READING INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGE: THE EVALUATION OF A SELF-ADMINISTERING PROGRAM

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S p o n so rin g Committee: P r o f e s s o r E r n e s t li. 'Pood P r o f e s s o r Alonzo P . D yers P r o f e s s o r R obert Hoppock

READING INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGE: TEE EVALUAT I ON OF A SELF-AIl^II-.flSTERILvG PROGRAM

RUDOLPH GORYINI

S u b m itted in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e re q u ire m e n ts f o r th e deg ree o f D octor of P h ilo so p h y i n th e School o f E d u c a tio n of New York U n iv e r s ity

j8 t Jfoncts College BR OO KL YN 2, N E W Y O R K

O ctober 1 6 , 1 9 5 0

T o:

Prom:

G ra d u ate Committee S ch o o l o f E d u c a tio n New Y o rk ~ T Jniversity New York 3 , N. Y. Rudolph C o rv in i

I h e re b y guarantee th a t no p a r t of the d is s e r ta tio n w hich I have su b m itte d for p u blication has been heretofore p u b lis h e d a n d /o r copyrighted in the U nited Spates of America, e x c e p t i n th e c a s e o f passages quoted from o th e r published s o u rc e s ; t h a t 1 am th e sole author and p r o p r ie to r of sa id d i s s e r t a t i o n ; t h a t th e d iss e rta tio n c o n ta in s no m atter which i f p u b lis h e d , w i l l be lib elo u s or otherw ise In ju rio u s, or i n f r i n g e i n any way th e copyright of any o th e r party; and t h a t I w i l l d e fe n d , indem nify and hold harm less New York U n iv e rsity a g a in s t a l l s u i t s and proceedings which may be brought and a g a in s t a l l c la im s which may be made a g a in s t New York U n iv e rs ity by re a s o n o f th e p u b lic a tio n of said d i s s e r t a t io n or document*

Rudolph C o rv in i 193 C lin to n Avenue Brooklyn 5 , N* Y.

PREFACES

The w r i t e r ’ s i n t e r e s t in th e im provem ent o f re a d in g a t th e c o lle g e l e v e l began alm o st s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith t h e commencement o f h i s t e s t i n g and c o u n se lin g a c t i v i t i e s a t S t . F r a n c is C o lleg e in S eptem ber, 1947.

W ith th e need a p p a re n t and no program to meet i t ,

he saw a t once an o p p o rtu n ity f o r th e s tu d e n t p e rs o n n e l s e r v ic e to ta k e th e i n i t i a t i v e and began p r e p a r in g h im s e lf p r o f e s s i o n a l l y . By th e S p rin g o f 1948 he was e n r o lle d in h is f i r s t co u rse in re a d in g under P r o f e s s o r E r n e s t R. Wood.

Through t h i s c o u rse he

became a c q u a in te d w ith th e Committee on D ia g n o s tic R eading T e sts an d ...its Chairm an, D r. F ra n c e s O ra lin d T rig g s who p ro v ed to be e x tre m e ly h e l p f u l l a t e r .

D uring th e Summer of 1948 c o n tin u e d

stu d y under D r. I l i l a B. Sm ith developed th e re a d in g i n t e r e s t fu rth e r.

B eg in n in g in S eptem ber, 1943, and th ro u g h o u t th e sch o o l

y e a r 1948-1949, th e w r i te r worked in fo rm a lly w ith a number o f s tu d e n ts , who in th e p ro c e s s o f c o u n s e lin g had e x p rs s e a a f e e l i n g o f inadequacy in r e a d in g and a d e s ir e f o r im provem ent.

During

t h i s y e a r t e n t a t i v e p la n s f o r a re a d in g program w ere made and th e id e a h i t upon to use th e s e lf - a d m i n is t e r in g m anual a s a s t a r t i n g p ro c e d u re .

In p r e p a r a tio n f o r th e work to be u n d e rta k e n in Septem­

b e r , 1949, th e summer o f t h a t y e a r was s p e n t doing f i e l d work in th e T each ers C o lle g e High S chool and C o lle g e R eading C en ter under

ii

th e su p e rv isio n of P ro fesso r R uth S tra n g .

During th e 1 9 4 9 -5 0

s c h o o l y ear a p a tte rn of e v a lu a tio n was devised and th e s e l f a d m in is te rin g technique t e s te d .

The reading improvement p ro g ram

a t S t . F rancis is novj ready t o move in to the next p h a s e o f i t s developm ent. For th e in s p ir a tio n ana a s s is ta n c e which u a a e p o s s i b l e th e com pletion of th is i n v e s t ig a tio n and the p ro g re s s d e s c r ib e d in th e S t. F rancis reading p ro g ram , the w rite r is in d e b te d t o a l l t h e p erso n s and o rg an izatio n s m entioned, to Dr. n a u r ic e F fa d le r, who o ffe re d advice concerning s t a t i s t i c a l p ro ced u res, and t h e members of h is Sponsoring C om m ittee:

P rofessors Ex-nest R. Y/ood,

Chairm an, Alonzo F. Dyers, and R o b e rt Hoppock,

He i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

g r a t e f u l to P ro fesso r Hood, n o t o n ly fo r the la rg e c o n t r i b u t i o n he h as made to the study but f o r th e s p i r i t of c o o p e ra tio n and u n d e rsta n d in g w ith which he gave h i s time and e f f o r t .

T1BLE 03* CONTENTS

C h ap ter I.

II.

Page

THE PROBLEM...................................................................................

1

S ta te m e n t o f th e P r o b le m ........................................

4

Subproblem s.........................................................................................

4-

Del i m i t a t i o n s ....................................................

5

D e f i n i ti o n s ...............................................................................

7

B asic A ssu m p tio n s..................................................................

8

Need, f o r th e S t u d y .............................................................

8

RELATED STUDIES:

DEVH0P1._1-.TAL ASPECTS......................

21

Tne R eading P ro b lem .............................................................

21

N atu re o f R ea d in g ........................................................................... R eading As a P hase of Language D evelopm ent. . . . B a sie P r o c e s s e s in R eading........................................ M otor v e rs u s M ental P ro c e s s e s in R eading. . . . . Four S te p s in R e a d in g ............................................ .... Word P e r c e p tio n ............................................ C om prehension.................................................................. S k i l l s in R e a d in g ......................................................... E f f e c ts o f R e a d i n g .............................................................. P ro m o tin g P e rs o n a l and S o c ia l Development . . . . B i b l i o t h e r a p y ................................................ ...........................

23 26 27 30 33 34 40 55 59 60 65

I n t e r e s t s in R eading ...................................................................

66

Teaching o f R ea d in g ............................................. .......................... Review of M ethods of Teaching R eading . . . . . . Teaching B eginning R ead in g ....................................... Course o f Development in R ead in g .......................... R eading I n s t r u c t i o n in High S chool and C o lle g e . .

75 75

iv

79 85 88

Chapter

P age Academic Achievement and R e a d in g ...................................... 92 Study H a b its and Reading.......................................... 92 Content S u b je c ts and Reading............................ 96 Achievement in School and R e a d i n g ............................ 102 P re d ic tio n o f S cholastic S u ccess and R e a d in g . . 105 E ffe c t o f G-eneral Education on R e a d in g .......... 107

III.

RELATED STUDIES:

DIAGNOSTIC AND RELIEDIAL ASPECTS.

Causes o f R eading D i s a b i l i t y ................................................ R eadiness f o r R e a d in g ...................................................... C o n s titu tio n a l f a c to r s .............................................. I n te llig e n c e and Reading R e t a r d a t i o n ....................... P e r s o n a lity and th e Emotions and R e a d in g . . . . E nvironm ental F a c t o r s .............................................. E d u c a tio n a l and M ethodological F a c t o r s .......... Diagnosis o f Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s ...................................... Areas Im p o rta n t in Reading D ia g n o s is ............... A p praising Reading A b ility Inform al Techniques ........................................................ Oral R eading T e sts...................................................... A uditory Comprehension T e s ts .......................................... S ile n t R ead in g T ests. . . . . . . ............................. Eye Movements in Reading..........................................

.

113 113 115 118 123 133 143 146 148 152 155 • 156 157 160 162 187

191 Remediation in R e a d in g .......................................................... Rem ediation .As a Function of S tu d e n t P e rso n n e l S e rv ic e s ................................................... 193 Phases o f t h e Reading Improvement P rogram . . . 194 M o tiv atio n As a Factor in R e m e d ia tio n . . . . . 197 In stru m e n ta tio n in the Improvement o f R e a d in g . 200 Surveys o f Remedial Reading P ro g ram s i n C o lle g e 204 A nalysis o f F if ty Programs R e p o rte d i n t h e L i t e r a t u r e ................................................................... 211 Textbooks and Workbooks.......................................... .... . 216 Group v e rs u s In d iv id u al I n s t r u c t i o n ............... 218 E v aluation i n R eading.....................................................

221

Major C o n trib u tio n s of Research i n R ea d in g . . . .

233

v

C h ap ter 1 7.

V.

^

page PROCEDURE IN COLLECTING DATA

.............................................

236

S u b je c ts o f th e E x p e rim en t........................................................

236

I v la te ria ls Used in th e E x p e rim en t.................................... A .C .E. P s y c h o lo g ic a l E xam ination ........................... D ia g n o s tic R eading T e sts ................................................... Rosenzw eig P i c t u r e - F r u s t r a t i o n S tudy ........................ S e lf-A d m in is te rin g M a n u a ls ...............................................

242 243 245 255 263

O rg a n iz a tio n and P ro c e d u re Pollow ed w ith th e P e rs o n n e l and M a te r i a ls ........................................................

275

D esign o f th e E x p e rim en t............................................................

280

RESULTS......................................................................................................... S t a t i s t i c a l T echniques Used in th e T reatm en t o f D a ta ......................................................................................... B asic P a t t e r n of E v a l u a t i o n ................................................... Subproblsm h o . l* R e la tio n s h ip betw een Reading and S c h o la s tic A b i l i t y ....................................................... Subproblem No. 2 :. E f f e c tiv e n e s s of S e l f - ' A d m in iste rin g Technique o f R eading Improvement Subproblem No. 3: E f f e c t o f S e lf-A d m in is te rin g T echnique o f R eading Improvement on S c h o la s tic A b i l i t y ................................................................. Subproblem No. 4 : R e la tio n s h ip betw een S c h o la s ­ t i c A b i l i t y and R eading G ain s. . . . . . . . . Subproblem No. 5: E f f e c t o f V ario u s C om binations o f L in g u is tic and Q u a n tita tiv e A b i l i t i e s on R eading S k i l l s .......................................................................... Subproblem No. 6: P r e d ic ti o n o f R eading Gain from S c h o la s tic A b ili ty S c o re s ...................................... Subproblem No. 7: E f f e c t o f V ario u s C om binations o f A b i l i t i e s in Com prehension and R a te o f R eading on R eading S k i l l s ........................................ Subproblem No. 8 : E f f e c t o f S e lf-A d m in is te rin g P r a c t i c e E x e r c is e s in Word R e c o g n itio n on R eading S k i l l s .............................................................. Subproblem No. 9: R e la tio n s h ip betw een S c h o la s ­ t i c A b i l i t y and Word P e r c e p tio n ................................... Subproblem No. 10: Use o f th e Rosenzweig P ic tu r e F r u s t r a t i o n S tudy in P r e d ic ti n g R eading Gains

281

i

(

vi

283 288 293 296 315 326 327 364 368 400 409 410

Chapter VI.

P age SU1.3 liRV, C0NCLL-8IJ i:43, ..-aCO, 1J& im TIol.S, DISCUSSION. . .

414

Summary.........................................................................

C o n c lu sio n s...............................................................................................

415

Recorra.iendations.................................................................................

417

D i s c u s s i o n ..........................................................................................

419

BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................................................................................

423

APPENDIX.........................................................................................................................

464

i v ii

LIST OF TABLES T able

Page I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n o f P r e -T e s t S co res ......................................

294

M atched P a i r s Based on D .R.T. 3urvey-A T o ta l S c o re . .

299

E x p e rim e n ta l Group P r e - T e s t S c o r e s ..........................................

465

XV

C o n tro l Group P r e - T e s t S cores ....................................................

466

V

E x p e rim e n ta l Group P o s t- T e s t S co res ......................................

467

VI

C o n tro l Group P o s t- T e s t S c o re s ...................................................

468

E x p e rim e n ta l Group F in a l T e st S c o r e s ...............................

.

469

V III

C o n tro l Group F i n a l T e st S co res ...............................................

470

IX

E x p e rim e n ta l Group P -F Study S co res .....................................

471

F iv e P e r C ent and One P e r Cent V alu es o f t

472

I II III

V II

X

v iii

.....................

c h a pter

I

THE PROBLEM E stim ates of th e number o f s tu d e n t s p o s s e s s i n g r e a d i n g s k i l l s in ad eq u ate to do su ccessfu l academ ic w ork a t p a r t i c u l a r e d u c a t io n a l le v e ls ra n g e from te n to f i f t y - n i n e p e r c e n t i n t h e s u rv e y s w hich a r e re p o rte d i n the ensuing p a g e s .

One s tu d y o f c o l l e g e fresh m en fo u n d

f i f t y - t h r e e per cent of them below t h e norm f o r t h e i r g r a d e .

I n a d d i­

tio n t o t h i s group, th ere i s an ev en l a r g e r g ro u p o f s tu d e n t s who have the p o t e n t i a l i t y fo r d ev elo p in g more e f f e c t i v e r e a d i n g s k i l l s w h ic h would a id them g re a tly in t h e i r acad em ic a c h ie v e m e n t. W hile the s itu a tio n d e s c r ib e d h a s b e e n b u i l d i n g up o v e r t h e y e a rs, i t h as been aggravated by th e e x p a n s io n o f h ig jh er e d u c a tio n i n rec e n t y e a r s which has b ro u g h t w ith i t an i n c r e a s i n g l y h e te ro g e n e o u s c o lle g e p o p u la tio n .

As a r e s u l t e d u c a to r s h av e becom e more aw are o f

the n eed f o r providing s tu d e n ts w ith o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r th e c o n tin u e d growth o f t h e i r reading s k i l l s , and h av e b e g u n t o t a k e s te p s t o m eet th is n e e d .

Where th ere has b een c o n tin u e d e x p e r ie n c e i n c o p in g w ith

th is p ro b le m over a period o f tim e , i t h a s b e e n fo u n d t h a t an i n s t i t u ­ tio n -w id e program is needed.

T h is ty p e o f program in c lu d e s (1 ) f o r a l l

s tu d e n ts , guided reading in s u b j e c t - m a t t e r m a t e r i a l s u n d e r th e s u p e r ­ v isio n o f t h e classroom i n s t r u c t o r , a n d ( 2 ) f o r th o s e s tu d e n ts w hose read in g s k i l l s w ill not p erm it them t o do s u c c e s s f u l academ ic w o rk , a s p e c ia l program to develop o r r e i n f o r c e b a s i c r e a d in g s k i l l s to th e

p o in t where th e g u id ed re a d in g h e lp of th e classro o m i n s t r u c t o r w i l l be p r o f i t a b l e to them .

E i t h e r phase o f t h i s program may be s t a r t e d f i r s t

and a id i n sh a p in g th e o th e r . to be th e s t a r t i n g p o i n t .

I t i s more u su a l f o r th e s p e c ia l program

W ith c a re th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e d ev elo p ­

m e n ta l program may fo llo w th e s o e c i a l program , b u t t h i s r e o u ir e s th e u n d e rsta n d in g and c o o p e ra tio n o f b o th th o s e who a d m in is te r th e s p e c ia l program and th e classro o m i n s t r u c t o r s . W hile th e r e i s a g e n e r a l aw areness o f th e need f o r re a d in g improvement program s and a number o f i n s t i t u t i o n s have gone f a r in d e v e lo p in g them , o th e r i n s t i t u t i o n s have n o t found i t p o s s ib le to m eet th e re a d in g n eeds o f t h e i r s tu d e n ts .

In th e m a jo r ity o f th e sch o o ls

w here an e f f o r t h a s been made t o m eet th e n eed , i t h as been done th ro u g h th e s p e c i a l program o n ly .

As r e s e a r c h in re a d in g h as e s ta b lis h e d th e

f a c t t h a t no s i n g l e , g e n e ra l re a d in g s k i l l e x i s t s , t h a t re a d in g i s acco m p lish ed by a co m b in ation of s k i l l s ; th e need f o r th e b ro a d e r d ev elo p ­ m e n ta l program i s becoming a p p a re n t t o th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s .

They r e a l i z e

now t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n in re a d in g sh o u ld n o t cease a t th e end of th e s ix th g r a d e , o r a t th e end o f th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l, o r even a t th e end o f th e h ig h s c h o o l, b u t sh o u ld be p ro v id e d a t ev e ry l e v e l th ro u g h o u t th e fo rm al e d u c a tio n a l pro g ram .

In o th e r w ords, i n s t r u c t i o n in re a d in g i s a p a r t of

a l l good te a c h in g , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e v e r b a l a r e a s ; and s tu d e n ts sh o u ld be p re p a re d f o r each new re a d in g s i t u a t i o n w hich th e y a re to f a c e , and g u id ed as th ey p r o g r e s s th ro u g h i t , j u s t a s th e y sh o u ld be f o r any l e a r n ­ in g s i t u a t i o n . The im p lem en tatio n o f t h i s t o t a l program r e q u ir e s th e c o o p e ra tio n o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , th e f a c u l t y , and s p e c i a l i s t s in th e f i e l d o f r e a d ­ in g .

Some s tu d e n ts a r e so l i m i t e d t h a t th e y need in t e n s i v e , c l i n i c a l h e lp

3

w h ile others may c a r r y on w i th l e s s s u p e r v i s i o n .

I t i s p ro b a b le t h a t i n

a w ell-rounded re a d in g program a w ide ra n g e o f ty p e s o f methods and m a te ria ls would be h e l p f u l i n m e e tin g t h e n e e d s o f s tu d e n ts p re p a ra tio n and b ack g ro u n d .

w ith v a r y in g

Not a l l o f th e m ethods and m a te r ia ls a v a i l a b l e ,

however, have been e v a lu a te d to t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e i r v a lu e f o r s p e c i f i c purposes has been d e m o n s tr a te d .

Where th e s e m a t e r i a ls a lre a d y e x is t.,

care­

f u l evaluation of t h e o n es w hich a r e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e would seem t o be th e next ste p . Among th e ty p e s o f m a t e r i a l s a v a i l a b l e f o r use in c o lle g e r e a d ­ in g programs are s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r i n g m a n u a ls .

I f th e v a l i d i t y o f th e

se lf-a d m in iste rin g te c h n iq u e f o r r e a d in g im provem ent c a n be e s t a b l i s h e d , th e s e p u b licatio n s s h o u ld be e s p e c i a l l y h e l p f u l to sm all i n s t i t u t i o n s which need to develop r e a d in g program s b u t w h ich do n o t have t e c h n i c a l l y tr a in e d personnel to do th e j o b .

A c c o rd in g to T r a x le r , t h e r e f o r e ,

. . . I t would be w o rth w h ile f o r some s c h o o l to c a r r y on an experiment t o m easu re th e im provem ent r e s u l t i n g from t h i s procedure. W hile i t i s known i n a g e n e r a l way t h a t t h i s plan has r e s u l t e d i n l a r g e g a in s i n in d iv id u a l c a s e s , a p p a r­ en tly no c a r e f u l o b j e c t i v e s tu d y o f im provem ent has been re p o rte d .1 As y e t, how ever, te c h n iq u e s f o r e v a l u a t i n g r e a d in g program s have n o t been w ell enough d e f in e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r g e n e r a l use w ith more confidence.

Hence a t t h i s s ta g e i n t h e d ev elo p m en t o f r e s e a r c h i n r e a d in g ,

i t can be said th a t th e s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r i n g te c h n iq u e h a s n o t been t e s t e d and a survey of the l i t e r a t u r e on r e a d in g shows no g e n e ra l ag reem en t as t o what c o n s titu te s an a d e q u a te p a t t e r n o f e v a l u a t i o n .

1.

Arther E. T ra x le r , " A p p r a is a l o f T e c h n iq u e s o f H elping P oor and Disabled R eaders i n H igh S c h o o ls and J u n io r C o lle g e s ," i n The A ppraisal o f C u r r e n t P r a c t i c e s i n R e a d in g , S upplem entary Educational M onographs, No. 61, p . 1 4 7 .

4

S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n was d e s ig n e d , t h e r e f o r e , to e v a lu a te th o ro u g h ly a s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r i n g te c h n iq u e o f re a d in g improvement u s in g p u b lis h e d s e lf a d m in is te r in g e x e r c is e s a p p r o p r i a te ly a c c o rd in g to d ia g n o s is o f d i s a b i l i t i e s , i n o r d e r t h a t sm all c o lle g e s w ith o u t re m e d ia l re a d in g s p e c i a l i s t s may be p ro v id e d w ith e x p e rim e n ta l ev id e n c e on w hich to b ase f e a s i b l e c o r r e c tiv e r e a d in g p ro g ram s. Subproblem s S in c e , as has b een p o in te d o u t, no commonly a c c e p te d p a t t e r n e x is ts i n th e l i t e r a t u r e f o r e v a lu a tin g re a d in g im provement p ro g ram s, one o f th e f i r s t ta s k s i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n ivas to s e t up th e p a t t e r n o f e v a lu a tio n w hich was t o be a p p lie d l a t e r to th e d a ta r e s u l t i n g from th e experim ent u s in g th e s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r i n g te c h n iq u e f o r d o in g r e a d in g im provem ent.

Im­

p o r ta n t e lem en ts w hich had t o be in c lu d e d in t h i s p a t t e r n a re th e r e l a t i o n ­ s h ip s betw een ( l ) th e b a s ic f a c t o r s — re a d in g s k i l l s , s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y , and b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s ; (2 ) changes i n th e s e f a c t o r s r e s u l t i n g from e x p e r i­ m en tal w ork; and (3) th e in f lu e n c e o f th e f a c t o r s i n th e changes w hich take p la c e .

To s o lv e th e m ain problem o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i t was n e c e s s a ry to

s e e k th e answ ers to th e f o llo w in g q u e s tio n s o r subproblem s* 1.

What i s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een g e n e ra l s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y

and r e a d in g s k i l l s a s m easured by th e in s tru m e n ts used i n t h i s i n v e s t ig a ­ tio n ? 2.

Does e x p o su re t o th e s e lf - a d m i n i s t e r in g te c h n iq u e o f re a d ­

in g im provem ent r e s u l t i n s i g n i f i c a n t changes in re a d in g s k i l l s ? 3.

Does ex p o su re to th e s e lf - a d m i n is t e r i n g te c h n iq u e o f re a d in g

im provem ent r e s u l t i n s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n s c h o la s t i c a b i l i t y ?

5

4.

What i s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een g e n e ra l s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y

and d em o n strated ch an g es i n r e a d in g s k i l l s ? 5.

Do v a r y in g c o m b in a tio n s o f L in g u is tic and Q u a n tita tiv e

a b i l i t i e s r e s u l t i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t changes in r e a d in g s k i l l s a f te r ex p o su re t o th e s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r i n g te c h n iq u e o f r e a d in g im provem ent? 6.

Can s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y s c o re s be used to p r e d i c t changes in

reading s k i l l s r e s u l t i n g fro m ex p o su re to th e s e l f - a d m i n is t e r in g te c h n iq u e of re ad in g im provem ent? 7.

Do v a r y in g c o m b in a tio n s o f a b i l i t y i n com prehension and

ra te of re a d in g r e s u l t i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t changes i n r e a d in g s k i l l s a f t e r ex p o su re t o th e s e lf - a d m i n is t e r in g te c h n iq u e o f r e a d in g improvement? 8.

What i s t h e p a t t e r n o f g a in i n re a d in g s k i l l s made by s tu ­

dents who w ere e x p o sed t o w ord r e c o g n i tio n p r a c tic e e x e r c is e s as compared w ith th o s e who w ere n o t? 9.

Is t h e r e any s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y

between s tu d e n ts who a r e weak i n w ord r e c o g n itio n and s tu d e n ts who a re not weak? 10.

Is t h e R osenzw eig P i c t u r e - F r u s t r a t i o n S tudy o f any u s e in

p r e d ic tin g ch an g es i n r e a d in g s k i l l s r e s u l t i n g from e x p o su re to th e s e lf - a d m in is te r in g te c h n iq u e o f r e a d in g improvement? j

D elim ita tio n s

f

1.

R eading i n s t r u c t i o n was done by means o f p r a c t i c e e x e r c is e s

in s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r i n g m anuals* 2.

T his i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s e v a lu a te d th e s e l f - a d m i n is t e r in g

technique o f re a d in g im provem ent r a t h e r th a n any s p e c i f i c m a t e r ia ls as such.

6 5.

I t h a s b een d e m o n stra te d by e x p e r ie n c e t h a t some students

n eed re m e d ia l h e lp more b a s ic th a n t h e u s u a l r a t e , v o c a b u la ry and compre­ h e n s io n r e a d in g e x e r c i s e s .

Where t h i s need i s d e m o n stra te d according to

th e d i a g n o s i s m ade, s t u d e n t s w i l l be g iv e n s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r i n g exercises d e s ig n e d t o d e v e lo p word a t t a c k s k i l l s a s w e ll a s t h e u s u a l r a te , v o c a b u la ry and co m p reh en sio n e x e r c i s e s . 4.

A common w eakness i n r e a d in g im provem ent programs has been

th e la c k o f r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een d ia g n o s t ic in s tr u m e n ts and remedial m e a s u re s .

W ith t h i s th o u g h t in mind th e D ia g n o s tic R eading Tests of Ihe

Com m ittee on D ia g n o s tic R eading T e s ts , I n c . , 1 w ere s e le c te d fo r use i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n b e c a u s e th e y a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e s e lf a d m i n i s t e r i n g m an u a ls t o be u s e d .

T his r e l a t i o n s h i p , i t may be pointed

o u t, i s m ore th a n a c o in c id e n c e s in c e th e C hairm an o f The Committee on D ia g n o s tic R e a d in g T e s ts i s a l s o t h e a u th o r o f b o th t h e m anuals.

Since

t h e s e t e s t s a r e r e l i a b l e and v a l i d in s tr u m e n ts , f o r t h e purpose of th is e x p e rim e n t no a tte m p t w i l l be made t o d e v e lo p new o n e s . 5.

T h is s tu d y was c a r r i e d o u t i n a s m a ll l i b e r a l a r ts ,

c h u r c h - r e l a t e d c o l l e g e f o r m en. 6.

E m p h asis was p la c e d on r e a d in g im provem ent i n th e

f o llo w in g a r e a s :

word p e r c e p t i o n , v o c a b u la r y , co m p reh en sio n , and ra te

o f re a d in g .

1.

The C om m ittee on D ia g n o s tic R ead in g T e s t s , I n c . , 419 West 119th S t r e e t , New York 2 7 , N .Y . Members o f th e C om m ittee: F r a n c e s O r a lin d T r i g g s , C hairm an; R o b e rt M. B e a r, Dartmouth C o lle g e ; Iv a n A. B o o k er, N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n ; D a n ie l D. F e d e r , U n i v e r s it y o f D enver; C o n sta n c e McCullough, San F r a n c is c o S t a t e C o lle g e ; A. E ason M onroe, San F ranoisco S t a t e C o lle g e ; G eorge D, S p ach e, N o r th e rn W e s tc h e s te r County S tu d e n t P e r s o n n e l S e r v ic e s ; A rth u r E . T r a x l e r , E d u c atio n a l R e c o rd s B u re a u .

7

D e f i n i ti o n s Word p e r c e p tio n :

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p r in te d symbols and th e

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e m eaning behind them, 2,

G eneral a b i l i t y :

A b ility to th in k i n term s o f v e rb a l and

n o n -v e rb a l sy m b o ls. S.

V o c a b u la ry :

The aggregate of words -which a p erso n can

re c o g n iz e and u n d e rs ta n d in w r i tt e n o r p r in te d m a t e r ia l. 4.

C om prehension:

Apprehending and i n t e r p r e t i n g m eanings i n

r e l a t i o n s h i p to e a c h o th e r fo llo w in g th e p e r c e p tio n o f w o rd s. 5.

R eading Improvement:

A g e n e ra l term u sed in t h i s stu d y to

c o v e r a l l i n s t r u c t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s aimed a t th e enhancem ent, a u g m e n ta tio n , o r b e tte r m e n t o f re a d in g s k i l l s once th e y have been e s ta b lis h e d d u rin g th e i n i t i a l s ta g e o f le a r n in g to re a d .

R eading improvement in c lu d e s

(a.) d e v elo p m en tal re a d in g and (b) c o r r e c tiv e and re m e d ia l work in r e a d in g . 6.

D evelopm ental r e a d in g :

Planned re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n c a r r i e d

on by a l l t e a c h e r s t o a id s tu d e n ts in making c o n tin u o u s grow th i n a l l a s p e c ts o f r e a d i n g . 7.

C o r r e c tiv e r e a d in g :

Reading i n s t r u c t i o n d esig n e d t o h e lp

re a d e rs la c k in g s k i l l s w hich can be s u p p lie d w ith o u t a g r e a t d eal o f d iffic u lty . 8.

R em edial r e a d in g :

Reading i n s t r u c t i o n d esig n e d to h e lp

r e a d e rs who a r e weak i n even th e most b a s ic r e a d in g s k i l l s . C o r r e c tiv e and re m e d ia l re a d in g :

W hile th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e ­

tw een c o r r e c t i v e r e a d in g and rem edial re a d in g i s made by some w r i t e r s , th e te rm s a re u s e d in te rc h a n g e a b ly in th e l i t e r a t u r e .

U s u a lly th e term

re m e d ia l in c lu d e s a l l e f f o r t s on th e p a r t o f th e sc h o o l to a s s i s t s tu d e n ts to overcome r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s .

Because th e n a tu r e o f r e a d in g a c t i v i t i e s

8 used i s n o t a lw a y s c l e a r in th e v a r i o u s r e p o r t s in the l i t e r a t u r e , th e te rm r e a d in g im provem ent h a s been u sed m ost fre q u e n tly in th is study to d e s c r i b e b ro a d p ro g ram s and no a tte m p t i s made to d istin g u is h between c o r r e c t i v e and re m e d ia l when th e s e te rm s a r e used, B a s ic A ssu m p tio n s T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s b a s e d on th e follow ing assumptionss 1,

R e g u la r , w e ll- s p a c e d p r a c t i c e through reading ex ercises

w i l l r e s u l t in im proved r e a d in g s k i l l s , 2,

E x p e rie n c e d e m o n s tra te s t h a t some students w ill not improve

i n r e a d in g u n t i l th e y d e v e lo p m ore e f f i c i e n t word a tta c k s k il l s , 3, n o t h av e h e lp

T here a r e s tu d e n t s who, l e f t to th e ir own resources, do

s u ffic ie n t

and d i r e c t i o n , 4,

m o tiv a tio n t o c a r r y to com pletion without outside s e lf - im p o s e d e d u c a tio n a l ta s k s ,

W here t h e s e lf-im p ro v e m e n t program is s e t up in an academ ic

s i t u a t i o n r e q u i r i n g p e r i o d ic c o n s u l t a t i o n , a sense of re s p o n s ib ility r e s u l t s w h ich su p p le m e n ts and s tr e n g t h e n s th e o rig in a l m otivation of th e s tu d e n t.

F o r t h i s r e a s o n , p e r i o d i c c o n s u lta tio n s were made a p a r t

o f th e r e a d i n g im provem ent p ro g ram t o be e v a lu a te d by th is study. Need f o r t h e S tu d y I n t h e r e c e n t l y is s u e d r e v i s i o n o f th e Encyclopedia of Educa­ t i o n a l R e s e a r c h . G ray^ r e p o r t s t h a t more th a n 2700 stu d ie s r e la tin g t o r e a d in g w ere p u b lis h e d i n t h e U n ited S t a t e s and England in the period fro m 18S1 t o 1 9 4 8 ,

1,

Why a n o th e r one?

W illia m S , G ra y , ''R e a d in g ," E n c y c lo p e d ia of Educational Research, R e v is e d e d i t i o n , 1 9 5 0 , p . 9 6 ,

Why A ll th e Fuss About Reading;? Some

where along the li n e someone ought to ask — why a l l t h is

fu s s about reading?

Are we not p erm ittin g th e problems r e la te d to

reading to b u ild up to an importance out of a l l prop ortion t o the a tte n tio n th ey m erit?

The f a c t of the m atter i s th a t people a re asking

th e se very q u e stio n s.

Among th ose who have begun to

ch allen ge th e pre­

eminence o f rea d in g i s A llis o n Davis who i s c u rren tly su p erv isin g e x te n siv e r esea rch a t the U n iv e r sity o f Chicago in an attem pt to overthrow th e reig n of the god of the verb al symbol. D avis agrees w ith C. T. Gray1 th a t v erb a l comprehension and flu en c y are among the most h ig h ly valued s k i l l s of our c u ltu r e , th at the ra p id in te r p r e ta tio n o f symbols through reading ranks high in the f i e l d o f m ental a c t i v i t y , and th a t th erefo re s o c ia l approval in terms o f reading a b i l i t y i s a very important fa c to r in the l i f e o f c h ild ren . But from t h is p o in t on the two men p art company fo r w h ile Gray a ccep ts t h i s s it u a t io n and s t r e s s e s th e importance o f rea d in g , D avis2 c r ie s out th a t we are th e v ic tim s o f a narrow academic c u ltu r e which has s te r e o ­ typed our th in k in g in to g iv in g much too high a p la c e to l i n g u i s t i c a b ility .

The tim e has come to r e b e l a g a in st t h i s c o n fin in g s t r a ig h t -

ja c k e t which has been th ru st upon u s.

Reading has been overrated as

a means o f developing mental p r o c e sse s, sa y s D a v is. Reading tea c h es to o l i t t l e s k i l l in problem s o lv in g (e ith e r o f a r a t io n a l, em p ir ic a l, or in v en tiv e kind) to j u s t i f y the f i r s t p la c e i t h olds in the curriculum . Learning th e s k i l l o f decoding w r itte n communication i s im portant, but n ot so important f o r the development o f m ental a b i l i t y as the p u p il’s a n a ly s is o f h is own ex p erien ce, and h is drawing o f in fe r e n c e s from t h i s a n a l y s i s .3

1. 2. 3.

C. T. Gray, "Reading A b ilit y and P e r s o n a lity Development," E ducational Forum, IV (January, 1 9 4 0 ), pp. 133-138. ' A llis o n D a v is, S o c ia l Clas3 In flu en ces Upon Learning. I b id . . p . 3 9 .

10

W hile many p erson s b o th in and out of the educational f ie ld are in -sympathy w ith th e v iew s ex p ressed by Davis, the weight o f opinion seems t o be on th e s id e o f th e sym bolists#

One reason fo r t h i s i s un­

d o u b ted ly th e f a c t t h a t th e man who reads well and has co n sid era b le f a c i l i t y i n th e u se o f language i s in a favored p osition in both the s o c i a l and th e econom ic w o r ld .

Korzybski^ even goes so fa r as t o say

I t must be em phasized a g a in th a t so long as we remain humans (w hich means a sy m b o lic c la s s o f l i f e ) , the rulers o f symbols w i l l r u le u s . and t h a t no amount of revolution w ill ev e r change t h i s . In com p lete agreem ent w ith Korzybski, C. T. Gray® p o in ts out t h a t f o r th e c h i l d , r e a d in g i s a crea tiv e process, i t serves as a method o f a t ta c k f o r many problem s, i t serves to widen e x p e r ie n c e , i t i s a t o o l as i n t e l l i g e n c e and im agination are t o o ls , and i t i s th e v e h ic le by means o f w hich he c a r r ie s on most of his work in th e sch ool. I t g r a d u a lly becomes p a rt and p a rcel o f many phases of the c h i l d ' s d evelopm ent, and as su c h , i t s lo w ly builds unity and coherence in his life .

For t h e a d u lt , Gray s a y s , reading is a method of a tta c k , a form

o f a d ju stm en t, and a lm o st i f n o t e n tir e ly a way of liv in g . At t h i s w r it in g i t would seem that a ll the fuss about reading i s j u s t if ie d , th e r e fo r e .

Two main reasons can be offered in support of

an other stu d y in r e a d in g , or t o be more general, for continued study and r e s e a r c h in r e a d in g :

( l ) rea d in g i s an important tool for promotion

p er so n a l and s o c i a l d evelop m ent; and (2) many persons have n o t learned t o use. t h i s im p ortan t means o f communication e ffe c tiv e ly .

1* 2• 3.

A lfr e d K o rzy b sk i, S c ie n c e and S a n ity , p. 84. I b id « i p • 78• Gray, ojd# c i t #, pp# 133-138#

11 Reading As a Tool in Promoting P erson al and S o c ia l Development I t was around a d isc u s sio n o f tlie two reasons mentioned above th a t

the ninth Annual Conference on Reading1 was s e t up a t the U n iv e r sity

o f Chicago in 1947.

Separate m eetings were h eld

a t t h is conference to

d isc u ss how reading could be used to promote th e fo llo w in g : 1.

P erson al w e ll-b e in g

2.

An understanding o f people

3.

A knowledge o f the n atu ral world

4. 5.

An a p p recia tio n of a e s th e tic and s p ir it u a l v alu es An understanding o f , and d evotion to our dem ocratic p a tte rn of l i f e

6. ■7.

In sig h t in to the current s o c ia l scene Intergroup understandings, a p p r e c ia tio n s, and ad j ustm ents

8.

I n te r n a tio n a l understanding and world mindedness

I t was the consensus o f th e conference th at many typ es o f p er­ son al and s o c ia l development are n ot only p o s s ib le but h ig h ly d e sir a b le through read in g.

To a t t a in th e se o b j e c tiv e s , the con ferees agreed th a t

ca r e fu l planning i s e s s e n t i a l . . . . Two b a sic requirem ents are a c le a r r e c o g n itio n o f the g oals sought and app ropriate reading m a te r ia ls . The e s s e n t ia l step s in the e f f e c t i v e use o f the m a te r ia ls a re: (1) the stim u la tio n o f in t e r e s t which w i l l lea d to p urposeful read in g on the p a rt o f youthj (2) appropriate guidance which r e s u lt s not only in the development o f needed s k i l l s , but more p a r t i­ c u la rly in the k in ds o f understandings and in te r p r e ta tio n s

1.

Promoting Personal and S o c ia l Development Through Reading. Proceedings o f th e Annual Conference on Reading Held a t th e U n iv ersity of C hicago, 1947, V ol. DC, Supplementary E ducational Monographs Ho. 64.

12

e s s e n t i a l ; and (3) the provision of s it u a t io n s which provide o p p o r tu n ity f o r th e reader to tran slate what he learns through rea d in g in to appropriate attitud es and p a tte r n s of behavior. Only th rou gh such means w ill reading provide th e inner re­ so u r c e s needed today and make it s la rg est con tribu tion to the p e r so n a l and s o c ia l development of youth,^ Evidence of Ineffe c tiv e Reading W hile ed u ca to rs concern themselves w ith tea ch in g a ll th eir ch arges to rea d and put f o r th sp e cia l effo r ts to help th o se students who do n ot le a r n t o read w e l l in th e regular developmental program, le t us not f o r g e t t h a t a n o t in c o n s id e r a b le number of Americans reach adulthood without ev er h a v in g le a r n e d to re a d .

Some of these in d ividu als have never had the

o p p o r tu n ity to go t o sc h o o l, while others for variou s reasons did not r e ­ m ain in sc h o o l lo n g enough to lOarn to read.

We were keenly reminded o f

t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s when we started to c a ll men fo r m ilitary serv ice in o World War I I . In A ugust, 1942, Lieutenant General Brehon B, Somervell t o l d a c o n fe r e n c e o f more than 700 outstanding American educators th a t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 men w ere barred from m ilitary service because of illit e r a c y , g Edwards p o in ts out that the problem of i l l i t e r a c y is c lo s e ly bound up w ith econom ics when he shows that the h ig h e s t rate of i l l i t e r a c y i s found in th e South where expenditures fo r ed u cation are lowest, and 4 t h i s le a d s Kopel t o conclude that the f i r s t remedy f o r illit e r a c y would t h e r e f o r e seem t o be a greater equalization o f eduoational opportunity th ro u g h o u t th e n a t io n .

1. 2. 3. 4.

I b id . , p . 232. L t. G eneral Brehon B. Somervell, "Military Needs fo r Trained Manpower," Handbook on E ducation and the War, p, 9. Newton Edwards, Equal Eduoational Opportunities f o r Youth, p. 166. D avid K op el, "Reading Problems of Pressing Importance,'^ * Review o f E d u ca tio n a l R esearch, XIII (April, 1943), pp. 69-87,

13 E v id en ce t h a t many A m ericans do n o t re a d e f f e c t i v e l y i s n o t d i f f i c u l t to o b ta in — i t is r e a d ily a v a ila b le f o r alm o st e v e ry age and g rade l e v e l .

Monroe-1- e s tim a te d t h a t th e number o f p u p i ls who need

h elp to improve t h e i r re a d in g ra n g e s from te n to tw en ty p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l sch o o l p o p u la tio n .

Thomas^ an aly zed th e t e s t s c o re s o f 3000

elem en tary sch o o l c h ild r e n and found t h a t 1 3 .4 p e r c e n t rvere r e a d in g a t a l e v e l more th a n a y e a r below th e l e v e l t h a t m ight be n o rm a lly ex p ected o f them and t h a t th e l e v e l o f r e a d in g a b i l i t y in th e s i x t h grade ran g ed from 2 .8 t o 1 1 .3 g ra d e .

In a s tu d y of t h e ran g e o f r e a d ­

in g a b i l i t y in f i r s t term n i n t h grade r e c i t a t i o n c la s s e s in th e Theodore R o o se v e lt H igh School in New York C ity , P e rs o n s 3 found a sp re a d in some c l a s s e s a s wide a s from 3 .4 to 1 0 , w ith th e av erag e from 5 t o 1 0 .

A pp ro x im ately 59 p e r c e n t o f th e s e 8000 n in t h g ra d e

p u p ils were below g ra d e l e v e l a c c o rd in g t o P e rs o n s .

S tra n g 4 an aly zed

th e s c o re s o f 417 e le m e n ta ry sch o o l c h ild r e n ra n g in g in c h ro n o lo g ic a l age from 96 to 191 months and in m en tal age from 84 t o 203 m onths on th e lan g u ag e p a r t o f th e C a li f o r n i a T est o f M ental M a tu r ity , E lem en tary

1. 2. 3. 4.

M arion Monroe, " D ia g n o stic and Rem edial P ro c e d u re s in R e a d in g ," The E d u c a tio n a l R eco rd . XIX, Supplem ent No. 11 (Ja n u a ry , 1 9 3 8 ), p p . 1 0 5 -1 1 3 . G. I . Thomas, "A S to ry o f R eading A chievem ent in Terms o f M ental A b i l i t y , ” E lem en tary School J o u r n a l . XLVII (S eptem ber, 1 9 4 6 ), p p . 2 8 -3 3 . G ladys L. P e r s o n s , " S i l e n t R eading w ith F i r s t Term P u p ils in th e Theodore R o o se v e lt Ilig h t S c h o o l," High P o i n t s , XVI (November, 1 9 3 4 ), p p . 5 -1 5 . Ruth S tr a n g , " V a r i a b i li t y in Reading S co res on a Given L evel of I n t e l l i g e n c e T e st S c o r e s ,” J o u rn a l o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h . X m T I I (F e b ru a ry , 1 9 4 5 ), p p . 440-446.

S e r i e s , th e G ates S ile n t Reauing T e s ts , and a new type of r e a d in g t e s t d e v is e d by Roma Gans fo r a research s tu d y .

She found the s c a t t e r in

r e a d in g s c o re s on a given chronological age le v e l so wide, t h a t f r e ­ q u e n tly i t extended over the e n tire ra n g e of the t e s t.

W hile th e

f in d i n g s o f Thomas, Persons, and S tran g r e p o rte d above u n q u e s tio n a b ly p o i n t to in e f f e c tiv e reading, we cannot a s c r ib e a ll of the v a r i a t i o n found t o re a d in g d eficien cy .

I t i s j u s t a s c e rta in th a t some o f th e

v a r i a t i o n i s due to ind ividual d if f e r n c e s .

Strang-'- is c a r e f u l t o p o i n t

o u t t h a t th e v e ry complexity of i n t e l l i g e n c e and reading a b i l i t y and c o n s e q u e n tly o f th e re la tio n s h ip between them makes v a r i a b i l i t y in r e a d in g s c o re s on a given le v e l of in t e l l i g e n c e in e v ita b le . Out o f 192 en tering stu d e n ts t e s t e d a t Sacramento J u n io r C o lle g e , T y ie r^ discovered 76 with re a d in g scores which in d ic a te d r e t a r d a t i o n o f one year or more.

G a r n e tt3 found th a t out o f S3 f i r s t

y e a r , te a c h e r s co lleg e students only 28 w ere a t or above th e norm f o r fresh m en on th e Iowa Reading Comprehension t e s t .

Zeleny4 a d m in is te r e d

th e Iowa S i l e n t Reading Test fo r g rad es 7-12 to 195 freshmen i n t h e S t a t e T each ers College a t S t. Cloud, M innesota and discovered th e f o llo w in g :

(1) 12 per cent were below th e e ig h th grade m edian; (2) a

ra n g e o f re a d in g a b i l i t i e s extending from th e middle of th e e le m e n ta ry

1. 2. 3. 4.

L o c. c i t . H enry T. l y i e r , "Remedial Reading in th e Junior C o lle g e ,” J u n io r C o lle g e Jo u rn a l, IV (October, 1 9 3 3 ), pp. 28-31, Wilma L . G arn ett, "The Status and Improvement of Student T e ach ers i n R ead in g ," Elementary E n g lish Review, XIV (A p ril, 1 9 3 7 ), p p . 147-151. F lo re n c e K, Zeleny, "Remedial I n s t r u c t io n in Reading a t th e Freshm an L e v e l in a Teachers C ollege," E d u c a tio n a l A d m in istratio n and S u p e r v is io n . XVIII (November, 1 9 3 2 ), pp. 607-620.

15 grades to the c o lle g e se n io r l e v e l ,

When 1043 Miami U n iv e r sity c o lle g e

freshm en were t e s t e d by G uiler and Coleman'*' in 1941 i t turned out th a t 53 per cen t were below the norm fo r t h e ir grade le v e l in reading compre­ h e n sio n ,

Of th o se who were below standard in com prehension, 25 per cen t

were one or more y ears retarded ; 12 per c e n t, two or more years retard ed ; 6 per c e n t, th r e e or more years retard ed ; and 2 per c e n t, fou r or more years reta rd ed .

A n a ly sis o f th e r a te o f readin g sco res showed even

g r ea te r r e ta r d a tio n , 80 per cen t o f th e stu d en ts b ein g below the norm f o r t h e ir grade l e v e l .

Of th ose who were sub-standard in reading r a t e ,

64 per cent were retard ed one or more y ea rs; 56 per c e n t, two or more y e a rs; 50 per c e n t, th r ee or more yea rs; and 35 per c e n t, fou r or more years# ¥/hen we go o u tsid e o f th e sch o o l p op u lation to sample reading p a b i l i t y i t i s n o t s u r p r is in g , th e r e fo r e , to fin d as did Busw ell in h is stu d y o f a thousand non-academic a d u lts th a t 52 per cen t o f a l l th e a d u lts had a narrower span o f r e c o g n itio n than th e average fo r s ix t h grade p u p ils .

S in ce 6pan o f r e c o g n itio n i s one o f th e fundamental s k i l l s

in e f f i c i e n t rea d in g , i t probably would be s a fe to conclude th a t th e gen eral reading a b i l i t y o f many a d u lts i s no b e t te r than t h a t o f th e average s ix t h grade c h ild . rep orted by T riggs

To make m atters w orse, we have a survey

w hich would in d ic a te th a t th ere i s no d i f f e r ­

ence between c o lle g e graduates and n o n -c o lle g e graduates in e it h e r th e q u an tity

1, 2, 3,

or th e

q u a lity o f books,

m agazines,

and

W, G, G uiler and J , H, Coleman, "Reading a t th e C ollege L evel," Journal o f th e American A s so c ia tio n o f C o lle g ia te R e g is tr a r s , XVII ("October, 1 9 4 1 ), pp, 1 6 -2 7 , Guy T, B u sw ell, How A dults Read, Supplementary E d ucation al Monograph, No, 4 5 , p , 140, Frances O ralind T rig g s, Remedial Reading; The D iagn osis and Correc­ t io n o f Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s a t th e C ollege L ev e l, p« 2 ,

16 newspapers they read.

Speer1 found that there i s a d e f i n i t e r e la t io n s h ip

between the morale of in d u s tr ia l workers and th e ir rea d in g s k i l l s * poor reader is discouraged in work which requires r e a d in g .

The

I f in d u s t r y

took an in terest in the problems of reading improvement, S p eer f e e l s , th a t improved morale, e f f ic ie n c y , and production would r e s u l t . The Reading Problem in College and I t s S o lu tio n According to Firebaugh,2 the work o f our i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r ed u cation i s becoming more and more remedial in ch aracter a s th e y come c lo s e r to attempting the in s tr u c tio n of the en tir e p o p u la tio n .

As a

r e s u lt "college work in some in s t it u t io n s is no b e t t e r than th e work done in a good high school f i f t y years ago."

The r e a so n s f o r t h i s

p r e v a ilin g a n ti-in te lle c tu a lism Firebaugh sta tes are (1) c o l l e g e s and u n iv e r s it ie s are f i l l e d with p erson s who do not l i k e t o r e a d ; a n d ( 2 ) read ­ in g s p e c ia lis ts and c lin ic s when th ey are set up reach o n ly a few — th e non-academic students stay f a r away from them*

In a somewhat s im ila r

r e i n , Ryans w rites "that perhaps much of the e f fo r t expended on r e a d in g improvement i s wasted," because "most of the s c h o o ls i n t e r e s t i s cen ­ te r e d upon the pupils who cannot read w ell." • • , when ample opportunity t o learn has been fu r n is h e d and accepted by a group of normal children, i t seems beyond th e p oin t to apply pressure t o th o se who do not conform by e x te n ­ s iv e , assiduous, and o fte n f u t i l e remedial p ro c e d u r e s. Our in te r e sts should l i e in th o se who can and want t o h e a d . I t should be our aim to make eduoation p ossib le f o r th o s e who a re capable of accepting i t , but i t does not seem t o b e our

1. 2.

George S . Speer, "Industry and Heading improvement," S c h o o l and S o c ie ty . IOTIII (November I S , 1948), p. 356. J . J . Firebaugh, "Reading and General Education," S c h o o l and S o ciety . IXQC (January 2 9 , 1949, pp. 74-77.

17 duty t o demand th a t v a r io u s l e v e l s a ch iev e and a p p recia te th e same v a l u e .* Ryans i s c a r e fu l to make th e d is t in c t io n as he p u ts i t , between th e two g en era l ty p e s o f " fu n c tio n a l d e f ic ie n c ie s ," i . e . , th o se which are ro o ted in th e i n t e l l e c t u a l make-up o f the in d iv id u a l and s p e c if i c d is a b ilit ie s .

When th e read ing d i s a b i l i t y i s s p e c if i c and n o t a l l i e d

w ith low in t e l l i g e n c e s p e c ia l a t te n t io n i s n e c e ssa r y ," he w r it e s .

No

one r e a l l y d isa g r e e s w ith Ryans in t h is regard , nor would anyone d is ­ agree th a t i t i s f u t i l e t o attem pt t o f o r c e young p eop le to le a r n or a s s im ila te knowledge or s k i l l s where th e r e q u is it e p o t e n t ia li t y or c a p a c ity f o r le a r n in g i s la c k in g . Firebaugh and Ryans r eco g n ize and admit th a t our c o lle g e s and u n iv e r s it ie s are f i l l e d w ith p erson s who do n o t l i k e to read because th ey do n o t know how t o rea d .

Firebaugh th in k s th a t where we have

read in g s p e c i a l i s t s and c l i n i c s th ey do n o t reach enough stu d e n ts and p a r t ic u la r ly th o se who need most t o be reached ,

Ryans th in k s th a t our

s p e c i a l i s t s co n cen tra te on th o se who are n ot capable o f b e n e f it t in g . The im p lic a tio n behind th e words o f both i s th a t we should c e a se expend­ in g tim e and e f f o r t in tr y in g to tea ch th o se who have had th e op p ortun ity to le a r n but have n o t le a r n e d .

Ryans su g g e sts th a t many o f th e se in d iv i­

d u als do n o t have th e c a p a c ity to le a r n and Firebaugh su g g e sts t h a t perhaps i t i s th e f a u l t o f our n ew -fangled id e a s about teaching rea d in g . Let us go back, he s a y s , to th e good o ld method in s te a d .

Slow read in g

should be encouraged n o t p reven ted ; reading aloud in th e classroom should be done c o n s ta n tly ; good books n o t t e x t s should be used to tea ch rea d in g .

1.

David 0 . RyanB, "Some Q uestions P e r ta in in g to Reading," S chool and S o c ie t y . XLIII (A p ril 2 5 , 1936), pp . 572-574.

18 The w riter a g rees with Firebaugh and Ryans t h a t t h e answ er t o the reading problem d oes not l i e in c l i n i c s a lo n e *

He d is a g r e e s w ith

Ryans, however, th a t ample opportunity t o le a r n t o rea d i s b e in g p ro ­ vided; and he d isa g r e e s with Firebaugh th a t th e answ er l i e s in a r e tu r n to old methods some o f which have been proved t o b e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y unsound by s c i e n t i f i c research. I f we b e lie v e th at E ducation i s t h e fo u n d a tio n o f d em o cra tic l i b e r t i e s ," and th a t "without an educated c i t i z e n r y a l e r t t o p r e s e r v e and extend freedom, i t would not long en du re," 1 we come q u it e l o g i c a l l y to the conclusion th a t an "education th a t l i b e r a t e s and e n n o b le s m ust be made equally a v a ila b le to all*" 2

For h ig h e r e d u c a tio n i n th e U n ited

States th is means th a t American c o lle g e s and u n iv e r sitie s must e n v i s i o n a much la r g e r role fo r h ig h er education in the n a t io n a l l i f e * They can no longer con sid er them selves merely t h e in str u m e n t f o r produc­ ing an i n t e l l e c t u a l e li t e ; they must becom e th e means by whioh every c i t i z e n , youth and a d u lt, i s e n a b le d and en­ couraged to carry h is education, form al and in fo r m a l, a s far as h is n a t iv e ca p a cities perm it*3 Continuing t h i s lin e of reason in g, i t i s c l e a r t h a t th e r e a l i ­ zation o f th is o b j e c tiv e "necessarily w i l l r e q u ir e a trem endous e x p a n sio n of our educational e n te r p r ise at the c o lle g e l e v e l * " 4

The P r e s i d e n t 's

Commission on Higher Education5 estim ates th a t a t l e a s t 49 p e r c e n t o f

1* Higher Education f o r .American Democracy: Volume I , E s t a b lis h i n g the Goals. A R eport of the P r e s id e n t's Commission on H igher Education, p* 25* 2. Ibid. . p . 101. 3* Ib id ., p. 101* 4. Ibid*, p . 39* 5. Ibid. . p . 41.

19 our p o p u la tio n lias th e mental a b i l i t y to com plete 14 y ears o f sch o o lin g and a t l e a s t 32 p er cen t has th e mental a b i l i t y to com plete an advanced l i b e r a l or s p e c ia liz e d p r o fe ss io n a l ed u ca tio n . Mass ed u cation has always been fa ced w ith the problem o f d e v is ­ in g methods and m a te r ia ls f o r adapting in s tr u c tio n to th e in d iv id u a l stu d e n t.

As th e number o f stu d en ts in higher ed u cation in c r e a se s the

already wide range o f in d iv id u a l d iffe r e n c e s in cap acity and purpose w i l l grow even w ider and th e task o f in d iv id u a liz in g in s tr u c tio n w i l l become more n ecessa ry even as i t becomes more d i f f i c u l t . Now i t i s g e n e r a lly agreed th a t reading i s th e t o o l which we use to understand and le a r n th e su b ject m atter o f th e con ten t f i e l d s . There i s a ls o s u b s ta n tia l agreement w ith Firebaugh* s statem ent th a t reading i s the key t o th e p resen t d i f f i c u l t y a r is in g out o f th e expan­ s io n o f h ig h er ed u ca tio n .

Because reading i s th e key t o le a r n in g , t h is

w r ite r b e lie v e s th a t th e r e s p o n s ib ilit y f o r th e development o f e f f e c t iv e reading s k i l l s cannot be l e f t as h e reto fo re t o th e f i r s t

s i x y ea rs o f

th e elem entary sc h o o l, or t o s p e c ia l reading courses and c l i n i c s in h igh sch ool and c o lle g e ; i t must become p art o f every phase o f ed u cation from th e k in d ergarten to th e Ph.D. l e v e l . A cceptance o f t h i s t h e s is n e c e s s it a t e s a reexam ination of a t t it u d e s and p r a c tic e s as Simpson^ p o in ts o u t.

"An a ll- s c h o o l d evelop ­

m ental program in reading should be incorporated a s an in t r in s ic p a rt o f th e curriculum - n o t a s an e x tr a ," wrote S tr a n g in 1937, concerning the improvement o f read in g in h igh s c h o o l.

1. 2.

Educators are beginning to

Ray H. Simpson, "A B asic Approaoh to Remedial Reading," E n g lish J o u rn a l. X S X J (March, 1 9 4 2 ), pp. 219-226. Ruth M. S tran g, "improvement o f Reading in High S chool," Teachers C o lleg e Record. 300TOC (December, 1 9 3 7 ), pp. 197-206.

20

r e a l i z e t h a t the time has come to a p p ly S t r a n g ’ s p r e s c r i p t i o n t o th e c o lle g e .

W hile a movement in t h i s d i r e c t i o n , i s a l r e a d y underw ay,

p ro g re s s i s being iiiade very s lo w ly b e c a u s e many d i f f e r e n t m ethods and m a t e r i a l s need to be d e v is e d and e v a l u a t e d .

As i t was p o in te d

out p r e v io u s ly , th is i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s d e s ig n e d t o make a c o n tr ib u ti o n along th e s e l i n e s .

CHAPTER I I RELATED STUDIES:

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS

The Reading Problem Like many another system or d e v ic e , read in g came in to b ein g when man began t o f e e l a need— in t h i s c a se the need t o send m essages and t o record even ts*

He s ta r te d t o use p ic tu r e s and oth er ch a ra cters

f o r t h is purpose and hand in hand w ith t h e ir in v en tio n he developed th e a r t o f in te r p r e tin g them.

As e a r ly a s tw e n ty -fiv e c e n tu r ie s b efore

C h r is t, th e E gyp tian s had analyzed words and s y lla b le s in to sounds and had develop ed a s e r i e s o f symbols t o r e p resen t them, accord ing to Gray Then th e S em ites developed th e P h o en icia n alp habet from which th e Greek l e t t e r s and l a t e r th e Roman alp habet were ev o lv ed .

Learning to read

by m asterin g th e l e t t e r s , th en th e s y ll a b l e s , and f i n a l l y th e words, q u ick ly became a very im portant phase o f ed u ca tio n . U h til th e m iddle o f th e n in e te e n th century stu d en ts o f reading r e l i e d la r g e ly on o b se rv a tio n s and p erso n a l judgm ents.

As e a r ly as

1844, however, European p s y c h o lo g is ts began t o use s c i e n t i f i c methods o f stu d y .

The f i r s t problems concerning readin g to be in v e s tig a te d

r e la te d t o th e eyes and the p ercep tu a l p r o c e s s e s .

About 1879 the

Frenchman, J a v a l, d isc o v er ed th a t ey e movements in reading are d isco n ­ tin u o u s, c o n s is t in g o f a s e r i e s o f a lte r n a te movements and p a u ses.

1.

W illiam S . Gray, "Reading," E ncyclopedia o f E du cational R esearch. 19 4 1 , p . 891.

22

This discovery was im portant b eca u se i t in s p ir e d many s tu d ie s and rap id progress was made in th e developm ent o f e x p e r im e n ta l tech n iq u es and mechanical d evices w ith w hich t o s e c u r e a c c u r a te o b j e c tiv e r e c o r d s . Gray gives us an in d ic a t io n o f th e r a p id growth o f r e sea rch in r e a d in g in the follow ing t a b le : Number o f S c i e n t i f i c S t u d ie s R e la tin g t o Reading Published in th e U n ited S t a t e s and England S in c e 18801 Five-Year P e r io d

No. o f S1

1881-1885 1886-1890 1891-1895 1896-1900 1901-1905 1906-1910 1911-1915 1916-1920 1921-1925 1926-1930 1931-1955 1936-1940 1941-1945 1946-1948

1 1 2 10 6 14 49 151 274 490 534 537 462 169

T o ta l

2700

In s p ite o f th e im p r e ss iv e a r r a y o f f ig u r e s in th e fo r e g o in g t a b le , Oates does n o t b e lie v e th a t th e r e h as been to o much or to o h ig h ly sp ecia lized r e s e a r c h on r e a d in g . th e re has been too l i t t l e .

On th e co n tra ry he f e e l s th a t

"The p r e v a i lin g p a t te r n o f research has

uncovered much th a t i s h e lp f u l b ut much r ic h e r r e tu r n s w i l l be secu red i f the pattern i s m o d ifie d ," 2

1. 2.

L eary, in sum m arizing what has been done

William 0. Gray, "R eading," E n c y c lo p e d ia o f E d u ca tio n a l R esearch. Revised e d it io n , 1 9 5 0 , p . 9 6 5 . Arthur I . Oates, " f r o n t ie r s i n E d u o a tio n a l R esearch in Reading," Journal o f E d u ca tio n al R esea rch . XL (January, 1 9 4 7 ), pp. 5 8 1 -5 8 6 .

23 th u s f a r in r e a d in g , makes th e statem en t t h a t , " research sa y s to o much to o o f t e n ," 1 th e im p lic a tio n b ein g th a t th e r e i s much which has y e t t o be e s ta b lis h e d e m p ir ic a lly .

I t i s the purpose o f t h i s chapter t o p re­

s e n t a s e l e c t i v e review o f what we know about read ing w ith emphasis h ere and th e r e on th e p a r t ic u la r problem s o f c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s . Nature o f Reading Gray2 p o in t s ou t th a t read in g has been v a r io u s ly d efin ed by d if f e r e n t w r ite r s and a t d if f e r e n t p erio d s in h is t o r y .

In th e most

narrow co n cep tio n found in th e l i t e r a t u r e , read in g was d efin e d sim ply as th e p ro c ess o f r e c o g n iz in g p rin ted or w r itte n sym bols.

"A broader

view o f th e n atu re o f r ea d in g ," Gray f in d s , " is th a t i t in v o lv e s th e r e c o g n itio n o f th e im portant elem en ts o f meaning in t h e ir e s s e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s , in c lu d in g accu racy and thoroughness in comprehensiona"3 A th ir d d e f i n i t i o n im p lie s th a t read in g i s a much more i n c lu s iv e p r o c e ss than e i t h e r o f th e p reced in g . I t assumes th a t th e rea d er n o t o n ly r e c o g n iz e s th e e s se n ­ t i a l f a c t s o r id e a s p r e s e n te d , but a ls o r e f l e c t s on t h e ir s ig n if ic a n c e , e v a lu a te s them c r i t i c a l l y , d i s ­ co v ers r e la t io n s h ip s between them, and c l a r i f i e s h is understanding o f th e id e a s apprehended. . , 4 B u sw ell5 d is a g r e e s w ith th e th ir d d e f in it io n c it e d above b ecause he f e e l s th a t ^ P s y c h o lo g ic a lly , read in g i s n o t a com plicated s it u a t io n .

1.

B a s ic a lly i t i s sim ply a form o f p e r c e p tu a l ex p erien ce

B ern ice S . L eary, "What Does R esearch Say About Reading,n Jou rnal o f E d u ca tio n a l R esearch . XJQdX (February, 1 9 4 6 ), p p. 4 3 4 -4 4 4 , 2 . W illiam S . Gray, "The N ature and (Qrpes o f R eading," Chapter I I in The Teaching o f Reading: A Second R eport. T h ir ty -S ix th Yearbook o f th e N a tio n a l S o c ie t y f o r th e Study o f E d ucation, P art I , p . 25. 3« l£0« £it« 4 . A id , | p . 26. 5 . Guy T, B u sw ell, How A d u lts Read, Supplementary E d u cation al Monographs No, 4 5 , p . 144.

24 followed by in te r p r e ta t io n o f v a ry in g d egrees o f im portance."

It is

Buswell1s o p in io n th a t th e r e i s a co n fu sio n in the minds o f some educa­ tors which i s h avin g a tendency t o in clu d e more and more under th e term "reading." . . . The p r o c e ss o f in t e r p r e t in g a sim ple p rin ted page w ith f a c i l i t y and speed i s one th in g ; th e a b i l i t y to read c r i t i ­ c a lly and t o in t e r p r e t a body o f m a teria l which r e s t s on a broad und erstan d in g o f a f i e l d i s an other. The two are r e la te d but th e y a re d i f f e r e n t . The f i r s t we c a l l "reading" in i t s sim p ler a s p e c ts ; th e second may be c a lle d "chem istry," or "m edicine," o r "law," o r "economics," or any p a r tic u la r f i e l d o f i n t e r e s t . O bviously a person cannot have adequate understandings o f th e second typ e u n less he can do read in g of the f i r s t type.^In other words a s Smith h as s a id rea d in g i s a to o l . . . i t has n o t s u b je c t m a tter o f i t s own. Geography, h is t o r y , and s c ie n c e a l l have t h e ir own conten t; even a rith m etic has a s u b je c t m a tter p e c u lia r to i t s f i e l d . But read in g i s n o t a s u b j e c t ; i t i s sim ply a t o o l which we use in g e t t i n g s u b je c t m a tter from th e other f i e l d s . 2 K orzybski on th e o th e r hand would agree w ith Gray’ s th ir d d e f in i ­ tion and perhaps go a s te p f u r t h e r .

In an attem pt to b u ild a " scien ce

of man" he a rriv ed a t th e c o n c lu sio n th a t "the semantic problem s o f eorreet symbolism u n d e r lie a l l human l i f e . "3

To him read in g i s th e v ery

active or dynamic p r o c e s s o f r e c o n s tr u c tin g the exp erien ce behind th e symbols. B e t t s i s v ery much in agreem ent w ith t h is view o f th e n atu re of reading.

He sums up rea d in g a s a "dynamic process which c a l l s to

notion the whole organism . • .e m o tio n a l a s w e ll as p h y sica l* " 4

1 . Ibid. . p p . 1 4 4 -1 4 5 . 2. N ila B. 3m lth , American R eading I n s t r u c tio n , pp. 264-265. 3. Alfred K orzybski, S c ie n c e and S a n ity , p . 84* 4. 2S. A. B e t t s , F ou n d ation s o f R eading I n str u c t io n , p . 81*

25 Gates^ c o n sid e r s read in g a very s u b t le and obscure a c tiv ity and l i k e n s th e read in g p ro c e ss to th e movement which fo llo w s the action o f an autom obile en g in e .

L ike B e tts he c o n sid e r s read in g a function of

th e t o t a l organism . As one reads th e r e p o r ts o f th e v a r io u s in v e s t ig a to r s in the f i e l d o f rea d in g , i t q u ick ly becomes apparent th a t in read in g as in th e o th e r a rea s o f p sych ology we have f e l t th e in flu e n c e o f both sides in th e b a s ic c o n tro v ersy between th e b e h a v io r is ts and th e G e s t a lt is t s . M uller2 in d is c u s s in g th e s o c i a l psych ology o f read in g u ses the terms stim u lu s-r e sp o n se approach and sy m b o lic -in te r a c tio n approach to refer r e s p e c t iv e ly to th e d iv e r g e n t p o in ts o f view o f th e s e group s.

The

f i r s t em phasizes th e o b j e c tiv e p h ases o f b eh avior and " conceives of human n atu re a s a bundle o f neuro-m uscular r e f le x e s which d evelop— very la r g e ly through th e p ro o ess o f c o n d itio n in g — in to h a b i t s . "

She

second em phasizes th e s u b j e c t iv e ph ases o f b eh avior and "conceives of human n atu re a s e s s e n t i a l l y p l a s t i c and a s c h a r a c te r iz e d by a s e t of im pulses which m a n ifest th em selves in th e stream o f in c e s s a n t a c tiv ity ." Reading in v e s t ig a t o r s who le a n towards th e stim u lu s-resp on se approach would probably a ccep t th e most narrow d e f in it i o n o f reading g iv e n by Oray and undoubtedly c h a r a c te r iz e rea d in g a s r e l a t iv e ly a sim p le a c t i v i t y in v o lv in g a s tim u lu s , a n erve cu r r e n t, and a response. On th e o th e r hand stu d e n ts o f read in g who adhere to th e sym b olicin t e r a c t io n approach would v iew rea d in g , a s M uller t e l l s u s, as

1* 2*

Arthur I , G a tes, The Improvement o f B ead in g, p . 4 . Hans M u ller, "Two Major Approaches t o th e S o c ia l P sych ology o f R eading," L ib rary Q u arterly. X II (January, 1 9 4 3 ), pp. 3 6-28. -

26

'•a lin k in a lo n g ch a in o f e v e n ts ," which "cannot be ad eq u ately under­ stood w ith o u t a knowledge o f th e complex p a tte r n o f in d iv id u a l m o tiv e s, a s p ir a t io n s , f r u s t r a t i o n s , in h ib it io n s , e t e ." l Reading As a P hase o f Language Development S in ce th e preponderance o f opinion today i s on th e s id e o f th e s y m b o lic -in te r a c tio n approach i t i s not s u r p r is in g t o fin d a num­ ber o f in v e s t ig a t o r s em phasizing reading a s a phase o f language development which in tu rn i s a phase in th e t o t a l development o f th e human organism . th e o r y .

B e t t s 2 i s one o f th e forem ost proponents o f t h i s

He f e e l s t h a t c o n tr o l over language i s developed in an

o r d erly sequence p r o g r e s sin g from one to another o f s i x s ta g e s : e x p e r ie n c e , h earin g com prehension, speech p rod u ction , rea d in g , w r it­ in g , and refin em en t o f language c o n tr o l.

H ild r e th 3 a ls o s t r e s s e s th e

in tim a te r e la t io n s h ip betw een l i n g u i s t i c a b i l i t y and readin g a c h ie v e ­ ment.

To h e r , " o ra l lan gu age i s th e very found ation o f le a r n in g to

read and f o r t h a t rea so n le a r n in g t o speak and w r ite b e t t e r may be co n sid ered a normal p a r t o f le a r n in g to read."

C. T. Gray4 and Huey5

are vexy much in accord w ith th e theory th a t read in g i s a phase o f language developm ent.

A ccording to Thorndike5 a c h ild has lea rn ed to

read when he can g e t by v i s i o n what he can g e t by h e a rin g .

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Loc. p i t . E . A. B e t t s , F ou n d ation s o f Reading I n s tr u c tio n , pp. 4 -1 0 . 0 . H. H ild r e th , "Reading Achievem ent and L in g u is tic A b ility ," E d u cation . IXXX (Hay, 1 9 4 9 ), pp. 567-571. C. T. Gray, D e f ic ie n c ie s in Reading A b i l i t y . E . B . Huey, The P sy ch o lo g y and Pedagogy o f Reading. E . L. Thorndike, "Improving th e A b ility t o Read," Teachers C o lle g e R ecord. XEGrj (O ctober, 1934), pp. 1 -1 9 .

27 B a sic P r o c e s s e s in Reading Huey d ecid ed th a t in read in g th e r e were two s e ts of processes w hich were somewhat Independent hu t w hich p a r a lle le d each other: (1 ) a rea d in g in term s o f in t e r a s s o c ia t e d word and phrase u n it s (th em selv es composed o f in te r a s s o c ia t e d su b -u n its), th ough t in a v a r io u s ly p ro p o rtio n ed com bination o f visu al, a u d ito r y , and m otor elem en ts; ( 2 ) a read in g (o r interpre­ t a t i o n in term s o f d i r e c t r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e r e a lit ie s w ith w hich th e s u b je c t m a tter d e a ls ; a p ic tu r in g in sense term s o f what th e words s y m b o liz e .1 Gray2 h as an alyzed and stu d ie d th e p r o c e s se s involved in read­ in g perhaps more than any o th er contem porary read in g s p e c ia lis t. m ental s e t h e d is t in g u is h e s th r e e p r o c e s s e s :

In the

(1) th e perception or

r e c o g n itio n o f w ords, (2) th e ap p reh en sion o f m eaning, and (3) the r e a c tio n t o t h e u se o f t h e id e a s apprehended.

In th e matter of word

r e c o g n it io n Gray found t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p o in t s o f v iew .

One group of

p s y c h o lo g is t s m a in ta in th e v iew th a t th e c o n te x t o f the sentence, or la r g e u n it , p r o v id e s th e m en tal s e t and a ro u ses a s so c ia tio n s essen tial in th e r e c o g n it io n o f w ords.

A secon d group f e e l t h a t th e word is the

u n it o f r e c o g n it io n in r e a d in g and th a t i t s t o t a l form i s the d istin ­ g u ish in g c h a r a c t e r is t ic by w hich i t i s r e c o g n iz e d .

The th ird point of

view h o ld s th a t l e t t e r s o r groups o f l e t t e r s v a r io u s ly known as "determ iners" "dominant" or s i g n i f i c a n t l e t t e r s or l e t t e r combinations a re m ost im portant in th e r e c o g n itio n p r o c e s s . When we a n a ly ze th e r e a d in g o f mature r e a d e r s, Gray t e l l s us, we f in d t h a t th e g e n e r a l c o n t e x t, th e t o t a l form o f the word, and the

1.

E . B . Huey, On t h e P sych ology and P h y sio lo g y o f Heading, p. 18.

2.

W. S . Gray, "Reading." E n cyclop ed ia o f E d u ca tio n a l Research.

Revised edition, 1950, pp. 972-978.

28 d e t a il e d p a r t s a l l fu n c tio n in word r e c o g n itio n even a s Huey1 p o in ted o u t alm ost f i f t y y e a r s ago making due allow ance fo r in d iv id u a l d iffe r e n c e s . In th e apprehension of meaning i t seems th a t th e r e are two p ro cesses:

f i r s t , th e words aad groups o f words coming a s s t im u li

from th e r e t i n a rea ch the v is u a l c e n te r s o f t h e b ra in and arouse m eaning; th e n , t h e s e meanings are fu sed in to a ch ain o f r e la te d id e a s.

In a d d itio n to recogn izing words and apprehending m eaning,

a c co rd in g t o Gray, th e reader may a ls o engage in a number o f su p p le­ m entary s t e p s o r p r o c e s se s such as th e fo llo w in g :

drawing in fe r e n c e s ,

s e e in g im p lic a t io n s and judging th e v a l i d i t y o f th e id e a s p resen ted ; making judgm ents concerning th e q u a lit y , e f f e c t i v e n e s s , or com plete­ n e ss o f th e a u th o r 's p resen ta tio n ; comparing th e view s o f d if f e r e n t au th ors co n ce rn in g th e same is s u e ; ap p lyin g th e id e a s gain ed to new s it u a t io n s ; u sin g th e inform ation secured in th e s o lu t io n o f p erso n a l and s o c i a l p roblem s; and in te g r a tin g th e id e a s gain ed through read in g w ith p r e v io u s ex p e r ie n c e to acquire improved p a tte r n s o f th in k in g and o f a c tio n .

When one co n sid ers t h is lo n g l i s t o f a c t i v i t i e s th ere rem ains

no doubt t h a t t o a ccep t a l l o f them as p a r t o f th e t o t a l r ea d in g pro­ c e s s i s t o s u b s c r ib e to a very broad con cep t o f r e a d in g , w ith which B u sw ell would n o t a g r e e . On t h e m otor s id e o f reading Gray c l a s s i f i e s th e c h ie f pro­ c e s s e s under t h r e e h ead ings, namely, v i s u a l , v o c a l, and ex tr a n e o u s. I t h as been dem onstrated by in v e s tig a to r s th a t in read ing th e E n g lish lan gu age t h e e y e s proceed from l e f t to r i g h t in a s e r i e s o f q u ick , sh o r t movements and f i x a t i o n pauses and then retu rn t o th e l e f t in one qu ick,

1. E. B. Huey, The Psychology and Pedagogy of Heading.

29 u s u a lly unbroken movement, w ith f i x a t i o n near th e beginning of the n ex t lin e .

The term s i l e n t r e a d in g i s prob ab ly a misnomer since in most

re a d er s we f in d a c e r t a in d eg ree o f v o c a liz a t io n or inner speech.

She

movements a s s o c ia t e d w ith r ea d in g c h a r a c te r iz e d as extraneous by Gray a re changes in f a c i a l e x p r e s s io n , movements o f the head forward or backward o r from s id e t o s i d e , lo w erin g or r a is in g of one or both sh o u ld ers or o th e r b o d ily a t t i t u d e s .

C. T. Gray1 associates such

movements la r g e ly w ith p oor r e a d e r s .

Huey3 on the other hand f e l t

th a t some o f th e s e movements f u r n is h nth e very body of much that we c a l l m eaning. ”

W. S . Gray3 f e e l s th a t probably both explanations are

a p p lic a b le . R e sea rch ers have dem onstrated t h a t voca liza tio n i s present more o r l e s s in th e r e a d in g o f many s i l e n t read ers.

Huey, one of the

o u tsta n d in g .American p io n e e r s in r ea d in g rese a r c h , made some observa­ t io n s h a l f a cen tu ry ago w hich have sto o d up amazingly w ell over the years.

A fte r stu d y in g o th e r s and o b se r v in g h is own reading techniques

Huey4 concluded t h a t in n e r sp eech formed a p a rt o f s ile n t reading. However, he d id f e e l th a t A p u r e ly v i s u a l rea d er i s c e r t a in ly n ot an im possibility, t h e o r e t i c a l l y , a t l e a s t . The d i r e c t lin k in g of visu al form t o id e a s , c u t t in g ou t o f c i r c u i t th e somewhat cumbrous and d o u b tle s s f a t ig u in g a u d ito -m o to r iz in g mechanism, would seem t o be a consummation to be w ish ed f o r , from some points o f v ie w . When t h e p rop er p r e lim in a r y in v estig a tio n of the rea d in g p r o c e s s h a s been made, t h i s w i l l be one of the most im portant s u b j e c t s o f p e d a g o g ic a l c o n sid e r a tio n .5

1 . C. T. Gray| D e f i c i e n c i e s i n R eading A b i l i t y . 2. E . B . Huey, The P sy ch o lo g y and Pedagogy o f Reading. 3. W. S . Gray, " R ead ing,” i n B a cy o lo n ed ia o f Educational Research. 4 * 15i d . , p . 1 1 7 . 5 . E . B . Huey* On th e P sy c h o lo g y and P h y sio lo g y o f Reading, p. 7 .

30 Huey b e lie v e d that because th e in d iv id u a l bears what he s a y s , "there comes t o be an in d isso lu b le union o f a u d ito ry and motor elem en ts. "I He f e l t th a t the inner saying or h earing o f what i s read was th e core o f ordinary reading and of a l l language.

"To read," he w rote, " is , in

e f f e c t , t o tr a n sla te w ritin g in to s p e e c h .”2 Opposed to t h is view i s a sch o o l o f thought which b e lie v e s t h a t th e presence o f v o cal movements in s i l e n t readin g i s a by-product o f cu rren t methods o f teach ing p u p ils to rea d .

The n o n -o ra l method o f

te a c h in g reading introduced by McDade3 *^ and e x t e n s iv e ly t e s t e d e x p e r i­ m en ta lly by Buswell6 i s based on t h is assum ption.

Gray f e e l s th a t i t

has n o t been proven th a t v o c a liz a t io n or in n er speech occur in a l l rea d ers or that th ese movements are e s s e n t i a l . Motor versus M ental P r o c e sse s in Reading As one explores th e n ature o f reading i t becomes r e a d ily apparent t h a t , on the issu e o f motor v e r su s m ental p r o c e sse s in rea d in g , th e stim u lu s-resp on se sch ool o f th in k in g would choose to emphasize the form er p r o c e ss, w h ile those p ersons who su b scrib e t o th e sym bolicin te r a c t io n theory would support th e m ental p r o c e s se s a s b ein g c e n tr a l and b a s ic t o a l l reading.

As S is s o n 6 p o in ts o u t , th e stim u lu s-resp on se

p e o p le in reading are th ose who have con cen trated on eye movements and i n s i s t th a t rem edial procedures shou ld begin w ith th e ooulo-m otor h a b its

1. X. B. Huey, The Psychology and Pedagogy of Beading, p. 120. 2. Ibid. | p. 123. 3. James E. MoDade, Essentials of Non-Oral Beginning Reading. 4. J . E. MoDade, ”A Hypothesis fo r Non-Oral Reading: Argument, Experi ment, and Results," Journal of Educational Research, XXX (Maroh, 1937), pp. 489-803. 5. G. T. Buswell, Non-Oral Reading: A Study of Its Use in the Chicago Publio Schools. Supplementary Educational Monographs No. 60. 6. D. E. Sisson, "Causes of Slow Reading: An Analysis," Journal of Educational Psychology. XXX (Maroh, 1939), pp. 206-214.

31 o f t h e rea d er*

The s y m b o lic -in te r a c tio n group continuing to s t r e s s the

t o t a l in d iv id u a l has p u t i t s s t r e s s on the meaning aspect o f r e a d in g h o ld in g t h a t "eye movements a r e symptoms rather than causes o f under­ l y i n g r e a d in g d e f i c i e n c i e s . " Renshaw1 i s one o f th e m ost ardent advocates of th e u se o f p e r ip h e r a l m ethods o f im proving rea d in g .

He has conducted many e x p e r i­

m ents in w hich t a c h is t o s c o p ic tr a in in g with d ig it patterns has pro­ duced marked in c r e a s e in r e a d in g comprehension and speed measured by sta n d a r d iz e d t e s t s .

C o le ,2 L e w is ,3 and Pressey* have a l l w r itte n

books i n w hich th e y p r o v id e eye-movement exercises fo r " eye-stretch in g" and r e a d in g improvement*

To th e soh ool o f "eye-stretchers" we can a lso

add a l l t h o s e r e m e d ia l w orkers who depend sla v ish ly on m echanical in stru ­ m ents t o e f f e c t r e a d in g improvement. The w ork ers in t h e f i e l d o f reading who stress th e c e n t r a l or m en ta l f a c t o r s f e e l t h a t " r a te i s th e temporal dimension o f th e psycholo­ g i c a l p r o o e s s con cern ed w ith th e d e r iv a tio n o f meaning from th e p rin ted p a g e .”

T h e r e fo r e , a s P r e s to n and T uft5 have pointed out i t does no good

t o t r y t o r e a d f a s t e r th a n one can a ssim ila te ideas*

And perhaps more

Im portant th a n t h e p a r t ic u l a r method or m aterials, D earborn#tells u s, i s t h e p r o v id in g o f " fr e s h m o tiv a tio n through the changing o f th e s e t o f

1*

Sam uel Renshaw, "The V is u a l P ercep tio n and Reproduction o f Jon as by T a c h is to s c o p ic M ethods," Journal o f Psychology. XX (1 9 4 5 ), p p . 217-232*

2* Luella Cole, The Improvement of Reading. 3* 4* 5* 6*

Norman L ew is, HQw t o Read B e tte r and Faster* L* C* P r e s s a y , A Manual o f R eading E xercises fo r R . C . P r e s to n and E . N . T u f t , "Reading Habits of S tu d e n ts ," J o u rn a l o f Experim ental Education. p p . 196-201* W a lter 7* D earborn, " M otivation Versus 'Control* E d u c a tio n . U X (Sep tem ber, 1938), pp* 1-6*

Freshman. Superior C o lleg e XVI (Maroh, 1948), in Remedial Reading,"

32 mind or the in te n tio n o f the learn er*"

He s t a t e s th a t methods which are

i n t r i n s i c a l l y not even sound or sane may, because o f th e n o v e lty o f t h e ir appeal and th e ir assurance o f su c c e ss arouse th e stu d en t to new hope and e f f o r t s a t improvement*

In a d d itio n t o th e appeal o f th e method o r th e

m a te r ia ls S y lv e ster and Kunst^- emphasize th e r o le o f th e worker*

Ihey

b e lie v e th a t where t u to r in g or rem edial work succeed they do so because the tu to r in t u it iv e ly h as met some o f th e em otional requirem ents pre­ sen ted by th e child*

S y lv e s t e r and Xunst are r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f another

sc h o o l o f thought which f e e l s th a t a read ing d i s a b i l i t y i s sim ply one m a n ifesta tio n o f the t o t a l p e r s o n a lit y , one symptom o f m aladjustment whose removal or treatm ent can o n ly come about through m eeting th e t o t a l em otional needs o f the in d iv id u a l*

This view p oin t w i l l be d isc u sse d

a t le n g th in another s e c t io n . In the motor v ersu s m ental p r o c e sse s con troversy th e w eigh t o f p r o fe ss io n a l opinion today fa v o r s th e l a t t e r a s Burkhart2 has shown, through a survey o f ed u ca tio n a l and p sy c h o lo g ic a l li t e r a t u r e she brought to l i g h t 214 a b i l i t i e s which she arranged under a number o f headings and subm itted to 45 ex p erts f o r e v a lu a tio n .

The r e s u lt s o f th e survey showed

c le a r ly th a t eduoators tend t o c o n s id e r th e motor and sen sory a s p e c ts o f readin g as r e la t iv e ly unim portant, or a t l e a s t o f l e s s importance than th e in t e lle c t u a l a s p e c ts .

In o th er words most ed u cators seem t o a g ree

th a t the emphasis in rea d in g should be on a o h iev in g understanding through read in g w ith a purpose and t h a t in t h i s p ro cess m echanical s k i l l s w i l l develop a s a m atter o f course*

1. 2.

E . S y lv e ste r and M* S . K unst, "Psyohodynamic A sp ects o f th e Reading Problem," American Journal o f O rthopsychiatry. X I II (February, 1943), pp. 69-76* K* H* Burkhart, "Ah A n a ly sis o f Reading A b i l i t i e s ," Journal o f Educational R esearch . XXXVIII (February, 1 9 4 5 ), p p . 430-43?.

33 A number o f m ed ically oriented in v e s tig a to r s thinking along t h i s same l i n e h ave p o in ted out that putting th e emphasis on mechanics and sp eed r a th e r than on accuracy and understanding "must increase the su b c o n sc io u s s e n s e o f d e fe a t and co n flic t in a c h ild * s mind, to be fo llo w e d b y f a i l u r e in fu rth er effo rts." *

These men a ls o f e e l th at the

u se o f th e s o - c a l l e d " flash " method of teaching r e a d in g without any use o f p h o n e tic t r a in in g n e c e s s a r ily te s ts to the l i m i t th e power of atten ­ t i o n and c o n c e n tr a tio n o f many children in groups j u s t learning to read and a s a r e s u l t c e r t a in minor visu al d if f ic u lt ie s which were of minor im portance under t h e o ld e r methods of teaching have now became s ig n i­ f ic a n t .2

Thus t h e ophthalm ologist and the pedagog seem in general to

be a g reed t h a t th e em phasis in reading should n ot be on the motor a sp e c ts.

By c o n c e n tr a tin g primarily on the m ental p r o c e sse s, teachers

and p s y c h o lo g is t s have n a tu r a lly emphasized reading as a series of p s y c h o lo g ic a l o p e r a tio n s contributing much to p erso n a l and so cia l d ev elo p m en t. Four Steps in Reading R e c e n tly Gray worked out a rather sim ple and very lo g ic a l e x p la n a tio n o f what he th in k s actu ally goes on when one reads.

"While

r ea d in g i s a s i n g l e o p e r a tio n , we can d istin g u ish fo u r d iffern t steps i n t h e t o t a l r e a d in g p r o c e ss—word perception, comprehension, reaction , and in t e g r a t io n — a l l o f which reach baok to meaning background."3 Word p e r c e p tio n in v o lv e s I d e n tify in g printed symbols as w e ll as figuring out

1. S. 3.

W. H. C r is p , "The Psychology of the Poor .Reader," .American Journal o f O r th o p sy c h ia try . XSCIII (February, 1 9 5 0 ), p . 235. G-. E . B erner and D. Z . Berner, "Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s in Children," A r c h iv e s o f Ophthalmology. 2QC (November, 1 9 5 8 ), p . 829. W illiam S . Cray, Qg Their Own In Reading, pp. 3 5 -3 8 .

34 the meaning th e author had in mind, according t o Gray.

As th e s e meanings

are determined th ey are fu sed to g e th e r in to a chain o f r e la te d id e a s , which are p r e tty c lo s e to th o se th e w r ite r had in mind when one i s a good rea d er.

As our ap p ercep tive background i s brought to bear on th e

p rocess a t hand our understanding o f th e meaning i s extended.

As soon

as th e w r it e r 's o b je c t i s c le a r to u s, we u su a lly have more id ea s as to r ig h tn e s s and w rongness, v a lu e , e t c . , and on t h is b a s is accep t or r e j e c t the p r o j e c t .

As a r e s u l t , an im pression has been made on th e psycho­

l o g i c a l s e l f w hich, no m atter how im p ercep tib le, o p era tes w ith th e e f f e c t s o f o th er exp erien ce to b rin g about new in s ig h t s , deeper under­ sta n d in g s, new in t e r e s t s or a t t it u d e s , and, i t i s hoped, improved p a ttern s o f b eh a v io r. Each succeed ing s te p in reading i s dependent upon th e preced­ in g o n e s. We can comprehend meaning on ly i f we a c c u r a te ly p e r c e iv e th e a b s tr a c t symbols th a t rep resen t th a t meaning • • • In r etu rn , th e v a l i d i t y o f our r e a c tio n to th e id e a s exp ressed and th e in te g r a tio n o f th e se id e a s in to our e x p e r i­ ence depend upon th e accuracy w ith which we have comprehended th e a u th o r 's m eaning.1 Dius Gray summarizes th e r e la t io n s h ip o f th e fo u r s te p s which he f e e l s c o n s tit u te th e read in g p r o c e s s .

Ihe whole p r o c e sse s then i s based on

and oan be no b e t t e r than th e f i r s t s te p , word p e r c e p tio n . Word P e rc e p tio n For m ost a d u lt s , th e le a r n in g -to -r e a d days are s o fa r back in the dim, d is t a n t p a s t th a t th ey have n o t th e s l i g h t e s t r e c o lle c t io n o f the problems th ey eneountered when th ey learn ed how to rea d . p resen t s ta g e o f development readin g p resen ts no problem.

At th e ir

One r e a c t s to

the p r in te d word in alm ost th e same way th a t one r e a c t s t o th e spoken

35 word.

Because of the c lo se r e la t io n s h ip between reading and s p e e c h ,

probably without r e fle c tin g on i t , many of us think th a t th e a c q u i s i ­ t i o n o f reading s k i l l s came about q u ite as unconsciously as th e a c q u is it io n of speech s k ills .

A t l e a s t that i s the im p ressio n t h a t

many a d u lts (not excluding te a c h e r s) convey in th e ir a t t i t u d e toward c h ild r e n who are learning to read. In order to arouse in te a c h e r s an awareness o f how com plex th e t a s k o f word perception r e a lly i s , McKee1 presents a s e t o f new sym b ols in h i s book to replace the l e t t e r s o f the alphabet and te n p a g e s o f t e x t p r in te d in the new symbols.

He s u g g e sts to the reader t h a t h e m a ster

th e new system of symbols and t r y to decipher the t e x t .

Even f o r an

a d u lt w ith many years of exp erien ce i n symbol in te r p r e ta tio n t h i s i s n o t an e a sy task.

Imagine how much more d iff ic u lt i s th e problem o f

th e immature youngster with a lim it e d background of e x p e r ie n c e when he b e g in s to learn how to read I Just what i s involved in th e process of word p e r c e p tio n ?

In

th e p rev io u s section i t was brought o u t that word p e r c e p tio n i s r e a l l y th e k eyston e of the reading p r o c e s s , th e key which un locks m eaning* In a se n se i t can be said that meaning i s rea lly w ithin t h e r e a d e r r a th e r than in the printed word w hich i s a mere symbol.

In o rd er to

p e r c e iv e words we must have a meaning-background which h a s been b u i l t up by two kinds o f experience, d i r e c t and vicariou s,

"The v a lu e o f

th e d ir e c t kind o f experience i s w id e ly recognized; th e v a lu e o f th e v ic a r io u s i s often overlooked*" Gray8 t e l l s us.

He g oes on t o p o in t

out th a t,

1* 2.

P a u l McKee, The Teaching of B ea d in g in the Elementary S o h o o l. p p . 23 -3 6 * W illiam S. Gray, On Their Own In Beading, p. 35*

36 The v ic a r io u s ex p erien ces th a t we g a in from reading u l t i ­ m ately form a la r g e p a rt o f our meaning-background fo r th e p ercep tio n o f words. In s h o r t, what we take from one read in g ex p erien ce g iv e s us more to take to the n ex t o n e .l M u lt s in g e n e r a l, a s we mentioned p r e v io u s ly , have reached a s ta g e o f development in read in g in which th e y id e n t if y and a s s o c ia t e meanings w ith words on a page alm ost as u n con sciou sly as th ey r e a c t to sp eech .

The more fa m ilia r th e m a te r ia l which i s b ein g rea d , th e more

unconscious th e p ro cess because meaning comes o u t o f th e con text so r e a d ily th a t we h ard ly s e e words a s sep a ra te u n its but a s s im ila t e them in groups or p a tte r n s .

'When here and th ere an u n fam iliar word i s

encountered in a more or l e s s f a m ilia r co n te x t th e read in g p ro cess i s slowed a b i t and more e f f o r t must be made.

When a p assage i s r e p le t e

w ith u n fa m ilia r words then r e a l co n cen tra tio n and s p e c ia l e f f o r t s are n ecessa ry f o r a ccu ra te p e r c e p tio n . Gray l i s t s f i v e major a id s t o th e p ercep tio n o f words in s it u a ­ t io n s such a s have j u s t been d escrib e d :

(1) meaning c lu e s from c o n tex t;

(2) th e foxm or appearance o f a word; (3) s tr u c tu r a l d u e s ; (4) p h o n etic c lu e s ; (5) th e d ic tio n a r y .2

The f i r s t two a id s are th e ones u su a lly

c a lle d on in m ost o f th e read in g th a t we d o.

s it u a t io n s in which we

meet u n fa m ilia r words any com bination o f the f i v e a id s l i s t e d above may be c a lle d in to p la y . Gates'* l i s t s a number o f f a c t o r s which in flu e n c e th e d e v ic e o f u t i l i z i n g th e eo n tex t as a means o f r e c o g n iz in g u n fam iliar words. th e f i r s t p la c e in d iv id u a ls d i f f e r in t h e ir s k i l l in understanding

1. 2. 3.

I b i d ., pp. 3 7 -3 8 . I b id . . pp. 4 0 -4 1 . Arthur I . G a te s, The Improvement o f Heading, pp . 183-185.

In

37 language*

The h ig h e r a person's l i n g u i s t i c i n s i g h t t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be

h is s k i l l in f ig u r in g out unfam iliar words from th e c o n t e x t o f th e printed m a te ria l.

Secondly, in d iv id u a ls d i f f e r in t h e amount and kind

of th eir p reviou s experience in g e t t in g id e a s from lan gu age*

O b viou sly

socio-economic o r c u ltu ra l background would e x e r t an im p ortan t in flu e n c e in th is in sta n c e.

Thirdly, the ch a ra cter o f t h e m a te r ia l i t s e l f a f f e c t s

the process o f g u e ssin g words from c o n te x t i n r e a d in g m a tt e r .

One i s

more su ccessfu l in guessing a p a r tic u la r word when t h e m eaning o f th e sentence or paragraph in which i t i s c o n ta in e d i s c le a r t o him .

And

la s t ly , the more f u l l y the context s u g g e s ts th e p a r t ic u l a r u n fa m ilia r word the e a sie r i t w i l l be to guess th e word*

In some in s t a n c e s th e

unfamiliar word may form a cru cial f e a tu r e o f th e th o u g h t and th e whole context i s not f u l l y understood u n t il th a t word i s known.

In o th e r s

the main idea i s c le a r ly represented w ith o u t t h e p a r t ic u la r w ord. Context clu es by them selves are o fte n n o t enough t o in s u r e i d e n t i f i ­ cation because one can get the r ig h t g e n e r a l id e a b u t g iv e a word which i s a synonym.

Hence one or more o f th e o th e r word p e r c e p t io n a i d s needs

to be called on. "All o f u s, consciously or u n c o n s c io u s ly , u se w ord-fozm c lu e s when we meet a new word—th eir use i s p a r t o f th e norm al p ro ced u re in reading*"^ accord in g t o Qray.

Their e f f i c i e n t u se h e f e e l s " is based

largely upon s k i l l in making v isu a l d is c r im in a t io n s — t h a t i s , s e e in g lik en esses and d iffe r e n c e s in word forms —and upon t h e a b i l i t y t o remember word form s.

Since there are o n ly t w e n t y - s ix sym bols u sed t o

make hundreds o f thousands of d iff e r e n t w ord s, i t i s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t many words should bear a marked resem blance t o o th e r words*

1.

Qray,

0£ .

o l t * . p . 67*

To u se

38 word form c lu e s e f f i c i e n t l y a person must be a b le , f i r s t , to n o te l i k e ­ n e s s e s and to id e n t if y a c c u r a te ly s lig h t d iff e r e n c e s in th e p r in te d form o f w ords, and second, t o remember th e v is u a l form o f a word.

The

a b i l i t y to use two o th er word p ercep tion a id s , s tr u c tu r a l a n a ly s is and p h on etic a n a ly s is depend la r g e ly on th e a b i l i t y to compare word fozm s, n o tin g e s s e n t i a l lik e n e s s e s and d iff e r e n c e s . S tr u c tu r a l a n a ly s is and p h on etic a n a ly s is are v ery c lo s e ly r e la t e d .

S tr u c tu r a l a n a ly s is must precede p h on etic a n a ly s is u su a lly

because th e l a t t e r depends in la r g e measure on th e form er.

Gray d e fin e s

str u c tu r a l a n a ly s is a s "the means by which we id e n t if y th e p a rts o f a word which form meaning u n its or p ron u n ciation u n its w ith in th e word."1 S tr u c tu r a l a n a ly s is depends upon a number o f b a s ic s k i l l s and under­ sta n d in g s.

-Among th e se are an acquaintance w ith v a rio u s i n f le c t i o n a l

endings and an understanding o f how th ey a f f e c t th e meaning o f a word; th e a b i l i t y t o a n a ly ze d erived fozms which in turn i s based on a knowledge o f r o o ts and a f f i x e s ; and th e a b i l i t y t o an alyze compound words.

In a l l th r e e s k i l l s j u s t m entioned, th e emphasis i s on meaning

u n it s .

In a d d itio n t o th e s e s k i l l s a good read er must a ls o be a b le t o

id e n t if y p ron u n ciation u n its w ith in words.

For t h is reason he must

have some understanding o f what a s y lla b le i s and b ein g acquainted w ith th e b a s ic r u le s f o r s y lla b ic a t io n .

This l a s t m entioned s k i l l i s e sse n ­

t i a l f o r s u c c e s s f u l a p p lic a tio n o f p h on etic a n a ly s is to words o f more than one s y l l a b l e . Again r e ly in g on Gray f o r a d e f in i t io n we fin d th a t "phonetio a n a ly s is i s p rim a rily a p r o c e ss o f a s s o c ia t in g app ropriate sounds w ith

39 th e p rinted word forms ."•*• N a t u r a lly t h e a b i l i t y to u se p h o n e tic a n a ly s i s a s an aid in word p ercep tio n p r e su p p o se s a know ledge o f th e sounds t h a t a re used in our language and o f th e sym bols t h a t sta n d f o r them.

Accord-*

in g t o Gray there are about f o r t y - t h r e e s e p a r a te and d i s t i n c t phonemes, or sound units commonly used in g e n e r a l Am erican s p e e c h .

P h o n etic a n a ly ­

s i s o f English presents s p e c ia l p rob lem s s in c e c e r t a in sym bols must be used t o represent more than one sou n d .

As a r e s u l t th e sound o f a

p h o n e tic element i s determ ined by i t s u se in a word in much th e same way th a t th e meaning o f a word i s d eterm in ed by i t s u se in th e s e n te n c e . A number of phonetic e le m e n ts, u n d e r s ta n d in g s , and s k i l l s are n e c e s s a r y f o r e f f e c t iv e use of p h o n e tic a n a l y s i s .

A p e r so n m ust a s s o c ia t e appro­

p r ia t e sounds with s in g le con sonan t l e t t e r s , co n so n a n t b le n d s, and s p e c ia l two le t t e r consonant sy m b o ls, i . e . , c h , s h , th e t c . ; a l s o , s in g le vow els, two vow el l e t t e r s , and d ip h th o n g s . Auditory p e r c e p tio n i s one o f th e p rim e r e q u i s i t e s f o r s a t i s ­ f a c to r y phonetic a n a ly s is .

A p e r so n m ust b e a b le t o h ear a sound

a c c u r a te ly and reproduce i t in h i s own s p e e c h .

N ext a p erso n must have

v isu a l-a u d ito r y p ercep tio n , t h a t i s t h e a b i l i t y t o a s s o c i a t e an appro­ p r ia t e sound with a g iv e n p r in te d sy m b o l.

When one h as a cq u ired th e s e

s k i l l s he is able to s u b s t it u t e one p h o n e tic elem en t f o r another and in t h i s way he makes use o f p h o n e tic a n a l y s i s i n p e r c e iv in g u n fa m ilia r w ords.

Understanding th e c o n c e p ts o f " s i l e n t n e s s ' , and " v a r ia b ilit y ,"

a l s o h e lp in the p ro cess o f p h o n e tic a n a l y s i s Gray p o in t s o u t, t h a t i s , t o know when a le t t e r i s s i l e n t and j u s t what sound t o u se w ith a p a r tic u la r vowel or con son an t.

F i n a l l y u n d ersta n d in g what a s y ll a b l e

i s and how words are d iv id e d i n t o s y l l a b l e s p r o v id e s th e read er w ith

1.

Gray, oj>. o it.. p. 88.

40 another t o o l t o use in p h o n etic a n a ly s is . " A ll major word-perception a b i l i t i e s are fu sed in th e use o f th e d ic tio n a r y ." Gray^ p o in t s o u t.

" A lertn ess to word form, t o word

s tr u c tu r e , t o sounds and th e symbols th a t r e p resen t them, and, most im portant o f a l l , a le r t n e s s t o meaning c lu e s from th e co n tex t" —a l l th e se are u s e fu l in u sin g th e d ic tio n a r y .

Gray** d is t in g u is h e s th ree

m ajor c la s s e s o f b a s ic d ic tio n a r y s k i l l s :

(1) lo c a t io n s k i l l s ,

(2) p ro n u n cia tio n s k i l l s , and (3) meaning s k i l l s .

L ocating a word in

th e d ic tio n a r y in v o lv e s a knowledge o f a lp h a b e tic a l seq uence, and a knowledge o f s tr u c tu r a l a n a ly s is .

P ro n u n cia tio n s k i l l s in clu d e an

u nderstanding o f th e p a r t ic u la r p h o n etic system used by a d ic tio n a r y in a d d itio n to a l l th e s k i l l s o f p h o n etic a n a ly s is .

In d e r iv in g th e

meaning o f u n fa m ilia r word from th e d ic tio n a r y a p erson must be a b le t o (1 ) comprehend th e d e f in i t i o n s o f meaning g iv e n in th e d ic tio n a r y ; (2) determ ine which d e f in it io n e x p la in s th e meaning th a t th e author had in mind when he used th e word; and (3) "tune" t h is d e f in it i o n back in to th e c o n te x t in w hich he encountered th e unknown w ord.3 Comprehension I f th e word p e r c e p tio n s k i l l s d escrib e d in th e p rev io u s s e c ­ t io n have been a d eq u a tely m astered , th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p r in te d symbols and th e a s s o c ia t io n o f meanings w ith them becomes alm ost an un con sciou s p ro c e ss in rea d in g .

The mature r e a d e r , t h e r e fo r e , p er­

c e iv e s words in groups or w holes and a s h i s ey es move along th e l i n e s o f p r i n t , a s e r i e s o f meaning a s s o c ia t io n s i s aroused which a r e fu sed

1. 2. 3.

G rey, oj>. c i t . . p . 1 2 1 . Gray, oj>. c i t . . p . 108* Gray, op. c i t . , p . 1 1 6 .

41 into a chain o f r e l a t e d id e a s .

I f he i s read ing e f f e c t i v e l y th e s e id e a s

are u su a lly th o s e th a t th e au thor had in mind when he w rote th e p a s s a g e . Our grasp o f th e meaning i s extended toward t o t a l meaning as we a s s o c ia t e w ith i t e v e r y th in g we know th at p ro v id es a c lu e to th e id e a s th e au thor h as ex p r e sse d . We may know som ething about th e tim e and p la c e in which th e p assage was w r it t e n , the t o t a l s e t t i n g in w hich th e ev en ts occurred, or th e ch a ra cters in v o lv e d —and draw co n c lu sio n s a c c o r d in g ly . We may a ls o r e c o g n iz e th e w riter* s p urpose ton e, and f e e l i n g _ as re v e a le d by th e words he u sed —and thus add to th e mean­ in g . When we h ave f u l l y comprehended th e meaning o f a g iven p a s s a g e , we have a c le a r understanding o f th e id e a s the author wanted to ex p ress .*• I f a p e rso n h as m astered th e b a s ic word p ercep tio n s k i l l s th e prooess o f a c h ie v in g com prehension in rea d in g i s e s s e n t i a ll y th e same as achieving com prehension d u rin g l i s t e n i n g accordin g t o G a te s.2 . . . what he u n d erstan d s depends upon h is c a p a city f o r g e t t in g m eanings from v e r b a l s t im u li and t h e s e , in tu rn , depend upon a l l h i s p reced in g e x p e r ie n c e s . Comprehension in rea d in g sh o u ld be a s i n t e l l i g e n t , a s s u b tle , a s s e l e c ­ t i v e , as v a r ie d in c h a r a c te r d u rin g read in g as during l i s t e n i n g . • • A c t u a lly , ex cep t a s m echanioal f a c t o r s in t e r f e r e , a p e r s o n 's I n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t i e s in under­ sta n d in g , a p p r e c ia tin g , and e v a lu a tin g should be th e same during r e a d in g a s during l i s t e n i n g . 3 G ates a l s o p o in t s ou t th e popular m iscon cep tion th a t read in g or lis t e n in g a r e q u ite o b j e c t iv e in n ature; th a t the spoken or p r in te d statement c o n ta in s a s e r i e s o f id e a s and th a t comprehension c o n s is t s merely in g e t t in g t h e s e id e a s .

O ils m iscon cep tion a ls o h o ld s t h a t e v e r y ­

one g ets e x a c t ly th e same g e n e r a l Im pression and th e same d e t a i l s . "Comprehension, in o th e r w ords, i s regarded a s m erely g e t t in g p r e c i s e l y I I f

what has been s a id o r p r in te d ." 4

Gates r e p o r ts th a t T h orndik^ has

1. William S . Qray, Q&T h eir Own In H eading, p . 36. 2. Arthur I . G a tes, P ie Improvement o f R eading, pp. 3 5 6 -3 5 7 . 3. I b id .. p . 3 5 7 . 4. I b id ., p . 358* 5. B. L . Thorndike, "Reading As R easoning: A Study o f M istak es in Paragraph R ead in g," J o u rn a l o f B d u oation al P sy ch o lo g y . T i l l (June, 1 9 1 7 ), p p . 3 8 3 -3 3 2 .

42 dem onstrated t h a t t h i s i s n o t a t a l l th e c a s e , how ever.

Con^rehending

a spoken o r p r in te d paragraph in v o lv e s a v ery complex m ental operation w hich i s f a r more than and f a r d i f f e r e n t from m erely p ic k in g up or ta k in g o v er a d e f i n i t e id e a o r s e t o f id e a s .

D if f e r e n t in d iv id u a ls

g e t q u ite d i f f e r e n t im p re ssio n s from rea d in g or h ea rin g th e same paragraph.

What each in d iv id u a l g ra sp s depends upon h is p a st exp eri-^

ence and h i s a p p e r c e p tiv e background a s w e ll a s h i s g e n e r a l mental a le r t n e s s a t th e moment. One r e a so n f o r th e p o p u la r ity o f th e m isco n cep tio n described by G ates i s t h a t " in s p i t e o f a l l th a t has b een s a id and w r itte n about r e a d in g d u rin g r e c e n t y e a r s , te a c h e r s generally a re o n ly now beginning t o r e a l i z e t h a t s tu d e n ts do n o t f u l l y u nderstand what they read," a c co rd in g t o Zahner.

" In deed ," he w r i t e s , " th e p r in c ip le s underlying

th e in t e r p r e t a t io n o f th e w r it t e n word a re n o t c l e a r l y understood by a l l t e a c h e r s , and c o n se q u e n tly te a c h in g m ethods and m a te r ia ls la g behind p r e s e n t n e e d s M o r e

s p e c i f i c a l l y , Zahner th in k s th a t fo r too

lo n g te a c h e r s have n o t been aware o f th e c a r d in a l p r in c ip le o f semantics " th a t words d e r iv e t h e i r m eanings from t h e ir i n t r i c a t e connections with th e w o rld , th e w orld o f t h in g s and o f men, in o th e r w ords, from man's t o t a l e x p e r ie n c e in h i s environm ent o f anim ate and in anim ate creation."8 B ecause t h e sem a n tic in flu e n c e i s b e g in n in g to f i n d i t s way in to school r e a d in g p rogram s,3 i f in a somewhat lim it e d f a s h io n , a b r ie f discussion o f sem a n tics seem s to be in ord er a t t h i s p o i n t . .

1.

L o u is C. Zahner, "Approach t o R eading Through A n a ly s is of Meanings," C hapter IV i n R eading and G eneral E d u ca tio n , e d ite d by W illia m S . Gray, p . 7 7 . 3 . Loo. o it# 3 * H m d ln g*" In struction in Secondary S c h o o ls . N .E .A . R esearch B u lletin , XX, NO. 1 (Jan uary, 1 9 4 2 ), p p . 2 5 -2 6 .

Sem antics and Reading R eading a s a p r o c e ss i s more than id e n t if y in g th e sen se mean­ in g s o f w ords. I t i s more than an i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s . The f u l l s ig n if ic a n c e o f language i s understood when i t s em o tio n a l c o lo r in g or emotional "context" i s brought under c o n s id e r a t io n .1 T his sta te m e n t on th e p a r t o f a student o f sem antics i s an in d ic a tio n o f th e in c r e a s in g a t t e n t io n which i s b ein g g iv e n t o th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l a s p e c ts o f la n g u a g e.

And sin c e sem antics i s th e stu dy o f th e m eanings

o f w ords, i t i s w ith th e meaning dimension o f language th a t s e m a n tic is ts a re co n cern ed .

How complex the concept o f meaning i s , becomes more

apparent a s one t r i e s t o d e fin e meaning. W alpole2 and Zahner5 agree th a t words have a t l e a s t fo u r kinds o f m eaning:

(1 ) a l i t e r a l or sense meaning; (2) a f e e l i n g or mood mean­

in g ; (3) a to n e o r a t t it u d e meaning; and (4) an in te n t or purpose meaning. To make m a tte r s more com plex, as B e tts 4 p o in ts o u t, a word can have meaning o n ly i n c o n te x t and sin c e th e c o n te x t v a r ie s from one s it u a t io n t o a n o th e r , s o d oes th e meaning. There a re two main sch ools o f thought in sem a n tic s, one le d by E o rzy b sk i5 and th e o th e r by Ogden and R ic h a r d s.6

E orzybsk i and h i s

a s s o c ia t e s ten d t o emphasize "word-fact" r e la t io n s h ip s in t h e ir d is c u s ­ s io n s o f m eanings w hereas Ogden and R ichards em phasize "word-word" r e la tio n s h ip s .

E orzyb sk i i s concerned among o th er t h in g s , w ith th e

r e la t io n s h ip betw een p e r s o n a lity adjustm ent and th e u se and in te r p r e ta t io n

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Hugh W alp ole, S em an tics, p . 50. LO£, d i t . L o u is C . Zahner, "Approach t o Reading Through A n a ly sis o f M eanings," C hapter IV in Reading in General E d u cation , p p . 83^66. E . A. B e t t s , "Reading: Semantio Approach," E ducation. IXDC (May, 1 9 4 9 ), p p . 5 2 7 -5 5 5 . A lfr e d E o r z y b sk i, S c ie n c e and S a n ity . C h a rles E . Ogden and I . A. R ichards, The Meaning o f Meaning.

44 o f la n g u a g e w h ile Ogden and R ich ard s a r e more concerned with the lan gu age fa c e t s o f c o n c e p ts.

E o rzy b sk i u n t i l h i s death recently was trying to

e v o lv e a " s c ie n c e o f man" b eca u se he f e l t th a t "the semantic problems o f c o r r e c t sym bolism u n d e r lie a l l human l i f e . " l

Ogden and Richards on

th e o th e r hand, a r e s t r i v i n g f o r a c l a r i f i c a t i o n of meanings through th e u se o f sim p le words o f w e ll-u n d e r s to o d meanings in place of words whose c o n n o ta tio n i s v a g u er and l e s s d e f i n i t e .

M

a step in th is

d i r e c t i o n Ogden d e v is e d B a s ic E n g lis h ,2 a r e s tr ic te d vocabulary o f 850 b a s ic words w hich can be used w ith f a i r l y good success to express t h e id e a s in a lm o st any g e n e r a l a d u lt rea d in g . Chase f e e l s th a t " th e r e i s l i t t l e f a u lt to be found with th e words we u s e , much w ith th e way we u se th em .1,3 He a lso points out th a t w h ile E o rz y b sk i may d is a g r e e w ith Ogden and Richards on many p o in ts, th e s e men do a g ree on th e two c a r d in a l s i n s o f language.

One i s th e

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f words w ith t h in g s and th e oth er i s the misuse of a b s t r a c t w o rd s. • • • We a r e c o n t in u a lly c o n fu s in g th e la b e l with the non­ v e r b a l o b j e c t . When t h i s ten d en cy to id e n tify expands from commonplace t h in g s t o h ig h e r a b s t r a c t io n s such as " lib erty," " j u s t i c e ," e t c . , and im putes l i v i n g , breathing en tity to them , a lm o st nobody knows what anybody e l s e means.* Ogden and R ich a rd s t e l l us t h a t t h e r e a r e th ree factors involved when any sta te m e n t i s made o r in t e r p r e t e d :

M ental p ro cesses, the symbol, and a

" r e fe r r e n t" som eth in g w hioh i s th o u g h t " o f." 5

They state th at, "between

th e sym bol and t h e r e f e r r e n t t h e r e i s no r e le v a n t relation other than I< f

' 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

E o r z y b s k i, oj>. c i t . . p . 8 4 . C h arles E . Ogden, B a s ic E n g lis h . S tu a r t C hase, The Tym nnv o f Words, p . 3 53. I b id ., p. 361. Ogden and R ic h a r d s, op , c i t . . p . 2 4 3 .

45 th e in d ir e c t one, which c o n s is t s in i t s b ein g used by someone to stand f o r a r e fe r r e n t." 1

S e m a n tic ists seem to be g e n e r a lly agreed th a t th e

o b je c t o f reading should be t o " find th e referren t" o r reco n stru ctin g th e ex p erien ce behind th e words. The problem th a t co n fro n ts th e read er i s underlined by Zahner, who says th a t . . . Although i t i s n ot n ecessa ry in a l l rea d in g t o ana­ ly z e every f i c t i o n 2 and metaphor, y e t i t i s n ecessa ry to good reading (and by no means always easy) always t o recog­ n iz e when we are d ea lin g w ith f i c t i o n s and when w ith language a t a l e v e l o f p h y s ic a l o p era tio n s; and when we are d ea lin g w ith metaphor, and when w ith l i t e r a l language. G en erally, we are d e a lin g w ith a l l fo u r a t o n ce, in th e same sentence; and th e p resen ce o f some " o p era tio n a l," or "now f ic tio n " language, and some "nonm etaphorical," or l i t e r a l language, o fte n le a d s us erron eou sly to suppose th a t th e whole sen ten ce or p a ssa g e, i s a t th e o p e r a tio n a l, l i t e r a l l e v e l o f d is c o u r s e . T his ju x ta p o s itio n o f d i f f e r ­ ent h in d s o f language o fte n le a d s a w r ite r t o suppose he i s making an exact or a b so lu te sta tem en t, when a s a m atter o f f a c t he has made a statem ent which must be su b je c t to in te r p r e ta tio n ; and i t i s th e b u sin e s s o f a good reader to r e a l i z e the l i n g u i s t i c s it u a t io n a s he r e a d s , and to make a c r i t i o a l a n a ly s is or an in te r p r e ta tio n when th e d isco u r se i s o f such importance t o him a s t o warrant i t . 3 Thus we see th a t comprehension i s n o t a sim ple o b je c tiv e p ro cess but ra th er a very complex one in which a w r ite r makes use o f sym bols, w ith very d e f i n i t e lim it a t io n s f o r e x p ressin g m eaning, to communicate w ith th e rea d er.

By lo o k in g a t th e symbols th e reader i s supposed to

" fin d the referren t" or in sim p ler language r e c o n str u c t in h is mind w hatever i t was th a t was in th e mind o f th e w r ite r and which he t r ie d t o convey through symbols.

The p r o b a b ility th a t th e read er w i l l

accom plish t h is task e x a c tly i s so remote th a t Gates s t a t e s "comprehen­ s io n i s , in oth er words, always p a r t i a l , incom plete and h ig h ly p e r so n a l." *

1. 2. 3. 4.

, p . 11. Any word which does n o t r e f e r t o a p h y s ic a l o b j e c t . L ouis C. Zahner, cj>. c i t . . pp. 104-105. Arthur I . G ates, The Improvement o f Reading, p . 358.

46 He m a in ta in s fu r th e r th a t comprehension i s always s e l e c t i v e . • • • What one i s a b le t o report of a passage read o r heard r e p r e s e n ts an in d iv id u a l selection of ideas and a q u ite unique p e r s o n a l org a n iza tio n of them. Hearing a paragraph o r rea d in g one sh ou ld be regarded not as a p ro cess o f m e n ta lly p h otograp h in g a series of d e fin ite id e a s b u t r a th e r a s one o f s e le c tin g , evaluating, and o rg a n izin g a s e r i e s o f r a th e r su b jectiv e impressions.* Types and L e v e ls o f Comprehension "Heading i s th in k in g" to Center and P erson s.2

I f th is be tru e,

th en a s G ates p o in t s o u t "one can read in as many ways and fo r as many p u rp o ses a s one can t h in k ." ^

Gates f e e ls that the l i s t which follow s

in c lu d e s m ost o f t h e im portant types of reading and rea d in g purposes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

H eading t o g e t th e main idea or a general im pression. R eading t o n o te s ig n ific a n t d e ta ils . H eading to n o te and remember precise d ir e c tio n s . H eading t o p r e d ic t what comes next or the most probable i s s u e o r c o n c lu sio n . H eading f o r th e purpose of evaluating the m a te r ia l. H eading f o r th e purpose of reproducing the m a te r ia l in same ty p e o f summarized form. H eading f o r th e purpose of comparing the form o r substance o f th e s e l e c t i o n read with other content. H eading f o r th e purpose of remembering.4

S in c e a l l t h e t y p e s o f read in g lis t e d above are q uite d if f e r e n t one from a n o th e r i t i s l o g i c a l and reasonable that a reader should f i t h is tech­ n iq u e t o t h e n ee d s o f each new reading situ a tio n .

The f a c t that reading

can become an e x t r a o r d in a r ily f le x ib le and adaptable a c t i v i t y makes i t t h e method p a r e x c e l l e n c e f o r learn in g.

One oan read alm o st any time

and i n any p la c e a s r a p id ly or as slowly as he deems n eo essa ry .

1. £• 3. 4.

I b id . . p . 3 5 9 . S t e l l a S . C enter and Gladys L. Persons, Problems in Reading and T h in k in g , p . v i . A rthur I . G a te s, The Improvement of Reading, p. 360. I b id . . p p . 3 6 0 -3 6 2 .

47 A s tu d e n t's l e v e l o f comprehension, depends upon many f a c to r s such as i n t e l l i g e n c e , m astery o f th e m echanics o f read in g, vocab u lary, word p ercep tio n tec h n iq u es, and in p art upon h i s ex p erien ce.

As a

r e s u lt o f in d iv id u a l d iff e r e n c e s in th ese very f a c t o r s i t i s probable th a t one p a r tic u la r typ e o f reading l i s t e d above may be read in d i f ­ fe r e n t ways by d if f e r e n t read ers because th ey may be op eratin g on d iffe r e n t l e v e l s .

S u sp ectin g t h is Fedar and Cochrane^ developed a

s e t o f comprehension m atu rity t e s t s t o tr y t o g e t a deeper measure o f comprehension than i s fu rn ish ed by th e usual read in g t e s t ,

me

t e s t s which they developed were d esigned to measure th e depth and breadth o f understanding as w e ll as in te g r a tio n o f given m a te r ia l and were based on th e assum ption th a t th e r e are grad ation s o f compre­ hension o f even a v ery sim p le id e a ,

B iis p sy c h o lo g ic a l approach t o

the concept o f m a tu rity in read in g i s in turn based on dem onstrable in d iv id u a l d iffe r e n c e s in th e a b i l i t y to p e r c e iv e th e in te r -r e la t io n s h ip s o f id eas and th a t t h i s a b i l i t y co n d itio n s a l l read in g and i s a b a s ic m a n ifesta tio n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , p a rts:

lh e Feder and Cochran t e s t s had th ree

F a rt I purported to measure th e comprehension o f f a c tu a l

m a te r ia l, P a rt I I a p p r e c ia tio n , and P art I I I th e a b i l i t y to make in fe r e n c e s.

Four ty p es o f resp o n ses were o ffe r e d f o r each item :

(1 ) a f a ls e sta tem en t, (2) a statem en t in d ic a tin g th e grasp o f a sin g le ou tstan d in g d e t a i l , (3) a statem ent in d ic a tin g a more com plete comprehension, (4) a com plete summary in th e form o f a g en e r a l sta tem en t. One o f th e most s ig n i f i c a n t fin d in g s o f Feder and Cochran was th e c o n s is ­ tency w ith which in d iv id u a ls tended t o s e l e c t resp on ses o f a g iv en l e v e l .

1.

D aniel D. Feder and Grace Cochran, "Comprehension M aturity T e s ts: New Departure in Measuring Reading A b ilit y ," Modern Language J o u rn a l. £C (January, 1 9 3 6 ), pp. 201-208.

A

48 T his in v e s t ig a tio n provides a d d itio n a l convincing proof th a t s tu d e n ts o p e r a te a t d iffe r e n t le v e ls of comprehension and that t h e r e fo r e , th ey sh o u ld he guided to reading m aterials which are suited to t h e ir v a r io u s com prehension le v e ls .

Studies a lso have shown that those r e a d e r s who

o p e r a te a t th e higher comprehension l e v e l s modify th e ir read in g a t t a c k v e r y n o t ic e a b ly in accordance with the d if f ic u lt y and com p lexity o f c o n te n t* Speed o f Comprehension How rapidly should a person read?

Host reading e x p e r ts who

b e l i e v e th a t r a te of reading i s r e la te d t o ra te of thinking would answ er t h i s question by saying no f a s t e r than an in dividu al can a s s im i­ l a t e id e a s .

In other words simply to lo o k a t words without g r a sp in g

th e id e a s behind them or without tr y in g t o comprehend, i s n o t r ea d in g * Hence when we ta lk about rate or speed o f reading, i t goes w ith o u t s a y in g t h a t i t i s speed of comprehension which is in q u estio n .

Read­

in g e x p e r ts a re agreed also th at th ere i s no sin g le reading r a t e . T rig g s summarizes current thinking when she says Although there are as many d i f f e r e n t reading speeds a s th e r e a re speeds at which you can d r iv e a car, we can c l a s s i f y rea d in g rates into three general ty p e s , corresponding rou gh ly t o the high, second, and low gears in d riv in g . D ie f i r s t and most rapid reading r a t e we c a ll skimming; th e seoond rate we c a ll ca refu l read ing; and the th ir d s lo w e s t , intensive reading. Each r a t e serves a d e f in i t e purpose in reading, and a good read er uses them a l l . l The r a t e o f a reader, therefore, sh ou ld vary according to th e k in d o f

i |

m a te r ia l he i s reading and the thoroughness with which he w ants t o read it.

1*

C om pletely aware of a l l the d if f e r e n t ia t in g fa cto rs in h e r e n t in

T ran ces Oralind Triggs, haprove Your Reading, pp. 20r21.

49 both the m a te r ia l and th e reader but to provid e a rough c r it e r io n , H arris su g g e sts th a t '’one may take th e r a te o f 250 words p er minute a s a rough e stim a te o f th e normal r a te o f read in g f o r h ig h -sc h o o l and c o lle g e stu d en ts and a d u lts ." 1

Hie a ls o r e p o r ts th a t median r a te s

f o r v a rio u s c o lle g e and educated a d u lt groups vary from 207 to 290 words per m inute. Because th e average reader w a stes a g r e a t d e a l o f u se fu l tim e in u n n e c e ssa r ily slow rea d in g , H arris f e e l s th a t th e co rrect answer to th e q u estio n "How f a s t should I read?" i s n ea rly alw ays, "Considerably f a s t e r than you read a t p r e s e n t .”2 a v a ila b le i s

When th e evid en ce

review ed, Gray** t e l l s us th a t th e fo llo w in g f a c to r s w i l l

be found t o "rank high

in in flu e n c in g speed o f read in g:

th e purpose

o f rea d in g ; th e read ers f a m ilia r it y w ith th e co n ten t or r e la te d con­ c e p ts; th e kind o f m a te r ia l read and i t s d i f f i c u l t y ; th e amount o f thought g iv e n to th e co n ten t w h ile read in g; th e e x te n t o f p r a c tic e in s i l e n t reading; and th e a b i l i t y to grasp meaning r e a d ily as meas­ ured in p a rt by r e a c tio n tim e or r a te o f a s s o c ia t io n o f id e a s."

A

study by Traxler^between r a t e o f reading and speed o f a s s o c ia t io n u sin g f i v e groups o f p u p ils t o t a l l i n g 250, supports Gray’ s sta tem en t. On th e b a s is o f h i s fin d in g s T raxler f e l t th a t th e slow a s s o c ia t io n r a te may be so c l o s e ly r e la t e d to retard ed rea d in g r a te o f slow read ers th a t te a c h e r s should n ot u t i l i z e th e u su al methods t o g e t them t o read more r a p id ly .

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Bear and Odbert® a ls o experim ented w ith

A lb er t J . H a rr is, How to In crease Reading A b i l i t y , p . 450. , p. 3. W illiam S . Gray, "Reading," E ncyclopedia o f E duoational R esearch. Arthur E . T ra x ler , "The R e la tio n Between R ate o f Reading and Speed o f A s s o c ia tio n ," Journ al o f E d u cation al P sych ology. XXV (May, 1 9 3 4 ), pp. 357-365. Robert M. Bear and Henry S . Odbert, "Experimental S tu d ie s o f th e R ela tio n Between Rate o f Reading and Speed o f A sso c ia tio n ," Journal o f P sy ch o lo g y . X (1 9 4 0 ), pp. 141-1 4 7 .

50 reaction time but t h e ir r e s u lt s give l i t t l e su p p ort t o t h e s u g g e s t io n of a marked r e la tio n sh ip between speed of r e a d in g and sp eed o f a s s o c i a ­ tio n .

They found p o s i t i v e correlations which w ere, h o w ev er, s o low a s

to be lacking in s ig n if ic a n c e . On the b a s is o f data which he com piled in an e x p e r im e n t t o study the r ela tio n sh ip between speed and a ccu racy o f com p reh en sion (which is reported in some d e ta il in the s e c t io n on t h e R e la t io n s h ip between Speed and Comprehension in th is paper) C a rlso n c o n clu d ed t h a t • • • speed o f r e a d in g is not a u n itary c o n cep t t h a t can be adequately coped w ith in group s it u a t io n s w ith some p a c in g device. I t i s r a th e r a complicated and in v o lv e d p rob lem that must be r e s o lv e d for each in d iv id u a l c a s e w it h due consideration t o th e follow ing fa c to r s : d i f f i c u l t y o f m aterials, ty p es o f m aterials, purposes f o r r e a d in g , and the r e la tiv e i n t e llig e n c e of the in d iv id u a l. The q u e s t io n of the most s u it a b le ra tes of reading f o r m a t e r ia ls o f varying d i f f i c u l t y and for varying ty p e s o f r e a d in g m aterials must be determined for each in d iv id u a l s i n c e no ca teg o rica l answ er for a l l in d iv id u a ls can b e g i v e n . 1 In the lig h t of C a r ls o n s fin d in gs perhaps t h e b e s t an sw er t o th e q u e s t io n — How rapidly should a p e rso n read?—i s not t h a t o f f e r e d b y H a r r is b u t instead an answer su g g ested by Gray who th in k s t h a t p erh a p s " p u p ils should be urged to read o n ly as rapidly as th e y can a c h ie v e w e l l th e purpose that takes them t o the printed p a g e .2 Relationship Between Speed and Comprehension Who comprehends more, the fa s t read er o r t h e s lo w rea d er?

Many

persons would pick th e slo w reader in the b e l i e f t h a t h e w ould g e t more out o f h is reading because he takes more tim e w hereas t h e f a s t r e a d e r would tend to be inaccurate.

"There i s no evidence a t a l l t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s

1. T. R. Carlson, "Relationship between Speed and Accuracy of Comprehen­ sion," Journal of Educational Psychology. XL11 (March, 1949), pp. 500-512. 2.

Cray, 0 £ . c i t .

opinion,"^* according t o H a rris.

Because o f the g rea t emphasis which

has been p la ced on rap id readin g in recen t y e a r s , we now have a sch ool o f thought th a t f e e l s th a t " fa st reading i s n e c e s s a r ily good read in g and slow read in g i s poor read in g."

About t h is b e l i e f H arris says

. . . W hile on th e whole th e r e i s some tendency f o r f a s t read ers as a group to comprehend b e t te r than slow readers as a group, th ere are s o many ex cep tio n s to t h i s r u le t h a t , as i t i s sometimes s ta te d w ith out any c ju a lifi c a t io n s , i t i s alm ost as wrong a s th e o th er b e l i e f , ^ In th e e a r ly s tu d ie s o f th e r e la t io n s h ip between speed and comprehension in rea d in g very l i t t l e r e la tio n s h ip was fou nd .

The reason

f o r t h i s Anderson and Tinker3 p o in t out was th a t th e e a r ly s tu d ie s f o r th e most p a rt had secured r a te measures from read ing easy n a r r a tiv e p r o se , and comprehension measures from answering q u estio n s on para­ graphs o f r e l a t i v e l y d i f f i c u l t m a te r ia l.

On th e o th er hand T r a ile r 4

p o in ts out th a t some research workers have found a high c o r r e la tio n between r a te and comprehension when th ey have used t e s t s which do not d i f f e r e n t i a t e r a te from comprehension,

tfhen a t e s t i s used such as

th e Monroe S tandardized S i le n t Reading T est, which by i t s very nature makes i t im p o ssib le f o r a slow reader t o o b ta in a h ig h comprehension sco r e because o f i t s sh o r t tim e l i m i t , i t i s in e v ita b le th a t th e co rre­ la t io n between r a t e and comprehension w i l l be h ig h . Tinker adm inistered s ix read ing t e s t s ranging from th e "no d if f ic u lt y " l e v e l to very d i f f i c u l t t o s e v e r a l hundred c o lle g e sopho­ m ores.

1. 2. 3. 4.

He found th a t w h ile th e c o r r e la tio n between r a t e o f work and

A lb ert J . H a rris, How t o Increase Reading A b i lit y , p . 4 4 5 . Loc. c i t . Verna L. Anderson and M iles A. Tinker, "The Speed F actor in Reading Perform ance," Journal o f E d u cation al Pavchology. XXVII (November, 1 9 3 6 ), pp. 621-624. Arthur £ • T r a ile r , "The C o rrela tio n Between Reading Rate and Comprehension," Journal o f E d uoational R esearch. XXVI (O ctober, 1 9 3 2 ), pp. 9 7 -1 0 1 .

52 comprehension is very high f o r ea sy m a te r ia l i t d e c r e a s e s s t e a d i l y as the d i f f i c u l t y of the t e s t s in c r e a s e s .

The ty p e o f m a t e r ia l in c lu d in g

the kind o f response required in t h e r e a d in g t e s t a l s o seem s to a f f e c t the c o r r e la tio n between speed and com p reh en sion , he n oted *

When

m aterial w hich requires a s p e c ia l background o f t r a in in g f o r i t s in t e r ­ p re ta tio n i s used, th is too appears to lo w er th e c o r r e l a t i o n .

When th e

tex tu a l m a te r ia l i s within th e r e a d e r s e d u c a t io n a l e x p e r ie n c e , however, there i s an intim ate r e la tio n s h ip b etw een sp eed and comprehension.^* C arlson2 analyzed t e s t d a ta on 230 f i f t h grad e p u p ils from eight s c h o o ls to seek out th e answ ers t o some o f th e q u e s t io n s w hich have been r a ise d about the r e la t io n s h ip b etw een sp e ed and com prehension in rea d in g .

He divided h is s u b j e c t s in t o t h ir d s on t h e b a s i s o f the

in t e llig e n c e quotients derived from t h e C a lif o r n ia T e s t o f M ental Maturity and designated th ese groups a s u pp er, m id d le , and lo w er l e v e l s of i n t e l l i g e n c e .

Hen then s p l i t t h e s tu d e n t s a t e a c h l e v e l o f i n t e l l i ­

gence in to two section s on th e b a s is o f speed o f r e a d in g a s m easured by the number o f words read per m inute on t h e G a tes S i l e n t R eading Test* Hhis s p l i t was made at the median w ith t h e to p h a l f b e in g d e sig n a te d as th e f a s t readers and the bottom h a l f a s t h e s lo w r e a d e r s .

A f te r

te stin g f o r s ig n ific a n t d if f e r e n c e s , C a rlso n drew th e f o llo w in g con­ clu sion s: 1*

The e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f f a s t and s lo w r e a d e r s a s measured by

accuracy o f comprehension was dependent upon l e v e l s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , purposes f o r reading, le v e ls o f d i f f i c u l t y o f m a t e r i a l , op p ortu n ities f o r

1.

M iles A* Tinker, "Speed V ersus Com prehension i n R ead in g a s A ffo o te d by L e v e l of D if fic u lt y ," J o u rn a l o f E d u c a tio n a l P s y c h o l o a r . X X X (February, 1939), pp. 81-94* 2* T. R* C arlson, "Relationship Betw een Speed and A ocuracy o f Compre­ h en sio n ," Journal of E d u ca tio n a l R e se a r c h . X I I I (March, 1 9 4 9 ), p p . 500-512*

53 r e f e r r a l in answ ering comprehension ite m s, and c o n tin u ity o f con text* 2.

At th e upper l e v e l o f in t e llig e n c e th e rap id readers

were th e more e f f i c i e n t *

At th e m iddle and low er l e v e l s o f i n t e l l i ­

gence th e slow rea d ers tended to be th e b e tte r readers*

This tendency

was accen tu ated when th e purposes f o r read in g were more ex a ctin g and as th e d i f f i c u l t y o f th e m aterial increased* 3*

The r e la tio n s h ip between speed o f reading and accuracy

o f comprehension when reading fo r d if f e r e n t purposes v a ried from one l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e to an other. 4*

As th e m a te r ia l read became more d i f f i c u l t th e r e la t io n ­

sh ip s observed were more markedly n egative*

This tendency was most

ev id e n t a t th e low er l e v e l s o f in te llig e n c e * Eurich1 averaged 26 speed— comprehension c o r r e la tio n s obtained u sin g a number o f d if f e r e n t t e s t s and found th e average c o r r e la tio n to be *31*

He, th e r e fo r e , decided th a t th e r e la tio n s h ip between r a te o f

rea d in g and comprehension i s p o s it i v e though n o t c l o s e .

Eurieh a ls o

concluded th a t th e r e s u lt s ob tained in c o r r e la tin g th e two depend upon th e manner in which each i s measured*

Blammers and L in d q u ist2 con­

s tr u c te d a rea d in g t e s t and ad m in istered i t t o 672 e le v e n th and tw e lft h grade h igh s c h o o l p u p ils in order t o measure r a t e o f comprehension and power o f com prehension.

The t e s t c o n s is te d o f a number o f e x e r c is e s

v aryin g in co n ten t and d i f f i c u l t y .

Each e x e r c is e was composed o f (a) a

s p e c i f i c q u e stio n , (b) a read ing s e le c t io n c o n ta in in g th e answer t o t h is q u e stio n , and (e) s e v e r a l suggested answers t o th e q u e stio n , one o f whioh

1* 2*

A lv in C. E u rieh , "The R e la tio n o f Speed o f Reading t o Comprehension," S ch o o l and S o c ie t y . 3DKCI (September 20, 1 9 3 0 ), p p . 404-406* P au l Bloomers and E* F* L in d q u ist, "Rate o f Comprehension o f Reading: I t s Measurement and I t s R e la tio n t o Comprehension," Journal of E d u cation al P sy ch o lo g y . 3DKF (November, 1 9 4 4 ), pp. 449*473*

54 was d e fin ite ly b e t t e r than any o f th e o t h e r s .

The s u b je c ts were asked

to read the q u estio n and th e n th e s e l e c t i o n t o f in d th e answer to th e question a t what th e y c o n s id e r e d a s u i t a b le r a t e .

The f in d in g s o f

Blommers and L in d q u ist f o llo w : 1*

The r e l a t i o n s h ip betw een r a t e o f comprehension and power

of comprehension i s s i g n i f i c a n t b u t lo w , th e c o r r e la tio n b ein g ap p ro x i­ mately .3 0 . 2.

An in d iv id u a l te n d s t o m a in ta in approxim ately th e same

rank in ra te o f s u c c e s s f u l r e a d in g in a g iv e n group d e s p ite d if f e r e n c e s such as are u su a lly found in t h e d i f f i c u l t y and nature o f th e in d iv id u a l selection s used in r ea d in g com prehension t e s t s . 3.

Good cam prehenders a d j u s t t h e i r r a t e o f read in g by slo w ­

ing down as the m a te r ia l in c r e a s e s in d i f f i c u l t y , whereas poor com prehenders apparently read e a sy and d i f f i c u l t m a te r ia ls a t much th e same rate. 4.

S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere found between m easures o f

reading rate based o n ly upon m a t e r ia ls comprehended, and m easures o f reading rate based upon m a t e r ia ls n o t comprehended, or upon a m ix tu re of comprehended and uncomprehended m a t e r i a ls .

No r e la t io n s h ip was

found between r a te b a sed on uncomprehended m a te r ia ls and power o f read ­ ing comprehension. In th e two s e c t i o n s im m ed ia tely p r e c e d in g , two o f th e fo u r steps in reading, word p e r c e p t io n and com prehension, have been d i s ­ cussed.

I t should b e a p p aren t from th e d is c u s s io n th a t th e s e two

steps are not sim p le , c l e a r - c u t , u n ita r y c o n c e p ts but ra th er . . . a oomplex o f s k i l l s w h ich h ave t o be adapted t o f i t the needs o f th e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f rea d in g s it u a t io n s . Certain fundam ental ele m e n ts o f word r e c o g n itio n , word meaning, and a b i l i t y t o d e a l w ith p h rase and senten ce u n its are in volved i n a l l r e a d in g s i t u a t i o n s . Genuine read in g

55 s it u a t io n s , however, c a l l f o r much more than th e a b i l i t y to read words, p h ra se s, and s e n te n c e s . They in v o lv e many d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f h ig h e r - le v e l s k i l l s , which vary accord ­ in g to th e r e a d e r 's purpose and the requirem ents s e t by th e rea d in g m a te r ia l. The e f f i c i e n t reader i s a b le to read in many d i f f e r e n t ways ad ap tin g n is m in d -se t a p p ro p ria tely to th e needs o f each new read in g situ a tio n .^ In th e n ex t s e c t io n some o f th e se s k i l l s w i l l be o u t lin e d . S k i l l s in Reading Even though alm ost 3000 s t u d ie s in read in g have been reported w ith in th e l a s t 65 y e a r s , we a re s t i l l fa r from th e p o in t o f knowing a ll th e r e i s to know about r e a d in g .

In order th a t we may tea ch reading by

means o f th e so u n d est methods and in order th a t we may help to remedy some o f th e many cu rren t rea d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s i t i s e s s e n t i a l th a t we break down th e broad p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d in read in g t o g e t a b e tte r look a t th e i n t r i c a t e sm a ll p a r ts or s k i l l s which r e a l l y do th e work. Tinker rep orted a number o f y e a r s ago th a t surveys and analyses j u s t i f y th e c o n c lu sio n ’’th a t th ere are many read in g s k i l l s which are somewhat in d ep en d en t, r a th e r than e it h e r a g e n e r a l s i l e n t reading a b i l i t y , a g e n e r a l com prehension a b i l i t y or a g e n e r a l speed o f reading a b i l i t y . ’*2

H a ll and Robinson® used f a c t o r a n a ly s is on t e s t sco res

ob ta in ed from t e s t i n g 100 c o lle g e freshm en to show th e f a c t o r s e x is tin g in rea d in g accu racy s i t u a t i o n s .

They found th a t th ere are d if f e r e n t reading

s k i l l s f o r p rose and f o r n on -p rose m a te r ia ls and th a t each o f th ese s k ills i t s e l f i s a com posite o f d if f e r e n t s u b s k i l l s , a b i l i t i e s , and a t t it u d e s .

1. 2. 3.

A lb e r t J . H a r r is, How to In c r e a se Reading A b i l i t y , p . 380. M ile s A. T in k er, "The R e la tio n o f Speed to Comprehension in Reading,11 S ch o o l and S o c ie t y . XXXVI (J u ly 3 0 , 1 9 3 2 ), pp. 158-1 6 0 . W illiam E. H a ll and E. P . R obinson, "An A n a ly t ic a l Approach t o the Study o f Reading S k i l l s ," Jou rn al o f E d u ca tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y . XXXVI (O ctober, 1 9 4 5 ), p p. 4 2 9 -4 4 2 .

56 Burkhart1 made a thorough survey o f ed u ca tio n a l and p sycho­ l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e f o r th e purpose o f o b ta in in g a l i s t o f a l l th e s k i l l s and a b i l i t i e s w hich r e a d in g s p e c i a l i s t s b e lie v e to be in v o lv ed in th e read in g p r o c e s s .

Her aurvey brought to l i g h t 214 a b i l i t i e s , a l l o f

which were c l a s s i f i a b l e under th e fo llo w in g s i x h ea d in g s: t io n a l a b i l i t i e s ,

(1) observa­

(2 ) r e s e a r c h a b i l i t i e s , (3) vocabulary a b i l i t i e s ,

(4) a e s t h e t i c a b i l i t i e s , (5 ) h y g ie n ic a b i l i t i e s , and (6) o r a l a b i l i t i e s . T rig g s2 h as drawn up a l i s t o f reading s k i l l s w hich though more ab b revi­ ated than B u rk h a rt's i s n e v e r th e le s s q u ite com prehensive.

In order t o

g iv e some in d ic a t io n o f th e range o f a b i l i t i e s co n sid ered to be in v o lv ed in t h e rea d in g p r o c e s s t h i s l i s t i s reproduced b elo w . I.

M ech an ical s k i l l s A . A bsence o f a r t ic u la t io n B . A bsence o f e x c e s s iv e head movement C. E f f i c i e n t eye movements 1). A b i l i t y to r e c o g n iz e word u n its (word r e c o g n itio n ) 1 . To d iv id e words in to s y ll a b l e s . 2 . To sound and blend l e t t e r s and word p a r t s . E . Knowledge o f grammatical stru ctu re

II.

V ocabulary A . R e c o g n itio n ( s e e Mechanical s k i l l s ) B. M eaning 1 . D ed u ction from context 2 . Knowledge o f Word P arts 3 . U se o f d ic tio n a r y C. A p p r e c ia tio n o f Connotation 1 • Word r e la t io n s h ip s a . Synonyms b . Antonyms

0 . Idioms

D.

1. 2.

d . F ig u r a t iv e or r e la t io n a l e x p r e s sio n s 2 . Word h is t o r y (etym ology) 3 . Word u sage U n d erstan d in g o f sym bolic ex p ressio n 1 . Maps 2 . C h a rts and diagrams

3.

Graphs

4. 5.

Form ulas T a b les

Kathryn H a r r ie t t B u rk hart, "An A n a ly sis o f Reading A b i l i t i e s , " Journal o f E d u c a tio n a l R e sea rch . 3DQCVIII (February, 1 9 4 5 ), p p . 4 3 0 -4 3 9 . F rances O ralind T r ig g s , Rem edial Reading: The D ia g n o sis and Correc­ t io n o f R eading D i f f i c u l t i e s a t th e C o lleg e L e v e l, p p . 3 5 -3 7 .

57 I I I * R a te -o f-r e a d in g s k i l l s A* Oral read in g B. Skimming— t o s e e w hether th e m a te r ia l s a t is f ie s o n e’ s purpose ( i . e . , to g e t th e g i s t o f the content q u ic k ly ) by n o tin g 1* Chapter t i t l e s 2 . M arginal and o th e r subheadings S . Topic and t r a n s i t io n s e n te n c e s , key words, " sig n p o sts" ( e . g . , t h e r e f o r e , however, and s e r i e s words l i k e f i r s t , secon d , third) C. Rapid b ut thorough rea d in g (th e a b i l i t y to combine sp eed and thorough com prehension) D. I n t e n s iv e r ea d in g — t o tr a c e th e s o lu tio n of a problem E . A b i l i t y t o adopt r ea d in g speed 1 . To th e r e a d e r ’ s purpose 2 . To t h e a u th o r’ s purpose 3 . To th e ty p e o f m a te r ia l IV.

S k i l l s used in apprehending meaning A . A b i l i t y t o o r g a n iz e m a te r ia l 1 . R eco g n izin g and fo r m u la tin g th e central idea 2 . F in d in g d e t a i l s t o sup p ort th e cen tra l idea 3 . S e e in g d e t a i l s in p rop er r e la tio n s h ip 4 . A rranging e v e n ts in sequence B. A b i l i t y t o remember what i s used 1 . R eading w ith in t e n t io n t o remember 2 . A b i l i t y t o c o n c e n tr a te 3* Knowledge o f h e lp f u l s p e c i f i c s k i l l s a . O u tlin in g b . N o te -ta k in g c . U n d e r lin in g im p ortant p o in t s d* Making m a rg in a l n o t e s e . Sum m arization by u n it s f • M e d ita tin g on and d is c u s s in g th e material co v ered C. A b i l i t y to e v a lu a te and a p p r a ise the m aterial read ( i . e . , c r i t i c a l r e a d in g ) 1 . A b i l i t y t o l o c a t e supplem entary information a . U se o f li b r a r y c a t a lo g s b . U se o f p e r io d ic a l and book in dexes c . U se o f o th e r r e fe r e n c e t o o l s 2 . A b i l i t y t o th in k l o g i c a l l y (a b s tr a c t thinking) a . To suspend judgment b . To s e e th e r e l a t i o n o f th e m aterial read to (1 ) R ea d er's background and experience (2 ) Time and s e t t i n g o* To draw c o n c lu s io n s d . To ju d ge th e a u th o r ’ s performance by (1 ) Checking th e v a l i d i t y and th e r e lia b ility o f h is so u r o es (a ) Checking th e a ccu ra cy o f the author's in fe r e n c e s in th e l i g h t o f the material p r e s e n te d

58 D.

7*

A b ilit y to a c t on the b a s is o f what has been read 1* Following w r itte n d ir e c tio n s 2 . Answering q u estio n s req u irin g reason in g

Reading fo r ap p reciation A. A b ilit y to v is u a liz e the s it u a t io n s and p la c e s described B. A b ilit y to respond em otion ally to th e m a teria l read C. A b ilit y t o ap p reciate tone and rhythm (e s p e c ia lly in o r a l reading)

T rig g s arranged her c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , she sa y 3 , roughly according to the co m p le x ity o f th e s h i l l s .

This does n ot im ply, she c a r e fu lly p o in ts o u t,

t h a t th e v a r io u s s h i l l s are r i g id , independent u n its w ith in th e readin g p r o c e s s ; th ey are a l l c lo s e ly in te r r e la te d — j u s t as c lo s e ly in te r r e la te d a s th e fo u r ste p s in reading which we are d iscu ssin g * Thus f a r , o f the four s te p s which Gray d is tin g u is h e d in read­ in g , i* e * , word p ercep tio n , com prehension, r e a c tio n , and in te g r a tio n , th e f i r s t two have been d isc u sse d .

In th e o u t lin e o f s p e c if i c read ing s h i l l s

p re se n te d above m ost o f the a c t i v i t i e s l i s t e d can be p ro p erly c l a s s i f i e d under word p er c e p tio n and comprehension*

A number o f the s k i l l s , howeva;

such a s ju d g in g th e au th or's performance and responding em o tio n a lly are exam ples o f th e th ir d step in rea d in g , r e a c t io n .

When th e id e n t i f ic a t io n

o f p r in te d symbols sim ultaneously c a l l s up meanings in th e reader which a r e fu se d in to a chain o f r e la te d id e a s , what th e reader f e e l s o r th in k s about what th e author has sa id i s h is r e a c tio n .

The e x te n t to which th e

read er i s a f f e c t e d or guided by th e id ea s gained from read in g c o n s t it u t e s th e f o u r th o r f i n a l ste p in the t o t a l a o t o f reading*

S in ce r e a c tio n

and in t e g r a t io n a re so c lo s e ly r e la te d and interdependent they w i l l be tr e a te d to g e th e r in the next s e c tio n under th e t i t l e , E f f e c ts o f R ead in g, which embraces them both*

59 E f f e c t s o f R eading I n t e g r a t io n i s one o f th e primary principles of human growth and a p r o c e s s which has s p e c i a l s ig n if ic a n c e in the development o f p erson ality* A cco rd in g t o A l l p a r t , " in te g r a t io n means that from disparate u n its o f b eh a v io r la r g e r and more in c l u s i v e in teg ers are fonaed."^

I f we accept

th e th e o r y th a t " p e r s o n a lit y i s th e dynamic organization w ith in th e in d iv i­ d u al o f t h o s e p sy c h o p h y s ic a l system s th a t determine h is unique adjustments t o h i s en viron m ent,"^ and i f we a c c e p t the theory that in teg r a tio n i s a co n tin u o u s p r o c e s s , th en i t f o llo w s n atu rally that we a lso b e lie v e that ch an ges a r e p o s s i b l e from tim e t o tim e in the trend or d ir e c tio n o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r s o n a li t y d evelop m ent.

Newly created in te r e s ts , f o r

in s t a n c e , charged w ith enough dynamic power, can displace old er form ations, and h e n c e fo r th s e r v in g a s f u n c t io n a lly autonomous systems, guide th e f u r th e r developm ent o f t h e p e r s o n a lit y u n til they in turn are grad u ally o r su d d en ly tra n sfo rm ed *3 When a r ea d e r h a s grasp ed an author's meaning f u lly and accu ­ r a t e l y he e x p e r ie n c e s a r e a c t io n w hich "may vary a ll the way from hearty a p p ro v a l o f th e a r t i s t r y o f th e a u th or to vigorous criticism o f th e b a s ic assu m p tio n s u n d erly in g h i s argum ents."4

The kind and e x te n t o f

th e r e a d e r 's r e a c t io n w i l l depend, o f course, on the breadth o f h i s e x p e r ie n c e .

The r e a d in g one d o e s , i s i t s e l f a part of a p erso n 's e x p e r i­

en ce and l i k e a l l o th e r e x p e r ie n c e s has some effeo t on the in d iv id u a l even though in many in s t a n c e s t h i s i s im perceptible.

Just how imper­

c e p t i b l e in t h e c a s e o f s tu d e n t s who read without in terest or purpose

1* Gordon W* A ll p a r t , P e r s o n a lit y : A Psychological In terp reta tio n , p . 142 2* I b id * , p . 48* 3m I b id *, p . 212* 4* R eading in t h e H igh S c h o o l and C o lle g e . Forty-Seventh Yearbook o f the N*S*S*S*, p . 34*

60 or co n cen tra tio n , many a teach er can r e a d ily say*

However, when an

in d iv id u a l does read w ith i n t e r e s t , purpose, and co n cen tr a tio n , i t i s p o s s ib le th a t th e id e a s which he acq u ires may become fu sed w ith h is p rev io u s experience so th a t s ig n if ic a n t i n t e l l e c t u a l and em otional changes occur*^ At l e a s t two groups in our s o c ie t y have become aware o f th e e f f e c t s o f read in g a s a f a c to r in p e r s o n a lity development and changed On th e one hand ed u cators charged w ith th e r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f f o s t e r in g th e t o t a l development o f our young p e o p le , have begun to c a p it a li z e on readin g as a means o f promoting p erso n a l and s o c ia l development*

The

o th er group com prises the p sy c h o th e r a p ists and t h e ir c o lle a g u e s in a l l i e d f i e l d s who have d isco v ered th at read in g can have a th e r a p e u tic e f f e c t on in d iv id u a ls s u ffe r in g from m ild p sych on eu rotic distu rb an ces* The l a t t e r group, b ein g a h ig h ly v erb a l on e, h as coined th e term " b ibliotherapy" t o ap p ly to t h e ir p a r tic u la r use o f rea d in g .

Each o f

th e se attem pts to use readin g to a f f e c t p e r s o n a lity w i l l be d isc u sse d in th e s e c tio n s which fo llow * Promoting P erso n a l and S o c ia l Development Through Heading "The sem antic problems o f c o r r e c t symbolism u n d erlie a l l human l i f e , " Eorzybski^ has to ld us*

With t h is as one o f h is major p rem ises, i t

i s ea sy t o see why Eorzybski was so much concerned w ith the r e la tio n s h ip between p e r s o n a lity and th e use and in te r p r e ta tio n o f language*

The f a c t

th a t many educators must a gree in some measure w ith E orzybski i s demon­ s tr a te d by th e f a c t th a t th e theme o f th e Annual Conference on Beading

1* 2*

Xbijd• , p* 35* A lfred Eorzybski, S c ie n c e and S a n ity , p* 84*

61

h e ld a t t h e U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago in 1947 was Promoting Personal and S o c ia l Developm ent through Reading.*

I t i s a ls o q u ite evident th at

rea d in g m a t e r ia ls are frequently being used tod ay t o help persons understand th em selv e s better*

Novels, short s t o r i e s , and biographies

a re c o n sid e r e d a s a b a s ic source for obtaining t h i s type of inform ation. p W itty p o in t s o u t , f o r instance, that in f i c t i o n , p u p ils encounter numerous in c id e n t s in which the central ch aracters experience c o n f li c t , u n c e r t a in t y , and a n x ie ty concerning problems w hich beset most adoles­ c e n ts*

" D ir e c te d read in g of th is type of li t e r a t u r e enlarges the

s t u d e n t 's u n d erstan d in g of human personality in i t s varied forms and a s p e c t s * 1,3 As a r e s u l t o f th is in sigh t he canes to understand h im self and h i s own problem s b e tte r .

"Shis e ffo r t i s n o t considered p sy c h ia tr ic

th e r a p y ," a c c o r d in g to Witty; "it is merely an attem p t to help stu d en ts a c q u ir e an a p p r e c ia tio n of th eir own resources and a b i l i t i e s for meet­ in g th e v i c i s s i t u d e s encountered in a normal l i f e * ”4 Loban b e l i e v e s th at "personal development i s the indispensable b a se on which understanding others must be erected ." ®

He further

b e l i e v e s t h a t th e p sy ch o lo g ica l processes o f p r o j e c tio n and id e n tif ic a ­ t io n w hich ta k e p la c e when one i s transported by a w e ll written book a r e p o te n t f o r c e s f o r shaping personal growth.

According to Loban6 an

u n d ersta n d in g o f p e o p le can be gained both through lite r a tu r e and p s y c h o lo g y .

1. 2.

P r o c e e d in g s o f th e Annual Conference on Reading Held a t the U n iv e r sity o f C h ica g o , 1 9 4 7 , V ol. IS, Promoting P erso n a l and S ocial Development Through Reading:. Supplementary Educational Monographs , No. 64* P a u l A* W itty , "Reading and Personal W ell-B eing," Chapter I II in Prom oting P e r so n a l and S ocial Development Through Reading, p . 2 6 .

3* Loo. c i t .

4. 5. 6.

B ecause lite r a tu r e o ffers a liv in g q u a lit y and because

L o c. c ^ t • W a lter Loban, "Reading and an understanding o f P eople," Chapter 7 in Prom oting P e r so n a l and S ocial Development Through Reading, p . 4 6 . I b id . . p . 4 7 .

62 p r a c t i c a l ly every a s p e c t o f human m o tiv a tio n and beh avior has been portrayed in l i t e r a t u r e , Loban f e e l s t h a t a stu dy o f lit e r a t u r e i s by f a r th e m ost valu ab le*

W hile th e im portance o f c r e a t iv e a c t i v i t y a s a phase

o f ed u ca tio n and a s an elem ent in th e developm ent o f p e r s o n a lity has been emphasized over and over again s t i l l th e importance o f read in g from t h is sta n d p o in t h as been la r g e ly overlook ed , Gray! f e e l s .

R u s s e ll8

v ery c o n s e r v a tiv e ly s t a t e s th a t read in g probably has p o s it iv e u p -b u ild in g e f f e c t s on some c h ild r e n and th a t f o r t h is reason i t i s w e ll f o r tea ch ers t o know books and be a b le to recommend th e r ig h t book to th e r ig h t p erson a t th e r ig h t tim e.

McGann3 working in th e p sy c h o -ed u ca tio n a l c l i n i c a t

th e Howard Graduate S ch ool o f E ducation developed dram atic d ia lo g u e s which she used in th e treatm en t o f d isa b le d readers*

She f e e l s th a t

t h i s tech n iq u e has many p s y c h o lo g ic a l advantages because o f i t s th era­ p e u t ic e f f e c t on th e p e r s o n a lit y o f th e d isa b le d rea d er.

The sim u l­

taneous treatm en t o f th e read in g d i s a b i l i t y p ro v id es m o tiv a tio n f o r e f f e c t i v e le a r n in g through h ig h ly in d iv id u a liz e d co n ten t and n o v e lty o f method*

C o n v ersa tio n , s e lf - f o r g e t f u ln e s s , s o c ia l s tim u la tio n , and

re a d in g , ra p p o r t, and th e le a r n in g o f fa v o r a b le a t t it u d e s a re o th er good th in g s which grow o u t o f the use o f dram atio d ia lo g u e s f o r rem ed ial r e a d in g .

T his use o f read in g i s r e a l l y a com bination o f th e

e d u c a to r 's use o f rea d in g j u s t d e s c r ib e d , and th e p sy c h o th e r a p ists use o f rea d in g which i s d escrib e d in th e n e x t s e c tio n *

1* 2* 3*

C* T. Gray, "Reading A b i l i t y and P e r s o n a lity Developm ent," Educa­ t i o n a l Jorum. 17 (January, 1 9 4 0 ), p p. 1 3 3-138. David H* R u s s e ll, "Reading D i s a b i l i t y and M ental H ealth : A Review o f R esea rch ." "Understanding The C h ild . XVI (January, 1947) p p . 24-32* Mary MoGann, "Dramatio D ia lo g u es f o r Sim ultaneous Treatment o f Reading and P e r s o n a lity Problem s," Jou rnal o f E d u cation al P sy c h o lo g y . X3QC7III (February, 1 9 4 7 ), p p . 96-104*

63 B ib lloth erap y Gottscbalk1 d efin e s b ib lioth erap y simply a s "a means o f p sy c h o ­ therapy through reading." he p o in ts out*

I t i s n ot something new o r r e c e n t ly d is c o v e r e d ,

"Reading has been used for cen tu ries to d is s e m in a te new

id e a s , a lte r old a ttitu d es and a c t i v i t i e s , and i n i t i a t e new o n e s * ” According to Gottschalk . . • She impressive growth o f litera tu re as a means o f swaying the actions of men has been exem plified by th e martyrdoms because o f what was written in the B ib le , th e murderings because of what was written in a m ilit a r y order, and the mass p aran oias because of what was w ritten in a newspaper. And any reader knows from h is personal experience, t h e myriads of hopes and solaces that can be engendered by what he has r e a d .2 G ottschalk f e e ls that at a tim e when the need fo r p s y c h ia t r ic tr e a tm e n t i s so great, that the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f bibliotherapy a s an a d ju n c t t o psychotherapy have been overlook ed .

He summarizes th e ways i n w h ich

b ib lio th era p y may work, as f o llo w s : 1* Prescribed reading may h e lp the p a tien t understand b ette r h is own p sy c h o lo g ica l and p h y sio lo g ica l r e a c t i o n s to fru stration and c o n f lic t * 2 . I t may help the p a tie n t understand some o f th e te r m in o lo g y used in psychology and p sy c h ia tr y so that com munication between the therapist and p a tie n t may be f a c i l i t a t e d * 3* I t may help or s tim u la te the patient to v e r b a liz e p rob ­ lems which he o rd in a rily f in d s d if f ic u lt to d is c u s s f r e e l y because o f fea r, shame o r g u i l t . I f , through th e r e a d in g chosen fo r him, the p a t ie n t d iscovers h is own problem s i n th e v io issitu d es o f o th e r s , h is frequent f e e li n g o f b e in g d iffe r e n t from others may be d isp elled . I f he le a r n s t h a t others have had to fa c e s itu a tio n s sim ilar to th o se t h a t contributed to or p r e c ip ita te d h is personality m a lfu n c tio n ­ in g or i f he fin d s th at o th e r s have attacked w ith s u c c e s s problems sim ilar to h i s , h i s self-esteem may be buoyed and h is eagerness stim ulated to seek an adjustment th a t w i l l le ss e n h is o o n flio ts.

1* 8*

L ouis A* GottschaUc, " B ibliotherap y As an Adjuvant in P sy c h o th e r a p y ," American Journal o£ P s y c h ia tr y . 017 (A pril, 1 9 4 8 ), p p . 632-637* L oc. cit*

64 4* I t may h elp the p a tie n t to think c o n s tr u c tiv e ly between in te r v ie w s and t o an alyze and s y n th e s iz e fu r th e r h i s a t t i ­ tudes and behavior p a ttern s* I t may p rovid e th e r a p e u tic a lly planned v ic a r io u s l i f e ex p erien ces which th e p a t ie n t has p r e v io u sly ad justed t o only w ith co n sid era b le c o n f li c t w ith out exp osin g him to the r e a l dangers o f th e a c tu a l experience* 5* I t may r e in fo r c e by p recep t and example, our s o c ia l and c u ltu r a l p a tte r n s and in h ib it in f a n t i le p a tte r n s o f b eh avior. 6 . I t may stim u la te im agin ation , a ffo r d v ic a r io u s s a t i s f a c ­ t io n s or en la rg e the p a tien t* s sphere o f in te r e s ts * ^ Some o f th e s it u a t io n s in which p rescrib ed reading has been found to be v a lu a b le a re: 1 . For g iv in g f a c tu a l p r o g r e s siv e sex ed u cation f o r ch ild ren . S . In d evelop in g new in t e r e s t s and hobbies in c h ild r e n . 3* With a d u lts o f good i n t e l le c t u a l a b i l i t y who are in th e h a b it o f rea d in g , and who have m ild p sych on eu rotic distu rban ces* G ottsch alk o f f e r s th e fo llo w in g ca u tio n to would-be u se rs o f the technique o f b ib lio th e r a p y : • • • Ih e w is e s t r u le f o r th e th e r a p is t t o remember in usin g any c o l l e c t i o n o f books f o r th e ra p eu tic rea so n s i s t o remember t o know each book and understand i t s a c tio n as thoroughly a s th e p h y sic ia n seek s to know th e in g r e d ie n ts and a c tio n s o f a m ed ical p r e s c r ip tio n * 2 B eing in te r e s te d in the th era p eu tic v a lu e o f th e use o f lit e r a t u r e Washbume® over a p erio d o f s e v e r a l y e a r s , asked stu d e n ts who were e n r o lle d in co u rses in a d o le sc e n t p sych ology to s t a t e whether in t h e ir reading ex p erien ce any n o v e l, s to r y , or p la y (1) had a s s is t e d them in d e a lin g w ith a p e rso n a l d i f f i c u l t y , (2 ) had su g g ested an answer t o a p erp lex in g q u e stio n , or (3) had had any o th er im pact on t h e ir th in k in g and f e e lin g * The answers in d ic a te d th a t no p r e d ic tio n s could be made w ith regard to th e r e s u lt s o f th e u se o f any p a r t ic u la r book, n o v e l, or p la y .

For

example, th e same book presumably le d to a s o lu t io n o f a p erson al problem

1.

Loo, c i t .

2*

JiOC* o i t .

3.

7* 2 . Washburoe, "L iterature in lea ch in g P sych ology," Jun ior C o lleg e J o u rn a l. XIX (November, 1 9 4 8 ), pp* 125-129*

65 in the case o f one individual but gave no such r e s u l t s f o r o th e r in d i v i ­ duals with s im ila r problems.

As a r e s u lt Washburns r e p o r t s , 111 have

become cau tiou s about the use of l i t e r a t u r e f o r t h e r a p e u t ic o r a m elio ra ­ tiv e purposes because of the p r o b a b ility o f u n d e s ir a b le r e s u l t s . ”

Her

reluctance t o use lite r a tu r e th e r a p e u tic a lly i s "based on th e f a c t th a t no two adjustm ent problems are i d e n t i c a l . ”

Washburns f e e l s t h a t

• . . Each individual has h is own p rob lem s, and each problem i s unique because the inner environm ent o f a p e r s o n i s d iffe r e n t from that of any o th er p e r so n , th e o u te r e n v ir o n ­ ment in w hich he functions i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f any other p e r so n , and the means a t h i s d is p o s a l f o r s o lv in g h is problem are a lso d iffe r e n t Being handed th e answer to one's problem i s n o t a s c o n d u c iv e t o le a r n in g , Washburne f e e l s , a s discovering i t f o r o n e 's s e l f . Washburns does f e e l th at books can b e used t h e r a p e u t ic a ll y i f they frame th e problem, that i s , " i f th ey p u t i t in t o la r g e p e r s p e c t iv e for the stu d en t, s o that he can see i t .

When r e a d in g i s a d v is e d f o r

th is purpose, how ever, i t must be fo llo w e d b y c o u n s e llin g o r t e a c h in g so that reading i s n ot allowed to become th e o n ly s t e p w h ich t h e s tu d e n t takes toward s o lv in g the problem f o r th e r e i s a danger h e r e t h a t f a r from learning ab ou t h is problem the s tu d e n t may esc a p e from i t i n t o reading. fyson questioned eight p r a c t ic in g p s y c h i a t r i s t s , a l l o f wham were p sychoan alysts, concerning th e ir o p in io n o f th e u se o f p r e s c r ib e d reading for p sychotherapeutic p urposes, and 124 fe m a le u nd ergradu ate students concerning the e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f s e l f - h e l p r e a d in g .

He found

1 . P sy ch o th era p ists favor b ib lio th e r a p y , w ith r e s e r v a t io n s concerning degree of maladjustment and method o f use*

1. 2.

Loo, £i1*. Robert fy so n , "The Validation o f M ental H ygien e L i t e r a t u r e , ” Journal of C l i n i c a l .Psychology. 17 (J u ly , 1 9 4 8 ), p p . 3 0 4 -3 0 6 . ~

66 2 . S e lf - h e lp reading f o r em otional adjustm ent appears to be supported by study o f a c o lle g e sample on a s e l f ­ a p p r a isa l b a s is . 3 . I t i s t e n t a t iv e ly suggested t h a t both academic and popular m ental hygiene lit e r a t u r e can be e f f e c t i v e . 4 . Further v a lid a tio n o f m ental h ygien e lit e r a t u r e i s needed, w ith a view to w ider use o f t h i s econom ical p sy ch o th era p eu tic a i d , 1 In t h is s e c t io n we have mentioned the dynamic ch aracter o f in t e r e s t s in rea d in g .

In th e n ext s e c tio n an ela b o r a tio n o f th e r o le

o f in t e r e s t s w i l l be presented# I n t e r e s t s in Reading What do p eo p le read? What do they l i k e t o read? What ought they to read? What in t e r e s t s are s a t i s f i e d by p resen t reading m a te ria ls? Which ones are not? What are e f f e c t i v e methods o f c r e a tin g and stim u la tin g permanent in t e r e s t s in good reading? What tech n iq u es w i l l b e s t promote th e develop­ ment o f in c r e a sin g a b i l i t y to d isc e r n th e good from th e bad and to a p p r ec ia te w hatever c o n s t it u t e s e x c e lle n c e in reading m a te r ia ls? What in fe r e n c e s f o r th e whole program o f read in g may be drawn from our p resen t knowledge o f reading in t e r e s t s and o f th e r e la t io n o f in t e r e s t t o p ro g ress in learn in g?^ Because p s y c h o lo g is ts have dem onstrated over and over again th a t i n t e r e s t i s an important f a c t o r in m o tiv a tin g le a r n in g , i t behooves ed u cators who would i n s t i l l th e leading h a b it in ch ild ren to seek answers to th e q u estio n s l i s t e d above.

I t i s g r a t if y in g to be a b le t o rep o rt

th a t sc h o o l p eop le have been concerned w ith th e reading in t e r e s t s o f t h e ir charges and th a t t h i s concern has in sp ir e d many surveys and s tu d ie s o f which some two hundred have been p u b lish ed , accord ing t o H a r r i s .5

1# 2# 3.

Robert fy so n , "The V a lid a tio n o f Mental Hygiene L ite r a tu r e ," Journal o f C lin ic a l P sy ch o lo g y . IV (J u ly , 1 9 4 8 ), pp. 304-306# Harold A# Anderson, "Reading I n t e r e s t s and T a stes," Chapter V II in Reading in General Education e d ite d by W illiam S . Gray, p . 219# A lb ert J# H a rris, How to Increase Reading A b ili t y , p . 407#

67 The findings o f th e s e s t u d ie s o f i n t e r e s t s sh o u ld , however, be review ed with an awareness o f t h e i r l i m i t a t i o n s .

The in c r e a s in g body o f

s c i e n t i f i c data on p u b lic o p in io n m easurem ent h a s begun to p o in t out w eaknesses in methods o f c o l l e c t i n g d a ta once c o n sid ere d v a lid and r e lia b le .

We know now f o r in s t a n c e t h a t t o some e x te n t we can p r e d ic t

answ ers by the way q u estio n s a r e worded o r p r e s e n t e d .

An example o f

t h i s lim ita tio n in the f i e l d o f r e a d in g i s th e q u e stio n n a ir e which i s la r g e ly a ch eck list.

There i s no q u e s t io n t h a t when one i s asked to

check a given l i s t of t i t l e s , t h a t th e l i s t w i l l in flu e n c e th e r e s u l t s , even though a space i s p ro v id ed in t h e in str u m e n t f o r w r itin g in add i­ t io n a l t i t l e s .

Another b a s ic w eakness o f many i n t e r e s t su rveys i s th a t

th e in v e stig a to r s have n o t alw ays r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e y were sam pling i n t e r e s t s circumscribed by such f a c t o r s a s a c c e s s a b i l i t y , f o r in s ta n c e . In o th e r words, the in t e r e s t s o f some r e a d e r s would b e q u ite d if f e r e n t i f th e reading m aterials from w hich th e y c o u ld c h o o se were more e x t e n s iv e in both kind and q u a lity .

However, w it h a l l t h e i r l im it a t io n s th e r e i s

much t h a t can be learned from a s k in g p e o p le w hat i t i s th e y read and lik e m o st. Lazar3* studied 4300 p u p ils i n t h i r t e e n p u b lic s c h o o ls o f New York C ity to find out how b r ig h t , a v e r a g e , and d u l l p u p ils d i f f e r in t h e ir rea d in g .

She found t h a t b r ig h t p u p i l s r e a d more than d u ll p u p ils

and th a t t h is reading tended more toward t h e r e a l i s t i c ty p e s o f rea d in g w h ile t h e d u ll pupils seemed t o p r e f e r t h e f a n c i f u l and rom antic ty p e s . I n t e llig e n c e seemed to be a f a c t o r i n d e te r m in in g b o th th e q u a lity and quantity o f reading.

1.

The a c t u a l t i t l e s o f b ook s *taost enjoyed** did n o t

May Lazar, Reading I n t e r e s t s . A c t i v i t i e s . and O p p o rtu n ities o f B r ig h t . Average, and Dull C h ild r e n .

68

vary g r e a t ly f o r th e th ree groups.

In o th er words th e i n t r i n s i c read in g

i n t e r e s t s o f d u ll p u p ils are very l i k e th o se o f b r ig h t p u p ils even though language d i f f i c u l t i e s may p rev en t th e d u ll p u p ils from reading th e same books or g e t t in g a s much out o f them when th ey do. f in d in g s confirm th o se o f W itty and Kopel^ in g e n e r a l.

Lazar’ s

One o f th e

in t e r e s t in g r e s u l t s found in th e l a t t e r study was th a t d u ll c h ild ren seem to l i k e s e le c t io n s o f humor l e s s than do th e b r ig h t and average c h ild r e n .

Terman and Lima^ surveyed th e read in gs in t e r e s t s o f a

thousand g i f t e d c h ild r e n and compared them w ith a c o n tr o l group.

W itty

and Lehman® compared th e read in g in t e r e s t s o f f i f t y g if t e d c h ild ren whose i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o tie n ts ranged from 140 t o 183 and averaged 152 w ith a c o n tr o l group whose i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o tie n ts ranged from 90 t o 100.

Both s t u d ie s found th a t the g if t e d stu d e n ts read more m a te r ia ls

and t h e ir rea d in g was o f h igh er q u a lity and covered a w ider ran ge. C enter and P e rso n s4 surveyed th e f r e e , independent reading o f some 4 6 ,0 0 0 stu d e n ts in tw enty New York C ity h ig h sc h o o ls and found th a t 75 p er oen t o f th e read in g done by h igh sc h o o l y o u n sters was f i c ­ t i o n , much o f i t l i g h t .

In th e rem aining 25 p er ce n t th e r e was l i t t l e

t o d evelop judgment, d is c r im in a tio n , and th e c r i t i c a l f a c u lt ie s *

Ihe

i n t e r e s t in p o e tr y was extrem ely s l i g h t w h ile in most o f th e read in g th e d ir e c t in g hand o f th e tea ch er was c le a r ly ev id en t*

1* 2. 3. 4. 5.

Noreland5 a ls o

P au l A. W itty and David E o p e l, "M otivating Remedial Reading: She I n t e r e s t F a c to r ," E d u cation al A d m in istration and S u p e r v isio n . 2X II (January, 1 9 3 6 ), p p. 1 -1 9 . Lewis M* Terman and M argaret Lima, "Reading I n t e r e s t s ," G enetic S tu d ie s o f G enius, Volume I , Chapter XV, pp. 441-4 5 4 . P a u l A. W itty and Harvey C. Lehman, "A Study o f th e Reading and Reading I n t e r e s t s o f G ifte d C hild ren ," P ed a g o g ica l Seminary and Jou rn al o f G enetic P sych ology. XL (June7 1 9 3 2 ), p p. 473-385. S t e l l a S* C enter and Gladys L* P e rso n s,. "The L eisu re Reading o f New York C ity High School S tu d en ts," E n g lish J ou rn al. XX7 (November, 1 9 3 6 ), p p . 7 1 7 -7 2 6 . G. B, M oreland, J r . , "What Young P eop le Want t o Read About," L ib rary Q u a rterly . X (O ctober, 1 9 4 0 ), p p . 4 6 9 -4 9 3 .

69 investigated th e r e a d in g i n t e r e s t s o f h ig h sch o o l stu d en ts but he r e s t r i c t e d h is survey to d eterm in in g p r e f e r e n c e s f o r t o p ic s in a c h e c k lis t o f 117 discussed only in contem porary n o n - f i c t i o n . Nearly a l l i n v e s t i g a t io n s o f read in g in t e r e s t s draw a t t e n t io n to sex d iffe r e n c e s .

Lehman and W itty 1 found th a t g i r l s checked rea d in g

as a voluntary a c t i v i t y much more f r e q u e n tly than b oys.

Johnson's^

findings corroborate e a r l i e r s t u d ie s w hich in d ic a te d th a t boys p r e fe r adventure s t o r ie s w r it t e n by su ch w r it e r s a s London, A lt s h e le r , and Grey; while g ir ls chose books about home, s c h o o l and fa m ily l i f e by such w r it e r s a s A lcott, Seaman, and G. S . F o r t e r . Cuff and D o n o v a n , 3 and B a le and C arroll^ surveyed th e r ea d in g in ter ests o f c o lle g e freshm an and found a d ecid ed p referen ce f o r l i g h t f ic t io n and second r a t e m agazines*

H oole asked 554 c o lle g e s tu d e n ts t o

indicate th e ir rea d in g p r e fe r e n c e and found t h a t th e odds in fa v o r o f f ic t io n were th ree to one*

Cockayne^ s tu d ie d th e reading i n t e r e s t s o f

th e graduates o f Sm ith C o lle g e , Dartmouth C o lle g e , and Biartford P u b lic High School by sen d in g o u t 4000 l e t t e r s t o e v ery f i f t h graduating c l a s s in the previous t h i r t y y e a r p e r io d . former students*

R e p lie s were r e c e iv e d from 642

G alsworthy was named a s th e f a v o r it e modern a u th o r by

graduates o f a l l th r e e i n s t i t u t i o n s .

The

t e n f a v o r it e authors chosen by

th e former stu d en ts o f ea ch s c h o o l a re shown below in p a r a lle l columns in order of rank.

1. 2. 3* 4* 5.

Harvey C. Eelman and P au l A . W itt y , "Sex D iffe r e n c e s in R eferen ce t o Reading Books, J u s t f o r F u n," E d u c a tio n , XLVIII (June, 1 9 2 8 ), pp. 602-617. B. Lamar Johnson, " C h ild r e n 's R eading I n t e r e s t s As R elated to Sex and Grade in S e h o o l," S c h o o l R ev iew . XL (A p r il, 1 9 5 2 ), pp . 257-272* Noel B. Cuff and H. L. Donovan, "What Freshmen Read in a Teachers C o lleg e,1* A .A .T .C * Q u a r te r ly . I (Septem ber, 1 9 3 1 ), pp. 8-1 4 * Charles B* Hale and W elsey B* C a r r o ll, "What Freshmen Read," Educa­ tio n a l Review. I2 Z (Decem ber, 1 9 2 5 ) , p p . 260-263* Charles A* Cockayne,""Reading T a s te s and H ab its o f G raduates," English L e a f l e t s . 20DCIII (J u n e , 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 89-112*

70

Smith C o lle g e 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

John Galsworthy W illa Cather Hugh W alpole S ig r id Undset V ir g in ia Woolf S in c la ir Lew is Som erset ’Maugham E rn est Hemingway Andre Maurois C h ristop h er M orley

H artford High School

Dartmouth C o lleg e 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

John Galsworthy S in c la ir Lewis Joseph Conrad Hervey A lle n Som erset Maugham W illa Cather E rn est Hemingway Emil Ludwig S . S . Van Dine Warwick Deeping

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

John Galsworthy Warwick Deeping Dorothy C an field Fisher S in c l a ir Lewis Hugh Walpole W illa Cather C harles Baird James T# Adams John M asefield Joseph Conrad

In resp o n se t o a q u e stio n r e la t in g to th e in flu e n c e o f li t e r a t u r e cou rses upon rea d in g i n t e r e s t s , th e r e p l i e s s t a t in g t h a t th e co u rses help ed very l i t t l e or n o t a t a l l were a s f o llo w s :

auith 111 ou t o f 271; Dartmouth

99 out o f 271; H artford H .S . 55 ou t o f 100# S tu d ie s in t h e f i e l d o f newspaper reading show c o n c lu s iv e ly th at v i r t u a l l y a l l young p eo p le and a d u lt s in t h i s cou ntry read a t l e a s t p a rt of th e newspaper r e g u la r ly and th a t many a d u lts read n o th in g e l s e .

Harvey and

Denton^- a n a ly zed q u e stio n n a ir e r e p o r ts from 44 h ig h s c h o o ls in f i f t e e n s ta te s in an in v e s t ig a t io n o f newspaper rea d in g among h ig h sc h o o l s tu d e n ts .

They

found th a t m ost p u p ils spend from f i f t e e n to t h i r t y m inutes d a ily on the new spaper, and t h a t a la r g e p ercen ta g e o f them rep o rted readin g th e newspaper f o r in fo rm a tio n .

P r e fe r e n c e s were e x p ressed f o r news a r t i c l e s d e a lin g w ith

accom plishm ents in s c ie n c e , a v ia t io n and in d u stry and w ith a c t i v i t i e s of young p eop le such a s h o b b ies and s p o r t s .

N in ety p er c e n t o f th e p u p ils

in d ic a te d th a t th ey n e a r ly alw ays read th e f r o n t p age.

The o th e r p arts

read in d e c r e a sin g freq u en cy were m o tio n -p ic tu r e news, in s id e news ite m s, and th e e d i t o r i a l p a g e .

Gray and Munroe2 review ed a number o f s tu d ie s o f

rea d in g i n t e r e s t s among s i x d i f f e r e n t groups:

1. 2.

B u sin ess and p r o fe s s io n a l men,

C, C# Harvey and 0 . F . D enton, "Use o f Newspapers in Secondary S ch ools," S ch ool R eview . XLVI (March, 1 9 3 8 ), p p . 1 9 6 -2 0 1 . W illiam S# Gray and Ruth Munroe, The Reading I n t e r e s t s and H a b its o f A d u lts , p . 265#

71 c o lle g e s tu d e n ts , c o l l e g e alum ni, young in d u s tr ia l w ork ers, lo g g e r s , and rural p e o p le .

They concluded t h a t n ea rly a l l p eop le in a l l groups read

the newspaper, b u t t h a t group i n t e r e s t s vary. A ccord in g t o A nderson,^ about 75 per cen t o f th e a d u lt popula­ tio n and n e a r ly th e e n t ir e h ig h sc h o o l p op u lation read m agazin es.

E e lls 2

surveyed th e m agazine p r e fe r e n c e s o f r e p r e s e n ta tiv e p u p ils in 198 h igh sch ools lo c a te d in e v e r y s t a t e .

From 17,328 r e p lie s he ta b u la ted th e te n

magazines r ep o rte d a s ’‘en joyed and valued most" w ith th e fo llo w in g r e s u lt s : Headers D ig e s t (2 ,7 0 7 ) L ife (1 ,2 6 1 ) American M agazine (661) Time (489) Good H ousekeeping (461)

Popular Mechanics (426) L itera ry D ig e st (393) C o lli e r 's (343) Popular S cien ce Monthly (279) N a tio n a l Geographic (230)

Center and P e r so n s 5 stu d y in New York C ity found th a t th e m agazine fa v ­ o r ite s s im ila r to th o se rep o rted by E e l l s .

The c h ie f i n t e r e s t s in

magazine rea d in g w ere found t o be s p o r ts , m ovies, popular s c ie n c e , m ystery s t o r ie s , d e t e c t i v e s t o r i e s , and th e s o - c a lle d " tru e” s t o r i e s .

The in q u ir ie s

made by Hunter* and C u ff and Donovan5 show th a t th e l e v e l o f m agazine read­ ing among c o lle g e s tu d e n ts i s no b e t t e r on the w h ole, than t h a t o f h ig h school s tu d e n t s . The m ost e x t e n s iv e stu d y which attem pts t o d isc o v e r what p eop le r e a lly want t o read ab ou t was made by Waples and T y ia r ,5 who a ls o attem pted to find out what d if f e r e n c e s e x is t e d in read in g i n t e r e s t s among v a rio u s

1.

Harold A . A nderson, "Reading I n t e r e s t s and T a ste s," Chapter V I I, p . 234, Reading in G en eral E d u cation . e d ite d by W illiam S . Gray. 2. W alter C ro sly E e l l s , "What P e r io d ic a ls do School P u p ils P r e fe r ? Report on One P hase o f t h e C oop erative Study o f Second S oh ool S tand ard s," W ilson B u l l e t i n f o r L ib r a r ia n s. X II (December, 1 9 3 7 ), pp. 2 4 8 -2 5 2 . 3. Center and P e r so n s , o p . c i t . 4* Elden H unter, "A S tu d y o f th e P e r io d ic a l Reading Done by C o lle g e S tu d en ts," S ch o o l and S o c i e t y . XL (J u ly 1 4 , 1 9 3 4 ), p p . 7 0 -7 2 . 5. Cuff and Donovan, 0 £ . p i t . 6. Douglas Waples and Ralph W. T y ie r , What Do People Want t o Read About.

72 groups*

These in v e s t ig a t o r s assem bled s e v e r a l thousand questions

which

had b een d is c u s s e d in m agazines in th e U n ited S t a te s in th e 1919-1929 d eca d e, c l a s s i f i e d them in to tw enty major d iv is io n s w ith 117 topics and 585 s u b to p ic s .

These t o p ic s were th en subm itted in th e form of a check­

l i s t t o v a r io u s groups d if f e r e n t ia t e d by a g e , s e x , environment, amount o f s c h o o lin g , v o c a t io n s , e t c .

R eturns were r e c e iv e d frcsn more than 100

groups from a l l w alk s o f l i f e .

P a r t ic ip a n t s in th e stu d y were asked to

in d ic a t e t h e ir i n t e r e s t s in th e l i s t o f t o p ic s by marking each item on a th r e e p o in t s c a le : b u t n o t much.**

i n t e r e s t i n g , n o t i n t e r e s t in g and "some interest

In t h i s manner Waples and f y l e r were a b le t o determine

th e i n t e r e s t s o f t y p i c a l a d u lt groups in contemporary n o n -fic tio n .

They

were a b le t o c o n t r a s t th e t o p ic s o f m ost in t e r e s t t o a group with those a o t u a lly read by th e group.

A ccordin g t o t h e i r f in d in g s ad ult members

o f s o c ie t y o f a l l c l a s s e s a r e in t e r e s t e d in rea d in g about sig n ific a n t s o c ia l is s u e s . The d isc r e p a n c y betw een w hat p eo p le read and what they would l i k e t o rea d about w hich r e s u lt e d from t h i s survey le d Waples to do a n o th er p ie c e o f r e s e a r c h t o attem p t t o d is c o v e r th e f a c t o r s which caused th e d iscrep a n cy *

As a r e s u l t o f t h i s secon d stu d y Waples^ concluded that

a c c e s s i b i l i t y and r e a d a b ilit y in com bination v i r t u a l l y determine what the g e n e r a l rea d e r read s*

S t y le and sco p e o f treatm ent were found to be

in flu e n tia l fa c to r s .

B ecause he f e l t th a t th e im portance o f language

s t y l e s in d eterm in in g r e a d in g com prehension was b ein g n e g le c te d , Robinson** employed commonly used l e g a l documents a s t e s t m a te r ia ls to determine how

1* 2*

D ouglas W aples, "The R e la tio n o f S u b je c t I n t e r e s t s t o Actual Reading,N L ib rary Q u a r te r ly . I I (Jan uary, 1 9 3 2 ), p p . 4 2 -7 0 . F r a n c is P . R ob in son , "The E f f e c t o f Language S t y le on Reading P erform an ce," J o u rn a l o f E d u ca tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y . X2XVIII (March, 1 9 4 7 ), p p . 149-156*

73

m arkedly r e a d in g com prehension may be a f fe c t e d by com p lexity o f language str u c tu r e .

As a r e s u l t o f h is experiment he d ecid ed th a t language

s tr u c tu r e was q u ite im portant in comprehending and th a t e it h e r l e g a l s t y l e sh ou ld be s im p lif ie d or laymen taught t o read i t e f f e c t i v e l y . A nderson l i s t s a number o f in n o v a tio n s or tren d s which p o in t in p rom isin g d ir e c t io n s a s f a r as reading in sc h o o l i s concerned: 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

E x te n s iv e rea d in g or fr e e r e a d in g . O rg a n iza tio n o f li t e r a t u r e and read in g in g e n e r a l around co re s u b j e c t s or c e n te r s o f i n t e r e s t . O rg a n iza tio n o f rea d in g s in l i t e r a t u r e around c e n t r a l th em es. C o r r e la tio n o r in te g r a tio n o f l i t e r a t u r e and g e n e r a l r e a d in g s n o t u s u a lly considered a s l i t e r a r y w ith s i g n i f i c a n t u n it s o f in s tr u c tio n in co n te n t s u b j e c t s th u s p la c in g th e emphasis on read in g f o r id e a s . I n d iv id u a liz a t io n o f reading a ssign m en ts w ith p r e s c r ib e d c o u r s e s . C lassroom l i b r a r i e s

~~

Many a tte m p ts a l s o a re b ein g made t o p rovid e stu d e n ts w ith rea d in g m a te r ia ls which w i l l h e lp t o s a t i s f y t h e ir developm ental n e e d s .

One o f th e q u e stio n s

which a r i s e s in t h i s c o n n e c tio n , Anderson p o in ts o u t, i s "to what e x te n t should s t u d e n t s b e p erm itted t o read only a lo n g l i n e s o f t h e i r p r e se n t i n t e r e s t s and n e g le c t r ea d in g which th ey should do in order t o be educated members o f s o c ie t y ? "

Whether on e’s concern i s w ith th e p r e s e n t or th e

f u t u r e , b o th a l t e r n a t i v e s here emphasize n e e d s.

Some ed u ca to rs, p a r t i ­

c u la r ly th e p r o g r e s s iv e s w ith a c a p ita l P , would sa y th a t a s tu d e n t’s needs w i l l b e met a u to m a tic a lly i f we l e t him read t h e th in g s w hich i n t e r e s t him when t h a t i n t e r e s t i s cu rren t.

Gn t h e o th e r s id e o f the

fe n c e t h e r e a r e th o se e d u c a to r s who f e e l th a t immature stu d e n ts do n ot n e c e s s a r ily know what th e y need t o know t o be good members o f s o o ie t y and th a t th e y m u st b e made aware o f th e se u ltim a te n e e d s .

"Can th e read in g o f

c e r t a in books be imposed upon stu d en ts w ith o u t p rod ucin g an a v e r s io n t o rea d in g ? ” A nderson a sk s in t h i s co n n ectio n .

1.

A nderson, op. c i t . . pp. 260-2 6 4 .

74 One answer was p rovid ed by th e Columbia University Press in a r e c e n t su rv ey rep o rted in The New York Tim es.

The 4,000 subscribers to

The P le a s u r e s o f P u b lis h in g iss u e d sem im onthly by Columbia University P r e s s , among whom a re numbered many e d i t o r s , b o o k se lle r s, authors,and l ib r a r ia n s and a l l o f whom su p p osed ly have been exposed to more than tbe a v era g e d egree o f e d u c a tio n , were asked to s e l e c t the world's ten "most b o r in g c l a s s i c s , "

The f i r s t t e n s e le c t e d in rank order were Bunyan's

The P il g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s . M e l v i l l e ' s Moby D ic k . M ilto n 's Paradise Lost. S p e n c e r 's The F a e r ie Qxteene. B o s w e ll's The L if e o f Samuel Johnson, R ich a rd so n 's P am ela, E l i o t ' s S i l a s M am er, S c o t t ' s Ivanhoe. Cervantes' Don Q u ix o te , and Goethe *s F a u s t .

Sh akesp eare le d the f ie ld with seven­

t e e n o f h i s t h ir t y - s e v e n p la y s g a in in g m en tion a t le a s t once.

"Every

book t h a t was e v e r on a h ig h s c h o o l r e q u ir e d reading l i s t was mentioned a t l e a s t o n ce ," th e r e p o r t n o t e s . A f te r r e v ie w in g and d is c u s s in g f i f t y - s i x stu dies concerning r e a d in g i n t e r e s t s and t a s t e s , Anderson draws t h e follow ing conclusions and im p lic a t io n s f o r g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n : The r e a d in g e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e a v era g e person leave much to be d e s ir e d . H is r e a d in g o f new spapers appears to be hap­ h a za rd , s u p e r f i c i a l , u n c r i t i c a l ; h i s p e r io d ic a l reading too f r e q u e n tly i s c o n fin e d t o s e n s a t io n a l s t o r y magazines; and h i s f a v o r i t e ty p e o f rea d in g i s l i g h t f i c t i o n in the f ie ld o f a d v en tu re and rom ance. In a s u r p r is in g ly large percen­ t a g e o f c a s e s , r e a d in g i s m ere en terta in m en t or escape from boredom; r e a d e r s shun m a t e r ia ls w hich impose upon them th e s t e r n o b lig a t i o n t o th in k . I f we are to look w ith c o n fid e n c e t o r e a d in g a s an in stru m en t fo r Implement­ in g g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n , s t e p s must be ta k en to increase th e q u a n tity and t o r a i s e th e q u a lit y o f reading of young p e o p le . To t h i s end, i t i s im p era tiv e that con­ tin u o u s in q u ir y be made in t o what p e o p le read, what they l i k e t o r e a d , and what th e y ought t o read ,^

1,

A nderson, oj>. c i t . . p p . 2 6 4 -2 6 5 ,

Teaching Reading Whenever he has been fa ced w ith a new problem or a new s it u a t io n , man v er y n a tu r a lly has proceeded slo w ly , f e e l i n g h is way by t r i a l and e r r o r . As h i s e x p e r ie n c e increased he gradu ally lea rn ed t o d e v ise new methods based on what he had le a rn ed .

I t i s c le a r ly e v id en t from a review o f i t s h is t o r y

th a t t h i s i s the way th e teach ing o f read in g has developed in th e U nited S ta te s.

As Smith^ p o in ts out in her book, we have p rogressed from the

a lp h a b et method through the word, p h ra se, s e n te n c e , s to r y , and phonic methods t o an e c l e c t i c approach which seek s to make use o f a l l th e good elem e n ts in each o f th e s e methods. Review o f Methods o f Teaching Reading In th e a -b -o method, s in c e th e l e t t e r was assumed t o be th e u n it o f r e c o g n it io n , th e o h ild was requ ired to le a r n th e a lp h ab et f i r s t .

The

secon d s te p was th e lea r n in g o f s y lla b l e s and words by a s p e llin g method and th en fo llo w e d sen ten ces and s t o r i e s .

S in ce th e c h i l d ' s exp erien ce

began m e ch a n ic a lly w ith m ean in gless, m inute p a r ts i t i s ea sy t o s e e th a t i n t e r e s t and m o tiv a tio n mu3t have been e n t ir e ly la c k in g . "Horace Mann i s c r e d ite d w ith having brought about th e abandon­ ment o f th e a -b -c method and the in tr o d u c tio n o f th e word m ethod," accord­ in g t o B e t t s , 2 a f t e r having learn ed about i t in P r u s s ia .

There he found

th e a d v o c a te s o f t h i s new method p rop osing th a t th e word be tau gh t f i r s t , b eca u se th e y f e l t th a t the word was th e u n it o f r e c o g n itio n .

The a -b -e

method d id n o t b eg in t o lo s e ground, however, u n t il phonic methods o f word a tta o k were d ev elo p ed .

1. 2.

These va rio u s tech n iq u es f o r sounding words,

N ila B . S m ith , American Reading J p a tru o tlo n . 5 . A . B e t t s , Foundations o f Reading I n s t r u c tio n , p . 377.

76 however, w ere a lm o st a s l im it e d a s th e alphabet method because o f the em phasis on m echanics o f r e a d in g .

A ll o f these early systems o f

p h o n ic s em phasized th e b le n d in g o f word elem ents, Betts^ points o u t. Jones^ s u g g e s t s t h a t th e word method and the sentence and s to r y m ethods w hich were to f o llo w , came in t o being as a resu lt of the i n f l u ­ en ce o f t h e G e s t a lt s c h o o l o f p sy c h o lo g y .

"The important thing," Huey

in d ic a t e d , " is t o b e g in w ith m eaning-w holes and sentence-wholes, make th o u g h t l e a d , and th u s se c u r e n a t u r a l exp ression , le ttin g a n a ly sis f o llo w in

i t s own

t im e * ”3

B e t t s t e l l s us that

• . • These l a t t e r m ethods were developed concurrently w ith p h on ic sy stem s and w ere em phasized during the 1910’ s* E s s e n t i a l l y , th e s t o r y method c o n s is te d of memorizing a s to r y o r rhyme, a n a ly z in g th e s to r y in to sentences, p h r a s e s , and w ords, and a p p ly in g ph onetics for the sounding o f words*4 By t h i s tim e e d u c a to r s w ere beginning to reach the p o in t where th e y co u ld lo o k back a t t h e ir t r i a l and error progress and make some a ttem p t t o e lim in a t e t h e e r r o r s *

G ates developed the so -ca lled " in tr in sic "

m ethod w hich alm s t o te a c h m ech an ics w ith out sa crificin g meaning.

This

method c a l l s f o r p r e p a r a to r y o r " read in ess" work with the ohild through p r e -p r im e r s , p i c t u r e s , m atch in g games and other devices so that the c h ild w ill

know a l l th e

w ords b e fo r e he approaches a sto ry .

Gates p o in ts o u t

th a t

" th e s e t t i n g

f o r ea ch new word should be oarefully worked out s o

t h a t th e word i s surrounded by such abundant and suggestive con text d u e s t h a t th e p u p il w i l l be q u it e su re t o f ig u r e i t out promptly and correctly*"®

1* 2*

3* 4. 5*

I b id ., p . 578. D a isy M arvel J o n e s, " P a tte r n s o f B a sic Instruction in Reading: Their A dvantages and L im it a t io n s ," Chapter 17, p . 23 in Basic In str u c tio n in R eading in E lem en tary and High Schools. Supplementary Educa­ t i o n a l M onographs, No* 65* E* B . Huey, The P sy c h o lo g y and Pedagogy of Reading, p. 274. B e tts , oj>. o i t * . p . 379* A rthur I* G a te s, The Improvement o f Reading. Revised e d itio n , 1935, p* 272*

77 In other words th e in t r i n s ic method em phasizes th e development o f word r e c o g n itio n s k i l l s in comprehension e x e r c ise s* A s t r ik in g ly d if f e r e n t method o f teach in g read in g, introduced by McDade^ in Chicago and l a t e r t r ie d out e x t e n s iv e ly by B u sw ell, ^ attempts t o elim in a te th e o r a l ste p from s i l e n t reading*

As Huey3

p o in ted out alm ost f i f t y y ea rs ago, n ea rly a l l s i l e n t read ers engage in some form o f o r a l or ”au dito-m otor” a c t i v i t y which in v o lv e s speak­ ing and h earin g even though in many c a s e s th e a c t i v i t y i s im percep tible* Huey did f e e l th a t A p u rely v is u a l reader i s c e r t a in ly n ot an im p o s s ib ilit y , t h e o r e t ic a lly a t l e a s t . The d ir e c t lin k in g o f v is u a l form to id e a s , c u ttin g out o f c i r c u it th e somewhat cumbrous and d o u b tle ss fa tig u in g a u d ito -m o to rizin g mechanism, would seem t o be a consummation to be wished f o r , from some p o in ts of v ie w .4 McDade*s ’’n o n -o r a l” method attem pts to a s s o c ia t e meaning d ir e c t ly w ith th e p r in te d word by ob servin g two b a sic p r in c ip le s : (1)

There must always be an a s s o c ia t io n o f th e p rin ted word

w ith i t s meaning. (2)

There must never be an a s s o c ia t io n o f th e p rin ted word

w ith the o r a l word*3 The " n on -oral” method c a l l s fo r a v a r ie t y o f procedures t o te a c h the meaning o f w ords, p h r a se s, and sen ten ces*

P r in ted d ir e c t io n s

are c a r r ie d out or a cted out by ch ild r e n w ith ou t speaking* tio n a r ie s are used f o r the meaning of u n fam iliar words.

P ic tu r e d ic ­

Many kin ds o f

I n t e r e s tin g , in d iv id u a liz e d seatwork have been developed t o provide op p ortunity f o r word study and s i l e n t m eaningful reading*

1. 2* 3* 4# 5*

James E* McDade, E s s e n t ia ls o f Non-Oral Reading. Guy T* B u sw ell, Non-Oral R aad^^? A Study o f I t s Use in the Chicago P u b lic S ch o o ls. Supplementary E d u cation al Monographs, No. 60* Edmund B* Huey, The P sychology and Pedagogy of Reading, p* 117* p* McDade, op_. c i t .

78

Buswell'a-*- e x t e n s iv e experiment involving t h ir t y - th r e e Chicago ele m e n ta ry s c h o o ls h as n o t provided us with evidence c o n c lu siv e enough t o s o l i d l y e s t a b l i s h th e lio n -o r a l" method*

While s tu d e n t's o f reading

s e e in t h e ’♦n on -oral" method an in terestin g and important new develop­ m ent, t h e r e are t h o s e , who l i k e H arris,2 question the m ethod 's basic a ssu m p tion and doubt v e r y much th a t the method has r e a lly succeeded in e lim in a t in g in n e r speech* Lamoreaux and Lee^ d escrib e a method of teach in g reading which grows n a t u r a lly ou t o f th e c h i ld 's own experience.

Biro ugh t h is

" ex p e rien ce " method c h ild r e n w ith the help of the teach er b u ild a storyco n cern in g an in c id e n t in t h e i r own liv es*

The teacher p r i n t s the story

on th e b la c k b o a rd , re a d s i t to th e children, and allow s them t o try to read i t one by one*

When one o f these sto r ie s i s s e le c te d t o be the

b a s i s o f a r e a d in g l e s s o n th e teacher prepares two c o p ie s , one on chart p ap er and one on oak t a g or s t i f f paper of any type th a t can be cut into s e n te n c e , p h r a s e , and word s t r i p s .

The breaking down o f a copy of the

s t o r y i n t o s e n t e n c e s , p h r a s e s , and words permits tr a in in g in e s se n tia l word r e c o g n it io n s k i l l s .

When s u f f ic ie n t vocabulary has been b u ilt up

th e t r a n s i t i o n t o p rep rim ers and accompanying workbooks can be made r e a d ily *

The u se o f e x p e r ie n c e charts can be continued a s a form of

sup p lem en tary r e a d in g th rou ghou t th e primary grades.

S ton e4 and others

who have c r i t i c i z e d t h e e x p e r ie n c e method object to i t p a r tic u la r ly b eca u se o f th e d i f f i c u l t y o f c o n tr o llin g and manipulating vocabulary in p r e p a r a tio n f o r th e r e a d e r s t o come* However, as Harris p o in ts out

1* 2. 3* 4*

B u s w e ll, o p * c i t * A lb e r t J . H a r r is , How To Increase Reading A b ility , p . 74* L i l l i a n A* Lamoreaux and D orris M* Lee, Learning to Read Through E x p e r ie n c e . C. R , S to n e , "The C urrent-E xperience Method in Beginning Reading," E lem entary S c h o o l J o u r n a l. 3QQCVI (October, 1935), p p . 105-109.

79 The exp erien ce method f i t s in to the modern prim ary-grade program in a n a tu ra l way. I t p rovides a kind o f pre-book reading exp erien ce th a t can be continued along w ith read­ ing r e a d in ess a c t i v i t i e s o f variou s kinds u n t il the ch ild ren seem c le a r ly ready to s t a r t book rea d in g . I t has an im portant p la c e in modern p r a c tic e . . . Teaching Beginning Reading To understand th e problems th a t are con fron tin g us a t th e c o lle g e l e v e l we must lo o k more c lo s e ly a t th e methods used t o tea ch reading in the very e a r ly years*

In th e f i r s t p art o f t h i s s e c tio n a d e s c r ip tio n

of th e variou s methods which have been used was p resen ted w ithout c r i ­ t i c a l comment.

"While i t i s e v id e n t, from th e f l e x i b l e adjustm ents

which p u p ils a re a b le to make, th a t more than one method o f teaching reading may succeed e q u a lly w e ll in d evelop ing mature read in g h a b its , one would not ex p ect to fin d a la r g e number o f e q u a lly good m ethods,"2 Moreover, Buswell adds, "there can be no doubt th a t some methods are in fe r io r and u n econ om ical,” A study which surveyed th e p r a c tic e s o f 1527 s u c c e s s fu l tea ch ers throughout th e U nited S ta te s and reviewed 1356 r e fe r e n c e s in th e p r o fe s­ s io n a l lit e r a t u r e came to the fo llo w in g co n clu sio n a s to th e b e st method o f beginning rea d in g in s tr u c tio n : * * * When t h i s p o in t i s reached (th e m en tal, p h y s ic a l, and s o c ia l m atu rity o f the average c h ild o f s ix to s i x and oneh a lf y e a r s ) , read ing should be introduced as a though tg e ttin g p r o ce ss in which p u p ils le a r n f i r s t t o a s s o c ia t e an id ea w ith a group o f sym bols, then to id e n t if y th e words and symbols th em selv es. Thru much p r a c t is e in reading and a lim ite d amount o f a t te n t io n to word a n a ly s is in sep arate p eriod s — accord in g to in d iv id u a l needs — c o r r e c t e y e -

1, 2*

H a rris, oj>* o i t . , p . 7 7 . Ouy T. B o sw ell, Fundamental Beading H a b its: A Study o f Their Develop­ ment. Supplementary E ducational MonographsJ Ho* 2 1 , p* 105*

80

movements a r e esta b lish ed , a basic sig h t vocabulary i s developed., and considerable independence in reading i s a c q u ir e d . During t h is time i t is e s p e c ia lly important f o r p u p ils t o read-to-find-out-som ething; n o t ju s t read th e n e x t s t o r y .1 A group o f 288 successful teachers, who p articip ated in the e x t e n s iv e stu d y j u s t mentioned, were asked to d e sc r ib e d th eir approach t o r e a d in g .

The suLmiary o f th eir rep lies shown below indicates that

th e m a jo r ity te a c h p u p ils f ir s t to recognize com plete sentences, but a s many a s a t h ir d use short paragraphs as the f i r s t unit of recogni­ t io n .

A v e r y few b eg in with phrases, s t i l l few er w ith words, and only

one w ith th e l e t t e r s o f the alphabet.

In other words current best

F i r s t U nit of Recognition2 S h o rt Paragraphs S en ten ces P h ra ses Words l e t t e r s of the Alphabet

P er cen t of Teachers 33.7 61.9 2.9 1.0 0.5

p r a c t ic e c a l l s f o r h e lp in g the child become " fa m ilia r with symbols fo r words a lr e a d y in h i s speaking vocabulary by having th e printed forms o f t h e words p r e s e n te d t o him as wholes in m eaningful context."®

A

good i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s method is the "experience" technique described on an e a r l i e r page in which the child*s own sto ry i s w ritten up in a s e n te n c e o r tw o. P s y c h o lo g ic a l stu d ies have shown th at words are not recognized by f i r s t n o t in g l e t t e r s in dividually and thus b u ild in g meaning.

Units

such a s s e n te n c e s and paragraphs with a m u lt ip lic ity o f clues, not the l e a s t o f w hich i s th e id ea behind them, have proven themselves to be

1.

2# 3.

B e t t e r Heading In str u c tio n : A Survey of Research and Successful P r a c t i c e , R esearch B u lletin of the N .E.A., X I I I , No. 5 (November, 1 9 3 5 ), p . 384. XbjLd* gpb282 • W illia m S . Gray, On Their Own in Reading, p . 4 4 .

81 much more e f f e c t i v e s tim u li than s in g le l e t t e r s , words or even phrases* While p s y c h o lo g is ts and s u c c e s s fu l tea ch ers are agreed th a t c h ild r e n 's f i r s t reading ex p er ien c es should be w ith m eaningful sen ten ces and sh ort paragraphs they are a ls o agreed th a t u ltim a te ly the comprehension o f the meaning contained in th e se u n its r e s t s upon word p er c e p tio n .

!Diis

does not mean th a t in d iv id u a l l e t t e r s and sounds are n ot im portant but i t does p o in t to th e a d v is a b ilit y o f lea r n in g them on ly a f t e r co n sid er­ a b le p rogress has been made in le a r n in g to read .

When t h is i s done

teach ers w i l l f in d th a t when th ey do s t a r t work on th e a lp h a b et, a number o f ch ild r e n know i t a lrea d y . During th e l a s t f i f t y y e a r s th e r e has been a s h if t in g in methods o f tea c h in g word p e r c e p tio n th a t has ranged from one extreme to another, according to Gray, from form and sound o f sep arate words on th e one hand to c h ie f r e lia n c e on g u essin g from con text*

The ex p erien ce o f t h e l a s t

h a lf century in tea ch in g word p ercep tio n j u s t i f i e s th ree c o n clu sio n s: (1) th e v a r io u s e f f o r t s which have been made in th e p a s t t o promote e f f i o i e n t reading h a b its w ith out d evelop in g independence in word a tta c k have n o t proved s u c c e s s fu l; (2) vigorou s e f f o r t s to develop a h igh degree o f s k i l l in any form o f word a tta c k has n ot proved e f f e c t i v e in promoting h a b its o f word p e r ce p tio n ; (3) v a r io u s methods o f word a tta c k are e ssen ­ t i a l and must be s o tau ght a s t o serve a s fu n c tio n a l a sp e c ts o f th e t o t a l reading process*^ At th e i n i t i a l s ta g e o f tea eh in g word p e r c e p tio n , i f a c h ild has a given word in h is speaking-m eaning vocab u lary, th e c h ild may be shown the p rin ted word a s i t s spoken coun terpart i s used in a m eaningful s it u a t io n or t h e o h ild , upon m eeting th e unknown p r in te d symbol may

in d e p e n d e n tly or with, help figure i t out through word analysis*

D uring

th e e a r ly s t a g e s o f reading there must be a c l o s e analogy between th e c h i l d 1s o r a l language and the printed language he i s expected to in t e r p r e t *

The words a child i s expected to lea rn v isu a lly must be

in h i s o r a l vocabulary during the f i r s t th ree grades.

Eventually th e

c h ild w i l l le a r n to derive the pronunciation and meaning o f p rin ted words whose spoken counterparts are not in h is oral vocabulary.

The

words a c h i l d has already in h is speaking vocabulary which he le a r n s t o i d e n t i f y in p rin ted form become h is s ig h t vocabulary.

The s to c k

o f s i g h t words should be added to continuously through the primary g r a d e s and r e t e n t io n should be fostered through word form clu es and th rou gh an e x te n s io n of th eir meaning a sso c ia tio n s* I t i s obvious that the job of te a c h in g sight vocabulary in t h e e a r ly y e a r s i s much fa c ilita te d by m a te r ia ls with con trolled vocabu­ lary* Where vocabulary i s controlled the same words recur over and o v er a g a in s o t h a t th e ch ild almost can't help le a r n in g them* As a c h il d le a r n s more s ig h t words and h is t o ta l stock o f them grows he read s more w id e ly and b e g in s to encounter words that he d o esn 't know*

Rrcm t h i s

p o in t on he w i l l need more than ju st a s ig h t vocabulary to carry on— h e n eed s word a tta c k sk ills * Gray1 c l a s s i f i e s a ll word attack s k i l l s as context c lu e s , w ordform c l u e s , s t r u c t u r a l a n alysis, phonetic a n a ly s is , and use o f th e d i c ­ tio n a r y *

Of th e f i v e types of aids he c o n sid e r s context clu es a s p ro b a b ly

th e m ost u s e f u l in attacking new words*

He. su g g e sts three ste p s t h a t

t e a c h e r s can ta k e in promoting a b ility to use meaning clues:

83 1* They can s e l e c t read in g m a te r ia ls th a t are p rop erly a d ju sted both in s u b je c t m atter and in vocabulary to th e ex p erien ce o f th e group. 2 . They can make sure c h ild r e n are prepared to a tta c k ap p rop riate meanings to the new words th ey meet in rea d in g . 3 . They can p rovid e guidance which a id s c h ild ren in a n tic ip a t in g meaning in read in g, in id e n tif y in g the word in th e t o t a l c o n te x t, and in combining meaning w ith th e s c r u tin y o f word foim .^ Perhaps the f i r s t v is u a l c lu e th a t a c h ild b egin s to use in a tta c k in g new words i s word form .

C o n fig u ra tio n , lik e n e s s e s and d i f ­

fe r e n c e s when compared w ith o th er words a l l h elp th e c h ild to d is c r im i­ n a te .

Like th e o th er word p er c e p tio n a id s , word-form i s o fte n n o t

enough by i t s e l f to id e n t if y a word.

Very o fte n co n tex t c lu e s have t o

be used, t o make c e r ta in th a t th e word su ggested f i t s reason ab ly in to the s it u a t io n .

From word-foim th e c h ild soon grad u ates t o word a n a ly s is ,

s tr u c tu r a l and p h o n e tic .

When he b eg in s to meet in f le c t e d form s, d eriv ed

form s, and compound forms i t becomes im p erative th a t he le a r n what th e tacked on endings o r p r e f ix e s do to th e meanings o f w ords.

As

h is read­

in g b eg in s to in c lu d e more and more t w o -s y lla b le and p o ly s y lla b ic words, th e c h ild must p e r f e c t h i s v is u a l id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s tr u c tu r a l elem en ts to th e p o in t where he n o t o n ly d is t in g u is h e s r o o t words, p r e f ix e s , s u f­ f i x e s or i n f l e c t i o n a l endings but a ls o t o th e e x te n t th a t when th e se c lu e s f a i l him he i s a b le t o determ ine the p a r ts of th e word th a t make up p ro n u n cia tio n u n its o r s y l l a b l e s .

In co n n ection w ith s tr u c tu r a l

^analysis, Gray p o in ts o u t th a t t h i s p ro c e ss em phasizes lo o k in g f o r mean!ing u n its r a th e r than " l i t t l e words in b ig ." 2

1.

I b id . . p . 5 5 .

The l a t t e r d e v ic e does

84

n o t alw ay s work, w i ll eventually become m isle a d in g , and must be m o d i f i e d . I t i s b e t t e r to put th e emphasis on meaning from th e b e g in n in g . P h o n etic an aly sis, the process o f a s so c ia tin g a p p r o p r i a t e sou nd s w i t h t h e p r i n t e d word forms, has long been a center of c o n tr o v e r s y i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f r e a d in g .

The 1527 te a c h e rs who were consulted i n t h e 11. S . A.

s u r v e y o f 1935^ were a l l agreed th a t t h e r e must be some p h o n etic a n a l y s i s i n t e a c h i n g word perception but th ere was much d ifference o f o p i n i o n as t o when i t s h o u ld be introduced and what sounds were to be t a u g h t .

The m o st

p r e v a l e n t p r a c t i c e seemed to be to p o stp o n e th e in tro d u c tio n of p h o n e t i c a n a l y s i s o r p h o n ic s, u n t i l the child has acqu ired a s ig h t v o c a b u la r y o f a t l e a s t 50 t o 100 words and has e s t a b l i s h e d th e h ab it of th o u g h t g e t t i n g . Gray makes t h e follow ing answer t o the q u e s tio n - what sounds s h a l l we te a c h ? -s • . . S k i l l in phonetic an aly sis i s based on the sounds r e p r e s e n t e d by the tw enty-six l e t t e r s of our a lp h a b e t. B ecause th e r e are more sounds t h a n l e t t e r s , some l e t t e r s r e p r e s e n t more than one sound. Furtherm ore, the same sound i s sometimes represented by d i f f e r e n t l e t t e r s . J u s t as t h e meaning of a word i s determ ined by i t s use i n a s en te n ce, so the sound of a p h o n etic element is o f t e n determined by i t s use in a w o rd. I t follows t h a t we m ust teach the ch ild the v a r i a n t sounds o f l e t t e r s and how t o s e le c t from the v a r i a n t s t h e one th a t a p p lie s i n a p a r t i c u l a r case. *2 A ccording to Harris there was h a r d l y a system of t e a c h i n g r e a d i n g w hich d id not include system atic i n s t r u c t i o n in phonics t w e n t y

B e t t e r Reading I n s tr u c tio n : A Survey o f Research and S u c c e s s f u l P r a c t i c e , N. E. A. Research B u l l e t i n , X III, Ho. 5 (I'Tovember, 1 9 3 5 ) , p . 285. 2.

W il l i a m S. Gray, "Word P ercep tio n ," C hapter XIII in Basic I n s t r u c t i o n i n Reading in Elementary and High S ch o o ls, Supplementary E d u c a t i o n a l Monographs, No. 65, pp. 120-121.

3.

A l b e r t J . H a r ris , How to Increase Reading A b ility , p . 291.

34a

y e a rs ago.

12 3 Then a number o f s t u d i e s * * were p u b lis h e d which showed

t h a t i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g in phonics te n d e d on th e average t o produce r e a d e rs who re a d more s lo w ly and w ith l e s s com prehension th a n c h i l d r e n who were given i n c i d e n t a l ph onics i n s t r u c t i o n ,

I any t e a c h e r s re a d th e

r e p o r t s o f t h e s e s t u d i e s and d i s c o n t in u e d g iv in g t r a i n i n g i n word a n a l y s i s and phonics f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s .

I n r e c e n t y e a r s , th e pendulum

has swung back t o a much s a n e r v ie w p o in t, th an k s t o a d d i t i o n a l evid en ce o f th e v alu e o f p h o n e tic a n a l y s i s . Agnew^ s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t o f t r a i n i n g i n phonics on t h e r e a d in g o f p rim ary sc h o o l c h i l d r e n and d ecided t h a t " p h o n e tic t r a i n i n g (a ) i n c r e a s e s independence in r e c o g n iz in g words p r e v i o u s l y l e a r n e d ; (b) a id s i n ’u n l o c k i n g 1 new words by g iv in g th e p u p il a method o f sound a n a l y s i s ; (c ) en courages c o r r e c t p r o n u n c i a t io n ; and (d) improves th e q u a l i t y o f o r a l r e a d i n g . "

Agnew

a l s o con cluded t h a t phonics t r a i n i n g as he u sed i t d id n o t te n d to s a c r i f i c e i n t e r e s t in th e c o n te n t o f r e a d in g o r t o d e c re a s e t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f s i l e n t r e a d in g i n th e p rim ary g r a d e s . O ther s t u d i e s in word a n a l y s i s and p h o n ic s were made by T a te , Gates and R u s s e l l , and H e s t e r .

Rogers c a r r i e d o u t one o f th e very few ex ­

p e rim e n ts i n word a n a l y s i s and ph on ics which have been co nducted a t t h e co lleg e le v e l.

1.

A. I . G a te s, " S tu d ie s o f P h o n e tic T r a in in g i n B eginning R e a d in g ," J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l P sy c h o lo g y , XVIII (19 27 ), p p . 217-226,

2.

E. K. Sexton and J . S. H e rro n , "The Newark Phonics E x p e rim e n t," E lem en tary School J o u r n a l , XXVTII (1 9 2 8 ), p p . 690-701.

3.

S. C* G a rris o n and M. T. Heard, "An E x p e rim en tal Study o f th e Value o f P h o n e t i c s , " Peabody J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n , IX ( J u l y , 1931), p p. 9 -1 4 .

4.

Donald C. Agnew, The E f f e c t o f V aried Amounts o f P h o n e tic T r a in in g on P rim ary R eading, Duke U n i v e r s i t y R esearches i n E d u c a tio n , 1939, No. 5. Durham, N orth C a ro lin e s Duke U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1939. Pp. v i i i and 50.

84b

In order to determine t h e in flu e n c e of phonics on s i l e n t r e a d ­ in g i n Grade 1, Tate^ ran an ex perim ent with an experim ental g ro u p o f 37 and a c o n t r o l group of 36 s tu d e n ts .

The experimental group was g i v e n

f o r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n and d r i l l in p h o n ic s every morning and t h e c o n t r o l g rou p none.

On t h e casis o f the data r e s u l t i n g from his ex p erim en t, T a te co n ­

c l u d e d t h a t phonic in s tru c tio n and d r i l l was f a r su p e rio r to t h e 1 oo le-an ds a y method i n developing a b i l i t y t o re c o g n iz e words but t h a t t h e l a t t e r m ethod i s s l i g h t l y b e tte r than p h o n ics i n s tr u c tio n in b u i l d i n g com prehen­ s i o n o f senten ces and paragraphs o f d i r e c t i o n s .

Tate f e l t t h a t r e g u l a r

p e r i o d s f o r phonic in s tr u c tio n and d r i l l are not d e s ir a b l e ; t h a t p h o n ic s s h o u ld be used by the pupil as a t o o l and not as su b ject m a t t e r t o be m a s t e r e d f o r i t s own value; ana t h a t overemphasis on phonics h i n d e r s r a p i d i t y and thoroughness of com prehension, Gates and Russell

2

s t u d i e d t h r e e groups of b e g i n n in g r e a d e r s

i n w hich each group received a d i f f e r e n t amount of phonics o r word a n a ly s is tra in in g ;

one group r e c e i v e d t h e sm allest amount; a s eco n d

g ro u p r e c e i v e d moderate amounts o f in f o r m a l, newer-type w ord a n a l y s i s ; and t h e t h i r d group the la r g e s t amount o f conventional d r i l l i n p h o n i c s . The second program proved th e b e s t o f t h e th re e . Hester® used the D u rre ll A n a ly s is o f Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h

194 c h i l d r e n age 6 to 17 who we re r e t a r d e d in reading.

Her t e s t r e s u l t s

I — ......................................................................

| 1.

H a rry L. Tate, "The Influence o f Phonics on S ile n t R e a d in g i n Grade I , ” Elem entary School J o u r n a l, XXXVII (June, 1937), p p . 7 5 2 -7 6 3 .

2.

A. I . Gates and D. H, R u s s e ll, "Types of M aterials, V o c a b u la r y B u rd e n , Word Analysis, and o ther F a c t o r s in Beginning R e a d in g , I and I I , " Elementary Sohool J o u rn a l, XXXIX (September, 1938), p p . 2 7 - 3 5 ; O ctober, 19387i pp. 119-128,

3.

K a th le e n B, Hester, "A Study o f P ho netic D i f f i c u l t i e s i n R e a d in g ," Elem entary Sohool J o u rn a l, X L III (November, 1942), p p . 1 7 1 - 1 7 3 .

84c

t

seemed t o i n d i c a t e t h a t phonics t r a i n i n g i s e s s e n t i a l f o r a t t a c k i n g new w o rd s, or a t l e a s t t h a t new words a r e n o t a t t a c k e d s u c c e s s f u l l y i f phonic knowledge i s r e q u i r e d . R ogers- worked w it h a group o f 80 c o l l e g e freshm en t o d eterm in e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een m is p r o n u n c ia tio n and com p rehension .

She found

t h a t m i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n was accompanied by i n a c c u r a t e com prehension in 78 p e r c e n t o f th e c a s e s .

She con clu d ed t h a t phonic t r a i n i n g i s an e f f e c t i v e

t e c h n ia u e f o r t h e improvement of p r o n u n c i a t i o n , o r a l r e a d i n g , and r e a d in g v o c a b u la r y a t t h e c o l l e g e l e v e l . Dolch and Bloom ster

2

conducted a s t u d y which produced d a t a t h a t

t u r n e d o u t t o be v e r y u s e f u l i n d e te r m in in g t h e g ra d e placem ent o f a p a r t o f t h e p h o n ics t r a i n i n g .

These i n v e s t i g a t o r s gave t o f i r s t - g r a d e and

s e c o n d -g ra d e p u p i l s a t e s t o f r e c o g n i t i o n o f uncommon o n e - s y l l a b l e words r e q u i r i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f phonic know ledge, and compared th e r e s u l t s w ith i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s c o r e s .

The:/ found a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

p h on ic a b i l i t y as m easured by t h e t e s t and m ental a g e .

They a ls o fo u n d

t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n ivhose m ental ages were below seven y e a r s were a b l e t o do l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g on th e p ho nics t e s t .

They con clud ed t h a t t h e a b i l i t y

t o l e a r n and s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p ly ph onic p r i n c i p l e s r e q u i r e s a h i g h e r degree o f m e n ta l m a t u r i t y t h a n i s needed f o r l e a r n i n g to r e c o g n iz e s i g h t vrords. On t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r f i n d i n g s , th e y recommended t h a t t h e m ajor p a r t o f p ho nics i n s t r u c t i o n sh o u ld be p l a c e d i n t h e second and t h i r d grades because | t h e m a j o r i t y o f f i r s t - g r a d e c h i l d r e n a re t o o immature to p r o f i t from su c h f

in stru c tio n .

1.

Maurine V, R o g ers, "Phonic A b i l i t y as R e la te d t o C e r t a i n A sp ects o f R eading a t t h e C ollege L e v e l ," J o u r n a l o f E x p e rim e n ta l E d u c a tio n , VI ( J u n e , 1 9 3 8 ), pp. 381-395.

2.

E . W. Dolch and M. B lo o m ster, "Phonic R e a d in e s s ," E le m e n ta ry School J o u r n a l , XXXVIII (1 9 3 7 ), p p . 201-205.

84cl

T iffin and MeKinnis-*- s tu d i e d the performance o f 155 f i f t h , s i x t h , seventh, and eighth grade p u p ils " to determine w h e t h e r , and t o w hat extend, phonic a b i l i t y , as measured by a r e l i a b l e i n s t r u m e n t , i s r e l a t e d to reading a b i l i t y as m easured by c e rta in s t a n d a r d i z e d r e a d i n g te s ts ." -

They obtained c o r r e l a t i o n s o f .70 with the New S t a n f o r d R e a d in g

T e s t , .66 with the comprehension s c o r e on the Iowa S i l e n t R e a d in g T e s t , a n d .5 5 w ith the ra te score on t h e Iowa Test.

They c o n c lu d e d t h a t a

s i g n i f i c a n t r e la tio n s h ip did e x i s t between phonic a b i l i t y and r e a d i n g a b ility .

They did not fe e l t h a t re a d in g should be t a u g h t b y d r i l l i n

t h e i s o l a t e d p rin c ip les of p h o n ic s .

Rather, they f e l t t h a t w ord a n a l y s i s

and phonics should be i n t e g r a te d w i t h the r e s t of r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n . The current philosophy b ehin d the teachin g o f p h o n i c s a g r e e s w i t h t h i s viewpoint.

Word a n a l y s i s and phonics should be t a u g h t w here

t h e y seem to be e s p e c ia lly r e l e v a n t i n a contextual s i t u a t i o n . i n g s o f Tate, H erbert, and Zeman^ support th is th e o r y .

The f i n d ­

These i n v e s t i g a ­

t o r s r a n a co n tro lled experiment to compare the e f f e c t on p r i m a r y r e a d ­ i n g o f t h e t o t a l nonuse of p honics w ith the i n c i d e n t a l - p h o n i c m e th o d . T h e ir r e s u l t s in dicated th a t t h e in c id e n ta l-p h o n ic method i s much s u p e r ­ i o r i n developing the a b i l i t y t o recognize vrords and t o com prehend t h e m eaning of sentences and paragraphs#

1,

Jo sep h T if f in and Mary McKinnis, "Phonic A bility* I t s M easurem ent and Relation to Reading A b i l i t y , " School and S o c i e t y , LI (February 10, 1940), pp. 190-192.

2*

H arry L. 1'ate, Theresa M. H e r b e r t , and Josephine K. Zeman, "N onphonic Primary Reading," E lem entary School Jo u rn al, XL (M arch, 1 9 4 0 ) , pp. 529-537.

84-e

One j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i n c i d e n t a l method o f t e a c h i n g ph onics i n c o n t e x t u a l s i t u a t i o n s where th e y s e rv e a f u n c t i o n a l p u rpo se i s th e tremendous number o f phonic elem en ts which o c c u r i n th e E n g l i s h la n g u a g e , Spache^ h as p o i n t e d o u t t h a t E n g lis h i s a r e l a t i v e l y n o n -p h o n e tic la n g u ­ age,

He has s h o rn t h a t t h e r e a re 104 ways o f p ro n o u n cin g th e s i n g l e

vowels and c o m p a r a tiv e ly few phonic elem en ts which a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y common and u n ifo rm i n p r o n u n c i a t io n t o be w o r th t e a c h i n g ,

D olch’ s^

a n a l y s i s o f 1 4,0 0 0 r u n n in g words i n e l e m e n ta r y sch o o l te x tb o o k s s u p p o rts t h i s c o n te n tio n .

Dolch found t h a t t h e so c a l l e d im p o rta n t phonograms t h a t

many t e a c h e r s had been sp en d in g hou rs t e a c h i n g , c o rre s p o n d e d t o o n ly 1 1 ,6 p e r c e n t o f 8,509 s y l l a b l e s and t h a t 6 ,8 p e r c e n t o f t h e s e we r e acco u n ted f o r by t h e t h r e e en d in g s

— in g ,

—e r ,

—ed.

T h erefo re, th e o th e r

tw e n ty -o n e o f th e tw e n t y - f o u r i m p o rta n t phonograms c o rre s p o n d e d t o o n ly 4 ,8 p e r c e n t o f t h e s y l l a b l e s . Because o f t h e n a t u r e o f o u r la n g u a g e t h e r e a r e tim es when even a l l f o u r o f t h e b a s i c w o r d - a t ta c k s k i l l s w i l l n o t g iv e us t h e meaning we s e e k .

The c h i l d ’s s o l u t i o n to t h i s s i t u a t i o n a t f i r s t i s

to a s k t h e t e a c h e r .

But i f he has m a s te r e d t h e u se o f c o n t e x t c l u e s ,

w ord-form c l u e s , s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s and p h o n e tic a n a l y s i s he i s r e a d y t o

1,

George S pache, "A P honics Manual f o r P rim ary and Remedial T e a c h e rs ," E lem en tary E n g lis h Review, XVI (1 9 3 9 ), p p . 147-150, 156, 191-198,

2,

E , W. Doloh, "Phonics and P o l y s y l l a b l e s , " XV ( A p r i l , 1 938), p p. 120-124.

E lem en tary E n g l i s h Review,

85

s t a r t using the d ictio n a ry w hich c a lls into p la y th e w h ole gamut o f word-attaek s k i l l s . fo llo w in g steps:

S k i l l f u l use of the d ic tio n a r y in v o lv e s t h e

(1) l o c a t in g the word; (2) t r a n s la t in g i n t o an

appropriate speech p a ttern th e symbols used to in d ic a t e p r o n u n c ia tio n ; and (3) choosing the meaning appropriate to the c o n t e x t and f u s i n g th a t meaning in to the s e n te n c e in which i t occurs.^* The Course o f Development in Reading The Committee On Reading of the N a tio n a l S o c ie t y f o r t h e S tu d y o f Education reached the f o llo w in g conclusions a f t e r s tu d y in g a l a r g e body of evidence concerning t h e progress o f youth in r e a d in g : 1. Growth in reading a b i l i t y , considered a s a w h o le , i s continuous and more or l e s s equally paced from th e p rim ary school through c o l l e g e . 2. The rate o f p r o g r e ss v a r ie s widely among grou p s and in d ivid u als. 3. Whereas p r a c t ic a lly a l l major reading a t t i t u d e s and s k i l l s function from th e beginning, they m ature a t d iffe re n t tim es. 4. Growth in the elem en tary grades is m ost p rom inen t in those aspects o f r e c o g n itio n , comprehension and sp eed which underlie a l l r e a d in g a c t iv it ie s . 5. Growth i s most prom inent a t the high s c h o o l and c o l l e g e le v e l in the more m ature types of I n te r p r e ta tio n ; c r i t i c a l reaction, and in te g r a tio n involved in e f f i c i e n t r e a d in g .2 In harmony w ith t h e foregoin g con clu sion s t h e N .Q .S .E . Com m ittee on Reading has recommended a b a sio reading program o r g a n iz e d i n term s o f f i v e broad stages o f developm ent in reading. 1. Period of p r ep a ra tio n fo r reading. Tfp t o and som etim es through the f i r s t g r a d e . The primary purpose o f t h i s ' period i s to provide th e train in g and ex p erien ce w h ich prepare p u p ils f o r in s t r u c t io n in reading.

1. 2.

Ib id . , p . 121. Reading in the High S c h o o l and C ollege. F o r ty -S e v e n th Y earbook o f the N .S .3.E ., p . 41*

86 2 . The i n i t i a l p eriod o f read in g in s t r u c t io n . U su a lly during th e f i r s t g ra d e. The purposes o f t h i s p erio d a re t o in tro d u ce p u p ils to r ea d in g as a th o u g h t-g e ttin g p r o c e ss and to d evelop a b i l i t y to read ind epen den tly and i n t e l l i g e n t l y very sim p le p a ssa g es such a s are to be found in th e f i r s t rea d ers in common u se . 3 . The p erio d o f rapid p ro g ress in fundam ental a t t it u d e s , h a b its and s h i l l s . Second and th ir d gra d es and sometimes in th e fo u r th g ra d e. The d is t in g u is h in g c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f t h i s p erio d i s rapid developm ent o f th e a p t it u d e s , h a b it s , and s k i l l s on which i n t e l l i g e n t in t e r p r e t a t io n , f l u e n t , a ccu ra te o r a l r e a d in g , and rap id s i l e n t read in g depend. 4 . The p eriod o f wide read in g t o exten d and e n r ic h ex p e rie n c e and t o c u lt iv a t e im portant read in g a t t i t u d e s . h a b it s , and t a s t e s . F ourth, f i f t h , and s ix t h g r a d e s. The e s s e n t i a l purposes o f t h i s p erio d a r e t o exten d th e e x p e r ie n c e s o f p u p ils , to quicken t h e ir th in k in g pow ers, t o c u l t i v a t e a wide v a r ie t y o f i n t e r e s t s and t a s t e s in r e a d in g , t o d evelop speed in s i l e n t rea d in g , and t o la y th e fo u n d a tio n f o r stu d y h a b it s . 5 . The p e r io d o f refin em en t o f s p e c i f i c read in g a t t i t u d e s . h a b its and t a s t e s . Ju n ior and s e n io r h igh s c h o o l g ra d e s. During t h i s p e r io d , read in g and stu d y h a b its a r e r e fin e d in each o o n te n t s u b je c t a s w e ll as in th e l i t e r a t u r e p e r io d . Wholesome i n t e r e s t s in r e a d in g , th e h a b it o f rea d in g cu rren t e v e n ts and books and m agazines o f r e a l w orth, th e so u rces o f d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f rea d in g m a te r ia ls , and stan d ard s o f s e l e c t i o n a re em phasized.^ W hile th e p e r io d s l i s t e d above a re r a th e r d e f in i t e s ta g e s o f grow th, th ey cannot be r i g i d l y d e fin ed or tak en a s i n f l e x i b l e d iv is io n s o f th e tea ch in g program.

They sh ou ld se r v e a s a g u id e f o r te a c h e r s who should be a l e r t

t o in d iv id u a l v a r ia t io n s . f a i r l y la r g e g ro u p s.

Growth cu rves show th e g e n e r a l te n d e n c ie s o f

Many in d iv id u a ls , however, w i l l show v a r ia tio n s

from th e group ten d en cy .

E vidence o f th e e x te n t o f in d iv id u a l v a r ia t io n

from t h e group tendency was p resen ted in Chapter 1*.

1.

Report o f t h e N a tio n a l Committee on R eading. T w enty-fourth Yearbook o f th e N a tio n a l S o c ie t y f o r th e Study o f E d u cation , F a r t I , pp. 24—2 5 .

87

In general i t m ight be said th at i t sh o u ld b e t h e g o a l o f th e lower grades to teach and develop the b a sic elem en ts d e s c r ib e d by B u s w e ll and th a t "growth in power to comprehend, a p p r e c ia te and e v a lu a t e m a t e r i a l s , and to use reading in p u rsuing other a c t i v i t i e s a r e t h e l e a d i n g o b j e c t i v e s in the upper grades,

The program o f read in g i n s t r u c t io n a c c o r d in g t o

the fiv e -s ta g e plan shown above comes to an end i n t h e s e n io r h ig h s c h o o l . This plan was promulgated in 1935*

Twelve y e a r s l a t e r in d e s c r i b i n g th e

plan again Gray,2 in d ic a te d that he thought th e f i f t h s t a g e s h o u ld c a r r y through from the ju n io r h ig h school through t h e ju n io r c o l l e g e .

S till

la te r we have a number o f w riters talkin g a b o u t r e a d in g i n t h e c o l l e g e from a remedial p oin t o f v iew and a few w r it e r s who had come t o th e r ea liz a tio n that the te a c h in g and development o f r e a d in g s k i l l s was an a c tiv ity and a r e s p o n s ib ilit y which should u n d erly e d u c a t io n a t e v e r y le v e l from the p r e -sc h o o l days righ t on up th rou gh c o l l e g e .

The w r i t e r

not only subscribes t o t h i s viewpoint but he would go a s t e p f u r t h e r and completely remove the c e i l i n g .

The Committee on B ead in g o f t h e N .S .S .E .

gave evidence of the tren d in thinking when i t made t h e s ta t e m e n t t h a t I t would probably n o t be out of p la ce h ere t o s u g g e s t t h a t a six th stage o f development should be added to t h o s e o u t ­ lin ed above. The c h ie f purpose o f th e gu id an ce a t t h a t advanced stage w ould be to promote a h ig h l e v e l o f e f f i c i ­ ency in c r i t i c a l rea d in g and library r e s e a r c h among s t u d e n t s pursuing s p e c ia liz e d and p rofession al p ro g ra m s.3

1.

Better Reading Tn«tT»iin-h-tow« A Survey o f R esearch and S u c c e s s f u l P r a ctice . R esearch B u lle tin of the N .E .A ., X I I I , N o . 5 , (November, 1 9 3 5 ), p . 384,

2.

The Teaching o f N eadjng: A Second R eport. T h i r t y - s i x t h Y earbook of the N .S .S .B ., P a r t l7 p . 77,

3. Ibi^, | p, 120•

87a

Sex D if fe r e n c e s While some o f th e evid en ce which i s a c c u m u la tin g c o n c e rn in g sex d i f f e r e n c e s in r e a d in g i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y , i n g e n e ra l t h e a v a i l a b l e d a ta i n d i c a t e s t h a t where com parisons o f re a d in g t e s t s c o r e s a re made women t e n d to have h ig h e r mean s c o re s a t alm ost e v e ry y e a r l e v e l even though i t i s o f te n d i f f i c u l t to dem o nstrate s h a r p l y s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i c a l d iffe re n c e s.

The s c a l e d s c o re s on t h e C o o p erativ e Reading T e st C-2,

g iv en as p a r t o f t h e R a t i o n a l C o llege Sophomore T e s tin g Program f o r t h e l a s t th r e e y e a r s a re a c l e a r example o f t h i s . Mean S co res on t h e C o o p e ra tiv e Reading T e st C-2

Humber o f Cases

19481 19492 Ken Women Ken Women 4600 4900 5100 5400

19503 Men Women 6250 6450

V ocabulary Speed o f Comprehension L e v e l o f Comprehension T o tal

58*1 5 7 ,5 5 7 ,6 5 8 ,0

58*3 6 0 .1 59,7 59.7

58*6 59*2 5 9 ,1 5 9,3

57*9 59*1 5 9 ,1 5 9 ,0

59*1 60*5 5 9 ,8 60,1

58.9 60,9 6 0 ,0 60,3

W e c h s le r's e x t e n s iv e s tu d y o f a d u l t i n t e l l i g e n c e h as l e d him t o v e ry much t h e same c o n c lu s io n i n r e g a r d t o g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e .

He f e e l s

t h a t w h ile th e sm all d i f f e r e n c e s w hich he has fo u n d i n f a v o r o f women do n o t prove a n y t h i n g , s t i l l when t a k e n t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r e v id e n c e , " i t may be p o s s i b l e to d em o n strate a m eastirable s u p e r i o r i t y o f women over men so f a r as g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e i s c o n c e rn e d ."

| 1, ! 2, 3,

The 1950 R a ti o n a l C o lleg e Sophomore T e s tin g Pro gram, F in a l Sophomore P e r c e n t i l e Rank T a b le s . C o o p e ra tiv e T e st D i v i s i o n , E d u c a tio n a l T e s tin g S e r v ic e , P r i n c e to n , NewJ e r s e y , May, 1948. , May, 1949. , May, 1950

4,

David W ech sler,

The Measurement o f A d u lt I n t e l l i g e n c e , p . 107.

87b

Samuels, 1 C a r 2r o l l ,

and De Michele & fo u n d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

in favor of g ir l s d u r in g the reading r e a d i n e s s p e r i o d . have found no s i g n i f i c a n t sex

One o r two s t u d i e s

^ and h e r e and t h e r e some d a t a /■* have shown men to be s u p e r i o r a t some e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s . In g e n e ra l, d

i f f e

r

e

n

c

e

s

however, as Berman and Bird^ have shown i n t h e i r s t u d y t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e c o n s is te n tly in f a v o r o f women.

A fter r e v i e w i n g num erous r e l a t e d i n v e s t i ­

gations Berman and B ir d concluded t h a t "women h a v e a g e n e r a l la n g u a g e s u p e r io r ity over men t h a t is m anifest from i n f a n c y t o a d u l t l i f e . " o In her r e c e n t review of read in g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , S m ith f o u n d t h a t d ifference in p h y s i c a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l and e m o t i o n a l m a t u r a t i o n i s m o st f r e ­ quently given as t h e r e a s o n f o r the in g .

s u p e rio rity

Other reasons r e p o r t e d by Smith a r e :

o fg i r l s over

boys in

( l ) th e i n t e r e s t s and d i s p o s i ­

tio n s o f g ir l s make th em more favorably i n c l i n e d t o r e a d i n g ;

(2) p u p ils in

the elementary s c h o o ls have women te a c h e r s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y ;

(3) t h e la c k

of reading m a te r ia l w h ic h appeals to boys*

1*

Fra L. Samuels, "S ex D ifferences i n R e a d in g A c h i e v e m e n t ," J o u r n a l o f Educational R e s e a rc h , XXXVI ( A p r i l , 1 9 4 3 ) , p p . 5 9 4 - 6 0 3 .

2.

Marjorie Vf. C a r r o l l , Sex D ifferences i n R e a d in g R e a d i n e s s , M a s t e r ’ s Thesis. B osto n: Boston U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 4 1 .

3.

Anna De M ichele, S ex D ifferences i n R e a d in g R e a d i n e s s , M a s t e r ’ s T h e s i s . Boston: B o ston U n iv e rsity , 1949*

4.

Margaret R. Ladd, The R elation of S o c i a l , Econom ic and P e r s o n a l C h a ra c ­ t e r i s t i c s t o Reading A b i l i t y .

5*

Arther E. T r a x l e r ," S e x D ifferences i n R ate o f R e a d in g i n t h e High S c h o o l ," Journal o f A p p lie d Psycho logy, XIX ( J u n e , 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 3 5 1 - 3 5 2 .

6.

J , E. Moore, "Sex D ifferen ces in Speed o f R e a d i n g , " J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i ­ mental E d u c a t io n , VIII (September, 1 9 3 9 ) , p p . 1 1 0 - 1 1 4 .

7.

Isab el R. Berman a n d Charles Bird, "Sex D i f f e r e n c e s i n S p e e d o f R e a d in g ," Journal o f A p p lie d Psychology, XVTI ( J u n e , 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 2 2 1 - 2 2 6 .

8.

N ila Banton S m ith , "Readiness f o r R e a d in g ," C h a p t e r I i n R e a d i n e s s f o r Reading and R e l a t e d Language A r t s , N i l a B a n to n S m i t h , e t . a l . Chicago: The N a tio n a l Council o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g l i s h , 1 9 5 0 . P p . 6 0 .

read­

88

Reading I n s tr u c tio n in High School and C ollege —

—

i

M u ■

11 i i ■ m

•

a

—

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— —

—

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—

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w fc M

Hie e f f o r t made during recen t y e a r s t o co rr e c t th e d e f ic ie n c ie s o f poor rea d ers in h igh sch o o l and c o lle g e i s o n ly one im portant a sp e c t o f th e rea d in g problem.

Hie w r ite r ag rees w ith the Committee on Reading

o f th e N .3 .3 .E . th a t th e b a sic need today i s to develop a sound reading program in h igh sc h o o ls and c o lle g e s which r e c o g n iz e s , 1.

That growth in reading i s con tin u ou s.

2 . That th e fu n c tio n o f guidance in reading i s to s t a r t w ith t h e stu d en t a t h is p re se n t l e v e l o f reading a b i l i t y . 3 . That i t should carry him forward t o h igh er l e v e l s o f competence in harmony w ith h i s c a p a c ity and th e in c r e a sin g demands made upon him when read in g.^ W hile we cannot say y e t th a t th ese p r in c ip le s have been thoroughly a ccep ted and w id e ly p r a c tic e d , some p r a c t ic e s in rea d in g seem to be in crea s­ in g in p o p u la r ity .

An N .E.A . R esearch D iv isio n ? su r v e y d iscovered the 57 per

cen t of th e ju n io r h igh s c h o o ls and 37 p er ce n t o f th e s e n io r high sc h o o ls gave read in g t e s t s o f a t o t a l o f 2 ,2 7 5 s c h o o ls s tu d ie d .

More and more

c o lle g e s a re making i t a reg u la r p r a c tic e t o use a read in g t e s t in connec­ t io n w ith t h e ir a d m ission s procedure accord in g to th e surveys rep orted in th e s e c t io n on R em ediation in t h is paper.

I t i s a good s ig n t o s e e a s

many a s 45 per c e n t o f th e sch o o ls in th e N.2S.A. survey r e p o rtin g sep a ra te read in g c la s s e s o f a rem edial or c o r r e c tiv e n a tu r e.

Of course i t would be

b e t t e r t o see stro n g developm ental programs which would make rem ediation a n e g l i g i b l e o p e r a tio n , but the record shows th a t in h igh sch o o ls and c o lle g e s th e f i r s t ste p i s th e r e c o g n itio n o f a la c k which i s fo llo w e d by th e pro­ v is io n o f a remedy and only g ra d u a lly i s a p r e v e n tiv e program introduced.®

1. 2* 3.

Reading in High S ch ool and C o lle g e . F orty-S even th Yearbook o f the N .3#StZ «, F a r t I I , p . 4 2 . Reading I n s tr u c tio n in Secondary S c h o o ls. N .E.A . Research B u lle t in , X£, No. 1 (January, 1 9 4 2 ), p . 1 1 . H )id», p . 1 0 ,

. 89

In our s e c tio n on Remediation s e v e r a l s u r v e y s o f c o l l e g e r e a d in g programs are rep o rted .

Here the trend is a l s o f o r a n e v e r g ro w in g number o f

co lleg es s t a r t in g reading programs o f a r e m e d ia l or c o r r e c t iv e n a t u r e . The N .E .A , survey found h igh s c h o o ls a tte m p tin g t o g u id e r e a d in g in content a r e a s through supervised s tu d y , d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a s sig n m e n ts , provision o f ea sy reading m a te r ia l, and t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f s p e c ia l rea d ­ ing s h i l l s r e q u ir e d by the r e s p e c tiv e f i e l d s o f s tu d y .

The c o lle g e

surveys do n o t provide sim ila r in fo r m a tio n s o -that n o com parison can be made, a lth o u g h , as in the o th er a r e a s where so m e th in g i s b e in g done the c o lle g e s a r e probably behind th e h ig h s c h o o l .

The a l l - s c h o o l

reading program i s s t i l l the e x c e p tio n r a t h e r th a n th e r u l e . I t seems cle a r ly ev id en t t h a t i n t e r e s t in t h e d evelop m ent o f reading s k i l l s in high sch ools and c o l l e g e s i s g r o w in g .

I t i s a ls o

clea r, as was p oin ted out e a r lie r , t h a t t h e la c k o f r e a d in g a b i l i t y on the part o f s tu d e n ts has forced many s c h o o ls t o p r o v id e a r e m e d ia l service and i t i s often only th e e x p e r ie n c e w it h t h e r e m e d ia l program which lea d s them t o think in terms o f a d e v e lo p m e n ta l program . i s nothing wrong w ith the e v o lu tio n o f a program in t h i s w ay.

There The

experience o f a number o f in s t it u t io n s h a s shown t h a t t h e e s s e n t i a l elements t h a t should be included i n a soun d r e a d in g program in h ig h school or o o lle g e are the fo llo w in g : 1 . C a re fu l appraisals o f th e r e a d in g a t ta in m e n ts and n eed s o f s tu d e n ts a t the time o f a d m is s io n . 2 . S p e o if ic in stru ction in t h e b a s i c c o m p e te n c ie s common to m ature typ es o f reading. 3.

S y stem a tic guidance in r e a d in g i n a l l c o n t e n t s u b j e c t s .

4. S tim u la tio n and guidance o f t h e p e r s o n a l r e a d in g o f s tu d e n ts. 5.

A dequate and appropriate l i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s .

90 6.

A ppropriate p r o v isio n f o r reta rd ed and d isa b le d r e a d e r s .

7 . Continuous a p p r a isa l o f t h e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f th e read in g program .1 B ecause o f th e c o n t r o v e r s ia l n atu re o f some a rea s o f rea d in g , and because s c h o o ls should be guided by sound c r i t e r i a in s e t t in g up a program, Gray o f f e r s th e fo llo w in g s e t : 1* A v a lid rea d in g program i s d ir e c te d by two c lo s e ly r e la t e d p u rp oses: (1) th e a ll-r o u n d developm ent o f stu d e n ts and (2 ) th e developm ent of th e v a r io u s ty p e s o f understand­ in g s , a t t i t u d e s , and s k i l l s needed in a c h ie v in g the broader ends sought through rea d in g . 2* A v a l i d program r e c o g n iz e s th a t rea d in g i s o n ly one o f many a id s t o le a r n in g now a v a ila b le and co o rd in a te s th e use o f r e a d in g and o th er forms o f e x p e r ie n c e in a c h iev in g s p e c i f i c e n d s. 3 . A v a lid rea d in g program i s an a l l - s c h o o l or c o lle g e program and in v o lv e s th e h e a r ty support and c r e a t iv e e f f o r t o f a l l s t a f f members. 4 . A v a lid read in g program i s con tin u ou s and moves forward p r o g r e s s iv e ly in harmony w ith th e dominant c h a r a c t e r is t ic s , i n t e r e s t s and n eeds o f s tu d e n ts . 5 . A sound rea d in g program i s f l e x i b l e and can r e a d ily be a d ju sted a t each l e v e l o f advancement t o wide v a r ia t io n s in th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s and n eed s o f s tu d e n ts. 6 . A v a lid rea d in g program p r o v id e s a w e a lth , v a r ie t y , and range o f d i f f i c u l t y o f s u it a b le read in g m a te r ia ls . 7 . A v a lid rea d in g program p ro v id es a s tim u la tin g s e t t in g in which rea d in g can f u n c tio n e f f e c t i v e l y . 8 . A v a lid r ea d in g program in c lu d e s p r o v is io n f o r con tin uou s a p p r a isa l o f th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f th e program a s a whole and o f i t s v a r io u s a s p e c t s .2 The N .E .A . survey o f rea d in g in s t r u c t io n in secondary s c h o o ls r e p o rte d , " se v e r a l te a c h e r s in q u ired about th e proper p la c e o f sem antics in h ig h -s c h o o l rea d in g in s t r u c t io n , b u t r e l a t i v e l y few o f them spoke w ith assu ran ce a s t o what should be d o n e ." 3

1. 2. 3.

A few te a c h e r s t o ld o f th e use o f

Reading in High Sohool and C o lle g e . F o rty -S ev en th Yearbook o f th e N .S .S i S ,, P a r t IX, p p. 64—6 6 . I b id . . p p . 5 8 -6 4 . Reading Tngtyuatim i in Secondary S c h o o ls . N .E .A . R esearch B u lle t in , 2QC, N o. 1 . (January, 1 9 4 2 ), p p . 25926.

91 p recis

w r it in g , a few reported c a r e f u l s e n te n c e a n a l y s i s in f e r r e t in g

out obscure meaning.

The p u b lic a t io n sum m arized t h e t e a c h e r s ' s t a t e ­

ments by sa y in g that the in t e n s iv e s tu d y o f m eaning i s k e p t w it h in rather s t r i c t lim its and th a t in th e few i n s t a n c e s w here a sem a n tic approach i s being used tea ch ers f o r th e m ost p a r t a r e em phatic i n saying t h a t i t must not be a llo w ed t o d i s p l a c e e x t e n s i v e read in g* Statem ents such as these lea d one t o a g r e e w ith Zahner t h a t "the p r in c ip le s underlying the in t e r p r e t a t io n o f th e w r it t e n word are not c le a r ly understood by a l l t e a c h e r s , and c o n s e q u e n tly te a c h in g methods and m a teria ls la g behind p r e s e n t need3*" The semantic approach ha3 much t o c o n t r ib u t e t o r e a d in g pro­ grams a t th e lower ed u cation al l e v e l s b u t h e r e i t s in f l u e n c e ought to be f e l t d i r e c t l y only by the te a c h e r t o whom i t sh o u ld b r in g in c r e a s e d in sig h t in t o th e psychology o f r e a d in g .

I n w orkin g w it h s tu d e n t s i f

she i s se m a n tic a lly oriented she s h o u ld g a in in c r e a s e d i n s i g h t in t o the p sy ch o lo g y o f individual d i f f e r e n c e s a s s h e s e e s and h e a r s d i f ­ feren t s tu d e n ts reacting v a r io u s ly t o th e same p r in t e d p a s s a g e .

No

damage would be done i f her s tu d e n ts n e v e r h eard th e word " sem antic" but much good would come i f th e t e a c h e r su c c e e d e d in t r a n s m it t in g t o students h e r own rich understanding o f t h e m a n ifo ld m ean in gs w h ich are brought t o words by in d iv id u a ls o f v a r y in g b ack grou n d s, and th a t o f t e n i t is n o t a q u estion of r ig h t or wrong b u t y o u r im p r e ss io n v e r s u s m ine. j The sem antic in flu en ce should e x e r t i t s e l f th rou gh " co n ta g io n " r a t h e r I 1 than through in te n siv e word s tu d y . A t th e c o l l e g e and u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l , or we m ight sa y instead, w ith m ature p e r s o n a l i t i e s , a l l a s p e c t s o f t h e semantic th e o r y can be d is c u s s e d .

W ith o l d e r s tu d e n ts W en d ell Johnson*s^

a p p lic a tio n o f semantics to m en ta l h y g ie n e co u ld b e th e s u b j e c t o f many a f r u it f u l d is c u s s io n .

1.

W endell Johnson, People in Q u a n d a ries.

93 Academic Achievem ent and Reading In th e s e c t io n on th e Nature o f Reading i t was p oin ted out th a t rea d in g i s a t o o l "which we use in g e t t in g su b je c t m atter from the o th er f ie ld s ."

Because o f t h i s f a c t , read in g has been th e c h ie f method used

in g e n e r a l ed u ca tio n f o r th e cam iiunication o f e x p e r ie n c e .

The im portant

r o le th a t read in g has p layed in ed u ca tio n i s d o u b tless based upon the fo llo w in g c h a r a c t e r is t ic s which i t p o s s e s s e s : 1 . Reading i s in r e a l i t y a v is u a l shorthand; symbols b earin g no p i c t o r i a l resem blance to the o r ig in a l o b je c ts a r e a b le t o s e r v e a s a s ig n f o r them, th u s making p o s s ib le th e compre­ h en sion o f fir sth a n d e x p e r ie n c e . Furtherm ore, a b str a c t id e a s can b e sym bolized in w r itte n communication. 2 . Reading m a te r ia ls r e p r e se n t a permanent record u su a lly e a s i l y a c c e s s ib le fo r r e -r e a d in g and reference, a t any tim e o f day under a lm ost every p h y s ic a l circum stance excep t th e ab sence o f l i g h t . 3 . The r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y and im portance o f such p rin ted m a te r ia ls makes p o s s ib le a c a r e f u l check upon the accuracy and a u t h o r it a t iv e n e s s o f th e statem en ts o f th e w r it e r . 4.

The pace o f a read er i s governed by h i s own r e a c t io n s .

5.

No e la b o r a te equipment i s r e q u ir e d .1

In p a r t ic u la r th o se tec h n iq u es which are e s s e n t i a l in lo c a t in g , s e le c t i n g , and u sin g rea d in g m a te r ia ls from v a r io u s so u rces are extrem ely v a lu a b le in th e academ ic s it u a t io n .

These tech n iq u es and th e ir r e la t io n s h ip t o

rea d in g a r e d is c u s s e d in th e n ex t s e c t io n . Study H ab its and Reading "Learning t o read in a g iv en co n te n t f i e l d i s synonymous w ith le a r n in g how t o stu d y in th a t f i e l d } " 2 th a t i s how Parker would e x p la in th e r e la t io n s h ip between stu d y in g and r e a d in g .

1. 2.

W hile th e r e are t h o s e ,

Edgar D a le , " R ela tio n o f Reading to Other Forms o f L earnin g," in Reading in G eneral E d u cation , e d it e d by W. S . Gray, p . 4 8 . E d ith Futnam"!Parker, "Nature o f Reading Problems in Content F ie ld s As I llu s t r a t e d in th e Case o f Geography," in Improving Reading in Content F i e l d s . Supplementary E d u ca tio n a l Monographs, No. 62, p. 8.

93 l i k e B usw ell,^ who would d is a g r e e w ith t h i s s ta te m e n t, s t i l l i t p o in t s t o th e very clo se r e la t io n s h ip w hich e x i s t s betw een r e a d in g and stu d y h a b its . Robinson2 p o in t s o u t t h a t t h e r e was a tim e when g o a ls in howt o -s tu d y work were determ ined by com paring th e stu d y h a b it s of good s tu d e n ts with those of poor s t u d e n t s and th e n u rg in g th e l a t t e r to adopt th e ways of the fo r m er.

" R ecen t r e s e a r c h , how ever, in d ic a t e s

t h a t even good students have bad h a b i t s o f s tu d y and a r e , on th e w h o le, r e l a t i v e l y in e ff ic ie n t in t h e i r stu d y m e th o d s," a cco r d in g to R obinson.® E d u cation al p sy c h o lo g ists now a r e s t r e s s i n g new m ethods o f stud y on a h ig h e r le v e l o f e f f ic ie n c y w h ich p e r m it s t u d e n t s " to le a r n more r a p id ly , w ith deeper understanding, and w it h no more e f f o r t th an w ith t h e ir p r e s e n t tria l-a n d -e rro r m eth o d s."

T h is new tr e n d h a s cau sed a s h i f t

from th e aim of helping p o or s tu d e n ts t o t h e new id e a o f p r o v id in g an improvement program fo r a l l s t u d e n t s who n eed i t r e g a r d le s s o f a b i l i t y or s c h o la s t ic record.

A s im i la r d evelop m en t i s t a k in g p la c e in th e

r ea d in g improvement f i e l d . In recent y e a r s numerous m anuals have b een p u b lish e d t o h elp s tu d e n ts improve th e ir s tu d y h a b i t s .

Those by R o b in so n ,4 LeCount,®

Gerken,® and Wrenn and I a r se n ^ a r e t y p i c a l o f t h i s ty p e o f p u b lic a t io n . Laycook and Russell® a n a ly zed 38 o f t h e s e m anuals p u b lis h e d in th e TMited S ta te s between 1926 and 1 9 3 9 .

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

They fou nd 517 s k i l l s and h a b its

Guy T . Buswell, How A d u lts R ead . S u p p lem en tary E d u c a tio n a l Monographs, No* 45, p . 144. F r a n c is P. Robinson, E f f e c t i v e S tu d y , p . v i i i . Loo, c i t . F r a n c is F. Robinson, E f f e c t i v e S tu d y . Samuel N. LeCount, How t o Jgj^jrove Y our S tu d y H a b its . C. d 'A . Gerken, Study Your Way Through S c h o o l. C. G ilb ert Wrenn and R o b e r t P . L a r se n , S tu d y in g E f f e c t i v e l y . S . R. Laycock and D. H . R u s s e l l , "An A n a ly s is o f T h ir t y -e ig h t How-ToStudy Manuals." S ch o o l R e v ie w . XXIX (May, 1 9 4 1 ) , p p . 370-379•

94 l i s t e d w ith many o f th e se broken up in to s p e c i f i c s k i l l s .

The fo llo w in g

s k i l l s were em phasized: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Reading h a b its and s k i l l s P rep aring f o r and ta k in g exam inations General h a b its o f le a r n in g O u tlin in g and n o teta k in g Classroom a c t i v i t i e s Memorizing U sing th e lib r a r y P h y s ic a l and p sy c h o lo g ic a l c o n d itio n s o f stu d y .

Laycock and R u s s e ll s u g g e st th a t fu r th e r r e sea rch i s needed in th e f o llo w ­ ing a rea s: 1. 2. 3. 4.

T e a c h a b ility o f s p e c i f i c s k i l l s Instrum ents f o r e v a lu a tin g study h a b its o f in d iv id u a ls D ia g n o stic methods to determ ine ca u ses o f in e f f ic i e n c y Remedial e x e r c is e s . Greene1 measured th e r e s u lt s ob tain ed from le c t u r e s w ith th o se

o b tain ed from unguided r e a d in g , and a g a in w ith th e r e s u l t s obtain ed from guided r e a d in g .

He found th a t good stu d en ts d id b e t t e r a f t e r unguided

rea d in g than a f t e r l e c t u r e s , th a t poor stu d e n ts d id b e t t e r a f t e r l e c t u r e s , and th a t average stu d e n ts d id e q u a lly w e ll under e it h e r o f th e two m ethods. On th e w hole, he concluded th a t guided read in g was b e s t in p r e se n tin g m a te r ia l t o the 648 c o lle g e stu d e n ts who were in v o lv ed in h is experim ents* Holmes2 c a r r ie d o u t s i x ex p erim en ts, fo u r in v o lv in g immediate r e o a ll and two d elayed r e c a l l o f m a te r ia l rea d both w ith th e guidance o f q u estio n s and w ith o u t q u e s tio n s .

The r e s u lt s o f h er experim ents in d ic a te d th a t

rea d in g guided by q u e stio n s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y su p e r io r in a l l c a s e s e x ce p t in th e case o f immediate r e c a l l o f th e la r g e s t number o f meaning

!• 2.

Edward B . Greene, "C ertain A sp ects o f L ectu re, R eading, and Guided R eading," S c h o o l and S o c ie t y . 7XXJOC (May 1 2 , 1 9 3 4 ), pp. 619-6 2 4 . E lean or Holmes, "Reading Guided by Q u estion s V ersus C arefu l Reading and Re-Reading W ithout Q u estio n s," S chool Review, 300CPC (May, 1 9 3 1 ), p p . 3 6 1 -3 7 1 .

95 v a lu e s when the m a teria l r e a d was i n th e f i e l d o f s c ie n c e .

Da t h is

in sta n ce careful read in g and r e - r e a d in g w as found to b e e q u a lly e ffe c tiv e . Where attem pts have b een made t o m easure th e v a lu e o f how -tostu d y courses not a l l o f them h ave b een fou n d t o be e f f e c t i v e .

M ills ,

E c k e r t, and Williams-*- found th a t a s tu d y h a b it s in v e n to r y d isc r im in a te d q u it e well between stu d en ts in th e to p and b ottom q u a r t ile s based on sc h o o l grades.

However, when th e y compared s tu d e n ts who had taken a

how -to-study course w ith a c o n t r o l group th e y found no s ig n if i c a n t change in eith e r study h a b its o r s c h o o l g r a d e s .

M ills and Eckert^

worked with high sch ool j u n io r s in B u f f a lo t o e v a lu a te a six -w eek s rea d in g improvement u n it in a h o w -to -s tu d y c o u r s e .

D iey found t h a t

w h ile speed of reading in c r e a s e d , com p reh en sion n o t o n ly stood s t i l l f o r th e most part but in some c a s e s s u f f e r e d a l o s s . On the p o s it iv e s i d e , P a r r 3 g a v e two hours o f rem ed ial work a week for f if t e e n weeks t o tw en ty j u n i o r s and s e n io r s in a p sy ch o lo g y co u r se who scored in th e lo w e s t f o u r t h on t h e Iowa S i l e n t Reading T e s t . In a d d itio n to d r i l l in r e a d in g im provem ent t h e s e s tu d e n ts were g iv e n in s tr u c tio n in how to s tu d y e f f e c t i v e l y .

A t t h e end o f the tr a in in g

p e r io d the experimental group showed s i g n i f i c a n t improvement in (1) s i l e n t reading, (2) ach ievem en t in t h e p s y c h o lo g y c o u r se , and (3) g e n e r a l s c h o la r sh ip .

Salisbuxy

A

g a ve t h i r t y l e s s o n s i n o u t lin in g t o an e x p e r i­

m en ta l group of high sc h o o l s t u d e n t s a t 7 t h , 9 t h , and 12th grade l e v e l s

1. 2. 3. 4.

H. C. M ills, R. E. E c k e r t, and M. W. W illia m s , "Study H ab its o f H igh School P u p ils," S c h o o l R ev iew . XLIJ (Decem ber, 1 9 3 4 ), pp. 7 5 5 -7 6 1 . H. C. M ills and R. E . E c k e r t, "An E v a lu a t io n o f Reading As a U h it in a How-To-Study C o u rse," S c h o o l and S o c i e t y . EL (August 2 5 , 1934), pp. 261-264. Prank W. Farr, "Teaching C o lle g e S tu d e n ts How To Read," Journal o f Higher Education. I I (J u n e , 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 3 2 4 -3 3 0 . Rachel Salisbuxy, "Same E f f e c t s o f T r a in in g in O u tlin in g ," E n g lis h Journal (C ollege E d i t i o n ) , XX.IV (F eb ru a ry , 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 111-116•

96

over a s i x weeks p e r io d .

W hile read in g r a te was down a b i t a t th e end

o f the experim ent s i g n i f i c a n t in c r e a s e s r e s u lte d in comprehension and th e achievem ent a rea in which th e p r e - t e s t was g iv e n . While betw een two and th r e e dozen manuals a re a v a ila b le and in d iv id u a liz e d or group h elp i s o ffe r e d in b a sic stu d y methods s t i l l ex p erien ce has tau gh t us th a t . . . P u p ils n e ith e r a cq u ire in g en e r a l rea d in g situ ation s a l l th e s p e c i f i c s k i l l s req u ired by v a rio u s s u b je c ts nor do th e y ap p ly a u to m a tic a lly in each stud y s it u a t io n th e b e s t read in g p rocedures o f which th ey a re cap ab le. V ari­ ous s u b j e c t s c a l l f o r th e use o f read in g s k i l l s th a t are unique and som etim es f o r a d if f e r e n c e in th e manner in which a s in g l e s k i l l i s a p p lie d .^ C ontent S u b je c ts and Beading Twenty y e a r s ago M cC a llister^ an alyzed 50 read in g d i f f i c u l t i e s found by 7 th and 8 th grade p u p ils in stu d y in g h is t o r y , m ath em atics, and g e n e r a l s c ie n c e .

He found th a t th e 50 read in g d i f f i c u l t i e s cou ld be

grouped in to th e s i x c a t e g o r ie s l i s t e d below on th e b a s is o f th e under­ ly in g c a u ses: 1 . D iffic u ltie s 2 . D iffic u ltie s 3. D iffic u ltie s 4 . D iffic u ltie s 5. D iffic u ltie s 6. D iffic u ltie s g iv e n t o p u p i l s .

growing ou t o f p u p ils ' methods o f a t ta c k . caused by i n a b i l i t y t o r e c o g n iz e r e la t i o n s h ip s . a r i s in g from la c k o f knowledge o f su b je c t-m a tte r . caused by d e f ic ie n c ie s in vo ca b u la ry . caused by in a c c u r a c ie s . a r i s in g from la c k o f c le a r n e s s in d ir e c t io n s

Of the 50 d i f f i c u l t i e s he found th a t 21 were r e la t e d t o th e f i r s t ca te g o r y . IS t o

th e secon d , 6 t o th e t h ir d , 5 to th e fo u r th , 3 t o th e f i f t h and 2 t o

j th e s ix t h c a te g o r y . l ' fo llo w in g :

1. 2.

As a r e s u l t o f h is stu dy M c C a lliste r recommended th e

Reading I n s tr u c tio n in Secondary S c h o o ls. N .E .A . R esearch B u lle t in , XX, No. 1 (January, 1 9 4 2 ), p . 6 . James M. M c C a llis te r , "Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s in Studying Content S u b je c ts ," Elem entary S ch o o l J o u rn a l. XXXI (November, 1 9 3 0 ), p p . 1 9 1 -2 0 1 .

97 1.

An a n a ly s is o f t h e te c h n iq u e o f te a c h in g and o f th e

m aterials assigned f o r t h e p u rp ose o f d eterm in in g th e read in g a c t i v i t i e s required. 2.

The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e p u p il d i f f i c u l t i e s in p erform in g

th e reading a c t i v i t i e s . 3.

The o r g a n iz a t io n o f a p roced u re o f guidance adopted t o th e

needs o f the c l a s s . A few y e a r s l a t e r M c C a llis t e r pursued t h i s l i n e o f r e se a r c h fu rth e r.

He made a survey^- in th e U n iv e r s it y High S ch o o l o f th e U n iver­

s i t y of Chicago in w hich h e c o l l e c t e d d a ta by (1 ) v i s i t i n g c l a s s e s in h isto r y , E n glish , m a th em a tics, and g e n e r a l s c ie n c e t o ob serve and stu d y m aterials of in s t r u c t io n and t e a c h in g te c h n iq u e ; (2) a n a ly zin g m a t e r ia ls and techniques to d e ter m in e r e a d in g s k i l l s n e c e s sa r y f o r s u c c e s s f u l work; (3) checking the r e s u l t s o f t h e s e f i r s t two a c t i v i t i e s by a n a ly z in g pupils* w ritten r e p o r ts and by h o ld in g p e r s o n a l in te r v ie w s w ith p u p ils t o determine the r ea d in g a c t i v i t i e s u sed by a l l o f them .

As a r e s u l t

o f th is survey M c C a lliste r co n clu d ed t h a t 1 . Numerous> and d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f a c t i v i t i e s were r eq u ired in the v a rio u s s u b j e c t s . 2 . D iffe r e n t a d ju stm e n ts w ere r e q u ir e d on th e p a r t o f th e student. 3 . Teachers must be f a m i l i a r w ith th e r e a d in g s k i l l s r e q u ir e d by th eir s u b je c t m a tte r and b e a b le t o g u id e t h e i r s t u d e n t s .2 S t i l l in t e r e s t e d in th e t y p e s o f r e a d in g req u ired in th e c o n te n t M cCallister made a survey in t h e C hicago C ity J u n io r C olleges® a few y e a r s la t e r in which he a n a ly zed th e c o n t e n t o f th e s y l l a b i

1. 2. 3.

o f c o u r se s re q u ir e d

James M. M c C a lliste r , "D eterm in ing th e Types o f R eading in S tu d y in g Content S u b je c ts ." S c h o o l R ev iew . XL (F ebruary, 1 9 3 2 ), pp. 1 1 5 -1 2 3 . M cCallister, oj>. e i t . ' James M. M c C a lliste r , "R eading A b i l i t y o f J u n io r C o lle g e Freshm en," Chicago Sohools J o u r n a l, X V III (S ep tem b er-O ctob er, 1 9 3 6 ), p p . 2 4 - 2 6 . — ---------------- "Reading A b i l i t y I I , in R e la t io n t o Survey C ou rses," Chicago S ch ools J o u r n a l. (November-December, 1 9 3 6 ), p p. 7 9 -8 2 .

98 o f freshm en t o d eterm in e d i f f e r e n t ways in which rea d in g m ight be used in stu d y in g them*

The a c t i v i t i e s he found were o rgan ized under th e f o llo w ­

in g h ea d in g s: 1. 2* 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Reading f o r p le a su r e and r e c r e a t io n . A s c e r ta in in g th e purpose o f r ea d in g b efore b eg in n in g t o stu d y Rapid rea d in g or skimming A s s im ila tin g and r e t a in in g in form ation A m p lifyin g u nderstanding o f a t o p ic o r problem I n te r p r e tin g and e x e c u tin g d ir e c t io n s P r o o frea d in g w r it te n r e p o r ts Apprehending r e la t io n s h ip s Comparing and c o n tr a s tin g O rganizing in form ation E v a lu a tin g r ea d in g m a te r ia l Drawing in fe r e n c e s from rea d in g

M c C a lliste r a ls o found c o r r e la t io n s ranging from *47 in th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s t o *67 in E n g lis h betw een s c o r e s on th e Iowa S i l e n t Beading T est and marks on s c h o o l com prehensive ex a m in a tio n s. Monroe1 made a su rvey t o id e n t if y th e "types o f le a r n in g in tex tb o o k stu d y in which r e a d in g i s th e c e n t r a l a c t i v i t y and found tw elve* 1*

Comprehension o f m a te r ia l read p lu s m em orization so th a t i t

can be reproduced. .9*

P r e p a r a tio n o f a summary w hich c o n ta in s th e c e n t r a l id e a s o f

o f th e assign m ent stu d ie d * 3*

P r e p a r a tio n o f an o u t lin e which shows th e p r in c ip a l p o in ts

and su p p ortin g d e t a i l s arranged t o show th e o rd er o f r e la t iv e im portance and r e l a t i o n s t o each other* 4.

j

i

O b taining in fo rm a tio n f o r th e purpose o f s o lv in g problem s

or answ ering q u e s tio n s . 5.

E x ten sio n o f o n e 's range o f g e n e r a l in form ation by read in g

w id e ly m a te r ia l d i r e c t l y r e la t e d t o a g iv en su b ject*

1*

W. 3* Monroe, "Types o f L earning Required o f P u p ils in th e S even th and E ig h th Grades and in th e High S ch o o l," U n iv e r s ity o f I l l i n o i s B u l l e t i n . XIX, No. 1 5 , 1981, pp . 1 - 1 6 . — —— —

99 6.

D isco v ery or c o l l a t e r a l or i l l u s t r a t i v e m a te r ia l f o r t o p ic s

or problems under d i s c u s s i o n . 7* Enlargem ent o f v o c a b u la r y . 8.

A p p rec ia tio n o f th e s ig n i f i c a n c e o f each word used in a

concisely expressed sta te m e n t o f p r in c ip le s * 9.

A c l e a r com prehension o f th e e s s e n t i a l c o n d itio n s o f a

problem which i s t o b e so lv e d * 10.

D isco v ery o f new o r supplem entary problem s r e la t in g to

the topic being s t u d ie d . 11.

Drawing v a l i d c o n c lu s io n s from g iv e n d ata o r sta tem en ts*

12.

F o llo w in g d i r e c t i o n s w ith a ccu racy and reason ab le speed*

I t is evident from t h e s t u d i e s made by Monroe and M c C a lliste r t h a t read ­ ing i s used for many d i f f e r e n t p u r p o se s in each s u b je c t and th a t th e reading a c t i v i t i e s in one s u b j e c t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th o se in another.

As H arris^ h a s p o in te d o u t

• . • Two d i s t i n c t group s o f problem s appear t o be in volved * One group r e l a t e s t o th e s p e c i a l r e a d in g s k i l l s and a b i l i t i e s neoessary f o r e f f e c t i v e r e a d in g in p a r t ic u la r co n te n t f i e l d s * The other r e la t e s t o t h o s e b a s i c c o n d itio n s o f le a r n in g through reading w ith w h ich a l l te a c h e r s o f a l l s u b je c ts are n e c e s s a r ily concerned. Obviously the b a s ic s k i l l s n eed t o be m astered b e fo r e a rea d er can a ttem p t to learn th e s k i l l s p e r t i n e n t t o , o r s p e c i f i c t o any g iv en s it u a t i o n . Die Committee on D ia g n o s t ic B eading T e sts has iss u e d a s e t o f Questions on Reading8 in w hich t h e r e a d in g s p e c i a l i s t s who make up th e

1.

2.

Theodore L. R a r r is , *Qdaking R eading An E f f e c t iv e Instrum ent o f L earning in th e C ontent F i e l d s ," C hapter V II in Reading in th e High S ch o o l and C o lle g e . F o r ty -S e v e n th Y earbook, P a r t I I o f th e N *3*3*2*, p . 116* Committee on D ia g n o s tic R ead in g T e s t s , Q u estion s on R eading. The Committee, 419 W. 1 1 9 th S t r e e t , New York 27, N* Y.

100 Committee have attem pted t o answer some o f th e q u e stio n s m ost fr e q u e n tly asked in th e r e a d in g a r e a .

Concerning the c o n tr ib u tio n o f te a c h e r s o f

c o n te n t s u b j e c t s t o th e rea d in g program th e Committee h as t h i s t o say: The su b je c t-m a tte r tea ch er may c o n tr ib u te t o th e developm ent o f t h e rea d in g s k i l l s o f h i s stu d e n ts by g iv in g them t r a in in g in th e m a te r ia ls th a t are p e c u lia r t o h i s s u b j e c t . He can g iv e t r a in in g in th e use o f maps, c h a r t s , g r a p h s, diagram s, and t a b le s u n t i l stu d e n ts le a r n how t o understand and read t h e s e . He can g iv e in s t r u c t io n in p r o f it a b le methods o f study such as p h y s ic a l c o n d it io n s , o u t lin in g and sum m arizing. Furtherm ore, he can h elp h is stu d e n ts to a c h ie v e a f l e x i ­ b i l i t y in r a t e o f read in g acco rd in g t o th e purpose o f th e rea d in g by p r a c t ic e in skimming, c a r e f u l rea d in g and stu d y . F in a lly , he i s r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e s tu d e n t1s le a r n in g th e t e c h n ic a l term s and vocab u lary o f h i s s u b je c t by in t e n s iv e stu d y o f t h e s e w ords.1 Leary2 h as surveyed th e s p e c ia l rea d in g problem s a r is i n g in l i t e r a t u r e , m ath em atics, s c ie n c e , and th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s and h as drawn im p lic a tio n s f o r t e a c h in g . McFadden5 has su g g e sted in te g r a tin g a b io lo g y workbook and study m a te r ia ls w ith s p e c i a l l y d esig n ed rea d in g p roced u res f o r th e c o u r s e . Bauer^ has d evelop ed a s e t o f n in e s u g g e s tio n s t o h e lp s tu d e n ts read h is to r y .

M atthew s, L arsen and B u tle r 5 conducted th r e e exp erim en ts in

o o lle g e freshm en co m p o sition co u rses t o determ ine how improvement in r e a d in g can be made t o h elp improve c o m p o sitio n .

1* 2. 3. I [4 . 5.

6.

S c a r l e t t 5 has d escrib ed

I b id . . Q uestion No. 1 9 . B e r n ice B . L eary, "Meeting S p e c if ic Reading Problem s in th e Content F i e l d s ," Chapter T i l l in Reading in th e High S ch o o l and C o lle g e . p p . 136-rl79. M. G r. MoFadden, "Proposed I n te g r a tio n o f B io lo g y Workbook and Study M a te r ia ls w ith S p e c ia lly D esigned Reading P roced u res f o r th e C ourse," S c ie n c e E d u cation . XXXIII (March, 1 9 4 9 ), p p . 1 5 6 -1 6 2 . R . H. Bauer, "Study o f H isto r y : Reading o f H isto r y ," S o c ia l S t u d ie s . XXXIX (O ctober, 1 9 4 8 ), p p . 2 6 7 -2 7 2 . B. G r. M atthew s, R obert P . L arsen , and Gibbon B u tle r , "Experim ental I n v e s t ig a t io n o f th e R e la tio n Between Reading T rainin g and Achievem ent i n C o lle g e C om position C la s s e s ," Jou rh al o f Educa­ t i o n a l R esea rch . XXXVIII (March, 1 9 4 5 ), p p . 4 9 9 -5 0 5 . W ill S c a r l e t t , "Remedial Reading in th e New York C ity High S o h o o ls," H igh P o i n t s . XX (December, 1 9 3 8 ), pp. 1 8 -2 4 .

1 °1 how remedial r e a d in g was in c o r p o r a te d in t o th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e r e g u la r English course o f s tu d y in th e New York C ity High S c h o o ls .

M cNeil1

has shown how a freshm an c o m p o s itio n cou rse can be r a d ic a l ly changed to put the em phasis on r e a d in g improvement and w id er r e a d in g .

S tr ig h t^

ran an experim ent t o f in d o u t w h eth er a program o f r ea d in g improvement would a lso improve perform ance in a lg e b r a and g o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o s i t i v e r esu lts from h i s d a t a .

L essenger® conducted an exp erim en t in which th e

pupils were g iv e n i n t e n s iv e t r a in in g in r e a d in g .

He found th e in c r e a s e

in a b ility in r e a d in g a r it h m e t ic problem s was c l o s e l y r e la t e d t o th e progress made in r e a d in g .

He r e p o r te d t h a t " th e e r r o r s due t o f a i l t y

reading v i r t u a l l y d isa p p ea red a s a r e s u l t of t r a in in g in read in g w ith o u t any s p e c if ic r e f e r e n c e t o a r it h m e t i c .

The t r a n s f e r o f th e improved

s k ills from r e a d in g p ro p er t o r e a d in g a r ith m e tic was e x t e n s iv e ."

In

analyzing th e c a u s e s o f f a i l u r e in n in t h y ea r a lg e b r a , Wattawa s t a t e s , Reoent s t u d ie s show t h a t p erh ap s tw en ty p er c e n t o f th e f a ilu r e s in n in th y e a r a lg e b r a may be a t t r ib u t e d to t h e i n a b ilit y o f th e s tu d e n ts to read t h e ir problem s s o a s to understand th em . What i s n o t s o canmonly r eco g n ized i s th a t th e rea d in g o f a l l m athem atics i s n o t o n ly harder than t h e r e a d in g in v o lv e d in t h e study o f non-m atham atical s u b je c ts , b u t p erh ap s r e q u ir e s a tech n iq u e w h ich h a s not y e t been d e v e lo p e d .4 MeCaul5 h a s made some i n t e r e s t i n g s u g g e s t io n s f o r u t i l i z i n g m aterials from t h e c o n te n t s u b j e c t s i n a program o f rea d in g improvement.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

M ellicen t M cN eil, "R eadings in Freshman C om position," E n g lish Jou rn al (C o lleg e E d i t i o n ) , XXVII (November, 1 9 3 8 ), p p . 7 6 6 -7 7 0 . I . L. S t r ig h t , "D ie R e la t io n o f R eading Comprehension and E f f i c i e n t Methods o f S tu d y t o S k i l l in S o lv in g A lg e b r a ic Problem s," Mathematics T ea ch er. XXXI (December, 1 9 3 8 ), p p . 3 6 8 -3 7 2 . W. E. L e ssen g er , "R eading D i f f i c u l t i e s in A r ith m e tic a l Com putation," Journal o f E d u c a tio n a l R e se a r c h . X I ( A p r il, 1 9 2 5 ), p p . 2 8 7 -2 9 1 . V irgin ia Wattawa, "Reading i n M athem atics," M athem atics T eacher. X£VI (May, 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 2 7 7 -2 8 2 . R. L. MeCaul, Economic T r a in in g i n Reading a t th e Secondary S ch o o l L ev el," H igh S c h o o l J o u r n a l. XXI ( A p r il, 1 9 3 8 ) , p p . 1 1 7 -1 2 5 .

102 E x e r c is e s drawn from E n g lis h l i t e r a t u r e , he s u g g e s ts , can be used in the E n g lish c l a s s t o h elp slow rea d ers a c c e le r a t e .

S o c ia l S tu d ie s m a teria ls

could be used t o h elp improve the com prehension o f th o se stu d e n ts who f a i l t o grasp main id e a s w h ile S cien ce and M athem atics c l a s s e s should be a b le t o h elp improve th e com prehension o f rap id s u p e r f ic ia l rea d ers who are in c lin e d t o m iss d e t a i l s . in a l l c o u r s e s .

Vocabulary improvement cou ld be undertaken

Bonar^ th in k s th a t more a r t i c u la t io n between h ig h er and

low er s c h o o ls would h e lp m a tte r s .

He s u g g e sts th a t co n te n t s u b je c t

te a c h e r s subm it l i s t s o f s p e c ia l rea d in g s k i l l s d e s ir e d in t h e ir f i e l d s t o te a c h e r s in th e in te r m e d ia te g r a d e s . Achievem ent in S ch ool and Reading W hile th e w eig h t o f o p in io n and resea rch seems t o fa v o r the th eo ry th a t th e p a tte r n o f s k i l l s req u ired in t h e d if f e r e n t co n ten t s u b je c ts v a r i e s w ith t h e s u b j e c t , A rtley 2 found th a t th e r e i s a p o s it iv e r e l a t i o n betw een the a b i l i t y t o engage in a g e n e r a l ty p e o f read in g and th e a b i l i t y to rea d in a s p e c ia liz e d a r e a .

"This r e l a t i o n , " a s he p u ts

i t , " is n o t so h ig h , how ever, a s t o d is m is s th e p o s s i b i l i t y th a t a great number o f p u p ils can p r o f i t from in s t r u c t io n in th e s p e c ia liz e d s k i l l s and a b i l i t i e s t h a t go in t o rea d in g in a p a r t ic u la r c o n te n t a r e a ."

S till

i f " lea rn in g t o read in a g iv e n co n ten t f i e l d i s synonymous w ith learn in g how t o stu d y in th a t f i e l d , " a s Parker® c la im s , th en we should ex p ect to fin d a p o s i t i v e and s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e la t io n betw een achievem ent in school I and r ea d in g a b i l i t y . f 1. 2. 3.

Hugh S . Bonar, " S ystem atic V ersus I n c id e n ta l T rainin g in Reading," Elem entary i s h R eview . X (A p r il, 1 9 2 2 ), p p . 9 0 -9 4 . A. S . A r t le y , "General and S p e c if ic F a cto rs in Reading Comprehension," Journal o f E xperim ental E d u cation . XVI (March, 1 9 4 8 ), p p . 181-186. E d ith Putnam P a rk er, "Nature o f Reading Problems i n Content F ie ld s As I ll u s t r a t e d i n th e Case o f Geography," In Improving Reading in C ontent F i e l d s . p . 8 .

103

Aukeiman-*- u sin g a p a ir e d c a s e tech n iq u e a d m in istered g e n e r a l reading t e s t s ; s p e c i f i c r ea d in g t e s t s in l i t e r a t u r e , h is t o r y , s c ie n c e , and m athem atics; g e n e r a l v o ca b u la ry t e s t s ; and s p e c i f i c vocab u lary te sts in th e fou r s u b j e c t s m entioned t o d eterm in e whether good and poor eleventh grade s tu d e n ts w ith i n t e l l i g e n c e and o th e r f a c t o r s h eld c o n s ta n t d iffe r in r e a d in g a b i l i t y .

H is r e s u l t s in d ic a t e th a t g e n e r a l read in g

a b ility i s th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g f a c to r between good and poor e le v e n th grade s tu d e n t s in a l l fo u r academ ic a r e a s .

He a ls o found

that the read in g and v o c a b u la r y a b i l i t i e s by w hich th e good and th e poor stu d en ts may be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d vary from s u b je c t t o s u b j e c t . Anderson and Dearborn2 a l s o a d m in iste r e d a b a t te r y o f r e a d in g t e s t s using the p a ir ed c a s e te c h n iq u e t o 136 c o lle g e stu d e n ts matched on the b asis o f i n t e l l i g e n c e .

L ik e Aukerman th ey found a p o s i t i v e r e l a ­

tionship betw een r e a d in g a b i l i t y and ach iev em en t which i s independent of the i n t e l l i g e n c e fa c to r *

Exathw ohl3 made a fo llo w -u p stu d y o f

college freshm en who ranked in th e lo w e s t and h ig h e s t q u a r t ile s on the C ooperative R eading T e st C-2 and fou nd t h a t many more poor rea d e r s did u n s a tis fa c to r y work th an good r e a d e r s .

Humber4 worked w ith s tu d e n ts

in various c u r r ic u la a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f M innesota in an e f f o r t t o determine th e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t i n g betw een c e r t a in rea d in g s k i l l s and sch o la stic s u c c e s s in t h e s e c u r r ic u la .

The number o f s tu d e n ts in each

1* Robert C. Aukerman, J r . , " D iffe r e n c e s in Reading S ta tu s o f Good and Poor E le v e n th Grade S t u d e n t s ," Jou rn al o f E d u ca tio n a l R esearch . XLI (March, 1 9 4 8 ) , p p . 4 9 8 -5 1 5 . 2. I . H. Anderson and W* 7* Dearborn, "Reading A b i lit y As R ela ted t o C o lle g e A ch ievem en t," J o u rn a l o f P sy c h o lo g y . XI ( A p r il, 1 9 4 1 ), pp. 387-396* 3. W illiam C. K rathw ohl, *The Im portance o f A cq u irin g Reading S k i l l s , " 3he N a tio n a l E lem en tary P r in c i p a l. XPT (February, 1 9 4 6 ) , pp* 3 0 -3 3 . 4. William J* Humber, "The R e la t io n s h ip Between Reading E f f ic ie n c y and Academic S u c c e s s in S e le c t e d U n iv e r s ity C u r r ic u la ," J o u rn a l o f E d u ca tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y . XXXV (Jan uary, 1 9 4 4 ), p p . 17-26*

104 group ranged from 45 t o 12 and th e c u r r ic u la stu d ie d were 5 -y e a r nursing, 3 -y e a r n u r sin g , m ed ic a l te c h n o lo g y , d i e t e t i c s , f o r e s t r y , a g r ic u ltu r e , E n g lis h e d u c a tio n , m usic e d u a tio n , s o c i a l work, s o c ia l s c ie n c e education, and s c ie n c e e d u c a tio n .

He conclud ed from h i s d ata t h a t "when a student

a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f M in nesota rea c h e s th e s e n io r y e a r o f a c e r ta in curri­ culum he f in d s t h a t th e d if f e r e n c e betw een an A and a C grade i s l e s s dependent upon s c h o l a s t i c a p titu d e than upon o th er f a c t o r s such as r ea d in g e f f i c i e n c y . " In h i s su rv ey in th e Chicago C ity Ju n ior C o lle g e s , McCallister^found th e f o llo w in g c o r r e la t io n s betw een s c o r e s on t h e Iowa S i l e n t Read­ in g T est and

m a rk s

on com prehensive s c h o o l exam in ation s: W ith With W ith W ith

E n g lis h S o c ia l S c ie n c e s B io l o g ic a l S c ie n c e P h y s ic a l S c ie n c e

.6 7 .5 3 .4 9 .4 7

Eagle** found t h a t good r e a d e r s ten d to be good s tu d e n ts in mathem atics and poor r e a d e r s te n d t o be poor s tu d e n t s .

C o ffin g

ran a s e r i e s o f

c o r r e la t io n s betw een s c o r e s on paragraph meaning and a r ith m e tic reason­ in g t e s t s made by 355 s tu d e n ts in grad es 4B through 8A and found only one t o be lo w w h ile a t l e a s t h a l f th e c o r r e la t io n s were o f th e order o f .50 or a b o v e. A lth o u g h m ost o f th e e v id e n c e on th e q u e stio n o f th e r e la tio n ­ sh ip betw een s c h o l a s t i c achievem ent and r ea d in g a b i l i t y a g r e e s w ith the

I 1. f

2. 3.

James M. M c C a llis t e r , "Reading A b i l i t y I I , in R e la tio n t o Survey C o u rses," C hicago S c h o o ls J o u rn a l. XVIII (November-December, 1 9 3 6 ), p p . 7 9 - 8 2 . Edwin E a g le . "The R e la tio n s h ip o f C erta in R eading A b i l i t i e s to S u c c e ss in M ath em atics," The M athem atics T eacher. XLI (A p r il, 1 9 4 8 ) , p p . 1 7 5 -1 7 9 . E sth e r A . C o ffin g , "The R e la tio n s h ip betw een S i l e n t Reading A b ility and A r ith m e tic a l A b i l i t y . " S ch o o l S c ie n c e and M athem atics. XLI (Jan uary, 1 9 4 1 ), pp. 1 0 - 1 4 .

105 reports p r e sen te d in t h e fo r e g o in g p a g es, here t o o , one or two v o ic e s are r a ise d in d i s s e n s i o n .

P r e sto n and Tuft-*- t e s t e d 22 p o t e n t ia l P h i

Beta Kappa women a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f P ennsylvan ia u sin g th e fo llo w in g instrum ents: Iowa S i l e n t R eading T est - Advanced T raxler H igh S c h o o l R eading T est M innesota Speed o f Reading T est f o r C ollege S tu d en ts Wrenn Study H a b its Inven tory M etronoscope Ophthalmograph 3fceir r e s u l t s showed t h a t (1) l e s s than h a lf o f the group read f a s t e r than 325 words p er m in u te; (2) o n e -h a lf t o tw o -th ir d s o f th e group exceeded c o l l e g e norms in span o f r e c o g n itio n ; (3) o n e -h a lf were f r e e of e x c e s s iv e r e g r e s s i v e movements; (4) th r e e -fo u r th s exceeded c o ll e g e freshmen norms in com prehension on the Iowa T est; and (5) tw o -th ir d s exceeded 1 2 th grade norms in comprehension on the T raxler T e s t.

In

summary, th e a u th o rs r e p o r t th a t " o n e-fo u rth to o n e -h a lf o f th e group could be regard ed a s la c k in g in each o f th e se components o f rea d in g e f f ic ie n c y in term s o f t h e norms used."

This e v id e n c e , th e y c la im ,

disputes' th e w id e ly h e ld assu m ption th a t e f f i c i e n t read in g i s a p r e r e q u isite t o good s c h o la r s h ip . P r e d ic t io n o f S c h o la s t ic S u ccess and Reading I f r e a d in g a b i l i t y d o e s d isc r im in a te w e ll betw een good and poor stu d e n ts th en one would e x p e c t to f in d ed u ca tio n a l in s t i t u t i o n s j

using m easures o f r e a d in g a b i l i t y to s e l e c t stu d en ts and p r e d ic t

I

'

s c h o la s tic s u c c e s s .

1.

However an exam ination o f two r a th e r e x te n s iv e

R. C, P r e sto n and E . N . T u ft, "Reading H abits o f Sup erior C o lle g e S tu d e n ts," J o u rn a l o f Tfrrpa-ri m antal E duoation. XVI (March, 1 9 4 8 ), pp. 1 9 6 -2 0 1 ,

106 surveys^" co n cern in g th e p r e d ic t io n o f s c h o la s t ic s u c c e s s shows veryl i t t l e use or m ention o f s p e c i f i c rea d in g t e s t s as p r e d ic to r s although a number o f th e more w id e ly used g e n e r a l s c h o la s t ic a p titu d e t e s t s do have r e a d in g o r v e r b a l com prehension s e c t io n s .

There have been a

number o f s t u d i e s , o f c o u r s e , which in d ic a t e t h a t vocab u lary or read­ in g a b i l i t y cou ld be used a s s e l e c t i v e m easu res.

Templeman2 in a

stu d y o f 2430 freshm en a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f I l l i n o i s found th a t vocabu­ la r y l e v e l a t c o l l e g e e n tra n ce was a s a t i s f a c t o r y p r e d ic t iv e measure f o r co u r se sta n d in g in freshm an w ork .

Held® o b ta in ed s t a t i s t i c a l l y

r e l i a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s in mean s c o r e s on th e N elson-D enny Reading Test among th r e e groups o f c o l le g e freshm en c l a s s i f i e d on th e b a s is o f grad es in E n g lis h .

Templeman i s s p e c i f i c a l l y t a lk in g about general

voca b u la ry and H eld i s d oin g th e same th in g i n d i r e c t l y becau se as D avis p o in t s o u t th e N elson-D enny T est i s la r g e ly a t e s t o f word k n ow led ge.

Hence in b o th in s t a n c e s i t i s a measure o f v e r b a l i n t e l l i ­

gen ce which i s b e in g used r a th e r th a n a m easure o f r ea d in g a b i l i t y . The t i t l e o f a t e s t does n o t e s t a b l i s h i t s v a l i d i t y .

We do th a t by

f in d in g o u t what i t i s t h a t t h e t e s t m easures r e l i a b l y . Havens4 d ecid ed t h a t t h e a d d itio n o f r e a d in g s c o r e s to pre­ law g ra d es p rovid ed a much b e t t e r p r e d ic t iv e in d ex th an p re-law grades a lo n e .

1. 2. 3. 4*

5.

Lanigan^ compared th e M innesota Speed o f Reading T est w ith the

D avid S e g e l, P r e d ic t io n o f S u c c e ss in C o lle g e . Dewey B . S t u i t and o t h e r s , P r e d ic t in g S u ccess in P r o fe s s io n a l Schools. W illia m D. Templeman, "Vocabulary and S u ccess in C o lle g e ," School,and S o c ie t y . LI (February 1 7 , 1 9 4 0 ) , p p . 2 2 1 -2 2 4 . 0 . C* H eld , "The N elson-D enny Reading T est As an E n g lis h Placement T e s t," S c h o o l and S o c ie t y . 2LIX (January 1 4 , 1 9 3 9 ) , p . 64. V ir g in ia .Havens, "A P r e d ic t io n o f Law S ch o o l A chievem ent from High S ch o o l Rank, R eading T e st S c o r e s , P s y c h o lo g ic a l T est S co res, and A verage Grade in Pre-Law C o u rses," J o u rn a l o f E d u cation al Psycho­ l o g y . XXXDC ( A p r il, 1 9 4 8 ) , p p . 2 3 7 -2 4 2 . Mary A . L an igan , "The E f f e c t iv e n e s s o f th e O t is , th e A .C .E ., and the M in n esota Speed o f R eading T e s ts f o r P r e d ic tin g S u ccess in C ollege," J o u rn a l o f E d u c a tio n a l R esea rch . XLI (December, 1 9 4 7 ), pp. 289-296.

107 O tis and A .C .E , t e s t s o f s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y and found th a t th e A .C .E , t e s t was th e b e s t o f th e th r e e f o r p r e d ic tin g s u c c e ss in c o l l e g e , P eix o tto ^ ran c o r r e la t io n s betw een the C ooperative Heading T est C-2 and th e v e r b a l s e c t io n o f th e S c h o la s tic A ptitude T est o f th e C o lleg e Entrance E xam ination Board and obtained the fo llo w in g r e s u lt s w ith the s c o r e s o f 263 g i r l s in. a l i b e r a l a r ts c o lle g e : Coop, R eading C-2

Verbal S e c tio n - S,A ,T ,

V ocabulary Speed o f Comprehension L e v e l o f Comprehension T o ta l

,7 5 ,6 0 ,5 9 .7 6

She concluded t h a t r e a d in g a b i l i t y i s an important f a c t o r in s c o r e s on the v e r b a l s e c t i o n o f th e C ,E ,E ,B . S c h o la s tic A p titu d e T est and th a t th is s u b t e s t co u ld be u sed t o screen out stu d en ts in need o f c o r r e c t iv e work in r e a d in g .

Staith2 reach ed th e co n clu sio n a f t e r check in g v a r io u s

measures f o r p r e d i c t iv e p u rp oses th a t reading o r o b j e c tiv e E n g lis h exam ination s c o r e s are ab ou t a s good as s c h o la s t ic a p titu d e s c o r e s . E f f e c t o f G eneral E ducation on Reading R esearch has e s t a b lis h e d the f a c t th a t p r o g r e ss in read in g p a r a lle ls an in d iv id u a l *s t o t a l developm ent.

There seems t o be some

d isagreem en t, how ever, a s t o what happens t o reading developm ent during the la t e - a d o le s c e n t and p o s t-a d o le s c e n t y e a r s . Do t h e r e a d in g s k i l l s o f c o lle g e stu d e n ts

im p r o v e

w ith fu r th e r e d u c a tio n b u t w ith o u t any s p e c if ic e f f o r t {reading improvement?

1. 2,

A s in o th e r a rea s in read ing

a u to m a tic a lly

or program

of

th e answers t o t h i s

H elen E, P e ix o t t o , "The R e la tio n s h ip o f C o lleg e Board Exam ination S c o r e s and R eading S c o r e s f o r C o lleg e Freshmen," Jou rnal o f A p p lied P sy c h o lo g y . XXX (A ugust, 1 9 4 6 ), p p . 4 0 6 -4 1 1 , F r a n c is P . S m ith , "The U se o f P rev io u s Record in E stim a tin g C o lleg e S u c c e s s ," J o u rn a l o f E d u cation al P sych ology. XXXVI (March, 1 9 4 5 ), pp. 1 6 7 -1 7 6 ,

q u e stio n do n o t show c l e a r - c u t agreem ent among th e e x p e r t s .

Gladfelter"^

a n a ly zed th e Septem ber and June t e s t s c o r e s o f 474 c o ll e g e freshmen at Temple U n iv e r s it y t o d eterm in e th e changes in rea d in g a b i l i t y that occur du rin g th e freshm an y e a r in c o l l e g e .

Her f in d in g s a r e summarized below

f o r th e stu d e n ts who were arranged in t o th r e e groups a s fo llo w s :

Arts

and s c ie n c e , e d u c a tio n , and commerce, 1.

A l l groups made s i g n i f i c a n t g a in s in comprehension and in

r a t e o f s i l e n t r e a d in g . 2.

More in d iv id u a l g a in s and few er l o s s e s occurred in rate

than in com prehension. 3.

In b oth a r e a s , r a t e and com prehension, th e r e were more

in d iv id u a l g a in s among th o se whose i n i t i a l s c o r e s w ere below th e means f o r t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e groups th an among th o se who i n i t i a l l y ranked above th e mean. 4.

When upper and lo w er t h ir d s are compared— th o se who made

th e lo w er i n i t i a l s c o r e s made th e g r e a t e s t g a in s .

The g a in s made by

s tu d e n ts in t h e upper t h ir d w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , w h ile la r g e and s i g n i f i c a n t g a in s were made b y th e low er th ir d group. 5.

When s tu d e n t s a r e ranked a cco rd in g to i n i t i a l p ercen tiles

in com p reh en sion , th o s e who were lov; in com prehension gain ed during the y e a r w h ile th e r e ap p ears t o be a d e c lin in g g a in w ith in c r e a sin g in it ia l com prehension a b i l i t y . 6.

The s u p e r io r and i n f e r io r p r o g r e s s a l i k e in r a te when ranked

a cc o rd in g t o i n i t i a l com prehension s c o r e s .

1.

Mi Heard S . G la d f e lt e r , "An A n a ly s is o f B eading and E n g lish Changes That Occur During th e Freshman Year in C o lle g e ," Journal of the American A s s o c ia t io n o f C o lle g ia t e R e g is t r a r s . 2C£ (Ju ly7 1945)/ p p . 527*543*

109

7.

When ranked a cco rd in g to p e r c e n t ile s on th e A .C .E .

P s y c h o lo g ic a l E xam in ation , G la d fe lte r concluded t h a t a yea r o f c o lle g e ex p er ien ce d oes n o t fa v o r any a b i l i t y l e v e l in r e s p e c t to th e p o s s i­ b i l i t y f o r g a in i n r a t e or comprehension o f s i l e n t r e a d in g . Bear and Imus^ stu d ie d a l l freshmen in th e Dartmouth C la ss o f 1940 having had n o c o n ta c t w ith th e C ollege*s read in g improvement pro­ gram to d eterm in e changes in perform ance on th e Iowa S ile n t Reading T e s t.

The o n ly s i g n i f i c a n t g a in which he found was in com prehension.

When he grouped t h e freshm en accord in g t o p e r c e n t ile rank on th e A .C .E . P s y c h o lo g ic a l E xam ination and analyzed gain s he found the g a in s t o be c o n s is t e n t r e g a r d le s s o f s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y . Bernard** found t h a t a c o lle g e s tu d e n t's vocab u lary grows as he a tte n d s c o l l e g e r e g a r d le s s o f whether or not he g iv e s th e m atter any a t te n t io n and t h a t th e r e i s a m easurable g a in in vocab u lary in a s sh o r t a p erio d a s s i x w ee k s. D is a g r e e in g w ith th e fin d in g s of G la d fe lte r , Bear and Imus, and Bernard a r e t h e r e p o r ts o f Lauer3 and o f Thompson.4

Lauer conducted

an experim ent in r e a d in g improvement and found th a t h i s c o n tr o l group did n o t in c r e a s e i n r e a d in g a b i l i t y .

Thompson a ls o conducted an e x p e r i­

ment as a r e s u l t o f w hich he concluded th a t freshm en a s a group do n o t

1. ( 2. 3. 4.

Robert M. B ear and Henry A . Imus, "Changes in Reading Perform ance d u rin g th e Freshman Year in C o lleg e," Journal o f E d u ca tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y . 3QOC (December, 1 9 3 9 ), pp. 667-6 7 3 . H. W. B ernard, "An Experiment in Vocabulary B u ild in g ," S chool and S o c i e t y , L I I I (June 7, 1 9 4 1 ), p p . 742-743. Alvah R . L a u er, "An E xperim ental Study of th e Improvement o f Reading by C o lle g e S tu d e n ts ," Journal o f E ducational P sy ch o lo g y . XJCVTI (December, 1 9 3 6 ), p p . 655-6 6 2 . W illiam H . Thompson, "An Experiment in Remedial R eading," S ch ool and S o c i e t y . XXXIV (August 1 , 1 9 3 1 ), pp. 1 5 6 -1 5 8 .

110 improve in rea d in g d u rin g th e f i r s t sem ester o f c o l le g e work and that poor rea d in g i s a p o t e n t ia l f a c t o r in th e f a i l u r e o f freshmen to succeed in t h e f i r s t y e a r o f c o lle g e work. Back on th e pro s id e o f t h i s q u e stio n i s a rep o rt by Anderson and Morse^- who s tu d ie d th e read in g s k i l l s o f 606 v e te r a n s a t the U n iv e r s it y o f M ich ig a n .

Having found th a t th e rea d in g scores of college

s tu d e n ts c o n tin u o u sly in c r e a s e from freshm an t o s e n io r year as a conse­ quence o f academ ic and g e n e r a l r e a d in g e x p e r ie n c e th e y computed mean s c o r e s f o r v e te r a n s on th e N elson-D enny Reading T est by y ea rs away from s c h o o l.

There r e s u l t s in g e n e r a l do n o t in d ic a t e any d eterio ra tio n of

rea d in g s k i l l w ith a b sen ce from s c h o o l.

The a u th o rs s u g g e s t, therefore,

th a t th e r e i s a r e la t io n s h ip betw een rea d in g a b i l i t y and the maturity o f th e in d iv id u a l. i f r e a d in g i s a phase o f lan gu age developm ent which in turn i s one p h ase in th e t o t a l developm ent o f homo s a p ie n s th en i t would not be s u r p r is in g t o f in d t h a t th e r e i s some r e la t io n s h ip between reading le v e l and m a tu r a tio n .

W hile a s in o th er a r e a s we have c o n f li c t in g evidence

con cern in g th e e f f e c t o f ed u c a tio n and m a tu ra tio n on read in g much of the d isa g r ee m e n t, a s i s tr u e in m ost argum ents, p rob ab ly could be ironed out, i f in v e s t i g a t o r s w ere su r e t h a t th e y w ere t a lk in g about th e same thing and u s in g th e same y a r d s tic k to m easure i t .

One in v e s t ig a to r reports

growth in v o ca b u la ry a s a r e s u l t o f c o lle g e atten d a n ce and another reports jbhe o p p o s it e .

O ften th e y do n o t s p e c if y th e s p e c i f i c words or types of

V ocabulary in q u e s tio n .

I t has been dem onstrated t h a t s p e c ia l vocabulary

resp on d s q u ic k ly t o t r a in in g w hereas th e o p p o s ite i s tru e in the case of

1.

I . H. Anderson and W. 0 . M orse, "The Reading o f V e te r a n s,M Journal of H igher E d u c a tio n . XVII (O ctob er, 1 9 4 6 ), pp . 3 7 5 -3 7 7 . '

I ll g e n e r a l v o c a b u la r y .

I t has a ls o been shovm t h a t th e in t e r c o r r e la t io n

among t e s t s b ea rin g th e same t i t l e and p u rp ortin g t o measure th e same t h in g , i s o f t e n low enough t o r a i s e a s e r io u s doubt a s to whether th ey are m easuring th e same f a c to r ; and furtherm ore th e r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f in d iv id u a l instru m en ts i s o fte n n o t what i t should b e . I f a h ig h ly r e l i a b l e and v a lid read in g t e s t could be d e v is e d , i t i s p ro b a b le th a t th e age p ro g ress curve fo r r e a d in g would be v ery s im ila r t o t h o s e w hich have been e s ta b lis h e d f o r vocabulary and i n t e l l i ­ g en ce based on our p r e s e n t m easuring d e v ic e s .

Hamlin^ p o in t s ou t th a t

a l l t h a t a g e -p r o g r e s s cu rves based on t e s t s have dem onstrated s o f a r i s th a t c e r t a in s c h o o l-a g e s k i l l s and know ledge, ex p ressed in p e r c e n t i l e sigm a u n i t s , ten d n o t t o in c r e a s e as markedly a f t e r sc h o o l age a s during s c h o o l a g e; and th a t some o f th e se s k i l l s and knowledge may e v e n tu a lly be l o s t .

Hamlin i s r e f e r r in g h ere p a r t ic u la r ly t o th e n e g a t iv e ly

a c c e le r a t e d o r S -sh ap e cu rves which have been e s ta b lis h e d f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e and r e a d in g .

A number o f in v e s t ig a t o r s have found th a t th e r e i s alm ost

s t r a i g h t l i n e growth in th e s e f a c t o r s up t o th e a d o le sc e n t p e r io d , and t h a t from th e b e g in n in g o f a d o le sc e n c e , n e g a t iv e a c c e le r a t io n i s d isc e r n ­ i b l e u n t i l a c t u a l d e t e r io r a tio n s e t s in sometime d u rin g th e p o s t ­ a d o le s c e n t y e a r s and u s u a lly b e fo r e age t h i r t y . 2 However, a s Hamlin p o in t s o u t, th e s k i l l s d evelop ed in in fa n c y , and th o s e d ev elo p ed i n a d o lesce n c e and in e a r ly a d u lt l i f e do n o t f i t th e

\

1. S.

Roy M. H am lin, An A n a ly s is o f A ge-P rogress Curves As R ela ted t o th e M ental Growth Curve; A Study o f V ocabulary. A rch ives o f P sy ch o lo g y , N o. 2 9 3 , 1 9 4 4 . D avid W ech sler, The Measurement o f A du lt I n t e l l i g e n c e . p p . 5 4 -6 9 .

n e a t q u estio n -a n d -a n sw er form s u it e d t o our commonly used t e s t s .

I f we

co u ld d ev elo p an adequate y a r d s tic k f o r th e measurement of these s k i l l s , an a g e -p r o g r e ss curve in r e a d in g , as in vocabulary and in tellig en ce, m ight show i t s m ost r a p id r i s e from f i f t e e n to th ir ty years and contrast d i s t i n c t l y w ith t h e cu rv es which have th u s f a r been established.

CHAPTER I I I RELATED STUDIES:

DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL ASPECTS

I t would be tru ly wonderful i f m ental hygiene and p rev en tiv e m ed icin e could be developed to such an e x t e n t, th a t most o f man's p r e s e n t i l l s would cease to o c c u r — wonderful but n o t very lik e ly * I t m ight seem more reasonable to ex p ect th a t developm ental programs in r e a d in g could be brought in to b ein g, which would p reven t a l l or m ost read in g d i s a b i l i t i e s .

When th e uniqueness o f th e in d iv id u a l i s

c o n sid e r e d , however, i t is c le a r th a t i t i s ju s t as u n lik e ly th a t a l l rea d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s can be elim in a ted a s i t i s th a t a l l m ental and p h y s ic a l d istu rb a n ces can be preven ted .

Hence resea rch and in v e s tig a ­

t i o n in t o th e c a u se s, d ia g n o sis, and rem ediation o f reading d i s a b i l i t i e s must go on so th a t th e se handicaps can r e a d ily be d e te c te d , understood, and t r e a t e d .

I t i s t h i s phase o f th e reading problem th a t t h is chapter

w i l l d is c u s s * C auses o f Reading D is a b ilit y "Learning to read i s a complex p ro cess which may be f a c i l i t a t e d or impeded by a v a r ie t y of c o n d itio n s , b oth w ith in and w ithout th e in d iv id u a l* " ^

T h is statem ent by Monroe r e p r e se n ts th e consensus o f

read in g s p e c i a l i s t s today.

1* 2*

G ates2 to ld us many y ea rs ago th a t th e

Marion Monroe, Children Who Cannot Read, p . 79. Arthur I* G a tes, "Viewpoints Underlying the Study o f Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s . " Elementary E n g lish Review. X II (A p r il, 1 9 3 5 ), pp* 8 5 -9 0 .

114 "one b a s ic cause*' id e a was f a l l a c i o u s *

One by one various th eories which

have been advanced o v er t h e y e a r s have been discounted by research s tu d ie s w hich have p i l e d up e v id e n c e f o r th e th eo ry of m ultiple causation.

A fte r

stu d y in g 415 c h ild r e n who had s p e c ia l reading d efects ranging from m ild r e t a r d a tio n in r e a d in g t o extrem e d i s a b i l i t i e s and comparing them w ith a c o n tr o l group o f 101 s c h o o l c h ild r e n in an average .American school popula­ t i o n , Monroe^ co n clu d ed t h a t (1) no one fa c to r i s present in a l l o a ses; (2)

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e reading-defect cases and the

c o n t r o ls were found f o r a number o f f a c t o r s ; (3) each of the d iffe r e n ­ t i a t i n g f a c t o r s shows an o v e r la p betw een th e reading defect cases and th e c o n t r o ls ;

(4 ) f a c t o r s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t in d ifferen tia tin g the groups

seemed t o be d e f i n i t e l y im peding f a c t o r s in individual cases; (5) i t i s p ro b a b le t h a t th e r e a d in g d e f e c t i s cau sed by a co n stella tio n of f a c t o r s r a th e r th an by one i s o l a t e d f a c t o r *

In her opinion

• • • The r e a d in g d e f e c t may r e s u l t in those cases in which th e number o r s tr e n g h t o f th e impeding fa cto rs i s greater th an t h e number o r s t r e n g t h o f t h e f a c i li t a t in g factors*8 S tra n g h as s t a t e d t h a t " th e 'ca u se* o f an in d iv id u a l's reading in e f f ic ie n c y i s b e s t d e fin e d a s the d ev elo p m en ta l sequence leading to it."®

Bennett

conducted an in q u ir y w hich l e d him to conclu de that "perhaps among th e m u lt ip le p o s s i b i l i t i e s th e r e i s no s i n g l e g e s t a lt of e tio lo g ic a l f a c to r s w hich i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e m a jo r ity o f poor readers*"4

1* 2* 3* 4*

M onroe, £ £ • c i t . , p . 1 1 0 . M onroe, oj>. c i t *. p . 1 1 0 . Ruth S tr a n g , " D ia g n o sis and R em ed iation ," Chapter 3X, in Reading and G eneral E d u c a tio n , e d it e d by W illiam S . Cray, p. 310* C h ester C* B e n n e tt, An In q u iry in t o t h e Genesis of Poor Reading. p* 9*

115 A l l o f tlie in v e s t ig a to r s c ite d above found in ste a d o f one b a sic cause many c a u ses or f a c to r s which seemed to have a hand in in d iv id u a l ca se s o f reading r e ta r d a tio n .

When th e se were so rted out i t was u su a lly

found t h a t f o r th e most p a rt th ey could be c l a s s i f i e d in to fou r or f i v e b a sic c a te g o r ie s .

Monroe and Backus^ have suggested a very a ccep ta b le

l i s t o f c a te g o r ie s which i s shown below . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

C o n s titu tio n a l I n t e lle c t u a l Em otional Environm ental E ducational

T yp ical problems r e la te d t o th e above c a te g o r ie s w i l l be d isc u sse d in sep a ra te s e c tio n s devoted t o each o f th e c a te g o r ie s in th e ensuing p a g e s. B efore e n te r in g upon a d is c u s s io n o f th e f i v e b a s ic c a te g o r ie s o f f a c ­ to r s mentioned above, i t would be w e ll to co n sid er th e problem o f read­ in g rea d in ess becau se i t c u ts a c r o ss a l l f i v e o f th e b a sic c a t e g o r ie s . R ead in ess f o r Reading:

A C ontinuing Ab W ell As An I n i t i a l Problem

Reading rea d in ess has been d efin ed by H arris a s "a s t a t e o f g e n era l f i t n e s s or m atu rity w hich, when reached, a llo w s a c h ild to le a r n to read w ith o u t e x c e ss d i f f i c u l t y * T h i s i s th e concept g e n e r a lly im plied by the term reading r ea d in ess — th e t o t a l i t y o f elem en ts ( c o n s t i­ t u t io n a l. i n t e l l e c t u a l , em o tio n a l, environm ental, and ed u c a tio n a l) which a c h ild needs t o have developed to a degree s u f f i c i e n t to pexm it i t to le a r n how t o read*

C ertain s tr u c tu r e s and o rg a n iza tio n s are n e c e ssa r y ,

f o r in s ta n c e , such a s an adequately organized nervous system f o r r e c e iv ­ in g v is u a l s tim u la tio n and f o r c o r r e la tin g th e s e im pression s w ith system s

1* 2*

Marion Monroe and B e r tie Backus, Remedial Reading, p . 1 7 . A lb e r t 7 . H a r r is, How To In crease Reading A b i l i t y , p* 23*

116

o f v erb a l resp o n ses.

V erb a l organizations must be developed to the point

where c o r r e la t io n w ith p r in te d symbols w ill be p o ssib le .

As a matter of

f a c t a s H a rriso n p o in t s o u t • • • The f a c t o r s w hich g r e a tly influence reading r ea d in ess a re many and o f a complex nature, and are often so in volved and in terw oven t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t to determine what s in g le f a c t o r or group o f f a c t o r s bears most sign ifican ce t o th e c o n d itio n known a s r e a d in e s s for reading.1 To th o s e who s u b sc r ib e t o th e sym bolic-interaction point o f view th is is im m ed iately u n d ersta n d ab le b eca u se, gettin g ready to read, l i k e any other problem o r a c t i v i t y w hich to u ch es the l i f e of a child or h i s development in g e n e r a l, in v o lv e s th e t o t a l organism in i t s to ta l environment in an on g o in g p r o c e s s o f developm ent* There i s r e a l l y no need t o labor th is point because i t has long s in c e won g e n e r a l a c c e p ta n c e .

Many readiness programs, however, as Gens

p o in t s o u t a re v e r y n arrow ly conceived as "vestibule" p erio d s t o prepare c h ild r e n f o r form al work w ith th e printed page.

A rea l "readiness" pro­

gram Gans sa y s i s "a program o f liv in g — of exploration, cooperation , and e x p r e s s io n — in a cu rricu lu m organized around s ig n ific a n t group enter­ p r is e s * " 2 W h ile m ost e d u c a to r s today have accepted in th eory th e modern t h e o r i e s o f c h i l d developm ent — th a t any one child at any one time i s a t o t a l organism in i t s own t o t a l environment involved in an ongoing processs o f d evelop m ent; and t h a t any p a r tic u la r new a c tiv ity i s , and must be p reced ed by a p e r io d o f r e a d in e s s - - t h e i r practices f a l l sh o r t o f under­ sta n d in g *

I t seem s, f o r in s t a n e e , that seme school people must think

1* M* L ucille Harrison, Reading Readiness, p. 5. 2* Roma Gans, Guiding Children*s Reading Through Riperiences. p. 39.

117

th a t the development p ro cess c e a se s a t th e tim e th e c h ild rea ch es the f i f t h grade because a t t h is p o in t they end form al reading in s t r u c t io n , according to W itty , w ith th e r e s u lt th a t la r g e numbers o f stu d en ts reach the high sch o o l w ith read in g lim it a t io n s . • . • What i s worse h igh s c h o o l tea ch ers are unaware o f the nature and amount o f r e ta r d a tio n o f t h e ir p u p ils . As a r e s u lt many ch ild ren w ith r e s t r ic t e d reading a b ilit y develop a str u c tu r e o f vague'm arginal knowledge in su b je cts in which read in g demands are heavy. Perhaps some o f th e f a u lt l i e s w ith th e term " ch ild develop ­ m en t,” im plying, a s i t d oes, a com pletion of development when th e in d iv id u a l p a sse s out o f th e childhood s ta g e .

S in ce development goes

on as long as th e organism l i v e s perhaps th e word "child" should be rep laced by the word "human" and perhaps h e r e a fte r we should speak o f "human developm ent."

Gray th in k s th a t t h is a r b itr a r y o e s sa tio n o f

form al in str u c tio n in read in g and g e ttin g -r e a d y a c t i v i t i e s has been due in p art . . . to th e f a c t th a t very few tea ch ers are informed concerning th e developm ental a s p e c ts o f read in g a t th e more mature l e v e l s , th e type o f guidance which stu d en ts need in order t o meet th e in c r e a s in g demands made upon them, and the sou rces o f h elp which are now a v a ila b le .2 The problem o f read in g r e a d in e ss then reappears whenever a stu d en t s ta r t s a new a c t i v i t y or a new l e v e l o f work a s C ole3 p o in ts o u t.

R ecognizing t h i s we must a r r iv e a t th e same co n clu sio n reached

by T riggs, n a m ely ,-th a t "development in read in g should be a p a r t o f th e in s tr u c tio n a l program in every c o n te n t f i e l d . I n

1. 2. 3. 4.

o th er words only

Paul A. W itty, "D iagnosis and Remedial Treatment o f Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s in the Seoondary S c h o o l." E du cational Trends, I I I (A p r il, 1 9 3 4 ), W illiam S . Gray, e d it o r , Reading in General E ducation, p . i x . L u ella C ole, The Improvement o f Reading, p . 261. fran cos O ralind T r ig g s, Remedial Reading: The D iagn osis and C orrection o f Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s a t th e C o lleg e L e v e l, p . 6*

118

when e v e ry t e a c h e r o f every subject a t every l e v e l o f education and in e v e r y c la s s ro o m h e lp s h e r students to choose and use the reading s k i l l s m ost a p p r o p r i a t e t o th e reading s itu a tio n a t hand, w i l l we have an a d e q u a te d e v e lo p m e n ta l program# C o n stitu tio n a l Factors The c o n s t i t u t i o n a l fa c to rs which have a t various times by v a r io u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s been considered in stru m en tal i n causing reading d i f f i c u l t i e s ares

(1 ) v is u a l d e fe c ts, (2) a u d ito ry and speech d e f e c ts ,

(3 ) n e u r o l o g i c a l end m otor co n tro l d i f f i c u l t i e s , and (4) general p h y si­ c a l d e fic ie n c ie s .

S in ce i t is not the purpose o f t h i s study to delve

d e e p ly i n t o th e e t i o l o g y o f reading d i f f i c u l t i e s , no attem pt w ill be made to re v ie w e x h a u s tiv e ly th e research which has b een done to fin d o u t m ore a b o u t th e c o n s ti tu ti o n a l fa c to rs a f f e c tin g re a d in g .

Rather

an a tte m p t w i l l be made to present in summary form t h e findings of o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s who have e ith e r reviewed th e l i t e r a t u r e or c a rrie d on d i r e c t r e s e a r c h . V is u a l D i f f i c u l t i e s "While th e d a ta produced by in v e s tig a tio n s o f the r e la tio n s h ip b etw e en v i s u a l d i f f i c u l t i e s and reading performance a r e not a l l in a g re e m e n t, a s i g n i f i c a n t tre n d is emerging.

A number o f stu d ies have

u n c o v e re d no s i g n i f i c a n t r e la tio n s h ip between v is u a l d i f f i c u l t i e s and

119

re a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s .

H o tab le among th e s e i s th e D artm outh s u rv e y

conducted by Im es, Rothney and Bear.-*-

Swanson and T if f in ^ and

Stromberg® a ls o have co n d u cted su rv ey s which show a la c k o f r e l a t i o n ­ s h ip betw een v i s u a l d i f f i c u l t i e s and r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s .

I t is s ig n i­

f i c a n t t h a t th e s u b je c ts in a l l o f th e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were c o lle g e s tu d e n ts .

Vi/hen H a r ris ^ review ed t h e r e s e a r c h i n t h i s f i e l d he found

t h a t th e f in d in g s o f th e s tu d i e s a t th e h ig h -s c h o o l o r c o lle g e l e v e l in g e n e ra l a g re e d w ith th e r e s u l t s r e p o r te d by th e in v e s t i g a t o r s m entioned above.

S tu d ie s o f e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l c h i l d r e n , H a rris fo u n d , g e n e r a lly

uncovered a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r p r o p o r tio n o f poor re a d e rs w ith v i s u a l d e fe c ts .

One stu d y a t th e low er l e v e l w h ich has a t t r a c t e d c o n s id e ra b le

a t t e n t i o n b ecau se i t was made by two o p h th a lm o lo g is ts w i l l be d e s c rib e d in some d e t a i l .

1.

Ii. A. Imes, J . W. M. Rothney, and R. M. Bear, An E valu ation o f V isu a l F actors in Reading.

2.

Donald E. Swanson and Joseph T i f f i n , "Betts* P h y s io lo g ic a l Approach to th e A n a ly sis o f Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s as A pplied to th e C ollege L ev e l," Journal o f E d ucation al R esearch, XXIX, (February, 1936), pp. 4 3 3 -4 4 8 .

3.

E leroy L. Stromberg, "The R e la tio n sh ip o f L a tera l Muscle Imbalance and th e D uctions o f Reading Speed," American Journal o f Optometry, XIV (November, 1 9 3 7 ), pp. 4 1 5 -4 2 0 . _ _ __________________ , "The R e la tio n sh ip o f Measure o f V isu al A c u ity and and A m etropia to Reading Speed," Journal o f A pplied P sychology, XXII (February, 1 9 3 8 ), pp. 7 0 -7 8 . ~ , "The R e la tio n o f L ateral Muscle Balance t o th e Convergence and D ivergence Movements o f th e Eyes during Reading," Journal o f General P sych ology, XIX (O ctober, 1 9 3 8 ), pp. 457-4 3 9 .

4.

A lb ert J . H a rris, How to In c rea se Reading A b i l i t y , p . 208.

119a

P ark and 3 u rri^ picked 250 s tu d e n ts at random from t h e C h icag o p u b lic s c h o o ls from grades 1 to 8 and gave them each o p h th a lm o lo g ic a l e x a m in a tio n s which included a v isio n t e s t w ithout hom atropine, a h o m a tro p in e r e f r a c t i o n , and phoria d u ctio n , and fu s io n te s ts f o r tw e n ty f e e t and f o r t h e r e a d in g d ista n ce .

Each d e v ia tio n from the normal was a r b i t r a r i l y

a s s ig n e d a v a lu e of one p o in t,

Wien a l l t h e examinations w ere c o m p le te d ; ~

s c o r e s on th e Chicago reading t e s t s and th e mental age sco re f o r e v e r y c h i l d w ere o b ta in e d from the sch o o ls. In t r e a t i n g th e ir data Park and B u rri discovered t h a t when t h e y r a n t h e i r c o r r e la tio n s between v is u a l d e f e c t s and reading p e rfo rm a n c e u s in g raw s c o r e s on read in g te s ts as th e m easure o f reading a b i l i t y , no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s appeared.

However, when r e a d in g scores were c o n v e r te d i n t o

s c o r e s o f m e n ta l age expectancy by d i v i d i n g the reading sc o re s i n te r m s o f g ra d e e x p e c ta n c y by th e grade le v e l a c c o rd in g to the m ental a g e , t h e y fo u n d a v e r y d e f i n i t e re la tio n s h ip between eye ab n o rm alities and r e a d in g d i f f i c u l t y . The c o r r e l a t i o n s found remain c o n sta n t th ro u g h o u t th e grades b u t t h e i r s i g n i ­ f i c a n c e i s h ig h e s t in the f i r s t two g r a d e s .

Park and B u rri s t r e s s t h e n e e d

f o r e a r l y d ia g n o sis and co rre c tio n p a r t i c u l a r l y in the f i r s t two g r a d e s as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r fin d in g s. A ccording to th ese i n v e s t i g a t o r s , monocular in d iv id u a ls h a v e l e s s t r o u b l e w ith read in g thus in d ic a tin g t h a t d istu rb an ces of b i n o c u l a r v i s i o n p r o b a b ly p la y a major ro le among o c u la r d e fe c ts causing r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y , E x o p h o ria and d u ctio n weaknesses p ro b a b ly in flu e n c e read in g a b i l i t y m o s t, w h ile t h e need f o r g lasses seems to show l e s s in flu e n c e .

P o o r ly f i t t e d

g l a s s e s c a u se p a r tic u la r ly serious r e t a r d a t i o n according t o P a rk and B u r r i .

1.

G. E . Parle and C. B urri, "Eye M a tu ra tio n end Heading D i f f i c u l t i e s . " J o u r n a l of Educational P sychology, XXXIV (December, 1 9 4 3 ), p p . 5 3 5 -5 4 6 . 11 'lfThe E f f e c t o f Eye A bnorm alities on R e a d in g ' 'D i f f i c u l t y , 1* Journal of E d u c a tio n a l Psychology, XXXIV ( O c to b e r , 1 9 4 3 ), p p . 420-430.

Far s ig h te d n e s s i s a c o n d itio n -which occu rs more f r e q u e n tly among poor re a d e rs th a n good re a d e rs a c c o rd in g to Earn.es 1 , F a r r is 2 , and F en d ric k 3 • S ear s ig h te d n e s s on th e o th e r hand i s more o f te n found among good re a d e rs 4 B lake and D earborn r e p o r t in agreem ent w ith Eames and F a r r i s . R esearch r e p o r t s on th e in flu e n c e o f a stig m a tism on re a d in g perform ance a re c o n f l i c t ­ in g .

Swanson and T i f f i n and Strom berg found no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p _

betw een t h i s d e f e c t and re a d in g perform ance w hereas B e tts o p p o s ite ,

g

found j u s t th e

W itty and Kopel®, Eames, and F a r r is a g re e i n t h e i r c o n c lu s io n s

t h a t d e f e c ts o f f u s io n and eye m uscle b a la n c e a re r e l a t e d t o poor r e a d in g . D earborn and Anderson^ have produced d a ta v/hich in d i c a t e t h a t a n i s e i k o n i a i s a f a c t o r t h a t c o n tr ib u te s to re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . On one p o in t a l l r e s e a r c h w orkers i n t e r e s t e d in v i s u a l problem s a g ree.

Because o f i t s g r e a t im p o rta n c e , v is io n sh o u ld be t e s t e d e a r ly and

c o r r e c tio n s made and th e n checked p e r i o d i c a l l y .

1.

Thomas H. Eames, "A Frequency S tudy o f P h y s ic a l H andicaps in Reading D is­ a b i l i t y and U n s e le c te d G roups," J o u rn a l o f E d u c a tio n R e search , XXIX (S eptem ber, 1 9 3 5 ), pp. 1 -5 .

2.

L . P . F a r r i s , "V isu a l D efects as F a c to rs I n f lu e n c in g Achievem ent in Readi n g , ” J o u r n a l o f~ E x p erim en tal E d u c a tio n , V (S eptem ber, 1936), p p . 58-60

3.

P a u l F e n d ric k , V isu a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Poor R e a d e rs, T eachers C o lleg e C o n trib u tio n s to E d u c a tio n , Ho. 656, New Yorkj Bureau o f P u b lic a tio n s T eachers C o lle g e , Columbia U n iv e r s ity , 1935.

4.

M abelle B. Blake and W alter F. D earborn, "The Improvement o f R eading H a b its J o u rn a l o f H igher E d u c a tio n , VI (F e b ru a ry , 1935), p p . 8 3 -8 8 .

5.

Emmett A. B e t t s , The P re v e n tio n and C o rre c tio n o f R eading D i f f i c u l t i e s .

6.

P . A. W itty and D. K opel, " F a c to rs A s so c ia te d w ith th e E tio lo g y o f Read­ in g D i s a b i l i t y , " J o u rn a l o f E d u c a tio n a l R esearch , XXIX (F e b ru a ry , 1 9 3 6 ), p p . 449-459.

7.

W. F , D earborn and I . H. A nderson, " A n ise ik o n ia as R e la te d to D i s a b i l i t y i n R ea d in g ," J o u rn a l o f E x p e rim en tal P sy ch o lo g y , XXII (1 9 3 8 ), p p . 559-577.

120 Auditory D if fic u lt ie s and Speech Defects Robinson i d e n t if ie s th ree types of a u d ito ry d i f f i c u l t i e s .

A

la c k of auditory acuity i s p r e s e n t in individuals who can n ot h e a r sounds# P erson s who hear very w ell but a r e unable to d is c r im in a te b etw een sounds which are sim ilar are said t o have d iff ic u lty in a u d ito r y d i s c r i m i n a t i o n # In d ivid u als who hear and d isc r im in a te but f a i l to remember sound s a re sa id to have d iort auditory memory spans for sounds^

To d eterm in e t h e

in flu en ce o f poor auditory d iscrim in a tio n upon read in g d e f e c t s Monroe2* compared a group of non-readers w ith a group o f u n s e le c te d c h ild r e n # She found that the r e a d in g -d e fe c t cases d iffered s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e c o n tr o ls - the la tt e r made few er errors in au d itory word d i s c r im in a t i o n . She a ls o found that lack o f p r e c is e auditory d is c r im in a tio n was fou n d t o impede learning which in v o lv es auditory im pressions.

S in c e o n ly two p e r

c e n t o f the reading d efect c a s e s were rated as d e f e c t iv e in h e a r in g on w hispered-voice and w a tch -tick in g t e s t s Monroe conluded t h a t a p oor sc o r e on the auditory w ord-discrim ination t e s t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y in d ic a te lack o f auditory a c u it y so far as s o u n d - in t e n s it ie s a r e con cern ed# Robinson*s3 findings concerning auditory acuity and a u d ito r y d is c r im in a ­ t io n confirm the conclusions reached by Monroe.

R obinson a l s o r e p o r t s

th a t no v a lid measure o f a u d ito ry memory span has b een d e v is e d h en ce no d a ta are availab le concerning th e relationsh ip betw een t h i s d i f f i c u l t y and reading.

1# 2# 3#

Robinson, og. c i t # . p . 50# Marion Monroe, Children Who Cannot Read, pp. 9 3 -9 7 . Robinson, oj>. c i t . , p. 56#

120a

H ossignol^ s tu d ie d 229 c h ild r e n (108 boys and 121 g i r l s ) in grades 1A, IB, and 2A from two p a ro c h ia l sch o o ls in th e Borough o f Queens in hew York C ity to determ ine th e r e l a t io n s h i p betw een h e a rin g a c u ity and re a d in g p erfo rm an ce, and speech p r o f ic ie n c y and re a d in g perform ance#

Her d a ta showed t h a t r e a d in g perform ance v a r ie d s i g n i ­

f i c a n t l y w ith h e a r in g a c u ity and speech p ro d u c tio n .

I t is in te r e s tin g

to n o te , how ever, t h a t when R o ssig n o l ra n h e r c o r r e l a t i o n s w ith in ­ t e l l i g e n c e p a r t i a l l e d o u t t h a t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een r e a d in g p e r­ form ance and h e a rin g a c u ity c eased to be s i g n i f i c a n t , Bond

2

compared 64 poor re a d e rs w ith 64 good re a d e rs to d e t e r ­

mine w hether t h e r e w ere any s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s i n a u d ito r y and speech c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Like R o s sig n o l, Monroe, and R obinson, Bond’ s

stu d y showed s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in h e a r in g betw een poor r e a d e rs and good r e a d e r s .

These f in d in g s would le a d t o th e con-

e lu s io n s u b s t a n t i a t e d in an e m p iric a l stu d y by Pugh

«Z

i n 56 s c h o o ls

lo c a te d in a l l p a r t s o f th e c o u n try t h a t d e a f c h ild r e n as a group s c o re c o n s id e ra b ly low er on re a d in g t e s t s th a n do h e a rin g c h i ld r e n .

1#

L ois J , R o s sig n o l, The R e la tio n s h ip among H earing A c u ity , Speech P r o f ic ie n c y , and R eading Perform ance in Grades 1A, IB , and 2A» T eachers C o lleg e C o n trib u tio n s to E d u c a tio n , No, 936, New York* Bureau o f P u b lic a tio n s , T eachers C o lle g e , Columbia U n iv e r s ity , 1948, Pp. 50.

2#

Guy L, Bond, The A u d ito ry and Speech C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Poor R ea d e rs. T eachers C o lleg e C o n trib u tio n s to E d u c a tio n , No. 657. New Yorki Bureau o f P u b lic a tio n s , T eachers C o lle g e , Columbia U n iv e r s ity , 1935. P p. 48.

3.

Gladys S . Pugh, "A p p ra isa l o f th e S i l e n t Reading A b i l i t i e s o f A c o u sti­ c a l l y H andicapped C h ild r e n ," The V o lta Review, XLVIII ( A p ril, 1946), p p . 19 7 -9 8 .

121

As a r e s u l t of h is f in d in g s , Bond e m p h a s iz e d th e im­ portance of a d o p tin g methods o f i n s t r u c t i o n t o t h e s e n s o r y lim ita tio n s o f p u p i l s .

Where t h i s i s done a c h i l d may be a b le

to progress a t c lo s e to the normal r a t e .

"Where m eth o d s a r e n o t

adopted to meet th e needs of th e s t u d e n t , He may h a v e g r e a t d i f f i ­ c u lty or even f a i l com pletely in r e a d in g . U eurological and M otor Control D i f f i c u l t i e s Under t h i s heading, th e problem s o f d o m in a n c e , w ord b l i n d ­ n ess, and th e m o to r responses r e q u ire d i n r e a d i n g w i l l b e c o n s id e r e d . According to Harris'*" the s ig n ific a n c e o f l a t e r a l dom inance i s one o f th e "most p u z z lin g and most c o n tr o v e r s ia l i s s u e s 11 i n r e a d i n g .

Hund­

reds of in v e s tig a tio n s have been co n d u cted b u t no g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t has yet been re a c h e d as to the p r e c is e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n l a t e r a l dominance and r e a d in g d is a b ili ty .

T h e o rie s w h ich s ta n d o u t i n t h i s

area of re se a rc h have been propounded by O rto n ^ an d D e a rb o rn .

The

former b elie v es t h a t when an in d iv id u a l f a i l s to d e v e lo p a c o n s i s t e n t dominance of one s id e over the o th e r , c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n t h e tw o s id e s of th e b rain r e s u l t s i n a confusion o f m e n ta l im a g e ry w h ich i s evidenced in a h ig h incidence of r e v e r s a l e r r o r s — a c o n d i t i o n which Orton has te rm e d

"strephosym bolia"

( t w i s t e d s y m b o ls ) .

1.

A lbert J . H a r r i s , How to In crease R eading A b i l i t y , p p . 2 2 2 -2 3 0 ,

2.

Samuel T. O rto n , Reading, W riting and S p eech P ro b lem s i n C h ild r e n .

122

Dearborn-*- t r a c e s th e ro o t o f th e problem to a c o n fu sio n in m otor a c t i v i t y r a t h e r th a n m ental im agery.

He h o ld s t h a t i t is e a s i e r f o r a l e f t- e y e d

p e rso n to lo o k from r i g h t t o l e f t th a n from l e f t to r i g h t .

In t r y i n g to

l e a r n l e f t to r i g h t re a d in g h a b i t s , c o n fu sio n o c c u r s . W o rd -b lin d n e ss, a d i f f i c u l t y w hich i s supposed t o be n eu ro ­ l o g i c a l in o r i g i n , i s o f two ty p e s a c c o rd in g t o R obinson.

There i s ac­

q u ire d w o rd -b lin d n e s s which i s a lo s s o f a b i l i t y to re a d b ecau se o f i n ­ ju r y to th e b r a in on th e one h an d , and c o n g e n ita l w o rd -b lin d n e s s , w hich i s a la c k of a b i l i t y to le a r n to re a d by o r d in a r y m ethods when a l l o th e r 2 f a c t o r s a r e f a v o r a b le . The r o o t o f th e d i f f i c u l t y , a c c o rd in g to H inshelw ood, who was one o f th e f i r s t to re c o g n iz e re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y in c h il d r e n , i s n o t o c u la r d e f e c t b u t r a t h e r a d is o r d e r o f th e v i s u a l c e n te r s o f th e b r a i n .

The t e r n w o rd -b lin d n e s s ap p ears to be a p p lie d

m ost o f te n t o i n d iv id u a ls who lo s e t h e i r a b i l i t y to r e a d , u s u a lly c o in ­ c i d e n t a l l y w ith b r a i n i n j u r y .

Post-m ortem s i n many o f th e s e in s ta n c e s

have tu r n e d up th e s i t e o f th e le s i o n i n th e b r a i n .

No d e f i n i t e p ro o f

has y e t been tu rn e d up to s u p p o rt any o f th e w o rd -b lin d n e ss t h e o r i e s . Monroe o b serv ed h e r s u b je c ts f o r s ig n s o f poor m otor c o n tr o l b u t d id t r y t o m easure t h i s f a c t o r o b j e c t i v e l y o r q u a n t i t a t i v e l y .

She

found a number o f c a s e s i n w hich in d iv id u a ls seemed to have d i f f i c u l t y i n making th e m otor re sp o n se s r e q u ir e d in r e a d in g .

They w ere un ab le

to fo llo w a l i n e o f words w ith th e e y e s , o r , in some c a s e s , even w ith th e f i n g e r .

Yilhere t h i s was t r u e th e r e was also ev id en ce o f poor m otor

1.

W. F . D earb o rn , " S t r u c tu r a l F a c to rs w hich C o n d itio n S p e c ia l D i s a b i l i t y i n R e a d in g ," P ro c eed in g s o f th e Am erican A s s o c ia tio n f o r M ental D e fic ie n c y , XXXVIII (195377 p p . 266-283.

2.

R obinson, o p . c i t . . p . 35.

12.3

co n tro l in w r i t i n g , speech, and i n lo c o m o tio n .

l/b n ro e f e l t i n a number

of cases t h a t “ la c k of p re c isio n in b o d i l y c o n t r o l seem ed to be one o f th e im portant concom itants o f th e r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t y *

.

General P h y sica l D eficien cies I t was p o in ted out e a r l i e r on pag e 110 t h a t i f one a c c e p t s r e a d ­ ing as a p h ase o f language developm ent w h ich i n t u r n i s one p h a s e i n th e t o t a l developm ent o f th e human o rg a n ism , i t w o u ld b e l o g i c a l t o c o n c lu d e t h a t th e re m ust b e a clo se r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n r e a d i n g l e v e l an d p h y s ic a l m atu ratio n .

E m p iric a l data to s u p p o rt t h i s c o n c l u s i o n h av e b e e n p r e s e n te d

by a number o f in v e s tig a to r s .

P u l l e r 2 made a l o n g i t u d i n a l s tu d y o f t h e

development a n d growth of two g i r l s fro m age t h r e e t o age te n *

I n one

g i r l , the c e n t r a l tendency of numerous m e a s u re s i n t h e p h y s i c a l , m e n ta l, and academic a r e a s was above average w h ile c o m p a ra b le m e a s u re s f o r t h e second g i r l w ere c o n s is te n tly below a v e r a g e .

The r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t

of both g i r l s fo llo w e d the general p a t t e r n o f d e v e lo p m e n t.

O ls e n

s tu d ie d

28 boys and 28 g i r l s over a p erio d o f fro m f i v e t o e i g h t y e a r s a n d , l i k e F u lle r, found a d e f i n it e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n g ro w th i n r e a d i n g and t o t a l growths.

Eames^ in v e stig a te d th e e f f e c t s o f p r e m a tu r e b i r t h o n r e a d i n g

1* Monroe, 2,

0 £*

c i t *, p . 99.

E liz a b e th M, F u lle r , uPeas in a P o d ," ( A p r il, 1946), pp. 302-307.

E d u c a t io n a l L e a d e r s h i p , I I I

3* W illard C. O lse n , "Reading As a F u n c tio n o f t h e T o ta l Growth o f t h e C h ild ,” i n Reading and P u p il D ev elo p m en t, S u p p le m e n ta ry E d u c a tio n a l M onographs, Ho* 51* 4*

Thomas H, Eam es, "A Frequency S tu d y o f P h y s i c a l H a n d ic a p s i n R ead in g D i s a b i l i t y and U nselected G ro u p s," J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h , XXIX (S eptem ber, 1935), pp. 1 - 5 .

123a

achievem ent and found p ro g re s s slo w er in p re m a tu re ly bo rn c h ild r e n dur­ in g th e f i r s t and second grades even though th e handicap d is a p p e a rs g r a d u a lly . I f t h e r e i s a c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p h y s ic a l m a tu ra tio n and growth in re a d in g th e n i t would be n a tu r a l to e x p e c t t h a t th e d is tu r b a n c e s in th e t o t a l d ev elo p m en tal p ro c e ss would be r e f l e c t e d i n re a d in g p erfo rm 1 a n c e . Eames and o th e r s have found t h a t m a l n u tr i tio n , i n f e c t i o n s , and 2 g la n d u la r d is o r d e r s o c cu r more f r e q u e n tly among poor r e a d e r s . Clowes found t h a t n e a r l y h a l f o f h e r r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y c a se s were s u f f e r in g g from m a l n u t r i t i o n . Monroe and Bacchus found th e fo llo w in g c o n d itio n s p r e s e n t in r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s :

m a ln u tr itio n w ith underw eight o r overw eight}

i n f e c te d t o n s i l s , a d e n o id s , poor t e e t h , e t c . ; g la n d u la r d y s fu n c tio n ; a s th m a tic and a l l e r g i c c o n d itio n s ; s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to c o ld s , a f t e r - e f f e c t s o f c h i l d r e n 's d i s e a s e s .

I n a stu d y by M ateer^, 90 p e r c e n t o f 100 poor

r e a d e rs were shown to have p i t u i t a r y d y s fu n c tio n .

Robinson5 found t h a t

23 p e r c e n t o f th e r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y c a s e s in h e r group had some

1.

Thomas H. Eames, "A Frequency S tudy o f P h y sic a l Handicaps in R eading D i s a b i l i t y and U n s e le c te d G roups,” J o u rn a l o f E d u c a tio n a l R e se a rc h , XXIX (S eptem ber, 193b), p p . 1 -5 .

2.

H elen Coe Clow es, "The R eading C l i n i c , " ( A p r il, 1 9 30), p p . 98-101.

E lem entary E n g lis h Review, VT

3.

M arion Monroe and B e r tie Backus, Remedial R eading: in C h a ra c te r E d u c a tio n .

4.

F lo ren ce M ateer, "A F i r s t Study o f P i t u i t a r y D y s fu n c tio n ," l o g ic a l B u l l e t i n , XXII (1 9 3 5 ), p . 736.

5.

Heften M. R obinson, Why P u p ils F a il i n R eading.

A Monograph in """ P sychc-

123b

en d o c rin e d istu rb an ce,

T r ic h e l^ i n c o n s i d e r i n g th e o v e r a l l e f f e c t s o f

th e s e physical fa c to rs c o n c lu d e d t h a t " g l a n d u l a r d is t u r b a n c e s , m al­ n u t r i t i o n , and d isease may b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n i t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s in le a r n i n g to read , and may im p a ir e f f i c i e n c y f o r y e a r s . "

Though i t i s

d i f f i c u l t to e s ta b lis h a c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n ach ie v e m e n t i n r e a d in g and th e p h y sica l f a c t o r s j u s t m e n tio n e d , w ith o u t a doubt th e y c o n tr ib u te to reading r e t a r d a t i o n b y lo w e r in g e f f i c i e n c y and n e c e s s i t a t i n g f r e q u e n t absences from s c h o o l i n some c a s e s . I n te ll i g e n c e and R e a d in g R e t a r d a t i o n In any d is c u s s io n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l o r m e n ta l f a c t o r s i n t h e e t i o l o g y of reading d i s a b i l i t y i t w o u ld b e w e l l t o d i s t i n g u i s h b etw een a " d i s a b i l i t y " and g e n e ra l r e t a r d a t i o n .

A s t u d e n t i s s a id t o have a

d i s a b i l i t y in reading when h i s a c h ie v e m e n t i n t h i s a r e a i s c o n s id e r a b ly belo w th e expectancy f o r h i s m e n ta l a g e .

I n o t h e r w o rd s , t h e r e m u st b e

a r e a l discrepancy betw een h i s p o t e n t i a l and h i s a c t u a l p e rfo rm a n c e .

It

i s sometimes d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i n g u i s h a d i s a b i l i t y fro m a c a s e o f g e n e ra l r e t a r d a t i o n as K arris and S t e r n b e r g f o u n d when th e y made a s tu d y i n a 2 low income area in New York C i t y . T hese i n v e s t i g a t o r s fo u n d t h a t some

1*

Gerval T rich el, A S tu d y o f F i r s t G rade E n t r a n t s i n S h r e v e p o r t, Louisiana S o h o o ls, R e l a t i v e t o R e a d in g R e a d in e s s , M a s te r 's Thesis. Baton R ouge, L o u i s ia n a : L o u is ia n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1942.

2,

A. J . H arris, and W. N. S t e r n b e r g , "An A n a ly s is o f t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Pupils in Three R em edial R e a d in g C la s s e s a t t h e High S ch o o l Level," Higfr P o i n t s , XHVI (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 4 4 ), p p . 4 3 -5 9 .

124 o f th e stu d e n ts In the rem ed ial c la s s e s th ey worked w ith were fu n c tio n in g below grade l e v e l in a l l academic a reas but s t i l l working up to cap acity* These th en , are not c a s e s o f d i s a b i l i t y but r a th e r c a s e s o f g en era l r e ta r d a tio n .

With t h i s l a t t e r group i t i s n o t rem ed ial work th a t i s

needed, so much as s p e c ia l curriculum adjustm ents to perm it th e se l e s s g i f t e d stu d en ts to have a s u c c e s s f u l sch o o l e x p e r ie n c e . Kapel and Geerdes"*- made a su rvey o f 58 c l i n i c s throughout th e country which handled 1 0 ,0 0 0 c l i e n t s in one y e a r .

Biey rep o rted th a t in

70 p er c en t o f th e rea d in g d i s a b i l i t y c a s e s tr e a te d th a t a d d itio n a l d i f f i ­ c u l t i e s or problem s were found which could be c l a s s i f i e d a s (1) p h y s ic a l d e f i c i e n c i e s or i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , (2) m ental r e ta r d a tio n and slow le a r n in g , (3)

p e r s o n a lit y m aladjustm ent or em otion al i n s t a b i l i t y .

When th e authors

sa y th a t m ental r e ta r d a tio n l i m i t s read in g performance t h i s i s q u ite d e a r but when th ey t a l k ab ou t m ental r e ta r d a tio n cau sin g a read ing d i s a b i l i t y th e s it u a t io n becomes a b i t c o n fu sin g .

I f when a c l i e n t i s r e fe r r e d t o a

c l i n i c a s a ca se o f r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y , i t i s found th a t he i s m en ta lly reta rd ed and th a t h i s rea d in g comes up t o exp ectan cy f o r h i s m ental l e v e l , th en h e i s n o t a c a se o f rea d in g d i s a b i l i t y a t a l l a s has been p o in ted out a b o v e.

On th e o th e r hand i f Kopel and Geerdes and t h e ir r e p o r tin g c l i n i ­

c ia n s a re tr y in g to t e l l us th a t th e in cid en o e o f d iscrep a n cy between c a p a c ity and perform ance i s h ig h e r among th e m e n ta lly retard ed than among th e m e n ta lly s u p e r io r , th en we are d e a lin g w ith an e n t ir e l y d if f e r e n t p rem ise, one by th e way on which t h e r e i s n ot conqalete unanimity o f o p in io n .

1.

David Kopel and Harold G eerdes, "A Survey o f C lin ic a l Procedures in the D ia g n o sis and treatm en t o f Poor R ead in g,H Jou rnal o f E d u cation al P sy ch o lo g y , X£K7 (January, 1 9 4 4 ), pp. 1-16*

125 L e s te r H* W h eeler, D ir e c to r o f th e Heading C lin ic a t th e U niversity o f M iam i, f e e l s t h a t There i s p ro b a b ly g r e a te r rea d in g re ta r d a tio n among th e m en ta lly s u p e r io r th an among th e m e n ta lly d u ll* Much of the r e a d in g r e t a r d a t io n g o e s u n d etected because su p erio r s tu d e n ts a re a b le t o g e t by w ith ordinary reading a b i l i t y when th e y a re capable o f d ev elo p in g o u tsta n d in g s k i l l s *•*• Kilby2 does n o t go a s f a r a s W heeler in p o in tin g th e f in g e r a t t h e men­ ta lly su p er io r nor d oes h e , how ever, f e e l t h a t more c a s e s o f read in g d is a b ilit y occur among th e m e n ta lly retard ed*

He j u s t d o e s n 't th in k

there i s any c o r r e la t io n betw een m ental l e v e l and d i s a b i l i t y and go es on further t o d is a g r e e w ith K opel and Geerdes when he s a y s , " it i s th e common o b se r v a tio n o f th o s e e x p e r ie n c e d in c l i n i c a l r e a d in g , and read ­ ing in th e upper grade l e v e l s th a t low m e n ta lity i s n o t a cause o f th e majority o f r e a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s * " 3

M oreover, in h is rea d in g improve­

ment work h e f in d s t h a t no l e v e l o f a p titu d e can be e s t a b lis h e d a s having improved s c h o l a s t i c a l l y more than an other in consequence o f reading i n s t r u c t io n , b u t t h a t a l l l e v e l s o f a p titu d e and a l l l e v e l s o f previous a ch iev em en t a r e a b le t o b e n e f it from rem ed ial read ing* McCullough4 a g r e e s w ith K ilb y *

She h as p re se n te d d ata t o show

that although t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h ip betw een i n t e l l i g e n c e and r e a d in g comprehension s c o r e s , th e r e i s no c o r r e la t io n between i n t e l l i g e n c e and

1.

L. R* S h e e le r , " H a la tio n o f R eading t o I n t e lli g e n c e ," S ch ool and S o c ie t y . LXX (O ctober 8 , 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 225-227* 2* R* W. K ilb y , "The R e la t io n o f a Rem edial Reading Program to S c h o la s t ic S u c o e ss i n C o lle g e ," Jo u rn a l o f E d u ca tio n a l P sy c h o lo g y . XXXVI (Decem ber, 1 9 4 5 ), pp* 513-534* 3* Loc. o i t * 4* 0 on stan ce M cC ullough, ^ R e la tio n sh ip betw een I n t e llig e n c e and G ains in R eading A b i l i t y , " J o u rn a l o f E d u ca tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y , XXX (December, 1 9 3 9 ) , pp* 688-692* '

126 amount o f g a in in r e a d in g com prehension a f t e r a ten -w eek rem edial training p e r io d .

But Robinson^* d is a g r e e s w ith b o th McCullough and K ilb y .

Assisted

by two o th er c l i n i c i a n s Robinson worked w ith 42 freshm en who scored in the lo w e s t t e n th in com prehension on th e Iowa S i l e n t R eading la m in a t io n .

The

s c h o la s t ic improvement w ith t r a in in g was e v a lu a te d in term s o f th e achieve* ment o f a c o n t r o l group c o n s is t in g o f th e 95 freshm en from th e year before who sc o re d in th e lo w e s t t e n th in r e a d in g a b i l i t y .

Both groups were equal

in i n t e l l i g e n c e a s m easured by th e U n iv e r s it y o f Iowa Q u a lify in g Examina­ tio n .

She ex p erim en ta l group d id in d iv id u a l rem ed ia l work organized on a

c lin ic a l b a s is . su ccess.

Marked g a in s w ere made in r ea d in g a b i l i t y and sch o la stic

To f in d th e r o l e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , both th e t r a in in g and the

c o n tr o l groups w ere d iv id e d in t o two subgroups:

T rain in g and Control

Groups I were composed o f th o s e s tu d e n ts in th e lo w e s t te n th in i n t e l l i ­ gen ce a s w e ll a s r e a d in g , and T ra in in g and C on trol Groups I I o f th ose above th e lo w est te n th in i n t e l l i g e n c e .

R obinson found t h a t in te llig e n c e

i s h ig h ly r e la t e d t o improvement e x c e p t in th e ca se o f r a t e o f reading. In an experim ent w hich s h e conducted McCarty2* found t h a t sim ilar g a in s in rea d in g com prehension were made by s tu d e n ts o f lo w and average in te llig e n c e .

A f te r w orking w ith 104 p u p ils in gra d es f i v e through twelve

t o d eterm in e th e e f f e c t o f improvement in r e a d in g t e s t s c o r e s upon the s c o r e s made in group la n g u a g e —i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , Hawthome3a rriv ed at

1. I | f

2. 3.

7 . P . R ob in son , "Can C o lle g e Freshmen in t h e Lowest Tenth in Reading Be A ided S c h o la s t ic a lly ? " S ch o o l and S o c ie t y . XXXIV (December 19, 1 9 3 1 ), p p . 843-846* P e a r l S . McCarty, " In c r e a sin g Comprehension in S i l e n t Reading," S c h o o l R eview . 3 g m (December, 1 9 3 1 ), p p . 7 5 8 -7 6 6 . J . W. Hawthorne, "The E f f e c t o f Improvement in R eading A b ilit y on I n t e llig e n o e - T e s t S c o r e s ," Jou rn al o f E d u c a tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y . XXVI (January, 1 9 3 5 ), p p. 4 1 -5 1 .

127 th e fo llo w in g c o n c lu s io n s :

There i s a low c o r r e la t io n between i n i t i a l

r e ta r d a tio n and th e IQ, an in s ig n if ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip betw een th e IQ and th e amount o f improvement in read in g made during th e p er io d o f rem edial i n s t r u c t io n , and an i n s ig n if ic a n t r e la t io n s h ip betw een th e degree o f i n i t i a l r e t a r d a tio n and the degree o f improvement in r e a d in g , B erry l l i k e R obinson found th a t stu d e n ts o f su p erio r i n t e l l i g e n c e made g r ea te r g a in s in r e a d in g com prehension as a r e s u l t o f a r ea d in g improve-* ment program.

Gray*5 s t a t e s th a t th e p o o rest read ers in c o lle g e a s a

r u le rank lo w in m en tal a b i l i t y , or cap acity t o le a r n and t h a t th e y a ls o make s lo w p r o g r e s s in resp o n se to rem edial t r a in in g .

T his i s

undoubtedly due l a r g e l y t o th e f a c t th a t most p r e se n t-d a y t e s t s o f m ental a b i l i t y a s w e l l a s rea d in g t e s t s have in common a heavy lo a d in g in th e v e r b a l f a c t o r . To r e tu r n f o r a moment t o W heeler's c o n te n tio n t h a t th e r e i s probably more r e a d in g r e ta r d a tio n among the m en ta lly su p e r io r than among th e m e n ta lly d u l l , i t would be apropos t o co n sid er w ith t h i s c la im th e v iew p o in t th a t p erh a p s much o f th e e f f o r t expended on rea d in g improvement i s w a sted .

Ryans

3

ch a rg es t h a t most o f the s c h o o l's in t e r e s t i s cen tered

upon th e p u p ils who ca n n o t r e a d .

He th en goes on t o make th e d i s t i n c t i o n

d isc u sse d e a r l i e r i n t h i s paper between a reading d i s a b i l i t y and g e n e r a l r e ta r d a tio n .

1, 2, 3,

I t i s h i s o p in io n th a t much to o much tim e and e f f o r t i s

B e tty T , B erry , "Improving Freshman Reading A b ilit y ," E n g lish J o u rn a l, C o lle g e E d it io n . XX (December, 1931), pp. 8 2 4 -8 2 8 , W illiam S , C ray, "Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s in C o lle g e ,1' Jou rn al o f H igher E d u c a tio n . V II ( O ctober» 1 9 3 6 ), p p , 3 5 6 -3 6 2 , David O, R yans, "Some Q u estion s P e rta in in g t o R eading," S ch o o l and S o c i e t y . X L III (A p r il 2 5 , 1 9 3 6 ), pp. 572-5 7 4 ,

128 s p e n t In rem ed ial work w it h c h ild r e n who a re g e n e r a lly retarded and with whoa we can ex p eo t no m ir a c le s o f improvement.

Preston^* gave reading

t e s t s t o 22 P h i B eta Kappa e l i g i b l e s and d is c o v e r e d r a t e s of reading r a n g in g from 157 t o 504 words p er m inute and t o t a l p e r c e n tile ranks r a n g in g from th e 4 th t o th e 9 9 th .

When in v it e d to ex p ress themselves

con cern in g t h e i r rea d in g s k i l l s , s i x out o f e i g h t who were below an a v era g e r a t e o f 280 words p er m inute f e l t t h a t th ey were slow readers. A l l s i x would have welcomed in s t r u c t io n in r e a d in g .

Firebaugh^ charges

t h a t our c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e f i l l e d w ith p erson s who do not l i k e t o read and th a t a s a consequence c o l l e g e work in some in stitu tion s i s no b e t t e r than th e work done in a good h ig h s c h o o l 50 years ago.

He

p la c e s th e blame f o r t h i s s it u a t io n d i r e c t l y upon our methods of teaching read in g* I t i s t r u l y amazing in e d u c a tio n a l r e s e a r c h how investigators c o n tin u e t o come up w ith e x a c t ly o p p o s ite f in d in g s .

Both Moore® and

P r e s s e y 4 worked w ith s tu d e n t s in th e lo w e s t q u a rter in in te llig e n c e . Moore concluded t h a t rea d in g improvement work w ith t h i s group i s worth­ w h ile w h ile P r e s s e y reach ed e x a c t ly th e o p p o s ite c o n c lu sio n . i s on M oore's s id e on t h i s q u e s tio n .

1, 2, 3. 4, 5,

Robinson®

He f e e l s t h a t th e value of training

R. C. P r e s to n , " I n e f f i c i e n t R eaders Among S u p erio r College Students," S c h o o l and S o c ie t y . IXDC (A p r il 2 3 , 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 299-300, J . J , F ireb a u g h , "Reading and G eneral E d u c a tio n ," School and Society. IXDC (January 2 9 , 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 7 4 -7 7 , H erb ert Moore, "Tra in in g C o lle g e Freshmen t o R ead," Journal of Applied P s y c h o lo g y . XVIII (November, 1 9 3 4 ), p p , 6 3 1 -6 3 4 , L , C. P r e s s e y , "The Permanent E f f e c t o f Train in g i n Methods of Study on C o lle g e S u c e e s s ," S ch o o l and S o c ie t y . XXVIII (September 29, 1 9 2 8 ), p p , 4 0 3 -4 0 4 , R obinson, oj>, c i t .

129

In rea d in g i s n o t o n ly one o f in c r e a s in g e f f ic ie n c y in read in g but a ls o one o f " sa v in g ” th e s e low ranking stu d en ts from th e s c h o la s t ic f a i l u r e w hich i s th e p robable f a t e o f the poor reader in c o lle g e *

He f e e l s th a t

th e lo w e s t te n th in reading w ith ou t tr a in in g can be con sid ered s c h o la s t ic f a i l u r e s s in c e m ost o f them a r e elim in a ted th e f i r s t year and th o se remain­ in g co n tin u e a s v ery poor students* On one p o in t a t l e a s t stu d en ts o f read in g seem t o be in agreement— th e h ig h p o s i t i v e c o r r e la tio n between group t e s t s o f in t e llig e n c e and t e s t s o f s i l e n t r e a d in g .

Strang* r e p o r ts t h a t th e m a jo r ity o f c o r r e la tio n s

betw een t o t a l group i n t e l l ig e n c e t e s t s c o r e s and t o t a l s i l e n t rea d in g s c o r e s l i e s betw een *50 and *70*

Hie c o r r e la tio n s between s c o r e s on t e s t s

o f s i l e n t rea d in g and th e r e s u lt s o f the B in et t e s t a r e u su a lly somewhat lo w e r , and t h e r e la t io n s h ip between s c o r e s on t e s t s o f s i l e n t read in g and perform ance t e s t s i s s t i l l lower* When we come t o in te r p r e t t h i s r e la t io n s h ip , however, we run once more in t o d isa g reem en t.

Because o f th e h ig h c o r r e la t io n , D u r r e ll2 conclu des

t h a t group i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s in v o lv in g a g r e a t number o f reading item s are rea d in g t e s t s in c o r r e e t ly la b e lle d and sh ou ld n o t be used a s a b a s is f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e or accom plishm ent q u o tien ts*

Hawthorne d isa g r e e s w ith B u rrell*

In h i s study o f 104 p u p ils in grades f i v e through tw elv e t o determ ine th e e f f e o t o f improvement in read in g t e s t s c o r e s upon th e s c o r e s made in group

I ( '

1*

2.

Ruth S tra n g , " R ela tio n sh ip between C ertain A sp ects o f I n t e llig e n c e and C erta in A sp eo ts o f Reading," B duoational and P s y c h o lo g ic a l M easurem eat, I I I , HO, 4 (W inter, 1 943), pp* 355-359• Donald D* D u r r e ll, "The In flu en ce o f Reading A b ilit y on lh t e llig e n o e M easures," Jou rn al o f B duoational P sy ch o lo g y , ECIV (Septem ber, 1 9 3 3 ), pp* 412-416*

130 lan gu age i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , Hawthorne^ found th a t there was no s ig n if ic a n t change in th e IQ a f t e r a sem ester o f rem ed ial work in reading even though an a v er a g e improvement in r ea d in g took p la c e whieh was twice that which co u ld be e x p e cte d d u rin g th e se m e s te r .

He d isagrees with Durrell, th e r e ­

f o r e , and f e e l s t h a t th e h ig h c o r r e la t io n between reading t e s t scores and i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s c o r e s d o es n o t n e c e s s a r ily mean that the in te llig e n c e t e s t s c o r e s , even on a group la n guage t e s t , i s dependent on reading a b ility .

In o th e r words one cannot con clu de th a t eith er variable i s th e

ca u se o f t h e o t h e r .

B la ir and Kamman** m ain tain that the amount and d i f ­

f i c u l t y o f r e a d in g m a te r ia l on an i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t does not d iffe r e n tia te th e p oor r ea d e r u n le s s i t i s s u f f i c i e n t l y above the student's reading e f f i c i e n c y l e v e l t o in t e r f e r e w ith r a t e and comprehension. A nother i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s tio n bearing upon the relationship between i n t e l l i g e n c e and r e a d in g a b i l i t y i s r a is e d by Woodrow, who reported two s t u d ie s d e a lin g w ith t h e c o r r e la t io n betw een in te llig e n c e and improvement i n s c h o o l s u b j e c t s in th e upper h a l f o f th e elementary school.

He found

no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n betw een change in score and IQ in grades beyond th e f i f t h , and made th e f o llo w in g o b s e r v a tio n s : I f g a in s depended m ain ly on i n t e l l i g e n c e one might reasonably e x p e c t t h e c o r r e la t io n w ith i n t e l l i g e n c e to show a marked in o r e a s e in th e h ig h e r g ra d es a s compared with the lower g r a d e s . However, th e c o r r e la t io n between in tellig en ce and ach ievem en t seem s t o r e a c h i t s maximum rather early in the s c h o o l g r a d e s .3

1. 2.

3.

J . W. Hawthorne, "Hie E f f e c t o f Improvement Ip, Beading A b ility on I n t e l l i g e n c e T est S c o r e s ,” J o u rn a l o f Educational Psychology. 2X71 (Jan uary, 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 4 1 - 5 1 . Gr. M. B l a i r and J . 7 . Kamman, "Do I n t e llig e n c e (Tests Requiring R eading A b i l i t y Give S p u r io u s ly Low S cores to Poor Readers a t t h e C o lle g e Freshman L evel?" Jou rn al o f Educational Resear oh. 22X71 (Deoem ber, 1 9 4 2 ), p p . 2 8 0 -2 8 3 . H erb ert Woodrow, " I n t e llig e n c e and Improvement in School Subjects," J o u rn a l o f E d u c a tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y . XXX7I (March, 1945), pp. 155-66.

131

Woodrow f e l t th a t w h ile h is data did not d isp ro v e th e a lle g a t io n th a t i n t e l l i g e n c e may be th e c h ie f determ iner o f how much th e in d iv id u a l has lea rn ed in the p a st (measured from z e r o ), they str o n g ly in d ic a te th a t in t e l l i g e n c e cannot be p o stu la te d g e n e r a lly and w ith out q u a lific a t io n t o be th e c h ie f determ iner o f how much the p u p il w i l l lea r n in th e fu tu re*

As a m atter o f f a c t Woodrow th in k s th a t

• •• • When th e f i r s t measurements o f in t e ll ig e n c e and achievem ent are made beyond th e f i f t h grade th e in d ic a ­ t io n s a r e , th a t i n t e ll ig e n c e , fa r from b ein g th e p r in c ip a l fa c to r i s a ra th er minor f a c to r in accoun tin g f o r in d iv id u a l d iffe r e n c e s in improvement in any s p e c i­ f ie d number o f a d d itio n a l y e a r s • * When McCullough2 found no c o r r e la tio n between in t e l lig e n c e and amount o f g a in in reading comprehension a f t e r a ten-w eek rem edial tr a in in g p eriod sh e f e l t th a t one in te r p r e ta tio n o f her fin d in g m ight be th a t in th e improvement o f reading s k i l l s on th e high sc h o o l and c o lle g e l e v e l s i n t e l l i g e n c e i s l e s s important than the combined fo r c e s o f such fa c to r s a s stu d en t home and sc h o o l backgrounds, p h y s ic a l and em otion al equipm ent, a t t i t u d e s , in c e n tiv e s , and in te r e s t s * I t i s obvious from th e nay Woodrow and McCullough w r ite th a t th ey do n o t f e e l th a t th e r e i s any g r e a t r e la t io n s h ip between in t e llig e n c e and th e s e oth er f a c t o r s , la r g e ly p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s , which help to d e te r ­ m ine s c h o la s t ic su ccess*

But on t h is s c o r e , th ey may be wrong*

In h is

p r e s id e n t ia l address t o the D iv isio n o f C lin ic a l and Abnormal Psychology o f t h e American P sy c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n a t th e Denver conference on September 5 , 1949, W eschsler p resented a t h e s i s f o r th e r e o r ie n ta tio n of

1* 3•

Woodrow, 0 £* c i t . Constance McCullough, " R elationsh ip between I n t e llig e n c e and Gains in Reading A b ilit y ," Journal o f E d ucation al P sych ology. X2QC (December, 1939), pp* 688-693.

133 our th in k in g co n cern in g i n t e l l i g e n c e :

" it i s t h is , that g e n e r a l i n t e l l i ­

g en ce c a n n o t be eq u a ted w ith i n t e l l e c t u a l a b ility however b road ly defin ed , b u t must b e regard ed a s a m a n ife s ta tio n of the personality as a whole W ech sler i s o f t h e o p in io n F i r s t , t h a t f a c t o r s o th e r th an in te lle c tu a l contribute t o a ch iev em en t in a r e a s w h ere, a s in the case of learning, i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r s have u n t i l recen tly been considered u n iq u e ly d e te r m in a te , and, secon d , that these other fa c to r s have t o do w it h f u n c t io n s and a b i l i t i e s h iterto considered t r a i t s o f p e r s o n a li t y . .Among those p a r tia lly id e n tifie d so f a r a s f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g p rim a rily to the conative f u n c t io n s l i k e d r i v e , p e r s is t e n c e , w i ll, and per serve rati c p , o r in some i n s t a n c e s , t o a s p e c t s o f temperament that per­ t a i n t o i n t e r e s t s and a c h ie v e m e n t.2 One o f th e r e a s o n s , a c c o r d in g t o W echsler, why so l i t t l e p rogress has been made in t h i s a r e a i s t h a t p s y c h o lo g is ts lik e Woodrow and McCullough have c o n tin u e d t o assum e t h a t p e r s o n a lit y has l i t t l e to do w ith in t e llig e n c e . Two r e f e r e n c e s may be c i t e d here as a case in p o in t.

McKee3 with

ton gu e in ch eek r e p o r te d on a p r o j e c t in c r it ic a l reading which he conducted a t Purdue U n iv e r s it y and w h ich tu rn ed up as one of i t s fin d in g s t h a t there i s more i n t e l l i g e n c e and h o n e sty connected with the friv o lo u s th an w ith the s e r io u s .

McKee*s s tu d e n t s had b een asked to s e t down in p ercen tages the

p r o p o r tio n o f i n v a l i d i t y th e y found in three types of p e r io d ic a ls . and K op el

4

Witty

in a v e r y s e r i o u s v e in r ep o rt an in vestigation of th e reading

I n t e r e s t s o f c h ild r e n w hich aim ed t o d iffe r e n tia te between the in t e r e s t s

1. 2. 3. 4.

D avid W ech sler, " C o g n itiv e , C o n a tiv e, and N on -In tellective I n t e llig e n c e ," .American P s y c h o l o g i s t . V (March, 1950), p. 78. W e c h sle r, oj>. c i t . . p . 8 1 -8 2 . J . H. MoKee, "Some I n v a lid S t a t i s t i c s on Invalidity," C ollege E n glish , X (Jan u ary, 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 2 2 4 -2 2 5 . P . A . W itty and D avid K o p e l, "M otivating Remedial Reading: The In terest F a c to r ," E d u c a tio n a l A d m in istr a tio n and Supervision. X II (January, 1 9 3 6 ), pp. 1 -1 9 .

133 o f good and poor r e a d e r s.

One o f the few d iffe r e n c e s which th ey found

was th a t d u ll ch ild ren seem to l i k e s e le c t io n s o f humor l e s s than do th e b rig h t and average c h ild r e n . P e r so n a lity and the j&aotions and t h e ir R ela tio n sh ip to Reading R ecen tly the Journal o f th e American M edical A ssociation**- car­ r ie d an e d it o r ia l which d iscu ssed reading d i s a b i l i t i e s in c h ild r e n .

It

came to the a tte n tio n o f the w r ite r because th e Hew York Times carried a news a r t i c l e about the e d i t o r ia l , an in cid en t which fu rth er se r v e s to prove th a t w h ile th e problem o f c h ild ren who f a i l t o le a r n how to read i s a major e d u ca tio n a l problem, many persons o u tsid e o f th e ed u ca tio n a l world have became concerned w ith i t .

The A.M.A Journal reported th a t

" th ere i s a group o f c h ild r e n , estim ated by Monroe t o amount to about 12 p er cen t o f a l l ch ild ren in the United S t a t e s , who f a i l to le a r n to read as w e ll as the average o f t h e ir c l a s s . ”

These ch ild r e n have normal

or b e t te r than normal i n t e llig e n c e , normal s o c ia l and o r a l vocabulary developm ent, and normal v is io n , th e Journal went on to sa y .

I t con­

cluded th a t w h ile the " e tio lo g y o f th e development d y s le x ia i s n o t c le a r ly understood, i t i s d o u b tfu l th a t th ere i s in th e se ch ild ren any underlying organic le s io n ." • • • Etaotional f a c to r s such as f e a r , a n x ie ty , r iv a lr y , je a lo u sy , h o s t i l i t y f o r th e parent or th e tea ch er and a f e e l i n g o f in f e r io r it y undoubtedly p la y an important r o le in crea tin g th e se d i f f i c u l t i e s . I t i s s ig n i f ic a n t th a t many o f the complexes a s so c ia te d w ith th e reading d i s a b i l i t y disappear w ith improvement in r e a d in g .^

1. 2.

"Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s in C h ildren," e d i t o r i a l , American M edical A sso c ia tio n Journal. GXLII (A p ril 1 5 , 1 9 5 0 ), pp. 1218-1219, I b i d . , p . 1218.

134 T h is sta tem en t p r e s e n ts us with the problem o f deciding which came f i r s t t h e em o tio n a l tr o u b le or the reading d if f ic u lt y * th e y come to g e th e r ?

Or did

In goin g over the liter a tu re covering th is phase

o f r e a d in g i t i s c le a r th a t th ere is no unanimity o f o p in io n .

Although

he r e c o g n iz e s th e Im portance o f general adjustment Bennett"*- points out " th a t w ith s u r p r is in g ly few excep tion s poor readers can be taught to r e a d ."

He f u r th e r s t a t e s th a t numerous remedial methods have been

d e v is e d and t h a t a s u b s t a n t ia l amount of em pirical data has been co l­ l e c t e d w hich en co u ra g es us to expect that the remedial methods w ill r e s u l t in s u c c e s s i f used w ith discrim ination,

Bennett** compared a

group o f 50 poor r e a d e r s chosen from the primary grades o f three public s c h o o ls w ith an e q u a l group o f control children who, w h ile n ot superior in i n t e l l i g e n c e , w ere making a d is t in c tly more adequate adjustment to th e r e a d in g s i t u a t i o n .

He adm inistered a number o f t e s t s t o both groups

o f c h ild r e n and c o l l e c t e d by questionnaire information concerning the home background, p h y s ic a l f a c t o r s and dominance, p e r s o n a lity and so c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and l e i s u r e in te r e s t s and a c t iv it ie s in r e la tio n to r e a d in g ad ju stm en t*

He a l s o explored the reading ex p erien ce history in

r e l a t i o n t o l a t e r a d ju stm en t.

Throughout h is study Bennett interpreted

th e r e a d in g problem a s one o f adjustment rather than t e c h n ic a l s k ill* W h ile B ennett* s d ata did reveal a few areas in w hich poor r e a d e r s ten d t o d e v ia t e from th e norms fo r th eir classm ates a s exempli­ f i e d i n t h e c o n t r o l c h ild r e n , y e t he concluded in gen eral t h a t "at no

1* 2.

C h ester C. B e n n e tt, An Inq uiry into the Genesis o f Poor Reading, p* 9* L oc. c i t .

155 p o in t did th e tech n iq u es employed d is c lo s e any d if f e r e n t ia t in g f a c t o r s which might be advanced as r e li a b l e p r o g n o stic in d ic e s t o read in g d iffic u ltie s .

In an e f f o r t to e x p la in h is f in d in g s , B ennett su g g e sts

th a t • • • th e r e a re probably few c h ild r e n who are handicapped sim u ltan eou sly by a l l th e c o n d itio n s which may be p reju ­ d i c i a l to read in g p r o g r e s s. On th e o th er hand, th ere are probably few c h ild r e n whose ex p erien ce i s in every way fa v o r a b le . Perhaps among th e m u ltip le p o s s i b i l i t i e s th e r e i s no s in g le g e s t a l t o f e t i o l o g i c a l f a c to r s which i s char­ a c t e r i s t i c o f th e m a jo rity o f poor r e a d e r s , and n o t p resen t in the e x p erien ce o f m ost normal r e a d e r s . Indeed, i t m ight alm ost be argued th a t each in d iv id u a l ca se o f read in g r e ta r d a tio n i s a law unto i t s e l f . 2 S y lv e s t e r and Kunst^ would d isa g ree w ith B ennett because th ey are o f th e opinion " th a t th e d istru b a n ces in readin g are d istu rb an ces o f th e ex p lo ra to ry fu n c tio n and th a t symptomatic treatm en t by p ed a g o g ica l methods i s n ot e n o u g h # T h e y b e lie v e th a t where tu to r in g succeeds i t does so because tu to r has been a b le in some way t o meet th e em otional needs

o f th e c h ild .

A ccording to S y lv e s t e r and Kunst

. . . The g e n e s is o f th e read in g d e f e c t i s a s in g le a sp e ct o f a more com prehensive d istu rb a n ce in th e e v o lu tio n o f p s y c h o -b io lo g ic a l f u n c t io n s . The b e h a v io r is t ic m an ifesta­ t io n s o f th e i n s t i n c t u a l te n d e n c ie s are fu n c tio n s o f in co r­ p o ra tio n , e lim in a tio n , r e te n tio n and e x p lo r a tio n . Their emergence, in te r p la y , and f a t e determ ine the in d iv id u a l's ca p a city f o r a c t io n and s e lf - a s s e r t io n # ^ These p s y c h ia t r ic a lly o r ie n te d in v e s t ig a t o r s go on t o e x p la in th a t i t i s n a tu r a l th a t th e in s t in c t u a l a c t i v i t i e s would be d is t o r t e d or in h ib ite d here and th ere by th e p r o c e ss o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n .

1. 3# 3. 4. 5.

What happens t o th e

I b id . . p . 109# Loc, E . S y lv e s te r and M. S# K unst, Tsychodynam io A sp ects o f th e Heading Problem ," American Jou rn al o f O rthop sychiatry. X III (February, 1 9 4 3 ), pp. 69-76# LoCi o i t , Loc. c i t .

156 e x p lo r a to r y f u n c tio n in th is process is r e fle c te d , in the la te r c a p a c ity f o r a b s t r a c t l e a r n i n g .. Where the s o c ia liz in g experience has included tr a u m a tic in c id e n t s rela ted to the exploratory fu n ctio n the c h ild ’ s s e c u r i t y may be weakened.

As a consequence th e learn in g process becomes

c o n d itio n e d by a n x ie ty growing out of (1) an inadequate capacity f o r m a ste r y , (2 ) th e f e a r o f lo ss of lo v e, and (3 ) th e ch ild ’ s own d e str u c ­ t i v e t h r e a t toward th e person on whom he depends.

The reading d i s a b i l i t y

th u s becom es a d e fe n se against anxiety which may b e stimulated by c u r i­ o s i t y , a c c o r d in g to S y lv ester and Kunst, Missildine"*- examined the emotional background of th ir ty c h ild r e n o f norm al i n t e l l i g e n c e with reading d i s a b i l i t i e s , sele cted at random from th e f i l e s o f t h e H a rriet lane Heme for C hildren, o f the Johns Hopkins H o s p it a l, and found th a t with perhaps one e x c e p tio n a ll of these c h ild r e n w ere in s e c u r e , r e s t l e s s , emotionally i l l p e r so n s.

Their reading d i s a b i l i ­

t i e s , t h e r e f o r e , were but a small part of the t o t a l picture of th e ir m a la d ju stm en t.

M is s ild in e concluded that read in g d is a b il it ie s must be

a symptom o f u n d erly in g emotional illn e s s in a g r e a t many children who, h a v in g t r o u b le w ith readin g, do not respond prom ptly to s p e c ific rem ed ial t e c h n iq u e s . H in ck s^ worked with fif t e e n cases o f rea d in g d is a b ilit y and found i n a d d it io n t o p o o r perception and poor memory f o r words as wholes, many n erv o u s r e a c t i o n s — nightmares, speech d i f f i c u l t i e s , hypochondria, o v er­ s e n s i t i v e n e s s , b o a s tfu ln e s s , s e lfish n e ss, and em otional outbreaks.

1* 2«

W* H. M i s s i l d i n e , **The Emotional Background o f Thirty Children w ith R eading D i s a b i l i t i e s with Emphasis on I t s Coeroire Elem ents," The N ervous C h ild . V (July, 1946), pp. 2 6 3 -2 7 2 . E . H in ck s, D i s a b i l i t y in Reading in R ela tio n to P erson ality.

137 Hincks concluded th a t c e r ta in p ercep tu a l v a r ia t io n s combine t o make le a r n ­ ing more d i f f i c u l t f o r the c h ild p o s s e s s in g them. • . • when th e s e i r r e g u l a r i t ie s a re tran sm itted in sto c k which i s n erv o u sly h ig h ly organized and u n sta b le , th ere a re n o t u su a lly found th e p a tie n c e and p e r s is te n c e to overcome them. A bad s t a t e o f te n s io n d ev elo p s in which th e read in g d i f f i c u l t y adds t o th e g en era l n ervousness o f th e c h ild * s c o n d itio n , and t h is c o n d itio n adds fu rth er in h ib it io n s t o th e le a r n in g p r o c e s s , and i r r i t a t i o n t o th e p a r e n ts, so th a t a g en era l fa m ily and sc h o o l m aladjia t ment occurs Monroe2 in comparing 415 read in g d i s a b i l i t y ca ses w ith oth er ca ses from t h e same c h ild guidance c l i n i c , n oted th a t th e reading ca se s showed more sc h o o l problem s, more temper tantrum s, more day-dream ing, and more ca se s o f e n u r e s is ; w h ile th e oth er c a s e s f r c a th e c l i n i c showed more s o c ia l problem s, s t e a l i n g , sex problem s, and d iso b e d ie n c e .

W hile Monroe f e l t th a t

n e g a tiv ism or o th e r u n favorable a t t it u d e s may in t e r f e r e w ith le a r n in g t o rea d , she concluded t h a t probably th e em otion al and p e r s o n a lity problems develop more fr e q u e n tly a s a r e s u lt o f th e f a il u r e in rea d in g . W ritin g in 1928 Blanchard3 judged th a t read in g d i s a b i l i t i e s caused th e em otion al d i f f i c u l t i e s , because she had seen th e l a t t e r c le a r up when th e d i s a b i l i t y was c o r r e c te d .

In th e same a r t i c l e however she r e fe r r e d to

"em otional c o n d itio n in g s in th e e a r ly y e a r s o f sch o o l l i f e " a s a common cause o f poor r e a d in g .

Some y e a r s l a t e r and a s a r e s u lt o f her ex p erien ce

in th e P h ila d e lp h ia C hild Guidance C l in ic , Blanchard fu r th e r c l a r i f i e d her p o s it io n by s u g g e stin g th a t

1. 2. 3.

I b id . . p . 9 0 . Marion Monroe, C h ildren Who Cannot Read, p p. 1 0 2-105. P . B lanchard, "Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s in R ela tio n t o Maladjustment,** M ental H ygiene. X II (O ctober, 1 9 2 8 ), pp. 772-778.

138 • • • the reading d is a b ilit y o fte n a rises from t h e same source of d iffic u lty in em otional development, and in much the same manner, as th e accompanying p e r so n a lity or behavior problems or n e u r o tic symptoms, such a s f e a r s , illn e ss e s without p h y s ic a l b asis, in fa n tile regression s and the like.JWittenbom2 noted th at a g r e a t number of stu d en ts who p r e s e n t rea d in g problems are students w ith a n x ie tie s over s c h o la s t ic work.

T h is

a n x ie ty i s frequently due to th e s tu d e n t’ s lim ited a b i l i t y but som etim es i t I s due to unfavorable s c h o la s tic experiences or to a h is t o r y o f lo w academ ic achievement,

Anxious stu d e n ts tend to be p a r t ic u la r ly h e s i t a n t

i n d e p a rtin g rad ically from th e ir slo w reading h ab its, a cco r d in g t o W itten b o m ,

In the same vein W itty and Kopel report th a t

F u lly 50 per cent of s e r io u s ly retarded readers are char­ a c te r iz e d by fears and a n x ie t ie s so serious and f a r reaching that no program o f re-ed u cation could p o s s ib ly succeed which did not aim t o r e -e s ta b lis h s e lf-c o n fid e n c e and to remove a n x ie tie s .3 But then on another o c c a sio n Kopel w riting on h i s own makes t h e sta tem en t th at The invariable success of rem ed ial teaching in d ic a te s t h a t by fa x the va st majority o f a l l reading d is a b ilit y o a ses in our schools, perhaps 90 per c e n t, are of m eth od ological o r ig in . Inadequate p rovision f o r individual d iffe r e n c e s a t th e primary le v e l seems t o b e the common cause o f " fa ilu r e ," and faulty development in reading. S im ila r ly poor management a t the upper grade le v e ls — ch a ra cterized by th e use of mass methods, standards, and m aterials w hich v io la t e individual d ifferen ces i n a b ilit y , needs, and in te r e s t s — confirms old c a s u a lt ie s and creates new o n es*4

1, 2* 3* 4*

P h y l l i s Blanchard, "Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s in Relation t o D i f f i c u l t i e s o f Personality and Emotional Development," Mental H ygien e. XX (J u ly , 1936), pp. 384-413* J . R, Wittenbom, "Classes in Remedial Reading and Study H a b its ," Journal of Educational Research. XXXVII (April, 1 9 4 4 ), p p , 5 7 1 -5 8 6 * P a u l W itty and David Kopel, Reading and the Educative P r o c e s s . p . 2 5 1 . David K opel, "Reading Problems o f P ressing importance," R eview o f Educational Research. XIII ( A p r il, 1943), pp. 69-87.

139 W hile Kopel goes alon g w ith th e m u ltip le ca u sa tio n th eory th e above s t a t e ­ ment would appear t o d i f f e r w ith t h e view p oin t o f many p s y c h o lo g ic a lly o r ie n te d workers* A fte r a survey o f 58 c l i n i c s throughout th e n a tio n which handled 1 0 ,OCX) c a s e s in th e y ea r 1 9 3 8 -9 , Kopel and Geerdes^ found th a t in 70 per ce n t o f th e read in g d i s a b i l i t y c a s e s tr e a te d a d d itio n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s or problems were d isco v ered which could be c l a s s i f i e d a s p h y s ic a l, mental^ or em o tio n a l.

Of th e th ree c a t e g o r ie s , r e p o r tin g c l in i c ia n s f e l t th a t

em otion al m aladjustm ent in te r e fe r e d more w ith read in g achievem ent than do th e o th er ty p e s o f problem s. W itty^ an alyzed 50 n in th grade c h ild r e n who were extrem ely reta rd ed in read in g and d isco v ered th a t 36 p er cen t o f th e p u p ils d i s ­ p layed d ecid ed p e r s o n a lity m aladjustm ent.

In a paper p resen ted a t th e

S p rin g , 1950 m eetin g o f the American E d u cation al R esearch A s s o c ia tio n , W itty s ta t e d th a t he now b e lie v e s th a t 66 p er cen t o f read in g d i s a b i l i ­ t i e s a re probably o f m eth od ological o r ig in w h ile the o th er 34 per cen t have a h ig h e r than e x p ec ted em otional concom itant*

Gann3 compared a

group o f 34 retard ed rea d ers w ith 34 average read ers and 34 su p erior r e a d e r s , a l l o f whom had been matched on m ental a b i l i t y and sch o o lin g * She stu d ie d th e p e r s o n a lity dynam ics, p r o c e s s e s , and adjustm ents o f her th r e e groups and found th a t th e reta rd ed read ers in d ic a te few er fa v o ra b le

1. 2.

3*

David K opel and Harold G eerdes, "A Survey o f C lin ic a l Procedures in th e D ia g n o sis and Treatment o f Poor Reading," Journ al o f Educa­ t i o n a l P sy ch o lo g y . 2QQC7 (January, 1 9 4 4 ), pp. 1-16* Paul A* W itty , "D iagnosis and Remedial Treatment o f Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s in t h e Secondary S ch o o l," E d u cation al Trends. I l l (A p r il, 1934) pp* 7 -1 3 . E d ith Gann, Reading D i f f i c u l t y and P e r s o n a lity O rganization*

140 and a greater number o f unfavorable signs in t h e ir p e r s o n a li t y ad ju stm en t* Gann found r e lia b le d if f e r e n c e s between the reta rd ed group and t h e o t h e r two groups in many areas o f p erso n a lity o r g a n iz a tio n .

In t h i s r e s p e c t

her findings disagree w ith th o se of Bennett whose d ata showed n o s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y sig n ific a n t d if f e r e n c e s .

Ladd-*- stu d ied 315 c h ild r e n i n g r a d e s

3-5 of three public sch o o ls in New York City and reach ed c o n c lu s io n s somewhat sim ilar to B en n ett.

She found a s lig h t b u t n o t r e l i a b l e te n d en cy

f o r good reading achievement t o be associated w ith d e s i r a b l e t r a i t s and adjustment.

In summarizing a group of stu d ies on rea d in g and p e r s o n a l i t y

Ladd concluded that th e r e s u l t s of these stu d ie s . . . do not seem v e r y cle a r -c u t, but on th e w hole t h e y show a measure o f agreement w ith the fin d in gs from c a s e s t u d i e s o f achievement in g e n e r a l, and point to a p o s s i b l e a s s o c i a ­ tio n between poor achievem ent and the w ith draw ing, o v e r ­ s e n sitiv e , and day-dreaming aspects of th e p e r s o n a li t y .2 In a group of 24 children w ith reading d i s a b i l i t i e s who a tte n d e d a s i x weeks summer c lin ic a t th e Pennsylvania S tate C o lle g e S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n , Rorschach data revealed th a t ere out o f three c h ild r e n had p e r s o n a l i t y problems which prevented them from making an adequate a d ju stm e n t t o t h e i r environment Redmount'3 r e p o r t s .

In avery thorough a n a ly s is o f 30 s e v e r e l y

retarded readers who were examined and treated by a s t a f f o f s p e c i a l i s t s capable o f handling every known human ailment in th e p h y s i c a l , m e n t a l, car emotional categories Robinson4 found emotional and p e r s o n a li t y m a la d ju st­ ments occurred more fr e q u e n tly than any other a b n o r m a lity .

1.

2. 3. 4.

U . R. Ladd, The R ela tion o f S o cia l. Economic. and P e r s o n a l C h a r a c te r ­ i s t i c s to Reading A b i l i t y . — — — — • P* 15. R. S. Redmount, " D escrip tion and Evaluation o f a C o r r e c t iv e Program for Reading D is a b ilit y ," Journal of E d u cation al P s y c h o lo g y . XXXIX (October, 1948), pp. 347-358. Helen JJ. Robinson, Why P u p ils F a il in Reading.

141

Challman^ d id some th in k in g about th e w h ic h -c a m e -fir st-e m o tio n a ld is t u r b a n c e - o r -r e a d in g - d if f ic u lt y problem and t r ie d t o s e t down a l l the p o s s i b i l i t i e s he could th in k o f which were p e r t in e n t .

S ta r tin g w ith th e

prem ise th a t th e la r g e m a jo rity o f c a s e s o f read in g d i s a b i l i t y have p er­ s o n a lit y m aladjustm ents o f v aryin g degree he d ecid ed th a t m aladjustment may r e s u l t in any one o f th e fo llo w in g ways: 1*

M o t io n a l complex o f f a c t o r s le a d s t o m aladjustm ent which

in turn le a d s to rea d in g d i s a b i l i t y . 2.

N on-em otional complex such as poor tea ch in g te c h n iq u e s,

c r o sse d dominance, poor a u d ito ry d is c r im in a tio n , e t c . , le a d s t o read ing d i s a b i l i t y which in tu rn le a d s t o m aladjustm ent. 3.

M o t io n a l complex le a d s t o m aladjustm ent and a non-

em otio n a l complex le a d s t o read in g d i s a b i l i t y sim u lta n eo u sly but in d ep en d en tly . 4.

Em otional complex g iv e s r i s e sim u lta n eo u sly t o read in g

d i s a b i l i t y and p e r s o n a lit y m aladjustm ent. Challman th in k s th a t a l l fou r o f th e s e com binations occur but th a t th e second occu rs m ost fr e q u e n tly , th e f i r s t l e s s fr e q u e n tly , and th e th ir d o n ly r a r e ly .

O verp rotection in th e home and in s e c u r it y are

f a c t o r s whioh tend to produce m aladjustm ent w hich shows up in th e fo llo w ­ in g ty p e s o f r e a c t io n aocording t o Challman:

n ervou sn ess ( r e s t l e s s n e s s ) ,

w ithdraw al, a g g r e s sio n , d e fe a tis m , and ch ron ic worry.

1.

R. 0 . Challman, ^ P er so n a lity M aladjustm ents and Rem edial R eading," Jip^pnai o f g rp a p tion n i C h ild ren . VI (O ctober, 1 9 3 9 ), pp. 7-11* .

142

A fter su r v e y in g 34 research s t u d i e s R ussell'*' drew t h e f o llo w in g im plications, most o f which he f e e ls need t o be v e r i f i e d b y f u r t h e r research but which probably best summarize th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een reading achievement and personality and th e e m o tio n s: 1.

The em otional i l l - e f f e c t o f blame by p a r e n t o r te a c h e r

for the c h ild 's f a i l u r e to learn to read i n t e r f e r e s w it h f u r t h e r le a r n in g . 2.

Slow p rogress may change e a g e r n e s s t o le a r n t o rea d in to

3.

The r e la tio n s h ip between r e a d in g a b i l i t y and p e r s o n a lit y

anxiety.

adjustment is due in p a r t to the s o c ia l n a tu r e o f t h e r e a d in g s i t u a t i o n . 4.

Most e x p e r ts agree on the th eo ry o f m u lt i p l e c a u s a tio n and

m ultiple treatment to go with i t . 5.

A r e a d in g d is a b ility may b e a symptom o f u n d e r ly in g p erso n ­

a lit y d if f ic u lt y which w ill not be cured by c o r r e c t i v e r e a d in g . 6.

When workifig with retarded r e a d e r s t e a c h e r s sh o u ld t r y t o

reach conclusions a s to whether the e m o tio n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e c a u s e s , concomitants, or r e s u l t s of the reading d i f f i c u l t i e s . 7.

In d is tin g u is h in g between e m o tio n a l d i f f i c u l t y o r r e a d in g

d iff ic u lty as the prim ary fa cto r, two c lu e s a r e h e l p f u l : a . I f th e em o tio n al fa c to r s are p rim ary, d i f f i c u l t i e s in learning in o th e r areas as w e ll a s r e a d in g a r e l i k e l y to occur. b. I f le a r n in g d i f f i c u l t i e s in r e a d in g a r e p r im a r y , c a r e f u l adjustment o f methods and m a te r ia ls w i l l g r a d u a lly e lim in a t e negative a t t i t u d e s and emotional s t r e s s .

1.

David H. R u s s e ll, R eading D i s a b i l i t i e s and M en tal H e a lth : A Review of Research," Understanding The C h ild , XVI (J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 7 ) , pp. 24-32.

143 8.

Case s tu d ie s o f retard ed read ers o fte n r e v e a l c r u c ia l p o in ts

in th e c h ild ’ s sc h o o l h is to r y a t which d i f f i c u l t i e s seem to m u ltip ly . 9.

Classroom tea ch ers can t r e a t some reading problems but

deep se a te d ones should be l e f t fo r a p s y c h o lo g is t. 10.

Heading probably has p o s it iv e u p -b u ild in g e f f e c t s on

some c h ild r e n . Environm ental F actors I t c e r t a in ly i s n o t n ecessary here to prove th a t environment e x e r ts a g r e a t in flu e n c e on the development o f human b e in g s.

Most p eop le

would agree th a t i t i s th e environment which determ ines t o what e x te n t we develop the p o t e n t i a l i t i e s p assed on to us through h e r e d ity .

I t should

a ls o be s a fe t o assume th a t s in c e i t looms la r g e in th e environm ental p ic tu r e , socio-econ om ic l e v e l must have a hand somewhere in th e develop­ ment o f read in g h a b it s .

Klineberg^- and o th er s c i e n t i s t s who have in v e s t i ­

gated " r a cia l" d iff e r e n c e s in i n t e ll ig e n c e have proved r a th e r c o n c lu s iv e ly th a t many o f th e statem en ts concerning th e rtin f e r io r it y " o f c e r ta in r a c ia l groups a re ill-fo u n d e d and th a t ob tain ed d iffe r e n c e s u su a lly can be a t t r i ­ buted to inadequate methods and d e v ic e s used in measurement.

P e terso n and

Lanier f e l t th a t . . . a u s e fu l check upon the r e l i a b i l i t y o f a g iv en race d iff e r e n c e o b tain ed in any l o c a l i t y and under any s p e e if ic s e t o f circu m stan ces i s to tak e what seems to be f a i r l y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e sam plings from w id ely d if f e r e n t environm ents and to compare th e v a r io u s r e s u lt s as checks upon one another w ith a view to determ ining j u s t which f a c t o r s p e r s is t e n t ly y ie ld d iff e r e n c e s in fa v o r o f one ra ce or a n o th e r .2

1. 2.

Otto K lin eb erg , Race D if fe r e n c e s . New York: Harper and B ro th ers, 1 9 35. P p . i x 4 367. J . P e te r so n and L. H. L a n ier, S tu d ies in th e Comparative A b i l i t i e s o f W hites and N egroes. Mental Measurement Monographs, 1929, No. 5 .

144 With th is in mind these in v e s tig a to r s g ave a number o f t e a t s t o tw e lv e year old w h ite and negro boys in N a s h v il l e , C h ica g o and New York.

In

general th ey found that while th e W h ites in N a s h v i l l e d e f i n i t e l y and r e lia b ly su rp a ssed the scores made by N e g r o e s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e in fa v o r of the Whites in Chicago was not n e a r ly s o m arked, and in New York none \

of the d if f e r e n c e s between Whites and N eg ro es was r e l i a b l e .

The r e s u l t s

give d e f in it e in d ic a tio n , th e r e fo r e , o f a marked d i f f e r e n c e betw een northern and southern Negroes, a s w e ll a s o f a c l e a r ten d en cy f o r n orth ern Negroes - a t l e a s t in New York - t o approach v e r y c l o s e l y th e r e s u l t s obtained by th e W hites. Two explanations of th e se f in d i n g s w ere s u g g e s t e d .

One th e one

hand the marked d ifferen ces between t h e e n v ir o n m e n ta l o p p o r t u n it ie s o f northern and southern Negroes — d i f f e r e n c e s i n e x p e n d itu r e s f o r s c h o o lin g , in e x tr a c u r r ic u la r a c t i v it ie s , in th e ch a n ce t o a c q u ir e an e d u c a tio n i n the wider s e n s e — might e a s ily a c c o u n t f o r th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f n o rth ern Negroes.

On th e other hand, P e te r s o n and L a n ie r argu ed t h a t in m ig r a tio n s

of Negroes from South to North d e f i n i t e s e l e c t i v e f a c t o r s had b een a t work, causing the more in te llig e n t s to c k s t o l e a v e and t h e l e s s i n t e l l i g e n t t o remain b eh in d . In o rd er to determine w hich o f t h e s e e x p la n a t io n s was th e sounder Klineberg^ undertook an in v e s t ig a tio n t o c h e c k on t h e s e l e c t i v e m ig r a tio n fa cto r.

He checked the school r e c o r d s o f th e m ig r a n ts b e f o r e th e y m igrated

with the r e c o r d s of those who rem ained in t h e S o u th and fou n d no s i g n i ­ fic a n t d i f f e r e n c e .

1.

He then gave i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s t o so u th e r n -b o r n Negro

Otto K lin e b er g , Negro I n t e llig e n c e and S e l e c t i v e M ig r a tio n .

145

c h i l d r e n novr l i v i n g i n New York C i t y , b u t d i f f e r i n g in th e number of y e a r s o f r e s i d e n c e t h e r e , i n o r d e r to d eterm in e w h ether t h e r e i s any n o t i c e a b l e change in t h e i r s c o re s p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e l e n g t h o f s t a y in New York. His d a t a showed v e ry d e f i n i t e ev id en ce t h a t an improved environm ent such as i s found in New York C ity as c o n t r a s t e d w ith t h e South as a whole r a i s e d t e s t s c o r e s c o n s id e r a b l y and t h e r e s u l t i n g r i s e i n " i n t e l l i g e n c e " was ro ug hly p r o p o r t i o n a t e to l e n g t h o f r e s i d e n c e in t h e more f a v o r a b le e n v iro n m e n t. Because o f th e h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n between r e a d in g a b i l i t y and m ental a b i l i t y as measured by t h e u s u a l group t e s t s i t would seem l o g i c a l to conclude t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n socio-econom ic l e v e l le a d t o e a s i l y demon­ s t r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e a d i n g ach iev em en t.

Evidence has been p r e s e n te d

t h a t c h i l d r e n from b e t t e r homes a re r e a d y f o r r e a d i n g sooner t h a n th o s e from homes w hich a r e c u l t u r a l l y v e ry l i m i t e d .

S ta llin g s - '' found a d i r e c t

c o r r e l a t i o n betw een s c o r e s on r e a d i n e s s t e s t s and e d u c a t i o n a l , occupat i o n a l , and economic l e v e l o f p a r e n t s .

Brown’ s

2

s tu d y o f t h e in f lu e n c e

o f r a c e and l o c a l e on c h i l d developm ent r e v e a l e d a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a c h i l d ’ s s o c i a l l e v e l and h i s em otio nal s t a b i l i t y .

1.

R obert R. S t a l l i n g s , R eadiness D if f e r e n c e s o f Urban and R ural C h i l d r e n , M asters T h e s is . A lbuquerque, New Mexico: U n i v e r s i t y o f New Mexico, 1939.

2.

Fred Brown, "A Com parative S tu d y o f t h e I n f lu e n c e o f Race and Locale upon Em otional S t a b i l i t y i n C h i l d r e n ," P ed a g o g ic a l Seminary and J o u r n a l o f G en etic P sy ch o lo g y , XLIX, (December, 1936), p p . 158-168.

145a

I

p

?

This s t u d y , and stu dies by H a t t r i c k and Stowe 11 , G a n n S S a u n d e rs , and F ern ald

4

demonstrate c l e a r l y t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s o c i a l ad­

ju stm e n t and emotional a d ju s tm e n t p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g t h e e a r l y f o r m a t i v e y ears o f a c h i l d 's l i f e .

The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e f a c t o r s on r e a d i n g i s

so g r e a t t h a t Smith sees i n t h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d , a c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n c o n c e rn in g the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e s c h o o l t o p r o v i d e r i c h b ack g ro u n d environm ent and c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s i n s c h o o l f o r young c h i l d r e n who come 5 from homes of low socio-econom ic l e v e l . S tudies of the e f f e c t o f s o c io - e c o n o m i c l e v e l on r e a d i n g i n t h e upper g ra d e s seem to p o in t t o a g r a d u a l l y d i m i n i s h i n g i n f l u e n c e on t h e p a r t /■»

of t h i s f a c t o r .

Anderson and K e l l y

com pared 100 r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t y c a s e s

w ith one hundred other c l i n i c c a s e s r a n g i n g u p t o t h e e i g h t h g rad e and found no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l l e v e l o f t h e f a t h e r o r

1.

B e r t a H a ttric k and M arg aret S t o w e l l , " T h e R e l a t i o n o f P a r e n t a l O v e r­ a t t e n t i v e n e s s to C h i l d r e n ’ s Work H a b i t s and S o c i a l A d ju stm e n t i n K in dergarten and t h e F i r s t S i x G r a d e s . " J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R esearch, XX (November, 1 9 3 6 ) , p p . 1 6 9 - 1 7 6 ,

2.

E d i t h Gann, Reading D i f f i c u l t y a n d P e r s o n a l i t y O r g a n i z a t i o n . Yorks Kings Crown P r e s s , 1 9 4 5 .

3.

Mary J a n e Saunders, "The S h o r t A u d i t o r y S pan D i s a b i l i t y , " C h ild h o o d E d u c a tio n , VIII ( O c to b e r, 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 5 9 - 6 5 .

4.

Grace M. Fernald, Remedial T e c h n iq u e s i n B a s i c S c h o o l S u b j e o t s . New York: McGraw-Hill Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 3 .

5.

N i l a Banton Smith, "R ead in ess f o r R e a d i n g , 11 C h a p t e r I i n R e a d in e s s f o r Reading and R e la te d L anguage A r t s , N i l a B a n to n S m ith , e t . a l . Chicago: The N a tio n a l C o u n c i l o f T e a c h e r s o f E n g l i s h , 1950. P p . 60.

6.

M. Anderson and M, K e lly , "An I n q u i r y i n t o T r a i t s A s s o c i a t e d w i t h Reading D i s a b i l i t y , " S m ith C o l le g e S t u d i e s i n S o c i a l Work, I I (September, 1931), p p . 4 6 - 6 3 .

New

146

t h e socio-econ om ic l e v e l o f th e f a m i l y .

Ladd^ found a c o r r e l a t i o n o f

o n ly .1 6 betw een t h e r e a d i n g age of 315 New York c h i l d r e n i n g rad es 3 t o 5 and t h e i r s c o re s on t h e Sims Socio-Economic Score C ard.

B en n e tt^ a ls o

f a i l e d t o f i n d t h a t socio-eco no m ic l e v e l d i s c r i m i n a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y be­ tw een good and poor r e a d e r s .

U ndoubtedly t h e d im in is h in g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e

s o cio -econ om ic f a c t o r on r e a d in g i s e x p la in e d i n p a r t by f in d i n g s such as .. t h o s e o f B l a t z , Chant, and S a l t e r

which i n d i c a t e t h a t a d ju stm e n t t o s o c i a l

s i t u a t i o n s i s l e a r n e d w ith a g e . E d u c a tio n a l and Ivlethodological F a c to r s I n t h e s e c t i o n on P e r s o n a l i t y and t h e Emotions i t was p o i n t e d o u t t h a t v a r io u s e s t i m a t e s , r a n g in g from 50 p e r c e n t t o 90 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e a d ­ i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s , have been advanced as t o t h e p a r t p la y e d by t h e s c h o o l i t ­ s e l f i n c a u s in g poo r r e a d i n g .

I t i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t cau ses a t t r i b u ­

t a b l e t o t h e sc h o o l a r e b e i n g d i s c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y r a t h e r th a n as a p a r t o f t h e e n v iro n m e n ta l a r e a where th e y p r o p e r l y b e lo n g .

Monroe and Backus p o i n t

out th a t . . . I t i s d i f f i c u l t to i s o l a t e a l l th e f a c to r s in teach in g which may c o n t r i b u t e t o a c h i l d * s r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t y , s in c e t e a c h i n g i s a complex a c t in v o l v in g t h e t e a c h e r , t h e c h i l d , t h e g rou p, t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , t h e methods o f p r e s e n t a t i o n , and t h e i r complex i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s

1.

M. R. Ladd, The R e l a t i o n o f S o c i a l , Economic and P e r s o n a l C h a r a c te r ­ i s t i c s t o Reading A b i l i t y . ~

2.

C. C. B e n n e tt, An I n q u i r y i n t o th e G enesis o f Poor R eading.

3.

W. E . B l a t z , S. N. F. Chant, and M. D. S a l t e r , E m otional E p iso des i n t h e C h ild o f School Age, C h ild Development S e r i e s No. 9, T orontoj U n i v e r s i t y o f Toronto P r e s s , 1937.

4.

Marion Monroe and B e r t i e Backus, Remedial R eading , P . 27.

147 We are not concerned h e r e w ith th e many e m o tio n a l elem en ts i m p l i c i t in th e teaching situ a tio n s in c e we have a lr e a d y d is c u s s e d t h i s a rea i n th e etio lo g y of reading d i s a b i l i t i e s .

There a r e a number o f o th er e d u c a tio n a l

fa c to r s , however, which may in f lu e n c e a c h ild * s p ro g ress in r e a d in g . Among these are:

(1 ) d e f i c i e n c i e s in e a r l y p r e p a r a tio n or r e a d in e s s f o r

reading at the tim e r e a d in g was i n i t i a t e d ;

(2) poor adjustm ent o f r ea d in g

m aterials to the c h i l d ’ s l e v e l o f a ch iev em en t; (3) poor ad justm en t o f reading methods to in d iv id u a l d i f f e r e n c e s ; tio n and arousing i n t e r e s t ;

(4) poor methods o f m o tiv a ­

(5 ) in a d eq u a te a d m in is tr a tiv e arrangem ents

f o r the early i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and c o r r e c t io n o f r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s . ^ M cC allister2 p o in t s o u t t h a t in th e upper g r a d e s , meager rea d ­ in g experience in th e lo w er g ra d es can be c o n sid e r e d a cau se o f r e a d in g retardation, in the same way t h a t an in d iv id u a l o f average or b e t t e r capacity but with a v e r y l i m i t e d and v e r y p o o r h ig h s c h o o l e x p e r ie n c e can be expected to have d i f f i c u l t y a t th e c o l l e g e l e v e l .

Improper

reading procedures w hich became w e l l - e s t a b l is h e d h a b it s can a l s o be considered causes o f r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y .

E x c e s s iv e o r a l r e a d in g d u rin g

th e early elementary g ra d es may h ave i n s t i l l e d th e h a b it o f w o r d -fo r word reading with a h ig h v o c a l co n co m ita n t even in s i l e n t r e a d in g . E xcessive emphasis on speed d u rin g th e fo r m a tiv e p e r io d when t h e em phasis should be placed on th e m eaning p h ase o f r e a d in g som etim es may d ev elo p shallow comprehension t e c h n iq u e s .

B e t t s h a s p o in te d ou t th a t o f t e n

Aversion to r e a d in g on th e p a r t o f c h ild r e n i s b u i l t up by forcing them i n t o s i t u a t i o n s f o r w hich th ey a r e to o immature, by q u e s t io n a b le te a c h e r and p a r e n t a t t i t u d e s ,

1.

Ibid. . pp. 3 7 -3 1 .

2.

James M. M c C a lliste r , R em edial and C o r r e c tiv e I n s t r u c tio n in R ead in g, p» 38,

148 by f a i l u r e on tlie p a r t o f te a c h e r s t o a n a ly z e le a r n in g gaps and make n e c e ssa r y p r o v is io n s , and by a g e n e r a l la c k o f understan d in g o f problem s encountered by a c h ild w ith language d i s a b i l i t y . 1 From th e fo r e g o in g review o f th e f i v e major a rea s which may c o n tr ib u te t o r e a d in g r e ta r d a tio n and th e numerous f a c to r s w ith in each a r e a , i t i s e v id e n t th a t c o u n tle s s com binations o f f a c t o r s can co n c e iv ­ a b ly cau se th e d i s a b i l i t y .

For t h i s reason th e problem o f d ia g n o sin g

d i s a b i l i t i e s in read in g w hich w i l l be d is c u s s e d in th e n ex t s e c t io n i s made more com plex. D ia g n o sis o f Heading D i f f i c u l t i e s Webster** d e f in e s d ia g n o s is a s "the a r t or a c t o f r e c o g n iz in g d is e a s e from i t s symptoms," and S tra n g 3 f e e l s t h a t th e term u s u a lly s u g g e s ts s p e c i a l i s t s , apparatus and c l i n i c a l m ethods.

She c o n c e iv e s o f

d ia g n o s is , however, a s ta k in g p la c e a t d if f e r e n t l e v e l s rangin g from c a s u a l o b se r v a tio n t o a s t u t e a n a ly s is by c l i n i c a l m ethods. t in g u is h e s th r e e le v e b : and (3) a c l i n i c a l l e v e l .

She d i s ­

(1) a la y l e v e l , (2) a se m ite c h n ic a l l e v e l , The lo w e s t or "lay" l e v e l i s th a t o f th e

classroom te a c h e r who through in form al s u b j e c t iv e o b se r v a tio n in n a tu r a l cla ssro o m and in te r v ie w s it u a t io n s s e e k s t o determ ine th e a reas o f d iffic u lty .

In th e m iddle or " sem itec h n ica l" l e v e l we fin d non­

s p e c i a l i s t s such a s th e te a c h e r u sin g group t e s t s and such in stru m en ts a s th e t e le b in o c u la r to check on th e f in d in g s from more in fo rm a l te c h n iq u e s .

On th e h ig h e st or " c lin ic a l" l e v e l we f in d th e s p e c i a l i s t

u sin g in d iv id u a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t s , d oin g h ig h ly s k i l l in te r v ie w in g ,

1. 3.

Emmett A. B e t t s , The P r e v e n tio n and C o rrectio n o f Beading D i f f i c u l t i e s , p . 233. Webster’s C o lle g ia t e D ic tio n a r y . G. and C. Merriam C o ., 1937, p . 277. Ruth S tr a n g , "D iagnosis and R em ediation," Chapter IK in Reading in G eneral E d u ca tio n , p . 318.

149 and making use o f th e ophthalm ograph and any o th er h e lp fu l in stru m en t. Strang summarizes h er d is c u s s io n o f d ia g n o s is by s ta t in g t h a t i t i s an a c tiv ity "as d iv e r s e a s th e r e a d in g d e f ic ie n c ie s of in d iv id u a ls ," and that i t "cannot be reduced t o a s e t form ula th a t

can be a p p lie d to a l l

in d iv id u a ls. M oreover, b e in g v ery much an adherent o f th e " sym b olicin teraction " s c h o o l, S tra n g m a in ta in s th a t The approach to an in d iv id u a l d ia g n o s is i s an a ttem p t to see th e s i t u a t i o n a s a w h o le —t o s e e th e read in g problem in i t s la r g e r s e t t i n g o f curriculum , a t t it u d e s o f p a ren ts and c h ild r e n , o p p o r t u n it ie s f o r rea d in g and through le a r n in g th e i n d i v i d u a l s p r e s e n t and fu tu r e need f o r rea d in g , h i s s c h o o l h i s t o r y , and g en era l p h y s ic a l co n d i­ t i o n . Only in such a t o t a l s e t t i n g i s th e need f o r s p e c i f i c d ia g n o s it c p ro ced u res in d ic a te d and th e in fo rm a tio n o b ta in e d by means o f th e s e procedures p ro p e rly in t e r p r e t e d . The in d iv id u a l d a ta , in tu r n , may be summarized f o r a group and th u s supply a p ic tu r e o f group p r o f ic ie n c y and n eeds.® To r e c a p i t u a la t e , S t r a n g 's u n ifie d procedure8 f o r a p p r a is a l might be p r e se n te d in o u t lin e form a s f o llo w s : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Use o f a l l a v a i l a b l e r e c o r d s O b serv a tio n in c la ss r o o m , stud y rooms, lib r a r y S t u d e n t 's s e l f - a p p r a i s a l through s tu d y -h a b its in v e n to r y , i n t e r e s t in v e n to r y Oral and s i l e n t r e a d in g t e s t s A n a ly s is o f t e s t r e s u l t s . I n te r v ie w s , in fo rm a l t e s t s , s p e c ia l d e v ic e s and m a ch in es.

In d e cid e d c o n t r a s t t o S tra n g i s C r id e r 's o p in io n th a t A ll d a ta w hich can n ot be e v a lu a te d or a p p lie d to th e imm ediate problem a r e in c o n s e q u e n tia l d a ta t o th e p r a c t ic a l d ia g n o s t ic ia n alth ou gh th e y n a y or may n o t have exp erim en tal v a lu e . Case s tu d ie s w hich em phasize h e r e d it a r y f a c t o r s , e la b o r a te s o c i a l h i s t o r i e s , d e t a i l e d m e d ic a l ex a m in a tio n s, and m ental p ro oesseswfrbse r e l a t i o n t o r e a d in g a b i l i t y i s p ro b le m a tic a l,

1. 2. 3.

Ib id . . p . 3 1 9 . IM d t, p . 3 2 0 . Ruth S tra n g , P roblem s in t h e Improvement o f Reading in High S ch o o l and C o lle g e , p p . 1 9 9 -2 1 0 .

150 make i n t e r e s t i n g rea d in g and have a p e e u d o - s c ie n t if ic appearance, but a c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is w illd io w th ey in clu d e l i t t l e than can be used in a d ia g n o s is o r treatm en t o f a r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y , C rider fu r th e r s t a t e s t h a t "an adequate d ia g n o s is must diow cu rren tly opera­ t iv e ca u ses which are s u b je c t to a l l e v i a t i o n or removal through remedial te a c h in g ,"

There i s enough evidence here s u r e ly t o p in on Crider the

stim u lu s-r e sp o n se to w ear,

l a b e l , a l a b e l which few p s y c h o lo g is ts today would want-

M u ller2 f e e l s th a t t h e s y m b o lic -in te r a e tio n approach has much

more to c o n tr ib u te t o an understanding o f read in g in a d u lt l i f e than has th e stim u lu s-r e sp o n se approach. W hile C rid er would tend t o make th e d ia g n o sin g o f read in g d i f f i ­ c u l t i e s an o c c u lt a r t , T raxler d e c la r e s th a t th ere i s "an urgent need to remove th e m ystery and th e sen tim en t from rem ed ial r e a d in g ." 3

He fe e ls

t h a t , though th e r e may be a sm a ll number o f c a s e s so s e v e r e and complex a s to r e q u ir e in te n s e c l i n i c a l d ia g n o s is , a t l e a s t n in e ty p er cen t of the d i f f i c u l t i e s w i l l respond t o s k i l l f u l classroom o b se r v a tio n and teaching. The im p lic a tio n one g e t s from rea d in g C rider i s th a t s p e c i f i c causative f a c t o r s a r e i d e n t i f i e d and then v ery s p e c i f i c rem ed ial or c o r r e c tiv e tr a in in g p r e s c r ib e d . K o p el,

T his i s a f a l s e im p ression accord in g t o W itty and

They p o in t o u t t h a t ty p e s o f e r r o r s cannot be n e a t ly and d is ­

t i n c t l y c a t e g o r iz e d .

"One m ust b ear in mind t h a t ev ery poor reader is

c h a r a c te r iz e d by many symptoms, and th a t th e d isc o v e r y o f th e

1 . B la k e ,C r id e r , "D iagnosing S p e c ia l D i s a b i l i t i e s in R eading," Eduoational Method. X7 {March, 1 9 3 6 ), p p . 3 0 7 -3 1 0 , S . Hans M u ller, "Two Major Approaches to th e S o c ia l P sych ology o f Reading," L ib rary Q u a rte rly . X II (January, 1 9 4 2 ), p p . 1 - 2 8 . 3 . Arthur E . T r a x le r , ^Problems o f Group Remedial Reading in th e Secondary S c h o o l," H igh P o in t s , XX (December, 1 9 3 8 ), p p . 5 -1 8 .

151 com bination o f p a r t ic u la r d e f ic ie n c ie s i s o n ly one o f th e g o a ls of complete diagnosis."*-

Case h i s t o r i e s are very u s e f u l, W itty and Kopel

claim , in se e k in g o u t c a u se s n o t rev ea led in t e s t i n g . S in c e m ost c l i n i c i a n s today in t h e ir work w ith in d iv id u a ls attempt t o s e e t h e " s it u a t io n a s a w h o le ,” i t would be u s e f u l to have a record form o r a sta n d a r iz e d procedure f o r r eco rd in g d ata which would in su r e t h a t a l l im portant a rea s would be in v e s t ig a te d and th e inform ation c o l l e c t e d s e t down in o rd erly f a s h io n .

H arris has d e v ised

a two-page d ia g n o s t ic summary form2 f o r summarizing th e e s s e n t i a l p o in ts in a r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y ca se which m eets t h is n eed .

He s u g g e s ts

that t h i s c o n c is e summary be supplemented by a running reco rd o f con­ ta c ts in th e form o f a d a y -to -d a y where tim e p e r m its.

E la b o ra te

d ia g n o stic reco rd form s have been developed by S tran g3 and S m ith .4 Both are c a s e h i s t o r y fo im s d e sig n e d to b rin g to g e th e r in one p la c e a l l th e in fo r m a tio n b e a r in g on th e problem .

In p a r a l l e l columns below ,

the main t o p ic s or a r e a s covered by each form are l i s t e d .

1.

S. 3.

4.

Paul A* W itty and D avid K o p e l, "M otivating Remedial R eading: The I n t e r e s t F a c to r ," E d u ca tio n a l A d m in istra tio n and S u p e r v isio n . X II (Jan uary, 1 9 3 6 ), p p . 1 -1 9 . A lb er t J . H a r r is, How t o In c r e a se Reading A b i l i t y , p p . 2 6 4 -2 6 5 . Ruth S tr a n g , Exam iners Reading D ia g n o stic Record f o r High S ch ool and C o lle g e S tu d e n ts . Bureau o f P u b lic a t io n s , T eachers C o lle g e , Columbia U n iv e r s it y , 193 8 . N ila B . S m ith , D ia g n o stic Summary Form. N .7 .U ., 1 9 4 8 .

152 Exam iner’ s D ia g n o stic Record by S tran g

D ia g n o stic Summary Form by Staith

I d e n t if y in g Data Home H isto r y Summary o f T est R e s u lts S ch o o l H istoxy M ental P h y s ic a l Condition R eading M ental C apacity Summary o f S c h o la s t ic A chievem ent E m otion al S ta b ilit y M ed ica l e x a m in a tio n , p h y s ic a l s t a t u s S o c ia l Adjustment D evelopm ental and E d u ca tio n a l H is to r y In te r e sts P r e s e n t R eading I n t e r e s t s A p titu d e s Other I n t e r e s t s and A c t i v i t i e s G eneral Reading D iffic u ltie s P r e s e n t Reading S ta tu s S p e c if ic Reading D iffic u ltie s R eading T e st R e s u lts Oral Reading A n a ly s is through I n te r v ie w Word R ecogn ition Oral R eading T e s ts G e ttin g Meanings D ic t io n a r y ,t a b le o f c o n t e n t s ,& in d ex t e s t Study H ab its and S k ills Study H a b its , L ib rary t e s t R e s u lts o f T ests Summary Summary o f D if f ic u lt ie s and Causes Recommendations Recommendation fo r Treatment F ollow -u p Comments A reas Im portant in R eading D ia g n o sis A thorough r e a d in g d ia g n o s is would in v e s t ig a t e th e major areas i n w h ich f a c t o r s in f lu e n c in g rea d in g a b i l i t y have b een found; namely, the i n t e l l e c t u a l , th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l , t h e e m o tio n a l, t h e ed u cation al, and the en viron m en tal a r e a s *

The h ig h p o s i t i v e c o r r e la t io n between reading a b ility

and m en tal a b i l i t y a s m easured by p r e s e n t-d a y i n t e l l i g e n c e te sts certainly w arran ts an i n t e l l i g e n c e check a s p a r t o f th e d ia g n o sis*

Since some of

th e h a n d ica p s w hich i n t e r f e r e w ith r e a d in g a ls o h in d er performance on i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , p a r t ic u la r ly th o s e w hich a r e h ig h ly v erb a l, i t would seem t o b e u s e f u l whenever p o s s i b l e t o use in d iv id u a l t e s t s such as the S ta n fo r d -B in e t o r th e W e c h sle r -B e lle v u e f o r t h i s purpose* A number o f t e s t s a re a v a il a b l e t o read in g s p e c ia lis t s and te a c h e r s f o r th e purpose o f t e s t i n g v i s i o n t o f in d c h ild r e n with defec­ t i v e v i s i o n so th a t th e y may be s e n t t o any eye s p e c i a l i s t .

Tests used

f o r t h i s p u rp ose in c lu d e th e f a m ilia r S n e lle n Chart; th e B etts Vision

153

T est ,■*■ and th e K eystone V isu a l S u rvey,2 both used w ith an in stru m en t c a lle d th e t e le b in o e u la r ; th e Eames Eye T e s t s ; 3 th e Jensen T est o f V isu a l A c u ity , A stig m a tism , and Color B lin d n e s s,^ th e M assach u setts V is io n T est,® and th e O rtho-Eater,® and th e Space B in ocu lar Reading T est# 7

The m ost c o n v in cin g evid en ce th a t poor v i s i o n c o n tr ib u te s

s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o poor rea d in g i s th at o ffe r e d by Park and B urri o f th e N orth w estern U n iv e r s it y M edical S c h o o l.8 S in c e h e a r in g d e f ic ie n c ie s may be a handicap in le a r n in g t o read in a s c h o o l s it u a t io n where co n sid era b le em phasis i s p la c e d on o r a l r e a d in g a check o f h earin g comprehension probably sh ou ld be an oth er p h a se o f th e r ea d in g d ia g n o s is .

The m ost s a t i s f a c t o r y way

o f m easu rin g h e a r in g in th e sch o o l i s by means o f th e aud iom eter. Other p o s s i b l e p h y s ic a l ca u ses should be checked through a thorough p h y s ic a l ex a m in a tio n .

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

E . A . B e t t s , The P r e v e n tio n and C orrection o f R eading D i f f i c u l t i e s , p p . 32 3 —3 5 0 . K eyston e V is u a l S u rv ey . K eystone View C o ., M e a d v ille , F a. T. H. Eames, Eames Eye T e s t. World Book Company, Y onkers, N.Y. M. B. J e n s e n , T e s ts f o r C o lo r-B lin d n ess. V isu a l A c u ity , and A stig m a tism . P s y c h o lo g ic a l C orporation, New York, N.Y. A. E . S lo a n e , "M assachusetts V isio n T e s t," A rch iv es o f Ophthal­ m o lo g y . XXIV (1 9 4 0 ), p p . 924-939. O rth o -R a ter. Bausch and Lamb O ptical C o ., R o ch ester, N .Y . George S p a ch e, Spache B in ocu lar Reading T e s t . George Spache,

Chappaqua, N.Y. 8.

G. E . Park and C. B u r r i, "Tie R e la tio n sh ip o f V arious Eye Condi­ t i o n s and R eading Achievement .""Journal o f E d u cation al P sy c h o lo g y , XXXIV (May, 1 9 4 3 ), p p . 290-299. . "The E ffe c t o f Eye A b n orm alities on Reading D i f f i c u l t y , " J o u rn a l o f E d ucational Ps y c h o lo g y . XXXIV (O ctober, 1 9 4 3 ) , p p . 4 2 0 -4 3 0 . . "Eye M aturation and Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s , " J o u r n a l o f E d u ca tio n a l P sych ology. XXXIV (December, 1 9 4 3 ), p p . 5 3 5 -5 4 6 .

154

"One o f t h e m ost p u z z lin g and m ost co n tro v ersia l issu es in th e w hole f i e l d o f r e a d in g i s t h e s ig n i f i c a n c e o f la t e r a l dominance,Maccord­ in g t o H a rris^ who has found among h i s s e v e r e reading d isa b ility cases a t l e a s t tw ic e th e n o rm a lly e x p ected number o f ch ild r e n with mixed dominance* B ecause o f t h i s , H a rris i s con vin ced " th a t th e r e i s more than a chance r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een l a t e r a l dominance and r ea d in g d isa b ility * rt2 L a te r a lity a s u sed in d is c u s s io n s o f rea d in g g e n e r a lly r e f e r s t o one-sided preference o f hand and eye*

Mixed dom inance in d ic a t e s a la c k of consistent preference

f o r e i t h e r s id e *

"In g e n e r a l th e r e s u l t s o f in v e stig a tio n s do not j u s t if y

t h e em p h asizin g o f handedness in r em ed ia l rea d in g programs, n according t o S tra n g * 3 The r e l a t i o n s h ip betw een r e a d in g a b i l i t y and the emotions and p e r s o n a li t y h a s a lr e a d y been th o ro u g h ly d isc u sse d *

Naturally, because o f

th e trem endous im p ortan ce o f t h i s r e la t i o n s h ip no diagnostician can afford t o o v e r lo o k th e a f f e c t i v e f a c t o r s im p in gin g on reading a b ility *

While

p e r s o n a li t y t e s t s o f th e paper and p e n c i l v a r ie t y are being used and can b e h e l p f u l , c l i n i c a l a n a l y s i s by means o f p r o j e c t iv e techniques has been found t o c o n t r ib u t e much more d ata*

The environm ent must also be checked

f o r p o s s i b l e c a u s e s o f r e a d in g d i f f i c u l t y *

Such fa c to r s as the edu cational

background o f th e o th e r members o f t h e f a m ily , th e s o c ia l and economic s t a t u s o f t h e f a m i l y , and t h e la n g u a g e spoken a t home may be playing a m ajor p a r t in c a u s in g r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y .

1* 2* 3*

O b jec tiv e instruments for

A lb e r t J* H a r r is , How t o In c r e a se R eading A b ilit y , p* 224. Loo* c i t . Ruth S tr a n g , " D ia g n o sis and R em ed ia tio n ," in Reading in General E d u c a tio n , e d it e d by W illiam S* Gray, p* 313*

155 m easuring th e e f f e c t o f th e ir in flu e n c e a r e la c k in g f o r th e m ost p a r t , th u s n e c e s s i t a t i n g th e study o f th e s e f a c t o r s through case h i s t o r i e s and in t e r v ie w s • In a d d itio n to a l l th e f a c to r s and a rea s which have been men­ t io n e d , e x p er ie n c e has demonstrated th a t sometimes th e s e c r e t behind f a i l u r e in rea d in g can be found in th e sch o o l h is t o r y .

Frequent changes

o f te a c h e r s and sc h o o ls in th e e a r ly y e a r s have sometimes accounted f o r f a i l u r e t o a c q u ir e good read in g h a b it s .

Same e f f o r t to determ ine by

what method a stu d en t was taught to read would a ls o seem w orthw hile a s would t h e attem p t t o f in d out to what e x te n t in s t r u c t io n had been in d iv i­ d u a liz e d t o m eet th e need o f the c h ild in q u e stio n . Most im portant o f a l l , o f c o u r se , in the d ia g n o s is o f read in g d i s a b i l i t y i s a v a lid measure o f th e in d iv id u a l* s p r e s e n t l e v e l o f ach ievem en t in rea d in g .

To seme e x te n t an estim a te o f a s tu d e n t’s

r ea d in g a b i l i t y can be made through in form al methods su ch a s o r a l ques­ t io n s and a n sw ers, w r itte n comprehension t e s t s , tim ing th e rea d in g o f p a ss a g e s and g en e r a l o b servation o f d is c e r n ib le h a b it s .

However, so

many r e l a t i v e l y good stan dard ized read in g t e s t s are a v a ila b le today th a t no d ia g n o s is ought to depend on in form al methods a lo n e . A ppraising Reading A b ilit y In a p p r a isin g reading a b i l i t y H a rris1 f e e l s t h a t th e r e are fou r main q u e s tio n s t o be answered:

(1 ) what th e c h ild can read; (2) what th e

p u p il w ants t o read; (S) how the p u p il read s; and (4 ) why d i f f i c u l t i e s have a r i s e n .

1.

In making an a p p r a isa l one can use in form al and more or l e s s

A lb e r t J . H a r r is, How to In crease Reading A b i l i t y , p . 1 3 1 .

156 s u b j e c t iv e t e c h n iq u e s , o r fo r m a l, sta n d a rd ized methods and devices such a s p e n c il-a n d -p a p e r t e s t s and th e eye movement camera. In fo rm a l T echniques Some in fo r m a l t e c h n iq u e s w hich a re rather widely used in clu d e th e in t e r v ie w , th e q u e s t io n n a ir e , and o b se rv a tio n .

The term interview

in t h i s c o n n e c tio n would c o v e r any " p u rp osefu l exchange of meanings, ra n g in g a l l th e way from a sp o n ta n eo u s, unscheduled conversation to th e r e l a t i v e l y c o n t r o lle d g a th e r in g o f in fo rm a tio n by means of a predeter­ m ined s e t o f q u e s t io n s su ch a s t h e W itty -E o p el Interest Inventory*2

An

even more c o n t r o lle d te c h n iq u e h as b een d escrib ed by Dewey® which would make u se o f r ec o rd ed in d iv id u a l in te r v ie w s f o r evaluating reading com­ p reh en sio n *

Q u e s tio n n a ir e s 4 h ave b een found u sefu l in appraising th e

amount and ty p e o f v o lu n ta r y r e a d in g .

These instruments genera l l y

in c lu d e q u e s tio n s c o n cern in g v a r io u s ty p e s o f reading such as f ic t i o n , s t o r i e s or a r t i c l e s in m a g a zin e s, s e c t i o n s o f newspapers, books or a r t i c l e s on h o b b ie s o r s p o r t s , p o e tr y and o th er foxms of reading* O b serv a tio n in th e lo w er g r a d e s may ran ge from th e determination o f a c h ild * s r e a d in g i n t e r e s t s by n o tin g th e kind o f reading he turns to i n th e cla ssro o m l i b r a r y , t o th e method o f inform al diagnosis of oral r e a d in g u s in g p a s s a g e s from a w e l l graded s e r i e s of readers of average d i f f i c u l t y d e s c r ib e d by H a r r is* 5

1* 2* 3* 4. 5.

In t h i s method the teacher devises a

W. V. Bingham and B* 7* M oore, Hbiw To Interview , p. 1* P . A* W itty and D avid K o p e l, " M otivatin g Remedial Reading: The I n t e r e s t F a c to r ," E d u c a tio n a l A d m in istration and Supervision* XXII (J a n u a ry , 1 9 3 6 ) , p p . 1-19* J o sep h C* Dewey, "A Technique f o r I n v e s tig a tin g Reading Comprehension," S c h o o l and S o c i e t y . XXXDC (March 3 , 1 9 3 4 ), p. 276* Donald D* D u r r e ll, " In d iv id u a l D if f e r e n c e s and Their Implications w ith R esp ect t o I n s t r u c t io n i n R ea d in g ," in The Teaching of Reading a Second R e p o r t, p p . 330-331* ~ A lb e r t J* H a r r is , How t o I n c r e a s e Reading A b ility , p. 133*

157 s e t o f rough c r i t e r i a and u ses i t a s a guide in ev a lu a tin g the c h ild 's rea d in g performance*

I f th e tea ch er d e s ir e s to do a more thorough job

o f a p p r a isa l she can use an o r a l read in g check l i s t - 1- s im ila r t o th e one d e v ise d by H arris "to d ir e c t a tte n tio n t o s ig n if ic a n t p a tte r n s o f resp o n se th a t are freq u en tly found in poor o r a l reading*"

A lso u s e fu l

in e v a lu a tin g o r a l reading i s a check l i s t o f th e major k ind s o f f a u lt s 2 shown by c h ild r en in o r a l read in g. For a p p r a isa l on an o b je c tiv e b a s is a number o f stand ard ized t e s t s a re a v a ila b le *

According to D u rrell

Standardized t e s t s should always be inclu ded in a program fo r th e a n a ly s is o f in d iv id u a l d iffe r e n c e s * t e e i r p a r tic u la r s e r v ic e l i e s in g iv in g a r e lia b le measure o f th e g en er a l le v e l of achievem ent o f each c h ild and in m easuring th e amount o f gain a f t e r a p erio d o f in s tr u c ­ tio n * In a d d itio n c e r ta in stan d ard ized read in g t e s t s co n ta in d ia g n o stic fe a tu r e s th a t r e v e a l str e n g th or w eaknesses in c e r ta in p h ases or ty p e s o f read in g*3 Oral Reading t e s t s Standardized t e s t s are a v a ila b le f o r t h e a p p r a isa l o f o r a l read­ in g a s w e ll as s i l e n t reading*

Strang has g iv en an e x c e lle n t summary o f

th e c h ie f fe a tu r e s o f a p p ra isa l by means o f o r a l reading*

She s t a t e s th a t

Oral rea d in g , f o r many y e a r s , has been th e b e s t means o f d e te c tin g such errors in th e m echanics o f rea d in g a s r e v e r s a l o f l e t t e r s ; r e p e t it io n and om ission o f words, s y l l a b l e s , phrases and sen te n c e s; and d i f f i c u l t i e s in a tta c k on u n fam iliar words* E rrors in p ron u n ciation , e x p r e ssio n , and r a te are lik e w is e r e v e a le d when a stu d en t rea d s aloud* Oral reading t e s t s such as th e Standardized

1. 3. 3*

I b id *, p p. 173-175* I b id *, p* 177. Donald D* D u r r e ll, " In d ivid u al D iffe r e n c e s and t h e ir Im p lic a tio n w ith R esp ect t o In str u c tio n in Reading," in Ihe Teaching o f Reading a Second R eport, p* 330* ""

158 Oral R eading P aragraphs m easure th e student’s a b ility to read in c r e a s in g l y d i f f i c u l t p a ssa g es orally* The t o ta l s c o r e ta k e s in t o a cc o u n t b o th tim e and errors and can be tran sm u ted i n t o a grad e s c o r e which designates the c h ild 's l e v e l o f r e a d in g in term s o f sc h o o l grade* These t e s t s r e p r e s e n t an adm irable f u s io n o f th e psychometric and th e c l i n i c a l approach*1 She p o in t s o u t fu r th e r t h a t v a lu a b le inform ation concerning the s tu d e n t's a t t i t u d e tow ard r e a d in g may b e o b ta in ed in the individual t e s t in g s it u a t io n . P erh aps t h e b e s t knovmof th e published oral reading t e s t s i s the one r e f e r r e d t o by S tra n g above and d ev ised by Gray th ir ty -fiv e y e a r s ago — th e S ta n d a r d iz e d Oral R ead in g Paragraphs*^

This t e s t c o n s is t s o f

t w e lv e p aragrap h s o f in c r e a s in g d i f f i c u l t y , ranging from f i r s t grade t o th e seco n d a ry s c h o o l.

Each p aragrap h i s timed and the errors made in

r e a d in g reco rd ed f o r l a t e r a n a l y s i s .

A grade score i s obtained by

com bining th e e r r o r s c o r e and th e r a te sco re.

The diagnostic b a t t e r i e s

c o n s tr u c te d by Gates® and D u r r e ll^ and th e Committee on D iagn ostic R eading T ests® e a c h in c lu d e s an o r a l reading test*

The Monroe® b a t te r y

o f t e s t s makes u se o f G ray's O ral R eading Paragraphs.

In general read ­

in g s p e c i a l i s t s seem t o have b een agreed a s McCullough, Strang, and T r a x le r p u t i t t h a t " th e o r a l r e a d in g examination is indispensable t o

1. 2.

3. 4* 5. 6.

R uth S t r a n g , " D ia g n o sis and R em ed iation ,” Chapter DC in Reading in G eneral E d u c a tio n , e d it e d by W illiam S. Gray, p . 350. W illia m S . G ray, Gray S ta n d a rd ized Oral Reading Paragraphs T e s t s , P u b lic S c h o o l P u b lis h in g C o . , Bloomington, I llin o is , 1915. A rthur I . G a te s , G ates R eading D ia g n o sis Tests, Bureau of P u b lic a tio n s , T each ers C o lle g e , Colum bia U n iv e r s ity , 1945* D onald D . D u r r e ll, D u r r e ll A n a ly s is o f Reading D iffic u lty . World Book Company, Y o n k ers, N . Y . , 1937* The Committee on D ia g n o s t ic Reading Tbsts, Section IY Word A tta c k , P a r t I O r a l. D ia g n o s tic R eading T ests, The Committee, 419 WT 119 S t r e e t , New York. M arion M onroe, Monroe D ia g n o s tic Reading Eremination. C* H. S t v e lt in g C o . , C h ica g o , I l l i n o i s , 1 9 3 8 .

159 a thorough e x p lo r a tio n o f a s tu d e n t’ s read in g a b i l i t i e s . ”^-

Swanson^

concluded th a t an o r a l rea d in g t e s t , such a s Gray’ s Oral Heading Para­ grap h s, should b e u s e fu l a t th e c o l le g e lev el,

Strang3 s t a t e s th a t

nth e r e i s a need f o r t h e e x te n sio n o f th e stan d ard ized o ra l read in g paragraphs up to th e su p er io r a d u lt l e v e l . ” The use o f an o r a l read in g t e s t f o r the d ia g n o sis o f reading d i f f i c u l t i e s has been b ased , a s W ells p o in t s o u t, "upon th e assum ption th a t th e stu d en t who makes th e m ost fr e q u e n t e r ro rs when rea d in g o r a lly th ereb y in d ic a te s h is g e n e r a l low l e v e l o f r e a d in g p r o f ic ie n c y .”4 B ecause ex p erim en tal f in d in g s sup p ortin g t h i s assum ption are la c k in g , a c co rd in g t o W e lls, he conducted an experim ent t o in v e s t ig a t e th e theory# He c o n str u c te d an o r a l rea d in g t e s t s im ila r t o

Grey’ s Oral Heading Para­

graphs a t th e c o lle g e l e v e l and c o r r e la te d perform ance on t h i s exam ination w ith t e s t s o f speed and l e v e l o f s i l e n t com prehension, vo ca b u la ry , sen te n c e s t r u c t u r e , and in t e l l i g e n c e u sin g a group o f 80 c o lle g e freshm en as sub­ je c ts.

On th e b a s is o f h is f in d in g s W ells con clu d es • • . th a t in view o f th e low or n o n - s ig n if ic a n t c o r r e la t io n s between both m isp ro n u n cia tio n s and t o t a l o r a l read in g e r r o r s , and th e t e s t s o f l e v e l o f s i l e n t r e a d in g comprehension and vocab u lary among c o ll e g e freshm en o f low academic a c h ie v e ­ m ent, one would n o t seem t o be j u s t i f i e d in advancing an o r a l read in g t e s t d esign ed f o r e o l l e g e freshm en, c a s t in a form such as G ray's Oral Heading P aragraphs, as bein g in d is ­ p en sa b le to a thorough e x p lo r a tio n s o f t h e stu d e n t’ s rea d in g a b ilitie s # 5

1. a# 1 3# 4# 5#

C. M. McCullough, Ruth S tra n g , and A# E . T ra x ler, Problems in th e Baprcvement o f R eading, p . 238# Donald ft# Swanson, "Common E lem ents in S i l e n t and Oral R ea d in g ,” P s y c h o lo g ic a l Monographs. X L 7III, NO. 3 , (1 9 3 7 ), pp# 36-60# Ruth S tra n g , "D iagn osis and R em ed iation ,” Chapter US. in Reading in General E d u cation , e d ite d by W illiam S# Gray, p# 331# C h arles A# W ells, "The Value o f an Oral Reading T est f o r D ia g n o sis o f th e Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s o f C o lle g e Freshmen of Low Academic Perform ance," P s y c h o lo g ic a l Monographs. LXIV, No# 2 (1 9 5 0 ), p# 1# R i d , , p# 16#

160 W e lls d o e s n o t g iv e th e r e l i a b i l i t i e s of the scores used in h is stu d y*

A ssum ing t h a t h i s c o r r e la t io n s are based on r e lia b le m easures of

m is p r o n u n c ia tio n and t o t a l r e a d in g erro rs, and related measures o f read­ in g s k i l l s , i t s t i l l d o e s n o t f o ll o w th a t because these c o r r e la tio n s are lo w , an o r a l r e a d in g t e s t can n ot be h e lp fu l in diagnosing rea d in g d i f f i ­ c u l t i e s f o r in d iv id u a l s t u d e n t s .

W ells also seems to be lo s in g s ig h t of

th e f a c t t h a t an o r a l r e a d in g t e s t i s a diagnostic technique le a d in g to re m ed ia l work w h ile t h e o r d in a r y vocabulary t e s t which he s u g g e s ts as a s u b s t i t u t e , w i l l u s u a lly y i e l d o n ly a t o t a l scare*

Since W ells i s only

th e f i r s t v o ic e t o be r a is e d a g a in s t th e use of an oral t e s t in reading d ia g n o s is and h i s c la im s a r e th em selv es based on questionable d a ta , we s h a l l have t o a w a it f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h b efore any d e fin ite judgments can b e made* A u d ito r y Com prehension R ead in g T e s ts A nother ty p e o f t e s t , w hich has come in to use r e c e n tly in the d ia g n o s is o f r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s , a ls o makes use o f oral reading*

In

t h e c a s e o f t h e a u d ito r y com prehension reading t e s t , however, i t i s the exam iner who d o e s t h e r e a d in g and t h e student who does the l i s t e n i n g o r th e " au d in g*”

As we h ave p r e v io u s ly pointed out, a d is a b il i t y e x is t s

w here th e r e i s a d is c r e p a n c y betw een p resen t attainment and p o t e n t ia l a b ility *

The in str u m en t m ost commonly used to measure p o te n tia l a b i lit y

h a s b een and i s t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t , j

A cco rd in g t o S pache t h e r e i s a need fo r a t e s t of p o t e n t ia l

I

a b i l i t y w hich " sh o u ld b e r e l a t i v e l y f r e e from th e influence o f i n t e l l i ­ g e n c e , a s commonly m easu red , and independent o f the Influence o f any

161 rea d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , I n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s are n o t n e c e s s a r ily good in d ic a to r s o f p o t e n tia l read in g performance becau se (1) th e r e i s a la r g e area o f overlap between them and read ing t e s t s , (2) one measure o f p o t e n t ia l g en era l a b i l i t y i s n o t n e c e s s a r ily th e b e s t estim a te o f probable performance in many s p e c if ic s k i l l s , and (3) reading performance depends on f a c to r s o th er than in t e llig e n c e such as exposure to r e a d in g m a te r ia ls , socio-econom ic s t a t u s , a t t i ­ tu d es toward rea d in g , e t c , which are s u f f i c i e n t to ex p la in many o f th e observed d isc r e p a n c ie s between in t e ll ig e n c e and rea d in g t e s t r e su lts,* * For th e above rea so n s Space and h is c o lle a g u e s o f th e Committee on Diag­ n o s t i c Reading T e s t s , whose work i s d isc u sse d in sane d e t a il in th e p ages w hich f o llo w , d ev ised a p a ir o f comparable t e s t s th a t would determ ine p r e s e n t reading comprehension s ta t u s and t h e p o t e n t ia l a b i l i t y o f th e stu d e n t t o improve h i s s i l e n t com prehension.

The t e s t s , which are p a rt

o f t h e e x te n s iv e b a tte r y o f D ia g n o stic Reading T ests d escrib ed in l a t e r p ages o f t h i s p aper, were arranged t o p a r a l l e l each o th er by s e le c t in g comparable p a ssa g es from common h igh sc h o o l and c o lle g e t e x t s in s c ie n c e , l i t e r a t u r e and s o c ia l s c ie n c e .

Tiro forms o f each t e s t comparable in

le n g th d i f f i c u l t y and ty p e s o f r e a d in g p a ssa g es were co n stru cted .

The

S i l e n t Comprehension T est r e q u ir e s th e p u p il to read th e p a ssa g es and t o answer q u estio n s in th e usual manner.

In th e a u d ito ry Comprehension

T e s t, p a ssa g es and q u e stio n s are read t o th e s tu d e n t.

Thus comparable

m easures o f performance and p o t e n t i a l i t y are o b ta in e d .

1, 2,

George Spache, "The C on stru ction and V a lid a tio n o f a Work-fype Auditory Comprehension Reading T est," E d u cation al and P s y c h o lo g ic a l Measure­ m ent. X (Summer, 1 9 5 0 ), p p . 2 4 9 -2 5 3 , Loo, c i t .

162 Spache f e e l s t h a t t h e auditory t e s t should have numerous u ses. The u se o f t h e a u d ito r y ty p e o f t e s t would ind icate w hether o rd in a r y r e m e d ia l p r o ced u res, or s p e c ific training in au ding s k i l l s (su ch a s a u d ito r y vocabulary, organizing and summariz­ in g , ta k in g n o t e s , e t c . ) were necessary or lik e ly t o be p r o f i t a b l e . 2b b e s p e c i f i c , low scores in s ile n t compre­ h e n sio n in t h e p r e s e n c e o f average or b etter auditory com prehension w ould in d ic a t e th at common remedial tech n iq u es would p ro b a b ly be p r o f i t a b l e . Low scores in both t e s t s would in d i c a t e a d eg ree o f lo w p o te n tia l for high-school or c o l le g e work n o t l i k e l y t o be improved except by extensive and p ro ­ lo n g e d r e m e d ia l h e lp . Average or better scores in s i l e n t com prehension w it h lo w a u d ito r y comprehension would in d ic a t e t h e n eed f o r s p e c i a l t r a in in g in auding or auditory s k i l l s * ^ I t seem s e n t i r e l y l i k e l y t h a t th e auditory comprehension read in g te s t w ill l i v e up t o t h e c la im s made f o r i t and that i t w ill be a v a lu a b le addition t o th e l i m i t e d d i a g n o s t ic m easures now available in reading* S i l e n t B ea d in g T e s ts B e fo r e e n t e r in g upon a d iscu ssio n of standardized s i l e n t reading t e s t s i t w ould be a d v is a b le t o review some of the general problem s r e la t­ in g t o t e s t s o f a l l k in d s , and t h e ir app lication to reading in p a rtic u la r. S t e p s i n T est Construction Super2 e x p l a i n s t h a t th e d evelop m en t o f a t e s t can be broken down into s e v e n m ajor s t e p s :

(1 ) a n a l y s i s o f th e job or function to be t e s t e d ,

(2 )

s e l e c t i o n o f t r a i t s t o t e s t , (3) se le c tio n o f c r ite r ia o f su c c e ss,

(4 )

ite m c o n s t r u c t io n , (5 ) sta n d a r d iz a tio n , (6) v a lid a tio n , and (7) cross-

v a lid a tio n .

When t h e a c t i v i t y under study i s a r e la tiv e ly uncomplicated

m anual job we can a s p e c t t o f in d s u b s ta n tia l agreement among jo b an alysts a s t o th e l i s t o f d u t i e s w hich make up the job and ju st what i t i s that an in d iv id u a l d o e s when h e p erform s th e job.

Measurement in rea d in g i s

1.

Loc. c i t *

2.

D onald E* S u p er, A p p r a isin g V ocation al F itness by Means o f Psycho­

lo g ic a l T ests, p . 28.

163 com plicated r ig h t a t th e o u t s e t , however, by th e f a c t th a t th ere i s no unanimity among read in g e x p e r ts as t o the nature o f rea d in g and as to what goes on or what a person does when he rea d s.

Evidence o f t h i s

disagreem ent i s c it e d in th e s e c tio n on th e Nature o f the Heading P r o c e ss, l h i s b ein g th e c a s e , i t i s n o t su r p r isin g to fin d t h a t " th e p a r tic u la r v iew p o in t to which one adheres would seem t o be i n f l u e n t i a l in d e te r ­ m ining th e type o f rea d in g t e s t which one w i l l c o n str u c t, and in d ete r ­ m ining the in te r p r e ta tio n s which w i l l be p la ced upon th e r e s u lt s o f th a t test*" !-

A greeing w ith t h i s statem en t, T riggs2 p o in ts o u t, fo r in sta n c e ,

th a t "Buswell® d e fin e s reading in somewhat narrower terms than do most o th er rea d in g s p e c i a l i s t s and h i s Reading Record (a read ing t e s t ) r e f l e c t s h i s th in k in g ." With th e ex p erts d isa g r e e in g on th e d e f in it io n o f th e reading fu n c tio n i t i s n a tu r a l th a t we should a ls o fin d disagreem ent a s to th e s e le c t io n o f t r a i t s to be measured fo r t h e a p p r a isa l o f t h e t o t a l reading p ro cess*

T raxler4 examined 24 rea d in g t e s t s and found t h a t in a l l they

measured t h e 48 d if f e r e n t s k i l l s l i s t e d on th e n ex t p a g e.

To add to the

co n fu sio n some o f th e s o - c a lle d " d ifferent*' s k i l l s are n ot d if f e r e n t HhU and Robinson** d isco v er ed a f t e r usin g f a c t o r a n a ly s is on sc o r e s ob tain ed

1* 2* 3* 4* 5.

Charles A* W e lls, "She Value o f An Oral Reading Test f o r D iagn osis o f the R eading D i f f i c u l t i e s o f C o lleg e Freshmen o f Low Academic P erform ance," P s y c h o lo g ic a l Monographs. V o l. IXIV, No* 2 , 1950, p . 2* Frances O ralind T riggs, "S*B*A* Reading R ecord," a review in The Uhird M ental Measurements Yearbook, e d ite d by Oscar K risen Buros, p . 502* Guy T. B u sw ell, How A du lts Read. Supplementary E ducational Monographs, No* 4 5 , pp* 144-145* Arthur E* T ta x le r , The Nature and Use o f Reading T e s ts , p* 24* W illiam E* B a ll and F* P* Robinson, "An A n a ly tic a l Approach to the Study o f Reading S k i l l s , " Journal o f E d u cation al P sych ology. XXXVI (O ctober, 1 9 4 5 ), p p. 429-442*

164 IV pes o f H eading A b i l i t y Measured By Twenty-Four Reading T e sts Kind o f R eading A b i l i t y Word M eaning Paragraph Com prehension H ate o f H eading C e n tr a l Thought o r Main id e a S e n te n c e m eaning ( a l s o q u e s tio n s ) H eading d i r e c t i o n s S to r y com prehension O r g a n iz a tio n U se o f Ind ex Maps, g r a p h s, and c h a r ts Word r e c o g n it io n (prim ary) I n t e r p r e t a t io n o f m eaning N o tin g d e t a i l s F a o t m a t e r ia l T o ta l m eaning D ir e c te d r e a d in g L o c a tio n o f in fo r m a tio n U se o f d ic t io n a r y A lp h a b e tiz a t io n Drawing c o n c lu s io n s o r in f e r e n c e s Speed o f com prehension Grasp o f d i r e c t d e t a i l s Grasp o f im p lie d d e t a i l s G en eral S i g n i f i c a n c e P r e d ic t i o n o f outcom e U se o f r e f e r e n c e s R e le v a n t and i r r e l e v a n t sta te m e n ts True and f a l s e id e a s True and f a l s e d e d u c tio n s R e c o g n itio n , o f form , m e c h a n ic s, and sequence C om prehension o f p h r a se s R ead in g c a p a c it y — word m eaning R eading c a p a c it y — p aragrap h comprehension P o e tr y com prehension T e c h n ic a l v o ca b u la r y F o r e ig n w o rd s, p h r a s e s , e t c * R ea so n s f o r e v e n t s o r cir c u m sta n c e s Com prehension e f f i c i e n c y R ead in g com prehension in b io lo g y " n in h is to r y " " in l i t e r a t u r e " " i n s c ie n c e lle v e l o f com prehension d e te r m in in g w hether d e f i n i t e id e a i s stated A b i l i t y t o g iv e r e f e r e n c e s A b i l i t y t o p e r c e iv e r e l a t i o n s h i p s Range o f g e n e r a l in fo r m a tio n I n t e g r a t io n o f d is p e r s e d id e a s

A rthur S* T r a x le r , The N atu re and Use of Reading Teats, p . 24*

No. of Tests 18 14 11 6 6 6 5 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

165 from t e s t i n g 100 c o lle g e freshm en and fin d in g " that th e t e s t s on th e market are in many ca ses m is la b e lle d ; th e t r a i t s they claim t o measure do n ot show up a s independent s k i l l s * ”

In a p reviou s s e c t io n i t was p o in ted

out th a t Burkhart^* brought to l i g h t 214 s k i l l s or a b i l i t i e s a f t e r a survey o f ed u cation al and p sy c h o lo g ic a l l i t e r a t u r e .

G ates2 m aintains th a t t h is

s it u a t io n e x i s t s b ecause few o f th e s tu d ie s in the read in g a rea , i f any, "were u t i l i z i n g some o f th e h ig h ly te c h n ic a l s t a t i s t i c a l d e v ic e s which have proved s u c c e ss fu l in th e study o f fa c to r s in in t e lli g e n c e t e s t i n g * ” Cronbach® f e e l s th a t ”no area i l l u s t r a t e s more c le a r ly than read in g th a t t e s t s having the same name measure q u ite d if f e r e n t behaviors*

D iffe r e n t

authors d isa g ree on what i s in clu d ed in the a rea and on th e most u s e fu l d e f in it io n o f r a t e , com prehension, word knowledge, e t c * , f o r t e s t i n g purposes*” T est V a lid ity A t t h is p o in t i t would be w e ll t o say a word about th e s e le c t io n o f c r i t e r i a o f su c cess and v a lid a t io n s in c e th e se two s te p s in t e s t con­ s tr u c tio n a re so c lo s e ly r e la te d *

”A t e s t i s v a l i d , ” sa y s Cronbaoh* ”to

the degree th a t we know what i t m easures or p r e d ic ts * ” out th a t th ere are two b a sic approaches t o v a l i d i t y :

He goes on t o p o in t

l o g i c a l a n a ly s is and

and em p irical a n a ly sis*

1* 2* 3* 4,

Kathryn H* Burkhart, "An A n a ly sis o f Reading A b i l i t i e s , ” Journal o f Educational R esearch. XXXVIII (February, 1 9 4 5 ), pp. 4 3 0-439. Arthur I* G ates, "Viewpoints U nderlying th e Study o f Reading D is a b i­ l i t i e s , ” Elementary E n g lish R eview , X II (A p r il, 1 9 3 5 ), p p. 8 5 -9 0 . Lee J . Cronbaeh, E s s e n t ia ls o f P s y c h o lo g ic a l T e s tin g , p . 287* I b id *. p* 48*

166 L o g ic a l a n a l y s is o f a t e s t aims at psychological understanding o f th e p r o c e s s e s t h a t a f f e c t scores* . • V a l i d i t y may be e s t a b lis h e d deductively by lo w in g th a t a t e s t co rresp o n d s t o th e d e fin itio n of the t r a it in ten ded t o b e m easured; o r i t may be established in d u c tiv e ly by naming t h e t r a i t s rep resen ted in the items at hand* I f we have a c l e a r d e f in i t i o n of a t r a it the t e s t i s supposed t o m easure we can exam ine the items to see i f they conform t o t h a t d e f i n i t i o n . -*• Where an a d eq u a te d e f in i t io n of the function t e s t e d i s not a v a i l a b l e , th e t e s t u ser stu d ies the items to determ ine what d e f i n i t i o n t h e y would f i t . This i s a t b e st an uncer­ t a i n p r o c e s s . A s k i l l f u l an alyst c a lls on a fund o f know ledge ab ou t how p eo p le react and about fa c to r s found i n p r e v io u s s t u d i e s o f t e s t s . Add to th ese, keen ob serva­ t i o n and f l e x i b l e th in k in g , and he i s lik e ly to know much ab ou t th e t e s t when he has fin ish ed . B ut h i s f i n a l c o n c lu s io n i s at best only an e n lig h ten ed g u e s s , u n le s s he can confirm h is thinking by em p irica l s tu d ie s o f th e t e s t * This point cannot be too s tr o n g ly em p h a sized . Over and o v er, i t i s found th a t t e s t s which 'o u g h t to* p r e d ic t some behavior do not. No t e s t can be r e l i e d on f o r p r a c t i c a l use u n til i t has been v a lid a te d e m p ir ic a lly * 2 Cronbach h a s b ee n q u oted a t le n g th because h is exp lan ation o f th is "second­ hand" v a l i d i t y i s e x c e l l e n t and d ir e c tly applicable t o th e d iscu ssio n of r e a d in g t e s t v a l i d i t y w hich w i l l fo llo w .

He explains e m p ir ic a l v a lid ity

in t h e u s u a lly a c c e p te d term s o f an independent c r ite r io n known to measure some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f im portance*

Among the examples he c i t e s are

(1 ) t h e r a t i n g o r g r a d e , eis in th e case of aptitude t e s t s v a lid a te d against s o h o o l g r a d e s o r i n d u s t r i a l t e s t s against ratings by su p er v iso rs; and (8 ) c o r r e l a t i o n w ith e s t a b lis h e d t e s t s , as in the case o f group i n t e l l i ­ g e n c e t e s t s v a lid a t e d a g a in s t th e Stanford-Binet test*

1*

I t i d . , p * 48•

167 Adkins e x p la in s th a t whenever an independent or e x te r n a l c r it e r io n i s la c k in g , " reso rt may be had t o an ‘ in tern a l* c r it e r io n , which sim ply means th e t o t a l score on th e t e s t * *

However, she ca u tio n s

" le t i t be c le a r th a t t h i s i s not a method o f v a lid a t in g a t e s t *

If

th e t e s t a s a whole does n o t have v a l i d i t y , s e le c t i o n o f item s which c o r r e la te h ig h ly w ith th e o r ig in a l t e s t as a whole can n ever y ie ld i t . rt^A ll t h is d o es i s t o s e le c t item s which ten d t o measure w hatever th e t e s t as a whole m easu res.

"This p r o c e s s," Adkins t e l l s u s, " is more appro­

p r ia t e ly view ed a s a means o f in c r e a sin g th e r e l i a b i l i t y (in te r n a l con­ s is t e n c y ) o f a t e s t p er u n it le n g th than a s a method f o r v a lid a tin g a te s t* " 2 V a lid a tio n o f Reading T ests The problem o f v a lid a t in g a t e s t i s n ot as sim ple in thB f i e l d o f reading a s i t i s in th e f i e l d o f employment, about which Adkins was more p a r t ic u la r ly concerned*

Tie f a c t o f th e m atter i s , as Triggs p o in ts

o u t, th a t • • • th e r e i s no accep ted y a r d s tic k w ith which read in g t e s t s can be conqiared* As lo n g as t h e s k i l l s th e t e s t s measure a re th em selves e lu s iv e , th e b e s t we can do i s choose a t e s t whose r e s u lt s seem t o f i t th e purpose f o r which t h e t e s t i s b ein g given *3 T riggs su g g e sts th re e means by w hich l o g i c a l v a l i d i t y can be in crea sed : (1) by u sin g a c a r e f u lly c o n tr o lle d vocab u lary, (2) by ehoosin g reading s e le c t io n s from tex tb o o k s in a c tu a l use in o o lle g e c o u r s e s , and (3) by

1*

Dorothy C* A dkins, C on stru ction and A n a ly sis o f Achievement T e s ts. p* 182*

2* Loci cit^* 3*

Frances O ralind T rig g s, Remedial R eading: The D iagn osis and Correc­ t io n o f Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s a t th e C o lleg e L e v e l, pp* 41-42*

168

su b m ittin g t h e p rop osed t e s t s to the c r itic ism

o f a u th o r itie s in the

c o n te n t f i e l d from w hich th e t e s t m aterials are c h o se n .

The follow ing

te c h n iq u e s can be used to demonstrate the v a lid it y o f reading t e s t s on an ex p o s t f a c t o b a s i s according to Triggs:

(1) t h e percentage of r is e

i n s c o r e s from one grad e le v e l to the next, (2) in te r -c o r r e la tio n s of t h e p a r t s c o r e s t o in d ic a t e to what extent the d if f e r e n t parts of th e t e s t a r e m ea su rin g se p a r a te functions, (3) c o r r e la tio n s of the part s c o r e s w ith t h e t o t a l sc o r e t o determine the e x ten t t o which each part m ea su res t h e same fu n c tio n as does the t o ta l t e s t , and (4) evidence of s i g n i f i c a n t r i s e i n s c o r e s a fte r reading in s tr u c tio n .

Tiro examples

o f t e s t s c la im in g l o g i c a l v a lid ity are c ite d below. Lowes* f i n d s th a t R e ille y ’ s Primary Reading Test (Grade 1 ) , c la im s l o g i c a l v a l i d i t y because i t i s based on th e fo llo w in g c r ite r ia o f c o n s t r u c t io n :

(1 ) vocabulary was selected alm ost e n t ir e ly from the

f i r s t thousand w ords i n the Thorndike l i s t , of the words used nearly 90 p e r c e n t a r e in th e Hbrn-Paeker l i s t ; (2) concepts used are a l l f a m i l i a r t o f i r s t g ra d e p u p ils; (3) mechanically th e t e s t approximates a c c e p ta b le p rim ary grad e standards; (4) the reading co n ten t and i l l u s ­ t r a t i o n s a r e i n t e r e s t i n g and stim ulating; (5) a l l resp o n ses are non­ v e r b a l.

Hobson su y s o f t h e Iowa Every Pupil Test

In s p i t e o f t h e la o k o f s t a t i s t i c a l evidence o f v a lid it y , th e u se o f su ch c r i t e r i a in th e sele ctio n o f t e s t items a s a n a l y s i s o f c o u r se o f study, textbooks, and in str u c ­ t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s a s w e ll as pooled judgments o f th e group o f a u th o r s m ost o f whom are outstanding fig u r e s in the e v a lu a t io n f i e l d , does much to guarantee high v a l i d i t y f o r t h i s t e s t b a t te r y when applied to Iowa c h ild r e n .2

1. 2.

O scar K . Bur o s , The Third Mental Measurements Yearbook, p. 523. ^Dbid*, p . 5 3 0 .

169 However, i t appears from t h e comments o f some le a d in g s p e c i a l i s t s in read in g th a t many t e s t s la ck e yen th e l o g i c a l v a l i d i t y d escrib ed above and o th e rs may be u n r e lia b le *

T r ig g s ,1- f o r in s t a n c e , q u e stio n s the

v a l i d i t y o f B u sw ell*s Heading Hecord; McKim q u e stio n s th e S tanford Achievement V ast in rea d in g; MeCauls q u e stio n s th e Schrammel-Gray T est; A

Gray' q u estio n s th e Primary Heading: and Hieronymus

5

Every P u p il T e s t, e tc *

Ammons

checked th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e Blammers B ate o f Com­

p reh en sion T e s t, th e Iowa S il e n t Heading T e s ts , and th e Michigan Speed o f Heading T est and found c o e f f i c i e n t s ran ging from *58 t o *78 which are much to o low f o r in d iv id u a l p r e d ic tio n *

They reasoned th e r e fo r e

th a t p r e se n t t e s t s o f r e a d in g a t t h e c o l l e g e l e v e l seem t o la c k r e l i ­ a b i l i t y and hence v a l i d i t y *

They a t t r i b u t e t h i s in p a r t t o th e f a c t

th a t c e i l i n g s a r e to o low and th e c h o ic e o f s u b - t e s t s has been made on an inadequate a p r i o r i b a sis*

S h is i s ev id en ced , th ey cla im , by

th e f a c t th a t t e s t s which are presumed t o measure e s s e n t i a l l y th e same a s p e c ts o f r e a d in g a b i l i t y show low in t e r cor r e la t io n s * She a b sen ce o f a g e n e r a lly accep ted independent y a r d s tic k d oes n o t r e l i e v e t e s t makers o f t h e r e s p o n s i b il it y o f doing a l l in t h e ir power t o e s t a b lis h l o g i e a l v a l i d i t y and r e p o r tin g the s te p s they have taken to th e t e s t - u s i n g p u b lic through t h e ir t e s t manual,

u n fo r tu n a te ly a number

o f reading t e s t au th ors have chosen t o ign ore th e s u b je c t o f v a l i d i t y in th e d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e c o n s tr u c tio n o f t h e ir t e s t *

When a t e s t author

cla im s h is read in g t e s t i s v a lid but d oes n o t t e l l us how he determ ined

1* 2* 3* 4* 5*

I b i d . , p p. 531-534* I b id * , p* 534* I b i d ., p* 529* I b id . . p . 523. R. B. Ammons and A* N. Hieronymus, " C r itic a l E v a lu a tio n o f a C o lleg e Program f o r Reading Improvement," Journal o f E d u cation al P sy ch o lo g y . XXXVIII (December, 1 9 4 7 ), p p. 4 4 9 -4 7 0 .

170 i t s v a l i d i t y , o r when he says not a word about i t s v a lid ity in h is m anual, h e le a v e s w ith t h e would-be t e s t user the im p lic a tio n that there i s same a c c e p te d y a r d s t ic k a g a in st which th e author may o r may not have cheeked, a n d , t h e r e f o r e , makes him self suspect.

This le a v e s him open to a tta c k on

t h e p a r t o f re v ie w e r s who in c a llin g a tte n tio n t o unsupported claim s or f a i l u r e t o a d e q u a te ly esta b lish v a lid ity only ser v e to strengthen th e sug­ g e s t i o n t h a t an independent criterio n does e x i s t .

The w riter went throu gh

a l l th e r e v ie w s o f general reading te s ts ( f o r t y - s ix ) in The Third M ental M easurem ents Yearbook^ to find out what rea d in g s p e c ia lis t s had to say a b o u t th e t e s t s th ey were analyzing.

In tw e n ty -fiv e of the f o r t y - s ix

r e v ie w s th e s p e c i a l i s t s s p e c ific a lly stated t h a t the te s t author re p o r te d a b s o l u t e l y n o in form ation on v a lid ity or e x te r n a l c r it e r ia , or what i s ev e n w orse t h a t sp u rio u s or unsound statem ents were made to cover up t h i s la c k *

In s e v e n te e n more reviews the review ers d id not even d iscu ss th e

v a l i d i t y o f th e t e s t they were analyzing!

An a n a ly s is of Traxler* s

r e v ie w s 2 o f tw e n ty -fo u r t e s t s showed th a t in o n ly three cases was th e r e any m en tio n o f v a l i d i t y or data concerning v a l i d i t y .

Fully on e-th ird

o f t h e t e s t s a l s o f a i l e d to report inform ation concerning r e l i a b i l i t y , a c c o r d in g t o T raxler* In f o u r review s of reading t e s t s in The Third Mental Measure­ m en ts Y earbook e v id e n c e was reported of v a lid a t io n against c r it e r ia ou t­ s id e o f t h e r e a d in g t e s t i t s e l f .

In one in sta n c e other reading t e s t s

^ w ere u sed a s th e c r ite r io n (The DeVault Primary Reading Test)3 but u n fo r i

t u n a t e ly t h e v a l i d i t y o f one of the criterio n t e s t s i t s e l f i s questioned

1* 2* 3*

» PP* .501—541* A rth u r E* T r a x le r , The Nature and Use of Reading. T ests, pp. 7-27* B u ro s, 0 £* c i t . , p . 504*

171

by a n oth er rev iew er (Spache)1 .

In two in s ta n c e s i n t e l lig e n c e t e s t s and

sc h o o l marks were used a s c r i t e r i a (M innesota Reading Exam ination f o r C o lle g e S tu d e n ts2 and C ooperative Reading T ests Cl and C23 ) •

In the

fo u r th t e s t c o r r e la tio n s were rep orted between th e t e s t s c o r e s and com p osite d e c i l e ranks computed from s c o r e s on t e s t s in i n t e l l i g e n c e , E n g lis h , v ocab u lary, s p e llin g , m athem atics, rea d in g , and cu rren t h is to r y . The f a c t t h a t no p e r f e c t v a l i d i t y c r i t e r i a have been e s ta b lis h e d f o r rea d in g t e s t s i s probably oneof th e reason s th a t has le d some t e s t a u thors t o om it v a lid ity data*

Under th e s e circu m stan ces, however, th ere

i s a l l th e more rea so n why authors should make th e m ost com plete explana­ t io n s p o s s i b l e concerning the c o n s tr u c tio n o f t h e ir in stru m en ts, in order t h a t they may s e r v e a s a g u id e to th e use o f th e t e s t s and so th a t what­ ev er v a l i d i t y th ey may have w i l l n o t be d estr o y e d .

E th ic a l t e s t au thors

should a ls o s e e t o i t t h a t in form ation on th e v a l i d i t y o f t h e ir t e s t w hich a c cr u e s a f t e r th e t e s t i s p ut on th e market i s made a v a ila b le t o t e s t u se rs in one way or another* Nature o f Reading T ests R eading t e s t s , so f a r a s one can determ ine from t i t l e s and d e s c r ip t io n s prepared by t h e ir p u b lish e r s are o f two k in d s: and survey*

d ia g n o stic

T raxler4 p o in ts o u t, however, th a t th ere i s no *blear d iv id ­

in g l i n e betw een th e tw o.

A d ia g n o s tic t e s t may be employed f o r survey

purposes and every survey t e s t th a t c o n ta in s more than one type o f q u estio n

1* 2* 3* 4*

B u ros, B uros, B u ros, A rthur

0£ . c i t . , p .

509* oj>. c i t . . p . 520* oju c i t * , p* 5 25. E* T ra x ler , The Nature and Use o f Reading T e s t s . p . 7*

172 h as p o t e n t i a l d ia g n o stic p rop erties .n A read in g t e s t which y i e ld s b u t a s i n g l e s c o r e has no diagnostic use.

"A t e s t has real d ia g n o stic v a lu e

f o r th e t e s t u se r , then, only when i t i s d iv id e d in to p arts, w ith each p a r t c o n ta in in g the questions which are s im ila r in kind or are aimed a t a s i n g l e o b jectiv e." -'N e a rly a l l of the e a r lie r reading t e s t s yielded a s in g le s c o r e and u sed th e same single-response type o f item in which the stu den t was a sk ed a q u e stio n whose answer could be found d ir e c tly in the c o n te n t. Shank2 drew t h i s conclusion after making a stu d y of 47 s ile n t-r e a d in g t e s t s f o r u se in grades 3-12 which included m ost of the ea rly read in g t e s t s b e g in n in g w ith the Starch Test (1914) and the Gray S ile n t R eading T e st (1 9 1 5 ).

F orty-seven reading t e s t s were published in the p e r io d

from 1914 t o 1929 as shown below, Shank3 found* Date 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929

No. o f 1 1 3 1 1 0 1 7 3 7 3 1 3 5 7 3 1

Only two years a fte r the p u b lic a tio n o f h is f i r s t reading t e s t , Gray w ro te in 1917 in a tru ly prophetic v e in th a t

1* 2* 3.

L o c. c i t * Sp en cer Shank, "Student Responses in th e Measurement of Reading Comprehen­ s i o n , ” Jou rn al of Educational Research. XXH (September, 1 9 3 0 ), p p . 1 1 9 -1 2 9 . Shank, op* c i t *

173 Hie p o s it io n taken in t h is monograph i s th a t th e m ental pro­ c e s s e s in volved in g e t t in g meaning are v a r ie d and com plex, each o f th e t e s t s m entioned above m easures c e r t a in p h ases o f com prehension. A g re a t v a r ie t y o f methods may and should be used in a thoroughgoing t e s t o f o n e 's a b i l i t y t o g e t meaning.-1Beginning w ith th e Kansas S i le n t Reading T ests (1915) and th e C ou rtis Standard R esearch t e s t (1 9 1 7 ), th e s in g le ty p e o f resp on se was la r g e ly d isca rd ed in t e s t developm ent and t e s t makers began t o aim a t som ething more than a s in g le measure o f read in g achievem ent, accord in g to Shank.2 G en erally speaking m ost o f t h e read in g t e s t s are co n stru cted n e ith e r f o r d ia g n o s tic pu rp oses nor survey purposes a lo n e . makers want to b u ild a t e s t which w i l l meet a wide n eed .

Most t e s t The survey

t e s t w ith d ia g n o s tic f e a tu r e s seems to be the m ost popular instrum ent h i t upon.

Some o f th e s e t e s t s l i k e th e Nelson-Denny Reading T est y i e l d

on ly two sep a ra te s c o r e s , in t h i s in sta n c e vocabulary and paragraph com prehension.

Other t e s t s , much more d ia g n o s tic in n a tu r e , p rovid e a s

many as seven or e ig h t d if f e r e n t ia t e d s c o r e s a s i s t h e ca se in th e Iowa S i l e n t Reading T e s t.

T raxler o f f e r s th e fo llo w in g ca u tio n to would-be

u se rs o f t e s t s : Some o f th e s e t e s t s , however, appear t o p o s s e s s g r e a te r d ia g ­ n o s t ic v a lu e than th ey r e a lly h ave, f o r t h e ir tim e l i m i t s are so sh o r t th a t th e p a r t s c o r e s are n o t r e l i a b l e enough t o be used a s th e b a s is o f any a n a ly s is o f th e read in g a b i l i t y o f in d iv id u a l p u p ils . I t i s seldom p o s s ib le t o o b ta in a d e t a ile d and h ig h ly r e l i a b l e d ia g n o s tic m easure­ ment o f rea d in g achievem ent w ith in th e tim e l i m i t o f th e u su a l c la s s p e r io d . A few t e s t makers have suoceeded in m easuring w ith f a i r r e l i a b i l i t y th r e e or fo u r d if f e r e n t a s p e c ts o f rea d in g achievem ent w ith in a p erio d o f f o r t y

! 1. 8.

W illiam S . Gray, S tu d ie s o f Elem entary School Reading through S tandardized T e s t s . Supplementary E d u cation al Monographs, No. 1 , 1 9 1 7 , p . 1 6 . Shank, oj>. c i t .

173 The p o s it io n taken in th is monograph i s that the mental p ro ­ c e s s e s involved in gettin g meaning a r e varied and com plex, each o f th e t e s t s mentioned above measures certain p h a ses o f comprehension. A great v a r ie ty o f methods may and shou ld he used in a thoroughgoing t e s t o f o n e 's a b ility to g e t meaning B e g in n in g w ith th e Kansas S ilen t Reading T ests (1915) and th e C o u r tis Standard R esearch te s t (1917), the s in g le ty p e of response was l a r g e l y d is c a r d e d in t e s t development and t e s t makers began to aim a t som eth in g more th a n a s in g le measure of reading achievem ent, according to S h an k .2 G enerally speaking most of t h e reading t e s t s are c o n s tr u c te d n e i t h e r f o r d ia g n o stic purposes nor survey purposes alon e. m akers want t o build a t e s t which w ill m eet a wide need,

Most t e s t 3he su r v e y

t e s t w ith d ia g n o stic features seems to b e th e most popular in stru m en t h i t upon.

Same o f these t e s t s lik e the Nelson-Denny Reading T est y i e l d

o n ly two se p a r a te scores, in th is in stan ce vocabulary and p a r a g r a p h . com p reh en sion .

Other t e s t s , much more d ia g n o stic in nature, p r o v id e a s

many a s se v e n or eigh t d ifferen tia ted s c o r e s as i s th e case in th e Iowa S i l e n t R eading T est.

Traxler o ffers th e fo llo w in g caution to w ou ld -b e

u sers o f t e s t s : Seme o f th e se t e s t s , however, appear t o possess greater d ia g ­ n o s t i c v a lu e than they r e a lly have, f o r th eir time li m i t s a r e so sh o r t that the part scores a r e n ot r e lia b le enough t o be used as the b a sis of any a n a ly s is of the reading a b i l i t y o f individual p u p ils. I t i s seldom p o ssib le to o b t a in a d eta ile d and highly r e lia b le d iagn ostic measure­ m ent o f reading achievement w ithin th e time lim it o f th e u s u a l c la s s period. A few t e s t makers have succeeded in m easu rin g with f a ir r e l ia b ili t y th r e e o r four d iffe r e n t a s p e c t s o f reading achievement w ith in a period o f fo r ty

1. 2.

W illia m S . Gray, Studies of Elementary School Reading through S ta n d a rd ized Tests. Supplementary E ducational Monographs, N o. 1 , 1917, p . 16. Shank, op. c i t .

174 or f o r t y - f i v e m inutes, but a t l e a s t two or th ree hours seem to be needed to o b tain a h ig h ly r e lia b le measurement o f many d e ta ile d a s p e c ts o f read in g.^ W hile sh ort s u b t e s ts may have l i t t l e q u a n tita tiv e v a lu e as T raxler p o in ts o u t , Strang2 reminds us th a t th ey have co n sid era b le q u a lit a t iv e valu e in th e d ia g n o sis o f an in d iv id u a l's reading a b i l i t y .

Of a l l th e s u b te s ts

in clu d ed in the v a rio u s read in g t e s t s , vocabulary u su a lly has th e h ig h e st r e l i a b i l i t y because i t i s probably sampled more ad equ ately than any o f th e oth er t e s t s . Problems in th e Measurement o f Rate and Comprehension The measurement o f read in g r a t e has p resen ted t e s t makers w ith a p a r t ic u la r ly d i f f i c u l t problem which has alrea d y been d iscu ssed in a p reviou s s e c t io n .

The m istak e th a t many t e s t e r s f e l l in to in c o n str u c tin g some o f

th e e a r lie r t e s t s was th a t o f tr y in g to measure r a te ind epend ently o f com prehension.

When they d id t h i s , as we have a lrea d y p o in ted o u t, they

found very l i t t l e r e la t io n s h ip between th e two f a c t o r s .

But a s Cronbach

in d ic a t e s , "when an a c t c o n ta in s s e v e r a l in t e g r a l a s p e c ts , one cannot d iv id e th e a c t in t o fragm ents f o r t e s t i n g purposes*"3

Ihe problem i s not

re so lv e d sim p ly by d e r iv in g th e measures o f th e two f a c to r s from th e seme m a te r ia l, how ever.

She d i f f i c u l t y i s n o t in t e s t i n g comprehension because

t h i s fa c to r can be f a i r l y w e ll is o la t e d and measured by h o ld in g speed c o n sta n t, i* e * , by g iv in g a t e s t w ithout a tim e

lim it.

Die r e a l problem

i s in th e measurement o f r a te ; p r im a r ily , because o f th e f a c t th a t most rjeaders, or perhaps we should say good r e a d e r s, g e n e r a lly vary t h e ir r a te I

1* Traxler, og. c i t . . p. 7, 2* Ruth Strang, Problems in the Improvement of Reading in High School and College, p. 308* 3* Lee 7. Cronbach, Essentials of Psychological Testing, p. 287.

175 w ith t h e purpose fo r which they read and with the nature o f th e m a t e r ia l read*

Poor readers on the other hand tend to read everyth ing a t th e

same r a t e .

The problem here as Cronbach^- sta te s i t , i s "how can we

h ave ev ery student read the seme p a ssa g e with the some d egree o f con cen ­ t r a t i o n and the same e ffo r t to comprehend?" Since th is in v o lv e s m o tiv a ­ t i o n o r l e v e l of aspiration , one o f th o s e nebulous areas w hich s t i l l d e f y c o n t r o l and measurement by p s y c h o lo g is ts , we cannot e x p e c t a q u ick and e a s y answer*

At present, Bond2 em phasizes, what seems t o be a g a in

in com prehension, as measured by c e r t a in t e s t s , a fte r a cou rse o f r e m e d ia l treatm ent, i s not r e a lly a g a in in per cent o f accu racy o f t h e ite m s attem pted but a gain r e su ltin g from having attempted more ite m s w it h in th e tim e lim it because of in crea sed speed. Another general weakness o f read in g t e s t s , indeed o f t e s t s i n g e n e r a l i s t h e fa c t that they bring out an unfavorable r e a c t io n from t h e p e r s o n s b ein g tested and a reaction which d iffe r s from p erson t o p erson * Dearborn and Gores3 questioned 80 graduate students a t Harvard a s t o t h e i r r e a c t io n to the Iowa S ilen t Heading Test, commonly co n sid ere d t o be one o f t h e b etter reading t e s t s a v a ila b le today.

There were a lm o st

a s many d if f e r e n t reactions as there were students*

One th in g t h a t th e

s tu d e n t comments had in oonmon was a d v erse criticism of the t e s t *

"The

t e s t co u ld be 'beaten'; i t puts a premium on quick adaptation t o a r t i ­ f i c i a l rea d in g situ a tio n s; i t contains elem ents whieh do n o t make f o r d is c r im in a tio n ; i t s format i s not th e b e s t ," these are some o f t h e

1* 2. 3*

I b i d . . p . 288* S ld e n A* Bond, "The Yale-Harvard Freshmen Speed Heading E x p erim en t," S o h o o l and S ociety. LI7 (August 1 6 , 1941), pp. 107-111. W alter F . Dearborn and H. B. Gores, "Adult Reactions to a S i l e n t R eading Test," Harvard .TMnawhionsi Review. VIZI (January, 1 9 3 8 ), p p . 38-43*

176

comments which were o f fe r e d .

Furthermore "face" v a l i d i t y a p p aren tly seemed

t o be la c k in g to th e se graduate s tu d e n ts , p a r t ic u la r ly th e tea ch ers in th e group, who f e l t th a t th e r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f th e t e s t were open t o q u estio n .

As a r e s u lt o f t h e ir fin d in g s th e se in v e s tig a to r s

s t r e s s th e importance o f understanding th e r e a c tio n of p u p ils t o t e s t s and th e t e s t s it u a t io n and u sin g t h is v a r ia b le to temper th e in te r p r e ta ­ t io n o f r e s u lt in g t e s t s c o r e s . Another le s s o n to be learn ed from th e Dearborn and Gores i n v e s t i ­ g a tio n i s th a t th e in t e r e s t f a c t o r , which even t e s t authors w i l l agree i s very important in rea d in g , should n o t be ignored in rea d in g s t e s t s .

The

m a te r ia ls used to t e s t r a te and comprehension should be p e r tin e n t and tim e ly and a s much as p o s s ib le be th e kind o f m a te r ia ls which w i l l arouse a uniform r e a c tio n which can be gauged in advance. A rr iv in g a t an adequate measure o f comprehension by means o f a paper and p e n c il t e s t , i s n o t a sim ple m a tte r .

Some reading t e s t s , f o r

in sta n c e , cover o n ly a s e le c t e d range o f co n ten t when in a c t u a lit y th ere are many d if f e r e n t m a te r ia ls n ea rly a l l o f which r e q u ir e d iff e r e n t read ­ in g s k i l l s .

Moreover, in th e a rea s covered by th e t e s t on ly a lim ite d

type o f comprehension i s measured.

Zahner1 i s very much concerned about

th e problem o f m easuring com prehension.

He f e e l s th a t th e f ix e d response

t e s t " con ceals a v a s t in g r e d ie n t o f su b je c t m a tter. w ith him on t h i s p o in t.

Few would d isa g ree

He then goes on t o sa y th a t th e f ix e d respon se

, t e s t oan be used o n ly in f i e l d s o f le a r n in g :

1.

Louis C. zahner, "The T estin g o f Comprehension," The E d ucation al Record, XXI, Supplement No. 1 3 , (January, 1 9 4 0 ), pp. 7 1 -8 9 . ~~

177 1* In which the th eo ries and p rin cip les implied in th e fix e d response type of item do not run counter to sound th eo ries and p rin cip les o f su b je c t matter* 2* That hare a reasonably s a tis fa c to r y and w e ll r e c o g ­ n ized body of content as a s c h o o l subject* 3* That have a competent body o f teaching m a teria ls and methods* 4 . That contain a high in g r e d ie n t of o b jectiv e, f a c t u a l m a teria l. 5* In which a considerable p o rtio n of the r e a lly s i g n i ­ f ic a n t m aterial would be amenable to reduction in to s h o r t, fixed items which a d m itted of right-or-w rong and quick response* Then Zahner measures what he c a l l s th e "subject of m eanings and ccm p reh en s io n " a g a in st th is s e t of c r it e r ia and h is judgment i s t h a t i n n o t a s i n g l e instance does the "subject o f comprehension" len d i t s e l f t o t h e f i x e d response type of t e s t l

What seems to be a s t a r t lin g r e v e l a t i o n

a t f i r s t , on further thought b o ils dcwn to the same th in g t h a t many o t h e r s have said before and a f t e r Zahner and which t h i s w r it e r w ould s t a t e v ery simply as follow s:

read in g i s a complex fu n c tio n ; i t i s

d i f f i c u l t to define and therefore hard to measure* By talk in g about the " su b je c t of meanings and com prehension" Zahner n o t only does not c la r if y , b u t he adds unnecessary c o n fu s io n * M ost rea d in g experts would not a g ree w ith him in h is c o n te n tio n t h a t re a d in g i s a subjeot, which i s r e a l l y what he i s saying*

In g e n e r a l

th e consensus in the f ie ld of r e a d in g i s probably expressed by £taiith when she sa y s reading is a to o l • • • i t has no subjeot m a tter o f i t s own* Geography, h is t o r y , and soienoe a l l have t h e ir own content; even a rith m etic has a subject m a tter p ecu lia r to i t s f i e l d * But reading is not a su b ject; i t i s simply a to o l w hich we use in g ettin g subject m a tter from the other f i e l d s . ^

1*

N ila B* Staith, American Reading In str u c tio n , pp. 264-2 6 5 .

178 B eing very much concerned w ith s em a n tics, Zahner p o in ts ou t th a t most o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s In comprehension th a t a r e o f any consequence t o educa­ t io n or to l i f e gath er around th e in te r p r e ta t io n o f a b s tr a c tio n s and m etaphors.

Many would agree w ith Zahner on t h i s p o in t but now, o f co u rse,

he i s sa y in g th a t th e d is e a s e i s g en era l; i t p lagu es a l l th e f i e l d s o f le a r n in g and a l l human a c t iv it y *

T herefore i t i s n o t so much th a t th e

" su b ject o f m eanings and comprehension" does n o t len d i t s e l f t o measure­ m ent, a s i t i s th a t language a s a means o f communication i s lim ite d * S in ce language i s c l o s e ly bound up w ith th e thought p r o c e sse s we fin d i t lim it in g and c o n fu sin g our th in k in g*

This in turn makes f o r c o n f l i c t

and m isunderstanding in the r e la t io n s between in d iv id u a ls and between n a tio n s and le d K orzybski to conclude th a t "the r u le r s o f symbols w i l l r u le us,"**' Teaching I n flu e n c e s T e stin g and T e stin g In flu e n c e s Teaching Zahner makes a n o v el s u g g e s tio n th a t i s worthy o f co n sid era tio n * Hie o b se rv es th a t t e s t i n g in flu e n c e s teach ing*

Every p erson in ed u oation

w i l l agree w ith t h i s o b se rv a tio n and probably add th a t t h i s i s n ot always good f o r te a c h in g . what te a c h e r s teach*

B u t, Zahner p o in ts ou t fu r th e r , t e s t i n g a g e n c ie s t e s t T h is, o f c o u rse, i s supported by our p rev io u s d is ­

c u s s io n r e v o lv in g around th e l o g i c a l v a l i d i t y o f rea d in g t e s t s *

Now t h is

r e la t io n s h ip le a d s T railer^ to urge th a t te a c h e r s keep open th e channels o f communication t o t e s t p u b lish e r s to keep them informed concerning th e i s k i l l s or a rea s which a r e im portant and whioh should be m easured. i ^ ,

Zahner

' su g g e sts th a t th e channels o f communication between tea c h e r s and t e s t e r s

1« 2*

A lfr e d K orzyb sk i, S cien ce and S a n ity , p . 78* Arthur E . T r a x le r , The Nature and Use o f Reading T e s ts ,

179 be made two-way avenues and in p a r tic u la r , because o f t h e r e s e a r c h and study in to a l l phases of read in g which they must n e c e s s a r ily c a r r y on in order to build t e s t s , th a t t e s t e r s should pioneer in b la z in g th e t r a i l for teachers.

W rightstone, in a publication is s u e d a lm o st s im u l­

ta n eo u sly with Zahner*s a r t i c l e draws the same in fe r e n c e s from what he term s a "newer concept in a p p r a is a l,** According to W r ig h tsto n e , • . • I f appraisal i s co n sid ered as the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n or formulation of a comprehensive range o f major ob jectives of reading, d e fin e d in terms of p u p il behavior, the con struction o f v a lid , r e lia b le , o b je c ­ t iv e , and p ractical in stru m en ts of appraisal, and the application of such in stru m en ts to p ra ctices, th e n i t may lend i t s e l f to c u r r ic u la r reconstruction. O Shores has offered a number of suggestions f o r im proving t h e v a l i d i t y o f reading t e s ts which a ls o con stitute a good summary o f th e w eaknesses whioh have been d is c u s s e d .

Hie suggests t h a t

1 . Serious thought and experim ent be devoted t o an evaluation of the concept o f general reading a b i l i t y fo r we may be trying to m easure something which d oes n ot e x is t . 2* Both depth and breadth o f comprehension be m easured in the same t e s t with s e p a r a te scores for each. 3* Reading rate and comprehension are inseparable and should be measured w ith th e same m aterials and f u r t h e r th a t the time taken to answer th e auestions n ot be included in the rate measure* 4 . A va riety o f m a teria ls from a variety of c o n te n t areas and a variety of au th ors be used. 5 . An attempt be made to g iv e the in te r e st f a c t o r consideration.

1* 2*

J . Wayne Wrightstone, "Techniques of Appraisal," C hapter X in Reading in General E d u cation , edited by W illiam S . G ray, p . 361* J . Harlan Shores, "Some C onsiderations of I n v a l i d i t i e s o f G eneral Reading Tests," Journal o f Educational Research. XL (F eb ru ary, 1947), pp. 448-457.

180 6 , T est d ir e c t io n s c l a r i f y th e m o tiv a tio n f a c to r by attem p tin g to r i l e out c e r ta in m o tiv a tio n a l in flu e n c e s and by a ttem p tin g t o m o tiv a te along c e r t a in p recon ceived lin e s * ? . The t e s t c le a r ly s e t th e r e a d e r 's purpose f o r each p a ssa g e p r io r t o th e readin g o f th e passage* 8 . Assumption o f reason ab ly eq ual ex p erien ce background be made and m a te r ia ls s e le c t e d w ith t h i s in mind. I t i s c le a r ly e v id e n t from th e fo r e g o in g d is c u s s io n th a t u n le s s a would-be t e s t u ser i s a rea d in g e x p e r t, he w i l l probably need ad v ice and guidance in read in g t e s t s *

W rightstone1 has prepared a l i s t o f

s ix t e e n q u e stio n s in th e form o f a check l i s t which should be h e lp fu l to te a c h e r s and a d m in istr a to r s in e v a lu a tin g and s e le c t i n g read in g t e s t s * The q u e stio n s a re grouped under th e fo llo w in g h ead in gs: a b i l i t y , o b j e c t i v i t y , and p r a c t i c a b i l i t y .

v a lid ity , r e li­

McCullough, S tran g, and T ra x ler2

have com piled a s im ila r a id c o n s is t in g o f sev en teen u n c la s s if ie d q u e stio n s co v erin g m ost o f th e p o in ts made by W rightstone* Use o f T ests in A p p ra isa l When t e s t s have been s tu d ie d , e v a lu a te d , and a s e le c t i o n made, th e n e x t q u e stio n i s how t o make use o f them in th e a p p r a isa l o f reading* S in c e t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n i s p r im a r ily concerned w ith th e d e t e c t io n and c o r r e c tio n o f rea d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s a t th e c o lle g e l e v e l , th e emphasis in th e d is c u s s io n which f o llo w s w i l l be on th e use o f read in g t e s t s in d ia g ­ n o sin g read in g d i s a b i l i t i e s .

Strang n o te s th a t "the two major co n trib u ­

t io n s o f t e s t s t o th e t o t a l p r o c e ss o f a p p r a isa l are f i r s t , to d e t e c t th e I s tu d e n ts who a re handicapped by read in g d i f f i c u l t y and second , t o a s c e r ta in

1* 2*

W righ tston e, oj^* c i t * , pp. 3 9 8 -3 9 9 . C* M. McCullough, Ruth S tran g, and A* E* T ra x ler, Problems in th e Improvement o f R eading, pp. 133-135*

181

s p e c if ic strengths and w eaknesses of ind ividuals and grou p s*" 1

Any good

reading t e s t , whether i t be a survey t e s t or a d ia g n o s t ic t e 3 t , s h o u ld f u l f i l l the f i r s t function o f a t e s t suggested by S tr a n g , t h a t i s , d iff e r e n t ia te between good rea d ers and poor rea d ers.

The e x t e n t t o

which the second function i s f u l f i l l e d , depends, D u r r e ll t e l l s u s , on th e "amount i t aids in d ir e c t in g more s p e c ific and e f f i c i e n t r e m e d ia l in stru ction *

The t e s t should in d ic a te the exact p o in t s f o r r e m e d ia l

a tta c k and should suggest th e general method of c o r r e c t io n o f ea ch weakness."2 Ideally the c o n str u c tio n of a d ia g n o stic in str u m e n t b e g in s w it h a survey o f a l l the p o ssib le e r r o r s which can be made in t h e a r e a f o r which a t e s t i s to be b u ilt*

Then t e s t procedures a r e d e v is e d w h ich w i l l

r e v e a l c lea r ly exactly which e r r o r s a student m akes.

D u r r e ll h im s e lf i s

th e author of one o f the m ost w id ely used systems o f in d iv id u a l d i a g n o s i s , th e D urrell A nalysis of Reading D if f ic u lt y ,3 which he c o n s tr u c t e d a f t e r analyzing the reading errors made by 4000 children*

These t e s t s p r o v id e

an opportunity to observe th e c h ild at work in o r a l and s i l e n t r e a d in g , and in sp e c ia l t e s t s . read in g.

The f i r s t t e s ts in the b a tte r y d e a l w it h o r a l

The te ste r n otes th e tim e required to read t h e s ta n d a r d iz e d

paragraphs, and notes whatever errors occur.

S i l e n t r e a d in g i s th e n

checked on a s e t of paragraphs o f equal d i f f i c u l t y t o t h e o r a l s e r i e s * Q uestions are used to check r e c a l l , and the t e s t e r o b s e r v e s su c h r e a d in g h a b its as v is ib le li p movements*

1* 2* 3*

A flash-exposure d e v ic e i s u se d t o show

Ruth Strang, Problems i n t h e improvement of R eading in H igh S c h o o l and C ollege. p. 321* Donald D* D urrell, "Tests and Correct Procedures f o r R ead in g D i s a b i l i ­ t ie s ," Elementary E n g lis h Review, XII (A p r il, 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 91 -9 5 * Donald D. D urrell, D u r r e ll A n alysis of Reading D i f f i c u l t y * World Book Company, Yonkers, N .Y ., 1937.

182 words b r ie f ly ; t h i s in d ic a te s p ercep tu a l h a b its and err o r s.

F in a lly

th e r e i s a p h o n etic in ven tory f o r ch ild r e n who have d i f f i c u l t y in word p e r c e p tio n .

The e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f th e D u rrell d ia g n o s tic b a tte r y depends

on th e s k i l l and k een ess o f o b serv a tio n o f the te s te r # For a lon g tim e th e Iowa S ile n t Reading T ests^ were Jist* about th e o n ly r e a lly d ia g n o s tic t e s t a v a ila b le f o r use in h igh sch o o l and c o lle g e .

S in ce t h i s t e s t and p r a c t ic a lly a l l oth er good readin g t e s t s

are w e ll d escrib ed and d iscu ssed in such dependable p u b lic a tio n s as th o se by Buros;^ H arris;® T riggs;^ and McCullough, S tran g, and Traxler® no attem pt w i l l be made here to p rovide an other annotated l i s t .

One o f

th e m ost r e c e n tly d e v ise d t e s t s f o r high sch o o l and c o lle g e which i s n o t d escrib ed or ev a lu a ted in any o f the above so u r ces, w i l l be d i s ­ cussed r a th er thoroughly however.

1. 2. 3.

A. H» Greene, A. N. Jorgensen, and 7* H. K e lle y , Iowa S il e n t Reading T e s ts . World Book Company, Yonkers, N .Y ., 1939. Oscar K. B uros, e d ., The 1940 M ental Measurements Yearbook. . The Third M ental Measurements Yearbook. A lb e r t J . H a r r is, How to In crease Reading A b ilit y , pp. 543-554.

4.

Frances O ralind T rig g s, Remedial R eading: The D ia g n o sis and C orrection o f Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s a t th e C ollege L e v e l,

5.

C. M. McCullough, Ruth S tran g, and Arthur E . T raxler, Problems in th e Improvement o f Reading, pp. 1 2 5 -1 3 6 .

D ia g n o stic Reading Tests^ An in te r e stin g , and in some resp ects a p io n e e r in g p r o j e c t i n t e s t construction by committee action got underway i n May, 1 9 4 3 , when a group of s p e c ia lis ts in reading met to exchange id e a s c o n c e r n in g t h e needs of teachers of r e a d in g .

Included in th e group were s e v e r a l c o l l e g e

teachers, a school p s y c h o lo g is t, the heads o f s e v e r a l c o l l e g e r e a d in g c lin ic s , the d irector o f a n a tio n a l te stin g a g en cy , and t h e r e s e a r c h ed ito r of a national te a c h e r s a sso cia tio n .

A l l had w id e e x p e r ie n c e

with the problem o f te a c h in g reading and each hand c o n t r ib u t e d w id e ly to the liter a tu r e on t h i s su b je c t.

Die group soon a g reed upon th e need

fo r a new se r ie s o f survey and diagnostic read in g t e s t s t h a t w ould go further in helping tea ch ers t o recognize the r e a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s o f th e ir pupils than any t e s t s then a v a ila b le .

R ather th an d epend upon

th e ir pooled opinion as to th e actual needs, th e group a sk ed t e a c h e r s throughout the United S t a t e s to name the areas where th e y n eed ed b e t t e r t e s t s and where they f e l t rem edial work was most n e c e s s a r y . They found th a t b e t t e r diagnostic t o o l s and more u n d e r sta n d in g o f the causes o f pupils* tr o u b le s were needed in t h e s e f o u r a r e a s : 1.

Vocabulary.

Here teachers wanted t o know more a b o u t a

p u p il’s a b ilit y to understand the vocabulary o f th e s u b j e c t h e was studying, as w ell as h is g en e r a l reading vocabulary a b i l i t y . 2.

Comprehension.

Tests were needed t o m easure su c h compre­

hension s k i l l s as fin d in g th e main idea, the su p p o r tin g d e t a i l s , th e

1.

Frances Oralind T rig gs, "The Construction and V a lid a t io n o f t h e D ia g ­ n ostic Reading T e s ts ," Educational and P s y c h o lo g ic a l M easurem ent. VIII (Spring, 1 9 4 8 ), pp. 3*14. . "D iagnostic Reading T ests a s A id s t o R em ed ial Instruction," School and S ociety, XLVI (J u ly 1 9 , 1 9 4 7 ) , p p . 4 2 - 4 5 . Arthur E. Traxler, "Measurement in th e F ie ld o f R ea d in g ," E n g lis h Journal. XHVIII (March, 1949), pp. 1 4 3 -1 4 9 .

184 sequence o f id e a s , and con clu sion s th a t could be made from a read in g s e le c t i o n . 3.

Hate o f read in g.

Teachers were aware th a t t h e ir p u p il’ s

r a te va ried accord in g to the type o f m a teria l th ey read and th e pur­ pose fo r which th ey were r e a d in g .

However, th ey had few t o o ls to

compare th e se r a t e s or t o determ ine whether a p u p il was f l e x i b l e in a d ju stin g h is r a te to d if f e r e n t co n d itio n s o f r e a d in g . 4.

Word r e c o g n itio n s k i l l s .

T ests were la ck in g which would

h elp tea ch ers to measure a ccu ra tely such s k i l l s as th e a b i l i t i e s to hear and use sounds and co n tex t c lu e s , t o reco g n ize and use s y lla b le s and word p a r ts in g e t t in g th e meaning o f new words.-*With th e hope o f m eeting th ese n eed s, the group organized a n o n -p r o fit co rp o ra tio n , the Committee on D ia g n o stic Reading T ests I n c . , 2 which was su b sid iz e d by the Blue H i l l Foundation w ith th e id ea th a t any money th a t came from th e s a le o f th e t e s t s or other m a te r ia ls would be devoted s o le ly to r e se a r c h on th e t e s t s th em selves or to r e la te d p r o je c ts in the f i e l d o f r e a d in g .

The t e s t b a tte r y which th e Committee co n stru cted

i s d iv id ed in to two g en era l p a r ts , th e Survey T est and th e D iagn ostic T e s ts .

I t i s r e a d ily apparent-from th e d e s c r ip tio n which fo llo w s th a t

th e t e s t s bear a c lo s e r e la t io n s h ip to the needs expressed by tea ch ers in th e o r ig in a l su rv ey made by th e Committee.

1. | | 2.

George D, Spache, **A New S e r ie s o f Reading T e s t s ,” E ducation, EXVIII (June, 1 9 4 8 ), pp. 629-632. The Committee on D ia g n o stic Reading T e sts, I n c ., 419 W. 119th S t r e e t , New York 2 7 , N.Y, Members o f th e Committee: Frances Oralind T riggs, Chairman; Robert M. Bear, Dartmouth C ollege; Ivan A. Booker, N a tio n a l E ducation A sso c ia tio n ; D a n iel D. Feder, U n iv e r sity of Denver; Constance M. McCullough, San F rancisco S ta te C ollege; George D. Spaceh, P u p il P erson n el S e r v ic e s o f Northern W estch ester County; A. Eason Monroe, San F rancisco S ta te C ollege; and Arthur E . T ra x ler, E ducational Records Bureau.

185 The Survey Test The purpose o f th is te s t is to p r o v id e a r e l i a b l e

in stru m en t

fo r determining the g en era l le v e l of reading a c h ie v e m e n t o f p u p ils in junior and senior h igh school and the freshman y e a r o f c o l l e g e .

I t may

be used eith er as an independent t e s t or to i d e n t i f y t h o s e s t u d e n t s to whom portions of the D iagn ostic Reading T ests s h o u ld be a d m in is te r e d . The Survey Test y i e l d s scores on vocabulary, co m p reh en sio n , and r a t e o f reading. The Diagnostic B a ttery Section I:

A vocabulary t e s t t o m easure t h e s t u d e n t ’ s f a m i l i ­

a r ity with the vocabulary of English grammar and l i t e r a t u r e , m a th em a tics, science and so c ia l s t u d i e s , as w ell as h is g e n e r a l r e a d in g v o c a b u la r y . Section II: and auditory.

Comprehension i s p r e s e n te d in two p a r t s , s i l e n t

Both t e s t s are based on m a te r ia ls found in s c h o o l t e x t s

in scien ce, li t e r a t u r e , and so c ia l scie n c e.

The two t e s t s a r e p a r a l l e l

in construction, in rea d in g se le c tio n s, in le n g t h and d i f f i c u l t y * and in types of q u estion s.

T h is sim ila rity perm its d i r e c t com p arison o f th e

r e s u lts when a p u p il r e a d s and in terprets a s in t h e s i l e n t p a r t , and when the m aterial i s rea d to him as in th e a u d it o r y .

D ie s i l e n t t e s t

was constructed to m easure the a b ility o f the s tu d e n t t o r e a d and under­ stand textbook m a te r ia ls .

The auditory t e s t , in w h ich a l l m a t e r ia ls a r e

read to th e student, i s fr e e from the in flu e n c e o f h i s r e a d in g s k i l l . | Thus the score on t h is t e s t determines whether t h e s t u d e n t ’ s background I ' makes i t p o ssib le fo r him to understand th e se m a t e r i a l s .

186 S e c tio n I I I : o f r e a d in g .

I h is s e c tio n has th ree p a r ts which measure r a te s

One p art determ ines th e stu d en t’ s usual r a te and compre­

h en sion o f sim ple sto r y -ty p e m a te r ia l, a s compared w ith h is r a te and comprehension when tr y in g to read such m a teria l much f a s t e r .

It is a

measure o f h i s f l e x i b i l i t y and the e f f e c t upon h is comprehension o f changing r a t e .

The second p a rt m easures r a te and comprehension in

s o c ia l s tu d ie s m a te r ia ls ; th e th ir d p a r t, th e same a b i l i t i e s in s c ie n ­ t i f i c m a te r ia ls .

These t e s t s make i t p o s s ib le to compare a s tu d e n t’s

reading a b i l i t i e s in two major areas o f study and in s it u a t io n s demand­ ing adjustm ent in r a te o f r e a d in g . S e c tio n IV:

This i s a word a tta c k t e s t in two p a r t s .

P art 1

i s an o r a l t e s t c o n s is t in g o f s ix graded paragraphs o f in t e r e s t in g m a te r ia ls which are read aloud by the stu d e n t.

His erro rs in readin g,

o r a l read in g h a b its , and methods o f word a tta c k and r e c o g n itio n are stu d ie d and reco rd ed .

He i s a ls o asked to read l i s t s o f is o la t e d words

graded in d i f f i c u l t y to r e v e a l fu r th e r c lu e s to h is word r e c o g n itio n s k ills .

P a rt 2 i s a s i l e n t group t e s t o f s k i l l in rec o g n iz in g sounds,

in th e use o f th e se sounds in r e co g n izin g words, d iv id in g words in to s y l l a b l e s , and in u sin g p r e f ix e s , s u f f i c e s , and r o o ts in word a tta c k . Thus f a r in t h is review o f methods o f a p p ra isin g reading a b i l i t y , inform al o b se r v a tio n a l tech n iq u es and stan dardized t e s t s in clu d ­ in g o r a l, a u d ito r y , and s i l e n t have been d is c u s s e d .

In th e n ext s e c tio n

a b r i e f review o f th e use o f eye movement record s in the a p p ra isa l o f jreading w i l l be p re sen te d .

187 Eye Movements in R eading Although a considerable s to r e o f in fo r m a tio n c o n c e r n in g eye movements in rea d in g had been c o lle c te d p r io r t o t h e p r o d u c tio n and commercial d is t r ib u tio n of the o p h th a lm o g r a p h a n e y e movement cam era, the introduction o f t h a t instrument in to rea d in g c l i n i c s en cou raged many more s tu d ie s .

Research has d e f in i t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e f a c t t h a t

when a person rea d s h i s eyes do not move s t e a d i l y a lo n g t h e l i n e o f p rin t, but p rogress i n a series of a lt e r n a t iv e p a u se s and q u ick je r k y movements c a lle d s a c c a d ic movements.

The p a u s e s , w h ich a r e c a l l e d

fix a tio n s la s t o n ly a fr a c tio n of a second e a c h .

I t i s th o u g h t t h a t

only during the f i x a t i o n s that the ey es s e e i n r e a d in g .

From t h e end

of one lin e to th e beginning of the n e x t, t h e r e i s a sm oth c o n tin u o u s movement vhich i s c a l l e d the return sw eep.

The number o f c h a r a c te r s

perceived in one f i x a t i o n has been la b e lle d thB r e c o g n i t io n sp an . Backward movements w h ich interrupt th e r e g u la r l e f t t o r i g h t and l i n e to lin e forward f i x a t i o n are known as r e g r e s s io n s .

Good r e a d in g i s

characterized by a w id e recognition sp an , a sm a ll number o f f i x a t i o n s per lin e , and a ia lm o s t no regressions p e r l i n e * The ophthalmograph i s a b in o cu la r camera t h a t u s e s a m ovable film on which i s reco r d ed , by means o f l i g h t r e f l e c t e d from t h e c o m e r s o f th e eyes, th e movements o f the eyes w hich o c c u r d u rin g t h e a c t o f reading.

By using th e ophthalmograph to p h otograp h e y e movements i t i s

p ossib le to determ ine t h e number o f f ix a t i o n s p e r l i n e , w ords p e r f i x a ­ t i o n , duration o f f i x a t i o n , frequency o f r e g r e s s i o n s , r a t e o f r e a d in g , s k i l l in going from one lin e to the n e x t, e t c *

1.

The stu d y o f e y e movements

Ophthalmograph. American Optical C o ., S o u th b r id g e , M a s s a c h u s e tts .

188 i s a ls o p o s s ib le by view in g th e ey es through a m irror during reading* The m irror i s p la ce d on th e page which i s n o t b ein g read and an ob server counts th e eye movements.

The p eep -h o le method i s a ls o used

which employs a sm all h o le in th e s e le c t io n t o be read through which the examiner may ob serve the rea d e r ’ s eye movements.

N a tu r a lly the

inform al methods o f stu dy la c k th e ex a c tn e ss and p r e c is io n o f th e ophthalmograph but th ey are n e v e r th e le s s u s e f u l. Tinker has conducted a number o f experim ents in th e measure­ ment o f eye movements and review ed hundreds o f s tu d ie s by o t h e r s .

He

a r r iv e s a t th e c o n c lu sio n th a t weye-movement p a tte r n s do n o t cause but m erely r e f l e c t e f f i c i e n t or poor read in g perform an ce.n-*- He f in d s th a t E iere i s no ev id en ce t h a t -training eye-movements a s such d ev elo p s e f f e c t i v e m otor h a b its which improve read in g a b i l i t y . On th e co n tra ry , th e r e are d ata from many so u r ces w hich in d ic a te th a t th e nature o f the o cu lo ­ m otor performance in reading i s la r g e ly determ ined by c e n tr a l p r o c e s s e s o f p e r c e p tio n and a p p reh en sion .2 The w eig h t o f ev id en ce seems to support th e view o f Tinker th a t eye move­ ments are n o t th e cause but sim p ly a r e f l e c t i o n o f good or poor rea d in g . S is s o n 3 and W estover^ have conducted experim ents t o determ ine whether d ir e c t t r a in in g in ey e movements i s more e f f e c t i v e in in c r e a s in g reading r a te than sim p ly rea d in g w ith in t e n t t o im prove.

Both in v e s t ig a t o r s

found th a t d ir e c t tr a in in g was no more e f f e c t i v e and p o s s ib ly l e s s e f f e c t i v e .

1. ( i2 . 3.

4.

M iles A . T inker, "The R ole o f Rye Movements in D ia g n o stic and Remedial R ea d in g ,1* S ch ool and S o c ie t y . XXXIX (February S , 1 9 3 4 ), pp . 1 4 7 148. Loo, c i t . Donald E . S is s o n , "Eye-Movement T raining As a Means o f Improving Reading A b i l i t y ," Journal o f E d u cation al R esearch, 22X11 (Septem ber, 1 9 3 8 ), p p . 3 5 -4 1 . F red erick L . Wes to v e r , C o n tro lled Eye Movements V ersus P r a c tic e E x e r c is e s in R eading.

189 Pressey and Pressey,^* and Renshaw2 on th e o th e r hand have su p p orted th e theory that d ir e c t tra in in g of eye movements to im prove r e a d in g i s en tirely p o s s ib le .

Most reading s p e c i a l i s t s are a g reed t h a t th e t r a i n ­

ing or pacing o f eye movements may be om itted w ith o u t l e s s e n i n g th e effectiv en ess o f reading in stru ctio n . A number o f in vestigation s have been co n d u cted t o e v a lu a te eye-movement reco rd s as a diagnostic d e v ic e .

E u r ic h 3 s t u d ie d t h e e y e -

movement records o f 173 students a t t h e U n iv e r s it y o f M in n esota in con­ junction with sc o r e s on in te llig e n c e , r e a d in g , and a ch iev em en t t e s t s and college g ra d es.

He reached the c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f

various measures o f competence in rea d in g a s d eterm in ed from p h o to ­ graphic eye-movement records i s f a ir ly h ig h .

H ow ever, h e found th a t

the rela tio n sh ip between eye-movements and c o l l e g e g r a d e s o r s c o r e s on the Minnesota Reading Examination f o r C o lle g e S t u d e n ts , M inn esota Speed of Reading T est, and the Stanford Achievem ent t e s t w as e x c e e d in g ly lo w . In two other s tu d ie s * Eurich found t h a t th rou gh eye-m ovem ent reco r d s he could d istin g u ish between students on p r o b a tio n and s u c c e s s f u l s tu d e n ts at the same in t e llig e n c e le v e l because t h e s u c c e s s f u l group o b ta in ed higher scores in comprehension, spent l e s s tim e i n f i x a t i o n a l p a u ses and had fewer and shorter regression al p a u s e s .

1.

He fou nd no d if f e r e n c e

L. C, P ressey and S. L. Pressey, " T rain in g C o lle g e Freshm en t o R ea d ,” Journal o f Educational Research. XXI (M arch, 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 2 0 3 -2 1 1 . 2. Samuel Renshaw, "The Visual P ercep tio n and R ep rod u ction o f Forms | by T a eh isto sco p ic Methods," Jou rnal o f P s y c h o lo g y . XX (1 9 4 5 ), I pp. 217-232. &. Alvin C. E u rich , "The R e lia b ility and V a l i d i t y o f P h otograp h ic' E yeMovement Records," Journal o f E d u c a tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y , XXIV (February, 1 9 3 3 ), pp. 116-122. 4 . Alvin C. E u rich , "Additional Data on t h e R e l i a b i l i t y and V a lid it y o f Photographic Eye-Movement R ecord s,” J o u r n a l o f E d u ca tio n a l Psychology. XXIV (May, 1933), p p . 3 8 0 -3 8 4 . . "The Photographic Eye-Movement R ecord s o f S u c c e s s f u l and U n su c cessfu l College S tu d e n ts,” J o u r n a l o f A p p lied P s y c h o lo g y . XVCI (O ctober, 1933), pp. 604-613.

190 between th e se two groups o f stu d en ts in r a te o f rea d in g .

Sisson-*- however

found th a t he could n o t d i f f e r e n t ia t e good read ers from poor read ers c o n s is t e n t ly by means o f eye movements.

Undoubtedly S is s o n ’ s fin d in g s

were due in p a rt to th e f a c t th a t research by oth er in v e s tig a to r s has shown th a t record s based onthe sh o r t s e le c t io n s su p p lied w ith th e ophthal­ mograph are n o t r e l i a b l e .

Imus, Rothney, and Bear2 made three photographic

reco rd s o f th e eye movements o f 150 stu d en ts a t Dartmouth and concluded " th at b efo re in d iv id u a l d ia g n o sis o f read in g d i f f i c u l t y i s made on th e b a s is o f eye-movement camera s c o r e s , th e su b je c t should be req uired to read f i v e to seven tim es a s much m a te r ia l as he now read s."

The fin d in g s

o f th e se in v e s t ig a to r s supported th o se o f Eurich in th a t they a lso found th a t the eye-movement camera was "not a v a lid measure o f read ing a b i l i t y in read in g i f we use t e s t s o f read in g as a c r i t e r i a ," and "that th e sco res o b tain ed from i t a re n o t c lo s e ly r e la t e d to th e academic achievem ent o f our su b jects." ® Anderson and Morse^ review ed 18 s tu d ie s in v o lv in g the use o f th e ophthalmograph, among them a number in which th e su g g e stio n th a t th e len g th o f th e s e le c t io n read be in c r e a se d , had been t r ie d o u t .

A summary o f th e

co n c lu sio n s th ey drew a f t e r review in g th ese s tu d ie s i s p resented below . 1.

When used w ith p assages o f s u it a b le le n g th , th e ophthalmo

graph w i l l y ie ld r e l i a b l e r e c o r d s ,

ftwenty l i n e s have been recommended as

th e minimum t o use in work w ith in d iv id u a l c a s e s .

1. 2. 3. 4.

Donald E, S is s o n , "H abits o f Eye Movement in Reading," Journal o f Educa­ t io n a l P sy ch o lo g y. XXVIII (September, 1 9 3 7 ), p p. 437-450. H. A. Imus, T.W.M. Rothney, and R. M. Bear, An E valu ation o f V isu a l F a cto rs in R eading, p . 65. I b id . . pp. 8 4 -8 5 . I . H. Anderson and W. C. Morse, "The P la ce o f Instrum entation in th e Reading Program: I: E valu ation o f th e Ophthalmograph," Journal o f Experim ental E d u cation . XIV (March, 1 9 4 6 ), pp. 256-262.

i

191

2»

When properly determ ined, th e v a l i d i t y o f t h e tech n iq u e

can also be demonstrated to be s a t i s f a c t o r y . 3.

Ophthalmograph records can th u s be u sed e i t h e r t o r e p la c e

or supplement standard p en cil and paper t e s t s o f r e a d in g a c h iev em en t. 4.

F or reasons of con ven ien ce, h o w ev er, sta n d a rd t e s t s w i l l

remain the u n iv e r s a l method o f t e s t in g r e a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t. 5.

The ophthalmograph can be u sed w ith g r e a t e s t p r o f i t in

c lin ic a l work w ith retarded rea d ers. 6.

The ophthalmograph has been a p o p u la r r e s e a r c h in stru m en t

and w ill co n tin u e t o be so . R ep orts such as th ese le d S tran g t o sum m arize h er d is c u s s io n o f eye movements by concluding th at . . . I f in e f f e c t iv e eye movements a r e r e a d i l y e lim in a t e d a s gen eral r e a d in g e ffic ie n c y im p roves, and i f e v id e n c e i s lack in g t h a t trainin g or p acin g in e y e m ovements p e r s e develops e f f e c t i v e motor h a b it s , th e n , from th e s e r v i c e a s p e c ts ,th e reading expert i s n o t j u s t i f i e d in sp e n d in g time on th e study o f eye movements. Thus f a r t h e r e i s no unequivocal evidence th a t th e stu d y o f ey e m ovem ents i s e s s e n t ia l in a remedial read in g program . Remediation in Reading As r e a d e r s we appreciate th e te x tb o o k c u e s t h a t good w r it e r s intersperse throughout th eir t e x t in th e way o f b o ld fa c e h e a d in g s s t a r t ­ ing each s e c t i o n .

Breaking up m a te r ia l in to s e c t i o n s i s u n d ou b ted ly

easy for th e w r it e r when the variou s s u b t o p ic s a r e m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e * When the s u b -to p ic s are very c lo s e ly r e l a t e d , h ow ever, i t m ust be r a th e r [d iffic u lt t o keep them in separate com partm ents.

1.

T h is i s c e r t a i n l y th e

Ruth S tra n g , "Diagnosis and R em ed iation ," C hapter IX i n R eading in General E ducation, edited by W illia m S . G ray, p . 3 2 3 .

ca se w ith r e a d in g .

The causes o f reading d i s a b i l i t y , t h e ir d ia g n o s is , and

t h e ir rem ed iation are so c lo s e ly t ie d up to g eth er th a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t to t a lk about any one w ith ou t g e t t in g in to a d is c u s s io n o f th e o th e r s.

This

i s a s i t should be Strang s a y s. . . . In p r a c t ic e , t o o , th ere should be th e same fu s io n o f d ia g n o sis and rem ed iation . I n s tr u c tio n and p r a c tic e should grow o u t o f d ia g n o sis w ith th e same organized u n ity th at branches grow ou t o f th e trunk o f a t r e e . That i s the f i r s t p r in c ip le o f rem edial work.-*Having made t h is g en er a l p o in t, Strang goes on to e x p la in fo u r important p r in c ip le s ^ which she th in k s should be the supporting p i l l a r s o f any program o f rem ed ia tio n .

In th e f i r s t p la c e a procedure must be decided

upon fo r use w ith a p a r tic u la r in d iv id u a l, which w i l l make c o n ta ct w ith him "at a p o in t o f v i t a l in t e r e s t and a t a l e v e l on which immediate s u c c e ss i s p o s s ib le ."

In l i n e w ith t h is Strang su g g e sts in her second

p r in c ip le th a t th e i n d i v i d u a l s i n i t i a t i v e be put to work to develop h is own read in g program.

In order th a t the student may be a b le t o do t h is

he mu3t be helped to a cq u ire same in s ig h t in to the theory and problems o f rea d in g .

This i s S tr a n g 's th ir d p r in c ip le .

p r i a t e ly enough i s a u n ify in g p r in c ip le , says S tra n g .

The fo u r th p r in c ip le , appro­

"bhify a l l readin g ex p erien ce,"

Bring th e co n ten t s u b je c ts in to th e rem edial work and apply

th e s k i l l s m astered through rem edial e x e r c is e s to th e con ten t s u b j e c t s . H a r r is, to o , has fo u r b a sic p r in c ip le s to su g g est as a b a s is fo r rem edial work 1.

Base rem edial in s tr u c tio n on d ia g n o sis

2.

S t a r t from what th e p u p il knows

193 3.

S e le c t appropriate m a te r ia l

4,

Seoure motivation.-*-

While th ese two s e ts o f p r in c ip le s a re n o t i d e n t i c a l , th e y have much in common,

H a rris puts p a rticu la r em phasis o n s e c u r in g m o tiv a tio n b eca u se

he b e lie v e s t h a t "without good m o tiv a tio n a r e m e d ia l program i s su r e t o be i n e f f e c t i v e . T h e p erso n a lity o f th e r e m e d ia l w orker i s ex trem ely important in e s ta b lish in g rapport and in p l a n t in g t h e s e e d o f a new s e l f assurance, H a r ris explains.

L e ttin g c h ild r e n know e x a c t ly where th ey

stand in rea d in g i s often a way o f s p u r r in g m o t iv a t io n .

O ther ways o f

arousing m o tiv a tio n are by (1) p r o v id in g s u c c e s s e x p e r ie n c e s ,

(3 ) u t i l i z ­

ing present i n t e r e s t s , (3) dram atizing p r o g r e s s , ( 4 ) a v o id in g m onotony, (5) transform ing d r i l l s into games. R em ediation As a Function o f S tu d en t P e r s o n n e l S e r v ic e a The p erson in charge o f th e r e a d in g im provem ent program sh ou ld be thoroughly tra in e d in personnel work, T r ig g s 3 f e e l s .

Few s tu d e n ts

come to him w ith a serious reading d i f f i c u l t y t h a t i s n o t co m p lica ted by other fa c to r s o f personal or academic a d ju s tm e n t, and th e r e a d in g improve­ ment program may be a dismal f a il u r e i f i t d o e s n o t ta k e t h e s e f a c t o r s into account.

I d e a lly , th erefore, th e r e a d in g s p e c i a l i s t sh ou ld be a

competent p e r so n n e l o ffic e r who h as s p e c i a l i z e d i n r e m e d ia l r e a d in g . S tran g* f e e ls that the c o l l e g e p e r s o n n e l w o rk ers have t o assume three main ty p e s o f r e sp o n sib ility f o r th e im provem ent o f r e a d in g on jkheir campuses:

( l ) as con sultan ts on th e c o l le g e - w i d e r e a d in g program ,

I 1. 3. 3. 4.

Albert J . H a rris, How fb In crease R ead in g A b i l i t y , p p . 2 4 3 -2 4 5 . Ibid. . p . 2 4 5 . Frances O ralin g Triggs, Remedial .R ea d in g : The D ia g n o s is and C o r rectio n of Reading D if f ic u lt ie s a t tEe 'C o lleg e L e v e l, p . 16. —— — Ruth S tr a n g , "The College P erson n el W ork er's R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e Improvement o f Reading," E d u c a tio n a l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l M easurem ent, VII (Autumn, 1947), pp. 605-611* —— — ——

194

(2)

as teachei-3 o f s p e c ia l reading grou ps, and (3) a s reading c o u n se lo r s .

The rem edial reading tea ch er i s con sid ered a component o f t h e personnel o r g a n iz a tio n by McCaul,^ because h i s u ltim a te o b j e c tiv e i s th a t o f the whole stu d en t p erson n el program — t o secu re the maximum p erso n a l and • i n t e l l e c t u a l development of a l l s t u d e n t s — even though h is immediate o b je c tiv e i s to improve a stu d e n t’ s rea d in g .

Because of th e nature o f

h is work the rem edial reading e x p e r t, must examine in to the whole per­ s o n a lit y and i t s background. does n o t g iv e marks.

He i s not a d is c ip lin a r y o f f i c e r and he

Hence he i s in a key p o s it io n t o fu r th e r th e

aims o f th e p erso n n el program* P h ases o f the Reading Improvement Program The problem o f diagnosis and rem ed iation can be considered as a s i x phase program or can be sa id to have s ix a s p e c ts accord in g t o T raxler.^ These are:

(1) th e o b j e c tiv e s o f d ia g n o sis and rem ed iation; (2) i d e n t i f i ­

c a tio n o f retard ed rea d ers; (3 ) th e d ia g n o sis o f d i f f i c u l t i e s (in c lu d in g cau sal f a c t o r s ) ; (4) o rg a n iz a tio n o f in s t r u c t io n a l groups; (5) rem edial tr a in in g ; (6) e v a lu a tio n o f p rogress*

T raxler sa y s th a t i t i s n o t prac­

t ic a b l e "to tr y to e s t a b lis h a g en era l s e t o f o b j e c tiv e s th a t can be adopted in a l l rem edial programs s in c e th e purposes are la r g e ly dependent on th e d e f ic ie n c ie s and th e n eed s o f th e in d iv id u a l p u p il."

He fin d s th e

fo llo w in g o b je c tiv e s commonly mentioned in p u b lish ed l i s t s : 1. 2. | •

1* 2*

3.

The esta b lish m en t o f e f f e c t i v e b a sic read in g h a b its The promotion o f permanent in t e r e s t in and h a b its of independent read in g. The development o f s k i l l s in work type read in g

Robert L* McCaul, "Student P erson n el O p p ortu n ities f o r th e C o lleg e Remedial Reading Teacher," School Review. LI (March, 1 9 4 3 ), Arthur 2 . T ra x ler, "The S ta tu s o f Research in Remedial Reading," S p e c ia l Supplement t o th e E n g lish Jou rn al. XXVIII (A p r il, 1 9 3 9 ), p p . 3-20*

195 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

The fo ster in g of d e s ir a b le r e a d in g a t t i t u d e s The deepening o f a p p r e c ia t io n s f o r l i t e r a r y , s c ie n t i f ic , and o th e r ty p e s o f r e a d in g . Acquaintance w ith and f a c i l i t y i n l i b r a r y s k i l l s The widening o f th e c o n c e p tu a l background o f p u p ils The improvement o f th e m ethods o f th in k in g employed by pupils while r e a d in g and th e fo r m a tio n o f h a b it s o f thoughtful, c r i t i c a l , a n a l y t i c a l r e a d in g .

The id e n t if ic a t io n o f retard ed r e a d e r s and t h e d iagn osis o f t h e ir d i f f i ­ c u l t i e s including the d eterm in a tio n o f c a u s a l f a c t o r s w herever p o s s ib l e have been discussed in p rev io u s s e c t i o n s o f t h i s p a p e r . When the nature o f th e d e f i c i e n c y and i t s ca u se s have been i d e n t i f i e d the next step i s t o d eterm in e how r e m e d ia l in s t r u c t io n can be g iv e n ,

Traxler found a fte r a su r v e y th a t two g e n e r a l ty p es o f group

o r g a n iz a tio n have been employed:

r e g u la r c l a s s e s i n which p a r t or a n ,

o f th e tim e is devoted to rem ed ia l r e a d in g and s m a ll groups o f p u p ils w ith s im ila r d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a t f r e e p e r io d s * in s t r u c t io n i s used with s e r i o u s ly r e ta r d e d p u p i l s .

I n d iv id u a l

The problem o f

group v e r s u s individual in s t r u c t io n w i l l be d is c u s s e d in g r e a t e r d e t a i l in subsequent pages*

This s e c t i o n a tte m p ts t o p r e s e n t an o v erv iew o f

the w hole p rocess o f d ia g n o sis and r e m e d ia tio n .

B ecau se o f th e i n t e r ­

con n ected n ess and the overlap p in g o f many o f t h e r e g io n s , th e same or s im ila r t o p ic s w ill be d isc u sse d w h erever t h e i r m en tio n i s p e r t in e n t even though a t tim es t h is may seem r e p e t i t i o u s * Where in stru ctio n i s g iv e n in r e g u l a r l y sc h e d u le d c l a s s e s v ariou s p la n s are in use T raxler fo u n d . j

The m ost p o p u la r w ere (1 ) a

sh ort in te n s iv e period o f in s t r u c t io n u s in g p erh a p s s i x weeks d u rin g

i

the sc h o o l y ea r, (2) the a lt e r n a t in g o f p e r io d s o f r e a d in g and o f su b ject m a tte r, (3) the co n tin u ou s t e a c h in g o f r e a d in g one p e r io d a day throughout an e n tir e sem ester or e v e n a w h o le y e a r , (4 ) u t i l i z a t i o n

196

o f th e co n ten t o f a r eg u la r su b je c t as th e b a s is o f th e rem edial r ea d in g . A ll o f th e se p la n s have been shown to be e f f e c t i v e by the r e s u lt s o f s tu d ie s in which th ey have been u sed .

In f a c t , s c a r c e ly a method has

been rep orted th u s f a r th a t has n o t produced improvements, a t l e a s t as f a r as the r e s u lt s or s t a t i s t i c s rep orted by the in v e s t ig a t o r are con­ cern ed .

The v ir t u e may n o t l i e so much in the s p e c i f i c methods u sed,

Dearborn p o in ts o u t, as in th e s tim u la tio n and le a d e r sh ip o f th e te a c h e r , th e d eterm in a tio n o f th e p u p il to su cceed , or some o th er l i k e f a c t o r . A fte r a word or two con cern in g rem edial t r a in in g and e v a lu a tio n t o conclude our b r ie f p re lim in a ry overview o f th e read in g improvement problem th e su b je c t o f m o tiv a tio n and coop eration w i l l be d isc u s se d a t g r e a te r len g th # Among th e a c t i v i t i e s and te a c h in g procedures which have been rep orted in rem ed ial s tu d ie s a re th e fo llo w in g :

(1) fr e e read in g fo llo w ­

in g l i n e s o f i n t e r e s t w ith a minimum o f s u p e r v is io n , (2) tr a in in g in th e b a s ic s k i l l s o f work-type r e a d in g , (3) c a r e f u lly planned e x e r c is e s aimed a t overcoming s p e c i f i c d i f f i c u l t i e s , (4) tr a in in g in both g e n e r a l and t e c h n ic a l v o ca b u la ry , (5) p r a c t ic e in improving methods o f th in k in g . Any sound program o f tr a in in g or te a c h in g w i l l in clu d e some method o f e v a lu a tio n .

In g en er a l th e m ost popular d e v ice seems t o be an eq u iva­

le n t form o f th e stan d ard ized read in g t e s t which was used in th e begin nin g to id e n t if y the poor read ers and "diagnose" t h e ir d i s a b i l i t i e s #

I h is

l a s t i s su ch an im portant phase o f th e read in g improvement program th a t i t to o w i l l be co n sid ered in a sep a ra te s e c t io n to f o llo w .

197 M o tiv a tio n As a F a c to r in R em ediation Though th ey a r e n o t m en tion ed n e a r ly a s fr e q u e n tly a s o th e r fa c to r s there i s no q u e stio n t h a t b o th m o tiv a tio n and co o p era tio n o f students are very im portant t o any r e a d in g improvement program. Dearbomf as we have p o in te d o u t a b o v e, c o n s id e r s m o tiv a tio n more important than e i t h e r method o r m a t e r i a l s .

W hile he adm its th a t even

methods which are i n t r i n s i c a l l y n o t sound can b rin g about improvement because of the n o v e lty o f t h e i r a p p e a l, what i s needed i s more i n t r i n ­ s i c motivation such a s t h a t p r o v id e d in t h e e x c e l le n t manuals by S tra n g ,^ Knight and Traxler,'^ and H o v io u s .4 In review in g th e sh o rtco m in g s o f r e a d in g improvement programs Stewart^ finds t h a t p u r p o s e fu l r e a d in g i s n o t d evelop ed by most programs because they use m a te r ia ls w hich a r e n o t r e l a t e d t o a ssig n m e n ts, and th erefore f a i l to p ro v id e m o t iv a t io n .

But even b e fo r e the problem o f

m aterials is co n sid ered , th e c o o p e r a tio n o f s tu d e n ts who need h elp must be secured.

In an e n t e r in g c l a s s o f 192 s tu d e n ts a t Sacramento J u n io r

C o lleg e, fyler** found 76 s tu d e n t s who had r ea d in g s c o r e s which in d ic a te d retard ation of one y e a r o r m ore.

He made an e f f o r t to g et h a lf o f th e s e

in to a sp ecia l read in g co u r se b u t o n ly 23 en te r e d and 20 f in is h e d a l l th e work.

In oth er w ords, TJyler had a number o f reta rd ed rea d e r s who

were not ready and w i l l i n g t o be h e lp e d .

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Walter F. Dearborn, " M o tiv a tio n V ersu s ♦C ontrol' in Remedial R eading," Education. LIX (Septem ber, 1 9 3 8 ) , p p . 1 - 6 , Ruth Strang, Study Type o f R eading E x e r c i s e s . P. E. Knight and A . E . T r a x le r , Read and Comprehend. Carl Hovious, F o llo w in g P r in t e d T r a i l s . J. R. Stewart, "A R em edial R eading P rogram ,** Jou rn al o f H igher E d u c a tio n , XV (February, 1 9 4 4 ), p p . 8 3 - 8 5 . H. T. Tyler, "Remedial R eading i n th e J u n io r C o l le g e ,1* Ju n ior C o lle g e Journal. IV (O cto b er, 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 2 8 - 3 1 .

198 This f a c t o r o f c o o p era tio n i s undoubtedly alw ays p r e s e n t alth ou gh seldom m entioned by read in g w orkers.

F .P . Robinson^- one o f

th e few w r ite r s to d is c u s s th e problem o f co o p e r a tio n , t r ie d to e v a lu ­ a t e t h i s fa c to r in a read in g improvement exp erim en t.

He s tu d ie d th e

number o f c l i n i c a l appointm ents m issed and found f o r in sta n c e th a t th o se below th e a verage in com prehension g a in , m issed 32 per cen t more m eetin g s than th o se above a v e r a g e .

Those below average in grades

m issed tw ic e a s many m eetin g s a s th o se above a v e ra g e.

A p erson o f low

a b i l i t y can improve i f he t r i e s , a lth o u g h n o t a s much a s someone o f b e t t e r a b i l i t y who a ls o c o o p e r a te s , accord in g t o Robinson.

I t m ight

be s a id , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t e v ery program o f read in g improvement needs to c o n sid e r th e " treatm en t r e a d in e ss" o f i t s p r o s p e c tiv e c l i e n t s . E xposing t o r ea d in g improvement work s tu d e n ts who la c k "treatm ent r e a d in e ss" can be a v ery f r u i t l e s s a c t i v i t y . Another R obinson2 (H.A. Robinson) a ls o concerned about m otiva­ t io n ad m in istered a b r i e f q u e stio n n a ir e and a h a lf-h o u r c l i n i c a l in t e r ­ view t o s i x t y freshm en in Y ale C o lle g e " to determ ine as a c c u r a te ly as p o s s ib le th e m o tiv a tio n a l p a tte r n s c a u s a tiv e t o *voluntary* p a r t ic ip a t io n in rem ed ial c l a s s e s ."

The e x p r e s sio n s o f the s u b je c ts in t h i s in v e s t ig a ­

t io n were c l a s s i f i e d in to th e s i x g e n e r a l c a te g o r ie s shown below . 1 . For t w e n t y - f iv e in d iv id u a ls ( l i t t l e more than f o r t y per ce n t o f t h e g r o u p ), th e main r e a so n f o r se e k in g rem edial in s t r u c t io n appeared t o be a knowledge o f a r ea d in g d is a b i­ l i t y and a s in c e r e d e s ir e t o improve s c h o la s t ic e f f i c i e n c y through rem ed ia l work.

1. 2.

F . P . R obinson, "Can C o lle g e Freshmen in th e Lowest Tenth in Reading Be Aided S c h o l a s t ic a l ly ," S ch ool and S o c ie t y . XXXI7 (December 1 9 , 1 9 3 1 ), p p . 8 4 3 -8 4 6 . H. A. R obinson, "Note on th e E v a lu a tio n o f C o lleg e Remedial Reading C ou rses," Jou rn al o f E d u ca tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y . XLI (February, 1 9 5 0 ), pp. 8 3 -9 6 .

199 2. In th e c a s e o f f o u r te e n o f th e stu d en ts th e prim ary reason f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n was a coercion (a str o n g su g g e s­ t io n ) on t h e p a r t o f a dean, a stu d e n t c o u n se lo r, or a f a c u lt y member. A lth ou gh t h e ir read in g d e f ic ie n c ie s were c l e a r l y d e m o n str a b le , th e s e men were w ith out e x c e p tio n i n i t i a l l y r e s i s t i v e to th e idea o f j o in in g a s p e c ia l c l a s s and d id so o n ly t o s a t i s f y an o f f i c i a l * in ju n c t io n . 3* F o r e i g h t s t u d e n t s , th e read in g course appeared t o r e p r e s e n t t h e i r l a s t chance to remedy a v a r ie t y o f language d i f f i c u l t i e s w hich had been u n su c c e ss fu lly d e a lt w i t h —in a l l c a s e s through in d iv id u a l work — p r io r t o g o in g t o Y a le .

_

4 . D e c la r a t io n o f can d id acy f o r th e rem edial c l a s s e s was, f o r s i x s t u d e n t s , a d m itte d to be an o v ert and c o n s c io u s avoid an ce o f c e r t a in demands which the u n iv e r s it y en viron ­ ment had made upon them , and which — in each ca se b ecau se o f e m o tio n a l and p e r s o n a lit y problems — th ey f e l t unable to m ee t. In e f f e c t t h e rem ed ia l work was th e l e s s e r o f e v i l s , a s u b s t i t u t e a c t i v i t y . (One stu d en t was a b le to a v o id p h y s ic a l t r a in in g ; an oth er p arried p a r e n ta l p r e ssu re t o j o in a s o c i a l s e r v i c e group by p a r t ic ip a t io n in th e rem ed ia l work; s t i l l a n o th e r was attem pting t o ward o f f th e stig m a o f a f r a t e r n i t y r e j e c t io n by m eth o d ic a lly e n t e r in g a l l campus a c t i v i t i e s academic or o th erw ise* 5 . In a somewhat d i f f e r e n t way than the fo r e g o in g , t h e p a r t ic ip a t i o n o f fo u r s tu d e n ts appeared to r e la t e d i r e c t l y t o t h e i r in a d eq u a te and immature adjustm ent t o th e s o c i a l and e m o tio n a l requirem ents o f a u n iv e r s it y atm osphere. The3r f e l t no p a r t ic u la r a n x iety or need; r a th e r an u n d i f f e r e n t ia t e d and d if f u s e concern f o r th e m se lv e s and t h e i r w ork. N ot markedly d e f ic ie n t in r e a d in g s k i l l s , th e y w ere ♦ jo in e r s ,* uncom fortable and in e p t , i n t e r e s t e d n o t so much in p r e s t ig e v a lu e s a s in b ein g o c c u p ie d , in t h i s c a s e in a s it u a t io n which o ffe r e d a p o s s i b l e academ ic reward. 6 . In t h i s group w ere th r e e men whose d e c is io n t o tak e the r e a d in g co u rse was f o r ea ch a fu n c tio n o f a b a s ic p e r s o n a lit y m a la d ju stm en t, and who e v e n tu a lly req u ired p sy ch o th era p y a s c l i n i c a l c a s e s . 1 In th is r e p r e s e n t a t iv e sam ple o f v o lu n te e r rem edial s u b j e c t s th e n , l e s s than h a lf th e s tu d e n ts w ere i n a s t a t e o f p sy c h o lo g ic a l r e a d in e s s which would make f o r t h e m ost p r o d u c tiv e and e f f i c i e n t te a c h in g .

I f th e tech n iq u e

200 d evelop ed by Robinson a t Y ale were used to a n a ly ze a group o f students p a r t ic ip a t in g in a com pulsory, n o n -c r e d it rea d in g improvement program, i t would seem l o g i c a l th a t th e p ercen ta g e o f stu d e n ts in a p o sitiv e s t a t e o f treatm en t r e a d in e s s would be even lo w er. Baching com pulsory programs w herever n e c e s s a r y Traxler states th a t . . . a l i t e r a t e p o p u la tio n i s so e s s e n t i a l to th e w e ll­ b ein g o f a democracy th a t i t i s d o u b tfu l w hether a student sh ou ld be f r e e to d e c id e th a t he w i l l co n tin u e to be a backward r e a d e r , px’ovid ed th e s c h o o l has f a c i l i t i e s f o r g iv in g him s p e c ia l h e lp .^ W hile th e r e i s much m e r it in Traxler* s stan d undoubtedly Traxler would a g r ee th a t more w i l l be accom plish ed where th e s tu d e n t ’ s cooperation is e n lis te d .

I h is i s an other argument th en f o r doing m ost o f our reading

improvement work through th e s u b je c t m a tter c l a s s e s where as an in trin sic p a r t o f th e cou rse i t w i l l undoubtedly be accep ted w ith more p o sitiv e f e e l i n g s than so c a lle d rem ed ia l work in a s p e c ia l cou rse or c l in ic . The l a t t e r w i l l alw ays be needed f o r s e v e r e ly reta rd ed readers but most o th e r d is a b le d rea d ers can be h elp ed through th e s u b j e c t m atter teachers. In stru m en ta tio n in th e Improvement o f Reading S in c e our i s an age in which c u lt u r a l developm ent i s measured in p a r t a t l e a s t by m ech an ical p r o g r e s s i t was in e v it a b le that th e m ech a n ica l in flu e n c e sh ou ld ifiake i t s e l f f e l t in r e a d in g . The ophthalm ograph and th e t e le b in o c u la r have a lre a d y been m entioned in th e d is c u s s io n on d ia g n o s is .

1.

T his s e c t io n w i l l

A rthur E . T r a x le r , "A ppraisal o f Techniques o f H elping poor and D isa b le d R eaders in High S c h o o ls and Ju n ior C o lle g e s ," in The A p p r a isa l o f Current P r a c t ic e s in R ead in g. Supplementary E d u c a tio n a l Monographs No. 6 1 , p . 1 4 6 .

201 p r e s e n t b r i e f l y d a ta co n cern in g s e v e r a l "gadgets"vihich have been d e v ise d f o r " c o n tr o lle d ” r e a d in g .

The terra " c o n tr o lle d ” rea d in g i s used t o

d e s c r ib e any method o r system in which th e r e a d e r i s com pelled by some s o r t o f m e ch a n ic a l d e v ic e t o read a t a r a te s e t by t h e m achine. The m etron oscop e was one o f th e f i r s t m achines b u i l t t o improve m ech a n ica l s k i l l s in r e a d in g .

I t u ses a t h r e e - s h u t t e r arrangem ent open­

in g one s h u t t e r a t a tim e and exp osin g o n e -th ir d o f a l i n e o f rea d in g m a tter p r in te d on a lo n g r o l l which unwinds s o th a t o n ly one l i n e o f p r in t i s b ehind t h e s h u t t e r s . from v ery slo w t o v ery f a s t .

The r a t e o f p r e s e n ta t io n may be v a r ie d L ongl and Gerver and Matthews2 b oth

r e p o r t e x p e r im e n ts in w hich s ig n i f i c a n t improvement was made a s a r e s u l t o f p r a c t ic e w ith th e m etron oscop e.

In a survey o f r e s e a r c h T raxler found

t h a t s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s have rep orted improvement in r a t e o f r e a d in g r e s u lt i n g from p r a c t i c e w ith t h e m etronoscope.

However, in none o f th e s e

r e p o r t s was an e q u iv a le n t group g iv e n a d i f f e r e n t ty p e o f t r a in in g so th a t a com parison o f m ethods co u ld be made.

At p r e s e n t th e r e fo r e i t cannot

be shown t h a t t h e m etronoscope i s su p erio r to o th e r unmechanized m ethods o f im proving r a t e o f r e a d in g . On th e n e g a t iv e s id e s e v e r a l c r it ic is m s of th e m etronoscope can be made.

F u ndam entally a s Anderson® p o in ts o u t , t h i s in strum ent i s lim it e d

in th a t i t h a s no c o n tr o l over th o se fa c to r s w h ich u ltim a te ly make f o r good com p reh en sion , i . e . ,

1. 2. 3.

i n t e l l i g e n c e , e x p e r ie n c e , and v o ca b u la r y .

A. L . Long, "Reading a t th e C o lleg e L e v e l,” Ifae Texas O utlook. XXVIII (F eb ru a ry , 1 9 4 4 ), p p . 3 3 -3 5 . F . M. G arver and R . D. M atthews, ”An A n a ly s is o f th e R e s u lts o f Speed D r i l l s w ith th e N etronoscope to In crea se Reading R a t e ,” Jou rn al o f E d u c a tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y . XHC (December, 1 9 3 9 ), p p . 6 9 3 -6 9 8 . I r v in g H. A nderson, "The Ophthalmograph and M etronoscope E valu ated in t h e L ig h t o f Reading R esearch on th e P sych ology o f R eading," T eachers C o lle g e J o u r n a l. X II (January, 1 9 4 1 ), p p . 6 0 -6 3 .

202 H a rr is^ p o in t s t o th e f o llo w in g sh o rtco m in g s in th e metronoscope:

( l) th e

c o n s ta n t speed w ith e x a c t l y th r e e d i v i s i o n s p er l i n e - no f le x ib i l i t y i s p o s s ib le ;

( 2)

one r e a d s a t a d is t a n c e - t h i s i s n o t natural and we cannot

be su r e t h a t t r a n s f e r w i l l ta k e p la c e to rea d in g a t a normal distance; (3)

ea ch l i n e a p p ea rs in th e same p la c e a s th e previous lin e so that the

r e tu r n sweep i s h o r iz o n t a l r a th e r than a t a s la n t a s i t normally would be; (4 ) i f th e in str u m en t i s used w ith a group a l l members of the group_ m ust rea d a t th e same r a t e ;

(5 ) where th e number o f words exposed is

c o n s id e r a b ly l i m i t e d , p e r ip h e r a l v i s i o n cannot operate* •

Dearborn

Q

and h i s a s s o c i a t e s a t Harvard have developed a s e r ie s

o f m otion p i c t u r e f il m s w hich throw a f u l l page on the screen at one time and one p h ra se a f t e r a n o th er s ta n d s o u t b r ig h t ly from the rest of the page.

As in t h e c a s e o f t h e m etronoscope s e v e r a l experiments have been

r e p o r te d in w hich f a v o r a b le r e s u l t s have been a tta in e d with reading film s* W hile b o th th e r e a d in g f il m s and th e m etronoscope can be used on an in d iv i­ d u a liz e d b a s i s , t h e c o s t i s s o p r o h ib i t iv e t h a t u su a lly these instruments a r e u sed w ith groups o f v a r y in g s i z e .

When t h i s i s done, however, one o f

th e c a r d in a l p r i n c i p l e s o f r e m e d ia tio n i s v io l a t e d , that of le ttin g each in d iv id u a l p r o ce ed a t h is own r a te * A t h ir d d e v ic e w h ich ap p roxim ates th e normal reading situ a tio n b e t t e r th an any o f th e " gadgets" p r e v io u s ly m entioned, is a reading rate c o n t r o lle r ® d ev elo p ed f i r s t by B u sw ell^ who c a lle d i t a reading "board."

1, 2* 3. 4,

A lb e r t J . H a r r is , How To I n c r e a s e R eading A b i l i t y , p. 468. W a lte r F . Dearborn and S* V in cen t W ills in g , "Improving the Reading of C o lle g e Freshm en," S ch o o l R eview . XLIX (November, 1941), pp. 668-678. R ead in g R ate C o n t r o lle r . Three D im ension Company, Chicago, I ll in o is . Guy T. B u s w e ll, R em edial R eading a t th e C o lle g e and M u lt L evels. Supplem entary E d u c a tio n a l M onographs, No. 5 0 , pp. 67-68.

203

In B u s w e ll’ s- machine typed or p r in te d m a te r ia l i s arranged in lo n g pages on a f l a t s u r fa c e over which a m etal s h ie ld i s pushed down lo n g it u d in a lly by a sm a ll m otor.

By c o n tr o llin g th e r a te a reader may be fo rced to

a c c e le r a t e h is rea d in g speed .

More r e c e n t ly t h i s machine has been

improved so th a t book m a teria l may be used w ith ou t c u t tin g out th e le a v e s .

Simpson-*- i s r e s p o n sib le f o r the improvement in clu d ed in a new

v e r s io n o f B u sw ell’ s readin g board known a s a ’’reading a c c e l e r a t o r .” The A ir U n iv e r s ity Reading Improvement Program2has rep o rted alm ost phenomenal g a in s as a r e s u lt o f p r a c t ic e w ith th e se m achines f o r t h ir t y h o u rs over a p erio d o f s ix weeks, b ut as in th e p r e v io u s ly m entioned s t u d i e s no c o n tr o l or fo llo w -u p was a ttem p ted . F u r th e st removed from th e normal reading s it u a t io n i s th e k ind o f t a c h is t o s c o p ic tr a in in g which Renshaw^ claim s produces a marked in c r e a s e in read in g comprehension and speed as measured by stan d ard ized te sts.

Renshaw b eg in s w ith numbers o f one or two d i g i t s and g ra d u a lly

adds d i g i t s u n t i l he fo r c e s h is s u b je c ts t o p e r c e iv e and remember u n u su a lly la r g e numbers.

He u ses a m ech a n ica lly operated ta c h is to sc o p e ^

w h ich i s sim ply an exposure d e v ic e by means o f which th e tim e o f exposure can b e c o n t r o lle d .

In h elp in g stu d en ts t o b u ild up v o c a b u la r ie s o f s ig h t

w ords sim p le t a c h is t o s c o p ic d e v ic e s are used such a s th a t developed by D u r r e ll.®

1. 2. 5. 4. 5•

E liz a b e t h A. Simpson, Manual o f Operation f o r th e SRA Reading A c c e le r a to r « The A ir U n iv e r s ity Reading Improvement Program. Montgomery, Alabama: The A ir U n iv e r s ity , Maxwell A ir Force B ase, June 1 9 4 8 . Pp. i i «■ 2 4 . Samuel Renshaw, ”!Qie V isu a l P e rcep tio n and R eproduction o f Forms by T a c h is to s c o p ic M ethods,” Journal o f P sy ch o lo g y , XX (1 9 4 5 ), p p . 2 1 7 -2 3 2 , W. F . Dearborn, ’’The Use of th e T ach istoscop e in D ia g n o stic and Rem edial R ea d in g ,” P s y c h o lo g ic a l Monographs, XLVII, No, 2 (1 9 3 6 ). Donald D. D u r r e ll, D u rrell A n a ly sis o f Reading D i f f i c u l t y .

204

I f one r e a so n s a s d oes Buswe11^ th at a remedial program should be co n cern ed w ith th e p r o c e s s o f

r e a d in g

and not the content

and

th a t

sim p ly to in c r e a s e speed o f r e a d in g i s a worthwhile ob jective, then th e g a d g e ts would seem to be u s e f u l a t l e a s t to some extent.

If on

th e o th e r hand one f e e l s a s D avis^ d oes th a t since perceptual f a c i l i t y has o n ly a m inor in flu e n c e on com prehension

and

instruments such a s th e

m etron oscop e can n ot improve com prehension, then the resu lts to be o b ta in e d w ith g a d g e ts would n o t j u s t i f y the expense and trouble o f u sin g them . S u rv ey s o f R em edial R eading Programs in Colleges W ith due reg ard f o r i t s w eak n esses, research workers s t i l l f in d th e q u e s tio n n a ir e su rv ey an in d isp e n sa b le tool for gathering c u r r e n t in fo r m a tio n .

In th e l a s t t e n y ea rs at le a s t seven surveys

have been made t o d eterm ine th e e x t e n t to which colleges and univer­ s i t i e s have in tr o d u ce d program s o f rem ed ial reading.

A summary o f

t h e i r f in d in g s i s p r e s e n te d in t h i s s e c t io n .

1. 2.

Guy T. B u s w e ll, R em edial R eading a t th e College and M u lt L ev e l. Supplem entary E d u c a tio n a l Monographs, No. 50, p . 65, F r e d e r ic k B . D a v is , "The F a c t o r ia l Composition o f Tw o Tests o f Comprehension in R ead in g," Jo u rn a l o f Educational Psychology, XHCVII (November, 1 9 4 6 ) , p p . 481-4 8 6 .

205 R e p lie s

Per cen t

Date

In v e stig a to r

Type I n s t it u t io n

1948

L in d q u ist’*’

General

634

418

234

56

1946

Walker2

Negro C o lle g e s

102

59

26

44

1944

Ewing

Teachers C o lle g e s

167

103

44

43

1942

T riggs4

General

1528

305

185

61

1941

Charters

General

675

172

106

62

1940

W itty6

General

?

131

41

3-1

1940

Zerga7

C a l if . J r .C o lle g e s

49

22

7

32

3

5

I n q u ir ie s

Reading Programs

S in ce th e study made by L in d q u ist i s th e most r e c e n t and th e most com prehensive from th e p o in t o f view o f q u e stio n s asked and th e number o f i n s t i t u t i o n s rep ortin g in form ation about reading programs, i t w i l l be d isc u s se d here in d e ta il*

L in d q u ist asked a l l o f th e q u estio n s used by

th e o th er in v e s tig a to r s and many more.

He se n t in q u ir ie s to every s t a t e

in th e Union and to i n s t it u t i o n s o f h igh er ed u cation ranging frcan the ju n io r c o lle g e to the u n iv e r s it y .

Of the 234 i n s t i t u t i o n s which r e p lie d

t h a t th ey o ffe r e d a reading improvement s e r v ic e , 165 returned q u estio n ­ n a ir e s which could be ta b u la te d .

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

One o f the r e p o r tin g sch o o ls claim ed

F ran k lin R, L in d q u ist, A Survey o f th e Nature o f th e Reading I n str u c tio n Being Provided C o lleg e S tu d en ts in th e Academic Year 1 9 47-46. George H* Walker, J r . , "Remedial Reading Programs in Negro C o lle g e s and U n iv e r s itie s ," Journal o f Negro E d u cation , XV (January, 1 9 4 6 ), pp. 119-121. A lfr ed M. Ewing, "The Use o f Standardized Reading T ests in Teachers C o lle g e s," E duoational and P s y c h o lo g ic a l Measurement, IV (Autumn, 1 9 4 4 ), p p . 225-231. Frances Oralind T rig g s, "Remedial Reading Programs: Evidence o f Their Development," Journal o f E d u cation al P sych ology. XXXIII (December, 1 9 4 2 ), p p . 678-685. W. W, C harters, "Remedial Reading in C o lle g e ," Journal o f Higher E ducation. XII (March, 1 9 4 1 ), p p . 1 1 7 -1 2 1 . P a u l A. W itty, ^ P ra ctices in C o rrectiv e Reading in C o lle g e s and U niver­ s i t i e s , " School and S o c ie t y . L II (November 30, 1 9 4 0 ), pp. 5 6 4 -5 6 8 . Joseph E. Zerga, "Remedial Reading Programs," Junior C o lleg e Jou rn al. XI (December, 1 9 4 ), p p . 1 9 4 -1 9 5 .

206

t h a t i t s r e a d in g s e r v i c e was e s ta b lish e d as long ago as 1923*

The next

o l d e s t s e r v i c e was o r g a n iz e d in 1928 and a third was s e t up in 1929. The y e a r 1930 saw fo u r more s c h o o ls providing help. came in t o b e in g in 1 9 3 1 , 1 9 3 2 , and 1933, y e a r b rou gh t more new program s. s i x in 1 9 4 7 , and t e n in 1 9 4 8 .

No new programs

From 1934 on, how ever, every

Eighteen were born in 1946, tw entyLindquist reports 1943 as t h e median

y e a r in w h ich s e r v i c e was e s ta b lis h e d in the reporting s c h o o ls . A t a b u la t io n o f th e standardized reading te sts most w id ely used in t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s tu d e n ts f o r reading instruction showed, th e f o llo w in g : Name o f T e s t Iowa S i l e n t H ead in g, Advanced C o o p e ra tiv e E n g lis h , H igher Level N e lso n Denny R eading P r o g r e s s iv e A ch ievem en t, Advanced U n it S c a le s o f A ttain m en t in Reading, Van Wagenen M ich igan V ocab u lary P r o f i l e M in n esota Speed o f H eading fo r College Students O ther t e s t s m ention ed b y on ly one respondent No r e a d in g t e s t s g iv e n T o ta l (Some in s t it u t io n s reporting more than one)

Frequency 88

77 39 12 12 11

19 21 3 282

S in c e i t seem s t o b e standard p ractice to use a t l e a s t one p s y c h o lo g ic a l in stru m en t f o r measuring general a b ility a lo n g w ith the re a d in g t e s t t o i d e n t i f y stu d e n ts o f low reading a b ilit y , Lindquist in q u ir ed c o n c e r n in g s c h o o l p r eferen ces in th is regard.

He found 84

o f t h e 165 r e p o r t in g i n s t i t u t i o n s using the A.C.E. P s y c h o lo g ic a l Examina­ t i o n f o r C o lle g e Freshm en, 21 u sin g the Ohio State U n iv e r sity Psycho­ l o g i c a l T e s t , and 19 u sin g t h e O tis Self-Administering T est o f Mental A b i l i t y , H ig h er E x a m in ation . used by one s c h o o l:

Each of the following t e s t s were being

th e I .E .R , In te llig e n c e Scale CAVD, th e Wechsler-

B e lle v u e I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a le , and the B ell Adjustment In v en to ry .

Six

i n s t i t u t i o n s s a id th ey used n o p sychological t e s t s and 56 d id not answer.

207 L in d q u ist found no agreement on c r i t e r i a f o r s e le c t i n g stu d en ts to r e c e iv e a s s is t a n c e in read in g improvement.

P s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t s and

reading t e s t s are being used f o r t h is purpose both s in g ly and in combina­ t io n ,

C r it ic a l s c o r e s in use range from the th ir d to the e ig h t ie t h

p e r c e n t ile .

A number o f s c h o o ls depend on a d iscrep an cy between th e

read in g score and th e s c h o la s t ic a p titu d e s c o r e .

Ony th ree i n s t i t u ­

t io n s r e p lie d th a t t e s t s were n ot used f o r th e i d e n t if ic a t io n o f stu d en ts— n eed in g help in rea d in g .

In oth er words th e use o f stan d ard ized t e s t s

f o r diagn osin g rea d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s has become alm ost u n iv e r sa l p r a c t ic e . The reading improvement s e r v ic e in c o lle g e s and u n iv e r s ity i s d esign ed p rim a rily t o a s s i s t freshm en though L in d q u ist found t h ir te e n in s t i t u t i o n s p ro v id in g h elp even f o r graduate s tu d e n ts.

The r e s p o n si­

b i l i t y f o r the s e r v ic e g e n e r a lly r e s t s w ith one o f th e fo llo w in g departm ents:

E n g lis h , ed u c a tio n , t e s t in g and c o u n se lin g , or p sy ch o lo g y ,

in th e same order o f p o p u la r ity .

The p erson n el which p rovid es the

s e r v ic e seems to be drawn c h i e f ly from two main s o u r c e s, th e re g u la r tea ch in g f a c u lt y and graduate a s s i s t a n t s .

Of th e 355 p erson s reported

to be spending one or more hours a week in read in g in s t r u c t io n o n ly 13 had r ec eiv ed graduate tr a in in g a s read in g s p e c i a l i s t s .

Most o f the

in d iv id u a ls concerned w ith h elp in g c o lle g e stu d en ts to improve t h e ir rea d in g have had o n ly one or two p r o fe s s io n a l co u rses in read in g.

In

th e sc h o o l year 1947-1948, m oreover, L in d q u ist found on ly t h ir t y p erson s b ein g tra in ed as c o lle g e reading s p e c i a l i s t s in t h ir t e e n d if f e r e n t in s titu tio n s . Approxim ately o n e -th ir d o f the i n s t i t u t io n s p ro v id in g reading improvement s e r v ic e s o f f e r from one to fou r sem ester hours c r e d it , whereas th e o th er tw o -th ir d s o f f e r no c r e d it .

One, two, or th r e e

m eetin gs a week o f one h o u r's d u ration seem t o be th e most popular tim e

208 s c h e d u le s .

The r e a d in g improvement courses in th e variou s in s titu tio n s

in c lu d e d a com b in a tio n o f the a c t iv it ie s lis t e d b elo w . A c tiv ity F req u en t Speed Comprehension D r ills V ocab u lary Improvement Use o f D r i l l Books T ech n iq u es o f How-to-study Bye movement tr a in in g H eading o f S tu d e n ts ’ Textbooks L e c tu r e s I n s t r u c t io n in th e various reading s k i l l s : O u tlin in g Group D is c u s s io n N o tin g th e main idea Skimming A d ju s tin g Reading to Purpose and the M a te r ia l L o c a tin g su p p o rtin g ideas Sum m arizing I n d iv id u a l D ia g n o sis Based on R esults o f S ta n d a rd ized Reading Tests Word M eaning in Context I n d iv id u a l C onferences A ttem p t t o M o tiv a te Outside Reading C r i t i c a l R eading and Interpretation P e r io d ic E v a lu a tio n by Instructor Use o f R eading F ilm s Supplem entary T estin g I n d iv id u a liz e d In stru ctio n Use o f Mimeographed M aterials S tu d e n t K ept Record o f Progress R e t e s t in g a t end o f course Use o f P e r i o d i c a ls and Newspapers M etron oscop e T raining R em edial Grammar Use o f L ib ra ry I n t r o d u c t io n t o Semantics Im proving A b i l i t y tonRetain What Is Read Eye E xam in ation Required S tu d e n t* s sta tem en t of h is problem M ech an ics o f W ritin g O u tsid e P r e p a r a tio n Required I n t e g r a t io n o f Reading, Studying, Note Taking Removal o f V o c a liz a tio n Removal o f R eg ressio n s P r o n u n c ia tio n D r i l l s R em edial M athem atics A ttem p t t o Improve Student's Morale Use o f F la sh c a r d s

Frequency 45 55 25 21 19 17 17 17 14 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 9 9 8 8 7 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

209 L in d q u ist r e p o r ts th a t th e f o llo w in g " tex tb o o k s’* are used in th e c o lle g e read in g c la s s e s in th e freq u en cy in d ic a te d T itle s

Frequency

R obinson, E f f e c t i v e Study L ew is, How to Read B e tte r and F a ste r H a r r is, How to In crea se Reading A b i lit y S tra n g , Problem s in th e Improvement o f Reading C enter and P e rso n s, Problem s in Reading and Thinking W ise e t a l , P ie Meaning in Reading P i t k i n , The A rt o f Rapid Reading B la ir and G erber, B e tte r Reading

38 36 35 33 27 23 18 13

The in c lu s io n o f th e t e x t s by H arris and Strang in th e above l i s t in d ic a te s a co n fu sio n in th e minds o f the resp on d en ts which seems t o have escaped L in d q u ist because he o f f e r s no e x p la n a tio n .

Both books r e fe r r e d t o are

p r o f e s s io n a l works d esign ed f o r th e te a c h e r or p s y c h o lo g is t whereas a l l the o th er p u b lic a tio n s in th e l i s t were in ten ded f o r th e use o f th e in d iv id u a l stu d en t in need o f h elp to improve h is r e a d in g .

Moreover,

the books com piled by Center and P e r so n s , Wise e t a l , and B la ir and Gerber are p r im a r ily a n th o lo g ie s o f p rose to be used f o r p r a c t ic e t o a ch iev e b e t te r read in g com prehension. " B r ill books” rep orted in use in c o lle g e read in g c la s s e s in c lu d e the f o llo w in g : 2 T itle s S tra n g , Study Type o f Reading E x e r c ise s M c C a lliste r , P u rp o sefu l Reading in C o lle g e W ilking and W ebster, A C o lle g e Developm ental Reading Manual T r ig g s , Improve Your Reading P r e s s e y , Manual o f Read in p; Tftra-rci s e s f o r Freshmen B roening, e t a l , Reading f o r S k i l l Howland, e t a l , How to Read in S cie n c e and Technology K e lle y and G reene, B e tte r Reading and Study H a b its S a lis b u r y , B e tte r Work H a b its Crawford, Studying th e Major S u b je c ts

1 & 2.

Frequency 48 43 40 33 28 10 8 8 5 4

Complete b ib lio g r a p h ic a l d ata are g iv e n in th e b ib lio g ra p h y a t th e en d .

210 From t h e r e p o r ts received by Lindquist i t i s also evident th a t w id esp r ea d u se i s made o f p e r io d ic a l lite r a tu r e .

The more popular p u b lic a t io n s a r e

l i s t e d b elow : T itle s R eader*s D ig est, College E dition Time A t la n t ic Monthly S tu d e n tf s own choice Coronet H arpers Newsweek S aturday Evening Post L ife C o llie r s Fortune New R epublic New Yorlcer P u b lic A ffa ir s Pamphlets R eader*s Scope Saturday Review o f Literature P r o f e s s io n a l and Technical Journals Newspapers

Frequency 62 13 10 9 7 7 5 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 16

In s p i t e of th e fa c t that t h e ir purchase p rice i s n o t in c o n s i­ d e r a b le , q u ite a number of instruments a r e being used fo r d ia g n o s is o r r e m e d ia tio n in c o lle g e reading improvement programs, L in q u ist fo u n d , a s shown below : Devioe

freq u en cy

Teiai in o c u la r Ophthalmograph M etronoscope T h eh isto sco p e Audiom eter F la sh m eter M otion P ic tu r e Projector & Films R eading Rate Controller O rth o ra ter M a ssa ch u setts V ision Test F ilm S t r ip s and S lid e s, P rojector

70 54 33 22 13 12 21 17 2 3 10

211 A n a ly sis o f F i f t y Programs Reported in th'e L ite r a tu r e An a n a ly s is by th e w r ite r o f f i f t y s tu d ie s

in read in g improve­

ment rep o rted in the l i t e r a t u r e b ears out many o f L in d q u is t’ s f in d in g s . The s tu d ie s by A b b o t t D a v i s , G a r v e r and M a tth e w s,^ G oldberg,"^ Landry,

McCarty,

and Slem ons,

used h igh sc h o o l s u b j e c t s .

The

study by Redmount*5^ in v olved s u b je c ts ran gin g in age from e ig h t to e ig h te e n y e a r s .

B roxson’ s 10 experim ent and th a t of th e A ir U n iv e r s ity 2

were d esig n ed t o h elp a d u lt s .

A l l th e o th er s t u d ie s d e a lt w ith c o lle g e

stu d e n ts and p rim a r ily w ith freshm en in c o l l e g e s .

*

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

The s tu d ie s a re l i s t e d h ere in a lp h a b e tic a l order and numbered from 1 to 5 0 , In th e en suin g d is c u s s io n o f th e se s t u d ie s , r e fe r e n c e s w i l l be c it e d by g iv in g th e au th or and th e number from th e l i s t of 50. E . C arlton A b b ott, " R ela tio n sh ip between V a r ia tio n s in S ile n t Reading A b i l i t y and M ental A b i l i t y ," Journal o f E d u cation al R esearch , XXXIX (December, 1 9 4 8 ), pp . 3 1 4 -3 1 6 . The A ir U n iv e r s ity Reading Improvment Program, Montgomery Alabama: Hie A ir U n iv e r s it y , Maxwell A ir Force B ase, June, 1948. Pp. i i ♦ 24. R. 3 . Ammons and A. N. Hieronymus, " C r itic a l E v a lu a tio n o f a C o lle g e Program fo r Reading Improvement," Journ al o f E d u cation al P sy ch o lo g y , XXXVIII (December, 1 9 4 7 ), p p. 4 4 9 -4 7 0 . Robert M. B ear, "The Dartmouth Program f o r D ia g n o stic and Remedial Reading w ith S p e c ia l R eferen ce t o V isu a l F a c to r s," E d u cation al Record, Supplement No. 1 2 , XX (January, 1 9 3 9 ), p p . 6 9 -8 8 , Harold W. Bernard, "An Experim ent in Vocabulary B u ild in g ," S ch ool and S o c i e t y . L III (June 7 , 1 9 4 1 ), pp. 742-743. M abelle B. B lake and W alter F . Dearborn, "The Improvement o f Reading H a b its," Jou rn al o f H igher E d u ca tio n . VI (February, 1 9 3 5 ), p p . 8 3 -0 8 . E lden A. Bond, "The Y ale-H arvard Freshmen Speed Reading Experim ent," S ch o o l and S o c i e t y . LIV (August 1 6 , 1 9 4 1 ), pp. 1 0 7 -1 1 1 . Emma L . Bowyer, "Remedial Reading At Southern I l l i n o i s Normal U n iv e r s ity ," S ch ool and S o c ie t y . LI (A p r il 6 , 1 9 4 0 ), p p. 460-461. James I . Brown, "What About A C o lle g e Reading Course?!," S ch ool and S o c ie t y , LXVII (May 2 2 , 1 9 4 8 ), pp. 387?-390. John A, B roxson, "Teaching A d u lts t o Read," Peabody Journal o f E d u cation , 3QC (November, 1 9 4 2 ), p p . 1 6 6 -1 7 2 . Leone M. B u r f ie ld , "Remedial Reading in th e C o lle g e ," in C lin ic a l S tu d ie s in Reading I , Supplem entary E du cational Monographs, N o. 68, pp. 4 1 -5 9 . ~

212 In p r a c tic a lly a l l th e s tu d ie s analyzed f r e e r e a d in g on t h e p a r t o f the students was e ith e r encouraged or not c o n t r o lle d .

Much

v a r ia t io n is found in the amount o f tin e devoted to r e a d in g im prove­ ment work under supervision.

Hie follow in g time a llo tm e n ts w ere

found: 12 hours and le ss

12

14 t o 18 hours

7

20 t o 30 hours

13

More than 30 hours Other plans

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

18. 19. 20. 21.

5 13

(S tu d ies: 4 ,1 :3 ,1 6 ,1 7 ,3 0 ,3 1 ,3 5 ,3 8 ,4 2 ,4 5 ,4 8 ,5 0 ) (S tu d ies: 7 ,1 4 ,1 5 ,3 9 ,4 0 ,4 4 ,4 9 ) (S tu d ie s : 2 ,3 ,6 ,8 ,1 2 ,1 8 ,2 2 ,2 4 ,2 9 ,3 2 ,3 3 ,4 6 ,4 7 ) (S tu d ies: 10,11,26,28,43) (S tu d ies: 1 ,5 ,9 ,1 9 ,2 0 ,2 1 ,2 5 ,2 5 ,2 7 ,3 4 , 36 , 3 7 ,4 1 )

G. T, Buswell, Remedial Reading at the C ollege and A d u lt L e v e ls : An Experimental Study. Supplementary E d ucational M onographs, No, 50, pp, x ♦ 72. H. C, Davis, "Improving Reading A b ility o f High S c h o o l S e n io r s ," Califo r n ia Journal o f S econdary Education. X II (November, 1 9 3 7 ) , pp. 424-429. Roy W, Deal, "The Development o f Reading and Study H a b its i n C o lle g e Students," Journal o f E ducational Psychology. XXV ( A p r il, 1 9 3 4 ) , pp, 258-273. Walter F . Dearborn and S , V in cen t WiIking, "Improving th e R eading of College Freshmen," S ch o o l Review. XLIX (November, 1 9 4 1 ) , pp. 668-678, Digna, S iste r M., "An In te g r a te d Program o f Rem edial R e a d in g ," Journal of Higher E d u ca tio n . XIII (A pril, 1 9 4 2 ) , p p . 2 0 9 -2 1 1 . F , M. Garver and R. D. M atthews, "An A nalysis o f th e R e s u lt s o f Speed D r ills with th e Metronoscope to In c rea se R eading R a te ," Journal o f Educational P sych ology. XXX (December, 1 9 3 9 ) , pp. 695-698. J . R. Gerborich, "Five Y ears o f Experience w ith a R em edial R ead in g Course fo r College S tu d e n ts," Journal o f E xp erim en tal E d u c a tio n . I l l (September, 1934), p p . 36-41. Murray A. Goldberg, "Can Reading A b ility Be Improved More E f f e c t i v e l y Through Wide Reading or In ten siv e D r ill," H igh P o i n t s . XXVIII (February, 1946), pp. 2 1 -2 7 . Harry Goldstein and Joseph Justman, "A Classroom Approach t o th e Improvement o f Reading R ate o f College S tu d e n ts," J o u r n a l o f Educational Psychology. X2IXIII (October, 1 9 4 2 ), p p . 5 0 6 -5 1 6 . William S . Gray, "Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s in C o lle g e ," J o u r n a l o f Higher Education. V II (O ctober, 1936), pp. 3 5 6 -3 6 2 .

213 Only Ammons and Hieronymus3 and T y ier4 ^ in d ic a te d in t h e ir r e p o r ts t h a t th e rea d in g improvement cou rse was o ffe r e d f o r c r e d i t . In m ost in s ta n c e s t h e o th er w r ite r s s p e c if ie d th a t th e work was o ffe r e d on a v o lu n ta r y , n o n -c r e d it b a s i s . and Dearborn

6

and Bowyer,

Q

In th e s tu d ie s by Blake

however, stu d en t atten d an ce was com pulsory.

Of f o r t y - t h r e e s tu d ie s r e p o r tin g in fo n u a tio n on stan d ard ized read in g t e s t s used f o r measurement p u rp o ses, some form o f the Iowa S i l e n t Reading T est was used in tw en ty -sev e n .

The Nelson-Denny t e s t

was used in s ix s tu d ie s and th e TS/hipple t e s t in fo u r .

Other t e s t s

m entioned were th e fo llo w in g :

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

W. S . G uilder and J . H. Coleman, "Reading a t th e C o lle g e L e v e l," Jou rn al o f t h e American A s s o c ia tio n o f C o lle g ia te R e g is tr a r s , XVTI (O ctober, 1 9 4 1 ), pp. 1 6 -2 7 . H erbert A. Landry, "Teaching Reading w ith th e R eader's D ig e s t," E n g lis h J o u r n a l. XXXII (June, 1 9 4 3 ), pp. 320-324. Alvah R. Lauer, "An E xperim ental Study o f th e Improvement o f Reading by C o lle g e S tu d e n ts," Journ al o f E d u cation al P sy ch o lo g y , XXVII (December, 1 9 3 6 ), p p . 655-662. — —— — —— E liz a b e th K. Lawson, "Reading Comprehension Among C o lle g e S t u d e n t s ,” Journal o f E xperim ental E d u ca tio n . V III (Septem ber, 1 9 3 9 ), p p . 1 0 3 -1 0 9 . A. L . Long, "Reading a t th e C o lleg e L e v e l," The Texas O utlook, XXVIII (February, 1 9 4 4 ), pp. 3 3 -3 5 . James M. M c C a llis te r , " C ollege I n s tr u c tio n in R eading," P h i D elta Kappan. XXIV (A p r il, 1 9 4 2 ), p p. 3 1 1 -3 1 3 . P e a r l Sands McCarty, " In crea sin g Comprehension in S i l e n t R eading," S ch o o l R eview. XXXIX (December, 1 9 3 1 ), p p. 7B8--766. Mary MeGann, "Improving th e S ch o la rsh ip o f C o lleg e Freshmen w ith Rem edial Reading I n s t r u c tio n ," Jou rn al o f E d u ca tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y , XXXIX (March, 1 9 4 8 ), pp. 1 8 3 -1 8 6 . E a rl J . McGrath, "The Three-Year P la n ," Journ al o f H ighrE ducation, I I (June, 1 9 3 1 ), pp. 2 8 3 -2 8 8 . H erbert Moore, "D iagnosing and Caring f o r th e Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s o f C o lle g e Freshmen," Journal o f P sy c h o lo g y . I (1 9 3 6 ), p p. 139-1 4 3 . Frank W. P a r r , "Teaching C o lle g e S tu d en ts How t o Read," Journal o f H igher E d u ca tio n . I I (June, 1 9 3 1 ), p p . 324-3 3 0 . Douglas F . P a r ry , "Reading Gains in a Freshman Remedial Program a t S yracu se U n iv e r s ity ," Jou rnal o f E d u ca tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y . XXII (November, 1 9 4 1 ), p p . 624-6 3 0 .

214

Blommers Rate o f Comprehension Michigan Speed o f Reading Cooperative Reading Comprehension - C2 - H ig h er L e v e l Van Wagenen Dvorak Rate of Comprehension S. L. P ressey T e st o f Reading Speed and Com prehension Thorndike I n t e llig e n c e - Part III Minnesota Speed o f Reading for C o lleg e S tu d e n ts Ohio S tate P s y c h o lo g ic a l - Part I I I TraxLer High S ch o o l Reading Traxler S ile n t Reading S ch olastic A p titu d e Test, Verbal S e c t io n , ( C .E .E .B ,) Purdue Reading Shrammel-Groy High School and C ollege R eading Cooperative R eading Comprehension - Lower L e v e l Harvard Reading Course Tests Mount Holyoke Reading Test In g lis Test o f E n g lis h Vocabulary 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46.

L. T. Phearman and H. M, S ilv e y , "Remedial R ea d in g P a id D iv id e n d s ," Midland S c h o o ls . LXIV (October, 1 9 4 9 ), p p . 3 1 - 3 2 . L. C, Pressey and S . L. P ressey, "T raining C o lle g e Freshm en t o R ead," Journal o f E d u cation al Research. XXI (March, 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 2 0 3 - 2 1 1 . R. S . Redmount, "D escription and E v a lu a tio n o f a C o r r e c tiv e Program fo r Reading D is a b ilit y ," Journal o f E d u c a tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y . XXXDC (O ctober, 1948), pp. 347-358. H. H. Remmers and J . M. Stalnaker, "An E xp erim en t in R em ed ial R eading Exercises a t th e C ollege Level." S ch o o l and S o c i e t y . XXVIII (December 2 2 , 1 9 2 8 ), pp. 797-800. F. P . Robinson, "Can College Freshmen in th e Low est T enth in R ead in g Be Aided S c h o la stic a lly ? " School and S o c i e t y . XXXIV (December 1 9 , 1931), pp. 8 4 3 -8 4 6 . Maurine V. R ogers, "Phonic A b ility As R e la te d t o C e r ta in A s p e c ts o f Reading a t t h e C ollege Level," J o u rn a l o f E x p e r im e n ta l Ed n e a t i o n , VI (June, 1 9 3 8 ), p p . 381-395. William Sheldon, "An Evaluation of An E x p e r im e n ta l R ead in g Program fo r Medical S tu d e n ts," Journal o f E d u c a tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y . XXXTy (May, 1948), p p . 298-303. Robert G. Simpson, "The Reading Laboratory A s A S e r v ic e U n it i n C ollege," S ch o o l and S o ciety . LV (May 3 0 , 1 9 4 2 ) , p p . 6 2 1 - 6 2 3 . Agnes Slemona, "Reading A b ility o f H igh S c h o o l S t u d e n t s ," E n g lis h Journal. XXI ( A p r il, 1932), pp. 2 9 9 -3 0 2 . N ila B. Smith, "Remedial Instru ction in R eading w ith C o lle g e Freshm en," Indiana U n iv e r s ity School of Education B u l l e t i n , XV (D ecem ber, 1938), pp. 1 - 3 5 . James R. S tew art, "A Remedial Reading Program ," J o u r n a l o f H igh er Eduoation. XV (February, 1944), p p . 8 3 - 8 5 . William H. Thompson, "An Experiment in R em edial R e a d in g ," S c h o o l and S o ciety . XXOV (August 1,1931), pp. 1 5 6 -1 5 8 . Henry T. Tyler, "Remedial Reading in th e J u n io r C o l le g e ," J u n io r College J o u rn a l. IV (Ootober, 1 9 3 3 ), p p . 2 8 - 3 1 .

215 The fo llo w in g books were used e it h e r to gu id e readin g improve­ ment or f o r p r a c t ic e purposes in th e programs an alyzed in t h i s i n v e s t i ­ g a tio n (numbers in p a r e n th e sis r e fe r to p a r t ic u la r s tu d ie s in th e l i s t of f if t y ) : Workbooks^* W ilking & W ebster, A C o lleg e Developm ental Manual (3 ,1 5 ) P r e ss e y , A Manual o f Reading E x e r c ise s f o r Freshmen (4 ,4 5 ,4 6 ,4 8 ) S a lis b u r y . B e tte r Work H abits in C o lleg e (4 .6 ) Center and P e r so n s, Problems in Reading & Thinking (10) H ovious, F ollow in g P r in ted T r a ils (19) S tran g, Study Type o f Reading E x e r c ise s (2 0 ,2 5 ,2 9 * 4 4 ,4 9 ) M a llery , How t o E nlarge & Improve Your Vocabulary (29) B e l l a f i o r e , Words a t Work (29) H art, The Mark Hart Vocabulary B u ild er (29) McCall and Crabb, Standard T est L essons in Reading (2 9 ,4 2 ) Moore, Reading and Study A ids (31) Perry & W h itlock , S e le c t io n s f o r Improving Speed o f Comprehension (34) Crawford’ s , Technique o f Study (37) B en n ett, C o lle g e and L if e (4j P it k in , The A rt o f Rapid Reading (6) Of the f i f t y programs d escrib ed in th e l i t e r a t u r e , e le v e n rep orted th e use o f instrum ents t o e f f e c t read ing improvement.

The instrum ents and

the programs making use o f them are in d ic a te d below . Reading Rate C o n tr o lle r (2 ,1 1 ) T aeh isto seo p e ( 2 ,4 ,4 8 ) Harvard Film s ( 3 7 ,7 ,1 2 ,1 5 ,4 9 ) M etronoscope (4 ,1 7 ,2 6 )

1. 47.

48. 49. 50.

For b ib lio g r a p h ic a l data c o n su lt th e b ib lio g ra p h y a t th e end. P . W. W atts, " A p p lication o f C lin ic a l D ia g n o stic Techniques in th e Classroom S itu a tio n f o r th e Improvement o f Reading a t th e C ollege L e v e l," Journal o f E d u cation al R esearch. XLII (March, 1 9 4 9 ), p p . 51 3 -5 2 4 . C. 0 . Weber, "Remedial Reading w ith C o lleg e Freshmen," Journal o f Higher E d u cation . IX (November, 1 9 3 8 ), pp. 4 5 3-454. John R. W itten b om , " C lasses in Remedial Reading and Study H a b its," Journal o f E d u cation al R esearch. XXXVII (A p r il, 1 9 4 4 ), p p . 571-586. F lo ren ce K. Z elen y, "Remedial I n s tr u c tio n in Reading a t th e Freshman L ev el in a Teachers C o lle g e ," E d ucation al A d m in istration and S u p e r v isio n . XVIII (November, 1 9 3 2 ), p p . 607-620#

216 Other m aterials and m ethods u sed by v a r io u s c o l l e g e s in t h e ir reading c o u r se s or c lin ic s in clu d e t h e f o ll o w i n g : L it e r a t u r e , h istory, government t e x t s ( 7 , 2 8 ) Textbook m a teria l, u n s p e c ifie d ( 8 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 5 3 , 4 9 ) C o lle g e assignments (44) Mimeographed manual (35) P r a c t ic e e x e r c ise s, unpublished ( 1 1 ,1 8 , 2 2 ,2 4 ) Newspapers (28) R ead er's D igest (1 0 ,1 3 ,2 3 ,4 0 ) Saturday Evening Post (40) New Yorker (40) M agazin es, unspecified (28) Case stu d y - s e lf a n a ly sis (47) Textbooks and Workbooks The f a c t reported by L in d q u is t and p r e v i o u s l y m en tion ed h e r e , that only 13 in d iv id u a ls out o f 355 w ork in g w it h c o l l e g e s tu d e n t s t o help them improve th eir reading, had r e c e iv e d g r a d u a te t r a i n i n g in reading, h ig h lig h t s the need f o r v a r io u s a id s i n d ia g n o s is and r e m e d ia tio n as w e ll a3 in th e psychology and p edagogy o f r e a d in g .

B r ie f l i s t s o f t e x t ­

books and workbooks which have b e e n fou n d u s e f u l b y s tu d e n t s and te a c h e r s were rep o rted by L indquist.

In su r v ey in g th e l i t e r a t u r e t h e w r it e r so u g h t

the op in ion o f ex p erts on t h is s u b j e c t and fo u n d t h a t th e y in tu rn u s u a lly sought th e o p in io n of teachers and c l i n i c i a n s .

A number o f f a i r l y com pre-

hensive l i s t s were discovered in t h i s way w hich a r e rep rod u ced in th e ensuing p a g e s .

Complete b ib lio g r a p h ic a l d a ta on a l l p u b lic a t io n s in c lu d e d

in th ese l i s t s may be found in th e b ib lio g r a p h y . The 58 reading improvement s e r v i c e s i n v a r io u s p a r t s o f th e United S t a t e s , which returned q u e s t io n n a ir e s in t h e K op el-G eerd es^ su rvey made in 1940 mentioned the fo llo w in g t e n p r o f e s s i o n a l books m ost o f t e n as

1.

David K opel and Harold G eerdes, "A S u r v e y o f C l i n i c a l P r o c e d u r e s in t h e D ia g n o sis and Treatment o f P oor R e a d in g ,” J o u r n a l o f E d u ca tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y . XfflCV (January, 1 9 4 4 ) , p p . 1 - 1 6 .

217 being h e lp fu l in d iagn osin g or tr e a tin g co ses of read in g d i s a b i l i t y . The boolcs are l i s t e d and ranked according to frequency of m ention. Rank 1 2 .5 2 .5 4 5 7 .5 7 .5 7 .5 7 .5 10 Simpson

Author

T it le 1

Gates Monroe, Bacchus B e tts Monroe W itty and Kopel Harris Dolch H ild reth M cC allister Kirk

The Improvement of Reading Remedial Reading P reven tion and C orrection of Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s Children Who Cannot Read Reading and the E ducative Process How to.Im prove Reading A b ility A Manual fo r Remedial Reading Learning the Three R*s Remedial and C orrective In str u c tio n in Reading Teaching Reading to Slow-Learning Children

p

asked teach ers and a d m in istrators in th ree simmer sch ool c la s s e s

a t th e U n iv e r sity o f Alabama and Columbia U n iv ersity to l i s t th e p r o fe s ­ s io n a l books on reading which they had found most valu ab le exp erim en tally. The twenty most freq u en tly mentioned books are l i s t e d below in rank order. Rank

Author

1 2 3 4

D u rrell H arris Kirk Strang

5 6 7 8 9, 10 11 12 13 14 15

1. 2.

3.

T it le 3

Improvement o f B asic Reading A b i l i t i e s How To Increase Reading A b ility Teaching Reading to Slow Learning Children Problems in the Improvement o f Reading in High School and C ollege Hovious S u g g estio n s fo r Teachers o f Reading in Grades 7 to 12 Cole The Improvement o f Reading Gates The Improvement o f Reading M cC a llister Remedial and C o rrectiv e I n str u c tio n in Reading W itty and Kopel Reading and th e E ducative P rocess H arrison Reading Readiness B e tts The P rev en tio n and C orrection o f Reading D i f f i c u l t ie s H ild reth and Wri^ifc H elping C hildren t o Read Smith One Hundred Ways t o Teach S ile n t Reading Dolch A Manual f o r Remedial Reading Gray Reading in General Education

A ll th e t i t l e s in t h is l i s t are included in the b ib lio g ra p h y . Ray H, Simpson, "Reading Problems o f Teachers and A dm inistrators and Books Found Most Valuable in M eeting These Problem s," E d u cation al A dm inistration and S u p erv isio n . XXVIII (October, 1 9 4 2 ), p p . 520-528. All. the t i t l e s in t h is l i s t are included in th e b ib lio g ra p h y .

218

Rank 16 1? 18 19 >30

T itle

Author La Brant & H eller R u ssell, Karp, and K elly Adler Bessey Patterson

R eading A id s Through th e Grades How To Read A Bools: R eading f o r U n d ersta n d in g T each in g th e C h ild t o Read

Rated h ig h ly in Sumner o f 1942 Gans G uiding C h i l d r e n s R eading Through E xp erien ces Bond & Bond D ev elo p m en ta l R ead in g in High School Traxler^ su g g ests t h a t th e b o o k s ,2 l i s t e d below , prepared f o r th e u se o f secondary school p u p i l s , may b e em ployed in rea d in g co u rses w ith c o l l e g e freshmen. Center and Persons: P roblem s i n R eading and Thinking H art: IWelve Ways to B u ild a V ocab u lary Hovious: Following P r in te d T r a ils Knight and T raxler: Read and Comprehend McCall, Cook, and N o r v e ll: E xp erim en ts in R eading P itk in , Newton, and Lang ham: L ea r n in g How t o Learn Roberts and Rand: L e ts Read, Book IV Steadman: Vocabulary B u ild in g Strang: Study Type o f R eading E x e r c is e s He a l s o recommends the use o f th e b e t t e r c u r r e n t m agazines such as th e R e a d e r ^ D ig est, and th e f o llo w in g workbooks d e s ig n e d f o r c o lle g e freshm en: Pressey: A Manual o f R ead in g E x e r c is e s f o r C o lle g e Freshmen Triggs: Improve Your R ead in g McCullough: C o lleg e R ead in g S k i l l s Salisbury: B etter Work H a b its in C o lle g e Group V ersu s I n d iv id u a l I n s t r u c t io n Should reading improvement work be done in s p e c i a l co u rses o r c l a s s e s on a group b a sis or s h o u ld i t be done in a c l i n i c on an in d iv id u a l b a s is ?

1. 2. 3.

Of 119 in s t itu t io n s w h ich an sw ered t h i s q u e stio n i n th e L in d q u is t3

Arthur E. Traxler, The N a tu re and Use o f R ead in g T e s t s , p . 60, Included in b ib lio g ra p h y , L in d q u ist, 0£ . o i t . , p , 1 8 ,

219

su r v ey , 101 in d ic a te d th a t 'they used a s p e c ia l course w h ile o n ly 18 rep o rted t h a t they provided a s s is t a n c e on an in d iv id u a l b a s i s .

In

h is survey o f te a ch er s c o l le g e s , Ewing-*- found th a t o f 44 i n s t i t u t i o n s o f fe r in g a rea d in g improvement s e r v i c e 20 had s p e c ia l read in g c la s s e s 11 had read in g c l i n i c s only 15 had both c l i n i c and s p e c ia l c la s s 13 used s p e c ia l s e c tio n s o f o th er c o u r s e s. Blake and Dearborn** s a id in 193 5 , "lie are c o n fid e n t t h a t rem ed ial work must be p r im a r ily i n d i v id u a l ." Robinson3 ag rees because he f e e l s th a t "a person who i s s t i l l a poor read er when he rea ch es c o lle g e has f a i l e d to respond t o group methods o f in s t r u c t io n and so must have h is in d iv i­ dual d i f f i c u l t i e s a n a ly sed and t r e a t e d ."

The c h ie f argument advanced by

th o se who fa v o r in d iv id u a l treatm en t can be summed up in the,w ord s o f B en n ett4 t h a t " i t m ight alm ost be argued th a t each in d iv id u a l ca se o f rea d in g r e ta r d a tio n i s a law in to i t s e l f . "

In a c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is o f

th e r u n - o f - t h e - m ill rem edial rea d in g program Stewart® fin d s th a t methods and m a te r ia ls a re used which do n o t p ro v id e ad eq u a tely f o r d if f e r e n t i a t i o n o f program to f i t in d iv id u a l n e e d s.

M echanical d e v ic e s such a s f ilm pro­

j e c t o r s and th e m etronoscope when used w ith a group fo r c e a l l th e stu d e n ts in th e group to move a t th e same r a t e .

S im ila r ly th e " c a tc h -a ll" workbook

in i t s "shot-gun" approach i s an yth in g bu t in d iv id u a liz e d .

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Ewing, 0£ . c i t . . p p . 2 2 5 -2 3 1 . M abelle B. Blake and W alter F . Dearborn, "The Improvement o f Reading H a b its ," J o u rn a l o f H igher E d u cation . VI (February, 1 9 3 5 ), pp. 8 3 -8 8 . F r a n c is P . R obinson, "Can C o lle g e Freshman in th e Lowest Tenth in Reading Be Aided S c h o la s t ic a lly ? " Sohool and S o c ie t y . XOCIV C hester C. B e n n e tt, An In q u iry In to The G en esis o f Poor R eading, p . 109. James R. S tew a rt, "A Remedial Reading Program," Jou rn al o f Higher E d u ca tio n . XV (February, 1 9 4 4 ), pp. 8 3 -8 5 ,

220 Wilking^- d is a g r e e s w ith t h i s v ie w p o in t, how ever, and m a in ta in s that reading d i s a b i l i t y s t e r e o t y p e s e x i s t nnd can w e ll be trea ted , in groups.

N inety p er c e n t o f c o l l e g e s tu d e n ts who are reta rd ed in read ­

ing f a l l in to one c a te g o r y o r a n o th e r , W ilk in g f e e l s .

T rea tin g them in

groups i8 time s a v in g and e c o n o m ic a l, b u t more im p ortan t, i f p r o p e r ly handled i t has t h e r a p e u tic v a lu e n o t p o s s ib l e from in d iv id u a l work. Traxler holds th e same p o in t o f view as W ilk in g .

He s t a t e s t h a t

• . . Some r a d i c a l r e a d in g c a s e s e x p e r ie n c e su ch ex cep ­ tio n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t th e y m ust be r e f e r r e d to a reading c l i n i c and a few a r e so abnormal e m o tio n a lly that th e y need t h e a t t e n t i o n o f a p s y c h i a t r i s t , but by far th e l a r g e s t number o f r e ta r d e d rea d ers e v in c e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t a r e s im ila r t o t h o s e ex p erien ced by normal r e a d e r s , b ut a r e sim p ly more s e v e r e . Over­ whelming e v id e n c e h a s b een accum ulated w ith in th e la s t dozen y e a r s t o show t h a t th e problem s o f rem ed ial reading w i l l y i e l d t o s k i l l f u l classroom t e a c h in g . There w i l l a lw a y s be a n eed f o r th e ex p ert methods employed by some r e a d in g s p e c i a l i s t s in in t e n s iv e remedial t e a c h in g , b u t a t l e a s t n in e t y p er c e n t of the burden o f r e m e d ia l t e a c h in g i n th e secon d ary sch ools o f A m erica m ust be borne by members o f th e regular te a c h in g s t a f f , w orking under c o n d itio n s sim ila r t o t h o s e o f t h e c l a s s r o o m . 2 The tim e h as come t o a p p ly a t th e c o l l e g e l e v e l , T r a x le r ’ s think* ing concerning r e a d in g im provem ent in t h e h igh s c h o o l. was f i r s t sta te d in C hapter I

T his p o in t o f v iew

i n c o n n e c tio n w ith a d is c u s s io n o f t h e need

for th is study and, in p a r t i c u l a r , r e f e r e n c e was made to a sta te m e n t by Strang concerning a h ig h s c h o o l d ev elo p m e n ta l program .

I t i s th e p o in t

of view which sh o u ld a p p ly t o e v e r y p h ase o f r e a d in g w ith due r e g a r d , o f course, to the v a r y in g n eed 3 a t d i f f e r e n t d evelop m en tal and e d u c a tio n a l le v e ls .

Gray d i s t i n g u i s h e s f i v e im p ortan t s t a g e s o f developm ent in rea d ­

ing as we p o in ted o u t in th e s e c t i o n on t h e Teaching o f R ead ing.

1, 2.

T his

S. Vincent W ilk in s, "The Improvement o f Reading A b i l i t y in C o l l e g e ,” E ducation, LXII (S ep tem b er, 1 9 4 1 ), p p . 2 7 -3 1 . Arthur E. T r a x le r , "Problem s o f Group R em edial Reading in th e Secondary S ch o o l,” H igh P o i n t s . XX (D ecem ber, 1 9 3 8 ), p p . 5 -1 8 .

221 c h r o n o lo g ic a l and develop m ental program c a l l s f o r ex ten d in g read in g e x p e rien ce r a p id ly and a c q u ir in g in c r e a se d power, e f f i c i e n c y , and e x c e lle n c e on th e p a r t o f s tu a e n ts by th e end o f th e s ix t h grade and t h e r e a f t e r from ju n io r h igh sch o o l through ju n io r c o lle g e to fu n c tio n a t "the s ta g e a t which read in g i n t e r e s t s , h a b it s , and t a s t e s are r e f in e d ."

In o th e r words in th e p a st we have tak en i t fo r gran ted th a t

c h ild r e n w i l l have m astered th e b a s ic read in g s k i l l s during th e f i r s t s i x grades and t h a t , t h e r e a f t e r , w ith o u t to o much e f f o r t on th e p art o f th e s c h o o l, stu d e n ts would j u s t n a t u r a lly d evelop the a b i l i t y to ap p ly th e se s k i l l s to th e many and v a r ie d ty p e s o f s it u a t io n s to be encountered a t th e upper e d u c a tio n a l l e v e l s and in o u t - o f - s c h o o l s it u a ­ t io n s in th e y e a r s ahead.

We know from e x p e r ie n c e , now, th a t many

stu d e n ts who do n o t la c k th e c a p a c ity n e v e r t h e le s s f a i l to adhere to t h i s sc h e d u le f o r a number o f r e a s o n s .

We a ls o know from ex p erien ce

th a t even i f th e b a s ic rea d in g s k i l l s are w e ll e s t a b lis h e d , t h e ir a p p lic a tio n to fu tu r e rea d in g s it u a t io n s , most o f w hich w i l l p re se n t new problem s, has n o t become autom atic nor w i l l i t u n t i l s tu d e n ts have used th e s k i l l s throughout th e le n g th y gamut o f s p e c ia liz e d read in g m a te r ia ls p re se n te d to them in th e p r o c e ss o f form al e d u c a tio n .

For

th o se s tu d e n ts who go on to c o l l e g e , t h e r e f o r e , t h is means th a t the te a c h in g o f read in g s u it e d to t h e ir n eed s should go on r ig h t through th e c o lle g e y e a r s in ev ery cou rse th ey ta k e . E v a lu a tio n in Reading How e f f e c t i v e a r e c o lle g e rea d in g improvement programs?

Gray

has p o in ted ou t th a t one o f th e e s s e n t i a l elem en ts o f any sound program i s th e con tin u ou s a p p r a is a l o f i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s . m ost in s ta n c e s i s test-im p rovem en t p r o g r a m -r e te st.

The form ula

used in

Any in c r e a s e in

222 score a t th e end i s u s u a lly a s c r ib e d t o th e improvement program.

W h ile,

on the s u r fa c e , t h i s may seem to be a s e n s ib le enough p roced u re, i t i s anything b u t sound, a s Ammons and Hieronymus-*- p o in t o u t.

In some

instances th e t e s t 3 b ear no r e la t io n s h ip to th e su b je c t m atter or o b je ctiv es o f th e improvement program .

Though th e t e s t - r e t e s t form ula

without a c o n t r o l i s th e m ost p op u lar tech n iq u e fo r e v a lu a tin g rea d in g programs, o n ly in r a r e c a s e s i s any a llo w a n ce made f o r p r a c t ic e e f f e c t , or gains to be ex p e c te d from s c h o o l atten d a n ce or m atu ration .

S everal

examples o f g a in s on t e s t s in in s t a n c e s where th ere has been no rem ed ia l work can be c it e d from among th e f i f t y s t u d ie s p r e v io u sly d is c u s s e d . One of th e Dearborn and W ilk in g c o n t r o l groups f o r in s t a n c e , showed a gain from th e 1 4 th t o th e 3 9 th p e r c e n t ile on a speed o f rea d in g t e s t . G lad felter found s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t read in g g a in s f o r "untreated" freshmen from Septem ber t o Ju n e.

Webar’ s matched c o n tr o l group on

delayed r e t e s t i n g showed in one c a se alm ost two th ir d s th e g a in o f th e experim ental group.

I t i s n o t sound, t h e r e f o r e , f o r an in v e s t ig a t o r

to simply s u b tr a c t p r e - t e s t s c o r e s from p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s and cla im th e d ifferen ce a s g a in due to r e a d in g improvement e x e r c is e s b ecau se one might norm ally f in d a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t change from p r e - t e s t to p o s t - t e s t due t o f a c t o r s o th e r th an th o se in h eren t in th e experim en­ t a l s it u a t io n . In order t o make a more v a lid e v a lu a tio n th e u su a l procedure is to in tro d u ce th e c o n v e n tio n a l c o n t r o l group tvhich has had e x p e r ie n c e s sim ilar to th o s e o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l group in a l l r e s p e c ts o th e r than the experim ental f a c t o r w it h th e same tim e f a c t o r s in v o lv e d in t e s t i n g .

1.

R. B. Ammons and A . M. H ieronym us, " C r itic a l E v a lu a tio n o f a C o lla g e Program f o r R eading Improvement," Jou rn al of E d u ca tio n a l P sych o­ lo g y . XXXVIII (D ecem ber, 1 9 4 7 ), pp. 4 4 9 -4 7 0 .

1

333

To make a t e s t o f th e e f f e c t o f th e ex p erim en ta l s i t u a t i o n , then, the i n v e s t ig a t o r f in d s th e d if f e r e n c e between perform ance b e fo r e treatment and a f t e r trea tm en t w ith p r a c t ic e e f f e c t , m aturation and growth, e t c ., added in .

T his i s done by ta k in g th e d i f f e r e n c e , n o t between p r e -te st

and p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s f o r th e same group , but by s tu d y in g th e differen ce betw een c o n tr o l and ex p erim en ta l groups on th e p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s .

Since

th e p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s are th e ones used f o r b oth th e c o n tr o l and experi- m en tal g ro u p s, th e e f f e c t o f o th er v a r ia b le s i s more l i k e l y to be equated. The c o n t r o l group p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s become th e ex p erim en ta l group pre­ t e s t sco res. To u se a c o n tr o l group in an experim ent and then confine the measurement o f outcom es sim p ly t o a w ith in -g r o u p s check from p r e -te st to p o s t - t e s t , w ith o u t comparing th e ex p erim en ta l group w ith the control group on p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s a s Lawson-*- d id , i s t o d e f e a t th e r e a l purpose f o r u sin g a c o n tr o l group .

This in v e s t ig a t o r c a r r ie d ou t a lim ited

program o f rea d in g improvement throughout one sem ester in se v e r a l college c l a s s e s in e d u c a tio n a l p sy c h o lo g y in c lu d in g 172 s tu d e n ts*

Of t h is to ta l

84 s tu d e n t s were exposed to a program d e sig n e d to improve t h e ir reading w h ile th e rem ain in g 88 were n o t .

Of the 84 s tu d e n ts who took th e remedial

t r a in in g 50 were d e s ig n a te d a s an ex p erim en ta l group and matched with an eq u a l number

o f s tu d e n ts who took no t r a in in g from th e group o f 88.

rem aining 34

s tu d e n ts in th e rem ed ia l group were d e sig n a te d as a semi-

ex p e r im e n ta l

group w h ile th e rem ainder o f th e n on -rem ed ial group was

The

d e s ig n a te d a s a s e m i-c o n tr o l grou p .^

1. 2.

E. K. Lawson, "Reading Comprehension Among C o lle g e S tu d en ts," Journal o f E xp erim en tal E d u c a tio n . V III (Septem ber, 1 9 3 9 ), pp. 103-109, L oc. c i t .

224

As a r e s u l t o f h er experim ent Lawson concluded th a t S i l e n t rea d in g com prehension can be improved by t r a in ­ in g d u rin g one sem ester in con n ection w ith a co u rse in E d u c a tio n a l P sy c h o lo g y . This f a c t has been d em on strated by a comparison o f i n i t i a l and r e - t e s t s c o r e s on th e Iowa S i l e n t Reading T est and by a com parison o f r e s u l t s from i n i t i a l and r e - t e s t s a d m in is te r e d t o an E xperim ental Group w ith th e r e s u l t s from t e s t i n g a Control Group.^ How sh e can draw t h i s c o n c lu sio n i s d i f f i c u l t t o s e e b ecau se (1 ) th e Iowa t e s t was n o t a d m in istere d a t any tim e to any o f th e s tu d e n ts in e i t h e r o f th e c o n t r o l g rou p s; (2) th e E xperim ental group and th e S em i-ex p er im en ta l group were n ot

matched; : ( 3 ) th e o n ly s t a t i s t i c s

shown by Lawson a r e alw ays a comparison o f mean s c o r e s w ith in a p a r t i ­ c u la r group from p r e - t e s t t o p o s t - t e s t .

These d a ta f o r th e E xp erim en tal

and th e C o n tr o l Group on th e th ree t e s t s used a t th e b eg in n in g and th e end a r e shown b e lo w . (E x p erim en ta l - N ■ 50, C ontrol N = 50) Group E xp erim en ta l C o n tro l

P r e ^ te st 4 3 .9 6 4 6 .4 0

P o st-tsst

D if fe r e n c e

Henmon-Nelson T est 45.667 1 .7 0 4 6 .5 6 .1 6

»§g£?Sci£t

B ifife r e n c e s 9 6 /1 0 0 5 5 /1 0 0

W hipple H igh S ch o o l and C o lleg e R eading T est 1 1 .4 2 1 2 .1 4 .7 2 9 6/100 E x p erim en tal C o n tro l 1 1 .1 0 1 1 .5 8 .4 8 5 7 /1 0 0 E xp erim en tal C o n tro l

8 9 .0 4 8 8 .0 6

I n g lis h Vocabulary T est 100 .8 2 1 1 .7 8 101.98 1 3 .9 2

1 0 0 /1 0 0 1 0 0 /1 0 0

From t h e s e d a t a , i t w ould appear th a t as betw een th e E xp erim en tal Group and th e C o n tr o l Group on th e p o s t - t e s t s th e r e was a d if f e r e n c e in v o ca b u la r y in f a v o r o f th e C on trol Group, and a d if f e r e n c e on th e

1.

L oc. c i t .

"Whipple t e s t in fa v o r o f th e E xperim en tal Group o f on ly .34 raw score p o in t s I

In h er stu d y Lawson f a i l e d to make th e most important check

in a t e s t - p r a c t i c e - r e t e s t exp erim ent in v o lv in g a co n tro l group, that o f comparing th e ex p e rim en ta l w ith th e c o n t r o l group on the p o st-test sco res. P e te r s and VanVoorhis s t a t e th a t in a d d itio n to using a control group and comparing perform ance between th e experim ental and the control—group on th e p o s t - t e s t , i t i s a ls o " h igh ly d e s ir a b le to have one or more d ela y ed measurements in ord er to a s c e r t a in how w e ll th e d ifferen tia l advan tage p e r s is t s ." * -

A ttem pts t o m easure how -well reading s k ills hold

a fte r

a p er io d o f p r a c t ic e in read in g are th e ex cep tio n rather than the

r u le ,

how ever.

Of th e f i f t y s t u d ie s a n alyzed by the writer only four

ou t o f th e t h ir t y - f o u r r e p o r tin g e v a lu a t iv e d a ta , checked the status o f r e a d in g s k i l l s a f t e r a p e r io d o f no p r a c t ic e . B obinson

O

review ed r e p o r t o f a la r g e number o f investigations

in v o lv in g rem ed ia l rea d in g co u r se s and found o n ly a very small percentage o f programs which had attem p ted any kin d o f e v a lu a tio n other than the u su a l r e t e s t and a com parison o f group g a in s , l e s s than a dozen out of n e a r ly one hundred s t u d i e s . • • • why i s i t t h a t rea d in g e x p e r ts have bypassed what i s seem in g ly a prim ary c r i t e r i o n f o r th e evalu ation of rem ed ia l in s t r u c t io n ? Academic perform ance i s clearly th e s in e qua non f o r th e v a l id a t io n o f rem edial courses, p a r t ic u l a r l y in l i b e r a l a r t s c u r r ic u la where by far the la r g e s t p o r t io n o f th e s c h o l a s t ic agenda comprises r ea d in g or r e la t e d a c t i v i t i e s . And in th e f in a l a n a ly s is rem ed ia l in s t r u c t io n must n e c e s s a r ily stand or f a l l on th e b a s is o f t h i s s in g le c r it e r i o n , however in g e n io u s ly a l t e r n a t iv e stan d ard s o f comparison are d efended.®

1. 2.

C h arles C. P e t e r s and W alter R. VanVoorhis, S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures and T h eir M ath em atical B a s e s , p . 4 5 1 . H. A . R obinson, "Note on th e E v a lu a tio n o f C ollege Remedial Reading C ou rses," J o u rn a l o f E d u ca tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y . XLI (February, 1950), p p . 8 3 -9 6 .

226 In s p e c u la tin g about th e reasons which have le d rem ed ia l te a c h e r s to "avoid m eetin g th e is s u e s q u a r e ly ," Robinson sa y s • . • I t may be th a t in s t r u c t o r s are h e s it a n t in t h e i r own c o n v ic t io n s th a t a classroom le a r n in g ex p e r ie n c e o f l e s s , g e n e r a lly , than tw e n ty - fiv e c l a s s hours can have an o b se rv a b le e f f e c t upon o v e r a ll academ ic p e r ­ form an ce, and so beg th e is s u e by em phasizing sim p le g a in s in rea d in g speed , in c r e a s e rep o rted in o u tsid e o r non-academ ic read in g, and th e l i k e . T h is, in f a c t , i s an o s t r i c h - l i k e b eh avior which has had an in e v it a b ly unwholesome e f f e c t upon th e developm ent o f w orth w h ile rem ed ia l te c h n iq u e s. W hile some o f Robinson’ s o b se r v a tio n s are w e ll ta k en , i t i s n o t to be supposed th a t a c le a r cu t m easure o f academ ic perform ance i s r e a d ily a v a ila b le .

The y a r d s tic k th a t Robinson recommends i s

o v e r a l l g r a d e -p o in t average or th e g r a d e -p o in t average in th e v e r b a l a r e a s o f s tu d y .

However, R obinson, as w e ll as o th er w r it e r s , must be

aware o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y and th e weakness o f t h i s p roced u re.

Grades

are n e i t h e r a v a l i d nor r e li a b le c r it e r io n b ecause o f th e extran eou s elem e n ts w hich in flu e n c e an in s t r u c t o r in a s s ig n in g g r a d e s.

A c tu a lly

a b e t t e r c r i t e r i o n would be sta n d a rd ized achievem ent t e s t s in th e s u b je c t-m a tte r a r e a s covered, i f th e achievem ent t e s t s a r e c a r e f u ll y chosen t o m easure th e o b j e c tiv e s o f th e p a r t ic u la r c o n te n t a rea s in v o lv e d .

However, in t h e t y p ic a l s c h o o l s it u a t io n i t i s ex trem ely

d i f f i c u l t o r im p o s sib le to o b ta in th e s e data* R obinson p o in t s out th a t i t i s th e u su a l e x p e r ie n c e in group rea d in g i n s t r u c t io n th a t marked and s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t g a in s in re a d in g sp eed do o ccu r a f t e r t r a in in g , w hatever m ethods o r tech n iq u e s are a p p lie d .

1.

He a ffir m s th a t "the core o f th e ch a llen g e" i s th e

I b i d . , p* 84*

227 improvement o f r e a d in g com prehension and th e development of basic o r g a n iz a t io n a l s k i l l s , com plex a b i l i t i e s *^more closely related to b a s ic i n t e l l e c t u a l endowment th an th e a b i l i t y to read rapidly; a c c o r d in g ly , th e y a r e more d i f f i c u l t to revamp R obinson s e r i o u s l y doubts t h a t sc o r e s on many reading t e s t s a r e a v a lid m easure o f th e c o m p le x ity o f reading s k i lls which a c o lle g e s tu d e n t n eed s f o r a s u c c e s s f u l academ ic adjustment."

He f e e ls th a t

t h i s ty p e o f a p p r a is a l a c t u a l l y "does no more than demonstrate th a t r e m e d ia l te c h n iq u e s may e f f e c t a p p r e c ia b le g a in s in *reading t e s t p erfo rm a n ce* ."

A lon g t h i s l i n e Murphy and D avis2 report seme "shenani­

gans" w hich ou gh t t o b e v ery d is t u r b in g to reading s p e c ia lis ts who r e l y c o m p le te ly on th e r e - t e s t te c h n iq u e o f evalu ation .

To id e n tify

p u p ils in n eed o f rem ed ia l in s t r u c t io n in reading, a l l of the tenth and e le v e n t h grad e p u p i l s in two h ig h s c h o o ls in a southern c ity w ere t e s t e d w ith Form B o f th e N elson-D enny Reading Test. was g iv e n and s c o r e d e x a c t ly a s d ir e c t e d in th e manual.

The t e s t Out of 393

p u p ils t e s t e d t h e 47 h avin g th e lo w e s t t o t a l scores were selected f o r r e m e d ia l w ork.

The mean s c o r e o f t h e s e 47 pupils on the f i r s t

t e s t i n g was o n ly 2 5 .5 3 , w hich co rresp o n d s t o a grade score of 6 .9 . A f t e r a p e r io d o f r e m e d ia l work (which w ill be described p r e s e n t ly ) t h i s group o f 47 p u p il s was t e s t e d with Foira A of the N e ls o n Denny R eading T e s t .

T h eir mean s c o r e s a fte r the remedial

t r a i n i n g was 4 6 .3 2 w hich co rresp o n d s to a grade score of 9 .6 .

In

o th e r w ord s, t h e a v er a g e g a in in r e a d in g f o r th ese 47 pupils was

1. 2.

I b id ., p . 6 4 . H. D. Murphy and F . B . D a v is , "Note on th e Measurement of Progress in R em edial R e a d in g ," Peabody Jou rn al o f Education. 2XVTI (S ep tem b er, 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 1 0 8 -1 1 1 .

228 2 .7 g ra d e s, a very s i g n i f i c a n t g a in by any c r i t e r i o n .

Now what was

th e rem ed ial work th a t pz'oduced such remarkable improvement? . . . I t was a ten -m in u te pep t a lk and d is c u s s io n o f how to make good sc o r e s on th e Nelson-Denny Reading T e s t. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , th e stu d e n ts were t o ld th a t th ey had n ot done very w e ll on th e f i r s t read in g t e s t and th a t we f e l t sure they could do b e t t e r i f g iv en another chance. We p o in ted ou t th a t same o f them had worked so slo w ly on th e f i r s t t e s t in g th a t they had no r e a l op p ortu n ity t o g e t good s c o r e s . " B ie r e fo r e ," we a d v ise d , ’ work a s r a p id ly a s you can; be su re to make an answer t o every item, even i f you don’ t think you know th e a n sw er.’ -*Murphy and D avis go on t o e x p la in th a t by r e s c o r in g both t e s t and c o r r e c tin g fo r chance through th e co n v en tio n a l form ula on f iv e - c h o ic e ite m s - R-W/4 - p r a c t ic a lly a l l o f t h e g a in made by th e 47 p u p ils d is a p p e a r s .

As a r e s u lt o f t h e ir experim ent th e s e in v e s t ig a t o r s

f e e l th a t The d ata p resen ted p ro v id e no b a s i s f o r conclud in g th a t m ost o f th e g a in s reported in th e li t e r a t u r e a s a r e s u lt o f rem ed ial work in read in g are as il l u s o r y a s th o se ob tain ed by n a iv e in te r p r e ta t io n o f our d a ta , but th e ev id en ce le a d s one to in f e r th a t such i s th e c a s e . T his d oes n o t mean th a t rem ed ial work i s n o t w orth w h ile, i t sim ply su g g e sts th a t genuine improvement can on ly come as a r e s u lt o f a lo n g -c o n tin u e d , w e ll con ceived program o f rem edial in s t r u c t io n ,^ In d is c u s s in g stan d ard ized read in g t e s t s r e c e n t ly Bear s a id • • . U n fortu n ately read in g t e s t s do n o t measure same o f th e ways th a t stu d en ts have been h elp e d , or need t o be h e lp e d , but they can be used to check th o se a s p e c ts o f rea d in g shown to be d e f ic i e n t on i n i t i a l t e s t . * 5

1. 2. 3.

I b id . . p . 1 0 9 . I b id . . p . 111. R. M. Bear, "O rganization o f C o lleg e Reading Program s,” E d u cation , I2X (May, 1 9 5 0 ), p p . 5 7 5 -5 8 1 .

229 In summary, i t may b e s a id t h a t standardized reading t e s t s have d e f in it e l i m i t a t i o n s a s m ea su rin g in stru m en ts fo r evaluation p u rp oses.

I t is

e q u a lly tr u e t h a t th e y y i e l d in form ation which cannot be secu red with­ o u t them , w h ich seem s t o be more s ig n if ic a n t and more r e a d ily ob tain able th an in fo r m a tio n r e s u l t i n g from techniques which are much more tim e consum ing and cumbersome and o f t e n com pletely unusable.

*t i s e a s y

t o c r i t i c i z e s ta n d a r d iz e d t e s t s , but very d if f ic u lt to su g g est more c o n s t r u c t iv e ways o f e v a lu a t in g read in g improvement.

It is b e tte r

f o r many r e s e a r c h w orkers t o be u sin g methods which are n ot q u ite p e r f e c t th a n t o d i s c u s s a t h e o r e t i c a l l y superior method which p r a c ­ t i c a l l y no one can u se in an a c t u a l s itu a tio n . In s i t u a t i o n s w here i t i s n ot possib le or expedient t o s e t up a c o n t r o l g ro u p , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t f a ir ly v a lid conclusions co u ld s t i l l be drawn a s lo n g a s th e p reca u tio n i s taken to guard a g a in s t con­ s id e r in g s m a ll g a in s s i g n i f i c a n t .

Where reading gains are reco rd ed ,

a f t e r a y e a r o r l e s s o f r e a d in g improvement p ra ctice, which are sev era l tim e s th e norm al e x p e c t a n c y f o r a p a rtic u la r grade le v e l, c e r t a i n l y a l l th e change c a n n o t be a t t r i b u t e d t o chance or to normal developm ental fa c to r s.

W h ile t h i s te c h n iq u e can be used in informal s it u a t io n s where

a more p r e c i s e e v a lu a t io n i s n o t req u ired , there is a method o f evalua­ t i o n w ith o u t th e u se o f t h e c o n v e n tio n a l control group which in v o lv e s " th e same fu n d a m en ta l p r i n c i p l e s and c a lls fo r the same s t a t i s t i c a l te c h n iq u e s a s t r u e e x p e r im e n ts •"

A short description of t h i s method

by P e t e r s and V anVoorhis i s o f f e r e d h ere.

230

. . . w h ile i t i s c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f exp erim en tation in th e s t r i c t sen se to have p u rp osive m an ip u lation o f th e f a c to r s involved in the experim ent so as t o make them c o n tr ib u te w ith maximum c le a r n e s s and economy toward t h e answers to th e s p e c if ic q u e stio n s we want answ ered, i t i s sometimes f e a s ib le t o fin d in n atu re ongoings th a t so n e a r ly con­ form to what we want th a t we may u t i l i z e them w ith ou t fu rth er m an ip u lation . Here s e le c t io n may r e p la c e c o n tr o l . . . The e d u c a t io n a lis t d e a lin g w ith sch o o l c h ild r e n i s able w ith in l i m i t s to s e t up h is environm ent to s u i t th e needs o f h is research , but even he can o f te n c o n tro l h is f a c t o r s on ly in p a rt and sometimes n o t a t a l l . Under such lim it a t io n s th e s o c i o l o g i s t may seek s e t s o f people who happen to d i f f e r from each o th er in the p a r tic u la r r e s p e c t he w ish e s to in v e s t ig a t e w h ile being a l i k e in a l l o th e r e s s e n t i a l ways and may use t h i s c o n tr a st as a s e t t in g in w hich t o study th e e f f e c t o f th e d if f e r e n t ia t in g f a c t o r . In th e same manner th e econ om ist, th e p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t , th e e d u c a t io n a lis t , or even th e b i o l o g i s t , may ta k e advantage o f c o n tr a s ts th a t th e normal p r o g r e ss o f ev en ts rath er than h i s own m an ip u lation has s e t up. Or the resea rch worker may r e c o n s tr u c t such c o n tr a s ts from r eco rd s, thus having a s o r t o f r e t r o a c t iv e e x p e r i­ ment. Comparisons which depend th u s upon s e le c t io n ra th er than upon c o n tr o l proceed under a heavy handi­ cap, but they in v o lv e th e same fundamental. p r in c ip le s and c a l l f o r th e same s t a t i s t i c a l tech n iq u es as tru e experim ents#^ In some ways and in some a reas th e ty p e o f s e l e c t i v e e v a lu a tio n d escrib ed by P e te r s and VanVoorhis may even have advantages over th e b e s t c o n tr o l group p a tte r n .

Reading s p e c i a l i s t s th in k th a t t h i s h old s tru e

in th e ev a lu a tio n o f programs o f rea d in g improvement.

At p resen t th e

more formal s tu d ie s employ th e c o n v en tio n a l c o n t r o l group and e v a lu a tio n seldom in clu d es more th an a comparison o f mean g a in s in comprehension and r a te o f read in g a s between th e exp erim en tal group and the c o n tr o l group.

In t h ir t y - fo u r o f th e f i f t y programs an alyzed in t h i s chapter

in form ation concerning th e method o f e v a lu a tio n was in c lu d e d .

1.

Only

C harles C, P e ter s and W alter R. VanVoorhis, S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures and Their M athem atical B a se s, pp. 445-446#

231 in th r e e o f t h e s e studies'*" was anything more than th e usual comparison in mean g a i n s a tte m p te d .

The big weakness in e v a lu a tin g reading

improvement on th e b a s is o f a comparison in mean g a in s is the fa c t p o in te d o u t by Mcc a l l i s t e r 2 that "mean sco res, no m atter how in te r e s t­ in g o r how s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i c a l l y do not r e v e a l t h e progress of in d iv id u a ls .” In t h e s t u d ie s analyzed where con trols w ere used, the groups w ere m atched in v a r io u s ways.

Some in v e stig a to r s u sed the matched-

p a i r s t e c h n iq u e . and o th e r s used groups whose means and standard devia­ t i o n s w ere com p arab le.

Some investigators matched on the basis o f an

i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t , some on the b asis of a reading t e s t , others used b o th an i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t and a reading t e s t , w h ile one or two in v e s t i­ g a t o r s t r i e d t o c o n t r o l one or more variables in a d d itio n to i n t e l l i ­ g en ce and r e a d in g a b i l i t y .

The most important f a c t o r to control

b etw een t h e two groups according to Peters and VanVoorhis i s the " c a p a c ity t o resp on d to th e stimulus in which th e experim ental fa cto r c o n s is t s ." ®

1.

S. 3.

They make th e follow in g suggestions:

E . C a r lto n A b b o tt, "Relationship between V a r ia tio n s in S ile n t Reading A b i l i t y and M ental A b ilit y ,” Journal o f E d u cation al Research. XXXIX (Decem ber, 1945), pp. 314-316. R . B . Ammons and A . N. Hieronymus, " C ritical E valu ation of a C ollege Program f o r Reading Improvement,” Journal o f Educational P s y c h o lo g y . 2DQC7III (December, 1947), pp. 4 4 9 -4 7 0 . E . P . R o b in so n , ”Can C ollege Freshmen in th e Low est Tenth in R ead in g Be A ided S c h o la s t ic a lly ,” School and S o c ie ty . 2QCIV (Decem ber 1 9 , 1 9 3 1 ), pp. 843-846. Jam es M. M c C a llis t e r , "College Instruction in R ead in g,” Phi D elta Kappan. XXIV ( A p r il, 1942), pp. 311-313. Charles C. P e t e r s and Walter R. VanVoorhis, S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures and T h eir M athem atical B ases. pp. 448-450.

232 1 . I f th e fu n c tio n t o be lea rn ed i s new to th e in d iv id u a ls so th a t no m easures o f p r e v io u s attain m en t are f e a s i b l e , and i f no o th er m easures th a t are known to c o r r e la te more h ig h ly w ith th e fu n c tio n are in s ig h t , match on the b a s is o f one or more i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , 2 . I f th e p erso n s are somewhat alon g on th e curve o f le a r n in g , match on th e b a s is o f good o b j e c tiv e m easures o f p r e s e n t s t a t u s in th e fu n c tio n to be experim ented upon, P e te r s and VanVoorhis p o in t out th a t p r e se n t achievem ent i s l i k e l y t o be h ig h ly p r e d ic t iv e o f le a r n in g a b i l i t y in th e t r a i t in q u e s tio n , T riggs2 and Strang® have in d ic a te d th e unusual d i f f i c u l t y o f matching and c o n t r o llin g in i*eading in v e s t ig a t io n s .

S in ce th e r e i s no

g en era l agreement on th e b a s ic elem en ts in v o lv ed in th e read ing p r o c e s s , i t i s p o s s ib le th a t some read in g t e s t sc o r e s w hich are used f o r match­ ing are n o t m easures o f rea d in g a t a l l .

A n a ly sis o f some read in g t e s t s

has shown th a t a number o f th e s e t e s t s have a heavy lo a d in g in th e word-knowledge f a c t o r and th a t t h i s i s a ls o tru e in th e ca se o f a number of in te llig e n c e t e s t s .

I t i s e n t ir e l y p o s s ib l e , t h e r e fo r e , th a t in some

in sta n c e s where both i n t e l l i g e n c e and read in g t e s t s are used f o r match­ ing th a t th e e lim in a tio n o f one or th e o th er t e s t would a f f e c t th e s e le c t io n o f in d iv id u a ls on ly s l i g h t l y .

M oreover, rea d in g , accord in g

to many o f th e e x p e r t s , i s such a complex p ro c e ss th a t i t e l i c i t s th e in te r a c tio n o f th e t o t a l in d iv id u a l w i t h ii s environment in an ongoing stream o f a c t i v i t y which may change from one moment to th e n e x t .

There­

f o r e , when an in v e s t ig a t o r s t a t e s th a t groups have been matched on a number o f f a c t o r s in a d d itio n to rea d in g , t h is sounds very im p r e ssiv e .

1, 2, 3,

I b id . , p , 4 5 0 , Frances O ralind T r ig g s, "Current Problems in Remedial Reading f o r C o lleg e S tu d e n ts," S ch o o l and S o c ie t y . L III (March 22, 1 9 4 1 ), p p . 3 7 6 -3 7 9 , Ruth S tran g, " D iagn osis and R em ed ia tio n ,” Chapter IX in Reading and G eneral E d u cation , e d ite d by W illiam S , Gray, pp. 3 5 0 -3 5 1 .

233 Academic y e a r i s sometimes used as an a d d itio n a l control a s i s chrono­ lo g ic a l age.

When one stops to con sid er some of tlie eviden ce r e p o r te d

in Chapter I concerning the wide range o f reading a b ility a t any one grade l e v e l or a t any chronological a g e, i t i s evident th a t th e s e c r i t e r i a add very l i t t l e that is s ig n i f i c a n t to the homogeneity o f our g r o u p s. Because of the d i f f i c u l t i e s in matching and c o n t r o llin g , S tra n g and T riggs suggest that much more i s to be gained in rea d in g i f th e s e l e c t i v e type of research d escrib e d by Peters and VanVoorhis i s undertaken rather than controlled experim entation.

Strang a p t ly

sum m arizes th e argument for th is v iew p o in t when she says Experim ents follow ing the b e st c o n tr o l group p attern may have value in comparing c e r t a in complex outcomes w ith c e r ta in complex procedures. On the other hand, th e d i f f i c u l t y in co n tro llin g v a r ia b le s makes the a ttem p t t o study sin g le procedures by the control group method rather discouraging. Group experiments have alread y shown that average g a in s or lo s s e s do n o t adequately describe the s it u a t i o n . In every group th e r e are some in d iv id u a ls who make large g a in s , some who remain p r a c t ic a lly sta tio n a ry , and some who lo s e on the t e s t s , when th e remedial pro­ ced u re has been the same for a l l . In such experi­ m ents th e sig n ific a n t inform ation i s obviously not th e average change in score o f th e group but the r e a so n s fo r the individual g a in s and lo s s e s . A cco rd in g ly , the most valuab le kind o f research in t h i s area would be in ten sive stu d y o f individuals who have been exposed to a g iv e n rem edial treatm ent.1 M ajor C o n trib u tio n s of Research in Reading Only a few months ago, in rev iew in g and sy n th esiz in g th e f in d i n g s o f t h e thousands o f in vestigation s in r e a d in g , Gray concluded t h a t se v e n m ajor c o n tr ib u tio n s had been made, thus f a r , by research in r e a d in g .

1.

S tr a n g ,

o j j ,.

c i t . . pp. 350-351.

234

I t has boen e s ta b lis h e d , he s t a t e d , th a t 1* 2. 3. 4# 5. 6. 7.

Reading has broad d im en sion s. I t embraces a wide v a r ie t y o f complex a c t i v i t i e s t h a t d i f f e r in s ig n i f i c a n t r e s p e c t s . There are many common elem ents in th e se d iv erse read in g a c t i v i t i e s . The s tu d e n t's p resen t achievem ent i n read in g i s in flu e n c e d by many personal f a c t o r s . Progress in read in g p a r a lle ls c l o s e ly a s tu d e n t's t o t a l developm ent. The s t r a t e g ic g o a ls in te a c h in g read ing change as stu d en ts m ature. The methods o f te a c h in g used should be ad ju sted to th e ends sought and to th e unique ch a ra cter­ i s t i c s o f th e lea rn er

The c o n tr ib u tio n s l i s t e d by Gray have wide im p lic a tio n s fo r a l l l e v e l s o f ed u ca tio n in c lu d in g th e c o lle g e and u n iv e r s it y l e v e l .

In Chapters I I

and I I I a comprehensive review o f reading in v e s t ig a t io n s co v erin g a l l a reas and a l l l e v e l s o f read in g has been p resen ted to support t h is p rem ise.

Most o f th e in form ation in clu d ed in th e s e two chapters i s

a v a ila b le , o f co u rse, in th e hundreds o f so u rces which have been in t e r ­ p re te d and e v a lu a te d .

S in ce th e t y p ic a l c o lle g e educator alread y i s

overburdened by such d u tie s as te a c h in g , d ir e c t in g stu d en t r e se a r c h , and c a r r y in g on p erso n a l resea rch not to m ention such a d d itio n a l r e s p o n si­ b i l i t i e s as f a c u lt y and i n s t i t u t i o n a l government, stu d en t c o u n s e lin g , and th e s u p e r v is io n o f stu d en t a c t i v i t i e s , i t i s to o much to ex p ect th a t he w i l l c o n s u lt th e very numerous o r ig in a l sources and c a p i t a li z e on th e fin d in g s r e p o r te d .

In Chapters I I and I I I , t h e r e fo r e , a s e l e c t i v e

review o f r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s tu d ie s in th e f i e l d o f read in g has been p ro v id ed .

1.

I t i s hoped t h a t , in exam ining th e o r ig in a l research concerned

W. S . Gray, ’’Im p lic a tio n s o f Research f o r th e Improvement o f R ea d in g ,” E d u cation , LXX (May, 1 9 5 0 ), pp. 539-547.

235

w ith r e a d in g in s tr u c tio n a t th e c o lle g e l e v e l which is r e p o r te d i n t h e c h a p te r s which follow , they w ill p ause long enough on C h a p te rs I I and I I I to r e a l i z e th a t the development and. improvement o f r e a d in g s k i l l s m ust be one o f th e ir primary a im s .

237 gained from an exam ination o f t h e ir performance on th e A.C.E. Psycho­ l o g i c a l Exam ination.

For th e l a s t th ree y ea rs th e mean sco re o f

en ter in g freshmen a t S t . F ran cis C ollege has been ju s t under the median in th e rank order l i s t o f gross sco re means rep orted by th e American C ouncil on E d u cation .

The mean f o r th e September 1949 c la s s

on th e 1947 e d it io n , fo r in sta n c e , was 1 0 3 .5 0 .

In th e rank order l i s t

o f g ro ss sco r e means rep orted f o r 293 i n s t i t u t io n s in th e 1947 norm b o o k l e t t h e in s t i t u t i o n a c h iev in g a g r o ss sc o r e mean o f 103.50 was number 1 5 4 .

I t may be s a id , th e r e fo r e , th a t t h is i n s t i t u t i o n , or

S t . F r a n c is , surpassed n e a r ly 50 per cen t o f the i n s t it u t io n s rep o rt­ in g t o th e American Council on Education — 4 7 .4 per cen t to be e x a c t. I t i s in e v ita b le th a t in any la r g e group o f stu d en ts a wide range o f a b i l i t y w i l l be found in s p it e o f th e screen in g a c t i v i t i e s o f ad m ission s o f f i c e r s .

A t. S t . F r a n c is , th e s c o r e s o f e n te r in g stu d en ts

h a v eAranged g e n e r a lly from th e 5 th to th e 99th p e r c e n t ile .

The a c tu a l

range fo r th e September, 1949, c la s s was from one extreme to th e o th er, from the 1 s t to th e 99th p e r c e n t ile .

I t may be concluded from t h i s

d is c u s s io n th a t stu d en ts were adm itted to S t . F ra n cis C o lleg e in Septem­ b e r , 1 9 4 9 , who were r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f ev ery s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y l e v e l measured by th e A .C .E . P s y c h o lo g ic a l Exam ination in American h igh er e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s from th e lo w est to the h ig h e s t, but th a t the m a jo rity o f th ese stu d e n ts were a t or j u s t below th e m iddle range of s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y f o r American c o lle g e s tu d e n ts .

1.

L. L. Thurstone andT. G. Ih u rston e, P s y c h o lo g ic a l Examination f o r C o lleg e Freshmen-1947 Nonas. American C ouncil on E ducation, 1948.

235

w ith reading in s tru c tio n a t t h e c o lle g e le v e l w hich i s r e p o r t e d i n th e c h ap ters which fo llo w , th e y w i l l pause long enough on C h a p te r s I I and I I I to re a liz e th a t th e developm ent and improvement o f r e a d i n g s k i l l s must he one of t h e i r p rim a ry aims#

CHAPTER IV

PROCEDURE IN COLLECTING DATA In t h is Chapter, the experim ent u sin g th e s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g tech n iq u e o f doing read in g improvement w i l l be d escrib e d in d e t a i l . The experim ent was r e a l l y th e f i r s t ste p in an e f f o r t t o e s t a b lis h a read in g improvement program in th e i n s t i t u t i o n where the w r ite r i s em­ p loyed as D ire cto r o f Guidance,

The s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g tech n iq u e was

h i t upon because i t re q u ir e s no s p e c ia lly tr a in e d p erson n el f o r i t s a d m in is tr a tio n , and because th e n e g lig ib le expenses f o r p r a c tic e e x e r ­ c i s e s cou ld be borne by th e stu d en ts th us making no d rain w hatsoever on i n s t i t u t i o n a l fu n d s. The s u b je c ts o f th e experim ent are d escrib e d below and each o f th e m a te r ia ls used is d isc u s se d in terms o f r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y . The o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e experim ent i s g iv en in d e t a il and th e procedure used i s d e scr ib e d ste p by s t e p .

On page 280 th e d e sig n o f th e experim ent

i s ch a rted t o provide an o v e r a ll p ic tu r e o f th e p r o j e c t . S u b jects o f th e Experiment The s u b je c ts o f t h i s experim ent were th e stu d e n ts in th e bottom h a lf o f th e Septem ber, 1949, e n te r in g c la s s o f 104 stu d en ts at S t . Francis C o lleg e i n B rooklyn, a r ts c o lle g e f o r men. 670 s tu d e n ts .

S t , Francis i s a church r e la t e d , fo u r -y e a r , l i b e r a l I t s en rollm ent fo r th e 1949-1950 sc h o o l year was

Some id e a as to th e c a lib e r o f S t . Francis stu d en ts can be

237 gained from an exam ination, of th e i r perform ance on t h e A .C .E . P sy c h o ­ lo g ic a l Examination.

F o r th e l a s t th re e y e a r s t h e mean s c o r e o f

entering freshmen a t S t . F ra n c is College h a s b een j u s t u n d e r t h e median in the rank o rd er1 l i s t of gross s c o re m eans r e p o r t e d by t h e American Council on E d u c a tio n .

The mean f o r t h e S e p te m b e r 1949 c l a s s

on th e 1947 e d itio n , f o r in s ta n c e , was 1 0 3 .5 0 .

In th e ra n k o rd e r l i s t

of gross score means r e p o r te d f o r 293 i n s t i t u t i o n s in t h e 1947 norm booklet,^ th e i n s t i t u t i o n achieving a g ro s s s c o r e mean o f 1 0 3 .5 0 was number 154.

I t may be s a i d , th e re fo re , t h a t t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n , o r

S t. F ra n cis, su rp assed n e a r ly 50 per cen t o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n s r e p o r t ­ ing to the American C o u n c il on Education — 4 7 .4 p e r c e n t t o b e e x a c t . I t is i n e v i t a b l e th a t in any la r g e g ro u p o f s t u d e n t s a w ide range of a b i l i t y w i l l be found in s p ite o f t h e s c r e e n i n g a c t i v i t i e s o f admissions o f f i c e r s .

A t. S t. F ra n c is, th e s c o r e s o f e n t e r i n g s tu d e n t s

have ^ranged g e n e ra lly from the 5th to th e 9 9 th p e r c e n t i l e .

The a c t u a l

range fo r the S eptem ber, 1949, c la ss was from one e x tre m e t o t h e o t h e r , from the 1 st to th e 9 9 th p e r c e n tile .

I t may be c o n c lu d e d fro m t h i s

discu ssio n th a t s tu d e n ts were adm itted to S t . F r a n c i s C o lle g e i n Septem ­ ber, 1949, who were r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of e v e ry s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y l e v e l measured by th e A .C .E . P sy c h o lo g ical E x a m in atio n i n A m erican h i g h e r educational i n s t i t u t i o n s from the low est t o t h e h i g h e s t , b u t t h a t t h e m ajority of these s t u d e n t s were a t or j u s t b elo w t h e m id d le r a n g e o f sc h o la stic a b i l i t y f o r American co lleg e s t u d e n t s .

1,

L. L. Thurstone an d T . G. Thurstone, P s y c h o lo g ic a l E x a m in a tio n f o r College Freshm en-1947 Norms, American C o u n c il on E d u c a tio n , 1948.

The A .C .E , P s y c h o lo g ic a l Exam ination sc o r e s of a l l th e stu d en ts in v o lv ed in th e reading improvement experim ent are given in th e Appendix. The mean s c o r e s f o r each group are shown below . A .C .E, Q L . T

Experim ental Group 41.58 54.77 96.35

Control Group 41.00 55.08 96,08

I t i s n a tu ra l th a t th e mean sc o r e s f o r stu d en ts in volved in th e e x p e r i­ ment are low er than the g ro ss sco re quoted f o r th e e n t ir e en terin g c la s s s in c e th e stu d e n ts in th e experim ent comprise th e bottom h a lf o f th e e n te r in g c l a s s . On the b a s is o f th e t o t a l sc o r e on th e Survey S e c tio n o f th e D ia g n o stic Reading T e s t s , th e bottom 58 stu d en ts were o r ig in a lly s e le c t e d f o r th e rea d in g experim ent and d iv id ed in to Experim ental and C ontrol groups by means o f th e s p l i t - h a l f tec h n iq u e .

W ithin a few days o f th e

commencement o f c la s s e s fo r th e F a ll Term th ree o f th ese stu d en ts dropped out n e c e s s it a t in g th e e lim in a tio n o f th ree o f th e matched p a ir s which had been s e t up by th e s p l i t - h a l f tech n iq u e, and reducing th e p erson n el o f th e experim ent to 52 s tu d e n ts.

A ll o f th e se stu d e n ts continued through

th e p r a c t ic e p er io d and th e p eriod o f no p r a c t ic e w ith th e ex c e p tio n o f one stu d e n t.

Case No. 8 in th e Experim ental Group was fo rced to le a v e

sch o o l because o f i l l n e s s in the fa m ily on January 5 , 1950.

S in c e t h is

stu d en t had been in sc h o o l a l l through th e p r a c t ic e p eriod and h a lf o f th e period o f no p r a c t ic e , and s in c e he consented to come in f o r th e f i n a l t e s t i n g on March 1 8 , 1950, com plete data were c o lle c t e d fo r 52 stu d e n ts.

239 The a v era g e age for stu d en ts in th e E x p erim en ta l Group was 18,6 and fo r 12ie C ontrol Group 1 8 .4 .

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a g e s in

each group was a s fo llo w s: Age

Experim ental Group

17 18 19 20 21 23 28

3 16 4 1 1

C o n tr o l Group 4 15 3 3 1

1 26

26

With the ex c ep tio n o f the 28 year o ld s tu d e n t who was b o m i n th e B ritish West I n d ie s , a ll the su b jects were born i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , Approximately 50 p er cent of the stu d en ts in b o th grou p s come from fam ilies in which both parents were born in t h e U n ited S t a t e s .

Data

on the b ir th p la ce o f parents is shown b elo w . Birthplace o f P a r e n ts

Experim ental Group

United S ta te s - Both Parents United S ta te s - One Parent Ireland - Both P a r e n ts I ta ly - Both P a r e n ts Poland - Both P a r e n ts Prance - Both P a r e n ts B ritish West In d ies-B o th Parents

C o n tr o l Group

13 7 1 2 1 1 1

14 4 4 3 1

26

26

The e d u ca tio n a l background o f th e p a r e n t s o f S t , F r a n c is students who p a r tic ip a te d in the rea d in g improvem ent ex p erim en t ranged from no foiraal ed u cation up through c o l l e g e and p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o l, Approximate data on the educational background o f p a r e n ts i s shown below.

240 E xperim ental Group Mothers F a th ers No form al ed u ca tio n Elem entary sch o o l Secondary sch o o l C o lle g e and beyond Unknown

C ontrol Group Mother F ath ers

2 8 11 4 1

6 6 11 2 __ 1_

3 10 9 4

26

26

26

3 11 12 ...

26

The o ccu p a tio n s o f the fa th e r s o f stu d en ts in th e two groups ranged from th s p r o fe s s io n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n to the u n s k ille d .

Occupa­

t io n a l data i s summarized h e r e . Experim ental Group

Control Group

1 2 2

5 7 1 4 5 1 2 1

26

26

5 4 3 9

P r o fe s s io n a l B u sin ess and M anagerial P o lic e Department S k ille d S e m is k ille d U n sk ille d D eceased Unknown

In each group th e r e was one stu d en t who reported h is fa th e r separated from h is fa m ily and h is occu p a tio n and whereabouts unknown.

The second

stu d e n t in th e exp erim en tal group r e p o r tin g h is f a t h e r 's occu p ation as unknown has been an orphan s in c e in fa n c y . W hile se v en stu d e n ts rep orted no b ro th ers or s i s t e r s in th e fa m ily , one stu d en t in th e exp erim en tal group has s i x b roth ers and f i v e s is te r s .

A summary o f s t a t i s t i c s on s ib l in g s f o llo w s : S ib lin g s 0 1 2 3 4 6 7 9 11

E xperim ental Group 5 8 6 2 3

C ontrol Group 2 9 4 4 3 1 3

1 1

26

26

241

The fam ilies of more th an h a l f t h e s tu d e n t s own th e homes in which th ey liv e :

fourteen in th e E x p e r im e n ta l Group and f i f t e e n in th e

Control Group, fo r the tw elve f a m i l i e s i n th e E x p erim en ta l Group who rent h ou sin g the average number o f rooms i s f i v e , $45#

F a m ilie s of Control Group members l i v i n g

and th e a v era g e r e n t a l

in r e n te d q u a r t e r s , h a v e,

on th e a v era g e, four and a h a lf rooms f o r w h ich th ey, pay an a v era g e ren ta l o f $ 4 1 . Experimental Group homes r e c e i v e 1#8 m a g a zin es r e g u la r ly w h ile the number entering Control Group homes i s

2#4#

In answ er t o a q u e s tio n

concerning the number of books in t h e i r h om es, th e r e s p o n s e s o f s tu d e n ts in th e Experim ental Group ranged from z e r o t o two th ou san d and in th e Control Group from zero to one th o u sa n d . As one stu d ies th e in fo r m a tio n j u s t p r e s e n te d c o n cern in g th e socio-econ om ic backgrounds o f th e s t u d e n t s in v o lv e d in t h e r e a d in g improvement experiment, one must a g r e e w it h S tr a n g and T riggs t h a t i t i s p r a c t ic a lly impossible to c o n t r o l many o f t h e v a r ia b le s w hich sh ou ld have some in flu en ce on the r e a d in g s k i l l s

of stu d e n ts.

For one t h in g ,

stu d en ts a t the lower end o f th e v a r i a b l e s d is c u s s e d a r e r e lu c t a n t to rev ea l inform ation of which th e y a r e o f t e n ashamed and som etim es a c t u a lly m isrep resen t th is inform ation.

I t i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n th a t th e inform a­

tio n g a th ered by q u estion n aire and t h e e x a m in a tio n o f r e c o r d s i s r e p o r te d as approximate in a number o f i n s t a n c e s .

On th e w h ole th e in fo rm a tio n

p resen ted can be considered r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e groups even though one or two o b v io u sly incorrect s ta te m e n ts w ere made by in d iv id u a ls #

I t would

a lso appear that the two groups a re r o u g h ly com parable even though extreme v a r ia tio n s are p resen t in b o th groups#

242 J u s t w hat e f f e c t socio-econom ic background h a s on re a d in g s k i l l s is n o t c le a r.

As f a r a s th o s e elem ents o f so cio -eco n o m ic s t a t u s which

can be o b j e c t i v e l y m easured a re co n cern ed , th e f in d in g s o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e p o r te d in th e s e c tio n on Causes o f R eading D i s a b i l i t i e s in C hapter I I I a r e n e g a tiv e .

No marked r e l a t io n s h i p between th e s e elem en ts and re a d in g

s k i l l s h as been fo u n d .

P e rh a p s , a s S tra n g has p o in te d o u t, " th e more

s u b tl e en v iro n m e n ta l a s p e c ts such a s p ro p e r m o tiv a tio n , economic s t a b i l i t y , and c u l t u r a l p r e s s u r e s a r e more c lo s e ly r e l a t e d to re a d in g p r o f ic ie n c y th a n th o s e w hich can be more o b je c ti v e ly measured."**-

At p r e s e n t, how ever,

i t i s im p o ssib le to g e n e r a liz e r e g a rd in g th e e f f e c t o f any s in g le e n v iro n ­ m e n tal f a c t o r on an i n d i v i d u a l ’ s r e a d in g a b i l i t y . M a te r ia ls Used in th e E xperim ent The fo llo w in g m a t e r ia ls were used in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n : T e sts Am erican C o u n cil on E d u c a tio n P s y c h o lo g ic a l E xam ination 1947 C o lle g e E d itio n 1946 C o lle g e E d itio n 1945 C o lleg e E d itio n D ia g n o s tic R eading T e sts Form A - S urvey S e c tio n Form B - S urvey S e c tio n Form C - S urvey S e c tio n D ia g n o s tic R eading T e sts Form A - S e c tio n 17, Word A tta c k , S i l e n t Form B - S e c tio n IV, 'Word A tta c k , S i l e n t Rosenzw eig P i c t u r e F r u s t r a t i o n Study M anuals Im prove Your S p e llin g - -T riggs and R obbins Im prove Your R eading - T rig g s

1.

R uth S tr a n g , "D ia g n o sis and R e m ed iatio n ," C h ap ter IX in Reading in G en eral E d u c a tio n , e d ite d by W illiam S . G ray, p . 317.

243

The Am erican Council on E d u c a tio n P s y c h o lo g i c a l E x tjriin a tio n and th e D ia g n o s tic Reading T ests w ere a d m in is te r e d and s c o re d e x a c tly as d i r e c t e d by th e ir a u th o r s .

In a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e R o sen zw eig , in s te a d

o f h a v in g stu d en ts w rite in t h e t e s t b o o k l e t s , r e s p o n s e s were re c o rd e d on s p e c i a l answer s h e e ts c o n s tr u c te d by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r to f a c i l i t a t e s c o r in g .

The Rosenzweig r e s p o n s e s w ere s c o r e d in d e p e n d e n tly by th e

in v e s t i g a t o r and H, W allace S i n a i k o , 3- who h a s a d m in is te r e d and s c o re d th e Rosenzweig a t l e a s t 500 tim e s .

Whena l l t h e r e s p o n s e s had been

s c o re d th e two independent s c o r i n g s w ere com pared and d if f e r e n c e s r e s o lv e d . The two s e l f - a d m i n i s t - r i n g m a n u a ls w ere d e s ig n e d by t h e i r a u th o r s w ith p e rfo ra te d work s h e e t s so t h e y c a n be d e ta c h e d and handed t o an in s tr u c to r where one i s a v a i l a b l e . . Group in t h i s in v e s tig a tio n w ere a s k e d t o

S tu d e n ts i n th e E x p e rim e n ta l _,etaeh t h e p e r f o r a te d s h e e ts

and hand them to the i n v e s t i g a t o r once a week a s a m o tiv a tin g d e v ic e . A lso i n o rd er to p re v e n t s tu d e n t s fro m s im p ly c o p y in g an sw e rs, th e k ey s in th e back of each m anual w ere c u t

o u t.

A d e s c r i p t i o n o f each o f th e

in s tru m e n ts used i s g iv e n n e x t . A .C .E. P s y c h o lo g ic a l E x a m in a tio n For th e p u rp o se o f e s t i m a t i n g g e n e r a l s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e a w ell-know group paper and p e n c i l t e s t was s o u g h t w h ic h would m easu re, i f p o s s i b l e , those f a c t o r s w h ich make f o r s u c c e s s i n c o l l e g e .

The two

t e s t s m ost widely used f o r t h i s p u r p o s e a r e t h e Ohio S t a t e U n iv e r s ity

1*

H. Wallace S in aik o , "The R o sen zw eig P i c t u r e F r e u s t r a t i o n Study in th e S e le c tio n o f D e p a rtm e n t S t o r e S e c tio n b la n a g e rs , " J o u r n a l o f Applied P sy c h o lo g y . 2GQCIII ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 36*42.

P sy c h o lo g ic a l

T e s t and th e M e r i c an C o u n c il

E x a m in a tio n .

S in c e

fa cto r,

th e

r e su lts

in

scores

L in g u istic . r e a d in g

la tte r

th e vjas

fo r

form er se le c te d

at le a st

h a n d ic a p s.

m ore w id e ly

u s e d a n d iaiow n t h a n

th e

fo r

w o u ld ,

use

e n tir e ly in

tw o f a c t o r s : th ese

th is

a test

of

th e v e r b a l

e x p e r im e n t b e c a u s e

q,— q u a n t i t a t i v e

scores

are

o ften

L—

an d

c lu e s

it

to

T h e - A m e r ic a n C o u n c i l o n E d u c a t i o n P s y c h o l o g i c a l

a lso

It

a lm o st

D is c r e p a n c ie s b etw een

E x a m in a tio n

T est.

is

on E d u c a t io n ' P s y c h o l o g i c a l

ta k es

le ss

th erefo re,

tim e t o

be

th e

a d m i n i s t e r and s c o r e O h io S t a t e

and i s

much

U n iv e r sity P sy c h o lo g ic a l

move p r a c t i c a l f o r s i / i a l l c o l l e g e s t h a n

la tte r .

The r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y of th e A .C .E, have been checked so many tim e s t h a t th e y need n o t be d is c u s s e d a t le n g th h e r e .

Super"*"

say s t h a t " th e r e i s p ro b a b ly more m a te r ia l c o n cern in g i t s e d u c a tio n a l s ig n i f i c a n c e th a n th e r e i s f o r any o th e r s in g le t e s t . "

p

Cronbachft f in d s

t h a t i t s r e l i a b i l i t y i s q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r c o lle g e groups and c i t e s a number o f s tu d i e s g iv in g e v id e n c e o f i t s e m p iric a l v a l i d i t y .

In th e

Second and T h ird M ental M easurem ents Y earbooks'^ 143 r e f e r e n c e s t o th e A .C .E . P s y c h o lo g ic a l E x am in atio n a r e c i t e d .

F o r th e s e re a s o n s , t h e r e ­

f o r e , i t was d e c id e d t o use th e A .C .E . P s y c h o lo g ic a l E xam ination as th e m easure o f s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y .

Forms 1947, 1946, and 1945 w hich a re

p re s e n te d by th e a u th o r as e q u iv a le n t form s vjere used in t h a t o r d e r f o r p r e - t e s t , p o s t - t e s t , and f i n a l t e s t .

1. 2. 3.

Donald E . S u p e r, A p p ra isin g V o c a tio n a l F i t n e s s , p . 123. Lee J . C ronbach, E s s e n t i a l s o f P s y c h o lo g ic a l T e s tin g , p . 186. O scar K. B u ro s, e d i t o r , The N in e te e n F o r ty M ental M easurements Y earbook. T e st e n tr y 1377 ( r e f e r e n c e s 1-48J ________ , The T h ird M ental M easurem ents Y earbook. ltest e n tr y 217 ( r e f e r e n c e s 4 9 -1 4 3 )•

245

D iagn ostic Read i ng T e s t s :

Survey S e c tio n

For the purposes o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a measure o f rea d in g was required which would y i e l d a r e l i a b l e d e s c r ip t io n o f th e rea d in g s t a t u s of the in d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d in th e rea d in g improvement e x p e r i­ ment and provide d i f f e r e n t i a l s c o r e s .

These a r e , in f a c t , the two

major demands made by most s c h o o ls on th e read in g t e s t s which th ey u se , according to Townsend.-*-

She r e p o r t s t h a t a f t e r s tu a y in g the t e s t s th e

Educational Records Bureau s e l e c t e d t h e D ia g n o s tic Reading T ests b eca u se th ey meet the two demands m en tion ed p r e v io u s ly and in a d d itio n b ecau se th ey are keyed d ir e c t ly in to a d ia g n o s t ic b a t t e r y . Since a d e t a ile d d escription , o f th e D ia g n o s tic Reading T e sts was included in the s e c t io n on S i l e n t R eading 'Tests in Chapter I I I , i t i s unnecessary to d e s c r ib e t h e t e s t s a g a in a t t h i s p o in t .

As i t was

p o in ted out in t h is d e s c r ip t io n , th e c o n t r u c tio n o f th e D ia g n o stic Reading Tests begem w ith an in q u ir y w h ich r e q u ested te a c h e r s th rou ghou t th e United S tates to name t h e a r e a s w here th e y needed b e t t e r t e s t s and where they f e l t rem ed ial work was n e c e s s a r y .

H aving found th a t th e

a rea s most freq u en tly m entioned w ere v o c a b u la r y , com prehension, r a t e o f reading and word r e c o g n it io n s k i l l s , th e Committee on D ia g n o stic Reading Tests s e t to work t o b u ild in str u m e n ts to m eet th e needs in th e s e areas.

The t e s t s were d e v e lo p e d a s f o llo w s :

A ll te s ts c o n str u c te d f o r t h e p r e lim in a r y exp erim en tal ed ition were s u b je c te d t o th e u s u a l v a lid a t io n tech n iq u es and r e l i a b i l i t i e s w ere c h e c k e d . A l l t e s t s were g iv en to the same stu d e n ts in o rd er t h a t i n t e r c o r r e la t io n s o f a l l parts might be run. T hese d a ta w ere th en s tu d ie d and a

1.

Agatha Townsend, "Use o f th e S u rv ey S e c t io n o f th e D ia g n o stic Read­ ing Tests in th e In d ep e n d e n t-S c h o o l T e s tin g Program," E d u ca tio n a l Records B u l l e t i n . No. 51 (J a n u a ry , 1 9 4 9 ), p p . 4 2 -4 9 .

246 s e le c t io n o f m a te r ia l fo r th e f i n a l exp erim en tal e d itio n was made. This e d itio n was su b jected to a n a ly s is using th e same item v a lid a t io n te c h n iq u e s. R e l i a b i l i t i e s were a g a in run and in t e r c o r r e la tio n s w ith a g en era l measure o f a b i l i t y were computed, Froii th e se data a v a ila b le on th e exp erim en tal e d it io n th e f in a l e d it io n o f the t e s t s was constructed,^The b a tte r y o f t e s t s which was f i n a l l y p u b lish ed by th e Committee a f t e r th e c a r e fu l e v a lu a tio n and r e v is io n o f i t s exp erim en tal e d itio n s has made a unique c o n tr ib u tio n to measurement in th e f i e l d o f read ing as T ra x ler2 has p o in ted o u t.

In th e f i r s t p la c e i t p ro v id es th e t e s t u se r ,

w ith a screen in g t e s t , th e Survey S e c tio n , which y i e l d s s c o r e s in th e areas most needing d ia g n o s is ; i . e . , r a te o f read in g g e n e r a l sto r y -ty p e m a te r ia l, v o cab u lary, and comprehension o f a l l k ind s based on a wide v a r ie t y o f su b je c t m a tte r .

Then f o r each of th e a r e a s f o r which the

Survey S e c tio n i s sco r ed , a lo n g er more d e t a ile d t e s t i s provided in th e d ia g n o s tic b a tte r y .

Each o f th e se t e s t s has a lrea d y been d escrib ed

in th e s e c t io n on th e D ia g n o stic Reading T ests in Chapter I I I .

Thus

t e s t u se rs may examine sc o r e s on th e Survey T est which i s e a s i l y admin­ is t e r e d w ith in a one-hour c la s s p e r io d , to seek ou t th e areas o f weakness which need to be ex p lo red more th orou ghly w ith th e d ia g n o s tic s e c tio n o f the D.R.T. b a t te r y .

Very c o n v e n ie n tly , th e r e s u lt s obtained through the

Survey S e c tio n le a d d i r e c t l y t o a rea s in which rem ed ial work should be done.

1.

2.

Frances O ralind T r ig g s, "The C on stru ction and V a lid a tio n of the D ia g n o stic Reading T e s t s , ” E d u cation al and P s y c h o lo g ic a l Measurement , V III (S p rin g, 1 9 4 8 ), p p . 3 -1 4 . Arthur E . T ra x ler , "Measurement in the F ie ld o f Reading," E n g lish J o u rn a l. 2QQCVTII. (March, 1 9 4 9 ), p p . 143-149.

247 In t h i s s e c t i o n th e r e l i a b i l i t y mid v a l i d i t y o f th e Survey Section, and S e c tio n IV, bord A tta c k , P a r t 2 , S i l e n t w i l l be d is c u s s e d in soiae d e ta il s in c e b o th t h e s e t e s t s were used in th e p r e se n t in v e s ­ tig a tio n .

Since the D ia g n o s tic H eading T e s ts have been available in

printed form fo r o n ly two y e a r s , th e number o f s t u d ie s which have been completed on the t e s t s i s l i m i t e d .

Hiowev.r, a g r e a t d e a l o f inform a­

tio n about the t e s t s w i l l be a v a i l a b l e s h o r t l y , l a r g e l y b ecause o f th e extensive p u b lic ity and th e w ide a c c e p ta n c e w hich the t e s t s are e n jo y in g as a r esu lt o f the co n tin u o u s r e s e a r c h b ein g conducted by th e Committee on Diagnostic Reading T e s t s .

S in c e t h i s o r g a n iz a tio n i s o p e r a tin g w ith

foundation funds and i s n o t a p r o f it - s e e k i n g e n t e r p r is e , a l l t h e p ro ceed s from the sa le o f t e s t s a r e b e in g p u t back in to r e se a r c h to improve th e t e s t s , develop new fo r m s, and e v e n t u a lly to c o n s tr u c t rem ed ial m a te r ia ls which can be used a f t e r d ia g n o s is t o h e lp remove d i s a b i l i t i e s . The Survey S e c t io n has beaa u sed more w id e ly than any o th e r t e s t in the D.R.T. b a t t e r y .

Four e q u iv a le n t form s o f th e Survey S e c tio n

(A,B,C,D) have been on th e m arket f o r some tim e . (E.F.Gr,H) w ill be a v a i l a b le in S ep tem b er, 1 9 5 0 .

Four a d d ito n a l forms I n i t i a l l y th e Survey

S ection , was g iv en t o a p p ro x im a te ly 3000 s tu d e n ts in sev en teen s c h o o ls o f wide geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n t o e s t a b l i s h t e n t a t iv e p e r c e n t ile and grade norms.

R e l i a b i l i t i e s e s tim a te d by th e K uder-R iehardson Formula

21 at each grade l e v e l i n d i c a t e t h a t b o th p a r t and t o t a l s c o r e s o f th e Survey Section a r e r e l i a b l e m e a su r e s . j

The a u th o r s o f th e D ia g n o s tic

Reading Tests r e p o r t th e f o llo w in g r e l i a b i l i t y data in t h e ir D ir e c t io n s fo r Administering1-th e Survey S e c t io n :

1.

Directions f o r Ad m in is te r in g D ia g n o s t ic Read in g T ests Survey S e c t io n , The Committee on D ia g n o s t ic R ead in g T e s t s . New York: The Committee, 419 W. 119 S t . , New Y ork, 194 8 . Pp. 11.

848 R e l i a b i l i t i e s o f D.R.T. Surve?/- S e c tio n S cores N

la

lb

2

3

4

300 402 733 700 404 389

.80 .80 .80 .80 .8 0 .80

.74 .7 5 .7 4 .7 3 .66 .68 .71 .7 4

.81 .85 .84 .87 .87 .88 .85 .87

.81 .81 .8 3 .87 .80 .79 .81 .83

.89 .91 .90 .90 .9 1 .9 2 .88 .90

Grade Seventh E igh th N in th Tenth E lev en th T w elfth C o lle g e Freshmen C o lle g e Freshmen

The f i r s t p a rt o f th e Survey S e c tio n has two s c o r e s .

Score l a , Rate o f

R eading, i s g iv en in terms o f number o f words read per m inu te. n o t combined w ith th e o th e r s c o r e s . r e l i a b i l i t i e s f o r t h i s sco r e i s .8 0 .

It is

The a v era g e o f th e t e s t - r e t e s t S core l b , S tory Comprehension

(ite m s 1 -2 0 ) i s th e com prehension check on th e t e s t o f r a t e o f rea d in g . Hie au thors r e p o r t th a t . . . T his i s n o t a th orou gh ly r e l i a b l e and v a lid measure o f th e t o t a l com prehension which a stu d en t n eed s f o r sc h o o l woi’k , b u t i t can be used as an e s tim a te o f th e s tu d e n t’ s r e t e n t io n and a b i l i t y to comprehend s t o r y typ e m a te r ia l read a t th e r a te record ed on t h i s t e s t . The average o f r e l i a b i l i t i e s f o r t h i s s c o r e i s . 7 2 . 1 S core 2 , V ocabulary (ite m s 21-80) a p p a ren tly i s a s a t is f a c t o r y measure o f g en e r a l v o c a b u la r y .

B ecause voca b u la ry c o n tr ib u te s to an o v e r a ll

m easure o f a s tu d e n t’ s a b i l i t y to comprehend, th e authors use th e vocabu­ l a r y sc o r e b oth a s an independent sco re and a s a p a r t o f th e t o t a l compre­ h en sio n s c o r e .

The a v era g e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h i s sco r e i s 8 5 .5 .

Score 3,

Comprehension (ite m s 1 -2 0 and 8 1 -1 0 0 ) i s o b ta in ed from a l l comprehension item s on th e t e s t .

I t in c lu d e s comprehension o f th e r a t e o f read ing

p a ssa g e and paragraph com prehension. s c o r e i s .9 0 .

The average r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h i s

S core 4 , T o ta l Comprehension (item s 1 -1 0 0 ), i s th e t o t a l

o f a l l s c o r e s on th e t e s t e x c e p t r a t e o f r e a d in g .

1.

I b id . . p . 2 .

The authors s t a t e

249

that " it can be used a s an e v a lu a t io n o f th e e f f i c i e n c y o f th e o v e r a ll reading s k i l l s o f an in d iv id u a l,'f The a verage r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h i s score is .9 0 . The s t u d ie s on t h e D ia g n o s tic Reading T ests w hich are b eg in n in g to appear in th e l i t e r a t u r e g e n e r a lly b ear out th e fin d in g s o f t h e t e s t authors.

Townsend‘S i n v e s t ig a t e d t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e D .R .T. Survey

Section, Form A in a stu d y b ased on th e sc o r e s o f 200 in d ep en d en t-sch o o l students a t the te n th -g r a d e l e v e l .

Wo e stim a te o f th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f

the rate s e c tio n was made b eca u se f a c i l i t i e s were n o t a v a ila b le f o r retestin g p u p ils w ith th e r a t e s e c t i o n .

The o th er r e l i a b i l i t i e s rep o rted

by Townsend and shown b elow w ere d e r iv e d by r e s c o r in g th e t e s t p ap ers and comparing the odd-numbered q u e s t io n s c o r r e c t , w ith th e even-numbered questions c o r r e c t in t h e p ap er o f th e same p u p il s , and a p p ly in g th e Spearman-Brown c o r r e c t io n f o r dou b le le n g t h .

The odd-even r e l i a b i l i t e s

obtained by Townsend a r e compared below w ith Kuder-Riehardson r e l i a b i ­ l i t i e s reported by th e t e s t a u th o r s . R e l i a b i l i t i e s o f S c o r e s on D .R .T . Survey S e c tio n Score la Rate lb Story Comprehension 2 Vocabulary 3 Paragraph and S to ry Com prehension 4 Total Comprehension

1. I i

Townsend N-200 .6 7 5 .9 1 4 .7 1 5 .8 9 3

Author N=?00 .8 0 .7 3 .8 7 .8 7 • 90

Agatha Townsend, nUse o f t h e S urvey S e c tio n o f th e D ia g n o stic Reading Tests in th e In d p en d en t-S ch o o l T e s tin g Program," E d u ca tio n a l Records B u l l e t i n . N o. 51 (Jan u ary, 1 9 4 9 ), p p . 4 2 -4 9 .

250 Townsend1- a ls o compared th e D.R.T. Survey S e c tio n w ith th e T raxler S i l e n t Reading T est b ecause th e two instrum ents are comparable in regard to number o f item s and a rea s m easured.

A comparison o f th e

r e l i a b i l i t i e s ob tain ed by Townsend on th e s e two t e s t s f o llo w s : R e l i a b i l i t i e s o f D .R .T . Survey S e c tio n and T raxler S ile n t Reading T est S core l a Rate lb S to r y Comprehension 2 Vocabulary 3 Paragraph and S to ry Comprehension 4 T o ta l Comprehension

Survey S e c tio n

T raxler

.675 .914 .715 .893

.8 5 ,6 5 ,85 .75 ,9 2

In th e s e c t io n on E valu ation in Chapter I I I , i t was p oin ted ou t th a t th e r e i s no accep ted y a r d s tic k w ith w hich read in g t e s t s can be compared.

In stea d o f e m p ir ic a l v a l i d i t y , t h e r e fo r e , i t i s th e lo g i c a l

v a l i d i t y o f read in g t e s t s w ith which t e s t u se rs must be concerned. The Committee on D ia g n o stic Reading T ests has gone to g rea t le n g th s to a c h ie v e l o g i c a l v a l i d i t y .

To b eg in w ith , th e f a c t th a t a l l the members

o f th e Committee have had w id e ex p erien ce in t e s t c o n str u c tio n a s w e ll as in th e te a c h in g o f rea d in g i s an im portant f a c to r s in c e the t e s t s do, to a la r g e e x t e n t , r e p r e se n t the judgment o f th e committee as a whole*

The m a te r ia ls

used in th e t e s t s have been c a r e f u lly s e le c t e d and do

r e p r e s e n t th e same ty p e or ty p es o f m a te r ia l t h a t stu d e n ts meet in th e ir cou rse work.

I t i s apparent a ls o th a t th e s e le c t i o n s in clu d ed in the

v a r io u s p a r ts o f th e Survey S e c tio n and th e d ia g n o s tic b a tte r y have been chosen w ith th e d i f f i c u l t y o f vocabulary in mind.

1.

L oc. c i t .

251 Having ta k en a l l th e s e p r e c a u tio n s t o in su r e l o g i c a l v a l i d i t y , i t is not s u r p r is in g t h a t t h e t e s t s w hich th e Committee on D ia g n o stic Reading T ests produced sh o u ld s a t i s f y other c r i t e r i a o f v a l i d i t y .

A

glance a t th e norms in c lu d e d in t h e D ir e c t io n s f o r A d m in isterin g th e Survey S e c tio n r e v e a l s a r e g u la r p r o g r e s s io n o f in c r e a s e s in s c o r e s from one grade l e v e l to th e n e x t .

Do th e v a r io u s p a r ts o f th e Survey

Section measure d i s t i n c t r e a d in g s k i l l s ?

The in t e r c o r r e la t io n s o f th e

part scores on a t e s t h e lp t o d eterm in e th e d egree to which th e p a r ts of the t e s t m easure s e p a r a te r e a d in g a b i l i t i e s .

Townsend'*' o b ta in ed

the fo llo w in g r e s u l t s when sh e ran in t e r c o r r e la t io n s on th e p a r t s c o r e s of the Survey S e c t io n s I n t e r c o r r e la t io n s o f P a r t S c o r e s on D .R .T, Survey S e c tio n N=244 R ead in g R ate S toiy Comprehension Vocabulary Paragraph and Story Comprehension Total Comprehension

.193 .2 5 3 .2 7 4 .3 1 9

S to ry Comprehension

V ocabulary

.294 .4 8 4

.4 0 0

T raxler^ h as made a number o f s t u d i e s which tend t o su p p ort th e fin d in gs o f th e Committee on D ia g n o s t ic R eading T ests in regard t o th e Survey S e c tio n .

I t i s a p p a ren t from t h e f in d in g s o f the Committee on

D iagnostic R eading T e s t s and c o r r o b o r a tiv e s tu d ie s on the p a r t o f o th er

1 * Loc. c l t . 2. Arthur E . T r a x le r , "A N o te on th e C o r r e la tio n Between F o m s A and B o f t h e D ia g n o s t ic R ead in g T e s t s : Survey S e c tio n , w ith a Time I n te r v a l o f A p p roxim ately One Y e a r ,” E d u cation al R ecords B u l l e t i n . No. 53 (J a n u a ry , 1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 67-68* . " C o r r e la tio n Between S co res on V arious Reading T ests A d m in istered S e v e r a l Months A p art," E d u ca tio n a l R ecords B u l l e t i n , N o. 52 ( J u ly , 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 7 8 -8 2 . , " R e l i a b i l i t y and in t e r c o r r e la t io n o f th e V ocabulary S e c tio n o f th e D ia g n o s t ic R eading T e s ts ," E d u ca tio n a l Records B u l l e t i n . No. 51 (J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 9 ), p p . 5 0 -5 3 .

252 in v e s t ig a t o r s th a t th e r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f th e Survey S e c tio n has been s a t i s f a c t o r i l y e s t a b lis h e d . D ia g n o stic R eading T e s ts ;

S e c tio n 17. Word A tta ck , S i l e n t

T e sts o f word a tta c k and word r e c o g n itio n a b i l i t y a re included in S e c tio n IV o f th e D ia g n o stic Reading T e sts because i t was f e l t th at b a s ic t o a l l rea d in g i s th e a b i l i t y t o r e c o g n iz e word symbols p r e v io u sly le a rn ed and th e s k i l l in a tta c k in g words n ot so r e c o g n iz e d . number o f ways in w hich a thought can be o b ta in e d .

There are a

No person can be an

e f f i c i e n t rea d er u n le ss he has some s k i l l s f o r a t ta in in g th ou gh t from unknown w ords.

He m ust know how t o o b ta in meaning from words whose con­

f ig u r a t io n a lo n e g iv e no c l u e s .

I t i s th e s e s k i l l s w hich S e c tio n IV,

Word A tta c k , o f th e D ia g n o s tic Reading T e sts m easu res.

P a r t 1 i s an

o r a l rea d in g t e s t c o n s is t in g o f s i x graded paragraphs c a r e f u lly con trolled from th e p o in t o f view o f i n t e r e s t , vocab u lary lo a d , le n g th , and other f a c t o r s ; and th r e e word l i s t s w hich in c lu d e words from which c e r ta in ty p e s o f e r r o r s may be e l i c i t e d .

The t e s t e e rea d s b o th , and e r r o r s o f

v a r io u s ty p e s a re r e c o r d e d . S in c e i t seemed p o s s ib le t o measure c e r t a in word r e c o g n itio n s k i l l s by group te c h n iq u e s r a th e r th an by o r a l, in d iv id u a l p r e s e n ta tio n , P a r t 2 , S i l e n t , o f S e c t io n IV , Word A tta c k , was c o n s tr u c te d .

I h i s p a rt

o f t h e t e s t u t i l i z e s m atching tec h n iq u e , to measure th e a b i l i t y o f the stu d e n t to hear sound based on th e p rem ise th a t a b i l i t y t o r eco g n ize sounds i s one f a c t o r in approaching a stra n g e word.

j

S e c t io n IV, Word A tta ck , P a r t 2 , S i l e n t , o f th e D ia g n o stic Read-

i

in g T ests y i e l d s two s c o r e s and a t o t a l s c o r e .

Score one m easures the

a b i l i t y o f th e stu d e n t t o id e n t if y th e sound o f s in g le vow els and conso­ n a n ts , and com binations o f v o w els and com binations o f co n so n a n ts, by

253 u tiliz in g th e tech n iq u e s o f m atching sounds and id e n t if y in g s i l e n t le t t e r s .

S core two i s based on the s tu d e n t’ s a b i l i t y t o i d e n t i f y

the number o f s y l l a b l e s in words o f v a r y in g d i f f i c u l t y .

Score t h r e e ,

the t o ta l s c o r e , i s th e sum o f th e v a lu e s o f s c o r e s one and tw o. The a u th o r s r e p o r t th a t r e l i a b i l i t i e s on th e s c o r e s o f t h i s te st were e stim a te d by th e Kuder-Ric hardson Formula 21 on d ata a v a ila b le from t e s t in g in grad es 7 through 12 on sam ples o f over 100 in e v e r y c a s e . Average r e l i a b i l i t i e s r e p o r te d on s c o r e s are as fo llo w s:^ Form A Score 1 Score 2 Score 3

A verage o f R e l i a b i l i t i e s A verage o f R e l i a b i l i t i e s A verage o f R e l i a b i l i t i e s

,9 2 .9 2 .9 5

Form B .93 ,93 .9 5

The r e l a t i o n s h i p w hich th e s k i l l s measured by S e c t io n IT , Word Attack, S i l e n t have to r e la t e d s k i l l s measured by o r a l read in g and to the s k i l l s measured by o th e r s e c t i o n s o f the t e s t i s an a rea which i s s t i l l com p aratively u n ex p lored .

T riggs says

• • • We do know t h a t s tu d e n ts who cannot d iv id e words in to s y l l a b l e s , o r who can not h ear sounds, o r b o th , when taught t h e s e s k i l l s make im m ediate and s u r p r is in g p r o g r e s s in many p h a s e s o f r e a d in g . But t h i s i s a n o n - s t a t i s t i c a l v a lid a tin g t e c h n iq u e . From a s t a t i s t i c a l approach, about a l l we know i s t h a t t h i s m easure a s co n stru cted i s a h ig h ly r e l i a b l e one and t h a t c o r r e la t io n s between i t and oth er t e s t s i n t h e b a t te r y when in exp erim en tal form ranged from zero t o ,6 0 , w ith o th e r s e c t io n s o f th e Word A tta ck T est, and about .5 0 w ith v o ca b u la ry and o th e r s e c t io n s o f the b a t t e r y ,a

1,

2.

D irectio n s f o r A d m in iste r in g D ia g n o stic Reading T e sts, S e c t io n IT , Word A tta c k , P a r t 2 , S i l e n t , The Committee on D ia g n o stic Reading T e s t s , New” fo rk : The Committee, 419 W 119th S tr e e t* 1948, p , 2 , Frances O ralind T r ig g s , "The C on stru ction and T a lid a tio n o f th e D ia g n o stic R eading T e s t s ," E d u ca tio n a l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l Measurement, V III (S p r in g , 1 9 4 8 ), pp. 3 -1 4 ,

254

The Committee on D ia g n o stic Reading T ests r e p o r ts th a t a good d e a l o f d ata have been accum ulating on th e Word A ttack t e s t sin ce th e t e s t was c o n s tr u c te d .

C o r r e la tio n s w ith o th e r rea d in g s k i l l s a t

th e te n th grade l e v e l measured by used o f the Survey S e c tio n are C o r r e la tio n o f S e c tio n IV, Word A tta ck , S i l e n t With Rate o f Reading Vocabulary Compr ehens i on T o ta l Comprehension

N .207 .23 .6 3 .60 .6 8

At th e t w e lf t h grade l e v e l th e r e c o n tin u e s to be a s u b s t a n t ia l r e la tio n ­ sh ip though l e s s than th a t found a t th e low er l e v e l . 1 2 th Grade C o r r e la tio n s o f S e c tio n IV, Word A tta ck , S ile n t With R ate o f R eading V ocabulary Compr ehens i on T o ta l Comprehension

.37 .5 2 .4 2 .5 3

Some tw en ty s t u d ie s in v a r io u s s ta g e s o f com p letion under th e supervision o f th e a u th o r s or t e s t u se rs g iv e every in d ic a t io n th a t th e o r ig in a l work r e p o r ted on S e c t io n IV, Word A tta c k , S i l e n t w i l l be borne o u t. I t has been e stim a ted th a t about te n p er c e n t o f c o lle g e students la c k th e word a tta c k s k i l l s n e c e ssa r y t o a c h ie v e e f f e c t i v e word perception. I f a stu d e n t d o es n o t have th e s e b a s ic s k i l l s , i t would seem l o g i c a l that he would have to a cq u ire or d evelop th e s e s k i l l s b e fo r e he cou ld b en efit from rea d in g improvement work in o th er a r e a s .

I t i s on t h i s assumption

th a t th e use o f S e c t io n IV, Word A tta ck , P a r t 2 , S i l e n t t i o n , i s b a se d .

in t h i s in v estig a ­

T his p a r t ic u la r measure was s e le c t e d becau se i t i s the

o n ly t e s t o f i t s k in d a t th e c o lle g e l e v e l andbecause i t i s and seems to be v a l i d .

r e lia b le

255

R osen zw eig P ic t u r e - F r u s t r a t io n Study The o n ly p e r s o n a lit y t e s t now on th e market w hich p u rp orts to measure "need p e r s is t e n c e " a s a p a t te r n o f b eh a v io r by means o f a "paper and p e n c il" t e s t i s th e Rosenzw eig P ic t u r e F r u s tr a tio n S tu d y. Since one o f th e w ell-k n o w n w eak n esses o f s e lf - t e a c h i n g i s th e f a c t that a c o n s id e r a b le number o f in d iv id u a ls who undertake self-im p ro v em en t do not ca rry through t h e i r s e lf-im p o s e d t a s k s , i t would be h e lp f u l in doing c o r r e c t iv e r e a d in g on a s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g b a s is to b e a b le t o p ic k out in advance t h o s e s tu d e n t s who have a p a t te r n o f b eh a v io r w hich in d i­ cates a ten d en cy t o overcom e o b s t a c le s and com p lete t a s k s . The P i e t u r e - F r e s t r a t io n Study i s made up o f tw e n ty -fo u r p ic t u r e s resembling in c o m p lete c a r t o o n s .

Each p ic tu r e c o n ta in s two f ig u r e s who are

involved in a m ild ly f r u s t r a t i n g s i t u a t io n o f common o c c u r a n c e .

Die

figu re on th e l e f t o f ea ch p ic t u r e i s shown sa y in g c e r t a in words which eith er h elp to d e s c r ib e t h e f r u s t r a t i o n o f t h e o th e r in d iv id u a l, or w hich are th em selves a c t u a l l y f r u s t r a t in g to him .

The p erso n on th e r ig h t i s

always shown w ith a blank c a p tio n box ab ove.

F a c ia l f e a t u r e s and other

exp ression s o f p e r s o n a l i t y a re p u r p o se ly o m itte d from a l l th e p ic t u r e s in order to f a c i l i t a t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h i s f ig u r e by t h e s u b j e c t . The su b je c t i s in s t r u c t e d t o examine th e s i t u a t i o n s one a t a tim e and w rite in t h e blan k box th e f i r s t a p p ro p ria te r e p ly w h ich e n t e r s h i s m ind. The s it u a t io n s in c lu d e d a r e e i t h e r e g o - b lo c k in g , i . e . , p r e s e n tin g some o b sta c le, e i t h e r p e r s o n a l o r im p erso n a l, which in t e r r u p t s , d is a p p o in t s , (deprives o r o th e r w ise d i r e c t l y f r u s t r a t e s th e s u b j e c t (16 s i t u a t i o n s ) ; cr super-ego b lo c k in g , i . e . , some a c c u s a tio n , c h a r g e s , or in c r im in a tio n of the p erso n on t h e r i g h t i s made by someone e l s e (8 s i t u a t i o n s ) .

256 I t i s assumed a s a b a s is f o r th e P-F Study th a t th e subject u n c o n sc io u sly o r c o n s c io u s ly i d e n t i f i e s h im s e lf w ith th e fr u str a te d in d iv id u a l in each p ic tu r e d s it u a t io n and p r o j e c t s h i s own b ia s in th e r e p l i e s g iv e n ,

lb determ ine t h i s b ia s s c o r e s are a ssig n ed each

resp o n se a s to d ir e c t io n o f a g g r e s s io n and r e a c tio n t y p e ,

under

d ir e c t io n o f a g g r e s s io n are in c lu d e d e x tr a p u n itiv e n e s s — in which a g g r e s s io n i s turned onto th e environm ent; in tr o p u n itiv e n e s s — in w hich i t i s turned by th e s u b je c t upon h im s e lf; and im p u n itiven ess —■ in which a g g r e s s io n i s evaded in an attem pt to g lo s s over th e fru stra ­ tio n .

Under ty p e o f r e a c t io n f a l l o b staele-d om in an ce — in which the

b a r r ie r o c c a s io n in g th e f r u s t r a t io n stan d s o u t in th e resp on ses; egod e f e n s e — in w hich th e ego o f th e s u b je c t predom inates; and needp e r s is t e n c e — in which th e s o lu t io n o f th e f r u s t r a t in g problem i s em phasized.

In a d d itio n t o the s c o r e s ob tain ed fo r each o f th ese six

f a c t o r s a se v e n th measure i s o b ta in ed which R osenzweig c a l l s th e Group Conform ity R atin g.^ -

T h is s c o r e i s o b ta in ed by comparing th e su b je c t’s

s c o r e s w ith th o se ex p e cted on tw e lv e item s p r e v io u s ly found t o e l i c i t a p a r t ic u la r v a r ie t y o f r e sp o n se from normal s u b je c ts s i g n i f i c a n t l y often t o j u s t i f y t h e i r use a s c r i t e r i a .

The t e s t may be a d m in istered on an

in d iv id u a l o r a group b a s i s . One o f th e c h i e f ad van tages o f th e P tF Study i s th e f a c t that s i t u a t io n s d e p ic te d a re o f common occu rren ce and w ith ou t apparent psychi­ a t r i c im p lic a t io n .

T h is i s in sharp c o n tr a s t to an instrum ent such as

jth e M innesota M u ltip h a sic P e r s o n a lit y In ven tory w hich, though admittedly I i

1.

S a u l R osenzw eig, E d ith 25. F lem in g, and H elen J . C lark e, "Revised S c o r in g Manual f o r th e Rosenzweig P ic t u r e -F r u s tr a tio n Study," Jou rn al o f P s y c h o lo g y . 2XIV (1 9 4 7 ), p . 201.

257 perhaps t h e b e s t o f th e q u e stio n n a ir e ty p e o f p e r s o n a lit y t e s t , i s h ea v ily lo a d ed w ith sta te m e n ts so o b v io u sly seek in g t o determ ine d e v ia te b e h a v io r , t h a t i t i s n o t u n lik e ly th a t f e e l i n g s o f doubt, in s e c u r it y , and unwholesome c u r i o s i t y are engendered in some i n d i­ v id u a ls who a re s u b j e c t e d t o i t . By q u e s t io n in g many s u b je c ts a f t e r t e s t i n g , Bernard-*- found that th e y d id , in d e e d , respond in term s o f how th ey th o u g h t they would a c t in t h e p ic t u r e d s i t u a t i o n s .

Others claim ed t o have

responded in term s o f c o n s c io u s o r ie n t a t io n toward how th ey would lik e t o a c t in th o se s i t u a t i o n s .

S t i l l o th ers were t e s t e d a s job

a p p lic a n ts , th e P -F stu d y b e in g one o f s e v e r a l t e s t s in a s e l e c t i o n b a ttery .

Presum ably th e o r ie n t a t io n o f many, i f not a l l , o f th e se

su b jec ts was toward r e sp o n d in g in a way which would n o t m i l i t a t e a g a in st t h e i r b e in g a c c e p te d f o r th e job in q u e stio n . N o tw ith sta n d in g such d i v e r s i f i e d a t t it u d e s on th e p a r t o f t e s t e e s , t h e w r it e r has found th e P -F stu d y used a s a s e lf - a d m i n i s t e r in g t e s t to f u r n is h m a te r ia l v a lu a b le f o r e v a lu a t in g c e r t a in p e r s o n a lit y c h a r a c t e r is t ic s and p r e d ic t in g c e r t a i n b eh a v io r p a t t e r n s . In th e co u rse o f our s tu d y common ele m e n ts were d isco v ered in th e known b e h a v io r o f in d iv id u a ls h a v in g s im ila r P-F p a tte r n s. . . 2 What Bernard d id q u a l i t a t i v e l y by p r e s e n tin g c a s e h i s t o r i e s , F a lls and B lake Study m ea su res.

2

d id q u a n t it a t iv e l y t o determ ine e x a c t ly what th e P-F These in v e s t ig a t o r s conducted an e x p lo r a to r y i n v e s t i ­

gation o f th e m ean in gs o f fo u r o f th e sev en major components o f th e

1. 2. 3.

Jack B ern a rd , "The R osenzw eig P ic tu r e -F r u s tr a tio n Study: I I I n t e r ­ p r e t a t io n ," J o u r n a l o f P sy c h o lo g y . XXVTII (1 9 4 9 ), p p . 3 3 3 -3 4 3 . I b id . . p . 3 3 3 . Robert P . F a l l s and R obert R. B lak e, "A Q u a n tita tiv e A n a ly s is o f th e P ie t u r e - R r u s t r a t io n Stud y," Journal o f P e r s o n a lit y , XVT (March, 1 9 4 8 ) , p p . 3 2 0 -3 2 5 .

258

P ic t u r e - F r u s t r a t io n Study from th e s ta n d p o in t o f th e q u an titative r e la t io n s h ip s e x i s t i n g betw een them and c e r t a in o th e r o b jectiv e m easures o f b e h a v io r .

T his a n a ly s is p erm itted them to draw con­

c lu s io n s co n cern in g th e e x t e n t t o which th e component scores are r e la t e d to o th e r com parable m easures and t h e r e fo r e se r v e s as one k in d o f i n d ir e c t v a l i d a t io n o f R osenzw eig’ s t h e o r e t i c a l supposi­ tio n s .

Product-moment c o r r e la t io n s were computed t o measure the

e x t e n t o f th e r e la t io n s h ip e x i s t i n g betw een th e P-F Study com­ p o n en ts and m easures w hich in clu d ed th e M innesota M u ltip h asic P e r s o n a lit y In v e n to r y , th e B ern reu ter

P e r s o n a lit y In ven tory,

th e A llp o r t A-S R ea c tio n S tu d y, A .C .E . P s y c h o lo g ic a l Examination, M ille r A n a lo g ie s T e s t, C oop erative G eneral C u lture T e s t, A llp ortVernon Study o f V a lu es ( R e lig io u s , S o c i a l , and T h e o r e tic a l S c a le s), and th e Sims S co re Card f o r Socio-E conom ic S ta tu s*

The four

com ponents o f t h e P -F Study which F a l l s and B lake in v e s tig a te d w ith a group o f tw e n ty -i'iv e c o lle g e stu d e n ts a re e x tr a p u n itiv en ess, in t r o p u n it iv e n e s s , im p u n itiv e n e ss , and Group C onform ity R ating. The m ajor f in d in g was t h a t th e R osenzw eig s c a le i s g e n e r a lly r e la t e d t o o th e r p e r s o n a lit y m easu res, w h ile g e n e r a lly unrelated t o t h e o th e r k in d s o f m easu res.

The au th ors s t a t e ’’t h i s finding

i s im p ortan t s in c e i t shows th a t th e p r o j e c t iv e ty p e o f p erson ality m easure i s f u n c t io n a lly r e la t e d t o s t a t i c p e r s o n a lit y measures." In g e n e r a l F a l l s and Blake concluded th a t These d a ta show t h a t th e components o f b eh a v io r measured by th e p r o j e c t iv e ty p e o f p ic tu r e id en ­ t i f i c a t i o n used in t h e P ic t u r e - F r u s tr a t io n Study y i e l d in fo r m a tio n about p e r s o n a lit y c h a r a c t e r is t ic s w hich i s g e n e r a lly c o n s is t e n t w ith t h e o r e t i c a l

259 i

ex p ecta n cy and w ith m easures o f b eh a v io r a l te n d e n c ie s from o th e r k in d s o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l in stru m en ts.^ S in c e t h e P -F Study i s a r e l a t i v e l y new in stru m en t (c o p y r ig h t d ate f o r p r in te d e d i t i o n i s 1948) th e p u b lish ed r e se a r c h on i t i s very li m i t e d .

Though m ost o f i t th u s f a r sup ports th e h y p o th e sis

on which i t i s b a se d , one study r e s u lt e d in n e g a tiv e f in d in g s and one r a th e r m ixed r e s u l t s .

F ran k lin and Brozek^ ob tain ed id e n t ic a l

r e s u l t s from 32 s u b j e c t s under c o n tr a stin g c o n d itio n s o f s ix months o f s e m i- s t a r v a t io n and s u b s ta n t ia l r e c o v e r y -e le v a te d e x tr a p u n itiv e and o b s t a c le dominance p e r c e n ta g e s.

Perform ance was u n rela ted to

l e v e l o f r e - f e e d in g o r degree o f r e h a b i l i t a t i o n .

In c o n g r u ity o f

r e s u l t s r e q u ir e s c r i t i c a l exam ination o f the s ta n d a r d iz a tio n , p ro­ j e c t i v e a ssu m p tio n s, and v a l i d i t y o f th e stu d y .

French and P ic k e t t 3

gave th e P-F stu d y to 80 stu d en ts th r e e weeks b e fo r e and im m ediately a f t e r th e retu rn o f a cou rse exam ination in which some grad es were f a l s e l y r e p o r te d .

R a is in g th e grades o f poor stu d e n ts produced some

s i g n i f i c a n t ch a n g es, b u t low erin g th o se o f good stu d e n ts d id n o t . Good stu d e n ts d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from poor s tu d e n ts in c e r t a in r e s p e c t s r e g a r d le s s o f ohe grade r e p o r te d .

S in c e th e s e l a s t two

s t u d ie s were r e p o r te d o n ly in a b s tr a c t form , la c k in g th e d e t a i l s of th e p ro ced u res used i t i s im p o ssib le to determ ine th e v a l i d i t y o f th e q u e s tio n th e y r a i s e .

1. 2. 3.

L oc. c i t . Joseph C, F r a n k lin and J o s e f Brozek, "The Rosenzweig P ic t u r e F r u s tr a tio n Study As a Measure o f F r u s tr a tio n R esponse," American P s y c h o l o g i s t . I l l (1 9 4 8 ), p . 3 5 7 . R obert L. F ren ch and B e tty J . P i c k e t t , "Changes in Performance on th e R osenzw eig P ic t u r e -F r u s tr a tio n T est F ollow in g E x p erim en ta lly Induced F r u s tr a tio n ," American P s y c h o lo g is t . I l l (1 9 4 8 ), p p . 3 5 7 -3 5 8 .

260 F u rth er fa v o r a b le f in u in g s on t h e P-F study have been rep o rted by S in a ik o ^ who a d m in istere d th e P -F stu dy to 53 department s to r e s e c t i o n managers and stu d ie d r e s u l t s in con junction with a q u a n tit a tiv e m easure o f job p erform ance.

On th e b a s is of his find­

in g s S in a ik o concluded th a t th e Rosenzweig P ic tu r e -F r u str a tio n Study m easures f a c t o r s which a r e a s s o c ia t e d w ith o c c u p a tio n a l success as a S e c t io n Manager, a n d which m ight have v a lu e in an employment se le c ­ t io n program.

S i g n i f i c a n t n e g a tiv e r e la t io n s h ip s were found between

th e c r i t e r i o n and s c o r e s f o r

e x tr a p u n itiv e n e ss,

c r i t e r i o n and E g o -D efen siv e s c o r e s .

and between the

P o s i t i v e , s t a t i s t i c a l l y sig n i­

f i c a n t r e la t io n s h ip s betw een th e c r i t e r i o n and in tro p u n itiv en ess, and betw een th e c r i t e r i o n and n e e d - p e r s is te n c e sc o r e s were also fou n d .

A p o s i t i v e b u t n o t s ig n i f i c a n t c o r r e la t io n was found between

th e c r i t e r i o n and im p u n itiv e n e ss .

A n e a r -z e r o r e la tio n s h ip existed

betw een job r a t in g s and ob sta cle-d o m in a n ce s c o r e s on the P-F Study. A stu d y by S arason and Rosenzweig^ w ith twenty college s tu d e n ts a s s u b j e c t s in v e s t ig a t e d th e r e la t io n s h ip s between reactions t o f r u s t r a t io n a s m easured by th e P ic t u r e - F r u s tr a t io n Study, egod e fe n s iv e n e s s a s i l l u s t r a t e d by r e p r e s s io n , and a b i l i t y t o be h y p n o tiz e d .

The measure o f h y p n o t iz a b ilit y was th e standard tech­

n iq u e d evelop ed a t th e Harvard P s y c h o lo g ic a l C lin ic where Rosenzweig did much o f th e r e s e a r c h on f r u s t r a t io n on which th e P-F Study is

1. 2.

H. W allace S in a ik o , "The Rosenzw eig P ic t u r e F r u stra tio n Study in th e S e le c t io n o f Department S to r e S e c tio n Managers ," Journal o f A p p lied P sy ch o lo g y XXXIII (February, 1 9 4 9 ), pp. 36-42 S . B . Sarason and S a u l Roe en zw eig, "An Experim ental Study of the R e la tio n s h ip o f F r u s tr a tio n R ea ctio n E go-D efen se, and h y p n o t iz a b ilit y ," P s y c h o lo g ic a l B u l l e t i n , XfflCEX (1942),pp.456-457. S . B . and S a u l R osen zw eig, "An E xperim en tal Study o f the Triadic h y p o th e s is : R ea c tio n to F r u s t r a tio n , E go-D efense, and Hypnot i z a b i l i t y . I I Thematic A p p ercep tion Approach," Character and P e r s o n a l i t y . XI (1 9 4 2 ), p p. 1 5 0 -1 6 5 .

261 b a sed .

R e p r e ssio n was evalu ated by th e r e c a l l o f 15 jig -s a w p ic tu r e

p u z z le s , on h a lf o f which the su b je c ts had been allow ed t o succeed and on h a l f o f w hich th ey had f a i l e d .

S ev era l m in u tes a f t e r th e

com p letion o f th e l a s t p u zzle th e amount o f r e c a l l was m easured. The r e s u lt s o f th e experim ent in d ica ted a p o s it iv e c o r r e la t io n o f ,5 4 betw een th e amounts o f r ep ressio n and im p u n itiv e n e ss, and a c o r r e la t io n o f ,6 6 betw een r e p r e ssio n and h y n o t iz a b i lit y . The s c o r in g norms f o r th e P-F Study have been sta n d a rd ized f o r each p ic t u r e w ith f i f t y normal fe m a le s, f i f t y normal m a le s, and f i f t y m en tal p a tie n ts ,-* - This i s a d m itted ly a ra th e r sm all norm ative group.

However, one or two s tu d ie s s in c e th e s ta n d a r d iz a tio n have

produced r e s u l t s t h a t conform in gen eral w ith th e e s ta b lis h e d norms. Although one s tu d y su g g e sts " that fo r p r e d ic t iv e purposes equal r e lia n c e can n ot b e p la ced upon a l l o f th e s c o r in g c a t e g o r i e s ,”2 The same stu d y in d ic a te d th a t "the in tr a -m a tr ix r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f th e P-F Study compare fa v o r a b ly w ith r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f th e s c o r in g c a t e g o r ie s o f o th e r p r o j e c t iv e t e s t s such a s th e Roschach. . ." C la rk e, R osenzweig and Fleming® conducted th r e e in v e s t ig a ­ t io n s in w hich 8 2 , 1 3 6 , and 125 record s were scored in d ep en d en tly by from two to f o u r exam iners.

In the th r e e s u c c e s s iv e s t u d ie s i t

was found p o s s i b l e t o in c r e a se th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f sc o r in g to th e

1, j J

2, 3,

S , R o sen zw eig , H, J . C lark e, M, S , G a r fie ld , and A, L eh n d orff, " S co rin g Sam ples fo r th e Rosenzweig P ic tu r e -F r u s tr a tio n S tu d y ," Jou rn al o f P sych ology. 3QCI (1 9 4 6 ), pp. 4 5 -7 2 , Jack B ernard, "The Rosenzweig P ic tu r e -F r u s tr a tio n Study: I Norms, R e l i a b i l i t y , and S t a t i s t i c a l E v a lu a tio n ," Journal o f P sy c h o lo g y . XXVIII (1 9 4 9 ), p p . 325-3 3 2 , H. J , C la rk e, S . Rosenzweig,and E. E. Flem ing, "The R e l i a b i l i t y o f th e S c o r in g o f th e Rosenzweig P ic tu r e F r u s tr a tio n Study," J o u rn a l o f C l i n i c a l P sych ology. I l l (O ctober, 1 9 4 7 ), p p . 3 6 4 -3 6 9 ,

262 p o in t o f a p p ro x im a tely 85$ agreem ent betw een two independent scorers d e a lin g w ith group admin i s tr e r e a t e s t s c o r e s .

Scoring samples and

p r i n c i p l e s were r e v is e d and improved in th e l i g h t o f these fin din gs. As a r e s u l t th e a u th o r s con clu d e th a t I t sh o u ld be p o s s ib le from t h i s p o in t on fo r in d ivi­ d u a ls u sin g th e P tF to s c o r e r e s p o n se s w ith a degree o f r e l i a b i l i t y which m eets any r e a so n a b le expectation f o r a c o n t r o lle d p r o j e c t iv e te c h n iq u e o f t h is kind. T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n has a ls o d em onstrated th a t the s c o r in g f a c t o r s in v o lv e d in th e Study len d them­ s e l v e s to c o n s is t e n t and o b j e c t iv e a p p lic a tio n . On th e b a s i s o f th e s t u d ie s rev iew ed i t i s reasonable to co n clu d e t h a t w h ile th e p u rp oses f o r w hich th e P-F Study may be used and i t s v a l i d i t y f o r th e s e p u rp o ses have n o t been d e fin ite ly and p o s i t i v e l y e s t a b l i s h e d , th e w eig h t o f th e r e se a r c h completed thus f a r sug g e s t s t h a t f u r th e r r e s e a r c h w i l l str e n g th e n the th eoretical fo u n d a tio n o f th e in stru m en t and d is c o v e r new ways in which i t can be used t o p r e d ic t b e h a v io r .

I t i s unique a s a p erson ality measure

b eca u se i t sta n d s midway in d e s ig n betw een th e word-techniques, R osenzw eig p o in t s ou t th a t th e . . . P -F p ic t u r e s u n lik e th e T .A .T . a re f a i r l y uniform i n c h a r a c te r and - what i s more im p ortan t - are employed t o e l i c i t y r e l a t i v e l y sim p le v e r b a l r e sp o n ses circum­ s c r ib e d in both le n g t h and p u r p o r t. The technique th u s r e t a i n s scute o f th e o b j e c t iv e ad van tages of the w o r d - a s s o c ia tio n t e s t w h ile a t th e same tim e approach­ in g t o a d egree th e m otor a s p e c t s o f p e r s o n a lity which t h e TA.T i s in ten d ed to p r o b e . ^

j

Loc»

• 2.

S a u l R o sen zw eig , "The P ic t u r e - A s s o c ia t io n Method and I ts Application in a Study o f R e a c tio n s t o F r u s t r a t i o n ," Journal of Personality, XIV ( 1 9 4 5 ) , p p. 3 - 2 3 ,

263 As has a lrea d y been p o in ted o u t , enough in form ation about th e P-F Study e x i s t s to warrant i t s use a s a r e se a r c h instrum ent in th e study o f p e r s o n a lit y ,

f o r th e purposes o f t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n

i t has d e f in i t e advantages over any o th er p e r s o n a lity m easure. With th e P -F Study th ere i s no p o s s i b l i t y o f aro u sin g a n x ie ty in th e s tu d e n ts su b jec ted t o i t as i s p o s s ib le in the case o f th e M innesota M u ltip h a sic P e r s o n a lity Inventory# m oreover, i s e a s i l y and cjuiclcly a d m in istered .

The P -F S tudy, • For a l l th e se

r e a s o n s , t h e r e f o r e , th e R osensw eig P-F Study was s e le c t e d to e x p lo r e th e r e la tio n s h ip between p a r tic u la r p a tte r n s o f behavior and perform ance in a reading improvement program. S e lf-A d m in iste r in g P r a c tic e F x e r c is e s In approaching the d is c u s s io n o f p r a c t ic e e x e r c is e s in read­ in g p r e se n te d h e r e , i t i s im portant to review the D e lim ita tio n s s e t f o r t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n in Chapter I .

I t was s ta t e d t h e r e , t o b egin

w ith , th a t r e a d in g in s t r u c t io n would b e done by means o f p u b lish ed p r a c t ic e e x e r c is e s in s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g m anuals.

The rea so n f o r

t h is d e lim it a t io n i s apparent in th e fo llo w in g statem ent contained in a l e t t e r to th e in v e s t ig a t o r w r itte n by P r o fe s so r Robert M. B ear, Chairman o f the Department o f P sy ch o lo g y and D ir e c to r o f th e Reading C lin ic a t Dartmouth C o lleg e: To ensure th a t your fin d in g s would have th e w id e st u s e f u ln e s s , i t would seem t h a t the m a te r ia ls employed in th e experim ent sh ou ld be a v a ila b le f o r g en era l p u rc h a se . S ec o n d ly , i t was p oin ted ou t th a t t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n was design ed to make a c o n tr ib u tio n to the e v a lu a tio n o f read in g improvement programs

264

in g e n e r a l and t h a t i t was t h e s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g technique of reading improvement w hich was t o be e v a lu a te d r a th e r than my sp e cific m a t e r ia ls a s s u c h .

T ra x ler in an a p p r a is a l o f techniques of

h e lp in g p oor and d is a b le d rea d ers in h ig h sch o o ls and junior col­ l e g e s had o n ly r e c e n t l y p o in te d ou t t h a t N ot in f r e q u e n t ly , slow r e a d e r s in th e upper years of th e secon d ary s c h o o l and in th e ju n io r c o lleg e become aware t h a t th e y a r e handicapped by in e f f ic ie n t read­ in g h a b it s and seek a id from t h e ir coun selor, the s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g is t , th e r e m ed ia l-rea d in g teacher, o r one o f t h e ir cla ssro o m i n s t r u c t o r s . ! When t h i s o c c u r s , T ra x ler f e e l s th a t th e sc h o o l should be in a p osi­ t io n to s u g g e s t s u i t a b l e p r a c t ic e m a t e r ia ls and give informal gu id an ce ev en though i t may n o t have d evelop ed a d efin ite reading program .

E x p er ien ce show s, he s t a t e s , t h a t some students rtare

a b le t o improve t h e i r r ea d in g ach ievem en t s ig n if ic a n tly through in d ep en d en t s t u d y .”2

T h e r e fo r e , he f e e l s ”th a t i t would be d esir­

a b le f o r a l l s c h o o ls t o make t h i s ty p e o f p ro v isio n fo r backward r e a d e r s ”3 so t h a t a c o n s id e r a b le number o f s e lf - r e li a n t students co u ld ta k e ad van tage o f t h i s o p p o r tu n ity f o r s e lf - h e lp . . . . I t would be w orth w h ile f o r some school to carry on an ex p erim en t t o m easure th e improvement resu lting from t h i s p ro ce d u re. W hile i t i s known in a general way t h a t t h i s p la n has r e s u lt e d in la r g e gains in in d iv id u a l c a s e s , a p p a r e n tly no c a r e fu l ob jective stu d y o f improvement h a s been r e p o r te d .^

1.

2• 3. 4.

A rth u r E . T r a x le r , " A p p raisal o f Techniques o f Helping Poor and D isa b le d R eaders in H igh S c h o o ls and Junior C olleges,” in The A p p r a isa l o f C urrent P r a c t ic e s in Reading, Supplementary E d u c a tio n a l Monographs No. 61, p . 147. L oc. c i t • L o c. c i t . L o c. c i t .

265

S in c e th e s e lf-a d m in is te r in g techn iqu e o f read in g improvement had n ot been in v e s t ig a te d or ev a lu a ted , and s in c e read in g e x p e r ts f e l t th a t i t needed t o be in v e s tig a te d t h is in v e s t ig a t io n was d esign ed to a c h ie v e t h i s purpose. A ccord in gly i t was decided th a t reading in s t r u c t io n vrould be done by means o f p r a c tic e e x e r c is e s coverin g th e fou r p r in c ip a l s k i l l s w hich the in q u iry of the Committee on D ia g n o stic Reading T ests had determ ined t o be the areas most need ing a t t e n t io n , i . e . , r a te o f r e a d in g , v o cab u alry, comprehension, and word r e c o g n it io n .

In

th e sea rch fo r ap p rop riate s e lf-a d m in is te r in g e x e r c is e s , th e most r e c e n t study^- o f cu rren t p r a c tic e s in c o lle g e s and u n iv e r s it ie s w hich have developed reading programs, m s c o n s u lte d .

In th e l i s t

o f p u b lish ed manuals reported by L in d q u ist, f i v e were mentioned so much more fr e q u e n tly than any o f th e o th er th a t th ey stand out c l e a r l y as th o se m ost favored by sc h o o ls which have reading improve­ ment program s.

These manuals a r e : 2

Strang:

Study Type o f Reading E x e r c ise s

MeC a lli s t e r :

Purposeful Reading in C o lleg e

W ilking and Webster: T r ig g s : P r e sse y :

A C o lleg e D evelopm ental Reading Manual

Improve Your Reading Manual o f Reading E x e r c is e s f o r Freshmen

1.

F r a n k lin R. L in d q u ist, A Survey o f the Nature o f th e Reading I n str u c ­ t io n B eing Provided C ollege S tud en ts in the Academic Year 1 9 4 7 -1 9 4 8 ,

2,

These manuals a re a l l l i s t e d in the b ib lio g r a p h y .

266

S tr a n g » s Study Type o f R eading ffxercises i s a booklet c o n ta in in g tw e n ty , o n e-th o u sa n d word p a ssa g e s each of which deals w ith th e th e o r y o f r e a d in g and s tu d y ,

This manual has been used

on a m o d ifie d s e lf - a d m in is t e r i n g b a s i s but i t was developed for group work under th e s u p e r v is io n o f an in s tr u c to r .

I t is accom­

p a n ied by a T eacher*s Manual w hich c o n ta in s a scoring key,

The

p u rp ose o f th e Study Type o f R eading E x e r c is e s i s to help students im prove t h e i r r e a d in g r a t e and com prehension.

The student records

th e tim e r e q u ir e d t o r e a d each e x e r c i s e and answers the questions a t t h e end w hich p r o v id e th e com prehension check.

The f i r s t ten

e x e r c i s e s a r e ea ch fo llo w e d by t h r e e m u ltip le choice questions t e s t i n g a b i l i t y t o s e l e c t th e amin id e a and lo c a te important d e ta ils .

The l a s t t e n e x e r c i s e s a r e fo llo w e d by four essay type

q u e s t io n s .

The f i r s t two c o v e r t h e m ain id ea of the selectio n

and s u p p o r tin g d e t a i l s .

The l a s t two d e a l w ith inferences which

can be drawn from th e s e l e c t i o n and th e a p p lic a tio n of ideas con­ ta in e d in th e s e l e c t i o n .

W hile th e S tran g manual i s well conceived,

and u s e f u l in a number o f w a y s, i t d id n o t meet the c r ite r ia set up f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g p r a c t ic e exercies to be used in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

I t i s n o t e n t ir e l y a self-adm inistering

m anual and i t o n ly p r o v id e s p r a c t i c e in two o f the four major s k i l l s in w h ich r e a d in g improvement i s d e s ir a b l e , r a te and comprehension. No e x e r c i s e s a r e in c lu d e d w h ich se e k to improve vocabular and word

|J r e c o g n it io n

s k ills .

267

M c C a lliste r ’s Purpose f u l Reading in C o lleg e and A C o lleg e D evelopm ental Reading Manual both make use o f i l l u s t r a t i v e m a te r ia ls tak en from c o lle g e textbooks and r e fe r e n c e s in th e f i e l d s o f E n g lis h , s o c i a l s c ie n c e , b io lo g ic a l s c ie n c e , and p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s . M c C a lliste r does devote one o f th e tw e lv e chap ters in h is manual to en cou ragin g reading fo r p erso n a l p lea su re but W iIking and Webster have con cen trated e n tir e ly on f a i r l y d i f f i c u l t s e le c t io n s from t y p ic a l c o l l e g e textbooks and the primary source m a te r ia l which th e stu d e n t must read as o u tsid e a ssig n m en ts.

They did t h i s , th e y

say in t h e i r manual b ecau se, . . . P r e v io u s ly m anuals d e sig n e d t o im prove r e a d in g a b i l i t y have s u g a r-c o a te d th e p i l l o f re a d in g m a t t e r . Under th e g u ise o f ”1110t iv a t i n g ” th e rea d er, th e m a te r ia l has been made as sim ple and e a s ily under­ sto o d th a t there can be no c o n ceiv a b le tr a n s fe r to th e ty p e o f reading req u ired o f th e c o lle g e s t u d e n t .1 T his im m ediately d is q u a lif ie s the W ilking-W ebstsr manual because i t s d i f f i c u l t y i s such th at i t cannot be used on a self-^adm ini s to r in g b a s is w ith stu d en ts who f a l l in th e bottom h a lf of t h e ir c o lle g e c l a s s on th e b a s is o f reading a b i l i t y in th e average sm all i n s t i t u ­ t io n .

Moreover the manual i s n ot s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g , b e in g designed

p r im a r ily f o r classroom u se .

Answers to the readin g e x e r c is e s are

co n ta in ed in a sep arate b o o k let.

The e x e r c is e s are concerned

e n t i r e l y w ith th e improvement of r a t e and com prehension.

, 1.

L is t s

S . V in cen t W ilking and Robert G, W ebster, A C o lleg e Developm ental Reading Manual. p. ix .

268

o f r o o t s and a f f i x e s a r e in c lu d e d in an appendix.

Under th e su p er­

v i s i o n o f an in s t r u c t o r th e s e cou ld be used for vocabular improvement. The M c C a llis te r manual a ls o f a i l s to meet the c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i n g t h e s e lf - a d m in is t e r i n g e x e r c ise s employed in t h is in v e s tig a tio n .

I t c o n t a in s none o f the basic word recognition

s k i l l s such as t h o s e sam pled by S e c tio n IV, Word Attack, Part 2 , S i l e n t o f th e D ia g n o s tic R eading T e s ts , although M cCallister does d e v o te one ch a p te r in h i s manual to ways of inoreading vocabulary th ro u g h r e a d in g .

Furtherm ore i t was f e l t that the comprehension

e x e r c i s e s in P u r p o s e fu l R eading in C ollege were too r e s tr ic te d f o r th e p u r p o se s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

A ll of the reading s e le c t io n s

in t h i s manual a r e f o llo w e d by t e n statem ents:

(1) some statem en ts

rep ro d u ce id e a s c o n ta in e d i n t h e s e le c t io n , (2) some present id e a s w hich can b e in fe r r e d from th e s e l e c t i o n , (3) some statements con­ t a i n id e a s t h a t a r e i n c o r r e c t , and (4) some statements are com­ p le t e ly ir r e le v a n t.

The rea d er i s sim ply asked to check statem en ts

t h a t f i t t h e f i r s t tw o c a t e g o r i e s .

I t must be pointed out hare

t h a t M c C a llis t e r ’ s manual i s w id e ly used and to good purpose.

The

f a c t t h a t i t d o e s n o t m eet th e n eed s o f th is in vestigation i s no c r i t i c i s m o f th e manual* P r e s s e y ’ s Manual o f R eading E xercises for Freshmen was n o t s e l e c t e d f o r U3e i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n prim arily for two reason s.

i

I t d o es n o t c o n ta in th e b a s ic word reco g n itio n exercises p r e v io u sly d e s c r ib e d and i t d oes c o n t a in "eye^s$retching" exercises which

269

acco rd in g to p r e v a ilin g expert o p in io n are p s y c h o lo g ic a lly unsound. Moreover t h is manual which was p u b lish ed in 1928, c o n ta in s a number o f ou tdated re fe r e n c e s and f e a t u r e s .

This was one o f th e p io n eer

manuals in the reading improvement a r e a .

That i t i s s t i l l popular

and w id ely used bespeaks the f a c t th a t i t t o o , l i k e th e o th er manuals which have been d is c u s s e d , has many good p o in t s . The survey o f reading improvement manuals f i n a l l y r e s u lte d in th e s e le c t io n o f Improve Your Reading^- and Improve Your S p e llin g 3 f o r u se in t h is in v e s t ig a t io n .

W hile th e se are two sep a ra te p u b li­

c a t io n s , i t can be sta te d th a t i t i s on ly an a c c id e n t th a t th e b a s ic word r e c o g n itio n e x e r c is e s co n tain ed in Improve Your S p e llin g were n o t p u b lish ed in Improve Your R eading.

The g u id in g l i g h t behind

b oth o f th e se manuals was Frances O ralind T riggs now Chairman o f th e Committee on D iagn ostic Reading T e s ts .

In her p r o f e s s io n a l t e x t on

reading® she p o in ts out th a t the read in g improvement manual only in c id e n t a lly touches upon th e b a sic word r e c o g n itio n s k i l l s such a s sound id e n t if ic a t io n and s y lla b ic a t io n .

S in ce she f e l t th a t th e

g r e a t e s t need fo r supplementary p r a c t ic e would occur in t h i s area she in clu d ed a number o f e x e r c is e s based on th e se s k i l l s in her p r o fe s ­ s io n a l t e x t f o r reading s p e c i a l i s t s , 4

1. 2.

5. 4.

The Improve Your S p e llin g

Frances Oralind T rig g s, Improve Your R eading. Franoes Oralind Triggs and Edwin W. Robbins, Improve Your S p e llin g . Both th e s e manuals are no lo n g er a v a ila b le from t h e ir o r ig in a l p u b lish e r s but may be secured from th e Committee on D ia g n o stic Reading T e s ts , 419 W. 119th S t r e e t , New York, N .Y. whioh has sponsored t h e ir r e p r in t in g . Frances Oralind T riggs, Remedial R eading: The D ia g n o sis and and C orrection o f Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s a t th e C ollege L e v e l, p . 111. I b id . . pp. 112-128,

270

manual was p u b lis h e d one y e a r l a t e r to meet th is need more f u lly * H ence t h e m a te r ia l in Improve Your Reading and the word r e c o g n itio n e x e r c is e s in Improve Your S p e l l i n g , f o r the purposes of t h is in v e s ­ t i g a t i o n can r e a l l y be co n sid e r e d as one manual.

When th e se p u b li­

c a t io n s a r e r e v is e d in t h e n ea r fu tu re they w ill be issued a s a s i n g l e p u b lic a t io n * Improve Your R eading and Improve Your Spelling were s e le c te d a s t h e p r a c t ic e e x e r c i s e s t o be used in th is in v estig a tio n b ecau se th e y m eet a l l t h e c r i t e r i a o f s e le c t io n estab lish ed in Chapter I: (1 ) th e y a r e c o m p le te ly s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g , (2) they are in p r in t and r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , (3 ) th e y con tain practice exercises in a l l f o u r a r e a s in w h ich i t h a s b een demonstrated reading improvement can be e f f e c t e d , n a m ely, word r e c o g n itio n , vocabulary, comprehension, and r a t e o f r e a d in g .

M oreover s in c e the person who developed b o th

m anuals i s a l s o t h e p e r so n p r im a r ily responsible fo r the development o f t h e D ia g n o s t ic R eading T e s t s th e r e is a close r ela tio n sh ip between t h e d ia g n o s t ic in str u m e n ts u sed in t h is in vestigation and th e reme­ d i a l m easu res em p loyed.

A d e s c r ip t io n of the reading improvement

e x e r c i s e s i n t h e m anuals s e l e c t e d i s presented here* The word r e c o g n it io n e x e r c is e s used in th is in v e s t ig a tio n a r e in c lu d e d in th e f i r s t two section s^ - of Improve Your S p e llin g . The t h ir d and l a s t s e c t i o n o f t h i s p u b lication deals with th e s p e l l ­ in g c o n v e n t io n s .

1.

S e c t io n I i s devoted to the sp ellin g of E n g lish

T r ig g s and R o b b in s, oj>. c i t *. p p . 12-56.

271

sounds, vow el-consonant com binations, and s y lla b ic a t io n . d e a ls w ith word f a m ilie s .

S e c tio n II

Gray^ has p oin ted out th a t th ere are about

f o r ty -th r e e sep arate and d i s t i n c t phonemes, or sound u n it s , commonly used in g e n e ra l American sp eech .

Because we have only tw e n ty -six

symbols w ith which to rep resen t th e se sounds, c e r ta in o f th e symbols must be used t o rep resen t more than one sound. trou b led many a read er.

This s it u a t io n has

The f i r s t three e x e r c is e s in Improve Your

S p e llin g a re d esign ed to g iv e stu d en ts p r a c tic e in th e s p e llin g and id e n t if ic a t io n o f E n g lish sounds.

E x e r c ise I d e a ls w ith vowel sounds,.

E x e r cise I I w ith consonant sounds, and E x e r c ise I I I w ith "hard spots" found in ir r e g u la r w ords. Gray2 has d eclared th a t in the p a st th e tea ch in g o f phono­ grams has le d t o much co n fu sio n on th e p a rt o f rea d ers because th e s o -c a lle d "helper" or "fam ily" l e t t e r com binations did not always c o in c id e w ith s y lla b ic d i v is io n s .

In E x e r c ise s IV, V and VI o f

Improve Your S p e llin g sound p r in c ip le s are g iv e n f o r id e n t if y in g and pronouncing vow el-consonant com binations. p r a c t ic e in s y lla b ic a t io n .

E x er cise V II f o llo w s w ith

In s e c t io n I I o f Improve Your S p e llin g

p r a c t ic e e x e r c is e s are provided which d e a l w ith p r e f ix e s , s u f f i x e s , r o o ts and a c c e n t s .

I t i s e v id e n t from t h i s d e s c r ip tio n th a t the

f i r s t two s e c t io n s o f Improve Your S p e llin g provid e th e stu d en t w ith p r a c t ic e e x e r c is e s in two o f th e most b a sic a id s to th e p ercep tio n o f

1. 2.

W illiam S . Gray, On Their Own in Reading, p . 91. I b i d ., p . 1 5 .

272

o f w ords in r e a d in g :

s t r u c t u r a l a n a ly sis and phonetic a n a l y s is .

I t h as b een p r e v io u s ly s t a t e d th a t about ten per cent o f c o lle g e s tu d e n t s a r e so r e ta r d e d in read in g that they need to p r e fa c e t h e i r work w ith r e a d in g e x e r c i s e s by f ir s t being exposed t o ex er­ c i s e s d e s ig n e d t o d e v e lo p th e b a sic word perception s k i l l s j u s t d e s c r ib e d .

I t was f o r t h i s reason that the word attack e x e r c is e s

were in c lu d e d in t h i s in v e s t i g a t io n as i t was pointed out in the D e lim it a t io n s in C hapter I . Improve Your R eading g o es on to give p ractice in th e higher r e a d in g s k i l l s .

Much a d d it io n a l work in word recognition i s provided

in e x e r c i s e s ru n n in g th rou gh th e manual dealing with r o o ts and a ffix e s . E x e r c is e s a r e a l s o in c lu d e d t o h elp students learn to use con text c lu e s in d e r iv in g m eaning and o th er exercises are designed t o teach and en co u ra g e th e u se o f th e d ic tio n a r y . The e x e r c i s e s in Improve Your Reading are arranged in twentyf i v e a s s ig n m e n ts , one f o r ea ch o f f iv e days in fiv e weeks. ment can be co m p leted in ab ou t one hour. week p e r io d f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s .

Each assign­

Triggs decided upon a fiv e

In the f i r s t place she r e a liz e d that

in many c a s e s , a s B u sw ell h a s p o in ted out, fiv e weeks are a s much tim e a s e i t h e r s tu d e n t or te a c h e r can afford to g iv e.

S econ d ly, she

f e e l s t h a t th e s h o r te r th e c o u r se , the b etter the chance o f su stain in g th e s t u d e n t s w i l l to work f o r improvement. , •

For t h e f i r s t week t h e assignments are based on f i v e essays or e x p la n a to r y s e c t i o n s t h a t g iv e th e student a general p ic tu r e of the

273

cou rse and an understanding o f th e d if f e r e n t s k i l l s th a t make up good rea d in g .

Hie f i r s t one, 'What i s Good Reading?" d e sc r ib e s th e

nature o f th e reading p r o c e s s , l i s t s the s k i l l s in v o lv ed , and d is c u s s e s th e problems o f v aryin g r a te and method according to purpose in rea d in g .

The second exp lan atory s e c t io n "Stream line

Your Reading," d is c u s s e s th e u se s and methods o f v a rio u s r a t e s o f reading such as skimming, g en era l typ e read in g, and work-type rea d in g .

In th e th ir d e ssa y the stu d en t i s introduced to th e

a r t o f vocabualry b u ild in g .

In

th e

fo u r th and f i f t h e ssa y s com­

p reh en sion and c r i t i c a l read in g

are

str e sse d .

During th e f i r s t week a s he reads one e ssa y s each day th e stu d en t i s a ls o c a lle d upon

of th e se exp lan atory to com plete b r ie f

p r a c tic e e x e r c is e s r e la te d t o th e s k i l l under d is c u s s io n .

Through­

out the assign m ents o f th e reuiaining fou r w eeks, e x e r c is e s in th e fo u r major s k i l l s are woven to g e th e r so t h a t p r a c tic e in a l l o f them co n tin u es a t a f a i r l y even p a c e .

From th e beginning o f th e

second week u n t il th e end o f th e self-im p rovem en t cou rse a stu d en t i s asked to do a d a ily e x e r c is e in timed rea d in g , w hich, though i t i s intended p rim a r ily t o speed up h is rea d in g r a t e , a c t u a lly g iv e s him p r a c tic e a ls o in skimming, comprehending, and w r itin g summaries. Accompanying th e d ir e c t io n s f o r t h i s e x e r c is e are a ch art and a graph on which th e stu d en t record s h is p rogress in th e tim ed read in g . From th e b egin n in g o f th e th ir d week, the stu d en t i s i

expected t o read a t l e a s t tw enty pages a day from a book he has chosen f o r i t s i n t e r e s t , and s in c e t h is i s "reading f o r p leasu re"

274

he i s asked to c o n sid e r i t r e c r e a tio n and not a part of h is d a ily h o u r 's a ssig n m e n t.

Most o f the exercises in skimming and timed read­

in g are based on a r t i c l e s in The Header* s Digest because th e author o f th e manual b e l i e v e s th e a r t i c l e s in th is periodical to be su ita b le in form and c o n te n t to th e l e v e l and purpose of the beginning remedial program.

A r t i c l e s in The Reader*s Digest are short, r e la t iv e ly simple

and uniform in v o ca b u la ry a s ■'.veil as being timely and in te r e s t in g in s u b je c t m a tte r .

This i s a d if f e r e n t point of view from th a t expressed

by W ilk in g and W ebster who seem to be governed by the theory o f "the more d i f f i c u l t th e b e t t e r . M P sych ologically Triggs1 view would appear t o be th e sounder o f th e tw o. Answer k ey s a re in clu d ed a t the end of both improve Your Reading and Improve Your S p e llin g .

In order to make i t p o s s ib le to

use th e manual f o r cla ssro o m work the pages on which the e x e r c is e s are p r in te d a re p e r fo r a te d so th a t they can ea sily be detached and turned in where t h i s i s p o s s i b l e .

In th is investigation th e answer

k eys were cu t out o f th e manuals and students were required to detach and tu rn in th e p a g e s from t h e ir manuals as precautionary m easures. The e x a c t p roced u re w hich was used i s described in the next s e c tio n .

OrgEtnization and Procedure Followed With, the P erson n el and M aterials The d esign o f th e experiment conducted to c o l l e c t the data needed to t e s t the p a tte r n o f e v a lu a tio n d ev ised in t h i s in v e s t ig a tio n i s charted on the l a s t page o f Chapter 17 a t th e end o f t h is s e c t io n . At t h i s p o in t the o r g a n iza tio n of th e experim ent and th e s te p -b y -ste p procedure w i l l be d e scr ib e d . Step 1 .

The 104 Freshmen who en tered S t . F rancis C ollege in

September, 1949, were g iven th e fo llo w in g t e s t s on September 8 -9 , 1949: American Council on Education P s y c h o lo g ic a l Examination 1947 C o lleg e E d itio n D ia g n o stic Reading T ests Survey S e c tio n , Form A S e c tio n IV: Word A ttack , S i l e n t , Form A Because o f the complex n ature o f reading and th e d i f f i c u l t y o f con­ t r o l li n g the many v a r ia b le s r e la te d to i t s development as p oin ted out by Strang, in the o r ig in a l p lan subm itted fo r t h i s in v e s t ig a tio n any stu d en t who sought help a f t e r b ein g informed o f h is performance on the reading t e s t s d escrib ed in Step No. 1 was to have been p erm itted to work w ith s e lf-a d m in iste r in g e x e r c is e s .

Upon com pletion o f the prac­

t i c e e x e r c is e s and a f t e r a p eriod o f no p r a c t ic e , i t was planned to make an ev a lu a tio n o f changes th a t the normal p ro g ress o f even ts ra th er than experim ental m anipulation had brought about.

In other

words i t had been planned to make use o f the s e le c t i v e type o f research d escribed by P e ters and VanVoorhis^ and rep orted in th e section on

1,

C harles C, P e ter s and W alter R. VahVoorhis, S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures and Their M athem atical B a se s. pp. 445-446,

276

E v a lu a t io n .

However, b ecau se o f the nature of th is in v e s tig a tio n ,

th e Committee f e l t t h a t a more formal experimental d e sig n involv­ in g an e x p e r im e n ta l group and a control group would be p referrab le. The b a s i s f o r s e t t i n g up th e se groups is described in S tep Mo. 2. S tep 2 .

From a rank order l i s t of the bottom h a lf of the

Septem ber, 1949 e n t e r in g Freshman cla ss at S t. Francis C ollege based on th e t o t a l sco re on Form A, Survey Section, of the D iagn ostic R eading T e s t s , an E x p erim en tal Group and a Control Group were se t up by means o f th e s p l i t - h a l f technique.

This procedure fo llo w s

th e recom m endation o f P e t e r s and VanVoorhis to "match on th e basis o f good o b j e c t i v e m easures o f the present status in th e fu n ction t o be ex p erim en ted u p o n .”-1W h ile th e p la n was to work with the bottom h a lf o f the e n t e r in g c l a s s o f 104 s tu d e n t s , as a precautionary measure to a llo w f o r p o s s i b l e d r o p -o u ts , the bottom 58 students were used in s e t t i n g up th e g r o u p s.

Hence 29 matched pairs r e s u lte d .

Within

th e f i r s t w eek, t h r e e s tu d e n ts dropped-out of school n e c e s s ita tin g th e e lim in a t io n o f th r e e p a ir s and bringing the number o f matched p a ir s to 2 6 .

A l l 26 p a ir s continued through the p r a c tic e period

and th e p o s t - t e s t i n g w hich took place on November 2 1 -2 2 .

On

January 5 , 1 9 5 0 , Case Ho. e o f the Experimental Group was forced t o le a v e s c h o o l b eca u se o f i l l n e s s in the fam ily.

This student

co n sen ted t o come in f o r th e f in a l te stin g on March 18 and as a r e s u l t co m p lete d a ta were c o lle c te d on a l l 26 matched p a i r s .

1.

I b id ., p . 450.

277

Step 3 .

S tu d en ts in both the Experim ental and Control Groups

were given th e Rosenzweig P ic tu r e -F r u s tr a tio n Study on September 9, 1949. Step 4 .

During th e eight-w eek p eriod from the opening o f

the F a ll sem ester on September 19 to November 18, the Experim ental Group was exposed to s e lf-a d m in is te r in g p r a c tic e e x e r c is e s according to d ia g n o sis w h ile stu d en ts in th e Control Group r eceiv ed no p r a c t ic e . For th e f i r s t th r e e weeks of th e p r a c tic e period stu d en ts in th e Experim ental Group who were a t or below th e 50th p e r c e n t ile on e ith e r score one or two on S e c tio n 17, V.Tord A ttack , S i l e n t , Form A o f th e D ia g n o stic Reading T ests based on 12th grade norms pub­ lis h e d by the author, worked w ith th e pron u nciation and s y lla b ic a ­ tio n e x e r c is e s in S e c tio n s I and I I o f th e improve Your S p e llin g manual, pages 1 -5 6 .

This group in clud ed e lev en o f th e tw e n ty -six

stu d en ts in th e Experim ental Group fo r whom com plete data i s a v a i l­ a b le .

During th e l a s t f i v e weeks o f the p r a c t ic e period a l l 26

stu d en ts in th e E xperim ental Group wox*ked w ith a l l the e x e r c is e s in th e Improve Your R eading.m anual.

Hence th e stu d en ts exposed

to w ord-attack p r a c t ic e e x e r c is e s had th ree weeks exposure to th e improve Your S p e llin g manual from September 21 to October 1 1 , and f i v e weeks exposure to th e Improve Your Reading manual from October 13 to November 1 8 .

Those stu d en ts in th e Experim ental Group who

were n ot exposed to word a tta c k e x e r c is e s were exposed on ly to th e f iv e week p eriod o f p r a c t ic e from October 13 to November 18 during which the Improve Your Reading manual was used.

278

As was p o in te d out in the section on M e d ia tio n , the motiva­ t i o n o f s tu d e n t s who do remedial work always in flu e n c e s the extent to w hich th e y p r o f it #

In th e o rig in a l plan of the in v e s tig a tio n no

s tu d e n t w ould have e n te r e d upon remedial work except a t h is own r e q u e st.

T h e r e fo r e , th e element of motivation would have been

ta k en in t o a cc o u n t a lth o u g h i t would not have been measured exactly. In w orking w ith t h e bottom h a lf of the entering c l a s s , and because th e E x p erim en ta l and form al Control Groups were s e t up through the s p l i t - h a l f te c h n iq u e , stu d en ts were put into the Experim ental Group w ith o u t c h o ic e on t h e i r p a r t .

This did not permit th e students’

d e s i r e t o improve t h e i r reading s k ill s through rem ed ial work to o p e r a te u n ifo rm ly a s a m otivating fa cto r.

As a r e s u lt there was a

v a r i a t io n in th e i n t e r e s t and persistence with which students car­ r i e d on t h e i r w ork. S in c e t h e s e v a r ia tio n s were anticipated th e in vestigator saw e a c h s tu d e n t in t h e Experimental Group once each week during th e p r a c t i c e p e r io d . p r a c t i c e m a n u a ls.

The f i r s t interview was used t o introduce the

These weekly contacts were arranged to help main­

t a i n m o tiv a t io n , t o p r e v e n t students from fa llin g behind in the work, and t o p er m it s t u d e n t s to check th eir work against answer keys. A ls o , a t t h e s e c o n t a c t s students detached and turned in the per­ f o r a t e d work s h e e t s from t h e ir manuals. c o r r e c t t h e work s h e e t s .

The in v e s tig a to r did not

The arrangement to have th e work sheets

! tu rn ed in was a n o th e r p la n to maintain m otivation.

The weekly con-

I

t a c t s j u s t d e s c r ib e d r ep resen t the only departure from a s t r ic t in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e self-a d m in isterin g technique.

279

Step 5 .

On November 3 1 -2 2 , a f t e r the com pletion o f th e e ig h t -

xveek p r a c t ic e p eriod by th e Experim ental Group, both th e Experim ental and th e C on trol Groups took th e fo llo w in g p o 3 t - t e s t s : American C ouncil on Education P sy c h o lo g ic a l Examination 1946 C ollege E d itio n D ia g n o stic Reading T ests Survey S e c tio n , Form B S e c tio n IV: Word A tta ck , S i l e n t , Form B Step 6.

A p erio d o f our months from November 21 to March 18

was p erm itted to e la p se during which n e ith e r o f the groups used any p r a c tic e e x e r c is e s * S tep 7 .

At th e end of t h is in te r v a l o f no p r a c tic e comparable

forms o f th e s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y and reading t e s t s were g iv en a th ir d and f i n a l tim e.

These f i n a l t e s t s were—

American C ouncil on E ducation P sy c h o lo g ic a l Examination 1945 C o lleg e E d itio n D ia g n o stic Reading T ests Survey S e c tio n , Form C S e c tio n IV: Word A tta ck , S i l e n t Form A

I

I'

280 D esign o f th e Experiment

TIME SCHEDULE Entering Freshman Class - 104 Students

STEP 1

R E

SEPT. 8 -9

T E S T

Experimental Group and C ontrol Group set up by s p l i t h a lf technique from rank order l i s t of bottom h a lf o f c la ss based on t o t a l score on D.R.T.-Survey A Experimental Group Control Group 26 Students 26 Students

STEP 2 SEPT. 9

Experimental Group and C on trol Group Rosenzweig Picture F r u str a tio n Study

STEP 3 SEPT. 9 STEP 4 SEPT. 21 to NOV. 18

*

Experimental Group P ractice Period 8 Weeks

• •

Control Group No Practice

•

STEP 5 NOV.2 1 -2 2

A.C.E. - 1947 C o lleg e Edition D.R.T. - Survey, A D.R.T. - Word A tta ck , S ilen t A

Experimental Group and C ontrol Group P 0 S T

T A.C.E.-1946 C ollege E dition E D.R.T.-Survey, B S D.R.T.-Word A tta ck , S ile n t B. T

STEP 6 NOV. 21 to MAR. 18

Experimental Group and C on trol Group

STEP 7

Experimental Group and C ontrol Group

MAR.1 7 -1 8

Interval of No P r a c tic e - 4 Months

I T A.C.E. - 1945 C o lle g e Edition N E D.R.T. - Survey, C A S D.R.T. - Word A tta c k , S ilen t A L T

chapter

V

RESULTS

■While t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n has cen tered around an experim ent using the s e lf-a d m in is te r in g tech niq ue o f doing reading improvement an important elem ent in the study i s the p a ttern o f ev a lu a tio n which was ap p lied to the data c o lle c t e d in th e experim ental s it u a t io n . The s o lu tio n o f the main problem was sought by determ ining th e answers to a number o f subproblems which are l i s t e d here again in order th a t a l l the p e r tin e n t is s u e s may be review ed. 1.

What i s th e r e la t io n s h ip between gen eral s c h o la s t ic

a b ilit y and read in g s k i l l s as measured by th e instrum ents used in t h is in v e s tig a tio n ? 2.

Does exposure to th e s e lf-a d m in is te r in g tech n iq u e o f

reading improvement r e s u lt in s ig n if ic a n t changes in readin g s k i l l s ? 3.

Does exposure to th e s e lf-a d m in is te r in g tech n iq u e o f

reading improvement r e s u lt in s ig n if ic a n t ohanges in s c h o la s t io a b ility ? 4.

What i s th e r e la tio n s h ip between general s c h o la s t io

a b ilit y and dem onstrated changes in reading s k i l l s ?

282

5.

Do Various combinations o f lin g u is t ic and q u a n tita tiv e

a b i l i t i e s r e s u lt in sig n ifica n t changes in reading s k i l l s a f t e r exp osu re to th e self-ad m in istering tech n iq u e o f reading improve­ ment? 6,

Can Scholastic a b ility s c o r e s be used to p red ict

changes i n read in g s k ills resu ltin g from exposure to the s e l f a d m in is te r in g technique of reading improvement? 7*

Do various combinations o f a b i l i t i e s in comprehension

and r a t e o f reading resu lt in s ig n if ic a n t ly d ifferen t changes in re a d in g s k i l l s a fte r exposure to the se lf-a d m in iste r in g tech n iq u e o f r e a d in g improvement? 8. stu d e n ts

lh a t is the pattern of gain in reading s k ills

made by

who were exposed to word r e c o g n itio n practice e x e r c is e s as

compared w ith th ose who were not? 9*

I s there any sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e in sc h o la stic

a b i l i t y betw een students who are weak in word recognition and s tu d e n ts

who are not weak? 1 0 . I s the Rosenzweig Pi ct ure- Fru s t ra t ion Study of

any

u se i n p r e d ic t in g changes in reading s k i l l s r esu ltin g from ex p o su re t o th e self-ad m in isterin g tech n iq u e o f reading improve­ ment? Each o f the subproblems w i l l be d iscu ssed in turn in t h i s c h a p te r by reporting and in ter p r etin g th e resu lts o f the i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e la te d to them.

283

S t a t i s t i c a l Techniques Used in th e Treatment o f Data One o f th e f i r s t q u e stio n s concerning procedure which had to be d ecid ed in t r e a tin g th e data in t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n was whether a group o f tw e n ty -six in d iv id u a ls c o n s titu te d a sm all sample or a la r g e sam ple.

Peatman s t a t e s th a t th e concept o f

sm a ll sample th eory " is used to d e sc r ib e th e sam pling d is t r ib u t io n and r e la te d co n cep ts d erived f o r s t a t i s t i c s o f sam ples th a t are so sm all in s i z e ( l e s s than 25 or 50 c a s e s) a s to y ie ld sam pling d is t r ib u t io n s which d e f i n i t e l y d iv erg e from th e normal probabi­ l i t y type."*- B utsch w r ite s t h a t the l im it a t io n on th e use o f la r g e sample th eo ry 'Is u su a lly s e t a t 25 c a se s a s th e a b so lu te minimum."^

G arrett^ and P e te r s and Van V oorhis4 agree th a t la r g e

sample th eory may be used w ith samples o f t h ir t y or more c a s e s . In t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n , the Experim ental and C ontrol Groups each in clu d e tw e n ty -s ix in d iv id u a ls and th e subgroups s e t up f o r purposes o f e v a lu a tio n have even few er c a s e s . S in ce th e consensus o f s t a t i s t i c i a n s seemed to be th a t groups under t h ir t y c a s e s should be tr e a te d a s sm all sai7iples, i t was d ecid ed to use sm all sample th eory throughout t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n .

1. 2. 3. 4.

John Gray Peatman, D e s c r ip tiv e and Sampling S t a t i s t i c s , p . 324. New York: Harper and B ro th ers, 1947. R. L. C. B u tsch , How To Read S t a t i s t i c s , p . 1 5 5 . Milwaukee, W isconsin: The Bruce P u b lish in g Company, 1946. Henry E. G a rrett, S t a t i s t i c s in P sychology and E d ucation , p . 201. New York: Longmans, Green and C o., 1938. C harles C. P e te r s and W alter R. VanVoorhis, S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures and Their M athem atical B a ses, p . 179. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 19 40.

284

In research work in v o lv in g an experimental and a c o n t r o l group one of the most frequently used methods of comparing t h e groups i s that of testin g for s ig n ific a n c e the d iffe r e n c e b etw een th e two means.

This t e s t u su a lly in volves the r a t io o f th e

d iff e r e n c e between the two means t o eith er the probable e r r o r or th e standard error of the d iff e r e n c e between the means. The term ’’c r it ic a l r a t i o ,” which according to Walker^ was in v en ted by McGaughy, o r ig in a lly a p p lied to a p a r tic u la r v a lu e o f t h i s r a t io .

When the standard error of the d iffe r e n c e was

used a c r it ic a l ra tio of 3 was g e n e r a lly accepted as e v id e n c e o f a s ig n ific a n t difference and a c r i t i c a l r a tio of 4 was r e q u ir e d when the probable error o f the differen ce was used in th e formula,^

i f freedom from b ia s can be assumed in th e

s e l e c t i o n of the samples, the r a t io o f the d ifferen ce betw een two means and the standard error o f th is d ifferen ce depends upon two general factors:

the s i z e o f the d ifferen ce and th e

v a r i a b i l i t y of the two samples.

The le t te r ”t ” i s th e symbol

w hich has come in to popular use t o designate the t e s t o f s i g n i ­ f ic a n c e ju st described.

Some s t a t i s t i c i a n s 3 use c a p it a l ”T"

t o d e sig n a te the t e s t between la r g e samples and the sm a ll Mt ” t o d esig n a te the te s t of s ig n if ic a n c e between sm all sam p les, w h ile others use small ”t ” fo r b o th .

1. 2. 3.

Helen M. Walker, Elementary S t a t i s t i c a l Methods. p . 3 5 7 . New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1943. G a rrett, 0£ , c i t . , p. 217. Peatman, ojd, c i t . , p . 348.

285

S t a t i s t i c i a n s have shown t h a t, when the r a t io under d i s ­ cu ssio n i s based on th e chance d iff e r e n c e s th a t occur between th e means o f many p a ir s o f sam ples s e le c te d a t random from th e same p o p u la tio n o f s c o r e s , th e r a t io i t s e l f ten d s t o be d is tr ib u te d in a p a tte r n w hich fo llo w s th e normal p r o b a b ility cu rve, "pro­ vid ed th e combined number o f c a s e s in the two sam ples i s not l e s s than about 3 0 . if^

T h erefore, i t i s p o s s ib le to ev a lu a te

any ob tain ed r a t io in terms o f p r o b a b ilit y .

The v a lu e thus

ob tain ed i s g e n e r a lly r e fe r r e d to as th e " le v e l o f co n fid en ce or s ig n if ic a n c e ." In making a t e s t o f th e d iffe r e n c e between two means i t i s customary t o s e t up th e " n u ll h y p o th e s is," th a t th ere i s no d iffe r e n c e b e t..se n th e two means o f th e sam ples which are b ein g compared.

The in v e s t ig a t o r , in making th e t e s t , d e te r ­

mines whether th e r e i s any evidence th a t t h i s h y p o th esis i s probably f a l s e and th a t th e sam ples probably come from d if f e r e n t p o p u la tio n s .

On th e b a s is o f t h is h y p o th e s is , th e p r o b a b ility

i s determ ined th a t a v a lu e o f t a s la r g e a s , or la r g e r than th e ob tain ed v a lu e could occur on th e b a s is o f chance v a r ia t io n s in th e s e le c t i o n s o f th e sam p les.

On th e b a s is o f t h is proba­

b i l i t y v a lu e a c o n c lu sio n i s drawn a s to th e rea so n a b len ess o f th e n u ll h y p o th e s is.

I f th e p r o b a b ility i s very s m a ll, th e

n u ll h y p o th e sis i s r e j e c t e d a s improbable and the obtained

1.

G. M ilton Sm ith, A S im p lifie d Guide t o S t a t i s t i c s , p . 5 7 , New York: R inehart and Company, 1946.

286

difference is regarded a s s ig n ific a n t, that i s , th e h y p o t h s is t h a t the samples come from th e same population i s r e j e c t e d and i t i s co n ­ sidered probable that th ey represent two d if f e r e n t p o p u la t io n s . I f the probability i s l a r g e , the hypothesis sta n d s and th e o b ta in e d difference cannot be regarded as s ig n if ic a n t.

T his m eans t h a t th e

obtained value of t and th e difference between th e means on w h ich i t i s based, could have occurred from chance v a r i a t i o n in th e se le c tio n of samples from th e same population a s th e ly p o t h e s is assumed. I t has been domonstrated that the r a t i o o f th e d i f f e r e n c e between two means and th e standard error of t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s n o t normally d istrib u ted f o r sm all samples, and th a t t h e r e f o r e th e normal probability in t e g r a l table may not be used t o e v a lu a t e the sign ifican ce o f t h i s r a t io when the sample i s s m a ll.

In

order to make i t p o s s ib le t o use th is ra tio f o r t e s t i n g t h e differen ce between the means of small samples, W illia m S . G o s s e t, an English scholar who used the pseudonym ’•S tu d en t,'1 computed values of t for varying form s of the d is t r ib u tio n s o f s m a ll samples.

Later Fisher prepared a table of p r o b a b i l i t y v a lu e s

for small samples based on Student's d is tr ib u tio n when N i s l e s s than 30.

In th is ta b le a d iffe r e n t d is tr ib u tio n o f t i s fou n d

for each value of K or f o r each number of d egrees o f fr e e d o m . Ihe number of degrees o f freedom for any valu e o f t i s one l e s s than the number o f ca se s in volved , that i s , d . f .^ n - 1 .

A t a b le

has been included in th e appendix showing the f i v e p e r c e n t and one per cent values o f s ig n ific a n c e which is a m o d if ic a t io n o f F ish er's ta b le.

287

The sm a ll sample form ulas used in t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n have been taken from L in d q u ist

In a l l t e s t s between two sajaples o f

s c o r e s re p re sen tin g th e performance o f a s in g le group o f su b je c ts or th e performance o f two matched grou ps, L in d q u ist’ s formula d esign ed f o r use w ith c o r r e la te d sam ples has been u s e d ,2

This

forumula has been used in a l l t e s t s between the Experim ental and C ontrol Groups, s in c e th e se groups were matched, and in a l l t e s t s between two s e t s o f sco res d eriv ed from th e same in d iv id u a ls . In a l l oth er c a s e s th e sam ples have been co n sid ered independent and the form ula used was th a t g iv en by L in d q u ist fo r t e s t in g the s ig n if ic a n c e o f a d iffe r e n c e in th e means o f independent sm all 12

samples.*3 L in d q u ist’ s form ula f o r t e s t i n g th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f a d iff e r e n c e in th e means o f c o r r e la te d sam ples i s u s e fu l because i t r e l i e v e s th e worker o f th e n e c e s s it y o f computing any r between th e s e r i e s .

This i s tr u e because th e standard d e v ia tio n o f the

d iff e r e n c e s between p a ir e d sc o r e s d iv id e d by th e square r o o t o f the number o f such p a ired s c o r e s , the tech niq ue used by L in d q u ist, i s a c t u a lly the standard erro r o f th e d iffe r e n c e between th e means o f p a ired groups.^ In a d d itio n to th e t - t e s t th e o n ly oth er s t a t i s t i c a l tech n iq u e used i s c o r r e la t io n , which in a l l c a s e s were computed by th e Pearson product-moraent form ula.

1. 2. 3. 4.

E. F , L in d q u ist, S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly sis In E d u cation al R esearch. I b id . . p p . 5 6 -5 7 . I b i d ., p . 5 3 . P e te r s and VariVoorhis, op. c i t . . p . 165.

287a P a tte rn of E valuation. From the rev iew of the lite r a tu r e on E v a lu a t io n in R eading p r e s e n te d in Chapter I I I , i t i s ev id en t that no commonly a c c e p te d p a t t e r n e x i s t s *

In th e

majority of the s tu d ie s reported the method em ployed t o m easure th e improvement made by the students given reading in s t r u c t io n was s im p ly r e t e s t i n g by means o f a standardized read in g t e s t without a c o n tr o l group* returned q u estion n aires to Lindquist

Out o f 165 i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t

o n ly 15 r e p o r te d t h e u se o f a c o n t r o l group,

whereas 111 used th e sim ple t e s t - r e t e s t p roced u re w it h o u t a c o n t r o l group. his survey o f e v a lu a tio n procedures Robinson

In

r e p o r te d t h a t l e s s th a n a dozen

out of nearly one hundred studies had attem p ted any k in d o f e v a lu a t io n o th e r than the usual retest* I t was p o in te d out in the s e c tio n on E v a lu a t io n t h a t where no c o n t r o l group is used, a t tr ib u t in g a l l of the change w hich t a k e s p la c e from p r e - t e s t t o p o st-te st to the experim ental variable i s n o t sound r e a s o n in g .

To su p p ort t h i s

stand a number o f in v e s tig a tio n s were c i t e d w h ich found s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t changes in reading s k i l l s when t e s t sco res a t t h e end o f a term o r y ea r w ere com­ pared with t e s t s c o r e s a t the beginning o f t h e p e r io d e v e n th ou gh no rem ed ial train in g of any kind had been offered in b e tw e e n . A perusal o f th e liter a tu re a lso y i e l d s a number o f exam ples o f s t u d ie s which employed c o n tr o l groups but n eg lected t o make some o f t h e m ost b a s ic s t a t i s ­ t ic a l comparisons betw een the groups.

The s tu d y by Lawson

is

a c a s e in p o i n t .

The p a ttern o f evaluation used i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was s e t up b e f o r e the experiment got under way by charting on a t h e o r e t i c a l v a s i s a l l th e r e l a t i o n ­ ships which were apparent and seemed l o g i c a l .

This w as done b y means o f d iagram s.

When the data had been c o lle c te d s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s w ere made i n each c a se where I i t seemed a t e s t was p o s s ib le . Thus the p a t te r n was a p p lie d e m p ir ic a lly . In f th is process, i t became evident th at some o f t h e t e s t s w h ich seem ed t o be d i s t i n c t from the others were n o t so in fact* page 289.

A d is c u s s io n o f t h e s e t e s t s i s p r e s e n te d on

Yftien th e s e t e s t s were elim inated a l l t h e t e s t s w h ich d id c o n t r ib u t e to

the evaluation o f th e data were arranged in p a tte r n s w h ic h a r e p r e se n te d on pages 288, 290, 291, and 292.

288

B asic P a tta r n o f E v a lu ation The b a sic p a tte r n o f e v a lu a tio n d e v ise d f o r t h is i n v e s t i ­ g a tio n i s shown b elo w .

I t i s a p p lic a b le to any program or

experim ent which in v o lv e s an exp erim en tal and a c o n tr o l group and which ex ten d s through a p r a c tic e p erio d and a p er io d o f no prac­ t ic e .

T ests are ad m in istered b e fo r e and a f t e r th e p erio d o f

p r a c t ic e and a t th e end o f th e p erio d o f no p r a c t ic e .

P r o v isio n

i s made fo r seven b a s ic t e s t s between groups and fo u r w ith in grou p s. B a sic P a tte r n o f E v a lu a tio n Between Groups Experim ental Pre P ost F in a l

vs. vs. vs. vs.

C ontrol Pre P ost F in a l

W ithin Experim ental P o s t v s . P re F in a l v s . P o st F in a l v s . Pre

W ithin C ontrol P o st v s . Pre F in a l v s . P o st F in a l v s . Pre Between Groups E xperim ental v s . C ontrol (P o st-P re) v s . (P o st-P re) (F in a l-P o st) v s . (F in a l-P o st) (F in a l-P r e ) v s . (F in a l-p r e )

W ithin E xperim ental (F in a l-P o s t) v s . (P o st-P r e )

W ithin C ontrol (F in a l-P o st) v s . (p o s t-P r e )

Between Groups E xperim ental v s . C ontrol ( ( F in a l- P o s t ) - ( P o s t - P r e ) ) v s . ( ( F in a l-P o s t) - (P o st-P r e ))

289 The b asic pattern o f e v a lu a t io n o u t li n e d ab ove w i l l s e r v e to make a l l the p o ssib le t e s t s b etw een tw o g r o u p s , u s u a lly an experim ental and a control grou p .

In s t u d y in g t h i s p a t t e r n , i t may

appear t h a t no p rovision i s made f o r a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s w hich c o u ld be made betw een the two groups.

F or in s t a n c e i t w ould seem p o s s ib le t o

make th e fo llo w in g t e s t w ith in each o f t h e g ro u p s: (F in a l-P re) v s .

(P o st-P r e )

When th e n ecessary computations a r e m ade, h o w ev er, i t i s ob viou s t h a t m athem atically th is i s e x a c tly t h e same a s t h e F in a l v s . P o s t t e s t w ithin th e groups.

Another p o s s ib le c o m b in a tio n w h ich may seem t o

have been omitted is the fo llo w in g t e s t w i t h in g ro u p s: (F in a l-P o st) v s .

( F in a l- P r e )

However, a s in the case o f th e (F in al-P re) v s .

( P o s t- P r e ) t e s t , h ere we

have a t e s t which m athem atically i s i d e n t i c a l w it h t h e P o s t v s . P r e t e s t which i s included in the b a sic p a t t e r n o f e v a l u a t i o n . The t e s t s between groups b ased o n t h e w ith in -g r o u p s t e s t s j u s t c ite d are a l s o superfluous.

The t e s t ,

Experimental ( (F in a l-P re)-(P o st-P re) )

vs.

C o n tr o l ( ( F i n a l - P r e ) - ( P o s t - P r e ))

r e s u lts in th e same inform ation a s t h a t g iv e n b y t h e f o llo w in g t e s t : Exp. (F in a l-P o st)

vs.

Con. ( F in a l - P o s t )

In the same way, the fo llo w in g t e s t b etw een g r o u p s: Experimental ( (F in a l-P r e )-(F in a l-P o s t))

vs.

C o n tr o l ( (F in a l-P r e )-(F in a l-P o s t))

i s id e n t ic a l w ith a simpler t e s t in c lu d e d i n t h e e v a lu a t io n p a t t e r n that betw een Exp. (Post-Pre) v s . Con. ( P o s t - P r e ) .

S in c e d u p lic a t io n i s

a waste o f tim e and serves o n ly t o c o n f u s e , o n ly t h e s im p le r form o f t h e t e s t has b een included in eaoh in s t a n c e i n w h ich i d e n t i c a l r e s u l t s can be obtained by two d iffe r e n t t e s t s .

290 When d if f e r e n c e s w ith in th e experim ental group and w ith in th e c o n tr o l group need to be stu d ie d a more e la b o r a te p lan i s needed. I f th ree subgroups were s e t up w ith in the experim ental group and th ree w ith in th e c o n tr o l group as has been done in t h is in v e s t ig a t io n , th ree s e r i e s o f t e s t s would be made:

(1) w ith in the subgroups in the

exp erim en tal group and w ith in the subgroups in th e c o n tr o l group; (2) between th e subgroups in th e exp erim ental group and between the subgroups in the co n tro l-g ro u p ; and (3) between experim ental subgroups and c o n tr o l subgroups.

The p a tte r n s f o r th e se three s e r ie s o f t e s t s

are shown below and on th e n ex t two p a g es. B asic P a tte r n o f E valu ation In v o lv in g th e Use o f Subgroups w ith in Experim ental and Control Groups Groups E xperim ental Control Subgroups E xperim ental Subgroup I C ontrol Experim ental Subgroup I I C ontrol E xperim ental Subgroup I I I C ontrol

Subgroup I Subgroup I I Subgroup I I I

P a tte r n o f E v a lu a tio n W ithin Subgroups E xperim ental P o s t v s . Pre I v s. I II v s. II III v s. I l l

C ontrol P o st v s . I vs. II v s. I l l vs.

Pre I II III

P in a l v s . I vs. II vs. III v s.

P o st I II I ll

P in a l I II I ll

vs. vs. vs. vs.

P o st I II III

P in a l v s . I vs. II vs. III vs.

Pre I II I ll

P in a l I II I ll

v s. vs. vs. vs.

Pre I II III

( P in a l-P o s t ) v s . (P o st-P re) I vs. I II v s. II III v s. I ll

( P in a l-P o s t ) v s . I vs. II v s. I l l vs.

(P o st-P re) I II III

291 Pattern o f E v a lu a tio n B etw een Subgroups Experimental Pre I I II

v s. v s. vs. v s.

Pre II I ll I ll

Post I I II

v s. v s. v s. v s.

Pinal I I II

v s. v s. v s. v s.

(P o st-P re)v s. I v s. I v s. II v s.

C on trol Pre I I II

vs. vs. vs. vs.

Pre II I ll I ll

Post II I ll I ll

P ost I I II

vs. vs. vs. vs.

P ost II I ll I ll

Pinal II I ll I ll

P in a l I I II

vs. vs. vs. vs.

P in a l II I ll I ll

(P o s t-P r e ) I I II

vs. vs. vs. vs.

(P o st-r r e ) II I ll I ll

(Post-Pre) II Ill

I ll

(P in a l-P o s t)v s . I v s. I v s. II v s.

(P in a l-P o st) II I ll I ll

( P in a l- P o s t )

vs. I vs. I vs. II v s.

( F in a l-P o s t ) II I ll I ll

(F in a l-P re) I I II

(P in al-P re) II I ll I ll

( P in a l-P r e )

vs. I vs. I vs. II v s.

(P in a l-P r e ) II I ll I ll

v s. v s. vs. vs.

( (P in a l-P o st) - (Post-Pre)) v s . ( (P in a l-P o st)-(P o st-P r e )) I v s . II I v s. I l l II v s . I l l

( ( P i n a l - P o s t ) - ( P o s t- P r e ) ) v s . ( (F in a l-P o s t)-(P o s t-P r e )) I v s. II I vs. I ll II v s. I l l

292 P a tte r n o f E v a lu a tio n Between Subgroups o f E xperim ental Group and Subgroups o f C ontrol Group E xperim ental v s . C ontrol Pre I II III

vs. vs. vs. vs.

Pre I II I ll

P o st I II III

vs. vs. vs. v s.

P o st I II I ll

P in a l I II III

vs. vs. vs. vs.

P in a l I II I ll

(P o st-P r e ) I II III

vs. vs. vs. vs.

(P o st-P re) I II I ll

(F in a l v s . P o s t ) v s . (P in a l-P o st) I vs. I II v s . II III v s. I l l (P in a l-P r e ) v s . (P in a l-P r e ) I vs. I II v s. II III v s. I l l ( ( P in a l-P o s t ) - (P o s t-P r e ))

vs. ( ( P in a l- P o s t ) - ( P o s t - P r e ) ) I vs. I II v s. II III v s. I ll

293

Subproblem Wha,t j^s th e r e la t io n s h ip betw een p e n e r q l s c h o la s t ic a b ility and rea d in g s k i l l s as measured Ty th e Instru m en ts used Ip. tftlp I n v e s tig a tio n ? W hile many s t u d ie s have been made co n cern in g th e r e l a t i o n ­ ship between s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y a s measured by th e A .C .E . P s y c h o lo g i­ c a l Examination and v a r io u s m easures o f rea d in g s k i l l s , no s tu d ie s reporting th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e A .C .E , P s y c h o lo g ic a l Examin­ ation and th e D ia g n o s tic R eading T e s ts had y e t been p u b lish e d when th is I n v e s tig a tio n was plan ned i n January, 1 9 4 9 , b ecau se th e Diagnostic Reading T e s t s had o n ly been a v a ila b le f o r one y e a r .

It

was necessary t h e r e fo r e t o determ ine th e c o r r e la t io n betw een each to ta l and s u b t e s t s c o r e on th e in stru m en ts u sed i n th e in v e s t ig a t io n in order t o have a b a s i s f o r in t e r p r e t in g th e d a ta r e s u lt i n g from the reading improvement program .

These in t e r c o r r e la t io n s are

reported in Table I and a r e b ased on a l l stu d e n ts in th e Septem ber, 1949, e n te r in g c l a s s a t S t . F r a n c is C o lle g e

fo r whom a l l s c o r e s

were a v a ila b le . In a d d itio n t o th e 1947 C o lle g e E d itio n o f th e American Council on E d u cation P s y c h o lo g ic a l Exam ination and Form A o f th e Survey S e c tio n and S e c t io n IF , Word A tta c k , P a r t 2 , S i l e n t o f th e Diagnostic R eading T e s t s u sed a s p r e - t e s t s in th e r e a d in g improve­ ment experim ent, Form S o f th e C oop erative Reading T e s t C2 was administered fo r co m p arative p u r p o se s. I t can be s e e n from T ab le I t h a t th e c o r r e la t io n between the to ta l sc o re on th e D .R .T .1 and t o ta l s c o r e s on th e A .C .E .

1. 2.

Survey S e c t io n and th e l i n g u i s t i c P s y c h o lo g ic a l E xam ination are

H ereafter th e i n i t i a l s D .R .T . w i l l be u sed f o r D ia g n o s tic R eading T e s t s . H ereafter th e I n i t i a l s A .C .E . w i l l be used f o r American C o u n cil on Education*

T able I

In te r c o r r e la tio n o f P re-T est Scores N = 92 D.R.T. SUHVE2ML

D.R.T.

l

b

2

3

Survey-A la .346 .373 . 515 lb .340 . 872 2 .4 7 4 3 4 Word Attack-A 1 2 T Coop. C-2

WORD ATTACK-A COOP.HEADING C-2

4 .491 .662 .927 .769

1

2

.022 .130 .O 59-.079 .166 .161 .138 .089 .176 .153

T

V

. 063 .020 .191 .144 .196

.354 .410 .4 5 7 . 533 . 558

S

L

.406 .479 .478 . 587 . 599

A.C.E.-1947

T

Q

L

.259 .444 .356 . 516 .478

. 366 .489 .467 . 592 . 592

.141 .387 . 340 .450 .437

T .393 .342 .493 .521 .634 .601 ,605*.628 . 718 .703

.379 . 946 . 3 2 0 .099 .173 .208 .266 .347 .363 .658 .303 .282 . 310 .32 4 .242 .250 .284 .366 .180 .249 .283 .301 .370 ,395

V

.739 .751 .885 .400 .839 . 938 .450 .941 .377 .449

5 L T A.C.E. 1947 Q L

.837 ,729 .712 .820

.772 .717 .673 .781

,484 .780 .925

Key D.R.T, Survey Section la . Rate of Comprehension lb . Story Comprehension 2. Vocabulary 3. Paragraph and Story Comprehension 4 . Total Comprehension

D.R.T. Word Attack 1. Identification of Sounds 2. Syllabication 3. Total

A.C.E. Psychological Examination Q. Quantitative L. lin g u istic T. Total

Coop. V. S. L. T.

Reading C-2 Vocabulary Speed of Comprehension Level of Comprehension Total

295

lower than the c o r r e la tio n between the C ooperative Heading T est C-2 and the same sc o re s on the A.C.E. P sy ch o lo g ica l Exam ination.

In

other words th ere i s l e s s overlap between the D .R .T, Survey S e c tio n and the A .C .E. P sy c h o lo g ic a l Examination than th ere i s between the Cooperative Reading T e st C 2 and the A.C.E. P sy c h o lo g ic a l Exam ination. This hold s tru e a ls o fo r the vocabulary score on th e D.R.T. Survey S ection when compared w ith th e vocabulaxy score on the Cooperative Reading T e sts C -2.

A sharp d iffe r e n c e e x i s t s between the r a te score

on the D.R.T. Survey S e c tio n

and the Cooperative Reading T e st C -2,

Speed o f Comprehension score when the c o r r e la tio n s o f th ese sc o res to scores on the A .C .E. P sy c h o lo g ic a l Examination are compared.

This

i s la r g e ly due to th e d iffe r e n c e in the methods employed t o measure r a te .

I t i s a ls o apparent from Table £ th a t th e in te r c o r r e la tio n

o f part sc o r e s on th e D.R.T. Survey S e c tio n i s l e s s than the in te r c o r r e la tio n o f p a r t sc o re s on the C ooperative Reading T est C -2. Because i t o v erla p s th e s c h o la s tic a b i l i t y t e s t s l e s s and because o f lower in te r c or r e la t io n s between i t s part s c o r e s , th e D.R.T. Survey S e c tio n appears t o be a b e tte r reading t e s t than th e Cooperative Reading T e st C -2. I t i s in t e r e s t in g to note the r e la t io n s h ip between th e D.R.T. S e c tio n 17, Word A tta ck , Part 2 , S ile n t and the other instrum ents.

In g e n e r a l i t seems to be measuring s k i l l s con sid erab ly

d iffe r e n t from th o se measured by the other t e s t s .

The c o r r e la tio n

between S e c tio n 17 and th e Survey S e c tio n o f the D.R.T. i s the low est shown in Table I .

A higher p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip appears

to e x is t between S e c tio n 17 and the Vocabulary s e c t io n o f the Cooperative Reading T e s t C 2 .

This i s undoubtedly due to th e

h ea v ier lo a d in g in th e word knowledge fa c to r p resen t in the latter te st.

W ithin the l a s t year the Committee on D iagnostic Reading

T e sts has conducted or cooperated in a la rg e number o f projects d esign ed to c o l l e c t more data concerning the t e s t s published by th e Committee.

A la rg e number o f data w i l l be a v a ila b le shortly

fo r m ale, fem ale, and coed p o p u la tio n s.

The c o r r e la tio n s for

fem ale groups, and th ose fo r male stu d en ts o f higher caliber show a higher c o r r e la tio n between th e D iagn ostic Reading T ests Survey S e c tio n and the A.C.E. P sy c h o lo g ic a l Exam ination. C onclusion No. 1 The c o r r e la tio n between s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y and reading as measured by th e D iagn ostic Reading T e s ts , Survey Section , is lower than th e c o r r e la tio n o f s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y w ith other read in g t e s t s .

S in ce the D iagn ostic Reading T ests are ju st as

v a lid as th e most popular read in g t e s t s p u b lish ed , t h is i s probably due t o the c o n str u c tio n o f the t e s t which permits i t t o measure a l i t t l e more o f th e fa c t o r s in reading which are d if f e r e n t from s c h o la s tic a b ilit y *

Subproblem No. 2* Does Exposure to the selfgadmlnisteri^g techniaUjB of reading Inmroyament resu lt jjj significant changes in reading s k ills ? The s o lu tio n o f t h i s problem depends upon the answers t o a number o f q u e s tio n s .

In the f i r s t p la c e , we need to know

how th e two groups in volved in th e reading improvement experiment compared b efo re e n te r in g upon th e experim ent.

The students in

both groups were giv en th e fo llo w in g t e s t s on September 8-9: A .C .E. P sy c h o lo g ic a l Examination-194-7 D.R.T. Survey S ection -4. D.R.T* S e c tio n IV Word A tta ck , S i l e n t A.

297

The scores on these tests are lis te d in the appendix. Following Peters and. Van Voorkis suggestion to "match on the basis of good objective measures of the present status in the function to be experimented upon"^ the bottom h alf of the September, 1949, entering class of S t. Francis was divided into Experimental and Control Groups by the sp lit-h a lf technique, using the to ta l score on the D.R.T. Survey Section*

The twenty-six matched, pairs which resulted

from th is procedure are shown in Table I I . In order to examine s t a t i s t i c a l l y the d iffe r e n c e between th e Experim ental Group and the C on trol Group on the P re-T est the t - t e s t o f th e s ig n ific a n c e o f th e d iffe r e n c e betr/een the means o f two groups on each o f th e t o t a l and su b te st sco res was made.

The

fo llo w in g r e s u l t s were o b tain ed .

D^R.Tl

vs.

Control Pre-Test

IFC6>feap.) SURVEY SECTION l«6(C on .) la lb 2 Sxp. Pre-Test Mean 257.00 13.31 37.77 Con. Pre-Test Mean 255.62 14.27 36.81 Difference 1.38 -.9 6 .96 t .119 -1.574 .934 A.CJS., Experimental Mean Control Mean Difference t

WORD ATTACK 1 2 %' 3 4 26.54 64.31 86.19 39.23 125.42 27.69 64.50 89.00 38.12 127.12 -1.70 - 1.15 -.19 -2.81 1.11 -1.11 -2.00 -.664 .479 -.302

vs. Control Pre-Test Q 41.58 41.00 .58 .293

L 54.77 55.08 -.3 1 -.126

t 96.35 96.08 •27 .094

1 . Peters and Van Voorhis, op. c i t ., p.450 2 . Key to Diagnostic Reading Test Scores: _ Survey Section Section IV, Word Attack, Silent la . Rate of Comprehension 1 . Identification of Sounds lb . Story Comprehension 2 . Syllabication 2 . Vocabulary T. Total 3 . Paragraph and StoryComprehension 4 . Total Comprehension

298 In general i t is evident th a t the obtained d ifferen ces are so small that they are not s ig n ific a n t* A ta b le shoving the values o f t at the fiv e per cent and one per oent le v e ls fo r varyin g degrees o f freedom has been in­ cluded in the Appendix to f a c ilit a t e cheeking. Paradoxically enough, i t is the sm allest mean d iffe re n c e * th a t between the groups on the matching var­ ia b le , which seems la rg e s t s t a t is t ic a lly . I t is c le a r from Table I I , however, th a t w ith an a c tu a l d iffe re n c e o f only fiv e raw score points and a mean d iffe re n c e o f .19 th a t there is no s ig n ific a n t difference between the groups. She higher t-v a lu e in the case o f the t o t a l score on the D .R .I. Survey Sec­ tio n re s u lts from the fa c t th a t the denominator in t which is an estimate of the standard e rro r o f the mean, is a v e ry sm all q u antity (*096)* W hile the students in the two groups involved in the reading im­ provement experim ent were not matched on the basic of scholastio a b ility scores* a comparison o f the means o f the two groups on Quantitative, Linguis­ t ic * and T o ta l scores on the A .C .E . Psychological Examination reveals no sig­ n ific a n t d iffe re n c e . On the basis o f the data presented i t is reasonable to conclude th a t no s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s in reading s k ills or general scho­ la s t ic a b i l i t y e x is te d between the Experim ental and the Control groups at the outset o f the experim ent. In continuing the co n sideratio n o f the e ffe c ts of a reading im­ provement program based on the s e lf-a d m in is te rin g technique, i t is in order, now to determ ine whether the changes in reading s k ills made by the Experimen­ t a l Orotp were g re a te r than those made by the Control Orotp as a result of j the program. A t the close o f the p ra c tic e p e rio d on November 21-22 students I on both C ontrol and Experim ental Croups took the follow ing tests! A .C .E Psychological Exam ination - 1946 D .B .f. Survey Section — B D .B .T . Section IT * Word A tta c k — B

T able I I

Matched P airs Based on D .R .T . Survey—A T otal Score

P a irs

Exnerim ental

Control

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

74 74 73 72 71 70 69 69 68 67 67 66 66 65 64 63 62 62 60 60 59 58 57 5651 49

74 74 73 72 71 70 70 69 69 67 67 66 66 65 64 63 62 62 a 60 59 58 57 56 53 49

64*31 6.59

64.50 6.48

Mean Standard D eviation

The s c 010 a means, and standard d e v ia tio n s resulting from these t e s t s are given in th e Appendix* Before comparing th e performance of the two groups a f t e r the p r a c tic e p e r io d w ith t h e ir p r e - t e s t scores, the comparability o f Forms A and B o f the D .R .T . Survey S e c tio n has to be considered. Because th e stu d en ts in v o lv ed in th e experim ent had had no college work, i t was decid ed to use tw e lfth grade p e r c e n tile s for comparative purposes. Where raw sc o r e s and p e r c e n t ile s from Form B were compared with raw sc o r e s and p e r c e n t ile s on Form A th e y were found to be id en tical in many, c a se s and where d if fe r e n c e s were found they were so snail as to r e s u l t in a mean d iffe r e n c e o f l e s s than one percentile point.

The

same s it u a t io n was fovuid when c o n tr o l Group scores checked. As a r e s u l t o f th e se fin d in g s i t was decided to consider the two forms as s t a t i s t i c a l l y e q u iv a le n t and introduce no correction in the c a lc u la tio n s. The mean p o s t - t e s t and p r e - t e s t scores for the DJVT. Survey S e c tio n and th e D .R .T. Word A ttack T est are given below for the Exper­ im en tal Group* E xperim ental Group Survey S e c tio n la lb 2 3 Poat t e s t Mean 3 0 4 .1 9 1 4 .9 2 4 0 .6 9 26.96 P r e - t e s t Mean 2 5 7 .0 0 1 3 .3 1 3 7 .7 7 26.54 D iffe r e n c e 4 7 .1 9 1 .6 1 2 .9 2 .42 t 5 .3 8 5 ^ 2 .1 2 8 1 .7 9 0 .511 H ^6

Post-Pre Word A ttack A 1 2 T 67,45 91.42 &58 133.00 64.31 86,19 #;23 125.42 3.34 5.23 35 7 .5 8 ^ 1.623 2.814 *.156* 2 .9 6 6 *

D iffe r e n c e s s i g n if i c a n t a t th e f i v e per cent le v e l are designated by one a s t e r is k and th o se s i g n if i c a n t a t th e one per cent le v e l by two a s te r is k s .

1.

Key to D ia g n o stic Reading T e st Scores t Survey S e c tio n l a . Rate o f Comprehension l b . S tory Comprehension 2 . Vocabulary 3 . Paragraph and S to ry Comprehension 4 . T o ta l Comprehension

Section IV, Word A ttack , Silent 1 . Id en tification o f Sounds 2 . Syllabication T.. Total

The Bxperimental Group, i t can be seen, registered varying gains in a ll areas measured by the D,R;T. Survey Section and the D.R.T, Word Attack Test, Before attempting to interpret, these gains i t would be w ell to consider fir s t what happened to the reading sk ills of the Control Group during the practice period. The Control Group mean p ost-test and pre-test scores for the D.R.T, Survey Section and the D,R,T, Word Attack Test are, therefore, given next, N»26 Post Mean Fre- Mean Difference t Mb26 Post Mean Pre- Mean Difference t

D.R.T.1 Contol Groun Survey Section Poat-Pre la lb . 2 3 4. 269,23 16,73 T otal Comprehension

Section IV, Word A t t a c k , S i l e n t 1 . I d e n t if ic a t io n o f Sounds 2 . S y lla b ic a tio n T. Total

309

favor o f the Control Group because i t managed to hold i t s own in ra te o f reading during the period o f no p r a c tic e w hile the Experimental Group r e g is te r e d a l o s s . Thus fa r comparisons have been made o f p r e -t e s t to p o s t - t e s t per­ formance and p o s t - t e s t to f i n a l t e s t performance w ith in and between the groups.

At t h i s p oin t th e o v e r a ll p r e -t e s t to f i n a l t e s t r e s u lts w i l l

be con sid ered . -

The f in a l t e s t means and the p r e - t e s t means o f the Ex-

perlm ontal Group scores on the D. R. T. are l i s t e d f i r s t . D.R.T.3N*

Experimental

26

F inal-P re

Survey S ection 1 a

F in a l T est Mean P re-T est Mean D ifferen ce t

233.19 257.00 2 6 .1 9 4 . 0 6 0 **

1 b

2

13.92 13.31 .61

36.42 37.77 -1 .3 5 -1 .3 3 1

.3 2 0

3 26.31 2 6 .5 4 - .2 3 -.2 9 2

4 62.73 64.31 -1 .5 8 -1 .1 6 6 6

Word Attack 1

F in a l T est Mean P re-T est Mean D ifferen ce t

92.15 86.19 5.96 4.075**

2

T

42.42 134.53 125.42 39.23 9 .1 6 3 .1 9 2.994** 4.444**

According t o th e data shown d iffe r e n c e s w ith in the Experimental Group from p r e -t e s t to f i n a l t e s t are found to be s ig n if ic a n t a t the one per le v e l

1.

cent

on th e r a te o f reading score o f the Survey S ectio n and a l l three

Key to D iagn ostic Reading T est Scores* Survey S ection 1 a. 1 b. 2. 3. 4.

Rate o f comprehension Story Comprehension Vocabulary Paragraph and Story Comprehension T otal Comprehension

S ectio n IV, Word A ttach, S ile n t 1 . I d e n tific a tio n o f Sounds 2 . S y lla b ic a tio n T. Total

310

scores of the Word Attack T e s t.

On scores No. 2 , 3 and 4 o f th e Sur­

vey Section n on -sign ifican t lo s s e s were recorded. The Control Group f i n a l te s t means and p r e - t e s t means on th e D. R. T. are considered heart. D.R.T.-*-

Control

H ■ 26

Final-Pre

Survey Section 1 a

F in a l Test Wean P r e -te st Mean D ifference t

269.92 255.62 1 4 .3 0 1 .6 7 1

1 b

2

14.23 14.2-7 -.0 4 -.079

37.92 36.81 1.11 .9 a

3

4

2 6 .5 8 2 7 .6 9 - 1 .1 1 - 1 .2 2 0

6 4 .5 0 6 4 .5 0 0 0

Word Attack 2

1 F in a l Test Mean P r e -te st Mean D ifference t

96 .3 6 89.00 7 .3 8 3.728***

39.15 38.12 1.03 .954

T 135.54 127.12 8.42 3.301****

When p re-test means are subtracted from fin a l t e s t means f o r th e Con­ t r o l Group and t - t e s t s are made, sig n ifica n t d if f e r e n c e s a t th e one p e r cent le v e l appear only fo r Score No. 1 and the t o t a l sc o r e o f th e Word Attack Test. Having made the within-groups comparison from p r e - t e s t t o f i na l t e s t , the comparison between the Experimental Group and th e C o n tro l Group naturally fo llo w s.

1,

The data for th is comparison are p r e se n te d

Key to Diagnostic Reading Test Scores* Survey S ection

1 a. Rate of Comprehension 1 b. Story Comprehension 2. Vocabulary 3. Paragraph and Story Comprehension A* Total Comprehension

S e c tio n IV, Word A tta c k , S i l e n t 1. 2. T.

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Sounds S y lla b ic a t io n T o ta l

311

here* F in al -Pre

D .R .T. 1

IJ * 26 W = 26

(Sxp.) (Con.)

F in al-P re Exp. F inal-P re Con. D ifferen ce t

la

Experimental v s . F in a l-p r e Control

Survey S ection 1 b

2 6 .1 9 2

.615

14.308 11.884 1.039

- .0 3 8

.653 .788

2

3

-1 .3 4 6 -.2 3 1 1.115 -1.115 -2 .4 6 1 .884 -1 .4 7 2 . 6 42

4 -1 .5 7 7 0

-1 .5 7 7 -.7 1 8

Word Attack 1

Finafc-Pre Exp. F in al-P re Con. D ifferen ce t

5.962 7.385 -1 .4 2 3 -.5 9 1

2

T

3.192 2.154

9*154 8.423 .731

1 .2 9 8

.2 0 6

1 .0 3 8

At the completion o f the experiment according to th e t e s t s shown above no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e s e x is te d between the two groups.

Thus, the

on ly s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e vhich r esu lted from the period o f p r a c tic e , the gain in r a te o f reading in favor o f th e Experimental Group, was erased during th e period o f n o -p r a c tic e . Three s e t s o f t e s t s now remain t o be made.

These are th e w ith in -

groups and between-groups comparisons o f th e changes made during the period o f p r a c tic e versus those made during the period o f no p r a c tic e . needed are the f in a l- p o s t and p ost-p re means.

The data

The data fo r th e Experi­

mental Group arc given f i r s t .

1.

Key to D iagn ostic Reading T est Scores: Survey S ection 1 a. 1 b. 2. 3. 4*

Rate o f Comprehension Story Comprehension Vocabulary Paragraph and Story Comprehension T otal Comprehension

S ectio n IV, Word A ttack, S ile n t 1. 2. T.

I d e n tific a tio n o f Sounds S y lla b ic a tio n Total

312

D.R.T.

Experimental (F in a l-P o st)

^ = 26

V3

P o s t-P r e

Survey S ection 1 a

Final Post Mean Post-Pre Mean Difference t

1 b

- 2 1 .0 0 0 - 1 .0 0 0 4-7.192 1.615 -68.192 -2.615 -4.812** -1.931

3

2

-4 .2 6 9 - .6 5 4 2 .9 2 3 .423 -7 .1 9 2 -1 .0 7 7 -2 .5 1 6 * - .6 9 7

4 - 4 .9 2 3 3 .3 4 6 - 8 .2 6 9 -2 .3 3 5 -

Word Attack 1

Final Post Ifean .731 Post-Pre Mean 5.231 Difference -4 .5 0 0 t -1 .5 4 0

2

.846 2.346 -1.500 -1.056

T 1 .5 7 7 7 .5 7 7 - 6 .0 0 0 -1 .6 3 1

The comparison o f th e changes made during th e p e r io d o f no p r a c tic e with those made during the period of p r a c tic e in the E xp erim ental Group shows that l o s s e s occurred in a l l the a r ea s measured by th e D. R. T. and that the lo ss in Score No. 1 a, rate o f r ea d in g was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one per cent le y e l and the lo sses in Score Ho. 2 , V ocabu lary, and Score No. 3 paragraph and sto r y comprehension, were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e per cent le v e l. The fin a l-p o st and post-pre data fo r th e C o n tro l Group are given on: the follow ing page.

1.

Key to Diagnostic Reading Test Scores: Survey S ection 1 a. 1 b. 2.

3. 4.

Rate o f Comprehension Story Comprehension Vocabulary Paragraph and Story Comprehension Total Comprehension

S e c t io n IV , Word A tta c h , S i l e n t 1 2

T

313

D.R.T.

Control (F in al-P ost)

N ■ 26

vs

(Post-Pre )

Survey S ection

la

lb

2

F in a l -P o st Mean .692 P o st-P re Meqn 13.615 D iffe r e n c e -1 2 .9 2 3 t - 1.286

-2 .5 0 0 -4 .2 3 1 2.462 5.346 -4 .9 6 2 -9 .5 7 7 -5.538** -4.569**

1 2.500 4.885 -2 .3 8 5 -1 .0 5 7

Word A ttack 2 T -.0 3 8 2.462 1.077 5.962 -1 .1 1 5 -3 .5 0 0 - .5 0 4 -1 .1 1 9

F in a l Post-Mean P o st-F re Mean D iffe r e n c e t

3

4

-2 .3 0 3 -6 .5 3 8 1.192 6.538 -3 .5 0 0 -13.077 - 2 . 6 2 8 * -5.474**

The Control Group lik e the Experimental Group l o s t ground during the period o f no p r a c tic e in every area measured by the

D.

R.

T.

The lo s s e s

on Scores 1 b, 2 , and 4 were s ig n if ic a n t a t the one per cent l e v e l and the lo s s on Score No. 3 was s ig n if ic a n t a t the f iv e per cen t l e v e l . The data fo r the betveen-groups comparison o f the changes made during th e period o f p r a c tic e versus th ose made during the period o f no p r a c tic e are l i s t e d below. D.R.T. ^ ((F in al-P ost) - (Post-Prefl Exp. v s((F in a l-P o s t)-P o st Pre)) Con. N * 26 (Exp.) Survey S ectio n N - 26 (Con.) la lb 2 3 4 ((F in al-P ost) {Post-Pre)E xp. - 6 8 .192 -2 .6 1 5 -7 .1 9 2 -1 .0 7 7 -8 .2 6 9 ((F in al-P osi)-(P ost-P r4C on .-1 2 .9 2 3 - 4.962 -9 .5 7 7 -3 .5 0 0 -1 3 .0 7 7 D ifferen ce. -5 5 .2 6 9 2.347 2.385 2.423 4 .8 0 8 t -2 .8 7 1 1.579 .6 6 2 1.263 1.099 Word Attack i ((Final-PostJ -(P ost-P re)) Exp. - 4 .5 0 0 ((F in al-P ost) -(P ost-P re)) Con. -2 .3 8 5 . D ifferen ce -2 .1 1 5 t - .5 6 0

1.

Key to D iagn ostic Reading T est Scores: Survey S ection 1 a . Rate o f Comprehension 1 b . Story Comprehension 2. Vocabulary 3. Paragraph and Stori'- Comprehension 4. T otal Comprehension

2 -1 .5 0 0 -1 .1 1 5 -.3 3 5 -.1 4 1

T -6 .0 0 0 -3 .5 0 0 -2 .5 0 0 -.4 8 4

S ectio n IV, Word A ttack, S ile n t 1 . I d e n tific a tio n o f Sounds 2 . S y lla b ic a tio n T. T otal

314 In th is f i n a l t e s t to determine w hether exposure t o t h e s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g technique o f reading improvement r e s u lt s in s i g n i f i c a n t ch a n g es, no s i g n i ­ fica n t d iffe r e n c e s were found between th e E xp erim en tal and th e Control Groups except in th e case of the rate o f r ea d in g s c o r e on w hich a d iff e r e n c e s i g n i ­ fican t at th e one per cent le v e l was found in f a v o r o f th e C ontrol Group. The Experimental and th e C ontrol Groups ch osen f o r t h i s experim ent were matched on the basis of read in g s k i l l s so t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e s existed between the groups at th e p r e - t e s t .

When r ea d in g t e s t s were a d m in is te r ­

ed again a f t e r the Experimental Group was exp osed t o a p erio d o f p r a c t ic e , w it h in groups t e s t s o f significance rev e a le d th a t both groups had gained from p r e - t e s t to p o s t - t e s t .

In a number o f s tu d ie s re p o r te d in t h e li t e r a t u r e gain s by e i t h e r

groups are considered sig n ific a n t when t h e y re a c h e it h e r th e f i v e per ce n t or the one per ce n t le v e l and any g a in made by t h e E xp erim en tal Group i s a t t r ib u t e d to the experim ental variable.

This i s n o t sound r e a s o n in g , how ever.

t e s t is th e comparison between th e two groups on t h e P o st t e s t .

The r e a l

TOien t h i s com­

parison was made in th is in v e s t ig a tio n , th e o n ly s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e found between the Experimental and the C ontrol Groups was one fa v o r in g th e E xp eri­ mental Group in rate of reading on th e S u rvey S e c t io n o f th e D ia g n o stic Read­ ing T ests.

At the conclusion o f th e p e r io d o f no p r a c t ic e when t h e groups

were te s te d again the difference in r a te o f r e a d in g fa v o r in g th e E xperim ental Group had disappeared and again th e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s betw een the two groups. S in ce eleven of the tw e n ty - s ix s tu d e n ts in t h e E xperim ental Group were exposed to self-adm inistering word a t ta c k e x e r c is e s f o r th r e e weeks in addition to b ein g exposed to a g en era l r e a d in g improvement manual f o r f i v e weeks, a sep arate series of t e s t s were run betw een t h e s e e le v e n stu d e n ts and th eir Control Group counterparts. No. 8 on pages 400-409.

These t e s t s are rep o rted under Subproblem

Another s e r i e s o f t e s t s were run between t h e f i f t e e n

students in th e Experimental Group who worked o n ly w ith th e g e n e r a l read in g

SI 4a

improvement manual fo r f iv e weeks and t h e ir Control Group c o u n te r p a r ts• The data on th e t e s t s between th e se groups, d esig n a ted as th e Experim ental Non-Word-Attack Group and the Control Non-Word-Attack Group, are shown below* Exp* Non-W-A versu s Con. Non-W-A D.R.T. Survey S ectio n N ■ 15 (Exp. N - 14 (Con. Exp. Non-W-A Con. Non-W-A D iffe r e n c e t

Non-W-A) Non-W-A) Mean Mean

N » 15 (Exp. N - 14 (Con. Exp. Non-W-A Con. Non-W-A D iffe r e n c e t

Non-W+A) Non-W-A) Mean Mean

N « 15 (Exp. N » 14 (Con. Exp. Non-W-A Con. Non-W-A D iffe r e n c e t

Non-W-A) Non-W-A) Mean Mean

la 25 8 .0 0 259.07 - 1 .0 7 - .0 7 3

lb 1 2 .4 0 14.57 - 2 .1 7 -1 .6 1 6

P re-T est 2 37.87 36.4 3 1 .4 4 .6 5 0

3 2 5 .6 0 2 9 .0 0 - 3 .4 0 -2 .0 0 3

4 63.47 65.43 - 1 .9 6 - .7 5 6

la 295.47 269.79 25.68 1.212

lb 15.07 1 7 .3 6 - 2 .2 9 -1 .6 3 0

P o st-T e st 2 40.4 7 42.7 1 - 2 .2 4 - .5 9 3

3 26.87 3 0 .0 0 - 3 .1 3 -2 .0 0 9

4 67.33 72.7 1 - 5 .3 8 -1 .1 4 7

la

lb

3

4

2 6 .1 3 2 7 .7 9 - 1 .6 6 -1 .0 3 6

62 .4 0 64.57 - 2 .1 7 -.7 6 7

276.13 275.71 .42 .023

2 F in a l T est 1 3 .7 4 3 6 .2 7 14.79 36.79 - .5 2 - 1 .0 5 -1 .0 2 3 - .2 3 3

No s ig n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s were found between th e E xperim ental Non-WordA ttack Group and th e C ontrol Non-Word-Attack Group on p r e - t e s t , p o s t - t e s t , and f i n a l t e s t s c o r e s .

C onclusion No. 2 On th e b a s is o f th e fo r e g o in g a n a ly s is i t may be concluded t h a t , when stu d e n ts who f a l l in th e bottom h a lf o f th e e n te r in g freshman c la s s in t y p ic a l , sm all American c o lle g e s are made to work w ith s e lf - a d m in is t e r -

315

ing reading improvement manuals over a p e r io d o r from f iv e to e ig h t w eek s, w ithout choice on thoir part under th e c o n d itio n s o f t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n in a l l probability no la s t in g improvement i n r e a d in g s k i l l s w i l l r e s u l t in th e majority of cases. Subproblem No. 2* Doe 3 exposure to th e s e lf -a d m in is t e r in g techn iqu e o f reading improvement r e su lt in s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y ? As in the case o f read in g a b i l i t y , th e answ ers t o a number o f q u estio n s must be found before t h i s subproblem can be so lv e d .

As a m atter

o f f a c t the treatment o f th e data in t h i s subproblem d ir e c t ly p a r a l l e l s the treatment of the data in subproblera N o. 2 .

In a d d itio n , a t e s t was

made o f the significance o f th e d iff e r e n c e between th e g ra d e-p o in t in d e x e s o f th e Experiraental and the C on trol Groups a t th e end o f the P a ll se m e s te r , and again at the end of the Spring se m e ste r . Both the Experimental and C on trol Groups to o k the A. C. E . P s y c h o lo g i­ c a l Examination, 1947 C ollege E d itio n on Septem ber 8 - 9 , 1949• achieved by both groups are l i s t e d in th e A ppendix.

The s c o r e s

In order t o examine

s t a t i s t i c a l l y the difference between th e E xp erim en tal Group and the C o n tro l Group on the Quantitative, L in g u is t ic and T o ta l S co res o f th e A. C. E. Phsychological Examination, th e t - t e s t o f th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e between the means of the two groups on each o f t h e s e sc o re s was made.

The

r e s u lt s obtained are shown below: A. C. E.

|

I f - 26

f

Experimental Mean Control Mean D ifferen ce t

Experim ental

vs.

C on trol

P re-T est

Q

L

T

41*58 41*00 .58 .293

54*77 55*08 - .3 1

9 6 .3 5 9 6 .0 8 *27 . 094

- .1 2 6

Prom th e s e data i t i s cle a r th a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe r e n c e in

Q u a n tita tiv e ,

L in g u is tic , or to ta l sc h o la stic a b i l i t y s c o r e s e x i s t e d between th e E xp erim ental and th e Control Groups a t th e o u t s e t o f th e exp erim en t.

316

Having compared the sc h o la stic a b i l i t y o f the two groups before the experiment began, the performance o f the Experimental and Control Groups can now be compared a f te r a period o f p r a ctice in read in g.

At the end o f the

p r a c tic e period in reading both groups took the A,C *E. P sych ological Examination, 1946 C ollege E d ition on November 21-22, 194-9*

In order to check on the compara­

b i l i t y o f the 194-6 and the 194-7 e d itio n s o f the American Council on Education P sy ch o lo g ica l Examination the sco res on the 1946 e d itio n were converted to 194-7 eq u iv a len t scores by tak in g the 1946 p e r c e n tile ranks and g e ttin g 1947 eq u ivalen t raw scores*

When t h i s was done i t was found th a t the 1946 raw scores were c o n sist­

e n t ly lower by s i x , two, and th ree p o in ts fo r Q u a n tita tiv e, lin g u is t ic and Total sc o re s r e sp e c tiv e ly *

For computation purposes t h i s d iffe r e n c e was adjusted by

adding th ese amounts to each o f th e 1946 scores*

In the appendix the a c tu a l

sc o re s obtained by the stu dents in both groups are shown w ithout correction * The mean p r e - t e s t sco res on th e 1947 e d itio n and the adjusted mean post­ t e s t scores on the 1946 e d itio n are given below fo r the Experimental Group* A.C«E* E xperim ental P o st-P re

N ■ 26 P o st-T est Mean P re-T est Mean D iffe r e n c e T

Q *W 5 41*58 5*57 3*995**

L 59.46 54*77 4*69 3.563**

T 161.62 96*35 5*27 2.803**

A fter examining the p o s t - t e s t and p r e -t e s t sco res o f the Experimental Group on th e American Council on Education P sy ch o lo g ica l Examination i t would appear that g a in s had been made on each o f th e sco res which are s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t a t th e 1% le v e l*

Without fu rth er a n a ly s is t h i s gain cannot be a ttrib u ted d ir e c t ly

to th e experim ental fa c to r beoause oth er fa c to r s such a s p ra ctice e f f e c t , growth, m aturation, and education were operatin g and have not y e t been taken in to account* Before comparing the performance o f the two groups on th e p o s t - t e s t sc o r e s, the d iffe r e n c e between p o s t - t e s t and p r e -t e s t scores fo r the Control Group w i l l be te s te d *

The C o n tro l Group p r e - t e a t s c o r e s on th e 194.7 e d i t io n said th e adjusted mean p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s on th e 1 9 4 6 e d it io n a re g iv e n b elow .

A.C.E. C on trol B ost-Pre N - 26

Q

Post-Test Pisan Pre-Test Mean Difference T

L

4 7 .3 1 4 1 .0 0 6 .3 1 6 .5 7 8 * #

T

6 1 .0 0 3 5 .0 8 5 .9 2 4.4-77**

103.31 9 6 ,0 8 7 .2 3 4.491**

The performance o f th e C ontrol Group on th e A.C.E. P sy c h o lo g ic a l Examination emphasizes the f a l la c y o f in d is c r im in a te ly claim ing the experm ental fa c to r as the cause fo r g a in s on t e s t s c o r e s .

I t i s c le a r from th e d ata j u s t l i s t e d

that the Control Group which was not exposed to the experim en tal f a c t o r a ls o registered s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t g a in s from p r e - t e s t to p o s t - t e s t .

The

real te st o f the e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f th e experim ental f a c to r i s th e comparison between Experimental and C on trol Groups on p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s .

S in ce th e r e was

no significant d iffe r e n c e between th e groups to b egin w ith , when th e comparison is made on p o s t - t e s t sc o re s th e e f f e c t o f o th er variables such a s p r a c tic e effe c t, maturation, growth, and ed u ca tio n i s equated.

In e f f e c t , th e C ontrol

Group p ost-test score becomes th e Experim ental Group p r e - t e s t s c o r e . In order to make th e p o s t - t e s t comparison between th e E xperim ental and the Control Group th e mean s c o r e s o f both groups are shown b elo w . th is i s a comparison o f th e sc o r e s o f th e two groups

Sin ce

i n th e same t e s t no

adjustment i s required i n th e sc o r e s in making th e n ecessa ry com p utations. A.CJS. Experim ental v s . Control B a st-T est N - 26 (E xp.) N ■ 26 (Con.) Exp. Post-Test Mean Con. Post-Test Mean Difference T

Q

L

T

4 1 .1 5 41*31 - .1 6 - .0 7 5

57.46 5 9 .0 0 - 1 .5 4 - .6 3 1

9 8 .6 2 100.31 -1 .6 9 - *590

The comparison between th e two groups on p o s t - t e s t sc o r e s makes i t c le a r th a t the difference between th e two groups a f t e r a period o f p r a c tic e i n reading for the Experimental Group are n ot s i g n if i c a n t , and th a t th e sm a ll d if f e r e n c e s

318

fa v o r th e Control Group rath er than th e Experim ental Group. The d is c u ssio n o f g a in s in s c h o la s tic a b i l i t y sco res from pre-test t o p o s t - t e s t w i l l be concluded by a comparison o f th e a c tu a l gains made during th e period o f p r a c tic e in rea d in g .

N = 26 (Exp.) N - 26 (Con.) Exp. P ost-P re Con. P ost-Pre D iffer en ce T

Q

L

5.577 6 .3 0 8 - .731 - .533

4 .692

5.269 7 ,231

- .231 - .713

- 1 .9 6 2 - .9 2 0

T

In computing th e d iffe r e n c e s between gain s th e p o s t - t e s t sco res were adjusted in th e manner p r e v io u sly d escrib ed in order t o make them com p letely equivalent w ith th e p r e -t e s t s c o r e s .

The comparison o f g a in s , o f co u rse, y ie ld s substan­

t i a l l y th e same r e s u lt s as th e comparison o f sc o re s on th e p o st t e s t , i . e . , n o n -s ig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s in fa v o r o f th e C ontrol Group. T e sts were adm inistered a th ir d tim e t o a l l stu d en ts a f t e r a four months p eriod o f no p r a c tic e .

The A .C .E. P sy c h o lo g ic a l Examination 1945

C o lleg e E d itio n , was th e s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y t e s t inclu ded in th e f i n a l battery. The sco res on t h i s t e s t , which are a l l inclu ded in th e appendix, were examined i n th e same manner a s were th e 1 9 4 6 sc o re s t o determ ine th e erbent o f compara­ b i l i t y w ith th e 1947 e d it io n which was used a s th e p r e - t e s t .

I t was discovered

th a t ( l ) th e 1945 Q u a n tita tiv e sco re was c o n s is t e n t ly l e s s than th e 1947 Q u a n tita tiv e sc o re by th r ee p o in t s , (2) th e r e was no s ig n if ic a n t difference between th e l i n g u i s t i c sc o re s on th e two form s, and ( 3 ) th e t o t a l score on the 1945 form was c o n s is t e n t ly lower by fou r p o in t s .

In a l l s t a t i s t i c a l com­

p a riso n s between sc o r e s d eriv ed from d iff e r e n t forms th e n ecessary adjustments have been made t o equate th e 1946 and 1945 sc o re s t o th e 1947 sc o r e s. For example in th e data shown below fo r th e Experim ental Group on p o st and f i n a l forms o f th e A .C .E . P sy c h o lo g ic a l Examination th e necessary amounts have been added t o th e 1 9 4 6 and 1945 soores t o render them equivalent t o th e

1947 s c o r e s .

319 A .C .E . E xp erim en tal F in a l-F o s t

K » 26 Pinal Test Mean Post-Test Mean D ifference T

Q

L

T

4-7.15 4-7.15

57.35 594)6 -2 .1 1 -1 .4 3 3

105.50 101.62 3 .8 8 1.743

0 0

During th e fo u r months p e r io d o f no p r a c tic e the E xperim ental Group remained at the same l e v e l on th e Q—s c o r e , r e g is te r e d a n o n -s ig n ific a n t l o s s in L -sc o r e , and a n o n -s ig n ific a n t g a in i n t o t a l s c o r e . The d a ta f o r th e C o n tro l Group are now l i s t e d i n ord er t h a t th e p o st to f in a l com parison can be made f o r t h i s group. A .C .E . C o n tr o l

N - 26 Final Test Mean Fbst-T est Mean D ifference T

-

F in a l-P o s t

Q

L

4 6 .4 6 4 7 .3 1 - .8 5 - .8 0 5

59.36 6 1 .0 0 -1 .6 2 -1 .2 6 4

T 106.85 103.31 3 .5 4 2.283*

In the four month period from p o s t - t e s t to f i n a l t e s t th e C ontrol Group l o s t ground, but not s i g n i f i c a n t l y , in both Q and L S cores, and made a g a in s ig n if ic a n t at the f iv e per c e n t l e v e l i n t o t a l sc o r e . Having made th e w ith in groups comparisons from p o st to f i n a l , the between groups comparisons both on th e f i n a l t e s t score and the f in a l- p o s t d i f ­ ferences w i l l be made.

The data fo r both groups on th e f i n a l t e s t a r e ;

A.C .E . Ijhcpairhiian t a l v s . Control N * 26 (E xp.) N i 26 (Con.) Exp. F in a l Mean Con. F in a l Mean D ifferenoe T

Q 4 7 .1 5 4 6 .4 6 .6 9 .309

L 57.35 59.38 -2 .0 3 •841

-

F in a l T 105.50 106.85 - 1 .3 5 - .40*

From the above data i t i s e v id e n t th a t there were no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e s between th e two groups a t th e time o f the f i n a l t e s t in g a t the co n clu sio n o f the four months p eriod o f no p r a c tic e . The data needed to compare th e Experimental f in a l- p o s t d iffe r e n o e with the Control f in a l- p o s t d iffe r e n o e are l i s t e d n e x t.

320 A.C .E. F ln a l-P o st Experim ental v s . F in a l-P o st Control N ■ 26 (Exp.) N • 26 (Con.) Exp. F in a l-P o st Con. F in a l-P o st D iffe r e n c e T

L

Q 0 - .8 4 6 .8 4 6

-2 .1 1 5 -1 .6 1 5 - .5 0 0 - .269

.555

T 3.885 3.538 .347 .155

T h is comparison, lik e th e comparison on th e f i n a l t e s t sco res reveals no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e between th e two groups* F ollow in g th e b a s ic p a tte rn o f e v a lu a tio n used to t e s t the reading s c o r e s , th e o v e r a ll p r e - t e s t t o f i n a l t e s t r e s u lt s on th e sch o la stic a b ility exam ination w i l l now be considered*

The f i n a l t e s t means and the pre-test

means o f th e Experim ental Group sc o res on th e A*C*E* P sych ological Examination are lis t e d fir s t* A.C.E. Experim ental - F in a l-P re NO

a

CM

S3

F in a l T est Mean P re-T est Mean D iffe r e n c e T

Q 4 7 .1 5 4 1 .5 8 5 .5 7 4.538*

L 57.35 54.77 2 .5 8 1 .4 6 8

T 1 0 5 .5 0

9 6 .3 5 9 .1 5 3.72%

When th e p r e - t e s t scores are compared w ith f i n a l t e s t scores for the Experimental Group g a in s are found on a l l th r ee sc o re s o f th e A*C*E. Psychological Examination w ith th e g a in s on Q u an titative and T o ta l sc o re s s ig n if ic a n t a t the one per cent le v e l*

Before th e se g a in s can be evalu ated and in te r p r e te d the performance of

th e C ontrol Group must be studied* The Control Group f i n a l t e s t means and p r e - t e s t means on the A*C*E* P sy c h o lo g ic a l Examination are shown next* A.C .E. C ontrol F in a l-P re N . 26 F in a l T est Mean P re-T est Mean D iffe r e n c e T

Q 4 6 .4 6 4 1 .0 0 5.46 5.842*#

L 59.38 55*08 4 .3 0

2.953**

T 106.85 96.08 10*77 5.911*#

An exam ination o f th e C ontrol Group f in a l- p r e data shows a t once that this group has a l s o r e g is te r e d gain s in a l l th ree s c o r e s , and th a t a l l three gains a r e s ig n if ic a n t a t th e one per c en t l e v e l .

321

So compare the gains made "by the Experimental Group w ith the gains made by the C ontrol Group from p re -te s t to f in a l te s t, the data on these gains are lis te d below. N 26 (E x p .) A .C .E . T ln al-P re Experimental tb . J ln a l Bra Control N 2 6 (C on.) Q L S Exp. T in a l-P r e 5 .5 7 7 2.577 9 .1 5 4 Con. T in a l-P re 5*462 4.3 0 6 1 0 .7 6 9 D iffe r e n c e .1 1 5 -1 .7 3 1 - 1.615 t .0 7 9 . 963 - .6 2 3 When th e between groups comparison is made o f the gains re s u ltin g from pre to f in a l i t develops th a t what appeared to be s ig n ific a n t gain s w ith in the Experim ental Group, which might have been a ttr ib u te d to the experim ental fa c to r, are n u llifie d by more than equal gains on the p a rt of the Control Group which was not exposed to the experim ental fa c to r. So com plete the p a tte rn o f evalu atio n to determine whether general s c h o la s tic a b ilit y increases^aea re s u lt o f p ra c tic e in reading s k ills * th ree f in a l te s ts w i l l be made.

In the f i r s t

of thesb, the g a in in sch o lastic a b ilit y made during the period of no p ra c tio e w i l l be compared w ith the gain made during the period o f p ra c tio e in reading s k ills by the Experim ental Group. A .O .B . E xp erim en ts! ( T in a l-P o s t ) w . P o s t-P r e )

$26 T in al-T o st Mean Post-Pre Mean D ifferenoe t

q 0 5*577 -5 .5 7 7 - 2 . 310*

L -2 .1 1 5 4.692 -6 .8 0 7 -3 *1 2 4 **

T 3*885 5.269 -1 .3 8 4 - .418

I t is evident th a t from the data shown above the gain in soholastio a b i l i t y made by the Experim ental Group during the p eriod of p ra c tio e was s ig n iflo a n tly g re a te r than that made during the period o f no p ra c tio e .

In the Q score the differenoe was s ig n ific a n t

a t the fiv e per cent le v e l w h ile in the L score the d ifferen o e was s ig n ific a n t a t the one p e r cent le v e l.

322

She data concerning the Control Group gains fo r the period o f p ra c tio e and the p e rio d o f no p ra c tic e are lis te d below for comparison*

A*£t£a N 26 F in a l-P o s t Mean P ost-P re Mean D iffe re n c e t

.

Control ( J l n a l -P ost V t b (Fo«t-PraV 4 L 'Tv - .846 -1 .6 1 5 3*538 6.308 5*923 7*231 -7 *1 5 ^ -7*538 -3*693 -4 .0 1 7 ** -3 *5 0 0 ** -1 .4 2 9

The C ontrol Grotp gains made during the p eriod o f practice fo r the Experim ental Group were s ig n ific a n tly g re a te r a t the one p e r oent le v e l than the Control Group gains made during the p e rio d o f no p ra o tic e * The f in a l te s t in the p a tte rn o f evalu atio n to determine whether general sch o lastic a b ilit y in crease* as a re s u lt of prac­ tic e in reading s k ills is the comparison o f the d iffe re n c e between the gains made by the Experim ental Group during the two periods in the experiment w ith the seme d iffe re n c e f o r the C ontrol Group. The data needed fo r the te s t a re : XT 26 (E xp*) A .C .E . (F in a l-P o s t)-(P o s t-P re )E x p . vs. v ( T lB A l-f0 ■t ) - ( fQ1 t-P ffl ). ffPfle----------L T N 26 (C on.) 4 (F in a l-P o s t)-1 *3 8 4 (P o st-P re) Exp* -6 .8 0 7 -5*577 ( F in a l-P o s t) ( P o st-P re) Con* -7 *5 3 8 -3*693 -7 *1 5 ^ D iffe re n c e 2.309 1*577 *731 t .630 .658 *235 When seh o lastio a b i li t y gains during the p eriod o f practice I are compared w ith the gains made during the p eriod o f no practice as between the Experim ental and the C ontrol Groups a non-signifieant edge in fa v o r o f the Experim ental Grotp is found.

323

Comparison o f Grade-Point Indexes o f Experim ental and Control Qroraa In order to make a fu rth e r cheek to determ ine whether exposure to the s e lf-a d m in is te rin g technique o f read ing improvement re s u lts in s ig n ific a n t changes in scholastic a b il i t y , i t was decided to make a te s t of the s ig n ific a n c e o f the d iffe re n c e between grade-po int indexes a t the end o f the F a ll semester and ag ain a t the end o f the Spring sem ester.

A t S t. Francis C ollege th e fo llo w in g system

o f q u a lity p o in ts is used: As B « C s D « F »

3 Q u a lity Points 2 Q u a lity Points 1 Q u a lity Point 0

0

Under th is system the maximum g ra d e -p o in t index is 3 .0 fo r a s tra ig h t A average.

A s tra ig h t C average re s u lts in a grade-

p o in t index o f 1 . 0 . A t th e end o f the f i r s t semester on ly one student o f the f i f t y two in vo lved in the reading improvement experim ent had dropped o u t. Case No. 8 in the Experim ental Oroup had dropped out because o f i l l ­ ness in the fa m ily on January 5» 1950.

Case No. 25 in the E xp eri­

mental Group d id not drop out but requested perm ission to absent him­ s e lf from the f i r s t semester exsmlnations and re p e a t the work o f the f i r s t sem ester.

Since no semester grades were a v a ila b le fo r these

two oases t h s ir opposite numbers in the C o n tro l Group were dropped |

out o f the com putation in making the t - t e s t .

i

the f i r s t atm ester g rad e-p o in t indexes were as fo llo w s : Fir at

She s ta tis tic s fo r

flr.S.-P#.int InAmatmm

Con. N » 24 Exp. N - 24 S xperim ental G rads-Foint Index Mean C ontrol G rade-Point Index Mean D iffe re n o e t

1 .0 0 .87 .13 .937

32 4

This difference in favor of the Experimental Group is not s t a tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t.

I t most also he pointed out that had

Case No. 25 in the Experimental Group taken the f i r s t semester examinations the slig h t difference in favor of the Experimental Group would probably have been even sm aller, since i t was fear of fa ilu re which led th is student to shy away from his final examinations* On March 31, 1950* Case No. 15 in the Experimental Group dropped out of school

andon May 2, 1950, case No. 5dropped out

of the Control Group.A fter the

fin a l examinations at the end of

the Spring semester the following students were dismissed because of poor scholarship: Experimental Grotgo:

Cases No. 1, 14, 19 • 26

C ontrol Grotgp:

Cases No. 15* 18, 22, 23

Summary s t a t i s t i c s on drop-outs and dism issals follow: Experimental Group 2 4

Drop-outs Dismissals

Control Group 1 4

Although Case No* 22 in the Control Group completedthe work of the Spring semester, excessive absences and poor scholarship caused h is dism issal on the eve of the f in a l examination. Since no f in a l grades were av ailab le fo r him h is Experimental counterpart was also dropped out of the computation of grade-point indexes for the f i r s t year.

Also omitted from the f in a l calculations were pairs

No* 5» 8, and 15* As previously explained, one member of each of these p a irs had dropped out so th a t no second semester grades were av ailab le fo r t|Mm* She grade-point index fo r Experimental Case No. 25 fo r the f i r s t semester work was used in the calculations as if i t were a one year grade-point index*

Shis admittedly gave the

325

Experimental Gronp an advantage since th is indent took his examina­ tions a f te r repeating the semester's work* The s ta tis tic s for the firs t-y e a r grade-point indexes covering the work of the f i r s t and second semesters were as follows: Plrat Year Grada-Polnt Indexes

Exp. N - 22 Control N ■ 22 Experimental Grade-Point Index Mean Control Grade-Point Index Mean .88 Difference .06 t .422 As in the case of the difference between the groups a t the end of the f i r s t semester* the difference a t the end of the f i r s t year* though favoring the Experimental Group, i s not s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ific a n t. A review of the te s ts of significance made to determine whether exposure to the self-adm inistoring technique of reading improvement re s u lts in sig n ifican t ohanges in scholastic a b ility as measured by the A.C.E. Psychological Examination leads to the following conclusions: (1)

Both Experimental and Control Groups gained in scholastic a b ility

during the period of practice with the Control Group gaining more than the Experimental Group. (2)

During the period of no p ractice both gfoups lo s t some of the

gain made during the period of p ractice but a t the fin a l te s t both groups had retained some of the gain made during the period of praotiee; (3)

There were no significant differences between the two groups

a t the p re-test* none at the post-test* and none a t the fin a l te s t.

I t may be concluded* therefore* th a t under the conditions of th is Investigation short-term exposure to the self-adm inistering technique of reading improvement does not re su lt in significant ohanges in scholastic a b ility .

326 Subproblem Ho. 4 : What ,1a the re la tio n s h ip between general scholastic a b i l i t y and demonstrated ohanges in rea d in g s k ills a fte r axDosure to the s e lf-a d m in is te rin g qwa 0f reAAiTu» inmpoYA^^T "~

So study the re la tio n sh ip between general scholastic ability and changes in reading s k ills a f te r p ra c tic e with self-administering exercises product-noment co rrelatio n s were run between each of the pre­ te s t scores on the A.C.E. Psychological Examination and the post-pre differen ces fo r each of the scores on the D.R.T. Survey section. She follow ing co rrelatio n s were obtained: E ■ 26

C orrelations between A. 0. E. P re-test and D. R. T. Survey Section Post - Pro.

A. C. E.

D. R. T.

1 Survey Section Post - Pre 3

4

to v> 0•

N O •

CO

P r e -te s t

la

lh

2

q

.0 5 4

•055

•078

L

•001

• 120

• 503

.2 5 4

•501

T

.0 3 5

•118

.4 0 5

.215

.404

Oqm I tmI pr gflt

ft

Under the conditions of th is investigation there seems to be no re la tio n sh ip between sch o lastic a b il ity and demonstrated ohanges in residing a b ility except fo r a s lig h t p o sitiv e relationship between L in g u istic a b ility and gains in vocabulary.

1.

Key to Diagnostic Reading l e s t Soores Survey Section l a . Rate of Comprehension lb . Story Comprehension 2* Vocabulary . Paragraph and 8tory Comprehension • Total Comprehension

2

Section 17, WordAttack, Silent 1* Identification ofSounds 2» Syllabication T. Total

327

Suburoblem H o. H Do v a r io u s c o m b in a tio n s o f l i n g u i s t i c and Q u a n tita t iv e a b i l i t i e s r e s u l t in s i g n i f i c a n t changes in re a d in g s k i l l s a f t e r e x p o su re to th e s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r i n g te c h n iq u e o f reading:- improvement? A number- o f le a d in g re a d in g s p e c i a l i s t s have p o in te d o u t t h a t th e e v a l u a t i o n o f group e x p e rim e n ts o n ly in term s o f a v erag e g a in s o r l o s s e s d o es n o t a d e q u a te ly d e s c r ib e th e s i t u a t i o n .

T h is ty p e o f e v a lu ­

a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y and v a l u a b le , p a r t i c u l a r l y when i t i s done th o ro u g h ly and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a c c o rd in g to th e p a t t e r a p r e s e n te d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a ­ tio n .

The w eak n ess o f th e group e v a lu a tio n l i e s i n th e f a c t t h a t i t does

n o t go f a r e n o u g h .

As S tro n g h a s i n d i c a t e d

• • • In su ch e x p e rim e n ts th e s i g n i f i c a n t in fo rm a ­ t i o n i s o b v io u s ly n o t th e a v erag e change i n s c o re o f th e g ro u p b u t th e re a s o n s f o r th e in d i v i d u a l g a i n s and l o s s e s . A c c o rd in g ly , th e most v a lu a b le k i n d o f r e s e a r c h in t h i s a r e a would be th e i n ­ t e n s i v e s tu d y o f in d i v id u a ls who have b een ex ­ p o s e d to a g iv e n re m e d ia l t r e a t m e n t .1

As a s te p in th e d ir e c t io n p o in te d out by Strong, v a r io u s subproblems were s e t-u p i n t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n f o r th e purpose o f d eterm in in g w hether p a r t ic u la r p a t t e r n s o f s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y , read in g s k i l l s , or b eh a v io r r e s u lt i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y d if f e r e n t changes in read in g s k i l l s a f t e r exp os­ ure to th e s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g tech n iq u e o f readin g improvement.

The f i r s t

o f t h e s e , s t a t e d as Subproblem Ho. 5 , i s concerned w ith v a r io u s combina­ t io n s o f l i n q u i s t i c and q u a n tita tiv e a b i l i t y as measured by the A. C. E . P s y c h o lo g ic a l Exam ination p r e - t e s t . i

1,

Ruth. S tra n g , "D iagn osis and Rem ediation", Chapter IX i n R eading in G eneral E ducation e d ite d by W illia m S . Gray, p . 351 ,

328

A lim itin g featu re of most of the analyses which follow oust he explained a t th is point*

I t was previously stated that hecause of the

nature of th is in v estig atio n a formal control group was required which se t d e fin ite re s tric tio n s on the study*

When i t was also reoommen&ed

th a t subjects bedrawn only from the bottom a d e fin ite lim ita tio n

half of the entering class

was se t on the number and caliber ofsubjects*

and the p a tte rn s o f th e ir a b ilitie s *

Host of the analyses which follow

should be considered w ith th is lim ita tio n in mind* So offset the lim ita­ tio n of numbers* small sample s t a t i s t i c a l techniques have been used throughout in order to introduce correction factors which take size and d is trib u tio n into account* In the study of lin g u is tic and quantitative combinations the eaqoerimental Group suid the Control Group were eaoh subdivided into three subgroups on the b asis of the A* 0* X* p re -te s t scores as follows!

Subgroup I

X High Q, cad Low L

Subgroup I I

x High L and Low Q

Subgroup I I I X Q, cad L the scune.

The o r i t e r i a used fo r selectin g oases for eaoh of the subgroups were the following! Subgroup I I High Q and Low L - Qaantltative score higher than L inguistio score by a minimum of fourteen p e re e n tlle p o in ts with no Quantitative score under the twenty-second percentile*

329

Subgroup I I : High L and Low Q - L in g u is tic score higher than Q u an titative score by a minimum o f fourteen p e rc e n tile p o ints w ith no L in g u is tic score under the twenty-second p e rc e n tile . Subgroup I I I : Q and L the same - A maximum d ifferen ce o f nine p e rc e n tile points between Q u an titative and L in g u istio score w ith no Q u an titative score or L in g u is tic score below the twenty-second p e rc e n tile . She composition o f subgroups I . I I and I I I fo r the Experimen­ t a l and the Control Groups was as fo llo w s : Experim ental Group E xperim ental Subgroup I I N m9 Oases No. 1 . 3* 10. 13. 14. 16. 19. 21, 26 Experim ental Subgroup I I : N* 7 Cases No. 4 , 8 , 9 . 11. 15. 22. 23 Experim ental Subgroup I I I : N • 7 Cases No. 5 . 6 , 7 . 12. 17. 13. 24

Control Grotq? Control Subgroup I : N - 10 Cases No. 2 , 4 , 8 , 10, 12, 13. 15. 17. 22, 25 Control Subgroup I I : N- 6 Oases No. 1 , 5 , 9 , 16, 18, 24 Control Subgroup I I I : N - 7 Oases No. 6. 7 , 11. 19. 21. 23. 26

The fo llo w in g cases were not selected fo r the analysis o f Q u a n tita tiv e and L in g u is tic seore combinations because they did not meet th e c r it e r ia established: Experim ental Group I Oases No. 2 , 20, 25 Control Group :

Cases No. 3* 14. 20

330

'Dae p a t t e r n o f e v a lu a t io n u se d fo r analyzing the data on Q, and L co m b in a tio n s i s th e same "basic pattern which has been d e v is e d f o r t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n ex cep t that additional te s ts are r e q u ir e d b e ca u se o f th e subgroups. w i l l be .made:

(l)

Three sets of t e s t s

w it h in ea ch Experimental Subgroup and w ith in

each C o n tro l Subgroup, ( 2 )

betw een th e Subgroups within the

E x p er im en ta l Group and b etw een the Subgroups within the Control Group, ( 3 )

b etw een th e Subgroups o f the Experimental Group and

th e Subgroups o f th e C on trol Group. t e s t s a re shown in th e n e x t p a g e s .

The patterns for these The te s ts w ill be made fo r

ea ch o f th e s c o r e s on th e D .R .T . Survey Section.

In the d i s ­

c u s s io n o f d a ta r e l a t e d to Subproblem 2To, 5» which follow s, the d e s ig n a t io n Q, - L w i l l b e added to the t i t l e s of a l l groups to -prevent c o n fu s io n w ith th e d a ta in Subproblem !To. 7*

The

g r o u p in g i n Subproblem 2To. 5 t a s i t ^as already been exp lain ed , i s on th e b a s i s o f

Q, and

L com binations of p re-test scores on th e

A. C. E. P s y c h o lo g ic a l E x a m in a tio n .

The grouping in Subproblem

lio . 7 , w h ich d i r e c t l y p a r a l l e l s Subproblem Ho. 5 ia the treatm ent o f th e d a t a , i s on th e b a s i s o f r a te and comprehension scores ( l a and 3 )

th e D.R.JC. Survey S e c tio n ,

331 Basic P attern o f Evaluation Invo lving the Pee, o f Subgroups w ith in Experim ental and Control Groups Groups Experim ental

Control

Subgroups Experim ental Subgroup I Experim ental Subgroup U Experim ental Subgroup I I I

C ontrol Subgroup I C ontrol Subgroup I I Control Subgroup I I I

P attern Of Evaluation W ith in Subgroups

Post vs. Pre I vs. I i i vs. n I I I vs. I l l F in a l I II III

vs . vs . vs . vs.

F in a l I II III

vs. vs. vs. vs.

(F ln a l-P o s t) I II H I

(

vs. vs. vs. vs.

Post I H H I Pre I H H I (Post-Are) 1 II H I

C ontrol Post v s . I vs. I I vs. I I I vs. F in a l I II III F in a l I II in

Are I II H I

vs. vs. vs . vs. vs. vs. vs. vs.

(F in a l-P o s t) I H III

Post I II Ill Pre I H m

vs. vs. vs. vs.

(Post-Are) I H H I

332

Pattern of Evaluation .Between Subgroups SzESEiessfcal Are I I II

vs. vs. vs. vs.

Post v s . I v s.

Are H I ll I ll Post

I VS, I I v s.

H III HI

Pinal v s. I v s. I v s. I I v s.

II HI I ll

Pinal

(Post-Are) vs (Post-Are) I v s. I I I v s. I l l H v s. I l l (Final-Post) v s . (Flnal-Fost) I vs. I I i v s. h i I I v s. I l l (Flnal-Are) v s . (Final-Are) I vs. I I I vs. I l l H vs. I l l ( (Final-Post)- ( Post-Are)) v s . ( (Final-Post)-(Post-Are)) I vs. H I v s. I l l I I vs. I l l

Ssa&ti Pre I I II

vs. vs. vs. vs.

Are H HI HI

Post vs. Post I vs. n I VS. I l l I I vs. H I

Final vs. Final I vs. H I vs. I l l I I vs. I l l (Post-Are) vs (Post-Are) I vs. H I vs. I l l II vs. H I (Final-Post) v s. (Final-Post) I vs. I I I vs. H I II vs. I l l (Final-ftre) vs. (Final-ftre) I vs. II I vs. I l l II vs. III ( (Final-Post)-(Post-Are)) vs. ( (Final-PostMPost-Pre)) I vs. H I vs. H I II vs. I l l

Pattern. pf Between Subgroups o f Exuerlmftpt a l Group and Subgroups o f Control Group

Experimental v s. Control Are I II III

v s. vs. vs. v s.

Ere 1 n I ll

Post I ii III

v s. vs. vs. vs.

Post I n I ll

Final I H III

v s. vs. vs. v s.

Final I II I ll

(Post-Are) I II III

v s. (Post-Are) v s. I v s. H v s. I l l

(Final v s. Post) v s. (Final-Post) I v s. I II v s. II h i vs. i n (Final-Pte) I II III

v s. vs. vs. v s.

(Final-Pre) I H I ll

( (Final-Post)-(Post-Are)) I H HI

v s. v s. v s. v s.

((Final-Post)-(Post-Are)) I II HI

334

P attern c f Evaluation Within Subgroup. In order that relationships nay he kept d ear the discussion of the resu lts of the many tests of significance w ill follow the patterns just la id down. She f ir s t set of tests to he discussed then w ill he those which were made within the subgroups. She data which follows are for the compari­ son of p o st-test scores with pre-test scores on the D.E.T. Surrey Section for Experimented Q-L Subgroups* East ygi fxs P.R.T. .Surrey Experimented Q-L Subgroups D.R.T. Survey Exp. Q-L Subgroup I Post vs. Pre la lh 2 4 N* 9 3 Post-Test Mean 15.22 37.44 2 6 .1 1 287.89 63.56 245.44 Pre-Test Mean 26.44 13.78 37.56 64.00 42.45 1.44 Difference -.1 2 -.44 -.33 t .916 —06l 2.455* -.126 -.173 D.B.T. Survey - Exp. (£-1 Subgroup n Post vs. Pre tf » 7 la lh 2 3 4 Post-Test Mean 327.00 13*57 47.43 26.57 74.00 Pre-Test Mean 287.29 11.71 39*71 25.29 65*00 Difference 39.71 1.86 7*72 1.28 9.00 t 3 *320 * 1.188 2 . 868* .875 2.448*

D.B.T. Survey - Exp. Q-l Subgroup III Post vs. Pre H* 7 la lh 2 3 4 Post-Test Mean 3 2 4 .4 3 15.14 41.29 27.71 69.00 Pre-Test Mean 249.57 14.00 37*43 27.71 65*14 Difference 74.86 1.14 3.86 0 3.86 t 4 . 502 ** 3-849** .952 0 .983

A ll three subgroups within the Experisental Group made gains in the rate o f reading, the gains for Subgroups I and II being significant at the fiv e per cent le v e l and the gain for Subgroup III being significant at the one per cent le v e l. In addition Subgroup III registered a gain in Score lb which though st& tistlealiy significant at the one per oent le v e l must be disregarded because the Story Comprehension score is not completely r e lia b le . Subgroup II showed an lnorease in 7ooabulary score sig n ifica n t at the fiv e per oent level whioh together with i t s increase in rate caused the to ta l score to show an increase also significant at the five per cent le v e l. Several insignificant losses were recorded by Subgroup I.

335

Post vs. Pre D.R.T. Survey - Control Q-L Subgroups The next three tests w ill make, the post-test versus pre-test comparison for the three Control Q-L Subgroups. D.R.T, Survey l-T-10 la Post-Test Mean 285.40 Pre-Test Mean 261,20 Difference 24,20 t 2,387*

Con. Q-L Subgroup I lb 2 16.40 41.50 14.30 37.10 2.10 4,40 2.473* 2.055

D.R.T. Survey E«6 la Post-Test Mean 270,17 Pre-Test Mean 269.50 Difference ,67 t .084

Con, Q-L Subgroup II Post vs. Pre lb 2 4 3 74.00 17.00 44.67 2 9 .3 3 15.50 36.67 65.83 29 .1 7 1.50 8.00 .16 8.17 .112 1.218 2.208 2.825*

D.R.T. Survey Ete? la Post-Test Mean 242.57 Pre-Test Mean 230,14 Difference 12,43 t .731

Con. Q-L Subgroup III Post vs. Pre lb 2 4, 3 16.14 42.86 71.14 28.29 25.43 61.86 12.57 36.43 9.28 2.86 3.57 6.43 6.040** 1.562 3.219* 3.778**

Post vs. Pre 4 3 28.5 0

7 0 .0 0

28.00 .50 .377

65.10 4.90 1.977

Within the Control Croup, each of the Subgroups gained on a ll five scores of the Survey Section,

The pattern of gains for the Control

Subgroups differs from that of the Experimental Subgroups from pre-test to p ost-test.

In the Experimental Subgroups the emphasis was on rate

of reading whereas in the Control Subgroups only Subgroup I made a gain in th is area. Control Subgroup III made the largest gains within the Control Croup by increasing it s scores in both Story Comprehension and Vocabulary.

Since both of these scores Influence the Total score

on the Surtrey Section, i t too shows a significant increase.

if

The Bate

Reading score does not enter into the computation of the Total score.

336

P in a l v s. Feat D .R .T . S u r r e y Experimental Q-L Subgroups

The next set of teste within the Subgroups w ill he made between fin a l te st scores and post test scores on the D.R.T. Survey Section, The data needed to make the test for the Experimental Q-L Subgroups are: D .R .T , Survey - Exp. Q-L Subgroup I lb 2 N=9 la P in a l-T e s t Mean 2 6 6 .3 3 34.11 13.33 P o st-T e s t Mean 2 8 7 .3 9 1 5 .2 2 37.44 D iffe r e n c e - 2 1 .5 6 -1.89 -3.33 t — 2.392* - 1 .3 6 3 -1.273

P in a l v s . Post 4 3 59.78 25.67 26.11 63.56 - .4 4 -3.78 -0 .2 4 1 - 1 .0 9 2

D.R.T. Survey - Exo, Q-L Subgrouu II P in a l v s . Post lb 2 ' 4 M*7 la 3 P in a l-T e s t Mean 3 0 8 .2 9 2 5 .1 4 65.14 40.00 14.29 P o s t-T e s t Mean 3 2 7 .0 0 47.43 74.00 13.57 26.57 D iffe r e n c e - 1 8 .7 1 .72 - 1 .4 3 - 8 .8 6 -7.43 t - 1 .1 3 3 .6 6 8 - 2 . 926 * - .840 -2.646* D .R .T . Survey - Exp. Q-L Subgroup III N«7 la lb 2 14.14 P in a l-T e s t Mean 2 9 1 .5 7 36.14 P o s t-T e s t Mean 3 2 4 .4 3 15.14 41.29 D iffe r e n c e - 3 2 .8 6 - 1 .0 0 -5.15 t - 2.467* - .775 -2.173

P in a l v s . Post 4 3 64.86 28.71 69 .00 27.71 -4.14 1 .0 0 .6 0 2 -1.527

Except for two insignificant increases from post-test to final te st each of the Subgroups within the Experimental Group lost ground on a ll the scores o f the Survey Section* Subgroups I and III made losses sig n ifican t at the fiv e per cent level in rate of reading. Subgroup II which was the only Subgroup which made a gain in Vocabulary Score from p re-test to post—te st lost a ll its gain from p ost-test to final te st.

It begins to appear that the gains made during a period of

(practice are not retained during the period of no practice.

F in a l v s . Post D.R.T. Survey Control Q-L Subgroups

The f in a l versu s p ost comparisons fo r the Control Q-L Subgroups f o llo w : D.R.T. Survey Con* Q-L Subgroup I N-1 0 F in a l-T est Mean P ost-T est Mean D ifferen ce t

la 280.20 285.4-0 - 5 .2 0 - .960

lb 13.90 16.40 -2 .5 0 -4-.160**

D .R .T. Survey Con. Q-L Subgroup I I M-6 F in a l-T est Mean P ost-T est Mean D ifferen ce t

la 275.00 270,17 4 .8 3 .348

la 250.71 242.57 8 .1 4 .576

2 3 9 .0 0 4 1 .5 0 -2 .5 0 -2 .0 7 6

3 25.60 28.50 -2 .9 0 -2 .2 6 9 *

4 70.00 ^5.4-0 -2 .7 4 5 *

3 27.67 29.33 -1 .6 6 - .749

467.67 74.00 -6 .3 3 -3.073*

3 25.00 28.29 -3 .2 9 -2 .7 6 5 *

4 61.43 7 1 .1 4 - 9 .7 1 -3 .5 5 4 *

6 4 .60

F in a l v s . Post

lb 15.00 17.00 -2 .0 0 -1 .3 9 1

DJ l.T . Survey Con. Q-L Subgroup I I I N«7 F in a l-T e st Mean lb st-T e st Mean D ifferen ce t

F in a l v s . Post

2 4 0 .0 0 44-67 -4 .6 7 -4 .3 0 4 * *

F in a l v s . Post

lb 12.86 16.14 - 3 .2 8 -3 .5 8 4 *

2 36.43 4-2.86 —6 .4 3 -2 .5 3 7 *

I t i s evid en t a t once from the data shown above th at the trend o f decreasing sc o re s fo llo w in g no p r a c tic e was a lso f e l t by the Control Subgroups. The stu d en ts i n th ese Subgroups, o f course received no p r a c tic e . One p o s sib le explanation o f the r is e i n th e Subgroups from p r e -t e s t to p o s t - t e s t follow ed by a d e c lin e from p o s t - t e s t to fin a l t e s t may l i e in the f a c t th a t th e p o s t - t e s t came on ly e ig h t weeks a f t e r they had entered upon c o lle g e study when they may have s t i l l been f e e lin g the considerable m otivation o f a new exp erien ce, ihereas the f i n a l t e s t was adm inistered i n th e middle o f th e second sem ester by which tim e there had been a consid erable l e t down in d r iv e . Subgroup I I I which made th e la r g e s t g a in s from p r e -te s t to p o s t - t e s t a lso made the la r g e s t lo s s e s from p o s t - t e s t to f in a l t e s t .

338 P in a l

vs.

Pre

D .R .T . Survey - Experim ental Q.-L Subgroups H av in g c o n s id e r e d th e p o s t- te s t versus p r e - t e s t d iffe re n c e s a n d th e f i n a l t e s t v e r s u s p o s t- te s t d iff e r e n c e s , th e next step i s t o make th e o v e r a l l com parison from p r e - te s t to f i n a l t e s t on th e D .R .T . S u rv e y S e c t i o n .

The n ecessaiy d a ta f o r E x p e rim en tal Q-L

S u b g ro u p s a r e shown below : D .R .T . S u rv ey - Exp. Q-L Subgroup I F i n a l v s . Pre lb 2 4 31 - 9 la 3 F in a l T est Mean 2 6 6 .3 3 34.11 59.78 2 5 .6 7 13-33 P r e -T e s t Mean 245*44 64.00 2 6 .4 4 13-78 37.56 D iffe r e n c e 20.89 -4.22 - .45 -3.45 - .7 7 tf 1.816 -1.891 -1.646 - .4 9 1 - .393

D .R .T. Survey - Exp. Q-L Subgroup II il » 7 • F in a l T est Mean P r e -T e st Mean D iff e r e n c e . t?

la 308.29 287.29 21.00 1.999

lb 14.29 11.71 2.58 2.578*

2 40.00 39.71 .29 .192

D .R .T. Survey - Exp. Q-L Subgroup III IT - 7 F in a l T est Mean P re-T e at Mean D iffe r e n c e tf

la 291.57 249.57 4 2 .0 0 2.666*

lb 14.14 14.00 .14 .113

F in a l v s. Pre 3 2 5 .1 4 2 5 .2 9 - .1 5 - .1 6 3

4 65.14 65.00 .14 .070

F in a l vs. Pre

2 3 36.14 2 8 .7 1 37.43 • 2 7 .7 1 - 1.29 1 .0 0 -.614 .569

4 64.86 65.14 -.28 -.094

When, the p r e - t e s t scores are compared w ith th e final- te st s c o r e s f o r th e Experim ental Subgroups, i t appears th a t when the l o s s e s and g a in s are balanced that no sig n ifica n t change took p la c e ..

Subgroup I I I r eg istered a gain in Hate o f Reading sig n i­

f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p er cen t lev el without any l o s s in comprehension j as measured by S cores lb and 3, suffering only a minor loss in 1v o c a b u la r y .

The o n ly gain s made by Subgroups I and I I were also

i n r a te o f rea d in g but not s ta t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n t .

Though

s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n if i c a n t the gain made by Subgroup I I in Score lb i s ig n o r ed b ecause o f the lack of r e lia b ility o f t h i s score.

339

lia&l, YBt ftre P_*B.T._Survey Control Q.-L Subgroups She next three tests of significance w ill he for the Control Qrl* Subgroups from pre-test to fin al te st.

The data on the two forms of

the D.R.T. Survey Section for these Subgroups are shown below*

D.R.T. Survey - Con. Q,-L Subgroup I Final vs. Pre H • 10 Final Test Mean Pre-Test Mean Difference t

la 280.20 261.20 19.00 1 .7 0 0

lb 13.90 14.30 -.40 -.57 o

2 39.00 37.10 1.90 1.120

3 25.60 28.00 -2.40 -1.714

4 64.60 65.10 • -.50 -.251

D.R.T. Survey - Con. Qr-I Subgroup II Final vs. Pre N- 6 Final Test Mean Pre-Test Mean Difference t

la 275*00 269.50

5.50 •314

D.R.T. Survey - Con. » »7 Final Test Mean Pre-Test Mean Difference t

la 250.71 230.14 20.57 .853

lb 15.00 15.50 -.50 -.695

2 40*00 36.67 3-33

3 27.67 29.17 -1.50

1.160

- .6 7 2

4 67.67 65.83 1.84 .488

Subgroup III Final vs* Pre lb 12.86 12.57 .29 .216

2 3 6 .4 3

3

36.%

25.43

0 0

25.00 - .4 3

-.329

4 61.43 61.66 -.43 -.2 3 1

The Control Subgroups like the Experimental Subgroups showed no significant improvement in reading sk ills on the fin al te sts. A ll three Control Subgroups gained in Bate of Reading but not significantly. Minor i

losses were registered in a ll three Subgroups and Subgroup III achieved a mean Vocabulary score on the fin a l test which exactly matched it s per­ formance on the pre-test.

(Final Post) vs (Post-ure) D. R. T. Survey experimental Q-L Subgroups

Thus fbv te sts have been made within eaoh Q-L Subgroup of the differences between pre-test and post-test, post-test and final te st, and p re-test and fin a l test. To complete the pattern of evaluation with­ in Subgroups there remains now the test between the gain from pre-test to p o st-test and the gain from post-test to final te s t . The data needed to make th is te s t for the Experimental Q-L Subgroups are the final-post means and the post-pre means on the D. R. T. Survey Section. D. R. T. Survey - Exp. Q-L Subgroup I (Final-Post) vs. (Post-Pre) N=9 F in a l- P o s t Mean P o st-fir e Mean D iffe r e n c e t

la -2 1 .5 6 42.4-5 -6 4 .0 1 - 2.555*

lb -1.89 1.44 -3.33 - .370

2 -3.33 - .12 -3.21 - .799

3 -•44 -.3 3 -.1 1 -.033

4 -3.78 - .44 -3.34 - .515

D. R. T . Survey - Exp. Q-L Subgroup II (F in al-F ost) v s . 1( P ost-fte) la -1 8 .7 1 39.71 —5 8 .4 2 - 2.175

lb .71 1.86 -1.15 - .460

2 - 7 .4 3 7.71 -15.14 - 3 .1 3 5

3 -1 .4 3 1.29 -2 .7 2 S to . 1

N*7 F in a l- P o s t Mean P o st-P r e Mean D iffe r e n c e t

4 - 8.86 9.00 ■17.86 —2 . 646 *

D. R. T, Survey - Exp. Q-L Subgroup III (F in al-P ost) v s. (F ost-fte) N .=7 F in a l-L ’o s t Mean P o et-P re Mean D iffe r e n c e t

lb la - 32.86 -1.00 74*86 1.14 -1 0 7 .7 2 -2.14 - 4*194** -1.138

2 -5 .1 4 3.86 -9 .0 0 -1 .4 2 9

3 1 .0 0 0 1.00 .442

4 -4 .1 4 3.86 —8.00 -1.333

Since th is comparison is not unlike the fin a l vs. post-test, the resu lt is the same picture of the trend to lose during the period of no practice the gain made during the period of pneetledr*

3a

(Final-ffost) v s . (Post-Pre^ D. R. T. Survey Control Q - L Subgroups

The three remaining tests to be made within the Subgroups are the three te sts between gains for the Control Q-L Subgroups* The data needed are the final-post means and the post-pre means on the D. R, T. Survey Section* D. R, T. Survey Con* Q-L Subgroup I (Final-Post) v s. (Post-Pre) Ns 7

Final-JPost Mean Fost-Pre Mean Difference t

la

lb

- 5.20 24*20 -5 9 .4 0 - 2,489*

-2 .5 0 2 .1 0 •4*60 -3 .5 6 6 *

2 -2*50 4 .4 0 -6 .9 0 -2 .2 7 7

3 - 2 .9 0 .5 0 -3 .4 0 ■1.545

4 - 5.40 4 .9 0 -1 0 .3 0 - 2.569*

D. R. T, Survey Con* Q-L Subgroup II (Final-Post) vs. (Post-F!re) Ns 6

Final-Post Mean Post-Pre Mean Difference t

la

lb

4*83 .6 7 4*16

—2*00 1 .5 0 -3 .5 0 -1 .3 5 7

*292

2 - 4 .6 7 8.00 -1 2 .6 7 - 2.809*

3 - 1 .6 7 .1 7 —1 .8 4 - .592

4 - 6 .3 3 8 .1 7 -1 4 .5 0 - 4.341**

D. R. T. Survey Con* Q-L Subgroup H I (Final-Poet) vs* (Post-Pre) N =7 Final-Post Mean Post-Pre Mean Difference t

la 8 .1 4 1 2 .4 3 - 4 .2 9 -2 .1 5

lb -3*29 3 .5 7 4«86 ■4,484**

2 - 6 .4 3 6 .4 3 -1 2 .8 6 - 3.514*

3 -3 .2 9 2 .8 6 -6 .1 5 -2 .1 9 3

4 - 9 .7 1 9 .2 9 -1 9 .0 0 - 4.738**

The shewing of the Control Subgroups during the period of no practice was generally the same as that for the Experimental Subgroups with losses being recorded on a ll scores but one*

342 P attern of Evaluation Between Q-£ Subgroups

In making the study to determine whether various combinations of lin g u istic and quantitative abilities result in significant changes in reading s k ills after exposure to the self-administering technique o f reading Improvement, it was stated that three sets of tests would be made*

( l) te sts within each Experimental Subgroup and within each Con­

tr o l Subgroup,

(2) tests between the Subgroups within the Experimental

Group and between Subgroups within the Control Group, and (3) between the Subgroups of the Experimental Group and the Subgroups of the Control Group* Now that the te sts within each of the Subgroups have been completed, the te s ts between the Subgroups of the Experimental Group and the tests between the Subgroups of the Control Group w ill be made* From the summary of the basic pattern of evaluation it is clear that seven tests are made between groups* Pre vs. Pre Post vs* Post Final vs* Final (Post-Pre)vs* (Post-Pre) (Flnal-Post) vs. (Final-JPost) (Final-Pre) vs. (Final^Pre) ( (Flnal-Post)-(Poet-Pre)) vs. ((Final-Post) - ( Poet-fre)) Hence the fir s t tests to be madebetween groupsw ill compare the pre­ te s t scores of eachSubgroup with those of the other Subgroupswithin the Experimental Group* The same tests will then be made within the Control Group* j

lh eaoh group of three tests between the Subgroups I, II, and III the

1plan which w ill be followed throughout this study for the sake of co n sist­ ency w ill be as follows

I vs. n I vs* III II vs* III

D. R. T. Survey Experimental QJL Subgroups

II vs* lb 2 13.78 37.56 11*71 39.71 2*07 - 2.15 1*832 - .726

3 26*44 25.29 1.15 .782

N * 9 (I) N * 7 (III) Pre-Test Mean I Are-Test Mean III Difference t

I la 245.44 249.57 - '4 .1 3 .246

vs* III lb 2 13.78 37.56 14.00 37.43 - .22 .13 - .206 .050

3 26.44 27.71 - 1.27 — *864

aa

I la 245 *44 . 287*29 - 41.85 - 1*940

ts&s II 11 -a

N s 9 (I) N = 7 (II) Are-Test Mean I Are-Test Mean II Difference t

Are-Test Mean II Are-Test Mean H I Difference t

II la 287.29 249.57 37.72 1.451

vs* lb 11.71 14.00 - 2.29 - 1.659

4 64*00 65.00 - 1*00 - .291

4

64 .OO

65 .14 -1 * 1 4 - .335

III

2 39.71 37.43 2.28 *826

3 25.29 27.71

-2.42

- 1.315

4 65.00 65.14 - .14 - .047

The Q-i Subgroups were selected on the basis of criteria which made each Subgroup decidedly different from the other two in terms of scholastic ability* Yet when we exam the data comparing the performance of the Sub­ groups on the various scones of the D* R* T* Survey Section, i t is obvious that there are no significant differences between the groups on any of the scores* Undoubtedly the fact that a ll of the students in the stuty were in the bottom h alf of their class and therefore lim ited in scholastic a b ility accounts for th is situation in part*

344

Post vs. Post D. R. T. Surrey Experimental Q«Ji Subgroups N s 9 (I) N = 7 (II)

Post-Test Mean I Post-Test Mean II Difference t N ■ 9 (I) N s 7 ( III)

Post-Test Mean I Post-Test Mean III Difference t N = 7 (II) K e 7 (III)

Post-Test Mean II Post-Test Mean III Difference t

I la 287,89 327.00 - 39.11 — 1.140

I la 287.89 324,43 - 36.54 - 1.211

II la 327.00 324.43 2.57 .083

vs.

II lb

15.22 13.57 1.65 .927

vs.

2 3 26.11 37.44 26.57 47.43 - 9.99 — ,46 - 3.319** - .192

4 6 3 .5 6 7 4 .0 0 —1 0 .4 4 - 2 .1 3 9

III lb

15.22 15.14 .08 .054

vs, lb 13.57 15.14 - 1 .5 7 - 1.061

2 37.44 41.29 - 3.85 - .885

3 26.11 27.71 - 1.60

.800

4 6 3 .5 6 6 9 .0 0 - 5 .4 4 - .9 5 3

3 26.57 27.71 - 1 .1 4 - .671

4 7 4 .0 0 6 9 .0 0 5 .0 0 1 .0 3 3

-

III 2 47.43 41.29 6.14 1.551

At the end of the practice period when a ll three Subgroups within the Experimental Group took the post-tests along with the students in the Control Group, no significant differences developed between any* two of the three Subgroups except for a difference in Vocabulaiy score sign ifican t at the one per cent level in favor of Subgroup I I over Subgroup I*

3*5 F in a l vs. F in a l D .R .T . Survey Experim ental

Q

-

N = 9 ( I) H ■ 7 ( II) F in a l Test Mean I F in a l Test Mean I I D ifference t

la 266.33 308.29 -4 1 .9 6 -1 .4 5 9

I vs . lb 13.33 14.29 -.9 6 -.7 2 7

H - 9 ( I) b= 7 dU F in a l Test Mean I F in a l Test Mean H I D ifference ■fc

la 266*33 291.57 -2 5 .2 4 -1 .1 0 2

I vs. lb 13.33 14.14 -.8 1 -.5 5 5

H ■ 7 ( II) n - 7 (m ) F in a l Test Mean I I F in a l Test Mean ICI D ifference t

la 308.29 291.57 16.72 .620

g a te H P s

L

II 2 34.11

3 25.67 25.14 .53 .306

4 59.78 65.14 -5 .3 6 -1 .5 3 1

-.7 6 0

3 25.67 28.71 -3 .0 4 -1 .4 6 2

4 59.78 64.86 -5 .0 8 -1 .1 8 7

I I vs,, I I I lb 2 40.00 14.29 14.14 36.14 3.86 .15 .090 1.435

3 25.14 28.71 -3 .5 7 -1 .6 0 1

4 65.14 64*86. .2 8 .067

40.00 -5 .8 9 -2 .1 4 2 in

2 34.11 36.14 - 2.03

The f in a l te s ts adm inistered a fte r a four months period of no p ractice revealed no changes between the Subgroups which could be termed s ig n ific a n t*

The d iffere n c e in Vocabulary score between Sub*

groups I and I I persisted in favo r o f Subgroup I I , but the f in a l d iffere n c e had slipped wider the fiv e per cent le v e l o f sig n ifican ce ju s t by a h a ir*

»

3*6 (Post-Pre) v s . (Post-Pre) D.R.T. Survey Experimental . Q - L Subgroups

N s 9 ( I) IT S 7 ( I I ) P o st-P re Mean I P o st-P re Mean I I D iffe re n c e t

N = 9 ( I) N = 7 ( III) P o st-P re Mean I P o s t-F re Mean I I I D iffe re n c e t

K * 7 ( II) N = 7 ( III) P o st-P re Mean I I P o s t-F re Mean I I I D iffe re n c e t-

la 42.44 39.71 2.73 .122

lb 1.44 1,86 -•42 -.186

Vs 8 i.IXJ. IX v I 2 -.1 1 7 .7 1 -7 ,8 2 * -2 .4 1 4

3 -.3 3 1.29 -1.62 -.640

4 -.4 4 9.00 -9.44-1.840

la 42.44 74.86 -32.42 -1.322

lb 1.44 1.14 .30 .152

I vs. I l l 2 - .1 1 3.86 -3 .9 7 -.9 4 7

3 -.3 3 0 -.3 3 -.138

4 —.44 3.86 *■4.30 -.8 1 6

3 1.29 0 1.29 .690

4 9.00 3.86 5.14 .955

I I vs. I l l la 39.71 74.86 -35.15 -1.716

lb 1.86 1.14 *72 .396

2 7 .7 1 3.86 3 .8 5 .791

The comparison of gains made from p r e -te s t to p o s t - t e s t by t h e Subgroups w ith in the Experimental Group shows nothing w hich d i f f e r s m arkedly from the comparisons made between the groups on t h e p o s t - t e s t scores*

347 ( P in a l-P o s t) v s .

(3Tinn.1.—Pr>st )

P . R. I . Survey Exo. Q-L Subgroups

I

H - 9 (I ) IT - 7 ( I I ) E in a l-P o st Mean I P in a l-P o st Mean II D ifferen ce t

la - 2 1 .5 6 -18.71 - 2.85 - .161

H - 9 (I) H - 7 (H I) P in a l-P o st Mean I i ’in a l-P o s t Mean II I D ifferen ce t

la - 2 1 .56 - 3 2 .8 6 11.30 .728

N ■ 7 (II) Iff - 7 ( I I I ) ffin a l-P o st Mean II P in a l-P o st Mean III D ifferen ce a

va. lb - I .89 .71 - 2.60 -1.3^ 7

I

2 -3 .3 3 -5 .1 4 1.81 .522 va.

lb .71 -1 .0 0 1.71 1.024

3 - .44 - 1.43 .99 .387

4 -3 .7 8 -8 .8 6 5.08 I .033

3 " .44 1.00 -1 .4 4 - . 56 7

4 -3 .7 8 -4 .1 4 .36 .078

3 - 1 .4 3 1 .0 0 - 2 .4 3 - 1 .0 2 1

4 -8 .8 6 -4 .1 4 -4 .7 2 -1 .0 9 5

II I

va lb - 1 .8 9 -1 .0 0 — .89 - -4 3 6

11

la -1 8 .7 1 -3 2 .3 6 14.15 .667

II 2 -3 0 3 -7 .4 3 4 .10 1.182

O -7 .4 3 -5 .14 - 2 .29 - .686

II I

The comparison o f the changes r e s u lt in g "between the Subgroups o f th e E3q.jerimen.tal Group during the p erio d o f no p r a c tic e a lso does not d if f e r much from the comparison made between the group on the f in a l t e s t s c o r e s .

. Ho S ig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s appear between the groups.

348 v s. ( F in a l-P r e )

(ffinal-Pre)

D. R. d. Survey ihro. Q_—L Subgroups IT - 9 ( I ) IT - 7 ( I I ) F in a l-P re Mean I F in a l-P r e Mean II D iffe r e n c e t

v s.

I la 20.89 21.00 - .11 - .008

1 7 - 9 (I) IT - 7 ( H I ) F in a l-P r e Mean I F in a l-P r e Mean III D iffe r e n c e t

I la 20.89 42.00 -21.11 - 1.109

H - 7 (II) IT - 7 ( I I I ) F in a l-P r e Mean II F in a l-P r e Mean III D iffe r e n c e t

la 21.00 42.00 -21.00 - 1.109

II 2 -3.44 .29 -3.73 -1.516

lb - .44 2.57 -3 .0 2 -1.942

II

2 -3.44 - 1.29 - 2.15 - .776

3 - .78 1.00 -1.78 - .748

4 —4 .2 2 - .29 -3*9 3 - .987

3 - .14 1.00 -1.14 - .582

4 .1 4 - .29 .43 .117

III

v s. lb 2.57 .14 2.43 1.528

4 - 4 .2 2 - .1 4 —4 .3 6 -1 .1 7 2

III

vs. lb - .44 .14 - .58 - .345

3 - .78 - .14 — .64 - .327

2 .29 - 1.29 1.58 .610

S in ce no d ifferen ces were found between the Subgroups w it h in th e E x p erim en ta l Group during the period o f p r a c tic e and none during th e p e r io d o f no p r a c t i c e , i t i s not surprising th a t no d ifferen ces were found betw een the grou p s f o r the overall period from p r e - t e s t to fin a l t e s t .

f

3*9 ( ( F i n a l - P o s t ) - ( P o s t - P r e ))

((F in a l-F o st)-(P o st-P r e )) v s.

P . H. ! . Survey E xperim en tal Q-L Subgroups

N = 9 (I) H - 7 (II) ( ( P in al -Po a t )- w ith the highest po­ te n tia l* gained only In Bate o f Beading and lo s t in the oth er fo u r areas*

371 Post - Pre ■Cflnteol. Rato and Comprehension Subgroups

Bsa»ff». ,8nmy..,.Sftctaioa

The p ost-test

t v sue

pre-test analyses just made for the Experimental

H-0 Subgroups w ill now be made for the Control B-C Subgroups. The data l i s ­ ted next are for Control B-C Subgroups. D.R.T. Survey - Con. H—C Subgrotqp I IT m 4 la lb Poet-Test Mean Pre-Test Mean Differences t

£78*25 267*50 10.75 .652

15*50 11*75 3*75 2 .2 7 0

Post-Pre 2

3

4

40.25 37.25

2 7 .0 0 2 5 .0 0 2 .0 0

67*25 62.25

3 .0 0

1*532

D.R.T. Survey - Con. B-C Subgrotqp II Post-Pre 2 la lb R= 5 Poet-Test Mean Pre-Test Mean Differences t

251.4 234.2 17*2 .848

17*80 13*20 4.60 3 *206 *

40.40 35.20 5.20 1.413

D.R.T. Survey - Control B-C Subgroup III Poet-Pre lb 2 la S* 3 Post-Test Mean Pre-Test Mean Differences t

335*00 313*33 21.67 2.144

17*67 17.00 .67 •461

•840

5 .0 0

2.014

3

4

3 0 .0 2 7 .6 0

70.40

2.40 1.50 3

32 47.33 34.67 33*33 12.66 - 1.33 1 4 . 365 ** - .5 5 3

6&eo 7 .6 0 2 .1 0 6

4 79.33 68.00 11*33 - 5*587*

The Control Subgroups a ll registered gains from the p re-test to the p o st-test. ▲gain significant at the fir e per cent lev el vas registered by Oontrol Subgroup II in the unreliable Story Comprehension seore. Sub­ group III made a gain significant at the one per cent lev el in Vocabulary.

F in a l - P ost Experimental Hate and Comprehension Subgroups D« H. T. Survey S ectio n The p o s t-te s t versu s p r e - t e s t a n a ly ses have now "been com pleted. The next group of s i x t e s t s w i l l be the comparison betvreen f i n a l t e s t scores and p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s .

The data needed to make the t e s t fo r

the Experimental R. 0 . Subgroup I are: D. E. T,, Survey E:xp. E-C Subgroup I F in al - P ost 1 a

S■5 Final Test Mean Post Test Mean Differences t

3 0 0 .6 3 1 2 .8 - 1 2 .2

1 b

1 3 .6

o 3 8 .8

4 5 .4 1 2 .2 1 .4 - 6 .6 -.8 1 1 . 7 8 8 -2 .0 2 3

4

3 2 7 .2 2 5 .2 2 .0

.874

6 6 .0 7 0 .6

- 4 .6 -1 .0 0 4

D. E. T. Survey Exp. R-•C Subgroup II F in al - Po U- 4

1 a

Final Test Mean 248.25 Post Test Mean 275.20 Differences -2 6 .9 5 t - 1 .8 7 8

1 b 1 6 .5 0

1 5 .7 5 .75 .8 7 8

2

3

3 5 .0 0 4 3 .5 0 - 8 .5 0 -3 .2 7 2 *

28.25 27.00 1 .2 5 •585

4 63.33 70.50 -7 .1 7 -1 .8 4 ?

D. E, T. Survey Exp.R-C Subgroup I I I F in al v s P ost W= 4

1 a

Final Test Mean 335.00 Poet Teet Mean 387.00 Differences -5 2 .0 0 t -2 .8 6 0

1 b

2

1 2 .0 0 3 9 .0 0 3 6 .0 0 1 4 .6 7 3 .0 0 - 2 .6 7 -8 .0 1 8 * * .721

3 2 6 .0 0 2 7 .6 7 - 1 .6 7 -.7 1 6

4 6 5 .0 0

63.67 1 .3 3 .346

With one or two minor e x c e p tio n s the Experim ental Subgroups •lo s t ground from p o s t - t e s t to f i n a l t e s t .

373

F in al - Post C ontrol Rate and Comprehension Subgroups D. E. T. Survey S ectio n The next three t e s t s w i l l he the f i n a l v ersu s post comparisons for th e Control R C Subgroups. D. R. T. Survey Con. R-C Subgroup I = 4

1 a

F in a l Test Mean P o st-T e st Mean D iffe r e n c e s t

274.00 278.25 - 4 .2 5 -.4 2 7

1 b

1 2 .5 1 5 .5 - 3 .0 -7.353**

F in a l vs Post

2

3

4 0 .2 5 4 0 .2 5

24.25

0 0

-2 .7 5 -1 .7 7 6

D. R. T. Survey Con. R-C Subgroup I I IT “ 5

1 a

F in a l T est Mean P o st-T e st Mean D iffe r e n c e s t

2 5 2 .0 0

251.40 .6 0

.056

1 b

13.60 17.80 - 4 .2 0 -7 .2 0 4 * *

2 7 .0 0

4 64.50 6 7 . 25 -2 .7 5 -1.42*

F in a l vs P ost 4

2

3

34.00 4 0 .4 0 -6 .4 0 -1 .9 2 7

2 4 .6

5 8 .6 0

3 0 .0

70.40

- 5 .4 - 1 1 .8 - 6 . 6 5 0 ** -4.545*

D. R. T. Survey Con. R-C Subgroup I I I F in al v s . Post ^

1 a

- 3

F in a l Test Mean ' P o st-T e st Mean D iffe r e n c e s t

301.67 335.00 -3 3 .3 3 -4.545*

1 b

2

1 5 .0 0 1 7 .6 7 -2 .6 7 - 2 .0 0 1

40 .6 7 4 7 .3 3 - 6 ,6 6 -2 .3 4 2

3 2 8 .3 3 3 2 .0 0

-3 .6 7 -1 .9 7 7

4 6 9 .0 0

79.33 -1 0 .3 3 -5.09*

Like th e Experim ental Subgroups, a l l the Control Croups showed lower i

sc o r e s a fte r the p e rio d o f no p r a c tic e and in gen eral the l o s s e s were even la r g e r than those o f the Experim ental Subgroups.

374 Pinal-Pre Exoer1mental Rate and Comprehension Subgroups P.B.T. Survey Section

Thus far, of the within Subgroups te sts, the p o st-test versus pre­ test and the fin a l te s t versus p o st-test, comparisons have been made. set of six te sts w ill deal with the overall pre to fin a l differ, necessary data for Experimental EC Subgroups follow:

la 300,60 297-40 3*20 •383

i

JT-5 final le st Mean Pre-Test Mean Difference* t

i

D.R.T. Survey Exp* B-C

ib 1 3 .6 1 1 .4

2*2 2.558

I

Pinal-Pre 2 38.8 40.8 -2.0 -1.026

D.E.T. Survey Exp* B— 0 Subgroup II N«4 Pinal Test Mean Pre-Test Mean Differences t

la 243*25 221*00 27.25 1*406

lb 16*50 13.25 3.25 2.931

H-3 Pinal Test Mean Pre-Test Mean Differences t

la 335.00 293*33 41*6? 2.466

lb 12 16*33 -4.33 -2.597

2 7 .2

24.0 3.2 3.137*

4 66.0 64.8 1.2 *496

Final v s. Pre

2 35 37.25 -2.25 - .635

D.R.T. Survey Exp. B-C Subgroup III

3

3 28.25 26.25 2.00 •961

4 63-33 63.50 - .17 - .0 3 2

Pinal v s, Pre

2 39 39.67 - .67 - .361

3

26

33 -7.00 -7»00*:

4 65 72.67 -7.67 -4.133

Only one s ig n ific a n t gain was re g is te re d by the Experim ental Subgroups when th e o v e r a ll p e rio d from p re -te s t to f in a l te s t is considered.

Experim ental Subgroup I , the Subgroup w ith the lowest

a gain s ig n ific a n t a t

|

comprehension p r e -te s t soore, re g is te re d

i

the five: p er cent le v e l in Paragraph and S tory Comprehension*

She next

SLflfil.-JJlg C o n tro l Ba.te. and Comprehension Subgroups

£t-a.*l»,Sy^T, B, S, Surrey Exp, B-C Subgroup 1 (Final-Post) r s. (Fost-Prs) E» 5 Pinal-Post Mean P o ste r s Mean Differences t

la -12,2 15.4 27*6 - ,951

D, B. T, Surrey Exp, H 3 If Pinal-Post Mean Post-Pre Mean Differences t

A

la -52 93.67 -145.67 -3.573

2 -3 .8 1.8 -5 .6 - .675

4 -2 .0 -3 .2 -5 .2 - .493

3 1.8 1.4 .4 .091

Subgroup II (Pinal-Post) r s. (Post-Pre) lb .75 2.50 -1.75 -1.00

0

H■ 3 Tinal-Post Kean Post-Pre Mean Differaaees *

B-C

la -27 54.25 -81.25 -1.86? 1

1

D, B, S,

lb 1.4 .8 .6 .142

2 -8.50 6.25 -14.75 -2.025

3 1.25 .75 .50 .200

4 -7.25 7.00 -14.25 -1.690

Subgroup III (TiaalPost) r s. (Post-Pre) lb -2.67 -1.67 -1.00 -.482

2 3.00 -3.67 6.67 .907

3 -1.67 -5.33 3.66 .784

4 1.33 -9.00 10.33 1.325

When gains mads during the practice period are contrasted with galas mads during the period of no practice flsr the Experimental Subgroups no sign ifican t differences are found.

377 (Pinal-Post) v s. (Post-Pre) flaatr_p.l_Bate and Comprehension Subgroups Jk. B. g* Survey Seotion She th ree rem aining te s ts to he made w ith in the subgroups are the th re e te s ts between gains fo r th e Control B-C Subgroups*

The data needed

f o r C ontrol B-C Subgroups are the f in a l—post means and the post«pre means on th e D. R. T. Survey- Section*

d. B* S. Survey Con* B-C Subgroup I (Pinal-Post) vs, (Post Pre) s t Pinal-Post Kean Post-Pre Mean differences t 1

la -4.25 10*75

- 15*00 -*707

lb - 3 .0 0 3.75 •^.75 -3.496*

2 0 3 .0 0 - 3 .0 0

-2.324

3 -2.75

4 -2.75

-4*75 -2.077

-7.75 -4.691*

2,00

5 .0 0

d. B* S* Survey Con* &-0 Subgroup 11 (Pinal-Post) 'vs, (Post-Pre)

a H

II

ft

Pinal-^ost Mean Post-Pre Mean differences t

*6

17*2 - 16*6 -.779

lb -4 .2 4.6 —8*8 -5.752**

2

-6 .4 5.2 1 1 .6 - 2 *886 *

3 -5.4

4 - 11.8

2 .4

7 .6

-7.8 -7.303**

-19.4 -3.544*

d* B* f* Survey Con* B-C Subgroup III (Pinal-Post) vs. (Post-Pre)

Ks 3

Pinal-Post Mean

PostaPre Mean differences

t

la -33*33 21*6? -55*00 -4.372*

lb -2.67 .67 -3.34 -1.224

2 - 6*67

12.67 -19.34 -6.655*

3 -3.67 -1.33 -2.34 -.550

4 -10.33 11.25 -21.58 -10.641**

Z t is e v id e n t from th e above d ata th a t a l l three Oontrol Groups lo s t ground on a l l f iv e scores o f th e S. B. g . Survey Section during the period o f no p ra c tic e *

(

378 P attern _o_f_ Evaluation Between R-C Subgroups

P aralleling the treatment of the data in Subproblem Bo, 7* now that the te sts within each of the Subgroups have been completed, the te sts between the Subgroups of the Experimental Group and the te sts between the Subgroups of the Control Group w ill be made. As i t was pointed out in Subproblem Bo, 7, seven tests make up the pattern of evaluation between groups: Pre Post Sinai (Post-Pre) (Pinal-Post) (Pinal-Pre) ((Pinal-Post)-(Post-Pre))

vs vs vs vs vs vs vs

Pre Post Pinal (Post-Pre) (Pinal-PoBt) (Pinal-Pre) ((Pinsl-Post)-(Post-Pre))

These tests w ill be made between the Subgroups within the Experimental Group, between the Subgroups within the Control Group, and between Experimental and Control Subgroups, The fir s t set of te sts w ill involve a comparison of pre-test scores.

379 Experimental Rate and Oonrorahenalon Subgroups E*2U£»- Surrey Section

N-5 (I) N«4 (II) Pre-Test Mean I Pre-Teet Mean II D ifferences t

rs* lb 2 9 7 .4 11.40 221.0 13.25 76.4 -1.85 4.775** - *125 la

I

11*5 (I ) v H»3 (III) Pre-Tee t Mean I Pre-Test Mean III D ifferences t

I

la 297-40 293.33 4.07 •166

re* lb 11*40 16*33 -4.93 -3.030*

N«4 (I I ) H«3 (III) Pre-Test Mean II Pre-Test Mean III D ifferences t

II la 221.00 293.33 -72*33 - 3.704*

re* lb 13*25 16.33 -3.08 -4.879**

II 2 40.80 37.25 3.55 •952

3 24 26.25 -2.25 - .966

4 64.80 63.50

III 2 40*80 39.67 1.13 .248

3 24.00 33.00 -9.00 -4.091**

4 64.80 72 . 6 ? -7.87 -2.623*

III 2 37.25 39.67 -2.32 - .776

3 26.25 33.00 -6.75 -2.243

4 63.50 72.67 -9.17 -2.770*

1.30

•376

The differences shown above between the Experimental Subgroups confirm s ta tis tic a lly those created by the criteria used in selectin g the groups*

380

Post v s. Post 3toPrtPWntgL.Bftts sod Comprehension Subgroups i .s i r o i .Sflftttfta -

3-5

Bah

(I)

( II)

I

la

lb

▼s

11 2

3

4

Post-Test Mean I Post-Test Mean I I Differences t

3 1 2.8

1 2 .2

275.2 37.6

15.75 -3.55 -1.614

- .679

.015

SS5 (I) N«3 (III) Post-Test Mean I Post-Test Mean III Differences t

▼s III lb 2 3 45.4 3 1 2 .8 12.2 25.2 36.0 387.0 14.67 27.67 -74.2 9.4 -2.47 -2.47 - 2.636* - .895 3.032* - .625

4 70.60 63.67 6.93 1.173

1 .0 4 7

la

45.40 43.50 1.90 .403

2 5 .2 2 7 .0 - 1 .8

70.60

70.50 .10

I

II ▼s 3*4 (II) la lb 3-3 (III) Post-Test Mean II 275*20 15.75 Post-Test Mean III 387.00 14.67 -111.80 Differences 1.08 - 3*104* t .603

III 2 43.50 36.00 7.50 1.254

3

2 7.0 0

27.67 - .67 - .221

4 70.50 63*67 6.83 •951

▲t the p o s t-te s t a fte r the p ra c tic e period aost o f the s ig n ific a n t d iffere n c e s which existed before the experiment began were wiped out and the few which appeared ran counter to the s e le c tiv e c r it e r ia . Subgroup I (High rate-lo w Comprehension), fo r instance, surpassed Subgroup I I I (Bate and Comprehension the same-high) in Vocabulary.

381 £LflfiJbJLL£9LzifiiL

f a e r i m e n t a l H ate and CoHrorehennion Subgrou-re

2A1

N«5 ( I ) jsr-4 ( i i ) Final Test Mean I Final Test Mean II D ifferences t

I la 300.60 2*48.25 52.35 2.418*

▼s II lh 2 38.80 13.60 35.00 16*50 -2*90 3.8 -2.014 1.027

3 27.20 28.25 -1.05 - .322

4 66.00 63.33 2.67 .519

N«5 (I) H-3 (III) Final Test Mean I Final Test Mean III D ifferences t

I la 300.60 335.00 -34.40 - 2.295

▼s III lh 2 13.60 38.80 12.00 39.00 - .20 1.60 .838 - .058

3 27.20 26.00 1.20 •393

4 66.00

N«4 (II) N*3 (III) Final-T est Mean II Final Test Mean III D ifferences t

II la 248.25 335.00 -86.75 -3*669*

▼a lh 16.50 12.00 4.50 3.020*

III 2 35.00 39.00 -4.00 -1.08?

3 28.25 26.00 2.25 .753

4 63.33 65.00 -1.67 - .265

65.00

1.00 .278

When tested a th ird time after a period of no practice, none of the sig n ifica n t differen ces which existed at the beginning of the experiment p ersisted except two in Bate o f Beading*

382 (P o st - Pre ) v s . (P ost - P r e l E xperim ental Rate and Oonvorehenslon Subgro-g-ps D. R. T. Survey S e c tio n

IT - 5 (I ) n - 4 (ii) P ost-Pre Mean I P ost-Pre Mean II D ifferen ces t

IT = 5 (I ) K - 3 (I I I ) P ost-Pre Mean I P ost-Pre Mean I I I D ifferen ces t

N » 4 (II) H = 3 (H I ) P ost-Pre Mean II Post-Pre Mean I I I D ifferen ces t

1 a 15.40 54.25 -3 3 .8 5 -1.218

1 a ■15.40 93*67 -73.27 - 2 . 838 *

1 a 5 4.25 93.67 -3 9 .4 2 -.9 4 2

I v s . II 1 b .8 2 .5 -1 .7 -.5 6 9

2

1.40 .75 .65 .247

3 .2 7 .0 -3 .3 -.4 3 9

3

4

1 .4 -5 .3 3 6.73 1.968

3 .2 -9 .0 12.2 1.401

2

3

4

6.25 -3 .6 7 9 .92 1.487

.75 -5 .3 3

7 .0 -9 .0 16.0 2 .0 5*

1 .8 0

6.25 -4 .4 5 -.6 1 1

I v s. III 1 b 2 .8 -1 .6 7 2.47 .692

1 .8 - 3 .6 7 5 .4 7 .761

II v s. III 1 b 2 .5 -1 .6 7 4 .1 7 1.995

4

3

6 .0 8

2.764*

A comparison o f tlie g a in s made "by the Experimental Subgroups dur­ in g the period o f no p r a c tic e a ls o revealed no s ig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s ex­ cept one in Vocabulary which runs counter to the s e le c t iv e c r it e r ia and one in ra te which i s in lin e w ith the c r it e r ia .

( F in a l-P o s t) v s. Pinal-Post) E x p erim en ta l Hate and Comprehension Subgroups !D» ^ . (P. Survey Section

k M

II £3

IT = 4 ( I I )

1 a

F in a l-P o s t Mean I - 1 2 .2 F in a l-P o s t Mean II -2 7 .0 1 4 .8 D iffe r e n c e s t .697

F = 5 (I) F * 3 (H I)

1 a

F in a l P o st Mean I - 1 2 .2 F in a l P o st Mean I I I - 5 2 .0 D iffe r e n c e s 3 9 .8 t 1.655

F - 4 F = 3

(II) (III)

F in a l-P o s t Mean I I F in a l-P o s t Mean I I I D iffe r e n c e s t

1 a -2 7 .0 -5 2 .0

I lh

II

vs 2

1.4 .75 .65

-3.8 -8.5 4.7 1.081

.302

I 1 b

II 1b

.75 -2.67 2 5 .0 3.^2 1.095 3.257*

1.80 1 .2 5

.55 .172

-2.0 -7 .2 5 5.25 .845

III

vs 2

1.4 -2.67 4.07 1.710

4

3

3

-3.8 3.0 -6 .8 -2.112

vs

1 .8 -1 .6 7 3 .0 7 .878

4 -2.0 1.33 -3 0 3 -.496

III 2

3

-8.5 3.0 -11.5 -2.473*

1.25 - 1 .6 7 2 .92 .915

4 -7.25 1.33 - 8 .5 8 -1.529

A com p arison o f g a in s during the period o f no p ractice for the E x p erim en ta l Subgroups r e v e a le d only one sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e in Vocabulary s c o r e w hich i s in l i n e w ith th e se le ctiv e criteria *

(P in a l-P r e ) v s (F in a l-P re) Experim ental Hate and Comprehension Subgroups 33. R, T. Survey S ectio n

H- 5 (I ) H =4 (I I ) 1 a P inal-P re Mean I 3.20 P inal-P re Mean II 27.25 D ifferen ces -24.05 - 1 .2 3 4 t

S - 5 (I ) N a 3 (III) 1 a P inal-P re Mean I 3.20 P inal-P re Mean I I I 41.67 D ifferen ces -33.47 t -2.313

I vs 1 b 2.20 3.25 -1 .0 5 -.7 6 1

I vs 1 b 2.20 -4 .3 3 6.53 3.910**

II IT = 4 ( I I ) H = 3 (H I) P inal-P re Mean I P in al-P re Mean I I D ifferen ces t

1 a 27.25 41.67 -1 4 .4 2 -.5 3 5

vs

1 b 3.25 -4 .3 3 7.58 3.959*

II 2 -2 -2 .2 5 .25 .0 65

3 3 .2 2.0 1 .2 .555

4 1.20 - .2 5 1.45 .268

3 3 .2

4 1 .2 0 -7 .6 7 8.87 2 .538*

III 2 -2 - .67 -1 .3 3 -.4 5 4

- 7 .0 10.2 7.500**

II I 2 -2 .2 5 -.6 ? -1 .5 8 -.3 5 3

3 2 .0

-7 .0 9.00 3-659*

4 - .2 5 -7 .6 7 7.42 1.143

In the o v e r a ll comparison from p r e -te s t to f in a l t e s t , Subgroups I and I I both surpassed Subgroup I I I in Comprehension scores 1 b and 3* This i s ju s t the opposite o f what one would expect on the b a sis o f the c r it e r ia used in s e ttin g up the groups.

38 5

( (Jinal-Foet)-(Post-Pre)) t«. ((gjaal-gost)-(goat-gre)) Brpcrlnental Bate IL Ju I. Surrey Section

H- 5

(I)

a s 4 (X I) 1» ( (U n a l-P o s t )- (P o s t-P re )) X 27.6 ((H n e l-P o s t)-C P o e t-P re )) IX -81,25 D iffe re n c e s 53.65 t 1.064

I

a = 5 ( I) I XT S 3 ( I I I ) , 1* ((H n a l.J > o e t)-(P o s t-P re ) )X 27,60 ( (P in a l-P o s t)-(P o s t-P re )) I I I -145,67 D iffe re n c e s 118,0? t 2,418

2

lb

•60

5.60

-1.75 2,35 ,467

-14.75 9.15 .805 ▼s.

lb

2

,60

- 5.60 6267 -12.27 - .998

-1,00

1,60 .274

XX

a s 4 (XX) la -81.25 ( (P in a l-P o s t )-(P © o t-P re ) ) I I ( (P in a l-P o s t )-(F o s t-P r e ) )IX ] -145.67 64,42 D iffe re n c e s 1.043 t

a s 3 (III)

XX

▼s.

lb -1.75

-1.00 -.7 5 -.277

2 -14.75 6.67 -21.42

-2.023

3 .4 .5 -e l -.0 1 8

4 -5 .2 0 -1 4 .2 5 9 .0 5 ,6 4 4

XXX 3 .40 3.67 -3.2 7 -.4 8 2

4 -5 .2 0 10 .3 3 4 .9 3 -1 .0 2 5

XXX 3 .50 3.67 -3.17 -.64?

4 -1 4 .2 5 10 .3 3 -3 .9 2 -2 .0 6 2

When the Subgroups in the Ixperiaantal Group are compared on the b a s is o f the D iffe re n c e

between practice period gains and the no-practice

p e rio d g a in s , no s ig n ific a n t differences are revealed.

1

386 Pre t b . Pre C en tral B»te_ and Comprehension Subgroups P. L g. Surrey Section

5 0 I S5

(I)

Sa 4 HI 3

(X) (III)

( II) P re -te s t Mean Pre-Test Kean D ifferences t

P re -te s t Mean P re -te s t Mean D ifferences

I I IX

(ID (H D

P re -te s t Mean P re -te s t Mean D ifferences

t

lb 11*75 13.20 -1.4-5 -1.451

▼s. 2 37.25 35.20 2.05 .447

I I III

267.50 313.33 -45.83 -2.092

2 37.25 34.67 3.58 .689

II la II III

234.20 313.33 -79.13 -4.831**

IX

3 25.00 27.60 - 2 .6 0 -1.287

4 _ 62.25 62.80 -.5 5 -.125

III

lb 11.75 17.00 -5.25 -5.198**

la

t I« 5 Ha 3

la 267.50 234.20 33.30 3.233*

4 2 5 .0 0 62.25 68.00 33.33 -8,33 -5.75 -11.257** -1.1( 3

III lb

13.20 17.00 -3.80 -3.220*

2 35.20 34.67 .53 .117

3 27.6 0

33.33 -5.73 -2,407

4 62.80 68.00 -5.20 -1.20]

I s in the ease o f the Experim ental Subgroups, the s ig a ifle a n t d iffere n c e s in d icated above are those which were created by the c r it e r ia used in s e le c tin g the groups.

3S7 Poet t «. Post Control Bate and Comprehension Subgroups B. B. I . amrwr Section

H = 4 (I) a s 5 (ii) Post—Teet Mean I Post-Z est Mean XI D ifferences t

I

a s 5 ( ii) V s 3 (H i) Post-Z est Mean XX Post-Z est Mean III D ifferences t

la 251.40 335.00 -83.60 -3.143*

lb 15.50 17.67 -2.17 -.986 XI lh 17.80 17.67 •13 .083

2 40.25 47.33 -7.08 -1.333

XX

-3.00 - l.l6 l

4 67.25 70.40 -3 .1 5 -.4 6 8

XXX 3 27.00 32.00 -5.00 -1.577

4 67.25 79.33 -12.08 -1 .6 9 4

3

2 7 .0 0 3 0 .0 0

III 2 40.40 47.33 -6.93 -1.763

3 30.00 32.00 — 2 . 00 -.74-1

o f the period of praetice» e l l significant d iffe re n c e s

between C ontrol Subgroups had disappeared except one.

(

2 40.25 40.40 -.15 -.031

X la 278.25 335.00 -56.75 -2.281

th t mA

lb 15.50 17.80 -2.30 -1.369

la 278.25 251.40 26.85 1.081

H - 4 (X) x :3 (x ii) Post-Z est Mean X Post-Z est Mean 111 D ifferences t

At

TB.

4 70.40 79.33 -8 .9 3 -1.976

388 F in a l v s . F in a l C on trol R ate and Comprehension Subgroups D. R. I . Survey S e c tio n

N = 4 (D x N - 5 (II)

la

I

lb

vs*

II 2

3

4

Final Test Mean I

274*00

12.5

40*25

24.25

64.50

Final Test Mean 11

252*00

13.6

34.00

24.60

58.60

22*00

-1 .1

6.25

- .35

5.90

- .425

1.263

-..0 92

Differences t

*683

N » 4 (I) v 3 cur)

n-

I Is

lb

vs*

.842

IH 2

3

4

Final Test Mean I

274.00

1 2 .5

4 0 .2 5

24 .2 5

6 4 .5 0

Final Test Mean H I

301.67

1 5 .0

4 0 .6 7

28.33

6 9 .0 0

- 2 7 .6 7

- 2. 5

- *42

— 4 .0 8

-4 .5 0

- 1 .3 5 9

• .066

- 1 .0 6 5

- *50J

2

3

4

Differences t

- .763

H * 5 (IX) N s- 3 (H I)

2s

H

vs* lb

HI

Final Test Mean H

252.00

1 3 .6

34 .0 0

24.60

58.60

Final Test Mean III

301.67

1 5 .0

4 0 .6 7

2 8 .3 3

6 9 .0 0

- 4 9 .6 7

- 1 .4

- 6 .6 7

-3 .7 3

- 1 0 .4 0

- 3.511*

- 1 .1 9 2

Differences

— 2*485

- .528

- 3 .4 3 2

On the basis of fin a l te st seores only one significant difference remained among the Subgroups of the Control Group, one In Vocabulary sign if­ icant a t the fiv e per cent lev el In favor of Subgroup III over II*

389 (Post-Pre) vs» (Post-Pre) Control Rate and Comprehension Subgroups K, T, su r v ey S ectio n s

I la

II lb

2

3

4

P ost-P re Mean I

10*75

3.75

3.00

2 *.00

5 .0 0

P ost-P re Mean II

17.20

4.60

5.20

2*40

7 .6 0

6*4-5

- .85

- 2 .2 0

- .4 0

- 2 .6 0

-.2 3 7

- .3 8 9

N * 4 (I) N = 5 (II)

D iffe r e n c e s t

-

v s.

- .4 8 8

- .1 4 5

- .5 4 9

la

III lb

2

3

4

P o st-P re Mean I

10*75

3.75

3.00

2 .0 0

5 .0 0

P ost-P re Mean I I

21.67

.67

12.67

- 1 .3 3

1 1 .2 5

- 10*92

3.08

- 9 .6 7

3 .3 3

- 6 .2 5

1.338

- 3 .9 7 8 * *

H - 4 (I) N = 3 (I I I )

D ifferen ces t

I

vs*

-•5 1 3

N * 5 (I I ) H - 3 (H I )

II

v s.

la

I ll lb

.9 6 2

- 1*842

2

3

4

P ost-P re Mean II

17.20

4.60

5.20

2 .4 0

7 .6 0

P ost-P re Mean III

21*67

.67

12.67

- 1 .3 3

1 1 .2 5

- 4 .4 7

3.93

- 7.47

3 .7 3

-3 .6 5

1.796

- 1 .5 0 9

1 .3 5 0

D ifferen ces t

- .1 5 9

- . 707

1

The comparison of practice period gains for Subgroups within the Control Group showed only one significant difference in Vocabulary in fav­ or of Subgroup 111 over Subgroup I*

(Final-Post) — (Final-Post) Control Rate and Comprehension Subgroups D. R. T. Survey Section

N a A (I) N = 5 (I I ) F in a l-P o st Mean Z F in a l-P o st Mean IX D iffe r e n c e s t

I

v s. lb

la

F in a l-P o st Mean I F in a l-P o st Mean I I I D ifferences:

3

4

- 3 .0 0

0.00

— 2 ,7 5

- 2 .7 5

*60

- A.20

- 6 .4 0

- 5.40

- 11.80

— 4 .8 5

1.20

6 .4 0

2 .6 5

9 .0 5

1.596

1.789

1*614

2.664*

I

v s. lb

la

I ll 2

3

A

— A.25

-

3 .0 0

0 .0 0

- 2 .7 5

- 2 .7 5

- 33.33

-

2*67

- 6*67

- 3.67

— 10.33

- .3 3

6 .6 7

.92

7 .5 8

- .272

2.392

.383

2.663*

29.08 2.188

t

2

- 4 .2 5

- .325

N * 4 (I) N - 3 (I I I )

II

H f 5 (II ) N = 3 (III)

la

vs*. lb

F in a l-P o st Mean I I

.6 0

- 4 .2 0

-6 .4 0

- 5*40

- 1 1 .8 0

- 33.33

- 2 .6 7

- 6 .6 7

- 3 .6 7

- 10.33

33.93

- 1.53

.2 7

- 1 .7 3

- 1 .4 7

- 1,228

.060

F in a l-P o st Mean I I I D ifferen ces i

t

II

2 .2 3 4

I ll 2

3

- .9 9 7

A

- .3 9 0

A ll th e s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e s in r a te and comprehension which were s e t up by the s e le c t iv e c r it e r ia on th e b a s is o f th e p r e -te s t no longer 9

e x is te d on the f i n a l t e s t fo r the Subgroups o f th e Control Group,

391 (F in a l-P re) vs (P in a l-P r e ) C on trol Rate and Comprehension Subgroups S . ft. T. Survey S e c tio n

U - 4 (I) 1 a N - 5 (II) Pinal-Pre Mean I 6.50 Pinal-Pre Mean II 1 7 . 8 0 Differences -1 1 .3 0 t -.359

I

vs

II

1 b

2

3 .0

.75 .40 • 35 .151

I

- 1 .2 4 .2 .3 2 0

vs

1 b

2

.75 - 2 .0 0 2.75 1.557

3 .0

H = 5 (II) w = 3 (in ) Pinal-Pre Mean II Pinal-Pre Mean I I I Differences t

II vs 1 b .40 -2.00 2.40 1.125

1 7 .8 0

-11.67 29.4? .872

2 .2 5

- 3 .0 0 2 .2 5 .5 7 7

- 4 .2 0 6 .4 5 I .2 3 3

III

V =■ 4 (I) 1 a H = 3 (III) Pinal-Pre Mean I 6.50 Pinal-Pre Mean I I I -11.67 Differences 18.17 .908 t

1 a

4

3 - .7 5

6 .0

- 3 .0 -.6 8 6

3 - .7 5 - 5 .0 0 4 .2 5 1 .0 8 0

4 2 .2 5 1 .0 0 1 .2 5 .2 1 9

III 2 - 1 .2 6 .0

- 7 .2 - .4 7 2

3 - 3 .0 0 -5 .0 0 2 .0 0

.6 4 5

4 - 4 .2 0 1 .0 0 - 5 .2 0 - 1 .0 1 6

When the overall gains from pre - t e s t to f i n a l t e s t are considered for the Subgroups of the Control Group* i t i s apparent th a t no significant d iffe r e n c e s exist between th e Subgroups.

392 ( (Fin a l-P o s t) -(P o s t-P r e )) v s . ((P in a l-P o s t) -(P o s t -P r e ) ) C ontrol Bate and Comprehension Subgroups D. R. T. Survey S ectio n

IT - 4 (I) 3 vs II 1 a * = 5 (II) ( (F in al-P ost )-(P o st-P re) )I - 1 5 .0 0 ( (P in al-P ostj-fcost-P re) )II - 1 6 . 6o D ifferen ces 1 .6 0 t .052

IT = 4 (I ) , IT “ 3 (H I ) ( (P in a l-P ost)-(P ost-P re)) I ( (F in al-P ost )-(P o s t-P r e ))l D ifferen ces t

IT - 5 ( H ) x U » 3 (I I I ) ((F in a l-P o st)-(P o st-P r e ) )II ( (P in a l-P o st)-P o st-P r e ))III D ifferen ces t

I

1 b -6 .7 5 - 8 .8 0 2.05 .8 h5

2 -3 .0 -11.6 8 .6 1 .8 3 1

3 -4 .7 5 -7 .8 0 3.05 1.301

-4 -7 .7 5 -1 9 .4 0 11.65 1.828

v s. I l l 1 a 1 b - 1 5 .0 0 -6 .7 5 -5 5 .0 0 -3 .3 3 40.00 -3 .4 2 1 .4 7 0 -1 .0 5 9

2 -3 .0 -19.33 16.33 5 . 688 **

3 -4 .7 5 - 2 .3 3 -2 .4 2 -.5 4 1

4 -7 .7 5 -2 1 .6 7 13.92 5 . 379*

I I v s . III 1 a 1 b -1 6 .6 -8 .8 0 -5 5 .0 -3 .3 3 33.4 -5 .4 7 -1 .9 1 8 1.287

2 -11.60 -19.33 7.70 1.336

3 -7 .8 0 -2 .3 3 -5 .4 7 -1.600

▼19.40 -2 1 .6 7 2.27 .305

The only sig n ific a n t d ifferen ce turned up lay a comparison o f the d ifferen ce between p r a c tic e period gains and no p ra ctice period g a in s between the Subgroups, i s one in Vocabulary in favor o f Subgroup I which i s not in lin e with the c r it e r ia used for s e le c tio n .

393 Exn. Hate and Conn. Subgroups v s . Con.. R ate and Coma.. Subgroups. D. R. T. Survey Section

N " 5 (El ) I * M e I) Exp, R-C I Pre Mean Con. R-C I Pre Mean D ifferences t

Exp. R-C I 1 a 1 b 297.40 11.40 267.50 1 1 .7 5 29.90 - .3 5 -.2 2 4 .523

Exp. R-C II E = 4 f E II ) N - 5 ( 0 II 5 1 a 1 b Exp. R-C II Pre Mean 221.00 1 3 .2 5 Con. R-C II Pre Mean 234.20 1 3 .2 0 D ifferences - 1 3 .2 0 .05 t .04 5 -2.239

Exp. R-C I I I B - 3 (E I I I ) 1 a 1 b B - 3 (0 I I I ) Exp. R-C III P re Mean 293.33 . 16.33 Con. R-C III Pre Mean 313.33 17.00 D ifferences -20.00 - .6 7 t -.646 - 2 .0 3 0

v s.

Con,. R-C I 2 3 4 0 .3 0 2 4 .0 0 2 5 .0 0 3 7 .2 5 - 1 .0 0 3 .5 5 - .5 6 8 .792

vs. 2 3 7 .2 5 3 5 .2 0

4 64.80 62.25 2 .5 5 .644

Con,, R -C II 4 3 63.50 2 6 .2 5

2 .0 5

.531

2 7 .6 0

- 1 .3 5 - .4 6 ?

6 2 .8 0

.7 0 .1 7 6

vs Con. R-C I I I 2 4 3 3 3 .0 0 72.67 3 9 .5 7 6 8 .0 0 3 3 .3 3 3^ .67 5 .0 0 4 .6 7 - .3 3 - .2 4 1 1.46 8 1 .4 5 3

When Experimental Subgroups w ere com pared w it h C on trol Subgroups on p r e - t e s t scores no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere found.

Poat-Test Exp, Rate and Comp, Subgroups v s. Con. Rate and Comp. Subgroups D* R. T. Survey Section

N * 5 (E l) N * U C I) Exp. R-C I Post Mean Con. R-C I Post Mean Differences t

Exp* R-C I vs. la lb 312.80 12.2 278.25 15.5 34*55 -3 .3 1.220 -1.331

N = 4 (E II) N • 5 (C II) Exp. R-C II Post Mean Con. R-C II Post Mean Differences t

Exp. R-C II v s. lb la 275.20 15.75 17.80 251.40 2 3 .8 0 -2.05 .716 - 1 .6 6 6

N m 3 te III) Exp. R-C III vs. N = 3 (C III) la lb Exp. R-C III Post Mean 387.00 14.67 Con. R-C III Post Mean 335.00 17.67 Differences: 5 2 .0 0 - 3 .0 0 t 2,843* -1.316

Con. R-C I 2

45.40 40.25 5.15 1.103

3 25*20 27.00 -1.80 - .568

4

70.06 67.25 2.81 .4 0 8

Con. R-C II 2

43.50 40.50 3.10 .629

3 27.00 30.00 - 3 .0 0 -1.587

Con. R-C III 2 3 36.00 27.67 47.33 32.00 -11.33 -4.33 -2.737 -1.036

4 70.50 70.40 .1 0

.015

4 63.67 79.33 -15.66 -3.886*

At the conclusion of the practice period when the Experimental Subgroups were compared with the Control Subgroups only one difference significant at the fiv e per cent lev el was found in favor of Experimental Subgroup III in Rate of Reading.

395 F in a l T eat Exp.

Rate

an* C o m .

Subgroup*

tb .

Con. Bate and Comp. Subgroups

Exp.» B—C I lb

▼a.

Ns5 (X I) B-4 (C I) Exp. B-0 I final Mean Con. B-0 I final Mean Differences t

300.60

H«4 (I II) X-5 (0 II) Exp. B-0 II final Mean Con. B— C II final Mean Differences t

Exp., B-0 I I ▼a. lb 2 la 35.00 248.25 16.50 3 4 .0 0 252.00 13.60 1 .0 0 2 .9 0 - 3*75 .338 1.261 - .127

la

2?4.00 26.60 1.053

1 3 .6

12.5 1 .1

.588

B#3 (X III) Sxp- B-C I I I lb H-3 (0 III) lft Exp. IU0 III final Mean 335.00 12.00 Ooa. B-C III final Mean 301.67 15.00 Differences 33*33 -3.00 t 1 .3 1 2 -1.840

2 38.80 ho. 25

-1.45

Con. R-C I 4 3 66.00 27*20 64.50 24.25 2.95 .789

— .268

1.50

•2i;

Con. B-C I I 4 3 28.25 63.33 58.60 24.60 4.73 3-65 .93: 1.093

Con. BmO I I I

2 39.00 40.67 -1 .6 7 - .898

3

2 6 .0 0

28.33 -2.33 -1.607

4 65*00 69.00 — 4. -1.476

At the final teat, fts was the cae# on the p re-tea t, no sign ifican t differenoea were found betveen Experimental Subgroup# and Control Subgroup#•

3 9 6

P ost-P re Exp_. Bate, and Pomp. Subgroups v e . Ooa, Bate and Conm. Subgroup

D.R.T. Survey Section.

E«5 (X I) Nab ( Cl ) Xxp. R-C I Post-Pre Con. R-C I Post-Pre Differences t

la Mean 15*40 Mean 10*75 4*65 .205

N*4 (X II) R-5 (0 II) 1ft Exp. R*C II Post-Pre Mean 54-.25 Con* R-C II Post-Pre Mean 17*20 Differences 37*05 t 1 .0 5 0

. R-C I vs lb 2 •80 1.8 3.0 3*75 -1.2 -2.95 - .093 - *200

Con* R— C I 3 4 1.4 3.20 2.0 5.00 -.6 -1.80 - .183 “ .24?

▼s.

Con. R-C II 4 3 7.00 .75 7*60 2.40 -.60 -1.65 -.090 - .841

R-C II lb

2.5 4.6 -2.1 —1.086

2 6.25 5.20 l.o5 .171

Con* R-C III Exp.. r- c :E li vs. 4 ib 2 la 3 ir«3 (o in ) -9.00 3.67 5.33 Exp. R-C III Post-Pre Mean 93.67 1.67 11.25 12.67 1.33 Con* R-C III Post-Pre Mean 21.67 .67 -4.00 -20.25 72.00 -16.34 -2.34 Differences 2.637 - .993 - 4.674^1.194 - 4*373* t

RS3 CB HI)

Xhen practice period gains "between Experimental end Control Subi I

groups ere compared* one significant difference is found in fawor of Control Subgroup III over it s Experimental counterpart.

397

ISjafeEftafc

3a>.,.,.Bate and. Corns.. .Subgroups v s. Con. Bate, end Conn. Subgrouts

&£»?,. Suyy.gy-8ig.1i9a

N«5 (E I) (Cl) Exp. B-C I Pinal-Post Mean Con* B-C I Pinal-Post Mean Differences

H -4

t

Exp. . R-C I la lb *12*20 1.40 - 4 .2 5 - •3.00 - 7*95 4 .ho 2.ih 9 .4 1 5

II) E xp. E-C II E-5 (C II) la lb Exp. B-0 II Pinal-Post Mean -27.00 .75 Con. B-C II Pinal-Post Mean .60 -4.20 Differences -27.60 4.95 t - 1.578 4.951*^ N**4

(I

VB»

Con. B-C

2 3 1.4 -3.08 0.00 -2.75 4.15 - 3 .0 8 -2.699* 1.416

ve.

Con. R-C

2 3 -8 .5 1.25 -6 .4 -5.40 -2 .1 6,25 - *512 3.181*

I

4 -2.00 -2.75 .75 .137

II

** 7.25 11.80 4.55 1.010

Con. R-C I I I Exp. B-C I I I v s. u«3 (E III) 4 la lb 2 H-3 (0 III) 3 Exp. B-C III Pinal-Post Mean -52.00 3.00 -1.67 -2 .6 7 1.33 Con. B— C III Pinal-Post Mean -33.33 -6.67 -3.67 - 1 0 .3 3 -2 .6 7 2.00 11.66 Difference - 1 8 .6 7 0 9.67 t .671 2.683 1.917 - .953 0

Two differences showed up when the comparison of the ga ins made |

during the period of no p ractice was run.

One of these favored Control

Subgroup I in Vocabulary, while the other in the unreliable Story Comprehension score favored Experimental Subgroup I I .

398

Final-Pre - Exp. Rate and Comp. Subgroups v s. Aon. Rate and. Comp, Subgroups ■■r . -■ ■■■ -^ SectlonT

N«5 (E I) N-4 (C I) Exp. R-C I Final-Pre Mean Con. R-C I Final-Pre Mean Differences t

la 3.20 6.50 -3.30 -.186

Exp. R-C I lb 2.20 .75 1.45 .909

vs.

N=4 (E II) N*5 (C II) Exp. R-C II Final-Pre Mean Con. R-C II Final-Pre Mean Differences t

la 27.25 17.80 9.45 .291

Exp. R-C II lb 3.25 .40 2.85 1.405

vs.

H*3 (E III) Na3 (C III) la Exp. R-C III Final-Pre Mean 41.67 Con. R-C III Final-Pre Mean -11.67 Differences 53.34 t 2.546

Con. R-C I 2 3 -2.20 3.20 3.00 -.7 5 -5.00 3.95 1.266 -1.454

Con. R-C II 2 3 -2.25 2.00 -1.20 -3.00 -1.05 5.00 -.205 1.569

Exp. R-C III vs. Con. lb 2 -.6 7 4.33 2.00 6.00 — 6.67 -2.33 -1.321 -1.870

R-C III 3 -7.00 -5.00 — 2.00 -3.466*

1.20 2.25 -1.05 -.231

4 -.25 — 4.20 3.95 .657

4 -7.67 1,00 -8.67 -2.182

The comparison between Experimental and Control Subgroups from pre­ te s t to fin a l te st turned up only one Significant difference - one in Paragraph and Story Comprehension in favor of Control Subgroup III.

399

((Plnal-PostJ-IPost-Pre )) v s, ((PlnalmPostM PoBt-Pre)) Exo. Rate and Coras.- Subgroups va. Con. Bate and Comm. Subgroups

JU £.f■».^yv?y-S.g.9.ti^.op n-5

(s i )

tt«4 (C I) El CII Differences t

Etd . R-C ] vs. lb la 2 - 5 .6 0 - 2 7 .6 0.60 - 15.0 3 .0 0 -6 .7 5 - 12.6 2 .6 0 7 .3 5 1 .4 4 6 - .275 .3 3 3

(jjj i i ) Exp. N-5 (0 I I ) la ( (Pinal-Po 8t ) - ( P o s t - P r e ) ) E l - 8 1 .2 5 ( (Pinal-Poat) - (Pos t - P r e ) ) CII - 1 6 .6 0 Difference# - 6 4 .6 5 t - 1 .4 3 0

(® m ) K-3 (0 I I I ) ((Pinal-Post)-(P ost-Pre3>E I ((P in a l-P o a t)-(P o s t-P r e )C II Difference# t

R-C I I lb - 1 .7 5 - 8 .8 0 7*05 3.041*

Con. R-C 3 .40 - 4 .7 5 5 .1 5 .9 5 7

I 4 - 5 .2 0 - 7 .7 5 2 .5 5 .212

T8. Con. R-C 2 3 - 1 4 .7 5 .5 0 - 1 1 .6 0 - 7 .8 0 - 3*15 8 .3 0 .4 0 1 3 .3 0 9 *

II 4 - 1 4 .2 5 - 1 9 .4 0 5*15 .533

Exp. R—C I I I y e . Con. R—C la lb 2 3 - 1 4 5 .6 7 - 1 .0 0 6 .6 7 3 .6 7 - 5 5 .0 0 -3 0 3 -1 9 * 3 3 - 2 .3 3 - 9 0 .6 7 2.33 2 6 .0 0 6 .0 0 - 2 .1 2 6 .679 3*287* .950

III 4 1 0 .3 3 - 2 1 .6 7 3 2 .0 0 3*972*

When the difference between practioe period gain# and no practice period gains for the Experimental Subgroups is coupe-red with the same difference for the Control Subgroups only one significant difference is found - one sign ifican t at the fiv e per cent lev el in favor of Experi­ mental Subgroup III in Vocabulary. Conclusion Eo. 7

Under the conditions o f th is investigation, various combinations of rate and comprehension a b ilitie s do not revolt in significantly different changes in reading s k ills after exposure to the aelf-adm inister ing technique of reading improvement•

S u b p ro b le m No• _8: Yfhat i s t h e p a t t e r n o f g a in i n r e a d i n g s k i l l s made by s t u d e n t s who w ere ex p o sed t o word r e c o g n i t i o n p r a c t i c e e x e r c i s e s as com­ p a r e d wi t h th o s e who were n o t ? Gray d e s c r i b e s r e a d i n g as a f o u r - s t e p p r o c e s s —word p ercep tio n , c o m p re h e n sio n , r e a c t i o n , and i n t e g r a t i o n —w i t h each s u c c e e d in g s te p de­ p e n d e n t upon p r e c e d i n g o n e s . '1'

Of t h e f o u r s t e p s , "word p e r c e p t i o n , then,

i s b a s i c i n t h e c o m p li c a t e d b u t h i g h l y v a l u a b l e p r o c e s s o f r e a d i n g . " Gray s e e s two p h a s e s i n word p e r c e p t i o n :

th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e

p r i n t e d symbol and t h e c a l l i n g up o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e meaning the a u t h o r had i n mind when he w ro te t h e w o rd .

He p o i n t s o u t f u r t h e r th a t

" l e a r n i n g t o i d e n t i f y and t o a t t a c h m eanings t o p r i n t e d symbols i s a p r o c e s s w h ic h e x te n d s th r o u g h o u t th e p e r i o d o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n and c o n t i n u e s ev en a f t e r fo rm a l e d u c a t i o n i s o v e r . " t h a t " f a r to o l i t t l e

I t a p p e a r s , however,

a t t e n t i o n has b e e n g iv en i n many c la s s ro o m s to

t h e b a s i c h a b i t s o f r e c o g n i t i o n , " Gray r e p o r t s b e c a u s e " a h ig h p ercen t­ age o f u p p e r g ra d e and h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s c a n n o t r e c o g n i z e words f l u ­ e n t l y and a c c u r a t e l y . " ^ A c c o rd in g t o T r i g g s , l i t t l e

i s known as t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

b etw een t h e two s k i l l s m easu red by t h e D. R. T. S e c t i o n IV, Word A t t a c k , S i l e n t — i d e n t i f y i n g sounds and d i v i d i n g w ords i n t o s y l l a b l e s - and t h e r e a d i n g s k i l l s m easured by t h e o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e D. R. T.

1.

W illia m S . G ray, On T h e ir Own i n R e a d in g , p p . 3 5 -3 7 .

2*

I b i d . , p . 38 .

3.

W i l l i a m s . G ray, e d i t o r , R eading i n G e n e ra l E d u c a t i o n , p . 20.

4.

Loc. c i t .

such as vocabulary, com prehension, and r a te o f r ea d in g .

ship . . .

"The r e la t io n

is almost unscratched from the point of view of research

She goes on to point out that

•. •

We do not know that students who cannot divide words into sy lla b les or who cannot hear sounds, or both, when taught these s k ills make immediate and surpris­ ing progress in many phases of reading. But th is is a n o n -sta tistica l validating technique. From a sta­ t is t ic a l approach about a ll we know is that th is jneas< A review o f the litera tu re does substantiate the fa ct that experimental findings at the high school and college le v e l concerning basic s k ills such as identifying sounds and dividing words into syllab les are lacking.

The in vestigator's own extensive search of the literatu re

revealed only one study.

Rogers in a study of the relationship between

mispronunciations and comprehension used phonic training to effect improvement in the la tte r .

According to the resu lts of the reading

tests used, phonic training did not result in improved paragraph com­ prehension.

Rogers f e lt that her negative findings were a result of

weakness on the part o f her measuring devices rather than her technique Cf improvement.

She maintained in spite of her findings that at the

college le v e l phonic training is an effectiv e technique for the improvement of pronunciation, oral reading, and reading vocabulary.

7

Because of th is apparent lack of information ooneeming the re-

5.

Frances Oralind Triggs, "Description of the Purposes and Functions of the Diagnostic Reading T ests, "Educational, and. Psychologi­ cal Measurementr VII (Spring, 19AS), pp. 3-14*

6. *7.

Loc. c lt . Maurine V. Rogers, "Phonic A bility as Related to Certain Aspects of Reading at the College Level, "Journal Experimental g,flWSatl2n>” VI (June, 1938), pp. 381-395

U02 la tio n s h ip o f such b a sic word a tta c k s k i l l s a s id e n t ify in g sounds and d iv id in g words in to s y lla b le s t o such read in g s k i l l s as vocabulary, com­ prehension and r a te o f read in g, i t was f e l t th a t a con trib u tion could be made t o th e resea rch in t h i s area by in v e s tig a tin g th e e f f e c t on reading s k i l l s o f exposure t o se lf-a d m in is te r in g word a tta ck e x e r c is e s . I t was f o r t h i s reason th a t a Word A ttack t e s t was inclu ded in t h is investigation and an experim ent conducted w ith word a tta c k e x e r c is e s . S e c tio n IV, Word A tta ck , P art 2 , S ile n t o f th e Diagnostic Read­ in g T e sts was adm in istered w ith th e D. R. T . Survey S e c tio n and the A, C. E, P sy c h o lo g ic a l Examination a t th e beginning o f th e experim ent, after the p r a c tic e p e r io d , and a th ir d and f i n a l tim e a t th e e x p ira tio n of a period of no p r a c t ic e . When th e E xperim ental and C ontrol Groups had been constituted on th e b a s is o f th e t o t a l sco re on th e D. R. T. Survey S e ctio n , the scores made by th e Experim ental Group stu d en ts on S e c tio n IV, Word Attack, Silent were examined. Those stu d en ts who were a t or below th e f i f t i e t h percentile by th e a u th o r 's norms f o r tw e lfth grade stu d en ts on e it h e r Score No. 1, id e n t if y in g sounds, or Score No. 2 , d iv id in g words in t o s y lla b le s , were select­ ed fo r work w ith se lf-a d m in is te r in g p r a c tic e e x e r c is e s in word attaak s k ills . On th e b a s is o f t h i s c r it e r io n th e E xperim ental Group was divided as follows: Exp. Word A ttack : Cases No. 4 , 5 , 8 , 9 , 1 2 ,1 3 ,1 4 ,1 7 ,1 8 ,2 0 ,2 1 ; N s 11 Exp. Non Word A ttack : Cases No. 1 ,2 ,3 ,6 ,7 ,1 0 ,1 1 ,1 5 ,1 6 ,1 9 ,2 2 ,2 3 ,2 4 ,2 5 ,2 6 ; N ■ 1$ Although none o f th e stu d en ts in th e C ontrol Group was exposed to word attack e x e r c is e s th e d iv is io n o f th e C ontrol Group on th e b a s is o f the same criterion r e s u lt e d i n th e fo llo w in g :

403 Con. Word A ttack N a 12 Cases No. 1 , 2 , 7, 9, 12, 13, 17, 1 9 , 21, 22, 2 5 , 26 Con. Non Word A ttack N s 14 Cases No. 3 , 4» 5 , 6 , 8 , 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, IS , 20, 2 3 , 24

S tu d en ts in th e Experimental Word-Attack Group were exposed fo r th r ee weeks t o th e s e lf-a d m in iste r in g e x e r c is e in th e Improve Your S p e llin g manual, I - XI, which d e a l w ith id e n tify in g sounds and d iv id in g words in to s y l l a b l e s . At th e end o f th ese th ree weeks a l l stu d en ts in th e Experim ental Group were exposed stu d en ts

fo r f i v e weeks t o th e

in th e C on trol

Your Rending manual.

The

Group a t no time wereexposed t o e ith e r o f th e se

manuals. The d iv is io n o f th e Control Group in t o Word A ttack and Non Word A ttack Subgroups i s on th e b a s is o f need as determined by th e p r e -t e s t c r it e r io n and fo r e v a lu a tio n purposes on ly. In order t o determ ine hew exposure t o se lf-a d m in iste r in g

prac­

t i c e e x e r c is e s in word percep tion a f f e c t reading s k i l l s a number o f t e s t s were made between th e groups ju s t d escrib ed u sin g p r e - t e s t , p o s t - t e s t , and f i n a l t e s t sc o r e s on th e D. R, T. Survey S e c tio n .

W ith in E x p erim en ta l Word A tta c k Group D .E .T . Survey S e c tio n l*s 11 P o s t - T e s t Mean P r e -D e s t Mean D if f e r e n c e s t

P o st v e r s u s Pre O la lb 316.09 I E .73 E l . 00 2 5 5 . 6E I E . 55 3 7 . 6E 3 .3 6 6 0 . E5 .18 E . 6 0 7 ** .22 3 1 ,E 2 6

E* 11 P in a l-T e s t Mean P o s t-T e s t Mean D iffe r e n c e s t

21- 11

P in a l T est Mean P re -T est Mean D iffe r e n c e s t

la 2 9 2 .8 2 316.09 -2 3 .2 7 - 1 .8 1 2

3 27.09 27.82 - .73 - . 7E3

P in a l v e r su s P ost 2 3 lb 3 6 . 6E 26.55 IE . 18 E l . 00 2 7.09 IE. 73 — E»36 — »5E - .55 - 2 . 6 2 8 * - . 3 E5 - .E52

F in a l v e r su s Pre 2 la lb 2 9 2 .8 2 3 6 . 6E IE . 18 2 5 5 . 6E 3 7 . 6E 1E.55 3 7 .1 8 - 1 .0 0 - .37 3 . 5 E2 ** .399 - .6E1

3 26.55 2 7.82 -1 .2 7 - .992

E 68.09 65 .E5 2 . 6E .981

E 63.17 68.09 — E.92 -2.171

E 63.17 65 .E5 -2,28 - .928

E x cep t f o r a g a in i n Eate o f H eading, stu d en ts in the Experi­ m ental Group v;ho worked w ith word a t t a c k e x e r c is e s , showed minor lo sse i n r e a d in g s k i l l s a t th e end o f th e exp erim en t when the fin a l te s ts w ere a d m in is te r e d .

4o5 Within Experimental Non-Word Attack Group Survey Section

N s 15 P o st-T est Mean P re-T est Mean D ifferen ces t

a

Post versu s Pre la lb 2 295.^7 40.47 15.07 258.00 12.40 37.87 37*47 2 .6 0 2.67 3.286** 2.384* 1.770

. 15

P in al Test Mean P ost Test Mean D ifferen ces t

2 6 .8 7

25.60 1.27 1.040

4 67.33 63.47 3.86 1 .2 6 6

la 276.13 295.47 -1 9 .3 4 -2.597*

P in al versus Post lb 2 3 13.74 36.27 2 6 .1 3 40.47 15.07 2 6 .8 7 -4 .2 0 - .7 4 -1 .3 3 -1.462 -2 .0 0 0 -.6 5 7

4 62.40 67.33 -4 .9 3 -2 .1 1 0

la 276.13 258.00 18.13 2. 368*

P in al versus Pre lb 2 3 13.74 36.27 2 6 .1 3 12.40 2 5 .6 0 37.87 1 .34 - 1 .6 0 •53 1 .7 2 0 -1 .2 4 3 .535

4 62.40 63.47 - 1 .0 7 - .6 8 3

H . 15 F in al Test Mean P re-T est Mean D ifferen ces t

3

When the reading scores o f students w ith in the Experimental Group who did. not work w ith p r a c tic e e x e r cise s are examined* we a lso fin d the o n ly s ig n ific a n t change to be one in Bate o f Beading*

406

Between 0rora>B

SeSeS*

Survey S ection

N ■ 11 (E x. W-A) Exp. N » 15 (Ex. Non W-A) l a Exp. W-A Mean 2 5 5 .6 4 Exp. Non W-A Mean 258.00 D iffe r e n c e s - 2 .3 6 t - .1 2 0

N - 11 (Ex. W-A) N - 12 (Con. W-A) Exp. W-A Mean Con. W-A Mean D iffe r e n c e s t

W-A versu s Exp. lb 2 14*55 37.64 1 2 .4 0 37.87 2 .1 5

2.457*

- .2 3

-.108

Son W-A 3 4 27.82 65.45 25.60 6 3 .4 7 2.22 1 .9 8 1.637 .2 5 2

Exp. W-A versus Con.W-A la lb 2 3 255-64 1 4 .5 5 37-64 27.82 251-58 13-92 37.25 26.17 4 .0 6 .6 3 .3 9 1*65 .1 8 7 -581 .187 .961

4 65.45 63.42 2 .0 3

.755

N - 1 1 (E x. W-A) Exp. W-A versus Con.Non W-A N a 14 (Con.Non W-A) l a . lb 2 3 4 Exp. W-A Mean 255-64 1 4 .5 5 3 7 .6 4 27.82 6 5 .4 5 Con. Non W-A Mean 259-0? 1 4 .5 7 36.43 29.00 6 5 .4 3 D iffe r e n c e s -3 -4 3 - .0 2 1.21 -1.18 .02 t - .2 1 5 - .0 2 5 . 629 -1.021 .010

At th e p r e - t e s t , b e fo r e th e experiment began, there were no s ig ­ n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in read in g s k i l l s between any of the groups c o n stitu te d » f o r t h i s e v a lu a tio n o f th e e f f e c t s o f work w ith word attack, practice exer­ c is e s .

The o n ly d iff e r e n c e which was uncovered was one in favor of the

E xperim ental Word A tta ek Group on th e u n r e lia b le Story Comprehension sc o re .

407

P ost - Test Between D

N 3 11 (Ex. W-A) N--= 15 (Ex. Non W-A) Exp, W-A Mean Exp. Non W-A Mean D iffer en ce s t

N s 1 1 (Ex. W-A) N » 12 (Con W^A) Exp. W-A Mean Con. W-A Mean D iffer en ce s t

N s 11 (Ex. W-A) N B 15 (Con.Non W-A) Exp,. W-A Mean Con Non W-A Mean D iffer en ce s t

Groups

— Survey Section

Exp. W-A versus Exp. Non W-A lb 2 4 3 41.0 0 27.09 14.73 68.09 15.07 40.07 26.87 67.33 2 0 .6 2 - .3 4 .2 2 .76 .53 .124 .741 - .0 8 6 .143 . 0 46

la 316.09 295.47

Exp. W-A versus Con. W-A lb 2 3 41.00 27.09 14.73 1 6 .0 0 2 6 8 .5 8 -4 1 .5 0 27.58 - .5 0 -1 .2 7 47.51 -.4 9 2 .0 7 2 - .0 9 6 -.3 7 8 -.1 5 0

la 316.09

la 316.09 269.79 46.30 1.864

4 68.09 6 9 .0 8

-.9 9 - .2 3 1

Exp. W-A versus Con. Non W--A lb 2 4 3 41.00 2 7 .0 9 68.09 14.73 3 0 .0 0 42.71 17.36 72.71 - 2 .6 3 -4 .6 2 -2 .9 1 -1 .7 1 -.9 1 5 -.5 3 9 -2.233* -1 .2 1 5

At the conclusion o f the p eriod o f p ractice* no s ig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s in reading s k i l l s appeared between any o f the gropps involved in the experim ent.

408 F in a l Test Between Groups D .R .T . Survey Section

N- 11 V* 15 E xp. W-A Mean Exp, Non-W-A Mean D iffe r e n c e s t

la 2 9 2 ,8 2 2 7 6 ,1 3 1 6 ,6 9 .748

Exp. W-A versus Exp. Non-W-A lb 2 Z 14.18 39.25 26.55 13.74 36.27 26.13 .44 2.98 .42 .131 1.335 .272

4 63.17 62.40 .77 .078

N - 11 N « 12 Exp. W-A Mean Con. W-A Mean D if fe r e n c e s 2 9 .6 5 t

la 2 9 2 .8 2 2 6 3 .1 7 2 9 .6 5 1 .1 6 7

Exp. W-A versus Con. W-A lb 2 3 14.18 39.25 26.65 13.58 39.25 25.17 .6 0 0 1.38 .158 0 .625

4 63.17 64.42 - 1 .2 5 -.2 9 4

N » 11 N - 14 Exp. W-A Mean Con. Non-W-A Mean D if fe r e n c e s t

la 2 9 2 .8 2 2 7 5 .7 1 1 7 .1 1 .7 7 3

Exp. W-A versus Con . Non-W-A lb 2 3 4 14.18 39.25 26.55 63.17 14.79 36.79 27.79 64.57 - .6 1 2.46 -1.24 - 1 .4 0 -.1 8 2 1.049 -.647 -.4 2 1

At th e end o f t h e experim ent when te s ts were adm inistered a t h ir d and f i n a l t im e , t h e r e w ere s t i l l no sig n ifica n t d iffe r e n v c e s in re a d in g s k i l l s b etw een any o f th e groups involved in the experim ent.

C on clusion No, 8 Under th e c o n d itio n s o f t h i s in vestigation , short-term exposure o f m ale c o l l e g e freshm en t o a s e lf-a d m in iste r in g program o f rea d in g improvement b ased i n p a r t on s e lf-a d m in iste r in g practice e x e r c is e s in word r e c o g n it io n r e s u lt e d i n no s ig n if ic a n t improvement in readin g s k ills .

409 Subproblan Nfc. 2* is, there any sianlfleant difference in scholastic a b ility between students who are weak in word recognition and studffits who are not weak? To seek the answer to this question the eleven students in the Experimental Word Attack Group and the twelve students in the Con­ tr o l Word Attack Group were put together into one group of twenty-three students* a ll of whoa were at or below the fiftie th percentile by the author*a norms for twelfth grade students on either Score Vo* 1, ident­ ifying sounds* or Score Wo. 2* dividing words into syllables on Section XV* Word Attaok* Silent of the D. B. T. The fifteen students in the Experimental Non Word Attack Group and the fourteen students in the Control Non Word Attaok Group were put together into one group of twenty-nine students a ll of whom were above the cutting score just described. Tests of significance were aade between the

L, and T

scores on the A. 0. Z. Psychological Examination of the two groups as shown below. No significant differences were found. N - 23 (W-A) N ■ 29 (Non W-A)

Q 41.65 41.00 .65 .286

X 54.48 55*28

o CO • 1

Word Attack Mean Non-Word Attaok Mean Differences t

.Pr.ar.gQtt Ka&LAttach TortM JfaasKa*ft.

- .278

T 96.13 96.28 - .15 - .014

Oonoluaion No. 9

When the students in the bottom half of an entering college class based on total reading s k ills * are divided into two groups repre­ senting on the one hand* those who are weak in word attack sk ills and on the other hand those who are not* i t is probable that no significant differences in soholastie ab ility w ill be found between the two groqps.

410

Subnroblem IJo. 1 0 : j£jj t h e Roaenzweig Picture-F rustration Study of any u s e i f i p r e d i c t in g ch a n g es In read in g s k ills resu ltin g from, exposure to t h e s o I f - a d m in is t e r in g te c h n iq u e o f reading improvement? The r e a s o n s f o r t h e s e le c tio n and use of the Rosenzweig P ictu reF r u s t r a t io n S tu d y t o d e term in e t h e answer to th is q u estion were given in C h ap ter XV• I n t r e a t i n g t h e d a ta r e su ltin g from the experim ent two approach­ e s w ere u s e d . I n th e f i r s t p la c e , correlation s were run between gains on the D* R* T . S u rv ey S e c t io n s c o r e s from p re-test to post t e s t and each score on t h e P ic t u r e - F r u s t r a t io n S tu d y . Secondly the Experimental Group was divided i n t o Subgroups on t h e b a s i s o f th e same c r ite r ia used in Subproblem No. 6 and t e s t s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e betw een th e P-F Study scores o f t h e s e Subgroups w ere m ade. The c r i t e r i a u se d i n s e le c tin g the subgroups a r e repeated . Subgroup I : S tu d e n ts who gained from p r e -te s t t o p o s t - t e s t and w hose f i n a l D . R . T . S u rvey S e c t io n t o ta l scores were a t l e a s t ten percent­ i l e p o i n t s ab ove t h e i r p r e - t e s t sco res. Subgroup IX : S tu d e n ts who gained a t le a s t n in etee n p e r c e n tile p o i n t s o r more from p r e - t e s t t o p o s t - t e s t cm the D, R. T . Survey Section t o t a l s c o r e b u t t h e n dropped a l l or most of th e ir gains from p o s t - t e s t to fin a l t e s t . Subgroup I l l s S tu d e n ts who made l i t t l e or no g a in from p r e -te st t o p o s t - t e s t on t h e D. R . T . Survey Section and whose f i n a l t e s t scores w ere b elow t h e i r p r e - t e s t s c o r e s . A ls o t o make t h i s in te r p r e ta tio n more meaningful an explanation of t h e s c o r e s on t h e P ic t u r e - F r u s t r a t io n Study i s repeated h e r e . Group C on form ity R a tin g (G C R ): This score i s ob tain ed by com­ p a r in g a s t u d e n t ’ s s c o r e s w it h th o s e expected on twelve item s p reviou sly

-411

found t o b rin g out a p a r tic u la r v a r ie t y Of resp on se from normal s u b je c ts s i g n i f i c a n t l y o fte n t o j u s t i f y t h e ir u se a s c r it e r ia * The number o f re­ sp on ses v h ic h a g ree w ith th e c r it e r io n sco res i s found and exp ressed in p ercen tage* R esponses on th e P-F Study are scored a s t o d ir e c t io n o f aggres­ s io n and r e a c tio n type* Under d ir e c t io n o f a g g r e ssio n a r e Inclu d ed : E x tr a p u n itiv en ess (E) - in which a g g r e ssio n i s turned onto th e environm ent. I n tr d p u n itiv e n e ss ( I ) — i n which a g g r e ssio n i s turned by th e s u b je c t upon h im self* Im p u n itiven es 3 (M) - in which a g g r e ssio n i s evaded in an attem pt t o g l o s s over th e fr u s tr a tio n * Under ty p e o f r e a c tio n th e fo llo w in g sc o r e s are In clu d ed : Obstaole-Dominance (0-D) - in which th e b a r r ie r o cc a sio n in g th e f r u s t r a t io n stan d s ou t in th e responses* E go-D efense (E-D) - i n which th e ego o f th e s u b je c t predom inates* N ee d -P e rslsten c e (N-P) - in which th e s o lu t io n o f th e f r u s t r a t in g problem i s em phasized. The c o r r e la t io n s and th e r e s u lt s o f th e t - t e s t s a r e g iv e n next* C o r r e la tio n s Between S co res on th e P-F Study ' and Gains on th e D. R. T* Survey S e c tio n

N-P

.

0-D E-D

E xperim en tal Group D. R. T . Survey Gains (P ost-P ro) 2 3 lb la .050 .122 *007 .330 -.0 3 2 .073 - .2 8 9 -.1 6 9 —*336 -.0 0 5 •405 .192 .1 0 7 .076 .037 -.0 8 7 -.0 0 8 .024 -.2 7 4 •282 .152 -.1 2 8 -.0 6 5 -.0 95 -.1 2 9 .069 *164 CM

N a 26 P-F Study G.C.R. E I M

...4 .124 .290 - .3 3 2 - .1 1 3 -.2 6 0 .290 - .1 4 3

412

P-F S tu d y - Comparisons between Experimental Subgroups. Baaed on Reading Gains

N » 5 (X) N - 6 (II) Exp. I Mean Exp. I I Mean D iffe r e n c e s t

GGR 6 0 .2 0 6 0 .3 3 - .1 3 - .0 1 6

vs; II I E I 58.60 24.20 21,00 56.83 3.20 1 .7 7 .828 *248

M 16.60 22.83 -6.23 -1.399

0-D 2 1 .2 0 16.33 4 .8 7 • 577

E-D 61.60 59.50 2.10 .310

N-P 1 7 .2 0 2 4 .5 0 - 7 .3 0 -1 .1 7 4

N • 5 (I ) N • 11 ( l i t ) Exp. I Mean E xp. H I Mean D iffe r e n c e s t

OCR 60*20 5 9 .IB 1*02 *035

I vs III I E 2 4 .2 0 58.60 4 3 .6 4 32.73 14.96 -8.53 -1.536 1 .8 3 7

M 16.60 23.73 -7.13 -1.747

0-D 21 .2 0 1 9 .3 6 1 .8 4 *511

E-D 61.60 54.64 6.96 .432

N-P 1 7 .2 0 2 5 .9 1 - 8 .7 1 -1 .9 9 8

N = 6 (II) N * 11 ( I I I ) Exp* H Mean Exp. I l l Mean D iffer en ce s; t

OCR 60*33 5 9 .1 3 1 .1 5 .0 4 3

II vs III I *r: 21.00 56.83 4 3 .6 4 32.73 1 3 .1 9 -11.73 1.8 1 1 -2.250*

M 22.83 23.73 -.9 0 -*281

0-D 16.33 19.36 -3 .0 3

E-D 59.50 54.64 4.86

N-P 2 4 .5 0 2 5 .9 1 1 .4 1

Key t o P ictu r e-F ru str a tio n Study Scores GCRt Group Conformity Rating E: E xtrapun itiveness I : In trop u n itiven ess M: Im punitiveness 0-D: Obstacle-Dooinance E-D: Ego-Defense N-P: N eed-Perslstence

.507

.860

-*272

A review 1 o f th e c o r r e la t io n s between P-F Study s c o r e s and g a in s in read in g s k i l l s , and th e r e s u lt s o f th e t e s t s o f s ig n if ic a n c e between Subgroups in th e Experim ental Group d i f f e r i n g markedly i n read in g perform­ ance r e v e a ls no s ig n i f i c a n t tr e n d s . I f th e stu d e n ts in th e Experim ental Group had been s e le c t e d on a v o lu n ta ry b a s is th e r e s u lt s m ight have been d iffe r e n t.

C on clu sion No. 10 On th e b a s is o f th e s e fin d in g s i t may be concluded th a t i t would n o t be p o s s ib le t o p r e d ic t changes in read in g s k i l l s r e s u lt in g from exposure t o th e s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g tech n iq u e o f read in g improvement on th e b a s is o f s c o r e s on th e Rosenzweig P ic tu r e -F r u s tr a tio n Study.

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, DISCUSSION Summary The purpose o f t h is in vestigation has been to evaluate a s e l f a d m in is te r in g te c h n iq u e o f reading improvement u sin g published s e l f a d m in is te r in g e x e r c is e s appropriately according t o diagn osis of d i s a b i l i ­ tie s .

E xp erim en tal and Control Groups of tw en ty -six individuals each

■were s e l e c t e d by th e s p l i t - h a lf technique from th e bottom h a lf of the Septem ber, 1 9 49, e n te r in g cla ss of 104 Freshmen a t S t . Francis College on th e b a s is o f th e t o t a l score on a screening t e s t in reading.

Stu­

d en ts in th e E xperim ental Group were exposed for f iv e or eight weeks to th e s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g p ra ctice manuals according to diagnosis.

Com­

p a ra b le form s o f th e A. C. E. Psychological Exam ination, and the Survey S e c t io n and S e c t io n IV, Word Attack, Part 2, S il e n t , o f the Diagnostic Reading T e s ts w ere adm inistered to both Experimental and Control Groups b e fo r e th e p r a c t ic e p e r io d , immediately a fte r , and a t the end of a four months p e r io d o f no p r a c t ic e .

The Rosenzweig P ictu re-F ru stration Study

was a d m in iste r e d t o both groups before the experiment started .

E valuation

i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was done by applying to the d ata collected in th e ex­ p erim en t th e p a tte r n o f evaluation which was s e t up before the experiment began*

This p a tte r n in clu d es seven te s ts of s ig n ific a n c e between groups and

fo u r t e s t s w it h in groups, and provides for e x ten siv e an alysis w ithin and be­ tw een groups by means o f subgroups se t up according t o various combinations o f s k i l l s and a b i l i t i e s . and 155 c o r r e la t io n s run.

A to ta l of 1163 t e s ts o f sig n ifica n ce were made The findings of th is in v e s tig a tio n suggest th e

c o n c lu s io n s l i s t e d in th e next sectio n .

C onclusion? 1,

4 l5 The c o r r e la tio n between s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y and read in g a s measured

by the D ia g n o stic Reading T e s ts , Survey S e c t io n , i s low er than th e c o r r e la t io n o f s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y w ith oth er read in g t e s t s *

S in ce th e D ia g n o stic Reading

T e s ts , Survey S e c tio n , i s j u s t a s v a lid a s th e b e s t known read in g t e s t s pub­ li s h e d , t h is i s probably due t o th e c o n str u c tio n o f th e t e s t which perm its i t t o measure more o f th e f a c t o r s in read ing which are d if f e r e n t from s c h o la s t ie a b ility , 2*

On th e b a s is o f th e fo reg o in g a n a ly s is i t may be concluded t h a t ,

when stu d e n ts who f a l l in th e bottom h a lf o f th e e n te r in g freshman c la s s in t y p ic a l , sm a ll American C o lleg es are made t o work w ith s e lf-a d m in is te r in g read in g improvement manuals over a p eriod o f from f i v e t o e ig h t w eek s, w ith ­ ou t ch o ice on t h e ir p a r t under th e c o n d itio n s o f t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n , in a l l p r o b a b ility no l a s t i n g improvement in read in g s k i l l s w i l l r e s u lt in th e m a jo rity o f ca ses* 3*

Under th e c o n d itio n s o f t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n , sh o rt-term exposure

t o th e s e lf - a d m in is t e r in g tech n iq u e o f read in g improvement does n o t r e s u lt i n s ig n i f i c a n t changes i n s c h o la s t ic a b il it y * A*

Under th e c o n d itio n s o f t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n th e r e seems t o be no

r e la t io n s h ip between s c h o la s t ic a b i l i t y and dem onstrated changes in read in g a b i l i t y ex cep t f o r a s l i g h t p o s i t iv e r e la t io n s h ip between l i n g u i s t i c a b i l i t y and g a in s in vocabulary* 5*

Under th e c o n d itio n s o f t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n , v a r io u s com binations

o f l i n g u i s t i c and q u a n tita tiv e a b i l i t i e s do not r e s u lt i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y d if f e r e n t changes in rea d in g s k i l l s a f t e r sh o rt-term exposure t o th e s e l f a d m in ister in g tech n iq u e o f read in g improvement* 6*

Subproblem No* 6 i s a c t u a lly th e same as Subproblem No* A, excep t

t h a t th e s o lu t io n o f th e subproblem was reached by a d if f e r e n t approach.

416

Sine© th e fin d in g s in Subproblem No. 4 were confirmed., the con clu sion i s th e sane* 7.

Under th e conditions of th is in v e s tig a tio n , various com b in atio

o f r a t e and comprehension a b ilitie s do not r e s u lt in s ig n if ic a n tly d if f e r e n t changes in r e a d in g s k i l l s after exposure to th e self-ad m in isterin g tech n iq u e o f r e a d in g improvement. 8*

Under th e conditions o f t h is in v e s tig a tio n , short-term exposure

o f male c o l l e g e freshmen to a self-a d m in isterin g program o f read ing improve­ ment b a sed in p art on self-adm inistering p r a c tic e exercises in word r e c o g n i­ t i o n r e s u lt e d in no s ig n ific a n t improvement in reading s k i l l s . 9*

The findings of th is in v e s tig a tio n .ju stify the co n clu sio n

t h a t th e r e i s no s ig n ific a n t relationsh ip between the word r e c o g n itio n s k i l l s and t h e s c h o la s tic a b ility of students who f a ll in the bottom h a l f o f e n t e r in g c o lle g e c la ss in a typical sm all American college based on t o t a l r e a d in g s k i l l s * 10,

In g en era l, i t would not be p o s s ib le to predict changes in

r e a d in g s k i l l s r e s u ltin g from exposure to th e self-a d m in isterin g tech n iq u e o f r e a d in g improvement on the basis of sco res on the R osenzw eig-Picture4