Reading dancing: bodies and subjects in contemporary American dance 9780520055490, 9780520063334
Suggests a new theory of dance, describes four models for representation in dance, and discusses the work of modern chor
132 14 93MB
English Pages [330] Year 1986
Polecaj historie
![Labor and Aesthetics in European Contemporary Dance : Dancing Precarity [1st ed.]
9783030406929, 9783030406936](https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/labor-and-aesthetics-in-european-contemporary-dance-dancing-precarity-1st-ed-9783030406929-9783030406936.jpg)
Table of contents :
Frontmatter
Illustrations (page ix)
Preface (page xiii)
CHAPTER ONE Reading Dance: Composing the Choreographer, the Dancer, and the Viewer (page 1)
CHAPTER TWO Reading Choreography: Composing Dances (page 58)
CHAPTER THREE Readings in Dance's History: Historical Approaches to Dance Composition (page 99)
CHAPTER FOUR Writing Dancing: The Viewer as Choreographer in Contemporary Dance (page 186)
Notes (page 229)
Selected Bibliography (page 263)
Index (page 287)
Citation preview
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approaches to orchestration that encouraged choreographic experimentation with groups. Unlike the choreographer of the court dances, who participated as
one of a team of artists composing the performance, the eighteenth- | century choreographer organized all the components of the event. These parts were to fit together, according to Noverre, like a “more or less complicated machinery.” *> The choreographer, as engineer, conferred with designers and composers to determine plot structure and setting and took into account, just as Balanchine does, the specific expertise of the dancers. Then he or she consulted the social dance repertoire and the schema for rhetorical and pantomimic gesture; the laws of design, proportion, and form of the visual arts; and the musical rendition of the plot. Out of these the choreographer fashioned a single perfect image. Each of the arts copied the others in much the same way that Balanchine’s dances render in visual terms the architecture of the music. Rather than translating single qualities from one art to another as the court dances had done, each medium in the proscenium ballets approximated the shape and form of the others. Where the Renaissance court performances supported a polyphony of discourses, some heard and some seen, the neoclassical ballets integrated these discourses into a homophonic event. This integration, however, was more metonymic than organic. It consisted of fitting together pieces of a puzzle or, in Noverre’s words, “parts of a machine” to form a unified scene. The image created by the choreographer allowed viewers both to achieve a certain distance from their own lives and to delight in a perfected rendition of their behavior. Where the court performances drew the audience into the allegorical world of the dance, the neoclassical
ballets showed the world to the audience. Where the court dancer |
played the role of the knight or fool, the proscenium dancer showed these roles being played. Where the court dance encouraged the audience to contemplate humanity in relation to a universal order, neoclassical ballets celebrated individual and societal accomplishments.
READINGS IN DANCE’S HISTORY 143
The human being as a gifted maker of things in the world became the focus of the dance.
When the proscenium ballets detached dance and dancer from their allegorical moorings in the quotidian world, both could be viewed
objectively. Nonetheless, these ballets stayed close to that world in a way that Balanchine’s dances do not. In the eighteenth century the overlapping of social and rhetorical forms with the concert forms, and even the continuity between social dance skills and the expertise of professional dancers, gave the ballets a dual function. They improved their viewers by giving them not only an aesthetic experience but also a vantage from which to view society itself. During the following century, exploration of the ballet lexicon dominated the concert dance tradition. The lexicon offered many possibilities for variation and ornamentation, and it held considerable appeal for the audience. Maintaining the balance between beauty and physical accomplishment, the steps of the lexicon were gradually enlarged. Higher elevations of leg lifts and leaps, longer balances, and new varieties of turns were developed, facilitated by the introduction of the toeshoe for the female dancer and lighter, shorter costumes for both sexes. Ballet masters such as Auguste Bournonville, Marius Petipa, and Enrico Cecchetti contributed substantial innovations to the lexicon and devised pedagogical techniques for its transmission, abstracting and purifying the lines of the body so that the dance no longer suggested idealized social behavior. At the same time, new romantic subject matter was introduced that focused on the psychological identity and experience of characters and on their dream life. One of the most popular themes for these ballets
was the impossible love of a mortal male for an enchanted or nonhuman female. Beginning with La Sylphide (1832) and continuing through Giselle (1841), Coppélia (1870), and Swan Lake (1896), the love between an ethereal, unattainable woman and an idealistic, devoted man was repeatedly explored. The ballet lexicon used to realize
this theme, however, emphasized virtuoso performance and visual
144 READINGS IN DANCE’S HISTORY
spectacle as much as or more than it explored dramatic characters in depth. Not until the revolutionary break with the lexicon precipitated by Isadora Duncan did the concert dance tradition evolve a new paradigm, one in which self-expression superseded self-presentation. Psychological subject matter found authentic realization in the movement vocabularies of each choreographer. And audiences, for the first time, were asked to identify with dancer and dance and to feel rather than see their own life experiences on the stage.
In the name of what was both natural and divinely inspired, Isadora Expressionist Dance in
Duncan proclaimed a new era of dance beginning in 1903.** Born in
California in 1876, she traveled as a teenager to Europe, where she the Early Twentieth Century
dedicated herself to the project of reinventing Greek dance. Classical Greece had served as a model for choreographers in the court dance period and in the eighteenth century, but Duncan’s choreographic vision did not depend as much on an understanding of Greek culture or mythology as on her conception of the Greeks’ ideas about the soul and the body. Unencumbered by the artifices of society, Duncan’s Greeks were both childlike and noble—spontaneous and honest in feeling and action. To her they represented the possibility of overthrowing the traditional academic European ballet in favor of a revitalized, expression-filled form in which the body could serve as medium for the divine expression of the human spirit. To manifest her vision Duncan appeared alone on a bare, classically draped stage, wearing only a Grecian-style toga and dancing to music by the great composers of the nineteenth century—Beethoven, Tchaikovsky, Chopin, Schubert, and Wagner. For a soloist presenting an entirely new form of dance, her success was overwhelming. The continuous development of her simple phrases of movements, the seeming transparency of her mood and spirit, the generosity and conviction of
READINGS IN DANCE’S HISTORY 145
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her presentation contrasted sharply with the pose-oriented choreography of the late nineteenth-century ballets. Audiences were enraptured, moved to tears. This sympathetic description of Duncan’s La Marseillaise by noted critic Carl Van Vechten gives some sense of her power: She stands enfolded; she sees the enemy advance; she feels the enemy as it grasps her by the throat; she kisses her flag; she tastes blood; she is all but crushed under the weight of the attack; and then she rises, triumphant, with the terrible cry, Aux armes, citoyens! Part of her effect is gained by gesture, part by the massing of her body, but the greater part by facial expression. In the anguished appeal she does not make a sound, beyond that made by the orchestra, but the hideous din of a hundred raucous voices seems to ring in our ears. We see Félicien Rops’s Vengeance come to life; we see the sans-culottes following the carts of the aristocrats on the way to execution. . . and finally we see the superb calm, the majestic flowing strength of the Victory of Samothrace.... At times, legs, arms, a leg or an arm, the throat, or the exposed breast assume the importance above that of the rest of the mass, suggesting an unfinished sculpture of Michael Angelo, an aposiopesis which, of course, served as Rodin’s inspiration.”°
At first glance, Van Vechten’s listing of the images evoked by Duncan’s dance suggests a pantomime. But as he begins to analyze the impact of her performance, he evaluates not her accurate rendition of each scene
but its force, a force created out of her ability to replicate rather than imitate the story of the French Revolution. Although she was the most flamboyant and perhaps the most charismatic choreographer of her time, Duncan was certainly not the only one struggling to find new forms to express the concerns of her era and of the human soul. Loie Fuller, Maud Allen, Rudolf Laban, Ruth St. Denis, and Ted Shawn, among others, began work around the turn of the century on vocabularies and styles of movement that would respond to a new expressionist aesthetic.*© They were followed in the 1920s and 1930s by a second generation of choreographers that included Laban’s student Mary Wigman and St. Denis’s and Shawn’s students Doris Humphrey and Martha Graham.
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: After dancing in Shawn’s company for several years, Graham left to begin her own experiments with choreography. Unlike earlier choreographers, who had begun their careers first by studying with and then
performing in the works of already established artists, Graham and her contemporaries did not see themselves as contributing innovations
to an existing lexicon but as creating entirely new vocabularies of movement, whose uniqueness would testify to the authenticity of their artistic impulses. In this sense, Graham cannot inherit the early mod-
ern dance in the way that Balanchine can identify his genealogical place in the ballet tradition. Instead, she is a pioneer among other pioneers, pursuing a goal defined not by social or historical circumstances but by psychological necessity. Nor is Graham separated socially or temporally from the origins of her own tradition, as Balanchine is. Because she partakes of early-twentieth-century dance both historically and philosophically, the following discussion of that period surrounds and includes Graham’s work more than it draws analogies to it. The early choreographers of the new expressionist dance took their role as pioneers seriously for several reasons, not least among them the relative lack of concert dance in America. In Europe, where there was a long-standing tradition of concert dance, the pioneers were received
| enthusiastically. In the United States, however, they worked to educate the public to the difference between dance as light entertainment—presenting stock characters and standard revues at traveling road shows, in burlesque theaters, and on Broadway—and dance as an
) art using new forms to arouse profound emotions about universal life situations. At a time when even concerts of ballet rarely occurred— and then only in major cities—the extensive touring by these pioneer choreographers helped establish dance as an independent performing art.*’ Experimentation by these choreographers produced a wide variety of theatrical impressions. Where Duncan on stage was notably austere,
St. Denis often created opulent sets with sculptures and scenic back-
. drops to simulate exotic locales like Egypt or India. Loie Fuller attached forty-foot-long silk scarves to her body in order to reproduce
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the spirit of a raging fire or a butterfly. And Maud Allen, as Salome, danced around a sculpted head of John the Baptist. As different as they were in setting and subject matter, all these dances focused on the danced character’s internal experience. Rather than define the character, dance movement manifested an interior process undergone by the character during performance. Even when the dances featured spectacular stage settings or elaborate costumes, these were important not for their visual impact but for their clues to the characters’ states of mind. They helped to establish an environment in which the choreographers could lay bare their concerns. Technical advances in lighting and architectural revision in the theater facilitated the choreographers’ project. During the nineteenth century, gas lighting allowed for greater control over levels of light on stage and in the auditorium; it was electric lighting, however, established in most American and European theaters by the 1880s, that allowed the audience to sit in complete darkness while highly specialized lights, capable of creating subtle changes in color and intensity, illuminated the stage. Audiences were encouraged to focus exclusively on the stage action, not only by the lighting but also by the configuration of the auditorium. To improve sight lines, theater designers eliminated the boxes bordering the proscenium and decreased the number of balconies. The main floor of the theater, designated for the nobility and for the production itself in the Renaissance and relegated to the working class in the eighteenth century, offered viewers by 1900 a single democratic perspective on the performance. In many theaters the proscenium arch was eliminated to achieve greater intimacy, with the stage as a boxlike, three-sided room whose fourth wall had been
| eliminated.*®
All these changes invited the audience to look in on and become |
involved with the dancers and their expressive activities. Members of the audience were no longer spectators, clearly acknowledged within the conventions of the auditorium and by the dancers’ own focus; they now became voyeurs, quietly regarding, and drawn into, the private world of the dancers. Scenery increased this sense of intimacy. Where
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backdrops in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries offered panoramic vistas, perspectives, or grandiose architecture, settings for these dances reproduced an intimate clearing in the forest, a single room, a temple facade, or an impressionistic landscape. Within the intimate confines of the stage, dancers seemed to undergo a powerful transcendental experience. No longer accomplished technicians presenting story and movement to an audience, they instead seemed transported by the occasion into the life of the character or into the dance itself. Their actions were vivid and full of passion, as
if, unaware of either the performance context or the vocabulary of movements they had studied, they might transform feelings directly into actions. The choreographers themselves often danced the leading roles, further augmenting the persuasive power of the dances. That one person chose the subject matter of the dance, invented the vocabulary to express that subject, and then danced the final composition heightened the immediacy and authenticity in the dances. Despite the dancers’ passionate actions, the choreography was not
intended to reveal their actual personalities. In the intimacy of the stage setting, the dancers’ performance represented what the choreographers considered universal concerns. Human emotion assumed a central importance as subject matter, however, because specific human
situations and feelings emblematized a universal human condition. Thus the dancers, while they clearly felt the emotions about which they were dancing, also became abstract embodiments of the emotions themselves. Dancers did not represent people, or even mythical or stereotypic versions of people, but rather the essential characteristics of a range of human feelings.
To represent such characteristics, according to John Martin, a major theorist of the period, the choreographer had to develop the dance with such breadth of dimension and clarity of outline that it will awaken the spectator to recognition of its personal significance for him. Literal mimetics cannot accomplish this experience of identification, for they contain too much that is purely objective. The dancer’s movements are abstract; that is, they have
150 READINGS IN DANCE’S HISTORY
abstracted the essentials from a particular life experience, omitting all that is merely personal and without universal significance.°?
Thus St. Denis, seated in mystic meditation for her dance Radha (1906), referred not to her specific interests in Hinduism and yoga but to what she saw as a universal experience of religious meditation and self-transformation. Duncan in Mother (ca. 1921) did not depict her specific feelings and attitudes toward motherhood or her own experience as a mother but the archetypal characteristics of a mother’s experience. Whatever the theme, the choreographer tried to extract its essential features and present them as a metaphysics of human experience that transcended both culture and history. Although the expressionist choreographers recognized that they were involved in forging a new genre of concert dance, the forms their dances took followed no shared or generalized formats like those of
the story ballets or the court dances. Rather, the dances grew organically out of each choreographer’s project of self-expression. All the choreographers, however, were absorbed in representing life by replicating in movement systemic relationships between feeling and behavior, between one emotion and the next, or between one person and another. Duncan, St. Denis, Shawn, and Fuller all sought to relate the spiri-
tual and the material in their dances. For Duncan the quest meant “long days and nights in the studio seeking that dance which might be the divine expression of the human spirit through the medium of the
body’s movement ...I... sought the source of the spiritual expression to flow into the channels of the body filling it with vibrating light—the centrifugal force reflecting the spirit’s vision.” © Similarly, St. Denis recalls her first choreographic inspiration on seeing a poster image of an Egyptian goddess: Here was an external image which stirred into instant consciousness all that latent capacity for wonder, that lay at the deepest center of my spirit. In this figure before me was the symbol of the entire nation, culture, and destiny of Egypt. . . the figure, its repose, its suggestion of latent power and beauty, constituting to my sharply awakened sensitivity a strange symbol of the complete
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, inner being of man. . . . It was, however, not merely a symbol of Egypt, but a
through the human body.” 7 , ,
universal symbol of all the elements of history and art which may be expressed
Both choreographers, defining spiritual experience as the nexus of sev- |
, eral related feelings and profound insights, sought through the me- ©
, dium of dance to demonstrate the relationship among those feelings , and between the spiritual and the bodily.
, , For Graham, Humphrey, and Wigman, dance was less a material , manifestation of spirituality than an expression of the relationship be- , , tween movement and a full range of psychological events, including those attributed to the unconscious. Wigman proclaimed that “every
, true composition should be a confession” in which the choreographer a , unmasked the inner workings of the psyche. And Humphrey advised ,
152 READINGS IN DANCE’S HISTORY | ,
that “there is only one thing to dance about: the meaning of one’s personal experience and this experience must be taken in its literal sense
as action, and not as intellectual conception. Art, like religion, is based on events; physical manifestations which have been lived through
and therefore represent action, emotion.” © The strong, almost admonitory tone of Humphrey’s statement, like that of Graham’s dictum “movement never lies,” suggests the arduous process of psychological and physical introspection these choreographers have undergone. Unlike Duncan and St. Denis, who had only to locate the source from which spiritual impulse could flow into movement, Graham, Humphrey, and Wigman necessarily scrutinized each motivation and each physical response to determine its validity. But their goal, like that of their predecessors, was to chart the organic progression from internal feeling to external form. For all the expressionist choreographers, representation based on replication began with a journey inward. The subject matter of dances and its corresponding vocabulary of movement could be found only in the psyche itself. Even movement adapted from existing lexicons— from social, ethnic, or theater dance forms—participated in, and was transformed by, the individual choreographer’s search for authentic physical expression. Reacting to the ballet academy, but also recognizing the new source of inspiration, choreographers oriented their inves-
tigations toward the primal origins of movement. They posited an original natural body in which form and feeling connected organically. Both ancient and ethnic sources offered insights into the “natural”
human being, uncorrupted by the demands of civilized life, whose body was simply the “luminous and fluid manifestation of the soul.” “ In studying these sources, however, the choreographers were less inclined to appreciate cultural difference than to confirm their own intuitions about a universal impulse to move. Thus Duncan discovered
in Greek art a clue to the relationship between spiritual ecstasy and , bodily form. St. Denis was similarly inspired by Hindu mythology, dance, and yoga. And Fuller sought to understand the primordial relationship between movement and light. Later choreographers based
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their vocabularies on fundamental principles of human motion, such
) as Graham’s contraction and release, Humphrey’s fall and rebound, or Wigman’s space, time, and weight, adapted from Laban. Even the principles established by these later choreographers governed fundamental bodily experiences that related, ultimately, to psychological experience. The choreographers’ prescriptions for technical mastery of their vo-
cabularies were consistent with their search for the origins of movement. Technique was not something to be acquired, as in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but something to be discovered. The eighteenth-century choreographers had recommended that dancers prac-
tice imitation as the key to perfect representation. Those who executed the established gestures over and over learned to perform both the movements associated with feelings and the more abstract sequences until they were perfectly accurate. The eighteenth-century choreographers further believed that dancing, a manifestly social activity, improved an otherwise imperfect physical structure; however, Duncan and St. Denis, in particular, believed that one learned to move naturally and freely by ridding oneself of the tension and artifice of society. This disburdening necessitated a return to such basic patterns as walking, skipping, running, falling, and turning and to movements
based on breathing. Repetition of the basic exercises brought the dancer closer to an essential way of moving—a graceful, powerful style common to all human beings. Even Graham and Humphrey, for whom technical competence entailed a more formal cultivation of the body,
believed that their study began with a return to the basic sources of movement.
If the search for new movement was primarily motivated by the choreographers’ intuitions about what was natural, it was also encouraged by the science of movement popular at the end of the nineteenth century. The study of rhetoric that had influenced choreographers throughout the eighteenth century developed by the late nineteenth - century into a study of elocution and expression that included gymnastics, dramatics, pantomime, interpersonal communication, and public speaking. Chief among the researchers and teachers of expression
154 READINGS IN DANCE’S HISTORY
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The Grand Union was formed in 1970 by a collective of choreog- The Grand Union raphers, most of whom had participated in the Judson concerts of the early 1960s.’ Although it underwent fluctuations and changes in membership, the group performed throughout the United States for six years and also toured Italy and Japan. Its performances were inconsistent and unpredictable. The members often chose music, collected
costumes and props, and arranged the performance space for each concert at the last minute. Underlying these impromptu decisions, however, was a commitment to cultivating the liminal ground between
art and life and to collaborating on dance not as a beautifully fash-
ioned product but as a choreographic process. | Most Grand Union performances were presented in gymnasiums,
galleries, or churches, places that afforded a theater-in-the-round viewing situation and a casual, makeshift atmosphere. Often, viewers entered to find the dancers already moving around: warming up, talking with one another, or arranging various props to be used that evening. The dancers’ activity gradually evolved into the performance itself, although no specific beginning was announced. During the performance, dancers occasionally moved out into the seating area and frequently looked at or addressed audience members directly. They smiled, wiped the sweat away, scratched themselves, or rearranged
clothing, all with matter-of-fact cordiality. Dancers acted indepen- | dently—practicing a movement phrase, stretching, twirling a rope, carrying a ladder, or manipulating any of the mundane items scattered throughout the space. Sometimes they coalesced briefly in duets or trios before returning to their individual pursuits, or else a small group might persist in collaborating by proposing various structures for their heretofore unrelated activities. Suddenly, out of a collage of movement, dialogue, costumes, props, and excerpts from popular music, a dramatic, archetypal vignette of American life would emerge—the hangman and the guilty cowboy, the surfer riding the breakers, or the all-American farm couple. The scene would then evolve predictably for a few moments—the cowboy would
WRITING DANCING 191
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Sess) |:| ee ee ce ee eee er«Cm OCeee eee rn ee ee , ee.| ee WRITING DANCING 215 ,
Similarly, Tharp’s clever parodies of performance logistics remind viewers of the premises of the dance event itself, but they never develop either as a theme in the dance or as a commentary on the main action.
The dancer falls down, or runs into a stage curtain while exiting, or steps out of the spotlight and continues soloing in relative darkness; or dancers enter with push brooms and sweep the debris of the previous act from the stage. Isolated moments like these appear throughout Tharp’s dances, but they are overwhelmed by the intricate, sensuous,
, and demanding activity of dancing.
The recent, highly successful Nine Sinatra Songs (1984) encapsulates many of these features of Tharp’s work. The dance’s seven duets
} and two ensemble sections, performed to nine of Frank Sinatra’s most popular songs, derive from the formal principles of ballroom dancing. Each duet alludes to a different dance form—tango, waltz, cha-cha, and so forth—and, consequently, depicts a different amorous relationship between partners. The movement in each dance closely resembles
that of the ballroom forms, yet each transfer of weight, balance, dip, glide, and position of the arms and head seems to have been reconsidered and manipulated in some way. The steps are those of the tango or the fox-trot, but performed with a different tension or quality of effort. Phrases vary the spatial and temporal characteristics of the original ballroom choreography, presenting an extraordinary array of minute differences in the ballroom vernacular. We see a hundred ways to support a woman’s swoon and countless variations on handholds, lifts, or changes of direction. Those familiar with the protocol of ballroom dancing become increasingly aware that the dance consists of not only variations on but also parodies of ballroom forms. Dancers vacillate ever so slightly between two positions of the head, as if to say, “Oh dear, I can’t remember how the head is held in this section” or “There are just too many regulations in this ballroom-dancing business.” Alternatively, dancers participate with the music in developing a climactic peak but drop out at the last minute, replacing a dramatic lift or embrace with a more mundane stepping pattern. Or they imbue a neutral moment in the
216 WRITING DANCING
t”™”™~™w™O—Srrt—~—“‘“OOC~«”s~ 3 b) > ys
66; innovations in, 166, 25677; sys- 224, 226, 2608 ,
tematization of. 77-78 Renaissance dance, 100—121; allegorical
° significance in, 107, 111-17; compared with eighteenth-century neo-
Rainer, Yvonne, xx—xxi, 95, 26179; classical dance, 130—34, 143, 159; choreographic style of, 171, 172, compared with expressionist chore174—76; Dance for Three People ography, 159; compared with Hay’s and Six Arms by, 62, 2453; move- choreography, 101-2, 104-5, 110, ment and body use in choreography 111, 114-15, 117-18, 119, 120, by, 174—76; on narrative structure 247n1; dance masters of, 115-17, and significance of the body, 2593; 25226; frames of, 102, 104; and the Room Service by, 171, 172, 173; literary trope of metaphor, 23671, Trio A by, 174—76, 184, 188; We 248 n2; relationship with other arts,
Shall Run by, 171, 172 119—20; representational mode of Rameau, Jean-Philippe, 138, 141, 143 resemblance in, 101—2, 105, 107-8, Rameau, Pierre: The Dancing Master by, 109-11, 117, 120, 24771; role of 130, 131—32; on eighteenth-century the body in, 117; social dance in, social dance, 130, 131—32, 134, 115—17, 118-19; steps in, 116,
140, 254243, 254256 118—19; summary of the aesthetics
INDEX 301
Renaissance dance (continued) 69—70; and props, 195; in Renaisof syntax and style in, 25226; syn- sance dance, 115—17; for social
tax of, 112, 115, 25226; topics of, events, 67 111—14, 251715; viewers of, 102, Retrograde, 213
104-5, 249nS Rhetoric: in eighteenth-century neoRepetition: of dance technique exercises, classical dance, 127, 129-30, 157;
154; effects of, 72; in Monk’s cho- and gestures, 129-30; influence on reography, 203—4, 206; of movement dance choreography, 154, 156 in Hay’s dance theory, 11-12; of Rhythm, 90, 92; in Humphrey’s dance
phrases, 92, 93, 95; and ritual, 204; theory, 158; and subject matter in as a syntactic device, 92, 93, 97 Tharp’s choreography, 219; varia-
Replication, representational mode of, tions in, 96 xviii, 65, 81, 92; in Balanchine’s cho- __ Rites of passage, 204 reography, 21; combined with imita- —_ Ritual: in Hay’s compositions, 6; in
tion, 75; correlated with synecdoche, Monk’s compositions, 200, 204,
2361, 246n5; defined, 66, 67; in 206, 208, 223 the Delsartian theory on movement, Robbins, Jerome, 88 157—58; in Duncan’s choreography, Romantic period in dance history, 258 2 70—71, 72, 79, 147; in expressionist | Royce, Anya Peterson, 24679 choreography, 151, 153, 159, 163; in | Ruyter, Nancy Lee Chalfa, 256765,
Graham’s choreography, 72—73 25666 Representation, modes of, 65—76; in Bal-
anchine’s choreography, 21, 68; cate- | Sachs, Curt, xvi, 23025, 2431; on com-
gories of, xviii, 65; combinations of, positional forms, 23127 68—76 passim; compared with liter- St. Denis, Ruth, 147, 148, 166; career of,
ary tropes, 2351, 2451; and cos- 255257; influence of Hindu mytholtume, 73, 75; in Cunningham’s ogy on, 151, 153, 159; initial chochoreography, 75—76, 167; defined, reographic inspirations of, 151-52; xviii, 59, 65; in Duncan’s choreog- movement vocabulary of, 156; on raphy, 70-71, 72, 79; in Graham’s natural movement, 154; Radha by, choreography, 72—75; in Hay’s cho- 151, 159-62; themes explored by, reography, 69—70; indicated by pro- 151, 159, 161 gram notes, 68; and subject matter of | Saint-Hubert, M. de, 111-12, 251716,
dances, 67—68. See also Imitation; 25327 Reflection; Replication; Resemblance St. Petersburg Imperial Ballet, 238712 Representation in dance, theory on, xx, 3 —Sallé, Marie, 138
Resemblance, representational mode of, Saraband, 130 xviii, 66; compared in Hay’s chore- Saussure, Ferdinand de, 232711 ography and in Renaissance dance, School of American Ballet, 239212 101-2, 105, 107—8, 109-11, 115— Self of the dancer, 13, 43, 50-52, 181,
17, 120, 24771; conceived by 236n3. See also Subject Michel Foucault, 24974; correlated Semiological analysis, 23311, 2454;
with metaphor, 2361, 245n5; de- use of, 2431 scribed, 65; in Duncan’s choreog- Senses, revitalization of, 221 raphy, 71; in Hay’s choreography, Setterfield, Valda, 188-89
302 INDEX
Sex roles: and choreographic styles, 84, Union performances, 193—94, 195, 85; in Renaissance dance, 109, 116—- 197, 221-22; and metacommentary,
17; traditional, 217, 219, 224 193-94, 195, 200, 209; in objecSexuality, 73; pelvis associated with, 79, tivist dance, 182; in Tharp’s com-
81, 83 positions, 211-12
Shawn, Ted, 151, 239224; on Delsartian = Spirituality, 156; in Duncan’s composi-
theory and expressionist dance, tions, 79, 150, 151; in expressionist 156—57, 256n67; students of, dance, 151-52, 159, 161, 162; vs.
147-48 materialism, 159, 161, 162
Signification, 23672; by the body, 227, Stages: in Graham’s choreography, 27;
66-67 types of, 61
2431; and modes of representation, and styles of choreography, 85-87; Sign theory: and Cunningham’s approach Stage sets, 37; for Balanchine’s composi-
to choreography, 242743; writing tions, 14; created by St. Denis, 148;
and dancing in, xxi, 23211, designed by Isamu Noguchi, 73; of
234n1 eighteenth-century neoclassical
Sinatra, Frank, 216-19 dance, 125; of expressionist comSocial dance: in eighteenth-century cho- positions, 149-50; and Monk’s choreography, 130; and Hay’s composi- reography, 200, 203; and Tharp’s
tions, 8—9, 117-18; minimalist choreography, 216, 222 version of, 197; and parodies of ball- | Stanislavsky, Konstantin, 166, 241734 room dancing, 216—17, 219; in Re- Stars and planets, movement of, 107, 109 naissance court dance choreography, Steps, 70; and analysis of compositional
101, 115—17, 118—19, 130; and forms, 23177; in ballet, 90; of ball-
Tharp’s vocabulary, 211, 213 room dancing, 216; of eighteenthSociology of Culture, The (Raymond century social dance, 130—31; in
Williams), 24471 Grand Union performances, 197; in
Sociopolitical conditions, 176; in Dun- modern dance, 90—91; in Renaiscan’s compositions, 72; and Hay’s sance social dances, 116, 118, 119, choreography, 111; and the Judson 130; used by Cunningham, 3 Church group, 169; in Renaissance Stop action, 200, 203
dance, 109, 112, 25115 Story dances: composed by Balanchine,
Sokolow, Anna, 167 14, 17, 21; modes of representation Space: and the architectural setting of used in, 68—69; syntax in, 93. See
dance performances, 60—62; and also Narrative choreographic style, 85—86; in con- Stravinsky, Igor, 21
cepts of the quality of movement, Strong, Roy, 250214, 25117 77-78; in Cunningham’s choreog- Structure of dance: devices used for, 93; raphy, 32, 34; of Grand Union per- paratactic procedures for, 95—96; formances, 191; in objectivist dance, syntactic principles applied to, 92— 171-72, 179; and syntactic prin- 97; and vocabularies of movement, ciples, 94; in Wigman’s dance theory, 88, 90-92
158 Studio concerts, 60, 61
Spatial grid, 85-87 Sturrock, John, 23773
Speech: and chanting, 206; in Grand Style, xviii, 59, 76—88; of Balanchine’s
INDEX 303
Style (continued) , in, 68—69, 70; style of dancers in, choreography, 83, 84, 87; body parts 77; syntax used in, 92 and their symbolic associations used = Sylphide, La, 69, 144 in, 77, 78—85; and characteristic use | Symbols: of parts of the body, 78-79, 81,
of the performance space, 77, 85— 82-84; relative to dance classes and 87; compared with vocabulary, 91; rehearsals, 46; in Renaissance dance, in contemporary ballet, 83-84, 88; 115-17; theories on, 23311 of Cunningham’s choreography, 84— Synecdoche, 2471; applied to dance,
85; and dance traditions, 87-88; de- 23471; correlated with the represenfined, 76—77, 88; of Duncan’s cho- tational mode of replication, 23671, reography, 79, 81, 87; in expres- 24625; defined, 23571; and the rosionist choreography, 165 —66; of mantic period of the nineteenth cenGraham’s choreography, 81, 83, 84, tury, 248 72 87, 88; of Grand Union choreog- Syntax, 92—97; in Balanchine’s choreography, 197—98; of Hay’s choreog- raphy, 93; in Cunningham’s choreography, 84—85; of Humphrey’s cho- raphy, 95; defined, xviii, 59; in exreography, 87, 88; of male and fe- pressionist dance, 163, 165; in male dance roles, 84, 85; and move- Graham’s choreography, 92, 93-94; ment quality, 77—78, 81, 83, 85; in Hay’s choreography, 92, 95; mimeof objectivist dance, 179—80; of sis in, 93, 95; in objectivist dance, Tharp’s choreography, 88, 213, 215; 178-79; parataxis in, 92, 94-96; of Wigman’s choreography, 166 pathos in, 92, 93-94, 97; in Renais-
Subject: and character portrayal, 51; sance dance, 112, 115, 25226; role comparative concepts of, 43; defined, of variation in, 96—97; in Tharp’s
236n3; in Graham’s dance theory, choreography, 209, 213; in Wigman’s 50—51; in Hay’s choreography, 13, choreography, 94 §1—52, 114—15; identity with im-
age, 13; in objectivist dance, 181; T’ai chi ch’uan, 8
understanding of, 49 Tango, 216
Subject-body relationship, 181, 220, Tap dance, 88, 211, 213 258289. See also Body and subject Taper, Bernard, 16—17, 21 Subject matter: compared in Balanchine’s _— Taylor, Paul, 91, 167; choreographic style
compositions and eighteenth-century of, 257278 dance, 122, 134-35; of eighteenth- Technique: in Balanchine’s compositions,
century dance, 122, 134—35; envi- 19-20; comparative views on, 42, sioned by Isadora Duncan, 79; of ex- 46, 55—56; Cunningham’s attitude
pressionist dance, 152-53, 159, on, 35—36; defined, 19; in ex161-62, 163; and modes of repre- pressionist dance, 154; in Graham’s sentation, 67—68; of Monk’s com- dance theory, 28—30 positions, 209; of objectivist dance, Tension, 184; between areas of the body,
176-77, 181, 185; of Tharp’s com- 79, 81; between props and represen-
positions, 219 tational modes, 195; between psy-
Surrealist composition, 200, 204, 223 chological and physical space, 94; Swan Lake, 144; modes of representation between sensuality and asceticism,
304 INDEX
159; in expressionist choreography, tivist compositions performed in, 162—63; in Graham’s choreography, 171; in the Renaissance period, 102,
XVIill mance, 225 ; 259n7 of, 209, 213 25, 81; and the meaning of dance, 104; and viewers as part of perfor-
Texts, “writerly” vs. “readerly,” 240226, Theme and variation, syntactic principle
Tharp, Twyla, xix, 209-20; The Bix Themes of dance: Graham’s approach to,
Pieces by, 209, 211—12; choreo- 27; in Humphrey’s dance theory, graphic style of, 88, 189, 209, 211-— 158, 162. See also Subject matter
13, 219-20, 222, 223—24, 226; Thrust stages, 61 commentary on the choreography in- Time, 85; and movement quality, 77—78 cluded in compositions by, 211—12; Topics of dance: compared for Bal-
compared with the Grand Union and anchine’s compositions and eighMonk, 220-27; creative process of, teenth-century choreography, 134—212; Deuce Coup by, 213, 214; Fait 35; compared for court dances and
Accompli by, 2608; frames and proscenium ballets, 136; in eighstage sets used by, 209, 215, 216, teenth-century compositions, 134— 222; interdisciplinary approach of, 35, 136; and modes of representa187, 211, 222; lexicon of, 213; tion, 75; in Monk’s compositions, movement in compositions by, 209, 200, 203, 204; in the Renaissance 211, 213; narrators used by, 211— period, 111—14, 136 12; Nine Sinatra Songs by, 216-17, | Toulouze, Michel, 115 219; parodies by, 216—17, 219; re- Transcendental experience: of dancers,
flexivity used by, 189, 211-12, 219, 150; of viewers, 167 224, 226, 2608; role of audience Tuccaro, Archange, on dance and celes-
in choreography of, 223-24; self- tial movement, 107, 109, 25010 referential statements by, 211—12, Tudor, David, 24136 219; solo performances by, 211; style Turc généreux, Le, 138, 139 of, 213, 215; and the subject-body
relationship, 220, 222, 223; subject Unconscious, the, 79; in expressionist matter used by, 219; syntactic prin- dance, 152; in Graham’s choreociples used by, 209, 213; Tank Dive graphic style, 81; in Graham’s conby, 209; and the traditional bound- cept of the body, 50; and theory on aries between art mediums, 222; the natural body and natural move-
viewer interpretation of, 224, 226; ment, xiv and viewer observations on the de- Universal dance, 8, 105 velopment of movement, 209; vo- Untrained performers, 169, 171, 209 cabulary of, 209, 213, 215
Theater design, 149—50 Van Vechten, Carl, 147 Theater-in-the-round, 60, 61, 85, 167; Variation: of ballroom dance steps, 216;
and choreographic style, 86-87; role in dance structure, 96—97; of Grand Union performances in, 191; spatial and temporal movement Hay’s compositions performed in, properties, 94; theme and, 209, 213 60, 101, 105; influence of, 61; objec- | Vico, Giambattista, 2341, 2482
INDEX 305
Viewers, 3, 53—56, 76, 186—227, Vigarini, Gasparo, 135 243n55; analysis of the experience Visual arts, integrated with dance perfor-
of, 24355; and Balanchine’s ap- mances, 171—72 proach to choreography, 16, 21,23, — Visual perception, theory of, 17 54—55; as choreographers, 186—227 Vocabulary, 84, 88—92; applied by Trisha
passim; of contemporary dance, 191; Brown, 178; in Balanchine’s choreogcriteria of, 55—56; critical capacity raphy, 19, 91; compared with style, of, 125; and Cunningham’s approach 91; in compositions by Childs, 177; to choreography, 41, 54-55; effect in Cunningham’s choreography, 3, of architecture and space on, 60-62; 168; defined, xviii, 59; in Duncan’s of eighteenth-century neoclassical choreography, 90; in expressionist dance, 122, 125, 126; expanded per- dance, 153, 154; in Graham’s choreceptual acuity of, 221; expectations ography, 2, 28—29, 90; in Hay’s cho-
of, 60, 168, 213; of expressionist reography, 5; in Humphrey’s choredance, 167; and Graham’s approach ography, 90—91; and parts of the to choreography, 53—54; of Grand body, 90—91; in Tharp’s choreograUnion performances, 198, 200, phy, 209, 213, 215, 219; used by 222—23; and Hay’s approach to cho- Wigman, 90, 91; viewer understand-
reography, 6, 13—14, 54, 55; influ- ing of, 91-92 ence of dance announcements and Voltaire, on competition among dancers,
advertisements on, 59—60; interac- 253n34 tion with dancers, 63—64; ironic at-
titudes of, 224; literacy of, 56—57, Walking, 172, 177 58—59; of objectivist dance, 172, Waring, James, dance company of, 23874 176, 184, 185; opportunities for Weaver, John: The Loves of Mars and multiple interpretations by, 188, 209; Venus analyzed by, 128-29, 136—
as participants in the performance 38; on pantomine in ballet, 128; on
and in the choreography, xix, the representation of anger, 129, 225-26; participation in perfor- 157, 168; on the representation of mance interpretation by, 188, 209, passion, 128-29, 25441 222-23; program notes for, 5—6,62 | Weidman, Charles, 75, 161 (see also Program notes); reading of Weight: of the body, 36, 165, 174-75,
dance performances by, 56-—57, 198; in concepts of movement 97—98, 226; of Renaissance dance, quality, 77—78; new approaches
102, 104, 107, 24975; sense of to, 172
community and kinship with the White, Hayden: on Foucault’s approach
dancers experienced by, 200, 209; to epistemic periods, 248 22; and litand Tharp’s approach to choreogra- erary tropes, 2341, 2482; and phy, 189, 212, 213, 220, 223-24, theory of representation in dance, 226; transcendental experience of, xIX—XX 167; and understanding of the vo- Wigman, Mary, 147, 167; compared with cabulary of movement, 91—92; and Doris Humphrey, 158; on dance writing dance, xix, 226—27,. See also composition, 152, 162; influence of
Audience Laban’s movement theory on, 91,
306 INDEX
154, 158—59; movement vocabulary 2373; as metaphor for dance interof, 90, 91, 154; role of body parts in pretation, xix—xx, 23471; and sign
choreography by, 163; style of, 166; theory, xxi, 23211 syntax in choreography by, 94; Writing dancing, 186-227; defined, xix;
Witch Dance by, 75 and interdisciplinary approach to
Williams, Raymond, 2441 dance composition, 187; relevant to . Wolff, Christian, 241236 the body and subject, 220~—27; by Worldly events, 97; methods for repre- viewers, xix, 226—27 sentation of, 65—76; and new liter- Wynne, Shirley, 253 233 ary criticism, 2454; and objectivist
dance, 174 Yates, Frances A., 2493, 250711 Writing: body movement as act of, Yoga, 151, 153
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INDEX 307
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