Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering: Select Proceedings of FLAME 2022 9819918936, 9789819918935

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Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering

Anoop Kumar Shukla Bhupendra Prakash Sharma Ahmad Arabkoohsar Pradeep Kumar   Editors

Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering Select Proceedings of FLAME 2022

Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering Series Editors Fakher Chaari, National School of Engineers, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia Francesco Gherardini , Dipartimento di Ingegneria “Enzo Ferrari”, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy Vitalii Ivanov, Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Machines and Tools, Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine Editorial Board Francisco Cavas-Martínez , Departamento de Estructuras, Construcción y Expresión Gráfica Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Cartagena, Murcia, Spain Francesca di Mare, Institute of Energy Technology, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany Mohamed Haddar, National School of Engineers of Sfax (ENIS), Sfax, Tunisia Young W. Kwon, Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Aerospace Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering and Applied Science, Monterey, CA, USA Justyna Trojanowska, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland Jinyang Xu, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering (LNME) publishes the latest developments in Mechanical Engineering—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNME. Volumes published in LNME embrace all aspects, subfields and new challenges of mechanical engineering. To submit a proposal or request further information, please contact the Springer Editor of your location: Europe, USA, Africa: Leontina Di Cecco at [email protected] China: Ella Zhang at [email protected] India: Priya Vyas at [email protected] Rest of Asia, Australia, New Zealand: Swati Meherishi at swati.meherishi@ springer.com Topics in the series include: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Engineering Design Machinery and Machine Elements Mechanical Structures and Stress Analysis Automotive Engineering Engine Technology Aerospace Technology and Astronautics Nanotechnology and Microengineering Control, Robotics, Mechatronics MEMS Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Dynamical Systems, Control Fluid Mechanics Engineering Thermodynamics, Heat and Mass Transfer Manufacturing Precision Engineering, Instrumentation, Measurement Materials Engineering Tribology and Surface Technology

Indexed by SCOPUS and EI Compendex. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science. To submit a proposal for a monograph, please check our Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/11693

Anoop Kumar Shukla · Bhupendra Prakash Sharma · Ahmad Arabkoohsar · Pradeep Kumar Editors

Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering Select Proceedings of FLAME 2022

Editors Anoop Kumar Shukla Department of Mechanical Engineering Amity University Uttar Pradesh Noida, India Ahmad Arabkoohsar Section of Thermal Energy Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering Technical University of Denmark Lyngby, Denmark

Bhupendra Prakash Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering Amity University Uttar Pradesh Noida, India Pradeep Kumar Numerical Experiment Laboratory (Radiation and Fluid Flow Physics) School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Mandi Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, India

ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering ISBN 978-981-99-1893-5 ISBN 978-981-99-1894-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

This book is a collection of articles from the third biennial international conference on Future Learning Aspects for Mechanical Engineering (FLAME 2022), which was held at Amity University in Uttar Pradesh, India, from August 3 to 5, 2022. The articles cover a wide range of perspectives on mechanical engineering. FLAME 2022’s major aim was to create a forum for academicians, scientists, and researchers around the world to communicate their scientific ideas and vision in thermal, design, industrial, production, and multidisciplinary fields of mechanical engineering. FLAME 2022 was critical in bridging the gap between academics and industry. Around 600 people attended the conference to discuss scientific ideas. During the three-day event, researchers from academia and industry shared their latest cuttingedge findings, had scientific brainstorming sessions, and discussed perspectives on current socioeconomic challenges. This meeting also gave us an opportunity to develop a network for academic and industrial engagement. The major focus of the plenary and keynote presentations was on new advances and innovations in various sectors of mechanical engineering. It was backed by the University of Leicester, UK, the Budapest University of Technology, and Economics Hungary. This volume, in particular, discusses various mechanical engineering topics in seventy chapters, such as absorption cooling systems, engine performance and emission characteristics, modeling and structural analysis, thermoelectric generators, HVAC systems, alternative fuel-based vehicles, Industry 4.0-enabled sustainable manufacturing, solar collector-based energy harvesting, hybrid electric vehicles, triobjective optimization, energy storage systems, and additive manufacturing. This book’s contents will be beneficial to both scholars and industry people. This book covers different scientific engineering issues, and it is intended to serve as a reference guide for scholars and practitioners, as well as to create better communication and closer collaboration between academia and industrial partners. The editors would like to thank all of the participants who contributed to this book. We are also grateful to Amity University Noida, the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), an enterprise of the Department of Science and Technology (DST), the Government of India, the Council of Science and Technology v

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Preface

Uttar Pradesh, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, E-Spin Nanotech, and Beggel House for their generous contributions to the FLAME 2022 mega event. We are grateful to all plenary and keynote speakers, faculty members, students, and staff of the Mechanical Engineering Department, ASET, who have directly or indirectly contributed to the achievement of this aim. The editors would like to express gratitude to Springer Nature for publishing the selected proceedings of FLAME 2022 in the LNME series. Finally, the editors would like to express gratitude to the respected Dr. Ashok K. Chauhan, Founder and President of Amity University, for his unwavering support and blessings. In spite of sincere care, there might be typos, and there is always room for improvement. The editors would appreciate any suggestions from the reader for further improvements to this book. Noida, India Noida, India Lyngby, Denmark Mandi, India November 2022

Dr. Anoop Kumar Shukla Dr. Bhupendra Prakash Sharma Dr. Ahmad Arabkoohsar Dr. Pradeep Kumar

About This Book

This volume is a compilation of papers presented at FLAME 2022, the third biennial international conference on Future Learning Aspects of Mechanical Engineering, held in Amity University in Uttar Pradesh, India, from August 3 to 5, 2022. Seventy chapters cover a wide range of mechanical engineering topics, including: absorption cooling systems; engine performance and emission characteristics; modeling and structural analysis; thermoelectric generators; heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems; alternative fuel-based vehicles; Industry 4.0-enabled sustainable manufacturing; solar collector-based energy harvesting; hybrid electric vehicles; tri-objective optimization; energy storage systems; and additive manufacturing. The information contained in this book will be useful to researchers and professionals in the field of mechanical engineering. This book addresses a variety of problems in scientific engineering domain and is written for both academics and professionals in the field with the hopes of fostering greater understanding and cooperation between the two groups.

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Contents

Solar Distillation Using Quantum Dot Glass Evaporator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shailendra Kumar Shukla

1

Absorption Cooling System Powered by a Low Concentration Collector: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mavd P. R. Teles, Ahmad Arabkoohsar, and Brenda V. F. Silva

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Investigation of Carbon Nanotubes and Titanium Dioxide Doped Biodiesel on the Performance and Emission Characteristics of Four-Stroke Diesel Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anoop Kumar Shukla, Aprajit Jasrotia, Gaurav Dwivedi, Tushar Choudhary, and Mayank Chhabra

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Hip Prosthesis: Material, Wear and Loading Considerations for Long Life Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parijat Srivastava and Vinay Pratap Singh

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Investigation of Digitization Practices in Indian Automotive Component SMEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Saransh Monga, Abhilash Saikia, Yash Vivaan Puri, Sumit Gupta, Vijay Chaudhary, Pallav Gupta, and Sundeep Kumar

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Design and FEM Analysis of Porous Scaffold for Artificial Knee Joint Implant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ardh Kumar Shukla and Vinay Pratap Singh

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Integration of Face Biometric and Steganography Technique for Individual Authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sonali Goyal and Neera Batra

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UV Irradiation-Based Potable Water Disinfection System Using Solar Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ayush Kumar, Shivam Singh Rathore, Manander Singh, Sanatan Ratna, and Rajeev Kumar Singh

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Modelling and Structural Analysis of 3D Printed Auxetic Structure . . . . Asheesh Kesharwani, Anand Kumar, and Jitendra Bhaskar Fabrication and Analysis of a Hybrid Solar and Wind Powered Electric Vehicle Charging Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manander Singh, Rajeev Kumar Singh, Sanatan Ratna, and Prashant Singh

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Performance Analysis of Heat Exchanger Using Nanofluid . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Pooja Gunshekhar Gounder Bibliometric Analysis of Global Research Trend on Construction and Demolition Waste in Past Two Decade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Hemant Choudhary and Sarvesh P. S. Rajput Comprehensive Study Related to Thermoelectric Generators (TEG) and Preventing Heat Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Kanishq Gandhi, Kunal Girotra, and R. K. Tyagi An Experimental Investigation on a Double-Pass Solar Air Heater Using Two Separate Extended Geometry in the Absorber Plate Filled with TESM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Arvind Kumar Singh, Nitin Agarwal, Sourabh Kumar, and Mohd Zaki Effect of Natural and Synthetic Antioxidant on Oxidation Stability of Biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Manini Bhandari, Khushbu Yadav, and Anubhav Dubey Importance of Performance and Emission Characteristics in Biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Sanjay Mohite Experimental Investigation of Parallel Fan Arrangement for Variable Air Volume in HVAC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Abhishek Jain, Ravindra Kannojiya, and Basant Singh Sikarwar Comparison of Basalt/Kevlar/Glass Fibre Duralumin Laminate-Reinforced Composite Using Nanoclay Filler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Kirthika Ganesan and A. Vasudevan Comprehensive Study on Solar Adsorption Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Priyemant Raj, Vishal kumar, Ajay Vashist, Meeta Sharma, and Anoop Kumar Shukla Analyzing the Factors Influencing the Market Feasibility of Alternative Fuel-Based Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Ankita Dan, Aman Raj, Vrinda, and Pravin Kumar Hydrogen as a Fuel For Power Generation—A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Karthik Kumar, Meeta Sharma, and Anoop Kumar Shukla

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Mix Oil Biodiesel Blend’s Performance Characteristics with Energy Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Sanjay Mohite Portable Solar Stirling Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Shakti Saxena and Rahul Analyzing Barriers of Industry 4.0 Enabled Sustainable Manufacturing to Achieve Circular Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Shadab Ali Khan, Aaroh Shankar, Abhishek Kumar Singh, Sumit Gupta, Vijay Chaudhary, Pallav Gupta, Gaurav Gaurav, and Sundeep Kumar Prioritization of Factors for Robust Manufacturing System: A Case of Disk Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Rajesh Kumar Singh Maintaining Comfort Air Conditioning System Inside a Four Wheeler Using Phase Change Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Anirban Sur, Swapnil Narkhede, Dhruv Makharia Kunal Patil, and Jeetesh Sharma Comparative Study of Phenotypic and Genotypic Methods for Biofilm Detection on Medical Devices: An Empirical Approach . . . . . 321 Manoj Kumar Dewangan, Pulkit Jain, and Gurmeet Singh Synthesis and Analysis of Vital Social Sustainability Indicators Using Pareto Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Mohammad Asjad, Abdul Gani, and Zahid A. Khan Numerical Analysis of Cavity Flow at Different Angles of Attack . . . . . . . 345 Srajan Shrivastava and Jayanta Sinha A Study of the Effects of Low Quantity Lubrication on Machine Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Anas Aslam and Rajat Yadava A Time Saving Image Segmentation Technique and Its Application to Detect Cotton Leaf Spot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Suparna Biswas, Pritam Maity, Sumedha Bhattacharya, Ayantika Goswami, and Suparna Karmakar COMSOL Multiphysics Simulation of Microwave System-Based Household Welding Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Kuwar Mausam Influence of Nanoparticles in Application of Solar Collector-Based Energy Harvesting (SCBEH): A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Kuwar Mausam

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An Initiative to Understand the Electric Vehicle Technology (EVT) and the Challenges Involved: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Rajat Ray, Sumit Krishnan, Kheelraj Pandey, and Anoop Kumar Shukla Configuration and Study of Hybrid Electric Vehicle Using Power Management Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Yogendra Kumar and Hemant Gupta AR-Mic Monitored and Raspberry Pi Operated Automatic Plant Irrigation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Aditi Saxena and Hemant Gupta A Study on Bioinspired Flow Field Patterns Used in PEM Fuel Cells . . . 429 P. R. Gouri Nandana, Robin Raju, A. Nishanth, and Vikas Rajan 4E Analyses and Tri-objective Optimization of a Gas Turbine-Based Combined Heat and Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 J. Nondy, T. K. Gogoi, and Anoop Kumar Shukla IoT-Based System Design for Human Health Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Parul Chaudhary, Bharat Garg, Ruchira, and Pallavi Choudekar A Study of Energy Storage System for E-Rickshaw in India . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Mohammad Waseem, Mumtaz Ahmad, Aasiya Parveen, and Mohd Suhaib Computational Study on the Diffuser of Formula Racing Car . . . . . . . . . . 481 Md. Hassaan, Satyam Dewivedi, Hammad Khurshid, Gulam Hasnain Warsi, Mansha Alam, and Abdur Rahim Performance Improvement in Inclined Belt Conveyor for Coal Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Milind Shrikant Kirkire, Avadhut Soman, Ajinkya Tikekar, Vivek Nevgi, Shubham Shinde, and Anand Bhise A Study of Effect of Bacteria on the Properties of Cement Concrete . . . . 511 Prince Akash Nagar and Arun Kumar Parashar Effect of Bacillus Family Bacteria on the Mechanical and Durability Properties of Concrete Mix: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Arun Kumar Parashar and Prince Akash Nagar Manpower Optimization by Using Plant Simulation in the Automotive Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 Varun Kumar, Piyush Agarwal, Milan Uniyal, and Ravikumar Dumpala Measurement of Eviscerated Eye for Retinal Prosthesis—A New Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 Niranjan Sudhakar Deshmukh, A. S. Todkar, and Hemant Katakkar

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Application of Augmented Reality on the Windshield of Vehicle . . . . . . . . 551 Akram Faiz, Mustafa Shamsi, Abid Haleem, Shashi Bahl, Mohd Javaid, and Chander Prakash Challenges and Directions in a Multi-disciplinary Conservation Approach—A Case of Lonar, Buldhana, Maharashtra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 Aman Sharma, Vishnu K. Suresh, and Subhashree Mohapatra Performance Evaluation of Sustainable Concrete Using Silica Fume and Demolished Brick Waste Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 Neha Sharma, Prashant Sharma, and Arun Kumar Parashar Detection of Change in Pattern of the Subsurface Soil Moisture Levels in India Using Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 Sarath Raj, Anusha Santosh, and Sathiyagayathiri Ramamoorthy Environmental Effects of Cement Production: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 Abhijit Das, Sushant Kumar, Prashant Sharma, and Neha Sharma A Review on Compliant Microgripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Anurag T. Vidap, Bhagyesh D. Deshmukh, and Sujit S. Pardeshi Productivity Analysis of Pyramid Solar Still Using Phase Change Material and Hybrid Nanofluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Kunal Gaur, Sahil Chauhan, Ajit, and Gianender Kajal Emergency Facility Location of Ambulances Using K-Means Clustering and Minimax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 Ramkrishna Bharsakade, Sejal More, Sharwari Nandeshwar, Rahul Narnaware, and Raj Patil Exploring Machine Learning Applications for Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 Kshitij Chouhan, Sumit Gupta, Vijay Chaudhary, Pallav Gupta, and Sundeep Kumar Implementation of ANN for Prognosis of Automobile Engine . . . . . . . . . . 653 Mohsin Khan, Ahmad Salik Rehman, and Neeraj Khera Experimental Decrement of Coke Oven Gas Flow by the Rectification of Heating Gas Leakage in Different Locations of Coke Plant Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661 Niranjan Mahato, Himanshu Agarwal, and Jainendra Jain Thermodynamic Modeling and Analysis of Solar-Powered Biomass Gasification for Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 Ayush Kumar Pandey and Onkar Singh

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Comparative Study of Ignition Delay of a Diesel Engine Fueled with Various Blends of Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 Shailendra Sinha, Brahma Nand Agrawal, Abhiraj Shankar, and Loveneet Gupta Heat Exchanger Using Winglet as Vortex Generator for Heat Augmentation: A Critical Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705 Pardeep Gahlot, Akshay Sheoran, and Narinder Kaushik Water Consumption Optimization of Hybrid Heat Pump Water Heating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721 Anjali Saxena, Amit Nandan Prajapati, Gunjan Pant, Chandan Swaroop Meena, Ashwani Kumar, and Varun Pratap Singh Design and Development IoT-Based Measurement System for Inside Room Ambient Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 E. V. Anirudh Anand and Gopal Nandan Detection of Biofilm on Steel and Plastic Surface Using Image Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745 Manoj Kumar Dewangan, Pulkit Jain, and Gurmeet Singh Design and Optimization of Brake Disc for Two-Wheeler Braking System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 Ankur Rai, Daksh Dutt, Manish Ryka, and Brahma Nand Agarwal Technologies for Hybrid Cloud Computing in Renewable Energy Associated with the Proposed Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777 Yogendra Kumar and Hemant Gupta Identification of Enablers for Green Manufacturing in Indian SMEs . . . 787 Aman Mudgil, Prateek Kumar, Sourav Sanchay, Naveen Anand Daniel, and Rakesh Kumar Phanden Hydrogen Fuel Cell Hybrid Technology in Aviation: An Overview . . . . . . 803 Lavepreet Singh, Arbab Nafees, and Kaushalendra Dubey Evaluative Study of Solar Thermal Energy System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 Hemant Gupta, Arti Badhoutiya, and Yogendra Kumar Plasma Techniques for the Fabrication of Hydrophobic Substrates . . . . . 831 Smile Kataria, Shubham Jain, Basant Singh Sikarwar, and Mukesh Ranjan Simulation of Melting Process for Solar Energy Storage in form of Latent Heat of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 Amritanshu Verma, Rajeev Kumar Singh, R. K. Tyagi, and Basant Singh Sikarwar

About the Editors

Dr. Anoop Kumar Shukla is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Amity University Noida. He completed his B.Tech. from Institute of Engineering and Rural Technology, India and M.Tech. with distinction from Harcourt Butler Technological Institute (HBTI) India. Dr. Shukla received his Ph.D. degree in 2017 from Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, India. He has over 10 years of teaching and research experience. His area of research is energy conversion and thermal management, combined power cycles, biofuels, gas turbine cooling, and advanced thermodynamics. He has published fifty research papers in peer-reviewed SCI and Scopus indexed journals and conferences. He has presented more than twenty research papers at international and national conferences. Presently he is guiding three Ph.D. and four postgraduate dissertations. Dr. Shukla is an active reviewer for various highly reputed national and international journals.

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About the Editors

Dr. Bhupendra Prakash Sharma is presently working as Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, India. He completed his Ph.D. from Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, India in 2013 and Master of Engineering in Automated Manufacturing Systems from Birla Institute of Technology (BITS) Mesra, Ranchi in 2007. He has over 12 years of teaching and research experience at private and government institutes and universities. He has contributed more than 30 papers at the national/international levels with two best paper awards and filed four patents as well. His current areas of interest include manufacturing systems, analysis, and processing of composite materials, recyclability, circular economy and knowledge management. Dr. Ahmad Arabkoohsar did both his master’s and Ph.D. degrees in Mechanical Engineering, associated with Energy Conversion and Sustainability. He did two postdocs at Aarhus University of Denmark and Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands. He started his permanent academic career as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Energy of Aalborg University, Denmark in 2018, followed by a promotion to Associate Professor in 2019. His main field of research includes thermodynamic modelling and optimization of thermal energy systems and energy storage technologies. He has published over 150 articles in top-ranked international journals, several book chapters, and articles in proceedings. He is acting as an editorial board member and reviewer of several international journals and conferences. Dr. Pradeep Kumar is currently Assistant Professor in School of Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) since 2015. After completing his Ph.D. from IIT Kanpur in 2009, he worked with ANSYS Fluent India Pvt. Ltd. in the development department for six and half years. He is currently working in the area of radiative heat transfer, fluid mechanics, solar devices, etc., and uses computational tools for his research purposes. He is extremely interested in exploring and developing open-source software. His team is currently developing various features of radiative heat transfer like, collimated

About the Editors

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beam radiation, non-gray radiation model, etc. in OpenFOAM—an open-source CFD software for the applications of solar receiver cavity, combustion, thermal load on the rocket base plate, etc.

Solar Distillation Using Quantum Dot Glass Evaporator Shailendra Kumar Shukla

Abstract In the investigation, an attempt is made to improve the solar still performance by using quantum dot (Q-dot) material. Two solar still models are fabricated at IIT BHU, Varanasi, 25.3176° N in tropical climate with same basin area of 1m2 , glass tilt angle 25°, and with basin water depth of 2 cm. Both models are oriented toward south to encompass maximum solar radiation. The first model is a conventional solar still (CSS) which is coated with black dye only, whereas the second solar still model is coated with mixture of black dye and Q-dot material. The results showed that black dye mixed with Q-dot material coated on absorber surface of solar still produces 1810 ml/m2 .day with 23.49% efficiency as compared to 1320 ml/m2 .day with conventional solar still in same condition without any other active components. Also, it is found that by using Q-dot material heat retaining capacity of the solar still gets improved that is conceived by extra distilled water production relative to conventional solar still in low solar intensity condition. Keywords Solar still · Quantum dot · Yield · Efficiency

1 Introduction Water and energy are essential commodities for living species on this planet. After industrial revolutions and human population explosion, demand for freshwater shoots up at an extensive rate that’s creating a water stress situation at many places in the world. Humans mark their reach at remote locations, which made it crucial to develop such devices that can turn raw water (saline water, brackish water) into freshwater under the source of low-grade energy. The scarcity of water gets aggravated with the reduction of natural water resources. Currently, slightly less than one-half of the world’s population around 3.6 billion people, live in a region that suffers water deficit for at least 1 month of each year [1]. According to the UN World Water Development S. K. Shukla (B) Centre for Energy Resources and Development (CERD), Mechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varansi 221005, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_1

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Report, nearly 6 billion world population will suffer from water scarcity by 2050 [2]. Hence in this condition, desalination is one of the best methods to combat this challenge that can be powered by fossil fuels and renewable energy sources. It is found that the use of fossil fuels adversely affects the climate condition and leaves the CO2 footprint in long run. Hence, the focus must be shifted toward renewable energy sources, especially solar energy due to their availability and cost-effective properties. On an annual average basis, India receives around 200 W/m2 [3] to take the advantage of this geographical location Government of India (GOI) has extended the use of solar energy up to 100 GW till 2022 [3]. Moreover, the utilization of solar energy already extended in space heating and cooling, water heating [4, 5]. The desalination method can fill the gap between demand and supply of water. The solar energy is the clean and green option to drive this process. Solar stills are used for solar desalination purpose. The only hurdle to improve its efficiency is by enhancing the distilled water production from the still. To fix this issue, various research works are carried out to enhance the productivity or yield. The [6] performed an analytical study on pyramid-shaped solar still and compared the performance with CSS; it is found that pyramid-type SS is more efficient and traps more radiation in the summer season relative to the winter season when reflection losses are high. Although the overall yearly performance of both SS is similar in terms of yield, however Single slope SS showed better efficiency than pyramid-shaped of 33 and 30%. The [7] investigated the effect of number of basins, viz. single, double, and triple with pyramidal-shaped covers. It is found that triple basin SS performed well with 24% higher yield than single basin SS with 44% efficiency. The [8] conducted the experimental and numerical analysis of square pyramidal SS. The results showed the variation of yield from 4.22 to 4.43 kg/m2 in a day with tilt angle variation from 10° to 60°, and also the top loss coefficient decreases with an increase in surface area.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Quantum Dot A Q-dot material can be made of various semiconducting materials, as they possess unique optical and electrical properties due to their tunable size and shape properties along with that photophysics behavior can be altered. Like, it can absorb and emit a broad range of electromagnetic radiations ranging from ultraviolet to near-infrared regions. Sometimes, these are also termed as ‘artificial atoms’ due to their size (1– 10 nm) that lies below Bohr’s radius of the element [9, 10]. These nanocrystals are differ from conventional nanoparticles (1–100 nm) that are relatively larger in size [11].

Solar Distillation Using Quantum Dot Glass Evaporator

3

2.2 Experimental Setup Three experimental setups of solar stills were fabricated with different glass cover tilt angles and having a thickness of 4 mm as shown in Fig. 2. In Model-1 and Model2, the glass cover was tilted at 20° and 30° from horizontal and facing southward direction having glass cover area of 1.065 m2 and 1.154 m2 , respectively. While Model-3 was asymmetrical double-sloped solar still with 15° cover tilt angle from the horizontal surface and having glass cover area of 1.035 m2 . Model-1 has minimum space in-between the water surface and glass cover. Besides this, glass wool insulation of 5 cm thickness was used to prevent the heat losses from the sidewalls and bottom surface whose thermal conductivity varies from 0.023 to 0.040 W/mK with respect to density and temperature of wool [12]. The silicon rubber adhesive was used to make leakproof for heat between glass cover and basin. These experimental investigations were performed in the metrological condition of Varanasi (25.3176° N, 82.9739° E), India. The raw water (brackish water) is kept inside the basin and covered with flat glass plate. The heat energy required to evaporate the water comes mostly from direct solar irradiation and partly from absorber liner as an emitted heat. The water level kept at 2 cm inside the basin area corresponds to 20 L of raw water in all three models (Fig. 1).

3 Results and Discussion The performance of solar still is tested and evaluated under the varying condition like solar intensity varies in the range of 23–900 W/m2 , ambient temperature varies in 29–37.9 °C, wind speed 0.5–5.5 m/s. Under this condition, solar still unit tested with and without the application of quantum dot material. It is found that with increase in solar intensity Q-dot material becomes more effective. Solar intensity achieves

a

b

Fig. 1 Experimental setup of solar still a with Q-dot coated b without Q-dot coated

S. K. Shukla

60

1200

50

1000 800

40

600 30

400

20

200

Solar intensity (W/m2)

Temperature (C)

4

0

10 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00

Time (hr.) Solar Intensity (W/m2) QSS-Basin water temp. QSS-Inside glass temp

CSS-Basin water temp. CSS-Inside glass temp Ambient temp.

Fig. 2 Hourly variation of solar intensity, basin water, and glass inside temperature variation of both CSS and QSS

its peak at 13:00 h. at which basin water temperature is high in both CSS and QSS. However, maximum basin water temperature 59 °C is obtained at around 14:00 h. that is due to its high specific heat capacity of basin water. Ambient temperature plays important role in cooling the glass surface that can also be observed in Fig. 2. With the application of Q-dot material, daily yield from the solar still improves. The maximum yield obtained from QSS and CSS is 320 ml and 270 ml respectively at 13:00 hr. as illustrated in Fig. 3 and is derived due to the maximum temperature difference between basin water and glass inside surface. However, the basin water temperature was maximum at 14:00 hr. but due to high temperature of glass inside surface hinder to yield maximum.

3.1 Efficiency The first law efficiency of solar still is an important parameter to judge the performance. The energy efficiency is a ratio of energy equivalent to distilled water produced from solar still to the solar energy incident on solar still. η=

latent heat of vaporization × total amount of distlled water (kg)  Is × 3600

It is found that solar still coated with black dye mixed with quantum dot, energy efficiency reached at 23.49% on a day against CSS whose daily efficiency reached about 17.13% only in the same working condition.

5

Solar Intensity (W/m2)

1200

2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

1000 800 600 400 200 0

Hourly and Cumulative yield (ml/m2)

Solar Distillation Using Quantum Dot Glass Evaporator

09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00

Time (hr.) Solar Intensity (W/m2) CSS- Cumulative yield

Yield CSS (ml) QSS-Cumulative yield

Yield QSS (ml)

Fig. 3 Effect of solar intensity on CSS and QSS with time

4 Conclusion This experimental investigation is performed to analyze the effect of quantum dot material on solar still performance. Also, to compare the yield and efficiency of conventional solar still with quantum dot-based solar still. It is found that with Q-dot material solar still performs well with 1.81 kg of yield and 23.49% efficiency against 1.32 kg of yield and 17.13% efficiency for CSS. Acknowledgements I would like to express my thanks to CERD laboratory, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, India, for allowing to use the resources and facilities to accomplish this work.

References 1. World Water Development Report 2018 | UN-Water (n.d.) https://www.unwater.org/publicati ons/world-water-development-report-2018/ (Accessed 17 Jun 2020) 2. Boretti A, Rosa L (2019) Reassessing the projections of the world water development report, Npj Clean Water. 2. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-019-0039-9 3. Rathore PKS, Rathore S, Singh RP, Agnihotri S (2018) Solar power utility sector in India: challenges and opportunities. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 81:2703–2713. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.rser.2017.06.077 4. Rathore PKS, Shukla SK (2019) Potential of macroencapsulated pcm for thermal energy storage in buildings: a comprehensive review. Constr Build Mater 225:723–744. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.221 5. Rathore PKS, Shukla SK (2020) An experimental evaluation of thermal behavior of the building envelope using macroencapsulated PCM for energy savings. Renew Energy 149:1300–1313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.10.130

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6. Fath HES, El-Samanoudy M, Fahmy K, Hassabou A (2003) Thermal-economic analysis and comparison between pyramid-shaped and single-slope solar still configurations. Desalination 159:69–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(03)90046-4 7. Hamdan MA, Musa AM, Jubran BA (1999) Performance of solar still under Jordanian climate. Energy Convers Manag 40:495–503. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-8904(98)00134-4 8. El-Sebaii A, Abd EMK, Abd (n.d.) Mathematical modeling and experimental validation for square pyramid solar still. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07587-5/Published 9. Mutavdži´c D, Jianmin X, Thakur G, Triulzi R, Kasas S, Jeremi´c M, Leblanc R, Radoti´c K (2011) Determination of the size of quantum dots by fluorescence spectroscopy. Analyst 136:2391– 2396. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0AN00802H 10. Bitton O, Gupta SN, Haran G (2019) Quantum dot plasmonics: from weak to strong coupling. Nanophotonics 8:559–575. https://doi.org/10.1515/NANOPH-2018-0218 11. Khan I, Saeed K, Khan I (2019) Nanoparticles: Properties, applications and toxicities. Arab J Chem 12:908–931. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ARABJC.2017.05.011 12. Xu H, Zhao Y, Dai YJ (2019) Experimental study on a solar assisted heat pump desalination unit with internal heat recovery based on humidification-dehumidification process. Desalination 452:247–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2018.11.019

Absorption Cooling System Powered by a Low Concentration Collector: A Case Study Mavd P. R. Teles, Ahmad Arabkoohsar, and Brenda V. F. Silva

Abstract Renewable technologies associated with solar energy and cooling systems are in great development and fast dissemination in the literature. On the one hand, such innovations can reduce fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gases emissions (GHG); but on the other hand, they still have higher expenditures especially because of the cost of solar reflective systems. This paper presents a new generation of solar collectors, denominated as reflective eccentric collectors, for driving the single effect absorption chiller and reducing the levelized cost of cooling solar-driven cooling systems. The study shows a case study in Brazil applying a hybrid system that is compared to the conventional solar-driven cooling systems. Both the configurations design and operation setpoints were optimized using multi-objective optimization methods. The research outcomes have shown the viability of this type of system for hot places. The optimal case presented a GHG emission level of 234 kgCO2 /MWh, a LCOC of 123 USD/MWh. Keywords Absorption chiller · Multi-objective optimization methods · Solar cooling · Techno-economic analysis

1 Introduction For the past years, the impacts of human-induced climate change have been affecting our planet in many ways [1]. Energy supply and consumption are responsible for several environmental issues, such as fauna and flora destruction, radioactive M. P. R. Teles University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil M. P. R. Teles · B. V. F. Silva Department of Energy, Aalborg University, Esbjerg, Denmark A. Arabkoohsar (B) Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_2

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substances emissions, ozone depletion, and air pollution [2]. To promote a sustainable transition and face climate and global warming, our society needs to commit to greener strategies and technological changes. The efficiency enhancement in energy production, the increase in the share of renewable energy, and the energy reduction on the demand side are potential areas to achieve environmental and social benefits [3]. Buildings consume energy in many forms [1]. When they are allocated in warm weather locations, it is common to provide cooling [4]. Each building requires a different cooling method that can be based on different criteria, e.g., cost, local climate, cooling system efficiency, flexibility, and others [5]. The usual types of building cooling systems are (i) variable-air-volume systems with a packaged rooftop unit, (ii) water-source heat pump systems with a cooling tower and boiler, and (iii) vapor compression or vapor absorption chiller [6]. In Brazil, the building sector consumes almost 50% of all energy compared to the end-use sectors. The increasing demand for electrical cooling in the sector increased by 237% over the past 12 years reaching 18.7 TWh in 2017 [7]. The application of absorption chillers has been increasing daily. Their advantages are its small energy consumption, CFCs-free, reduced noise and the possibility of using waste heat. Absorption chiller combined with solar heat can demand less electrical power and reduce energy cost, hot water, heating, and cooling [8]. Several researches point absorptions chillers as an innovative technology for different applications. Bawazir et al. [9] made a large-scale design and evaluation of a solar-driven absorption system. Wang et al. [10] investigated the use of parabolic through collector to supply absorption systems for cooling. Siddique et al. [11] investigated the use system solar collector and double effect absorption chiller to produce cold and heat during all seasons. Regardless of the advancement in the technology, it is still difficult to assure a positive economic outcome due the higher costs of solar thermal systems. This study demonstrates an economic and technical optimization application of a reflective eccentric collector for driving single effect absorption chillers. This new solar collector [12, 13] has a higher efficiency than regular ones, having the possibility of increase the generated energy per area.

2 Case Study São Luís (−2.53°lat; −44.30°log) is a Brazilian City where the case study is located. The maximum dry bulb temperature reached in the city is 34 °C and the solar irradiation sample used was based on statistical data [14, 15]. The building used in this paper is a shopping center presented in Fig. 1. The building has an underground floor (not refrigerated) and two upper floors, and the ground is used as parking. The cooling demand was calculated using the software carrier, and it was considered the heat sources as lighting, people, equipment, and miscellaneous loads according to the characteristic of the room. The overall U-coefficient (W/m2 K) are:

Absorption Cooling System Powered by a Low Concentration …

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Fig. 1 Shopping center layout (meters)

Wall (circulation area) = 1.73, Wall (store/office/restaurant) = 1.71, Roof (restaurant) = 1.58, Roof (store/office) = 2.5, Roof (circulation area) = 3.4, Floor (1st floor) = 3, Floor (2nd floor) = 0, Window (J2,J3,J4,J5) = 5.8, Windows (J11, J12 and skylight) = 3.34, and Door (P4) = 3.3. The cooling demand for the building was calculated in the Carrier, and it is made for one representative day of each month (Fig. 2). The cooling production is made using an absorption chiller. To supply the necessary heat for the chiller, it is used an eccentric solar collector, a storage tank, and a

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Fig. 2 Cooling demand for each month

heater (natural gas) (Fig. 3). The solar collector provides the heat during the solar hours this heat can be stored in the tank according to the chiller’s necessity. The heater provides the heat during the hours which neither the collector nor the storage tank can do. The eccentric solar collector (Fig. 4) used in this study has a small concentration, which leads to a high-efficiency level [12, 13]. The parameters of the eccentric solar collector are shown in Table 1.

Fig. 3 Cooling process

Absorption Cooling System Powered by a Low Concentration …

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Fig. 4 Eccentric solar collector cross section

Table 1 Collector parameters

Component

Information

Number of tubes

12

Length of tube

1.8 m

Absorber diameter

0.028 m

Cover diameter

0.1 m

Concentration ratio

3.46

Reflectivity of the reflective film

0.78

3 Method The mathematical and numerical model of the solar collector is made using the conservations equations of a 2D problem (x, r). The numerical method was written in MATLAB using the finite volume method with a SIMPLE algorithm. The assumptions made, detailed boundary conditions, correlations used and numerical code diagram were made following [12, 13]. For the absorption chiller, it was used the LiBr as an absorbent, and H2 O as the refrigerant. The conservation balances for mass and energy in each component of the absorption chiller are as follows: m˙ 9 = m˙ 10

(1)

Q˙ eva = m˙ 10 h 10 − m˙ 9 h 9

(2)

m˙ 1 = m˙ 10 + m˙ 6

(3)

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m˙ 1 x1 = m˙ 6 x6

(4)

Q˙ abs = m˙ 10 h 10 + m˙ 6 h 6 − m˙ 1 h 1

(5)

m˙ 3 = m˙ 4 + m˙ 7

(6)

m˙ 3 x3 = m˙ 4 x4

(7)

Q˙ gen = m˙ 4 h 4 + m˙ 7 h 7 − m˙ 3 h 3

(8)

m˙ 10 = m˙ 4

(9)

Q˙ cond = m˙ 7 (h 7 − h 8 )

(10)

Q˙ HEx = m˙ 4 (h 4 − h 5 ) = m˙ 2 (h 3 − h 2 )

(11)

The storage tank has the objective of storing energy from the solar collector to compensate for the difference between solar energy availability and chiller demand. A multi-node stratified storage tank is implanted in this paper, and for N nodes, the energy balance is as follows [16]: m i ci

dTi = αi m˙ h C p (Th − Ti ) + βi m˙ L C p (TL − Ti ) dt + U Ai (Tenv − Ti ) + γi C p (Ti−1 − Ti ) + γi C p (Ti − Ti+1 )

(12)

m˙ h and Th are inlet mass flow and temperature of hot water, and m˙ L and TL are outlet mass flow and temperature in the storage tank. αi , βi , and γi are control signals (0 or 1). In order to perform the optimization, and determine the best scenario it is necessary to define some parameters that will help in this process. This paper will be used the coefficient of performance (COP) [16], the m˙ NG the mass flow rate used in the heater (additional heat needed by the heater), levelized cost of cooling (LCOC), and greenhouse gases (GHG) emission level. Those parameters are defined as follows: m˙ NG =

Q demand + Q sun LHVNG  N Ii +Mi +Fi (1+r )i Q cooling i=1 (1+r )i

i=1

LCOC =  N

(13)

(14)

Absorption Cooling System Powered by a Low Concentration … Table 2 Required data [17–21]

Component Evacuated solar

13 Information

collector1

500 USD/m2

Heat storage tank and piping

200 USD/m3

Single-effect absorption chiller

800 USD/TR

Heater natural gas (CCGT)

1100 USD/kW

Fuel natural gas (CCGT)

55.57 USD/MWh

Natural gas

470 kgCO2 /MWh

Solar thermal collector

67.5 kgCO2 /m2

Efficiency of heater

58%

Number of years

20

1 The

amount mentioned by the references is between 300–450 USD/m2

i and r are the number of years and interest rate, respectively. The interest rate used in this study is 10%. To determine the LCOC and GHG emission levels, it is necessary some economic and environmental data. Table 2 provides the necessary data used in this study. To proceed with the multi-objective optimization process, it is necessary to understand that the desired parameters usually have a different tendency in the same scenario. In this study, those parameters are the LCOC and GHG emission levels. Usually, a low LCOC generates a high GHG emission level and vice versa. To find an optimal solution, plot a Pareto front between the parameters. The genetic algorithm flowchart used for the optimization procedure in this paper is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Optimization procedure flowchart

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4 Results and Discussions To present the differences and justify the use of the eccentric solar collector, it was compared in Fig. 6 the absorbed energy per area between the eccentric and the conventional evacuated tube solar collector (ETC). The absorbed energy by the eccentric solar collector is higher during the whole sample day. During the operation of the absorption chiller, the setpoint temperatures are different in each component. The setpoint temperatures in the system used in this study are shown in Table 3. Figure 7 presents the Pareto front for the proposed system of this study. Point X, which represents the lowest LCOC value (117 USD/MWh), also presents one of the highest GHG emission levels (364.71 kgCO2 /MWh). On the other hand, Point Z presents the lowest GHG emission level (164.91 kgCO2 /MWh), resulting in the highest LCOC (219 USD/MWh). Due to this, the intermediate Point Y is choose

Fig. 6 Solar collectors absorbed energy per area (sample day 2/August)

Table 3 Operational temperatures [17–21]

Component

Setpoint temperature (°C)

Inlet chiller

90

Outlet chiller

80

Outlet solution generator

85

Outlet solution heat exchanger

65

Outlet refrigerant generator

77

Outlet refrigerant evaporator

6

Absorption Cooling System Powered by a Low Concentration …

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selected as the middle term/optimal point between the parameters. Point Y gets a GHG emission level of 234 kgCO2 /MWh and LCOC of 123 USD/MWh. The collectors numbers results, volume of the storage tank, and year fuel demand are shown in Table 4. Figure 8 shows the shared energy that supplies the cold demand of the building for Point Y. The solar collector field supplies the majority of the demand for cooling (82%). Figure 9 shows the behavior of the heater (natural gas fuel) and the charge of the storage tank field during the year. For the heater, during some parts of the year (high solar availability), the heater is not even activated. On the other hand, during high solar availability, the tank is at full capacity.

Fig. 7 Pareto front

Table 4 Points of the Pareto front Number of collectors

Heater size [MW]

Fuel year demand [GWh]

Storage tank volume [m3 ]

X

1599

1.271

2.54

1,986

Y

1851

1.271

1.56

5,309

Z

1980

1.271

1.04

22,604

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Fig. 8 Share of energy supply

Fig. 9 Year heater supply and storage tank charge (Point Y)

5 Conclusions This paper presented a case study analysis and optimization of cooling system for a shopping center using an absorption system supplied by an eccentric solar collector, storage tank, and natural gas heater. The results show the viability of this type of system for hot places. The optimal case presented a GHG emission level of 234 kgCO2 /MWh, a LCOC of 123 USD/MWh, using 1,851 solar collectors, and having as year share of cooling supply 82% by the solar collectors and 18% of the natural gas heater.

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References 1. IEA: Global Energy Review 2021. In: IEA Report, pp. 1–36 (2021) 2. Dincer I (2000) Renewable energy and sustainable development: a crucial review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 4(2):157–175 3. Lund H (2007) Renewable energy strategies for sustainable development. Energy 32(6):912– 919 4. Sander DM, Cornick S, Newsham GR, Crawley DB (1993) Development of a Simple Model to Relate Heating and Cooling Energy to Building Envelope Thermal Characteristics. In: Proceedings of the building simulation’93 conference, pp 16–18 5. Ürge-Vorsatz D, Cabeza LF, Serrano S, Barreneche C, Petrichenko K (2015) Heating and cooling energy trends and drivers in buildings. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 41:85–98 6. Li H, Li X (2018) Benchmarking energy performance for cooling in large commercial building. Energy Build 176:179–193 7. EPE: Uso de Ar Condicionado No Setor Residencial Brasileiro: Perspectivas e Contribuições Para o Avanço Em Eficiência Energética. In: Nota Técnica EPE 030/2018, pp 43 (2018) 8. Shirazi A, Taylor RA, Morrison GL, White SD (2018) Solar-powered absorption chillers: a comprehensive and critical review. Energy Convers Manag 171:59–81 9. Bawazir AA, Friedrich D (2022) Evaluation and design of large-scale solar adsorption cooling systems based on energetic, economic and environmental performance. Energies, 1–24 10. Wang J, Yan R, Wang Z, Zhang X, Shi G (2018) Thermal performance analysis of an absorption cooling system based on parabolic trough solar collectors. Energies 11(10) 11. Siddique MZ, Badar AW, Siddiqui MS, Butt FS, Saleem M, Mahmood K, Fazal I (2022) Performance analysis of double effect solar absorption cooling system with different schemes of hot/cold auxiliary integration and parallel-serial arrangement of solar field. Energy 245 12. de Teles MPR, Ismail KAR, Arabkoohsar A (2019) A new version of a low concentration evacuated tube solar collector: optical and thermal investigation. Sol Energy 180:324–339 13. Teles MPR, Ismail KAR (2021) Experimental and numerical assessments of the effects of vacuum and solar film on the performance of low concentration eccentric solar collector. J Energy Resour Technol 1–19 14. Scheller C, Melo AP, Melo AP (2015) Análise de Arquivos Climáticos Para a Simulação do Desempenho do Desempenho Energético de Edificações. In: Universidade Federal de Sant Catarina, Florianópolis 15. INPE- Sistema de Organização Nacional de Dados Ambientais, http://sonda.ccst.inpe.br/bas edados/saoluiz.html. Last accessed 10 Jan 2022 16. Sadi, M., Chakravarty, K. H., Behzadi, A., and Arabkoohsar, A.: Techno-EconomicEnvironmental Investigation of Various Biomass Types and Innovative Biomass-Firing Technologies for Cost-Effective Cooling in India. Energy 219, (2021). 17. Behzadi A, Arabkoohsar A, Sadi M, Chakravarty KH (2021) A Novel Hybrid Solar-Biomass Design for Green off-Grid Cold Production. Techno-Economic Analysis and Optimization. Sol. Energy 218:639–651 18. Sadi, M., Arabkoohsar, A., and Joshi, A. K.: Techno-Economic Optimization and Improvement of Combined Solar-Powered Cooling System for Storage of Agricultural Products. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assessments 45, (2021). 19. IEA, and NEA: Projected Costs of Generating Electricity, Paris (2020). 20. Miranda, M. M.: Fator de Emissão de Gases de Efeito Estufa Da Geração de Energia Elétrica No Brasil. In: Universidade de São Paulo (2012). 21. Park, C. H., Ko, Y. J., Kim, J. H., and Hong, H.: Greenhouse Gas Reduction Effect of Solar Energy Systems Applicable to High-Rise Apartment Housing Structures in South Korea. Energies 13(10), (2020).

Investigation of Carbon Nanotubes and Titanium Dioxide Doped Biodiesel on the Performance and Emission Characteristics of Four-Stroke Diesel Engine Anoop Kumar Shukla, Aprajit Jasrotia, Gaurav Dwivedi, Tushar Choudhary, and Mayank Chhabra Abstract In recent years, nano-catalysts have gained widespread acceptance towards controlling engine exhaust emissions by doping with biodiesels. The oxygen storage capacity of nano-catalysts plays a major role to control the emission by increasing the catalytic activity and high specific surface area. This manuscript investigates the combustion, emission and performance attributes of a single-cylinder fourstroke direct injection diesel engine for nanoparticles added Mahua biodiesel blends. In this work, six fuel samples, namely biodiesel–diesel (B40), biodiesel–diesel nanoparticles (B40T135MWCNT15, B40T120MWCNT30, B40T105MWCNT45, B40T90MWCNT60 and B40T75MWCNT75) taken for the present investigation. The study reported that the biodiesel–diesel fuel blend reduced the performance of the engine and increased the emission parameters at all tested engine operating conditions. The combined use of TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles improved all the performance parameters of the engine. The fuel blend having 105 mg/lt TiO2 , and 45 mg/lt of MWCNT (B40T105MWCNT45) resulted in the best engine performance. The brake thermal efficiency of the engine is enhanced by 10.37 and 14.67% for B40T105MWCNT45 compared to diesel and B40, respectively. The study also

A. K. Shukla (B) · A. Jasrotia · M. Chhabra Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201313, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Jasrotia e-mail: [email protected] M. Chhabra e-mail: [email protected] G. Dwivedi Energy Centre, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal 462003, India e-mail: [email protected] T. Choudhary Department of Mechanical Engineering, PDPM Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur 482005, M.P., India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_3

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reported a substantial reduction in emissions as NOX by 33.65%, CO by 15.31% and HC by 41.32% fuel sample B40T120MWCNT30 compared to B40. Keywords Mahua biodiesel · Brake thermal efficiency · Nanoparticles · Emission · Titanium dioxide

Nomenclature TiO2 MWCNT B TDC BTE BSFC NOX CO HC CI EGT

Titanium oxide Multi-walled carbon nanotubes Before top dead centre Brake thermal efficiency Brake-specific fuel consumption Nitrogen oxide Carbon monoxide Hydrocarbon Compression ignition Exhaust gas temperature

1 Introduction Nowadays, fossil fuel consumption is steadily increasing to fulfil the higher energy demand of the societal and industrial needs. Diesel engines are profitably utilized in the automobile sector, construction sector and marine applications because of its heavy-duty efficient and economical performance. Nonetheless, the future of these engines has become perplexed as the petroleum reservoirs are sinking fast due to the worldwide rapid exploitation of fuel for the increasing demand for energy. However, pollution caused by the diesel engine exhaust emission is critical affair to explore the substitute of diesel engine applications. There are several astonishing risks, such as global warming, ozone layer depletion and change in climate which caused the governments of several countries to come out with the stringent norms on pollutants freed from these engines that yield the vital requirement for sustainable fuels [1–3]. The utilization of the biofuels is the best options to realize the reduction of exhaust emissions from the heat engines as the biofuels have approximately similar properties to diesel fuel and are renewable in nature. Biodiesel derived from various types of edible and non-edible oil is the foremost accessible source to meet the need of the global energy demand [4]. It is utilized throughout the globe and is set down as ecofriendly fuel due to lower emission characteristics such as lower carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons and smoke level than diesel and petrol fuel.

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Based on production methods, Yang et al. [5] classified the biodiesel fuel into three different groups, namely fatty acid methyl ester; hydrotreated vegetable oil; biomass to liquid. Dwivedi et al. [6] and Chhabra et al. [7] described the pros and cons of biodiesel as a fuel, seedbeds and its properties, biodiesel production methods, and its comparison with other fuels. They also reported the performance and emission characteristics of engines fuelled with various fuels and additives. Verma et al. [8] reviewed the ionic liquids as green additives and reported biodiesel enhances the lubricity of diesel when mixed up to 10%. Due to the increased burden on food crops, the non-edible oil such as Mahua oil, Jatropha oil, Pongamia oil, Cottonseed oil and Karanja oil have gained attention globally as biodiesel feedstock [9]. Moreover, the transesterification is the most common and traditional procedure for biodiesel production around the globe due to its simplicity [10, 11]. In the transesterification method, glycerol comes out as a by-product Basha et al. [12], when triglyceride molecules of fresh vegetable oil are chemically broken down when reacted with alcohol (e.g., methanol or ethanol) in the presence of a catalyst into ethyl or methyl esters (fatty acid alkyl esters) of the vegetable oil. Ethanol is mostly favoured over methanol as it is available from sustainable sources (agriculture misuse) and is organically beneficial for the surroundings. Mahua (Madhuca Indica) is one of the forest-based tree-borne non-edible oil accompanied by an overall making of around 60 million tonnes annually in India as reported by Subhra [13]. Mahua fruit holds around 50% oil inside the fruit, 34–37% of this oil is extracted by small expeller, and the expelled cake is useful to recuperate the remaining oil. The cultivation of Mahua would not cause any impact on the production of food as Mahua plant fattens mostly inland of forest, as well as in waste and fallow land. However, in the long run, it would enhance the surrounding conditions by enormous afforestation. Savariraj [14] said Mahua oil is an underused non-consumable vegetable oil that is obtainable in abundant quantity in India. Since the specific gravity and kinetic viscosity of biodiesel of Mahua is slightly more as compared to diesel and also the calorific value of biodiesel of Mahua is little less than diesel, whose impact could be seen on combustion characteristics, as the higher value of viscosity influences the standard of atomization of biodiesel moderately and which could have a direct impact on engine performance. In recent times, various researchers are concentrating their studies towards the fuel modification using nanoparticles to achieve superior emission and performance attributes [15, 16]. Between new fuel supplements to biodiesel, the additives of nanoparticles have now become an optimistic fuel additive for obtaining maximum enhancement in the performance and functional depletion in emissions of exhaust gas. Prabu [17] carried out the experiment and used two nanoparticles: cerium oxide (CeO2 ) and alumina (Al2 O3 ) of every 30 ppm into the mixture of fuel and noted impressive increment in the brake thermal efficiency compared to pure biodiesel (B100). Dreizin [18] found that nanoparticles scattered test fuel represents superior thermos somatic stuff because of their high ratio of surface to volume. Rahman et al. [19] investigated the performance of CI engine fed accompanied by Palm and Jatropha biodiesel mixtures. It revealed that the emissions of HC and CO reduced, but emissions of NOx increased for both the mixes when differentiated to diesel.

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In addition, several authors performed study to estimate the performance and emission characteristics of nanoadditives doped biodiesel. Praveen et al. [20] studied that the emissions and execution of CI engine and used Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel blended accompanied by TiO2 nanoparticles and EGR. They found that the Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel mixture by adding TiO2 nanoparticles and EGR showed superior engine execution and the percentage of emission decreased in comparison to other fuels. Wu et al. [21] studied the results of utilizing carboncoated aluminium (Al@C) nanoparticles in Palm oil methyl ester biodiesel on the performance and emission of a diesel engine. They observed a significant reduction in NOx and CO for nanoparticle fuel blends when compared with neat biodiesel. Chaichan et al. [22], in their study, used the mix of conventional Iraqi diesel and nanofluid (H2 O and Al2 O3 ) and investigated the execution and emissions of the CI engine. They observed that the nano-alumina-water suspension improved the brake thermal efficiency by 5.5% in comparison with the diesel. Sessy et al. [23] studied the effects of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in nonconsumable diesel–biodiesel fuel mixture on the execution and emissions of a diesel engine. They observed that the use of MWCNTs improved all engine performance parameters for different MWCNTs dose levels and recommended 50 mg/l doses for best engine combustion characteristics. Pandian et al. [24] inspected that the result of TiO2 nanoparticles on emission characteristics. They observed that the addition of TiO2 nanoparticles to Mahua biodiesel decreased CO, HC, NOx and smoke emissions. Aalam and Saravanan [25] added aluminium oxide nanoparticles into Mahua biodiesel. They noticed the improvement in brake thermal efficiency and a slight reduction in HC, CO and emissions of smoke for nanoparticles test fuel. Venkatesan et al. [26] investigated the impact of nano-metallic additives on the discharge, fuel properties and execution attributes of the CI engine. Authors represented that engine performance cannot be enhanced with every number of added nanoparticles and suggested that selecting the most excellent range of nanoparticle is a clue to finding better outcomes for engine execution and emissions. Celik et al. [27] reported lower emission of CO, NOx and smoke by adding Manganese as a nanoadditives in diesel. Panneerselvam et al. [28] produced biodiesel from seeds of watermelon utilizing the process of transesterification, used the same accompanied by diesel blends for execution, combustion and emission attributes in IC engines and compared well with those of diesel. The production of ethyl esters of Pongamia (EEOP), ethyl esters of Neem (EEON) and methyl esters of Pongamia (MEOP) by the process of transesterification utilizing potassium methoxide and sodium methoxide by Murugesan et al. [29] experimentally investigated that the highest percentage of ester content of biodiesel was experienced for K2 O2 catalyst, and the amount of catalyst utilized was less than that accompanied by Na2 O2 for the same mass of the commodity oil. Panneerselvam et al. [30] experimentally studied that the execution, emission and combustion attributes of biofuels from Ceiba pentandra methyl ester–pine oil blends (CPMEP), Ceiba pentandra methyl ester (CPME) and pine oil which results are compared well with diesel. Jasrotia et al. [31] performed the experimental study to evaluate the performance of CI engine by utilizing the nanoadditive mixed Mahua

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biodiesel as a fuel. Vijayakumar et al. [32] reviewed that the accessibility of various types of plant seed oils, different techniques for the preparation of biodiesel from vegetable oils and its properties. Authors reported that the addition of MgO nanoparticles with Maduca indica biodiesel blends improves the properties of diesel fuel like viscosity, calorific value and decreased the flashpoint as well as fire point. However, very few studies carried out to examine the execution and emissions of CI engine by utilizing two nanoparticles dispersed fuel blend. The present paper took Mahua biodiesel and utilized two nanoparticles, namely titanium oxide (TiO2 ) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes as nanoadditive in the preparation of biodiesel blend. N-Butyl alcohol is used as a stabilizer to enhance the stability of the nanoparticles into the fuel blends. In this work, an experimental study is carried out to evaluate the performance, and emission attributes of the CI engine charged with Mahua biodiesel fuel blend mixed with two different nanoadditives.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Development of Fuels Test Mahua biodiesel (B100) (Supplier: M/s. Indo-Bio Energy Industries, Nagpur, India) is commercially accessible in this effort and provides different types of biodiesel. Nanoparticles such as multi-walled carbon nanotubes and titanium oxide were both procured from Platonic Nanotech Pvt. Ltd., Jharkhand, India, and their details represented in Tables 1 and 2. In this experiment, six test fuel samples, namely B40, B40T135MWCNT15, B40T120MWCNT30, B40T105MWCNT45, B40T90MWCNT60 and B40T75MWCNT75, as shown in Fig. 1 and prepared which mixed with fuel blends in various ratios as 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50, in which the maximum quantity of nanoparticles taken is 150 mg/lt for a given fuel blend to evaluate the performance. N-Butyl alcohol is mixed in the test fuel samples containing the nanoparticles to improve the stability of the nanoparticles into the biodiesel– diesel test fuel samples. Nanoparticles dispersed into the fuel with equipment known Table 1 Specification of TiO2 nanoadditives

Item

Specification

Manufacturer

Platonic Nanotech Private Ltd

Chemical name

Titanium Oxide (TiO2 )

CAS No

13,463–67–7

Atomic weight

79.8658 g/mol

Average particle size

30–50 nm

Specific surface area

200 ~ 230 m2 /g

Appearance

White

24 Table 2 Details of MWCNT nanoadditives

A. K. Shukla et al. Item

Specification

Manufacturer

Platonic Nanotech Pvt. Ltd

Chemical name

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes

Length

2–10 microns

Diameter

10 ~ 15 nm

CAS No

308,068–56-6

Specific surface area

250 ~ 270 m2 /g

Appearance

Black

Fig.1 Samples of test fuels

as Ultrasonicator for 90 min to get the homogeneous mixture of nanoparticles into the biodiesel–diesel test fuel. The prepared homogeneous mixture was subjected to steady-state conditions and opted fixed for 12 h. The physicochemical properties of diesel, B40, B100 and B40T135MWCNT15 presented in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the fuel composition of all the blends. The atomization of nanoparticles dispersed test fuel is shown in Fig. 2.

2.2 Experimentation and Conditions for Operation This research work is employed as a single-cylinder four-stroke direct injection CI engine to determine the emission, execution and ignition attributes of the prepared test fuel samples as shown in Fig. 3. The comprehensive descriptions of the CI engine listed in Table 5 and uncertainty of instruments in Table 6. The experimental

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Table 3 Specification of test fuels Properties

Diesel

Biodiesel (B100)

B40

B40T135MWCNT15

Viscosity cST

2.72

5.93

3.76

3.89

Density at 40 °C (g/cc)

0.8

0.89

0.84

0.83

Calorific value (MJ/Kg)

45.25

41.81

42.45

42.82

Flashpoint (°C)

63

154

76

73

Cetane number

46

52.4

51.7

52.5

Table 4 Fuel composition

Fuel

Composition

B100

Mahua biodiesel

B40

40% B100 + 60% Diesel

B40T135MWCNT15

40% B100 + 60% Diesel + 135 mg TiO2 + 15 mg MWCNT

B40T120MWCNT30

40% B100 + 60% Diesel + 120 mg TiO2 + 30 mg MWCNT

B40T105MWCNT45

40% B100 + 60% Diesel + 105 mg TiO2 + 45 mg MWCNT

B40T90MWCNT60

40% B100 + 60% Diesel + 90 mg TiO2 + 60 mg MWCNT

B40T75MWCNT75

40% B100 + 60% Diesel + 75 mg TiO2 + 75 mg MWCNT

Fig. 2 Schematic of atomization process of the test fuel

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Fig. 3 Experimental set-up

Table 5 Specification of diesel engine Engine Details

Specification

Company

Kirloskar

Type

Single cylinder, four strokes, water cooled. Direct injection engine

Rated output

5.2 kW at 1500 rpm

Compression ratio

17.5:1

Swept volume

661.45 cm3

Bore × Stroke

85.7 × 110 mm

Injection timing

26° b TDC

Connecting rod length

234 mm

test records the apparatus readings for a test case after an extended run time that warrants the steady-state operation. This method is iterated to incorporate the engine speed range at the specified load percentage.

3 Results and Discussion In this paper, experimental investigation of various performance parameters of a fourstroke single-cylinder, direct injection CI engine has been carried out for nanoadditive blends of Mahua biodiesel and diesel. The emission and execution attributes of CI engine investigated for diesel, B40, B40T135MWCNT15, B40T120MWCNT30, B40T105MWCNT45, B40T90MWCNT60, B40T75MWCNT75 test fuels. The engine performance parameters obtained using 100% diesel at no load, 20, 40, 60, 80% and full engine load over the engine speed range provide a basis for comparison

Investigation of Carbon Nanotubes and Titanium Dioxide Doped … Table 6 List of instrument uncertainty

27

Instrument

Uncertainty

Airflow

± 1.0

Load indicator

± 0.2

Temperature sensor

± 0.15

Fuel consumption

± 0.5

Gas analyser CO2 NOX CO

± 1.0 ± 0.5 ± 1.2

Crank angle encoder

± 0.2

Pressure sensor

± 0.5

Smoke metre

± 1.0

Speed sensor

± 1.0

Eddy current dynamometer

± 0.15

Thermal efficiency

± 0.6

with the other fuel blends the detail discussion about the results obtained from the experiment given below.

3.1 Execution Attributes The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) is a function of engine variable that shows how systematically the energy of the fuel is transformed into the mechanical product. It is observed from Fig. 4 that the BTE for all test fuel specimen is exhibiting the increasing tendency from a no-load condition to full load condition. Figure 4 also shows that the brake thermal efficiency of B40T105MWCNT45 test fuel is better than that of other fuel blends and neat diesel. The recorded brake thermal efficiency values for diesel, B40, B40T135MWCNT15, B40T120MWCNT30, B40T105MWCNT45, B40T90MWCNT60, B40T75MWCNT75 are 27.47, 26.44, 28.82, 29.66, 30.32, 27.6 and 29.04%, respectively. A gain of 10.37% against neat diesel is recorded when the nanoparticles: TiO2 (105 mg/lt) and MWCNT (45 mg/lt) are added in B40. The improvement could be because of the improvement in atomization, rapid evaporation and combustion of the nanoparticles scattered in the fuel test, which results in the superior air–fuel mixture and permits additional surface area of fuel to react accompanied by oxygen molecules which are demonstrated in figure. Figure 5 represents the variation of brake-specific fuel consumption accompanied by the load for nanoparticles scattered fuels test. It is noticed from the figure that the brake-specific fuel consumption for all the test fuel shows the declining trend from the no-load condition to full load condition. B40T105MWCNT45 test fuel shows the minimum value of the fuel consumed against other fuel

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B40 B40T135MWCNT15 B40T120MWCNT30 B40T105MWCNT45 B40T90MWCNT60 B40T75MWCNT75 DIESEL

30 25

BTE (%)

20 15 10 5 0 -5

0

20

40

60

80

100

Load (%) Fig.4 Variation of BTE with the load

blends and neat diesel. The recorded brake-specific fuel consumption values for diesel, B40, B40T135MWCNT15, B40T120MWCNT30, B40T105MWCNT45, B40T90MWCNT60, B40T75MWCNT75 are 0.81, 0.8, 0.85, 0.82, 0.75, 0.86 and 0.93 kg/kWh, respectively. There is a reduction of 7.40% in BSFC against neat diesel when the nanoparticles: TiO2 (105 mg/lt) and MWCNT (45 mg/lt) are added in B40. It occurs due to the excellent atomization property of both TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles affecting superior combustion. Figure 6 represents the variation of average exhaust gas temperature versus engine load by the load for nanoparticles scattered fuels test. It is noticed from the figure that the exhaust gas temperature for all the test fuel shows the declining trend at all engine loads condition. B40T90MWCNT60 test fuel shows the minimum value of the exhaust gas temperature against other fuel blends and neat diesel. The recorded exhaust gas temperature values for diesel, B40, B40T135MWCNT15, B40T120MWCNT30, B40T105MWCNT45, B40T90MWCNT60, B40T75MWCNT75 are 667.5, 689.4, 632.9, 623.7, 707.6, 677.32, 640.55 and 640.55 K, respectively. There is a reduction of 4.38% in EGT against neat diesel when the nanoparticles (TiO2 (120 mg/lt) and MWCNT (30 mg/lt) are added in B40. It occurs due to the excellent atomization property of both TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles affecting superior combustion.

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B40 B40T135MWCNT15 B40T120MWCNT30 B40T105MWCNT45 B40T90MWCNT60 B40T75MWCNT75 DIESEL

4

BSFC (kg/kWh)

29

3

2

1

0

0

20

40

60

80

100

80

100

Load (%) Fig.5 Variation of BSFC with the load 800

B40 B40T135MWCNT15 B40T120MWCNT30 B40T105MWCNT45 B40T90MWCNT60 B40T75MWCNT75 DIESEL

EGT (K)

600

400

200

0

0

20

40

60

Load (%) Fig. 6 Variation of EGT with the load

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A. K. Shukla et al.

3.2 Attributes of Combustion Figure 7 represents the variation of pressure of the cylinder accompanied by a crank angle for all the test fuel at full load conditions. It is noticed that the use of a B40 fuel sample guide to an underneath value of maximum pressure by approximately 13% when compared with neat diesel. This could be because of the greater viscosity and molecular weight of B40 over neat diesel which guides to insufficient use of fuel energy contents [33, 34]. However, obstruction to attaining the peak cylinder pressure could be characterized by the enhancement of delay in the ignition period which is required to stabilize the consequence of elevated viscosity of burned fuel which increases the fuel atomization process and evaporation. These outcomes have superior unity accompanied by Shehata and Abdel-Razek [35]. Inclusion of TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles in different proportions into B40 accelerated the process of combustion. The inclusion of nanoparticles into the B40 improved the reaction of heat and raised the maximum pressure. Figure 8 exhibits the variation of the rate of heat liberates accompanied by a crank angle for each test fuel samples at the condition of full load. It is noticed from the figure that the rate of heat liberate enhances with the inclusion of TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles when added in different ratios into the B40 fuel sample. This could be attributed to the elevated carbon burning mobilization which enhanced the ignition.

Cylinder pressure (bar)

50

40

B40 B40T135MWCNT15 B40T120MWCNT30 B40T105MWCNT45 B40T90MWCNT60 B40T75MWCNT75 DIESEL

30

20

10

0

320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450

Crank Angle (degree) Fig. 7 Variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle

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B40 B40T135MWCNT15 B40T120MWCNT30 B40T105MWCNT45 B40T90MWCNT60 B40T75MWCNT75 DIESEL

15

Heat release rate (J/deg.)

31

12

9

6

3

0 300

320

340

360

380

400

420

440

460

480

Crank Angle (degree) Fig. 8 Variation of heat release rate with crank angle

3.3 Attributes of Emission Figure 9 represents the variation of emissions of NOx for the load. It is confirmed from figure that emissions of NOx for B40 are quite elevated than that of pure diesel whatever the load applied to the engine. This could be attributed to the enhancement in the content of oxygen in B40, due to which the temperature of the reaction enhanced and that lead to enhancing the discharge of NOx . Also, values of NOx for TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticle fuel samples are much lower than that of B40 as well as neat diesel. This could be due to the catalytic behaviour of both the nanoparticles. The minimum NOX emissions obtained for B40T120MWCNT30 when compared to other fuel samples. Figure 10 exhibits the variation of emissions of CO for the load. Utilization of B40 guides to the extraordinary enhancement in the concentration of CO when contrast to the neat diesel. This could be attributed to the long detain period and greater viscosity of B40 which disturbed small droplets as well as vaporization, and thus, more time was needed to attain the complete combustion. The TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles’ fuel samples showed the positive effect of discharging CO. The reason behind this could be the shorter detention in the ignition and increased attributes of combustion by TiO2 and MWCNT and greater catalytic nature of nanoparticles because of their greater surface-to-volume ratio and increasing the air–fuel mixture inside the engine cylinder. The test fuel that showed the best reduction in CO emissions is B40T120MWCNT30, B40T105MWCNT45 and B40T90MWCNT60 when compared to B40.

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A. K. Shukla et al. 250

B40 B40T135MWCNT15 B40T120MWCNT30 B40T105MWCNT45 B40T90MWCNT60 B40T75MWCNT75 DIESEL

NOx Emission (ppm)

200

150

100

50

0

0

20

40

60

80

100

80

100

Load (%)

Fig. 9 Variation of NOX emissions with the load

CO Emission (ppm) (% Vol.)

0.15

B40 B40T135MWCNT15 B40T120MWCNT30 B40T105MWCNT45 B40T90MWCNT60 B40T75MWCNT75 DIESEL

0.12

0.09

0.06

0.03

0.00

0

20

40

60

Load (%) Fig. 10 Variation of CO emissions with the load

Investigation of Carbon Nanotubes and Titanium Dioxide Doped … 40

B40 B40T135MWCNT15 B40T120MWCNT30 B40T105MWCNT45 B40T90MWCNT60 B40T75MWCNT75 DIESEL

35 30

HC Emission (ppm)

33

25 20 15 10 5 0

0

20

40

60

80

100

Load (%) Fig. 11 Variation of HC emissions with the load

It is observed in Fig. 11 that the HC emission for B40 shows a remarkable increase as a contrast to the pure diesel. This could be characterized by the prolonged detain in combustion and high viscosity of B40 in comparison with diesel, which disturbed the droplets of fuel and vaporization, and thus, much more time was needed to achieve the combustion process completely. However, the TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticle fuel samples have a productive result on the discharge of HC. This could be because of less ignition delay period and enhanced ignition attributes of both the TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles. B40T75MWCNT75 showed the minimum HC emissions when compared to other fuel samples. It is observed in Fig. 12 that the smoke emission for B40 and other blends with nanoadditive shows a remarkable decrease as a contrast to the pure diesel. This could be characterized by the prolonged detain in better combustion and high oxygen contents of B40 in comparison with diesel, which disturbed the droplets of fuel and vaporization, and thus, much more time was needed to achieve the combustion process completely. However, the TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticle fuel samples have a productive result on the discharge of smoke emission. This could be because of less ignition delay period and enhanced ignition attributes of both the TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles. B40T90MWCNT60 showed the minimum smoke emissions when compared to other fuel samples.

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A. K. Shukla et al. 100

B40 B40T135MWCNT15 B40T120MWCNT30 B40T105MWCNT45 B40T90MWCNT60 B40T75MWCNT75 DIESEL

Smoke Emission (%)

80

60

40

20

0

0

20

40

60

80

100

Load (%) Fig. 12 Variation of smoke emissions with the load

4 Conclusions Based on the execution, combustion and discharge attributes of diesel, B40, B40T135MWCNT15, B40T120MWCNT30, B40T105MWCNT45, B40T90MWCNT60, B40T75MWCNT75 fuelled four-stroke single-cylinder direct injection CI engine following conclusions are drawn and appended below: . There was a remarkable development in the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) for all the TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles test fuel in contrast to that of B40 and neat diesel. The maximum gain of 10.37% in BTE was seen for B40T105MWCNT45 against the neat diesel and 14.67% against B40 when the dose level of nanoparticles: TiO2 (105 mg/lt) and MWCNT (45 mg/lt) added in B40. . The peak pressure was higher for TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticle test fuel due to shorter ignition delay when compared with the B40 test fuel sample. . A reduction of 7.40% in BSFC for B40T105MWCNT45 was observed against neat diesel and 6.25% against B40 when the dose level of TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles is taken as 105 mg/lt and 45 mg/lt. . NOx emissions are drastically reduced for the B40T135MWCNT15, B40T120MWCNT30, B40T105MWCNT45 and B40T90MWCNT60 with a percentage reduction of 30.4%, 33.6%, 20.4% and 8.9% except B40T75MWCNT75 when compared with B40 test fuel due to the combined effect of TiO2 and MWCNT.

Investigation of Carbon Nanotubes and Titanium Dioxide Doped …

35

. The foremost mechanical execution was acquired at the nanodose quantity of 105 mg/lt for TiO2 and 45 mg/lt for MWCNT (i.e. B40T105MWCNT45), in comparison with the leading environmental execution noted at the nanodose quantity of 120 mg/lt for TiO2 and 30 mg/lt for MWCNT (i.e. B40T120MWCNT30). . The use of B40 test fuel showed a negative effect on engine performance and a higher quantity of CO, NOx and HC emissions.

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Hip Prosthesis: Material, Wear and Loading Considerations for Long Life Sustainability Parijat Srivastava and Vinay Pratap Singh

Abstract Total hip arthroplasty’s (THA) primary objective is to give the patient a long-lasting, pain-free, functional hip joint who is experiencing advanced hip arthritis. Hip replacement surgery involves replacing the hip with a prosthetic implant, called a hip prosthesis. Surgery for hip replacement is done as a full replacement or a hemi (half) replacement. Such joint replacement surgery is typically performed with hip fractures to relieve arthritic symptoms. A total hip prosthesis consists of changing both the femoral head and acetabulum liner while in hemi-arthroplasty only the femoral head is changed. The service life of a man-made hip is around 15 years, which is good for people above 60 years age. On the other hand, due to their lifestyles or accidents, the number of young patients is also rising, which raises a warning for researchers to suggest new materials or designs to extend the service life beyond 15 years. The wear of acetabular liner might be an important clinical problem for patients. Knowledge of the tribological behaviour of bio-implant materials is useful in extending the lifetime of orthopaedic implants. The need for stress analysis of the femur is beneficial for orthopaedic applications and implant designing. This work deals with study and analysis of previous research works on various materials that are utilized in acetabular liner for hip arthroplasty and evaluating maximum load bearing capability of acetabular head during different physical activities. Literature study of mechanical property evaluation and characterization is helpful in the selection of appropriate biomaterials for implant application with improved sustainability. Through this paper, an effort is made to spotlight the utilization of reinforced and novel biomaterials. Keywords Arthroplasty · Acetabulum · Tribology · Bioresorbable

P. Srivastava (B) · V. P. Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Harcourt Butler Technical University, Kanpur, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_4

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1 Introduction Anatomical components of the human body can be treated, improved, or replaced using biomaterials, which interact with human tissue and body fluids [1]. Polymers, metals, ceramics, and composites are the four main types of biomaterials. The most common types of biomaterials are polymers, which can be applied to both hard and soft tissues. The usage of polymers in applications for drug delivery is very common [2]. Polymers used for bio-applications may be natural (e.g. cellulose, sodium alginate, and collagen) or artificial (e.g. co-PLGA, PMMA, poly (vinyl chloride), and silicone rubber. Metals are generally used for orthopaedic and dental applications. Most usually used metals are titanium and its alloy, cobalt-chromium alloy and stainless steel. Ceramics are mostly used in hard augmentation, regeneration and tissue repair, specifically in non-loaded-bearing applications or as coatings on metal implants and commonly used ceramic biomaterials are alumina (Al2 03 ), calcium phosphates (CaP), and bioglass. Polymer–ceramic composite signifies the major part of composite biomaterials [1]. Biomaterials are used in medical devices like implants. These materials when interact with human body environment may experience varying tissue responses. Bioinert materials are biologically inert materials with least response behaviour like stents used for arteries or metal implants. Bioactive materials exhibit formation of interfacial bond between this biomaterial, formation of interfacial bond between this biomaterial and host. Bioresorable materials dissolves in vivo like HAP and medicines [2]. The femoral head, femoral stem, and acetabular liner make up the ball and socket hip joint replacement. Figure 1 shows the components of total hip joint prosthesis. Medical engineering is an important area of technological advancement in the twentyfirst century. For an ageing population, the design, development, and production of medical implants that replace damaged body parts or organ functions are crucial. An artificial joint is utilized during a hip replacement surgery to replace the damaged area of the hip joint [3]. Hip implant experiences various failure in due course of service life as compiled below(1) Wear: Continuous interaction of femoral head and liner results in wear debris, which is one of the major causes of limiting long-term THR survival. Generation of wear debris results in inflammatory reaction alternative bearing surfaces have been created in an effort to reduce the generation of wear particles. With the development of cross-linked polyethylene and ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene, polyethylene has underwent modifications. With respect to the most metallic heads, these enhanced PEs have shown better wear characteristics in vivo and in vitro [4]. (2) Infection: It is the severe cause for repetition of hip replacement surgery. Infections might develop shortly after hip joint replacement surgery or years, and later

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Fig. 1 Components of hip replacement [3]

progress in the field of surgical techniques usage of antibiotics and advanced operating room settings has resulted in a sharp decline in infection [5]. (3) Dislocation: When the ball of the hip joint (THR) is forced out of the socket, it results in a hip dislocation. This injury most frequently happens during a car collision, a high-impact fall, at the job, or in sports, particularly when it also leads to a fractured leg or pelvis. While the patient is unconscious, an orthopaedist can simply push the ball back in with their hand. However, orthopaedic surgery may be necessary if the imaging reveals fractures or substantial damage to soft tissues, nerves, or blood vessels [6]. (4) Joint Loosening: Consequent upon excessive wear or stress shielding effects loosening of joint occur. Bone resporation due to stress shielding effect causes joint loosening which is known as osteolysis. It is one of the major therapeutic challenges faced by patients [7]. Foreign Body Response to Biomaterial Injuries, blood–material interactions, cause the production of a temporary matrix, chronic and acute inflammation, granulation tissue formation, and other biological processes begin to take place when a biomaterial is embedded in the body. The biomaterial initially interacts with blood after being implanted through the adsorption of proteins and the development of an extra provisional matrix on its surface. The provisional matrix is commonly regarded as the primary thrombus (blood clot) at the tissue–biomaterial interface, triggering structural, biochemical, and cellular pathways to initiate wound healing. In the presence of bioactive compounds such as pro-inflammatory components, this matrix activates and inhibits certain processes, resulting in inflammatory reactions. Furthermore, damage to vascularized connective tissue increases inflammatory responses and thrombus formation by increasing

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the coagulation, complement, fibrinolytic, and kinin-producing systems, as well as platelets. These protein-related techniques would want to be linked to protein adsorption mechanisms. Acute and continuous inflammation was found following the crucial interactions between blood and a biomaterial and the establishment of the provisional matrix [1].

2 Chronological Development of Hip Joint Implants Between 1955 and 1965, metal-on-metal bearings were produced employing large ball diameters [8]. However, after Sir John Charnley introduced total hip replacement based on metal on polyethylene (MoP) composed of a tiny metal ball and a cemented polyethylene (PE) cup in the 1960s [9], the use of metal-on-metal bearings began to drop in the 1970s for a number of years. With a success rate of 77–81% 25 years after initial THA, the long-term viability of these early implants was commendable. The revision rate increases with the use of THA in younger patients, more active patients, raising questions regarding the potential role of PE to wear particles in loosening and osteolysis. The introduction of new materials will stop osteolysis and wear [10]. In the 1970s, alumina ceramic-on-ceramic (CoC) hip implants were first used by French surgeon Pierre Boutin, who foresaw the problem of polyethylene illness. THA has utilized CoC implants, and similar trends have also produced ceramic on polyethylene (CoP) combinations as a more competitive bearing option to CoC and MoM throughout the period 1963–1973 [11]. Stainless steel was the first alloy type utilized for orthopaedic implants [12]. However, it has been recommended that stainless steel can only be used for the short term as corrosion is unavoidable. The current standard for prosthetic hip joints consists of a stem, acetabular cup, liner, and head [13]. The commonly used materials in components of THR are tantalum, PE, ceramic, and cobalt-chromium, respectively [14].

3 Metallic Materials for Acetabular Head of the Hip Joint Implant Stainless Steel The most common metallic biomaterial utilized as screws, bone plates, prosthetic joints, etc., is austenitic stainless steel, grade 316 L. Most investigations clearly identify the surface oxide film’s on stainless steel. The surface oxide coating of austenitic stainless steel is composed of chromium, iron, and a minimal amount of molybdenum. When exposed to air or a chloride solution, than it does not contain nickel [15].

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Titanium Alloys The most physiologically acceptable material currently available is titanium alloys (Ti-6Al-4 V). It has vanadium in it. According to reports, metallic vanadium is highly harmful to cells, and hence, the creation and use of titanium alloys without vanadium in surgical implants has piqued experts’ curiosity greatly. [16]. Cobalt-Chromium (Co-Cr) Alloys Due to alloying additions and the development of the passive layer of chromium oxide Cr2 O3 , cobalt-based alloys exhibit high corrosion resistance and mechanical strength in chloride conditions. Due to their improved corrosion resistance and wear performance, they are now routinely employed for metal-on-metal hip joints [17]. Tantalum-Based Alloys Tantalum-based alloys are one of the most biocompatible material to be used as implant material. Porous tantalum is used for hip joint implant application [17].

4 Materials for Liner Surface of Cup in Hip Implant 4.1 Polyethylene UHMWPE The semicrystalline polymer known as ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) possesses numerous exceptional mechanical qualities, such as creep resistance, toughness, and wear resistance. The most common bearing coupling for complete hip replacement is metal-on-UHWMPE articulation because of that qualities. Although the polyethylene component is the weakest link in the bearing couple, its service life can often be reduced by wear, oxidation, and fatigue fracture [18]. Highly Cross-Linked Polyethylene Ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) has recently been proven to have 80 to 90% better wear performance after being exposed to radiation than ordinary polyethylene [18]. The production of strongly cross-linked UHMWPE has been documented using a variety of manufacturing techniques [19]. According to data from numerous laboratories using modern hip stimulators, these cross-linked polyethylenes result in a wear reduction of 80 to 90% [20]. ULWPE A novel high-density polyethylene (HDPE) polymer that has been metallocene catalysed is called ultralow-wear polyethylene (ULWPE). Compared to traditional UHMWPE, wear testing revealed outstanding wear characteristics. The structure of ULWPE is largely linear, it has a small molecular weight distribution, and it hardly contains any side chains. When compared to traditional UHMWPE, which

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has a molecular weight of over 2 million, ULWPE is simpler to produce and can be immediately injection moulded [20]. Polyethylene Doped with Antioxidant When added to polyethylene, vitamin E (VE), a powerful biological antioxidant, helps to stop the polyethylene chains from oxidizing. (first-generation cross-linked UHMWPE) Oxidative stability shows lower wear and the incidence of osteolysis [21].

4.2 Ceramics Zirconia Zirconia ceramics are superior to other ceramic materials in a number of ways because of the processes for toughening during transformation that operates inside their microstructure. About 20 years ago, research on zirconia ceramics as biomaterials began. Today, zirconia (Y-YZP) is being used clinically in THR, but advancements are being made for usage in other medical devices. Recent research has focused on the surface finish of components, the chemistry of precursors, and the forming and sintering processes. THR ball heads are now the primary use for zirconia ceramics [22]. Alumina Currently, Al2 O3 ceramics are commonly used for bearing surfaces in THR. They are widely used because of a combination of their high wear resistance, good biocompatibility, and superior corrosion resistance. Unfortunately, considerable in vivo failure is observed by the orthopaedic community as a result of which alumina ceramic component’s fail from crack formation. [23] Zirconia–Alumina Composite ZrO2 and Al2 O3 composite materials show biocompatibility. In general, these composites exhibit stronger fracture toughness than Al2 O3 and less sensitivity to ageing than pure ZrO2 . However, compared to the Al2 O3 -Al2 O3 bearings, the implant’s strength enhanced result of its greater density and smaller Al2 O3 grain size (since the presence of ZrO2 controls its grain growth) [24]

5 Wear Consideration The performance of the tribological components and wear loss has been correlated by a number of theoretical wear models [25]. The most used formula for calculating steady-state adhesive wear is Archard’s law. According to Archard’s wear model, the observed wear volume (Wv) is proportional to the applied load (N), the sliding

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distance (x), and the softer material’s (H) hardness. The possibility that the asperities of the tribo pair in sliding motion would deform plastically and wear out which is proportional to constant K, also known as the wear coefficient or Archard’s coefficient [26]. Wv = K

Nx H

In a recent investigation, by considering Miner’s rule. It was determined that varied loading has a substantial impact on the wear behaviour of tribological components. Additionally, they came to the conclusion that although the values of the friction coefficient varied depending on the order of the loads, the power lost at the moment of failure for a particular tribo pair remained mostly constant. [27] Archard’s calculation could not foresee the weight loss caused by the load. According to the experimental results, K must be determined during each loading sequence since Archard’s wear coefficient with each load variation is not constant. It’s possible that changes in friction coefficient values during the load sequence are the primary cause of the occurrence of varied values of K [28].

6 Load Analysis of Hip Joint To establish the boundary circumstances, free body (FB) analysis of the femur bone was obtained from Mirza et al. [19]. Figure 2 depicts the FB diagram of the femur head based on the combination of forces from the pelvic bone. The abductors’ muscle force is represented by Ab, the joint reaction forces by JRF, and the body weight by W. The joint response force might be 3 to 7 times the body weight. Joint response force calculation: the following equation may be used to solve for M using the fundamental sum of all moments is zero [29]. (A × B) + (W × B) = 0

(1)

A = 5.4 cm and B = 13 cm are the femur’s dimensions and the joint response force point in the FBD, respectively: M = 2.4 W

(2)

R = M + W, R = 2.4 W + W, R = 3.4 W

(3)

Calculation of R

Joint reaction force calculations (JRF). Let the angle be 30° between R and JRF:

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Fig. 2 Reaction forces on hip joint [29]

JRF =

R Cos 30◦

(4)

JRF = 3.4 W/Cos 30◦ = 3.925 ≈ 4 W M, W, and R stood for muscular tension, trunk weight, and response force, respectively. FE investigation included static load and walking posture situations. Table [30] lists various joint response forces on the hip joint caused by various physical activities in the form of body weight. The magnitude of the response force is calculated using a free body diagram of the joints, as shown in Table 1. The 3D models of the prosthetic hip joint were created in Solidworks 2014 and consist of two components: the femoral head and the acetabular cup. A prior investigation yielded the bearing size of an artificial hip joint. The acetabular liner has an exterior diameter of 38 mm, an internal diameter of 32 mm, and an acetabular head with a diameter of 32 mm. The radius of the dimple is 1 mm, and the depth of the dimple is 0.5 mm. The dimple is placed in the middle of the femoral head’s surface. This simulation makes use of an acetabular liner composed of HDPE, which is considered to be linear elastic and homogenous. The parameters of the material Table 1 A list of several exercises and the joint response force at the hip [31]

Physical exercises

Magnitude of reaction forces on the hip joint (B.W)

Walking slowly

2.2

Walking with a cane

1.26

Walking without a cane

3.4

Upstair climbing

5.9

Downstair climbing

5.1

Jogging

7.6

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derived from the research paper, with an elasticity modulus of 1200 MPa and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.46, and a femoral head constructed of titanium with an elasticity modulus of 110 MPa and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.31. Solidworks 2014 software was used to create three-dimensional models of a prosthetic hip joint. The versions include an acetabular cup and a femoral head with and without a dimple. The design are built based on the data gathered from the references. ANSYS 2021 will be used to mimic the modelling designs that were generated in dry or no lubrication conditions. Then, using both of these models, samples of the femoral head with and without dimples will be simulated to determine the total deformation that occurs on the acetabular cup. The total deformation and equivalent stress will also be calculated using the acetabular liner model. The three-dimensional model of acetabular liner made in the form of semi-half hollow thin sphere as shown in Fig. 3. The 3D model of acetabular head without dimple and with dimple is made in the form of semi-half hollow sphere 3D as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 3 A model of acetabular liner

Fig. 4 A model of acetabular head a without dimple, b with dimple, c enlarged figure with dimple

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7 Result and Discussion The result of the simulation process is done when the person is walking slowly the least case and when the person is jogging an extreme case is done in ANSYS 21. When the person is walking, magnitude of reaction force on the hip joint (R = 2.2 BW), Assuming the average body weight of the body is 70 N. R = 2.2 × 70 = 154 N, Equivalent stress during walking, Joint Reaction force (JRF) = 3.925 * 154 = 604.45 N, Pressure = force/surface area = 604.45/0.0017281 = 0.349 MPa, equivalent stress = 1.5395Mpa(max). Figure 5a Equivalent stress during jogging(JRF = 3.925 × 7.6 × 70 = 2088.1 N), Pressure = force/surface area = 2088.1/0.0017281 = 1.208 MPa, equivalent stress = 5.3288 Mpa (max), Fig. 5b. Total deformation during walking ((JRF = 3.925 × 2.2 × 70 = 604.45 N), Pressure = force/surface area = 604.45/0.0017281 = 0.349 MPa) comes out to be 3.2101e − 5 mm (max), Fig. 6a. Total Deformation during jogging ((JRF = 3.925 × 7.6 × 70 = 2088.1 N), Pressure = force/surface area = 2088.1/0.0017281 = 1.208 MPa) comes out to be 0.000111 mm (max), Fig. 6b. As the force increases stress and total deformation also increase, maximum force that can acetabular liner (average body weight of 70 N) can hold is 2088.1 N, and for surface area of 1728.1 mm2 ,it can hold pressure upto 1.208 MPa and provides dimple on the femoral head to reduce contact pressure. Total deformation calculation for acetabular head for titanium material load of 2088.1 N and a pressure of 1.208 Mpa

Fig. 5 Equivalent stress during a walking, b jogging

Fig. 6 Total deformation during a walking, b jogging

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Fig. 7 Total deformation of head during a walking, b jogging

without dimple total deformation comes out to be 0.00017335 mm Fig. 7a, and with dimple total deformation comes out to be 0.00017229 mm Fig. 7b. The area of contact will reduce with the addition of a dimple to the femoral head’s surface, which will lead to a reduction in the contact pressure value between two surfaces. Percentage reduction in Total Deformation (TD). (TD dimple - TD with dimple)/TD dimple = (0.00017335 − 0.00017229)/0.00017335 × 100 = 0.61%. Thus on providing a dimple of 0.5 mm on 32 mm head, there is a reduction of 0.61% TD.

8 Conclusions This study shows the year-by-year progression of total hip arthroplasty (THR) with acceptable biomaterials. The primary causes of hip joint failure include joint loosening owing to wear debris, adverse reactions, and instability of the prosthesis with live tissues. Almost all metal polymers, ceramics, and their material combinations fail to offer long-term hip joint stability. To achieve a stable joint, porous coating with high strength and toughened metal/alloys are utilized porous metal surfaces are created in a way that promotes bone repair and regeneration. For the replacement and repair of damaged tissues, all research relevant to functional tissue engineering, biomaterials, and biological activities are generally recognized. The design of a femur implant is advantageous for many physical activities in real life. In complete hip joint replacement surgery, advanced medical grade materials such as porous coated metals and ceramic polymer composites are explored and considered for stability and long-term success.

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2. Bose S, Bandyopadhyay A (2013) Introduction to biomaterials. In: Characterization of biomaterials, pp 1–9. Academic Press 3. Ghalme SG, Mankar A, Bhalerao Y (2016) Biomaterials in hip joint replacement. Int J Mater Sci Eng 4(2):113–125 4. Digas G, Kärrholm J, Thanner J, Malchau H, Herberts P (2004) THE OTTO AUFRANC AWARD: highly cross-linked polyethylene in total hip arthroplasty: randomized evaluation of penetration rate in cemented and uncemented sockets using radiostereometric analysis. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1976–2007(429):6–16 5. Fitzgerald RH Jr (1992) Total hip arthroplasty sepsis: prevention and diagnosis. Orthop Clin North Am 23(2):259–264 6. Bozic KJ, Kurtz SM, Lau E, Ong K, Vail TP, Berry DJ (2009) The epidemiology of revision total hip arthroplasty in the United States. JBJS 91(1):128–133 7. Abu-Amer Y, Darwech I, Clohisy JC (2007) Aseptic loosening of total joint replacements: mechanisms underlying osteolysis and potential therapies. Arthritis Res Ther 9(1):1–7 8. McKee GK, Watson-Farrar J (1966) Replacement of arthritic hips by the McKee-Farrar prosthesis. J Bone Joint Surg Br 48(2):245–259 9. Triclot P (2011) Metal-on-metal: history, state of the art. Int Orthop 35(2):201–206 10. Learmonth ID, Young C, Rorabeck C (2007) The operation of the century: total hip replacement. Lancet 370:1508–1519. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60457-7 11. Boutin P (2014) Total arthroplasty of the hip by fritted alumina prosthesis. Experimental study and 1st clinical applications. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res 100:15–21. 12. Howmedica I (1995) Strength for life: the Vitallium alloy story. Howmedica Inc., Rutherord 13. Bronzino JD (1999) The biomedical engineering handbook, 2nd edn. CRC Press 14. Hu CY, Yoon TR (2018) Recent updates for biomaterials used in total hip arthroplasty. Biomater Res 22(1):1–12 15. Hanawa T, Hiromoto S, Yamamoto A, Kuroda D, Asami K (2002) XPS characterization of the surface oxide film of 316L stainless steel samples that were located in quasi-biological environments. Mater Trans 43(12):3088–3092 16. Thomas S, Paul SA, Pothan LA, Deepa B (2011) Natural fibres: structure, properties and applications. In: Kalia S, Kaith BS, Kaur (eds) Cellulose fibers: bio- and nano-polymer composites. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, pp 3–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-17370-7 17. Santos G (2017) The importance of metallic materials as biomaterials. Adv Tissue Eng Regen Med Open Access 3(1):300–302 18. Kasser MJ (2013) Regulation of UHMWPE biomaterials in total hip arthroplasty. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 101(3):400–406 19. Martell JM, Verner JJ, Incavo SJ (2003) Clinical performance of a highly cross-linked polyethylene at two years in total hip arthroplasty: a randomized prospective trial. J Arthroplasty 18:55–59 20. Cui W, Bian Y, Zeng H, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Weng X, Xin S, Jin Z (2020) Structural and tribological characteristics of ultra-low-wear polyethylene as artificial joint materials. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 104:103629 21. Gigante A, Bottegoni C, Ragone V, Banci L (2015) Effectiveness of vitamin-E-doped polyethylene in joint replacement: a literature review. J Funct Biomater 6(3):889–900 22. Piconi C, Maccauro G (1999) Zirconia as a ceramic biomaterial. Biomaterials 20(1):1–25 23. De Aza AH, Chevalier J, Fantozzi G, Schehl M, Torrecillas R (2002) Crack growth resistance of alumina, zirconia and zirconia toughened alumina ceramics for joint prostheses. Biomaterials 23(3):937–945 24. Sequeira S, Fernandes MH, Neves N, Almeida MM (2017) Development and characterization of zirconia–alumina composites for orthopedic implants. Ceram Int 43(1):693–703 25. Akbarzadeh S, Khonsari MM (2009) Prediction of steady-state adhesive wear in spur gears using the EHL load-sharing concept. J. Tribol. 131(2):024503-1–024503-5 26. Deuis RL, Subramanian C, Yellup JM (1997) Dry sliding wear of aluminum composites—a review. Compos Sci Technol 57:415–435

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Investigation of Digitization Practices in Indian Automotive Component SMEs Saransh Monga, Abhilash Saikia, Yash Vivaan Puri, Sumit Gupta , Vijay Chaudhary, Pallav Gupta, and Sundeep Kumar

Abstract The aim of this paper is to investigate the digitization practices in the SMEs in India. The various practices were identified and investigated through statistical tools. The data is collected through survey questionnaire from different SMEs in Delhi NCR Region. From the study, it was observed that quality and speed of connectivity can negatively affect the productivity of remote employees, making this another setback SMEs have to deal with. SMEs can integrate with other software systems such as payment applications, increasing their accessibility and the likelihood of customer appreciation. It is found that the very few SMEs are adopted digitization practice. Keywords Digitization · Cyber-devices · Manufacturing excellence · SMEs

1 Introduction A definitive understanding of digitization is a transformation of textual, photographic and auditory data converted into a digital format that can be processed by any computer. Doubtless, digitization is the key to maintain industries and economy in the present scenario and post-modern world of social distancing and working in a distributed environment COVID-19 has affected businesses, especially SMEs, due to a sudden collapse of both the demand and supply chain worldwide [1]. It has facilitated this era of high productivity and successful business undertakings. Digitization has an immediate advantage on the exhibition of the administrations and Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) of India. Digitization straightforwardly impacts on all out-exchange volume of an economy as it helps in expanding the effectiveness of any business. According to authors, it is necessary for SMEs in S. Monga · A. Saikia · Y. V. Puri · S. Gupta (B) · V. Chaudhary · P. Gupta Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201313, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Kumar Management Studies, Engineering College Ajmer, Rajasthan 305025, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_5

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India to adapt Industry 4.0 to make the functioning of the units more cost-effective and efficient. The studies have shown that employment has increased since 2000. But still there are barriers which make it difficult to adapt digitization practices [2]. The objective of this paper is to investigate the digitization practices adoption by Indian SMEs.

2 Literature Review The small and medium businesses (SMEs) in India include 6.3 crore units and holds responsible for nearly 30% of India’s GDP, giving employment to 400 crore people. According to the Confederation of Indian industry (CII), the SME sector makes up for 33% of India’s output in manufacturing. The small and medium enterprise (SME) sector has arisen as an essential component in the process of rural India’s development as a result of the fact that the bulk of India’s population is located in Tier-1 and Tier-2 towns and villages [3]. In the increasingly competitive world of today, businesses are under continual pressure to ramp up production while keeping costs to a minimum and maintaining the appropriate level of quality. Even if the government provides a guarantee that may act as a cover for loans made to micro and small businesses, many interested parties believe that risk-averse banks may not be excited about helping the owners of micro and small businesses because they lack the requisite collaterals. Adoption of digitization practices leads to a better performance of SMEs [4, 5]. Table 1 shows the digitization practices. Table 1 Digitization practices Constructs Digitization Practices (DP)

Item code

Item

Source

DP1

Installation of cyber-devices

DP2

Use of advanced robotics

[6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

DP3

Use of smart logistics

DP4

Data collection using big data

DP5

Real-time simulation

DP6

Training of workforce

DP7

Integration of assets

DP8

Adoption of flexible manufacturing

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3 Methodology The research was designed to be carried out in a thorough manner with the objective of finding key results that may be of aid to a variety of industries. The questionnaire was sent to 39 manufacturing companies, the majority of which are engaged in the automotive sector. In the context of the Indian economy, a survey on the different digitization approaches used by SMEs has been developed. The questionnaire had been broken up into two distinct parts for the respondent to complete. Part A finds the fundamental details about the company as well as the respondents. In Part B, a rating system known as the Likert scale is used to assess several aspects of the digitization process. This section also covers eight factors that are immediately relevant to the current discussion. The bulk of the variables in the study are assessed using an ordinal scale, and the replies of the participants were graded using a Likert scale that has five points of differentiation. As a direct consequence of this, the response rate that was attained was 20%. According to Gupta et al. [11, 12] and Aggarwal et al. [13], the response rate from 18 to 25% is acceptable.

4 Data Analysis The firms that were chosen came from a diverse assortment of industries and subfields of work. This information was obtained from the Confederation of Indian Industries (CII), and it includes the names of and contact information for the management of each individual company. The questionnaire was presented in the form of a Google Forms so that users would have an easier time communicating with one another in a timely manner, as well as having an easier time filling it out and keeping track of their responses. The format of the questionnaire was chosen so that users would have an easier time communicating with one another in a timely manner. Once the responses of the Google Forms submitted their email addresses into the submit option of the form, a message was drafted and sent out to those users of the Google Forms [14].

4.1 Respondent Details 39 usable responses were received from various SMEs and analyzed as follows. In terms of industry experience, maximum respondents have experience of 5–1 0 years 12 (30.8%) and belonged to senior management 14 (35.9%) as shown in Figs. 1 and 2.

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Fig. 1 Respondents with industry experience in years

Fig. 2 Respondents with job profile

4.2 Company Details Company’s annual sales turnover (in Rs crores) and number of employees Out of 39 companies, 23 (60.5%) belonged to less than 50 (in Rs crores) annual sales turnovers as shown in Fig. 3. Out of 39 companies, a maximum 21 (53.8%) companies have workers less than 50 as shown in Fig. 4.

4.3 Digitization Practices Following the compilation of the replies, an examination of such responses was carried out with regard to the use of digitization best practices (DP). It was requested of the respondents that they offer their digitization practices in order to assist the completion of this survey. This was done in order to facilitate the completion of this study (DP). The conclusions of an examination of the procedures involved in

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Fig. 3 Company’s annual sales turnover (in Rs crores)

Fig. 4 Number of employees

digitalization are outlined in Table 2, which may be seen here (DP). From Table 2, it clearly shows that integration of assets located at individual plants (DP7) practices is high mean value (3.68). One sample t-test was performed as shown in Table 3 to identify the most significant digitization practice in the Indian automotive component SMEs. It is evident that adoption of flexible and reconfigurable (DP1) (t = 3.48, 0.001) and integration Table 2 Descriptive statistics of digitization practices (DP)

Digitization practices (DP)

N

Mean

Std. deviation

DP1

39

3.49

1.355

DP2

39

2.95

1.413

DP3

39

3.62

1.310

DP4

38

3.24

1.515

DP5

39

3.21

1.735

DP6

39

2.95

1.468

DP7

38

3.68

1.317

DP8

39

3.74

1.332

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Table 3 One sample t-test for SPRR practices Test value = 3 T

Df

Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean difference

DP1

2.24

38

0.031

0.487

DP2

− 0.227

38

0.822

− 0.051

DP3

2.93

38

0.006

0.615

DP4

0.964

38

0.341

0.237

DP5

0.738

38

0.465

0.205

DP6

− 0.218

38

0.828

− 0.051

DP7

3.20

38

0.003

0.684

DP8

3.48

38

0.001

0.744

of assets located at individual plants (DP7) (t = 3.20, 0.003) are the most significant practices which are highly adopted by the SMEs. From the analysis, if is evident that at instance the information level of SMEs in India concerning digitization is very low. This is something apparently all specialists accepted to be an issue, anyway this doesn’t really show how huge the issue is despite the fact that they would all be able to remember it. The likely most serious issue is the market pattern towards more variety and more modest clusters. This is the thing that makes the requirement for adaptability and digitization, as more modest bunches imply that the changeover should be quicker and more effective, and the higher variety makes the requirement for change of the creation framework towards more various items. Innovation needs to make up for lost time in regions like quick and simple programming, robot apparatuses that help adaptability and joining with different machines. On the off chance that SMEs don’t figure out how to change how they execute and work most recent innovation, there is a genuine possibility that they will free their business to nations with less expensive human work. To sum up and tie back to the exploration addresses we might want to rehash how they were totally replied. The response to the principal question was a rundown of regular issues with digitization in SMEs.

5 Conclusion The response to the principal question was a rundown of regular issues with digitization in SMEs. These issues came in the classifications of market, technique, efficient, skill, specialized and research. Anyway the future doesn’t need to be that bleak. It is prescribed to organization partners to remove a portion of rundown of recognized issues to improve mindfulness. At the point when organizations become mindful in which ways they need to improve, the way ahead is in any event known. COVID-19

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pandemic has opened the new age of opportunities with digitization practices. The surveys since February have shown an increasing vulnerability among entrepreneurships and SMEs with regard to their liquidity position and business excellence. The high levels of vulnerability and lower resilience related considering their sizes puts them in worse off conditions than both smaller and larger enterprises. Although more recent studies have shown a vast improvement as lockdown measures are being lifted in many countries circumstance demands SMEs to understand, adopt and adapt to a more digitized platform, digitization can do copious amounts to keep SMEs from sinking. Maximized profit can be obtained through efficiency in operations and creating and expanding online presence with a new customer base. To understand the barriers faced by the Indian SMEs in cases like digitization of payments, supply chain, involvement of the stakeholders, proper technological and capability training of employees. Quality and speed of connectivity can negatively affect the productivity of remote employees, making this another setback SMEs have to deal with. SMEs can integrate with other software systems such as payment applications, increasing their accessibility and the likelihood of customer appreciation.

References 1. Lake MA (2020) What we know so far: COVID-19 current clinical knowledge and research. Clin Med 20(2):124 2. Matt DT, Rauch E (2013) Implementation of lean production in small sized enterprises. Procedia Cirp 12:420–425 3. Business Standard (2019) SME landscape in India—growth, challenges and opportunities. https://www.business-standard.com/content/specials/sme-landscape-in-india-growth-cha llenges-and-opportunities119062100357_1.html. Accessed 22 March 2021 4. Aggarwal A, Gupta S, Ojha MK (2019) Evaluation of key challenges to industry 4.0 in Indian context: a DEMATEL approach. In: Advances in industrial and production engineering, pp 387–396. Springer, Singapore 5. Dangayach GS, Gaurav G, Gupta S (2020) Development of footprint framework of performance measurement system for SMMOs. J Adv Manage Res 17(5):727–756. https://doi.org/10.1108/ JAMR-05-2020-0070 6. Olsen TL, Tomlin B (2020) Industry 4.0: opportunities and challenges for operations management. Manuf Service Oper Manage 22(1):113–122 7. Park Y, Pavlou PA, Saraf N (2020) Configurations for achieving organizational ambidexterity with digitization. Inf Syst Res 31(4):1376–1397 8. Krishnan S, Gupta S, Kaliyan M, Kumar V, Garza-Reyes JA (2021) Assessing the key enablers for Industry 4.0 adoption using MICMAC analysis: a case study. Int J Product Perform Manag 70(5):1049–1071. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-02-2020-0053 9. Talib S, Gupta, Sharma A, Gupta S, Gaurav G, Pathak V, Shukla RK (2021) Analysis of influential enablers for sustainable smart manufacturing in indian manufacturing industries using TOPSIS approach. In: Advances in industrial and production engineering, pp 621–628. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4320-7 10. Gupta, S., Prathipati, B., Dangayach, G. S., Rao, P. N., & Jagtap, S (2022) Development of a structural model for the adoption of industry 4.0 enabled sustainable operations for operational excellence. Sustainability, 14(17), 11103 11. Gupta S, Dangayach GS, Singh AK, Meena ML, Rao PN (2018) Adoption of sustainable supply operation quality practices and their impact on stakeholder’s performance and sustainable

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performance for sustainable competitiveness in Indian manufacturing companies. Int J Int Enterprise 5(1–2):108–124 12. Gupta S, Dangayach GS, Singh AK, Meena ML, Rao PN (2018b) Implementation of sustainable manufacturing practices in Indian manufacturing companies. Benchmarking Int J 25(7):2441– 2459. https://doi.org/10.1108/BIJ-12-2016-0186 13. Aggarwal A, Gupta S, Jamwal A, Agrawal R, Sharma M, Dangayach GS (2022) Adoption of smart and sustainable manufacturing practices: an exploratory study of Indian manufacturing companies. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part B J Eng Manuf 236(5):586–602 14. Prathipati BS, Jamwal A, Agrawal R, Gupta S (2021) Analysis of the challenges of industry 4.0enabled sustainable manufacturing through DEMATEL approach. In: Advances in industrial and production engineering, pp 579–587. Springer, Singapore

Design and FEM Analysis of Porous Scaffold for Artificial Knee Joint Implant Ardh Kumar Shukla and Vinay Pratap Singh

Abstract At present, the need for artificial joint replacement is increasing not only due to carefree lifestyle but due to development in medical field as well. It is important to consider the porosity factor while designing the implants as osteoporosis is a common phenomenon observed mainly in older people. In addition, stress shielding in well-fixed implants remains a significant clinical concern because conventional metals possess an elastic modulus much higher than bone, and predictable bone loss or hypertrophy has been observed. From a mechanical standpoint, to prevent stress shielding there are two ways of achieving stiffness parity of orthopaedic implants with bones, i.e. by reducing the amount of material used to construct the implant, thereby reducing its apparent stiffness, or secondly fabricating the implant from a material with a lower elastic modulus. The objective of this paper is to model artificial implant as porous scaffold and to study its behaviour under normal walking load condition with a maximum load of 750N. Test models were developed considering different diameters of axial through holes resulting in various porosities, i.e. 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 40, 50 and 60%. Finite element method is used to analyse these porous models. The von Mises stress of the designed porous scaffold continuously fluctuates for different values of porosity indicating the effect of porous bone on the failure of the artificial knee joint implant. At porosity of 40, 50, 60, von Mises stress is 15.25, 12.28, and 13.26 MPa. As the porosity level increases, the stress bearing capability at the interface reduces due to lesser area of the interface of the designed scaffold but there is an increase in deformation. Porosity between 40 and 50% is useful for reduced stress shielding effects as there are fewer areas to bear the load. Keywords Porous · Knee joint · Implant · Titanium alloy

A. K. Shukla · V. P. Singh (B) Mechanical Engineering Department, Harcourt Butler Technical University, Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur 208002, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_6

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1 Introduction Bone is a complex tissue of anisotropic, heterogeneous and viscoelastic in nature. It protects different parts of the body, prevents internal organs of the human body and prevents from shock, load and abrasion. It performs the functional mechanism of withstanding high cyclic load and stresses. For surgical procedures such as total knee replacement or hip replacement, cases of orthopaedic prosthesis require implant material that has equivalent properties as that of cortical bone or trabecular bone [1, 2]. These two types of bone are differentiated on the basis of porosity. Cortical bone has a porosity of less than 30%, whereas porosity of cancellous bone is more than 40%. The high porosity of cancellous bone is in the form of interconnected pores of marrow. As the age increases the volume fraction decreases with an increase in porosity resulting in rod-like structure. The apparent density of cortical bone is approximately 1.8 g/cm3 , whereas density of trabecular bone lies between 0.06 and 0.7 g/cm3 . The fracture toughness of bone decreases with increase in age the old cortical bone became more brittle in comparison with the younger bone with respect to the same level of porosity [3, 4]. The injury of knee results in the loss of motion or restriction in kinematics behaviour of knee which can be restored by replacing natural articulating surfaces or damaged components with the artificial knee joint implant with the help of a surgical procedure known as knee joint arthroplasty [5, 6]. Bone being bio-composite degraded with time results in lower performance on weight bearing joint in addition to having low inertia to minimize the effort needed to move the body [7]. Porosity in bones refers to the decreasing amount of volume, and it impacts badly on the health of the joint. In case of surgical operation as in case of like total knee replacements [TKR] or hip arthroplasty surgeons, it often does not pay attention towards the impact of porosity while doing operations [8]. It majorly affects the performance of implants due to difference in bone density as a result of porosity [9]. So there is a need to develop artificial bone based on porous model so that it can imitate with the bone structure [10, 11]. There are several clinical trials reported where porous bone structures were successfully used to treat patients either suffering due to old age osteoarthritis or met with some accidents. Clinical results clearly indicated that the customized porous implants or bone grafts are much better than the conventional ones in terms of osseous integration of the prosthesis–bone interface, no loosening and no infection [12, 13]. The porous meniscal implant as compared to solid implant produces lower levels of compression and shear stresses on the cartilage. This facilitated the cartilage to retain a semilunar characteristic similar to the natural meniscus. The meniscal implants with 41% porosity showed a better performance in disseminating stresses within the knee joint [14]. The objective of this study is to design, model and analyse porous knee joints for total knee arthroplasty. Porosity consideration is important to counter the stress shielding effect which results in bone resorption and implant loosening [15]. The present results highlight the importance of bone porosity, in altering and redistributing

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forces transmitted through the knee joint. Implementation of realistic mechanical and structural properties of articulating bones by considering porosity significantly helps in achieving more accurate outcomes. It is helpful in estimating the mechanical response of a knee joint.

2 Material and Methods A 3D CAD model of artificial porous implant is modelled using FEM considering different porosity levels. Geometric Modelling of Porous CAD Model A 3D CAD model of porous bone is created by considering a through hole in a unit cell (Fig. 1), and then different number of lattice cells were used to build up the final model by joining them along the axis. While modelling of bone is complex in nature and it is very difficult to develop CAD model of specified porosity, the CAD model with varied porosity can be developed by considering multi-axial holes (Fig. 1c) in the unit cell as compared to unidirectional hole (Fig. 1a, b). However for the present work unidirectional holes are considered for creating the porosity as shown in Fig. 2. These models were then analysed under normal walking loading conditions with a maximum load of 750 N considered for analysis [16]. Figure 2 depicts the various steps in modelling of porous 3D CAD model. The lattice cell is connected end to end so that the model can be aligned about the mechanical axis. While designing of porous implant, the first step is to develop CAD model with axial holes created of different diameters so that porosity of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 40, 50 and 60% can be obtained. The resulting scaffold porosities were calculated according to the following Eq. (1). Porosity = (1−Vm /Vo ) × 100%

(1)

where V o is the overall volume of the model and it is considered as 1000 mm3 for the present work and V m is the effective volume of the material in porous bone scaffold. Material Modelling of Porous CAD Model The material considered for analysis of the 3D CAD model of porous implants is titanium alloys. The mechanical properties of titanium alloy used for porous implant are shown in Table 1.

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Fig. 1 3D CAD model of unit cell with uniaxial porosity a geometrical dimension, b isometric view, c multiaxial porosity

Fig. 2 Steps for designing porous bone model

Design and FEM Analysis of Porous Scaffold for Artificial Knee Joint … Table 1 Material properties of titanium alloy [4]

63

Property

Value

Specific gravity

4.62

Young’s modulus (E) GPa

96

Shear modulus (G) GPa

35.294

Bulk modulus GPa

114.29

Poisson’s ratio

0.36

Yield stress MPa

930

Ultimate stress MPa

1070

3 Finite Element Analysis of Modelled Porous Bone Structure The 3D CAD model is developed for different porosity levels and was analysed using ANSYS 17.1 student version to find the impact of porosity under normal walking loading condition. The models were designed as an open lattice connected with large number of open porous network depicted in a simple CAD model for ease of static stress analysis (Fig. 3). The results of porous samples were compared with the model with 0% porosity. Fig. 3 CAD model for analysis with porosity

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4 Results and Discussion Analysis of artificial knee prosthesis is essential as it helps to identify the failure of implant under normal walking loading conditions of 750 N before arthroplasty surgeries. The maximum stress bore by the samples and the total deformation observed are summarized in Table 2. A simple 3D CAD model of porous scaffold is designed and modelled with different pore size, pore diameter, resulting in desired porosities subject to normal walking load condition. Table 2 shows the variation of stress with respect to porosity, it depicts that when the designed model is solid with 0% porosity the stress at the interface is low and deformation of the bone is less as the load is distributed equally over the model. When porosity is induced the stress level increases, the deformation along the axis becomes more than in case of solid model. Figure 4 exhibits the von Mises stress of the designed porous scaffold continuously fluctuates for different values of porosity indicating the effect of porous bone on the failure of the artificial knee joint implant. At porosity of 40,50,60, von Mises stress is 15.25, 12.28 and 13.26 MPa. The stress bearing capacity was found to be for samples with 50 and 50 per cent of porosity. As the porosity level increases, the stress at the interfaces reduces due to less area of the interfaces of the designed scaffold. Figure 5 reports the deformation observed for different porosity levels. Maximum deformation is observed for samples with 60% porosity, whereas the least deformation was observed for samples with no porosity. It can be observed that the samples with 40% of porosity not only can bear low stress but also have exhibited low deformation. The maximum stress bearing by the joint bones as reported earlier is nearly 9 MPa [17, 18]. Thus, the samples having porosity between 40 and 50% from the given lot can be considered to be a better option for the Ti alloy-based metallic implants to exhibit lower stress shielding effect. This indicates that the proximal bone loss can be reduced with this porosity. Table 2 Value of stress and total deformation for different porosity

Porosity (%)

Von Mises stress (MPa)

Total deformation

0

40.26

0.0031

5

34.95

0.0037

10

36.80

0.0039

15

38.26

0.0041

20

33.69

0.0047

25

35.82

0.0049

40

15.25

0.0041

50

12.28

0.0072

60

13.26

0.0087

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Fig. 4 Variation of von Mises stress with porosity

Fig. 5 Variation of total deformation with respect to porosity

5 Conclusions In this paper, artificial 3D porous model is designed for various porosity levels and as porosity in bone plays an important role in the case of knee joint implant, especially in the case osteoarthritis. This paper proposes models of porous scaffold with different porosity and their FEM static stress and deformation analysis. Analysis of modelled scaffold under different porosity shows the impact of porosity on the strength of the knee joint implant. The results help the designer in customizing knee joint implant by considering porosity based on the CT scan data of patients. The simulation results show that the porosity levels of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 40, 50 and 60% are considered for analysing the static stresses under the normal walking condition. Comparative analysis indicates that the designed porous model with 40–50% of porosity is useful for reducing stress shielding effects as the load bearing capability of porous metallic implant is comparable to that of adjoining bones.

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Customized porosity of model provides the benefit of designing the metallic knee joint as per the bone quality of customer in order to achieve lesser stress shielding effects which cause loosening of joints over the period of usage.

References 1. De México SSC, Allende SM (2004) Biomechanical behavior of knee joint using ANSYS. In: International ANSYS conference proceedings 2. Halloran J, Petrella A, Rullkoetter P (2005) Explicit finite element modeling of total knee replacement mechanics. J Biomech https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.02.046 3. Kumar KCN, Tandon T, Silori P, Shaikh A (2015) Biomechanical stress analysis of a Human Femur bone using ANSYS. In: 4th international conference on materials processing and characterization materials today: proceedings 2:2115–2120 4. Clarke RR, Gruen IC, Sarmiento Comparison of loading behaviour of femural stem of Ti-4Al6V and cobalt-chromium alloys: a three dimensional finite element analysis 5. Abdulaziz S, Al-Aboodi (2014) Bone porosity modelling and FEA simulation advances in mechanical, aeronautical and production techniques—MAPT 2014, Institute of research engineers and doctors, December 20-21, 2014, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 6. Siston RA, Patel JJ, Goodman SB, Delp SL, Giori NJ (2005) The variability of femoral rotational alignment in total knee. J Bone Joint Surg Am 87(10):2276–2280 7. Shi J (2007) Finite element analysis of total knee replacement considering gait cycle load and malalignment, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wolverhampton 8. Kumar PV Evaluation of rapid manufacturing solutions for improved knee implants using finite element analysis, M.Tech thesis, IIT Hyderabad 9. Kubcek M, Florian Z (2009) Stress strain analysis of knee joint. Eng Mech 16(5):315–322 10. Hsu Y-L, Hung Y-C (2006) Design of novel total knee prosthesis using TRIZ. J Med Biol Eng 26(4):177–185 11. Cheng FB, Ji c XF, Lai Y (2009) Three dimensional morphometry of knee to design the total knee arthroplasty for Chinese Population, Knee 16:341–347 12. Hou G et al (2022) Reconstruction of Ipsilateral Femoral and Tibial bone defect by 3D printed porous scaffold without bone graft. JBJS Case Connector 12(1):1–5 13. Liy Y et al (2021) Design of porous metal block augmentation to treat tibial bone defects in total knee arthroplasty based on topology optimization. Frontiers Bioeng Biotechnol 9:1–9 14. Zhu L et al (2019) Design and biomechanical characteristics of porous meniscal implant structures using triply periodic minimal surfaces. J Transl Med 17(89):1–10 15. Mihalko WM et al (2020) New materials for hip and knee joint replacement: what’s hip and what’s in kneed? Orthopaedic Res 38:1436–1444 16. D’Lima DD et al (2012) Knee joint forces: prediction, measurement, and significance. Proc Inst Mech Eng H 226(2):95–102 17. Brand RA (2005) Joint contact stress: a reasonable surrogate for biological processes? Clinical orthopaedics and related research. Iowa Orthopaedic J, pp 82–94, 2005, PMID: 16089079, PMCID: PMC1888787 18. Steingrebe H, Stein T, Bös K, Hoffmann M (2018) Biomechanical analysis of the knee joint load during a unilateral sit-to-stand movement. Open Sports Sci J 11:78–87. https://doi.org/10. 2174/1875399X01811010078

Integration of Face Biometric and Steganography Technique for Individual Authorization Sonali Goyal and Neera Batra

Abstract The recognition of individuals by biometric data as opposed to passworddependent authentication strategies that were traditionally used is an evolving concept. The biometric system like face and voice has gained significant interest due to the necessity for protection, and the approaches like watermarking and steganography are being used to enhance the authorization and biometric data protection. This paper proposes a model to combine steganography with multimodal biometric recognition. In this paper, steganography is implemented by hiding data in the LSB of the pixels along with multimodal biometric recognition as the pass key for logging into the steganography application. Keywords Biometrics · Face recognition · Eigenvalues · Voice recognition · Steganography · Authorization · Pixel intensity

1 Introduction Biometric word is made up of two words: bio and metric which means measurement of life [1]. Use of biometric technique is needed to identify the presence of valid user. In last few years, biometric technique is integrated in phones by Apple and Samsung companies for the process of phone unlocking with the entity’s fingerprint data and face recognition. However, with the development of applications, security can’t be ignored. This constitutes a big challenge as a number of biometric techniques are available there like fingerprint technology which is having minutia points, i.e. very sensitive information for the identification of each fingerprint uniquely, face recognition which contains several landmark points for the identification of facial features, hand geometry which automatically measures the number of dimensions of the hand S. Goyal (B) · N. Batra Department of C.S.E, MM Engineering College, Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), Mullana-Ambala, Haryana 133207, India e-mail: [email protected] N. Batra e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_7

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and fingers and then compares those measurements to a prestored data, voice recognition which recognizes an entity on the basis of voice signals, face thermograms are the heat patterns emitted on skin. These patterns are formed by branching of blood vessels, etc. If data is stolen by any technique then that data can be used for any illegal purpose like thefts and fraud. Therefore, security is required in biometric authentication. From all biometric techniques, face and voice recognition techniques are the most reliable and accurate techniques used for an entity’s recognition. So, a combination of face and voice recognition, i.e. multimodal technique, should be used instead of using a unimodal technique. In a biometric system of authentication, sensitive data is at risk. So, the measures for security of data protection must cover all possibilities. There are three ways to integerate security in a system as shown in Fig. 1. (a) Cryptography- It is where the digitized data is securely encrypted whereby the decryption of the contents can only be possible with the help of appropriate key available with the recipient. (b) Watermarking- It is a visible mark for biometric image authentication. (c) Steganography- It is a technique in which digitized biometric data is embedded into a host file in a way to obscure the real purpose of host image.

Fig. 1 Different ways of security

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Fig. 2 Biometric security system attacks

This paper focuses on providing security by combining biometric techniques with steganography due to its imperceptible and invisibile attribute in which the secret data in not visible, and hence, less attacks are attracted [2]. Figure 2 shows different attacks that may possible on biometric security systems. Steganography is a way by which critical data is hidden in a trustworthy medium without third person’s awareness that some data exists [3]. This technique can be used by two ways: reversible technique that helps in full recovery of actual file after hidden data is extracted and irreversible technique in which recovery of actual file is distorted after extraction of hidden data. The remainder of this paper is summarized in such a way: Sect. 2 describes the previous work, Sect. 3 gives an overview of biometric security system, Sect. 4 gives an overview of steganography, Sect. 5 describes a real-life application for this technique, and in Sect. 6, conclusion and future work suggestions are listed.

2 Literature Review In the past few years, different researchers have given their ideas with their experience for the security by using biometric technique alongwith steganography. This section summarizes the evaluation results of performances shown by different techniques used for the security in biometrics systems.

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One of the first work of this category is proposed by Douglas [3]. The author’s main focus is on fingerprint biometric technique. Various strengths and weaknesses are defined for different two steganalysis strategies (targeted and blind) for breaking number of techniques of steganography. In another work carried out by Maytham Mohammed, it is has been defined how to integrate biometric technique with cryptography in order to encrypt the extracted data of anatomical features. The main focus is on identification of acceptance level of steganography embedding into the applications of biometric technique [4]. It also defines how to exchange steganography keys securely, to identify and provide address for legal implications and to develop standards for industry. Fingerprint authentication is used by author by taking three levels of biometric security. Another method used for authentication for network security is the use of biometrics with steganography which is three-factor approach, and the factors include smartcard, IP, fingerprint biometric with steganography. This three-factor authentication technique is upgraded by the given scheme of biometric with steagnography in which IP is replaced by password, and it provides strong protection against the attacks at a very reasonable price defined by Dhivya [5]. Priya Yankanchi defined a framework which explores how to hide and secure data by integrating biometric approach with steganography technique. Image steganography [6] is used irrespective of other methods as they are easily vulnerable to attacks. So, this framework uses steganography and hand geometry biometric technique by extracting hand image features of individuals and claims to provide double layer data security. In paper [7], text-independent voice biometric technology is described which shows text method for a person recognition in order to provide security for the person living alone at home using feature extraction process with two techniques named as RASTA-PLP and MFCC for voice features and for implementing this MATLAB is used.

3 Biometric System with Security Biometric system is one of the recognition system for a particular pattern which verifies a human being by using his/her unique characterstics, i.e. physical and personal charecteristics. An example of the physical qualities used for biometric system are: face recognition, iris recognition, hand geometry, etc., and some personal qualities used for biometric system are voice recognition, handwriting pattern, etc. In this system, there is no need to remember password, pin, etc. The biometric system is also helpful in finding unauthorized entity which can gain access for computers, workplaces, mobile devices, banks, etc. Biometric systems are automated systems to identify an entity by physiological or behavioural characterstics. Physical characterstics are (if an entity is identified by the shape of the body) fingerprint patterns, face recognition, ear recognition, etc., and behavioural characterstics are (if an entity

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is identified by its behaviour) signature, voice, etc. There is a need of regular verification in behavioural characterstics as they can be changed during their lifetime. The biometric system can be used in two ways: identification and verification mode. Identification mode tries to identify a person by comparing an entity’s input with all prestored templates saved on the system. The template which is the most similar one to an entity’s input will be declared as an output. Verification mode determines the person by using the phrase “Is this person who they say they are”. Verification mode works as an one-to-one matching system [2]. Every biometric technique consists of four parts: (a) acquisition of data in which data is collected of an entity from a number of sources, (b) feature extraction in which collected information is processed in order to extract the features, (c) matching which compares the extracted features with prestored features in the database and (d) decision control system in which decision is taken in order to accept or reject the identity of an entity. The face is one of the most promising techniques of biometric technology, and it is the most common method of recognition. A problem with other biometric techniques based on fingerprint, iris, signature recognition, etc., is the collection of data, e.g. in case of fingerprint recognition [1], the user has to put finger in proper manner and direction. But in face recognition, collection of face images is not difficult, and thus, it can be used as a promising biometric technique. Each face has special features that define a particular entity. Emotions can also be recognized by using pixel intensity which corresponds to features used for detection of emotions [8]. Face recognition is a biometric technique which is most frequently used in a number of applications like banking, security information and virtual reality. Voice recognition is another technique explored in this paper. In voice recognition technique, the total data amount which is generated during the voice production is very large and not all of them contain useful information. So, fewer data is required to represent characteristics of voice and the person who has spoken it. Voice recognition is a method used to recognize a word automatically which is spoken by any speaker. The concept of voice recognition was originated by the way human communicate to each other. No two individuals have similar voice. Voice recognition technique is selected on the basis of a criterion: accessibility, distinctiveness, robustness, etc. Distinctiveness is used to measure the differences in the patterns among the individuals, robustness is no repeatable pattern and cannot be subjected to large changes, and accessibility defines the easiness for presentation of data to sensor device [9]. Recognition through a voice is very economical as the equipments for collecting speech samples are cheap and easily available. Unimodel technique is a single authentication technique which does not fulfil the requirements regarding performance, noise, etc. [10]. So to overcome these issues, multimodal biometric technique has been taken into consideration in the proposed study. A combination of two authentication techniques has been discussed: face recognition and voice recognition. The main aim is to combine these systems in order to increase the performance and accuracy of the authentication technique.

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4 Implementation with Steganography Steganography word is derived from the Greek words—stegos means “cover” and grafia means “writing” [11]. Its use is to hide the messages into some other type of information as videos, audio or images, and these types are known as mediums. One of the benefits of using steganography is humans and can’t notice minor changes of the medium. Some important terms used for steganography are: Secret data (it is the data which requires covered form to send from one area to another), Cover medium (it describes the medium used for secret data covering), Stego object which provides the cover medium as early as the secret is successfully embedded, Stego key gives us the key of procedure that how the data is embedded into the cover medium. This key is used at both the sides: embedding and retrieving side, Imperceptibility is used to define stego object’s quality, and capacity defines how much data is embedded into the cover. There are two algorithms used for a stegnographic system: for hiding and for retrieving. In first algorithm, data is embedded with the cover medium for hiding process and this complete process must be undetectable by making the stego object as similar as the cover medium. To increase the security of the hidden data, secret key is used in such a way that without knowing the secret key, the data will not be retrieved even though the hiding algorithm is known [12]. It provides more security as very less chances are there for an unintended entity to discover that a message is sent. In cryptography, an entity knows that something has been encrypted but in steganography, no entity is aware of hidden message’s existence. Another technique used for authentication purpose and protection of copyrights is watermarking technique. It is mainly used for the prevention of illegal copying of digital media ownership. For this paper, the admin adds number of faces of the person into an application. These face are stored in a file structure in which sender and receiver can repectively login into that application by using face and voice recognition with respect to authentication mechanism. There are number of phases in this model: I. Encryption phase which is used for the sender, he/she will authenticate himself/herself by using multimodal biometric recognition. If the sender’s face and voice are identified, then only he/she will be given an entry to a respective form in which sender will select the select the image with file which is to be encrypted. But, if the size of file is larger than the image size, then it will give an error. At that time, the sender will click on the encrypt button. It will ask for the path to save the encrypted image. Then encryption is done using bitmap steganography least significant bit method, and the image is stored in bmp format on the computer itself. After then, the user can send the encrypted image with the help of Internet. The bitmap steganography stores the data in the LSB of the image, and as a result, noise is not observed in image.

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II. Decryption phase: The receiver firstly authenticates himself/herself with multimodal biometric recognition. After logging in, the receiver side user will select the bitmap image which is received from the sender side user. Also, the receiver side user will select the location where he wants to save the encrypted file. Then by clicking on decrypt button the image is decrypted, and the file is saved at the mentioned path. For decryption, same least significant bit method is used.

5 Real-Life Application One of the most promosing applications based on this integrated approach is smart home security system. In a way to make home network more intelligent, smart devices are used with high processing and networking abilities. Networking ability means collection of sensors which can gather data and transmit that sensed data like temperature, humidity and light. Secure door entry is the must component of overall home security strategy, and for this component, face and voice recognition technique has been used which can stay connected to smart home security system with mobile phones. Face recognition is the easiest way of using biometric technology, and in this, there is no need to do anything from person side for the identification. For example, face recognition allows person to look at phone screen for automatically phone unlock feature. In today’s world, phones and gadgets can unlock with voice, a finger scan or a face scan. Biometrics have been used for high security facilities and businesses for security purpose instead of traditional methods like locks for door entry at homes. In smart home security systems, PINs or fobs are used for unlocking doors. How good would it be if door lock is able to recognize you and unlock the door without the need of a PIN or key? Home security systems with biometrically secured door entry (e.g. face and voice recognition) can help to achieve it. Individual care is other important factor to provide security and safety to an individual who is residing alone at home. So, to obtain this objective, recognition of a person who is at door is done by using two modules: face recognition and voice recognition. Initially, when a person knocks at the door, face of that person is recognized. If recognized, for double layer security, next module, i.e. voice recognition system, becomes active. If voice is also recognized, then access to home is provided to that person by an individual who is living alone at home.

6 Proposed Solution A new integrated approach has been proposed in this paper, which combines the steganograpgy technique with existing multimodal smart home security system (face + voice). In this integrated approach, if steganogarphy technique is integrated in a way to hide the personal details of an entity who is coming at the door, then there will be no awareness by third person about the data existence and very less chances of misusing the data will be there. Figure 3 depicts the working flow diagram of the

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proposed integrated approach to protect the original user data by using the concept of steganography. The proposed system may include different phases: pre-processing, feature extraction, template, stego data creation, extraction of stego data and then recognition. In the first module, the sensor captures the biometric data from the entity and then that data is converted into feature set. In the second module, stego data is created by using cover image for encryption method and then in the third module, the stego data is extracted by decryption method in order to recognize the entity. Finally, the proposed system may match the template with pre-stored data and check the similarity to find whether that entity is authorized or not. There are various performance metrics which can be used to calculate the quality of cover image when integrated with steganography. Number of metrics are used for the calculation of the proposed system: . Mean square error (MSE) . Peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) . Bit error rate (BER)

Fig. 3 Flow diagram of proposed modal

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7 Conclusion and Future Work In this paper, a number of biometric security system attacks have been studied and represented diagrammatically and different security techniques have been studied and analysed to secure biometric data. In today’s era, the home automation paradigm growing and diverging. So, security is an important key concern in a smart home system. Hence, there is a need of such integrated approach which should be implemented aligned with proposed solution. The multimodal biometric security system with steganography is used for recognition and authentication purpose using face and voice biometric technique, and this system provides better data protection and authorization. This proposed system seems more secure as compared to unimodal biometric system due to integrated biometric features. In addition, steganography technique enhances more security. So, it can be used effectively and efficiently in smart home security systems. Hacking means unauthorized access to data collected at the transmission time. With effect to steganography, this hacking problem is known as steganalysis which is a way by which a steganalyzer cracks the cover image to get the hidden data. The main limitation of this paper is lack of cryptography. So, in future, use of steganography with cryptography could be the future work for any application.

References 1. Pramothini S, Sai Pavan YVVS, Harini N (2018) Securing images with fingerprint data using steganography and blockchain. Int J Recent Technol Eng 7(4S2):82–86 Dec 2018 2. Singh S, Kant C (2017) A novel approach to secure biometric template with steganography. Int J Adv Res Comput Sci 8(5):1101–1105 3. Douglas M, Bailey K, Leeney M, Curran K (2018) An Overview of steganography techniques applied to the protection of biometric data. Multimed Tools Appl 77:17333–17335 4. Mohammed M, Hashim MM, Taha MS (2018) Review paper on biometric data protection using steganographic techniques. J Adv Res Dyn Control Syst 3(4) Oct 2018 5. Goyal S, Batra N (2021) SHMS: smart healthcare monitoring system using internet of things. In: 2021 2nd international conference on computational methods in science & technology (ICCMST), Mohali, India, pp. 41–44. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCMST54943.2021.00020 6. Yankanchi P, Angadi SA (2016) Biometric steganography: a new approach using hand geometry. Int J Recent Trends Eng Res 2(9):96–104 7. Batra N, Goyal S (2021) Text independant voice biometric for user recognition. Lect Notes Mech Eng Apr 2021 8. Veda D, Bhargavi V, Harshitha S, Navyashree S (2017) A Literature survey on biometric steganography using visual object for remote aunthentication. Int J Adv Res Comput Eng Technol 6(5):730–736 9. Patel HR, Sawant K, Kishore K (2015) Fingerprint based image steganography in transform Domain. Int J Eng Sci Res Technol 4(1):189–194 10. Kurkovsky S (2008) Pervasive computing: past, present and future. Int Conf Inform Commun Technol 1–7 Jan 2008

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11. Kamble P, Nikumbh S (2015) Security system in ATM using multimodal biometric system and steganographic technique. Int J Innovative Res Sci Eng Technol 4(4):2161–2168 12. Kaushik N, Parveen Sultana H, Jayavel S (2018) Remote aunthentical using face recognition with steganography. Int J Recent Technol Eng 7(4S):351–354 Nov 2018

UV Irradiation-Based Potable Water Disinfection System Using Solar Power Ayush Kumar, Shivam Singh Rathore, Manander Singh , Sanatan Ratna , and Rajeev Kumar Singh

Abstract It is evident that water is the most important element present on the earth for the existence of human beings. Water containing biological contamination can spread various diseases. So, it should not contain any biological contamination before it is drunk. A low-cost solar-powered system is fabricated to disinfect water from biological contamination using UV light. It is very much suitable in those remote areas where electricity is still not available. Solar-powered system is one of the best energy sources as it does not harm our environment from any kind of pollution, and it is a renewable energy which is available in plenty at all places. The use of solar power makes it cheaper and with negligible maintenance. The UV rays penetrate the wall of the microorganisms and attack on the DNA. Due to this, the ability to reproduce is being eliminated. It helps to eliminate 99.99% of biological impurities without adding chemicals in water. Keywords Solar power · Potable water · Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection · Water quality · Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) · Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

1 Introduction Disinfection of water is necessary to make it free from biological entities. High cost is involved in the prevention and treatment of waterborne pathogen-related diseases. There is a direct relation of these diseases with environmental pollution and degradation. Governments around the globe are continuously making efforts to maintain water quality, still waterborne outbreaks reported in many places globally. Choice of suitable water treatment method, prevention of waterborne outbreak and selection of water distribution system infrastructure depend upon continuous water quality monitoring and correct detection of pathogens [1]. Waterborne diseases are responsible for more than 2.2 million deaths annually and a greater number of cases A. Kumar · S. S. Rathore · M. Singh · S. Ratna · R. K. Singh (B) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector 125, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_8

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of illness per day which includes systematic and gastrointestinal illness (As per World Health Organization (WHO) reports in the year 2015). Out of 2.2 million deaths annually, around 1.4 million children died annually [2]. Presently 785 million people do not have reach to safe drinking water out of which 144 million people use surface water for drinking purpose. By the year 2025, half of the world’s population will not have access to safe drinking water [3]. Economic burden of nearly US $ 12 million to only the USA is estimated by waterborne diseases [4]. The economic loss at world level is associated with around US $ 12 billion annually due to these diseases [5]. Infections by contaminated water may be due to the presence of helminths, viruses, bacteria, and protozoa [6]. Globally, more than 785 million and 884 million people do not have access to basic water services and safe drinking water as per data collected for the year 2017 and report published in 2019 by United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and WHO [7]. If people around the globe have access to safe water, hygiene, and sanitation, then 9.1% of disease burdens and 6.3% of all death burdens could be avoided [8]. In many countries of the world, there is still the scarcity of disinfected drinking water. This problem has been solved in industrially developed nations although related norms are changed from time-to-time. Different methods, viz. chlorination, ozonation, electrochemical disinfection, or UV irradiation, are used for the disinfection of drinking water. Problems associated with chlorination are by-product formation, odor, transport and storage risk and over-chlorination [9]. Ozonation is performed by ozone gas which is unstable and degrades over a time frame varying from few seconds to half an hour. Although ozonation has greater disinfection effectiveness against virus and bacteria as compared to chlorine treatment, the high cost of production of ozone limits its use [10]. In electrochemical disinfection method, no bactericidal or oxidizing substances are added in water, rather they are produced from the naturally occurring substances present in water by electrolysis so the requirement of additional chemicals addition in water is eliminated [11]. UV disinfection is highly effective for broad range of pathogens, e.g., E. coli, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, etc., and does not produce any unpleasant taste or odor. This method produces no harmful disinfection by-products, and inactivation of pathogens is independent of temperature and pH of water. Since no chemicals are used in this method, so the requirement of transportation, handling, and storage of chemicals are not there. UV systems are easy to install in existing water treatment facilities and capital and operating cost is also low. These systems are easy to operate, and there is a minimal health hazard for operators. Due to these advantages, UV irradiation is widely used method for water disinfection. In an effort to make portable water disinfection system, a device was made with a source of UV-C light in the cap, called the purgaty one systems. It consisted of stainless-steel bottle and cap. The water to be disinfected was stored in bottle in stationary condition and was exposed to UV-C light through cap for less than 1 min. This system was 99.99% effective in the inactivation of E. coli and 99.9% effective in the inactivation of heterotrophic contaminants, Cholerae and Aeruginosa [12].

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In this work, a solar power-based potable water disinfection system has been designed and fabricated to cater the need of four people in the family. It works on exposing the flowing water to UV light in transparent pipes to disrupt the DNA of microorganisms. The system uses flat plate solar cell which generates DC power that is stored in Li-ion battery. This battery is used to supply power to UV lamp that produces UV radiation which attacks DNA of microorganisms.

2 Disinfection Mechanism Using UV Light There is a widespread application of UV light for organic pollutant oxidation as well as air and water disinfection. Permanent inactivation of fungi, bacteria, spores, viruses, and other pathogens can be done by UV radiation. As compared to chlorinebased systems, there is no residual toxicity, odor or the disinfection by-products in UV-based systems. Apart from this, it is capable to kill chlorine-resistant pathogens like giardia and cryptosporidium. UV radiation disinfection system uses mercury arc lamp which is in the form of long thin tube. Its 85% of energy output is at 254 nm wavelength which is within the optimal microbicidal range of 250–270 nm. Electric arc is produced through mercury vapor in mercury arc lamp. This results in energy discharge in the form of UV radiation. The UV radiation kills the cell’s genetic material and eventually cell dies. The efficacy of UV radiation to destroy cell’s genetic material is directly related to energy dose absorbed by it, measured as the product of time of exposure and lamp’s intensity. Intensity is calculated by rate at which photons strike the target pathogens. The intensity in the disinfection system depends on the placement of lamp relative to flowing water, power of the lamp and energy absorbing material. Apart from pathogens, UV radiation can be absorbed by suspended solids and soluble organic matter, diminishing the disinfection performance. If these substances are present in high concentration, it results in inadequate disinfection of water [13]. UV light damages the DNA and/or RNA of the microorganisms as UV is absorbed by DNA and RNA. Absorption of radiation enables the photo-induced biological damage of RNA and DNA. This eventually alters the DNA structure. The schematic of damage is shown in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1 DNA’s subunit damage with exposure to UV radiation

3 Selection of Components, Design, Fabrication, and Testing of UV Irradiation-Based System 3.1 Selection of Components The components/subsystems required for the system are UV lamp, two tanks for storing water (one each for storing raw water and disinfected water), battery (for storing electrical energy), solar cell (to generate electrical power during daytime), pipes (to flow of water from raw water tank to disinfected water tank through surrounding of UV lamp), and tap. The UV lamp, battery, and solar cell were purchased from market at competitive rate.

3.2 Design of UV Irradiation-Based System The relationship between light speed, wavelength, and frequency for UV light can be expressed as C = ν × λ,

(1)

where C, ν, and λ represent speed of light (3 × 108 m/s), frequency (Hz), and wavelength (m), respectively. The expression for photon energy can be written as

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Fig. 2 Electromagnetic spectrum

E = hν = h × C/λ,

(2)

where E and h are photon energy (J) and Plank’s constant (6.63 × 10–34 J-s), respectively. Putting the value of h and C in Eq. (2), the following expression can be obtained   E = 1.99 × 10−15 /λ.

(3)

It is evident from Eq. (3) that if value of λ is smaller, value of photon energy will be higher. In electromagnetic spectrum, UV wavelength varies from 100 to 400 nm as shown in Fig. 2. The UV light can be further subdivided as vacuum UV, UV-C, UV-B, and UV-A with wavelength range 100–200 nm, 200–280 nm, 280–315 nm, and 315–400 nm, respectively. The UV range most relevant to water disinfection is UV-C. The highest absorbance of UV light for bacteria varies from wavelength 255–265 nm. Thus, the relevant microbicidal UV light range must vary from 200– 300 nm. Low-pressure mercury lamp with radiation wavelength 254 nm is widely used in water disinfection because of high absorbance by pathogens [13].

3.3 Fabrication of UV Irradiation-Based System The stainless-steel sheet was purchased from market at competitive rate and welded to form raw water tank and disinfected water tank. Both the tanks have the capacity of 21 L which is sufficient to cater the need of potable water for a family of 4 members. Raw water tank was kept at higher height than disinfected water tank as water will flow due to the gravity, and there is no requirement of pump. The schematic of UV irradiation-based potable water system is shown in Fig. 3. While flowing water from raw water tank to disinfection water tank, it is passed through transparent glass tube which is just below the UV lamp which produces UVC light. Water flows continuously and gets disinfected by exposure to UV radiation

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Fig. 3 Schematic of UV-based water disinfection system

and finally collected in disinfected water tank. The power is generated by solar cell and stored in the battery. The battery supplies power to UV lamp. So, the system is independent of district power supply and can be used in remote areas where such power supply is still not available. No cost is incurred in running the system as power is generated by solar-based system. The prototype of solar-based UV disinfection system is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Prototype of UV irradiation-based potable water disinfection system

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Table1 Water test report Sample number

Parameter

Before treatment

After treatment

Unit

Test result

Test result

Test method used

1

Coliform

MPN/100 ml

1 MPN

Absent

IS:1622, 1981 (2003)

2

Coliform

MPN/100 ml

Absent

Absent

IS:1622, 1981 (2003)

3

Coliform

MPN/100 ml

2 MPN

Absent

IS:1622, 1981 (2003)

4

Coliform

MPN/100 ml

3 MPN

Absent

IS:1622, 1981 (2003)

5

Coliform

MPN/100 ml

Absent

Absent

IS:1622, 1981 (2003)

MPN Most Probable Number

3.4 Testing The water was collected (before any water treatment) from five different sources in national capital region (NCR) which supply potable water after treatment. For each source, 2 L of water is collected. One liter of water was flown through our prototype and remaining 1 L was kept as it is. Both samples, one before treatment and one after treatment for five different sources (total ten samples) were tested for the presence of pathogens in Delhi Water and General Test Lab (P) Ltd., New Delhi, India (www. delhiwatertestlab.com). The test report is shown in Table 1.

4 Result and Discussion UV-based water disinfection system is very effective in killing pathogens in water. In all tests, pathogen was absent after water treatment. The system does not employ district power supply so can be used in remote locations where power supply is not available. Also, the running cost is zero as electrical power is generated from solar power and no pump is used. The system can be used at night also as electrical power is stored in Li-ion battery when solar energy is not available. The operation of system is safe, vibration-free, and quiet as there is no rotating part. The proposed system is useful where safe drinking water is not available and water might have pathogens in it.

5 Conclusion The overall cost of UV-based disinfection system is around INR 10,000 which is much cheaper than the similar system available in the market yet system is very much effective in killing pathogens in water. The biggest advantage of the system is that it is free from any running cost and uses the power (i.e., solar energy) which

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is environment-friendly. No skill is needed to operate the system, and its operation is safe, quiet, and vibration-free. Also, no pump is needed to transfer water from raw water tank to disinfected water tank. Test results indicate that water after UV exposure is pathogen-free.

References 1. Ramírez-Castillo F et al (2015) Waterborne pathogens: detection methods and challenges. Pathogens 4(2):307–334. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens4020307 2. Bitton G, Bitton G (2014) Microbiology of drinking water production and distribution, 1st ed. Wiley, Inc., Hoboken; 2014. Microbiology of drinking water production and distribution, 1st ed. Wiley, Inc.; Hoboken 2014 3. WHO (2019) Water, sanitation, hygiene and health: a primer for health professionals. WHO/CED/PHE/WSH/19.149 4. Microbes in Pipes (MIP): The Microbiology of the Water Distribution System. Washington (DC) 2013. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAMCol.Apr.2012 5. Alhamlan FS, Al-Qahtani AA, Al-Ahdal MNA (2015) Recommended advanced techniques for waterborne pathogen detection in developing countries. J Infect Dev Ctries 9(02):128–135. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.6101 6. Leclerc H, Schwartzbrod L, Dei-Cas E (2002) Microbial agents associated with waterborne diseases. Crit Rev Microbiol 28(4):371–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/1040-840291046768 7. Global water, sanitation, & hygiene (WASH). Available Online (2017) 8. Disease & SWS Impact. Available Online (2022) 9. Bergmann H, Iourtchouk T, Schöps K, Bouzek K (2002) New UV irradiation and direct electrolysis-promising methods for water disinfection. Chem Eng J 85(2–3):111–117, Jan 2002. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1385-8947(01)00188-7 10. Gottschalk C, Libra JA, Saupe A (2009) Ozonation of water and waste water. Wiley, New York 11. Kraft A, Blaschke M, Kreysig D, Sandt B, Schroeder J, Rennau F (1999) Electrochemical water disinfection. Part II: hypochlorite production from potable water, chlorine consumption and the problem of calcareous deposits. J Appl Electrochem 29:895–902. https://doi.org/10. 1023/A:1003654305490 12. Mariita RM, Blumenstein SA, Beckert CM, Gombas T, Randive RV (2021) Disinfection performance of a drinking water bottle system with a UV subtype C LED cap against waterborne pathogens and heterotrophic contaminants. Front Microbiol 12, Sep 2021. https://doi.org/10. 3389/fmicb.2021.719578 13. Chen JP, Yang L, Wang BZ, Lawrence K, Zhang, Handbook of environmental engineering, volume 4: advanced physicochemical treatment processes. The Humana Press Inc., Totowa

Modelling and Structural Analysis of 3D Printed Auxetic Structure Asheesh Kesharwani, Anand Kumar, and Jitendra Bhaskar

Abstract Auxetics are materials or structures that possess a negative Poisson’s ratio due to their meticulous internal structure and the way of deformation. They have high mechanical properties of energy absorption, shear stiffness, fracture resistance and indentation resistance. Auxetic materials or structures may be single molecules, crystals or a particular structure of macroscopic substance. They can form domeshaped structures when subjected to a bending load. They are valuable in applications of dental floss, artery dilator, body armour, packing material, knee and elbow caps, artificial intervertebral disc, blast-proof curtains and sports footwear. Auxetics provides new options for comfort and protection. Three different geometrical Auxetic structures were developed using Creality Ender 3 FDM printer. Their mechanical properties were analysed with ANSYS numerical analysis. Keywords 3D printing · ANSYS · Energy absorption · Indentation resistance · Artificial intervertebral disc

1 Introduction Auxetics are materials or structures with a negative Poisson’s ratio (NPR). Poisson’s ratio, when stretched, is the ratio between lateral and linear strain. When viewed perpendicular to the applied force, these formations thicken (Fig. 1). To put it another way, Auxetic materials or structures have a negative Poisson’s ratio [1]. When a sample is loaded uniaxial, this phenomenon occurs because of its internal structure and deformation process (Fig. 2). Single molecules, crystals, or macroscopic matter can all be examples of Auxetics. Excellent mechanical qualities of these materials and constructions include high energy absorption, fracture resistance A. Kesharwani (B) · A. Kumar · J. Bhaskar Department of Mechanical Engineering, H.B.T.U. Kanpur, Kanpur, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Kumar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_9

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Fig. 1 Auxetic material

and indentation resistance. When subjected to a bending force, Auxetic materials or structures have the capacity to produce dome-shaped structures. Body armour, packing material, knee and elbow implants, durable shock-absorbing material and sports footwear can all be applied using Auxetics. New alternatives for comfort and safety are offered by Auxetics. From the micro- to the macroscale, Auxetic polymers, composites and textiles are accessible in both natural and synthetic forms. The amazing mechanical reactivity of these materials is drawing attention. We can achieve extreme (high or low) values of various material qualities using these materials or structures that are difficult to achieve with traditional materials, such as improved indentation resistance (Fig. 3), fracture toughness and vibration damping. When we stretch porous Auxetic materials, we can see a striking fluctuation in porosity [2]. First examples of an Auxetic honeycomb were the re-entrant hexagonal honeycomb. It is developed through deforming by flexing and/or rotation (hinging) of the honeycomb ribs Fig. 4a [3]. The arrowhead geometry in Fig. 4b [4] and the family of chiral honeycombs composed of cylinders interconnected by ligaments in Fig. 4c [5]

Fig. 2 Lateral deformation due to Poisson’s ratio during tensile axial loading for a a conventional material and b an Auxetic material

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Fig. 3 Indentation response of Auxetic and non-Auxetics

are two different honeycomb topologies that were later created. The Auxetic effect is produced by the ribs bending and/or hinging under tension, which causes the cells of the arrowhead honeycomb to open. The Auxetic effect in chiral honeycombs results from the ligaments’ bending brought on by cylinder rotation. The ligaments offer more through-thickness shear resistance, whereas the cylinders offer greater through-thickness compression characteristics. Recent advancements in the manufacture of PU foam are the result of enforced cell structure along with bettering and varying fabrication processes. Rapid fabrications [6] and the capacity to custom anisotropic and gradient foam samples’ elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratios [7] are examples of advancements. Although Auxetic materials have been subject to finite element modelling (FEM) [8], this method has not yet been extensively investigated to warrant its use in sporting goods. The invention of additive manufacturing (AM) has made it feasible to produce idealized Auxetic structures that have been computationally validated using FEM. Auxetic clothing that is both protective and form-fitting is getting closer to reality as production methods for Auxetic fabrics and composites advance.

Fig. 4 Auxetic honeycomb motif: a re-entrant hexagonal; b arrowhead; c chiral (anti-trichiral)

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Fig. 5 a Nodule fibril model and b microstructure of UHMWPE

1.1 Auxetic Polymers and Fibres Auxetic polymers such as liquid crystalline polymers, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), UHMWPE and others have been created. Auxetic polymers, such as ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene, have nodule-fibril morphology in their microstructure, where the axial extension of the fibrils pushes the nodules transversely, resulting in Auxetic activity. This shape has been mimicked in fibre forming polymers such as polypropylene, polyamide and polyester, among others, by using an unique melt extrusion method with optimal extrusion parameters. Auxetic activity in microporous polymers was originally identified in a specific type of PTFE, and shortly after, thermal techniques were employed to fabricate Auxetic cylinders of UHMWPE, polypropylene (PP) and nylon. The most important factor affecting the existence of Auxeticity, as well as other factors including die geometry, sintering time, structural integrity and extrusion rates, was shown to have some bearing on the Auxeticity of the material. The same thermal processing method, which uses melt spinning in an extruder and the same PP powder to create the new form of microporous PP, is used to create PP films with the new die shape (i.e., from hole orifice to slit orifice and from circular die-head cross-sectional to rectangular). By using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), it was possible to determine the peak melting temperature and melt start temperature of PP powder (Fig. 5).

1.2 Auxetic Foams It is possible to create Auxetic (polyurethane) foams on the basis that a compressed foam specimen that has been treated with a material softening agent will display persistent rib deformation, which will result in the construction of re-entrant cell structures that will cause the Auxetic behaviour. Recent years have seen a lot of

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Fig. 6 Flowchart depicting the four-stage Auxetic foam manufacturing process

interest in Auxetic foams. Lakes (1987) created the first Auxetic polyurethane (PU) foams with a Poisson’s ratio of −0.7 utilizing a re-entrant cell structure (Fig. 6). A procedure comprising volumetric compression, heating above the polymer’s softening temperature and chilling while still in compression might be used to create Auxetic foams from commercially available ordinary foams [9]. Subsequently, processing routes for Auxetic foams were developed to allow scale up to larger foam blocks, with improved process control enabling better quality (improved homogeneity and stability) [10]. Recently, polyethylene foams were transformed into re-entrant microstructures through the thermo-mechanical processing to obtain Auxeticity [11]. Expanded polystyrene blocks (EPS blocks) were also found to exhibit Auxeticity.

1.3 Auxetic Yarns Applications for Auxetic yarns may be found in a wide range of industries, including filtration, body armour and health care. Two components—an elastic core and a stiff wrap—have been combined to create the unique yarn structure known as helical Auxetic yarn (HAY). The elastic core fibres are displaced when a tensile force is applied, straightening the stiff wrap fibre. As a result, the core fibres shift into a wrapped position around the wrap fibres, expanding the yarn dimension laterally. As

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Fig. 7 Structure of double helical yarn (a: free state, b: stretched state)

a result, an Auxetic effect is seen. The use of Auxetic textiles in sports gear, equipment and injury prevention may benefit from their improved mechanical qualities. The possibility for using Auxetic textiles for commercial purposes has increased to developments in Auxetic fibres, fabrics and production techniques. It is possible to create Auxetic yarn with a high NPR-2 magnitude using regular, non-Auxetic fibre ingredients and traditional textile manufacturing techniques. As a result, Auxetic yarns may be used to make fabrics without the requirement for innovative manufacturing processes. Due to differing yarn arrangements in 3D textile structures, Auxetic and non-Auxetic composites exhibit varied mechanical characteristics. The non-Auxetic composites act more like stronger materials with higher compression stress, in contrast to the Auxetic composites, which exhibit damping behaviour with lower compression stress. As a result, 3D Auxetic textile composites have potential uses in impact protection [12] (Fig. 7).

1.4 Auxetic Fibre Reinforced Composite Due to their Auxetic origin, Auxetic composites are among the structures with intriguing features. These composites have the same characteristics as other composites in addition to certain special qualities of their own, such as increased shear modulus, stronger damping resistance and synclastic curvature. The laminated angleply approach and the use of Auxetic inclusions with various geometries are the primary fabrication techniques for such composites. Designing the sequence of the plies that can impart an Auxetic feature to the final manufactured composite is the first stage in the fabrication of composites utilizing the laminated angle-ply technique. The composite to be created includes geometries exhibiting Auxetic behaviour in the other Auxetic production process (Fig. 8).

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Fig. 8 Laminate stacking sequence and their impact on stiffness parameters

1.5 Additively Manufactured Auxetic Materials and Structures It has been looked into how several AM methods, including fused deposition modelling, selective electron beam melting, selective laser sintering and stereolithography, may be utilized to produce Auxetic materials with reproducible architectures. Since most AM technologies can use the current modelling file to create the modelled structure, AM is a logical extension of FEM. To confirm and maybe enhance FEM, the AM structure can be experimentally tested [13]. Key parameters can then be tweaked and examined with a specific application in mind. Rubbers and plastics are a couple of examples of materials utilized for AM in Auxetic research. Tango Black, an AM filament that resembles rubber, has been used to model and create auxiliary 3D chiral lattices [14]. Additionally, AM has created innovative chiral Auxetic structures with four “base” unit cells encircling a smaller “core” chiral unit cell, as well as re-entrant unit cells that mix two materials of varying stiffness. Designers have more control over unit cell deformation when they combine two materials with differing degrees of stiffness. Since then, the chiral Auxetic has been evolved to employ a re-entrant cell as the core unit cell, negating the need for softer hinges and allowing for the use of a single filament material for the construction. Additional possibilities to adjust the mechanical characteristics (like stiffness) of a structure without affecting its geometry are provided by the placement and quantity of each dual material. By changing repeating structures, for instance, FEM and AM might make parametric studies very simple. By adjusting the shape of a unit cell, Poisson’s ratio of an AM structure may be adjusted [15]. Designing and analysing new Auxetic structures with FEM make it easier to verify current analytical formulas. Utilizing an interlocking construction technique, a three-dimensional re-entrant Auxetic structure was created from carbon fibre reinforced polymer laminates [16]. The majority of aeronautical components have complicated geometry that makes traditional manufacturing labour-intensive

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and expensive. As a result, 3D printing is ideal for creating these components, such as engine exhaust and turbine blades, which are produced in three dimensions from metal elements [17].

2 Literature Review Due to their distinctive form-fitting deformation and curvature, high energy absorption, and high indentation resistance, Auxetic foams, structures and fabrics have been proposed for use in sports products, notably protective equipment. This critical review’s goals are to outline the processes necessary to achieve Auxetics’ anticipated advantages and explain how they may be applied to sports equipment (with an emphasis on injury prevention). A description of typical Auxetic materials and structures, as well as information on how to generate them in foams, fabrics and additively manufactured structures, are provided after brief introductions to Auxetic materials and sporting protective equipment. Discussions of the positive traits, restrictions and economic possibilities led to a potential need for more research to achieve prospective usage (such as in highly conformable clothing and personal protective equipment) [18]. Numerous load-bearing rehabilitation applications can make use of Auxetic PU foams produced with a reduced compression ratio [19]. For Auxetic structures, temperature may be used as a control parameter to adjust the value of the effective Poisson’s ratio, allowing it to change from positive to negative depending on the temperature applied. Both composites with voids and those wholly filled with material exhibit this thermo-Auxetic activity [20]. For many people who frequently wear this style of shoe for a variety of reasons, wearing high heels has become a hallmark of fashion. Fashion shoes are extremely different in their shape and design from other types of shoes that are intended to maximize comfort or performance. These shoes often feature smaller toe boxes and higher, steeper heels. Unfortunately, for the purpose of elegance, wearing these shoes is frequently favoured above physical comfort, with look and design taking precedence over comfort, resulting in what are regarded to be highly exquisite shoes. These pressure characteristics decreased when Auxetic foam was moulded into a plantar cover. Auxetic material, which has never been used for this purpose before, should have its physical characteristics further studied [21]. To prevent damage to the other components, the deformation of the bumper beam during the design of the bumper system must be less than a set value. Additionally, no stress may be greater than the yield stress. The weight of the bumper beam should be kept to a minimum while meeting the impact performance. It is possible to create a carbon fibre composite bumper beam for this automobile [22]. Axial resistance can cause Auxetic nasopharyngeal swabs to contract. Because of this, a swab may pass through the nasal canal while putting a lot less strain on the nearby tissues. Analytically designed negative Poisson’s ratio structures in a biocompatible material are used to accomplish this. To find the best swab shape that

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permits the greatest negative strain under safe stress, finite element modelling (FEM) and surrogate modelling approaches were used [23]. It is clear that Auxetic materials and structures are a popular choice for many applications due to their intriguing features. There are new prospective chances for the researchers as a result of the recent, quick advances in Auxetics study. The Auxetic materials still need a lot of study and development. Auxetic cellular structures have been postulated in the majority of literature, but relatively few have successfully demonstrated experimental validation in real-world settings. Additionally, the qualities of an Auxetic structure will alter if it is constructed using a different material or fabrication method. Investigating this element is necessary. Cutting holes in sheets have been used to achieve some of the proposed Auxetic models. However, there is a lot of scope for study into different kinds of perforation patterns that can mimic the actions of other Auxetic models. Further research is required on the range of negative Poisson’s ratios that may be achieved from various sheet materials with the same type of perforations. Specific models are required to describe the behaviour of Auxetics since their attributes depend on their symmetries. Symmetric and regular forms are prevalent in earlier literature. However, non-symmetric, less symmetric (symmetric along certain axes) and irregular structures have the ability to exhibit Auxetic behaviour. It is necessary to continue developing application-specific research on Auxetic materials and architectures. It is feasible to construct unique, optimized Auxetic structures with the appropriate range of Poisson’s ratio using sophisticated optimization and modelling approaches.

3 CAD Modelling and Solution Technique 3.1 CAD Modelling of Auxetic Structure Using Solidworks Solidworks is a solid modelling CAD and CAE application. It was developed by Dassault Systems in 1995. More than 25 lakh engineers and designers are using Solidworks. Solidworks is a solid modeller, and it utilizes parametric feature-based approach. The Auxetic structure modelling was done using Solidworks. 3D models of the Auxetic structure are shown in Fig. 9. Sample prepared of Auxetic structure using Creality Ender 3Pro FDM machine of PLA material.

3.2 FEM Modelling of Re-entrant Honeycomb Auxetic Structure Initial condition was given as a transient structural state, and the initial condition is velocity which is 1 m/s given to impactor along with force 2, 4, 6 kN. Solver type is Iterative, Step end Time: 1 s, Large deflection- ON, Sub-steps are defined: initial

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Fig. 9 CAD modelling of arrowhead, honeycomb and chiral Auxetic structure

Fig. 10 Stress representation in ANSYS and graphical comparison of stress, strain energy and total deformation in honeycomb Auxetic structure under various loads

sub-steps = 20, Minimum sub-steps = 20, Maximum sub-steps = 50, Nonlinear controls. Von Mises stress with force 2, 4, 6 kN came as 161.78, 323.56 and 485.34 MPa, Strain Energy with force 2kN, 4kN, 6kN came as 1.96, 7.83 and 17.62 mJ, Total deformation with force 2, 4, 6 kN came as 0.87, 1.74 and 2.62 mm as shown in Fig. 10.

3.3 FEM Modelling of Arrowhead Auxetic Structure Initial condition was given as transient structural state, and initial condition is velocity which is 1 m/s given to impactor along with force 2, 4, 6 kN. Solver type is Iterative, Step end Time: 1 s, Large deflection- ON, Sub-steps are defined: initial sub-steps = 20, Minimum sub-steps = 20, Maximum sub-steps = 50, Nonlinear controls.

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Fig. 11 Strain energy representation in ANSYS and graphical comparison of stress, strain energy and total deformation in arrow head Auxetic structure under various loads

Von Mises stress with force 2, 4, 6 kN came as 37.67, 75.35 and 113.02 MPa, Strain Energy with force 2, 4, 6 kN came as 0.3, 1.216 and 2.736 mJ, Total deformation with force 2, 4, 6 kN came as 1.4, 2.8 and 4.2 mm as shown in Fig. 11.

3.4 FEM Modelling of Chiral Auxetic Structure Initial condition was given as transient structural state, and initial condition is velocity which is 1 m/s given to impactor along with force 2, 4, 6 kN. Solver type is Iterative, Step end Time: 1 s, Large deflection- ON, Sub-steps are defined: initial sub-steps = 20, Minimum sub-steps = 20, Maximum sub-steps = 50, Nonlinear controls. Von Mises stress with force 2, 4, 6 kN came as 95.31, 190.63 and 285.94 MPa, Strain Energy with force 2, 4, 6 kN came as 1.8, 7.18 and 16.17 mJ, Total deformation with force 2, 4, 6 kN came as 0.185, 0.37 and 0.556 mm as shown in Fig. 12.

4 Results and Discussion Static analysis is performed to calculate stresses, strain energy and total displacement. Materials commonly fail at locations where stresses exceed a certain threshold level. Static studies can help one to avoid failure due to high stresses. Strain energy is a type of potential energy stored in a body due to elastic deformation. This is used to quantify the residual stresses on mechanical behaviour.

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Fig. 12 Total deformation representation in ANSYS and graphical comparison of stress, strain energy and total deformation in chiral Auxetic structure under various loads

Comparison among structures are performed for stresses developed with force 2, 4, 6 kN and found that stresses developed in honeycomb structure are high as compared to arrowhead and chiral Auxetic structure as shown in Fig. 13. Comparison among structures is performed for strain energy with force 2, 4, 6 kN and found that strain energy in arrowhead structure is lowest as compared to honeycomb and chiral Auxetic structure as shown in Fig. 14. However, strain energy of honeycomb structure is slightly higher than chiral structure. Comparison among structures is performed for total deformation with force 2, 4, 6 kN and found that total deformation in chiral Auxetic structure is lowest as compared to arrowhead and honeycomb Auxetic structure as shown in Fig. 15. Fig. 13 Stress comparison in honeycomb, arrow head and chiral Auxetic structure under various loads

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Fig. 14 Strain energy comparison in honeycomb, arrow head and chiral Auxetic structure under various loads

Fig. 15 Total deformation comparison in honeycomb, arrow head and chiral Auxetic structure under various loads

5 Conclusion In this research work, three different Auxetic structures are modelled using Solidworks and FEM modelling done on ANSYS. Stresses, strain energy and total deformation are evaluated with force 2, 4, 6 kN for chiral, arrowhead and honeycomb Auxetic structure. It is evident from the above figures that honeycomb Auxetic structure possess highest stress with force 2kN, 4kN, 6kN as compared to other Auxetic structures. On the other hand, strain energy for honeycomb Auxetic structure is slightly greater than chiral structure and very high as compared to arrowhead structure. Chiral Auxetic structure possess the lowest total deformation as compared to the rest of 2 Auxetic structures.

References 1. Evans KE, Nkansah M, Hutchison IJ, Rogers SC (1991) Molecular network design. Nature 353:124 2. Evans KE, Alderson A (2000) Auxetic materials: functional materials and structures from lateral thinking! Adv Mater 12:617–624 3. Gibson LJ, Ashby MF, Schajer GS, Robertson CI (1982) The mechanics of two-dimensional cellular solids. Proc Roy Soc Lond A 382:25–42

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4. Larsen UD, Sigmund O, Bouwstra S (1997) Design and fabrication of compliant micromechanisms and structures with negative poisson’s ratio. J Microelectromech Syst 6:99–106 5. Prall D, Lakes R (1996) Properties of a chiral honeycomb with Poisson’s ratio–1. Int J Mech Sci 39:305–314 6. Li Y, Zeng C (2016) Room-temperature, near-instantaneous fabrication of auxetic materials with constant poisson’s ratio over large deformation. Adv Mater 28:2822–2826 7. Duncan O, Allen T, Foster L, Senior T, Alderson A (2017) Fabrication, characterisation and modelling of uniform and gradient Auxetic foam sheets. Acta Mater 126:426–437 8. Scarpa F, Panayiotou P, Tomlinson G (2000) Numerical and experimental uniaxial loading on in-plane Auxetic honeycombs Numerical and experimental uniaxial loading on in-plane Auxetic honeycombs. J Strain Anal Eng Des 35:383–388 9. Grima et al (2009) A novel process for the manufacture of Auxetic foams and for their reconversion to conventional form. Adv Eng Mater 11(7):533–535 10. Chan N, Evans KE (1997) Fabrication methods for Auxetic foams. J Mater Sci 32:5945–5953 11. Brandel B, Lakes RS (2001) Negative Poisson’s ratio polyethylene foams. J Mater Sci 36(24):5885–5893 12. Kwietniewskia M, Miedzinska D (2019) Review of elastomeric materials for application to composites reinforced by auxetics fabrics. Procedia Struct Int 17:154–161 13. Critchley BR, Corni I, Wharton JA, Walsh FC, Wood RJK, Stokes KR (2013) The preparation of auxetic foams by three-dimensional printing and their characteristics. Adv Eng Mater 15:980– 985 14. Li D, Dong L, Lakes RS (2016) A unit cell structure with tunable Poisson’s ratio from positive to negative. Mater Lett 164:456–459 15. Gao Q, Wang L, Zhou Z, Ma ZD, Wang C, Wang Y (2018) Theoretical, numerical and experimental analysis of three-dimensional double-V honeycomb. Mater Des 139:380–391 16. Wang X-T, Chen Y-L, Ma L (2018) The manufacture and characterization of composite threedimensional re-entrant Auxetic cellular structures made from carbon fiber reinforced polymer. J Compos Article Mater 0(0):1–9 17. Wang X et al. (2016) 3D printing of polymer matrix composites: a review and prospective. Compos Part B 110 (2017) 18. Duncan O et al (2018) Review of auxetic materials for sports applications expanding options in comfort and protectio. Appl Sci 8(6):941 19. Chaithanya Vinay V, Mohan Varma DS (2019) Fabrication and testing of Auxetic foams for rehabilitation applications. J Indian Inst Sci 39 20. Jopek H, Stre˛ k T (2018) Thermo Auxetic behavior of composite structures, MDPI. Materials 11:294 21. Hong Y, Xuelian H, Shupin L, Zhou J (2013) International conference on biomechanics in sports. Taipei, Taiwan, July 07–July 11, 2013 22. Wang T, Li Y (2015) Design and analysis of automotive carbon fiber composite bumper beam based on finite element analysis. Adv Mech Eng 7(6):1–12 23. Arjunan A et al (2021) 3D printed Auxetic nasopharyngeal swabs for COVID-19 sample collection. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 114:104175

Fabrication and Analysis of a Hybrid Solar and Wind Powered Electric Vehicle Charging Station Manander Singh, Rajeev Kumar Singh, Sanatan Ratna, and Prashant Singh

Abstract Nowadays, electricity is the most important facility for an individual. As a result, we would transition from traditional to non-conventional energy supplies. A hybrid combination of two energy supplies, namely wind power and solar power, is taking effect. This method despises renewable energy options while preserving their character. We can have continuous electricity by using a hybrid energy device. Essentially, this method entails combining two energy systems to provide continuous electricity. Solar panels are used to transform solar power into electricity, and wind turbines are used to convert wind energy into electricity. Electricity production can take place at a low rate. In the above method, the production of electricity by combining two outlets results in the generation of electricity at a reasonable cost while maintaining the character balance. The results of the study are presented numerically and graphically in this paper. Numerical research is the measurement of the output capacity of solar and wind power and how much it would produce when combined as a hybrid to fuel an engine. Finally, the research focuses on making a concept model of a tiny charging station based on software that can charge small toy cars similar to electric cars. Keywords Solar energy · Electric vehicle · Wind turbine · Hybrid vehicles

1 Introduction It is an undeniable reality that hybrid vehicles would take the lead on big automobiles in the coming years. EV vehicles are already a top concern for both the market and the state. Since crude oil supply is poor, and its demand is high as studied by Shaoyun M. Singh (B) · R. K. Singh · S. Ratna Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] P. Singh Department of Information Technology, Dr. Akhilesh Gupta Institute of Technology and Management, New Delhi, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_10

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et al. [1]. Mouli et al. [2] presented that a hybrid device is a combination of power sources that supply power to an application. Two types of sources, for example, provide power to a particular program or running. Fathabadi [3] studied that the hybrid energy system is an energy system that is built or engineered to produce power from two different energy sources. In the hybridization scheme, two different sources of energy are used to generate useful power through thermal power cycles [4– 6]. Solar and wind energies provide significant benefits over other non-conventional energy sources. Both energy sources are more widely used in all regions [7]. Lam and Bauer [8] in 2013 show that, it is not necessary to install this form of device in a specific area. Because of the scarcity of gasoline, all automotive manufacturers are shifting to EV and solar vehicles. Electric vehicles are increasingly moving into mass production, and research into the provision of charging stations for EV vehicles is underway as studied by Dwivedi et al. [9]. A research paper by Ge et al. [10] in 2011 shows because of the usage of a battery in an EV automobile, a charging station for cars or battery charging is needed to recharge the battery of an EV vehicle. EVs are generally regarded as superior to ICE vehicles in terms of environmental emissions. Various batteries, motors, converters, and supercapacitors fuel EV vehicles. Ebrahimi et al. [11] show that today’s emission levels on Earth are large, which has a negative impact on the Earth’s echo mechanism. People, according to the solution, need another source. Electric vehicles are a fantastic investment for both the government and the general public as shown by Un-Noor et al. [12]. The government has prioritized the production of electric vehicles (EVs). The government is now enacting a number of policies, such as funding and subsidies for hybrid vehicles. The government also prioritizes the creation of electric charging stations. Sachan et al. [13] in 2021 show that electric charging station development is sluggish and unbalanced. Developing an electric charging station is a difficult task, but if a good source of electricity can be found, it would be simple to incorporate all of the elements and create dependable testing tools as shown in a project by Tupe et al. [14]. This paper intends to produce the best output for a successful electric charging station as the electric car revolution arrives on the market. The usage of a variety of power sources is a new aspect of this paper and contributes to the paper. The majority of the papers concentrate on grid and solar penal as green energy resources. This paper employs a variety of electricity sources, including a solar panel.

2 Research Methods A good power source was needed for the charging station in order to charge the car vehicle or electric vehicle. The first power source is solar power, which has an infinite supply and is simple to deal with. In this discovery, we are searching for a second power source that is easily accessible and low in cost. So, in this study, a turbine or windmill that can run on air power is used. Turbine properties or specifications can act as quick charging as well as sluggish charging at night when solar power is unavailable. In the approach for the second power source, a windmill known as

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a Savonius wind turbine is used. Figure 1 shows a graphical representation of a theoretical model. This project’s methodology is focused on basic and useful points such as theoretical analysis, architecture, and CFD analysis utilizing various tools. Following the application of several styles of designs and numerous suggestions and references, the concept was sketched in a notebook and by applications. There are several different styles of designs available, but those that are better for implication were chosen. The project wind turbine is a traditional Savonius vertical axis wind turbine with a unique configuration based on advertising materials, a CFD model, and testing. This project defines a performance through a numerical equation and contrasts it to other forms of wind miles based on their benchmark ratings. Consider what they are doing in light of their findings and draw conclusions. The project involves a fabrication prototype setup in which the model would be built and checked independently before being compared to data from referees on this method of prototype results. This project includes knowledge design, engineering processes, and model CFD flow simulation. There is nothing wrong with building an obsolete turbine or failing to meet benchmark results. The project is focused on the power generated by two separate sources: wind and solar. There are many setups available for this form of source, which we will use as a guide. Electric vehicles will play an important part in the future. Saving oil and lowering environmental emissions a power station is a location where electric vehicles can be charged. The station’s power is supplied by the grid, wind, and solar energy. A hybrid device can generate electricity for a car while still lowering emissions. Wind and solar electricity may be used to fuel electric vehicles. EVCS PV modules generate electricity throughout the day, and wind will generate electricity at night. Electric vehicles are increasingly moving into mass production, and research into the provision of charging stations for EV vehicles is underway. Renewable technology production has the potential to allow significant advances in the energy sector. Solar panels are used in solar electricity, and wind turbines are used in wind power to power EVCS.

Fig. 1 Flow diagram of working process

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2.1 Design of Windmill for Vehicle Charging Station and Components The components used in this work are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Solar system:—80–160 W—12 V Wind turbine blade:—Aluminum alloy + plastic composite AC/DC converter:—up to 24 V, 50 Hz three phase Control Unit Battery or storage:—two rechargeable batteries 12 V

Mass of turbine and blade is reduced to cut some edges so it can self-start at low-speed wind flow.

3 Result Discussion Experiments of both wind and solar power sources are seen here, along with several calculations and experiments on output power and CFD analysis. To learn more, the circuit is plotted in series relation to show how both power sources will deliver combined power. The input parameters are taken from Tables 1 and 2 to calculate the performance parameter.

Fig. 2 3D model of Savonius windmill

Fabrication and Analysis of a Hybrid Solar and Wind Powered Electric … Table 1 Parameter table DATA for windmill

Table 2 Data for solar panel

Components parameter

Criteria

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Diameter main

350 mm

Height

500 mm

Shape of blade

Savonius type

Wing width

1.4 mm

No. of blade

3

Pitch angle

9

Total area

3.5 m2

Blade area

0.628 m2

K.E

5.63

Parameter

Value

Surface area

60 × 60

Angle of inclination

28–45

Efficiency of max powerpoint

15

Temperature coefficient

0.01

Reference temperature of PV cell

40

Normal operating temperature

25

Ambient temperature

35

Cell temperature of PV

25

3.1 Savonius Windmill Sweat Area : A = 2R × H, where A = sweat area, R = total radius, H = total height Power of wind : Pw = p × A × V 3 , where V = velocity, P = density = 1.25 kg/m3 1 × mV2 2 Volume based on time : A × V × t Wing width : D × 0.14 (0.14 is standard value). Kinetic energy : K.E. =

where D = rotor diameter Tip speed Ratio =

blade speed wind speed

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Estimated output power of windmill P = ρ × A × Cρ × V 3 × N g × Nb P A Cp Ng Nb

Air density Swept area Coefficient of performance (0.35–0.56) Generator efficiency. Gearbox ratio or efficiency (Taken as 3:1). = 1.25 × 3.5 × 0.35 × 33 × 0.70 × 0.3 = 13.7469 W

Max. output for 90% efficiency of windmill = 13.7469 × 0.90 = 12.37221 W Min. output for 35% efficiency 13.7469 × 0.35 = 4.8114 W

3.2 For Solar Panel Results Pv = η Aθr n Efficiency A Area θr Angle of inclination. n = n r .n p [1 − Bt (Tc − Tr )] nr np Bt Tc Tr

Efficiency of max powerpoint Reference efficiency Temperature coefficient = 0.005 Cell temperature of PV Reference temperature of PV cell. Tc = Ta + G t ((NOCT − 20)/800)

Ta Ambient temperature NOCT Normal operating temperature Gt Solar radiation of tilted surface.

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3.3 Output of Solar Penal Tc = Ta + G t ((NOCT − 20)/800) = 35 + 28(25−20)/800 = 35.17 n = n r .n p [1 − Bt (Tc − Tr )] = 15 + 0.80[1 − 0.005(35.17 − 40)] = 15.78 Pv = η Aθr = 15.78 × (60 × 45) × 28 = 11.95 kW/H

4 Conclusion The effect on the amount of power generated by the station’s wind and solar power sources is presented. The findings are based on the test model as seen in the assembly portion of Fig. 1. In the results, all components are workable at minimum and maximum production at varying efficiencies for maximum and minimum work. The solar penal included in the assembly is a 15-V penal with a cell count of 45 cells. The penal is capable of producing good energy, but not at the planned rate. The penal can produce power that is 80% productive and produces energy at a rate of about 11.9 kW/h. The wind turbine performance is also seen at maximum and minimum efficiency. The maximum performance of a wind turbine at 90% output is about 12 W, while the minimum efficiency at 35% output is 4 to 5 W. Both power sources are capable of producing significant amounts of power. However, if we want to use this sort of device for an electric car charging station, we will need a large source and a large size of solar penal (approximately more than 100 w penal). According to calculations, this prototype will charge a 12-V battery in 10 to 12 h and charge a complete battery with a + 3% loss while stored in battery storage.

References 1. Shaoyun G, Liang F, Hong L (2011) The planning of electric vehicle charging station based on grid partition method. In: 2011 international conference on electrical and control engineering. IEEE, pp 2726–2730 2. Mouli CGR, Bauer P, Zeman M (2016) System design for a solar powered electric vehicle charging station for workplaces. Appl Energy 168:434–443 3. Fathabadi H (2017) Novel solar powered electric vehicle charging station with the capability of vehicle-to-grid. Sol Energy 142:136–143

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4. Sharma M, Shukla AK, Singh A, Johri S, Singh HP (2020) Parametric analysis of solar energy conversion system using parabolic concentrator and thermopile. Int J Ambient Energy 41(12):1409–1414 5. Pavithran A, Sharma M, Shukla AK (2021) Oxy-fuel combustion power cycles: a sustainable way to reduce carbon dioxide emission. Distributed Gener Alterna Energy J 335–362 6. Sajwan K, Sharma M, Shukla AK (2020) Performance evaluation of two medium-grade power generation systems with CO2 based transcritical rankine cycle (CTRC). Distrib Gener Altern Energy J 111–138 7. Singh M, Ahmad S, Jain AK (2020) S-N curve model for assessing cumulative fatigue damage of deep-water composite riser. In: Proceedings of the international conference on offshore mechanics and arctic engineering—OMAE, 2020, 1, V001T01A024 8. Lam L, Bauer P (2013) Practical capacity fading model for Li-ion battery cells in electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Power Electron 28:5910–5918 9. Dwivedi R, Upadhyay K, Kumar AKSA, Kumar SA (2011) Proposed model for the wind energy harnessing system in trains. Int J Appl Eng Technol ISSN, 119–126 10. Ge S, Feng L, Liu H (2011) The planning of electric vehicle charging station based on grid partition method. In: 2011 International conference on electrical and control engineering. IEEE, pp 2726–2730 11. Ebrahimi J, Abedini M, Rezaei MM, Nasri M (2020) Optimum design of a multi-form energy in the presence of electric vehicle charging station and renewable resources considering uncertainty. Sustain Energy Grids Netw 23:100375 12. Un-Noor F, Padmanaban S, Mihet-Popa L, Mollah MN, Hossain E (2017) A comprehensive study of key electric vehicle (EV) components, technologies, challenges, impacts, and future direction of development. Energies 10(8):1217 13. Sachan S, Padmanaban S, Deb S (eds) (2022) Smart charging solutions for hybrid and electric vehicles. Wiley, New York 14. Tupe O, Kishore S, Johnvieira A (2020) Consumer perception of electric vehicles in India. Eur J Mol Clin Med 7(8):2020

Performance Analysis of Heat Exchanger Using Nanofluid Pooja Gunshekhar Gounder

Abstract The recent advancement in the field of refrigeration, power plants, automobile radiators, and chemical processing industry which has primary use of heat exchanger is the foremost reason for development of the new technology such as use of nanoparticle. The main objective was to compare the use of nanofluids in different concentrations to the use of water in the triple concentric digital heat exchanger to find the effectiveness and know the correct concentrations of the nanoparticles to maximize the effectiveness. We investigated an experimental design of the nanoparticles of Al2 O3 and TiO2 . Firstly, the experiment started by fabrication of nanofluid using the nanoparticles in different concentrations with water in magnetic stirrer and sonication technique. The next part of the experiment involves the stability test, which gives a broad idea of the maintenance required to use the nanofluid as the working fluid in the heat exchanger as the user should also be economically viable. The other part of the investigation included the calculation of thermal conductivity using the piezoelectric transducer. The results showed that the unique characteristics of the nanofluid substantially increase the heat transfer coefficient, thermal conductivity, and liquid viscosity. Lastly, we compared the temperature variation of the cold fluid as the water to the temperature variation of the nanofluids. It was found that there was an overall enhancement of performance of the heat exchanger, and also, there is a significant difference in thermal conductivity of nanoparticles and that of water. We can further extend this investigation by studying the performance parameter using nanofluids and changing the dimensions of the heat exchanger. Keywords Nanofluid · Heat exchanger · Sonication

G. G. Pooja (B) Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Kandi, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_11

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1 Introduction Nanotechnology has gained momentum in recent decades in various fields extending from power plants to medical usages. The preparation of nanofluid is one of the initial steps in experimentation procedure which uses the nanotechnologies. Over a last few years, there has been a lot of research conducted in this field and we have studied some of the relevant data required for our experimentation which is mention in the literature review section.

1.1 Nanoparticle and Nanofluids A nanoparticle is an infinitesimal particle that improves the overall fluid properties. It is the most active research project in recent times. It is a field that’s generating a lot of interest, and it is also helping to bridge the gap between bulk materials and atomic compounds. Nanoparticles have a concise wetting time. The physical properties of a bulk material should remain constant regardless of size, but this is rarely the case at the nanometer scale. Nanoparticles used in the investigation are Al2 O3 : The nanoparticles have good dimensional stability and have good water dispersion properties. As a result, it is suitable for use in heat transfer equipment. It has a melting point of 2040 °C. TiO2 : TiO2 is a mineral commonly found in the rutile crystal structure and can absorb UV rays. Due to its high absorption capacity, it can play a critical role in heat transfer. It has a melting point of 1843 °C. Nanofluid is synthesized when nanoparticles and a base liquid are mixed. The nanofluid is an excellent colloidal suspension that has enhanced thermal properties. Nanofluid synthesis can be categorized into two kinds: single-step and two-step methods. Metal nanofluids are prepared using a single-step method, while metal oxide nanofluids are designed using two-step methods. As a result, we used two-step methods to make nanofluids with water as the base liquid. The procedure consists of the following steps: mixing Al2 O3 and TiO2 with liquid base water; continuous stirring with a magnetic stirrer for 1 h to ensure a homogeneous mix of the particles, and the base liquid. The magnetic stirrer is depicted in Fig. 1. Sonication of the nanoparticle (50 W, 403 kHz) is carried out to decluster the nanoparticle and improve its stability. The sonication instrument is depicted in Fig. 2. For stirring, the following equipment is used. Using a two-step method, we created nanofluids with concentrations of 0.01, 0.03, 0.05, and 0.07 solid weight fractions.

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Fig. 1 Magnetic stirrer

1.2 Literature Review Yarm et al. [1]—preparation of nanofluids and decoration of Ag on graphene nanoplates at constant heat flux so that viscosity, Nusselt number. They can measure, etc., in turbulent flow of GNP-Ag/water and improved intensity, thermal conductivity, and Nusselt number. It can be obtained in comparison with the base fluid. Parameshwaran et al. [2]—the phenomenon aspect concern to the heat transfer and by various the volume concentration of nano-composite behavior of HYNF is studied. By using counter-flow heat, the exchanger helps predict the heat transfer potential of HYNF. Yousefi et al. [3]—in this study, it is desired to see viability meta-heuristic algorithm in the boost of plate-fin heat exchanger. Both heat transfer along with pressure drop has excellent performance of the proposed algorithm over GA and PSO. Chandrasekar et al. [4]—the purpose of this study is to examine overall convective heat transfer coefficients and Nusselt number. Of (Al)2 (O)3 /water and Ti(O)2 /water nanofluids for turbulent flow in shell and tube heat exchanger. Wang et al. [5]—heat pipes were situated to perform coupling between heat pump and refrigerator, trigger

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Fig. 2 Sonication device

the heat and mass transfer in solid designs, solar refrigerator to heat and to cool condensers using pipe systems. Fieg et al. [6]—in this research, the attention was focused on finding the relation between the process input and output, thus number of decision variable optimized can decrease and can only be real design/operation parameters. Ajayan et al. [7] examine the improvement of pool boiling heat transfer by using micro-nanostructured horizontal surfaces, also PF5060 and water at atmospheric and sub atmospheric pressure. Leonard et al. [8]—introduction of modern heat pipe such as loop pulsating and adsorption heat pipe to easily save energy and protect the environment. Chang et al. [9]—this study’s motive is to present extensive experimental data on irregular and wavy surfaces. Inline and staggered heat exchangers are tested in this study. Zhai et al. [10]—in this research, the performance of hybrid air conditioning is determined. Kalogirou et al. [11]—geothermal heat exchanger models are further refined by grid geometry and monitoring the system has been setup such that we get to know about the type of ground, thermal behavior, and vertical u-tube heat. Zwick et al. [12]—the goal of this analysis is to provide an experimental study of the performance of open-cell aluminum foam heat exchanger forced convection flow arrangement using a liquid coolant, that is d-ionized and degassed water. Lin et al. [13]—the primary goal of this paper is to build a generalized heat transfer and friction semblance for fin geometry, they suggested a round tube configuration

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in this paper the sample of louvered fin and tube heat exchanger with different geometrical parameters were used to develop the semblance. Fang et al. [14]—a ground heat transfer is used for inlet and outlet of thermal energy from/into the ground. Considering the fluid axial conductive heat transfer, thermal and u-tube leg into account, a new quasi three-dimensional model in this paper is established. Rekstad et al. [15]—the objective of this paper is distributed in 3 parts. In first part, a fundamental they described characteristics including supercritical heat transfer gas cooler temperature profile. The second part focuses on automatic systems. In the third part, they expressed some specific issues briefly. Roetzel et al. [16]—this paper concludes an analytical study of pool boiling characteristics of water Al2 O3 nanofluid under normal conditions, also a comparison of pool boiling parameters with that of distilled water. Jacobi et al. [17]—in the project, plates and thin-walled polymer tubes show a need to prevent the they executed structure from collapsing and for fine filtering and results alongside to metal heat exchanger. Dawson et al. [18]—Inconel alloy 617 is the most suitable material for high temp. Dawson et al. [19]—this paper concludes the options available for the user of compact heat exchangers. This study includes types of compact heat exchangers’ potential in the nuclear industry. These compact heat exchangers are custom-designed for their particular duty. The heat transfer behavior of Al2 O3 /water and TiO2 /water nanofluids in a shell and tube heat exchanger is explained in the studies [20, 21]. This experiment investigates a wide range of pellet numbers and nanoparticle volume concentrations. Wang et al. [22]—a comprehensive heat transfer interconnection for louver fin geometry is presented in this study. It indicates that plates and tube louver fin data are higher than corrugated louver fin data. Chang et al. [23]—this study provides the numerical solutions for actual multi-row plate-fin and tube heat exchangers. Therefore, a whole computational domain from the fluid inlet to the outlet is solved directly. Emrah et al. [24]—this paper examines the application of hybrid chaotic quantum behaved particle optimization, the algorithm of plate-fin heat exchanger for thermal design. It is also noticed that the proposed algorithm successfully converges to optimum configuration with higher accuracy. Sheen et al. [25]—this experiment studies the airside heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of the plate and larger fin surfaces; also, various comparison methods have been tested to evaluate the performance of heat exchangers among different fin surfaces. Ren et al. [26]—these studies show that from the heat transfer point of view, the micro-porous heat exchanger is better than the microchannel heat exchanger, and MCHE with shallow microchannels is better than MICHE with deep microchannels. However, the MICHE with a deep microchannel is best from the pressure drop point of view. Torii et al. [27]—this paper examines the airside performance of compact slit fin and tube heat exchanger, and results indicate the airside performance. The literature review has helped us to understand that there has been very few research involving the parameters of stability, temperature variation, effectiveness, and thermal conductivity altogether. So this helped us to set our objective to investigate all these parameters.

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2 Research Methodology The methodology involves experimental setups for all four parameters and further taking readings required to measure the effectiveness, temperature variation, and thermal conductivity.

2.1 Experimental Setup for Thermal Effectiveness Test and Temperature Variation Test The experimental setup consists of a triple–concentric–pipe heat exchanger with 30, 60, and 90 mm diameter brass inner, copper middle, and PVC outer pipes. We kept the pipes to a length of 1 m and a wall thickness of 1.5 mm. Separate tanks may be used to pump the fluids into the heat exchanger. The middle pipes were made up of different copper pipes with and without grooves. Flow meters were installed in the water duct to measure the pumped fluid’s flow rate, which could be changed by adjusting the gate valves for each of the three tanks. The hot water tank is heated with a 3000-W electric immersion heater. We kept the temperature of the regular water tank at room temperature. At the site, K-type thermocouples were used. We kept the temperature of the standard water tank at room temperature. K-type thermocouples were used for temperature measurement at the inlet, outlet, and various positions in the heat exchanger, which were recorded by a data acquisition system. We initially kept the system in a constant state.

2.2 Stability Test The clustering of nanoparticles causes microchannel clogging and settlement and a reduction in the thermal conductivity of nanofluids. As a result, stability inspection is a primary issue that dominates the properties of nanofluids, and it is necessary to research and analyze key factors affecting nanofluid dispersion stability. The stability of nanofluids has a significant impact on their properties. To test the stability of the nanofluid in the test tube, we used visual changes. To examine the sedimentation of nanoparticles, we took photographs of the test tubes every 24 h for ten days from the day of preparation. The most basic test for determining stability is sedimentation. The clogging of heat exchanger tubes is reduced when the sedimentation rate is low, requiring less maintenance.

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Fig. 3 Thermal conductivity apparatus

2.3 Experimental Setup for Thermal Conductivity Test A thermal conductivity apparatus was used to analyze the thermal of nanofluid (supplied by M/s. Mittal Enterprise, India). The device consists of a test cell connected to a piezoelectric transducer, and a micrometer that is accurate and precise to within 0.001 mm. The transducer generates ultrasound with a predetermined frequency, and the wavelength is measured with a micrometer. We used a water bath with a temperature controller with a limit of 0.1 °C to maintain the temperature of the test cell. For every 10 °C increase in temperature, we measured the sound velocity. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 3.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Thermal Effectiveness We can notice from Table 1 that the thermal effectiveness of the heat exchanger significantly improves for nanofluids as cold fluids.

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Table 1 Effectiveness at different concentrations Hot fluid Concentration 0 Th, i

Th, o Effectiveness

0.01

TiO2 in water

Al2 O3 in water

0.03

0.05

0.07

0.01

0.03

0.05

0.07

70 26

26

26

26

26

26

26

26

61 28

28

28

28

28

28

28

29

52 29

30

31

30

30

31

31

32

49 31

32

33

33

31

33

34

35

47 32

33

35

36

32

34

36

37

0.522713 0.5228 0.52295 0.5232 0.522708 0.52289 0.522986 0.5231

3.2 Stability Test Al2 O3 We can observe from Figs. 4 and 5 that there is very less difference can be noticed in the interval of 10 days which tells us the nanofluid will require limited maintenance. We can also observe lower concentration of the nanoparticle gives more stability. TiO2 Figures 6 and 7 show that in a 10-day interval, there is very little difference, indicating that the nanofluid will require minimal maintenance. We can also see that the nanoparticle has a lower concentration, which is more stable.

Fig. 4 Day one of the stability test for Al2 O3

Performance Analysis of Heat Exchanger Using Nanofluid

Fig. 5 Day ten of the stability test for Al2 O3

Fig. 6 Day one of the stability test for TiO2

Fig. 7 Day ten of the stability test for TiO2

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Fig. 8 Thermal conductivity of various concentration of Al2 O3 compared to water

3.3 Thermal Conductivity Compared to water, both nanofluids had higher thermal conductivity and a linear relationship between concentration and temperature. It can be justified through Figs. 8 and 9 the graphs plotted by the results calculated as shown in Table 2.

3.4 Temperature Variation The flow rates of the three fluids in the current study are different (V h = 18 l/min, V nano = 30 l/min, V normal = 42 l/min). The temperature of hot water drops from 70 to 47 °C, normal water rises from 26 to 31 °C, and nanofluid rises from 26 to 37 °C. Figures 10 and 11 show the temperature variation of nanofluid of different concentration as compared to water. Due to a smaller annular heat transfer surface, the standard fluid temperature rise is negligible despite a significant temperature difference between the normal and hot fluids.

4 Conclusion The evolution of nanotechnology is in the progression, and thus in this investigation, our primary target was to know the merits of using the nanofluid instead of water.

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TiO2

Fig. 9 Thermal conductivity of various concentration of TiO2 compared to water

Both Al2 O3 and TiO2 have been proven to improve effectiveness, conductivity, and temperature variation compared to that of water at standard temperature. Firstly, we can conclude that there has been significant improvement in thermal effectiveness when we use nanoparticle infused water. Further, in the stability test, we can see the moderate concentration nanofluid are quite stable and thus can be proven to require less maintenance. In thermal conductivity test, we can see that there has been improvement of the thermal conductivity of nanofluid with increase in concentrations of nanoparticle. Lastly, we draw an inference from temperature variation test that there has been reduced temperature variation of nanofluid than that of normal water. This study concludes to be a comprehensive investigation of nanofluid in the heat exchanger and can be viable to study further economic factors.

0.01801

0.1019612 3987

0.1019612 3987

0.1019612 3987

0.1019612 3987

0.1019612 3987

0.1019612 3987

0.1019612 3987

0.1019612 3987

0.1019612 3987

0.0007

40 °C 0.0001

0.0003

0.0005

0.0007

50 °C 0.0001

0.0003

0.0005

0.0007

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.079866 4157

0.079866 4157

0.0003

0.01801

0.01801

Concentration Mass of Density Mass of (φ) NP of NP base (Kg/mol) (kg/m3 ) fluid (kg/mol)

30 °C 0.0001

TiO2

0.01801

0.1019612 3987

0.0005

0.01801

0.1019612 3987

0.0003

0.01801

0.1019612 3987

Density Mass of of NP base (kg/m3 ) fluid (kg/mol)

30 °C 0.0001

Al2 O3 Concentration Mass of (φ) NP (Kg/mol)

Table 2 Result table of thermal conductivity

1000

1000

Sound vel (v) (m/s)

Avogadro no (N) (mole)

Boltzmann const (K) (J/K)

Thermal cond (k) (W/(mK))

1.80153E−05 2,000,000 0.3824

1.80138E−05 2,000,000 0.3916

1.80123E−05 2,000,000 0.3908

1.80108E−05 2,000,000 0.3907

1.80153E−05 2,000,000 0.3842

1.80138E−05 2,000,000 0.3763

1.80123E−05 2,000,000 0.3902

1.80108E−05 2,000,000 0.3852

1.80153E−05 2,000,000 0.381

1.80138E−05 2,000,000 0.3804

1.80123E−05 2,000,000 0.3834

1.80104E−05 2,000,000

1.80101E−05 2,000,000

Avogadro no (N) (mole)

Boltzmann const (K) (J/K)

Thermal cond (k) (W/(mK))

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.613690732

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.62849044

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.627241611

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.62711622

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.616579443

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.603935016

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.626278599

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.618288118

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.611443956

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.610515228

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.615364467

0.3815 1526

(continued)

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.612358181

0.3838 1535.2 6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.616055471

Sound vel (v) (m/s)

1529.6

1566.4

1563.2

1562.8

1536.8

1505.2

1560.8

1540.8

1524

1521.6

1533.6

1.80108E−05 2,000,000 0.38388 1535.52 6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.616169374

Density Molar volume Frequency Avg. of base (V) (m3 ) (f) (Hz) wave fluid length (kg/m3 ) (λ/2) (mm)

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

Density Molar volume Frequency Avg. of base (V) (m3 ) (f) (Hz) wave fluid length (kg/m3 ) (λ/2) (mm)

118 G. G. Pooja

0.079866 4157

0.079866 4157

0.079866 4157

0.079866 4157

0.079866 4157

0.079866 4157

0.079866 4157

0.079866 4157

0.0003

0.0005

0.0007

50 °C 0.0001

0.0003

0.0005

0.0007

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.01801

0.079866 4157

0.0007

40 °C 0.0001

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1.80108E−05 2,000,000

1.80106E−05 2,000,000

1.80104E−05 2,000,000

1.80101E−05 2,000,000

1.80108E−05 2,000,000

1.80106E−05 2,000,000

1.80104E−05 2,000,000

1.80101E−05 2,000,000

1.80108E−05 2,000,000

1.80106E−05 2,000,000

Sound vel (v) (m/s)

Avogadro no (N) (mole)

Boltzmann const (K) (J/K)

Thermal cond (k) (W/(mK))

6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.623599662

0.3888 1555.2 6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.624064541

0.3924 1569.6 6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.629848523

0.3886 1554.4 6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.623754624

0.4078 1631.2 6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.654579002

0.3878 1551.2 6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.622459436

0.3951 1580.4 6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.634182343

0.3806 1522.4 6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.610913562

0.3885 1554

0.3791 1516.4 6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.608495029

0.3817 1526.8 6.023E+23 1.3807E−23 0.612673754

1000

0.0005

0.01801

Density Molar volume Frequency Avg. of base (V) (m3 ) (f) (Hz) wave fluid length (kg/m3 ) (λ/2) (mm)

Concentration Mass of Density Mass of (φ) NP of NP base (Kg/mol) (kg/m3 ) fluid (kg/mol)

0.079866 4157

TiO2

Table 2 (continued)

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Fig. 10 Temperature variation of Al2 O3

Al203

Fig. 11 Temperature variation of TiO2

TiO2

References 1. Yarmand H, Gharehkhani S, Ahmadi G, Shirazi SFS, Baradaran S, Montazer E, Zubir MNM, Alehashem MS, Kazi SN, Dahari M (2015) Graphene nanoplatelets–silver hybrid nanofluids for enhanced heat transfer. Energy Convers Manage 100(2015):419–428 2. Madhesh D, Parameshwaran R, Kalaiselvam S (2014) Experimental investigation on convective heat transfer and rheological characteristics of Cu–TiO2 hybrid nanofluids. Exp Thermal Fluid Sci 52:104–115 3. Yousefi M, Enayatifar R, Darus AN (2012) Optimal design of plate-fin heat exchangers by a hybrid evolutionary algorithm. Int Commun Heat Mass Transfer 39(2):258–263 4. Suresh S, Venkitaraj KP, Selvakumar P, Chandrasekar M (2012) Effect of Al2 O3 –Cu/water hybrid nanofluid in heat transfer. Exp Thermal Fluid Sci 38:54–60 5. Gang W, Wang J (2013) Predictive ANN models of ground heat exchanger for the control of hybrid ground source heat pump systems. Appl Energy 112:1146–1153

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6. Luo X, Wen Q-Y, Fieg G (2009) A hybrid genetic algorithm for synthesis of heat exchanger networks. Comput Chem Eng 33(6):1169–1181 7. Launay S, Fedorov AG, Joshi Y, Cao A, Ajayan PM (2006) Hybrid micro-nano structured thermal interfaces for pool boiling heat transfer enhancement. Microelectron J 37(11):1158– 1164. 8. Vasiliev LL (2005) Heat pipes in modern heat exchangers. Appl Therm Eng 25(1):1–19 9. Wang CC, Fu WL, Chang CT (1997) Heat transfer and friction characteristics of typical wavy fin-and-tube heat exchangers. Exp Thermal Fluid Sci 14(2):174–186 10. Ma Q, Wang RZ, Dai YJ, Zhai XQ (2006) Performance analysis on a hybrid air-conditioning system of a green building. Energy Build 38(5):447–453 11. Florides G, Kalogirou S (2007) Ground heat exchangers—a review of systems, models and applications. Renew Energy 32(15):2461–2478 12. Boomsma K, Poulikakos D, Zwick F (2003) Metal foams as compact high performance heat exchangers. Mech Mater 35(12):1161–1176 13. Wang C-C, Lee C-J, Chang C-T, Lin S-P (1999) Heat transfer and friction correlation for compact louvered fin-and-tube heat exchangers. Int J Heat Mass Transf 42(11):1945–1956 14. Zeng H, Diao N, Fang Z (2003) Heat transfer analysis of boreholes in vertical ground heat exchangers. Int J Heat Mass Transf 46(23):4467–4481 15. Pettersen J, Hafner A, Skaugen G, Rekstad H (1998) Development of compact heat exchangers for CO2 air-conditioning systems. Int J Refrig 21(3):180–193 16. Das SK, Putra N, Roetzel W (2003) Pool boiling characteristics of nano-fluids. Int J Heat Mass Transf 46(5):851–862 17. T’Joen C, Park Y, Wang Q, Sommers A, Han X, Jacobi A (2009) A review on polymer heat exchangers for HVAC&R applications. Int J Refrig 32(5):763–779 18. Li X, Kininmont D, Le Pierres R, Dewson SJ (2008) Alloy 617 for the high temperature diffusion-bonded compact heat exchangers. In: Proceedings of ICAPP08, Anaheim, CA, Paper 8008 19. Southall D, Dewson SJ (2010) Innovative compact heat exchangers. Group 226 212(6):583 20. Farajollahi B, Gh Etemad S, Hojjat M (2010) Heat transfer of nanofluids in a shell and tube heat exchanger. Int J Heat Mass Transfer 53(1–3):12–17 21. Krishn S, Goyal M, Nandan G, Kumar S, Kumar P, Shukla AK (2019) Pool boiling using nanofluids: a review. Adv Fluid Thermal Eng 325–336 22. Chang Y-J, Wang C-C (1997) A generalized heat transfer correlation for Iouver fin geometry. Int J Heat Mass Transf 40(3):533–544 23. Jang J-Y, Wu M-C, Chang W-J (1996) Numerical and experimental studies of three-dimensional plate-fin and tube heat exchangers. Int J Heat Mass Transf 39(14):3057–3066 24. Turgut OE (2016) Hybrid chaotic quantum behaved particle swarm optimization algorithm for thermal design of plate fin heat exchangers. Appl Math Model 40(1):50–69 25. Jiang P-X, Fan M-H, Si G-S, Ren Z-P (2001) Thermal–hydraulic performance of small scale micro-channel and porous-media heat-exchangers. Int J Heat Mass Transf 44(5):1039–1051 26. Wang C-C, Lee W-S, Sheu W-J (2001) A comparative study of compact enhanced fin-and-tube heat exchangers. Int J Heat Mass Transf 44(18):3565–3573 27. Torii K, Kwak KM, Nishino K (2002) Heat transfer enhancement accompanying pressure-loss reduction with winglet-type vortex generators for fin-tube heat exchangers. Int J Heat Mass Transf 45(18):3795–3801

Bibliometric Analysis of Global Research Trend on Construction and Demolition Waste in Past Two Decade Hemant Choudhary and Sarvesh P. S. Rajput

Abstract A bibliometric analysis of current research trends in the field of construction and demolition waste is presented in this work. The analysis is based on the type of document, language, distribution of the journal, subject category, countries, and author keywords. This study uses data gathered from the Web of Science database for the years 2002–2021. A cubic regression model has been created to predict publication output in the upcoming decade. Based on the model, the publication on construction and demolition waste is expected to exceed four times that of 2021 by the end of the forthcoming decade. The most prevalent subject category is engineering. Construction and building materials is the most productive journal. The social network analysis reveals that People ‘R’ China is the most influential and collaborative country. Finally, the author’s keyword is analyzed to find out the research hotspot. The results showed construction and demolition waste, recycling, construction waste, waste management, and recycled aggregate were the most frequently used keywords. This study gives an overview of research on construction and demolition waste and helps in identifying the pattern of research around the world and plan for future research. Keywords Bibliometric · Web of science · Demolition · C&D waste · Social network · Collaboration

1 Introduction The world is becoming increasingly urbanized, rising from around one-third urban population in 1950 to around two-third in 2020 [1]. The shift to more urban living means cities will need more housing and infrastructure or enhancement in the capacity H. Choudhary (B) · S. P. S. Rajput MANIT, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh 462003, India e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] S. P. S. Rajput e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_12

123

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of existing facilities by demolishing and building a new one. This has become not only the cause of natural resources depletion at an alarming rate [2], but also in large scale construction activities leading to the origination of huge quantity of construction and demolition (C&D) waste becoming a challenge for society [3]. C&D waste is the solid waste produced during the construction, maintenance, and demolition of buildings and structures [4, 5]. In previous research, the functionality of recycled products derived from C&D waste was the primary area of emphasis [6–8], generation of C&D waste [9, 10], mechanical properties of recycled products [11, 12], C&D waste management [13– 15]. Many review articles have been written which try to summarize the past work related to C&D waste, but summarizing the whole work in a single review is a herculean task. So, to overcome this, a bibliometric review has been carried out. Bibliometric analysis is a helpful way for recognizing trends in research based on historical publication [16]. Bibliometrics analyze the records that generate the results of each area, the distribution of authors and academic institutions, variations in keywords, and patterns in space and time to highlight and predict the course of future studies. Bibliometrics are thus commonly used in the study of science and technical publications, trademarks, scientific and technological foreign collaborations, and other areas [17]. Recently, this approach has been used to analyze research trends in a specific field [6–8, 18–20]. The study examines traditional research aspects including language, document type, journals, countries, etc., as well as h-index to acquire an overview of C&D waste studies from 2001 to 2020.

2 Research Methodology The data for the present study has been retrieved from the Web of Science (WoS) by Thomson Reuters Scientific from the period 2002–2021. The information like affiliations, authors, language, type of document, publishers, journal, year of publication, geographical location, keywords, and citations has been collected for analysis. The data has been analyzed by using Microsoft Excel 2016. In addition to the above, social network analyses were also conducted to depict the relationships among countries involved in C&D waste-research. Social network analysis was utilized to visualize academic collaborations between authors, institutions, and countries [21]. VOSviewer version 1.6.17, a tool for generating and visualizing bibliometric networks, is utilized for this study.

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3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Document Type and Language of Publication During the last two decades, 2584 documents have been obtained. (2002–2021). Categorically, the highest proportions of document types were accounted by 2245 articles (86.88%), 213 reviews (8.24%), 53 proceedings papers (2.05%), 48 early access articles (1.86%), 16 editorial materials (0.62%), 7 early access reviews (0.27%), 1 correction (0.04%), and 1 retracted publication (0.04%). Conducting a language analysis, it was inferred that English was the predominant language in this field of research. 2521 articles were written in English, followed by Portuguese (28), German (13), Spanish (13), Japanese (5), Croatian (2), Polish (1), and Turkish (1).

3.2 Publication Characteristics Figure 1 shows the temporal changes in the productivity of C&D waste-related research. The quantity of research fluctuated with an upward trend. It was observed that the number of documents increased from 14 in 2002 to 541 in 2021. Regression analysis used to estimate the quantity of publications in 2022 is also shown in Fig. 1. With a success rate of 98.24%, the cubic model of regression analysis fits in the best. The formula obtained according to the cubic model of regression analysis estimated that there would be 652 articles to be published in the year 2022. Global production outputs in C&D waste-related research increased at an annual growth rate of 24.46% over the last two decades, but the years 2003, 2005, and 2010 showed a decrease in publication with negative growth rates of 28.57, 13.33, and 22.44%, respectively, in comparison with the preceding year. Table 1 reveals that the references per article increased from 23 in 2002 to 65 in 2021, which is a PUBLICATION YEAR 600 y = 0.1876x3 - 3.3308x2 + 18.563x R² = 0.9822

500 400 300 200 100 0

0

5

10

15

20

25

Fig. 1 Cubic regression model showing the number of publications per year from 2002 to 2021

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Table 1 Yearly output characteristics Year

TP

PGS

PGS/TP

NCR

NCR/TP

2002

14

143

10

320

23

2003

10

116

12

284

28

2004

15

148

10

473

32

2005

13

125

10

239

18

2006

20

210

11

351

18

2007

35

332

9

805

23

2008

35

316

9

874

25

2009

49

425

9

1511

31

2010

38

346

9

1078

28

2011

49

488

10

1614

33

2012

65

618

10

2267

35

2013

92

905

10

3462

38

2014

94

971

10

4040

43

2015

114

1298

11

5455

48

2016

166

2039

12

8347

50

2017

185

2150

12

9132

49

2018

237

2986

13

12,337

52

2019

321

4185

13

17,867

56

2020

491

7012

14

28,255

58

2021

541

8228

15

35,265

65

TP, quantity of publication; PGS, number of pages; NCR, number of cited references; PGS/P, pages per documents; NCR/P, number of cited references per documents

1.83-fold increase. It also indicates that there has been continuous escalation in the quantity of C&D waste-research. The notable increase in the number of publication and references as shown in Table 1 indicates increasing attention of researcher’s in this area of research and author tends to cite more data from other researches in their publication.

3.3 Publication Patterns: Subject Categories, Journals, and Publisher During the past two decades, research documents on C&D waste have been published in 62 subject categories identified by the ISI as being relevant. Engineering, environmental sciences and ecology, materials science, and construction and building technology were the most popular subject categories, followed by science and technology-other topics and chemistry (Table 2).

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Table 2 Top ten subject categories distribution Subject categories

TP

%

Engineering

1652

63.93

Environmental sciences and ecology

Rank 1

1196

46.28

2

Materials science

758

29.33

3

Construction and building technology

684

26.47

4

Science and technology—other topics

535

20.70

5

Chemistry

155

6.00

6

Physics

132

5.11

7

Metallurgy and metallurgical engineering

101

3.91

8

Energy and fuels

73

2.83

9

Geology

48

1.86

10

TP, quantity of publication

In the last 20 years, 416 journals published 2584 papers. Out of these 416 journals, there were two journals that published more than 200 papers and five journals that published more than 100 papers, covering approximately 40.52% of the whole research work related to C&D waste (Table 3). Construction and building materials had the most number of C&D waste-related documents published, trailed by the journal of cleaner production and waste management, respectively. It is worth noting that papers published in the journal of cleaner production and construction and building materials are higher in numbers but when it comes to citations per publication which states the quality of publication, they are far behind of resources conservation and recycling, cement and concrete composites, and waste management. During the tenure of study, 2584 papers were published by 167 publishers. Notably, six publishers produced over 100 papers, accounting Table 3 Top ten most productive journals Journal

TP

TC

TC/P

Construction and building materials

324

12,022

37

Journal of cleaner production

286

9854

34

Waste management

174

8791

51

Resources conservation and recycling

136

7848

58

Sustainability

127

888

7

Materials

87

656

8

Waste management and research

85

1609

19

Journal of building engineering

38

640

17

Journal of materials in civil engineering

38

1039

27

Applied sciences-Basel

35

184

5

TP, quantity of publication; TC, total number of citations

128 Table 4 Top ten most productive publishers

H. Choudhary and S. P. S. Rajput Publisher

TP

TC

Elsevier Sci Ltd

704

26,616

Mdpi

328

2317

% 27.24458 12.6935

Pergamon-Elsevier Science Ltd

244

12,505

9.442724

Elsevier

201

5508

7.778638

Elsevier Science Bv

115

6538

4.450464

Springer

113

1944

4.373065

Sage Publications Ltd

89

1635

3.444272

Springer Heidelberg

73

1036

2.825077

Asce-Amer Soc Civil Engineers

69

1664

2.670279

Taylor & Francis Ltd

62

1162

2.399381

TP, Quantity of publication; TC, total number of citations

for almost 66% of all papers published (Table 4). 704 documents, which account for 27.24% of all published documents related to C&D waste, were published by Elsevier Sci Ltd. MDPI has produced 328 documents (12.70% of all papers), which is almost less than half of that published by Elsevier Sci Ltd, followed by Pergamon-Elsevier Science Ltd, which published 244 documents (9.44% of all published documents).

3.4 Author’s Productivity Specifically, the number of participants increased drastically over the last two decade. Over 6345 authors involved in 2584 publications associated with C&D waste, the top 10 most effective authors were listed (Table 5). de Brito J of the Instituto Superior Técnico in Portugal had 82 publications, followed by Tam, VWY and Poon, CS both of whom had 50 and 46 publications, respectively. Lu, WS, Arulrajah, A, and Jimenez, JR published 45, 35, and 31 papers on C&D waste, respectively. To get better insight about the author and quality of their publications, we used h-index. Poon, CS has the highest h-index (h-index = 82) followed by de Brito J and Tam, VWY having h-index value 68 & 56. In terms of the total citations per publication, a measure of publication quality, Poon, CS has the highest value (69), followed by de Brito J (64). The author analysis clearly suggests that the though Poon CS had lesser number of publication than de Brito J but when it comes to quality of publication he is far ahead.

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Table 5 Top ten most effective authors Authors

TP

FAP

IP

IP/TP

PC

PC/TP

TC

TC/TP

h-index

de Brito, J

82

1

0

0

82

1

5283

64

68

Tam, VWY

50

19

2

0.04

48

0.96

2676

54

56

Poon, CS

46

11

2

0.04

44

0.96

3177

69

82

Lu, WS

45

19

1

0.02

44

0.98

1791

40

20

Arulrajah, A

35

13

0

0

35

1

1020

29

48

Jimenez, JR

31

4

0

0

31

1

1233

40

21

Wang, JY

31

8

0

0

31

1

1469

47

41

Ayuso, J

30

0

0

0

30

1

1116

37

20

Yuan, HP

30

11

4

0.13

26

0.87

2141

71

15

Horpibulsuk, S

29

0

0

0

29

1

396

14

53

TP, quantity of publication; FAP, first author publication; IP, individual publication; PC, cooperative publication; TC, citations count; IP/TP, individual publication per quantity of publication; PC/TP, cooperative publication per quantity of publication; TC/TP total citations per quantity of publication

3.5 Countries Productivity and Collaborations Productivity of different countries was estimated based on the author’s affiliation. Based on the publication, quantity top 10 countries are ranked. During the study period, researcher from People’s Republic of China published 773 papers, which is highest by any country, followed by Spain (322), Australia (272), and Brazil (207). Among the top 10 countries, Portugal had the highest citation per publication (TC/TP = 46), followed by England (42) which is indicating their quality of work (Table 6). Figure 2 shows the social network diagram of the countries. The size of the node in the network diagram symbolizes the quantity of publications, and width of the connecting line shows the degree of collaboration. Analysis reveals that the productive nations tends to collaborate frequently with each other. The People Republic of Table 6 Top ten most productive countries

Countries/regions

TP

TC

TC/TP

Peoples R China

773

20,733

27

Spain

322

8644

27

Australia

272

8587

32

Brazil

207

3881

19

USA

179

5205

29

England

139

5804

42

Portugal

132

6064

46

Italy

128

3432

27

India

100

2417

24

79

2140

27

Germany

130

H. Choudhary and S. P. S. Rajput

Fig. 2 Social network diagram of countries

China being the most active collaborator followed by USA, Australia, and England. Also, based on the overlay visualization diagram, it can be deduced that most of the recent research came from countries such as the China, Australia, Thailand, and India (see Fig. 3).

3.6 Keywords Analysis After statistically analyzing the keyword data obtained from the database of the Web of Science, we identified 5912 keywords in the entire span of the study period (2002– 2020). There were 4627 (78.26%) of 5912 keywords which are used only once, 629 (10.64%) twice, and 323 (5.46%) five times or more. The keywords occurrence with low frequencies suggests a lack of uniformity in C&D waste-research. The top 20 author keywords for the study period are given in Table 7, using 5-year intervals to observe year-to-year fluctuation. Construction and demolition waste, recycling, construction waste, waste management, recycled aggregate, and mechanical properties are the most repeatedly used keywords, highlighting that these are the fundamental area of research. In particular, the use of keywords such as recycled aggregate, sustainability, mechanical properties, and durability has progressively increased, and the performance of end or recycled materials has become the research focus of C&D waste-related studies, and future studies will put more emphasis on them.

Bibliometric Analysis of Global Research Trend on Construction …

131

Fig. 3 Overlay visualization diagram of countries Table 7 Top twenty most frequently used keywords Author keyword

2002–2021

2002–2006

2007–2011

2012–2016

2017–2021

N

(%)

N

(%)

N

(%)

N

(%)

N

(%)

Construction and demolition waste

478

3.80

12

0.04

35

4.58

133

5.19

298

3.33

Recycling

209

1.66

13

0.04

20

2.62

53

2.07

123

1.38

Construction waste

154

1.22

1

0.00

13

1.70

37

1.44

103

1.15

Waste management

149

1.18

6

0.02

20

2.62

31

1.21

92

1.03

Recycled aggregate

133

1.06

0

0.00

15

1.96

33

1.29

85

0.95

Mechanical properties

130

1.03

0

0.00

3

0.39

22

0.86

105

1.17

Recycled aggregates

128

1.02

3

0.01

6

0.79

40

1.56

79

0.88

Sustainability 123

0.98

0

0.00

4

0.52

26

1.01

93

1.04

Concrete

116

0.92

2

0.01

9

1.18

46

1.80

59

0.66

Circular economy

105

0.83

0

0.00

0

0.00

0

0.00

105

1.17

N, frequency of keyword

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H. Choudhary and S. P. S. Rajput

4 Conclusion The analysis reveals that 1. The “article” was the most commonly published document type, and “English” was the widely acknowledged language for the majority of the publications. 2. Over the last two decades, there has been a tremendous growth in C&D wasterelated research. A cubic regression model was used in this study, which predicted a 45.57-fold increase in the quantity of publication in the year 2022 to that of the year 2002. 3. Engineering, environmental sciences and ecology, and materials science are the most common subjects studied in C&D waste-related studies. Construction and building materials published the most C&D waste-related articles, with the top 10 journals and Elsevier Sci Ltd publisher registered the most C&D waste-related documents (27.24% of all papers). 4. We also found that in terms of productivity de Brito J but when it comes to quality Poon, CS is far ahead of others. 5. Researchers from the People’s Republic of China published the most articles on C&D waste, followed by Spain and Australia. The social network diagram demonstrated a significant level of collaboration between countries all around the world. 6. Analysis reveals that the hotspot for the research is assessment of the mechanical properties of the waste and management of waste.

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Comprehensive Study Related to Thermoelectric Generators (TEG) and Preventing Heat Dissipation Kanishq Gandhi, Kunal Girotra, and R. K. Tyagi

Abstract With the advancement of utilization and optimization of energy management over the past few decades with the aim to alter the existing energy into various other forms, people have found out intensive ways to improve their superiority of life. Ever since the past energy crisis, scientists and researchers are finding out new and advanced techniques to conquer the outcomes of the crisis and mould various forms of energy into highly efficient and effective forms. Such a concept includes this study of the thermoelectric generators. With the capability of converting heat energy into electrical energy with the advanced usage of Seebeck effect, these allow the rejected thermal energy to be converted, even under harsh conditions pertaining environment into electrical power in isolated places with non-sufficient energy supplies helping micro-sensors to be powered and well driven. The paper highlights the various trends, analysis and applications pertaining the thermoelectric generators focusing on the exquisite quality of utilizing the rejected heat and conversion into electrical energy with the help of micro-sensors. It even highlights the principal model, design, working and the nomenclature to give a detailed descriptive report pertaining the comprehensive application that thermoelectric generators hold into the modern life. Numerous current applications are proposed and stressed upon with a scope of future application in the field of thermodynamics with a cost-effective planning. The sole purpose of this paper is to clearly exhibit the advancements of the applications of the thermoelectric generators and making it viable and usable to any machinery or equipment where heat is rejected from a hot-source to a cold-source. Keywords Thermoelectric generator · Green energy · Heat · Thermal energy · Seebeck effect

K. Gandhi · K. Girotra · R. K. Tyagi (B) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University Noida, Noida, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_13

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1 Introduction This exponential growth of global population demands a never-ending supply of power and energy to run its daily course. In order to fulfil that demand, the unrestrainable use of fossil fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas is reaching its peak. A research based on fuel consumption data over a century in 2015 stated that if the fossil fuels are used at the same rate as they are being in the ongoing decade, we may run out of them by early 2050s. Further, if the rate of consumption grows a significant amount, then the life decreases to early 2040s. Moreover, this extensive usage has led to other catastrophic problems resulting in environmental damage and depletion of ozone layer causing the climates to change and ultimately resulting in global warming [1]. Renewable energy seems the most convenient way out of this crisis, but as a coin always has two sides, renewable energy too comes with its own set of drawbacks or challenges. The advancements in the field of using renewable energy to cover this huge energy demand are still in its early stages. These initiatives towards supplying green energy to the grid have a goal to overtake fossil fuels in terms of consumption as these green energy resources are termed as unlimited. They are broadly classified as photovoltaic (solar), kinetic (movement wind/water), biomass (wood waste/natural waste/biogas) and thermal (geothermal/thermoelectricity). Heat is a generally a byproduct or is often rejected in numerous industrial processes round the globe. The “Bureau of Energy Efficiency” (A permanent body under The Ministry of Power, Govt. of India) estimates that industrial processes expend up to 2–3% in additional energy through inefficiency caused due to heat loss. This waste heat or rejected heat can be transformed into a source of thermal energy and can be used to convert into electrical energy. This is where our thermoelectric generators comes into play. Designed and developed in the early eighteenth century by a team run by Thomas Seebeck (Fig. 1), the TEGs run on a principle of thermoelectric effect commonly known as the Seebeck effect. When a temperature difference is created using heat across two points of a thermocouple or an electrically conducting substance, and electromotive force is developed across those two ends. This electro motive force is called Seebeck emf [1]. The thermoelectric technology described above has gone under rapid developments since it was first developed and due to its working principle, the TE differs from other conventional green energy harvesting techniques [2].

2 Material and Methods Precisely, thermoelectric generators mainly focus on conversion of the heat energy into electrical energy, but this process can be run in the reverse direction as well. To understand this fundamental concept, the knowledge of electrons helps us to get a detailed description on the working principal of operation.

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Fig. 1 Thomas Seebeck and the early demonstration of Seebeck effect (For demonstration of thermoelectric effect; op—a base strip made of bismuth (Bi), mn—an arc made of copper (Cu), a—magnetic needle. An arrow on this figure shows positive direction of current in the hot junction on going from Bi to Cu)

2.1 Discussion Metals are immensely great conductors of electrons and allow them to move freely within its parameters which significantly similar to a fluid pipe. This can be best explained while considering the movement of water from one end to the other in a pipe when held at an angle. This exponentially escalates the potential energy and makes the water flow in the direction of the slope. Thermoelectric generators have a similar concept as the fluid like electrons move from one end to the other when exposed to heat. When one end of the generator is exposed to heat, the electrons rush from the hotter end towards the cooler end causing an electric current thereby generating power from heat energy [2] (Fig. 2). But when one side of the generator is heated, it significantly begins to heat the rarer end of the generator too due to conduction due to which a heat source and a method to dissipate the heat energy so as to maintain a desired difference in the temperature across the materials is required [3]. Countless challenges are faced while designing the thermoelectric generator systems so as to operate at high temperatures. A significant amount in the field of engineering design is fairly required to measure and control the heat flow balancing thereby maximizing the temperature gradient between both the sides [4]. To perform such an operation, heat exchanger designing is the most significant and holds a great importance in the development of technologies. Further, a huge number of thermal losses and huge pressure drops also needs to be monitored. For this, an alternating current power is required as the direct current power when passed through the thermoelectric generator lowers the efficiency of the system as a whole. Prevention of Heat dissipation (In accordance with a VCR System).

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Fig. 2 Movement of electrons from the hotter to the cooler end generating an electric current

A vapour compression refrigeration system with an air-cooled condenser works similarly to a system with a water-cooled condenser, the main difference however is that for lower capacity systems air-cooled condensers are an optimal choice because of higher efficiency and lower maintenance cost as compared to a water-cooled condenser. Structure of an air-cooled condenser is simple, and it consists of three major components they are condenser fans, aluminium fins and refrigerant coils. Its working can be explained in a few simple steps. The aluminium fins inside the ACC hold the copper refrigerant coils together and also helps in increasing the heat transfer area hence increasing the efficiency of the condenser. Refrigerants are liquids which have the ability to undergo phase transitions from liquid to gas and reverse due to minute changes in temperature. The condenser fans blow cool air over the aluminium fins on the copper refrigerant coils. The gaseous refrigerant coming from the compressor has high temperature and high pressure, on entering the condenser the cool air blown from the condenser fans lowers the temperature of the refrigerant inside the coils, and it condenses the hot gaseous refrigerant to liquid state with a comparatively lower temperature than before. This prepares the refrigerant for lowering its pressure as it moves towards an expansion valve. Now, heat transfer takes place inside a condenser, and hence, the refrigerant releases its thermal energy to the air, and hence, the hot air rises and escapes the condenser fans from the opposite side. This is where the thermoelectric generator

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comes in play, with an aim to further convert this dissipated hot air that is released in the environment, to convert it into electrical energy [5].

2.2 Theoretical Formulas Now,   Area = Length × Breadth calculated in ft2 Velocity of Air (V) is calculated by using an Anemometer (calculated in ft/min)   ∴ CFM = Area × V calculated in ft3 /min Now, Heat released by condenser = 1.08 × CFM × T [Where T = T 2(exterior)−T 1(interior)] ∴ we get heat in BTU/hr 1 BTU/hr = 1.055 kJ/hr Hence, we get heat in kJ/hr for calculations of heat dissipation in Thermoelectric generator.

3 Result and Discussion With every aspect of the considerations understood and explained in the given synopsis, a wide variety of applicability of the thermoelectric generator comes into play with its vital role in the engineering sector providing a spectacular way of conversion of heat energy into electrical form of energy and helping the sector towards optimization in a very exquisite way (Fig. 3). The heat after being rejected from the condenser is converted into electrical form of energy with the help of thermoelectric generator which is then used to input electrical energy to the system along with storage of extra heat into the storage/collector tank (Fig. 4). An increment in demand of the management of various sources of energy has been quite a question which needs to be solved by most of the engineers with a productive way to enhance the performance of the system and prevent loss of energy into the environment [5]. Thermoelectric generators not only provide us a way to fulfil the

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Fig. 3 Setup showing waste heat transfer from the external body

Fig. 4 Block diagram indicating input and output of heat collection and storage after conversion

need of conversion of energy but also is very helpful in utilizing that form of energy as a source to different other mechanical appliances with a return on investment over the product in a very short period of time [6].

4 Conclusion The very linkage of thermoelectric generator with vapour compression refrigeration system is an evolving concept and is currently under persuasion with various applications of utilizing the rejected form of energy via the condenser into electrical

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energy and getting a well versed return over the energy used is under consideration along with utilization of that energy into another source with the help of solar cells or a capacitor [7]. Above all, the concept of understanding the specialized concept of usage of thermoelectric generator highlighting its mechanical concept along with considerations of its performance with vapour compression refrigeration system has been well explained and written [8].

References 1. Seebeck TJ (1895) Magnetische polarisation der metalle und erze durch temperatur-differenz (No. 70). W. Engelmann 2. Thomson W (1851) On the dynamical theory of heat transfer. Trans R Soc Edinb 3:91–98 3. Fernández-Yáñez P, Romero V, Armas O, Cerretti G (2021) Thermal management of thermoelectric generators for waste energy recovery. Appl Therm Eng 196:117291 4. Bell LE (2008) Cooling, heating, generating power, and recovering waste heat with thermoelectric systems. Science 321(5895):1457–1461 5. Heremans JP, Jovovic V, Toberer ES, Saramat A, Kurosaki K, Charoenphakdee A, Snyder GJ et al (2008) Enhancement of thermoelectric efficiency in PbTe by distortion of the electronic density of states. Science 321(5888):554–557 6. Sari SK, Pratami NW (2018) Cooling load calculation of cold storage container for vegetables case study C Campus-UISI, Ngipik. In: 2018 international conference on information and communications technology (ICOIACT), pp 820–826. IEEE 7. Vapor-compression refrigeration cycles, Schematic diagrams of multi-stage units, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, 1998–11–30, moam.info 8. Kifilideen O, Adewole A, Adetunji O, Emmanuel A (2018) Performance evaluation of monocrystalline photovoltaic panels in Funaab, Alabata, Ogun State, Nigeria Weather Condition. Int J Innov Eng Res Technol 5(2):8–20

An Experimental Investigation on a Double-Pass Solar Air Heater Using Two Separate Extended Geometry in the Absorber Plate Filled with TESM Arvind Kumar Singh, Nitin Agarwal, Sourabh Kumar, and Mohd Zaki

Abstract A dual-pas solar air heater with two separate shapes and in five different configurations carrying thermal energy storage systems has been manufactured and investigated. Paraffin wax as a tool for solar TESM is used during the investigation of PCM loaded configurations. The heater’s efficiency has been examined for five distinct configurations. The integrated solar heater using TESM provided a reasonably higher temperature than without energy storage. As a result, air heaters that are equipped with thermal energy storage performed better than those that are not. The addition of a solar energy storage material with a collector plate is found to be the best arrangement since it enhances the solar air heater’s operating period. During investigation, configuration 4 has been found to be more effective than other configurations. Keywords Solar air heater · Energy storage · TESM and thermal performance

Nomenclature SAH PCM TO TI M ρa TESM DPSAH

Solar air heater Phase change material Temperature at the SAH’s outlet (OC) Temperature at the SAH’s inlet (OC) Flow rate of air through collector of the SAH (kg/s) Density of air (kg/m3 ) Thermal energy storage material Double-pass solar air heater

A. K. Singh (B) · N. Agarwal · S. Kumar · M. Zaki Mechanical Engineering Department, Moradabad Institute of Technology (An Affiliated Institute of Dr. APJ AKTU, Lucknow), Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] N. Agarwal Mechanical Engineering Department, Shri Venkateshwara University, Gajraula, Moradabad, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_14

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Collector projected area (m2 ) Air velocity at the outlet of the collector (m/s) Area of the collector plate (m2 ) Specific heat (J kg− 1 K−1 ) Efficiency (%) Useful heat gain (W) Flat plate

1 Introduction Solar energy leads to an innovative means of addressing the growing global warming and energy crisis. In order to meet our energy needs, we must use renewable energy. This also reduces the CO2 emissions that assist favorable environmental conditions. The sun has enormous sources of energy and can solve the world’s energy problem by harnessing solar energy properly. FP collectors are typically used in applications where low temperatures are required, and collectors in SAH are used to store energy coming from the sun. A collector plate is used to capture the energy coming from the sun on the solar air heater. This captured energy is then transmitted to a flowing fluid through the heater. As we know, the blackbody absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation. So the collector is coated black to absorb the maximum incident electromagnetic radiation coming from the sun. A number of efforts are under way to boost the efficiency of air heaters by combining flat plate collectors with different combinations and energy storage systems. Solar energy may be utilized in two ways: direct and diffuse radiation coming from the sun on the surface of the earth. The first is used in solar thermal applications, while the second may be transformed directly into electricity using a solar photovoltaic system. Solar collectors transform solar energy into thermal energy in solar thermal applications, and these collectors are classified as concentrating types and without concentrating types (flat plate). Flat plate collectors accumulate both beam and diffuse radiation and are typically used in moderate temperature applications like drying of dairy products, meats, preheating of water, textile industry, chemicals industry, etc. Satcunanathan and Deonarine [1] first investigated the idea of dual-pass solar air heaters and later Caouris et al. [2] had considered it. Ghoneim and Klein [3] performed a theoretical analysis of the performance of SAH and water heaters with PCM and sensible energy storage. Fath [4] analyzed the thermosyphon SAH, which has a number of PCM-filled tubs that have various melting temperatures. In this experiment, the tubes were arranged in a parallel configuration, with air flowing above and below them at the same time. According to his observations, the SAHs that have melting temperatures of PCM 51 and 43 °C yield significant outcomes. Esen and Ayhan [5] performed a parametric analysis to assess the impacts of geometrical and thermal variabilities, as well as stored energy, due to the usage of PCM. Cabeza et al. [6] conducted an investigational

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examination of a fully loaded PCM tank that can be utilized in cold storage. He also looked at the different heat transfer arrangements and flow levels. Farid et al. [7] and Kumar et al. [8] provide a comprehensive summary of PCMs and their uses. Alkilani et al. [9] built a SAH with copper-filled PCM tubes mixed with 0.5% aluminum dust to improve the conductivity of PCM. Their findings show that PCM conductivity increased by the use of aluminum dust, and the operating time of SAH was about 8 h after the evening when the air flow rate was 0.05 kg/s. Kabeel et al. [10] established and analyzed SAH with a corrugated collector surface using paraffin wax storage. Enibe [11] designed and tested a single-glazed FPSC based on heat stored during phase change for solar air heating arrangements. This technique might be used for agricultural drying and chicken egg incubation. Around the collector plate, the PCM module was prepared and filled. Krishnananth et al. [12] did an analysis of dual-pass solar air heaters using TESM. They found during analysis that the performance was improved by the use of TESM. Saxena et al. [13] developed and tested an improved solar air heater (SAH) which is packed with low-cost thermal ESM in a cylindrical shape. He experimented with several arrangements of PCM-filled tubes in the solar air heater. He created a setup that performs better than the previous one. According to his calculations, the total cost of the enhanced system is only $67.75. Ali et al. [14] analyzed four different configurations in a double-pass SAH. According to his research, the SAH with configurations 03 and 04 performs better than other configurations. Mahmood et al. [15] examined and tested single and double-pass SAH along with finding uniform spacing. Using 16 wire mesh layers, an alternate collector tray has been created. He observed that for SAH, both single and double passes, efficiency improvements of roughly 62.50 and 55%, respectively, were made. Dhiman et al. [16] examined the thermal performance of a unidirectional flow in a DPSAH duct with PBM in one duct. They developed an analytical model to represent the various temperatures and convection heat transfer coefficients of the developed system, also investigated the impacts of MFR and varied PBM porosities on its performance. Dhiman et al. [17] evaluated the influence of MFR and porosities of porous media on its thermal along with thermohydraulic performance of parallel as well as counter-flow SAHs both theoretically and practically. As per his findings, a system having counter flow was more efficient than a parallel one. Mahmood et al. [18] studied the DPSAH using fins along with a matrix of packed wire mesh rather than a normal absorber plate and compared it to SPSAH. Rawat and Jaurker [19] examined the performance of DPSAHs having V-shaped ribs with an inclination of 60°. They were able to achieve a significant increase in the Nusselt number. So far, various research has been performed on the double-pass SAH to improve its performance. But no one has tried the effect of the location of PCM-filled circular and rectangular pipes on the dual-pass SAH till now. As a result, a SAH with dualpass was manufactured and examined with the thermal ESM. Paraffin wax-filled pipes having circular and square crass sections are used as energy-storing materials. Experiments have been conducted and their performances have been compared.

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2 Experimental Setup A mild steel plate was used to construct a dual-pass solar air heater that is 100 cm long, 70 cm wide, and 50 m in height. To minimize the thermal losses from the air heater into the surroundings, the bottom and all sides of the collector were coated with 25 mm of insulation, and the top side of the collector was protected with 4 mm of glazing to minimize losses due to convection. To maintain the uniform distribution of airflow through the collector, inlet and outlet ducts are used. A blower is used in a double-pass collector through the collector plate to push air into the upper collector channel, and then it flows in the reverse path through the lower collector channel, which consists of the collector plate and the rear plate. The dimension of each geometry that is filled with PCM is chosen in such a way that the PCM volume has to be the same for each case, keeping its length constant. The system performance can be boosted by integrating the thermal energy storage material with a dual-pass SAH. Paraffin wax has been used for the collection of thermal energy in the circular and rectangular portions of the aluminum pipe filled with PCM. The collector plate integrated with aluminum pipes of different cross-sections filled with PCM is painted black in order to capture the optimum sun’s radiation. During the investigation of configurations 2 and 3, an aluminum circular pipe with an internal diameter of 5 cm and an exterior diameter of 5.5 cm was used. A rectangular pipe of 6 cm wide and 5.24 cm high, keeping its length constant as in the case of a circular pipe, was taken during the analysis of configurations 4 and 5. These pipes are mounted on the collector in two distinct configurations, the first above the collector plate and the second below the collector plate. A blower is fitted at the entry of the SAH, and an electric regulator is used to control the voltage supply of the blower to regulate the air flow rate flowing through the heater. An air flow rate measuring device (i.e., an anemometer) has been utilized to determine the air velocity at the inlet and exit of the heater, and the mass flow rate can be calculated accordingly. Thermocouples have been mounted at various positions in solar air heaters and are coupled to the digital indicator to read the entry and exit temperatures of air as well as the temperature of the collector plate. During testing, a solarimeter was used to evaluate the intensity of radiation impacting the collector plate (Fig. 1). An anemometer was used to monitor air velocity, which is capable of measuring air velocity ranging from 0.4 to 30 m/s and has a 0.1 m/s accuracy. During the investigation, the radiation intensity was measured using a “solarimeter,” which can measure a minimum reading of 2 mW/cm2 and its range of measurement is 0– 120 mW/cm2 with 2% accuracy. The temperature at several locations in the air heater was computed using a thermocouple, which can measure the temperature ranging from 10 to 125 °C with 0.5 °C accuracy (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 1 Diagram of a double-pass solar air heater

Fig. 2 Various measuring instrument used

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3 Experimental Procedure Fabrication and experimentation work on five distinct configurations of double-pass SAH has been completed. The first configuration has a plane collector plate without energy storage material. But in other configurations, the pipes of different crosssections filled with PCM were mounted above in configurations 2 and 4 and below in configurations 3 and 5 on the collector plate in line with the path of airflow. Configuration 2 (Fig. 4) is a PCM-filled circular pipe positioned above the collector plate. Each configuration is made in such a manner that the orientation of the collector plate may be adjusted. We may simply arrange the PCM above or below the collector plate because of this flexible facility (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). Experiments on each configuration of dual-pass solar air heaters were done from morning to evening at the Moradabad Institute of Technology in Uttar Pradesh, India, under suitable weather circumstances. Hourly variations in the intensity of radiation coming from the sun, temperature, and inlet and exit velocities were observed and recorded for each configuration. All readings were taken on clear sky days during

Fig. 3 Cylindrical pipes filled with energy storage material on the collector plate

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Fig. 4 Configuration 2, cylindrical pipes filled with PCM are placed over the collector plate

Fig. 5 Configuration 3, cylindrical pipes filled with PCM are placed under the collector plate

Fig. 6 Rectangular pipe filled with PCM above the collector plate

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Fig. 7 Configuration 4, rectangular pipes filled with PCM are placed over the collector plate

Fig. 8 Configuration 5, rectangular pipes filled with PCM are placed under the collector plate

each experiment, and repeated readings have been taken for accurate observations. Each observation that has similar radiation conditions during analysis is selected.

4 Results and Discussions The change of various temperatures and radiation intensities hourly is shown in Fig. 9 for configuration-2. From Fig. 9, it has been observed that radiation intensity increases until noon, then decreases. The maximum intensity of solar radiation recorded during the experiment at 12:30 pm was 820 W/m2 . Throughout the day, the ambient temperature ranged from 30 to 40 °C, and the rate of airflow through the heater was calculated to be 0.025 kg/s. Figure 9 displays the change in the different temperatures of the SAH in configuration-2. Figure 9 also illustrates that all temperatures rise as the radiation intensity rises and decreases with solar intensity. In the air heater, the collector plate is the hottest component and it reached 60 °C around midday. Around midday, the temperature of the leaving air through the heater reached an extreme value of 53 °C. The temperature of each component increases until noon, and then all temperatures reach the low value after 5 PM.

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Fig. 9 Hourly variations of different temperatures and intensity of radiation for configuration-2

The temperature of the leaving air through the heater for different configurations is shown in Fig. 10. The extreme temperature reached by the leaving air form heater is relatively lower without the use of energy storage material. It is also observed that there is a rapid drop in temperature throughout the evening. It is evident from Fig. 10 that, among all configurations, configuration 4 reached the maximum temperature and the maximum temperature value at noon is 52 °C. Figure 11 also shows that configuration 4 has better performance than other configurations. The air flow is given by .

m = ρa AC Va , where ρ a is the density of air (kg/m3 ), AC is the cross-sectional area at the exit duct (m2 ), and V a is the measured air velocity at the exit of the duct (m/s). The heat gain by the inlet air through the heater (Qu ) is given by .

Q u = m cP (TO − TI ).

Fig. 10 Outlet air temperatures for various configurations

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Fig. 11 Variance in efficiency for various configurations

The thermal efficiencies at each instant of the heater when no PCM was used are calculated by [20]. η=

Qu , I. Ap

where Ap denotes the projected absorber plate area in (m2 ). I denotes the total solar energy striking the heater in (W/m2 ). Figure 11 shows the variation in the efficiency for various setups. When no TESM was utilized, then the efficiency was proportionate to the amount of radiation received by the sun. The energy stored within energy storage material during the morning was released in the form of latent energy during the evening when energy storage material was utilized. As a result, the efficiency of air heaters loaded with TESM is greater, and the efficiency increases in the nighttime. As per observations, configuration 4, i.e., rectangular pipe filled with PCM on the collector plate, performed better than the others.

5 Conclusions A detailed experimental analysis has carried out to assess the efficiency of the dualpass SAH by means of different configurations under the metrological conditions of the Moradabad Institute of Technology with standard climate circumstances. The latitude and longitude of Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India is N 28°49/ 53.7348// and E 78°46/ 41.7936// . Aluminum pipes filled with equal quantities of paraffin wax in each of the different cross-sections have been used as an energy storage during phase change in all configurations except configuration 1. Each experiment was conducted

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to test the air heater output with the use of PCM and without the use of PCM, depending on the configuration tested. The following conclusions are made as per experimental observations: • It was found from the experimental results that all day long, the configurations that use paraffin wax as an energy storage medium produce air that is comparably hot. • The performance of dual-pass SAH using paraffin wax storage is also better in the late hours. • The dual-pass SAH, which is combined with a rectangular pipe filled with PCM mounted on the collector plate (configuration 4), is the most effective among all five configurations.

References 1. Satcunanathan S, Deonarine S (1973) A two pass solar air heater. Sol Energy15(1):41–9 2. Caouris Y, Rigopoulos R, Tripanagnostopoulos J (1978) A novel solar collector. Sol Energy 21(2):157–160 3. Ghoneim AA, Klein SA (1989) The effect of phase change material properties on the performance of solar air based heating systems. Sol Energy 42(6):441–447 4. Fath HES (1995) Transient analysis of thermosyphon solar air heater with built-in latent heat thermal energy storage system. Renew Energy 6(2):119–124 5. Esen M, Ayhan T (1996) Development of a model compatible with solar assisted cylindrical energy storage tank and variation of stored energy with time for different phase-change materials. Energy Convers Manage 37(12):1775–1785 6. Castell A, Belusko M, Bruno F, Cabeza LF (2011) Maximization of heat transfer in a coil in tank PCM cold storage system. Appl Energy 88(11):4120–4127 7. Farid MM, Khudhair AM, Razack SA, Al-Hallaj S (2004) A review on phase change energy storage: materials. Energy Convers Manage 45(10):1597–1615 8. Rai AK, Kumar A (2012) A review on phase change materials & their applications. Int J Adv Res EngTechnol (IJARET) 3(2):214–225 9. Alkilani MM, Sopian K, Mat S, Alghoul MA (2009) Output air temperature prediction in a solar air collector integrated with phase change material. Eur J Sci Res 27(3):334–434 10. Kabeel AE, Khalil A, Shalaby SM, Zayed ME (2016) Experimental investigation of thermal performance of flat and v-corrugated plate solar air heaters with and without PCM as thermal energy storage. Energy Convers Manage 113(1):264–272 11. Enibe SO (2002) Performance of a natural circulation solar air heating system with phase change material energy storage. Renew Energy 27(1):69–86 12. Krishnananth SS, Kalidasa Murugavel K (2013) Experimental study on dual-pass solar air heater with thermal energy storage. J King Saud Univ Eng Sci 25(2):135–140 13. Saxena et al (2020) Design and thermal performance evaluation of an air heater with low cost thermal energy storage. Appl Therm Eng 167(25):114768 14. Ali HM, Bhatti AI, Ali M (2015) An experimental investigation of performance of a double pass solar air heater with thermal storage medium, ThermSci 19(5):1699–1708 15. Mahmood AJ, Aldabbagh LBY, Egelioglu F (2015) Investigation of single and double pass solar air heater with transverse fins and a package wire mesh layer. Energy Convers Manage 89(1):599–607 16. Dhiman P et al (2011) Ananalytical model to predict the thermal performance of a novel parallel flow packed bed solar air heater. Appl Energy 88(6):2157–2167

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17. Dhiman P, Thakur NS, Chauhan SR (2012) Thermal and thermohydraulic performance of counter and parallel flow packed bed solar air heaters. Renew Energy 46(1):259–268 18. Mahmood A, Egelioghi F (2015) Investigation of single and double pass solar air heater with transverse fins and a package wire mesh layer. Energy Convers Manage 89(1199):599–607 19. Rawat DS, Jaurker AR (2014) Performance evaluation of two pass solar air heater using 60° inclined v shaped ribs on absorber plate. Int J Eng Sci Invent 3(8):01–10 20. Gao W, Lin W, Liu T, Xia C (2007) Analytical and experimental studies on the thermal performances of cross-corrugated and flat-plate solar air collectors. Appl Energy 84(4):425–441

Effect of Natural and Synthetic Antioxidant on Oxidation Stability of Biodiesel Manini Bhandari, Khushbu Yadav, and Anubhav Dubey

Abstract This paper depicts the effect of natural and synthetic antioxidants on oxidation stability of biodiesel. Evaluation of extensive data is done to compile the effects on different feedstocks. Biodiesel is a popular renewable energy source. It provides advantages over other fuels such as diesel, gasoline, and kerosene. Biodiesel contains no sulphur or aromatics that contribute to air pollution or acid rain. Furthermore, it helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions because the process of extracting vegetable oil releases CO2 . It improved lubrication properties and longer engine life due to increased detergency/dispersancy properties. It is critical that biodiesel maintains its oxidation stability, since FA derivatives are more vulnerable to oxidative deterioration than mineral fuels. Antioxidants increase oxidative stability and reduce peroxide values by slowing down lipid oxidation through reactive oxygen species generation. Antioxidants work efficiently in low concentrations and lessens over time because they are consumed by oxidation reactions. Evaluation of extensive data is done to compile the effects on different feedstocks, natural and synthetic antioxidants, techniques for analysing biodiesel oxidation, and their influence on biodiesel made from different feedstocks are all included in this paper. From different published papers, it is found out that the oxidation stability is increased by adding different types of natural or synthetic antioxidants. Keywords Antioxidants · Rancimat · Induction period · Biodiesel · Oxidation stability

1 Introduction Replacement for fossil fuel energy is a major technical challenge today. The ecological damage caused by fossil fuel burning, the volatility of both demand and supply, and the growing expense of producing petroleum products are all contributing to M. Bhandari (B) · K. Yadav · A. Dubey Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University Noida, Noida, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_15

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this problem’s intensification. In the light of these environmental and energy problems, biofuels, in particular biodiesel, [1, 2] are attracting considerable attention. Biodiesel is gaining in popularity because of its compatibility with existing transportation infrastructure and the fact that it takes only minor modifications in order to be put to use. From fats such vegetable oil, waste grease, reused cooking oils, animal fat, and so on are produced fatty acid alkyl esters. Vegetable oils from edible sources were studied as a possible feedstock for production of biodiesel. Alternatives such as non-edible plant oils, waste fats with high free fatty acid (FFA) concentration, and edible oil-based biodiesel have been criticised, are now being employed. Additionally, scientists are searching for new sources of feedstock for the biodiesel industry. By esterifying triglyceride molecules with alcohols like methanol while employing a proper catalyst, Tran produces FAAE [3]. The FAAE’s fatty acid composition is equal to the parent oils in terms of chain length and unsaturation content. Chemical and physical properties of biodiesel are affected by the fatty acid composition. Degradation mechanisms that create undesired species may occur when the fatty acid content of fuel is altered. It is crucial to notice that biodiesel is thermodynamically stable, but it is oxidatively unstable due to the presence of oxygen in the atmosphere. This broad word for “oxidative deterioration” contrasts from the more specific terms of “storage stability” and “thermal stability,” since oxidative degradation could happen during storage, transit, and usage at the final destination [4]. Additionally, if the fuel is exposed to light and/or air or is subjected to temperatures above 100 °F, catalytic deterioration may occur. Fuel tanks, fuel lines, feed pumps, fuel pumps, fuel filters, fuel injector cylinders, piston assemblies, and other fuel line components constructed of various elastomers and transition metals encounter biodiesel during transportation and usage, and they exhibit pro-oxidant behaviour. Biodiesel undergoes a sequence of modifications as a result of oxidation. Density, acid value, peroxide value and kinematic viscosity, grow when iodine value and methyl esters concentration fall. Increased polymer concentration in biodiesel leads in gum and silt development, which is caused by the accelerated oxidation process [4]. As a result, engine components that come into touch with gasoline up to the combustion chamber are also at risk of corrosion. Cetane number, refractive index, flash point, and dielectric constant are further physicochemical parameters that are affected by biodiesel oxidation. Because of its lower volatility, biodiesel added to lubricating oil during crankcase dilution tends to remain in the oil longer before degrading and oxidising. As a consequence, the sump oil becomes thicker, leading to a loss in performance, increased engine wear, and the need for an early oil change. For the last two decades, biodiesel-oxidation stability has been a hotly debated topic of study. Biodiesel’s oxidation stability has been studied using a wide range of methods including various physicochemical properties like the time it takes for the biodiesel to begin to oxidise (induction period), the viscosity of the biodiesel, the value of iodine, the value of peroxide and the acid value, and content of methyl ester, among others. Antioxidants are typically suggested for long-term storage of biodiesel based on the physicochemical qualities studied in many published studies. The stability of biodiesel-diesel blends was also examined in several of the

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published publications. The effect of antioxidants is noteworthy since it is dependent on the structure of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) [5]. It is worth noting that previous biodiesel-oxidation stability studies have mostly dealt with the mechanisms of biodiesel oxidation, characterisations of such stability, and the effects of biodiesel oxidation in diesel engine performance and emissions.

2 Biodiesel Biomass is one of the higher sources of energy. Energies from renewable biomass have the eventuality to reduce the measure of CO2 , particulate matter, and GHG emigrations. This is because the carbon contained in biomass-extracted energy is biogenic and renewable [6]. Thus, petroleum-based energies can be rounded by energies attained from renewable sources. Numerous experimenters have tried to develop vegetable-oil-grounded derivations that compare the properties and performance of petroleum-based diesel energy. Biodiesel (monoalkyl esters) is one of similar indispensable energy, which is attained by the transesterification of triglyceride oil with monohydric alcohols. It has been well reported that biodiesel attained from canola and soybean oil acts veritably easily as a diesel energy cover [7]. Still, a major barricade in the commercialisation of biodiesel production from vegetable oil is its higher manufacturing cost, which is due to the high expense of virgin vegetable oil. The cost of vegetable oil has a pivotal part in the economics of biodiesel [8]. According to Nelson et al., the great factors that have an effect on the fee of biodiesel are feedstock value, factory length, and the fee of the glycerine derivate. Noordam and Wither have discovered that one of the most pivotal variables that affect the cost of biodiesel is the price of the raw accoutrements [9].

3 Need of Antioxidant Antioxidants for biodiesel are a common commercial product due to their effectiveness on increasing oxidation stability of biodiesels under various conditions [10]. Antioxidant concentrates typically contain antioxidants that perform well at low temperatures as well as those with high performance at higher temperatures. Antioxidant concentrations also affect biodiesel quality. Antioxidants for biodiesel show good oxidation stability when used at a high concentration of 5% in comparison with antioxidant concentrates containing lower concentrations of 2–3%. Antioxidant concentrates containing antioxidants with different properties have shown better protection against degradation during storage than commercially available antioxidant concentrate which contains a single kind of antioxidant. Antioxidants

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are commonly added to biodiesels in order to increase its oxidative stability. Antioxidants inhibit the oxidation reactions of biodiesel through donation hydrogen atoms, which neutralises free radicals and reduces free radical chain reactions. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that leads to molecular breakdown or decomposition; this includes catalysed combustion reactions like autoxidation, oxidation, and thermo-oxidation. Antioxidants for biodiesel are effective at preventing oxidation reactions of the fuel by inhibiting free radical chain reactions between unsaturated compounds found in biodiesel. Antioxidants increase the stability of a fuel blend against thermo-oxidative degradation during storage through inhibition of free radical chain reactions between unsaturated compounds found in biodiesels [11]. Antioxidants for diesel not only provide protection against oxidation but also prevent gum formation, coking, and deposits formation on injection system components. Antioxidant additives enhance the stability of a fuel blend against thermooxidative degradation during storage through inhibition of free radical chain reactions between unsaturated compounds found in biodiesel. Biodiesels have been shown to have 10–50 times higher oxidation stability than petroleum diesel due to many of their chemical properties. Antioxidants for biodiesel are a common commercial product due to their effectiveness on increasing oxidation stability of biodiesels under various conditions. Antioxidant concentrates typically contain antioxidants that perform well at low temperatures as well as those with high performance at higher temperatures [11]. Antioxidants are used to prevent changes in the composition and properties of a material that would otherwise be caused by chemical reaction involving oxygen or peroxides, especially oxidation. Antioxidant can be organic or biological compounds. Antioxidant is added to increase the shelf life of biodiesel while preventing degradation during combustion [12].

4 Antioxidant and Their Requirement The trillions of cells in the human body encounter a wide range of challenges, from starvation to the spread of a virus. Chemicals known as free radicals pose a persistent danger. Cells and genetic material may be damaged at very high concentrations. In order to convert food into energy, the body produces free radicals [13]. A wide variety of forms, sizes, and chemical combinations are available for free radicals to take advantage of throughout the body. Electrons are the common denominator among all of them, and they will take them from anything around that’s willing to give them up. The “victim’s” structure or function may be drastically altered as a result of electron theft. A DNA strand’s instructions may be altered by free radical damage [14]. To put it another way, it may increase the risk of an LDL molecule (also known as bad cholesterol) being lodged in the wall of an artery, which can cause heart disease. Alternatively, it may modify a cell’s membrane, altering the passage of nutrients and waste into and out of the cell. A situation known as oxidative stress

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may harm cells and contribute to chronic illnesses when the body has an excessive number of free radicals over an extended period of time [15]. Free radicals are not a threat to our health. The body, accustomed to this constant assault, produces many molecules that put out free radical fires with the same efficiency as water. Food is also a source of free radical fighters [16]. Natural Antioxidants Enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants make up the majority of the natural antioxidant system [17]. Non-enzymatic—All non-enzymatic antioxidants include direct oxidative stressfighting agents such as vitamin C and E. Dietary sources are responsible for the majority of them, including polyphenols, ascorbic lipoic acid, and carotenoids. Only a small percentage of these compounds are synthesised by the cell itself. Chelating compounds and redox metal-binding antioxidants are the most common indirect antioxidants [13]. Enzymatic—Antioxidant enzymes may prevent free radicals from damaging cells by stabilising or deactivating them. They stabilise free radicals by lowering their energy or giving up part of their electrons for their usage. The chain reaction of oxidation may potentially be interrupted to reduce the damage produced by free radicals. Free radical-related health issues may be reduced by cutting down on free radical exposure and improving the consumption of antioxidant enzyme-rich foods. As a result, antioxidant enzymes are essential if you want to stay healthy on the cellular and systemic levels [18]. Synthetic Antioxidants Because they do not exist naturally, synthetic antioxidants are chemically manufactured substances that are used as preservatives in food to avoid lipid oxidation. Many synthetic antioxidants were employed to stabilise oils and fats due to the inherent variability of natural antioxidants. As an antioxidant, BHA and BHT were initially designed to preserve petroleum against oxidative gumming. Since 1954 they have been employed as antioxidants in human meals, and they are perhaps the most often used now. BHT and BHA have not only the same names, but also the same structures and antioxidant activity, and they are often employed combined in fats and oils, as well. It does not matter whether the “generally recognised” list of safe ingredients includes BHT and BHA; they are still considered unsafe [19]. Chronic toxicity studies have shown that large doses of BHT may stimulate tumour growth. On the other hand, it is possible that the antioxidant properties of BHA and BHT make them potent carcinogen inhibitors. Tert-butyl hydroxyquinone (TBHQ) is another synthetic antioxidant often utilised in the feed business. As a result, several efforts have been made to eliminate these antioxidants [20].

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The structure of the component fatty esters determines the properties of a biodiesel. Some of them are cold flow, density, oxidative stability, viscosity, calorific value, flash, and fire point. They influence the structure of the fatty acids [21].

5 Effect of Antioxidants on Oxidation Stability Oxidation stability is the ability of biodiesel to resist oxidation when exposed to oxygen under conditions such as long-term storage, ambient temperature, air exposure, and elevated temperature. Oxidation includes changes in molecular structure such as rupture of carbon–carbon bonds, resulting in the formation of carbon-oxide products. The presence of antioxidant slows oxidation by being adsorbed onto the surface of the metal alloy to form a protective layer. Antioxidant alleviates potential damage caused by small amounts of oxygen dissolved in biodiesel fuel during extended periods of time. Antioxidants are used as additives for both biodiesel and conventional diesel fuels to prevent or delay oxidation. Antioxidants may also be called fuel stabilisers [22]. Antioxidants are commonly found in vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, etc.; antioxidants can slow down oxidative processes that cause food spoilage, rancidity, or undesirable colour changes in manufactured products such as cosmetics or pharmaceuticals. Antioxidants are employed to maintain product quality and prolong shelf life. Antioxidants may also be used as a food preservative in foods with a high fat content such as fried snack foods, crackers, cookies, and cereal bars [23, 24]. As antioxidant can stabilise biodiesel from oxidation during storage for extended periods of time, the use of antioxidant will result in an increase in the oxidation stability of biodiesel. However, antioxidant has been reported to have little or no effect on cold flow properties and viscosity index. Antioxidant helps prevent gumming and blocking of fuel lines by adsorption onto surfaces where it provides effective protection against peroxides that are formed when RVP exceeds a critical value [25]. There is still no wide scale use of antioxidant for biodiesel yet, but antioxidant can be an environmentally friendly alternative to other chemical additives. Antioxidant is used during the time of processing and storage with production processes that create peroxides in stored biodiesel fuels being treated so they are not stored long enough to oxidise. Antioxidants are widely used in the food industry, medical industry, chemical industry, etc. Antioxidants are less expensive than conventional diesel fuel treatment additives with low toxicity levels making it safe for humans. Antioxidants help improve cold flow properties by adsorbing onto metal surfaces where it provides protection against peroxides that are formed when RVP exceeds a critical value. Antioxidants preserve the antioxidant properties of antioxidant even after antioxidant has been removed from biodiesel. Antioxidants are not harmful to the environment, but antioxidant is considered to be a hazardous material by the

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EPA. Antioxidants are flammable liquids with flash point less than 100 °F. Antioxidants can cause irritation to eyes, skin, and respiratory tract. Antioxidants should be used in well ventilated areas away from heat or sparks that could result in fire or explosion. Antioxidants should only be handled by personnel trained in handling of hazardous materials wearing appropriate personal protective equipment such as rubber gloves, safety glasses, and chemical resistant clothing when necessary for particular circumstances. As antioxidant can increase oxidation stability during storage of biodiesel due to its antioxidant properties, antioxidant has great potential to be applied in the biodiesel industry. Antioxidants are widely used for additives in fuel oil and biodiesel with antioxidant being considered as an environmentally safe alternative to other chemicals. Antioxidants may also be considered as a good additive for increase in cold flow properties of biodiesel. Antioxidants do not cause damage to engines at concentrations present in most diesel fuels; antioxidant can protect against peroxide formation during storage of diesel fuels. A common antioxidant is butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). This antioxidant is found in sunflower oil, which is a common carrier for biodiesel. Antioxidants are used to inhibit oxidation reactions and stabilise fuel. Antioxidant can also be applied as a spray to prevent it from becoming unstable and causing major issues like corrosion or clumping. The biodiesel antioxidant PDF may prove helpful if you need more information on the specific type of antioxidants. Antioxidant helps with oxidation stability by acting as a protective layer on the fuel itself. Antioxidant works best in neutral pH environments. Antioxidant is complex molecules that can be derived from plants, animals, or petroleum—but for this case study let’s just talk about BHT which is derived from petroleum. The world of antioxidants can be very exciting because each type has its special way of protecting biodiesel and other input materials like natural oil or animal fat (which both contain triglyceride). Antioxidant comes in many forms; liquid, granules, paste-like, and flakes. Antioxidants can also be formulated in a way to give it specific properties such as moisture resistance, pour point depressant, anti-static, or corrosion inhibitor. Antioxidant has to be compatible with the base fuel for biodiesel (vegetable oil) to work properly. Antioxidant is not just antioxidants—there is much more to them than just preventing oxidation reactions! Antioxidant is complex organic molecules that have many purposes rather than just being an additive that helps with oxidation stability of biodiesel (Tables 1 and 2).

Jatropha curcas

PY > PG > TBHQ > BHT > BHA

PY > PG > BHT

TBHQ

TBHQ

1.

2.

3.

4. Recycled cooking oil

Cotton seed oil

Croton oil

Biodiesel methyl ester

Antioxidant used/stability order

S. no.

Table 1 Effect of synthetic antioxidants

EN 14214

Rancimat and TGA

Method of stability evaluation/specification

IP of TBHQ-doped EN 14112 biodiesel raised from 6.8 h to 24 h

As antioxidants are EN 14112 added, oxidative stability rises linearly

The stability of oxidation was improved with an increase in antioxidant dose

Thermal stability increased—with increase in the quantity of antioxidants

Effect in stability [26]

References

(continued)

Biodiesel IP [29] dropped below EN 14214 during 24 h of static immersion testing, whether it was neat or doped with TBHQ

The oxidation [28] stability parameter may be achieved by adding 300 mg kg1 TBHQ

IP 7.59 h, 12.13 h [27] and 6 h for PY, PG and BHT correspondingly Optimal antioxidant concentration differs with antioxidant

To achieve the EN 14112 standard, a PY concentration of 100 ppm is necessary

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Mahua oil

PG > BHA > BHT

PG > TBHQ > BHA

AO2 > AO1 > AO3

5.

6.

7. Soybean oil

Jatropha oil

Biodiesel methyl ester

Antioxidant used/stability order

S. no.

Table 1 (continued)

Improved thermal and oxidative stability

Preferably, Jatropha biodiesel should be made using PG in order to maintain its long-term stability to the oxygen

Antioxidants considerably increased the stability of the product

Effect in stability [30]

References

(continued)

[32]

After a week of [31] storage with 150 ppm of PG, IP reached 26.35 h and barely drops to 23.59 h after 20 weeks of storage

Adding 1000 ppm of antioxidant reduces hydroperoxide production

Remarks

TGA-DTG and Rancimat The Rancimat method technique shows that AO2 has the maximum oxidative stability. According to the thermal study, AO1 and AO3 are the best options

EN 14112

ASTM D3703-99 for PV and ASTM D445 for kinematic viscosity

Method of stability evaluation/specification

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Biodiesel methyl ester Waste cooking oil

Sunflower oil, cooking oil, rapeseed oil and tallow Terminalia oil

Antioxidant used/stability order

BPH > BHT

δ-tocopherol > γ-tocopherol > α-tocopherol

PG > PY > TBHQ > BHT > BHA > α-tocopherols

S. no.

8.

9.

10.

Table 1 (continued)

Antioxidant type and concentration are the most important factors in determining storage stability

As antioxidant concentrations rose, IP also increased

Antioxidant content improved oxidation stability

Effect in stability

IP measurement

IP measurement

EN 14112

Method of stability evaluation/specification

References

[34]

Upgrading [35] stability by 1000 ppm PG may increase it by up to 12 times

Oil unsaturation enhanced the antioxidant’s deactivation rate

For the EN [33] standard, 300 ppm of antioxidants are needed; for the Japanese standard, 4600 ppm of antioxidants are needed

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Table 2 Effect of natural antioxidants S. Biodiesel no. feedstock

Antioxidant used

Effect in stability

Method of stability evaluation

Remarks

1

Karanja biodiesel

Tinospora cordifolia

(66% inhibition in DPPH% activity at 700 ppm

ASTM D6751 and EN 14214

T. cordifolia stem [36] extract can be used as a low-cost, non-toxic, and environmentally acceptable alternative to synthetic antioxidants

2

Palm biodiesel

Pyrola extract

Pyrola extract and quercetin reduces the corrosion rate so that they are about 1.2% of the control groups

IP method

Pyrola extract [37] outperforms pyrogallol (PY) and BHT in every quality parameter of biodiesel, such as acid value, iodine value, peroxide value, and copper corrosion rate

3

Soy biodiesel

Extract of bilberry, oregano and basil

Induction period was increased from 2.40 h to 2.85 h

Rancimat and PetroOXY (ASTMD6751) and (EN14214)

The oregano extract had the most significant activity among the extracts, preceded by bilberry extract and basil extract

4

Soybean biodiesel

Passion fruit IP increased seed (PFS) from 21.2 h to 21.78 h

ASTM D6751

PFS extract [39] improved the fuel’s oxidation resistance to the point that it could meet European and Indian blend-stock biodiesel criteria

References

[38]

(continued)

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Table 2 (continued) S. Biodiesel no. feedstock

Antioxidant used

Effect in stability

Method of stability evaluation

Remarks

5

Nahar (Mesua ferrea L.) oil

Potato peel extract (PPE)

IP increased from 5.63 h to 6.21 h

EN 14214

PPE in biodiesel [40] is an ecologically friendly, practical, promising, and resourceful substitute for synthetic and non-renewable antioxidants

6

Waste cooking oil

Green tea (Camellia assamica)

Increased from 2.88 h to 7.11 h at 1000 ppm

ASTM D67451 Green tea extract [41] and EN 14214 might be a non-renewable alternative source of manufactured antioxidants

7

Tilapia oil Ethanolic extract of turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn. (ECE)

Induction period was increased from 1.98 to 10.9 at 110 °C

EN 14112

References

Curcuminoids [42] operate as main antioxidants, preventing the chain reaction by inactivating free radicals produced during the beginning or propagation of the oxidation process. The phenolic structure stabilises the charge created following hydrogen contribution by resonance, preventing the oxidation process in biodiesel from propagating (continued)

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Table 2 (continued) S. Biodiesel no. feedstock

Antioxidant used

Effect in stability

Method of stability evaluation

Remarks

References

Methanolic husk extract of Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.)

IP increased from 1.2 to 3.41 at 5000 ppm

ASTM D6751

On the one hand, [43] walnut-producing nations account for 42.4 per cent of worldwide biodiesel output; on the other hand, the cost-effectiveness of walnut husks may draw the attention of the global biodiesel sector

8

Waste cooking oil

9

Sunflower α-tocopherol IP increased EN 14214 seed oil (crude) from 15 to 33 at 1000 ppm with antioxidant effectiveness factor of 2.2

Oil unsaturation enhanced the antioxidant’s deactivation rate

10

Beef tallow biodiesel

The antioxidants [45] partially remained on the biodiesel samples following the transesterification procedure and the washing stages with distilled water, in addition to increasing the oxidation stability of beef tallow. Antioxidant usage before biodiesel synthesis rose from 9 to 150 times the biodiesel induction duration from beef tallow

Cashew nut shell liquid

IP increased from 10 to 15 at 1000 ppm with antioxidant effectiveness factor of 1.5

EN 14112:2003 (using 873 biodiesel Rancimat from Metrohm, Switzerland)

[44]

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6 Conclusion Biodiesel qualities may be improved by increasing the number of antioxidants in the fuel, according to a study. Oxidative stability is affected by factors such as the type of fatty acid, the presence of antioxidants, and the storage conditions of biodiesel. An antioxidant’s effect on biodiesel production is highly dependent on the feed source utilised. Because of its larger concentration of labile hydrogen, PY had the most stabilising impact on biodiesel. However, some biodiesel has a restricted solubility, which makes it difficult to use. Except for PY, the others may be rated as high for almost all vegetable oil biodiesels. Animal fat-based biodiesel ranks higher than early biodiesel, though. Antioxidants based on amino acids have not been thoroughly studied. Some studies have observed synergistic effects of two or more antioxidants, which deserve more exploration. In terms of biodiesel’s oxidative stability, the higher the concentration of antioxidant, the more stable the fuel becomes. At lower quantities (less than 1000 ppm), IP has been shown to rise sharply, whereas at higher doses (2000– 8000 ppm), IP has been found to rise somewhat. A greater resistance to storage oxidative degradation and metal catalysed decay may be seen for samples that have been treated with citric acid. However, additional inquiry is required. Biodiesel distillation helped remove the ageing and oxidation stability history of the fuel. Distilled biodiesel was shown to have a more apparent impact on antioxidants, which necessitates more study. Due to a lack of natural antioxidants, biodiesel derived from non-vegetable sources is more susceptible to auto-oxidation. Antioxidants with alkyl or alkoxyl groups on the ortho or para positions of the aromatic ring of phenols have greater oxidative stability. When plant extracts are employed as a source of natural antioxidants, residual methanol in biodiesel lowers the effectiveness of anti-oxidation therapies. The effect of alkyl chain length on oxidative stability increases with increasing alkyl chain length in natural antioxidants. Adding natural antioxidants in biodiesel with more than 80% unsaturated fatty acids at a concentration of over 1000 ppm extends the induction duration enough to meet the EN standard. Despite the fact that the majority of natural antioxidants demonstrated oxidative stability, their commercial application is still in doubt because they do not meet the EN criteria. To prevent auto-oxidation, suitable antioxidants for biodiesel are chosen based on their oxidation potentials. Selection criteria include low molecular weight, allowable BDE value, high ionisation potential, and better solubility.

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Importance of Performance and Emission Characteristics in Biodiesel Sanjay Mohite

Abstract In this review paper, importance of a variety of performance and emission characteristics has been analysed and compared. Brake thermal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature, brake-specific fuel consumption, volumetric efficiency, mechanical efficiency, air–fuel ratio, unburned hydrocarbon emission, carbon monoxide emission, nitrogen oxide emission, brake-specific energy consumption, heat flow analysis’s parameters, friction power, and smoke emission have been discussed. The important result for the analysis and review of energy audit’s importance in diesel engine fuelled with blends have been discussed. Its idea is to get a standard energy audit method, which calculates the practicability of biodiesel blend as fuel. It has been found that it is the wastage of time to do the research of all characteristics at a glance. At initial stage, brake-specific energy consumption, heat flow analysis’s parameters, smoke opacity, and friction power have been found to be of utmost importance to estimate and access the practicability of biodiesel blends in diesel. Keywords Energy audit · Brake-specific energy consumption · Heat flow analysis · Friction power · Smoke opacity

1 Introduction Due to high energy demands, the development of diesel engines is rapid. In transportation and heavyweight manufacturing units, the diesel engine is the most efficient prime mover. But diesel engine mainly depends on petroleum fuels. By 2050, the energy requirement in the world will be incessant and unsurprising to grow up to 57% from the present situation [1]. On energy growth, the growth of the world and its well-being is directly dependent. There is increase in demand of energy worldwide by rapid urbanization and industrial evolution. In supporting our economic and social growth, energy plays an important role. But, limited reserves and growth of energy requirements make it not easy. Alternative energy source is a serious concern S. Mohite (B) Brahma Valley College of Engineering and Research Institute, Nashik, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_16

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to develop, to meet the rising energy demand. Since there is a nonstop increase in energy consumption per year, it is making world energy security, a tough task [2]. In India, it is stated that national biofuel policy provides the path for biodiesel production. Government also supports biodiesel production from non-edible oil resources including the ethanol [3]. Calorific value, cloud point, pour point, and density are the physiochemical properties of biodiesel, which are comparable to diesel. Lubricity, flash point, and fire point of biodiesel are better, which makes it more useful. In biodiesel, sulphur content is nearly zero, and therefore, it is environmentally viable. As a good alternative for agricultural and transportation sectors, biodiesel would be promoted to become self-reliance for our energy security strategy. It is also required to develop lubricants from bio-based resources [4]. Various characteristics of biodiesel blends and its significance have been discussed in this paper. BTE, BSFC, EGT, volumetric efficiency, mechanical efficiency, air–fuel ratio, unburned hydrocarbon emission, carbon monoxide emission, nitrogen oxide emission, BSEC, heat flow analysis, friction power, and smoke emission are the various parameters of biodiesel engine. In this review paper, various characteristics along with heat flow analysis and friction power parameters have been discussed. These parameters are imperative from the biodiesel engine point of view. But considering energy audit technique, some of the parameters would be tested first to save time and energy such as BSEC, heat flow analysis parameters, smoke emission, and friction power [5]. The objective of this paper is to emphasize on the importance of various performance and emission characteristics.

2 Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) Work output divided by fuel energy supplied is known as brake thermal efficiency. This is recognized as fuel conversion efficiency [6]. High BTE means good work output from fuel energy. In diesel engines, the conversion of fuel’s chemical energy into valuable work output is BTE. Diesel engine was tested with Soybean oil biodiesel. Similar performance with methyl, ethyl, and butyl esters in comparison with diesel was observed. There was slight loss of power with biodiesel use, due to its lower heating values, and therefore, there was not much differentiation in thermal efficiency [7]. The decrease in torque was observed with increase in proportion of blend in Cottonseed oil biodiesel. It was because of high viscosity and low calorific values of Cottonseed oil biodiesel [8]. BTE was reduced with addition of biodiesel in fuel and it was attributed due to high BSFC and low heating value [9]. For B0, BTE was found as 21.1%. BTE of 20.51%, 20.4%, 20.4%, and 20.3% were found for B10, B20, B30, and B50, respectively. Due to low calorific, low BTE was attributed and fuel consumption was increased [10]. Researchers investigated Mahua biodiesel and its blends. BTE was found to be lower for biodiesel and its blends. High density, high viscosity, and low calorific value would be the reason [11, 12]. Increase in load causes rise in BTE, because brake power increases considerably as compared to friction losses at elevated load [13]. There would be increase in viscosity, decrease

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in CV, and also, reduction in air–fuel mixing capacity of the fuel mixture, causing reduction in BTE [14].

3 Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) Fuel flow rate per unit brake power is BSFC. BSFC is used to evaluate the fuel efficiency. Small value of BSFC is needed. The union between fuel injected, viscosity, density, and CV is playing main responsibility in BSFC. BSFC decreased with load increase. This was caused due to increase in fuel demand to operate the engine. At high loads, this was caused due to lessening in heat losses. At 1400 rpm, turbocharged diesel engine was tested. Due to lower CV, BSFC of biodiesel was 13.8% higher than that of diesel. Viscosity and density were found to be higher than diesel, resulting in hike of BSFC. Biodiesel’s calorific value was found to be 12% lower than that of diesel. Specific fuel consumption increased with biodiesel use, which would be attributed to its lower calorific value. Biodiesel is having lower specific energy content in comparison with diesel. Since biodiesel is having lower calorific value, hence, BSFC increases with proportion of biodiesel blends [15–17]. BSFC falls down with load increment. In case of pure diesel, minimum BSFC was achieved. BSFC was increased with increase in quantity of WCO biodiesel because of its lower heating value [14].

4 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) Exhaust gas temperature indicates quality of combustion and thermal energy status. At low speeds, low EGT is found. It is because of oxygenated biodiesel [10]. Dissimilar types of biodiesel blends do not make any dissimilarity in EGT. EGT increases with increase in load. Factors cause low BSFC and high BTE, also causing low EGT. Hike in biodiesel concentration would raise EGT. There was 5 °C increment in EGT, with a 20% hike in biodiesel concentration due to increase in heat loss. Comparable results were found by other researchers also [18]. Exhaust energy is reduced with hike in engine efficiency. Adiabatic flame temperature’s reduction is the reason for reducing in EGT [19]. The decrease in emissions of exhaust gas, fuelled with diesel–biodiesel blends of first-, second-, and third-generation, has been observed [20]. High densities and viscosities of biodiesels cause an increase in fuel consumption. More amount of fuel is required to be injected to get the same power output, causing a rise in EGT as compared to diesel. EGT of dual biodiesel/diesel blends is somewhat higher than pure diesel, due to self-oxygenation property of biodiesels and it decreases the combustion time also [21]. An increment of 11.95% for EGT of dual biodiesel/diesel blends is investigated. The highest EGT of 343.61 °C and the lowest EGT of 125.18 °C were measured for biodiesel blends at 3.3 kW and 0 kW BP, respectively. The maximum 15% and the minimum 4.0% variations were observed at no-load conditions [22].

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5 Mechanical Efficiency It is the quotient of brake work to indicated work [6]. The fraction of brake power to the total of brake power and friction power is also called the mechanical efficiency. Indicated work of the engine is used to drive away exhaust gases, introduce air, and reduce friction. Thus, mechanical efficiency is used to assess diesel engine’s ability to prevail over the friction power loss. There would be rise in mechanical efficiency with increase in blend ratio, and it is because of good lubrication properties of biodiesel [23, 24]. The usefulness of the engine may be calculated in expressions of mechanical efficiency, in which it is revealed that how indicated power is transformed into valuable power. With the help of mechanical efficiency, mechanical condition of the engine is good or bad can be decided [25]. In simple, the fraction of BP to IP is mechanical efficiency in %. Mechanical efficiency increases with increment in BP [22].

6 Volumetric Efficiency It is part of induction systems in four-stroke engines. Hence, volumetric efficiency is important in four-stroke engines. It is the ratio of actual consumption to theoretical consumption of air in a diesel engine. It is closely related to exhaust gas temperature. There would be increase in retained gas temperature due to high exhaust gas temperature. This results in increase of incoming fresh air temperature. The actual consumption of air is inversely proportional to density of air. At high temperature, air density would be minimum. With rise of brake power, there is decrement in volumetric efficiency. This is due to decrease in air–fuel ratio. The performance of an engine is decided by the quantity of air in cylinder during each cycle. The good quantity of air input causes more fuel burning. Volumetric efficiency assesses the importance of the induction process of an engine. Due to high EGT, there is hike in temperature of inward fresh air. Due to hike in temperature, biodiesel concentration reduces density of inward air. This causes increase in actual air consumption and, subsequently, causes hike in volumetric efficiency [9, 10].

7 Air–Fuel Ratio The fraction of rate of airflow to rate of fuel mass flow is defined as air–fuel ratio in an engine. Quality of emission is directly affected by air–fuel ratio. This would be in combustible range to accomplish good combustion. Air–fuel ratio is moreover lean at lower load, which leads to high CO emissions. The relative air–fuel ratio is defined as a proportion of the real air–fuel ratio to stoichiometric air–fuel ratio. Variation in CO emissions is similar to variation in relative air–fuel ratio. Because

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of decrease in ignition delay, combustion duration increases, and combustion gets completed in a proper way. In this way, CO emissions reduce [26]. Ratio of air and fuel consumption is the air–fuel ratio. Under a lean condition, diesel engine is generally operated, in which more air is consumed than fuel. Engine is operated in a lean condition, and the air–fuel ratio decreases with increment in engine load. When it is a comparison of B10 and B30, B10 has the highest AFR, while B30 is the lowest. B30 has high oxygen content, which further reduces the AFR since the engine requires fewer external air for the combustion process. High concentration of biodiesel fuel blends promotes better combustion. Differences in performance of biodiesel blends are not significant with each other. That means, if an engine changes fuel blends, the performance difference would not be too evident. This is also applicable to multi-cylinder engines under a similar test condition [27].

8 Unburned Hydrocarbon Emission In the atmosphere, HC emission is distracting and odorants. Emissions of HC react with gases in atmosphere to get photochemical smog. Photochemical smog is unlikable. As compared to petrol engine, diesel engine has 20% of HC emissions. With lean air–fuel mixture, diesel engine works. HC emissions are straightforwardly interrelated to mixture of air–fuel. With rich mixture, huge amount of HC emissions is emitted. This is because of inadequate oxygen to act in response with all the carbon in rich mixture [28]. With the use of biodiesel, there is a major reduction in HC emission in comparison with diesel. With B30 biodiesel blend, HC emission of 33 ppm was observed, suggesting that HC emission reduces with hike in blends of biodiesel concentration at CR 18. At high compression ratio, this may be caused due to high temperature and pressure. This is due to adding up of oxygenate fuels. In the process of expansion and exhaust process, oxygen enrichment favours HC oxidation. With the addition of biodiesel, there was reduction of HC emission in linear way. The high and low quantities of HC produced were measured as 0.0299 g/kWh and 0.01554 g/kWh, respectively, which were observed as lesser than Euro Norms-IV, i.e. 0.5 g/kWh [9, 29, 30]. With the use of biodiesel, there was reduction in HC emission as compared to diesel. This was due to efficient oxidation, which was caused by excess oxygen in biodiesel [31]. With the addition of WCO biodiesel and hexanol in diesel, HC emission decreased. WCO biodiesel and hexanol are richer in oxygen, causing increase in flame temperature and flame propagation. Low unburned hydrocarbons are emitted, due to oxidation of fuel trapped in the piston crevices and cylinder [32]. At low loads, HC emission raised for hexanol blended fuel. For the same amount of heat absorption, it causes comparatively low temperature to rise because Hexanol possesses a higher latent heat of evaporation [33]. During combustion of fuel-rich mixture, unburned hydrocarbons are formed. Fuel density reduces due to preheating of ternary fuels, causing a little less fuel injection. The formation of unburned hydrocarbon decreases due to lesser rich fuel mixture [34].

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9 Carbon Monoxide Emission Carbon monoxide’s emission is not advantageous, and it also stands for loss of chemical energy and that is not entirely used in engine [28]. Diesel engine runs with lean mixture, and consequently, it has very small CO emission. Chemical energy that is not entirely used for output of power is vanished. With biodiesel blends, notable reduction in CO emission was noted at all engine speed. This is attributed to content of oxygen in biodiesel, which causes good combustion, thereby dipping CO emission. Combustion is hiked by oxygen in fuel [35]. At all loads, researchers have found that CO decreases with increase in brake power. In biodiesel, CO emission is low, which is due to amount of surplus oxygen in biodiesel [31]. CO emission decreases with blends of biodiesel. This is owing to oxygen content in biodiesel. This is due to lesser C/H ratio of blends of biodiesel. The reduction in CO is not dependent on biodiesel concentration [36]. The cylinder temperature increases due to hike in load, causing decrease in CO emissions at high temperature [37]. There is a reduction of CO emissions with hike in blend of WCO biodiesel and hexanol. This is due to proper combustion of these fuels [38, 39]. Moreover, CO is converted to CO2 with the intermediate formation of aldehyde and ketones. There is 25% CO emission reduction with the 20% and 40% hexanol addition to the fuel in comparison with WCO biodiesel. This is because of low cetane number of hexanol as compared to biodiesel, causing high adiabatic flame temperature. High temperature causes oxidation of CO. There is a reduction in fuel viscosity and improvement in air–fuel mixing with the preheating of ternary fuel. With preheated ternary fuel blends, there would be lowest CO emissions [14, 40].

10 Nitrogen Oxide Emission There are oxides of nitrogen in exhaust gases. Nitric oxide (NO) with nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) and small amount of other oxides of nitrogen are there. The NOx emission creates photochemical smog which is not enviable [28]. NOx is produced during combustion process, because of reaction amid atomic oxygen and nitrogen. At reaction time, chemical reactions which forms NOx are dependent on temperature, and therefore, NOx emissions are least at lower loads. At all engine speeds, more NOx is emitted with biodiesel blends [10]: 1. Elevated Adiabatic Flame Temperature Cause Total Combustion Resulting in High Temperature and NOx Emission. Double-bonded molecules are more in biodiesel as compared to diesel. Doublebonded molecules’ adiabatic flame temperatures is high, resulting in NOx emission increase. 2. Nitrogen Oxidation Causes NOx . The Dissociation of N2 and O2 into Atomic States Takes Place in Combustion Chamber.

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There exist three main reactions causing NOx as per Zeldovich mechanism: N2 + O → NO + N N + O2 → NO + O N + OH → NO + H NOx increases with load for all blend. This is attributed to high amount of fuel injection and combustion in cylinder [36]. NOx emissions are maximum at the maximum load. NOx emissions are due to high temperature, and therefore, it is of serious concern in combustion. NOx mitigation is not possible with biofuels. But, algal biodiesel blend’s use causes a slight increase in NOx emissions [41]. NOx emission increases with rise in percentage ratio of biodiesel. Biodiesel has oxygen bound to its chemical structures. In biodiesel, quantity of oxygen may cause NOx formation. Engine tuning, catalytic converter, and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) are some of the methods to reduce NOx emissions [42, 43]. Biodiesel’s high cetane number decreases ignition delay and causes NOx increase [44].

11 Brake-Specific Energy Consumption (BSEC) Multiplication of BSFC and CV is called BSEC. BSEC is key factor to assess performance characteristics. BSEC is also defined as the energy input, which makes unit brake power. Therefore, BSEC could be selected as important factor [45, 46]. Hike in BSEC is reported with hike in biodiesel concentration. This is owing to reliance of BSEC on BSFC [6]. Researchers observe hike in BSEC with biodiesel. Biodiesel’s high concentration causes BSEC’s increase, which is owing to lower calorific value [7]. BSEC could represent efficiency of engine, with which the input energy of fuel is utilized at the time of combustion. BSEC represents appropriate utilize of chemical energy into valuable output of work [47]. Specific energy consumption is the amount of energy which is used for the development of unit power. Different calorific values of fuels may be judged with this factor. BSEC is directly related to the CV and the fuel in combustion chamber. With hike in load, researchers observed decrease in BSEC. BSEC was increased at low load and reduced with load increase [48, 49]. In BSEC, high density and viscosity of biodiesel are being affected [50]. BSEC is in reverse proportional to BP. There is a reduction in BSEC with rise in BP for all biodiesel blends. As compared to pure diesel, there is an increase of 8.91% in BSEC [22].

12 Heat Flow Analysis Heat flow analysis is an important feature to come across heat energy’s utilization and wastages. Brake power, exhaust gas, coolant, and radiation are its major factors.

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The danger to the survival of person is caused by global warming and energy crisis. This may be solved with hike in dependence on substitute fuels and also reduces losses of energy. The study of thermal balance with various biodiesel is productive. In an engine, flows of all energy in and out may be revealed. A raise in loss of heat to coolant and lubricating oil is observed. But heat loss to exhaust, heat to power of engine and loss of heat to radiation were decreased with hike in biodiesel concentration. Thermal balance and inflows and outflows of mass may be revealed to know the picture of the system. It is known as energy balance or heat balance, which is associated with the necessary analysis of the first law of thermodynamics [51]. The measurement of energy balance was studied on the basis of energy distribution as compared to direct measurement of fuel energy input. This was done due to high uncertainty of fuel energy, i.e., 7%. So, the energy in various parts of an engine was calculated and compared on percentage basis as a substitution of fuel’s energy input. Hence, energy balance of fuels can be compared directly [52].

13 Friction Power (FP) Lubricity decreases friction, resulting in hike in mechanical efficiency. Reduction in wear was found with biodiesel. Reduction in coefficient of friction was observed with hike in biodiesel concentration [53]. Experiments were conducted in engine with B15 Palm biodiesel for 300 h and observed that B15 reduced in wear in comparison with diesel [54]. Reduction in wear and friction was noted. Biodiesel provided superior lubricity [55]. Sliding parts in diesel engine create friction, causing lessening in consistency of parts in engine. Various methods were employed to reduce friction. The most significant feature to improve life of engine is lubricity. Lubrication is needed to reduce friction in an engine. Lubricity is dependent on quality of viscosity and type of biodiesel. The fatty acid’s presence causes a lubricating thin film, which decreases coefficient of friction [56]. Under 40 kg load, wear test of four balls was conducted. This was done to evaluate lubricity, at the speed of 600 rpm to 1500 rpm. With hike in concentration of biodiesel, lessening in friction and wear was observed. With B20 blend fuel, steel ball’s wear was observed to be decreased by 10% at 1500 rpm. Wear was reduced with increase in concentration of biodiesel blend, and wear was reduced up to 20% with B100 biodiesel fuel [30, 57]. Lubricity is improved with the adding up of biodiesel or biodiesel–diesel blend in lubricant and reduces the wear scar diameter, indicating that biodiesel or biodiesel– diesel blend can be used as a reducer of wear. Waste cooking oil biodiesel is an excellent lubricity enhancer. Polarity is the property of biodiesel’s nature, which helps to provide lubricity to the metal surface of the steel balls [58]. Parts of engine become corroded or damaged, during insufficient lubrication. The biodiesel reduces wear and friction [59]. During the elimination of polar compounds (polyaromatic and nitrogen) during the desulfurization process, lubricity of diesel fuel is reduced [60]. To minimize wear and friction, these compounds produce a lubricating film (protective layer) between the metal mating surface. So fuel lubricity is key parameter to

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protect system of injection and other different engine components. High-pressure fuel injection systems can also reduce engine emissions [61]. In biodiesel, the lubricity of fuel is enhanced with the unsaturated fatty acids and fatty acids of long carbon chain. It also decreases wear and friction between metallic contact surfaces. Uniform availability of heteroatom lubricate film amid mating surfaces also reduces the friction. Because heteroatom includes content of oxygen and sulphur. Due to oxidation of metallic surface, the high percentage of oxygen results in better friction and wear coefficient [60].

14 Smoke Emission The soot’s radiation was observed as a basis of losses of engine efficiency. The soot was observed to be glowing in combustion, and it was observed as a significant source of radiation [62]. Smoke opacity augments with load due to fuel consumption’s increase. Smoke opacity decreases owing to oxygen in biodiesel. Biodiesel has low carbon-to-hydrogen ratio and is deficient in compounds of aromatic. High amount of oxygen and low amount of carbon reduces smoke. Higher amount of sulphur causes hike in smoke opacity in diesel engine. Concentration of soot increases with load. Soot concentration reduces with biodiesel blend. In biodiesel, it is attributed to be deficient in compounds of aromatic, sulphur, and presence of oxygen, which causes suitable combustion [36]. Smoke opacity was decreased by 22.5% with biodiesel in comparison with diesel [63]. Many researchers reported comparable trends. The reductions in PM emissions from 28.6% to 74% were reported with biodiesel blends. It is attributed to high oxygen, little or no sulphur, and content of aromatic and small carbon content in biodiesel, causing decrease in PM emission [64]. 87.7% view of researchers found that biodiesel can reduce PM emission in comparison with diesel. Major lessening in smoke was found, ranging from 50% to 72.73% with biodiesel fuels. There was a notable lessening in emission of PM with hike in concentration of biodiesel [65]. The heated burnt gases and soot particles were found to be source of radiation [66]. Smoke is detrimental, and it also increases heat loss to radiation. Consequently, this characteristic has to be selected as important parameter in energy audit. Therefore, hike in smoke results in increase of heat loss to radiation. Thus, smoke emission is proportional to heat loss. Out of all these parameters, main important parameters have been selected on their effective control on other parameters and are scheduled in energy audit at early stage. These key parameters are shown in Table 1. Incomplete combustion, oxygen shortage, selfignition, and fuel atomization cause smoke opacity in exhaust [67]. Smoke opacity increases as the load on the engine increases. As there is increase in load, fuel is injected for the same amount of air, which results in a lesser oxidation process and more smoke production occurs [68]. Different parameters which could be considered in research work [5, 69] are shown in Fig. 1.

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Table 1 Effect of parameters [5, 69] Parameter

Name of parameter

Its effects

BSEC

BSEC is input of energy, and it produces unit brake power. BSEC can evaluate diesel engine correctly with blend fuels

It is set up to consider BSFC and calorific value of blend fuel

HBP

HBP is brake thermal efficiency

Brake thermal efficiency

HJW

HJW corresponds to the fraction of heat energy which is vanished in cooling medium

This stands for the increase in combustion chamber’s temperature. It is also observed to affect brake thermal efficiency

HEgas

HEgas represents fraction of heat energy which is vanished in exhaust gas

EGT, Volumetric Efficiency, A/F Ratio, BTE

HRAD

HRAD represents portion of heat Brake thermal efficiency energy which is gone in radiation and losses as unaccounted

Friction power

This power is consumed in friction involving moving parts of engine, fresh air draw into the intake system and to engine accessories

Mechanical efficiency

Smoke opacity

The measurement of smoke and soot is smoke opacity

HRAD

Fig. 1 Different parameters

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The effect of various parameters on other parameters has been illustrated in Table 1.

15 Conclusion The purpose of this paper is to emphasize on the importance of various types of performance and emission characteristics. Different types of parameters have been discussed such as brake thermal efficiency, brake-specific fuel consumption, exhaust gas temperature, mechanical efficiency, volumetric efficiency, air–fuel ratio, unburned hydrocarbon emission, carbon monoxide emission, nitrogen oxide emission, brake-specific energy consumption, heat flow analysis’s parameters, friction power, and smoke emission. Performance and emission characteristics are imperative aspects in energy audit of biodiesel engine. It is also stated that energy audit has been selected to estimate the practicability of biodiesel blends. It is wastage of time to do the research of all performance and emission characteristics at a glance. It is informed that the key factors have been decided as heat flow analysis which consists of heat utilization in brake power, heat losses to cooling water, heat losses to exhaust gas and heat losses to radiation, BSEC, smoke emission, and friction power. This choice is basically based on their consequence on other factors.

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Experimental Investigation of Parallel Fan Arrangement for Variable Air Volume in HVAC Systems Abhishek Jain, Ravindra Kannojiya, and Basant Singh Sikarwar

Abstract Circulation of air is often used in the ventilation and air-conditioning of buildings, thermal management of engineering systems, and maintaining the required indoor air quality in public gathering spaces. For this, the flow rate altered is to meet the comfort condition for ambient conditions using single-fan arrangement and multiple-fan arrangement. Single fan arrangement for circulation of air leads to higher leakage due to additional pressure generation by altering the flow rate. In this work, the airflow performances of the two fans analyzed were in parallel arrangement for minimizing the air leakage to have a uniform air delivery in the desired space of the ventilation zone. Besides, the working range is optimized for a parallel arrangement. This investigation shows the flow dynamics are different in a parallel arrangement as compared to a single-fan arrangement. For various air performance regions, the relation of combined effects for optimizing flow rate, losses factor during summation of air quantity, and new surging turbulence regions are identified at different conditions. This research is useful for designing effective and efficient air ventilation in the HVAC system. Keywords HVAC · Indoor air quality · Fan performance · Parallel arrangement · Fan selection

1 Introduction The need for energy supply and demand should be effective for various buildings such as IT, shopping malls, and commercial official buildings. In these buildings, most of the energy consumed is for human comfort conditions such as lighting and air-conditioning [1]. In addition, a comfortable and hygienic environment is essential for the efficient functioning of the workforce and machines in various industries [2]. Heating ventilation air-conditioning (HVAC) is a very common system for producing human comfort, and it is a combination of various processes in which air-conditioning A. Jain · R. Kannojiya (B) · B. S. Sikarwar Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201301, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_17

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is carried out via heating and cooling. Consequently, conditioned air is circulated to the manpower zone via the ventilation process. The current pandemic situation (COVID-19) changes the lifestyle of our community drastically. Hence, huge demand for maintaining Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) in building for safe and hygienic conditions which also leads to high power consumption [3]. Therefore, effective and efficient air circulation in the HVAC systems was essential in commercial buildings for producing comfortable and hygienic conditions. Hence, maintaining temperature and quality air circulation are the prime parameters for the sustainable design of HVAC [4]. In a developing country, commercial buildings grow up very fast and they utilized 50% of their total consumption of energy for human comfort, and this consumption increases with time because of global warming, the standard of living, and the urbanization of the population [5]. Hence, the usage of electricity will increase by 119% by the year 2030 [6]. The indoor air quality is maintained via ventilation, and the effective design of ventilation systems has a big impact on energy saving [7, 8]. However, natural ventilation is limited by environmental conditions, and it seems a quasi-steady-state process under atmospheric conditions. The ventilation via fan arrangement is called forced ventilation, and it has better control for maintaining indoor room air quality [9]. In forced ventilation, the effectiveness of the fan directly affects the efficacy and quality of air to be delivered in the desired space. Few researchers [5–7] showed that HVAC industries use various types of fans and their configurations for circulating air effectively and efficiently [10]. They used the single-fan arrangement and multiple-fan arrangement. In multiple-fan arrangements, more than one fan is placed in series and parallel configurations. In these arrangements, discharge was controlled at the required pressure by a variable frequency drive as the demand of building application zones. Single fan arrangement for ventilation has its pros and cons as a comparison as compared to multiple fans arrangement, as given in Table 1. The single-fan arrangement is appropriate for the small, fixed quantity of airflow. However, variable airflow in modern buildings has efficient HVAC systems [11]. It showed significant advancement with variation in airflow streams in cooling panels. Decentralized and centralized HVAC systems utilize single and double fan arrangements for directly delivering the cooling to adjacent spaces [12]. AMCA standard is used for multiple-fan arrangements to minimize system resistance and energy Table 1 Pros and cons of single-fan arrangement for circulating the variable flow in HVAC

Pros

Cons

The installation is easy for a small flow rate

Need more research for its effective functioning

There is no effect on its performance via other fans

Limit to operate satisfactorily within the highly variable range

Best efficiency in the fixed working range

Bigger duct size to cater to maximum airflow

The reliability of the system is more simplified

The bigger capacity of VFD drives to use

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consumption [13]. A single-fan arrangement is suitable for achieving the comfort requirement in the HVAC systems for the moderate size of the building [14]. However, with the large size of the building, a multiple-fan arrangement with a variable flow rate is preferable. The air ventilation in the HVAC system consumes a huge amount of energy for the thermal management of buildings. In today’s scenario, air-conditioning not only limits thermal comfort for the workforce and machines but also diversifies many applications of ventilation. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is also required to be maintained in existing and new buildings like hospitals, offices, and public gathering spaces. This increases energy demand and initial capital investment for Air Ventilation Fans system. The relation between the air supplied and leakage needs to be maintained for a particular HVAC system [15]. To meet the building demand of IAQ and thermal comfort, building designs are now shifting toward the approach of variable air volume via “As and When Required”. For saving energy, various approaches like good duct design, efficient equipment, and a single fan with a variable frequency drive (VFD) of greater air pumping capacity are generally used in Air Handling Units (AHU). Characteristic Curves for pressure and volume flow provide the required air supply for the HVAC unit [16]. The single-fan arrangement leads to higher leakage losses due to higher pressure generation by Fans at one end, higher noise level by one bigger Fan, and variation in pressure requirement demand to cater to the aging of filters and other accessories in the system. Based on the abovementioned information, the purpose of this research work is to investigate the performance of two fans of different air performance that is installed in a parallel arrangement for Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) for controlling leakage of air, noise level, and uniform static load on the structure by using multiple-fan arrangement. This investigation helps to establish a relationship between two fans at different pressure conditions and a new trend in performance behavior when fans of different aerodynamic outputs are combined in a parallel arrangement. For various air performance regions, it helps in defining limitations, the relation of combined effects, losses factor during summation of air quantity, and new surging turbulence region at different combined performance output. Damage may occur in the electrical winding of the smaller capacity motor due to the electrical behaviour of dominating fan and precautions must be taken in various pressure regions while installation of fans of different aerodynamic outputs is handled. The combination and sequence of various fans were studied for performance prediction [17]. The location of dampers is crucial for achieving the required performance in HVAC units [18]. It is challenging to modify the existing duct design for using multiple fans in parallel in place of one fan. Generally, multiple fans of the same capacity in parallel are introduced in the system, to avoid wide surging turbulence at the different performance of fans, and electrical behavior mismatch because of dominating fan may damage the electrical winding of the smaller capacity motor [19]. The precautions are needed while installing fans of different aerodynamic outputs. HVAC ducts have been under observation for air delivery in the context of air-conditioning [20]. Observations were made for the effective air delivery in the wind lens [21]. Through this study, few works emphasized wind turbine performances are compared

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[22, 23]. HVAC ducts and the ventilation requirements in them are of prime concern along with their performance [24, 25]. With this background, this study focuses on the single and multiple parallel fan arrangements taking into consideration the effect of the forward and backward curved shapes of blades. The experimental setup was designed and fabricated for carrying out experiments with various conditions. The performance of this arrangement was analyzed at different airflow with varying points of duty of air quantity for establishing the relationship between variable air requirements at different static pressure. The proposed system uses smaller air quantity fans in parallel instead of one single bigger fan. Various benefits of parallel fan configuration were reported. This investigation helps to know the behavior of fans of different aerodynamics in a parallel arrangement.

2 Experimental Setup The experimental setup of the system was constructed considering the required dimensions. Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of the experimental setup with all the dimensions in cm. It consists of two fans with parallel flow arrangements, per AMCA 210 (equivalent standard IS5802, BS848), for supplying air at control conditions. Fan#1 has a backward curve impeller (AFBC 315DI). However, Fan#2 has a forward curve impeller (AFFC 315DI). The technical details of these fans are given in Table 2. The two fans are attached at an angle of 45° of cubic (Length 1.25 m) enclosure. This enclosure is connected to a uniform cross-section circular duct of 0.9 m diameter and a length of 10 m. For flow control and flow measurement, various components are connected in the circular duct. Figure 2 shows the photograph of the experimental setup indicating the components required for testing and data collection during the operation. The description of the backward curve and forward curve fans is provided in Table 2. The flow straightener is placed at 0.3 m from the inlet of the duct. A differential pressure transmitter (DPT) is used for static pressure measurement at the inlet of the duct; however, the outlet of the duct is open to the atmosphere. The anemometer is placed at 0.8 m from the inlet of the duct for measuring the air velocity. Whereas variable frequency drives and throttling damper are used for maintaining the required flow condition in the duct of the experimental setup. Experiments started and analyzed the performance of the individual fans (Fan#1 and Fan#2). Firstly, Fan#2 turns on (AFFC315DI) at fixed rpm; however, Fan#1 (AFBC315DI) is in off condition. For the fixed RPM of Fan#2, the throttling damper varied from 0 to 100% open position. For the fixed RPM of Fan #2, the throttling damper varied from 0 to 100% open position. In this way, experiments were conducted for various flow conditions of each fan for evaluating their air performance. After analyzing the performance of individual fans, experiments were carried out for running both fans at various speeds and different throttling openings. Firstly, set Fan#2 at its full speed (843 rpm) and varies Fan#1

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of experimental setup

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Table 2 Specification of the fans Components

Specifications

Application

Electrical panel

Three-phase 15KW

Control power supply

Anemometer (Testo410i)

Range 0.25mps to 35.0mps

Measuring air velocity

Differential pressure transmitter Range (0–200 WG)

Measuring static pressure

Tachometer (KM2241)

0.5 to 20,000 rpm

Measuring fan shaft rpm

VFD drive controller & VFD (ABBACS510)

(a) Control supply frequency (50 Hz–2.5 Hz) (b) Electrical supply related

Change fan rpm monitor and record all electrical data

Throttling damper (MAPROMVCD-AC-CG)

1000 mm × 1000 mm (fully open)

Control volume flow rate discharge and additional pressure generation

Fig. 2 Photograph of experimental setup and components

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speed from 2515 to 1272 rpm for various throttle positions. Finally, set Fan#1 speed of 2692 rpm and varies the Fan#2 speed of 855 rpm, 760 rpm, 665 rpm, 570 rpm, and 475 rpm for different throttle positions. To avoid backflow of air during both fan functioning, fan#2 limits to 475 rpm and fan#1 limits to rpm of 1272 rpm. Based on this experiment’s investigation, the selection of multiple fans Arrangement for Variable air volume in HVAC Systems is optimized.

3 Results and Discussion A description of the components is provided in Table 3. The experimental results are shown in Table 4 and corresponding Fig. 3, on the testing rig setup for AFBC 315 DI Fan Model at 2692 rpm different damper positions. Experimental value evaluated from Expt#1 to Expt#11, and air performance of fan satisfactorily from the highpressure point of 112 mm WG and at 70% damper opening 4321CMH at pressure 1.1 mm WG and fan stall region observed at Expt#8 before 3742CMH at 65mmWG pressure. Fan performance was obtained with the uncertainty of ± 140CMH (x-axis) and ± 0.1mmWG (y-axis) obtained, and the best-fit curve was obtained for the performance of a single forward curve fan in Fig. 4. From Table 5 and corresponding Fig. 4, with the experiment on testing rig setup for AFFC 315 DI Fan Model at 843 rpm different damper position. Experimental value evaluated from Expt#1 to Expt#11, and air performance of Fan satisfactorily from the high-pressure point of 28.8 mm WG and at 70% damper opening 5063CMH at 1.0 mm WG pressure, and fan stall region is observed at Expt#8 before 3088CMH at 24.5mmWG pressure. For the single forward curve fan shown in Fig. 6, the comparative performance obtained is the same as from the manufacturer (Air Flow Pvt. Ltd.). Fan performance graph of both fans, while AFFC 315 DI fan runs at its designed 843 (low rpm) and delivers airflow 4733CMH at 100% opening with overall low static pressure Table 3 Various components of the experimental setup Description

Fan#1 (AFBC315DI)

Fan#2 (AFFC315DI)

Make

Air flow Pvt. Ltd. India

Air flow Pvt. Ltd. India

Impeller diameter

315 mm

315 mm

Impeller type

Backward curve with maximum RPM 2900

Forward curve with maximum RPM 900

Outlet size

404 mm × 404 mm

404 mm × 404 mm

Number of blades

11nos × 2 sides

43nos × 2 sides

Electric motor

3.0 kW—2 pole, 3-Phase, 50 Hz, 415 V, TEFC, efficiency IE-2 motor

3.0 KW—6pole, 3-Phase, 50 Hz, 415 V, TEFC, efficiency IE-2 motor

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Table 4 Experimental data of AFBC 315 DI (Fan#1) Performance Damper opening (%)

Power (BKW)

Vavg (m/s)

Air quantity (CMH)

Static pressure (mmWG)

100

0.104

2.077

4758

0.2

90

0.102

2.013

4611

0.5

80

0.102

1.906

4368

1.1

70

0.099

1.886

4321

1.1

60

0.104

1.942

4450

1.0

50

0.236

1.800

4125

8.0

40

0.669

1.761

4035

29.0

30

1.313

1.633

3742

65.0

20

1.302

1.223

2801

88.0

10

1.517

1.177

2697

106.9

0

1.467

1.089

2494

112.0

120.00

Fig. 3 AFBC 315 DI Fan Model (Fan#1) at 2692 rpm

Static Pressure (mmWG)

100.00 80.00 60.00 40.00 20.00 0.00

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

Air Quantity (CMH)

28.8mmWG, vs AFBC 315 DI fan delivers 4450CMH at 100% opening with overall high static pressure 112mmWG.

4 Two Parallel Flow Fan Arrangement In this investigation, AFFC315DI Centrifugal DIDW Forward Curve and AFBC315DI Centrifugal DIDW Backward Curve of the same size and dimension

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110 100 90

Static Pressure (mm WG)

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2600

2800

3000

3200

3400

3600

3800

4000

4200

4400

Air Quantity (CMH)

Fig. 4 Air quantity versus static pressure variation backward curve fan 35.00

Static Pressure (mmWG)

30.00 25.00 20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00

0

1000

2000

3000

Air Quantity (CMH)

Fig. 5 AFFC 315 DI Fan Model at 843 rpm

4000

5000

6000

4600

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A. Jain et al.

Table 5 Experimental data of AFFC 315 DI (Fan#1) Damper opening (%)

Power consumption (BKW)

Vavg (m/s)

Air quantity (CMH)

St. Pr. (mm WG)

100

0.150

2.191

5020

1.0

90

0.147

2.168

4968

1.1

80

0.153

2.209

5061

1.0

70

0.153

2.210

5063

1.0

60

0.152

2.205

5051

1.0

50

0.141

2.066

4733

1.5

40

0.453

1.778

4073

17.5

30

0.440

1.348

3088

24.5

20

0.299

0.942

2159

24.6

10

0.290

0.855

1958

26.5

0

0.305

0.831

1904

28.8

30

27.5

25

22.5

Static Pressure (mm WG)

20

17.5

15

12.5

10

7.5

5

2.5

0 1800

2100

2400

2700

3000

3300

3600

Air Quantity (CMH)

Fig. 6 Air quantity vs static pressure in forward curve fan

3900

4200

4500

4800

5100

Experimental Investigation of Parallel Fan Arrangement for Variable …

199

Table 6 The range for various performance parameters Air quantity (%)

AFFC31 5DI

AFBC31 5DI

Work (%)

Pressure range

00.0–57.40

OFF

Variable speed

45.11

Low to mid

57.41–100

(ON) full speed

Variable speed

54.89

Mid to high

31.25–62.50

(ON) full speed

Variable speed

27.08

Intermediate (optional)

are used in parallel having different air performance at same rpm. Table 6 represents the range for various performance parameters. Table 7 shows the forward and backward curve fans data at different rpm. However, Fig. 7 shows the performance range and regions of stall during the operation of the pressure mm system for the full speed of the forward curve fan. Figure 8 shows the performance range and regions of stall during the operation of the system at the full speed of the backward fan. To save initial capital investment cost, AFFC315DI at fixed rpm and AFBC315DI/VFD installed with variable frequency drive VFD, to obtain variable air quantity desired by the system and study the system at different duty points. 1. To avoid stall region on combination fan performance, the fan of higher static pressure generation is provided with VFD because air quantity is the summation of air pumped at the same static pressure. Table 7 Forward and backward curve data AFFC315DI (forward curve) AFBC315DI (backward curve)

Remarks

100% speed 843 rpm

OFF with shutoff to avoid bypass of air

AFFC315DI type test performance at 843 rpm stall at 25.1 mm WC

OFF with shutoff to avoid bypass of air

100% speed 2692 rpm

AFBC315DI type test performance at 2692 rpm stall at 65.4 mm WC

100% speed 843 rpm

100% speed 2694 rpm

Stall at 35.0 mm WC

100% speed 846 rpm

90% speed 2515 rpm

Stall at 30.2 mm WC

100% speed 843 rpm

80% speed 2150 rpm

Stall at 26.7 mm WC

100% speed 843 rpm

70% speed 1855 rpm

Stall at 24.0 mm WC

100% speed 843 rpm

60% speed 1572 rpm

Stall at 21.8 mm WC

100% speed 843 rpm

50% speed 1272 rpm

*Stall at 24.4 mm WC

96% Speed 855 rpm

100% Speed 2900 rpm

Stall at 25.5 mm WC

92% speed 760 rpm

100% speed 2900 rpm

Stall at 22.0 mm WC

88% speed 665 rpm

100% speed 2900 rpm

Stall at 16.8 mm WC

84% speed 570 rpm

100% speed 2900 rpm

Stall at 13.7 mm WC

80% speed 475 rpm

100% speed 2900 rpm

Stall at 11.7 mm WC

200

A. Jain et al. 110

AFBC315DI (ON)

105

1 - AFFC315DI (100%) + AFBC315DI (100%) 2 - AFFC315DI (100%) + AFBC315DI (90%) 3 - AFFC315DI (100%) + AFBC315DI (80%) 4 - AFFC315DI (100%) + AFBC315DI (70%) 5 - AFFC315DI (100%) + AFBC315DI (60%) 6 - AFFC315DI (100%) + AFBC315DI (50%)

100 95 90 80

Region of Stall

Static Pressure (mmWG)

85 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30

AFFC315DI (ON)

25 20 15 10 6

5 0 1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

5

6000

3

4 6500

7000

2 7500

1 8000

Air Quantity (CMH) Fig. 7 Air performance AFFC315DI (full speed) + AFBC315DI (VAR)

2. Combined fan output for air quantity is the arithmetic summation of air quantity by both fans at the same pressure. 3. Using single VFD three different variable usage patterns can be obtained, and an additional sub-region is also obtained for the more flexible region.

5 Summary and Conclusions Single fan and multiple-fan arrangement performances at variable rpm combinations are carried out for different duty points at the testing rig in laboratory conditions as per AMCA. Variable Speed Arrangement (VFD) is used on fans of higher static pressure. The results show that parallel arrangement will deliver arithmetic summation of airflow by the individual fan at the same static pressure, and VFD placed on a single fan saves initial investment cost and saves energy on usage where variable airflow is required in the application area. In comparison with single fan for the same flow, VFD is half in capacity, noise generation will be low, occupied less height and length of the unit. This multiple fan arrangement is well proven where available height is

Experimental Investigation of Parallel Fan Arrangement for Variable … 110

AFBC315DI (ON)

105

201

1 - AFFC315DI (100%) + AFBC315DI (100%) 2 - AFFC315DI (90%) + AFBC315DI (100%) 3 - AFFC315DI (80%) + AFBC315DI (100%) 4 - AFFC315DI (70%) + AFBC315DI (100%) 5 - AFFC315DI (60%) + AFBC315DI (100%) 6 - AFFC315DI (50%) + AFBC315DI (100%)

100 95 90

Static Pressure (mmWG)

85 80 75 70 65 60 55 Region of Stall

50 45 40 35 30

AFFC315DI (ON)

25 20

4

15

3 2

10 5 0 1500

6 5 2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

6000

6500

1 7000

7500

8000

Air Quantity (CMH)

Fig. 8 Air performance AFFC315DI (VAR) + AFBC315DI (FULL SPEED)

less, and VFD on a single fan proves cost-saving with a wide variety of airflow. In addition, the following benefits were observed of two fan arrangements: (i)

Lower noise generation and structural support requirements for each fan yield of lesser load density. (ii) Lower electrical support requirements for each fan and a high variable range can be attained, by shutting undesired fans completely off during a reduction in air quantity requirement. (iii) Reduction in length and height of installed fans; however, the width of the arrangement increases. (iv) Retrofitting for a future requirement can easily be done, just by making space provision for future requirements during the designing stage. Acknowledgements Authors acknowledge the Air Flow Private Limited, plot no J-90 and J-91, Site-5, Kasna, Surajpur Industrial area, Greater Noida, India, for providing experimental and testing facilities.

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References 1. An assessment of energy technologies and research opportunities, Quadrennial Technology Review. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/09/f26/Quadrennial-Technology-Rev iew-2015_0.pdf. Accessed 2022/04/16 2. Jacob S, Yadav SS, Sikarwar BS (2019) Design and simulation of isolation room for a hospital. In: Saha P, Subbarao P, Sikarwar B (eds) Advances in fluid and thermal engineering. Lecture notes in mechanical engineering. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-641 6-7_8 3. Building Air Intake and Exhaust Design. https://www.ashrae.org/file%20library/technical% 20resources/ashrae%20handbook/i-p_a19_ch46.pdf. Accessed 2022/04/12 4. Viswambharan A, Patidar SK, Saxena K (2014) Sustainable HVAC systems in commercial and residential buildings. Int J Sci Res Publ 4(4):1–4 5. Zimmermann M, Althaus HJ, Hass A (2005) Benchmarks for sustainable construction a contribution to develop a standard. Energy Build 37(11):1147–1157 6. Solecki WD, Leichenko RM (2006) Urbanization and the metropolitan environment: lessons from New York and Shanghai. Environment 48(4):8–23 7. Costa MFB, Costa MAF (2006) Indoor air quality and human health. J Integr Manage Occup Health Environ 1(2):1–10 8. Day AR, Ogumka P, Jones PG, Dunsdon A (2009) The use of the planning system to encourage low carbon energy technologies in buildings. Renewable Energy 34(9):2016–2021 9. Application of Fans in Commercial HVAC Equipment. https://www.shareddocs.com/hvac/ docs/1001/Public/0F/04-581070-01.pdf. Accessed 2022/04/06 10. Leong CY (2019) Fault detection and diagnosis of air handling unit: a review. MATEC Web Conf 255(3):06001 11. Feng Y, Huang H, Li T, Zhang D, Wang Z (2012) Flow field and heat transfer analysis of local structure for regenerative cooling panel. J Therm Sci 21(2):172–178 12. Heating, ventilation and air conditioning, Carbon Trust, https://prod-drupal-files.storage.goo gleapis.com/documents/resource/restricted/Heating%20Ventilation%20and%20Air%20Cond itioning%20Guide%20-%20PDF.pdf. Accessed 2022/04/10 13. Laboratory methods of testing fans for certified aerodynamic performance rating, https:// www.amca.org/assets/resources/public/pdf/Education%20Modules/AMCA%20210-16.pdf. Accessed 2022/04/08 14. Air Conditioning Clinic, Air conditioning fans one of the equipment series. https://www.tra nebelgium.com/files/book-doc/9/fr/9.3qxivyzz.pdf. Accessed 2022/04/06 15. Walker IS, Dickerhoff DJ, Delp WW (2022) Residential forced air system cabinet leakage and blower performance. https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/983245. Accessed 2022/04/07 16. Nudischer M, Binz H, Bachmann M, Recker S (2017) Experimental investigation of two centrifugal fans in a serial arrangement. In: 17th International symposium on transport phenomena and dynamics of rotating machinery (ISROMAC2017), Maui, United States 17. Eda K, Gruenhage G, Koszmider P, Tamano K, Todorˇcevi´c (1995) Sequential fans in topology. Topology Appl 67(3):189–220 18. Nassif N (2010) Performance analysis of supply and return fans for HVAC systems under different operating strategies of economizer dampers. Energy and Build 42(7):1026–1037 19. Halawa AM, Elhadidi B, Yoshida S (2018) Aerodynamic performance enhancement using active flow control on DU96-W-180 wind turbine airfoil. Evergreen 5(1):16–24 20. Yinn WK, Kamar HM, Kamsah N, Norazam AS (2019) Effects of surgical staff turning— 168—outlets airflow velocity enhancement of an automotive HVAC duct motion on airflow distribution inside a hospital operating room. Evergreen 6(1):52–58 21. Takeyeldein MM, Lazim TM, Ishak IS, Nik Mohd NAR, Ali EA (2020) Wind lens performance investigation at low wind speed. Evergreen 7(4):481–488 22. Ibrahim OM, Yoshida S (2018) Experimental and numerical studies of a horizontal axis wind turbine performance over a steep 2D hill. Evergreen 5(3):12–21

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Comparison of Basalt/Kevlar/Glass Fibre Duralumin Laminate-Reinforced Composite Using Nanoclay Filler Kirthika Ganesan and A. Vasudevan

Abstract The main aim of the study is comparison of roundness in drilling operation for basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin laminate-reinforced composite and basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin laminate-reinforced composites using nanoclay filler. Roundness in drilling operation for basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with filler (N = 20) sample specimens as control group and basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without filler (N = 20) sample specimens as experimental group. The G-Power used for this process is 80%, α = .05 per set for calculating sample size and total sample size is 40. Epoxy resin AW 106 IN and hardener HV 953 U are used as base materials. Nanoclay is used as filler. Roundness in drilling for basalt/kevlar/glass duralumin laminate composite appears to be more than roundness for basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin laminate composite with 4% volume fraction of nanoclay filler. There exists a statistical significant difference between fibre with and without filler which was p = 0.001 (p < 0.05). Basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with 4% filler observation are statistically significant. Within the scope of this study, fibre without filler-reinforced epoxy composite has higher roundness and appears to be significantly increased when compared to 4% volume fraction of nanoclay filler-reinforced epoxy composite. Keywords Duralumin · Basalt · Kevlar · Glass fibres · Novel stacking sequence · Drilling · Nanoclay · Hybrid composites

1 Introduction Basalt/Kevlar/Glass fibre duralumin laminate composites are reinforced composite materials that are used for evaluation of roundness in drilling operations using moulding processes by novel stacking sequence [1]. Basalt/evlar/glass fibre duralumin composites are used to improve mechanical properties like strength, weight K. Ganesan · A. Vasudevan (B) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences,Saveetha University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 602105, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_18

205

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ratio and water absorption which is decreased [2], 3. There are many real-time applications for basalt/evlar/glass fibre with duralumin like they are used in aerodynamic industries and also utilized as thermal insulation composite [4]. Duralumin fibres are used in aircraft bodies, bulletproof vests, body armour, and other applications due to their high strength and lightweight properties [5]. For the last five years, there have been approximately 128 articles published in IEEE and 85 articles published in Google Scholar. Dinesh et al. [6] conducted a study on surface modification for basalt and evlar fibres and their mechanical composite properties, which aids in improving strength and other properties of the fibres. Freeman et al. [7] proposed a study in which evlar fibre composites are used to improve mechanical and bonding properties. Kevlar fibre composites will aid in the optimization of polymer composite properties. Fibre epoxy is used in electrical applications. The base material for laminate composites is epoxy resin, which is combined with matrix material [8]. A paper on the experimental and numerical analysis of the duralumin Taylor impact test has been proposed. This alloy is used in civil engineering applications. In order to determine mechanical properties duralumin composites are used, (Girija et al. 2016) has proposed a paper on electrical and mechanical properties of nanoclay-reinforced unsaturated nanoclay composites. These composites are used as polymer nanocomposites that produce increasing mechanical properties and significant electrical properties. Based on literature survey, [9] has proposed a paper on mechanical properties on evlar/basalt fibre-reinforced hybrid composites. The best study based on the literature survey was [10] as the fabrication and materials used in the study were related to the current study. Previously, our team has a rich experience in working on various research projects across multiple disciplines [11]. Many researchers have reported that duralumin fibre without filler is brittle and absorbs water. This work evaluated fibre with nanoclay filler to overcome all of these limitations. Hand lay-up technique followed by compression moulding process for varying stacking sequences of laminate composites was used to manufacture basalt/evlar/glass fibre duralumin fibre reinforced with nanoclay composites and without nanoclay. The primary goal of this study is to improve the roundness of fibre for drilling operation composite material without filler when compared to composite material with nanoclay filler.

2 Materials and Methods The proposed work is studied at Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha University. The study made use of two groups. The roundness of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with filler is in Group 1, and the roundness of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without filler is in Group 2. N = 20 samples are collected for each process, and the G-Power used in the process is 80% [12]. ASTM D7971 standard specimen dimensions are 64 × 12.7 × 5 mm [11, 13]. The roundness for drilling operation of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre-reinforced composites is investigated in two groups: control and experimental [2]. In the control

Comparison of Basalt/Kevlar/Glass Fibre Duralumin …

207

group, a plain basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin laminate is created using an epoxy and hardener mixture with no filler [14]. Following the production of the plain laminate fibre, the composite material was reduced to 20 sample specimens [15]. Basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin laminate composites with a 4% volume fraction of filler were prepared in the experimental group. Following that, the manufactured composite materials were reduced to 20 sample specimens [16]. Materials are cut into 300 × 300 mm dimensions, and the fibre-reinforced composites are mixed with epoxy resin AW106IN and hardener HV 953U before the manufacturing process begins and weights are placed on the materials, drying for a minimum of 16 h using a novel stacking sequence [17]. Duralumin laminate materials made of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre are used [18]. The test materials are cut in which 20 holes are drilled using an 8 mm diameter HSS drill bit in a CNC machine to obtain the required sample size of 40 drilled holes for both groups. The test specimens of both the control and experimental group are placed over the workable of the CNC machine, and 20 holes are drilled in each of the two test specimens using an 8 mm diameter HSS drill bit under optimum feed conditions [19]. Hole quality assessment to find roundness error in the drilling of the basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin composite material is done manually by taking individual pictures of the drilled holes under LED light using camera and feeding the image into ImageJ software to find the experimental drilled hole area and compare it with the theoretical drilled hole area based on the diameter of the drill bit used which is repeated for all the 20 drilled holes of experimental and control groups and the difference between them attributes to the damaged area [20]. The freehand sketch module of the control and experimental group represents the damaged area [21]. Data is collected using ImageJ software, which calculates the damaged area obtained during the drilling process, allowing the roundness error in the drilling of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin composite material to be calculated. The collected data is tabulated and grouped for all drilled holes, which include 20 drilled holes from each laminate group. Statistical Analysis SPSS was used to perform the statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics, means plots, group statistics, and independent sample tests are calculated and evaluated using SPSS software [22, 23]. To store graphical data, the mean plot and bar graph are evaluated. The independent variable is roundness, and the dependent variable is roundness for drilling operations of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre without filler.

3 Results The roundness of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without filler-reinforced epoxy composite appears to be improved in comparison with roundness of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with 4% volume fraction of nanoclay filler by novel stacking sequence. 20 samples for each group considered. Mean impact

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K. Ganesan and A. Vasudevan

strength with filler is 14.81 mm, and mean impact strength without filler is 26.86 mm [24]. Roundness of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without filler (nanoclay) appears to be better than roundness of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with filler (nanoclay). Table 1 represents the damaged area of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre/duralumin without filler, with 4% volume fraction of nanoclay filler that is taken from 20 samples each for the groups. Table 2 represents descriptive statistics for roundness for duralumin with filler and duralumin without filler which gives mean of 20.83 and standard deviation of 7.008 [25]. Table 3 shows group statistics which gives a damaged area which gives the mean of duralumin without filler 26.86 mm appears to be better than duralumin with filler 14.81 mm. Table 4 shows independent test analysis, and it gives a significance of 0.001(p < 0.05). For each process, 20 samples are taken for duralumin with filler and duralumin without filler [2]. The bar graph shows the difference between duralumin with filler and duralumin without filler from Fig. 1. Duralumin without filler shows a better mean damaged area Table 1 Damaged area of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre/duralumin without filler, with 4% volume fraction of nanoclay filler that is taken from 20 samples each for the groups S. No.

Damaged area of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre/duralumin without filler

Damaged area of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre/duralumin with filler

1

21.32

10.13

2

23.41

11.21

3

22.56

12.21

4

21.97

13.02

5

24.53

14.51

6

23.98

15.61

7

22.61

16.63

8

24.62

17.65

9

25.71

18.23

10

26.28

16.29

11

27.34

15.89

12

28.15

15.56

13

29.35

13.33

14

30.15

16.23

15

31.63

14.98

16

32.34

15.67

17

33.53

16.78

18

34.21

17.72

19

32.15

15.44

20

21.32

10.12

Comparison of Basalt/Kevlar/Glass Fibre Duralumin …

209

Table 2 Comparison of groups and damaged area of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin –

N

Maximum

Minimum

Mean

Std. deviation

Group

40

1.00

2.00

1.5000

0.50637

Damaged area

40

34.21

10.13

20.83

7.0083

Valid N (listwise)

40

–

–

–

–

Mean for damaged area of roundness is 20.83 mm and standard deviation is 70083

Table 3 Group statistics results (Mean of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without filler 26.86 mm is more compared to basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with filler 14.81 mm and Standard error mean for basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with filler is 0.5416 and basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without filler is 0.9629) Damaged area

–

N

Mean

Std. deviation

Std. error mean

Basalt/kevlar/glass fibre/duralumin without filler

20

26.858

4.3063

0.9629

Basalt/kevlar/glass fibre/duralumin with 4% filler

20

14.811

2.4222

0.5416

for duralumin with filler. Figure 2 represents mean plot and comparison of damaged area of roundness for duralumin with filler and duralumin without filler.

4 Discussion The research work implements and finds damaged area for roundness of drilling operation for basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without filler (Nanoclay) outperforms better mean whereas in comparison with damaged area of roundness for drilling operation for basalt/kevlar fibre duralumin without filler (Nanoclay) by novel stacking sequence. The bar graph shows the difference between two groups calculating impact strength with filler and without filler. In comparison, without filler for basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin, basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with filler appears to have more accuracy. Independent test values give significance and mean difference values for the groups by accuracy. The similar findings of the related work found in the previous study are discussed. Samborsky et al. [26] they have conducted a study on basalt and kevlar fibre. In this study, basalt fibre with filler has higher strength when compared with kevlar fibre without filler [27]. Epoxy matrix materials are used to impregnate comparison of stacking sequences. Sheriff et al. [28] has conducted research on strength between kevlar and basalt with epoxy resin using nanoclay with different wt% content. Strength increases for different nanoclay wt%. Nanoclay filler is used to enhance the quality of the composite [29]. Due to the strong connection between filler and matrix drop, there is increase in strength with further expansion of filler. Singh et al. [30] has done some work on the enhancement of basalt fibres and kevlar

3.106

–

Equal variances assumed

Equal variances not assumed

–

0.001 10.903

10.903 39

38

Df

0.001

0.001

Sig.(2-tailed)

t

F

Sig.

T test for equality of means

Levene’s test for equality of variances

There is a significant mean difference between two methods with p < 0.05

Damaged area

–

2.395

2.395

Mean difference

1.105

1.105

Std. error difference

Upper −9.806 −9.805

Lower −14.208 −14.209

95% Confidence interval of the difference

Table 4 Independent sample t test for damaged area for analysis of samples for impact strength for basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with filler and basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without filler

210 K. Ganesan and A. Vasudevan

Comparison of Basalt/Kevlar/Glass Fibre Duralumin …

211

Fig. 1 Damaged area is represented by a bar chart, with blue representing basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without filler and orange representing basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with filler. When compared to basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with filler, basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without filler appears to produce the most consistent results. The x-axis represents groups, while the y-axis represents the mean damaged area. Mean value for effective prediction is ± 1 SD

fibres on mechanical, thermal, properties of different composites. Various tests like impact test and tensile test were tested to get the various properties of the composites. Natural fibres and renewable materials have high rigidity and speed comparatively with others. Significant strength reduction is caused due to thermal properties. Dissimilar findings for the related works including [31] have conducted research on investigation of the mechanical properties of duralumin and glass fibre [32]. Duralumin strength and flexural properties compared to glass fibre are higher than required. Impact load and material toughness difference is calculated. Prasad and Talupula [33] has conducted a study on the effect of basalt and kevlar fibres on stacking sequence using Charpy impact testing for hybrid composites. Impact loads were investigated for metal laminate composites. There is improvement in absorbed energy level, and fabrications are not improved [34]. The factors such as blending of nano clay filler with basalt/kevlar/glass fibre epoxy composite, processing temperature, cooling process, presence of moisture content in basalt/kevlar/glass fibre volume fraction, length of the nano clay, the diameter of nano clay are the major factors that affect the mechanical properties of basalt fibre composites. In our study, we have discussed a total of 5 papers which include 3 similar findings and 2 dissimilar findings. Based on the above discussion, we can conclude that duralumin fibre without filler has a more damaged area of roundness when compared

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Fig. 2 Mean plot representing the comparison of damaged area for basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with filler and basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without filler. Plot lies between the range of upper 5.00’s and lower 20.00’s. X-axis represents the group, and Y-axis represents the mean damaged area

with duralumin with filler. The limitations of basalt/kevlar with filler are it is difficult to drill and cut. Also, its efficiency is low. Fabrication process depends on metal heat and loss.

5 Conclusion The basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin without nanoclay filler is having more damaged area of roundness for drilling process when compared to basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with addition of 4% volume fraction of nanoclay filler by novel stacking sequence. Roundness of basalt/kevlar/glass fibre duralumin with addition of 4% volume fraction of nanoclay filler-reinforced epoxy composite appears to be 26.86 mm. Declarations Conflict of Interests No conflict of interest in this manuscript. Authors Contribution Author KG was involved in data collection, data analysis, and manuscript writing. Author AV was involved in conceptualization, guidance, and critical review of manuscripts. Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their gratitude towards Management, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (Formerly Known as Saveetha University), for providing the opportunities and research facilities to carry out research study successfully.

Comparison of Basalt/Kevlar/Glass Fibre Duralumin …

213

Funding Details We thank the following organizations for providing financial support that enabled us to complete the study. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Sunrise Fibre Glass Industries, Bengaluru, India. Saveetha University. Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences. Saveetha School of Engineering.

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Comprehensive Study on Solar Adsorption Cooling System Priyemant Raj, Vishal kumar, Ajay Vashist, Meeta Sharma, and Anoop Kumar Shukla

Abstract Adsorption refrigerators can prove to be a viable alternative to compression refrigerators. Producing cooling water using this unit decreases reliance on traditional electric-driven cooling systems, which contribute to global warming and ozone layer depletion while also consuming a lot of energy. Solar adsorption cooling systems are environmentally friendly and do not deplete the ozone layer. The activated carbon granules were used as an adsorbent, and ethanol was used as an adsorbate in the current study. Many studies on adsorption cooling systems have been conducted on numerical simulation, operation strategy, and system performance at various regeneration temperatures. Many further experiments on adsorption cooling systems have been carried out using a variety of adsorbent materials such as silica gel, zeolite, and others. Water, ammonia, and methanol are perfect adsorbates for adsorption cooling systems. Water cannot be used for the applications below 0 °C, whereas ammonia is highly toxic. Methanol is highly toxic and inflammable, and it also has the dissociation problem above 120 °C in the presence of copper. Therefore, an environment-friendly refrigerant with better adsorption/desorption characteristics needs to be explored in detail. After going through the various journal and research paper, we found carbon-ethanol pair is most suitable for adsorption cooling system because ethanol having low freezing point, non-toxic, and zero ozone-depletion potential is considered to be a better choice for solar-adsorption cooling systems, and also, they are easily available. In this paper, our motive is to provide solution to the low performance of adsorption cooling systems. Keywords Adsorption · Energy saving · Carbon ethanol · Solar energy · Adsorption cooling

P. Raj · V. kumar · A. Vashist · M. Sharma (B) · A. K. Shukla Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_19

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1 Introduction In this paper, zeolite-water, active carbon-ethanol, silica gel-water, and other adsorbent-adsorbate working pair have been proposed. Because the regeneration temperature of the silica gel and carbon is lower than that of the other adsorbents and ethanol has a high latent heat of vaporization, silica gel-water and carbonethanol have been chosen for research. Many research papers in order to have an understanding of how silica gel-water and carbon-ethanol are used in the adsorption system. The adsorption cooling system grew in popularity because of the oil crisis in the 1970s, which raised concerns about energy shortages, and then again in the 1990s, as a result of environmental concerns about the usage of chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) and hydro fluorocarbon (HCFCs) as refrigerants. Furthermore, as energy usage has increased, the need of efficient energy usage has become even more pressing. As a result, a device like an adsorption cooling system driven by low-grade energy sources like solar energy and industrial wastes could be an intriguing choice for more efficient energy management. Solar adsorption cooling systems are simple and may be used for small, medium, and large systems. This form of cooling system is quiet, requires little maintenance, and is easy to regulate. Adsorption refrigeration systems were created to replace traditional refrigeration systems that use ecologically damaging refrigerants and consume a lot of electricity. Solar adsorption refrigeration systems are important for meeting cooling needs such as water chilling, air conditioning, ice production, and medical applications or the preservation of food in remote regions They are also quiet, non-corrosive, and safe for the environment. For the purpose of absorption, there are a variety of refrigeration pairs to choose from. Refrigeration of silica gel-water adsorption and carbon-ethanol as a result of the research, we discovered that this system is compatible with low-generation systems. The temperature is roughly 70–80 °C, and the chilled water is around 10–20 °C. The system’s pressure range is 1–12 kPa, and its coefficient of performances (COP) is 0.5 and 0.68, respectively. The adsorption chiller has a temperature range of 0.3–0.5 °C. Cho and Kim [1] theoretically and experimentally explored and executed the recovery of low-grade waste heat using a silica gel and water adsorption cooling system. There were four parts to this system: two adsorbers, a condenser, and an evaporator. It had a cold generation capability of 1.2 RT (refrigeration tons) and could create chilled water between 4 and 7 °C. The work used a numerical model that could anticipate the system’s thermal performance. The model calculated the impact of a component’s heat-transfer rate on its cold generation capacity. They claimed that by altering the heat-transfer rates of the condenser and adsorber, the thermal performance could be increased by three times. As illustrated in Fig. 1, the experimental equipment comprises two silica gel adsorbers linked to an evaporator and a condenser. The condensate flowed constantly downhill into the evaporator tanks to the use of a U-tube. The adsorber is made up of 110 kg of silica gel (2–3 mm dia) packed in aluminum circular-fin tube heat exchangers with a surface area of 46.9 m2 . With a surface area of 2.5 m2 , the condenser was a shell- and tube-type exchanger.

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Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the experimental facility [1]

The heat-transfer area of the evaporator is 8.15 m2 . The cooling water flow rate and temperature were 1.111 kg/sec and 14 °C, respectively. The hot-water flow rate and temperature were 0.833 kg/s and 85 °C, respectively. Chilled water flow rate and temperature were 0.278 kg/s and 8.4 °C, respectively. The chilled water’s output temperature ranged from 4 to 7 °C. At an average temperature of 8.4 °C, it was heated and recycled to the adsorption chiller. The whole cycle duration was around 350 min, and the refrigeration capacity was approximately 1.2 RT. The results show that the temperature and pressure changed dramatically at the start of a cycle. It varied smoothly after until that the regeneration stage was completed. Saha et al. [2] presented the results of an analytic examination into the influence of thermal conductance of absorption elements on the performances of a silica gelwater advanced adsorption chiller. They used a cycle-simulation model that they created for the analysis. The chiller was powered by waste heat at 50 °C, with a cooling source at 30 °C for air conditioning and refrigeration (Tdes = 50 °C and Tads = 30 °C were used in their study cycle). The sensible heat-exchanger cycle took 30 s, and the adsorption–desorption cycle took 300 s. For numerical simulation, they assumed (i) that all component refrigerant mass flows were equivalent; (ii) that adsorption/desorption equilibrium was attained at all times; (iii) that no adsorption/desorption occurs during the sensible heat exchange process; (iv) that all three adsorbers (or desorbers) operate at the same temperatures; (v) that the dependences of specific heats on temperature and adsorption heat on concentration were neglected; and (vi) that they get a cooling capacity of 1.5–1.7 kW, a COP of 0.2–0.3, and an efficiency of 0.25–0.45 in their study. Due to the intense sensible heating/cooling requirements resulting from batched cycle operation, the thermal capacitance and adsorber/desorber thermal conductance had a significant impact on cycle performance. They also come to the conclusion that (i) raising the thermal capacitance ratios could increase the chiller’s overall performance and (ii) in the

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adsorber/desorber heat exchanger, increasing the adsorbent masses improved both cooling capacity and chiller efficiency. Wang et al. [3] created a prototype of a revolutionary SI-Water adsorption chiller as shown in Fig. 2. According to their findings, the RC and COP for a heat source at 84.80 °C, cooling water temperature of 30.60 °C, and chilled-water outlet temperature of 11.70 °C were 7.15 kW and 0.38, respectively, for a heat source at 84.80 °C, cooling water temperature of 30.60 °C, and chilled-water outlet temperature of 11.70 °C. The RC was measured at 6 kW at 650 °C, with cooling water temperatures of 30.50 °C and chilled-water output temperatures of 17.60 °C. They concluded that a 900-s cycle time would be a superior option. With an increase in heat source temperature, mass-recovery time was sped up. Finally, they concluded that the chiller might be improved if the evaporator’s refrigeration output loss was avoided in the structural design. Wang et al. [4] showed that a four-bed adsorption chiller may produce a 12% higher final cooling capacity than a two-bed adsorption chiller for the same heatexchanger inventory allocation. The silica gel-water adsorption chiller was chosen for this purpose because it has been proven to be an excellent approach to capture the potential of low-grade waste heat and solar energy for practical cooling. They created a controller that allows for programming flexibility, allowing the test facility to run in two-bed and four-bed modes. Two of the beds operate in phase in the two-bed operating mode, but all four beds operate with a constant phase difference in the four-bed operating mode. A cooling water-inlet temperature of 29.4 °C, a chilled water-inlet temperature of 12.2 °C, and a hot water-inlet temperature of 85 °C were used as the operating conditions for both operation modes. The four-bed mode provides a 12% higher ultimate specific-cooling

Fig. 2 Silica gel and water absorption facility [3]

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power for a given heat-exchanger inventory allocation (SCP). The improvement in COP is between 3 and 6% for the same cooling capacity and cycle periods between 250 and 275 s. The COP of the two-bed chiller is increased by 14% at long cycle periods and 38% at short cycle times. The COP of the four-bed chiller, on the other hand, is increased by 25%. Wang and Chua [5] investigated the COP and how it might be enhanced using an effective lumped parameter model. The main idea is always the system’s COP. As a result, when the cooling water is switched on, it first travels past the hot adsorber, which must be precooled before desorption. It was discovered that the cooling water temperature should be as low as feasible to maximize the adsorber bed’s efficiency using the Lumped parameter model. Because the temperature is low, maximum adsorption can occur, but the temperature must not be lower than the evaporator temperature. As a result, COP can rise to 0.3–0.4. Results determined through experiment that the water circulation system played a significant influence in the adsorption technology. The detailed layout of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 3 and Table 1 describing the fluid streams parameters. A 49.4 m2 glass tube solar collector, a silica gel-water adsorption chiller, a cooling tower, and a fan coil unit were created by Luo et al. [6] for a unique solar-powered adsorption cooling system for low-temperature grain storage. The adsorption chiller was made up of two similar adsorption units with an adsorber, a condenser, and an evaporator/receiver in each. Between July and September of 2004, the device was used to cool the headspace of a grain bin in an experimental setting. After three months of operation, the results obtained were promising. With a daily solar cooling coefficient of performance ranging from 0.096 to 0.13, the chiller had a cooling

Fig. 3 Silica-water-based two-bed absorption chiller [5]

222 Table 1 System parameters selected for the experiment [5]

P. Raj et al. Working fluid used in various streams

Temperature, (°C)

Flow rate (kg/s)

Hot water

85–90

1.3

Cooling water

30

1.6

Cooling water to the condenser

30

1.3

Chilled water

10, 12, 14, 16

0.7

Cycle time

450 s

–

Switching time

30 s

–

power between 66 and 90 W/m2 of collector surface. The COP of electric cooling ranged between 2.6 and 3.4. Xia et al. [7] developed a unique Si-Water adsorption chiller. It was a hybrid of two-bed systems with no vacuum valves. There was only one condenser, one adsorber, and one evaporator in their first design. They changed the chiller’s three vacuum chambers, which included two adsorption/desorption vacuum chambers and one heat pipe that served as a vacuum chamber. Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup. The system’s capacity was 8.69 kW, with a COP of 0.388 for a heat source at 82.50 °C and cooling water temperature of 32° C. If dehumidification was not required, the COP reached 0.432 and the RC was approximately 11 kW. The chiller’s evaporator was more efficient and reliable. The chiller’s mass-recovery technique resulted in the highest levels of RC (about 65%) and COP (around 32%).

Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of the improved silica gel–water adsorption chiller [7]

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Chang et al. [8] designed and built a solar-powered compound heating and cooling system for a house in Taiwanese golf course. As an adsorber, evaporator, and condenser, they used plate fin and tube heat exchangers. Figure 5 shows a schematic diagram of their experimental setup. Their work shows that under normal circumstances COP of 0.37 and cooling power of 9 kW were reached using hot water at 800 °C, cold water at 300 °C, and chilled water at 140 °C. The SCP system’s power density was 72W/kg. They got CO of 0.403 and SCP of 7.79 kW in the field test. It was discovered that sun heating has a 28.4% efficiency, adsorption cooling has a 45.2% efficiency, and solar cooling has a 45.2% efficiency 12.8% of the population. The temperature fluctuation of chilled-water outlet could be decreased by placing a small buffer tank after the adsorption chiller’s chilled-water outlet. Miyazaki et al. [9] reported a study of a new cycle time allocation for silica gel-water-based adsorption chillers to improve performance. The new cycle time helped to reduce the variations in delivered chilled water. The adsorption isotherm of RD-type silica get-water pair was described using Freundlich mathematical modeling. The improved cycle time allocation offered allowed for continuous cooling throughout the cycle without sacrificing the pre-heating/pre-cooling effect. The new cycle time was effective for both RD-type silica gel-water and CaCl2-in-silica gelwater pairings, according to their simulation results, and the cooling capacity was raised by up to 6%. In addition, their improved cycle allocation time enhances the system’s COP. Li and Wu [10] designed a two-bed silica gel-water adsorption chiller for a unique micro CCHP system. A transient model of an adsorption chiller was built to illustrate

Fig. 5 Combined heating and cooling system [8]

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the chiller characteristic in their system. The presented model, when compared to simulated and experimental data, performs well in forecasting chiller performance with both steady and fluctuating heat source temperatures. The average value and variable rate of electric load had a substantial impact on capacity and the chiller’s coefficient of performance (COP). The performance of the chiller is also influenced by the water tank. To gain greater performance and a faster start-up time, a 500 L water tank was recommended. A cold accumulator should be used to improve performance while also increasing security. Chen et al. [11] designed an adsorption chiller with two adsorption chambers, a desorption chamber, and a cooled water tank. Because the thermal conductivity of silica gel is low, heat transfer occurs at a slow rate, and they discovered hygroscopic salt in the pores of silica gel to improve the COP of the adsorption system. Finned tube heat exchangers, condensers, and evaporators are employed in this finned tube heat exchanger. After this study, they can establish the ideal cycle time using the observational table. For 720 s cycle timing, the average hot-water temperature, cooling water temperature, and chilled-water temperature are 78.5, 31.5, and 10.5 °C, respectively. The COP is 0.45 as a result of this. A solar water heating unit, a silica gel-water adsorption chiller, a cooling tower, and a fan coil unit were created by Luo, Wang and Dai. [12]. Glass-evacuated tube collectors are used in the solar water heating system. The temperature of the supplied hot water is the most crucial factor. The adsorption chiller used in this learning consists of two identical adsorption units and a second evaporator that uses methanol as a working fluid. Two absorber units are employed for continuous output. The vaporized methanol rises and is condensed by the second evaporator, creating a cascade effect. As a result, the second unit uses adsorption technology to evaporate the water utilized in the evaporator and provide cooling. Scientists conducted a series of tests and revealed that the efficiency of the adsorption chiller is influenced by the water heating unit and the adsorber bed capacity, both of which have various influencing elements. The main deductions are drawn from the experimental analysis. The cooling water flow rate determines the optimum heat and mass-recovery time. For this solar-powered adsorption chiller experiment, the appropriate mass-recovery time is 60–180 s, the heat recovery time is 720–900 s, the hot-water temperature is 65–85 °C, and the evaporator temperature is 10–15 °C. As the temperature of the chilled-water input rises, the COP rises as well. It was revealed that the system’s optimum COP is 0.1–0.3 under these conditions. Zhang et al. [13] employed a lumped parameter model to build a solar-driven and silica gel-water adsorption chiller. It was found that an open circulation of hot water for a short time is better than a closed circulation of hot water for a long duration in this study. Scientists discovered that when the generating temperature is less than or equal to 65 °C, the cycle timing is long for best production and highest COP. For the use of obtaining the outcome, they made several assumptions. The system’s cop fluctuates from 0.30–0.45 for the 10–15 °C of the evaporator and 1100 s cycle timing. The greatest COP is reached when a stable heat source is present and the hot water is circulated in a closed loop. If the stable source is absent, the beginning temperature has a greater impact on the COP.

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According to Wang et al. [14], adsorption degradation must have a significant impact on the performance of the silica gel-water adsorption refrigeration system. Many various silica gel samples were created according to the application circumstances of silica gel in adsorption refrigeration systems to investigate the adsorption deterioration of silica gel. Following that, the primary essentials that supply to such degradation were investigated. They examined the samples’ specific surface area, silanol concentration, adsorption capacity, and pore size distribution. The matching adsorption isotherms were determined based on the test results. When comparing experimental results, it was discovered that a variety of factors influenced the silica gel’s adsorption performance, with pollution being the most important. Furthermore, after being treated with an acid solution, the adsorption performance of the damaged samples was restored. The key equations for constructing a novel empirical lumped analytical simulation model for commercial 450 kW two-bed silica gel-water adsorption chillers integrating mass and heat recovery techniques were presented Rezk and Al-Dadah [15]. The goal of the work is to investigate the impact of operating temperatures on chiller performances as well as the potential of using regeneration temperature lift as a control tool. The impact of cycle time on chiller performance for various operating modes, as well as the usage of a genetic algorithm to calculate the best cycle time based on cooling capacity. The adsorbent bed heat exchanger in their research setup was made of plain copper tubes with aluminum rectangular fins, with silica gel grains packed between the fins. Shell and tube heat exchangers were used for the evaporator and condenser, with the refrigerant flowing on the shell side and the secondary fluid (water) flowing inside the tubes. Plain copper tubes are used for the condenser heat exchanger, whereas externally enhanced high efficiency finned copper tubes are used for the evaporator. They discovered that using generating temperature lift as a load control tool is encouraged by Chiller COP and efficiency behaviors. At a cooling water temperature of 35 °C, for example, the chiller cooling capacity grew practically linearly (from 180 to 342 kW) as the generating temperature lift was increased (from 40 to 65 K). The COP (from 0.63 to 0.60) and efficiency (from 0.68 to 0.52) of the chiller were both reduced only slightly. The optimum ads/des, mass-recovery, and heat recovery time periods were determined to be 345, 12, and 14 s, respectively. The optimum cycle time corresponding to maximum cooling capacity was determined using a genetic algorithm optimization tool, and the revised cycle time boosted chiller cooling capacity by 8.3%. A two-stage Si-Water adsorption desalination (AD) and chiller system were presented by Mitra et al. [16]. They developed a mathematical relationship for the RD-type silica gel + water pair based on mass and energy conservation, as well as isotherms and kinetics. With the use of the LDF model, they were able to anticipate the dynamic characteristics of the adsorber bed. They used the LMTD approach to model the heat exchanger’s dynamics. They added interstate pressure as a new parameter for enhancing the AD chiller system’s two-stage functioning. Because of its increased thermal inertia, the high-pressure stage-2 adsorber’s transient response is slower than the low-pressure stage-1 adsorber, according to their findings. A similar trend was observed in the fluctuation of Specific Cooling Capacity and Specific Daily

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Water-Production with cycle time. In their experiment, the COP grew as the cycle time increased. El-Sharkawy et al. [17] examined the performances of a Si-H2O-based Adsorption cooling system under Middle Eastern climate conditions. They chose Cairo and Aswan in Egypt’s north and south, respectively, as well as Jeddah in Saudi Arabia. They demonstrated the dynamic behavior of a two-bed adsorption chiller with a compound parabolic solar collector. They employed two different configurations for their systems: The Solar-Collector was directly connected to the Adsorption chiller, and between the Chiller and the Collector, a hot-water buffer storage system was constructed. A mathematical model was created and programmed it in MATLAB. A total cycle time of 900 s and a switching time of 45 s were used in the simulation. The temperature of the solar collector was 35–87 °C, the temperature of the adsorber reactors was 35–87 °C, and the temperature of the evaporator was roughly 10 °C. About 2.5 h before sunset, the cycle COPs and solar COPs achieved their maximum values of 0.50 and 0.3, respectively. Under the climate conditions of Cairo and Jeddah, the chiller’s average cooling capacity was around 14.8 kW, while the value for Aswan was around 15.8 kW. The temperature of a solar collector for a chiller without buffer storage rose quicker than the temperature of a chiller with buffer storage, reaching a peak at noon was 90 °C. Similarly, between 14:00 and 15:00, the temperature of a chiller with hotwater buffer storage reached its maximum of 82 °C. At noon, the chiller’s cooling capacity without hot-water buffer storage reached a maximum of 14.6 kW. Similarly, this figure was 13 kW for another system, which was obtained between 14:00 and 15:00. The chiller without hot-water buffer storage has no cooling impact in the morning, but the chiller with hot-water buffer storage produces a 5 kW cooling effect at 8:00. In comparison with the chiller without hot-water buffer storage, the chiller with hot-water buffer storage produced less variable cooling energy. Cooling capacity was increased by using a chiller with a hot-water buffer storage system. Based on the findings, the chiller with hot-water buffer storage increased daily average cooling capacity by up to 12% and daily COP by up to 9% on average. According to Mitra et al. [18], if air-cooled heat rejection is used under tropical conditions, a single-stage adsorption-based cooling cum-desalination system cannot be used, but this can be achieved by operating a silica gel + water adsorption chiller first in a single-stage mode and then in a 2-stage mode with 2 beds/stage in each case. They constructed a two-stage, four-bed Si-H2O adsorption cooling and desalination system. The condenser pressure in their adsorption chiller was 10 kPa, and the evaporator pressure was 1–1.7 kPa. They concluded that pressure rises were bigger and temperature swings were smaller in the two-stage system. They found that the simulated bed pressure differed from the experimentally determined bed pressure acquired by numerical modeling. They stated that the COP was at its highest during the half-cycle period of 1800s. They discovered that as evaporator pressure rises, COP rises as well. The performances of a fin tube-type adsorption chiller were numerically investigated by Hong et al. [19]. They created a two-dimensional axisymmetric transient model and tested the effects of ten various factors, including fin thickness, fin height,

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fin pitch, diffusion coefficient, particle size, cycle time, cycle ratio, hot-water temperature, fluid velocity, and porosity. Using analysis of variance, they discovered the ideal chiller condition (ANOVA). The most important factors determining COP were fin thickness and fin pitch, with contributions of 48.67% and 26.94%, respectively. Lowering the fin thickness resulted in a higher COP since the thermal mass was reduced and the quantity of adsorbent increased, which enhanced Cooling energy. The COP is increased by increasing the fin pitch. Because higher porosity lowered intra-particle resistance, increased intra-mass-transfer capacity, and hence increased adsorption in bed, COP increased with increasing porosity. When the temperature of the incoming water rises, the chiller’s COP drops. However, up to an optimal temperature of 80 °C, COP increased because the increase in heat supply to the adsorber bed is minor compared to the cooling effect gained from the evaporator as the hot-water temperature climbed. After 80 °C, the coefficient of performances (COP) declined. The hot-water temperature had the greatest impact on the chiller’s SCP (74.02%) out of all ten variables. The chiller’s SCP grew as the hot-water temperature rose. This occurred because when the temperature of the hot water rose, the heat-transfer capacity increased, which boosted the desorption ability. As the cycle time grew, the heat and mass-transfer capacity rose, as did the time for adsorption and desorption, resulting in a greater chiller COP. However, as the cycle time grew, the chiller’s SCP decreased. The COP of the chiller increased as the particle size fell because smaller particles had less intra-particle resistance. SCP dropped as fin height grew due to the larger volume of the adsorption bed created by the increasing fin height, reducing heat and mass-transfer capacity. The fin height had no effect on COP. SCP increased when the Diffusion Coefficient increased due to improved intra-particle mass-transfer capacity, resulting in a higher adsorption quantity. The confirmation studies yielded COP 0.6782 and 217.68 W/kg SCP when all of the optimum levels were combined. Adsorption technology was employed by Youssef et al. [20], which required two adsorber beds, an evaporator, and a condenser. Seawater can vaporize at low temperatures and low pressures in the evaporator, and that vapor is transferred to the adsorber bed, where it can adsorb in silica gel, and at desorption time from the hot-water circulation, the pressure rises, the temperature of the condenser and evaporator in this work ranges from 10 to 30 °C, and the hot and cold temperatures are 85 and 30 °C, respectively. The system has a COP of 0.45 and a cycle time of 425 s. Researchers discovered that as the condenser temperature dropped or the evaporator temperature rose, the COP reached its peak, changing the vapor to a liquid and then passes through the condenser and is cooled. Therefore, that shows the desalination cycle as well as layout of condenser and evaporator used (Fig. 6). Four distinct types of adsorber beds were tested by Zhu et al. [21]. They discovered that the size of the vehicle radiator utilized as the adsorber bed had an impact on performance. As a result, they worked on all four types of adsorber beds at the same time in this project. As seen in Tables 2 and 3, as the vehicle radiator is increased, the system’s dead volume decreases, and dead volume indicates that vapor is trapped in the adsorber bed, requiring more energy. By boosting heat and mass transferability and lowering the proportion of dead volume, the COP of the adsorption

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Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of the condenser and evaporator used in experimental facility

refrigeration system has significantly improved. The system’s maximum COP is 0.30 for evaporator temperature of 10–15 °C. Najeh et al. [22] devised an experimental setup that included an internal combustion gas engine (co-generator), a refrigerating adsorption machine, thermal solar collectors, and a timber structure divided into two compartments, one cold and one hot, with chilling ceilings and heating floors. They devised a model for simulation. It was put to the test in terms of experimental measurements. Their research focuses on the numerical analysis of refrigeration systems with silica gel-water pair with SIMULINK. They discovered the COP and refrigeration power of the refrigerator through experimentation. The ENERBAT technology platform supplied experimental measurements that allowed a simulation model to be fine-tuned. The model was global, allowing the modification of physical factors such as temperature and pressure in each machine component to be tracked during the cold manufacturing, as Table 2 Performance of the adsorption refrigeration system with different types of adsorber S. No

Selection of radiator

Dead volume (%)

SCP

COP

1

6 large radiators

70.5

140.1

0.26

2

7 large radiators

65.6

145.1

0.26

3

8 large radiators

60.6

150.2

0.27

4

12 large radiators

65.7

169.0

0.28

Table 3 Various operating condition Hot water temperature (°C) Adsorption/Desorption time (s) Heat and mass recovery time (s) 85

720

180

80

600

150

70

480

60

65

420

30

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the mass of water vapor adsorbed Their model’s numerical results were associated in line with experimental findings. In Bangalore, India, Jaiswal et al. [23] investigated the dynamic performance of a single-stage, two-bed SI-Water adsorption chiller. Evacuated Tube Collector was used. They used daily averages of the solar coefficient of performance (DACOPsol) and cooling capacity to assess system performance (DACC). Using the right solar collector area and cycle time, both of these parameters would be maximized. They discovered that the CACC rises as the solar collector area grows as the hot water-inlet temperature rises. When the cycle period for a fixed collection area was doubled, a similar impact was seen. The CACC is practically constant throughout mid-day when the hot water-inlet temperature hits its maximum permissible limit of 950 °C, as well as a very large collector area or long cycle duration. For a fixed cycle time, the DACC grew as the solar collector area increased. However, for a given solar collector area, it reached an optimum at a particular cycle time, after which it began to decline due to a hot water-inlet temperature limit. Because hot water hits 950 °C depending on the collector area and irradiance, the ideal cycle time varied with changes in the collector area and the month of operation. Regardless of cycle duration, the maximum DACOPsol reduced as collector area increased. For successful operation of a solardriven adsorption chiller directly linked to the collector field without thermal storage, the collector area size and cycle time were critical parameters. Design of few novel system was also analyzed and discussed in references [24–29] (Table 4).

2 Different Working Adsorbent/Rrefrigerant Pairs The working adsorbent/refrigerant pairs have a significant impact on the overall performance, as well as the design and operating parameters for an ARS. In general, good adsorbents should have a larger temperature range of adsorption capacity, better heat- and mass-transfer capabilities, thermal stability, and low contamination susceptibility. In addition, the heat of vaporization, thermal conductivity, boiling point and working pressures, reactivity and stability, toxicity, environmental impact, and freezing point of a refrigerant should all be investigated. Adsorption isotherms, as depicted, are often used to assess the adsorption capacity of an adsorbent-refrigerant pair. These isotherms give the quantity of adsorbed mass taken up by the adsorbent as a function of pressure at constant temperatures after reaching thermodynamic equilibrium. As a result, isotherms can be used to compare adsorbent-adsorbate couples and their evolution. When the adsorbent domain is subjected to transient operating circumstances, however, a kinetic model is necessary to characterize the mass-transfer kinetics and to calculate the instantaneous amount of adsorbate via a relationship with the equilibrium uptake determined by the isotherms. Intra-particle mass transport resistance is referred to as mass-transfer kinetics. The ability of an ARS to have a significant cooling capacity is increased by increasing its adsorption capacity, which determines the total amount of refrigerant that can be adsorbed in a cycle. However, because the duration of the adsorption cycle is controlled by

Chiller

Chiller

Silica gel-water advanced adsorption by Bidyut B Saha et al.

Study silica chiller of get by novel water DC Wang et al.

Experimental investigation of silica gel-water adsorption chillers by Xialon wang et al.

Two-bed silica Chiller gel-water adsorption chillers Xiaolin Wang et al.

Two-bed silica gel Water adsorption Chillers Xiaolin Wang et al.

Experiment study of improved by Zaizhoug Xia et al.

2

3

4

5

6

7

Adsorption chiller

Grain storage

Chiller

Application

Chiller

Author name

Modeling of a silica gel/water by Soon Hamng Cho et al.

S. No.

1

Waste heat

Solar energy

–

–

Waste heat

Waste heat

Waste heat

Input energy

Table 4 Summary of research work done on adsorption system P kPa

–

–

0.9–20

–

–

–

9.4

Tg °C

82.5

65–80

85

85

84.8

40–60

80

Te °C

11.9

10

14–15

12.2

11.7

12

4–7

Tc °C

30.4

–

30

29.4

30.6

30

20

Cycle time (s)

1620

600–900

1200

250–275

900

330

600

COP/SCP

0.388

0.45

0.4

0.3–0.35

0.38

0.2–0.25

–

Capacity

(continued)

8.69 KW

–

–

–

9 KW

1.5–1.8 KW

1.2RT

230 P. Raj et al.

Theoretical research of a silica gel-water by S. Li et al.

New cycle time Chiller allocation for enhancing the performance of two-bed adsorption chiller by T. Miyozaki

Simulation on compact silica and water

Effect of operation parameter on the performance of a solar-powered adsorption chiller Huilong Luo et al.

Simulation of operating G. Zhang et al.

9

10

11

12

13

Chiller

Chiller

Chiller

Chiller

Design and Compound system for performance of a Si + heating and cooling water by W. S. Chang et al.

8

Application

Author name

S. No.

Table 4 (continued)

–

Solar energy

–

–

Engine waste heat

Solar energy

Input energy

–

–

–

–

–

–

P kPa

100

60–90

65

85.7

85

80

Tg °C

10–15

10

20

14.8

20

14

Te °C

25

30

31

–

31.1

30

Tc °C

1100

900

1000–1100

500–600

1000–1100

–

Cycle time (s)

–

0.317

0.4

0.65

0.4

0.37

COP/SCP

(continued)

–

1.2 Tr

10KW

11 KW

16 KW

7.15 KW

Capacity

Comprehensive Study on Solar Adsorption Cooling System 231

Solar energy

–

Simulation study of a Adsorption two-stage adsorber by desalination and Sourav Mitra et al. chilling

Potential application of solar-powered adsorption cooling system in a Middle East by Ibrahim et al.

Performance evaluation of a two-stage si + water by Sourav

Effect of ev and con by P. G Youssef et al.

Performance analysis of four types by LQ Zhu et al.

16

17

18

19

20

Refrigerator

Chiller

Adsorption desalination and chilling

Adsorption cooling system

Chiller

Solar energy

–

Solar energy

–

–

Physical and operating condition by Ahmed RM Rezk et al.

Input energy

15

Chiller

Investigation of adsorption performance deterioration in silica gel-water adsorption by Dechang Wang et al.

14

Application

Author name

S. No.

Table 4 (continued)

–

–

1–6.7

–

0.9–20

–

10

P kPa

90

65–85

85

87

85

90

80

Tg °C

15–20

–

15

10

–

10

–

Te °C

–

–

30

30

30

30

25

Tc °C

720

425

2400

900

1200

350–400

–

Cycle time (s)

720

0.450

0.25

0.300

0.23

0.68

–

COP/SCP

(continued)

3.2KW

–

–

–

21 KW

4.5 KW

–

Capacity

232 P. Raj et al.

Chiller

Chiller

Influence of cycle time by Ankush Kumar Jaiswal et al.

Performance of silica gel-water solar-adsorption cooling system by Ghilen Najeh et al.

22

23

Chiller

Optimization of a fin-tube type adsorption chiller by S. W. hong et al.

21

Application

Author name

S. No.

Table 4 (continued)

–

–

–

Input energy

–

–

–

P kPa

94

95

60–90

Tg °C

15

13

15

Te °C

–

32

30

Tc °C

840

2400

400–500

Cycle time (s)

840

2400

400–500

COP/SCP

3–5 KW

16 KW

–

Capacity

Comprehensive Study on Solar Adsorption Cooling System 233

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P. Raj et al.

mass-transfer kinetics, faster mass-transfer kinetics are necessary to ensure increased cooling capacity.

3 Silica Gel-Water Systems Silica gel is a granular, vitreous, and extremely porous amorphous silicon dioxide (SiO2) manufactured synthetically from sodium silicate. High density silica gel, with pore diameters in the range of 2.0–3.5 nm, pore volume of 0.3–0.4 cm3 /g, and specific surface area of 400–700 m2 /g. Other silica gels with large pore diameters can be employed as a host material in composite adsorbents. Several researchers explored the thermodynamic properties of the silica gel-water working pair experimentally as in, and the empirically discovered parameters for the isotherm equations were obtained from the experimental data. Several studies tested the performance of the two-bed silica gel-water system experimentally and analytically. The fundamental advantage of silica gel over other adsorbents is that its regeneration temperature is approximately 85 °C, making it ideal for solar energy and low-temperature waste heat sources. Furthermore, when a multi-stage setup system is used, it could go as low as 50 °C. In this instance, the dynamic losses owing to the heat capacities of the adsorber components are minimized, resulting in greater COPs because the adsorbent and the container vessel do not need to be heated to high temperatures. However, the temperature of desorption must not be too high. Silica gel is destroyed at temperatures above 120 °C. Adsorption heat is 2500–2800 kJ/kg, which is higher than activated carbon pair. In addition, silica gel porosity (100– 1000 m2 /g) is smaller than activated carbon. Under typical operating conditions, the maximal adsorption capacity at equilibrium may be between 0.35 and 0.4 kg/kg silica gel, but the net change in the instantaneous amount of adsorbate could not exceed 0.1 kg water/kg silica gel. Another disadvantage is the freezing point of water, which limits the evaporation temperature, and the absorption is also hampered by a low vacuum, making silica gel-water refrigeration systems better suited to air conditioning applications with high chilled-water flow rates.

4 Zeolite-Water Systems Zeolites are alumina silicate crystals made of alkali or alkali soil that are microporous. The desorption temperature range for the zeolite-water working pair is 70–250 °C. The adsorber can be directly heated by engine exhaust gases due to its steady performance at high temperatures. As a result, the zeolite-water system is less complicated than the hot-water system. However, zeolite-water adsorption heat is higher than silica gel-water adsorption heat, ranging between 3300 and 4200 kJ/kg, resulting in low COPs, in addition to the disadvantages of utilizing water as a refrigerant. Several

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experimental and theoretical researches have been presented to study and improve the performance of zeolite-water adsorption systems, especially for car air cooling.

5 Conclusion According to the above study, the vapor-adsorption cooling system can be powered by solar energy, industrial waste heat, and car exhaust heat. These cooling systems are a viable alternative to the Vapor-Compression Refrigeration System, especially in isolated places where conventional cooling is difficult to come by and solar energy is abundant. The COP of such systems are lower than that of a standard VCRS system, but it can be increased by extending the cycle duration and raising the generation temperature. Finally, the study reveals that adsorption cooling still needs additional research and has the potential to become a traditional technology.

References 1. Cho SH, Kim JN (1992) Modeling of a silica gel/water adsorption-cooling system. Energy 17(9):829–839 2. Saha BB, Akisawa A, Kashiwagi T (1997) Silica gel water advanced adsorption refrigeration cycle. Energy 22(4):437–447 3. Wang DC, Wu JY, Xia ZZ, Zhai H, Wang RZ, Dou WD (2005) Study of a novel silica gel–water adsorption chiller. Part II. Experimental study. Int J Refrig 28(7):1084–1091 4. Wang X, Chua HT, Ng KC (2005) Experimental investigation of silica gel–water adsorption chillers with and without a passive heat recovery scheme. Int J Refrig 28(5):756–765 5. Wang X, Chua HT (2007) Two bed silica gel–water adsorption chillers: an effectual lumped parameter model. Int J Refrig 30(8):1417–1426 6. Luo HL, Wang RZ, Dai YJ, Wu JY, Shen JM, Zhang BB (2007) An efficient solar-powered adsorption chiller and its application in low-temperature grain storage. Sol Energy 81(5):607– 613 7. Xia Z, Wang D, Zhang J (2008) Experimental study on improved two-bed silica gel–water adsorption chiller. Energy Convers Manage 49(6):1469–1479 8. Chang WS, Wang CC, Shieh CC (2009) Design and performance of a solar-powered heating and cooling system using silica gel/water adsorption chiller. Appl Therm Eng 29(10):2100–2105 9. Miyazaki T, Akisawa A, Saha BB, El-Sharkawy II, Chakraborty A (2009) A new cycle time allocation for enhancing the performance of two-bed adsorption chillers. Int J Refrig 32(5):846– 853 10. Li S, Wu JY (2009) Theoretical research of a silica gel–water adsorption chiller in a micro combined cooling, heating and power (CCHP) system. Appl Energy 86(6):958–967 11. Chen CJ, Wang RZ, Xia ZZ, Kiplagat JK, Lu ZS (2010) Study on a compact silica gel– water adsorption chiller without vacuum valves: design and experimental study. Appl Energy 87(8):2673–2681 12. Luo H, Wang R, Dai Y (2010) The effects of operation parameter on the performance of a solar-powered adsorption chiller. Appl Energy 87(10):3018–3022 13. Zhang G, Wang DC, Zhang JP, Han YP, Sun W (2011) Simulation of operating characteristics of the silica gel–water adsorption chiller powered by solar energy. Sol Energy 85(7):1469–1478

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14. Wang D, Zhang J, Xia Y, Han Y, Wang S (2012) Investigation of adsorption performance deterioration in silica gel–water adsorption refrigeration. Energy Convers Manage 58:157–162 15. Rezk AR, Al-Dadah RK (2012) Physical and operating conditions effects on silica gel/water adsorption chiller performance. Appl Energy 89(1):142–149 16. Mitra S, Kumar P, Srinivasan K, Dutta P (2014) Simulation study of a two-stage adsorber system. Appl Therm Eng 72(2):283–288 17. El-Sharkawy II, AbdelMeguid H, Saha BB (2014) Potential application of solar powered adsorption cooling systems in the Middle East. Appl Energy 126:235–245 18. Mitra S, Kumar P, Srinivasan K, Dutta P (2015) Performance evaluation of a two-stage silica gel+ water adsorption based cooling-cum-desalination system. Int J Refrig 58:186–198 19. Hong SW, Ahn SH, Kwon OK, Chung JD (2015) Optimization of a fin-tube type adsorption chiller by design of experiment. Int J Refrig 49:49–56 20. Youssef PG, Al-Dadah RK, Mahmoud SM, Dakkama HJ, Elsayed A (2015) Effect of evaporator and condenser temperatures on the performance of adsorption desalination cooling cycle. Energy Procedia 75:1464–1469 21. Zhu LQ, Gong ZW, Ou BX, Wu CL (2015) Performance analysis of four types of adsorbent beds in a double-adsorber adsorption refrigerator. Procedia Eng 121:129–137 22. Najeh G, Slimane G, Souad M, Riad B (2016) Performance of silica gel-water solar adsorption cooling system. Case Stud Therm Eng 8:337–345 23. Jaiswal AK, Mitra S, Dutta P, Srinivasan K, Murthy SS (2016) Influence of cycle time and collector area on solar driven adsorption chillers. Sol Energy 136:450–459 24. Pavithran A, Sharma M, Shukla AK (2021) An investigation on the effect of PCM incorporation in refrigerator through CFD simulation. Mater Today Proc 46:5555–5564 25. Hawkins G, Sharma M, Shukla AK (2021) Waste heat management in hybrid vehicles for cabin cooling. In: Advances in fluid and thermal engineering. Springer, Singapore, pp 831–846 26. Daniel C, Shukla AK, Sharma M, Phanden RK, Ojha MK (2022) Design and fabrication of thermoelectric air-cooling system. J Phys Conf Ser 2178(1):012004. IOP Publishing 27. Ojha MK, Shukla AK, Verma P, Kannojiya R (2021) Recent progress and outlook of solar adsorption refrigeration systems. Mater Today Proc 46:5639–5646 28. Shukla AK, Singh O (2017) Thermodynamic investigation of parameters affecting the execution of steam injected cooled gas turbine based combined cycle power plant with vapor absorption inlet air cooling. Appl Therm Eng 122:380–388 29. Sharma M, Singh O (2017) Energy and exergy investigations upon tri-generation based combined cooling, heating, and power (CCHP) system for community applications. Gas Turbine India Conf 58516:V002T06A002. American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Analyzing the Factors Influencing the Market Feasibility of Alternative Fuel-Based Vehicles Ankita Dan, Aman Raj, Vrinda, and Pravin Kumar

Abstract The popularity of electric vehicles (EVs) has been ever-increasing, because of numerous reasons, including the rapid diminution of petroleum reserves, significant changes in gasoline prices, and high reliance on politically unpredictable oil-producing nations. GHG emissions from automobiles, combined with depleting natural resources, have sparked global concern about climate change and prompted the deployment of alternative fuel technology. Alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) especially EVs are viewed as a potential green and sustainable technology that can facilitate a gradual shift to a low-carbon economy while conserving finite natural resources. Due to the rising demand for traditional gasoline vehicles, which has resulted in increased petroleum fuel consumption, governments are attempting to reduce pollution by transitioning to AFVs. The goal of this study is to discover, prioritize, and find relative weights of all possible factors affecting the feasibility of potential alternative vehicles through DEMATEL (Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory). According to the result, the most essential factor influencing the feasibility of AFVs is infrastructure availability followed by charging/refueling time, environmental impacts, and vehicle upfront cost. This study will help to determine the most viable approaches and strategies for implementing a long-term, sustainable transition from gasoline vehicles to AFVs. Keywords Alternative fuel vehicles · Government initiatives · Sustainability · DEMATEL

1 Introduction The fast population growth and the rising standard of living are widely acknowledged as the primary drivers of rising global energy consumption. Presently, fossil fuels are used to meet a large portion of this energy demand, although they possess some severe drawbacks [1]. Automotive GHG emissions, combined with dwindling natural A. Dan (B) · A. Raj · Vrinda · P. Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi 110042, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_20

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resources, have raised worldwide concern about climate change, spurring the adoption of alternative fuel technology. EVs can be considered as a viable option for green and sustainable technology that can promote a gradual shift toward a low-carbon economy while also conserving finite natural resources. Despite all the advantages, EV adoption is hampered by several challenges such as increased energy storage costs, insufficient charging infrastructure, and longer charging time [2]. The Government of India has undertaken supportive initiatives to boost the shift to alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) from conventional vehicles through a number of policy initiatives involving numerous departments and policy-making organizations. By 2030, the country plans to transition to electric vehicles. The administration wants auto manufacturers to shift to electric vehicle production, and this will save the country $60 billion in fuel price, cut emissions by 37%, and minimize dependence on foreign fuel imports, while also safeguarding the nation from petroleum price and economic instability [3]. Consumer survey, ISM, and MICMAC are some prominent methods to find relationships and prioritize the impediments for the adoption of AFVs. Tarei et al. [2] conducted a study that identified the hurdles to EV adoption and ranked them using the Best Worst Method (BWM). Prakash et al. [4] examined a range of challenges to EV mass adoption in the Indian automobile market using the ISM approach. The majority of the articles narrowed down their research to classify and prioritize the hurdles in adopting the AFVs and do not incorporate all the potentials of AFVs. The factors enlisted in the literature are not sufficient for determining the feasibility of AFVs. The goal of this study is to explore the factors from literature review as well as from the industry and prioritize them for the feasibility testing of all potential alternative vehicles for a long-term sustainability.

2 Literature Review There is a necessity for a progressive shift from conventional automobiles to AFVs such as EVs, hydrogen vehicles, biofuels, and solar vehicles to lessen the negative environmental consequences while also aiding in the preservation of non-renewable fuel supplies during their entire life cycle. The potential factors that support the development of alternative vehicle technologies have been examined in this study to analyze the practicality of these vehicle types. Through the literature survey, the following 10 factors influencing the viability of AFVs have been determined.

2.1 Sustainability (H1) AFV’s feasibility analysis necessitates a comprehensive triple bottom line sustainable process that incorporates a diverse range of economic, environmental, and social aspects [5]. Even though numerous researchers have utilized life cycle methodologies

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to evaluate the environmental aspect of AFVs, only a few studies are available that focus on the socio-economic aspects of sustainability. The bulk of research which studied the environmental consequences of vehicles focused on only a few areas of environmental influences, such as energy consumption, GHG emissions, and some mid-point indicators [6, 7]. The absence of proper methodology, tools, and data availability contributes to the problems in precisely measuring the larger social and economic implications of transportation. Along with environmental sustainability, the economical component of sustainability should be investigated [8].

2.2 Fuel/Electricity Cost (H2) Low fuel cost is one of the key enablers toward the consumer adoption of AFVs. Soaring crude oil prices, as well as government incentives aimed at achieving fuel independence, have been driving factors behind the growing use of EVs [9]. Nanaki and Koroneos [10] conducted an economic assessment of conventional gasoline, hybrid, and Evs and considered fuel cost as one of the important economic criteria for evaluation. Hidrue et al. [11] assessed the willingness to pay for different electric vehicle attributes, and the study showed fuel cost saving as one of the primary enablers toward EV adoption. HEVs have a significantly lower fuel cost per mile than gasoline vehicles. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) have marginally lower viability due to the high cost of hydrogen generation; however, as advanced and more viable hydrogen storage and production systems are developed, hydrogen vehicles’ fuel costs are predicted to be economical with electric vehicles [1].

2.3 Environmental Implications (H3) In most of the research articles, EVs are viewed as a potential answer for lowering the transportation industry’s environmental impact. EVs outperform gasoline vehicles in terms of carbon emissions throughout their complete life cycle [12]. Due to the significant CO2 and SO2 emissions, traditional gasoline vehicles have the largest environmental impact and are classified as the least eco-friendly. The sulfur and GHG emissions from hydrogen-fueled engines are the lowest [1]. EVs combined with low-carbon electricity sources can lower GHG emissions and exhaust emissions. Bicer and Dincer [13] evaluated the impact on the environment of conventional gasoline and alternative fuel-based vehicles under different impact categories. In all environmental effect areas, hydrogen vehicles emerge out as the most sustainable option. During operation, EVs do not generate CO2 ; however, the production and disposal of batteries have environmental effects.

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2.4 Maintenance Costs (H4) The minimal maintenance requirements of AFVs are one of the fundamental factors promoting their adoption. The use of EVs is being driven by the need for less battery maintenance [14]. Verma et al. [15] performed the life cycle analysis using the maintenance cost as a primary criterion. In comparison with conventional vehicles, EVs have lower maintenance costs per kilometer and require fewer maintenance activities [16]. Hawkins et al. [17] reported that EVs have a significant advantage over traditional vehicles in respect to zero tailpipe emissions, superior efficiency of powertrain, low maintenance, and improved metropolitan air quality. The paucity and high maintenance costs of hydrogen refueling stations are major roadblocks that can be overcome by efficient station monitoring resulting in maintenance cost reduction and improved reliability [18].

2.5 Charging/Refueling Time (H5) One of the most common consumer concerns about EV adoption is charging time. Hidrue et al. [11] assessed the willingness to pay for different electric vehicle attributes and the results highlighted long charging time as one of the major impediments toward EV adoption. EV charging time, even with the most advanced charging technology, is much longer than gas refueling (20–30 min for a full charge) [19]. Biresselioglu et al. [20] studied electric mobility in Europe and found that longer charging/refueling time is one of the bottlenecks to widespread EV adoption. In a future hydrogen economy, comparable refueling durations between a gasoline vehicle and an HFCV are expected for market adoption. Currently, the fuel tanks of gasoline vehicles can be filled in less than 5 min at the pump. The current technical target established by the US Department of Energy for the refueling time of a hydrogen tank is 3 min for 5 kg of hydrogen [21].

2.6 Availability of Raw Materials (H6) The availability of lithium resources is critical for a gradual shift from conventional automobiles to EVs. South American countries like Argentina, Chile, and Bolivia have the world’s largest lithium reserves. However, the natural reserves of lithium are quite scarce [22]. The instability in lithium supply is due to the confinement of more than two-thirds of the Lithium resources in a single place [23]. Some nations have already implemented export limitations on lithium, which could result in a serious scarcity and a rise in raw material costs in other nations across the world [24]. In the case of hydrogen vehicles, the feasibility of a global hydrogen supply chain is imperative. Storage and transportation are critical components for developing a

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global hydrogen supply chain. However, the physicochemical features of hydrogen present substantial challenges for its widespread adoption around the world [25].

2.7 Vehicle Range (H7) The range of EVs is still inferior to that of the internal combustion engine. EV’s battery is a valuable asset. Its effective design is crucial for sustainable usage, as it consumes a significant quantity of energy and scarce element reserves in the manufacturing process and, as a result, has a significant impact on an EV’s ecological footprint [26]. Furthermore, greater battery capacity for increased range entails a high upfront cost [27]. Numerous researches reviewing data on travel behavior have focused on assessing acceptable EV range. Improved range of vehicles and widespread availability of charging infrastructure can assist to alleviate range anxiety among consumers and ensure that EVs function similarly to conventional vehicles [28]. Customers prefer HFCVs over EVs because of their increased range [29].

2.8 Government Initiatives (H8) Public sentiments toward EVs were studied by Larson et al. [30], and it was discovered that individuals are reluctant to pay significant premiums for EVs. Many countries’ governments have proposed a range of economic plans to stimulate the adoption of EVs [31]. In practice, there are two sorts of government benefits: financial and non-financial. Non-financial federal aid comes at no cost to the taxpayer and incorporates things like allowing EVs to special license plates and use bus lanes [32]. Economic government assistance, such as cashback programs, can be classified into one-time and ongoing advantages. Subsidies offered such as discounts on upfront expenses and tax exemptions are examples of one-time incentives. Ongoing incentives are monetary subsidies with no upper limit, such as parking charges and energy bill rebates [33].

2.9 Upfront Cost of Vehicle (H9) According to a survey, the initial cost is one of the biggest deterrents for purchasing an EV [34]. The cost of an AFV is approximately $ 18,000–70,000 more than a conventional vehicle [35]. Acceptance of AFVs is higher in wealthy countries like Norway, where people have more purchasing power than in emerging nations like India, where people consider AFVs to be pricey [36]. With respect to a cheaper gasoline vehicle, the estimated payback time for an EV is 20 years. Another study discovered that it takes 10 years for the total ownership cost of an EV to meet the

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initial cost and operating cost of a gasoline vehicle [37]. The purchase price of AFV must be decreased to a level that is affordable to the general public [38].

2.10 Infrastructure Availability (H10) The EV market is projected to accelerate at a rate of 41% annually. During the timeframe, 2016–2019, the magnitude of availability of infrastructure issues surged from 13 to 38% [39]. As per the McKinsey report, the cumulative number of EVs on the road in the EU, US, and China by 2030 is expected to reach 120 million. The charging and refueling infrastructure for AFVs is extremely restricted throughout the country and has mostly been designed to accommodate light-duty electric vehicles [40]. Heavy-duty vehicles will necessitate infrastructure with greater capacity and different sites that correspond to the vehicles’ routes [41].

3 Research Methodology The framework used for the research methodology is shown in Fig. 1. To assess the priority of factors that affects the viability of AFVs, the DEMATEL technique is used. It was first proposed by American scholars A. Gabus and E. Fontela in the early 1970s [42]. Out of 15 experts consulted, 9 decided to assist put the proposed methodology into effect. Industry experts from the Indian automobile sector and research scholars working in the subject of alternative fuels, electric, and future mobility were engaged in the study. The interdependency of each factor is graded on a 5-point rating scale by the experts to evaluate the priority/relative weights of the factors through DEMATEL. In the DEMATEL methodology, the following mathematical stages are followed: Step 1: Identify the set of factors influencing the feasibility of AFVs through the literature survey. Step 2: Construction of initial direct relationship matrix: To determine the interrelationship between the impact factors, the industry experts were asked to rate the

Fig. 1 The framework for research methodology

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direct influence of each factor i on each factor j, as indicated by ai j . The initial direct relation matrix A is represented as shown in Eq. (1). ⎡

0 ⎢ ⎢ a21 ⎢ ⎢ . ⎢ .. ⎢ A=⎢ ⎢ ai1 ⎢ ⎢ . ⎢ . ⎣ . an1

a12 · · · a1 j · · · 0 · · · a2 j · · · .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . ai2 · · · ai j · · · .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . an2 · · · an j · · ·

⎤ a1n ⎥ a2n ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ain ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎦ 0

(1)

Step 3: Normalization of Direct relationship matrix: Eqs. (2) and (3) are used to normalize the initial matrix. The resulting normalized matrix is hence constructed and denoted by D. D=k×A

(2)

where k= max(

1 n 

(3) ai j )

j=1

Step 4: Establishing total relationship matrix: With the help of normalized matrix D, the total relationship matrix ‘T ’ is calculated. T = D(I − D)−1

(4)

I is the Identity matrix. Step 5: Calculation of casual parameters ‘R’ and ‘C’: These casual parameters are calculated using the below Eqs. (6) and (7) ] T = ti j , i, j = 1, 2, . . . , . . . , n

R = [ri ]n×1

⎡ ⎤ n ∑ =⎣ ti j ⎦ j=1

C = [ci ]n×1 =

[ n ∑ i=1

]

(5)

(6) n×1

ti j

(7) n×1

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Here, ri is the sum of the ith row in the matrix T , i.e., ri represents the sum of the impact of factor i on the other factors. Similarly, c j is the sum of the jth column in the matrix T , i.e., c j represents the sum of the impact of factor j on the other factors. Step 6: Calculation of analyzed criteria weight: The weight of the assessed criteria is decided at this stage, taking into account the influence relationship between them. To calculate the analyzed criteria weight, Eqs. (8) and (9) are used as shown below. √ wi = (R + C)2 + (R − C)2 (8) Using Eq. (8), the wi weights are normalized, wi Wi = n i=1

wi

(9)

4 Result and Discussion Through literature review and expert opinion, we determined the 10 factors influencing the feasibility of AFVs. The factors are listed as follows: Sustainability (H1); Fuel/Electricity cost (H2); Environmental Implications (H3); Non-operating cost (H4); Charging/Refueling time (H5); Availability of Raw materials (H6); Vehicle Range (H7); Government Initiatives (H8); Upfront Cost of Vehicle (H9); and Infrastructure Availability (H10). DEMATEL is used to prioritize the identified factors. The direct influence matrix is calculated using expert knowledge, as illustrated in Table 1. The direct relationship matrix is converted to a normalized decision matrix, which is then used to compute the total relationship matrix T. The casual parameters R and C are then utilized to determine the weightage of each component to prioritize the factors identified. The relative weights and final rankings of each factor are shown in Table 2. According to the relative weights, the factors are prioritized in the following order: H10 > H5 > H3 > H9 > H1 > H7 > H8 > H6 > H2 > H4, indicating that Infrastructure Availability is the most influencing factor followed by Charging/Refueling time, Environmental Implications, Upfront Cost of Vehicle, Sustainability, Vehicle Range, Government Initiatives, Availability of Raw materials, Fuel/Electricity cost, and Non-operating cost. Biresselioglu et al. [20] has also observed that the unavailability of charging infrastructure, economic constraints (purchase price), environmental benefits, and charging time are the most significant factors in adoption of alternative fuel-based vehicles. The topmost important factor influencing the viability of AFVs is Infrastructure Availability. Currently in India, most of the vehicles operate on gasoline, but adequate infrastructure facilities for AFVs will be necessary for the future and the density of charging/refueling stations needs to be expanded. The second most influencing factor

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Table 1 Direct influence matrix H1

H1

H2

H3

H4

H5

H6

H7

H8

H9

H10

0

4

2

3

4

4

2

3

3

2

H2

3

0

4

4

2

4

3

4

4

5

H3

4

3

0

5

5

5

4

5

4

5

H4

2

2

2

0

2

3

2

3

2

3

H5

5

3

4

4

0

4

5

5

4

5

H6

2

2

2

3

2

0

2

3

2

3

H7

4

2

3

4

4

4

0

4

4

4

H8

3

2

3

3

2

3

2

0

3

2

H9

5

3

3

5

4

4

4

5

0

4

H10

5

3

4

4

4

5

3

4

5

0

Table 2 Priority/Ranking of factors R

C

R+C

R–C

Cause/Effect

Relative weights

Priority/Ranking

H1

2.87

3.46

6.33

−0.59

Effect

0.096

5

H2

3.48

2.59

6.07

0.88

Cause

0.093

9

H3

4.14

2.86

7.01

1.27

Cause

0.108

3

H4

2.26

3.65

5.91

−1.39

Effect

0.092

10

H5

4.06

3.07

7.13

0.99

Cause

0.109

2

H6

2.26

3.76

6.02

−1.50

Effect

0.094

8

H7

3.47

2.85

6.32

0.61

Cause

0.096

6

H8

2.47

3.75

6.22

−1.28

Effect

0.096

7

H9

3.81

3.25

7.06

0.55

Cause

0.107

4

H10

3.85

3.41

7.27

0.43

Cause

0.110

1

is charging/refueling time. Consumer’s buying decision for any AFV is largely driven by the charging/refueling time. Today’s drivers are accustomed to refilling their fuel tanks in under five minutes and expect equivalent time while charging/refueling AFVs. To tackle the issue of slow charging, the government is investigating a viable model for swapping EV batteries. The third most vital aspect is the environmental impact of AFVs. Increased use of these AFVs will result in considerable reductions in GHG emissions. In terms of exhaust emissions, AFVs outperform conventional vehicles. To pivot the efforts to minimize GHG emissions, proper recycling and disposal of essential components used in AFVs are vital. Due to the restricted supply of critical raw materials, recycling of these elements may be a viable solution to the raw material unavailability and the higher upfront cost of AFVs which is the next significant factor influencing the feasibility of AFVs. AFVs become more cost-effective because of

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economic incentives. Another alternative is to rent battery packs, which would reduce the overall costs.

5 Conclusion The focus of this research is to discover and evaluate all potential factors influencing the feasibility of all vehicle types in the Indian context. A thorough literature survey is conducted to identify all relevant factors affecting the viability of the vehicles. DEMATEL technique was used to rank the various criteria and determine their relative weighting. According to our DEMATEL analysis, the four most important factors affecting the viability of vehicles are infrastructure availability, charging/refueling time, environmental implication, and the upfront cost of vehicles. A significant increase in adoption of the alternative vehicles is a phenomenon that is liable to be observed under the circumstances, which entail the prevalent availability of infrastructure along with reduced charging/refueling time and the low upfront cost of vehicles. This research could be used to develop strategies and approaches for increasing the viability and adoption of AFVs. The relative weights established can be utilized to rank potential alternatives. With a larger sample size, the results can be further validated.

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11. Hidrue MK, Parsons GR, Kempton W, Gardner MP (2011) Willingness to pay for electric vehicles and their attributes. Resour Energy Econ 33(3):686–705 12. Franzò S, Nasca A (2021) The environmental impact of electric vehicles: a novel life cyclebased evaluation framework and its applications to multi-country scenarios. J Clean Prod 315:128005 13. Bicer Y, Dincer I (2018) Life cycle environmental impact assessments and comparisons of alternative fuels for clean vehicles. Resour Conserv Recycl 132:141–157 14. Saw LH, Ye Y, Tay AA (2016) Integration issues of lithium-ion battery into electric vehicles battery pack. J Clean Prod 113:1032–1045 15. Verma S, Dwivedi G, Verma P (2021) Life cycle assessment of electric vehicles in comparison to combustion engine vehicles: a review. Mater Today Proc 16. Lopez NS, Tria LA, Tayo LA, Cruzate RJ, Oppus C, Cabacungan P, Isla Jr I, Ansay A, Garcia T, Cruz KC, Biona JBM (2021) Societal cost-benefit analysis of electric vehicles in the Philippines with the inclusion of impacts to balance of payments. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 150:111492 17. Hawkins TR, Singh B, Majeau-Bettez G, Strømman AH (2013) Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of conventional and electric vehicles. J Ind Ecol 17(1):53–64 18. Kurtz J, Sprik S, Bradley TH (2019) Review of transportation hydrogen infrastructure performance and reliability. Int J Hydrogen Energy 44(23):12010–12023 19. Sadeghi-Barzani P, Rajabi-Ghahnavieh A, Kazemi-Karegar H (2014) Optimal fast charging station placing and sizing. Appl Energy 125:289–299 20. Biresselioglu ME, Kaplan MD, Yilmaz BK (2018) Electric mobility in Europe: a comprehensive review of motivators and barriers in decision making processes. Transp Res Part A: Policy Pract 109:1–13 21. Yang JC (2009) A thermodynamic analysis of refueling of a hydrogen tank. Int J Hydrogen Energy 34(16):6712–6721 22. Kumar P, Singh RK, Paul J, Sinha O (2021) Analyzing challenges for sustainable supply chain of electric vehicle batteries using a hybrid approach of Delphi and Best-Worst Method. Resour Conserv Recycl 175:105879 23. Kushnir D, Sandén BA (2012) The time dimension and lithium resource constraints for electric vehicles. Resour Policy 37(1):93–103 24. Egbue O, Long S (2012) Critical issues in the supply chain of lithium for electric vehicle batteries. Eng Manag J 24(3):52–62 25. Ratnakar RR, Gupta N, Zhang K, van Doorne C, Fesmire J, Dindoruk B, Balakotaiah V (2021) Hydrogen supply chain and challenges in large-scale LH2 storage and transportation. Int J Hydrogen Energy 46(47):24149–24168 26. McManus MC (2012) Environmental consequences of the use of batteries in low carbon systems: the impact of battery production. Appl Energy 93:288–295 27. Franke T, Krems JF (2013) What drives range preferences in electric vehicle users? Transp Policy 30:56–62 28. Pan L, Yao E, Yang Y, Zhang R (2020) A location model for electric vehicle (EV) public charging stations based on drivers’ existing activities. Sustain Cities Soc 59:102192 29. Lopez Jaramillo O, Stotts R, Kelley S, Kuby M (2019) Content analysis of interviews with hydrogen fuel cell vehicle drivers in Los Angeles. Transp Res Rec 2673(9):377–388 30. Larson PD, Viáfara J, Parsons RV, Elias A (2014) Consumer attitudes about electric cars: pricing analysis and policy implications. Transp Res Part A: Policy Pract 69:299–314 31. Yang J, Lin Y, Wu F, Chen L (2019) Subsidy and pricing model of electric vehicle sharing based on two-stage Stackelberg game–a case study in China. Appl Sci 9(8):1631 32. Zhang X, Bai X, Zhong H (2018) Electric vehicle adoption in license plate-controlled big cities: evidence from Beijing. J Clean Prod 202:191–196 33. Wolbertus R, Kroesen M, van den Hoed R, Chorus CG (2018) Policy effects on charging behaviour of electric vehicle owners and on purchase intentions of prospective owners: natural and stated choice experiments. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ 62:283–297 34. Carley S, Krause RM, Lane BW, Graham JD (2013) Intent to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle: a survey of early impressions in large US cites. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ 18:39–45

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Hydrogen as a Fuel For Power Generation—A Review Karthik Kumar, Meeta Sharma, and Anoop Kumar Shukla

Abstract An increased usage of conventional fuels and the emissions associated with that has exponentially increased the environmental pollution and consequently a search for clean, and energy-efficient sources. The main factors to be considered are emissions and sustainability for future uses. Hydrogen is a strong contender in this arena since this is available in abundance and can be obtained through the electrolysis of water or digestion of hydrocarbons. Hydrogen is already being used in refineries but for power generation its usage hasn’t been analyzed. Hydrogen can play a major role as an energy-efficient fuel in gas turbines. Some factors need to be considered thoroughly before utilizing hydrogen as a fuel, as the properties of hydrogen vary widely in comparison to the standardly used natural gas. In this work, the research conducted concerning hydrogen and natural gas will be summarized, highlighting some of the major research gaps and challenges associated with hydrogen. Keywords Gas turbine · Hydrogen fuel · Power plant · Power generation

1 Introduction Many countries across the world have started moving toward clean and alternate energy sources after witnessing firsthand the effect of increased dependence on fossil fuels. These alternate energy sources are sustainable and can play a major role in developing and transforming the schematics of various industries across the globe and the reduced footprint with regards to carbon and other emissions are an additional bonus. When we take a look at the broad picture, the overall effect of these energy sources is on the positive side and a lot of industries have already started using these alternate energy sources. Hydrogen is one of the element or component that has witnessed an exponential rise in its production and usage since the search for alternate source has started. Hydrogen has a lot going in its favor right from the ease of obtaining it to the lightness of its molecule. The environmental institution K. Kumar · M. Sharma (B) · A. K. Shukla Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_21

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Fig. 1 Generation of hydrogen from various sources

of California has assessed this and has reported that in the future, hydrogen has the capability to replace fossil fuel in every sense. Molecular hydrogen is 14.4% lighter than air, has a boiling point of − 252.879 °C and a melting point of − 259.16 °C. In recent times, hydrogen has become the forefront of alternate energy and this can be further proven by the fact in the year 2020, approximately 87 million tons of hydrogen was produced for various purposes. The sources of hydrogen production and demand for hydrogen can be seen from Fig. 1 and we can deduce that hydrogen is mainly in demand for ammonia production with oil refining and methanol production following closely behind. The beauty of hydrogen is the varied techniques through which it can be produced. The following methods are used nowadays to produce hydrogen [1–4]. The most widely used method is Methane steam reforming. This is the most effective way in terms of cost and widespread availability since the concentration of methane can reach up to 98% in natural gas. The second most common method used to produce hydrogen is through Coal Gasification and even though this is one of the main methods to produce hydrogen, this is not widely used because of the significant amount of carbon footprint this method leaves behind. The third most common technique of producing hydrogen and the one being preferred nowadays is through the electrolysis of water. This method is being preferred nowadays due to the environmental concerns and as a side benefit, electrolysis of water can also produce oxygen which can be further utilized for various purposes. Other methods used to produce hydrogen are Pyrolysis Partial oxidation and Biotechnology though these are not widely used and preferred due to environmental side effects and other cost related challenges. In the present study, we have scrutinized and reviewed the use of hydrogen as a fuel to comprehend its effect in various industries with the main focus being on power generation. Work conducted till now on hydrogen with respect to power generation has been clearly studied and the major gaps are listed and analyzed in the following sections. The main aim of this study is to comprehend the feasibility and figure out

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further prospects of utilizing hydrogen as a fuel in power generation sector (Fig. 2 and Table 1).

Fig. 2 Demand of hydrogen for various processes

Table 1 Chemical properties of hydrogen [5]

Property

Value

Atomic mass

1.007825 g mol −1

Electronegativity according to 2.1 pauling Density

0.0899*10 −3 g.cm −3 at 20 °C

Melting point

− 259.2 °C

Boiling point

− 252.8 °C

Vanderwaal’s radius

0.12 nm

Ionic radius

0.208 (−1) nm

Isotopes

3

Electronic shell

1s1

Energy of the first ionization

1311 kJ mol−1

Discovered by

Henry Cavendish

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2 Literature Review Gas turbines can offer a flexible amount of power for generation and for this purpose, gas turbines mainly use natural gas. While natural gas emits less amounts of NOx and carbon compounds, the emissions need to be controlled more in order to bring it to the levels as stated by the Paris Agreement which primarily mandates carbon neutrality. This fact becomes clearer by a statement issued by the European Investment Bank which states that the Bank will no longer fund projects which will run on fossil fuels with effect from 2021. According to this statement, power generation plants that exceed 250 g CO2 /KWhel will no longer receive any funding. This limit of 250 g CO2 /KWhel completely eliminates the use of coal as a fuel and the use of natural gas fired gas turbines since these gas turbines would have an emission of about 330 g CO2 /KWhel assuming 60% efficiency. Further reduction of carbon emissions for these gas turbines is only possible through either of the two following ways:. Switching to fuel with better properties and lesser emissions . Improving the thermal efficiency. The latter will only marginally contribute toward emission reduction as could be understood by thermodynamics and this leaves us to go with the better option which is switching to a more efficient fuel. A lot of fuels can be considered as alternatives for the gas turbine system and gas turbines could also use a variety of fuels and fuel mixes [6–10] (Fig. 3). Hydrogen was defined as an element by Henry Cavendish and the entire story of hydrogen started with him in the year 1776. Electrolysis was used to generate hydrogen by Nicholson and Carlisle. James Dewar liquefied hydrogen for the first time in the year 1898 [12] and from the early 1990s, the overall economy of hydrogen was re-evaluated and the liquefaction of hydrogen grew and advanced considerably

Fig. 3 Total CO2 reduction forecast from present to 2060 [11]

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[13]. In recent times, the role and the importance of hydrogen has increased by a great extent due to its potential of being a viable and feasible energy source [14–20]. The amount of hydrogen produced worldwide has grown tremendously and is estimated at a whopping 87 million tons and the energy requirement for producing hydrogen is around 1.7 PWh. A major percentage of hydrogen (close to 95%) is being generated from hydrocarbons and the remaining amount is produced by the process of electrolysis [21, 22]. The study of hydrogen storage and electricity production from hydrogen was conducted by Gonzalez et al. [23]. The study was focused not on the direct production of hydrogen but rather on the storage and electricity production. A detailed investigation on the technical and economic aspects of hydrogen energy was conducted and documented by Parra et al. [24] and they also highlighted how incorporating hydrogen in various industries could potentially lower the carbon emissions compared to other fuels. Chapman et al. [25] documented in their findings that about 3% of the world energy demand could be fulfilled by hydrogen by the year 2050. The United Kingdom’s department of transportation found out that hydrogen will be way ahead of its competition for zero carbon emission at the lowest cost in the future. The usage of hydrogen gas to power gas turbines was first experimented by Bothien et al. [26] and they found out that the carbon emissions were lowered by a great extent while using hydrogen and for this purpose they used an Ansaldo Energia sequential combustion gas turbine. The economic aspects of utilizing hydrogen to power gas turbines was considered by Gibrael and Hassan [27] and they concluded that while using natural gas to power gas turbines was more cost efficient in today’s time, the cost effectiveness of the said hydrogen gas will be much better than the natural gas in the upcoming future. Many analytical, digital, and empirical studies were conducted by Bozo et al. [28] to determine the efficiency of hydrogen combined with ammonia and the use of empirical investigation using steam injection, showcased a massive jump of 30% in terms of productivity of the entire system. The world’s first ever fully hydrogen powered gas turbine was developed in Japan by Kawasaki, Tekin et al. [29]. Todd [30] revealed the findings of a hydrogen combustion program related to the technological infrastructure and gas turbine cycles, and these findings show that the carbon emissions can be reduced in the range if 20–90% by hydrogen if the nitrogen emissions and limited to a limit of 15% and the oxygen levels are kept below a said range of 10 ppmvd. The performance of a synthetic gas including hydrogen and carbon monoxide was tested and compared with normal methane performance by Lee et al. [31] and they documented the findings with a focus on emission characteristics, the input temperature of the turbine and the combustion performance. The effects on the thermal instability of hydrogen-methane mixtures have been studied by Zhang et al. [32] and they conclude that most experimental measures indicate huge instabilities for 25 volume % and above hydrogen mixing ratios. But Ciani et al. [33] modeled a concept which included staged combustion and noted that 50 volume % of hydrogen can be blended with methane without affecting the power output. Bothien et al. [34] studied and confirmed the findings of Ciani et al. [33] in a separate test facility and concluded that with up to 70 volume % of hydrogen, very stable combustion can be attained using staged combustion and at levels above the 70 volume %, very minor reductions in power can be expected. Magnusson et al.

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[35] obtained almost the same results while successfully performing a full engine test with 60 volume % hydrogen. According to a report by manufacturers of gas turbines, mixing ratios of 100 volume % will be made possible in the near future with current technologies and systems adopting a mixing ratio of up to 60 volume % [36]. In order to reduce the emissions of the systems, incorporating hydrogen with natural gas can be considered a possibility since it is much easier to modify an existing system than to develop a new system. Guandalini et al. [37, 38] studied this concept while researching methods to improve the profitability of wind power by incorporating hydrogen produced by electrolysis of surplus electricity into the grid of pre-existing natural gas. The same scope of study was further conducted by Ferrero et al. [39] while evaluating the cost for grid injection. The scope of these studies were exclusively conducted while keeping natural gas at the forefront and a upper limit of 20 volume % hydrogen was fixed [40] and this limit of blending is not adequate to achieve very low emissions as expected. Welder et al. [41] evaluated four different reconversion technologies like open cycle gas turbine, closed cycle gas turbine, gas engine, and fuel cell gas turbine all fed with 100% hydrogen in order to enable a fully renewable energy system in northwestern part of Germany for future case scenario and the results demonstrated that closed cycle gas turbines are most cost effective compared to fuel cell gas turbines and gas engines. In the year 1998, gas turbine contributed toward almost 15% of the power generation in the entire world. Figure 4 depicts the increase in renewable energy generation throughout various years.

Fig. 4 Increase in renewable energy generation through technology [46]

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The procedure for analyzing the combustion efficiency was discussed by Lo Basso et al. [42] and they also published a paper describing the handling of the hydrogennatural gas mixture. The main focus of the experiment was to analyze the technical implications considering the performance and the implications of the mixture to various devices. Marin et al. in their research, studied and analyzed the possibility of using hydrogen as a fuel in gas turbines by considering and analyzing the fuel consumption and the parameters of the gas turbine with changing turbine load [43]. They also concluded that, when operating on hydrogen, the efficiency of the gas turbine does not change with respect to the load and when the gas turbine is to be operated on hydrogen, some major changes are required in the gas turbine system. A performance assessment of different integrated power plants was analyzed by Nandy and Gogoi in their research [44] and through their energy and exergy analysis, they concluded that a fourth integrated plant is more suitable configured than the other three configurations of the power plant. Kumar et al. [45] discussed about multigeneration and desalination system thermodynamic investigation. In the previous sections, we have seen the discovery, importance, usage, and various experiments with respect to hydrogen as an alternative fuel for power generation and other utilities. Hydrogen has its own set of perks but it is definitely not without its cons. The upcoming segments discuss the advantages, the challenges and why hydrogen can be considered as the fuel of the future.

3 Hydrogen as the Fuel of the Future Apart from being the most abundant element in the universe, hydrogen is by far one of the cleanest sources of alternative energy and provides up-to three times the energy compared to conventional fossil fuels and releases water as a byproduct which can be further utilized to produce hydrogen. The first commercial usage of hydrogen can be traced back to the early 1800’s and hydrogen was used to power Apollo-1 which landed on the moon in June of 1969. But the wide availability of cheaper fossil fuels made sure that hydrogen was non-appealing for widespread commercial use (Fig. 5). But in recent times, with the focus shifting toward cleaner and alternative sources of fuel for widespread usage, hydrogen comes across as the winner with its wide abundance and renewable fuel status. The other main reason why hydrogen can be considered as the fuel of the future is because it has the potential to level up the competition in the automotive and power generation sector and this competition could further instigate a positive change trend toward tapping the full potential of hydrogen. Several countries including Japan, Germany, European Union, Chile, and South Korea have laid out a well-established plan to implement national hydrogen strategies and in June 2020, the European Union has laid out concrete plans to install 40 gigawatts of hydrogen electrolyzer and produce 10 million tons of hydrogen by the year 2030. Saudi Arabia is in the process of setting up a mammoth 5 billion dollar solar power plant to produce green hydrogen and it’ll be completed in the year 2025

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US ($)

6 5

Natural gas

4

Natural gas with CCUS Coal

3

Renewables

2 1 0

Sources

Fig. 5 Hydrogen production cost [47]

Table 2 Comparison of heat of formation [48]

Dimensions

Hydrogen

Methane

Density at NTP

Kg/m3

0.09

0.72

Gravimetric HHV

MJ/Kg

142

55.6

Volumetric HHV

MJ/m3

12.7

40

and once it’s operational, it will be one of the largest producers of green hydrogen in the world. In India, there are plans to initiate hydrogen powered buses in Leh and from Delhi and Jaipur. But the main barrier is that not a lot of companies in India can produce the necessary electrolyzers and the only way to make it operational is to import those. This puts up an operational complication as cost increases tremendously. Table 2 compares the heat of formation of hydrogen and methane and it can be observed that the characteristics of hydrogen in the parameters mentioned are better than that of methane thereby proving that hydrogen is a great alternative for methane in any industry. The public sector undertaking is also planning to set up a 100 MW solar plant in the state of Telangana to produce clean hydrogen. All these initiatives are being undertaken with the sole purpose of promoting hydrogen and making it accessible on a wide scale and ensure that a lot of industries transition from the conventional fossil fuels to a much cleaner alternative source of energy which is hydrogen.

4 Major Advantages of Hydrogen as a Fuel A lot of thought goes into the selection of fuel for use in any industry, and only some fuels manage to clear the fulfillment criteria. Hydrogen has a lot going in its favor that gives it precedence over other viable options as alternative fuels, and this section

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aims to throw light on some of the favorable properties of hydrogen that gives it a upper hand:Renewable and Easily Available: Hydrogen is present very abundantly in the universe and if we look away from the challenges of extracting it, hydrogen is the perfect option for our future needs of zero carbon emissions [49]. Clean and Flexible: Hydrogen is a very clean and flexible source of energy with nil detrimental environment impact as the combustion of hydrogen will release only heat and water and this makes it way superior than the fossil fuels like coal which are hard to obtain and impact the environment in an adverse fashion [49]. Energy Efficient and Powerful: Hydrogen has the highest energy content of any normal fuel by weight and far outweigh traditional fuels like natural gas [49] in terms of energy density and combustibility. Emissions: Hydrogen doesn’t produce any sort of greenhouse gases and as a result the emissions obtained from hydrogen is negligible [49] (Fig. 6). Carbon Footprint: Since hydrogen doesn’t generate any greenhouse gases, the carbon footprint [49] of the fuel in question is zero while in use and as a side benefit this improves the quality of air in the surrounding. Noise and Visual Pollution: Unlike conventional fossil fuels or some alternative fuels like bio-fuels, hydrogen doesn’t produce any sort of noise pollution while in operation and unlike power plants operating on bio-fuel [49], hydrogen power plants do not create any eye-sore to the viewer.

Fig. 6 Energy requirement for liquefaction of 1 kg hydrogen [48–53]

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5 Major Challenges of Hydrogen as a Fuel Although hydrogen seems very desirable as a fuel for gas turbines, there are certain setbacks that complicate and hamper the usage and operability of hydrogen in gas turbines given the difference between hydrogen and many traditional hydrocarbons. This section aims to throw light on some of the key issues with hydrogen: Storage: Weight and volume of the storage systems in use nowadays especially in the automotive sector is too high thereby preventing optimum range of motion compared to normal gasoline powered vehicles. This problem requires materials that allow a much more concise and compact storage system facility which will subsequently improve the range of motion [48]. Efficiency: Energy efficiency of hydrogen storage techniques is a major issue that’s needs to be sorted and the life cycle efficiency of chemical hydride storage [48] which is in use nowadays is a major challenge because the byproduct is regenerated off-board. Heating value: When we look on the basis of mass, hydrogen is twice as energy dense as natural gas but on the volume basis, hydrogen’s energy density is lesser by a factor of one third. Therefore, it requires three times the volume flow to provide the same heat input as natural gas and hence a fuel accessory system configured for these specific flow rates is required for the gas turbine [49]. Flame Speed: Flame speed is the term used to describe the velocity with which the unburned gases propagate into the flame and the flame speed of hydrogen is an order of magnitude faster than many hydrocarbon fuels. When considering a gas turbine, the flame speed is a determining factor in deciding if the combustor may have issues with the flame propagating upstream from the combustion zone into the premixing zone (known as flashback) and due to the high flame speed of hydrogen, the combustion systems typically used in gas turbine won’t be of any use against hydrogen and a specialized combustion system specifically tailored to suit the needs of hydrogen needs to developed and used in the gas turbine. Extraction: Hydrogen though abundantly in the surrounding, does not exist on its own and hence various processes are required in order to extract hydrogen. Electrolysis of water and carbon fossil fuels are some of the methods used to extract hydrogen and these methods require a great deal of energy to successfully achieve the objective. Also, the extraction process requires the usage of fossil fuels which greatly undermines the very purpose of shifting toward alternative fuel [49]. Regulatory Issues: There are some regulatory barriers regarding the overall framework that defines the commercial deployment models and these barriers vary from region to region depending on a variety of factors. Without a clear framework to understand the cost and revenue that is involved in these commercial projects, they can face some issues to reach a financial investment decision (FID) [49].

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Overall Cost: Even if we neglect the cost of extraction with regards to hydrogen, there are a lot of economic factors involved in the hydrogen usage, storage, and transportation process [49]. These costs will depreciate admirably as the technology advances but as of now, the cost of all the aforementioned aspects is very high thus making widespread adoption of hydrogen a challenging task. Infrastructure: Hydrogen is a very viable alternative source of fuel but fossil fuels have been used for decades and due to this, a large number of power supply and network infrastructure exists already. For widespread adoption of hydrogen, the entire schematics of the network infrastructure [49] needs to be re-designed to accommodate the change in fuel and this creates another challenge toward using hydrogen as a fuel in many industries. Investment: A lot of factors give hydrogen the upper hand when it comes to alternative fuels but one major disadvantage that prevents hydrogen from being adopted across various industries is the initial investment required to fulfill all the parameters required before adopting hydrogen [49]. The investment cost will decrease greatly as advances occur in all fields but considering the present scenario, the investment required for hydrogen is a major blowback. Efficiency: Energy efficiency of hydrogen storage techniques is a major issue that’s needs to be sorted and the life cycle efficiency of chemical hydride storage [48] which is in use nowadays is a major challenge because the byproduct is regenerated off-board.

6 Conclusion Major findings and the gaps in literature are mentioned below: . Hydrogen’s momentousness in the power generation industry has been scrutinized thoroughly and a major gap that needed addressing was the usage of hydrogen blended with other fuels for power generation purposes. . The power generation industry is a vastly growing field with a lot of potential and niches. . Alternative fuels can play a very vital role in maximizing the power generation efficiency and overall power output while also being environment friendly in terms of lesser emissions and carbon footprint. . But to achieve maximum potential, the choice of alternate fuel should be such that it is easily available and harness-able with high output to cost ratio. Hydrogen is one such fuel which fulfills all the necessary criteria with the potential to change the game of power generation with its high energy density and efficiency. . But purely hydrogen fueled power plants can achieve success in the aforementioned regards up-to a certain threshold. . Hence one of the most feasible and achievable solution is blending of fuels to power the plants is a major game changer in this regard as blending of fuels will

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incorporate all the positive aspects of the fuels being blended and this will result in a higher power output with even greater efficiency while minimizing the cost of operation.

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Mix Oil Biodiesel Blend’s Performance Characteristics with Energy Audit Sanjay Mohite

Abstract The mix oil biodiesel blend’s performance and emission characteristics have been evaluated by application of method of energy audit. The objective of this study is to make use of a method of energy audit for biodiesel engine, which reduces time to investigate biodiesel engine by choosing important performance and emission parameters first. After analysing those parameters, if those parameters are found satisfactory, then analysis of other parameters would be done. And if those parameters are found unsatisfactory, there is no need to analyse further thus saving time and money. In this experimental study, use of least square method to find best fit equation of regression and coefficient of determination have been done. Time and energy can be saved with the application of this method. Heat flow analysis, brake specific energy consumption, friction power, and smoke have been evaluated. These all parameters have been found satisfactory. In least square method, relationship between these characteristics and biodiesel blends has been found out at 3.5 kW. The best fit equation of regression and coefficient of determination have also been measured. B10 mix oil biodiesel could be used as fuel with efficient conversion of heat energy among all tested biodiesel blend. However, diesel’s brake thermal efficiency is the highest. Keywords Mix oil · Biodiesel blend · Energy audit · Least square method · Regression equation · Coefficient of determination

Abbreviations B10 B20 B30 HBP HJW

10% Biodiesel blend on volumetric basis 20% Biodiesel blend on volumetric basis 30% Biodiesel blend on volumetric basis Change of fuel’s heat energy into useful work (brake power) Change of fuel’s heat to JCW

S. Mohite (B) Brahma Valley College of Engineering & Research Institute, Nashik, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_22

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HEgas HRAD FP JCW BSEC

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Change of fuel’s heat to exhaust gas Loss of fuel’s heat energy in radiation Friction power Jacket cooling water Brake specific energy consumption

1 Introduction Fatty acids’s alkyl ester is generally called as biodiesel. It is an oxygenate fuel [1]. Biodiesel is more popular because it can be utilised as an option with diesel [2]. It will be better to substitute diesel with any other alternatives. According to US Legislation, biodiesel production was 30.1 million tonnes in 2014 and it would increase to 35 million tonnes in 2020 [3]. Researchers informed that biodiesel is one of the important fuels in the present and future scenario [4]. BTE, BSFC, EGT, smoke emission, NOx emission, and brake power have been influenced by first, second, and third-generation biodiesel and their blends [5]. Performance, combustion, and emission characteristics of a single-cylinder diesel engines, researchers also studied the at the effects of combining biodiesel–diesel and nano-additive currently [6]. Biodiesel has high density, viscosity, cetane number, and flash point similar to diesel, giving good engine performance. Performance parameters such as BSFC, BTE, BHP, and BMEP increases with the use of biodiesel and HC, CO, CO2, PM, and smoke emissions reduces [7]. Biodiesel is having superior lubricant characteristics in comparison to diesel [8]. Karanja is a non-edible oil and its seed contain 30–40% oil. Linseed is a smaller amount of water consuming crop. Linseed seeds can give up 33–44% oil. Linseed oil has the drawback of little volatility and high viscosity. Due to opposite nature of these two oils, they have been chosen to mix for biodiesel preparation [9]. Vehicle’s energy audit is a methodical technique to measure energy. It is an initial step which includes energy management programme. Maintenance parameters decreases friction losses and engine performance parameters would be computed [10]. Energy benchmarking and rating are useful to judge the performance. In ships, researchers have introduced key performance indicators and energy rating. A proposed benchmarking and rating method would be used for energy performance [11]. Energy audit was performed in Australian fishing vessel to improve efficiency. To construct more efficient vessel, it is recommended to propose changes. Use of energy in a vessel has been investigated. A sample energy audit proposal is done for fishing vessel of Australia to get better efficiency and decrease fuel consumption [12]. Audit of green energy is related to environment and energy. It optimises energy performance in building and provide sustainability [13]. Medium and heavy duty diesel engine have been investigated for energy losses, efficiency and prediction for improvement. In emerging technical knowledge, technology prediction and energy

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audit were utilised for reduction of fuel. With application of future technology, fuel consumption has been reduced in heavy duty diesel engine [14]. Energy audit has been recognised to get improved energy conservation method [15]. Therefore, an energy audit is also in demand for biodiesel engine, which depicts the consumption of fuel energy. At present, energy audit of biodiesel engine is not available in precise form. In this audit, important emission and performance characteristics including heat flow analysis have been investigated as key parameters. Energy audit may be chosen as a process to make sure the biodiesel’s feasibility as fuel. At the initial stage, selection of parameters are very important aspect in energy audit. Heat flow analysis, BSEC, FP, and smoke are the important characteristics. This energy audit would be used in biodiesel research further [16]. Capability of biofuel certification is reviewed. Biofuel performance certification’s effectual sense has been developed. Certification is found to be requisite to authenticate biodiesel in industry. Biofuel performance, its use and energy audit have been studied to find research gap. Some performance and emission characteristics have been chosen to evaluate biodiesel engine with an energy audit at the initial stage as follows [17]: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Heat flow analysis Brake specific energy Friction power Smoke.

This is known as the preliminary energy audit. If a particular blend is found to be feasible, then it can be utilised. A preliminary energy audit method is suggested [16]. Advantages of Energy Audit 1. This energy audit depicts the fuel’s energy distribution. This is the advantages of this energy audit [16]. 2. An energy audit is an invaluable tool in analysing opportunities for reduction in energy cost. It also informs us about the potential savings which is cost effective [18]. 3. Least square method is used to set up relationship between blends and parameters of energy audit at rated load by regression equation. This regression analysis would predict the choice of appropriate blend for required energy audit parameters [9]. Role of Least Square Method and R2 Least square method is used with respect to biodiesel blend. The biodiesel blend is plotted on X-axis and the particular parameter on Y-axis. The particular parameter on Y-axis is measured at a load of 3.5 kW. This method is used to set up a relationship between blend and particular parameter with the use of line of best fit and also coefficient of determination. The coefficient of determination depicts the degree of dependency of the specified parameter on blend ratio [9]. The objective of this study is to make use of a method of energy audit for biodiesel engine, which reduces time to investigate biodiesel engine by choosing important

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performance and emission parameters first. After analysing those parameters, if those parameters are found satisfactory, then analysis of other parameters would be done. And if those parameters are found unsatisfactory, there is no need to analyse further thus saving time and money. In this experimental study, use of least square method to find best fit equation of regression and coefficient of determination have been done. This is the novelty of this study.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 New Methodology A methodology is used to assess characteristics parameters with the application of technique of energy audit. This is simple and rapid method to assess characteristics of performance and emission at an early stage to save time and energy. In this method, BSEC, heat flow analysis, friction power, and smoke are evaluated [16].

2.2 Experimental Setup 4S, one cylinder, water cool, direct injection diesel engine was used to carry out experimental work. Eddy current dynamometer was used. Air box, fuel tank, manometer, fuel measuring unit, facilities of air and fuel flow measurement and engine indicator were housed in a panel box and it was used. “Engine soft LV” was used in online engine measurement [9, 19] Table 1. Table 1 Specification of engine [9, 19]

S. No.

Name

Description

1

Brand

Kirloskar

2

Bore (cm)

8.75

3

Stroke (cm)

11

4

Capacity (cubic cm)

661

5

Compression Ratio

18

6

Speed (RPM)

1500

7

Rated power (kW)

3.5

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2.3 Instruments with Accuracy Test Rig: The tests were conducted in the Internal Combustion Engine Lab at Delhi Technological University, New Delhi, India. This experimental test rig was supplied by Apex Innovations, India. The instruments list is given in Table 2.

2.4 Methodology Biodiesel was prepared with alkaline transesterification process. Equal 50–50% weights of Karanja and Linseed oil were mixed, methanol at 6:1 molar ratio, and catalyst 2%wt KOH were taken. The reaction time was taken as 60 min, and 78.2% biodiesel yield was obtained. The physical properties of diesel, oils, and biodiesel blends have been tested and are shown in Table 3. Mix oil biodiesel was ready in the lab and blends were set on volume basis. Mix oil was taken for the production of biodiesel with transesterification reaction. AVL Smokemeter measured opacity in smoke [20, 21] Table 2 Instruments list with accuracy [9]

Instrument with accuracy Engine speed

± 1 RPM

Temperatures

± 10 C

Crank angle

± 0.1% of Indicated value

Engine load

± 0.2% of indicated value

Burette measurement

± 2 cc

Piezo sensor

± 0.1% of indicated

Smoke metre

± 5% of indicated value

Table 3 Physical properties of mix oil biodiesel blends [9] Name of property

Karanja oil

Linseed oil

Diesel

ASTM D6751 biodiesel standards

B10

B20

B30

Density kg/m3

912.4

926.3

850

880

854.2

858.5

862.7

Viscosity cSt

27.32

29.2

2.8

1.9 to 6.0

3.1

3.4

3.6

Calorific value MJ/kg

34.12

30.6

43.7

–

43.1

42.5

41.9

Pour point °C

4

−4

− 15

− 15 to 10

− 13

− 11

− 10

Cloud point °C 13

1

− 10

−3 to −12

−8

−7

−5

Flash point °C

239

76

130 min

85

94

103

205

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3 Result and Discussion 3.1 BSEC BSEC is defined as the product of calorific value and BSFC. B30 has highest value of BSEC. 8.5% and 2.9% increment in BSEC for B30 and B10 was measured at 3.5 kW in comparison to diesel, respectively, (Fig. 1). BSEC reduces with load increment. Biodiesel blends are found to have a little higher BSEC values than that of diesel. BSEC increases with proportion of biodiesel due to its lower calorific value. BSEC is determined for mix oil biodiesel blends. With least square method, there is a strong (R2 = 0.999) positive linear relationship between BSEC and the blends of biodiesel and when the proportion of biodiesel increases, it increases BSEC also (Fig. 2). It is therefore concluded that the biodiesel in blends shall be reduced to minimise BSEC. This eqation y = 0.028x + 10.08 is a linear eqation, which shows a positive linear relationship between BSEC and the blends of biodiesel.

BSEC (MJ /kWh)

Fig. 1 BSEC of mix oil biodiesel blends

30

Diesel

25

B10

20

B20 B30

15 10 5 0 0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

BSEC (MJ/kWh)

BP (kW)

11.04 10.94 10.84 10.74 10.64 10.54 10.44 10.34 10.24 10.14 10.04

y = 0.0286x + 10.056 R² = 0.9997

10.91

10.63

10.35

10.05 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Biodiesel blend ratio in percentage with diesel Fig. 2 BSEC at 3.5 kW brake power with least square method

35

3.5

Mix Oil Biodiesel Blend’s Performance Characteristics with Energy Audit 34 27.92

29 23.28

HBP (%)

24

269

29.72

24.78

21.07 Diesel

17.29

19

B10

13.32 14

B20

9

B30

4 0.5

1

1.5

2 BP (kW)

2.5

3

3.5

Fig. 3 HBP of mix oil biodiesel blend

3.2 Heat Flow Analysis At 3.5 kW, heat loss to cooling water (HJW) is highest among all losses which ranges from 36.48 to 38.04%. Heat loss to exhaust gas (HEgas) is ranges from 21.07 to 23.7%. Heat loss to radiation ranges from 11.2 to 11.9%. Heat is used for work output from 27.92 to 29.72% only.

3.2.1

Heat Energy Distribution to Brake Power

Heat conversion to brake power increases at higher loads, as shown in Fig. 3. In B10, high amount of heat is converted into useful work but its value is slightly lower than diesel. Poor volatility, low calorific value, and high viscosity of biodiesel are the reasons. HBP decreases with increase in the blend ratio as per least square method and there is a strong (R2 = 0.947) negative linear relationship between them (Fig. 4). This eqation y = − 0.056x + 29.57 is a linear eqation, which shows a negative linear relationship between HBP and the blends of biodiesel.

3.2.2

Heat Energy Distribution to Exhaust Gas

Loss of heat to exhaust is shown in Fig. 5. It decreases with rise in load. B30 has the highest amount of loss of heat to exhaust gas and diesel has a minimum amount of heat energy loss. Efficient heat energy conversion into useful work is the reason for this. HEgas increases with blend ratio as per least square method and there is a strong (R2 = 0.961) positive linear relationship between them (Fig. 6). This eqation y =

S. Mohite

HBP %

270 29.85 29.65 29.45 29.25 29.05 28.85 28.65 28.45 28.25 28.05 27.85

29.72 y = -0.0566x + 29.574 R² = 0.9479

28.76 28.5

27.92 0

5 10 15 20 25 30 Biodiesel blend ratio in percentage with diesel

35

Fig. 4 HBP at 3.5 kW brake power with least square method

39

33.8

34

29.8

HEgas(%)

29

24.96 23.87 22.78

24

21.5

21.07

Diesel

19

B10

14

B20

9

B30

4 0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

BP (kW)

Fig. 5 HEgas of mix oil biodiesel blend

0.086x + 20.88 is a linear eqation, which shows a positive linear relationship between HEgas and the blends of biodiesel.

3.2.3

Heat Energy Distribution to Jacket Cooling Water

Distribution of heat energy to JCW is shown in Fig. 7. This is the loss of heat energy to JCW. It decreases with rise in loads. This shows decrease in heat losses at higher loads. In all cases, distribution of heat energy to JCW is the highest for diesel. High calorific value and low density causes good combustion. HJW reduces with rise in the blend ratio as per least square method and there is a negative linear relationship (R2 = 0.854) between them (Fig. 8).). This eqation y = − 0.052x + 38.26 is a linear eqation, which shows a negative linear relationship between HJW and the blends of biodiesel.

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271

Fig. 6 HEgas at 3.5 kW brake power with least square method

HJW %

Fig. 7 HJW of mix oil biodiesel blend 38.4 38.2 38 37.8 37.6 37.4 37.2 37 36.8 36.6 36.4

y = -0.0523x + 38.267 R² = 0.8543

38.04

38.01

37.4

36.48 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Biodiesel blend ratio in percentage with diesel

Fig. 8 HJW at 3.5 kW brake power with least square method

35

272

3.2.4

S. Mohite

Heat Energy Distribution to Radiation

Loss of heat to radiation is shown in Fig. 9. It increases with rise in load. At minimum load, it is fairly negligible. B30 has highst amount of heat loss in radiation at higher loads. This is attributed due to small amount of heat conversion into work. HRAD increases with blend ratio as per least square method and there is a positive linear relationship (R2 = 0.930) between them (Fig. 10). This eqation y = 0.022x + 11.27 is a linear equation, which shows a positive linear relationship between HRAD and the blends of biodiesel.

Fig. 9 HRAD of mix oil biodiesel blends

Fig. 10 HRAD at 3.5 kW brake power with least square method

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3.3 Friction Power Loss Analysis Reduction in friction power is found with the increase of concentration of biodiesel. Maximum decrease is found to be in friction power loss for B30. Good lubricate characteristics is the reason. Friction power loss is approximately same with a little difference for a particular fuel at all loads. At 3.5 kW, friction power of B30, B20 and B10 are found to be 19.89%, 16.32%, and 4.08% lesser than diesel, respectively, (Fig. 11). FP reduces with rise in the blend ratio as per least square method and there is a strong (R2 = 0.947) negative linear relationship between them (Fig. 12). This eqation y = − 0.014x + 1.974 is a linear eqation, which shows a megative linear relationship between FP and the blends of biodiesel.

Fig. 11 FP of mix oil biodiesel blends

Fig. 12 FP at 3.5 kW brake power with least square method

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3.4 Smoke Emission Analysis Smoke decreases with the use of biodiesel. B30 emits least level of smoke. Oxygenated characteristics of biodiesel causes proper combustion resulting in reduced smoke. At 3.5 kW, smoke is 10.23%, 16.95%, and 28.94% lower for B10, B20, and B30, respectively, than diesel (Fig. 13). Smoke opacity reduces with rise in blend as per least square method and it is a strong (R2 = 0.989) negative linear relationship between them (Fig. 14). This eqation y = − 0.32x + 34.2 is a linear eqation, which shows a negative linear relationship between smoke opacity and the blends of biodiesel.

Fig. 13 Smoke opacity of mix oil biodiesel blends

Fig. 14 Smoke opacity at 3.5 kW brake power with least square method

Mix Oil Biodiesel Blend’s Performance Characteristics with Energy Audit Table 4 Uncertainty analysis

Name of parameter

% Uncertainty

HBP

± 3.6

HRAD

± 3.0

HJW

± 2.9

HEgas

± 3.7

BSEC

± 1.6

Smoke opacity

± 1.0

FP

± 0.6

275

3.5 Uncertainty Analysis Uncertainties and errors may occur in instrument and its state, environment, calibration, test planning, and interpretation in an experiment. All experiments may have some errors. The experimental accuracy is needed to prove by uncertainty analysis. √ Total Uncertainty = [(HBP’s uncertainty)2 + (HEgas’s uncertainty)2 + (HJW’s uncertainty)2 + (HRAD’s uncertainty)2 + (BSEC’s uncertainty)2 + (Smoke’s uncertainty)2 + (FP’s uncertainty)2 ] Total Uncertainty =

/[

(3.6)2 + (3.7)2 + (2.9)2 + (3)2 + (1.6)2 + (1)2 + (0.64)2

= (+/ − ) 6.9 %

]

(1)

Uncertainty analysis of this energy audit parameters is given in Table 4

4 Conclusions The conclusions are given below: 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

There is a strong positive linear relationship between BSEC and biodiesel blends in least square method. Least amount value of BSEC in efficient diesel engines is required. The coefficient of determination (R2 ) is 0.999. With best fit regression equation, y = 0.028x + 10.05, BSEC can be predicted for biodiesel blends in the range of 0% to 30% at 3.5 kW brake power. There is a strong negative linear relationship between HBP and biodiesel blends in least square method. The concentration of biodiesel should be minimise to raise HBP. The coefficient of determination (R2 ) is 0.947. With best fit regression equation, y = − 0.056x + 29.57, HBP can be predicted for biodiesel blends in the range of 0% to 30% at 3.5 kW There is a strong positive linear relationship between HEgas and biodiesel blends in least square method. Subsequently, when biodiesel concentration

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increases, it increases the HEgas. The biodiesel concentration should be reduced to decrease HEgas. The coefficient of determination (R2 ) is 0.961. 6. With best fit regression equation, y = 0.086x + 20.88, HEgas can be predicted for biodiesel blends in the range of 0% to 30% at 3.5 kW. 7. There is a relationship between HJW and biodiesel with coefficient of determination (R2 ) as 0.854 in least square method. HJW does not depend much upon the biodiesel concentration at 3.5 kW. 8. There is a positive relationship between HRAD and biodiesel in least square method. The coefficient of determination (R2 ) is 0.930. 9. There is a negative relationship between friction power and biodiesel in least square method. The coefficient of determination (R2 ) is 0.947. 10. There is a strong negative linear relationship between opacity of smoke and biodiesel blends in least square method. The coefficient of determination (R2 ) is 0.989. 11. With best fit regression equation, y = − 0.32x + 34.2, smoke opacity can be predicted for biodiesel blends in the range of 0% to 30% at 3.5 kW. 12. B10 mix oil biodiesel blend may be used as fuel with efficient conversion of heat energy among all tested biodiesel blend. However, brake thermal efficiency of diesel is higher than that of B10. Acknowledgements The author thanks Dr. Amit Pal and Dr. Sagar Maji, Delhi Technological University for their cooperation and guidance.

References 1. Dwivedi G, Jain S, Shukla A, Verma P, Verma T, Saini G (2022) Impact analysis of biodiesel production parameters for different catalyst. Environ Develop Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10668-021-02073-w 2. Misra RD, Murthy MS (2010) Straight vegetable oils usage in a compression ignition engine-a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 14:3005–3013 3. Sierra-Cantor JF, Guerroro-Fajardo CA (2017) Methods for improving the cold flow properties of biodiesel with high saturated fatty acid content- a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 72:771– 790 4. Chhabra M, Dwivedi G, Baredar P, Shukla A, Garg A, Jain S (2021) Production and optimization of biodiesel from rubber oil using BBD technique. Mater Today Proc 38(1):69–73 5. Verma TN, Shrivastava P, Rajak U, Dwivedi G, Jain S, Zare A, Shukla AK, Verma P (2021) A comprehensive review of the influence of physicochemical properties of biodiesel on combustion characteristics, engine performance and emissions. J Traffic Transp Eng (EnglishEdition) 8(4):510–533 6. Rajak U, Nashine P, Chaurasiya PK et al (2022) The effects on performance and emission characteristics of DI engine fuelled with CeO2 nanoparticles addition in diesel/tyre pyrolysis oil blends. Environ Dev Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02358-8 7. Dwivedi G, Pillai S, Shukla AK (2019) Study of performance and emissions of engines fueled by biofuels and its blends. In: Agarwal A, Gautam A, Sharma N, Singh A (eds) Methanol and the alternate fuel economy. energy, environment, and sustainability. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3287-6_5

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8. Verma P, Dwivedi G, Shukla AK, Kumar A, Behura AK (2019) Ionic liquids as green biolubricant additives, materials research foundations 54:224–248. https://doi.org/10.21741/978 1644900314-10. Part of the book on Industrial Applications of Green Solvents 9. Mohite S (2019) Performance characteristics and analysis of diesel and biodiesel blends using energy audit technique, Ph. D Thesis, 2019, National Institute of Technology (N.I.T.), Kurukshetra 10. Erkut E, Maclean D (1992) Alberta’s energy efficiency branch conducts transportation audits. Interfaces 22(3):15–21 11. Bazari Z (2007) Ship energy performance benchmarking/rating; methodology and application. J Mar Eng Technol 6(1):11–18 12. Thomas G, O’Doherty D, Sterling D, Chin C (2010) Energy audit of fishing vessels. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part M: J Eng Marit Environ 224(2):87–101 13. Dall G, Speccher A, Bruni E (2012) The green energy audit, a new procedure for the sustainable auditing of existing buildings integrated with the LEED Protocols. Sustain Cities Soc 3:54–65 14. Thiruvengadam A, Pradhan S, Thiruvengadam P, Besch M, Carder D (2014) Heavy duty vehicle diesel engine efficiency evaluation and energy audit. Center for alternative fuels, engines, and emissions, West Virgina University Final report, West Virgina Uni-versity, Morgantown, WV, USA 15. Anina JM, Rottmayer SP (2016) Virtual audits: the promise and the reality. Energy Eng 113(6):34–52 16. Mohite S, Maji S (2020) Importance of energy audit in diesel engine fuelled with biodiesel blends: review and analysis. Eur J Sustain Develop Res 4(2):em0118 17. Mohite S, Maji S (2020) Biofuel certification performance: a review and analysis. Eur J Sustain Develop Res 4(3):em0124 18. Teicholz E (2001) Facility design and management handbook. Energy management chapter. McGraw Hill Professional 19. Mohite S, Kumar S, Maji S (2016) Performance characteristics of mix oil biodiesel blends with smoke emissions. Int J Renew Energy Develop 5(2):163–170 20. Mohite S, Kumar S, Maji S, Pal A (2016) Production of biodiesel from a mixture of Karanja and linseed oils : optimization of process parameters. Iran J Energy Environ 7(1):12–17 21. Mohite S, Kumar S, Maji S (2016) Investigations on performance and emission characteristics of mix oil biodiesel blends. Iran J Energy Environ 7(3):255–261

Portable Solar Stirling Engine Shakti Saxena and Rahul

Abstract Solar-based dish-Stirling system has ended up being the most proficient method for creating power utilizing sun-based energy. Because of the expanding commercialization of this innovation, the requirement for augmenting generally speaking effectiveness and limiting misfortunes and cost has turned into a significant region of interest for specialists. Therefore, we found a gap in the market for a small Stirling engine that can be cost-efficient and likely to generate such an amount of electricity to charge mobile phones and also as an alternative to solar cells. Rising prices of material or components of solar cells is an increasing concern in India. The purpose of this research is to investigate whether it is feasible to make a cost-effective Stirling engine small in size and also want to find out whether it can make a place in the market as a strong alternative to solar cells. Using a prototype and a survey, this study analyzed whether it is feasible to make a good Stirling engine and whether it can create an impact on future consumers. Certain changes in the model can cause variation in the starting time of the Stirling engine, and the survey found out half of the percentage of people want to buy it as an alternative to Solar cells. Keywords Stirling engine · Solar portable · DC generator · Hot chamber · Renewable energy · Steel pipe

1 Introduction In view of energy the executives, sun-oriented energy is one of the main inexhaustible and non-depletable energy hotspots for creating power. There are a few strategies for changing over sun-powered heat into mechanical energy. One of these strategies that are theoretically connected with the most extreme productivity is the Stirling engine (or hot air engine). A Stirling engine is a basic sort of external combustion engine. It is an old idea previously proposed by Robert Stirling in 1816 (UK, patent no. 4081). S. Saxena · Rahul (B) School of Mechanical Engineering, KIIT, University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_23

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Engines in view of his creation were inherent in many structures and sizes. These engines offer the perhaps of a high-effectiveness engine with lower depleted discharges in examination with the gas-powered engine. Hot air engines are perfect and effective and run quietly on any burnable material. During the 1970s and 1980s, an immense measure of exploration was done on Stirling engines for cars by organizations like General Motors, Ford, and Philips Electronics. However, this trademark is ideal for applications, for example, generating electricity and pumping water. Research about high-temperature Stirling engines has been broadly reported but research for low-temperature Stirling engines needs more to do. The low-temperature differential (LTD) Stirling engine is a kind of Stirling engine that can work with the moderately little temperature distinction between the hot and cold ends of the displacer chamber [1]. The proficiency of an LTD Stirling engine is low in examination with the hightemperature Stirling engines; however, it very well may be adequate because of the accessibility of many low-temperature heat sources; it is economical to incorporate sun-powered energy which what’s more, safe. In any case, very much like some other heat engine, there is some heat dismissed from the engine. One more issue is the capacity to impeccably seal the engine chambers, and this issue emerges while involving hydrogen and helium as working liquids [2]. Valenti et al. [3], in 2013, tended to mathematical and experimental investigations of the Stirling engine framework for home use. The swept volume of the hot and cold chamber was 27.4 and 28.4 cc, individually, and the nitrogen was utilized as a working fluid. The outcomes showed an electrical limit of 1 KW and a heating limit of 8 KW, demonstrating a distinction of 4% among trial and recreated outcomes. Ferreira et al. [4] displayed and assessed the expense of the Alpha Stirling engine for the synchronous generation of power and heat. The exploration considered twofluid kinds of hydrogen and helium at a typical strain of 30 bar. The swept and dead volumes of chambers were 130 and 25 cc, separately, and the re-generator volume was 69.8 cc. The outcomes showed that the motor proficiency as opposed to the resulting power in the hydrogen specialist fluid is higher than the helium. The base result is 28.5%, and the resulting power is 1.7 KW. Toward the end, the expense of each piece of the engine is given, and which engine body has the greatest expense. The cost per watt is assessed to be around 17 euros. Li et al. [5], 2015, examined the loss of the gamma Stirling engine and the effect of these losses on the engine effectiveness utilizing the Schmidt strategy. They considered the temperature of 317.9 K for a hot chamber, a temperature of 299.1 for a cold chamber, working fluid of air, and 1 bar introductory pressure as the underlying boundaries for simulation. The outcomes showed that the losses because of motor leakage were around 2%. Fransson et al. [6] tended to the mathematical simulation of gamma-type Stirling engine power. They incorporate the underlying pressure of 12.5 bar and the phase difference of 80 and 90 degrees. They studied the power on various cylinder diameters

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with various lengths, which decreases the power consumption by expanding the diameter of the cylinder that can be noted as the outcome. A review of related literature demonstrates the significance of the purpose of the Stirling engine because, in addition to high effectiveness and absence of pollution, it has high adaptability in terms of the sort of fuel consumed. For instance, this engine can be launched by sun-oriented energy utilizing a parabolic collector.

2 Working Principle This paper aims to deal with the gamma type of the Stirling engine. When concentrated sunlight falls from the Fresnel lens or parabolic dish to a hot chamber and acts as a source of initiator in the Stirling engine, then Stirling engine depends on the property of gases, that they expand when warmed and contract when cooled. (Charles’ Law). If the gas is held inside a fixed volume, its pressure will increase on warming and diminish on cooling. If the gas is held in a variable-volume container, constructed from a movable piston in a cylinder closed at one end, the pressure increases and decreases will cause the piston to move out and in. Continued warming and cooling will cause a responding development of the piston which can be changed over to rotary motion utilizing a customary connecting rod and a driving rod with a flywheel.

3 Design and Construction 3.1 Design To design our portable solar Stirling engine, first we have to make a Stirling engine which should be based on a gamma-type Stirling engine, then we have to put it under a Fresnel lens or any type of circular disc which may concentrate UV light (sunlight) on the Stirling engine as a source to provide heat, and, then we have to attach a generator of 1.5–3 V which is going to move with the help of crankshaft through flat belt so it provides electricity as output.

3.2 Construction For the construction, we use certain materials as follows (Table 1): 1. First, we sealed the steel tube (8.5 cm) with m-seal from both sides and also attach a transparent PVC tube from one side.

282 Table 1 Construction materials

S. Saxena and Rahul Steel pipe Used as a hot chamber

M-seal is a multi-purpose sealant Used to seal steel pipe

Transparent PVC pipe

Crankshaft, generator, flat belt, LED bulb

Syringe

Steel wire Used as connecting rod

(continued)

2. Then, we attach the other end of that PVC tube with a Syringe whose needle is taken out. 3. We made a hole at the end of the syringe to act as a passage for the hot air, and we also attach another piece of PVC tube for the passage for the hot air. 4. Then, we attach the whole system of crankshaft and syringe handle using steel wire to act as a connecting rod for the system. 5. Similarly, we repeated the whole process as stated in statement 4 for the power piston. 6. Then, the PVC tube left at the first syringe we connected another end with front of 2nd syringe.

Portable Solar Stirling Engine Table 1 (continued)

283 Fresnel lens

Plywood Used as a base for the prototype

Generator of 1.5-3 V

4 Prototype Model and Component See (Fig. 1). Passage for the Gas Fresnel Lens

Power Piston

Hot chamber

Connecting Rod

Crankshaft Displacer

Generator 1.5-3V

Fig. 1 Represents a prototype model of the system

284 Fig. 2 Survey report of 60 people

S. Saxena and Rahul

Survey of 60 People

13, 22%

BUY

31, 51% 16, 27%

NOT BUY NOT SURE

5 Survey A survey was conducted on 60 people. The question was asked if this product is available in the market will they buy or not. And also asked for a few suggestions for development in this project. From the survey shown in Fig. 2, we got answers about what products will impact consumers. Thirty-one people said they will buy it because this is a new concept, different from the solar cells, and cheap. And they also suggested that there can be a few additions to the project just like that if it moves with Sun without intervention or it can be mounted on a tripod. Thirteen people were not sure about it. Sixteen people said they will not buy it because it is made of metal, more wait than the solar cell and they also assume that it can also make noise ‘which is kind of true’.

6 Result and Discussion . Concentrated sunlight falls on the hot chamber we found that if using a 10 cm long steel tube instead of an 8.5 cm tube Stirling engine takes a long time to start and cooled early than 8.5 cm. . From the experiment, we found that if we apply a generator at the end of the power piston side rather than the displacer side it is less feasible. . From the literature review, we found that the use of helium instead of normal air will give more efficiency [7]. . The literature review also found that air sealing is the crucial factor, which impacts the efficiency of an engine. . An experiment was performed on gamma-type Stirling engine but there were other two alpha and beta-type which can also be used.

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As the world moves toward non-renewable resources, this kind of work can act a key role in motivation for renewable energy use.

6.1 From the Survey . Prediction can be made if more work is done in this field it can likely dominate the renewable energy sector for small purposes. As its main component is made of steel, it is easy to make rather than a solar cell. . More awareness programs and advertisements are needed. Because lots of people don’t know about it. . Also got a suggestion if a hot chamber is put on burning fuel, it can also likely produce energy in the night which is going to measure advantage over solar cells. . Low-income countries can also afford it if more work is done in this field.

7 Conclusion On reading lots of article, we find out there is not so much development of portable solar Stirling Engine. Most of them were developed for industrial use or power plant use. For that, we made a small prototype based on a solar Stirling engine for general use in hiking or any other area where electricity is not available. . We conclude that this research work is absolutely good and it generates a little bit of electricity and if worked on it can generate enough energy to run small and big appliances and it is quite right. . From the survey, we conclude that 51% of people will buy this product, this percentage can be increased if we make some changes like placing it on the tripod or it automatically follows up with the sun, then there is a chance to increase the percentage from 51 to 62%, by adding not sure person.

References 1. Kongtragool B, Wongwises S (2003) A review of solar powered Stirling engine and lowtemperature differential Stirling engines. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 7:131–154 2. Sripakagorn A, Srikam C (2011) Design and performance of a moderate temperature difference Stirling engine. Renew Energy 36:1728–1733 3. West CD (1986) Principles and applications of Stirling engines. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York

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4. Walker G (1980) Stirling engines. Clarendon Press, Oxford 5. Li R, Grosu L, Queiros-Condé D (2016) Losses effect on the performance of a Gamma type Stirling engine. Energy Convers Manag 114:28–37 [Google Scholar] 6. Araoz JA, Salomon M, Alejo L, Fransson TH (2015) Numerical simulation for the design analysis of kinematic Stirling engines. Appl Energy 159:633–650 [Google Scholar] 7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2018.08.016

Analyzing Barriers of Industry 4.0 Enabled Sustainable Manufacturing to Achieve Circular Economy Shadab Ali Khan, Aaroh Shankar, Abhishek Kumar Singh, Sumit Gupta, Vijay Chaudhary, Pallav Gupta, Gaurav Gaurav, and Sundeep Kumar

Abstract Industry 4.0 has made it possible for Sustainable Manufacturing to play a significant role in the current era, which is important for manufacturing excellence. In this paper, the challenges of achieving circular economy through Sustainable Manufacturing that are enabled by Industry 4.0 are discussed. In order to identify potential barriers, the Analytical Hierarchy Process is utilized. The many obstacles are catalogued, and the one judged to be the least objectionable is chosen as the standard for future acceptability. Keywords MCDM · Sustainable manufacturing · Industry 40 · AHP · Circular economy

1 Introduction Sustainable Manufacturing refers to the process of producing goods that are made with minimal environmental impact. It is also carried out in order to improve the environment and reduce energy consumption. Both Industry 4.0 and Lean are manufacturing paradigms with the same goal: to produce highly personalized items in small quantities effectively. Industry 4.0 initiatives also have a failure rate of 70–90% [1]. The circular economy (CE) has gotten a lot of media lately, both in the public press and in conversations among business executives, legislators, and academics. CE is already being implemented, and it appears to be a potential answer to resource shortages and waste disposal challenges [2]. CE blends recycling, redesign, reduction, and S. A. Khan · A. Shankar · A. K. Singh · S. Gupta (B) · V. Chaudhary · P. Gupta Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201313, India e-mail: [email protected] G. Gaurav Department of Mechanical Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur 302017, India S. Kumar Management Studies, Engineering College Ajmer, Kiranipura, Rajasthan 305025, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_24

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reuse with current production and consumption activities, necessitating fundamental systemic changes in the manufacturing, use, and disposal of items and materials. Furthermore, CE deployment looks to be in its early stages due to the disruptive nature of the shift. Because current techniques to delivering CE are neither obvious nor definite, the practice theory gap remains unexplored [3]. This paper is an attempt to explore the barriers of Industry 4.0 enabled Sustainable Manufacturing to achieve Circular Economy by using AHP technique.

2 Literature Review The current process of globalization is confronted with the challenge of fulfilling the ever-increasing worldwide demand for capital and consumer goods while simultaneously ensuring the continued social, environmental, and financial viability of human existence. This presents a formidable challenge. To rise to the occasion, value creation in industry must be geared toward ensuring its continued viability over the long term. At this point in time, the transition to the fourth stage of industrialization, also known as Industry 4.0, is what defines the early industrialized countries’ contribution to the development of industrial value. This invention opens a plethora of possibilities for achieving sustainable production [4]. The creation, enhancement, and dissemination of a wide variety of products are all impacted by Industry 4.0. The business world is swiftly embracing cutting-edge IT. To better gather and analyze factory data, modern “smart factories” use a combination of sensors, integrated software, and robots. Integration of ERP, SCM, CSM, and other operational data with data from the manufacturing process may reveal previously unknown patterns and insights. After putting all the pieces together, the whole image emerges. Issues in implementing Sustainable Manufacturing in Industry 4.0 were uncovered via a review of the relevant literature. Issues are many, as seen in Table 1.

3 Methodology The best barriers may be determined with the use of the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). AHP was introduced by Saaty and Vargas [15] has found widespread use in a broad range of contexts, such as strategic planning, alternative evaluation, resource allocation, and dispute resolution. Prior to generating weights, it is essential to double-check that the pair-wise comparison of the barriers and the different criteria is consistent [16]. For this purpose, the consistency ratio (CR) has been analyzed with the following equation. CR = CI/RI = (λmax − n)/RI(n − 1)

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Table 1 List of barriers Barrier serial No.

Barrier name

Criteria serial No.

Criteria name source

B1

Lack of proper legislative measures

C1

Legal

B2

Absence of regulations

C1

Legal

B3

Labor Law

C1

Legal

B4

Lack of IT Infrastructure

C2

Technological [5–14]

B5

Gap in technical skills

C2

Technological

B6

Sensitive information or data

C2

Technological

B7

Lack of leadership

C3

Organizational

B8

Unavailability of in-house talent

C3

Organizational

B9

Complex systems

C3

Organizational

Table 2 RI value chart n

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

RI

0.00

0.00

0.58

0.90

1.12

1.24

1.32

1.41

The AHP rule states that the consistency of the matrix is considered to be satisfactory if the value of CR is less than 0.10. In the event that the CR value is more than 0.10, the pair-wise comparisons need to be revised, and this procedure has to be carried out several times until the matrix’s consistency is satisfactory. The RI value is taken from the Table 2. The values from the satty scale is edited into the cells to form an original matrix and then the matrix is transformed into normalized form and weights of different criteria and barrier which will be ranked accordingly in the following tables.

4 Results and Discussion From analysis of data and Table 2, it depicted that criterion 3, i.e., Organizational criteria is ranked first followed by Legal and Technical respectively among all and the barrier that we need to focus first are in the order B9>B7>B8 and similar conclusion can be drawn from the above final table of barriers which have been arranged in the correct order after applying AHP hence suitable alternatives has to be provided to tackle the given barriers in the similar order (Table 3). There were 9 barriers which have been stated as the major barrier in the procurement of healthcare wastes. It has also been found out that complex systems which the Industry 4.0 provides is the major barrier that has been figure out after applying the Analytical Hierarchy Process among the 9 barriers and suitable alternatives is being

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Table 3 Barriers according to their respective ranks Criteria

Barrier No.

Barrier name

Rank

C3

B8

Lack of locally available technologies

1

C2

C1

B6

Lack of appropriate technology and resources

2

B7

Lack of incineration setups

3

B3

Wastewater treatment

4

B9

Open air burning

5

B5

Lack of dumping pits

6

B4

HCP not well educated

7

B1

HCW segregation at source

8

B2

Resistance in regulations and legislations

9

investigated further to minimize the effect of these barriers. This is also because India is still developing suitable methods to increase its technical skills to match with the complex systems of Industry 4.0. The framework that Industry 4.0 provides to us is incomparable to other techniques and modes of manufacturing goods to promote sustainability, but as India doesn’t have those resources to handle the systems, we are yet to welcome more and advanced techniques, machinery and man power in the future. India is trying make advancement and is steeply adopting this in the sectors of Real-Estate, IT, and Manufacturing amidst the COVID-19 pandemic as it forces us to perform tasks digitally making the world connect on a digitized level. Future aspects of Industry 4.0 to attain circular economy through Sustainable Manufacturing is the goal of this discussion. For now, we need to focus on what is our topmost priority and then the following priorities to attain what we ought to.

5 Conclusion The digitalization of the manufacturing unit will make it feasible for us to construct using methods that are not only malleable but also helpful. This will allow us to better meet customer needs. If we are able to make effective use of the resources that are available to us and acquire information that is pertinent to the effort that we are now exerting, we will be successful in achieving the objective that we have set for ourselves. Both the primary aim of the research, which was to establish a unified framework for Lean Industry 4.0, Sustainable Manufacturing, and the Circular Economy, as well as the primary purpose of the study itself, were effectively completed.

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References 1. Aggarwal A, Gupta S, Jamwal A, Agrawal R, Sharma M, Dangayach GS (2022) Adoption of smart and sustainable manufacturing practices: an exploratory study of Indian manufacturing companies. Proce Inst Mech Eng 236(5):586–602 2. Badhotiya GK, Avikal S, Soni G, Sengar N (2022) Analyzing barriers for the adoption of circular economy in the manufacturing sector. Int J Prod Perform Manage 71(3):912–931 3. Singh A, Askary Z, Gupta S, Sharma AK, Shrivastava P (2019) AHP based model for evaluation of sustainable manufacturing enablers in Indian manufacturing companies. In: Advances in industrial and production engineering. Springer, Berlin, pp 397–403 4. Bai C, Dallasega P, Orzes G, Sarkis J (2020) Industry 4.0 technologies assessment: a sustainability perspective. Int J Prod Econ 229:107776–107776 5. Reddy R, Gupta B, Phanden SKR (2021) Development of an industry 4.0-enabled biogas plant for sustainable development. In: Advances in industrial and production engineering. Springer, Berlin, pp. 379–392 6. Frank AG, Dalenogare LS, Ayala NF (2019) Industry 4.0 technologies: implementation patterns in manufacturing companies. Int J Prod Econ 210:15–26 7. Zhu Q, Geng Y (2013) Drivers and barriers of extended supply chain practices for energy saving and emission reduction among Chinese manufacturers. J Clean Prod 40:6–12 8. Talib S, Sharma A, Gupta S, Gaurav G, Pathak V, Shukla RK (2021) Analysis of Influential enablers for sustainable smart manufacturing in Indian manufacturing industries using TOPSIS approach. In: Advances in industrial and production engineering. Springer, Berlin, pp 621–628 9. Reddy K, Rao DSS, Sharma H, Gupta C, Shukla S, Kumar RK (2021) A: analysis of key enablers of sustainable additive manufacturing: a case of Indian automotive company. In: Advances in interdisciplinary engineering. Springer, Berlin, pp 281–290 10. Dangayach GS, Gaurav G, Gupta S (2022) Environmental impact assessment of captive power plant using LCA for sustainable development. Int J Soc Ecol Sustain Dev (IJSESD) 13(1):1–15 11. Sharma A, Gahalot P, Talib S, Gupta S, Gautam N, Singh A, Goswami U (2022) Design and development of industry 4.0-enabled monitoring system. In: Advances in mechanical and materials technology. Springer, Berlin, pp 809–815 12. Gupta S, Dangayach GS, Singh AK, Meena ML, Rao PN (2018) Implementation of sustainable manufacturing practices in Indian manufacturing companies. Benchmarking Int J 25(7):2441– 2459 13. Vishwakarma A, Meena ML, Dangayach GS, Gupta S (2022) Modeling and analysis of sustainability practices in Indian apparel industries using fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (FAHP). In: Advances in mechanical and materials technology. Springer, Berlin, pp 599–605 14. Jaiswal P, Kumar A, Gupta S (2018) Prioritization of green manufacturing drivers in Indian SMEs through IF-TOPSIS approach. UPB Sci Bull Ser D 80(2):277–292 15. Saaty TL, Vargas LG (1980) Hierarchical analysis of behavior in competition: prediction in chess. Behav Sci 25(3):180–191 16. Askary Z, Singh A, Gupta S, Shukla RK, Jaiswal P (2019) Development of AHP framework of sustainable product design and manufacturing of electric vehicle. In: Advances in engineering design. Springer, Singapore, pp 415–422

Prioritization of Factors for Robust Manufacturing System: A Case of Disk Brake Rajesh Kumar Singh

Abstract The robust design of manufacturing system is a challenging task for all organizations. This study has tried to demonstrate concept of robust manufacturing with an example of disc brake. The disk brake is one of the most important components of an automobile. The purpose of this study is to identify and prioritize all the necessary factors influencing the robust manufacturing of disk brakes. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is used for the prioritization of factors for the robust manufacturing of disk brakes. Through literature review and experts’ opinion, 16 factors related to three main parts of brake disk, i.e., disc or rotor, brake pads, and caliper unit are identified. Prioritization of factors will help production managers in developing robust manufacturing system. Keywords Robust · Manufacturing system · Disk brake · AHP

1 Introduction The globalization of the manufacturing market, increased competition, customer awareness, etc. demand the firms become more focused on sustainability, reliability, and quality. Robust Design Methodology (RDM) is one of the many concepts pioneered by Genichi Taguchi to assist the manufacturing firms in achieving the same. Gremyr et al. [1] have significantly contributed to establishing RDM as a methodology to improve product and process quality, and increase customer satisfaction. Robust Design is defined as reducing variation in a product without eliminating the causes of the variation. RDM makes the product or process insensitive to variation. The concept of RDM was formed by incorporating the idea of robustness into the early design phase of the product. Robustness is the ability of a system to resist change without adapting its initial stable configuration. RDM is being used to improve the productivity of the manufacturing system since its origin. It is the capability of mastering product development in a more sophisticated manner that R. K. Singh (B) Management Development Institute (MDI), Gurgaon, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_25

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accounts for the cutting edge enjoyed by some Japanese companies, such as Toyota [2]. RDM considers the environmental usage during the product’s use phase, manufacturing variation and component deterioration, and the cost of failure. Problems in engineering design often involve determining design variable settings to optimize individual product performance for multiple criteria, which are often in conflict [3]. Quality management (QM) is one of the important tools used in RDM to achieve insensitivity toward noise factors. QM is defined as a “philosophy or an approach to management that can be characterized by its principles, practices, and techniques”. Its three principles are customer focus, continuous improvement, and teamwork [4]. Gremyr et al. [5] reviewed RDM case studies to reveal that they support sustainability. Hasenkamp et al. [2] through their thorough review of the literature identified the key practices for effective implementation of RDM, viz., focusing on the customer, identifying and understanding noise factors, checking assumptions, designing for insensitivity to noise factors, etc. Eifler et al. [6] summarized the potential barriers to the implementation of RDM in the following two categories: . Organizational barriers: Fear of change, lack of organizational support, no promotion of value proposition, methods are applied wrong, lack of training, lack of competence in the organization. . Method barriers: Methods that do not produce desired effects, poor design of method, lack of appeal, and results are not operational. A disc brake is a wheel brake that slows the rotation of the wheel by the friction caused by pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of calipers. The disc is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads, mounted on a device called a brake caliper, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically, or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes convert the motion to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they become less effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade. They conducted a parametric sensitivity study to define a suitable design material for prototyping a lightweight front brake disc. Nechak et al. [7] used sensitivity analysis and a kriging model for taking parameter uncertainty into account for the whole design process and propose robustly predicting frictioninduced instability in the brake disc. Marie Reyes et al. [8] investigated the disk brakes resulting in premature cracking, including initiation of cracks, how the cracks propagate, and factors responsible for cracks in the disc braking system. After studying the specific properties, design concerns, and manufacturing problems for three main parts of the disc brake system, viz., (1) Disc (2) Brake pad (3) Calipers, key factors are identified separately for each part that might lead to the robust design of disc brake. The three main parts are manufactured separately and later assembled to form a disc brake system. There are two main challenges: (a) Finding out the importance level for each factor. (b) The incorporation of these factors into the initial design phase according to their importance level. The main objectives of this research are to: . Identify the factors for the robust design of the disc brake.

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. Prioritization of the factors to help designers in the production of the robust disc brake. The organization of this paper is as follows: First, a brief introduction to the robust design, of disc brakes, followed by a literature review to identify the factors for the robust design of disc brakes. Further, the prioritization of the factors by the AHP methodology signifies the quantitative importance of each factor in robust design. At last, the results are discussed and the conclusion is summarized.

2 Literature Review Even though extensive research has already been done on the design of disc brakes and their specific properties, the concept of robust design of disc brakes is still under development. This section consists of two parts. In the first part, we discuss the complete manufacturing process from material selection to finished product. In the second part, we identify the key factors responsible for the robust and efficient design of disc brakes with the help of previous research and the guidance of experts from industries and academia.

2.1 Manufacturing of Disc Brake The first and nearly the most important task is the selection of the most suitable material for manufacturing the product. Keeping the customers requirement, the working environment of the product, production cost, environmental protection, firm’s profit, etc. in mind, this task becomes of prime importance. In the case of the disc brake system, the main parts viz: disc or rotor, brake pads, and caliper unit are manufactured independently and later assembled to form a braking system. So, different materials are required for manufacturing them. Almost all discs (or rotors) of brakes for normal performance vehicles are currently made of gray cast iron. Apart from its low cost, another driving factor is how the friction performance of these brakes can be conveniently engineered to the desired level [9]. However, for high-performance vehicles, the brakes manufactured of gray cast iron (GCI) are not efficient due to their heavyweight. Gray cast iron mixed with graphite flakes is commonly used in the manufacturing process of discs. For manufacturing of disk brakes in high performance, vehicles ceramic material reinforced with carbon is used. The tensile properties along with the graded hardness of AMMC are responsible for the better performance of hybrid composite brake discs. In the case of pads, asbestos was a popular material for brake pads because of its heat resistance and strength until its use was banned for the release of deadly fibers. The three main material categories are semi-metallic, organic, and ceramic. Each offers its advantages and disadvantages for

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a manufacturer to consider. The most common brake pads for vehicles today are semimetallic. These brake pads are composed of metal shavings held together with resin. Some of the most common metals are copper, brass, and steel. Because they are made up of primarily metal, these brake pads are very durable and can last a long time before needing replacement. Organic pads are made up of asbestos. However, brake pads create dust when going through the process of stopping a vehicle, and it was discovered that asbestos dust can be very dangerous to breathe. Ceramic brake pads are some of the most expensive available on the market. They are comprised primarily of ceramic fibers with filling agents, but may also have small amounts of other materials, such as copper. They dissipate heat very well, making them an excellent choice for high-performance vehicles. Ceramic brake pads break down very slowly, which may or may not mean they need replacement less often, depending on how harshly they are used. The material is also incredibly lightweight, making it perfect for racing applications. Also, they are relatively inexpensive. Most rail brake pads are made of sintered metal. Sintered metal is very hard and resists wear. Its high heat transference makes it able to resist wear better than solid metal does. The metal used in brake pads is mostly iron oxide, but contains some portion of exotic high-temperature metals and also ceramic and rare earth materials such as kaolin and silicon carbide to add hardness and heat conduction. Caliper unit is manufactured by using gray cast iron for normal vehicles because of its excellent machineability wear resistance characteristics along with its damping capability. Stainless steel and Titanium are also a suitable material for calipers but are costly. Aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMC) are the most suitable material for the caliper. Once the material for all three units is selected, the manufacturing process starts. For disc, metal castings are prepared of the selected material by the permanent mold casting process. A fully covered mold is sent to a press where the pressure of around 20 tons and heating of around 400° Fahrenheit are applied to it. Mold is cooled for 5–8 min. The cores which were inserted in the mold for ventilation purposes are pulled out. There are two types of disc brakes–solid and vented. As the name describes solid disc is with the material throughout the disc and is heavy but vented discs are having vents made to quickly transfer the heat and reduce the weight of the disc for providing more fuel efficiency for the vehicle.

2.2 Identifying the Factors for Robust Manufacturing System The factors have been identified for all the three main units of disc brake, viz., disc, pads, and caliper separately. These factors were selected by reviewing previous research and with the help of experts from industries and academia. Though all the three main components are equally responsible for making a brake system work. But, from the design point of view, the disc is prioritized on top followed by the pad and the caliper unit. The factors have been articulated for the three units individually.

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Disc or Rotor: The disc mates with the pad to perform the braking action which generates a huge amount of heat, generating thermal stresses in the disc. The continuous braking causes the disc to wear. Chen and Kienhöfer [10] presented a simplified framework to compute the mechanical stresses in the brake disc with the help of mechanics. It is necessary to design the product for wear resistance to improve its quality and life. The braking and stopping of a heavy vehicle create huge heat flux into the disc instantaneously and the high temperature creates high stress on the disc material. This phenomenon is called heat shock. Therefore, the brake disc needs to have a high thermal capacity (HTC) to avoid any deformation or expansion. During the braking, as the pads compress the disk to stop the rotation, the disc should possess the compressive strength, to bear the compressive stress generated during the braking. Brake Pads: Pads with optimal surface area provide less pad wear because of the availability of more material. The large surface area also ensures better fade characteristics (resistance to wear of pad) due to the ability to distribute heat across a larger surface area. Heat conduction is the ability of a material to distribute heat generated in a small area to the large surface area available and thus accounts for an important property of the brake pad. The wear resistance as mentioned in the case of the disk is equally essential for the pad as well. Material selection and the design should be for high wear resistance. Disc brake systems are conventionally designed using pads with a single friction material throughout the frictional surface to maintain the uniform coefficient of friction. Uniform coefficient of friction ensures equal surface wear throughout the pad maintaining the braking system efficient till the life cycle of the pads. It’s the uniform coefficient of friction that gives the pads their braking power. Once faded or worn out, replacement of it should be quick and easy to prevent any possible danger. Simple replacement is among the desired properties for brake pads. It is observed that the coefficient of friction and wear rate reduces with an increase in sliding velocity and contact pressure. Gao et al. [11] studied the optimal temperature range required for the actual braking process to successfully predict the high-frequency braking noise tendency. Caliper Units: The caliper is subjected to the reaction forces of the braking force along with the forces due to the working fluid. Therefore, it should portray high stiffness with fatigue strength and toughness against fracture during frequent operations. Oder et al. Caliper is the unit that holds the braking system together, making its simple installation an important point. Stiffness is important to bear the heavy load and pad disc during the braking. The piston bores in the caliper are hardened and machined to a better surface finish to avoid damage during operation. Fluid lines are drilled with extreme caution and without wear. Anti-rust coatings are applied to prevent any reduction of the lifecycle of the caliper due to gradually weakening and eating due to rust. The factors are designing robust disc brake system are shown in AHP framework (Fig. 1).

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Level 1 Identification of major parts for robust disk brake

Level 2 Brake pad

Disk or Rotor

Caliper unit

Level 3 Wear & abrasive strength Compressive strength Light weight Rigidity High thermal capacity

Surface area Uniform coefficient of friction Wear resistance Simple replacement Heat conduction Robustness

Compact design Light weight Stiffness Rust prevention Simple installation

Level 4

Robust disk brake

Fig. 1 AHP framework for robust design of disk brake

3 Methodology and Results We have used the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) methodology in our research to prioritize the different factors according to their importance level. AHP is a structured technique developed by Saaty [12] for organizing and analyzing complex decisions based on mathematics and psychology. Different steps are described below.

3.1 Phase 1: Outline the Objective and Identify the Factors In this phase, the main objective of the research is defined by keeping in mind the social, environmental, and economical factors along with the design specifications. The objective of our research is to identify the factors for the robust design of brake discs and their prioritization by using AHP to help designers in the production of the robust disc brake.

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3.2 Phase 2: Building the Hierarchy Model This phase involves structuring the hierarchy model of different levels constituting the goal, main criteria, and sub-criteria. The objective is placed on the top level of the hierarchy as shown in Fig. 1. Brake disc or rotor, brake pads, and caliper units which are the main parts of the disc brake form the second level of the hierarchy. The third level consists of a total of 16 factors identified individually for the robust design of disc brake for all three units of disc brake. Disk or rotor consists of five sub-factors, six sub-factors are identified for brake pads and five sub-factors are related to caliper units. The main parts and their sub-factors in the 2nd and 3rd levels of hierarchy are assessed by using the AHP approach of pairwise comparison of elements in each level concerning every parent element located one level above.

3.3 Phase 3: Calculation of Result and Finding the Solution to the Problem A nine-point scale developed by Saaty [12] as shown in Fig. 2 is used to evaluate the pairwise comparison matrices. The evaluation was done with the help of experts from both the industries and the academics. Elements in the higher level are said to be a governing element for those in the lower level, as it contributes to it. The elements in the lower level are compared to each other based on their effect on the governing element [13]. Pair-wise comparison matrix gives the intensity with which one factor or sub-factors dominate each other. Then calculations for the Eigenvalues, consistency index CI, consistency ratio CR, and the normalized value of criteria are made. If the maximum Eigenvalue, CI, and CR are found to be satisfactory then the decision is made based on the normalized values, else the procedure is repeated for further iterations until these values lie in the desired range. Table 1 shows the pairwise comparisons of different parts of disk brake system in terms of robustness importance. Similar comparison can be done for sub-criteria of different parts as shown from Tables 2, 3 and 4. Due to the impreciseness and inconsistency present in human judgment, it becomes important to calculate the consistency of the obtained priority vectors. Consistency ratio (CR) is found within acceptable limit, i.e., less than 10%. Extremely less important

Extremely more important EQUAL

1/9

1/7

1/5

Fig. 2 AHP nine-point scale

1/3

1

3

5

7

9

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Table 1 Comparison matrix for main parts of disk brake Disk or rotor

Disk or rotor

Brake pads

Caliper unit

PV

1

3

4

0.631

Brake pads

1/3

1

2

0.224

Caliper unit

1/4

1/2

1

0.145

Table 2 Comparison matrix for criteria under disk Wear and abrasive strength

Compressive strength

Light weight

Rigidity

HTC

PV

Wear and abrasive strength

1

5

3

7

1/3

0.219

Compressive strength

1/5

1

1/3

3

1/7

0.068

Light weight

1/3

3

1

4

1/5

0.110

Rigidity

1/7

1/3

1/4

1

1/9

0.047

HTC

3

7

5

9

1

0.556

Table 3 Comparison matrix for criteria under brake pads Surface Uniform Wear Simple Heat Robustness PV area coefficient resistance replacement conduction of friction Surface area 1

1/9

1/3

1/2

1/7

1/5

0.042

Uniform coefficient of friction

9

1

6

7

3

5

0.508

Wear resistance

3

1/6

1

3

1/5

1/3

0.072

Simple 2 replacement

1/7

1/3

1

1/7

1/5

0.053

Heat conduction

7

1/3

5

7

1

3

0.215

Robustness

5

1/5

3

5

1/3

1

0.111

4 Results and Discussion In this study, a total of 16 factors that support the robust designing of the brake disc are identified and prioritized with the help of experts from the industries and academia. From their views and with the help of an extensive literature review, we have summarized the main parts of the disk brake along and arranged the factors responsible for the design of a robust brake disc. The main parts (equivalent to main factors) of the disc brake are disc or rotor, brake pads, and a caliper unit. They are

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Table 4 Comparison of sub-criteria under caliper Compact design

Lightweight

Stiffness

Rust prevention

Simple installation

PV

Compact design

1

3

5

9

7

0.555

Lightweight

1/3

1

3

7

5

0.219

Stiffness

1/5

1/3

1

5

3

0.111

Rust prevention

1/9

1/7

1/5

1

1/3

0.047

Simple installation

1/7

1/5

1/3

3

1

0.067

also the three main parts of the disk brake. It has been observed that carbon fiber is the most suitable material for the manufacturing of disc of normal performance vehicles. Ceramic material reinforced with carbon should be preferred in the case of high-performance vehicles. Brake pads made up of ceramic material mixed up with filling agents such as copper perform the best and are used in high-performance vehicles. Brake pads in the trains comprise sintered metal along with a portion of exotic high-temperature metal including ceramic and rare earth materials like kaolin and silicon carbide. Gray cast iron is used in the manufacturing of caliper. For the manufacturing of robust caliper stainless steel and titanium are essential, however, they are expensive. Aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMC) is found to be the most suitable material for the robust manufacturing of brake disc. The AHP framework is shown in Fig. 1. Pair-wise comparison matrices have been prepared to calculate the normalized weights. Further, the Eigenvalues, Consistency Index, Consistency ratio, and the Prioritized value are evaluated. The degree of consistency is examined by determining (CR) and, is found to be well within the range. All the three main parts are manufactured separately and assembled later to form a disc brake. Hence, the interdependency of the factors is not considered in this research. Moreover, it should be noted that the malfunctioning of any of the three main parts will result in the failure of the brake disc. Nevertheless, the disc is given priority over the pad followed by the caliper unit, in the context of design. Intensity obtained with the help of AHP gives the highest priority value of 0.631 to the disc, followed by a pad with a priority value of 0.224, and the least priority value of 0.145 is assigned to a caliper. For the robust design of the rotor, high thermal capacity is given preference at the top with the priority value of 0.556. For the robust design of the brake pad, the uniform coefficient of friction is found to be the top criterion with a priority value of 0.508. In the case of caliper compact design is given the highest priority value of 0.555. The final priorities of all the factors for the rotor are as follows: Wear and abrasive strength (0.219), Compressive strength (0.068), Lightweight (0.110), Rigidity (0.047), and High thermal capacity (0.556). For the pads the priorities are: Surface area (0.042), Uniform coefficient of friction (0.508), Wear resistance (0.072), Simple replacement (0.053), Heat conduction (0.215), Robustness (0.111). In case of calipers the

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priority values are as follows: Compact design (0.555), Lightweight (0.219), Stiffness (0.111), Rust prevention (0.047), Simple installation (0.067).

5 Conclusion The disk brake is one of the most important elements of an automobile. A robust disk brake ensures not only a better life for the disk, pads, and caliper but also enables the disk to function in a harsh working environment. A malfunctioning disk brake might produce a risk as big as the life of a human. Therefore, manufacturing firms should focus on the manufacturing of the most efficient disk brakes. One of the most important tasks in designing or manufacturing a product is the selection of the most suitable material which will provide the desired properties. In the manufacturing of disks for normal performance, gray cast iron mixed with graphite flakes is the most suitable material. However, for high-performance vehicles, ceramic material reinforced with carbon is appropriate. Ceramic material mixed with filling agents like copper is the best choice for the design and manufacturing of robust brake discs. Aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMC) is the most appropriate material for the robust design of caliper unit. After identifying the factors with the help of experts and the literature, AHP is applied to prioritize the factors. From the result, it is concluded that the rotor should be designed with utmost care and more emphasis should be laid to design for high thermal capacity followed by wear and abrasive strength than lightweight followed by compressive strength and rigidity at last. For the robust design of pads, the focus should be given to design for uniform coefficient of friction followed by heat conduction. In the case of robust design of caliper, compact design is found to be on top followed by lightweight then stiffness followed by simple installation and rust prevention at last.

References 1. Gremyr I, Arvidsson M, Johansson P (2003) Robust design methodology: status in Swedish manufacturing industry. Qual Reliab Eng Int 19:285–293 2. Hasenkamp T, Arvidsson M, Gremyr I (2009) A review of practices for robust design methodology. J Eng Des 20(6):645–657 3. Murphy TE, Tsui K, Allen JK (2005) Res Eng Design 16:118 4. Dean JW, Bowen DE (1994) Management theory and total quality: improving research and practice through theory development. Acad Manag Rev 19(3):392–418 5. Gremyr I, Siva V, Raharjo H, Goh TN (2014) Adapting the robust design methodology to support sustainable product development. J Clean Prod 79:231–238 6. Eifler T, Christensen ME, Howard TJ (2013) A classification of the industrial relevance of robust design methods. In: Proceedings of the 19th international conference on engineering design (ICED13): design for harmonies, Vol. 9. Design Society, pp 427–436 7. Nechak L, Gillot F, Besset S, Sinou J-J (2015) Sensitivity analysis and Kriging based models for robust stability analysis of brake systems. Mech Res Commun 69:136–145

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8. Marie Reyes A, Joy Dela Cruz C, Joy Diaz L, Olegario EM (2019) Microstructure evaluation of the damage and wear characteristics of a failed disc brake of a provincial bus. Mater. Today Proc. 16:1789–1795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.06.052 9. Chao MH, Kim SJ, Basch RH, Fash JW, Jang H (2003) Tribological study of grey cast iron with automotive brake linings: the effect of rotor microstructure. Tribol Int 36:537–545 10. Chen A, Kienhöfer F (2021) The failure prediction of a brake disc due to nonthermal or mechanical stresses. Eng Fail Anal 124:105319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2021. 105319 11. Gao P, Du Y, Ruan J, Yan P (2021) Temperature-dependent noise tendency prediction of the disc braking system. Mech Syst Signal Process 149:107189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp. 2020.107189 12. Saaty TL (1994) How to make a decision: the analytic hierarchy process. Interface 24(6):19–43 13. Singh RK (2013) Prioritizing the factors for coordinated supply chain using analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Measuring Bus Excellence 17(1):80–98

Maintaining Comfort Air Conditioning System Inside a Four Wheeler Using Phase Change Material Anirban Sur , Swapnil Narkhede , Dhruv Makharia Kunal Patil, and Jeetesh Sharma

Abstract When cars are parked in a parking lot on sunny days, especially in the summer, the intense heat causes drivers to feel quite uncomfortable. In order to lower the temperature inside the car, a significant quantity of energy from the AC must be used for cooling. In order to maintain the ideal environment inside the car while driving it today, all vehicles have an air conditioning system, which results in the use of more energy and the use of more fuels, which results in higher expenses and more emissions. In this work, we discussed and designed a PCM-operated car air conditioner, in which we installed a PCM inside the roof to regulate the car’s temperature all day long, eliminating the need for additional AC to run continuously at high power. The temperature inside the car is kept at a pleasant level. The amount of PCM required has also been determined once the heat load of the inside of the automobile has been determined. About 900 g of PCM is needed to keep the cabin at a suitable temperature while the car is parked outside and exposed to the sun. Keywords Parked car · Inside temperature · Phase Change Material (PCM) · Solar heat

1 Introduction Drivers find it quite uncomfortable to go inside their cars on bright days, especially in the summer, when they are parked in a parking lot under the sun. This is because of the intense heat. Therefore, to lower the temperature inside the car, a significant quantity of energy from the AC must be used for cooling. Therefore, all cars today have an air conditioning system to maintain the ideal temperature inside the vehicle while it is being driven. This results in the consumption of more energy and gasoline, which raises expenses and creates more pollutants [1]. Therefore, it will be very beneficial for the cars if we can keep the cabin temperature constant when the car is parked A. Sur (B) · S. Narkhede · D. M. K. Patil · J. Sharma Symbiosis Institute of Technology Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune, Maharashtra, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_26

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without using the engine or batteries, causing no harm to the environment. One of the most intriguing options is thermal energy storage, which uses no energy at all thanks to the PCMs we employ to lower the cabin’s temperature. One of the most important issues and difficulties facing our civilization now is climate change. The switch to renewable energy sources is an immediate necessity. There is a larger focus on improving energy efficiency because the building and transportation sectors, like industry, have a significant impact on energy use and emissions [2]. The two-degree structure of the Paris Agreement states that energy efficiency may cut CO2 emissions by 48% by 2040 [3]. However, the switch to sustainable energy sources has been sped up by the depletion of fossil fuels and their detrimental effects on the environment. However, the demand for a means of storing renewable energy has become urgent due to climatic changes. The creation of effective and long-term energy storage techniques has become necessary as a result. According to estimates, Europe could save about 1.4 million GWh/year and prevent 400 million tonnes of CO2 emissions by using heat and cold storage more extensively in buildings and industrial sectors [4]. The best technique to decrease hazardous emissions is through thermal energy storage (TES). Due to the great likelihood and potential for managing and lowering greenhouse gas emissions, many scientists and engineers are getting interested in this area [5]. The sensible heat storage technique is not as advantageous as latent heat thermal storage because of the enhanced storage capacity per unit volume/mass at almost constant temperatures. Suitable heat storage does not have a significant volumetric TES extent compared to latent heat storage [6]. TES technology has the ability to lower the thermal load in Germany and Spain by 8% and 9%, respectively, based on the practical accomplishment rate in the construction and industrial sectors. Energy use will be reduced by 7%, and CO2 emissions will be reduced by 7.5%, according to the European Union [7]. As a result, we are aware of the importance of using TES while developing thermal energy systems. The task of latent heat storage is getting increasingly fascinating and ambitious in a variety of applications due to a reduction in the needed storage space [8]. Where the huge volume and weight may limit energy capabilities, such as in transportation applications, there are benefits to adopting latent heat storage. In comparison to the typical heat load on hot days, the maximum heat load inside the car might be considerably considerable [9]. For cars powered by gasoline or diesel, the engine is the only source of power for the vehicle’s air conditioning compressor, and the cooling capacity of the car depends on the engine’s speed and rpm; the difference between the engine’s maximum and minimum output power is more than three times [10]. The car air conditioning in electric vehicles operates independently of the engine. It still depends on the car battery, which has a big impact on the car’s efficiency by almost 50%. If we can lower the power of the AC in the electric car as well, it will have a huge impact on efficiency. Therefore, it will be advantageous for the cars if we can keep the cabin temperature constant when the car is parked without utilising the engine or batteries to prevent damage to the environment. Phase change materials (PCMs) are one of the most

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promising options for thermal energy storage since they require no electricity, which reduces temperature fluctuations within the car. In this study, we constructed and analysed PCM-run automotive air conditioning, where we installed a PCM inside the vehicle to maintain the vehicle’s temperature throughout the day and eliminate the need for unneeded AC to operate continuously at high power levels.

2 Thermal Energy Storage (TES) TES is essentially a form of energy storage. It gains energy as the temperature rises and loses power as the temperature falls. TES is composed of three steps: charging, storing, and discharging. It manages the demand and supply of energy for various applications. With the help of TES, the overall competence of the energy system could improve. The main advantage of TES is that it can use for more extended periods [11]. Heat could collect during the summer, for example, in large lakes, using solar thermal accumulators to overcome and address occasional temperature discrepancies. It could then be stored and rented out to the accommodations for the duration of the winter. We could provide cooling throughout the summer by charging a cold store during the winter. We rely entirely on fossil fuels and non-conventional sources for our daily needs [12]. TES is a technology that can be available anywhere on the planet. It has several advantages over fossil fuels. The use of TES is attracting the attention of many governments (Fig. 1). TES technologies are typically classified into two types (Fig. 2). They are sensible heat; in this type of TES system, only the temperature of the material being stored is varied, and no phase change occurs within the operating temperature range. In contrast to the sensible heat reservoir, latent heat storage employs phase change materials (PCM). Phase change materials (PCM) are used for latent heat storage because they absorb and release thermal energy at the same temperature during Fig. 1 Working principle of TES

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Fig. 2 Classification of TES. Referred from A comprehensive review of thermal energy storage

solidification and melting [13]. PCMs are a class of LHTES materials that use the solid to liquid phase transition to store energy. Changing from liquid to gas and solid to gas requires a large volume, which can sometimes be inconvenient because it can cause technical difficulties. At the moment, the number of new PCMs is increasing. As a result, selecting a suitable material for a specific application from the available materials is a complex and time-consuming process. When selecting PCM for a specific TES application, some properties such as high heat capacity, high thermal conductivity, and energy density must be considered. Compounds that are usually categorised as organic, inorganic, or eutectic are PCM. Paraffin and non-paraffin mixes are the two categories into which organic PCMs are divided. While paraffin is composed of chains of various lengths of hydrocarbon molecules, non-paraffin also contains other organic compounds such alcohol, fatty acids, and glycol [15]. Salt hydrates and metallic PCMs are the two categories that inorganic PCMs fall under. Due to their excellent heat conduction, high latent heat, and low cost, salt hydrate compounds are frequently utilised in low-temperature applications [16]. Incongruent melting, limited life, supercoiling, corrosion, and poor specific heat are all downsides of salt hydrate TES; in contrast, metals and their alloys do not have these issues and can be utilised for high-temperature applications. Eutectics refers to a compound made up of organic or inorganic PCMs and is designed to have the desired thermophysical properties at eutectic points as determined by their phase diagram [17]. As PCM absorbs energy, we can see in Fig. 3 that its state changes from solid to liquid. Between these two states, there is a point known as crystallisation, which transforms into liquid form, where the temperature is constant but energy is still being absorbed. By releasing energy, this process can be reversed, changing the substance from liquid to solid. PCMs are substances that use phase transitions from liquid to solid and back again to save energy. Because they may collect thermal energy

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Fig. 3 Temperature versus energy graph to the explain working of the PCM

during the solidification and melting processes and then release it again at a fixed temperature, alteration of phase materials are used to store latent heat. A Eutectic water-salt solution and paraffin are the PCM groups for below-freezing applications that have received the greatest research. Paraffin has a melting point of 53.5 °C. Fatty acids and sugar alcohols have melting points that are higher than 0 °C. Eutectic water-salt solutions have a 62 °C melting temperature. The PCM’s ability to conduct heat could be boosted and improved using nanoparticles or PCM encapsulation. There are two ways to incorporate nanoparticles into phase change materials: a one-step method in which they are created and dispersed in PCM in one-step, and a two-step method in which they are synthesised or bought from the market and then dispersed in two stages, with most researchers favouring the two-step method [18]. Encapsulation, on the other hand, is a technique that increases thermal conductivity and heat transfer rate, controls phase change material volume change, prevents phase change material from interacting with the outside world, improves stability, and prevents phase change material leakage [19]. There are several uses for thermal energy storage across different industries. TES can be applied in a variety of refrigeration systems employing PCM in a number of different ways. (CTES) may also be applied in large-scale industrial operations, food storage, and transportation. Additionally, cold thermal energy storage has been used in AC applications over the past ten years. To entirely switch AC application to CTES, numerous types of study are being done. As a result, LHS storage is being used more frequently all around the world. A lot of research is also being done to

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overcome obstacles such storage size restrictions, PCM container system stability, temperature cycles, and other issues, and make advancements.

3 Design of TES Inside the Car For getting the volume of TES it is compulsory to calculate the heat load inside the car. We have calculated the heat inside the car when the car is parked and no one is inside the car, so there will be no metabolic heat as no one is inside the car. Heat which will be there when the car is parked during the day will be. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Direct Heat Diffusive Heat Reflected Heat Ambient Heat.

There will be no engine heat and ventilation heat as the car’s engine and AC both are turned off so no heat will be released due to both. Direct Load The heat gain inside the car caused by solar radiation is known as a direct load. Any computation of the cooling load must include this division. According to ASHRAE [14], there are three different forms of heat load caused by solar radiation: diffuse, direct, and load from reflected radiation. The incident solar radiation includes direct radiation. And using the following formula, the radiation that directly hits the surface of the vehicle is assessed: Q=

τ ∑

S IDir Cosθ

(1)

0

I Dir is the direct radiation heat gain per unit area, S = Surface Area (For Window = 1.58 m2 , For Wind shield = 0.843 m2 ), the angle between the surface normal and position of sun is θ, and τ is the surface element transmissivity A (

IDir = exp

B Sinβ

)

(2)

The variables A and B (A = 1088 W/m2 and B = 0.205) are listed in the ASHRAE Handbook [1] of Fundamentals [14] whereas is β the altitude angle that is determined by position and time. Angles are measured in degrees (o ) as a unit of measurement. The surface azimuth (ψ) and solar azimuth (φ) are also evaluated in (o ) from south. Additionally, angles to the east and west of south are regarded as positive and negative, respectively. The

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following are the calculations used to determine the sun azimuth, surface incidence, and altitude ang. Apparent solar time AST, in decimal hours: ET LON LSM LST δ w ∑ A B C

Equation of time, decimal minutes (ET = −1.4) Local longitude, decimal degrees of arc Local standard time meridian, decimal degrees of arc (LSM = 14) Local standard time, decimal hours Solar declination Surface azimuth Surface tilt from horizontal, horizontal Apparent solar constant Atmospheric extinction coefficient Sky diffuse factor.

Apparent Solar Time (AST) = LST + ET/60 + (LSM - LON)/15

(3)

Hour Angle–the angle between the hour circle of a celestial object and the celestial meridian of an observer measured westward from the meridian. Hour Angle (H ) = 15(AST − 12)

(4)

Solar altitude β: The altitude describes how high the sun appears in the sky. Sinβ = Cos L.Cos(δ).Cos H + Sin L.Sin(δ)

(5)

Solar azimuth ∅: The azimuth angle of the sun’s position is the solar azimuth angle. This position (horizontal) defines the sun’s relative direction along the local horizon. Cos ∅ = (Sin. β. Sin L−Sin(δ))/Cos. β. Cos L

(6)

Surface-solar azimuth γ : Y=∅−w

(7)

Incident angle θ: There will be two different incident angles for windows and windshield as the angle between the sun and these two surfaces are very different from each other. For Windshield

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( ◦) Cos∅ = Cos.βCosY Sin ∈ + sin .βCos ∅ = 31.89

(8)

( ◦) Cos ∅ = Cos.β Cos Y Sin ∈ +Sin.β Cos ∈ ∅ = 62.85

(9)

For Window

Diffusive Load A significant component of solar radiation that results from the indirect radiation of sunlight light on a vehicle’s exterior is called diffuse radiation. The solar energy that is typically received on an overcast day is largely diffuse radiation. The head gain due to diffuse radiation can be calculated as follow: Q=

τ ∑

SIDiff Cos θ

(10)

0

I Diff is the diffuse radiation heat gain per unit area which is calculated from IDiff = C × Idir × (1 + Cos ∈ /2)

(11)

C = 0.134, ∈ is the surface tilt angle measured from the horizontal surface = 90. Reflected Load Reflected radiation is referred to the part of radiation heat gain which strikes back to the exterior of the car after getting reflected by the ground. In our calculations the reflected load is less than 10 W so it is negligible. Ambient Load Due to the temperature difference between the cabin air and the outside environment, it is the total thermal load carried within the cabin air (ambient). The key sources that are taken into account in the overall heat transmission between the cabin and the ambient are convection through body panels, external conduction, and interior convection. Additionally, ambient load is less than 25 W, so we may disregard it. After using the above formulae, we have found that the total heat load inside the car in static conditions has varied between 1.5 and 1 KW from 10:00 am to 3:00 pm.

4 Result and Analysis We designed a car by considering the dimensions from the blueprint of a four wheeler. We considered the material annealed steel. Below is the sketch (Figs. 4 and 5). Then we designed Thermal energy storage (TES) system using CATIA software. It contains phase change material (PCM) named BioPCM 0500- Q30. Table 1 shows

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Fig. 4. 2D view of Car

Fig. 5 Isometric View of four wheeler

the details specification of PCM. PCM has been put inside the copper panel for uniform distribution of heat, Figs. 6 and 7 dhows the detail design of the PCM. This system is installed in the roof of the (Figs. 8 and 9). We have installed the thermal energy storage (TES) system consisting of phase change material (PCM) inside the car that we designed for simulation purpose. We in total have done 3 different simulations to achieve and prove our objective. All the simulations are in a transient state. Below are the details of different simulations that are carried out. (1) In the first simulation we gave an ambient heat of 38 °C, and the air conditioning (AC) was kept off to find the amount of heat gathered inside the car. The results were as follows:

Form

200–230

Density, ρ liquid kg/m3 0.2–0.7

2.5–4.5

2.3–4.1

Thermalconductivity, Thermalconductivity, Specific heat, Specific heat, k solid W/m K k liquid W/m K cp Solid cp liquid kJ/kg·K kJ/kg

900–1250 850–1300 0.25–2.5

Meltingpoint, Heat offusion, Density, Tm ΔHfus kJ/kg ρ solid kg/m3

0500–Q30 Functionalized 30 °C BioPCM BioPCM

Material

Table 1 Details of PCM

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Fig. 6 CAD model of thermal energy storage (With PCM) car with TES system installed

Fig. 7 Magnified view of CAD model of thermal energy storage (With PCM)

(2) In this case we again gave the same ambient temperature (40 °C) but we had installed the thermal energy system (TES) containing phase change temperature (PCM) to observe the cooling through. The air conditioning (AC) in this case was kept off. The results were as follows: (3) In this case we again gave the same ambient temperature (40 °C) but we had installed the thermal energy system (TES) containing phase change temperature (PCM) to observe the cooling through. The air conditioning (AC) in this case was kept off. The results were as follows (Figs. 10, 11 and 12). The melting of PCM over time is depicted in Fig. 13. The curve’s nature is initially very abrupt, as there is a rapid increase in solid PCM temperature due to the car’s internal heat absorption. After 30 °C, PCM begins to melt, and the nature of the curve begins to falter, resulting in the majority of the PCM converting to liquid.

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Fig. 8 CAD model of car installed with TES

Fig. 9 Side view—temperature distribution at 30 min (without TES installed)

5 Conclusion We have discussed and designed in this article. PCM-run car air conditioning involves installing a PCM inside the car’s roof to regulate the interior temperature throughout the day without the need for additional, high-power AC units. The temperature inside the car is kept at a pleasant level. Around 900 g of PCM are required, according to calculations. The PCM temperature-controlling system is straightforward and may be used as a workable method to stop unpleasant cabin warmth.

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Fig. 10 Rear view—temperature distribution at 30 min (without TES installed)

Fig. 11 Side view—temperature distribution at 30 min (with TES installed)

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Fig. 12 Rear view—temperature distribution at 30 min (with TES installed)

33

Fig. 13 Melting of PCM

32

Temperature (oC)

31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24

0

2000

4000

6000

Time (Sec)

8000

10000

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References 1. Selvnes H, Allouche Y, Manescu RI, Hafner A (2021) Review on cold thermal energy storage applied to refrigeration systems using phase change materials. Therm Sci Eng Prog (22) 2. Al-Abidin AA, Mat SB, Sopian K, Sulaiman MY, Lim CH, Abdulrahman Th (2012) Review of thermal energy storage for air conditioning systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 16(8):5802– 5819 3. Wang K, Qin Z, Tong W, Ji C (2020) Thermal energy storage for solar energy utilization: Fundamentals and applications Chapters. In: Renewable energy—Resources, challenges and applications. IntechOpen 4. Arce P, Medrano M, Gil A, Or´o E, Cabeza LF (2011) Overview of thermal energy storage (TES) potential energy savings and climate change mitigation in Spain and Europe. Appl Energy 88(8):2764–2774 5. Mehling H, Cabeza LF (2008) Heat and cold storage with PCM, vol. 308, Springer, Berlin 6. Allouche Y, Varga S, Bouden C, Oliveira AC (2015) Experimental determination of the heat transfer and cold storage characteristics of a microencapsulated phase change material in a horizontal tank. Energy Convers Manage 94:275–285 7. Kuznik F, David D, Johannes K, Roux J-J (2011) A review on phase change materials integrated in building walls. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 15(1):379–391 8. Cabeza LF, Castell A, Barreneche C, De Gracia A, Fernández A (2011) Materials used as PCM in thermal energy storage in buildings: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 15(3):1675–1695 9. Baetens R, Jelle BP, Gustavsen A (2010) Phase change materials for building applications: a state-of-the-art review. Energy Build 42(9):1361–1368 10. Sarbu I, Sebarchievici C (2018) A comprehensive review of thermal energy storage. Sustainability 10:191 11. Abdelrahman HE, Wahba MH, Refaey HA, Moawad M, Berbish NS (2021) Performance enhancement of photovoltaic cells by changing configuration and using PCM (RT35HC) with nanoparticles Al2 O3 . J Inst Eng India Ser C (April 2021) 102(2):553–562 12. Nada A, El-Nagarb DH, Husseinc HMS (2018) Improving the thermal regulation and efficiency enhancement of PCM integrated PV modules using nano particles. Energy Convers Manage 166:735–743, 15 June 2018 13. Malik MS, Iftikhar N, Wadood A, Khan MO, Asghar MU, Khan S, Khurshaid T, Kim K-C, Rehman Z, Rizvi STUI (2020) Design and fabrication of solar thermal energy storage system using Potash alum as a PCM. Energies 13:6169 14. ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (2001) 15. Application of Phase Change Materials (PCMs) (2012) Maintaining comfort temperature inside an automobile. In: Jamekhorshid A, Sadrameli SM (eds) World academy of science, engineering and technology 61 16. Thomas VM, Meier AK, Gunda SG, Wenzel TP (2011) Cars are buildings: Building-like energy use in automobiles. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ 16(4) 17. Weng C-L, Ka L-J (2019) Design and implementation of a low-energy-consumption airconditioning control system for smart vehicle. J Healthc Eng 18. Yamashita K, Kuroda T, Tochihara Y, Shibukawa T, Kondo Y, Nagayama H (2005) Evaluation of summertime thermal comfort in automobiles. Environ Ergonomics 299–303 19. Grundstein A, Meentemeyer V, Dowd J (2009) Maximum vehicle cabin temperatures under different meteorological conditions. Int J Biometeorol 53:255–261

Comparative Study of Phenotypic and Genotypic Methods for Biofilm Detection on Medical Devices: An Empirical Approach Manoj Kumar Dewangan, Pulkit Jain, and Gurmeet Singh

Abstract Biofilms are polymeric matrices produced by a community of microorganisms which tend to bind to biotic and abiotic surface. Biofilm is composed of 1–2% nucleic acids, 1–2% carbohydrates, 2.5% bacterial cells, 1–2% proteins including enzymes and 97% water. Biofilm formation was initially found limited to industrial and waste water systems, but later gained importance in hospital settings. Biofilm formation involves bacteria which undergo developmental process, from a migrating unicellular to a stationary multicellular state. Biofilm formation is a multistep process requiring a solid–liquid interface for initial attachment, followed by a stable binding. Here, we present standardization of phenotypic and genotype approaches for biofilm identification, as well as three separate gene comparisons between commensally, colonizer, and invasive Staphylococcus epidermidis isolates. Using solely invasive devices, researchers studied 449 samples to determine the most common isolate and standardize the most significant phenotypic method for colonizers known to create biofilms. In this paper author has done comparison between phenotypic and genotypic method for biofilm detection on medical devices by an empirical approach. Keywords Biofilm · Devices · Phenotypic · Genotypic

1 Introduction Bio-medical devices are integral part of modern medical practices. This devices have shown to improve the quality of life of patients by daily monitoring of disease. These devices also increases the chances of survival. It has been shown coronary stents helps in two fold reduction in risk of death resulting from heart attack. In patients with ICD chances of survival following cardiac arrest were increased to 98% from mere 5% in patients without ICD. No matter how successful these novel materials are, M. K. Dewangan (B) · P. Jain · G. Singh Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Mohali (Punjab) 140413, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_27

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bacterial colonization on these a biotic surfaces is a significant public health issue: hospital-acquired illnesses (HAIs) [1]. Medical device biofilms are responsible for more than 60% of all hospital-acquired infections globally. The extracellular polymeric matrix formed by surface-attached microbes forms biofilms, which are a collection of diverse, integrated, and sessile forms. A biotic surfaces, such as industrial water systems, medical surroundings and gadgets, and mucosal surfaces in people, have been discovered to be infected by these organisms (biotic). A patient’s duration of stay in the hospital, cost, and morbidity are all negatively related to the effectiveness of the antimicrobial therapy they get. In order for microbes, devices, and the host environment to coexist on a device, colonization is required (tissues, immune cells, etc.) Sometimes these microbial colonizations are difficult to identify and might go unnoticed for years whilst in other circumstances life-threatening urgency arises. Biofilms are recognized as a medical danger, although the correct clinical meaning for the term biofilm has yet to be established. The relationship between biofilm thickness and infection risk has not been quantified to yet [2].

2 Biofilm Formation Many elements are involved in the production of biofilms on medical devices, including microorganisms, the host, and the environment. There are several aspects that determine the colonization, including characteristics of the biomaterial on the device, the existence of a conditioning layer, hydrodynamics, the properties of liquids in contact with the device, and the features of microbial cells. Biofilm formation on indwelling devices has been reported to start within 3 days after catheter insertion and predominant biofilm growth on the external surface of the device appears after 10 days. With prolonged exposure (< 30 days) both in the internal lumen and external surface of the device biofilm formation occurs which sometimes lead to blockage of the device and also establishment of device related infections. In situ visualization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms by co focal microscopy reveals the process of biofilm development as a complex and differentiated one. There are five major stages in biofilm development: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Transfer and attachment of microorganisms, which can be reversed at an time. Connection or adhesion that can’t be broken. Forming of micro colonies. Growth and development of the biofilm. Separation and scattering of cells.

Formation of a biofilm begins with the attachment of free-floating microorganisms to the device surface. However time lapse microscopy reveals the organism continue to move on the surface even after forming monolayer on a biotic surface. Twitching motility instead of swimming is reported in this stage. This attachment is reversible and physical forces like Vander Waal force, H-bonds, and electrostatic

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forces facilitates this type of attachment. In the second stage irreversible attachment takes place by secretion of adhesion molecule of bacterial origin. In the beginning, the bacteria that colonizes helps other cells by supplying multiple other adhesion points and begins to build the matrix that binds the biofilm together. Some species are unable to connect directly to the device surface, but they can cling to the first layer of colonists to stay in place. Quorum sensing molecules are used by the bacteria to communicate throughout this colonization phase. A micro-colony is formed as a result of cell division and the addition of additional microorganisms to the biofilm. Stage I of maturation is what it’s termed. Maturation II is the fourth stage of biofilm formation and occurs when the biofilm is established and changes in shape or size only occur. This stage is called biofilm macro colony. In the final dispersal stage the bacteria get detached from the biofilm only to colonize in some other place. Due to external factors like increased fluid shear, or internal biofilm activities like endogenous enzymatic degradation, EPS release, and surface bound protein release, biofilm dispersion or detachment can occur [3].

3 Features of Biofilms There are certain features of biofilm which enables them to establish infection. These are:

3.1 Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPS) Bacteria within biofilm remains embedded in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) which constitute 50–90% of total organic matter of biofilm. The EPS is shown to be an ordered array of fine fibres forming thick and hydrated coating around the cell by TEM. As a complex combination of biopolymer, it mostly consists of polysaccharides, but it also contains lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. Neutral or anionic EPS can be found in gram-negative bacteria. Presence of ironic acid or ketal linked pyruvates present in the matrix increases the polyanionic nature. In gram-positive bacteria EPS is primarily cationic. The underling molecular mechanism of EPS synthesis is not known completely till date. Several workers have worked on EPS synthesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In P. aeruginosa Pel, Psl, and alginate are three polysaccharide found in EPS. Pel genes forms glucose rich matrix. The product of Pal gene is mixture of mannose, ramose, gelatos, glucose, and a trace amount of xylems [4]. As reviewed by May et al. in 1994 environmental stress signals like high osmolarity, dehydration, and nutrient deprivation triggers the transcription of alginate biosynthetic gene algid in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Bacteria cultured on solid media produces more EPS compared to those grown on liquid media. According to Beck

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von Bondman and Farr and 1995, the process of quorum sensing regulates EPS production. The observation was supported by work Storey et al. 1997 where it has been shown that expression of algD is positively correlated with expression of las A and las B quorum sensing genes [5]. The primary function of EPS is to provide protection to underlying cells. The highly hydrated polysaccharide protects the cells from desiccation (ref) it also acts as barrier against the action of antibiotics and biocides. The matrix sometimes acts as ion-exchange resin and strongly charged antibiotic or biocide molecules are active removed from solutions while passing through it. EPS also promotes adherence of different mucoid micro-organism to different substrata. It has been reported that alginate-EPS of P. aeruginosa in Cystic Fibrosis patients promotes adherence of mucoid cells to epithelial cells of pulmonary tract [6].

3.2 Structural Heterogeneity The differentiation of cells within biofilms depends on external environmental condition to which it is exposed. Gradients of nutrient and oxygen formed due to the presence of EPS, creates microenvironment within biofilm. Cells respond to this microenvironment by altering gene expression. Because of this altered gene expression specialized cell arise within biofilm. The cells formed on the outer nutrient rich acerbic zone is therefore bigger in size compared to cells in deeper layer of biofilm where low nutrient anaerobic conditions prevails. Small colony variants (SCV) formation is frequent in Staphylococcus [7].

3.3 Genetic Diversity For the most part, bacteria’s genomes are very variable and diverse due to horizontal or lateral gene transfer. Horizontal gene transfer is more likely to occur in a biofilm because of the close contact of the diverse species. In biofilm environments, selection pressure leads to the emergence of unequal interactions, as Hansen et al. (2007) showed in their study. The presence of a second species causes specific changes in the genome of one species. The ensuing society was far more stable and productive than the ancestry. According to Ghigo et al. (2001), conjugative plasmids are essential for an Escherichia coli K12 biofilm-forming bacterium’s capacity to form a biofilm. Natural conjugative plasmids express elements that help bacteria move from planktonic to sessile form, as shown in the study. Bacterial conjugative plasmids carry antibiotic resistance, therefore close proximity inside biofilms aided selection for resistant strains [7].

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3.4 Quorum Sensing Bacteria communicate between and among themselves by producing extracellular signalling molecule. In 1994, Dr. Peter Greenberg coined the term “quorum sensing” to describe this mode of communication. One of the most prevalent ways bacteria communicate is by using quorum sensing. Auto inducers are little chemical signals that each bacterial cell produces and responds to within a community. Quorum sensing auto inducers can be divided into three major categories, however there are many distinct types. There are more than 70 species of gram-negative bacteria that use acryl homoserine lactones as signalling molecules in the auto-inducer 1 (AI1) system. A variety of Lax I/R products. Gram-positive bacteria use a second mechanism that relies on short peptide signalling molecules. Sensor histidine kinas, a two-component signal transduction protein, recognizes the extracellular peptide auto inducer. Many bacterial species still use the same basic quorum sensing concept, despite the existence of a vast variety of signalling molecules. Quorum sensing systems that combine gram-negative and positive quorum sensing systems are the third kind. Like the AI1 systems seen in gram-negative bacteria, small molecule auto inducer (e.g. AHL) is generated and released into the environment. Unlike gram-positive bacteria, auto inducers are recognized by a two-component signal transduction mechanism that controls transcription of quorum sensing target genes. Numerous more quorum sensing systems have been discovered in other species in addition to the three listed above. The quorum sensing system comprised of mainly three components: 1. Transcriptional regulatory protein 2. Its cognate auto-inducer molecule 3. Auto-inducer syntheses gene. After reaching the threshold concentration the auto-inducer binds to transcriptional regulatory protein which in then triggers the expression of auto-inducer syntheses gene along with many other genes. The auto-inducer level rises as the number of bacteria in a population grows. The quorum sensing mechanism is active only when it reaches a critical threshold concentration, and population-wide gene expression is altered. It is only when bacterial cells dwell together in communities that this occurrence is possible. Quorum sensing’s function in biofilm development has been studied by a number of scientists. A mutation in the lasI gene rendered bacteria incapable of making the signal 3-oxo dodecanoyl AHL, as described by Davies et al. in 1998. This change had a significant influence on biofilm construction. In contrast to the three-dimensional heterogeneous biofilm structure consisting of large cell aggregates separated by large channels and void spaces empty of cells formed by normal “wild-type” (i.e., all genes present), these mutants were found to form a flat and homogenous biofilm that was easily washed away with sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS). SDS treatment was also ineffective against this wild-type biofilm.

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Subsequent research, however, revealed that the connection between quorum sensing and biofilm production was more intricate than initially anticipated. Quorum sensing was shown to have no effect on biofilm development by some studies, while it was found to have a considerable impact by others. Many key behaviours, such as the creation of virulence factors, motility, the synthesis of iron chelators, exoenzymes, antibiotics, and the development of biofilms, are controlled by quorum sensing systems. Quorum sensing’s significance in biocide resistance has not yet been established, and further research is needed.

4 Materials and Methods 4.1 Study Design It was a prospective study, with an initial pilot study for standardization of phenotypic and genotypic methods for biofilm detection.

4.1.1

Sample Size and Type

A total of 449 specimens were collected for pilot study included central and peripheral venous catheter tips, urine from Foley’s catheter, and end tracheal tube aspirates. The isolates obtained from pilot study were used for standardization of phenotypic and genotypic methods for biofilm detection [8, 9]. Procedure for the Three Phenotypic Methods: • Tube Method (TM): Glass test tubes containing trypticase soy broth with 1% glucose (TSB glu) media (10 mL) were used. • Congo Red Agar Method (CRA): Congo red agar medium was composed of brain heart infusion agar 37 g/L, the sugar sucrose of about 50 g/L, agar no. 1 of 10 g/L, and Congo red stain prepared in a concentration of 0.8 g/L. • Tissue Culture Plate Method (TCP): The bacterial isolates obtained from the fresh culture plates were inoculated into trypticase soy broth which contains 1% glucose [10]. Statistical Analysis of the Pilot Study: The above three phenotypic methods were standardized by statistical analysis by using t-test in the initial pilot study. Statistical analysis was done by calculating the t-test value [11].

Comparative Study of Phenotypic and Genotypic Methods for Biofilm …

327

5 Results and Discussion From the initial pilot study done on various invasive devices, out of 449 samples collected, yielded a total 85 isolates. Among them 58 (68.23%) were belonging to Staphylococcus species and 27 (31.76%) were others (Figs. 1 and 2). A maximum of 36% isolates were obtained from urine samples, followed by 32% from central venous catheters, 17% from peripheral venous catheters, and 15 % from end tracheal aspirates. Among the invasive devices collected in the pilot study the percentage of Staphylococcus species isolated was maximum of 45% from central venous catheters, followed by 24 % from peripheral venous catheters, 21% from urinary catheters, and least 10 % from end tracheal aspirates [13] (Fig. 3). Total no of isolates collected from various invasive devices 500 400 300 200 100 0 Total devices

total isolates

Staphylococcus species and

others

Column1

Fig. 1 Total number of isolates obtained from various invasive devices in the pilot study [12]

Percentage of isolates obtained from Various invasive devices

Urinary

15% 36% 17%

catheters central venous catheters

Peripheral venous catheters End tracheal aspirates

32%

Fig. 2 Percentage of isolates obtained from various invasive devices observed in the pilot study [13]

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M. K. Dewangan et al.

Percentage of isolates obtained from Various invasive devices

10%

21%

Urinary catheters central venous catheters

24%

Peripheral venous catheters end tracheal aspirates

45%

Fig. 3 Total number of Staphylococcus isolates from various samples obtained in the pilot study [13–17]

A total of 85 isolates were obtained from 449 invasive devices considered for the pilot study. Among these isolates 19 (22%) showed biofilm production by phenotypic methods. The rest 66 (78%) did not show biofilm production by the phenotypic methods (Fig. 4). Among 19 isolates which showed biofilm production by three methods, 17 (89%) showed biofilm production by tissue culture plate (TCP) method, 11 (58%) showed biofilm production by tube (TB) method, and 10 (53%) showed biofilm production by Congo red agar (CRA) method [18–21] (Fig. 5).

Invasive devices 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Total no of isolates

Phenotypic positives

Phenotypic ositives %

Phenotypic ne atives

Phenotypic ne atives %

Fig. 4 Total number of isolates obtained from invasive devices showing biofilm production by phenotypic methods

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329

Invasive devices

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Total

TCP

TC

TB %

TB

CRA

CRA %

Fig. 5 Comparison of the three phenotypic methods for detecting biofilm formation among various isolates [13]

Among the 19 isolates which were showing biofilm production by various phenotypic methods individually or in combination, only 6 (32%) showed biofilm production by all three methods (Fig. 6). Among the total 85 isolates obtained from various invasive devices, gram-positive bacteria were 59 (69%), followed by gram-negative bacteria 26 (31%). Among the gram-positive bacteria, 11(13%) were showing biofilm production, whereas 8 (9%) gram-negative bacteria showed biofilm production by various phenotypic methods out of the total 85 isolates (Fig. 7). Among the Staphylococcus species the ice gene detection by PCR, shows that S. epidermidis shows ice gene presence in all strains positive phenotypically and some

Isolates Showing Biofilm Formation by All The Three Methods AmongInvasive Devi ces

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Total Phenotypic positives

TCP

TB

CRA

ALL

%

Fig. 6 Total number of isolates showing biofilm formation by all the three phenotypic methods in the pilot study [13]

330

M. K. Dewangan et al. Comparison Of Biofilm Production Among Gram-Positive And GramN egati veO r gani sms 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 No of Isolates Gram positive organisms

Biofilm PosGram negative organisms

%

Fig. 7 Comparison of biofilm production among gram-positive and gram-negative organisms observed in the pilot study

strains which were not showing biofilm by phenotypic method. This phase variation was not observed with Staphylococcus aureus (Fig. 8 and Table 1). Statistical analysis of the three phenotypic methods by t-test was calculated, it was inferred by the pilot study that the ‘p’ value of tissue culture plate method which was 0.006 was most significant then the other methods, Congo red agar method’s t-test value found 0.019 which is significant but less then tissue culture plate method and the last is tube method which t-test value is 0.378 and this is not significant [18–21].

Comparison of phenotypic and genotypic methods among Staphylococcus species 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Biofilm positive by phenotypic method Staphylococcus epidermidis

Biofilm positive by PCR Staphylococcus aureus

Fig. 8 Comparison of phenotypic and genotypic methods among Staphylococcus species

Comparative Study of Phenotypic and Genotypic Methods for Biofilm … Table 1 The significance of t-test values by the three phenotypic methods for biofilm production

331

S. No

Methods

t-test value

Inference

1

Tissue culture plate method

0.006

Significant

2

Congo red agar method

0.019

Significant

3

Tube method

0.378

Not significant

6 Findings and Conclusion Medical implant associated infections have gained significance in the recent years because of their intractability. The device associated infections involve sessile bacterial communities which pose a problem in treatment. There were several factors that influence biofilm formation, which differ in every tertiary care unit. It depends on number of patients admitted, severity of the disease, underlying metabolic disorders. In the initial pilot study about 449 samples including central venous catheters, peripheral venous catheters, urine from Foley’s catheter, and end tracheal aspirate were collected. The percentage of isolates obtained from urinary catheters was 36%, followed by 32% isolates from central venous catheter tips, 17% isolates from peripheral venous catheters, and 15% isolates from end tracheal aspirate. Several species of bacteria which colonizers of the skin and nares were normally involved in initiation of biofilm formation. The incidence of biofilms was more in individuals with invasive devices who harbour more colonizers, than in patient without invasive devices. These colonizers are known to cause infections ranging from mild to severe type, basing on the material used for invasive devices and the virulence factors of the organisms. The wide usage of invasive devices in health care units, cross infections from the skin of patients and health care personnel, water contamination and environmental pollution favour colonization of invasive devices in hospital settings. It was strongly hypothesized that these colonizers are more virulent, resistant strains, and tolerate the environmental stress that their counter parts. When biofilm production was compared by various phenotypic methods, tissue culture plate method shows significant correlation with PCR than the CRA and tube method. A t-test analysis was done among the three phenotypic methods for biofilm detection in the pilot study. By excluding the biofilm-negative isolates, the t-test was able to identify biofilm positive samples. Only the tissue culture plate method (0.006) and Congo red agar method (0.019) had the lowest t-test values; the tubing technique (0.378) ranked last. Our pilot investigation determined that the tissue culture plate technique with the lowest ttest value was the most significant. Tissue culture was used in the ensuing major investigation to compare phenotypic and genotypic approaches among commensally, colonizer, and invasive isolates.

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References 1. Bhatawadekar SM (2013) Community-acquired urinary tract infection by Pseudomonas oryzihabitans. J Global Infect Dis 5(2):82 2. Jacobsen SM et al (2008) Complicated catheter-associated urinary tract infections due to Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis. Clin Microbiol Rev 21(1):26–59 3. Joo H-S, Otto M (2012) Molecular basis of in vivo biofilm formation by bacterial pathogens. Chem Biol 19(12):1503–1513 4. Palanisamy NK et al (2014) Antibiofilm properties of chemically synthesized silver nanoparticles found against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Nanobiotechnol 12(1):2 5. Zhang L et al (2013) Identification of genes involved in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm specific resistance to antibiotics. PLS One 8(4):e61625 6. Delcaru C et al (2016) Microbial biofilms in urinary tract infections and prostitutes: etiology, pathogen city, and combating strategies. Pathogens 5(4):65 7. Neethirajan S, Clond MA, Vogt A (2014) Medical biofilms—nanotechnology approaches. J Biomed Nanotechnol 10(10):2806–2827 8. Tabibian JH et al (2008) Uropathogens and host characteristics. J Clin Microbiol 46(12):3980– 3986 9. Nasaj M, Hosseini SM, Saeidi Z, Dehbashi S, Tahmasebi H, Arabestani MR (2021) Analysis of phenotypic and genotypic methods for determining the biofilm-forming abilities of CoNS isolates: association with hemolysin production and the bacterial insertion sequence elements IS256/257. Gene Rep 23:101036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genrep.2021.101036 10. Kaiser TDL et al (2013) Modification of the Congo red agar method to detect biofilm production by Staphylococcus epidermidis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 75(3):235–239 11. Bose S et al (2009) Detection of biofilm producing staphylococci: need of the hour. J Clin Diagn Res 3(6):1915–1920 12. Sehree M, Abdullah H, Jasim A (2022) Comparison of phenotypic and genotypic assays of biofilm formation in A. baumannii isolates based on gold standard method and related antibiotic resistance. Gene Rep 27:101575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genrep.2022.101575 13. Macia MD, Rojo-Molinero E, Oliver A (2014) Antimicrobial susceptibility testing in biofilmgrowing bactéria. Clin Microbiol Infect 20(10):981–990 14. Ciofu O, Tolker-Nielsen T (2019) Tolerance and resistance of pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms to antimicrobial agents—how P. aeruginosa can escape antibiotics. Front Microbiol 10:913 15. Bahador N, Shoja S, Faridi F (2019) Molecular detection of virulence factors and biofilm formation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa obtained from different clinical specimens in Bandar Abbas. Iran J Microbiol 11(1):25–30 16. Goncalves IR, Dantas RCC, Ferreira ML, Batistão DLF, GontijoFilho PP, Ribas RM (2017) Carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: association with virulence genes and biofilm formation. Braz J Microbiol 48(2):211–217 17. Stepanovic S, Vukovic D, Dakic I, Savic B, Svabic-Vlahovic M (2007) A modified microtiterplate test for quantification of staphylococcal biofilm formation. J Microbiol Methods 115(8):891–899 18. Lima JLC, Alves LR, Paz JNP, Rabelo MA, Maciel MAV, Morais MMC (2017) Analysis of biofilm production by clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Rev Bras Ter Intensiva 29(3):310–316 19. Di Domenico EG, Farulla I, Prignano G, Gallo MT, Vespaziani M, Cavallo I, Sperduti I et al (2017) Biofilm is a major virulence determinant in bacterial colonization of chronic skin ulcers independently from the multidrug resistant phenotype. Int J Mol Sci 18(5):1077 20. Asati S, Chaudhary U (2017) Prevalence of biofilm producing aerobic bacterial isolates in burn wound infections at a tertiary care hospital in northern India. Ann Burns Fire Disasters 30(1):39–42 21. Kırmusaoglu S, Yurdugül S, Metin A, Vehid S (2017) The effect of urinary catheters on microbial biofilms and cateter associated urinary tract infections. Urol J 14(2):3028–3034

Synthesis and Analysis of Vital Social Sustainability Indicators Using Pareto Analysis Mohammad Asjad, Abdul Gani, and Zahid A. Khan

Abstract Environmental, economic, and social sustainability, sometimes referred as triple bottom line sustainability, should be covered for the manufacturing to be sustainable. Sustainability concepts are getting extensive recognition across all walk of industrial activities. Thus, apart from reducing negative environmental impact sustainable manufacturing should result in economic prosperity and social equity. While environmental and economic sustainability characteristics of manufacturing have been widely researched but the social sustainability aspects of the sustainability are under reported in Indian manufacturing context. Through a literature study and Pareto analysis, this research investigates the social implications of manufacturing by establishing a vital set of indicators that reflect social sustainability. As a result, 17 vital social sustainability indicators have been established. These indicators are useful means for assessing a manufacturing company’s social sustainability. Thus, providing valuable insight about the social responsibilities of an organization. This paper attempts to consolidate the social sustainability indicators and presents vital indicators that can be used by manufacturing firms to carry out social sustainability assessments. Keywords Social sustainability indicators · Sustainable manufacturing · Pareto analysis · Cumulative frequency · Vital indicators

1 Introduction Sustainable manufacturing approaches are gaining traction in a variety of industries. Producing items with the least amount of negative environmental, economic,

M. Asjad · Z. A. Khan Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India A. Gani (B) Galgotias University, Greater Noida 203201, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_28

333

Fig. 1 Categorization of social sustainability indicators

M. Asjad et al.

Social indicators

334

Community indicators Employment/Employee indicators Customer and Product indicators

and social impact is referred to as sustainable manufacturing [1]. Sustainable manufacturing should, therefore, should result in economic growth and social equity in addition to eliminating negative environmental impacts, known as triple bottom line (TBL) approach of sustainability [2, 3]. While the environmental and economic components of sustainable manufacturing have received a lot of attention, the social dimensions of sustainability in context to Indian manufacturing sector have received less attention [4]. Furthermore, any organization adopting sustainability must evaluate the metrics/indicators that will be used to assess the level of sustainability achieved [5]. These indicators provide the important tools for the sustainability assessment of a manufacturing organization and provide valuable insight about the sustainability of the firm under consideration [6]. Thus, this paper attempts to consolidate the social indicators of sustainability in manufacturing and intends to provide a set of vital social sustainability indicators that can be used to judge the social dimensions of the sustainability of the manufacturing firm.

2 Social Sustainability Indicators of Manufacturing From the manufacturing point of view, the social dimension of sustainability considers human needs by incorporating the implication of manufacturing to the society and country [7]. Thus, as mentioned in Fig. 1, the social sustainability related indicators primarily come under three categories, i.e., community, employment, and product and customer indicators [8].

3 Method and Materials To find out the social sustainability indicators that are relevant to Indian manufacturing a comprehensive review of literature was conducted. The databases of major research publishers like Elsevier, Taylor and Francis, Springer, Wiley, IEEE, MDPI, SAGE, and Inderscience were searched. The key words like ‘sustainable manufacturing’, ‘social sustainability’, ‘sustainability indicators’, ‘indicators of sustainable manufacturing’, ‘indicators of social sustainability’, etc., were used to find the research article from these databases. In this way, around 200 papers relevant to

Synthesis and Analysis of Vital Social Sustainability Indicators Using …

335

Table 1 Community indicators Community related indicators

Frequency of research

Adopted from

Employment opportunities to local communities (CI_1)

11

Veleva et al. [9]

Number of charitable initiative (CI_2)

9

Veleva et al. [9]

Number of communities–company partnerships (CI_3)

8

Krajnc and Glavic [10]

Investment in human rights protection (CI_4)

6

Mengistu and Panizzolo [5]

Percent of suppliers from the local area (CI_5)

6

Tseng et al. [11]

Percent of products consumed locally (CI_6)

6

Lin et al. [12]

Regulatory and public services (CI_7)

2

Vinodh et al. [13]

sustainable manufacturing were reviewed and indicators concerning to social sustainability were identified from these research papers. Further, social indicators were classified into the pertinent categories of social sustainability as shown in Fig. 1 [8]. This was done to provide a proper context to each indicator in terms of uses.

3.1 Community Indicators Community indicators provide an insight about responsibility of the manufacturing organization toward the local community and country. Such indicators reflect the organization willingness to engage with the local communities in its domain of operations. The literature connects to the social indicators in general, and community related indicators in particular are found in 29 research papers out of 130 studies related to sustainable manufacturing. A total of 7 community indicators of sustainable manufacturing were identified form the literature. However, some of them may consider more than one community related indicators. Indicators chosen for this category were selected based on the benefits nearby communities’ getting from the manufacturing facility. Table1 shows the 7 community indicators and frequency of research utilizing these indicators.

3.2 Employment Indicator Employment indicators cover the organizations responsibilities toward its employee. The literature relevant to employment related indicators in particular is found in 56

336

M. Asjad et al.

research papers out of 130 studies. Table 2 shows the indicators that are frequently used to evaluate the organizations success in fulfilling its responsibilities toward the employee. Table 2 Employment related indicators Employment related indicators

Frequency of research Adopted from

Workers safety (EMP_1)

38

GRI [14]

Worker health (EMP_2)

17

GRI [14]

Labor relations (EMP_3)

15

Hjorth and Bagheri [15]

Employee turnover rate (EMP_4)

13

Pickshaus et al. [16]

Average hours of employee training (EMP_5)

13

Shankar et al. [17]

Lost workdays (EMP_6)

12

Tseng [18]

Employee training on green knowledge (avg. 10 number of hours) (EMP_7)

Samuel et al. [19]

Employee suggested recommendations for the improvement in quality, environmental, and social health and safety (EMP_8)

9

Peralta et al. [20]

Education, counseling’s, trainings, preventative, and risk-control initiatives for workers and community members regarding serious illness and diseases (EMP_9)

9

Samuel et al. [19]

Gender ratio (EMP_10)

8

Schöggl et al. [21]

Employment compensation (EMP_11)

8

Pinto-Ferreira et al. [22]

Employee job satisfaction and well-being (EMP_12)

8

Veleva et al. [9]

Injury rates, occupational diseases, absenteeism, and lost days (EMP_13)

8

Samuel et al. [19]

Workforce representation in management-workers health and safety committees (EMP_14)

6

Winroth et al. [23]

Workforce profile (EMP_15)

5

Samuel et al. [19]

Programs for lifelong learning and skills management for workers (EMP_16)

5

Galal and Moneim [24]

Men to women employee salary ratio for the same kind of job profile (EMP_17)

4

Ahmad and Wong [25]

Performance appraisal and career development incentives for employees (EMP_18)

3

Samuel et al. [19]

Employee turnover (region, age, and gender) (EMP_19)

3

Samuel et al. [19]

Anti-corruption policies and training to employees (EMP_20)

2

Samuel et al. [19]

Synthesis and Analysis of Vital Social Sustainability Indicators Using …

337

Table 3 Customer and product indicators Customer and product indicators

Frequency of research Adopted from

Security (CP_1)

38

Jayal et al. [26]

Penalties and sanctions due to non-compliance with laws and regulations (CP_2)

8

Samuel et al. [19]

Actions taken in response to incidents of corruptions (CP_3)

6

Schöggl et al. [21]

Business units analyzed for risks related to corruption (CP_4)

5

Samuel et al. [19]

Research and development (CP_5)

4

Singh et al. [27]

Product safety (CP_6)

3

Gani et al. [28]

3.3 Customer and Product Indicators All organizations give utmost emphasis to the well-being of the customers and its satisfaction. Out of 130 studies pertaining to social indicators 45 studies have studies social indicators pertaining to product and customer related issues. Table 3 shows the indicators which are related to the customers of the organization. However, some of them may consider more than one product and customer related social indicators.

4 Pareto Analysis Indicators identified from the literature survey were subjected to Pareto analysis, so that the vital indicators of social sustainability can be identified. Pareto analysis is a statistical method that helps in decision making. It helps in identifying a limited set of factors that are considered to be vital among large no of factors and significantly affect the outcome of an event. The Pareto principle considers that 20% of the factors cause 80% of the impact. Thus, the present study aims to identify the vital set of social sustainability indicators which have largest impact on sustainability of any manufacturing industrial system. The criteria for the selection of a vital indicator were set at 80% of cumulative percentage. Pareto analysis was performed on the all the three dimensions of social sustainability presented in Fig. 1. The selection of vital indicators was based on 80% of cumulative percentage. However, if two indicators have same frequency of occurrence if one falls within the criteria and other outside the criteria of cumulative percentage then both were considered as vital indicators. A detailed Pareto analysis is given in Tables 4, 5, and 6 as well as in the Pareto chart as shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4.

338 Table 4 Pareto analysis of community indicators

Table 5 Pareto analysis of employment indicator

M. Asjad et al. Community indicators

Frequency of research

Cumulative frequency

CI_1

13

13.00

Cumulative percentage 24.53

CI_2

11

24.00

45.28

CI_3

8

32.00

60.38

CI_4

6

38.00

71.70

CI_5

6

44.00

83.02

CI_6

6

50.00

94.34

CI_7

3

53.00

100.00

Employment indicator

Frequency of research

Cumulative frequency

Cumulative percentage

EMP_1

38

38

19.39

EMP_2

17

55

28.06

EMP_3

15

70

35.71

EMP_4

13

83

42.35

EMP_5

13

96

48.98

EMP_6

12

108

55.10

EMP_7

10

118

60.20

EMP_8

9

127

64.80

EMP_9

9

136

69.39

EMP_10

8

144

73.47

EMP_11

8

152

77.55

EMP_12

8

160

81.63

EMP_13

8

168

85.71

EMP_14

6

174

88.78

EMP_15

5

179

91.33

EMP_16

5

184

93.88

EMP_17

4

188

95.92

EMP_18

3

191

97.45

EMP_19

3

194

98.98

EMP_20

2

196

100.00

5 Vital Social Indicators Identified After Literature Review and Pareto Analysis After a thorough analysis of social indicators, a table of vital social indicators is prepared as shown in Table 7.

Synthesis and Analysis of Vital Social Sustainability Indicators Using …

339

Table 6 Pareto analysis of customer and product indicators Customer and product indicators

Frequency

Cumulative frequency

CP_1

38

38.00

59.38

CP_2

8

46.00

71.88

CP_3

6

52.00

81.25

CP_4

5

57.00

89.06

CP_5

4

61.00

95.31

CP_6

3

64.00

100.00 Cumulative Percentage

14

120

12

100

Frequency

10

80

8

60

6

40

4

20

2 0

Cummularive Frequency

Frequency of Research

Cumulative percentage

0 CI_1

CI_2

CI_3

CI_4

CI_5

CI_6

CI_7

Community Indicator

Fig. 2 Pareto analysis of community indicators

Frequency

Cumulative Percentage

35

100

Frequency

30 80

25 20

60

15

40

10

20

5 0 EMP_1 EMP_2 EMP_3 EMP_4 EMP_5 EMP_6 EMP_7 EMP_8 EMP_9 EMP_10 EMP_11 EMP_12 EMP_13 EMP_14 EMP_15 EMP_16 EMP_17 EMP_18 EMP_19 EMP_20

0

Employment Indicator Fig. 3 Pareto analysis chart of employment related indicators

Cummulative frequency

120

40

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Frequency

Cumulative Percentage

35

100

Frequency

30 80

25

60

20 15

40

10 20

5 0

Cummulative Frequency

120

40

0 CP_1

CP_2

CP_3 CP_4 CP_5 Customer/Product Indicators

CP_6

Fig. 4 Pareto analysis of product and customer related indicators

6 Conclusion Based on extensive and exhaustive review of studies pertaining to social sustainability, indicators of utilized in context to sustainable manufacturing were identified and presented in this study. The examination of 130 relevant research studies reflected that researchers have used differing set of social indicators for the assessment of sustainability. Even the context of using these indicators were different in different studies. The methods of measuring these indicators and metrices adopted to quantify these indicators have found to be significantly vary from one study to other. However, the aim of such studies was to enhance the sustainability of the organization, process, or product. The present works compiles only those social sustainability indicators which can be helpful in addressing the socio-economic issues arising out of manufacturing activity. From the literature review, total 33 indicators were identified and their frequency of citing research was monitored among 130 research papers analyzed. Among 33 social sustainability indicators utilized by numerous researchers, results of Pareto analysis show 17 social indicators were found to be vital across the different categories of social indicators. Maximum number of these indicators belonged to employment related category. The present set of indicators will help industry practitioner to identify the social sustainability issues and guide them to resolve them so that the manufacturing firm can become more socially sustainable and higher sustainability can be achieved.

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Table 7 Vital social indicators Social indicators

Community indicators

Employment opportunities to local communities (CI_1) Number of charitable initiative (CI_2) Number of communities–company partnerships (CI_3) Investment in human rights protection (CI_4)

Employment indicator

Workers safety (EMP_1) Worker health (EMP_2) Labor relations (EMP_3) Employee turnover rate (EMP_4) Average hours of employee training (EMP_5) Lost workdays (EMP_6) Employee training on green knowledge (avg. number of hours) (EMP_7) Employee suggested recommendations for the improvement in quality, environmental, and social health and safety (EMP_8) Education, counseling’s, trainings, preventative, and risk-control initiatives for workers and community members regarding serious illness and diseases (EMP_9) Gender ratio (EMP_10) Employment compensation (EMP_11)

Customer and product indicators

Security (CP_1) Penalties and sanctions due to non-compliance with laws and regulations (CP_2)

References 1. Huang A, Badurdeen F (2018) Metrics-based approach to evaluate sustainable manufacturing performance at the production line and plant levels. J Clean Prod 192:462–476. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.234 2. Ahmad S, Wong KY, Rajoo S (2019) Sustainability indicators for manufacturing sectors: a literature survey and maturity analysis from the triple-bottom line perspective. J Manuf Technol Manag 30:312–334. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMTM-03-2018-0091 3. Hojnik J, Biloslavo R, Cicero L, Cagnina MR (2020) Sustainability indicators for the yachting industry: empirical conceptualization. J Clean Prod 249:119368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcl epro.2019.119368 4. Gani A, Asjad M, Talib F, Khan ZA, Siddiquee AN (2021) Identification, ranking and prioritisation of vital environmental sustainability indicators in manufacturing sector using Pareto

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M. Asjad et al. analysis cum best-worst method. Int J Sustain Eng 14:226–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/193 97038.2021.1889705 Mengistu AT, Panizzolo R (2022) Analysis of indicators used for measuring industrial sustainability: a systematic review. Environ Dev Sustain 2021:1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10668021-02053-0 Gani A, Tom A, Asjad M, Talib F (2022) Development of a manufacturing sustainability index for MSMEs using a structural approach. J Clean Prod 353:131687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jclepro.2022.131687 Zarte M, Pechmann A, Nunes IL (2019) Indicator framework for sustainable production planning and controlling. Int J Sustain Eng 12:149–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/19397038.2019. 1566410 Sutherland JW, Richter JS, Hutchins MJ, Dornfeld D, Dzombak R, Mangold J, Robinson S, Hauschild MZ, Bonou A, Schönsleben P, Friemann F (2016) The role of manufacturing in affecting the social dimension of sustainability. CIRP Ann Manuf Technol 65:689–712. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2016.05.003 Veleva V, Ellenbecker M (2001) Indicators of sustainable production: framework and methodology. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-6526(01)00010-5 Krajnc D, Glavic P (2003) Indicators of sustainable production. Clean Technol Environ Policy 5:279–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-003-0221-z Tseng ML, Divinagracia L, Divinagracia R (2009) Evaluating firm’s sustainable production indicators in uncertainty. Comput Ind Eng 57:1393–1403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2009. 07.009 Lin YH, Cheng HP, Tseng ML, Tsai JCC (2010) Using QFD and ANP to analyze the environmental production requirements in linguistic preferences. Expert Syst Appl 37:2186–2196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2009.07.065 Vinodh S, Jayakrishna K, Kumar V, Dutta R (2014) Development of decision support system for sustainability evaluation: a case study. Clean Technol Environ Policy 16:163–174. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10098-013-0613-7 GRI (2016) Sustainability reporting guidelines. Available at: www.globalreportinginitiative.org (Accessed in: November 2017), pp 1–24 Hjorth P, Bagheri A (2006) Navigating towards sustainable development: a system dynamics approach. Futures 38:74–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2005.04.005 Pickshaus T, Kandt A, Hesse S, Fleischer K, Schmitt R (2016) A holistic approach to risk oriented lifecycle engineering: assessing lifecycle risks in early phases. Proc CIRP 48:265–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2016.03.152 Shankar KM, Kumar PU, Kannan D (2016) Analyzing the drivers of advanced sustainable manufacturing system using AHP approach. Sustainability 8:1–10. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su8080824 Tseng ML (2013) Modeling sustainable production indicators with linguistic preferences. J Clean Prod 40:46–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.11.019 Samuel VB, Agamuthu P, Hashim MA (2013) Indicators for assessment of sustainable production: a case study of the petrochemical industry in Malaysia. Ecol Indic 24:392–402. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.07.017 Peralta ME, Marcos M, Aguayo F, Lama JR, Córdoba A (2015) Sustainable fractal manufacturing: a new approach to sustainability in machining processes. Proc Eng 132:926–933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.12.579 Schöggl JP, Fritz MMC, Baumgartner RJ (2016) Sustainability assessment in automotive and electronics supply chains—a set of indicators defined in a multi-stakeholder approach. Sustainability 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8111185 Pinto-Ferreira L, Ortigueira SA, Gómez EA, Lourido GP, Areal JJ (2015) Index of economic and functional efficiency of a sustainable production line. Proc Eng 132:39–45. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.proeng.2015.12.477 Winroth M, Almström P, Andersson C (2016) Sustainable production indicators at factory level. J Manuf Technol Manag 27:842–873. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMTM-04-2016-0054

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24. Galal NM, Moneim AFA (2015) A mathematical programming approach to the optimal sustainable product mix for the process industry. Sustainability 7:13085–13103. https://doi.org/10. 3390/su71013085 25. Ahmad S, Wong KY (2019) Development of weighted triple-bottom line sustainability indicators for the Malaysian food manufacturing industry using the Delphi method. J Clean Prod 229:1167–1182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.399 26. Jayal AD, Badurdeen F, Dillon OW, Jawahir IS (2010) Sustainable manufacturing: modeling and optimization challenges at the product, process and system levels. CIRP J Manuf Sci Technol 2:144–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirpj.2010.03.006 27. Singh RK, Murty HR, Gupta SK, Dikshit AK (2012) An overview of sustainability assessment methodologies. Ecol Indic 15:281–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.01.007 28. Gani A, Asjad M, Talib F (2020) Prioritization and ranking of indicators of sustainable manufacturing in Indian MSMEs using fuzzy AHP approach. Mater Today Proc 46:6631–6637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.04.101

Numerical Analysis of Cavity Flow at Different Angles of Attack Srajan Shrivastava

and Jayanta Sinha

Abstract The flow configuration around and inside the open axisymmetric cavities of L/D = 1 and L/D = 3 at various angles of attack (AOA) was determined using numerical simulations. For each angle of attack, a curve for the distribution of time averaged static pressure along the cavity walls was created and compared. In each case, pressure oscillations at the point of peak pressure at the rear wall tip were also recorded. The results demonstrate a considerable reduction in peak pressure in the top cavity section (approximately 38% in L/D = 1 and 42% in L/D = 3 at = 10°) as well as pressure fluctuations (about 29% in L/D = 1 and 53% in L/D = 3 at = 10°). Keywords Supersonic cavity · Axisymmetric cavity · Cavity flow · Pressure fluctuations · Angle of attack

1 Introduction Axisymmetric cavities are like an annular section on a body of revolution. There are numerous applications of high-speed cavity flow in aeronautical as well as aerospace industries including carriage and release of payloads and armaments, supersonic flow mixing, landing gears and flame holding devices in scramjet engines [1, 2]. For efficient combustion and to reduce the size of the combustion chamber, the scramjet engines’ propulsion system requires quick mixing of hydrogen fuel and ambient air for which physics of cavity flow can be employed [3]. Inside cavities, a complex flow field known as the recirculation zone forms. This recirculation zone excites the shear layer right above the cavity, resulting in extremely high static pressure at the back wall’s tip. Several flow parameters, including static pressure, oscillate inside the cavity because the recirculation zone is highly unstable. These fluctuations might be either periodic or non-periodic [4]. This unsteadiness of flow field and pressure oscillations only increases as the flow regime is changed to supersonic. The main cause of problems is pressure oscillations that are created by the flow after traversing S. Shrivastava (B) · J. Sinha Amity Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_29

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the cavity which can lead to instrumental failure, structural damage due to fatigue, damage to the storages as well as increase in aerodynamic forces and moments like drag, etc. It can also have unwanted effects on the stable release of payloads and armaments and their trajectories [1, 2, 5]. There are numerous ways to classify the cavity flow field based on length-to-depth ratio, length-to-width ratio, Mach number, phenomenon of cavity flow, Reynolds number as well as mechanism of fluctuations [6]. In case of axisymmetric cavity, length-to-width ratio is not applicable. As a result, axisymmetric cavities can be characterized as ‘open,’ ‘closed’ or ‘transitional’ depending on the geometry of the cavity and the structure of flow surrounding it [6–10]. Open Cavity: Cavities which have L/D less than 10. The oscillating shear layer splits from the cavity’s front wall, flows over it without going inside and reattaches to the cavity’s rear wall corner [6–9]. Closed Cavity: Shallow cavities with L/D more than 13 can be characterized as closed cavities. In closed cavity flow, the flow goes completely inside the cavity after separation at front wall, touches and may also cover base of cavity and detaches from it again before reattaching to the rear wall tip of the cavity [6–9]. Transitional Cavity: Cavity with L/D ratio between 10 and 13 can be termed as transitional cavity. Shear layer partially enters the cavity after detaching from the front wall but not completely touches the base of cavity [8, 9] (Fig. 1). The flow field created around and inside open cavities with length-to-depth ratios of 1 and 3 at various AOAs was examined in this paper. The cavity’s angle of attack was modified, and the effect on maximum pressure on the rear wall and pressure oscillations on the rear wall tip was investigated (Fig. 2).

2 Computations The axisymmetric cavity model consists of conical fore-body having 12° semi-cone angle; depth (D) of the cavity was maintained as 4 mm and length (L) as 4 mm and 12 mm. The maximum external diameter (Do ) of the model was 15 mm. Effects of three different angle of attacks of α = 3°, 5°, 10° were studied in this work. To acquire the flow field around the cavity at different angles of attack (α) of 3°, 5° and 10°, unsteady, planar/axisymmetric and 2-d simulations were performed on the academic version of Ansys FLUENT. To simulate these angles of attack, the components of flow at the inlet were changed accordingly. A coupled scheme implementing k-ω SST model of turbulence with second order implicit time and space stepping has been employed. Size of time step was fixed at 1e-07 to capture periodic oscillations of peak pressure on rear wall of cavity [1]. Solution convergence was recognized by monitoring scaled residuals of certain flow parameters including continuity, velocities, density, k, ω and monitoring pressure at a specific point on the rear wall of cavity.

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Fig. 1 Classification of cavities

Fig. 2 Nomenclature of cavity

Structured meshing was done with Mesh tool in ANSYS. Appropriate edge biasing is done to obtain accurate structure of flow about the cavity. Distance of first cell from the cavity wall was 0.005 mm. Inside the cavity, grid resolution was of 120 × 150 for L/D = 1 [1]. This resolution was scaled when L/D = 3. A validation test was performed on an axisymmetric cavity having L/D = 1, reported by ref. [1] at Mach 2. The comparison of the reported results of time averaged distribution of static pressure on the walls of cavity and results obtained with present computations by implementing k-ω SST turbulence model is presented in Fig. 3.

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Fig. 3 Pressure distribution for L/D = 1. a From ref. [1], b with present computations

A clear agreement can be observed in the two results. Hence, additional computations were done keeping similar mesh and turbulence model for present cavity configurations and cases.

3 Results and Discussion Firstly, simulations were performed to acquire the structure of flow around an axisymmetric cavity of L/D = 1. Time averaged Mach contour and static pressure contour are given below. It can be seen that a subsonic recirculatory flow is formed inside the cavity. A peak pressure of 1.85 is observed at the tip of the back wall which represents the compression wave (Fig. 4). In case of L/D = 3, a minor recirculation zone behind the main zone is also formed which further excited the shear layer above it resulting in higher peak pressure on the rear wall of the cavity as compared to the cavity of L/D = 1. The corresponding time

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Fig. 4 a Time averaged Mach contour L/D = 1 and b time averaged static pressure contour L/D =1

averaged Mach contour and time averaged static pressure contour are also given in Fig. 5. Further, simulations were run to determine the influence of angle of attack on both cavities. Angles of attack were altered in this project from 3° to 5° to 10°. Because the alignment of the lower and upper sections is no longer the same when the angle of attack is changed, the time averaged static pressure distribution on the lower and upper sections of the cavity differs from one another. The upper cavity section has a lower time averaged static pressure value than the lower cavity section. Time averaged static pressure rises in the lower cavity section and reduces in the upper cavity section as the angle of attack increases. A reduction of about 38% in peak pressure occurred when angle of attack was 10° for L/D = 1 and when L/D = 3, a reduction of 42% occurred (Figs. 6 and 7). During the transient simulations, pressure oscillations on the rear wall tip were also observed, and as the angle of attack increased, pressure fluctuations on the upper cavity section decreased considerably. A reduction of about 29% occurred when angle of attack was 10° for L/D = 1 and about 53% when L/D = 3. In lower cavity section of L/D = 1, however, pressure fluctuations were almost 12% higher

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Fig. 5 a Time averaged Mach contour L/D = 3 and b time averaged static pressure contour L/D =3

Fig. 6 Time averaged static pressure distribution in upper cavity at different angles of attack for a L/D = 1 and b L/D = 3

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Fig. 7 Time averaged static pressure distribution in lower cavity at different angles of attack for a L/D = 1 and b L/D = 3

when α = 3°. But as α was further increased, pressure fluctuations started decreasing and at α = 10°, they were almost same as that of α = 0° (Figs. 8 and 9). The reduction in the peak pressure in the upper cavity section can be attributed to the lower level of shear layer reattachment. When the angle of attack is changed, the upper tip of fore wall and rear wall is no longer at the same level. When angle of attack is increased, in the upper cavity section, the upper tip of the rear wall is at

Fig. 8 Pressure fluctuations of L/D = 1 at a α = 0, b α = 3, c α = 5 and d α = 10

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Fig. 9 Pressure fluctuations of L/D = 3 at a α = 0, b α = 3, c α = 5 and d α = 10

lower level as compared to that of front wall, as a result of which, the shear layer reattaches at the rear wall with slightly lesser impact. In case of lower cavity section, the upper tip of rear wall is at higher level than the upper tip of front wall, due to which the impact by which shear layer reattaches on the rear wall is stronger, which results in the increment of peak pressure value (Tables 1 and 2). Table 1 Change in peak pressure at different angles of attack Angle of attack (°)

Peak pressure change L/D = 1 (%) Peak pressure change L/D = 3 (%) Upper cavity

Lower cavity

Upper cavity

Lower cavity

3

− 11.51

14.88

− 11.01

13.23

5

− 18.76

24.64

− 20.89

25.47

10

− 38.00

47.04

− 42.39

24.46

Table 2 Change in pressure fluctuations at different angles of attack Peak pressure change L/D = 1 (%)

Peak pressure change L/D = 3 (%)

Upper back wall

Lower back wall

Upper back wall

Lower back wall

3

− 6.22

12.31

− 21.93

16.01

5

− 12.98

− 2.99

− 35.29

35.94

10

− 29.30

− 4.60

− 53.10

15.33

Angle of attack (°)

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4 Conclusion Numerical simulations were performed to acquire structure of flow about axisymmetric cavities of L/D = 1 and L/D = 3 at Mach 2.0. Studies were made by varying angle of attack of the cavity. This was done by changing the direction of flow at the inlet boundary condition in the FLUENT setup. Angle of attack was altered, and its consequence on overall pressure distribution inside the cavity and pressure oscillations on the rear wall was investigated. Results indicate a significant reduction in peak pressure in the upper cavity section at 10° angle of attack. Pressure fluctuations were also monitored on the rear wall tip of the cavity, which also observed to be significantly reduced in upper cavity section for both L/D = 1 and L/D = 3.

References 1. Sinha J, Das S, Kumar P, Prasad JK (2013) Studies on an axisymmetric supersonic cavity with front wall inclinations. In: 15th annual CFD symposium, August 9–10. Bangalore, India 2. Sinha J, Sahoo D (2014) Computational investigation of effect of spike on the supersonic flow-field parameter over an axisymmetric open cavity. IJME 1(1) 3. Sinha J, Arora K (2017) Review of the flow-field analysis over cavities. In: 2017 International conference on Infocom technologies and unmanned systems (ICTUS’2017). Amity University Dubai, UAE 4. Liu X, Katz J (2013) Vortex-corner interactions in a cavity shear layer elucidated by time resolved measurements of the pressure field. J Fluid Mech 5. Sinha J, Das S, Kumar P, Prasad JK (2014) Computational investigation of control effectiveness on a near transition open and closed axisymmetric cavity. In: Advances in aerospace science and applications, pp 45–52 6. Ayli E (2013) Numerical analysis of supersonic cavity flow. In: Sixth international conference on thermal engineering: theory and applications. Istanbul, Turkey 7. Dusing DW, Fox CW, Tam CJ, Orkwis PD, Disimile PJ (1994) An experimental and computational study of unsteady 2-D open cavity flow physics. AIAA Paper, AIAA 1994–0528 8. Syed A (2010) Detached eddy simulation of turbulent flow over an open cavity with and without cover plates. Master of Science Thesis 9. Yang DG, Li JQ, Fan ZL, Yao D (2010) Aerodynamic characteristics of transonic and supersonic flow over rectangular cavities. Flow Turbul Combust 84:639–652 10. Mohri K, Hillier R (2011) Computational and experimental study of supersonic flow over axisymmetric cavity. Shock wave 21:175–191

A Study of the Effects of Low Quantity Lubrication on Machine Efficiency Anas Aslam and Rajat Yadava

Abstract The aim of this paper is to investigate the effect of amount of lubrication on machining performance. Machining with the least amount of lubrication is a well-known in terms of cost, ecology, and human health, and completely dry or inland lubrication systems are an option. Flooded MQL, dry cut, and coolant effects on cutting forces, machined work piece surface ruggedness, and tool wear have been studied. MQL, according to the literature, results in fewer cuts, lower surface ruggedness, and lower tool usability. The cut strain, tool wear, and surface ruggedness are reduced by utilizing MQL, i.e., minimal amounts of lubricant. MQL specifications are economically beneficial. MQL improves surface finish mainly by reducing wear and damage at the tool edge. The cutting forces are also reduced with MQL and it do so by enhancing chip-tool contact and maintaining a sharp cutting edge by lowering the temperature of cutting. As a result, when used correctly, MQL not only supports the environment but also increases machinability. Keywords Machine performance · MQL · Lubrication · Human health · Environment · Machinability · Surface ruggedness

1 Introduction Climate change has emerged as one of the most important issues in modern life since its decline has a direct impact on society. In response to environmentalists’ criticism, legislators have passed ever-stricter rules [1]. It prompted manufacturers, research organizations, and universities to seek alternative manufacturing methods and develop technologies to minimize or eliminate environmental residue production [2, 3]. Traditional high-speed machining cutting fluids do not obey the tool interface and therefore cannot efficiently extract heat [4]. The existence of unnecessary pressure additives in fluid cutting is not guaranteed by coolant penetration of the chip-tool A. Aslam (B) · R. Yadava IET, G.L.A University, Mathura, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_30

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interface to lubricate and cool off [5–7]. Machining alternatives to fully dry or flood lubricating methods use a small amount of lubricant, which has been viewed as a way to minimize lubricant usage in order to fix environmental, economic [8], and mechanical process efficiency issues tested this technique in turning phases and found that MQL outperformed inundation cooling [9, 10]. MQL resulted in substantial reductions in instrument wear and accuracy as compared to dry cutting. Because of the ductility of the work piece, drilling aluminum silicon alloys is one of the processes that is difficult to dry. When the chip is not refreshed and lubricated [11], it sticks to the instrument and splits in a matter of seconds. As a consequence, in this process, the use of MQL is a viable choice for high cut-off speeds and feed rates, MQL technology was discovered to be preferable [12]. The effects of using a small amount of lubricant during processing on tool wear, cuts, and surface ruggedness are investigated in this analysis.

2 MQL System Working The MQL must be transmitted and impacted via the cutting field at high speed and pressure. To meet the requirements of the current research project, a MQL delivery system that included a continuous supply. A flexible tube with a very small diameter connected the fluid chamber to the mixing chamber below. The pressure created by compressed air entering the inlet outlet to flow at a constant rate through the controller to the mixing chamber. From the cutting tool’s edge, a thin yet fast-moving stream of MQL was projected, and the auxiliary cutting point formed a 15° angle. As a result, the coolant is guided as close to the chip and tool interfaces as possible. In order to increase dimension accuracy [13] outside the bowl mixing and inside the bowl mixing, a mixing machine mixes pressure air and lubricant into the dump through the mixing equipment located inside the dump. The machine’s lubricant provides lubrication, and the pressurized air entering the cutting surface provides minimal cooling. There are several advantages of using this method. The blending atmosphere is easily regulated, and the number of nebulae and fluid vapors is reduced [14]. The blend is obtained during the external mixing process in a mixing machine installed in a specific tank. It is also possible to lubricate the component and the equipment in this situation. As previously mentioned, MQL has a negligible cooling effect. Is it therefore important to cool work pieces and machinery, cooling is ineffective in today’s world because the induced heat shock causes the instrument to fail in a variety of cutting operations. Hardened steel, for example, is usually finished by dry cutting [15, 16] The cutting process can be easily observed if appropriate since the work area is not flooded during the procedure. However, the MQL approach has drawbacks due to the inability to cool the cutting surface. As a result, when used in a cutting process that needs a lot of cooling, such as grinding, MQL has little benefit. In such instances, the conditions must be properly defined to use the MQL technique effectively [17].

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3 Tool Wear Impact of MQL One of the most important economic sanctions levied during cutting is tool wear, which necessitates tool replacement. As a consequence, extending the life of the device, minimizing all cutting parameters and variables, such as cutting depth, cutting speed, feed rate, fluid cutting, and fluid cutting, must be worn and optimized. Fluids are important in cutting operations. The work piece and instrument, in particular, must be protected from corrosion, chip evacuation, lubrication, and cooling. In all cutting cases, the working material was kept on the edges of the tool, but the amount of material adhered to varied [18, 19]. While turning steel with a high speed, covered carbide process, discovered that the flank wear rate was 2 ml/h (2 nozzles—a flank wear rate for rake and flank). Oil’s lubrication action and MQL agents with moderately reactive EPs were advised to use it. Another significant wear criterion is the average auxiliary flank or VS wear, which affects both surface ends and task dimensional precision. As a consequence of irregular, surface finish and dimensional accuracy suffer. Figure 1 [9] depicts an average increase in auxiliary flank. When turning hardened 52,100 steel at a moderate cutting speed (110 m/min) with cubic boron-nitride instruments. Due to the oil’s lubricating effect, which partially mitigates the incremental forces induced by the MQL compression air jet due to a lack of thermal softening, (conventional refrigeration with 1:20 soluble oil). The gradual increase in VB—the key parameter for evaluating tool life expiration in all environments—shows that process parameters are being chosen for the proper domain of each process, with no premature instrument failure due to chipping, fracturing, or other factors. Figure 2 [9] depicts how MQL, specifically VB growth rate, reduced flank wear. The observed decrease in VB can be due to MQL flank temperature decreases, which have helped reduce wear by preserving temperature sensitive tool 500

Average auxilary flank wear, Vs (µm)

Fig. 1 Auxiliary flank wear growth under 3 conditions

450 400

MQL Dry Wet

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23 25 28 30 33 35 38 40 43 45 48 50

Machining time (min.)

358 550

Average principal flank wear, VB (µm)

Fig. 2 Average principal flank wear versus machining time

A. Aslam and R. Yadava

500 450

MQL Dry Wet

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23 25 28 30 33 35 38 40 43 45 48 50

Machining time (min.)

stiffness, adhesion, and diffusion types. The tool’s life would be greatly extended if MQL was correctly implemented. The tool’s craftsmanship was discovered to be at its best during dry cutting. When flooded coolant was used instead of dry cutting, the amount of adhered material was significantly reduced. The amount of material adhered during MQL machining was found to be greater than that of flooded coolant machining but less than that of dry machining. During MQL, the lubricant quantity was increased from 50 to 100 ml/h, yet the adhered consistency did not improve noticeably. The increased amount of adhered material during MQL conditions is most likely due to tool geometry. Among those who have contributed to this work experimented with fast turning alloy steel on a lathe rig. By controlling temperature with MQL, the growth of groove wear on the main and secondary cuts has been nearly stopped using vegetable oil. Furthermore, Fig. 3 clearly shows reduced primary flanking wear. This is the most important parameter in determining tool life expiration and can be found in any environment. It suggested consistent machining with no premature tool failure due to chips, fractures, or other factors. According to, the vital MQL jet in machining carbide insert low-alloy steel reduced flank wear, either significantly improving tool life or increasing efficiency (MRR) by allowing faster cutting speeds and feeding. Reduced tool wear may have resulted from reduced abrasion, reduced thermal sensitivity of adhesion and diffusion at the flanks, and reduced built-in edge shaping, which accelerates wear by pressing and flatting at cutting edges. Deep grooves are only minimized by using a small amount of lubricant, which is highly damaging and can result in tripping hazards.

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7

Fig. 3 Roughness of surface under three conditions Surface Roughness, Ra (µm)

6

MQL Dry Wet

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3.1 MQL’S Impact on Surface Roughness The surface finish, the existence and degree of residual stress, and the presence of surface or subsurface micro cracks are all important machinability indicators that influence the workmanship and lifetime of the machined product. Surface finishing processes such as grinding can provide good surface finishing in some situations, but it can also be achieved by handwork. When a grinding finish is used, the machining must be done ahead of time with the lowest possible surface roughness so that the grinding process is as simple and quick as possible. Standard marks left on the finished surface by the tool tip, irregular distortions frictions in the manufacturing phase, and integrated edge formation are the primary causes of continuous production surface roughness growth in particular, such as the processing of ductile metals. The increase in cutting speed results in decrease of surface roughness and improves surface quality. The surface quality deteriorates with decreasing cutting speed [20]. Furthermore, the flank wear values used were comparable, indicating the MQL technique’s viability. As compared to the flood of soluble oil, MQL was much higher than the mean values of hole surface roughness. In their experiment, discovered incredible Ra values using MQL and uncoated K10 methods (a very small scattered area of around 0.5 mm) even at low feed speeds, as in this experiment, these values are difficult to achieve with the pinhole method. The two most critical factors are the carbide tool’s high rigidity and the MQL device’s lubrication effectiveness, which allows for smooth chip formation. According to the results, surface roughness varies as a function of machining time in dry, wet, and MQL environments. Surface roughness increased very little under MQL conditions because wear on an average auxiliary flank’s auxiliary cutter edge was reduced. Due to higher temperatures and stresses at the tool tips, surface roughness tends to increase rapidly during dry machining; MQL, on the other hand, significantly

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improves surface finish based on the working tool material, especially through abrasion control, chipping, and shaping of the integrated edges at the auxiliary trim. They were created using both the traditional cutting fluid process and MQL technology, indicating that the MQL technique yielded better results than the conventional approach MQL technique resulted in less roughness. To determine the optimal parameter levels and consider the importance and significance of process parameters, the results of media analysis (NOM) and variance analysis (ANOVA) on multiple systems were used. The increased surface roughness caused by elevated temperature and stresses on tool chips under minimum MQL demonstrates this. A high MQL enhances surface finishes by abrasion, chipping, and creating an integrated edge on the auxiliary cutting edge, according to the work tool material. Furthermore, when MQL is strong, the specific cutting force decreases, especially in the principal cutting edge, where the forming of the built-up edge is more normal. At low to medium cutting speeds, capillary effect, which forces thinner chips created at low speeds through high MQL and allows for closer proximity to the thermal heat remover zone to effectively reduce surface rationality. Figure 3 shows [9] the graph for roughness of surface under three conditions. The surface rug variations during rotation of low-alloy steel AISI 9310 with SNMG insert under dry, humid, and MQL conditions, at various speeds, feed rates, and depths of cut have been investigated. The surface roughness developed very slowly under MQL conditions, as the MQL decreased the mean wear on the auxiliary side and created no even wear on the auxiliary side, on the other hand, has resulted in significantly lower surface roughness than dry machining due to electrochemical contact between the insert and component. Due to higher temperatures and tension at tool tips, surface roughness increases rapidly during dry processing. MQL used in the work tool, mainly by handling and building up abrasion and cutting of the auxiliary cutting edges. Studied the impact of a work piece and grinding parameters on MQL while grinding and discovered that better grains on the work piece tool are more likely to be lubricated and cooled using MQL technology due to the good surface obtained. With effective lubrication, at high removal speeds, both soft and hardened metal materials can be ground to lower tangential strengths. Under MQL conditions, surface ruggedness increased very slowly. In contrast, traditional fluid cutting has no impact on tool wear. Wet machining, on the other hand, produces substantially lower surface roughness than dry machining due to electrochemical interaction between the insert and the component. Due to higher temperatures and tension at tool tips, surface roughness increases rapidly during dry processing. Furthermore, concluded that a high degree of fluidization and cooling at the work piece tool interface is likely attributable to the good surface obtained using the MQL technique. With effective lubrication, at high removal speeds, both soft and hardened metal materials can be ground to lower tangential strengths. Tangent forces are lower in MQL grinding at higher wheel speeds than in fluid cooling. How to Get Surface Ruggedness.

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3.2 MQL’S Impact on Cutting Forces One of the most critical machinability indicators is the degree of customization, since machine-fixing-tool systems have a significant effect on energy and actual use, product quality, and durability. Investigated the changes in coupe power due to feed and cutting speeds under defined conditions using hardened steel. The cutting force is lower during restricted application. Thin capillaries are most likely to form at the tool chip interface, particularly if a tool chip contact area has not completed the seizure and plastic underlayer flow, as evidenced by a chip underside inspection. As a result, capillaries as extensions of the chip’s outer surface serrations can exist within the chip’s body. By incorporating EP additives into the cutting fluid, the frictional contribution to cutting force can be minimized. As a consequence, fluid penetration allows fluid that penetrates the root and underside of the chip to be transferred to the tool chip interface, minimizing friction. This is not possible with conventional wet turning because there is no such division and the fluid jet’s kinetic energy is far from comparable. An alternative testing equipment for injecting fluids that require a significant amount of cutting fluids. The test apparatus consisted of a variable electrical drive coupled with a diesel fuel injection pump similar to those used in truck engines. The best wording, according to the writers, is a lubricant liquid strong in refrigerant (60%) with few additives. The optimum flow rates for hard turning AISI 4340 hardened steel at a rate of 46 HRC were 2 ml/min, pressures of 20 mPa, and fast pulses of 600 pulses per minute (460 HV). In comparison with both dry and moist cuts, furthermore, that the lowest resulting cutting force value in the flood coolant application phase was justified in high-speed facial friction tests on A356 aluminum alloy in the coolant’s ability in order to achieve even greater force reduction, the coolant composition (additives) must be modified for the alloy A356. MQL has achieved the best results for uncoated carbide inserts by extrapolating data from experimental studies, such as average resulting cutting forces or flank wear growth. The MQL effect by turning AISI 1040 and concluded that MQL machining offers better cutting efficiencies than dry machining because MQL reduces cutting temperature, which improves chip-tool interaction [9]. Power was reduced by 5–15% when MQL was used. Pz (axial component) decreased more than Pz (radial component) (tangential component). However, as the chip material softens, the friction force increases, and the cutting force becomes sticky as a result. The overall effect of these two factors on the magnitude of the trimming forces is determined by the nature and trim temperature. This is due to the fact that a high MQL moves thinner chips, which result in less cutting speeds near the hot tool chip region due to capillary effects, allowing it to absorb thermal energy more efficiently and minimize surface resistance at high cutting speeds. Furthermore, heat generated at low cutting speeds has been successfully transferred to higher MQL rather than lower MQL, lowering the basic cutting force and allowing for better processing without plucking the working partner. Because of increased chip interface friction and chip jamming around the device, surface roughness increases when the MQL is low and feed rates are high. When the MQL

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is high and the feed rate is low, the work material’s adhesion and thus friction forces are decreased, resulting in a decrease in the real cutting force. The effects of drying, adherence to the instrument under dry cutting conditions. In contrast to others, MQL has the lowest value since the tool’s adhesion is the lowest, resulting in less friction and therefore less cutting strength. The frictional force decreases as adhesion decreases the graph between cutting force vs cutting speed is depicted by Fig. 4.

4 Conclusion In this study, how the machining process gets affected by the amount of lubrication is analyzed, and the results obtained are discussed below. • The cut strain, tool wear, and surface ruggedness are reduced by utilizing MQL, i.e., minimal amounts of lubricant. • MQL specifications are economically beneficial. • MQL improves surface finish mainly by reducing wear and damage at the tool edge. • The cutting forces are also reduced with MQL and it do so by enhancing chiptool contact and maintaining a sharp cutting edge by lowering the temperature of cutting. • Due to lower value of tool’s adhesion, less friction and therefore less cutting strength is observed. • The frictional contribution to cutting force can be minimized by incorporating EP additives into the cutting fluid. • At higher MQL, heat generated at low cutting speeds has been successfully transferred. • Higher MQL moves thinner chips, which result in less cutting speeds.

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• With MQL, the best results are achieved uncoated carbide inserts.

References 1. Zhang Y, Li C, Jia D, Zhang D, Zhang X (2015) Experimental evaluation of the lubrication performance of MoS2/CNT nanofluid for minimal quantity lubrication in Ni-based alloy grinding. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 99:19–33 2. Danish M et al (2021) Influence of graphene reinforced sunflower oil on thermo-physical, tribological and machining characteristics of inconel 718. J Mater Res Technol 15:135–150 3. Bagherzadeh A, Kuram E, Budak E (2021) Experimental evaluation of eco-friendly hybrid cooling methods in slot milling of titanium alloy. J Clean Prod 289:125817 4. Gupta MK, Khan AM, Song Q, Liu Z, Khalid QS, Jamil M, Kuntoglu M, Usca UA, Sarikaya M, Pimenov DY (2021) A review on conventional and advanced minimum quantity lubrication approaches on performance measures of grinding process. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 117(3):729–750 5. Shukla MK, Sharma K (2019) Improvement in mechanical and thermal properties of epoxy hybrid composites by functionalized graphene and carbon-nanotubes. Mater Res Express 6(12):125323 6. Khunt CP, Makhesana MA, Patel KM, Mawandiya BK (2021) Performance assessment of vegetable oil-based minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) in drilling. Mater Today Proc 44:341–345 7. Gupta MK et al (2021) Environment and economic burden of sustainable cooling/lubrication methods in machining of Inconel-800. J Clean Prod 287:125074 8. Sharma A, Chaturvedi R, Sharma K, Saraswat M (2022) Force evaluation and machining parameter optimization in milling of aluminium burr composite based on response surface method. Adv Mater Process Technol 1–22 9. Dhar NR, Ahmed MT, Islam S (2007) An experimental investigation on effect of minimum quantity lubrication in machining AISI 1040 steel. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 47(5):748–753 10. Dhar NR, Kamruzzaman M, Ahmed M (2006) Effect of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) on tool wear and surface roughness in turning AISI-4340 steel. J Mater Process Technol 172(2):299–304 11. Tiwari M et al (2014) Investigate the optimal combination of process parameters for EDM by using a grey relational analysis. Proc Mater Sci 5:1736–1744 12. Kumar A, Sharma K, Dixit AR (2021) A review on the mechanical properties of polymer composites reinforced by carbon nanotubes and graphene. Carbon Lett 31(2):149–165 13. Jain JK, Dangayach GS, Agarwal G (2011) Evidence of supply chain management in Indian manufacturing firms: a survey. Int J Manage Sci Eng Manage 6(3):198–209 14. Heinemann R et al (2006) Effect of MQL on the tool life of small twist drills in deep-hole drilling. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 46(1):1–6 15. Ul-Haq Y et al (2020) Dielectric, thermal and mechanical properties of hybrid PMMA/RGO/Fe2 O3 nanocomposites fabricated by in-situ polymerization. Ceram Int 46(5):5828–5840 16. Kelly JF, Cotterell MG (2002) Minimal lubrication machining of aluminium alloys. J Mater Process Technol 120(1–3):327–334 17. Khan MMA, Mithu MAH, Dhar NR (2009) Effects of minimum quantity lubrication on turning AISI 9310 alloy steel using vegetable oil-based cutting fluid. J Mater Process Technol 209(15– 16):5573–5583 18. Sharma A, Chaturvedi R, Singh PK, Sharma K (2021) AristoTM robot welding performance and analysis of mechanical and microstructural characteristics of the weld. Mater Today Proc 43:614–622

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19. Kishawy HA et al (2005) Effect of coolant strategy on tool performance, chip morphology and surface quality during high-speed machining of A356 aluminum alloy. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 45(2):219–227 20. Parhad P, Likhite A, Bhatt J et al (2015) The effect of cutting speed and depth of cut on surface roughness during machining of Austempered ductile iron. Trans Indian Inst Met 68:99–108

A Time Saving Image Segmentation Technique and Its Application to Detect Cotton Leaf Spot Suparna Biswas, Pritam Maity, Sumedha Bhattacharya, Ayantika Goswami, and Suparna Karmakar

Abstract Agriculture is an important part of the Indian economy. According to a survey report, nearly 70% of people in India are dependent on agriculture. Sometimes different plant leaves may be affected by different diseases, which corrupt the quality and agricultural production. Leaves are a very important part of plant, and the growth of plants and production of crops are directly dependent on the leaves. Detection of plant diseases is highly necessary for the growth of agriculture. To detect the leaf diseases, the primary step is segmentation of affected regions by applying image processing. This work presented an efficient time saving color image segmentation method, utilizing texture analysis in spatial domain to detect the affected region of the leaf. At first, the input leaf image is converted from RGB to lab color space. Then, we split the input leaf image into (NXN) block size, compute the distances among neighbor blocks using the energy function of each block, and then, we apply k-means color clustering for the segmentation. For this k-means clustering, we have used squared Euclidean distances to measure the similarity of each block. Simulation result revealed a good performance of our technique. We have utilized this technique to detect cotton leaf spot diseases. Keywords Color segmentation · K-means · Texture analysis · Cotton leaf spot

1 Introduction Agriculture plays a very important role in the Indian economy. It is an employment opportunities for village peoples in all over India. We are using new techniques, new pesticides to improve the growth of crops. As a result, the production S. Biswas (B) · P. Maity · S. Bhattacharya · A. Goswami Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Sodepur, Kolkata, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Karmakar Department of Information Technology, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Sodepur, Kolkata, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_31

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of food grain has increased. Recently, image processing is extensively applied in different fields of agriculture to improve agricultural production. Many researchers are working on disease recognition of various plants [1, 2]. Tarun et al. [3] presented a support vector machine (SVM) classifier-based method to identify four types of leaf diseases. They have reported cuckoo search algorithm to recognize Cercospora leaf spot, anthracnose, bacterial Blight, Alternaria alternata diseases. To recognize any leaf disease through image processing, segmentation is a very vital step. Segmentation of color images is helpful in different applications. From the segmented results, regions of interest (ROI) can be identified and the required objects of the scene, that is useful for the image analysis. Some of recent work of ROI detection is stochastic model-based techniques [4–8], watershed-based region growing [9], energy function [10] and partitioning of graph [11]. Quantitative evaluation technique-based method is suggested in [12]. Different popular segmentation techniques are measurement-space-based algorithm (e.g., multi-thresholding of histograms and clustering method) [13–16], pixel-similarity-based algorithms (e.g., region growing and split-and-merge) [17]. Singh et al. [18, 19] proposed genetic algorithm (GA) to separate unhealthy parts of the leaf from healthy parts. Elangovan et al. [20] reported an image segmentation-based plant disease categorization technique, after converting images into another color space and removal of noise. Sardogan et al. [21] presented a plant leaf disease detection and classification algorithm by combining learning vector quantization and convolutional neural network and applied for detection of tomato leaf disease. In [22], an AI-based plant leaf disease recognition technique has been presented. They have used KNN, SVM, logistic regression and CNN-based classification technique. The study [23] presented an optimization-based technique to separate infected regions of sunflower leaves. Due to the variety of image texture, the problem of segmentation is a very tough task. If any image contains homogeneous color regions, then clustering methods like [6] can be utilized to handle this issue. But in reality, images contain a variety of colors and textures and it becomes a complicated task for the researchers. In our proposed approach, we have used an energy function to extract the texture features. Experimental result depicted that our implementation is a very efficient method. The whole paper is discussed as: Sect. 2 provides the detailed explanation of segmentation methodology, Sect. 3 provides the experimental results to detect cotton leaf disease, and finally, Sect. 4 concludes the paper with future scope.

2 Proposed Method The flow diagram of the image segmentation method in spatial domain is depicted in Fig. 1. At first, the RGB color image is transformed to L*a*b* color space [24]. Lab color space is defined as color-opponent space with dimension of L for the lightness and a, b are used for color-opponent dimensions, based on nonlinearly compressed CIE XYZ color space coordinates. The L*a*b* color space includes all

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perceivable colors which indicates that its range exceeds those of the CMYK and RGB color models. One of the significant attributes of L*a*b* model is independency on device. The segmentation algorithm is discussed in Algorithm1. Algorithm1: Input: Color image of leaf. Step 1: RGB color image is transformed to L*a*b* color space. Step 2: Split the a * b* space image into (N × N) blocks of small size. Step 3: Compute the energy of each block. Step 4: Apply k-means clustering on energy block. Output: Segmented images. After the color conversion, split the image into (N × N) blocks of small size and obtain the energy of each block, which are used for k-means clustering [25]. Fig. 1 Flow diagram of segmentation algorithm

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3 Results The proposed algorithm is tested to detect the infected region of cotton leaves. The diseases on the cotton leaves are classified as (a) bacterial disease: e.g., bacterial blight, crown gall, (b) fungal diseases: e.g., anthracnose, leaf spot, (c) viral disease: e.g., leaf curl, leaf crumple, leaf roll, (d) diseases due to insects: e.g., white flies, leaf insects as depicted in Fig. 2. Out of the above types of disease, these dramatically affect the leaf of the cotton plant. Cotton leaf spot is a very destructive bacterial infection. The proposed algorithm is tested on cotton leaf images. Figure 3 shows the end result of the segmentation of the cotton leaf. Here, blocksize is chosen as 2 × 2. Here, we have segmented this to detect leaf disease. There are variety of diseases affecting the cotton leaf and the color of leaves for various diseases are unlike. There are also other different features like shape of image, also there are different shapes of holes present on the leaf of the image. In the case of Fig. 3a leaf.png, this is an image of a cotton leaf. For the k-means, here we have chosen k = 2. Figure 3b shows each pixel of the image with its cluster_index value, and Fig. 3c and d shows the objects in 2 different clusters. Where

Fig. 2 a Bacterial blight of cotton leaf, b fungal diseases: leaf spot fungus, c viral disease: e.g., leaf curl, d diseases due to insects: e.g., white flies

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Fig. 3 Image segmented into 2 regions with block size of 2 × 2. a Input image of cotton leaf, b every pixel of the leaf image with its cluster_index value, c infected region of cotton leaf, d unaffected region of cotton leaf

Fig. 3c is the infected portion and Fig. 3d is the portion of the leaf without infection. The disease shown in Fig. 3 is known as foliar disease arises due to phosphorus deficiency. Segmented results are quite good. But there are variety of parameters that can influence the performance of our proposed algorithm like number of cluster or values of k, the block size and the type of distance.

4 Conclusions and Future Scope In this paper, we have presented a proficient technique for image segmentation utilizing textural features. Our proposed algorithm is very fast because we have applied k-means on the block wise energy features not directly on the input image. It actually reduces the data points on which k-means is applied. Here, we have applied the segmentation algorithm to identify cotton leaf spot or to detect the infected region of cotton leaf. This method performs well for cotton leaf spot detection. Our system

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works on the blocks energy, not directly on the pixel. So it reduces the computational time. In the future work, we want to focus on other textural features and try to improve for better performance. Additionally, we want to recognize different types of leaf diseases by applying different advanced classifiers.

References 1. Islam M, Dinh A, Wahid K, Bhowmik P (2017) Detection of potato diseases using image segmentation and multiclass support vector machine. Can Conf Electr Comput Eng 2017:8–11. https://doi.org/10.1109/CCECE.2017.7946594 2. Hughes DP, Salathe M (2015) An open access repository of images on plant health to enable the development of mobile disease diagnostics 3. Tiwari VM, Tarum G (2017) Plant leaf disease analysis using image processing technique with modified SVM-CS classifier. Int J Eng Manag Technol 5:11–17 4. Belongie S et al (1998) Color- and texture-based image segmentation using EM and its application to content-based image retrieval. In: Proceedings of ICCV, pp 675–82 5. Delignon Y et al (1997) Estimation of generalized mixtures and its application in image segmentation. IEEE Trans Image Process 6(10):1364–1376 6. Wang J-P (1998) Stochastic relaxation on partitions with connected components and its application to image segmentation. IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell 20(6):619–636 7. Panjwani DK, Healey G (1995) Markov random field models for unsupervised segmentation of textured color images. PAMI 17(10):939–954 8. Zhu SC, Yuille A (1996) Region competition: unifying snakes, region growing, and Bayes/MDL for multiband image segmentation. PAMI 18(9):884–900 9. Shafarenko L, Petrou M, Kittler J (1997) Automatic water-shed segmentation of randomly textured color images. IEEE Trans Image Process 6(11):1530–1544 10. Ma WY, Manjunath BS (1997) Edge flow: a framework of boundary detection and image segmentation. In: Proceedings of CVPR, pp 744–49 11. Shi J, Malik J (1998) Normalized cuts and image segmentation. In: Proceedings of CVPR, pp 731–37. PAMI 20(6):619–636 12. Borsotti M, Campadelli P, Schettini R (1998) Quantitative evaluation of color image segmentation results. Pattern Recogn Lett 19(8):741–748 13. Yen JC, Chang FJ, Chang S (1995) A new criterion for automatic multi-level thresholding. IEEE Trans Image Process 4:370–378 14. Yeng PY, Chen LH (1993) Random sampling thresholding: a new approach to multilevel thresholding. Signal Process 34:311–322 15. Tsao ECK, Bezdek JC, Pal NR (1994) Fuzzy Kohonen clustering networks. Pattern Recogn 27:757–764 16. Bensaid AM, Hall LO, Bezdek JC (1996) Pattern Recogn 29:859–871 17. Bala A, Sharma AK (2017) Split and merge: a region based image segmentation. Int J Emerg Res Manage Technol 6(8). ISSN: 2278-9359 18. Singh V, Varsha, Misra AK (2015) Detection of unhealthy region of plant leaves using image processing and genetic algorithm. In: Proceeding—2015 international conference on advances in computer engineering and applications (ICACEA), pp 1028–1032 19. Singh V, Misra AK (2017) Detection of plant leaf diseases using image segmentation and soft computing techniques. Inf Process Agric 4:41–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inpa.2016.10.005 20. Elangovan K, Nalini S (2017) Plant disease classification using image segmentation and SVM techniques. Int J Comput Intell Res 13(7):1821–1828. ISSN 0973-1873

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21. Sardogan M, Tuncer A, Ozen Y (2018) Plant leaf disease detection and classification based on CNN with LVQ algorithm. In: 3rd International Conference on Computer Science and Engineering 22. Sharma P, Hans P, Gupta SC (2020) Classification of plant leaf diseases using machine learning and image preprocessing techniques. In: 10th international conference on cloud computing, data science & engineering (confluence), pp 480–484. https://doi.org/10.1109/Confluence47 617.2020.9057889 23. Singh V (2019) Sunflower leaf diseases detection using image segmentation based on particle swarm optimization. Artif Intell Agric. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aiia.2019.09.002 24. Fairchild MD (2013) Color appearance models, 2nd edn. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, USA 25. Alsabti K, Ranka S, Singh V (1998) An efficient k-means clustering algorithm. In: Proceedings of first workshop high performance data mining

COMSOL Multiphysics Simulation of Microwave System-Based Household Welding Approach Kuwar Mausam

Abstract Innovation is the base of new foundation of manufacturing and when industry looks for the manufacturing then there must be one common word come in picture permanent joining. As the demand of new methods of permanent joining come in light and microwave system is one of the latest developing method which is enough capable to join the two metal as the normal joining methods are done. This simulation-based study presents the industrial application of microwave welding. In manufacturing, processing of materials using microwave is an emerging sustainable material processing method. The research is now focused on the use of microwave welding for industrial application. Microwave material processing, a novel method is emerging as one of the most promising sustainable process in the area of manufacturing. Application of microwave is so old in industry for volumetric and density heating, but this volumetric and density heating property is disadvantage for welding process because welding requires point heating. In this work, a simulated projected model has been developed with different model condition. Using COMSOL multiphysics simulation-based experimentation carryout over microwave energy absorbent materials. Keywords COMSOL · Microwave system · Microwave material processing · Volumetric and density heating

1 Introduction Fast growing innovation leads to new research which is capable to find innovative methods which are capable to process wide-ranging materials. In this paper, microwaves radiations are used to heat-up the materials using microwave radiations. Innovation and development in field of material synthesis and processing demanding latest technological supported method and process to support handling of extensive range of material. K. Mausam (B) Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_32

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Current industry demanding approaches which are capable to provide the feature of less energy consumption, superior microstructure, properties able to provide better yield, energy saving, economic processing and higher production capacity [1–3]. All most all manufacturing and production industries demand a prominent method for permanently joining materials parts from welding, riveting, etc. Due to this factor industry demands some additional, effective, simple, economic joining method with vast effect over the production sector [4, 5]. Microwave is capable to perform electromagnetic welding because microwave offers electromagnetic radiation with frequency off range 0.30–300 GHz. Microwave operating at 2.45 GHz related to wavelength 12.2 cm range generated such radiation. Microwave offers material heating with special advantage of its volumetric and density heating, but this is also a disadvantage as energy source of welding because welding required point concentrated heating so to overcome this disadvantage some useful changes required in microwave oven to concentrate the entire energy at a point of welding [6, 8–11, 18–20].

2 Experimental Setup Design Welding required point concentration of the energy to produce sufficient amount of heat like application of electron beam energy, LASER energy or plasma-based energy. Company make microwave is not able to point concentrate of energy produce by it on the welding localized area, in its original property [5, 6]. Use of waveguide guided the electromagnetic waves from point of energy origin to the target point for energy concentration at frequency of microwave [7, 12–15]. Due to presence of external magnetic field around the work piece produces the dipolar rotation of dielectric charges which causes heating over work piece by sticking of microwave energy. This external magnetic field controlled the heat distribution over material by minimizing the energy concentration area [11, 14, 16, 17].

2.1 Arrangement of Microwave Injection molding machine used for thermoplastic sample preparation for investigation of weld ability of microwave oven-based welding method. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high density polyethylene (HDPE) are selected as work piece as per requirement of present industries. LDPE and HDPE offer advantage like impact resistance, chemical resistance, resistance to moisture at low cost [8]. Both material used in toys industries, automotive industry, making of utensils, films development, bottles making, pipes making, wire insulations making and computer hardware component making [9]. In investigation, simulation run takes places for 300 min and after 10 s variation of temperature recorded and yellow and blue colored test

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Fig. 1 Microwave oven experimental setup

sample used for weld zone identification in LDPE and HDPE. Wave guide designed with 4 mm wall thickness and 900 E-type bend rectangular wave guide. Samsung company domestic microwave oven used to perform experiment, Fig. 1 shows the systematic arrangement of experimental setup.

3 Analysis of Different Microwave Model Using COMSOL for Heat Distribution Analysis Numerous problem-solving benefit offered by COMSOL. In this, segment simulations carried out for different circumstances and examination is done for utmost right ailment of selection conditions for e microwave-based welding. Three different model replica has been investigated to identify the suitable condition. Model 1: Plastic strip with heat distribution and normal condition considered. Model 2: Carpenter electrical iron (CER) sandwich used for distribution of heat inder external magnetic field. Model 3: Heat distribution under influence of EMF by CER which is placed at the top of plastic strip. Afterward the suitable condition identifies by simulation examination of all models. a. Model 1: Simulation under normal condition for plastic strip with heat distribution Figure 2 shows the used model 1. Two LDPE strip polymer is placed with each other at the middle of the microwave glass plate. Now microwave energy concentrates at the point of joining produced maximum amount of heat for heating of the work piece. Figure 3 represents the variation of temperature with respect to time of LDPE strip.

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b. Model 2: Simulation under external magnetic field heat distribution using Carpenter electrical iron (CER) sandwich type In this simulation, CER material strip has been used to produce the external magnetic field, CER offers advantage such as that its magnetic properties enhanced as the temperature rises. Dipolar rotation of molecules restricted by magnetic field. In this study, CER strips used as sandwich form with work piece, to produce the required amount of heat where heat required for welding in Fig. 1. Presence of CER also controlled the unwanted distribution of heat by magnetic field creation. As observation of Fig. 4, it is clear that microwave energy is concentrate at joining point of two work piece and there is no thermal run away and point concentration of energy noticed at the point of joining. Graph shown in Fig. 5 presents variation of temperature and time. This graph concluded that heating rate is increased in small amount, this smaller heating rate

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Fig. 4 Projected model 2

demanding one more simulation model with high heating rate which is more suitable for the microwave welding.

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Fig. 6 Projected model 3

c. Model 3: Simulation for external magnetic field heat distribution using normally above placed carpenter electrical iron (CER) over work piece Setup of this model is same as model 2 setup with one change that in this setup CER strip is placed at the top of the joining (welding zone). In this setup, welding zone is covered by CER strip pair. Such arrangement offers two advantage over model 2. First one, reduction of unwanted area where no radiation required. Second advantage is controlling of dipolar movement of molecules at the specific area. Figure 6 represents the sematic of model 3. Reduction of magnetic field enhances the heating rate at required zone in comparison with the two other simulation model discussed as model 1 and model 2. Variation of temperature in model 3 is shown in Fig. 7. In this model, microwave energy concentrated at the point of joining with no thermal runaway. The energy concentration is fully over the particular point of welding. The variation of temperature is shown in Fig. 7, the variation of temperature indicates the high heat transfer rate in comparison to model 1 and 2. Rapid heating is obtained in this model by point focus of heat at point of welding.

4 Result and Discussion As the comparison is carried out among these three models the following key outcomes are reported. a. Normal heating is reported in model 1 simulation by using simple waveguide.

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Temeperature vs Time TEMEPERATURE

250 200 150 100 50 0 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

TIME (*10 SEC)

Fig. 7 Model 3: Variation of temperature verses time

b. Due to presence of magnetic field, a controlled heat distribution achieved at the point of joining. c. Presence of magnetic field enhances the rapid heating of material which is required for joining of two materials. d. By comparing the model 1, 2 and 3, rapid heating, no heat run away and point concentration of energy achieved in model 3 as shown in Fig. 8. Due to these factors, model 3 considers as the suitable and standard condition for microwavebased welding.

Comparison Three model Temeperature

250 200 150 100 50 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 Time(*10 sec) Fig. 8 Comparison of temperature variation in model 1, 2 and 3

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5 Conclusion Application of microwave energy is a challenging field for welding purpose due to its volumetric and density heating, in this experimental, a model proposed to achieve suitable condition for electromagnetic welding by the help of microwave energy to overcome the disadvantage of volumetric and density heating. Following conclusion are taken from the study: • By the help of metal waveguide existing house hold microwave has been able to concentrate energy of microwave at the point of joining. • Application of metal beam guide produces approximately 10% reduction in volumetric and density heating area. • Plastic polymer-based composite is tested to verify the capability of microwave welding system. • External magnetic field positive aspects over material discussed in above work. So as per the whole discussion can we can easily conclude if material is microwave observant than microwave energy directly capable to perform welding without any application of external interference. If we increase the input power of the magnet rapid heating zone also increased. Discussion also concluded that if material is microwave observant microwave energy can be utilized to weld material with the help of general household power supply.

References 1. Sutton WH (1989) Microwave processing of ceramics. Ceramic Bulletin, pp 376–386 2. Kandagal ZB et al. (2019) A review on green technology material processing through microwave energy. IJTSRD 3(2) 3. Srinath MS, Sharma AK, Pradeep K (2011) Investigation on micro structural and mechanical properties of microwave processed dissimilar joints. J Manuf Process 13:141–146 4. Sharma A, Chaturvedi R, Sharma K, Saraswat M (2022) Force evaluation and machining parameter optimization in milling of aluminium burr composite based on response surface method. Adv Mater Process Technol 1–22 5. Singh S, Gupta D, Jain V, Sharma AK (2015) Microwave processing of materials and applications in manufacturing industries: a review Mater Manuf Processes 30(1):1–29 [4] 6. Agrawal D (2010) Latest global developments in microwave material processing. Mater Res Innov 14:1–8 7. Hwang JY, Huang X, Shi S (2007) Materials processing under the influence of external fluids. Warrendele PA., TMS Publication 8. Metaxas RC, Meredith RJ (1983) In: Industrial microwave heating. Peter Peregrinus Ltd. 9. Das S, Bansal A, Sharma AK (2012) Theory of welding of metallic parts in microwave cavity applicator. Fundam J Modern Phys 3(2):125–155 10. Anklekar RM, Bauer K, Agrawal DK, Roy R (2005) In: Powder metal. vol 48. pp 39–48 11. Sharma A, Chaturvedi R, Singh PK (2022) Efficient activated metal inert gas welding procedures by various fluxes for welding process. In: Computational and experimental methods in mechanical engineering, Springer, Singapore, pp 419–427

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12. Adnadjevi B, Jovanovi J, Potkonjak B (2013) A novel approach to the explanation the effect of microwave heating on isothermal kinetic of crosslinking polymerization of acrylic acid. Russ J Phys Chem A 87(13):2115–2120 13. Srinath MS et al. (2012) Simulation and analysis of microwave heating while joining bulk copper. Int J Eng Sci Technol 4(2):152–158 14. Liu CJ, Sheen D (2008) Analysis and control of the thermal runaway of ceramic slab under microwave heating. Sci China Series E: Technol Sci 15. Sharma A, Chaturvedi R, Singh PK, Sharma K (2021) AristoTM robot welding performance and analysis of mechanical and microstructural characteristics of the weld. Mater Today: Proc 43:614–622 16. Sakli H, Bouchouicha D, Aguiti T (2012) Wave propagation in rectangular waveguide filled with anisotropic material. Int J Comput Sci 9(3) 17. Sharma A, Chaturvedi R, Saraswat M, Kalra R (2022) Weld reliability characteristics of AISI 304L steels welded with MPAW (Micro Plasma Arc Welding). Mater Today: Proc 18. Chaturvedi R, Islam A, Sharma A, Sharma K, Sharma R (2020) Design and analysis of mechanical gripper of aristo-robot for welding. Test Eng Managem 83:23202–23209 19. Sharma A, Sharma K, Islam A, Roy D (2020) Effect of welding parameters on automated robotic arc welding process. Mater Today: Proc 26:2363–2367 20. Islam A, Sharma S, Sharma K, Sharma R, Sharma A, Roy D (2020) Real-time data monitoring through sensors in robotized shielded metal arc welding. Mater Today: Proc 26:2368–2373

Influence of Nanoparticles in Application of Solar Collector-Based Energy Harvesting (SCBEH): A Review Kuwar Mausam

Abstract Solar collector-based energy harvesting (SCBEH) is one of the most attractive sources of energy conversion with any kind of harmful effects like global warming and greenhouse gases emission. This system has the capability to convert a sufficient amount of solar energy into useful thermal energy. Conventional waterbased solar collector provides thermal energy at a low rate but the advancement of the base fluid into nanofluids enhances this conversion rate. Nanofluids offer good thermal properties and are capable to produce a good amount of heat transfer coefficient and also enhance the thermal efficiency of the system. In this paper, the author summarizes some of the research work available in the area of application of the nanofluids in solar collector-based energy harvesting (SCBEH). Thermal efficiency enhancement up to 35% was achieved by the researcher by these of nanofluids as the working fluid. Keywords Solar collector-based energy harvesting · Nanoparticles · Nanofluids · Working fluid · Global warming

1 Introduction Presently majority of the power production in the world is based on non-renewable energy sources due to which non-renewable energy sources are decreasing day by day, and also by using non-renewable energy sources, there is large emission of greenhouse gases that take place which in turn harms the environment or depletion of ozone layer; on the other hand, we are having a good option of renewable energy sources like solar energy, geothermal energy, and wind energy [1–5]. Solar radiation is a good example of renewable energy resources because it provides two types of energy, heat as well as electrical. For electricity generation, desalination of water, water boiler, and for many other tasks, solar energy system was utilized. All of the applications are based on SCBEH, thermophysical properties of working fluid define K. Mausam (B) Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_33

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the performance of SCBEH. These all applications are based directly or indirectly on the SCBEH. The performance of SCBEH is defined by working fluid thermophysical properties. The overall heat transfer feature can be improved if we replace common working fluid of SCBEH with nanofluids [4]. Nanofluids are having good thermal properties, and different types of nanofluids are used as a base fluid by number of researcher in different applications of solar energy. Some of the benefits of nanofluids are listed below. • The presence of nanoparticles results in good thermal conductivity in nanofluids. • Good heat hold capacity and heat absorption capacity are observed by nanoparticles which are smaller in size and have high surface area. • In nanofluid, heat transfer capacity is good which results in good efficiency of thermal system, and also they are having good optical properties. Many researchers have discussed in their research about the properties and application of nanofluid in solar energy [18–26]. In this paper, the present research status of nanofluids has been discussed in SCBEH such as solar geothermal, solar collectors, greenhouse evaporative cooling, and solar water desalination techniques [27–30]. In this paper, we discussed the challenges related to SCBEH and also have a look at the latest advances in nanoparticles in SCBEH.

2 Factors that Analogous to the Thermal Performance of Nanofluids/Nanoparticles Nanofluids effectiveness depends upon the performance measure of thermal conductivity, heat transfer coefficient, viscosity, and specific heat. Some of the operating parameters of nanofluid are ambient condition, size and shape of nanofluid, and temperature type of base fluid. For efficient performance of SCBEH, the above considerations are the parameters from the selection of nanofluid.

2.1 Nanofluids Thermal Conductivity In different SCBEH applications, thermal conductivity is an important factor, decrement and increment in thermal conductivity of nanofluids depends on nanoparticle shape, aspect ratio, used base fluid, volume-to-weight fraction. Many of the researches on the basis of theoretical/investigational result show the linear relationship between % vol. of particles in used base fluid and increment of thermal conductivity. Linear relationship for Al2 O3 /water between thermal conductivity and volume concentration shown by Lee et al. [32]. Lee finds that the enhancement in thermal conductivity by 1.44%. Some other results on the basis of experiment for Al2 O3 /water

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are [32–36]. Choi et al. [31] noticed two times the enhancement of thermal conductivity, first time with transformer oil and other time with water as base fluid and rest other researcher details the improvement of thermal conductivity are mentioned in Table 1

2.2 Viscosity Viscosity is one of the most important properties of fluid in various applications, and viscosity plays a vital role [83]. As we know that pressure drop depends on Reynolds number, and viscosity is related to Reynolds number so we can conclude that viscosity is significant performance parameter [60]. Nanoparticle viscosity normally increases with increase in volume/weight % of nanoparticles. Many of the researchers observed in their research about the variation of viscosity for Al2 O3 /water [32, 44, 45, 47]. As the volume concentration increases, viscosity also increases. One of the researchers observes that the volume concentration and viscosity are bounded with a nonlinear [32]. For nanoparticle (Ag), the viscosity is dependent on both concentration and temperature observed by Godson et al. [42]. The increment in viscosity is dependent on the increment in the volume concentration of TiO2 [72–89]. By considering the above factor, we can say that the viscosity is dependent on volume concentration. Viscosity gets affected by the variation in temperature, size of particle, and base fluid. For achieving the desired level of efficiency in nanofluids, all the above factors are taken into consideration. In Table 2, the viscosity finding of nanofluids in SCBEH is mentioned.

2.3 HTC of Nanofluids For the performance enhancement of nanofluids, Prandtl number, Reynolds number, Nusselt number, these parameters play a significant role. The volume concentration of nanoparticles Al2 O3 effect on heat transfer coefficient observed by Wen and Ding [52], and for volume concentration range (0.6–1.16%), it was observed that the heat transfer coefficient increases by 47%. Heat transfer coefficient increases by 350% with carbon nanotube in laminar flow as observed by Ding et al. [59]. The enhancement of heat transfer coefficient with different base fluids and different volume concentrations find out by Akhavan-Behabadiet et. al. [60]. In the increment of heat transfer parameter, the combination of base fluid with nanoparticle plays a significance role. Heat transfer coefficient findings of nanofluids are shown in Table 3.

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Table 1 Nanofluids conductivity enhancement in SCBEH Base fluid used

Nanoparticle used

Range of nanoparticles size in (nm)

Key findings

Water EG

AlN

50–51

• 8% rise in thermal conductivity • Particles size affected the thermal conductivity [31]

Water

Al2 O3

30.1

• 1.44% rise is noted in the thermal conductivity [32] • Linear relationship exists in thermal conductivity and volume concentration [32] • Small diameter is responsible for the increment in the thermal conductivity [33]

41

• 9.7% enhancement is noted in the thermal conductivity of nanofluid, and it is proportional to vol. concentration [34]

Water EG

52

• 35% enhancement is noted in the thermal conductivity [35]

Transformer Oil

600–1000.0

• 20% improvement • 2 time enhancement is noted in comparison with the water [36]

Water/EG

Al2 Cu

• 31 • 68 • 101

• 96% enhancement is noted at 31 particle size • 76% enhancement is noted at 68 particle size • 61% noted at 101 particle size which indicate that as the size of particle increases reduction in the thermal conductivity is noted [37]

EG

Cu

More then 10

• 41.2 enhancement is noted in the thermal conductivity [38]

100.0–200.0

• Increase in vol. concentration and drop in particle size give increase in 12% conductivity [39]

Water

EG

Ag

100–500

• Vol. concentration and nanoparticles size enhance the 18% thermal conductivity [40]

Water

MWCNT

Dia: 10–30 lm: 10–50

• 7% rise in conductivity noted and rise depends on the combination [42]

Water

SiO2

12–14

• 23% rise in thermal conductivity noted [42]

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Table 2 Viscosity of nanofluids in SCBEH Base fluid Nanoparticles used Viscosity(Relative) (R)(max.) Remarkable findings EG

AlN

38.7

• Nanoparticle size affected Newtonian behavior and non-Newtonian behavior [77]

Water

Al2 O3

1.029 (R)

• Viscosity and volume concentration show nonlinear relation due to interaction of particles [32]

82.01

• Volume concentration gives rise to viscosity [72]

2.360(R)

• Linear and nonlinear pattern available for viscosity [34]

PG

36, 29, 24

• Viscosity effect reduces using size of particle [75]

Car coolant

2.40(R)

• Non-Newtonian behavior noted [78]

Water/EG CaCO3

69.1%

• Viscosity predicted by Modified Hamilton & Crosser model [88]

EG

Cu

24.2%

• Due to temperature rise and high concentration reduction in relative viscosity noticed [84]

EG

Ag

1.061–1.413 (R)

• Viscosity rise depends on concentration and temperature [42]

Water

TiO2

86.2%

• Viscosity rises due to high volume concentration [72]

15.3%

• Viscosity rises due to high volume concentration [94]

95.1,85.0,44.2%

• Crowding factor-based classical model used [92]

Ethanol

SiO2

3 Application of Nanofluids in SCBEH Solar collector is a device or SCBEH that is used to collect sunlight and then convert the solar energy into thermal energy. Working fluid which was present in the solar collector absorbs the sunlight and converts it into thermal energy, but the efficiency of solar collector was less with water as working fluid so many of the researchers work to increase the efficiency of solar collector by using nanofluids as a working fluid with base fluid [62–66, 87, 88]. Table 4 shows the application nanofluid in different SCBEH. Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 show the different types of collector setup used by different researchers.

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Table 3 HTC of nanofluids in SCBEH Base fluid

Nanoparticles used table 3. HTC of nanofluids in SCBEH

Water

γ Al2 O3

Water

Nanoparticles size (nm)

Heat transfer coefficient (HTC) remarkable findings

26–56

HTC rise of 47% [52]

13

Rise in Nusselt number [53]

20

HTC Rise of 48% [54]

Al2 O3

20

HTC Rise of 15% [55]

Cu

< 100

Incensement noted in HTC with wt% and flow velocity [56]

80–100

Rise in HTC [57]

20–40

22% rise in HTC [58]

Acetone Oil

Graphite CNT

100

350% rise in HTC [59]

Oil

MWCNT

5– 20(OD) L = 1–10 lm

Nusselt number increases [60]

Table 4 Application of nanofluid in different SCBEH SCBEH (Solar collector)

Nanofluids used

Findings

Flat plate

Al2 O3

29% rise in efficiency [67] 25% rise in HTC [68] Thermal conductivity increment reported as concentration increased [69]

Evacuated tube

TiO2

Rise in thermal efficiency of 2.6–7% [70]

Cu

Rise of 23.83% in thermal efficiency noticed [71]

CuO

Rise of 21.8% in efficiency [72]

Cu-synthesized

Rise of 37.5% in efficiency [73]

SiO2

Rise of 8% in efficiency [74]

MWCNT

Rise of 4% in efficiency [75]

SWCNT

Rise of 48.57% to 93.43%[76]

Cylindrical

CuO

Rise of 25.6% in efficiency [77]

Conical

SiO2

62% maximum efficiency noticed [78]

Parabolic

CNT

Rise of 4–7% in HTC [79]

Cu

93.4% maximum efficiency noticed [80]

CuO

18–52% change in efficiency noticed [81]

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Fig. 1 Solar collector flat plate type [67]

Fig.2 Solar collector evacuated type [75]

4 Blockages in Usages of Nanofluids in SCBEH Due to the significant properties of nanofluid, the uses of nanofluid increases day by day but the biggest problem in this field is the divergence in result. Understanding the properties of different nanofluids and their physical mechanism is also a big problem [84–86]. So some of the bottlenecks in the field of nanofluid in SCBEH are mentioned in Table 5.

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Fig.3 Solar collector cylindrical type [77]

Fig.4 Conical solar collector (CSC) [78]

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Table 5 Key blockages High amount procurement cost Nanoparticle unstable behavior

Difficulty in production process

High procurement cost is one of the major bottlenecks in the uses of nanofluids in SCBEH because it is high cost process and required accurate and cultured equipment

Nanofluid production methods are suffered with unstability and ion exchange problem; due to this reason, nanofluid is not suitable for the application in SCBEH

For the stability and homogeneity of nanofluids, the van der Waals interactions is very important Nanoparticles accumulation is big problem as the temperature rises surface treatment, chemical and physical treatment, and surface modification reduce this problem

5 Conclusion and Suggested Future Work Latest work associated with treatments of nanofluids in different SCBEHs alongside with crucial nanofluids thermal properties, in different SCBEH applications reviewed in this paper. Subsequent close marked from our review. • SCBEH performance increases with the help of nanofluids. • SCBEH thermal performance is affected by the particle size. • To know the process of heat transfer using nanofluids in SCBEH, more hypothetical and investigational efforts are required. • Major obstacles are high obtaining cost of nanofluids. • Instability prevents the use of nanofluids in different SCBEH. Suggested Future work: On the basis of the evaluation, we suggest some upcoming research works track for improving the uses of nanofluids as the working fluid for improved use of solar radiation in different SCBEHs: • More investigational work is mandatory in the field of nanofluids stability at long temperature ranges. • Extensive scope is obtainable for use of hybrid nanofluids in different SCBEH.

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An Initiative to Understand the Electric Vehicle Technology (EVT) and the Challenges Involved: A Review Rajat Ray, Sumit Krishnan, Kheelraj Pandey, and Anoop Kumar Shukla

Abstract Nowadays, in the transportation sector, electric vehicles are finding their adaptability with the major concern of decreasing pollution emissions. The acceptability and widespread application of EVs is dependent on various factors such as vehicle design, efficiency, environmental factors, and other issues. The present review discusses the historical background, technological advancement, barriers, and challenges in the field of EV technology. As this EV is the future of the automobile industry, it becomes important to identify the areas of improvement and the challenges involved with it. The author discusses various types of motors such as brushless DC motors, permanent magnet synchronous motors, and brushed DC motors in this paper, as well as the barriers that act as roadblocks in the field of electric vehicle industry. The author’s belief is that this review will motivate researchers, industry professionals, and academia to develop the EV technology to a level where it can be efficiently implemented. Keywords Electric vehicle · Permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) · Power electronics · Transmission · Battery management system (BMS)

1 Introduction In the present era, climate change due to the emission of greenhouse gases from internal combustion engines, high consumption of non-renewable resources such as gasoline fuel as a source of power for transportation and their global price hikes has become a major problem of concern. Greenhouse gases such as CO2 , CH4 disturb the cycle of nature and invite the natural disasters like thawing of glaciers, floods, hurricanes, wildfires, earthquakes, impact on livestock and agriculture, spread of R. Ray · S. Krishnan · K. Pandey (B) Amity University, Lucknow Campus, Uttar Pradesh 226028, India e-mail: [email protected] A. K. Shukla Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_34

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diseases and pandemics. For reducing such emissions, engineers and researchers are constantly working to develop alternative means of power generation for transportation vehicles. Their efforts have introduced the concept of electric vehicle technology which is visible to be very promising for the entire automobile industry in the near future; however, the high vehicle cost, battery charging methods, and availability of less number of charging stations are the major barriers for this industry. An electric vehicle is one that is propelled by an electric motor rather than a conventional gasoline or diesel engine. Rechargeable batteries are used to power the electric motor that may be recharged using standard home electricity. When Henry Ford’s business started mass-producing the Model T, it effectively put an end to the electric vehicle, because the cost of gasoline-powered automobiles was reduced to roughly half that of an electric vehicle in the early 1900s. Practically, all-electric vehicle manufacturers halted the production of electric vehicles for the aforesaid reasons. Electrically driven automobiles could only go at a top speed of up to 30 mph, which limited their usefulness. More people than ever before adopted the technology in the 2000s as a result of the emergence of hybrid automobiles and yet another fuel crisis. When the Tesla Roadster went on sale in 2008, it completely changed the automotive landscape. The Roadster’s appealing styling and greater range made it more appealing to a wider market than ever before, inspiring rivals like Nissan and Chevrolet to introduce their own variants. Globally, more than a million all-electric automobiles and vans were in use as of September 2016. The urgency for advancement in the electric vehicles technology is therefore essential to make it adaptable in the modern era to minimize the use of conventionally driven vehicles.

2 Development in EV Technology 2.1 Electric Vehicle Power Train Architecture The architecture of electric vehicle is a very simple setup as compared to the conventional internal combustion engine. The functional parts such as clutch, the various manual transmission systems, exhaust pipes are not required in the electric vehicle [1–5]. The important components that comprise the driving force to the electric vehicle systems are transmission system, input power motor, and controller. In the initial phase, the contribution to the electric vehicle is obtained from the brake and accelerator. The batteries are the primary source of energy to impart driving torque to the vehicle. Nowadays with the advancement in the technologies, the nickel metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries are paving ways for its use in modern electric vehicle. The power electronics plays a vital role for its utilization in charging phenomenon and for necessary supply of energy for all auxiliary system of the vehicles. The notable achievements of using the power electronics in the electric vehicle technology ensure the optimum battery system temperature, long run time, and power steering units [6–9].

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2.2 Power Electronics The early phases of key technical developments, such as power electronics, will considerably improve the function and value of energy in all spheres, from generation to usage. As a way to expand the function and value of energy, power electronics serve as an enabling technology. The power electronics functions include: • Transformation from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) and vice versa and from AC-to-AC conversion. • To eliminate deformation, sags and surges and harmonics. • Current limitation functions • Control of electrical parameters like phase angle, impedance, voltage, and current. The power electronic is the intermediate source between the battery and the drive motor. The power electronic unit at a specific voltage from the battery system provides current to ensure the power delivery to the electrical machines for propelling the vehicle. The control system algorithm implemented to each kind of motor of the EVs helps to maintain a maximum efficiency of 95–98% [10]. The control system algorithm for efficiently propelling the electric vehicles is self-tuning control (STC) and Model Referencing Adaptive Control (MRAC). The controls of the motor are efficiently obtained by using changeable or variable structure control (VSC) [10, 11]. The fuzzy logic (FL) and neural networks (NN) are the intelligent-based controllers that are also used for EV propulsion application [12, 13]. Apart from the improvements in the control system algorithm, there is need for modification in components such as switches and diodes to resist high temperatures as well as high degrees of vibration. Further, the improvements in capacitor are also necessary.

2.3 Transmission Mechanism in EVs The design of the transmission system should be efficiently integrated with the transmission system governed by the electric power in such a manner that the electric vehicle whether having single or dual motor coupled with the single or multispeed transmission system to the wheel to give optimum performance [14]. The aspects of alternative transmission system and the use of multispeed transmission system in the electric vehicles have been studied by various researches [15–21]. Figure 1 shows the transmission system of plug-in hybrid vehicle. The battery gets power source by charging station and also by generator which is connected through the engine. Battery supply the power source to motor then motor transmits their power to automated transmission (AMT).

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Fig. 1 Transmission system of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle

2.4 Battery Management System (BMS) The management of a battery system allows the command with control activities from the battery to the power train [22]. This basically includes the temperature monitor and control, the input and output voltage and current control, charging of battery cells, electrochemical cell voltage monitoring and balancing protection against overcharging or over discharging, to maintain supply and demand available energy load. The BMS is indeed important to fulfill the following requirements for ensuring long run of a battery system. • Maintaining health and operational capacity of a vehicle battery by measuring current, voltage, temperature, and coulomb count. • Increasing the internal resistance of the battery whenever there is drop in cell voltage. • To prevent the thermal breakdown of the whole battery when a sudden increase in temperature is found in a single cell of a battery. In this way, the flow of energy could be controlled before the battery system failure. • To maintain the balance of coulomb count because the decrease in coulomb count indicates the efficiency drop of a battery system. The schematic diagram of a BMS system is shown in Fig. 2. The system consists of two modules hardware and software module. The hardware module includes sensors, actuators, network for communication, circuits for protection, and elements to maintain thermal management. The software module includes fault detection,

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Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of battery management system

cell balancing, state of health (SOH), state of charge (SOC) calculations, and so on [23]. The SOC parameter generally includes current, voltage, temperature data, and its management. On the other hand, SOH enables in analyzing battery performance which is based on electrochemical process. The SOC and SOH parameters are predicted using the mathematical model based on neural networks, fuzzy logic, hybrid, and nonlinear systems [23]. Thus, the estimations in accuracy of SOC and SOH parameters which are software-based directly influence the performance range prediction of an electric vehicle.

2.5 Electric Propulsion In the electric vehicle, the electrical energy from the battery is converted into the mechanical energy using various transmission systems. Therefore to produce a propulsion unit, the various drives such as brushed DC motor drive, permanent magnet DC motor, permanent magnet synchronous motor are combined in a single unit to produce propulsive power.

2.5.1

Electric Machines and Drives

The electrical machine and drives should be designed in such a manner that it should have better conversion efficiency than internal combustion engine ranging from 80 to 95% [24, 25]. In this way, the improved torque and high-power density can be initiated at lower speeds [26, 27]. The electric vehicles are equipped with single-speed reducer, stator, rotor and are some of the important components which contribute in

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overall performance of the electric vehicles [28–30]. The permanent-based magnet and induction-based magnet motor drives which are used in modern electric vehicles are becoming popular [8]. Nowadays, old DC motor drives are being replaced due to their inefficiency and unreliability [31]. a. Brushed DC Motor Drive: The brushed DC motor is one of the simplest types of DC motor, consisting of a brush, rotor, stator, and commutator. It delivers high starting torque at low speeds and can operate even at higher speeds. In this type of motor, brushes are used to transmit current to the motor winding with the help of the commutator, and the magnetic field is created by the rotation of the coil inside the permanent magnet. The various subsystems of a basic motor drive train system range from the controller to the single-speed reducer differential and driving wheels. The stator houses the field winding while the rotor houses the armature winding. To power electric vehicles, the DC machine uses density of high power to provide a rotation of 5000 rpm before being ramped down to 1000 rpm using a fixed gear mechanism. Thus by providing a rotation in the reverse path inefficient, huge and intricate gear is avoided [10, 32]. The drive train system of a basic motor consists of driving wheels and differential having single-speed reducer differential mechanism. The permanent magnets enclosed in the stator create the magnetic field excitation. On the other hand, the armature winding in the rotor is operated by the commutator through the carbon brushes. Figure 3 shows the basic organization of a DC motor drive and its control mechanism to interrelate the armature current and torque output. It is also important to highlight here that the feedback control variable is the motor speed, whereas the feedback of armature current is used only for protection purpose [33]. b. Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor: The permanent magnet brushless DC motor (PM BLDC) does not have a mechanical commutator or a brush as the commutation is done electronically. As windings are absent inside the rotor, and it is free from any rotor copper loss; therefore, such motors are more efficient than induction motors. It can provide high starting torque, high specific power, and better heat dissipation characteristics. Such motors are suitable for a high-power density design approach. When compared with DC brushed motor, it requires less maintenance and is more efficient [34–38]. The various benefits of PM BLDC motor are as follows: • Elevated-energy permanent magnets • High efficiency around 95–98% • Better heat dissipation efficiency. • Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor: In permanent magnet synchronous motors, the waveforms of the voltage, current, and magnetomotive force (MMF) are sinusoidal. When the stator windings and air-gap flux are dispersed in a sinusoidal pattern, the machine operates as a synchronized machine. The use of rare

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Fig. 3 Basic configuration of DC motor drive

earth magnets in this motor drive increases torque-to-inertia, motor power density, and flux density in the air gap, enabling it to operate across a broad constant power speed range. The three types of magnets that are most frequently employed in PM machines are ferrites, samarium cobalt and neodymium–iron–boron [39–44]. The operating mechanism resembles that of a BLDC motor, with the exception of the sinusoidal wave pattern of the back EMF. The main advantages of PMSM are as follows: – – – – – –

Greater efficiency than brushless DC motors, Increased torque results in superior performance, Dependable and quieter operation, Good performance at both higher and lower speeds, Simple to manage owing to decreased rotor inertia, Effective heat dissipation and smaller size.

3 Barriers/Challenges for Electric Vehicle Due to the rising crude oil prices, alternate energy source for transportation has gained the consumers interest. Hybrid cars are promising future mode of transportation. However, battery electric vehicle or plug in hybrid electric vehicle is more energy efficient due to the absence of toxic emissions. • It is very time-consuming to recharge the batteries of BEV and PHEVs.

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• Batteries have a short life cycle and also require maintenance every one to two year. • The power electronics functions include converter/inverter, control, power switch and integration with any electronic devices [45]. The technological constraints of power devices include concerns such as switching losses during turn-on an off, switching frequency of PWM operating mode, noise and EMI consideration of switching devices, and so on. • Batteries are very heavy and accounts for about one-third of the vehicles weight. • As all the power devices and sources are linked together in HEVs, any disruption like change in power demand, short circuit or a loss of power source results into the instability of the dynamic power system [46]. • Electric motor having greater torque, complicated speed control mechanism, costly controllers and restricted rpm range, the typically used series wound brushed DC motors, AC motors, brushless DC motors, and permanent magnet motors are not suitable [47]. • For the next-generation motor, a high efficiency, less complex controller, a large rpm band, compactness, and robustness are required. Another alternative for increasing EV efficiency and lowering costs is an in-wheel motor, which combines the motor and the wheel [48].

4 Advancement • Enhancing battery life and range: In parallel, engineers and scientists are exploring ways to increase the range provided by each battery unit as well as the lifespan of current generation EV batteries. In light of the existing absence of adequate charging infrastructure in many locations, range anxiety continues to be one of the major barriers to increased EV adoption. Engineers consider battery chemistries, electrolytes, and a variety of other factors with the goal of extending battery life. • Inductive charging: The progress made toward wireless charging for EVs is another innovation that might upend the electric car market. EVs may someday be charged simply by standing on specific locations using inductive charging technology, similar to how wireless charging works on smart phones and appliances. As they could be added to already-existing infrastructure like parking lots, roadside curbs, or even driveways, charging infrastructure may be expanded far more quickly and easily than it could in the past. • Electric-powered roadways: While electrifying passenger cars is a terrific approach to cut carbon emissions, big vehicles like commercial trucks account for the majority of those emissions. Currently, research is being conducted to determine if huge commercial trucks may use overhead electrical wires, similar to those used by city trams or metro services, to drive their whole vehicle or even to charge their batteries while in motion.

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Table.1 Problems and remedies of electric vehicle S. No.

Problems

Remedies

1

Lack of availability of charging stations

Charging stations need to be increased at optimum distance for enhancing the use of electric vehicle for sustainable development

2

Temperature sensitivity

The batteries of the electric vehicle should have optimum operating range temperature because excessive heat or excessive cold can hinder the performance of the battery and thus reducing the efficiency of EV

3

Charging time

• Development of fast charging technology of batteries is utmost essential so that charging of batteries can be completed within 15–30 min as conventionally required to full the fuel tank in internal combustion engines • The charging levels, i.e., level 1 (AC tickle charging with domestic sockets), level 2 (AC fast charging), level 3 (DC rapid charging) should be versatile to the batteries of EVs for time-saving and efficient charging of batteries

4

Cost

• Subsidies should be provided by the government on EVs to reduce its cost and motivate the buyer’s to purchase them for sustainable development • Price parity between EVs and IC engines is expected in next five years as new and improved models of EVs are entering into market

• Replacing batteries: Despite the fact that battery swapping is not a new technology, recent advancements have elevated its potential value for smaller EVs. While the nation’s EV charging infrastructure is still being developed, battery switching can address many of its shortcomings. The problems and their remedies in context to EVs are briefly highlighted in Table 1.

5 Conclusions The recent research programs on electric vehicles that could contribute for its future advancements may be summarized as follows: • The influence of all factors that determine an EVs range (driving behavior and environment) within a single mathematical model has received special attention.

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• Artificial intelligence (AI)-based procedures should be adopted to provide best possible combination of hardware and software systems to predict the range that the vehicle could travel after full charging. • To minimize the battery heating problem, the battery pack thermal load must be properly correlated in the EVs inclusive of all thermal load for which battery thermal management system has to be integrated with heating ventilation and air conditioning system (HVAC). Thus, the battery efficiency could be increased. • The challenges such as implementation of high energy saving batteries, faster battery charging capacity, installation of rapid charging stations need to be addressed for widespread of EV adoption. • One of the biggest challenges to quick and widespread EV adoption in the automotive industry is cost, which must be considered throughout the development and integration of such a complicated model.

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Configuration and Study of Hybrid Electric Vehicle Using Power Management Technology Yogendra Kumar and Hemant Gupta

Abstract The performance analysis and design of hybrid electric vehicles with motor, generator, and fuel cell are discussed in this article using power management technology. The power management technique provides the torque demand of the generators as a constant shaft speed, and the generators charge the battery. The simulation of the motor, generator, and DC-DC converter using Simulink scape to capture the electrical power, mechanical power, and speed of the motor, generator, and vehicle engine design the hybrid electrical vehicles using power management technology, which include the more efficient, the performance of the engine, tiers, and mechanical gear of the vehicles. Electrical power is actively performed using this technique. Keywords HEV · Power management · Fuel cell · Battery · Engine

1 Introduction Alternative sources replacing oil production which are expected to be consumed in future must be identified. Oil burning will result in contamination of the environment [1]. Most modern cars rely on internal combustion engines to operate, which is a source of concern because these engines pollute the air. As just a result, automobile manufacturers are exploring for alternate methods to minimise pollution. Because of the in- creasing high emissions, connector hybrid electric vehicles are becoming increasingly relevant [2]. An electric vehicle and an internal combustion engine make up a hybrid electric vehicle’s launch system. The on-board rechargeable battery has all of the energy for an electric road car [3]. On-board chargers are built inside cars and are solely intended to work with certain vehicles. Design technologies that automate the mow-level aspects of a planning process must be created to allow replication and management of equivalent degrees of complexity while designing automobile systems [3, 4]. To simulate and evaluate Y. Kumar (B) · H. Gupta Department of Electrical Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_35

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hybrid electric power trains, a number of numerical methods have been designed. The quantity of FR used is directly related to the level of system inertia [5], which compensates for the transitory power loss by absorbing kinetic energy from the spinning masses of synchronous generators. Rapid FR from converters fully integrated resources, such as grid batteries, has been shown in previous work [6] to be extremely effective for limiting frequencies nadir and hence a critical resource for decoupling frequency assurance from synchronous machines. Traditional control approaches (such as optimum control [7, 8] and robust control [9]) cannot effectively cope with power-split HEVs due to their architecture being much more sophisticated [10, 11]. To handle the power-split HEV motor systems, a complicated control system is needed. To increase the ICE’s gasoline potential, such a management system would require a realistic control approach at start [12– 14]. Studies like the logical cut-off method applied towards the design of something like the HEV control scheme have indeed been utilised to accomplish the power or torque distribution to overcome this problem [15, 16]. However, due to the unique characteristics of power-split HEVs [17, 18] and even different driving performance under different driving cycles for the same power-split HEV [19–22]. The performance analysis and design of hybrid electrical vehicles with motor, generator, and fuel cell are discussed in this article using power management technology. The power management technique provides the torque demand of the generators as a constant shaft speed, and the generators charge the battery. The simulation of the motor, generator, and DC-DC converter using Simulink scape to capture the electrical power, mechanical power, and speed of the motor, generator, and vehicle engine design the hybrid electrical vehicles using power management technology, which include the more efficient, the performance of the engine, tyres, and mechanical gear of the vehicles. Electrical power is actively performed using this technique.

2 Proposed Power Management System Using the numerous converters placed inside the automobile, a power management system manages the exchange of power between both the device’s storage technology and different elements, including the electric engine. The power management system inside this research is responsible for controlling the power flow here between Li-ion rechargeable battery, the supercapacitors, as well as the device’s propulsion contact with an electrical. A Li-ion battery and a supercapacitor can be combined in a variety of ways [12, 13]. Each topography necessitates the creation of a separate power electronic converter. The power management network has been defined through the diagrams here battery storage system is connected to the converter which convert the power as per requirement of connect to the electrical motor or generators. The motor is connected to the vehicles through the mechanical shaft and check the inertia of the vehicles. The engine is the connected to the motor through the power-split system, and fully information is given in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1 Block diagram of hybrid electrical vehicles

Since the MG1 speed is rarely varied, whereas the motor speed is kept on the OOL as mentioned in above, the Derives from the name inertia torque MGMG 11 J and may be disregarded. Then, at different in the different, its MG2 inertia torque MGMG 22 and plays the key role in causing transitory torque of both the output shaft. A G2 torque control is presented in this work to compensate for the MG2 inertial torque like follows.

3 HEV Configuration In the configuration of hybrid electric vehicle as shown in given block diagram, both electric motor or generator and engine connected to the parallel which may be delivered to the vehicle wheels. By regenerative braking or absorbing the extra engine power when its output is more than in which necessary to move the wheels, the electric motor may well be employed as a generator to charge the battery. The gears of simultaneous hybrids are mechanically connected to either the electrical vehicle as well as the engine. The energy may be distributed at excitations because both the electrical machine and the engine were directly linked to the wheels. In comparison with series hybrids, both the engine and the electric motor may be downsized. The ICE can only run near towards its optimal portion of the curve during particular situations because its performance is connected to the vehicle speed. However, because both mechanical and electrical energy may be employed to push the vehicles immediately, the powertrain efficiency is higher throughout most operational situations than that in a series configuration. The HEV is expected to have one motor as well as two electric appliances in this article. There are six insight setups for one of the two MGs linked to a motor, excepting the situations when the motor significant share towards the driveshaft. There are

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indeed a minimum of twelve possible arrangements with power-split engines and transmissions with a solitary. Clutches may be fitted to every twelve combinations that disconnect parts and components first from PG, resulting in various operation conditions. Connecting grips to everyone feasible spots on the PG will reveal switching states. Insight configurations, such as the one employed, are seen in Fig. 2. It has been discovered that six traps may be fitted to this arrangement. In reality, one further clutch could well be added that split MG2 as well as the terminal gear, allowing the shaft to still be separated from the engine and static production, and yet this option would not be explored in this paper because the vehicle will be removed from the engine. This choice could be beneficial for something else, but it’s not going to help you drive the car.

Fig. 2 Power split of engine in HEV

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4 Results and Discussion The performance analysis of proposed hybrid electric vehicle algorithm is determined using the Simulink. The shaft drive speed is calculated in Fig. 3. The speed of the shaft is illustrated in shown Fig. 3. The high-speed data, on either hand, could be precisely anticipated either by guidance system. As both a result, and used the precise operating characteristic, a typical speed is determined, which will then be utilised as the simulated output accessible from the navigation system. The speed of the shaft is illustrated in shown Fig. 3. The high-speed data, on either hand, could be precisely anticipated either by guidance system. As both a result, and used the precise operating characteristic, a typical speed is determined, which will then be utilised as the simulated output accessible from the navigation system. As shown in Fig. 4, the mechanical/electrical power of the generator. When the generator is started the power is zero, then after the generator goes to suddenly in breaking mode and the power (kw) is calculated above waveform. The above-given waveform of the battery storage capacity, when the hybrid electrical motor is operating for running, the voltage capacity is up and down as depend on the condition of braking and forwarding mode. The battery will charge when the vehicle is running and the capacity of the battery is depended on the vehicle speed and the capacity of the load, the voltage capacity is given in Fig. 5. Figure 6 shows the mechanical power of motor in hybrid electrical vehicles, here the power of motor depends on the running of the motor and depends on the voltage capacity. When motor is starting the power is zero and sometime increase and suddenly goes to zero after sometime again increase. This increase and decrease of the power of motor depend on the load of the vehicles.

Fig. 3 Speed of shaft drives

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Fig. 4 Mechanical/electrical power of the generator

Fig. 5 Given waveform of the battery storage capacity

As shown in Fig. 7, the electrical power of the motor, the electrical power used in a motor as input the input voltage is given by the electrical source like battery. The electrical power is always greater than the mechanical power of the motor as shown in the above waveform. The above waveform shows the shaft speed of the vehicles. Shaft speed of vehicles which is connected to electrical motor, electrical generator and engine as shown in given Fig. 8.

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Fig. 6 Mechanical power of motor in hybrid electrical vehicles

Fig. 7 Electrical power of the motor

The vehicles inertia is given in the above waveform. The inertia is depended on the velocity of hybrid electrical vehicles which is depend on the vehicles of the shaft. The hybrid electrical vehicles are started at a constant speed and then rapidly increase the inertia of vehicles; the motor runs at a constant inertia, and it is dependent on the speed of the vehicles.

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Fig. 8 Waveform shows the shaft speed of the vehicles

Fig. 9 Vehicles inertia is given in the above waveform

Figure 10 shows the waveform of the hybrid electric vehicle, and the power is given of motor, generator, engine and storage capacity of battery and all the necessities of the HEV.

Fig. 10 Power is given of motor, generator, engine, and storage capacity of battery

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Fig. 11 Results show the waveform of the total electrical losses

Figure 11 shows the waveform of the total electrical losses of the hybrid electrical vehicle, when the load increases or decreases the vehicle then coming ups and down which create the losses and losses are presented due to the electrical instrument or any physical disturbance of electrical equipment. From Figs. 12 to 13 show the results of the hybrid electrical vehicles such as the waveform shows of the electrical motor, electrical generator, engine, and the capacity of the battery. The electrical power, mechanical power, shaft speed, voltage capacity, and total electrical losses of the HEV are shown in Fig. 13.

5 Conclusions This paper discussed the hybrid electrical vehicles modelling, simulation, and analysis using the power management technology, to study the velocity, electrical power, mechanical power, and power losses which is related to the motor, generators, and engine of the vehicles, and shows the fuel emission, torque of vehicle of engine, and total power emission. The applications of HEV can be good efficiency, the motor and generators which connected in parallel connection and give the good quality of the mechanical power, electrical power and minimum power losses. In this paper, theory of HEV is investigated and the complete analysis of power split, speed of the motor, and generators of the vehicles, and this gives the constant shaft torque, minimum power losses, and good efficiency of HEV. In future to make a better lifestyle with vehicle and HEV gives better response in stability, reliability, and low maintenance using the various controller and technics. And also, the demand of HEV is increase in future.

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Fig. 12 Power and vehicles speed of HEV

Fig. 13 Electrical losses and vehicles speed of HEV

References 1. Struss P, Price C (2004) Model-based systems in the automotive industry. AI Mag 24(4):17–34. Winter 2. Gao W et al. (2005) Hybrid powertrain design using a domain- specific modeling environment. In: Proceedings IEEE vehicle power propulsion conference, Chicago, IL, Sept 2005, pp 6–12 3. Markel T, Brooker A, Hendricks T, Johnson V, Kelly K, Kramer B, O’ Keefe M, Sprik S, Wipke K (2002) Advisor: a systems analysis tool for advanced vehicle modeling. Elsevier J Power Sour 110:255–266

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4. Horie T (2006) Development aims of the new CIVIC hybrid and achieved performance. In: Proceedings SAE hybrid vehicle technologies symposium, San Diego, CA, Feb 12 5. Onoda S, Emadi A (2004) PSIM-based modeling of automotive power systems: conventional, electric, and hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Vehic Technol 53(2):390–400 6. Marin M, Rabelo L, Sepulveda J (2006) Spaceport simulation models integration. J Aerospace 114:1264–1271 7. Amrhein M, Krein PT (2005) Dynamic simulation for analysis of hybrid electric vehicle system and subsystem interactions, including power electronics, IEEE Trans Vehicul Technol 54(3) 8. Hofman T, van Druten RM (2004) Energy analysis of hybrid vehicle powertrains. In: IEEEvehicle propulsion and power, Paris, France 9. Gao W, Porandla S (2005) Design optimization of a parallel hybrid electric powertrain. In: Proceedings IEEE vehicle power propulsion conference, Chicago, IL, Sept 2005, pp 530–535 10. He X, Hodgson J (2002) Modeling and simulation for hybrid electric vehicles VPartII. IEEE Trans Transp Syst 3(4):244–251 11. Kumar Y, Gupta H (2022) Design and modelling of speed control of three phase IM based on PID controller. In: 2022 2nd international conference on intelligent technologies (CONIT), 2022, pp 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/CONIT55038.2022.9847693 12. Longya X, Ye L, Zhen L, El-Antably A (1995) A new design concept of permanent magnet machine for flux weakening operation. IEEE Trans Indus Appl 31(2):373–378 13. Lin C-C, Filipi Z, Wang Y, Louca L, Peng H, Assanis D, Stein J (2001) Integrated, feed-forward hybrid electric vehicle simulation in SIMULINK and its use for power management studies. SAE technical paper series 2001–01–1334 14. Say MG (1983) Theory of electric machinery. CBS Publishers India ltd 15. Kumar Y, Goyal M, Mishra R (2020) Modified PV based hybrid multilevel inverters using multicarrier PWM strategy. In: 2020 4th international conference on electronics, communication and aerospace technology (ICECA), 2020, pp 460–464. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICECA4 9313.2020.9297450 16. Ong C-M (1998) In: Dynamic simulation of electric machinery. Prentice Hall, Newjersy 17. Kumar Y, Mishra RN, Anwar A (2020) Enhancement of small signal stability of SMIB system using PSS and TCSC. In: 2020 international conference on power electronics and IoT applications in renewable energy and its control (PARC), 2020, pp 102–1060. https://doi.org/10.1109/ PARC49193.2020.236566 18. Gaurav A, Gaur A (2020) Modelling of hybrid electric vehicle charger and study the simulation results. In: 2020 international conference on emerging frontiers in electrical and electronic technologies (ICEFEET), 2020, pp 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICEFEET49149.2020. 9187007 19. Heywood JB (1988) IC engine fundamentals. Newyork, McGraw Hill, Inc 20. Kumar Y, Pushkarna M, Gupta G (2020) Microgrid implementation in unbalanced nature of feeder using conventional technique. In: 2020 3rd international conference on intelligent sustainable systems (ICISS), 2020, pp 1489–1494. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICISS49785.2020. 9316024 21. Edwards D, Richards J (2000) A high performance Auxiliary power unit for a series hybrid electric vehicle, NIATT, University of IDAHO 22. Saleki A, Rezazade S, Changizian M (2017) Analysis and simulation of hybrid electric vehicles for sedan vehicle. In: 2017 Iranian conference on electrical engineering (ICEE), 2017, pp 1412–1416. https://doi.org/10.1109/IranianCEE.2017.7985263

AR-Mic Monitored and Raspberry Pi Operated Automatic Plant Irrigation System Aditi Saxena and Hemant Gupta

Abstract In this paper, Arduino Uno Microcontroller (AR-Mic)-monitored and Raspberry Pi-operated automatic plant irrigation system is presented. The desired humidity level is pre-entered and controlled through AR-Mic for specific plants. The selection of particular plant species is done through screen. AR-Mic informs Raspberry Pi about the humidity level when it decreases below the pre-entered limit. It then communicates with authorized person through e-mail by sending pic of that particular plant. When the humidity level reaches to the desired level, the irrigation is stopped, and then an email with picture of the plant after irrigation has been sent by Raspberry Pi. The battery charging provides the energy for this system. This study will help us to make water and manpower efficient system which will perform irrigation automatically by accessing 3G Internet service. The use of web camera and Raspberry Pi will make it more helpful by taking snaps of the plant before and after irrigation and sending them to the concerned authority. Keywords Raspberry PI · Humidity · Arduino Uno · Solar panels · LCD shield · Battery

1 Introduction Irrigation plays an important role if we talk about improving the efficiency of agricultural production. Nowadays, there are numerous studies on methods of water management systems. Turkey is a country with plenty of farming opportunities. In Turkey, agricultural irrigation is done with the help of electricity and petroleumpowered water pumps. Where there is no electricity, petroleum products are used. This system is very expensive, and it frequently requires maintenance. Water pump A. Saxena (B) EC Department, GLA University, Mathura, India e-mail: [email protected] H. Gupta EE Department, GLA University, Mathura, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_36

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systems that use solar energy, on the other hand, can be used anywhere with enough sunlight and do not require daily maintenance. In places where electricity is unavailable and there is insufficient sunlight, we can make use of solar energy for irrigation systems [1]. For self-sufficiency, PV systems can be used widely, and usually they are used in applications of water pumping. When the sun shines, water is pumped or stored in batteries for subsequent use in applications of water pumping. Batteries can be used to store energy for use in the absence of sunlight. During the usage of battery charging system, an electronic control unit and battery charging circuit are required [2]. One of the most pressing issues in the world is the lack of water and energy. Irrigation water must be delivered to the plants in order to meet people’s nutritional and general requirements. As a result, drip irrigation systems have become increasingly popular in recent years. Solar-powered drip irrigation systems are also becoming more popular. But first, cost of these systems is very high. There will be decrease in productivity due to rottening of plants which is the effect of over-irrigation and leads to more consumption of energy. Many sensor-based autonomous irrigation projects have been completed in the last 20 years due to advancements in non-cable technology [3–6]. Irrigation systems utilize the majority of electrical energy, which is then absorbed by pump engines. Local irrigation systems have been created in recent years to increase the energy utilization and productivity of water while reducing wasteful irrigation and water delivery [7, 8]. With this method, the operating cost can be reduced, and it also enables the saving of water and energy. The equal distribution of water to plants takes place in the traditional systems. With drip irrigation systems, there will be optimum supply of water to the plants along with less consumption of energy and water. It is preferred to use natural resources, as they can help in performing efficient irrigation [9]. With the addition of renewable energy sources, we can obtain more advantageous system which hardly depends on environmental conditions. For various agricultural projects, another project titled as “Agricultural Irrigation and Solar Energy,” aims to use diesel generators instead of PV panels. Finally, water amount, ideal height, and life cycle cost were calculated. The rates of investment and the amount of money saved from a PV system were determined [10].

2 Intent of Design The goal of this research is to design an autonomous plant irrigation system using solar panel and AR-Mic. In addition to the system, clicked plant snaps are delivered to the connected user’s e-mail address based on data obtained from humidity sensors, which are using camera and Raspberry Pi. A 12 V battery and solar panels are used to offer the energy for this module. The battery is charged with solar energy using Solar Panel Battery Charge Circuit (SPBCC) of 12W capacity. As a result, in the condition of non-availability of sunlight in the evening, the battery had enough energy.

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Along with the plants, a humidity sensor is employed on the ground, and the humidity rate can be modified manually with the help of LCD shield buttons. Due to the variations in the optimum level of humidity, the other LCD shield buttons were designed to be used in order to select product types [11, 12]. AR-Mic was used to control the product, once it was selected by using the buttons on the LCD Shield and also the level of humidity was fixed. AR-Mic is used to take picture of the plant before irrigation and send the information about irrigation of the plant when the earth’s humidity level is dropped. The snap is taken by camera, and Raspberry Pi is used to send the mail to the concerned authority. The plant was watered using DC water pump which gets the energy from battery that is charged with the solar panel. The humidity level gets increased continuously as the irrigation is done, so this is again controlled by AR-Mic with the help of humidity sensor which take a continuous look on the level and send the data. When the optimum level of humidity is reached, water pump is stopped by AR-Mic, and the process of irrigation gets completed. Figure 1 depicts the flowchart of the operation of the system [14]. After the completion of irrigation process, Raspberry Pi will be used to send the data having details about date, time, hour, and picture after irrigation and mail this information to the concerned authority. This work will help the related person to make sure that the plant gets watered and can monitor the situation before and after irrigation even being far from the field.

Fig. 1 Representing flowchart

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3 System Prototype There are four parts in this system. The evaluation of humidity level of soil under plant is done to check humidity levels by employing humidity detection system (HDS); battery and battery charge system; solar panel, which provides the system’s energy; the irrigation system and pump, which will irrigate the plant along with a motor driver. A snap of plant is taken after the irrigation process completes by employing web camera along with Raspberry Pi. Then the image detection system will send this information to the user’s email address. (A) Characteristic Expressions for Energy Providing and Battery Charging System A 12 V dry battery, battery charging circuit, and the solar panel are the components of this system. Battery charging circuit will absorb the sunlight, and the battery gets charged with the help of solar panel. This charged battery can be used when the sun sets or when there is not enough sunlight available during cloudy days. Expression (1) shows the battery’s charge time Charge time of battery =

Capacity of battery (A/h) Charge current (A)

(1)

Expression (2) shows the battery’s discharge time Discharge time of battery =

Capacity of battery ∗ Battery voltage Load Power (W)

(2)

This equation shows that the ratio between the battery capacity in Amp-hr and charge current is termed as the charge time of the battery [15]. If we take an example, then for the charging current of 1A, and the battery capacity of 5A/hr, the battery charge time will be approx. 5 h. Battery discharge time is defined as the ratio between battery capacity (in Amp/hr) to load power (in Watt), which will then be multiplied by battery Voltage (in Volts). For example, if the battery capacity is 10 A/h, load power is 10 W, and the battery voltage is 12 V then the battery discharge time will be 12 h. This shows that around 12 h is the discharge time of battery, thus the irrigation systems are operated for overnight. (B) Image Detection, Irrigation, and Humidity Detection System Here, web camera and Raspberry Pi were used. The optimum level of humidity for the plants and the watered plants is entered in the LCD shield of ARDUINO. The completion of irrigation process is indicated when the humidity level of selected plant is less than the optimum value entered. Raspberry Pi will take a snap of the plant before irrigation by using web camera and then mail it to the user. The Arduino Motor Shield and a water pump were used in this part of the system. The system’s energy was supplied by a battery that was stored using a solar panel. This energy has been provided by the system to Arduino Uno Microcontroller, water pump, Arduino

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Motor, and Arduino LCD Shield. The humidity level in the soil was measured by the humidity sensor and sent to the AR-Mic. When the level of humidity selected with the LCD shield buttons fell below a certain threshold, the Arduino Microcontroller activated the water pump via the Arduino Motor Shield [16, 17]. The process of irrigation will not be stopped until the plant’s humidity level will reach the indicated optimum stage. The soil’s humidity level has been regularly monitored by placing the humidity sensor in the soil. With the help of Arduino LCD shield, the plants that will be watered have been added to the system, and the plants are selected by using the buttons provided on the LCD shield and with the help of these buttons the optimum humidity level is also entered as the values. When the humidity sensor analyzes data below the specified value, energy will be delivered to the system via solar panel-charged battery, and the irrigation process will be completed by the water pump [18–21].

4 Schematic Block Diagram The plant’s irrigation period will continue until it reaches the previously set optimum level (Fig. 2). The system used an Arduino Uno Microcontroller to stop the irrigation when the plant’s humidity level reached its optimal level. After the irrigation was completed, a snap of the plant has been taken using web camera and it is mailed to user’s using Raspberry Pi. LINUX-based OS is used to run Raspberry Pi and the irrigation code has extension ‘Pi’. This system is written in Python and the mailed picture of the plant will be entered by using SMTP protocol. AR-Mic is connected at input and

Fig. 2 Schematic block diagram

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Raspberry Pi at output. The data from the Arduino Uno’s click photo function has been analyzed and mailed to the specified person.

5 Conclusion An efficient method to automatically detect the need of irrigation of a particular plant is suggested here employing AR-Mic and then irrigated properly. This prototype consists 12 V battery and a solar panel to get it charged. Here, the irrigation is performed by checking the humidity level of soil so as to confirm the need of irrigation. Additionally, the real-time images of that particular plant before and after irrigation are shared with the authorized agent also with the help of Raspberry Pi connected with web cameras. Hence, just by the use of Internet and a microcontroller automatic irrigation of the plant that needs to be watered is irrigated without any wastage of water and electricity. This automatic system performs irrigation of the plants, and it also helps in providing irrigation to the various other plants in need by entering the ideal level of humidity by self.

References 1. Alex G, Janakiranimathi M (2016) Solar based plant irrigation system. In: 2016 2nd international conference on advances in electrical, electronics, information, communication and bio-informatics (AEEICB), 2016, pp 425–428. https://doi.org/10.1109/AEEICB.2016.753 8323 2. Gençoglu TM, Cebeci M, Günes M (2002) Günes Enerjisi ile Çalı¸san PLC Kontrollü Su Pompası Sistem Tasarımı, 3e Electrotech, March, vol 94. pp 90–96 3. Eragamreddy G, Sree KR (2017) Solar powered auto watering system for irrigation using embedded controller. In: 2017 international conference on energy, communication, data analytics and soft computing (ICECDS), 2017, pp 2424–2428. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICE CDS.2017.8389885 4. Megalingam RK, Gedela VV (2017) Solar powered automated water pumping system for ecofriendly irrigation. In: 2017 international conference on inventive computing and informatics (ICICI), 2017, pp 623–626. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICICI.2017.8365208 5. Gorai S, Kumar A, Kundu A (2020) DeMux controlled sensor based smart irrigation system. In: 2020 IEEE 1st international conference for convergence in engineering (ICCE), 2020, pp 280–284. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCE50343.2020.9290626 6. Kholifah AR, Albar Sarosa KI, Fitriana R, Rochmawati I, Sarosa M (2019) Drip irrigation system based on internet of things (IoT) using solar panel energy. In: 2019 fourth international conference on informatics and computing (ICIC), 2019, pp 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICI C47613.2019.8985886 7. Chandra S, Bachan P (2020) Experimental investigation to emphasize on true potential of solar PV module. In: 2020 international conference on power electronics and IoT applications in renewable energy and its control (PARC). IEEE 8. Chandra S et al. (2021) Influence of artificial and natural cooling on performance parameters of a solar PV system: a case study. IEEE Access 9:29449–29457

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9. Putra Ganesha AH et al. (2021) A sensor and actuator system for evapotranspiration based irrigation scheduling system. In: 2021 international symposium on electronics and smart devices (ISESD), 2021, pp 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISESD53023.2021.9501820 10. Jamroen C, Komkum P, Fongkerd C, Krongpha W (2020) An intelligent irrigation scheduling system using low-cost wireless sensor network toward sustainable and precision agriculture. IEEE Access 8:172756–172769. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3025590 11. Dela Cruz JC, Ballado AH, Galela SJB, Olegario RKD, Reyes CFJM (2020) ET-based irrigation system with automated bird deterrent system. In: 2020 11th IEEE control and system graduate research colloquium (ICSGRC), 2020, pp 375–380. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSGRC49013. 2020.9232643 12. Köksal MA (2012) Güne¸s Enerjisiyle Su Pompalama Üzerine Bir Ara¸stırma. Çukurova Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 47s, Adana 13. Atay Ü, I¸sıker Y, Yesilata B, Cıkman A (2009) Fotovoltaik Güç Destekli Mikro Sulama Sistemi Projesi-1: Genel Esaslar. V. Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynakları Sempozyumu. 2009. Diyarbakır, Turkey. Ankara, EMO, pp 57–62 14. Ersin Ç, Gürbüz R, Yakut AK (2016) Application of an automatic plant irrigation system based arduino microcontroller using solar energy. Solid State Phenomena© 2016 Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland 15. Dursun M, Özden S (2015) Control of soil moisture with radio frequency in a photovoltaicpowered drip irrigation system. Turk J Elec Eng Comp Sci 23:447–458 16. Senol ¸ R (2009) Tarımsal Sulama Ve Güne¸s Enerjisi. Gazi Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi 27(3):519–526 17. Badhoutiya A, Chandra S, Goyal S (2020) Comparative evaluation of modulation schemes applied for Pv connected Z-source inverter. In: 2020 international conference on recent trends on electronics, information, communication and technology (RTEICT), 2020, pp 164–168. https://doi.org/10.1109/RTEICT49044.2020.9315666 18. Carroquino J, Dufo-Lopez R, Bernal-Agustín JL (2015) Sizing of off-grid renewable energy systems for drip irrigation in Mediterranean crops. Renew Energy 76:566 19. Yadav A, Deolia VK, Agrawal S (2021) Decoupled control of quasi-Z source inverter for decentralised renewable energy application. Int J Power Electron 14.1:37–55 20. Agrawal NK, Singh VK, Parmar VS, Sharma VK, Singh D, Agrawal M (2020) Design and development of IoT based robotic arm by using Arduino. In: 2020 fourth international conference on computing methodologies and communication (ICCMC), 2020, pp 776–780. https:// doi.org/10.1109/ICCMC48092.2020.ICCMC-000144 21. Pankaj B, Kumar N, Raushan RK, Joliya P (2022) Effect of variety and irrigation regimes on growth attributes of sugarcane crop

A Study on Bioinspired Flow Field Patterns Used in PEM Fuel Cells P. R. Gouri Nandana, Robin Raju, A. Nishanth, and Vikas Rajan

Abstract The future energy demand forecast predicts the future energy deficit and the urgent need for bulk and clean energy production. Hence, the scientific communities across the globe are intensively researching on various disciplines to counter this energy deficit problem. The polymer-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is a vastly recommended source of electrical energy due to its alleviating features like good efficiency, high power density, quick start-up, and zero emissions. One of the key factors that influence the efficiency of a PEMFC is the design of flow field patterns (FFP) engraved over the bipolar plates (BP) of a cell. A good FFP can significantly affect the overall performance of a PEMFC cell stack. In our paper, we took three non-conventional bioinspired flow field patterns, namely fish scaleshaped, banana stem-shaped, and onion-shaped FFPs and compared them with the conventional serpentine FFP using ANSYS Fluent. Keywords PEMFC · FFC · Bioinspired patterns · ACL · CCL

1 Introduction All studies on energy forecast predict the nearby energy deficit and the need for surplus energy production. The enervation of fossil fuels raises everybody’s eyebrows, and we have to roll up our sleeves to develop new and alternative sources of clean energy. For the past two decades, the scientists and engineers across the globe are focusing to improve the fuel cell technology due to its eye-catching features like preeminent efficiency, preeminent power density, rapid start-up, and zero emissions. Among all fuel cells, PEMFC is the most widely preferred one due to its very high performance and optimum operating temperature range. In the last decade, we saw the development of micro- and macroscale PEM fuel cells due to these prominent features [1–4]. P. R. Gouri Nandana · R. Raju · A. Nishanth · V. Rajan (B) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_37

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The hydrogen is used as fuel in the PEMFC, the catalytic splitting of hydrogen takes place at the anode catalytic layer (ACL), and the chemical expression of catalytic splitting is given in Eq. (1). The electrons formed due to the anode reactions travel across the external circuit and reach the cathode catalytic layer (CCL), while the positive ions (protons) travel through the selective permeable membrane and reach the cathode side. At the cathode side, oxygen is fed as the oxidizer, and at the CCL, the oxygen molecules chemically interact with H+ ions and electrons to produce electrical energy. Anode: H2 → 2H+ + 2e−

(1)

1 Cathode: O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2 O. 2

(2)

The design of FFP can significantly affect the water management and thermal management of a typical cell stack. The most frequently used membrane in a PEM fuel cell is the Nafion membrane, and it exhibits high proton conductivity only in its hydrated state. Since the glass transition temperature of Nafion membrane is low, at elevated temperatures the membrane can deteriorate [3]. At low hydration state, the PEMFC output is next to nothing as Nafion doesn’t exhibit good conductivity at dry-out. Thus, water management is a crucial thing to be taken into consideration while working with PEMFC. The design and shape of a FFP engraved on a bipolar plate can significantly affect the water management property of a PEM-cell stack [5–8]. In this work, we took three non-conventional bioinspired flow field patterns, namely fish scale-shaped, banana stem-shaped, and onion-shaped FFP’s and compared them with the conventional serpentine FFP using ANSYS Fluent. The novelty of the work lies in the matter that fish scale FFP, onion FFP, and banana stem FFP are studied and compared to determine which one among them gives the better results in case of polymer exchange membrane fuel cell with Nafion membrane. None of the literatures till date addressed such a comparison. The non-uniform distribution of fuel H2 and oxidizer O2 in the cell can affect the chemical kinetics of the PEM cell and can result in low power output. Uneven distribution of reactants over the active region causes uneven reactions, which is one of the main sources for fuel cell degradation. This results in the uneven accumulation of product water in certain areas (flooding) and dry-out in other areas of the fuel cell, all of the listed promote mechanical membrane breakdown. The flow delivery channels in the BPPs are critical for good reactant distribution in the fuel cell. Moreover, maldistribution has an impact on the fuel cell’s durability as well as its operational performance. The flow delivery channels are in charge of both feeding fresh reactants to the reaction zones and removing product water from them. Any area that isn’t getting enough fresh reactants or is choked with product water will be underutilized. These “dead spots,” as they’re known, effectively diminish the fuel cell’s active area, and performance falls as a result. As a result, the shape of the FFP channels is critical to both short-term and long-term fuel cell efficiency, and FFP design and the distribution of H2 and O2 are a contentious issue in research.

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Kerkoub et al. in 2018 employed both CFD and experimental methods to evaluate the impact of flow field geometry and dimensions on the performance of PEM fuel cells with a surface area of 5.1 × 5.1 cm2 with 25 channels [9]. Kerkoub stated several drawbacks of the existing FFP designs. This indirectly points toward the need of alternate designs in FFP. Dang et al. in 2022 [10] studied liquid H2 O behavior inside a leaf-like bioinspired FFP based on Murray’s law at the cathode of a PEMFC. Dang clearly points out four significant ways in which the bioinspired FFP improves the water management and reactant distribution and delivery in the cell. In 2020, Huang et al. [11] created and tested a novel fuel cell FFP configuration based on the human body’s mesenteric blood vessel and subdivision structure. The results presented that integrating the new bioinspired FFP improved cell performance. Similarly, Wang et al. [12] presented a secondary fishbone-shaped cathode FFP design in 2020, which increased oxygen-saturation, velocity rise, pressure drop, and reaction rate in the cell. Recent researches produced by Duy et al. [13], Dong et al. [10], and many other similar researches clearly indicate the advantages of using bioinspired FFP over the conventional FFP. The non-uniform distribution of fuel H2 and oxidizer O2 in the cell can be rectified by improving the design of FFPs engraved on the bipolar plate. Among the conventional FFPs, the serpentine pattern gave the best results [14–16] but there is room for improvement and innovations.

2 Model and Problem Description The nature-inspired designs are a major area of attraction in the fluid dynamic area. Thus, we tried to compare three bioinspired FFP, namely onion, banana stem, fish scale FFPs with the conventional serpentine FFP to study the pressure and velocity distributions and thereby the cell performance. The cell geometry parameters are given in Table 1, and the boundary conditions used are provided in Table 2. The operating temperature is taken as 80 °C as this temperature is below Nafion membrane’s glass transition temperature would give the best performance [3]. The operating pressure was taken as 1 atm. The pressure and velocity distributions and thereby the cell performance of each cell are to be compared and analyzed in the work.

Table 1 Geometry and flow parameters

Parameter

Value

PEM-cell length

5 mm

PEM-cell width

5 mm

PEM-gas channel width

0.3 mm

PEM-gas channel height

0.3 mm

PEM-anode and cathode pressure

1E5 Pa

PEM-initial temperature

353.15 K

PEM-operating pressure

1 atm

432 Table 2 Boundary conditions

P. R. Gouri Nandana et al. Boundary

Type

Value

Inlet

Mass flow inlet

6e−7 kg/s

Outlet

Pressure outlet (Gauge pressure)

0 bar

Wall

No-slip wall

–

Temperature

Total temperature

353.15 K

3 Methadology The stages involved in our work can be listed into eight. The initial stage is to use computer-aided design (CAD) software to create the geometry. The dimensions of the FFP are given in Table 1. In the second and third stages, the corresponding FFP geometry is imported into the ANSYS Fluent module and later divided into a computational mesh. The fourth step is to apply the initial and boundary conditions which are depicted in Table 2. The last four steps are, running the simulation, grid independency test, model verification, and post-processing of results. The methodology is depicted in Figs. 1, 2 and 3.

Fig. 1 Methodology

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Fig. 2 Geometry of serpentine flow pattern

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Fig. 3 a Fish scale pattern, b banana stem pattern, c onion pattern, mesh generated for bioinspired patterns, d fish scale pattern, e banana stem pattern, f onion pattern

4 Results and Discussion The model verification was done with the work done by Mansoor et al. [17]. The average error was found to be less than 1.0%, and hence, the present methodology using ANSYS Fluent is substantial to be resourceful and a proficient CFD tool for our present study. The model verification is shown in Fig. 5. The grid independence test was carried out considering the anode velocity (illustrated in Fig. 5). For our study,

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Max velocity (m/s)

the element size of 0.05 mm is selected for further studies to save computational time and for accurate simulation of the model (Fig. 4; Table 3). The simulation work has been done for three bioinspired flow designs (fish scale, banana stem, onion) and a traditional serpentine flow pattern. The following are the 96 93.547 92.364 94 91.364 92 88.697 90 88 86 84 82.369 82 80 0 10000 20000

94.754

94.6

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

Number of elements

Fig. 4 Grid independency

Fig. 5 a Mansoor et al. work, b present work

Table 3 Grid independency

Element size (mm) Number of elements Maximum velocity (m/s) 0.15

2328

82.369

0.1

7485

88.697

0.08

12,320

91.364

0.07

13,740

92.364

0.06

15,920

93.547

0.05

33,876

94.6

0.04

63,840

94.754

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outcomes of this research: the velocity and pressure distribution profiles for all the above flow patterns and a graph of local velocity in the flow channel in the plane yz-axis direction for all the four flow field designs were obtained. Figures 6 and 8 show the flow velocity distribution in the serpentine flow channels under operating conditions at 6.0 e−7 kg/s inlet anode mass flow rate. From the contours, it was observed that the onion and banana stem-shaped flow patterns showed more uniform velocity and pressure distribution compared to serpentine and fish scale-shaped flow patterns. The highest-pressure drop was detected in the serpentine flow pattern, and the lowest pressure drop was observed in the banana stem-shaped flow pattern. The distribution of pressure in PEM fuel cells is crucial to their performance. While a higher pressure drop across the cell enhances water management, it also causes problems with parasitic power losses and reactant distribution. As a result, the smallest pressure distribution that prevents water build-up in the cell is optimal. For different flow patterns, the pressure contours have varying scales. The maximum pressure drop was seen in the serpentine flow pattern, while the lowest pressure drop was observed in the banana stem-shaped flow pattern, as shown by the contours. Pressure equalizes quickly and readily due to the vast number of connections. The bioinspired design also has the quickest average intake to output path. Lengthier mean path lengths increase pressure drop, which is why the serpentine FFP design has a higher pressure drop than the bioinspired design despite having a linked structure (Figs. 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15). For PEMFC, high-velocity profiles and even are ideal. Higher velocities result in a considerable increase in a cell’s ability to transfer liquid H2 O out of the cell, as well as a large reduction in the time it receipts to take away the created water. Uniform velocity profiles result in a more uniform delivery of reactants as well as similar reactant residence durations. This means that power generation is more consistent across the cell. The velocities are scaled differently for different designs. Higher

Fig. 6 Velocity contour of serpentine flow

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Fig. 7 Pressure contour of serpentine flow

Fig. 8 Velocity contour (sectional) of serpentine flow

velocities contribute to faster H2 O drainage, and an even velocity profile leads to more unvarying reactant distribution. Whether reactant delivery or H2 O removal is a more critical aspect in the fuel cell determines which of these parameters is more significant in terms of power density. Figures 16, 17, 18, and 19 show the graph of local velocity in the flow channel in the plane YZ-axis direction for all the four flow field designs (serpentine, fish scale, banana stem, and onion-shaped flow patterns).

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Fig. 9 Pressure contour (sectional) serpentine flow

Fig. 10 Velocity contours of fish scale-shaped FFP

From the graphs, it was observed that the onion-shaped flow pattern gave more uniform velocity distribution profile. The velocity vectors along the channels were not uniform, indicating that the mass flow rate was irregular along the channels. At the edges, the velocity was lower than in the center. The velocity vectors were more consistent and steadily dropped, resulting in higher mass flow rates. The higher the velocity, the broader the channel width, and the lower the velocity, the smaller the channel width. According to the graph above, the onion design had a more consistent velocity than other designs.

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Fig. 11 Pressure contours of fish scale-shaped FFP

Fig. 12 Velocity contours of banana stem-shaped FFP

5 Conclusion Three bioinspired designs were shown in this study, which were inspired by the structure of fish scales, banana stems, and onions. The three bioinspired designs were compared with the traditional serpentine flow pattern. Modeling and numerical simulations of the three bioinspired flow field patterns were carried out. The results obtained for each model were compared, and it was found that the onion-shaped pattern and banana stem-shaped flow field pattern provided greater performance as they showcased a uniform pressure and velocity distribution compared to the serpentine and fish scale-shaped flow patterns.

A Study on Bioinspired Flow Field Patterns Used in PEM Fuel Cells

Fig. 13 Pressure contours of banana stem-shaped FFP

Fig. 14 Velocity contours of banana onion-shaped flow pattern

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Velocity in m/s

Fig. 15 Pressure contours of onion-shaped flow pattern

100.00 90.00 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 0.00442 0.00444 0.00446 0.00448 0.0045 0.00452 0.00454 Distance along X axis

Fig. 16 Velocity against distance X (m) for serpentine flow pattern

30

VELOCITY

25 20 15 10 5 0 3.1694

3.1695

3.1696

3.1697

3.1698

DISTANCE ALONG X AXIS Fig. 17 Velocity against distance X (m) for fish-shaped flow pattern

3.1699

3.17

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7

VELOCITY

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 3.4315 3.43155 3.4316 3.43165 3.4317 3.43175 3.4318 3.43185 DISTANCE ALONG X AXIS Fig. 18 Velocity against distance X (m) for banana-shaped flow pattern 35

VELOCITY

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 9.998389.99849.998429.998449.998469.998489.99859.998529.99854 DISTANCE ALONG X AXIS

Fig. 19 Velocity against distance X (m) for onion-shaped flow pattern

Acknowledgements We express our honest gratefulness to Dr. Vikas Rajan and all staff members of our department

References 1. Dyer CK (2002) Fuel cells for portable applications. J Power Sources 106(1–2):31–34. https:// doi.org/10.1016/s0378-7753(01)01069-2 2. Raju R, Rajan V (2021) Steady state thermal and structural simulation of SS 316L bipolar plates used in 250 W PEMFC. IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng 1132012016 3. Kandlikar SG (2008) Microscale and macroscale aspects of water management challenges in PEM fuel cells. Heat Transfer Eng 29(7):575–587 4. Yousfi-Steiner N, Moçotéguy P, Candusso D, Hissel D, Hernandez A, Aslanides A (2008) A review on PEM voltage degradation associated with water management: impacts, influent factors and characterization. J Power Sources 183(1):260–274 5. Gutru R et al. A comprehensive review on water management strategies and developments in anion exchange membrane fuel cells. Int J Hydrogen Energy

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6. Muraleedharan A, Jithin EV, Aravind B, Kumar S, Velamati RK (2020) Combustion characteristics of syngas laminar microjet diffusion flames. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 115:47–59 7. Sasikanth P, Sambasivam M, Manivasagam TG (2021) Synthesis and characterization of MgZr alloy for hydrogen storage. Mater Today: Proc 46:4368–4374 8. Balaji RK, Rajan KP, Ragula UBR (2020) Modeling & optimization of renewable hydrogen production from biomass via anaerobic digestion & dry reformation. Int J Hydrogen Energy 45(36):18226–18240 9. Kerkoub Y, Benzaoui A, Haddad F, Ziari YK (2018) Channel to rib width ratio influence with various flow field designs on performance of PEM fuel cell. Energy Convers Manage 174:260–275 10. Dang DK, Zhou B (2022) Investigation of liquid water behaviors inside a PEMFC cathode with a leaf-like biomimetic flow field design based on Murray’s Law. Int J Green Energy 19(6):577–591 11. Huang H, Lei H, Liu M, Wang T, Li C, Guo X, Chen Y, Pan M (2020) Effect of superior mesenteric artery branch structure-based flow field on PEMFC performance. Energy Convers Manage 226:113546 12. Wang Y, Si C, Qin Y, Wang X, Fan Y, Gao Y (2021) Bio-inspired design of an auxiliary fishboneshaped cathode flow field pattern for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells. Energy Convers Manage 227:113588 13. Duy DT, Duy VN, Thi TC, Ho NX, Pham HB (2021) Anode and cathode flow field design and optimization of parametric performance of PEMFC. Int J Electrochem Sci 16(211028):2 14. Sunitha M, Asha S, Durgadevi N, Ramachandran T (2018) Electrochemical investigation of metal-malonyldihydrazide complexes for direct methanol fuel cell application. Mater Today: Proc 5(8):16646–16657 15. Konnov AA, Mohammad A, Kishore VR, Kim NI, Prathap C, Kumar S (2018) A comprehensive review of measurements and data analysis of laminar burning velocities for various fuel+ air mixtures. Prog Energy Combust Sci 68:197–267 16. Sabhapathy P, Shown I, Sabbah A, Raghunath P, Chen JL, Chen WF, Lin MC, Chen KH, Chen LC (2021) Electronic structure modulation of isolated Co–N4 electrocatalyst by sulfur for improved pH-universal hydrogen evolution reaction. Nano Energy 80:105544 17. Manshoor B, Ster LAM, Khalid A, Zaman I (2017) An effect of straight and serpentine flow fielddesign on proton exchange membrane fuel cell. ARPN J Eng Appl Sci 12:3076–3079

4E Analyses and Tri-objective Optimization of a Gas Turbine-Based Combined Heat and Power System J. Nondy , T. K. Gogoi, and Anoop Kumar Shukla

Abstract In this paper, a combined heat and power (CHP) system is proposed that comprises a recuperative gas turbine (GT) cycle, a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG), and a recuperative-regenerative organic Rankine cycle (RR-ORC) for the cogeneration of process heat and power. The low-grade heat from the GT exhaust is utilized to operate the HRSG and the RR-ORC. The CHP system is modelled based on energy, exergy, economic and environmental (4E) analyses. The results showed that at the base condition, the GT cycle and RR-ORC provide a net power of 30 MW and 671.40 kW, respectively, while HRSG recovers 40.74 MW of thermal energy from the GT exhaust gas to produce 8.43 tonnes/h of saturated steam for process heat application. The thermal and exergy efficiency of the overall system are 86.81% and 53.38%, respectively, whereas the total product cost rate and the specific CO2 emission are 1569.6 $/h and 234.13 kg/MWh, respectively. Further, a Pareto optimal envelope-based selection algorithm-II (PESA-II) is applied for the triobjective optimization of the CHP system considering the overall exergy efficiency, total product cost rate, and specific CO2 emission as the objective functions with five decision variables. The intent of this study is to maximize the first objective function and minimize the remaining two. Lastly, the multi-criteria decision analyses is performed by applying the technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) to select the best optimal solution that gives an improvement of 11.12%, 5.73%, and 9.88%, respectively, over the base case condition. Keywords Gas turbine · Organic Rankine cycle · PESA-II · TOPSIS · 4E analyses

J. Nondy (B) · T. K. Gogoi Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur Univesrsity, Napaam, Tezpur 784028, India e-mail: [email protected] T. K. Gogoi e-mail: [email protected] A. K. Shukla Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201313, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_38

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1 Introduction Global energy consumption has increased dramatically along with rising industrialization, which results in an unregulated use of fossil fuels. As a consequence, the greenhouse effect caused by the burning of fossil fuels has reached new levels of severity. This scenario has brought many researchers’ attention to find a more efficient way of energy conservation. In this regards, cogeneration systems have emerged as an optimal energy generation system with promising energy conversion efficiency. Cogeneration systems are also known as combined heat and power (CHP) systems when they involve the simultaneous production of thermal energy in the form of hot water or steam and power [1]. The Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) is another innovative power-generating system that converts the low-grade energy into electricity. Several studies have been carried out in order to propose ORC-integrated cogeneration systems [2]. Eveloy et al. [3] proposed an integrated system that comprises of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), gas turbine (GT) cycle, and the basic layout of ORC. They reported that employing ORC enhanced the combined system’s thermal efficiency by 6%. Ahmadi et al. [4] conducted an energy and exergy analyses of a GT-ORC combined system and found that the ORC’s energetic and exergetic performance improved with increasing evaporator pressure. Muñoz De Escalona et al. [5] carried out the performance comparison of a GT-ORC system and a GT-steam turbine (ST) system. They reported that the GT-ORC system outperforms the GT-ST system in terms of thermal efficiency. Mohammadi et al. [6] investigated the possibility of integrating ORC to an GT-ST integrated combined plant. They found that the overall exergy efficiency of the proposed system is 40.75%. Khaljani et al. [7] suggested a CHP system using a single pressure heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) and a recuperative ORC to recover heat from GT exhaust. They found that after incorporating the recuperative ORC, the suggested system’s thermal efficiency increased by 1.28% when compared to the GT-HRSG system. They also asserted that the combustion chamber is responsible for the most exergy destruction in the system. In another study, Khaljani et al. [8] performed the multi-objective optimization of the proposed CHP system and observed that at the optimal condition, system’s exergy efficiency increases, whereas the system cost rate reduces. Anvari et al. [9] proposed another CHP system where in place of recuperative ORC, they introduced regenerative ORC. They revealed that the CHP system with regenerative ORC has 2.62% higher energy efficiency than the CHP system with the recuperative ORC [8]. According to the brief literature review, various layouts of ORCs are employed in several studies to use the GT exhaust gas. However, among the widely used ORC layouts such as basic ORC, recuperative ORC and regenerative ORC, recuperativeregenerative ORC (RR-ORC) is reported to have greater overall performance [10]. Therefore, it would be a worthwhile idea to explore the integration of RR-ORC with a GT cycle. However, because ORC is a low-temperature power cycle, it is not viable to use it directly to utilize GT exhaust. As a result, first using an HRSG to recover hightemperature exhaust heat for process heat and then integrating an RR-ORC to extract

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the remaining heat is a viable approach. The performance of the CHP system also exhibits a substantial dependence on the top GT cycle’s efficiency. In essence, there are multiple types of GT cycles, the most common of which are basic GT cycles and recuperative GT cycles. Numerous investigations [11, 12] have demonstrated the high performance of the recuperative GT cycle. Therefore, a recuperative GT cycle is a potential candidate for CHP application. In addition, a CHP system’s performance in terms of CO2 emissions is crucial given the rising concern over greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, the proposed CHP system must also need to be cost-effective in a competitive market. Therefore, in this study, the performance of the proposed CHP system is evaluated using 4E analyses. Furthermore, PESA-II is applied for the tri-objective optimization of the CHP system considering the overall exergy efficiency, total product cost rate, and specific CO2 emission as the objective functions with five decision variables. Lastly, the multi-criteria decision analysis is performed by applying TOPSIS to pick the best optimal solution from the Pareto front. The advantages of optimization are then shown by comparing the values of the objective function under the base case and optimal conditions.

2 System Description The CHP system includes a recuperative GT cycle, an HRSG, and a RR-ORC, as shown in Fig. 1. The ambient air is first compressed employing an air compressor (AC). The compressed air then preheats passing through the air preheater (APH) while recovering heat from GT exhaust gas. Fuel and compressed air are burned in the combustion chamber (CC), and the resulting hot gas is expanded at the GT. The GT is coupled to a generator (G), which generates power. The GT exhaust gas then passed through the APH and reaches the HRSG. The waste heat is used to generate the required process heat at the HRSG. Finally, the exhaust gas from the HRSG is used to generate the organic vapour that drives the RR-ORC. The RR-ORC is composed of a VG, two feed pumps (FP-I and FP-II), a vapour turbine (VT), a feed heater (FH), an internal heat exchanger (IHE), and condenser (COND). The vapour reaches the VT and first expands to feed heater pressure, after which a portion of it is extracted and the remaining vapour is expanded to condenser pressure. The extracted vapour is delivered to the FH, while the rest is sent to the COND via an IHE. The pressure of the organic fluid exiting the COND is increased using FP-I up to the pressure of the FH. The organic fluid is then passed through the IHE, where it is preheated employing heat from the vapour leaving the VT. Then the fluid is mixed with the extracted vapour at the FH, and then the mixture is pumped to the VG using FP-II.

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Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the CHP system

3 Mathematical Modelling 3.1 Energy Analysis The energy analysis is performed applying conservation of mass and energy equations given in Eqs. (1) and (2), respectively [13]:  

˙ i− (mh)

m˙ i −





m˙ o = 0

˙ o+ (mh)



Q˙ − W˙ = 0

(1) (2)

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Table 1 Operating condition of CHP system [7, 14, 16, 17] Description

Symbol

Value

Unit

AC pressure ratio

rp

10

–

AC isentropic efficiency

ηs,AC

86

%

GT isentropic efficiency

ηs,GT

86

%

APH outlet temperature

T3

850

K

GT inlet temperature

T4

1520

K

Fuel inlet temperature

T10

298.15

K

Fuel inlet pressure

1200

kPa

Net GT cycle power

P10 W˙ net,GT

30

MW

Inlet water temperature

T8

298.15

K

Outlet water temperature

P8

3500

kPa

VT inlet temperature

T13

380

K

FH pressure

P14

220

kPa

VT isentropic efficiency

ηs,VT

80

%

Feed pump isentropic efficiency

ηs,FP

85

%

Cooling water inlet temperature

T21

298.15

K

Cooling water inlet pressure

P21

101.3

kPa

Cooling water outlet temperature

T22

303.15

K

Condenser temperature

T17

304

K

Effectiveness of the IHE

ε

90

%

The state properties of air and exhaust gas in GT cycle are calculated using the method shown in Ref. [14]. The molar fuel–air ratio is determined using heat balance and combustion stoichiometry. The HRSG is modelled considering pinch point temperature difference (PPTD) of 30 K. The state properties of water throughout the system are determined using REFPROP 9.0 [15]. The working fluid used in the RR-ORC is R-123 which is proven to be a good option for medium temperature waste heat recovery [10]. The state properties of R-123 are determined by employing REFPROP 9.0 [15]. The VG is modelled as shell and tube heat exchanger by considering a PPTD of 10 K. The energy balance at the FH is used to assess the mass fraction of vapour extracted at the VT. The base case condition considered for evaluating the performance of CHP system are shown in Table 1.

3.2 Exergy Analyses Exergy analysis provides an alternative approach to compare the systems more judiciously. Exergy at a given site includes physical and chemical components. Physical exergy is the amount of useful work produced by a system during a reversible process

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from a specific initial condition to the state of its surroundings. The physical exergy is calculated by applying Eq. (3) [14]. ˙ − h 0 ) − T0 (s − s0 )] E˙ PH = m[(h

(3)

The chemical exergy is the maximum work that can be done when a system’s limited dead state reaches its actual dead state. The estimation of chemical exergy for R-123 is avoided in this study, while the correlation reported in Ref. [14] is applied for the remaining fluids. Meanwhile, the exergy destruction which signifies the lost opportunity for converting energy into useful work is calculated using the exergy balance relation as given by [14]: E˙ F = E˙ P + E˙ D + E˙ L

(4)

where E˙ F , E˙ P , E˙ D and E˙ L denotes the rate of fuel exergy, product exergy, exergy destroyed, and exergy lost to the environment. Exergy efficiency is the measure of the approach to true ideality and provides more meaningful information when investigating an energy system. It is the percentage ratio of the product exergy to the fuel exergy. The expression for exergy efficiency is given by [14]: ε=

E˙ P E˙ F

(5)

3.3 Economic Analysis The economic analysis deals with the estimation of expenses such as capital cost, fuel cost, and maintenance and operation cost, involved in the thermal system. These expenses are calculated to determine the total product cost rate (C˙ P,tot ) which is the expenditures incurred to generate products from the thermal system. It is estimated using the cost balance equation as follows [14]: C˙ P,tot = C˙ F,tot +



Z˙ k

(6)

where C˙ F,tot is the fuel cost rate and Z˙ k is the capital cost rate of component k. The fuel cost rate of the CHP system is evaluated using Eq. (7) [7]. C˙ F,tot = cf m˙ f LHV × 3600 where cf is the unit fuel cost (0.004 $/MJ) [18]. The capital cost rate can be evaluated using Eq. (8).

(7)

4E Analyses and Tri-objective Optimization of a Gas Turbine-Based … Table 2 The equations used for calculating purchase equipment costs [7, 14]

Components AC

449

Cost functions      P2 P2 71.10m˙ a 0.9−ηAC P1 ln P1

HRSG

  m˙ g (h 5 −h 6 ) 0.6 4122 18×T lm,APH   46.08m˙ a [0.995−P4 /P3 ] 1 + exp(0.018T4 − 26.4)      479.34m˙ g P4 1 + exp(0.036T4 − 54.4) 0.92−ηGT ln P5  0.8  ˙ 0.8

Q eva Q˙ eco + T 6570 T + l,eco l,eva

FPs

21276m˙ w + 1184.4m˙ 1.2 g  3540 W˙ 0.7

APH CC GT

FP

VT

309.143( AVG ) + 231.915  6000 W˙ 0.7

IHE

1.3(190 + 310 AIHE )

COND

1773 × m˙ r

FH

(527.7/397)1.70 × C´

VG

VT

log10 C´ =

  2 4.20 − 0.204 log10 V˙ + 0.1245 log10 V˙

P ECk × C R F × φ Z˙ k = N

(8)

where PECk stands for purchase equipment cost, φ is the maintenance factor (1.06), N is the yearly operation hours (7446 h) [18], and CRF stands for capital recovery factor which is calculated using Eq. (9). CRF =

i × (1 + i )n (1 + i )n − 1

(9)

where i is the rate of interest (12%) and n is the operating period of components (20 years) [10]. The purchase equipment cost for each component of the CHP system is calculated by applying the correlations provided in Table 2.

3.4 Environmental Analysis The polluting gases emitted from a fossil fuel-based energy generation system degrade the environment and led to many environmental issues. Among all the polluting gases, CO2 is considered one of the most critical being mainly responsible

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for global warming. Therefore, in this study, the environmental impact is evaluated in terms of specific CO2 emission (S CO2 ) that is defined as [13]: SC O2 =

m˙ CO2 E˙ net

(10)

The mass flow rate of CO2 (m˙ CO2 ) emitted from the CHP system is calculated by applying the equation reported in Ref. [14].

3.5 Tri-Objective Optimization Tri-objective optimization is performed by considering exergy efficiency, the total product cost and specific CO2 emission of the CHP system as the objective functions. The intent is to maximize the first function while minimize the remaining two. The following decision variables are considered for the tri-objective optimization: • • • • •

AC pressure ratio AC isentropic efficiency GT isentropic efficiency APH outlet temperature GT inlet temperature

The ranges of the decision variables are shown in Table 4 which are based on previously published articles. The tri-objective optimization is performed using Pareto envelope-based selection algorithm-II (PESA-II) [19, 20]. The input settings used for implementing the PESAII are taken from Ref. [10]. PESA-II provides a set of optimal solutions in the form of a Pareto front. Though all Pareto optimal solutions are equally good, one solution must be chosen based on the priority of the objective functions. In this study, the best optimal solution is selected using TOPSIS which is a multi-criteria decision analysis tool which is used widely in engineering problems involving resolving decision dilemmas. The algorithm of TOPSIS can be referred from the previous article of the present authors [10].

4 Results 4.1 Model Validation The recuperative GT-HRSG and RR-ORC models used in this investigation have been validated in previous articles [10, 20] of the respective authors, thus the validation results are not reproduced here.

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4.2 Results at Base Condition The proposed CHP system is modelled applying a MATLAB-based code. The state properties of the system are shown in Table 3. For a fixed net power of 30 MW from the GT cycle, the flow rate of natural gas is found to be 1.678 kg/s with the thermal efficiency of 36.46%. The HRSG recovers 40.74 MW of thermal energy from the GT exhaust gas to produce 8.43 tonnes/h of saturated steam for process heat application. The combined efficiency of the GT-HRSG cycle is found to be 86% upon including HRSG into the GT cycle. Meanwhile, the RR-ORC provides a net power of 671.40 kW, while the work consumed by the feed pumps is 14.37 kW. The efficiency of the RR-ORC and the overall CHP system are 15.11% and 86.81%, respectively. It is noteworthy that the power output of RR-ORC in this study is higher as compared to the simple ORC (580.3 kW) incorporated in GT-HRSG-ORC system investigated in Ref. [7] under identical operating conditions. Table 3 State properties at different state points of the CHP system E˙ PH (kW) E˙ CH (kW) T (K) P (kPa) m(kg/s) ˙ State Fluid

E˙ (kW)

1

Air

298.15

101.30

93.30

0.00

0.00

0.00

2

Air

603.31

1013.00

93.30

28,133.85

0.00

28,133.85

3

Air

850.00

962.35

93.30

42,875.06

0.00

4

Flue gas

1520.00

914.23

94.98

104,550

374.56

104,920.13

5

Flue gas

1012.24

113.33

94.98

41,037

374.56

41,411.37

6

Flue gas

782.00

109.93

94.98

23,241

374.56

23,615.20

7

Flue gas

420.40

104.43

94.98

3257.5

374.56

3632.04

8

Water

298.15

3500.00

15.12

51.50

37.76

89.27

9

Water

485.53

3500.00

15.12

14,836

37.76

14,874.04

10

Fuel

298.15

1200.00

1.67

627.2

84,519

85,146.07

11

Flue gas

375.50

101.30

94.98

1817.1

374.56

2191.69

12

R123

324.62

819.90

24.40

40.14

–

40.14

13

R123

380.00

912.68

24.40

950.44

–

950.44

14

R123

339.94

220.00

1.02

15.64

–

15.64

15

R123

324.67

112.94

23.38

95.25

–

95.25

16

R123

306.11

112.94

23.38

78.33

–

78.33

17

R123

304.00

112.94

23.38

1.54

–

1.54

18

R123

304.05

220.00

23.38

3.28

–

3.28

19

R123

317.13

220.00

23.38

15.92

–

15.92

20

R123

324.29

220.00

24.40

29.50

–

29.50

21

Water

298.15

101.30

190.6

0.00

–

0.00

22

Water

303.15

101.30

190.6

33.03

–

33.03

42,875.06

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Table 4 The values of decision variables at base case and optimal case Parameters

Symbols

Unit

AC pressure ratio

rp

–

Range 6–16

Base case 10

Optimal case 10.94

AC isentropic efficiency

ηs,AC

%

80–89

86

85.55

GT isentropic efficiency

ηs,GT

%

80–91

86

89.39

APH outlet temperature

T5

K

750–850

850

849.58

GT inlet temperature

T6

K

1450–1550

1520

1452.60

The exergy destruction calculated for all the equipment of the CHP system is shown in Fig. 2. With 23,101 kW, the CC has the maximum exergy destruction rate, accounting for 61.66% of overall exergy destruction. Exergy destruction occurs in a system because of irreversibility caused mainly by heat transfer through a finite temperature difference, chemical reaction, and fluid friction. The above-mentioned factors are all present in CC, thus making it most irreversible component. The HRSG is the next biggest contributor, with the exergy destruction rate of 5198.4% (13.87%). It is also worth noting that exergy destruction rate in the GT cycle components is significantly larger than the bottoming RR-ORC components. In fact, exergy destruction rate in the topping GT cycle components (AC, APH, GT, and CC) accounts for 84.16% of the overall exergy destruction rate of the CHP system. In the RR-ORC, VG has the maximum exergy destruction rate of 530 kW followed by VT (153.8 kW). Besides, the overall exergy destruction in the CHP system is 37465 kW. Figure 3 shows the exergy efficiency of each component of the CHP system. It is observed that GT has maximum exergy efficiency (94.9%) followed by FH (93.4%) and AC (92.9%). The COND has the lowest exergy efficiency (43%) because the heat exchange process causes irreversibility, which restricts the conversion of fuel exergy into product exergy. Meanwhile, GT cycle’s exergy efficiency is 35.23%, whereas RR-ORC’s is 46.61%. After integrating the HRSG, exergy efficiency of the combined system (GT-HRSG) is improved to 52.59%. Similarly, after further integration of RR-ORC, exergy efficiency of the combined system is improved to Fig. 2 Bar diagram showing exergy destruction rate for all equipment

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Fig. 3 Bar diagram showing exergy efficiency for all equipment

53.38%. Furthermore, the exergy loss rate of CHP system is 2191.7 kW, which corresponds to the exergy rate at state 11. Figure 4 shows that AC and GT are the two expensive components with the respective capital cost rate of 126.5 $/h and 124.7 $/h. Both the components alone account for 69.61% of the overall capital cost of the CHP system. The HRSG also has an appreciable capital cost rate of 47.8 $/h. It is noteworthy that as compared to components of GT cycle, the expanses on the components of the RO-RRC are insignificant. For instance, FH has the highest capital cost rate of 12.6 $/h. Meanwhile, the CHP system’s capital cost rate and fuel cost rate are 360.82 $/h and 1208.8 $/h, respectively. Consequently, the product cost rate and specific CO2 emission are computed to be 1569.6 $/h and 234.13 kg/MWh, respectively. Fig. 4 Bar diagram showing capital cost rate for all equipment

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Fig. 5 Pareto front obtained from the tri-objective optimization of the CHP system

Table 5 The values of objective functions at the best optimal solution Objective functions

Unit

εsys C˙ P,tot

% $/h

SCO2

kg/MWh

Base case 53.38 1569.9 234.13

Optimal case

Deviation (%)

59.32

+11.12

1479.87

−5.73

210.99

−9.88

4.3 Results at Optimal Condition Figure 5 shows the Pareto front projected in three-dimensional objective space, with each data point indicating the position of an optimal solution. The best solution evaluated by using TOPSIS is also highlighted in Fig. 5. Each objective function is given equal weights of 1/3. The decision variables at the best design point are given in Table 4. It can be observed that AC pressure ratio, AC isentropic efficiency, and APH outlet temperature attained the values near to corresponding base case conditions. However, the GT isentropic efficiency and GT inlet temperature attained distinct values within the prescribed range. Table 5 also shows the objective function values obtained under optimal conditions. The overall exergy efficiency, total product cost rate, and specific CO2 emission of the CHP system are found to be 59.32%, 1479.89 $/h and 210.99 kg/MWh, respectively. Further, the objective function values evaluated at optimal condition are compared with the base case condition. It is evident that the exergy efficiency has increased by 11.12%, whereas total product cost rate and specific CO2 emission have decreased by 5.73 and 9.88%, respectively.

5 Conclusions In this study, 4E analyses are used to evaluate the performance of a CHP system. The CHP system includes a 30 MW gas turbine, a single pressure HRSG producing

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455

40.74 MW of process heat and a recuperative-regenerative ORC (RR-ORC). The RR-ORC produces an additional power of 671.40 kW. The thermal efficiency of CHP system is 86.81%. The exergy analysis showed that the combustion chamber is responsible for maximum exergy destruction rate with 23,101 kW accounting for 61.66% of the total exergy destruction. It is also found that GT has the maximum exergy efficiency of 94.9% followed by FH (93.4%) and AC (92.9%). Meanwhile, the exergy efficiency of the overall CHP system is 53.38%. The economic analysis showed that AC and GT are the two expensive components with the respective capital cost rate of 126.5 and 124.7 $/h. In fact, both the components alone account for 69.61% of the overall capital cost of the CHP system. In the meantime, the fuel cost rate is 1208.8 $/h, and the product cost rate is 1569.6 $/h. According to environmental assessments, the CHP system emits 234.13 kg/MWh of CO2 . Lastly, the CHP system is optimized considering exergy efficiency, total product cost rate, and specific CO2 emission as objective functions using PESA-II. In addition, the best optimal solution is also selected from the obtained Pareto front using the TOPSIS decision-maker. Then the objective function values evaluated under optimal solution are compared with the base case condition. It is evident that the exergy efficiency has increased by 11.12%, whereas product cost and specific CO2 emission are lowered by 5.73 and 9.88%, respectively. It is also noteworthy that the power output of RRORC (670.14 kW) in this study is more than the power output of a simple ORC (580.3 kW) for the GT-HRSG-ORC system investigated in Ref. [7] under identical operating conditions.

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IoT-Based System Design for Human Health Monitoring Parul Chaudhary, Bharat Garg, Ruchira, and Pallavi Choudekar

Abstract In healthcare, technology is at the forefront of monitoring, optimization, and recording. Recently, a change in the approach of healthcare communication has been made, owing to IoT customization. IoT serves as a catalyst for healthcare and is ubiquitous in a variety of applications. In the proposed work, a microcontroller serves as a communication gateway. This study suggests a prudent health monitoring system that utilizes sensors to monitor a patient’s health and alerts their loved ones or worried physicians through the Internet in the event of a panic situation. Additionally, the controller is connected to a buzzer that sounds an alarm in the event of a change in the detector output. Sensors linked to the microcontroller communicate with the LCD display to display alerts. As a result, an IoT-based patient health monitoring system effectively utilizes the Internet to communicate with and record patient health status, as well as to activate stimuli on a timely basis. This system is simple to configure and maintains a high level of performance and on-time delivery. Keywords Embedded system · IoT · Patient monitoring system · Microcontroller · Sensors

1 Introduction Internet in the present time has now become an important component in daily works like education, finance, business, industries, recreation, social networking, shopping, etc [1]. IoT is a technology that has evolved into an indispensable innovation with its applications in several areas. Specifically, it can be understood of as a system of physical devices that receive and exchange any kind of information over the wireless system technology without any human intermediation [2]. The Internet of Things (IoT) has recently been utilized as a monitoring and assessment tool to track the present state of a structure, machine, or equipment. This instrument gathers, analyzes, and communicates numerous data parameters connected to the equipment, structure, P. Chaudhary (B) · B. Garg · Ruchira · P. Choudekar Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_39

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or machine’s service status. This finally results in cost optimization in terms of equipment repair and maintenance. It also reduces the associated personnel. Furthermore, early detection or identification of faults and corrective measures might increase the life of the gear. The following are some of the advantages of employing IoT-based monitoring systems are: (1) Decreased skilled labor. (2) Increased performance and efficiency of machines or structure 3. Increased Productivity 4. Lower failure risk 5. Avoiding catastrophic failure. Medical and healthcare, industrial processes, agriculture, public safety, environmental monitoring, smart homes and buildings, smart grid, smart transportation, and other areas are seeing rapid growth in IoT-based health monitoring. With a significant advent of COVID-19 the cases has plumed in the first and subsequent waves, especially during the second wave, every country witnessed an issue in extending proper treatment to their patients. There was both, lack of medication as well as the healthcare staff. This system has a potential to comply with the need of doctors in today’s crucial times [3]. Not only this it can track the human sleeping patterns, track sleeping records, fall detection which becomes an important parameter during the old age. Pulse rate, body temperature, humidity in room, and SpO2 levels are the most basic markers of human health [4]. The number of times that the heart beats in one minute is referred to as the beat rate, which is another name for the pulse rate. Individuals that are considered to be typical have a heart rate that falls somewhere between 60 and 100 beats per minute. Adult males and females have been shown to have pulse rates of roughly 70 and 75 beats per minute (bpm), respectively, on average. Pulse rates are often higher in girls above the age of 12 in comparison to those of boys of the same age. On the other hand, it was discovered that COVID-19 patients had an irregular pulse rate, which calls for more attention from the medical personnel [5]. A deviation from the average temperature of the human body can be brought on by a number of conditions, including the influenza virus, low temperatures, hypothermia, and other disorders. Because a high body temperature is a symptom that is shared by many disorders, including COVID-19, it is essential to monitor one’s temperature on a consistent basis. The amount of oxygen in the patient’s blood is another crucial criterion in COVID-19 patients. The range of 95–100% is considered to be the usual range for the SpO2 level in the human body. In the event that a patient suffering from COVID-19 has an oxygen saturation level that is lower than 95%, they require immediate medical intervention. Silent hypoxia is what patients with SARS-COV-2 experience, which means their SpO2 levels drop below 90% without experiencing any difficulty breathing. A pulse oximeter can be used to diagnose silent hypoxia by monitoring the patient’s SpO2 level [6]. If a patient with COVID-19 has a severely low oxygen saturation level, the patient has a high risk of passing away. From this point on, it is of the utmost importance to control early symptoms such as fever, cough, heart rate, and SpO2 [7]. IoT makes it possible to visualize a world where in different objects track, communicate, and transmit the recorded data via a personal Internet protocol or public networks. These interconnected devices receive the data constantly, examine, and

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Fig. 1 IoT concept design

prompt a needed action, rendering associate-intelligent networks for such examination, designing and quick decision-making [8] IoT acts as a connecting mechanism to the internet and visualization that attaches for the proper management of such objects or remote monitoring. IoT creates an invisible network which may be detected, controlled, and programmed. IoT concept design is shown in Fig. 1. According to the WHO research, 4.9 million people die of cancer induced by snuff consumption, 4.4 million die of high cholesterol, and 7.1 million die of high blood pressure [9]. As a result, it is reasonable to anticipate that chronic diseases vary significantly in terms of their symptoms, progression, and therapy. As a result, if not checked and treated promptly, the patient’s life would be lost. For several years, specialized health centers determined the standard glucose, blood pressure, and heart rate. With technological advancements, there are a range of different sensors that provide critical metrics such as blood pressure, cough, pulse monitor, and EKG, allowing the patient to monitor and screen vital indicators on a regular basis [10]. The monitored readings are then provided to the doctors, who can then recommend medication and an appropriate physical training plan that will improve the patient’s quality of life and help them conquer the ailment. Arduino is a microcontroller that can detect and enables interaction with its environment [11]. The connection of IOT with Arduino is an imperative approach for including IoT in healthcare. The wholesome conceptuality of IoT revolves around sensor, gateway, and wireless network which modifies user to access and transmit the information [12]. IoT renders more guarantee within the health awareness and monitoring. As this quote says “Health is wealth” it’s parallel important to form usage of innovation in better terms.

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2 Merits of IoT in COVID-19 The Internet of Things concept makes use of an interconnected network to facilitate the exchange and movement of data [13]. Additionally, it enables social workers, citizens, and patients to communicate with service recipients regarding any topic or type of cooperation required. Thus, with the suggested IoT technology in the COVID19 pandemic, effective tracking of patients and suspicious instances may also be ensured. The majority of individuals are now aware of the general signs of COVID19. By forming an informed group within a connected network, the cluster can be identified substantially more easily. Additionally, a specific smartphone application might be designed to aid the less fortunate. The controller, i.e., doctors, physicians, caregivers, etc., must be kept informed of the proper and timely reporting of symptoms and recovery in order to opt out of the proper and timely action and optimize the overall quarantine period.

3 Objectives of the Work This innovation, which includes a microcontroller and a range of other components to build a smart system that helps both the doctor and the patient, can make the health monitoring system more dependable and effective. It also creates a system that benefits all parties equally. The following is a list of the objectives for the research study [14]. • A portable system for checking the patient’s heartbeat and temperature which are the basic parameters. • Person’s sleep patterns, fall detection can be done through this work. • Buzzer helps to alarm the patient itself for his condition and also to the nurse or doctor nearby. • Providing the doctor with timely information regarding the patient’s health.

4 Proposed System and Methodology Adopted The proposed work is primarily aimed at developing and implementing a civilian health monitoring system. Figure 2 depicts the sensors and other devices connected to each other through the microcontroller in the proposed model [15]. This work contains numerous sensors, including a heartbeat sensor, a temperature sensor, an accelerometer, a buzzer, and a humidity sensor, which detect the associated human body parameters. These sensors are then linked to an ESP8266 Wi-Fi module, which acts as a bridge between the microcontroller and the Internet. On the IOT platform, we receive the measured parameter values via the Internet. This estimated data is then uploaded to a cloud-based IoT platform named “ThingSpeak” in order

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Fig. 2 Block diagram of the health monitoring system

to track the health metrics. Using this base station, the physician can obtain these values from anywhere. Consequently, doctors are assisted in identifying the status of the patient and are able to take appropriate action based on the records of the patient’s temperature and heart rate. [16]. Figure 2 shows block diagram of heath monitoring system. ThingSpeak provides new information that can be added to the model that has been proposed and communicates data with an expert who monitors and analyzes the data. In the event that a patient’s previous therapy record is misplaced, the server is able to retrieve it by generating and storing a new identifier for the patient. In this work, the system and its components are linked to the internet through the utilization of an ESP8266 WiFi module. The heartbeat sensor is able to identify when a person is beating their heart. Light is modulated as the system’s primary driving force. The digital output of the heartbeat is created when a finger is placed on the sensor. This allows the user to monitor their own heartbeat. When we place our finger on the sensor, it detects the flow of blood, and we are able to display this information as a digital output on an LCD that is connected to an Arduino UNO Board or a microcontroller. A capacitive humidity sensor and a thermistor for temperature measurement are the two components that make up the DHT11 sensor shown in Fig. 3. The humiditydetecting capacitor has two electrodes that are separated by a substrate that retains moisture in between them. The values of capacitance shift in response to variations in the amounts of humidity. The integrated circuit performs measurements and

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Fig. 3 A DHT11 temperature sensor

processing on the changed resistance values before converting them to digital form. The DHT11 has a temperature range that is accurate to within 2° and goes from 0 to 50 °C. This sensor provides an accurate reading within a range of 5% humidity that extends from 20 to 80%. This particular sensor has a sampling rate of 1Hz, which indicates that it produces a single reading at the interval of one second. The DHT11 is a very small transistor that operates at a voltage range of 3–5 V. During the measuring process, a current of no more than 2.5 milliamps is allowed to flow. An electromechanical device known as an accelerometer is utilized for determining the magnitude of acceleration forces along a single or many axes of motion. Such forces can either be static, such as the persistent pull of gravity on structural components, or dynamic, in order to detect motions or vibrations, such as when a truck drives over a bridge. Accelerometers can be put to use in the context of structural monitoring in order to undertake real-time monitoring of the fluctuations of structural dynamic characteristics that are caused by damage or a change in the performance of the structure. Accelerometers that have more than one axis are typically utilized for the purpose of determining both the magnitude and the direction of the relevant acceleration. The LCD display will show these settings on the screen as they are currently configured. Additionally, the Internet of Things provides a platform through which we may access values of the parameters on the mobile device or laptop computer regardless of where we are located in the world. Because of this aspect of the job that is being proposed, it is valuable for medical professionals, healthcare workers, domestic caregivers, and the patient himself.

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5 Experimental Setup A microcontroller named ADUINO UNO is used in the proposed work. All of the connections to the sensors that have been used up to this point are going to have to be established through the microcontroller. The entire piece of code for connecting and interfacing all of the sensors on the Arduino board was written in the Arduino Software Development Environment (IDE). The LCD shows the parameters that are currently being measured in real time shown in Fig. 4. In addition, Internet of Things gives us a platform by means of which we may access values of the parameters on our mobile devices or laptops regardless of where we are located in the world. Because of this aspect of the job that is being proposed, it is valuable for medical professionals, healthcare workers, domestic caregivers, and the patient himself. We are utilizing a 5 V DC buzzer shown in Fig. 5 to detect the rhythm of the heartbeat, similar to how a beep sound will emerge in a hospital room (or in TV serials/movies) when a patient is being monitored using temperature, heartbeat, or an accelerometer, etc. Polarity is present in the DC buzzer; the negative value of the buzzer is connected to GND, while the positive value is attached to pin 8 on the Arduino. Fig. 4 LCD showing the result

Fig. 5 A buzzer

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The heartbeat sensor is made up of two separate components: the sensor and the control circuit. Clip-like housing protects both the infrared light-emitting diode (LED) and the photodiode that make up the sensor. The Op-Amp Integrated Circuit, and a few other components are what make up the control circuit. These components are used to connect signals to the Microcontroller. We are able to undertake structural health monitoring by investigating the dynamic response of such structures by employing a Micro-electromechanical Systems (MEMS) Accelerometer. This involves taking measurements of both the structures’ strong motion and the ambient vibrations. The ESP8266WIFI module is a workable gadget in terms of both cost and user, and it enables connectivity to be established between the various elements of the model. It can function as an access point, which means that it can generate a hotspot, as well as a station, which means that it can connect to Wi-Fi. As a result, it can easily extract data, which in turn makes IOT easier and technology smarter by uploading it to the internet.

6 Results and Discussion The internet of things platform known as ThingSpeak is utilized in order to carry out remote monitoring of the patients’ parameters using the internet. In addition, we use the IFTTT platform to connect ThingSpeak to email and messaging services. This gives us the ability to send warning messages whenever a patient is in a potentially life-threatening condition. ThingSpeak collects information from sensors, processes and visualizes that information, and then uses that information to initiate an action. When you have finished running the code in the Arduino IDE, you may watch how the code behaves by opening the serial monitor. Whatever information is obtained through the serial monitor is also gathered through the ThingSpeak widgets in exactly the same way. It is necessary for us to click on channels in order to access online data streaming, which is an example of an Internet of Things-based system architecture for human health monitoring. The result that was produced from using ThingSpeak may be seen in Fig. 6. IoT healthcare is the fastest growing sector of the medical industry. This work is mainly for elderly people who live alone. Additionally, it is beneficial for senior persons who live alone or with one or two family members. This is extremely beneficial when relatives or family members are forced to leave the house for unavoidable circumstances. This work is accessible to those with a variety of disabilities. Patients who are disabled and have trouble visiting doctors on a regular basis, or patients who require continual monitoring by a doctor. IoT tracking is extremely beneficial when it comes to recording, monitoring, and tracking changes in a patient’s health data. We can have a database of health parameters in an Internet of Things-based patient monitoring system. This enables the clinician to quickly identify changes in the patient’s health metrics or history when recommending treatment or medication. Remote patient monitoring shortens hospital stays. Additionally, hospital visits for

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Fig. 6 Results obtained on ThingSpeak

routine check-ups are decreased. Cloud-based storage is used to store patient health parameters. Thus, it is more advantageous than preserving records on printed paper in separate folders or on digital computers, laptops, pen drives, or any other type of memory device. In such instances, there is a possibility of data loss. Whereas with IoT, data is saved on the cloud and there is little risk of data loss. A cure can be delivered at the onset. Notification to the physician is sent in the event of lifethreatening situations, even if the patient is unable to offer specifics. Using Arduino and Atmega328 microcontrollers, the suggested system monitors patient parameters such as the patient’s heartbeat, temperature, and sleeping pattern, and then uploads that information to the internet. This method makes use of technology to make it possible to remotely monitor patients, which has the potential to both increase patients’ access to care and reduce associated costs. This strategy can also be helpful in the event of the worst-case scenario of a pandemic by segmenting the medical personnel, controlling how much time doctors spend with each patient, and avoiding staffing crises similar to the one caused by the COVID-19 outbreak. An Atmega328 microcontroller is used in this investigation to control two sensors that monitor the subject’s heartbeat as well as the subject’s temperature. We need to press the front of the sensor with our fingertip so that we may get a reading of our heartbeat. The blood flow from the finger is measured by the sensor, which makes use of optical technology. This work includes a heart sensor that calculates heart rate in beats per minute (bpm) and transmits that information to an ESP8266 Wi-Fi module, which then displays the data on the website ThingSpeak.com. The optical sensor can pick up on the beating of the heart and will then send out an analogue signal. After that, the data that is fed into the microcontroller is amplified and filtered. The data are

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processed by the microcontroller, which then produces the results in BPM format. At last, the computed heart rate is shown on the LCD screen in beats per minute (LCD). The DHT11 temperature sensor that is included in this proposal measures the temperature of the body and then sends that information on to the Wi-Fi module. The data that has been tracked is transmitted by the wireless system to an external device using a transmitter. The information can then be analyzed by a specialist or a physician, who can subsequently provide aid as required. The proposed system is dependable, efficient in terms of costs, and friendly to users. This system is able to display four metrics on the web. These metrics are position, heartrate, humidity, and temperature. Additional parameters, such as body mass index, blood pressure, and others, are also able to be assessed. The Internet makes it simpler for medical professionals to keep track of their patients’ health and to provide them with advice regarding their well-being at any time. In addition, medical professionals can make use of the mobile application to educate patients about a variety of diseases, their symptoms, and the preventative measures available. The idea behind Thingspeak, in addition to the findings of the analysis and simulation performed on it, demonstrates that the system is superior for both patients and physicians in terms of improving medical monitoring and healthcare.

7 Conclusion This work is primarily focused on using Internet technology so that a system can be set up that would interact via the Internet in order to help monitor people’s health and take action as per need. The purpose of this work is to develop a smart patient health tracking system with the help of an Arduino microcontroller based on the Internet of Things. In the proposed system, a pulse rate sensor is used to detect the heartbeat, and a temperature sensor is used to read the temperature. The data collected from both of these sensors is then sent to the cloud via Internet. In addition, this information is delivered to the LCD display so that the patient can readily monitor their own health state. In emergency circumstances, a warning message is sent to the doctor’s phone, and at the same time, the buzzer turns to alert the caretaker. This is done in order to notify the attending physician. For the patient’s benefit, the attending physician is able to access the transmitted data by tracking the particular website or IP address via the internet.

References 1. Vishnu S, Ramson SRJ, Jegan R (2020) Internet of medical things (IOMT)—An overview. In: 2020 5th International conference on devices circuits and systems (ICDCS), pp 101–104 2. Das A, Katha SD, Sadi MS, Ferdib-Al-Islam (2012) An IoT enabled health monitoring kit using non-invasive health parameters. In: 2021 International conference on automation, control and

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mechatronics for Industry 4.0 (ACMI), pp 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACMI53878.2021.952 8227 Rahaman A, Islam M, Islam M, Sadi M, Nooruddin S (2019) Developing IoT based smart health monitoring systems: a review. Revue d’Intelligence Artificielle 33(6):435–440 Yeri V, Shubhangi DC (2020) IoT based real time health monitoring. In: 2020 Second international conference on inventive research in computing applications (ICIRCA), pp 980-984. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIRCA48905.2020.9183194 Wang Z, Wang F, Liu H, Qian Z, Bi Z (2019) Design of human health monitoring system based on NB-IoT. In: 2019 IEEE 3rd advanced information management, communicates, electronic and automation control conference (IMCEC), pp 6–9. https://doi.org/10.1109/IMCEC46724. 2019.8983915 Abdur Rahman M, Shamim Hossain M, Hassanain E, Muhammad G (2018) Semantic multimedia fog computing and IoT environment: sustainability perspective. IEEE Commun Mag 56(5):80–87 Maduri PK, Dewangan Y, Yadav D, Chauhan S, Singh K (2020) In: 2nd International conference on advances in computing, communication control and networking (ICACCCN) Shi Y, Zhao Y, Xie R, Han G. In:2019 IEEE 23rd international conference on computer supported cooperative work in design (CSCWD) Lakshmi B M1, Hariharan R2, Sri U C3, Devi N P4, Sowmiya (2015) Heart beat detector using infrared pulse sensor. IJSRD Int J Sci Res Dev 3(09) Reena JK, Parameswari R (2019) A smart health care monitor system in IoT based human activities of daily living: a review. In: 2019 International conference on machine learning, big data, cloud and parallel computing (COMITCon), pp 446–448. https://doi.org/10.1109/COM ITCon.2019.8862439 Misran N, Islam MS, Beng GK, Amin N, Islam MT. In: 2019 International conference on electrical engineering and informatics (ICEEI) American heart association, overview— High blood pressure. http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/HighBloodPressure/Kno wYourNumbers/Understanding-Blood-Pressure-Readings_UCM_301764_Article.jsp#.WQA 2Omxf3IU. Visited Apr 2017 Delmastro F (2012) Pervasive communications in healthcare. Comput Commun 35:1284–1295 Ramesh S, Smys S (2017) Performance analysis of heuristic clustered (HC) architecture in wireless networks. In: 2017 International conference on inventive systems and control (ICISC), pp 1–4 Garg B, Chaudhary P, Singla R, Choudekar P (2022) IoT based system design for human health monitoring for COVID-19 outbreak. In: 2022 International mobile and embedded technology conference (MECON), pp 567–570. https://doi.org/10.1109/MECON53876.2022.9751893 Das A, Katha SD, Sadi MS, Ferdib-Al-Islam. An IoT enabled health monitoring kit using non-invasive health parameters. In: 2021 International conference on automation control and mechatronics for Industry 4.0 (ACMI), pp 1–6 Yeri V, Shubhangi DC (2020) IoT based real time health monitoring. In: 2020 Second international conference on inventive research in computing applications (ICIRCA), pp 980–984

A Study of Energy Storage System for E-Rickshaw in India Mohammad Waseem , Mumtaz Ahmad , Aasiya Parveen , and Mohd Suhaib

Abstract In the current era, the automobiles/vehicles production trend in India is about 30 M units per year. Although majority of these fabricated automobiles is to consume conventional resources of energy as fuel. Meanwhile, output exhaust of these vehicles has a harmful effect in terms of pollution level and other global warming issues in metropolitical cities of India. Three-wheeler electric rickshaws have been used for public transport in metro cities. These vehicles are considered as green vehicles to reduce pollution issues. However, the primary concern with these vehicles is driving range due to low energy storage capacity system. Battery, supercapacitor, flywheel, and fuel cell or hybrid system are employed as energy storage medium in these vehicles. In the present study, an assessment has been prepared for energy flow concept in these vehicles along with different charging configurations. Keywords Electric vehicles · Battery system · Supercapacitor · Flywheel · Hybrid energy system

M. Waseem (B) Guest Faculty, University Polytechnic, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India e-mail: [email protected] M. Ahmad Acting Principal, University Polytechnic, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University), New Delhi 110025, India A. Parveen Mechanical and Automation Engineering, IGDTUW Kashmiri Gate, Delhi, India M. Suhaib Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University), New Delhi 110025, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_40

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1 Introduction Conventional resources such as petroleum products and compressed gasses are employed as fuel in the existing transportation across the globe. The vehicles utilize combustion engine technology to generate power in the existing transportation as per the literature data [1–6]. This engine technology has negative impacts on the environment due to exhaust gases at tail point hence results in pollution issues [7– 10]. Electrification of vehicular technology is considered as positive resolution of the existing technology to lessons the pollution and other demerits associated with engines powered vehicles [11–14]. In the modern era, electric vehicles (EVs) are considered as green vehicles by the people as they have a positive impact on the environment [15]. Current storage medium, i.e., battery, fuel cell, supercapacitor, etc., are used as the resource of energy in these vehicles. Electric machine works the function of engine and converts the chemical energy of battery into useful mechanical work [16]. More specifically, these vehicles are the mechatronics system whom reliability depend on several sensors and actuators [17–20]. Therefore, model based, data based, and neural network control algorithms are designed for the safe operation and monitoring of these vehicles [18]. Chemical storage medium in EVs play a key role as it supplies current for electrical machine. The state of charge of battery displays the available power for useful work [9]. The driving range of EVs solely depends on the total power in the battery [21]. Two-wheeler and three-wheeler electrified vehicles technologies are come under lighter version of EVs. Three-wheelers electrified version are popularly knowns as battery rickshaws in India [22]. This electrified technology has positive environmental impact and considered as alternate resolution of conventional vehicles in India [23, 24]. Government bodies have tightened the rules and regulations to control the pollutions concern globally. India has been also launched National Electric Mobility Plan to minimize Fine Particulate Matter (PM) level due to high risk of living organisms. Therefore, adoption of alternate and eco-friendly technology such as electrification of vehicles is a positive resolution. Being India a developing country, light weight three-wheeler electric vehicles popularly known as “Battery Rickshaws” are getting more concerns for short distance transportation facilities. But demerits associated with these vehicles is their driving range as source of power is solely depends on battery. Several researchers are involved in the field of electric vehicle technologies including control algorithms for motor, battery, space modeling of EVs, data-driven approaches for monitoring EVs, etc., according to the literature. However, so far, no effort has been made to study the energy storage medium for battery rickshaws in India. In the current study, an exertion has been prepared to assess the correct energy system for 3-W battery-powered vehicle in Indian contest.

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2 Methodology The discussion begins with the vehicles manufacturing trends in India. These vehicles include two-wheeler, three-wheeler passenger and commercialize vehicles. Thereafter, energy flow layouts from battery to wheel for EVs and HEVs have been discussed. Next, study of energy storage medium and energy flow concept for threewheeled battery powered rickshaw/vehicle has been carried out. Finally, analysis of energy/battery system for 3-W battery rickshaw through technical assessments has been performed. In the reference section, list of associated documents has been assigned for additional evidence.

3 Vehicles Trends in India In India, 22.65 Million vehicles including passengers, commercial, and threewheeler, had been produced in 2020–21 as per Society of Indian Automotive Manufacturers (SIAM) [25]. Figure 1 shows this production trend of vehicles.

3.1 Three-Wheeler Vehicles in India According to ICAT, nearly 200 units are actively involve for the manufacturing and assembling the battery vehicles across India [26]. Approximately 0.6 million battery rickshaws have been produced in these manufacturing units across India [25]. Solid Passenger Vehicles Commercial Vehicles Three Wheelers Two Wheelers

Number (In Million units)

25.0M

20.0M

15.0M

10.0M

5.0M

0.0 2015-16

2016-17

2017-18

2018-19

Year

Fig. 1 Total Indian automobile production trends

2019-20

2020-21

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Fig. 2 Solid model of battery-powered three-wheeler vehicle

model of three-wheeler vehicle powered by lithium-ion technology and fabricated in SolidWorks® tool is illustrated in Fig. 2.

4 Energy Storage System of 3-W Rickshaws Electrical energy for EVs is supplied through the battery pack, ultracapacitors, flywheels, or hybrid system. Therefore, various configuration of EVs can be constructed based on the energy storage medium. Configuration of EVs utilizing the different storage system is shown in Fig. 3. EVs with single battery system is most widely adopted in the existing EVs technology. A hybrid energy storage system with battery and ultracapacitor is upcoming technology for the electric vehicles. Battery, supercapacitor, and ultra-flywheels are used as energy-storing devices for present EVs.

4.1 Batteries Batteries are the most reliable and effective medium for storing the energy in 3-W electric rickshaw in India [27]. The battery electric vehicles have 33% and 67% well to wheel energy loses and efficiency, respectively, compare to fuel cell vehicles [28]. The battery is an electrochemical device that converts electricity into chemical energy through charging mode and chemical energy into electrical power through discharging mode [29]. Figure 4 shows the fundamental principal structure of a battery cell with a positive electrode, a negative electrode, and an electrolytic solution.

A Study of Energy Storage System for E-Rickshaw in India Fig. 3 Configurations of the EVs based on different energy-storing medium

Battery

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PC

Load

(a) Battery only

Battery PC

Load

Battery (b) Two distinguish batteries

Battery PC

Load

UC (c) Battery and ultracapacitor (UC)

Battery PC

Load

FW (d) Battery and ultra-flywheel (FW) Fig. 4 Principle of the electrochemical battery cell

474 Table 1 Different batteries used in EVs [31–41]

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Materials

Pb-acid

Lead oxide and acid • Less cost • Mass production

Ni-metal hydride Ni-alloys and alkaline solution

Merits

• Recyclable • High energy density • High working temperature

Li–Ion

Cobalt, carbon, and • Long life around lithium slat 1000 cycles • Twice energy of Ni-metal • Recyclable

Ni–Zn

Nickel and zinc

• Deep power density • Less costly • Eco-friendly

Ni–Cd

Nickel and cadmium

• Higher life • Recyclable

Different batteries used are employed for EVs as per literature. Lithium-ion batteries are the latest technology that is extensively getting attention in the automobile sector. The life span and specific energy of Li-ion batteries are far better than lead-acid batteries. Li-ion batteries are extensively used in modern BEVs such as Nissan, BMW and Tesla. Low price and mass productivity of lead-acid batteries made them popular energy storing source in 3-W rickshaws [10]. High discharge rate of Nickel metal hydrate batteries makes them unsuitable useful. Li-Ion batteries have about four times power density than Pb-acid; therefore, they are consider as versatile devices for energy storing in modern 3-W vehicles across the globe [30] (Table 1).

4.2 Supercapacitor or Ultracapacitor Positive and negative electrodes are separated by a dielectric medium in ultracapacitor. High energy density is provided by negative and positive ions collected by electrodes. Ultracapacitor provide the necessary extra high power requirement when vehicle is climbing uphill for short duration of time [32]. The supercapacitor is a power source device that can be used in the EVs during low power requirement and regenerative mode. The specific power, efficiency, and life span of a supercapacitor are much higher as compared to batteries. The drawback associated with supercapacitors is that they cannot store energy for extended period [42, 43].

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Fig. 5 Working phenomenon of fuel cell [32]

4.3 Flywheel Flywheel is a mechanical rotating device that has a heavyweight rotor. It absorbs and release energy due to its rotational motion. It works on energy conservation principle. The rotor spins with a very high rpm and meets the fluctuating energy requirement for EVs. It has fast response during regenerating of energy this feature of flywheel make it versatile device for racing car [44, 45]. Fast response, less weight, and more proficiency of flywheel makes it more suitable for racing cars during energy fluctuating conditions. The energy storing and discharging phenomenon of these rotor also depend on the fabricated materials. According to [44], carbon T1000 is best suited materials for racing cars flywheel but simultaneously have more costlier.

4.4 Fuel Cell Figure 5 shows the working phenomenon of fuel cell, consisting an electrolyte and two electrodes [32]. Oxidation at anode is responsible for generation of electricity in it. Hydrogen generally is used as energy oxidant in FC vehicles [46].

5 Assessment of 3-W Vehicle’s Electrical Power System Power system of battery powered 3-W rickshaws includes battery, propulsion machine, and microcontroller. Therefore, in the present study, an effort has been prepared to summarize the power system employed in the literature for 3-W batterypowered rickshaws. Table 2 shows the various power system components such as battery type, No. of batteries, capacity of batteries, machine type, and motor power for battery powered 3-W rickshaws.

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Table 2 Assessment of energy design system for 3-W rickshaw Reference/Source

Type of vehicle

Year of Implement

Energy system

[47]

3-W

2005

Battery + engine

[48]

3-W

2009

Battery + engine

[49]

3-W

2010

Solar + battery

[50]

3-W

2011

Fuel cell + battery

[51]

3-W

2014

Solar + battery

[52]

3-W

2015

Wind + battery

[53]

3-W

2016

Solar + battery

[54]

3-W

2016

Battery

[55]

3-W

2017

Solar + battery + engine

[56]

3-W

2018

Wind + battery + engine

[57]

3-W

2019

Battery + UC

6 Limitations Reliability and driving range of EVs are the crucial parameters for deep penetration across the globe. Specific energy of chemical used in the battery is directly affect the driving range of EVs. Battery firing and explosion due to overheating, shortcircuiting, and colliding are the primarily concerns associated with EVs adoption. Lack of charging infrastructure in developing country like India is a prime factor for consumer satisfaction toward EVs.

7 Conclusions Pollution and other associated problems of conventional fuel powered vehicles are the crucial influence on human beings and other living species throughout the globe. Switching towards electric drive technology is a positive and futuristic approach. India is one of the leading fabricators of vehicles including three-wheeler with a production capacity of 27 million as per SIAM. Battery, ultracapacitor, flywheel and fuel cell are the alternate solutions as energy storage medium for EVs. Energy storage system with higher specific energy density would be a more reliable and sustainable approach towards low driving range of EVs. Lithium-Ion batteries are versatile resource storing electric potential for EVs due to four times specific energy compared to Pb-acid batteries. Charging of EVs during idle parking is further advancement of technology. Incorporation of smart or wireless charging with EVs would be another suitable step towards future sustainable goal. Overall, batteries are more reliable and powerful resource for three-wheeler electric vehicles according to the assessment performed in this study.

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Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the University Polytechnic, JMI New Delhi, India.

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Computational Study on the Diffuser of Formula Racing Car Md. Hassaan, Satyam Dewivedi, Hammad Khurshid, Gulam Hasnain Warsi, Mansha Alam, and Abdur Rahim

Abstract A computational study to improve the aerodynamic behavior of diffuser contoured in formula student racing car is attempted in this paper. As physics of diffuser plays a pivotal role in maintaining the ample turbulence and drag resulting in better airflow underneath the car. Area of the underbody of the car along with diffuser with a range of different outlet angles ranging from 6° to 12° is considered. The models of different diffuser angles are selected with the help of Ahmed body of specially designed vehicle with 2794.6 mm × 623 mm × 768.56 mm and diffuser of length 831 mm is designed in solid works. Primary focus includes the ride height and the diffuser angle suited for this vehicle model to optimize the aerodynamic performance of the diffuser. CFD was used to simulate various models for their contours and pressure plots for total pressure, static pressure, and pressure coefficients. Schematic plots of contour plots, particle tracks, Graphs of reassure coefficient versus position, drag versus ride height for each system are drawn on the basis of analysis. Pressure recovery coefficient and loss coefficient are some of the parameters which this analysis emphasis upon and concluded that the pressure recovery coefficient of 10° diffuser is high, and loss coefficient is low with respect to other diffuser. Keeping in mind the down force and drag, over all 10° diffuser gives much better performance than other designs. Keywords Ansys fluent · Aerodynamics · Downforce · Racing car · Diffuser · Pressure recovery coefficient · Ground effect

1 Introduction A vehicle traveling through air experiences various forces caused due to the motion between the air and surface of the vehicle. These forces are named aerodynamic forces. For better performance of vehicles, high expertise in the field of aerodynamics is required. Forces that act on vehicles in this area are drag and downforce. Airflow Md. Hassaan · S. Dewivedi (B) · H. Khurshid · G. H. Warsi · M. Alam · A. Rahim Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_41

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around the car causes drag force as when approaching the frontal portion of the vehicle, air molecules compress due to which the frontal pressure increases. Also, when approaching the rear end of the vehicle, flow detachment of air molecules causes turbulence at the rear end leading to increment in drag force. Hence, the reduction of drag force is important for better aerodynamic efficiency of automobiles. Another force that acts on the vehicle due to airflow is downforce, it is a lift force that acts vertically downwards on the automobile [1, 2]. Area of the under part of the vehicle is lesser than the upper body of the car. According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the velocity of the air underneath increases leading to reduced air pressure underneath the car. This leads to pressure difference between the upper and lower part of the car, leading to a vertical force acting downwards on the upper part of the car called downforce. With the increase in this pressure difference, downforce also increases hence increases stability of the car at turning. Important elements in aerodynamics that lead to better downforce by decreasing drag are the front wing, rear wing, and underbody diffuser. In Formula race cars, increasing downforce which helps in better traction between tires and road, and decreasing drag force which results in better engine performance and cornering stability. Diffuser is a shaped section that maximizes downforce generation along with reducing drag effect, by creating a venturi effect that enhances the transition between the high-velocity airflow underneath the car and much slower free stream airflow of the ambient atmosphere. It creates a tunnel-like venturi with inlet area lesser than the outlet area at the rear end of the body. The velocity decreases so does the pressure drop according to the Bernoulli’s theorem and flow rate which helps in pressure recovery by increasing the area of the diffused length by varying the outlet angle which leads to smooth transition eliminating turbulent flow or discontinued flow which results in reducing drag (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Effect of air flow around the vehicle

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2 Literature Review Katz [3] state that the engine, tires, suspension, road, aerodynamics, and, of course, the driver all play a role in race vehicle performance. However, in recent years, vehicle aerodynamics has received more attention, owing to the use of the negative lift (downforce) concept, which has resulted in numerous significant performance gains. The importance of aerodynamic downforce and how it increases race vehicle performance are briefly explained in this overview. Porcar et al. [4] discusses the bulk of a vehicle’s downforce is created by diffusers and the floor front of them. Outside of motorsports, the diffuser is rarely employed. Three fluid-mechanical systems control diffuser flow behavior: ground contact, underbody upsweep, and diffuser upsweep. When the ride height is changed, four separate flow regimes develop, with the vortices having a significant impact on downforce generation. Senthilkumar et al. [5] state that various add-on devices aid in maintaining the forces acting on the vehicle to maintain constant aerodynamics. Spoilers, a rear wing, tail plates, a vortex generator, and a diffuser are among the optional extras. We create a diffuser for our project from these add-on devices, assess it, and compare it to the existing diffuser. Typically, the diffuser is initially used in racing and then progressively makes its way into commercial cars. People and the automobile industry are increasingly focusing on vehicle economy as time passes. Aerodynamics is the most important factor in achieving maximum efficiency. As a result, the add-on gadgets are installed in the car to maximize efficiency. Based on the characteristics of the automobile model, a customized diffuser is created. Khokhar et al. define an undertray diffuser as an aerodynamic package that creates downforce, like the front and back wings of race vehicles. The peak speed of these automobiles is the most difficult aspect of building an aerodynamic package for them. The more an automobile accelerates, the more downforce it produces. Formula student race vehicles have a peak speed of roughly 130 km per hour. The undertray diffuser must provide as much downforce as feasible while minimizing drag.

3 Performance Parameters 3.1 Drag Forces (FD ) It is defined as the parallel forces generated in the direction of oncoming airflow caused by differential pressure on the upper and bottom surfaces of an airfoil. According to Manwell et al. [6], drag forces are attributable to both viscous friction forces at the surface of the airfoil and pressure differential on the airfoil surfaces facing toward and away from approaching flow.

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1 × ρ × A × V 2 × CD 2

FD = where ρ Density of air A Frontal Area V Velocity of Car

3.2 Lift Forces (FL ) It is perpendicular Force exerts on the object by the fluid, its applicable for all the condition either car is moving through stationary fluid or fluid is moving through stationary car.

3.3 Pressure Recovery Coefficient (CP ) The pressure recovery coefficient (PRC) determines a diffuser’s effectiveness. This is calculated by dividing the pressure difference over the diffuser by the dynamic pressure at the intake [7]. CP =

(P2 − P1 ) 1/2 × ρV 2

Loss Coefficient (C L ) CL =

{(TP)inlet − (TP)outlet } 1/2 × ρV 2

where P1 Inlet Pressure P2 Outlet Pressure TP Total Pressure

3.4 Navier-Stoke and Continuity Equation 1 ∂v + (u · ∇)v = g − ∇ p + ν∇ 2 u ∂t ρ ∂ρ + ∂t

1 r∂ ∂r (rρvr )

+

1 r∂ ∂θ (ρvθ )

+

∂ ( pvz ) = 0 ∂z

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where v g ρ p ν

velocity, gravity, density, pressure, and kinematic viscosity.

3.5 K-ω SST Mode It is a two-equation eddy-viscosity model which is used in a Low-Reynold model with additional damping function, its boundary layer is thick, and viscous sublayer can be resolved. It is an addition of two transport equations (PDEs), which results in convection and diffusion of turbulent energy. Unlike other turbulence models, SST models are less sensitive to free stream conditions (flows outside the boundary layer). The shear stress limiter prevents the buildup of excessive turbulent kinetic energy near stagnation points.

3.6 Turbulence Kinetic Energy It is calculated based on closure method K =

) 1 ( ' 2 × (U ) + (V ' )2 + (W ' )2 2

where U ' , V ' , W ' are average velocity component.

4 Modeling A 3D model of diffuser with specified angle of outlet is created in solidWorks-2020, it is then integrated in the car model to create the analysis system. The geometry is imported to design modeler in ANSYS-2020 r 1 , here the enclosure with dimension 2 m × 5 m × 1 m is defined with the inlet, outlet, and the walls for the analysis. The Boolean operation is applied to subtract the vehicle system from the enclosure for in-depth visualization in post processing [8]. The system is opened in meshing of ANSYS Fluent 2020 r1. The meshing parameters are defined here Relevance center as fine, smoothing High, Max size 885.5 mm,

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Fig. 2 Car body with meshing parameters

elemental size is 442.97 mm. The minimum value of edge length is of 5.6 × 10– 2 mm, tetrahedral mesh is preferred as displayed in the following figure as it is better suited for complex geometry with target skewness value of 0.9 (Fig. 2).

4.1 Boundary Conditions For establishing boundary conditions Pressure-based and static conditions are set up using the FLUENT Launcher on a parallel processing. For an optimal aerodynamic set of equations, the viscous model of k-SST is used. With a 100 km/hr. inlet velocity and static pressure at the inlet borders, Boundary conditions with a sliding wall as the floor and no slippage in the other enclosing walls. Hybrid solution initialization is typically used for initialization, and the appropriate number of iterations were chosen for feasible solution concurrence.

5 Ahmed Body The Ahmed body is a standard car body (a simplified vehicle model). Ahmed’s experimental work [9] identified and characterized the airflow around the Ahmed body, which captures the important flow properties around a car (Fig. 3). The diffuser will only contact with the airflow on the lower surface during normal operation, with only minor interactions on the sides. As a result, defining the flow over the diffuser’s front and upper surfaces becomes a challenge. It was decided that using a bluff body design would be the best way to overcome this in both the twodimensional and three-dimensional scenarios. The bluff body would be made up of a smooth surface that was largely an extension of the diffuser’s geometry forwards in the direction of the fluid flow [10]. The very first model of Ahmed body is designed and simulated is with diffuser angle of 6° with consecutively 8°, 10° and 12°. With

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Fig. 3 Ahmed body

Fig. 4 Meshed view of Ahmed body

increasing diffuser angle, the difference in coefficient of pressure and coefficient of lift is observed therefore finding the range of optimum angle for best performance (Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7).

6 Results and Discussion 6.1 Velocity Contours The velocity contours were obtained by simulations. According to the calculations, pressure distribution on the top and front of the body changed slightly when the diffuser angle increased from 6° to 12°. With the increase in diffuser angle, it can

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Fig. 5 Dynamic pressure lines of Ahmed body

Fig. 6 Total pressure contour of Ahmed body

Fig. 7 Pressure coefficient plot of Ahmed body

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Fig. 8 Velocity contours of diffuser angles from 6° to 12°

be observed that the flow underneath the car get smooth as seen in the diagram, the diffuser angle increases, the velocity distribution area on the back of the body grows at first, then decreases. The distribution area of velocity peaks at a diffuser angle of 10°. The differing pressure of the body surface fluctuates depending on the difference in velocity distribution on the rear of the body, resulting in the overall airflow drag coefficients of the system dropping and then rising with change in diffuser angle. We find link in velocity distribution to the pressure distribution because on increasing in diffuser angle, pressure difference is created at the underbody of car (Fig. 8). These are the figures of velocity contour for different diffuser angles. The range of velocity lies from 0 to 33 m/s.

6.2 Total Pressure Contours The total pressure contours of different angles of the diffuser are shown from 6° to 12°. We can see the effect of varying diffuser angles of the outlet opening and different airflow at the outlet of the car. On increasing the diffuser angle, size of low-pressure recirculating region behind the car body decreases. Different color notifies the pressure variation with respect to the position of car. Blue color shows the low-pressure region created behind the car due to pressure difference by the air, green and yellow region shows the pressure below the atmospheric pressure. Below figures show total pressure of car with diffuser of 6°, a pressure drop at the rear end of the car is observed. Dark blue region which indicates vacuum is dominant leading to increase velocity at the rear end of the car (Fig. 9). In case of 8° diffuser pressure drop due to increased diffuser angle of car is less with respect to 6° diffuser angles as the dark blue area is which indicates high velocity

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Fig. 9 Total pressure contour at diffuser angle of 6°

Fig. 10 Total pressure contour at diffuser angle of 8°

is comparatively reduced leading to smooth transition of flow therefore better results in reducing drag (Fig. 10). Comparing 10°, we see that the low-pressure region area such less than that of 8°. This case shows a perfect balance as the air pressure increases from the inlet to the outlet of the diffuser as the flow detachment and this angle of inclination of outlet is such ore optimized in reducing the drag caused by the low-pressure region (Figs. 11 and 12). The above contour plots were obtained by simulations in which total pressure value ranges from − 100 to 700 Pa. Low pressure recirculating region behind the car is maximum for 6° diffuser which indicates in combination of green and yellow color. On increasing diffuser angle, its value decreases which is minimum for 10° then slightly increases in 12°

6.3 Pressure Coefficient Plots The following figures shows the pressure plots, i.e., pressure coefficient vs position of diffuser at different outlet angles; the position shown is from inlet to the outlet

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Fig. 11 Total pressure contour at diffuser angle of 10°

Fig. 12 Total pressure contour at diffuser angle of 12°

of diffuser [4]. With the inlet of diffuser representing the peak point at 1.77 m, it is observed that the pressure coefficient recovers at outlet that is 2.6 m of the diffuser. This indicates that the pressure drop from inlet to outlet is decreased that is the velocity decreases, so the flow transition is smooth leading to less drag. On changing diffuser angle from 6° to 12°, we observe that the pressure first decreases with respect to its previous diffuser angle and then increases after certain angle. Figure 13 represents the graph of pressure coefficient recovery rate for 6°. It is observed that the pressure coefficient recovery value is minimum in this case w.r.t another diffuser. In Fig. 14, which represents 8° diffuser performance for pressure recovery is observed. It is noted that the best recovery was obtained with this diffuser. In Fig. 15, the recovery rate is decent compared to another diffuser angle from inlet point to outlet point of 10°. For 12° in Fig. 16, recovery rate for pressure coefficient when observed does not have the best recovery rate as compared to others.

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Fig. 13 Pressure coefficient plot at 6°

Fig. 14 Pressure coefficient plot at 8°

7 Conclusion The angle of the diffuser with respect to the ground is essential to its performance. If the gradient is too steep, the flow isolates from the underbody, producing turbulence

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Fig. 15 Pressure coefficient plot at 10°

Fig. 16 Pressure coefficient plot at 12°

and drag. A shallow angle reduces the diffuser’s power to create vacuum pressure underneath the vehicle. Figures 17, 18 and 19 depicts the pressure distribution surrounding the automobile using the coefficient (C P ), both as a plot and as a three-dimensional image. Because of great curves, the higher viewpoint displays high pressure zones in the nose as well as in the rear diffuser. Around the cockpit, where the pressure distribution is modest

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and smooth, there are some stagnation zones. In our case diffuser are being one of the main generators for downforce due to its curvature and angle of diffuser. And low-pressure zone and ground effect is created underneath of the car as expected by its nature and shape of the diffuser. Also, visible an easy change in pressure zone, followed by a rise in pressure of diffuser that wake at a reduced velocity. From our analysis the diffuser of angle 10° is the most efficient for our design as it generates more downforce and keeping the flow separation optimal w.r.t to other angle of diffuser.

Fig. 17 Pressure coefficient versus angle of diffuser graph

Fig. 18 Velocity at centre of diffuser versus angle of diffuser graph

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Fig. 19 C p versus position chart

8 Future Scope of Work Although the research so far has yielded highly significant insights, there is always room for improvement. More research in this area of study would be extremely valuable in refining the findings• To obtain more precise values of drag and lift coefficients, a more explicit vehicle body with fine meshing and an increased number of iterations might be employed for the investigation. • For considerably better results, the diffuser features might be more optimized. • For more precise findings, far more specific environmental conditions might be defined.

References 1. 2. 3. 4.

Japikse D, Baines NC (1998) Turbomachinery diffuser design technology. Concepts Eti Manwell J, McGowan J, Rogers A (2002) Wind energy explained Katz J (1996) Race car aerodynamics: designing for speed. Robert Bentley Porcar L, Toet W, Gamez-Montero PJ (2021) Study of the effect of vertical airfoil endplates on diffusers in vehicle aerodynamics. Designs 5(3):45 5. Senthilkumar et al (2015) Design and analysis of undertray diffuser for a formula style racecar. Int J Res Eng Technol 04(11):202–210 6. Haris M,Sapit A, Mohammed N (2020) Study of airflow due to rear diffuser of supercar. J Complex Flow 32–36

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7. Ehirim OH, Knowles K, Saddington AJ (2018) A review of ground-effect diffuser aerodynamics. J Fluids Eng 141(2) 8. Ahmed S, Ramm G, Faltin G (1984) Some salient features of the time-averaged ground vehicle wake. SAE Technical Paper Series 9. Kang N, Yang Y (2014) Simulation and analysis of formula racing car’s diffuser based on CFD technology. Appl Mech Mater 685:191–194

Performance Improvement in Inclined Belt Conveyor for Coal Handling Milind Shrikant Kirkire, Avadhut Soman, Ajinkya Tikekar, Vivek Nevgi, Shubham Shinde, and Anand Bhise

Abstract This article presents–design, development and analysis of inclined belt conveyor for coal handling. The major objectives are–to increase the material transporting capacity of existing design of inclined belt conveyor. With the given objectives for the design of belt conveyor, the process started with the capacity of conveyor. The material handling capacity of belt conveyor is result of several factors such as the belt width, properties of material being transported, degree of inclination, and lump size required length of belt conveyor. After doing the calculations for five different cases the final required capacity was achieved. The detailed parts of the belt conveyor were listed out in terms of assemblies and sub-assemblies. Material selection was done for base frame and shaft with reference to the analysis of various materials by referring to the Ashby charts. With the particular objective for each component, potential material was selected, and the CAD models of the components were developed accordingly. The material costing and welding costing (as per AWS) of belt conveyor were also done. The designed components were then analysed by static finite element analysis. The methodology adopted led to significant improvement in key parameters of the belt conveyor, viz. 21.9% increase in the conveying capacity; 26.38% reduction in weight of the drive end assembly, and 32.29% reduction in the weight of base frame assembly. Keywords Optimization · Inclined Belt Conveyor · Ashby Charts · Performance Index · Modelling · Finite Elements Analysis · Costing

M. S. Kirkire (B) · A. Soman · A. Tikekar · V. Nevgi · S. Shinde Finolex Academy of Management and Technology, Ratnagiri, MS, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Bhise Mechatol Product Engineering Solutions Pvt. Ltd., Pune, MS, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_42

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1 Introduction Belt conveyors are material handling equipment which has variety of applications like coal handling, transportation of product from one point to another in industries. Belt conveyor system involves various components such as belt, idlers, roughing sets, pulleys, take-up units, and drive end assembly. This paper consists design of inclined belt conveyor design with respect to problem statement which includes capacity calculation, material selection, costing, finite element analysis, and bill of material. The major objectives are to reduce the weight of base frame and drive end assembly and increase the capacity with the help of standard design procedures and calculations.

2 Literature Survey 2.1 Rollers and Components for Bulk Handling Belt conveyor is used for the transportation of material from one location to another. It has various advantages like–high load carrying capacity, large length of conveying path, simple design, easy maintenance, and high reliability of operation. This paper presents the design of the belt conveyor system used for coal transportation, the design process includes–capacity calculation, belt speed, belt width, belt specification, pulley shaft diameter, tension on pulley, and tangential force on belts with the help of standard model calculation.

2.2 Analysis of Belt Conveyor Using Finite Element Method Belt conveyors are the most common material handling conveyor in use today. They are generally the least expensive and are capable of handling a wide array of materials. Depending on the type chosen, belt conveyor can carry everything. They have important part of mining and cement factories, grain manipulation, etc. For a belt conveyor longer than 50 m, visco-elastic properties of the belt are not negligible and longer-life with healthy operation for conveyors design requires detailed engineering calculation. In this study, a real conveyor project is taken into account. Belt conveyor has huge load carrying capacity, large covering area, simplified design, easy maintenance, and high reliability of operation. Belt conveyor system is also used in material transport in foundry shop like supply and distribution of coal [1].

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3 Methodology The following flowchart (Fig. 1) depicts the stepwise methodology used for the research. Fig. 1 Research methodology

Analyzing the requirement of data and gathering data from field

Literature survey

Details of existing model

1. 2. 3.

ObjectivesTo reduce weight of base frame To increase capacity To reduce weight of drive end assembly

Capacity Calculation

Design Calculation

Material Selection

Design and optimization

Finite Element analysis

Costing and Bill of material

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4 Objectives and Technical Specifications The primary objectives were to increase the coal conveying capacity of inclined belt conveyor from 210 to 250 TPH and reduce the weight of conveyor base frame and drive end assembly which are achieved by the end of the project. The following design specifications for the belt conveyor system have been assumed for analysis in the presented paper: Discharge capacity Material Density Temperature of coal Material characteristics Lump size Conveying distance Inclination Angle

250 TPH Coal Material 1000 kg/m3 50 °C Abrasive (High) 40–60 mm 80 m 30˚

4.1 Details of Existing Design The details of the existing design are provided in Table 1.

5 Capacity Calculation The discharge capacity of conveyor belt is given by [2, 3] (Table 2): C = 3600 × ρ × A × v × k . . . where ρ k B ϕ A

Density of the material (1 Ton/m3 ). Slope factor (0.56). Belt width (1200 mm). Surcharge angle (10˚). Area of cross section (0.127 mm2 ).

Table 1 Details of existing design Existing design

Target design

Base frame weight 1.3 Tonne

Final weight 0.9–1 Tonne

Discharge capacity 210 TPH

Final capacity 250 TPH

Drive end assembly weight 110 kg

Final drive end assembly weight 70–80 kg

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Table 2 Cases of capacity Case No 1

Belt width 400

Surcharge angle

Troughing angle

30°

25°

Capacity 32

2

1000

10°

30°

172

3

1000

30°

25°

247

4

1200

30°

25°

364

5

1200

10°

25°

256

λ Troughing angle (25˚). v Belt speed (1 m/s).

6 Material Selection 6.1 Screening Screening of material on the basis of four parameters namely function, objective, variable, and constraint [4]. The component for which we are following material selection procedure first needs to be screened with the help of following criteria. Following table indicates screening of shaft:

6.2 Selecting Property Chart ASHBY charts are used for selecting the family of materials; it is done on the basis of objective of the part [5]. The material charts map the areas of property space occupied by each material class. They can be used in three ways: (a) To retrieve approximate values for material properties (b) To select materials which have prescribed property profiles. (c) To design hybrid materials. In case of shaft, we have selected strength-density graph for further steps (Table 2; Fig. 2).

6.3 Selection Guidelines Once the property chart selected, we must follow maximum and minimum condition values for plotting guidelines. After plotting guidelines, we will get area of material classes from which materials can be checked for further criteria. For that guidelines,

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Fig. 2 Ashby charts

Table 3 Screening of shaft

Component name: Shaft Function

To support bending and torsional loading

Objective

To reduce weight and increase strength

Variable

Density, area

Constraints

Length, force

we have provided with ranges of density and strength by the company. Density and strength ranges for Shaft are [1.75–7.9 mg/m3 ] and [320–690 MPa], respectively (Table 3).

6.4 Material Selection According to material class selected potential candidate materials can be selected which are as per requirements of component. Following are the selected materials for the shaft [6]:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

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Aluminium, 2024, wrought, T351 Carbon steel, AISI 1015, as rolled Carbon steel, AISI 1020, as rolled Epoxy/E-glass fiber, woven fabric composite, bi-axial lamina Low alloy steel, AISI 3140, annealed Low alloy steel, AISI 4130, annealed Low alloy steel, AISI 8650, annealed

6.5 Gathering Material Properties After selecting materials, properties are selected by considering function and objective of that component. In this project, we have done with material selection of shaft and conveyor frame, and these are selected properties for those components.

6.6 Calculating Scaled Value The above-selected properties have different units. To compare these properties with each other, we must have unit less quantities. Following are the formulas to convert these properties to unit less values. • Scaled value (β) – Formula = Numerical value*100/Max value in the list – Formula = Min value in the list*100/Numerical value

6.7 Calculating Performance Index To select appropriate material for respective components performance index is allocated. γ =

n ∑ i=1

where βi = Scaled value αi = Weighing factor

βi αi

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6.8 Performance Index for Shaft As AISI 3140 has the highest performance index (72.91), it is selected as material for shaft (Fig. 3). Similarly, for conveyor frame (Fig. 4). As carbon steel AISI 1040 has the highest performance index (100), it is selected as material for conveyor frame.

Fig. 3 Performance index analysis for shaft

Fig. 4 Performance index analysis for conveyor frame

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7 Costing Manufacturing costs are the costs incurred during the production of a product. These costs include the costs of direct material, direct labour, and manufacturing overhead. The costs are typically presented in the income statement as separate line items. An entity incurs these costs during the production process. Direct material is the materials used in the construction of a product. Direct labour is that portion of the labour cost of the production process that is assigned to a unit of production. Manufacturing overhead costs are applied to units of production based on a variety of possible allocation systems, such as by direct labour hours or machine hours incurred.

7.1 Material Costing Material cost is the cost of materials used to manufacture the product or provide a service. For many materials, the cost of scrap and the revenue from the resale of scrap are so small that it is not worthwhile to apportion it to the material cost. Material cost is also known as direct material cost and raw material cost. To calculate the material cost per component, we used following steps [7]: 1. Raw weight: Weight of material before machining process. Raw weight =

volume × density × quantity 106

2. Total scrap weight: Weight of material remove during machining process. Scrab weight =

volume × density × quantity 106

3. Material cost per component: cost incurred for material required for unit product. Material cost per component = Raw weight × cost of material per kg 4. Process return: cost of scrap produced during the machining process of a component. Process return = scrap weight × scrap cost per kg 5. Net cost: Material cost per component—process return

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7.2 Welding Costing The cost elements of a welded part are those related to materials, labour, and overhead [8]. Only welding materials such as filler metals, gases, and welder man-hour rates are considered in this project. If you wish to include overhead cost or any additional cost, then it needs to be added separately in the total welding cost calculated here. • Time required to weld = Length of weld/Rate of welding • Total consumption of Oxygen = Oxygen consumption per hour × Time of weld • Total consumption of Acetylene = Acetylene consumption per hour × Time of weld • Effective length of filler rod required = length of weld × length of filler rod • Volume of filler rod = Effective length of filler rod × Cross Section of filler rod • Cost of oxygen consumed = Total oxygen consumed × cost of O2 per meter cube • Cost of Acetylene consumed = Total Acetylene consumed × cost of Acetylene per meter cube X Cost of filler per kg • Cost of fillerrod consumed = Volume of filler rod X density 1000 • Total cost of welding = cost of O2 + cost of acetylene + cost of filler rod • Total cost of welding for given component = total cost of welding × number of components • Labour cost = time required to weld × labour rate × number of components • Overhead charges = Labour cost × Overhead charges (400%) labour per cost The consumption of resources and subsequently the cost of welding greatly varies upon several factors such as material to be welded, direction of welding, dimensions of component and labour skills. Thus, American Welding Standards (AWS) are referred for calculation of various such factors.

8 Finite Element Analysis Finite element analysis is done on the various components in the project for checking them against stresses and loading conditions. In this project, the static finite analysis is carried out by applying fine meshing of triangular elements on the components. With the fixed support suitable forces, load conditions are applied on components to carried out stress and displacement analysis with the factor of safety plot. Finite element analysis for loading table (Figs. 5, 6 and 7): The minimum factor of safety for loading table is 3, and thus the component is safe against loading conditions. Finite element analysis for Shaft (Figs. 8 and 9): From the finite element analysis, design of shaft is safe against the loading conditions

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Fig. 5 Loading table stress analysis

Fig. 6 Loading table displacement analysis

9 Results and Conclusion This article presented design, development, and analysis of inclined belt conveyor for coal handling with the major objective as to increase the coal conveying capacity of Inclined Belt Conveyor from 210 to 250 TPH and reduce the weight of conveyor base frame and drive end assembly to increase the material transportation capacity of the existing design. The material handling capacity of the existing belt conveyor was calculated using standard relations by considering factors such as the belt width,

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Fig. 7 Loading table factor of safety

Fig. 8 Shaft stress analysis

properties of material being transported, degree of inclination, lump size, and required length of belt conveyor. Five different cases were considered to find the optimized combination of the parameters; the best combination (case 5) resulting in optimum material transportation capacity (256 TPH) was chosen. The detailed parts of the belt conveyor were listed out in terms of assemblies and sub-assemblies. Material selection was done for base frame and shaft with reference to the analysis of various materials by referring to the Ashby charts. With the particular objective for each

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Fig. 9 Shaft factor of safety

component, potential material was selected, and the CAD models of the components were developed accordingly. The material costing and welding costing (as per AWS) of belt conveyor was also done. The designed components were then analysed by static finite element analysis. The objectives are achieved by the end of the project. In order to attain the goals, calculations comprehending technical aspects such as for material selection, FEA, part designing and techno- commercial aspects such as costing and billing of materials were done. Table 4 presents the parameter-wise improvement. The conveying capacity of 256 TPH was achieved resulting in 21.9% increase of the same; weight of the drive end assembly was reduced to 74.68 kg from 110 kg (26.38% weight reduction) and the weight of base frame assembly was reduced from 1.3 Tonne to 0.957 Tonne resulting into 32.29% reduction. Table 4 presents the parameter-wise improvement.

Table 4 Result and conclusion S. No

Parameter

Initial

Final

% Improvement

1

Capacity

210 TPH

256 TPH

21.90 (increased)

2

Base frame weight

1.3 Tonne

0.957 Tonne

26.38 (reduced)

3

Drive end assembly weight

110 kg

74.68 kg

32.29 (reduced)

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References 1. Taher GA, Howlader Y, Rabbi MA, Touqir FA (2014) Automation of material handling with bucket elevator and belt conveyor. Int J Sci Res Publ 4(3). ISSN 2250-3153 2. Complete belt conveyor catalogue, Rulmeca https://rulmecacorp.com/conveyor-roller-catalog/ 3. Indian Standard selection and design of belt conveyors—code of practice (First Revision) https:// archive.org/details/gov.in.is.11592.2000 4. ASME Standards. https://www.asme.org/codes-standards/find-codes-standards/a90-1-safetystandard-belt-manlifts/2015/drm-enabled-pdf 5. Shigley’s mechanical engineering design, 9th edn. TMH publication. ISBN 978-0073529288 6. Iron Alloys: MakeItFrom.com 7. Todkar S, Ramgir M, (2018) Design of belt conveyor system. Int J Sci Eng Technol Res (IJSETR) 7(7). ISSN: 2278-7798 8. Welding Handbook: Publications: American Welding Society (aws.org)

A Study of Effect of Bacteria on the Properties of Cement Concrete Prince Akash Nagar and Arun Kumar Parashar

Abstract The existence of voids in cement concrete might degrade its performance when subjected to large shrinkage and settlement. It is the goal of this investigation that bacteria can be used to reduce the amount of voids in concrete. It has been proven that the Bacillus family of bacteria is great concrete healers. Bacillus subtilis bacteria were employed at a concentration of 105 CFU in this investigation. A total of 48 specimens were cast and examined for mechanical strength and water absorption after seven and twenty-eight days of curing. After 28 days of curing, the compressive, split tensile, and flexural strengths of the M30 grade concrete mix increased by 12.79%, 9.83%, and 8.37%, respectively. It was also shown that bacterial concrete had a lower water absorption value than normal concrete. Bacillus subtilis bacteria produce calcite precipitation that fills the pores of concrete. It may be used to increase mechanical strength by eliminating pores by using Bacillus subtilis bacteria from the Bacillus family. Keywords Bacillus subtilis · Compressive strength · Flexural strength · Split tensile strength · Water absorption

1 Introduction Cement concrete is most used material for roads, commercial buildings, houses, and bridges. The growth of cracks in concrete constructions is emphasized [1–3] because of the lower tensile strength and durability. Cement concrete has porosity and enhanced permeability, which affects its durability and strength [4]. A number of studies have attempted to reduce cement usage by substituting various waste materials [5–8]. In an effort to reduce concrete voids and permeability, several investigations P. A. Nagar Department of Civil Engineering, Amity University, Gwalior 474020, India A. K. Parashar (B) Department of Civil Engineering, GLA University, Mathura 281406, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_43

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have been done. Bacteria belonging to the Bacillus family have also been employed for this purpose [9–11] in various ways. Cement concrete coated with epoxy has better mechanical and durability properties. According to Ferdous et al., epoxy resins boost the splitting tensile strength by 2.25 times over conventional concrete and improve the durability in salt solution, air, water, and hydrothermal conditions [12]. The presence of bacteria such as Sporosarcina pasteurii, ureolytic, and Bacillus licheniformis in concrete cracks assists in their sealing, according to several research papers. According to N. Chahal et al., water absorption rose by 22%, while concrete strength decreased by four-fold when exposed to Sporosarcina pasteurii bacteria at a concentration of 105 cells/ml [13]. Bacillus sphaericus bacterial solution with 105 cells/ml was shown to be the best concentration when 10–20% fly ash was substituted for cement [14]. Researchers have shown that bacteria can improve concrete’s mechanical properties while decreasing its permeability and water absorption [10, 15]. It has been shown that the presence of bacteria in the concrete has increased its compressive strength, according to R. Siddque and his colleagues. There was a reduction in water absorption, porosity, and permeability in the concrete because of the bacteria [10]. To test water permeability and rapid chloride permeation, strength in compression, and water absorption, researchers used 106 cells/ml bacterial solution of S. pasteurii stain. They found that chloride permeability, water absorption, and strength in compression all decreased by 10% and 20%, respectively. To counteract the effects of bacteria, researchers found that adding silica fume to concrete in amounts of 5%, 10%, and 15% enhanced mechanical properties after just 28 days of testing [16]. They also found that the amount of water absorption and the amount of porosity decreased. Geopolymer concrete has a difficulty with strength and durability because of the existence of voids and increased permeability [17, 18]. Consequently, bacteria are now a critical component in concrete construction, helping to repair and preserve the structure’s strength and long-term viability. In this investigation, evaluate the impact of the Bacillus subtilis bacteria on concrete’s mechanical characteristics and water absorption capacity. Bacillus subtilis bacteria was supplied by IMTECH (MTCC) Chandigarh in fridge and powder form.

2 Materials The Portland Pozzolana Cement (53 MPa) utilized is complied with Indian Standard IS: 1489–1991 requirements. 26.92% consistency, 3.56 specific gravity, and 356 m2 /kg fineness as measured by cement specific surface. As fine aggregate, locally accessible natural sand with a maximum grain size of 4.75 mm was employed. Sand’s specific gravity was determined to be 2.62 and coarse aggregates to be 2.74, respectively, and both were found to correspond to IS: 383–1970 in terms of their qualities. Sand and coarse aggregates have corresponding unit weights of 1888 and 1649 kg/m3 . Sand and coarse aggregates were found to have fineness moduli of 3.05 and 6.72, respectively. Bacillus subtilis was employed in this investigation and procured from IMTECH (MTCC) Chandigarh. Bacillus subtilis generates calcite to develop in the

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pores of concrete samples during and after the healing process. This improves the strength and compactness of the concrete. Superplasticizer GLENIUM made the mix more manageable.

3 Mix Preparation Concrete mix (M30) is prepared by using OPC 43 cement, course aggregates, sand, solution of B. subtilis bacteria and polycarboxylic ether-based superplasticizer. In order to reduce dust created by mixing aggregate in a pan mixer, fine and coarse aggregates were first mixed together for around two minutes with a little amount of water. The necessary amount of cement was then added, and mixing proceeded for the next two minutes. The remaining water was then added to the bacterial solution in the pan mixer, and the mixture was then stirred for three minutes. The mixture is then poured into the appropriate molds.

3.1 Casting of Samples Concrete cubes measuring 150 mm per side were produced for compressive strength, 150 mm diameter and 300 mm in height cylinders for splitting tensile strength, and 100 mm height and 500 mm length for flexural strength. To reduce moisture loss from the specimens after completing, plastic sheets were placed over them right away. All test specimens were kept in the casting room at a temperature of around 23 °C. They were placed in a water-curing tank after being demolded after 24 h.

3.2 Testing The compressive strength of cured samples was measured in accordance with IS 516: 1959 [19]. The tests were carried out using a computerized compression tester with a 200-ton capacity while the concrete sample was still wet. At 2 kN/mm2 /min, the load was applied to each sample and the failure loads were measured. The samples were cast and tested using the same digital compression testing equipment as for the split tensile strength test over a period of seven to 28 days. A 150 mm diameter and a 300 mm height were used for the test specimens. For the purpose of determining flexural strength, we analyzed the loads at which the beams failed. It has always been based on the average strength of three samples obtained at seven and 28 days after curing, while conducting testing. A concrete specimen was subjected to a water absorption test to see how efficiently it absorbed water in various weather conditions. Similar to the stress strength test specimens, the compression strength test specimens

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were also cast and cured in this manner. Drying time in an oven at 105 °C for twentyfour hours had elapsed for seven and 28 days, respectively. To ensure the accuracy of the results, the specimen weights (W1) were recorded using a digital weighing system after drying. They were then returned to the cure pond for another 24 h so that they may absorb up more water and heal. Weighing the specimens was necessary after 24 h in the water (W2).

4 Result and Discussion Thirty-six specimens were made for the tests of compressive strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength, and all of them passed well. Additionally, 12 samples were cast for water absorption testing. Indian standard codes IS 516-1959 and IS 5816: 1999 were used to conduct the testing [20]. Indian standard testing protocols were followed for the evaluation of bacterial culture mix concrete. Concrete samples’ strength and water absorption properties were examined in this experiment to see how the bacteria Bacillus subtilis influenced them. Seven and twenty-eight days after curing, all specimens were tested.

4.1 Compressive Strength We employed digital compression testing equipment with a 2000 kN capability to figure out the compressive strength of all twelve 150-mm-sided cubes, using the standard procedure outlined in IS: 516-1959. The cube is subjected to a 140 kg/cm2 /min force. Divide the failure load by the test cube’s surface area to get the compression strength. Figure 1 shows the average compressive strength of three specimens evaluated at 7 and 28 days after they were manufactured. Regular concrete samples as well as bacteria-infected samples show the same results. Bacillus subtilis-based concrete has shown to have a substantially greater compressive strength when tested than regular cement. About 105 cells per milliliter, compared to the ordinary concrete, is a lot more. Compressive strength of conventional concrete was 35.48 MPa, whereas the bacterial concrete was 39.82 MPa, which is higher than the conventional concrete. Calcite occurs in the concrete because of bacteria colonies and fill in cracks. This makes the concrete stronger. This method is responsible for the bacteria-infused concrete’s 12.23% boost in compressive strength. The strength of the conventional concrete and the bacterial concrete was 51.52 MPa and 58.11 MPa, respectively, after 28 days of testing. Bacterial concrete’s strength grew by nearly the same amount as conventional concrete after seven days of curing. The bacterial concrete’s strength increased by roughly the same amount as conventional concrete’s after 28 days of curing. This might be because the bacteria have already begun to build calcite in the majority of the created colonies.

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Compressive Strength, MPa

Fig. 1 Compressive strength of samples

7 Days

515 28 Days

60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Nominal Concrete

Bacterial Concrete

Samples

4.2 Split Tensile Strength To determine their splitting tensile strength, the 12 cylinders were cast and cured in water for seven and twenty-eight days, respectively. Both requirements were met with the use of a compression testing equipment. Tests on conventional and bacterial concretes are shown in Fig. 2. After seven and 28 days, a splitting tensile strength test revealed that bacteriabased concrete had superior strength to regular concrete. Tensile strength for splitting was improved, as was compression strength, but the tensile strength for splitting was 4

Fig. 2 Split tensile strength of samples

Split Tensile Strength, MPa

3.5

7 Days

28 Days

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Nominal Concrete

Bacteria Concrete

Samples

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weakened. At 7 and 28 days after it was prepared, a concrete mix containing a lot of bacteria was shown to be stronger. Spiking tensile strength increased the most by 8.46 and 9.83%. A coating of calcite has been grown up on the top of concrete samples, resulting in a boost in the splitting tensile strength of bacterial concrete. Bacterial calcite precipitation might entirely fill in the concrete’s holes.

4.3 Flexural Strength Twelve beams, each around 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm, have been made from standard and bacterial concretes. They have been cast and placed in a water tank for curing at intervals of seven and 28 days. Taking a section of the curing tank for curing and beam samples are taken out from the curing tank and testing it for flexural strength using the three-point load technique is required. In addition, you must document the magnitude of the beams’ failures. For testing materials’ flexibility and bending strength, devices like this one are employed. This is in accordance with IS 516-1959. Conventional and Bacillus subtilis bacterium concrete were tested and determined to be excellent, as shown in Fig. 3. Figure 3 indicates that the flexural strength of the concrete has improved almost as much as the compressive and breaking tensile strengths after seven and 28 days in the lab, indicating the utilization of Bacillus subtilis bacteria in concrete production. Bacillus subtilis-based concrete had 7.74% and 8.37% higher flexural strength after seven days of curing than after 28 days of curing. It is also the reason why bacterial concrete’s splitting strength increases. Bacteria deposit calcite on sample surfaces and produce calcite in concrete’s pores, both of which are sources of calcite. 8

Fig. 3 Flexural strength of samples

7 Days

28 Days

Flexural Strength, MPa

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Nominal Concrete

Bacterial Concrete

Samples

A Study of Effect of Bacteria on the Properties of Cement Concrete 8

Water Absorption capacity (%)

Fig. 4 Water Absorption values of samples

7 Days

517 28 Days

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Nominal Concrete

Bacterial Concrete

Samples

4.4 Water Absorption Water absorption for all 12 specimens with 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm dimensions was calculated using the method in IS: 1124-1974. After 24 h in the oven and another 24 h of curing in water and heat, we weighed each cube. The water absorption test was carried out in Fig. 4. Concrete is treated with Bacillus subtilis bacteria to reduce water absorption. As time went on, water absorption decreased by 12.34% and 14.48%, respectively, in the Bacillus cereus bacterial concrete. Water absorption in bacterial concrete was lower than in conventional concrete because of the accumulation of calcite crystals around the cells and on the surface. The water was found to be polluted by the findings of the testing. As a concrete matrix, microorganisms have proved highly efficient in making it less absorbable.

5 Conclusion Cement’s mechanical characteristics and water absorption were examined in this work using Bacillus subtilis bacterial solution. This study’s findings lead to the following conclusion: 1. Concrete cavities can be filled by Bacillus subtilis microorganisms. After 28 days, the compression strength improves by 12.23%. To put it simply, this is an enormous difference from typical concrete. 2. Concrete specimens with calcite layers applied to the surface had higher tensile, flexural, and splitting resistance. Studies performed after seven and twenty-eight

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days revealed that bacteria in the concrete increased splitting tensile strength by 8.46 and 9.83% and flexural strength by 7.74 and 8.37%, respectively. 3. Bacillus subtilis bacterial concrete’s water absorption has decreased significantly because of bacteria filling in the gaps. A 12.34% and a 14.48% lower water absorption in the concrete occurred at 7 and 28 days after pouring, respectively. 4. Thus, the bacillus subtilis bacteria may be employed to strengthen and enhance the durability of concrete.

References 1. Kumar Tiwari P, Sharma P, Sharma N, Verma M, Rohitash (2020) An experimental investigation on metakaoline GGBS based concrete with recycled coarse aggregate. Mater Today Proc xxxx. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.691 2. Sharma N, Verma M, Sharma P (2021) Influence of Lauric acid on mechanical properties of Portland cement. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 1116(1):012153. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757899x/1116/1/012153 3. Kishore K, Gupta N (2020) Mechanical characterization and assessment of composite geopolymer concrete. Mater Today Proc xxxx. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.06.319 4. Parashar AK, Gupta A (2020) Investigation of the effect of bagasse ash, hooked steel fibers and glass fibers on the mechanical properties of concrete. Mater Today Proc xxxx. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.10.711 5. Gupta A (2020) Investigation of the strength of ground granulated blast furnace slag based geopolymer composite with silica fume. Mater Today Proc xxxx. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. matpr.2020.06.010 6. Gupta A, Gupta N, Saxena KK (2021) Experimental study of the mechanical and durability properties of Slag and Calcined Clay based geopolymer composite. Adv Mater Process Technol. https://doi.org/10.1080/2374068X.2021.1948709 7. Nagar PA, Gupta N, Kishore K, Parashar AK (2020) Coupled effect of B. Sphaericus bacteria and calcined clay mineral on OPC concrete. Mater Today Proc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr. 2020.08.029 8. Sharma P, Verma M, Sharma N (2021) Examine the mechanical properties of recycled coarse aggregate with MK GGBS. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 1116(1):012152. https://doi.org/10. 1088/1757-899x/1116/1/012152 9. Shukla MK, Sharma K (2019) Effect of functionalized graphene/CNT ratio on the synergetic enhancement of mechanical and thermal properties of epoxy hybrid composite. Mater Res Expr 6(8):085318 10. Siddique R, Chahal NK (2011) Effect of ureolytic bacteria on concrete properties. Constr Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.04.010 11. Rukzon S, Chindaprasirt P & Design, and undefined (2012) Utilization of bagasse ash in high-strength concrete. Elsevier 12. Ferdous W et al (2020) Optimal design for epoxy polymer concrete based on mechanical properties and durability aspects. Constr Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat. 2019.117229 13. Chahal N, Siddique R (2013) Permeation properties of concrete made with fly ash and silica fume: influence of ureolytic bacteria. Constr Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbui ldmat.2013.08.023 14. Kadapure SA, Kulkarni GS, Prakash KB (2019) Study on properties of bacteria-embedded fly ash concrete. Asian J Civ Eng 20(5):627–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-019-00127-z

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15. Nain N, Surabhi R, Yathish NV, Krishnamurthy V, Deepa T, Tharannum S (2019) Enhancement in strength parameters of concrete by application of Bacillus bacteria. Constr Build Mater 202:904–908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.059 16. Hosseini Balam N, Mostofinejad D, Eftekhar M (2017) Effects of bacterial remediation on compressive strength, water absorption, and chloride permeability of lightweight aggregate concrete. Constr Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.003 17. Parashar AK, Gupta A (2021) Effects of the concentration of various bacillus family bacteria on the strength and durability properties of concrete: a review. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 1116(1):012162. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/1116/1/012162 18. Parashar AK, Gupta A (2021) Experimental study of the effect of bacillus megaterium bacteria on cement concrete 19. IS 516:2014 (2004) Method of tests for strength of concrete. IS 516-1959 (Reaffirmed 2004). New Delhi, India. https://doi.org/10.3403/02128947 20. IS 1199 (1959) Methods of sampling and analysis of concrete. Bur Indian Satandards

Effect of Bacillus Family Bacteria on the Mechanical and Durability Properties of Concrete Mix: A Review Arun Kumar Parashar and Prince Akash Nagar

Abstract Concrete is a building material that is widely utilized and is widespread; nevertheless, it has a number of problems, and one of them is the production of cracks in the concrete. The larger the fracture, the greater the chance that water and carbon dioxide will be able to enter the construction material. Once there, they will react with the other chemicals present, which will eventually result in a significant decrease in the material’s strength and durability. If immediate action is not done to repair the cracks, the damage may spread, resulting to larger cracks, more water loss, lower strength, and increased repair expenditures. If this occurs, it is imperative that prompt action can be taken to cure the cracks. This study’s objective is to provide an overview of the impact that varying concentrations of bacteria belonging to the Bacillus family have on the strength and durability characteristics of concrete. In the course of this research, the levels of bacteria concentration that were investigated ranged from 10° CFU to 108 . In addition, the therapeutic potential of various different bacteria that are members of the Bacillus family to treat them is investigated in this research. The process of repairing cracking in concrete by adding Bacillus family bacteria to the concrete mix and evaluating the effects of Bacillus family bacteria on the strength and durability qualities of the concrete is referred to as “self-healing,” and the term “self-healing” is used interchangeably with the phrase “self-healing.“ The method that results in self-healing concrete also goes by that name. Keywords Bacillus family bacteria · Compressive strength · Flexural strength · Split tensile strength · Water absorption

A. K. Parashar (B) Department of Civil Engineering, GLA University, Mathura 281406, India e-mail: [email protected] P. A. Nagar Department of Civil Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology Amity University Madhya Pradesh, Gwalior 474020, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_44

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1 Introduction Concrete is an important and commonly utilized material for construction since it can be put to use in a broad range of contexts and costs just a fraction of what some other building materials do. Concrete is a homogenous substance that is made up of cement, coarse aggregates, fine particles, and water in a specified ratio [1–4]. Concrete may be used for a variety of purposes, including building structures and roads. Cement is the component that is responsible for the cohesiveness of concrete, and the cement industry is the sector of the economy that is responsible for the production of cement. Concrete makes use of a variety of naturally available resources, such as water, coarse aggregate, and fine aggregate, all of which are accessible on a regional scale [5–7]. Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials in the world. The incorporation of water into newly mixed concrete hydrates the cement and makes the material more workable. Along with the addition of water, inorganic components known as aggregates are what give concrete its characteristic volume. When it comes to assessing the overall quality of concrete, the ratio of water to cement (sometimes written as w/c) is the single most essential aspect. It is estimated that a minimum water-to-cement ratio of 0.38 is necessary for the full hydration of cement, and additional water is added to fresh concrete in order to attain the requisite degree of workability. Concrete structures may develop early age cracking if there is a change in either the humidity or temperature. This creates an opportunity for potentially harmful degrading chemicals to penetrate the concrete, which, over time, may progressively lower the building’s strength and limit its lifespan [8]. Numerous research projects, each employing a distinct method, have been carried out with the purpose of overcoming the creation of cracks on the surface of concrete in order to lessen or get rid of the effect that these cracks have on the concrete. The research projects have been conducted in order to. In recent years, bacteria have been employed to raise the compressive strength of concrete and to boost the lifetime of concrete by reducing its permeability. Additionally, bacteria have been utilized to extend the longevity of concrete by increasing its compressive strength. Many researchers were used the bacteria for the repairing the cracks of concrete. Because calcium carbonate may be precipitated by bacteria under the right conditions, these microbes have the potential to be employed to repair cracks in ancient monuments [9, 10]. When bacteria are put to concrete, the final outcome is a precipitation of calcium carbonate inside the pores of the material. This is the case even if the bacteria are killed. As soon as bacteria are able to acquire water and oxygen via the freshly generated voids, the cracks in the concrete will start to seal up and disappear. The concrete will now be referred to be self-healing concrete after reaching this condition. It is one of the reasons why it enhances the qualities of concrete [11, 12] since the calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) that bacteria make is impermeable to water. Bacillus bacteria provide a nucleation site for the precipitation of calcium carbonate, and these bacteria are used in the creation of bacterial concretes. This is one of the reasons why these bacteria are employed. In addition to Bacillus pasteurii and Bacillus sphaericus, the manufacturing of the concrete also makes use

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of E. coli and a number of other types of bacteria. In the present investigation, a bacterium known as Bacillus subtilis served as the focus of the investigation, during which an effort was made to investigate it. The key benefit that comes from integrating bacteria into concrete is that these organisms have the capacity to precipitate calcite on a constant basis. The sources [13–17] provide more information on the microbiologically induced calcite precipitation (MICP) approach. Bacillus subtilis bacteria were used by Parashar et al. at a concentration of 108 cells/ml. They found that the bacteria enhanced the compressive strength while simultaneously reducing the value of water absorption [11]. Researchers R. Siddque and colleagues discovered that the bacteria improved the material’s compressive strength while at the same time reducing its water absorption and permeability [18]. This study was conducted with the intention of determining the effect that bacteria belonging to the Bacillus family have on the mechanical characteristics of concrete as well as the durability of concrete mix. Bacillus family bacteria like megaterium, subtilis, Sporosarcina pasteurii, and cereus have been studied and checked the effect of these bacteria on concrete mix. In the current investigation, bacterial concentrations ranging from 10° to 108 cells/ml were analyzed and compared (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Classification of bacteria

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2 Bactreia Bacterial species are examples of basic microorganisms that only have a single cell. Bacteria have a structure that is not too complex, despite the fact that they have a vast array of metabolic pathways. Bacteria belong to the kingdom of organisms known as prokaryotes since their bodies do not include any membrane-bound structures. Bacteria have the ability to survive under conditions that are considered to be exceedingly harsh. The four different types of bacteria that may be distinguished by their shapes are the spherical coccus, the rod-shaped bacillus, the spiral spirillum, and the comma-shaped vibrium. Bacteria are able to thrive in almost any environment. They make their homes in hostile conditions, places where the chances of survival are slim for any other species. Certain types of bacteria live on the inside of the bodies of other organisms, where they feed off of their hosts. In addition to their role in the production of nutrients, bacteria also play a role in the purification of water and the fixing of nitrogen. Bacteriology is a branch of biology that focuses on the in-laboratory study of microorganisms, specifically bacteria. Using biological agents as a means to induce self-healing characteristics in concrete may be a fruitful course of action. The researchers looked at how the Bacillus family affected the mechanical properties and the durability of the concrete. The selfhealing technology that is most likely to be successful is the one that is engaged as soon as any fractures in the concrete are discovered. Additionally, the self-healing technology may be used to fix or build and improve upon structures that have developed cracks. Autogenous healing techniques may be used to treat tiny micro-cracks in a way that is both prompt and efficient. The presence of bacteria in the concrete results in the formation of a layer of calcium carbonate inside the pores, demonstrating the presence of calcite precipitation [19]. The presence of microbes contributes to the concrete’s ability to maintain its high alkalinity. The bacteria-produced calcite precipitation increased the connection between the cement and the aggregates, and the sealing of voids and micro-cracks improved the durability of the concrete. Both of these effects were brought about by the bacteria. This bacterial precipitation may be able to repair micro-cracks with a width of less than 0.2 mm effectively; however, if the width of the micro-cracks surpasses 0.2 mm, the self-healing process is unable to fill the micro-cracks. The bacteria come out of their dormant condition when holes of any size appear in bacterium-induced concrete. This may happen at any point throughout the process. Because calcium carbonate heals the fractures in the concrete at the same rate as calcite precipitation happens, the concrete is able to self-heal. After the pores are shut, the bacteria go back to their dormant state where they hibernate. The procedure is carried out once more whenever a fracture forms in the concrete. The method through which bacteria function as long-lasting heals is known as Microbiologically Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2 Bacillus family bacteria name [20]

3 Result and Discussion 3.1 Effect of Bacteria on Mechanical Properties The compressive strength of concrete contributes to the overall durability of the material. As a consequence of this, it is a challenging endeavor for researchers to ascertain the whole potential of bioconcrete. The addition of bacteria to concrete and mortar resulted in a significant improvement in the compressive strength of the concrete. The fundamental concept behind this strategy is that calcium carbonate crystals will form on the biofilm and eventually fill the holes and pores therein. This will reduce the amount of oxygen, water, and other nutrients that are delivered to the bacteria, making it more difficult for the bacteria to reproduce. Either the bacterial cells perish or they undergo a metamorphosis into endospores, which then serve the purpose of organic fibers and increase the compressive strength of the concrete. In a number of tests, researchers looked at how the presence of microbes in concrete affected the overall strength of mortar and concrete. The concrete mixture in each of these tests was subjected to the addition of a variety of bacterial strains, and the results of each significant change were recorded. Bacillus subtilis bacteria were used in an effort to enhance the qualities of the concrete as well as to increase its durability [12]. There have been instances when bacterial concentrations of up to 108 cells/ml have been used. Bacillus subtilis

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bacteria were included into the concrete by Shradha Jena and colleagues at quantities ranging from 100 to 106 cells/ml. According to the experiments, there was an increase in strengths of up to 105 cells/ml. When compared to ordinary concrete, the compressive strength improved by 27.27% after 7 days, 29.59% at 14 days, and 32% at 28 days. However, the strength dropped beyond the concentration of 105 cell/ml. The addition of Bacillus subtilis bacteria to concrete results in the precipitation of calcite, which ultimately results in an increase in the concrete’s strength [21]. In order to assess the influence of the microbe on the strength utilizing a compressive strength test, Chereddy Sonali Sri Durga et al. favored employing Bacillus subtilis bacterium at a concentration of 108 cells/ml. When compared to regular concrete, the compressive strength of the concrete had increased by 22% after 28 days of testing [22]. In their study, Jonkers et al. used the Bacillus cohnii bacteria species, which increases the strength of concrete up to a certain cell concentration before progressively decreasing it [23]. The impact of bacteria on the mechanical properties of concrete was explored by Vighnesh Rameshkumar and colleagues. They used metakaolin pozzolan partly replaced by cement and Bacillus megaterium bacteria at a concentration of 105 cells/ml. The results of the tests showed that the strength properties of the concrete had significantly improved. A combination of metakaolin and the bacterium Bacillus megaterium was used to pack the gaps in the concrete while also providing the calcium carbonates that were needed for the composition of the concrete [24]. Bacillus megaterium bacteria were used in the compressive strength, flexural strength, and split tensile strength tests that were conducted by V. Nagarajan and colleagues. The bacteria were present in concentrations of (103 , 105 , and 107 cells/ml). The results showed that bacterial concrete had a high level of strength. According to the data, the flexural, compressive, and split tensile strengths all rose until the concentration reached 105 cells/ml, at which point they started to decrease [25]. This was the case for all three strengths. Using Bacillus sphaericus and pasteurii bacteria in addition to fly ash as cement replacements at 10%, 20%, and 30% by weight of cement, Jagannathan et al. (2018) found that the mechanical qualities of the concrete were improved. These percentages were based on the weight of the cement. Compressive, flexural, and split tensile strengths were all enhanced by 10.72%, 5.28%, and 29.21%, respectively, when compared to standard concrete [16]. Gavimath and colleagues produced a concrete mix that included Bacillus sphaericus bacteria as a self-healing component. After three days, the compression strength increased by 31.15%, 45.88% after seven days, and 31.88% after twenty-eight days. After being tested for 3, 7, and 28 days, the split tensile strength increased by 14.12%, 13.95%, and 19.01%, respectively [26].

3.2 Effect of Bacteria on Durability Properties The rate at which liquid is absorbed by concrete mix is determined by its permeability, which is a physical property of concrete mix. Because dangerous substances mixed with water are capable of penetrating concrete if the concrete mass has a higher

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permeability, this factor is responsible for a significant portion of the determination of how long concrete will last. Porosity in concrete may be attributed to a number of factors, including the development of microscopic fractures, air pockets that were left behind as a result of improper compaction, space that was created as a result of the loss of moisture, an inadequate water-to-cement ratio, and improper curing. It has been shown that the incorporation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) into concrete samples helps to lessen the material’s permeability. The researchers Gavimath C et al. observed that infusing fly ash concrete with S. pasteurii bacteria decreased porosity and permeability in test specimens. The decrease in water absorption that was seen in concrete was traced back to the introduction of bacteria into water at a concentration of 105 cells/ml [27]. Navneet Chahal and colleagues used fly ash as a partial substitute (10–30%) for cement, and they used Bacillus sp. bacteria at a concentration ranging from 0 to 107 cells/ml in order to conduct the rapid chloride penetration and water absorption test in order to investigate the durability. According to the findings of the experiments, there was a reduction in the amount of water absorbed at a concentration of 105 cells/ml [19]. This was the case. Tests for water permeability, fast chloride uptake, and water absorption were all carried out by N. Balam. They used a bacterial culture with 106 cells per milliliter of S. pasteurii as the stain. As a consequence of this, they came to the realization that the permeability of chloride and the absorption of water had both dropped by a respective 21.1 and 10.2 percent. In addition to this, they mentioned that the porosity of the LWAC sample with bacteria is decreased and compacted in comparison to the concrete that was just mixed with bacteria [12]. The bacteria known as Bacillus sphaericus were used by De Muynck W. for the purpose of research. According to the findings of the research, the formation of surface layers of carbonate crystals may limit chloride migration by between 10 and 40%. It was determined that bacteria-containing concrete had an average number of coulombs that was 11.7% lower than non-bacterial-containing concrete’s [13] average number of coulombs. Tests for chloride penetration, water absorption, carbonation depth, and water penetration depth were carried out by Farnaz Salmasi and colleagues. They used Bacillus subtilis bacteria at a concentration of 107 cells/ml to evaluate the durability properties of the material. According to the results of the tests, the use of bacteria in concrete resulted in a reduction in the amount of chloride penetration, water absorption, carbonation depth, and water penetration depth of 20, 5, 27, 2, and 44.3%, respectively, as compared to controlled concrete [28].

4 Conclusion The purpose of this research paper is to provide a concise summary of the many different kinds of bacteria, their morphology, and the characteristics of self-healing concrete. One of the primary objectives was to get an understanding of the fundamental mechanism that underlies the contribution that urease-generating bacteria may make to the process of fracture healing. It reveals how the presence of bacterial samples may have a major influence on the mechanical and durability qualities of

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concrete. This was shown by the results of this study. Because bacteria have the ability to close up pores, the proportion of water and chloride that may pass through concrete is significantly decreased when bacterial samples are present in the material. The resistance of concrete to damage caused by cycles of freezing and thawing may be improved by the use of biological interactions, such as those involving bacteria. 1. Following are some of the conclusions that can be derived from an investigation on the impact of bacteria belonging to the Bacillus family on the mechanical properties and longevity of concrete at concentrations ranging from 100 cells/ml to 108 cells/ml. 2. The addition of bacteria to concrete reduced the water permeability of the material because the bacteria sealed the holes already present in the concrete. 3. The use of bacteria in concrete led to an increase in the material’s compressive strength. 4. The calcite precipitation process of bacteria in concrete extends the lifespan of the concrete, and bacteria are also used to heal fractures in the concrete.

References 1. Kishore K, Gupta N (2019) Application of domestic and industrial waste materials in concrete: a review. Mater Today Proc 26(xxxx):2926–2931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.604 2. Shukla A, Gupta N, Gupta A (2019) Development of green concrete using waste marble dust. Mater Today Proc 26(xxxx):2590–2594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.548 3. Sharma P, Verma M, Sharma N (2021) Examine the mechanical properties of recycled coarse aggregate with MK GGBS. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 1116(1):012152. https://doi.org/10. 1088/1757-899x/1116/1/012152 4. Gupta A (2020) Investigation of the strength of ground granulated blast furnace slag based geopolymer composite with silica fume. Mater Today Proc xxxx. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. matpr.2020.06.010 5. Gupta A, Gupta N, Shukla A, Goyal R, Kumar S (2020) Utilization of recycled aggregate, plastic, glass waste and coconut shells in concrete—a review. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 804(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/804/1/012034 6. Sharma P, Sharma N, Singh P, Verma M, Parihar HS (2020) Examine the effect of setting time and compressive strength of cement mortar paste using iminodiacetic acid. Mater Today Proc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.336 7. Kishore K, Gupta N (2019) Experimental analysis on comparison of compressive strength prepared with steel tin cans and steel fibre. Int J Res Appl Sci Eng Technol 7(Iv):169–172 8. Shukla A, Gupta N (2020) Study on the efficacy of natural pozzolans in cement mortar. RILEM Bookseries 25:469–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2806-4_54 9. Kong D, Lei T, Zheng J, Ma C, Jiang J, and undefined (2010) Effect and mechanism of surface-coating pozzalanics materials around aggregate on properties and ITZ microstructure of recycled aggregate concrete. Elsevier 10. Parashar AK, Gupta A (2021) Experimental study of the effect of bacillus megaterium bacteria on cement concrete 11. Parashar AK, Gupta N, Kishore K, Nagar PA (2020) An experimental investigation on mechanical properties of calcined clay concrete embedded with bacillus subtilis. Mater Today Proc, 0–6, Oct 20200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.08.031

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12. Hosseini Balam N, Mostofinejad D, Eftekhar M (2017) Effects of bacterial remediation on compressive strength, water absorption, and chloride permeability of lightweight aggregate concrete. Constr Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.003 13. De Muynck W, Debrouwer D, De Belie N, Verstraete W (2008) Bacterial carbonate precipitation improves the durability of cementitious materials. Cem Concr Res 38(7):1005–1014. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2008.03.005 14. Gupta S, Pang SD, Kua HW (2017) Autonomous healing in concrete by bio-based healing agents—a review. Constr Build Mater 146:419–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat. 2017.04.111 15. Siddique R et al (2017) Effect of bacteria on strength, permeation characteristics and microstructure of silica fume concrete. Constr Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat. 2017.03.057 16. Jagannathan P, Satya Narayanan KS, Arunachalam KD, Annamalai SK (2018) Studies on the mechanical properties of bacterial concrete with two bacterial species. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.matpr.2017.12.320 17. Madhu Sudana Reddy B, Revathi D (2019) An experimental study on effect of Bacillus sphaericus bacteria in crack filling and strength enhancement of concrete. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. matpr.2019.08.135 18. Siddique R et al (2016) Influence of bacteria on compressive strength and permeation properties of concrete made with cement baghouse filter dust. Constr Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.conbuildmat.2015.12.112 19. Chahal N, Siddique R, Rajor A (2012) Influence of bacteria on the compressive strength, water absorption and rapid chloride permeability of fly ash concrete. Constr Build Mater. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.07.042 20. Rajeshkumar S, Jeevitha M, Sheba D, Nagalingam M (2022) Bacterial and fungal mediated synthesis, characterization and applications of AgNPs. In: Agri-Waste and microbes for production of sustainable nanomaterials 21. Jena S, Basa B, Panda KC, Sahoo NK (2020) Impact of Bacillus subtilis bacterium on the properties of concrete. Mater Today Proc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.129 22. Durga CSS, Ruben N, Chand MSR, Venkatesh C (2020) Performance studies on rate of self healing in bio concrete. Mater. Today Proc 27(xxxx):158–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr. 2019.09.151 23. Jonkers HM, Thijssen A, Muyzer G, Copuroglu O, Schlangen E (2010) Application of bacteria as self-healing agent for the development of sustainable concrete. Ecol Eng. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.ecoleng.2008.12.036 24. Rameshkumar V, Prabhath Ranjan Kumar S, Poornima V, Venkatasubramani R, Sreevidya V (2020) Improvements in mechanical and durability parameters of bio-engineered concrete with metakaolin as a partial substitute for cement. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 0(0):1–14. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/19648189.2020.1767696 25. Nagarajan V, Prabhu TK, Shankar MG, Jagadesh P (2017) A study on the strength of the bacterial concrete embedded with Bacillus Megaterium. Int Res J Eng Technol 4(12):1784– 1788 26. Gandhimathi A, Suji D, Elayarajah B (2015) Bacterial concrete: Development of concrete to increase the compressive and split-tensile strength using bacillus sphaericus. Int J Appl Eng Res 27. Gavimath CC et al. (2012) Potential application of bacteria to improve the strength of cement concrete. Int J Adv Biotechnol Res 28. Salmasi F, Mostofinejad D (2020) Investigating the effects of bacterial activity on compressive strength and durability of natural lightweight aggregate concrete reinforced with steel fibers. Constr Build Mater 251:119032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119032

Manpower Optimization by Using Plant Simulation in the Automotive Industry Varun Kumar, Piyush Agarwal, Milan Uniyal, and Ravikumar Dumpala

Abstract This case study is taken from the production line of a tier-one automotive component supplier that produces fuel injection pumps. The purpose of this study is manpower optimization in the production line to have an optimal number of workers assigned to each activity or task. Manpower optimization is an essential tool to maximize profit and increase the productivity of manpower. For this work, discrete event simulation using plant simulation software has been utilized for simulating different scenarios for optimizing manpower utilization. In this study, series and parallel production lines were modeled and simulated, and increased productivity of the worker was achieved by using a multi-machine working scenario in the proposed model. This results in improved worker productivity for series and parallel production lines by up to 96.57% and 78.27%, respectively. Keywords Plant simulation · Multi-machine working · Manpower productivity · Worker

1 Introduction For manufacturing industries, optimization of the resources, and increasing productivity of the production line, a minimum number of manpower/workers is one of the important aspects of businesses. A production line is made up of machines connected in series, parallel, and series–parallel combinations. If any machine fails in a series production line, i.e., all machines have a different process, then the entire production line is forced to shut down, and no productivity is achieved from the line. In the case of a parallel production line, all machines have the same processes, and if any V. Kumar (B) · R. Dumpala Department of Mechanical Engineering, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur 440010, India e-mail: [email protected] P. Agarwal · M. Uniyal Industrial Engineering Department, BOSCH Limited, Jaipur 302022, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_45

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machine undergoes maintenance or failure, then productivity becomes half instead of reducing to zero [1]. For optimizing the production line, multi-machine working is one of the most sought-after methods. Multi-machine working is one in which a particular operator simultaneously attends to two or more machines or activity and thereby minimizes idle time. Prerequisites for considering multi-machine working include (1) the presence of inherent waiting time in workers’ time charts, (2) the possibility of a spatial combination of different activities, (3) working conditions adhere to principles of multi-station working, and (4) the job process can be completed according to the plans [2]. To consider multiple design possibilities for the production systems, simulation scenarios and expert systems are used. The viability of each simulation scenario is estimated with parameters such as measuring machine usage, waiting time, and throughput based on simulation trials. Uncertainty in production systems layout may have a considerable impact on the efficiency of a plant. Implementing any small or big changes in the production line is an arduous task. Before implementing any changes in an actual production line, modeling and simulating the modified production line in the simulation software are advisable to check the feasibility of the production line. For this purpose, simulation is very esteem and worthy tool in the production system [3]. Plant simulation is performed to simulate independent events. It develops digital models of transportation systems and improves the manufacturing process and various logistics operations. The use of plant simulation to model the nail manufacturing process is carried out by the authors. Analysis of simulation results led to the identification of bottlenecks in the entire manufacturing operation. It allows for the testing of optimization strategies and leads to the possibility of improving the plant’s throughput. It helps to increase the overall flow capacity by placing an additional grinding workstation on the manufacturing line. The result provides an improvement in productivity by up to 70% within 24 h [4]. Single worker in multi-machine operating criteria is a significant part of the work analysis, as it draws attention to the utilization of both workers and machines. A mathematical model was formulated to examine the variations in the efficiency of workers and machines. These variations are caused by the difference in machine allocation rate. A method is proposed to design a simulation model for a single worker and two machines system. The author successfully solves the distortion problem by adding simulated workstations. The identical outcome demonstrates that the simulation’s goal has been met [5, 6]. Boruvka et al. described how simulation was used to analyze the capacity of production lines. It determines how individual workstation failure impacts entire throughput and efficiency. In regard, an experiment was performed to examine the minimum number of trays needed for optimal manufacturing line utilization. It was proved using specific examples that eradicating 5% of bottlenecks results in a 5% increase in productivity [7]. Borojevic et al. presented an intriguing implementation of the plant simulation program. Crankshaft manufacturing and assembly for saw engines were simulated.

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Simulations enabled the identification of production process bottlenecks, demonstration of inefficiencies of certain workstations, and the reduction of overall process length. Based on the results, implementations of buffers for storing created components, eliminating unproductive workstations, minimizing the time used for moving material between workstations, and introducing more machines were proposed. All the proposed improvements significantly reduced the time for processing items at each workstation. The study resulted in the overall manufacturing process being optimized [8]. Therefore, the objective of the study is the optimization of manpower in automotive supplier tier-one companies by using plant simulation software and minimizing the idle time of manpower by applying multi-machine working scenarios in the two types of production lines, i.e., series and parallel.

2 Methodology According to the VDI (the association of German engineers) guideline, 3633 industry standard was used for modeling, simulation, and optimization in the production system development (Fig. 1) [9]. There are currently several tools for performing computer simulations that are used for the creation of simulation models. Simulations are used to lower the chance of failure when considering the enormous changes in the manufacturing line. The model of a system describes its features and constraints, as well as how the process occurs under specified conditions. Simulation, using appropriate tools, allows a simple and low-cost method of verifying several variants associated with the operation of the processes. In the current study, plant simulation software was used for the simulation. Fig. 1 Methodology for simulation according to VDI 3633 industry standard

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The dynamics and hierarchical structure of the plant simulation software utilized in the case study show potential to work with models. It also helps to change existing models as well as constructive material flow simulation models that can replicate the range of logistics and manufacturing systems working on varied principles. The library has a wide range of active and passive material flow products. The flow of material, data flows, resources, user interface, movable units, utilities, and models are among the library’s hierarchically structured folders.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Automotive Supplier Case Study The present study has been done in collaboration with a multinational company. The company is an original equipment manufacturer and a leading supplier of tier-one automotive parts. The company is looking to improve its production by increasing the productivity of the worker and optimizing manpower for series and parallel configuration of the production line. Several scenarios of discrete event simulations were carried out to assess the shop floor layout and recommend changes. All the simulations were done for single shift duration, i.e., a simulation run of 480 min.

3.1.1

Series Production Line

In the series production line, the processes which are fully automated are internal diameter (ID) grinding and hard turning, whereas the process of inspection is done manually. Time study is carried out to collect the real data from the shop floor. Data such as processing time, set-up time, failure time, and loading time for all the workstations are shown in Table 1. In the existing scenario for series configuration, two men are operating two separate fully automatic machines. Figure 2a depicts the material flow for the component A. The material flow starts from the supermarket station and moves through machine-1, i.e., the internal diameter grinding machine, to machine-2, i.e., the hard turning machine. The process for inspection is done through acceptance sampling, where only 25% of the parts undergo inspection after the ID grinding. Figure 2b shows the utilization of the ID grinding machine, inspection station, and hard turning machine. Different color codes are used to indicate the current working state of the machine. Figure 2c shows the utilization of worker-A and worker-B, and different color codes are used to indicate work content. Each worker has ample idle time, indicated by the gray color in the bar diagram, as shown in Fig. 2c. For the given series configuration, the productivity of each worker is 436 parts per shift. In the proposed model, a single worker can handle two machines simultaneously due to the availability of idle time. By using the available idle time, the productivity

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Table 1 Data for component A production line Machine/activity

ID grinding

Inspection of 25% parts

Hard turning

Processing time (s)

24.18

15

23.88

Set-up time (min)

14

0

9.2

Failure time (min)

30.5

0

24.8

Loading time (s)

55

2

0

Fig. 2 a Component A production line with two operators, b resource utilization, and c worker utilization

of workers increases. Furthermore, the distance between workstations is minimized, allowing workers to utilize the machine without interruption. Figure 3a shows the results for increased productivity of the worker and increased throughput of the series line. By using the multi-station worker concept, the productivity of workers increased by 96.57%. Figure 3c shows the utilization of workers, which increased by 30.88% per shift.

3.1.2

Parallel Production Line

In the existing parallel configuration of the production line scenario, two men separately operate two fully automatic machines, as shown in Fig. 4a. Half of the total material flows from the automatic grinding station (St), and the remaining half moves

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Fig. 3 a Component A production line with one operator, b resource utilization, and c worker utilization

from another automatic grinding station (St1). Once the material is fully ground, the ground material undergoes full visual inspection (VI) at stations VI1 and VI2 from St and St1, respectively. Table 2 shows the activity time for a parallel production line for each of the workstations. The total throughput per shift for the parallel production line is 488 units. The productivity of each worker is 244 units per shift. Figure 3b shows the utilization of all the automatic machines and manual stations. Figure 3c shows the time utilization of both workers, and it can be seen that both workers are busy 27.6 and 25.71% of shift time. In the proposed model, a multi-machine working scenario is applied in a parallel production line, leading to all the manual work done by one operator. Additionally, the distance between the machines should be minimized so workers can operate the machine without any disruption. Figure 5a shows one worker which is operating several machines simultaneously. Hence, the productivity of the worker per shift increases to 435. Figure 5b depicts the utilization of both the grinding machines (st1 and st2) and the visual inspection workstations (VI1 and VI2). The utilization of workers also increased by 78.27%, as shown in Fig. 5c. The proposed study was done to understand the effects of multi-machine working on a series line and parallel line layout. Discrete event simulations for parallel and series scenarios were conducted. The obtained results provided insights for improving worker productivity. Figure 6 shows the productivity of workers per shift in the existing and proposed model of series and parallel lines. Worker productivity is

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Fig. 4 a Component B production line with two operators, b resource utilization, and c worker utilization

Table 2 Data for the component B production line Machine/activity

St

VI1

St1

VI2

Processing time (s)

86.9

10.8

85.55

10.8

Set-up time (min)

22

0

22

0

Failure time (min)

56

0

44

0

Loading time (s)

25

0

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impacted by such factors are absenteeism, unskilled, and working environment. In the proposed model, workers’ productivity nearly doubled because of the reduction in idle time and the number of workers in the production line. The unnecessary movement of workers is reduced because of a decrease in distance between two machines. This means that manufacturing workstations and machines are organized in a way that allows materials to flow smoothly through the manufacturing process.

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Fig. 5 a Component B production line with one operator, b resource utilization, and c worker utilization

Fig. 6 Productivity of worker per shift for a current and proposed model for series and parallel line

4 Conclusions The present study shows the benefits of multi-machine concept implementation in a production line. The following benefits were obtained to optimize manpower in terms of productivity. Due to multi-machine working, ideal time available with worker was reduced. The shop floor layout was improved with better space utilization. Improvised arrangement of machines led to the reduction in the distance between machines. Also, simulation model results provided insights into the needed dimensions of the

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manufacturing facility that fulfill the process plan’s criteria of shortest traveling of the work-piece and next workstation visibility.

References 1. Freiheit T, Shpitalni M, Hu SJ (2004) Productivity of paced parallel-serial manufacturing lines with and without crossover. J Manuf Sci Eng Trans ASME 126(2):361–367. https://doi.org/10. 1115/1.1688372 2. Cigolini R, Grando A (2009) Modelling capacity and productivity of multi-machine systems. Prod Plan Control 20(1):30–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/09537280802627969 3. Chavarría-Barrientos D et al (2018) A methodology to support manufacturing system design using digital models and simulations: an automotive supplier case study. IFAC-PapersOnLine 51(11):1598–1603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2018.08.267 4. Siderska J (2016) Application of tecnomatix plant simulation for modeling production and logistics processes. Bus Manage Educ 14(1):64–73. https://doi.org/10.3846/bme.2016.316 5. Liu JF, Chen M, Qi XL (2014) Analysis and simulation of one worker with multi-machine mode. Adv Mater Res 889–890:1227–1230. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR. 889-890.1227 6. Liu LW et al (1989) A queueing model of a production system Queueing Syst 4:339–349 7. Boruvka T, Manlig J, Kloud F (2011). Computer Simulation of the assembly line—Case study. In: Carpathian logistics congress CLC. 87–90 University of Novi Sad, Serbia, pp 24–28 8. Borojevic S, Jovisevic V, Jokanovic S (2009) Modeling, simulation and optimization of process planning. J Prod Eng 12(1):9–12 9. Bangsow S (2010) Manufacturing simulation with plant simulation and SimTalk. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-05074-9

Measurement of Eviscerated Eye for Retinal Prosthesis—A New Approach Niranjan Sudhakar Deshmukh, A. S. Todkar, and Hemant Katakkar

Abstract A retinal prosthesis is a type of bionic (bio-mechanical) eye. This device is an implantable mechatronic device that can be embedded in the eye socket after the evisceration of a damaged eye. Eviscerated eye surface has complex topography. This surface is to be carefully measured for comfortable fitting of prosthesis. Prominent techniques used to evaluate the eviscerated eye surface are: impression method, optical coherence tomography (OCT), eye surface profiler (ESP) and Pentacam corneal scleral profile (CSP). A comparison of the accuracy of these techniques is presented in order to offer a cost-effective, less time-consuming, and cheaper solution. The study will assist in advancement of intraocular prosthesis. Most of the research in this field is done in Europe and USA, while in India the acquired technology is used. The objective of this study is to develop necessary technology in India to promote economical solution, viable in Indian subcontinent. Pneumatic scanning of eye surface is suggested new approach. The authors propose to perform experimentation for this technique in time to come. Keywords Retinal prosthesis · Eye socket measurement · Optical/pneumatic scan

1 Introduction India is home to 20% of world’s visually impaired persons [1]. It is estimated that at least 200,000 children in India have severe visual impairment or blindness and approximately 15,000 are in schools for the blind [2]. Living with a visual impairment is difficult and often leads to isolated living. Apropos of loss of sight is a challenging N. S. Deshmukh (B) · H. Katakkar Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Jawaharlal Nehru Institute of Technology, Pune, Maharashtra, India e-mail: [email protected] A. S. Todkar TKIET, Warnanagar, Maharashtra, India H. Katakkar Akademika Lab Solutions, Pune, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_46

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situation. The absence of reassurance at medical centers, the limited accessibility to activities and information, the disfigurement resulting in the lack of unemployment are some of the factors which often cause the blind or low vision individuals live in isolation [3]. People with blindness usually suffer from denial, grudge, low selfesteem, nervousness, abjection, and similar emotional problems because of their incapacity in comparison to people with intact vision or due to the feeling of low confidence [4]. The price of a single prosthetic eye (cosmetic) in India can be around Rs. 15,000– Rs. 30,000 and above. However, the cost of the surgery also gets counted in [5]. The price of a single bionic eye (with vision) in India is about 2,210,000. The cost of surgery and training is extra [6]. The research gap in pneumatic scanning of eviscerated eye surface for the purpose of producing eye prosthesis is proposed in this paper. Experimentation for this approach will be carried out near future to analyze and synthesize cheaper solutions of ocular prosthesis (cosmetic as well as with vision) suitable for persons in Indian subcontinents by leveraging the advancements in Mechanical Engineering. A non-woven polymer material will be used to for experimentation along with Bio Chemazone to produce realistic scleral surface.

2 Ocular Prosthesis The medical definition of ocular prosthesis as given in MedicineNet [7] is as follows: 1. ‘An artificial replacement for an eyeball. In other words, an artificial eye, a globe of glass or plastic colored so it looks like an eyeball.’ 2. ‘In the strict sense, any artificial aid to vision such as, for example, a pair of eyeglasses or a plastic lens inserted in the place of a lens densely clouded by a cataract.’

2.1 Ocular Prosthesis for Real-Life Application An ocular prosthesis is a shell-type structure that can be inserted in the operated eye [8]. According to the ‘Eye & Ear Foundation of Pittsburgh,’ regeneration of optic nerve is possible [9]; however, the decision of eye removal method depends on possibility of malignancy in the eye bulb. If the eye bulb is free from malignancy, evisceration is the preferred method as it leaves the optic nerve intact [10]. In either case, cosmetic eye prosthesis is a promising solution to ensure the near-normal appearance of the affected person.

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2.2 Making of an Ocular Prosthesis Anatomy of right human eye is shown in Fig. 1 for clarification of further text. During evisceration, the intraocular contents of affected eye are removed. At the time of this procedure, most of the scleral shell, extraocular muscles that aid in the mobility of the eye ball (and later, the mobility of prosthesis to some extent) and surrounding orbital tissues (including optic nerve ending) are preserved [11]. The sclera (white of eyeball) of the damaged eye is scraped, and the eyeball is opened with a horizontal cut by disengaging the muscles, which are connected to the sclera. The vitreous body (humors) is removed from the eyeball. A spherical shaped implant made (usually from polymethyl methacrylate [PMMA]) is then placed into the cavity to restore lost volume. This implant is wrapped with living tissue, and the wound is closed. The resulting surface is uneven due to stitches. 1. A mold of the resultant eye surface is made using alginate and body temperature wax. 2. Prosthesis is made using this mold. The ‘fitting’ of prosthesis is done with several trials.

Fig. 1 Anatomy of human eye [12]

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3 Measurement of Eviscerated/Enucleated Eye Topography Making of an ocular prosthesis is a time-consuming process. The actual process is of about four hours; however, the exact fitting of prosthesis and achieving patients’ comfort condition can take up to a week with two to three hour sittings every day.

3.1 Current Method The process starts by making an impression of operated eye. There are numerous methods such as direct and/or external impression, stock ocular tray modification, custom ocular tray, and wax scleral blank technique [13]. A plaster mold is made using the impression. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA— this is a white powder mixed with monomer in liquid form) is used to make a prosthetic shape. Polymerization is a process in which the prepared prosthetic shape is immersed in a flask for certain period at high temperature and pressure. The ‘white form’ is then polished and reshaped to exact measurements. A trial at this stage is carried out to check comfort condition of the operated person [14]. The person is made to look at a distance of about half meter to his/her right, left, bottom, top and in a combination of these positions rapidly. The ocularist photographs the prosthetic positions and repolishes some of the contours. The prosthetic is then ‘painted’ with of colors’ vegetable origin and fine silk threads. A thin coat of resin is applied over the painted prosthetic, and it is cured for the required hardness. The person is asked to wear the prosthetic, and necessary adjustments are made over a period of one week till the comfort condition for the patient is reached.

3.2 Optical Scanning as an Alternative Method The eviscerated eye has an uneven surface as shown in Fig. 2 [11]. When the prosthetic is mounted in the eye, this surface rubs against the interior of the prosthetic shell unless the internal contour of the shell is an exact replica of the eviscerated eye and the shell fits snugly over the eye surface. When the shell’s internal surface is the exact copy of the eye, the shell moves along with the eye movement and the person experiences no irritation. The purpose of 3D optical scanning is to develop an accurate measure of the internal surface of the shell. A non-contact 3D scanner can be used for scanning the eviscerated eye, using surrounding natural light. A schematic illustration of such a possible method is shown in Fig. 3. This technique can be used to map the eviscerated eye surface. The result will be highly accurate and will generate required number

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Fig. 2 Eviscerated eye after surgery [12]

of points (data). Subsequently, this data can be fed as input to a 3D printer. The 3D printer will print the ‘white form’ precisely. Passive scanners do not use self-emitted radiations. These detect reflected ambient radiation. Most scanners of this type are capable of detecting visible light which is a readily available form of ambient radiation. Passive methods can be very cheap and need simple digital cameras [16]. The Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics Research IGD has used Cuttlefish: Eye, which is proprietary software to 3D-print a prosthetic eye [17]. The Optical Coherence Tomography ophthalmic scanner is used for the contour mapping of the operated eye. Fig. 3 Schematic illustration of optical scanning of eviscerated eye [15]

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Fig. 4 Table 1 Graphical comparison of various scanning methods of eviscerated/enucleated eye for accuracy

3.3 Graphical Comparison of Various Scanning Methods of Eviscerated/Enucleated Eye See Fig. 4.

3.4 Implications of the Different Scanning Methods of Eviscerated/Enucleated Eye Topography The impression techniques’ scanning method is among the most commonly used ones since is cheaper than other methods. This is because it does not require expensive, sophisticated instruments. However, impression techniques are time consuming. While the cornea scleral profile (CSP) method is accurate and direct dimensional data is available, it is quite expensive. Further, the technicians need to be highly skilled/trained, which puts additional pressure on resources. Like CSP, the eye surface profiler (ESP) method is highly accurate. Also, less trials are required and direct dimensional data is readily available, but the success of this method could be affected by the secretion of tears.

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Fig. 5 Schematic illustration of pneumatic scanning of eviscerated eye

Finally, in the optical coherence tomography (OCT) method, data is not directly available in dimensional/graphical form and therefor, needs to be converted for dimensional value for developing a 3D model, which makes its use time consuming.

3.5 Pneumatic Scanning as an Alternative Method Schematic illustration of pneumatic scanning of eviscerated eye is shown in Fig. 5. Pneumatic scanning is proposed for the measurement of the eviscerated eye. This process will be contactless in case of optical scanning. With pneumatic scanning, the optimum air pressure will be used. The air pressure will be comparable to tonometric measurements (less than 10 mm of Hg, equivalent to 0.013 bar). The dimension data thus obtained will be used to produce prosthetic eyes. The accuracy of this prosthesis will be checked with a conventionally made prosthesis for which ‘fitting’ is completed.

4 Conclusion This paper is aimed to explore and collate data on the various methods and processes that can be employed to measure the contour of an eviscerated eye. Additionally, the paper introduced two alternative methods, optical scanning and pneumatic scanning, to improve the accuracy of the prosthetic.

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The two proposed methods are still new in the field of ocular prosthesis. However, the findings of the study initiated by the Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics Research IGD undoubtedly have the potential to radically change the manufacturing methods of ocular prosthesis. Statistics to back up this assertion have not been released in the public domain as of May 2022. In the future, the authors wish to develop these ideas further.

References 1. Garewal NS (2022). India home to 20 per cent of world’s visually impaired. The Tribune. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/nation/india-home-to-20-per-cent-of-world-svisually-impaired-738048#:~:text=Giving%20out%20specifics%20Daniel%20said,Global% 20Estimates%20of%20Visual%20Impairment 2. Rahi JS, Sripathi S, Gilbert CE, Foster A (1995) Childhood blindness in India: causes in 1318 blind school students in nine states. Eye 9:545–550. https://doi.org/10.1038/eye.1995.137 3. Envision (2019) Challenges blind people face when living life. https://www.letsenvision.com/ blog/challenges-blind-people-face-when-living-life 4. Lindo G, Nordholm L (1999) Adaptation strategies, well-being, and activities of daily living among people with low vision. J Vis Impair Blind 93(7):434–446. https://doi.org/10.1177/014 5482X9909300709 5. Agarwal A (2020) Artificial eye: treatment, cost and side effects. Lybrate. https://www.lybrate. com/topic/artificial-eye 6. Verma S (2011) Indian scientist develops device to restore eyesight. India Today. https:// www.indiatoday.in/india/story/bionic-eye-a-device-developed-to-restore-eyesight-of-blinds132324-2011-04-18 7. Davis CP (2021). Medical definition of prosthetic. MedicineNet. https://www.medicinenet. com/prosthetic/definition.htm 8. Piercy R (2015) Prosthetic eye treatment for evisceration surgery. Ocular Prosthetics Inc. https:// ocularpro.com/prosthetic-eye-treatment-for-evisceration-surgery/ 9. The Eye and Ear Foundation of Pittsburgh (2020) Regenerating the optic nerve. https://eyeand ear.org/2020/02/regenerating-the-optic-nerve/ 10. Phan LT, Hwang TN, McCulley TJ (2012) Evisceration in the modern age. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol 19(1):24–33. https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-9233.92113 11. Yom KH, Ricca AM, Shriver EM, Ko AC (2018) Enucleation and evisceration: what to expect. EyeRounds.org, The University of Iowa. https://webeye.ophth.uiowa.edu/eyeforum/ cases/279-anophthalmic-socket.htm#:~:text=In%20an%20evisceration%2C%20the%20impl ant,then%20closed%20over%20the%20implant 12. Central Florida Retina (2022) Eye anatomy. https://www.centralfloridaretina.com/patient-res ources/education/eye-anatomy/ 13. Ravi Shankar Y, Srinivas K, Singh M, Wangoo A (2013) A new procedure for the fabrication of custom ocular prosthesis—A case report. Dental J Adv Stud 1(1):49–52. https://doi.org/10. 1055/s-0038-1670595 14. Dalpasso Protesi Oculari (n. d.) How we make an ocular prosthesis. https://www.dalpasso.it/ en/info/how-we-make-an-ocular-prosthesis/ 15. Automation Technology GmbH (2021) 3D sensors with ultra-HD-resolution. https://www.aut omationtechnology.de/cms/en/c5-series-compact-3d-sensors-with-ultra-hd-resolution/

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16. Yalçinkaya S, Yýldýz B, Borak M (2018) Optical 3D scanner technology (Academic paper). In: 3rd International congress on 3D printing (additive manufacturing), Antalya, Turkey. https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/340461119_OPTICAL_3D_SCANNER_TECHNOLOGY 17. Hutton D (2021) Fraunhofer Institute creates 3D-printed prosthetic eye. Ophthalmology Times. https://www.ophthalmologytimes.com/view/fraunhofer-institute-creates-3dprinted-prosthetic-eye

Application of Augmented Reality on the Windshield of Vehicle Akram Faiz, Mustafa Shamsi, Abid Haleem, Shashi Bahl, Mohd Javaid, and Chander Prakash

Abstract Augmented reality (AR) adds digital objects to the real world. In recent years, we have seen many applications of AR in the educational field and industry. Games like Pokémon Go show the potential of AR in the gaming industry, whereas Snapchat does the same on social media platforms through its filters. In this paper, we have summarized the various ways in which augmented reality can be used in vehicle technology where the windshield of a car (vehicle) acts as an AR display. The paper reviews the application of AR in vehicles. The windshield of the car will act as a display for AR applications. We have tried to study AR as a potential technology for head-up display (HUD). We have discussed current applications of augmented reality in vehicles, their limitations, research implications, and the future scope of AR in vehicles. Section 1 presents the paper’s thought process. In Sect. 2, we have tried to explain AR as a technology. In Sect. 3, we have explained how a vehicle can act as an AR system, their limitations of research implementation, and finally, we have tried to summarize all potential applications of AR in a vehicle. Keywords Augmented reality · Vehicle navigation system · Head-up display

1 Introduction The future of cars will be fully autonomous, and there will be a need for it to have an ‘always-on display’ to provide critical information to the driver and passenger of the vehicle. The use of augmented reality (AR) in the windshield of a vehicle A. Faiz · M. Shamsi · A. Haleem · M. Javaid Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India S. Bahl (B) Department of Mechanical Engineering, I.K. Gujral Punjab Technical University, Kapurthala 144603, India e-mail: [email protected] C. Prakash School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara 144411, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_47

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will be a crucial step toward this technology. This paper aims to explore the current research work and future scope toward using AR on the windshields of vehicles. As augmented reality started gaining popularity through the game Pokémon Go, developers and researchers around the globe started testing and developing new AR systems. One of the potential applications of AR can be in the vehicle’s windshield. The driver will always have critical information as a part of the road view. The driver does not have to wear electronic devices to have an augmented reality experience. The car itself will be an augmented reality device. Through this, the driver will have a seamless experience. Azuma [1] described the potential application of AR in his survey, and one of the potential applications was path planning and visualization. Tonnis et al. [2] used the head-up displays of cars to prove that augmented reality visualization is more effective in getting drivers’ attention on the road and avoiding road accidents. Narzt et al. [3] gave the concept of driver interaction with a car where the car is an AR system; the driver will have a clear and depictive perception of the information and natural interaction with the driver.

2 Need for Study As cars become more autonomous, the SAE autonomy level 5 says that the car will be fully autonomous, and there will be no engagement from the driver. For this, the car needs to provide all the information to the driver at a convenient place; currently, we use a secondary display or our smartphone to assist in driving. Because of that, we have less driver safety, and the driver has to shift his attention from the road to his display or phone screen. Hence, this paper will show the potential applications of augmented reality which will help to provide a method to resolve the mentioned problems.

3 Augmented Reality Augmented reality combines the real and virtual worlds, in which virtual objects can be seen in real time in the surrounding space. Augmented reality helps us to provide information about the environment of the virtual object or information present in the real world which is perceived on a phone screen through glasses or electronic displays [4–6]. Figure 1 presents the Milgram’s reality–virtuality continuum. The reality–virtuality continuum defined by Paul Milgram and Fumio Kishino is a continuum that spans from Real Environments to Virtual Environments. Augmented reality (AR) in the continuum is more toward the Real Environment on the spectrum [7]. Figure 2 presents the types of augmented reality.

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Fig. 1 Milgram’s reality–virtuality continuum

Fig. 2 Types of augmented reality

• Marker-based AR: In marker-based AR, there is a need to make a marker in a Real Environment which can be a QR code or some other recognizable marker that can be recognized by image processing, and the camera must scan the marker to place a virtual object; such type of AR experience is suitable for still environment the user is not moving [8, 9]. In the case of the windshield of a car, marker-based AR is not possible [1]. • Markerless AR: In markerless AR, we do not have any markers, and the AR system tries to analyze the surroundings and places the virtual object on any flat surface or based on geometry. Markerless AR will be used in the windshield of the car, as markerless AR does not have to depend on any physical marker; it will be able to place a virtual object in the moving scene of the car, also known as SLAM, i.e., simultaneous localization and mapping. In this process, the vision sensors visualize the surrounding environment, and through software programming, they create a 3D map of the surrounding in real time; this provides the vision sensors with enough information to place the virtual object in the real world on display [1].

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4 Augmented Reality in Car Augmented reality can be used as an infused display with the car’s windshield. The driver does not have to wear equipment to have an augmented reality experience. The critical information will be displayed on the windshield, and the driver does not have to look away from the windshield; hence, it will reduce the chances of accidents as the windshield will work as the head-on display and will display all the required information like speed, RPM, and fuel level. Also, it will alert the driver of any unusual turbulence on the road. Navigation systems are also a great example that can help these situations. Figure 3 presents the car as a augmented system. Here, the driver of a car does not have to wear any equipment to have AR experiences. The car itself will be an AR device.

4.1 Augmented Reality in a Navigation System Augmented reality in a navigation system helps the driver by displaying location and navigation information on the windshield of a car [10, 11]. Augmented reality as an application provides digitally generated computer graphics into the real world through the windshield of a car, hence giving the driver a seamless experience of the virtual object while driving [3].

4.2 Current Application of AR in Car Mercedes recently launched a car with a navigation system that uses AR. Many Mercedes vehicles have heads-up displays that project data on the car’s windshield. The car displays navigation information and driver-assist help. Also, many other companies are using this technology. Fig. 3 Car as a augmented reality system

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Fig. 4 Driver will have navigational information and road awareness [12]

5 Future Scope of AR in CAR The following is the future scope of potential applications of augmented reality in cars and other vehicles as a head-up display.

5.1 Direction and Road Awareness The driver will have navigation information and road awareness, and with high contrast, the driver will be able to see road signs, traffic lights, and not-so-visible road marks (Fig. 4).

5.2 The Extra Set of Eyes With the sharp color on display, drivers will be able to see any pedestrian crossing the road or in front of the car. This will significantly reduce road accidents (Fig. 5).

5.3 Surrounding Awareness The head-up display with AR will be able to provide all surrounding awareness that might not be apparent from the naked eye.

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Fig. 5 Extra set of eyes [12]

• Protect pedestrians: Pedestrians, cyclists, and other potential road hazards can be unpredictable. AR highlights the object with a sharp color that might be prone to road accidents. • Automatic adaptation: The head with display will ensure that all critical driving information are displayed in different driving locations like tunnels, snowing roads, or in case of rain or bad weather. • Notification: The driver can take essential calls or respond to emails without looking away from the road with the help of AUD. • Driving in fog: Winters in India are very foggy and drivers cannot see the road. With the help of AR and LiDAR sensors, a clear path can be displayed on the windshield [12].

6 Conclusion In this paper, the augmented reality is explored as a technology. The car is assumed as an augmented reality device. The car’s windshield acts as an AR display and projects virtual objects for the driver. The paper summarizes concepts of using augmented reality used in the future vehicles. Using the windshield of a car as a head-up display and projecting virtual objects can solve many problems in driving. It will help the driver to make decisions, avoid road accidents, and provide critical information on going in bad weather conditions. The following points show how augmented reality can solve various problems pointed introduction section: • AR display will provide all critical and navigational information to the driver. • AR display can act as an alert system for the driver in case of a road accident.

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• AR display can show the path in case of low visibility to the driver on a foggy day. Limitation of study is that remarkably few companies have shifted augmented reality-based head-up displays to vehicles in the market.

References 1. Azuma RT (1997) A survey of augmented reality. Presence Teleoper Virtual Environ 6:355–385. https://doi.org/10.1162/pres.1997.6.4.355 2. Tonnis M, Sandor C, Klinker G, Lange C, Bubb H (2005) Experimental evaluation of an augmented reality visualization for directing a car driver’s attention. In: Fourth IEEE and ACM international symposium on mixed and augmented reality (ISMAR’05), pp 56–59. https://doi. org/10.1109/ISMAR.2005.31 3. Narzt W, Pomberger G, Ferscha A, Kolb D, Müller R, Wieghardt J, Hörtner H, Lindinger C (2006) Augmented reality navigation systems. Univers Access Inf Soc 4:177–187. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10209-005-0017-5 4. Ammar M, Haleem A, Javaid M, Bahl S, Verma AS (2022) Implementing Industry 4.0 technologies in self-healing materials and digitally managing the quality of manufacturing. Mater Today Proc 52:2285–2294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.09.248 5. Sajid S, Haleem A, Bahl S, Javaid M, Goyal T, Mittal M (2021) Data science applications for predictive maintenance and materials science in context to Industry 4.0. Mater Today Proc 45:4898–4905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.01.357 6. Ashima R, Haleem A, Bahl S, Javaid M, Kumar Mahla S, Singh S (2021) Automation and manufacturing of smart materials in additive manufacturing technologies using Internet of Things towards the adoption of industry 4.0. Mater Today Proc 45:5081–5088. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.matpr.2021.01.583 7. Cheng J, Chen K, Chen W (2017) Comparison of marker-based and markerless AR: a case study of an indoor decoration system. In: Lean and computing in construction congress (LC3): vol I Ð Proceedings of the joint conference on computing in construction (JC3), Heraklion, Greece, pp 483–490 8. Suhaib Kamran S, Haleem A, Bahl S, Javaid M, Nandan D, Singh Verma A (2021) Role of smart materials and digital twin (DT) for the adoption of electric vehicles in India. Mater Today Proc 52:2295–2304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.09.249 9. Qazi AM, Mahmood SH, Haleem A, Bahl S, Javaid M, Gopal K (2022) The impact of smart materials, digital twins (DTs) and Internet of things (IoT) in an industry 4.0 integrated automation industry. Mater Today Proc 62:18–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.01.387 10. Suhaib Kamran S, Haleem A, Bahl S, Javaid M, Prakash C, Budhhi D (2022) Artificial intelligence and advanced materials in automotive industry: potential applications and perspectives. Mater Today Proc 62:4207–4214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.727 11. Ammar M, Haleem A, Javaid M, Bahl S, Garg SB, Shamoon A, Garg J (2022) Significant applications of smart materials and Internet of Things (IoT) in the automotive industry. Mater Today Proc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.07.180 12. The future of ar in cars. https://plat4m.com/future-of-ar-in-cars/. Last accessed 09 July 2022

Challenges and Directions in a Multi-disciplinary Conservation Approach—A Case of Lonar, Buldhana, Maharashtra Aman Sharma , Vishnu K. Suresh , and Subhashree Mohapatra

Abstract Heritage has been a crucial part of Indian civilization. Conservation of heritage, be it natural or cultural, has been taken up before the Independence but this day has not been without challenges. Lonar, famous for its meteoritic impact crater, also has multiple stone temples in the vicinity of the lake, which gives it sufficient cultural and religious value. The crater is not only of geological importance but culturally significant as well. Although many studies have already been conducted in the fields of geology and microbiology, no proper research has been undertaken to study and explore its cultural aspects. Through this study, a multi-disciplinary understanding of craters’ natural and cultural layers has been developed, through background research and field surveys. The study envisions challenges and direction in the conservation process of the cultural and natural heritage together. Keywords Geoheritage · Cultural landscape · Crater lake · Water conservation

1 Introduction Heritage conservation as a topic has constantly been in a conversation in the realm of built environments [1]. In a world that is increasingly polarized between looking forward to the future, and simultaneously towards the past, the protection of heritage that is part of our cultural ethos which has begun to be a very crucial academic area and in the field of heritage [2]. However, in the context of India, heritage protection can rarely happen in individual silos of disciplines to be looked at in separation. The confluence of these disciplines always comes together, and the strategies become A. Sharma (B) · S. Mohapatra Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India e-mail: [email protected] V. K. Suresh SCMS School of Architecture, Karukutty, Ernakulam, India S. Mohapatra Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VI, Australia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_48

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multi-faceted, towards perspectives, observation, and execution. Such an approach is the discipline of conservation—wherein fields of natural and built heritage become synthesized together, such that one element cannot be understood without the other [3]. In an administrative, bureaucracy-driven nation like India, each discipline has a particular agency for monitoring and protection [4]. This multi-disciplinary approach in conservation is what becomes crucial when multiple agencies all come together, and it becomes a challenge, especially in a field like conservation, where each aspect of the discipline should be looked at, in equal interest, with equal priority. This paper attempts to bring the challenges and directions taken for a multi-disciplinary conservation approach for the site of Lonar located in Buldhana, Maharashtra.

2 Background Study Lonar is a town in the Buldhana district of Maharashtra. It is famous for the Lonar Crater, which was created, as one of the youngest and best-preserved impact structures on Earth. The crater contains a salt-water lake, which is 1.88 km in diameter and 137 m below the level of the crater rim [5]. Due to evaporate effects, the lake is mineral-rich and contains salts like sodium and potassium [6]. Beyond geology, the vicinity of the lake has 14 known stone temples, which have significant cultural and religious value. The oldest reference to Lonar is found in the Rig Veda [7]. Some of the other mentions are in ancient scriptures like Skanda Purana, Padma Purana, and Ain-i-Akbari [8]. The lake has gone through multiple rulers throughout history such as Mauryan, Satavahanas, Chalukyas, and Rashtrakutas. Throughout the time of the Mughals, Yadavas, Nizams, and the British, trade flourished in this area. There are two more freshwater lakes near the crater, such as Amber Lake and Kalapani Lake. The lake is a haven for a wide range of plant and animal species. There is a settlement on the north-east side of the crater that beholds some traditional houses and wadas. There are tangible as well as intangible heritage values associated with the town and the inhabitants (Fig. 1).

2.1 Mythological and Historical Linkages Lonar has a curious place in the Web of time. From being part of an ice age era impact crater to the place of a mix of architecture, nature, and geology, Lonar is a space that is everlasting in memory and time [10]. It has a place in mythology, history, and culture, and all of that is rendered by nature and man, together in one environment. The earliest reference to Lonar is in the Rig Veda, composed around 1500 BC, which references this place as “Madhumati Nagar”, which is a Capital for King Dandak [11]. Curiously, the reference is that of a settlement, which was covered by an “explosion”. It is mentioned in the Skanda Purana, in the Godavari Khand, and in the Padma Purana, and it is mentioned as “Vishnu Gaya” [12]. During the

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Fig. 1 Location of Lonar [9]

Treta Yuga, this place was called “Panchapsar”, literally translated to Five Rivers, as mentioned in the Ramayana written by Valmiki, as being a place for Lord Ram to have stopped for ablutions. There is a temple dedicated to him called Ramgaya Temple in the crater. In one of the most prolific works of Kalidasa, Raghuvamshi, this reference to “Panchapsar” is still seen, according to Historian Suresh Mapare. During Dwapara Yuga, the crater was called “Nabhithirta”, and the temple structure above the rim, with the perennial water source, was called “Kapila Tirtha”. It is the legend of the Lavanasura that is still alive in the memory of the people, about the space. Sage Kashyap had 3 sons, three daityas—Kohlasur, Gayasur, and Lavanasur. All of them were defeated by the Trinity of Hindu Gods—Kohlasur was defeated by Rudra at Rudragaya, Kohlasur was defeated by Brahma at Brahmagaya, and finally, Lavanasur was defeated by Vishnu at Vishnu Gaya. It is said that Lord Vishnu had held the daitya under his feet and defeated him. His throw of the daitya, and the impact had turned the water, brackish, his flesh fell into the soil, from where the flora and fauna sprang up. This legend connects the alkaline nature of the water, and the rich biodiversity found in the area. A curious place where mythology and science overlap. After the daitya, the place is called “Lonar”. The young form of Lord Vishnu, who defeated the daitya, was eventually called “Daitya Sudan”, and a temple has been constructed in his honour, by the Chalukyas near the crater. Stories of the same are rendered in stone, with carvings showing the victory of Daitya Sudan [13] (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2 Temples around Lonar lake

2.2 Lonar Lake and Its Geology Lonar Lake is the third biggest lake formed in basaltic rock due to Metroid’s impact during the ice age. The crater age is estimated to be 52,000 ± 6000 although a study published in 2010 suggests an age of 5,76,000 years ± 47,000 years [14]. There are three impact craters in India, of which only two of them, Ramgarh Crater and Lonar Crater, have temple assemblages around them [15]. The diameter of the lake is 1.2 kms, and the slope is about 137 m from the rim with a diameter of 1.8 km. The water of the lake is both saline and alkaline in nature. Another smaller lake on the north side of the crater is Ambar Lake also known as “Chota Lonar” believed to be formed with a fragment of the main meteorite, and though the water does not have similar properties to that of Lonar Lake. The study shows that minerals in the lake soil are very similar to the minerals found in moon rocks [16]. Recently, in the first week of June 2020, the water of the lake had turned reddish-pink due to high salinity and algal bloom (Fig. 3). Lonar is a notified national geoheritage site that got its recognition in the year 1979 [18]. “Geoheritage” is a term associated with the geographical features which

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Fig. 3 Lonar Lake—Crater formed by hypervelocity impact [17]

are inherently or culturally significant and play an important role in earth’s evolutionary history. These features are vulnerable and need to be protected as they cannot be created if destroyed. National geological monuments are notified by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) because of their heritage and geographic areas of national importance. The main aim of GSI is to develop and conserve these geological identities for their scientific values of features and landforms. There are a total of 34 notified sites in India, and Lonar is one of them as it holds enormous potential for education and recreation along with scientific values associated with it [18].

2.3 Sub-ecosystem of Lonar Lonar Lake due to its hollow confined shape and as it is closed from all sides forms an ecological niche. The Government of Maharashtra declared this unique ecosystem including the crater lake, and it is surrounding as “Lonar Wildlife Sanctuary” and is the only crater lake in the country declared as a Ramsar site. The flora of the crater has 26 kinds of trees, 10 shrubs, 13 types of climbers, 8 types of Herbs, and 6 types of grasses [19]. The soil around the crater area supports the forest in a way that the trees inside the crater remain green all the year. Few parts of the area are of a dry deciduous type, mainly of Gum trees, thorny bushes, and different types of grasses. Teak, Neem, and Babul are the other trees of common occurrence with teak forests on the eastern and western sides. The fauna of the crater includes 110 species of birds with different animals including leopards and monkeys [20]. Butterflies and dragonflies are dominant and support rich entomofauna. Other species such as snakes and lizards occur in the forested tracts of the slopes, and frogs and toads occur on

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the marshy banks of the lake [21]. Lake water provides a good breeding ground for many water birds like Coots and Dabchick.

3 Challenges To understand Lonar, as a site of importance, we have to look at the major four aspects of heritage—cultural heritage, architectural heritage, natural heritage, and geological heritage which, if looked at in isolation, has varied approaches and methodologies required to have protection and conservation measures. Lonar, as a site, is a curious assemblage of all the elements mentioned above, expressed in one environment. It is a place of a mix of architecture, nature, geology, and culture, everlasting in memory and time.

3.1 Cultural Heritage The cultural heritage of Lonar consists of the mythological and historical linkages; the site has through the fabric of time and history. Hence, the conservation methodology needs to encompass all of these discrete elements described together. The challenges faced in the Lonar Lake are multi-faceted, and all problems are to be dialectical in nature, which is in opposition to each other. The temples around the crater are unique; they are possibly some of the earliest temple remains of mediaeval India, dating back to the 9–12th Century, and maybe the temple design associated with the Yadava dynasty. Such an important piece of information through the fabric of history is something that needs to be disseminated and explored further. To illustrate, let us look at one of the important structures, Mor Mahadev Temple, which is located on the south western side of the lake. This temple is very similar in architectural form and make, to the other temple ensemble around Lonar Lake. The temple faces east. It has openings for entrance on two sides, i.e. east and north, whilst the south side wall has a window opening. The mandapa has a central raised platform. The walls of the antechamber are plain. Garbhagriha is at a lower level when compared to the floor level of the temple. The wall of the garbhagriha is plain, and there is no deity inside. The sanctum door frame is only elaborately carved, and it is also partially worn out (Fig. 4). Conditions specific to Mor Mahadev temple are the potentially sheer number of forms of architectural elements buried underneath the ground, due to progressively moving forward time and the collapse of certain building elements. In order to discover new knowledge about the temple system, the discovery and excavation of these temple remains are important aspects—however, because of the administrative issues surrounding the very action of excavation of the ground, it is to be read as a disturbance in the natural and geological fabric of Lonar Lake.

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Fig. 4 Mor Mahadev Temple a partially worn out mandapa and the entry frame, b due to heavy rains, soil and mud depositions have partially covered the plinth

Conservation processes and physical intervention have a high chance of manipulating the environment, and the structure is sitting in.

3.2 Geological Heritage As an already existing site of importance, as listed as a Ramsar site, and a Geoheritage tag by the Government of India, Lonar Lake is a site of tourist and scientific importance. These tags give importance and assurance to the phenomena of the lake itself.

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However, because of these protection measures, the development of the settlement itself, from a micro- to a macro-level would be affected—no development of toilets, roads, new residences, hotels, or ancillary structures for the tourist sites themselves, would not be allowed. Now, if the lake is becoming a source of hindrance in the path of social and infrastructural development for the people of the Lonar, then the people themselves would not take a considerable take in the heritage around it, potentially creating a moral question in the people, whether they want to protect the site or not. These challenges are not just found in the ground-level issues of the Lonar town but within the boundaries of governmental agencies involved in the sites’ continuity, considering that these agencies are the ones confirming the litigation and approval of the interventions. In such a culturally and ecologically-sensitive zone such as Lonar Town, the directions of Archaeological Survey of India (who are in charge of the built fabric), Geological Survey of India (who are in charge of the geological fabric of the area, including in the ejecta blanket), Maharashtra Forest Department (who are in charge of the naturally protected fabric), and coordinating amongst themselves are the Lonar municipal corporation, who obviously want their town to progress forward economically, socially, and culturally. The conservation and protection measures involved in the town of Lonar, require intensive, inter-disciplinary, and multi-disciplinary approaches for this unique heritage to be forwarded to the next generation, and eventually, to get the aim of world heritage. Similar to cultural heritage, the natural heritage and coverage of its natural fabric depend completely on the narratives surrounding the site and the lake itself. The scientific (microbiological and botanical) significance of the lake cannot be understated, and any interventions in support of the environment may affect the fabric. Considering that the soil, earth, and the components therein, and potentially extraterrestrial in nature, museumization would be the perfect solution to preserve and protect its fabric, without any change.

4 Results and Discussion An integrated and multi-disciplinary approach is required for the holistic conservation of the crater. The method of the Archaeological Survey of India is to keep the structures left “as it is”. A large number of monuments exist all across India, as memorials of the fabric of history, and there are multi-faceted challenges associated with it. In the case of the temple assemblage at Lonar, if “museumization” of structures happens, then gradually, the intangible relationship between the people of the town and the temples would be severed, and a layer of cultural history and narratives will disappear slowly, and hence risk erosion of the cultural narrative. The temples in Lonar Lake are dormant temples, since there is an absence of relics within the structure, with exception of Kamalaja Mata Temple and Gaumukh Temple. The other temples within the ensemble of the Lonar town have the potential to be given life, by following the local traditions and customs. If the temples are allowed to become alive, then there would be a requirement of real physical intervention,

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wherein centrally protected monuments would have to be altered to a significant amount so that the pranpratishtha could take place, and hence, the functioning of temples would resume. This would allow a level of an intangible continuum to be occurring between the lake and the people. This means that the structures would require human intervention, and engagement in a physical manner to a large extent for the structure to be used by the people of the town of Lonar. These structures are extremely fragile and would require physical intervention that may affect the natural and geological fabric of Lonar Lake. These physical interventions may include preparation of lime on-site, bringing basaltic rock into the sites around the temple, cutting, and carving, which in turn would present noise and particulate pollution, disturbing the natural flora and fauna layer as well. Interventions such as reconstruction or conservation of these structures would also be required to be as close to the original built fabric of the temples. If the continuum of the temples and people is allowed to continue without any restrictions and complete allowances, then built interventions done at a community level, may or may not be of an appropriate methodology, and would be based on local know-how, which ideally would be derived from traditional knowledge of the region itself, but there is no a surety of the same. Creating a guideline on how to engage inbuilt conservations of these temple forms would be ideal, however, considering that the structures are extremely delicate in form and structure, it would require enhanced skilled professionals involved in it. Economies exist because of markers within their influence region. For the town of Lonar, it is the lake and its temples. The people coming to the site of Lonar come to experience the lake, and the temples found in the region. In this case, the economies exist because of the temples all across the lake, and they are the magnets. However, in order for these economies to sustain, the development of infrastructure is crucial, which itself can affect the natural and geoheritage fabric of the site. The management of processes for each agency involved would be required to be supported and balanced by other agencies. To illustrate, the construction of a well-maintained highway connecting Lonar to the nearby town of Aurangabad would enable a boost in the economic sustainability of the town and visibility of the site beyond the scientific diaspora. However, in order to construct the highway, the construction process would have to take place through an area of very critical blankets of extraterrestrial soil, spread across the radius of the town. Hence, the management of Lonar Nagar Nigam and Geological Survey of India would have to come in consensus of the project and come to an amicable solution, such that the effect of construction on the ejecta blanket is minimal, whilst adhering to minimum standards of construction of highways and roads. Change through time and space is an eventual necessity. These changes would affect the temple fabric, through time, either when nature would overcome the structures, or through development, affecting the natural fabric. The only potential metamorphosis in the natural fabric that humans can contain is any man-made interventions that can happen within the natural fabric of the space—this can include the planting of any non-indigenous plant/animal species, which will affect the soil consistency and landscape composition of the lake. This process of invasive species, and lack of control of the same, can affect the natural heritage adversely, causing

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harm to a large extent, and hence, the Forest Department has enabled limitations to the intrusive developments in all manner—from built to the unbuilt. Whilst the site requires extensive infrastructural development, the protection of the forest land also becomes of prime importance, since such a unique cover of forest land is not found anywhere across the world and is of astronomical significance. Hence, infrastructural development is affected. The ejecta blanket, which is the source of the Martian/lunar rock blanket, created because of the lunar impact crater, would only be explored more if there were allowances for the geological survey of India to explore the site more. However, since the ejecta blanket is on top of the existing forest cover, with unique biodiversity, any activities which can harm the soil or natural fabric cannot take place, creating a scientific disparity between the Geological Survey of India and the Forest Department of Maharashtra.

5 Conclusion A management of inter-disciplinary processes, with specific instructions and guidelines, would be required to define what would be allowed, and what would be restricted. These allowances and restrictions would be required to be accepted by the members of administrative boards of Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation, Lonar Taluka, Forest Department of Maharashtra, and the scientific community of the world at large—because any fabric of the area would be distributed because of these allowances or restrictions, then Lonar Lake’s astronomical importance would be drastically changed forever. Moving towards a new decade, multi-disciplinary management approaches will be required for conservation and heritage protection across the nation. Since, the protection of our past, present, and possibly the future cannot be looked at in isolated silos. Integrated approaches to conservation, planning, and development are completely possible, wherein interventions are not adversely affecting the very component which we are trying to augment, whilst museumizing the component, without letting it have a natural growth. Lonar Lake is an important, and real-life example of how inter-disciplinary approaches can be utilized in the management of heritage. In a world that is moving forward to new innovative techniques for heritage dissemination. The confluence of geoheritage, natural heritage, and cultural heritage, all are inter-related, with consequences and allowances feeding upon each other. Acknowledgements This work is carried out as part of second semester Studio Project by the students Master of Conservation (2019–21), under guidance of Dr. Vishakha Kawathekar and Ar. Ramesh Bhole, Department of Conservation, School of Planning and Architecture Bhopal, India.

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References 1. Research Report (2000) Values and heritage conservation: research report 2. Nilson T, Thorell K (2018) Cultural heritage preservation: The past, the present and the future, 2018th edn. Halmstad University Press 3. Rössler M, Lin RC-H (2018) Cultural landscape in world heritage conservation and cultural landscape conservation challenges in Asia. Built Herit. 2(3):3–26. https://doi.org/10.1186/BF0 3545707/METRICS 4. Reddy MK, Paknikar KM, Kulkarni VV. List of Indian institutions with research areas 5. Komatsu G, Senthil Kumar P, Goto K, Sekine Y, Giri C, Matsui T (2014) Drainage systems of Lonar Crater, India: contributions to Lonar Lake hydrology and crater degradation. Planet Space Sci 95:45–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PSS.2013.05.011 6. Surve RR, Shirke AV, Athalye RR, Sangare MM (2021) A review on chemical and ecological status of Lonar Lake. Curr World Environ 16(1):61–69. https://doi.org/10.12944/CWE.16.1.07 7. Sinha A (2014) Seventeen 8. Ab¯u al-Faz.. l ibn Mub¯arak H (Henry) Blochmann DC (Douglas C), Phillott HS (Henry S), Jarrett, Sarkar J (2001) The A-in-i Akbari. 1551–1602 9. Political map of Buldana District, Maharashtra. Available https://mrsac.gov.in/writereaddata/ MRSAC/map/15636248205d3305743a35bDist_Buldhana.pdf. Accessed 13 Jun 2022 10. Lonar Crater Lake: a gift from the sky. Available https://www.livehistoryindia.com/story/rel igious-places-/lonar-crater-lake-a-gift-from-the-sky. Accessed 13 Jun 2022 11. Lonar-World’s third largest meteorite lake of India. Hinduism and Sanatan Dharma.. Availhttps://pparihar.com/2015/03/14/lonar-worlds-third-largest-meteorite-lake-of-india/. able Accessed 13 Jun 2022 12. Sharma V (2008) Padma Purana, 2008th edn. Diamond Pocket Books (P) Limited 13. Maharashtra (India) Gazetteers Department (1976) Maharashtra state Gazetteers: Buldhana. Director of Government Printing, Stationery and Publications, Maharashtra State 14. Schmieder M, Kring DA (2020) Earth’s impact events through geologic time: a list of recommended ages for terrestrial impact structures and deposits. Astrobiology 20(1):91–141. https://doi.org/10.1089/AST.2019.2085/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/AST.2019. 2085_FIGURE9.JPEG 15. Agarwal A (2022) Impact craters in India (2022) J Geol Soc India 98:286. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s12594-022-1970-9 16. Koshy N et al (2018) Characterization of the soil samples from the Lonar crater, India. Geotech Eng 49(1):99–105 17. FPJ legal: approach panel for notification of Lonar lake as wetland, directs Bombay HC. Available https://www.freepressjournal.in/mumbai/fpj-legal-approach-panel-for-notificationof-lonar-lake-as-wetland-directs-bombay-hc. Accessed 15 May 2022 18. Geo-heritage sites. Available https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=137573. Accessed 15 May 2022 19. Ramsar information sheet 2-data & location 20. Palot MJ (2007) A preliminary observation on the birds of Lonar crater lake, Buldhana district, Maharashtra. Zoos’ Print J 22(1):2547–2550. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.zpj.1125.2547-50 21. Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata (2008) Fauna of Lonar wildlife sanctuary. Kolkata

Performance Evaluation of Sustainable Concrete Using Silica Fume and Demolished Brick Waste Aggregate Neha Sharma, Prashant Sharma, and Arun Kumar Parashar

Abstract This study will investigate the mechanical strength and workability of concrete with demolished bricks and silica fume (SF) as a part of mix design. The demolished waste bricks were crumbled and then employed to replace sand at proportion of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%, and silica fume was used as an additional pozzolanic supplementary material and mixed with cement at a substitution dose of 15%. Slump testing was performed on the designed concrete mix to determine its workability. The test results showed that hardened samples had high compressive and flexural strength, as well as high split tensile strength. The test results demonstrated that the material’s workability declined as the amount of demolished bricks in the mix increased. In terms of strength, concrete mixes having 15% demolished brick aggregate and 15% silica fume were found to have higher strength as compared to other proportions. From this research, it can be accomplished that the use of waste demolished brick in the manufacturing of structural concrete is now possible. Keywords Silica fume · Brick waste aggregate · Mechanical strength

1 Introduction According to the United Nations Environment Program, because of the harmful influence that human activities have created on the environment, anthropogenic activities have come to the top of the list of the most important threats that the world is currently facing. Increasing levels of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) in the atmosphere is the highest contributor to climate change [1]. Many researchers put together several studies that found OPC which is the most common primary binder used to make concrete, mortar, and other building materials. As a consequence, it is one of the most major sources of CO2 emissions into the air [2]. There are going to be a lot of more concrete production and consumption in the next few decades as more and more countries try to improve their infrastructure. It is important for the building industry to find ways to N. Sharma (B) · P. Sharma · A. K. Parashar Department of Civil Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, UP, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_49

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make concrete that are both environment friendly, with a special focus on how to manage and preserve resources [3–5]. Because new construction waste is not good for the environment, construction companies are trying to cut down on, recycle, and reuse the debris they make as a building material instead. It is very important for the industry to find a way to make money that is long-term. Building and demolition (C&D) waste has grown dramatically due to the growing usage of concrete in construction. If disposed of improperly, this waste may have a significant negative impact on the environment. Research into the idea of employing waste materials other than aggregate to build concrete has been successful, and the findings have been encouraging. In addition to bricks that have been recycled, shattered glass and other debris may be used to create new products. In addition to broken wood and plastic, other waste materials such as tile, cardboard, and paper may be recycled. Reusing waste materials including construction and demolition debris, household and industrial solid waste, and other often discarded items have also been studied [6, 7]. It is possible to create concrete and concrete blocks from recycled waste plastic and other byproducts of the waste management industry. Concrete that is less harmful to the environment may be made from both forms of trash. Crushed glass material’s inexpensive cost prompted researchers to look into its engineering capabilities. Most natural aggregates have better engineering performance than crushed glass [8]. It has been found that crushed glass can be used in place of natural aggregate in building [9]. It has been found that repurposed glass can be used to build roads. Some research has been done into whether recycled aggregates from building and demolition debris could be used as pavement sub-bases. This could be good for the future and is good for the environment. A study found that using waste tire rubber as part of the fine particles in cement concrete could be a good thing in the future [10]. Over time, these waste materials will be used more and more as aggregate in infrastructure projects like pavement and road embankment building, as well as in other ways recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) aggregates used in pavement construction [11, 12]. It is more environmentally friendly to use demolition waste as an alternative aggregate in construction. Sustainability and conservation of natural resources will benefit the construction industry as a whole. Water and fish habitats have been destroyed because of the ongoing erosion and collapse caused by sand mining and drilling. According to those who have studied concrete, there may be a shortage of raw construction materials and a rise in the price of raw construction materials in recent years [13, 14]. Developing new and less expensive materials is still critical, as it will help to reduce the enormous amount of raw materials that are currently being utilized. There are many places where construction industry waste is either disposed of or recycled [15]. This could have a negative impact on the environment because it could harm natural resources and the ecosystem. Before being mixed and used in concrete, construction and demolition waste from different construction sites should be sorted and treated, rather than being mixed with other construction waste. Clay bricks are a common byproduct of construction and demolition. The idea of using waste clay bricks in concrete and mortar production as a cement substitute and as a partial or complete replacement for natural aggregate has been the subject of numerous studies. Because clay brick material has the right chemical composition, researchers can use it to make

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concrete and mortar in the laboratory. Finely ground masonry waste brick could be used to replace the pozzolanic cementitious materials typically used in concrete and could help to make concrete more durable. As a component in concrete and mortar, the use of finely crushed waste brick has helped to make construction more environmentally friendly [1, 16, 17]. It is possible to use crushed clay brick as a 100% substitute for coarse aggregate in concrete as long as it is thoroughly soaked in water. Scientists found that the low density of recycled clay brick material makes hardened concrete less dense, which makes it less strong [13, 18–20, 25].

1.1 Materials The OPC of grade 43 that satisfies the specifications of IS: 8112-2013 has been employed in the investigation. The soundness and specific gravity (SG) of cement have been known to be 3.15 and 2.2 mm, respectively. Table 1 lists the cement that has been determined by different tests that have been conducted in accordance with Indian Standard IS: 8112:1989 [21]. The cement was kept with care to ensure that its qualities were not deteriorated because of contact with moisture. The initial and final setting times, the specific gravity, fineness, and compressive strength are all tested on cement and concrete. The initial and final setting times were found to be 65 min and 510 min. Natural river sand from Zone-3 was used as a fine aggregate. According to the fine aggregate’s moisture content, it included 2.68% and its specific gravity was 1.4%. Coarse aggregates with maximum nominal diameters of 20 mm and 10 mm were employed in this study. For coarse aggregates ranging in size from 20 mm to 10 mm, the density is 2.72, while for smaller aggregates, it is 2.70. An area river in Mathura provided the sand, which measured 4.75 millimeters in size. The demolished brick waste was obtained from a local building site in Mathura, U.P. After the brick waste had been completely sorted to eliminate metals and debris and broken to the necessary fine aggregate sizes, it was then sieved through a standard mesh size of 4.75 mm and tested in line with IS: 383-1970 standards to confirm that it fitted the criteria [22–26]. The aggregates made from destroyed bricks that had Table 1 Chemical composition of cement and silica fume

Chemical oxide composition

Cement

Silica fume

CaO

64.82

0.92

Sio2

22.45

91.85

MgO

0.82

0.23

Al2 O3

5.92

0.52

Fe2 O3

2.62

0.32

SO3

1.58

0.24

Na2 O

0.98

0.42

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Fig. 1 Waste brick aggregate and silica fume employed in the study

been sieved were first given a treatment that consisted of a 24-h soak in water before being used in the mixture for the concrete. The chemical properties of the cement and the silica fume that were used in the experiment are detailed in Table 1. As a partial alternative for cement, silica fume, which is also known as micro-silica and condensed silica fume, is utilized. Surface area of silica fume is about 20,000 m2 /kg. Figure 1 shows the waste brick aggregates and silica fume that was employed in the study.

1.2 Mix Design The investigation required the preparation of a total of six different mixes, all of which are mentioned in Table 2. In the formulation of a concrete mix, silica fume was employed in the same proportion as portland cement (PC) to replace up to 15% of the weight of the PC. In order to generate the control mix for one of the concrete mixtures, only OPC was used as the binder, and the remaining amount of SF and destroyed brick waste aggregate (BWA) was left at 0%. This mix was then used to construct the other concrete mixture. Table 2 shows the other mixture ID, which indicates the percentage of OPC that has been replaced with the SF and natural river sand that has been replaced by waste brick aggregate up to 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%. These percentages are displayed as 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%, respectively. Using the examples above, the terms BWA10, BWA15, BWA20, BWA25, and BWA30 denote mixtures in which the OPC has been replaced with 15% SF and fine aggregates has replaced up to 10, 15, 20, 25, 30% with waste brick aggregate. For every combination containing BWA materials, the cement content was partially substituted with silica fume, which was used as an additive at a constant dosage level of 15%. Throughout all of the experiments, a water-to-binder ratio of 0.45 was used. We utilized 40 cylinders and 45 cubes totaling 85 samples in each batch. When the new mixes were placed into pre-oiled molds to test the mechanical characteristics of the mixture, they were cured for three, seven, and 28 days, and the results were promptly analyzed.

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Table 2 Mix composition of various concrete mixes BWA0 (%)

100

00

00

100

BWA10 (%)

85

15

10

90

BWA15 (%)

85

15

15

85

BWA20 (%)

85

15

20

80

BWA25 (%)

85

15

25

75

BWA30 (%)

85

15

30

70

Before they were utilized, the steel molds that were going to be used for casting the concrete were given a thorough lubrication with oil so that there would be less adhesion and the process of demolding the concrete would go smoothly after it was cast. In line with the International Standard 1199 (1959) [24], the workability of the combinations was evaluated. The cubes with a volume of 100 mm3 were used to test the compression strength of the concrete, and the cylindrical molds with diameters of 100 mm2 and lengths of 200 mm were used to test the split tensile strength of the concrete. Both of these tests were performed on the concrete. The beams with the BWA aggregate materials were also subjected to a three-point loading test with dimensions of 100 mm × 100 mm × 550 mm. A water curing tank set at room temperature was used to cure the samples, which were entirely submerged throughout the process. A total of six hardened samples were examined after three, seven, and twenty-eighth of curing, with an average for each curing age calculated for each sample.

2 Results and Discussion 2.1 Slump As shown in Fig. 2, the slump of the concrete mixes ranged from 38 mm up to 64 mm, which indicates that the concrete mixes are of moderate to poor workability. Working with BWA-containing mixtures was shown to be much more difficult than working with a control mixture containing BWA, as shown in Fig. 2. As clear from the graph, increasing the concentration of BWA resulted in a downward trend in the slump. Higher slump ratio of 62 mm has been found for BWA0 concrete mix. In contrast to natural aggregates, which are typically spherical and smoother particles, crushed BWA particles have an angular and uneven shape. As a result, when compared to natural aggregates, the concrete mix flows and slides more easily through the demolished BWA particles than through natural aggregates. According to the findings of some researchers, incorporating pozzolanic admixtures into concrete paste resulted in a significant alteration of the cement paste’s binding material, resulting in a stiff and lumpy concrete mixture as well as a decrement in the workability of the concrete mixes.

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Slump(mm) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 BWA0

BWA10

BWA15

BWA20

BWA25

BWA30

Slump(mm)

Fig. 2 Slump readings for different mixes containing BWA

2.2 Compressive Strength A comparison of compressive strength growth over time is shown in Fig. 3 for the control mix, BWA mix, and silica fume mix (which were used to replace sand and cement, respectively). As seen in the image, the length of time concrete is left outside to cure which has a positive impact on its final strength and tensile properties. A drop in compressive strength is found with increasing the BWA content, except at sand replacement levels of 15%, when the compressive strength was shown to be slightly increased when the concrete was allowed to cure for 28 days. The BWA material’s water absorption ability may have contributed to the increased strength of the concrete by increasing the quantity of water available inside the brick to allow full hydration activity in the concrete, according to a study by researchers. Demolished brick particles and silica fume as a pozzolan have the added advantage of increasing the strength of the cement paste and aggregate, which improves compactness. A concrete mix using 15% BWA as a substitute for sand and 15% silica fume had the maximum strength after 28 days, with an increase in strength of roughly 6.66% above the control mix. Mixtures containing 15% silica fume and 10% BWA as substitute for fine aggregate had a 4.5, 6.7, 4.7, and 10% decrease in compressive strength when compared to control concrete. With these observations, it is clear that the addition of silica fume reduces strength, especially at higher BWA levels of 20% or more. According to the study’s findings, the compressive strength decreased significantly for mixes including large proportions of BWA (20%) and silica fume (15%). Using too much BWA in a mix may result in a decrease in strength. A weak interfacial zone and a porous structure may be formed as a consequence of this, which might alter the failure mode of the concrete when squeezed.

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Compressive Strength (MPa) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 BWA0

BWA10

BWA15 3 Days

BWA20 7 Days

BWA25

BWA30

28 Days

Fig. 3 Compressive strength readings for different mixes containing BWA and silica fume

2.3 Tensile Strength Figure 4 illustrates how the tensile strength of concrete dropped as the BWA content in the BWA mix sample rose. When compared to the control, concrete with a 15% replacement amount of silica fume had significantly higher tensile strength. BWA and silica fume were used to replace sand and cement with a 10–15% BWA and 15% silica fume replacement rate, respectively, in concrete. After 28 days of curing, the concrete had gained 10% in strength. A claim has been made that by using 15% BWA and 15% silicate fume in concrete, pore structure will be further enhanced, as well as the concrete’s tensile strength improvement. In order to boost the concrete’s density and strength, silica fume is included into the concrete pore structure. Silica fume makes concrete thicker, enhancing the building’s structural stability, therefore making it more durable. Tensile strength decreased when replacement levels go beyond 15%.

2.4 Flexural Strength At various strengths, control concrete beams behave differently from those using BWA aggregate as a sand replacement, as seen in Fig. 4 (Fig. 4a). BWA aggregate content has been shown to reduce concrete beam flexibility, except at 15% BWA replacement level, which demonstrated significant increase in strength above the control compared to the other levels of BWA aggregate. Silica fume admixture at 15%, particularly at higher levels of BWA, has been shown to have a negative

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Split Tensile Strength 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 BWA0

BWA10

BWA15 3 Days

BWA20 7 Days

BWA25

BWA30

28 Days

Fig. 4 Tensile strength readings for different mixes containing BWA and silica fume

impact on concrete’s tensile properties. Results show that the flexural strength rises by roughly 10.6% when 15% BWA and 15% silica fume are used as an addition. Additional studies revealed that the mid-span bending strength of beams decreased as the percentage of BWA in the concrete increased; however, beams containing 30% BWA in addition to the same percentage of silica fume had lower strength than the control concrete, with an increase in strength of approximately 4.5%, rose by more than 15% relative to the control level over this time period (Fig. 5).

Flexural Strength 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 BWA0

BWA10

BWA15 3 Days

BWA20 7 Days

BWA25

BWA30

28 Days

Fig. 5 Flexural strength readings for different mixes containing BWA and silica fume

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3 Conclusion To generate high-strength, ecologically friendly, long-lasting, and durable concrete, this study examined the benefits of using destroyed brick aggregate as a partial substitute for fine aggregate and silica fume as a 15% replacement for OPC. As a result of the research described above, the following finding may be drawn: 1. The workability of ordinary concrete is decreased when destroyed brick aggregate is substituted for natural fine aggregate in the concrete mix. Because of the BWA’s high water absorption capacity and the angular structure of the cement particles, the concrete mix becomes less fluid. Demolished brick waste replacement at a rate of 15% is suggested; due to the significant advantages in strength, it provides over lower levels of replacement usage. 2. When 15% silica fume was employed to partly replace cement in the concrete mix, compressive strength attributes were increased when compared to the control mix. A considerable drop in compressive strength was found for mixes that included a high amount of BWA (over 20%) according to the findings of the investigation. 3. If natural aggregate was substituted for 15% BWA and silica fume concentration was maintained at 15%, the tensile strength of the concrete mixes increased significantly. When sand was replaced with BWA and coupled with 15% silica fume, the results showed that after 28 days of curing, the strength of the concrete rose by 6.7%. When the flexural strength of the mixtures containing 15% BWA and silica fume was measured, it was found to be 10.6% higher than when the strength of regular concrete was measured. 4. A decline in strength characteristics is found when the proportion of BWA particles in the concrete mix grows above 15%. This may be ascribed to the significant number of BWA particles in the concrete mix, as well as the slower hydration rate of the concrete mix, among other aspects.

4 Discussion Researchers found that demolished brick waste aggregate may be utilized in structural concrete rather than being dumped in landfills. This is based on their results. As a side note, the research claims that the use of destroyed brick waste in the manufacture of high-strength concrete with pozzolanic admixture may reduce the quantity of natural fine aggregate by up to 15%. More crucially, repurposing these wastes is still a preferable method to dealing with the complicated concerns of natural resource depletion and environmental pollution, as well as achieving long-term profitability and sustainability in the face of these difficulties.

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References 1. Sharma N, Sharma P, kr Verma S (2021) Influence of Diatomite on the properties of mortar and concrete: a Review. IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, vol 1116, no 1, p 12174 2. Sharma N, Sharma P (2021) Effect of hydrophobic agent in cement and concrete: a review. In: IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, vol 1116, no 1, p 12175 3. Sharma P, Sharma N, Parashar AK (2022) Effects of phase-change materials on concrete pavements. Mater Today Proc. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATPR.2022.04.581 4. Parashar AK, Sharma P, Sharma N (2022) An investigation on properties of concrete with the adding of waste of ceramic and micro silica. Mater Today Proc. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. MATPR.2022.04.603 5. Parashar AK, Sharma P, Sharma N (2022) Effect on the strength of GGBS and fly ash based geopolymer concrete. Mater Today Proc. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATPR.2022.04.662 6. Yang D, Liu M, Ma Z (2020) Properties of the foam concrete containing waste brick powder derived from construction and demolition waste. J Build Eng 32:101509. https://doi.org/10. 1016/J.JOBE.2020.101509 7. Mastali M, Dalvand A (2016) Use of silica fume and recycled steel fibers in self-compacting concrete (SCC). Constr Build Mater 125:196–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016. 08.046 8. Sharma N, Sharma P, Parashar AK (2022) Incorporation of silica fume and waste corn cob ash in cement and concrete for sustainable environment. Mater Today Proc. https://doi.org/10. 1016/J.MATPR.2022.04.677 9. Sata V, Chindaprasirt P (2020) Use of construction and demolition waste (CDW) for alkaliactivated or geopolymer concrete. Advances in construction and demolition waste recycling, pp 385–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819055-5.00019-X 10. Nalon GH et al (2022) Recycling waste materials to produce self-sensing concretes for smart and sustainable structures: a review. Constr Build Mater 325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbui ldmat.2022.126658 11. Sharma P, Verma M, Sharma N (2021) Examine the mechanical properties of recycled coarse aggregate with MK GGBS. In: IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, vol 1116, no 1, p 12152 12. Sharma N, Sharma P, Kumar Parashar A (2022) An experimental investigation of sustainable concrete by incorporating e-waste and fly ash. Mater Today Proc. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. MATPR.2022.04.704 13. Sharma N, Verma M, Sharma P (2021) Influence of Lauric acid on mechanical properties of Portland cement. In: IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, vol 1116, no 1, p 012153. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/1116/1/012153 14. Verma M, Sharma N, Sharma P, Singh P (2020) Evaluate the effect in terms of setting time and compressive strength of oleic acid as an admixture in cement. 12422 15. Marikunte S, Aldea C, Shah SP (1997) Durability of glass fiber reinforced cement composites: Effect of silica fume and metakaolin. Adv Cem Based Mater 5(3–4):100–108. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S1065-7355(97)00003-5 16. Sharma P, Verma M, Sharma N (2021) Examine the mechanical properties of recycled coarse aggregate with {MK} {GGBS}. In: IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, vol 1116, no 1, p 12152. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/1116/1/012152 17. Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Yusuf MO (2019) Strength and transport characteristics of volcanic pumice powder based high strength concrete. Constr Build Mater 216:314–324. https://doi. org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2019.05.026 18. Sojobi AO, Awolusi TF, Aina GB, Oke OL, Oladokun M, Oguntayo DO (2021) Ternary and quaternary blends as partial replacement of cement to produce hollow sandcrete blocks. Heliyon 7(6):e07227. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.HELIYON.2021.E07227 19. Sofi A (2018) Effect of waste tyre rubber on mechanical and durability properties of concrete— A review. Ain Shams Eng. J. 9(4):2691–2700. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ASEJ.2017.08.007

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20. Mielenz RC, Greene KT, Schieltz NC (1951) Natural pozzolans for concrete. Econ Geol 46(3):311–328. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.46.3.311 21. IS:8112 (2013) Ordinary Portland cement, 43 grade—Specification 22. IS 383 (2016) Coarse and fine aggregate for concrete—Specification. Bureau of Indian Satandards 23. BIS:383 (1970) Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete. Indian Stand 1–24 24. IS 1199 (1959) Methods of sampling and analysis of concrete. Bureau of Indian Standards, pp 1–49 25. Parashar AK, Gupta N, Kishore K, Nagar PA (2021) An experimental investigation on mechanical properties of calcined clay concrete embedded with bacillus subtilis. Mater Today Proc 44:129–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATPR.2020.08.031 26. Parashar AK, Gupta A (2021) Investigation of the effect of bagasse ash, hooked steel fibers and glass fibers on the mechanical properties of concrete. Mater Today Proc 44:801–807. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.10.711

Detection of Change in Pattern of the Subsurface Soil Moisture Levels in India Using Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) Sarath Raj, Anusha Santosh, and Sathiyagayathiri Ramamoorthy

Abstract The quantity of water that penetrates through into ground and refills the groundwater level vs the proportion that supplies to top runoff and stream flow is controlled by earth moisture. This is a critical factor in the earth’s exterior hydrology. Nonetheless, point-scale measurements of moisture content are few, and maintaining monitoring networks is costly. Orbital sensors can monitor huge areas, but their spatial resolution is limited by ultrasonic frequencies, antenna size, and altitude above the surface of the earth. The higher the detector, the poorer the spectral resolution; thus, the spaceship would consume more energy at low heights. These problems need addressal. Ground soil water may be detected using several remote perception approaches, having its individual sets of strengths and drawbacks, thanks to recent technical improvements in remote sensing techniques. The objective of Soil Moisture Active Passive is outlined in this publication, coupled with a six-year investigation of soil moisture variation in India. Limitations in present soil moisture estimate methods are reviewed, as well as significant concerns that must be tackled in the coming years. Keywords Rocket engine · Static test · Solid propellant · Ansys · Rocket propulsion · Engine design

1 Introduction Agriculture is a staple for the country of India. India produces the most jute and pulses in the world, along with other crops like wheat, cotton, groundnut, etc. Its spices, poultry, and plantation crops are among the nation’s top products [1]. Hence, it is important to have a good assessment of the moisture levels in the soil that will help the farmers to get a better idea of the crop rotation techniques and land improvement practices they need to follow in order to maximize their yields. Floods and landslides are more likely to occur when soil moisture levels rise. Precise soil moisture monitoring might vastly enhance forecasts of flash floods and river flows [2]. Wildfire S. Raj (B) · A. Santosh · S. Ramamoorthy Amity University, Dubai, UAE e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_50

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risk estimation, army mobility evaluation, and communicable diseases outbreaks are all linked to soil moisture levels. The liquid in the top 10 cm is called surface soil moisture. This small amount of soil moisture may appear tiny when compared to the overall quantity of water on a massive level, yet it is critical to numerous hydrological, microbial, and biogeochemical functions [3]. Agrarian psychology is a social interdisciplinary field of science which encompasses parts of precision, environmental, and industrial sciences that are used in farming theory and policy. Irrigation, seed treatment and genomics, cell biology, crop planning, plant physiology, zoology, production methods and optimization, integrated pest protection, and the research of negative environmental consequences including soil erosion, wastewater treatment, and phytoremediation are all included. Moisture content has a crucial role in the growing and producing food. The terrain will not be exploited to its full potential at all without comprehending the function of moisture in the soil at every period and at different times is crucial to comprehending climate change impacts and planning for it [3]. A weather prediction algorithm might greatly enhance severe rainfall predictions if it had access to good soil moisture statistics. This is where Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) plays its part. This mission improves plant and vegetation forecasts on spatial and temporal scales, allowing for more accurate predictions of agricultural productivity and potential output. Its sensory studies will revolutionize the precision and completeness of this crucial agricultural production factor. The operation’s enhanced periodic soil moisture predictions will directly assist early worldwide hunger warning systems. The areas of the globe most vulnerable to hunger also have limited or no agricultural output data. Factual data from sensors will most likely have a significant influence in these areas [4].

2 Related Works Many advancements have been made in our comprehension of microwave methods for satellite data of moisture in the soil in recent years. An instance of a developed methodology was executed in the southeastern part of Australia to derive a connection between partial plant cover and land evaporative capacity for watershed research in 2006 [5]. There are other examples as well like the spatial interpolation of passive microwave moisture estimate by employing dynamic devices that sense changes in soil hydration at a local measure and then using this data to build better spatial resolution predictions of moisture content, as well as using observable and nearinfrared satellite data to stratify passive microwave sensor ground moisture content [6]. The solar zone with wavelength bands from 0.4 to 2.5 m is used to quantify the sun’s high radiation from Earth’s surface, which is termed as reflectivity [3, 7]. Contrary to the microwave and thermally infrared realms, which are the most widely utilized for soil moisture estimate, the solar sector has received minimal attention [8]. Nevertheless, numerous studies have established that the astral sphere can also be employed to evaluate land moisture levels [9]. In another latest method,

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moisture content was determined using a technique based on the “universal triangle” idea and statistics from the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and land surface temperature (LST) [10]. This paper brings out the method of estimating the subsurface soil moisture obtained from SMAP. It also provides the user with accurate data as the information and data is up-to-date and relatively new.

3 Geographical Location India is a South Asian country. It is considered to be the second-most populated country in the world and seventh largest by land area. India shares its border with almost six countries including Bhutan, China, Pakistan, etc. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal to the south, south-west and the southeast regions, respectively [11]. India is a megadiverse nation, a phrase used to describe 17 countries with significant biological variety and numerous species that are completely local, or rife, to them. A variety of mammalian species, species of birds, species of reptiles, vertebrate species, freshwater fish, and a wide range of angiosperms are found in India. One-third of all vegetal classes in India are rampant. Agriculture has been practiced in India since the Indus Valley Civilization [12]. In terms of agriculture output, India stands second in the world. Agronomy hired supplementary population of the country’s labor force in the past years and generated about one-thirds of the nation’s incoming GDP. Since India’s independence from Britain in 1947, there has been a massive increase of cooperative organizations, mostly in the farming sector [13]. The republic has cooperative webs at the local, provincial, municipal, and general echelons that help in cultivated publicizing (Fig. 1).

4 Subsurface Soil Moisture Our food grows in the soil, and new annotations by the Soil Moisture Active Passive undertaking have the potential to enhance projections for next growing seasons. Aside from that greater understanding of soil moisture might help us predict if a place is prone to flooding or whether a drought will last. Future water resource changes are a key social consequence of climate change, and a systematic knowledge about how these alterations may affect water availability and crop yields might be beneficial to regulators [14]. Evaporation of soil moisture creates gases that modulate and modify the planet’s climate and temperature. Soil freeze/thaw is a regulatory adjustment that determines at what time florae are energetic and when they are inactive. Because vegetation covers the majority of the Earth’s land surfaces, the massive global fluxes of liquid, energy, and soot from property to atmosphere begin through a tiny transmission of water from earth into the origins of a plant. Understanding the world cycles requires an understanding of when and where plants take up water. Although the above three elements are interconnected in some way or the other and can very well

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Fig. 1 Geographical Map of India

be examined separately, nothing on this planet is completely secluded. A method or element may give the impression to produce a significant part in one sequence but just a little function in the alternative, yet the minor part may be as crucial in holding the subsequent sequence steady. Deviations to in the least component of the arrangement can start up a domino-like response that resounds through countless sets, and that tiny fluctuations can occasionally have unpredictably huge consequences [15]. The thermal power that converts land dampness to liquid vapors do not vanish. It is responsible for keeping the liquid particles poignant quickly sufficient to maintain the water in a vaporous form. In India, there are known to be about seven land sediments.

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The deposits carried toward the bottom by waterways produce these soils. They have a variety of chemical characteristics as well; thus, it is imperative to understand the soil moisture capacity of the soil [16].

5 Sensors Used Soil Moisture Active Passive or SMAP is a high-resolution spacecraft project that measures and maps Earth’s soil moisture and thawing condition in order to truly comprehend the moisture, carbon, and power cycles on the planet. The satellite uses an improved radiometer to see behind clouds, plants, and other surface characteristics to monitor energy and water flows, which aids in flash flooding forecasting and monitoring. The three-year operation’s data will be critical in determining how climate change affects water availability, agricultural production, and other social consequences. The SMAP project is centered on the Hydrosphere State (Hydros) moisture in the soil and defrost study. All of the assets required to operate the satellite, gather the data it communicates to the ground, and analyze, disseminate, and store research data outputs are included in the SMAP command system [17]. The mission control system, base tracking system, and scientific data system make up this system. The integrated radar and radiometer computed readings of moisture content of 6.2-mile (10 km) accuracy and excellent precision, as well as the terrain freeze/thaw condition identification, will be among the data deliverables. The project team will yield two additional products by incorporating SMAP findings with the other available information such as rainfall and solar irradiance in a territory hydrology prototype: an approximation of water content in the top 3 feet (1 m) of soil and an approximation of exchange of the carbon content between the environment and the soil. It aids in the yield of plants. SMAP will give data on moisture content, which is important for plant health, and will aid agricultural production forecasting and watering management throughout the world. SMAP will enhance humanitarian government aid targeting by indirectly tracking agriculture production [18].

6 Methodology An air/space-borne radiometer’s view of the planet’s surface may reveal bare or vegetation soil, variable degrees of coarseness, comparable or different loam categories, and variations in soil water levels. The impact of these variables on measured brightness temperatures must be included in any estimate of radiative transmission from the surface of the earth. The bare ground emissivity is used to start the radiative transfer calculation, which is subsequently adjusted for roughness and cover. The model has been used in the majority of research in the 1.4–6.6 GHz band. At these bands, environmental impacts on brightness values and the impacts of volume dispersion are not taken into account [6].

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6.1 Smooth Surface Emissivity The equation describes the connection between an emitting body’s brightness temperature T B (in Kelvins) and its thermal heat T S . T B = eT S TB = eTS

(1)

where e is the surface emissivity. This e can be stated incorporating the reflectivity of a surface given by r as e = 1−r

(2)

The equations regarding reflectivity at different divergences could be obtained from the theory of electromagnetism assuming an even texture and an average with a homogeneous nonconductor constant:   √  εr Cosθ − εr − Sin2θ   rv =  √ εr Cosθ + εr − Sin2θ    √  Cosθ − εr − Sin2θ    rh =  √ Cosθ + εr − Sin2θ 

(3)

where the incidence angle is denoted by θ, and the medium’s compound dielectric constant is denoted by εr [19].

6.2 Influence of Surface Coarseness Natural surfaces have a somewhat greater emissivity due to surface irregularity. This is mostly due to the radiating surface’s larger surface area [20]. To justify the surface coarseness, a semiempirical formula for coarse surface reflectance is used:   r p = Q r 0q + (1 − Q)r 0 p exp(−h) where the reflectivity if the surface was smooth is given by 〖r0〗_q and 〖r0〗_p. Two design variables are used in the expression, both of which are affected by the surface conditions. The altitude factor is h, while the Q is the polarization mixing variable. These two components are dependent on the frequency, sensor view degree, and surface finish, and must be established experimentally [21].

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6.3 The Influence of Foliage The amount of plant cover in wild regions and yield cover in agrarian turfs affects the remotely detected microwave radiation from soils significantly. In comparison to bare fields, the susceptibility of observed microwave radiation in foliage fields would be different [22]. Above the ground, vegetation is represented as a single homogeneous layer. For such double landforms, the brightness temperature T B p corresponds to vertical (v), polarization p, and horizontal (h) as    p TB = e p Ts exp(−τ ) + TC 1 − exp(−τ ) 1 + r p exp(−τ ) wherein TC represents the warmth of the foliage, T S is the temperature of the surface, τ is the flora density, and r p and ep are the respective reflectivity and emissivity of the land exterior. The level of τ is determined by the frequency, plant type, and moisture content of the vegetation. The connection between τ and the water absorption of plants W e can be expressed as: r=

bWe Cosθ

In which b represents a factor of cover form, wavelength in addition to polarity, and cosθ denotes vegetation’s tilted orientation [23].

7 Software Used The tool used for satellite imagery analysis in this paper is the Google Earth Engine. Scientists, academics, and technologists may use Google Earth Engine to identify changes, track trends, and measure variations on the Planet’s crust by combining a multi-petabyte collection of satellite images and geospatial information with planetary-scale data analytics. It is a portal enabling academia, non-profit, corporate, and public users to do scientific research and display geographical datasets. Earth Engine provides satellite imagery and maintains it in an accessible data repository with historical earth pictures dating back over four decades. The images are subsequently made accessible for worldwide data analysis after being digested on a daily basis. Earth Engine also offers application programming interfaces (API) as well as other resources that make it possible to analyze huge databases. This API is accessible in Python and JavaScript, making it simple to use Google’s cloud for geographic research. Among the numerous potential analyses, one may look at wood and water covers, land usage trends, and the quality of agricultural areas, to name a few [24].

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Fig. 2 Subsurface soil moisture for 2015

8 Analysis The subsurface moisture content in the soil was analyzed particularly for the month of April from the years 2015–2020. The images retrieved from the Google Earth Engine are shown below. Blue and darker colors correspond to higher moisture levels while yellow and lighter shades correspond to lower soil moisture. The scale ranges from 0 to 0.5 m [25] (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7).

9 Results and Discussion Soil moisture level influences how heat is transferred between the land and water in the air and is a key regulator of plant development. The easiest way to keep track of a planted crop is to utilize underlying soil moisture content [26]. Based on the soil’s liquid-holding capability, sub-surface soil moisture is estimated to store 0–400 mm/m of moisture. On average, sub-surface moisture values more than 100 mm suggest an excess of water in the subsurface, or at the very least a desirable quantity of moisture. Levels below 100 mm suggest that the underlying soil moisture retention is limited, but that a healthy growing crop may still be supported. Once the top layer has almost no substantial soil moisture and even the product is at a crucial period of growth,

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Fig. 3 Subsurface soil moisture for 2016

values less than 25 mm indicate that there is little subsurface moisture content, and the crop may be heavily stressed, reducing the yields produced [27]. Analyzing the images retrieved for the year of 2015, it is noticed that the subsurface land dampness is highest mainly in the north-eastern and the north-western fragments of the country. This is shown with the dark blue (0.4 to 0.5 m) slightly concentrated in the north western area and dark green and yellow spread across the entire northern region. While on the other hand, the least moisture content (depicted by the red shades) is noticed in the southern region of the country with levels almost corresponding to 0 to 0.1 m, though there are sightings in the central areas. Moving further and observing the data for 2016, it shows that there has been an increase in the moisture levels down predominantly in the southern and south-eastern areas of India with patterns of light green (corresponding to 0.2 to 0.3 m) and yellow (corresponding to 0.1 to 0.2 m) withered around. But the levels have decreased slightly in the central and western regions. By 2017, a drastic decrease has been seen all over India. The decrease is significant in the southern regions corresponding to the data obtained for 2015. It can also be seen in the interior, eastern and western regions of the nation showing that moisture levels have dropped since one year. But the north-western areas remain strong in their water levels of subsurface soil contributing to healthier crop cultivation. The next image shows the change in the year 2018 with an increase in the moisture levels

592 Fig. 4 Subsurface soil moisture for 2017

Fig. 5 Subsurface soil moisture for 2018

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Fig. 6 Subsurface soil moisture for 2019

in the south central and in the western regions of the country as is indicated by the distribution of the yellow over the region. But at the same time, there is a reduction in levels seen in the eastern area. 2019 brings with it a substantial reduction in the water levels which is shown in the obtained image. Except for the north-western part of India which maintains its moisture levels between 0.2 and 0.5 m (depicted by colors yellow, green, and blue) and the south-eastern regions which appears to have moisture range between 0.2 and 0.3 m, the rest of the country manifests a decline in the water content in the soil. From 2019 to 2020, a surge in the moisture levels can be noticed especially in the northern and north-eastern region with levels spanning across 0.2 to 0.5 m. An improvement can also be seen in some parts of the southern as well as in the western areas. The fluctuating patterns for the subsurface moisture levels can be accredited to the increase of temperature, owing to the solar radiation in different parts of the country. This causes water evaporation leading to the reduction in the water content in soil available for plants and other crops.

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Fig. 7 Subsurface soil moisture for 2020

10 Conclusion The satellite imagery data provided by the extremely high resolution of the SMAP which was analyzed using Google Earth Engine, shows us the extent of the subsurface soil moisture content in its concentration across India. The Soil Moisture Active Passive mission will create soil wetness maps which could be employed to trace the transport of water across our globe. They have proven to be effective for accurate and precise data and are known to be quite reliable. They are used, not just for soil moisture detection, but also for many other implementations in the field of floods and droughts, agricultural yields etc. However, SMAP’s limitations primarily include its delay in data transfer by about 12 h at its best. The infiltration is only up to 5 cm deep which is low for assessing data at varied depths. Another disadvantage is that based on the area, measurements are only accessible every other day. This limits our information accessibility on the region of interest chosen. The data which was collected over the course of 2015 to 2020 was compared. It is evident from the results that there was an altering pattern that is seen in the levels of the water content in the subsurface soil. The ranges seem to change over time. In the analyzed images, it can be inferred that 2019 reveals a low moisture level range throughout the whole country with very less water availability in soil in different parts for the crop production. On the contrary, it could be determined that 2016 has the

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highest amount of liquid content in its soil distributed in various regions. Soil erosion, overgrazing, and the cultivation of a single crop each year all contribute to a diminution in land moisture content. The use of technology and tools, as well as animal trampling, can damage or substantially diminish the size of soil pores. Compacted soil does not allow for the storage or circulation of soil air and water. Soil water patterns influence surface warming and the onset of extreme weather. Predictions over terrain will enhance accurate moisture content inputs to meteorological estimations. The accessibility of such information can help the authorities take necessary actions regarding the depleting water levels in order to make soil fertile again for planting more crops in the future and supporting small and large-scale agriculture. Maps Disclaimer: The presentation of material and details in maps used in this chapter does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Publishers or Author concerning the legal status of any country, area or territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its borders. The depiction and use of boundaries, geographic names and related data shown on maps and included in lists, tables, documents, and databases in this chapter are not warranted to be error free nor do they necessarily imply official endorsement or acceptance by the Publisher or Author.

References 1. FAO (2021) India At a Glance, Available at: http://www.fao.org/india/fao-in-india/india-ata-glance/en/#:~:text=India%20is%20the%20world’s%20largest,poultry%2C%20livestock% 20and%20plantation%20crops. Accessed 13th Aug 2021 2. Entekhabi D, Njoku EG, O’Neill PE, Kellogg KH, Crow WT, Edelstein WN, Entin JK, Goodman SD, Jackson TJ, Johnson J, Kimball J (2010) The soil moisture active passive (SMAP) mission. Proc IEEE 98(5):704–716 3. Wang L, Qu JJ (2009) Satellite remote sensing applications for surface soil moisture monitoring: a review. Front Earth Sci China 3(2):237–247 4. O’Neill P, Entekhabi D, Njoku E, Kellogg K (2010) The NASA soil moisture active passive (SMAP) mission: Overview. In: 2010 IEEE international geoscience and remote sensing symposium. IEEE, pp 3236–3239 5. Merlin O, Al Bitar A, Walker JP, Kerr Y (2010) An improved algorithm for disaggregating microwave-derived soil moisture based on red, near-infrared and thermal-infrared data. Remote Sens Environ 114(10):2305–2316 6. Schmugge TJ (1983) Remote sensing of soil moisture: recent advances. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 3:336–344 7. Sadeghi AM, Hancock GD, Waite WP, Scott HD, Rand JA (1984) Microwave measurements of moisture distributions in the upper soil profile. Water Resour Res 20(7):927–934 8. Liu W, Baret F, Gu X, Zhang B, Tong Q, Zheng L (2003) Evaluation of methods for soil surface moisture estimation from reflectance data. Int J Remote Sens 24(10):2069–2083 9. Leone AP, Sommer S (2000) Multivariate analysis of laboratory spectra for the assessment of soil development and soil degradation in the southern apennines. Remote Sens Environ 72:346–359 10. Piles M, Camps A, Vall-llossera M et al (2011) Downscaling SMOSderived soil moisture using MODIS visible/infrared data. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 49(9):3156–3166 11. Fisher MH (2018) An environmental history of india: from earliest times to the twenty-first century. Cambridge University Press, p 23, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2

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12. Kumar SV, Reichle RH, Koster RD, Crow WT, Peters-Lidard CD (2009) Role of subsurface physics in the assimilation of surface soil moisture observations. J Hydrometeorol 10(6):1534– 1547 13. Holzman ME, Rivas R, Bayala M (2014) Subsurface soil moisture estimation by VI–LST method. IEEE Geosci Remote Sens Lett 11(11):1951–1955 14. Ashalatha KV, Munisamy G, Bhat ARS (2012) Impact of climate change on rainfed agriculture in India: a case study of Dharwad. Int J Environ Sci Develop 3(4):368–371 15. Kalra A, Khanuja SPS (2007) Research and Development priorities for biopesticide and biofertiliser products for sustainable agriculture in India. Bus Potential Agric Biotech:96–102 16. Joseph KJ (2014) Exploring exclusion in innovation systems: case of plantation agriculture in India. Innov Develop 4(1):73–90 17. NASA (2021) SMAP, Available at: https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/soil-moisture-activepassive-smap. Accessed 11th Aug 2021 18. JPL (2021) Why it matters, Available at: https://smap.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/why-it-matters/# crops. Accessed 11th Aug 2021 19. Heathman GC, Cosh MH, Merwade V, Han E (2012) Multi-scale temporal stability analysis of surface and subsurface soil moisture within the Upper Cedar Creek Watershed, Indiana. CATENA 95:91–103 20. Choudhury BJ, Schmugge TJ, Newton RW, Chang A (1979) Effect of surface roughness on the microwave emission from soils. J Geophys Res 89(9):5699–5706 21. Ni-Meister W, Houser PR, Walker JP (2006) Soil moisture initialization for climate prediction: assimilation of scanning multifrequency microwave radiometer soil moisture data into a land surface model. J Geophys Res D 111(20), Article ID D20102 22. Guha A, Lakshmi V (2002) Sensitivity, spatial heterogeneity, and scaling of C-band microwave brightness temperatures for land hydrology studies. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 40(12):2626–2635 23. Das NN, Entekhabi D, Njoku EG (2011) An algorithm for merging SMAP radiometer and radar data for high-resolution soil-moisture retrieval. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 49(5):1504– 1512 24. Google (2021) A planetary-scale platform for earth science data and analysis, Available at: https://earthengine.google.com/. Accessed: 9th Aug 2021 25. Mohr KI, Famiglietti JS, Boone A, Starks PJ (2000) Modeling soil moisture and surface flux variability with an untuned land surface scheme: a case study from the southern great plains 1997 hydrology experiment. J Hydrometeorol 1(2):154–169 26. Dukes MD, Scholberg JM (2005) Soil moisture controlled subsurface drip irrigation on sandy soils. Appl Eng Agric 21(1):89–101 27. Bolten JD, Crow WT, Zhan X, Reynolds CA, Jackson TJ (2009) Assimilation of a satellite-based soilmoisture product into a two-layer water balance model for a global crop production decision support system. In: Data assimilation for atmospheric, oceanic and hydrologic applications. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 449–463

Environmental Effects of Cement Production: A Review Abhijit Das, Sushant Kumar, Prashant Sharma, and Neha Sharma

Abstract This study examines the consequences of cement production on the environment and possible solutions to global warming. A rise in cement production has led to a decline in nonrenewable resources like limestone. Extracting resources from natural ecosystems increases the risk of ecological imbalance and destroys the green environment, home to many plant and animal species. Rapid usage will likely deplete this limited resource in the near future. In addition, the company’s raw material processing phases produce dust, noise, and greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, which degrade the environment and worsen climate change. Unwanted environmental impediments hinder daily life. Better cement plant production processes can help reduce pollution by creating cleaner cement. Industrial waste could be utilised as a cement additive or in cement-free concrete, lowering the country’s cement use and improving the environment. If we want to utilise other materials as concrete binder, we must use products that use less natural resources, are more costeffective, and cause less environmental harm. It will make the environment more resilient and healthier for future generations. Keywords Global warming · Sustainable manufacturing · Ecosystem · Environment impact · Cement production

A. Das Civil Engineering Department, Odisha University of Technology and Research (O.U.T.R), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India S. Kumar Department of Civil Engineering, Greater Noida Institute of Technology, Gautam Buddha Nagar, India P. Sharma (B) · N. Sharma Department of Civil Engineering, GLA University Mathura, Mathura, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_51

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1 Introduction Due to its inherent advantages, concrete is the most extensively used building material [1]. The appeal of concrete is primarily due to its superior mechanical properties and low cost [2–5]. It will most likely used to produce a variety shapes and sizes of structural elements [6]. Furthermore, traditional concrete production is expected to reach around 6 billion tonnes per year globally [7]. Cement as a solitary binder in concrete creates a solid, weight-bearing mass. For over 200 years, regular cement has been used as a primary component of concrete in construction [8]. China is the world’s largest producer of concrete and produces some of the world’s highestquality cement [9]. China produced 2.15 billion metric tonnes of cement in 2012, with India accounting for 8.6% of total production and the US accounting for 29% [10]. The total volume of cement produced in 2016 was over 4174 MT. It increased by 24.96% compared to overall output in 2010 [11]. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. China produced 22,489 thousand tonnes of cement in August 2020, whilst Malaysia produced 1866 thousand tonnes, as shown in Fig. 1 [12]. The use of aggregate, particularly limestone, which is required in the production of Portland cement, is increasing as the demand for cement grows [13, 14]. When the answer is that energy consumption has increased significantly in the twenty-first century [15], nonrenewable resource exhaustion becomes a growing concern. Nonrenewable resource reserves will unavoidably be depleted when they are extracted from the environment and exploited for economic purposes due to the dominance of the quarrying and mining industries. Nonrenewable resources are in short supply, and once depleted, their stockpiles do not replenish. Ecosystem destruction, river damage, and dust contamination have all been linked to the continued extraction of natural resources [15–17]. Thus, it is important to stop the extraction of natural resources. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, openpit mining is used. Bulldozers and dump trucks, as well as excavating, blowing, and other heavy earthmoving equipment, are used in quarrying. A good mix of calcium, silica, aluminium, and iron is required to make the typical clinker composition. Lime and silica are the main components of cement, whilst iron lowers the reaction temperature and gives it its distinctive grey colour. Clinker is made from limestone, shale, and clay that has been prepared, dried, crushed, combined, and baked at temperatures between 1200 and 1450 °C in cement ovens. Chemical reactions in the burning area require a high temperature. Clinker, a nodular substance formed in the oven, is allowed to cool before being used. Clinker is then used as the main component in the production of cement. Crushing Portland cement and mixing it with other ingredients like limestone and gypsum produce ordinary Portland cement [18]. A lot of fossil and other fuels are burned to heat cement ovens, dryers, and preheaters. Cement ovens and crushing equipment, in particular, require a great deal of energy. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption

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and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. Bulldozers and dump trucks, as well as excavating, blowing, and other heavy earthmoving equipment, are used in quarrying. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. This results in a 20% cut in CO2 pollution. Fly ash, slag cement, and silica can all be used to make this concrete, which makes the environment cleaner because they are used. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. As a result, a substantial amount of energy is used to produce a large quantity of cement. Pollution is prevalent throughout the cement manufacturing process, primarily in the form of air pollution. Studies show that each tonne of cement produced emits 0.8 tonnes of CO2 [19]. Figures 2 and 3 show the amount of CO2 releases due to production of cement. Meanwhile, a tonne of Portland cement emits approximately a tonne of CO2 , and the cement manufacturing process consumes between 2 and 8% of global electricity [20, 21]. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. The CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has increased by 47% since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, according to NASA [22].

2 Environmental Impact 2.1. Air pollution is a significant issue. In the cement industry, dust is a significant source of pollution; for example, dust is produced during the shipping, loading, and unloading of clinker, which is then deposited outside the silo [23, 24]. During the manufacturing of cement, dust is also produced. CO2 is one of the most significant contributors to global warming and is one of the most significant greenhouse gas emissions [22]. The synthesis of CaO occurs when CO2 and water vapour are released at high temperatures during the cement manufacturing process. CO2 is responsible for approximately 65% of greenhouse gas emissions, with CO2 emissions from industrial energy use accounting for five per cent to seven % of total global CO2 emissions [25–27]. Material production was confirmed as the primary source of industrial CO2 in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Fifth Assessment Report [28]. Industrial activity, energy and heat production, and transportation account for 84% of global carbon di oxide emissions [27, 29]. Cement production consumes 12–15% of total industrial energy [25]. It was also claimed that it was responsible for between 5 and 8% of CO2 emissions from cement production. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. This results in a 20% cut in CO2

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Fig. 1 Production of cement 2021

Fig. 2 CO2 year wise emission (climate.gov)

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Fig. 3 Worldwide CO2 emission

pollution. Fly ash, slag cement, and silica can all be used to make this concrete, which makes the environment cleaner because they are used. In 2017, the global cement industry released 4.1 Gt of CO2 into the atmosphere [30]. As a result of the high levels of CO2 in the atmosphere, anthropogenic climate change may become an unavoidable reality. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. Bulldozers and dump trucks, as well as excavating, blowing, and other heavy earthmoving equipment, are used in quarrying. Furthermore, from the extraction of raw materials to the packing and loading of finished products, particles such as PM10 and PM2.5 are produced throughout the cement manufacturing process [31]. According to the Environmental Protection Agency [32], the cement industry produced 136 tonnes of NOx, 4833 tonnes of SO2 , 183 tonnes of VOCs (including harmful dioxins and furans), and 320 kg of mercury in 2010. However, one tonne of Portland cement emits about one tonne of greenhouse gases, and 1.5–10 kg of nitrogen oxides (NOx) per tonne of Portland cement clinker are released into the atmosphere [33]. NOx is a potent greenhouse gas produced by the combustion of fossil fuels, nitric acid production, and biomass combustion [22]. Furthermore, the production of dust and other harmful gases degrades air quality, making it more difficult for people to live a healthy lifestyle in all parts of the world, particularly in developing countries. When different particle sizes are mixed together, it can harm people’s respiratory health, as studies of workers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease have shown (COPD). PM10 and smaller particles have been found to infiltrate the human respiratory system due to their much smaller scale [34], which is due to their significantly smaller size. Those with established cardiac problems and the elderly are amongst the most vulnerable groups when it comes to PM2.5 exposure. This is especially true as construction workers’ average age rises [34, 35]. In Beijing, long-term exposure to PM has been linked to around

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4000 premature deaths, with lung cancer accounting for 20% of all premature deaths [36]. VOCs can have an impact on soil and ground water because they are precursors to the formation of ozone. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been found to cause growth retardation, chlorosis, and necrosis in large-leaved plants. VOCs can cause fever, nausea, liver, kidney, and central nervous system damage, amongst other symptoms, in addition to irritating the respiratory and visual systems. 2.2 Water and noise pollution Furthermore, cement production produces dust pollution, which can impair vision and degrade environmental quality. Once the dust has been emptied, it has been reported that it can contaminate the water, making it unsafe to drink for both humans and animals. Surface and groundwater supplies, as well as rivers and groundwater, are contaminated by wastewater discharge into the atmosphere. In urban areas with growing populations, the construction and urbanisation of new settlements, as well as land-based human activities, all contribute to soil deterioration [37]. In addition, poor land management can endanger soils by causing water to runoff across the landscape rather than infiltrating into the soil, which contributes to soil erosion [38]. Furthermore, the cement manufacturing process is responsible for the majority of noise emissions [39]. Raw material preparation, clinker burning, material storage, and the heavy equipment used in the process are all contributed to noise pollution. Complex gas noise, electrical magnetic noise, and mechanical noise are the three types of industrial noise classified by the processing method [40]. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. The most common type of industrial noise is complex gas noise. Gas dynamic noise from blower activity, mechanical noise from milling machines and crushers, and electromagnetic noise from electric engines are the most significant sources of noise in cement plants [41]. The morphology and physiology of human body systems such as the neurological, gastrointestinal, and cardiovascular systems are all affected by noise pollution [40]. Chronic exposure to high-noise cement plant environments raises the risk of neurasthenia syndrome, which causes memory loss, hypertension, insomnia, dizziness, headaches, and fatigue. The neurological disorder neurasthenia syndrome affects the nervous system. Workplace and transportation noise levels are now recognised as one of the risk factors for cardiovascular disease in the general population. Furthermore, employees working in the cement plant have difficulty identifying any potential hazards during their shifts due to noise pollution, putting their safety at risk [41]. Figure 2 shows a high-level overview of the factors that influence cement production. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. Bulldozers and dump trucks, as well as excavating, blowing, and other heavy earthmoving equipment, are used in quarrying (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4 Impact of cement production

3 Discussion Following the acknowledgement of the cement industry’s negative impact on the environment and humanity, efforts to reduce pollution generated by industrial operations have continued. According to Jadoon et al. [42], a continuous spraying of oil, water, or other soil stabilisation materials can reduce the number of dust emission paths [23]. Additionally, properly maintained bag house filters can help to reduce dust emissions. Dust emissions can be reduced by using an ESP that has been properly designed and managed [43]. The most effective techniques for improving noise control performance have proven to be absorption, noise attenuation, and insulation technologies [41]. Noise reduction measures that can be implemented by the receiver include technological, administrative, and noise control initiatives [44]. To reduce the amount of time employees are exposed to noise, every industry should implement a staff rotation policy that moves employees from noisy to calmer environments [45]. Regardless of whether staff is wearing earplugs or earmuffs, noise removal at the receiver guarantees that the level of noise obtained is maintained to a minimal minimum. Earplugs can reduce noise by 30 decibels, whilst earmuffs can reduce noise by 40 to 50 decibels [46, 47]. The use of cement is increasing, which

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has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. The operator’s noise sensitivity would be reduced to a more comfortable level as a result. Meanwhile, the company provided ear protection devices to employees as part of the factory’s standard operating procedure (SOP) [48] to protect them from hearing loss. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. Bulldozers and dump trucks, as well as excavating, blowing, and other heavy earthmoving equipment, are used in quarrying. Aside from that greasy effluent has wreaked havoc on the overall health and performance of the water system. To address this issue, a variety of superhydrophobic materials [49] have been used to achieve oil/water separation. Electrostatic assembly, condensation response, anodization, hydrothermal treatment, plasma-induced strategy, printing, vapour deposition, assembly, spray process, aerogel, and etching have all been used to make superhydrophobic products [50–56]. It is important to point out that more should be done to make things like food, water, and electricity in a simple, cheap, and environmentally friendly way. Rubber, sewage sludge, waste oil, and waste fuel recycling [57] can help reduce the use of nonrenewable energy sources in the cement manufacturing industry by lowering the amount of nonrenewable energy consumed. Researchers are looking into ways to improve the operating systems of cement factories to make them more environmentally friendly, in addition to looking into the possibility of using waste material as a partial cement substitute in concrete. Growing concern about the cement industry’s environmental impact has sparked interest in more environmentally friendly and cost-effective concrete materials than previously existed, according to Hamidian et al. To cut down on the use of limestone as a building material, new research is looking into the use of waste materials like oyster shell, cockle shell, and eggshell as part of the cement mix. Many industrial waste products, such as fly ash and slag, have been used as cement additives in recent years because they are pozzolanic. This means that they can be used to make cement. Because it is better for the environment, geopolymer concrete, which is made without cement and has a faster rate of strength gain than standard concrete, has recently become more popular. When a 5–15% Portland cement substitute is used in geopolymer concrete, it does not need to be heated outside to get strong early on. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. Bulldozers and dump trucks, as well as excavating, blowing, and other heavy earthmoving equipment, are used in quarrying. The use of cement is increasing, which has predictable implications for energy consumption and pollution. Because Portland cement requires precise mixing of raw materials, open-pit mining is used. This results in a 20% cut in CO2 pollution. Fly ash, slag cement, and silica can all be used to make this concrete, which makes the environment cleaner because they are used. As a whole, in order to protect the natural environment for future generations, high-quality concrete with less cement should be made and used, waste material as a cementitious material, or geopolymer concrete, a modern free-cement concrete for the construction sector.

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4 Conclusions The importance of cement in the production of concrete for use in the construction industry cannot be overstated. Simultaneously, the negative impacts of cement production climate change, the environment, and living things have been well documented. Given the importance of a healthy ecosystem, efforts have been made to improve the cement plant’s operation system in order to reduce the industry’s negative impact on the ecosystem’s environmental balance. As part of the overall goal of reducing waste, the circular economy concept also encourages the use of In cement manufacture, industrial waste can be used as a replacement material for cement or as a source of energy. More research into strategies to mitigate or eliminate the negative consequences of cement manufacturing will continue to be motivated by the desire to have a cleaner environment in order to have a healthier community.

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A Review on Compliant Microgripper Anurag T. Vidap, Bhagyesh D. Deshmukh, and Sujit S. Pardeshi

Abstract Microgrippers are used to manipulate micro-objects in micro-assembly and microsurgery. It is used in micro-robotics and micro-assembly technologies to manipulate and handle micro-objects without causing damage. Microgrippers can be used in material sciences to lift and move microparticles. Micropipettes, optical tweezers, and magnetic tweezers are common tools used by most biologists to sort stem cells, deliver genes and DNA, diagnose cells, and manipulate single cells. For some time, researchers are focusing on compliant microgrippers, attempting to improve their grasping mechanism, avoid slippages, and increase their ability to control and enhance force (mechanical advantage). This paper investigates microgrippers, microgripper types, design approaches, and actuation techniques. Keywords Compliant mechanism · Microgripper · MEMS · Micromanipulation

1 Introduction Precision manipulation of small objects is critical in microprocesses. As the trend toward downsizing continues, microgrippers will become important tools for holding, manipulating, and assembling micro-components. Microgripping devices are used in a variety of applications, including the assembly of microscale parts made from various materials using various micromachining procedures. Many resources have been devoted to the study and development of microgrippers and their applications in MEMS and micro-robotic systems [1–4]. Through the research study conducted, this paper may assist in understanding how and what type of design shall be used for microgrippers for diverse applications. Initially, parallel electrostatic plates were

A. T. Vidap (B) · B. D. Deshmukh Walchand Institute of Technology, Solapur, Maharashtra 413006, India e-mail: [email protected] S. S. Pardeshi College of Engineering, Pune, Maharashtra 411005, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_52

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used to drive the gripper, but this required a high voltage and limited the objects that could be grasped [5].

2 Compliant Mechanism Compliant mechanisms have complete or partial displacement due to the deflections of their compliant portions. The compliant mechanisms are equivalent to the generic mechanisms defined by motion, force, or energy transmission. The variation is that flexible material replaces the links and hinges. When trying to design a flexible and robust compliant mechanism, it is recommended that a material with a high strength and low young’s modulus has been used [6]. Compliant mechanisms have a few advantages over rigid-body mechanisms, including lower part count, less wear, friction, backlash, and weight, and the lack of need for lubrication. Though compliant mechanisms have advantages over standard mechanisms, they also present design challenges, such as motion simulation and design for motion. Because the compliant mechanism is based on the deflection of flexible members, the problem becomes more difficult when the deflections are non-linear, and their motion cannot be adequately described using simplified linear equations. Alternate possible designs, proper material selection, and multiple trial and error iterations of finite element methods may be required to achieve the desired deflection, stiffness, and performance of a compliant mechanism. Compliant mechanisms include the long bow shown in (Fig. 1) and the compliant windshield wiper with monolithic construction shown in (Fig. 2). Fig. 1 Microgripper

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Fig. 2 Compliant wiper blade

3 Types of Grippers As shown in (Fig. 3), the gap is greatest in normally open grippers and reduces as the actuation force is applied until the object is grabbed. In this type of transmission, the actuation force must be maintained throughout the transmission. This approach has the advantage of enabling for precise gripping force control, but it has the drawback of taking energy during transmission. Before the item is grasped, the actuation force raises the gap space to the object dimension domain in typically closed types, as shown in (Fig. 4). After transmission to the final target, the actuation force creates a gap and the object releases. As a result, the elastic strain energy of the mechanism serves as gripping energy during transmission. Furthermore, when manipulating large objects, the gap must be opened frequently, leading to accumulation of a substantial amount of elastic energy in the mechanism and an increased likelihood of object damage. As a consequence, a normally open gripper is frequently preferred.

Fig. 3 Normally open [7]

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Fig. 4 Normally close [7]

4 Design Approaches Kinematic Synthesis Approach: Also known as the design approach of pseudo-rigidbody mechanisms, the kinematic synthesis method begins by producing a rigidbody mechanism and then creates flexibility to redesign the rigid-body parts’ hinged joints as flexible hinges. The effectiveness of the resulting compliant mechanism is approximately identical to that of a pseudo-rigid-body mechanism when compared to a rigid-body mechanism [8]. As stated in [9], for small length flexural pivot, spring constant K is given by equation (i), K =

(E I )l l

(1)

where E l I K

Young’s modulus Length of flexible segment Beam moment of inertia Spring constant.

While designing the compliant mechanism, the flexures are replaced by torsional spring as shown in (Fig. 5) having equivalent stiffness given by equation (ii), as stated in [10] Kθ =

2Ebt 2.5 9πr 0.5

(2)

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Fig. 5 Flexure hinge

where E b t r

Young’s modulus Thickness of plate used Thickness of flexure hinge Radius of flexure hinge.

Continuum Synthesis Approach: To design distributed compliant systems, the continuous synthesis approach, also known as structural optimization, is applied. In this type of system, flexibility is distributed across the segment. Flexible continua are examined and synthesized as a result of such procedures [11]. Discrete Synthesis: Topological synthesis can be done using a discrete algorithm first, followed by numerous scaling methods for each enumeration topology [12] when the mechanism is represented as a network of truss or beam elements. Flexural joints have their own set of limitations, such as a short fatigue life, a complicated production process, and a high stress concentration. Because compliant mechanisms get their motion from flexural pivots, they must deal with the issue of flexural pivot fatigue life (Fig. 6). Proper attention and testing are required when designing compliant mechanisms to provide acceptable fatigue life and appearance, as consumers may perceive flexible members to be weak. When compared to a rigid link mechanism, the mobility of

Fig. 6 Compliant microgrippers

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a compliant mechanism is limited. Consider how a rigid-body shaft and bearing mechanism can spin indefinitely, whereas compliant components are limited by the amount of deflection, they can achieve within the elastic limit of the material.

5 Literature Survey A literature review is undertaken to get a complete grasp of compliance processes, design approaches, analysis, and the various types of joints used for displacement/force transfer. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMSs) [5, 9, 13, 14], minimally invasive surgery [1–4], robotics, space, and automobiles are only a few of the domains where compliant mechanisms are used. Kota et al. [14] presented a flexible approach of attaching parts using large displacement compliant joints. Flexible joints reap the benefits of the material’s natural compliance rather than only regulating deformations. With these joints, friction, backlash, and wear are all reduced. They could also achieve sub-micron precision due to its extensive monolithic construction. The monolithic design also streamlines manufacturing and facilitates low-cost fabrication. Ananthasuresh and Laxminarayana [15] showed the design of a ‘one-piece compliant stapler’ that achieves motion through elastic deformation of flexible components, as opposed to rigid-body motion of traditional mechanisms and provides performance comparable to traditional mechanisms. Figure 7 shows a monolithic compliance stapler that incorporates a staple loading slot, a compliant segment that holds the staple stack tight, a plunger that pushes the staple, and two flexure joints into a single injection moldable part. A die is integrated on the bottom of the stiff beam to bend the staples around the paper stack [16]. Providing a design for a compliant shape-maintaining mechanism, Schreurs et al. It can be used in medical applications, as a compliant gripper, or as a sealing mechanism. Shape-preserving mechanisms are expanding mechanisms that maintain their shape when enlarged. The form-preserving systems described here are said to be capable of maintaining their shape for up to 99% of their range of motion. It is disclosed that a prototype was produced utilizing PETG. Compliant mechanical amplifiers are used with piezoelectric actuators to lengthen the actuator’s effective stroke [16–18] (Fig. 8). Nikoobin and Niaki [20] evaluated and reviewed sixteen various types of microgrippers in their paper. They came up with useful parameters for microgripper performance and design, such as material specification, displacement amplification factor, gripping distance and stroke, and so on. They additionally proposed an overall design algorithm for the microgripper. Bharanidaran and Ramesh [21] show how to make a three-finger compliant microgripper that can hold asymmetric objects. The mechanism required to conduct the required micromotion of the gripper is topologically optimized in this study using a topological-optimization technique, a systematic procedure.

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Fig. 7 Compliant stapler

Fig. 8 Top views compliant shape preserving ring in the three sequential state of expansion [19]

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Ohol and Kajale [22] focus their study on enhancing grabbing abilities with improved sensor backup, which can help the robot deal with real-world scenarios. In preparation for further dynamic analysis to validate viability, the design approach, solid modeling, force analysis, and simulation have all been described. This is an attempt to construct the universal dexterous grabbing gripper by experimenting with numerous designs. Using the notion of ground structure parameterization, Chen and Huang [7] presented a topological-optimization method for constructing and assessing a microgripper device. The conforming design domain is defined as 2000 m with a thickness of 200 m, and the impact of various optimization parameters is discussed. The displacement amplifier is driven by an electro-thermal microactuator with such a force output of around 6000 N. Finally, the microgripper tip tries to deflect up to 18 m when 1.5 V is applied. Using a compliant plier model to assess stress, strains, and displacement behavior, Ibrahim et al. [23] found that ABS was the best material for the application of compliant pliers out of all the polymers [16] (Fig. 9). Khare et al. [6] reported a thorough investigation on design variants for optimal mechanism performance in terms of big displacements, with recommendations for improvements in high stress, low strain, and other areas. The polysilicon-based microgripper is subjected to a variety of input voltages. Arun Kumar [24] studies the tip opening displacement as well as the maximum temperature generated by the applied voltage for various applied voltage values. The needed voltage must be provided depending on length of a object to be gripped; as even the voltage applied to the gripper grows, the temperature created in the gripper increase as well.

Fig. 9 Compliant plier

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In their publication, Martinez et al. [25] describe the invention of SU-8polymerbased microgrippers. Finite element simulations were utilized to define the geometrical dimensions and validate its operation. Techniques of mechanical and piezoelectric actuation are employed and characterized. Jiaguang et al. [17] described the design of a compliant mechanism using the kinematic synthesis approach based on classical rigid-body kinematics, while the continuum synthesis approach is based on the topology optimization method of continuum structures. This is the PRBM design approach, in which the design is done first by synthesizing a rigid-body mechanism, and then, the flexibility is added with flexure hinges. When compared to a rigid-body mechanism, the performance of the resulting compliant mechanism is similar to that of a PRBM. Baker and Howell [18] advocated for the use of PRBM in the development of compliant systems. A PRBM is a near rigid-body model of a compliant mechanism in which the flexures are replaced by torsional springs of comparable stiffness, allowing the mechanism to be treated as a rigid-body mechanism and simplifying the design technique. The deflection of flexible components provides some or all of the motion in a compliant mechanism. Compliance offers a lot of benefits, including a reduction in the number of parts and more exact motion. Pedersen et al. [26] proposed topology and size optimization approaches for designing compliant mechanisms that deliver a constant output force for a given actuator with a linearly declining force versus displacement characteristic. The design process is divided into two parts: I topology optimization using two-dimensional (2D) continuum parameterization and (ii) size optimization of the beam-element abstraction obtained from the continuum topology solution. The examples provided are electrostatic microactuators, which are commonly utilized in microsystems. According to Dirksen et al. [27], the design synthesis of a compliant mechanism produces optimum topologies that mix many stiff elements with extremely elastic flexural hinges. In a finite element analysis, hinges are frequently represented by a single node (one-node hinge), leaving the actual physical meaning of the hinge (to be built). The authors looked into rectangular, circular, and parabolic profile geometries for flexural hinges. Uncertain interpretation difficulties that might arise during any subsequent manufacturing stage of a compliant mechanism design are eliminated by putting the hinge shape and fatigue behavior into the design process. According to Choi and Han [28], the mechanical performance of the compliant mechanism is dependent on the flexure hinge properties. To simplify the design challenge, the forms and sizes of the moving bodies in the mechanism are assumed to be fixed, and all of the circular notch flexure hinges have the same dimensions. Then, as design parameters, only the radius ‘r’ of the circular notch and the width ‘t’ of the neck between two holes in the circular notch flexure hinge are considered. One of the design restrictions was to keep the maximum produced stress as low as possible. The authors also kept the stiffness upper bound below the actuator stiffness.

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6 Findings of the Study • There have been many reviews on compliant microgrippers, but this work was done with a holistic approach that includes numerous aspects of compliant microgrippers that can help organizations or individuals produce novel microgrippers with innovative designs and techniques. • The compliant mechanism has numerous applications in space missions, medical devices, engineering, robotics, nuclear weapons, and so on. • A review of the most commonly used compliant mechanisms reveals that they provide numerous benefits such as simplifying manufacturing, reducing weight and assembly time, eliminating wear, noise, backlash, and the need for lubrication. • When compliant mechanisms replace rigid-body counterparts, significant weight savings are achieved. This makes compliant mechanism products more portable and suitable for use. • Because flexible elements are used, compliant mechanisms can easily store energy to be released later or transformed into other forms of energy. • The compliant mechanism designs demonstrate that they can be used in situations involving limited degrees of motion or small displacements, which is also one of these mechanisms’ limitations. • A single-piece compliant structure can be manufactured through injection molding, extrusion, and 3D printing, among other methods. This makes the manufacturing relatively cheap and accessible. • Topology optimization can drastically reduce product development timelines which translates to reduced costs. • Various types of designs can be made possible by utilizing multi-material molding of compliant mechanisms; however, it should be noted that multi-material molding processes have their own set of benefits and limitations. Additional costs for special equipment and processes in multi-material molding can affect the final product cost. • Unlike rigid-body mechanisms, compliant mechanisms are typically loaded cyclically. As a result, it is critical to consider the fatigue life of the components that comprise the compliant mechanism.

7 Conclusion This paper presents a study to develop a family of microgripper utilizing compliant mechanism concept, actuating mechanisms, and design approaches of compliant mechanism.

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References 1. Sung E, Slocum AH, Ma Jr R (2011) Design of an Ankle Rehabilitation device using compliant mechanisms. J Med Devices, ASME 5(1–7):011001, Mar 2011 2. Rubbert L, Renaud P, Bachta W, Gangloff J (2011) “Compliant mechanisms for an active cardiac stabilizer: lessons and new requirements in the design of a novel surgical tool” LSIIT, Universitie de Strasbourg-CNRS, Strasbourg, France. Mech Sci 2:119–127 3. Lassooij J, Tolou1 N, Tortora G, Caccavaro S, Menciassi A, Herder JL (2012) A statically balanced and bi-stable compliant end effector combined with a laparoscopic 2DoF robotic arm. The Netherlands Mech Sci 3:85–93 4. Simi M, Tolou N, Valdastri P, Herder JL, Menciassi A, Dario P (2012) Modeling of a compliant joint in a Magnetic Levitation system for an endoscopic camera. Mech Sci 3:5–14 5. Trease B (2004) “Flexures” a lecture summary, compliant system design laboratory. University of Michigan 6. Khare P, Madhab GB, Kumar CS, Mishra PK (2007) Optimizing design of piezoelectric actuated compliant Microgripper mechanism. In: 13th national conferences mechanical machine. Bangalore, India, pp 1–4 7. Chen W-L, Huang S-C (2009) Design and fabrication of topologically optimal miniature Microgripper 8. Deshmukh B et al (2012) Conceptual design of a compliant pantograph. Int J Emerg Technol Adv Eng 2(8) 9. Howell LL (2001) “Compliant Mechanisms” Mechanical engineering department Brigham Young University. Wiley, New York, pp 1–180 10. Zubir MNM, Shirinzadeh B (2009) Development of a high precision flexure-based microgripper 11. Narváez CA, Lopez R, Tovar A, Garzón D (2008) Topology synthesis of compliant mechanisms using cellular automata. In: Proceedings of the international conference on engineering optimization (EngOpt 2008). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 12. Kaushik J, Joshi SS (2010) Development of a flexure-based, force-sensing microgripper for micro-object manipulation. J Micromech Microeng 20:10 13. Fowler RM, Howell LL, Magleby SP (2011) Compliant space mechanisms: a new frontier for compliant mechanisms. Mech Sci 2:205–215 14. Kota S, Joo J, Li Z, Rordgers SM, Sniegowski J (2001) Design of compliant mechanisms: applications to mems. Analog Integr Circ Sig Process 29:7–15 15. Ananthasuresh GK, Laxminarayana S (1994) A one-piece compliant stapler, ASME design technical conference, minneapolis, minnesota, Sept 1994 16. Jagtap SP, Deshmukh BB, Pardeshi S (2021) Applications of compliant mechanism in today’s world—a review. Published under license by IOP Publishing Ltd, Journal of physics: conference series, Volume 1969, International virtual conference on intelligent robotics, mechatronics and automation systems 2021 (IRMAS 2021). Chennai, India, 26–27 Mar 2021 17. Jiaguang L, Chen Y, Luo Z (2006) Design of monolithic compliant mechanisms for microactuator using topology optimization schemes. In: Proceedings of the 6th world congress on intelligent control and automation, 21–23 June 2006. Dalian, China, pp 6465–6469 18. Baker M, Howell L (2002) On-chip actuation of an in-plane compliant bistable micro mechanism. J Microelectromech Syst 11(5):566–567 19. Schreurs KWA, Radaelli G, Alijani F (2020) The design of compliant shape preserving ring. Mech Mach Theor 151:103918. ISSN0094-114X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmachtheory. 2020.103918 20. Nikoobina A, Hassani Niaki M (2012) Deriving and analyzing the effective parameters in microgrippers performance. Sci Iranica 1554–1563 21. Bharanidaran R, Ramesh BT (2013) Design of compliant mechanism based Microgripper with three finger using topology optimization. Int J Mech Aerosp Ind Mechatron Eng 7(7) 22. Ohol SS et al (2008) Simulation of multifinger robotic gripper for dynamic analysis of dexterous grasping. In: Proceedings of the world congress on engineering and computer science. Oct 2008

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Productivity Analysis of Pyramid Solar Still Using Phase Change Material and Hybrid Nanofluid Kunal Gaur , Sahil Chauhan , Ajit , and Gianender Kajal

Abstract One of the most significant issues in developing nations is access to safe drinking water. The main motive of the current study is to boost freshwater production to enhance the productivity of a square basin pyramid solar still. Some PCM was added to a solar still as a heat storage medium to improve its performance. In the current experimental investigation, two solar stills were fabricated in the shape of square basin pyramid solar still and tested to compare the production of the solar desalination system. One study uses a hybrid nanofluid (study A), while the other is a solar still, using a hybrid nanofluid with PCM (study B). Study A contains the still with only Al2 O3 –CuO/water hybrid nanofluid as an active heat transfer agent. Study B has the hybrid nanofluid along with the PCM (paraffin wax) as the active agent to transfer the heat to the saline water. According to experimental findings, a solar still with nanofluid and PCM produces more fresh water per day than only nanofluid using a solar still. For solar stills with hybrid nanofluid and PCM, the daily freshwater productivity was around 3.89 l/m2 day, compared to 3.61 l/m2 days for only nanofluid using solar stills. According to the findings, the solar still using hybrid nanofluid with PCM produces 7.4% more fresh water per day than the only nanofluid using solar still. Additionally, from March to April 2022, under Faridabad city’s ambient circumstances with latitude 28.3922°N and a longitude 77.3017°E, the solar still with hybrid nanofluid and PCM outperformed only nanofluid using solar still in terms of daily freshwater productivity (an improvement of 6–7.4%) (Haryana, India). Keywords Square pyramid solar still · Nanofluid · Phase change material (PCM) · Desalination process

K. Gaur · S. Chauhan · Ajit · G. Kajal (B) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Manav Rachna University, Faridabad, Haryana 121004, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_53

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1 Introduction The existence of pure drinking water in adequate amounts and of acceptable quality is a crucial demand of all people, animals, agriculture, and industrial purposes in today’s globe. As a result, because seawater is abundant, converting it into pure drinkable water in any manner is a massive step toward a solution. On Earth, water covers 1.386 billion km3 , and 96.5% is brackish. Only 0.7% of the remaining 3.5% is accessible to all species on Earth as groundwater, rivers, lakes, and streams. The remainder comprises freshwater lakes and frozen water trapped in glaciers and polar ice caps. The consumption of pure water grows exponentially with the globe’s population and industrialization, while deforestation, pollution, and inconsistent rainfall produce a scarcity of drinkable water. To clean up polluted water, unwanted chemicals, biological pollutants, suspended particles, and gases must be removed. Producing water suitable for a particular use is the main goal. Water can be purified using various methods, including filtration, sedimentation, distillation, and biological processes using biologically active carbon or slow sand filters, chemical processes like flocculation, chlorination, and electromagnetic radiation like ultraviolet light. As a result, solar desalination is one of the approaches that can help solve this urgent subject in our century. Solar desalination is a non-traditional way of removing salt and other pollutants from saline water to produce pure potable water that uses the sun’s freely available energy. The solar still is used for conversion, which evaporates and condenses saline water and can be created in various sizes. A solar still can be constructed differently, including the pyramid-shaped ones described in this study. According to Aybar HS, sun stills are the most basic piece of hardware for collecting potable/fresh desalinated water from dirty water using solar energy. “A conventional solar still system is a single-basin type solar still” [1]. Jani et al. [2] examine the thermo-physical parameters when nanoparticles dissolve in basin water and act as heat transport and storage. When compared to a normal fluid, nanoparticles enhance the thermo-physical parameters of the process. The rate of heat transfer from the absorber plate to the basin water and among the basin water molecules is increased by nanoparticles. Ajit et al. [3] can see that incorporating PCM into the solar still improves the still’s freshwater productivity while also lowering the total annual cost of distillate yield significantly here. The PCM is also used in this present work as a medium of heat storage. For the same surface area of a pyramid shape solar still, the water collected from the double slope solar still and the single slope solar is more pyramid-shaped. If you use a flat plate alone to collect water from the pyramid still, it found that 2300 ml of water yields every day as a result obtained by Krishnan et al. [4]. Nanomaterials have been studied numerically and experimentally in several solar water distillation concepts. Ag and Au-type noble metal nanoparticles have also attracted researchers’ interest as potential components of solar desalination systems [5]. When PCM is added to the solar water basin by Mousa et al., it causes two zones to appear; charging and discharging zones. “The temperature in the charging zone rises with time due to a faster heating rate than the PCM’s melting rate. However, because the rate of solidification is equal to the rate

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of heat loss from the well-insulated system, the temperature in the discharge zone remains constant” [6]. When calculated by Panchal H et al., the heat transmission rate on modified solar was increased by the occurrence of nanomaterial in the system. The addition of nanoparticles to the black chrome paint increased yield by 19.5% over the other conventional solar still [7]. “Solar still has been a favorite in PCM and nanoparticles for dissimilar heat evolves slightly advanced storage density and the isothermal nature process of the structure’s overall efficiency”, as explained by Shanmugan et al. [8]. “The everyday efficiency of the conventional pyramid solar remained at 32.2%, whereas hollow circular copper fins increased the daily efficiency to 45.9%, a 42.4% boost”. Kabeel AE et al. tell us that adding PCM improves everyday efficiency by 99.5%, bringing it to 64.3% [9]. As the heat transmission features and water temperature were improved than those without nanoparticles, “Abdullah et al. describe the use of nanoparticles increased the trays solar still’s evaporation and condensation rates compared to the reference solar still and here are the various thermo-physical and properties of paraffin wax which are considered globally for any investigation which are the latent heat of fusion, melting temperature, thermal conductivity, specific heat, liquid density, and solid density that valued as 190 kJ/kg°C, 54 °C, 0.21 W/m°C, 2.1 kJ/kg°C, 795 kg/m3 , and 876 kg/m3 , respectively” [10]. Although the production from solar still without coating is higher during off-shine hours, the hourly yield is better in the case of sunlight hours. Instantaneous output efficiency from solar stills with and without coatings was determined to be 0.718 and 0.612, respectively, as the results obtained by Kabeel et al. [11]. Bachchan et al. explain that water’s evaporation rate is affected by the water depth in the basin. The productivity of drinkable water is inversely related to the water depth. The temperature differential between the saline water and the glass controls the evaporation rate. The introduction of PCM under the collector plate enhanced the complete distillation rate increase much further. The overall productivity rate has increased with decreased distillation rate during the day [12]. “The efficiency of pyramid-shaped solar is still higher than normal solar. Water depth, glass cover temperature, ambient air velocity, inlet saline water temperature, water vapor movement inside the solar still, and materials of various components (basin, insulation, and transparent cover) all have a substantial impact on the still’s performance” [13]. Lower saline water depths have higher energy and exergy efficiency. The pyramid solar still had the lowest cost of distillate output, indicating that it is the most promising alternative to traditional sun stills, as calculated by Nayi et al. [13]. The PCM will act as a heat source for the water basin during the low solar radiation period and at night to maintain the difference in temperature with the outside glass. For this reason, combining the PCM in the solar still is advised to produce the distillate water after sunset. Kabeel et al. found that the solar still with PCM has daily freshwater productivity of 67.18% more than a conventional solar still. “When compared to a conventional solar still, the solar still with PCM has a higher daily freshwater productivity (67–68.8% improvement)” [14]. The production and distribution of portable solar still have a negligible environmental impact on water eutrophication and air acidification. The portable solar still’s fabrication cost was

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15 dollars, compared to other costs to ensure that the solar still’s cost is reasonable, as resulted by Al-Madhhachi et al. [15]. The PCM thickness had no noticeable impact on the still yield when Kabeel conducted a test in 2018 [16]. Solar stills are relatively inefficient. One option to boost productivity is to use PCMs, which have a lot of promise for storing and discharging solar energy during depletion periods, said Omara et al. It showed that the production capacity of solar stills increased when the salty water ratio decreased. [17]. Using thermal storage material improved freshwater yield greatly, and the number of solid clay pots used as a PCM increased even more. According to Pandey et al., the distillate generated by the examined setup met the WHO’s freshwater quality standard to a great extent [18]. Solar energy production is still dependent on environmental factors and growing water temperatures. As a result, by Arunkumar et al. [19], the solar’s evaporative and convective heat transfer coefficient increase. Improved pyramid solar still alone and modified pyramid solar combined with copper oxide and carbon black nanoparticles had a daily thermal efficiency of about 50%, 61%, and 64.5%, respectively. On the contrary, as listed by Sharshir SW et al., for conventional pyramid solar still, it was around 47– 48% [20]. Silver and copper particles were found to have cubic structures after the XRD investigation. AgCu nanoparticles with improved antibacterial characteristics (ASTM E 2149-01) might be used as antibacterial agents in various applications [21]. When a comparison was made by Sharshir SW et al., the traditional solar still, the accumulated production of (MSS)-A (coal only), MSS-B, and MSS-C were increased by 18.37, 35.17, and 59.33%, respectively. In the case of MSS-A, MSSB, and MSS-C, the overall average values of thermal and exergy efficiencies were enhanced compared to conventional solar still [22]. “With expanding the glass cover angle above the latitude angle performed by Kabeel et al. in 2016, the collected distillate water production capacity from the square pyramid solar stills declines. The highest cumulative distillate production occurs when the glass cover angle of the square pyramid solar stills is equal to the latitude angle” [23]. An aluminum fin is positioned on the basin as a method of surface heating to speed up evaporation. A single basin having a single slope and finned acrylic solar still produces 60 L/25 m2 per day [24]. For various absorbing materials, the pyramid’s daily effectiveness is still diverse. With black paint acting as the absorbing substance for water depths of around 5 cm, solar still efficiency increases to 38% from 33% when no absorbing material is present. In a pyramid-shaped still, it was discovered that efficiency declines as water depth rises [25]. “Freshwater productivity and energy efficiency were higher for the stepped double slope solar still (SDSSS) with linen wicks (LWs) on its steps and carbon black (CB) nanofluids, then they were for the traditional solar still (TSS) by 80.57 and 110.5%, respectively, and contain the largest fractional exergy of evaporation” [26]. When compared, TSS had a lower maximum exergy efficiency. This happened because the absorptivity of the basin’s saltwater was higher when CBNs were used, in addition to the capillary and heat storage capabilities of LWs [26]. At a depth of 1 cm, the pyramid solar still having insulation and without insulation generate the highest distillate yields of 3.72 and 3.27 kg/m2 , respectively and the pyramid solar still maximum daily thermal efficiency is 28.50 percent with insulation and 26.17% without insulation. It has been discovered that using an acrylic

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material as a condensing cover keeps the temperature differential between the water and acrylic condensing cover higher, improving the still performance [27]. With variable water depth, nanoparticles enhance the thermal efficiency of still. Due to its physical, chemical, and economic characteristics, as well as its dependability and safety, paraffin as a PCM material is also necessary for solar technology. High distillate yield and efficiency are achieved at 1–2 cm basin water depth. Also, the design, use, and environmental factors greatly impact how well it works [28]. Al2 O3 –CuO (20:80, 40:60, 50:50, and 60:40) nanoparticle mixing ratios were studied, and it was discovered that the ratio of 60:40 displays greater thermal conductivity than the rest three. For all mixing ratios, the thermal conductivity of the Al2 O3 –CuO/water-EG hybrid nanofluid significantly increased as the nanofluid temperature climbed [29]. The greatest daily production was 9.19 l/m2 day for the old pyramid-shaped still and 4.43 l/m2 day for the improved pyramid-shaped still containing the graphite with cooling a glass cover. Compared to a conventional pyramid-shaped still, the daily production of a modified pyramid-shaped still increased by 105.9–107.7% [30]. 20 L of the 4.21 L of output water per day were obtained in beakers. 5.68 L of water was produced on average each time the PCM product was used. When comparing the PCM value to the TSS, a 35% incremental value is thus noticed [31]. “Water depth in a basin, solar radiation force, cover (rooftop) tendency and material, feed water temperature, vapor leakage, least heat loss from the base of the still and side dividers, and the water depth minimum range were the factors that affected the performance of solar distillation” [32, 33]. Nanoparticles like Al2 O3 and CuO can boost water productivity in solar stills. Al2 O3 and CuO have ideal concentrations of 0.4 and 0.6%, respectively, producing the most volumetrically water. Comparatively to Al2 O3 , CuO has a stronger impact on the amount of condensate. The efficiency of the still increases by 7.8% and 9.62%, respectively, with the addition of 0.4% Al2 O3 and 0.6% CuO [34]. The research conducted in this paper explains the total yield enhancement by performing the economic analysis of the square pyramid solar still containing only the Al2 O3 –CuO hybrid nanofluid in study A and paraffin wax (PCM) along with Al2 O3 –CuO hybrid nanofluid in study B with the addition of base fluid of water and 1% hybrid concentration ratio of both the nanoparticles in both the studies and by filling the basin up to 50 mm with brackish.

2 Experimental Setup and Instrumentation The flowchart (see Fig. 1) shows the experimental procedure of the current study. Research on economic parameters was conducted by constructing an apparatus at Manav Rachna University in Faridabad, tested during the summer season at a latitude of 28.3922°N and a longitude of 77.3017°E. The apparatus contains two wooden blocks covered with glass top of which first pyramid glass top (angled at 30°) box for grabbing maximum solar radiation absorption having the dimension of 600 mm × 600 mm × 200 mm and an inner basin manufactured of galvanized iron (GI) sheet

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which was painted in black color to enhance the solar intensity when in contact and the second flat glass top box kept in a little slanted position having the dimension of 700 mm × 500 mm × 150 mm having basin area by not adding the GI sheet inside of it but painted in black color (see Fig. 2). The GI sheet part is generally used at the basin of pyramid glass top box (PGTB). In study “A”, i.e., the basin was kept vacant from PCM and contained hybrid nanofluid with water in the copper tube (CT) which was placed above the basin level submerged in water and study “B”, i.e., the basin was filled with PCM as paraffin wax in small pieces in horizontally placed position upon it along with the hybrid nanofluid with water in the CT above the basin level. As described previously, the copper tube was added in the pyramid glass top box (PGTB) and flat glass top box (FGTB) in five turns, respectively, in the u-bend condition. The copper tube in the PGTB was placed with two openings. Afterward, joining that CT in PGTB with the other FGTB containing the same CT on one end with a Tee fitting. On both, the opening

Work Methodology

Fabrication of solar still

Pyramid Type solar Still

Box for nanofluid

Economic Analysis of Solar Still

Thermophysic al properties measurement

Preparation of nanofluid

Density

SEM, TEM, XRD Analysis

PCM Paraffin wax

Viscosity

Specific Heat

Thermal Conductiivity

Fig. 1 Flowchart of the work methodology

Fig. 2 Experimental setup of the solar desalination system. (Courtesy: Manav Rachna University, Faridabad)

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of the Tee was connected with CT ending, and the third opening of the Tee joined an electric motor that recirculated the nanoparticles and water inside of it and the other half of the CT joins, making a closed loop, was joined with the support of a ball valve to regulate the flow and refill the CT with the nanoparticles and water inside of it. Several turns condition given to the CT was used to increase the surface area of the flow of Al2 O3 –CuO/water-based hybrid nanofluid inside it to increase the greenhouse effect in both boxes. One saline water tank was provided beside the PGTB at a higher level connected with the inlet pipe to the inlet valve of the PGTB for water to be added. An outlet pipe attached to a valve in the PGTB was also used for saltwater rejection at the basin. A beaker was used to collect desalinated water from the distillation trough of the solar still. This whole configuration is described (see Fig. 3) as follows: Additionally, various measuring tools such as an anemometer–pyranometer positioned around the solar still, a thermo-hygrometer with the connection of K-type thermocouple inside and outside the PGTB, and connecting the LED display of temperature were connected via wire at the water, inside basin, and outside glass cover of the PGTB solar still which were used for the current work (see Table 1). Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of both wooden glass top boxes

Table 1 Measuring instruments details for the study Device

Used for

Accuracy

Range

Anemometer

Wind speed

± 0.4 m/s

0.4~30 m/s

Pyranometer

Solar radiation

± 10W/m2

0~1999W/m2

Thermo-hygrometer

Humidity/ambient temperature

± 0.5°

10~99% Rh/-10° ∼ + 80 °C

K-type thermocouple

Temperature

± 4 °C

0~1250 °C

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Table 2 Weather conditions for the days of the experiment Date

April 26, 2022

April 29, 2022

Sunrise

05:45 am

05:42 am

Sunset

06:52 pm

06:54 pm

Ambient temperature

25–40 °C

26–43 °C

Humidity

10–27%

8–16%

Wind speed

04–11 kmph

02–13 kmph

Atmospheric pressure

29 inHg

29 inHg

2.1 Experimental Analysis The measurement of ambient temperature, sun intensity, glass temperature, inner basin, basin water temperature, and overall yield of clean water was taken during the day between 08:00 and 18:00 h as per Indian Standard Time, with a one-hour break. The research was conducted in the Manav Rachna University Faridabad campus building, which is located in hilly terrain and provides a pollution-free environment throughout the day for better experimental conditions. The process works since the solar irradiance falls at an average of 4% on the square PGTB solar still. Rectangle FGTB solar still, causing evaporation of pure water from saline water, which then leads to condensation of purified water in droplet form underneath the glass cover, creating a greenhouse effect chamber. Then, it travels to the distillation trough placed inside the basin, completing the closed loop in the PGTB. Then, it was collected via a collecting trough through the pipe into a gaging container. Finally, the freshwater gathered in the measuring beaker was within the acceptable drinking range. In addition, a table was prepared that summarizes the atmospheric data collected throughout the two-day experiment, which took place on April 26 and April 29, 2022. (see Table 2).

3 Results and Discussion The experiment was carried out under two conditions: A and B, which are without and with PCM–nanofluid, respectively, and are explained as follows.

3.1 Study ‘A’ as a Solar Still Has Nanofluid Only as a Heat Exchanger with Brine In study ‘A’, the square pyramid solar still is used with the nanofluid as the heat exchanger with brine, and the technique is depicted in Fig. 2. To begin, the brine was

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put into the PGTB to a depth of 50 mm from the saline water tank and let it evaporate and condense naturally with the help of solar radiation over time. Because of their superior thermo-physical absorption and storage capabilities, the Al2 O3 –CuO hybrid nanofluid was rotated in the CT for greater yield. In the experimentation, the hybrid concentration ratio of Al2 O3 and CuO was taken as 1%. Figure 4a indicates the ambient temperature and solar irradiance over time. The calculation was held at noon, with a peak sun intensity of 956 W/m2 and steadily diminishing as time passed. On the other day, the solar irradiation was also identical, and the ambient temperature reached 40 °C at 16:00 h and stayed that way until 18:00 h. Figure 4b also displays the temperature of the basin, water, and inside the glass, which indicates how well the greenhouse effect was established inside PGTB. Compared to older pyramid solar still, without nanofluid arrangements, the heat stored during the day was rejected from the nanofluid in the evening, preserving maximum productivity. The overall productivity of the solar is still affected by the solar intensity and atmospheric temperature. Due to decreasing sun irradiation in the mornings on both days, the yield was poor in the morning, and Fig. 4c depicts the overall productivity with respect to ambient temperature. At 18:00 h, study A contains the overall yield of 3605 ml/day, justifying the importance of using nanofluid in the square pyramid solar still in this study.

3.2 Study ‘B’ as a Solar Still Has Both PCM and Nanofluid as Heat Exchangers with Brine In study ‘B’, the square pyramid solar still is used with the nanofluid and paraffin wax as the heat exchanger with brine, and Fig. 2 depicts the B technique. To begin, the brine was filled into the PGTB to a depth of 50 mm from the saline water tank and let evaporate and condense naturally with the help of solar radiation over time. Due to their higher thermo-physical capabilities of absorption and storage, the Al2 O3 –CuO hybrid nanofluid was rotated in the CT for greater yield, along with the PCM, and paraffin wax, as an experiment. The paraffin wax was used beneath the GI sheet in this investigation to also store and release solar energy heat inside the basin. The hybrid concentration ratio of Al2 O3 and CuO was 1% used in the test. The paraffin wax as PCM was taken as desired by the box arrangement, which was a relatively modest amount. Figure 5a indicates the ambient temperature and solar irradiance over time. The calculation was conducted at noon, with a peak solar intensity of 957 W/m2 and steadily diminishing as time passed. On the other day, the solar irradiation was usually similar. And the ambient temperature was 42.7 °C at 16:00 h and stayed that way until 17:00 h, creating a better atmosphere for the desalination process to take place. Furthermore, Fig. 5b depicts the temperature of the water, basin, and inner glass, indicating how successfully the greenhouse effect was formed inside the PGTB compared to the study A results. Compared to the previous study in this research and

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1100 ambient temperature

44

solar radiation intensity

42

900 800

36

700

34

600

32

500

30 400 28 300

26

60

basin temperature (°C)

38

solar radiation intensity (W/m²)

40

ambient temperature (°C)

1000

50

40

30

200

24

basin temperature glass temperature water temperature

100

22

20

0

20 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00

8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00

time (hours)

time (hours)

(a) 44 42

(b) ambient temperature productivity

600

40

500

400

36 34

300

32 30

200

28 26

productivity (ml)

ambient temperature (°C)

38

100

24 22

0

20 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00

time (hours)

(c) Fig. 4 a Change in atmospheric temperature and solar radiation intensity w.r.t time, b change in temperature of various parts of solar still w.r.t time, c overall productivity w.r.t time and ambient temperature

other authors’ pyramid solar still experiments conducted without nanofluid and PCM designs, the heat stored during the day was rejected in the evening by the nanofluid and paraffin wax, resulting in optimal production. The solar intensity and ambient temperature affected the overall productivity of the study B solar still process. Due to lower solar irradiation at that time of day, the yield was poor on both days in the morning, and Fig. 5c shows overall production in relation to ambient temperature. At 18:00 h, study B has a total yield of 3891 ml/day, emphasizing the necessity of employing nanofluid in this study’s square pyramid solar. Still, it proves the use of a

Productivity Analysis of Pyramid Solar Still Using Phase Change … ambient temperature solar radiation intensity

44

basin temperature 70

1100

glass temperature water temperature

1000

42

900 800

36

700

34

600

32

500

30 400 28

60

basin temperature (°C)

38

solar radiation intensity (W/m²)

40

ambient temperature (°C)

631

50

40

300 26

30

200

24

100

22 20

20

0 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00

8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00

time (hours)

time (hours)

(a)

(b)

44 42

600

ambient temperature productivity

500

38 400

36 34

300

32 30

200

28 26

productivity (ml)

ambient temperature (°C)

40

100

24 22

0

20 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00

time (hours)

(c) Fig. 5 a Change in atmospheric temperature and solar radiation intensity w.r.t time. b Change in temperature of various parts of solar still w.r.t time. c Overall productivity w.r.t time and ambient temperature

hybrid nanofluid with PCM as an optimized solution for the desalination process as active agents. After both the studies have been performed, here is the comparison of study A and study B, which is explained in Fig. 6. The solar still with hybrid nanofluid and PCM outperformed only nanofluid using solar still in terms of yield with the same

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Fig. 6 Productivity in solar still with hybrid nanofluid and hybrid nanofluid along with PCM

solar still having hybrid nanofluid only as heat exchanger with brine solar still having both PCM and hybrid nanofluid as heat exchanger with brine

600

Productivity (ml)

500

400

300

200

100

0 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00

Time (hours)

ambient temperature, solar radiation, and wind speed, an improvement of maximum 7.4% achieved (Haryana, India).

4 Conclusions The research was carried out to produce a higher overall output of clean potable water from a square pyramid glass top-shaped solar still containing paraffin wax and Al2 O3 –CuO/water as the external application employed inside it a justified method. The solar still contributes the following points: • It is concluded that the influence of temperature difference between the evaporative and condensing surfaces is necessary to optimize the operational temperature range and that convective and evaporative heat transfer coefficients are crucial for developing solar distillation systems. • The ambient temperature and solar radiation intensity significantly impact the evaporation rate and distillate production. • When compared to traditional methods, nanofluid has larger productivity. • The integration of PCM and nanofluid in the pyramid solar still improves the clean water yield even at reduced solar irradiation intensity that occurs during the 15:00 h and later due to their heat-carrying capabilities. • Study B generated 3.89 l/day of yield compared to 3.6 l/day in study A, which was less yield with the integration of hybrid nanofluid Al2 O3 –CuO/water and PCM paraffin wax.

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5 Future Recommendations • The design and expansion of passive solar stills accelerate the cost-effective desalination of water using solar energy. • To improve the performance of the already created solar still, research may be done in future employing other heat storage materials, such as cement bricks and metal rods (circular & square). • Future studies may focus on integrating the pyramid solar still with solar collectors, concentrating or non-concentrating collectors. • The solar still with hybrid nanofluid and PCM outperformed only nanofluid using solar in daily freshwater productivity (an improvement of 6 to 7.4 percent) (Haryana, India).

References 1. Aybar HS (2007) A review of desalination by solar still. NATO Secur through Sci Ser C Environ Secur 207–214 2. Jani HK, Modi KV (2018) A review on numerous means of enhancing heat transfer rate in solar-thermal based desalination devices. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 93(Dec 2016):302–317 3. Ajit, Gupta NK (2021) Progresses in solar still technology with phase change material. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 1116(1):012055 4. Krishnan BP, Viswanathan N, Vimala V, Vinoth K (2021) Experimental investigation to improve the performance of solar. 6(3):1090–1094 5. Bait O (2020) Direct and indirect solar–powered desalination processes loaded with nanoparticles: A review. Sustain Energy Technol Assessments 37(Aug 2019):100597 6. Mousa H, Naser J, Gujarathi AM, Al-Sawafi S (2019) Experimental study and analysis of solar still desalination using phase change materials. J Energy Storage 26(Sept 2019) 7. Panchal H et al (2021) Experimental investigation on the yield of solar still using manganese oxide nanoparticles coated absorber. Case Stud Therm Eng 25(Jan):100905 8. Shanmugan S, Palani S, Janarthanan B (2018) Productivity enhancement of solar still by PCM and Nanoparticles miscellaneous basin absorbing materials. Desalination (Nov):186–198 9. Kabeel AE, El-Maghlany WM, Abdelgaied M, Abdel-Aziz MM (2020) Performance enhancement of pyramid-shaped solar stills using hollow circular fins and phase change materials. J Energy Storage 31(Apr):101610 10. Abdullah AS, Essa FA, Ben Bacha H, Omara ZM (2020) Improving the trays solar still performance using reflectors and phase change material with nanoparticles. J Energy Storage 31(July):101744 11. Kabeel AE et al (2019) Effect of water depth on a novel absorber plate of pyramid solar still coated with TiO 2 nano black paint. J Clean Prod 213:185–191 12. Bachchan AA, Nakshbandi SMI, Nandan G, Shukla AK, Dwivedi G, Singh AK (2020) Productivity enhancement of solar still with phase change materials and water-absorbing material. Mater Today Proc 38:438–443 13. Nayi KH, Modi KV (2018) Pyramid solar still: a comprehensive review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 81(Dec 2016):136–148 14. Kabeel AE, Abdelgaied M (2016) Improving the performance of solar still by using PCM as a thermal storage medium under Egyptian conditions. Desalination 383:22–28 15. Al-Madhhachi H, Smaisim GF (2021) Experimental and numerical investigations with environmental impacts of affordable square pyramid solar still. Sol Energy 216(Dec 2020):303–314

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16. Kabeel AE, El-Samadony YAF, El-Maghlany WM (2018) Comparative study on the solar still performance utilizing different PCM. Desalination 432(Nov 2017):89–96 17. Omara AAM, Abuelnuor AAA, Mohammed HA, Khiadani M (2020) Phase change materials (PCMs) for improving solar still productivity: a review, vol. 139, no. 3. Springer International Publishing 18. Pandey H, Kumar N (2022) Materials today : proceedings productivity analysis of pyramid solar still with solid clay pots. Mater Today Proc 19. Arunkumar T, Vinothkumar K, Ahsan A, Jayaprakash R, Kumar S (2012) Experimental study on various solar still designs. ISRN Renew Energy 2012:1–10 20. Sharshir SW, Kandeal AW, Ismail M, Abdelaziz GB, Kabeel AE, Yang N (2019) Augmentation of a pyramid solar still performance using evacuated tubes and nanofluid: experimental approach. Appl Therm Eng 160:113997 21. Köro˘glu M, Ebin B, Stopic S, Gürmen S, Friedrich B (2021) One step production of silvercopper (Agcu) nanoparticles. Metals (Basel) 11(9):1–11 22. Sharshir SW, Ismail M, Kandeal AW, Baz FB, Eldesoukey A, Younes MM (2021) Improving thermal, economic, and environmental performance of solar still using floating coal, cotton fabric, and carbon black nanoparticles. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 48(Mar):101563 23. Kabeel AE, Abdelgaied M, Almulla N (2016) Performances of pyramid-shaped solar still with different glass cover angles: experimental study. IREC 2016 7th Int Renew Energy Congr 24. Kulkarni HS, Wani KV, Sonawane GD, Bhoi CP (2020) Design and fabrication of solar boat. XII(June):2968–2973 25. Akshay C, Visagaperumal D, Chandy V (2021) International journal of research publication and reviews. Int J Res Publ Rev 2(8):386–392 26. Sharshir SW, Eltawil MA, Algazzar AM, Sathyamurthy R, Kandeal AW (2020) Performance enhancement of stepped double slope solar still by using nanoparticles and linen wicks: energy, exergy and economic analysis. Appl Therm Eng 174:115278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applth ermaleng.2020.115278 27. Muthu Manokar A et al (2020) Effect of water depth and insulation on the productivity of an acrylic pyramid solar still—an experimental study. Groundw Sustain Dev 10:100319. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2019.100319 28. Nougriaya SK, Chopra MK, Gupta B, Baredar P, Parmar H (2021) Influence of basin water depth and energy storage materials on productivity of solar still: a review. Mater Today Proc 44:1589–1603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.796 29. Wanatasanappan VV, Abdullah MZ, Gunnasegaran P (2020) Thermophysical properties of Al2O3–CuO hybrid nanofluid at different nanoparticle mixture ratio: an experimental approach. J Mol Liq 313:113458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2020.113458 30. Kabeel AE, Abdelgaied M (2020) Enhancement of pyramid-shaped solar stills performance using a high thermal conductivity absorber plate and cooling the glass cover. Renew Energy 146:769–775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.07.020 31. Prabu D, Giriprasath A, Viknesh S (2021) Design and fabrication of solar water distillation with conventional solar still. J Phys Conf Ser 2054(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2054/1/ 012008 32. Shinde M, Navthar R, Shinde SM (2022) Review on the types of solar stills. Int J Ambient Energy 43(1):1420–1428. https://doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2019.1707114 33. Garg H, Sehgal K, Lamba R, Kajal G (2019) A systematic review: effect of TIG and A-TIG welding on austenitic stainless steel. In: Advances in industrial and production engineering, lecture notes in mechanical engineering. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-98113-6412-9_36 34. Hamdan MA, Al Momani AM, Ayadi O, Sakhrieh AH, Manzano-Agugliaro F (2021) Enhancement of solar water desalination using copper and aluminum oxide nanoparticles. Water (Switzerland) 13(14):1–10. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13141914

Emergency Facility Location of Ambulances Using K-Means Clustering and Minimax Ramkrishna Bharsakade , Sejal More, Sharwari Nandeshwar, Rahul Narnaware, and Raj Patil

Abstract The rational location of emergency medical services could play a crucial part in saving patient’s life by improving access to the facilities. Every year, an increasing number of individuals lose their lives in accidents. One of the main reasons for the increase in mortality is the lack of access to medical facilities on nearby premises. This study aims to locate an optimal location for ambulances near the city’s accident-prone zones, thereby reducing the waiting time of ambulances. The faster the ambulance reaches the accident spot, the quicker a patient will be able to reach the hospital. This study used K-means clustering and the minimax method to locate ambulances at optimal places. Using K-means clustering, clusters for accidentprone zones are formed; according to the value of k accident spots nearby, each other is grouped or clustered together. Finally, using minimax, coordinates for optimal location are calculated. Thus, after a complete study, two optimal locations were found that are most suitable for the location of the ambulance. Thus, the optimal location of an ambulance can help reduce the number of deaths due to road accidents. Keywords Emergency medical services · K-means clustering · Minimax method

1 Introduction Sources say that in India, accidents occur every two minutes. In 2020, 116,498 road accidents occurred on the National Highways, including the expressway, causing 47,984 deaths. As described, over 137,191 accidents were reported in 2019, in which 53,872 lost their lives, and many people suffered injuries. In Maharashtra, 24,941 accidents occurred in 2020, of which 10,773 were fatal accidents, and 11,569 got killed. Out of this, it is estimated that most of the accidents happen on National Highway or expressway. According to world traffic statistics, India has the most significant number of road accidents among 199 countries, followed by China and the United States in the second and third places. According to the WHO Global R. Bharsakade (B) · S. More · S. Nandeshwar · R. Narnaware · R. Patil Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune, Maharashtra, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_54

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Report, India is responsible for 11% of all global accidents. As a result, highways account for more than half of all accidents, and this study aims to cover one such highway and implement a system for that region so that deaths due to accidents can be prevented in that region. For this study, the region considered is Nagpur-Amravati Highway (NH-53). It covers an entire stretch of 75 km from Nagpur Chokardhani to Sarwadi-Khursapar Stretch. Most of the accidents occurring in this stretch are mainly due to overspeeding, overtake negligence (wrong lane and sides), no reflectors on trucks, potholes, tire-burst, trees, etc. And these accidents occur at specific locations at a high frequency. Also, increased fatalities in accidents are caused because the ambulance does not reach the accident spot on time. Thus, our goal is to locate ambulances at such optimal locations, reducing the overall time required for an ambulance to arrive and further reach the hospital. Our effort will be to bring fruitful improvements to the existing system to improve overall efficiency. The paper is organized as follows: Sect. 2 discusses different research studies done in the field of emergency facility location under literature review, Sect. 3 will brief about the data collection required for the project. Section 4 discusses the implementation of K-means clustering and the minimax method. Section 5 contains results after implementation of the methodology. Section 6 discusses conclusion and future scope.

2 Literature Review A generous amount of research has been done in the domain of facility location. Various models have been designed and presented over the past few years. A system proposed in [1] has discussed integrating vehicular ad-hoc network (VANET) along with navigation with Indian constellation (NAVIC). Here, a chip supporting VANET technology is fitted in every vehicle. This will send distress signals as soon as accidents occur, and to know the exact location of the accident, NAVIC is used. Connecting advanced and efficient IoT devices can make it possible to know the accident location in the least possible time. In [2], they designed a new protocol for preventing and mitigating risks. They propose a three-phase traffic accidents reduction strategy (TARS) system that predicts accidents in advance and directs traffic to avoid traffic jams that could cause accidents. Key features of the system are smart vehicles, road side units, trusted authorities (TA), and government officials (GA). The three phases in the proposed plan are as follows: a. The set stage where RSU periodically broadcasts its identity and location around it so that vehicles traveling at its range can communicate with it. Collects the location, speed, and direction of vehicles in their range. b. Authorization phase and c. performance phase, TARS focuses on using a distance measurement method to generate a warning message to prevent accidents and redirect traffic more efficiently. Artificial intelligence has brought significant technological advancement in all possible fields/domains. Thus, implementing AI would help increase the efficiency of the system. For instance, if an ambulance carries patient suffering from cardiac

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arrest now, the ambulance will take the patient to the nearest hospital. Still, the chances of survival are 20% if the hospital is not a hospital dealing with cardiac arrest. Thus, an AI can suggest the nearest cardiac system to the ambulance, i.e., to people working in EMS, thereby increasing the patient’s chances of survival. In [3], Zvi Drezner, Avram Mehrez, and George O. Wesolowsky consider the minisum and minimax single facility location problems. In a specific case, if active service distance reaches or surpasses a particular value, the problem becomes a minisum or minimax single facility site problem. To solve minimax problems, certain computer graphics like Brady and Rosenthal are used. Emergency facility location problems can be solved using Tabu Heuristic. The Tabu search algorithm is employed in the Istanbul earthquake readiness scenario in [4], with extensive comparative analysis of different results related to a connection failure, independent link failure, and cases of link failure. It suggested that a model-dependent link failure improves the percentage of the most covered coverage. While many research papers present different models on facility location, few of them have concentrated their attention on facility location for long-scale medical emergency situations (LEMS). In a research paper presented by Jia et al. [5], their primary goal was to study and discuss various conventional facility location models, including p-center and p-median. While designing a model for LEMS, characteristics of large-scale medical emergencies have been studied. According to different objectives, different models for LEMS have been formulated. The Capacitated Facility Location Problem (CFLP) is developed in [6] as a clusterbased location assignment method. This method approximates the ideal placement and coverage of a set of facilities to meet the demand at multiple locations. The proposed approach consists of two steps: Allocating demand to facilities considering capacity constraints and minimizing costs, and iteratively optimizing the locations of facilities using a customized K-Means clustering method. In [7] provides brief insights in minimax problems. It describes about minimax problems with constraints like total average cost and distance travelled and propose a optimized solution. In [8], Francis RL studied the problem of finding a new location for a facility in the network that minimizes the maximum distance between the new facility and the existing facilities, using a network model of a system of transport links with nodes representing locations of existing facilities. A number of properties of the problem are developed that lead to a new solution for solving the problem when the network is a tree, and to a completely new equivalent spanning tree problem for networks in general. In [9], to minimize the distance between a mentioned number of (emergency) facilities and their assigned fixed-demand locations, the m-center problem is treated, where these facilities are placed anywhere along the road network. The problem is simulated using integer programming and successfully solved using a binary search technique and a combination of exact tests and heuristics. In [10], a problem of locating a single ambulance facility in a polygonal area X is discussed. The objective is to locate an ambulance station in such a way that the maximum distance of the route leading from the station to the hospital via the accident site is as small as possible. They mainly focus on A-distance, which Widmayer et al. introduced as a generalization of straight-line distance, and show how the errand boy problem

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with A-distance can be used to solve PM. In [11], the accident-prone regions along expressways are analyzed to determine optimal locations for dispatching ambulance services (EMS). For this purpose, the mean-shift algorithm was used to determine the clusters and their centers and to locate a second base within the primary clusters. To ensure that dispatched ambulances arrive at the scene of an accident within 8 minutes, the locations of the auxiliary bases were created to complement the primary stations of EMS and to distribute the load. In [12], the authors discuss the application of AI in healthcare and various algorithms that are useful in this field. Various AI devices such as ML and NLP and related algorithms are mentioned, including the clustering algorithm. In [13], various criteria for the use of emergency departments are discussed. A fuzzy set approach is used to eliminate variance and uncertainty in decision making. In [14] discusses set covering problem in emergency service location and further comments on its practical applications and limitations. Further author formulates Hierarchical objective set covering which covers a large extent and considers responses within districts. In [15], another method was proposed to solve the location of emergency facilities. Here, the program was formulated as a set problem and solved as a linear programming problem.

3 Data Collection As mentioned, the region of Nagpur-Amravati Highway (NH-53) has been considered for the study. It covers a total stretch of 75 km from Nagpur Chokardhani to SarwadiKhursapar Stretch. In this stretch of 75 Kms, two toll booths are located. The first one is Gondkhairi/ Kondhali Toll, and the second one is Karanja Ghadge Toll. One ambulance and one crane each are located at both the tolls. A survey was undertaken to understand the traffic details of the considered area (refer to Table 1.). Presented below are some of the observations collected while undertaking the survey. Table 1 Traffic data collected during survey Sr. No

Parameters

Observations

1

Daytime traffic: heading toward Nagpur

In-6586 vehicles; out-7520 vehicles (Total vehicles: 14,103)

2

Average vehicle type occupancy

Two-wheelers (1.75%), car (3.15%), auto (4.19%), and taxi (4.02%)

3

Frequency of trips (private vehicles)

Daily-45% and weekly-14%

4

Purpose of the trip (private vehicles)

Work-32%, business-27%, and education-10%

5

Frequency of trips (goods vehicles)

Daily-46% and weekly-30%

6

Purpose of trips (good vehicles)

Loading-45% and unloading-52%

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Most of the accidents occurring in this stretch are mainly due to overspeeding, overtake negligence (wrong lane and sides), no reflectors on trucks, potholes, tireburst, trees, etc. And these accidents occur at specific locations at a high frequency; those locations are black spots. Thus, such black spots or accident-prone zones were identified for this region. There are 3 primary health centers (PHCs) in the region, located at Kondhali, Bajargaon, and Karanja. And there are 3 nearest private hospitals located. They are (1) Nakshatra Multispeciality Hospital, (2) Gajbe Hospital, and (3) Welltreat Multispeciality Hospital. Along with these hospitals, Mayo Hospital, which is a Government Hospital located in central Nagpur, is considered. Data regarding accident spots (refer to Table 2) and nearest hospital (refer to Table 3) have been collected through surveys. Further, using techniques like K-means and minimax on the coordinates of accident-prone zones, two optimal locations were identified. Table 2 Coordinates for accident spots Accident spots

X

Y

8th Mile

21.144212

78.975467

Waddhamna

21.140750

78.950247

Chokar Dhani Divider

21.136884

78.919868

Black spot 265 Bajargaon bus stop

21.137012

78.773755

Black spot 264 Junapani bus stop (Kondhali)

21.151843

78.567808

Oriental plaza Karanja

21.155492

78.382767

Karanja ghadge bus stop

21.160994

78.408981

Satnav

21.140831

78.808513

Table 3 Coordinates for nearest hospitals

Nearest hospital

x

y

Asha Hospital Dattwadi

21.151767

78.972245

Nakshatra multispecialty hospital, wadi

21.322239

78.972472

PHC Gondkhairi

21.137696

78.907264

PHC Kondhali

21.142665

78.632036

Madhavbaug

21.158016

78.613154

Rural Hospital

21.167853

78.410795

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4 Methodology 4.1 K-Means Clustering K-means clustering is a centroid-based algorithm used to cluster unlabeled data. The value of k, i.e., the number of clusters, is specified. Here, the value of k, the number of clusters to be made, is already defined, or an optimal number of clusters is evaluated by using various techniques like the elbow method, silhouette method, gap statistic, etc. Using the provided data, the value of k-specific points is chosen as centroids, and the distance of all points in the dataset is calculated. The points closest to centroids will form a cluster (Fig. 1). Using an algorithm for K-means clustering, 8 coordinates were clustered for accident spots into two groups. According to the result, the first cluster consists of a set of 5 locations, while the second cluster consists of three locations. While setting a suitable value for k, three input values for the k were provided, i.e., k = 2, k = 3, and k = 4. This algorithm is executed using RStudio wherein various packages like dplyr, VIM, facto extra, gridExtra, and cluster are used. The following is the flow of the code written for the execution of this method (as shown in Fig. 2). For evaluation of optimal clusters, gap statistic method is applied, in which the value of k will be optimal and appropriate. One of the traditional approaches for calculating the number of clusters in a dataset is to use the gap statistic. It compares the log (Wk) graph to its expectation, given the data’s acceptable null reference distribution to quantify and standardize it. Wk is the within-cluster dispersion.

Fig. 1 Nagpur-Amravati highway (Source: Google Maps)

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Fig. 2 Steps for performing K-means clustering

4.2 Minimax Method The minimax approach refers to minimizing the maximum distance between the new facility and any existing facilities. Rectilinear distance is considered between devices while using minimax. A rectilinear distance is a distance associated with orthogonal or perpendicular lines to each other, often used to measure the distance to a city grid. Suppose coordinates for two facilities are given as (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), and the rectilinear distance is given [16]: D = |x1−x2 | + |y1 −y2 | Minimax Model The minimax formula is given by: c1 = min {ai + bi − h i } c2 = max {ai + bi + h i } c3 = min {−ai + bi − h i } c4 = max {−ai + bi + h i } c5 = max (c2 − c1 , c4 − c3 } Set of optimal solutions: line segment defined by the following end points:

(1)

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(x1 ∗, y1 ∗) = 1/2(c1 − c3 , c1 + c3 + c5 ) (x2 ∗, y2 ∗) = 1/2(c2 − c4 , c2 + c4 − c5 ) In our case, we have used minimax facility location for calculating the optimal location of an ambulance concerning six (known) possible accident locations whose coordinates are A1 = (21.144212, 78.975467) A2 = (21.140750, 78.950247) A3 = (21.136884, 78.567808) A4 = (21.137012, 78.773755) A5 = (21.151843, 78.567808) A6 = (21.155492, 78.382767) A7 = (21.160994, 78.408981) A8 = (21.140831, 78.808513) where A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7, and A8 are accident spots as shown in Table 2. Similarly, the possible (known) coordinates of the nearest hospital from the accident spots are B1 = (21.151767, 78.972245) B2 = (21.322239, 78.972472) B3 = (21.137696, 78.907264) B4 = (21.142665, 78.632036) B5 = (21.158016, 78.613154) B6 = (21.158016, 78.410795) B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, and B6 are the nearest hospitals to the accident spots, as shown in Table 2. The goal is to reduce the maximum distance from the ambulance location to the accident spot and from the accident spot to the nearest hospital. To do this, the distances from the mishap sites to their nearby hospitals are required, i.e., the rectilinear distance, let us say it “H” by applying the formula (1) [17]. The calculations are done in MS Excel using standard procedures for the minimax method.

5 Results After implementing K-means clustering (as shown in Fig. 3), two sets of clusters were obtained. The first one consists of 5 locations: 8th Mile, Waddhamana, Choker

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Fig. 3 Clustering of accident spots using K-means clustering

Fig. 4 Minimax location for Cluster 1 and Cluster 2

Dhani Divider, Bajargaon bus stop, and Satnavri. The second cluster consists of 3 locations: Junapani bus stop, Oriental Plaza Karanja, and Karanja Ghadge bus stop. The results obtained after applying the minimax formula give two optimal locations for the ambulance for the stretch of 8th Mile to Satnavari (19 km) which is on the line connecting these two points, i.e., (X1*, Y 1*) = (21.14075, 78.7555) and (X2*, Y 2*) = (21.14075, 78.7408), and for the stretch from Bazargaon bus stop to Karanja Ghadge bus stop(40 km), optimal location for an ambulance is on the line connecting these two points (X1*, X2*) = (21.15549, 78.64099) and (X2*, Y 2*) = (21.13701, 78.6225) (as shown in Fig. 4). After implementing the given results, time calculations can be done to evaluate how much time it saves after placing ambulances in the obtained optimal locations.

6 Conclusion and Future Scope Thus, using K-means clustering and minimax optimal location for ambulances are found. Locating ambulances in these places might save time to reach the hospital, which can ultimately help to bring down the mortality rate. In future, implementing the findings in this project in real life, i.e., placement of ambulances on obtained

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optimal locations on the highway can be calculated and the approximate time required to reach the hospital from the location. Further comparing results from this model and the previous model, the efficiency of the result can be evaluated.

References 1. Kapasi M (2020) Reduction in response time of ambulance services using VANET and NavIC. Int J Eng Res Technol 8(5):1–4 2. Aldegheishem A et al (2018) Smart road traffic accidents reduction strategy based on intelligent transportation systems (TARS). Sensors 18(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/s18071983 3. Drezner Z, Mehrez A, Wesolowsky GO (1991) Facility location problem with limited distances. Transp Sci 25(3):183–187. https://doi.org/10.1287/trsc.25.3.183 4. Salman FS, Yücel E (2015) Emergency facility location under random network damage: insights from the Istanbul case. Comput Oper Res 62:266–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cor. 2014.07.015 5. Jia H, Ordóñez F, Dessouky M (2007) A Modeling framework for facility location of medical services for large-scale emergencies. IIE Trans (Institute Ind Eng 39(1):41–55. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/07408170500539113 6. Liao K, Guo D (2008) A clustering-based approach to the capacitated facility location problem. Trans GIS 12(3):323–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9671.2008.01105.x 7. Li E, IMrorsity microfilms international 2 8. Dearing PM, Francis RL (1974) Minimax location problem on a network. Transp Sci 8(4):333– 343. https://doi.org/10.1287/trsc.8.4.333 9. The m-center problem : Minimax facility location. May 2016 (1977) 10. Matsutomi T, Ishii H (1998) Minimax location problem with A-distance. J Oper Res Soc Jpn 41(2):193–195. https://doi.org/10.15807/jorsj.41.181 11. Bharsakade RS, Kulkarni OS, Afle AS, Kulkarni MS (2018) Analysis of and modeling for emergency medical services facility location for road accidents on highway. Int J Mech Prod Eng Res Dev 8(1):595–604. https://doi.org/10.24247/ijmperdfeb201866 12. Jiang F et al (2017) Artificial intelligence in healthcare: past, present and future. Stroke Vasc Neurol 2(4):230–243. https://doi.org/10.1136/svn-2017-000101 13. Abdullah L, Adawiyah CWR, Kamal CW (2018) A decision making method based on interval type-2 fuzzy sets: an approach for ambulance location preference. Appl Comput Inform 14(1):65–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aci.2017.04.003 14. Daskin MS, Stern EH (1981) Hierarchical objective set covering model for emergency medical service vehicle deployment. Transp Sci 15(2):137–152. https://doi.org/10.1287/trsc.15.2.137 15. Toregas C, Swain R, ReVelle C, Bergman L (1971) The location of emergency service facilities. Oper Res 19(6):1363–1373. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.19.6.1363 16. Elzinga J, Hearn DW (1972) Geometrical solutions for some minimax location problems. Transp Sci 6(4):379–394. https://doi.org/10.1287/trsc.6.4.379 17. Dearing PM (1977) Minimax location problems with nonlinear costs. J Res Natl Bur Stand (1934) 82(1):65. https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.082.006

Exploring Machine Learning Applications for Additive Manufacturing Kshitij Chouhan, Sumit Gupta , Vijay Chaudhary, Pallav Gupta, and Sundeep Kumar

Abstract The use of data and algorithms to open the ways that human learn, which gradually increase the accuracy, is all considered under a branch of computer science and machine learning known as machine learning (ML). This is a rapidly growing field of data science majorly includes the use of trained algorithms and statistical methods to make classifications, which uncovering basic insights of data mining projects. AM is a relatively new technology that has the potential to drastically alter the future of digital manufacturing. In recent years, machine learning (ML) has attracted a lot of attention in AM because of its amazing performance in data tasks including classification, regression, and clustering. One of the primary justifications is this very fact. The complexity of production systems leads to a variety of problems with regard to design principles, standardization, and quality control. There is a growing need, however, for more sophisticated and superior products. Keywords Additive manufacturing · Machine learning · Supervised learning · Unsupervised learning

1 Introduction The process known as additive manufacturing builds three-dimensional items by superimposing successive layers of material in accordance with computer-aided design (CAD) models [1]. The advancement of material science has made it possible to create new types of substances that have exceptional functional qualities. It is anticipated that these technological developments will usher in a new era of energy harvesting, energy storage, the mechanical characteristics of components, and the realization of self-powered materials [2]. The development of additive manufacturing K. Chouhan · S. Gupta (B) · V. Chaudhary · P. Gupta Department of Mechanical Engineering, ASET, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201313, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Kumar Management Studies, Engineering College Ajmer, Rajasthan 305025, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_55

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Fig. 1 Machine learning in AM

has made it feasible to create intricate geometric structures via the process of fabrication. The additive manufacturing process is now able to construct complicated pieces using a variety of different kinds of materials [3]. Process of machine learning in additive manufacturing is shown in Fig. 1. The most recent developments in additive manufacturing are capable of producing multi-scale, multi-material, and multi-functional objects, all of which are challenging to construct using more conventional methods. There is still a gap between theoretical design aspirations and real production capabilities, and this presents a challenge [4– 6]. Implementing algorithms that can identify defects and change printing settings in real time is one way to get around these inherent hurdles and avert potential problems. In order to automate analytical model creation and related operations, structural modeling using ML may be trained on data from the original issue [7]. As a result of recent advancements in machine learning, intelligent systems with human-like cognitive ability are emerging, reshaping networked interactions on electronic marketplaces and permeating our professional and personal life. Incorporating these tools into businesses has helped boost productivity, employee engagement, and retention. With the hope of assisting medical practitioners in making more effective use of ML models, this study looks deeply into the current literature on automated machine learning (AutoML) [2]. Only approximately 15% of hospitals routinely employ machine learning in health care, and most of the health data obtained is never used to construct prediction models that are successively incorporated into the clinical setting [8].

2 Literature Review Artificial Intelligence plays a vital role in healthcare sector in predicting the various diseases. Machine learning via supervised and unsupervised learnings provides better understanding of data to predict the various diseases. It is the process in which machine is learning from data, which is provided to the machine in various forms

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like image numerical data, etc. Machine uses its statistics for understanding the pattern. Based on its observation, it predicts the outcome. This outcome is beneficial for the people associated to it for taking future decision. To predict the outcome machine use algorithms, modeling of data. In addition to this, machine learning has the capability to handle large data, which comes from the previous records, reports, digitally from the various electronical instruments [9]. Various techniques of machine learning consist of total six techniques which are described below.

2.1 Support Vector Machine This technique mainly deals with supervised learning model. Analysis of the provided data consist of classification and implementation of regression analysis.

2.2 K-Nearest Neighbor This technique mainly provides non-parametric classification of data. The output depends on the cases of whether there is requirement for classification or regression.

2.3 Decision Tree This technique mainly deals with supervised learning model. In this, the leaves and branches symbolized class labels and conjunction of feature, respectively.

2.4 CART Classification and Regression Tree Methodology is called as the CART. In this technique, the target variable is represented as categorical for classification and continuous for regression trees.

2.5 Fuzzy Logic This technique is based on fuzzy theory in which the truth value of variable lies between zero and one. The predictive modeling of machine learning is helpful for healthcare sector [10]. There are various opportunities for machine learning like

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Fig. 2 Supervised learning

predicting the various risks of patients and informing the concerned authority for the same.

2.6 Supervised and Unsupervised Learning Supervised learning and unsupervised learning are two basic approaches to AI and machine learning. While both use labeled data to help predict outcomes, one does not. Both approaches have their advantages and disadvantages, but there are some subtle differences between them.

2.6.1

Supervised Learning

In this, learning models are trained on labeled data and output is predicted based on the features learned. Structured data are fed to machine learning models, where machine is able to recognize the pattern between sample and extracted features. This type of learning is useful to solve linear and nonlinear issues. Model of supervised learning is shown in Fig. 2. Various authors contributed in health care via implementing the supervised learning. This direction implemented the novel method to examine the patient of heart diseases by assessing and scoring the data collected by various sensors. Authors utilized the electronic equipment like electrocardiogram sensors, SpO2 sensor for examine the desired parameter of patient body. Advantage of this technology is that it reduces the data complexity since its power consumption is less as compared with other technology.

2.6.2

Unsupervised Learning

As its name suggests, these learnings do not require human intervention as the models are trained using unstructured data samples. Machines operate with large dataset with the help of program to reach for decision-making. Model of unsupervised learning is shown in Fig. 3. Unsupervised learning is more complex than supervised learning and required much bigger dataset. However, it is quite useful and having a lot of application than supervised learning. Non-labeled (unstructured) data are provided by human in unsupervised learning via semi-supervised learning.

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Fig. 3 Unsupervised learning

As its name suggest this type of learning method used for type of dataset, i.e., labeled as well as unlabeled dataset. The model is trained using few labeled dataset, and result is predicted for unlabeled dataset.

2.6.3

Reinforcement Learning

In this type of learning, model uses the concept of reward and punishment [11]. When the model predicts the correct result, it rewards itself otherwise gets punished. The optimal solution in reinforcement learning is unknown to the/77system at the start of the learning phase, so it must be determined iteratively. Sensible approaches are rewarded in this process, while mistakes are punished. It is feasible that the system will consider complicated environmental variables and react accordingly using this approach. Consequently, the system develops its own answers through directing incentives and punishments.

3 Applications of Machine Learning in Additive Manufacturing Additive manufacturing has applications in a variety of sectors and industries. Each patient is unique in the medical and dentistry fields, so AM has a lot of potential in customized and customized solutions. Personalized implants, medical models, and saw guides are the most standard health clinical uses. Various applications of machine leaning in additive manufacturing are shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Applications of AM

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4 Discussion The current methods of additive manufacturing can make things with several scales, multiple materials, and multiple functions, all of which are challenging to produce using more conventional methods. There is still a mismatch between the expectations of theoretical design and the capabilities of real production. This presents a challenge. Recent academic efforts have been focused on finding solutions to these challenges using more conventional optimization or simulation techniques. The ever-increasing need for the production of components with intricate patterns has sparked a revolution in the processes that are used in manufacturing. When it comes to the prototype of designs that combine many functions and materials, additive manufacturing stands out as a technology that has a lot of potential. Nevertheless, there are still obstacles to overcome in the process of additive manufacturing. These obstacles include mismatched material qualities, a lack of build consistency, and widespread flaws in the printed object. By incorporating algorithms that can identify flaws and change printing settings in real time, it is possible to circumvent the inherent difficulties that are present.

5 Conclusion According to the findings, directed energy deposition is only applicable to the creation of implants, while sheet lamination is often reserved for the creation of medical phantoms or models. Powder bed fusion, material extrusion, and VAT photopolymerization are now being employed for every category of production. Both binder jetting and material jetting are not used in the production of tools, instruments, or components for medical devices. Likewise, material jetting is not utilized in the production of implants or biomanufacturing. The most often used materials include thermoplastics, photopolymers, and various metals and metal alloys, such as titanium alloys. Recent developments in binder jetting will, in the not-too-distant future, make previously unavailable alternatives available. It is proposed that in the future, a consistent nomenclature can be used in the research that is carried out on the medical and dental uses of additive manufacturing as well as the industrial side. A more methodical comparison of the ways in which various AM methods are used would be made possible as a result of this.

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References 1. Gupta P, Jamwal A, Gupta S, Chaudhary V (2022) Modern approach towards additive manufacturing and 4d printing: emerging industries, challenges and future scope. Springer, Berlin, pp 389–412 2. Mandache C (2019) Overview of non-destructive evaluation techniques for metal- based additive manufacturing. Mater Sci Technol 35(9):1007–1015 3. Jha MK, Gupta S, Chaudhary V, Gupta P (2022) Material selection for biomedical application in additive manufacturing using TOPSIS approach. Mater Today Proc 4. Talib S, Gupta S, Chaudhary V, Gupta P, Wahid MA (2021) Additive manufacturing: materials, techniques and biomedical applications. Mater Today Proc 46: 6847–6851 5. Rao HS, Reddy DSK, Sharma C, Gupta S, Jamwal A, Agrawal R (2021) Assessment of key barriers of sustainable additive manufacturing in Indian automotive company. In: Advances in industrial and production engineering. Springer, Berlin, pp 245–253 6. Reddy K, Rao DSS, Sharma H, Gupta C, Shukla S, Kumar RK (2021) A: analysis of key enablers of sustainable additive manufacturing: a case of Indian automotive company. In: Advances in interdisciplinary engineering. Springer, Berlin, pp 281–290 7. Gupta S, Dangayach GS, Singh AK, Meena ML, Rao PN (2018) Implementation of sustainable manufacturing practices in Indian manufacturing companies. Benchmarking Int J 25(7):2441– 2459 8. Weintraub WS, Fahed AC, Rumsfeld JS (2018) Translational medicine in the era of big data and machine learning. Circ Res 123(11):1202–1204 9. Li R, Jin M, Paquit VC (2021) Geometrical defect detection for additive manufacturing with machine learning models. Mater Des 206:109726–109726 10. Krishnan S, Gupta S, Kaliyan M, Kumar V, Garza-Reyes JA (2021) Assessing the key enablers for Industry 4.0 adoption using MICMAC analysis: a case study. Int J Prod Performance Manag 11. Gentsch P (2018) AI in marketing, sales and service: How marketers without a data science degree can use AI, big data and bots. Springer, Berlin

Implementation of ANN for Prognosis of Automobile Engine Mohsin Khan, Ahmad Salik Rehman, and Neeraj Khera

Abstract This paper presents the prognosis of automobile engine using artificial neural network (ANN). The prognosis of automobile engine has been performed by real-time data acquisition for implementation of ANN. The three major parameters for the automobile engine which are Coolant temperature, RPM, and Throttle value are monitored in real time. Using the real-time datasets, ANN model is trained and tested to accurately monitor the variation in the Throttle value output due to input, i.e., Coolant temperature and RPM variations. The considerable variation in Throttle value output from a threshold value that is quantitatively obtained using proposed ANN gives the faulty condition of the engine. Keywords Artificial neural network · Automobile engine · LM algorithm · On-board diagnostic · Prognosis

1 Introduction Vehicle engine condition is one of the major things that one should focus on when conditioning their vehicle, and this corresponds to the fuel consumption directly, which can be considered as one of the most important operational characteristics of any vehicle. Artificial neural networks also called ANN can be understood as biologically inspired computational networks. The datasets comprise mainly three parameters, i.e., Coolant temperature, RPM value, and Throttle valve opening. The inputs for ANN are RPM and Coolant temperature, while the Throttle valve is the output parameter obtained from ANN. The application interface (APP) for input data collection is shown in Fig. 1. In this paper, a diagnostic system based on Artificial Neural Networks’ models is proposed for automobile engine’s prognosis using the three major parameters which are Coolant temperature, Throttle value, and RPM. The real-time datasets for implementation of the ANN model are collected these with the help of OBD M. Khan (B) · A. S. Rehman · N. Khera Department of ECE, ASET Amity University, Noida Uttar Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_56

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Fig. 1 Dataset application interface

sensor and using the Volkswagen Polo 1.2 TDI, where the engine RPM is varied at constant temperature, and then, the engine temperature is varied by changing the load at constant RPM. All datasets are collected in real time.

2 Literature Review Many published scientific studies have utilized Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) as a tool for the estimation of fuel consumption. Application of ANN can be seen in the modeling problems for aircrafts [1], watercrafts [2–5], mining machinery [6], and tractors used in agriculture [7]. In [8], Artificial Neural Networks have been implemented by the authors to establish a relationship between the velocity and torque and the consumption of fuel by driving trucks. The results showed high accuracy to get an estimate of the values of the variables that were predicted with very low mean percentage errors ( 1: In this situation, the resource has the capacity to provide more allocation than is required, and as a result, it gets paid more than resources that do not. On the other hand, the premium is exceedingly low and develops in a logarithmic way. This additional cost is low since the greater allocation supplied may not always be beneficial to the work. • ρ < 1: Financial penalties are imposed on resources who supply allocations that are less than the task requirement. The severity of the punishment, on the other hand, is decided by both how much the allocation deviates from the necessary value (as assessed by) and an exponential penalty factor pf. Figure 2 depicts the monetary cost as a function of efficiency and the penalty factor pf. A high value of pf can be used by a system designed to ensure that the monetary cost of resources that don’t match the job requirement is reduced fast. The system designer, on the other hand, can set pf to a low number to ensure that the monetary cost reduces slowly as efficiency, which declines from 1 to 0.

Fig. 2 Relationship between the weighing factor and resource efficiency

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5 Results and Discussion To put the trained agent to the test, we run a 2000-job experiment using a different seed and the probability distribution described in Sect. 4, resulting in a new sequence of workload size and arrival time. The findings are then compared to baseline approaches in terms of energy usage and cloud cost over the course of a 24-h period. Figure 3 depicts use an overall perspective of the experimental energy DRL agents delay some work until the next day, but 1764 assignments are finished before the end of the day. For a fair comparison, these postponed jobs, as well as their energy use numbers, are eliminated from the findings. RR, MRLUF, DQN, and proposed utilize 9312 W, 10,413 W, 7435 W, and 6811 W of energy, respectively. As a result, as compared, policy reduces energy consumption by 26.83%, 34.84%, and 8.47%, respectively. Both DRL-based agents can assist save energy by moving work to when more renewable energy is available, as the data shown. Figure 4 depicts the total energy after n jobs have been completed. Although the picture is clipped for clarity and space reasons, the pattern extends beyond 800 jobs. The proposed DRL-based shifting strategy, as shown in Fig. 5, will save even more energy when more jobs occur. The trial’s public cloud cost is depicted in Fig. 5. We don’t utilize cloud bursting in our baseline heuristic approaches because we’re operating without a model. As a result, the diagram is missing RR and MRLUF. DQN and the proposed technique perform equally well in terms of overall performance since they are both taught to convergence. A PPO-based agent saves a little more energy while shifting more tasks to the public cloud. During training, it also converges much quicker than DQN, saving energy. As long as cloud expenses are kept within a particular budget, we feel energy is a critical worry in this project. As a consequence, we feel the PPO-based method

Fig. 3 Cumulative summary of job energy

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Fig. 4 Comparisons energy graph between the proposed, MRLUF, RR, and DQN job

Fig. 5 Cumulative summary of job cost

recommended is better to the DQN-based approach. According to our findings, DRLbased algorithms may be able to generate a better scheduling strategy in complex circumstances without the need of a model than baseline techniques. However, the approach is not without drawbacks. In practice, if the infrastructure changes, the models will have to be retrained. If a physical server is added or withdrawn, or if newer public cloud tiers are deployed, the action space will change.

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6 Conclusions Many participants can be included in the protocol due to the definition and mathematical explanations of design, as well as generic equations for the shared conference key for participants. Furthermore, the suggested protocol is able to provide fault tolerance by utilizing volunteers, making it more practical and secure. The suggested technique addresses the challenging heterogeneous multi-cloud scheduling issue using sustainable energy and a time restriction. According to our findings, DRL looks to be a suitable strategy for regulating complex systems and making serial sequential file systems in the context of cloud resource management. Model-free DRL may develop a superior scheduling approach without requiring expert knowledge or explicit programming. The suggested solution, which masks data frequency in the cloud, supports both data privacy and query privacy. We discovered that the proposed strategy beats the current technique by roughly 35 times in terms of association rule mining time. In the future, we want to examine the parallel execution of the proposed approach for rapid processing.

References 1. Marson RL, Nguyen TD, Glotzer SC (2015) Rational design of nanomaterials from assembly and reconfigurability of polymer-tethered nanoparticles. MRS Commun 5(3):397–406 2. Hagan MF, Zandi R (2016) Recent advances in coarse-grained modeling of virus assembly. Curr Opin Virol 18:36–43 3. Ewen JP, Heyes DM, Dini D (2018) Advances in nonequilibrium molecular dynamics simulations of lubricants and additives. Friction 6(4):349–386 4. Zhao J, Rodríguez MA, Buyya R (2021) A deep reinforcement learning approach to resource management in hybrid clouds harnessing renewable energy and task scheduling. In: 2021 IEEE 14th international conference on cloud computing (CLOUD). IEEE, pp 240–249 5. Gill SS, Buyya R (2018) A taxonomy and future directions for sustainable cloud computing: 360 degree view. ACM Comput Surv (CSUR) 51(5):1–33 6. Kumar Y, Goyal M, Mishra R (2020) Modified PV based hybrid multilevel inverters using multicarrier PWM strategy. In: 2020 4th international conference on electronics, communication and aerospace technology (ICECA). IEEE, pp 460–464 7. Dutta P, Mukherjee T, Hegde VG, Gujar S (2014) C-cloud: a cost-efficient reliable cloud of surplus computing resources. In: 2014 IEEE 7th international conference on cloud computing. IEEE, pp 986–987 8. Anderson DP, Reed K (2009) Celebrating diversity in volunteer computing. In: 2009 42nd Hawaii international conference on system sciences. IEEE, pp 1–8 9. Zhang J, Phillips C (2011) Job-scheduling via resource availability prediction for volunteer computational grids. Int J Grid Util Comput 2(1):25–32 10. Kumar Y, Pushkarna M, Gupta G (2020) Microgrid implementation in unbalanced nature of feeder using conventional technique. In: 2020 3rd international conference on intelligent sustainable systems (ICISS). IEEE, pp 1489–1494 11. Sun Y, DeJaco RF, Siepmann JI (2019) Deep neural network learning of complex binary sorption equilibria from molecular simulation data. Chem Sci 10(16):4377–4388

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12. Kadupitiya JCS, Fox GC, Jadhao V (2020) Machine learning for parameter autotuning in molecular dynamics simulations: efficient dynamics of ions near polarizable nanoparticles. Int J High-Perform Comput Appl 34(3):357–374 13. Kadupitiya JCS, Sun F, Fox G, Jadhao V (2020) Machine learning surrogates for molecular dynamics simulations of soft materials. J Comput Sci 42:101107 14. Curtmola R, Garay J, Kamara S, Ostrovsky R (2011) Searchable symmetric encryption: improved definitions and efficient constructions. J Comput Secur 19(5):895–934 15. Gupta H, Yadav A, Maurya S (2022) PV based QZS inverter with improved space vector modulation technique. In: 2022 2nd international conference on power electronics & IoT applications in renewable energy and its control (PARC). IEEE, pp 1–4 16. Cao N, Wang C, Li M, Ren K, Lou W (2013) Privacy-preserving multi-keyword ranked search over encrypted cloud data. IEEE Trans Parallel Distrib Syst 25(1):222–233 17. Yu J, Ren K, Wang C, Varadharajan V (2015) Enabling cloud storage auditing with key-exposure resistance. IEEE Trans Inf Forensics Secur 10(6):1167–1179 18. Badhoutiya A, Chandra S, Goyal S (2020) Identification of suitable modulation scheme for boosted output in ZSI. In: 2020 4th international conference on electronics, communication and aerospace technology (ICECA). IEEE, pp 238–243 19. Yu J, Ren K, Wang C (2016) Enabling cloud storage auditing with verifiable outsourcing of key updates. IEEE Trans Inf Forensics Secur 11(6):1362–1375 20. Vimercati SDCD, Foresti S, Jajodia S, Paraboschi S, Samarati P (2010) Encryption policies for regulating access to outsourced data. ACM Trans Database Syst (TODS) 35(2):1–46

Identification of Enablers for Green Manufacturing in Indian SMEs Aman Mudgil, Prateek Kumar, Sourav Sanchay, Naveen Anand Daniel, and Rakesh Kumar Phanden

Abstract In this ever-changing and rapidly expanding world, there remains one general issue that affects various industries, i.e. manufacturing sustainability. Green manufacturing is an essential aspect of providing solutions. Therefore, manufacturing companies must adopt green manufacturing techniques to reduce environmental damage and the amount of waste produced. In this paper, various factors have been identified related to enablers of green manufacturing in Indian SMEs. Here, the initial stage is done based on the literature review. Out of the identified factors, the enablers which were found to be most common and prevalent were selected. The enablers selected were (i) investment in innovation and technology, (ii) organization culture, (iii) lower manufacturing cost, (iv) government incentives and regulations, (v) waste management improvement, (vi) pressure from the market, (vii) green supply chain management, (viii) energy and resource crisis, and (ix) improved logistics facilities. These enablers were the drivers of green practices in Indian SMEs. Multi-criterion decision making techniques, namely TISM and MICMAC, were used to find the chief enablers that affect green manufacturing. The main objective behind choosing this research is to make industries aware of the newest trend of green manufacturing in Indian SMEs. Keywords TISM · MICMAC · Manufacturing sustainability · Green manufacturing · Enablers · Drivers

1 Introduction Green manufacturing (GM) uses various strategies and techniques to make manufacturing more efficient and pollution-free. We can also say it is “greening of manufacturing”, which means that the products produced will reduce pollution, will be recycled and reused, and will use fewer natural resources in their manufacturing [1–4]. A. Mudgil · P. Kumar · S. Sanchay · N. A. Daniel (B) · R. K. Phanden Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, UP 201313, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_66

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According to Mendler [1], GM is meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Cortellini [2] defines GM as a manufacturing method that minimizes waste. According to Sutherland [3], sustainability is a globally emerging concept that recognizes the interdependence of the economy, society, and the environment, frequently referred to as the three pillars of sustainability. At the current rate, greenhouse gas emissions will double by 2050, compared to the 2000 levels, thus resulting in a corresponding temperature rise of 4–6 °C over pre-industrial levels by the end of this century [5]. With ever-increasing population and industrialization, the consumption of natural resources is rapidly on the rise, while their availability is shrinking creating periodic mismatches in demand–supply and highly fluctuating prices [6, 7]. Increased industrialization has led to significant growth in waste generation and environmental pollution. Industrial waste with chemical composition can be potentially dangerous to health, and its disposal without treatment leads to land and water pollution. There are various aspects a business can perform GM [8]: • By utilizing renewable energy: Production firms regularly take a tremendous amount of energy to manufacture items. Organizations can track down sustainable hotspots for their power, setting less strain on energy supply and decreasing effect on the climate. • By reducing pollution: By limiting pollution, a business can significantly impact the environment. This can be done through recycling and developing new technology to stop pollution. • By enhancing energy efficiency: Businesses can reduce the energy required to manufacture products and change the energy source. • By conserving natural reserves: Large production shop floors produce at the cost of nature; therefore, producers should return to the environment by pledging to protect natural resources. Today, green technology can refer to many different things, such as clean energy, renewable energy, sustainable energy, waste management and energy conservation. In this new era, technology is advancing rapidly, and the economy is growing very fast, leading to the luxurious lifestyle of the people [9]. We can have as much power as we want by producing it efficiently and consistently. On the other hand, the rapid growth of the industry from the agricultural to the manufacturing industry in recent decades has led to increased energy production. However, this has been shown to grow the consumption of many resources and increase pollution [10, 11]. Therefore, the importance of green technology and energy has increased in the last few years. The main aim of green manufacturers is to develop, utilize, and research the technologies so that they will have minimum impact on the environment. The workers will also have to be very qualified when working on manufacturing green products. For this technique to be implemented in companies, the workers doing this job should have an extra set of knowledge, skill set, and experience in industries. In SMEs, the GM practices, which include the barriers and enablers of green manufacturing, vary from those in big firms, as SMEs lack data, resources, experience,

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and expertise in green manufacturing [4]. The transformation to become a green manufacturer involves many aspects, from better production design to alteration of existing processes and from facilitation of part replacement to increased durability. By embracing all aspects, SMEs and larger companies can update their manufacturing processes and contribute to “closing the loop” for a circular economy. Subsequent sections present the adopted methodology followed by managerial implications and conclusions on the identification of enablers for green manufacturing in Indian SMEs.

2 Adopted Methodology Primarily, the following tasks were performed to conduct a literature review for the present work: i.

The articles selected are from 2001 to 2021, as green manufacturing is a new concept. ii. Based on the literature review, the factors of green manufacturing were identified. iii. An industrial survey was carried out. The response was collected from the companies, and the modelling was performed. The research publication databases were searched from Google Scholar, WoS, Scopus, Science Direct, and Emerald. The research papers were confined to India and analysed various SMEs from other countries to analyse the trend.

2.1 Outcomes of Literature Review From the selected research papers, investment in innovation and technology, organizational culture, lower manufacturing costs, government incentives and regulation, waste management improvement, pressure from the market, green supply chain management, energy and resource crisis, and improved logistics facilities are the most critical enablers for implementation of green manufacturing in industries of all domains as given in Table 1. But there were some limitations, such as some of the enablers did not take social aspects into account, and some were only confined to a particular sector. Also, some enablers were only identified and ranked following GM practices, leaving the question of how various enablers drive the implementation of GM practices unanswered. These enablers were used to prepare questionnaires to determine their practical applicability in the industries.

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2.2 Application of TISM and MICMAC In the present work, TISM methodology is adopted. Here, the first step is to find the enablers that enable the organization to be correlated to each other in an organization. After identifying enablers, TISM is used to determine the mutual contextual and interpretation relationship. The next step is to convert the relationship into Table 1 Enablers and its description for GM in Indian SMEs Notation and References

Enablers

Description

E1 [12–19]

Investment in innovation and technology

Technological innovations boost production and allow firms to emphasize green manufacturing practices. The primary example is the use of Industry 4.0 tools and techniques, which helps us reduce energy consumption in manufacturing and boost production

E2 [20, 20–22]

Organizational culture

Underlying values and beliefs govern a unique social environment of a business initiative within the organization to develop a green manufacturing environment

E3 [14, 23]

Lower manufacturing cost

SMEs are focused on growing their business by lowering the cost associated with production. SMEs can allocate additional resources to green manufacturing practices rather than intent on increasing quality alone

E4 [24, 14]

Government incentives and regulation

Regulations by the government play a crucial factor in the adoption of GM practices

E5 [25, 25–28]

Waste management improvement

One of the critical efforts of GM is enacting closed-loop supply chains and a circular economy to negate waste and pursue reuse and recycling as much as possible. Reverse logistics deals mainly with waste management, allowing for improved inventory control and increased profits

E6 [29, 29–32]

Pressure from market

Environmental pressure from customers and other manufacturers has emerged as a critical factor in manufacturers’ willingness to shift towards sustainable practices (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Notation and References

Enablers

Description

E7 [33–36]

Green supply chain management

Optimized, clean-fuelled, and efficient transportation for supply, eco-packing, and reusable packing materials is an enabler for GM implementation

E8 [37, 33, 36]

Energy and resource crisis

The rising cost of fuels and virgin materials for manufacturing enables companies to switch to more efficient ways of manufacturing

E9 [14, 38, 28, 39]

Improved logistics facilities

Improvements in transport infrastructure allow for a smoother flow of goods between companies Using more GM-friendly logistics equipment such as reverse logistics has been shown to reduce cost and energy usage

a structured self-interaction matrix. Afterwards, reachability matrix is established from structural self-interaction matrix, and transitivity is checked for that matrix. In TISM, transitivity for the contextual relationship is considered a supposition. Now, level partitioning is done in the final reachability matrix. Depending on the connections given by level partitioning, a digraph is drawn. The interaction matrix is developed with the help of a digraph. The resulting digraph and interaction matrix are transformed into the TISM model by substituting enabler nodes with enablers. In conclusion, the established TISM model is checked for theoretical discrepancy, and essential modifications are completed. TISM is the upgraded model of Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM). The qualitative analysis-based approach offers the hierarchical version, usually called the well-defined version. At the same time, within the TISM, the interpretation is performed for every diagnosed variable that similarly affords the version (digraph) based totally on iterations. The reachability matrix and partitioning steps are the same in the ISM and TISM methods. The present research pronounced a list of crucial enablers recognized from the extensive evaluation of posted literature which the professionals might also validate within the production. The diagnosed enablers are then analysed using the TISM. After using the TISM approach, MICMAC approach was applied to the results obtained from the TISM approach and get the clusters of factors that affect GM in a more refined way. The results were analysed, and its implication discussed. Figure 1 presents the required steps of the TISM approach.

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Fig. 1 Flow diagram of adopted methodology

2.3 Identification of Enablers The enabler is identified by referring to reputed journals and explained systematically (refer to Table 1).

2.4 Indirect Relationship Set-Up In TISM methodology, indirect (contextual) connection between discovered enablers performs a crucial duty. This step is significant since a small error in forming bonds between enablers leads to all modalities and impacts the model. For setting ties, we surveyed the manufacturing industries of various fields. Therefore, head-to-head connection sets between variables are listed.

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Table 2 SSI matrix Enabler notations

E1 to E9→

E1 to E9→

−

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

N

Y

N

Y

−

Y

N

Y

N

Y

Y

N

Y

Y

−

N

Y

N

N

Y

N

Y

N

N

−

Y

N

Y

N

N

Y

Y

Y

Y

−

N

Y

Y

N

Y

N

N

N

N

−

N

N

N

N

Y

N

Y

Y

N

−

Y

N

Y

Y

Y

N

Y

N

Y

−

Y

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

Y

−

2.5 Relationship Interpretation The present work also discusses the relationship interpretation for the enablers. Along with establishing the indirect or secondary relationship among enablers, it is also essential to explain how they affect each other since it helps to understand the industry and its knowledge or context with the topic.

2.6 Pair-Wise Comparison In TISM approach, a pairing assessment of enablers is conducted for structural selfinteractive (SSI) matrix. In Table 2, the SSI matrix for the current work is presented. Here, Y/N shows the comparative assessment of pairing, primarily on the basis of connection set-up. Table 2 presents the interpretation for the same.

2.7 Initial Reachability Matrix The adopted TISM approach converts the SSI matrix to the reachability matrix (initial) through the replacement of Y with the numerical value 1. In addition, N is replaced by 0 in the corresponding cell of SSI matrix. Thus, Table 3 shows reachability matrix (initial) for the current work.

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Table 3 Reachability matrix (initial) Enabler notations

E1 to E9→

E1 to E9→

−

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

0

1

−

1

0

1

0

1

1

0

1

1

−

0

1

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

−

1

0

1

0

0

1

1

1

1

−

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

−

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

−

1

0

1

1

1

0

1

0

1

−

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

−

2.8 Transitivity Check and Final Reachability Matrix In TISM approach, binary matrix was achieved through the transformation of preliminary reachability matrix. It is similar to the process of normalizing statistics prior to applying any device for similar procedures on statistics. It is a balancing method that is performed to obtain desired consequences. It works based on the computation of the contribution or impact of enablers among every single one. It is a simple computation and the way it is balanced is called transitivity. Under this technique, the assumption is that if variable A is connected with B and variable B is related to C. Then, variable A is equally connected to variable C. Table 4 presents the transitivity matrix in final form. Table 4 Reachability matrix (final) Enabler notations From E1 to E9→

Dependence

From E1 to E9→

Driving

−

1

1

1

1

1

1*

1

1*

6

1

−

1

1*

1

0

1

1

1*

5

1

1

−

1*

1

0

1*

1

1*

7

1

1

1*

−

1

0

1

1*

0

3

1

1*

1

0

−

0

1

1

0

5

1

0

0

0

0

−

0

0

0

1

1*

1

1*

0

1

0

−

1

1*

3

1

1

1

0

1

0

1

−

1

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

−

1

6

5

4

1

6

1

4

6

1

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2.9 Level Partition in Reachability Matrix Level partition inside TISM exhibits the contribution/impact of various variables (enablers in current work) on object under research. Numerous stages support practitioners to establish priority and develop scheme in order to address difficulties at top. First, antecedent and reachability sets are obtained from the final reachability matrix to define the enablers’ various levels. On the basis of intersection sets of both the antecedent sets and reachability, the level is allocated to enablers. In the hierarchy, the top level is acquired the enabler having reachability set is the same as intersection set. In addition, during this process of level participation, it is considered that any enables if occupied with hierarchy, it will be excluded during further computations. Thus, Table 5 presents the concluded interactions. Table 5 Level partitioning Enabling factors

Reachability set

Antecedent set

Intersection set

Level

E1

E1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

E1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8

–

–

E2

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8

–

–

E3

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8

–

–

E4

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8

E1,2,3,4

–

–

E5

E1,2,3,5,7,8

–

–

–

E6

E1 and 6

E1 and 6

E1 and 6

1

E7

E1,2,3,5,7,8,9

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8

–

–

E8

E1,2,3,5,7,9

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9

–

–

E9

E8 and 9

E1,2,3,7,8,9

E8 and 9

1

E1

E2,3,4,5,7

E1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8

–

–

E2

E2,3,4,5,7

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8

–

–

E3

E2,3,4,5,7

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8

–

–

E4

E2,3,4,5,7

E1,2,3,4

–

–

E5

E2,3,5,7

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8

E2,3,5,7

2

E7

E2,3,5,7

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8

E2,3,5,7

2

E8

E2,3,5,7

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9

E2,3,5,7

2

E1

E4

E1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8

E4

3

E2

E4

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8

E4

3

E3

E4

E1,2,3,4,5,7,8

E4

3

E4

E4

E1,2,3,E

E4

3

796

A. Mudgil et al.

2.10 Construction of Diagraph The digraph is developed based on Table 5, which presents the summary of level partition (refer to Fig. 2). Two kinds of connections are presented in the given diagraph. Here, the variables are linked through continuous heavy lines. It represents direct links between variables. Thus, in the present work, it can be stated that the variables taken in such a way that if there is explicit impact on each other or impacted by each other are merged with each other completely with a continuous heavy line. Although, the transitive or indirect linkages (dotted line) come with the variables that are not joined directly but linked with any common variable at the same time.

Fig. 2 Diagraph of present work

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2.11 MICMAC Analysis The MICMAC analysis is a crucial step in MCDM models. It usually addresses disposition of variables in relation to other related variables that are studied, such as whether it drives others or is dependent on others. It entails the growth of the graph. The graph is divided into four quadrants based on their driving and dependence power. The summation of all the data in the row for each enabler was used to represent the “Driving Power” of that enabler when creating grid. The summation of each column is used to represent the “Dependence Power” of that enabler. The four clusters formed can be classified as (refer Fig. 3). • Autonomous (1st Cluster): This cluster possesses the variables having a low level of reliance and driving power. Therefore, the variable is not associated with the other variables in the study. E4, 6, 7 and 9 are in this location in the current case study. Because they are not interconnected, they can be addressed separately and, if necessary, simultaneously. • Dependent (2nd Cluster): Here, the enablers’ dependence is robust; however, their driving force is low. Therefore, this type of variable is always reliant on other variables. As a result, these variables are not as much of important since they added little. In nearly all findings, one or two variables are found in this cluster. No variables are located in the current study.

Fig. 3 MICMAC analysis

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• Linkage (3rd Cluster): In this cluster, the variables have a strong driving power and dependence. It helps define the cause as they act as both the driver and dependent factor. In the present work, it is reported that E1, 8, 5 and 2 variables are staying in this area. • Driving (4th Cluster): This is a vital cluster since its variables have a lot of driving force. De facto, the variables with a strong driving power also push other variables, implying that they must be handled first. Additionally, it assists in outlining the recommendations for the study’s results. Enabler E3 is found in this location in the current investigation.

3 Managerial Implications The present work draws managerial implications to offer green manufacturing technology insights to reform production companies. The current work highlights that there is a lacking of technical knowledge on green manufacturing technologies. In addition, the benefits of green manufacturing technology are not sure. Therefore, the firms are hindered from adopting it. Based on the outcome of this work, the managers are capable and confident in securing the cooperation from workers to embrace the green manufacturing processes in their organization. Technical advancement is a further vital enabler to have glanced. It is highly important for the mangers to ensure the training of employees for advanced technologies. They should be educated consistently to enhance their skills. In this wise, the managers can convince owners to adopt green manufacturing methods and procedures successfully. Thus, the present research study furnished valuable results on enablers with strategically developed categories. Managers can easily analyse the company’s current situation by paying attention to the proposed enablers individually for the adaptation of green manufacturing. Thus, the manager can acquire and develop in-house capabilities, and they can set the work practices to enhance strategically to adopt green practices in SMEs.

4 Conclusion The green manufacturing concept is relevant for Indian SMEs. To implement it, the industries need to identify the correct enablers. In the present work, various enablers were found out to be prevalent across Indian SMEs from the survey conducted. The main enablers included “organizational culture”, “investment in innovation and technology”, “lower manufacturing costs”, “government incentives and regulation”, “waste management improvement”, “pressure from the market”, “green supply chain management”, “energy and resource crisis”, and “improved logistics facilities”. In addition, the identified enablers were studied utilizing both TISM and MICMAC

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techniques to rank as per their priorities. Therefore, based on the dependent and driving nature of enablers, the interrelationship between identified enablers was assessed. Identified enablers are best suited for all the manufacturing industries but specifically Indian SME’s should adopt to enhance the green manufacturing. Indian manufacturing SMEs are growing, and it is essential to keep the quality of products in check along with the quantity and reasonable care in manufacturing green products. The present study concludes that this sector requires innovations to be introduced regularly to keep it economical, up-to-date, and cost-efficient. The present work can be extended to identify barriers applying green manufacturing concepts in Indian manufacturing SMEs. Also, it can be extended by analysing various other multi-criterion decision-making techniques using fuzzy concepts.

References 1. Rehman MA, Shrivastava RL (2013) Green manufacturing (GM): past, present and future (a state of art review). World Rev Sci Technol Sustain Dev 10(1–2–3):17–55 2. Cortellini R (2001) Green manufacturing. Operations and information systems management OISM, 470 W 3. Sutherland JW, Rivera JL, Brown KL, Law M, Hutchins MJ, Jenkins TL, Haapala KR (2008) Challenges for the manufacturing enterprise to achieve sustainable development. In: Proceeding of 41st CIRP conference on manufacturing systems, pp 15–18 4. Cloquell-Ballester V-A et al (2008) Environmental education for small-and medium-sized enterprises: methodology and e-learning experience in the Valencian region. J Environ Manage 87(3):507–520 5. Yokoi R, Watari T, Motoshita M (2022) Future greenhouse gas emissions from metal production: gaps and opportunities towards climate goals. Energy Environ Sci 15(1):146–157 6. DeSimone LD, FP Popoff (2000) Eco-efficiency: the business link to sustainable development. MIT Press 7. Deif AM (2011) A system model for green manufacturing. J Clean Prod 19(14):1553–1559 8. Singh J, Deepak D (2022) Green manufacturing a modern era for Indian manufacturing industries: a review. In: Recent trends in industrial and production engineering, pp 103–107 9. Rinawa ML, Karuna MS (2023) Green manufacturing: benefits, implementation and challenges. In: Advances in manufacturing engineering. Springer, Singapore, pp 403–412 10. Prasad S, Rao AN, Lanka K (2022) Analyzing the drivers for lean and green manufacturing using ISM approach. In: Recent advances in industrial production. Springer, Singapore, pp 111–121 11. Singh BR, Singh O (2012) Study of impacts of global warming on climate change: rise in sea level and disaster frequency. Global warming—impacts and future perspective 12. Bhanot N, Rao PV, Deshmukh SG (2017) An integrated approach for analysing the enablers and barriers of sustainable manufacturing. J Clean Prod 142:4412–4439 13. Ganda F (2019) The impact of innovation and technology investments on carbon emissions in selected organisation for economic cooperation and development countries. J Clean Prod 217:469–483 14. Ghadimi P, O’Neill S, Wang C, Sutherland JW (2021) Analysis of enablers on the successful implementation of green manufacturing for Irish SMEs. J Manuf Technol Manag 32(1):85–109. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMTM-10-2019-0382 15. Luo Y, Jie X, Li X, Yao L (2018) Ranking Chinese SMEs green manufacturing drivers using a novel hybrid multi-criterion decision-making model. Sustainability 10(8):2661

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16. Md Taib MY, Mohamed Udin Z, Abdul Ghani A (2015) The development of green management and green technology in green manufacturing in Malaysia. J Technol Oper Manage 10(1):40– 47.4 17. Pelissari R, Khan SA, Ben-Amor S (2022) Application of multi-criteria decision-making methods in sustainable manufacturing management: a systematic literature review and analysis of the prospects. Int J Inf Technol Decis Mak 21(02):493–515 18. Sharma V, Sharma V, Karwasra K (2021) A decision framework for green manufacturing indicators using fuzzy AHP-ELECTRE I: a case study of the steering system manufacturer. Int J Sustain Eng 14(6):1332–1341 19. Ullah S, Ahmad N, Khan FU, Badulescu A, Badulescu D (2021) Mapping interactions among green innovations barriers in manufacturing industry using hybrid methodology: insights from a developing country. Int J Environ Res Public Health 18(15):7885 20. Al-Hakimi MA, Al-Swidi AK, Gelaidan HM, Mohammed A (2022) The influence of green manufacturing practices on the corporate sustainable performance of SMEs under the effect of green organizational culture: a moderated mediation analysis. J Clean Prod 376:134346 21. Gupta H, Barua MK (2018) A grey DEMATEL-based approach for modeling enablers of green innovation in manufacturing organizations. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25(10):9556–9578 22. Kota S, Mishra RP, Jasti NVK, Kale S (2021) Sustainable production system critical success factors: an interpretive structural modelling approach. Procedia CIRP 98:324–329 23. Rehman MAA, Shrivastava RR, Shrivastava RL (2015) Research instrument design for performance measures of green manufacturing practices in India-a pilot study. Int J Environ Waste Manage 15(3):235–356 24. Fideršek A (2015) Towards zero waste grocery retail in Scotland: merging sustainable purchase intentions with actual purchase behaviour 25. Chuang SP, Yang CL (2014) Key success factors when implementing a green-manufacturing system. Prod Plann Control 25(11):923–937 26. Eshikumo SM, Odock SO (2017) Green manufacturing and operational performance of a firm: case of cement manufacturing in Kenya. Int J Bus Soc Sci 8(4):106–120 27. Sharma D, Kumar P, Singh RK (2022) Quantifiable contribution of sustainable manufacturing enablers in Indian SMEs. In: Recent advances in industrial production. Springer, Singapore, pp 123–135 28. Shinde, PMR, Deshmukh AUDA, Combined traditional and green supplier selection criteria used in Indian chemical industries 29. Bansal M, Duhan RK, Deshwal S (2012) Green manufacturing and use of analytical network process (ANP) decision tool in green manufacturing. J Mech Eng Robot Res 1(3):51–60 30. Gaikwad LM, Sunnapwar VK (2021) Effect of green practices on organizational performance: an empirical study. J Basic Appl Sci 17:107–114 31. Mafini C, Muposhi A (2017) The impact of green supply chain management in small to medium enterprises: cross-sectional evidence. J Transp Supply Chain Manage 11(1):1–11 32. Ninlawan C, Seksan P, Tossapol K, Pilada W (2010) The implementation of green supply chain management practices in electronics industry. In: World congress on engineering 2012. July 4–6, 2012, vol 2182. International Association of Engineers, London, pp 1563–1568 33. Imran M, Arshad I, Ismail F (2021) Green organizational culture and organizational performance: the mediating role of green innovation and environmental performance. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia 10(4):515–530 34. Malek J, Desai TN (2019) Interpretive structural modelling based analysis of sustainable manufacturing enablers. J Clean Prod 238:117996 35. Nkrumah SK, Asamoah D, Annan J, Agyei-Owusu B (2020) Examining green capabilities as drivers of green supply chain management adoption. Manage Res Rev 44(1):94–111 36. Pathak P, Singh MP (2021) An ISM approach to performance indicators of sustainable manufacturing through MICMAC analysis in Indian manufacturing industry. In: Optimization methods in engineering. Springer, Singapore, pp 1–19 37. Alvi MS, Ahmed S, Chaturvedi SK (2013) Approaching green manufacturing in iron and steel industry. Int J Mech Eng Robot Res 2(3)

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Hydrogen Fuel Cell Hybrid Technology in Aviation: An Overview Lavepreet Singh , Arbab Nafees, and Kaushalendra Dubey

Abstract According to the International Air Transport Association (IATA), the industry has improved its record of fuel efficiency: Fuel burned per passenger per kilometer has dropped by half since 1990. This case study aims to find a powerful and efficient propulsion system that runs on renewable resources. We’ll dive deep into the study of fuel cells, particularly solid oxide fuel cells for their fuel-to-energy conversion ratio and close to no emissions. This study will help us understand what fuel cell design, where it’ll be installed, materials of the cathode, and anode. Different materials for electrolytes will be compared to analyze each of their impact on a flight’s performance which can drastically reduce the price per ticket and make air travel much more economical and environmentally clean. What storage method will be preferred for space efficiency, more capacity to reduce travel time by fueling just once, and to keep hydrogen safe from igniting itself. Fuel cells are still a work in progress due to their lack of instant power, so engineers combined them with a gas turbine creating a hybrid setup that achieves an amazing efficiency. Airlines such as Airbus, Eviation, and Zunum Aero are working on all-electric aircraft (AEA) where their planes are powered by hydrogen fuel cells. Keywords Hydrogen fuel cell · Solid oxide fuel cell · Fuel cell gas turbine hybrid system · Liquid hydrogen · Cryogenic technology

1 Introduction The rapid growth in aviation traffic in recent decades, as well as the expectation of continued development, has raised the demand of aircraft manufacturers to improve aircraft efficiency and reduce environmental damage. Companies like Boeing, Airbus, etc., must manufacture aircrafts that are environmentally friendly, economical, and efficient [1]. Airplanes are heavy and need a highly combustible such as jet fuel (a blend of kerosene and crude oil). Fuel cells are preferred over standard L. Singh (B) · A. Nafees · K. Dubey Department of Mechanical Engineering, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_67

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L. Singh et al.

lithium-ion batteries because of their low emissions, higher efficiency, higher power density, lightweight, and less space. The main benefits of using fuel cell-powered (FCs) are that their very efficient and emit no harmful gases/emissions. The only byproduct is water and heat. They have found that fuel cell systems can replace present propulsion systems, and fuel cells can generate up to 300% more power from 1 kg of liquid hydrogen (LH2 ) compared to 1 kg of jet fuel. The fundamental reason to use LH2 to power airplanes is the high specific (energy/mass) heat of combustion, which is 2.8 times that of conventional fuels [2]. The demonstration of an FC system supplying supplemental power for an Airbus 320’s hydraulic and electric systems and the Boeing fuel cell demonstrator jet was demonstrated in Spain and France in February 2008, respectively. The first issue is improving energy density, which is less of an issue in other industries but critical in the aerospace industry. NASA designed FC systems for the Apollo and Gemini space missions in partnership with Pratt & Whitney and General Electric [3]. Long-range aircraft powered by kerosene and hydrogen are thus contrasted at present and future technological levels. The choice of huge long-range aircraft was made because their large fuel capacities indicate their peak performance after adopting hydrogen. The aerodynamics and weight of the aircraft will drastically improve over the next few decades because of the increased use of composite materials in load-bearing structures [4]. Liquid hydrogen is kept as a saturated liquid/gas combination at low temperatures. The interior insulation system keeps liquid hydrogen at a near-room temperature and prevents heat conduction by preventing contact between it and the tank construction (a) the tank pressure must be greater than atm pressure to avoid air ingestion, which might result in an explosion and (b) fuel tanks must be designed for long periods due to maintenance issues [5]. The efficiency and performance of an aircraft depend on its aerodynamics and materials that are used to manufacture it; the future aircraft will have better materials and improved aerodynamics which will improve their attributes significantly. SOFCGT hybrid setup [6] has been proposed by several researchers/engineers to reduce environmental pollution emitted by the aviation industry, and the high-temperature exhaust can be supplied to gas turbines which improve overall efficiency. The cryogenic tank requires some energy to convert the phase of the hydrogen and to warm it to ambient temperatures. The enthalpy of vaporization for LH2 is 20 K is 450 kJ/kg and specific heat is 13.68 kJ/kg/K. This literature survey is about the efficiency and performance of a fuel cell and how to further improve it to achieve desired results. Recent experiments have shown us that engineers can drastically improve efficiency and performance numbers by pairing fuel cells with various energy storage systems (ESS) such as batteries and ultracapacitors. This setup prevents energy from being wasted that is produced by the fuel cell, ultracapacitor, and the battery are programmed to store all the regenerative braking energy when the vehicle must brake and discharges it whenever there is a major power requirement. The battery starts storing energy when the ultracapacitor is full and discharges it when the fuel cell does not efficiently perform [8]. One of the most important characteristics of a propulsion system is energy production in a particular amount of fuel (Whkg−1 ). Researchers have proposed an experimental setup that has a fuel cell and gas turbine to work in a programmed and timely

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Hybrid Technology in Aviation: An Overview Table 1 Energy consumption for a tank’s production

805

Materials

Weight (kg)

Energy consumed (MJ/kg)

Total (KgJ)

Aluminum

14.9

219.5

3.4

169

1.275

Polyester

6.9

Source Sarkar and Banerjee [7]

fashion where the fuel cell (will deliver instant power) while takeoffs and the gas turbines operate to keep the plane moving while the fuel cell supports the gas turbine whenever there is a power lag from the gas turbine. As seen in Table 1, steam reforming was a popular method to produce electricity and even to produce hydrogen which is not a clean method to produce hydrogen. Steam reforming has been around for the past 40 years and has been a valuable commercial fuel; the primary gas produced during the process depends on the operating temperatures, pressures, steam, and carbon feed rates. Two extreme steps in steam reforming are (i) reducing gas production which involves primary steam reforming at high temperatures (982 °C or higher) and (ii) substituting natural gas (SNG) production that requires steam reforming at the highest pressure [10]. Photocatalyst consists of two words a photon and a catalyst (which alters the speed of a chemical reaction). Photocatalysts are substances that accelerate/decelerate the rate of a chemical reaction on exposure to light. This phenomenon is called photocatalysis. Photocatalysis is the reactions that take place by utilizing a semiconductor and primarily light [11] (Table 2).

2 Hydrogen Hydrogen is a primary element and is present in every inch of the universe, and hydrogen occurs in a gaseous state. It can be manufactured through several methods: methane gas, reforming, coal gasification, and water electrolysis. Green hydrogen is the best type of manufactured hydrogen where water electrolysis is used to separate two water molecules and one molecule of hydrogen. Hydrogen gas can be used in typical gasoline-powered internal combustion engines with a few modifications, but it emits nitrogen. PEM is the most researched fuel cell which eventually was installed in FCVs. The proper utilization of renewable energy sources will enable us to manufacture hydrogen that can be emissions-free. The present focus is on hydrogen as a low-emission alternate fuel, the probability of hydrogen becoming the next all-rounder fuel is very high due to its power output, efficiency, and applications. It will be the principal energy source that will be supplied to houses, manufacturing plants, vehicles, etc. [12] (Table 3).

Fuel cell—12

Fuel cell—13

Photocatalysis—15

2005–2009

2009–2013

2013–2017

Source Liu et al. [9]

USA

Year

Photocatalysis—113

Biohydrogen production—17

Steam reformation—14

China

Table 2 Past studies on hydrogen production (in chronical order)

Steam reformation—11

Decomposing methane—13

Ethanol steam reforming—6

Spain

Steam reforming—9

Water splitting—11

Steam Reformation—13

Japan

Photocatalysis—329

Steam reformation—84

Steam reformation—70

Other countries

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Table 3 Comparison of hydrogen to other fuels Types of fuel

The energy produced per unit mass (J/Kg)

The energy produced per unit volume (J/m3 )

Carbon emission specific (kg/kg fuel)

Hydrogen gas

143

0.014

0

Liquid hydrogen

143

10.11

0

Fuel oil

44

38.6

0.85

Gasoline

46

38.65

0.84

Jet fuel

45.50

34.85

–

Liquefied petroleum gas

48

35.30

–

Liquefied natural gas

50

24.40

–

Methanol

22

23

0.50

Ethanol

29

18.10

0.50

Biodiesel

37

23.60

0.51

Natural gas

51

33

0.47

Coal

31

–

0.50

Source Felseghi et al. [13]

2.1 Properties of Hydrogen Hydrogen does not occur naturally, it can be created through a variety of methods, including water electrolysis, methane gas reforming, and coal gasification. Hydrogen has a lot of energy, and an engine that runs on it creates nearly few emissions. Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless gas that makes up 75% of the mass of the universe. It is found on Earth in the presence of other elements like oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Hydrogen derived from renewable energy sources is a nearly unlimited and ecologically friendly energy source that could fulfill the majority of our future energy requirements. In its solid state, hydrogen has the potential for extremely high energy densities, which are important for mobile applications [14] (Table 4).

2.2 Hydrogen Economy Based on intense and optimistic research, hydrogen and fuel cells will meet the global energy demands by 2050. To supply large amounts of hydrogen to every place, we’ve to build tiny hydrogen production sites. The price of hydrogen produced from natural gas steam reforming is currently much lower than hydrogen production through electrolysis. Production of hydrogen cost is currently lowest in large, centralized gas reformers and is highest in an electrolyzer system. An electrolyzer is a device that needs an electric current to segregate water into oxygen and water in a process called electrolysis [16]. Electrolyzers are projected to have large learning effects, and

808 Table 4 Chemical properties of hydrogen

L. Singh et al. No

Properties

Values

Units

1

Molecular weight

2.015.5

Amu

2

Density (gaseous)

0.0837.5

kg/m3

3

High heating values

141.90

MJ/kg

4

Low heating values

119.90

MJ/kg

5

Temperature (boiling)

20.4

K

6

Density (liquid)

7

Kg/m3

7

Critical point pressure

1283

kN/m2

8

Critical point temperature

32.95

K

9

Critical point density

30

kg/m3

10

Temperature (self-ignition)

859

K

11

Temperature (flame)

2318

K

Source Baykara [15]

electricity prices from various renewables could be very low if hydrogen synthesis occurs during times of abundant electricity. The comparatively low production costs of natural gas are a primary reason for its present widespread use in hydrogen production. Fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen mobility are still prohibitively expensive compared to conventional gasoline-powered cars and alternatives like rechargeable electric vehicles [17]. The future of renewable hydrogen production is based on the country’s financial position and the government’s willingness to work to pass bills for the reduction of fossil fuel consumption. The hydrogen economy rises when hydrogen is produced through renewable resources such as solar energy, geothermal, or biomass due to their cost-effective nature. Japan is one of the most technologically advanced countries and is motivated in Asia to develop and change the renewable hydrogen economy in the long term. Hydrogen production in the short term is through electrolysis and natural gas reforming; they’re also considering biomass to produce hydrogen and their strategy for storage is to use compressed tanks for the short term and liquefaction of produced H2 gas for the long term [18] (Fig. 1).

3 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) Solid oxide fuel cells are installed in stationary power generators, airplanes, and military equipment because of their low emissions, higher efficiency, fuel flexibility, and less noise. A solid oxide fuel cell is a high-temperature operating fuel cell from 600 to 1000 °C and that’s why we can use inexpensive catalysts like platinum or rhodium. The process of commercializing solid oxide fuel cells is difficult because of its short lifetime and therefore increases its maintenance cost. To achieve absolute adoption of solid oxide fuel cells, we reduce system cost, improve system performance, and develop new strategies to diagnose faults and improve the fuel cell [19].

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Cost of hydrogen production from renewable sources 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Fig. 1 Cost of hydrogen production from renewable sources dollar per kg hydrogen as per 2020

Efficiency is one of the main advantages because solid oxide fuel cells are installed in fuel cell vehicles. The efficiency achieved is 100% when we use dry methane, unlike hydrogen or carbon monoxide only 70% efficiency is achieved. This would force car manufacturers to completely change their car’s design by installing a bigger fuel cell that provides higher power output and is appropriate for a long-distance journey. Improving internal reforming can reduce the number of oxidants used while oxidation on the anode side will improve the efficiency [20] (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Solid oxide fuel cell working principle

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Hydrogen is added in the fuel cell

Heat and water are the by-products

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Oxidation occurs at anode and Reduction occurs at cathode

Electrons are separated from the hydrogen atom

Hydrogen atom recombines with oxygen to form water

Electrons pass through a circuit and protons pass through the electrolyte

Fig. 3 Working of a fuel cell

3.1 Principle A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) consists of an anode, cathode, and electrolyte. It converts the chemical energy into electricity through an electrochemical reaction and has close to no emissions. A solid oxide fuel cell-based cathode, a nickel oxide-based anode, and an oxygen ion or proton-conducting oxide-based electrolyte normally make up a single SOFC. Solid oxide fuel cell differs from fuel cells that operate at low temperatures like proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) at room temperature to 80 °C by fuel flexibility which requires an operational temperature (400–1000 °C) [21]. The electrodes are solid porous surfaces that allow fuel and air to diffuse into the electrolyte while allowing the electrochemical reaction products on the anode side to diffuse away from it. The O2 ions generated by the reduction of molecular oxygen (at the cathode) are carried from the cathode to the anode of the solid oxide fuel cell by the electrolyte. Fuel diffuses through anode/electrolyte contact through the anode. It catalyzes the reaction with the oxygen ions, releasing electrons that are carried via an external circuit and converted to electricity. Individual cells are electrically connected in series with a metallic connector to improve voltage and power, and they can be stacked to produce the best stack size [22] (Fig. 3).

3.2 Performance Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) has a higher power conversion ratio and current density compared to other fuel cells. Small stationary solid oxide fuel cell systems in the 1–100 kW power range achieve an electrical net efficiency of up to 50% and operate between (850 and 950 °C). We’re mainly focusing on SOFC as a propulsion system for aircraft; solid oxide fuel cells are perfect for aviation due to their efficiency and

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regular functioning at high altitudes. The takeoff in an aircraft is the most energyconsuming task and a fuel cell like any other electronic device cannot function at its peak all the time, so we use a power management system that steps in and solves the issue of lack of instantaneous power. The PMS uses a lithium polymer battery that generates a maximum power of 300 W, and the batteries store the surplus power generated by the fuel and use it when the fuel cell is not working at its peak [23]. Aside from tiny, combined heat and power generation systems (PMS) for residential areas are also using solid oxide fuel cells. Most consumers don’t know that stacking solid oxide fuel cells in a tubular form can avoid sealing and corrosion [24]. SOFCs are versatile due to their flexibility in using any fuel like methane, natural gas, biogas, and hydrogen. An electrolyte is the heart of a fuel cell and selecting the right electrolyte can give you the best performance and highest efficiency. The materials should be compatible with electrodes such as cathode and anode and should also be mechanically and chemically stable [25]. Lanthanum gallium oxide (LaGaO3 )-based electrolyte is one of the few major advancements in fuel cell research, and the reason why researchers think it has so much potential is because of its greater oxide ion conductivity than too at low temperatures [26]. A recent experiment showed us that ammonia (NH3 ) is a better hydrogen carrier; NH3 is easier and faster to liquefy than hydrogen at an ambient temperature of around −33 °C under 10 atm pressure, and the volumetric energy density (9 × 106 kJ m−3 ) is higher (than hydrogen) which makes it easier to store and transport. Ammonia is less flammable than hydrogen and can be easily detected by the human ear and the nose because of its distinct smell [27] (Table 5).

3.2.1

Materials Used in SOFC

Zirconia-based ceramic electrolytes are mostly used in the production of solid oxide fuel cells. Studies have shown that doping increases the concentration of oxide ion vacancies and thus improves the ionic compatibility of the electrolyte layer significantly [29]. Yttria (Y2 O3 ) and scandia (Sc2 O3 ) are commonly used as dopants, in solid oxide fuel cell which has high operating temperatures and usually is doped with yttria (Y2 O3 ) to increase ionic compatibility, chemical stability in both oxidation and reduction processes [30]. SOFC can be stacked in a tubular and planar design; tubular design has resulted in a low power density. Planar stacked fuel cells have provided a higher power density. The support layer is much thicker to provide structural integrity. Operations at high pressures lead to a higher cell power at any current density thus better stack efficiency and greater power output. This property lets engineers install solid oxide fuel cells in a hybrid system with a gas turbine system with up to 70% efficiency.

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Table 5 Types of electrolytes [28] Properties

Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ)

Dopped Lanthanum gadolinium ceria gallate (LSGM) (GCO)

Scandium-Stabilized Zirconia (ScSZ)

Compatibility

Excellent stability in oxidizing and reduces environmental damage

Great compatibility with cathode material

Great stability in oxidizing and reducing environmental damage

Stability

Great mechanical At low pO2 , a stability mixed electronic-ionic conductor is formed

Practical applications

Most of the solid oxide fuel cells use YSZ electrolyte

Ga-evaporation at a low partial pressure of oxygen

Conductivity

Low ionic Electronic conductivity conduction at (especially YSZ) PO2 → low open circuit voltage

Incompatible with NiO

Temperature

800–1000 °C

1000°–1200 °C

3.2.2

600°–800 °C

Great compatibility with cathode materials

Better long-term stability than yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) Availability and price of scandium

450–550 °C

Fuel Cell Battery Ultracapacitor Strategy

A fuel cell vehicle’s efficiency can be improved by attaching a battery and ultracapacitor to support the vehicle. A proton exchange membrane fuel cell is usually paired up with ultracapacitors and batteries. Ultracapacitor stores excess energy from regenerative braking and channels the power when accelerating or emergency braking [31]. It protects the battery from excessive use and extends its lifetime. The battery can absorb regenerative braking energy too but only if the ultracapacitor can store more energy. The ultracapacitor accepts regenerative braking energy only up to 450 V, and the battery stores the rest. When the ultracapacitor lacks the power to meet the demands of the moving vehicle, the battery provides the necessary power. If the vehicle is stuck in congestion where the power requirements are below 10%, the battery provides power instead of the fuel cell as they’re extremely inefficient at low speeds [32].

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4 Storage Today’s global economy is built on free energy that has been naturally stored for millions of years. Hydrogen is a renewable and environmentally acceptable fuel. The storage of hydrogen on a large scale is a significant difficulty with existing technology, storing, and transporting hydrogen is extremely challenging. Hydrogen has the highest heating value per unit mass. The volumetric density of liquid hydrogen is 70.8 kgm3 , and in large volumes with low thermal losses, hydrogen can achieve a system mass ratio close to one. Metal hydrides have the highest volumetric densities of hydrogen. Many metals and alloys can absorb substantial amounts of hydrogen reversibly [33]. The most common storage method is a high-pressure gas cylinder with a maximum pressure of 20 MPa. Inexpensive, light, excellent adsorption, desorption kinetics, and recyclability are all characteristics of good H2 storage materials.

4.1 Storage Options 1. Compresses gaseous hydrogen (CGH2 ) storage system is large and tough to accommodate within a compact vehicle. The cost of the enormous storage tanks required for a 500-km range is high because of the number of strong materials (composite, metal) required [53]. 2. Although the liquid hydrogen (LH2 ) storage system is high in density and relatively inexpensive, we face evaporative losses just after 3 days of idle usage. Total consumption for liquid hydrogen storage is about 35% of the stored hydrogen, which is lost more. Austenite material stainless steel is used to manufacture cryogenic tanks because of its quality to insulate gases at low temperatures [34]. A new type of storage method is currently being used in Germany, UK, USA, and Canada, and the manufactured hydrogen is stored in artificially created caverns. The caverns are covered with salt because it does not react with hydrogen because of their inert nature. These caverns are built 400 m below the ground, and their total volume is 200,000 m3 ; these caverns are naturally good at storing hydrogen gas because the large rock salt prevents its escape [35]. Researchers have combined these two technologies to improve storing hydrogen for stationary purposes and automobile industry; a cryogenic pressure vessel (CPV) is made up of an inner vessel with high pressure built of carbon-fiber-coated metal (like those used for compressed gas storage), a vacuum space filled with multiple sheets of highly reflective metalized plastic (for high-performance thermal insulation), and a metallic outer shell. Cryogenic vessels work at low temperatures (approx. 20 K) and high pressures (360 bar), holding hydrogen at a far higher density than compressed gaseous hydrogen [36] (Table 6).

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Table 6 Types of hydrogen storage in different states [37] Category 1 Chemical storage (metal hydride)

Type Magnesium hydride (MgH2 ), Sodium hydride (NaH), calcium hydride (CaH2 )

2 Physical storage (metal–organic framework) PCN-6 PCN, porous coordination network 3 Gas storage

Compressed H2

4 Liquid hydrogen

Liquid hydrogen (LH2 )

4.2 Challenges Hydrogen is a very light fuel (7% density of air) and 12 × as diffusive as gasoline. Hydrogen-catching fire or exploding is rarely seen as a hydrogen-air mixture has a higher chance to ignite. Hydrogen storage is the most important aspect of a country’s hydrogen economy. Hydrogen has extremely low density, and a storage tank is installed to mimic a 400 km distance journey, 8kgs of hydrogen for an internal combustion engine (ICE), or 4kgs of hydrogen for a fuel cell. The most common method currently used is compressed gaseous hydrogen (CGH2 ). The three issues at hand are finding an ideal storage material that checks out all three requirements: high hydrogen density, fast release with minimum energy barriers, and reversibility of the release cycles at normal temperatures (70–100 °C) must be compatible with a fuel cell. Gravimetric and volumetric density is very important in both stationary and mobile applications. The best way to store hydrogen is through cryogenic tanks, which cool down hydrogen down to (−259 °C) that enabling us to store more because hydrogen occupies less space, but these tanks require a constant electricity supply to maintain the freezing temperature and regular maintenance [38].

5 Fuel Cell–Gas Turbine Hybrid Technology (Fc–Gt) The gas turbine is a rotary engine that uses a flow of combustion gases to extract energy (which produces 10 Wh kg−1 ). Ambient air is taken into the engine intake, where it is boosted in pressure and temperature by an axial or centrifugal compressor (or both) before being fed into the combustion chamber. Fuel is mixed with hot compressed air and ignited in the combustion chamber. It is self-sustaining once it has ignited because the steady flow of oxygen and fuel ensures that combustion continues. The aviation industry reduced fuel consumption by 70% while simultaneously reducing noise generated by the engine and cutting gaseous carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions by around 50% and 90%, respectively, over the past 40– 50 years. This is all thanks to technological advancements in materials and cooling that allow engines to operate at turbine entry temperatures (TET) and high overall pressure ratios (OPRs) and improve thermal efficiency, which reduces the engine’s specific fuel consumption (SFC) for cost savings [39]. To achieve better results, we

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Table 7 Liquid hydrogen in aviation [41] Areas of effect

Advantages of liquid hydrogen

Disadvantages of liquid hydrogen

Combustion

Higher specific energy (119190 kJ/kg), higher efficiency, higher combustion temperature

Four times lower energy/unit volume

Aircraft design

Reduced gross weight by 26%, weight reduced from wings by 18%. Smaller engines and reduced noise, Cruise’s lift/drag ratio reduced by 15%

With the more voluminous fuselage, you’ve to install a cryogenic fuel system

Airport infrastructure

Airports will have hydrogen The amount of hydrogen production facilities on-site for faster stored for refueling refueling time for planes and other support vehicles

Emissions

No emissions of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide

have combined both to produce half of the power resulting in a lightweight fuel cell system where it weighs less and is more efficient and works simultaneously with a gas turbine (which produces 10 Wh in 1 kg of jet fuel) and works at an efficiency ranging between 30 and 50% [40] (Table 7).

6 Efficiency at High Altitudes 6.1 Efficiency of Conventional Jet Engines The efficiency of a conventional aircraft is 43.1% during cruise, whereas an allelectric aircraft (AEA) has an efficiency of 66.1% during the cruise. The standard carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is 3148CO2 /kg fuel; AEAs are desirable for short range because of these 800–2000 Wh/kg case scenarios we only evaluate the efficiency for 500 miles [42]. A traditional aircraft uses a mixture of kerosene and crude oil, popularly known as jet fuel. The gases emitted by burning kerosene are NOx , CO2, and H2 O in the air. Emission rates after burning kerosene are 3.18 g of CO2 /kg, besides emission rates kerosene per kg is $1.08. Looking at all the values and results, it’s safe to say that aircrafts powered by renewable sources like fuel cells are the future. The sound produced by these humongous engines of a Boeing 747–400 was 91.6 dBA [43].

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6.2 Efficiency of Aircraft Powered by Hydrogen Fuel Cell Liquid hydrogen has caught everyone’s attention by being the most versatile clean fuel for all purposes because of its specific volume. Liquid hydrogen requires a larger carrying capacity than conventional jet fuel. Designers have issues with hydrogen fuels in terms of mass and volume requirements and fuel management and storage onboard planes. The adoption of liquid hydrogen is a 30% reduction in the aircraft’s gross weight compared to kerosene. A long-range liquid hydrogen-powered aircraft is 7 m longer than usual. A liquid hydrogen aircraft reduces the volumetric capacity for payload [44]. The fuel cells are stacked in a tabular form to save space and add more FCs (if necessary), maintaining a fuel cell stack’s temperature is important as it directly impacts the performance. When the fuel cell stack’s temperature is too low, a longer time is taken to start a fuel cell and mass transport has the highest potential. When the temperature is too high the self-humidification function begins to break down, and a lack of water reduces the conductivity of a fuel cell membrane [45] (Table 8; Fig. 4).

7 Airlines Adopting Hydrogen Fuel Technology Airlines are already attempting to match pollution reductions with their financial goals. They’ve promoted operational efficiency and excellent air traffic management (ATM) and spent billions of dollars to upgrade airplanes with more efficient engines and aerodynamics made of lighter materials [52]. Airlines should use analytics to discover areas for improvement and methodically adjust their frontline personnel’s behavior to maximize fuel economy. Plug power is one of the fuel cell manufacturing companies that integrated fuel cell technology to ground support equipment (GSE) applications and demonstrated the use of fuel cell-operated conveyor belts for Table 8 Comparison of liquid hydrogen and kerosene in short-range aircraft S. No

Operations

Liquid hydrogen

Kerosene

Ratio

1

Takeoff weight (tons)

78

70

1.112

2

Block fuel weight (tons)

5

11

0.433

3

Operating empty weight (tons)

58.5

41.8

1.362

4

Wing area (m2 )

155

113.7

1.363

5

End of cruise altitude (kft)

37.9

37.5

1.025

6

Lift/drag ratio (cruise)

18.5

17.1

0.976

7

Wing loading (kg/m2 )

503.9

616.9

0.815

8

Fuselage length (m)

54

40.9

1.314

9

Energy used (kg/(seat km))

930

758

1.18

Source Verstraete [47]

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LIQUID HYDROGEN CONSUMPTION IN AIRCRAFTS

28%

13%

8% 9%12%

30%

Propeller Aircraft

Business Jets

Short Range Aircraft

Medium Range Aircraft

Long Range Aircraft

Cargo Planes

Fig. 4 Liquid hydrogen consumption in different types of aircrafts [46]

loading and unloading baggage at Hamburg Airport. CO2 capture is now a prevalent practice in the industry. Specific materials are used for the adsorption, absorption, or filtering of purified CO2 , and the CO2 is then separated from the material through the application of heat or electricity, allowing for its reuse [48]. The European Union has sponsored comprehensive research aimed at determining the viability of an electric plane, a liquid hydrogen-fueled aircraft, in collaboration with 35 other enterprises led by Airbus Deutschland. Liquid hydrogen produces approximately three times the energy of kerosene, but it takes up four times the storage space. As a result, hydrogen technology for air transportation would need a significant rethinking of aircraft design, airport fuel storage technologies, and safety concerns [49]. Governments and businesses are putting money into this opportunity. Hydrogen could also be used to power aircraft directly (hydrogen turbine) or indirectly (fuel cell). During the combustion process, hydrogen emits no CO2 and allows for large reductions in other global warming-causing materials including soot, nitrogen oxides, and high-altitude water vapor [50]. Airbus, the world’s largest aircraft maker, is also developing a demonstration engine for use in one of its A380 superjumbo flights to demonstrate hydrogen propulsion. ZeroAvia— After successfully testing a 6-seater last fall, ZeroAvia gets a head start on hydrogen-electric flying for smaller aircraft. The test flight was another step in the road that appears to put ZeroAvia on pace to launch a 10- to 20-seat aircraft with a 520-mile range into the market in 2024 [51]. The company has recently signed a deal with Shell to develop a compressed, low-carbon hydrogen supply for its facility in California. Additionally, Shell will support the development of ZeroAvia’s hydrogen flight test program.

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8 Future Scope and Conclusion 8.1 Future Scope Hydrogen is the most promising fuel type we’ll ever come across, and it is very versatile; it can be used in many industries that support our society. Hydrogen can be used to transform our existing energy needs into a much greener and safer. Hydrogen can be vastly classified into two categories: (I) Gray hydrogen is obtained from fossil fuels that result in CO2 emissions and (II) green hydrogen is obtained from renewable resources such as solar, wind, and electrolysis, but at present, these methods are expensive and require large farms to acquire hydrogen in a massive amount. It can be used in transportation, energy-producing grids, residential areas, and much more. Hydrogen is already being adopted by several car manufacturers to build ecofriendly cars that have zero impact on the environment and pack a punch as well that allows us to travel long distances without worrying about refueling again and again. Fuel cells are another interesting invention that let us use these harmless gases to generate energy from them, the first fuel cell was commercialized in 1838 by Sir William Grove. Several car manufacturers are using fuel cells such as Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo which uses a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell. Cryogenic technology allows us to store triple the amount of hydrogen compared to normal hydrogen compressed tanks, by storing it in a liquid state. Hydrogen along with fuel cells is gaining popularity in the aviation sector due to its outstanding performance and emission-free usage. The aviation industry has reduced its fuel consumption per passenger by 39% from 2005 to 2019. According to recent studies, the aviation industry managed to increase its fuel efficiency by 43% by decommissioning old aircraft and manufacturing new ones that are incorporated with stronger and lighter materials like carbon fiber (5 times stronger than steel) and installing new power-packed and fuel-efficient engines. Fuel efficiency can further be improved by optimizing flight routes. Airbus has developed three concept models surrounding hydrogen fuel cell technology and has decided to launch the first zero-emission commercial aircraft by 2035.

8.2 Conclusion Hydrogen is an abundant fuel and has no negative effects on the environment, two types of hydrogen are blue hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels that have emissions, whereas green hydrogen is produced from renewable sources that are environmentally safe. To use that hydrogen, fuel cells are used for their features of high performance, one-time investment, and emit no global warming gases. Fuel cells are being used in vehicles, spacecraft, industrial heavy vehicles, etc. Fuel cells are an amazing technology that offers performance and efficiency and is environmentally friendly. Hydrogen storage is still difficult, whereas traditional tankers are risky for

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storing H2 due to hydrogen’s low volumetric energy density. The tank’s pressure must be higher than the atmospheric pressure. Transportation is another problem since hydrogen has a lower viscosity and density; it is more prone to leakage but that can be solved by using the existing gas pipeline to supply it to industries and domestic homes. With time and technology, progress in harnessing hydrogen’s true potential can be easy and that solves all the problems from stationary to transportation. Car manufacturers such as Toyota, Hyundai, and General Motors have invested in fuel cell technology and have manufactured commercial-grade vehicles which are quite popular. Short-range aircraft can already be powered by a fuel cell stack and are now moving on to long-range aircraft. There is a lot of potential in hydrogen and technologies.

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Evaluative Study of Solar Thermal Energy System Hemant Gupta, Arti Badhoutiya, and Yogendra Kumar

Abstract The evaluation of solar thermal energy system explores the thermal monitoring of PV solar cells, which is increasingly important in the global energy arena. It is possible to utilize solar energy with both thermal storage and a steam-generating heat exchanger. A back-up auxiliary heater and flow control technology are used to compensate for the variability of solar energy. The size of the solar field and the thermal storage are regulated via simulation to get the optimum overall thermal efficiency. Increasing the junction temperature of a solar cell module decreases its efficiency. A solar power plant must have the ability to turn on and off at any time; therefore, thermal energy storage is necessary. Various heat transfer methods merged with solar thermal energy storage systems are examined and evaluated to achieve high accuracy and reliability for predicting the performance of solar thermal energy systems. Keywords Solar energy · Thermal storage · PV system · Energy utilization

1 Introduction In the previous several decades, population expansion has led to a rise in energy consumption. The quantity of solar energy received by the Earth varies seasonally and geographically [1]. For solar thermal systems, night-time exploitation is a major concern, since demand for energy grows without an energy supply. The daytime answers to this peak condition are to store electricity. To satisfy rising energy needs and save fossil fuels, solar power is a possible alternative [2]. In 2050, solar thermal H. Gupta (B) · A. Badhoutiya · Y. Kumar GLA University, Mathura, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Badhoutiya e-mail: [email protected] Y. Kumar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_68

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systems have a lot of room for growth. Unlike traditional thermal power plants, photovoltaic systems use sun radiation as their primary source of energy. Hightemperature steam may be generated from this energy and used to power a turbine or a motor drive [3]. Many academics and corporations have recently begun to pay attention to storage as a component of the whole system, despite the fact that it has been overlooked in the past. There are very few publications on the thermal characteristics of solar PV cells, given the junction temperatures and self-heating, when it comes to the influence of temperature on the photovoltaic solar cell [4]. When compared to flat plate photovoltaic thermal collectors, concentrating collectors have two key benefits. A higher production of electrical energy per square meter of PV cell area is possible because it raises the incidence irradiations on the cell surface [5]. A primary reason for the prevalence of thermal energy storage systems is that solar power has a finite yield and does not always coincide with peak demand. After the sun goes down, we use more energy each day. A portion of this issue may be solved by using energy storage devices that can distribute the energy stored throughout the day when it is cloudy or at night [6]. A solar power plant’s high-temperature storage may be classed as either an active or a passive system. Convection heat transfer into the storage medium is the primary characteristic of an active storage system. In passive storage systems, which are commonly dual medium storage systems, the heat transfer fuel only passes through the storage to charge and discharge a solid substance. [7].

2 Modeling and Designing of Solar System To develop a model of a hybrid concentrated PV thermal solar system, operating temperatures, electrical power, and thermal energy generation, as well as electrical and thermal efficiency, were all calculated using a mathematical model. A parabolic trough reflector reflects the incident uniform solar irradiation onto to the PV solar cells located across its focal line [8]. PV cells are cooled by a heat transfer fluid that passes via a tube channel and returns to a storage tank through a tube channel. Assumptions were made that the systems will operate every day of the week, twenty-four hours a day, retaining their thermal energy as hot water for medium-temperature applications [9]. The parabolic trough concentrator concentrates the sun energy before it reaches the photovoltaic cells. Total amount of solar energy absorbed by the cells is equivalent to their produced electrical power, as well as their total heat losses from their top surface (including radiation and heat transfer losses), as well as heat transferred to their absorber plate. Flow of heat by convection and conduction transfers the heat from the plate to the tube and then the tube to the water. Using the plate and tube, as well as the air around them, the insulating layer transmits heat [10]. Thermal collectors and photovoltaic modules generate different amounts of energy based on the angle of the sun’s rays striking them. A tilt angle and an orientation angle for the panel must be determined in order to do this. The inclination of solar panels for installations aiming for maximum annual solar energy recovery is the angle of

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SUN

Energy Solar Collector

Thermal Storage

Utilization

Fig. 1 Layout of solar thermal energy system

latitude of the location of the installation with an orientation toward the Equator is shown in Fig. 1 [11]. Measurement of a solar collector’s efficiency is critical. An efficient thermal system may be described as follows: η=

Qu , Gd

(1)

where Gd is the MATLAB-calculated direct solar flux (W/m2 ) and Qu is the parabolic trough concentrator’s global energy balance, as follows: Qu = Qa − Qp,

(2)

where Qa is the amount of solar power absorbed, (W/m2 ), whereas Qu is the amount of useful power transferred to the heat transfer fluid, (W/m2 ), and Qp is the amount of power lost due to thermal losses, (W/m2 ).

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3 Thermal Energy Storage System 3.1 Systems for Direct-Active Storage Steam may be generated in the solar concentrator and used as a heat transfer fluid and a storage medium for active direct thermal storage. Steam demand and generation are balanced in many industrial processes using these storage systems. There is an average efficiency of around 18.5% for the solar thermal plant in converting solar energy into electricity at full load with a storage efficiency of roughly 92.8%. In this approach, the same fluid is utilized for both the heat transfer fluid and the storage substance [12]. The intermediate heat exchanger is not required in the Solar Two plant, resulting in a cost savings for the power plant. Installation costs are inflated due to the need for a large amount of oil in storage tanks.

3.2 Systems for Indirect-Active Storage Using a two-tank indirect storage method, the cold tank is kept at 291 °C and the hot tank is kept at 384 °C. A year-to-year average of 14.7% of solar energy is converted into electricity. Thermal energy system performance is improved with cascade latent heat storage because of the considerable influence of HTF intake temperature and flow on the overall system. For solar power plants with solar fields equipped with concentrators, this thermal energy system idea was developed.

3.3 Systems for Passive Storage Furthermore, the thermo-physical characteristics and manufacturing processes of the solid energy storage are of major importance. An extended storage life necessitates a high level of cycle stability [13]. Two materials have been presented as acceptable solid storage materials in light of these technological and economic concerns. There were three primary goals for this passive storage system: the creation of a costeffective and energy-efficient storage material; the optimization of a tubular register heat exchanger; and a 350-kWh demonstration unit. Because of the inexpensive cost of the concrete and the excellent contact between it and the pipes, this method is particularly effective at moving heat into and out of a solid medium.

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Fig. 2 Relationship between input sunlight irradiation and solar cell package temperature and efficiency

4 Results and Discussion As a result of forced cooling of photovoltaic solar modules, the junction temperature remains constant independent of the irradiation power. According to Fig. 2, a natural cooling situation shows the junction temperature and the case surface temperatures as a function of irradiation power. Figure 3 shows that the output current of the solar PV cell is almost constant up to a voltage that is sensitive to temperature. For a certain current, the more power of the cell can produce at this voltage. As a result, the most electrical energy may be extracted from a given amount of input power by ensuring that the junction temperature is as low as feasible. The parabolic solar collector’s geometric attributes are shown in Table 1. According to local time, dayto-day change in the thermal efficiency is shown in Fig. 4. Thermal efficiency is lower in the morning since the thermal fluid needs to warm up before it is ready for use. It hits a peak of 30% at mid-day and then begins to decline in value. This may be attributed to the fact that the amount of sunlight changes throughout the day.

5 Conclusion In recent years, solar thermal power facilities have attracted a lot of commercial attention. Heat storing is seen as an effective means of ensuring the dispatchability of electricity in such facilities. Solar thermal storage system performance was investigated in this research. Solar cells lose efficiency as junction temperature and irradiation intensity rise. Solar photovoltaic cell thermal performance and thermal measurement difficulties were addressed in this study, as well as the key storage methods utilized

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Fig. 3 Solar PV cell temperature-dependent current–voltage relationship Geometrical elements

Attributes

Sheet length

4.5 m

Sheet width

3m

Opening angle

78.3°

Focal distance

0.843 m

Opening area

11.8 m2

Tube length

3.9 m

Fig. 4 Thermal efficiency variation with time

35

25 20 15 10 5

Time

16:35

16:40

16:15

16:00

15:40

15:05

15:20

14:45

14:20

14:05

13:20

13:45

12:45

13:00

12:20

11:45

12:05

11:10

11:30

10:45

0 9:30

Efficeincy (%)

30

10:05

Table 1 Parabolic solar collector’s geometrical attributes

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now in industrial power stations, as well as the material and heat transfer difficulties and solutions that may be found in the next domain.

References 1. Touati B, Kerroumi N, Virgone J (2017) Solar thermal energy discharging from a unit contains multiple phase change materials. In: 2017 8th international renewable energy congress (IREC), 2017, pp 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/IREC.2017.7926016 2. Ghazouani K, Skouri S, Bouadila S, Guizani AA (2018) Thermal study of solar parabolic trough concentrator. In: 2018 9th international renewable energy congress (IREC), 2018, pp 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/IREC.2018.8362474 3. Tilahun FB, Mamo M, Bhandari R (2020) Optimal solar field and thermal storage sizing in hybrid solar biomass cogeneration plant. IEEE PES/IAS PowerAfrica 2020:1–5. https://doi. org/10.1109/PowerAfrica49420.2020.9219945 4. Riahi A, Haj Ali AB, Guizani A, Balghouthi M (2019) Performance study of a concentrated photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar system. In: 2019 10th international renewable energy congress (IREC), 2019, pp 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/IREC.2019.8754650 5. Jang SH, Shin MW (2010) Thermal Characterization of junction in solar cell packages. IEEE Electron Device Lett 31(7):743–745. https://doi.org/10.1109/LED.2010.2048552 6. Cabeza LF, Sole C, Castell A, Oro E, Gil A (2012) Review of solar thermal storage techniques and associated heat transfer technologies. Proc IEEE 100(2):525–538. https://doi.org/10.1109/ JPROC.2011.2157883 7. Xiao L, Wu S, Li Y (2012) Thermal-electric conversion efficiency of the dish/AMTEC solar thermal power system in wind condition. In: 2012 third international conference on digital manufacturing & automation, 2012, pp 972–974. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICDMA.2012.258 8. Siegal B (2010) Solar photovoltaic cell thermal measurement issues. In: 2010 26th annual IEEE semiconductor thermal measurement and management symposium (SEMI-THERM), 2010, pp 132–135. https://doi.org/10.1109/STHERM.2010.5444302 9. Gupta H, Yadav A, Maurya S (2022) PV based QZS inverter with improved space vector modulation technique. In: 2022 2nd international conference on power electronics & IoT applications in renewable energy and its control (PARC), 2022, pp 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/PARC52 418.2022.9726647 10. Yadav A, Chandra S (2020) Single stage high boost Quasi-Z-source inverter for off-grid photovoltaic application. In: 2020 international conference on power electronics & IoT applications in renewable energy and its control (PARC), 2020, pp 257–262. https://doi.org/10.1109/PAR C49193.2020.236603 11. N’Tsoukpoe KE (2022) Effect of orientation and tilt angles of solar collectors on their performance: analysis of the relevance of general recommendations in the West and Central African context. Sci Afr 15(2022):e01069 12. Chandra S, Yadav A, Khan MAR, Pushkarna M, Bajaj M, Sharma NK (2021) Influence of artificial and natural cooling on performance parameters of a solar PV system: a case study. IEEE Access 9:29449–29457. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3058779 13. Badhoutiya A, Chandra S, Goyal S (2020) Comparative evaluation of modulation schemes applied for PV connected Z-source inverter. In: 2020 international conference on recent trends on electronics, information, communication & technology (RTEICT), 2020, pp 164–168. https://doi.org/10.1109/RTEICT49044.2020.9315666

Plasma Techniques for the Fabrication of Hydrophobic Substrates Smile Kataria, Shubham Jain, Basant Singh Sikarwar, and Mukesh Ranjan

Abstract Recent advances in the texturing process generate definite possibilities for the fabrication of hydrophobic metallic substrates using plasma etching and coating. Here, a holistic view of the complete hierarchy of the processes involved in the fabrication of metallic hydrophobic substrates by plasma processes was reviewed. The state of the art on the subject has been scrutinized based on basic concepts of hydrophobic substrates, and methods and materials for fabricating hydrophobic substrates by plasma processing are discussed. Keywords Hydrophobicity · Condensation · Plasma · Sputtering · Etching

1 Introduction Water droplet forms either film or drops when placed on a substrate. It depends on the balance of various interface energies, such as the solid–liquid interface (σ sl ), liquid–vapor interface (σ lv ), and solid–vapor interface (σ sv ), as shown in Fig. 1 [1]. Thomas Young’s equation gives the relation of these surface energies for a static droplet on the substrate as shown in Eq. (1). cos θ =

σsl − σsv . σlv

(1)

S. Kataria · S. Jain · B. S. Sikarwar (B) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Kataria · B. S. Sikarwar Amity Institute of Nanotechnology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India M. Ranjan FCIPT, Institute for Plasma Research, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_69

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Fig. 1 Relation between interface energies of a liquid droplet placed on the planner hydrophobic substrate

Fig. 2 Schematic of water droplet on substrate. For hydrophilic substrate water forms, film as contact angle is less than 90°, and for hydrophobic substrate water forms, droplet as contact angle is greater than 90°

Here, θ is the static contact angle between the liquid–vapor interface and solid–liquid interface of a drop and it quantifies the hydrophobicity of the liquid with respect to the substrate, as shown in Fig. 2. A hydrophilic substrate has a contact angle of water droplets less than 90°, and a super-hydrophilic has a contact angle of less than 20°. Hence, these substrates have high surface energy (σsl ) and a very strong affinity with water. However, hydrophobic substrates have an angle greater than 90°, and they have low surface energy (σsl ). Substrates that have a contact angle of more than 150° are known as super-hydrophobic, and they have very less affinity to water [2, 3]. The superhydrophobic with small contact angle hysteresis (Δθ ≈ 10°) is called super-repellent super-hydrophobic substrate [2–4]. Hydrophobic surfaces with low contact angles’ hysteresis (CAH) have tremendous applications for saving material and energy such as in manufacturing industries and automobile industries [5], medical equipment [6], marine industries [7], oil–water separation [8], anti-icing [9], and drag reduction [10]. Condensation of water vapor is a two-phase process, and it prefers on a hydrophobic substrate because its condensation coefficient is much higher than the hydrophilic surfaces [11–13]. Consequently, executing hydrophobic condensing surface is advantageous in condensing units of electronic component cooling units

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[14], energy storage device [15], water harvesting devices [16], power generation units [17], and thermal management of the building [18]. High thermal conductivity substrates such as copper and aluminum are thermally advantageous for the condensation process. In nature, these substrates are hydrophilic [1, 19], and special surface treatment is required for altering hydrophobicity of substrate. Many authors [1–4, 16] reported that hydrophobicity of substrate depends on its morphologies and many methods were reported for altering the surface morphologies of the metallic substrate [1, 20]. These methods are categorized as chemical and physical texturings [20]. In addition, low surface energy material coatings using various advanced technologies were also reported to form metallic surfaces as hydrophobic substrates [21]. These methods have their pros and cons for fabricating hydrophobic metallic surfaces. The major issues with them are as costly, tedious, durability, stability, and low frequency of droplet shedding [22]. Among these methods, plasma processing is an advanced technology which is used for altering surface morphology. This process is an environmentally friendly process, producing an extremely low level of by-products as compared to other chemical and physical methods. In this manuscript, the state-of-the-art hydrophobic metallic substrate fabrication by plasma processes was scrutinized.

2 Morphology of Textured Surface and Droplet State In nature, the lotus leaf is an ideal hydrophobic surface. However, it is not a smooth surface [23]. Its surfaces have hierarchical roughness in which nano-order roughness superimposes into micro-order [24]. Many authors [23–25] reported that lotus leaves possess micron order roughness that imparts super-hydrophobicity to the lotus leaves. Due to super-hydrophobic nature of lotus leaves, micro-droplets formed on leaves are easily roll-off by gravity, as shown in Fig. 3a. Hence, dew and rainwater from micro-droplets which carry away the dust particles from the surface because of the small value of contact angle hysteresis (CAH) reduce the adhesion between them. Therefore, these surfaces are known as self-cleaning surfaces. It has been reported that many natural plants and animals possess water repellency due to hydrophobic surfaces with microscopic roughness which causes anti-adhesive properties against surface contamination [24]. In lotus leaves, nanostructure surfaces present on their surface and are coated with hydrophobic wax which makes the surface quite rough at the micron-scale which resulted in a hydrophobic surface [25]. The epicuticular wax present on lotus leaves contains methyl (CH3 ) as non-polar groups at the surface which discourages the leaf–water interaction due to the polar nature of water [26]. Since the contact area reduced between the water droplets and leaf surface which increased static contact angle greater than 150° and when the surface was titled with slight angle, water droplets rolled-off the surface and carried the dirt particles present on it as demonstrated in Fig. 3a.

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Fig. 3 a Illustration of lotus effect, water drop carried the dirt particles while rolling on the surface. b Representation of drop on the vertical substrate, as due to gravity, the drops tend to move downward, but CAH kept the droplet at a place such that the upper part of the droplet becomes thin, and the lower part becomes thick with advancing θ a and receding angle θ r

Contact Angle Hysteresis (CAH): Contact angle hysteresis is the most crucial factor in the wetting of the liquid droplets on the surfaces, and it is very well understood by analyzing droplet on a vertical surface as the rain droplets fall on the window glass, as shown in Fig. 3b. Due to gravity, the drop tends to move down but because of the contact angle, hysteresis drop will remain on the vertical window glass due to which the angle made by the drop on the glass will be asymmetric. At commencement of sliding, the top-side contact angle of droplet is smaller, and it known as receding angle, while the bottom-side contact angle is large and is known as advancing angle. The difference between the bottom contact angle (advancing angle) and top contact angle (receding angle) is called contact angle hysteresis (CAH) as shown in Eq. (2) [27, 28]. CAH = θa − θr .

(2)

CAH occurred due to heterogeneous surfaces, in which the advancing angle is maximum possible contact angles, whereas the receding angle is minimum possible static angle of heterogeneous surfaces [27, 28]. Equation (1) is mostly applicable for static contact angles related to three interfacial surface tensions in smooth surface. But, as discussed in the literature [3, 27–30], there is the existence of surface heterogeneity which led to the formation of different contact angles. Surface roughness and surface chemistry are important parameters that affect the contact angle of the water droplet on the solid substrate. For describing these parameters, two models have elaborated and modified (i) Wenzel model and (ii) Cassie–Baxter model. Wenzel gave the model which depicts the static contact angle on a rough surface. As per this model, the contact angle of rough surface different from smooth surface and the surface roughness of the substrate had a greater influence on the static contact angle [1]. Wenzel modified Eq. (1) by introducing the roughness factor (r) and given as in Eq. (3).

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Fig. 4 Measurement of contact angle on a textured substrate. Effect of roughness on contact angle (Wenzel law) for a hydrophilic substrate and hydrophobic substrate. By creating roughness of smooth hydrophilic surface become more hydrophilic substrates and creating roughness on smooth hydrophobic substrates become more hydrophobic substrates

( cos θw = r

σsv − σsl σlv

) = r cos θ,

(3)

where θ is a contact angle on smooth surface, θ w is the contact angle on rough surface, and it is known as Wenzel contact angle, and r is the roughness parameter which valued is greater than unity. Hence, creating roughness on hydrophobic surface enhances surface hydrophobicity. However, Hydrophilic surface tends to super-hydrophilic by creating roughness on it [17], as shown in Fig. 4. Cassie–Baxter Model: As the surface is planner and chemically heterogeneous surface, relationship between the contact angles formed on the surface and the contact angle formed on the heterogeneous is discovered by the Cassie equation: cos θc = f 1 cos(θ1 ) + f 2 cos(θ2 ),

(4)

where θ 1 and θ 2 are the contact angles for components 1 with fractional surface area f 1 and 2 with fractional surface area f 2 in the composite material, respectively. Cassie suggested a theory based on Eq. (4) that vapor of the liquid adsorbed on the solid surfaces when the contact angle was assumed to be 0° and where it could not adsorb when the contact angle assumed to be as close as 180° [28]. In the rough surface, the droplet penetrates the roughness which is called wetting droplet and its contact angle is measured by Wenzel equation, as shown in Fig. 5a. This state of droplet is called Wenzel state. Figure 5b–c is Cassie state in which droplet sit of the tip of pillars and three phase contact line is pinned at the tip of the pillars. However, the gap of pillars is either filled with liquid or vapor. If the gaps underneath the sitting droplets filled with liquid is known as partial wetting state of droplet, as shown in Fig. 5b. However, gaps filled with vapor are known as suspended droplet

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Fig. 5 a Wenzel state of a droplet on a rough surface. Wetting surface b Cassie state of a droplet on texturing the surface which is known as partial wetting state and partial wetting surface c Cassie state of a droplet on texturing the surface which is known as suspended state

state, as shown in Fig. 5c. Under Cassie state, two sets of interfaces are involved; one was the solid–liquid interface and the other was the composite interface which involved liquid–vapor and solid–vapor interfaces, so for the calculation of the contact angle, the Wenzel equation can be modified by combining the fractional surface area f 1 which represents solid surface and fractional surface area f 2 which represents vapor gaps such that Eq. (4) is modified to Eq. (5). cos θc = f 1 cos(θ1 ) − f 2 .

(5)

The wetting phenomenon is not just a static state, but it is a dynamic state in which the three interfacial surface tensions are in motion and the contact angle formed on the surface is termed a dynamic contact angle [30]. On textured super-hydrophobic substrates, the contact line of the droplet gets pinned at the pillars it is placed on. Miljkovic et al. [17, 31] used a dimensionless energy criterion which is shown in Eq. (6) to determine the contact line de-pinning. When E > 1, the contact line gets de-pinned and the droplet forms a completely wetting morphology, while when E < 1, the contact line gets pinned and partially wetting or suspended morphologies are formed. Here, E=

cos θc 1 = . cos θw r cos θa

(6)

Here, θ c and θ w are the Cassie–Baxter and Wenzel contact angles, respectively, r is the surface roughness, and θ a is the advancing contact angle.

3 Materials and Methods Plasma is an ionized gas and considered as the fourth state of matter constituting 99% of the universe [32]. Plasma consists of electrons, positive ions neutral gas atoms, and molecules that possess a large amount of energy. Plasma is created by applying a high voltage to the gas in the vacuum chamber at low pressure [33]. Generally, the

Plasma Techniques for the Fabrication of Hydrophobic Substrates Table 1 Temperature ranges of thermal and non-thermal plasmas

Thermal (hot) plasma (i) Low temperature

(ii) High temperature

Te ≈ Ti ≈ T < 2 × 104 K (plasma arc at atmospheric pressure)

Te ≈ Ti ≈ T > 107 K (fusion plasma)

837 Non-thermal (cold) plasma T i ≈ T ≈ 300 K T i > T i ), such type of plasma is known as cold plasma or non-thermal plasma. A thermal range for hot and cold plasmas is summarized in Table 1 [35]. Figure 6 shows the schematic diagram of plasma generating setup. The main component of this setup is power supply unit, vacuum chamber, vacuum pump, electrodes (anode and cathode), water cooling unit, vacuum gauges, gas, and valves. Firstly, vacuum is created in the vacuum chamber using pump. Under low-pressure environment, gas is supplied in control condition between the two electrodes (anode and cathode: which has voltage difference) for ionizing the gas. The ionization of the gas molecules leads to generation of plasma. The intensity of plasma is maintained by the flow gas and applied electrical potential between an anode and cathode. Plasma technology has been widely used for surface modification. By the plasma process, surface modifications are carried out via three means (i) changing material (plasma ion-implantation), (ii) addition of material (polymerization and grafting), and (iii) removal of materials (sputtering) [35]. Plasma ion implantation: In this method, high-energy ions (20–200 keV) are generated by plasma process, and they are directed to the substrate. These ions impinge into the substrate material up to the depth of several nanometers. The surface modification properties are entirely dependent on ion material, ion energy, plasma density, ion dosage, and biased voltage [35, 36].

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Fig. 6 Schematic representation of a typical plasma setup with the essential components required for the creation of plasma

Plasma polymerization: In this process, plasma is used to activate monomers present on the substrate. The plasma induces a free radical of monomers near the substrate, which is recombined to form a polymer. Plasma polymerization is widely used for thin polymer film (usually in nanometer) fabrication on metal substrates. Plasma-polymerized films are smooth, homogenous, and have good adhesion to the substrate [35, 37]. Plasma grafting: This method involves the addition of one or more monomers to the plasma-polymerized substrate. In this technique, plasma is used to cleave the existing bond of the polymer and further allow free radicals of the polymer to covalently bond with the monomer’s radical [35, 38]. Plasma sputtering: It is process in which material in form of micro/nano-order is ejected from the substrate when the substrate is itself bombardment by ions of plasma. It is used to perform etching of substrate and to deposit thin-film layers. Plasma etching is the process that selectively removes the substrate’s material with the help of plasma radicals. Figure 7a shows the schematic of plasma etching process. In this, target is the cathode and sample holder is the anode. Once the plasma is produced, the ions are accelerated toward the sample holder and strike the sample on the surface of it and sputter out atoms to produce nanopatterns/nanostructures. In literature [40–42], plasma etching is used in two ways for fabrication of hydrophobic surface. Fernandes et al. [38] have used it as pre-treatment of the surface for removing impurities before deposition of low surface energy materials [41]. However, Deepak et al. [21] used for imparting hierarchical roughness to smooth substrate. They found that it is an effective method for creating these hierarchical structures in a single step. Plasma deposition is a physical vapor deposition technique in which the target material is bombarded with energetic ions of plasma and the sputtered atoms from the target material get deposited onto the substrate surface as a coating. Usually, positive

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Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of DC plasma sputtering process a for etching and b deposition of film

ions from plasma interact with target materials, thus disintegrating the atoms from the target, and ejected atoms get deposited to the substrate material and form a thin film [39]. In this, a metallic target of interest is used as cathode and substrate acts as anode. Once the plasma discharge is produced, the positive ions from the plasma are accelerated toward the cathode and strike the target material and sputter out atoms. The sputtered-out atoms are deposited on the substrate kept on the sample holder below the target as shown in Fig. 7b. Plasma sputtering is a simple, eco-friendly, and time-saving process for fabricating good adhesive thin films [39, 40]. Plasma methods are also categorized depending on the input power source for the generation of plasma. These are Direct Current (DC) plasma (as shown in Fig. 7) and Radiofrequency (RF) plasma, as shown in Fig. 8. The basic difference between DC sputtering and RF sputtering is using of DC supply, and RF sputtering requires an RF supply of 13.56 MHz. In DC plasma setup, generally, Argon (Ar) ions are used for bombarding the target material, and these Ar atoms are injected into the vacuum chamber at a low pressure ranging from 1 to 10 mtorr and 0.5–5 kV. DC supply is used for ionizing the Argon atoms [41]. DC plasma is used for surface modification of metals and by making the surfaces hydrophobic and super-hydrophobic without using any chemical solvents that are harmful to our environment. Major limitation associated with DC plasma sputtering is that it is only used for coating conducting material and it also possesses low deposition rate [41]. Therefore, to overcome the problems associated with the DC plasma sputtering technique like a coating of insulating material, RF sputtering is used [42]. RF plasma sputtering technique is useful for the coating of insulating materials onto the substrate at low pressure (~10–3 torr) [43]. It consists of a power supply of 13.56 MHz with 1–3 kW power and cathode (as target) connected in series with matching network and blocking capacitor [44]. The blocking capacitor acts as a conductor for RF source, and it acts as an insulator when negative DC potential is applied [45]. When potential is applied across the electrode, in first half of potential cycle, target will act as cathode. When voltage is reversed during second voltage

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Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of RF plasma sputtering

cycle, target will act as anode. This results in accumulation of plasma ion between the two electrode systems and simultaneously amplifies the plasma intensity. Hence, RF plasma improves rate of deposition on substrate as compared to DC plasma sputtering [46]. Advancement of technology, Magnetron-based DC and RF plasma setup were used for deposition and etching substrate. Magnetron sputtering, high-intensity plasma is generated by ions. These ions are directed to bombard the target surface under the influence of Lorentz force in Eq. (7) which is exerted on the moving charged particle in a magnetic field. It utilizes magnetic and electric field to trap electron near the target surface, and continuous impingement of these ions results in sputtering. Usually, these ions are in circular motion due to Lorentz force as shown in Fig. 9. This technique has various advantages high depositing rates, high purity of films, the heat-sensitive substrate can be coated easily, and excellent uniformity can be obtained on the substrate having a large area [47]. F = eV × B =

mv 2 . r

(7)

Figure 9b shows the schematic diagram of RF magnetron-based sputtering. It has strong magnets attached near the target material surface which confine the path of the electrons resulting in a higher density of the plasma and a higher deposition rate at the substrate surface. This technique confines the plasma around the target material, thereby developing a uniform thin film coating onto the substrate without degrading the quality of films, and it overall improves the efficiency of the sputtering process and offers a vital number of additional advantages like depositing thin films of insulating materials, and arching is reduced due to the use of magnetic field [48]. RF magnetron sputtering technique is the flexible technique that allows controlling the properties of the target electrode by providing uniform coating. This technique allows to control of coating composition by varying the parameters like gas pressure,

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Fig. 9 a Force acting on moving ions in a magnetic field. b Schematic of RF magnetron sputtering

biasing of the substrate, and controlling the temperature during deposition, and it provides the flexibility of processing the plasma technique for complex structures [49].

4 Literature on Plasma Process for Altering Morphology of Substrate In this section, literature related to application of plasma for altering the morphology of the surface was reported in the following manner. Fernandes et al. [37] used RF plasma setup for coating hexamethyldisiloxane to enhance the anti-corrosion properties of Al alloy. Firstly, they pre-treated the Al substrate in Ar/H2 plasma process for 5–15 min. Later, they deposited 200 nm HMDSO in Al substrate under mixture of gases (O2 , N2 or H2 ) at RF power of 11 W. Their finding did not report the static contact angle and contact angle hysteresis. Ko et al. [50] used O2 plasma for etching of polyethylene terephthalate. After etching, substrate was functionalized by hexamethyldisiloxane using plasma polymerization for 60 min. They reported a contact angle of 164 ° ± 2.2°. Sahoo et al. [51] deposited polycarbosilane on stainless steel using thermal plasma evaporation method. Deposition of polycarbosilane was carried out in Ar atmosphere, and processing time for deposition was kept short time interval (1 min, 2 min, and 3 min). The thickness and contact angle of the film were found to be 3 ± 0.2 µm, 5 ± 0.2 µm, and 7 ± 0.2 µm with contact angle of 129.8°, 150.8°, and 146.3° for, respectively, deposited film.

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Nokes et al. [52] treated polyolefin with plasma to study the effect of wrinkling. They clamped polyolefin film with glass substrate and kept it into plasma chamber. Treatment of this film with plasma results multi-scale hierarchical wrinkling. They found that contact angle increases with increased Ar exposure (154° ± 6° for 30 min, 158° ± 4° for 40 min, and 158° ± 3° for 60 min). However, the contact angles’ hysteresis is less than 10° for all cases. Kefallinou et al. [53] treated poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) with plasma to enhance surface roughness and sputtered coated with Cu and Ag for antibacterial properties. Further modified PMMA is functionalized with (i) chlorosilane and (ii) fluorocarbon for creating super-hydrophobic surface. The surface obtained had contact angle of 158° ± 2° and CAH less than 5°. The main objective of their work was to fabricate anti-adhesive and anti-bacterial properties to the PMMA. Demina et al. [54] used different power sources (AC and DC) for generation of plasma and performed both AC and DC plasma treatments of Polyethylene terephthalate (PET). They observed that contact angle drop from 80° (non-treated PET) to 17° for AC plasma treatment, and for DC plasma treatment, contact angle drops to 10–12° or it leads to full wetting of substrate. Chauhan et al. [55] deposited zirconium oxide layer on silicon substrate by using RF magnetron sputtering. They also observed that surface roughness increases with increasing deposition temperature. The author varied the deposition temperature from 100 to 400 °C. The maximum contact angle obtained was 98.5° at 400 °C. Minarik et al. [56] reported the contact angle of 146° ± 2° and 139° ± 1° by varying the plasma power from 300 to 250 W, respectively, on polystyrene (PS) petri dishes as substrate. Firstly, the substrate was spin coated with mixtures of chemicals (tetrahydrofuran and 2-ethoxyethanol) at 2000 rpm. Further, used CF4 plasma for micro-nano structure generation on polystyrene substrate. Ryu et al. [57] deposited the coating of fluorine-doped diamond-like carbon (FDLC) by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) technique using magnetron sputtering. Before coating, microblasting technique was used to fabricate microtextures on the surface of a substrate in a blasting system by spraying stainless-steel powder (22–63 µm diameter) through the nozzle which produces etching. Further substrate was treated with gaseous media C2 H2 and a mixed gas of C2 H2 and CF4 injected into two linear ion sources in the ratio 1:3. They reported the rapid increase of the contact angle from 66° to 142° and improved the dropwise condensation by 205% on the aluminum (Al6061) substrate. Subeshan et al. [58] treated the aluminum 2024-T3 alloy with O2 plasma treatment by varying radiofrequency levels from low to high. They reported the water contact angle of 168.54° and 167.34° and sliding angle as 5° by working with 8 min of high-intensity RF and 8 min medium-intensity of RF plasma. Liu et al. [59] deposited boron nitride nano-sheets (BNNS) on silicon substrate via chemical vapor deposition at 1000 °C under NH3 flow. Further, they fluorinated the pre-treat BNNS using RF discharge under argon gas admixed with SF6 and C2 H2 F4 and noticed significant enhancement of contact angle upon fluorination. The observed contact angle for pre-treated BNNS, Ar/C2 H2 F4 and Ar/SF6 is 118.2°, 137°, and 169.7°, respectively. The increase in contact angle is attributed to surface roughness,

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and it means that fluorination of BNNS leads to change in surface morphology and surface roughness. Orazbayev et al. [61] prepared the super-hydrophobic surfaces by in situ synthesis of carbon nanomaterials using PECVD methods through RF plasma discharge (Ar/CH4 and Ar/C2 H2 ) at low pressure and plasma jet (Ar/C2 H2 ) at atmospheric pressure on the glass and silicon. The contact angle obtained by Ar/CH4 plasma environment is 160° and reduced to 135° after the period of 18 months, whereas contact angle changed drastically in case of Ar/C2 H2 from 135° to 120°. Deepak et al. [21] etched the copper surface using the DC magnetron plasma setup. They generated Ar plasma at various voltages for creating roughness. They found that time duration of plasma etching and power of plasma are important parameters for creating the control order roughness which is suitable for hydrophobicity. Based on the literature available on plasma process, it was concluded that the DC and RF Plasma techniques are widely used for altering the morphology of metallic and non-metallic surfaces for enhancing their hydrophobicity. Still, more research is required for making these techniques effective and efficient in surface enginnering.

5 Summary and Conclusion Hydrophobic surfaces have numerous applications due to their surface ability to repel liquid droplets and act as a self-cleaning surface which makes them more durable and feasible for industrial use. The hydrophobic metallic surfaces being used as corrosionresistant, anti-reflective, and self-cleaning coatings can have a lot of impact in the future which motivates the researchers to build hydrophobic metallic substrates. Various plasma techniques were analyzed for developing hydrophobic substrate that are environment friendly, easy, and fast methods to engineer the hydrophobic surface. Fabricating hydrophobic structures with the use of plasma is advantageous as this technique is eco-friendly and these structures are synthesized in inert environment. These latest innovations in the technology in the field of surface coating by plasma bring a new revolution in developing hydrophobic metallic coating in the future. In nature, the metallic substrates are hydrophilic except for noble metals. The condensing process was widely used many engineering systems, and metallic substrates were preferred as condensing surface in these systems. Hence, plasma application for altering its surface morphology for creating surface hydrophobicity is addressed explicitly in this work. Acknowledgements Basant S Sikarwar acknowledges the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), Government of India (Project number CRG/2021/005669) for providing funds for carrying out this work.

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Simulation of Melting Process for Solar Energy Storage in form of Latent Heat of Material Amritanshu Verma, Rajeev Kumar Singh, R. K. Tyagi, and Basant Singh Sikarwar

Abstract In this work, modeling and simulation of the melting process of phase change material using the Finite Volume Method (FVM) were carried out for storing solar energy in form of latent heat in phase change material. The mathematical model is a fixed-grid formulation in which the energy equation coupled with Navier– Stokes equations was solved for the domain of the solid, liquid, and liquid–solid region (mushy zone). However, enthalpy formulation was implemented in the energy equation. The evolution of the liquid–solid interface was determined by the Gulliver– Scheil relation. The mushy zone was modeled as porous media. The simulation results were validated with the experimental data available in the literature. Postvalidation, simulation is carried out for various conditions. These results show that conduction is the dominant mode of energy transfer at commencement melting. However, convection is the dominant mode of heat transfer after partial melting. The developed model is useful for predicting the performance of energy storage in the form of latent heat of phase change material. Keywords Heat transfer · Modeling and simulation · Phase change material · Latent heat storage

1 Introduction Solar energy is the most abundant and ideally interminable form of energy; being a renewable, clean, and non-exhaustible energy source, it has enormous potential for domestic and industrial applications such as heating, cooling, and power generation [1]. However, its time-dependent availability inhibits it from becoming a prominent source of energy. Hence, energy storage is required to establish solar energy sources as time independent. Among the various methods of energy storage [2–4], latent heat storage is an isothermal process and has a large capacity-to-volume ratio of energy storage [5, 6]. In this method, phase change materials (PCMs) are used as A. Verma · R. K. Singh · R. K. Tyagi · B. S. Sikarwar (B) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201313, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1894-2_70

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storage mediums where they store heat during the melting of phase change material and release heat during the solidification of phase change material. In literature [7], many organic, inorganic, and eutectic PCMs were used for fabricating an efficient and effective latent heat thermal storage system. Paraffin wax is by-product of petroleum industries and is available easily at low cost [8]. It has been used as energy storage because it has favorable thermophysical properties. It is a long-chain hydrocarbon in which melting temperature depends upon number of carbon atoms present in it. However, its low thermal conductivity diminishes rate of energy storage and release from it [9, 10]. In literature, there are many methods and materials available for enhancing the thermal conductivity of paraffin wax. In literature, many experimental and theoretical studies [11–14] were reported on melting of paraffin wax. It is a complex process and it depends on the serval parameters thermos-physical properties of liquid and solid phase of paraffin wax. The shape and size of heat exchange in which this wax is used. Traditionally, experimental studies have not been suitable for conducting parametric studies because of time consuming, measurement difficulty, and costly [15]. With the advent of the digital computer, a computer-based predication is required in designing effective and efficient systems. Table 1 shows the numerical studies of melting and solidification of phase change material available in the literature. Most of numerical studies [16] on melting and solidification process were simulated by commercial software like Ansys® and COMSOL® . In addition, actual challenges in the mathematical and numerical description of a melting process are robust, accurate, and efficient numerical methods for solving governing equations for appropriate initial and boundary conditions. Huang et al. [23] performed numerical investigation for validation of 3D and 2D simulation; though it has shown that 2D transient simulation is able to verify 3D simulation, but the convection and diffusion mode of heat transfer was not been carried out in 2D simulation and could not be validated with 3D. Three-dimensional simulation shows that convection and diffusion mode of heat transfer has equal importance in all directions in insulated chamber. Hence, 2D simulation studies have lot deviation from the realistic system. Against this background, modeling and simulations are carried out for melting of pure paraffin wax and altered paraffin waxes. Finite Volume-based high accuracy CFD code is developed for this work. The mathematical model is fixed-grid formulation in which energy equation coupled with Navier–Stokes equations is solved for domain of the solid, liquid, and liquid–solid region (mushy zone). However, enthalpy method is applied to the energy equation. The evolution of the liquid–solid interface is determined by Gulliver–Scheil relation. Mushy zone is being formed as a porous media. Simulation results of paraffin wax melting were validated with the experimental data available in the literature. Postvalidation, temporal evolution of the solid–liquid interface, liquid fraction, Nusselt number, and accumulated energy is reported for energy storing in form of latent heat through various grade paraffin waxes. The numerical results show that the response time heat exchanging from paraffin wax to system increases linearly. Both inserting

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Table 1 Numerical investigations done by various people in field of paraffin wax/inorganic compound References Method Planar used analysis

Model used

Software used

Remarks

[17]

Finite 2D element method

Heaviside-step function

Code was developed

Simulation of discharging–charging characteristics of Hydrogen Reactor conjunction with phase change material

[18]

Finite 2D element method

Darcy–Forchheimer – law for local thermal equilibrium and enthalpy porosity method for PCM

[19]

Finite 2D Axis Boussinesq’s volume symmetric approximation method

–

[20]

Finite 3D volume method

ANSYS The melting time of FLUENT® 18.0 pure paraffin without the aluminum matrix is 1216 s. The melting times for composite PCMs with 5 ppi and 10 ppi aluminum foam are greatly shortened to 6.6–24.1% and 3.7–19.7% of that of pure paraffin, respectively

Enthalpy porosity method

Increase in porosity increases melting time as conduction subdue, metal foam increases the heat transfer melting. The differences between the pure PCM case and PCM in metal foam with lower porosity show that the melting time is about 4600 s and about 20 s, respectively, with a difference of a 2 × for the lowest volume of thermal storage here considered and about 30,000 s and 220 s, for the greatest volume under consideration Numerical and experiment data are validated to have an error of 5% for 11.5 h of flow time

(continued)

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Table 1 (continued) References Method Planar used analysis

Model used

Software used

Remarks

[21]

Finite 3D volume method

Enthalpy porosity method

Ansys Fluent

Different eccentricity and diameters of the inner tube influenced the annulus tube interior temperature distribution, which in turn determined the strength and distribution of the resulting natural convection, resulting in varying melting rates

[22]

Finite 3D element method

Boussinesq’s approximation

COMSOL Multiphysics 4.3a

At low inlet velocity of heat transfer fluid (HTF), pure conduction model underestimates the rate of heat transfer between PCM and HTF than combined conduction–convection model. Natural convection plays a dominant role during phase change phenomenon at low velocity of heat transfer fluid in cascade Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage System

inclined fins and nano-fillers altered paraffin wax system are 60% more effective than convention system.

2 Problem Formulation and its Simulation Figure 1a shows the computational domain and Fig. 1b shows the meshing of the computational domain, which formed as uniform structured mesh. The domain is a 30 mm × 40 mm × 70 mm rectangular cavity of paraffin. Left wall of this cavity has constant temperature. However, other walls of this cavity are insulated. The setting parameters for meshing this domain are given in Tables 2 and 3. Most of mesh element aspect ratio is close to 1 and element. However, the number of elements is ~ 9.8 lakhs. The domain having a volume and given the properties of paraffin wax

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Fig. 1 (a) Computational domain with appropriate boundary conditions for melting of paraffin wax. All walls are insulated except left side wall which has constant temperature on left wall (333 K). This cavity of paraffin wax has dimension 30 mm × 40 mm × 70 mm. (b) Generating structured mesh on surfaces of the computational domain. The initial temperature 300 K is considered in all cases of simulations

Table 2 Distribution of elements in structured mesh

Table 3 Aspect ratio versus number of elements of the mesh

Total elements

Total nodes

HEXA

QUAD

989,475

960,000

929,909

59,566

Aspect ratio

~1

~ 1.02

Number of elements

953,451

34,992

to emulate the melting of the paraffin wax has solved based on enthalpy porosity method. Table 4 is given the thermos-physical properties of paraffin wax used in these simulation studies. The material properties for paraffin wax used in the simulation, as given in Table 4 were taken from the literature [24]. However, the altered paraffin wax is using nano-filler for enhancing the thermal conductivity of it. Therefore, the altered paraffin waxes’ (PCM#1 and PCM#2) thermal conductivity taken in this simulation is different from the pure wax, as given in Table 4. However, other thermosphysical properties of them are same as pure paraffin wax. The governing equations of melting/solidification for paraffin wax are the Navier–Stokes coupled with energy equation in liquid region. ∇.→ u = 0, ρ0

) ( ∂ u→ + ρ0 (→ u .∇)→ u = −∇ p + ∇.μ ∇ u→ + (∇ u→)T + Δρg, ∂t Δρ = ρ0 β p (T − Tm ).

(1) (2) (3)

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Table 4 Material properties of paraffin wax Property

Units

Value

Density (ρ)

kg/m3

750/{0.001(T − 319.15) + 1}

Specific heat (C p )

J/kg K

3100

Thermal conductivity of pure PCM (k)

T < 308

0 0.21 (W/m–K)

308 < T < 312

0.165 (W/m–K)

T > 312

0 0.168 (W/m–K)

T < 308

0 0.3 (W/m–K)

308 < T < 312

0 0.185 (W/m–K)

T > 312

0.168 (W/m–K)

T < 308

0 0.429 (W/m–K)

308 < T < 312

0.207 (W/m–K)

Thermal conductivity of altered PCM#1

Thermal conductivity of altered PCM#2

T > 312

0.185 (W/m–K)

Viscosity (μ)

N-s/m2

0.001 × exp[−4.25 + {1790/T }]

Latent heat (L)

J/kg

166,000

Solidus temperature (T solids )

K

308

Liquidus temperature (T liquids )

K

312

As the PCM melts, the solid–liquid interface moves toward the solid side. The energy balance at this front is expressed by ) ( ˆ ρ0 ΔH u→.nˆ = ql,, − qs,, .n.

(4)

This model utilizes the Enthalpy porosity formulation to solve fluid flow involving solidification and/or melting. This formulation does not explicitly track the melting interface. Instead, the liquid–solid mushy zone is treated as a pseudo-porous zone where the porosity is equal to the liquid fraction ‘β’ (0 < β < 1). The liquid fraction is computed at each iteration based on the enthalpy balance. The enthalpy of the material is computed as the sum of the sensible enthalpy, h, and the latent heat ΔH . H = h + ΔH,

(5)

∫T where h = h ref + Tref c p dT . The liquid fraction β can be defined as β=0 if T < Tsolidus (the material is completely solid), β=1 if T > Tliquidus (the material is completely liquid), T −Tsolidus β = Tliquidus −Tsolidus if Tsolidus < T < Tliquidus (mushy zone). The latent heat content can be written as: ΔH = β L, where L = latent heat of a material. Hence, the energy equation for solidification/melting problems can be

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written as: ∂ (ρ H ) + ∇ · (ρ u→ H ) = ∇ · (k∇T ) + S. ∂t

(6)

As the material solidifies, the porosity reduces and becomes zero when the material is fully solidified. This reduced porosity in the mushy zone requires appropriate momentum sink terms which can be formulated as: (1 − β)2 ) Amush (→ S=( 3 v ), β +ε

(7)

where ε is a small number to prevent division by zero, and Amush is the mushy zone constant which measures the amplitude of damping. Higher the value of this constant, steeper the transition of velocity to zero as it solidifies. A very large value may cause the solution to oscillate. The appropriate initial and boundary conditions for solving the equations are as: Initial condition temperature wax is equal to room temperature. Boundary conditions: Temperature is specified at left side of the wall of rectangular cavity of wax, and rest of the wall of the cavity are insulated. ∂ T (x = L , t) = 0. ∂n

(8)

Grid-independence and validation of simulation results: Numerical simulation of paraffin wax using structured mesh for various number of elements is carried out for obtaining grid-independent solution. Figure 2 shows the temperature at four locations of completing melting wax. For grid-independence test, mesh elements consist of 4 lakhs, 6 lakhs, 9 lakhs, and 11 lakhs. It was found that 9 lakhs elements result overlapping the 11 lakhs element results. Hence, the simulation at more 9 lakhs element is grid-independence solution, and we considered grid 9.8 lakhs elements in this study. Authors used the experimental data for validation of present simulation data in their previous studies [8]. In their experimental study, the temperatures were measured at four location with respect to time as given in table and T types Thermocouples (T 1 , T 2 , T 3 , and T 4 ) were used for measuring the transient temperature of the paraffin wax. Simulations were performed in the same condition for validation of present simulation results. Figure 3 shows temperature variation with respect to time at two positions (T 1 and T 2 ) in wax which recorded in experimental and simulation studies of melting process. It shows that the simulation data are in close agreement with experimental data.

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Fig. 2 Numerical simulations of melting of paraffin wax are carried out for various number of finite volume non-overlapping cells in computational domain for knowing the grid effect on the numerical solution. The temperature was recorded at four positions of wax from the commencement of melting to completing melting. The details of the thermocouples postions in wax is shown in Table 5. The temperature recorded at four locations for cell number 9 lakhs and 11 lakhs overlapping to each other. Hence, there is no grid effect after 9 lakhs mesh and results become independent of the number of elements after it

Table 5 Position of the point cavity of paraffin wax for recording the temperature in these simulation studies Name of position

x (mm)

y (mm)

z (mm)

T1

15

8

10

T2

15

16

25

T3

1

24

50

T4

15

48

60

3 Results and Discussion Post-validation, the melting simulation is carried out for different thermal conductivities of paraffin wax (pure and PCM#1 and PCM#2). The deatils of their thermophysical properties of these PCMs are given in Table 4. Figure 4 shows the contours of spatiotemporal position of liquid–solid fraction and temperature of pure and altered paraffin waxs in x–y plane (z = 35 mm). Figure 4 (i, a) shows contour of spatiotemporal position of liquid–solid fraction of thermal conductivity of liquid Pure paraffin wax, Fig. 4 (i, b) shows contour of spatiotemporal position of liquid– solid fraction of thermal conductivity of liquid for PCM#1, and Fig. 4 (i, c) shows contour of spatiotemporal position of liquid–solid fraction of thermal conductivity

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Fig. 3 Validation of present simulation results with the experiment data available in the literature [8]. In this simulation, the temperature recorded is same points as thermocouples placed in the experiment

of liquid for PCM#2. Figure 4 (i) shows that melting front (solid–liquid interface) moving faster for PCM#2 as compared to other PCMs. It was concluded that rate of melting process strongly depends of the thermal conducity of PCMs. Figure 4 (ii) shows the temperature contour at various times of melting of these PCMs (pure paraffin wax, PCM#1 and PCM#2). While observing these contours, it was concluded that heat transfer is taking place conduction and convection by both modes during the melting. Initially stage of melting, only conduction is dominant mode of heat transfer and convection is dominant when 1/3 melting occurs in the cavity. Hence, initially the velocity of solid–liquid interface is less as compared to later stage of melting. It was observed that solid–liquid interface of large thermal conductivity moves faster than low thermal conductivity. However, the temperature contour shows the linear variation of liquid and solid phase. However, the slope of temperature of solid domain is less than the liquid domain. Figure 5 shows the temporal–spatial contour of solid–liquid fraction and temperature contour for melting of various PCMs (Pure PCM, PCM#1 and PCM#2) in z–y (x = 15mm) plane. Figure 5 (i) shows the position of solid–liquid interface different time of pure paraffin wax and alerted paraffin wax. However, Fig. 5 (ii) shows the temperature contours of pure and alerted paraffin wax. The top of the plane, melting process is faster than the bottom because of convection current occurs from bottom to top. The temperature of the top side of plane is larger than the bottom side, as shown in Fig. 5 (ii). Based on contours, Figs. 5 (i, a–c) it was concluded that the thermal conductivity enhances the heat transfer drastically during the melting process. Figure 6 shows the solid–liquid fraction and temperature contour of z–x plane at y = 20 mm. The trends of solid–liquid interface motion and temperature variation in liquid–solid zone of PCMs are similar to x–y plane. Figure 7a shows the vorticity created due to the movement of the melted paraffin wax inside the cavity in z–y palne, whereas Fig. 7(b) shows the circular nature of the wax in z–x plane. It was concluded that this type of vortex formation occurs because of natural convection in the z–y plane. Figure 7c shows the vortex created in the x–y

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Fig. 4 (i) Evolution of solid–liquid interface in x–y plane (z = 35 mm) during melting of pure and altered paraffin waxes. In Fig. 4 (i), the red color represents liquid region and blue color represents solid. Other color represents solid–liquid interface. (ii) Respected temperature contour of pure and altered paraffin wax. (a) Pure paraffin wax (k = 0.12 W/m–K), (b) alerted paraffin wax (PCM#1, k = 0.16 W/m–K), and (c) altered paraffin wax (PCM#2, k = 0.21 W/m–K). The other thermosphysical properties are the same for all cases and Initial temperature for these simulations is 300 K

Fig. 5 (i) Evolution of solid–liquid interface in z–y plane (x = 15 mm) during melting of pure and altered paraffin waxes. (a) Pure, k = 0.12 W/m–K, (b) PCM#1, k = 0.16 W/m–K, and (c) PCM#2, k = 0.21 W/m–K. However, Fig. 5 (ii, a,b,c) respective temperature contour of these PCMs in this plane

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Fig. 6 (i) Evolution of solid–liquid interface in z–x plane (y = 20 mm) during melting of pure and altered paraffin waxes (a) pure wax (k = 0.12 W/m–K), (b) PCM#1 (k = 0.16 W/m–K), and (c) PCM#2 (k = 0.21W/m–K) and (ii) respective temperature distribution contour

plane, as observed from the top. These streamlines show the heat transfer occurs due to significant presence of natural convection in all the planes.

4 Summary and Conclusions In this manuscript, modeling and simulation of PCM meting process are carried out for pure and altered paraffin waxes. FVM-based CFD solver is developed and code is written in C++. Simulation results were validated with experimental data. Postvalidation, simulations were carried out for various thermal conductivities of PCM. However, other thermos-physical properties of all PCM were taken same. Solid– liquid fraction, temperature, velocity contours were plotted at different positions of various planes for understanding mechanism of heat transfer during melting. The following are finding of this study: (a) FVM-based CFD solver for melting of PCM is developed and its simulation of results is quite satisfactory with experimental data. (b) The top of cavity the heat transfer by convention. However, conduction is mode heat transfer is observed at bottom and other directions of cavity. (c) The velocity of solid–liquid interface increases with increasing the thermal conductivity of paraffin wax.

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Fig. 7 Stream traces for pure paraffin wax having thermal conductivity (k) = 0.12 W/m–K at various planes for (a) x = 15 mm, (b) y = 20 mm, (c) z = 35 mm

(d) Convection is dominant in melting of paraffin wax. Therefore, the solid–liquid interface velocity is different from bottom to top of the cavity. The top plane of cavity is melting faster than the bottom plane. (e) A steep nature of moving thermal front was observed in pure paraffin wax with thermal conductivity 0.21 W/m–K that left a considerable amount of wax in solid state. This was due to the incapability of wax to conduct heat from liquid phase to solid phase, which caused superheating of the liquid paraffin. However, with an increase in thermal conductivity, the heat flux from the boundary was effectively conducted through both liquid and solid phases of the wax. This not only diminished superheating of liquid wax but also caused the thermal front to move uniformly along both top and bottom portions of the chamber. This allows the wax to melt completely and utilizing the entire heat storage capacity of the paraffin. Altering parrafin wax showed a decrease in time required to reach melting temperature of paraffin. Therefore, in order to make an effective heat storage device using PCM, it is essential to tailor the thermal properties of material so that the potential of energy storage device is fully utilized. This study provides a framework for designing the effective heat exchanger storing the solar energy in form of latent heat of wax.

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Acknowledgements The Basant Singh Sikarwar acknowledges the financial support from Department of Science and Technology (DST), Govt. of India, for project No. ECR/2016/000020. The equipment from this project has been utilized for conducting experimental as well as simulation studies for current research work.

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