Re-Imagining Writing: Interdisciplinary Perspectives [1 ed.] 9781848883604, 9789004371033

Citation preview

Reimagining Writing

At the Interface Series Editors Dr Robert Fisher Lisa Howard Dr Ken Monteith Advisory Board Simon Bacon Katarzyna Bronk John L. Hochheimer Stephen Morris Peter Twohig

S Ram Vemuri

Ana Borlescu Ann-Marie Cook Peter Mario Kreuter John Parry Karl Spracklen

An At the Interface research and publications project. http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/at-the-interface/ The Education Hub ‘Writing’

2014

Reimagining Writing: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Edited by

Phil Fitzsimmons and Johanna Pentikäinen

Inter-Disciplinary Press Oxford, United Kingdom

© Inter-Disciplinary Press 2014 http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/publishing/id-press/

The Inter-Disciplinary Press is part of Inter-Disciplinary.Net – a global network for research and publishing. The Inter-Disciplinary Press aims to promote and encourage the kind of work which is collaborative, innovative, imaginative, and which provides an exemplar for inter-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary publishing.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of Inter-Disciplinary Press.

Inter-Disciplinary Press, Priory House, 149B Wroslyn Road, Freeland, Oxfordshire. OX29 8HR, United Kingdom. +44 (0)1993 882087

ISBN: 978-1-84888-360-4 First published in the United Kingdom in eBook format in 2014. First Edition.

Table of Contents The Gift of Writing: An Introduction to a Multidisciplinary and Interdisciplinary Perspective Johanna Pentikäinen and Phil Fitzsimmons Part I

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Multiple Attitudes towards Writing and Learning Writing to Learn: A Cross Sectional Study of Three Age Groups Roxanne Wong and Brett White

3

Sense of Genre in Fifth Graders’ Text Construction Sara Routarinne

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Encouraging Young Generation to Write: What Works, What Does Not Work? Tülin Kozikoğlu

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Part II Writing in Sciences and Information Science as Narrative: As Paradigm Change in Explaining Quantum Physics Georg Friedrich Simet

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Building an Argumentative Line in Academic Papers Svetlana Sorokina

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Intertextuality as a Tool for Expressing Author’s Intentions in a Text Yulia Volynets

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81 A Comparative Exploration of the Distinctive Qualities of Oral Handwritten and Typed Language in Memory and Recall Cristina Izura, Barnaby Dicker, Vivienne Rogers and Jordan Randell Part III Origins of Writing Developing Authors in Changing Context Khyiah Angel

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Incubating Magic, Mystery and the Macabre: An Author’s View of His Writing Process Phil Fitzsimmons, Edie Lanphar and Stephen Morris

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Writing about Roses: Authority and Authenticity in Writing Johanna Pentikäinen

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Spectacular Spectres: The Rite of Writing as a Paranormal Activity Fabio Ferrari

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The Gift of Writing: An Introduction to a Multidisciplinary and Interdisciplinary Perspective Johanna Pentikäinen and Phil Fitzsimmons Across the globe, the nature of writing in the twenty-first century is coming under increasing scrutiny as technology becomes an ever increasing component of everyday life, and as measuring human output also takes hold in many disciplines. This book offers an alternative to these twin developments, providing instead many perspectives. Coming from an international set of authors with different world views, paradigms and praxes, the common theme of writing is explored with deep enthusiasm, interest in productivity and human capacity, and that leads to a polyphonic and progressive inquiry to the subject matter. The gift of writing, to use quite a conventional metaphor, can be seen as a common theme for all the chapters in this volume. Just as Jacques Derrida based his study, The Gift of Death (Donner la mort), on the relation between religious ideology and economic rationality, 1 we emphasize the activity of writing per se, instead of mapping the international terrain according to disciplines with their own presuppositions and evaluation principles. Although these chapters may first appear as coming from multiple perspectives or even lacking common denominators, closer inspection reveals that indeed the expansive thinking of the theme is the core awareness running through the systematic worlds of each discipline represented. It is only through an interdisciplinary lens can this thread be seen and fully appreciated. We are offered plenty of new perspectives in this text, with their attempts to bring new aspects to the evidence based and explorative discussions. Through this viewpoint, the multiplicity of these inquiries becomes a privilege in a world that is increasingly scientific in nature, and one that values measurement. In this volume you will find another paradigm: one that deals with the complex phenomena of multiple realities, the productivity and production of language in different cultures and for different audiences by using various media. The various aspects of writing in this volume also deal with the touching of the senses– and invite the reader to look for the connections by themselves. In this volume, the metaphor of a gift works in a several ways. First, the phenomenon of writing is seen as an open, transformative, and multidimensional process that escapes comprehensive definitions. There is no common theory that would combine all aspects of writing. It is rather a communicative act between two participants, at least, and always performative. It contains exchange, but unlike in trade where goods have at least negotiable and thus comparable values, in writing the sharing is rather incommensurate and at the same time, an integral part of the process. However, in writing the material, social and performative aspects

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__________________________________________________________________ intertwine and develop a thick network of meanings that can be considered its ”added value”, in terms how it is purposefully received in its contexts. Second, the material aspect of writing may vary. It may take the form of any genre, from fiction to students’ essays. In most of the chapters, productivity is the focus, not merely the finished and polished products. As the gift always increases something that is not exactly measured but has self-standing value, like connectivity, writing in general is exploration. It always has something to add, it is an act of understanding. Third, the gift signifies simultaneous changes and continuities in material and authorial ownership. When finished written texts are received by their readers through multiple channels, the authorial status of the writer has the potential to strengthen. Therefore, the act of giving changes the author; while performing their capacity, the author shifts their identity and becomes even more involved in the target culture, which is defined by textual genres and their contexts. The metaphor of gift also stresses human social needs, such as belonging and being acknowledged. Writing is using one’s own voice – to use another metaphor – and at the same time, producing cultures of sharing, participating and learning from each other in terms of collaborative working, in printed texts and online. New technologies have often been seen as social and participatory in their nature, because they provide platforms for communication. Gee defines affinity space as a ‘place, or set of places where people can affiliate with others [that] is based primarily on shared activities, interests, and goals, not shared race, class, culture, ethnicity, or gender’. 2 Writing is not only creating landmarks for sharing, it is making use of them, and therefore it really is the core activity of being heard, sensed, valued and trusted. Gift, however, is not a miracle, even if it can be seen also as a source of creativity. It does not mean that the product just appears by chance, like in some discourses, where gift is seen as a pure mysterious appearance or a sense of Godlylike spirit, like the Romantics saw it. Here the gift is something that is purposefully produced and selected, often risked, at times failed and again leading to success, and that continuous flow of attempts represents its value. All these chapters manifest the multiplicity of writing research in general. The three common themes, classroom writing practices and learning to write, academic writing, and origins of creativity, also intertwine with each other. We hope that these chapters inform and entertain the reader to seek new aspects on writing, to stimulate writing learning and conduct writing research. I. Multiple Attitudes towards Writing and Learning In addition to uncontrolled assimilation of textual resources by everyday activities like listening and reading texts, writers nowadays go through an education system that uses manipulated writing techniques aiming impact on

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__________________________________________________________________ students’ writing performance and attitudes. All these following four chapters deal with the question of how the writing could be learnt by practising different tuition techniques and applying various assessment methods. The first chapter questions the effect of feedback and revision to student’s writing. In their study Roxanne Wong and Brett White looked at the writing levels of a group of students from primary six, grade nine and freshmen at university in Hong Kong. The students were all given a writing topic that was considered generic and age appropriate and they wrote an argumentative paper and then went through a series of drafts and redrafts. The study used assessment tools like a writing rubric, vocabulary profiler and Cohmetrix to determine the readability index of each writing. The study was conducted again after a few weeks, and the results were compared in order to verify any growth, or lack thereof, in vocabulary acquisition and overall writing improvement. Finally, these results were compared to the survey data about learning motivational factors of the students. The second chapter continues by discussing the competences of writing amongst fifth grades. Sara Routarinne explores how the sense of genre is manifested in Finnish school children texts that represent different goals in expression and genre, variety of narrative, informational and argumentative designs. The genre and content analysis focuses on sense of genre displayed in the student texts, and the fifth graders’ interpretations of salient features in the variety of genres is shown. The results signify that the students have access to a wide variety of expressive resources, and that their sense of genres is developing. Returning to the question of learning methods, Tülin Kozikoğlu’s chapter explores the use of play, story writing formulas, and rich textual context as sources to the art of writing and positive attitude for writing. She explores the innovative technique that is used to teach elementary school kids how to write effectively. The workshop begins with various playful activities and fun writing activities and continues on in-depth training on creative writing: a four-tool approach is employed in ‘solving a story’. By using the formula and various examples of picture books, the students are expected to create their own narratives. II. Writing in Sciences and Information These four chapters see writing as a mediating tool in various contexts of human interaction, knowledge processing, sharing, and assimilation. In the time of new technologies, there activities or needs in human communication have not decreased, if anything, increased. The themes are the paradigms of science and its communication practices, the assumption of scientific writing styles and knowledge creation, like presenting the author’s input in an argumentative line of scientific presentation, or the intertextuality as a writer’s tool. Finally, the important question about the different effects on information received in different channels is discussed, in context of university learning. Even if this study is

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__________________________________________________________________ conducted in contact tuition in a class room, it also reminds about the effects of information received through new technologies and their cognitive effects. Scientific explorations are always narrated to some degree, and these narratives may intentionally or unintentionally emphasize results or methods. Georg Friedrich Simet discusses how the language of modern science is understood as focused on papers, texts within disciplinary related discourses and providing arguments for or against research theorems. However, mere statements of truth have become impossible for several reasons, for example the development of quantum physics, and writing about science needs new formats and styles. He discusses multiple alternatives, such as Zeilinger’s dialogue format, that remains of Plato’s dialogic form at the time of Attic Philosophy. Aristotle instead was the first who established science as a system of classified true statements and results, and his formulations have been the basis for the development of the sciences. As late as in the beginning of the 20th century, the discovery of quantum physics suddenly led to the questioning of its mechanistic assumptions and perhaps errors in the overall narrative. In today’s understanding, it seems that Aristotle’s founding of science has become an obsolete model, and Plato’s process oriented way of reflection could be more adequate for the post-modern discourse of science. Scientific texts consist of two discourses, representation of the objects, and argumentation, with each having an aim of verifying the outcomes to the reader. According to Svetlana Sorokina, academic texts are expected to conform to particular regulations for the given genre and to properly reflect the structure of cognitive process based on testing certain hypotheses, explaining the results of the research, and providing adequate, consistent reasoning. Given the peculiarities of structure and the nature of argumentation, a scholarly article is essentially a communicative process related to the analysis and selection of appropriate arguments. The most common strategies scholarly writers use when creating their argumentative papers are strategies of distancing, softening, and understatement, for example. The strategies’ role is to balance the author’s intention to provide strong, straightforward pro-arguments in favour of a premise, and to comply with the academic writing etiquette. All texts necessarily carry resemblances with other texts – either written in traditional paper format or online. Yulia Volynets discusses intertextuality as a set of relationships between the texts and the continuous re-using of verbal expressions. While writing texts, authors face a controversial problem - they need to be creative and unique along with relying on and referring to facts and using the common language resources. For authors, referring to other texts is also a source of expression. The research aims to reveal the reasons that motivate the authors writing for various Medias like New York Times, The Financial Times and The Economist, to use intertextual representation. The findings of this descriptive analysis suggest that specific situations, needs, and purposes, define the use of intertextuality. It allows writers to gain readers’ confidence, interpret information

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__________________________________________________________________ both subjectively and objectively or even detach from what is said, and therefore, it is a set of writer’s resources. Language can be implemented in many ways, for example orally or in writing, and it has a direct impact on cognition, memory and recall. Cristina Izura, Barnaby Dicker, Vivienne Rogers and Jordan Randell apply this notion to oral, written and typed modes of learning. Their experiment consists of a lecture delivered in three different formats: orally, read from the script or utilizing graphic ‘new media’ visual aids, namely a PowerPoint slideshow. Immediately after the lecture participants were asked to recall the content of the lecture, and tell their general thoughts about the lecture. Oral lecture participants recalled less content than participants in the other two lecture formats. No significant differences were found in the amount of content recalled by participants in the scripted lecture and those in the PowerPoint lecture. All participants showed preference for lectures in which a combination of written material and ‘new’ media were used, which also stresses the relationship between language and graphic media in learning. III. Origins of Writing The final chapters bring the notion of writing back to its creative origins, also contextualising their explorations to the fiction writing. All these chapters emphasize the dynamic power of language: stances of authorship and readership are relocated due to the new communicative resources, writing process is inquired through following real writing processes of an author, it appears to be continuous interaction between drives, voicing, and their articulation, and last, the view on writing is dramatically changed to notify the all-rebelling, edge-breaking attempts to seek for yet unexplored territories of the language, expression and experience. While many aspects of writing take equal forms both in handwriting, printed texts and online writing in social media environments, there are also notorious aspects of change brought by new technologies, like blurring the roles of author and reader. Khyiah Angel explores authors’ need to create relevant and meaningful reading experiences in the young adults for whom these technologies are intuitively utilised; platforms that make the interactive exploration of and engagement with, as well potential for contributing to the development of, the ‘book’ possible. Converging modalities create an environment of hypertextuality and it transforms the linear writing to parallel versions that the reader may continue to compose. This does not only signify a paradigm shift in writing and the changing nature of reading, but also attempts to involve young readers to their worlds of fiction in a new way. Some theoretical views on writing became conventional and un-questioned, and this has happened to the Social Model of Writing. Phil Fitzsimmons, Edie Lanphar and Stephen Morris unpack new foci based on research evidence. Through a series of semi-structured interviews with an author grounded in a more current ‘context of culture’ several elements related also to the praxes of teaching writing in

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__________________________________________________________________ classrooms emerged. These include the concept of social-emotional learning, collaborative reflection and habitus. The emergence of social emotional learning relates to the ideals of ownership of writing, intertextuality and the awareness of the ‘other’ and others in quality texts. This project was undertaken because of an increasing dissatisfaction with how writing was being taught, or more correctly, not taught in schools in Australia. The writing process has been somewhat a common theme in wide amount of textbooks and other discourses on writing. However, the nature of writing progression lies far beyond the logic, clear steps of discovering, selecting, producing and editing phases. By using writer’s narratives and studies on authorship, Johanna Pentikäinen explores a set of “writing drives” that enforces and leads writers to their activity. These driving aspects of motivation and interest are not easily represented in classroom or textbook discourse, due to their unique and particular nature. Her chapter suggests the use of concepts like authority, authenticity, and autoethnography in order to manifest how transformation from silence to voicing is the real process in writing, supported by composition. Nietzsche’s famous distinction between Dionysian and Apollonian signifies the interplay of spirit and certain form or structure as a core activity of art, and thus remains the importance of the ideal. Writing is explorative in the very sense of the world, and it should guide the writers and readers to new, not yet seen terrains. Fabio Ferrari discusses how to redefine the normative aspects of writing, and how to write against the control of the language and overlap norms. The writer compares creative inspiration to haunting, as viewed from the perspective of creative writing pedagogy and contemporary queer theory. What if writing is a hybrid encounter and supra-sensual event occurring in a past-present-future realm potentiated by spectral deviance? How to defy conventions by subverting the logic of possession and teasing out the violence of language? The queer child radiates from postmodern discourse where she has been reconceived as an agent of ghostly otherness, as a provocateur capable of spectacular scenes of conspiracy, staged uprisings, and daily acts of obstinate rebellion. The queer child and the haunted author, who is her double, confound common notions of authorial mastery, rigor, and control, or normative boundaries such as chrononormative time, for example, or accepted standards of good and bad, and finally underline the transformative nature of writing.

Notes Jacques Derrida, The Gift of Death (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995). 2 James Paul Gee, What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Literacy and Learning (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 73. 1

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Bibliography Derrida, Jacques. The Gift of Death (Donner la mort). Translated by David Wills. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995/1992. Gee, James Paul. What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Literacy and Learning. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

Part I Multiple Attitudes towards Writing and Learning

Writing to Learn: A Cross Sectional Study of Three Age Groups Roxanne Wong and Brett White Abstract This study looked at the writing levels of a group of students from primary six, grade nine and freshmen at university in Hong Kong. Three different classes comprising between 15 and 30 students per class, were included; as well as three different teachers. The students were all given a writing topic that was considered generic and age appropriate for all students. The students wrote an argumentative paper and then went through a series of drafts and redrafts. These writings were then scored using a writing rubric specifically designed for the Hong Kong educational sector. They were then processed using a vocabulary profiler designed by Hong Kong University, which includes the general service list, Avril Coxheads Academic Word List, and Paul Nations University Word List. Finally, the writings were processed using Cohmetrix to determine the readability index of each piece of writing. The papers were then compared to determine the level of similarities and differences in writing style between age groups. The study took place over a 3week period at the beginning of the semester. At week 6 of the semester, all groups were again given an age appropriate writing task, which was then profiled and compared to the first task to verify any growth, or lack thereof, in vocabulary acquisition and overall writing improvement. Surveys were conducted with all students in the course, and all teachers to determine students’ attitudes to writing approach, with emphasis on word choice, as well as motivational factors, which influenced students in their learning. Key Words: Student writing, peer feedback, vocabulary, learner’s attitude, vocabulary acquisition. ***** 1. Introduction This investigation was designed to be able to get a better understanding of the writing ability and needs of students across a range of academic situations in Hong Kong. The researchers wanted to learn how feedback informs the improvement of writing for students in primary 6, secondary 3, and first year at university. 2. Literature Review Present beliefs argue that teaching students how to write is a channel to fully engage them as independent learners in their literacy education. The writing process is a series of recursive steps and stage, consisting of prewriting, drafting, editing, and revising. The amount of time a writer spends in each stage depends on his personality, his work habits, his maturity and the challenge of what he is trying

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__________________________________________________________________ to say. Even teaching students to incorporate one or more of these stages of the writing processes enhances their writing abilities significantly. Writing forces us to confront issues, to define and redefine our own feeling and positions, and enables us to express ourselves to others in more effective ways. Writing enables one to reflect deeply on their own experience, to examine critically their most basic assumptions, and to be in touch with their most innermost selves. In a way, writing is a self-discovery process. It not only enables one to gain a deeper understanding of themselves, but also society as well, and life in general. Contemporary literacy theory suggests that teaching students how to write is to wholly engage them in literacy learning. Only a generation ago, writing was taught through giving instruction in correct grammar, spelling, punctuation, and other conventions. Grammar instruction was believed to be crucial to learning how to write and therefore, a principal focus in the teaching of writing. 1 Eventually, this approach came under increasing cynicism because it failed to engage and inspire student learning. ‘None of the studies reviewed for the present report provides any support for teaching grammar as a means of improving composition skills. If schools insist upon teaching the identification of parts of speech, the parsing or diagramming of sentences, or other concepts of traditional grammar, as many still do, they cannot defend it as a means of improving the quality of writing’. 2 The way that a piece of writing is produced is not dependent upon correct grammar, but is more of an intuitive process. Subsequent research shows that accomplished writers focus more on content and organization, whereas inexperienced writers are more focused on spelling or diction. 3 Responding to the need for pioneering instruction and pedagogies, the last twenty years saw a beginning of new practices that moved past rote learning. Instead, writing was taught as a way for students to express themselves creatively and with critical thought. Rather than focusing writing conventions, the holistic process highlights the actual process of writing. It focuses on writing as a recursive process in which writers have the opportunity to plan, draft, edit, and revise their work. 4 Success in writing greatly depends on a student’s attitude, motivation, and engagement. The writing process takes these elements into account by allowing students to plan their writing and create a publishable, final draft of their work of which they can be proud. In addition, since grammar and writing conventions are not the focus of writing, the writing process may be modified for use even with very young writers. 5 In many classrooms, students are encouraged to share their work with peers through group peer editing, teaching them to recognize the value of writing and the purpose in creating a concrete and substantial work. 6 Peer review, with clear guidelines for students to give feedback on each other’s work, motivates students, allowing them to discuss their writing and making the work load a little lighter. Before decisions to identify strategies in language training can be implemented, different issues need to be examined. The effectiveness of different strategies

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__________________________________________________________________ depend on the students ‘proficiency level, task, language modality, background knowledge, context of learning, target language and learner characteristics’. 7 As methods of teaching writing have evolved, significant research has gone into understanding the process that a writer goes through when composing material and how to teach writing most effectively. In an effort to synthesize the findings, one comprehensive review looked at 2,000 studies when focused on identifying school instructional methods that most successfully enhanced writing ability. 8 Several hundred of these studies used experimental treatments and interventions. Investigations showed that teaching through inquiry was the most effective in improving the quality of students writing. The inquiry process leads students to develop better ideas, generate stronger support and evidence, and recognize and address positions that are in opposition to them. The research findings indicate that having students go through the steps of observing and writing had greater impact on the quality of writing than did more traditional teaching using model writings, with teaching through inquiry being more effective in improving writing quality than the traditional study of model writing. Additionally, systematic practice in combining and expanding sentences can increase students’ repertoire of syntactic structures and can also improve the quality of their sentences, when stylistic effects are discussed as well. 9 It is fair to say that ESL students need to acquire accuracy as well as fluency and to improve their language skills, and become effective communicators in English. Consequently, accuracy is not something that you can play down in language learning, and by neglecting accuracy or grammatical elements the process approach does not serve the learners’ purpose. 3. Participants There were two primary groups involved in the study. The student population consisted of three different age levels; Primary 6 boys from a local primary-direct subsidized school, aged between 10-11 years, Form 3 boys from a local secondarydirect subsidized school, aged between 15-16 years, and freshmen English for Academic Purposes course students in a Hong Kong university. Three instructors participated in the study. The primary 6 groups were taught by one teacher, and each class consisted of 30 students. The form 3 boys were taught by two different teachers. Both teachers were recruited for purposes of this study. The secondary students had 22 students in each group. Both groups of university students were taught by the same instructor. There were a total of 40 students in this group. The teachers who participated in the study have over 15 years each of teaching experience in the Hong Kong education sector. One has been teaching primary and secondary aged students for over 20 years, one has taught K-12 in Hong Kong for 8 years, and at the tertiary level for 11 years, the other has been teaching secondary

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__________________________________________________________________ school students for 12 years. 4. Methodology All students were given an age appropriate writing prompt designed specifically for the study. The prompts all had the same general topic and base stem. This was done so task specific vocabulary could also be analysed. The study consisted of four main parts, an initial writing of the essay followed by peer feedback, a redrafting of the essay followed by teacher feedback and consultations, a final rewriting of the essay for grading purposes and finally a student and teacher survey. In the first phase, the students initially wrote their essays at home as this was not deemed to be a high stakes writing assignment. The essays were then put through the Hong Kong University language profiling system. The results were then collated and compared using paired-sample T-tests. The students were not told they were being tested on their vocabulary usage, but rather that they would be diagnosed for weaknesses across their written work. Once the essays were collected, they were redistributed and each student read and gave feedback on the writing and vocabulary usage to their peers. In the second component of the study the students used their peer feedback to redraft their essays for submission for teacher feedback. The results of this were then collated and analysed in the same manner as was conducted for the initial phase. Teachers collected the essays and scored them using scoring rubrics designed for the purposes of this research. Students were marked on Task Fulfilment, Organization and Language Usage. They then rewrote the essays to turn in for a final grade. The Final section of the study was to have all students complete a survey to determine their perceived usefulness of the process writing approach, with emphasis on word choice, as well as motivational factors, which influenced students in their learning. The teachers of all classes were also asked to complete a survey asking their views on the same items as the students were given. At the end of the study, all essays were compared for growth in vocabulary usage over time. Using Pearsons Product Moment Correlation, they were also analysed for the difference in levels between primary, secondary, and tertiary usage. 5. Discussion The primary students and Secondary students were asked to answer the following question: should internet censorship by the government be allowed. Discuss and present your own opinion. Primary students were required to write 250 words, whereas Secondary students 600 words. The University students had to write between 600 and 900 words on the topic: Should internet censorship by the Chinese government be allowed? The difference

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__________________________________________________________________ in the question prompts was based on the difference in ages and social awareness of the various cohorts. In order to maintain the integrity of the study, the students were not told they were a part of a study until completion. At that point, students were given the choice to remove themselves from the study. 6. Data Analysis Both pre- and post-test writing data was first analysed using the vocabulary profilers. All scripts were entered and frequency count and percentage of usage was calculated on the first 1000 words, the second 1000 words, and the AWL. A comparison was then made between the amount of change in usage between preand post-tests. The charts depicted below show the change per student in both preand post-tests. Qualitative feedback was also elicited from the students about their feeling towards peer feedback and the activities provided. The following points are summary of this peer feedback on the response and appropriacy: Table 1: Student perceptions of response Students Primary

Secondary

University

Interview perceptions of response • They are way more in detail, as a teacher has to mark 30 pieces of writing swiftly, but a student can slowly do it. So, they can point out more mistakes. • I want to read good stories and learn from them • Because, instead of teacher feedback. I would like to know what the other students comments are about my composition. They are way more in detail, as a teacher has to mark 30 pieces of writing swiftly, but a student can slowly do it. So, they can point out more mistakes. • I want to read good stories and learn from them • Because, instead of teacher feedback. I would like to know what the other students comments are about my composition • My peers are not willing to read my writing thoroughly, therefore their opinion don’t help me a lot. • Peers give comments based on the rubric, which are very limited. Teachers give comments of wider range. • Teachers are more experienced in marking this kind of essay while classmates can only provide you with more ideas • It is not effective at all, coz my partner didn’t give me any feedback. • I found that my peer feedback still has some missing

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__________________________________________________________________ corrections such as grammar mistakes and structure problem. My peer just focuses on the content. • Teachers are more experienced in marking this kind of essay while classmates can only provide you with more new ideas. Table 2: Student perceptions of response Students Primary

Interview perceptions of response • From my peer reviews, I can see very detailed instructions on how to improve my own wiring. • Because they are reading detailly and can found out my wrong tense. • Because some people don’t take peer feedback seriously. • Peers usually give me appropriate feedback but sometimes they aren’t’ really as helpful as teacher’s feedback. Secondary • Because my peers don’t really understood what I meant. • They are not experienced in give critical comments. • They know partly how to give comments to improve my writing also University • It is because the peers can help me to look for the careless mistake. • Sometimes they give feedback with new points which help me to improve. • Maybe his/her English standard is below me. • They may give you the feedback with the wrong. The following graphs reveal a quantitative assessment of the student’s opinions.

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Figure 1: Grade 6 primary students’ response to reconstructing their arguments © 2013. Courtesy of the authors.

Figure 2: Secondary and University students’ response © 2013. Courtesy of the authors.

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Figure 3: Primary students peer feedback © 2013. Courtesy of the authors. 7. Implications and Future Plans As the Academic Word List is a list of the words most used in academic writing across all specialties, they tend to be only thought of as a means to an end in late secondary or early tertiary years. However, explicit or implicit Academic Word List teaching needs to begin at Key Stage 2 as many of the words found in the Academic Word List are those commonly used in newspapers and in informational text types, to which many Key Stage 2 students may be exposed to. Teachers may exploit informational text types in their regular classroom presentations of materials to delve into deeper understanding through the use of specific vocabulary to confer specific meaning and intent. Traditional approaches to vocabulary acquisition emphasize on extensive reading to build up a wide base of active vocabulary for use. As English words have multiple meanings depending on the context and intent, incidental learning of vocabulary through extensive reading becomes difficult to achieve within a short time frame. Specific exposure/teaching of the Academic Word List broadens students’ awareness to specific word use and meaning to succinctly convey meaning and message. In secondary schools language, teachers themselves have been mostly instructed toward grammar-oriented language learning, inadvertently downplaying the importance of vocabulary. Paying attention to vocabulary, and vocabulary found in the Academic Word List might lead on to a more favourable situation whereby vocabulary acquisition is continued to be enhanced and developed, bridging the gap into University and other tertiary institutions, allowing students to have a seamless transition between the two.

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__________________________________________________________________ Attitude plays a key role in vocabulary usage and attainment. Vocabulary building is possibly one of the most challenging things to learn - for people who think negatively of the process. The whole point of building your vocabulary is to express yourself better and to learn how to speak in such a manner that will capture anyone's attention. Within the Primary Division, the students displayed a positive attitude to use the Academic Word List. Students in the Secondary Division, however, were not motivated to improve their use of vocabulary. The freshman university class displayed an indifferent attitude. Peer pressure, whether positive or negative, has a direct influence on attitude. Peer pressure in adolescence is particularly strong because during adolescence, children are seeking to fit in with their friends and differentiate themselves from their parents. Young people are particularly vulnerable to peer pressure because they are attempting to live up to ideals and beliefs favoured by their peers. As the learning process was done within the social settings of the classroom and not in isolation, peer influences had a direct influence on behaviour and attitude to learning and vocabulary acquisition in particular. In teaching, enhancing learner autonomy has become a key concern for curriculum planners and classroom teachers. For those students who are more inclined to use the Academic Word List in their writing a standard of English which is equivalent to late Key Stage 2 in the United Kingdom is key. These students tend to have the confidence and willingness to use the English language to meet the requirements set out for them during set tasks. A combination of allowing students to explore the Academic Word List, as well as classroom activities using the AWL is key in keeping students motivated to use the Academic Word List in their writing as students become aware as to the importance of the list and as their ability to express themselves clearly becomes more apparent. Awareness is key. Both teachers and students need to be made more aware of the importance of the Academic Word List and how universal the Academic Word List is in both reading and writing. Awareness raising should start in proficient Key Stage 2 learners and reinforced throughout Secondary years in order to allow students to use the Academic Word List with efficient suitable academic use. 8. Limitations and Conclusion The main limitation of this study is of course the fact that there was a small population size. As this was an experimental study, we were only able to enlist a small number of students at each age level. Both students and teachers alike did not want to participate in the study because of both the extra writing involved and the amount of valuable classroom time it would take hold the feedback sessions. We plan to run a similar study in the 2014-2015 academic year with a larger sample size. There was a limited amount of writing the students did, so the sample writing size may not be concurrent with their actual ability to produce Academic Word

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__________________________________________________________________ List vocabulary or to show substantial growth in writing. The questions provided also did not necessarily require the use of the Academic Word List. Finally, the amount of time spent writing was limited to an hour for each of the groups without redrafting. The students were also not specifically taught to use the Academic Word List, but were given online links to make them aware of its existence. Overall, we believe this study to be informative and useful for instructors of all age groups involved. The results indicate that directed vocabulary instruction needs to begin at an early age and carry through to the end of university study to ensure that students have many opportunities to enrich their vocabulary usage.

Notes George Hillocks, ‘Synthesis of Research on Teaching Writing’, Educational Leadership 44 (1987): 71-82. 2 George Hillocks, Research on Written Composition (Urbana, IL: National Conference on Research in English and ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills, 1986), Chapter 1. 3 Hillocks, Research on Written Composition. 4 Hillocks, ‘Synthesis of Research on Teaching Writing’, 71-82; Donald H. Murray, Learning by Teaching (Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook, 1982). 5 Leonard Sealey, Nancy Sealey and Marcia Millmore, Children’s Writings (Newark, E: International Reading Association, 1979). 6 Donald, H. Graves, Writing: Teachers and Children at Work (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1983). 7 Anna Uhl Chamot and Joan Rubin, ‘Comments on Janie Rees-Miller’s “A Critical Appraisal of Learner Training: Theoretical Bases and Teach Implications” Two Readers React’, TESOL Quarterly 28 (1994): 427-435. 8 Hillocks, Educational Leadership, 71-82. 9 George, Jr. Hillocks and Michael W. Smith, ‘Grammar and Usage’, Handbook of Research on Teaching the English Language Arts, ed. James Flood, Julie M. Jensen, Diane Lapp, and James R. Squire (New York: Macmillan, 1991): 591-603. 1

Bibliography Chamot, Anna Uhl and Joan Rubin. ‘Comments on Janie Rees-Miller’s “A Critical Appraisal of Learner Training: Theoretical Bases and Teach Implications” Two Readers React’. TESOL Quarterly 28 (1994): 427-435. Graves, Donald H. Writing: Teachers and Children at Work. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1983.

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__________________________________________________________________ Hillocks, George, Jr., and Michael W. Smith. ‘Grammar and Usage’. In Handbook of Research on Teaching the English Language Arts, edited by James Flood, Julie M. Jensen, Diane Lapp, and James R. Squire, 591-603. New York: Macmillan, 1991. Hillocks, George. ‘Synthesis of Research on Teaching Writing’. Educational Leadership 44 (1987): 71-82. Hillocks, George. Research on Written Composition. Urbana, IL: National Conference on Research in English and ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills, 1986. Murray Donald H. Learning by Teaching. Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook, 1982. Sealey, Leonard, Nancy Sealey, and Marcia Millmore. Children’s Writings. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1979. Roxanne Wong is part of the team developing the assessment criteria for The ELC at City University of Hong Kong. She has been working extensively over the past 3 years on automated diagnostic assessment. Her interests include aligning assessment to learning and helping students become independent learners. Brett White has been working in the Hong Kong primary school sector since 1991. His main interests are helping students improve writing through creative thinking and teaching how to become more interested in learning at a young age. This includes the idea of learning on their own.

Sense of Genre in Fifth Graders’ Text Construction Sara Routarinne Abstract Despite high performance in reading assessment tests such as PISA and PIRLS, Finnish schoolchildren are often reported to have difficulty with writing. In this chapter I will approach elementary school writing literacy from the perspective of competences instead of deficiencies. The data consist of a variety of writing assignments carried out during an academic year in three classes of fifth graders. The eight different assignments represent different goals in expression and genre derived from the National Core Curriculum. These include 308 student texts representing a variety of narrative, informational and argumentative designs. Given the pedagogical freedom of the NCC, the class teachers do not subscribe to a fixed writing pedagogy but make use of mixed methods. My analysis of these data focuses on sense of genre displayed in the student texts. By means of genre analysis and content analysis, I will illustrate the fifth grader’s interpretations of salient features in the variety of genres covered by the assignments. The results show that the students have access to a wide variety of expressive resources, and that their sense of genres is developing. Towards the end of my presentation I will discuss the findings in the context of future school literacies. Should the children adapt to the tradition of education, or do they develop strengths that could incubate new writing pedagogies based on these competencies? Key Words: Writing, literacy, genre, fifth grade, middle school, education, writing pedagogy. ***** 1. Introduction Despite high performance in reading assessment tests such as PISA and PIRLS, 1 Finnish schoolchildren are often reported to struggle with writing literacy. 2 Similar concern regarding writing literacy is also reported across nations. 3 Yet, children and young adults write more than ever – and enjoy it in social media where they play with expressive resources. 4 There is an obvious mismatch between school and vernacular literacies. One of the key issues is what we appreciate in writing literacy. We have a tradition of emphasizing orthography and the command of standard language conventions as if writing would be a generic skill. Cope and Kalantzis were influential in rooting the social construction of genre to instruction. 5 Nevertheless, research into the command of genre has remained rare within basic education. 6 Content, vocabulary, style, layout, syntactic structures, spelling and editing are the basis for marking student texts within the framework of national assessments of

Sense of Genre in Fifth Graders’ Text Construction 16 __________________________________________________________________ learning outcomes – without a discussion of how to apply these attributes to different genres. 7 Instead of following the standard language conventions, we are all expected to use a variety of language registers and meaning-making modes depending on the occasion. 8 Yet these multiple ways of being literate lack a tradition of genre specific assessment. As an exception to the rule, Kauppinen studies book reviews in the periodical Vinski. This periodical publishes book reviews written by the young readers. Most compose their reviews with a schematic structure including different content areas. The children typically begin with a paragraph to introduce the book, its author, and what else s/he has produced. The second part consists of depicting the story. The young authors name the main characters, mention the milieu and evaluate the plot. Third, the young authors may describe their experiences as readers or reflect their own experiences vis-à-vis the book. Fourth, the writers express and justify their opinion; this is obligatory in published reviews. At the end the children may evaluate illustrations and make recommendations. 9 In conclusion, children show a sense of genre. This chapter adds to this line of research by looking into student texts that represent three different goal genres. As to the different writing assignments, there is some agreement on what to assess in children’s narratives, but when it comes to the rest of it, with the exception of Kauppinen above, even genres that are mentioned as instructional content in curricula lack these criteria. 10 The National Core Curriculum for basic education, hereafter NCC, describes good performance in writing by the end of fifth grade as an ability to write accounts, descriptions and instructions. 11 Yet, it does not define these. In practice a gap between the goals and the tradition of evaluation causes confusion among teachers who feel incapable when it comes to other aspects of feedback than authoritative correction. 12 To address these issues, the objective is to construct a footing for the discussion of elementary school children’s sense of genre. In the following, I intend to identify structural and functional properties of student texts. These constitute the sense of genre referred to in the title. 2. Research Design A. Research Process The study is part of a project focusing on the development of writing literacy, writing self-efficacy and the effect of encouragement and peer feedback on these. 13 This chapter focuses on the variation of tasks and genres in writing assignments. The study’s collection of assignments and student texts reflects the goals that are expressed in the NCC. 14 As reflections, the assignments are interpretations and manifestations of, and not equal to, the NCC. The schools and teachers are then given pedagogical freedom to develop the methods of instruction as long as they develop social, learning, thinking, working and problem-solving skills, and foster active participation. 15

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__________________________________________________________________ For the purpose of exploring the assignments and identifying the structural and functional properties in the students’ texts, data were collected longitudinally in three different fifth- and then sixth-grade classes. In other words, the same children were followed for one year from autumn 2011 to autumn 2012. There were 25 children in each class, and all gave their consent to participate in the study, as did their parents for them to do so. B. Data The data consist of writing assignments in three classes of fifth graders, classes E, G and H. The assignments represent different goals derived from the National Core Curriculum. These include instructional content such as giving accounts, explaining, depicting, composing narratives with plots, assembling acquired information, and expressing and justifying opinion. 16 The data consist of 308 student texts. The class teachers made use of mixed methods in their instruction. As can be seen in the following table writing assignments 1 through 5 were undertaken during the academic year in three classes G, E and H. T1 was at the beginning of the autumn term at grade 5; T2 at the end of the autumn term; T3 at the beginning of the spring term; T4 at the end of the spring term. T5 was at the beginning of following autumn term, when the children started 6th grade. The GG column stands for the goal genre. The assignments were to write a horror story or an adventure 1, a historical story 2, a non-fiction informational booklet 3, a tale 4, a game instruction 5, a theatre review 6, a letter to the editor 7, and a literary pastiche 8. Table 1: Writing Assignments Class E G H

T1 23 24 25 72

GG 1 2 3

T2 24 21 22 67

GG 6 5 4

T3 19 16 0 35

GG T4 3 22 3 21 23 66

GG 7 7 3

T5 23 23 21 67

GG 1 8 3

N 111 105 92 307

In what follows I will analyse student texts drawn from three assignments. These are the game instructions -5, theatre reviews - 6 and letters to the editor 7. I will for now ignore the narrative genres 1, 2, 4 and 8, since there is already a body of research into the development and assessment of narrative writing. 17 The nonfiction information assemblies will be postponed for later analysis. C. Method I assumed that the student texts vary from assignment to assignment. The assumption was led by findings that children early on develop a sense of genre that

Sense of Genre in Fifth Graders’ Text Construction 18 __________________________________________________________________ is observable in how they organise texts. 18 The analysis is qualitative, and focuses on the organisation of content or macrostructure, and the selection of linguistic and textual means that children make use of in responding to an assignment. The method is content analysis spiced with linguistic discourse analysis. 19 The analysis is conducted collaboratively with students. 20 3. Sense of Genre in Student Texts A. Game Instruction - GG5 By the end of grade 5, children are expected to write instructions. A game instruction is likely to be a familiar genre for children in their living worlds. However, it is not a very established genre in the sense that there would be an agreement of its construction. In lay terms, game instruction belongs to a family of instructive genres such as manuals, guidebooks, and recipes. In Finnish, these texts make use of directives. A directive function can be realised in imperatives, interrogatives and the passive voice – but sometimes also neutral declarative sentences. 21 In her bachelor’s thesis, Pahkala found that children understand the schematic structure of game instruction to consist of text passages that express an introduction, the number of participants, materials, rules and reflections upon one’s own experiences. Of these, all the texts state the game rules, and with one exception they start with an introduction. In other words, there seems to be a communal conception that these content features are obligatory. Altogether 75% of the texts reflect upon the children’s own experiences of the game. A third of them state the number of participants but only half list the materials. This, however, is due to the fact that some of the games require no material objects and are played freely in the playground, such as tag and hide-and-seek. 22 The game instructions show that the children are familiar with the variety of meaning potentials provided by the Finnish language in the construction of directives. As seen in examples 1 and 2 below they make use of imperatives but as demonstrated in the third example are also aware of declaratives and the passive voice. 1. At the beginning of the game, go to the starting point. - - Do not hit/press/lift the bat. [Pelin alkaessa mene aloitukseen – – Älä lyö/paina/nosta mailaa. (HR23)] 2. Play kirkkis with these directions. [kirkkis=the name of a tag+hide-and-seek type of game] [Leiki kirkkistä näillä ohjeilla. (LP20)] 3. At the beginning all [players] sit/lie down in a circle and close their eyes. Then comes a narrator who picks out the characters by

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__________________________________________________________________ saying now a police officer will be chosen, and touches the person who is going to be the officer. [Aluksi kaikki menevät istumaan/makaamaan piiriin ja laittavat silmät kiinni. Sitten tulee kertoja joka valitsee henkilöt sanomalla esim. nyt valitaan poliisi, ja koskettaa sitä josta sitten tulee poliisi. (RS15)] The familiarity with narrative text structure is obvious, as evident in example 3. In depicting the rules, the instruction chronologically follows the course of the game. Young students may borrow from narrative structures when the target structures are not clear to them. Nevertheless the overall structure orients not to narrative but instructive goal genre. The reported features occur rather consistently in different student texts. B. Theatre Review - GG6 Reviews in general allow students to explain and depict a familiar matter. In the case of a theatre review, such a matter is indeed a theatrical play the students have seen. A review also calls for opinions to be expressed and justified. Since there is an earlier study on childrens’ book reviews by Kauppinen, we had a firm point of departure. 23 The data studied differ from those studied by Kauppinen. Firstly, the reviews focus on a play. Secondly, they are not published. Therefore, the set of student texts here have not been selected on the grounds of meeting the criteria for a review in a text community. Laukkanen observed these texts in her bachelor thesis, 24 and found that the sense of genre in theatre reviews is based on similar content features as found by Kauppinen. There is a tendency to include at least an introduction, a depiction of the story line as well as an expression of opinion and its justification. However, even if the children aim to write an introduction at the beginning, they may have difficulty in designing it for an audience unfamiliar with the play. For example, in data 4 below, the author introduces the occasion upon what the review is based. However, the reader is not told what play was seen. In example 5 the play is introduced in a way that informs the reader. 4 We were at a play with our class. It was fun, because it was so long and the scene in the Cyclops cave was exciting and funny. [Olimme näytelmässä luokan kanssa. Oli hauskaa, kun se oli niin pitkä ja kyk- loopin luola-kohtaus oli tosi jännä ja hauska. (n13)] 5 We were to see the Odyssey play at the Kallio upper secondary school of performing arts. [Olimme katsomassa Kallion ilmaisutaidon lukion ”Odysseus”näytelmää.” (n6)]

Sense of Genre in Fifth Graders’ Text Construction 20 __________________________________________________________________ Depicting the story is a crucial part of published reviews, according to Kauppinen. However, many of the student texts in our collection do not meet this criterion. It is fair to say that this structural part of a review might be beneficial for overt instruction. The expression of opinion and justifying it is another of the core contents of writing a review. For the purpose of expressing an opinion, they often make use of the phrase mielestäni, ‘in my opinion’, and justify their opinion most often with because-clauses. The students’ texts reveal what the children found to be salient. In addition, the data show that it is challenging for a fifth grader to imagine a reader who does not have access to the same experience. Is this deficiency a reflection of the context of the writing assignment? All the children know that they have a shared experience with their teacher and classmates. C. Letters to the Editor - GG7 To my understanding, letters to the editor are a very popular genre in writing instruction. The genre is also socially and culturally salient. Finnish newspapers feature sections for letters to the editor as an arena for public debate within the community. The composition of these opinion pieces has the potential to connect school to the community since these are from time to time submitted to newspapers. In classes E and G the children wrote letters to the editor at the end of their fifth spring term. They were given an opportunity to become thoroughly familiar with their subjects and an emphasis was put on the preparation where the children discussed what important subjects they could write about and justify. In class E, the teacher encouraged the children to submit to a newspaper. The texts indicate that fifth graders have a sense of what constitutes a letter to the editor. They understand the expression of opinion to be obligatory. Consequently, the majority of young authors feature their main argument as the first item in the text. They also draw on phrases like mielestäni ‘in my opinion’. They make use of functional words such as therefore, that is. And they show a variety of ways to justify their claims, one being by comparisons. 25 These abilities, or resources, are evident in example 6 below. An additional feature in this example is the way in which the main argument is given a paragraph on its own. Paragraphing, however, was used inconsistently. 6 Age limits for video games are to my opinion too high. I have been thinking that why are videogames limited by age and board games are not, or if they are they are not controlled. That is if a ten years old wants to by a car game called motorstorm s/he may not because it is 16A. Therefore I want age limit to board games and away from videogames. [Videopelien ikärajat ovat mielestäni liian korkeita.

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__________________________________________________________________ Olen miettinyt ,että miksi videopeleissä on ikärajat ja lautapeleissä ei, ja jos on niitä ei valvota. Eli jos kymmen vuotias haluaa ostaa autopelin nimeltä motorstorm hän ei saa koska se on K-16. Siispä haluan lautapeleihin ikärajat ja vidopeleistä pois.” (MP31/G)] As can be seen above, making a comparison is one of the ways children justify their claims. In addition, they may rely on their own experience, general knowledge, and rhetorical questions. Yet, at some points they are still looking for the culturally appreciated ways of constructing the genre. For instance one student’s text makes use of the conventions of writing a letter. The text begins with ‘Hi, I’m Luke’. 4. Discussion This chapter contributes to the field of writing instruction. Within basic education, a perspective-taking genre into account has been rare. Yet the results here suggest that fifth graders are already developing a sense of genres. This becomes evident in the macrostructures and choice of detail. The students know how to begin game instructions with an introductory sentence. This is regularly followed by a list of necessary participants and materials. The students understand that the rules are to be explained. Further, they actively select the content for their instructions. A theatre review, for example, appears to be somewhat more demanding to construct. Very consistently the students know how to express an opinion. Justifications may depend on liking particular details, or more so, on making explicit observations about them. What seems to be challenging is introducing what is to be reviewed: the students seem to assume that the reader is already familiar with it. According to the fifth graders’ texts, the main argument is the core element in a letter to the editor. As well, they know a variety of ways to justify their main argument. They also show knowledge of function words, such as because or therefore, when they support their claim. The selection of content, the construction of texts and the ability to use a coherent set of expressive resources for different goal genres show that fifth graders have a sense of what gives form to a genre. This knowledge could be discussed with the students in order to expand it. In addition, the assessment should use these criteria explicitly as a point of departure. At present, the assessment criteria used for marking student texts are general and abstract: what is good content, style or vocabulary out of context? Instead, sets of genre-specific criteria should be developed. These could use the knowledge already possessed by the students as a starting point. Thus more thorough work concerning the sense of genre manifested in children’s writing is needed in order to revise current

Sense of Genre in Fifth Graders’ Text Construction 22 __________________________________________________________________ practices. Nevertheless, the findings here show that children have expressive resources that reflect their sense of genre. In the 1970’s, Bernstein’s work on children with a restricted as opposed to elaborated code dominated the discussion. Even if outdated today, this work was revolutionary in recognising a number of educational challenges at the societal level. Today, a similar revolution is due with respect to writing assignments and assessment. The restricted code for generic assessment should be replaced by a more elaborated code for judging texts at the community level, where the resources people make use of should be detected against the background of text practices in the community.

Notes ‘PISA 2012 Results in Focus’ (OECD, 2013), 4–5, 12, 15, Viewed 3 January 2014, http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf; Pekka Kupari, Jouni Välijärvi, Leif Andersson, Inga Arffman, Kari Nissinen, Eija Puhakka, and Jouni Vettenranta, ‘PISA12’ Ensituloksia. (Opetus- ja kulttuuriministeriön julkaisuja, 2013), 20, 31, Viewed 3 January 2014, http://www.minedu.fi/OPM/Julkaisut/2013/PISA12.html; Ina Mullis, Michael Martin, Pierre Foy, and Kathleen Drucker, PIRLS 2011 International Results in Reading (Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College, 2012), 35–38, Viewed 3 January 2014, http://timss.bc.edu/pirls2011/international-released-items.html. 2 Hannu-Pekka Lappalainen, On annettu hyviä numeroita. Perusopetuksen 6. vuosiluokan suorittaneiden äidinkielen ja kirjallisuuden oppimistulosten arviointi 2007 [National Assessment of Learning Outcomes in Mother Tongue (Finnish) and Literature, Grade 7 in 2007] (Helsinki: Finnish National Board of Education, 2008), 13, 49, 57–62, Viewed 3 January 2014, http://www.oph.fi/julkaisut/2008/on%20_annettu_hyvia_numeroita; Hannu-Pekka Lappalainen, Sen edestään löytää. Äidinkielen ja kirjallisuuden oppimistulokset perusopetuksen päättövaiheessa 2010 [National Assessment of Learning Outcomes in Mother Tongue (Finnish) and Literature, Grade 9 in 2010], (Helsinki: Finnish National Board of Education, 2011) 11–13, 63–70, Viewed 3 January 2014, http://www.oph.fi/download/132347_Sen_edestaan_loytaa.pdf. 3 Roger Beard and Andrew Burrel, ‘Investigating Narrative Writing by 9–11-YearOlds’, Journal of Research in Reading 33 (2010): 1, 77-93, DOI: 10.1111/j.14679817.2009.01433; Writing 2011. National Assessment of Educational Progress at Grades 8 and 12, (U.S. Dept. of Education), Viewed 3 January 2014, http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2011/2012470.pdf; Michael Kimmel, Boys and School: A Background Paper on the “Boy Crisis”, (SOU 2010), 9, Viewed 4 January 2014, http://www.government.se/sb/d/9150/a/149169. 1

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__________________________________________________________________ For example, M. Ito, S. Baumer, M. Bittanti, D. Boyd, R. Cody, B. Herr, L. Tripp, Sections ‘Creative Production’, ‘Work’, and ‘Project Descriptions’, Hanging Out, Messing Around, Geeking Out: Kids Living and Learning with New Media (Cambridge, England: MIT, 2010), 246–269, 330, 367; Yasmin B. Kafai and Kylie A. Peppler, ‘Youth, Technology, and DIY: Developing Participatory Competencies in Creative Media Production’, Review of Research in Education, 35 (2011): 89-96; Sirpa Leppänen, ‘Youth Language in Media Contexts: Insights into the Functions of English in Finland’, World Englishes 26 (2007); Peppi Taalas ‘Media Landscapes in School and in Free Time - Two Parallel Realities?’, Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy 4 (2008). 5 Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis, The Powers of Literacy: Genre Approaches to Teaching Literacy (Philadelphia: Falmer Press, 1993). 6 Mary M. Juzwik, Svjetlana Curcic, Kimberly Wolbers, Kathleen D. Moxley, Lisa M. Dimling, and Rebecca K. Shankland, ‘Writing into the 21st Century: An Overview of Research on Writing, 1999 to 2004’, Written Communication 23 (2006), 466–473. 7 Hannu-Pekka Lappalainen, On annettu hyviä numeroita (2008), 59–61. 8 C.f. Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis, ‘Introduction. Multiliteracies: The Beginnings of an Idea’, in Multiliteracies. Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures, edited by Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis (London: Routledge, 2000), 5–6. 9 Anneli Kauppinen, ‘Alakoululainen, genre ja kirjallisuus’ [Elementary School Student, Genre and Literature], in Nuoret kielikuvassa. Kouluikäisten kieli 2000luvulla, edited by Sara Routarinne and Tuula Uusi-Hallila, (Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society 2008), 273–280. 10 E.g. Judith Langer, ‘Children's Sense of Genre: A Study of Performance on Parallel Reading and Writing Tasks’, Written Communication 2 (1985); Roger Beard and Andrew Burrel, ‘Investigating Narrative Writing by 9–11-Year-Olds’; Pajunen, ‘The Development of Writing Skills in 8–12-Year-Olds. Primary-School Children Writing about Their Dreams’, Virittäjä 116 (2012); Tuula MerisuoStorm, ‘The Development of Writing Skills of Boys and Girls during Six School Years’, Nordisk Pedagogic 4 (2007); See however Judith Langer, ‘Children's Sense of Genre’; Nickola Wolf Nelson, Christine M. Bahr, and Adelia M. Van Meter, The Writing Lab Approach to Language Instruction and Intervention (Baltimore: Paul Brooks Publishing 2004), 376–409. 11 National Core Curriculum for Basic Education (Helsinki: The Finnish National Board of Education, 2004), 47–50, Viewed 24 July 2012, http://www.oph.fi/english/sources_of_information/core_curricula_and_qualificatio n_requirements/basic_education. 12 Merja Kauppinen and Mari Hankala, ‘Kriitikosta keskustelukumppaniksi – uutta otetta kirjoittamisen opetukseen’ [‘From Critic to Interaction – New Grip to 4

Sense of Genre in Fifth Graders’ Text Construction 24 __________________________________________________________________ Teaching Writing’], in Ainedidaktinen tutkimus koulutuspoliittisen päätöksenteon perustana, ed. Liisa Tainio, Kalle Juuti, and Sara Routarinne (Helsinki: Suomen ainedidaktinen tutkimusseura), 227–229. 13 Sara Routarinne and Pilvikki Absetz, ‘RoKKI, Rohkaisukeskeinen kirjoittamisinterventio’ [‘Encouragement Based Intervention to Writing Performance and Writing Self-Efficacy’], an unpublished project plan; Sara Routarinne and Pilvikki Absetz. ‘Writing Performance and Writing Self-Efficacy. The Case of Finnish Fifth Graders’, in Why Do We Write as We Write? ed. Sérgio Tavares (Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press, 2013), 52–55, Viewed 3 January 2014, https://www.interdisciplinarypress.net/my-cart/ebooks/persons-community/whydo-we-write-as-we-write. 14 National Core Curriculum for Basic Education (2004), 47–48. 15 Ibid., 16; Hannele Niemi, ‘The Societal Factors Contributing to Education and Schooling in Finland’, in Miracle of Education. The Principles and Practices of Teaching and Learning in Finland (Rotterdam: Sense), 22, 32. 16 National Core Curriculum for Basic Education (2004), 47–50. 17 E.g. Langer, ‘Children's Sense of Genre’; Beard and Burrel, ‘Investigating Narrative Writing by 9–11-Year-Olds’; Pajunen, ‘The Development of Writing Skills in 8–12-Year-Olds’; Tuula Merisuo-Storm, ‘The Development of Writing Skills of Boys and Girls during Six School Years’. 18 Judith A. Langer, ‘Children's Sense of Genre’, 184–185. 19 Klaus Krippendorff, ‘Content Analysis’, in International Encyclopedia of Communications, ed. Erik Barnouw, George Gerbner, Wilbur Schramm, Tobia R. Worth, Larry Gross (Barcelona, Pennsylvania, New York, Oxford: Annenberg School for Communication, Oxford University Press, 1989), 403–404; Paul James Gee, An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. Theory and Method. Third edition. (New York: Routledge, 2011). 20 Mari Pahkala, ‘Tekstilajiin kasvamassa Miten viidesluokkalainen ymmärtää ohjeen tekstilajina?’ [Growing into a Genre. How Do Fifth Graders Understand an Instruction as a Genre?] (Unpublished Bachelor Thesis supervised by S. Routarinne and L. Tainio. University of Helsinki, Department of Teacher Education, 2012); Noora Laukkanen, ‘Miten arvioida viidesluokkalaisten kirjoittamia arvosteluja’ [How to Assess the Composition of Fifth Grader’s Reviews]. (Unpublished Bachelor Thesis supervised by S. Routarinne and L. Tainio. University of Helsinki, Department of Teacher Education, 2012); Kati Kotamäki, ‘Tekstilajin oppiminen alakoulussa. Miten viidesluokkalainen ymmärtää mielipidetekstin tekstilajina?’ [Learning Genre in Elementary School. How Do Fifth Graders Understand the Genre of Letter-to-Editor?] (Unpublished Bachelor Thesis supervised by S. Routarinne, Helsinki, Department of Teacher Education, 2013).

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__________________________________________________________________ Auli Hakulinen, Maria Vilkuna, Riitta Korhonen, Vesa Koivisto, Tarja Riitta Heinonen and Irja Alho, Iso suomen kielioppi (Helsinki: SKS, 2004), 1560. 22 Mari Pahkala, [Growing into a Genre. How Do Fifth Graders Understand an Instruction as a Genre?]. 23 Anneli Kauppinen, ‘Alakoululainen, genre ja kirjallisuus’ [Elementary School Student, Genre and Literature], 273–280. 24 Noora Laukkanen, ‘Miten arvioida viidesluokkalaisten kirjoittamia arvosteluja’ [How to Assess the Composition of Fifth Grader’s Reviews]. 25 Kati Kotamäki, ‘Tekstilajin oppiminen alakoulussa. [Learning Genre in Elementary School]. 21

Bibliography Beard, Roger and Andrew Burrel. ‘Investigating Narrative Writing by 9–11-YearOlds’. Journal of Research in Reading 33 (2010): 77–93. Cope, Bill and Mary Kalantzis. The Powers of Literacy: Genre Approaches to Teaching Literacy. Philadelphia: Falmer Press, 1993. Cope, Bill and Mary Kalantzis. ‘Introduction. Multiliteracies: The Beginnings of an Idea’. Multiliteracies. Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures, edited by Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis, 3–8. London: Routledge, 2000. Gee, Paul James. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. Theory and Method. Third Edition. New York: Routledge, 2011. Hakulinen, Auli, Maria Vilkuna, Riitta Korhonen, Vesa Koivisto, Tarja Riitta Heinonen and Irja Alho. Iso suomen kielioppi. [The Finnish Reference Grammar.] Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society, 2004. Ito, M., S. Baumer, M. Bittanti, D. Boyd, R. Cody, B. Herr and L. Tripp. Hanging Out, Messing Around, Geeking Out: Kids Living and Learning with New Media. Cambridge, England: MIT Press, 2009. Juzwik, Mary M., Svjetlana Curcic, Kimberly Wolbers, Kathleen D. Moxley, Lisa M. Dimling, and Rebecca K. Shankland. ‘Writing into the 21st Century: An Overview of Research on Writing, 1999 to 2004’. Written Communication 23 (2006): 451–476. Kafai, Yasmin B. and Kylie A. Peppler. ‘Youth, Technology, and DIY:

Sense of Genre in Fifth Graders’ Text Construction 26 __________________________________________________________________ Developing Participatory Competencies in Creative Media Production’. Review of Research in Education 35 (2011): 89–119. Kauppinen, Anneli. ‘Alakoululainen, genre ja kirjallisuus’ [Elementary School Student, Genre and Literature]. In Nuoret kielikuvassa. Kouluikäisten kieli 2000luvulla, edited by Sara Routarinne and Tuula Uusi-Hallila, 268–289. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society, 2008. Kauppinen, Merja and Mari Hankala. ‘Kriitikosta keskustelukumppaniksi – uutta otetta kirjoittamisen opetukseen’. [‘From Critic to Interaction – New Grip to Teaching Writing’] In Ainedidaktinen tutkimus koulutuspoliittisen päätöksenteon perustana, edited by Liisa Tainio, Kalle Juuti, and Sara Routarinne, 213–231. Helsinki: Suomen ainedidaktinen tutkimusseura 2013. Viewed 4 January 2014. https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/38459. Kimmel, Michael. Boys and School: A Background Paper on the “Boy Crisis”. Stockholm: Swedish Government official reports SOU 2010. Viewed 4 January 2014. http://www.government.se/sb/d/9150/a/149169. Kupari, Pekka, Jouni Välijärvi, Leif Andersson, Inga Arffman, Kari Nissinen, Eija Puhakka and Jouni Vettenranta. PISA12 Ensituloksia. Opetus- ja kulttuuriministeriön julkaisuja, 2013. Langer, Judith. ‘Children's Sense of Genre: A Study of Performance on Parallel Reading and Writing Tasks’. Written Communication 2 (1985): 157–187. Lappalainen, Hannu-Pekka. On annettu hyviä numeroita. Perusopetuksen 6. vuosiluokan suorittaneiden äidinkielen ja kirjallisuuden oppimistulosten arviointi 2007 [National Assessment of Learning Outcomes in Mother Tongue (Finnish) and Literature, Grade 7 in 2007]. Helsinki: Finnish National Board of Education, 2008. Viewed 3 January 2014. http://www.oph.fi/julkaisut/2008/on%20_annettu_hyvia_numeroita. Lappalainen, Hannu-Pekka. Sen edestään löytää. Äidinkielen ja kirjallisuuden oppimistulokset perusopetuksen päättövaiheessa 2010 [National Assessment of Learning Outcomes in Mother Tongue (Finnish) and Literature, Grade 9 in 2010]. Helsinki: Finnish National Board of Education, 2011. Viewed 3 January 2014. http://www.oph.fi/download/132347_Sen_edestaan_loytaa.pdf. Leppänen, Sirpa. ‘Youth Language in Media Contexts: Insights into the Functions

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__________________________________________________________________ of English in Finland’. World Englishes 26 (2007): 149–169. Merisuo-Storm, Tuula. ‘Girls and Boys Like to Read and Write Different Texts’. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 50 (2006): 111–125. Mullis, Ina V.S., Michael O. Martin, Pierre Foy and Kathleen T. Drucker. PIRLS 2011 International Results in Reading. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College, 2012. Viewed 3 January 2014. http://timss.bc.edu/pirls2011/international-released-items.html. National Core Curriculum for Basic Education, Helsinki: The Finnish National Board of Education, 2004. Viewed 24 July 2012. http://www.oph.fi/english/sources_of_information/core_curricula_and_qualificatio n_requirements/basic_education. Nelson, Nickola Wolf, Christine M. Bahr and Adelia M. Van Meter. The Writing Lab Approach to Language Instruction and Intervention. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing, 2004. Niemi, Hannele. ‘The Societal Factors Contributing to Education and Schooling in Finland’. In Miracle of Education. The Principles and Practices of Teaching and Learning in Finland, edited by Hannele Niemi, Auli Toom and Arto Kallioniemi, 19–38. Rotterdam: Sense, 2012. Pajunen, Anneli. ‘Kirjoittamistaitojen kehitys 8–12-vuotiailla. Alakoululaisten unelmakirjoitelmat’ [The Development of Writing Skills in 8–12-Year-Olds. Primary-School Children Writing about Their Dreams’. Virittäjä 116 (2012): 4–32. PISA2012 Results in Focus. What 15-Year-Old Know and What They Can Do with What They Know. OECD, 2013. Viewed 3 January 2014. http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf. Routarinne, Sara and Pilvikki Absetz. RoKKI, Rohkaisukeskeinen kirjoittamisinterventio [‘Encouragement Based Intervention to Writing Performance and Writing Self-Efficacy’]. Unpublished project plan, University of Helsinki, 2011. Routarinne, Sara and Pilvikki Absetz. ‘Writing Performance and Writing SelfEfficacy. The Case of Finnish Fifth Graders’. In Why Do We Write as We Write?, edited by Sérgio Tavares, 51–68. Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press, 2013. Viewed 3

Sense of Genre in Fifth Graders’ Text Construction 28 __________________________________________________________________ January 2014. https://www.interdisciplinarypress.net/my-cart/ebooks/personscommunity/why-do-we-write-as-we-write. Taalas, Peppi. ‘Media Landscapes in School and in Free Time - Two Parallel Realities?’ Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy 4 (2008): 240–254. Writing 2011. National Assessment of Educational Progress at Grades 8 and 12, U.S. Dept. of Education. Viewed 3 January 2014. http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2011/2012470.pdf. Sara Routarinne is Adjunct Professor of the Finnish language, and she works as a senior lecturer in the Department of Education at the University of Helsinki. Her current research interests are increasingly devoted to elementary school students’ sense of genre in writing. 2013 she and a colleague published a guidebook on writing instruction for teachers in basic education

Encouraging Young Generation to Write: What Works, What Does Not Work? Tülin Kozikoğlu Abstract In today’s world of technology, the act of writing is more important than it has ever been in human history. Various issues in everyday life that were solved through oral communication in the past are handled through writing today. Business problems are solved through e-mails. Parent-teacher meetings are held through online chats. Thanks to ‘texting’ or ‘what’s up’, even gossip is not a face-to-face oral act anymore. Since most communication is carried through writing, it is obvious that only those who can use written words efficiently will be successful in expressing themselves effectively to the outside world. Are our children well equipped for this era that can be named as ‘climax of writing’. Do they have the necessary skills to use this form of communication most effectively? In other words, are we teaching our kids how to write? And more importantly, can writing be taught? This study claims that writing can be taught to kids if it is presented in the form of play. In this 15-hour workshop, an innovative technique is used to teach elementary school kids, 3-5th graders, how to write effectively. The lessons start with an emphasis on the role of writing in everyday life. After various playful activities on different forms of written communication of today’s technological world, an in-depth training on creative writing is performed. Just like using ‘addition, subtraction, multiplication and division’ in ‘solving a math problem’, a similar four-tool approach is employed in ‘solving a story’; ‘character, setting, problem and solution’. Each one of these tools is presented to students through various creative and fun writing exercises. Best examples of picture books are used throughout the training to exemplify each subject. Concepts such as thoughts, feelings, inspiration, perspective, diversity, imagination and reality are also highlighted. By the end of this workshop, each student is expected to learn the art of writing, and more importantly develop a positive attitude for writing. Key Words: Creative writing, children, elementary school, teach, story, education, communication. ***** 1. Why Do Kids Have Difficulty in Writing and Is It Possible To Overcome the Obstacles? When it comes to stories, there is no doubt that kids are the most able and willing ones. They are able to come up with the most imaginative scenarios and also are very willing to articulate them verbally. However, almost all the elementary school teachers complain about the difficulties they face in inducing

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__________________________________________________________________ kids to write. They all accept that kids can ‘tell’ a story, but cannot ‘write’ a story. What is the difference between the act of articulating a story and putting it into written words? What is preventing kids from the act of writing? How can these barriers be eliminated and how can the kids be motivated to write? This study, which is a 15-hour workshop, is based on the assumption that if the techniques of formulating a story are taught to kids through fun and colourful activities that have characteristics of play in nature, children will become less reluctant in writing. In this workshop, an innovative approach is used to encourage elementary school kids, 3-5th graders, to write effectively. This approach is consisted of activities that are developed based on the thinking process of a children’s book author. The author, who is also the instructor of the workshop, studied her own story creation process and formulized the workshop steps and activities based on her own writing techniques. This is where the workshop differs from various other similar writing classes. 2. The Writing Workshop: Introduction The workshop starts with an activity on getting to know each other. The basic aim of this activity, which is inspired by Julie Albright’s Almost Authors Workshop, is to introduce students the notion of thinking about themselves. Thinking is the first step of writing. Turning their attention onto themselves, help them to practice observation of positive and negative attributes of their own personalities. After reading them a poem called ‘Who Is Who’ written by Thomas Salamun, the children is expected to write a four line poem praising themselves in each line. After they are finished, children are asked to add another line that starts with ‘If only you were not…’. and expected to end the line with a negative attribute. The lesson continues with an emphasis on the role of writing in everyday life. Various issues in everyday life that were solved through oral communication in the past are handled today through writing. In oral communication, we have intonation, mimics and body language as assets supporting our words in transferring our message. In written communication, we lack these assets. We should be so well trained in writing that the way we choose and put together our written words should be able to transfer our message as effectively as oral communication does. Activities on two different forms of written communication of today’s technological world are conducted: 1) In the first one, children are given the following scenario and expected to write a text message to their mothers: You are alone in the house. You broke your mother’s favourite vase that is an antique piece. Write a text message to your mother giving her the news. It has to be such a text that after reading it, your mother will not be able to

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__________________________________________________________________ get mad at you. She can be sad, afraid, ashamed or happy but cannot be angry. 2) In the second one, children are expected to write a persuasive e-mail to an elderly person convincing her/him about a certain conflict; e.g. you don’t want to eat spinach but your mom thinks you should. After reading your e-mail she will never dare to feed you spinach again. As the importance of effective writing is highlighted, the conversation turns into a brainstorming session on the relationship of writing and reading. The first reading session is done by W. Holzwarth’s book called Kafasina Edeni Bulmaya Calisan Kucuk Kostebegin Hikayesi, which in English is The Story of the Little Mole Who Knew it Was None of His Business. Picture books are used as examples throughout the workshop to show students how an author performs various techniques of creative writing in stories. Just like using ‘addition, subtraction, multiplication and division’ in ‘solving a math problem’, a similar four-tool approach is employed in ‘solving a story’; ‘character, setting, problem and solution’. As the workshop continues with steps studying these four tools in depth, the picture books that exemplify the subject matter are read to kids for analysis purposes; first broken into pieces just like puzzles, and then put together again with precision. All through the workshop, the student gains the ability to conduct a surgery on a story. Concentrating and understating on what and why the author is doing as opposed to what and why the character in the story is doing, is a skill each student gains by the end of this study. In order to show the kids how the four basic tools are sufficient to create a story, a fun activity inspired from Rebecca Olien’s book called Kids Write is conducted. The kids are expected to create a treasury map with a treasury hunt story on it by using a brown bag. The activity’s instructions are as follows: 1) 2) 3) 4)

Tear the brown bags open and create a rectangular paper. Make a ball and squeeze, then open it back into a rectangle. Draw four random settings and a treasure chest. Setting 1: Write 1-3 sentences informing the reader... A) Character, B) Setting, C) He/She is in search of a treasure. 5) Setting 2: Write 1-3 sentences informing the reader... A) How or why he came here, B) Problem. 6) Setting 3: Write 1-3 sentences informing the reader... A) How or why he came here, B) A new character that will help him solve the problem. 7) Setting 4: Write 1-3 sentences informing the reader... A) How or why he came here, B) How the two solve their problem, C) How they find the treasure chest.

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__________________________________________________________________ 3. The Writing Workshop: What Pokes a Writer to Write? Before starting in-depth training on the tools of creative writing, a class is spent on the question ‘What pokes a writer to write?’ Basically a writer writes about the questions she has in her mind, her opinions, her memories and her imaginations/dreams. Just like soccer players stretch their muscles before starting a game, a writer stretches his/her brain through questions before starting to write. Some of the questions used to stretch the students’ brain are as follows: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

If you were rain, where would you fall? If you were a TV, whose house would you be? If you were an alien, what would you say to the humans? If you were only 1 inch, where would you go? If you get a chance to be invisible for a day, what would you do? If you were a fish, which bait would catch you? If you were entitled to be in Guinness World Records Book, what would be your record?

The answer search to these questions can be a productive supply for stories; e.g. the record in the last question can be used as a character attribute of a protagonist or the answer to the second question can be used as a setting in a story. The sixth question can either be the problem or the solution in a story. A picture book called Neden (Why) written by L. Prapis is read to show how authors can create books through questions. Various books are studied to show the kids how opinions can be revealed most effectively through stories and how different perspectives are valuable in creating stories. The books are as follows: Canini En Cok Ne Yakar? - The Thing That Hurt Most in the World,) by P. Livan, Bir Tanecik Oglum; My Beloved So) by T. Kozikoglu, Sansliyim-Sanssizim; I’m Lucky-I’m Unlucky by T. Halling. Regarding memories, J. Prelutsky’s poem called ‘I Wonder Why Dad Is so Thoroughly Mad’ is studied after reading his article called ‘My Father’s Underwear’ in his book called Pizza, Pigs and Poetry. After understating how memories can be converted into a poem, similar poetry practices are conducted. Various books are used to examine how imagination pokes a writer. They are as follows: On beyond Zebra by Dr. Seuss, Wave-Mirror-Shadow Trilogy by Ombra, L’Onda, Mirror by Suzy Lee, Imagine by Norman Messenger, Harold and the Purple Crayon by C. Johnson. After reading these books, a discussion on dreams is supervised and attention is drawn to the fact that dreams are scenarios created by our own brains. Based on this fact, a writing practice on dreams is carried. The children are told to think of a dream recently dreamt and try to analyse it connecting it to real life personal experiences. The idea is to figure out how the brain finds symbols or metaphors. Then they are told to think of a memory that is

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__________________________________________________________________ valuable for them and write a scenario of a dream that is full of symbols and metaphors. The discussion on imagination is finalized by creating a dream cruise in which only children are allowed to travel. All children work on this together to create a list of things that they imagine to have in this boat. Then they are asked to write a story of a group of kids that travel in this cruise for a week. The idea is to show the kids how each writer can create a different story although they are all writing on the same subject; each from his/her own perspective and with his/her own words. This leads to the session on the importance of words. 4. The Writing Workshop: Words, Sentences, Stories As told earlier, we should be capable of utilizing words so effectively that we should overcome the weakness of lacking intonation and body language in written communication. In order to highlight the importance of words, an activity called ‘Word Chests’ is conducted. The following lists, called word chests are created through a brainstorming session. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

List of words you like. Lists of words you don’t like. List of funny words. List of intangibles. List of words that we hear a lot but don’t know the meaning. List of nasty words. List of words that start with a certain letter. List of words that we created ourselves.

The kids are told to place these chests in their brains. When writing a piece, kids are expected to open these chests and use the words inside them. The words in list number 5 are expected to be looked up in a dictionary before using. The words in list number 6 are those that need to be substituted by other words so a list of new words or expressions that can symbolize them are found for each word in that list. A quick game is played with the words in list number 7; trying to form the longest sentence possible by using words only starting with that certain letter. Using words that start with the same letter helps create rhythm; e.g. shy slender squirrel, big blue bird. List number 8 is consisted of words that are created by splitting and pasting different words; e.g. ‘strapeach’ meaning peach tasting like strawberry, ‘angdad’ meaning an angry dad, ‘girafone’ meaning telephone produced for giraffes. As the chests are ready, an introduction is made on similes and metaphors. This is underlined by reading the book called Ay Tutulmasi, or Lunar Eclipse in English by S. Aka and A.P. Koprucu that has very efficient examples of similes and metaphors. This is followed by a game called ‘Metaphor Machine’ that is inspired

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__________________________________________________________________ by Julie Albright’s Almost Authors Workshop. In this game, each kid is expected to write an intangible on a red piece of paper, a colour on a green piece of paper and a name of an object on a blue piece of paper. Collared papers are grouped and then a paper is randomly chosen from each colour. When put together, random metaphors are formed; e.g. love is a blue kite, time is a green book, honesty is a purple knife. Then the kids are asked to guess why a book character might have thought of love as a blue kite or time as a green book. In search of finding a reason, kids come up new stories knitted around these metaphors. As the kids finish the preliminary phases, they get ready for an in-depth study of the tools used in formulating a story. After this point, they start creating and formulating their own story. 5. The Writing Workshop: Formulating a Story The first tool, which is ‘character’, is introduced by reading a book called Ferdinand by M. Leaf. In creating an interesting character, it is important to find extraordinary attributes for him/her. However, just like ‘Chekov’s Gun Principle’ suggests, one has to utilize this extraordinary attribute in the story. Ferdinand exemplifies this principle effectively by creating an emotional and calm bull and then using these attributes to create problems and solutions for the bull along the story. Masks are used to exemplify ‘Show, Don’t Tell Principle’. For unanimous masks, kids are able to talk about physical attributes only, however for masks of celebrities such as Santa Claus, Einstein, Cleopatra, they are able to tell character attributes as well. It is important to show the character attributes rather than telling them to the reader and one can do so by creating episodes in which characters behave in certain ways. In search of finding episodes to do so, kids are able to create more elaborate plots for their stories. This is emphasized a little further by reading the book by Kozikoglu, called Dondurma Yok mu? The book called Comert Agac, or the The Giving Tree, by S. Silverstein is used to exemplify symbolizing a character. A tree symbolizes parents in this book. The most important fact about creating a character is getting to know him/her with every detail. Therefore a questionnaire called ‘Character Form’ is given to the kids to help them find a character for their stories. This questionnaire helps kids to create more sophisticated characters acting like a screwdriver that aids the kids to get the ideas out of their minds. Then a poetry activity inspired from Shelley Tucker’s book called Word Weavings is conducted in which kids write a poem on someone they know well such as their mothers, fathers or themselves. This is an activity in which the kids are guided step by step for each line of the poem by asking them to make metaphors with an animal, something from nature, game, food, colour. As students create their own characters, the study continues with ‘setting’. This is introduced by reading a poem called ‘I’m Listening to Istanbul’ by O.V. Kanik.

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__________________________________________________________________ This poem portrays a city with descriptions that are perceived through auditory stimuli. Emotional reflections of the setting on the character are also emphasized. The study continues by reading the following books: 5 Cocuk, 5 Istanbul - Five Children Five Istanbul, by B. Sayin as well as Yemegini Arayan Tirtil -vCaterpillar In Search Of Her Food, Ozgurlugunu Arayan Kelebek - Butterfly In Search Of Her Freedom, Kelebegini Arayan Ayse - Ayse In Search of Her Butterfly and Bulutunu Arayan Su Damlasi - Water Drop in Search of His Cloud by T. Kozikoglu. These books exemplify usage of setting as a starting point in a book. In order to demonstrate the importance of point of view in establishing setting in a story, a game using mechanic animal toys is performed. As the winding animals start walking through the path covered with various objects, the students are expected to talk from the point of view of the animal. Before ending the ‘setting’ section of the study, a questionnaire called ‘Setting Form’ is distributed to help kids create a setting for their story. The last two tools, ‘problem and solution’, are studied by reading the following books: Okula Gec kaldim, or I’m Late to School by F. Erdogan, Neyse ki, Ne Yazik ki or Fortunately Unfortunately by M. Foreman, Nohut Oda Bakla Sofa - A Squash and a Squeeze by J. Donaldson, Dogumgunu Pastasi - Birthday Cake by S. Nordqvist and The Runaway Bunny by M. W. Brown. Then the ‘Problem-Solution Form’ is distributed. Various frequencies of problem-solution duo in a story are exemplified in these stories. Different ways of solving a problem are also studied in these books; e.g. solving a problem by the help of another person, a tool, magic or fate or solving a problem by willpower, wit or just by changing perspective. Then a game is conducted to help kids practice solution variations. They are expected to write their setting on red papers and problems on green papers. Then the coloured papers are collected and randomly distributed back to the kids. Then they are expected to find solutions to the new problems that their characters are facing in their new settings. Then a story writing exercise is conducted to demonstrate their knowledge. The kids are told to write a one-page story that starts with ‘When I woke up this morning, I realized that I turned into a mouse’ and ends with ‘As I stepped into the school bus, I was smiling’. The kids are expected to show, not tell the attributes of the characters that take place in this short story while solving the problem of turning into a mouse by wit, fate, magic, tool, change of perspective, etc. As all the four tools of formulating a story are covered, the following books are read to show different types of strong endings of stories: Bay Peabody’nin Elmalari - Mr. Peabody’s Apples by Madonna, Kasabanin En Sik Devi - The Smartest Giant in Town by J. Donaldson, Little Mouse’s Big Book Of Fears by E. Gravett, and Dedem Neden Guldu? - Why Did My Grandfather Laugh? by F. Erdogan. As the kids are done with the planning of their story with the help of the questionnaires filled for the four tools character, setting, problem and solution, they

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__________________________________________________________________ are ready to write their own story. The study ends by reading sessions that include training of criticizing as well. 6. Conclusion This study proves that even those kids that are thought to be reluctant writers can be encouraged to develop a positive attitude and talent in writing if a fun approach is adopted. The 15-hour workshop conducted proves to be a profound and usable solution for teaching kids how to write. The products generated during the workshop show radical differences than the ones written by the same kids in their homeroom classes. It can be concluded that writing can be taught to kids if it is presented in the form of play.

Bibliography Aka, Serkan and Ayse Pinar Koprucu. Ay Tutulmasi. Istanbul: İletisim Yayinlari, 2012. Benke, Karen. Rip the Page: Adventures in Creative Writing. Boston: Trumpeter Books, 2010. Donaldson, Julia. Kasabanin En Sik Devi. Istanbul: Popcore, 2007. Donaldson, Julia. Nohut Oda Bakla Sofa. Istanbul: Popcore, 2008. Dr. Seuss. On Beyond Zebra. New York: RandomHouse Inc., 1983. Erdogan, Fatih. Dedem Neden Guldu? Istanbul: Mavibulut, 2003. Erdogan, Fatih. Okula Gec Kaldim. Istanbul: Mavibulut, 1986. Foreman, Michael. Neyse ki, Ne Yazik ki. Istanbul: Kir Cicegi Yayinlari, 2010. Frank, Marjorie. If You’re Trying to Teach Kids How to Write… You’ve Gotta Have this Book! Nashville: Incentive Publications Inc., 1979. Gravett, Emily. Little Mouse’s Big Book of Fears. London: Macmillan Children’s Books, 2007. Halling, Thomas. Sansliyim Sanssizim. Istanbul: Kanat Çocuk, 2009. Johnson, Crockett. Harold and the Purple Crayon. USA: Harper Collins Publishers, 1987.

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__________________________________________________________________ Kline, Michael. Wordplay Café: Cool Codes, Priceless Punzles & Phantastic Phonetic Phun. Nashville: Williamson Books, 2005. Kozikoglu, Tulin. Yemegini Arayan Tirtil. Istanbul: Redhouse Kidz, 2012. Kozikoglu, Tulin. Ozgurlugunu Arayan Kelebek. Istanbul: Redhouse Kidz, 2013. Kozikoglu, Tulin. Kelebegini Arayan Tirtil. Ayse: Redhouse Kidz, 2013. Kozikoglu, Tulin. Bulutunu Arayan Su Damlasi. Istanbul: Redhouse Kidz, 2013. Kozikoglu, Tulin. Dondurma Yok mu? Peli. Istanbul: İletisim Yayınları, 2010. Livan, Paco. Canini En Cok Ne Yakar?. Istanbul: Redhouse Kidz, 2006. Leaf, Munro. The Story of Ferdinand. New York: Puffin Books, 1977. Lee, Suzy. Ombra. Mantova: Maurizio Corraini, 2010. Lee, Suzy. L’Onda. Mantova: Maurizio Corraini, 2008. Lee, Suzy. Mirror. Mantova: Seven Footer Kids, 2010. Madonna. Bay Peabody’nin Elmalari. Istanbul: Iletisim Yayinlari, 2003. Messenger, Norman. Imagine. London: Walker Books, 2005. Nordqvist, Sven. Dogum Gunu Pastasi. Istanbul: Guzel Kitaplar Yayinevi, 2007. Olien, Rebecca. Kids Write! Fantasy & Sci Fi, Mystery, Autobiography, Adventure & More! 10-13. Nashville: Williamson Books, 2005. Prap, Lila. Neden? Istanbul: Mavibulut, 2010. Prelutsky, Jack. ‘My Father’s Underwear’. In Pizza, Pigs and Poetry: How to Write a Poem, edited by Zapf Ellip, 1-4. New York: Greenwillow Books, 2008. Sayin, Betul. 5 Cocuk 5 Istanbul. Istanbul: Gunisigi Kitapligi, 2005. Silverstein, Shel. Comert Agac. Istanbul: Bulut, 2009. Tucker, Shelley. Word Weavings, 72-74. Glenview: Good Year Books, 1997.

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__________________________________________________________________ Wise Brown, Margaret. The Runaway Bunny. New York: Harper Collins Children’s Books, 2005. Tulin Kozikoglu is an award-winning children’s book author living in Istanbul, Turkey. Along with writing books, Kozikoglu writes children’s books reviews and travel articles for one of the major newspapers in Turkey. She also teaches creative writing to elementary school children and trains teachers to teach creative writing to kids.

Part II Writing in Sciences and Information

Science as Narrative: As Paradigm Change in Explaining Quantum Physics Georg Friedrich Simet Abstract The language of modern science is understood as focused on papers, texts within disciplinary related discourses. Such texts address specific topics of scientific interest by providing arguments for or against research theorems. Nevertheless, events, particularly in quantum reality cannot be described as just statements of ‘truth’: unambiguousness and independence; the writing about science needs new formats and styles. Zeilinger, for instances, uses the dialogue format in order to show the interested, non-expert audience how to reflect on and interpret quantum events. Instead of indicating single research outputs and outcomes as absolute statements he considers the dependence of the observed from what is, or what is to be observed. He concentrates on the development of quantum theorems and shows such development processes in progress, in more or less fictive dialogues. This approach brings us back to the times of Attic Philosophy. Plato was the first who made use of the dialogic form: to let the reader/listener participate in philosophy as on-going process of reflection. The result was not as interesting as comprehending the way: the method to achieve it. Most of Plato’s dialogues ended in aporia indecidability. Aristotle instead was the first who established science as a system of classified true statements. In the following centuries science became more and important and modern. But in the beginning of the 20th century, the discovery of quantum effects suddenly led to the questioning of its mechanistic assumptions. Looking deeper into the history of science, this story, initiated by Aristotle, turned out to be a narrative of errors that necessarily caused and still causes paradigm changes. Once, Aristotle’s results oriented approach rightly succeeded over Plato’s pure methodology. By today, however, it seems that Aristotle’s founding of science becomes an obsolescent model. Plato’s process oriented way of reflection could be more adequate for the post-modern discourse of science. Key Words: Zeilinger, Feyerabend, Bayesianism, entanglement, quantum physics, experiment, observation

Heisenberg,

Fuchs,

***** 1. Introduction: Using Dialogues in Scientific Contexts At present, we can observe a bit of a change in the concept of academic/scientific writing. Sometimes a dialogical form is used instead of the common, traditional prosaic one. So, we face a situation somehow comparable to the times of Athens about 400 BC. It is well known that in the Attic times of philosophy there were three main approaches existing in parallel: writing in prosaic

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__________________________________________________________________ form; writing in dialogue form; and an attitude to completely abstain from writing anything. 1 These positions are mostly identified with the philosophical heroes of Aristotle, Plato and Socrates. 2 In the first dialogues of Plato, Socrates is shown as a philosopher, interested in his dialogue partners. But in the course of time his attitude changed and he became and behaved like a philosophy professor – interested first of all in his own wisdom; and so the role of his counterparts changed. Their involvement was reduced more and more just to express their consent. The dialogues became soliloquys; lectures conducted in public, at the agora, the meeting point for intellectuals. In the last, 20th century, scientists like Anton Zeilinger and philosophers of science like Paul Feyerabend started to revive the tradition of debating by writing more or less philosophical, meta-physical dialogues. Feyerabend criticized Socrates’ know-all manner in the late dialogues of Plato, and so he tried to set up dialogues of a more realistic exchange of points and counterpoints in philosophical discussions. Nevertheless, he was aware of the fact that even such dialogues happen ‘on paper’ and ‘not in action with living human beings’. 3 Furthermore, he criticized Plato of spurning the drama as entertainment of the public and ‘making his contribution to logo-mania’, 4 as he used the format of dialogues not to show (more or less) real conflicts in debate – in modern terms called discourses – but just pseudo debates. Feyerabend instead used the dialogue as format to unmask the philosophical debates of his time in general (e.g. in the dialogue ‘Platonic Phantasies’) and his opponents and their way of argumentation in particular, e.g. in his ‘First Dialogue on Knowledge’. Furthermore, he used the dialogical form to answer his opponents, e.g. in ‘Second Dialogue on Knowledge’. 5 Feyerabend‘s position is interesting not only as he was offered the post of personal assistant by Bertold Brecht, 6 the most famous dramatist of his times who deeply analysed e.g. the dialogical structure in Galileo Galilei’s scientific work. Brecht used Galilei’s controversy with the Roman Church to bring it into a drama to be played on stage; Feyerabend used it to show just how Galilei exchanged arguments, particularly in his ‘Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems’, 7 a selftalk, in a strict dualistic, antagonistic way by constant alternating between pro and con in order to develop his own position between – the paradigms of – traditionalists (the Church) and modernists (like Copernicus). 8 2. Zeilinger’s Re-Use of the Dialogue Form A different approach and use of the dialogue format can be seen in Anton Zeilinger’s book Dance of the Photons. Zeilinger uses the dialogue between three fictive protagonists, namely Alice and Bob as inexperienced and John, or Professor Quantinger respectively, as experienced know-all experts, to illustrate the way quantum theorists discuss their observations and findings, develop hypotheses and

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__________________________________________________________________ provide explanations. Zeilinger’s book starts with an introduction of Rupert into his dissertation in ‘Long-Distance Quantum Teleportation’. He is the one who introduces Alice and Bob to the reader: Rupert talks about »Alice« and »Bob« sending photons to each other and talking to each other as if they were humans. But it turns out that they are experimentalist. The names come from the cryptography community, in which it is important to make sure that messages sent between two people cannot be read or heard by unauthorized third parties. Rupert continues: »Initially, people called the sender of the message ‘A’ and the receiver ‘B’, and then someone thought it better to simply call them ‘Alice’ and ‘Bob’, to make it easier to talk about them. 9 As it ‘is quantum entanglement that makes quantum teleportation possible’, 10 Zeilinger has to explain firstly the meaning of entanglement to his readers, before secondly discussing teleportation. Doing so, Zeilinger refers to the dialogue between Alice and Bob in order to use it as a way to demonstrate how experimentalists work. But, as he wishes to write for an audience that is interested, but more or less in-experienced in quantum physics, he changes the protagonists’ functions and the whole setting: The dialogue plays at a university. Alice and Bob are introduced as first-year students in physics. When they ask Professor Quantinger about some literature in quantum physics, he invites them to ‘a real scientific experiment, a graduate project that was published recently. John, my graduate student, set it up’. 11 John is asked to assist Alice and Bob. He tells them what to do: ‘You have to make careful observations, play with the little equipment you have, make up your own story, and try to find out whether it’s right’. 12 Both inexperienced protagonists are receivers with whom the readers of the book can identify themselves; their function is simply to measure what they receive, the – behaviourists would say responses – from a source, hidden under a black box, to structure the received data and to interpret their findings. They are not told what they receive; and that is why a third protagonist, John, is needed who installs and controls the set-up of the experiment, motivates the two and provides a few hints. At first, the first day of the tale, Alice and Bob ‘discovered that there is no order in the data’; at second, the second day, they found out ‘that our photons are emitted by the source in pairs’; at third, the third day in fiction, they ‘saw that when both of us measured the polarization at the same orientation, we got the same result’. 13 Finally, at fourth, the fourth day, they were ‘able to understand the numbers more precisely: ‘the numbers of events’ 14] ‘they measured’. 15 In Bob’s words: In the case where we had the same setting on both sides, we obtained perfect correlations. … As the source cannot know

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__________________________________________________________________ which polarization to emit the photons do not have any polarization before the measurement. But in the moment of measurement, they have the same polarization. 16 In case where they had not the same setting of their polarizers on both sides, they found out the following stochastic coherences: … for all other experiments, they got] the same kind of data: 75 percent equal results and 25 percent different ones. But for the combination plus-minus und minus-plus, the results look quite different. Here, they find 25 percent identical results and 75 percent different ones. ‘But this is easily explained’, Alice says, ‘because there is an angle of 60 degrees between the plus and minus polarizer orientations. And then, Malus’ law predicts just what we observed’. 17 This short research process, limited to observation, shows the readers that it is not easy to find out structures in the measured data. Furthermore, it makes clear that findings can be verified by already discovered laws; 18 and interpretations are based on assumptions. Zeilinger uses the dialogical format to tell a story in order to try to make understandable to non-experts how quantum physical observations were/are used to develop hypotheses and, furthermore, why the concept of a nonrealism theory – a position that is in opposite to very famous physicists like Einstein – today is shared by most experts. 19 Alice’ and Bob’s findings show: The conflict of quantum physics with that philosophical view of local realise appears only for the statistical predictions of quantum mechanics, while local realism is very well able to explain the perfect correlations. After all, perfect correlations are the domain of classical physics. That is, there we can make predictions with certainty once we know enough features of a system after all quantum mechanics is a statistical theory. 20 The quotations show a tendency to anthropomorphise. The introduction of dialogues and interpretative approaches by the equation of the source and the entangled photons as quasi actors are needed as quantum processes conflict with our understanding of everyday experiences of physical processes and events as certain, causal, steadily and linear in principle. Quantum processes instead are not self-explanatory, as they seem to be indefinite, ambiguous: ‘Laws of nature are limited by the so-called uncertainty relations’, as Werner Heisenberg calls this phenomenon. 21 In this regard he draws our attention to the language dilemma:

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__________________________________________________________________ Each physical experiment – independent of whether it is related to appearances of daily life or atom physics – has to be described in the terms of classical physics. We cannot substitute them by others. 22 The reason behind this approach is the assumed fundamental difference between macroscopic properties like the measurement results and the observed microscopic quantum processes. The ‘language in which we talk about atomic appearances] was not adapted to the mathematical art language’. 23 Instead we use pictures and word paintings in order to ‘come close to the real happening’. 24 The tendency to anthropomorphism and the use of metaphorical expressions are not the only difficulties in translating quantum mechanics into everyday language. Furthermore, the interpretation of data may lead to wrong concepts. 25 The intervention of know-all experts seems necessary – at least the dialogue shows that – to correct rash judgments without reflecting other theoretical concepts, experimental findings and/or not yet falsified laws. 26 Last but not least, in the discourse of quantum mechanics the concept of knowledge as just perception fails. 3. Local Realism Contra Bayesianism Zeilinger’s dialogue between Alice, Bob and John/the Professor Quantinger does not cover all aspects of quantum physics, but it concentrates on the most important aspect: that findings are not purely objective. There is some connection between the experimentor/measurer/observer as subject and the experimented/measured/observed thing as object. This connection is not further clarified by the experiment itself. It opens room for interpretation; and so there exist a lot of ideas and concepts for explanation. 27 Nevertheless, the fundamental concept of realism, of independence is the only explanation that seems to be proved as inadequate in this regard. So, it is not of surprise that one of the most cited papers of science is the socalled EPR paper named after its authors Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen. In their famous article, published in 1935, they try to justify their concept of local realism by asking: Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered complete? According to the authors, physical theories have to be firstly correct and secondly complete. The authors do not doubt that the quantum-mechanical description is correct, but they doubt that it is complete. Nevertheless, even the criterion of correctness is hardly fulfilled by definition, as far as: The correctness of the theory is judged by the degree of agreement between the conclusions of the theory and human experience. This experience, which alone enables us to make

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__________________________________________________________________ inferences about reality, in physics takes the form of experiment and measurement. 28 This definition does not reflect that human activities like experimenting, measuring and observing are intended interventions in physical processes. According to Christopher Fuchs we should not ‘hold on to an agent-independent notion of correctness for otherwise personalistic quantum states’. 29 In this regard Fuchs’ statement does not meet the condition of completeness as required by the ERP paper. It states that ‘every element of the physical reality must have a counterpart in the physical theory’ 30 in the way that at least the following criterion is fulfilled: If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty i.e. with probability equal to unity, the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of physical reality corresponding to this physical quantity. 31 In relation to this outline of a physical theory, Fuchs’ interpretation of quantum states is to be seen as a radical paradigm change. For him ‘quantum mechanics is an addition to Bayesian probability theory’; 32 and in this regard, for him as a Quantum Bayesian, quantum theory is not something outside probability theory―it is not a picture of the world as it is, as say Einstein’s program of a unified field theory hoped to be. 33 Against the realists’ world view he postulates: There is certainly no little agent sitting on the inside of the device devilishly sending out quantum systems representative of his beliefs, and smiling as an experimenter on the outside slowly homes in on those private thoughts through his experiments. 34 Fuchs opposes ‘those who attempt to remove the observer too quickly from quantum mechanics by giving quantum states an unfounded ontic status’. 35 In opposite: ‘probability is a degree of belief’. 36 Quantum states are ‘epistemic states not ontic ones’. 37 In contradiction to Einstein and the realists Fuchs sees ‘physics as a subject of thought. It is a dynamic interplay between storytelling and equation writing’. 38 In opposition to the ERP paper which claims that the ‘elements of the physical reality cannot be determined by a priori philosophical considerations’. 39 Fuchs demands: ‘The interpretation should come first; the mathematics should be secondary’. 40

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__________________________________________________________________ What we can see from these few statements is a ‘fundamental paradigm shift’, 41 as Kuhn would call it, in how to discuss physics. The necessity to give up the concept of realism leads to the re-valuation of the acting subject, ‘the experimenter the agent’. 42 Nature is not explaining itself by purely observation. In contrast, concepts like the Quantum Bayesianism’s view are ‘a statement about the impact of counterfactuality’. 43 The experimenter has to interpret what he observed in order to understand it. 44 4. Feyerabend’s Fundamental Critics on Science As physicists are/have to become storytellers, we face a similar situation as in the times of Attic Philosophy when philosophers had to compete with Sophists who offered their service in teaching for instance on how ‘to make the weaker argument the stronger – for money’. 45 This is the reason why Feyerabend – as philosopher of science who often concentrated in his investigations on quantum theory 46 – goes back in his publications to Plato’s dialogues, in particular to The Republic and Theaetetus. 47 He wishes to stress that already Plato claimed and convincingly argued that knowledge has to correspond to truth. 48 Knowledge cannot be equated to just argumentation. It needs a solid foundation. Normally this is seen in perception. Nevertheless, as already Plato showed in detail, perception can be misleading. 49 That is why Feyerabend introduced the term contra-inductive into methodology. 50 He worked out that famous physicists like Copernicus and Galilei developed their models in contradiction to everyday experience and the dominant scientific model of their times. 51 Although they were conscious about their difficult position in being doubtful about the very dominant explanation, they outweighed the traditional way of thinking. They were modern thinkers in the tradition of Descartes who claimed in his Meditationes de prima Philosophia that doubt was a fundamental principle of thinking. 52 All of our world-views are interpretations. Data by themselves do not explain anything. The information they contain has to be extracted. In case of the story Zeilinger tells, the investigators have to reflect on the data in order to understand them. 53 We can only explain what we understood and how we understood it. Explanation in this regard depends on our tradition and beliefs. According to Feyerabend ‘scientific theories are ways of looking at the world and their adoption affects our general beliefs and expectations, and thereby also our experiences and our conception of reality’. 54 This is the reason why: ‘Experimental evidence does not consist of facts pure and simple, but of facts analysed, modelled, and manufactured according to some theory’. 55 But theories can be changed and new ones can be invented. Bohr’s contention that the account of all quantummechanical evidence must forever ‘be expressed in classical terms’ 56 was and is a wrong conclusion, as De Broglie and Schrödinger tried to develop an entirely new theory for the description of the nature and the behaviour of atoms, molecules, and

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__________________________________________________________________ their constituents. 57 On the ‘statistical character of the theory’, 58 Fuchs developed his interpretation of ‘quantum mechanics an addition to Bayesian probability theory’, 59 as already discussed. This little example shows that and how theories can be renewed, changed and linked with other theories. 60 Because of these possibilities Feyerabend demands the ‘freedom of interpretation’. 61 5. Conclusion By discussing new developments in quantum physics the chapter shows that experiments and observations are not self-explanatory. Theories are needed in order to explain them. As the classic physical theory fails, quantum theorists have to seek for new stories. Like in the times of Attic Philosophy using dialogues can be a suitable approach to show how to proceed scientifically towards the interested public.

Notes There also existed other forms like writing in letters or rhyme. Although Plato’s ‘Seventh Letter’ became very famous, this form was rarely used and could not prevail. The same belongs to the writing in rhymes as e.g. the pre-Socratics Parmenides and Empedocles did. 2 Later on Boethius (480-524 AC) wrote his ‘De consolatione Philosophiae’ in rhymes. 3 Paul K. Feyerabend, Die Torheit der Philosophen: Dialoge über die Erkenntnis (Hamburg: Junius, 1995), 150. 4 Ibid. 5 Paul K. Feyerabend, ‘First Dialogue (1990)’, in Three Dialogues on Knowledge (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 3-45; Paul K. Feyerabend, ‘Second Dialogue (1976)’, in Three Dialogues on Knowledge, 47-123. 6 Paul K. Feyerabend, Killing Time (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), 73. 7 Paul K. Feyerabend, The Tyranny of Science (Cambridge: Polity, 2011), 111. 8 Paul K. Feyerabend, Against Method (London and New York: Verso, 3. ed., 2010), 61-73. 9 Anton Zeilinger, Dance of the Photons: From Einstein to Quantum Teleportation (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), 6. 10 Ibid., 46. 11 Ibid., 58-59. 12 Ibid., 62. 13 Ibid., 128. 14 Ibid., 136. 15 Ibid., 131. 1

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__________________________________________________________________ Ibid. Ibid., 130f-131. 18 According to Hempel and Oppenheim ‘the explanation of a general regularity consists in subsuming it under another, more comprehensive regularity, under a more general law’. Carl G. Hempel and Paul Oppenheim, ‘Studies in the Logic of Explanation’, Philosophy of Science 15.2 (1948): 136. 19 Zeiliger seems to share the Kukaswadia’s approach: ‘We [scientists] need to tell the story of science – the background, ie. why your research happened, and then the consequences, ie. why your research matters’. Atif Kukaswadia, ‘Science and Storytelling: The Use of Stories in Science Education’, Viewed 7 November 2013, http://blogs.plos.org/scied/2013/06/24/science-and-storytelling-the-use-of-storiesin-science-education. 20 Zeilinger, Dance of the Photons, 219. 21 Werner Heisenberg, Sprache und Wirklichkeit in der modernen Physik (München und Zürich: R. Piper, 1984), 290; translated from German by the author. 22 Ibid., 289; translated from German by the author. – The same approach was shared by Niels Bohr whose assistant Heisenberg was in the 1920s. Paul K. Feyerabend, Explanation, Reduction and Empiricism, (Cambridge, London, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 54 and 88. 23 Heisenberg, Sprache und Wirklichkeit in der modernen Physik, 289; translated from German by the author. 24 Ibid. translated from German by the author. – New concepts, however, recommend a pure quantum mechanical understanding, like Zeh’s concept of decoherence: Heinz-Dieter Zeh, Physik ohne Realität [Physics without Reality]: Tiefsinn oder Wahnsinn? (Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London and New York: Springer, 2012), 85. Decoherence means the ‘inevitable entanglement with the environment, which defines the true border line between microphysics and macrophysics’. Heinz-Dieter Zeh, ‘The Strange (Hi)Story of Particles and Waves’, Viewed 3 November 2013, http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~as3/ParticlesOrWaves.pdf, 12. 25 For instance, the concept of local hidden variables could be experimentally rejected by John Bell in 1964. Zeilinger, Dance of the Photons, 136-137. 26 According to Popper, theories have to be phrased in a way that makes it possible to falsify them. Nevertheless: ‘The method of falsification [… already] was an important element of Aristotle’s method’. Paul K. Feyerabend, On the Limited Validity of Methodological Rules (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 164. 27 Hans Ch. von Bayer‚ ‘Eine neue Quantentheorie‘. Spektrum der Wissenschaft 11 (2013), 50-51. 16 17

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__________________________________________________________________ Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, ‘Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?’ Physical Review 47 (1935), 777. 29 Christopher A. Fuchs, ‘QBism, the Perimeter of Quantum Bayesianism’, in arXiv.org; quant-ph; arXiv:1003.5209; Viewed 4 November 2013, http://arxiv.org/pdf/1003.5209v1.pdf, 7, left column. 30 Einsten, Podolsky, Rosen, Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete? 777; in the original typed in italics. 31 Ibid. 32 Fuchs, ‘QBism, the Perimeter of Quantum Bayesianism’, 13, left column. 33 Ibid., 9, left column. 34 Ibid., right column. 35 Ibid., 3, right column. 36 Ibid., 5, left column. – It is important to note that Fuchs’ concept of (subjective) probability differs from that of ‘objective probability’ to which theorists like Popper mostly refer. See Sir Karl R. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), 163. – A similar position expresses Zeh: ‘The observed quantum world, that is, the »relative state« of the world with respect to the quantum states representing our subjective states of awareness’. Zeh, ‘The Strange (Hi)Story of Particles and Waves’, 21-22. 37 Christopher A. Fuchs, ‘Interview with a Quantum Bayesian’, in arXiv.org, quant-ph, arXiv: 1207.2141, Viewed 4 November 2013, http://arxiv.org/pdf/1207.2141v1.pdf, 16. 38 Ibid., 5. 39 Einsten, Podolsky, Rosen, Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete? 777, right column. 40 Fuchs, Interview with a Quantum Bayesian, 5. 41 Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, with an introductory essay by Ian Hacking. Fourth ed. (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2012). 42 Fuchs, QBism, the Perimeter of Quantum Bayesianism, 9, right column. 43 Ibid., 12, right column. 44 Charles S. Peirce showed in his revision of Hegel’s dialectic approach that impressions/phenomena (‘firstness’) can be understood (as ‘secondness’) only through theoretical concepts (by ‘thirdness’). Charles S. Peirce, Sundry Logical Conceptions (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1998), 267269. 45 ‘… τὸν ἥττω… λόγον κρείτττω ποιεῖν’. – This fragment of Protagoras originates from Aristotle; but according to Diels and Kranz its truth is doubtful. Protagoras, Fragment 15 (Dublin and Zürich: Weidmann, 1969), 266. 28

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__________________________________________________________________ Although a lot of Feyerabend’s papers refer to quantum theory, the following papers show it in their titles: ‘On the Quantum Theory of Measurement’, ‘Reichenbach’s Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics’, ‘Niels Bohr’s World View’ and ‘Hidden Variables and the Argument of Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen’, all of them published in: Paul K. Feyerabend, Realism, Rationalism and Scientific Method (Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, 1981). 47 Feyerabend, The Tyranny of Science, 21, 61, 67, 74 and 103. For instance in the ‘little dialogue’ called ‘Warum nicht Platon?’ [Why not Plato?] Paul K. Feyerabend, Thesen zum Anarchismus: Artikel aus der Reihe „Unter dem Pflaster liegt der Strand’, ed. Thorsten Hinz (Berlin: Karin Kramer, 1996), 197-206; Paul K. Feyerabend, Conquest of Abundance: A Tale of Abstraction versus the Richness of Being (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1999), 67-68. 48 Ibid., 67-68, 72-74 and 255-260. 49 Ibid., 67-68 and 72-74. 50 Feyerabend uses the term ‘counterinductive’. It refers to theory building: ‘theories […] are discovered counterinductively’, if they ‘are inconsistent with the facts’. Paul K. Feyerabend, Against Method, 56. 51 Ibid., 53-56. 52 René Descartes, Meditationes de prima philosophia (Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 1977), 30-40. 53 Even Hempel and Oppenheim state: ‘It is often felt that only the discovery of a micro-theory affords real scientific understanding of any type of phenomenon, because only it gives us insight into the inner mechanism of the phenomenon, so to speak’. Hempel and Oppenheim, Studies in the Logic of Explanation, 259. 54 Paul K. Feyerabend, Explanation, Reduction and Empiricism (Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 45. 55 Ibid., 61. 56 Ibid., 88. 57 Feyerabend, Realism and Instrumentalism (Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 195. 58 Ibid., 195. 59 Fuchs, QBism, the Perimeter of Quantum Bayesianism, 13, left column. 60 Feyerabend criticises Hempel and Oppenheim. According to him ‘replacement rather than incorporation, or derivation […], is seen to be the process that characterizes the transition from a less general theory to a more general one’. Feyerabend, Explanation, Reduction and Empiricism, 80. 61 Ibid., 52. 46

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Bibliography Descartes, René. Meditationes de prima philosophia. Meditationen über die Grundlagen der Philosophie, Second edition edited by Lüder Gäbe. Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 1977. Einstein, Albert, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen. ‘Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?’ Physical Review 47 (1935): 777-780. Feyerabend, Paul K. Against Method. Third Edition. London and New York: Verso, 2010. –––. Conquest of Abundance: A Tale of Abstraction versus the Richness of Being, edited by Bert Terpstra. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1999. –––. ‘Explanation, Reduction and Empiricism’. In Realism, Rationalism and Scientific Method, 44-96. Cambridge, London, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. –––. ‘Hidden Variables and the Argument of Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen’. In Realism, Rationalism and Scientific Method, 298-342. Cambridge, London, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. –––. Killing Time: The Autobiography of Paul Feyerabend. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1995. –––. ‘Niels Bohr’s World View’. In Realism, Rationalism and Scientific Method, 247-297. Cambridge, London, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. –––. ‘On the Limited Validity of Methodological Rules’. In Knowledge, Science and Relativism: Philosophical Papers, Vol. 3, edited by John Preston, 138-180. Cambridge, London, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. –––. ‘On the Quantum Theory of Measurement’. In Realism, Rationalism and Scientific Method, 207-218. Cambridge, London, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981.

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__________________________________________________________________ –––. ‘Platonische Phantasien’ [Platonic Phantasies]. In Die Torheit der Philosophen: Dialoge über die Erkenntnis, 7-78. Aus dem Englischen von Henning Thies. Hamburg: Junius, 1995. –––. ‘Realism and Instrumentalism’. In Realism, Rationalism and Scientific Method, 176-202. Cambridge, London, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. –––. Realism, Rationalism and Scientific Method: Philosophical Papers, vol. 1. Cambridge, London, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. –––. ‘Reichenbach’s Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics’. In Realism, Rationalism and Scientific Method, 236-246. Cambridge, London, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. –––. Science in a Free Society. Fourth Edition. London: Verso Editions/NLB, 1987. –––. Thesen zum Anarchismus [Theses on Anarchism]: Artikel aus der Reihe “Unter dem Pflaster liegt der Strand”, edited by Thorsten Hinz. Berlin: Karin Kramer, 1996. –––. Three Dialogues on Knowledge. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991. –––. Die Torheit der Philosophen: Dialoge über die Erkenntnis [The Foolishness of Philosophers: Dialogues on Knowledge]. Aus dem Englischen von Henning Thies. Hamburg: Junius, 1995. –––. The Tyranny of Science, edited by Eric Oberheim. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2011. Fuchs, Christopher. ‘A. QBism, the Perimeter of Quantum Bayesianism’. In arXiv: 1003.5209v1, 26 March 2010. Viewed 4 November 2013. http://arxiv.org/pdf/1003.5209v1.pdf. –––. ‘Interview with a Quantum Bayesian’. In arXiv: 1207.2141v1, 9 July 2012. Viewed 4 November 2013. http://arxiv.org/pdf/1207.2141v1.pdf.

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__________________________________________________________________ Heisenberg, Werner. ‘Sprache und Wirklichkeit in der modernen Physik’. In Gesammelte Werke/Collected Works. vol. 2: Physik und Erkenntnis 1956-1968, 271-301. München und Zürich: R. Piper, 1984. Hempel, Carl G. and Paul Oppenheim. ‘Studies in the Logic of Explanation’. Philosophy of Science 15.2 (1948): 135-175. Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, with an introductory essay by Ian Hacking. Fourth Edition. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2012. Kukaswadia, Atif. ‘Science and Storytelling: The Use of Stories in Science Education’. June 24, 2013. Viewed 4 November 2013. http://blogs.plos.org/scied/2013/06/24/science-and-storytelling-the-use-of-storiesin-science-education. Blog. Peirce, Charles S. ‘Sundry Logical Conceptions‘. In The Essential Peirce: Selected Philosophical Writings, vol. 2 (1893-1913), edited by the Peirce Edition Project, 267-288. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1998. Platon. ‘Θεαίτητος – Theaitetos’. In Sämtliche Werke, edited by Karlheinz Hülser. Vol. 6, 151-367. Frankfurt a.M. and Leipzig, 1991. –––. ‘Πολιτεία – Politeia/Der Staat’. In Sämtliche Werke, edited by Karlheinz Hülser. Vol. 9, 9-787. Frankfurt a.M. and Leipzig, 1991. Popper, Sir Karl R. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. London and New York: Routledge, 2002. Protagoras. Fragmente [fragments]. In Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker Griechisch und Deutsch, edited by Hermann Diels and Walther Kranz. Vol. 2, 253271. Dublin and Zürich: Weidmann, 1969. Schrödinger, Erwin. Was ist Leben? Die lebende Zelle mit den Augen des Physikers betrachtet. Mit einer Einführung von Ernst P. Fischer. Aus dem Englischen von L. Mazurcak. München and Zürich: Piper, 1987. Von Bayer, Hans Ch. ‘Eine neue Quantentheorie’ [originally published with the title ‘Quantum Weirdness? It's All in Your Mind’]. In Spektrum der Wissenschaft 11 (2013) [German issue of Scientific American, June 2013]: 46–51.

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__________________________________________________________________ Zeh, Heinz-Dieter. Physik ohne Realität [Physics without Reality]: Tiefsinn oder Wahnsinn? Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London and New York: Spinger, 2012. –––. ‘The Strange (Hi)Story of Particles and Waves’. October 2013. Viewed 3 November 2013. http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~as3/ParticlesOrWaves.pdf. Zeilinger, Anton. Dance of the Photons: From Einstein to Quantum Teleportation. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010. Georg Friedrich Simet earned his doctorate in Philosophy. He is co-founder and co-owner of the Neuss University for International Business. In addition to his position as Vice President he gives lectures in Scientific Writing and Theory of Science. He very much enjoys to participate in international and global conferences and to exchange ideas on diverse subjects in multicultural environments.

Building an Argumentative Line in Academic Papers Svetlana Sorokina Abstract Being the basis for accumulating, storing and transmitting scientific knowledge to both contemporary and further generations, academic texts are expected to conform to particular regulations invariable for the given genre and to properly reflect the structure of cognitive process based on putting forward and testing certain hypotheses, explaining the results of the research and providing adequate, consistent reasoning. Having the intention to communicate the message as precisely as possible, every author pursues a twofold goal – to present a well formulated idea in the most consistent and coherent way and to convince the experienced, informed readers in the research relevance. Given the peculiarities of structure and the nature of argumentation, scholarly article is treated as an argumentative discourse and argumentation as a communicative process related to the analysis and selection of appropriate arguments. The present research aims to investigate communicative strategies employed by the writer and their grammatical and lexical implementation that proves to contribute to building a cogent argumentative line in journal articles and maintaining commonly accepted principles of politeness, tolerance, and respect to the existing scholarly viewpoints. The research findings reveal the most common strategies scholarly writers use when creating their argumentative papers such as strategies of distancing, softening, understatement, etc. The chapter considers these strategies’ role in maintaining the balance between the author’s intention to provide strong, straightforward pro-arguments in favour of a premise and to comply with the academic writing etiquette. Key Words: Communication strategies, argumentative, argumentation, research, reasoning, understatement, intention, etiquette. ***** 1. Introduction In recent years, a world-wide increase in research work and consequently, in demand for research skills has justified a boost in publishing activity seeking to present the research results to the academy. Scholarly research is expected to be consistent with the existing theoretical standpoints being developed during the investigation process that requires thorough analysis of academic literature providing a theoretical basis to the study. A scientific text is characterized by the variety of linguistic and grammar structures, common terminology and special terms and by logical continuity achieved by distinct structure-linguistic links

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__________________________________________________________________ between the ideas and paragraphs, and special message delivery techniques one of which is argumentation. Being conducted in a certain language and directed at other people’s thinking and probable feedback, argumentation is both a verbal and social activity. As an activity of reasoning, argumentation is based on the assumption that the arguer has given some thought to the subject and is putting forward an argument to show his or her attitude to the matter. The need for argumentation arises when opinions concerning a certain subject differ or are supposed to differ. By itself, holding an opinion is not enough to initiate argumentation. Argumentation starts from the presumption, that the arguer’s view is not immediately accepted and that there is a recipient who entertains doubt about an opinion or has a diverging opinion. In other words, the arguer is urged to put forward a different point of view, suggest comments on or give an explanation to a novel perspective. The present research aims to investigate communicative strategies employed by the writer and their grammatical and lexical implementation that proves to contribute to building a cogent argumentative line in journal articles and maintaining commonly accepted principles of politeness, tolerance, and respect to the existing scholarly viewpoints. 2. Scholarly Text Peculiarities Being the most comprehensive speech unit, a text of any genre is perceived a close completed system, synthesis of perspective and pragmatic aspects, i.e. text content, semantics, composition, structure, semiotics. Advocating this standpoint Sviridova distinguishes three levels of text building: correlative as a logical and intentional level where the link with the object of thinking is established; corrective as a language level where all language tools at a certain period are presented; elective as a speech level where the synonymous language tools are analysed and the most appropriate ones are selected by the text author seeking to transmit the information with the highest accuracy possible. 1 This process allows for the maximum accuracy of communicating the essence of the author’s message and, consequently, achieving the identity of creating and rendering the author’s thoughts. One of the goals pursued by researchers is to stay within the framework of conventions, etiquette and the code of good practice. To comply with the invariable requirements aimed at representing the cognitive process structure, a scholarly text is expected to be unbiased, conceptual, logical and consistent; based on empirical analysis conducted with relevant methods, providing cogent arguments. All the premises put forward need to be justified; the arguments to be logically delivered and critical thinking employed. Critical approach presupposes speculation, polytheoretical description, and interpretation variety that results in varied wording seeking to explain and clarify complicated notions and to justify the author’s standpoint. Galperin suggests the following categories a scholarly text is based on:

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__________________________________________________________________ - Information value – i.e. texts seek to communicate various data depending on the pragmatic goals; - Integration – i.e. every further text segment is semantically linked to the previous one and there is a linear perception of the information even though there may be some deviations from the main narration stream; - Segmentation – i.e. scholarly texts are subdivided into particular segments within their structure depending on the paper type; - Modality – i.e. the category aimed at reflecting the writer’s attitude to the potential or actual implication of the data presented; - Prospective exposition – i.e. further facts are declared beforehand letting the reader concentrate on reading, mentally prepare for understanding the message; - Retrospective exposition – i.e. the author refers to the previously presented issues essential for further narrative or for reconsideration in new circumstances; - Accentuation – i.e. the author emphasizes meaningful issues and attracts the reader’s attention by interpreting, clarifying, highlighting with the aim to convince the reader. 2 A lack of direct contact with the recipient in written communication increases the importance of clarity, consistency, cohesion and coherence. To meet these requirements academic texts employ generally accepted terms, clichés, and lexical and grammar patterns and have to conform to the scholarly publishing conventions such as MLA 3 applied in humanitarian sciences, APA 4 typical of papers in medicine, sociology and economics, CMS 5 used in some social science publications and historical journals, and less spread ones such as AAA, 6 CSE, 7 and others. Whatever the variety of scholarly publishing conventions might be, the analysis of literature justifies that the underlying characteristics of academic style of writing are as follows: 8 At the lexical level the usage of - terms e.g. decimal point - in mathematics, balanced scorecard, benchmarking - in management, hedged performative – in linguistics. - iteration within a short context (e.g. A key question in the managerial cognition literature is the extent to which individuals within organisations have similar or different cognitions. The focus of empirical studies, however, has been on cognition related to industry and competition...) - clichés or rather extended word collocations accepted in academic writing (e.g. not devoid of some serious drawbacks, a deviation from the mainstream, root and branch transformation) - academic vocabulary (e.g. hypothesize, subsequent, perspective, portray)

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__________________________________________________________________ At the morphological level the usage of - abstract nouns (e.g. argumentation, concept) - verbal nouns (e.g. evaluation, collaboration) - words of Greek and Latin origin (e.g. Greek: heterogeneous, schematic; Latin: nexus, insinuation m - passive voice (e.g. The data were collected from 105 chief executive officers…) At the syntactical level the predominance of - complex and compound sentences (e.g. Further greenfield ventures provide an option to expand, increasing the investment incrementally as more information about the market becomes available, allowing firms to create a smaller operation (compared to an acquisition) if demand turns out to be lower than expected, and finally provide a mechanism for abandonment at lower cost than an acquisition (which requires the entire investment be made at the start) if it becomes clear that demand will not materialize.) - declarative sentences since the key goal of scholarly papers is to report either accumulated or generated knowledge (e.g. The evidence suggests that acquisitions are a good choice only when firms enter markets containing low demand uncertainty...) - noun-based phrases rather than verb-based phrases (e.g. multistage life cycle models; university-based technology commercialization ) Given the fact that scholarly text is to comply with standardized rules and regulations typical of a particular area, these requirements may vary from study to study. 3. Text Argumentative Nature Argumentation is admitted to be a social, intellectual, verbal activity aimed at justifying or refuting a premise. Being represented by a system of assertions to be understood and shared by a certain audience, argumentation is concerned with the analysis and selection of appropriate arguments. Argument is trinomial in structure as it is based on a premise, reasoning and judgment or logical consequences. The structure of argumentation is more complicated as it includes communication components: a sender of the message or the author, a receiver or the readers and a set of particular terminology that is especially important for scholarly texts created within the framework of concepts specific to a particular study or theory. Text as a knowledge transmitter reflects the structure of a thought process aimed at finding an answer to a question or the solution to a practical problem with the help of a certain system of actions. In the present research a text is maintained to have an argumentative nature. Thus, the qualities typical of argumentation are assumed true for an argumentative text.

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__________________________________________________________________ Being guided by the proposition that argumentation has a dual nature: logical in structure and rhetorical in content, an argumentative text is asserted to be the integrity of two processes: internal related to the selection of the most adequate linguistic forms and external related to the social interaction with the reader. Moreover, being based on predication, argumentation is considered to be a cognitive process as it generates information perception, processing and representation; a mental process involving speculation, explanation, confirmation, correction, or objection; a communicative process aimed at transmitting a message and eliminating cognitive and axiological dissonance interpreted as the deviation between two types or levels of background knowledge. Thus, while reporting on the research results the author is to appeal to the readers’ thinking, to convince them of the data relevance. Consequently, considering all the features of argumentation an argumentative text can be described as the result of a social, cognitive, verbal activity aimed at justifying or refuting a proposition basing on a system of evidence substantiated in the process of reasoning with the purpose to convince a target audience through an adequately structured argumentative line. 4. Argumentation Strategies A difference of opinions may be completely overt and explicit, i.e. expressed directly. However, in practice the controversy often remains covert and implicit, the viewpoint itself remaining obscure. Kuzmenkova explains the tendency of indirection and ambiguity in communicating viewpoints by the peculiarities of national communicative behaviour of English speakers who tend to seek a compromise and to pursue mental restraint. 9 This peculiarity of English communication is seen as the habit not to put everything in words but keep something back. In his research Frans H. van Eemeren suggests that the arguer’s standpoint can vary in firmness, nature, and scope. 10 Thus, as it can be sees in Table 1, presented as absolute a standpoint is firmer than a more retrained standpoint. Table 1: Absolute vs. retrained standpoints Absolute standpoint It is instructive to briefly discuss studies that focus on the United States.

Retrained standpoint The difference-in-difference approach is likely to be the most credible…

A viewpoint pertaining to a factual judgment is different in nature from the one referring to a value judgment. See Table 2. Both types of judgments play important part in academic writing since one of the scholar’s aims is to present the extant views processed and critically analysed.

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__________________________________________________________________ Table 2: Factual vs. value judgments Factual judgment No comparable data are available on the development of the financial sector …

Value judgment The analogy between health outcomes and education outcomes,…, is not perfect

Referring to all members of a certain class has a wider scope than a standpoint referring to only one member due to the level of generalization revealed. Table 3: Generalization of standpoint wider scope = generalization Although early work on this topic often betrayed a general presumption that economic crises would have a negative impact on education and health outcomes, the actual empirical findings reveal no such simple regularity.

narrow scope = instance Some recessions have led to reduction in school enrolment, as in Costa Rica between 1981 and 1982, while others have led to substantial increases, as in the United States during the Great Depression.

Therefore, formulated in various ways, viewpoints of any type might give rise to argumentation intended to justify or refute someone’s standpoint. The intention is considered an argumentative justification when attempting to defend a viewpoint or an argumentative refutation when aiming to attack a standpoint. Justifying or refuting a viewpoint proceeds by putting forward propositions. In case of argumentation, the constellation of propositions has, due to its justificatory or refutatory force, a special communicative function. In an attempt to advocate a viewpoint, the constellation of propositions consists of pro-arguments (‘reasons for’); while in an attempt to refute a viewpoint, it consists of contra-arguments (‘reasons against’). Arguers often restrict themselves to putting forward either pro-argumentation or contra-argumentation. In principle, however, these two activities are interdependent: pro-argumentation often presupposes certain contra-arguments, and vice versa. They are, in fact, complementary tools for testing the acceptability of a standpoint. Argumentation is aimed at increasing (or decreasing) the acceptability of a controversial viewpoint. Resting on the communication strategies formulated by Y. Kuzmenkova the research reveals that putting forward various arguments, academic writers employ such strategies as distancing, softening, understatement. 11 Distancing presupposes the use of distancing tense forms: future or continuous, distancing modals, conditional sentences. The examples of using distancing strategy are presented in Table 4.

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__________________________________________________________________ Table 4: Distancing strategy application Strategy Distancing tense form

Continuous tense form

Distancing modals Conditional sentences

Indirect In the case of health, the marginal impact of a dollar of consumption on child health will be higher in a very poor country. Researchers are calling for future logistics research. Attention to stakeholders is emerging as a critical strategic issue. This control may constrain the child firm... It would be the case, if a recession led to a larger declines in income…

Direct In the case of health, the marginal impact of a dollar of consumption on child health is higher in a very poor country. Researchers call for future logistics research. Attention to stakeholders has emerged as a critical strategic issue. This control constrains the child firm... It will be the case, if a recession leads to a larger declines in income…

Distancing strategy allows to decrease the level of categoricalness and to leave room for further speculation. The other strategy widely used in academic literature is softening based on the use of generalizing and probability phrases. As it can be seen in Table 5 softening strategy allows to diminish negative or extremely strong argument and to share the responsibility for the claim.

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__________________________________________________________________ Table 5: Softening strategy application Strategy Softening statements Generalizing

Probability phrases

Indirect …that may have little to do with the organisation or its performance. …, it is assumed that the manufacturer can approximate the failure function with historical data. It is unlikely that firms would choose to downgrade the quality of.... Perhaps the most dramatic finding of this study is...

Direct …that has nothing to do with the organisation or its performance. …, the manufacturer approximates the failure function with historical data. The firms would not choose to downgrade the quality of... We argue that these individualist notions tend to hide the political nature of…

To avoid conflict, article authors use the strategy of understatement. This strategy helps to take the edge off emotional effect. It can be achieved by downtoning (e.g. personalising), fillers, verbs of intention, and various types of negation. Table 6: Understatement strategy application Strategy Personalizing Fillers Verbs of intention Negation

Indirect But, as I argue, there is not yet a consensus on... Inventory management for replacement parts is somewhat different… Empirical work on the use of logistics service providers has tended to be biased... The analogy between health outcomes and education outcomes is not perfect.

Direct But there is not yet a consensus on... Inventory management for replacement parts is different… Empirical work on the use of logistics service providers has been biased... The analogy between health outcomes and education outcomes is imperfect.

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__________________________________________________________________ This strategy allows regulating the impact an argument can provide on the reader and even achieving a certain level of ambiguity that again may be interpreted as a stimulus for further argumentation. The research into scholarly papers has revealed two more strategies typical of academic writing: consistency strategy and recurrence strategy. Consistency strategy is aimed at building new propositions within the framework of extant theories, enhancing the reliability of new research and maintaining theory integrity. The application of consistency strategy is presented in Table 7. Table 7: Consistency strategy application With research

prior

With some facts With proposition

a

With research outcomes

Guided by prior literature, we derived an initial list of constructs. Consistent with the prior literature, this paper defines coordination costs… The evidence suggests that the enterprise logic —… — plays a key role in… Based on this rationale, firms need a capability to effectively handle each of these phases. This view is consistent with the network view of organisations that… Consistent with the survey and cause mapping results, interviews revealed that managers believed…

Recurrence plays a specific role in scholarly literature where an academic text is due to report on the research results in the most objective way employing a system of concepts typical of a particular science, providing unquestionable arguments and critical approach that presupposes speculation, poly-theoretical description, and interpretation variety. Text structure is built around plot perspective, or argumentative line, that is a continuation of the author’s perspective. Going through the whole text the argumentative line connects central data links within the text which at most express functional-semantic correlation. On the other hand argumentative line has a zigzag course since it covers both linear and deep aspects of the text expressed with the help of recurrence strategy. The purpose of recurrence strategy is to actualize certain points mentioned before, to focus on the issues crucial for disclosing the author’s intentions. As a result, distant parts of the text having a common semantic base get linked. The application of recurrence strategy is demonstrated in Table 8.

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__________________________________________________________________ Table 8: Recurrence strategy application Prospective

Retrospective

Descriptive: Explanatory: Speculative:

This paper proceeds as follows. First, we develop the selfdetermination aspect of our model ... Second, we develop the self-compassion aspect of our model... Finally, we discuss the implications of our model. In this paper, we have studied the extent to which changes in environmental challenges are associated with the changes in strategy making… However, as stated above, negative emotions can also interfere with learning. There was a significant reduction in the rate of severe recall events during the Bush administration. Organisational scale is not significantly related to subsequent recall rates... In this expression, N is the number of car models of automaker a, t-1 and t-3 denote the first and third year of ownership of model k cars of automaker a, respectively… … as MO and marketing capabilities are complimentary to one another in ways that generate economic rents, and each may be viewed as an individual source of competitive advantage, the interaction between MO and marketing capabilities possesses the characteristic of ‘asset interconnectedness’….

5. Conclusion Reflecting the thought process academic texts aim to find an answer to a question or verify a theory that inevitably requires a reliable justification of the research and provision of cogent arguments to support a particular viewpoint. Thus, argumentation as the basis of scientific research reporting is of urgent topicality due to its broad theoretical and practical implications. Being a communicative process argumentation and consequently argumentative text is expected to comply with both the conventions accepted in the academy and communication etiquette. The incorporation of the argumentation communicative strategies into academic writing process contributes to maintaining the code of good practice, avoiding offensive statements and judgments. The strategies help to keep the atmosphere of respect and constructive disputes, to avoid confrontations and to motivate novel perspectives necessary for poly-theoretical discussion and multifaceted analysis.

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__________________________________________________________________

Notes Larisa Sviridova, ‘Role of Emotional Constructions in Realizing the Category of Identity in Dramatic Concept of Plays’ (Doctoral diss., 10.02.19. Moscow, 2004), 8. 2 Ilya Galperin, Text as an Object of Linguistic Research (Moscow: Science, 1981). 3 MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 2009), viewed 3 November 2013, http://bookfi.org/s/?q=MLA+Handbook+for+Writers+of+Research+Papers&t=0 and http://www.mla.org/. 4 Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2010), viewed 15 December 2013, http://bookfi.org/s/?q=american+psychological+association+style+guide&t=0. 5 The Chicago Manual of Style. The 16th Edition, viewed 27 December 2013, http://bookfi.org/s/?q=Chicago+Manual+of+Style&t=0. 6 AAA Style Guide (American Anthropological Association, 2009), viewed 3 November 2013, http://www.aaanet.org/publications/style_guide.pdf. 7 The Writer’s Handbook (Council of Science Editors Documentation Style),viewed 4 November 2013, http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/DocCSE.html. 8 Svetlana Sorokina and Olga Musorina, ‘Prospective and Retrospective Recurrence Impact on Text Coherence’, Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 4.9. (2013): 504-505. 9 Yulia Kuzmenkova, From Cultural Traditions to Speech Behaviour Norms of the British, Americans and Russians (Moscow: SU HSE Publishing House, 2005), 236-237. 10 Frans H. Van Eemeren, and R. Grootendorst, Argumentation, Communication and Fallacies. A Pragma-Dialectical Perspective (Hillsdale, NJ: Lamrence Erlbaum, 1992). 11 Kuzmenkova, From Cultural Traditions, 246-280. 1

Bibliography AAA Style Guide. American Anthropological Association, 2009. Viewed 3 November 2013. http://www.aaanet.org/publications/style_guide.pdf . Alekseev, Aleksander. Argumentation. Cognition. Communication. Moscow: Moscow University Press, 1991. The Chicago Manual of Style. The 16th Edition. The University of Chicago Press, 2010. Viewed 27 December 2013. http://bookfi.org/s/?q=Chicago+Manual+of+Style&t=0.

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__________________________________________________________________ Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985. Eemeren, Frans H. van and Grootendorst, R. Argumentation, Communication and Fallacies. A Pragma-Dialectical Perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Lamrence Erlbaum, 1992. Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method. Moscow: Progress, 1988. Galperin, Ilya. Text as an Object of Linguistic Research. Moscow: Science, 1981. Ivin, Aleksander. Argumentation Theory. Moscow: Gardariky, 2000. Koshevaya, Inna. Text Building Structures in Language and Speech. Moscow: Book House Librokom, 2012. Kuzmenkova, Yulia. From Cultural Traditions to Speech Behavior Norms of the British, Americans and Russians. Moscow: SU HSE Publishing House, 2005. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 2009. Viewed 3 November 2013. http://bookfi.org/s/?q=MLA+Handbook+for+Writers+of+Research+Papers&t=0 and http://www.mla.org/. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2010. Viewed 15 December 2013. http://bookfi.org/s/?q=american+psychological+association+style+guide&t=0. Sorokina, Svetlana and Olga Musorina. ‘Prospective and Retrospective Recurrence Impact on Text Coherence’. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 4.9 (2013): 503-511. Sorokina, Svetlana. ‘Argumentative Structure of Academic Text.’ Privolzhsky Nauchny Vestnik 3.19 (2013): 82-89. Sviridova, Larisa. Role of Emotional Constructions in Realizing the Category of Identity in Dramatic Concept of Plays. Doctoral thesis 10.02.19. Moscow, 2004. Sviridova, Larisa. ‘Iteration as an Identity Speech Form in Drama.’ Herald of Moscow State Regional University. Linguistics 2.6 (2011): 63-67.

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__________________________________________________________________ Tarnikova, J. English Modals as Textually Dependent Category. Berlin: Linguistiche studien, 1979. .

The Writer’s Handbook. Council of Science Editors Documentation Style. Viewed 4 November 2013. http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/DocCSE.html. Svetlana Sorokina teaches Academic English at National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia, Moscow and Business Communication at British College of Business and Finance, Russia, Moscow. Currently the author is engaged in doing research on the concept of recurrence and its role in building an argumentative line in papers of different genre. The research is being done at Sholokhov Moscow State University for the Humanities, Moscow, Russia.

Intertextuality as a Tool for Expressing Author’s Intentions in a Text Yulia Volynets Abstract The notion of intertextuality refers to the relation a text has with other texts. It is claimed that almost every word people use has already been seen, heard or written before. While writing texts, authors face a controversial problem - they need to be creative and unique along with relying on and referring to facts and using the common stock of language. Sometimes authors, who want to sound subjective, employ other people's words, without drawing readers' attention to their ‘origin’, at other times writers, pursuing different objectives, point to the source of information they use. The present research targets at the descriptive analysis of reasons motivating authors to resort to intertextuality and subjects to conscious scrutiny techniques of intertextual representation. Since in media discourse the issue of intertextuality is very popular among reporters, who widely use this powerful tool for suiting their own purposes, articles from the New York Times, the Financial Times, the Economist were chosen and examined to carry out this research. The findings suggest that people put words together in new ways to fit specific situations, needs, and purposes, the analysis of those connections helps to understand the meaning of the text more deeply. The study reveals that the usage of intertextuality allows writers to gain readers’ confidence, interpret information both subjectively and objectively or even detach from what is said. According to the research outcomes, intertextuality does not only mean relations between texts, it also explains why authors refer to particular information, how they perceive it and how position themselves in a particular situation. Therefore the understanding of intertextuality is likely to assist people not only in reading and understanding texts but also in learning to write arguments, making use of background knowledge. Key Words: Media, discourse, intertextuality, representation techniques, quotation, communicative intentions. ***** 1. Introduction Nowadays information processes have acquired a global character. Due to modern technologies, mass media, being one of the most common ways of influencing people, have an impact not only on all spheres of human society but also on every individual. Information and the way it is transmitted can shape the way people think and form their views. Therefore both the form and the content of mass media texts are essential.

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__________________________________________________________________ According to modern linguists, text is regarded as a complex unit, which has its own unique features on the one hand and shares characteristics typical of all language systems on the other hand. Texts that refer to other texts are called intertexts. It is believed that being interconnected, all texts function as intertexts. Every text consists of quotations and therefore after accepting and transporting information from another text it presents it in a new perspective. 1 Since the term intertextuality appeared in 1967, many authors have made reference to it in their works, which explains the existence of a great multiplicity of approaches to studying it in different disciplines. However, despite the sufficient number of works on intertextuality in general, the classification of techniques of intertextual representation in English media discourse and reasons why authors resort to this device is still needed. 2. Theoretical Framework Many books on intertextuality point to Bakhtin as a pioneer of the theory of intertextuality, basing on the analysis of his works linguist Kristeva coined the term intertextuality in 1967. Since then many scientists have studied this notion in various disciplines, interpreting it differently. It contributes to a great multiplicity of existing definitions of this truly flexible notion. Thus Meinhof et al. in their work Intertextuality and the Media refer to intertextuality as ‘a fuzzy yet powerful term’; 2 they state that approaches to intertextuality can vary due to the fact that individual authors resort to different text analyses. In his book Intertextuality Graham underlines the necessity of studying the term’s history for understanding why this notion has been so widely employed in various fields, from his point of view intertextuality is ‘one of the most commonly used and misused terms in contemporary critical vocabulary’. 3 Broadly speaking, intertextuality can be defined as the relationship that exists between one text and other texts. Taking account of Bakhtin’s dialogical theory of language: ‘Any utterance is a link in a very complexly organized chain of other utterances’, 4 the idea that texts refer to other texts is developed by Foucault, who writes that ‘there can be no statement that in one way or another does not reactualize others’. 5 Generally authors, studying intertextuality, can be classified into two basic groups: those, who analyse texts in relation to the social situations in which they were produced, and those, who analyse intertextuality as an element of textuality, focusing only on a text itself. Among authors who focus exclusively on the text, De Beaugrande can be mentioned, as according to his understanding, intertextuality, being one of the characteristics of textuality, presupposes the relationships with other texts. 6 Authors like Fairclough and Kress are within the first group of scientists, who along with studying a text itself consider its social context of production. Fairclough supports Kristeva’s idea about the insertion of history into a text, by this it is meant that texts refer to, relate to, respond to, rework and represent past

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__________________________________________________________________ texts, consequently texts use texts from the past as their constituents and become parts of history on their own. 3. Techniques of Intertextual Representation In his book Analysing Discourse, Fairclough states: The intertextuality of a text is the presence within it of elements of other texts and therefore potentially other voices than the author's own which may be related to dialogued with, assumed, rejected, etc. in various ways. The most common and pervasive form of intertextuality is reported speech, including reported writing and thought, though there are others including irony. Reported speech may or may not be attributed to specific voices, and speech - writing, thought can be reported in various forms, including direct - reproduction of actual words used, and indirect report or summary. 7 According to this definition it is reported speech that is the most common form of intertextuality, however Fairclough does not neglect other forms of intertextuality, which also deserve analysis and can cast some light on intertextual nature of a text. Six main techniques of intertextual representation in English media discourse are recognized and studied in this research, the findings of which are constituent with what is known about intertextuality. Indirect quotation. Basing on the quantitative analysis of articles devoted to international and national affairs and placed in such newspapers and journals as The Financial Times, The NY Times, The Economist, The Spectator, The Wall Street Journal, The New York Daily News, it is found out that indirect quotes, used to present factual data, are the most common technique of intertextual representation in news reports. When authors resort to indirect quotes they usually start with the introduction of a source followed by an utterance, which is reworded to somehow reflect the author’s interpretation and understanding of an original idea. When the text producer resorts to indirect speech to retell what someone else has said quotation marks disappear, tense and deictic change to suit the writer’s style and readers can never be sure whether the words belong to the original speaker or not. According to Suñer, indirect quotes mostly express the position of the quoting author. The second most popular type of intertextual representation is direct quotation, which is detached from the text by quotation marks or can be identified by other typographic settings like block indentation, italics. Although this quotation type usually represents words of the original author, it is worth mentioning that reporters usually integrate the outside information with their own interpretation,

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__________________________________________________________________ choosing particular words that will be quoted, the reporting verb for introducing the quote and the context. When reporters mention other people or documents in an article, they rely on readers’ background knowledge and familiarity with the original source. At reporters’ disposal, this intertextual representation allows gaining readers’ confidence, interpreting information subjectively or even detaching from what is said. Besides, reference to words said by experts and important people gives the writing a sense of factuality and veracity because their content comes from sources that can hardly be challenged. Reference to the document (e.g. Details buried in the United Nations report on the Syrian chemical weapons attack point directly at elite military formations loyal to President Bashar al-Assad, some of the strongest findings to date that suggest the government gassed its own people). 8 Reference to the person (e.g. Speaking on Tuesday in New York, Ban Ki-moon, the United Nations secretary general, took pains not to express publicly any conclusions about culpability that could be drawn from the report, noting that assigning blame was explicitly beyond the United Nations’ mandate). 9 Reference to the statement (e.g. It is, he added, for others to decide whether to pursue this matter further to determine responsibility and accountability.[…] Pressed later about whether he thought those responsible should be referred to the International Criminal Court, Mr. Ban was unequivocal). 10 Evaluation of quoted material. The reporter’s attitude to the quoted utterance may be expressed through the choice of lexical units or even a reporting verb. It is worth mentioning that the connotation a word has is mostly conditioned by a context. This type of intertextual representation can help authors prejudice readers' opinions in favor of or against the information given (e.g. Pressed later about whether he thought those responsible should be referred to the International Criminal Court, Mr. Ban was unequivocal. ‘The international community is firm and I am firm that any perpetrators who have used these chemical weapons under any circumstances under any pretext must be brought to justice’, he said; e.g. Mr. Assad’s government and its ally Russia have continued to claim publicly that Syrian rebels were responsible for the attacks, which killed hundreds of people, many of them children, in the most lethal chemical warfare attack in decades. But the United Nations data, if accurate, would undercut that claim and appear to erase some of the remaining ambiguity; e.g. In tactical and technical terms, they would almost certainly have been unable to organize and fire sustained and complex barrages of rockets from that location undetected). 11 Reference to terminology, phrases associated with particular people or documents. Some phrases or word combinations employed by the author may recall famous utterances that referred to absolutely different topics, but have become so called set-expressions that evoke particular emotions, implicitly suggest some idea and therefore form readers’ attitude (e.g. In recent weeks, one group of

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__________________________________________________________________ government supporters protesting the anticipated American strikes gathered on Mount Qasioun, vowing that the attack would happen ‘over our dead bodies’). 12 Usage of language typical of certain discourse types, communicative situations. By employing certain kinds of vocabulary, stock phrases, grammar patterns, reporters may deliberately create a language genre typical of different spheres like political, social, economic or even typical of particular situations educational planning, statistical evaluation. The fact that the author of the article ‘U.N. Data on Gas Attack Points to Assad’s Top Forces’ writes about the United Nations report on the Syrian chemical weapons attack somehow explains the choice of the language typical of official documents, reports and research. However, it should be mentioned that by resorting to this language not only in direct quotations, the author tries to sound more persuasive, which makes readers perceive information as a part of U.N. report and therefore the author gains their confidence (e.g. point directly at, findings to date that suggest, listed, in presenting the data concerning, the report provides, evidence was gathered, public comments about, according to independent and separate calculations, depending on the degree of accuracy in the measurements, had confirmed). 13 Among the described forms of intertextual representation, reported speech and reference to other sources of information (people, documents) are found to be the most common, easily recognizable and therefore analysable types of intertextual representation in English media discourse. The examples provided in this work are deliberately taken from the one article titled ‘U.N. Data on Gas Attack Points to Assad’s Top Forces’ and published September 17, 2013 in The New York Times. Thus according to the research analysis, intertextuality, being a very popular tool with journalists, can be employed numerously and variously, by means of different intertextual representation techniques, by the journalist in the same article. 4. Reasons for Using Intertextuality Fairclough states that ‘intertextuality is basically the property texts have of being full of snatches of other texts which the text may assimilate, contradict, ironically echo and so forth’. 14 According to this statement the use of intertextuality can serve different purposes, which proves the idea that authors of news reports widely resort to it for some reasons. In relation to this question, Bazerman states: Intertextuality is not just a matter of which other texts you refer to, but how you use them, what you use them for, and ultimately how you position yourself as a writer to them to make your own statement. People can develop adeptly complex and subtly skilled ways of building on the words of others. Such complex

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__________________________________________________________________ intertextual performances are so familiar we hardly notice them. 15 This statement suggests that reporters always use intertextuality intentionally for suiting particular purposes. According to the findings of this study, there are several basic reasons why journalists resort to intertextuality in English media discourse:

- To attract readers’ attention. The use of intertextuality makes news reports more lively and expressive (e.g. Over the past year, shelling from Mount Qasioun has become the capital’s familiar soundtrack. At night, Syrian humanitarian workers say, they can see the streak of projectiles flying from the ridge over the city toward rebel-held neighbourhoods and suburbs). 16 - To gain readers’ confidence. By providing factual information, which proves the speaker’s position, reporters make news more objective (e.g. The map that Mr. Lyons and Human Rights Watch prepared, and a similar map made by The Times with no consultation or exchange of information, suggested that gasfilled rockets, which sailed over central Damascus and landed in civilian neighbourhoods, originated ‘from the direction of the Republican Guard 104th Brigade’, which occupies a large base on the mountain’s western side; e.g. The rocket’s shaft, the investigators noted, ‘pointed precisely in a bearing of 285 degrees’). 17 - To express the reporter’s own position. In media discourse reporters should not give their opinion explicitly, so to show their position and interpret news subjectively, they use different vocabulary units, set expressions, grammar structures and particular reporting verbs (e.g. Mr. Assad’s government and its ally Russia have continued to claim publicly that Syrian rebels were responsible for the attacks, which killed hundreds of people, many of them children, in the most lethal chemical warfare attack in decades. But the United Nations data, if accurate, would undercut that claim and appear to erase some of the remaining ambiguity). 18 - To detach from information given. Due to particular circumstances such as the newspaper format, seriousness of news topic, etc., reporters may want to interpret the event, keeping an impartial position (e.g. They noted that ‘the line linking the crater and the piercing of the vegetal screen can be conclusively established and has a bearing of 35 degrees’.[…] The rocket’s shaft, the investigators noted, ‘pointed precisely in a bearing of 285 degrees’). 19 5. Conclusions The research outcomes reveal that when text producers choose to resort to intertextuality they pursue clear objectives. According to the findings of this study, the use of different types of intertextual representation plays an important role in

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__________________________________________________________________ writing newspaper articles and can therefore be a reporter's powerful strategy for conveying particular meanings. Thus reported speech, the most common form of intertextuality, allows journalist to select, manipulate what others have said and retell this information in different forms. By quoting authoritative people, referring to certain documents, using particular reporting verbs, choosing a right form of expression, reporters manage to fulfil both communicative and persuasive intentions and shape readers’ perception of the information. Therefore intertextuality constitutes a powerful tool at reporters' disposal to suit their own purposes: to suggest biased interpretations of facts, to make texts more persuasive, to detach themselves from what is said or to adopt somebody else's words as if they were their own. The results of this research are believed to shed some light on the use of intertextuality in English media discourse and assist readers in perceiving and analysing information given in English media discourse.

Notes Julia Kristeva, ‘Word, Dialogue and Novel’, in The Kristeva Reader, ed. Toril Moi (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), 24-33. 2 Ulrike Hanna Meinhof and Jonathan M. Smith, eds., Intertextuality and the Media. From Genre to Everyday Life (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 2. 3 Allen Graham, Intertextuality (London: Routledge, 2000), 2. 4 Mikhail Bakhtin, ‘The Problem of Speech Genres', in Speech Genres and Other Late Essays (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), 69. 5 Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge, trans. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon, 1972), 98. 6 Robert De Beaugrande and Wolfgang Dressler, Introduction to Text Linguistics (London: Longman, 1981). 7 Norman Fairclough, Analysing Discourse. Textual Analysis for Social Research (London: Routledge, 2003), 39. 8 C.J. Chivers, ‘U.N. Data on Gas Attack Points to Assad’s Top Forces’. The New York Times, 17 September 2013. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 Norman Fairclough, Discourse and Social Change (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992), 84. 15 Charles Bazerman, ‘Intertextuality: How Texts Rely on Other Texts’, in What Writing Does and How It Does It: An Introduction to Analyzing Texts and Textual 1

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__________________________________________________________________ Practices, eds. Charles Bazerman and Paul Prior (Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004), 94. 16 C.J. Chivers, ‘U.N. Data on Gas Attack Points to Assad’s Top Forces’. The New York Times. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid.

Bibliography Aleshchanova, Irina. ‘Quotation in Media Discourse’. Candidate of Science Thesis 10.02.20 Volgograd, 2000. Bakhtin, Mikhail. ‘The Problem of Speech Genres’. Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, 60-102. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986. Bazerman, Charles. ‘Intertextuality: How Texts Rely on Other Texts’. What Writing Does and How It Does It: An Introduction to Analyzing Texts and Textual Practices, edited by Charles Bazerman and Paul Prior, 83-97. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004. Caldas-Coulthard, Carmen Rosa. ‘On Reporting Reporting: The Re-Presentation of Speech in Factual and Fictional Narratives’. Advances in Written Text Analysis, edited by Malcom Coulthard, 295-308. London: Routledge, 1994. Calsamiglia, Helena and Carmen Lopez Ferrero. ‘Role and Position of Scientific Voices: Reported Speech in the Media’. Discourse Studies 5.2 (2003): 147-173. Chivers, C. J. ‘U.N. Data on Gas Attack Points to Assad’s Top Forces’. The New York Times, 17 September 2013. Viewed 10 June 2015. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/18/world/middleeast/un-data-on-gas-attackpoints-to-assads-top-forces.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0. De Beaugrande, Robert and Wolfgang Dressler. Introduction to Text Linguistics. London: Longman, 1981. Fairclough, Norman. Analysing Discourse. Textual Analysis for Social Research. London: Routledge, 2003.

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__________________________________________________________________ Fairclough, Norman. Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992. Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. Translated by Sheridan Smith. New York: Pantheon, 1972. Galperin, Ilya. Text as an Object of Linguistic Research. Moscow: Science, 1981. Graham, Allen. Intertextuality. London: Routledge, 2000. Hanna Meinhof, Ulrike and Jonathan M. Smith, eds. Intertextuality and the Media. From Genre to Everyday Life. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000. Kristeva, Julia. ‘Word, Dialogue and Novel’. In The Kristeva Reader, edited by Toril Moi, 24-33. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986. Linell, Per. Approaching Dialogue: Talk and Interaction in Dialogical Perspectives. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1998. Schiffrin, Deborah. Approaches to Discourse. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1994. Volynets, Yulia. ‘Illocutionary Verbs as a Tool for Conveying Reporters’ Perspective in English Media Discourse’. The European Conference on Language Learning Proceedings (2013): 444-455. Viewed 10 June 2015. http://iafor.org/Proceedings/ECLL/ECLL2013_proceedings.pdf. Volynets, Yulia. ‘Structural and Semantic Features of Quotation in English Media Discourse’. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 2.8 (2013): 554-559. Yulia Volynets is a Senior Lecturer at National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia. She teaches Academic English and is interested in discourse analysis especially in the area of English Media Discourse, the current research concentrates on studying intertextuality in news reports.

A Comparative Exploration of the Distinctive Qualities of Oral, Handwritten and Typed Language in Memory and Recall Cristina Izura, Barnaby Dicker, Vivienne Rogers and Jordan Randell Abstract Cultural historians and philosophers have persuasively argued that the ways in which language is implemented either orally, in writing or in print, has a direct impact on cognition, and thus memory and recall. 1 One strand of their argument contends that – once established – these different forms of implementation cannot be sharply separated or hierarchized as they form an ‘interiorised’ 2 cognitive composite. While evidence for this is abundant in the phenomenal world, the investigators find that questions remain to be answered from a cognitive perspective. To this end a project was developed to explore the apparently intersecting but also differentiated cognitive processes involved in implementing oral, written and typed modes of learning. The investigators’ specific interests concern the relationship between language and graphic media in learning environments: specifically within Higher Education. An experiment was devised in which a pre-established lecture was delivered (to three different groups of participants) in three different formats: (1) following the oral tradition (i.e., including repetition, abundant use of epithets, etc.); (2) read from a script, and; (3) utilizing graphic ‘new media’ visual aids, namely, a PowerPoint slideshow. Immediately after the lecture participants were asked to: (1) recall the content of the lecture, and; (2) their general thoughts about the lecture. Results showed that participants in the oral lecture recalled less content than participants in the other two lecture formats. No significant differences were found in the amount of content recalled by participants in the scripted lecture and those in the PowerPoint lecture. All participants showed preference for lectures in which a combination of written material and new media are used. In addition, signs of an increased preference for computer-based note-taking were detected. The implications and potential applications of these results will be discussed. Key Words: Language implementation, written, oral, graphic systems and media, memory, recall, lecture material. ***** 1. Introduction The implementation of language through writing has had a major impact at historical, social and individual levels. Writing dramatically changed the stakes of communication and transmission, supplementing the partially transient spoken word with the more durable written word. Writing, like pictorial systems, allows individuals and groups to represent thoughts, ideas and facts in concrete form. The

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__________________________________________________________________ tangibility of the written word and its comprehension allowed, among other things, reflection, analysis, revision and interpretation. These processes closely associated with literacy, in particular reading, changed individuals’ cognition by fostering cognitive development and increasing cognitive flexibility. 3 Historically, literacy emerged in chirographic, that is, handwritten form, before being revolutionized in 15th century Europe by the emergence of the printed page and, again, in the last two centuries, through the appearance of electronic communications and computerized graphics. At first sight the differences and similarities between oral, handwritten, printed and electronic language are obvious. In terms of academic enquiry, disciplines such as linguistics, psychology and the humanities have extensively studied and discussed the impact that different modes of language implementation have had on societies and individuals. 4 Building on this foundation, increasing attention is being paid to the impact – both actual and predicted – of electronic communication and global networking on the ways we work, socialize and learn. 5 Between these disciplinary fields, however, there is a deficit of exchange. The humanities abound with theories and histories regarding the impact of writing, such as: the alphabetic mind; the great divide hypothesis; or the continuity theory. 6 Many of these accounts barely step beyond offering social determinants as proof of their bold, generalized claims. Within psychology, data rich accounts of behavioural changes and differences in brain activity are rarely linked to wider contexts of use or are weighed down by demands of ‘lab conditions’. 7 The present study is an interdisciplinary contribution to bridging the gap between psychology, linguistics and the humanities with an empirical investigation into the distinctive qualities of oral, handwritten and typed language in memory and recall in a pedagogical setting. We wanted to ask how these disciplines could be combined to advance our understanding of the interplay between oral and graphic modes of information transmission. We wanted to get a sense of what was happening in our own classrooms and what expectations we and our students have been working to. These are all very big issues and our project is a small, initial gesture that only seeks to initiate a productive discussion. To explore the impact that oral, written and typed modes of communication had in recall we devised a three-tier mixed design experiment in which three participant groups were asked to attend a separate lecture and make notes (either mental, written or typed) for subsequent recall. 2. Methodology A. Participants To gather participants an online survey with 16 questions was created and made available to undergraduate and postgraduate students at Swansea University in the UK. In the survey we collected information on student preferences for taking notes, which is either, handwritten, typed and other forms, and lectures formats consisting

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__________________________________________________________________ of, oral, using visual aids, with hand-outs, as well as personal and contact details. A total of 403 students, 284 of which were female, answered the survey. These students were a mixture of undergraduates and postgraduates and had a mean age of 24 with a range 18-47. All 403 participants were contacted via email and invited to participate in the subsequent study by attending one of three lectures. 57 students and 47 female students with a mean age of 23 years volunteered to participate. All the students had normal or corrected vision and none had hearing difficulties or dyslexia. Eleven students in the group had English as a second language. B. Materials At the core of our experiment was a 20-minute lecture on a topic perceived to carry sufficient general interest for the majority of the students attending the lecture. The title was: Erik Erikson, adolescence and psychosocial development. The lecture was delivered in three different formats, one for each group: 1) Orally 2) Read from a script and with supporting hand-outs 3) Utilizing a slideshow as PowerPoint. Upon arrival, each group was divided into participants who were required to make written notes and those who were required to make mental notes. The lecture content was divided into three phases, the first lasting 5 minutes, the second 10 minutes and the last 5 minutes. This mirrored the design of a questionnaire where recall of content from the three phases of the lecture was tested. This questionnaire comprised a total of 9 questions: three questions per lecture phase. A further three sets of questions were asked to gather participants’ general thoughts on the lecture they attended. These questions were: 1) What do you think of the lecture? Would you improve it? How? 2) What part of the lecture interested you the most? Do you think you would be able to tell someone else about Erik Erikson’s theory and life in any detail? 3) Were there any parts of the lecture that you felt needed to be shown visually and weren’t? If so, which parts? C. Procedure Regarding our three groups of participants: the first comprised 19 students: 15 female, who attended the oral lecture; the second comprised 21 students: 16 female, who attended the scripted lecture; the third comprised 17 students (16 female) who attended the slideshow lecture. As noted, each group was further divided into written note-takers and mental note-takers. After each lecture participants were accompanied to another room where they answered the two

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__________________________________________________________________ questionnaires. The questionnaires were presented in the same order to each of the groups: their recall of the content of the lecture was tested first, followed by the qualitative questions.

Figure 1: Mean number of correct responses to the content test © 2013. Courtesy of the authors. The results from the first test answered by our participants were submitted to analyses. The one-way analysis of variance or ANOVA, showed a significant effect of the type of lecture attended (oral, with hand-out or with PowerPoint) on the number of correct responses when answering questions related to the content of the lecture F(2,56) = 141.04; p< 0.01. Post-hoc tests showed that results from the groups of participants that attended the scripted hand-out (P < 0.01) and PowerPoint (P < 0.01) lectures differ significantly from those attending the oral lecture, with the greater number of errors occurring in the latter lecture. There were no significant differences in the number of correct responses made by the scripted hand-out and PowerPoint lecture groups. We then analysed the results by dividing the three groups into participants required to make written notes and those required to make mental notes during the lecture. No significant differences were observed. This carries clear implications for short term recall. A final analysis was carried out looking at the accuracy levels in the three phases of the lecture: first 5 minutes, middle 10 minutes, final 5 minutes. A recency effect was found in the oral group, with the questions referring to the beginning of the lecture generating more errors than the rest: see Figure 2.

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Figure 2: Mean number of incorrect responses to the content test © 2013. Courtesy of the authors. 3. Results from Reflective Questionnaire Results from the second test regarding participants’ thoughts about the lecture were coded using NVivo 9 qualitative data analysis software. A number of themes emerged from the participants’ answers to the three questions asked. In response to question 1 - ‘What do you think of the lecture? Would you improve it? How?’ over half of the participants mentioned that they thought the lecture was interesting and/or enjoyable, as seen in Figure 4, with the group attending the PowerPoint lecture making up almost 50% of the participants that thought the lecture was interesting. The group attending the oral lecture made the least number of responses regarding the general interest of the lecture.

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Figure 3: Percentage of responses arguing that the lecture was interesting and/ or enjoyable © 2013. Courtesy of the authors. There were a fair number of improvements suggested across the entire population of participants but only one theme emerged a relatively substantial number of times: the need for visual aids. Both the oral and scripted lecture groups mentioned that visual aids would improve the lecture. No responses to this end were obtained from the PowerPoint group. The scripted group made the most responses that visual aids would improve the lecture at approximately 54% to 46%.

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Figure 4: Percentage of responses suggesting the need for visual aids © 2013. Courtesy of the authors. Regarding question 2 – ‘What part of the lecture interested you the most? Do you think you would be able to tell someone else about Erik Erikson’s theory and life in any detail?’ – a range of responses were made across the board regarding the interesting points of the lecture. However, two recurrent themes emerged: Erikson’s biography: see Figure 5, and the personal relevance the lecture material had for participants themselves: see Figure 6. Interest in Erikson’s biography and life story are mentioned by one third of the participants overall. Most responses regarding Erikson’s biography came from the PowerPoint group, followed by the scripted group. The oral lecture group made least mention of Erikson’s biography as a point of interest.

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Figure 5: Percentage of responses mentioning that Erikson’s biography was an interesting part of the lecture © 2013. Courtesy of the authors. Approximately one sixth of participants pointed out that what interested them most was not the lecture content per se, but the relevance of Erikson’s theory to their own experience of growing up. This was most commonly reported by those participants attending the oral and hand-out lectures with very few responses to this effect being reported by individuals attending the PowerPoint lecture.

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Figure 6: Percentage of responses stating that the relevance to the self was the most interesting part of the lecture © 2013. Courtesy of the authors. No-one across any of the three lecture types answered that they could not repeat any information to a friend, with the majority of people stating that they could repeat all or some of the lecture information to a friend. The percentage values for each group were divided into those responding ‘yes’ as seen in Figure 7, and those responding ‘some’: Figure 8. The percentages for both responses were quite close, with the exception that the oral group answered ‘some’ more often than the other two groups, while the PowerPoint group answered ‘yes’ outright most often.

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Figure 7: Percentage of responses indicating that they could repeat ‘some’ of the content of the lecture to a friend © 2013. Courtesy of the authors.

Figure 8: Percentage of responses indicating that ‘yes’ they could repeat the content of the lecture to a friend © 2013. Courtesy of the authors.

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__________________________________________________________________ Regarding question 3 - ‘Were there any parts of the lecture that you felt needed to be shown visually and weren’t? If so, which parts?’ - 82% of ‘PowerPoint’ lecture participants felt there was no for additional visual aids: Figure 9. It is interesting that both the oral and handout groups made more ‘No need for visual aids on the whole, but only for specific aspects’ responses than the PowerPoint group (Figure 10).

Figure 9: Percentage of responses indicating no additional need for visual aids are required © 2013. Courtesy of the authors.

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Figure 10: Percentage of responses indicating that there was no need for visual aids overall but only for specific aspects © 2013. Courtesy of the authors. 4. Conclusion To recap and conclude: The present study is the result of a cross-disciplinary effort. The aim was to investigate whether different modes of communication and different forms of notetaking have an impact on recall. An experiment was devised within an Higher Education setting, since it was thought that the classroom is a potentially lively, multi-modal environment where oral, chirographic (handwritten), typographic and new media graphic display mediums are often combined Three groups of participants each attended a specific lecture delivered in a different format: orally, scripted, with visual aids. Following the lecture, participants were asked to answer two questionnaires: one relating to the content, one relating to their general impressions. Results from the content test revealed significantly lower levels of accuracy for those volunteers that had attended the oral lecture. This group also showed a distinct recency effect with better recall of the last two phases of the lecture. The answers given by the scripted lecture group and the PowerPoint lecture group were equally accurate, indicating that visual aids do not improve recall over printed material, at least within the short-term. Results from the participants’ impressions of the lecture they attended showed that, overall, the majority of participants enjoyed the lecture. Comments for improvement were highest in the oral lecture group and mostly related to use of

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__________________________________________________________________ visual aids, although suggestions for improvement were also high in the scripted lecture group, and again, mainly related to use of visual aids. In terms of points of interest the PowerPoint group found Erikson’s biography ‘significantly’ more interesting than the other two groups, while participants attending the verbal and hand-out lectures found the ‘relevance to the self’ aspect of the lecture ‘significantly’ more interesting. One participant in the oral only group no.8 stated ‘Not watching the screen makes you focus on the lecturer and the topic, at least with this type of lecture and topic’. In relation to their confidence to transmit the information to another person, the oral only group were overall more hesitant and cautious about how well they could pass on the lecture’s information. This fact correlates with their error rate, and suggests accurate self-awareness. The scripted and PowerPoint groups felt generally more confident. The oral lecture group showed the lower learning rate. In sum, a number of potential avenues of enquiry were identified, as well as the fact that computerbased note taking is showing signs of increase in the UK lecture based format. The oral transmission of information showed the lower learning rate. This group also showed hesitancy and doubt over recall ability, indicating accurate self-awareness. Groups in the handout and PowerPoint lecture showed comparably higher learning rates and no significant differences were observed between those taking written notes and those taking mental notes. This carries implications for short term recall of transmitted information. The oral lecture and scripted lecture groups were possibly better able to reflect. This suggests further research avenues regarding differences between factual and qualitative learning and how they are best facilitated.

Acknowledgements The team gratefully acknowledges the generous collaboration of Dr. Chris Dobbs for providing us with suitable lecture content and delivered in the three formats necessary to conduct this research. We would like to extend a special thanks to all participants for their help in the data collection.

Notes Jacques Derrida, ed., Of Grammatology (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1997), 18. 2 Walter J. Ong, ed., Orality and Literacy (New York: Routledge, 1982), 53. 3 Kelly Cartwright, ‘Cognitive Development and Reading: The Relation of Reading-Specific Multiple Classification Skill to Reading Comprehension in 1

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__________________________________________________________________ Elementary School Children’, Journal of Educational Psychology 94 (2002): 56– 63; David R. Olson, The World on Paper: The Conceptual and Cognitive Implications of Writing and Reading (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994), 20. 4 Elizabeth Eisenstein, The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 33; Georges Jean, Writing: The Story of Alphabets and Scripts (New York: Harry N. Abrams. 1992), 72; Albertine Gaur, A History of Writing, rev. ed. (New York: Cross River Press. 1992), 44; Naomi S. Baron, ‘Thinking, Learning, and the Written Word’, Visible Language 31 (1997): 6–35; Walter J. Ong, ‘Reading, Technology, and the Nature of Man: An Interpretation’, Yearbook of English Studies 10 (1980): 132–149; Ong, Orality and Literacy, 75; Eric Havelock, Preface to Plato (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1963), 49; Eric Havelock, Origins of Western Literacy (Toronto: OISE Press, 1976), 82; Eric Havelock, ‘The Oral-Literate Equation: A Formula for the Modern Mind’, Literacy and Orality, ed. David R. Olson, and Nancy Torrence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 11–27; David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: U Cambridge P, 1997), 99; David Bleich, ‘The Materiality of Reading’, New Literary History 37 (2006): 607–629; Régis Debray, Media Manifestos: On Technological Transmission of Cultural Forms (London and New York: Verso, 1996), 145; Régis Debray, Transmitting Culture (New York: Columbia UP, 2000), 42; Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, 101; Anthony Wilden, System and Structure: Essays in Communication and Exchange (London: Tavistock, 1972), 155; Einar Haugen, ‘Linguistics and Language Planning’, Sociolinguistics: Proceeding of the UCLA Sociolinguistics Conference, ed. William Bright (The Hague: Mouton, 1964), 50– 71; Rossen Milev, ‘The “World Script Revolution” in the 4th Century. Series of Coincidences and Typological Similarities, Interferential Influences or Unexplored Phenomenon of Parallelism?’, Variantology 3: On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies in China and Elsewhere, ed. Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus (Köln: Walther König, 2008), 369–389; Olson, The World on Paper, 94; Brian Street, ‘Literacy Practices and Literacy Myths’, The Written Word: Studies in Literate Thought and Action, ed. Roger Säljö (Berlin: SpringerVerlag, 1988), 59–72; David Snowdon, Ageing with Grace: What the Nun Study Teaches Us about Leading Longer, Healthier and More Meaningful Lives (New York: Bantam Books, 2001), 101; Collin MacLeod and Kristina Kampe, ‘Word Frequency Effects on Recall, Recognition and Word Fragment Completion Tests’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 22 (1996): 132–142; Ellen Bialystok, ‘Metalinguistic Dimensions of Bilingual Language Proficiency’, Language Processing in Bilingual Children, ed. Ellen Bialystock (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 113–140; Cartwright, ‘Cognitive

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__________________________________________________________________ Development and Reading’, 53; Jean Piaget, The Psychology of the Child (New York: Basic Books, 1972). 5 Ong, Orality and Literacy, 83; Robert Fowler, ‘How the Secondary Orality of the Electronic Age Can Awaken Us to the Primary Orality of Antiquity or What Hypertext Can Teach Us about the Bible with Reflections on the Ethical and Political Issues of the Electronic Frontier’, Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century 2 (1994): 12–46; Gunther Kress, Literacy in the New Media Age (London: Routledge. 2003), 16; Gunther Kress, ‘Reading Images: Multimodality, Representation and New Media’, (International Institute for Information Design, Wein, 2004), Viewed 10 June 2015, http://www.knowledgepresentation.org/BuildingTheFuture/Kress2/Kress2.html; Roger Säljö, ‘Literacy, Digital Literacy and Epistemic Practices: The Co-Evolution of Hybrid Minds and External Memory Systems’, Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy 7 (2012): 5–19; Baron, ‘Thinking, Learning, and the Written Word’, 25; Per Hetland, ‘The Materiality of Learning’, Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy, 7 (2012): 2–4; Estrid Sørensen, The Materiality of Learning: Technology and Knowledge in Educational Practice (New York: Cambridge UP, 2009), 94; Henry Jenkins, Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century (Chicago: MacArthur Foundation, 2006), 22. 6 Havelock, Preface to Plato, 93; Havelock, Origins of Western Literacy, 196; Havelock, ‘The Oral-Literate Equation’, 17; Street, ‘Literacy Practices and Literacy Myths’, 57. 7 Bialystok, ‘Metalinguistic Dimensions of Bilingual Language Proficiency’, 135; Jean Piaget, The Psychology of the Child (New York: Basic Books. 1972), 152; Snowdon, Ageing with Grace, 113.

Bibliography Baron, Naomi S. ‘Thinking, Learning, and the Written Word’. Visible Language 31.1 (1997): 6–35. Bialystok, Ellen. ‘Metalinguistic Dimensions of Bilingual Language Proficiency’. Language Processing in Bilingual Children, edited by Ellen Bialystock, 113–140. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Bleich, David. ‘The Materiality of Reading’. New Literary History 37.3 (2006): 607–629. Cartwright, Kelly. ‘Cognitive Development and Reading: The Relation of Reading-Specific Multiple Classification Skill to Reading Comprehension in

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__________________________________________________________________ Elementary School Children’. Journal of Educational Psychology 94 (2002): 56– 63. Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 1997. Debray, Régis. Media Manifestos: On Technological Transmission of Cultural Forms. London and New York: Verso, 1996. Debray, Régis. Transmitting Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Revised translation. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1997. Eisenstein, Elizabeth. The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Fowler, Robert. ‘How the Secondary Orality of the Electronic Age Can Awaken Us to the Primary Orality of Antiquity or What Hypertext Can Teach Us about the Bible with Reflections on the Ethical and Political Issues of the Electronic Frontier’. Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century 2.3 (1994): 12–46. Gaur, Albertine. A History of Writing. Revised Edition. New York: Cross River Press, 1992. Georges, Jean. Writing: The Story of Alphabets and Scripts. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1992. Havelock, Eric. Preface to Plato. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1963. Havelock, Eric. Origins of Western Literacy. Toronto: OISE Press, 1976. Havelock, Eric. ‘The Oral-Literate Equation: A Formula for the Modern Mind’. Literacy and Orality, edited by David R. Olson and Nancy Torrence, 11-27. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

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__________________________________________________________________ Haugen, Einar. ‘Linguistics and Language Planning’. Sociolinguistics: Proceeding of the UCLA Sociolinguistics Conference, edited by William Bright, 50–71. The Hague: Mouton, 1964. Hetland, Per. ‘Editorial: The Materiality of Learning’. Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy 7.1 (2012): 2–4. Jenkins, Henry. Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. Chicago: MacArthur Foundation, 2006. Kress, Gunther. Literacy in the New Media Age. London: Routledge, 2003. Kress, Gunther. ‘Reading Images: Multimodality, Representation and New Media’. Preparing for the Future of Knowledge Presentation Conference Proceedings. International Institute for Information Design, Wein. 2004. Viewed 10 June 2015. http://www.knowledgepresentation.org/BuildingTheFuture/Kress2/Kress2.html. MacLeod, Collin, and Kristina Kampe. ‘Word Frequency Effects on Recall, Recognition and Word Fragment Completion Tests’. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 22 (1996): 132–142. Milev, Rossen. ‘The “World Script Revolution” in the 4th Century. Series of Coincidences and Typological Similarities, Interferential Influences or Unexplored Phenomenon of Parallelism?’ Variantology 3: On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies in China and Elsewhere, edited by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus, 369–389. Köln: Walther König, 2008. Olson, David, R. The World on Paper: The Conceptual and Cognitive Implications of Writing and Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Ong, Walter J. ‘Reading, Technology, and the Nature of Man: An Interpretation’. Yearbook of English Studies 10 (1980): 132–149. Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy. New York: Routledge, 1982. Piaget, Jean. The Psychology of the Child. New York: Basic Books, 1972. Säljö, Roger. ‘Literacy, Digital Literacy and Epistemic Practices: The CoEvolution of Hybrid Minds and External Memory Systems’. Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy 7.1 (2012): 5–19.

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__________________________________________________________________ Snowdon, David. Ageing with Grace: What the Nun Study Teaches Us about Leading Longer, Healthier and More Meaningful Lives. New York: Bantam Books, 2001. Sørensen, Estrid. The Materiality of Learning: Technology and Knowledge in Educational Practice. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Street, Brian. ‘Literacy Practices and Literacy Myths’. The Written Word: Studies in Literate Thought and Action, edited by Roger Säljö, 59–72. Berlin: SpringerVerlag, 1988. Wilden, Anthony. System and Structure: Essays in Communication and Exchange. London: Tavistock, 1972. Dr Cristina Izura is an expert psychologist interested in language and cognitive processes’ research. She actively collaborates with experts in linguistics and neuroscience in research projects. She’s currently the deputy Director of the Language Research Centre at Swansea University. Dr. Barnaby Dicker is an artist-filmmaker and arts organiser. His research revolves around conceptual and material innovations in and through graphic technologies and arts, experimental film, experimental animation, film portraiture, avant-garde cinema, illustration, typography, visual communication, fashion design, literature, aesthetics and modernism. Dr. Vivienne Rogers is a linguist specialised on second language acquisition (syntax and vocabulary), psycholinguistics, implications for language pedagogy, and corpus linguistics. Dr. Jordan Randell is a psychologist whose main interests span research methods in psychology, from the technical aspects through experimental design to statistical analysis of data and the validity and reliability of these factors in interpreting results and drawing meaningful conclusions. He is also interested in non-clinical auditory hallucinations, schizotypy, schedules of reinforcement and timing.

Part III Origins of Writing

Developing Authors in Changing Context Khyiah Angel Abstract In a technological context where the convergence of modalities is redefining the concept and nature of what it is to read, an increasing challenge for authors of young adult fiction is remaining relevant to the demographic of readers for whom they write. The explosion of the social media environment in recent history encourages a dialogic relationship between the author, her work and its readers, and along with platforms and formats that continue to emerge, authors need to create meaningful reading experiences in a context familiar to the young adults for whom these technologies are intuitively utilised. This may mean engaging them with an interactive exploration of what a book is. Converging modalities create an environment that enables the reader to move around and within the text in nonlinear, horizontal and/or parallel ways. The nature of engagement with multimodal texts not only has a profound impact on the way readers read, it creates demands on writers not previously expected for authorship, thereby challenging cultural notions of what it is to write, to read, and to create literature. Maintaining a consistent narrative arc across multiple platforms in a variety of formats concurrently is the challenge for authors, as they are required to engage with a remediated literary landscape and conceive ‘story’ differently. Authors successfully transitioned from pen to typewriter to computer but continued to write in a linear fashion, often under the direction of traditional publishers. However, in the paradigm shift that is the current metaliteracy environment, unless they are independently able to engage with and embrace the changing nature of reading, they run the risk of becoming irrelevant to the generation of digital natives for whom they write. Key Words: Authorship, convergence, metaliteracy, reading, young adults, remediation, hypertextuality. ***** 1. Introduction In a recreational context dominated by social media and online engagement, technology is changing the way young people read for both pleasure and purpose. Where once consuming narrative, or reading, meant taking a book from a shelf, opening the cover and interpreting text-based marks on a page sequentially from front-to-back while immersing themselves in the story; reading now spans multiple modalities simultaneously, skimming the surface of each while multitasking between several.

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__________________________________________________________________ This type of reading action is second nature to the generation of digital natives for whom the technology is used intuitively, but what does it mean for the authors who write for them? Will the changing nature of reading redefine what it is to write, particularly when it comes to writing fiction? Will the novel as we know it, maintain its current form or will it morph into a format unrecognisable to contemporary authors? This chapter examines the current reading environment in which young people operate, their cognitive responses to it, and the way in which authors may need to adapt their practise of writing to remain relevant to young readers. 2. Reading Context The last ten years has seen monumental changes in the reading, writing and publishing industries. Technology has revolutionised not just the way young people read and write, but also the way in which they process what they read and write. It is now generally accepted worldwide, that the appeal of book reading as a pastime has been declining for decades, and though young people no longer commonly read by immersion, they do still read. They read blogs, wikis and websites. They read status updates and tweets and more often than anything else; they read social media feeds. Research about the use of mixed media by 8-to-18-year-olds conducted in the United States in 2009 found that on a typical day, a young person is in engaged in 10 hours and 45 minutes of concurrent media content. 1 This number does not include time spent talking or texting on mobile phones, or time spent on the computer doing schoolwork. The research is a follow-up from a similar project conducted in 1999, where total concurrent media exposure for the age group was just over 7 hours. The proportion of media multitasking had also increased from 16% in 1999, to 29% in 2009. The use of mobile devices averaged at 23% in 2004, increasing to a monumental 92% in 2009. 2 The Generation M2 research, one the most comprehensive about young people’s use of media, was published before the explosion of tablets onto the market in 2010, which again changed the way media is created and consumed thereby reinforcing the assertion that any research about current, let alone future technologies will almost be obsolete by the time that it is published. 3 Literature theorist Katherine Hayles puts it best when she says that ‘nothing is riskier than prediction; when the future arrives, we can be sure only that it will be different than we thought’. 4 However, the one constant of which we can be confident is the continuing increase in the use of technology by young people to do almost everything, including read. But the changing literacy paradigm is not without its critics, particularly in relation to reading.

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__________________________________________________________________ 3. Reading and Concentration Reading by immersion, known as deep reading, may be a thing of the past as recent research suggests that the neural pathways of young people are being affected by their propensity to multitask with the continual processing of multiple streams of data, leaving them unable – rather than unwilling, to engage in processes of deep reading. The capacity of young adults to concentrate has been heavily critiqued over the past few years, and it is the loss of deep reading skills that is emerging as a great concern. Educational theorists Wolf and Barzillai, define deep reading as ‘the array of sophisticated processes that propel comprehension and that include inferential and deductive reasoning, analogical skills, critical analysis, reflection and insight’, 5 as critical to processing and understanding information, in whichever format it is presented. However, the internet contains far more information than any individual could effectively consume in a lifetime, and as young people spend more time engaging with online content than they do sleeping, 6 they are developing skills that enable them to quickly assess and decode the relevance of information to them, and by doing so, according to some, are rewiring their brains. It is this skimming of content, or ‘surface reading’, that has drawn the greatest criticisms. According to Bauerlein, digital reading does not develop strong reading skills because there is no transfer from print reading to digital reading. 7 Supporting this view, Nicholas Carr, in ‘What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains’, sees digital reading as form of ‘inattention’ whereby the reader skims along the surface, moving around and within the text and screen, not pausing to consider content or absorb concepts as a reader does during deep reading. 8 Others lament the endangerment of deep reading skills as digital culture’s ‘pervasive emphasis on immediacy, information loading and a media-driven cognitive set that embraces speed and can discourage deliberation in both our reading and our thinking’. 9 Research into the way in which people read online suggest that skimming is only a pre-reading, preparatory technique and that scanning is a quick cursory look at content. 10 The concern about Internet style reading is that skimming and scanning are becoming our primary means of reading. However, not all theorists interpret the research regarding emerging differences in neural pathways as a negative development. Rather than dismissing the evolving reality as having a detrimental impact on young minds, there are those who move beyond critiques of the medium and suggest that the cognitive overflow and ‘hyper-attention’ 11 that have become symptomatic of our changing technological context can be harnessed to encourage the development of enhanced literacies in young adults. 4. Evolving Technology New technologies have emerged since the beginning of time, and each major development has been surrounded by fear and suspicion. Socrates was concerned,

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__________________________________________________________________ that learning to read would result in the ‘appearance of wisdom, but not true wisdom’. 12 There was a fear that the advent of the printing press would lead to ‘a dilution of the intellectual capital of the time’. 13 Then last century the fear was that television and radio consumption would lead to the ‘simplification’ of the young mind. With each new technological development and associated literary paradigm shift, people developed new literacies, and new norms around those new literacies. More recently, while the last twenty years may have seen the loss of book reading to television viewing, the internet and its associated technologies have effectively restored reading and writing as central activities in our culture, and new norms are in the process of being developed around this. Currently, young adults are being ‘re-engineered through their interactions with computational devices’. 14 5. Literacy Education Education systems in technologically developed countries are beginning to embrace the reality that young people are developing content concurrently and intermingling in a convergent format that lends itself to multiple means of simultaneous consumption. They are responding by developing curriculum to harness and enrich the emerging literacies. For example, in Australia, a new National Curriculum from the beginning of school to its completion (K-12), beginning with English as the core component, will be implemented across the country from 2014. The new syllabus ‘assumes a competence in increasing reliance on new information technologies for accessing, processing, and sharing information’. 15 The curriculum development is informed by educational research that places students at the centre of changing literacies. Students already come to school at age 5 in Australia, with a seemingly broad and rich experience in multimodal content consumption. Educationalists recognise that: An early immersion in reading that is largely online tends to reward certain cognitive skills, such as multitasking, and habituate the learner to immediate information gathering and quick attention shifts, rather than to deep reflection and original thought. 16 In response to these new and emerging neural pathways, educationists acknowledge that being literate is no longer about learning to read and write print texts, but that students need to be ‘sociotechnically’ literate. 17 As such, new curriculums are embedded with a multimedia, multimodal instructional model where students are encouraged to read and understand their worlds in new ways. As Glenda Hull says:

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__________________________________________________________________ Ours is an age in which the pictorial turn has supplanted the linguistic one, as images push words off the page and our lives become increasingly mediated by a popular vision culture. 18 Converging modalities are, necessarily, changing the definition of literacy, and educators recognise that the social semiotic nature of contemporary student reality is one where meaning and knowledge is progressively developed through their use of multiple technologies concurrently. These literacies are developing in a context where young people are not only required to interpret words on a page, but at the same time must constantly make operational judgements concerning software, hardware, movement, navigation, volume, direction. They are making value judgements about aesthetics, suitability and engagement, as well as having to recognise and differentiate between the quality and authenticity of the material before them. The reader needs to ‘understand how to evaluate and make meaning in and across several modalities’ 19 simultaneously. In the interest of promoting effective literacy, social, intellectual, economic and academic participation becomes about engaging students in the digital environments that are second nature to them, and teaching them to perform effectively in such. This means providing effective instruction in reading and interpreting media-text, images, sound, as well as evaluating and applying new knowledge gained from digital environments. 20 Developing the capacity to create and disseminate content as opposed to the traditional literary engagement of passively consuming content is vital in this increasingly participatory digital environment. Throughout history, ‘Literacy and literacy instruction have changed regularly as a result of changing social contexts and the technologies they prompt’. 21 And as we move further into the technological future, the teaching of reading has, and will continue to, become a far more complex process than ever before. While education theories and pedagogies of literacy continue to be developed, the practise of teaching reading and writing will continue to evolve in ways that we cannot accurately predict. Students are already completing their schooling using technologies not yet invented when they began school. 6. Writing Fitzpatrick notes Stiegler’s observation that writing ‘is the very condition of thinking itself, a process of meta-categorisation which is essential to a reflective, recursive process’. 22 But it too, is symptomatic of the broadening definition of literacy in a metaliteracy context. The problematic of reading, and writing, in the new media context is not just about cognition but also about industry. 23 What is now being produced, marketed, and consumed as a ‘book’ is a very different entity to what was accepted as such a generation ago. And the technologies that will be

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__________________________________________________________________ used to produce books along with the economic model under which they will be marketed for the next generation of readers will again, look very different from what we may predict today. Books will essentially become ‘rich architectures of information’ 24 in a variety of formats across multiple platforms. While it is accepted that young adults commonly immerse themselves in the interactivity, or hyperactivity, of new media, they still draw on their experience with text. However: In the competition between text and the other modalities, text might be less appealing at the convergence because it requires more exertion to process. 25 Young people increasingly forgo the paper-based novel experience of deep reading in favour of embracing the sensory stimulus of reading across multiple mixed media, but this does not mean they no longer read by immersion. The nature and understanding of reading by immersion may need adjustment. Reading is becoming a dip-in-dip-out type practice for younger readers as they move, often concurrently, between platforms and modalities to experience narrative, albeit narrative in a different way. 26 As these digital natives learn to create content from the earliest age, further supplemented by their schooling, they are creating their own form of narrative as well as contributing to the development of others’ works. Yet many authors of young adult fiction are still writing as though the internet never happened. 27 Though they may be writing electronic books, they are still writing in a linear format with, more often than not, a single narrative arc. And young adults are disengaging. They ‘transcend adult-sanctioned notions of text form’, 28 and search for new and engaging means of embarking on imaginative journeys where information is presented in new ways - commonly with the fragmentation of ideas, links to other media, a transient sense of time and place, and the blurring of lines between text and image, and between actual and virtual space. 29 The issue for authors writing for this demographic becomes one of capacity to create narrative in formats that will engage and retain the focus and attention of younger readers as they are developing their literacy in a multi-modal context. Young people are increasingly sourcing their reading material online, in a nonlinear and non-sequential format, by a process of multitasking with a preference for graphic and visual information. 30 Creating a hypertextual narrative environment places the reader at the centre of the story, and though it may ‘complicate the conventional narrative patterns of the author/storyteller to reader/listener/receiver’, it has the potential for the young adult reader to enter into a dialogic relationship with the author, particularly if platforms for social media are utilised.

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__________________________________________________________________ Stoyanova suggests that the hypertextual interactivity necessary to construct the type of nonlinear architecture young readers find so engaging, should remain grounded in the author’s existing means of expression. 31 But if authors limit themselves by resisting the call to extend their writing skill base, they may find they need to outsource some of their narrative creation and in doing so, share their authorship. All creative artists, including authors, embed a little of themselves into their work. But when authors begin to outsource content creation in order that they may supplement traditional story, remaining true to their own conceived narrative might prove a challenge. Lack of capacity to produce multimodal content themselves, means that authors may need to look to developers to create content designed to become part of the narrative. Developing content requires the programmer to interpret the author’s narrative function, character, action, dialogue and setting as well as apply design functionality, including transitions, consistent with text, plot and pace. Notwithstanding the subjectivity of interpretation that essentially comes into play, the story becomes ‘readable’ in a different format, and possibly in contrast to the authors original intention. Hayles notes that ‘when a programmer/writer creates an executable file, the process reengineers the writer’s perceptual and cognitive system as she works with the medium’s possibilities’. 32 While she is referring to creating/testing modules as an active dynamic between creator and computer, she draws a meta-analogy: As human cognition is to the creation and consumption of the work, so computer cognition is to its execution and performance. The meta-analogy makes clear that the experience of electronic literature can be understood in terms of the intermediating dynamics linking human understanding with computer (sub)cognition. 33 Manovich refers to this principle as transcoding, whereby something is translated into another format. He suggests that all new media contains two layers; the cultural layer and the computer layer, and that each informs the other. 34 When an author ‘writes’, she creates a voice, not just for her characters but for the tone of the novel. The developer cannot maintain or replicate the same ‘voice’ or ‘tone’; she cannot take on the author’s subjectivity, but can only embed her own when creating content. This results in a multi-authored work. To ‘write’ a fiction novel for young adults where some content is outsourced, is to create a hypertextual, multilayered, multilinear, multimodal mix of material, whereby the narrative becomes embedded with the nuances of both author and developer. That is, until such a time as today’s multimodal young readers become tomorrow’s multimodal authors, and begin to create fiction in ways we, here today, can only imagine.

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__________________________________________________________________ Marshall McLuhan predicted this when he said: ‘the medium is the message’, 35 and talked about communication technologies extending human capacities, altering the way we construct knowledge, construing our subjectivities. Who knew that fifty years later, it might impact on fiction writing?

Notes Victoria J Rideout, Ulla G Foehr, and Donald F Roberts, Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8-to 18-Year-Olds (Menlo Park, California: Henry J Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010), 15. 2 Ibid., 33. 3 Bill Martin and Tan Xuemei, Books, Bytes and Business: The Promise of Digital Publishing (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2010), 51. 4 N. K. Hayles, ‘The Future of Literature: Complex Surfaces of Electronic Texts and Print Books’, Collection Management 31 (2007): 85. 5 M. Wolf, ‘The Importance of Deep Reading’, Educational Leadership 66 (2009): 37. 6 Rideout et al., Generation M2, 2. 7 Mark Bauerlein, The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young Americans and Jeopardizes Our Future (or, Don't Trust Anyone under 30) (New York: Tarcher/Penguin Books, 2008), 93. 8 Nicholas G. Carr, The Shallows : What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains (New York: W.W. Norton, 2011). 9 Wolf, ‘The Importance of Deep Reading’, 32. 10 Jakob Nielsen, ‘F-Shaped Pattern for Reading Web Content. 2006’. Alterbox, 2007, Viewed 10 June 2015, http://www.nngroup.com/articles/scrolling-andscrollbars/. 11 Hayles, ‘The Future of Literature: Complex Surfaces of Electronic Texts and Print Books’, 97. 12 Plato, Phadreus, (370BCE). 13 Clay Shirky, Cognitive Surplus: Creativity and Generosity in a Connected Age (New York: Penguin Press, 2010). 14 N. Katherine Hayles, ‘Intermediation: The Pursuit of a Vision’, New literary history 38 (2007). 15 Peter Hill, An Australian Curriculum to Promote 21st Century Learning (ACARA, 2010). 16 Wolf, ‘The Importance of Deep Reading’, 35. 17 E. B. Moje et al., ‘Reinventing Adolescent Literacy for New Times: Perennial and Millennial Issues’, Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 43 (2000): 402 18 Glynda A. Hull, ‘At Last: Youth Culture and Digital Media: New Literacies for New Times’, Research in the Teaching of English 38 (2003): 230. 1

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__________________________________________________________________ Wolf, ‘The Importance of Deep Reading’, 35. Barbara R. Jones-Kavalier and Suzanne L. Flannigan, ‘Connecting the Digital Dots: Literacy of the 21st Century’, EDUCAUSE Quarterly 29 (2006): 8-10. 21 Donald J. Jr. Leu et al., ‘Toward a Theory of New Literacies Emerging from the Internet and Other Information and Communication Technologies’, in Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading, 5th Ed (Portland: Ringgold Inc, 2004), 1574. 22 Noel Fitzpatrick, ‘Digital Reading: A Question of Prelectio?’, in Internet Research, Theory, and Practice: Perspectives from Ireland, ed. C. English C. Fowley, & S. Thouësny (Dublin: Research-Publishing.net, 2013). 23 Martin, Books, Bytes, Business, 76. 24 Ibid. 25 Adriaan van der Weel, ‘Convergence and Its Discontents: From a Book Culture to a Reading Culture’, Logos 20 (2009). 26 Rideout et al., Generation M2. 27 Kenneth Goldsmith, Uncreative Writing: Managing Language in the Digital Age/Kenneth Goldsmith (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011); Rideout et al., Generation M2. 28 Moje et al., ‘Reinventing Adolescent Literacy for New Times: Perennial and Millennial Issues’. 29 T. P. Mackey and T. E. Jacobson, ‘Reframing Information Literacy as a Meta Literacy’, Coll. Res. Libr. 72 (2011): 75. 30 June Abbas and Denise E. Agosto, ‘Everyday Life Information Behaviour of Young People,’, in The Information Behaviour of a New Generation: Children and Teens in the 21st Century, ed. Jamshid Beheshti and Andrew Large (Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2013), 85. 31 Silvia M. Stoyanova, ‘Fragmentary Narrative and the Formation of Pre-Digital Scholarly Hypertextuality: G. Leopardi's Zibaldone and Its Hypertext Rendition’, in Proceedings of the 3rd Narrative and Hypertext Workshop (Paris, France: ACM, 2013): 2. 32 Hayles, ‘Intermediation: The Pursuit of a Vision’, 105. 33 Ibid. 34 Lev Manovich, The Language of New Media / Lev Manovich (Cambridge, Mass. London: MIT Press, 2001). 35 Herbert Marshall McLuhan, The Medium Is the Massage (New York: Random House, 1967). 19 20

Bibliography Abbas, June and Denise E. Agosto. ‘Everyday Life Information Behaviour of Young People’. In The Information Behaviour of a New Generation: Children and

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__________________________________________________________________ Teens in the 21st Century, edited by Jamshid Beheshti and Andrew Large. Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2013. Bauerlein, Mark. The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young Americans and Jeopardizes Our Future (or, Don't Trust Anyone under 30). New York: Tarcher/Penguin Books, 2008. Carr, Nicholas, G. The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains. New York: W.W. Norton, 2011. Fitzpatrick, Noel. ‘Digital Reading: A Question of Prelectio?’ In Internet Research, Theory, and Practice: Perspectives from Ireland, edited by C. English C. Fowley and S. Thouësny, 1-16. Dublin: Research-Publishing.net, 2013. Goldsmith, Kenneth. Uncreative Writing: Managing Language in the Digital Age/ Kenneth Goldsmith. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011. Hayles, N. K. ‘The Future of Literature: Complex Surfaces of Electronic Texts and Print Books’. Collection Management 31.1-2 (2007): 85-114. Hayles, N. Katherine. ‘Intermediation: The Pursuit of a Vision’. New literary history 38.1 (2007): 99-125. Hill, Peter. An Australian Curriculum to Promote 21st Century Learning. ACARA, 2010. Hull, Glynda A. ‘At Last: Youth Culture and Digital Media: New Literacies for New Times’. Research in the Teaching of English 38.2 (2003): 229-233. Jones-Kavalier, Barbara R., and Suzanne L. Flannigan. ‘Connecting the Digital Dots: Literacy of the 21st Century’. EDUCAUSE Quarterly 29.2 (2006): 8-10. Leu, Donald J. Jr., Charles K. Kinzer, Julie L. Coiro and Dana W. Cammack. ‘Toward a Theory of New Literacies Emerging from the Internet and Other Information and Communication Technologies’. In Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading, 5th Ed, 19, n/a. Portland: Ringgold Inc, 2004. Mackey, T. P. and T. E. Jacobson. ‘Reframing Information Literacy as a Meta Literacy’. Coll. Res. Libr. 72.1 (2011): 62-78.

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__________________________________________________________________ Manovich, Lev. The Language of New Media / Lev Manovich. Cambridge, Mass. London: MIT Press, 2001. Martin, Bill, and Tan Xuemei. Books, Bytes and Business: The Promise of Digital Publishing. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2010. McLuhan, Herbert Marshall. The Medium Is the Massage. New York: Random House, 1967. Moje, E. B., J. P. Young, J. E. Readence and D. W. Moore. ‘Reinventing Adolescent Literacy for New Times: Perennial and Millennial Issues’. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 43 (2000): 400-410. Nielsen, Jakob. ‘F-Shaped Pattern for Reading Web Content. 2006’. Alterbox, 2007. Viewed 10 June 2015. http://www.nngroup.com/articles/scrolling-andscrollbars/. Rideout, Victoria J., Ulla G. Foehr and Donald F. Roberts. Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8-to 18-Year-Olds. Menlo Park, California: Henry J Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010. Shirky, Clay. Cognitive Surplus: Creativity and Generosity in a Connected Age. New York: Penguin Press, 2010. Stoyanova, Silvia M. ‘Fragmentary Narrative and the Formation of Pre-Digital Scholarly Hypertextuality: G. Leopardi's Zibaldone and Its Hypertext Rendition’. In Proceedings of the 3rd Narrative and Hypertext Workshop, 1-6. Paris, France: ACM, 2013. van der Weel, Adriaan. ‘Convergence and Its Discontents: From a Book Culture to a Reading Culture’. Logos 20.1 (2009): 148-154. Wolf, Maryanne. ‘The Importance of Deep Reading’. Educational Leadership 66. 6 (2009): 32-37. Khyiah Angel is a PhD candidate in Creative Writing at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. Her degree is practice-led for which the creative component is a multimodal novel for young adults. The research component concerns the Phenomenology of Young Adult Reading in a Multimodal Context.

Incubating Magic, Mystery and the Macabre: An Author’s View of His Writing Process Phil Fitzsimmons, Edie Lanphar and Stephen Morris Abstract This chapter seeks to reveal on-going research which ‘responsively evaluated’ the Social Model of Writing through the lens of a published author. When first coming into print, the Social Model of Literacy in general, and the Social Model of Writing in particular, became an accepted component of the Australian tertiary pre-service teacher sector. However, in the six years since its acceptance the model has not been updated or reviewed. As stated this aim of this chapter is to unpack new foci based on research evidence. Hence, through a series of semi-structured interviews with an author grounded in a more current ‘context of culture’ several elements related to the praxes of teaching writing in classrooms emerged. We believe that these include the concept of social-emotional learning, collaborative reflection and habitus. The emergence of social emotional learning relates to the ideals of ownership of writing intertextuality and the awareness of the ‘other’ and others in quality texts. While habitus was a component of the initial design, it has become clear that habitus is not a peripheral cognitive component but a core emotional mindfulness. It is not only related to the patterns of thinking that arises out of deep familial connectivity, but that these patterns have the potentiality to be related to aesthetic, critical reflection and ‘projection of understanding’. . Key Words: Writing, social model of writing, habitus. ***** 1. It Isn’t Write: An Introduction to Processes and Praxes This project deals with how one recently published author came to see himself as a writer, the path he came to be a writer, and the processes he employed in the writing process. This project was undertaken because of an increasing dissatisfaction with how we saw writing being taught, or more correctly, not taught in schools in Australia. Focussing on an author’s view of their writing practices in order to understand how elements of their approach to the teaching of writing in schools is not new, but as will be discussed in ensuing paragraphs, it is the research focus which we believe began to shift educators understanding of writing away from what Cambourne and Turbill have described as the traditional teacher-centred ‘skills based model’. 1 As well, the aim of this project was also slightly different in that it not only sought to understand how one successful writer undertook his craft, but through an ‘autobiographical approach’ 2 also sought to understand how he came engage with writing in his formative years. According to Creswell, autobiographic narrative research is where ‘narrative researchers collect stories

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__________________________________________________________________ from individuals’ lived and told experiences’. 3 This investigation also included elements of case study, which ‘provides a unique portrayal of people in a real social situation by means of vivid accounts of events, feelings and perceptions’. 4 As stated, the rationale for using this approach also came about because for almost thirty years we have constantly heard a negative reaction to the progressive shifts in the understanding of writing, with the constant mantra of ‘we need to get back to basics’. It is our belief that understanding how writing develops for those who enjoy and engage in it everyday provides a deeper understanding of what these ‘basics are’. It goes without saying that our dissatisfaction has been a long-term process that also increased after the publication of the book Writing in the Primary School Years was published in 2003. 5 While not dissatisfied with the book per se, it was our unfolding research findings and the same old ‘back to basic’ battles that also ensued which exacerbated our dissatisfaction. While we had made strides in revealing an understanding of how writing worked, it was not the full story, nor the story told as accurately as it could have been. As understood by Turbill, this book and its focus was part of an evolutionary paradigm shift in the teaching of writing in Australian schools. This particular holistic approach was based on the Social Model of Literacy, which was a more formalized slant to the teaching and learning of writing that arose out of the work of Allen Luke and Peter Freebody. 6

Figure 1: Social Model of Literacy © 2014. Courtesy of Phil Fitzsimmons. This model came into being for two reasons. Firstly, it was intended to incorporate all the facets of the writing process instead of the purely graphophonics and skills based approaches that the authors had continued to see in classrooms despite the significant research and curriculum changes that had

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__________________________________________________________________ occurred since the 1980’s. Writing for children in these classrooms was still far removed from a meaning centred pedagogy that sought to use writing for real purposes. Secondly, it was also intended to be a step up in that it also aimed to use the concepts of the ‘genre approach’ to teaching, which had become the dominant pedagogical force in Australian schools. While agreeing with the precepts of the genre approach the authors believed that children also came to school with a great deal of literacy understanding that could be incorporated into the writing process in classrooms. In other words, there was an understated belief amongst the designers of the Social Model that the genre approach had been translated into a recipe approach to the teaching of writing and the Social Model would be the pedagogical bridge connecting the pervious writing periods of child centred approaches with the current perceived need for explicit teaching. On publication, the book was taken up by the majority of universities running teacher trainer courses and proved to be a successful approach for both experienced and beginning teachers. The text and model was also designed to pull together the research of each of the four authors, however editorial restrictions precluded the inclusion of many aspects of these investigations. In particular, the social aspects of learning to write had been glossed over. For the authors of this chapter this was deemed a point of contention as continuing research had demonstrated the importance of socio-emotional engagement in the learning to be literate process. With this quality of learning continuing to emerge it was decided to undertake a Fourth Generation Evaluation 7 of the model in general, and writing in particular. Using a bricolage of qualitative methodologies this was done so as to, … reveal experience – the thing itself – in a way as close as possible to the actual experience – the way that it was lived in its most pre-reflective form, its fullest sense of time, space, embodiment and relationality. 8 As seen in the previous diagram the model had at its core, the interlocking components of the three-cueing systems, surrounded by the forms, processes and conditions that supposedly support and guide the learning to write process. While acknowledging the importance of these core concepts and the model itself, our initial school based research findings began to suggest that deeply engaged readerwriters possessed a different world-view to the writing process. Ensuing investigations revealed the heart of the former revolution was correct in its view of children in how educators understood the writing process. It confirmed that, while having been designed with the best of intentions, our previous model had been slipping discourses of ‘inadequacy, shortcoming and ignorance focus on what children cannot do’. 9 Indeed, the core theme arising out of the data from this respondent was that he became a writer through a melding of the

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__________________________________________________________________ notions of ‘intellectual habitus’ 10 and a reflective process that appears to be grounded in the development of an aesthetic-social-emotional awareness. This melding and transference process will be unpacked in the following section. 2. What Is Write? Writing as a Habitus of Being In this section there are two nested diagrams representing the ‘coded’ findings of this new investigation. While the coding process revealed the microelements of an early writing life, they also revealed that this author’s writing development was characterised by an evolutionary process of personal insight as opposed to the usual unpacking of developmental understanding of meaning with increasing control over grapho-phonics and grammar. These insights form the structure and flow of the ensuing discussions, in parallel with ‘responsive references’ to the literature base. While the individual facets of habitus have been separated out schematically, this in no way is indicative of the highly overlapping, integrated and connectedness of these components. All the elements were totally focussed on an overall sense of making meaning, and making meaning that had at its source the integrative force that can only be derived from the psycho-emotional truthfulness of seeking an authentic life through narrative. What first teaches us the nature of story is not the fixed form of writing on a page. It isn’t the page that teaches us that story is language miraculously fixed into a present unvarying shape, which makes absent things present, as if the commons air had stilled in its places and become hard crustal, through which see visions. That comes after. 11 A. First Sight: Habitus as the Core of the Writing Identity As indicated in the previous section, the writing process for this author began as an ‘intellectual habitus’ in the way he envisioned himself, which grew into a network of integrated visionary processes of writing. Indeed he also spoke of this as an informed reflective distancing process in which he was able to see his writing and his writing process in almost out of body modality. Hence these have been terms used to frame each of the sections that arose out of the data.

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Figure 2: First Sight - Writing as Habitus © 2014. Courtesy of Phil Fitzsimmons. As stated previously, at the heart of this author’s drive to write and engage fully with the writing process was the notion of ‘habitus’. As Luke defines this term, it is ‘the means by which a particular way of ‘being’ is produced, enacted and negotiated in interactions between social structure, and action within practice’. 12 Rather than being an outlier of influence as placed in the original Social Model of Literacy, for this author, this the ‘sense of self as writer’ and the development of a ‘writing identity’ came into existence at a very early age. The reason behind this was, to paraphrase Bordieu and Coleman he firstly ‘had a feel for the game’ 13 which once established, was a consistent way of life, thinking and being. I just kept my writing for myself, and I had a stack of paper under the dinning room table, and luckily my grandfather works for one of the daily newspapers in Seattle. And he would all these scrapes of newsprint, that were too small for the newspaper to use, but were perfect for drawing and writing on so that was a real godsend, if we hadn’t had that I don’t know what I would’ve done. 14 This socio-emotional sense of self appears to have come about through an integration of personal engagement with reading, putting pen to paper, within a socially framed reading-writing connection. In regard to the first point, having been read to not only developed a love for reading, but also set in motion a reflective component of looking very carefully at the ways authors had used words and formed sentences. This reflective process in turn generated a sense of ‘hearing words’ and developing a sense of how they fit together as being grammatically correct, and possessing an engagement factor for a reader.

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__________________________________________________________________ While his earliest memories recall reading, being read to, engaging with fantasy, he also embarked on a habitual process of writing everyday. Well I sort of considered, my work after school in the afternoon. Which as by four o’clock I was to sit down and to draw and to write. So I would have, I guess now, you would almost call it graphic novels, ah or just text. And I would write reports on myself, I would research things, I would check out all these fairy tales books in the library, we couldn’t buy them so I would copy out my versions of my favourite stories so that I could have my own fairy tale collection. 15 In conjunction with what appears to a constant drafting of his writing, Stephen also constantly reflected on his writing, about his writing and visualised his writing. While writing continually allowed for the flow of his reading awareness into text, it also provided another reflective springboard in that this triptych of reading, writing and reflection also set in train an incubation process. Not only was he constantly drafting narratives, this process was also occurring in his reflective imagination. This seemed to be a long term and deep seated memory exercise in that some drafts were held in a suspended in space for years. Indeed, his recently published trilogy was the result of decades of research, internal drafting and reflection that actually can be traced back to his earliest years’.[…] it was so bizarre that a picture that I had in my head in junior high school was actually coalescing in words on a page’. 16 It can be emphasised enough that while this author took responsibility for his own writing development, he was not left alone. Both his mother and staff members at his school allowed him the freedom to engage with texts of his own choosing. He was also gaining insights through his own reading. Stephen was drawn to notions and ideals of magic. In fact, such was the depth of this engagement that he made an existential reflective decision that ‘if God exists then so does magic, the elves, and the fairies, and the witches and the devil’. Such was the power of the freedom to reflect, read and write though a ‘habitus’ of unconditional support, he appears to have then become an even more prolific writer. Constant writing, deep personal engagement and reflection gave him the focus to ‘read like a writer and write like a reader’. Thus, these conditions provided a stepping-stone of insight that allowed this author to move into a higher set of understandings and more in-depth insights. I didn’t always see the colours, I sort of, I didn’t really see the surface reality but I saw the subtext, like when people talk about second sight, seeing the reality beneath the surface. 17

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__________________________________________________________________ B. Second Sight: Habitus as the Core of the Writing Identity It should be noted that the first set of first set of facets summarizes this author’s earliest understanding of writing and the writing process. This understanding was a blend of the technical aspects, which gradually became more enmeshed with this second level of sight. While there is no distinct developmental process, it is clear that the mechanical awareness evolved into an even more concentrated reflection which in turn provided the means for both the awareness and emergence of the more aesthetic qualities involved in writing. It should be noted that these two sets of insights were not detached or even hierarchical, but two forms of reflective potentials that grew over time. In the most simplest of terms, it would appear that this author would move between each set of sights and between clusters of each writing conditions in order to develop what he deemed to be a more aesthetically pleasing writing.

Figure 3: Second Sight - Habitus as the Core of the Writing Identity © 2014. Courtesy of Phil Fitzsimmons. One of the key elements that allowed this young writer to gain even further control over his writing was copying text. This process however was also deeply ingrained in the reflective process that was already established in the emotional landscape of his mind’s eye. Thus, it was more than copying but a process by which he became aware of other’s subtle use of words and application of strings of words. It would also appear that this process began to extend his awareness of various genres and their associated register. In providing an example of how other writers used, merged and extended various genres, also provided the respondent in this project with ideas of how to break and reform each genre to suit his own aesthetic purpose.

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__________________________________________________________________ As this young writer became increasingly more engaged with his own writing, he also correspondingly gained greater awareness of the possibilities of other genres and language use. So too his reflective capabilities became much more focussed and expanded. Hence, he began to further incubate ideas and language uses which he then collectively stored these ideas in his memory for future use. The culmination of these writing elements was a coming together to realize a series of texts that actually provided this author an opportunity to come full circle in regard to his thinking. In what commenced as deep reflection and an initial awareness of magic and the existence of God at an early age, lead to writing becoming one of the forms in which he could not only give voice to his ever increasing knowledge base but also a process of crystallising his metaphysical awareness. 3. Conclusion: Writing Is a Habitus of Being In regard to the current focus of western governments and educational systems on the mechanics of writing instead of meaning making, this constant focus on reading, writing and reflecting without the concentration required for correct grammar and spelling only served to increase his efficacy in regard to the latter points. Within this third space of incubating narratives, a sense of ‘reading like a writer and writing like a reader’ enhanced his perception of how words could be strung together to achieve maximum impact, and develop sense of how words should and could be spelt. Rather than focussing on the mechanics of the writing process, these came out as enhanced facets of understanding within the power of the sustaining power of self-belief within a reading-writing habitus. A young child taking on the intertwined discourses, structures and patterns as a result of deep engagement generated these surface features. This triptych of reading, writing and reflection also set in motion an incubation process in which he was constantly drafting narratives in his reflective imagination. It seems that this became some kind of ‘third space’ in which writing itself and writing as an internalized form of ‘social imaginary’ became an everyday experience. I think of my life, we see what we want to see and acknowledge what we want to acknowledge, and a lot of times the stuff that is, the things that are most clearly in front of our noses we don’t notice because we don’t want to notice, so I tried to just be true to life. 18 Developing and realizing his own individual social imaginary allowed him to penetrate the social imaginaries that surrounded him, and in turn access the symbolic elements in the texts and thought processes in which he had become fully immersed. In summarising this author’s understanding of his craft and process, and

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__________________________________________________________________ matching his previous quote with a new way of seeing writing, we would offer the understanding of Taylor, By social imaginary, I mean something much broader and deeper than the intellectual schemes people may entertain when they think about social reality in a disengaged mode. I am thinking rather of the ways people imagine their social existence, how they fit together with others, how things go on between them and their fellows, the expectations that are normally met, and the deeper normative notions and images that underlie these expectations. 19

Notes Brian Cambourne and Jan Turbill, ‘Looking Back to Look Forward: Understanding the Present by Revisiting the Past – An Australian Perspective’, International Journal of Progressive Education 2 (2007): 8. 2 Stefinee Pinnegar and Mary Lynn Hamilton, ‘Narrating the Tensions of Teacher Educator, Researcher in Moving Story to Research’, in Narrative Inquiries into Curriculum Making in Teacher Education, eds. Julian Kitchen, Darlene Cluffetelli Parker and Debbie Pushor (Bingley: Emerald Publishing, 2011), 58. 3 John Creswell, Educational Research Design: Planning, Conducting and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Qualitative Fourth Edition (Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 2009), 71. 4 Tehmina Basit, Conducting Research in Educational Contexts (London: Bloomsbury Academic 2010), 19. 5 Pauline Harris, Barbra McKenzie, Phil Fitzsimmons and Jan Turbill, Writing in the Primary School Years, (Sydney: Social Science Press, 2003). 6 Allan Luke and Peter Freebody, 'A Map of Possible Practices: Further Notes on the Four Resources Model', Practically Primary 4 (1999), 5–8. 7 Egon Guba and Yvonna Lincoln, Fourth Generation Evaluation (Newbury Park: SAGE, 1989). 8 Susan James, ‘What Inheres in Midwifery’, (Paper presented at First Global Conference on Writing: Paradigms, Power, Poetics and Praxes. Prague, Czech Republic, November 14-16, 2011). 9 Diane Mavers, Children’s Drawing and Writing: The Remarkable in the Unremarkable (New York: Routledge, 2011), 2. 10 Richard Wollin, ‘Carl Schmitt: The Conservative Revolutionary Habitus and the Aesthetics of Horror’, Political Theory 20 (1991), 426. 11 Francis Spufford, The Child that Books Built: A Reading Life (London: Picador, 2003): 47. 1

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__________________________________________________________________ Haida Luke, Medical Education and Sociology of Medical Habitus: “Its Not About the Stethoscope” (New York: Kluwer, 2003): xiv. 13 Pierre Bourdieu and James Coleman, Social Theory for a Changing Society (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991), 37. 14 Third author, interviewed by first and second author, New York, July 18, 2013. 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Charles Taylor, Modern Social Imaginaries (London: Duke University Press, 2004), 23. 12

Bibliography Basit, Tehmina. Conducting Research in Educational Contexts. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2010. Bourdieu, Pierre and James Coleman. Social Theory for a Changing Society. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991. Cambourne, Brian and Jan Turbill. ‘Looking Back to Look Forward: Understanding the Present by Revisiting the Past – An Australian Perspective’. International Journal of Progressive Education 2 (2007): 8-29. Creswell, John. Educational Research Design: Planning, Conducting and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research Fourth Edition. Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 2009. Guba, Egon and Yvonna Lincoln. Fourth Generation Evaluation. Newbury Park: SAGE, 1989. James, Susan. ‘What Inheres in Midwifery’. Paper presented at the First Global Conference on Writing: Paradigms, Power, Poetics and Praxes. Prague, Czech Republic, November 14-16, 2011. Luke, Allan and Peter Freebody. 'A Map of Possible Practices Further Notes on the Four Resources Model'. Practically Primary 4 (1999): 5–8. Luke, Haida. Medical Education and Sociology of Medical Habitus: “It’s Not about the Stethoscope”. New York: Kluwer, 2003.

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__________________________________________________________________ Mavers, Diane. Children’s Drawing and Writing: The Remarkable in the Unremarkable. New York: Routledge, 2011. Pinnegar, Stefinee and Mary Lynn-Hamilton. ‘Narrating the Tensions of Teacher Educator Researcher in Moving Story to Research’. In Narrative Inquiries into Curriculum Making in Teacher Education, edited by Julian Kitchen, Darlene Cluffetelli Parker and Debbie Pushor, 43-70. Bingley: Emerald Publishing, 2011. Spufford, Francis. The Child that Books Built: A Reading Life. London: Picador, 2003. Taylor, Charles. Modern Social Imaginaries. London: Duke University Press, 2004. Wollin, Richard. ‘Carl Schmitt: The Conservative Revolutionary Habitus and the Aesthetics of Horror’. Political Theory 20 (1991): 424-447. Phil Fitzsimmons is an Associate Professor of Education at Avondale College of Higher Learning. Prior to taking up this appointment he was Director of Research at the San Roque Research Institute, Santa Barbara, California. Edie Lanphar is currently a lecturer in the education program at Avondale College of Higher Education. Her current research interests are in the area of adolescent connectivity and socio-emotional learning. Prior to this she was a, administrator, middle school teacher and director of curriculum at the Garden Street Academy, Santa Barbara, California. She also has a background in psychology, working with students with special needs and developing programmes or children with special needs in the private sector. With degrees in medieval history and theology from Yale and St. Vladimir’s Orthodox Theological Academy, Stephen Morris brings his extensive knowledge and meticulous research in medieval magical practices to his terrifying historicalurban fantasy trilogy, Come Hell or High Water, set partly in Prague. A former priest, he served as the Eastern Orthodox chaplain at Columbia University. His previous academic writing has dealt primarily with Late Antiquity and Byzantine church life. Stephen, a Seattle native, is now a long-time New York resident and currently lives in Manhattan with his partner, Elliot.

Writing about Roses: Authority and Authenticity in Writing Johanna Pentikäinen Abstract My chapter seeks to discuss the writing process as a very ambivalent object of study. The discourses of creative writing processes produced in classrooms and in textbooks often emphasise certain aspects of discovering, selecting, producing and editing phases, while the language appears as a medium for the set of activities. However, many professional writers have either stated or mentioned that they have a certain need to write or a set of writing drives that enforces and leads them to their activity. These driving aspects of motivation and interest are not easily represented in classroom or textbook discourse, due to their unique and particular nature. I have chosen three terms as a starting point for my study: 1. Authority, because all writing needs to face the questions of authority, sometimes in terms of scientific or aesthetic authority, sometimes in terms of what can or cannot be said in a certain context; 2. Authenticity, because both research and fiction writing need a sense of lived experience and/or some references to real life in order to remain vital and expressive, and 3. Autoethnography, because it too uses the experienced reality as its starting point, and manifests how transformation from silence to voicing is the real process in writing. In the end, I refer to Nietzsche’s famous distinction between Dionysian and Apollonian that signifies the interplay of spirit and certain form or structure as a core activity of art; may it remain ideal. Key Words: Process, learning, ethnography, authority, authenticity.

reflection,

imaginary,

metaphors,

auto

***** 1. Introduction Especially in the first phase of writing it is very important to avoid all kinds of self-censorship. Shame is not for writers. You have to be shameless. You cannot worry about being ridiculous. When I sit down to write, I am free from shame. Many writers have alter egos. It frees you to draw from your own experiences and invent more. In mask there is freedom. 1 In this chapter, I am trying to explore the space and context of writing as an object of learning and activity. I consider writing to be a productive activity, not limited to any genre or other quality of outcome, but more like a process the writer goes through, producing texts. The final products may be considered as fiction; they may consist of scholarly pieces or acts, or they can be merely expressions

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__________________________________________________________________ leading to any form of personal narratives. This is to say that the epistemological attitude to the different genres is not a defining one in my study, but rather, I am focusing on the activity of writing that happens in a writer’s mind and the appearance of a text. The materiality of the final product, however, arises from the activity and its dynamics. The context of this exploration is the new class I am beginning this fall at the University of the Arts Helsinki. The class, targeted for PhD and MA students, is titled ‘Investigative Writing Workshop’ and it aims to investigate writing as an activity that focuses on the writer and the writing process, not the context of creative or academic writing, with their genre-based social norms and epistemological presuppositions. Instead, my class aims to investigate the somewhat hidden and sometimes most productive areas in between those territories, and writing is the tool of exploring. Writing is not only a material with referential objects outside in the world; it is also an object itself in a becoming state. For this purpose, I have been doing a literature search in order to find a suitable definition and practical applications of writing, but I was not very successful. However, many of the discussions of writing in the context of learning aim to produce rational and quite organized views on writing that could be easily modelled in classrooms. I found some interesting points of view: 1. writing tuition as represented in text books is mainly about method, not about writing as an activity, and 2. in many cases writing tuition is more about authority than authenticity, while I am looking for the latter. In the following, I am exploring the questions of authority and authenticity in writing, in order to define the learning context that will serve as my basis for development of learning activities and tasks. In the end, I am trying to analyze the roles of the authentic and authoritarian in artistic activity by using Nietzsche’s well-known theory of Dionysian and Apollonian in art. 2. Writing as Authority Questions of author and authority are the essence of writing. The position of author is a position that a writer takes. A writer is the producer of a text and if it is published, the author signs the text with a proper name. The author is a sign of authority. In an art context, the author is also a sign of authenticity, because it points to the ‘source’ of the text, to the real historical person behind the text as well as the ‘implied author’ embedded in the text. The considered presence of the author is a sign of textual value. 2 Authority as a concept presupposes that someone or something has superior knowledge and power. Authority literally means, being in control of something. As such, it cannot be applied to literary creation. Writing is not only an activity under someone’s control; it also creates a space of becoming that is uncontrollable in its very nature, too, but this is not easily manifested. However, it is a lot easier to

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__________________________________________________________________ discuss of those aspects of writing that can be controlled and organized, than those of merely artistic activity. Probably that is why the discourses of creative writing process produced in classrooms and in textbooks often emphasize the technical aspects of discovering, selecting, producing and editing phases, while the language appears only as a medium for the set of activities. In these representations, writing is a question about how to gain, maintain, and utilize authority in a written text. Attempts to organize and control the writing process often appear as servants for the writer’s aims to better the text, while there is no attempt to verbalize, what is good in it and how to further make it better. The process writing theory first developed by cognition scientists and then applied to several humanistic fields aimed to create a coherent and rational view of writing that could rationally be followed step by step. The theory is based on theories about the mind and how it works, from simple and smaller tasks to larger and more complex activities. Thus, the process theory applied in writing in practice means chopping the activity of writing into small tasks that direct towards the whole. This kind of analytic and inductive work process may help to plan the process, but it may miss the real target of the activity. Therefore, the process logic may appear as somewhat opposite to the idea of authenticity that is synthetic and deductive in its very nature. Since the 1980’s, the process theory has been widely accepted as a general theory of text making especially in academic and non-fiction writing. It gives the writer as well as the teacher a frame to structure the activity of writing, but it also has serious deficiencies. It lacks context, especially those coming from the writer, the audience, and the material as well as textual and social contexts. Being such a clinical attitude, it may limit the writer’s and teacher’s understanding of texts and their actions in the real world. However, it may lead the writer to a very technical and surface-level attitude towards language; the writer may find the process theory banal and see it only as a set of procedures. In fact, process writing seems to bring the act of authority as a means of control into writing. However, learning to write deals with questions of authority in many other ways, too. That is manifested in organizing writing tuition in general, and in the feedback the writers receive from their teachers and peers. 3 The aim to gain authority also appears in the level of metaphors that are used: while process writing encourages a logically structured frame, the more feminine development metaphors like nurturing, cultivating and maturing that bring more intimate attitudes towards writing also bring a sense of power; thus only in a different way. 4 3. Writing as Authenticity The sense of authenticity in writing is highly valued. It is a reader’s perception, and it may also be considered as a certain set of material features in a text. The sense of authenticity in writing is often considered as a reader’s sense of meaningfulness, truthfulness, coherence, expressivity, or uniqueness when reading

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__________________________________________________________________ a text. Authenticity, therefore, seems to connect to the communicative, interactional space created within the text, a space that somehow inspires the reader and gives pleasure. Here I define authenticity in writing first as a reader’s experience, then as a writer’s activity and quality of expression. Authenticity may appear as a reader’s perception and evaluation of the text. It may be emotional involvement in the text, or a sense of inner logic and activity, the feeling that something actual is occurring in the text. From the writer’s perspective, the development of the space within the text that may produce the sense of authenticity should be a central target. However, these driving aspects of motivation and interest are not easily represented in the classroom or textbook discourse, due to their unique and particular nature, but they may define the quality of language produced. The idea of authenticity recalls its own process, from the beginning to the end. Writing means producing language through one’s emotions, drives, and target. By pushing the language through one’s authentic self may lead to sometimes passionate or rebellious writing and re-writing, showing struggle, passion, embodied life, and collaborative creation of sense-making. Instead of controlling and being in control, a writer can be impassioned and embodied, vulnerable and intimate, and the stories may thus become evocative, dramatic, engaging, with concrete and layered details, or simply with a sense of human presence and understanding. Authenticity in writing is often narrated through metaphors, not using definitive language. To give an example, in a recent interview Philip Roth spoke about a certain emotion, shame, that one needs to overcome in order to write. Using the alter ego is one solution in producing a voice who knows what the self does and still is not the same as the self. Knowing the self is a privilege for authentic writing. As an emotion, shame is based on conflict between the state of self and individually experienced social norms; therefore, it is an area of silence, secrets, obliteration and revelation, and mostly, losing face, carrying a stigma or label. As a matter of distance and inability to fulfil social norms, shame asks for silence and secrecy. However, if transformed into verbal existence, the transformation may create a new space with emotional complexity, a sense of seriousness, or to say, authenticity, ending in a significant narrative. This kind of becoming and transformation from silence to voicing is the real process in writing. It has no timely presuppositions; it may happen in minutes or take years. It may consist of such activities as planning, writing, and editing, or writing and revision, but not necessarily. More important is its process of turning the individual into the social, or overcoming the feeling that the social is overlapping the self and pushing it with its ideology. It is about identification, selfesteem, analysis and reflection in language. This process can be a very strong drive to write, or a certain state of mind can strongly drive the writer to overcome it.

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__________________________________________________________________ Therefore, writing is giving the silence a voice, an attempt to find new areas to verbalize, unknown or yet untold. Transforming silence into a narrative is voicing. It has two premises: firstly it can be an act that transforms the reality, and secondly it may show the very position of a self, at the edge of private and social, personal experience and ideologies, producing interaction that aims to somehow relocate the self to the world. According to Bakhtin, voice is a speaking personality, always with some desires or will behind Voice is a broad and somewhat metaphoric concept. In research literature, voice has been defined as a set of textual features or as a reader’s conception based on perception and involvement, like authenticity. The first definition stresses structural and narrative techniques and styles, and the second, readers’ response as a central meaning-making process, like all language use consists of a relationship between the receiver, the community, and the material of the interaction. 5 According to socio-constructivist composition theory developed from the 1980s on, the writer can write as a self, with an individual voice, only when he or she first identifies and formulates, or at least opens up to the social milieu to which he or she is connected. That connection and interaction finally formulates the self and expression. 6 All personal writing is response to something that may be called social. We all produce and share it. That is why language is effective: it is personal and shared, it is embedded with affects and experiences it can carry nuances and resonances that we all may experience and identify, and it makes the sharing possible. Authenticity arises from a self, but it becomes understandable in the context of others. 4. Can Autoethnography Help? Before beginning my class, I myself tried to write using the idea of voicing. I began to write something with no idea of a genre, structure, target, objects, or any future use of the text. I used no plans, and the language I wrote in was not my first language. What I happened to produce was a text I later named, ‘Writing about Roses’. In my writing, roses ended up meaning several things: some real flowers I grew up with and happened to miss in the middle of winter. They also came to resemble roses as literary symbols that have been long dead, but I still felt the need to use them. Third and most interesting, the roses also became a writing technique. I wrote about one object or mental movement and then moved to a second one like a rose bush stratifies and slowly covers up the ground as it also grows taller. This kind of writing with no purpose, no genre, only through myself and my experience, produced something I later found to be very sensitive and urgent, or to say, authentic. However, I also found my method a good beginning for the development of a tuition method. When reflecting on my process, I found the method of autoethnography instead of mere personal writing or personal narratives more useful, because

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__________________________________________________________________ autoethnography aims to target another genre, by using personal narrative as a tool and source of invention, not as a target as such. If autoethnography means, as Chang says, transcending ‘mere narration of self to engage in cultural analysis and interpretation’ 7, its method resembles my interest in writing without genre and target, in hopes to produce meaningful material for future development in literary contexts. The use of personal accounts and semantic packages serves to make the language specific and expressive and its historicity and referentiality is a secondary question. For me, autoethnography has been a tool to understand the writing process in general; thus, it orients the writing process to be done through the self, involve the self, and to use only those fragments of writing that later appear meaningful when brought to another context. However, personal narratives in the form of autoethnography may also have therapeutic and evocative effects and thus enlighten the writing self as well as a common understanding of life on a personal and societal level. Writing is concerned with how the material produced becomes usable in differing contexts, and this is how autoethnography and literature have different but still comparable mechanisms and expectations. Chang’s discussion about the role of the self in autoethnographic study is easily applied to writing: one can focus solely on the self, use some aspects of personal experience alongside other material, or use personal experiences or points of interest solely to decide on a topic. 8 In my own writing, I happened to use all three of these roles, mixing them in different parts of a single text. 5. From Dionysos to Apollo Here I have emphasized the authenticity of language and the writer’s personal involvement in effective language production. However, the divide between artistic activity and finished artwork has often been discussed in art criticism, especially by modernists, who argued that artistic intention was no longer valid in the interpretation of literary texts. However, the romantic period and romanticism often stress the importance of the artistic creation as a source of all arts. Here I refer to Nietzsche’s well-known concepts of Dionysian and Apollonian in art. In Greek mythology, Dionysus and Apollo were sons of the god Zeus, and in Nietzsche’s theory, they gave their names to two compensative forces, too. Dionysian means sub-conscious, chaotic, spiritual and uncontrolled contact with the self - Dionysus was the God of the Spirits, and Apollonian means light, form, and aesthetic structure, the object of the artwork that has distanced itself from the self and opened up to the world. While there is a tension between these forces, there might not be an artwork without this dualism. It also represents the process from a Dionysian act of self-expression to a final piece of artwork. Nietzsche’s theory is about the birth of tragedy. Tragedy consists of a painful, even traumatic set of happenings; therefore, it probably originates from the Dionysian, or to say, from the authentic. Just as Philip Roth uses shame as a

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__________________________________________________________________ method to achieve authenticity, so the term Dionysian serves as a metaphor for art originating from any kind of chaos, uncontrolled or yet unnarrated. In artistic activity, this material is transformed to be a social and meaningful object. However, the dualism is not fully two-dimensional. The Apollonian needs the power of Dionysus in order to be meaningful; alone it stays empty. However, even without Apollonian it is possible to sense the transformative power of the Dionysian. If this is the mechanism of the artwork, it is very clear that the process must go on from Dionysian to Apollonian, but the start of how to get to know how to use one’s own Dionysian energy appears as the most critical, and therefore should be the first and foremost object of learning in order to really produce meaningful language.

Notes Philip Roth in TV documentary Unmasked, dir. William Karel, USA, 2011, PBS. Andrew Bennett, The Author (London: Routledge, 2005). 3 Anna Leahy ed., Power and Identity in the Creative Writing Classroom: The Authority Project (Clevedon, Multilingual Matters, 2005). 4 Ibid. 5 Melanie Sperling and Deborah Appleman, ‘Voice in the Context of Literacy Studies’ Reading Research Quarterly 46 (2011). 6 George Kalamaras, ‘Interrogating the Boundaries of Discourse in a Creative Writing Pedagogy Class: Politicizing the Parameters of the Permissible’. College Composition and Communication 51.1 (1999): 77-82. 7 Heewon Chang, Autoethnography as Method (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast, 2008), 43. 8 Friedrich Nietzsche, Birth of Tragedy (Cambridge: Cambridge Press, 1999). 1 2

Bibliography Bakhtin, Mikhail. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Translated by M. Holqvist and C. Emerson. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981. Bennett, Andrew. The Author. London: Routledge, 2005. Chang, Heewon. Autoethnography as Method. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast, 2008. Kalamaras, George. ‘Interrogating the Boundaries of Discourse in a Creative Writing Pedagogy Class: Politicizing the Parameters of the Permissible’. College Composition and Communication 51.1 (1999): 77–82.

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__________________________________________________________________ Leahy, Anna ed. Power and Identity in the Creative Writing Classroom: The Authority Project. Clevedon, Multilingual Matters, 2005. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy and Other Writings. Translated by Ronald Speirs. Cambridge: Cambridge Press, 1999(1872). Pentikäinen, Johanna. ‘Writing Drives and Creative Writing Instruction’. Why We Write as We Write, edited by Sérgio Tavares. Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press, 2013. Sperling, Melanie and Deborah Appleman. ‘Voice in the Context of Literacy Studies’. Reading Research Quarterly 46 (2011): 70-84. Unmasked. Directed by William Karel, USA, 2011, PBS. Johanna Pentikäinen is PhD and university lecturer at University of Helsinki, Finland. She is deeply interested in fiction writing and uses of literature in learning.

Spectacular Spectres: The Rite of Writing as a Paranormal Activity Fabio Ferrari Abstract This chapter probes the tricky relationship between creative inspiration and haunting, between the act of writing and paranormal activities as viewed from the perspective of creative writing pedagogy and contemporary queer theory. As a queer writer and professor, I postulate the possibility of writing as a hybrid encounter and supra-sensual event occurring in a past-present-future realm potentiated by spectral deviance. The ghostly emblem of this troubling realm is the queer child: a figure I use, following the work of Kathryn Bond Stockton, Elizabeth Freeman, and Judith Halberstam, to potentiate new ways of thinking about writing that defy convention by subverting the logic of possession and teasing out the violence of language. The queer child radiates from postmodern discourse where she has been reconceived as an agent of ghostly otherness, as a provocateur capable of spectacular scenes of conspiracy, staged uprisings, and daily acts of obstinate rebellion. The queer child and the haunted author, who is her double, confound common notions of authorial mastery, rigor, and control. The haunted author transcends these impositions, I theorize, by extracting understanding of the creative impulse from normative boundaries such as chrononormative time, for example, or accepted standards of good and bad. Finally, the queer child can be said to haunt narrative history where its systemic exclusion predicates the emergence of ghostly reminiscences, unruly apparitions that allow writers to behold time as a bodily, rather than cognitive, experience. Key Words: Queer theory, performance, writing, haunting, paranormal activity, authorial control, childhood. ***** 1. Queer Theory’s Ghastly Allure The objective of this chapter is to query the essence of the creative event and the cathartic processes that may serve to engender that event, particularly with regard to the rite of writing. I will probe the tricky relationship between creative writing and haunting, between the symbol of the child as a queer emblem of haunting and crises of authorial control. As I am developing this discussion in the context of an interdisciplinary dialogue, I assume the unfamiliarity of my readers with queer theory and, so, introduce the topic of the haunted writer in the same way I might begin a creative writing class in which the subversive opportunities afforded by queer necessitate, first, the articulation of a working definition. I develop this definition by way of

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__________________________________________________________________ examples coming from my experience as a college professor in Switzerland. From these illustrations, I will then move to the formulation of a general theory about the realm of the spectral spectacular as it relates to writing, followed by a reflection on how writers can galvanize the sometimes dreadful effects of haunting by reconsidering the voices of the dead as vehicles for inspired transgression, the spectral, and original transmission termed the spectacular. Perhaps the most important thing to consider, before approaching the hypothesized realm of the spectral spectacular, is that queer is not just a synonym for homosexual; nor is it merely a theoretical portal for talking about same-sex desire in new ways. Just as queer does not necessarily stand in for gay, nor is it necessarily a shorthand term of denotation for individuals who gender identify in ways that don’t conform to normative expectations. 1 In the new millennium, the term queer has adopted a rich, complex, and—to no small degree—enigmatic symbolic valence: a philosophical openness that, to me, contributes greatly to both its provocative charm and ghastly allure. The ‘q’ word, especially as it is being utilized in the most current theoretical discourse seeks, fundamentally, to upset the cognitive and discursive limits of historical classifications, identity categories, ideologies, and binary constructs; the rigidity of which would divide me from you, isolating us from them. 2 Politically, queer is an ambitiously elastic system of thinking about difference. While queer emerges from LGBT activism it, also, diverges consciously from this tradition and, in so doing, stands in opposition to its reductive everyday usage as alternate umbrella label for the LGBT community. Creating solidarity among LGBT people, according to my research, does not currently count among queer’s guiding ideals. If there even were common ideals to speak of in queer discourse, I would say that queer embraces plurality as a potentially destabilizing creative force. The queer expectation is that a deepened awareness of difference on all fronts in regard to difference in sexualities, difference in gender identities, difference in non-normative abilities and even collisions of difference within queer, can potentiate new modalities of thought, new paradigms for expressing and understanding the human experience. When said or viewed in this way, experience is purged of normative biases and clichés. 3 In sum, queer thinkers interject a troubling possibility. I call this the spectral possibility, the persistent haunting of hegemonic power by counterhegemonic voices can, theoretically, educe surprising and, yes, spectacular effects in both scholarship and writing. 2. Rude Awakenings in a Queer Classroom Thinking now of my experience as a professor of identity politics and solo performance, I note that the subversive idealism of queer thought can appear too radical for some, too quixotic for others. This observation holds equally true for many of my students, ranging from those who identify as white and straight to those who identify as navigating, dynamically, between subcultures within cultures

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__________________________________________________________________ within the LGBT community. For example, a Cuban-American bisexual is an identifier that only hints at the extent of this range. In short, my experience as a professor tells me that there is a lot of antagonism currently being expressed towards queer and, curiously for me as a queer scholarwriter-performer, this hostility comes from a generation of young people that I naively identified as naturally predisposed to queer, based solely, I realize now, on my collective inscription of these savvy, globalized 20-internauts within a postmodern era that I often over-simplify by assuming that, in 2013, our ‘shared’ postmodern sensibility makes all of us queer thinkers, in one way or another. On the stage of my performance classroom, my naiveté has been attacked on various fronts but, as I will explain later, as haunting as these attacks may have been, I cannot help but to think of them, now, except in terms of rude awakenings. These so-called rude awakenings took place during the course of two college semesters. In that not-too-distant past, I had the opportunity to hear from radical feminist lesbian women who, for example, just didn’t see any practical utility at all in the work of queer theorists like me, especially for ‘young people like us; activists who really want to do something concrete and constructive with our lives’. Queer theory, for these students, was unmasked in one of our class critiques as an aimless discourse of privilege. The queer movement was described by these women as ‘totally blah and depressing, just another discursive arena devoted to the pointless thrashing out of postmodern intellectual masturbation. Queer is dicking us around’. It is always challenging for me as an educator, particularly in these talk back sessions with my students, to hear queer ideology come under attack by writerperformers whose work, paradoxically, seems to align itself so well with the queer project of non-assimilation and resistance: that I still so admire, that I still so believe in. As a scholar and writer, I am haunted by the angry voices of my students and feel obliged, out of my respect for the queer project, to accommodate even the most antagonistic critiques by rendering even more open and elastic the confines of what I, nonetheless, and notwithstanding the opposition of my students, interpret as new forms of queer contestation. My students see this, in itself, as a form of rigidity and, thus, challenge the degree of my queer elasticity, given my myopic perspective as white queer man hiding within the ivory towers of academia. I recall how a young Palestinian student jammed twice in my class about how all the words and concepts and debris we were reading about, for all their/my supposedly good intentions didn’t even come close to addressing what it was like to struggle, daily, as a Palestinian gay man. Further more he saw himself as a self-defined androphile in exile for whom the closet could not be reduced metaphorically to the same essentialising terms of temporary refuge that, perhaps, applied to some of his more fortunate LGBT contemporaries from Western Europe or U.S. America. The class prompt on this occasion, grounded in theories about ‘queer spaces and agency’, fitting in, coming

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__________________________________________________________________ out or acting up, was, according to this student as suffocating as the English word closet itself. The duality of being out versus in, especially, made this young man’s body shake with irritation: I am not made visible by this so-called radical enlightenment and its Disney clichés about the light of self-realization, selfactualization, and self-fulfilment. My difference is swallowed up by these foreign elucidations and I feel myself darken under their shadows and bias. Student writer-performers such as the ones I’ve evoked above reinforce the idea that there can be no queer canon, just as there can be no queer manifesto, just as there can be neither queer consensus nor conclusion. There is, however, a queer force in these apparent negations: that force, I theorize, is their spectral and spectacular quality as unruly expressions of contestation. The vitality of this force is evidenced, in the cases I cited from my queer classroom, by virtue of the fact that these agitators very effectively subverted the logic of my lesson plans and, in so doing, taunted my claims to authority; not to mention the bullet point learning objectives on my PowerPoint slides which, incidentally, another student, who identified as ‘White. Just white, please’, likened sardonically to the concept of friendly fire. Indeed, the lingering implications of just that last comment alone haunted me for days. Its sting was, like the other forms of contestation I’ve mentioned, initially very bewildering in its effects. Having said that, I now feel indebted to these impassioned students for calling me out of my comfort zone and calling into question the integrity of my logic and the coherence of the queer utopias under scrutiny. This experience brings me to the articulation of my theory: that the failure of queer is also the site of its most intense fertility; that the taunting of queer’s utopian aspirations can transpose the spectral onto the plane of the spectacular. Stated otherwise, the failure to make sense of queer, or the failure of queer to make sense of us, occasions the possibility for a queer death that may haunt writers of queer theory and yet, thanks to the process of this haunting, we can now see queer transforming itself, assuming new agency in the post-mortem dimension of a radically renewed encounter. The dead ideal, passing through the spectral realm of troubling possibility, is thus made spectacular on the stage of an empty page. 3. The Haunted Author and the Queer Child The potential of queer theory for energizing discourse about the creative process is great, but I focus my discussion here on the idea, alluded to above, that authors may find the inspiration to write, and the drive to write most courageously, when the hierarchies and structures of control on which we rely are broken down

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__________________________________________________________________ and our experience of the world, our relationships in the world, our beliefs about the world fail or fall into pieces. Again, the failure of queer in my queer classroom is just one example that I have reflected on here because, as I formulate these words, I acknowledge that my source of inspiration is the same group of students whose voices unmasked the q word as a vehicle for political complacency and oppression and, in so doing, created cracks in a queer ideological system. In calling metaphorically for the death of queer, these students, unbeknownst to them, I imagine killed an idea of queer that. This seems to me to now be beyond recovery in my thinking or writing. This death, however, continues to beckon me in its spectral glow, urging me to continue writing and thinking and feeling queer death; allowing its deadening sting to take spectacular form via the rite of creation. Creation, itself, is thus conceptualized as a paranormal event: when we actively carry that which is dead, or which initially deadens us, into a vital dimension of creative rebellion. To further expand on this theory, I turn away from my own experience and look, now, to the writing of other scholars seeking to make advancements in the field of queer thought. In order to further explore the concept of the spectral spectacular and the rite of writing as a paranormal activity, I propose to analyse the evolution of recent queer writing on the symbol of the child and this symbol’s radical transformation, following the troubling call for her death in radical queer discourse. Why do I choose this symbol in particular? One reason is that I can’t think of another symbol that, in the West at least, carries with it the same deadening burden, especially in societies where the moral traditions of Christianity insist on an almost compulsory association between the child-symbol and so called positive values such as innocence, vulnerability, or purity. In queer thought, the symbol of the child was banished, until very recently, when it was violently attacked as a possible co-conspirator of heterosexist, chrononormative oppression; and then, following its symbolic death, spectacularly reconceived as an emblem of queer subversion. How did all this queer theoretical writing about the child begin in the first place and why in the world did queer thinkers embark on the ghastly project of killing off the symbolic incarnation of seemingly benign concepts such as innocence, vulnerability, and purity? Historically, the dilemma implicit to thinking about childhood in queer contexts was that the child symbol has been infused with dauntingly resilient taboos that, in the past, discouraged or even prohibited the queer gaze on childhood, even in the abstract. Over time, the overwhelmingly burdensome notion of childhood ‘purity’ juxtaposed to equally burdensome stereotypes of queer ‘corruption’ gave rise to outrage in radical queer writing. For Lee Edelman, the iconic heritage of the child-symbol is essentially that of heralding normative oppression under the culturally architected artifice of natural innocence. Exposing the consequence of this iconic burden from a radical queer perspective, Edelman regards the concept of futurity linked to the child-symbol as

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__________________________________________________________________ a corrosive and corrupt ideal that, in Edelman’s words, ‘must die’ in order for queer cultures to thrive and revive: Fuck the social order and the child in whose name we’re collectively terrorized, fuck Annie, fuck the waif from Les Mis; fuck the poor innocent kid on the Net; fuck Laws both with capital ls and with small; fuck the whole network of Symbolic relations and the future that serves as its prop. 4 Edelman’s position may appear extreme but, perhaps, if we pause to consider the contemporary mass-media spin on and around gay marriage, adoption, and reproduction and, more specifically, the queer family’s recent rebranding as the new normal, our present historical context may help us to better understand why the network of symbolic relations surrounding the child, aggravated by the child’s positioning as a queer counterpoint and taboo, progressively gave rise to a direct attack in the form of a bleak death sentence. Following this call for the death of the deadening child, the writing of Judith Halberstam offers a reworking of the concept of failure, which includes attention to the figure of the buried child. Halberstam illustrates how common notions of social success and biological succession are culturally interwoven, creating a knot around the child-symbol that her work seeks to unbind: queer time, in contrast to chrononormative time, ‘is a term for those specific models of temporality that emerge within postmodernism once one leaves the temporal frames of bourgeois reproduction and family, longevity, risk/safety, and inheritance’. 5 The concepts of reproduction and inheritance mentioned by Halberstam obstruct the emergence of an ideal realm of queer futurity. Halberstam, like Edelman, imagines a ‘then’ saved from contamination by the child-symbol, providing that queer theory successfully repels the logic of chrononormative authority and the model of the bourgeois family which the child-symbol represents and upholds. That said, Halberstam’s ensuing discussion also raises an important question. Isn’t the radical queer banishment of children into the realm of bourgeois dominion rooted in a queer failure to recognize and value difference? Acknowledging the untapped potential for deviance implicit to the child-symbol, Halberstam subsequently focuses on the inherently radical fantasy life of children as evidenced in made-for-kids pop culture products such as animated film. In ‘Pixarvolt films’, for example, she writes, children are not coupled, they are not romantic, they do not have a religious morality, they are not afraid of death or failure, they are collective creatures, they are in a constant state of rebellion against their parents, and they are not the masters of their domain. 6

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__________________________________________________________________ Looked at from this angle, the child-symbol can be re-appropriated as a naturally queer agent; childishly brazen agitators of the chrononormative in a perpetual state of moral renegotiation and revolt against established authority. In analyzing the fantasy life of children, now disengaged from of the aura of innocence that makes them untouchable creatures of light, the child-symbol becomes exhumed from the deadening clichés that, in Edelman’s work, find resolution in expletive exhortations and a damning death wish. It is the post-mortem echo of Edelman’s damnation that occasions the rude awakening in subsequent queer writing on the child-symbol: making of that symbol a spectacular spectre of queer deviance that resonates with renewed revolutionary promise. Edelman’s murder of the child-ideal, along with her unequivocal claims to innocence, tenderness, vulnerability, and purity, was, I speculate, shockingly dark and bewildering when many readers first encountered it. The image of the dead child, however, ultimately served to subvert the stagnant tradition surrounding childhood innocence in cultural discourse and, thus, created the cathartic possibility for queer thinkers to finally be able to gaze at children, uninhibited and empowered. Kathryn Bond Stockton takes this evolution a step further, extrapolating on what she identifies as the fundamentally queer nature of the child, which she also locates outside, or beside, the linear logic of bourgeois reproduction and conventional notions of family and family time. Stockton traces the slippery sideways movements of all children and troubles the dominant cultural assumption that every child is straight until proven otherwise. 7 Emerging from Stockton’s work is the illuminating shadow of the queerness of all children; a ghostly presence that, she claims, remains curiously absent in historical or theoretical discourse. Further dismantling the cliché of the luminously pure child-symbol, Stockton’s work introduces us to the children that history fails to see but that we learn to recognize through the gaze of queer or queered, writers. These like her, have endeavoured to summon up the spectacle of unruly children: children who whisper secrets to their dolls; who enact great scenes of conspiracy against parental authority; who categorically refuse to conform to the rules of time or imagine according to the standards of convention. These children rise outrageously against normative oppression with howls of wild dissent that inspire us as writers because, their troubling echo of their haunting contestations is both so spectral, as a lurking challenge to our will to maintain control, and so spectacular in the public staging of their queerness. Who are these enchantingly fluid creatures that so audaciously demand love in their own time, on their own terms, and who are charming enough to transform their daily acts of transgression into our rude awakenings? ‘Have such children largely eluded us?’ asks Stockton:

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__________________________________________________________________ . . . they are not a matter of historians’ writing or of the general public’s belief. The silences surrounding the queerness of children happen to be broken, loquaciously broken and broken almost only by fictional forms’. 8 To my mind, these children of illuminating shadow stand as the emblem of the queer creative impulse because of the fluidity of their transgression: as symbols of figuration who have passed from deadening cliché, sidestepping the finality of death, by slipping, almost unnoticed, into the realm of the spectral spectacular.

Notes Judith Halberstam, In a Queer Time and Place. Transgendered Bodies, Subcultural Lives (New York: New York University Press, 2005); José Esteban Muñoz, Cruising Utopia. The Then and There of Queer Futurity (New York: New York University Press, 2009); Elizabeth Freeman, Time Binds. Queer Temporalities, Queer Histories (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010). 2 Michael Warner, The Trouble with Normal. Sex, Politics, and the Ethics of a Queer Life (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1999); Robert Leckey, Queer Theory. Law, Culture, Empire (Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2010); Urvashi Vaid, Irresistible Revolution. Confronting Race, Class and the Assumptions of LGBT Politics (New York: Magnus Books, 2012). 3 Annamarie Jagose, Queer Theory. An Introduction (New York: New York University Press, 2008); Matilda Bernstein Sycamore, ed., That’s Revolting. Queer Strategies for Resisting Assimilation (Berkeley: Soft Skull Press, 2008). 4 Lee Edelman, No Future, Queer Theory and the Death Drive (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004), 29. 5 Judith Halberstam, The Queer Art of Failure (Durham, Duke University Press, 2011), 6. 6 Halberstam, The Queer Art of Failure, 47. 7 Kathryn Bond Stockton, The Queer Child. Or Growing Up Sideways in the Twientieth Century (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009). 8 Stockton, The Queer Child, 2. 1

Bibliography Bornstein, Kate, and S. Bear Bergman, eds. Gender Outlaws. Berkeley: Seal Press, 2010.

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__________________________________________________________________ Bernstein, Mary, and Renate Remann, eds. Queer Families, Queer Politics. Challenging Culture and the State. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. Brogan, Kathleen. Cultural Haunting. Ghosts and Ethnicity in Recent American Literature. Charlottescille, University Press of Virginia, 1998. Davis, Colin. Haunted Subjects. Deconstruction, Psychoanalysis and the Return of the Dead. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Derrida, Jacques. Specters of Marx. The State of Debt, the Work of Mourning and the New International. Translated by Peggy Kamuf. New York: Routledge, 1994. Edelman, Lee. No Future, Queer Theory and the Death Drive. Durham: Duke University Press, 2004. Epstein, Rachel, ed. Who’s Your Daddy? And Other Writings on Queer Parenting. Toronto: Sumach Press, 2009. Ferrari, Fabio. ‘“That’s Life”: Actualizing the Non-Lieu as an Empty Space’. In Intersections of Law and Culture, edited by Priska Gisler, Sara Steinert-Borella and Caroline Weidmer. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. Freeman, Elizabeth. Time Binds. Queer Temporalities, Queer Histories. Durham: Duke University Press, 2010. Gordon, Avery F. Ghostly Matters. Haunting and the Sociological Imagination. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008. Halberstam, Judith. In a Queer Time and Place. Transgendered Bodies, Subcultural Lives. New York: New York University Press, 2005. –––. The Queer Art of Failure. Durham, Duke University Press, 2011. Halley, Janet, and Andrew Parker, eds. After Sex? On Writing since Queer Theory. Durham: Duke University Press, 2011. Harding, Rosie. Regulating Sexuality. Legal Consciousness in Lesbian and Gay Lives. New York: Routledge, 2011.

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__________________________________________________________________ Holmlund, Chris, and Cynthia Fuchs, eds. Between the Sheets, in the Streets. Queer, Lesbian, Gay Documentary. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. Jagose, Annamarie. Queer Theory. An Introduction. New York: New York University Press, 2008. Leckey, Robert and Kim Brooks, eds. Queer Theory. Law, Culture, Empire. Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2010. MATTILDA, AKA Sycamore, Matt Bernstein, ed. Nobody Passes. Rejecting the Rules of Conformity. Berkeley: Seal Press, 2006. Muñoz, José Esteban. Cruising Utopia. The Then and There of Queer Futurity. New York: New York University Press, 2009. Savin-Williams, Ritch C. The New Gay Teenager. Cambridge: First Harvard University Press, 2006. Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. Epistemology of the Closet. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008. Stockton, Kathryn Bond. The Queer Child. Or Growing Up Sideways in the Twentieth Century. Durham: Duke University Press, 2009. Sycamore, Matilda Bernstein, ed. That’s Revolting. Queer Strategies for Resisting Assimilation. Berkeley: Soft Skull Press, 2008. ––– ed. Why Are Faggots so Afraid of Faggots? Flaming Challenges to Masculinity, Objectification, and the Desire to Conform. Oakland: AK Press, 2012. Vaid, Urvashi. Virtual Equality. The Mainstreaming of Gay and Lesbian Liberation. New York: Anchor Books, 1995. –––. Irresistible Revolution. Confronting Race, Class and the Assumptions of LGBT Politics. New York: Magnus Books, 2012. Warner, Michael, ed. Fear of a Queer Planet. Queer Politics and Social Theory. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.

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__________________________________________________________________ –––. The Trouble with Normal. Sex, Politics, and the Ethics of a Queer Life. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999. Fabio Ferrari is an Assistant Professor of Italian and Comparative Cultural and Literary Studies at the Franklin College Switzerland. His areas of critical interest range from Italian Film and Cultural Studies, to Queer Theory, Performance, and the cultural politics of LGBT families.