i n t he A rchaeological R egister o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal s ince i ts i ntroduction i n 1 962, w hile a n i ntensive s tudy o f p art o f S waledale, c entred u pon t he c onfluence o f t he R iver S wale a nd A rkle B eck, w as b egun b y F leming a nd L aurie i n 1 984, g rant-aided b y t he Y orkshire D ales N ational P ark C ommittee. T he Y orkshire D ales o we a c onsiderable d ebt t o A rthur R aistrick w hose w ide-ranging p ublications, s upplemented b y m aterial c ommunicated t o t he O rdnance S urvey a s a rchaeology c orrespondent, d ominate t he w ritten a rchaeological r ecord o f t he a rea. N evertheless, d espite s ome f ield s urvey a nd d ocumentary w ork i n t he C raven d istrict b eing u ndertaken b y t he R oyal C ommission f or H istoric M onuments ( England) i n t he l ate 1 960s, i t i s n oticeable t hat t he Y orkshire D ales a re n ot s hown a s c overed b y a ny m ajor s urveys i n t wo r ecent r eviews o f a rchaeological w ork i n t he n orth o f E ngland ( Cunliffe 1 983: f igure 2 ; H aselgrove 1 984: f igure 1 .1).
1 98
E nvironmental S tudies T he m ost d etailed s oil m ap o f t he a rea i s t he N orthern E ngland s heet o f t he 1 :250,000 s urvey o f E ngland a nd W ales ( Soil S urvey 1 983). T his c learly i ndicates t he p redominance o f b lanket p eat a nd a cidic c lay l oam s oils o n t he h igher g round a nd t he p resence o f s ome a reas o f f ine l oamy s oils o n d rift d eposits, p articularly i n W ensleydale a nd S waledale, a nd o f s hallow l oamy u pland s oils o n t he C arboniferous l imestone o utcrops. A rchaeological i nvestigation i ndicates c onsiderable s oil d egradation d uring m an's o ccupation o f t he d ales a lthough i t i s d ifficult t o i solate h is r ole i n t his d egradation a nd t o i dentify t he t ime s cale ( Smith 1 975). T here a re e xtensive e xposures o f l imestone p avement, e specially o n t he t erraces o f G reat S car L imestone i n t he R ibblesdale, M alhamdale a nd W harfedale a reas. C onsiderable a reas o f t his l imestone p avement a re o verlain b y t races o f s tone w alls i ndicating l oss o f s oil c over s ince m an's o ccupation, w hile i n p laces s ettlement s ites c onsisting o f s mall e nclosures a nd h ut c ircles o ccasionally u tilise e xposed l imestone ( Fleming 1 976: 3 72). E lsewhere e xamination o f v alley d eposits h as i ndicated c onsiderable s oil d eposition; a n a ccumulation o f c irca 1 .4 m etres ( 4-5 f eet) b eing r ecorded b ehind a m edieval l ynchet a t A ppletreewick ( Smith 1 975: 1 30). A lthough p astoralism i s t he p resent d ominant a gricultural l and u se i n t he d ales t he e xtensive b anks o f m edieval l ynchets a nd d ocumentary r eferences f or t he s urvival o f o pen f ield s ystems u ntil t he s eventeenth c entury a t l east ( Fieldhouse 1 982) a re r eminders t hat m uch e vidence f or p rehistoric a nd R oman l and u se w ill h ave b een d estroyed ( or m odified) b y m edieval a griculture. T he r amparts a nd d itch o f t he h illfort a t H ow H ill, D ownholme f or e xample, o nly s urvive o n t he n orth a nd w est s ide o f t he h ill; t he s outh a nd e ast s ides a re c overed w ith m edieval l ynchets a nd r idge a nd f urrow. T he r emains o f m edieval f ield s ystems ( and a ny o ther s urviving a rchaeological f eatures), h owever, a re t hemselves n ow t hreatened b y c hanges i n t he t echnology o f p astoralism, p articularly i ncreasing m echanisation a nd a s hift a way f rom h ay t o s ilage, a nd b y c hanges i n n ational f arming p olicy w hich e ncourage a fforestation. P arts o f t he n orthern d ales w ere d esignated a n E nvironmentally S ensitive A rea ( hereafter E SA) i n 1 986. T he b oundaries o f t he P ennine D ales E SA w ere d rawn p rimarily t o p rotect h erb-rich h ay m eadows b ut t he v oluntary a greements g iving f inancial i ncentives t o f armers t o m aintain t raditional l ow i ntensity p astoral f arming p ractices a lso p rotect a rchaeological s ites. T he a rea h as a lso b een r elatively p oorly s erved b y p aleoe nvironmentalists, e specially i n c omparison w ith t he N orth Y ork M oors t o t he e ast a nd t he P ennine D ales f urther n orth. A s w ith a rchaeological f ieldwork a nd a erial p hotography, m uch o f t he w ork t hat h as b een c arried o ut h as b een l ocated i n t he C raven d istrict ( Smith 1 986), T insley's w ork o n t he N idderdale M oors ( Tinsley 1 972; T insley a nd S mith 1 974) a nd H oneyman 's w ork i n W ensleydale b eing t he p rincipal e xceptions r elevant t o t his p eriod ( Honeyman 1 985). B oth T insley a nd H oneyman i dentify a n i ntensification o f a griculture i n t he R oman p eriod. T he p icture d eveloped b y T urner ( 1979) e lsewhere i n t he n orth o f a n i ncreasing r etreat o f t he w oodland e dge, e specially t owards t he e nd o f t he I ron A ge a nd i n t he R oman p eriod, a ppears t o h old t rue f or t he Y orkshire D ales a lthough c learance w as p erhaps e arlier i n t he
1 99
C raven a rea. K ing ( 1985) h as p ointed o ut t hat t hree o f t he a reas m ost d ensely c overed w ith ' celtic' f ields a lso c ontain t he m ajority o f N eolithic, B eaker a nd B ronze A ge m onuments. A erial P hotography M uch o f t he Y orkshire D ales a rea h as, h owever, p roved r esponsive t o a erial p hotography, t he b lanket p eat d eposits o n t he h igher m oors b eing t he p rincipal e xception. E arly a erial p hotography w as p rimarily c oncerned w ith i llustrating k nown a rchaeological s ites a nd t heir i mmediate s urroundings, f or e xample e xcavations a t t he R oman f ort a t B ainbridge i n t he 1 920s ( Fisher 1 985) a nd t he L ea G reen c omplex a t G rassington ( Raistrick 1 937). A rchaeological r econnaissance o f t he a rea w as i nitiated b y S t J oseph f or t he C ambridge U niversity C ommittee f or A erial P hotography i n 1 948 w hile m ore i ntensive w ork w as b egun b y R iley i n 1 976 b ut b oth t ended t o c oncentrate o n t he C raven D istrict. B etween 1 978 a nd 1 981 C hadwick c arried o ut s ome s orties i n S waledale a nd W ensleydale f or N orth Y orkshire C ounty C ouncil A rchaeology S ection. S ubsequent i ndexing a nd c omputer m apping o f a ll t he p rincipal c ollections o f a rchaeological a erial p hotographs o f N orth Y orkshire, h owever, h ighlighted t he i mbalance o f p hotography t owards t he C raven d istrict ( White a nd C hadwick f orthcoming). A ccordingly a s urvey p rogramme, i nitially c oncentrating o n S waledale a nd W ensleydale a nd t heir t ributary v alleys a nd o n t he e astern f oothills o f t he d ales, w as c ommenced b y t he p resent w riter i n 1 984. F igure 1 3.1, c omputer p lotted f rom d ata h eld i n t he N orth Y orkshire A erial P hotograph I ndex, s hows t he d istribution o f a rchaeological a erial p hotographs o f t he N orth Y orkshire p art o f t he s urvey a rea, t he r elative p aucity o f p hotography i n p arts o f t he n ortheastern s ector b eing d ue t o a irspace r estrictions o ver t he m ilitary t raining g rounds. F ield s urvey h as a lso b een r estricted i n t his a rea. C omparative d ata a re n ot a vailable f or G arsdale, D entdale a nd S edbergh w hich n ow f orm p art o f C umbria. T HE R OMAN P RESENCE M ilitary P erhaps t he e arliest e vidence f or R oman m ilitary a ctivity i n t he Y orkshire D ales, a n a rea f irmly w ithin t he t ribal t erritory o f t he B rigantes b efore t he R oman C onquest, i s t he h oard o f d ecorated p ieces o f c avalry h orse h arness a pparently f ound, s ome t ime p rior t o 1 833, n ear R eeth, p ossibly o n F remington H agg ( Webster 1 971). W ebster c onsidered t he h oard t o b e p re-Flavian a nd t hus t o p redate t he c onquest o f B rigantia i n A D 7 1-74, a nd s uggested t hat i t m ight r epresent a c ache o f l oot t aken a fter a n e ngagement a nd h idden b y a f ollower o f V enutius. T he e arliest d efinitely R oman s ite i n t he Y orkshire D ales m ay b e t he m arching c amp o f l egionary s ize ( 8.2 h ectares o r 2 0.25 a cres) o n M alham M oor. T he c laviculae s uggest t hat t he c amp i s o f F lavian d ate a nd t hus m ay b elong t o t he c ampaigns o f e ither C erialis o r A gricola. T he c amp w as d iscovered f rom t he a ir b y S t J oseph i n 1 948 ( St J oseph 1 958: 9 7) b ut s o f ar, d espite c onsiderable s earching, n o o ther m arching c amps w ithin a d ay's m arch h ave b een f ound. A r ectangular e arthwork a t C ross G reen, L othersdale w as r ecently c laimed a s a
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PHOTO GRAPHS COLLECT I ONS
D istribution o f a rchaeological a erial p hotographs o f t he n orthwestern p art o f N orth Y orkshire i n t he N orth Y orkshire C ounty C ouncil ( ANY) a nd o ther p rincipal c ollections a s a t A ugust 1 986. C omputer g enerated p lot f rom N orth Y orkshire A erial P hotographic I ndex.
p ossible m arching c amp . b ut t his i dentification h as n ow b een ( Rankov 1 982: 3 48, F rere a nd S t J oseph 1 983: 2 3).
r ejected
T he f ort a t B ainbridge, V irosidum , p robably t he m ost e xcavated f ort i n t he P ennines a lthough n ot f ully p ublished, i s s trategically s ited t o c ontrol t he m ain e ast-west r oute a cross t he s tudy a rea. I t o ccupies a n arrow g lacial m ound c lose t o t he c onfluence o f t he R ivers B ain a nd U re. T he p resent e arthworks a re l argely t hose o f t he F lavian-Trajanic f ort, b uilt c irca 9 0-105 A D a nd o ccupied, p ossibly c ontinuously e xcept b etween c irca 1 20-160 A D, u ntil t he f ifth c entury, b eing r econstructed o n s everal o ccasions. U nderlying t his f ort a re t races o f a n A gricolan p ost, p ossibly a f ortlet r ather t han a f ort. C amden s uggests t hat b elow t he f ort t o t he e ast w ere ' traces o f m any h ouses' i ndicating t hat t here w as a v icus a ttached t o t he f ort ( Camden 1 695: 7 59). T he t hree i nscriptions r ecorded b y C ollingwood a nd W right
( 1965: n umbers 7 22-724) a s b eing f ound i n o r a djacent t o t he f ort h ave b een l ost, w hile a l ocally p ublished t ravel g uide w hich r efers t o s everal s culptured s tones s uggests f urther l osses ( Thompson n o d ate) b ut m ay b e r eferring t o t he c arving o f a f ish t ailed w oman a dorning t he p orch o f t he f ormer Y orebridge G rammar S chool w hich Z arnecki i dentified a s b eing o f l ate t welfth c entury d ate ( Hartley a nd I ngilby 1 953: 4 2). F ourteen k ilometres t o t he e ast a t W ensley t he p archmark o f a 1 .3 h ectares ( 3.25 a cres) F lavian t urf a nd t imber f ort w as d iscovered o n v ertical a erial p hotographs t aken f or m apping p urposes i n 1 975 ( Moorhouse 1 977: 7 ); i t w as r ecorded a gain i n 1 984 ( Figure 1 3.2). T he c lose p roximity o f t he t wo f orts s uggests t hat t hey a re n ot c ontemporary; i t i s p ossible t hat t he W ensley f ort m ay p redate t he c onstruction o f t he B ainbridge f ort o r a lternatively d ate f rom t he p eriod c irca 1 20-160 w hen B ainbridge i s b elieved t o h ave b een u noccupied ( Frere a nd S t J oseph 1 983: 13-114).
F igure
1 3.2
P archmark i n g rass o f R oman f ort a t W ensley. T he p arallel l ines r unning a cross t he f oreground r epresent d ifferential m owing f or a p rivate l anding s trip. A NY 1 67/25; 2 3.07.1984.
2 02
T he e vidence f or t he s upposed f orts a t L ong P reston, s ited o n t he R oman r oad M argary 7 22 ( Margary 1 967: 4 08) i s f ar l ess c onclusive, b eing b ased l argely o n s mall s cale e xcavations c arried o ut b y V illy i n l ess t han i deal c onditions i n 1 923. T wo f orts a re p ostulated, o f c irca 2 .43 h ectares ( 6 a cres) a nd c irca 1 .22 h ectares ( 3 a cres) ( Villy 1 924) b ut f urther e xcavation o f t his S cheduled s ite i s n eeded t o e stablish f irmly t he s ite's t rue i dentity a nd d ating. V illy a lso s uggested a p ossible f ort n ear B ridge E nd i n D entdale b ut h is t rial e xcavation d id n ot p roduce a ny f irm e vidence t o s upport s uch a n i dentification ( Villy 1 937: 2 16). V arious u nsuccessful a ttempts h ave b een m ade t o l ocate a ny R oman m ilitary s ettlement i n S waledale ( for e xample C lark 1 938, t here i s l ittle e vidence t o s ubstantiate t he s uggestion i n F ieldhouse a nd J ennings ( 1978: 4 ) t hat t he s light e arthwork a t S E 0 36991 i s o f R oman o rigin). S waledale t oday p rovides a n i nferior e ast-west r oute t o b oth W ensleydale a nd t he S tainmore p ass ( Margary 1 967: r oad 8 2) t o t he n orth a nd m ay h ave b een s ufficiently c ontrolled b y t he R oman f orts a t B ainbridge a nd/or W ensley a nd b y C atterick ( Cataractonium) o n t he e dge o f t he V ale o f M owbray t o t he e ast. T he a rea o f t he Y orkshire D ales l ies w ithin t he r ectangle f ormed b y R oman r oads c onnecting B rougham, R ibchester, T adcaster a nd S cotch C orner ( Margary 1 967: r oads 7 , 7 2, 8 , 8 2). T he p ostulated r oad 7 22 c onnecting I lkley o n r oad 7 2 w ith L ong P reston a nd p resumably O ver B urrow ( essentially t hat o f t he p resent A 65T) h as a lready b een m entioned. R oad 7 20, f rom I lkley n ortheast t owards A ldborough c rosses t he s outheast c orner o f t he s tudy a rea. T here i s g ood e vidence f or t he r oad l eading s outhwest f rom t he f ort a t B ainbridge t owards I ngleton ( road 7 3), l ess g ood e vidence f or a r oad ( 730) l eading s outh f rom t he f ort t owards W harfedale a nd I lkley a nd n o f irm e vidence f or t he r oad w hich m ust h ave r un d own W ensleydale c onnecting B ainbridge w ith W ensley a nd t he m ain T adcaster-Scotch C orner r oad. A R oman r oad h as b een p ostulated i n t he R awthey v alley n ortheast o f S edbergh ( 731) w hile V illy s uggested a R oman d ate f or ' Cravens W ay' f rom R ibblehead a cross W hernside t o D eepdale a nd D entdale ( Villy 1 938). T hese a re u nproven b ut d espite t he l ack o f e vidence i t i s p robable t hat m any o f t he r outes w hich c onnect d ifferent d ales t oday w ere i n u se d uring t his p eriod. I ndustry T he p rincipal i ndustry, o ther t han a griculture, w as l ead e xtraction. A s mall s cale i ndustry e xisted b efore t he R oman o ccupation a nd K ing r ecords a p ossible p re-Roman m etal w orking s ite a t V ictoria C amp, a bove V ictoria C ave ( King 1 970: 4 17) b ut t he i ndustry w ould h ave b een g reatly s timulated b y t he s pread o f R oman c ivilisation, i n p articular b y t he u se o f l ead p lumbing. I t i s u ncertain a s t o w hat e xtent l ead e xtraction w as u nder I mperial c ontrol, M anning h as s uggested t hat i t w as m ore l ikely t o b e e xploited b y l essees t han b y d irect m ilitary c ontrol ( Manning 1 979: 14) a lthough t rade w ould h ave b een c hannelled v ia t he f orts. S ome I mperial c ontrol i s a ttested b y t he i nscriptions o n t he t wo s urviving R oman l ead p igs f rom t he a rea f ound o n H ayshaw B ank s ometime b etween C hristmas 1 733 a nd F ebruary 1 734, b oth i nscribed I MP. C AES. D OMITIANO.
2 03
A UG. C OS. V II ( Kirkland 1 735; G owland 1 901: p late 5 7.12). A nother p ig, n ow l ost, w ith t he n ame o f t he E mperor T rajan ( AD 9 8) s tamped u pon i t, i s r ecorded f rom t he A ppletreewick a rea ( Lucas 1 885; R aistrick 1 973: 1 8) w hile a f urther R oman p ig i s s aid t o h ave b een f ound c irca 1 876 a t C rackpot i n U pper S waledale ( Hartley a nd I nglby 1 956: 2 01). W hellan n oted ' that a t t he s melt m ill ( at H urst) w as s ome y ears a go, a l arge p ig o f l ead w hich b ore t he n ame o f t he R oman E mperor, H adrian' ( Whellan 1 859: 5 03). H e s tated t hat t his p ig h ad b een ' removed t o t he B ritish M useum ' b ut n o t race o f i t h as s ince b een f ound. I t w as n ot l isted b y W ay i n h is s urvey o f t he R oman l ead i ndustry n or w as i t a mongst t he p igs f rom t he B ritish M useum a nalysed b y G owland ( Gowland 1 901: 4 04; W ay 1 859). H urst h as b een p opularly r eferred t o a s t he s ite o f a R oman l ead w orking p enal c olony ( for e xample S peight 1 897: 2 07), p erhaps l argely o n t he b asis o f t his p ig a lthough t here a re s ome o ther s light s uggestions o f R oman a ctivity. C lough s tates t hat ' miners b roke i nto n arrow R oman a dit w orkings' h ere d uring t he n ineteenth c entury b ut g ives n o g reater l ocational d etail ( Clough 1 962: 1 06), w hile a n o ak s pade c laimed t o b e o f R oman d ate, f ound s ome t ime p rior t o 1 866 i n a l ead m ine i n S waledale b ut i dentified a s f rom H urst, w as a pparently p resented t o t he Y orkshire M useum b y C aptain H arland. W ooden s pades h owever a re s hown i n u se i n i llustrations o f t he s ixteenth c entury l ead i ndustry. A R oman d ate h as a lso b een s uggested f or t he n arrow J ackass L evel a t G reenhow H ill ( Raistrick 1 927: 8 3; C lough 1 962: 1 0, f igure 5 ) a nd i t i s u nfortunate t hat t he w alls o f t his l evel w ere n ot c arefully r ecorded i n a n a ttempt t o i dentify t ool m arks o f d ifferent p eriods ( compare C raddock 1 986), a lthough T ylecote h as p ointed o ut t hat p rimitive t ools c ontinued i n u se u ntil c omparatively r ecent t imes a nd t herefore t hat t ools a nd t oolmarks c annot b e a ccepted o n t heir o wn a s f irm d ating e vidence ( Tylecote 1 962: 1 9). R aistrick h as h owever r eported s amian p ottery a nd o ther d ebris i n p ossible s hallow w orkings n ear G rassington ( Raistrick 1 927: 8 3) a nd a lso t hat g ood m ineral o re i s a ssociated w ith t he s hallowest w orkings. I n v iew o f t he e xtensive m edieval a nd p ost-medieval l ead i ndustry i n t he Y orkshire D ales t herefore i t i s n ot s urprising t hat n o R oman o r p re-Roman e xtraction s ites h ave b een f irmly i dentified. S ettlement a nd A griculture T he e ffect o f t he R oman o ccupation o n t he s ettlement p attern o f t he a rea i s f ar f rom c lear. V illas a re k nown a t G argrave a nd M iddleham b ut b oth o f t hese s ites a re o n t he f ringes o f t he a rea a nd t hus n ot t ypical o f t he u pland z one c haracteristic o f t he Y orkshire D ales. A erial p hotographs s uggest t hat t he G argrave v illa i s s urrounded b y t races o f a n a ssociated f ield s ystem b ut t his h as y et t o b e i nvestigated. G argrave w as o ccupied f rom t he s econd t o t he f ourth c entury A D; n o d ate h as b een s uggested b y t he v arious e xcavators o f t he M iddleham s ite. T hese t wo s ites, h owever, w ith g ood s tructural e vidence f or R omanised o ccupation - a h ypocaust a t M iddleham , a p ost-AD 2 72/3 m osaic a t G argrave - a re e xceptions. S uch e vidence f or o ccupation o f R oman d ate a s h as b een f ound o n s ettlements i n t he D ales p roper
2 04
c onsists m ainly o f f ragmentary p ottery a nd o ccasional c oins a nd o ther s tray f inds. T he r ich d eposits o f t he c aves o f t he S ettle a rea w here K ing h as t raced s ome 9 3 b rooches a ttributable t o 5 s ites, 7 2 o f t hem f rom V ictoria a nd A ttermire C aves ( King 1 970), a nd t o a l esser e xtent t he o utlying c aves i n W harfedale a nd L ady A lgitha 's C ave i n W ensleydale, p rovide a f urther e xception. J ackson's d iscovery i n 1 838 o f V ictoria C ave w ith R oman c oins l ying o n t he s urface o f a s talagmitic c rust s parked o ff a b urst o f a ntiquarian a ctivity i n t he C raven a rea. T en o ther c aves w ithin a m ile o f V ictoria C ave w ere e xamined b y J ackson i n 1 838; ' Cave H unting ', t he t itle o f D awkins' s urvey o f t he r esults o f c ave e xploration, b ecame a f ashionable p ursuit. P rimitive e xcavation t echniques, h owever, c oupled w ith t he a ctivities o f b urrowing m ammals, h ave h indered t he a rchaeological i nterpretation o f t he c ave s ites. O ccupational d ebris h as b een f ound o n s mall t erraces a t t he m outh o f V ictoria, S ewell's a nd C alf H ole C aves. A t V ictoria C ave t his l ed D awkins t o s uggest t hat m ost a ctivity t ook p lace o n t hese t erraces a nd t hat t he d ark g loomy r ecesses o f t he n atural s helter o f t he c ave w ere u sed m ainly a s a p lace o f r etirement f or s helter ( Dawkins 1 874: 8 6). R aistrick h as p ointed o ut t hat t he c aves n eed t o b e c onsidered a long w ith a djacent e nclosures a nd n ot a s i solated i nhabited s ites d ivorced f rom l and, a nd h as s uggested t hat t hey w ere u sed m ainly a s a r etreat o r s helter i n b ad w eather a nd p ossibly a s t he l ocation o f i ron w orking a nd b one w orking c rafts, w hile C ollingwood a nd R ichmond h ave s uggested c ave d wellings w ere ' more s pacious, m ore d urable a nd m ore c omfortable t han t he a verage n ative h ut' ( Collingwood a nd R ichmond 1 969: 1 86). K ing h as d rawn a ttention t o t he n eed t o d ifferentiate b etween c aves p roper, r ock s helters a nd s hafts a nd t o t he i ncrease i n c apacity w hich o ccurs w hen a c ave i s e xcavated ( King 1 974). T he d ifficulty o f a ccess a nd t he q uantity a nd q uality o f t he f inds f rom s ome c aves r aise d oubt a bout t he t raditional i nterpretation a s s ettlement s ites. I n a ddition t o 2 9 b rooches, f inds a ttributed t o A ttermire C ave i nclude t yres, n ave h oops, a l ynch p in a nd o ther c hariot f ragments. T he c ave i s p recipitously s ituated a bove a s teep s cree s lope a nd t he c hariot o r c art m ust h ave b een d ismantled b efore b eing c arried u p t o t he c ave. A t l east o ne h uman s keleton w as a lso f ound i n A ttermire a s w as a s ilver c oin o f E adberht ( AD 7 37-766) a nd c oins o f E dward I I a nd I II ( OSAC S D 8 6 S W 1 3). S ix h uman s kulls w ere f ound d uring t he e xcavation o f S ewell's C ave b ut b ecause o f d isturbance s tratigraphic d ating w as n ot p ossible ( Raistrick 1 936). R aistrick a lso r ecords t hat a t l east t en I ron A ge b urials w ere f ound i n J ubilee C ave ' carefully t ucked a way a long t he s ides o f t he p assages, g enerally u nder a n o verhanging l edge o r t hrust d own i nto s ome d eeper f issure i n t he s ide p assages' ( Raistrick 1 939: 1 28). T he q uantity a nd q uality o f t he m etalwork a nd o ther f inds a rgue a gainst c hance l oss b y a c ave d welling p opulation. I t i s, h owever, c onceivable t hat t he h igh v alue i tems m ay h ave b een h idden i n p laces o f s helter d uring a p eriod o f s ocial u nrest o r t hat r efugees t emporarily o ccupied c aves b ringing w ith t hem t heir m ore v aluable p ortable a rtefacts. A h oard o f 3 5 s ilver a nd 4 b ronze c oins, d ating f rom N ero t o H adrian, w as f ound i n T om T aylor's C hamber i n S tonebeck U p i n 1 868 ( OSAC S E 0 7 S E 7 ). T he R omano-British f inds f rom c aves
2 05
NY
NORTH YORKSH IRE DALES --
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F igure 1 3.3
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71
1 3 0 R oman s ites a nd f inds i n t he N orth Y orkshire D ales.
l argely f all i nto t wo g roups, d ating f rom t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies a nd t he l ate t hird c entury A D - t here w ere s evere d isturbances i n t he P ennines t owards t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury A D a nd a gain i n t he e arly f ourth c entury. T he r ange o f e vidence f or h uman a ctivity i n c aves, f rom t he U pper P alaeolithic p eriod t o t he p resent d ay, s hould b e a r eminder t hat t hey a re a n e nduring f eature o f t he l andscape. A s s uch i t i s n ot s urprising t hat c onsiderable d ifficulties e xist i n i nterpreting t he u ses t o w hich c aves w ere p ut a t a ny p articular m oment i n t ime. U nlike m ost s ettlement s ites t he c aves h ave o n o ccasion p rovided a n e nvironment c onducive t o t he p reservation o f o rganic a nd i norganic m aterial. S adly t he c onditions o f d iscovery a nd r ecording h ave o nly r arely m atched t hose o f p reservation.
2 06
T here i s l ittle o ther e vidence f or R oman f unerary a ctivity i n t he Y orkshire D ales. Ar eported c inerary u rn f rom I ngleborough m ay h ave a ccompanied a b urial a lthough t here i s n o e vidence f or t his ( Clark 1 937). C rowther e xcavated a b arrow a t t he B orrans, G rassington i n 1 922 a nd f ound f ragments o f s amian a nd o ther R oman p ottery, a ssociated w ith a c elt a nd b one c hisel a nd o ther o bjects s uggesting a R omanoB ritish d ate, b ut t hese f inds h ave n ow b een l ost ( Taylor a nd C ollingwood 1 921: 2 04, O SAC S E 0 6 N W 7 ). S ites o n w hich R oman m aterial h as b een f ound a re p lotted o n F igure 1 3.3 a long w ith f ind s pots o f R oman m aterial. A s R amm s uggests ( Ramm 1 980: 3 3) s uch a m ap i ndicates a t b est a g uide t o t he d istribution o f r ural p opulation a nd s ettlement, i t s hould b e c ompared w ith F igure 1 3.4 w hich i ndicates t he d istribution o f a s y et u ndated N Y
NORTH YORKSH IRE DALES Y orksh ire Da les Nat iona l P ark ---
County boundary
-
1 000 ' c ontour
7 0
Ma lha m
RO MAN RO • .— 0
1
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I RON AGE AND ?R .B . SETTLE MENTS,
• \
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2
3
4
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F igure 1 3.4
5 m
70
BO
SE
S ettlements a nd f ield s ystems, u ndated b ut p robably l ate p rehistoric/Roman, i n t he N orth Y orkshire D ales. 2 07
s ettlement s ites. T his d iagram a lmost c ertainly i ncludes s ites w hich f urther e xamination w ill p rove t o b e p re- o r p ost-Roman i n d ate. T he p resence o f t he h illfort a t I ngleborough, a nd l esser s tructures s uch a s C astle S teads ( Teesdale), M aiden C astle, t he e nclosure b elow W hitcliffe S car, t he p ossibly u nfinished ( or s lighted b y m edieval a griculture) h illfort o n H ow H ill, D ownholme ( Swaledale), t he u nnamed f ort b y B raithwaite H all ( Coverdale), T or D yke a t t he h ead o f C overdale a nd t he e xtensive s ystem o f m assive b oundary d ykes a round R eeth i ndicate a s izeable I ron A ge p opulation. T he p resence o f B ronze A ge f unerary m onuments a nd p ossible f ield s ystems s uch a s t hose m apped b y F leming a nd L aurie i n m id-Swaledale a lso i ndicates t hat m uch s ettlement o f t hat d ate i s w aiting t o b e f irmly i dentified. I nsufficient w ork h as y et b een d one t o a llow m orphological c lassification a nd d ating o f t he c onsiderable v ariety o f s ettlements t hat h ave b een i ncluded o n F igure 1 3.4 a lthough R aistrick h as c arried o ut a n umber o f g round s urveys, p articularly i n t he C raven d istrict, s everal b eing o f s ites w hich a re a scribed t o t he I ron A ge/RomanoB ritish p eriod. S ome o f t hese s urveys a re n oted i n t he Y orkshire A rchaeological R egister b ut m any a re u npublished e xcept v ia t he O rdnance S urvey A ntiquity c ard i ndex. C opies o f t his i ndex a re h eld b y t he R oyal C ommission f or H istoric M onuments ( England) i n Y ork, t he r elevant c ounty A rchaeology S ections a nd t he Y orkshire D ales N ational P ark f or t he p ark a rea. R ecent a erial r econnaissance b y t he w riter a nd f ieldwork b y F leming a nd L aurie h ave i dentified a s eries o f p latforms t erraced i nto t he v alley s ides o f b oth S waledale a nd W ensleydale ( Figure 1 3.5).
F igure
1 3.5
t w .
E arthworks o f a s mall s ub-rectangular e nclosure a nd p ossible h ut c ircles t erraced i nto t he h illside o n t he n orth e dge o f S waledale n ear R eeth a ccentuated b y r emnants o f h eavy s now c over. A NY 2 42/18; 2 6.02.1986. 2 08
N 4 1 1 1 (
ae k \
, —j Huker
Mire
0 ',
3
C r ,
T hornton
0
Mire
300
1 00
--4
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200
S tony Ra ise
F igure 1 3.6
S ettlement c omplex a t G reenber E dge, B ainbridge. Y orkshire S cheduled A ncient M onument 1 04). o n ap lot b y P aul C hadwick.
2 09
( North B ased
T hese s cooped p latforms m ay b e o f a v ariety o f p eriods a nd f unctions b ut t races o f h ut c ircles e vident o n s ome e xamples s uggest p ossible s ettlement s ites o f p rehistoric o r R omano-British d ate. T he S waledale e xamples a re c urrently b eing e xamined b y F leming a nd L aurie a s p art o f t heir S waledale A ncient L and B oundaries P roject ( Fleming a nd L aurie 1 986). D etailed p lotting o f s ites r ecorded o n a erial p hotographs h as o nly b een u ndertaken f or a v ery l imited n umber o f s ites, o ne o f w hich i s r eproduced a s F igure 1 3.6. T his i s t he s ettlement c omplex o n G reenber E dge, n ear A ddlebrough, W ensleydale, p robably t he s ite o n H ukermire M oss r eferred t o b y R aistrick ( 1939: 1 21). T hornton M ire a nd H ukermire s eparate t his s ettlement f rom a s maller g roup o f e nclosures o n t he s outh s ide o f A ddlebrough. H oneyman 's p ollen a nalyses f rom T hornton M ire i ndicate a c onsiderable e xpansion o f p astoral a ctivity a nd s ome c ultivation i n t his a rea i n t he I ron A ge a nd R omano-British p eriod ( Honeyman 1 985). I t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat t his a ctivity i s a ssociated w ith o ccupation o f t he s ettlement a lthough s ome d oubt h as b een e xpressed a s t o w hether t his c omplex r epresents a m edieval s hieling. T he p osition a nd m orphology o f t he G reenber E dge c omplex i s i n m arked c ontrast w ith a n e xcavated s ettlement a t A rncliffe ( Leak a nd L eak 1 970). H ere a n o val e nclosure s ome 4 6 b y 4 1 m etres ( 150 b y 1 35 f eet) c lose t o t he v alley b ottom ( Figure 1 3.7) c ontained a n umber o f
F igure
1 3.7
S ettlement c omplex a nd f ield s ystem b y T hornsber B arn, A rncliffe, p art e xcavated 1 969. A NY 3 27/4; 2 8.10.1987.
2 10
F igure 1 3.8
S ettlement c omplex p artly o verlying l imestone p avement a t B lue S car, A rncliffe. ( North Y orkshire S cheduled A ncient M onument 7 24). A NY 3 26/5; 2 8.10.1987.
s maller f eatures i ncluding t hree p robable h uts, o ne o f w hich o n b eing p artially e xcavated p roduced ' several s herds o f R oman c oarse w are i ncluding t wo m ortarium s herds, a w orn s estertius , a n i ron k nife a nd f our f ragments o f r otary q uern'. A lso a t A rncliffe b ut t his t ime o n t he l imestone t errace i s t he s ettlement c omplex ( Figure 1 3.8) a t B lue S car ( Raistrick a nd C hapman 1 929: 7 0-73). A pplebaum s uggested t he l ayout w as i nfluenced b y R oman p lanning ' as i f t he o wner w ished t o i mitate t he r ectilinear l ayout o f a R oman v illage' ( Applebaum 1 972: 1 95). T he O rdnance S urvey h owever s uggests t hat t he s ite i s a n e arly m edieval f armstead ( OSAC S D 9 7 S W 5 ). N o f inds w hich m ight s upport o r c onfirm a ny o f t hese s uggestions h ave b een r ecorded f rom t his s ite. T he m ajority o f t he o ther s ettlement s ites w hich h ave p roduced e vidence f or o ccupation o f R oman d ate l ie i n t he s outhern a nd w estern p art o f t he s urvey a rea, e specially a round M alham ( Raistrick a nd H olmes 1 962) a nd G rassington. T he G rassington a rea c ontains s ome o f t he m ost e xtensive u pstanding r emains o f l ate p rehistoric s ettlement a nd f ield s ystems i n t he c ountry, t he b est k nown b eing t he s ettlement s ite a t L ea G reen, f irst ' excavated' ( 'animal b ones.., w ere f ound i n s eventy-one o f t he s eventy-two h oles a nd t renches m ade') i n 1 893-94 b y
2 11
t he W harfedale E xploration C ommittee ( Speight 1 894), a nd b y R aistrick b etween 1 924 a nd 1 927 ( Raistrick 1 937: 1 69).
r e-examined
T he W harfedale E xploration C ommittee a lso e xcavated i n G rass W ood, G rassington. S peight ( 1894: 3 83) r eports t he f inding o f l arge q uantities o f R omano-British p ottery a nd o ne c oin o f C onstantine I ; s ubsequent f inds i nclude c oins o f f irst c entury d ate. T he M etcalfe c ollection o f c oins f rom a round T hreshfield, n ow a t I lkley M useum, i s b elieved t o c onsist m ainly o f c oins f rom G rass W ood. T he w ood i s n ow a l ocal n ature r eserve a nd S ite o f S pecial S cientific I nterest a nd t he e xcavation s ite a S cheduled A ncient M onument. T he e xtent o f t he s urviving f ield s ystems a nd s ettlements, p articularly i n t he G rassington a rea, w as r eported i n t he V ictorian l iterature ( Speight 1 894) a nd b rought t o aw ider a udience b y C urwen ( 1928) a nd i n a s eries o f p apers a nd b ooks b y R aistrick ( for e xample R aistrick 1 937; 1 939; 1 968; R aistrick a nd C hapman 1 929). M ore r ecently K ing h as d iscussed f ield s ystems i n t he C raven d istrict ( King 1 978; 1 985; 1 986) a nd F leming h as p roduced a t entative c lassification o f a pron e nclosures, p lateau f ields, e dge f ields, l edge f ields a nd h ollow f ields o r e nclosures ( Fleming 1 976). T o d ate o nly t hree g roups o f p rehistoric o r R omano-British f ield s ystems h ave b een s urveyed i n d etail; t hose a t G rassington ( Aldsworth 1 966; R aistrick 1 937), R ibblehead ( King 1 978) a nd i n m id-Swaledale ( Fleming a nd L aurie 1 985; 1 986; L aurie 1 985). T hese s urveys i ndicate t hat e arly f ield s ystems a nd b oundaries h ave i n p art c ontrolled t he a lignment o f m edieval f ields a nd p erhaps a lso t hose u sed i n t he R oman p eriod. A erial p hotography h as r evealed c onsiderable e vidence f or e arly l and d ivision o n t he f ringes o f t he k nown a reas o f m edieval p loughing. D etailed a nalytical p lotting o f c ommercial a nd a rchaeological a erial p hotographs, c oupled w ith f ield s urvey a nd a nalysis o f w all s tructure, i s n ow r equired t o r ecord a nd i nterpret t he f ull e xtent o f t he e arly a gricultural s ystems a nd t o i dentify t hose t races u nderlying m edieval f ield p atterns. T he a pparent c oncentration o f R oman p eriod s ettlement o n t he l imestone a reas i s p erhaps a s m uch a r eflection o f t he l ocation o f a rchaeological f ieldwork, s oil e rosion a nd p ost-Roman a gricultural p ractices a s a t rue i ndication o f t he d ensity o f s ettlement i n t his p eriod. T he q uality o f C eltic m etalwork f ound i n t he r egion i ndicates s ome m aterial w ealth ( MacGregor 1 976) a nd i t c an b e a rgued t hat t he s ize o f t he I ron A ge . e arthworks a lso r epresents a n e conomy i n c onsiderable s urplus. T he r elatively s table p olitical r egime i mposed a fter t he i ncorporation o f B rigantia i nto t he R oman p rovince, n ot w ithstanding t he r evolt o f t he m id-second c entury, s hould h ave p rovided c onditions f or e conomic p rosperity. T he R oman m ilitary o ccupation w ill h ave p laced c onsiderable d emands o n t he n ative e conomy o f t he d ales; t he h igh c ost o f t ransport w ould h ave m eant t hat a s l arge a p roportion a s p ossible o f t he f oodstuffs a nd r aw m aterials c onsumed h ad t o b e a cquired l ocally, w hile t he h ides r equired f or t he l eather w orking d epot a t C atterick, f or e xample, w ould h ave b een d elivered o n t he h oof ( Frere 1 967: 2 27). D espite t his, t he l imited e xcavation e vidence s eems t o p oint t o a s ubsistence l evel e conomy w ith r elatively f ew m aterial p ossessions. T he m ajority o f t he p ottery f ound d uring e xcavation o f n ative s ites h as b een a c oarse h and-made w are w hich v aries l ittle o n I ron A ge, R oman a nd p robably p ost-Roman
2 12
s ites ( Faull 1 983: 2 3). T he p aucity o f R oman p ottery h owever m ay b e p artly e xplained b y t he d istance f rom t he m ain k nown c ommercial p otteries ( principally l ocated i n e astern l owland a reas) a nd t o a p ossibly g reater d ependence u pon w ood a nd l eather u tensils t han o n d urable c eramics. R ecent e xcavation o f a s mall d itched r ectangular e nclosure a t G ayle f ailed t o p roduce a ny s tratified d atable a rtefacts ( Turnbull 1 986). T his e arthwork, w hich p roduced a r adiocarbon d ate o f 8 50 ± a d 7 0 ( HAR 3 748) f rom o rganic m aterial a t t he b ase o f t he p rimary s ilt o f t he d itch, w as a ssociated w ith a s ystem o f s mall r ectangular f ields a nd p rior t o e xcavation h ad b een t entatively a ssigned t o t he R omano-British p eriod. I t i s a s alutory r eminder t hat f urther f ieldwork a nd i nvestigation o f m any o f t he s ites i ndicated o n F igure 1 3.4 a re n ecessary b efore a f ull u nderstanding o f t he l evel o f R oman a ctivity i n t he Y orkshire D ales c an b e r eached.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I a m g rateful t o J ulie D insdale f or t yping n umerous d rafts o f t his t ext, a nd t o t he A rchaeology S ections o f C umbria a nd N orth Y orkshire C ounty C ouncils f or a ccess t o i nformation i n t heir S ites a nd M onuments R ecords t o s upplement d ata h eld b y t he Y orkshire D ales N ational P ark, a nd t o G raham L ee i n p articular f or c ompiling F igure 1 3.1.
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1 4:
R OMANO-BRITISH S ETTLEMENT I N T HE S OUTH T EES B ASIN R OGER I NMAN
T he a im o f t his p aper i s t o o utline a nd d iscuss t he r ecent r esearch i nto t he R omano-British s ettlement i n t he s outh T ees b asin, w ith r eference t o t he l ocal e nvironment a nd t he t ypes o f s ettlement b eing f ound. T he a rea u nder c onsideration i s d elimited b y t he c oast i n t he e ast, t he n orthern e dge o f t he H ambleton H ills, o r N orth Y orkshire M oors t o t he s outh, t he R iver L even o r t he A 19 i n t he w est a nd t he R iver T ees t o t he n orth ( Figure 1 4.1). T opographically t here a re f ive d ifferent f eatures i n t his a rea, a ll r eflecting t heir u nderlying g eological d eposits. T o t he s outh a re t he h ills a nd m oors c onsisting l argely o f J urassic s andstone, a bove a bout 2 30 m etres ( 650 f eet). A t t he c entre o f t his a rea i s t he G uisborough v alley, s eparated f rom t he T ees b asin b y t he E ston H ills. T o t he w est a nd j oining b oth t he T ees b asin a nd t he G uisborough v alley i s a n a rea o f d rumlin-type l andscape c entred a round S eamer, o f r olling h illocks w ith d epressions o r f lat b asins b etween t hem. M ainly t his w hole a rea i s o n B oulder c lay, w ith t he v egetational i nterface b etween t he c lay a nd t he s andstone v ery d istinct e ven t oday. T here a re a lso a reas o f a lluvium, i ncluding p eat a nd s and b eds. A ll f ive o f t hese d eposits a ffect t he a griculture a nd t herefore t he s ettlement p attern i n t he R omano-British p eriod, a s t hey d o t oday. T he p eat i s f ound m ainly i n t he G uisborough v alley, c overing a bout o ne t hird o f t he v alley f loor, a nd i n t he d epressions i n t he d rumlin l andscape f urther w est. T he s ettlements h ere a re f ound o n t he t ops o f t he h illocks, s ometimes i solated i n t he p eat o r w etter a lluvium a reas, t hough o bviously o nly t hose h illocks l arge e nough t o s upport a f arm w ere u sed. T he m ain a lluvium d eposits a re i n t hree a reas, t he l argest b eing i n t he T ees b asin f orming a w edge s hape a ligned e ast t o w est, w ith i ts a pex n ear M iddlesbrough a nd w idening t owards t he c oast ( Figure 1 4.1). B elow t he E ston H ills t he d eposit o ccupies a bout h alf t he l ower r eaches r estricting t he s ettlements t o t he l ower s lopes o f t he h ills, a s a re t he l ater v illages b etween W ilton a nd O rmesby. T he o ther t wo a reas a re a round S tokesley a nd s urrounding t he p eat b eds t owards G uisborough. T oday t he a lluvium, a lthough l ow-lying a nd f lat, i s w ell d rained g iving l ight, f ine, f ertile s oil, w hich i s o ften s andy. H owever d uring t he R omano-British p eriod s ome o f t hese a reas w ould h ave b een w ooded, p ossibly w ith S ilver B irch, a nd w ere c ertainly m arshy. E ven t oday t he r ivers L even, T ame, a nd E ller a ll f lood. I t i s n otable t hat S tokesley ( Domesday: S tocheslage) i s t he o nly p lacename w ith L eah ( wooded) i n t he w hole a rea. N o s ettlements h ave b een f ound o n t hese d eposits; i nstead t hey a re f ound o n t he h igher g round, u sually o n t he B oulder c lay, j ust a bove t he m arshy l and. C onversely, t he s and b eds f ound n orth o f a nd b elow t he E ston H ills a nd a s i solated d eposits i n t he a lluvium d o h ave s ettlements o n t hem, e specially w here t hey f orm h illocks i n t he w etter a reas. T he s oil o n t he s and b eds i s u sually w ell d rained a nd l ight,
2 19
T he s tudy a rea
7- 7 c u
2 20
t hough o ften v ery s tony. O n t he o ther h and t he B oulder c lay p roduces h eavy a nd ' sticky' s oil, u ntil r ecently t hought t o b e u nsuitable f or e arly f armers. I n f act m ost o f t he s ettlements h ave b een f ound o n t hese c lays. O f t he s eventy o r s o s ites f ound s ince F rank E lgee w rote h is b ooklet i n 1 923 ( Elgee 1 923), a nd s ince T he A rchaeology o f C leveland w as w ritten i n 1 976 ( Inman 1 979) a t l east f ifty s ites h ave b een f ound o n t he B oulder c lay, w ith t he r emainder o n t he s and b eds. T hese R omano-British s ites h ave b een f ound i n f ive m ain l ocations r elated t o t he l ocal t opography. T he f irst a re t he H ill T op s ites. T hese h ave b een f ound o n t he t ops o f s mall h illocks, a nd a s d escribed a bove, a re s ometimes s urrounded b y w et l and. E ighteen s ites h ave b een f ound o n t his t ype o f l ocation. T he s econd l ocation i s o n H igh L evel F lat g round. E leven s ites h ave b een f ound o n f lat, t abular h igh g round. F ive s ites h ave b een f ound o n L ow L evel F lat g round, u sually a djacent t o r ivers, s treams o r m arshy a reas, t hough l ocated o n t he h igher g round a bove t hese f eatures a nd a bove a ny a rea l iable t o f lood. T he f ourth l ocation, o n P latforms, o ccurs w here t he s ite h as b een c ut b ack i nto a s lope t o p roduce a l evel p latform, w ith a s teep b ank u p a t t he r ear a nd d own a t t he f ront. O n a verage t hese p latforms m easure a bout 5 0 m etres ( 165 f eet) s quare, a nd i n m ost c ases t he p latform i s d istinct e nough t o b e a ble t o b e s urveyed a ccurately. S o f ar f ourteen s ites h ave b een i dentified. T he f ifth l ocation i s o n a S lope. T hese s ites, o f w hich t wenty h ave b een f ound, a re s ituated o n a s loping h illside. I n a ll p robability t hey w ere p latform s ites, b ut t he p latform h as d isappeared d ue t o c enturies o f p loughing. H owever i n m ost c ases t he g radient o f t he s lope i s v ery s lack, w ith t he s teeper s lopes d evoid o f o ccupation. A n a pparent p rerequisite f or a ll t he s ites i s aw ater s upply f rom a r iver, s tream, w et h ole, o r s pring. I t h as b een t he a im o f t he f ieldwalking p rogramme s ince 1 976 n ot o nly t o f ind R omano-British s ettlement s ites, b ut a lso t o f ind t heir s ources o f w ater s upply, m any o f w hich h ave n ow c ompletely d isappeared d ue t o m odern d rainage o r r ecent b uilding, a nd c an n ow o nly b e i dentified o n o ld m aps o r a ir p hotographs. W hen a ll t he s ite i nformation, i ncluding t he p osition o f t he s ite, t he g round t opography, t he w ater s upply, t he e vidence f or s uitable b oundaries ( such a s s treams a nd h ill c rests), a nd g round t oo d ifficult t o w ork ( such a s s teep h illsides, b anks a nd m arshy a reas), h as b een c arefully a ssembled, t he d etermination o f t he w orkable a rea, m ainly i n t erms o f t he a rable l and o f t he s ettlement, h as b een a ttempted. I n m any a reas a djoining f ields h ave b een w alked, s o i t i s r easonable t o s peculate t hat a ll t he s ettlements i n t hat p articular a rea h ave b een f ound. T he s pacing b etween t hem v aries g reatly f rom 4 0 m etres ( 130 f eet), t o 4 00 m etres ( 1300 f eet), b ut b ecause o f t he g round t opography d iscussed a bove, t his s pacing b ecomes i rrelevant. W hat i s f airly c onstant i s t he w orking a rea t hus d elimited. I n m ost c ases i t i s f ound t o b e b etween 2 2 a nd 2 6 h ectares ( 55 t o 6 5 a cres), a nd a lthough t he s ettlements a re o ften f ound o ff-centre t o t he w orking a rea a p atchwork s ettlement p attern i s e merging, w here i ndividual f arms w ere s urrounded b y t heir o wn w orking a rea o r f arm l and, j ust a s t hey a re t oday.
2 21
F ield s ystems, a ssociated w ith t hese s ettlements, a re r arely f ound, m ainly d ue t o t he f act t hat B oulder c lay i s n otoriously p oor i n p roducing c ropmarks. H owever f ields h ave b een i dentified i n t wo a reas j ust o utside S tokesley, a nd a t I ngleby B arwick, r ecently e xcavated b y t he C leveland A rchaeological U nit ( Heslop 1 984). R egular r ectangular f ields b etween, a nd o n e ither s ide o f , t wo l anes c an b e c learly s een o n o ne o f t he S tokesley s ites, n ow s adly b uilt u pon ( Still a nd V yner 1 986: 1 5, f igure 9 ). O n t he o ther s ite a bout a m ile a way, i ndividual f ields c an b e s een o verlapping e ach o ther m easuring a bout 7 0 b y 5 0 m etres ( 230 b y 1 65 f eet). A t I ngleby B arwick t wo t ypes o f f ields w ere i dentified: o ne s et w ere c urvilinear, t he o ther r ectangular. T he f ormer w ere f ound t o d ate t o t he l ate I ron A ge, w hereas t he r ectangular f ields d ated f rom t he l ate s econd c entury t o t he f ourth c entury A D a nd w ere c onnected t o t wo l arge p arallel d itches w hich h ad b een r ecut s everal t imes. T he s ize o f t he f ields w as a bout 2 5 b y 5 5 m etres ( 49 b y 1 80 f eet). W hat t hese f ields w ere p roducing a nd w hat t ype o f a griculture w as b eing c arried o ut o n t hese s ettlements i s s till a s y et l argely u nknown, a lthough s ome c lues h ave c ome t o l ight r ecently. T he p alaeobotanical r esearch c arried o ut i n a nd n ear t his a rea i ndicates t hat b y t he R omano-British p eriod m ost o f t he l and c learance h ad t aken p lace w ith a l arge r eduction i n t he d eciduous w oodlands w hich w ere b eing r eplaced b y g rass a nd c ereal c rops ( Simmons e t a l 1 982: 8 1-90). R otary q uerns, b oth b eehive a nd f lat, h ave b een f ound o n a t l east f ourteen l owland l ocations ( Hayes e t a l 1 980). T he f inding o f t hese q uerns s hould i ndicate t he p rocessing o f l ocally g rown c ereals f or l ocal c onsumption. M ost s ites p roduce m ortarium f ragments, t hough t his i s n ot n ecessarily i ndicative o f h ome p roduced g rain. H owever o ne s ite n ear S tokesley h as y ielded f ragments o f a S ollar m ortarium ( identified b y B H artley). T hese w ere l arge s emii ndustrial m ortaria w hich c ould i ndicate t he p rocessing o f g rain p roduced o n t he f arm f or t he o pen m arket. C ertainly j udging b y t he a mount o f h igh q uality p ottery f ound o n t hese s ites, t he R omanoB ritish f armers w ere o bviously m aking e nough s urplus t o b uy l uxuries. T he B utser H ill F arm ( Reynolds 1 979) e xperiment h as p roduced f igures f or t he y ield o f E mmer w heat a t 2 t o 2 .5 t onnes p er h ectare ( 0.80 t on p er a cre). I f o nly 1 - 1 3 h ectares ( half t he e stimated w orking a rea) w ere u sed f or t he p roduction o f w heat, t he y ield w ould b e a bout 5 2 t onnes ( 53 t ons) w hich w as m uch m ore t han c ould b e c onsumed b y a n a verage f amily p er y ear. I t i s e stimated t hat t he w heat f rom a bout a h ectare w ould h ave f ed a f amily o f e ight. O ne l ast p ointer i s t he d iscovery o f a mphora f ragments o n f our s ites n ear G reat A yton a nd H utton R udby. T his e ither i ndicates w ealth i n t he f orm o f i mported w ine o r t he r euse o f t he e quivalent o f t he m odern o il d rum f or t he s torage o r m ovement o f l arge q uantities o f a gricultural p roduce. H ow t he p roduce w as m oved i s s till a p roblem i n t his a rea, a s n o m etalled R oman r oads h ave y et b een f ound. I t i s p robable t hat t he s ettlements a nd f ields w ere r eached b y l anes a nd t racks, a s n oted a bove, w hich i n t urn l inked u p w ith a rterial r outes. T here a re s everal o ld r outes w hich a re d atable o nly a s f ar b ack a s t he e arly m edieval p eriod, b ut t here i s n o d oubt t hat t he w hole a rea w as c rossed b y a m ultitude o f t racks a nd r oads, s ome o f w hich a re p robably s till i n u se t oday.
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W ade's C auseway i s t he n earest R oman r oad t o t his a rea. O riginally c oming f rom M alton, i t c rosses W heeldale M oor, b ut i s o nly t raceable a s f ar a s G rosmont i n t he E sk V alley. A lthough t his r oad w as t horoughly r esearched ( Hayes a nd R utter 1 964), n o t race o f i t c ould b e f ound f urther n orth. T his h as l ed t o m uch s peculation a s t o i ts f inal d estination. S ome t hink i t w ent t o W hitby, o thers t o G oldsborough o r S andsend B ay. H owever, t here i s a nother a lternative a nd t hat i s a long t he l ine o f t he p resent A 171, t he W hitby t o G uisborough r oad. I t i s p ossible t hat t he r oad c rossed t he E sk a t G rosmont a nd c limbed u p t he h illside t o E gton, e ntering G uisborough f rom t he s outheast a fter p assing t hrough t he S lapewath G ap j ust o utside G uisborough. T his r oute w ould a void t he f our p recipitous v alleys a long t he c oast b etween W hitby a nd t he T ees e stuary ( see F igure 1 4.1). I n o ther p arts o f t he c ountry t he r oads u sually l ink R oman t owns o r v illages. U nfortunately, i n t his a rea n ot o ne n ucleated s ettlement, n either t own n or v icus , h as b een f ound s o f ar. T here a re s ome l ikely c andidates s uch a s G uisborough, w here a t l east e ighteen c oins a nd s ome p ottery h ave b een f ound. S ome v illages p ossibly h ave e arly p redecessors, s uch a s E ston w here s everal c oins h ave b een f ound. I n t he p arish o f M arton s everal s ites h ave b een f ound c lose t ogether, w ithin a 4 00 m etre ( 1300 f oot) r adius, w hich i s t he n earest e xample t o an ucleated s ettlement i n t his a rea. N o e arly R oman f orts h ave y et b een f ound i n t his a rea, b ut i n t he l ater f ourth c entury s ignal s tations o r f ortlets w ere b uilt a long t he c oast b etween t he r iver T ees a nd S carborough. F ive a re k nown, o f w hich t wo h ave b een f ound i n t his a rea ( Figure 1 4.2), o ne a t H untcliff a bove S altburn, ( Hornsby a nd S tanton 1 912), a nd t he o ther a t G oldsborough n ear L ythe ( Hornsby a nd L averick 1 933, I nman 1 979: 2 02 2). T here m ay b e o thers a t W hitby a nd B oulby ( Street H ouses), n ear L oftus. A t W hitby, d uring t he e xcavations o f t he S axon m onastery i n 1 924, R oman p ottery w as f ound, i ncluding p ainted C rambeck m ortaria a nd g rooved c alcite-gritted j ar r ims ( Figure 1 4.3). A lthough t his p ottery c ould h ave c ome f rom a d isturbed c ivilian s ite, t he l ocation a nd t he d ate o f t he p ottery c ould i ndicate t he s ite o f a nother f ortlet. S imilarly a t B oulby, c oins, s kulls a nd a c offin h ave b een f ound ( Clark 1 935: 1 38-139). F rom t he p lans i t c an b e s een t hat t he s trongly d efended c ourtyard c ould c ontain a t l east 4 00 p eople, a nd a lthough n o s pecific s ettlements h ave b een f ound n earby, i t m ay w ell b e t hat t he l ocal p opulation u sed t he p rotection o f t hese f ortlets. R ecently a n e nclosure s ite w as f ound n ear B oulby, a nd t ogether w ith s everal c oins f rom S altburn, R omano-British p ottery f rom a n e xcavation a t S treet H ouses ( Vyner 1 984), a nd m any c oins f rom W hitby, t he e vidence i ndicates t hat t here w ere s ettlements n ear t hese f ortlets. T he f ieldwalking p rogramme b egan i n r esponse t o t he d earth o f i nformation a nd s ites a t t he t ime o f w riting t he A rchaeology o f C leveland ( Inman 1 979). T he o nly s ites t hen k nown w ere i n K ildale, d ue t o t he e fforts o f R oland C lose a nd R aymond H ayes ( Close e t a l 1 975, H ayes 1 966). S ince t hen o ver 6 07 h ectares ( 1500 a cres) h ave b een f ieldwalked, r esulting i n a l arge i ncrease o f k nown s ites. V irtually a ll t hese a re r epresented b y p ottery s catters a nd a lthough t he q uantity o f p ottery f ragments c an v ary g reatly f rom t wo o r t hree s herds t o s everal h undred, t his d oes n ot n ecessarily r eflect t he
2 23
G OLDSBOROUGH . R OMAN
C OASTAL
F ORTLETS .
H UNTCL IFF .
‘ p
t >
2p
2 ,S ,
. 3p
m at y .c .
F igure 1 4.2
R oman c oastal f ortlets a t G oldsborough a nd H untcliff
2 24
C a l c ite g r i t ted
p o ttery .
M orta r ia .
a f t
4 ‘ G rey W a res .
R oman p o t tery f r om WH ITBY A BBEY . F igure
1 4.3
R oman p ottery
f rom W hitby A bbey
2 25
w ealth o r s ize o f t he s ettlement i t r epresents. I t i s p robably m ore o f a n i ndication o f t he l evel o f d estruction o f t he s ite, o r a lternatively t he d epth o f t opsoil e specially o n t he S lope s ites. F or i nstance o ne s ite h as y ielded r oofing t iles b ut o nly f ive s herds. B ecause o f t he l ack o f m anpower a nd m oney c ommon t o m ost a mateur s ocieties, t he e xcavation o f m ost o f t hese s ites i s u nlikely. F or t his r eason a l ong t erm p rogramme o f f ieldwalking w as b egun, t o r ecover a s m uch i nformation a s p ossible f rom t he s urface, b y l ocating a ccurately t he p osition o f e ach i ndividual p ottery s herd u sing p ermanent m arkers, P latform s ites.
a nd b y s urveying v isible g round f eatures, a s o n t he
S everal e xcavations h ave i n f act b een c arried o ut b y b oth t he l ocal s ociety a nd t he C ounty C leveland A rchaeological U nit. O ne s uch e xcavation u ndertaken b y T eesside A rchaeological S ociety w as a t P otto ( Figure 1 4.4). T his s ite w as n ot f ound b y f ieldwalking, b ut b y t he f armer w ho w as i nterested e nough t o a sk a bout a b eehive q uern h e h ad f ound. T he e xcavation w as c arried o ut b etween 1 978 a nd 1 983, a nd o ver 3 30 s quare m etres w ere e xamined. S even p hases o f a ctivity w ere r ecorded, t he f irst f ive c onsisting o f a pparently i solated c hannels f orming s emi-circles. I n a ddition, a s hallow g ully c rossed t he c hannel i n p hase t wo, t here w as a c ircular g ully 1 5 m etres n orth o f t he c hannel i n p hase t hree, p robably r epresenting a h ouse, a nd a f ield b oundary o r s hallow e nclosure d itch w as c ut a round t he c hannel i n p hase f ive. I n p hase s ix a l arge e nclosure d itch 1 .6 m etres w ide b y 0 .65 m etre d eep w as d ug a cross t he w estern e nds o f a ll t he s emic ircular c hannels, t he h ouse, a nd t he e arlier f ield b oundary. T hree s ides o f t his e nclosure w ere f ound, w hich m easured 4 5 m etres a long i ts w estern s ide. I t a lso h ad a nother f ield o r b oundary d itch j oining i t a t t he n orthwestern c orner. T he f inal p hase c onsisted o f t wo a butting d itches, a bout 1 .0 m etre w ide b y 0 .15 m etre d eep, a nd p arallel t o t he m odern h edgeline. T hese c ut t he f ill o f t he e nclosure d itch o n b oth t he n orth a nd s outh s ides. T he p ottery f rom t his s ite w as m ostly l ocally m ade w ith i gneous a nd q uartz g rits. M ost o f i t w as h and t urned a nd e xtremely i rregular, t hough s ome w as w ell f inished a nd p robably b urnished. A lso f ound w ere a f ragment o f d ecorated s amian w are ( Dragendorff F orm 3 7) a ssociated w ith t he f irst p hase, a nd a r im f ragment o f a m ortarium i n t he f ill o f t he d eep e nclosure d itch, w hich i s d ated t o t he l ast q uarter o f t he f irst c entury ( K H artley p ersonal c ommunication). D uring t he e xcavations a s hallow b owl f urnace w as f ound c ontaining a l arge q uantity o f d rop o r b ulbous s lag, a nd s lag w as a lso f ound i n t he f eatures a ssociated w ith a ll t he p hases e xcept p hases t hree a nd f ive. T he o ccupation p robably s tretched a cross b oth t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies A D, w ith t he e arlier c hannels p ossibly r epresenting s emii ndustrial a ctivities s uch a s m etal-working, t ogether w ith s ome s ort o f h abitation. I n p hase s ix, a lthough t he l and u se p resumably r emained h abitation-orientated, t he t ype o f f eatures c hanged r adically, f rom a r elatively o pen s ettlement t o a n e nclosed o ne. F inally t here w as a c hange i n t he l ast p hase b ack t o o pen f ields. U ntil a f ew y ears a go o nly a h andful o f l owland e nclosures l ike P otto w ere k nown. M ost o f t he r ecorded e nclosures w ere f rom t he u pland a reas, l ike H ighcliff N ab a bove G uisborough, C rown E nd i n
2 26
S e t t temen t a t P OTTO . I i : __res F igure 1 4.4
S ettlement a t P otto
2 27
W esterdale a nd o n G reat A yton M oor ( Tinkler a nd S pratt 1 978). T here a re n ow a bout t en k nown u pland e nclosures m ostly a bove t he 1 50 m etre ( 500 f oot) c ontour. S imilarly, t here h as b een a s harp r ise i n t he n umber o f l owland e nclosures k nown i n t his a rea, f rom o ne o r t wo t o o ver t wenty. E xcept f or P otto n one o f t hese h as b een e xcavated, t hough t hree h ave b een t horoughly f ieldwalked. O ne s ite n orthwest o f H utton R udby w as s o r emarkably c lear i n t he p loughsoil t hat t he d ouble d itches w ere a ccurately s urveyed. T hese m easured 5 m etres ( 16 f eet) w ide w ith a 1 8 t o 2 0 m etre ( 59 t o 6 6 f oot) g ap b etween t hem. T he p ottery w as a ll l ocally m ade w ith q uartz a nd i gneous g rits, a nd d ated t o t he f irst c entury A D. T he s econd s ite, n ear S tokesley, w as a s ingle d itched s ub-rectangular e nclosure n ot v isible o n t he g round. T he p ottery r ecovered f rom t his s ite w as a gain a ll l ocally m ade a nd v ery s imilar t o t hat f rom P otto, a nd p robably o f t he s ame d ate. T herefore w hen t he t hird e nclosure, s outhwest o f G uisborough, w as f ound a nd w alked, a s imilar p ottery d ate w as a nticipated. H owever, o f t he e ight f ragments r ecovered f ive w ere d ated t o t he f ourth c entury A D ( including C rambeck w are a nd N ene V alley c olour-coated w are), w ith o nly t hree l ocally m ade s herds i n t he e arlier p ottery t radition. A nother s ite n ear H utton R udby, n ear t he R iver L even, a lthough n ot r ecognised a s a n e nclosure e ither f rom t he a ir o r o n t he g round, y ielded n early 3 00 s herds w hich w ere s cattered o ver a bout 4 000 s quare m etres. H owever t here w as a n o utline i n t he s catter m easuring a bout 4 0 b y 5 0 m etres ( 130 b y 1 65 f eet). A gain a ll t he p ottery w as l ocally m ade, w ith q uartz a nd i gneous g rits, t hough s ome o f t he r im f orms r esembled l ater w ell k nown t ypes, s uch a s f lange r ims. T he s ite p robably a lso d ates t o t he f irst c entury A D. A bout 3 00 m etres ( 990 f eet) a way f rom t he a bove s catter w as f ound H utton R udby s ite T ( Figure 1 4.5). H ere t here w as a c hange o f p ottery d ate a nd t ype a cross t he s ite. T he n orthern e nd c onsisted o f t wo c onnected r ound f eatures, b oth a ssociated w ith o nly l ocal f irst t o s econd c entury p ottery. F urther s outh t he f eature c hanged t o a m ore r ectangular o utline w ith a ssociated p ottery d ating t o t he f ourth c entury, a nd h ardly a ny l ocally m ade s herds. T hese e nclosures a re n ow k nown f rom t he c oast t o H utton R udby a nd b eyond, a nd g enerally i t a ppears t hat t hey d ate t o t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies A D a nd p robably r epresent a p articular t ype o f e arly l and u se a nd a griculture, w hich w as r eorganised d uring t he s econd c entury, a s e videnced b y P otto a nd T horpe T hewles ( Heslop 1 987). H owever, i t s eems t hat s ome o f t hese s ites r emained a s s ettlements a fter t his r eorganisatiön w hile o thers w ere d isused. I ndeed, i t i s i nconceivable t hat s o m any s ites, s ome o f w hich m ust h ave b een o n g ood a gricultural l and, w ould h ave b een c ompletely d estroyed a nd t urned i nto o pen f ields, r ather t hen s ome b eing r etained t o c ontinue e xploiting t heir i mmediate s urroundings. C ertainly t his m ust h ave b een t he c ase o n t he G uisborough e nclosure, w here t he d itch o utline p robably r epresents a n e arlier p hase b ut t he o ccupation c ontinued o n t he s ame s ite u ntil t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury. A lthough S ite T w as n ot n ecessarily a n e nclosure s ite, i t i llustrates t he p oint t hat s ome s ites w ere o ccupied f or a v ery l ong t ime ( about 3 50 y ears o n S ite Ta ccording t o t he p ottery e vidence), a lthough a s i n t his c ase, t here i s a s light s hift i n t he o ccupied a rea. I t a lso d emonstrates t hat a c omprehensive m ethod o f f ieldwalking a nd r ecording c an p roduce r esults t hat n ot o nly r eveal t he b uried f eatures b ut a lso i ndicate t he
2 28
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H utton R udby
2 29
0o
8
o ccupation d ates b oth f or t he s ite a s aw hole a nd f or d ifferent p arts o f t he s ite. I t h as b een a rgued t hat p ottery s catters o ffer l ittle e vidence o f t he r eal l ocation o f b uried s ettlements b ecause t he p ottery w ould h ave b een s cattered a ll o ver t he f ields d uring t he h undreds o f y ears o f a gricultural u sage, a nd p ossibly a lso m ixed i n w ith t he R omano-British f ield r efuse. H owever, t his h as n ot b een t he c ase i n t his a rea. A lthough t he r elevant f ield i s c ompletely w alked, o nly i n o ne a rea o f t he f ield i s t he p ottery f ound. M any o f t he s ites h ave t o b e v isited f or s everal y ears i n s uccession i n o rder t o r ecover e nough s herds t o m ake a r easonable d istribution p attern. A lthough s ome s ites s till o nly y ield a t otal o f t wo o r t hree s herds t hey h ave b een r egarded a s s ites/settlements. T his a ssumption w as t ested i n 1 981 o n a s ite j ust o utside G uisborough. I n 1 979 o ne f langed r im f ragment, o f f ourth c entury C rambeck w are, w as f ound i n a p otato c rop. T he f ollowing y ear a nother s herd o f f ourth c entury N ene V alley c olour-coated w are w as f ound n earby. A s mall e xcavation w as c arried o ut a nd a l arge h ollow, 2 .5 m etres b y 3 .5 m etres ( 8 f eet b y 1 f eet), w as f ound t ogether w ith m ore f ourth c entury p ottery d irectly u nderneath t he i nitial s herds f ound d uring f ieldwalking ( Figure 1 4.6). T ogether w ith t he H utton R udby S ite T , t his e xcavation e ndorsed t he a rgument t hat n ot o nly d o a f ew s herds o n t he s urface i ndicate a b uried s ite, b ut a lso t hat t he p ottery m oves r elatively v ery l ittle a round t he f ield a nd a way f rom t he p oint o f o rigin.
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F igure 1 4.7
P ottery d istribution a t S ite S ,
H utton R udby
M any o f t he s ites f ound s o f ar h ave p ottery s catters w hich a re c onfined t o a s pecific a rea, a nd u sually p roduce a c lear o utline p ossibly r epresenting s ome r elevant f eature o f t he s ettlement, s uch a s a d itch o r g ully. A ll t he H utton R udby s ites n oted a bove h ave p roduced d efined p ottery s catters, i ncluding H utton R udby S ite S ( Figure 1 4.7). T his s ite o n a H igh L evel F lat l ocation i s o n t he e dge o f t he v alley o f t he R iver L even. A lthough t he q uantity o f p ottery w as f ar i n e xcess o f t hat f ound o n t he a verage s ite, t he t ypes o f p ottery a nd t heir w ares w ere r epresentative o f a ll t hose f ound o n o ther s ites d ating a fter t he s econd c entury A D a nd r elated t o t he p atchwork p attern r eferred t o a bove. S ite S y ielded o ver 5 00 s herds, a nd w hen t hey w ere p lotted, t here w as a d efinite c oncentration m easuring a bout 2 2 m etres b y 2 5 m etres ( 72 f eet b y 8 2 f eet). T he p ottery f rom t his s ite i ncluded N ene V alley c olour-coated w are, m ortaria, B lack B urnished w ares, g rey w ares ( mainly C rambeck), c alcite-gritted w ares ( some w ith r im g rooves d ated a fter A D 3 50), a nd a lso a bout 1 50 f ragments o f q uartz a nd i gneous g ritted w ares. G rey w ares, u sually C rambeck, a re f ound o n a ll b ut 1 4 o f t he s ites a nd t he c alcite-gritted f abrics o n a ll b ut 3 4. B oth a re c onsidered a s S hort R adius i mports, w hereas s amian w are ( which i s f ound o n 5s ites), c olour-coated w ares u sually N ene V alley, ( 6 s ites), O xfordshire w are m ortaria ( 2 s ites), M ancetter/Hartshill m ortaria ( 5 s ites), r ed w ares ( 9 s ites), a nd b oth t ypes o f B lack B urnished w are ( 14 s ites) a re a ll c onsidered a s L ong R adius i mports. N early a ll t he s ites y ield l ocally m ade p ottery c ontaining q uartz a nd i gneous g rits.
2 31
T he f ormer g rits v ary f rom w hite a ngular f ragments m easuring u p t o 5 m illimetres a cross, d own t o t he f ine, r ounded, c lear, r iverine c rystals. T he i gneous g rit i s u sually l arge, u p t o a bout 8 m illimetres a cross, a nd p robably g abbro, w hich w hen h eated c hanges t o a w hite g ritty t exture. A lthough o nly 2 7 s ites ( mainly l ow y ielding s ites) h ave n ot p roduced t his t ype o f p ottery, o nly t he t wo f ieldwalked e nclosure s ites a t H utton R udby a nd S tokesley a nd t he p ossible e nclosure o nly r epresented a s a s catter a djacent t o S ite T a t H utton R udby, a ll n oted a bove, h ave n ot p roduced a ny o f t he i mported p ottery w ares l isted. I t w ould a ppear, t herefore, t hat e ither a ll t he s ites e xcept t he l ast t hree h ad a v ery l ong o ccupation, b eginning d uring t he f irst c entury A D b efore t he a dvent o f t he g rey w ares a nd c alcite-gritted w ares, w hich a dmittedly c ould b e t he c ase, o r e lse t hese l ocal w ares w ere u sed a longside t he i mported w ares, w hich i s m ore l ikely. I n t he l atter c ase, t he o ccupation d ates o f m ost o f t he s ettlement s catters r ange f rom t he s econd c entury t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury, a nd m aybe i nto t he f ifth c entury. I n a ll p robability t he l ocally m ade p ottery, i n t he I ron A ge t raditional f abrics, w as u sed f or t he k itchenware, u ntil t he c alcite-gritted w ares, w hich i tself w as a m assp roduced v ersion o f t he I ron A ge t raditional p ottery, f looded t he m arket i n t he t hird c entury. T he p ottery f abrics a nd t ypes b eing u sed a nd m ade a fter A D 4 00 a re s till u ncertain, a lthough a n e xcavation o f a S axon c emetery n ear S tockton c arried o ut b y t he C leveland C ounty A rchaeological U nit h as p roduced S axon p ottery f abrics v irtually i dentical t o t hose f ound o n s ome f ieldwalked s ites. A lso, o ne e arly R omano-British s ite n ear G uisborough h as y ielded d ecorated S axon p ottery, a gain i n a n I ron A ge/Romano-British f abric t ype. S lag h as a lready b een m entioned i n c onnection w ith t he P otto s ite, b ut i t h as a lso b een f ound o n m any o ther s ites, a lthough i t i s v ery d ifficult t o t ell t he d ifference b etween R omano-British s lag a nd m edieval s lag. H owever s lag f rom b owl f urnaces, i n t he s hape o f t he f urnace b ottom ( saucer-shaped b ut t hicker), h as b een f ound o n s everal s ites, i ndicating t he u sage o f a l ocal n aturally o ccurring a sset f ound m ainly i n t he E ston H ills a nd a long t he c oast s outhwards f rom S altburn. P ossible a gricultural s urpluses h ave a lso b een d iscussed a bove. T he a ssumed r esulting w ealth w ould h ave p urchased t he i mported p ottery a nd a lso a rchitectural . , i mprovements r epresented b y r oofing t iles, f ound o n 5 s ites, w hich i mply a m ore s ophisticated t ype o f b uilding t han a r ound t hatched h ut. A lso f rom t his a rea t here a re t hree i mported c lay l amps, a p ewter j ug f rom S tokesley d ated t o a bout A D 3 50, a nd a b ow t ype f ibula d ated t o a bout A D 1 00. T wo l ate R oman c oin h oards h ave b een f ound i n t his a rea, o ne f rom W ilton a nd t he o ther f rom W horlton ( Elgee 1 923). B oth c ontain c oins r anging f rom C onstantius ( AD 3 37-361) t o H onorius ( AD 3 93-423), a nd t he W horlton h oard h ad s ilver b ars a nd s crap a mongst t he c oins ( Burnett a nd J ohns 1 979). F inally, a t hird c entury p arade h elmet ( flattened a s i f f or s crap) w as f ound i n 1 864 n ear B arnaby G range, a bout 4 .5 k ilometres ( 3 m iles) w est o f G uisborough ( Atkinson 1 864, I nman 1 979: 1 8, c over). T he s ignificance o f t he h elmet i s u ncertain, b ut t he h oards s urely r eflect t he i nstability f elt b y t he
2 32
l and o wners i n t he l ate f ourth a nd e arly f ifth c enturies i n a n a rea t hat h ad e njoyed a n a pparently s table a nd p rosperous a gricultural c ommunity f or m any g enerations.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I w ould l ike t o t hank M rs P B rowarska f or R udby s ites, D on S pratt f or h is a dvice, B laise c o-operation a nd a bove a ll t he f armers a nd l and I h ave w alked, f or w ithout t heir p atience a nd t his p aper c iuld n ot h ave b een w ritten.
h er h elp o n t he H utton V yner f or h is h elp a nd o wners o n w hose f ields c o-operation m uch o f
B IBLIOGRAPHY A tkinson, JC 1 864 F urther d iscovery o f r elics c onnected w ith t he r emote o ccupants o f C leveland. T he G entleman's M agazine 1 34.2: 3 043 08. B urnett, A M a nd J ohns, CM 1 979 T he W horlton ( Yorkshire) H oard ( 1810). I n R A G C arson a nd A M B urnett ( eds) R ecent C oin H oards f rom R oman B ritain. L ondon: B ritish M useum O ccasional P aper 5 : 10-117. C lark, M K 1 935 A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire. R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 5 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C lose, R S , H ayes, R H a nd S pratt, D A 1 975 s ettlements a t C rag B ank a nd L ounsdale, n ear K ildale, Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal 4 7: 6 1-68. E lgee, F
1 923
T he R omans i n C leveland .
R omano-British N orth R iding.
M iddlesbrough: H ood.
H ayes, RH a nd R utter, JG 1 964 W ade's C auseway . D istrict A rchaeological S ociety R eport 4 . H ayes, R H 1 966 A R omano-British s ite a t Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal 4 1: 6 87-700.
P ale
S carborough a nd
E nd,
K ildale.
H ayes, RH , H emingway, J E a nd S pratt, D A 1 980 T he d istribution a nd l ithology o f b eehive q uerns i n n ortheast Y orkshire. J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience 7 : 2 97-324. H eslop, D H 1 984 I nitial e xcavations a t I ngleby B arwick, C leveland. D urham A rchaeological J ournal 1 : 2 3-34. H eslop, D H 1 987 T he E xcavation o f a n I ron A ge S ettlement a t T horpe T hewles, C leveland 1 980-1982 . L ondon: C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology R esearch R eport 6 5. H ornsby, W a nd L averick, SD 1 933 T he R oman s ignal s tation G oldsborough, n ear W hitby. A rchaeological J ournal 8 9: 2 03-219. H ornsby, W a nd S tanton, R 1 912 S altburn. J ournal o f R oman S tudies 2 :
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T he R oman 2 15-232.
f ort
a t
a t
H untcliff ,
I nman, R 1 979 R oman C leveland. I n D A S pratt ( ed) T he A rchaeology o f C leveland . M iddlesbrough B orough C ouncil, R ecreation a nd A menities D epartment: 17-26. R eynolds, P J 1 979 I ron A ge F arm - T he B utser E xperiment . B ritish M useum P ublications.
L ondon:
S immons, IG , A therden, M A , C undill, P R , I nnes, J B a nd J ones, R L 1 982 C hapter 2 : P rehistoric e nvironments. I n D A S pratt ( ed) P rehistoric a nd R oman A rchaeology o f N orth-East Y orkshire . O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries 1 04: 3 3-99. S till, L a nd V yner, B 1 986 p rehistoric s ettlement i n t he J ournal 2 : 1-23.
A ir p hotographic e vidence f or l ater T ees v alley. D urham A rchaeological
T inkler, B N a nd S pratt, D A 1 978 A n I ron A ge e nclosure o n G reat A yton M oor, N orth Y orkshire. Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal 5 0: 4 95 6. V yner, B E 1 984 T he e xcavation o f a N eolithic c airn a t S treet H ouse, L oftus, C leveland. P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 5 0: 1 51-195.
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P ART 2 :
M ATERIAL E VIDENCE
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1 5: T HE S TONES O F Y ORK B UILDING M ATERIALS I N R OMAN Y ORKSHIRE PC B UCKLAND
I NTRODUCTION T he c onstriction i n t he f loodplain o f t he R iver O use c reated b y t he Y ork m oraine d ictated t he p osition f irst o f t he l egionary f ortress a nd l ater o f t he c ity o f Y ork ( Figure 1 5.1). T he m oraine i tself p rovides n atural r outeways f rom t he b etter d rained s oils o f t he P ermian l imestbnes d ipslope t o t he w est t o t hose o f t he M esozoic r ocks t o t he e ast. T he r iver, u ntil t he a dvent o f l arger s hips i n t he l ater m edieval p eriod, g ave d irect a ccess t o t he t rade r outes o f B ritain a nd E urope. T he s ite, h owever, h as o ne m ajor d isadvantage i n t hat, l ying i n t he c entre o f ag reat p lain o f L ate Q uaternary d eposits, u nderlain b y s oft P ermo-Triassic r ocks, t here a re n o s uitable b uilding s tones i n t he i mmediate v icinity a nd a ll h ad t o b e t ransported c onsiderable d istances. T he L ower a nd U pper M agnesian L imestones o utcrop s ome 1 2 k ilometres t o t he w est a round T adcaster a nd t he n earest u seful r ocks i n t he J urassic o ccur s ome 2 0 k ilometres t o t he n ortheast a round t he m outh o f t he D erwent g orge. E xcellent f reestones a re a vailable f rom b oth s ources b ut g eography h as d ictated t hat i t i s t he f ormer, i n p articular, t he L ower M agnesian L imestone, w hich h as b een t he p rincipal s ource o f t he s tones o f Y ork a nd w hich h as g iven t he c ity's w alls a nd c hurches t heir c haracteristic b uff c olours. T he v irtual d ominance o f t he M agnesian L imestone i n t he m edieval c ity, h owever, w as n ot a f eature o f i ts R oman p redecessor a nd aw ide r ange o f r ock t ypes, s elected e ither f or d ecorative e ffect o r s uitability i n e ngineering t erms, c haracterised t he R oman b uildings a nd i s r eflected i n m any c hurches i n t he V ale o f Y ork a nd b eyond, w here r euse o f R oman m aterial h as o ccurred. C lifton-Taylor ( 1987) s erves a s a n e xcellent g eneral i ntroduction t o b uilding m aterials i n E ngland b ut t here h ave b een s urprisingly f ew m ore s pecific s tudies. I n s outhern E ngland, g eneral s tudies o f R oman b uilding m aterial h ave b een p rovided b y W illiams ( 1971; 1 972), a nd S edgeley ( 1975) h as t ackled t he r ather m ore r econdite s ubject o f t he p etrography o f R oman m ilestones o n an ational l evel. T he u se o f s tone i n S axon s outhern a nd m idland E ngland h as b een e xtensively r eviewed b y J ope ( 1964). N o s imilar p apers e xist f or n orthern E ngland. O n t he i mmediately l ocal s cale, F enton ( 1980) h as e xamined t he s tone f rom t he d efences o f t he u pper R oman e nclosure a t L incoln, a nd G ilyard-Beer ( 1951) h as d iscussed t he b uilding s tones o f t he R oman v illa a t W ell i n N orth Y orkshire; J ohnson a nd D unham 's ( 1982) p reliminary s tudy o f t he s tones o f D urham C athedral i ndicates w hat m ight b e l earnt f rom a s ystematic s tudy o f m ajor b uildings, a t echnique r ecently a stutely a pplied t o t he S axon c hurch a t B rixworth i n N orthamptonshire b y S utherland a nd P arsons ( 1984). D espite t he e xcellent d escriptions o f t he b uildings o f Y ork p rovided b y t he R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments ( RCHM 1 962; 1 972a; . 1 972b; 1 976; 1 981) a nd s everal o ther d etailed a ccounts o f t he c ity ( for e xample, P evsner 1 972; H utchinson a nd P alliser 1 980), t here h as y et t o b e as ystematic a ttempt t o e xamine i ts b uilding s tones.
2 37
Z
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A
Observat ion w ith d eta i ls o f s tructures o r d at ing
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Observat ion-exact l ocat ion k nown
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F igure 1 5.1
R oman Y ork, s howing l ocation o f e xcavations. f rom A ddyman a nd B lack ( eds) 1 984).
2 38
( Redrawn
T he t erms m agnesian l imestone ( sic) a nd g ritstone a ppear a s r ock d escriptions ( see R CHM 1 962) b ut, d espite B rowne's ( 1847, q uoted i n P hillips 1 985: 1 4) p erspicacious c omments o n t he r euse o f ' grit s tone' a nd ' oolite' i n t he e arly M inster, m ore d etailed a nalysis a nd d iscussion o f s ources h as o nly r ecently b egun. I n a n a ppendix t o t he r eport u pon e xcavations i n H ungate, R amm ( 1959) a dded a s hort d iscussion o n t he u se o f ' gritstone' a nd, i n a p rivately c irculated p aper ( Ramm 1 968), h e h as p rovided a m ore g eneral o verview r elating t o t he L ower M agnesian L imestone. G ee ( 1981) h as e xamined t he l iterary e vidence f or t he m edieval u se o f L ower M agnesian L imestone. T he l ate J effrey R adley ( 1972) u sed t he i dentification o f a n o olite f rom t he J urassic t o s upport h is a rguments f or t he d ating o f t he s o-called A nglian T ower, a n i nterpretation r ecently c hallenged ( Buckland 1 984). A m ore o rganised a pproach t o t he s tone b egan w ith t he c reation o f t he Y ork A rchaeological T rust i n 1 972 a nd s ome d iscussion o f r ock t ypes a nd s ources h as a ppeared i n s everal o f t heir f ascicules ( Buckland 1 976a; 1 977; 1 978b; 1 980; 1 987). S ufficient d ata h ave n ow b een a ccumulated t o p rovide s omething o f a s ynthesis b ut i t m ust b e r ecognised t hat t his p aper r emains o nly a n i nterim s tatement, r equiring m uch a dditional f ieldwork a nd d iscussion b efore a m ore e xtended t reatment c an b e a chieved. T he r ocks a re d ealt w ith i n s tratigraphic o rder, w ith t he e xotic, i mported s tones b eing c onsidered l ast ( Figure 1 5.2 a nd T able 1 5.1). M ILLSTONE G RIT W here i t h as b een p ossible t o c heck, a ll r eferences t o ' gritstone ' i n R CHM 1 962 a re t o r ocks f rom t he U pper C arboniferous M illstone G rit, w hose c losest o utcrop t o Y ork l ies s ome 2 5 k ilometres t o t he w est-southwest n ear B ramham. I t i s p erhaps a lso a t t his p oint w orth c orrecting t he d escription o f O use B ridge ( RCHM 1 972b: 4 8) a s ' brown l imestone'. T he s tructure i s, i n f act, b uilt o f M illstone G rit, p robably t hat t raded w idely i n t he n ineteenth c entury a s B ramley F all S tone f rom q uarries a round H orsforth, w est o f L eeds. R ocks f rom t he 1 ,400 m etre t hick M illstone G rit s uccession w ere e xtensively e mployed i n R oman Y ork, i n b oth f ortress a nd c ivil s ettlement, a nd s everal q uarry s ources a re p robable, a lthough t he g ritstones m ay v ary c onsiderably i n g rain s ize, c olour a nd t exture w ithin a s ingle o utcrop. U sed f or b oth d ecorative e ffect, c ontrasting a gainst t he w hite l imestone ( RCHM 1 962: 2 6), a nd f or s culpture ( RCHM 1 962: p late 6 1), t he s tone w as a lso e mployed i n s ituations w here d urability a nd l oad-bearing q ualities w ere i mportant. T he p utative R oman w harf b y t he F oss i n H ungate w as o f g ritstone ( Richardson 1 959). I t w as u sed i n m assive b locks, s ome w eighing i n e xcess o f 3 .5 t onnes, f or t he w alls a nd l intels o f s ewers ( Whitwell 1 976), f or t he f ooting c ourse o f t he f ortress w all a nd f or c olumns. O ne o f t he l atter, f rom t he h eadquarters b uildings, h as b een r e-erected o utside t he s outh t ransept o f t he M inster. E xtensively r eused i n t he e arlier c hurches o f Y ork a nd i ts r egion, M illstone G rit c an b est b e e xamined e ither i n t he t ower o f S t M ary B ishophill J unior o r i n t he e xamples o f i ts o ther f requent u se i n R oman Y ork, i n t he s arcophagi b rought t ogether i n S t L eonard 's H ospital a nd i nside t he M ultangular T ower ( RCHM 1 962: p late 4 ). A lthough v ariable, w ithin t he s eries, i s
t he r ock, f rom o ver a d ozen d ifferent b eds d istinctive. A p oorly s orted a rkose o r
2 39
tro ‚ Y gt
r E5 1 U pper C retaceous ( Cha lk) L o wer Cretaceous M idd le & U pper J urass ic L ower J urass ic T r iass ic S andstones & Mudstones
P er m ian Mar l 1. 1. « .•
P er m ian
Quaternary Depos its
L i mestone
1 M Coal Measures Q ° AMillstone Grit E l Carboniferous Li mestone
R o man R oads
r.
F igure 1 5.2
G eology i n r elation t o R oman r oads a nd r ivers i n Y orkshire a nd a djoining a reas. ( Redrawn f rom B ritish G eological s olid a nd d rift g eological m aps a nd t he O rdnance S urvey m ap o f R oman B ritain). TG rogan.
2 40
T ABLE 1 5.1:
S tratigraphic P osition o f t he M ajor R ock T ypes u sed i n Y ork
F landrian
T ufa
P leistocene
C obbles a nd E rratics f rom t he D rift
U pper C retaceous
C halk
H ythe B eds - L ower C retaceous
K entish R ag ( hones) -
C orallian
M alton O olite
-
C ave O olite/Lincolnshire L imestone/ L ebberston M ember ( Whitwell O olite) F orest M arble
M iddle J urassic
U pper L ias -
D ogger F ormation ( jet)
M ercia M udstone ( Keuper M arl)
U pper J urassic
L ower J urassic
U pper T riassic
S herwood S andstone G roup ( Bunter S andstone)
L ower T riassic/Upper P ermian
U pper P ermian M arl U pper M agnesian L imestone M iddle P ermian M arl
P ermian
U pper D ivision L ower M agnesian L imestone L ower D ivision
E iland F lags
L ower C oal M easures ( Westphalian A )
M illstone G rit
N amurian
U pper C arboniferous
( Charnwood S late)
L ate P re-Cambrian
2 41
f elspathic s andstone, t he r ock i s u nfossiliferous a nd t he t erm ' gritstone' r efers e ssentially t o ' gravelly s andstones' ( Edwards e t a l 1 950) w ithin t he s equence. B locks a re u sually m assive w ith l ittle i ndication o f b edding, a lthough s ome t race o f f alse b edding i s a pparent i n s ome o f t he m assive a shlars u sed i n t he C hurch S treet s ewer ( Buckland 1 976a: 3 3). I n c olour, t he r ock v aries f rom o ff-white o r g rey t hrough l ight b rown, s ometimes g reenish i n t he f resh f racture, t o a d ark r eddish-brown, w ith a v arying d egree o f w hite m ottling d epending u pon t he a mount o f d ecayed f elspar p resent. A tmospheric p ollution, i n t he d ays b efore t he C lean A ir A ct, h as r endered m any o f t he b locks o n t he o utside o f e xisting s tructures w ith a d ark g rey t o b lack s urface s kim. O thers, u sually w here a pparently n ot l aid o n b ed, h ave s uffered b reakdown i nto t heir c onstituent g rains o f q uartz a nd f elspar. T he s andstone v aries c onsiderably i n g rain s ize, o ften p oorly s orted, s ome l enses a re c onglomeratic i ncluding q uartz p ebbles i n e xcess o f 2 0 m illimetres l ong a nd t he s ub-rounded t o s ub-angular g rains o f m any o f t he g rits c ontribute t o t he r ock 's e xcellent p roperties a s a n e ngineering s tone. T he m ix o f r elatively s oft, o ften k aolinitized f elspar w ith t he q uartz m aintains t he r ock 's ' sharpness' d uring w ear w hen u sed f or q uerns a nd m illstones, a f eature w hich h as l ed t o i ts e xport t hroughout t he w orld ( Kendall a nd W root 1 924: 1 24). V ariable a mounts o f m uscovite a re p resent a nd, i n s ome b eds, t his i s s ufficient t o i mpart a f issile, f laggy n ature t o t he s andstone. S uch r ocks w ere e mployed f or r oofing s labs, a longside t he m ore c ommon o nes o f C oal M easure d erivation ( Versey i n B uckland 1 978b, a nd b elow), a nd f or t esserae ( Versey 1 940). O ther a ccessory m inerals o ccur b ut G illigan ( 1920) h as s hown t hat t hese d o n ot p rovide a m eans o f c haracterising i ndividual b eds w ithin t he s eries, a p roblem w hen o ne a ttempts t o c onsider s ources f or t he Y ork b uilding s tones. T he m atrix o f t he g ritstones i s v ariable. I n m ost c ases i t i s a c omplex o f c lay m inerals b ut a nkerite m ay o ccur a nd t his i s m ore s usceptible t o c hemical w eathering i n o ur m odern a cidic a tmosphere a nd, a s i n t he t ower o f S t M ary B ishophill J unior, c onsiderable e rosion o f t he s urface m ay t ake p lace. I n t he m ore r eddened g rits, t he i ron m inerals, i nitially l imonitic a t o utcrop, h ave b een o xidised t o h aematite. W hilst s uch m ay b e t he r esult o f f ire, a s p erhaps i n t he b lock w ith a d ouble v olute c arved u pon i t ( RCHM 1 962: 5 3), r eused l ow d own i n t he t ower o f S t M artin-cum-Gregory's c hurch, M icklegate, r eddening, a r esult o f w eathering i n a d esert e nvironment, i s w ides pread c lose t o t he P ermian u nconformity ( Anderson a nd D unham 1 953) a nd o ccasionally f urther w est i n t he g ritstones ( Turner 1 970) a nd t his m ay p rovide s ome i ndication o f s tone s ources. D iscussion o f t he o rigins o f M illstone G rit i n Y ork m ay b e s implified b y t he c onsideration o f t he l ogistical p roblems i nvolved i n t he t ransport o f b locks, s everal m ore t han 3 t onnes i n w eight, o ver c onsiderable d istances. O ccasional l arge b locks m ight b e m oved b y r oad ( see B urford 1 960-1961), e ither o n c arts o r s ledges, b ut t he a mount u tilised i n Y ork s uggests a v olume o f t raffic f ar i n e xcess o f w hat c ould e asily b e b rought i n c onveniently a nd r apidly i n t his m anner. F or e xample, t he 3 0 m etre l ong e xcavated l ength o f t he m ain c hannel o f t he C hurch S treet s ewer ( Whitwell 1 976) c ontains o ver 2 50 l arge s labs o f M illstone G rit ( Figure 1 5.3), w hich m ust w eigh m ore t han 5 00 t onnes, a nd t his r eflects o nly a v ery s mall p art o f t he s tone r equired f or s uch u tilities, s imilarly m assive s tructures a re k nown i n
2 42
F igure 1 5.3
Y ork, C hurch S treet R oman s ewer. T he l eft w all a nd r oof a re o f M illstone G rit, t he r ight w all o f L ower M agnesian L imestone a nd t he f loor o f f lags i n a m ottled s andstone f rom t he M iddle J urassic D ogger F ormation. P hotograph: D P hillips a nd Y ork A rchaeological T rust. 2 43
b oth f ortress a nd c olonia ( see R CHM 1 962:
5 3).
T hroughout t he R oman e mpire, r oad t ransport c osts w ere p roportionately h igh. D uncan-Jones ( 1974: 3 68), u sing t he e vidence o f t he P rice E dict o f D iocletian, s uggests t hat o verland c osts w ere b etween a pproximately s ix a nd e leven t imes t hose o f r iverine t ransport a nd H opkins ( 1978) q uotes a s imilar r atio - 6 0:6:1 - f or r oad:river:sea. S uch i s p articularly a pparent i n t he t ransport o f b ulky c ommodities a nd, a s t he s tudy b y R öder ( 1970) o f t he b uilding m aterials o f s ites a long t he R hine f rontier i ndicates, m ovement b y w ater o ver c onsiderable d istances w as l ikely t o b e p referred, e ven w here m ore i mmediate s ources w ere a vailable o verland. T he f irst c entury w alls o f C ologne, p artly o f s tone f rom t he T rier r egion n early 2 00 k ilometres u pstream ( Hellenkemper 1 983: 2 6), p rovide a n i nteresting c omparison w ith Y ork. T he o ccurrence o f b locks o f r eddened g ritstone a mong t he Y ork m aterial i ndicates t hat a t l east s ome s ources l ay c lose t o t he P ermian u nconformity r ather t han f urther w est. F rom n orth o f t he R iver A ire a t L eeds, t he L ower M agnesian L imestone o versteps f rom t he C oal M easures t o r est d irectly u pon t he M illstone G rit s uccession a nd s everal g rits, f rom t he R ough R ock d ownwards, f orm e ast-west e scarpments f lanking t he r iver v alleys b efore d isappearing b eneath t he n ortherly t rending c uesta o f t he l imestone. N orthwest o f Y ork, t he r ivers S wale, U re a nd N idd a ll p ass f rom t he M illstone G rit s uccession t hrough t he L ower M agnesian L imestone a nd o nto t he D rift p lain o f t he V ale o f Y ork t o f orm t he R iver O use. A ll p rovide p otential d ownstream r outeways t o Y ork: b y t he S wale 1 00 k ilometres, t he U re 6 6 k ilometres, a nd t he N idd 3 9 k ilometres, a lthough t he f igures c an o nly b e r egarded a s a pproximate a s t he p resent m eandering c ourses a re o f p ost-Roman o rigin ( see B uckland a nd S adler 1 986). O nly t he U re i s c urrently r egarded a s n avigable t o c lose t o t he M illstone G rit o utcrop, t o B oroughbridge, w here t he D evil's A rrows p rovide e vidence o f a n e arlier u se o f g ritstone, d ragged a t l east 9 k ilometres f rom t he n earest o utcrop ( Fox-Strangways 1 908: 9 ). A R oman q uay h as b een c laimed o n t he S wale a t C atterick ( Addyman 1 984: 1 6) a nd i t h as t o b e r emembered t hat t he m odern h ighly m anaged r egimes p rovide l ittle i ndication o f t he n ature o f c hannels i n t he R oman p eriod. K endall a nd W root ( 1924: 8 67) n ote f lood l evels o n t he N idd n ear 6 m etres a bove p resent m ean f low, a nd t ransport, p erhaps b y p unted r aft r ather t han b oat, c ould h ave u tilised p eriods o f p eak f low. C lose t o t he N idd, s uitable o utcrops o ccur i mmediately b eneath t he L ower M agnesian L imestone, i n t he g orge b elow K naresborough a nd f urther d ownstream a t P lumpton R ocks, b ut n o e arly q uarry s ites h ave y et b een r ecognised. A n a lternative r oute i s p rovided b y t he W harfe, d ownstream f rom t he r egion o f C ollingham t hrough T adcaster a nd u p t he O use t o Y ork, a t otal d istance o f 4 5 k ilometres, o f w hich 1 6 k ilometres i s a gainst t he c urrent, n ecessitating h aulage. H enderson ( 1979) h as t entatively s uggested t hat a bandoned q uarries a djacent t o t he T adcaster t o A del R oman r oad i n B ramham P ark, w here b oth t he R ough R ock a nd L ower M agnesian L imestone o utcrop, 7 k ilometres w est o f T adcaster, m ight b e p artly R oman a nd s uch s tone w ould r equire p artial m ovement b y r oad. A lthough t his m ight i nitially a ppear i mprobable, i t i s o ne o f t he r outes b y w hich t he M agnesian L imestone o f t he m edieval c ity a nd p robably o f i ts R oman p redecessor r eached Y ork ( Gee 1 981). A ll t hese
2 44
r outes a re c onsiderably m ore a ccessible t han t he P ateley B ridge s ource s uggested b y P hillips ( 1985: 1 96), w hich w ould h ave i nvolved l ong a nd d ifficult o verland t ransport, a cross t he M illstone G rit o utcrop, b efore a n avigable w aterway c ould b e r eached. O utside Y ork, M illstone G rit w as e mployed, c lose t o t he o utcrop, i n t he g ates a nd b astions o f t he c ivitas c apital a t A ldborough ( Charlesworth 1 971: 1 62; G aunt i n J ones 1 971: 7 7) a nd i n t he v illa a t D alton P arlours, w here i t w as e mployed f or h ypocaust p ilae. M ore w idespread a re t he m assive g ritstone c offins, w hich a re k nown f rom a s f ar s outh a s D oncaster ( Buckland 1 980). O ther e xamples a re r ecorded f rom t he A ire v alley a t H unslet, n ear L eeds ( Faull 1 981: 1 56), P ontefract ( Faull 1 981: 1 66), G lass H oughton, n ear C astleford ( Radley 1 968), B irkin ( Anon 1 902) a nd P ollington ( Smedley 1 951). A s w ell a s t he l arge n umber f rom Y ork i tself ( Ramm 1 971), a f urther c offin c omes f rom n ear t he Y ork t o A ldborough R oman r oad a t G reen H ammerton, 2 k ilometres n orth o f t he r iver N idd a nd 1 4 k ilometres f rom t he c ity ( Moorhouse 1 972: 2 19). D espite t he c oncentration o f f inds a long t he v alley o f t he A ire a nd t he u se o f g ritstone f or a t l east o ne o f t he C astleford m ilestones ( Sedgeley 1 975), i t i s u nlikely t hat t his r iver p rovided t he p rincipal r outeway f or Y ork's b uilding s tone ( contra R amm 1 971: 1 89), a s i t i nvolves s hipment f rom t he L eeds a rea 8 0 k ilometres d ownstream, f ollowed b y u pstream h aulage o f 4 6 k ilometres, f rom t he c onfluence w ith t he O use a t A irmyn, t o Y ork. I t i s m ore p robable t hat t he p attern r eflects r edistribution f rom a m anufactory b ased i n t he R oman c ity. T he o ne m ason 's y ard p ostulated l ies w ithin a c emetery a rea, r oughly a k ilometre f rom t he r iver, o n t he M ount ( Dickinson a nd W enham 1 957: 2 97) a nd m ay p erhaps h ave b een i nvolved i n t he p roduction o f f unerary m onuments, r ather t han u rban r ebuilding, d uring t he e arly t hird c entury ( contra W acher 1 974: 1 71). T he p roblem o f r edistribution a lso a ffects a nother p otential l ine o f e vidence, t he w idespread u se o f M illstone G rit i n t he e arly c hurches o f t he r egion. K endall a nd W root ( 1924: 1 23) n oted t he o ccurrence o f g ritstone i n S axon c hurches, r emote f rom t he M illstone G rit o utcrop, i n b oth e ast Y orkshire a nd L incolnshire w ith t he c omment ' it i s a c urious a nd u nexplained f act'. T he e xtent t o w hich t he r obbing o f R oman s tructures d ominated o ver f resh q uarrying h as r ecently b een e mphasised b y t he w ork o f S utherland ( 1985; S utherland a nd P arsons 1 984) a t B rixworth, w here t he S axon c hurch f abric c an b e s hown t o b e d erived a t l east p artly f rom a s f ar a way a s t he r uins o f R oman L eicester, 4 0 k ilometres a s t he c row f lies a nd i nvolving c onsiderable o verland c artage. T he m assive q uarry p rovided b y E buracum w as s imilarly e xploited a nd, a lthough t he r ivers a llowed a m ore c onvenient r edistribution m echanism o ut o f Y ork, b locks o f M illstone G rit o ver a t onne i n w eight w ere o ccasionally h auled o verland d espite t he p resence o f s uitable s tone f rom o utcrops i n c lose p roximity. A t K irby G rindalythe i n t he W olds, 1 2 k ilometres s outheast o f M alton, M illstone G rit b locks, c learly r eused f rom m ajor R oman s tructures, w ere s o d ominant i n t he t ower ( Figure 1 5.4) t hat S treet, w hen h e r ebuilt t he r emainder o f t he c hurch i n 1 878 ( Pevsner 1 972), c hose t o b ring i n B ramley F all S tone. G ritstone w as n ot n oticeably e mployed i n R oman M alton ( Corder 1 930), w here t he f ort w all m ay w ell h ave b een t he s ource o f t he s mall O olite a shlars u sed f or t he n orth
2 45
F igure
1 5.4
T ower o f S t A ndrew 's C hurch, K irkby G rindalythe. T he c ontrast b etween t he l arge r eused b locks o f M illstone G rit i n t he w est f ace o f t he t ower a nd t he s maller w ork i n J urassic o olite i n t he n orth w all i s e vident. P hotograph: G P D owling. 2 46
f ace o f t he t ower a t K irby G rindalythe. I t i s p robable t herefore t hat t he b ulk o f t he m aterial f or t he e arly c hurch w as t ransported f rom t he r uins o f E buracum . A r oute b y r iver d own t he O use a nd u p t he D erwent t o M alton, a d istance o f 9 5 k ilometres, i s p ossible, f ollowed b y o verland c artage o f 1 8 k ilometres, b ut, i n v iew o f t he n eed f or u pstream h aulage o f 5 5 k ilometres f rom t he c onfluence o f t he t wo r ivers t hen n ear H owden, am ore d irect p ortage v ia t he R oman r oad t o M alton, o f a bout 5 0 k ilometres, m ay h ave b een p referred. E ither r oute b etrays a m arked r eluctance t o q uarry t he e xcellent f reestones a vailable f rom t he J urassic o utcrop w ithin a f ew k ilometres o f K irby G rindalythe, o r p erhaps h ints s omething o f t he n ature o f o wnership o f m aterials a nd p atronage i n t he S axon p eriod. M illstone G rit b locks, e vidently r eused, f orm c onsiderable p arts o f t he f abric o f s everal c hurches i n t he V ale o f Y ork a nd b eyond. T he p re-Conquest c hurch a t K irk H ammerton h as b een s tudied b y M orris ( 1976), w ho p rovides a u seful d iscussion o n S axon u se o f g ritstone. D espite S alzman 's ( 1967: 1 99) c omment t hat b eyond 1 9 k ilometres t ransport d istance, q uarrying b ecame m ore e conomic, t here i s p resently n o c oncrete e vidence i n t he V ale f or t he u se o f f reshly q uarried m aterial b efore t he N orman p eriod, w hen t he m assive b uilding s cheme, b egun a round 1 080 b y T homas o f B ayeux f or t he M inster ( Phillips 1 985), m ust h ave v irtually e xhausted t he d irectly a vailable r emains o f R oman Y ork. E ven t he w idespread u se o f M illstone G rit f or c rosses i n t he A ngloS candinavian p eriod ( Pattison 1 973) n eed n ot i mply t he q uarrying o f f resh m aterial ( contra B uckland 1 976a; b ut s ee B uckland 1 980). B locks l arge e nough w ould h ave e xisted i n R oman Y ork a nd t he p arallel p rovided b y t he f ate o f t he i mported s tones o f R ome ( Lanciani 1 899) i s i nstructive; p erhaps t he C osmati s chool h as s ome p arallels i n A ngloS candinavian Y ork ( see P attison 1 973; L ang 1 978: 1 50). I t r emains t o c onsider t he d ating e vidence f or t he u se o f M illstone G rit i n Y ork a nd r euse b oth w ithin a nd b eyond t he R oman p eriod m akes t his p articularly d ifficult. O n t he n egative s ide, t he e arliest d atable i nscription, t hat o f A D 1 08, f rom t he s outheast g ate o f t he f ortress, i s c ut o n a l arge s lab o f L ower M agnesian L imestone ( RCHM 1 962: 11), b ut a f ragment f rom C lifford S treet o f a s imilar c ommemorative s lab ( RCHM 1 962: 11) i s o f ' gritstone' a nd b ears t he t ext I MP C AES M ..., s uggesting e xploitation d uring t he r eign o f M arcus A urelius ( AD 1 62-183) o r l ater. A n umber o f i nscriptions u pon a ltars a nd d edication t ablets ( for e xample, R CHM 1 962: 19.54) w ould a lso i mply a l ate s econd o r e arly t hird c entury d ate. O ne p iece o f e pigraphic e vidence c an b e c losely d ated a nd t hat c oncerns t hat m ost f ar t ravelled p iece o f Y ork M illstone G rit, t he B ordeaux a ltar. T he s evir A ugustalis , M arcus A urelius L unaris, o f Y ork a nd L incoln, d edicated t he a ltar o n c ompletion o f a j ourney t o B ordeaux i n A D 2 37. T he m assive b lock o f g ritstone, w eighing a pproximately o ne t onne, a ppears t oo l arge t o h ave a rrived i n w estern F rance m erely a s b allast ( see W acher 1 974: 1 66), a lthough i t i s p robable t hat m uch e xotic s tone w as m oved a s m ake-weight c argoes o n r eturn j ourneys ( see b elow). S uch b alancing m ovements m ust a lso h ave b een a f eature o f t he R oman w orld a nd c an e xplain s everal o therwise a nomalous d istribution p atterns ( see B uckland 1 984: 5 6; a nd b elow). O ne f urther p iece o f e pigraphic e vidence s hows t hat M illstone G rit w as b eing e xploited b y t he l ate f irst o r e arly s econd c entury. P art o f a n a nsate p anel o f ' gritstone', f ound o n T he M ount i n 1 852 ( RCHM 1 962: 1 26) b ears a n
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i nscription c ommemorating a s oldier o f L egio I X H ispana. T his u nit a ppears t o h ave b een w ithdrawn f rom B ritain b y A D 1 22 ( Birley 1 971; W right 1 978: 3 81) a nd t he t ombstone s eems u nlikely t o p ost-date t his b y a ny e xtended p eriod. A lthough o ften r eused f or l ater b urials ( Ramm 1 971), g ritstone s arcophagi s eem t o r ange i n d ate f rom t he s econd t o t he f ourth c entury a nd M ayes ( in F aull 1 981: 1 57) h as s uggested a l ate f ourth o r e arly f ifth c entury d ate f or t he G lass H oughton i nhumation o n t he b asis o f a n a ssociated b one c omb. S tratigraphic e vidence f rom e xcavations a dds l ittle t o t his p icture. S tead 's ( 1968) d oubts a bout t he p recise d ating o f t he p hases o f t he f ortress w all h ave y et t o b e d ispelled a nd m any o ther s tructures w hich u tilise g ritstone a re d ated b y s upposition r ather t han s tratification. S imilar p roblems a ttend t he d ating o f o ther o f Y ork 's R oman b uilding s tones ( compare B uckland 1 984) b ut t he c hronological r ange o f M illstone G rit q uarrying c an b e e xtended b ecause o f i ts w idespread u se f or t he m anufacture o f b oth b eehive a nd r otary q uerns. T he f ormer b egin i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge ( Philips 1 950) a nd c ontinue a t l east i nto t he e arly R oman p eriod w hereafter t hey a re r eplaced b y f lat r otary q uerns. A fter e xamination o f l arge n umbers o f b eehive q uerns i n W est Y orkshire, S umpter ( personal c ommunication) h as s uggested t hat t hose o f p re-Roman I ron A ge d ate w ere m anufactured e ither d irectly f rom o utcrop o r f rom e rratics, o ften a vailable f rom f ield c learance c lose t o t he o ccupation s ite; o nly i n t he R oman p eriod d oes f reshly q uarried s tone b ecome m ore f requent. [ Editorial n ote: f or f urther d iscussion o f q uerns, s ee B riggs t his v olume.] I t h as b een s uggested t hat q uerns o f H unsbury t ype w ere m anufactured a t t he N orthamptonshire h illfort o f t hat n ame f rom b locks i mported f rom t he D erbyshire M illstone G rit o utcrop ( Philips 1 950) b ut s uch t ransport o f r aw m aterials s eems u nlikely, a lthough d rilling o f h opper a nd h andle h oles m ay h ave b een l eft u ntil r oughed o ut q uerns a rrived o n s ite. R amm ( personal c ommunication; f ootnote 9 i n W hitwell 1 976) l ocated a m anufactory f or b eehive q uerns a t T horner, 1 0 k ilometres n ortheast o f L eeds, w here b oulders f rom t he D rift w ere e mployed a s r aw m aterial. A t W harncliffe ( = q uern c liff), 1 2 k ilometres n orthwest o f S heffield, s crees b elow t he W harncliffe R ock o utcrops i n t he L ower C oal M easures o n t he e ast s ide o f t he R iver D on w ere t he s ource ( Butcher 1 951). Q uerns o f M illstone G rit w ere p articularly w idely d istributed, o ften p enetrating i nto a reas w here o ther s uitable r ocks w ere a vailable. O n t he e ast c oast a nd i ts h interland, h owever, p articularly t owards t he s outh, a t s ites s uch a s L ondon ( see t he p erplexing u nfinished e xample f rom t he B lapkfriars s hip: ( Marsden 1 967: 5 4-55) a nd S cole i n N orfolk ( Rogerson 1 977: 1 50), i t i s p ossible t hat g ritstone q uerns m ay r eflect t he m ovement o f b allast c argo f rom m anufactories o n M illstone G rit o utcrops i n B elgium. T he i mport o f N eidermendig a nd o ther l ava q uerns i s m ore e asily d ocumented ( Peacock 1 980), b ut t he e vidence f or t wo-way m ovement o f p ottery ( Fulford 1 977) m ight s uggest p ossibilities f or s imilar m ovements i n s tone ( see W elfare 1 985: 1 59). Q uerns f rom n orthern G aul c ould b e o f e ither B ritish o r L ow C ountry o rigin. P ottery p rovides a nother t entative l ink i n t he d iscussion o f t he q uarrying o f M illstone G rit. S umpter ( personal c ommunication) h as d rawn a ttention t o a g roup o f c oarsely g ritted h andmade j ars, w hich h e
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h as t entatively c hristened ' West Y orkshire w are'. T hese v essels h ave aw ide d istribution i n w estern Y orkshire a nd t he V ale o f Y ork, b eing r ecorded f rom C atterick ( Gillam 1 957: f igure 1.32-36), t he v illas a t W ell ( Gilyard-Beer 1 951: f igure 1 5.34-37) a nd D alton P arlours ( Sumpter t his v olume), I lkley ( Hartley 1 966: f igure 1.57), C astleford ( Sumpter u npublished) a nd R iccall ( Samuels u npublished). T heir f orms s uggest a nalogy w ith K napton w are ( Corder a nd K irk 1 932: 9 6-98) a nd D ales w are ( Loughlin 1 977), v essels p erhaps f ulfilling a p articular m arket r equirement, r ather t han a s urvival o f p re-Roman c eramic t raditions. T he a vailable d ating e vidence w ould s uggest a l ate s econd t o t hird c entury f loruit. T he r elevance o f t hese v essels t o M illstone G rit e xploitation l ies i n t heir t emper. T he g rit e mployed i ncludes c ohesive r ock f ragments u p t o 8m illimetres a cross a nd t hese a re e asily r ecognised a s f reshly c rushed g ritstone. T he u nweathered n ature o f t he t emper i s a lso e vident i n t hin s ection, w here i t i s i mmediately a pparent t hat t he p lagioclase f elspar c rystals a re u nweathered, i mplying t he u se o f f resh r ock. S uitable c lays a re a vailable f rom b oth t he D rift a nd t he w eathered s hales i n t he M illstone G rit s uccession a nd t he n ature o f t he t emper c ould s uggest a c onnection w ith q uarrying a ctivity, u tilising t he w aste h eaps f rom t rimming t o p rovide t he g rit. S uch a c onnection i s p erhaps u nnecessary - t he b reaking u p o f a s ingle q uern p roviding s ufficient t emper f or a ll t he v essels k nown - b ut t he p ossibility s hould b e e xplored i n t he l ight o f R oman g ritstone e xploitation. U PPER C ARBONIFEROUS F LAGSTONES I n b oth t he M illstone G rit s uccession a nd t he o verlying C oal M easures, s everal o f t he s andstone m embers a re m arkedly f issile a nd h ave t herefore a l ong h istory o f e xploitation b oth f or p aving s tone a nd r oofing s lab m anufacture. C oal M easure s andstones, f rom t he [ h and F lags a nd G aisby R ock ( not G aisley ( sic) o f B uckland 1 978b: 4 1) o f t he L eeds a rea, t heir e quivalent f urther s outh, t he G reenmoor R ock a nd G renoside S andstone, o ccasionally s upplemented b y s imilar f lags f rom t he M iddle J urassic o f t he Y orkshire c oast, u nder t he g eneric n ame ' York S tone' ( Watson 1 911: 1 32), p rovided t he s tone s labs f or t he p avements o f L ondon a nd m any o ther u rban c entres i n e astern E ngland f rom t he e ighteenth c entury o nwards. I t i s o nly i n t he l ast t hirty y ears t hat m ost h ave b een r eplaced b y t he u biquitous c oncrete p aving. D uring t he R oman p eriod, U pper C arboniferous f lagstones w ere w idely e mployed, n ot s o m uch f or f looring b ut f or r oofing, f or, d espite C lifton-Taylor's ( 1987: 1 34) s tatement t o t he c ontrary, u ntil t he s pread o f c eramic p antile f rom t he e nd o f t he s eventeenth c entury, t hese r ocks p rovided e xcellent, i f r ather h eavy, r oofs ( see G iles 1 986: 8 4-85). S urviving p ost-medieval e xamples h ave r ectangular s labs g rading i n s ize f rom s mall a long t he r idge t o l arge a t t he e aves, w hilst t he m ajority o f c omplete R oman r oof s labs a re d iamond-shaped a nd o f s imilar s ize. A n e xample f igured f rom B rough-on-Humber ( Wacher 1 969: f igure 4 5) i s 3 70 m illimetres b y 2 40 m illimetres, m ost a ppear t o b e b etween 1 5 a nd 2 0 m illimetres i n t hickness. A lthough t here i s s ome v ariation i n s ize, t he c riterion o f s hape, r anging f rom d iamonds haped t o h exagonal, a ppears t o b e v alid f or m ost R oman r oof t iles f rom o ther a reas, i ncluding t hose f rom C harnwood ( Allin 1 981: 6 7), t he O ld R ed S andstone o f t he s outhern W elsh B orders, t he C oal M easure P ennant S andstone o f S outh W ales a nd t he J urassic C ollyweston S late o f
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O xfordshire ( Williams 1 972). T he v arying p ositions o f t he c hipped h ole f or a r eceiving p eg o r n ail - e xamples f rom t he R udston v illa ( Stead 1 980: 1 9) s till h ad i ron n ails i n p osition - i mply t hat f inal t rimming t ook p lace o n s ite. O n t he r ecently d iscovered v illa s ite a t C lifton i n s outh Y orkshire, r ectangular r oofing s labs, r oughly 4 00 m illimetres b y 4 30 m illimetres, w ith a c hipped n ail h ole c entral t o t he u pper e dge, o ccur a nd i t w ould t herefore a ppear t hat t he c riterion o f s hape i s n ot u niversally a pplicable. P etrologically, t here i s s ome v ariation i n t he r oofing s labs f rom R oman Y ork a nd a n umber o f s ources a re i ndicated, a lthough i t m ust b e n oted t hat t he r ock m ay v ary c onsiderably o ver s hort d istances a long t he o utcrop. O n t he B ishophill s ite i n t he c olonia , i t w as p ossible t o i solate a g roup o f s labs w hich a ppeared d istinct f rom t he m ajority n oted f rom o ther s ites ( Buckland 1 978: 4 1). T hese w ere i n a l ight g reenish-grey ( Munsell 1 961: n umber 5 GY 7 /1) m icaceous s andstone, r ather s oft a nd f ine-grained, w ith t he s ometimes i rregular b edding p lanes c oated w ith s mall f lakes o f m uscovite m ica. P rofessor H C V ersey e xamined t he r ock i n t hin s ection a nd, i n v iew o f t he f requency o f r elatively f resh f eldspars, i ncluding m icrocline, c oncluded t hat a s ource i n t he M illstone G rit s uccession, r ather t han t he C oal M easures, w as m ost p robable. S uitable o utcrops o ccur i n t he s ame g eneral a rea a s t he m ore m assive g rits, n orth o f L eeds, w ith f laggy b eds b eing n oted i n s everal o f t he s andstones. I n t erms o f e ase o f t ransport t o Y ork, t he A ddlethorpe G rit p rovides a n a ppropriate f lagstone c lose t o t he R iver W harfe a t C ollingham, 4 5 k ilometres f rom Y ork b y r iver. T he R ough R ock F lags i n t he M illstone G rit a nd [ h and F lags o f t he C oal M easures a re t hrown i nto c lose p roximity b y f aulting 6 k ilometres n orth o f L eeds a nd b oth h ave b een w orked i n t he r ecent p ast. T ransport b y e ither t he W harfe o r t he A ire, h owever, w ould i nvolve b oth c artage a nd t ranshipment a nd, i f t his s ource w as e xploited, i t i s p ossible t hat d irect r oad h aulage b y w ay o f t he R oman r oad f rom A del t o T adcaster a nd Y ork, a d istance o f s ome 3 0 k ilometres, m ight h ave b een p referred f or t hese m ore e asily m anhandled i tems. T his r oad a lso r uns 2 k ilometres n orth o f t he i nlier o f R ough R ock F lags a nd S oft B ed F lags i n B ramham P ark, 7 k ilometres s outhwest o f T adcaster, a lthough r eddening o f b oth t hese a nd t he a ssociated R ough R ock i mmediately b eneath t he P ermian u nconformity o ccurs, a c olour a lteration n ot n oted a mong t he Y ork r oofing s labs. T his o utcrop i s d irectly c rossed b y t he Y ork-Castleford r oad, b eneath t he m odern A 64. A lthough o n t he B ishophill s ite M illstone G rit a nd C oal M easure f lags a ppear i n r oughly e qual p roportions, i t i s t he l atter w hich d ominate e lsewhere, b oth i n Y ork a nd b eyond. T he r ock i s v ariable a nd w as p robably d erived f rom s everal s ources a nd t he p ossibility o f s ome c onfusion w ith s imilar b eds i n t he M iddle J urassic o f n ortheast Y orkshire h as t o b e c onsidered. T ypically, i n t he f resh f racture, t he r ock i s a l ight y ellowish b rown ( around M unsell 1 961: n umber 2 .5Y 6 /4) f ine g rained s andstone. B edding i s w ell d eveloped, i f o ften i rregular, w ith v arying a mounts o f m ica, a llowing b locks t o b e s plit i nto s labs b etween 1 5 m illimetres a nd 2 5 m illimetres i n t hickness, o ften w ith s lightly u neven s urfaces. S ome e xamples o f r oof t iles a re m anufactured f rom f lagstone w hich i s s ufficiently w ell c emented f or t he t rimming t o s how a n i rregular s ub-conchoidal f racture.
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T he m ajority o f f ragments h ave b een a scribed t o s ources i n t he E iland F lags ( for e xample, W acher 1 969: 1 02). T he t erm i s r estricted s tratigraphically h owever t o a s andstone i n t he L ower C oal M easures i n t he L eeds a rea, w hilst c ommercially t he n ame h as b een a pplied i ndiscriminately t o a w ide r ange o f s imilar r ocks f rom t he C oal M easures. I n v iew o f t he u ncertainty a s t o t he s ources f or t he Y ork m aterial, t he n on-committal t erm C oal M easure f lagstone i s t o b e p referred. T he f requency o f f laggy b eds i n t he C oal M easure s uccession s outhwards f rom L eeds m eans t hat m ost s ites a long a nd c lose t o t he o utcrop w ere a ble t o e xploit l ocal r esources. I n t he s outhern p art o f t he c ounty, a s w ell a s t he l ateral e quivalents o f t he E lland F lags i n t he G reenmoor R ock a nd t he G renoside S andstone, f lagstones a re a vailable i n t he o verlying P enistone F lags a nd s everal s andstones u p t hrough t he s uccession t o t he W ickersley R ock i n t he u pper M iddle C oal M easures. T he l atter w as p robably o ne o f t he s ources f or r oofing f lags o n s ites i n S outh Y orkshire a nd t o t he e ast, w here e xamples a re w idespread u pon R oman s ettlements o f m ost t ypes. O n t he s maller r ural s ites, C oal M easure f lags p rovided t he b ase f or c lay h earths i n o therwise w holly t imber a nd d aub s tructures, a nd f ragments i n t he p loughsoil, w ith a f ew a braded s herds o f p ottery, a re o ften t he o nly s urface i ndication o f a f ormer s ite. W ith t he e xceptions o f t he H ull, D erwent a nd A ncholme, a ll t he n avigable r ivers w hich d rain t o t he H umber f urnish e asy a ccess t o o utcrops o f C oal M easures a nd t he s ources f or f inds i n e ast Y orkshire a nd L incolnshire a re p robably w idespread. U nlike t he m ore b ulky c ommodity o ffered b y M illstone G rit c offins, a s econdary d istribution t hrough Y ork i s p erhaps u nnecessary ( but s ee B uckland 1 986), p articularly i n v iew o f t he e ase o f d ownstream s hipment f rom m any s uitable o utcrops. C oal M easure f lagstone r oofing s labs w ere w idely t raded b eyond t he V ale o f Y ork, o ccurring o n e ast Y orkshire v illa s ites a t W harram, H arpham a nd R udston. O n t he l atter t wo s ites, C lark ( 1935: 2 5) n otes t hat f armers u sed t o s earch t he f ields f or f ragments o f t he s tone t o u se a s s couring b locks a nd h ones. S uch r euse p robably h as a l ong h istory. M acGregor ( 1982: 8 0) h as p ublished t wo h ones m ade f rom a f laggy s andstone f rom t he M illstone G rit s uccession f rom t he A nglo-Scandivanian s ite b eneath L loyds B ank i n t he P avement, Y ork, p erhaps r eflecting t he c asual c ollection o f s uitable m aterial f rom t he r uins o f R oman Y ork. T he U pper C arboniferous p rovided e xcellent h ones a nd g rindstones i nto t he e arly y ears o f t his c entury ( Kendall a nd W root 1 924: 1 24, L ewis a nd R ees 1 926) a nd i t i s r emarkable t hat, w ithin t he R oman p eriod, e xamples i n K entish r agstone s eem t o b e m ore f requent e ven i n Y ork ( see B erridge 1 976). S ome u nderlying e conomic l ink w ith t he s outheast i s p robable. I t i s u nfortunate t hat t he r ecording o f g eological m aterials f rom a rchaeological s ites i s r arely s ufficient t o o btain a n o verview o f d istribution. T he p ublication o f C oal M easure f lags f rom t he m ilitary a nd u rban s ite a t B rough-on-Humber ( Wacher 1 969: 1 02) a nd n ot f rom t he a djacent v illa a t B rantingham ( Liversidge e t a l 1 973) m ay a s m uch r eflect t he v agaries o f e xcavation a nd e xcavators a s r eality. S outh o f t he H umber, t he s tone i s n ot i dentified f rom e ither t he s ettlement a t t he e nd o f E rmine S treet a t O ld W interingham o r t he v illa a t W interton ( Stead 1 976: 2 34) b ut w as n oted d uring e xcavations o n t he r oadside s ettlement a t H ibaldstow ( R F S mith p ersonal c ommunication, B uckland 1 978b), 2 0 k ilometres s outh o f t he H umber o n E rmine S treet.
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F urther s outh, f laggy l imestones f rom t he J urassic p rovide a bundant m aterial f or r oofing s labs. I n t he c entral a rea o f t he e ast M idlands, n orth o f t he J urassic R idge, C harnwood s lates, l argely f rom t he s ame s ource e xploited t hrough t o t he e nd o f t he n ineteenth c entury, t he S withland S late ( Allin 1 981: 6 7), o btain a s urprisingly w ide d istribution ( Todd 1 973: 13). L ike t he C oal M easure f lagstones, t heir p enetration i nto a reas w here o ther r ocks a re m ore r eadily a vailable, t o A ncaster o n t he M iddle J urassic ( Todd 1 973), L ittle C hester, D erby ( Birss 1 985), c lose t o t he U pper C arboniferous, a nd p ossibly D oncaster ( Buckland u npublished), a gain c lose t o C oal M easure s ources, s uggests e conomic f actors o f w hich w e a re d imly a ware. T he r oofing s tone i ndustry w arrants m ore d etailed s tudy. T he a bility t o b e b roken d own i nto s mall c ubes m ade f issile s ands tones o f c onsiderable u tility t o t he m osaicists o f R oman Y orkshire a nd b eyond a nd, f or t he c oarser a reas o f t essellated p avements, i ts u se a ppears o ften t o b e a s f requent a s t hat o f b rick. A lthough i t i s p robable t hat m ost o f t he Y ork s andstone t esserae a re o f C oal M easure o rigin, o nly t he f ew s tray c ubes f rom t he B ishophill s ite h ave b een p ositively i dentified ( Buckland 1 978b). V ersey ( 1940) e xamined t esserae f rom A ldborough, L angton, D alton P arlours a nd ' elsewhere' a nd a scribed s ome t o t he E lland F lags, b ut t he p aper i s u nclear a s t o w hich s ites i ndividual p ieces c ame f rom . P ersonal r ecollection o f t he h eaps o f t esserae a t t he R udston v illa ( Stead 1 980: 1 9) a nd o f t he A ldwark, Y ork, p avement ( Magilton 1 986) i s t hat t he s andstone c ubes w ere o f C oal M easure o rigin b ut i t i s n ot p ossible t o b e c ertain w ithout e xamining s everal s pecimens i n f resh f racture o r p referably i n t hin s ection, a nd m useum c urators a re u nderstandably r eluctant t o s ee t heir m ounted p avements s o t reated. A lthough o ccasionally, a nd o ften s econdarily, e mployed i n r ough p aving, t here i s p resently n o r ecognised e xample o f C oal M easure f lags tones b eing u tilised i n w all v eneer o r o pus s ectile w ork. F ragments f rom B ishophill, Y ork i n m ore e xotic r ocks ( Buckland 1 978b), h owever, s uggest t hat a ll e xcavated p ieces s hould b e e xamined f or b oth c urved a nd s traight g round e dges r ather t han m erely c hipped f inishing t o t he e dges. T wo C oal M easure f lagstone r oundels f rom B ishophill, t he o ne 1 80 m illimetres i n d iameter ( Buckland 1 978b: f igure 1 8.4) a nd t he o ther 2 00 m illimetres ( MacGregor 1 978: 5 9), m ay c ome f rom o pus s ectile b ut t heir p oorly f inished e dges a re m ore i n k eeping w ith t heir e mployment a s l ids o r l arge g aming p ieces. A t hicker p iece, 4 0 m illimetres t hick a nd 3 50 m illimetres i n d iameter, w ith c hipped a nd g round e dges f rom a n A hglo-Scandinavian c ontext a t L loyds B ank, P avement h as b een i nterpreted a s p art o f a r otary g rindstone ( MacGregor 1 982: 7 6), a lthough t he p ossibility o f i ts p rimary u se i n a R oman a rchitectural c ontext r emains. M icaceous s andstones w ere f requently u sed t o m anufacture r oundels o f s maller s ize, p resumably a s g aming p ieces, a nd M acGregor ( 1976: 2 1) n ot o nly f igures a n e xample f rom t he Y ork R oman s ewer b ut a lso d iscusses t he c lassical l iterary e vidence f or t he g ames p layed. M ost o f t he C oal M easure f lag r oofing s labs a nd f ragments f rom Y ork a nd o ther s ites c ome f rom s econdary c ontexts, f rom r obbing t renches t o R oman w alls o r d isturbed i nto m edieval d eposits. E ven w ithin t he R oman p eriod, s labs w ere f requently r eused, o ften i n f looring a nd i t i s d ifficult t o e stablish a d ate f or t he b eginning o f
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i ts e xploitation. I n t he l ess d isturbed c onditions o f t he R oman f ort a t D oncaster, C oal M easure s labs o ccur i n t he l ate H adrianic o r e arly A ntonine d emolition r ubble ( Buckland i n p reparation). C areful r ecording o f m aterial f rom s ites w ill p robably e xtend e vidence f or t heir u se b ack i nto t he l ate f irst c entury. T he o nly c omparative e vidence a vailable c omes f rom W illiams ' ( 1971) w ork i n s outhwest E ngland, w here, a t G loucester, h e a rgues t hat s tone s lates w ere o nly e mployed f rom t he m id-second c entury o nwards. I n v iew o f t he w idespread e vidence f or t heir e arlier u se e lsewhere i n t he r egion ( Williams 1 971: 1 06), t his i s p erhaps u nlikely a nd m ay r eflect t he i nadequate n ature o f t he a rchaeological r ecord. P ieces o f f lag a re w idespread i n t he d emolition r ubble o f b oth u rban a nd r ural s ites, a s a t t he R udston v illa ( Stead 1 980: 1 8) b ut t he l atest d atable u se c omes f rom t essellated p avements, a lthough t he m aterial n eed n ot b e f reshly q uarried. D J S mith ( in M agilton 1 986: 4 1) p rovides a f ourth c entury d ate f or t he A ldwark m osaic, a nd t he R udston p avements a re o f a s imilar d ate ( Smith 1 980). A lthough t he s cale o f q uarrying w as c learly c onsiderable, m ore r ecent e xploitation w ill a lmost i nevitably h ave d estroyed m ost R oman w orkings a nd a d etailed c hronology c an o nly e merge f rom m ore c areful r ecording i n e xcavations b oth i n Y ork a nd e lsewhere. O THER U PPER C ARBONIFEROUS R OCKS I n c ontrast w ith t he M illstone G rit, t he s everal g ood b uilding s tones w ithin t he C oal M easure s uccession d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een u sed f ar f rom t heir i mmediate o utcrop a nd n one h as b een r ecognised f rom R oman Y ork. F ragments o f a f inely t ooled b lock, p robably f rom t he M exborough R ock, f rom a s econd c entury d itch i n D oncaster ( Buckland a nd M agilton 1 986: 1 02), w here a ll o ther b uilding s tone c omes f rom t he L ower M agnesian L imestone, m ight s uggest t he u se o f c ontrasting s tone c olours i n s tructures a s i n c ontemporary Y ork ( RCHM 1 962: 2 6). I t i s a lso o f i nterest t o s peculate o n t he o rigins o f t he s imilar s tones i n t he S axon t ower a t L aughton-en-le-Morthen ( Ryder 1 982: 7 1-74), o n t he e dge o f t he l imestone o utcrop, 1 k ilometres e ast o f t he n earest k nown s econdary s ource, t he R oman f ort a t T empleborough ( May 1 922). T wo o ther g eological r aw m aterials f rom t he U pper C arboniferous r equire c onsideration. S hale a nd c annel c oal w ere w idely e mployed i n t he m anufacture o f b racelets a nd o ther j ewellery. H emingway ( in A llason-Jones a nd M iket 1 984: 3 02) h as n oted t hat t he b etter q uality e xamples o f t hese a re i ndistinguishable f rom p ieces m ade f rom j et d erived f rom t he L ower J urassic o f t he Y orkshire c oast a nd i t i s o nly a t m anufactories, l ike t he B ronze A ge e xample r eported b y B eswick ( 1971) i n t he L ower C oal M easures, w est o f S heffield, t hat a C arboniferous s ource c an b e a scertained w ithout d estructive t esting. W hether b locks o f s uch m aterial w ere t ransported a s r aw m aterial t o Y ork, a s ' Whitby' j et m ay h ave b een ( RCHM 1 962: 1 41-144, b ut s ee R adley 1 969: 2 67), i s u ncertain. C oal, a s f uel r ather t han r aw m aterial, w as w idely, i f s paringly u sed i n R oman B ritain. W ebster ( 1955) p rovides a u seful i f n ow d ated r eview a nd m akes t he p oint t hat m ost u se l ies c lose t o t he o utcrop, a lthough m ore r ecent f inds m ight s uggest t hat t his s tatement m ay r equire r e-evaluation. T he w idespread o ccurrence o f f ragments o f c oal
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i n t he P leistocene d eposits o f Y orkshire r equires t hat c are b e t aken t o a scertain t hat o ccasional p ieces a re n ot m erely e rratics r ather t han m anuports. S mall f ragments w ithin u ndisturbed s ands a nd g ravels h ave a lso b een m istaken f or c harcoal, a n e rror m ade b y H ood ( in S umpter a nd C oll 1 977) d uring t he e xcavation o f I nterval T ower S W5 o f t he l egionary f ortress. T hree Y ork s ites h ave p roduced s tratified e vidence f or t he u se o f c oal. W enham ( 1968: 2 1-23) f ound b oth c oal a nd i ts a sh i n a c oncentrated a rea i n t he T rentholme D rive c emetery a nd i ts u se t here t o f ire a c rematorium ( ustrina) s eems c onvincing. C oal w as a lso r ecorded f rom a l arge l ate s econd t o e arly t hird c entury p it i n B lossom S treet ( Wenham 1 965: 5 42) a nd s mall p ieces w ere u tilised f or t he e yes i n t he b ust o n t he A ldwark p avement ( Magilton 1 986: 4 0). A f urther s ample f rom P etergate, w ithin t he f ortress, i s u nfortunately o f e quivocable d ate ( Wenham 1 972: 8 5). T o t he s outh, a h eap o f c oal w as f ound b y M ay ( 1922: 3 7) i n t he c ourtyard o f t he c ommandant's h ouse i n t he T empleborough f ort a nd i t o ccurred i n a m id-late s econd c entury r ubbish p it i n D oncaster ( Buckland a nd M agilton 1 986). C oal w as a pparently u sed i n m etalworking d uring t he s econd c entury a t B rough-on-Humber ( Biek a nd W acher 1 969). T wo p ottery k iln s ites h ave a lso p roduced c oal, a lthough i ts u se i s u nlikely t o r elate t o t he f iring o f t he k ilns ( contra P earson 1 974: 3 09; R amm 1 978: 15; s ee a lso S wan 1 984: 7 ). T he R ossington B ridge k ilns, s outh o f D oncaster, p roduced s ignificant q uantities o f c oal a nd a sh f rom m id-late s econd c entury d eposits ( Buckland a nd S amuels i n p ress) a nd c oal m ay h ave b een u sed f or p reliminary d rying o f v essels a t N orton, n ear M alton ( Hayes a nd W hitley 1 950: 1 7), i f t he T -shaped ' cornd rying ' o ven o n t he s ite w as c ontemporary w ith t he p ottery k ilns; a d ate i n t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury i s i ndicated. T he l atest r ecord i s f rom a f urnace o r o ven o n t he s mall f armstead s ite a t C rossgates, n ear S carborough, w here t he a ssociation o f ' brown c oal o r l ignite ' i s w ith l ate f ourth c entury p ottery ( Rutter a nd D uke 1 958). I n t erms o f t racing b ack t o s ource, c oal h as s everal a dvantages o ver t he o ther r ocks c onsidered i n t hat i ts s pore c ontent a nd p hysical p roperties m ay a llow s pecimens t o b e a llocated t o a n o rigin i n a p articular g roup o f s eams, w hich m ay h ave l imited o utcrop. T he T rentholme D rive ( Edwards e t a l 1 968) a nd B lossom S treet ( Edwards 1 965) c oals b oth c ome f rom o ne o f a g roup o f s eams e ither s ide o f t he L ower a nd M iddle C oal M easure j unction e ast o f L eeds, t he c losest s ource o f c oal t o Y ork, a nd t he l ess w ell s tratified m aterial f rom P etergate h as b een s imilarly p laced ( Butterworth i n W enham 1 972: 9 2). E dwards' ( 1965) c omment a bout c oal f rom t he C oxwold-Ampleforth r egion i n t he l atter p aper i s m isleading a s t his r efers t o t hin c oals i n t he M iddle J urassic, n ot s o f ar r ecorded f rom Y ork. S mith ( 1986) i n h is r eport o n t he D oncaster c oal s uggests a s ource i n t he l ower M iddle C oal M easures s outh o f W akefield, a nd B radburn ( in p ress) a scribes t he s imilarly d ated R ossington m aterial t o s eams b etween t he C lay C ross a nd M ansfield M arine B ands, w idely d istributed i n t he s ame a rea a nd s outhwards i nto D erbyshire. A gain, t he m ost l ocal s ources a re p robably i ndicated a nd t he T empleborough c oal ( May 1 922) p resumably c ame f rom o ne o f t he m any o utcrops i n t he R otherham a rea. I t i s u nfortunate t hat n either t he ' lignite ' f rom C rossgates n or t he c oal f rom N orton h as b een s cientifically e xamined a s t he n earest s ources l ie i n t he M iddle J urassic o f t he Y orkshire M oors ( Hemingway 1 974a: 1 93). A l ocal o rigin, h owever, s hould n ot b e a ssumed. C oal f rom H ibaldstow i n n orth L incolnshire a ppears t o b e f rom t he D urham
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c oalfield ( A V S mith p ersonal c ommunication), a n a rea f rom w hich o ne o f t he q uerns m ay a lso c ome. A s F rere ( 1967: 3 13) h as s uggested f or F enland f inds o f c oal, t he p ossibility t hat t hese f inds r eflect b allast f rom b oats m oving L incolnshire c orn t o t he e ast e nd o f H adrian 's W all e xists. C oal d oes a ppear t o h ave b een q uite w idely e mployed i n h eating i n t he f orts a long t he W all a nd a bout a t on w as f ound w ithin o ne o f t he t owers o f t he e ast g ate a t H ousesteads ( Webster 1 955). P ERMIAN L IMESTONES F rom t he t welfth t o t he n ineteenth c entury, t he L ower M agnesian L imestone, w hich o utcrops i n a s trip a f ew k ilometres w ide f rom M ansfield n orthwards t o t he D urham c oast, p rovided s ome o f E ngland 's m ost w idely u sed b uilding s tones. I ts f reestones c an b e f ound i n m any o f t he m ajor b uildings o f s outhern E ngland, f rom K ing 's C ollege, C ambridge t o t he H ouses o f P arliament ( Clifton-Taylor 1 987: 9 4-96). I n Y orkshire, t he m ajor m inster c hurches o f Y ork, R ipon, H owden a nd B everley w ere a ll a t l east p artly b uilt f rom i t ( Kendall a nd W root 1 924: 2 83), a s w ell a s m ost o f t he l arge m onastic c hurches o f t he s outh a nd e ast o f t he c ounty, o f w hich S elby r emains a s a n e xample. N umerous l esser c hurches, h ouses a nd c astles a re i n t he s ame m aterial. I n t he R oman p eriod t here i s l ess e vidence o f i ts u se a t d istance f rom t he o ut-crop. E buracum , h owever, w ould s till h ave p resented a p icture, l ike t hat o f t he m edieval c ity, p redominantly o f l imestone, w here n ot o f t imber, w attle a nd d aub. W here e xamined, t he f ortress w all ( Figure 1 5.5) i s o f s mall r ectangular a shlars ( saxa q uadrata) w ith a r ubble c ore, t he l ater s ections, o n t he s outhwest a nd n orthwest s ides h aving b rick b onding c ourses. I t i s t he o ne s tructure o f R oman d ate f or w hich s ome e stimate o f t he a mount o f s tone i nvolved c an b e o btained, s ince i t i s p reserved t o p arapet w alk h eight i n M useum G ardens ( RCHM 1 962: f igure 5 ). T he w all a verages 1 .5 m etres i n t hickness a nd m ust h ave s tood i n e xcess o f 5m etres i n h eight f rom i ts c oncrete f oundation ( see a lso B utler 1 971: 9 7), t he l ength o f c ircuit i s a pproximately 1 .8 k ilometres. U sing t his a s ab asis f or a m inimal c alculation a nd a ssuming t hat t he o mitted v olumes o f t owers a nd p arapet b alances t he M illstone G rit o f t he g ates a nd t he b rick o f t he b onding c ourses, a v ery a pproximate v olume o f 1 4,000 c ubic m etres o f s tone i s o btained f or t he f inal f ortress w all. U sing W atson's ( 1911: 2 77) f igure f or H uddlestone S tone ( 138 p ounds/cubic f oot), o ne o f Y ork 's m ajor s ources o f a shlar i n t he m edieval p eriod ( Gee 1 981), t his a mounts t o r oughly 3 0,500 t onnes o f f inished s tone, a ll f rom q uarries a long t he P ermian o utcrop, w est a nd s outh o f T adcaster. T he c olonia w all, o f w hich w e k now s o p itifully l ittle ( Ottaway 1 984), m ay h ave c ontained a s imilar v olume o f s tone. T o p lace t his i n p erspective a nd g ive s ome i dea o f t he m asses i nvolved f or c arriage, t he v olume c alculated i s a bout h alf o f t hat s uggested b y J ohnson a nd D unham ( 1982) f or t he s tone o f D urham C athedral. S imilar e stimates a re u nfortunately n ot a vailable f or Y ork M inster b ut, w ith i ts f ar h igher f enestration f actor a nd l ower c entral t ower, i t c ontains m uch l ess s tone, a nd C athedral a nd f ortress w all m ay b e t hought o f a s r oughly e qual i n b ulk s tone. W ork u pon t he M inster, a dmittedly a r ather d ifferent s tructure f rom f ortifications,
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F igure 1 5.5
Y ork, n orthwest w all o f t he f ortress, s howing t he o pus s axtile w ork i n L ower M agnesian L imestone, t he l ate i nserted t ower ( the ' Anglian T ower') i n a J urassic o olite a nd t he m odern u se o f c obbles f rom t he D rift t o o utline t he v arious p hases o f t he b ank t o t he m edieval c ity w all. P hotograph: R S wift.
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k ept s everal q uarries i n o peration t hrough m uch o f t he m edieval p eriod ( Gee 1 981) a nd, a s t he m ajority o f R oman s tructures w hich h ave b een e xamined a re a lso i n t his s tone, a s imilar s upply s hould b e e nvisaged t hrough m uch o f t he R oman p eriod. Q uantities a re e vidently c onsiderable a nd i t i s a gain p robable t hat t ransport t o t he f ortress a nd c ity b y r iver w as l ikely t o h ave b een p referred, j ust a s s tone f rom m edieval q uarries w as s o m oved ( Clifton-Taylor 1 987: 2 2-23). A part f rom a s ingle p iece f rom t he B ishophill s ite ( Buckland 1 978: 4 3), a ll t he P ermian l imestone e xamined f rom Y ork, i n b oth f ortress a nd c olonia, c omes f rom t he L ower M agnesian L imestone. A lthough t here i s c onsiderable v ariation i n t his r ock ( D B S mith 1 974a), i t i s l argely v ertically t hrough t he s uccession, a bout 6 0 m etres t hick i n t his r egion, a nd s imilar b eds o ccur a long t he w hole o f t he Y orkshire o utcrop. T he f acing s tones f rom t he f ortress w all a nd t hose u sed i n t he c onstruction o f t he C hurch S treet s ewer ( Buckland 1 976a; 1 978) a re s imilar. T he r ock i s ac ompact, u nfossiliferous o ff-white t o p ale y ellow ( yellowish-buff o f B uckland 1 976a; M unsell 1 961: r ange N 9 2 .5Y 8 /4) l imestone w ith a m icrocellular t exture a nd o ccasional v ughs, l ined w ith s mall c rystals o f c alcite/dolomite. B edding . i s r arely e vident a nd, a s s uch, t he L ower M agnesian L imestone p rovides a n e xcellent f reestone, c apable o f b eing w orked i n a ny d irection. L aid d own i n a n i nland s ea u nder d esert c onditions, t he m ineral d olomite ( CaMg(Co 3 )2 ) t ends t o d ominate o ver c alcite ( CaCO 3 ) i n t he u pper p art o f t he s uccession a nd r ecrystallisation t o a d ense m icrocrystalline d olomitic l imestone i s f requent ( D B S mith 1 974a: 1 28). I t i s t hese l imestones f rom t he U pper S ubdivision o f t he L ower M agnesian L imestone w hich w ere p referred f or s axa q uadrata w ork i n R oman Y ork a nd f or l ater b uilding. A lthough a d urable s tone u nder n ormal a tmospheric c onditions, p ollution s ince t he I ndustrial R evolution, i n t he f orm o f a cid r ain, h as b een p articularly d amaging, t he r esultant s ulphate o f m agnesium ( MgS0 /, ) b eing m uch m ore s oluble t han t hat o f c alcium ( Eden e t a l 1 957: 1 74): M odern r epair w ork t o b uildings h as t herefore o ften e mployed c alcitic o olitic l imestones, s uch a s t hat f rom K etton i n t he M iddle J urassic o f s outh L incolnshire ( Rutland), a f eature s omewhat p referable t o t he u se o f t hin t ile i nsertions f ound o n m any c hurches i n t he d iocese. W hilst t hese m odern r estorations n eed t o b e o bserved i n t he d etailed s tudy o f c hurch f abrics, t he p roblems o f o olitic l imestones a re n ot r estricted t o t he r ecognition o f m odern w ork. B rowne ( 1847: 1 0-11) c orrectly a scribed ' oolite ' r eused i n t he e arly M inster t o a s ource o n t he L ower M agnesian L imestone b ut t he p icture h as b ecome p rogressively m ore c onfused. I n a n umber o f p apers R amm h as n oted t he u se o f o olitic l imestone ( sic) i n R oman Y ork. T hese i nclude t he f ortress w all i n C oney S treet ( Ramm 1 956: 8 0), w here D avey ( 1956) a lso f ound ' oolitic l imestone ' a nd ' shelly-oolitic l imestone' i n t he m ortar, t he e ast a ngle t ower o f t he f ortress ( Ramm 1 961: 3 27) a nd t he l arge t own h ouse o n t he t errace a t B ishophill ( Ramm 1 976b: 5 5). I n t he l atter c ase, i t h as b een p ossible t o c onfirm a J urassic s ource f or t he r ock ( Buckland 1 978b) b ut o ther e xamples m ust b e t reated m ore c ircumspectly a s o olites a re n ot e xclusively J urassic a nd o ccur e xtensively w ithin t he L ower S ubdivision o f t he L ower M agnesian L imes tone ( D B S mith 1 974a: 1 25). C areful e xamination o f t he e xposed
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p arts o f t he f ortress w all s hows t hat a ll o olitic a nd f ossiliferous r ocks u sed a re f rom t he P ermian, a lthough t his d oes n ot p reclude t he p resence o f m esozoic l imestones i n t he c ore o r e lsewhere. T he r ock i s v ariably f ossiliferous, s howing v arying d egrees o f r ecrystallisation a nd d olomitisation. T ypically, p ieces a re i n a n o ff-white a lmost p ure o olite, o ften w ith i ndividual o olites h aving r otted c ores; p ink s taining o ccurs i n s ome e xamples. I n m ost c ases, t he f ossil c ontent, u sually o f c omminuted b ivalves, i s r epresented b y c asts, i n w hich e xamples o f t he s mall b ivalve S chizodus s p. h ave b een r ecognised ( Buckland 1 977). F ine c ross-bedding i s o ccasionally v isible o n t he w eathered f aces o f a shlars. S ome o f t he s tone i s s ufficiently f ossiliferous t o b e d escribed a s a c oquina, a lthough s olution o f t he c omminuted s hell d ebris o ften h as l eft t he r ock w ith a t exture w hich m ight b est b e d escribed a s h oneycombed, a c omparison m ade t he m ore a pt b y i ts c olour. A lthough f ossils d o o ccur i n t he U pper S ubdivision o f t he L ower M agnesian L imestone, w hich, a part f rom i n t he s ides o f t he W harfe g orge b etween W etherby a nd B oston S pa, f orms t he w estern h alf o f t he n arrow o utcrop, t he m ore w idely f ossiliferous b eds t end t o b e l ow i n t he s equence. W ith m ore t han t wo h undred y ears o f R oman e xploitation, i t i s n ot s urprising t hat s everal s ources w ere i nvolved a nd, w ith e xtensive m edieval t o m odern q uarrying, i t i s u nlikely t hat R oman q uarries w ill s urvive. T he s hallow q uarries f ound b y R amm ( 1976a) a t H azel W ood, 6 k ilometres s outhwest o f T adcaster w ere p artly s ealed b y t he Y orkC astleford R oman R oad a nd a re m ore l ikely t o r epresent b orrow-pits f or r oad m etal t han b uilding s tone s ources, a nd t he o nly o ther s ealed R oman q uarry, a t W ell i n n orth Y orkshire, p robably r elates t o a n e arlier p hase i n t he c onstruction o f t he v illa ( Gilyard-Beer 1 951: 2 4). N orth o f W etherby, a part f rom i n t he N idd G orge a t K naresborough, m uch o f t he P ermian l imestone o utcrop i s o bscured b y D rift a nd i t i s p robable t hat t he l arge q uarries w hich s upplied E buracum l ay t o t he s outh, i n t he s ame a reas a s t he m ajor m edieval s ources. I f t he p erhaps u nwarranted a ssumption t hat T adcaster a cted a s a t ranshipment p oint i s m ade, a nd t he p roportional c ost o f t ransport b y r oad, a d istance o f 1 4 k ilometres, a nd b y w ater, 3 2 k ilometres, t o Y ork i s c alculated, u sing t he s ame f igures a s P eacock ( 1978), t he r iver p rovides t he m ost e conomic r oute w ith a n i ndex f rom T adcaster a pproximately h alf o f t hat b y r oad ( 32:67). I t i s p ossible t hat t he s ingularly d ense n et o f r oads w est o f T adcaster m ight r epresent r outes f rom d iverse q uarries c onverging u pon w harves. T he r oads a ppear t oo s ubstantial f or t he i dentification p roposed b y R amm ( 1976a) a s l and d ivision p er s trigas. I t i s p erhaps s ignificant t hat a m ajor m edieval s ource, T hevesdale ( not T horesdale a s i n B uckland 1 976a), l ay a djacent t o t he C astleford-York R oman r oad, 2k ilometres s outhwest o f T adcaster a nd s tone w as n ormally c arted t o T adcaster a nd s hipped d own t he W harfe ( Gee 1 981). C osts c ould h ave b een f urther r educed b y e xploitation o f o utcrops a djacent t o t he r iver b etween C ollingham a nd B oston S pa, w here c liffs u p t o 2 0 m etres h igh o ccur. T he e xtent t o w hich w ater t ransport d ominated o ver l and m ovement i s i ndicated b y a nother o f Y ork 's m edieval s ources, H uddleston, 2 k ilometres w est o f S herburn-in-Elmet. T hese q uarries a re c onnected w ith t he O use a t C awood b y t he B ishop D yke, a 9 k ilometres l ong c ut, 5m etres w ide a nd s till u p t o 1m etre d eep ( Miller a nd G ee 1 983). Am ajor s urveying a nd e ngineering w ork,
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i nvolving a queducts o ver t wo s mall s treams, i ts s traight s ectioned c ourse i s r eminiscent o f o ther r iver w orks i n t he V ale o f Y ork, i ncluding t he d iversion o f t he D on b y t he T urnbrigg D yke ( Gaunt 1 975). D espite t he m assive i nvestment n ecessary, n either w ork i s r eferred t o i n c ontemporary s ources a nd t he p ossibility o f a R oman o rigin h as b een c onsidered f or t he l atter ( Samuels a nd B uckland 1 978; B uckland a nd S adler 1 986). I f i ntended p rimarily a s ac anal f or t he t ransport o f s tone, i t i s c urious t hat t he B ishop D yke l acked e ither a f lash l ock i nto t he O use o r d irect t ranshipment f acilities a t C awood ( see G ee 1 981: 2 50). I s i t p ossible t hat t he w ork i s a m edieval p artial r efurbishment o f a R oman o riginal, i n p art r endered l ess e fficient b y t he c hanging p atterns o f a lluviation i n t he H umber B asin ( see B uckland a nd S adler 1 986)? A s i mportant s tone q uarries a re l ikely t o h ave b een u nder d irect i mperial c ontrol ( Ward-Perkins 1 971: 1 45; 1 980: 2 5) o r a t l east w ithin t he t erritorium o f f ortress o r c olonia , s uch a n u ndertaking w ould n ot b e o ut o f t he q uestion f or a n e xtensive p hase o f r efurbishment i n s tone o f t he f ortress a nd a ssociated b uildings. T he R oman u se o f t he L ower M agnesian L imestone w as n ot r estricted t o t he p roduction o f t he s mall r ectangular b locks f or s axa q uadrata w ork ( Figure 1 5.5) a nd t he a ssociated r ubble i nfilling o f w alls. I t i s n ot a s imple c ase o f t he l arge w ork b eing i n M illstone G rit a nd t he s mall i n l imestone f or, a s t he m any s urviving m edieval s culptures s how, t he M agnesian L imestone i s c apable o f p roviding e qually m assive b locks. T he s imple s treet f ountain, c onstructed o f f ive 2 00 m illimetre t hick s labs o f L ower M agnesian L imestone ( RCHM 1 962: p late 2 1) f ound i n B ishophill a nd n ow i n t he u ndercroft o f S t L eonard's H ospital, g ives s ome i dea o f t his, a nd o ther p ieces n o d oubt f ound r eu se i n m edieval s tructures ( see B uckland 1 987). O n as imilarly l arge s lab o f t his r ock w as t he i nscription p laced o ver t he s outheast g ate o f t he f ortress d uring t he r eign o f T rajan. T he b lock, f rom t he s urviving f ragment, 2 .5 m etres b y 1 .15 m etres b y 0 .2 m etre, w ould h ave w eighed a pproximately 1 .25 t onnes. T he p hases o f m ajor e xploitation o f t he L ower M agnesian L imestone w ould h ave f luctuated i n r elation t o d emand f or s pecific b uilding p rojects a nd w as p resumably a t i ts m aximum d uring t he t hree p utative p hases o f e xtensive r econstruction i n t he f ortress, u nder T rajan, S everus a nd C onstantius C hlorus ( Butler 1 971). A lthough t he e xtent a nd p recise d ating r emains u ncertain f or e ach o f t hese ( Stead 1 968), i t i s t he i nscription o f T rajan f rom t he s outheast g ate w hich p rovides t he e arliest e vidence f or t he u se o f t he s tone, h aving b een c ut b etween 1 0th D ecember 1 07 a nd 9 th D ecember 1 08 ( RCHM 1 962: 11). T he s uggestion o f e arlier, l ate f irst c entury, u se i n t he B ishophill a rea o f t he c olonia ( Buckland 1 978: 4 3) i s n ot s upported b y t he f inds f rom t his c ontext ( beneath R oad I ) a nd a m id-second c entury d ate i s m ore p robable ( Perrin 1 981: 7 3). T he l atest e vidence f or a pparently f reshly q uarried m aterial c omes f rom t he ' Constantinian' r econstruction o f t he r iverside f rontage o f t he f ortress, a lthough t his a lso c ontains s ome e vidence f or t he r euse o f f acing s tones ( RCHM 1 962: 2 1). T he s urviving c orner t ower o f t his p hase o f r efurbishm ent, t he M ultangular T ower i n M useum G ardens ( RCHM 1 962: p lates 2 -4), s hows t he c ontrast i n s ize b etween t he m edieval a shlars a nd t he s maller R oman s axa q uadrata , ap oint w hich m akes t heir r ecognition w hen r eused, a s i n t he t ower o f S t M ary B ishophill J unior ( Buckland 1 987), c omparatively e asy.
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A lthough w idely e xploited f or r oofing s labs i n t he m edieval a nd p ost-medieval p eriod ( Buckland i n p ress), o nly o ne p iece o f t he U pper M agnesian L imestone h as b een n oted f rom a p ossible R oman c ontext i n Y ork, a lthough t he c ontaining f eature i s o f u ncertain f ourth c entury d ate. T he r ock i s ad ense, f laggy d olomitic l imestone w ith f requent m arly p artings a nd i rregular b edding p lanes, i n p art t he r esult o f d olomitisation a nd r esolution o f o ther e vaporite m inerals. I ts f laggy n ature l argely p recludes i ts u se a s a f reestone b ut i t i s e asily q uarried a nd h as b een w idely b urnt f or l ime. T he n earest o utcrop t o Y ork i s a t T adcaster a nd i ts R oman n ame C alcaria m ay b e t ranslated f rom t he L atin a s e ither ' limeworks' o r ' lime q uarries ' ( Rivet a nd S mith 1 979: 2 89). A s t he U pper L imestone i s a v ery i nferior b uilding s tone, i t i s p ossible t hat t he p lace n ame r efers t o i ts w orking f or l ime f or b uilding p urposes. A ddyman ( personal c ommunication) h as n oted t he o ccurrence o f l arge a mounts o f w hat i s a pparently w aste f rom c alcining l ime, a ssociated w ith R oman p ottery a nd t ile, i ncorporated i n t he N orman c astle m ound a t T adcaster. O THER P ERMO-TRIASSIC R OCKS D ifficulties i n f inding c hronostratigraphic h orizons w ithin t he e ssentially u nfossiliferous r ed d esert s andstones a nd m arls o f t he r ocks a bove t he M agnesian L imestone, w hich i tself p asses l aterally i nto s imilar d eposits s outhwards, h ave l ed t o t he u se o f t he t erm P ermo-Triassic t o e ncompass t hese u nits. T he p roblem i s e xemplified b y t he s andstone u sed i n t he R oman t own a t A ldborough. T he t own w all i s d escribed b y J ones ( 1971: 4 5) a s b eing b uilt o f ' Bunter s andstone', w hilst S edgeley ( 1975) i dentifies t he t hree m ilestones f rom t he s ite a s ' Keuper S andstone'; t hey a re t he s ame r ock ( see W arrington 1 974), q uarried c lose t o t he s ettlement. T he t erms B unter a nd K euper, a dopted f rom t he G erman t ripartite d ivision o f t he T rias, a re n ow r eplaced i n t he B ritish s equence b y t he t erms S herwood S andstone G roup a nd M ercia M udstone G roup ( Warrington e t a l 1 980). F ormation n ames h ave y et t o b e a pplied t o t he n orth Y orkshire s equence b ut i t i s p robable t hat t he ' Bunter S andstone ' o f t he a rea i s t he l ateral e quivalent o f b oth t he L enton S andstone F ormation a nd t he N ottingham C astle F ormation ( Warrington e t a l 1 980: t able 4 ). T he t erm B unter S andstone w ill b e u sed i n t his d iscussion. I n t he V ale o f Y ork, t hese p redominantly s oft r ocks a re p oorly e xposed, o ften m antled b eneath s everal m etres o f Q uaternary d eposits. T he B unter S andstone i s f requently a p oorly b edded r ed ( around M unsell 1 961: n umber 1 OR 5 /8), f ine t o m edium g rained r ock, m ostly o f q uartz. T he p resence o f ' millet-seed g rains a nd r ed o xidised c oating o f i ron m inerals t o p articles ' t estifies t o i ts d esert o rigin. ' Colour v ariation, h owever, d oes o ccur, w ith o ff-white t o y ellowish s andstones i n t he Y ork a rea ( Fox-Strangways 1 906) a nd m ore s trongly c emented ' purplish ' r ocks a round A ldborough. T he p oorly i ndurated n ature o f t he s tone, c oupled w ith i ts l imited e xposure, m akes t he r ock o f l ittle v alue a s ab uilding s tone a nd i ts o ccurrence i n t wo a djacent s tructures i n R oman Y ork w as u nexpected ( Buckland 1 976a), a lthough l ocal s oil c onditions m ust h ave c ontributed t o t he d ecay o f t he s tone. T he u ppermost c ourse o f t he a ccess h ole t o t he s ewer i n C hurch S treet w as c onstructed o f s mall a shlars i n a s oft, r ed s andstone, w hich h ad v irtually b roken d own t o
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l oose s and. A s t hese w ere n ot i ntended t o b ear a ny s ubstantial l oad, t he u se o f a p oor s tone h ad n ot c aused s tructural p roblems b ut, i n v iew o f t he c areful s election o f s tone e lsewhere i n t he s ystem, i t i s p ossible t hat t his r eflects a l ate r epair. T he b locks a re p robably o f r elatively l ocal o rigin. T he c losest r ecorded o utcrop t o Y ork l ies a bout o ne k ilometre n orth o f t he T adcaster-York R oman r oad a t B ilbrough, 8 k ilometres f rom t he c ity, w here a n e xposure s hows e vidence o f f ormer q uarrying ( Edwards e t a l 1 950: 4 4). T he m arl p ellets a nd s mall q uartz p ebbles p resent i n t his e xposure, h owever, a re n ot e vident i n t he Y ork s tones b ut t here a re a n umber o f l ocalities i n t he Y ork a rea w here t he B unter l ies b eneath o nly a t hin v eneer o f D rift ( Gaunt p ersonal c ommunication) a nd q uarrying a t a n umber o f p laces i s p ossible. F ragments o f t he r ock h ave b een n oted i n t he c hurches o f K irk H ammerton ( Morris 1 976: 1 01) a nd L ittle O useburn, b oth o n t he o utcrop, b ut t he e arly p arts o f t hese c hurches i ncorporate s o m uch r eused R oman m aterial a s t o s uggest a s imilar s ource f or t he B unter S andstone f ragments, a nd i ts u se i n R oman Y ork m ay h ave b een m ore e xtensive t han t he p resently a vailable e vidence m ight s uggest. T he t wo l arge b locks, o ne w ith a n o ff-centre l ewis-hole ( Whitwell 1 976: 2 0), o f am ore s olid, d arker c oloured s andstone f rom t he B unter, r eused i n t he b aths b uilding a djacent t o t he C hurch S treet s ewer, a re u nlikely t o h ave c ome f rom t he i mmediate a rea o f Y ork. B etter i ndurated a lthough s till r ather s oft a nd f riable w hen w eathered, s ands tone w as u sed f or t he t hird c entury w alls o f A ldborough ( Jones 1 971a: 4 5) a nd a q uarry, c lose t o t he s outhwest a ngle o f t he d efences, h as b een c laimed a s R oman ( Myres e t a l 1 959: 1 0). I t i s p ossible t hat t he Y ork m aterial d erives f rom s ources n ormally u sed f or c onstruction w ork i n I surium B rigantum , t he t ribal c apital. T ransport c ould h ave b een d own t he r iver U re ( not A ire a s i n B uckland 1 976a: 3 5). I t i s p erhaps s ignificant t hat t he g ates a nd l ater b astions o f A ldborough e mploy M illstone G rit ( Charlesworth 1 971: 1 62). T he m ineral g ypsum, t he r aw m aterial f or t he m anufacture o f p laster o f p aris, i s m ined a t t he p resent d ay i n Y orkshire a t S herburn-in-Elmet a nd w as w idely q uarried i n s hallow ' plaster p its ' i n t he p ast ( D B S mith 1 974b). I t o ccurs b oth i n b eds a nd a s v eins i n t he M iddle a nd U pper M arls a nd t he M ercia M udstones; t here i s a lso a r eference t o i ts p resence i n t he B unter a t G reen H ammerton ( FoxS trangways 1 908: 1 6). I n t he R oman p eriod, g ypsum-based p lasters d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een w idely u sed a nd a ll s amples o f m ortar w hich h ave b een e xamined f rom Y ork ( for e xample D avey 1 956; E vans 1 978) a re l ime-based. G ypsum-based p lasters a nd m ortars a re n ot i nfrequent i n p ost-medieval s tructures a nd c an b e r ecognised b y t he p resence o f i ntense w hite p ieces o f u nmixed p laster o f p aris i n t he m atrix. S ome R oman u se i s s uggested b y f ragments o f f ibrous c rystalline g ypsum ( selenite) i n s econd c entury d eposits i n D oncaster ( Buckland i n p reparation) a nd i t i s p ossible t hat i t w as b urnt t o p rovide a w hitewash b ase f or p aint, a lthough s amples h ave y et t o b e a nalysed. E gyptian d eposits, i n t he m assive f orm a labaster, w ere u sed i n b oth s culptural a nd a rchitectural w ork i n t he M editerranean R oman w orld ( Shackley 1 977: 5 9), a nd l ate m edieval E nglish a labaster w ork, l argely f rom d eposits i n t he N ottingham a rea P ermo-Triassic r ocks, a chieved a w ide d istribution i n w estern E urope ( see N ordal 1 986), b ut n o R oman p ieces a re k nown.
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T hat t he m ineral's p roperties w ere a ppreciated d uring t he R oman p eriod, h owever, i s i ndicated b y i ts u se i n b urials d uring t he l ate R oman p eriod ( Green 1 977), e ither i n ap owdered f orm ( Ramm 1 971: 1 88) o r a s p laster o f p aris. T his w ould h ave a bsorbed t he d ecay p roducts o f t he b ody a nd, w here t he r ite s eems t o h ave o riginated, i n t he s emia rid e nvironment o f N orth A frica ( Ramm 1 971), i t w ould h ave a ssisted i n r apidly d ehydrating a nd p reserving t he c orpse. I n t he d amp c limate o f B ritain, w hilst f ortuitously p reserving c asts a nd f abric i mpressions, t he g ypsum w ould o nly h ave a ssisted w here t he c offin p rovided a c ompletely a naerobic e nvironment a nd y et i t w as q uite w idely e mployed i n a n a pparently C hristian c ontext ( Green 1 977). Y ork h as p roduced a t l east 4 9 e xamples ( Ramm 1 971) a nd t he m ajority a re i n r eused M illstone G rit s arcophagi. T he c ombination o f g ritstone c offin a nd g ypsum b urial i s a lso f ound i n e xamples f rom r ural s ites, t hat f rom P ollington i n t he A ire V alley, n ow i n D oncaster M useum, b eing w ell-preserved ( Smedley 1 951). L ime w as a lso u sed f or t he s ame p urpose a nd G reen's ( 1977) n on-committal t erm ' plaster b urial' i s t o b e p referred w here t he m aterial h as n ot b een e xamined. I n t he Y ork a rea, g ypsum c ould h ave b een e ncountered i n t he M iddle M arl d uring r emoval o f o verburden i n L ower M agnesian L imestone q uarries o r d uring t he d igging o f c lays f or t ile o r p ottery m anufacture a t n umerous l ocalities o n t he P ermo-Triassic o utcrop. E xtraction o f s mall q uantities m ay t herefore h ave b een i ncidental t o t he w inning o f m ore w idely u sed r ocks. I t i s p robably a lso s ignificant t hat t he t wo o ther c oncentrations o f p laster b urials, a round L ondon, p articularly i n K ent, a nd i n t he P oundsbury c emetery, D orchester ( Green 1 977), l ie a djacent t o a reas w here g ypsum o ccurs i n c lose p roximity t o m ajor s ources o f b uilding s tone. I n K ent, i t o ccurs i n t he i nliers o f U pper J urassic P urbeck r ocks ( Anderson a nd B azley 1 971) o f t he W eald a nd i n D orset, i n t he P urbeck B eds ( West 1 964). J URASSIC L IMESTONES T he J urassic o utcrop, f rom t he D orset c oast t o t he H umber, h as p rovided s ome o f B ritain 's m ost w idely u sed f reestones, f rom B ath a nd P ortland s tone i n t he s outhwest, t hrough t he C otswolds t o B arnack i n N orthamptonshire a nd o n t o C lipsham a nd A ncaster i n L incolnshire ( Clifton-Taylor 1 987: 6 6-87). N orth o f t he H umber, t he o utcrop i s c ut o ut b y t he u plift o f t he M arket W eighton b lock b efore b roadening o ut t o f loor t he V ale o f P ickering a nd t he N orth Y orkshire M oors ( Hemingway 1 974a). J urassic l imestones, p articularly t he o olites, w ere w idely e mployed i n R oman B ritain ( Williams 1 971, 1 972). B arnack s tone w as u sed e xtensively f or a rchitectural a nd s culptural w ork i n R oman L ondon ( Dimes 1 980) a lthough t he m assive d rums u sed f or t he s haft o f t he R eculver C ross w hich m ay r eflect t he q uarry o f r uined L ondinium , r ather t han s eventh c entury w orking ( see J ope 1 964: 9 8), a re p artly i n l imestone f rom t he M id-Eocene o f t he P aris b asin ( Worssam a nd T atton Brown i n p ress, c ontra A nderson i n K ozodoy 1 986). T he e arly e xploitation a nd t ransport o ver a w ide a rea o f J urassic l imestone i s e xemplified b y t he m assive b locks o f o olite e mployed f or t he t omb o f t he p rocurator G aius J ulius A lpinus C lassicianus i n L ondon. O f e ither N orthamptonshire o r C otswold o rigin ( Frere 1 967: 2 88), i t d ates f rom t he m id-60s A D. E ven e arlier i s t he t ombstone o f t he c avalryman L onginus f rom C olchester, w hich i s d escribed a s b eing o f ' Bath s tone' ( Hull 1 958: 1 8, f ootnote 1 0), i t i s d ated t o A D 4 8, w ithin f ive y ears o f t he i nvasion.
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W illiams ( 1971) h as w arned a gainst t he d ifficulties o f a scribing m any J urassic l imestones t o p articular l ocalities a nd, i n Y ork, t he p roblem h as b een f urther e xacerbated b y a n a ssumption t hat a ll o olites a re o f t his o rigin. F ive s ites, h owever, h ave p roduced s amples o f l imestone w hich a re u ndoubtedly f rom t he J urassic. R adley ( 1972) s upported h is a rguments f or a n A nglian a ge f or t he t ower ( Figure 1 5. 3 ), i nserted i n t he f ortress w all n ortheast o f t he M ultangular T ower, b y ad iscussion o f t he u se o f o olitic l imestone i n Y ork. D imes ( in R adley 1 972: 6 1) d escribed t he s tone f rom t his ' Anglian T ower' a s ' not i nconsistent w ith s tone f rom t he O smington O olite S eries ( = M alton O olite M ember o f H emingway 1 974a) o f t he C orallian f ormation o f t he J urassic. T his r ock o utcrops i n a 2 0 m etre t hick b ed i n t he U pper J urassic ( Hemingway 1 974a: 2 16) a round t he V ale o f P ickering a nd r eaches c losest t o Y ork i n t he D erwent G orge b elow M alton. R adley's ( 1972: 6 2) s uggestion t hat t he s tone f or t he A nglian T ower h ad b een f reshly q uarried i n t he A nglian p eriod a t S tonegrave, 8 k ilometres s outheast o f H elmsley, a nd t ransported v ia t he R ye, D erwent a nd O use, a d istance o f 1 52 k ilometres, p ast t he r uins o f R oman M alton, i ncidently l argely i n t he s ame s tone, s eems s ingularly u nlikely ( see n ow a lso M orris 1 985). A l ate R oman d ate h as b een a rgued f or t he s tructure ( Buckland 1 984). V ersey ( in B uckland 1 976a), c ommenting u pon t he J urassic l imestone a shlars i n t he C hurch S treet s ewer, n oted t hat s everal b eds o f t he r ock o ccur i n t he H ambleton a nd T abular H ills, t he H owardian H ills a nd i n a n arrow o utcrop o n t he w est s carp o f t he V ale o f Y ork b etween Y earsley a nd W hitwell-on-the-Hill. M acroscopically, i n t he a bsence o f d iagnostic f ossils, t he v arious b eds a re i ndistinguishable a nd t he m aterial f rom t he A nglian T ower a ppears t he s ame a s t hat f rom t he s ewer a nd t hat r eused i n t he t ower o f S t M ary B ishophill J unior ( Buckland 1 987). G eography a nd w eight o f e xperience l ed V ersey ( in B uckland 1 976a) t o s uggest a s ource i n t he M alton a rea, w here b oth M iddle a nd U pper J urassic o olites o utcrop e ither s ide o f t he D erwent G orge, a nd h e ( in W enham 1 968: 4 4) h ad c ome t o a s imilar, i f m ore c oncrete c onclusion w ith r egard t o p ieces o f a ' well-bedded o olitic l imestone ' u sed f or t he w alling o f a c ist i n t he T rentholme D rive c emetery. S mall c hips o f a J urassic o olite w ere f ound, m ixed w ith L ower M agnesian L imestone, i n t he c onstruction t renches t o t he e arlier c hurch a t S t H elen-on-the W alls a nd t hese a re a lso l ikely t o d erive f rom t he r euse o f R oman m aterial ( Buckland 1 980). T he r emaining o olitic l imestone f rom Y ork, f rom b oth t he B ishophill t own h ouse a nd t he r oad o n t he S keldergate s ite ( Buckland 1 978b) m ay b e f rom a d ifferent s ource. T hese a re i n a g rey-white, a s o pposed t o y ellow, o olite, s ometimes g rading i nto a p isolite w ith e vident f ossils, i ncluding t he b ivalve G ryphaea s p . a nd a n e chinoid s pine. A lthough t he c olour, p erhaps i nfluenced b y s oil c onditions, i s ap oor m atch, t he r ock i s s imilar t o s pecimens o f t he C ave O olite, w hich o utcrops i n t he M iddle J urassic, s outh o f M arket W eighton, a nd i s t he l ateral e quivalent o f t he m uch t hicker L incolnshire L imestone s outh o f t he H umber ( Hemingway 1 974a: 1 97). A lthough a s ource i n e ither a rea i s p robable, t he p ossibility o f t ransport a s b allast f rom a m ore r emote s ource r emains. T he u se o f J urassic l imestones i n Y ork h as r ecently b een d iscussed i n s ome d etail ( Buckland 1 984) a nd t he t entative h ypothesis h as b een p ut f orward t hat i ts u se i n t he c ity i s p erhaps i ncidental t o t he t ransport o f o ther c ommodities. A lthough w idely u sed a t s ites o n
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o r a djacent t o t he o utcrop, t hese r ocks, f rom t he L ebberston M ember o f t he M iddle J urassic o r t he C orallian o f t he U pper J urassic ( Hemingway 1 974a), d o n ot s eem t o a chieve m uch o f a w ider d istribution a nd f orm o nly a s mall p roportion o f Y ork 's R oman b uilding s tone. A long w ith J urassic c alcareous s andstones, t hey o ccasionally r eached s ites u pon t he C halk o utcrop i n e ast Y orkshire, a s a t t he R udston v illa ( Stead 1 980: 1 22), b ut t here i s l ittle e vidence f or t he l arge-scale q uarrying a nd t ransport e vident f or b oth U pper C arboniferous a nd P ermian r ocks. T he r easons f or i ts m ore l imited e xploitation a re n o d oubt p artly l ogistic. A part f rom t he p ossibility o f d irect r oad t ransport b y w ay o f t he M alton t o Y ork R oman r oad, a d istance o f s ome 1 8 k ilometres a nd a r oute b y w hich l arge q uantities o f l ate R oman p ottery m ay h ave a rrived i n t he c ity ( see P errin 1 981: 6 5), m ovement o f b ulky c argoes w ould h ave i nvolved e ither a c ircuitous r oute d own t he D erwent a nd u p t he O use o f r oughly 10 k ilometres o r u pstream s ailing a nd h aulage o f s ome 8 6 k ilometres f rom e ither t he C ave O olite o r L incolnshire L imestone o utcrop. W hilst w ind a nd t ide m ight h ave p rovided s ome a ssistance o n t he H umber a nd O use, c osts, c ompared w ith t he L ower M agnesian L imestone, a re l ikely t o h ave b een c onsiderably g reater. J urassic l imestones s eem s imilarly n ot t o h ave b een e mployed i n t he m edieval c ity o f Y ork; t he C ave O olite, h owever, w as s ent e astwards f rom q uarries a t N ewbald f or w ork u pon B everley M inster ( CliftonT aylor 1 987: 8 6). A lthough t he s tratigraphic e vidence i s s till i nsufficient, i t i s t empting t o s ee t he p resence o f r ocks f rom t he M alton a rea i n R oman Y ork a s a l ate R oman p henomenon, w ith i ts t ransport a r esult o f b allasting f or b arge l oads o f p ottery f rom t he C rambeck k ilns, w hich a chieved a v irtual m onopoly u pon s upply i n t he n orth d uring t he l ast q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury ( Gillam 1 973). W hilst t he c osts o f t ransport o f b uilding s tone f rom t he J urassic o utcrop i nto Y ork m ight h ave b een u neconomic, d ecorative s tones f rom t he s ame s ystem w ere m oved o ver c onsiderably g reater d istances. O n t he P rospect H ouse s ite i n B ishophill, e xcavated b y W enham i n 1 962 ( unpublished), s everal l arge p ieces o f r ock v eneer w ere r ecovered. T hese h ave b een i dentified a s F orest M arble ( Buckland 1 978b: 4 3), a d ark g rey, s helly m arine l imestone, c apable o f t aking a f ine p olish, f rom t he M iddle J urassic o f s outhern E ngland. A f urther f ragment o f t his r ock, ac hip f rom a c olumn, w as f ound o n t he B lake S treet s ite w ithin t he f ortress ( Buckland u npublished). T he t ype l ocality f or t he r ock i s W ychwood F orest, w here i t w as q uarried f or u se i n n earby O xford ( Arkell 1 949: 8 8) a nd i t w as a lso w orked f rom m any l ocalities i n s outh, c entral a nd w estern E ngland t o p rovide r oofing s labs b oth i n t he R oman p eriod ( Williams 1 972), a nd l ater. D imes ( in P ritchard 1 986) h as s uggested t hat t he o utcrop a t A lwalton, 1 0 k ilometres s outheast o f t he B arnack q uarries, i n H untingdonshire, m ay b e t he s ource f or s imilar v eneer f rom R oman L ondon. C lifton-Taylor ( 1987: 1 84) n otes i ts u se i n t he R oman p eriod a t C astor ( = C hasterton o f P ritchard 1 986: 1 87), 2 k ilometres t o t he n orth o f t his o utcrop a nd i t i s a lso r ecorded f rom t he v illa a t B orough H ills, n ear D aventry, 6 0 k ilometres t o t he s outhwest ( Pritchard 1 986). B oth p rimary i dentifications a re, h owever, n ineteenth c entury a nd t he s pecimens, i f t hey s urvive, r equire c hecking. T he o ther w idely u sed d ecorative s tone f rom t he J urassic, P urbeck M arble, a g rey, s helly f reshwater l imestone, p acked w ith t he s hells o f
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t he g astropod V iviparus s p ., c omes f rom a o ne m etre t hick b ed i n t he U pper J urassic o f t he I sle o f P urbeck, D orset. I t a chieved a w ide d istribution i n R oman B ritain ( Beavis 1 970) b ut h as y et t o b e r ecorded f rom Y ork, a lthough i t i s k nown f rom L incoln ( Buckland u npublished). I ts o ccurrence i n d eposits e arlier t han A D 7 0 i n L ondon ( Pritchard 1 986) a nd f rom t he i nfilling t o t he f ortress d itch a t C olchester ( Crummy 1 981: 2 9) s erves t o e mphasise t he s peed w ith w hich t he R omans s ought o ut a nd e xploited r elatively r estricted o utcrops o f s uitable s tone. J URASSIC S ANDSTONES T he J urassic s uccession o f n orth Y orkshire c ontains a n umber o f s andstones w hich h ave b een w orked a s b uilding s tones, b eing o ccasionally e xported a s f ar a s L ondon ( E G S mith 1 974). A part f rom t heir u se i n t he m anufacture o f q uerns ( Addyman 1 984: 1 7), h owever, o nly t he f ine a shlar l ining o f t he R udston w ell ( Stead 1 980) p rovides e vidence f or t he t ransport o f t hese s tones a way f rom t he o utcrop i n t he R oman p eriod. S imilarly, a lthough r oofing s labs, m ade f rom b oth a f ossiliferous t hin-bedded a nd a ' blue-hearted ' J urassic s andstone, o ccur o n t he W harram v illa s ites ( Buckland 1 986) o n t he e dge o f t he C halk, t hese h ave n ot b een r ecognised i n Y ork. O ne t ype o f f issile s andstone f rom t he J urassic d id f ind e mployment i n Y ork. B oth i n t he f looring o f t he C hurch S treet s ewer ( Buckland 1 976a) a nd a c ulvert o n t he n ortheast s ide o f t he i ntervallum r oad b ehind I nterval T ower S W5 i n L endal ( Buckland 1 977), ah ard, g reenish-grey f lagstone w as u sed. T he r ock i s u nfossiliferous b ut i ts c alcite c ement i s s o d eposited a s t o i mpart a l ustre m ottling t o t he f resh f racture a nd t his i s d istinctive. V ersey ( in B uckland 1 976a) w as a ble t o m atch t he r ock w ith s pecimens f rom t he D ogger F ormation n ear C rambeck. H e f urther p ointed o ut t hat t his r ock o utcrops b eneath a n o olite i n t he s ame q uarry a t C astle H oward R eformatory a nd b oth c ould h ave b een w orked t ogether. I n t his a rea, t he D ogger, a v ery v ariable f ormation a t t he b ase o f t he M iddle J urassic, i s l ess t han 4 m etres t hick ( Wilson 1 948) a nd i t i s p ossible t hat i ts u se w as i ncidental t o t he q uarrying o f o olites. I ts p resence a s t he f looring o f t wo s imilar s tructures, a s ewer a nd a d rain i n t he f ortress, h owever, m ay b e i nterpreted i n t wo w ays: e ither t he s tructures a re c ontemporary a nd t herefore i ncidentally u sed t he s ame s ource o f s tone o r t he - rock w as c onsciously s elected f or i ts h ard, i mpervious q ualities. A s t he d ating e vidence f rom b oth s ites i s e quivocal, o nly t he c areful e xamination o f f lagstones f rom o ther Y ork s ites m ight r esolve t his p roblem. C RETACEOUS R OCKS T he C retaceous o f s outhern E ngland i ncludes t he w idely u sed K entish R ag f rom t he H ythe B eds o f t he L ower G reensand, e mployed n ot o nly f or t he m ajor b uildings a nd w alls o f R oman L ondon ( Marsden 1 985) b ut a lso f or h ones, w hich w ere t raded e xtensively w ithin R oman B ritain a nd h ave b een i dentified i n Y ork ( Berridge 1 976). T he Y orkshire s uccession, h owever, l acks g ood b uilding s tones a nd C halk i s r estricted t o s tructures o n t he o utcrop, l argely f or s ill w alls f or t imber-framed s tructures. E vans 's ( 1978) r eference t o ' chalk' i n t he a ggregate f rom m ortar s amples f rom t he B ishophill s ite i s m ore l ikely
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t o c oncern w hite p articles o f o ther, p erhaps c alcined l imestone r ather t han t he r ock. C halk w as, h owever, e mployed f airly w idely f or t he w hite t esserae o f p avements, b eing r ecorded b y V ersey ( in G ilyard-Beer 1 951: 6 8) a t W ell i n N orth Y orkshire, o ver 5 0 k ilometres f rom t he n earest o utcrop o n t he Y orkshire W olds, a nd h e s uggests a n e ven m ore r emote s ource, t he b each a round B ridlington B ay. I n h is s hort p aper o n t esserae i n t he L eeds M useum, h owever, h e ( Versey 1 940) f ails t o l ist t he s ites, a part f rom t he H arpham V illa o n t he C halk o utcrop, w hich p roduced C halk t esserae. I n Y ork, S mith ( in B rinklow e t a l 1 986: 4 1, 6 0) h as i dentified ' chalk ' i n b oth t he A ldwark a nd C lementhorpe p avements b ut o ther t esserae h ave y et t o b e e xamined. P LEISTOCENE E RRATICS P leistocene g laciation i n t he V ale o f Y ork r esulted i n t he m antling o f t he s oft P ermo-Triassic b edrocks w ith a v ariable t hickness o f g lacial, f luvio-glacial a nd a eolian d eposits ( Gaunt 1 970; 1 981) a nd t hese w ere i n t urn p artly b uried b eneath F landrian a lluvium, t he p resent f orm o f w hich i s l argely p ost-Roman ( Buckland a nd S adler 1 986). T he i mplications f or t he R oman s ettlement p attern i n t he Y ork a rea o f t hese d eposits h ave r ecently b een c onsidered b y A ddyman ( 1984). T he t rain o f t he i ce o f t he l ast V ale o f Y ork g lacier, w hose r etreat f rom a l ine w ell t o t he s outh t owards D oncaster ( Gaunt 1 976) t ook p lace l ess t han 1 5,000 y ears a go, l eft t he m orainic r idge u pon w hich t he c ity s tands. T he t raditional i mage o f t he m oraine b eing c omposed w holly o f t ill ( boulder c lay), h owever, i s i naccurate; a s G aunt's w ork o n t he t win E skrick m oraine s hows ( Gaunt 1 970) t he d eposits a re h ighly v aried, w ith i nterbedded a nd d iscontinuous l ayers a nd l enses o f s ands, g ravels, s ilts a nd c lays, a ll o f w hich p rovide a bundant r esources f or t he c onstruction i ndustry. T hese, p articularly t he t ills a nd f luvio-glacial g ravels, c ontain a v aried s uite o f e rratics, r anging f rom C arboniferous L imestone a nd s andstones t o t he v olcanic a nd i ntrusive r ocks o f t he L ake D istrict. T hese l arge c obbles w ere o ne o f t he f ew b uilding m aterials a vailable i n q uantity o n t he s ite o f E buracum a nd t hey w ere e xtensively e mployed f rom t he f oundation o f t he f ortress d uring t he e arly 7 0s A D. I n t he c onstruction o f t he d efences, t he d igging o f d itches w ould h ave p rovided s ome c obbles b ut t he q uantities i nvolved a re t oo p rodigious f or t his t o b e t he s ole o rigin. T he f ootings o f t he ' Trajanic' f ortress w all i nclude l arge n umbers o f c obbles s et i n c lay ( RCHM 1 962: 3 1, f igure 2 4) a nd t heir o ccurrence i n t he f ootings o f o ther b uildings i s c onsiderable ( for e xample, B uckland 1 977: 8 1). A r eady s upply o f c obbles w as a lso a vailable i n t he f ourth c entury w hen I nterval T ower S W5 w as b uilt ( Sumpter a nd C oll 1 977: 7 5). I t i s r are t hat p otential i mmediate s ources c an b e i dentified f rom p ublished r eports. A rchaeologists s eldom t ake s ufficient n ote o f t he ' natural' b eneath t heir e xcavations a nd, i n Y ork, w ith s everal m etres o f s uper-incumbent o ccupation d ebris, t he k eyholes t hrough t o t he b ase a re u sually t oo s mall t o o btain a dequate d escriptions. S ome i ndication t hat t he s ource w as n ot i mmediate w as o btained f rom t he e xcavation o f t he b uilding b y t he i ntervallum r oad b ehind S W5, h owever, w here i t w as p ossible t o e xamine b oth s ubstrate a nd t he f ootings i n s itu. T hese i ncluded c obbles o f C arboniferous L imestone, s andstones, p robably f rom t he Y oredale S eries o f t he n orth
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P ennines, s ub-angular b locks o f g reenish t uff f rom t he L akeland B orrowdale V olcanics a nd a b oulder o f S hap G ranite ( Buckland 1 977: 8 1). S everal o f t hese p ieces h ad n ot b een r ounded b y f luvial a ction a nd s ome w ere s ufficiently f resh t o r etain i ce s cratch m arks, i ndicating t hat t hey h ad b een f reshly d ug o ut o f a t ill. T he b oulder c ontent o f t he Y ork m oraine i s v ariable a nd i t i s u nlikely t hat t he a cquisition o f b uilding s tone w ould h ave b een t he p rimary m otive i n t he d igging o f t he c lays. T he m ajor b uildings o f R oman Y ork i ncorporated s ubstantial q uantities o f b rick a nd t ile a nd e xtensive c lay p its w ould h ave b een w orked f or t he n ecessary r aw m aterials; i n a ddition, m ortar, p laster a nd r oad s urface a ggregate n eeded e xtensive d igging o f P leistocene d eposits. T he l arge n umbers o f c obbles m ust a t l east p artly r eflect w aste f rom c lay, s and a nd g ravel e xploitation i n t he e nvirons o f t he R oman f ortress a nd c olonia . L ittle e vidence f or t his h as b een i dentified. T ile a nd p ottery m anufacture w as c ertainly b eing c arried o ut d uring t he s econd c entury i n A ldwark ( King 1 975), c lose t o t he e ast a ngle o f t he f ortress a nd m any s imilar s ites m ust r emain t o b e l ocated. T he d eep p it o r d itch, p ossibly t he o rigin o f t he n ame A ldwark, e ncountered i mmediately s outhwest o f t he h ouse w ith t essellated p avement o n t his s ite ( Magilton 1 986) h ad b een d ug t hrough a t ill w ith f ew l arge e rratics, a lthough a s ingle m assive b oulder o f L ower M agnesian L imestone h ad b een i ncorporated i n t he f ootings o f S t H elen 's c hurch ( Buckland 1 980). T his i s p robably o ne o f t he c lay p its f or t his i ndustry, p erhaps u tilised a s p art o f t he h ouse g arden d uring t he f ourth c entury. T UFA I n a reas o f c alcareous g roundwaters, t he w ater, u nder p ressure a nd c older t han t he a mbient t emperature, c ontains a h igh p roportion o f d issolved c alcite, i n t he f orm o f c alcium b icarbonate. F our f actors r esult i n t he p recipitation o f t he m ineral: e vaporation, p ressure r elease, w arming a nd b iogenic a ctivity. T he f irst i s t he d ominant p rocess i n c aves, r esulting i n t he f amiliar s talactites a nd f lowstones, w hilst t he o thers a re p revalent a t s urface s prings, f orming h ard, c alcareous c oatings a round v egetation. I n s ome l ocalities, t he d eposits m ay b ecome s ufficiently i ndurated t o p roduce a l ight, h ighly p orous s tone c apable o f u se i n b uildings. S uch i s t he t ravertine w hich f ormed t he b asic b uilding b locks o f R ome ( Lanciani 1 899) a nd, a s t ufa, i t w as a lso e xtensively u sed f rom l ocal d eposits i n R oman B ritain ( Williams 1 971), p articularly i n v aults ( Wheeler 1 932) a nd p erhaps a s i nsulation i n b ath-houses. S amples f rom t he C hurch S treet R oman s ewer a nd b ath-house s ite w ere i n a h ard, y ellowish-buff, g ranular, h ighly v esicular r ock, w ith n umerous t ubes w here e nclosed t wigs h ad d ecayed o ut, a nd s ome l arge c avities. S imilar m aterial i s r ecorded f rom t he e ast Y orkshire v illas o f L angton ( Corder a nd K irk 1 932) a nd R udston ( Stead 1 980: 7 ) a nd t here a re l arge a mounts f rom t he C lifton v illa i n s outh Y orkshire. T he n ature o f t ufa f ormation, i n a ny a rea o f c alcareous g roundwater c irculation, m akes i t a p articularly d ifficult r ock t o l ocalise a nd a w ide g eographic s pread o f s ources i s p robable. T he g eological l iterature i ncludes t he o bvious s tructures, l ike t he t ufa s creens o n t he w aterfalls i n G ordale, o n t he C arboniferous L imestone
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( Kendall a nd W root 1 924: 7 8), t he D ropping o r P etrifying W ell a t K naresborough o n t he L ower M agnesian L imestone, a nd t he t ufa r idge, c alled t he D ragon, a t D ragonby, n ear S cunthorpe, o n t he L incolnshire L imestone, b ut d oes n ot s eem t o r efer t o d eposits w hich a re s ufficiently m assive t o b e u sed a s b uilding s tone. T he a rchaeological e vidence i s e qually u nsatisfactory b ut o ne s ite, t he R oman v illa a t W ell i n n orth Y orkshire, a t l east i ndicates p robable s ources. T he h ouse l ies i n t he v alley o f t he W ell B eck, o n t he M agnesian L imestone, a nd s tructures a re b uilt o ut a cross t he v alley f loor. U nfortunately t here i s n o a dequate d escription o f s ediments b ut t he s ections t hrough t he b uildings s how t hat e xtensive t ufa d eposits u nderlie t he v illa ( Gilyard-Beer 1 951: f igures 4 , 1 2). S ince w alls a re l aid d irectly o nto t he r ock, i t i s a pparent t hat i t f orms a s olid b ase b ut t here a re n o i ndications o f i ts s tructural u se. T he o ne i tem i n t ufa, ah and m ortar, i s a n i mported r ock ( Dunham i n G ilyard-Beer 1 951: 5 9). S ome i ndication t hat s imilar d eposits, p erhaps o f m id-Flandrian a ge a s a t B rigg i n L incolnshire ( Preece a nd R obinson 1 984), o ccur i n o ther s mall s tream v alleys o n t he M agnesian L imestone i s i ndicated b y b orehole d ata f rom C reswell a t t he s outhern t ip o f t he c ounty ( Gilbertson p ersonal c ommunication) a nd b y t he r eference t o t ufa i nterbedded w ith p eat a t B rearton, n ear K naresborough ( Kendall a nd W root 1 924: 8 65). L ocation o f s uitable d eposits m ay h ave b een e asier i n t he R oman p eriod, b efore t he l ate F landrian e xpansion o f h ill-wash a nd a lluvium ( see B uckland a nd S adler 1 986) b ut i t i s p robable t hat s izeable a ccumulations o f t ufa o f b uilding s tone q uality h ave a r estricted d istribution a nd t heir l ocation r eflects a c onsiderable i nvestment i n f ieldwork d uring t he R oman p eriod. I MPORTED S TONES T he e ssential p art t hat s tone p layed i n t rade u ntil t he a dvent o f m odern s hips i n t he l atter p art o f t he n ineteenth c entury h as t ended t o b e c onsistently u nderestimated ( Butler a nd S adler i n p ress). S hips c arrying l ight c argoes a nd v essels t ravelling e mpty r equired b allast t o m aintain b alance a t s ea a nd a w ide r ange o f m aterials w as e mployed. I n t he n ineteenth c entury b locks o f p ig i ron f requently f ulfilled t his f unction a nd i t i s t empting t o i nterpret t he n umerous w rought i ron b ars f rom s everal H ellenistic a nd R oman w recks i n t he M editerranean ( Gibbins a nd P arker 1 986) i n t his l ight. A s a s aleable i tem a t t he e nd o f a v oyage, i ron h ad c onsiderable a dvantage o ver r ock o r s hingle. S tone, w hilst i t m ight m erely h ave b een d ischarged a t t he d estination, a s L indroth ( 1957) h as e legantly d ocumented f or t he e arly p ostm edieval N ewfoundland f isheries, c ould a lso i nclude m arketable c ommodities. L aures ( 1986) r efers t o ' millstone b locks ' a s b allast i n t wo M editerranean w recks, t hose f rom K yrenia a nd L 'Anse d es L aurons 2 , a nd t he e xport o f N eidermendig q uerns t o B ritain m ay i nvolve a s imilar m echanism. T his r ock, a v esicular l ava ( Peacock 1 980), w as a lso a pparently u sed f or p art o f t he p recinct w all o f t he t emple o f C laudius i n C olchester ( Hull 1 958: 1 69). T he e xtent o f m ore i ncidental m ovement o f s tone i nto B ritain i s w ell i llustrated b y t he r ange o f c obbles o f C ornish, C hannel I sland a nd B reton o rigin i ncorporated i n t he f ootings o f t he F ishbourne v illa ( Sanderson i n C unliffe 1 971: 1 -3). C ontemporary l iterary a nd e pigraphic i nformation
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i s l imited b ut t he p resence o f S aburrarii - b allast h andlers - a t O stia, t he p ort o f R ome, s hould b e n oted. A m uch l ater s ource i s m ore e xplicit: L eland, w riting a round 1 535-1543, s ays o f m edieval H ull,
' At s uch t yme a s a l t he t rade o f s tokfisch f or E ngland c am f rom I sleland [ Iceland] t o K ingeston, b ycause t he b urden o f s tokfisch w as l ight, t he s hipes w ere b alissed w ith c oble s tone b rought o ut o f I sleland, t he w hich y n c ontinuance p avid a l t he t own o f K ingeston t hroughout.' ( Smith 1 964: I : 4 9). T he r ocks a re l ikely t o h ave b een b asalts, R oman C olchester.
s imilar t o t hose f rom e arly
I n c onsideration o f t his e vidence, i t i s p erhaps t o b e e xpected t hat m ore i mported s tones s hould b e r ecognised o n c oastal a nd i nland p ort s ites. I t h as b een s uggested t hat J urassic o olite o n t he S keldergate s ite i n Y ork m ight b e b allast r esidue ( Buckland 1 978b: 4 3), a lthough a s ource n o m ore r emote t han n orth L incolnshire i s n ecessary. S ome f ragments o f Y ork s tone, h owever, c ome f rom f ar m ore r emote s ources. I n a l ate R oman o r A nglian c ontext o n t he B ishophill s ite o ccurred a s mall f ragment o f m arble v eneer, r oughly p entagonal i n s hape a nd 7 5 m illimetres b y 4 7 m illimetres b y 2 0 m illimetres t hick. D imes ( in B uckland 1 978: 4 3) d escribes t he r ock a s ' a f airly c oarseg rained c rystalline m arble, d ull w hite i n c olour w ith a b luish t inge a nd w ith o bscure g reyish v eins a nd p atches. I n g ross v isual a ppearance a nd f rom c omparison w ith s pecimens i n o ur c ollection ( Geological M useum, L ondon), t he s pecimen h as c haracteristics n ot i ncompatible w ith m arble k nown a s T urkish W hite o r M armara.' A lthough t here i s s ome d ispute a bout t he v isual i dentification o f A egean m arbles ( Renfrew a nd S pringer-Peacey 1 968; A shmole 1 970), w hich i sotopic a nalysis c an p artly r esolve ( Walda a nd W alker 1 984), t here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat t he Y ork f ragment c omes f rom t he e xtensive G reek, R oman a nd B yzantine q uarries o n t he i sland o f M armara i n t he B osphorus. T he r ock w as w orked o n am assive s cale d uring t he R oman p eriod ( Asgari 1 978) a nd i mported t o R ome i n l arge q uantities, p articularly d uring t he s econd c entury A D ( Ward-Perkins 1 980). I t i s p robably b y t he r edistribution o f s urplus m aterials f rom R ome t hat o ccasional p ieces s pread i nto t he n orthwestern p rovinces. I t h as b een n oted, a long w ith m aterial f rom D ocimenos o n t he T urkish m ainland, i n L ondon ( Dimes i n P ritchard 1 986). T he l atter, w ith a nother A natolian m arble, t hat f rom B alikesir, a ppears i n t he l arge c ollection o f e xotic a rchitectural s tones f rom t he F ishbourne p alace i n S ussex ( Sanderson i n C unliffe 1 971: 1 6). A s econd f ragment o f s tone v eneer, 8 5 m illimetres b y 3 1 m illimetres b y 1 m illimetres t hick, c omes f rom a p ost-medieval p it. D imes ( in B uckland 1 978b: 4 4) c omments ' The s pecimen m atches a d ecorative s tone k nown a s G iallo A ntico, av ery f ine g rained c ompact l imestone, q uarried s ince a bout 2 00 B C i n N umidia. T he q uarries a t C hemtou ( in T unisia) w ere t he C lassical l ocality. G enerally t he s tone i s a s omewhat s hattered l imestone, y ellow i n c olour, w ith v eins o f r eddish-purple-brown c olour, w hich d o n ot f orm a r egular p attern '. A gain a v ery p opular r ock i n R ome ( Ward-Perkins 1 951), i t i s p robable t hat t his p iece a lso r eflects r edistribution f rom t hat c entre.
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I n t he Y orkshire M useum a re t wo f ragments f rom s maller f igurines i n a n u nidentified w hite m arble ( RCHM 1 962: 1 20); t wo f ragments o f ' mottled g reen s tone' f rom A nglo-Scandinavian d eposits i n C oppergate ( Hall i n L ynn 1 984: 2 3) s hould a lso b e n oted. I mported d ecorative s tones, p erhaps t he b ases f or s mall s tatues a re a lso k nown f rom t wo o ther Y orkshire s ites: g reen p orphyry, f rom L aconia, G reece, a ppears o n t he R udston v illa s ite ( Dimes i n S tead 1 980: 1 21) a nd a n u nidentified ' greenish m etamorphic r ock' w as f ound o n t he s mall f armstead s ite a t B arnburgh, S outh Y orkshire ( Doncaster M useum u npublished); o thers m ay w ell e xist, u nrecognised i n m useum c ollections. T he i mport o f d ecorative s tones f or o pus s ectile w ork a nd a rchitectural f eatures h as r ecently b een e xamined b y P ritchard ( 1986) i n c onnection w ith a s tudy o f f inds f rom L ondon a nd C larke ( 1982) h as d iscussed t he f inds f rom an umber o f s ites i n t he r eport o n t he W oodchester v illa. T he t wo a braded f ragments f rom t he B ishophill s ite a re b oth f rom e quivocal c ontexts a nd t he o ccurrence o f s amian s herds i n b allast o f a s eventeenth c entury w reck i n B ermuda ( Lynn 1 984: 2 8) s erves a s a s alutary r eminder n ot t o b ase t oo m uch o n s mall i tems. O nly t he s labs o f F orest M arble f rom t he P rospect H ouse s ite p rovide c ertain e vidence f or t he u se o f w all v eneer i n R oman Y ork a nd e ven t he h eadquarters b uilding i n t he f ortress h ad o nly p ainted p laster i n i mitation o f m arble o n i ts w alls ( Ramm 1 971: 1 79). L ittle, h owever, h as b een e xcavated o f t he m ore p rosperous a reas o f E buracum . T he p rovincial g overnor's, a t t imes t he I mperial, p alace h as y et t o b e l ocated a nd n o m ajor c ivic b uilding h as b een e ffectively e xamined. T he r elative a ffluence o f t he s ite, i n r elation t o o thers i n R oman B ritain, c annot b e a ssessed o n t he b asis o f p resence o r a bsence o f i mported r ocks, a s P ritchard's ( 1986) d iscussion o f L ondon m ight s uggest. T he r ange o f i mported s tones f rom t he F laxengate s ite a lone i n L incoln ( Dunham 1 973) i s a lmost a s e xtensive a s t hat f rom L ondon. A s a f urther c aveat, L ynn ( 1984) i n as tudy o f t he o ccurrence o f G reek a nd E gyptian p orphyry i n I reland, h as a dvanced t he h ypothesis t hat s uch m aterial m ight r epresent w hat w ere e ssentially p ilgrim 's c urios, b rought b ack f rom t he H oly p laces o f t he M editerranean. T he l ate c ontexts o f t he B ishophill p ieces c ould e asily r eflect t his; o nly m ore e xtensive e xcavation i n f ortress a nd c olonia c an f urther e lucidate t his. M ETALS M ajor R oman a shlar s tructures o ften p laced s ome r eliance u pon a s ystem o f i ron c lamps s et i n l ead s eats a nd t he n ecessary c ramp h oles a re s ometimes e vident u pon r eused M illstone G rit b locks. J agged h oles w here t he m etal h as b een r obbed o ut w hilst t he b locks w ere i n s itu a re a lso s ometimes a pparent. T he ' dowel h oles ' n oted i n t he b locks o f t he n orthwest g ate ( RCHM 1 962: 2 5) a nd i n t he e nds o f l engths o f c olumn, c apitals a nd b ases ( RCHM 1 962: f igure 7 9) a lso h oused m etal r ather t han w ood p ins ( see B lagg 1 976: 1 66). O ccasionally, w rought i ron w as u sed i n a s tructural c apacity, p robably t o s upport a b oiler, a s t he e xample f rom C atterick ( Wacher 1 970). A lthough t he a mounts o f l ead a nd i ron r equired w ere p erhaps s mall r elative t o o ther m aterials, t heir u se f urther e mphasises t he c entral p osition o f t he b uilding i ndustry d eposits
o f f ortress a nd c olonia i n t he r egional e conomy. o f o res o f b oth m etals a re a vailable i n n orthern
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A bundant E ngland,
l ead f rom v eins i n t he D erbyshire ( Worley a nd F ord 1 977) o r N orth P ennine O refields ( Dunham 1 974) a nd i ron l argely f rom w idely d istributed s edimentary o res i n t he U pper C arboniferous a nd L ower J urassic ( Hemingway 1 974b). L ater w orkings h ave t ended t o o bscure t he t races o f R oman m ining b ut t he t wo p igs o f l ead f rom H ayshaw B ank, n ear P ateley B ridge, i n n orth Y orkshire, w ith s tamps i ndicating l ocal m anufacture b y A D 8 1 ( Whittick 1 982: 14), i ndicate t he e arly e xploitation o f s uitable d eposits. I n c ontrast w ith t he W ealden i ron i ndustry ( Cleere 1 975; C leere a nd C rossley 1 985), t here i s l imited e vidence f or R oman i ronw orking i n Y orkshire. K endall a nd W root ( 1924: 1 94) r efer t o R oman f inds a ssociated w ith h eaps o f i ron s lag a t L ow M oor, n ear B radford, a nd B radfield, n ear S heffield; b oth u tilised C oal M easure o res. T he w rought i ron r equirements f or t he Y ork l egion w ould h ave b een c onsiderable a nd, w hilst s ome m etal m ay h ave b een i mported f rom t he W eald ( Cleere a nd C rossley 1 985: 8 3), i ncidentally, a n e xplanation f or t he p resence o f K entish R ag h ones ( Berridge 1 976), a s izeable l ocal s tate-controlled e xtractive i ndustry m ust h ave e xisted. W hether t he w orkings l ay o n t he U pper C arboniferous t o t he w est o r L ower a nd M iddle J urassic t o t he n ortheast i s u nknown. T here i s s ome e vidence f or t he u se o f s mall q uantities o f o ther m etal o res i n d ecorative w ork. W etzel ( in B iek 1 982) h as e xamined t he p igments u sed i n t he p aint o n t he w all p laster f rom t he B ishophill s ite. A lthough D onaghey ( 1978: 4 5) h as c laimed t hat l apis l azuli, w hose s ources l ie o utside t he E mpire i n I ran a nd A fghanistan, w as u sed t o m ake b lue p igment, W etzel's a nalysis s howed t hat i t h ad b een m anufactured f rom b lue f rit, t he s ame b ase a s E gyptian f aience, a n a rtificial c ompound o f c opper s ilicate ( CuCaSiO4 ). A lthough c opper w as o nce m ined a t M iddleton T yas i n n orth Y orkshire ( Raistrick 1 936), t he m aterial c ould e qually h ave b een m ade f rom q uartz s and a nd c opper c orrosion p roducts, r ather t han t he u se o f a p rimary o re. T he i ntense r ed p igment, h owever, d oes r equire a p rimary m ineral a nd o ne n ot a vailable i n B ritain, c innabar, a s ulphide o f m ercury; i t i s p robable t hat s mall q uantities w ere i mported f rom m ines i n I beria, t he n earest s ource.
C ONCLUSION
T he c ollapse o f t he c entralised e conomy i n t he p ost-Roman p eriod l eft d ecaying b uildings i n Y ork w hich w ere o ut o f a ll p roportion t o t he n eeds o f w hat r apidly b ecame a n e ssentially s ubsistence-based s ociety. T he o ccupation o f s ome b uildings, t ransient o r o therwise, c ontinued f or l ong a fter t heir p rimary f unction m ay w ell h ave b een f orgotten ( see A ddyman 1 984: 1 7), b ut w hen t he s timulus t o b uild a gain i n e nduring s tone a rose w ith t he r eintroduction o f a n o rganised C hristian c hurch, t he r uined, p erhaps b y t hen l argely d eserted c ity, p rovided a g igantic q uarry w hich s upplied r aw m aterials f or t he m ajority o f e cclesiastical p rojects, f rom c rosses t o m onasteries, i n t he V ale a nd f urther a field u ntil t he i mmense s tructure o f t he c athedral o f T homas o f B ayeaux ( Phillips 1 985) s wallowed u p m ost o f w hat w as l eft.
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T he s cale a nd b readth o f s tone e xploitation f or E buracum w as, b y t he s tandards o f a ny p re-industrial s ociety, i mpressive a nd t he r ange o f m aterials b rought t o t he f ortress a nd c olonia w as o nly e qualled o nce m ore w ith t he i mproved c ommunications o f t he I ndustrial R evolution, w hen c anal a nd r ailway a gain m ade i t e conomic t o i mport t he m ost s uitable r ocks o ver g reater d istances. M illstone G rit, a ppropriate b ecause o f i ts e ngineering q ualities ( Watson 1 911: 1 27), w as u sed f or t he n ew O use B ridge i n 1 815-1820 ( RCHM 1 972b: 4 9 a nd B orrowdale a nd W elsh s late r oofs b egin t o m ake t heir a ppearance i n t he c ity f rom t he m id-eighteenth c entury ( RCHM 1 981: x cvi). T he p arallels b etween R oman a nd p ost-medieval Y ork a re n ot w ithout w ider s ignificance f or i t c ould b e a rgued t hat t he b uilding s tone i ndustry p rovides a d irect r eflection o f t he d egree o f c entralised c ontrol e xercised b y t he S tate, w hether b y e ntrepreneurial p atronage o r b y d irect i ntervention. T he a ppearance o f e ast M editerranean a nd n orth A frican r ocks i n R oman B ritain, m ost f ully l isted i n t he L ondon m aterial e xamined b y D imes ( in P ritchard 1 986), i s e choed i n t he u se o f E nglish s tone f or m ajor b uildings i n t he B ritish e mpire, P ortland S tone, f or e xample, f or P arliament H ouse i n O ttawa. W hilst b allasting o ut t o b ring c onsumables i n f rom p eriphery t o c ore m ay p artly o ver-ride o ther c onsiderations a nd e xplain c urious d istribution p atterns, t he B ritish i n C anada a nd t he R omans i n B ritain h ave o ther p arallels w orth e xploring. E xamination o f t he s tones o f Y ork h as p erhaps r aised m ore q uestions t han i t h as a nswered. T he m echanics o f t he b uilding t rade i n R oman B ritain h ave r ecently b een e xamined b y L ing ( 1985) y et t he o rganisation n ecessary t o s upport m assive b uilding p rogrammes l ike t hose i n E buracum t ends s till t o b e u nderestimated i n a s ociety u sed t o m achines r ather t han m anpower. C oleman 's c lassic s tudy o f t he r ailway n avvies ( 1965) m ight b e r ead t o a dvantage b y t he R oman e conomic h istorian. A lthough c urrent, w ind a nd t ide c ould b e e xploited t o a dvantage i n t he m ovement o f s tone t o Y ork, t he p attern o f s upply s uggests a l evel o f r iver m anagement b arely h inted a t i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. R ome r elied h eavily u pon m an r ather t han b east t o h aul h er b oats ( Ellmers 1 978: 1 0) a nd e ven a n a bundance o f e xpendable m anpower i n t he s hape o f s laves c ould n ot o vercome t he f act t hat m any o f t he r egion 's l esser r ivers w ould n ot b e n aturally n avigable w ithout s ome m anagement. T owpaths a nd b ridging o f m inor s treams m ust h ave b een a f eature o f m any o f t he r outes i nto Y ork. . I t i s t herefore p erhaps n ot w ithout s ignificance t hat t he p alaeo-ecological e vidence f rom t he O ld R iver D on a t S andtoft s uggests a R oman b ank-side r egime n ot d issimilar f rom t he p resent o ne ( Buckland a nd S adler 1 986). T he e xtent o f m odification o f t he d rainage p attern i n t he H umberhead l evels p ostulated b y B uckland a nd S adler ( 1986) i s o n a s cale s imilar t o t hat i dentified i n t he F ens ( Phillips 1 970) a nd r ecently p ublished f rom S outh W ales ( Allen a nd F ulford 1 986). W hilst t he e xtent t o w hich t hese w orks m ight h ave p rovided n avigable w aterways h as b een d oubted ( see S immons 1 979: 1 91), t here i s n o d oubt t hat n avigation c anals w ere a s m uch a p art o f R oman p lanning a s w ere r oads. P liny t he Y ounger's l etter t o T rajan w ith r egard t o a c anal t o f acilitate t he t ransport o f m arble t o N icomedia i n B ithynia
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f rom i ts h interland ( Pensabene 1 978: 13; q uoted i n W ard-Perkins 1 980: 13) s hows t hat s uch s chemes m ight b e m ooted i n r elation t o t he m ovement o f s tone. T he s uggested o rigin o f B ishop D yke, f rom n ear t he H uddleston q uarries t o t he O use a t C awood, s hould b e v iewed i n t his l ight. I t i s p erhaps a lso r elevant t hat t he p utative s ource f or t he s tone f or t he l ate R oman e nclosure a t D oncaster, C hurch R ein, W armsworth, a lso i nvolves a s hort c anal u p t o t he r ock f ace ( Buckland i n p reparation). A lthough t he e xtent o f Y ork's l egionary a nd c ivic t erritoria m ay b e o pen t o q uestion ( see R amm 1 984; R ichmond i n R CHM 1 962: x xv; R odwell 1 975), t he e vidence p rovided b y t he G oldcliff s tone, r ecording d rainage w ork b y L egio I I A ugusta , 9 k ilometres f rom t heir b ase a t C aerleon ( Allen a nd F ulford 1 986), r einforces t he p robability o f R oman m ilitary i nvolvement i n m ajor n avigation a nd d rainage w orks i n t he V ale o f Y ork. T he e vidence w ould s uggest t hat t hese m ay h ave b een o n a s cale n ot a gain r eached u ntil t he d igging o f t he D utch R iver b y C ornelius V ermuyden a nd h is c o-drainers i n 1 635 ( see, h owever, t he a lternative v iew o f G aunt 1 975). T o t his h ypothesis t he s tudy o f t he s tones o f Y ork p rovides b ut o ne p rop; Is hall p erhaps h ave t o l eave i t t o o thers t o s ubstantiate o r d isprove t he t hesis. G eology a nd l ogistics h ave s erved t o n arrow d own t he p otential s ource a reas f or t he r ocks u sed i n R oman Y ork b ut i nsufficient r esearch h as b een c arried o ut t o l ocate a ny s urviving t races o f q uarries a nd m ost h ave p robably b een d estroyed o r a t l east r endered u nidentifiable b y l ater w orking. S ystematic s urvey o f an umber o f p ossible s ites, h owever, c ould s till y ield w orthwhile r esults. F or t hose i nterested i n e xperimental a rchaeology, Is hould b e i nterested t o s ee a n a ttempt t o m ove a t hree t onne b lock o f M illstone G rit f rom t he n eighbourhood o f P lumpton R ocks d own t he N idd a nd O use t o Y ork, u sing b rute f orce a nd a p oled p unt.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T his p aper o wes m uch t o t he f orebearance a nd c omments o f m y w ife, a t a t ime w hen h er c oncerns w ere g reater t han m ine. T he i nitial i mpetus t o t he r esearch w as p rovided b y P eter A ddyman 's s uggestion t hat I e xamine t he s tones o f t he s ewer; t he g eological a pproach w as a n o utcome o f t he e nthusiastic t eaching o f P rofessor F W S hotton a nd t he f inal r esult s tems f rom t he c ross-fertilisation o f t he i deas o f c olleagues i n s everal d isciplines. I n p articular, Io we t hanks t o P rofessor K B ranigan, RW B uckland, GD G aunt, M G elling, D D G ilbertson, C C H ayfield, J RM agilton, JP rice, J S adler, A B S umpter, H G R amm, I M S tead, P rofessor H C V ersey a nd E W right. Ia m a lso g rateful t o GM G rant, IM cDonald a nd R F S mith f or a ccess t o u npublished i nformation. GD owling, TG rogan, D P hillips, t he Y ork A rchaeological T rust a nd R S mith k indly p rovided i llustrative m aterial. T his p aper c ould n ot h ave b een c ompleted b ut f or t he g enerous l oan o f am icrocomputer f rom J E T hornes ' c ompany, T hermal M apping I nternational, t o w hom I e xtend e very t hanks. I t i s n ecessary t o c lose w ith a c aveat. A s P eter A ddyman ( 1984: 1 5) h as r ightly c ommented u pon m y i nterpretation o f t he e nvironmental e vidence f rom t he C hurch S treet s ewer ( Buckland 1 976b), I h ave
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occasionally and deliberately stepped beyond the limits of the available evidence, a procedure which inevitably results in being quoted out of context. I am also acutely aware that a Kuhnian approach might seem inappropriate to archaeology, where history, hypothesis and myth can become inextricably mixed (see Buckland 1982). The several models are presented for testing, not as received I shall be pleased, not dismayed, if further research doctrine. proves me wrong; the archaeology of York will then have taken a small step forward. BIBLIOGRAPHY Addyman, P V 1984 York in its archaeological setting. In P V Addyman and VE Black (eds) Archaeological Papers from York presented to MW Barley. York Archaeological Trust: 7-21. Allason-Jones, L and Miket, R 1984 The Catalogue of small finds ~from South Shields Roman fort. Newcastle upon Tyne: Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle Monograph 2. Allen, J R L and Fulford, M G 1986 The W entlooge Level: a Romano British saltmarsh reclamation in south-east W ales. Britannia 17: 91118. Allin, C E 1981 The ridge tiles. London: Austin Friars, Leicester. Research Report 35: 52-70.
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1 978 T ile-stamps o f t he N inth L egion f ound i n B ritain. 3 79-382.
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1 6:
T HE L ITHOLOGY, O RIGIN A ND D ISPERSAL O F S OME Q UERNSTONES F ROM Y ORKSHIRE S TEPHEN B RIGGS
I NTRODUCTION A r ecent e xamination o f s ome 1 20 b eehive q uerns f ound i n n orthe ast Y orkshire b y H ayes, H emingway a nd S pratt ( 1980; h ereafter H ayes e t a l) s howed t he o rigins o f t he s tones ( of b oth H unsbury a nd u npierced t opstone t ypes) f ell i nto t wo m ain g roups; o ne l ocal t o n ortheast Y orkshire, t he o ther f rom f urther a field. O f m ore l ocal o rigin, f orty-six w ere o f u nfossiliferous s andstones, t hirty o f C rinoid G rit, a nd s ix w ere o f M oor G rit, ( all M iddle J urassic r ocks o f t he N orth Y orkshire M oors), w hilst n ine w ere f rom t he C orallian i n t he T abular H ills s outh o f t he M oors. F rom f urther a field, t wenty w ere o f M illstone G rit a nd f our o f Y oredale s andstone f rom t he P ennines, o ne w as o f S hap G ranite a nd a nother o f u nidentified g ranitic e rratic. T he a uthors c oncluded t hat t here w as l ittle c orrelation b etween l ithology, s ize, s hape a nd w orkmanship a nd t hat d istribution o f l ithological t ypes r elated t o t heir s uitability f or m illing a nd t o t he d istances f rom t heir l ocal s ources o r f rom t he P ennines. T he o verall d istribution c orresponded c losely w ith t hat o f p resent-day a gricultural l and; v ery f ew o ccurred o n m oorland h ills. A lthough i t w as n ot f elt p ossible t o d etermine a p recise d ate o f c urrency, t heir w idespread a doption w as f elt t o r eflect a n i ntensification o f a griculture o n t he l ow g round a nd T abular H ills d uring t he l ater I ron A ge a nd R oman p eriod. T his s tudy w as t he f irst o f i ts k ind t o p rovide d etailed l ithol ogical d ata f or d istributional s tudy o n a n a rea b asis. I t i s b oth a u nique r ecord o f m any y ears' c onscientious f ieldwork ( Hayes 1 974; 1 976), a nd a n i mportant s tarting p oint f or f uture w ork ( Spratt 1 987). A n umber o f f undamental q uestions a bout t he p roduction, d istribution, t ypology a nd c urrency o f s tone q uerns d uring t he I ron A ge a nd R omano-British p eriod - m ost p articularly t hose r elating t o t he l ong-distance c arriage o f f inished s tones - a ppear t o b e a dequately a nswered b y I ithological s tudies o f t his t ype. I ndeed, a t f ace v alue, t he i nvestigation s eems t o c onfirm e arlier s uspicions t hat h andmill s tone w as q uarried a nd s haped b efore b ecoming i nvolved i n a s ophisticated s ystem o f d istribution. S ome g eological f actors, h owever, r emain u ndiscussed, s o i n t his s tudy i t i s i ntended t o r eview s tone p rocurement a nd q uern d istribution i n Y orkshire a nd b eyond f rom a g eological s tandpoint. B ecause m odes o f q uern p roduction a nd t heir d istribution m echanisms h ave n ot, s o f ar, b een d iscussed i n a n h istorical p erspective, c omparative d ata a bout l ater m illstones w ill a lso b e b riefly r eviewed. Q uerns o f M illstone G rits a nd Y oredale S andstones F or e xposure
t he o rigin o f t he t wenty M illstone G rit q uernstones, t he o f B rimham G rits, w hich o ccurs i n a n arrow b elt b etween
2 89
H arrogate a nd R ipon, w as s pecified a s t he m ost l ikely s ource, i t b eing t he c losest o utcropping b edrock. W ensleydale a nd S waledale w ere c onsidered l ikely s ources f or t he f our o f Y oredale s andstones. T he t ransport o f t hese r ocks f rom t he P ennines t o n ortheast Y orkshire i s e xplained i n t he f ollowing w ay: ' Large e rratics o f M illstone G rit a nd Y oredale s andstone a re n ot f ound i n g lacial d eposits i n t he s tudy a rea, a lthough s ome o f t he i ce s treams r adiated f rom t he P ennines, b oth t hese s andstones a re t oo f riable t o s urvive t he s tresses o f g lacial t ransport a s l arge b locks. Q uerns o f t hese r ocks m ust t herefore h ave b een c arried b y m an a t s ome s tage f rom t he P ennines t o t he s tudy a rea ' ( Hayes e t a l: 3 08). T he v alidity o f d isbelief i n g lacial b oulder t ransport i s c learly c rucial t o a cceptance o f t he h uman a lternative. A s n o g eological s tudy w as c ited i n s upport o f t his d isbelief, t he d issemination a nd d istribution o f P ennine ( and o f c ertain o ther) e rratics i s o bviously c entral t o e valuation o f t he t hesis. B oth l ocal, a nd t hen m ore w idespread, g lacial d ispersion o f P ennine i ndicator b oulders m ust t herefore b e e xamined. 1
P ENNINE E RRATICS I N E ASTERN B RITAIN
A t t he m oment i t i s u nfashionable f or g eologists t o l ook a t e rratics. F ortunately, h owever, t his h as n ot a lways b een t he c ase, a nd d uring t he l atter p art o f t he n ineteenth c entury t he f irst B ritish c onservation m ovement f ocused a ttention u pon t heir c ollection. T he B ritish A ssociation f or t he A dvancement o f S cience b egan a s urvey o f e rratic b oulders i n 1 873 w hen a c ommittee w as e stablished: ' for t he p urpose o f a scertaining t he e xistence i n d ifferent p arts o f t he U nited K ingdom o f a ny E rratic B locks o r B oulders, o f i ndicating o n M aps t heir p osition a nd h eight a bove t he s ea, a s a lso o f a scertaining t he n ature o f t he r ocks c omposing t hese b locks, t heir s ize, s hape, a nd o ther p articulars o f i nterest, a nd o f e ndeavouring t o p revent t he d estruction o f s uch b locks a s i n t he o pinion o f t he c ommittee a re w orthy o f b eing p reserved ' ( Crosskey 1 873: 1 88). F or m ore t han t hree d ecades, c lergymen, s choolteachers a nd d isinterested g entlemen ' boulder w atched'. T here w as a l ocal Y orkshire B oulder C ommittee f rom 1 886. I t c omprised s cattered f actions o ften c ompetitive i n s pirit, s uch a s t he H ull G eological S ociety a nd t he Y orkshire G eological a nd P olytechnic S ociety. T he o nly a ccessible s ummary o f t his w ork i s F W H armer's d istribution m ap, p osthumously p ublished b y P ercy K endall ( Harmer 1 926). H armer d ied a n onogenarian, m uch o f h is i nformation t hen a lready o ut o f d ate, s o i t i s s till n ecessary t o t rack d own a nd e valuate o riginal o bscurely-published t exts. P ennine r ocks w ere o bserved i n m any s uperficial d eposits t hroughout n orthern E ngland ( see A ppendix), a nd d espite v ariable s tandards o f o bservation, i t i s s till p ossible t o e xtract u seful d ata f rom t he o riginal p rinted a ccounts.
2 90
T he g lacial d ispersion o f P ennine R ock ( Figure 1 6.1)
e Goath lancl ,
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F igure 1 7.1
D istribution o f M illstone G rit b oulders.
W ithin t he W est R iding, a nd c lose t o t he o utcropping s trata, m asses o f d etached M illstone G rit w ere c ommon i n t he v alley o f t he W harfe a t A ppletreewick ( Sewell 1 876), a nd a round L eeds a nd B radford t he r ecycling o f P ennine s andstones a nd g rits w as w ell a ttested ( Davis 1 879). A g reat m ixture o f l arge b oulders, C umbrian, P ennine a nd e ven S candinavian, w ere t o b e f ound i n s outhwest Y orkshire ( Carter 1 904). W est o f t he P ennines, K endall d emonstrated l ocal e astward m ovement o f i ce t hrough m assive r edeposited b oulders t orn f rom t heir b edrock, f ar-transported C oal M easures s andstone w as a mong t hese ( Kendall 1 891).
2 91
T he V ale o f Y ork I t i s g enerally b elieved t hat l arger P ennine a nd f ar-travelled e rratics a re a bsent f rom t he V ale o f Y ork. F or t his r eason t ransport o f t he D evil's A rrows t o t heir s ites n ear B oroughbridge i s n owadays p ut d own t o e nergetic a nd w ell-organised h uman c arriage. B ut n ineteenth c entury s cholars w ere a pparently u nconcerned w ith t heir o rigins, p resumably b ecause o f a f amiliarity w ith t he e ase a nd f requency o f g lacial r afting w hich c ould t hen b e s een r easonably c lose t o h and. A round Y ork m ost s urface e rratics a nd m any s tones e ncountered b elow g round d uring a gricultural o perations a re n ow g one, h aving b een i ncorporated i nto b uildings, b oundaries a nd r oads. C ontinuous f looding h as d eposited s ilt o ver t he V ale t hroughout h istoric t imes ( Radley a nd S imms 1 970), m aking r emoter t he l ikelihood t hat s izeable f ieldstones w ould n owadays b e t ouched b y t he p lough a nd r aised f or u se. O bviously r ecords o f f ar-transported r ocks o btained f rom g eological k eyholes l ike q uarries a nd b orings i nto t his w ell-scoured, a ggrading, s urface, h ave n ow t o b e r elied u pon. I n 1 807 S owerby n oted a g ravel p it n ear Y ork w hich h ad ' a l arge a nd c urious v ariety o f s tones i n i t, f rom w hence m ost o f t he o ld p avement o f t he C ity o f Y ork i s c omposed.' H e p ossessed a p iece o f r ed j asper f rom t he p it, ' and s ome o ther v ery c urious s pecimens f rom t hence, c ut a nd p olished' ( Sowerby 1 807: 3 5). A mong t he o ther r ocks w ere h orneblende p orphyry ( Sowerby 1 811: 4 7, 3 28). P resumably P ennine m aterial w as a mongst t his g eologically b road-based a nd p otentially u sable b oulder s uite. L ater, i n 1 876, d uring d rainage w ork a t t he F riends' R etreat ( Ordnance S urvey ( hereafter O S) S E 6 16507), a d rift s ome 6 50 f eet l ong ( 180 m etres a pproximately) w as c ut t hrough t he h ill f rom n orthwest b y w est t o s outheast b y e ast. T his w as a t l east 4 7 f eet ( 14 m etres a pproximately) d eep, a nd r an e xclusively t hrough t he g lacial d rift: ' tough b oulder c lay, g ravelly b eds, a nd s and b eds'. ' Between S hafts V III a nd I X b oulders w ere e ncountered b y t he m en, t oo b ig t o r emove, t hey t hought s ome m ust h ave b een o f a t on w eight. T he l argest b rought u p w eighed a bout 6 00 p ounds, w hich i s a s m uch a s a ny I h ave f ound i n s itu n ear Y ork, e xcept, p ossibly, o ne s till t o b e s een a t t he M ount ( OS S E 5 951). S ome o f t hose i n t he M useum g rounds ( OS S E 6 00621) m ust w eigh m ore. A mong o ther s tones, t wo l umps o f c oal w ere b rought u p' ( Clark 1 881: 6 15). T hey d erived ' chiefly f rom t he C arboniferous b eds o f t he W est R iding. L imestones a re u sually s cratched a nd o ften b eautifully p olished. A t a ll t he s ites m entioned o ccasional s pecimens o ccur f rom L ias a nd O olitic b eds, s o t hat a n e asterly d rift m ust h ave s ometimes c ountered t he p revailing s et f rom t he w est' ( Clark 1 881: 6 16). I n 1 901 G eorge A uden n oted t wo l arge C arboniferous s andstone b oulders a t D ringhouses ( OS S E 5 89501) ' one w eighing 3 -4 t ons, o bscurely s triated' ( Kendall a nd H owarth 1 902: 2 13). R ocks l ike t hese, a nd m any s maller u nrecorded e xamples m ust h ave b een m uch m ore c ommon a t t he s urface b efore u rbanisation, a nd w ould h ave a dequately s erved a s l ocal q uarries f or q uerns b efore b ecoming f oundation m aterial i n e arly u rban b uilding.
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B oulders e ven l arger t han t hese s urvived r afting o r e nglacial t ransport t o t he e ast c oast. F or e xample a p iece o f B unter S andstone 3 0 y ards ( 27 m etres) l ong r eached H unmanby ( OS T A 0 977) ( Stather 1 912: 2 7). M assive t abular a nd b oulder-like r ocks o riginating i n t he P ennines a nd n orth Y orkshire a re s till t o b e o bserved i n c liff s ections b etween B ridlington a nd S purn P oint ( unpublished p ersonal o bservation o f p resent a uthor). I t w as h ere o n t he Y orkshire c oast t hat t he a ctivities o f t he Y orkshire B oulder C ommittee a nd i ts c ognate E ast R iding a nd H ull g roups ( Anon 1 893-4) w ere b est c oncentrated ( Sheppard 1 902). C onsequently, i n t he p roduction o f d istribution m aps t he m ajority o f s ightings l ay d ensely u pon Y orkshire's e astern f lank. R ock n omenclature w as r ather e lementary, a nd t erms s uch a s ' whinstone' o r ' sandstone' w ere u sed. O nly f oolproof i ndicators l ike S hap g ranite c ould b e m ore s pecifically n amed. E very e ffort w as m ade t o e ducate t he c ollectors a nd o bservers i n t he r ange o f r ock-types r epresented, p articularly i gneous a nd m etamorphic v arieties. F rom a bout 1 890 u ntil t he t urn o f t he c entury q uite i mmense l ists o f c oastal b oulders w ere c ontinuously c ounted, d escribed a nd p ublished. T hree i mportant t hemes r ecurred i n t he f indings o f t hese c ommittees. T wo a re o f l imited r elevance t o t he q uernstone q uestion. T he f irst w as a g eneral a ppreciation t hat m any o f t he g reen m etamorphic b oulders o riginated i n t he L ake D istrict, w hich h as a d irect b earing o n t he p utative o rigins o f N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge s tone i mplements ( Alcock 1 958; B riggs 1 976; 1 977; E lgee a nd E lgee 1 933: 5 1; c ompare C ummins 1 977). T he s econd t heme w as a n o bsession f or p rovenancing m etamorphic a nd i gneous r ocks t o S candinavia. T his a spect i s s imilarly r elevant t o t he o rigins o f B ritish D ark A ge a nd m edieval h onestones ( Morey a nd D unham 1 953). T he t hird t heme, t he d ispersal o f P ennine e rratics, m ust b e e xplained f urther, a s i t b ears d irectly u pon t he p roblem o f q uernstone t ransport. B y a bout 1 900 a lmost 4 ,000 b oulders i n e xcess o f o ne f oot ( about 0 .3 m etre) i n d iameter h ad b een c ounted b y t he H ull G eologists. A round t hat t ime J W S tather a nalysed r elative b oulder l ithologies f rom f our c oastal l ocalities. F rom s outh t o n orth: D imlington ( OS T A 3 421) 3 34 b oulders; R edcliff ( OS 0 78834) 3 73 b oulders; U pgang ( OS N Z 8 80180) 2 00 b oulders a nd b etween S altburn ( OS N Z 7 629) a nd R edcar ( OS N Z 6 024) 1 33 b oulders.. S tather e stablished t hat C arboniferous r ocks w ere n umerically g reater t hroughout; h e r egarded ' the C arboniferous a rea w est a nd n orth o f t he T ees a s t heir p lace o f o rigin' ( Stather 1 901: 1 8). T hese r ocks d iminished f rom n orth t o s outh, f rom 7 3 p ercent a t S altburn, t hrough 7 0 p ercent a t U pgang, 5 9 p ercent a t R edcliff t o 5 5 p ercent a t D imlington. T he t ables m ake a n i mportant s tarting p oint f or o ur d iscussion. B earing i n m ind t hat C arboniferous e rratics, w hich w ould h ave c omprised l imestones, g ritstones a nd s andstones, w ere a mong t he m ost d urable r ocks, S tather's s tudy s hows n o s hortage o f m aterial f rom t he a reas o f o rigin o f t he q uerns' s tone. I ndeed, t hough p roviding g reater s tatistical d ata t han i s y et a vailable f rom t he q uern p opulations, a nd t hough n ot d escribing s pecific l ithologies, t hese d ata d o o ffer a r ough c oncordance b etween t he a mount o f w orkable C arboniferous s tone i n t he d rift a nd r elative p roportions a mongst t he a rtefacts.
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M ore s pecific i dentifications w ere m ade, h owever. I n C leveland, t he a rea t o w hich t he p resent s tudy i s m ost r elevant, ' sandstone b locks o f l ocal o rigin ( were) r are' a round W hitby, ' Carboniferous a nd M agnesian L imestones .. s mall f ragments o f Y oredale C herts, a nd S andstones a nd S hap g ranite w ere f ound i n m aking t he s aloon i n t he c liff f ace a t W hitby. B locks o f M agnesian a nd M ountain ( Carboniferous) l imestones a nd o f S hap g ranite o ccur t he f ormer a bundant' ( Barrow 1 888: 6 5-66). C arboniferous s andstones a nd g ritstones w ere t herefore t o b e o bserved w ithin t he p unctuated g lacial b oulder t rail w hich d ispersed P ennine r ocks t hroughout t he V ale o f Y ork a nd n ortheast Y orkshire. T hey w ere c ommonplace a long t he Y orkshire c oast w here t hey c an s till b e s een. B ut l ocal, N orth Y orkshire s andstones a nd l imestones, t hough l ess c ommon, w ere a lso t o b e f ound. T hese o bservations s how t hat l ocal, s uperficial d eposits c arried a w ide v ariety o f P alaeozoic a nd M esozoic g rit, s and a nd l imestones, p articular v arieties o f w hich, t hough d escribed a s ' rare', w ould c learly h ave s ufficed a s s uitable w orking m edia f or l ocal q uernstone p roduction b y l ess m obile, a griculturally-based, s ocieties t han o ur o wn. 2
M ILLSTONE G RIT A ND S ANDSTONE B OULDER D ISPERSALS O UTSIDE T HE N ORTH O F E NGLAND
O utside e ast Y orkshire a ccess t o u seful b oulder c ounts d iminishes t o w est a nd s outh w ith d istance t ravelled f rom t he b oulder w atchers' h eadquarters. A mong t hese r arer s ightings, o f 6 8 b oulders e xamined w ithin a t wo-mile r adius o f E aton, C ongleton, C heshire ( OS S J 8 765), 1 3.4 p ercent w ere q uartzites b elieved t o h ave ' derived f rom t he G anister b eds o f t he C arboniferous' ( Antrobus a nd H atch 1 890). I n t he n orth M idlands, H arrison r ecorded ' mountain l imestone, m illstone g rit a nd c arboniferous s andstones, o olite a nd M ount S orrel g ranite b oulders' i n 1 878. I t i s c lear t hat t hese w ere a ll o f c onsiderable s izes ( Harrison 1 878). M illstone G rit e rratics a re a lso k nown a round B urton u pon T rent ( Stevenson a nd M itchell 1 955, u npublished p etrographic s ection 2 3211, f rom C olton ( OS S K 0 520) i n B ritish G eological S urvey P etrographic R egister). W ell-compacted P alaeozoic s andstones a nd g rits a ppear a s b oulders a nd p ebbles i n B rodie's l ist o f e rratics f rom W arwickshire ( Brodie 1 867: 2 01-202) a nd P ennine r ocks h ave b een s hown t o o ccur i n s ome a bundance t o t he s outh o f t he T rent ( Wills 1 937, 1 948: 1 08, 1 14, f igure 2 8). I n 1 896, a c ommittee w as f ormed i n L incolnshire, a s i n Y orkshire u nder t he a uspices o f t he N aturalists' U nion. S oon L ake D istrict r ocks, S hap g ranite a nd n umerous P ennine r ocks w ere a lso b eing r ecognised a longside o ccasional S candinavian b oulders ( Tuckwell 1 896). S izeable b oulders o f M illstone G rit w ere d ispersed e ven f urther a field, s outh, a nd i nto t he a rea a round t he W ash. C lose t o C ongham C hurch ( OS T F 7 123) ' Mr W iltshire o bserved a n e xample 4 4 f eet b y 2 4 f eet' ( 1.5 m etres x 0 .8 m etre a pproximately - W hitaker a nd J ukes-Brown 1 899: 7 3). M illstone G rit b oulders w ere n ot u ncommon i n C ambridgeshire ( Rastall a nd R omanes 1 909).
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W riting o f t he C lay B ush H ill, A shwell, n orth H ertfordshire ( OS T L 2 829), i n 1 884, F ordham l isted n early t wo h undred b oulders a nd p ebbles, o f w hich m ost ( some 16 i n a ll) w ere o f s andstones o r g rits; t wo w ere c ertainly d erived f rom t he M illstone G rit ( Fordham 1 884; 3 73 8). T here w as a M illstone G rit b oulder s ome 3 f eet x 2 f eet x 1 f eet ( 1.0 m etre x 0 .6 m etre x 0 .3 m etre a pproximately) i n a g arden a t R oyston ( OS T L 5 441 - F ordham 1 880; 1 884: 4 1). A s imilar s uite o f r ocks e xisted a round H itchin ( OS T L 1 829), t he l arger m asses d ominated b y b oulders o f M esozoic, r ather t han o f P alaeozoic a ge. A l arge M illstone G rit b oulder w as a lso o bserved a t W estmill, n ear B untingford ( OS T L 6 329 - F ordham 1 884: 4 2), b ut t he m ost n otable e xample, a bout o ne m ile f rom A udley E nd S tation ( OS T L 5 138), w as 6 f eet h igh, 3 f eet 6 i nches w ide a t t op a nd 6 f eet a t b ottom, s ome t wo f eet t hick ( 2 m etres h igh, 1m etre w ide a t t op a nd 2 m etres a t b ottom, b y 0 .6 m etre t hick a pproximately). D etailed l ists a ccompanying F ordham 's s econd p aper ( 1884: 4 3-45) s how m any b oulders w ere o f s izes s uitable f or q uern m anufacture. T here w as n o s hortage o f w ell c ompacted P enninet ype s andstones e lsewhere i n E ssex ( Rowe 1 887). I t s eems l ikely t hat s ome, a t l east, o f t hese b oulders w ere o f P uddingstone, a m aterial n ot d issimilar t o M illstone G rit b ut e qually w ell-suited t o q uern m aking. A s imilar s ituation o btained i n t he s outhwest M idlands. ' Blocks o f s andstone, r esembling M illstone G rit, g enerally s ub-angular, a nd v arying i n s ize u p t o 3 f eet i n d iameter, ( were) b y n o m eans r arely s cattered o ver t he v ale o f M oreton, a nd i ncrease n umerically t owards t he n orth .. ( they h ad b een) o bserved .. a s f ar s outh a s t he v illage o f B owl' ( Hull 1 857: 9 6). T his m ay b e B ould ( OS S P 2 43210). P alaeozoic s andstones w ere b elieved t o a ccompany t he w ide v ariety o f i gneous a nd m etamorphic b oulders n oted a long t he S olent e ven s o f ar s outh a s S elsey ( OS S Z 8 593). T hese a re b elieved t o h ave d erived f rom t he C hannel I slands. S o e xtensive w as t his l ocal b oulder d eposit t hat i t w as a t o ne t ime q uarried f or b uilding s tone ( Reid 1 897: 9 -10). G eologists h ave n ot d eliberately s et o ut i n r ecent y ears t o c ollect a nd s lice b oulders f or d irect p etrographic c omparisons w ith q uerns o r w ith o ther p rehistoric a rtefacts. N evertheless, a s urvey o f n atural h istorical a nd g eological l iterature w ritten a t a t ime w hen g reater i nterest w as b eing t aken i n b oulders, m akes i t c lear t hat, c ontrary t o t he b elief e xpressed b y H ayes e t a l, n ot o nly d o t he s uperficial d eposits o f n ortheast Y orkshire c arry r aw m aterials d eriving f rom t he s ource a rea o f t he P ennine C arboniferous g rits a nd s andstones, b ut t he s ame o r s imilar m aterial i s s cattered f ar a nd w ide, w ell b eyond Y orkshire. T his m aterial w as s ufficiently l arge a nd d urable f or t he p roduction o f q uernstones. A lthough a f ull n ational r eview i s n ot a ppropriate h ere, l imited i nvestigation o f P ennine G rit d ispersal i n c onjunction w ith o bservations o f a f ew o ther f ar-travelled b oulders s uggests t he p ossibility t hat i n m any o ther p arts o f B ritain s andstones, g ritstones o r b oulder-like m etamorphic a nd i gneous r ocks ( compare T ownson 1 799: 2 27) a re o r w ere a ccessible i n p rimary o r i n s econdary d eposits. 3
Q UERN
' FACTORIES'
M ore
t han a h andful o f s ites h ave b een p ut f orward a s
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p otential
c omponents i n t he m anufacture a nd d istribution o f n orthern q uerns ( Challis a nd H arding 1 975: 2 3, H ayes e t a l: 3 04-306). C hallis c onsiders W harncliffe, H elwith B ridge n ear H orton-in-Ribblesdale, Y orkshire, D alton H all, W estmorland a nd H unsbury, N orthamptonshire a s l ikely c entres f or t he d istribution o f P ennine b eehive q uerns. H ayes e t a l s uggest S paunton M oor, B ransdale a nd G oathland f or m ore l ocal d istribution o f n ortheast Y orkshire v arieties. A t t his s tage a d istinction m ight u sefully b e d rawn b etween ' factories' o ccurring a t p rimary r ock o utcrops a nd t hose u tilising r ec ycled m aterial. T heir ' exporting' p otential s hould b e b orne i n m ind w hen c onsidering t he e vidence d escribed. A s e very s ite e xhibits i ndividual c haracteristics i t w ill b e u seful t o d escribe b riefly e ach i n t urn. 1 .
W harncliffe S car, W est R iding ( OS S K 2 9972998)
I f e vidence o f i ndustry w ere t o b e q uantified b y i ts w aste o r r ejected p roducts, W harncliffe i s t he o nly k nown t rue q uern f actory. T here i s n o e asily a ccessible a ccount o f t he s ite, w hich d eserves d etailed s urvey a nd p ublication. T he f ollowing a ccount d erives f rom B utcher ( 1951, 1 970). T he s ite l ies u pon a n e xposure o f M illstone G rit c overing s ome 2 00 a cres ( 40.5 h ectares) e xtending f or a bout a m ile ( about 1 .6 k ilometres) n orth-south a long a b and s ome 3 00 m etres w ide w hich c onsists o f s everal h undred l arger a nd s maller w orking f loors. T he p roducts c omprise a s ingle p attern o f ' beehive' t ype ( both n ether a nd u pper s tones) a nd t wo p atterns o f ' flat d isc' t ype ( distinguished b y t heir r espective m ethods o f m anufacture) i n a r ange o f d iameters f rom 1 5 i nches ( about 0 .38 m etre) t o 3 6 i nches ( about 0 .9 m etre). E xamples o n t he s ite e xhibit a ll t he s tages o f m anufacture a nd t he t otals a re r eckoned i n h undreds f or ' beehives' a nd t housands f or ' flat d iscs'. D espite t he u ncommon e xtent a nd d ensity o f t he w orkings, W harncliffe p attern q uerns f orm a n e xtremely l ow p roportion o f t he g eneral c orpus o f q uerns f rom a w ide n eighbourhood. T his i s d emonstrated i n e xtreme f orm i n a djacent R omano-British s ettlements, o ne o f w hich e xtends t o t he e nds o f t he c rags a bove t he w orkings, w here e xcavation h as p roduced o nly q uerns o f p atterns a nd m aterials a lien t o W harncliffe. M any d ifficulties a ttend e ssays a t d ating t he s ite. ' Beehives' i n t he n orthwest M idlands t o s outh P ennine a rea r ange f rom I ron A ge t o R oman w hilst ' flat d iscs o riginating a pparently i n R oman t imes w ere i n u se i nto h istoric t imes p erhaps a s l ate a s s eventeenth c entury i n t he P ennines. I nternal e vidence i n a t hirteenth c entury d ocument s uggests, h owever, t hat t he i ndustry w as b y t hen, d efunct a t W harncliffe' ( Butcher 1 970). 2 .
H elwith B ridge, N orth Y orkshire ( OS S E 8 16694)
I n t he P ennines, u pon t he G reat S car L imestone a t H elwith B ridge n ear S ettle, t he s urface o f f ields c lose t o a n e xcavated n ative ( presumed I ron A ge) f armstead p roduced ' at l east a d ozen M illstone G rit r otary q uernstones'. C hallis a nd H arding ( 1975: 2 3) s tate t hat t here w ere ' 17 p ieces o f b eehive q uern o f g lacial e rratics o f M illstone G rit ..'
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A ccording t o K ing ( 1970: 6 7-68) ' these p ieces h ad b een b roken d uring t he d rilling o f f eed-pipes, h andle-sockets, a nd h oppers, a n a ctivity w hich e vidently t ook p lace o n t he s ite'. T hese b roken p ieces w ere b elieved t o d erive f rom b oulders ' washed o ut o f t he b oulder c lay " tail" s outh o f P enyghent'. I ndeed, i t i s e ntirely p ossible t hey m ay h ave b een o f e ven m ore l ocal o rigin, a s t here h as b een m assive e rosion o f d rift a nd s oil f rom t he p avement s ince V iking t imes. T he d isappearance o f g ritstone b oulders i nto w alls d uring e arly a gricultural c learances a t t his a nd a t m any o ther s ites l ocated u pon a nd a way f rom t he l imestone p avement i s w ell d ocumented f rom s tudies o f b oth t he f ield w alls ( Raistrick 1 946: p assim), a nd o f f arm b uilding w alls, a s m ay b e a ppreciated f rom a p erusal o f o ccasional r eports a nd l etters ( many o f t hem f rom M r S tanley B ullman) i n t he B radford C ity A rchaeology G roup B ulletin ( Jackson 1 953-1967). 3 .
' The Q uamps', D alton H all, n ear B urton, W estmorland ( OS S D 5 374)
O n 6 th J uly 1 776 a n a nonymous c orrespondent o ffered a n a ccount o f t wo h ut g roups, a p ossible d itched b arrow o r c airn a nd a ssociated f ield c learance f eatures f ound t wo y ears p revious ( WC 1 776). T he m ain h ut g roup, w hich t he c orrespondent i llustrated b y a n a nnotated l ined rawing, w as l ocated i n a f ield c alled T he Q uamps. R emoval o f t he w alls s howed t he h ut f oundations t o h ave b een o f ' large l ime-stones, w ith w hich t hat p art o f t he c ountry a bounds, a nd g enerally a s b ig a s t wo o r t hree m en c ould m ove; b ut n o m ortar w as d iscovered, n or a ny m arks o f t he h ammer, e xcept i n s ome f reestone o nes a t t he c orners.' T hese w alls w ere a bout t hree y ards ( about 2 .7 m etres) w ide a nd ' ... t he i ntermediate s paces ( between t he t wo o uter f aces) w ere f illed w ith a ny k ind o f c obble e tc'. D estruction o f t his p utative n ative s ettlement s ite p roduced ' an o ld c opper p an', s ome s mall s tone m ortars ( possibly s addle q uerns), a nd ' fragments o f n ear t wenty p air o f h and m ill-stones'. T he a ccount i s a ccompanied b y a s imple, t hough c omprehensive s ketch o f a b un o r b eehive q uern, t he f unctions o f w hich a re c ompetently d escribed. ' The m illstones w ere o f a v ery c oarse f reestone, a nd f rom a q uarry a bout t hree m iles d istant; n ear t welve i nches i n d iameter, a nd p icked a nd h ollowed i n t he o rdinary m anner .. S ome h ad a h ole, i n t he s ide o f t he t op s tone .. o thers w ere w ithout, a nd o thers a gain w ere s eemingly u nfinished' ( WC 1 776). L acking d etail f rom t his f irst-hand d escription, t he e arlier s ummaries p rovided ( RCHM 1 936: x xxiv; C hallis a nd H arding 1 975: 2 3) a re i nadequate, a nd t he c onclusion d rawn b y t he l atter, p otentially m isleading. ' The Q uamps' s eems t o h ave b een a s imilar s ite t o t he o ne a t H elwith B ridge, t hat i s, a h ut g roup o f l ater p rehistoric o rigin, p robably i n t he m ain o f I ron A ge t o R omano-British o rigin i f t he q uernstones a re t o b e t aken a s h aving b een i n a ny w ay d iagnostic o f d ate. 4 .
H unsbury, N orthamptonshire ( OS S P 7 37584)
H unsbury h illfort, s ituated i mmediately s outh o f N orthampton t own, i s n ow a lmost d efunct t hrough i ronstone q uarrying ( Fell 1 937). N ineteenth c entury c ommercial i ronstone d iggings p roduced 4 8 u pper a nd 5 5 l ower s tones t o w hich P hilips ( 1950) g ave t he n ame H unsbury-type. S uch a q uantity o f M illstone G rit q uerns, o f s tone f rom n o c loser t han t he D erbyshire P eak D istrict, l ed t o t he s uggestion t hat t he s ite h ad
2 97
a cted a s a d epot f or s haping t he s tone, b efore r e-exporting o ther p arts o f m idland a nd e astern E ngland. 5 .
i t
t o
S paunton M oor, n ortheast Y orkshire ( OS S E 7 193)
' Many r ounded o r r oughout f lat c ircular s tones o f a bout 4 5 t o 5 0 c entimetres i n d iameter l ie u pon t his o utcrop o f C rinoid G rit, t he t wo s mallest b eing 4 3 c entimetres d iameter b y 8c entimetres t hickness a nd 4 5 c entimetres d iameter b y 2 0 c entimetres t hickness. T wo s addle q uerns a nd a r oughout b eehives t op h ave a lso b een r ecorded' ( Hayes e t a l: 3 04, s ee a lso H ayes 1 976: 4 -6). B eehive q uerns o f t his r ock t ype a re ' widely d istributed t o t he s outh, u p t o 1 5 k ilometres f rom t he f actory, a nd a f ourteenth c entury A D m illstone f rom n earby L astingham i s a lso' o f t his r ock. I t i s c oncluded t hat t he s ite w as w orked ' for m illstones f rom p rehistoric t imes u ntil t he m edieval p eriod a nd p ossibly u ntil t he n ineteenth c entury f or g rindstones. O n t he o ld t rackway t o L astingham i s t he f ord n amed G rindstone W ath ( Grynstoynwath i n 1 492)' ( Hayes e t a l: 3 05). ' Three u nfinished q uerns w ere a lso f ound a t t he E lizabethan g lass f urnace, i n t he v alley b elow t he f abricating s ite o n S paunton M oor n ear G rindstone W ath' ( Hayes 1 976: 3 -5). 6 .
B ransdale, n ortheast Y orkshire ( OS S E 6 199)
' On a n o utcrop o f C rinoid G rit a re s everal c ircular m illstones 1 00 c entimetres d iameter, 1 8 c entimetres t hick, a nd s maller s tones d own t o 4 0 c entimetres d iameter, 1 6 c entimetres t hick, w ith c entral h opper h ole 1 0 c entimetres d iameter, o bviously r oughout h and q uerns o f R oman t ype. B eehive a nd s addle q uerns h ave n ot b een r ecorded, a nd t he f actory m ay n ot b e a s e arly a s t hat a t S paunton' ( Hayes e t a l: 3 05). 7 .
G oathland, n ortheast Y orkshire ( OS N Z 8 401)
' Two s mall q uarries i n c hannel s andstone a re f ound i n t his a rea, a nd i n t he n earby d rystone w alls a re f ive w ell-sculptured b eehive t opstones w ithout h oppers o r h andle h oles, f our o f t hem h emispheres, o ne a b un s hape, a ll a bout 3 0 c entimetres d iameter a t t he b ase. T here a re a lso t wo s mall f lat r otary q uerns ( 4 0 x 1 2 c entimetres a nd 4 5 x 1 4 c entimetres) a nd a l arge f lat m illstone 9 2 x 1 2 c entimetres. A ll t he s tones a re o f c hannel s andstone. T he f actory a ppears t o h ave b een w orked f or m illstones f rom I ron A ge o r R oman t imes a nd t he m edieval p eriod. B eehive q uerns o f c hannel s andstone, b ase d iameter a bout 3 0 c entimetres, h emispherical o r b un s haped .. a re f ound i n t he E sk V alley, a nd i ts s urroundings. Q uerns f rom R oxby, W est B arnby, W hitby, A inthorpe, L ease R igg, B otton H all a nd L ounsdale a ll c omply w ith t his d escription a nd a re w ithin 2 0 k ilometres o f t he q uern f actory a t G cathland. I n t he C leveland a rea, t he q uerns f rom S ugdale, L angbaugh C lose a nd U psall a lso c orrespond t o t his s pecification ' ( Hayes e t a l: 3 05-306). 4
Q UARRY A ND F ACTORY S ITES: D ISCUSSION
I t i s d ifficult t o s ettle u pon p recisely w hat i s p erceived b y t he d efinition ' quarry'. T he p resence o f s uitable r aw m aterial i n q uantity, w hether o r n ot i n p rimary e xposure, i s a n i mportant c riterion. V oluminous w aste o f b roken q uerns a nd f ragmented r ock
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m ight a lso b e e xpected, p articularly a t p rimary e xposures. T his i s d ue t o t he a verage f racture p otential o f m any k inds o f q uarried o r m ined s tones, p articularly t he s edimentary v arieties. I t c ould r easonably b e a rgued t hat s o m any b roken q uernstones l itter t he c liff b ase a t W harncliffe p recisely b ecause o f i nherent w eaknesses i n t he r ock. B ut t here, t he c ontinued a vailability o f a s eemingly e ndless s upply o f s tone, o bviating, a s i t d id, t he t ime-consuming i nitial s tage o f s tone c ollection, i s l ikely t o h ave o ffset a ny i nconvenience i n t ime l ost t hrough p erpetual b reakage. O nly u nder e xceptional c ircumstances w ould c omplete o r n earc omplete w orking p rehistoric q uernstones b e l eft o n t heir s ites o f m anufacture; a fter a ll, t heir s haping w as v ery l abour i ntensive. C areful o n-site e xcavation o ught t o c larify m ore d etail o f b oth d ating a nd t echnique a t s uch p utative m anufacturing s ites. T he p rimary r ock e xposure ' quarry' s ites u nder c onsideration s eem t o d ivide i nto t wo c ategories o n c ontrasting s cales. O n t he o ne h and, W harncliffe a nd S paunton M oor a ppear t o h ave b een q uite m assive u ndertakings. B ut t he d ating e vidence i s a mbivalent a t b oth, n either h aving p roduced m any b roken b eehives. A t W harncliffe, B utcher e mphasised t he l ongevity o f d isc-quern t raditions a nd t wo n earby m edieval s ettlements w ere a pparently a bandoned b y 1 530 ( Butcher 1 951). S o t he q uarry c ould h ave b elonged t o t his p eriod. I t m ay e ven h ave b een w orked w ell a fter t he c urrency o f t he m edieval d ocumentation c ited b y B utcher. T aking i nto a ccount t ypological, h istorical a nd a rchaeological c onsiderations, W harncliffe s eems m ore l ikely o f m edieval t han o f I ron A ge o r R omano-British c urrency ( pace C hallis a nd H arding 1 975: 2 3; H ayes 1 974: 3 0; T ucker 1 985: 4 3). W harncliffe a part, q uerns i n t he m aking ( as d istinct f rom g rindstones) a re n ot n umerous a nywhere c lose t o o utcropping c ountry r ock. S ome m ass-produced d iscs s eem t o h ave b een i ntended a s g rindstones a t o ther s ites. T he i n s itu d isc-like p roducts o f t he S paunton M oor ' factory', m ight b etter b e s een a s d iscards f rom a l ater g rindstone i ndustry t han a s b lanks f rom a l arge-scale I ron A ge b eehives e nterprise. T he e nvirons o f t he n ative o r R omano-British s ettlements a t D alton i n W estmorland, D alton P arlours a nd H elwith B ridge, l ying a way f rom g ritstone e xposures, a ll p roduced t otal n umbers o f b eehives m uch g reater t han t he s um t otal a t G oathland, i tself a lso a p utative I ron A ge ' factory'. I ndeed, a t G oathland t he m ainly u ndatable b lanks f or r otaries a nd a l arge f lat m illstone ( the l atter c omparable i n s ize t o e xamples f rom t he P eak ( Tucker 1 985: 4 4) a nd e lsewhere ( Tucker 1 987: p assim), m ight a lso b e o f m edieval o r l ater d ate. A lthough t he r ecognition o f s uch a m ixed e nsemble o n o ne s ite s uggests c ontinuity o f i nterest i n t he m anufacture o f t he w herew ithal t o m ill, t he a bandonment o f o ne l arge m illstone n eed n o m ore s ignal t he s ite o f a r egular p ost-medieval q uarry t han n eed t he p resence o f a f ew b lank s tone h emispheres i ndicate a n o rganised I ron A ge b eehive q uern u ndertaking o f m ore t han l ocal i nterest ( compare H ayes e t a l: 3 11). S urely o ne w ould e xpect m ore b roken f ragments t han t his a t a ' factory' s ite? P lace-name e vidence s upports t he n otion o f m edieval o r l ater e xploitation f or g rindstones a t S paunton. N evertheless, t he p resence o f am edieval i ndustrial s ite m ust n ot o vershadow t he p resence t here
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o f p otentially e arlier m aterial. B ut a lthough t he o ne r oughout b eehives a nd t wo s addles d o s uggest i n s itu m anufacture, t hese w ould b e n o m ore t han m ight b e e xpected o n t he a verage s mall l ater p rehistoric s ettlement s ite, o r a t l east a s ite f or v ery l ocalised ' home p roduction' ( as a gain i s s uggested b y H ayes e t a l: 3 11). I ndeed, t hat a b un-shaped o r b eehive q uern a nd s addle s tone w ere e xcavated f rom t he q uarry p it o f a n earby R omano-British a isled h ouse ( Hayes 1 974: 2 7) s hows t hat t hese s tone a rtefacts c ould b e m ade a t w hatever s pot s tone c ould b e d ug f rom t he g round, i f i t w as n ot a lready l ying u pon t he g round, d etached b y w eathering a gents. O ne m ajor e nvironmental m isconception c ompels t he s earch f or p rimary r ock q uarries: a n i gnorance o f b oulder p opulations. I t w ill r emain p ossible t o c laim ' a c onsiderable t rade i n ( Pennine g ritstone) q uerns b etween t he q uarries a nd t he s toneless E ast R iding' ( Hayes 1 974: 3 0) o nly a s l ong a s a rchaeologists r emain u naware b oth o f t he n ineteenth c entury l iterature o n b oulders a nd o f p resent-day b oulder a nd f ieldstone r esources. C learly l ong-term s urveys o f r esources w ould h elp i ndicate w hether o r n ot t here h ad e xisted m ore l ocal, m ore a ccessible s tone i n l ater p rehistoric t imes. B oulder Q uerns I f w e a ccept t he p remises t hat b oulders o f u nknown i dentity b ut o f s uitable l ithology a re c ommonly a vailable, a nd t hat e xploitation o f p rimary r ock e xposures i s d ifficult t o p rove b efore m edieval t imes, t he n ext q uestion m ust b e: d oes t he a rchaeological r ecord s upport w idespread u tilisation o f b oulder q uerns? W here p references f or s tone s ources a re d etectable i n t he r ecord, t hese w ere p erceived b y K ing ( 1970) a t H elwith B ridge, a s b eing m arkedly i n f avour o f f ield a nd s urface b oulder u tilisation. T here, a s a t t he Q uamps a nd a t D alton P arlours ( see b elow), a lthough b oulders w ere b eing w orked u p i nto q uerns u pon, o r c lose t o, t he s ites, t here i s n o r eal w ay o f k nowing t hat t his w as w ith a n i ntention t o e xport t hem. T he i ndications a t H elwith a re o f d omestic q uerns b roken i n u se. F ieldstone w as p robably t he o nly q uarry. I nterestingly, b oulders f ound c lose t o c ountry r ock s ource a re m ore l ikely t o b e s tructurally l ess s table t han t hose r ecycled s ome d istance f rom i t, s ince w eaker s tone f ragments b y n atural s election i n g lacial o r f luvio-glacial t ransport ' . W e m ust n ext a sk: a re m any q uernstones f rom t he P ennines a djacent a reas b elieved t o h ave b een m ade f rom b oulders? D oes s hape s uggest t he b eehive q uern t o b e b oulder-like i n a ppearance?
a nd i ts
A c entury a go, M cKenny H ughes n oted t hat s addle q uerns a nd v ery m any b eehives h ad a b oulder-like a ppearance ( Hughes 1 891). B ut l ater w ork t ended n ot t o c omment u pon c ondition, s ize a nd s hape, a lthough m any u seful d ata h ave b een c ollected f rom f ieldworkers t o b e p ublished l ocally, f or e xample b y S idney J ackson i n t he B radford C ity A rchaeology G roup B ulletin b etween 1 953 a nd 1 967. C ertainly J ackson's d rawings o f b un a nd b eehive m illstones s how e ach t op o r n etherstone t o b e r ounded l ike h alf b oulders. A ntiquarian o bservations o f s ome Y orkshire b eehives h elp f urther t o i lluminate t he p oint.
3 00
F or e xample, i n d escribing t he t opstone o f a q uern f rom n ear t he D anes' G raves i n e ast Y orkshire, i R M ortimer n oted t hat i t h ad b een ' made f rom a n atural b oulder o f i gneous r ock' w hich h ad r equired v ery l ittle a rtificial s haping ( 1911: 9 7). D escribing t he b eehive q uerns o f W harfedale, W est Y orkshire, C owling p ertinently n oted ' some q uerns o f t his k ind a re s o c rude t hat t hey a ppear t o h ave b een b oulders w ith as lice t aken f rom o ne s ide t o m ake a g rinding s urface a nd t hen h andle a nd f eed h oles w ere d rilled t o m ake t hem u sable' ( 1946: 1 55). T his c onclusion s eems t o b e c onfirmed b y t he e xcavations a nd f ieldwork a t D alton P arlours, W est Y orkshire ( OS S E 3 96447), w hich p roduced u pwards o f t hree d ozen m ixed u pper a nd l ower s tones. T hese ' were s eemingly d erived f rom l arge s ub-angular a nd s ub-rounded g rits tone e rratics w hich s till o ccur i n n eighbouring f ields' ( see S umpter t his v olume, a nd p ersonal c ommunication). S umpter n otes t hat t heir n atural s hape w ould m inimise t he a mount o f d ressing r equired a nd e mphasises t he d eterminant e ffect o f b oulder f orm o n b eehive s hape. T he p resence o f l arge g ritstone p ilae o n t he s ite f urther u nderscores t he p otential o ne-time l ocal a vailability o f m uch l arger e rratics. H ere, s ome d istance f rom t he n earest M illstone G rit o utcrop o r p utative q uern q uarry, i s t o b e f ound a mple e vidence o f b oulders u sed i n s itu f or q uern m anufacture. S imilar i ndications a re f ound o utside Y orkshire. W riting o f ' Millstone R ocks' i n 1 799 ( though m ore w ith l arger m illstones t han q uerns i n m ind), D r R obert T ownson n oted t he n eed f or a morphous c ompacted l ithologies. I n s eeking m aterial e quivalent i n d urability t o t he F rench B ur s o f ashionable a n i mport i nto e ighteenth c entury B ritain, T ownson l ocated s ome r ock a lmost i ndistinguishable f rom i t o utcropping n ear C onway. H is s pecimens, h owever, ' were b ut s ome l oose f ragments' w hich h e h ad f ound o n t he h ill ( Townson 1 799: 2 1-27). E xploitation o f t he s ite f ollowed. H e w as e xpounding a c ontinuous t radition o f s cavenging i n t he h istoric p eriod a lso b orne o ut b y J A S owerby, w ho d escribed a nd i llustrated ' quartzose p uddingstone' f rom s outh E ssex a nd K ent, w here i t f ell f rom t he c liffs. W ell a way f rom i ts p rimary o ccurrence i n H ertfordshire p ieces w ere ' sometimes f ound v ery l arge .. f ragments o f t hem .. m ust h ave b een s everal f eet i n d iameter .. ( and) .. h ad f ormerly b een w orked i nto q uerns t o g rind c orn' ( Sowerby 1 804: 1 92). T his a ccount a nd t he m ore r ecent s urvey o f H ertfordshire p uddingstone q uerns b y R udge ( 1965) m ight s uggest t here t o h ave b een n o n eed f or q uarrying p uddingstone i n t he s outheastern l ocalities w here s uitable b oulders u sed t o b e r eady t o h and. I t m ight b e a rgued t hat p rehistoric q uernstone q uarries h ave b een l ost d ue t o l ater r eworking o f e xposures f or q uarrystone. B ut t his s eems u nlikely, s ince f ew, i f a ny, b roken q uerns a re m entioned i n t he e arly t opographical l iterature a s h aving b een f ound i n t he o verburden o f p ost-medieval q uarries. B ut f ieldfuls o f s tone f ragments a re m entioned o n o ccasion. S amuel C arrington's s ystematic e xcavation a t t he B orough F ields, W etton, S taffs ( OS S K 1 055) b rought t o l ight ' many s andstones, t hat ( had) e vidently b een a pplied t o a v ariety o f u ses, b roken q uerns o r h andmills o f d ifferent s izes a nd q ualities, a nd n umerous l arge b oulders .. i n t he ( modern) w alls' ( Bateman 1 861: 2 03). H ere, a s a t o ther s ettlement s ites, b roken q uerns o r q uern f ragments a re m entioned w hich s trongly h int a t l ocal p roduction, i f n ot l ocal u sage. A s t he n umber o f n ative o r R omano-British s ites
3 01
p roducing ' boulder q uerns' g rows, i t b egins t o l ook a s i f f ieldstone c ould h ave g enerally b een t he p referred c ontemporary m edium n ot o nly f or b eehives, b ut a lso f or o ther q uern s hapes. 5 .
T HE D ATING A ND R OLES O F Q UERN F ACTORIES
T he e vidence f or d ating q uerns w as t horoughly r eviewed b y H ayes ( 1974; H ayes e t a l). A n I ron A ge t o R oman c urrency i s g enerally f elt a cceptable f or b eehives, a lthough f ew e xamples h ave b een r ecovered f rom s tratified c ontexts i n e xcavation ( though s ee B arley e t a l 1 965; F ell 1 936; H ayes 1 974; K ing 1 970; P hilips 1 950; S umpter t his v olume f or e xamples). A n u nknown p roportion o f h andmill s tray f inds w ere i n u se a fter t he R oman p eriod, w ell b eyond t heir o utlawing u nder p ostC onquest f eudal p ractice. I n 1 857 f ire-shattered f ragments o f b oth h alves o f a b eehive w ere r ecognised a mong t he p yre-stones s urrounding a n A nglo-Saxon i nterment a t W inster, n ear B akewell, D erbyshire ( OS S K 2 460). T his h andmill, i t w as s uggested, h ad p robably b een o btained f rom n earby H arthill M oor ( OS S K 4 980), ' where n umerous f ragments o f s imilar q uerns ( had) b een f rom t ime t o t ime, t urned u p b y c ultivation' ( Bateman 1 857; 1 861: 9 8). I ts d ating r emains a n o pen q uestion, s ince t his h andmill m ay a s w ell h ave b elonged t o a n e arlier p eriod, a dventitiously o r d eliberately i ncorporated i nto a n A nglo-Saxon c ontext. O n t his p oint, b esides a l ack o f e xcavated e vidence f rom p ostR oman c ontexts, t he m ajor d ifficulty o f d ating r ests u pon o ur l imited c apacity t o i nterpret t he e ffectiveness o f m edieval m anorial l aw f orbidding q uern u se i n f avour o f c ommon, f eudal o r m onastic w ater o r w indmills. A ttention h as o ften b een d rawn ( for e xample i n H ayes 1 974: 2 8) t o t he A bbot's p aving o f S t A lbans A bbey c ourtyard w ith c onfisc ated q uernstones. T his i s u nlikely t o b e t he o nly c losed g roup o f m edieval, a s o pposed t o p rehistoric, h andmills, y et t here i s s till n o c omprehensive t ypology o f p ost-Roman h andmills. H ayes ( 1974) h as n evertheless p roduced a g ood b road o utline. B ut r egional s tudies o f t his k ind m ay f urnish l ocal t ype s uccessions i ncapable o f e xtrapolation i n t heir e ntireties t o t he n ational l evel. I t i s c lear ' handmills w ere b ought f or v arious p urposes a round t he m anor' ( Moorhouse 1 981: 7 02). I n f act h andmills d o a ppear i n h ousehold i nventories a s l ate a s t he e ighteenth c entury, w hen t hey w ere s till i n u se f or m ustard a nd c orn g rinding ( Steer 1 950: p assim ). H istory d oes n ot r elate w hence t hese w ere o btained. W ere s ome e arlier q uerns r ecycled, w ere f ield b oulders s culpted, o r w ere s tones s ystematically q uarried? A s n oted b y M oorhouse ( 1981: 7 03) ' ... p erhaps t he g reat d istance t o t he m ill a nd t he m iller's d ishonesty .. i nduced m any p eople t o t urn t o a n earer a nd p erhaps c haeaper m ill o r t o g rind t heir c orn a t h ome o n p ortable q uern-stones'. S o d espite t he e xistence o f m any p enalties a nd r estrictions f or c ontravention o f m anorial o r m onastic l aw, i n c ertain a reas h andmills i ndubitably c ontinued i n u se a longside w ater a nd w indpower. N umerous m edieval l iterary r eferences c ertainly t estify t o c ommon c ontinuity o f u se ( Hume 1 849). D uring l ater m anorial j urisdiction, i n s ome m anors w ith r emote, d ispersed f armsteads, p rovision w as m ade f or t enants t o g rind t heir c orn a t h ome. A nd i n p arts o f W estern B ritain a nd I reland a nd N orthern
3 02
S cotland, q uerns, u sually t hough n ot b y a ny m eans e xclusively o f t he ' pot' v ariety, w ere c urrent w ell i nto t he n ineteenth c entury ( Hume 1 849; W ilde 1 857: 1 08-109). T hey w ere u sed i n S hetland u ntil m uch l ater ( Mitchell 1 880) a nd w ere s till c urrent i n t he H ebrides u ntil t he F irst W orld W ar ( Curwen 1 938: 2 84). S ome b eehive o r d isc q uern c oncentrations m ay t herefore d ate f rom n o e arlier t han f eudal c ontexts. O ne s uch c oncentration f ormerly e xisted a t L ower R awtenstall F arm, R ossendale ( OS S D 8 122), o nce a l ocal m anorial h eadquarters w here c onfiscated s tones w ere b elieved t o h ave b een d umped ( Newell 1 925: 9 8). C ONCLUSIONS A h andful o f i mportant p oints e merge f rom t his d iscussion. F irst, c ontrary t o c ommon b elief , P ennine g rit a nd s andstone e rratics o ccur d ispersed w ell a way f rom p rimary e xposures. O ther i mportant m edia s uitable f or m aking s tone a rtifacts a lso o ccur i n s uperficial d eposits, b ut, i n c ommon w ith t he P ennine m aterial, t heir f requency o f o ccurrence i s n ot y et p roperly u nderstood. I n n ortheast Y orkshire t here i s a t l east a h int o f c oncordance b etween t he l ithologies o f t ransported b oulders a nd o f l ocal q uerns. R ecords o f t he s izes o f s ome f ar-travelled b oulders s how t hey w ould h ave b een s ufficiently l arge t o a ccount f or m ultiples o f q uerns h ad t hey b een b roken o r q uarried. T hose l arge s tones l ying o n t he s urface m ost e asily w orked m ust h ave f allen c asualty t o t he h ungry t echnologies o f b oth R oman m ilitary a nd m edieval e cclesiastical p opulations. I t s hould n ot b e f orgotten t hat l ate n ineteenth c entury B oulder W atchers w ere e arly c onservationists, d eeply c oncerned t hat a ll r emaining b oulders w ould d isappear t hrough a gricultural o r i ndustrial a dvance w ithout t race o r r ecord. L arge e rratics n ow r emaining i n d rift-covered a reas t herefore p robably c omprise b ut a t iny p ercentage o f t hose l eft b y t he i ce. E ven w ithout t he i nland b oulder r esources w hich h ave n ow d isappeared, i t w ould h ave b een s impler t o g o t o t he b oulder c lay s ea c liffs o f t he N orth a nd E ast R idings f or a c hoice o f P ennine G rits t han t o h ave t ravelled t o t he P ennines i n s earch o f p rimary o utcrops. hemselves t o c ollect T here i s a g rowing n eed f or a rchaeologists t r c lose t o e xcavated p ebbles a nd s ample t he b oulders o ccurring w ithin o o nly e xamine i tems s ites. A ll t oo o ften n owadays p etrologists s e ither i gnored i n b elieved t o b e a rtefacts, w hilst u nworked s tone i t he g round, o r j ettisoned b efore r eaching t he m icroscope. N o d oubt o ne r eason f or t his i s t he w ay i n w hich e xcavations a re f unded. S tray s tones n ot h aving a cquired t he s tanding o f p ollen g rains, f inancial e stimates f or t heir e xamination a re p robably n ot y et e ntertained b y t he p aymasters. T he m ost s triking p oint a bout t he ' quern q uarries' i n t he a rea u nder d iscussion, i s t hat t he l arger o nes, w hich i n p roduction t erms h ave c onceptually u nderlain t he i dea o f a t rade, a re b est a ttributable t o p ost-Roman, m edieval, o r l ater, c ontexts. M ere h andfuls o f p rehistoric q uernstones a t s everal s maller ' quarry' s ites s eem t o i ndicate l ocalised e xploitation b y I ron A ge o r R omano-British a griculturalists r ather t han ' commercial p roduction'. H owever, t he ' quarry' s ites c an o nly b e p roperly i nterpreted a fter s ystematic
3 03
e xcavation
h as
p roduced s tratified a rtefacts o n o r a round t he
s tone
w orking f loors. T he e xistence o f G erman q uernstone q uarries, t he s ource o f R oman t rade i n N iedermendig L ava q uerns, i s w ell-documented ( Peacock 1 980). R oman l ava q uernstones c ertainly f ound t heir w ay i nto Y orkshire, t hough t here i s a s y et n o g eneral s urvey. B ecause N iedermendig L ava, o f a h ighly c onsistent m ineral c omposition, i s e asily w orked, a nd g ives l ight, h ighly d urable p roducts, i t i s r elatively f ree f rom b reakage. I n t his r egard i t i s u nsurpassed b y a ny B ritish m illstone. C uriously, a t a round 1 .0 m etre i n d iameter, m any i mported R oman q uernstones a re h ardly s maller t han s ome o f t hose l ater e mployed i n f ully m echanised w ater o r w indmills. B ut t here w ere t hree m ajor d ifferences b etween t hem, l ava q uerns w ear m uch f aster t han d o t heir g ritstone c ounterparts, g ritstone m illstones m ay b e m ore t han t wice t he w eight a nd a re t herefore e xtremely d ifficult t o t ransport, a nd, b eing w ell-bedded a nd i rregularly j ointed, f resh-quarried g ritstone i s w orked w ith m uch g reater d ifficulty a nd c onsequent f requency o f b reakage a nd w aste. B ecause t he R oman q uernstone t rade i s n ow a c ommonplace, i t i s n atural t o a ssume p arallel d evelopment o f i ndigenous p re-Conquest n ative i ndustry. B ut e xamined c losely, t he s ites s o f ar a dvanced a re n ot c onvincing e xamples o f p rehistoric q uern q uarries. I n f act, t he e conomic c oncept o f q uern ' quarries' e ither a s s pecialised l ocal o r r egional i ndustrial e nterprises o f I ron A ge a nd R omano-British d ate, o r a s f oci f or s ystematic p rocurement o f h andmills b efore m edieval t imes, i s o ne b ased m ore u pon i nference t han u pon e xcavated e vidence o r r egard f or d istributional d ensities. S ome o f t he m ost n umerous c oncentrations o f b eehive q uerns a re a ssociated w ith n ative o r R omano-British s ettlements. T hese r epresent l ocal b oulder e xploitation a pparently b ased u pon l ong-term a gricultural n eed. O f c ourse, t he p ossibility m ust a lways r emain t hat t hese s ettlements m ay r epresent s pecialist ' manufacturers' a nd ' distributors' o f h andmills. T here c an b e n o d oubt t hat a ll v isible e xposures o f t he r ight t ypes o f r ock c ould h ave f urnished m illstone a t a ny e poch. B ut t he w isdom o f s culpting b eehive-shaped q uerns f rom a ngular, q uarried r ock, i s q uestionable o n a ccount o f t he l abour i nvolved a nd b ecause . f reshly-quarried s tone i s o ften w eaker t han w eathered b oulders. T hough o therwise f ar r emoved f rom n orthern I ron A ge c ultures, t he c oncentration o f f inds a t H unsbury h illfort m ight a lso b e t aken a s e vidence f or l ocalised q uern-making p ractices. S ituated s o f ar f rom t he o rigin o f t he P ennine G rits, i t h as b een t empting t o s ee t hese q uerns a s e xamples o f c ulture c ontact w ith C oritanian o r B rigantian c ulture z ones ( Fell 1 937). B ut e rratic M illstone G rit h as b een n oted t o o ccur t o t he w est ( Wills 1 948), s outh ( Hull 1 857), e ast ( Rastall a nd R omanes 1 909) a nd t o s outheast ( Rowe 1 887) o f t he f ort, s o i t i s m ore l ikely t he c onnection i s t hat H unsbury l ay w ithin t he s ame r egime o f P ennine e rratic d ispersal d uring t he I ce A ge a s d id t he m ore n ortherly s ites. T he c ommon m aterial a nd f orm o f m any H unsbury-type q uerns t herefore s eem t o b e d etermined b y c ommon g eological f actors.
3 04
T here
i s
n owadays a t endency t o t ransfer
p resent-day
e conomic
v alues a nd i mplant t hem i nto p rehistoric s ociety, t o e valuate p rimitive t echniques a nd e xplain s ite o r a rtefact d istributions. H ence w e u se c onfusing t erms l ike: m anufacture, w hich o riginally m eant t o m ake b y h and, b ut w hich n ow m eans t o m ass-produce; f actory, o riginally t he p lace o f d omestic m anufacturing, c urrently a b uilding i nto w hich d iverse r aw m aterials p ass, w here n umerous i ndividuals w ork, a nd f rom w hich c ontrolled, d emanded, o utputs e merge; a nd p roduct, f ormerly t he n et r esult o f a ny s ingle e ffort a t m anufacturing, n ow h aving t he c onnotation o f s upply a nd d emand o n a s cale g reater t han t he d omestic. T hese t erms h ave t aken o n q uite d ifferent m eanings i n p ostm edieval i ndustrial s ociety. T he i ntroduction o f m ass-production, t he p assing o f p easant p ractices l ike h arvest s cavenging, s tone p icking ( see R ees 1 819), a nd, m ore r ecently, ( in a s ocially a dvanced m ilieu), t he a bandonment b y t he i ntelligentsia o f a s cientific i nterest i n f ield b oulders; a ll h ave c ontributed t o s trengthening t he r ecreation o f p rehistoric m an i n a n i ndustrial i mage c lose t o o ur o wn. G iven o ur i gnorance o f m illstone c arriage e ven i n p ost-medieval B ritain, i t s eems p remature t o p ostulate l and c arriage o ver d istances o f u p t o 1 00 k ilometres o f w eighty i tems l ike P ennine s tone q uerns t o H unsbury a nd n ortheast Y orkshire d uring t he I ron A ge. A ttention m ust n ow b e f ocussed u pon t he l ithologies o f e rratic f ieldstones t hroughout Y orkshire t o h elp i llustrate a n eglected, t hough v ital a spect o f t he e arly e nvironment. S uch i nformation c ould e asily b e c ollected a longside t he o ngoing Y orkshire Q uern S urvey ( Spratt 1 987). W ith t his t o h and, t he e valuation o f s tone p rocurement p atterns i n p rehistoric a nd h istoric t imes w ould b e p laced o n a f irmer a nd m ore p ermanent f ooting.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he w riter g ratefully a cknowledges t he a ssistance o f M r B ernard N urse, a nd M rs E R N utt, l ibrarians r espectively t o t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries a nd t he G eological S ociety; o f S eamus C aulfied, t he l ate S idney J ackson, D r D on S pratt a nd M r A nthony S umpter f or u seful d iscussion. M r C olin S imms , D r B arbara P yrah a nd M r E TW R obinson e ncouraged t he e xamination o f e rratics. M r RK H arrison k indly a llowed a ccess t o t he P etrographic R egisters a t t he B ritish G eological S urvey. S ince a c hance m eeting e ight y ears a go, M ary C hitty h as o ffered c onstant e ncouragement t o t he w riter's a rchaeological i nterests a nd, m ore i mportantly, h as g iven g enerously o f h er f riendship. T his e ssay i s o ffered i n r ecognition o f t hat f riendship. T he w riter i s a lone r esponsible f or t he o pinions e xpressed i n i t.
N ote a dded i n p ress T he w riter h as h ad t he o pportunity o f e xamining m ore c losely t he B ritish A ssociation R eports s ince t he t ext a nd a ppendix f or t his a rticle w ere c ompiled. T he n umber o f M illstone G rit e rratic s ightings f or Y orkshire c ould n ow b e e xpanded c onsiderably. A dditions m ight
3 05
a lso b e u sefully m ade f rom t hat s ource t o o bservations f rom C heshire, D erbyshire, E ssex, F lintshire, H ertfordshire, L ancashire, L eicesters hire, L incolnshire, N orfolk, N orthamptonshire, N ottinghamshire, R utland, S taffordshire a nd W arwickshire ( see p articularly t he s ummary i n B ritish A ssociation R eport 1 903: 2 31-258). D etails f rom t his a nd s ome l ater s ources n ot c ited i n t he t ext a re i ncorporated i nto t he d istribution m ap ( Figure 1 6.1).
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C ivilisation?
i Gl a (v , ( 4
M oorhouse, S A 1 981 C orn-mills. I n M L F aull a nd S A M oorhouse ( eds) W est Y orkshire: a n A rchaeological S urvey t o A D 1 500 . W akefield: W est Y orkshire M etropolitan C ounty C ouncil: 7 02-723. M orey, JE a nd D unham, K C 1 953 A p etrographical s tudy o f m edieval h ones f rom Y orkshire. P roceedings o f t he Y orkshire G eological S ociety 2 9: 1 41-148. M ortimer, 9 5-99.
J R
1 911
N ewell, A 1 925 p rivately p rinted. P eacock, s ketch.
T he e volution o f t he m illstone.
T he N aturalist:
A H illside V iew o f I ndustrial H istory.
D P S 1 980T he R oman m illstone W orld A rchaeology 1 2: 4 3-53.
t rade:
a
T odmorden:
p etrological
P hilips, J T 1 950 A ppendix I II. A s urvey o f t he d istribution o f q uerns o f H unsbury o r a llied t ypes. I n KM K enyon E xcavations a t B reedon-on-the-Hill, 1 946. T ransactions o f t he L eicestershire A rchaeological S ociety 2 6: 7 5-82. R adley, J a nd S imms, C 1 970 a nd N ature . Y ork: E bor P ress. R aistrick,
A
1 946
Y orkshire F looding: S ome E ffects o n M an
T he P ennine W alls .
C lapham: D alesman.
R astall, R H a nd R omanes, J 1 909 O n t he b oulders o f t he C ambridge D rift: t heir d istribution a nd o rigin. Q uarterly J ournal o f t he G eological S ociety o f L ondon 6 5: 2 46-264.
3 08
R CHM 1 936 A n I nventory o f t he H istorical M onuments o f R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments ( England). M ajesty's S tationery O ffice. R eid, C 1 897 S urvey M emoir.
W estmorland . L ondon: H er
T he G eology o f t he C ountry a round B ognor. L ondon: H er M ajesty's S tationery O ffice.
G eological
R ees, A 1 819 T he n ew c yclopaedia: o r, a U niversal d ictionary o f a rts a nd s ciences .. b iography, g eography a nd h istory ( 1802-1820). L ondon: L ongman, H urst. R owe,
A W
1 887
S ome E ssex b oulders.
E ssex N aturalist 1 :
17-119.
R udge, E A 1 965 I nterim r eport o n t he d istribution o f t he P uddings tone q uern. T ransactions o f t he E ssex A rchaeological S ociety 1 ,4: 2 47-249. S ewell, E 1 876 N otes o n t he D rifts a nd b oulders o f t he u pper p art o f t he v alley o f t he W harfe, Y orkshire. R eport o f t he B ritish A ssociation f or t he A dvancement o f S cience 1 876: 9 5-96. S heppard, T r etrospect.
1 902 T he Y orkshire B oulder C ommittee a nd i ts T he N aturalist: 2 17-221.
S owerby, L ondon.
J
1 804
AM ineralogy o f t he R ocks o f
S owerby, L ondon.
J
1 807
AM ineralogy o f t he R ocks o f
S owerby, L ondon.
J
1 811
AM ineralogy o f t he R ocks
o f
w ork
- a
B ritain ,
V olume
1 .
B ritain ,
V olume
3 .
B ritain ,
V olume
4 .
S pratt, D A 1 987 T he Y orkshire Q uern S urvey 1 986. Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety P rehistory R esearch G roup B ulletin 2 4: 3 p ages. S tather, J W 1 901 T he s ources a nd d istribution o f t he f ar-travelled b oulders o f e ast Y orkshire. G eological M agazine 8 : 1 7-20. S tather,
J W 1 912
Y orkshire G lacial C ommittee.
T he N aturalist:
2 7-28.
S teer, F W 1 950 F arm a nd C ottage i nventories o f M id-Essex, 1 6351 749 . E ssex R ecord O ffice P ublication 8 . C helmsford: E ssex C ounty C ouncil. S tevenson, I P a nd M itchell, G H 1 955 G eology o f t he C ountry b etween B urton u pon T rent, R ugeley a nd U ttoxeter ( Sheet 1 40). S heet M emoir o f t he G eological S urvey ( new s eries). L ondon: H er M ajesty's S tationery O ffice. T ownson,
R
1 799
T racts a nd O bservations o n N atural H istory.
T ucker, D G 1 985 M illstone m aking i n D erbyshire; t he q uarries a nd t he t echnology. R eview 8 : 4 2-58.
3 09
L ondon.
t he P eak D istrict o f I ndustrial A rchaeology
T ucker, D G 1 987 A rchaeology R eview 9 .2:
M illstone 1 67-188.
m aking
T uckwell, W 1 896 T he L incolnshire C ommittee. T he N aturalist: 3 49-355.
i n
E ngland.
N aturalists'
I ndustrial
U nion
B oulder
W hitaker, W A a nd J ukes-Browne, A J 1 899 T he G eology o f t he B orders o f t he W ash . M emoir o f t he G eological S urvey. L ondon: H er M ajesty's S tationery O ffice. W C 1 776 A ccount o f s ome r emarkable f oundations o f w alls, d iscovered o n c learing a f ield c alled T he Q uamps, i n D alton H all D emesne, ( near B urton i n K endal) i n t he l atter e nd o f t he y ear 1 774. T he G entleman's M agazine 4 6.2: 3 10-311. W ilde, W R 1 857 I rish A cademy.
C atalogue o f t he R oyal I rish A cademy .
D ublin:
R oyal
W ills, R eport
L J 1 937 T he P leistocene h istory o f t he W est M idlands. o f t he B ritish A ssociation f or t he A dvancement o f S cience : P residential A ddress t o S ection C 1 937: 7 1 -9 4. W ills, L S 1 948 U niversity P ress.
T he
P alaeography
o f
t he
M idlands.
L iverpool
A PPENDIX T ABLE O F S IGHTINGS O F M ILLSTONE G RIT B OULDERS Y orkshire
B aldersby F arm, 0 .9 m etres) .. N aturalist 1 888: D oncaster F iley,
s outhwest o f T hirsk ( OS S E 5 378). 6 x 3 f eet ( 1.8 x a n umber. B ritish A ssociation R eport 1 887: 2 41; T he 2 0.
( OS S E 5 083)
.
a t m outh o f R avine
T he N aturalist 1 897: ( OS T A 180).
5 9-74;
1 903: 4 7-50.
T he N aturalist 1 892:
1 61.
' The G reystone' L eeds, H orsforth ( OS S E 2 037) a nd C alverley H all S E 2 036). T he N aturalist 1 888: 1 8.
( OS
H arrogate ( OS S E 3 055). 1 4 x 1 0 x 6 f eet ( about 4 .3 x 3 x 1 .8 m etres). T he N aturalist 1 897: 6 8. H oby,
n ear M alton ( OS S E 7 871). B ritish A ssociation R eport 1 875:
H utton M oor 1 887: 2 41.
( OS S E 7 667).
A g ood n umber.
I ngleby M ill D am ( OS N Z 4 400). L angham,
q uarry n ear.
B ritish A ssociation R eport
B ritish A ssociation R eport 1 888:
T he N aturalist 1 905:
3 10
8 7.
7 9-80.
1 04.
L indholme H all,
( ?)
S outh Y orkshire.
T he N aturalist 1 888:
3 47.
L ockington, n ear B everley ( OS S E 9 947). 1 2 f eet 7 i nches x 1 f oot 1 0 i nches x 1 f oot 9 i nches ( about 0 .8 x 0 .55 x 0 .53 m etre). L ike M ills tone G rit. T he N aturalist 1 892: 1 02. L outh b rickyard 1 896: 3 50.
o n r oad t o E lloughton
( OS S E 9 427).
T he
N aturalist
M uston ( OS T A 0 979). T hree b oulders; 3 f eet 3 i nches x 1 f oot 8 i nches x 1 f oot 1 i nch ( 0.97 x 0 .5 x 0 .33 m etre); 2 f eet 7 i nches x 1 f oot 8 i nches ( 0.78 x 0 .5 m etre); 3 f eet x 3 f eet 1 i nch ( 0.9 x 0 .92 m etre). T he N aturalist 1 888: 3 34. N orth S tainley, n ear R ipon ( OS S E 2 876). 3 f eet 3 i nches x 2 f eet 5 i nches x 1 f oot 7 i nches ( 0.97 x 0 .65 x 0 .47 m etre). C arboniferous G ritstone. T he N aturalist 1 888: 3 44. R ainton, 1 f oot 1 58).
n ear T hirsk ( OS S E 3 775). 2 f eet 6 i nches x 2 f eet 3 i nches x 1 0 i nches ( 0.78 x 0 .68 x 0 .55 m etre). T he N aturalist 1 892:
1 5 m iles w est o f a bove, ? n ear L angwith a nd K irklington ( OS S E 2 882), a t 1 50 f eet a bove O rdnance D atum. T he N aturalist 1 892: 1 58.
R obin H ood's B ay ( OS N Z 9 605). 3 x 2 f eet ( 0.9 x 0 .61 m etre); 1 f oot 9 i nches x 1 f oot 5 i nches x 9 i nches ( 0.53 x 0 .38 x 0 .23 m etre): s everal c hiefly M illstone G rit. T he N aturalist 1 889: 3 08; 1 897: 6 4. S outh F erriby ( OS S E 9 820). 8 x 1 0 x 6 i nches ( 0.2 x 0 .25 x m etre). T he N aturalist 1 896: 3 52.
0 .15
S peeton G ap ( OS T A 1 574). 3 f eet 5 i nches x 1 f oot 6 i nches x 1 0 i nches ( 1.03 x 0 .45 x 0 .25 m etre). C oarse g ritty s andstone. T he N aturalist 1 892: 1 61. S wine, n orthwest o f C hurch ( OS T A 1 335). 3 6 x 2 7 x 2 4 i nches 0 .68 x 0 .61 m etre). T he N aturalist 1 894: 3 02. T anfield, 1 889: 3 08.
n ear
( OS N S 1 855).
5 g ritstone b oulders.
T hirsk ( OS S E 4 282). M illstone G rit v ery d istrict. B ritish A ssociation R eport 1 903: 2 35. Y ork: D ringhouses ( OS G rounds ( OS S E 6 00621); i n t ext.
S E 5 89501); T he R etreat
3 11
( 0.91
x
T he
N aturalist
f requent
t hroughout
T he M ount ( OS S E 5 951); M useum ( OS S E 6 16507). D imensions g iven
1 7:
A N A MPHORA S HERD F ROM T HE B EADLAM R OMAN V ILLA, N ORTH Y ORKSHIRE V AL R IGBY
I n 1 969 a n e xcavation t o i nvestigate t he c ondition o f a r ecently i dentified R oman v illa, l ying b etween t he H elmsley t o K irbymoorside r oad a nd t he r iver R iccal, w as u ndertaken b y IM S tead. T he e vents l eading t o t he d iscovery b y A L P acitto a nd a s ummary o f t he r esults o f t he 1 969 s eason w ere p ublished i n a n i nterim r eport ( Stead 1 971: 1 78). A s eries o f o vergrown h eaps o f r ubble, i n am eadow p loughed i n 1 961 f or t he f irst t ime i n l iving m emory, p roved t o b e t he r emains o f t wo b uildings s urviving t o s ufficient h eight f or t he I nspectorate o f A ncient M onuments t o t ake t he s ite i nto G uardianship w ith t he a im o f i ts e ventual d isplay t o t he p ublic. T o t his e nd A L P acitto u ndertook a f urther f ive s easons' w ork. Iw as p resent d uring t he 1 969 s eason t o p rocess a nd r ecord t he f inds. I n 1 983 a l arge s election o f t he p ottery h ad b een l aid o ut i n t he D epartment o f A rchaeological S ciences o f B radford U niversity w here I w as a ble t o e xamine i t b riefly. M uch o f t he p ottery c learly b elonged t o t he l atest, s o-called ' Signal S tation' p hase o f l ate R oman o ccupation o f t he n orth. P roducts o f t he e ast Y orkshire p otteries p redominated, t he r ange o f f orms a nd f abrics b eing w ell r epresented b y t he p ublished g roup f rom C atterick, N orth Y orkshire ( Gillam 1 957a: f igures 1-14). A dditionally, t raded w ares f rom S wanpool, L incolnshire, t he N ene V alley p otteries, C ambridgeshire, a nd t he D orset B lack B urnished w are i ndustry w ere a lso p resent. O ccasional s herds o f C entral a nd E ast G aulish s amian o f l ate s econd a nd t hird c entury d ate i mplied e arlier p hases o f o ccupation. R ed s herds a re r are i n s uch a n a ssemblage, s o t hat i t i s p erhaps n ot s urprising t hat a l ight r ed a mphora h andle s tood o ut f rom t he s urrounding s herds. W hen e xamined m ore c losely, i t a ppeared t o b e p art o f t he s houlder a nd h andle o f a n I talian w ine a mphora o f D ressel t ype 1 w ith a t erminus a nte q uem o f 1 0 B C ( Dressel 1 899; P eacock 1 971: 1 62-166). A ccording t o t he t hen m ost r ecently p ublished r esearch, i t w as t he e arliest i dentifiable p ottery f rom t he s ite b y s ome t wo c enturies, a nd w as f rom t he m ost n ortherly f indspot b y s ome 1 50 m iles ( Peacock 1 971: f igure 3 6). M oreover, n o l ate A ugustan p ottery o f c ontinental o rigin w as k nown f rom t he r egion n orth o f t he H umber. M ore r ecent p ublications h ave i n n o w ay d iminished t he u nexpected n ature o f t he B eadlam f ind ( Galliou 1 984 : f igure 1 0). T he s herd c ame f rom t he W est B uilding, t he b ath b uilding, a nd w as m arked L A/CJ, a c ode w hich s howed t hat i t h ad b een f ound d uring t he 1 969 e xcavations. C hecking t hrough m y o riginal n otes I f ound i t r ecorded a s a n a mphora h andle, b ut u nclassified. T hree o ther a mphora s herds w ere a lso r ecorded a t t he t ime b ut a lso w ith n o i nformation o ther t han t he t ype o f s herd, f or e xample r im o r h andle. I n c ontrast, s amian, c olour-coated a nd c oarse w ares h ad b een c lassified w here p ossible. T YPOLOGY, T he
P ETROLOGY s herd
A ND
c omprises
C HRONOLOGY O F T HE S HERD a n
a rea o f t he s houlder
3 13
o f
a
c arinated
a mphora w ith a bout a f ifty m illimetre l ength o f a n o val s ectioned h andle a lso s urviving ( Figure 1 7.1). I n t he h and s pecimen t he s herd i s c learly p art o f a t ypical D ressel t ype 1 a mphora, p robably v ariant B , b ecause t he h andle s ection i s r ather f lattened. T he f abric h as a f airly f ine-grained, s andy t exture. T he h andle h as a g rey c ore w hile t he s urfaces a re l ight r ed a nd n oticeably s tippled w ith f ine b lack s and g rains. P etrological e xamination b y D r IC F reestone o f t he B ritish M useum R esearch L aboratory c onfirmed t he i nitial i dentification ( see A ppendix). I n p olished t hin s ection, t he b lack s and i nclusions c an b e s een t o b e f ragments o f g reen a ugite c rystals s o t hat t he f abric f alls w ithin t he p etrological d efinition o f P eacock's F abric 2 ( Peacock 1 971: 1 64; e laborated i n P eacock a nd W illiams 1 986: 8 7-88). P eacock h as e stablished t hat b oth A a nd B v ariants o f D ressel t ype 1 w ere m anufactured i n h is F abrics 1 a nd 2 a nd t hat t heir s ources o f o rigin w ere m ost l ikely t o l ie i n c entral a nd s outhern I taly, w here s ome k iln s ites h ave b een l ocated ( Peacock 1 977a; P eacock a nd W illiams 1 986). F urthermore, p ainted i nscriptions s urviving o n a f ew v essels t ie t hem t o t he C aecubian a nd F alernian d istricts o f C ampania w hich w ere p articularly n oted f or w ine p roduction i n t he l ater R epublican p eriod ( Patterson 1 982: 1 50-151; P eacock 1 971: 1 64). T hus, w hile c onfirming t he I talian o rigin o f t he B eadlam s herd, p etrological a nalysis c annot l ocate a m ore p recise s ource o f o rigin n or d istinguish b etween t ypological v ariants A a nd B . T he D ressel t ype 1 A s hape i s c onsidered t o h ave b een d eveloped s pecifically f or w ine b y c irca 1 30 B C b ut t o h ave b een r eplaced b y v ariant 1 B b y c irca 5 0 B C. T he l ater v ariant w as s uperseded i n i ts t urn b y n ew f orms o f w ine a mphora, p articularly D ressel t ypes 2 -4, a t t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury B C ( Peacock a nd W illiams 1 986: 8 6-90). F rom t his b road c hronological f ramework i t a ppears t hat t he B eadlam s herd a mphora w as m anufactured b etween 1 30 a nd 1 0 B C, m ost p robably a fter c irca 6 0 B C. T he p recise n ature a nd d ate o f t he d eposit i n w hich t he s herd w as f ound m ust a wait t he f inal e xcavation r eport. A ccording t o t he o riginal f inds r ecord, i t w as a ssociated w ith t he r im f rom a H untcliff j ar, G illam t ype 1 63 d ating t o t he p eriod a fter A D 3 30 ( Gillam 1 957b). T here i s t herefore a g ap o f a t l east 3 50 y ears b etween t he d ate o f m anufacture o f t he a mphora a nd t he d eposition o f t he o ne r ecovered s herd. H opefully, a t l east s ome o f t he r emaining s herds a re s ecurely s tratified i n c ontexts w hich p re-date t he c onstruction o f t he v illa. D ISCUSSION T he c ondition i n w hich t he a mphora a rrived a t B eadlam h as w ider anging i mplications f or a ny a ttempt t o a ssess i ts s ignificance. D ressel 1 a mphorae w ere c ontainers i n w hich w ine w as w idely d istributed, i ncluding a reas f ar b eyond t he M editerranean ( Galliou 1 984: f igure 1 0). I n s outhern B ritain, a n umber o f c omplete e xamples h ave b een r ecovered f rom c remation b urials d ated t o t he f irst c entury B C, n otably a t W elwyn ( two b urials), H ertford H eath, W elwyn G arden C ity a nd B aldock, H ertfordshire ( Smith 1 912; S tead 1 967: 5 2-59; H üssen 1 983; S tead a nd R igby 1 986: f igure 2 1.1). T he a ssumption i s t hat t he o riginal c ontents w ere c omplete e ither a t t he t ime o f b urial, o r a t l east j ust b efore t he b urial c eremonies. S ince t hey w ere f ound w ith a r ange o f c ostly i mported a rtefacts i t a ppears t hat t he p ersons b uried
3 14
1
33
F igure 1 7.1
F ragment o f s houlder a nd h andle o f D ressel t ype 1 a mphora f rom B eadlam .
3 15
h ad b een o f h igh s tatus a nd c onsiderable w ealth. S herds f rom D ressel 1 a mphorae h ave b een f ound o n a n umber o f s ites w hich c luster i n s outheastern a nd s outhern B ritain. T hey i nclude h illforts l ike D anebury, H ampshire a nd B igberry, K ent, o ppida l ike C amulodunum , E ssex, P rae W ood, H ertfordshire, S ilchester, H ampshire a nd B oxgroveC hichester-Fishbourne, S ussex, l arge s ettlements l ike B raughingP uckeridge, H ertfordshire a nd a lso w hat a ppear o n p resent e vidence t o b e s mall, r ural s ettlements l ike O wlesbury, H ampshire ( Fitzpatrick 1 985). J udging f rom t hese e xamples, t herefore, t he p resence o f a D ressel 1 a mphora a t B eadlam m ight i mply a n I ron A ge s ettlement o f s uch i mportance t hat i t o btained a s upply o f I talian w ine i n t he l ate f irst c entury B C b y t rade, e xchange o r g ift b etween h igh s tatus i ndividuals. B ut i t m ight e qually w ell s uggest a s mall s ettlement w hich w as o nly a ble t o d raw i n t he o ccasional i mported l uxury i tem v ia a l ong c hain o f n ative t ransactions. I t i s b y n o m eans c ertain t hat t he a mphora w as w hole a nd i ts c ontents i ntact w hen i t a rrived a nd i ts c ondition a t t he t ime o f a rrival i s c rucial t o a ny i nterpretation. O nce e mptied o f t heir i nitial c ontents a mphorae p rovided a v aluable a ddition t o t he r ange o f a vailable c eramic p roducts, b eing l arge a nd a daptable v essels, h arder f ired, m ore d urable a nd w ater r esistant t han m ost c ontemporary p ottery m ade o utside t he C lassical w orld. T hey c ould b e u sed c omplete a s c ontainers f or t he t ransport a nd s torage o f o ther c ommodities. W ith r im a nd h andles r emoved a nd b roken e dges s moothed-off , t hey m ade n arrow-necked c ontainers w hich c ould s till b e u sed f or t ransport o r s torage. F urther a lterations w ere p ossible, f or w ith t he n eck, h andles a nd s houlder r emoved a t .t he c arination t hey w ere c onverted i nto w ide-mouthed c ontainers. M oreover b roken s herds w ere u sed a s r ubbers o r ' sand-paper'; c learly t he B eadlam a mphora d id n ot a rrive i n t his s tate. E vidence o f s uch r euse e ven i n p restigious l ate I ron A ge o r e arly R oman b urials i s p rovided b y t he p resence o f t rimmed D ressel t ype 1 b odies i n c remations a t M ount B ures, E ssex ( Smith 1 852: 2 7) a nd D orton, B uckinghamshire - t he m irror b urial ( Farley 1 980). A ccording t o m y o wn r esearch t he i llustrated T erra N igra ( hereafter T N) p latter o f C amulodunum f orm 8 ( Hawkes a nd H ull 1 947: f igure 4 7) h as a d ate r ange o f A D 3 0-60, w hich g ives a t erminus p ost q uem f or t he M ount B ures b urial o f A D 3 0 i ndicating a s urvival p eriod o f b etween 4 0 a nd 1 00 y ears f or t hat t rimmed a mphora b ase ( Hawkes a nd H ull 1 947: 2 19; S mith 1 852: 3 5). T hus, a p restige o bject o f t he l ate I ron A ge, w ith t he r eputed e xchange r ate o f o ne s lave, c an b ecome m erely s econdhand p ackaging o f R oman d ate. S uch a t ransformation f undamentally a ffects t he u se o f t he B eadlam a mphora a s e vidence f or a p re-Roman s ettlement w ith a h igh s tatus p opulation. T he B eadlam a mphora i s n ot o nly i solated i n t erms o f t he p resently k nown d istribution o f D ressel t ype 1 a mphorae, i t i s a lso w ell b eyond t he a reas w here i mported f ine t able w ares o f l ate A ugustan d ate h ave b een i dentified ( Rigby a nd F reestone 1 986: f igure 2 ). G allo-Belgic w ares p rovide a p articularly i nteresting c omparison b ecause t heir d istribution p attern a ppears t o d emonstrate t he a dvance o f R oman o ccupation i n t he p eriod b etween t he c ampaigns o f C aesar a nd t hose o f A gricola o ver a c entury l ater.
3 16
3 17
M ost o f t he l ocations o f F igure 1 7.2 r epresent f inds o f T N p latters o f C amulodunum f orm 1 6, t he l atest a nd m ost w idely d istributed G allo-Belgic t ype, c losely a ssociated w ith t he c ampaigns o f C erialis a nd A gricola i n t he e arly F lavian p eriod ( Rigby 1 977: 3 84 2). A t H ayton, M alton, C atterick, C orbridge a nd C amelon t he T N i s f rom F lavian m ilitary c ontexts, w hile a t L incoln, B rough, Y ork, S outh S hields a nd C arlisle i t m ay i ndicate t he p osition o f a F lavian f ort. S ome T iberio-Claudian G allo-Belgic v essels, w hich c ould h ave b een i mported b efore t he R oman o ccupation, h ave b een i dentified a round t he H umber e stuary a nd t o t he n orth, o n n ative s ettlements a t D ragonby, H ayton, R udston a nd S tanwick, a nd t he m ilitary s ite o f O ld W interingham, a lthough m ost o f t he m aterial p ost-dates A D 4 3. T he f inds f rom H ayton, R udston a nd S tanwick a re u nusual, p rimarily b ecause o nly v essels i n T erra R ubra ( hereafter T R) a re r epresented, t here i s n o T N. M oreover, a t H ayton a nd R udston, t he f orms - a p edestalled b eaker o f C amulodunum f orm 7 4/9 a nd a g irth b eaker o f C amulodunum f orm 8 2 ( Hawkes a nd H ull 1 947: 5 4-55) a re a lso u nusual, a nd a re n ot t he m ost c ommon, h ence p redictable o nes. S ince b y t he C laudian p eriod T N w as v ery m uch m ore c ommon a nd w idely f ound t han T R, t hese p articular G allo-Belgic p roducts a re m ore l ikely t o b e p re-Conquest, T iberian i mports, a nd i f c onnections h ad b een e stablished b y t he T iberian p eriod, w hy n ot e arlier? H owever, a t p resent n o d efinite l ateA ugustan i mports h ave b een f ound n orth o f t he H umber. A lthough t he B eadlam f ind s till s tands i n s plendid i solation, I h ave r ecently r ecorded a D ressel t ype 2 -4 a t t he a pparently u npromising s ettlement a t W est H eslerton. I t i s a s mall s herd, n o m ore t han 3 0 m illimetres i n l ength, f rom a t ypical d ouble r od h andle, a nd i t w as f ound a mongst a s mall q uantity o f s mall, a braded a nd m iscellaneous s herds, o f m id- t o l ate-Roman d ate f rom u nstratified c ontexts ( D P owlesland 1 986). T his i s t he t ype o f w ine a mphora w hich o verlapped w ith a nd e ventually s uperseded D ressel t ype 1 i n t he l ate A ugustan p eriod, a nd c ontinued t o b e m ade i n I taly, S pain a nd F rance u p t o t he m id-second c entury A D ( Peacock a nd W illiams 1 986: 8 6-90). i n d ate t he W est H eslerton a mphora c ould b e e xactly c ontemporary w ith t he B eadlam a mphora, b ut i t c ould h ave b een m ade o ver a c entury l ater. T he a bsence o f a r ecognised c oinage f rom t he r egion n orth o f t he H umber m ay i mply a d ifferent t ribal o rganisation a nd c ulture f rom t hat a ppertaining t o t he s outh, b ut s uch d ifferences n eed n ot h ave p recluded a d emand f or t he a cquisition a nd e njoyment o f i mported R oman l uxuries i n t he A ugustan p eriod. T here i s n o i nsuperable g eographical r eason w hy s uch i tems c ould n ot h ave a rrived t hen, a lthough, b efore t he i dentification o f t he B eadlam a mphora, t here w as n o a rchaeological e vidence f or c ontacts, o ther t han a n o ccasional G aulish c oin. T he a bsence o f o ther e vidence f or s uch i mports m ay b e t emporary, t he r esult o f i nsufficient a rchaeological a ctivity w ith t oo f ew s ites e xcavated a nd a lso a f ailure t o i dentify a dequately e xisting f inds. T he n orth i s b y n o m eans t he o nly a rea w here f inds o f D ressel 1 a mphorae a nd l ate A ugustan i mported f ine w ares h ave b een m ade r ecently. F or e xample, u ntil t he e xcavations o f 1 976-1984 b y t he C anterbury A rchaeological T rust a nd r ecent w ork a t S pringhead b y t he S pringhead A rchaeological T rust, s uch f inds w ere s omewhat i nexplicably a bsent f rom K ent, b ut c ommon t o t he i mmediate n orth a nd w est. T his w ill b e d iscussed i n m ore d etail i n a f orthcoming v olume o f t he
3 18
C anterbury e xcavation r eports. I n t he n ext d ecade, i t w ill b e i nteresting t o s ee i f t he ' empty c orridor' i n t he e xisting d istribution o f D ressel 1 a mphorae i s n arrowed a nd i f t he d istribution a rea o f l ate A ugustan G aulish i mports i s e xtended b eyond t he H umber e stuary.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T hanks a re d ue t o S hirley J ohnson f or k indly a llowing m e t o e xamine t he s herd i n t he D epartment o f A rchaeological S ciences a t B radford U niversity. T he i llustrations a re b y J o B acon. A ccess t o u npublished G allo-Belgic i mports a nd i nformation w as k indly p rovided b y P B idwell, T yne a nd W ear M useums; M D arling, L incoln A rchaeological T rust; B K D avison, E nglish H eritage; M M acCarthy, C arlisle A rchaeological U nit; VM axfield, E xeter U niversity; J M ay, N ottingham U niversity. S taff a t t he Y orkshire M useum, M alton a nd H ull M useums b ore t he b runt o f m y v isits.
A PPENDIX R eport o n t he p etrography o f a n a mphora s herd f rom B eadlam IC F reestone, R esearch L aboratory, B ritish M useum. A b rown, m oderately b irefringent c lay m atrix, w ith c ommon s ilt g rade q uartz a nd f eldspar a nd a l ittle m ica, c ontains a bout t en p er c ent w ell-sorted m edium g rade, s ub-angular s and. T he s and i s c omposed p redominantly o f a ugite, w ith s ubsidiary s anidine f eldspar, q uartz a nd o paque o xides, w ith m inor c alcite, y ellow g arnet a nd p lagioclase, a nd o ccasional b iotite, v olcanic r ock f ragments a nd s phene. T his i s t he c lassic D ressel 1 ' black s and' f abric, w hich i s f ound i n t he b ricks a nd t iles o f t he P ompeii-Herculaneum a rea, a nd p robably o riginated t here ( Peacock 1 977b).
B IBLIOGRAPHY C order, P 1 930 T he D efences o f t he R oman F ort a t M alton . R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 2 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C order, F erriby,
P 1 938 Y orkshire.
B elgic a nd o ther e arly p ottery A ntiquaries J ournal 1 8: 2 62-277.
f ound
a t
N orth
D ressel, H 1 899 C orpus I nscriptionum L atinarum, V olume X V, p art 2 ,i: I nscriptiones U rbis R omae L atinae, I nstrumentum D omesticum . B erlin: R eimer: 4 91-701, t able 2 . F arley, M 1 983 A m irror b urial a t D orton, P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 4 9: 2 69-302.
B uckinghamshire.
F itzpatrick, A 1 985 T he d istribution o f D ressel 1 a mphorae n orth-west E urope. O xford J ournal o f A rchaeology 4 : 3 05-340.
3 19
i n
G alliou, P 1 984 D ays o f w ine a nd r oses? E arly A rmorica a nd t he A tlantic w ine t rade. I n SM acready a nd F H T hompson ( eds) C rossC hannel T rade b etween G aul a nd B ritain i n t he P re-Roman I ron A ge . L ondon: S ociety o f A ntiquaries O ccasional P apers ( new s eries) 4 : 2 43 6. G illam, J P C ataractonium, 2 52-265. G illam, B ritain.
1 957a T he c oarse p ottery. I n E J W H ildyard f ort a nd t own. Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal 3 9:
J P 1 957b T ypes o f R oman c oarse p ottery v essels i n n orthern A rchaeologia A eliana ( fourth s eries) 3 5: 1 80-251.
H awkes, C F C a nd H ull, M R 1 947 C amulodunum . A ntiquaries o f L ondon R esearch R eport 1 4. H üssen, C -M H ertfordshire . J ohnson, S 9 : 5 7-114.
O xford:
S ociety o f
1 983 A r ich L ate L a T bne b urial a t H ertford L ondon: B ritish M useum O ccasional P aper 4 4.
1 978
E xcavations a t H ayton R oman f ort,
1 975.
H eath,
B ritannia
P aterson, J 1 982 S alvation f rom t he s ea: a mphorae a nd t rade i n t he R oman w est. J ournal o f R oman S tudies 7 2: 1 46-157. P eacock, D P S 1 971 R oman a mphorae i n P re-Roman B ritain. I n D H ill a nd M J esson ( eds) T he I ron A ge a nd i ts H illforts . S outhampton U niversity A rchaeological S ociety: 1 61-188. P eacock, D P S 1 977a A ntiquaries J ournal 5 7:
R ecent d iscoveries o f a mphora k ilns i n I taly. 2 62-269.
P eacock, D P S 1 977b P ompeian r ed w are. I n D P S P eacock ( ed) P ottery a nd E arly C ommerce: c haracterization a nd t rade i n R oman a nd l ater c eramics . L ondon: A cademic P ress: 1 47-161. P eacock, D P S a nd W illiams, D F 1 986 L ondon: L ongman.
A mphorae a nd t he R oman E conomy .
P owlesland, D 1 986 E xcavations a t H eslerton, 1 982. A rchaeological J ournal 1 43: 5 3-173. R igby, a nd K O xford:
N orth Y orkshire 1 978-
V 1 977 T he G allo-Belgic p ottery f rom C irencester. I n JD ore G reene ( eds) R oman P ottery S tudies i n B ritain a nd B eyond . B ritish A rchaeological R eports S upplementary S eries 3 0: 3 7-45.
R igby, V a nd F reestone, I C 1 986 T he p etrology a nd t ypology o f t he e arliest i dentified C entral G aulish i mports. J ournal o f P ottery S tudies 1 : 6 -21. S mith, C C olchester.
R 1 852 R oman r emains f ound a t M ount B ures, n ear C ollectanea A ntigua 2 . L ondon: p rivately p rinted: 2 5-36.
S mith, R A 1 912 O n l ate C eltic a ntiquities d iscovered a t H ertfordshire. A rchaeologia 6 8: 1 -30.
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W elwyn,
S tead, I M 1 967 A A rchaeologia 1 01: 1 -62. S tead,
IM
1 971
L a
Ik le
b urial
B eadlam R oman v illa:
A rchaeological J ournal 4 3:
a t
W elwyn
G arden
a n i nterim r eport.
C ity.
Y orkshire
1 78-186.
S tead, I M 1 976 E xcavations a t W interton R oman V illa a nd o ther R oman s ites i n N orth L incolnshire . D epartment o f t he E nvironment A rchaeological R eport 9 . L ondon: H er M ajesty's S tationery O ffice. S tead, I M 1 980 A rchaeological S ociety.
R udston
R oman
V illa .
L eeds:
Y orkshire
S tead, I M a nd R igby, V 1 986 B aldock: t he e xcavation o f a R oman a nd P re-Roman s ettlement, 1 968-72 . B ritannia M onograph 7 . L ondon: S ociety f or P romotion o f R oman S tudies. W heeler, R Y orkshire . 1 7.
E M 1 954 T he S tanwick F ortifications, N orth R iding o f O xford: S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon R esearch R eport
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1 8:
A LL Y ORKSHIRE I S D IVIDED I NTO T HREE P ARTS, S OCIAL A SPECTS O F L ATER R OMAN P OTTERY D ISTRIBUTION I N Y ORKSHIRE J EREMY E VANS
T he f ocus o f t his p aper i s m ainly u pon e ast Y orkshire, a s i s f itting i n o ne p resented i n t ribute t o M ary C hitty, w ho f irst m arshalled s o m uch o f t he e vidence f or t he p eriod i n h er G azetteer ( Clark 1 935). I t i s n ot i ntended h ere t o r un t hrough t he d etailed e vidence o f t he c hronology o r t ypology o f l ater R oman p ottery i n Y orkshire, o r e ven e ast Y orkshire, b ut t o l ook a t t he d istribution o f c ertain m ajor t ypes a nd f abrics, n ot p rimarily f or t he e vidence o f t he t rading e conomy t hat t hey m ight p rovide, b ut r ather a t a nomalies i n t he d istribution o f f abrics a nd t ypes. T his a pproach m ay r eflect t he c ontinued w orking o f v arious s ocial c onstraints o n ' free t rade ', a nd i n l arge p art, r elate t o a pparent s ocial, o r a t l east m aterial d ivisions i n t he I ron A ge. L ATER I RON A GE B ACKGROUND I n t he l ater I ron A ge c lear d ivisions c an b e m ade w ithin Y orkshire o n t he b asis o f v arious a rtefact d istributions. T he d istinctiveness o f e ast Y orkshire b urial r ite i s w ell k nown, w hether i t r epresents t he i ntrusion o f a f oreign e lement ( Stead 1 979), o r i s t he r esult o f i nternal d evelopment, p artly s timulated t hrough t rading c ontacts w ith a reas o f F rance a nd c entral E urope ( Lang 1 986). I t p ermits, t hrough t he d istribution o f A rras s tyle b urials, t he f airly c lose d efinition o f a n a rea e ast o f t he D erwent a nd n orth o f t he H umber, t ogether w ith t he H owardian H ills, n orth t o t he e dges o f t he N orth Y orkshire M oors, w hich i s c ommonly i dentified w ith t he t ribal t erritory o f t he P arisi. T hat t his i s t he c ase c annot b e c ertain, t hough i t s eems v ery p robable t hat i t r epresents t he t erritory o f a s ingle g roup i n t he t hird q uarter o f t he f irst m illennium B C. T his d ivision a pparently f ades i n t he l ate s econd c entury B C w hen t he d istinctive b urial r ite d eclines ( Lang 1 986). T he b oundary b etween e ast Y orkshire a nd n orth L incolnshire, t o t he s outh, i n t he l ate I ron A ge i s d efined b y t he d istribution o f C oritanian c oinage, ' Belgic' s tyle p ottery a nd c ertain d istinctive m etalwork t ypes, s uch a s F owler's t ype C p enannular b rooch ( Fowler 1 960; C hallis a nd H arding 1 975: 8 9). T he a bove t ypes a lso s erve t o d ivide t he n orth L incolnshire-south Y orkshire ' Coritanian ' t erritory f rom a pparently ' Brigantian' t erritory i n t he V ale o f Y ork a nd t he P ennines. W hilst B rigantian t erritory i n t he P ennines a nd t he n orthwest s eems t o h ave b een v irtually a ceramic e ven i n t he R omano-British p eriod i t i s n ow c lear t hat t here w as q uite a r easonably d eveloped c eramic t radition b y t he l ate I ron A ge i n t he V ale o f Y ork a nd p arts o f l owland D urham, n ot m erely o n t he o ppidum a t S tanwick ( Haselgrove a nd T urnbull 1 984) b ut a lso o n r ural s ites s uch a s R oxby ( Inman e t a l 1 985), T horpe T hewles ( Heslop 1 987; S wain a nd H eslop 1 983-4), L ingcroft F arm ( Jones p ersonal c ommunication; t his v olume) a nd D alton P arlours ( Wardle p ersonal c ommunication; S umpter t his v olume). T he m aterial f rom S tanwick ( Haselgrove a nd T urnbull 1 984) a nd R oxby ( Inman
3 23
e t a l 1 985), h owever, s uggests t hat t he c eramic t radition w as n ot o ne u nique t o t he a rea, b ut o ne s hared w ith e ast Y orkshire; f or e xample, c ompare R udston ( Rigby 1 980: f igure 3 7.118, 1 23) w ith R oxby ( Inman e t a l 1 985: f igures 4 .4, 5 .14). T HIRD C ENTURY P OTTERY I N Y ORKSHIRE T urning t o t he s ituation i n t he t hird c entury, w ithin e ast Y orkshire t here w ere t hree m ajor p ottery i ndustries: a t N orton ( Hayes a nd W hitley 1 950), K napton ( Corder a nd K irk 1 932), a nd H olme onS palding M oor ( Corder 1 930; H alkon 1 983; H icks a nd W ilson 1 975; M illett a nd H alkon 1 984), w hilst i n s outh Y orkshire t here w as a m ajor s eries o f i ndustries ( Buckland e t a l 1 980), t ogether w ith t he D ales w are c entre i n n orth L incolnshire ( Loughlin 1 977) a nd o ther m ore m inor c entres. H owever, i n t he V ale o f Y ork n o i ndustries a re k nown a fter t he d emise o f t he L egionary/Eburacum w are k ilns i n Y ork. T his l ack o f a ny k nown l ocal i ndustries, l et a lone m ajor s uppliers, i s i nteresting, e specially s ince t he o nly k nown e arlier k ilns w ould a ppear t o h ave h ad c lear m ilitary a ssociations, s uggesting a c onsiderable l ack o f c ontinuity i n l ocal c eramic t raditions. T he m ajor e ast Y orkshire i ndustries i n t he t hird c entury, K napton, N orton a nd H olme on-Spalding M oor, h ad, r espectively, r oots i n t he l ocal I ron A ge t radition, n o v ery c lear c onnections, a nd s ome v ery d efinite l inks w ith t he n orth L incolnshire t radition ( Swan 1 984; E vans 1 985). I n o rder t o e xamine t he d istribution o f e ast Y orkshire f abrics a gainst t heir a pparent e conomic b ackground, F igure 1 8.1 i llustrates t he t hree u rban c entres i n t he r egion: M alton, S hiptonthorpe ( Millett a nd H alkon 1 986) a nd B rough-on-Humber a nd t he p redicted m arket a reas o f t hese u sing O 'Reilly 's r etail g ravitation m odel ( Hodder a nd O rton 1 976). T he t hree d ashed l ines d efining a m arket a rea a round B ridlington a re b ased o n t he a ssumption o f a p ort i n t his a rea, n ow l ost t o t he N orth S ea ( Ramm 1 978), a nd r epresent t he p redicted m arket a reas o f t his i f i ts s ize w ere 5 0 p ercent o f t he m ean, t he m ean, o r 5 0 p ercent g reater t han t he m ean s ize o f t he o ther t owns. R egrettably n o f ully q uantified p ottery r eports h ave b een p ublished f rom e ast Y orkshire, a part f rom t he S ignal S tations ( Hull 1 932), s o t hat t he f ollowing d iscussion i s b ased o n a l imited d ata s et c reated f rom p ersonal e xamination ( Evans 1 985) a nd i mpressions t aken f rom t he p ublished r eports. T he d istribution o f N orton f abrics T he s upply o f N orton t ypes a t M alton w ould a ppear t o b e f airly h igh i n t he t hird c entury t o j udge b y t he r eports f rom t he f ort a nd v icus ( Corder 1 950; M itchelson 1 964), t hough i t i s d ifficult t o i nfer m uch f rom t hem a bout t he s ituation i n t he e arly f ourth c entury. S upply o f N orton p roducts w ould s eem t o h ave c eased e ntirely b y t he m id-fourth c entury, s ince t he f abric w as c ompletely a bsent f rom t wo o f t he f our g roups o f m aterial o f t his d ate e xamined f rom W enham 's e xcavations. F urther e ast a t E lmswell ( Corder 1 940) s everal N orton t ypes a ppear t o h ave b een p resent, i ncluding a f ragment o f a ' Smith p ot' ( Corder 1 940: f igure 1 2.3), w hilst n earby a t C rossgates N orton m aterial w ould s eem t o c omprise a pproximately
3 24
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l i ; . e L . 0 2
3 25
9 p ercent o f t he d efinable e arlier f ourth c entury t ypes, t hough t his f igure i s n ot t oo r eliable a s i t i s b ased o n s tripping o ut t he e arlier a nd l ater t ypes w hich C order q uantified t ogether w ith t hese. A t R udston, R igby ( 1980) a ssigns t hirteen v essels t o a N orton o rigin f rom t hird a nd e arlier f ourth c entury g roups, t hough w ith a n e mphasis o n t hird c entury s upply, w hilst f urther s outh a t G arton S lack s ites 8 a nd 1 0, N orton v essels w ere p robably p resent ( Brewster 1 981). O n t he s outhern l imit o f t he r egion a t B rough t he s upply o f p ossible N orton f abric s eems t o h ave r un a t a pproximately 6 p ercent i n t he e arly t o m id- a nd l ater t hird c entury, b ut i t w as a bsent f rom t he e arly t o m id-fourth c entury o nes. O verall t he d istribution o f N orton t ype m aterial s eems t o h ave b een f airly w idespread t hroughout t he e ast Y orkshire r egion i n t he t hird c entury, t hough w ith s ome e mphasis o n t he n orthern h alf, b ut s eems t o h ave b een o n t he r etreat i n t he e arly f ourth c entury. O utside e ast Y orkshire, a t C astleford, n o N orton t ype w ares w ere o bserved i n t he l ate t hird c entury g roup e xamined, b ut i n t he e arlier f ourth c entury d itch g roup t hey a mounted t o b etween 4 p ercent a nd 1 5 p ercent o f t he a ssemblage. R egrettably n o t hird c entury o r e arly f ourth c entury g roups w ere e xamined f rom Y ork, b ut f rom t he l ater s econd-third c entury g roup f rom T rentholme D rive o nly o ne v essel w hich m ight r easonably b e o f N orton o rigin i s p ublished ( Gillam 1 968: f igure 3 3.6). T his c ontrasts w ith t he s ituation a t R udston, w here N orton s upply w ould s eem t o h ave b een m uch g reater, a t a s imilar d istance f rom t he k iln s ite, a nd m ore s o w ith B rough w hich i s f urther f rom t he k iln s ite t han Y ork. F urther n orth t here i s a s catter o f p ossible N orton s herds f rom P iercebridge, B inchester, G reta B ridge a nd V indolanda a nd t wo N orton ' Smith p ots' f rom C hester-le-Street ( Young 1 934; E vans f orthcoming; f rom u nstratified a nd l ater t hird c entury t o e arly f ourth c entury c ontexts r espectively), a nd a p robable N orton ' Smith p ot' f ragment f rom G reta B ridge ( Austen 1 976: n umber 7 1; m idt hird c entury c ontext). O ther p ossible N orton v essels, f or e xample c arinated j ars t ypes 2 0a a nd b , h ave b een r ecorded a t P iercebridge ( Dodds 1 968: f igure 1 4.1), C arrawburgh ( Richmond a nd G illam 1 951: f igure 1.45; e arly f ourth c entury), E bchester ( Reed e t a l 1 964: f igure 5 .11; l ate t hird c entury), S outh S hields ( Dore a nd G illam 1 979: f igure 4 1.203), L anchester ( Steer 1 939: 17.20) a nd G reta B ridge ( personal i nspection). C onclusions T he g eneral i mpression f rom t his m aterial o utside e ast Y orkshire i s t hat i t a rrived l ate i n t he c entre 's l ife, p robably i n t he l ate t hird a nd e arly f ourth c entury, w hen N orton w as b eginning t o l ose i ts m arkets w ithin i ts h eartland i n t he f ace o f c ompetition f rom t he H olme on-Spalding M oor a nd t o a l esser e xtent t he C rambeck i ndustries. O n t he w hole t here d oes n ot s eem t o b e m uch p robable N orton m aterial o utside e ast Y orkshire, t hough i t w as w idely d istributed w ithin t he r egion, a nd s eems s urprisingly l acking f rom Y ork i n v iew o f i ts p resence a t R udston a nd B rough. T he d istribution o f K napton w are T he
K napton
i ndustry s eems t o h ave s tarted e arly i n
3 26
t he
t hird
c entury p roducing a j ar f orm w hich o riginated i n t he I ron A ge, t ogether w ith s ome l ids a nd s imple, s traight w alled d ishes. A t M alton i t i s c lear f rom t he t hird c entury ' carbonised w heat l ayer' ( Corder 1 930: f igure 6 .9,16,18,27) t hat K napton t ype j ars a nd t o a l esser e xtent d ishes w ere i mportant i n t he t hird c entury s upply o f t he f ort, t hough a bsent f rom s ome o f t he e arlier f ourth c entury g roups ( Corder 1 930: f igure 5 ). S imilarly f rom t he M alton v icus i t w ould s eem t hat K napton t ype j ars a nd d ishes w ere a m ajor p art o f p ottery s upply i n t he t hird c entury ( Mitchelson 1 964: f igure 1 3.146-148,153, f igure 1 4.167), w hilst i n t he e arly f ourth c entury t he j ar t ype ( figure 1 5.178) w ould a ppear t o h ave s urvived a longside t he n ewer t ypes o f c alcite-gritted w ares. I n t he a pparently m id-fourth c entury g roup e xamined t he K napton t ype j ar w as s till p resent, t hough s ome c ould h ave b een r esidual, b ut t he t ype w as o utnumbered b y t he n ewer K napton S -bend a nd ' proto-Huntcliff ' t ypes. A t L angton an umber o f K napton t ype j ars w ere i llustrated f rom t he t hird c entury g roup ( Corder a nd K irk 1 932: f igure 1 2.4, 5 ,11) a nd t hey w ould a ppear t o h ave b een a n i mportant e lement i n s upply t o t he s ite i n t his p eriod. T hey a re a bsent f rom t he e arlier f ourth c entury g roup ( Corder a nd K irk 1 932: f igure 4 ) b eing r eplaced b y t he S -bend a nd ' proto-Huntcliff ' K napton t ypes. T o t he e ast a t R udston, K napton t ype j ars a nd c alcite-gritted d ishes a re f ound i n t hird c entury d eposits a nd K napton t ype j ars s till f ormed a t l east 4 .7 p ercent o f t he e arly f ourth c entury g roup ( layer 2 78) f rom t he w ell d eposit ( Rigby 1 980). T he t ype a lso o ccurs a t E lmswell ( Corder 1 940: f igures 9 -10) a nd a t C rossgates ( Corder 1 958), a nd i t w ould s eem t o b e c ommon a t G arton S lack s ites 8 a nd 1 0 ( Brewster 1 981), s uggesting t hat t he t ype p enetrated w ell i nto t he s outh o f t he r egion. I t i s, h owever, a bsent f rom t he B rough g roups e xamined, p robably o wing t o c ompetition f rom l ocal g ritted w ares a nd D ales w are. T he d istribution o f t he p ublished K napton t ype j ars o utside e ast Y orkshire i s i nteresting, a nd i n c ontrast w ith t heir u biquity w ithin t he a rea e xcept a t B rough. T hey a re c ompletely a bsent f rom Y ork, n one i s t o b e f ound i n t he l arge c ollection o f l ater s econd a nd t hird c entury m aterial f rom T rentholme D rive ( Gillam 1 968), n or a re a ny i dentifiable f rom S keldergate a nd B ishophill ( Perrin 1 981) o r f rom t he o ther c emeteries ( RCHM 1 962). T o t he s outh o f Y ork t he o nly p ossible e xample i s n umber 9 1 f rom W interton ( Rigby a nd S tead 1 976; t hird c entury c ontext) t hough t hat o ne i s d ubious. N orth o f Y ork t here a re t wo p ublished e xamples o f t he f orm f rom A ldborough ( Myres e t a l 1 959: f igure 1 0.19; m id-second t o m id-fourth c entury c ontext) a nd u nusually, t o t he w est o f Y ork, t wo f rom W etherby ( Clark 1 934: f igure 4 .26-27). T owards t he f rontier t here i s o ne f rom O ld D urham ( Richmond e t a l 1 944: f igure 6 .1), o ne s urprisingly f rom P apcastle ( Charlesworth 1 965: f igure 3 .6; t hird t o l ate f ourth c entury), a nd p erhaps o ne f rom T urret 3 4a ( Charlesworth 1 973: f igure 8 .21), t hough t he r illed s urfaces o n t his v essel a re u nknown o n t he t ype a nd a re t ypical o f ' southern s hell-tempered w are ' ( Saunders 1 973). T here i s a lso a p ossible e xample f rom N ewbiggin H all, n ear W hitby ( Hayes 1 968: f igure 3 .1), t hough i t i s d oubtful f rom t he d esc ription w hether t he f abric i s t ypical K napton c alcite-gritted w are.
3 27
T he o nly t hird c entury g roup e xamined o utside e ast Y orkshire w hich h as p roduced a n e xample o f t he t ype i s G reta B ridge w here a s ingle j ar r im w as f ound i n a l ate t hird c entury d eposit, t hough a nalysis o f t his w ould s uggest a N orton o rigin ( [vans 1 985). C onclusions T he d istribution o f t he K napton t ype j ars i s s trikingly r estricted t o e ast Y orkshire, t hough t he t ype w as a pparently c ommon w ithin t he r egion. T his i s d ifficult t o r econcile w ith a p urely e conomic d istribution o f t he t ype. T hough t he e vidence i s f ar f rom g ood t here d oes s eem t o h ave b een a r emarkably s teep f all-off i n t he d istribution o f t he t ype c oinciding w ith t he e dges o f t he r egion r ather t han w ith s uch r elevant ' free m arket' e conomic c onstraints a s t ransport c osts a nd c ompetition. T he l atter f actors c an h ardly b e e asily c alled i n t o e xplain i ts r elative a bsence f rom Y ork w hen t he t ype t ravelled f urther, a cross o ther m arket a reas, w ithin e ast Y orkshire. I t i s a lso s urprising, g iven t hat a l arge p roportion o f p ottery s upply a t C astleford i n t he l ate t hird c entury w as o f B lack B urnished w are [ hereafter B B] c ategory 1 a nd t hat B B1 a nd B B2 s eem t o h ave p rovided an ot i nsubstantial s ector o f p ottery s upply a t Y ork i n t he e arly t hird c entury ( Perrin 1 981: f igure 2 3), t hat K napton f abric p rovided n o c ompetition t o t his. A lthough u nprepossessing, t here i s c lear e vidence t hat i t w as f unctionally a s w ell a dapted t o t he p urpose o f p roviding c ooking v essels a s B B1 ( [vans 1 985), a nd p erhaps b etter t han B B2. T he d istribution o f H olmeon-Spalding M oor w ares T he t hird m ajor e ast Y orkshire i ndustry w as t hat o f t he H olme onS palding M oor r egion. T his s eems t o h ave s tarted i n t he e arlier t hird c entury, a nd t o h ave b ecome a f airly m ajor f abric s upplier i n t he s outhern h alf o f t he r egion. A t B rough s ome 2 0 p ercent o f t he p ottery i n t he e arly t o m id-third c entury g roup e xamined a ppears t o h ave o riginated a t H olme on-Spalding M oor, a nd t his l evel r ises t o a bout 3 2 p ercent o f t he l ate t hird c entury g roup. A t R udston i t i s d ifficult t o j udge t he f requency o f H olme t ypes f rom t he r eport, b ut t hey w ould a ppear t o b e o utnumbered b y N orton m aterial, w hilst a t L angton a nd M alton t hey a re p robably a bsent. O utside e ast Y orkshire, H olme w ares w ere a bsent f rom T rentholme D rive, Y ork ( Gillam 1 968), d espite Y ork h aving e asy w ater l inks w ith t he k iln a rea, a nd t here i s a s imilar a bsence f rom t he l ate t hird c entury g roup a t C astleford. N one o f t he f ew H olme t ypes f ound o utside e ast Y orkshire n eed b e t hird c entury. T he d istribution o f t hird c entury p ottery i n S outh Y orkshire T he r estriction o f l ocal p ottery t ypes t o t he r egion w ithin w hich t hey w ere p roduced w ould a lso a ppear t o b e ap henomenon o f t he s outh Y orkshire/north L incolnshire a rea. H ere t he s outh Y orkshire i ndustry a nd D ales w are w ould s eem t o h ave b een t he m ajor f abrics. A t D oncaster i n t he l ate s econd t o e arly f ourth c entury g roup e xamined b y L oughlin ( 1977) a l evel o f 2 2 p ercent i s g iven f or D ales w are, y et a
3 28
l ate t hird c entury g roup f rom C astleford, j ust 1 5 m iles n orth o f D oncaster, c ontained n o D ales w are a t a ll. I ndeed, i n t he V ale o f Y ork t he o nly s ite i n t he t hird c entury w hich a ppears t o h ave a ny D ales w are i s Y ork i tself , w here t here a re t hree D ales w are r ims f rom t he T rentholme D rive c emetery ( Gillam 1 968: f igure 2 4.11-13). I n e ast Y orkshire, D ales w are d oes n ot s eem t o h ave p enetrated f urther i nto t he r egion t han B rough a nd i ts m arket a rea, w here s upply a ppears t o h ave b een a t a l evel o f b etween 4 p ercent a nd 2 0 p ercent, i n t he t hird c entury. H owever, t he t ype w as i mitated b y a t l east t wo k iln c entres w ithin t he r egion d uring t he p eriod. T he d istribution o f t hird c entury p ottery i n t he V ale o f Y ork T he p ottery i n u se i n t he V ale o f Y ork i n t he t hird c entury w as d ifferent a gain f rom t hat i n s outh o r e ast Y orkshire. I t, h owever, w as n ot p rovided b y l ocal i ndustries o r b y t ypes r estricted t o t he r egion, n or e ven b y t ypes r estricted t o n orthern E ngland. P ottery s upply i n t he V ale o f Y ork w as i n t he m ainstream o f s upply t o t he f rontier r egion. I n t he e arlier t hird c entury B B2 a nd t o a l esser e xtent B B1 s eem t o h ave h ad a f airly i mportant r ole i n t he s upply o f Y ork ( Perrin 1 981: f igure 2 3), w hilst i n t he l ate t hird c entury a t C astleford B B1 s upplied a pproximately 6 6 p ercent o f t he g roup. T his i s q uite i n t une w ith s upply t o o ther s ites i n t he n orthern f rontier r egion. W hether p ottery s upplies e ven i n t his a rea a re b asically t he r esult o f ' free m arket' f orces m ay b e q uestioned. T hey a re, h owever, c ertainly n ot r estricted t o t he l ocal r egion, a nd t hey s eem t o h ave m uch i n c ommon w ith t hose i n t he o ther f rontier r egion o f W ales. T HE R EGIONALISM O F Y ORKSHIRE P OTTERY S UPPLY T here s eems l ittle d oubt t hat t here w ere t hree d ifferent p ottery s upply z ones i n Y orkshire i n t he t hird c entury, i n e ast Y orkshire, t he V ale o f Y ork a nd i n s outh Y orkshire. I t c ould b e a rgued t hat t he d ivision o f Y orkshire i nto t hree c eramic r egions w as e conomic, t he a gency b eing c ity c ustoms b oundaries ( Jones 1 964: 4 29-430), b ut t his e xplanation f ails t o a ccount f or t hose o bserved d istributions, s uch a s t hat o f B B1, w hich a re p atently n ot a t a ll c onstrained b y c ivitas b oundaries. S imilarly, a lthough t he p redicted m arket a rea o f Y ork a lso r easonably a pproximates t o t he w estern b oundary o f t he P arisian c ivitas, i t s eems u nreasonable t o a rgue t hat e ast Y orkshire p roducts, w hich h ad s uccessfully t ravelled t hrough n eighbouring m arkets t o t he o ne b eyond w ithin e ast Y orkshire ( for e xample, N orton w are a t B rough), s hould f ail t o g ain a f oothold i n t he n eighbouring m arket w hich h appened t o b e o utside e ast Y orkshire. A lso, i f c ity t axes w ere t he c ause o f t hese c onstrained d istributions, t he c hanging s ituation i n t he f ourth c entury w hen e ast Y orkshire p rovided a m ajor p art o f c eramic s upply i n B rigantia m ust b e e xplained. I t s eems, t herefore, t hat s ome f orm o f s ocial c onstraint m ust h ave b een o perating u pon t he p ottery d istribution i n t he t hird c entury. T his a lso s eems t o b e c onfirmed b y o ther f eatures o f e ast Y orkshire p ottery s upply, f or n ot o nly d oes e ast Y orkshire m aterial a ppear t o b e c onfined w ithin t he r egion d uring t he t hird c entury, b ut t here a lso s eems t o h ave b een a g eneral l ack o f m aterial c oming i nto t he d istrict f rom o utside, w ith t he e xception o f s pecialised t ypes n ot m anufactured l ocally. F urthermore t here i s a g eneral s lowness i n t he
3 29
a rea t hat
t o a dopt w heel-made c eramics a nd R omanised f orms.
R igby
n oted
' At a ll t imes t he p ottery u sed a t R udston w as d rawn f rom l ocal s ources, s o t hat i ts l ocal r egional c haracteristics a re p articularly s trong. I t s eems t o h ave b een r ather i solated f rom t he b roader c hanges i n f unction a nd f ashion t aking p lace e lsewhere. T he s ituation d id a pparently c hange i n t he f ourth c entury, b ut n ot a s a r esult o f i nitiative a t R udston; t he t raditional s ources c hanged t heir s tatus a nd d eveloped i nto m ajor p roducers ' ( Rigby 1 980: 9 4). T his d escription s eems v alid, n ot m erely o f R udston s ite, b ut g enerally o f t he w hole r egion.
t he
r ather
i solated
T he p redominance o f n ative s tyle f orms a nd f abrics i n t he s econd c entury g roups a t R udston i s p aralleled b y as imilar g roup f rom t he r ural s ite a t B eadlam, a nd b y p ottery f rom t he f armsteads a t C rossgates ( Corder 1 958) a nd L angton ( Corder a nd K irk 1 932). T he u rban s ites a t S hiptonthorpe a nd B rough c ontained m uch l ess n ative-style p ottery i n t his p eriod, i nstead h aving a m ajor q uantity o f g rey w ares, c arinated j ars b eing c ommon. N o s ource i s k nown f or t his m aterial; s ome o f i t c ould h ave a n orth L incolnshire o rigin, b ut e ast Y orkshire p roduction i s q uite p robable. S ome a t l east o f t he r ustic w are i s l ate i n d ate. R igby n otes t hat a t R udston ' none o ccurs i n f irst c entury c ontexts b ut t he t ype w as c learly c ommon i n t he m ids econd c entury' ( Rigby 1 980: 5 7). T he r ustic w are f ound a t B rough c ertainly h as a d ifferent s ource f rom t he f abrics i n u se a t t he f ort o f B inchester, C ounty D urham. B oth o f t hese f eatures t end t o s uggest t hat i t w as a l ocal p roduct. N o a mphorae a re r eported f rom t he e arly d itches a t R udston t hough t here i s a s mall f ragment f rom o ne a t B eadlam ( Rigby t his v olume). T here i s a lso l ittle f rom t he s econd c entury g roups f rom S hiptonthorpe. T here i s l ittle s amian i n t he e arly B eadlam g roup ( approximately 3 .6 p ercent) w hich m ight b e e xpected f rom a r ural s ite a nd w hich i s n ot d issimilar t o t he f armstead a t L ingcroft F arm, n ear Y ork, b ut t his i s a lso t he c ase a t S hiptonthorpe, w hich w ould n ot b e e xpected. T he s ituation a t o ther s ites i s n ot c lear. A t R udston ( Pengelly 1 980) t he t otal n umber o f v essels f rom t he s ite w as a bout 1 30, w hich m ay s uggest a c omparatively l ow l evel o f s upply. A t B rough t he s ituation i s d ifficult t o a ssess, b ut s amian d oes n ot s eem t o b e a s p lentiful a s m ight b e e xpected. U ntil m ore q uantified d ata a re a vailable, i t w ill b e a n o pen q uestion, b ut o n p resent e vidence i t w ould s eem t hat s amian i s n ot t oo p lentiful o n e ast Y orkshire s ites. A nother f abric t ype s urprisingly a bsent f rom t he r egion i s B B2. P errin 's f igures ( 1981: f igure 2 3) s uggest t hat i t w as p resent i n Y ork a t a l evel o f 2 2 p ercent i n t he e arly t hird c entury s o i t m ight b e e xpected t o t urn u p i n s ome q uantity i n a nd a round t he e ast Y orkshire p orts, s uch a s B rough-on-Humber. H owever t his i s f ar f rom t he c ase: s even s herds o f B B1 a re m entioned f rom R udston, b ut n o B B2 ( Rigby 1 980: 9 3), a nd a t B eadlam t here w ere m ore s herds o f B B1 ( 20 s herds) t han B B2 ( 10 s herds).
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I n t he f ourth c entury i t w ould s eem t hat t he c onstraints o perating o n t he d istribution o f e ast Y orkshire a nd s outh Y orkshire m aterial b roke d own. I n t he e arly t o m id-fourth c entury, K napton S b end a nd ' proto-Huntcliff ' t ype j ars a nd d ishes d eveloped q uite a m ajor r ole i n t he s upply o f n ortheast E ngland ( Evans 1 985), w hilst N orton a nd H olme on-Spalding M oor p roducts w ould s eem t o o ccur m ost c ommonly o utside t he r egion, a nd f rom t he l ate t hird c entury C rambeck b egan t o d evelop a r ole i n t he s upply o f g rey w are t ablewares. H olme o n-Spalding M oor t ype w ares o ccur i n t he m id-fourth c entury S keldergate w ell d eposit a t a l evel o f 5 -10 p ercent o f t he g roup, a nd t hey a lso a ppear a t C astleford, w hilst 2 0 p ercent o f t he S keldergate g roup w as c omposed o f c alcite-gritted w ares. S imilarly t he c ore d istribution o f D ales w are e xpanded i n t his p eriod t o t ake i n C astleford, w here 9 -15 p ercent o f t he g roup w as i n t his f abric, a nd Y ork w here i t c omprised 4 -8 p ercent o f t he S keldergate w ell a ssemblage. A lso s outh Y orkshire p roducts, a bsent f rom C astleford i n t he l ate t hird c entury, w ould a ppear t o c ompose o ver 2 0 p ercent o f t he e arly f ourth c entury g roup e xamined. H owever, a s R igby p ointed o ut ( 1980: 9 4) a t R udston, t hese c hanges a re o nly i n m aterial l eaving e ast Y orkshire, a s n o m ore m aterial f rom o utside i s a ccepted i nto t he r egion. T here m ay b e a c ontrast h ere w ith t he s outh Y orkshire/north L incolnshire a rea, w hich h as n ot b een f ully e xamined i n t his s urvey, b ut w hich d oes n ot a ppear t o e xhibit t he s ame r eluctance a s e ast Y orkshire t o a ccept o utside m aterial. T he m anner i n w hich t his s uggested s ocial c onstraint o n p ottery d istributions m ay h ave o perated i s a l ittle d ifficult t o u nderstand. P erhaps i t o perated i n t he f orm o f a r eluctance o n t he p art o f p eople w ithin e ast Y orkshire t o e ngage i n t ransactions w ith p ersons o utside. I n t he c ase o f s outh Y orkshire/north L incolnshire t his r eluctance w ould p resumably h ave b een d irected o nly t owards s pecific p eople, s uch a s t he B rigantes. T his w ould c ertainly a llow f or t he b reaking d own o f t his c ustom a mongst t hose w ho h ad a n e conomic i nterest i n i ts n ono bservance, w hilst t he c ustom p erhaps r emained g enerally o bserved i n e ast Y orkshire. I t i s a lso o f n ote t hat t he l ocation o f t he C rambeck k ilns f alls m ore o r l ess o n t he b oundary o f t he r egion, w hilst t hat o f t he k ilns p roducing l ate f ourth c entury c alcite-gritted w ares r emains u nknown. T he i mportance o f ab oundary l ocation h as b een e mphasised b y H odder ( 1982) a s ap lace w here s ocial c onstraints o n c ontact w ith n eighbouring g roups c an b e b y-passed. T HE R ELATIONSHIP O F T HIRD C ENTURY C ERAMIC R EGIONALISM T O I N Y ORKSHIRE
R OMANISATION
T he p ossible e xistence o f t hese s ocial c onstraints w ould s eem t o s uggest t hat d eep i nto t he R oman p eriod t here w as a c ontinuity o f I ron A ge s ocial a ttitudes, t hough i nterestingly, o nes t hat b roke d own b y t he f ourth c entury r ather t han r e-emerging i n t his p eriod. T hey w ould s eem t o o ffer s ome c omment o n t he s uccess o f ' Romanisation' a nd t he s ocieties t hat w ere s ubject t o i t.
o f
I n n orth L incolnshire s uch s ites a s D ragonby s how t he i nfluence ' Belgicisation ' i n t he p re-conquest p eriod. T his p henomenon h ad
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p ut d own s ecure r oots b y t he c onquest. I t i s s een h ere a s a p henomenon i nduced b y t he p roximity o f R ome i n p roviding n ew s tatus g oods w hich g ave i ndividuals, w hether p reviously o f h igh s tatus o r o therwise, t he o pportunity t o d evelop a g reatly e xtended c hain o f p atronage, a nd t herefore o f p ower a nd d ependence. W ithin t hese t erms, t herefore, ' Belgic' a ttributes a re m arkers o f a s ocially s tratified s ociety, a nd t he a rrival o f s uch a ttributes m ight e ither m ark t he e mergence o f a n e lite, o r s ocial c onflict b etween a n e xisting e lite a nd a d eveloping o ne. I n B rigantia ' Belgicisation ' s eems t o h ave b een j ust d eveloping b efore t he c onquest i n t he l imited a rea o f t he V ale o f Y ork a nd t he D urham l owlands, f rom t he g rowing o ppidum a t S tanwick. I t l ooks a s t hough t his s ite w as t he r oot o f a g rowing h egemony o ver t he B rigantian a rea i n t he l ate p re-conquest p eriod. I t h as b een a rgued t hat t he f ailure o f ' Romanisation' o ver m ost o f B rigantia m ust r epresent a s ocial, r ather t han a n e conomic e ffect ( [vans 1 984) a nd i t s eems l ikely t hat t his r epresents t he p resence o f aw eakly s tratified s ociety, p erhaps w ith a c lan t ype s tructure, b ut b asically a cephalous. T his u nstratified s ociety w ould s eem t o h ave s urvived t hrough t he R oman p eriod b ecause o f t he c onquest w hich c ut d own t he f lowering o f t he S tanwick-based h egemony ( Turnbull a nd F itts t his v olume). T he r esult o f t his w ould s eem t o h ave b een t hat i ndigenous ' Romanising ' f orces w ere c hoked o ut a nd w hen ' Roman ' g oods b ecame a vailable a fter t he c onquest, t hose w ho w anted t hem g ot t hem a s i mports o r a s t he l ocal p roduce o f i ntrusive g roups ( 'Legionary w are ' a t Y ork b eing a n e xample o f t he l atter). T here w as n o l ocal s ynthesis o f ' Belgicising' a nd ' Romanising ' t raditions. I n e ast Y orkshire p re-conquest ' Belgicisation ' s imply n ever t ook p lace. T here w ere n o l ate I ron A ge h illforts o r o ppida, n o ' Belgic' s tyle p re-conquest p ottery, n o c oins a nd n o e vidence o f a s trongly h ierarchical s ociety ( Lang 1 986), t hough t he m aterial c ultural u nity a cross t he a rea, p articularly i n c eramics, a nd t he e arlier b urial t radition d oes s uggest s ome f airly s trong g roup b ond, a s d o t he e ffects d escribed a bove. I n t erms o f t his b ackground t he b oundaries a round e ast Y orkshire a nd i ts c eramic c onservatism w ould a ppear t o i ndicate a s imilar s ort o f s ociety t o t hat p ostulated f or m ost o f B rigantia, t hough a pparently m ore c ohesive. D espite, t his, t he f inal r esponse t o R ome b y t hese t wo s ocieties b y t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod s eems t o h ave b een r adically d ifferent, w ith v illa d evelopment i n e ast Y orkshire, w hilst n othing o f t he s ort t ook p lace t hrough m ost o f t he P ennines a nd t he n orthwest. T his s eems t o s uggest r ather s trongly t hat t he c ommon d ivision o f i ndigenous s ocieties i nto h ierarchical a nd n on-hierarchical a s ab asis f or c lassifying t heir r esponse t o R ome m ay b e a l ittle o vers implistic. B oth i n e ast Y orkshire a nd i n t he L ow C ountries a pparently n on-hierarchical s ocieties ( Roymans 1 983) s eem t o h ave b een s uccessfully o r r easonably s uccessfully ' Romanised ' d espite t he p ostulated g eneral d ifficulty i n t his ( Groenman-van W aateringe 1 980), y et i n t he P ennines a nd t he n orthwest t he d ifficulty s eems t o h ave b een i nsurmountable.
o f
T he a pparent b oundary e ffect b etween s outh Y orkshire a nd t he V ale Y ork w ould s eem t o s uggest t hat e ven i n a reas w ith q uite a
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s uccessful b ackground o f ' Romanisation ', i ndigenous s ocial w ere s till o perating i n a r ather l ess t han c lassical m anner.
s ystems
T HE A RMY A ND T HE R OMANISATION O F N ORTHERN P OTTERY I n t he c ontext o f t he ' Romanisation ' o f n orthern p ottery a ssemblages o ne o ther p oint i s o f n ote i n a ll t hree a reas d iscussed, t hat t he m odel f or ' Romanisation ' o f c eramics w as c ivil n ot m ilitary. T he l ater f irst/early s econd c entury m ilitary a ssociated p ottery a ssemblages i n n orthern E ngland w ere q uite d istinct f rom c ivil a ssemblages. E arly m ilitary a ssociated p ottery i s p redominantly i n o xidised f abrics w ith g rey w ares n ot p roviding a m ajor c omponent o f g roups u ntil t he l ater s econd c entury ( Perrin 1 981: f igure 2 3). A t s ites s uch a s B inchester, h andmade, h eavily t empered w ares o f I ron A ge t radition a re v irtually a bsent. R eeded r immed b owls a re o ne o f t he c ommonest f orms a nd a f airly l arge p roportion o f c eramic o n t he s ites w ould s eem t o b e o f l ocal p rovenance, m anufactured b y t he m ilitary, o r m ilitary a ssociated g roups s uch a s v icani ( see S wan 1 984: m ap 4 , f or m ilitary a ssociated k ilns, a n umber o f w asters a lso s uggest t hat a k iln m ight b e e xpected a t B inchester a nd r eports s uggest t hat a nother w as d iscovered o utside C orbridge). A t M alton t he b ulk o f t he e arly m aterial s eems t o b e i n o xidised f abrics, a nd m uch o f t hese a ppear t o b e i n a s ingle f abric, w hich w ould t end t o s uggest l ocal p roduction. T he t radition o n c ivil s ites i s v ery d ifferent, a s n oted a bove. I n e ast Y orkshire m uch c eramic i s i n t he i ndigenous h eavily t empered, h andmade t radition. H owever, t he ' Romanised ' m aterial i s m ainly i n g rey w are. T he p ottery f rom S hiptonthorpe h as s imilarities t o m aterial f rom n orth L incolnshire a nd i ndeed r ather t han ' Romanised' f orms, ' Belgicised ' o nes m ight a lmost b e a b etter d escription. S imilarly t he e arly R oman m aterial f rom T horpe T hewles, C leveland, i s p redominantly i n g rey w are. T his d emonstrates n ot m erely t hat t he m ilitary w ere n ot r elying o n l ocal c ivil s ources f or t heir c eramics, b ut a lso t hat t hey w ere n ot t he m odel f or t he ' Romanisation ' o f n orthern c eramics. T his m odel m ust h ave b een s outhern a nd c ivil w ith t he m ilitary b eing a lmost e ntirely i rrelevant t o t he p rocess b eyond t heir f orts a nd v ici. I t a lso r ather m ilitates a gainst t he v ici h aving h ad a g reat r ole a s d istributive c entres a nd c entres o f i nformation f low i n t heir h interland. C ONCLUSIONS I t s eems l ikely t hen t hat i rregularities i n t he a pparent d istribution o f t hird c entury c eramics i n r elation t o ' free ' m arket f orces a re r eflections o f l ong s tanding s ocial d ivisions i n Y orkshire e xtending b ack i nto t he l ater I ron A ge. I t a lso s eems p ossible t hat t he d evelopment, o r l ack o f d evelopment, o f p ottery t raditions i n Y orkshire a nd n orthern E ngland r eflects t hese d ivisions a nd t o s ome e xtent s uggests t heir n ature. T hese d ivisions a nd t heir p artial d issolution i n t he f ourth c entury a lso s eem t o s uggest s omething a bout t he ' Romanisation' o f Y orkshire. F urther, ' Romanisation' i n n orthern c eramics i s c learly a c ivilian r ather t han a ' military' p henomenon.
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A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he i llustration i s t he w ork o f C olin M errony. I w ish t o a cknowledge t he s upport o f t he S cience a nd E ngineering R esearch C ouncil f or r esearch a t t he D epartment o f A rchaeological S ciences, B radford, w here t he i nformation f or t his p aper w as c ollected. Ia lso w ish t o t hank D r M M illett a nd M r N A R L ang f or t heir c omments a nd c riticisms, s ome o f w hich h ave b een h eeded. T he e rrors r emain m y o wn.
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C order, P a nd K irk, J L 1 932 A R oman V illa a t L angton, n ear M alton. R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 4 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. C order, P a nd S heppard, T 1 930 R oman P ottery a nd K ilns a t T hrolam, E ast Y orkshire. H ull M useums P ublication 1 70. D odds, W 1 968 R oman p ottery. I n R P H arper E xcavations a t P ierceb ridge, 1 964. T ransactions o f t he A rchitectural a nd A rchaeological S ociety o f D urham a nd N orthumberland ( new s eries) 1 : 4 1. D ore, J N a nd G illam, J P 1 979 T he R oman F ort a t S outh S hields. N ewcastle: S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f N ewcastle u pon T yne M onograph S eries 1 . E vans, J 1 984 S ettlement a nd s ociety i n n orth-east E ngland i n t he f ourth c entury. I n PRW ilson e t a l ( eds) S ettlement a nd S ociety i n t he R oman N orth. B radford: S chool o f A rchaeological S ciences, U niversity o f B radford a nd L eeds: R oman A ntiquities S ection, Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety: 4 3-48. E vans, J 1 985 A spects o f L ater R oman P ottery A ssemblages N orthern E ngland. U npublished P h D t hesis, U niversity o f B radford.
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a s ocial,
e conomic a nd
L ang, N A R 1 986 C risis a nd c orporate e xpression - a n e xamination o f I ron A ge b urial p ractice. A rchaeological ' objectivity' i n I nterp retation, 2 . S ection C : R itual a nd b urial. P re-circulated p apers f or W orld A rchaeological C ongress 1 -7 S eptember 1 986. L ondon: A llen a nd U nwin. L oughlin, N 1 977 D alesware: a c ontribution t o t he s tudy o f R oman c oarse p ottery. I n D P S P eacock ( ed) C haracterisation a nd t rade i n R oman a nd l ater c eramics. L ondon: A cademic P ress: 8 5-146. M illett, M a nd H alkon, P 1 984 E xcavations a t B ursea H ouse, H olme o n-Spalding M oor 1 983. U niversities o f D urham a nd N ewcastle-upon-Tyne A rchaeological R eports f or 1 983: 4 5-48. M illett, M a nd H alkon, P 1 986 E xcavations a t S hiptonthorpe, W elhambridge F arm a nd E ast B ursea F arm, E ast Y orkshire, 1 985. U niversities o f D urham a nd N ewcastle-upon-Tyne A rchaeological R eports f or 1 985: 4 0-43. M itchelson, N 1 964 R oman M alton, A rchaeological J ournal 4 1: 2 09-261.
t he c ivilian s ettlement.
Y orkshire
M yres, JN L , S teer, K A a nd C hitty, AM H 1 959 T he d efences o f I surium B rigantum ( Aldborough). Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal 4 0: 1 -77. P engelly, H 1 980 S amian w are. I n IM S tead R udston R oman L eeds: Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety: 3 7-39.
V illa .
P errin, J R 1 981 R oman P ottery f rom t he C olonia; S keldergate a nd B ishophill. T he A rchaeology o f Y ork 1 6.2. L ondon: C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology. R amm,
H G
1 978
T he P arisi. L ondon: D uckworth.
R eed, A , H arper, R a nd D odds, W 1 964 E xcavations a t E bchester i n 1 962-3. A rchaeologia A eliana ( fourth s eries) 4 2: 1 73-185.
3 36
R ichmond, I A a nd G illam, J P 1 951 T he t emple o f M ithras C arrawburgh. A rchaeologia A eliana ( fourth s eries) 2 9: 1 -92.
a t
R ichmond, I A , R omans, T a nd W right, R P 1 944 A c ivilian b ath-house o f t he R oman p eriod a t O ld D urham. A rchaeologia A eliana ( fourth s eries) 2 2: 1 -21. R igby, L eeds:
V 1 980 T he c oarse p ottery. I n IM S tead R udston R oman V illa. Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety: 4 5-95.
R igby, V a nd S tead, IM 1 976 T he c oarse p ottery. I n IM S tead E xcavations a t W interton R oman V illa a nd o ther R oman S ites i n N orth L incolnshire. D epartment o f t he E nvironment A rchaeological R eports 9 . L ondon: H er M ajesty's S tationery O ffice: 1 36-190. R CHM 1 962 A n I nventory o f t he H istorical M onuments i n t he C ity o f Y ork, 1 . E buracum: R oman Y ork. R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments ( England). L ondon: H er M ajesty's S tationery O ffice. R oymans, N 1 983 T he N orth B elgic t ribes i n t he f irst c entury B C: a n h istorical-anthropological p erspective. I n RB randt a nd J S lofstra ( eds) R oman a nd N ative i n t he L ow C ountries. O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports I nternational S eries 1 84: 4 3-69. S aunders, J 1 973 L ate R oman S hell-Gritted W are i n S outhern B ritain. U npublished B A d issertation, I nstitute o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f L ondon. S tead, IM S ociety.
1 979
T he A rras C ulture.
Y ork:
Y orkshire P hilosophical
S teer, K A 1 939 T he e xcavations a t L anchester; t he c oarse p ottery. T ransactions o f t he A rchitectural a nd A rchaeological S ociety o f D urham a nd N orthumberland 9 : 12-122. S wain, H P a nd H eslop, D H 1 983-4 S ome a spects p roduction a nd u se i n t he n orth-eastern I ron A ge. I n A B ulletin o f t he E xperimental F iring G roup 2 : 6 5-70.
o f p ottery W oods ( ed)
S wan, V G 1 984 T he P ottery K ilns o f R oman B ritain. R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments S upplementary S eries 5 . L ondon: H er M ajesty's S tationery O ffice. Y oung, W H 1 934 N orthern M useums; 1 , t he M unicipal M useum, G ateshead. P roceedings o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f N ewcastleu pon-Tyne ( fourth s eries) 6 : 17-122.
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1 9: R OMANO-BRITISH G LASS B ANGLES F ROM E AST Y ORKSHIRE J ENNIFER P RICE
I NTRODUCTION T his p aper e xamines t he f ragments o f R omano-British g lass b angles f ound i n e astern Y orkshire, r elating t hem t o b angle f inds e lsewhere i n B ritain, a nd c onsiders t heir p roduction, d ating a nd u se. T he a rea o f s tudy, f rom t he s outh T ees b asin t o t he H umber, a nd e xtending w est i n t o t he V ales o f M owbray a nd Y ork ( Figure 1 9.1), n early c oincides w ith t hat c hosen b y M ary K itson C lark f or h er G azetteer ( Clark 1 935), t hough w ith s ome e xtensions t o t he w estern b oundaries. B angles f rom s ites i n t he w estern p arts o f Y orkshire h ave n ot b een i ncluded i n t his s urvey. T he R omano-British g lass b angle t ypes c ommonly f ound i n S cotland a nd n orthern E ngland h ave b een t he s ubject o f s ome d etailed s tudies i n t he p ast f ifty y ears ( Kilbride-Jones 1 938; S tevenson 1 956; 1 976). M uch o f t he p ublished r esearch h as b een u ndertaken b y s cholars b ased i n S cotland, s o t here h as b een a t endency t o e mphasise t he n orth B ritish f inds, b ut i t h as b ecome a pparent t hat s ome g roups o f g lass b angles o ccur i n c onsiderable n umbers e lsewhere i n B ritain. U ntil r ecently t he g eneral s urveys h ave l argely i gnored t he g lass b angle f ragments f rom Y orkshire. K ilbride-Jones m entioned t he p ieces f rom E lslack; S tevenson ( 1956) l isted e xamples a t Y ork, D owkerbottom c ave a nd W ell, a nd i n 1 976 h e a dded f inds f rom n ine m ore s ites. N onetheless, f inds o f b angles i n Y orkshire h ave b een p ublished s ince t he m iddle o f t he n ineteenth c entury. E arly r eferences i nclude f ragments f rom A ldborough ( Smith 1 852: p late 2 4.12) a nd D owkerbottom c ave, A rncliffe ( Franks 1 858: 1 60), a nd o thers w ere l isted a s p art o f t he P ycock c ollection o f R oman a ntiquities f rom N orton i n 1 859 ( cited b y C lark 1 935: 1 01). S ince t hen, p ublished r eferences h ave s hown t hat t hese o bjects a re c ommon i n t he r egion, b ut n o p revious a ttempt h as b een m ade t o c ollect t hem t ogether. M any a re f ieldwalking f inds, a nd o thers h ave c ome f rom a w ide r ange o f s ites, s uch a s R oman f orts a nd v ici, t owns, v illas a nd o ther R omano-British s ettlements, i ncluding c aves. T hey a re u sually f ound i n f irst o r e arly s econd c entury c ontexts, t hough s ome a re r esidual i n l ater R oman o r p ost-Roman s ites. P ublished r eferences, m useum c ollections a nd r ecent f inds h ave p roduced e vidence f or n early 1 00 f ragments i n e astern Y orkshire. A lthough t his i s c ertainly n ot a c omplete t ally, i t i s a s ufficient n umber t o d emonstrate t he w idespread d istribution a nd d iversity o f b angle t ypes i n t he a rea. Ih ope t his p aper w ill s erve a s a s timulus t o t he i dentification o f f urther f inds a nd t o r ecognition o f t heir i mportance a s c hronological m arkers a nd e vidence f or i nteraction b etween t he R oman a nd n ative p opulation. M ANUFACTURE A ND D ECORATION T he R omano-British b angles d iscussed h ere h ave e ither a p lanoc onvex ( D-shaped) s ection o r a t riangular s ection w ith r ounded a ngles. T he o utside s urface i s a lways s mooth a nd s hiny w hen t he f ragment h as
3 39
T ype 2 •
1
•
2-4
•
5 +
T ype 3 A A A
O ther f r agmen ts * O ver 6 0m R oman r oad -
F igure 1 9.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8
R omano-British g lass b angle f ragments i n e ast Y orkshire.
S tanwick N ewby S exhow G t B usby P otto S tony R igg L ease R igg C atterick W ell A shberry W indypit L evisham M oor S carborough H utton B uscel A ldborough C rayke M alton W est H eslerton S herburn
1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6
3 40
C at B abbleton W harram G range W harram l e S treet W harram P ercy C owlam T hwing R udston H arpham W etwang D alton P arlours Y ork N aburn C astleford H olmeon-Spalding M oor N ewbald W alkington S outh C ave F axfleet
n ot b ecome e ither h eavily w orn o r w eathered, a nd t he i nside s urface m ay a lso b e q uite s mooth, t hough i t i s o ften l ightly p ockmarked. A ll t he b angles w ere m ade i n o ne s eamless p iece, b eing p roduced b y g athering a l ump o f m olten g lass o n ap ointed m etal r od, p ushing a s econd r od i nto t he c entre a longside t he f irst r od, a nd t hen s pinning a nd m anipulating t he t wo r ods i n o rder t o w iden t he a perture s ymmetrically ( Haevernick 1 960: 2 3-28, K orfmann 1 966). T his p rocess h as b een u sed t o p roduce s eamless b angles a t m any d ifferent p eriods, a nd w as a lso u sed t o m anufacture s ome v arieties o f b eads ( Guido 1 978: 8 ). I t r esults i n ar egular, f airly s mooth i nside s urface, a nd o ften i n a s light d ifference i n t he i nternal d iameter, w here o ne e dge h as b een s tretched m ore t han t he o ther, t hough o n v ery s mall p ieces t his d ifference i s r arely a pparent. D espite t he u niformity o f t heir b asic s hape, t here i s c onsiderable v ariety i n t he d imensions o f t he b angles -s ome h ave t all h eavy s ections, w hile o thers a re s horter a nd q uite s lender, a nd e ither m ay h ave a l arge o r s mall i nternal d iameter. S imilarly t here i s s ome v ariation i n d ecoration. S ome b angles h ave p rominent c lockwise o r a nticlockwise t wisted c ords, h ereafter S t wist a nd Z -twist r espectively, p roduced b y h eating, s tretching a nd m anipulating l engths o f g lass r ods o f t wo o r m ore c olours a ssembled i nto b undles, w hile o thers h ave f ine f lattened m onochrome t rails w ith c urving ( 'pot h ook') t erminals. O val ' eyes' o r b lobs, f ormed f rom p ieces o f t wisted c ord f lattened t o p roduce s pirals o r m ade i n o ne c olour, a lso o ccur. T he c ords a nd t rails w ere t railed o n a nd i n s ome c ases, f lattened o r m arvered f lush w ith t he c onvex s urface, a nd t he o val ' eyes' o r b lobs w ere a pplied. A j unction o r o verlap i n t he c ords a nd t rails c an s ometimes b e d etected. B oth t ranslucent a nd o paque g lass w ere u sed i n t he p roduction o f t he b angles. T he s ource o f t he g lass f or t he b ody o f t he b angles w as m ost p robably r eused R oman v essel g lass c ollected f or t his p urpose ( Stevenson 1 956: 2 15-217), t hough m ost o f t he c olours i n t he c ords a nd t rails a re l ikely t o h ave b een s pecially p roduced. M ost e xamples i n e ast Y orkshire a re m ade i n r ather b ubbly n aturally c oloured b lue-green g lass, t hough d ark b lue, d ark y ellow-brown, a nd o ne o r t wo i nstances o f d ark g reen a re a lso k nown. T he d ark y ellow-brown a nd d ark g reen a re a lways s olid c olours, a nd t he d ark b lue m ay a lso b e s olid, t hough t he d ark b lue e ffect i s o ften a chieved b y a pplying t hin d ark b lue t rails t o t he c onvex s urface o f a c ore o f b lue-green g lass. T his m ethod o f c apping, u sing p ale y ellow-brown t rails t o p roduce a y ellowg reen e ffect, h as a lso b een n oted o n o ne f ragment. T he o nly o paque g round c olour n oted i n t he a rea i s w hite. I n n early a ll c ases i n e ast Y orkshire, t he c ords w ere m ade f rom d ark b lue a nd w hite r ods, b ut y ellow, b rown a nd p urple a lso o ccur w ith w hite i n t he c ords. E xceptionally, c ords w ere m ade f rom r ods o f t hree c olours a nd o ne i nstance e ach o f c ords i n i ) d ark b lue, o paque r ed a nd y ellow; i i) d ark b lue, o paque r ed a nd w hite; i ii) y ellow-brown, o paque y ellow a nd w hite; a nd i v) d ark b lue, o paque y ellow a nd w hite h ave b een n oted, i ii) a nd i v) o ccurring o n t he s ame f ragment. O paque y ellow, w hite, l ight b lue a nd t urquoise t rails a re a lso p resent. C LASSIFICATION K ilbride-Jones ( 1938) d ivided t hese o bjects i nto t hree t ypes,
3 41
a nd
S tevenson ( 1956; 1 976) h as m odified a nd e xtended t his c lassification. T ype 1 i s a h eavy p lano-convex b angle t ype w ith a c ore o f t ranslucent g lass a nd a c oating o f o bliquely l aid s olid b ands a nd t wisted c ords o f c oloured g lass, w hich i s f ound o nly i n S cotland a nd s o w ill n ot b e o f d irect c oncern t o t his s tudy. T ype 2 u sually h as a l ighter p lanoc onvex o r D -shaped s ection, w ith o ne o r m ore u nmarvered h orizontal c ords a t t he a pex, a nd s ometimes o n t he s ides o r n ear t he e dges a s w ell. O n s ome p ieces, o val b lobs o r ' eyes', u sually w ith s piral t rails, a re s ited b etween t he c ords, a nd a v ery f ew h ave o paque w hite t rails n ear t he e dges. T ype 3 h as a t riangular o r D -shaped s ection. T he t en s ubdivisions o f t his t ype a re b ased o n t he g round a nd d ecoration c olours. A -B a re u ndecorated, a nd C -J h ave t rails w ith c urved t erminals a nd s ometimes e dge t rails a nd o val b lobs. F or t he m ost p art, t he b angles i n e ast Y orkshire b elong t o t ypes 2 a nd 3 , b ut t here a re a lso s ome p ieces w hich f all o utside t his t ypology. T ype 2 b angles T he d istribution o f t hese b angles i s a lmost e xclusively B ritish, t hough t wo f ragments a re k nown f rom t he N etherlands, f rom t he p eriod 2 /3 f ort ( circa A D 4 7-69) a t V alkenburg ( van L ith 1 977), a nd a s tray f ind f rom a m edieval s ite a t W ijk b ij D urstede, D orestad ( van L ith 1 978-79: 1 20). T hey a re f ound i n t hree m ain a reas o f B ritain; a s mall g roup i s k nown f rom s ites i n s outhern E ngland, m any o f w hich h ave a C laudio-Neronian o r e arly F lavian m ilitary p hase ( Price 1 986b), a nd a nother h as b een n oted f rom p re-Flavian a s w ell a s l ater m ilitary a nd n ative s ites i n W ales. T he g reatest c oncentration, h owever, o ccurs o n m ilitary s ites a nd n ative s ettlements i n n orthern E ngland a nd l owland S cotland. U p t o n ow, c omparatively f ew p ieces h ave b een r ecorded i n E ngland b etween G loucestershire a nd t he H umber, o r i n S cotland t o t he n orth o f t he F orth e stuary. T he t ype 2 b angle f ragments i n e ast Y orkshire h ave b een d ivided i nto t hree g roups a ccording t o t he n umber o f c ords a t t he c entre, w ith f urther s ub-divisions a ccording t o t he a bsence o r p resence o f c ords a nd o ther t rails a t t he e dges ( Figures 1 9.2-3; A ppendix). A i A ii
( 24 e xamples) c entral c ord; s ome w ith o ne o r m ore e yes'. ( 7 e xamples) c entral c ord, t wo e dge c ords; s ome w ith ' eyes'.
B i B ii
( none r ecorded) t wo c entral c ords. ( 2 e xamples) t wo c entral c ords, t wo e dge c ords.
C i C ii
( 4 e xamples) t hree c lose-set c entral c ords, h erringbone p attern. ( one e xample) t hree c lose-set c entral c ords, h erringbone p attern, t wo e dge c ords. C iii ( one e xample) t hree c lose-set c entral c ords, h erringbone p attern, t wo w hite e dge t rails. A ll t he t ype 2 Ai b angles i n t his s tudy h ave a b lue-green g round; a ll b ut t hree h ave a d ark b lue a nd w hite c ord a nd t he o thers h ave a y ellow-brown a nd w hite c ord. N ine h ave o ne o r m ore ' eyes', s even h ave d ark b lue a nd w hite s pirals, o ne a y ellow-brown a nd w hite s piral a nd o ne a m onochrome y ellow-brown s pot.
3 42
1 1 2
. . . .. „ . .al D I. 3
1 .
1 5
4 K gr a gr av . . e . .v ." . .e f
1
/
1
25
meeeme ee meeex e t ee › . (
7
1 8
e e .
1
Dark blue
e
Yellow-brown
f l j f f
9
1 10
p
.e e är e
Opaque Opaque
1
3 M talerae l ier af f i t '-
0
, . eNe f le i . ,
F igure 1 9.2
1 T ype 2 , G roups A ,
33 1 -24, a nd B ,
3 43
yellow
•
3
I l1 3
red
2 5-33.
T ype 2 b angles w ith o ne c entral c ord a re c ommon e verywhere t hese o bjects h ave b een f ound, a nd t hey a re n early a lways b lue-green w ith a d ark b lue a nd w hite c ord. F ive p ieces w ith o ther g round c olours a re k nown t o m e, f our ( two y ellow-brown, d ark b lue, d ark g reen) f rom t he C laudian a nd N eronian l egionary f ortress a t U sk, G went ( Price f orthcoming: n umbers 1 42-145) a nd a y ellow-brown p iece f rom L incoln ( information f rom J M ann). O utside e ast Y orkshire, o nly a v ery f ew p ieces w ith y ellow-brown a nd w hite c ords a re k nown, a s a t U sk ( Price f orthcoming: n umber 1 46) a nd N ewstead ( Stevenson 1 956: 2 19), a nd o ther c ord c olours a re a lso r are. A p iece w ith a p urple a nd w hite c ord w as f ound a t B ishop R igg, C orbridge ( Jobey 1 979: 12, f igure 6 .1), o ne w ith a c ord i n o paque y ellow a nd a nother c ompletely w eathered c olour i s k nown f rom t he v illa s ite a t R ockbourne, H ampshire ( unpublished) a nd a t hird, f rom C hesterhall, B owden, B orders, h as a d ark b lue, o paque r ed a nd w hite c ord ( Kilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 74, f igure 3 .7). K ilbride-Jones b elieved t hat t ype 2 b angles w ith o ne c ord i n n orthern B ritain w ere l ater i n d ate t han t he m ore h ighly d ecorated p ieces ( 1938: 3 74-375), b ut i t i s n ow c lear f rom t he p re-Flavian f inds i n s outhern B ritain a nd t he V alkenberg f ragment t hat t his i s t he e arliest, o r o ne o f t he e arliest, f orms. T he d imensions o f t he t ype 2 Ai f ragments i n e ast Y orkshire v ary w idely. O nly t he F axfleet p iece h as a n i nternal d iameter o f 7 0 m illim etres, w hile t welve a re 5 0 m illimetres o r s maller, t he s mallest, f rom Y ork M inster, b eing 3 2 m illimetres. A s K ilbride-Jones n oted ( 1938: 3 74), t ype 2 b angles w ith o ne c ord i n n orthern B ritain g enerally h ave s mall i nternal d iameters. B y c ontrast, s everal v ery l arge e xamples a re k nown f rom e arly d ated d eposits i n s outhern B ritain. F our o f t he s ix b angles f rom t he C laudian a nd N eronian f ortress a t U sk a nd p ieces f rom V alkenburg a nd C hichester ( Charlesworth 1 981: 2 96, f igure 1 5: 3 .25) h ave i nternal d iameters o f a bout 9 0 m illimetres, a nd s everal m ore p ieces m easure a round 7 0-80 m illimetres. O ne o r t wo o f t he t ype 2 Ai b angles i n e ast Y orkshire, s uch a s t he L ease R igg a nd F axfleet f ragments, a re c omparable i n t heir d imensions w ith t he l arge s pecimens f rom s outhern B ritain. A ll t he t ype 2 Aii p ieces a re b lue-green w ith o ne c entral a nd t wo e dge c ords i n d ark b lue a nd w hite, a nd t wo h ave s piral ' eyes '. O ne h as t hree Z -twist c ords a nd t he o thers h ave t he c entral c ord o r o ne o f t he s ide c ords t wisted. i n t he o pposite d irection t o t he o ther t wo. B angles w ith s imilar d ecoration o ccur e lsewhere i n B ritain. P ieces f rom s outhern E ngland w ith t hree c ords i n t he s ame d irection i nclude o ne i n a p eriod 1 c ontext ( circa A D 4 3-70/75) a t F ishbourne ( Harden a nd P rice 1 971: 3 66-367, f igure 1 44.108), a y ellow-brown p iece f rom C irencester, f ound i n t he m ortar-base o f ap avement i n u se i n t he t hird a nd f ourth c entury ( Rennie 1 971: 8 8, f igure 2 2.11), b oth S t wist, a nd a t hird, w ith a c entral y ellow-brown a nd w hite c ord, f rom C olchester ( unpublished). E xamples f rom o ther p arts o f B ritain i nclude a r oyal b lue c apped p iece w ith g rey a nd w hite e dge c ords i n a t hird c entury p it c ontaining s ome r esidual F lavian m aterial a t C hurch S treet, C amarthen ( Boon 1 978: 8 5, f igure 9 .39), a nd p ieces f rom T raprain L aw, L othian ( Kilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 74, f igure 3 .8) a nd H yndford C rannog, S trathclyde ( Stevenson 1 956: 2 11, 2 19, f igure 1 .10). F ragments w here t he c entral c ord i s t wisted i n t he d irection t o t he e dge c ords a re k nown f rom s everal s ites i n
3 44
o pposite n orthern
B ritain, i ncluding W hitehall, E arlston, B orders, T raprain L aw, a nd B orness c ave, D umfries a nd G alloway ( Kilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 74, f igure 3 .5,9), a nd B ankwood, C rofton, C umbria ( Carlisle g roup 1 985: 2 55, f igure 4 1). T here i s a lso a p iece w ith a c entral b lue, w hite a nd r ed c ord f rom D unagoil f ort, S trathclyde, a nd a nother w ith a c entral p urple a nd w hite c ord f rom t he C ulbin S ands, G rampian ( Stevenson 1 956: 2 19, f igure 1 .6; 2 16,218). F ragments b elonging t o t he o ther s ubdivisions o f t ype 2 a re l ess n umerous, b oth i n e ast Y orkshire a nd e lsewhere. N o e xample o f t ype 2 Bi h as b een n oted i n t he s tudy a rea, a nd o nly o ne p iece i s k nown e lsewhere, f rom N ewstead ( Curle 1 911: 3 37, p late 9 1.5; K ilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 74, f igure 1 .11). T he a rrangement o f t wo c entral c ords a nd t wo e dge c ords o f t ype 2 Bii i s a lso r are; a part f rom t he t wo p ieces i n e ast Y orkshire I h ave f ound o nly o ne e xample, a d ark b lue f ragment w ith f our S -twisted c ords f rom C laydon P ike, F airford, G loucestershire ( Price a nd C ool f orthcoming a ). T he C astleford f ragment c omes f rom a n u nusual b angle w ith a t all f lat D -shaped s ection. T he g round i s s olid d ark b lue a nd t he c ords a re d ark b lue, o paque r ed a nd y ellow, w ith t he t wo c entral c ords t wisted i n o pposite d irections. T his c olour c ombination h as n ot b een n oted o n o ther t ype 2 b angles; t he b est p arallels f or t he c olours o ccur a mong t he t ype 1 b angles, w here t hey a re a pplied a s s tripes. T wo t ype 2 Ci p ieces h ave d ark b lue a nd w hite c ords s imilar t o p ieces f rom H ousesteads, N ewstead a nd T raprain L aw ( Kilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 74, f igure 3 .4,6), a nd o thers a re k nown f rom B lackfriars, C arlisle, B inchester a nd a n A nglo-Saxon b urial a t N orton, B illingham ( information f rom M McCarthy, R F J J ones a nd S S herlock). T he m assive f ragment f rom R udston ( Charlesworth 1 980: 1 25, f igure 8 4.9) h as c ords i n t wo c ombinations o f t hree c olours ( yellow-brown, o paque y ellow a nd w hite; d ark b lue, o paque y ellow a nd w hite). T hese c olour c ombinations d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een r ecorded e lsewhere, t hough y ellow a nd o live-brown d iagonal t wisted c ords o ccur o n a t ype 1 b angle f rom M onquhitter, A berdeen ( Curle 1 932: 2 95-296, 3 89-390, f igure 7 ; S tevenson 1 956: 2 15), a nd t here i s a s piral ' eye' i n y ellow-brown, o paque y ellow a nd w hite o n t he b angle f ragment f rom B ankwood, C rofton, C umbria ( Carlisle g roup 1 985: 2 55, f igure 4 1), a nd a nother i n d ark b lue, o paque y ellow a nd w hite o n a p iece f rom W hitehall, E arlston ( Kilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 74, f igure 3 .5). A nother m assive f ragment, f rom t he N orth M anor s ite a t W harram P ercy, h as a c entral p urple a nd w hite c ord. P urple a nd w hite c ords a re n ot c ommon; t wo i nstances h ave a lready b een n oted a t C ulbin S ands a nd B ishop R igg, C orbridge, a nd t he H olgate L ane b angle f rom Y ork ( Handbook 1 891: 1 03-104) m ay a lso h ave h ad a c ord i n t hese c olours. T he t ype 2 Cii b angle f rom t he e arly e xcavations a t R udston h as d ark b lue, o paque r ed a nd w hite c ords. C ords i n t hese c olours a re k nown o n f ragments f rom M anchester, N ewstead a nd C hesterhall ( Kilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 72-374, f igure 3 .2,7), a nd D unagoil, S trathclyde ( Stevenson 1 956: 2 19, f igure 1 .6), b ut n o o ther p ieces w ith a n a rrangement o f f ive c ords h ave b een n oted. T he t ype 2 Ciii f ragment f rom M alton b elongs t o a g roup o f c obalt b lue b angles w ith w hite e dge t rails e xamined b y S tevenson ( 1956: 2 142 15; s ee d iscussion u nder t ype 3 1, b elow). V ery s imilar p ieces a re
3 45
Dark green
o ther b angles w ith
E 2 ,
t e t 1 1,
e a, gi g r 3 ' L . _
3 46
k nown f rom V erulamium ( Wheeler a nd W heeler 1 936: 2 10, f igure 4 5.47), E dgerston f ort, B orders ( Stevenson 1 956: 2 21, f igure 3 .1), N ewstead a nd T raprain L aw ( Kilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 72-374, f igure 3 .2-3, S tevenson 1 956: 2 20-221) a nd P iercebridge ( Price a nd C ool f orthcoming b ). T he d ating o f t ype 2 b angles I n e ast Y orkshire, v ery f ew o f t hese b angles h ave b een f ound i n c losely d ated c ontexts, t hough t he c ontext o f t he p iece f rom S t M ary's A bbey s ite, Y ork ( Stevenson 1 956: 2 19) h as a t erminus a nte q uem o f A D 9 6-8. N onetheless, p ieces h ave b een f ound a t s everal f orts o ccupied d uring t he F lavian-Trajanic p eriod, a s a t C astleford, L ease R igg, M alton a nd Y ork, a nd a t A ldborough, a p utative e arly f ort s ite, a s w ell a s o n n ative s ettlements, m any o f w hich s how o ther e vidence f or f irst o r e arly s econd c entury o ccupation. S imilarly, f ew t ype 2b angles h ave o ccurred i n c losely d ated c ontexts e lsewhere i n n orthern B ritain, t hough a l arge n umber, i ncluding o ne f rom t he c lay r ampart o f t he F lavian f ort a t E lslack, h ave b een f ound o n m ilitary a nd n ative s ites w ith l ate f irst c entury o ccupation ( Stevenson 1 976: 4 5-50). T wo p ieces f rom t he A gricolan m ilitary s ite a t R ed H ouse, C orbridge ( Charlesworth 1 979a: 5 9, f igure 2 0.15-16) a re f urther e vidence f or t heir u se i n t he r egion i n t he l ast q uarter o f t he f irst c entury A D, b ut t here i s n o e vidence f or t heir p resence b efore R oman m ilitary c ontacts w ere e stablished i n t he r egion. T he f ragment f ound i n t he m ain e nclosure d itch a t T horpe T hewles, C leveland ( Price 1 987) i s c losely a ssociated w ith p ottery a nd o ther m aterial i ndicating R oman i nfluence. T he R oman m ilitary i nstallations a re l ikely t o h ave b een t he m ain s ources f or t he b roken b lue-green a nd s trongly c oloured g lass v essels u sed t o m anufacture t he b angles. S tevenson n oted t hat d ark b lue h ad a c ertain s carcity v alue a nd t hat a mber g lass w as r arer s till a mong t he b angles i n n orthern B ritain ( 1956: 2 15-217), w hich i s p erhaps n ot s urprising a s v essels i n t hese c olours w ere b ecoming q uite u nusual b y t he F lavian p eriod. T here i s a l ittle m ore e vidence f or t he u se o f s trong c olours a mong t he t ype 2 b angles o f Y orkshire, i ncluding o ne o r t wo i nstances o f t he u se o f p urple g lass. T his m ay s imply b e c oincidental, o r m ay r eflect a s lightly e arlier d ate o f p roduction f or s ome o f t he p ieces. I t h as b een a rgued e lsewhere t hat t ype 2 b angles i n s outhern B ritain w ere s upplied t o, a nd m ay h ave b een p roduced b y, R omans o r R omanised B ritons ( Price 1 986b). T heir p roduction i n n orthern B ritain p ost-dates t hat i n t he s outh a nd t he e vidence p resently a vailable s uggests t hey w ere c losely l inked t o t he R oman m ilitary p resence i n t he r egion, p erhaps b eing m ade c lose t o o ne o r m ore o f t he l egionary o r a uxiliary s ites. T he p roduction c entres f or t ype 2 b angles i n n orthern B ritain h ave n ot y et b een i dentified, t hough ' somewhere i n t he v icinity o f Y ork' m ight b e s uggested t o a ccount f or t he c oncentration i n e ast Y orkshire, a nd f or t he u nusual d etails o f p roduction a nd d ecoration o n s ome p ieces. T he R omanoB ritish i ndustrial a ctivity a t H olme on-Spalding M oor i ncludes e vidence f or g lassworking ( Millet a nd H alkon t his v olume), b ut a s y et t here i s n o p articular r eason t o s uggest b angle m anufacture i n t he i mmediate n eighbourhood.
3 47
O ther b angles w ith c ords B angles w ith c ords w hich f all o utside K ilbride-Jones's c lassifi cation h ave b een f ound i n e ast Y orkshire, a nd i t i s m ore d ifficult t o f ind p arallels f or t hese p ieces. T wo g roups a re r ecognisable ( Figure 1 9.3; A ppendix). T he f irst i s r elated c losely t o t he t ype 2 b angles. T he W alkington f ragment h as v ery f ine o paque b lue t rails m arvered i nto t he c onvex s urface a nd w ithin t he b ody o f t he b angle, a nd a c entral h orizontal c ord l aid o n t op, a nd t he S tony R igg f ragment ( Hayes 1 968) h as t wo b rown a nd w hite a nd f ive d ark b lue a nd w hite v ery l oosely t wisted c ords w hich a re m arvered f lush a nd c over m ost o f t he c onvex s urface, c ausing t he b angle t o a ppear d ark b lue. B oth p ieces a re b roadly c omparable w ith t hree r ather s imilar f ragments f rom R udston ( Charlesworth 1 980: 1 25, f igure 8 4.10), H olme on-Spalding M oor a nd S outh C ave. T hese h ave e ither o paque b lue t rails o r v ery f ine l oosely t wisted b lue a nd w hite c ords m arvered i nto t he c onvex s urface. N o o ther b angles o f t his k ind h ave b een n oted, a part f rom a y ellow-brown f ragment w ith s ix w hite m arvered h orizontal t rails a t H ownam R ings, B orders ( Piggott 1 948: 2 19, f igure 1 3), a nd i t.i s v ery p robable t hat t hey w ere p roduced l ocally, p resumably b y c raftsmen a lso a ccustomed t o m aking t he m ore o rthodox t ype 2 b angles. T he s econd i s q uite u nlike t he t ype 2 b angles. T he W etwang f ragm ent, f rom a c ontext d ating f rom t he I ron A ge t o t he t hird c entury A D, h as a m assive-sectioned d ark g reen b ody a nd t hree s hort d iagonal l engths o f b lue a nd w hite c ord a rranged a cross t he c onvex s urface i n a n i rregular, a symetrical, m anner. A l ength o f c ord o r d iscontinuous t rail m ay h ave e xisted a t o ne e dge, a nd t he o ther e dge i s b roken. T he c ords w ere m arvered f lush w ith t he c onvex s urface, a nd m ay p erhaps h ave b een s plit l engthwise, a s t he t wist a ppears t o b e t runcated, t hough t his m ay b e o nly a w eathering p henomenon. B oth t he c olour a nd t he d ecoration a re m ost u nusual. T ranslucent d ark g reen g lass d oes n ot s eem t o o ccur i n p re-Roman I ron A ge c ontexts i n B ritain, a nd i t i s f ar f rom c ommon i n R oman B ritain, e xcept i n t he C laudian a nd N eronian p eriods w hen c ast a nd b lown t ablewares i n t his c olour c ame i nto t he p rovince. G lass i n t his c olour w as s ometimes u sed f or d ark ( appearing b lack) p lano-convex c ounters o r g aming p ieces, b ut i t i s v irtually n ever u sed i n t ype 2 o r t ype 3 b angles. O ne d ark g reen f ragment o f a t ype 2 Ai b angle i s k nown f rom U sk, a nd t he p iece f rom W ell ( see t ype 3 F b elow) i s a lso d escribed a s d ark g reen. S hort d iagonal l engths o f t wisted c ord a re n ot o ften f ound o n t he b angle t ypes d iscussed b y K ilbride-Jones a nd S tevenson, t hough t hey o ccur, m arvered f lush w ith t he c onvex s urface, o n s everal t ype 1 b angles. T he f ragment f rom M onquhitter, A berdeen h as d iagonal y ellow a nd w hite c ords; a p iece f rom D un B eag, S truan, S kye h as d iagonal p ale y ellow-brown a nd w hite c ords, a nd t hree p ieces f rom T raprain L aw h ave y ellow a nd r ed, y ellow a nd b lue, a nd w hite a nd y ellow c ords r espectively ( Kilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 67, f igures 1 .7-9, 2 .4). I n a ddition, a s hort o blique l ength o f u nmarvered o live a nd w hite c ord o ccurs o n a d ark b lue b angle w ith w hite e dge t rails a nd a b road w hite b and f rom N ewstead ( Stevenson 1 956: 2 21, f igure 3 .4).
3 48
T he o nly b angles s imilar t o t he W etwang f ragment k nown t o m e c ome f rom B ryn y C astell, F festiniog, G wynedd. T hey i nclude t wo l ight b ottle g reen e xamples w ith d iagonal, r ather e rratic d ark b lue a nd w hite m arvered c ords, a nd f our d ark g reen p ieces, o ne w ith s ix t hin r ed a nd w hite c ords, t wo w ith w hite m arvered t rails, a nd o ne u ndecorated ( Crew 1 981: 5 , f igure). T he d ating o f t he W etwang p iece i s f ar f rom c lear, a s i t w as n ot f ound i n a c losely d ated c ontext, b ut o n b alance i t i s p robably a R omano-British o bject. T ype 3 b angles T he d istribution o f t hese b angles i s e xclusively B ritish, a nd t he r ecorded f inds o f m ost g roups o ccur n orth o f a l ine d rawn b etween C hester a nd t he H umber e stuary. A ccording t o K ilbride-Jones, t ype 3 b angles a re r oughly t riangular i n s ection, b ut i n e ast Y orkshire i t i s o bservable t hat s ome g roups h ave p ieces w ith p lano-convex o r D -shaped s ections. T he t railed d ecoration i s a lways m arvered f lush w ith t he c onvex s urface. T he t ype 3 b angle g roups f ound i n e ast Y orkshire a re l isted b elow. ( Figures 1 9.3-4, A ppendix). 3 A 3 F 3 G 3 F/G 3 H 3 1 3 J 3 1/J 3 ?
( 23 e xamples) ( 3 e xamples) ( 6 e xamples) ( 1 e xample) ( 1 e xample) ( 4 e xamples) ( ?1 e xample) ( 3 e xamples) ( 1 e xample)
-
w hite b lue-green, w hite t rails b lue-green, y ellow t rails b lue-green, w hite a nd y ellow t rails y ellow-green, y ellow a nd t urqouise t rails d ark b lue, w hite t rails d ark b lue, y ellow t rails d ark b lue, w hite a nd y ellow t rails d ark b rown, w hite t rails
T here i s c onsiderable v ariation i n t he h eight a nd t hickness o f t he p rofiles a nd t he i nternal d iameters o f t ype 3 A b angles f ound i n e ast Y orkshire. T he i nternal d iameter o f t he l argest, f rom C astleford s ite 1 0, m easures 7 0 m illimetres, a nd t welve h ave d iameters o f 5 0 m illimetres o r l ess, t he s mallest, f rom W etwang S lack, b eing 3 6 m illimetres. M ore t han 2 00 s imilar b angles o ccur i n o ther p arts o f n orthern E ngland a nd l owland S cotland, t hough t hey h ave n ot y et b een n oted s outh o f Y orkshire a nd L ancashire, e xcept f or o ne f ragment f rom L ondon ( Stevenson 1 956 . : 2 20). T he m arked c oncentration o f f inds i n s outheast S cotland a nd N orthumberland c aused K ilbride-Jones ( 1938: 3 94) t o s uggest T raprain L aw, w here n early 1 00 p ieces h ave b een f ound, a s a c entre o f p roduction, b ut m ore r ecent w ork i n s outhwest S cotland a nd n orthwest E ngland s hows t hat t he d istribution o f t hese b angles i s m ore w idespread ( Jobey 1 974: 1 37), t hey w ere p robably p roduced a t m ore t han o ne c entre. T here i s n o e vidence f or t he p recise d ating o f t ype 3 A b angles i n e ast Y orkshire, t hough s everal p ieces h ave c ome f rom s ites w ith o ccupation i n t he l ater f irst o r e arly s econd c entury A D, s uch a s S tanwick, C astleford v icus , D alton P arlours, W etwang a nd A shberry W indypit. O nly a l ittle d ating e vidence e xists f or f inds o f t ype 3 A b angles e lsewhere, t hough m any o f t he f indspots s uggest t hat t heir p roduction a nd u se o ccurred d uring t he l ate f irst a nd e arly s econd c entury A D. A f ragment f rom T ullie H ouse, C arlisle w as p robably
3 49
1
4 7 2
7 5
1
7 8
77
4
4 1 8 0
1 4 79
8 1
4 82
0
3Omm
)
O paque t urquoise
A bsent
1
) e 4z 1 3 '
93
F igure 1 9.4
T ype 3 ,
F -J,
7 2-91,
u ndecorated b angles,
3 50
9 2-94.
d eposited a round A D 9 0, a nd o thers f rom C hesterholm, C orbridge, M ilking G ap a nd W alton-le-Dale c ome f rom c ontexts d ating t o t he l ate f irst c entury a nd f irst t wo o r t hree d ecades o f t he s econd c entury ( Stevenson 1 976: 4 5-46). I t i s n oteworthy t hat v ery f ew o f t he f ragments i n e ast Y orkshire w ere a ssociated w ith m ilitary s ites, i n c ontrast t o t he t ype 2 b angles a nd s ome o ther v ariants o f t ype 3 . T ype 3 F b angles t he p iece w ith v ery ( Price 1 986a). T wo a dded t o t his g roup,
h ave r ecently b een c onsidered i n c onnection w ith s mall i nternal d iameter f rom W harram l e S treet o ther f ragments i n e ast Y orkshire h ave n ow b een f rom C atterick a nd W ell. T he W ell f ragment, n ow
m issing, w as d escribed b y t he e xcavator a s ' dark g reen w ith d irty w hite p attern' ( Gilyard-Beer 1 951: 5 9, f igure 1 9.3), s o i t m ay e ither b e a v ery w eathered p iece, o r p erhaps i t m ay n ot b elong t o t his g roup. A bout 4 5-50 t ype 3 F b angles a re k nown, a t l east 2 6 o f t hem f rom T raprain L aw. A part f rom t he p ieces f ound a t D inorben, C lwyd ( Savory 1 968: 1 86, f igure 3 1.4) a nd ? L ondon ( Stevenson 1 956: 2 20), t hey h ave b een f ound o nly i n n orthern E ngland a nd l owland S cotland, o ften o n R oman m ilitary s ites r ather t han n ative s ettlements. T his i s n ot p art icularly n oticeable a mong t he Y orkshire f inds, e xcept f or t he C atterick f ragment, a s t he o ther t wo p ieces a nd t he p iece f rom D owkerb ottom c ave ( Franks 1 858) c ame f rom c ivilian o r n ative s ites, b ut i t i s p ossible t hat t hese b angles a re l inked w ith t he R oman m ilitary p resence i n t he r egion. N one o f t he t ype 3 F b angles h as b een f ound i n ac losely d ated c ontext. K ilbride-Jones ( 1938: 3 88) s uggested t hey w ere m ade i n t he s econd c entury, w hich m ay b e t he c ase, t hough a s S tevenson ( 1976: 4 5-46) h as p ointed o ut, m ost o f t he R oman s ites w ith t hese b angles w ere e stablished i n t he l ate f irst c entury. T his i s s o f or C arlisle, C orbridge, N ewstead, C rawford a nd p ossibly C astlecary, a s w ell a s S outh S hields ( two f ragments, o ne l isted i n A llason-Jones a nd M iket 1 984: 2 84, 4 .66), b ut n ot f or R ough C astle o n t he A ntonine W all ( Charlesworth 1 978-80: 2 69). A m arked c oncentration o f t ype 3 G b angles i s f ound i n e astern Y orkshire. F ragments o f t hree a re k nown f rom C atterick, a nd s ingle p ieces h ave b een f ound a t A ldborough, M alton, a nd N ewby, n ear S tokesley. I n a ddition, a p iece i s k nown f rom B ainbridge ( Stevenson 1 976: 5 4). T his g roup i s n ot o therwise v ery c ommon a nd t he d istribution i s w idespread i n t he B ritish I sles. F ragments f rom C orbridge a nd T raprain L aw ( Kilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 88), a nd C hesterholm ( Stevenson 1 976: 5 3) h ave b een n oted. A dditional p ieces f ound o utside Y orkshire i nclude o nes f rom P iercebridge ( Price a nd C ool f orthcoming b ), M eare V illage E ast, S omerset ( Henderson 1 987: 1 70, f igure 3 .23), a nd N or'nour, I sles o f S cilly ( Charlesworth 1 968: 2 5-26, f igure 9 .39). T here i s n o e vidence f or c lose d ating h ere o r e lsewhere i n B ritain. A ll b ut o ne o f t he Y orkshire f indspots i s k nown o r s uspected t o b e t he s ite o f a R oman f ort, s o t hese b angles, a nd p erhaps t he t ype 3 F/G h ybrid f rom S exhow, m ay a lso b e l inked w ith t he R oman m ilitary p resence i n t he r egion. T he o paque t urquoise t rail o n t he M alton f ragment i s a n a typical f eature f or a t ype 3 H b angle, a nd t his c olour i s o therwise u nknown o n R omano-British b angles, t hough i t i s f ound o ccasionally i n f irst c entury v essels. T wo p ieces o f t ype 3 H b angles, f rom T orwoodlee B roch a nd t he n ative s ettlement a t M ilking G ap w ere n oted b y K ilbride-Jones
3 51
( 1938: 3 88-389), a nd t wo m ore a re k nown, a n o paque k haki-green p iece f rom a n ative s ettlement a t H artburn, N orthumberland ( Jobey 1 973: f igure 1 4.2), a nd a f ragment f rom S outh S hields f ort ( Allason-Jones a nd M iket 1 984: 2 84, 4 .68). N one h as b een f ound i n a c losely d ated c ontext. T he
d istribution
o f
t ype 3 1 b angles
i s
l argely
c onfined
t o
n orthern B ritain, t hough a f ew f ragments h ave b een f ound i n s outhern E ngland. I n a ddition t o t he f our p ieces f rom e ast Y orkshire, t here a re f ragments f rom C amelon, M ilking G ap a nd S outh S hields ( KilbrideJ ones 1 938, A llason-Jones a nd M iket 1 984: 2 84, 4 .68-70), a nd o thers f rom N ewstead, T raprain L aw, E arlston, E dgerston, C orbridge, S ilchester, a nd c omplete b angles f rom L ondon a nd W all ( Letocetum ), S taffordshire ( Stevenson 1 956). M ore a re k nown a t H ousesteads ( Allason-Jones a nd M iket 1 984: 2 84), H etha B urn, N orthumberland ( Burgess 1 970), C rosshill F arm, P enrith ( information f rom G D B J ones), W atercrook ( Charlesworth 1 979b: f igure 9 3.186) a nd P iercebridge ( Price a nd C ool f orthcoming b ). A ll a re d ark b lue, o ften a s a s olid c olour, t hough s ome h ave a d ark b lue c apping o n a b lueg reen c ore. T hey h ave w hite t rails w ith c urved t erminals, o r e dge t rails, o r b oth, a nd s ome h ave w hite o r b lue a nd w hite s piral ' eyes '. T he b angles i n t his g roup h ave s ome f eatures i n c ommon w ith t ype 2 b angles, a nd S tevenson h as s uggested a s ingle s ource o f p roduction o ver a l imited p eriod f or t he d ark b lue t ype 2 b angles a nd t ype 3 1 b angles w ith w hite e dge t rails ( 1976: 4 5), ( and ( 1976: 5 0) t hat t his g roup a nd t he t ype 2 b angles w ere p roduced e arlier t han t he o ther t ype 3 g roups). N one o f t he e ast Y orkshire f ragments h as c ome f rom a c losely d ated c ontext, a nd a n a typical p iece i n a n e arlier F lavian l evel a t N ewstead i s t he o nly c losely d ated p iece f rom e lsewhere, t hough s everal, i ncluding t he M alton f ragment, a re k nown f rom m ilitary s ites w ith F lavian a s w ell a s s econd c entury o ccupation. T he i dentification o f t he f ragment f rom A ncat F arm, H utton B uscel a s a t ype 3 J b angle i s n ot s ecure, a s Ih ave n ot s een i t. O nly a f ew p ieces o f t his g roup a re k nown, t wo p ieces f rom T raprain L aw, a nd o thers f rom S andyknowe, T hrop, C orbridge a nd A mbleside h ave b een n oted b y K ilbride-Jones a nd S tevenson ( 1976), a nd t here i s a lso o ne f rom O ld P enrith. A n umber o f d ark b lue b angle f ragments w ith b oth o paque w hite a nd o paque y ellow t rails s hould p robably b e r egarded a s t ype 3 I/J h ybrids, a nd t he e xamples f rom A shberry W indypit a nd C astleford s ites 2 a nd 1 5 h ave b een i ncluded i n t his g roup, t hough t he t rails o f t he s econd c olour a re m issing f rom t wo o f t he p ieces. K ilbride-Jones n oted a f ragment o f t his k ind f rom C orbridge, a nd s ince t hen, o thers f rom T raprain L aw, N ewstead, E dgerston a nd S wint L aw, N orthumberland h ave b een a dded b y S tevenson ( 1956, 1 976) a nd t here a re a dditional p ieces f rom C ramond ( information f rom N H olmes) a nd P iercebridge ( Price a nd C ool f orthcoming b ). T ype 3 J b angles h ave b een f ound i n c ontexts c losely c omparable w ith t ype 3 1. N one o f t he Y orkshire f ragments i s v ery c losely d ated, t hough t he C astleford p ieces a nd a h igh p roportion o f t he o ther k nown f ragments c ome f rom m ilitary s ites w ith F lavian-Trajanic a s w ell a s l ater o ccupation. T he A shberry W indypit p iece w as a ssociated w ith f irst-second 1 963: 3 60).
c entury
p ottery a nd o ther R omano-British
3 52
f inds
( Hayes
T he l ast t ype 3 f ragment, f rom a v ery d ark b rown ( appearing b lack) b angle w ith o paque w hite c urved t rails, w as f ound i n a n A nglian g rave a t W est H eslerton ( information f rom D P owlesland). N o e xactly s imilar p ieces h ave b een r ecorded, t hough t he p iece m ay r elate t o t wo d ark o live-green f ragments w ith w hite c urved t rails n oted a s u nique a t T raprain L aw ( Kilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 86). U ndecorated b angles T hree . u ndecorated b angle f ragments h ave b een n oted, o ne i n s treaky d ark b lue a nd b lue-green f rom C astleford s ite 1 2, a nd t wo b lue-green p ieces, o ne a l arge b angle f rom D alton P arlours a nd t he o ther a v ery s mall p iece f rom A ldborough. T he p rofiles a nd t echnique o f m anufacture o f t hese b angles i s i ndistinguishable f rom t hat o f t he t ype 2 a nd 3 b angles a lready d iscussed, a nd t here i s n o r eason t o d oubt t hat t hey a re c ontemporary w ith t hem. I ndeed, t he p iece f rom A ldborough m ay c ome f rom a n i ntermittently d ecorated b angle, s uch a s a t ype 3 F o r 3 G. T he C astleford p iece i s b roadly c omparable w ith a c omplete b angle f ound a t C ockiland H ill, n ear . T weedsmuir, P eebles ( Stevenson 1 976: 5 3), a nd t he D alton P arlours p iece i s s imilar i n s ection t o t he m assive f orms o f t ype 2 b angles. T he l ast p iece i s n oteworthy a s b oth t he e nds h ave b een c hipped a nd p olished s mooth, a nd t he s egment m ay h ave b een s et i n a s urround o f m etal o r o ther m aterial. T HE O RIGINS A ND U SE O F R OMANO-BRITISH B ANGLES A lthough t hey a re c ommon i n c entral a nd w estern E urope, v ery f ew g lass b angles a re f ound i n B ritain b efore t he R oman p eriod: s ee F itzpatrick ( 1985) f or a r ecent s ummary o f f inds. T wisted c ords a ppear t o b e a n i nsular d evelopment ( Guido 1 978: 7 8-79), a s t hey a re n ot k nown i n L a Tb ie c ontexts i n c entral a nd w estern E urope. N either H aevernick's c orpus o f p re-Roman I ron A ge b angles i n E urope ( 1960), n or t he m ore r ecent i ntensive s urvey o f p ieces f ound i n t he N etherl ands ( Peddermors 1 975) c ontain a ny b angle f ragments w ith t wisted c ords. A nnular b eads w ith b ichrome c ords l aid h orizontally r ound t he m aximum g irth o r a rranged i n w ave o r m eander p atterns i n a w ide v ariety o f c olours, o ften v ery s imilar t o t he b angle c olours, a re f ound i n B ritain i n t he f irst c entury B C a nd f irst c entury A D ( Guido 1 978: c lass 9 ; 7 7-79, 1 82-187, f igure ? 6, p late 2 .14a-c). T he f ocus o f d istribution i s d ifferent f rom t he b angles, a s m ost o f t hese b eads a re f ound s outh o f a l ine f rom C hester t o L incolnshire, w ith a n otable c oncentration i n t he S omerset a nd B ristol C hannel a rea, t hough s ome h ave b een f ound a t s ites i n n orthern E ngland a nd l owland S cotland. T he p roduction o f t ype 2 b angles a t l east i s l ikely t o b e c losely r elated t o, a nd m ay w ell h ave d eveloped f rom, t he p roduction o f t hese b eads. N o t ype 2 o r t ype 3 b angles h ave y et b een f ound o n p re-Roman I ron A ge s ites i n e ither s outhern o r n orthern B ritain, b ut t he e arliest e xamples o f t ype 2 b angles h ave b een n oted o n p re-Flavian m ilitary s ites i n s outhern B ritain, ( plus o ne p iece f rom V alkenburg i n H olland), a nd i t i s p robable t hey w ere p roduced i n s outhern B ritain d uring t he l ate C laudian-Neronian p eriod. T he d ating a nd e arly f indspots o f t he b angles s uggest t hat t hey w ere a R oman-inspired d evelopment o f a n e xisting l ate I ron A ge s kill.
3 53
T he b angles w ere p robably u sed f or a v ariety o f p urposes. F unerary e vidence i ndicates t hat L a T& Ie b angles w ere s ometimes w orn a s a nklets o r a rmlets, a s w ell a s b racelets ( Fitzpatrick 1 985: 1 34). L ittle i nformation a bout R omano-British g lass b angles a s g rave-goods h as s urvived, t hough a t l east t wo w ere f ound i n b urials i n Y ork i n t he n ineteenth c entury, a nd a nother h as c ome f rom a b urial a t W all i n S taffordshire. S ome t ype 2 a nd t ype 3 b angles w ere c ertainly l arge e nough t o b e w orn a s a nklets, a rmlets o r b racelets, t hough w hether t hey w ere s o w orn, a nd w ho w ore t hem, i s n ot c lear. V ery s mall b angles m ust h ave b een u sed d ifferently, a nd t heir f unctions h ave o ften b een d iscussed. T hey m ay h ave b een f asteners ( Lovatt c ited b y A llason-Jones a nd M iket 1 984: 2 82), o r a rmlets f or c hildren ( Bosanquet c ited b y K ilbride-Jones 1 938: 3 78-380), t hough K ilbride-Jones p referred t o s ee t hem a s r ing-pendants ( see a lso H aevernick 1 960: p late 1 5). S tevenson ( 1976: 5 0) h as, h owever, a rgued t hat i f t hey w ere u sed i n t his w ay t he w ide i nterior w ould a lways b e v isible a s t he r ing h ung d own, a nd t he d ecoration w ould n ot b e s een, a nd h e h as s uggested t hat a b etter i nterpretation o f t heir u se m ight b e a s h air-rings, i n t he w ay s mall j et b angles f rom Y ork w ere p robably u sed ( RCHM 1 962: 1 44). S tevenson h as a lso s uggested ( 1976: 5 3) t hat t he o bjects m ay h ave b een s ome k ind o f h orse-trapping, r ather t han h uman o rnaments, t hough g lass r ings m ay n ot h ave b een v ery p ractical f or s uch r obust u sage. A nother m ost i nteresting p ossible f unction, t hat o f ' money-like t hings', p roposed f or t he l ate L a T& le b angles a nd p ieces o f b angles f ound i n t he l ower R hineland b efore t he a rrival o f a R oman f ull-money e conomy i n t he r egion ( Willems 1 983: 10-112), i s m uch l ess a ppropriate f or t he R omano-British b angles a s t hey w ere i n u se o nly a fter t he e stablishment o f t he p rovince, a nd t hey a re v ery f requently c losely a ssociated w ith R oman m ilitary s ites, a s w ell a s o ther c ontemporary s ettlements. T he s trong l inks w ith m ilitary s ites i n e ast Y orkshire a nd e lsew here i n B ritain s uggest t hat s everal b angle t ypes w ere e ither p roduced b y, o r i n c lose a ssociation w ith, m ilitary u nits a nd w ere d istributed f rom t hem t o t he n ative s ettlements i n t he n eighbourhood. T he d ating e vidence i n n orthern B ritain p oints t o t heir p roduction i n t he r egion d uring t he l ate f irst a nd p ossibly v ery e arly s econd c entury, s o t hey a re i mportant c hronological i ndicators f or t he o ccupation o f n ative s ettlements. S ome p ieces, h owever, w ere t reasured l ong a fter t he b angles w ere b roken. F ragments a re f ound i n l ate R oman c ontexts a nd a re n ot u nknown i n A nglian b urials, a s a t W est H eslerton a nd N orton, B illingham. T hey a lso o ccur o n m edieval s ites, w here t hey m ay b e e vidence o f e arlier s ettlement o r s imply k eep-sakes.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I t g ives m e m uch p leasure t o o ffer t his p aper t o M ary C hitty a s a t ribute t o h er w ork i n t he I ron A ge a nd R omano-British p eriods i n Y orkshire. M any p eople h ave p rovided i nformation a bout t he b angles i n t his s tudy, a nd Ia m v ery g rateful f or t heir h elp. I n a ddition t o t he
3 54
f ield w orkers w ho h ave p ermitted m e t o e xamine t heir u npublished f inds a nd w ho a re n amed i n t he t ext a nd a ppendix, Ih ave a lso r eceived a g reat d eal o f a ssistance f rom c olleagues i n m useums a nd e lsewhere, p articularly f rom P A bramson, P B uckland, H C ool, D C rowther, J D ent, M E hrenberg, E H artley, R H ayes, E a nd R H arrison, C H ayfield, J H enderson, B H eywood, R K ilburn, D S mith, A S umpter a nd P W ilson.
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P iggott, C M 1 948 E xcavations a t H ownam R ings, R oxburghshire, 1 948. P roceedings o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland 8 2: 1 93-225. P rice, J 1 986a R oman g lass. I n P R ahtz a nd J B ateman W harram l e S treet R oman v illa 1 978-1980. I n P R ahtz e t a l T wo R oman v illas a t W harram l e S treet. Y ork U niversity A rchaeological P ublications 2 : s ection 1 2.18. P rice, J 1 986b R oman g lass ( including a n ote o n t he p roduction o f T ype 2 g lass b angles). I n C H ayfield W harram G range R oman v illa 1 975-82. I n P R ahtz e t a l T wo R oman v illas a t W harram l e S treet. Y ork U niversity A rchaeological P ublications 2 : s ection 2 6.12. P rice, J 1 987 O bjects o f g lass. I n D H H eslop T he E xcavation o f a n I ron A ge S ettlement a t T horpe T hewles, C leveland, 1 980-1982. L ondon: C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology R esearch R eport 6 5: 8 2-84 a nd m icrofiche 4 .G 4 -10. P rice, J f orthcoming T he R oman v essel g lass a nd o bjects. M anning ( ed) F inds f rom t he E xcavations a t U sk, G went. U niversity o f W ales.
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b angles.
G lasgow
W heeler, R E M a nd W heeler, TV 1 936 V erulamium: a B elgic a nd T wo R oman C ities. O xford: S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon R esearch R eport 1. W illems, W J H 1 983 R omans a nd B atavians: r egional d evelopments a t t he I mperial f rontier. I n R B randt a nd J S lofstra ( eds) R oman a nd N ative i n t he L ow C ountries - S pheres o f I nteraction. O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports I nternational s eries 1 84: 1 05-125.
3 58
A PPENDIX:
R OMANO-BRITISH G LASS B ANGLE F RAGMENTS F ROM E AST Y ORKSHIRE
A bbreviations C.
= = = s f = W YCAU =
c irca C EU =C entral E xcavation U nit h eight I D = i nternal d iameter l ength o f f ragment m m. =m illimetres s mall f ind n umber =t hickness W est Y orkshire C ounty A rchaeology U nit
T ype 2 D -shaped s ection. O ne o r m ore u nmarvered h orizontal t wisted c ords. B lue-green g round, b lue & w hite c ords, u nless o therwise s tated. A i. - o ne c entral c ord 1 . A ldborough. A ldborough M useum. S mith 1 852: 4 8, p late 2 4.12. D ark b lue a nd - S -twist c ord a nd ' eye'. S econd c olour a bsent. C onvex s urface b roken. H 1 3mm; T 8 .5mm; I D 5 2mm; L 5 3mm. 2 . C astleford. S ite 1 s f 7 2. V icus , 1 974. E xcavated b y W YCAU. L oose Z t wist; y ellow-brown ' eye'. C onvex s urface b roken. H 1 2.5mm; T 1 0.5mm; I D c . 6 0mm; L 2 4mm. 3 . C astleford. S ite 1 2 3 28/4 s f 3 24. F ort, 1 982. E xcavated b y W YCAU. S -twist; y ellow-brown a nd w hite s piral ' eye'. H 8 mm; T 6 .5mm; I D 3 8mm; L 3 3mm. 4 . C astleford. S ite 1 5 0 08 s f 8 . F ort, 1 983. E xcavated b y W YCAU. L oose S -twist. H 1 0-12mm; T 6 .5-8mm; I D 4 8mm; L 5 2mm. 5 . C astleford. S ite 1 5 5 01 s f 1 65. Y ellow-brown a nd w hite S -twist c ord. L2 0mm.
F ort, 1 983. E xcavated b y W YCAU. H 1.5mm; T7 .5mm; I D c . 4 0mm;
6 . C astleford. S ite 1 5 1 963 s f 7 35. F ort, 1 984. E xcavated b y W YCAU. Y ellow-brown a nd w hite Z -twist c ord; b lue a nd w hite s piral ' eye'. H9 .5mm; T 6 .5mm; I D 4 2mm; L 2 8mm. 7 . D alton P arlours, C ollingham. R 1 800 s f 4 55. R oman v illa. E xcavated b y W YCAU. Z -twist; s piral ' eye'. H 1mm; T 8 mm; I D 5 2 m m; L 3 4mm. 8 . D alton P arlours, C ollingham. N E o f 14 200 s f 3 72. R oman v illa. E xc avated b y W YCAU. Y ellow-brown a nd w hite S -twist c ord, b lue a nd w hite s piral ' eye', v ery b roken. H 1mm; T 7 mm; I D c . 5 2mm; L 3 1mm. 9 . F axfleet. S ite B ; R omano-British f oreshore s ite. H ull M useum 1 06. 6 7.805. 7 -twist; s piral ' eye'. H 1 2mm; T 8 .5mm; I D c . 7 0mm; L 1 8.5mm . 1 0. H olme on-Spalding M oor. B ursea H ouse 4 18 1 983/157 s f 1 2. E xcavated b y M M illett a nd P H alkon, U niversity o f D urham. T ight S -twist. H 9 .5mm; T 7 mm; I D 4 4mm; L 3 8mm. 1. H utton B uscel: G rantham i n e arly S mith 1 978: 3 3. T7 mm; I D 4 4mm; L
M oor C loses S E 9 59 72. F ieldwalking f ind b y C a nd E 1 960s. G rantham c ollection, D riffield. N ot s een. ' Pale b lue-green; d ark b lue a nd w hite c ord'. H 1mm; 4 1mm.
3 59
1 2. L ease R igg. A I V s f 6 ( 44). F ort, 1 978. E xcavated b y BH artley, U niversity o f L eeds a nd L F itts, D ickinson C ollege, P ennsylvania. S t wist; t wo s piral ' eyes'. H 1 3mm; T 9 mm; I D 6 8mm; L 4 0mm. 1 3. M alton. F ort, 1 927-31. T6 .5mm; I D 4 2mm; L 2 8mm. 1 4. M alton. L SM S -twist. H 1 0mm;
M alton M useum
R 30.441.
Z -twist. H 9 .5mm;
6 9 s f 9 2. E xcavated b y L PW enham, T6 mm; I D c . 6 0mm; L 3 2mm.
1 968-1970.
L oose
1 5. N aburn. iingcroft F arm s f 7 8 ( 51), 1 984. E xcavated b y R F J J ones, U niversity o f B radford. L oose S -twist. H 1mm; T6 .5mm; I D c . 4 6mm; L 3 2mm. 1 6. P otto. H utton F ield. F ieldwalking f ind b y R I nman. H 1 0mm; T 7 mm; I D c . 5 0mm; L 2 9mm.
T ight Z -twist.
1 7. W harram l e S treet. W harram G range R oman v illa ( 61/F256/7). P rice 1 986b: s ection 2 6.12, f igure 3 6. S -twist. H 9 -10mm; T 7 .5mm; I D 5 8mm; L4 7mm. 1 8. Y ork. S t M ary's A bbey, 1 955. S tratified w ith c oin o f N erva u nder c obble f loor. N ot f ound i n Y orkshire Museum , L isted i n S tevenson 1 956: 2 19. S ingle c ord. 1 9. Y ork. M inster ( X6.84.S23). E xcavated b y D P hillips, Y ork M inster E xcavations. S -twist; s piral ' eye'. H 1 3mm; T 8 .5mm; I D 5 6mm ; L 3 2mm. 2 0. Y ork. M inster ( YML 2 6). E xcavated b y D P hillips, E xcavations. Z -twist. H 9 mm; T 7 mm; I D 3 2mm; L 3 1mm.
Y ork M inster
2 1. Y ork. S keldergate. ( 355) s f 2 81. N ot s een. M acgregor 1 978: f igure 1 8. S -twist. H 1 3mm; T 8 .5mm; I D c . 5 3mm; L 4 2mm. 2 2. 5 9,
3 3, 6 0,
Y ork. B ishophill ( 10537) s f 1 84. N ot s een. M acgregor 1 978: f igure 1 8. S -twist. H 1 0mm; T 7 .5mm; I D c . 4 8mm; L 2 1mm.
2 3. Y ork. C hurch S t. N ot s een. M acGregor 1 976: t wist. H 9 .5mm; T 6 .5m; I D c . 4 5mm; L 1 9mm.
6 ,
2 2,
f igure 5 .
3 3,
S -
2 4. Y ork. G eneral A ccident s ite 1 983.32 s f 2 69. E xcavated b y N P ears on , Y ork A rchaeological T rust. L oose S -twist. H 9 .5mm; T6 .5mm; I D c . 4 5mm; L 1 9mm. A u.
- o ne c entral a nd t wo e dge c ords
2 5. G reat B usby. F ieldwalking f ind b y R I nman. Z -twist, t wisted e dges. H 1mm; T 7 .5mm; I D c . 5 0mm; L 2 1mm.
v ery l oosely
2 6. H arpham. R oman v illa. N orth d itch. G rantham c ollection, D riffield. N ot s een. I nformation f rom I H G oodall. T ight Z -twist c entre a nd o ne e dge, l oose S -twist s econd e dge. H 1 0mm; T 7 mm; I D 4 4mm; L 5 0mm. 2 7. L evisham M oor. E nclosure B , 1 960. N ot s een. H ayes 1 968; H ayes 1 983: 1 8, 3 4, f igure 2 5.12. Z -twist c entre, S -twist e dges. H 1 4mm; T8 mm; I D c . 5 2mm, L 2 7mm.
3 60
2 8. R udston. R oman v illa. E xcavations, 1 933-1937. 1 26:62/3. Z -twist c entre, v ery l oose S -twist e dges. H 1 4mm; T 8 .5mm; I D c . 6 0mm; L 2 4mm. 2 9.
H ull M useum S piral ' eye'.
T hwing. E xcavated b y TGM anby. N ot s een.
3 0. W est H eslerton. P loughsoil, A nglian s ettlement H P 2C A. E xcavated b y D P owlesland, H eslerton P arish P roject. L oose S -twist c entre, v ery l oose Z -twist e dges. P arts o f t wo s piral ' eyes'. H 1 3mm; T8 mm; I D c . 6 0mm; .L 3 4mm. 3 1. W harram l e S treet. R oman v illa ( 57/13). F ieldwalking f ind. P rice 1 986a: s ection 1 2.18, f igure 1 9.1. T ight S -twist c entre, l oose Z t wist e dges. H 1 2mm; T 8 mm; I D 5 8 m m; L 3 8mm. B i. - t wo c entral c ords 3 2. = 4 5a. B ii. - t wo c entral c ords,
t wo e dge c ords
3 3. C astleford. S ite 1 2 F 069 s f 1 4. F ort, 1 981. E xcavated b y W YCAU. F lat D -section. D eep d ark b lue; d ark b lue, o paque y ellow a nd r ed c ords, S -twist o n o ne c entre a nd b oth e dges, Z -twist s econd c entre. Y ellow a nd r ed v ery h eavily w eathered. H 1 4mm; T 9 mm; I D 7 0mm; L 4 7mm. 3 4. C owlam. D eserted v illage. R esidual R oman m aterial, p ost-medieval o ccupation l ayer. S ite 1 , h ouse T ; t rench V III ( 52). E xcavated b y TC M B rewster. N ot s een. I nformation f rom C H ayfield. N o c olour d etail. Z -twist o n o ne c entre a nd b oth e dges, S -twist s econd c entre. H 1 4mm; T1 0mm; I D 6 4mm; L 3 1mm. C i. - t hree c lose-set c entral c ords, h erringbone p attern 3 5. R udston. R oman v illa ( RB/AV). E xcavated b y IM S tead. C harlesworth 1 980: 1 25, f igure 8 4.9. M assive s ub-rectangular s ection. 7 -twist y ell ow-brown, o paque y ellow, w hite c entre, S -twist d ark b lue, y ellow, w hite f lanking. Y ellow w eathered. H 1 2mm; T 1.5mm; I D 7 0mm; L 2 5mm. 3 6. R udston. R oman v illa. E xcavations 1 933-1937. H ull M useum 1 26.62/3. S -twist c entre, 7 -twist f lanking. H 1 2mm; T 8 mm; I D 6 0mm; L 3 5mm. 3 7. W harram P ercy. S ite 6 0; N orth M anor, 1 982 ( 603.318.D s f 1 40). E xc avated b y PA R ahtz, U niversity o f Y ork. B roken a long a pex, t wo c ords s urviving. 7 -twist p urple a nd w hite c entre, S -twist f lanking. P resent H8m m; T 9 mm; I D 6 0mm ; L 2 2mm. 3 8. Y ork. M inster ( XB 8 4) E xcavated b y D P hillips, Y ork M inster E xcavations. M elted f ragment, c ompletely d istorted. S -twist c entre, 7 t wist f lanking. D imensions 2 8x18mm. C ii. - c entral c ords a s C i.
a bove,
t wo e dge c ords
3 9. R udston. R oman v illa. E xcavations 1 933-1937. H ull M useum 1 26.62/3. F ive d ark b lue, o paque r ed a nd w hite c ords. S -twist c entre a nd e dge, Z -twist f lanking. H 1 3mm; T 9 .5mm; I D c . 5 5mm; L 1 5.5mm.
3 61
C iii.
- c entral c ords a s C i.
a bove, w hite e dge t rails
4 0. M alton. E xcavated b y L P W enham, 1 968-1970. A ppearing d ark b lue; b lue-green c ore, d ark b lue r ods c overing c onvex a nd p art o f i nside s urface. S -twist c entre, Z -twist f lanking, w hite m arvered e dge t rails. H 1 4mm; T 8 mm; I D 6 0mm; L 4 8mm. N ot c lassified 4 1. ' Scarborough'. N ot s een. T ype 2 . V ery t hick c ords'.
L isted i n S tevenson 1 976:
5 4.
' Fragment.
U ncertain 4 2. Y ork. F ound i n a n u rn d uring t he r ailway e xcavations, 1 873. N ot s een. N ot n ow i n Y orkshire M useum. H andbook 1 891: 1 03h. ' A s mall r ing o r a rmlet o f g reen g lass, o rnamented w ith b lue a nd w hite l ines'. 4 3. Y ork. F ound i n H olgate L ane, 1 878. N ot s een. N ot n ow i n Y orkshire M useum. H andbook 1 891: 1 03-104h. ' A l arger o ne o f d ark b lue, s triped w ith w hite a nd p urple'. 4 4. Y ork. N ot s een. N ot n ow i n Y orkshire M useum. ' Fragments o f o thers'.
H andbook 1 891:
1 04h.
T ype 2 v ariants 4 5. W alkington. B arrow I , 1 967 ( 1091) G 3 ( 9). H ull M useum 3 3.67.451. S tevenson 1 976: 5 4. B lue-green; d ark b lue a nd w hite c ord, o paque b lue t rails. S even f ine m arvered t rails o n c onvex s urface, o thers i n b ody, o verlaid b y S -twist c entral c ord . H 1.5mm; T 9 mm; I D 5 0mm; L 4 1mm. 4 5a. S tony R igg, I ngleby G reenhow ( NZ 6 36032). S urface f ind. H ayes 1 968; S tevenson 1 976: 5 4. A ppearing d ark b lue; b lue-green c ore, t wo d ark b rown a nd w hite, f ive d ark b lue a nd w hite c ords. V ery l oosely t wisted h orizontal m arvered c ords c overing c onvex s urface. H 1 0mm; T6 mm; I D c . 4 5mm; L 5 2mm . 4 6. H olme on-Spalding M oor; 4 18 1 983/54 s f 2 . E xcavated b y M M illett a nd P H alkon, U niversity o f D urham. B lue-green; f our v ery f ine l oosely t wisted h orizontal m arvered d ark b lue a nd w hite c ords. H 1 9mm; T 6 mm; I D c . 4 8mm; L 1 7mm. 4 7. R udston. 1 980: 1 25, b lue t rails,
R oman v illa ( RN/DZ). E xcavated b y IM S tead. C harlesworth f igure 8 4.10. B lue-green; f ive h orizontal m arvered o paque o ne i n b ody. H 1 0mm; T 6 mm; I D c . 4 6mm; L 2 7.5mm .
4 8. S outh C ave. 8 5 B everley R oad. H ull M useum 8 9.1970/1. S treaky d ark b lue a nd b lue-green; n ine f ine v ery l oosely t wisted h orizontal m arvered b lue a nd w hite c ords. H 1mm; T 6 .5mm; I D c . 4 6mm; L 2 5mm .
3 62
O ther b angles w ith t wisted c ords 4 9. W etwang. W etwang S lack V II ( WE 6 A X). E xcavated b y JS D ent, H umberside A rchaeology U nit. M assive D -shaped s ection. D eep d ark g reen; t hree d iagonal m arvered d ark b lue a nd w hite c ords, l oose S t wist; s hort w hite t rail a t o ne e dge ( other e dge b roken). C ords v ery w eathered. P resent H 1 3mm; T 9 mm; I D c . 5 0mm; L 2 5mm.
T ype 3
S ection u sually s ub-triangular,
3 A -O paque w hite;
s ometimes D -shaped
u ndecorated.
5 0. A shberry W indypit, n ear H elmsley. N ot s een. H ayes 1 963: 3 60, f igure 7 .4. T wo f ragments. D -shaped. I D c . 5 0mm.
1 26 a nd
5 1. C astleford. S ite 1 0 F 900 s f 2 112. V icus, 1 981. E xcavated b y W YCAU. T riangular. H 1 4.5mm; T 8 mm; I D 7 0mm; L 3 9mm. 5 2. C astleford. S ite 1 0 L 554 s f 1 872; F 900 s f 2 121. V icus, 1 981. E xcavated b y W YCAU. T wo f ragments. T riangular. H 1mm; T6 .5mm; I D 4 2mm; L 6 7mm. 5 3. C at B abbleton. ( HP200 A A56 A D). E xcavated b y D P owlesland, H eslert on P arish P roject. T riangular. H 1 3.5mm; T 8 .5mm; I D 6 0mm; L 4 6mm. 5 4. C atterick. S ite 4 6; 2 58 ( 8111044). E xcavated b y PW ilson, C EU. D -shaped. H 1mm; T 6 .5mm; I D 5 0mm; L 3 4mm. 5 5. C atterick. S ite 4 6; 1 491 ( 8210552). E xcavated b y PW ilson, C EU. T riangular. H 1 4mm; T 7 .5mm; I D 6 0mm; L 2 3mm. 5 6. C atterick. S ite 4 6; 5 06 ( 8111213). E xcavated b y PW ilson, D -shaped. H 1mm; T 7 mm; I D c . 4 4mm; L 2 1mm.
C EU.
5 7. C atterick. S ite 2 40; 127 ( 8310468). E xcavated b y PW ilson, C EU. D -shaped. H 1 2mm; T 8 mm; I D c . 6 5m; L 3 1mm. 5 8. C atterick. S ite 2 73; 6 5 ( 8413567). E xcavated b y PW ilson, C EU. T riangular. H 1 4mm; T 8 .5mm; I D c . 6 0mm; L 5 9mm. 5 9. D alton P arlours, C ollingham. R oman v illa 5 020 s f 1 907. E xcavated b y W YCAU. T riangular. H 1 2m; T 7 .5mm; I D 4 2mm; L 3 1.5mm. 6 0. H olme on-Spalding M oor. B ursea H ouse; s ite B 8. F ieldwalking f ind. H alkon 1 983: 2 0; H enderson 1 983. T riangular. H 1 3-15mm; I D c . 4 5-49mm. 6 1. H olme ,on-Spalding M oor. H asholme H all; k iln e xcavations. H alkon 1 983: f igure 3 e; H enderson 1 983. T riangular. H 1 3-15mm; T 1.5mm; Lc . 2 2mm. 6 2. M alton. E xcavated b y L PW enham, T6 .5mm; I D c . 4 5mm; L 2 1mm.
1 968-1970.
T riangular.
H 1mm;
6 3. R udston. R oman v illa ( RB/AG). E xcavated b y IM S tead. C harlesworth 1 980: 1 25, f igure 8 4.6. N arrow D -shape. H 1 0mm; T 6 mm; I D 4 8mm; L 4 1mm.
3 63
6 4. R udston. R oman v illa ( RU/DP). E xcavated b y IM S tead. L isted i n C harlesworth 1 980: 1 25. N o f urther i nformation.
N ot s een.
6 5. R udston. R oman v illa ( RA/HN). E xcavated b y IM S tead. C harlesworth 1 980: 1 25, f igure 8 4.7. D -shaped. H 1mm; T 7 mm; I D c . 5 0mm; L 4 0mm. 6 6. R udston. R oman v illa ( RB/ED). E xcavated b y I M S tead. C harlesworth 1 980: 1 25, f igure 8 4.8. T riangular. H 1 2mm; T6 .5mm; I D c . 5 8mm; L 3 3mm. 6 7. S herburn. S urface f ind ( HP 2 1 A A 6 16). E xcavated b y D P owlesland, H eslerton P arish P roject. T riangular. H 1mm; T 7 mm; I D 4 2mm; L 4 2mm. 6 8. S tanwick. S ite B ( 28) T rench I s f 3 3, 1 951-1952. M W heeler. Y orkshire M useum. T riangular. H 1 5mm; L 5 1 m m.
E xcavated b y R E T 7 mm; I D 4 4mm;
6 9. W etwang. W etwang S lack V II W E 2 53 K M. E xcavated b y JS D ent, H umberside A rchaeology U nit. 2 f ragments. D -shaped. H 9 .5mm; T 5 .5mm; I D 3 6mm; L 4 1mm. 7 0. W etwang. W etwang S lack X I W N 5 02 P J. E xcavated b y J S D ent, H umberside A rchaeology U nit. T riangular. H 1 6.5mm; T 9 mm; L 1 8mm. 7 1. W harram P ercy. C hurch v estry, T9 mm; I D 4 4mm; L 3 4mm. 7 2. U nprovenanced. I D 5 8mm; L 5 5mm.
1 973.
Y orkshire M useum.
3 F - B lue-green o r n atural c olour;
C 2 049.
T riangular.
T riangular. H 1 4mm ;
H 1 2.5mm;
T6 .5mm;
o paque w hite m arvered t rails
7 3. C atterick G 5 17; A M 7 60118. E xcavated b y J W acher, 1 959. I nformation f rom N C ooper a nd m anuscript r eport b y D C harlesworth. D s haped. S treaky y ellow-green, c urved t rails. H 1 2mm; T 8 mm; L 2 0mm. 7 4. W ell, N orth Y orkshire; r ubbish p it u nder a nnexe t o c aldarium . N ot s een. G ilyard-Beer 1 951: 5 9, f igure 1 9.3. D -shaped. ' Dark g reen, d irty c urved t rails'. H c . 1 2mm; T c . 8 mm; I D c . 6 6mm; L c . 4 6mm. 7 5. W harram l e S treet; R oman v illa ( 57/14). F ieldwalking f ind. P rice 1 986a: s ection 1 2.18, f igure 1 9.2. D -shaped. P ale b lue-green, c urving t rail. H 8 .5mm; T 5 .5mm; I D c . 4 0mm; L 2 4mm.
3 G - B lue-green;
o paque y ellow t rails
7 6. A ldborough. A ldborough T6 mm; I D c . 5 0mm; L 2 2mm.
M useum.
D -shaped. D iagonal l ine.
H
1mm;
7 7. C atterick H X XVII ( 5) s f 1 76 G 3 77; A M 7 60104. E xcavated b y J W acher, 1 959. N ot s een. I nformation f rom N C ooper a nd m anuscript r eport b y D C harlesworth. D istorted f ragment. D -shaped. P arts o f t wo o r t hree c urving t rails. H 1.5mm; T 7 .5mm, L 4 0mm.
3 64
7 8. C atterick: s ite 4 6; 2 501 ( 8210552). E xcavated b y PW ilson, T riangular. N early o paque. T hree t rails w ith c urved t erminals, t rails. H 1 5mm; T 8 .5mm; I D 6 0mm; L 3 6mm.
C EU. e dge
7 9. C atterick: s ite 4 6; 3 01 ( 8111046). E xcavated b y P W ilson, C EU. D -shaped. T rails w ith c urved t erminals, e dge t rails. H 1.5mm; T7m m; L 1 4mm. 8 0. M alton: f ort. E xcavations 1 927-1931. M alton M useum ( R30.440). T riangular.. T wo t rails w ith c urved t erminals. H 1.5mm; T 6 .5mm; I D 5 0mm; L 4 8mm. 8 1. N ewby, n ear S tokesley. F ieldwalking f ind b y RW aters, i nformation f rom D H eslop. D -shaped. T wo d iagonal t rails w ith c urved t erminals, e dge t rails. H 1.5mm; T 6 .5mm; L 1 9mm.
3 F/G h ybrid 8 2. S exhow, n ear H utton R udby. F ieldwalking f ind b y R I nman. D -shaped. V ery p ale b lue-green, t hree y ellow c urved t rails, w hite e dge t rails. H 1mm; T 6 .5mm; I D c . 7 0mm; L 1 9mm.
3 H - Y ellow-green; o paque y ellow t rails 8 3. M alton: L SM 6 9 s f 2 08. E xcavated b y L P W enham, 1 968-1970. M alton M useum. D -shaped. 3 H v ariant. A ppearing y ellow-green; b lue-green c ore, f ine y ellow-brown r ods c overing c onvex s urface; y ellow a nd t urquoise b lue t rails, c urved t erminals. H 1 3mm; T 8 m m; I D 6 8mm; L 2 6mm.
3 1 -D ark b lue;
o paque w hite t rails
8 4. C rayke, n ear E asingwold. F ieldwalking f ind i nformation f rom J L amprell. D -shaped. D eep d ark b lue, c urved t erminals, e dge t rails. H 1 4m; L 3 1mm.
b y K A dams, t rails w ith
8 5. M alton. F ort, 1 927-1931. M alton M useum ( R30.442). F lat D -shaped. D eep d ark b lue, t rails , w ith c urved t erminals, o val b lob, e dge t rails. H 1 2.5mm; T 6 mm; I D 7 0mm; L 4 2mm. 8 6. N ewbald, n ear B everley. H ull M useum ( 19.67.6). D -shaped. A ppearing d ark b lue; b lue-green c ore. T hree c urving t rails, e dge t rails. H 1 3mm; T7 .5mm; I D c . 6 0mm; L 3 6mm. 8 7. W etwang S lack V II W E/FT. E xcavated b y J S D ent, H umberside A rchaeology U nit. D -shaped. D eep d ark b lue, d iagonal t rail, t wo c urved t erminals, e dge t rails. H 1 2mm; T 7 .5mm; I D c . 8 0mm; L 2 3mm.
3 J ( ?)
- D ark b lue;
o paque y ellow t rails
8 8. H utton B uscel, n ear S carborough: A ncat F arm ( SE 9 64864). F ound b y R a nd J J efferson, 1 976, S mith 1 977: 4 3-44. ' Dark b lue w ith i nlaid y ellow b ands'. H 1 2mm ; T8 mm.
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3 I/J 8 9. A shberry W indypit, n ear H elmsley. C hamber C , w ith f irst/second c entury p ottery, e tc. N ot s een. H ayes 1 963: 3 60, f igure 7 .3. ' portion o f b angle o f b lue g lass w ith d ouble g rooves' ( glass m issing) ' and i ns et b lobs o f y ellow '. H c . 1 2mm; T c . 7 .5mm; L c . 2 8mm. 9 0. C astleford. S ite 2 s f 5 47. V icus , 1 974. E xcavated b y W YCAU. D s haped. A ppearing d ark b lue; b lue-green c ore, w hite c urved t erminal a nd e dge t rail, c olour m issing f rom d iagonal t rail, t wo t erminals a nd e dge t rail. H 1mm; T 7 mm; I D c . 5 0mm; L 2 3mm. 9 1. C astleford. S ite 1 5 0 80 s f 1 50. F ort, 1 983. E xcavated b y W YCAU. S hallow D -shaped. A ppearing d ark b lue; b lue-green c ore, t wo w hite t rails a nd c urved t erminals, y ellow e dge t rails. H 1.5mm; T6 mm; I D c . 5 0mm; L 2 9mm.
3 ? - d ark b rown; w hite t rails 9 2. W est H eslerton. S ite 1 ( HP1B17AK). A nglian g rave. E xcavated b y D P owlesland, H eslerton P arish P roject. D -shaped. D ark b rown, c urved t rails. H 1.5mm; T 7 mm; I D 5 4mm; L 3 9mm.
U ndecorated b angles 9 3. C astleford. S ite 1 2 3 13/1 s f 2 11. F ort, 1 982. E xcavated b y W YCAU. T riangular. D ark b lue a nd b lue-green. H 1mm; T 7 mm; I D 6 0mm; L 4 0mm . 9 4. D alton P arlours, C ollingham . R oman v illa, 1 977. 0 29/4 s f 5 47. E xc avated b y W YCAU. L arge; h eavy D -section. B lue-green. B oth b roken e nds g rosed a nd p olished s mooth i n a ntiquity. H 1 2.5mm; T 9 -10.5mm; I D 8 6mm; L 8 7mm. 9 5. A ldborough; o utside n orth w all o f R oman t own. J G H unt, 1 986. S mall; D -shaped. B lue-green. I D c . 6 0mm; L 1 8mm.
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F ieldwalking f ind b y H 8 .5m; T 5 .5mm;
2 0:
A N ' IVORY' F IGURE F ROM N EAR M ALTON P ETER R W ILSON
I NTRODUCTION I n 1 881 M r TW aller p resented a n o bject, d escribed b y M ary K itson C lark i n h er G azetteer a s ' a s mall i vory f igure, p robably R oman, f rom M alton' ( Clark 1 935: 1 07) t o t he S carborough M useum, w here i t i s r ecorded i n t he A ccessions R egister a s c oming f rom n ear M alton ( Accession n umber 129.38). T he l abel a ccompanying t he p iece i n t he d isplay c ase d escribes i t a s a n ' Ivory f igure o f C hrist. P robably l ate R oman...'. S ince i ts d iscovery t his o bject h as e scaped s erious s tudy, t he o nly p ublished r eference, o ther t han t hat i n C lark, b eing i n T he A rchaeology o f M alton a nd N orton ( Robinson 1 979: 2 9: 1 36). D ESCRIPTION T he o verall h eight o f t he p iece i s 4 8 m illimetres, t he f igure i tself b eing s ome 4 0 m illimetres h igh a nd 1 4 m illimetres w ide a t t he s houlders. T he g eneral c haracter o f t he f igure, a nd e specially t he p rotruding s tomach, a ppears t o b ear o ut C lark's a ssertion t hat i t r epresents ' a n aked b oy' ( Clark 1 935: 1 07), b ut d etailed e xamination s uggests i t h as a dult f acial f eatures ( Figure 2 0.1). I n r elation t o t he s ize o f t he f igure t he l egs a ppear r ather t hick ( the t highs a re c irca 5 m illimetres i n d iameter); t his m ay b e s een a s l ending f urther s upport t o t he i dea t hat t he f igure r epresents a c hild. T he l eft l eg i s b ent s lightly f orward a t t he k nee. B oth f eet a ppear t o h ave o nly f our t oes, a lthough a l ittle t oe m ay b e s uggested b y a s hallow c ut o n t he s ide o f t he r ight f oot. I n t he c ase o f t he l eft f oot t he j oint a t t he b ack o f t he t oes i s i ndicated b y a c learly d efined l ine. T here i s a n i ndication t hat t he f igure o riginally p ossessed g enitalia, a lthough t hey a re n ow a bsent; t his a rea o f t he f igure a ppears t o h ave s uffered s ome d amage. I t i s p erhaps w orth n oting t hat i n g eneral t here i s l ittle e vidence o f d amage e lsewhere o n t he p iece. T he a rms, w hich d espite b eing c learly d ifferentiated a re n ot s eparated f rom t he b ody, a re, l ike t he l egs, f airly t hick i n p roportion t o t he r est o f t he f igure, t he a verage d iameter b eing c irca 4 m illimetres. T he l eft a rm i s b ent t hrough a n a ngle o f c irca 4 5 d egrees a t t he e lbow a nd t he l eft h and h olds ' an a pple o r b all' ( Clark 1 935: 1 07) a gainst t he l ower l eft-hand s ide o f t he f igure's c hest. O nly t he t humb i s d istinguished f rom t he m ain p art o f t he h and, a nd t he ' apple o r b all' i s n ot q uite c ircular, v arying f rom 4 -5 m illimetres i n d iameter. T he r ight h and i s ' raised i n t he a ttitude o f b lessing' ( Clark 1 935: 1 07), w ith t he t humb a nd a ll o f t he f ingers b eing d istinguishable; t he f irst a nd i ndex f ingers, w hich a re t he l east c learly d efined, a re r aised. T he t humb i s h eld b eneath t hem a nd t he t hird a nd f ourth f ingers a re b ent i nto t he p alm, n one o f t hese b eing h eld i n n atural p ositions. T he i nner a ngle o f b oth e lbows i s s uggested b y a s hallow c ut, a lthough t hat o n t he l eft a rm i s m arginally a bove t he e lbow.
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F igure 2 0.1
T he f igure, C ouncil.
f ront v iew.
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P hotograph:
S carborough B orough
F igure 2 0.2
T he f igure, C ouncil.
s ide v iew.
P hotograph:
S carborough B orough
T he h ead i s b ent s lightly f orward, a lthough t he b ack o f t he h ead i s v ertical, ( Figure 2 0.2) g iving t he h ead a s aw hole a n u nrealistic s hape w hen v iewed i n t he r ound. T he n ose i s c learly s hown a nd i s b ent a l ittle t o t he r ight a nd t he e yeballs a re c learly v isible u nder t he w ell-defined f orehead. I n c ontrast w ith t his c onfident t reatment o f t he u pper f eatures t he c hin i s w eak, a ppearing a s a v ery s mall c ontour, w ith t he f ace a lmost m erging i nto t he n eck. T he h air i s s hown c ombed w ell b ack f rom t he f ace a nd i s d epicted b y a s eries o f c learly d efined c uts u p t o 1m illimetre w ide a nd 0 .5 m illimetres d eep. T he d epiction o f t he h air i s n ot c arried r ound t o t he b ack o f t he h ead, o r o n t o t he t op o f t he s kull.
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F igure 2 0.3
T he f igure, C ouncil.
b ack v iew.
P hotograph:
S carborough B orough
T he b ack o f t he f igure s hows l ittle d etail ( Figure 2 0.3). T he b uttocks a re s uggested b y s light c ontours, a nd t he b acks o f t he c alves a re c learly d efined, a s i s t he n eck.. A h ole w hich h as b een c arefully c ut o r b ored i nto t he b ack o f t he f igure w ould h ave a llowed i t t o b e s uspended a s a p endant. T he t wo e nds o f t he h ole a re j ust u nder 7 m illimetres a part a nd a re p ositioned 3 m illimetres b elow t he l eft s houlder a nd 5 m illimetres u nder t he r ight s houlder, t his d ifference r eflecting t he f act t hat t he s houlders s lope d own f rom r ight t o l eft, a s w ould b e e xpected g iven t he f lexing o f t he l eft k nee. T he t wo h oles a re n ot q uite c ircular, b eing 2 .5 m illimetres f rom t op t o b ottom a nd 3 m illimetres a cross. T he f igure i s p ortrayed s tanding o n a s tone o r b oulder 1 8 m illimetres a cross a nd 8 m illimetres h igh. T he b ack o f t he b oulder i s v ertical a nd t he f ront i s r ounded i n b oth t he h orizontal a nd v ertical p lanes, w ith a c learly d efined i nverted c hamfer a t t he b ottom. T he b oulder s tands o n a g roundline 1 .5 t o 2m illimetres t hick. T he f ront e dge o f t his b ase i s r ounded, b ut i s p unctuated b y f our c uts, t he l argest o f t hese p enetrating t he b ase b y c irca 1 .5 m illimetres.
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T he u nderside o f t he f igure i s v ery r ough a nd o n t he b ottom, a t t he b ack, t here a re t hree c uts. T he r ear o f t he f igure d isplays f ive l ong a nd s everal s horter s plits, t he w orst a ffected a rea b eing t he b oulder a nd b ase. O ne o f t hese s plits e xtends u p t he i nside o f t he r ight l eg a nd m ay h ave c aused p art o f t he l ower p art o f t he i nner c alf t o f lake a way, i f t he s plits d eveloped a fter t he f igure w as f inished. A lternatively, i f t he s plits w ere a pparent d uring t he c arving o f t he p iece t hey c ould h ave d etermined a spects o f t he a ppearance. T he m ost e xposed a reas o f t he p iece a re s mooth a nd h ighly p olished, p resumably t he r esult o f w ear. S upport f or t his v iew d erives f rom t he f act t hat, w hile t he r est o f t he f igure h as a lso b een p olished, w hen t he p iece i s r otated i n t he l ight i t i s c lear t hat t he a pparently r ounded p arts o f t he b ody c onsist o f a s eries o f t iny f lat p lanes. I n c olour t he h ighly p olished, o r w orn, a reas o n t he f ront a re o ff-white. T he b ack i s d arker, b eing l argely l ight o chre, w ith a r usset b rown p atch o n t he b oulder a nd b ase; t he l atter d iscoloration i s a pparently p art o f t he n atural c olouring o f t he m aterial. I t i s p ossible t hat t he f igure i s b one r ather t han i vory ( S G reep p ersonal c ommunication), b ut t he d etailed e xamination n ecessary t o d istinguish b etween t he t wo m aterials h as n ot y et b een u ndertaken. D ISCUSSION T he q uality o f t he w orkmanship o f t he f igure i s u ndoubtedly h igh, p articularly w hen t he s ize o f t he p iece i s t aken i nto c onsideration. T he s mall s cale m ay h ave c aused t he c raftsman t o e xecute p oints o f d etail i n a n u nnatural, o r l ess a ccomplished s tyle. T he s tylization a s aw hole p erhaps s uggests a p rovincial B ritish o rigin. T he p iece i s a pparently d esigned t o b e v iewed o nly f rom t he f ront, a f act w hich m ight s upport t he i nterpretation o f i t a s a p endant, a lthough t he l ack o f w ear o r d iscoloration a round t he e nds o f t he h ole p oint t o t he p iece n ever h aving b een s uspended o n a c ord o r c hain. A lternatively t he p resence o f t he b ase a nd b oulder m ay s uggest t hat t his w as a f ree-standing f igurine ( C J ohns p ersonal c ommunication). I n t his c ase, t he h ole m ight h ave b een u sed t o a ttach a r ing o r c hain t o h old t he o bject i n p lace, a s o ccurs o n t he s ilver f igure o f H arpocrates f rom L ondon B ridge, n ow i n t he B ritish M useum ( Brailsford 1 951: p late 1 5.6). T he l atter p iece h owever m ay h ave b een r etained m ore a s a d ecorative f eature, o r t o p revent i ts t heft, t han f or s upport, a s i t a ppears c apable o f b eing f ree-standing w ithout t he c hain. T he p iece u nder c onsideration h ere i s a lso f ree-standing, b ut i s l ess v aluable, s o t here s eems l ess r eason f or i t t o b e r etained o r s upported, u nless t his w as s imply o rnamental. T he i nterpretation o f t he p iece a s a p endant s till s eems t o b e p lausible, w ith t he b oulder p ossibly a cting a d ual r ole i n p rotecting t he o therwise e asily d amaged l egs a nd i n s erving t o c omplete t he c omposition. S ince t he f igure w as p resumably a s urface f ind a nd t here a re n o c lose p arallels, t he d ate r emains o pen t o d iscussion. T he g eneral s tyle i s c onsistent w ith i t b elonging t o t he R oman p eriod, a s M ary K itson C lark s uggested ( Clark 1 935: 1 07). S ome d etails, f or e xample
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t he h air, c ould i ndicate a l ate R oman d ate. T he s wept-back h airstyle i s p aralleled b y a c ornerstone r epresenting o ne o f t he W inds f rom C astlegate, Y ork ( RCHM 1 962: 1 32.130, p late 6 1), w hich i s b elieved t o h ave o riginated f rom t he l ate R oman C astle Y ard c emetery ( RCHM 1 962: 6 7). T his m ay p rovide f urther s upport f or a p rovincial B ritish o rigin f or t he f igure, i n a ddition t o t he v iew, e xpressed a bove, t hat t he g eneral a ppearance o f t he f igure i s p erhaps i nferior t o t he b est i mported p ieces f ound i n R oman B ritain, s uch a s t he i vory f igure o f a g ladiator f rom S outh S hields ( Toynbee 1 963: 1 49.53, p late 5 6). H owever, i t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he f igure w as p roduced a t a m uch l ater p eriod. B oth C atherine J ohns a nd M artin H enig ( personal c ommunications) h ave s uggested t hat a p ost-medieval d ate o ught t o b e c onsidered. N onetheless, o n t he i nformation p resently a vailable t he a uthor s till f avours a l ate R oman d ate f or t he o bject. T he u nattributed i dentification o f t he p iece a s a f igure o f C hrist m ust b e q uestioned, i f n ot d ismissed c ompletely. P resumably i t d erives f rom t he ' hand r aised i n t he a ttitude o f b lessing', i n w hich c ase t he ' apple o r b all' m ight b e t aken t o r epresent a n o rb o r t he w orld, o r p erhaps a p omegranate o n a nalogy w ith t he H inton S t M ary m osaic ( Toynbee 1 964a). I f t he p iece i s c ompared w ith a cknowledged e xamples o f R omano-British C hristian a rt t he n udity o f t he f igure a ppears t o b e a m ajor s tumbling b lock t o i ts a cceptance a s a r epresentation o f C hrist. T he H inton S t M ary C hrist i s s hown c lothed, a s a re t he C hristian s ubjects o f t he L ullingstone w all p aintings ( Liversidge a nd W eatherhead 1 987), a nd i n g eneral t he e arly C hristian i conographic t radition d emanded d raped r ather t han n ude r epresentations o f t he h uman f orm, w hatever t he a ccepted m ores o f c ontemporary s ecular o r p agan a rt. I n t he l ight o f t his a lone i t i s d ifficult t o v iew t he p iece a s C hristian. T he i dentification o f t he s ubject i n t he a bsence o f c lose p arallels i s d ifficult, t hough a n umber o f p ossibilities s uggest t hemselves, s uch a s a r epresentation o f C upid o r H arpocrates, a nd i n b oth t hese c ases t he h oles i n t he b ack c ould h ave s upported a p air o f w ings. E qually, t he s ubject m ay b e h uman: r epresentations o f y ounger m embers o f t he I mperial f amily a re n ot u nknown i n t his c ountry, a s, f or e xample, t he l imestone b ust o f B ritannicus f rom H inckley, L eicestershire ( Toynbee 1 964b: 4 8-49), a nd p rivate p ersons a re d epicted i n n umerous s culptures ( see T oynbee 1 964b: 16-121, p lates 3 0-32), a nd o n s epulthral a lters a nd f unerary r eliefs ( see T oynbee 1 964b: 2 01-202, p late 4 8b). A lthough t he i dentification o f t he p iece i s u ncertain, i t s eems e ntirely a ppropriate t o d raw a ttention t o i t i n t his v olume o f e ssays i n h onour o f M ary K itson C lark w ho f irst m entioned t his f igure i n p rint, a nd w ho h as m ade s uch a u nique a nd i nvaluable c ontribution t o t he s tudy o f R oman Y orkshire.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I a m g rateful t o S carborough B orough C ouncil f or p ermission t o e xamine a nd p ublish t he f igure a nd f or p ermission t o u se t heir p hotographs f or F igures 2 0.1-3, w ith p articular t hanks t o M rs R P almer, C urator o f t he R otunda M useum S carborough, f or h er h elp. Ia m
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a lso g rateful t o M iss C J ohns, D r SC reep a nd D r M H enig f or e xamining a nd c ommenting o n p hotographs o f t he p iece, a nd t o D r J P rice f or u seful d iscussion.
B IBLIOGRAPHY
B railsford J W 1 951 L ondon: B ritish M useum.
G uide t o t he A ntiquities o f
R oman
B ritain .
C lark M K 1 935 A G azetteer o f R oman R emains i n E ast Y orkshire . R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport 5 . L eeds: R oman A ntiquities C ommittee o f t he Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety. L iversidge J E A a nd W eatherhead F J 1 987 T he C hristian P aintings. I n G W M eates T he L ullingstone R oman V illa. I I T he W all P aintings a nd F inds. M aidstone: K ent A rchaeological S ociety: 1-40. R obinson, J F 1 979 T he A rchaeology o f M alton a nd Y orkshire A rchaeological S ociety.
N orton .
L eeds:
R CHM 1 962 R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments f or E ngland. A n I nventory o f t he H istorical M onuments i n t he C ity o f Y ork I . E buracum: R oman Y ork. L ondon: H er M ajesty's S tationery O ffice. T oynbee J M C 1 963 L ondon: P haidon.
A rt i n R oman B ritain
s econd
r evised
e dition.
T oynbee J M C 1 964a T he C hristian R oman M osaic, H inton S t M ary D orset. D orset M onographs 3 . D orchester: D orset N atural H istory a nd A rchaeological S ociety. T oynbee J M C U niversity P ress.
1 964b
A rt i n
B ritain
3 73
u nder
t he
R omans .
O xford
P ART 3 :
D OCUMENTARY S OURCES
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2 1:
T HE P OLITICS O F B RIGANTIA
P ERCIVAL T URNBULL A ND L EON F ITTS
O f C artimandua, q ueen o f t he B rigantes, a nd o f t he d ramatic e vents w hich b efell h er h ousehold i n t he m iddle d ecades o f t he f irst c entury, h istory r ecords d isappointingly l ittle. I ndeed, a ll t hat i s k nown o f t he d ynastic h istory o f t he m ost p opulous o f t he B ritish p eoples i s s ummarised i n a f ew l ines b y T acitus. B y c ontrast, t he r econstruction o f t he p olitical g eography o f B rigantia, a nd o f t he e vents w hich s urrounded C artimandua's s chism f rom h er c onsort, h ave p roved o f a bsorbing i nterest t o m odern s cholars: w e h ave i nherited a d istinguished c orpus o f w ork i n t he f ield o f B rigantian s tudies. T he c ontribution t o t he m apping o f B rigantia w hich h as b een m ade b y M ary C hitty w ill a lways r emain f undamental t o a ny a ttempt a t a n u nderstanding o f t his e lusive c ivitas ( Clark 1 939). I n o utline, t he s tory t old b y T acitus ( Histories: i ii: 4 5; A nnals: x ii: 4 0) i s n ow f amiliar t hrough c onstant r etelling ( most e legantly b y R ichmond 1 954), t hough m uch i nterest h as r ecently b een f ocussed u pon t he q uestion o f w hether T acitus r efers t o a s ingle e pisode o f d ynastic a nd p olitical t urmoil, o r t o t wo ( Mitchell 1 978; B raund 1 984). T he c ase f or t elescoping T acitus's a ccount i s c ertainly a s trong o ne, a nd d oes n othing t o d etract f rom t he d rama o f t he h istory. T he s ite a t S tanwick h as l ong b een a ssociated w ith h istorical e vents: t he a rchaeological s equence t here a s r ecorded b y W heeler ( 1954) w as f irmly l inked t o T acitus's n arrative a nd t he f inal d eveloped p hase o f t he o ppidum t ied t o V enutius a nd t o h is f inal s tand a gainst t he R oman c olumn l ed b y P etillius C erialis. C urrent w ork a t S tanwick b y t he U niversity o f D urham i s h owever a ltering c onsiderably t he p icture p ainted b y W heeler, a nd f raying t he b onds w hich s eemed s o c learly t o t ie t he s ite t o t he h istorical p ersonage o f V enutius ( Turnbull 1 984; H aselgrove a nd T urnbull 1 983; 1 984). O ne a spect o f S tanwick, h owever, w hich i s c lear f rom W heeler's r eport h as b een s trongly u nderlined b y t he r ecent w ork: t hat i s, t he w ealthy a nd p hilo-Roman n ature o f i ts m aterial c ulture d uring t he s ite's p re-Flavian f loruit . R oman b uilding m aterial, n oted b y W heeler a t s ite A , h as n ow b een r ecovered i n a ppreciable q uantity f rom t he c entral T ofts a rea. ,C learly t he t egulae a nd i mbrices r epresent a b uilding c onstructed ( or m eant t o b e) i n R oman f ashion, a nd a t s uch a d ate t he w ork c an o nly h ave b een u ndertaken u nder s upervision o f R oman c raftsmen. T he c eramic a ssemblage f rom t he T ofts i s i n a ccord: a n e xtensive l evelling d eposit, c onsisting o f r edeposited d omestic r ubbish, i ncludes a v ery h igh p roportion o f i mported f ine w ares, n otably o f C laudio-Neronian s amian, a s w ell a s g lassware a nd o ther e xotica. T he s ite i tself i s o f c ourse a n o ddity, a n e nclosed o ppidum ( Cunliffe 1 976) p erhaps c loser i n c onception t o t he t ribal c entres o f s outhern B ritain t han t o o ther n orthern s ites o f p roto-urban c haracter ( such a s T raprain L aw a nd E ildon H ill N orth). T he g reat r amparted e nclosure, t he R oman-style b uilding, t he w ealthy p anoply, a ll p oint t owards t he p resence o f a n i ndividual, a B rigantian n oble o f g reat p restige a nd, p resumably, o f c onsiderable u tility t o t he R oman a uthorities: o ne i s r eminded o f t he s catter o f R omanised b uildings i n t he B arbaricum o f e astern E urope, i nterpreted a s g race a nd f avour
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h ouses f or f riendly n ative r ulers o n t he b orders o f E mpire ( Mobis y 1 974: 8 9). T he i dentity o f t he i ndividual i s y et u ndetermined, a nd o ur k nowledge o f p otential c andidates r estricted t o a m ere t hree f rom t he r uling h ierarchy o f B ritain's g reatest t ribe: C artimandua, t he q ueen; V enutius, h er c onsort a nd ( eventual) e nemy o f R ome; a nd V ellocatus, a rmour-bearer o f V enutius a nd u ltimate o ccupier o f h is w ife's b ed. T he p roprietorship o f S tanwick i s a u seful f ocus f or a n e xamination o f t he d ramatis p ersonae o f T acitus's f irst-century s oap o pera. L et C artimandua b e c onsidered f irst. S he i s d escribed b y T acitus ( Histories: i ii: 4 5) a s p ollens n obilitate , t hough n othing i s k nown o f h er l ineage. H er p aramountcy o ver s uch a g reat p eople, a t l east a fter h er r ejection o f V enutius, m ay b e t aken a s s uggesting f ailure o f t he m ale l ine, t hough c aution s hould b e e xercised i n r eaching s uch a c onclusion: t he B ritons w ere c learly n ot e ntirely a verse t o f emale r ule, e ven t o f emale l eadership i n w ar ( vide B oudicca). P opular m ythology h as m ade h er a q uisling q ueen a nd f lame-haired v irago, t hough s he m ay r ather b e c onsidered a n a stute p olitician o f c onsiderable s ubtlety. T he l ocation o f C artimandua's s eat w as l ong p laced a t C astle H ill, A lmondbury, o ne o f B rigantia's f ew c onvincing h illforts a nd a pparently t he p rovenance o f a c oin w hich w as b elieved t o b ear t he n ames o f C artimandua a nd V enutius ( see f or e xample, R ichmond 1 954). R ecent w ork h as h owever d issolved t he c onnection i rreparably: t he c oins a re n ow a ssigned t o t he C oritani ( Allen 1 963) a nd t he o ccupation o f t he h illfort h as b een s hown t o h ave e nded c enturies b efore C artimandua ( Varley 1 976). I ndeed, i t i s d oubtful w hether a ny o f t he h illforts i n B rigantia w ere i n u se f or l ong a fter t he m iddle o f t he f irst m illennium B C, t hough I ngleborough m ay b e a n e xception, e specially i f i t i s i ndeed t o b e a ssociated w ith R igodunum . W herever t he q ueen m ay h ave b een, i t w as n ot a t A lmondbury. O bliquely, t he e vents o f A D 4 7-48, w hen S capula 's e xpedition t o W ales w as i nterrupted b y a r evolt a mong t he B rigantes, m ight s uggest t hat C artimandua's c ontrol o f t he s outhwestern a rea o f h er k ingdom w as w eak, b ecause o f d istance f rom t he s eat o f p ower. T he t urning-point o f C artimandua's c areer c ame i n t he e arly 5 0s w hen s he s urrendered i nto R oman h ands t he f ugitive C atuvellaunian p rince C aratacus. Q uite w hy h e s hould h ave t hought t he B rigantian q ueen l ikely t o p rovide s uccour i s f ar f rom c lear: h er p ro-Roman s tance m ust b y t his t ime h ave b een w ell-established ( Scapula w ould b e u nlikely t o h ave r isked h is f lank d uring t he a dvance a gainst t he O rdovices w ithout t he g uarantee o f a s ympathetic p ower t o t he n orth). T he m ost l ikely c ard i n C aratacus's h and m ust h ave b een a f amilial t ie, a nd a lthough l ittle o r n othing i s k nown o f e ither g enealogy i t i s i nteresting t o n ote a n o ld S cottish t radition t hat C aratacus w as t he s on o f V enutius b y a p revious w ife ( The B uik o f t he C hroniclis o f S cotland, c ited b y C asson 1 945). W hatever c onnection C aratacus m ay h ave h ad w ith t he B rigantes, h is t reatment a t t he h ands o f C artimandua c aused e normous r esentment a mong t he n orthern t ribesmen ( Tacitus A nnals : x ii: H istories : i ii: 4 5). I n t he c onsequent t roubles D idius G allus m oved t o e xtricate C artimandua f rom d anger. T he l ocations o f h is f orts f ollow t he
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s outhern b orders o f B rigantia, a t L ittle C hester, C hesterfield, T empleborough a nd, p erhaps, R ossington B ridge ( Webster 1 981: 1 00; H artley 1 971: 5 6). T his m ay i ndicate t he q ueen's p resence i n s outhern Y orkshire. S imilarly, C erialis's i nvasion r oute v ia t he t erritory o f t he P arisi m ay h ave b een c onditioned b y t he n ecessity o f r escuing t he q ueen, i n w hich c ase t he v icinity o f Y ork, i f n ot t he s ite o f t he c ity i tself , m ay b e s uggested. D espite s ome p re-Flavian m aterial ( Simpson 1 964; W enham 1 971), Y ork h as y ielded n o a rchaeological e vidence w hich m ight s ubstantiate s uch a s uggestion: a lthough s trategic r equirements w ere c ertainly f ulfilled b y t he l ocation o f t he Y ork f ortress, t he p resence o f s ome s ort o f n ative c entre c annot b e d ismissed. R amm ( 1978; 1 980) h as i n t he s ame w ay i dentified t he q ueen f irmly w ith B arwick-in-Elmet, b ut t here i s a l ack o f s pecific i nformation f rom t he 6 h ectare h illfort r ecently r ecognised t here ( although t here i s a s tray R epublican c oin, a nd a nother o f C laudius). W ithin t he s ame a rea, A ldborough, t he a ncient I surium B rigantum , p resents i tself a s ap ossible s eat f or t he r uling B rigantian d ynasty: a fter a ll, i t b ecame t he c ivitas c apital a nd a h ighly s ophisticated, R omanised c ity. C ertainly, i t w ould h ave b een f airly n ormal p ractice t o h ave b uilt a n ew R oman c apital c lose t o t he t raditional n ative s eat o f p ower ( compare m ost o f t he c ivitas c apitals o f s outhern B ritain): A ldborough i s, i n t hat s ense a t l east, t he m ost o bvious p ossible l ocation f or a p re-Roman t ribal c entre. A gain, h owever, a rchaeological e vidence i s u nforthcoming, a nd t he f ew h ints o f p re-Roman a ctivity i n t he A ldborough a rea t oo t antalisingly s light t o b e o f m uch u se ( Richmond 1 954: 4 9-50). T he f oregoing l eads p ersuasively t o t he c onclusion t hat C artimandua h ad ah eadquarters i n t he s outhern p art o f t he V ale o f Y ork. W hat o f S tanwick a s h er p ower-base? C ertainly, i t n ow l ooks a s t hough t he s ite h ad b een a t ribal c entre f or s ome t ime b efore t he c onstruction o f t he m assive f inal-phase d efences ( Haselgrove a nd T urnbull 1 983; 1 984): t he e xistence o f a n e arlier r ampart p hase a nd o f a n u nderlying s ystem o f s light, e arly b oundaries a nd e nclosures u nderlines t he c ontinuity o f t he i mportance o f t his a rea o f l andscape. W hoever b uilt t he f inal d efences i nherited a t radition o f l ocal s trength a nd l eadership. T he n ature o f t he T ofts a ssemblage, t oo, m ight b e s een a s p ointing t o C artimandua. T acitus t ells u s t hat a fter t he c apture o f C aratacus i nde o pes e t r erum s ecundarum l uxus - t he m aterial r ewards o f t he q ueen's f idelity t o h er R oman t ies. T he T ofts m aterial ( Haselgrove a nd T urnbull 1 983) h as t he a ppearance o f r epresenting s ome o f t he w ealthy g oods w ith w hich C artimandua a nd h er s atellites w ere s howered - t he c ups a nd w ine j ars, t he c omfortable r esidence, t he a rchaic j ugs ( Hermet f orm 1 5) o f a f orm s o w ell e stablished i n C eltic t aste. T his i s n ot t he m aterial t o b e e xpected a t t he c itadel o f f inal n ative r esistance t o R ome, s till l ess i n t he i mmured f astness o f t he I ron A ge G uevara o r T ito a s w hom V enutius i s s ometimes p ainted. A lthough t he m aterial c an b e s een a s r epresenting o ne e nd o f a n e xchange o r t rade m echanism e ither w ith t he g rowing R oman m arkets t o t he s outh ( Turnbull 1 984) o r e ven w ith t he m ilitary s upply s ources a cross t he N orth S ea i n t he R hineland, a c loseness t o a nd s ympathy w ith t he i deals o f R omanitas i s e xuded b y t he T ofts a ssemblage. T he m ost t idy a rgument m ay i n t he e nd b e t hat S tanwick, a n h istorically i mportant t ribal c entre, w as o ne o f , b ut n ot t he o nly o ne o f , C artimandua 's s eats.
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C artimandua's f ate i s u nknown: a ttempts t o s ettle h er i n g enteel r etirement i n C hester a re u nconvincing ( cited b y B raund 1 984: 5 ). A s w ith C artimandua, s o w ith V enutius w e a re g iven n o n otion o f o rigins o r l ineage. T here i s a m ajor c hange o f e mphasis i n t he w ays i n w hich T acitus d epicts h im i n t he H istories a nd i n t he A nnals : t he f ormer a ccount s tressing h is f erocious n ature a nd h atred o f R ome, t he l atter h is m ilitary q ualities a nd t he l oyalty h e h ad s hown t o R ome b efore t he c risis o ver C aratacus. C ertainly, h e l ived w ith C artimandua, a pparently i n h appy c oncord, u ntil t hat e vent a nd h ad w ith h er e njoyed t he s upport o f R oman a rms ( Tacitus A nnals : x ii: 4 0.2). T he p recise p osition o f t he t wo i n r elation t o t he d ynastic h ierarchy i s n ot w ithout a mbiguity: C artimandua i s c ertainly r egina , b ut V enutius i s n owhere c alled r ex, a nd t he i mplication i s t hat C artimandua w as q ueen i n h er o wn r ight, V enutius o wing h is s tation t o h is l iaison w ith h er. W ith t he c oming o f t he f inal d enouement o f 6 9 A D, C artimandua d isappears f rom h istory: i f T acitus d oes n ot e xaggerate u nduly t he s upport w hich V enutius b y t his t ime e njoyed a mong t he B rigantes, i t i s l ikely t hat h e r eplaced h er a t t he h ead o f t he B rigantian n ation d e f acto i f n ot d e i ure . I f t hat w ere i ndeed t he c ase, t he o ccupation o f h er f ormer c entre o f p ower w ould h ave b een a v isible s tatement o f h is n ew p osition i n l ife, a s w ell a s a s ensible p recaution a gainst c ounter-coup. I f h er h eadquarters w ere i ndeed i n t he r egion o f Y ork o r A ldborough, s trategic w ithdrawal t o t he n orth w ould l ikewise h ave b een a s ensible r esponse t o t he a dvance o f C erialis a nd i ndeed t he p re-Agricolan, a nd p utatively C erialian, m arching-camps a t R ey C ross, P lumpton H ead a nd C rackenthorpe m ay i ndicate a w ithdrawal t o h ill c ountry v ia t he S tainmore P ass. I t h as b een s uggested ( Birley 1 953: 4 0-41; F rere 1 974: 19-120) t hat p re-Agricolan m aterial f rom C arlisle m ight a lso b e c onnected w ith t he c ampaign a nd r epresent a n a ttempt a t a n e ncircling m ovement. T he w estern p art o f B rigantia s eems l ong t o h ave c ontinued a s l argely u ntamed t erritory, h ighly s uitable a s a r efuge a nd r allyingp lace f or t he b eleaguered V enutian f action. T he f ort a t S tanwix w as t o b e t he l argest, a nd t o b oast t he l argest c avalry g arrison, o f a ny o n H adrian's W all, a nd t hose t roops w ere a s w ell p ositioned t o p olice t he m ilitary z one t o t he s outh a s t o p rotect t he f rontier a gainst n orthern a ttack. S ites o n t he w all d estroyed i n t he t roubles o f t he 1 50s l ie t o t he w est o f t he P ennines, a nd s uggest c ontinuing h ostility a mong t he w estern B rigantes ( see, f or e xample, B irrens: R obertson 1 975). T he e stablishment b y t he t hird c entury o f t he C ivitas C arvetiorum b ased o n C arlisle, m ay m ark a n a ttempt a t a f inal s olution t o t he i nterminable p roblem o f B rigantiah i ntransigence. A n i nteresting d iscovery i n t his c ontext i s t he r ecent e vidence f or t he p resence a t C arlisle o f a c enturio r egionis a t t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury, t hough h is p recise d uties a nd t he e xtent o f h is r egio a re n ot k nown ( Bowman a nd T homas 1 983: 10). E lsewhere i n t he e mpire, i ncluding I taly i tself, c enturiones r egionarii o perated i n a reas w here d irect m ilitary s upervision w as d eemed n ecessary, a nd t heir d uties i ncluded t he m aintenance o f p eace a nd t he e nforcement o f t ribute a rrangements - a n e xample i s O lennius, a ppointed t o s upervise t he F risii ( Tacitus A nnals : i v: 7 2). T he p resence a t C arlisle o f s uch a n o fficial s urely i ndicates a c ontinuing a tmosphere o f t ruculent d isaffection s hortly a fter t he m ilitary a nnexation o f t he n orth.
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T he n orthwest o f E ngland, t hen, i s l ikely t o h ave b een t he f avoured b attle-ground f or t he f inal V enutian r esistance, a nd a n a rea i n w hich s upport i s l ikely t o h ave b een f orthcoming. O utside a ssistance f or V enutius i s m entioned b y T acitus ( Venutius a ccitis a uxiliis... H istories: i ii: 4 5), a nd i t m ay b e b elieved t hat h is c ause b ecame a p opular f ocus o f n orthern r esistance t o R ome. T he s ite o f V enutio , p robably n ear N ewstead, i s m entioned i n t he R avenna C osmography ( Richmond a nd C rawford 1 949: 4 8,182): a lthough i t i s n ot n ow g enerally a ssociated w ith t he p ersonality o f V enutius, a c onnection m ay i ndeed e xist, a nd t he p lace n ame m ay i ndicate a nother, p ersonal, r eason f or t he d irection o f V enutius's s upposed w ithdrawal, t hat h is o wn h omeland l ay i n t hat d irection. W e h ave t he n ame o f o ne o ther m ember o f t he u nhappy r oyal h ousehold. T he e ntire h istory o f V ellocatus i s e pitomised b y T acitus i n a s ingle s entence: s preto V enutio ( is f uit m aritus) a rmigerum e ius V ellocatum i n m atrimonium r egnumque a ccepit ( Histories: i ii: 4 5). T he r epercussions w ere d ramatic a nd i mmediate, t he s ympathies o f a n o utraged p eople g oing t o t he s lighted c onsort. N o e xplanation i s a ttempted o f m otives w hich m ay h ave i nduced t he q ueen t o t ake s o d ramatic a s tep. T he q uarrel o ver C aratacus m ight b e s een a s t he t rigger o f d iscord, b ut t he H istories g ive t he s ense o f c hronological s eparation b etween t he e vents, e quivalent t o t he p eriod o f C artimandua's p rosperity a nd R oman-sanctioned p restige. A n o pen b reak i s u nlikely b efore t he l ate 6 0s, a nd a n u neasy t erm o f a rmed t ruce a nd g rowing t ension m ay b e e nvisaged ( but s ee H anson a nd C ampbell 1 986). T he r ejection o f V enutius a nd t he q ueen 's n ew l iaison w ith V ellocatus, a s r ecounted b y T acitus, h ave g reat s ymbolic s ignificance, w hich h as b een d iscussed b y R ichmond ( 1954). C artimandua i s d escribed a s p ollens n obilitate, ap hrase c alculated t o r esonate i n t he c lassc onscious R oman b reast, h arking b ack t o t heir o wn t ime o f n oble v irtue. T he u se o f t he w ord a rmiger t o d escribe V ellocatus m ay b e s een i n t he s ame l ight: t he r elationship i mplied i n t he t erm m ight b e s een b y t he s ophisticated R oman a s a rchaic, e pic, e ven h eroic. T he u sual l iteral t ranslation i s a rmour-bearer, a c lumsy p hrase f aintly s uggestive o f s ervility. R ichmond ( 1954) f inds a h appier p hrase i n c haracterising V ellocatus a s V enutius's m ost t rusted c lient-chief , a n a lternative w ord m ight b e s quire, s uggestive o f ap ersonal a ttendant, h onoured, o f h igh b irth a nd a chievement. V ellocatus t hen, w as a n a ristocrat: i n t aking h im i n p lace o f V enutius t o s hare b ed a nd k ingdom, C artimandua w as n ot d emeaning h er o wn a ncestry o r s tation. T he o utrage c aused a mong t he B rigantes b y h er a ctions w as n ot d ue t o a ny d istaste f or t he n ewly-chosen c onsort p er s e b ut r ather f rom t he w hole c ircumstance o f d ivorce a nd r emarriage. A nalogies w ith t he I rish C elts s uggest s omething o f t he s trong r egard h eld f or t he p osition o f m arriage, p articularly o n a ccount o f t he r ole o f t he m atrimonial b ond i n l egitimating t he c laims o f t he a ristocracy t o t heir e states a nd t itles ( Chadwick 1 971). D ivorce a t s uch a h igh l evel t hreatened t he s tability o f t he s ociety a nd t he c laims o f t he r uling h ierarchy. H ence, a t l east i n p art, t he B rigantes' r age. R easons h ave b een o utlined f or d isassociating S tanwick f rom b oth C artimandua a nd V enutius, a s l east i n t he r ole o f t heir m ajor p ower-
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b ase. T o s upplant t hem b y V ellocatus i s n ot e ntirely a f anciful n otion. T he s ite i s c ertainly g rand e nough t o h ave s erved a s t he s eat o f a h igh n oble. D uring t he t urmoil o f t he f inal d ebacle a fter 6 9 A D S tanwick w ould h ave a s trategic l ocation m idway b etween t he p ostulated h omelands o f C artimandua t o t he s outheast a nd o f V enutius t o t he n orthwest: a c ynical q ueen a ware o f t he g athering s torm m ight h ave a n e ye t o t he v alue o f ac losely-tied a lly t here. T he R omanised n ature o f t he T ofts m aterial i s n ot i nconsistent w ith w hat m ay b e d ivined o f V ellocatus's p olicies, p resumably k indred t o t hose o f t he q ueen. T acitus w as w riting p olitical a nd m ilitary h istory, n ot r omantic f iction: t he s exual m anoueuvres a t t he c ourt o f C artimandua r epresent m erely a n a spect o f w hat m ust h ave b een a l abyrinthine d ynastic g errymandering. W as V ellocatus m erely a c ypher, a t ool u sed i n t he q ueen's c ampaign t o r id h erself o f a n i nimical c onsort, o r w as h e a m ore a ctive p rotagonist i n t he d rama? T he s cantiness o f t he e vidence i s a n i nvitation t o c onjecture, o n w hich l evel m ay b e p ostulated a v ersion o f t he s tory i n w hich t he p rivate m arriage b ecomes a n a llegory o f t he p olitical a lliance. L et u s n ow d evelop s ome s peculations. T he w ork o f C hadwick ( 1971) a nd o f N ash ( 1975) h as r evealed m uch o f t he r elationships w hich c ommonly e xisted a t t he u pper l evel o f C eltic s ociety. K ings a nd h igh n obles w ere f requently b ound o ne t o a nother b y w ebs o f a llegiance a nd s eignorage, a ltogether s omewhat r eminiscent o f m edieval f eudalism. W as, t hen, t he m arriage b etween C artimandua a nd V enutius a d ynastic e xpedience? T o a nswer t his, s ome i nkling i s n ecessary o f t he o rigins o f V enutius h imself , a nd t he o nly c lue i s a n i nteresting o ne; S tevens ( 1955: 3 92) s uggests o n p hilological g rounds t hat t he G enuni o f P ausanias, R oman c itizens i n t he t ime o f A ntoninus P ius, m ight o riginally h ave b een t he V enutian p eople ( pace H ind 1 977: 2 32-234, R ivet a nd S mith 1 979: 4 7). B irley ( 1973: 1 88) p laced t he G enuni a t t he w estern e nd o f H adrian 's W all, t he g eneral a rea p ostulated a bove a s a p ossible h omeland f or V enutius. T he p roposition m ay i n a ny c ase b e s uggested t hat V enutius w as o riginally i n h is o wn r ight t he k ing o r c hief o f a p eople w ith a c ommunal i dentity o f t heir o wn, h is p eople b eing u nited t o t hose o f C artimandua b y t he m arriage o f t he t wo l eaders. C artimandua c ertainly s eems t o h ave b een t he l ast p aramount r uler o f t he B rigantes: i t i s l ikely t hat s he w as t he f irst. I t i s t oo o bvious a n e rror t o a ssume t hat t he c ivitates o f R oman B ritain n ecessarily c orrespond t o t he t ribal c onfigurations e xisting a t a ny t ime b efore t he c onquest: t he d ynamics o f s ocial a nd p olitical c hange i n C eltic B ritain s eem t o h ave b een w orking a t f ull t hrottle i n t he f irst c entury A D. I t i s c ustomary t o c onsider t he B rigantes a s a c onfederation o f c lans o r s epts s everal o f w hich - t he S etantii, t he C arvetii, t he T extoverdi, t he L opacares, t he G avrantuici a nd t he c onjectured L atenses - h ave l eft u s t heir n ames. R ichmond ( 1954) h as i dentified a s eries o f n aturally d efined t erritories w hich m ight o riginally h ave c ontained s uch g roups. T he R oman c onquest w ould b e a s uitable c atalyst t o p rovoke t he f inal u nification o f t hese s cattered ( and t o a l arge e xtent c ulturally d iverse) p eoples u nder a s ingle p ower, p erhaps b y t he m arriage o f t he t wo m ost p owerful r ulers a nd t heir r espective g roups o f c lient-chiefs. S uch a n e vent, o ccurring a pproximately a t t he t ime o f C laudius's a rrival, w ould b e as uitable
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o ccasion f or t he e mbellishment o f S tanwick, o ne o f s everal t raditional f oci o f t he r uling c aste, w ith i ts e xtensive a nd f ormidable r amparts t he c onstruction o f w hich c ould b e f acilitated b y t he i ncreased a vailability o f c orv6e l abour. I t i s h owever p lain t hat t he s outhern b order, a t l east, o f t he B rigantes w as a lready f irmly e stablished a nd w as r eflected i n t he a ccommodations r eached b etween R ome a nd t he C oritani a nd t he C ornovii. T he i mplication i s t hat t hose b orders r eflected t he p re-existing e xtent o f B rigantian c onfederacy, t hough i t i s d ifficult t o a ssess h ow l ong t hat e xtent h ad p ersisted ( Hartley a nd F itts f orthcoming). A gainst t his v iew o f C artimandua a s t he o riginal f orger o f B rigantian c onfederacy m ust b e s et h er p ollens n obilitate , w hich a t l east s uggests d ynastic c ontinuity, a nd m ight s upport t he v iew o f h er p ersonal a uthority s temming f rom a n e arlier h usband o f w hom s he w as t he r elict. C artimandua's s ubsequent e xternal p olicies w ould t hus b e s een a s c alculated t o m aintain a n e xisting r egime a nd s ystem o f a lliances, r ather t han t o c ement n ew o nes. I f s uch w as t he p osition a t t he t ime o f e arly c ontact w ith R ome, t hen C artimandua, a pparently t he s enior p artner, e mbarked t he r ecently u nited p eople o n ap olicy o f f riendly c o-operation w ith t he i mperial p ower. S he i s o ften w ritten o f a s ac lient q ueen: t he p hrase s hould b e u sed w ith c aution, a s i t i mplies a s pecific r elationship w hich d id n ot n ecessarily a pply t o t he B rigantes ( Braund 1 983), a lthough s ome f ormal t reaty o bviously e xisted. S he h ad e stablished a h old o ver t he n orth f rom s ea t o s ea, b ut u ltimately h er c ontrol d epended u pon t he s upport o f R oman a rms, a nd h er p aramountcy u pon t he o fficial r ecognition o f R oman a uthority - a nd R oman p restige m ust h ave b een v ery h igh s o s oon a fter t heir t riumphant b litzkrieg t hrough s outhern B ritain. T he q ueen's h old o ver h er h uge p olity s oon p roved p recarious: t he a dvance u nder O storius S capula a gainst t he O rdovices w as h alted b y a r evolt a mong t he B rigantes, t hreatening t he s ecurity o f t he R oman c olumn's r ight f lank a nd p roving a s ufficient t hreat t o t he n ew s ettlement i n B rigantia t o n ecessitate C artimandua's r escue b y R oman f orces. V enutius a t t his s tage w as s till w ith h er a nd s till a n a lly. T he p olicy a fter t he r evolt s eems t o h ave b een t o p atch t hings u p ( in s tark c ontrast t o t he r ecent t reatment o f t he r ebellious I ceni), t he r ingleaders b eing e xecuted b ut t heir f ollowers p ardoned ( Annals : x ii: 3 2). T he f light o f C aratacus t o C artimandua m ust h ave b een t he s upreme t est o f h er l oyalty t o t he R oman a lliance ( or o f h er d ependence u pon i t), p articularly i f b lood-ties d id i ndeed e xist b etween t hem, a nd m ore p articularly i f t he q ueen d id i ndeed t rap h im b y s ome s ubterfuge, a s t he a ccount i n t he A nnals s uggests. T his w as t he p oint a t w hich C artimandua's r erum s ecundarum l uxus , t he c oveted r ewards o f h er p rivileged r elationship t o t he e mpire, w ere s howered u pon h er. S hortly, h owever, f or w hatever r eason, t he q ueen f ound i t e xpedient t o d ispose o f V enutius a nd t hereby, t o p ursue o ur c onjecture, t o r enounce a n o ld a lliance. P erhaps s he c ould n o l onger m aintain h er c redibility i n R oman e yes w hile s he r emained s addled w ith a c onsort w hose o wn p eople w ere l ess e nthusiastic t han s he a bout t he
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a dvantages o f R omanitas ; p erhaps t he q ueen w ho h ad f ailed C aratacus w as a larmed t o f ind h er o wn p opularity d windling i n f avour o f h er h usband. W hatever t he r eason, i t w as o ut w ith V enutius a nd i n w ith V ellocatus. I t h as b een s hown t hat V ellocatus w as i n h is o wn r ight a m ember o f t he n obility a nd t hat h e m ay w ell h ave b een a B rigantian w ith t raditional t ies t o S tanwick. I n t hat c ase, t he n ew m arriage w ould b e s een a s r eforging t he u nity o f B rigantia a nd r e-establishing C artimandua's b ona f ides w ith a nother l ocal r uler a cceptable t o R oman p olicy. A nother p ossibility i s h owever o pen, t hat V ellocatus w as n ot a B rigantian a t a ll, b ut a s outherner. T he p ractice o f f osterage ( Chadwick 1 971) w as w ell-established a mong t he C eltic p eople; t he p rocess i nvolved t he f ostering o f t he s ons o f t he n obility i n t he h ouseholds u sually o f h igher n obles, t o m aintain t ies a mong t he h igher l evels o f s ociety a nd a t t he s ame t ime t o a ct a s f ormal g uarantee o f g ood f aith. T he p osition o f a rmiger o ccupied b y V ellocatus i s j ust t he s ort o f g ood s ituation i n w hich a n h onoured h ostage m ight f ind h imself . M ight n ot V ellocatus h ave b een a y oung n oble, f ostered i n t he B rigantian c ourt b ut w ith o rigins e lsewhere, i n a n ative c ourt a pproved b y R ome, p erhaps t hat o f t he f riendly a nd n eighbouring C oritani? T he s ymbolic p urpose s erved b y t he n ew m arriage w ould t hen b e e mphatically m ade: t he s haky o ld a lliance w as r ejected, a nd C artimandua w as a lmost l iterally w edded t o t he R oman w orld. I f t his w ere i ndeed t he s trategy i n h er m ind, t hen C artimandua 's j udgement w as a gain a t f ault. W ithin a f ew y ears h er k ingdom w as o verrun, h er h ouse e xtinguished a nd s he a nd h er c onsorts l ost i n t he a byss o f t he p ast. W e h ave t ried t o d raw a q uart o f d etail f rom a p int p ot o f h istory, a nd i t i s h oped t hat i nsights w ill b e f ound i n s ome o f t he l iquor t hat h as f lowed. S tanwick, t he s tarting p oint, r emains h owever w ithout a c learly i dentifiable p roprietor, t hough t he i rony r emains t hat t he s ite f or s o l ong a ssociated w ith V enutius d isplays t he m aterial l uxuries w hich r esulted f rom t he p olicies p romulgated b y C artimandua. T he h apless V ellocatus d eserves t o b e r escued f rom t otal o bscurity: l et h im, a t l east f or a w hile, h ave t itle t o t he k ey s ite o f t he B rigantes.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he a uthors w ould l ike t o a cknowledge t heir i ndebtedness t o f ruitful d iscussions w ith c olleagues, a nd p articularly w ith B rian H artley a nd C olin H aselgrove, w ho h ave c ommented o n, w ithout i ncurring r esponsibility f or, t he i deas c ontained h erein. D awn S tanness a nd t he N orthern U niversities M ultiple A ccess C omputer s taff a t D urham m ade a l ong-range c ollaboration p ossible.
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1 983
R ome a nd t he F riendly K ing .
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J G F
1 977
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' Genounian'
p art o f B ritain. B ritannia 8 :
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2 29-
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S 1 978 2 15-219.
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1 974
V enutius a nd
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2 2:
T HE P LACE N AMES O F E AST Y ORKSHIRE I N T HE R OMAN P ERIOD J OHN C REIGHTON
I f a h ypothesis i s r epeated o ften e nough i n t he l iterature o f a ny s ubject, i t d oes n ot t ake l ong f or i ts t enuous f oundations t o b ecome o bscured, a nd i ts c onclusions t o b e t reated a s t hough t hey w ere f acts. S uch h as b een t he c ase w ith t he i dentification o f t he p rincipal R oman s ites i n e ast Y orkshire. T his p aper s eeks t o r eassess t he e vidence. R ivet a nd S mith ( 1979) h as b een u sed f or t he d ocumentary s ources a nd C ollingwood a nd W right ( 1965 - h ereafter R IB) f or t he e pigraphy. T here a re f our d ocuments a nd o ne i nscription w hich p rovide s ources f or t his t ask, t hey a re s ummarised b elow :
t he
S ource/Site P etuaria P raetorio D erventio D elgovicia G abranto- O celli v icum P rom. S inus
P tolemy
x
R IB 7 07
x
R avenna C osmography
x
A ntonine I tinerary
x
x
x
x
N otitia D ignitatum
x
x
x
P resent o rthodoxy s uggests P raetorio i n t he A ntonine I tinerary i s a c orruption o f t he p roposed c ivitas c apital P etuaria a t B rough-onH umber. I t a lso b elieves t hat D erventio i s M a nor ), h owever o pinion i s d ivided u pon t he l ocation o f D elgovicia, w ith M illington b eing t he o ld f avourite, S hiptonthorpe b eing t he n ew, a nd W etwang a nd S tamford B ridge s tanding i n a s a lternative p ossibilities. P ETUARIA A ND B ROUGH-ON-HUMBER P etuaria i s t he b est r ecorded p lace n ame i n R oman e ast Y orkshire, b eing a ttested i n G reek l iterature ( Ptolemy), L atin l iterature ( Ravenna C osmography) a nd e pigraphy ( RIB n umber 7 07). I n h is B ritannia, t own o f t he E ast R iding, e vidence f or t his.
C amden e quated i ts l ocation w ith t he B everley, t hough h e a dmitted h e h ad
3 87
c ounty l ittle
' [Beverley] .. f rom i ts n ame a nd s ituation, o ne w ould i magine i t t o b e t he P etuaria P arisorum, t ho ' i t p retends t o n othing o f g reat a ntiquity, t han t hat J ohn S irnamed d e B everley, A rchbishop o f Y ork, a m an ( as B ede r epresents h im) t hat w as b oth d evout a nd l earned.' ( Camden 1 695: 7 38) H owever, i n t he e ighteenth c entury B rough b ecame a ssociated w ith t he n ame. E ven o ne o f t he f ake R oman r oad i tineraries a scribed t o R ichard o f C irencester u sed t his i dentification. I n I ter X VII h e t raced a j ourney u p t hrough L incoln, a long E rmine S treet t o O ld W interingham ( which h e s tyled A d A bum), a cross a f erry t o P etuariam a nd o n t o Y ork ( Stukeley 1 776: 9 7). T he e quation:
d iscovery o f R IB n umber 7 07 i n 1 937 a ppeared t o c onfirm t his
o b h onor[em] d omvs d ivi[nae] i mp(eratoris) C aes(aris) T (iti) A el(i) H [adri]ani A ntonini A [ug(usti) P ii] p (atris) p (atriae) c o(n)s(ulis) I [II] e t N umenib(us) A [ug(ustorum)] Karcus) V 1p(ius) I anuar[i]u[s] a edilis v ici P etu[ar(iensis)] p roscaen(ium) [ ...] d e s uo [ dedit]
F or t he h onour o f t he d ivine h ouse o f t he E mperor C aesar T itus A elius H adrianus A ntoninus A ugustus P ius f ather o f h is c ountry, t hrice c onsul, a nd t o t he D eities o f t he E mperors, M arcus U lpius J anuarius, a edile o f t he v illage o f P etuaria, p resented t his [ new] s tage a t h is o wn e xpense.
T he i nscription i s d ated t o A D 1 40-144 a nd b elonged t o t he f oundation o f a t heatre i n P etuaria i tself . H owever t he l ink i s n ot o ne h undred p ercent s ecure b ecause t he s tone w as n ot f ound i n s itu, b ut r ather a s r eused m asonry i n a l ater b uilding, a dded t o w hich t he r emains o f a t heatre h ave y et t o b e d iscovered i n B rough. T his h as l ed W acher t o s uggest t hat t he i nscription m ay h ave b een b rought f rom e lsewhere, f rom t he ' real' l ocation o f P etuaria, p erhaps N orth F erriby ( Wacher 1 975: 3 95-397). H owever t he e vidence f or a ny o ccupation a t N orth F erriby d uring t his p eriod i s m inimal, t he m ain f loruit o f l ife h ere b eing i n t he C laudio-Neronian p eriod [ editorial n ote: s ee C rowther a nd D idsbury t his v olume]. I n a ny c ase, n o t heatre i s k nown h ere e ither. A s R amm s ays, ' Brough p rima f acie o ught t o b e t he o riginal s ite o f v icus P etuariensis a nd i ts t heatre.' ( Ramm 1 978: 3 9). T HE N OTITIA D IGNITATUM A ND D ERVENTIO L ine 3 1 o f t he 4 0th C hapter o f t he N otitia s tates t hat t he u nit o f S upervenientes o f P etuaria w as s tationed a t D erventio ( Rivet a nd S mith 1 979: 2 19-220). T his D erventio f ollowing r easons:
h as
u sually
b een l ocated
3 88
a t
M alton
f or
t he
a ) b ) c ) d )
e )
A ccording t o t he A ntonine I tinerary t here i s aD erventio s omewhere i n e ast Y orkshire. T here i s aR oman r oad f rom Y ork t o M alton. M alton i s o n t he R iver D erwent. T here w as a R oman f ort a t M alton a nd R oman o ccupation m aterial o f t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies w as f ound t here. T he u nit w as r aised a t P etuaria, w hich i s a lso i n e ast Y orkshire.
A s w ill b e s hown l ater, t he r eading o f t he A ntonine I tinerary d oes n ot i nitially f it w ell w ith t he i dea o f t his e quation, a nd v arious t extual e rrors h ave t o b e s uggested i n o rder t o m ake i t f it. T he m ain p roblem i s t hat Y ork t o D erventio i s g iven a s 7m u le p assuum ( hereafter m p), w hile t he d istance t o M alton i s 1 8.6 m p. S uffice i t t o s ay f or t he m oment t hat o n t he b asis o f t he I tinerary a lone, M alton i s a n u neasy f it f or D erventio. T he i dentification i s o nly e ased b y t he p resence o f a f ort a nd i ts e ntry i n t he N otitia. T he m ost r ecent a nalysis o f t he m ilitary o ccupation o f n orthern B ritain h as b een t hat b y B reeze a nd D obson ( 1985). A s ummary o f t heir s cheme o f o ccupation f or v arious s ites i n t he a rea i s g iven b elow:
D ate/ S ite
B rough
S tamford B ridge
7 5 8 5 9 5 10 1 30 1 50 1 70 2 20 2 80 3 70
x
p ossibly p ossibly
H ayton
x x
M alton
x x x x
x x x
Y ork
x x x x x x x x x x
L ease R igg
p ossibly x x
P apcastle ( Cumbria)
p robably p robably x x p ossibly x
T hough t here e xists m uch d ebate .a bout t he e xact d ate o f t he B ritish e ntry i n t he N otitia, t here w ould b e l ittle c ontention i n s aying t hat i t i s l ate f ourth c entury. A t t his t ime M alton w ould b e t he o nly p ossible c andidate i n e ast Y orkshire w orthy o f m ention i n t he N otitia, b eing t he o nly k nown m ilitary s ite, a part f rom t he s ignal s tations. H owever, t here a re s everal o ther s ites ( and e ven m ore r ivers) i n R oman B ritain c alled D erventio, s o c ould t he N otitia p ossibly b e r eferring t o o ne o f t hese i nstead? O ne s ite w orthy o f i nvestigation i s t hat o f P apcastle i n C umbria. L et u s e xamine t he N otitia e ntry m ore c arefully ( Rivet a nd S mith 1 979: 2 19-220). T he e ntry a ppears i n t he s ection a ttributed t o t he D uke o f t he B ritains a nd i s s tructured i n t he f ollowing w ay:
l ine
1 7
l ine l ines l ines l ine l ines l ine l ines l ines l ines
1 8 1 9-21 2 2-31 3 2 3 3-45 4 6 4 7-53 5 4-56 5 7-65
U nder t he c ontrol o f t he v ir s pectabilis, B ritains: P refect o f t he S ixth L egion P refect o f ...[...various c avalry u nits] P refect o f ...[...various o ther u nits] A lso, a long t he l ine o f t he w all [ units a long t he w all] [ line m issing] [ units d own t he S olway/Irish s ea c oast] [ units i n t he P ennines] [ the a dministrative s taff o f t he D uke]
t he D uke o f t he
A s c an b e s een, t he d ocument c onforms t o a v ery o rderly elow: s tructure. T he s ection i n w hich w e a re i nterested i s e xpanded b l ine 2 2 l ine 2 3 l ine 2 4 l ine 2 5 l ine 2 6 l ine 2 7 l ine 2 8 l ine 2 9 l ine 3 0 l ine 3 1
P refect o f t he u nit o f T igris B oatmen, a t A rbeia. P refect o f t he u nit o f N ervei o f D icti, a t D icti. P refect o f t he u nit o f V igiles, a t C oncangios. P refect o f t he u nit o f E xploratores, a t L avatres. P refect o f t he u nit o f D irectores, a t V erteris. P refect o f t he u nit o f D efensores, a t B raboniaco. P refect o f t he u nit o f S olenses, a t M aglone. P refect o f t he u nit o f P acenses, a t M agis. P refect o f t he u nit o f L ongovicani, a t L ongovicio. P refect o f t he u nit o f S upervenientes o f P etuaria, a t D erventione.
S outh S hields ?W earmouth C hester l e S treet B owes B rough K irkby T hore ? O ld C arlisle ?B urrow W alls L anchester
T hese s ites h ave b een p lotted i n F igure 2 2.1, w ith t he p otential s ites o f D erventio b eing r epresented a s o pen c ircles.
t wo
T he g eographical l ocation o f P apcastle m akes i t a f ar b etter c andidate t o b e t his D erventio, s ince l ike a ll t he o ther s ites i n t his s ection i t l ies j ust b ehind H adrian's W all. F urthermore, t he a rchaeological e vidence i ndicates t hat P apcastle i s w ell e nough s upplied w ith f ourth c entury m aterial t o w arrant b eing i ncluded i n t he N otitia. M alton i s s ited o utside t his a rea i n t he c ul d e s ac o f e ast Y orkshire, o nly t o b e r eached v ia Y ork o r b y a f erry a cross t he H umber. I f t he d ocument h ad b een r eferring t o M alton, t hen s urely i t w ould h ave b een m ore l ogical t o p lace t his e ntry a fter l ines 5 4-56. H ere i t w ould h ave a ppeared a s a n atural p rogression a fter B remetenacum ( Ribchester), O lenacum ( Elslack) a nd V irosidum ( Bainbridge).
t he
M alton t herefore d oes n ot h ave a s trong c ase t o b e i dentified a s D erventio r eferred t o i n t he N otitia. T he f inal l ink i n t he
3 90
C .
l isted i n N otitia D ignitatum C hapter
C . "
c -
a )
a rgument s upporting M alton 's c laim i s t hat t he u nit s tationed t here w as r aised a t P etuaria ( Brough-on-Humber). H owever, w ith T igris B oatm en o n t he e astern e nd o f t he W all, Iw ould s ee a u nit r aised o n t he d ifficult w aters o f t he H umber e stuary a s e qually f itting t o t he d efence o f t he w estern S olway c oast l ine. Ip ropose, f or a rgument's s ake, t o c onclude t hat t he D erventio o f t he N otitia i s n ot t he o ne i n e ast Y orkshire. T his m eans t hat w e n ow o nly h ave f our s ources w ith w hich t o d o o ur t ask.
abrantov- O celli P etuaria P raetorio D erventio D elgovicia G i cum S inus P rom .
P tolemy
x
R IB 7 07
x
R avenna C osmog raphy
x
A ntonine I tinerary
x
x
x
x
x
x
W ith o ur s ources t hus r educed, o ne m ight t entatively s uggest t hat P etuaria a nd D elgovicia w ere t he t wo m ost n oteworthy s ettlements i n t he r egion, r ather t han a s h itherto b een a ssumed P etuaria a nd D erventio.
T HE R AVENNA C OSMOGRAPHY ( Rivet a nd S mith 1 979: 1 85-215) T he e ntries f rom t he B ritish s ections w hich a re r elevant t o p aper r ead a s f ollows:
E ntry i n t he C osmography ( with v ariations)
U ncorrupted N ame
1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .
L ongovicium V inovia L avatris C ataractonium E buracum P etuaria D elgovicia
L ineoiugla V inovia, V inonia L avaris C actabactonion E buracum D ecuaria D evovicia, D evouicia, D enouicia
t his
M odern N ame L anchester B inchester B owes C atterick Y ork B rough-on-Humber
T he C osmography, c ompiled i n t he s eventh c entury, i s a las m uch c orrupted. H owever, t he d erivation o f D ecuaria f rom P etuaria a nd D evovicia f rom D elgovicia s eems a cceptable. I t h as l ong b een
3 92
TUC.
F igure 2 2.2
S ites i n t he t ext
l isted i n t he R avenna C osmography .
3 93
e stablished t hat t he C osmography i s b ased u pon r oad i tineraries. I n s ome p arts o f t he e mpire t he r outes a re e xtremely s imilar t o t hose o f t he A ntonine I tinerary. I n t his c ase, t hough s ome e lements i n t his s ection a re s imilar t o I ter I a nd I ter I, i t f ollows n either e xactly. I n t heir a ssessment o f t he B ritish s ection, R ivet a nd S mith ( 1979: 2 09) m ade o ut e ight s ubdivisions, b ut t hey c oncluded t hat w ithin e ach t here w as l ittle l ogic a nd t hat r oads w ere h ardly f ollowed c onsistently. T he s ection w e a re i nterested i n h as b een p lotted i n F igure 2 2.2. A n i nitial i nterpretation o f t his i s t hat t he w ay f rom L anchester t o B rough f ollows o ne i tinerary, w hile D elgovicia s eems t o b e r ather l eft o ff a t t he e nd. I t c ould b e t hat D elgovicia d id n ot f orm p art o f t he i tinerary o n w hich t his p art o f t he C osmography w as b ased, a s o therwise t his r oute w ould i ndicate a j ourney f rom Y ork o ut t o o ne e dge o f P arisian t erritory, t hen a r eturn j ourney i nto t he h interland t o w herever D elgovicia w as s ituated. I n i ts m ost p ositive l ight, t he d ocument t ells u s t hat D elgovicia w as n ot s ited o n t he Y ork t o B rough-onH umber r oad, b ut e lsewhere. I n i ts m ost n egative l ight i t o nly t ells u s w hat w e a lready k now, t hat b oth s ites a re i n e ast Y orkshire .. s omewhere. A f inal a spect o f i nterest, i s t hat t he c ompiler, w hoever h e w as, v iewed P etuaria a nd D elgovicia a s t he m ain s ettlements o f n ote o n t he r oad, n ot D erventio. T HE A NTONINE I TINERARY ( Rivet a nd S mith 1 979: 1 481 82: d istances f rom O rdnance S urvey 1 : 5 0,000 m ap s eries)
5 0
4 0
4
3 0
2 0
T he A ntonine I tinerary i s o ur o nly d etailed s ource f or t he l ocation o f D erventio, D elgovicia a nd P raetorio. H owever, j ust h ow a ccurate i s 1 0 t he I tinerary? F igure 2 2.3 p lots t he d ifference b etween t he m ileages r ecorded i n I tineraries I t o X IV, a nd t he a ctual d istances o n t he g round. O f t he 1 43 s tretches l ooked a t, 18 a re b etween t wo 1 2 10 B 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 6 1 0 1 2 (I t i ne ra ry D is tance -A c tua l D i stance) R oman M i les w ell-identified s ites ( black), 2 2 a re b etween o ne w ellF igure 2 2.3 H istogram s howing a ccuracy i dentified s ite a nd a nother o f d istances i n A ntonine i nsecure s ite ( hatched), a nd 3 I tinerary. a re b etween t wo i nsecurelyi dentified s ites ( clear).
3 94
T he r esults s how t hat o ver t wo t hirds o f t he d istances a re a ccurate t o 1m p. T here i s, h owever, a s trong b ias t owards a s light s hortfall i n t he d istances. T he u sual e xplanation f or t his i s t hat t he I tineraries d o n ot r ecord t he p oint t o p oint l engths b etween t he c entres o f t he s ettlements, b ut r ather t hat f rom t he e dge o f o ne p lace t o t he b oundary o f a nother. I ter I A l imite i d e st a v allo P raetorio u sque m p C LVI S tated D istance
M odern N ame
A ctual D istance
E rror
( mp)
AB remenio C orstopitum
X X
V indomora V inovia C ataractoni I surium E buracum, l eg V I V ictrix D erventione D elgovicia P raetorio
V IIII X VIIII X XII X XIIII X VII V II X III X XV C LVI
H igh R ochester t o C orbridge E bchester B inchester C atterick B ridge A ldborough Y ork
2 5.4 1 0.2 1 9.4 2 1.9 2 5.1 1 7.3
5.4 1.2 0.4 + 0.1 1.1 0.3
A part f rom t he f irst s tretch f rom H igh R ochester t o C orbridge, t he m ileages o f I ter I a re a ll t rue t o f orm, a s light s hortfall i s c ommon, h owever n o d istances a re e ver m ore t han a m ile o r s o o ut. I n t he f ollowing p ages a n umber o f s olutions a re p ut f orward f or t he l ocation o f t hese t hree s ites ( Figure 2 2.4). S everal f actors s hould b e l ooked f or i n a ' good ' s olution.
w ish
F irst, g iven t he a ccuracy o f t he r est o f t he I tinerary, w e w ould t he s olutions' d istances b etween s ites t o f it e qually w ell.
S econd, t he f ewer t he t extual c orruptions p ostulated t o m ake t he s olution f it, t he m ore l ikely t he a nswer i s t o b e r ight. C onfusion b etween V a nd I I a nd X a nd V a re t he m ost c ommon e rrors i n n umerical t ranscription, h owever t he f act t hat t he I ter I t otal m ileage i s s till e qual t o t he s um o f t he i ndividual m ileages ( CLVI) s uggests e ither t hat n o e rrors o f t his s ort h ave o ccurred, a s t his w ould h ave t hrown o ut t he m ileage t otal, o r t hat i n t wo e arly t ranscriptions f irstly a n i nitial e rror w as m ade, t hen s econdly i t w as n oticed t hat t he h eadings t otal a nd t he a ctual t otal n o l onger c orresponded a nd t he f ormer w as a ltered t o m atch. T his i s o f c ourse p ossible, b ut p erhaps n ot a s l ikely. T hird, D erventio, t hough n ot n ecessarily M alton, o n t he R iver D erwent.
3 95
s hould b e p laced
L ease R i gg
1 —{
1 0
2 0
3 0km
S ca rbo rough
o F i ley
M u t ton
R uds ton B r id l ing ton \o We twa rg --
__ S tam fo rd e r ld
ge
0M i l l ing ton
Y o rk
S h ip ton tho rpe
o M a rke t We igh ton
°Beve r ley
Br„ g h N o r th F e rn b y 0 O ld 9 W in te r ing h am
F igure
2 2.4
S ites i n e ast Y orkshire a nd t he H umber m entioned i n t he t ext.
r egion
F ourth, t he r oute p roposed s hould f ollow a long R oman r oads t hat a re k nown t o e xist. I t s hould a lso f ollow a s ensible c ourse; n o o ther r outes i n B ritain c ross t hemselves o r d ouble b ack o n t hemselves, s o t here i s n o r eason w hy t his o ne s hould. A s P raetorio i s o ften e quated w ith P etuaria , i t s hould b e s tated t hat t here i s n o d irect e vidence f or t his l ink. I n f act t he d erivation o f t he n ame P raetorio a s a r ationalised c orruption o f P etuaria i s m ost u nlikely. H owever, i t i s q uite p ossible t o h ave a s ettlement r eferred t o b y a n umber o f d ifferent n ames; a fter a ll, C olchester i s r eferred t o a s C amoloduno i n I ter I X, b ut a s C olonia i n I ter V .
3 96
W ith s pecific r eference t o P raetorio i n t his c ontext, S mith s tate t hat
R ivet a nd
' Praetorium i s ad escriptive, n ot a p roper, n ame a nd m eans a n o fficial r esidence: t here w as, o f c ourse, a p raetorium i n Y ork ( attested b y R IB 6 62), b ut t here i s n o r eason w hy t here s hould n ot h ave b een o thers e lsewhere ( including, a s M r W acher h as s uggested, o ne a t B rough), s ince p raetorium a ppears a s a s tagingp oint i n o ther p rovinces i n t he I tinerary ( in C appodacia, C ilicia, P annonia, D almatia a nd T arraconensis) a t p laces w hich w ere n either l egionary f ortresses n or p rovincial c apitals.' ( Rivet a nd S mith 1 979: S o t hough P etuaria m ay b e t he m onopolise t his i dentification. S olution A :
P raetorio o f I ter I ,
1 55-156).
i t s hould
n ot
M alton - M illington - B rough
M S R eading
P roposed O riginal R eading
M odern N ame
A ctual D ist.
E rror
D ERVENTIONE V II
D ERVENTIONE X VII
M ALTON
1 8.6
1.6
D ELGOVICIA
X III
D ELGOVICIA
X III
M ILLINGTON
1 3.6
0.6
P RAETORIO
X XV
P ETUARIA
X V
B ROUGH
1 9.9
4.9
5 2.1
7.1
4 5
4 5
S OURCE - O rdnance S urvey ( 1956) T he m erit o f t his s olution i s t hat t he Y ork/Malton a nd M illington d istances a re w ithin o ur e xpected a ccuracy.
M alton/
T he p roblems a re: 1 .
T wo t extual c orruptions a re r equired ( XVII f or V II a nd X V f or X XV) w hich b y c oincidence b alance e ach o ther o ut. T his i s u nlikely.
2 .
T he M illington/Brough d istance i s a bout 5 m iles o ut, v ery r are f or t he I tinerary t o b e s o i naccurate.
3 .
T he R oman s ite a t M illington i s n ot e ven o n t he R oman r oad, a nd o ne c ould q uestion w hy i t s hould a ppear i n t he I tinerary a s i t i s h ardly a m ajor s ite. T he a rchaeological e vidence o nly s uggests a v illa w ith s ome a dded r eligious f unctions.
4 .
I t r equires P raetorio t o b e ac orruption o f P etuaria.
i t i s
I n c onclusion, t he n umber o f p roposed c orruptions o f t he t ext, t he i naccuracy o f t he d istances a nd t he n ature o f t he s ite a ll a dd u p a gainst t his s olution.
3 97
S olution B :
M alton - S tamford B ridge - B rough
P roposed O riginal R eading
M S R eading
M odern N ame
A ctual
E rror
D ist.
D ERVENTIONE V II
D ERVENTIONE X VII
M ALTON
1 8.6
1.6
D ELGOVICIA
X III
D ELGOVICIA
X III
S TAMFORD B R
1 3.0
0
P RAETORIO
X XV
P ETUARIA
X XV
B ROUGH
2 5.3
0.3
5 6.9
1.9
5 5
4 5 S OURCE - R amm
( 1978:
5 7)
T he m erits o f t his s olution a re: 1 .
T he m ileages f it r eading.
v ery w ell
w ith
t he
p roposed
o riginal
2 .
S tamford B ridge i s a s ite m ore w orthy o f i nclusion t han M illington. A f ort h ad b een s ited t here. I t w as a n i mportant c rossing o f t he D erwent t hroughout a ntiquity.
T he p roblems a re: 1 .
T his s olution i nvolves a s uggested c orruption o f t he t ext ( as d oes A ) i n o rder t o s ecure t he i dentification o f M alton w ith D erventio. H owever, h ere t his t hrows o ut t he t otal d istance o f I ter I w hich i s a m ajor p roblem.
2 .
I t i s a n i llogical r oute w ith t he j ourney e ffectively d oubling b ack o n i tself t o g o v ia S tamford B ridge.
3 .
I t r equires P raetorio t o b e a c orruption o f P etuaria.
I n c onclusion, t he s olution i s n ot f avoured b ecause i t i s a n u nlikely r oute a nd b ecause t he t otal d istance o f I ter I i s t hrown o ut. S olution C :
M alton - W etwang - B rough P roposed O riginal R eading
M S R eading
M odern N ame
A ctual D ist.
E rror
D ERVENTIONE V II
D ERVENTIONE X VII
M ALTON
1 8.6
1.6
D ELGOVICIA
X III
D ELGOVICIA
X III
W ETWANG
1 2.7
+ 0.3
P RAETORIO
X XV
P ETUARIA
X XII
B ROUGH
2 2.3
0.3
5 3.6
1.6
5 2
4 5 S OURCE - R ivet a nd S mith
( 1979:
1 57).
3 98
T he m erit o f t his s olution i s t hat t he a ctual d istances a re v ery c lose t o t hose o f t he p roposed o riginal r eading. T he p roblems a re: 1 .
T wo t ranscription e rrors a re s uggested, a nd X XII f or X XV.
X VII
2 .
T he p roposed a mendments t o t he I tinerary t hrow o ut t he t otal m ileage o f I ter I .
3 .
N o s ubstantial R oman r emains a re i mportant I ron A ge s ite ( Dent 1 983).
4 .
U ntil r ecently t here w as n o k nown R oman r oad f rom W etwang t o B rough. T races o f o ne h ave n ow b een f ound ( Rivet a nd S mith 1 979: 1 57), a lthough i t s eems t hey o nly a mount t o a w inding c ountry l ane r ather t han a m ajor r oute ( Whitwell p ersonal c ommunication).
k nown
f or
a t
V II
t his
I n c onclusion, t wo t extual c orruptions, a n i ncorrect m ileage t otal a nd a l ack o f R oman r emains w eigh h eavily a gainst t his s olution. S olution D :
M alton - S hiptonthorpe - B rough
M S R eading
P roposed O riginal R eading
M odern N ame
A ctual D ist.
E rror
D ERVENTIONE V II
D ERVENTIONE X VII
M ALTON
1 8.6
1.6
D ELGOVICIA
X III
D ELGOVICIA
X VI
S HIPTONTHORPE
1 8.0
2.0
P RAETORIO
X XV
P ETUARIA
X V
B ROUGH
1 2.2
+ 2.8
4 8.8
0.8
4 5
4 8
S OURCE - A s s olutions A -C a bove, e xcept t hat D elgovicia h as b een e quated w ith S hiptonthorpe ( Millett 1 985: 2 81). T he m erit o f t his s olution 0.8 m iles i s v ery g ood.
i s t hat t he t otal m ileage e rror o f
T he p roblems a re: 1 .
A s cribal e rror i s r equired o n e very l ine i n o rder t o m ake t he d istances c ome a nywhere n ear t o f itting.
2 .
T he t otal d istance o f I ter I w ould b e t hrown o ut.
3 .
I t r equires P raetorio t o b e ac orruption o f P etuaria.
I n c onclusion, t his s olution i s v ery d ifficult t o a ccept b ecause o f t he w ide e rrors i n t he m ileage a nd t he i naccuracies i n t he t ext t hat i t w ould r equire, I t h as, h owever, b een i ncluded t o d emonstrate
3 99
t hat S hiptonthorpe c annot b e a c andidate f or D elgovicia w ithin a f ramework t hat d emands D erventio t o b e M alton, a nd P raetorio, B rough. S olution E :
M alton - S tamford B ridge - B rough ( again)
M S R eading
P roposed O riginal R eading
D ERVENTIONE V II
D ELGOVICIA
D ELGOVICIA
AD ERVENTIONE D ELGOVICIA X III P ETUARIA
P RAETORIO
X III
X XV
4 5
M odern N ame
V II
S TAMFORD B R
X XV
E rror
7 .8
0.8
F ROM M ALTON T O S TAMFORD B R
1 3.0
0
B ROUGH
2 5.3
0.3
4 6.1
1.1
4 5
S OURCE - R amm ( 1978:
A ctual D ist.
5 7).
T he m erit o f t his i s t hat i t i s a n i ngenious s olution w hich b y i ts s uggestion o f a Y -junction a t S tamford B ridge g ives t hree e xceptionally w ell f itting m ileages w ithout a ny d istortion o f t he t otal. T he p roblems a re: 1 .
P arts o f t wo l ines a re r equired t o h ave b een d ropped b y s cribal e rror. H owever, t hese a typical l ines w ould s urely h ave d rawn a ttention t o t hemselves, m aking t hem l ess l ikely t o h ave b een c opied i ncorrectly i n t ranscription.
2 .
T here i s n o p recedent f or a Y -junction o f t his k ind i n t he I tinerary.
I n c onclusion, a lthough t he s olution i s i ngenious d istances g ood, t he l ack o f p recedent i s am ajor p roblem. S olution F :
a nd
t he
M alton - M illington - Y ork _
M S R eading
P roposed O riginal R eading
. M odern N ame
A ctual D ist.
E rror
D ERVENTIONE V II
D ERVENTIONE X VII
M ALTON
1 8.6
1.6
D ELGOVICIA
X III
D ELGOVICIA
X III
M ILLINGTON
1 3.6
0.6
P RAETORIO
X XV
P RAETORIO
X V
Y ORK
1 5.2
0.2
4 7.4
2.4
4 5
4 5 S OURCE - R odwell
( 1975).
4 00
T he m erits o f t his s olution a re: 1 .
T he p raetorium a t Y ork i s c onfirmed b y R IB n umber 6 62.
2 .
T he m ileages a re a g ood f it.
T he p roblems a re: 1 .
T wo t extual c orruptions a re r equired, w hich b y c oincidence b alance e ach o ther o ut s o t he t otal r emains u nchanged. T his i s u nlikely.
2 .
T he R oman s ite a t M illington i s a pparently o nly a v illa w ith r eligious o vertones. I t i s n ot e ven d irectly o n t he r oad.
3 .
T here i s n o k nown R oman r oad f rom M illington t o Y ork.
4 .
I t i s q uite i n o rder f or a s ettlement t o b e r eferred t o b y t wo d ifferent n ames i n t wo d ifferent I tineraries ( as, f or e xample, C olchester i n I ter V a nd I X), b ut i t w ould b e u nprecedented t o h ave a s ite c alled t wo t otally d ifferent n ames i n t he s ame I tinerary.
5 .
T here i s n o p recedence i n t he I tinerary f or a c ircular r oute.
I n c onclusion, S olutions A - F :
w hole o f t he A ntonine
t here a re t oo m any p roblems w ith t his s olution.
S ummary
T he f irst f our s olutions a re a ll v ery s imilar, l ocating D erventio a t M alton a nd P raetorio a t B rough. I t i s o nly i n t heir p lacing o f D elgovicia t hat t hey d iffer. A ll t hese s tumble i nto p roblems i mmediately w ith t he e quation o f D erventio w ith M alton b ecause t he I tinerary d istance o f V II i s v ery d ifferent f rom t he a ctual d istance o f 1 8.6 m p. S olutions E a nd F b oth a ttempt t o g et r ound t he p roblems b y i ngenious m ethods, c reating Y -junctions a nd c ircular r outes, b ut a t otal l ack o f p recedent e lsewhere i n t he I tinerary, a mongst o ther p roblems, g ives t hem l ittle w eight. T OWARDS A D EFINITIVE S OLUTION S tage 1 - D erventio A ll t he s olutions s o f ar h ave b een b ound b y t he c onviction t hat M alton w as D erventio. I n o rder t o r econcile t his w ith t he I tinerary, a ll o f t hem h ave b een r equired t o s uggest v arious t extual c orruptions. H owever, t he r eason f or t his e quation i n t he f irst p lace w as t he e vidence o f t he N otitia D ignitatum w hich w e h ave a lready c oncluded i s i rrelevant s ince i t r efers t o a nother s ite i n C umbria. I f t his i s t he c ase, t hen t he o nly e vidence w e h ave f or l ocating D erventio i s t hat i t s hould b e 7m iles f rom Y ork a nd 1 3 m iles f rom a nother s ettlement ( Delgovicia).
4 01
I f w e t ravel t o t he e ast o ut o f Y ork, a t 7m iles w e c ome t o S tamford B ridge. T hroughout a ntiquity, S tamford B ridge h as b een a n i mportant c rossing p oint o f t he D erwent. An atural f ord e xisted h ere d ue t o i ts l ocation a t t he e astern e nd o f a m oraine r idge w hich c rossed t he V ale o f Y ork. I t i s h ere t hat I w ould s uggest D erventio i s s ited. T he d istance f rom t he c entre o f Y ork i s 7 .8 m p m eaning t he I tinerary d istance i s 0 .8 m p t oo s hort, w hich i s a cceptable, e specially i f t he d istance w as m easured f rom t he e dge o f t he c ity. I t a lso s eems f itting t hat t he m ain c rossing o f t he D erwent s hould b e c alled D erventio. T he o nly o ther e lement w hich i s r equired t o s ecure t he i dentification i s t hat a nother s ettlement m ust e xist X III m p f urther a long t he r oad. I n f act w e h ave a c hoice o f t wo: M alton ( 12.97 m p) a nd S hiptonthorpe ( 13.05 m p). T herefore I c onclude t hat D erventio = S tamford B ridge. S tage 2 - D elgovicia O ption 1 ,
S hiptonthorpe
T he R oman s mall t own a t S hiptonthorpe h as o nly c ome t o l ight r ecently ( Millett 1 985) [ Editorial n ote: s ee M illett a nd H alkon t his v olume]. F rom w hat i s k nown s o f ar, i t s eems t o b e a n e xtensive l inear d evelopment a long t he Y ork t o B rough r oad, a t t he p oint w here t he r oad a pproaches t he W olds e dge. T he l ocation o f D elgovicia i n t he a rea i s n ot an ew s uggestion. C amden t hought i t m ight h ave b een o nly t wo m iles a way a t p resent-day M arket W eighton. ' In t he R oman t imes, n ot f ar f rom i ts b ank u pon t he l ittle r iver F oulnesse, w here W ighton, as mall t own, w ell f requented w ith h usbandmen n ow s tands; t here s eems t o h ave s tood D elgovitia; a s i s p robable b oth f rom t he l ikeness a nd t he s ignification o f t he n ame, w ithout d rawing a ny o ther p roofs f rom i ts d istance f rom D erventio. F or t he w ord D elgwe i n B ritish s ignifies t he S tatues o r I mages o f h eathen G ods; a nd i n a v illage n ot f ar o ff , t here s tood a n I dol-Temple, i n v ery g reat g lory e ven i n t he S axon t imes, w hich f rom t he h eathen G ods i n i t w as t hen c alled G odm undingham, a nd n ow i n t he s ame s ense G odmanham.' ( Camden 1 695: 7 38). T his i s n ow G oodmanham,
am ile n ortheast o f M arket W eighton.
A rchaeologically, S hiptonthorpe i s m ore t han s ubstantial e nough t o m erit m entioning i n a r oad i tinerary; t herefore t he e quation m eets t his c riterion. L ikewise, i ts d istance f rom S tamford B ridge f its v ery w ell ( 13.05 v ersus t he t ext's X III). T wo o ther c riteria m ust b e s atisfied. O ne, a re t here a ny s ettlem ents X XV m p a way s uitable f or P raetorio? T wo, s ince D elgovicia i s a lso m entioned b y t he R avenna C osmography, d oes i t f it i n w ell w ith t his e vidence?
4 02
O n t he f irst p oint, t he i dentification s tarts t o r un i nto d ifficulties. T he s ite o f B rough, w hich m ight h ave b een a n o bvious d estination, i s t oo c lose a t o nly 1 2.2 m p, a nd X II w ould b e a d ifficult c orruption o f X XV s o t hat a t extual e rror h ere i s n ot l ikely. L ikewise, M alton i s t oo c lose a t a bout 2 0 m iles a s t he c row f lies a nd t here i s n o k nown d irect r oute b y r oad i n a ny c ase. T he b est p ossibility w ould b e i f t here w as a r oad ( as y et u nknown) h eading i n t he d irection o f R udston a nd B ridlington ( Gabrantovicum S inus?), t hough e ven h ere t he e nd o f t he X XV m p w ould l ie s omewhere b etween t he t wo l ocations. O n t he s econd p oint, w hen w e l ooked a t t he R avenna C osmography w e c oncluded t hat t he d ocument w as n ot t he m ost t rustworthy, t hough i f a nything c ould b e d rawn f rom i t, i t w as t hat D elgovicia w as n ot o n t he Y ork t o B rough r oad. S hiptonthorpe i s o n t his r oad, w hich d oes n ot h elp i ts c ase. O ption 2 , M alton M alton w as u ndoubtedly a n i mportant c entre i n t he n orth P arisian a rea; e ven t he r oads s eem t o f ocus u pon i t i n aw ay t hat n o o ther s ettlement i n e ast Y orkshire c an c laim. A s s uch, i t w ould b e v ery s trange ( though b y n o m eans i mpossible) i f i t d id n ot a ppear i n a t l east o ne o f t he I tineraries o r i n t he R avenna C osmography. S o d oes i t f it o ur c riteria u nder t he n ew g uise o f D elgovicia? O ne:
i s M alton X III m p f rom S tamford B ridge ( Derventio)? I t i s i n f act 1 2.97 m p, s o i t f its e xcellently.
T wo:
a re t here a ny s ettlements X XV m p a way w hich c ould b e p otential s ites f or P raetorio? T here a re t hree i n f act: L ease R igg ( 25.0), S carborough ( 25.0), a nd F iley ( 24.5). A ll a re k nown R oman s ites o n k nown R oman r oads.
T hree:
d oes t he R avenna C osmosgraphy t hrow a ny l ight o n t he m atter? T he t entative c onclusion w e c ame t o e arlier w as t hat D elgovicia p robably w as n ot o n t he Y ork t o B rough r oad, a nd M alton w ould a gree w ith t his.
D elgovicia - C onclusion M alton w ould s eem t o b e p referable t o S hiptonthorpe o n t he b asis t hat s everal s ettlements a re k nown 2 5 m p a way f rom i t, w hereas n one a re k nown a t t his d istance f rom S hiptonthorpe. M oreover, t he e vidence o f t he R avenna C osmosgraphy i s m ore i n a ccord w ith t he i dentification o f M alton a s D elgovicia, a s S hiptonthorpe i s o n t he Y ork t o B rough r oad. T herefore, w e c onclude t hat D elgovicia = M alton. S tage 3 - P raetorio T he o nly l ocational i nformation w e h ave f or P raetorio i s t hat i t i s X XV m p f rom D elgovicia ( Malton). T he t hree s ettlements w hich a re a bout t his d istance a way a re L ease R igg ( 25.0), S carborough ( 25.0) a nd F iley ( 24.5).
4 03
S ince t he d istances a re a ll a bout r ight, t he o nly d istinction b etween o ne o r o ther i s t he a rchaeological n ature a nd s tatus o f t he s ites. O ption 1 , L ease R igg L ease R igg, a f ort o n t he N orth Y ork M oors, w as i mportant e nough t o h ave b een c onnected d irectly b y r oad t o Y ork, t hough i t w as a lso p ossible t o r each i t v ia S tamford B ridge a nd M alton. I t w as a n e longated f ort w ith a n a nnexe t o t he w est, a nd w as p robably o ccupied c irca A D 8 0-120 ( Breeze a nd D obson 1 985; H artley 1 982: 2 10-212; R amm 1 978: 3 9). A s a s ite f or a P raetorium, i ts m ain m erit i s t hat i t w as am ilitary s ite, h owever i ts s hort o ccupation a t a n e arly d ate d oes n ot m ake i t s eem l ike t he b est c andidate. O ptions 2 a nd 3 ,
S carborough a nd F iley
T he r oad e ast f rom M alton t o t he c oast i s l ittered w ith R oman s ites. M uch o f t he m aterial k nown d ates f rom t he f ourth c entury, b ut a f air p roportion i s e arlier ( Clark 1 935: 2 0-21). A t S herburn a b ranch r oad c uts a cross t he D erwent a nd h eads f or S carborough, w hile t he m ain r oad c ontinues t o F iley, w here t races o f i t m ay h ave b een r evealed n ear t he s tation d uring p ipe l aying ( Margary 1 967: 4 24). A t b oth l ocations f ourth c entury S ignal S tations a re k nown, F iley b eing t he m ost s outherly r ecorded, w hich n o d oubt g ave i mportance t o t he r oad l ink b etween i tself a nd t he f orts a t M alton a nd Y ork. H owever, e arlier R oman m aterial h as a lso b een f ound a t b oth s ites. U nfortunately t he n ature o f t he s ettlement a t S carborough i s n ot w ell u nderstood. I t i s q uite l ikely t hat C astle H ill w as a p romontory f ort i n t he I ron A ge, a s I ron A ge p ottery w as d iscovered i n a nd a round 4 2 p its d uring t he e xcavation o f t he S ignal S tation ( Stead 1 965: 7 1). A s f ar a s t he R oman p eriod i s c oncerned, t he p otential s ettlement i s r epresented b y c asual f inds a nd v arious m entions o f p aved r oads b eing r evealed. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat n umerous R oman c oins h ave b een f ound o n t he f oreshore a nd f urther o ut i n h arbour d redging ( Clark 1 935: 1 25-127). A t F iley, a part f rom t he S ignal S tation o n C arr N aze, t here a re t wo s ites o f i nterest t o u s. F irstly, t he P rimrose V alley s ite ( somet imes c alled L ong W hins) w here a l arge s catter o f p ottery i s k nown a long t he t op o f t he s outhern s lope; a nd s econdly, t he G risthorpe B ay s ite w hich i s p ossibly t he m ore i mportant. M ary K itson C lark c ited a l etter f rom M r P ercival T C lay o n t he s ite: ' In O ctober 1 926, a fter a s ettlement i n t he c liff , I f ound a f ew b ones a nd p ieces o f p ottery s ticking o ut o f t he e xposed f ace. k ept a n e ye o n t he s ite f or s everal y ears a nd m entioned t he m atter t o D r K irk a nd M r G erald S impson. A y ear a go l ast O ctober, t he l atter h aving t wo m en a t l iberty f or a f ew h ours, s et t hem o n t o i nvestigate t he f ace o f t he c liff. T hey f ound a q uantity o f p ottery .. o f a s imilar c lass t o t hat w hich w as e xcavated b y M r S impson a t t he C arr N aze S ignal S tation s everal y ears p reviously. T he s ite i s e vidently e xtensive .. T he d eposit i s q uite c onspicuous f ollowing t he i ndentations o f t he
4 04
c liff t op f or m ore t han 1 00 y ards. a ppears t o s how s everal s trata.'
M r S impson
a dds
( Clark 1 935:
t hat
i t
8 5-86)
P raetorio - C onclusion I t i s d ifficult t o d ecide b etween t he o ptions. B oth S carborough a nd F iley o ffer l ocations o n t he c oast w hich w ould b e n atural p oints t o e nd a n I tinerary. A s p reviously m entioned, t he w ord P raetorio i s o ften u sed i n t he c ontinental e ntries o f t he A ntonine I tinerary t o d escribe a s taging-point ( Rivet a nd S mith 1 979: 1 56), s o ap otential h arbour s ite w ould b e i deally s uited t o t his t erm. C ONCLUSIONS P etuaria D erventio D elgovicia P raetorio
• • • ▪
B rough-on-Humber S tamford B ridge M alton F iley o r S carborough?
T his r eassessment o f t he e vidence h as b een a s t horough a s p ossible, a nd Ih ope i t w ill b e a greed t hat t he c onclusions r eached h ere p lace n o s train o n a ny o f o ur s ources a s p revious s olutions h ave d one. I ndeed, t he i dentification o f P raetorio h as b een l eft i n t he b alance, a s t here c an b e n o s ecure r ecognition o f t his s ite s ave b y t he c hance d iscovery o f a n i nscription. U ntil n ow t he q uestion a sked h as b een ' where w as D elgovicia?' E veryone h as h ad t heir o wn f avourites, b e i t M illington, S hiptont horpe, W etwang o r S tamford B ridge. W hile t his p aper h as, h opefully, a nswered t hat q uestion, an ew p roblem h as b een r aised t o t ake i ts p lace. W here w as P raetorio?
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E ast
S econd
T he T owns o f R oman B ritain.
4 06
( third
e dition).
D uckworth.
R odwell, W 1 975 M ilestones, c ivic t erritories I tinerary. B ritannia 6 : 7 6-101.
S tukeley, W 1 776 B aker a nd L eigh.
L ondon:
o f R oman
B ritain.
a nd
A ntonine
t he
Y orkshire.
e dition.
L ondon:
Y ork:
L ondon:
B atsford.