Raptors of the World: A Field Guide 0713669578, 9780713669572

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
List of Species and Subspecies
Introduction
Using This Book
Orders of Raptor Population Sizes
Raptor Topography
Measuring Lengths and Wingspans of Raptors
Sex and Age Differences in Sizes and Shapes of Raptors
Identifying Raptors
Raptor Migration
Moult Patterns, Age Criteria and Polymorphism
Taxonomy, Sequence and Nomenclature of Raptors
English Names of Raptors
Bibliography
Quick Guide to Plates, Captions and Maps
Key Plates to Genera: Plates 1–3
PLATE 1: KEY TO GENERA OF MAINLY LARGER RAPTORS
PLATE 2: KEY TO GENERA OF MEDIUM-SIZED RAPTORS
PLATE 3: KEY TO GENERA OF MAINLY SMALLER RAPTORS
Species Plates with Facing Texts and Distribution Maps: Plates 4–118
PLATE 4: SMALLER NEARCTIC AND NEOTROPICAL VULTURES
PLATE 5: LARGER NEARCTIC AND NEOTROPICAL VULTURES
PLATE 6: OLD WORLD KITES I
PLATE 7: OLD WORLD KITES II
PLATE 8: SCISSOR-TAILED KITE, CUCKOO-HAWKS AND BAT-HAWK
PLATE 9: INDOMALAYAN AND AUSTRALASIAN BAZAS
PLATE 10: OSPREY AND HENICOPERNIS HONEY-BUZZARDS
PLATE 11: MIGRATORY OLD-WORLD HONEY-BUZZARDS
PLATE 12: SOUTH-EASTERN ASIATIC HONEY-BUZZARDS
PLATE 13: ENDEMIC AUSTRALIAN KITES
PLATE 14: NEW WORLD KITES I
PLATE 15: NEW WORLD KITES II
PLATE 16: NEW WORLD KITES III
PLATE 17: NEW WORLD KITES IV
PLATE 18: INDO-AUSTRALASIAN KITES AND FISH-EAGLES
PLATE 19: AFRO-MALAGASY FISH-EAGLES AND PALMNUT VULTURE
PLATE 20: NEARCTIC AND PALEARCTIC FISH-EAGLES
PLATE 21: ASIAN FISHAND FISHING-EAGLES
PLATE 22: LAMMERGEIER AND SMALL OLD WORLD VULTURES
PLATE 23: LARGER OLD WORLD VULTURES
PLATE 24: INDOMALAYAN VULTURES I
PLATE 25: INDOMALAYAN VULTURES II AND HAWK EAGLES I
PLATE 26: LARGER AFROTROPICAL VULTURES I
PLATE 27: LARGER AFROTROPICAL VULTURES II AND BATELEUR
PLATE 28: INDO-PALEARCTIC AND AFROTROPICAL SNAKE-EAGLES I
PLATE 29: AFROTROPICAL SNAKE-EAGLES II
PLATE 30: MAIN COMPLEX OF INDOMALAYAN SERPENT-EAGLES
PLATE 31: HIGHLY DISTINCT INDOMALAYAN SERPENT-EAGLES
PLATE 32: MADAGASCAR SERPENT-EAGLE AND GYMNOGENES
PLATE 33: NEARCTIC AND NEOTROPICAL HARRIERS
PLATE 34: AFROTROPICAL AND MALAGASY HARRIERS
PLATE 35: PALEARCTIC HARRIERS I
PLATE 36: PALEARCTIC HARRIERS II
PLATE 37: ASIAN AND AUSTRALASIAN HARRIERS
PLATE 38: CHANTING-GOSHAWKS AND GABAR GOSHAWK
PLATE 39: SMALLER AFROTROPICAL ACCIPITERS I
PLATE 40: SMALLER AFROTROPICAL ACCIPITERS II
PLATE 41: LARGER AFROTROPICAL ACCIPITERS
PLATE 42: ENDEMIC MALAGASY ACCIPITERS
PLATE 43: HOLARCTIC AND PALEARCTIC ACCIPITERS
PLATE 44: EAST PALEARCTIC AND INDOMALAYAN ACCIPITERS
PLATE 45: INDOMALAYAN AND ENDEMIC SULAWESI ACCIPITERS
PLATE 46: ENDEMIC SULAWESI ACCIPITERS
PLATE 47: ENDEMIC MOLUCCAN AND FIJIAN ACCIPITERS
PLATE 48: ENDEMIC NEW GUINEA ACCIPITERS AND ALLIES
PLATE 49: ENDEMIC NEW BRITAIN AND MELANESIAN ACCIPITERS
PLATE 50: ENDEMIC NEW GUINEA AND MELANESIAN ACCIPITERS
PLATE 51: AUSTRALASIAN ACCIPITERS
PLATE 52: AUSTRALASIAN ACCIPITERS AND RED HAWK
PLATE 53: NEARCTIC AND NEOTROPICAL ACCIPITERS
PLATE 54: NEARCTIC AND ENDEMIC CUBAN ACCIPITERS
PLATE 55: ENDEMIC CUBAN AND NEOTROPICAL ACCIPITERS I
PLATE 56: NEOTROPICAL ACCIPITERS II
PLATE 57: DISTINCTIVE AFROTROPICAL HAWKS
PLATE 58: EAST PALEARCTIC AND INDOMALAYAN BUZZARD-HAWKS
PLATE 59: NEOTROPICAL HAWKS I
PLATE 60: NEOTROPICAL HAWKS II
PLATE 61: NEOTROPICAL HAWKS III
PLATE 62: NEOTROPICAL BLACK HAWKS
PLATE 63: SOLITARY-EAGLES AND BUZZARD-EAGLE
PLATE 64: NEOTROPICAL HAWKS IV
PLATE 65: ENDEMIC CARIBBEAN AND PACIFIC ISLAND BUTEOS
PLATE 66: NEOTROPICAL BUTEOS I
PLATE 67: NEOTROPICAL BUTEOS II
PLATE 68: NEOTROPICAL BUTEOS III
PLATE 69: NEOTROPICAL BUTEOS IV
PLATE 70: SMALL NEARCTIC/NEOTROPICAL BUTEOS
PLATE 71: NEARCTIC BUTEOS I
PLATE 72: NEARCTIC BUTEOS II
PLATE 73: ROUGH-LEGGED AND UPLAND BUZZARDS
PLATE 74: COMMON AND MADAGASCAR BUZZARDS
PLATE 75: LONG-LEGGED AND RED-NECKED BUZZARDS
PLATE 76: AFROTROPICAL BUZZARDS
PLATE 77: LARGE NEOTROPICAL EAGLES
PLATE 78: NEOTROPICAL HAWK EAGLES
PLATE 79: LARGE AUSTRALASIAN AND ASIAN EAGLES
PLATE 80: INDOMALAYAN HAWK EAGLES II
PLATE 81: INDOMALAYAN HAWK EAGLES III
PLATE 82: INDONESIAN AND PHILIPPINE HAWK EAGLES
PLATE 83: AUSTRALASIAN EAGLES
PLATE 84: LARGE PALEARCTIC (AND NEARCTIC) EAGLES
PLATE 85: OTHER OLD WORLD EAGLES I
PLATE 86: OTHER OLD WORLD EAGLES II
PLATE 87: AFROTROPICAL EAGLES
PLATE 88: EURASIAN AND AFRICAN HAWK EAGLES
PLATE 89: AFROTROPICAL HAWK EAGLES
PLATE 90: LARGE AFROTROPICAL EAGLES AND SECRETARYBIRD
PLATE 91: CARACARAS I
PLATE 92: CARACARAS II
PLATE 93: CARACARAS III AND LAUGHING-FALCON
PLATE 94: CARACARAS IV AND FOREST-FALCONS I
PLATE 95: FOREST-FALCONS II
PLATE 96: FOREST-FALCONS III AND SPOT-WINGED FALCONET
PLATE 97: AFRICAN AND INDOMALAYAN PYGMY-FALCONS I
PLATE 98: INDOMALAYAN FALCONETS
PLATE 99: COMMON KESTREL
PLATE 100: EURASIAN AND AFROTROPICAL KESTRELS
PLATE 101: AFRO-MALAGASY GREY KESTRELS
PLATE 102: ENDEMIC INDIAN OCEAN ISLAND KESTRELS
PLATE 103: AUSTRALASIAN KESTRELS
PLATE 104: AMERICAN KESTREL
PLATE 105: RED-FOOTED FALCONS
PLATE 106: ELEONORA’S AND SOOTY FALCONS
PLATE 107: NORTHERN, AFRICAN AND ORIENTAL HOBBIES
PLATE 108: SMALLER AUSTRALIAN FALCONS
PLATE 109: LARGER AUSTRALASIAN FALCONS
PLATE 110: NEW ZEALAND AND RED-HEADED FALCONS
PLATE 111: NEOTROPICAL FALCONS
PLATE 112: MERLIN
PLATE 113: LANNER AND LAGGAR FALCONS
PLATE 114: PRAIRIE, SAKER AND ALTAI FALCONS
PLATE 115: GYR FALCON
PLATE 116: TAITA AND BARBARY FALCONS
PLATE 117: PEREGRINE FALCON I
PLATE 118: PEREGRINE FALCON II
Further Reading
Index

Citation preview

Raptors of the World A FIELD GUIDE

James Ferguson-Lees and David Christie Illustrated by Kim Franklin, David Mead, Philip Burton and Alan Harris

CHRISTOPHER HELM LONDON

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Dedicated to our respective wives, Karen and Carmelia (‘Cam’), for all their help, patience and understanding

This electronic edition published in 2020 by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

Published 2005 by Christopher Helm, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing plc., 50 Bedford Square, London WC1B 3DP www.bloomsbury.com Reprinted 2007, 2010, 2015 Copyright © 2005 (text) James Ferguson-Lees and David Christie Copyright © 2005 (illustrations) Kim Franklin, David Mead, Philip Burton and Alan Harris The right of James Ferguson-Lees and David Christie to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988. ISBN: 978-0-7136-6957-2 (print) ISBN: 978-1-4729-8765-5 (ePDF) ISBN: 978-1-47298-7648- (ePub)

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – photographic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage and retrieval systems – without permission of the publishers. BLOOMSBURY, CHRISTOPHER HELM and the Helm logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Design by Julie Dando, Fluke Art, Cornwall

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CONTENTS LIST OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES

4

INTRODUCTION

26

USING THIS BOOK

28

ORDERS OF RAPTOR POPULATION SIZES

33

RAPTOR TOPOGRAPHY

34

MEASURING LENGTHS AND WINGSPANS OF RAPTORS

38

SEX AND AGE DIFFERENCES IN SIZES AND SHAPES OF RAPTORS

42

IDENTIFYING RAPTORS

46

RAPTOR MIGRATION

50

MOULT PATTERNS, AGE CRITERIA AND POLYMORPHISM

57

TAXONOMY, SEQUENCE AND NOMENCLATURE OF RAPTORS

63

ENGLISH NAMES OF RAPTORS

68

BIBLIOGRAPHY

72

QUICK GUIDE TO PLATES, CAPTIONS AND MAPS

76

KEY PLATES TO GENERA: PLATES 1–3

78

SPECIES PLATES WITH FACING TEXTS AND DISTRIBUTION MAPS: PLATES 4–118

84

FURTHER READING

314

INDEX

315

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List of species and subspecies The species within the families are in general listed in the same sequence as in Dickinson (2003), although the four raptor families are in a different order here. However, a number of taxa treated as subspecies there have, in accordance with recent research and changing practices, been raised to species level, bringing the total number of raptor species illustrated to 338. A few regional or alternative English and generic names are included in brackets. The figure on the right shows the relevant plate and species number. Superscript numbers mark adjacent taxa considered allospecies, the older or oldest name (which thus designates the superspecies) being asterisked, too. For polytypic species, races are listed in small type. Abbreviated ranges are given for all taxa. Subspecies are generally listed from north to south. The subdivisions used here within the Accipitridae (now a huge family of some 264 species) and Falconidae are completely artificial, designed simply to help broad group identification.

Family CATHARTIDAE (New World vultures)

plate no.

Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura

4:1

Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes burrovianus

4:2

Greater Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes melambrotus

4:3

Black Vulture Coragyps atratus

4:4

King Vulture Sarcoramphus papa

5:1

California Condor Gymnogyps californianus

5:2

Andean Condor Vultur gryphus

5:3

C. a. meridionalis: S Canada, N & C USA; winters mainly N South America C. a. aura: SW USA south to Costa Rica, S Florida south to Greater Antilles C. a. septentrionalis: E & SE USA (except Florida) C. a. ruficollis: Panama, N Colombia, and east of Andes south to N Argentina and Uruguay C. a. jota: Andean valleys from Colombia south to Patagonian steppes C. a. falklandicus: Pacific lowlands from Ecuador south to Tierra del Fuego, Falklands E Mexico south to N Argentina and Uruguay

N & C South America (E Colombia east to Guianas, lower and upper Amazonia, E Bolivia, N Argentina) S & E USA south to Chile

S Mexico south to N Argentina and N Uruguay (sparse east of Andes) California, N Arizona

Andes of NW & W South America, Tierra del Fuego

Family PANDIONIDAE (Osprey) Osprey Pandion haliaetus

P. h. haliaetus: Europe, Asia; winters Africa, India, SE Asia (south to Sundas) P. h. carolinensis: North America; winters Central and South America P. h. ridgwayi: Bahamas, Cuba, Yucatán, E Belize P. h. cristatus: Sulawesi east to Solomons, south to coastal Australia

10:1

Family ACCIPITRIDAE (kites, Old World vultures, harriers, hawks, buzzards, eagles) a: bazas, honey-buzzards, atypical kites African Cuckoo-hawk Aviceda cuculoides1

8:2

Madagascar Cuckoo-hawk Aviceda madagascariensis2*

8:3

Jerdon’s Baza Aviceda jerdoni3

9:1

A. c. cuculoides: Senegambia east to N DR Congo A. c. batesi: Sierra Leone east to Uganda, south to N Angola A. c. verreauxi: Angola east to Kenya, south in east to E South Africa Madagascar

A. j. jerdoni: NE India, SE Asia A. j. ceylonensis: S India, Sri Lanka A. j. borneensis: Borneo A. j. magnirostris: Philippines A. j. celebensis: Sulawesi

 001 prelims and intro.indd 4

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plate no.

Pacific Baza Aviceda subcristata

4

Brown group A. s. subcristata: E Australia A. s. megala: E New Guinea, D’Entrecasteaux A. s. stenozona: W New Guinea, Aru, Misoöl, Salawati A. s. waiguensis: Waigeo A. s. stresemanni: Buru Black group A. s. njikena: NW Australia A. s. obscura: Biak A. s. reinwardtii: S Moluccas (Seram, Ambon) A. s. bismarckii: New Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover A. s. coultasi: Admiralty Is Rufous group A. s. rufa: C Moluccas (Obi) Pale group A. s. pallida: S Moluccas (Kai) A. s. timorlaoensis: Lesser Sundas A. s. gurneyi: SE Solomons A. s. robusta: C Solomons A. s. proxima: NW Solomons

Black Baza Aviceda leuphotes

A. l. leuphotes: SW India A. l. syama: Nepal east to S China, Myanmar, W Thailand; winters S to Sumatra A. l. andamanica: Andaman Is

9:3

9:2

Grey-headed Kite Leptodon cayanensis

15:1

Forbes’s Kite (White-collared Kite) Leptodon forbesi

15:2

Hook-billed Kite Chondrohierax uncinatus1*

14:4

Cuban Hook-billed Kite Chondrohierax wilsonii2

15:3

Long-tailed Honey-buzzard Henicopernis longicauda1*

10:2

Black Honey-buzzard Henicopernis infuscatus2

10:3

Western Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus1*

11:1

Eastern Honey-buzzard Pernis orientalis2

11:2

Indomalayan Honey-buzzard (Crested Honey-buzzard) Pernis ptilorhynchus3

12:1

Barred Honey-buzzard Pernis celebensis1*

12:2

Steere’s Honey-buzzard Pernis steerei2

12:3

Square-tailed Kite Lophoictinia isura

13:1

L. c. cayanansis: EC Mexico south to N & W Colombia, W Ecuador, NW Venezuela, and Trinidad L. c. monachus: east of Andes from E Colombia, Venezuela and Guianas south to NE Argentina and SE Brazil NE Brazil (Pernambuco, Alagoas)

C. u. uncinatus: SE Mexico south to N Argentina and Uruguay C. u. aquilonis: S USA (S Texas), Mexico west of Tehuantepec C. u. mirus: Grenada E Cuba

New Guinea and nearby islands (including Aru Is) New Britain

Europe, W Asia; winters Africa

Siberia east to Japan; winters S & SE Asia

P. p. ruficollis: India and Sri Lanka east to S China, Myanmar, Indochina P. p. torquatus: peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo P. p. ptilorhynchus: Java P. p. palawanensis: W Philippines (Palawan, Calamians) P. p. philippensis: rest of Philippines Sulawesi

P. c. winkleri: N Philippines (Luzon) P. c. steerei: C & S Philippines Australia

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plate no.

Black-breasted Kite (Black-breasted Buzzard) Hamirostra melanosternon

13:2

Swallow-tailed Kite Elanoides forficatus

17:1

Australia

E. f. forficatus: SE USA; winters South America E. f. yetapa: SE Mexico south to N Argentina, Uruguay; winters mainly C South America

b: Bat-hawk Bat-hawk Macheiramphus alcinus

M. a. alcinus: peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo M. a. papuanus: C & SE New Guinea M. a. anderssoni: sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar

8:4

c: white-tailed and other small kites Pearl Kite Gampsonyx swainsonii

G. s. leonae: W Nicaragua, N South America G. s. magnus: S Ecuador G. s. swainsonii: C Brazil south to N Argentina

Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus1*

E. c. caeruleus: Iberia, SW France, Africa, SW Arabia E. c. vociferus: Pakistan east to S China (Yunnan), Malay Peninsula and Indochina E. c. hypoleucus: Sumatra and Java east to Philippines, Sulawesi and New Guinea

16:1

6:3

Australian Black-shouldered Kite Elanus axillaris2

13:2

White-tailed Kite Elanus leucurus3

14:1

Letter-winged Kite Elanus scriptus

13:4

Australia

E. l. majusculus: S USA and E Mexico E. l. leucurus: N South America south to Chile C Australia

Scissor-tailed Kite (African Swallow-tailed Kite) Chelictinia riocourii Mauritania and Senegal east to Eritrea, N Somalia and N Kenya

8:1

d: typical kites Snail Kite Rostrhamus sociabilis

14:2

Slender-billed Kite Rostrhamus hamatus

14:3

Double-toothed Kite Harpagus bidentatus

17:2

Rufous-thighed Kite Harpagus diodon

17:3

Mississippi Kite Ictinia mississippiensis1*

16:3

Plumbeous Kite Ictinia plumbea2

16:2

R. s. plumbeus: Florida R. s. levis: Cuba, I of Pines R. s. major: E Mexico, Guatemala, Belize R. s. sociabilis: Honduras south to C Argentina E Panama south to N Bolivia and N Brazil

H. b. fasciatus: S Mexico south to W Ecuador H. b. bidentatus: E Colombia south to E Brazil and E Bolivia Guianas and N & E Brazil south to N Argentina USA; winters C South America

C Mexico south to N Argentina; winters South America

Red Kite Milvus milvus1*

6:1

Cape Verde Kite Milvus fasciicauda2

6:2

Black Kite Milvus migrans1*

7:1

Europe east to Turkey and Iran, NW Africa; winters in south parts of range Cape Verde Is

M. m. migrans: C & S Europe, N Africa, SW Asia (east to Pakistan), Cape Verdes, Madeira; winters mostly Africa

6 001 prelims and intro.indd 6

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plate no. M. m. govinda: Pakistan east to S Indochina, Sri Lanka M. m. formosanus: Taiwan, Hainan I M. m. affinis: Sulawesi, Lesser Sundas, New Guinea, Bismarck, Australia

Black-eared Kite Milvus lineatus2

7:2

Yellow-billed Kite Milvus aegyptius3

7:3

Whistling Kite Haliastur sphenurus

18:1

Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus

18:2

Ural Mts E to Japan, south to E Himalayas and Indochina; winters S Asia M. a. aegyptius: Egypt and Red Sea area; winters Kenya M. a. parasitus: sub-Saharan Africa (south from Senegal east to Ethiopia), Madagascar New Guinea, New Caledonia, Australia

H. i. indus: India and Sri Lanka east to S China and Vietnam H. i. intermedius: Malay Peninsula, Sundas, Sulawesi, Philippines H. i. girrenera: Moluccas, New Guinea, Bismarck, Australia H. i. flavirostris: Solomon Is

e: fish-eagles and fishing-eagles White-bellied Fish-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster1*

18:4

Sanford’s Fish-eagle Haliaeetus sanfordi2

18:3

African Fish-eagle Haliaeetus vocifer1*

19:1

Madagascar Fish-eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides2

19:2

Pallas’s Fish-eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus

21:1

White-tailed Fish-eagle (White-tailed Eagle) Haliaeetus albicilla1*

20:2

Bald Eagle (Bald Fish-eagle) Haliaeetus leucocephalus2

20:1

Steller’s Fish-eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus

20:3

Lesser Fishing-eagle Ichthyophaga humilis

21:2

Grey-headed Fishing-eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus

21:3

India east to SE China, New Guinea and Australia Solomon Is

Sub-Saharan Africa Madagascar

NC Asia south to Pakistan, N India and S Myanmar H. a. groenlandicus: Greenland H. a. albicilla: Eurasia east to Japan, south to India and China H. l. washingtoniensis: Aleutian Is and N North America H. l. leucocephalus: S USA and NW Mexico H. p. pelagicus: NE Asia; winters NE China and Japan H. p. niger: Korea I. h. plumbea: Himalayas east to N Indochina and Hainan I I. h. humilis: Tenasserim south through Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi India, Sri Lanka, SE Asia, Sundas, Philippines

f: Palmnut Vulture Palmnut Vulture Gypohierax angolensis

Sub-Saharan Africa (south from Gambia east to Kenya)

19:3

g: atypical Old World vultures Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus

22:1

Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus

22:2

G. b. aureus: S Europe, Middle East, SW & C Asia (north to Altai Mts, east to Inner Mongolia) G. b. barbatus: NW Africa G. b. meridionalis: Egypt, Arabia, E & S Africa N. p. percnopterus: E Atlantic islands, S Europe, Middle East, SW Asia (east to Balkhash region), Africa N. p. majorensis: Canary Is N. p. ginginianus: Himalayas south to S India

7 001 prelims and intro.indd 7

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plate no.

h: Old World vultures Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus

22:3

White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus1

26:1

White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis2*

25:2

Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris1

24:2

Long-billed Vulture (Indian Vulture) Gyps indicus2*

24:1

Rüppell’s Vulture Gyps rueppellii1

26:2

Himalayan Vulture Gyps himalayensis2

23:1

Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus3*

23:2

Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres6

26:3

Red-headed Vulture Aegypius (Sarcogyps) calvus

25:1

White-headed Vulture Aegypius (Trigonoceps) occipitalis

27:2

Monk Vulture (Cinereous Vulture) Aegypius monachus

23:3

Lappet-faced Vulture Aegypius (Torgos) tracheliotus

27:1

Sub-Saharan Africa (Mali east to Eritrea, and southwards) Senegal east to Eritrea, south to Botswana and NE South Africa SE Iran east to Indochina

Himalayan foothills and Gangetic Plain east to Assam Pakistan, C & S India

G. r. rueppelli: Senegal east to Sudan, south to Uganda, Kenya and N Tanzania G. r. erlangeri: Ethiopia, Somalia C Asia south to N India

G. f. fulvus: S Europe and N & NE Africa east to C Asia G. f. fulvescens: Afghanistan east to India and Nepal Namibia east to SW Zimbabwe and S Mozambique, and southward India east to Myanmar, S China (Yunnan) and Indochina Sub-Saharan Africa

S Europe, SW & SC Asia

A. t. negevensis: S Israel, Arabia A. t. tracheliotus: sub-Saharan Africa

i: snake-eagles, serpent-eagles Short-toed Snake-eagle (Short-toed Eagle) Circaetus gallicus1*

28:1

Beaudouin’s Snake-eagle Circaetus beaudouini2

28:2

Black-chested Snake-eagle Circaetus pectoralis3

28:3

Brown Snake-eagle Circaetus cinereus

28:4

East African Snake-eagle (Southern Banded Snake-eagle) Circaetus fasciolatus

29:1

Banded Snake-eagle (Smaller Banded Snake-eagle) Circaetus cinerascens

29:2

Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus

27:3

Crested Serpent-eagle Spilornis cheela1*

30:1

N Africa and S & E Europe east to Kazakhstan, winters African sahel; resident Indian subcontinent, Lesser Sundas Senegal east to Sudan E & S Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa

S Somalia south along coast to NE South Africa Sub-Saharan Africa (south to N Botswana) Sub-Saharan Africa, SW Arabia

S. c. cheela: Himalayas and N India east to Assam S. c. melanotis: S India S. c. spilogaster: Sri Lanka S. c. burmanicus: S & E Assam, Myanmar, Thailand, Indochina S. c. ricketti: S & SE China, N Vietnam

8 001 prelims and intro.indd 8

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plate no. S. c. hoya: Taiwan S. c. rutherfordi: Hainan I S. c. davisoni: Andaman Is S. c. malayensis: S Tenasserim south through Malay Peninsula, N Sumatra S. c. batu: S Sumatra, Batu I S. c. palawanensis: W Philippines (Calamian Is, Palawan, Balabac) S. c. pallidus: N Borneo S. c. richmondi: S Borneo S. c. bido: Java, Bali

Andaman Serpent-eagle Spilornis elgini2

31:1

Central Nicobar Serpent-eagle Spilornis minimus3

30:2

Great Nicobar Serpent-eagle Spilornis klossi4

31:2

Simeuluë Serpent-eagle Spilornis abbotti5

30:3

Nias Serpent-eagle Spilornis asturinus6

30:4

Mentawai Serpent-eagle Spilornis sipora7

30:5

Natuna Serpent-eagle Spilornis natunensis8

30:6

Kinabalu Serpent-eagle Spilornis kinabaluensis9

30:7

Bawean Serpent-eagle Spilornis baweanus10

30:8

Sulawesi Serpent-eagle Spilornis rufipectus11

31:3

Philippine Serpent-eagle Spilornis holospilus12

31:4

Ryukyu Serpent-eagle Spilornis perplexus13

30:9

West African Serpent-eagle Dryotriorchis spectabilis

29:3

Madagascar Serpent-eagle Eutriorchis astur

32:1

Andaman Is

C Nicobar Is

Great Nicobar I Simeuluë I Nias I

Mentawai Is

Bunguran (= Natuna Besar), Belitung I NE Borneo mountains

Bawean I (north of Java)

S. r. rufipectus: Sulawesi and most satellites S. r. sulaensis: Banggai Is, Sula Is Philippines (except Palawan group) S Ryukyu Is

D. s. spectabilis: Sierra Leone east to N Cameroon D. s. batesi: S Cameroon and CAR to N & E DR Congo, south to N Angola NE Madagascar

j: harriers Western Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus1*

36:2

Eastern Marsh Harrier Circus spilonotus2

36:3

Papuan Marsh Harrier Circus spilothorax3

37:3

Australasian Marsh Harrier (Swamp Harrier) Circus approximans4

37:2

Réunion Marsh Harrier Circus maillardi5

34:4

C. a. aeruginosus: Europe east to C Asia (to W Mongolia); winters W & S Europe, Africa, S Asia C. a. harterti: NW Africa E Asia (including Japan); winters SE Asia, Philippines, Sundas C & E New Guinea

C. a. approximans: Melanesia (Vanuatu and New Caledonia east to Fiji and Tonga), also Chatham Is; introduced Society Is C. a. gouldi: Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand Réunion I

9 001 prelims and intro.indd 9

6/9/05 2:07:11 pm

plate no.

Malagasy Marsh Harrier Circus macrosceles

6

Madagascar and Comoro Is

34:3

African Marsh Harrier Circus ranivorus7

34:2

Long-winged Harrier Circus buffoni

33:3

Spotted Harrier Circus assimilis

37:4

Black Harrier Circus maurus

34:1

Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus1*

36:1

Northern Harrier Circus hudsonius2

33:1

Cinereous Harrier Circus cinereus3

33:2

Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus

35:1

Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucus

37:1

Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus

35:2

S Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and C DR Congo south to South Africa Colombia, Venezuela (except C & S), Trinidad, and Guianas through EC & S Brazil to EC Argentina and Uruguay Sulawesi, ?Sumba, Australia

NW Namibia, SW Botswana, South Africa, Lesotho Europe and across N & C Asia; winters south to N Africa and S Asia North America and NW Mexico; winters south to West Indies and NW South America W & S South America

E Europe and in narrow band across to C Asia (east to Tuva region); winters Africa and S Asia SE Siberia, E Mongolia and NE China south to Korea; winters S & SE Asia W, C & S Europe east to NW Mongolia, also NW Africa; winters sub-Saharan Africa and S Asia

k: gymnogenes (harrier-hawks) African Gymnogene Polyboroides typus1

32:3

Madagascar Gymnogene Polyboroides radiatus2*

32:2

P. t. pectoralis: Gambia east to W Sudan, south to Angola and DR Congo P. t. typus: E Sudan and Ethiopia south (west to E DR Congo) to South Africa Madagascar (except Central Plateau)

l: chanting-goshawks Dark Chanting-goshawk Melierax metabates1

38:1

Eastern Chanting-goshawk Melierax poliopterus2

38:2

Pale Chanting-goshawk Melierax canorus3*

38:3

M. m. theresae: SW Morocco M. m. neumanni: Mali east to N Sudan M. m. ignoscens: Yemen M. m. metabates: Senegal east to S Sudan and Eritrea, south to N Tanzania M. m. mechowi: Angola and N Namibia east to S Tanzania, south to NE South Africa Ethiopia and Somalia south to NE Tanzania

SW Angola and Namibia east to SW Zimbabwe, south to South Africa

m: Gabar Goshawk Gabar Goshawk Micronisus gabar

M. g. niger: W Africa east to SW Arabia M. g. aequatorius: Central Africa M. g. gabar: Angola and Malawi south to South Africa

38:4

n: accipiters (goshawks and sparrowhawks) Grey-bellied Goshawk Accipiter poliogaster

N & E Colombia east to S & SE Venezuela and Guianas, south to E Ecuador, NE Peru, E Bolivia and SE Brazil

56:3

10 001 prelims and intro.indd 10

6/9/05 2:07:11 pm

plate no.

Crested Goshawk Accipiter trivirgatus *

45:2

Sulawesi Crested Goshawk Accipiter griseiceps2

45:3

African Goshawk Accipiter tachiro1*

41:2

Red-chested Goshawk Accipiter toussenelii2

41:3

Chestnut-flanked Sparrowhawk Accipiter castanilius

40:3

Shikra Accipiter badius

39:1

Nicobar Sparrowhawk Accipiter butleri

45:1

Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes

43:3

Chinese Sparrowhawk Accipiter soloensis

44:3

Frances’s Sparrowhawk Accipiter francesii

42:3

Spot-tailed Sparrowhawk Accipiter trinotatus

46:3

Grey Goshawk Accipiter novaehollandiae1*

51:1

Varied Goshawk Accipiter hiogaster2

51:2

1

A. t. indicus: N & E India east to S China, south through peninsular Malaysia A. t. peninsulae: SW India A. t. layardi: Sri Lanka A. t. formosae: Taiwan A. t. trivirgatus: Sumatra A. t. niasensis: Nias I A. t. microstictus: Borneo A. t. javanicus: Java, Bali A. t. castroi: NC Philippines (Polillo Is) A. t. palawanus: W Philippines (Calamians to Balabac), possibly also Natuna A. t. extimus: S Philippines (Samar south to Mindanao) Sulawesi

A. t. unduliventer: Ethiopian Highlands A. t. croizati: SW Ethiopia A. t. sparsimfasciatus: Somalia south to Tanzania then west to N Angola A. t. pembanesis: Pemba I (off Tanzania) A. t. tachiro: S Angola east to Mozambique, south to Cape A. t. toussenelii: lower Congo basin (S Cameroon south to Gabon) A. t. canescens: upper Congo basin A. t. macroscelides: Senegambia east to W Cameroon A. t. lopezi: Bioko A. c. castanilius: Nigeria east to Gabon and lower Congo basin A. c. beniensis: upper Congo basin

A. b. cenchroides: Azerbaijan east to Kazakhstan, south to NW India; winters Indian subcontinent and SE Asia A. b. dussumieri: Indian subcontinent (except N, SW & S) A. b. badius: SW India, Sri Lanka A. b. poliopsis: NE India east to S China, south to Thailand and Indochina; winters south to peninsular Malaysia A. b. sphenurus: W Africa east to SW Arabia, south to Tanzania A. b. polyzonoides: S DR Congo and S Tanzania south to South Africa A. b. butleri: Car Nicobar A. b. obsoletus: C & S Nicobars

SE & E Europe east to NW Kazakhstan, locally W & N Turkey, Caucasus and W Iran; winters mainly E Africa (?mainly S Sudan/Eritrea south to Kenya) Extreme S Ussuriland, S Manchuria, Korea, SE China (south from S Shaanxi and Anhui), possibly Taiwan; winters extreme S/SE China south to Sundas A. f. griveaudi: Grand Comoro A. f. pusillus: Anjouan A. f. brutus: Mayotte A. f. francesii: Madagascar

Sulawesi and some satellites (Muna, Buton) N, E & SE Australia, Tasmania

SW islands A. h. sylvestris: Lesser Sundas (Sumbawa east to Alor)

11 001 prelims and intro.indd 11

6/9/05 2:07:12 pm

plate no. A. h. natalis: Christmas A. h. pallidiceps: Buru A. h. hiogaster: Seram and adjacent S Moluccas (except, apparently, Banda) A. h. polionotus: Damar, Babar, Tanimbar, apparently also Banda A. h. albiventris: Tayandu and Kai Is New Guinea islands A. h. misoriensis: Biak A. h. leucosomus: mainland New Guinea and adjacent islands A. h. pallidimas: D’Entrecasteaux A. h. misulae: Louisiades A. h. dampieri: New Britain and Umboi Bismarck Archipelago A. h. manusi: Admiralty Is A. h. matthiae: St Matthias A. h. lavongai: New Hanover, probably also New Ireland A. h. lihirensis: Lihir and Tanga Bougainville and Solomons A. h. bougainvillei: Bougainville and Faure A. h. rufoschistaceus: Choiseul and Santa Isabel A. h. rubianae: New Georgia group A. h. malaitae: Malaita A. h. pulchellus: Guadalcanal

Grey-throated Goshawk Accipiter griseogularis3

51:3

A. g. mortyi: Morotai (north of Halmahera) A. g. griseogularis: Halmahera, Bacan and adjacent islands A. g. obiensis: Obi (south of Halmahera)

Brown Goshawk Accipiter fasciatus

52:2

A. f. buruensis: S Moluccas (Buru) A. f. stresemanni: Bonerate and Tukangbesi groups (south of Sulawesi) A. f. wallacei: Lesser Sundas (Lombok east to Wetar and Babar) A. f. tjendanae: Sumba A. f. savu: Savu A. f. hellmayri: Timor, Semau and Roti, possibly also Alor A. f. polycryptus: E New Guinea A. f. dogwa: S New Guinea A. f. didimus: N Western Australia east to N Queensland A. f. fasciatus: S Australia, Tasmania and S Solomon Is (Rennell, Bellona) A. f. vigilax: Vanuatu, New Caledonia and Loyalty Is

Black-mantled Goshawk Accipiter melanochlamys1

48:3

A. m. melanochlamys: Muntains of NW New Guinea A. m. schisacinus: ‘Backbone’ of C & E New Guinea

Pied Goshawk Accipiter albogularis2

50:3

A. a. eichhorni: Feni (north of Bougainville) A. a. woodfordi: Bougainville south to Guadalcanal and Malaita (except New Georgia) A. a. gilvus: New Georgia group A. a. albogularis: Makira (= San Cristobal) group A. a. sharpei: Santa Cruz

New Caledonia Goshawk Accipiter haplochrous3

49:4

New Caledonia and offshore islands

Fiji Goshawk Accipiter rufitorques4*

47:3

Fiji

Moluccan Goshawk Accipiter henicogrammus

47:2

N Moluccas (Morotai, Halmahera and Bacan)

Slaty-backed Sparrowhawk Accipiter luteoschistaceus

49:2

Bismarck Archipelago (Umboi, New Britain, possibly also S New Ireland)

Imitator Sparrowhawk Accipiter imitator

50:2

Bougainville and Solomon Is (Choiseul and Santa Isabel, possibly some other islands)

12 001 prelims and intro.indd 12

6/9/05 2:07:12 pm

plate no.

Grey-headed Goshawk Accipiter poliocephalus * 1

48:4

New Guinea and adjacent islands, including at least Waigeo, Batanta, Salawati, Misoöl and Yapen (all off NW), Aru Is, d’Entrecasteaux (Fergusson I) and Louisiades (Masima, Tagula)

New Britain Goshawk Accipiter princeps2

49:1

New Britain

Tiny Hawk Accipiter superciliosus1*

56:2

A. s. fontanieri: Nicaragua south, west of Andes, to W Ecuador A. s. superciliosus: South America east of Andes, south to NE Peru, E Paraguay, NE Argentina and SE Brazil

Semicollared Hawk Accipiter collaris2

56:1

Andes from N Colombia and SW Venezuela south to SE Peru

Red-thighed Sparrowhawk Accipiter erythropus1

40:2

A. e. erythopus: Senegambia east to C & S Nigeria A. e. zenkeri: S Cameroon east to extreme W Uganda, south to Gabon, PR Congo and SC DR Congo

Little Sparrowhawk Accipiter minullus2*

40:1

A. m. tropicalis: S Somalia and coastal Kenya south to E Mozambique A. m. minullus: Ethiopia, SE Sudan and NW Somalia, and Angola and S DR Congo, south to N Namibia, Botswana and E South Africa

Japanese Sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis

44:1

A. g. sibiricus: Altai and Mongolia to SE Yakutsk and Sea of Okhotsk; winters SE Asia to Greater Sundas A. g. gularis: Ussuriland (at least formerly also S Sakhalin and S Kuriles), NE China south to Korea and Japan; winters S Japan, SE China and S Myanmar south to Lesser Sundas A. g. iwasakii: S Ryukyus (Okinawa, Ishigaki, Iriomote)

Besra Accipiter virgatus

44:2

‘affinis group’ (mostly mainland) A. v. kashmiriensis: W Himalayas (Kashmir east to SE Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh, possibly also Nepal) A. v. affinis: C Himalayas east to S & SE China and Vietnam A. v. fuscipectus: Taiwan A. v. nisoides: SE Myanmar and N & W Thailand ‘virgatus group’ (mostly islands) A. v. besra: S India and Sri Lanka A. v. abdulali: Nicobars, possibly also Andamans A. v. vanbemmeli: Sumatra A. v. rufotibialis: N Borneo A. v. virgatus: Java and Bali A. v. quinquefasciatus: Lesser Sundas (Flores) A. v. confusus: N & W Philippines (Luzon, Catanduanes, Mindoro, Panay, Negros) A. v. quagga: E & S Philippines (Samar, Biliran, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol, Siquijor, Mindanao)

Sulawesi Small Sparrowhawk Accipiter nanus

46:2

Sulawesi (except less mountainous southern parts), including E Buton

Moluccan Sparrowhawk Accipiter erythrauchen1

47:1

A. e. erythrauchen: N Moluccas A. e. ceramensis: Buru, Seram and adjacent islands

Collared Sparrowhawk Accipiter cirrhocephalus2*

52:1

A. c. papuanus: New Guinea and associated islands (except Louisiades) A. c. rosselianus: Louisiades A. c. quaesitandus: N coastal Australia A. c. cirrocephalus: Australia (except N coast) and Tasmania

New Britain Sparrowhawk Accipiter brachyurus3

49:3

Bismarck Archipelago (New Britain and S New Ireland)

Vinous-breasted Sparrowhawk Accipiter rhodogaster

46:1

A. r. rhodogaster: Sulawesi A. r. butonensis: Muna and Buton A. r. sulaensis: Peleng east to Sula group

Madagascar Sparrowhawk Accipiter madagascariensis

42:2

Madagascar (except central parts)

13 001 prelims and intro.indd 13

6/9/05 2:07:12 pm

plate no.

Ovambo Sparrowhawk Accipiter ovampensis

39:2

Senegambia east to CAR, Ethiopia, and W Angola, S DR Congo, Uganda and Kenya south to C Namibia and NE South Africa

Northern Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus1*

43:2

A. n. nisus: Europe and Asia Minor east to W Siberia and Iran; winters W & S Europe, N Africa and NW Indian subcontinent A. n. nisosimilis: C & E Siberia and Japan south to Tien Shan and NE China; winters Indian subcontinent across to Korea and Japan and south to SE Asia A. n. dementjevi: Pamir-Alai to Tien Shan A. n. wolterstorffi: Corsica and Sardinia A. n. granti: Madeira and Canary Is A. n. punicus: NW Africa A. n. melaschistos: mountains from E Afghanistan east through Himalayas to S Tibet and S China (C Gansu south to N Yunnan)

Rufous-breasted Sparrowhawk Accipiter rufiventris2

39:3

A. r. perspicillaris: Ethiopian Highlands A. r. rufiventris: SE Sudan, Uganda, W Kenya and E DR Congo south patchily to E & S South Africa

Sharp-shinned Hawk Accipiter striatus1*

53:1

North American group A. s. velox: much of North America; winters south to Panama and Bahamas A. s. perobscurus: SW Canada (Queen Charlotte Is, possibly also adjacent coast of British Columbia); winters south to NW USA Caribbean group A. s. fringilloides: Cuba A. s. striatus: Hispaniola A. s. venator: Puerto Rico Mexican group A. s. suttoni: N Mexico (south to Michoacán and Veracruz), possibly also SW USA (extreme S New Mexico) A. s. madrensis: S Mexico (Guerrero, WC Oaxaca)

White-breasted Hawk Accipiter chionogaster2

53:2

SE Mexico south to Nicaragua

Plain-breasted Hawk Accipiter ventralis3

53:3

Colombia and Venezuela, south along Andes to W Bolivia

Rufous-thighed Hawk Accipiter erythronemius4

53:4

SE Bolivia and SC & E Brazil south to N & E Argentina

Cooper’s Hawk Accipiter cooperii1

54:2

Extreme S Canada, most of USA, N Mexico (N Baja California, N Coahuila, Sierra Madre Occidental south to Durango), possibly still S Mexico (Guerrero); N populations winter south to Belize, rarely N Costa Rica

Gundlach’s Hawk Accipiter gundlachii2

54:1

A. g. gundlachi: W & C Cuba A. g. wileyi: E Cuba

Bicoloured Hawk Accipiter bicolor3*

55:1

A. b. fidens: S Mexico west of Tehuantepec A. b. bicolor: S Mexico (east of Tehuantepec) south to Peru, Amazonia and NW Bolivia A. b. pileatus: E Brazil, E Paraguay and extreme NE Argentina A. b. guttifer: SE Bolivia, SW Brazil, W Paraguay and N Argentina

Chilean Hawk Accipiter chilensis4

55:2

Andean region of SC & S Chile and Argentina

Great Sparrowhawk (Black Sparrowhawk) Accipiter melanoleucus

41:1

A. m. temminckii: Senegambia and E Liberia east to CAR and N & W DR Congo, south to Gabon and PR Congo A. m. melanoleucus: Ethiopia, NW Somalia, and from Angola, C & E DR Congo, Uganda and W & S Kenya south to E & S South Africa

Henst’s Goshawk Accipiter henstii

42:1

W, N & E Madagascar

14 001 prelims and intro.indd 14

6/9/05 2:07:13 pm

plate no.

Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis

43:1

A. g. buteoides: N Fennoscandia and Siberia east to R Lena; winters south to C Eurasia A. g. albidus: NE Siberia and Kamchatka; winters south to Transbaikalia, N Mongolia and Ussuriland A. g. gentilis: Europe (except N) east to Urals, Caucasus and Asia Minor, south to NW Africa A. g. arrigonii: Corsica and Sardinia A. g. schvedowi: steppes from S Urals east to Amurland, Ussuriland, Manchuria, also NW China (W Tien Shan), possibly N Himalayas; winters south to N Indochina A. g. fujiyamae: Japan A. g. atricapillus: North America from treeline south to California, W New Mexico, Great Lakes and West Virginia; winters south to W & C USA A. g. laingi: SW Canada (Queen Charlotte Is, Vancouver) A. g. apache: Arizona south to W Mexico (Sierra Madre Occidental south to Guerrero)

Meyer’s Goshawk Accipiter meyerianus

50:1

Moluccas (Halmahera, Seram, Boano, Seram Laut), New Guinea (including Yapen, Karkar and Bagaba), Bismarck (Umboi, New Britain, Waton, apparently also Manus), Solomons (Kolombangara, Nggatokae, Guadalcanal)

o: atypical accipitrines and buteonines Bürgers’s Hawk (Chestnut-shouldered Hawk) Erythrotriorchis buergersi1

48:2

New Guinea mountains

Red Hawk (Red Goshawk) Erythrotriorchis radiatus2*

52:3

N & E Australia

Doria’s Hawk Megatriorchis doriae

48:1

New Guinea rainforest

Long-tailed Hawk Urotriorchis macrourus

57:1

Liberia east to W Uganda

Lizard-buzzard Kaupifalco monogrammicus

57:2

K. m. monogrammicus: W & C Africa east to Ethiopia and Kenya K. m. meridionalis: S DR Congo and Tanzania south to South Africa

Grasshopper Buzzard-hawk Butastur rufipennis1

57:3

Senegambia east to NW Somalia; dispersal south to N DR Congo and Tanzania

White-eyed Buzzard-hawk Butastur teesa2

58:2

S Iran, Indian subcontinent (except Sri Lanka), W & S Myanmar

Rufous-winged Buzzard-hawk Butastur liventer3

58:1

S Myanmar, S China (Yunnan), NW Thailand, Indochina, Java, Sulawesi

Grey-faced Buzzard-hawk Butastur indicus4*

58:3

SW Amurland, Ussuriland, NE China and Japan; winters SE Asia south to Sundas

Crane-hawk Geranospiza caerulescens

59:1

G. c. livens: NW Mexico G. c. nigra: W, E & S Mexico south to C Panama G. c. balzarensis: E Panama, W Colombia south to NW Peru G. c. caerulescens: N & E Colombia east to N Brazil, south to E Peru G. c. gracilis: NE Brazil (south to Bahia) G. c. flexipes: Bolivia, S Brazil, Paraguay, N Argentina, Uruguay

p: buteonines Plumbeous Hawk Leucopternis plumbeus1

59:3

Slate-coloured Hawk Leucopternis schistaceus2*

59:2

Barred Hawk Leucopternis princeps

59:4

Black-faced Hawk Leucopternis melanops1*

60:1

E Panama and W Colombia south to W Ecuador

SE Colombia and SW Venezuela east through Amazonian Brazil, south to E Peru and NE Bolivia Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador S Colombia, NE Ecuador and NE Amazonia (north of Amazon)

15 001 prelims and intro.indd 15

6/9/05 2:07:13 pm

plate no.

White-browed Hawk Leucopternis kuhli

2

E Peru and extreme N Bolivia east through NC Brazil (south of Amazon)

60:2

White-necked Hawk Leucopternis lacernulatus

60:3

Semiplumbeous Hawk Leucopternis semiplumbeus

60:4

White Hawk Leucopternis albicollis1*

61:1

Grey-backed Hawk Leucopternis occidentalis2

61:2

Mantled Hawk Leucopternis polionotus3

61:3

Rufous Crab-hawk Buteogallus aequinoctialis

62:3

Common Black Hawk (Lesser Black Hawk) Buteogallus anthracinus2*

62:1

Mangrove Black Hawk Buteogallus subtilis1

62:2

Great Black Hawk Buteogallus urubitinga

62:4

Savannah Hawk Buteogallus meridionalis

64:1

Bay-winged Hawk (Harris’s Hawk) Parabuteo unicinctus

64:3

Black-collared Hawk Busarellus nigricollis

64:2

Black-chested Buzzard-eagle Geranoaetus melanoleucus

63:3

Black Solitary-eagle Harpyhaliaetus solitarius

63:1

Crowned Solitary-eagle Harpyhaliaetus coronatus

63:2

Patchily in E & SE Brazil

E Honduras to W Colombia and south to NW Ecuador

L. a. ghiesbreghti: S Mexico to W Nicaragua L. a. costaricensis: Honduras south to NW Colombia L. a. williaminae: NW Colombia and W Venezuela L. a. albicollis: SE Colombia, S Venezuela and Trinidad east to N Brazil, south to E Peru and N Bolivia W Ecuador and extreme NW Peru

E Brazil south to E Paraguay and NE Argentina Coast from NE Venezuela to SE Brazil

B. a. anthracinus: SW USA south to N & C Colombia, east to N Guyana, also Trinidad and St Vincent B. a. utilensis: Bay I (Honduras) B. a. gundlachii: Cuba and I of Pines B. s. rhyzophora: Pacific coast of extreme SE Mexico, El Salvador and Honduras B. s. bandsi: Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama B. s. subtilis: Pacific coast of Colombia, Ecuador and extreme N Peru B. u. ridgwayi: coasts of Mexico south to Panama B. u. urubitinga: South America s to NW Peru and, east of Andes, to N Argentina and Uruguay, also Trinidad E Panama and N Colombia s to NW Peru and, east of Andes, to NE Argentina and Uruguay, also Trinidad P. u. harrisi: extreme S USA (SE California to S Texas) south discontinuously to W Peru P. u. unicinctus: N Colombia and N Venezuela south (east of Andes) to C Chile and C Argentina B. n. nigricollis: S Mexico south to N South America, south (east of Andes) to Bolivia and S & SE Brazil B. n. leucocephalus: Paraguay, N Argentina and Uruguay G. m. australis: Colombia and NW Venezuela south through W South America to Tierra del Fuego G. m. melanoleucus: Paraguay, S & E Brazil, NE Argentina and Uruguay H. s. sheffleri: W & S Mexico south patchily to Panama H. s. solitarius: N Colombia and N Venezuela south in Andes to NW Argentina, also Guianas E Bolivia and S & SE Brazil south to C Argentina

q: buteos, or buzzards Grey (Grey-lined) Hawk Buteo (Asturina) nitidus

70:1

Roadside Hawk Buteo magnirostris

66:2

B. n. plagiatus: S USA south to NW Costa Rica B. n. costaricensis: SW Costa Rica to Panama and south to W Ecuador B. n. nitidus: Amazonia, Trinidad B. n. pallidus: E Bolivia and S Brazil south to N Argentina B. m. griseocauda: S & E Mexico (except Yucatán Peninsula) south to NW Costa Rica B. m. conspectus: Yucatán Peninsula

16 001 prelims and intro.indd 16

6/9/05 2:07:13 pm

plate no. B. m. gracilis: Cozumel I and Holbox I (off Yucatán) B. m. sinushonduri: Guanaja I and Roatán I (off Honduras) B. m. petulans: SW Costa Rica and S Panama B. m. alius: San José and San Miguel (off S Panama) B. m. insidiatrix: E Panama and NW Colombia B. m. ecuadoriensis: SW Colombia and W Ecuador B. m. magnirostris: N South America east of Andes, south to Amazon B. m. occiduus: E Peru, W Brazil and extreme N Bolivia B. m. saturatus: Bolivia, Paraguay and NW Argentina B. m. nattereri: NE Brazil (south to Bahia) B. m. magniplumis: S Brazil and adjacent parts of Paraguay and Argentina B. m. pucherani: E Argentina and Uruguay

Red-shouldered Hawk Buteo lineatus1*

72:1

B. l. lineatus: E North America south to S Missouri and South Carolina B. l. alleni: E Oklahoma and E Texas east to S South Carolina and Florida B. l. extimus: C & S Florida B. l. texanus: SC Texas to C Mexico B. l. elegans: SW Oregon south to Baja California

Ridgway’s Hawk Buteo ridgwayi2

65:1

Hispaniola

Broad-winged Hawk Buteo platypterus

70:2

B. p. platypterus: S Canada and E USA; winters Mexico to W South America B. p. cubanensis: Cuba B. p. brunnescens: Puerto Rico B. p. insulicola: Antigua B. p. rivierei: Dominica, Martinique and St Lucia B. p. antillarum: St Vincent, Grenadines, Grenada, Barbados, Tobago and Little Tobago

White-rumped Hawk Buteo leucorrhous

66:1

Colombia and W & N Venezuela south in Andes to NW Argentina, also E Paraguay, SE Brazil and extreme NE Argentina

Short-tailed Hawk Buteo brachyurus1*

68:1

B. b. fuliginosus: S USA (S Arizona, S Texas, S Florida) and Central America B. b. brachyurus: Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, Guianas and N Brazil south to N Argentina

White-throated Hawk Buteo albigula2

68:2

C Chile and adjacent Argentina; winters Bolivia north to Colombia

Swainson’s Hawk Buteo swainsoni

71:1

W Canada, W USA and N Mexico; winters South America (mostly N & E Argentina)

White-tailed Hawk Buteo albicaudatus1*

69:1

B. a. hypospodius: S USA (Texas) and Mexico south to W Colombia and W Venezuela B. a. colonus: E Colombia east to Surinam, Trinidad, south to Amazon B. a. albicaudatus: S Brazil south to C Argentina

Galapagos Hawk Buteo galapagoensis2

65:2

Galapagos Is

Red-backed Hawk Buteo polyosoma1*

67:1

Andes and Pacific lowlands from NW Colombia south to Tierra del Fuego, also Falklands; in winter also south from N Argentina and SE Brazil

Juan Fernández Hawk Buteo exsul2

67:2

Juan Fernández Is (Alejandro Selkirk I, introduced Robinson Crusoe I)

Gurney’s Hawk (Puna Hawk) Buteo poecilochrous

67:3

Andes from SW Colombia south to extreme N Chile, Bolivia and N Argentina

Zone-tailed Hawk Buteo albonotatus

69:2

S USA and patchily Middle America south to Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador, also around fringes of Amazonia

Hawaiian Hawk Buteo solitarius

65:3

Hawaii Is

17 001 prelims and intro.indd 17

6/9/05 2:07:14 pm

plate no.

Red-tailed Hawk Buteo jamaicensis *

72:2

Rufous-tailed Hawk Buteo ventralis2

68:3

Common Buzzard Buteo buteo1*

74:1

Mountain Buzzard Buteo oreophilus2

76:1

Madagascar Buzzard Buteo brachypterus3

74:2

Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus1*

75:1

Upland Buzzard Buteo hemilasius2

73:2

Ferruginous Hawk Buteo regalis

71:2

Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus

73:1

Red-necked Buzzard Buteo auguralis

75:2

Jackal Buzzard Buteo rufofuscus1*

76:2

Augur Buzzard Buteo augur2

76:3

Archer’s Buzzard Buteo archeri3

76:4

1

B. j. alascensis: coastal SE Alaska, British Columbia and Washington; most winter SW USA B. j. harlani: WC Alaska, Yukon and N British Columbia; most winter SW & S USA B. j. calurus: Alberta south to S Arizona and New Mexico B. j. borealis: E North America west to Great Plains, south to Gulf coast; winters south to S Mexico B. j. fuertesi: SW USA (from S California across to S Texas) south to NW Mexico B. j. socorroensis: Socorro I (off W Mexico) B. j. suttoni: S Baja California B. j. fumosus: Tres Marias Is, off WC Mexico B. j. hadropus: S Mexican highlands (Jalisco south to Oaxaca) B. j. kemsiesi: highlands of extreme S Mexico south to N Nicaragua B. j. costaricensis: highlands of Costa Rica and W Panama B. j. umbrinus: S Florida and Bahamas B. j. solitudinis: Cuba and I of Pines B. j. jamaicensis: Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and N Lesser Antilles S Chile and SW Argentina

B. b. buteo: E Atlantic islands (Azores, Madeira, Canaries, Cape Verdes) and Europe east to Scandinavia, Poland, Romania and W Turkey, also Socotra I B. b. vulpinus: N & E Europe east to C Asia (Yenisei, Altai, Tien Shan, N Caucasus); winters E & S Africa and S Asia B. b. menetriesi: Crimea, C & E Turkey and S Caucasus south to N Iran B. b. japonicus: E Siberia and NE China east to Sakhalin, S Kuriles and Japan; winters mainly S & E Asia B. b. refectus: mountains of SW China, Himalayas and E Tibetan Plateau B. b. toyoshimai: Ogasawara-shoto (Bonin Is) and Izu Is B. b. oshiroi: Daito-jima B. o. oreophilus: Ethiopia south discontinuously to Tanzania and Malawi B. o. trizonatus: S & E South Africa Madagascar

B. r. rufinus: C & SE Europe east to NW Mongolia and N Indian sub.; winters south to N tropical Africa B. r. cirtensis: N Africa and Arabia S Siberia, Mongolia and NE China south to SC Tibet; winters south to S Kazakhstan, Himalayas and C & E China SW Canada and W USA (south to Arizona and New Mexico); winters south to C Mexico B. l. lagopus: Scandinavia east to Ob/Yenisey region; winters south to C Europe and SW Asia B. l. menzbieri: NE Siberia; winters south to C Asia and Japan B. l. kamchatkensis: Okhotsk coast, Kamchatka and Kuril Is; winters presumably EC Asia B. l. sanctijohannis: N North America; winters S Canada south to C USA and N Mexico Senegal east to Sudan, south to W Angola, NE DR Congo and W & C Ethiopia W & S Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho and S Mozambique E Sudan and Ethiopia south to Zimbabwe and Mozambique, also W Angola and WC Namibia N Somalia

r: harpy eagles Crested Eagle Morphnus guianensis

N Guatemala, Belize and Honduras south to Bolivia, NE Argentina and SE Brazil

77:1

18 001 prelims and intro.indd 18

6/9/05 2:07:14 pm

plate no.

Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja

77:2

New Guinea Eagle (Papuan Harpy Eagle) Harpyopsis novaeguineae

79:1

Great Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi

79:2

SE Mexico south to E Bolivia, extreme NE Argentina and SE Brazil New Guinea

Philippines (Luzon, Samar, Mindanao)

s: Indian Black Eagle Indian Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis

I. m. perniger: Himalayan foothills from N India east to Assam, W Myanmar, SW & E India and Sri Lanka I. m. malayensis: E Myanmar and SE Asia south to Greater Sundas and Moluccas

79:3

t: aquila eagles Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina1*

86:1

Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata2

86:2

Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga

86:3

Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax1*

85:1

Indian Tawny Eagle Aquila vindhiana2

85:2

Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis3

85:3

Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca1*

84:2

Spanish Imperial Eagle Aquila adalberti2

84:3

Gurney’s Eagle Aquila gurneyi

83:2

Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos

84:1

Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax

83:3

Verreaux’s Eagle (Black Eagle) Aquila verreauxii

87:2

C Europe east to Ukraine, Caucasus and N Iran; winters E & S Africa and SW Asia N & NC India and S Nepal east to N Myanmar E Europe across C Asia to NE China and Ussuriland; winters S Europe east to S & SE Asia, also locally north half of Africa

A. r. belisarius: Morocco, and SW Mauritania east to Ethiopia, W Somalia and SW Arabia, south to Nigeria, N DR Congo and N Kenya A. r. rapax: Angola, S DR Congo and Kenya south to South Africa Pakistan and India east to W Myanmar

A. n. orientalis: extreme SE Europe east to E Kazakhstan; winters E Africa, Middle East and SW Asia A. n. nipalensis: E Kazakhstan and Tibet east to Mongolia and NE China; winters S Asia SE Europe east to SC Siberia and Transbaikalia, south to Azerbaijan and NW China; winters mainly NE Africa, Middle East and Asia C & S Spain

New Guinea and adjacent islands, Moluccas (Halmahera, ?Seram) A. c. chrysaetos: N, S & E Europe east to C Siberia (R Yenisey) A. c. kamtschatica: Yenisey and Mongolia to NE China and Kamchatka A. c. canadensis: North America (Canada, W USA) A. c. japonica: Korea and Japan A. c. homeyeri: Iberia, N Africa (including Ethiopian presumably) and Crete east to Caucasus and Iran A. c. daphanea: E Iran and Himalayas east to W & C China A. a. audax: SC New Guinea and Australia A. a. fleayi: Tasmania Very locally Middle East (Israel, Sinai, SW Jordan, S Arabia), Sudan, Ethiopia south to South Africa, also SW Angola south to Cape

u: hawk eagles Wahlberg’s Eagle Hieraaetus wahlbergi

Senegambia east to Eritrea and N & S Somalia and Kenya, and S Mauritania across to N Tanzania and south to C Namibia and NE South Africa

87:1

19 001 prelims and intro.indd 19

6/9/05 2:07:14 pm

plate no.

Bonelli’s Eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus *

88:1

African Hawk Eagle Hieraaetus spilogaster2

88:2

Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus1*

88:3

Little Eagle Hieraaetus morphnoides2

83:1

Ayres’s Hawk Eagle Hieraaetus ayresii

89:1

Rufous-bellied Hawk Eagle Hieraaetus kienerii1*

25:3

Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus

90:2

Black-and-white Hawk Eagle Spizastur melanoleucus

78:1

Long-crested Eagle Lophaetus occipitalis

89:2

Cassin’s Hawk Eagle Spizaetus africanus

89:3

Indian Crested Hawk Eagle (Changeable Hawk Eagle) Spizaetus cirrhatus1*

81:1

Dimorphic Hawk Eagle (Changeable Hawk Eagle) Spizaetus limnaeetus2

81:2

Andaman Hawk Eagle Spizaetus andamanensis3

81:3

Simeuluë Hawk Eagle Spizaetus vanheurni4

81:4

Flores Hawk Eagle Spizaetus floris5

81:5

Mountain Hawk Eagle Spizaetus nipalensis1*

80:1

Blyth’s Hawk Eagle Spizaetus alboniger2

80:2

Javan Hawk Eagle Spizaetus bartelsi3

82:1

Sulawesi Hawk Eagle Spizaetus lanceolatus4

82:2

Philippine Hawk Eagle Spizaetus philippensis5

82:3

1

H. f. fasciatus: SW & S Europe east patchily to Turkey, Middle East, W & S Arabia, W, NE & S Iran, Turkmenistan, E Afghanistan, Indian subcontinent, C Myanmar and SE China H. f. renschi: Lesser Sundas Senegambia and Ivory Coast east to Eritrea and N Somalia, south in E Africa, and from Angola and S DR Congo, to NE South Africa and Swaziland WC, SW & E Europe and NW Africa east to SW Russia, Turkey, N Iran, thence through C Asian mountains to W Manchuria, also south to W Himalayas, also S South Africa; winters sub-Saharan Africa and S Asia H. m. weiskei: New Guinea H. m. morphnoides: Australia

Sierra Leone and N Liberia east patchily to W Cameroon and NW Gabon, also SC Eritrea, C Ethiopia, and SW DR Congo east to SE Kenya and south to N Botswana and C Mozambique H k kienerii: SW India, Sri Lanka, S Himalayas east to Myanmar, locally SE Asia and S China (Hainan) H. k. formosus: peninsular SE Asia to Sundas, Sulawesi and Philippines Extreme S Mauritania and Senegambia east to Ethiopia and NW Somalia, south through Uganda and Kenya, and east from Angola, southwards E & S Mexico south to W Colombia, also east of Andes from E Colombia, Venezuela and Guianas south to Bolivia, N & NE Argentina and SE Brazil

Extreme S Mauritania east to Eritrea, Ethiopia and S Somalia, south to N Angola and E South Africa Sierra Leone east to W Uganda, south to PR Congo and N DR Congo, also N Angola S. c. cirrhatus: peninsular India S. c. ceylanensis: Sri Lanka

Himalayan foothills, SE Asia south to Greater Sundas, also W & S Philippines Andaman Is

Simeuluë I (off NW Sumatra)

Lesser Sundas (Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores) S. n. nipalensis: Himalayas east to SE China and Taiwan S. n. kelaarti: SW India and Sri Lanka S. n. orientalis: Japan; some winter NE China Extreme S Myanmar (S Tenasserim) south to Sumatra and satellites (not Bangka), also N Borneo Java

Sulawesi and most satellites, Banggai Is and Sula Is

S. p. philippensis: Luzon S. p. pinskeri: Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Negros, Siquijor, Mindanao and Basilan

20 001 prelims and intro.indd 20

6/9/05 2:07:14 pm

plate no.

Wallace’s Hawk Eagle Spizaetus nanus

80:3

S. n. nanus: extreme S Myanmar (S Tenasserim), Malay Peninsula, Sumatra (including Bangka) and Borneo S. n. stresemanni: Nias I

Black Hawk Eagle Spizaetus tyrannus

78:2

S. t. serus: SE Mexico south to NW Peru, also east of Andes to Guianas and south to Bolivia and Mato Grosso S. t. tyrannus: E & S Brazil, E Paraguay, NE Argentina

Ornate Hawk Eagle Spizaetus ornatus

78:3

S. o. vicarius: SW & SE Mexico south to Colombia and W Ecuador S. o. ornatus: Venezuela and C Colombia east to Atlantic coast (inc Trinidad, Tobago), south to N & E Bolivia, N Argentina and SE Brazil

Crowned Hawk Eagle (Crowned Eagle) Stephanoaetus coronatus

90:1

S Senegal east locally to W Ethiopia, south to N Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and E & S South Africa

Isidor’s Eagle (Black-and-chestnut Eagle) Oroaetus isidori

77:3

W Venezuela south locally in Andes to NW Argentina

Family SAGITTARIIDAE (Secretarybird) Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius

S Mauritania east to NW Somalia, south (except in forest zone) to S South Africa

90:3

Family FALCONIDAE, subfamily DAPTRIINAE (caracaras, forest-falcons) a: caracaras Black Caracara Daptrius ater

94:2

N Colombia, NW & NE Venezuela and Amazonia south to N Bolivia

Red-throated Caracara Daptrius (Ibycter) americanus

94:1

S Costa Rica, Panama, NW South America and Amazonia south to NE Bolivia and SE Brazil

Carunculated Caracara Phalcoboenus carunculatus1

91:1

Upper Andes of SW Colombia, W Ecuador and NW Peru

Mountain Caracara Phalcoboenus megalopterus2*

91:2

Upper Andes from S Ecuador south to SW Bolivia, C Chile and W Argentina

Darwin’s Caracara (White-throated Caracara) Phalcoboenus albogularis3

91:3

S Andes of Chile and Argentina south to Tierra del Fuego

Forster’s Caracara (Striated Caracara) Phalcoboenus australis

91:4

Falkland Is and islands off Tierra del Fuego

Crested Caracara Caracara cheriway2

92:1

C. c. auduboni: extreme S USA, Mexico south to W Panama, also Cuba C. c. cheriway: E Panama, Netherlands Antilles and N South America (north of Amazon)

Southern Caracara Caracara plancus1*

92:2

South America (south of Amazon) and Falkland Is

Yellow-headed Caracara Milvago chimachima

93:2

M. c. cordata: S Costa Rica, Panama and N South America south (mostly east of Andes) to Amazon M. c. chimachima: S Brazil from Amazon south to E Bolivia, Paraguay, NE Argentina and Uruguay

Chimango Caracara Milvago chimango

93:1

M. c. chimango: C Chile, and from Paraguay and extreme SE Brazil south to C Argentina M. c. temucoensis: S Chile (from Concepción) and SW Argentina (from R Chubut) south to Tierra del Fuego

b: Laughing-falcon Laughing-falcon Herpetotheres cachinnans

H. c. chapmani: W & E Mexico south to Honduras H. c. fulvescens: E Panama south on Pacific slope to NW Peru H. c. cachinnans: Nicaragua into South America (north and east of Andes) south to C Brazil H. c. queribundus: E Bolivia, Paraguay, NE Argentina and S & E Brazil

93:3

21 001 prelims and intro.indd 21

6/9/05 2:07:15 pm

plate no.

c: forest-falcons Barred Forest-falcon Micrastur ruficollis

95:1

Plumbeous Forest-falcon Micrastur plumbeus

95:3

Lined Forest-falcon Micrastur gilvicollis

95:2

Cryptic Forest-falcon Micrastur mintoni

94:3

Slaty-backed Forest-falcon Micrastur mirandollei

95:4

Collared Forest-falcon Micrastur semitorquatus

96:1

Buckley’s Forest-falcon Micrastur buckleyi

96:2

M. r. guerilla: S Mexico east to Nicaragua M. r. interstes: Costa Rica south to W Colombia and W Ecuador M. r. zonothorax: N Venezuela and E Colombia south to NE Peru, ?N Bolivia M. r. concentricus: S Venezuela and Guianas south to Amazon M. r. pelzelni: E Peru, W Brazil M. r. ruficollis: S Amazonian Brazil south to Paraguay and NE Argentina M. r. olrogi: NW Argentina, S Bolivia W Colombia and NW Ecuador

Venezuela, Guianas and NW Brazil west and south into E Ecuador and N Bolivia SE Amazonia of Brazil into NE Bolivia, also E Brazil from S Bahia into N Espírito Santo W Costa Rica, Panama, W Colombia and, east of Andes, east to S Venezuela and Atlantic coast and south to E Peru, N Bolivia and C & E Brazil M. s. naso: W & E Mexico to N & W Colombia, south to NW Peru M. s. semitorquatus: South America east of Andes, south to N Argentina and SE Brazil E Ecuador and NE Peru, E Venezuela, ?SE Colombia, ?W Brazil, ?NW Bolivia

d: New World falconet Spot-winged Falconet Spiziapteryx circumcincta

SE Bolivia, W Paraguay, N & C Argentina and W Uruguay

96:3

Family FALCONIDAE, subfamily FALCONINAE (falcons) a: pygmy-falcons, falconets

African Pygmy-falcon Polihierax semitorquatus

97:1

White-rumped Pygmy-falcon Polihierax insignis

97:2

Collared Falconet Microhierax caerulescens1*

98:1

Black-thighed Falconet Microhierax fringillarius2

98:2

White-fronted Falconet Microhierax latifrons

97:3

Philippine Falconet Microhierax erythrogenys

98:3

Pied Falconet Microhierax melanoleucos

98:4

P. s. castanotus: S Sudan east to W Somalia, south to exteme NE DR Congo and N Tanzania P. s. semitorquatus: SW Angola south to NW & NC South Africa P. i. insignis: W & C Myanmar P. i. cinereiceps: S Myanmar (Tenasserim), Thailand and N Indochina P. i. harmandi: C & S Laos, Cambodia and S Vietnam M. c. caerulescens: Himalayan foothills M. c. burmanicus: Myanmar east to Laos and S Indochina Extreme S Myanmar (S Tenasserim), Malay Peninsula and Greater Sundas N Borneo

M. e. erythrogenys: Luzon, Catanduanes, Mindoro, Negros, Bohol M. e. meridionalis: Samar, Leyte, Cebu, Calicoan, Mindanao NE India, E Bangladesh, SE China and N Indochina

b: typical falcons Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni

SW & S Europe and NW Africa east to N Mongolia, in south to Middle East, Transcaspia and China (east to Shanxi); winters sub-Saharan Africa

Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus

Typical mainland races F. t. tinnunculus: Europe, N Africa, and Asia east to EC Siberia south to N China and east to Bhutan; winters south to Africa and S Asia

100:1 99:1

22 001 prelims and intro.indd 22

6/9/05 2:07:15 pm

plate no. F. t. perpallidus: NE Siberia to NE China and Korea; winters E & SE Asia F. t. interstinctus: China east to Japan, south to E Himalayas and Indochina; winters mainly S Asia F. t. objurgatus: W India (Western Ghats) and Sri Lanka F. t. rupicolaeformis: Egypt and Arabia F. t. archeri: Somalia, ?NE Kenya and Socotra I Small, dark Afrotropical races F. t. rufescens: W Africa east to Eritrea, south (except in forest zone) to N Angola and S Tanzania F. t. rupicolus: C Angola east to Mozambique, south to Cape Canary Is races F. t. canariensis: Madeira and W Canaries (Gran Canaria, Tenerife, Palma, Gomera, Hierro) F. t. dacotiae: E Canaries (Fuerteventura, Lanzarote, Graciosa, Allegranza, Montaña Clara) Cape Verde races F. t. neglectus: NW Cape Verde Is (Santo Antão, São Vicente, Santa Luzia, Branco, Raso, São Nicolau) F. t. alexandri: E & S Cape Verde Is (Sal, Boa Vista, Maio, Santiago, Fogo, Brava, Rombo)

Malagasy Spotted Kestrel Falco newtoni1

102:1

Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus2*

102:2

Seychelles Kestrel Falco araea3

102:3

Moluccan Kestrel Falco moluccensis1

103:1

Australian Kestrel (Nankeen Kestrel) Falco cenchroides2*

103:2

American Kestrel Falco sparverius

104:1

White-eyed Kestrel (Greater Kestrel) Falco rupicoloides

100:2

Fox Kestrel Falco alopex

100:3

Grey Kestrel Falco ardosiaceus

101:1

Dickinson’s Kestrel Falco dickinsoni

101:2

F. n. aldabranus: Aldabra F. n. newtoni: Madagascar Mauritius

Seychelles

F. m. microbalius: Sulawesi and adjacent islands, Java, Kangean, Bali and Lesser Sundas F. m. moluccensis: Moluccas south to Buru, Seram and Ambon

F. c. cenchroides: Australia, N & E Tasmania and Lord Howe I and Norfolk I, also Christmas I; some winter north to New Guinea F. c. baru: New Guinea (Snow Mountains) F. s. sparverius: North America (except SE) south to N Mexico; winters south to Panama F. s. paulus: SE USA (South Carolina south to S Florida) F. s. peninsularis: S Baja California and adjacent W Mexico coast F. s. tropicalis: S Mexico east to N Honduras F. s. nicaraguensis: lowland pine savannahs of Honduras and Nicaragua F. s. sparverioides: S Bahamas, Cuba, I of Pines and Jamaica F. s. dominicensis: Hispaniola and nearby islets F. s. caribaearum: Puerto Rico, Virgin Is and Lesser Antilles F. s. brevipennis: Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire F. s. ochraceus: NW Venezuela and E Colombian Andes F. s. isabellinus: E Venezuela, Guianas and N Brazil F. s. caucae: W Colombian Andes F. s. aequatorialis: mountains of S Colombia and N Ecuador F. s. peruvianus: SW Ecuador south to extreme N Chile F. s. cinnamominus: SE Peru and Bolivia east to Uruguay, south to Tierra del Fuego F. s. fernandensis: Robinson Crusoe I (in Juan Fernández group), off W Chile F. s. cearae: S Brazilian tableland F. r. fieldi: Eritrea, N & E Ethiopia and NW Somalia F. r. arthuri: S Sudan, N Uganda, C & S Kenya and N Tanzania F. r. rupicoloides: SW & SE Angola, W Zambia and W Zimbabwe south to S South Africa S Mali and Ivory Coast east to Eritrea, W Ethiopia, NE Uganda and N Kenya W Africa east disjunctly to W Ethiopia, W Kenya and W Tanzania, and Angola and S DR Congo south to extreme N Namibia Angola east to S & E Tanzania (including Pemba and Zanzibar), south to NE Namibia, N Botswana, Mozambique and extreme NE South Africa

23 001 prelims and intro.indd 23

6/9/05 2:07:15 pm

plate no.

Madagascar Barred Kestrel (Madagascar Banded Kestrel) Falco zoniventris

101:3

Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera1*

110:3

Red-necked Falcon Falco horsbrughi2

100:3

Western Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus1*

105:1

Eastern Red-footed Falcon (Amur Falcon) Falco amurensis2

105:2

Eleonora’s Falcon Falco eleonorae

106:1

Sooty Falcon Falco concolor

106:2

Aplomado Falcon Falco femoralis

111:3

Merlin Falco columbarius

112:1

Bat Falcon Falco rufigularis

111:1

Orange-breasted Falcon Falco deiroleucus

111:2

Northern Hobby Falco subbuteo1*

107:1

African Hobby Falco cuvieri2

107:2

Oriental Hobby Falco severus3

107:3

Australian Hobby Falco longipennis4

108:1

New Zealand Falcon Falco novaeseelandiae

110:1

Madagascar (sporadic central high plateau)

SE Iran, and E Pakistan and Himalayan foothills east to Assam and south to Kerala and Tamil Nadu F. h ruficollis: tropical Africa (except forest zones) south to Zambezi F. h. horsbrughi: Africa south of Zambezi, south to extreme N South Africa C Europe east to C Asia (to upper R Lena), south to N Balkans, N Kazakhstan and extreme N China; winters S Africa (mainly S Angola and Zambia south to N South Africa) Transbaikalia east to Ussuriland, south to NE China and N Korea; winters S Africa (mainly Zambia south to NE South Africa), a few S Asia Canary Is and locally in Mediterranean basin; winters Madagascar E Libya east very locally to S Israel, S Jordan, Persian Gulf and SW Pakistan, south to SW Arabia and S Red Sea; winters Madagascar and coastal SE Africa F. f. septentrionalis: locally extreme S USA and Mexico F. f. femoralis: very locally Central and South America F. f. pichinchae: Andes from Colombia south to Chile

F. c. columbarius: Alaska and Canada south to NW USA and Great Lakes; winters mainly Caribbean, Central America and NW South America F. c. suckleyi: coasts of SE Alaska and British Columbia F. c. richardsoni: prairies from Alberta and Saskatchewan south to Wyoming and W Dakotas; winters west to Pacific and south to N Mexico F. c. subaesalon: Iceland; winters mostly Ireland and W Britain, less so adjacent parts of Europe F. c. aesalon: Faeroes and N Europe east to W Siberia; winters south to Mediterranean region and Iran F. c. insignis: C & E Siberia; winters south to N India, Korea and Japan F. c. pacificus: extreme E Siberia (S Anadyrland and coasts south to Sakhalin I); winters south to N China and Japan F. c. pallidus: steppes of SW Siberia and Kazakhstan; winters S Asia from E Turkey east to N India F. c. lymani: C Asian mountains; winters south to N China F. r. petoensis: coastal Mexico south (west of Andes) to W Ecuador F. r. rufigularis: N South America south (east of Andes) through Amazonia to S Brazil and NE Argentina F. r. ophryophanes: E Bolivia, tablelands of S Brazil, Paraguay, NW Argentina SE Mexico east at least to N Honduras, also South America south (mostly east of Andes) to N Argentina and SE Brazil

F. s. subbuteo: Europe (except far N), N Africa and in broad band across C Asia (south to N India and E China); winters S Africa and S Asia F. s. streichi: NE Myanmar, N Indochina and SE China Senegambia east to S Chad and NE CAR, south to NW Angola; Ethiopia south to E DR Congo and E Tanzania; N Namibia, and Zambia and Malawi south to N Botswana and extreme N South Africa F. s. severus: E Himalayaas east to extreme S China and Philippines, south to Java F. s. papuanus: Sulawesi and Moluccas east to New Guinea and Solomon Is F. l. hanieli: Lesser Sundas F. l. murchisonianus: N Australia F. l. longipennis: S & E Australia and N Tasmania; some winter Moluccas and New Guinea New Zealand and Auckland Is

24 001 prelims and intro.indd 24

6/9/05 2:07:15 pm

plate no.

Brown Falcon Falco berigora

109:2

Grey Falcon Falco hypoleucos

108:2

Black Falcon Falco subniger

109:1

Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus1*

113:1

Laggar Falcon Falco jugger2

113:2

Saker Falcon Falco cherrug1*

114:2

Altai Falcon Falco altaicus2

114:3

Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus

115:1

Prairie Falcon Falco mexicanus

114:1

F. b. novaeguineae: New Guinea, including islands off north coast F. b. berigora: Australia F. b. tasmanicus: Tasmania Australia (mostly arid interior) Australia (mostly N & E)

F. b. feldeggi: Italy east to Turkey and Azerbaijan F. b. erlangeri: NW Africa east to C Libya, south to S Sahara F. b. tanypterus: NE Africa and Middle East F. b. abyssinicus: Senegambia east to Ethiopia and Somalia, south to N Kenya F. b. biarmicus: Angola, E & SE DR Congo, Uganda and S Kenya south to Cape Indian subcontinent from Himalayan foothills east to Assam, south to S Pakistan and SC India (N Kerala, Tamil Nadu), and NW Myanmar

F. c. cherrug: C Europe east to SC Siberia and Kazakhstan; winters SE Europe and E Africa to W India F. c. milvipes: SC Siberia and NW China east to S Transbaikalia; winters south to Iran, NW India and C China F. c. coatsi: plains of Transcaspia to E Uzbekistan and S Kazakhstan F. c. hendersoni: Pamir mountains to Tibetan plateau SW Siberia, NW Mongolia and extreme NW China (Altai, Sayan, Hangayn and Tien Shan ranges) Circumpolar Arctic from Alaska east to Greenland, Iceland and N Eurasia; winters irregularly south to N USA, C Europe and SC & SE Russia SW Canada south to N Mexico

Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus1*

117:1/118:1

Barbary Falcon Falco pelegrinoides2

116:2

Taita Falcon Falco fasciinucha

116:1

F. p. pealei: Commander Is (possibly also coastal Kamchatka and Kuriles) east to Aleutians and North American coast south to British Columbia; some winter south irregularly to Japan and Oregon F. p. tundrius: arctic islands and tundra of North America and Greenland; winters south to South America (south at least to Peru) F. p. anatum: North America (south of tundra) south to Mexico; winters south to Central America F. p. cassini: S & W South America and Falklands; migrants recorded north to Colombia F. p. calidus: Arctic islands and tundra of Eurasia; winters south through Africa and S Asia, in east to Sundas and New Guinea F. p. japonensis: NE Siberia south to N Japan; winters (mainly coastally) China and Japan south to Philippines and Borneo F. p. peregrinus: most of Europe and in band across Asia south of tundra; some winter farther south (in west to Mediterranean region) F. p. brookei: locally from Iberia and NW Africa east to Caucasus and N Iran F. p. peregrinator: Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka east to SE China and N Vietnam F. p. fruitii: Kita-iwo (in Iwo Is), Japan (possibly extinct) F. p. madens: Cape Verde Is F. p. minor: sub-Saharan Africa F. p. radama: Madagascar and Comoro Is F. p. ernesti: W & S Thailand south to Greater Sundas, east to Philippines, New Guinea and Bismarck F. p. macropus: Australia F. p. nesiotes: Vanuatu (and probably New Caledonia) east to Fiji

F. p. pelegrinoides: Canary Is, and N African deserts east to Middle East and Arabia; few winter south to N tropical Africa F. p. babylonicus: Iran east to W Mongolia and Pakistan; some winter NW India S Ethiopia south very locally to E Zambia, Zimbabwe and NE South Africa

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introduction ABOUT THIS NEW BOOK Four years ago, A&C Black published our Raptors of the World in the ‘Helm Identification Guides’ series. With almost 1,000 pages, including detailed texts covering distribution, movements, field characters, confusion species, voice, food, sociosexual behaviour, breeding, population, geographical variation and measurements for each of its 312 species, it was essentially a reference book to be consulted at home or in the library. At 2.5 kg, it weighed more than all but the very largest vultures, fish-eagles and eagles. This book, Raptors of the World: A Field Guide, is smaller and much handier, and well under one-third of the length of the original, but the number of colour plates has been increased, and the distribution maps have been updated with advice from every continent. The 621 pages of detailed species texts in the original book have had to be omitted, as well as some of the introductory chapters and the bibliography, but the condensed identification notes opposite the plates have been revised as necessary, and we have retained updated versions of the chapters on population sizes; lengths and wingspans; sex and age differences in size and shape; moult, ageing and poly­morphism; taxonomy; and the vexed question of English names – as well as, of course, those on the essential topics of raptor identification and migration. We must draw attention to three innovations. The first is the annotated list on pages 4–25, which not only sets out the broad distribution of each species but, at the suggestion of Nigel Redman (A&C Black), also lists all the geographical races, or subspecies, with their individual distributions for polytypic species. The second innovation is the special map spread across pages 30–31, which shows the geographical positions of many of the little-known islands in the various archipelagos that extend from the Bay of Bengal, Malaysia and the Philippines through Indonesia and Papua New Guinea to the Solomons; between them, these islands hold a remarkable number of endemic raptors, all illustrated in the plates. The third innovation is the ‘Quick guide to plates, captions and maps’ on pages 76–77, just before the plates section itself, which summarises the main points and abbreviations to bear in mind when looking at the plates, maps and caption texts; most are otherwise set out more fully in ‘Using this book’ on pages 28–33. A short list of suggested further reading is on page 314.

ABOUT RAPTORS Many birds prey on other animals, but the term ‘birds of prey’ has long been applied chiefly to the broad groups of kites, vultures, hawks, eagles, and falcons. Nowadays, they are more usually known as ‘raptors’, or as the ‘diurnal raptors’ to distinguish these mainly daytime hunters – though some do forage at dusk or even at night – from the quite unrelated and generally nocturnal owls (Strigiformes). The term ‘raptors’ also includes the vultures of the Americas (Cathartidae), which have no connection with those of the Old World: data derived from DNA-DNA hybridisation indicated that they were more closely related to the storks (Ciconiidae), and they were indeed placed in that family by Sibley & Monroe (1990) (see pp. 63–68), although this view has since been challenged. Many raptors are beautiful, others (such as most of the vultures) hardly so at close ranges, but almost all are majestic or spectacular in the air. They fascinated primitive cultures, and falconry is at least 4,000 years old. Nowadays, more people than ever before watch, identify and count birds of prey: the cry of ‘raptor’ will alert a group of birdwatchers in a way that nothing else does. A concentration of migrating hawks or eagles is an exhilarating sight. There are countless books on raptors, but this one’s predecessor was the first designed essentially as an ­identification guide to all the species of the world, also illustrating a variety of plumages and races, both perched and in flight. This new book will be the first portable field guide to all the 338 species now distinguished and, indeed, is the only book that adequately illustrates the plumages of the raptors of many less well-known parts of the world. Between them, the authors and artists are familiar with over 200 species of raptors in the field. The 118 plates show some 2,180 individual birds, of which 1,200 are in flight. It has been suggested that we are being old-fashioned in having as many as 45% of the images perched, because many raptors in Europe are more often seen in flight; but those familiar with hotter and more southerly regions, particularly in the tropics, will know that raptors there can frequently be watched settled on trees, rocks or on the ground. The maps facing the plates still include in the lower left corner a number that indicates an order of magnitude for each species’ total world population (see pp. 33–34). These figures were all justified in the individual texts in Raptors of the World – for the first time on a cosmopolitan scale for any such large group of animals – and certain of them have been updated here as necessary. The highly condensed identification notes opposite the plates repeat what was the first serious attempt to publish valid wingspans (as well as lengths) for all the world’s raptors, based on long series of actual measurements of living and freshly dead birds, and on formulae calculated from those (see pp. 38–41). Conservation is now all-important for a group of birds that stand at the top of so many food-chains. Raptors have long suffered shooting and poisoning, but pesticides, habitat destruction and even innocent disturbance from

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an ever-growing and, in some countries, increasingly leisured and peripatetic human population have become dominant threats. The most dramatic and serious decline of the past decade has been the crash in the vulture populations of India. Birds in general are recognised as the most obvious indicators of the health of the environment and, in this context, raptors, because of their positions atop food-chains, are especially important. High numbers and a good variety of birds of prey show that all is well, but, unfortunately, human disregard for their surroundings means that such regions are becoming ever-fewer. Many species are shy and, particularly when perched, some are difficult to separate at anything but the closest ranges; others have odd-looking immature plumages. In flight, the shape and actions are all-important, but even these may be altered by circumstances and weather conditions. So, identification of birds of prey always presents a marvellous challenge. We hope that this book will be useful.

ABOUT THOSE WHO HAVE HELPED Photocopies of the original plate-spreads were sent to a number of experienced ornithologists and raptor experts in various parts of the world and we are particularly indebted to Stephen Debus, Alan Kemp, Mark Pearman, Craig Robson, Paul Salaman, Jevgeni Shergalin, Clay Sutton, Lars Svensson and Brian Wheeler for their detailed criticisms of the previous maps, captions and plates. We have met their comments so far as possible on distribution maps and texts. Ian Lewington painted the Northern Goshawk on the cover of the book and gave other helpful advice. Nigel Redman came up with the idea of six extra plates to provide room for adequate illustrations of the 25 extra raptors now raised to species level (see pp. 63–64) and of spreading the new images so that most could appear in the correct places in the book. This involved a huge amount of extra work, including the renumbering of the species, the relabelling of the plates and, in the captions, the consequent updating of all the cross-references to similar raptors: we are very grateful to Jim Martin (A & C Black) who undertook all this extra work and managed the project throughout. We are particularly grateful to Alan Harris, who stepped into the breach at short notice to research and measure specimens, and then to paint all the extra images; also to Robert Prys-Jones and the staff of the Natural History Museum, Tring (UK), who gave him the facilities there, as indeed they did earlier for us and for Kim Franklin, David Mead and Philip Burton when they painted the original artwork. David Noakes continued to give much advice on lengths and, especially, wingspans. Linda Birch, Librarian at the Edward Grey Institute, Oxford, supplied several missing references and checked others very promptly. Lastly, we are specially indebted to the unflappable and highly competent Julie Dando, who not only designed the layout and pagination of the book, as before, but this time had to put in a great deal of extra work reconciling the backgrounds to the plates where work by two different artists has now been placed together. IJFL and DAC

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using this book We hope that this book, an extensively revised version of the first two parts of its predecessor (Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001), will be used in the field. Most importantly, the maps have been corrected and updated, and some 65 extra images – all by Alan Harris – have been added, and certain others switched around, with the result that there are six extra plates, making 118 in all, which illustrate an increased total of 338 species. Since 2001, one new South American species (Cryptic Forest-falcon Micrastur mintoni) has been described and, following recent practice, we have raised a total of 24 former races to species level (see pp. 63–64). The original book included 621 pages of detailed texts on distribution, movements, habitat, field characters, confusion species, voice, food, sociosexual behaviour, breeding, population, geographical variation, and measurements for each species. This made it – at 2.5 kg – heavier and, in some cases, much heavier than any of the smaller vultures and eagles, and – at one-eighth of the standard baggage allowance for scheduled flights – generally ­impracticable to carry abroad. Some detail is available in the highly condensed caption texts, and we must also draw attention to the new annotated list on pages 4–25, which sets out not only the distributions of all species but also gives brief ranges of subspecies. We have retained extensively revised and updated versions of several of the original introductory chapters that give significant or relevant information on identification, population estimates, raptor topography, lengths and wingspans, sex and age differences in size and shape, migration, and moult, ageing and polymorphism, as well as discussions of taxonomy and English names. A quick guide to using the plates, summarising some essential points from this and certain of the other introductory chapters, appears just before the plates on pages 76–77.

introductory keys to genera Although lone, distant or briefly-seen soaring pelicans (Pelecanidae) or storks (Ciconiidae), or single flying gulls (Laridae), cuckoos (Cuculidae), pigeons (Columbidae) or crows (Corvidae), can in some cir­cum­stances be mistaken momentarily for certain genera or species of birds of prey, most observers have little difficulty in recognising at once that a raptor is a raptor. Depending on the part of the world, it is then a question of determining whether it is a kite, vulture, fish-eagle, snake-eagle, harrier, accipiter, buteo, true eagle, caracara, falcon or any of several other broad groupings (see pp. 46–50). To this end, plates 1–3 and their facing texts are designed as an introduction to the rest. In this book, 338 species of diurnal birds of prey are divided into 78 genera in five families and two subfamilies. Plates 1–3 show representatives of all these 78 genera, each drawn to the scale quoted at the top of the facing page. Many genera contain few species, which are often fairly constant in shape, so that usually only one of each of those is illustrated on these introductory plates. But some of the largest genera (especially Accipiter, Buteo and Falco, which together account for well over a third of all raptors) are given two or three examples each. The birds on these key plates are all in flight because, in general, that is how many raptors are most often seen, particularly in northern temperate regions. Many are actually more difficult to identify when settled. Each of the three introductory plates shows 26 of the genera, with the ‘mainly larger’ species on plate 1, an assortment of ‘medium-sized’ on plate 2, and the ‘mainly smaller’ on plate 3. But note that the distinctions between these size categories owe a certain amount to convenience of layout and the need to divide the total into three, so that some species on the ‘mainly smaller’ plate 3 are actually slightly bigger than others represented on the ‘medium-sized’ plate 2. It must also be emphasised that all the birds shown are males, and almost all are adults: many females are larger, while some juveniles have rather different proportions that are summarised by genera in the headings to each key plate (see also pp. 42–46). At the top and bottom of each of these three plates are scale silhouettes of two characteristic raptors, Swainson’s Hawk Buteo swainsoni (a highly migratory species of the Americas, relatively long-winged and slender but in general a typical buteo) and the Black Kite Milvus migrans (found throughout much of the Old World from Europe to Australia, with close allies in Africa and eastern Asia). To anyone with a moderate experience of birds of prey, these will give an idea of the relative sizes of the generic examples shown. All but nine of the 78 genera of raptors are confined either to the Americas (30) or to the Old World (39). The top sections of the key plates show peculiarly New World genera, and the bottom sections peculiarly Old World; the nine more cosmopolitan genera are represented in the paler central strips. Thus, the observer needs to look at only the top or bottom two-thirds, depending on which side of the Pacific or Atlantic he or she is situated. Apart from providing a broad key to the genera, with only the briefest indications of ranges of colours and sizes, plates 1–3 summarise the zoogeographical region(s) in which each genus is found and list the plates on which it is represented. The boundaries of the main zoogeographical regions are shown in fig.1 (raptors are absent from Antarctica).

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SPECIES PLATES Having decided, from plates 1–3 or from previous experience, to which genus or group of genera a raptor belongs, it is then a matter of turning to the plate or plates concerned. This may be done from the cross-references in the captions facing the introductory plates, from the English or the scientific names in the species list (which also gives plate numbers), from the index or, for more experienced observers, from a general knowledge of the sequence in which birds of prey are placed as an indication of their likely affinities. In fact, the species illustrations do not exactly follow the taxonomic sequence used in the list: most plates have to show two to four species and, for ease of reference, similar related birds are grouped according to zoogeographical regions. The ranges and natures of such groupings may be judged from the plate headings; the likelihood of a particular raptor’s presence in the area concerned can then be seen from the relevant map. It is inevitable that some groupings, for example of endemic island buteos, have had to be quite artificial. The first aim of the species plates is to show adult and juvenile plumages, both perched and in flight, together with a selection of subspecies to indicate the range of racial variation. Illustrating plumages intermediate between juvenile and adult is more difficult because of their complexity. Some raptors, especially tropical species, may be in an almost continuous state of slow moult throughout the year, except when breeding; others are commonly in moult for up to half the year (typically either while or, conversely, while not nesting, or linked with seasonal climate, and usually not on migration), or the period may be even longer if, especially among strongly migratory species, the process is ‘arrested’, or suspended, in the middle. Although many of the larger raptors have one or more clear intermediate plumages (whereas smaller species moult directly from juvenile to adult), these often include feathers of the previous and next stages (see pp. 57–62). According to species, the whole process of arriving at the adult plumage may take from one year to seven or eight (even nine in the case of the Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos). Certain New and Old World vultures, for example, may retain some juvenile feathers for three to five years. Thus, many intermediate plumages, even though recognisable as a particular age, are essentially a mixture. Where possible, one or two intermediate plumages are shown as a general guide, particularly if these are in some way not intermediate in character (for example, if the immature plumage is darker than either the juvenile or the adult). But in many cases it is difficult to fix a typical plumage and the observer must understand that there can sometimes be a complicated series of stages.

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Male and female plumages are shown where these differ, but often the only distinction is one of size. The original aim was that all the perched figures on any one plate should be at the same scale and, similarly, all the fliers at an inevitably smaller scale; also, as a means of indicating reversed sexual dimorphism, or RSD, the perched adult should be a male and the flying adult a female, with the converse for the juveniles; but space and other considerations have forced a number of exceptions. The sex and age-class of each bird are shown in the facing caption text, which also makes it clear where any abandoning of scale is not obvious; actual sizes can be judged from the lengths and wingspans given in the facing captions. The ideal might have been to show all fliers from both above and below but, with 338 species, several hundred races, different sexes and varying ages, this would have increased the total of individual illustrations to many thousands. There was just not room. Therefore, the species that are often seen soaring high in the sky (such as vultures, buteonines, buteos and eagles) are depicted in flight from directly below. Some are also shown from directly above, especially where particular points are then brought out, but the confines of space mean that the pattern from above will often have to be judged from the perched bird and the facing text. Certain other groups (notably the large genera of accipiters and falcons) are shown from a more side-on angle, which better represents the direct flight in which they are commonly seen and often enables both an upperwing and an underwing to be illustrated. In all, on the 118 plates, some 2,175 birds are shown, 1,170 of them in flight. The artists have worked from museum skins so far as was possible, in conjunction with photographs and our own and other people’s field experience. In their efforts towards greater acccuracy over shape and proportions, Kim Franklin and David Mead often took 50 or more measurements from each of many of the skins studied, and Alan Harris has followed their example.

DISTRIBUTION MAPS Nearly every species has a colour distribution map by its caption text opposite the plate: the exceptions are that on plate 26 no fewer than nine largely allopatric insular serpent-eagles Spilornis are combined on one map, while a few other maps show the ranges of two species. Most of the map projections used have the advantage of parallel latitudes, like traditional Mercator but without so great an exaggeration of temperate land areas: the equator and the two tropics are inserted as solid and broken lines respectively. The colour scheme followed is: Green Resident, or at least of regular occurrence throughout the year, even though numbers may fluctuate seasonally. Yellow Present only in the nesting season, and usually breeding. Blue Regular, but does not breed, in what may be winter quarters or areas of shorter seasonal dispersal. Paler tints of the same colour scheme show areas of more scattered distribution (for some species), and dotted lines irregular limits, while attention is drawn to small islands by appropriately coloured arrows. Thus, a pale green tint indicates a sparsely distributed resident, etc. In a few cases – Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus and Mountain Buzzard B. oreophilus are examples – lines are used to indicate boundaries between races which we think may come to be better treated as distinct species in the future. This not necessarily universally accepted step has already been taken for the serpent-eagles on plate 30 and for 26 other species that were previously treated as subspecies. Although routes and seasons are discussed in the chapter on ‘Raptor migration’ (pp. 50–57), no attempt has been made to show on the maps areas of migrant occurrence: these may usually be taken to lie more or less directly between breeding and non-breeding zones, with concentrations at land bridges. Most raptors prefer to avoid lengthy sea-crossings, so there are noted concentrations at such isthmuses as Panama, Sinai and Kra, at narrows such as the Gibraltar, Malacca and Korean Straits, and along island chains like the Antilles, Ryukyus (Nansei-shoto) and Sundas. Many sources were used in attempting to plot the distributions shown in the original maps, and these are listed in full in our earlier book (Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001). The updated and corrected maps included now are the result mainly of extensive and detailed comments from a number of experienced and knowledgeable reviewers, combined with more recent published material. For North America, the highly impressive two-volume work of Wheeler (2003a, b) has been of immense value, and the guides by Borrow & Demey (2001) and Stevenson & Fanshawe (2002) were very useful in the updating of raptor distributions in, respectively, West and East Africa. In particular, however, the comments so kindly provided by regional experts, in most cases written on copies of the original maps supplied by us for the purpose, led to numerous changes, some of major significance, and all enabling more accurate maps to be printed here. We have attempted to incorporate all of these corrections; any omissions or inaccuracies are the fault of the authors and not of the reviewers. Detailed comments were received from the following ornithologists: for North America, Brian Wheeler and Clay Sutton; for northern South America, Paul Salaman; for southern South America, Mark Pearman; for the West Palearctic, Lars Svensson; for the East Palearctic, Jevgeni Shergalin; for southeast Asia, Craig Robson; and for Australia, Stephen Debus. In addition, the paper by Whittaker (2002) naming the Cryptic Forest-falcon Micrastur mintoni as a new species, distinct from Lined Forest-falcon M. gilvicollis, enabled us to produce more accurate maps for both of those species. In the corner of each map is a figure in the range 1–7, which relates to an estimate of the world population (see p. 33–34).

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CONDENSED CAPTION TEXTS Unlike many other larger birds, raptors tend to be seen rather briefly in the field and often only in flight. Therefore, it seemed important to condense as much information as possible onto the pages facing the plates. In this connection, all the terms used in describing the parts of a bird need to be clearly understood (‘see pp. 34–38). The aim has been to provide the observer with as much information as possible about size, shape, jizz, flight, plumage, habitat and distribution on these double-page plate spreads – although, obviously, space is very limited. Immediately below each species heading is a line of text which gives the ranges of that species’ total length (L), wingspan (S) and tail length (T) in centimetres, each followed in brackets by the median of the range in inches rounded to the nearest whole (see pp. 38–41). At the end of that line, the size of the male in proportion to the female is expressed as a percentage, based on the cube of the median of the range of standard wing measurements of the one over the other. The cube is preferred for this purpose here, as a method of suggesting the difference in mass or bulk rather than in linear dimension. For many species there are few data on weights and these cubed wing measurements can correspond reasonably well with such weight differences as have been recorded – though sometimes there appears to be no connection. For those who prefer to think in terms of a linear difference in size between the sexes, a cubed percentage of 95% is roughly equivalent to a linear percentage of 98%. Similarly, 90% equates approximately to 97%, 85% to 95%, 80% to 93%, 75% to 91%, 70% to 89%, 65% to 87%, and 60% to 84%. In other words, for every 5% that the cube decreases, the linear figure does so by around 2%. The condensed captions are concerned mainly with notes on the plumages illustrated; colours of cere and legs are normally mentioned only when they are not yellow. Each part of the caption is keyed to the appropriate bird on the plate, where all the individuals of one species are identified by the species number on that plate (usually 1–4), followed by a letter in the series a/b/c/d showing which of the plumages listed in the facing text relates to it; where subspecies, or races, are distinguished in the captions, these are referred to by the third part of the trinomial scientific name or, where appropriate, by the word ‘nominate’, which applies to the first-named race of that species. The range of any subspecies is briefly indicated. Below the heading and above the individual plumages, each species caption also opens – so far as knowledge and, more especially, space allow – with a separate paragraph that aims to indicate habitat, general proportions, position of folded wing-tips in relation to tail length when perched, flight action, dihedrals when gliding and soaring (fig. 13, p. 48), and odd notes relevant to identification on, for example, hunting, voice, and flocking. At the end of that opening paragraph, in square brackets, is usually a series of numbers and letters preceded by ‘cf.’ (compare). These indicate the other species with which confusion is most likely, identifying these by their plate numbers and individual species numbers on the plates concerned – thus, ‘27:2’ or ‘87:3’. Any letters with the number relate to the plumages involved: preceding bold letters in brackets refer to the plumage of the species whose text is below; any following letters refer to the plumage of the confusion species (this may sound complicated, but there is not the space to give the names, let alone the individual plumages of the confusion species; once the system has been mastered, it is quite easy to turn from plate to plate).

ORDERS OF RAPTOR POPULATION SIZES The maps are only a general guide. Within the distribution shown, a species may be really numerous, common, sparsely scattered, uncommon and local, very rare, or anything in between. This often, but by no means entirely, depends on availability of suitable habitat and food supply. An attempt has, therefore, been made to put flesh on the bones by expressing broadly estimated world populations as orders of magnitude to the tenth power, or logged to the base 10. These are intended to reflect the total numbers of individual birds (not pairs), both breeding and immature or other non-breeding, at the start of the nesting season: that is the most sensible point in the year at which to aim, because, for the majority of genera, the numbers will become considerably higher when all the fledglings leave the nests, and thereafter dwindle over the next few months as many of the inexperienced young and a proportion of older birds die from one cause or another. On each map is a figure in the range 1–7: 1 = 1–10 birds 2 = 11–100 birds 3 = 101–1,000 birds 4 = 1,001–10,000 birds 5 = 10,001–100,000 birds 6 = 100,001–1,000,000 birds 7 = over 1 million birds

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Each order of magnitude is easily converted by thinking of it as the number of figures in the population size, or the number of zeros in the maximum. Thus, 4 shows a four-figure total (in the thousands), or at most 10,000 birds. Such estimates serve well enough up to 100,000 (order 5), though they have rightly been criticised as ‘increasingly crude and unsatisfactory’ for the commoner species above that level (Nicholson 1988). Some three-quarters of raptors worldwide, however, are not above order 5 and, since many are under grave threat – not least from deforestation or other land development, shooting and trapping, or pesticide or petroleum pollution – it seems important to make considered references to population levels which may then encourage more thorough research. These figures also give an idea of relative densities when comparing the maps for different species. Thus, the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus and the Osprey Pandion haliaetus might seem at first sight to be the two commonest raptors, because of their almost cosmopolitan distributions, but both stand only at order 5 (no more than 100,000). Indeed, on the figures given, it is likely that some 80 other species are more numerous than those two, including three cathartid (New World) vultures, 12 honey-buzzards and other kites, perhaps four Old World vultures, one serpent-eagle, one gymnogene, six harriers, 15 accipiters and accipitrines, 17 buteos and buteonines, seven true or booted eagles, five caracaras, two forest-falcons and ten true falcons, many by a factor of 10, some much higher still. The world numbers of some raptors are more precisely known, because they are rare, highly localised and well studied (for example, Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus), are conspicuous and limited by habitat (Osprey) or by winter distribution (Steller’s Fish-eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus), or are capable of being counted to a significant extent at narrow bottlenecks where they concentrate on migration routes (Mississippi Kite Ictinia mississippiensis) (incidentally, for a few species, such as the Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes, migration counts have shown the sum of previous breeding-population estimates to have been absurdly low). These and others for which it also seems safe to be less cautious have their orders of magnitude qualified by a minus or plus sign to indicate that they are at the lower or upper end of that range. Although knowledge of bird distributions is growing all the time, many raptors pose special problems because of their comparative scarcity and difficulties of discovery or recognition. In some cases, the population can only be guessed at. For certain forest species that are assumed to be steadily declining through habitat loss, our figures may already be out of date. These orders of magnitude are based on density estimates from population data and calculations of total areas of breeding range. These were discussed under individual species in our original book (Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001). In a few cases the figures have had to be changed as a result of recent developments, most particularly for the Indian vultures (plates 24–25) whose numbers have crashed disastrously since the late 1990s.

RAPTOR TOPOGRAPHY Anyone wanting to describe a bird for subsequent identification or confirmation needs to be able to define the parts of the body, the feather tracts, and so on. These are variously set out in figs 3–10. Figures 3, 6, 7 and 9 show the topography of, respectively, a perched raptor, flying raptors from above and below, and raptor heads. These combine both technical terms and several more general words, some analogous with the human body, that have also been used in this book for convenience in the caption texts facing the plates, where space is often very tight. For example, primaries are attached to the manus, or ‘hand’, and secondaries mainly to the ulna, or rear ‘forearm’. The rather obsolete and avoidable term ‘tertials’ (or ‘tertiaries’), which has variously been applied to the innermost secondaries and to elongated coverts attached to the humerus, or ‘inner arm’, has no particular relevance in raptor identification and, although included in figs 3 & 6 for the sake of completeness, is otherwise never used here. Figures 4, 5, 8 and 10 illustrate assorted raptor tails, wing shapes and crests, together with various types of body markings and wing patterns. It should be added that ‘shaft-streaks’ and ‘fine streaks’ are confined to (usually dark) shafts and sometimes very narrow adjacent strips of the feathers. Apart from ‘remiges’ (primaries and secondaries together), ‘rectrices’ (tail-feathers) and ‘quills’ (remiges and rectrices combined), a number of specific and slang terms are both used in more general ways in the caption texts; the meanings should usually be obvious. From above, ‘back’ is often adopted for mantle, back and scapulars together, and ‘rump’ may be loosely used to mean or include uppertail-coverts. From below, ‘abdomen’ covers lower breast, flanks and belly, and ‘crissum’ both vent and undertail-coverts. In flight, ‘arm’ (inner wing), ‘wrist’ (carpal joint), ‘hand’ (primaries and primary coverts), and ‘fingers’ (emarginated parts of spread primaries) should all be clear, while ‘wing-linings’ (or simply ‘linings’) stands for the whole area of the underwing-coverts and axillaries, and ‘armpits’ for just the axillaries and innermost underwing-coverts. What is meant by the occasional use of more outrageous terms, such as ‘shawl’, ‘trousers’ (or, in display, ‘flags’), ‘stockings’, ‘waistcoat’, ‘cummerbund’ and even ‘finger-tips’ or ‘finger-nails’, will be obvious from the plates concerned.

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Raptors are, in general, darker above and paler below. Upperparts tend to be obscurely to obviously scaled and, to varying extents, more obscurely streaked and barred; underparts may be plain to strongly streaked or barred. The quills are often barred or banded, with a pattern comparable to that of the tail variously indicated on the secondaries, while the colours and markings of the wing-linings are often an extension of those on the chest or breast, or both. The main colours, particularly above, turn paler and duller through the action of sunlight: thus, blacks become browner, buffs creamier, and so on. Dimorphism and polymorphism are relatively common: more than half the buteos and a number of accipiters, for example, have melanistic morphs, some common, others rare (see p. 61). Alternatively or in addition, certain raptors have erythristic or abnormally light or even albinistic morphs. All these are shortened simply to ‘dark’, ‘rufous’, ‘brown’, ‘pale’, ‘grey’ or ‘white’ as appropriate in the caption texts. There are also frequent references to certain areas of the body, especially the back and wing-coverts, being ‘tipped’, ‘edged’, ‘fringed’ or ‘scaled’, usually with a paler colour. These terms refer to the pattern on the individual feathers. ‘Tipped’ indicates that the tip of each feather is more buff, more rufous, or whatever it may be, than the rest: this tends to produce a spotted effect, the extent of the tips affecting the size of the spots. ‘Edged’ should strictly refer to pale feather-sides, and ‘fringed’ to sides and tips, but, as the distinction between the two is rather variable in raptors, we have tended to use them as alternatives; the effect again depends very much on the breadth of the edges or fringes: where these are broad and the effect is strong, ‘scaled’ emphasises the scaly pattern thus produced. Pale feather-edges abrade slowly over the year, so that ‘scales’ may become ‘fringes’ or ‘edges’ as the tips and sides wear off.

crown

cheek

nape hindneck

mantle scapulars back rump

forehead

bill

back rump

uppertailcoverts

chin throat shoulder chest

undertail-coverts vent

breast

tertials secondaries primaries

belly flank thigh

rectrices crissum

quills

remiges

greater median

tibia tarsus

lesser least/marginal greater primary alula

toe claw

wing-coverts

Fig. 3. Raptor topography: perched bird. General words, largely analogous to the human body, are printed in italics.

elongated feathers

graduated

wedged

rounded

squared

triangular

forked

deeply forked

Fig. 4. Descriptive terms: tail shapes.

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Hooded; streaked below.

Collared; spotted below.

Hooded; blotched below.

Masked; barred below.

Capped; finely barred below.

Fig. 5. Descriptive terms: patterns of head, and of underparts.

nape

carpal

alula greater primary median primary greater median lesser marginal mantle scapulars back rump uppertail-coverts rectrices tertials secondaries primaries

upperwing-coverts

back rump

quills remiges

shaft emargination (outer web)

notch (inner web)

wrist

hand

arm

greater primary median primary lesser primary greater median lesser marginal (patagium) axillaries

underwing-coverts

undertail-coverts vent

crissum

armpit trailing edge leading edge

fingers

Fig. 6. Raptor topography: flying bird. General words, largely analogous to the human body, are printed in italics.

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wingspan wing breadth

total length

tail projection/length

Fig. 7. Descriptive terms: dimensions. ‘landing lights’

wing-patch/panel/band primary-wedge wingwindow

carpal arc

carpal patch

patagial mark

pointed

rounded

barring

tip/terminal band

subterminal band

paddle-shaped

narrow-handed

banding rectangular

Fig. 8. Descriptive terms: wing shapes, and wing and tail markings.

supraorbital ridge lore gape cere nostril culmen

supercilium (eyebrow) eye-stripe crest

iris

pupil orbital ring facial disc facial ruff

mandible maxilla

moustachial stripe moustache submoustachial stripe malar stripe median (or mesial) throat-stripe

ear

comb

caruncle

lappet

wattle ruff

Fig. 9. Raptor topography: head. General terms, largely analogous to the human body, are printed in italics.

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short wedge-shaped (e.g. Hieraaetus) short pointed (e.g. Aviceda) long floppy (e.g. Lophaetus) long spatulate feathers (e.g. Sagittarius)

nape crest (e.g. Pandion) cowl (e.g. Circaetus)

Fig. 10. Descriptive terms: crests.

double or single crest of rounded feathers (e.g. Morphnus)

elongated crown- and nape-feathers (e.g. Pithecophaga)

MEASURING LENGTHS AND WINGSPANS OF RAPTORS TOTAL LENGTHS For field identification, the standard museum or ringing measurements of folded wing, tail and tarsus are of no help in indicating the size of a species in the field. For that, bird books traditionally give a total length, which used to be embodied in a rounded mean, originally in inches. Later, with increased metrication, these means were converted from inches to millimetres with unjustified precision. Some bird species, however, vary proportionately almost as much in size as do men and women, with both individual and racial differences, and so it is now more customary to give a range of lengths. The birds in a single population will probably vary by 5–10%; subspecific differences may increase this to 15% or more. Again like humans, most raptors also show sexual dimorphism – very marked in some species and genera – but with the females normally the larger. Length, to the end of the tail, is taken either from the tip of the bill or from the top of the head. Sometimes this varies according to the bird family. Thus, lengths of long-beaked waterbirds always include the bill, while owls usually and raptors often are measured from the top of the head, particularly when museum skins are made up without the bill pointing forwards. This last consideration serves to emphasise the fact that most total lengths in birdwatching handbooks and field guides have long been based on museum skins, the sizes and shapes of which may vary somewhat according to the methods of the skinner. Since the 1980s, however, field measurements of live birds of prey have begun to accumulate. Clark & Wheeler (1987) published ranges of lengths, wingspans and weights for all North American raptors ‘taken on live birds whenever possible’. David Noakes has been collecting similar data from live and freshly dead birds for the best part of 50 years, originally in the Western Palearctic and then also in Australia, but to an increasing extent worldwide. In a different way, Lars Svensson has aimed to calculate accurate measurements of lengths and wingspans, using photographs, skins with spread wings, and conventional skins, for many Western Palearctic birds (to some extent included in Svensson et al. 1999). The total lengths in this book have drawn on these and other reliable sources, as well as on our own data from skins. For some species we have had to use additional calculations. Length must, however, remain an imprecise guide to size. It is also variable to the extent that birds stretch their necks, while a very short or long tail (and likewise bill in some other groups of birds) can distort the impression given by the figures quoted.

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WINGSPANS Except for the largest species with spectacular spreads, attempts at publishing wingspans are relatively recent. These can, in fact, be more accurate than total lengths, and for birds of prey are perhaps more useful, but they present their own problems. In particular, spans can only with the greatest difficulty be measured from museum skins, which are usually made up with the wings folded. The lengths of ulna and humerus have to be added to the folded wing (carpal joint to wing-tip), the result doubled, and then a calculation attempted of the width of the body, which, even more than total length, is affected by the vagaries of the skinner. The humerus is not an easy measurement on a museum skin, unless the coracoid end is first located with a needle, and it must be appreciated that it and the ulnus do not naturally form a straight line even when the wing is fully spread. As a result, most published spans of raptors and other birds have tended to be little more than variously educated guesses. Many have been inaccurate, and a number quite absurd: in some cases, the maximum given has been entirely outside the true range. For example, figures of 135–165 cm for Northern Goshawks Accipiter gentilis and 130–160 cm for Gyr Falcons Falco rusticolus (Cramp & Simmons 1980) both suggest maximum spans of well over 5 feet. The real ranges (all races combined) should be 89–122 cm and 105–131 cm respectively, the spread of the very largest females then equivalent to 4 feet and 4.3 feet. Other Western Palearctic raptors in that work to which the same criticism applies are Red Kite Milvus milvus, Black Kite M. migrans, Short-toed Snake-eagle Circaetus gallicus, Verreaux’s Eagle Aquila verreauxii, Eleonora’s Falcon Falco eleonorae, Sooty Falcon F. concolor and Northern Hobby F. subbuteo. For the two kites and the snake-eagle, the figures published by Génsbøl (1986, 1995) and even the otherwise excellent Porter et al. (1981) were equally inaccurate, as were those for a number of raptors in Hollom et al. (1988). Evidently some figures have simply been transcribed from one author to another. The earliest accurate published wingspans for European species are those in Bouchner (1976) and Bruun & Singer (1970). On the other side of the world, the span of Australia’s Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax is known from several hundred live and freshly dead individuals to fall within the range of 182–232 cm, but in Australasian Raptor Association News in 1972 came reports of 279 cm and 284 cm, figures that must surely have owed their size to error or exaggeration through overstretching (see below), while older claims of 335 cm, as indicated by ‘up to 11 feet’ (Cayley 1961), are simply and literally incredible. The Holarctic and Indomalayan Golden Eagle A. chrysaetos has a similar span of 180–234 cm, and again claims have been as high as 284 cm. Like the last Wedge-tailed Eagle quoted above, several other birds of prey have had reported spans of over 10 feet, but it is doubtful whether this mark (305 cm) has ever been reached in natural spread by any currently living raptor species, apart from the biggest individuals of the two condors, the Andean Vultur gryphus and the California Gymnogyps californianus. Even then, it is likely that 19th-century reports of spans of up to 11 ft (335 cm), quoted by D. Wood for both condors in the Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats (1982), had their origin in fancy rather than fact, let alone the same author’s previous reference in an earlier edition (1969) to an old report, in about 1861, of an Andean Condor in Peru with a span of 14 ft 2 in (432 cm). Wood did quote evidently reliable records of 315 cm and 320 cm for the largest Andean Condors, but even then the wings must have been stretched to a full stop. The same applies to his reported spans of a Himalayan Vulture Gyps himalayensis at 306 cm and a Monk (Cinereous) Vulture Aegypius monachus at 300 cm. Thus, most estimated raptor spans have erred on the large side, but the maximum 100 cm quoted by Ratcliffe (1980) for the female Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus is much too low, although the accompanying wing measurements are accurate. These examples show the confused background to the subject of wingspans. Nevertheless, it is possible to obtain adequate measurements from live or freshly dead birds or, with the addition of a length for the longest primary, even from relaxed skeletons. In this respect, we are greatly indebted to David Noakes for allowing us to use his raptor data from the wingspans that he has been amassing for nearly 50 years from numerous sources in various parts of the world: dead and injured birds in the wild, living and dead birds in zoos and other collections, and measurements provided by ringers, falconers and birdwatchers. Earlier, too, the late Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen had accumulated measurements of wingspans and wingareas of some 440 mainly Palearctic and Afrotropical bird species over many years, as part of a long-term study of flight that, sadly, he never completed. They are stored in two large folios and seven loose-leaf binders in the Natural History Museum at Tring, England (Snow 1987). The details for raptors were taken from nearly 300 freshly dead birds of 46 species, a dozen of them also with detailed wing-structure plans. Although doubts have now been cast on the origins of some of Meinertzhagen’s museum specimens – see Cocker 1989 – there seems no reason to question these drawings and data. From the mid 1990s, published raptor wingspans suddenly improved with such works as Clark & Wheeler (1987), Clark & Schmitt (1999), Svensson et al. (1999) and the outstanding Forsman (1999), though Snow & Perrins (1998) continued with the wrong estimates from Cramp & Simmons (1980). As a check for North American spans, we made use of the figures published by Clark & Wheeler (1987). For the Western Palearctic, Lars Svensson kindly provided us with his results based on a combination of measurements of skins, with one wing spread, and

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calculations from photographs. For Australia, Stephen Debus produced ranges from various sources and these figures were subsequently included in Marchant & Higgins (1993). But, above all, we relied on David Noakes, who had published his first conclusions on raptor wingspans earlier in that decade (Noakes 1990). In general, the proportions of hands, arms, body, legs and so on remain much the same in relation to each other within any raptor species. Thus, David Noakes has been able to arrive at multipliers (M) for many birds, by which the span (S) can be calculated from the folded wing (W), so that S = W x M. Although the length of the folded wing depends on the extent to which the natural curvature is corrected, a flattened and straightened wing (maximum chord) is the customary measurement on museum skins, and in many countries on live birds, while large species are traditionally measured with a tape along the upper side (which produces a figure close to the maximum value). The more American ‘wing chord’, however, in which the wing is not pressed down on the rule, gives shorter results but slightly high multipliers. With the main genera and commoner species well represented, it has been possible to extrapolate to all other raptors with some confidence. David Noakes’s multipliers for the various raptors all fall in the range 2.75–3.65 (the extremes being represented by the Australian Black Falcon Falco subniger and the largest vultures). Lars Svensson, with his somewhat different methods, had quite independently produced raptor multipliers in the range 2.85–3.5 for the Western Palearctic only. The species with the higher multipliers have longer inner wings, or arms: to take a couple of non-raptor examples, the long-armed pelicans Pelecanus, at around 4.0, are extremes among land-based birds, while the multipliers of some of the pelagic albatrosses of the genus Diomedea may go as high as 4.5 or more. The species with the lower multipliers have longer outer wings, or hands, and relatively short arms: thus, the long-handed Common Swift Apus apus stands at only 2.4. Eagles of most groups have multipliers in excess of 3.2; the Osprey Pandion haliaetus and small vultures are in the range 3.25–3.3; and fish-eagles Haliaeetus and the larger of both New and Old World vultures are over 3.4. At the other end of the scale, most falcons are below 3.0 and a few below 2.8. In the middle, representing standard hawk shapes, accipiters are mostly 2.9–3.1, kites of all groups 2.9–3.2, harriers 3.1–3.2, and buteos 3.15–3.25. Species of similar sizes may, of course, differ in proportions. Thus, Pallas’s Fish-eagle H. leucoryphus and Golden Eagle have comparable spans but, because one has longer arms and the other longer hands, their respective multipliers are 3.45 and 3.25. In some species with marked reversed sexual dimorphism (RSD), especially certain accipiters and falcons, but also, for example, a few of the buteos, there is a small but clear difference in the multiplier between the sexes. Males, lower by up to 0.2, have proportionately slightly longer hands and shorter arms. Conversely, it is worth noting here that, among Lammergeiers Gypaetus barbatus, where there is almost no RSD (though the females do average fractionally bigger), it is the larger individuals that have the lower multipliers. Noakes holds the wings of freshly dead birds just above the carpals, and the positions of the tips are marked with pegs in the ground (fig. 11); the distance between the pegs is then measured. (It is, however, difficult to measure the wingspans of live birds when working alone.) Through checking by removing and resetting one of the pegs, he has found that variation in this method seldom exceeds 1%: for instance, only up to 0.5 cm on an individual Northern Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, a species with a span in the size range 56–78 cm.

Fig. 11. Wingspans of live or freshly dead birds may be measured by spreading the wings, holding them just above the carpals, and marking the positions of the wing-tips by means of pegs fixed in the ground; the distance between the two pegs is the span. (After Noakes 1990)

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Fig. 12. An alternative method of measuring wingspan: with the raptor’s body held in one hand and an outstretched wing in the other, the distance from the middle of the back to the tip of the wing can be measured by using a rule secured firmly to the ground; this half-span can then be doubled to give the full span. (After Noakes 1990)

Alternatively, a reliable half-span can be obtained (and then doubled) by holding the body or the thighs with one hand and an outstretched wing just above the carpal joint with the other; a rule anchored to the ground can be used to measure from the middle of the back to the tip of the wing (fig. 12). This method is, of course, much the easier of the two if the measurement is being made by one person. All David Noakes’s measurements and his and our calculations relate to ‘full natural spreads’. Larger spans can be forced by holding birds tightly at the tips of the wings or even, with dead birds, by pulling them to a full stop; but live raptors are not capable of stretching their own wings to this extent. To take some actual examples, a small male Northern Sparrowhawk (wing measuring 187 mm) with a natural spread of 56 cm was easily stretched to 59 cm (effectively increasing the multiplier from 2.98 to 3.15); a female Peregrine Falcon (wing 352 mm) from 103 cm to 107 cm (multiplier 2.92 to 3.05); and a Red Kite (wing 503 mm) from 160 cm to 166 cm (multiplier 3.18 to 3.31). Even so, the difference between a natural spread and the full stretch varies from only about 1–2 cm on the smallest raptors to about 8–10 cm on the largest. When measuring the spans of dead birds, it is important that they be fresh corpses. A newly dead Wedge-tailed Eagle had a span of 201 cm, but this was easily extended to 208 cm some time later when it was in a state of ‘wet’ decay. In between, after it had been dead for a few days, it would not have been possible to spread the wings fully and the apparent span would have been well under 200 cm.

WING SHAPES It would still be useful to be able to support statements that wings are ‘broad’ or ‘narrow’, or somewhere in between, by giving for each species front-to-back ranges of measurements taken across the wing at the base and the carpal joint, but these figures are simply not available. Museum skins cannot be relaxed for obtaining such data, and David Noakes, to his great regret, did not think of measuring at least the breadth at the carpal joint when he began his wingspan project. Another useful measurement is the distance, on the folded wing, between the tips of the longest primary and of the first secondary. The standard wing length divided by this wing-tip figure – known as the Kipp Index, because it was used by Kipp (1959) for demonstrating wing-shape differences between resident and migratory birds of various species and subspecies – beautifully illustrates, in combination with the wing/tail index, the varying abilities of different raptor genera to manoeuvre in dense forest as against soaring in open country (Carl Edelstam in litt.). Made available for all raptors, these two sets of data would help better to quantify differences in wing shape and general proportions, but obtaining them they will have to be tasks for the future.

TAIL LENGTHS Tail lengths follow the standard measurement from the emergence point of the central pair of feathers to the tip of the longest. In flight, however, the tail is seen as the part which extends beyond the trailing edges of the wings or, when closer, beyond the tail-coverts. Thus, its apparent length is variously affected by the breadth of the wings and the length of the coverts; the actual tail projection will be shorter than the figures we quote.

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sex and age differences in sizes and shapes of raptors It is often assumed that, apart from differences of sex or age, individual birds of any one species fit a standard mould. Moreover, since most young birds have more or less reached their full size by the time that they can fly (there are exceptions), it may seem that they do not even grow like other classes of vertebrate animals. In fact, they go through the same stages, but very quickly: single cell to full size in ten weeks to ten months, depending on the species. But birds in general, and not least the raptors, do differ individually in size, shape, plumage and behaviour. Of particular concern here, too, is the fact that the sizes of many birds of prey vary to differing extents with sex, and their shapes more subtly with age; certain of these differences have implications in field identification, and it is also worth considering the selective pressures that may have brought them about.

Reversed sexual dimorphism (RSD) For most bird species, the males are much the same size as, or slightly to noticeably larger than, the females. The same applies to the other higher vertebrates, although the reverse is true for some bats and certain other mammals. Among birds, one heterogeneous group of mainly ground-feeding exceptions to this general rule occurs where there is polyandry (more than one male mated to each female) or a reversal of the sex role: examples include the Neotropical tinamous (Tinamidae), the Old World buttonquails (Turnicidae), and the jacanas (Jacanidae), phalaropes Phalaropus and some other waders where the male takes care of the young. The second and no less heterogeneous group of exceptions consists of a wide variety of mainly aerial hunters, including the predatory frigatebirds (Fregatidae), boobies (Sulidae) and skuas (Stercorariidae) – the males of which are all smaller in weight rather than in linear measurements – as well as most of the owls (Strigiformes) and, often much more strikingly, many of the diurnal raptors. The males of some of the seven cathartid vultures of the New World, which may or may not be more closely related to the storks (Ciconiidae) than to the other raptors, and of the unique Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius of Africa, which feeds somewhat like a stork on relatively small ground prey, are actually larger than the females. In contrast, every single one of the accipitriform and falconiform species that make up the vast majority of the diurnalraptor group shows at least a tendency towards reversed sexual dimorphism (RSD), even if the measurements and weights of the sexes of, for example, the Old World vultures almost entirely overlap. At the extreme end of the scale, RSD is at its most marked in a number of accipiters and a few falcons whose males are well under two-thirds the bulk of the females. In this book, as part of the data on proportions opposite the plates, a degree of RSD is calculated for each species from the medians of the ranges of the wing lengths of the two sexes: these figures are cubed, to give more of an idea of the difference in mass, and the male product is then expressed as a percentage of that of the female. There are obvious disadvantages in using linear measurements as a basis for showing sexual differences in mass. Many cubed wing-length percentages correspond to a greater or lesser (but often reasonable) extent with those of known weight ranges, but there are marked exceptions: an extreme example of where they do not is provided by the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni, whose wing-length dimorphism is over 99%, while a figure based on weights appears to be about 75%. Weights, however, are subject to marked seasonal and diurnal variations and, in any case, are available in any quantity only for relatively few raptors. Further, if aerial agility is an important factor in the development of RSD, as discussed later on, then wing lengths (and wing-loadings) are likely to be as important as actual weights. The problems of measuring RSD have been discussed by, for example, Amadon (1977) and Cade (1982). In view of the link with food categories, outlined below, it might be argued that the sizes of the feet, which grasp the prey, would be a better basis for calculating dimorphism than would wing lengths, but Hill (1944) and others have shown that the tarsi are generally less dimorphic than the remaining standard measurements. Incidentally, as noted by Ratcliffe (1993) for the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus, it seems that the two sexes also tend to be similar with regard to the size of the eyes, and so these can appear larger on a much smaller male. Over the years, numerous hypotheses have been advanced to explain RSD in raptors. One clear relationship is with categories of food specialization, as first pointed out by Hill (1944) and enlarged upon six years later at an Oxford conference by Ferguson-Lees (1950, Ibis 92: 342) who showed that the principles applied to most species and many races – a total of nearly 600 taxa. The raptors that feed exclusively on carrion meat have the sexes almost the same size (or, among the quite distinct New World cathartid vultures, the males may even be slightly the larger). At the other end of the scale, those that feed largely or exclusively on birds, or on fast-moving mammals that are big in relation to their own body size, show the greatest RSD. In between lies a whole range of other species, among which the specialist feeders tend to form distinct groups. Thus, in general terms (there are minor exceptions), the specialist carrion-feeders and those that hunt exclusively on foot show the least RSD, followed by those that eat mainly but not entirely carrion and other motionless prey.

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Next come raptors that feed largely on snails, worms or terrestrial insects, often by still-hunting from perches; then the aerial insect-eaters and, again chiefly by still-hunting, the amphibian-eaters and the reptile-eaters. Those that take terrestrial vertebrates by hovering, those that snatch fish and arboreal vertebrates, and those that chase terrestrial mammals or catch birds on the ground tend to show increasingly clear RSD, and this is most obvious among the specialist bird-eaters, particularly those that take most of their prey in flight or after prolonged pursuit. Dimorphism increases with the speed and agility of the prey, and is greatest among the smaller raptors whose hunting depends on aerial manoeuvrability. A discussion of the apparently direct relationship with prey was developed by Newton (1979), who plotted the foods of some raptors against wing-length ratios (using female over male). He concentrated first on the 25% of species that are food specialists with restricted diets, and showed that the same trends hold within the individual genera of Falco and Accipiter as among the diurnal raptors as a whole. He then compared with the strict specialists some slightly more general feeders that take two main categories of prey, and found that they were always intermediate in their degree of dimorphism. For example, falcons that take a mixture of insects and birds are intermediate between those that feed almost exclusively on one or the other (but see later). The atypical frog/reptile-eating accipiters are less dimorphic than the bird-eaters. Old World vultures that take some living prey are more dimorphic than those that live on carrion alone. As a further specific example of mixed diet, the Palmnut Vulture Gypohierax angolensis might be expected, as the only primarily vegetarian raptor, to show virtually no RSD, but males are in fact slightly smaller (92%) and a part of the prey consists of fish, amphibians, and crabs and other invertebrates. The two supposedly specialist crepuscular bat-eaters differ greatly in the degree of dimorphism that they exhibit. The male of the Old World Bat-hawk Macheiramphus alcinus, kite-like in some respects and generally placed with the kite group in systematic order, is smaller than the female (83%) but with a slight overlap, whereas the New World Bat Falcon Falco rufigularis, which is a faster hunter and, as discussed later on, takes mainly birds and many large flying insects, shows the most marked RSD (61%) of any falcon. In this connection, while the Northern Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus has often been credited with the greatest RSD of all, the percentages used in this book, based on mid-range wing lengths, indicate that nine other mainly bird-eating accipiters have an even more marked difference. Since Schmidt-Bey (1913) first sought to explain RSD in terms of territorial defence, a vast literature on the subject has grown up, involving more than 60 authors. Yet we still do not fully understand how or why natural selection has worked in this way. Some writers have concentrated on a single factor or group of factors as the supposed primary key to the evolution of RSD. Others argue, probably correctly, that many of the alleged selective pressures, such as some of the differences in the breeding roles of males and females, the significance of dominant females, and the advantages of any differences in diet where the size discrepancy is really marked, are effects and not causes. Even the strong food link may not, in itself, be causal. There is also disagreement on whether male raptors have become smaller while females have remained the same, or whether females have grown larger and males remained the same, or whether both have diverged. It is a highly complex subject. Aerial agility and the separate roles of male and female raptors in the breeding season do, however, seem likely to be central aspects. In very general terms (and there are various partial exceptions, even among the more markedly dimorphic groups), the male advertises the territory and provides the food during pre-breeding, egglaying, incubation, and the first half of the nestling period; the female defends the nest, incubates the eggs, and protects and feeds the young. A small male will need less food for himself; a large female will be better able to fend off predators. The smaller the prey the male goes for, the more variety and density will be available to him; small prey can also be taken and delivered more frequently than large prey, which is important during courtship feeding as well as, particularly, when the young themselves are small and cannot withstand prolonged hunger. The significance of female social dominance during the breeding season has often been put forward as a key factor and, as often, dismissed by others. In fact, the females of many bird families tend to be the dominant partners after the pair has been established, even when the male is the larger, but among raptors both sexes are awesomely armed with sharp bill and talons. It has been suggested that, were they evenly matched in size, the female’s need to dominate could easily result in injury (e.g. Cade 1982, Smith 1982). Yet the male’s smaller size may be selfdefeating, as there are records of female Northern Sparrowhawks eating males (Newton 1979). In any case, as with many of the other hypotheses, is female dominance a cause or an effect of RSD? Norberg (1987), writing more generally from a basis of forest owls, emphasised the need to consider first what is special about the differences in the roles played by the two sexes during the breeding season and why any size dimorphism is reversed at all; why the male is the food-provider and why the degree of dimorphism has a link with the type of food; and what the advantages of the varying degrees of RSD are and why they do not apply to other groups of birds. Like Andersson & Norberg (1981) and Newton (1986), he noted the likelihood of the underlying causes being linked to aspects of breeding and to prey choice at that season. He thought that the separation of nesting and hunting duties might have arisen partly from the need for predatory birds, with their specialised structural and behavioural adaptations for killing, to be more successful than other birds of similar size in defending the nest; and partly, since vertebrates react to predators, because one bird hunting such animals in a

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territory was likely to be almost as successful as two when the second might often be searching among prey alerted by the first. Norberg then considered why the male hunts and has remained or has become the smaller, while the female stays near the nest and has remained or has become the larger. Possible reasons for this role separation were the risk of damage to developing eggs inside the female during hunting; the added weight during egg production reducing her flight performance; that she had of course, in any case, to be at the nest for egg-laying; and that courtship feeding in the form of early presentation of food helped her to accumulate and conserve energy. The direction of size dimorphism might then perhaps be explained by the female’s having to produce eggs, incubate, and carry out much of the defence of the nest and, later, the division of food for the young. Among possible reasons for the differing degrees of dimorphism, as set out by Norberg, aerial agility was foremost. Apart from terminal diving speed, ‘a small bird does better than a larger, but geometrically similar one’ in several respects: these include maximum acceleration and speed in flapping flight, maximum rate of climb, maximum angular-roll acceleration, and turning ability. Since the male does most of the hunting during breeding, he is more strongly selected for small size. ‘The more agile the prey is, the closer the predator should approach the lower size limit below which subduing and transporting the prey become difficult. The more fast-moving mammals and birds the predator takes, the stronger the selection for small size becomes.’ A small male also uses less energy than a large one, particularly in active chasing. Norberg went on to consider that, at other stages of the cycle, food competition between the pair-members might be expected to encourage a sexual difference in the sizes of prey taken. This might apply particularly to the bird specialists, some of which have relatively narrow ranges of prey species that they can carry as well as outfly. Among bird-eaters, a greater variety of prey would theoretically be available, with decreased intraspecific competition, if the sexes were markedly different in size and taking different ranges of prey. In fact, real differences between the two sexes in prey species taken have been found for only a very few highly dimorphic accipiters, while other researchers have detected no such differences for the same species. From a slightly different angle, it has been shown for two harriers Circus, four accipiters and one or two large falcons that females constantly take heavier prey. Any such differences seem likely to be explained as an effect, rather than a cause, particularly when, as we have seen, the feet used in capturing prey are proportionately less dimorphic than is the rest of the body. Earlier, reference was made to the intermediate degrees of RSD shown by some falcons. Thus, Eleonora’s Falco eleonorae (84% on cubed wing lengths) and Sooty Falcons F. concolor (88%) are the classic examples of insectivorous falcons that feed their young on birds, in their cases breeding late in the year to coincide with the rush of Palearctic migrants en route to Africa. The Northern Hobby F. subbuteo (88%) is another substantially insectivorous migratory falcon whose Palearctic breeding season is timed to coincide with plentiful supplies of hirundines, swifts Apus and other birds, especially inexperienced juveniles. The no less insectivorous African Hobby F. cuvieri (81%) similarly depends on birds in the breeding season. Yet, if the breeding season is the time of main influence on RSD, why are the sexes of these species that are then specialist bird-eaters not more markedly different in size? The Bat Falcon is another that takes many birds and insects, and usually less than 15% bats, and yet it is, at 61%, the most highly dimorphic of all falcons. Why is it peculiar? It seems just possible that the precise period when birds are the main prey is significant. The first four falcons listed above are substantially insectivorous until their young hatch. At least in southern Mexico, on the other hand, the Bat Falcon appears to take most birds at about the time the eggs are laid and, later, to raise its young on the abundance of dragonflies available in the rainy season (Falxa et al. 1977). Does this highlight the egg-laying and early incubation periods as the vital part of the breeding season so far as the relative sizes and agility of the adults are concerned? Possibly, as we shall see. Some of the hypotheses mentioned are doubtless part of the story, but some may equally be applied to birds of other groups. It has also been argued that, because males invest so much energy in the breeding season, it may be that the females compete for them (the reverse of the norm). Female size would thus tend to increase in favour of greater strength in obtaining mates, and smaller males to be selected for their superior ability in providing food (see Cade 1982, Olsen & Olsen 1984, Safina 1984, Newton 1986). This suggests a divergence in size by both sexes. On the other hand, Wheeler & Greenwood (1983) argued that the male has remained the appropriate size for the dietary specialisation of the species, while the female has grown larger. They supported, by various correlations, their hypothesis that the constraint on female flight performance before egg-laying was the key factor in the evolution of RSD. Through enlargement of the ovaries, taking on food reserves for egg production and incubation, and actually developing the eggs, female raptors probably increase in weight by up to 15% during the period before they lay: female Northern Sparrowhawks, for example, increase from around 300 g to 340 g, producing an increase in wing-loading of about 10%, with the result that, in the last few days before laying, they may be so incapacitated as to have some difficulty in flying (Newton 1979). Wheeler & Greenwood postulated that, were the female the same size as the male, the wing-loading increase for producing eggs of similar size would be about 20%. A larger and more powerful female would experience less alteration and more gradual change in her wing-loading and power:weight ratio, and therefore less impairment

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of flight performance in carrying increased weight before she became dependent on the male. Egg weight as a proportion of body weight is strongly related inversely to body size in raptors (Lack 1968). A large female also ‘produces larger eggs, which hatch out larger chicks better able to survive than small chicks; owing to her greater thermal insensitivity to cold weather, she can lay earlier in the season than a small female, and she is a more efficient incubator; she is also more effective in nest defence; and she can store more energy and, when necessary, fast for a longer time during incubation and care of nestlings than a smaller female’ (Cade 1982). It should be added that statistical relationships can be established between degrees of RSD and, for example, territory size, solitary or gregarious behaviour, clutch size, latitude, temperature and climate, and so on: the list is open-ended. For instance, gregarious and colonial raptors tend to show little RSD, but this may be because, in general, they are the birds that specialise on carrion or insects. Again, the aerial insect-eaters, which show relatively little RSD, and the specialist bird-eaters, which show much, appear to have bigger clutches than the intermediate mammal-eaters, which in turn lay more eggs than the reptile-eaters and carrion-eaters: this may be related to the availability of different foods for the young, or even to the sequence in which raptors have adapted to the different degrees of difficulty in catching the various prey groups. Which are the chickens and which the eggs? No hypothesis has yet really satisfied what Newton (1979) termed ‘one of the most intractable problems in raptor biology’. Norberg (1987) considered that the ‘first and most important requirement on a theory explaining the evolutionary origin of reversed sexual size dimorphism is that it should apply to…raptors, owls and skuas alike’. But, in that case, why not to the frigatebirds and boobies, and why not to other predatory groups whose dimorphism is not reversed? Indeed, in view of structural and behavioural differences among raptors, owls and skuas, it does in fact seem preferable to look at the diurnal raptors in isolation. There is no reason why different factors should not be responsible for parallel or convergent adaptations in unrelated families. One can argue further against seeking an all-embracing answer: while most of the families of rapacious birds that pursue vertebrate prey, including the piratical frigatebirds and skuas, and the plunge-diving boobies, show at least a degree of RSD, this is not universal. If the boobies, why not the terns (Sternidae)? If the skuas, why not the gulls (Laridae)? Some Great Black-backed Larus marinus and other large gulls are not just piratical but truly predatory, even if only seasonally, but the males are invariably the larger. In fact, boobies and most skuas, like terns and gulls, do not have marked role separations during breeding, both sexes incubating and feeding or guarding the young. Various other groups that feed almost entirely on the wing, such as the swallows (Hirundinidae), swifts (Apodidae) and nightjars (Caprimulgidae), need aerial agility and a high flight performance even though they are insectivorous, but, again, show no suggestion of RSD. They also have no marked role separations. The greatest anomaly of all is, however, provided by the shrikes Lanius. They have the characters of a hooked bill, strong feet and sharp talons to make them the passerine equivalents of the diurnal raptors, with comparable spectra of hunting methods and prey; unlike most other passerines, they will even carry large prey in their feet. Various species stillhunt to the ground, dash at passing prey, hover, or search for prey on the wing in other ways, even chasing like an accipiter along the sides of cover. Both sexes of some shrike species build nests and incubate, but, like raptors, the males of others bring food to the female and young. Some specialise on insects, others on lizards, and others still on mice and small birds, but all have similar degrees of standard sexual size dimorphism, with the male slightly the larger, the female presumably becoming heavier only during ovulation. Why are shrikes so different?

JUVENILE DIFFERENCES IN SIZE AND SHAPE As noted at the head of the text facing plate 1, adults and juveniles of some species have different proportions. In a few cases, this difference is quite marked. Where there are differences, the general tendency is for juveniles to have slightly shorter wings, which may also be broader, and a slightly longer tail. Juveniles of the larger species also have more pointed quills, resulting in serrated trailing wing-edges, while juvenile falcons have softer and more flexible flight-feathers. There are many exceptions. The really long-tailed species, notably the Swallow-tailed Kite Elanoides forficatus of the New World and the Long-tailed Hawk Urotriorchis macrourus and Secretarybird of Africa, have much shorter tails as juveniles, as do the longish-tailed honey-buzzards Pernis and African Scissor-tailed Kite Chelictinia riocourii. The really short-tailed species, of which the Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus is the obvious example, have conspicuously longer tails as juveniles. The juveniles of some buzzards Buteo and other buteonines have narrower wings than the adults, and those of most larger falcons have longer wings; juveniles of the kestrel and hobby groups, on the other hand, have both wings and tails slightly shorter. Whereas the tails and wings of most juvenile Old World vultures are much the same lengths as those of adults, or even slightly longer, young Egyptian Vultures Neophron percnopterus are significantly shorter in both respects. Juveniles with broader wings include the fish-eagles Haliaeetus, some typical eagles Aquila, and the Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus. Many of these, particularly the fish-eagles, tend at the same time also to have longer wings and tails as juveniles (see pp. 57–62), so that the proportions remain roughly the same.Presumably, these often rather small

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differences relate to wing-loading and flying expertise. In general, juvenile raptors apparently also weigh less than adults once they have been out of the nest for some time. Shorter and broader wings may compensate for weaker flight and less developed pectoral muscles. A longer or shorter tail may compensate for poorer flying efficiency. This subject has been discussed for the falcons by Cade (1982), who went on to describe the very efficient flight of a hybrid Peregrine x Gyr Falcon Falco peregrinus x F. rusticolus bred in captivity; this bird had the left wing and the left-hand side of the tail 20–25 mm (almost an inch) shorter than the right, but apparently suffered no impediment in flying.

EFFECTS IN THE FIELD So far as field identification – the prime object of this book – is concerned, RSD plays only a small part. Size can be notoriously difficult to estimate in the field, unless there is a direct comparison, and with single individuals in general it is possible to sex only some of the accipiters and falcons by size alone. Even then, a large male may not be conspicuously smaller than a small female. With some of the most difficult genera, however, and Aquila and Accipiter are obvious examples, a small male and a large female can look sufficiently different in size for the unwary to think that they may be looking at two different species. On the other hand, the seemingly more subtle differences in shape of wings and tails between some juveniles and adults can cause problems for anyone inexperienced with the species concerned. A Lammergeier with broader wings and a longer tail, honey-buzzards with a tail 10% shorter, fish-eagles with a tail 10% longer and jagged trailing wing-edges, and, in Africa, a brown Bateleur with an obvious tail – all begin to have awkwardly different outlines. Shape can be particularly important in the identification of Aquila and Buteo, and even slightly broader or narrower wings may cause confusion.

IDENTIFYING RAPTORS Raptors can be among the most difficult of all birds to identify. Some are easy because of striking patterns, shapes or behaviour, or because the local alternatives are few, but certain groups are so notoriously complex that even the most experienced raptor-watcher must not expect always to be able to put a name to every individual, especially in the tropics or on migration routes. An initial clue can sometimes be provided by the habitat. Some species spend all of their time in fairly dense forest, others in scattered woodland, while others again are characteristic of open country or sparsely vegetated mountains. In the case of migratory species, however, any association with a particular habitat type becomes largely irrelevant, as such raptors then may be seen flying over any kind of country on their way between breeding and non-breeding quarters. The plumages of some species differ widely at various ages, and the juveniles and other immatures are often more difficult (though in a few cases easier) to identify than the adults. Flight shapes also vary, mostly slightly, between adults and juveniles and, more significantly, can look surprisingly different in differing conditions of wind or updraught, and whether the bird is gliding or soaring or actively flying. Often, too, a raptor will be seen only briefly and not nearly so closely as one would like. Yet, although certain species or genera of such diverse families as gulls (Laridae), pigeons (Columbidae), cuckoos (Cuculidae) and crows (Corvidae) may sometimes momentarily be mistaken in flight for raptors, and soaring pelicans (Pelecanidae) and storks (Ciconiidae) can look like large vultures or eagles when they are too distant for their long bills or necks to be visible to the naked eye, even relatively inexperienced observers usually have little difficulty in knowing at once if the bird they are watching is ‘a raptor’. The first real stage, depending on the part of the world, is deciding whether that raptor is a vulture of one sort or the other, a honey-buzzard or kite, a fish-eagle, a snake- or serpent-eagle, a gymnogene, a harrier, a chantinggoshawk, an accipiter or accipitrine, a buteo or buteonine, a true eagle, a caracara, a forest-falcon, a pygmy-falcon or falconet, or a typical falcon.

PERCHED RAPTORS Unlike most birds, many raptors are often hardest to identify when they are perched. The beginner frequently starts by commenting on yellow cere and legs or feet, but a great many raptors have these bare parts very obviously yellow (so much so that, in general, the caption texts opposite the plates in this book refer only to colours other than yellow for cere and legs or feet). The first points to look at on a perched raptor of unknown identity are shape and proportions: the length, depth and other details of the bill (including, if possible, the shape and position of the nostrils and the extent of the gape-line); the size and shape of the head, and whether any part of it is bare; the form of any crest; the bulk of the body; the relative length of the tail; whether the legs are bare or feathered and, if bare, whether thick or slender;

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the length of the toes; and, not least, because it can be a useful pointer, the position of the wing-tips in relation to the tail-tip. A combination of several of these features should, with a little experience, enable at least the genus or group to be determined. Though raptors in general have a hooked bill, the shape, length and depth of the bill and the extent of the hook-tip vary greatly. The American snail-eating kites Rostrhamus/Chondrohierax have elongated and very decurved hook-tips, and the bill of Rostrhamus is particularly slender, too. At the other end of the scale, the bills of some of the fish-eagles Haliaeetus and true eagles Aquila are strikingly heavy, while those of the east Asiatic Steller’s Fish-eagle H. pelagicus and of the Great Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi – one of the four tropical harpy eagles – are massively deep and arched. The bills of vultures (of both the totally unrelated New and Old World groups), though mostly big and in some cases very big, are generally far less hook-tipped, while those of the smaller ones are relatively long and slender. The cutting edges, or tomia, of the upper mandibles of many accipitriforms are more or less straight, though some (e.g. the goshawks/sparrowhawks of the genus Accipiter) have a slight tooth-like projection, while Neotropical kites of the genus Harpagus have two such ‘teeth’. The bills of most falcons Polihierax/Microhierax/Falco are rather like those of shrikes (Laniidae), with a more pronounced tooth-like projection and a corresponding notch on the lower mandible. Among what are loosely termed ‘eagles’, though the main groups are quite unrelated (see pp. 68–72), the largely Afrotropical snake-eagles Circaetus and the southeastern Asiatic serpent-eagles Spilornis have smallish bills, large-looking heads, and long, slender, bare and roughly scaled tarsi (a defence against venom) with short toes and claws. Fish-eagles have long deep bills, longish necks, short stout tarsi feathered at the base, and large feet and talons. The four monotypic genera of tropical harpy eagles have deep to very deep bills, long or short bare lower tarsi, and mostly powerful toes with long talons. True eagles of the genera Aquila, Hieraaetus, Spizaetus and others in the hawk eagle group have moderate to deep bills, fully feathered legs, and mostly strong toes with long talons. The legs of the harriers Circus, chanting-goshawks Melierax, some accipiters, buteonines and forest-falcons Micrastur, and the largest caracaras of the genus Caracara are obviously on the long side; of the Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius exceptionally long; and of the gymnogenes Polyboroides and the apparently unrelated Cranehawk Geranospiza caerulescens adaptively double-jointed, too. In very general terms, raptors that eat terrestrial mammals and birds tend to have shorter thicker legs with powerful toes and strong claws; those that eat small birds have longer legs and toes with sharp curved claws; snake-eaters possess long or short but always heavily scaled legs, short toes and short curved claws; and fish-eaters have short legs, specially adapted feet and, again, long claws. Carrion-eaters and scavengers have short legs and straighter blunter claws, and the specialised vespiary-excavating honey-buzzards Pernis also have shortish legs and only slightly curved claws. Almost all the vultures (again of both the American cathartid and the Old World accipitrid groups) have more or less bare heads, some with caruncles and corrugations, because their comparable feeding habits involve exploring the insides of dead mammals. The few other species or groups with areas of bare skin on the head are the Afrotropical Palmnut Vulture Gypohierax angolensis, which is not a true vulture (bare orbital region, lower cheeks); the Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus (a specialised snake-eagle of Africa) and the serpent-eagles of southeast Asia (lores); the Afro-Malagasy gymnogenes or harrier-hawks and the African Secretarybird (sides of face); and most caracaras of the genera Phalcoboenus and Caracara (lores or sides of face) and Daptrius (whole face, throat), which are all confined to the New World. Various of the bazas or cuckoo-hawks Aviceda, honey-buzzards, and South American or African eagles of the genera Morphnus, Harpia, Spizaetus, Stephanoaetus and, most conspicuously, Lophaetus have quite long and distinctive crests; so does the Secretarybird. The almost cosmopolitan Osprey Pandion haliaetus has a short crest, and other erectile head-feathers are found on the snake- and serpent-eagles, including the Bateleur, as well as on the Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus, various other big eagles, some accipiters, and the Australasian hawks of the genus Erythrotriorchis. Some of these heads are used in the selection shown in fig. 10, p. 38. The position of the folded wing-tips in relation to the tail-tip can be quite useful. On some species or groups of raptors, they reach or exceed its tip; on others, they extend perhaps half or three-quarters of the way down the tail; on others still, especially forest species, they barely cover the base. At one end of the scale, the open-country Bateleur has long wings and a very short square tail, so that its wing-tips well exceed the latter when perched (and even the toes project in flight). At the other, the graduated tail of the Long-tailed Hawk Urotriorchis macrourus, a secretive denizen of tropical African rainforest, accounts for well over half the bird’s total length. In between is a wide range of wing/tail ratios and differing lengths of tails with squared, rounded, graduated, or slightly or deeply forked ends, while the Secretarybird’s tail has elongated central feathers (some idea of the variety of tail shapes can be obtained from fig. 4, p. 35). Within many families, or at least genera, all species tend to have tails of broadly comparable proportions, the accipiters being a case in point (though there are differences even among those), while the tails of the buteos and falcons vary chiefly in length. On the other hand, the kites show a considerable variety of lengths and shapes; and the tails of some vultures, fish-eagles and eagles are also quite different from those of their allies. The tails of carrion-eating raptors are often abraded by being dragged along the ground: this makes them shorter and more ragged, often looking squarer-tipped.

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Raptor plumages vary from entirely white through grey and rufous to brown and solidly black. Many species have the adults grey above and more or less barred below, and the juveniles brown above and streaked below, but there are numerous variations on this theme. Some species also have a range of colour morphs, especially dark and rufous, that are generally rarer and vary to differing degrees from the normal (usually ‘pale’) (see p. 61). Quite a few have small areas of bright colours. Before trying to find any perched raptor in the book, take a full description, including the shapes and forms of bill and legs, the proportions of wings, tail and any crest, and particularly note the colour of the eyes and, if present, the orbital rings, and whether the colours of the cere and legs are or are not yellow (perhaps red, orange, green, blue, grey or whitish). Note carefully the patterns of the head (especially supercilia, moustaches and so on), the back and the breast, and whether any bars or bands can be seen on the tail. Not least, note whether the perch is high or low, exposed or hidden. Many buteos, for example, tend to use open perches, while most accipiters often settle within the canopy, though remember that exceptions to these general tendencies are not infrequent. By contrast, some of the buteonine ‘white hawks’ of the genus Leucopternis are secretive, while the more accipitrine chanting-goshawks perch conspicuously on tree tops.

FLYING RAPTORS Perhaps surprisingly, raptors are often easier to identify in flight, which is just as well since that is how many of them are usually seen. The drawback is that they may be visible for only a minute or two at most. Therefore, the greatest possible amount of information should be written down during or immediately after the sighting. With a strange raptor in flight, concentrate first on proportions: the length, breadth and shape of the wings, whether the tips are pointed, rounded or ‘fingered’, and whether the trailing edge of each wing is more or less straight, S-curved, or pinched in at the body; the length of the tail in relation to the breadth of the wings from front to back (fig. 7, p. 37), and its shape (graduated, rounded, squared, forked: fig. 4, p. 35) both when closed and when spread; similarly, the amount of projection of the head and its shape. Also note how the wings are held in gliding or soaring: they may be flat, raised in various ways and to varying extents in a dihedral, or bowed or arched down (fig. 13 below). Hunting behaviour – for example, quartering the ground, attacking prey in flight or from a perch, and especially hovering – may also be of great significance.

A. Deep V, e.g. Terathopius B. V, e.g. Circus STRAIGHT WINGS

C. Shallow V, e.g. Buteo D. Flat, tips upswept, e.g. Hieraaetus E. Flat, e.g. Buteo platypterus

F. Arched, hand flat, e.g. Elanus ANGLED WINGS

G. Arched, hand dropped, e.g. Pandion/Rostrhamus H. Flat, hand dropped, e.g. Aquila clanga/pomarina

I. Bowed, tips upswept, e.g. Old World vultures, large Falco CURVED WINGS

J. Bowed, e.g. Daptrius K. Cupped, e.g. Parabuteo

Fig. 13. Wing positions in gliding or soaring are valuable pointers in raptor identification. The wings may be held from above the body level (in a dihedral of varying angle) to below it (negative dihedral), and their surfaces may be straight (top five images, A to E), angled (F to H) or curved (I to K).

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Then concentrate on the underwing pattern, especially the presence of any pale windows in the primaries, the form of dark barring on the remiges, the presence of any patagial or carpal patches, and the tone of the winglinings in relation to the flight-feathers; the pattern and number of bars or bands on the tail; and any bold markings on the head (supercilia, eye-stripes, moustaches) or body (throat/breast/belly contrast, belly-bands or blotches, and so on). If the upperside can be seen, look for any wing-panels, tail-bands, or other relieving features. But beware that patterns of many species vary individually as well as, of course, with age. If you have a good camera and a long lens, try to take a series of photographs showing different angles. At this point, it may be useful to turn to plates 1–3, not least to gain an idea of the great variety of sizes, wing shapes and tail shapes (see fig. 4, p.35 and fig. 8, p. 37). The wing positions there, however, have intentionally been somewhat stylised, and variations can better be judged from the species plates and facing caption texts. The largest raptors, including the true eagles (though not the harpy eagles of tropical forest) and the fish-eagles with their protruding heads, as well as the relatively hunched-headed vultures, are built for soaring, with long, broad, ‘fingered’ wings: the exact wing shapes and head/tail proportions are very important for identification in some cases (especially Aquila). The Buteo species and related buteonines also soar a great deal, but have shorter wings and mostly a short broad tail and head. The unrelated honey-buzzards Pernis are slenderer, with small heads and longer tails. The Osprey has kinked wings and a somewhat gull-like shape. Kites form a heterogeneous group with pointed or very round-tipped wings and a great variety of tail shapes, but in most instances slow and buoyant flight. Even more buoyant are the harriers, with long slender wings in an obvious dihedral and rather long tails, a combination of features that usually makes the genus Circus readily identifiable. Accipiters and other mainly forest groups have relatively short, rounded wings and long tails, but even within Accipiter itself – the raptor genus with the greatest number of species – the shapes of the spread wing-tips vary quite considerably; the flap-and-glide flight of accipiters can be very fast. The fast fliers in another large genus, the typical falcons Falco, have long pointed wings, short to longish tails, and big rounded or squared heads. On the other hand, the falconiform caracaras are slowflying with long, broad and mostly rather rounded wings, while the secretive, arboreal Laughing-falcon Herpetotheres cachinnans and forest-falcons Micrastur have, like the harpy eagles and other raptors of densely timbered country, short rounded wings.

SIZE Size is, of course, not always easy to determine in the field, and within some raptors it varies almost as much as the plumage. It is well known that the males of raptors are in general smaller (sometimes much smaller) than the females – in what is known as reversed sexual size dimorphism (RSD) – and this size difference is expressed for each species as a cubed percentage (in an attempt at quantifying mass rather than linear dimension) beneath the heading of the plate caption. But other, more subtle differences in size and, particularly, shape result from the tails of many juveniles being longer than those of the adults (or shorter in some species), while their wings also tend to be broader and shorter (or narrower in, for example, some buteos) (see pp. 42–46). The more pointed quills of juveniles also produce more or less serrated trailing wing-edges, especially conspicuous on some of the large soaring species, such as the fish-eagles and the true eagles (see pp. 57–62).

VOICE Some raptors are noisy and have highly distinctive calls. The loud ringing, almost laughing, yelps of the African Fish-eagle Haliaeetus vocifer are among the most characteristic sounds of Afrotropical watersides. Other examples from elsewhere in the world might include the whistle-cum-chatter of the Whistling Kite Haliastur sphenurus in Australasia, the scream of the Crested Serpent-eagle Spilornis cheela in southeast Asia, and the rhythmic and sometimes maniacal laughter of the Laughing-falcon in Central and South America. Certain calls are somewhat generic in pattern, such as the mewing or squealing of many buteos and the hard high chattering of most falcons. Other groups, including all the vultures, some of the kites and, for the most part except when breeding, the typical eagles of the genus Aquila, are generally silent. Many of the hawk eagles Hieraaetus and Spizaetus, on the other hand, are highly vocal. Most raptors are noisiest in pre-breeding displays or near the nest. For much of the time, therefore, voice does not play a significant part in identification, but for many of the high soarers and the forest species it can be very useful in attracting the observer’s attention.

CONCLUSION By the time you have taken as much description as you can of a strange raptor, you should have a fair idea of the broad group to which it belongs. Look at the relevant plates of that group, see whether your notes indicate a particular raptor, and then check the confusion species listed by plate, species (and, often, plumage) numbers in square brackets at the end of the general paragraph of the caption text.

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It is much better, of course, to familiarise yourself, before you go to a new country, with the diagnostic characters of all the raptors that you are likely to see. This will enable you to identify each bird more quickly, and thus give you time to look at it with enjoyment rather than in panic in the short period during which it is visible: go on looking at it, see what additional features strike you, and you will find it that much easier to pick out the next individual of the species to come your way. Gradually you will become familiar enough with some raptors to be able to identify them at long ranges. If, after taking as many notes as possible on all of the aspects mentioned above, you find that you are still uncertain of the identity of some of the raptors that you see, do not become disheartened. As stated at the very beginning of this summary, some groups are so difficult when it comes to identifying their individual species that even greatly experienced raptor-watchers can at times be baffled.

RAPTOR MIGRATION Anybody who has ever witnessed concentrations of migrating birds of prey can hardly fail to have been impressed by the sight. Such unforgettable spectacles have fascinated human beings since ancient times and, indeed, the mass passages of Aquila eagles, buteos and other large raptors surely rival the terrestrial migrations of ungulates on the plains of Africa. Excellent published accounts of raptor migration can be found in The Migrations of Hawks (Heintzelman 1975) and Flight Strategies of Migrating Hawks (Kerlinger 1989), and an extremely useful summary has been provided by del Hoyo et al. in Handbook of the Birds of the World (1994). Important regional works include those by Smith (1980, 1985) for the Central American flyway; Shirihai & Christie (1992), Shirihai (1996) and Alon et al. (2004) for Israel; Ash (1993) for Indonesia; Brazil (1991), Brazil & Hanawa (1991) and McClure (1998) for eastern Asia; and Marchant & Higgins (1993) for Australasia. Bird Migration (Alerstam 1990) also gives a great deal of useful information relating to raptor movements. Furthermore, intensive studies in various parts of the world have resulted in two major works, both published in 2000. Raptor Migration in Israel and the Middle East (Shirihai et al.) details the results of counts and observations made in that region since the mid 1960s, and includes analyses of seasonal timing and many other factors. Raptor Watch: A global directory of raptor migration sites (Zalles & Bildstein) represents the most detailed and comprehensive work yet published on all the world’s known raptor watchsites (nearly 400 in all), including recorded numbers of migrating birds of prey and timing of migrations. Whether a species migrates or not depends on several factors, most important of which is food availability. Those inhabiting tropical forest, or restricted to one or a few islands, are sedentary. In fact, many raptors living in the tropics and subtropics are also largely sedentary, including, among many others, such diverse species as most of the cathartid vultures of America, the two Afro-Malagasy gymnogenes Polyboroides, the Crane-hawk Geranospiza caerulescens and the ‘white hawks’ Leucopternis of the Neotropics; or they make relatively short movements in response to seasonal climatic changes. In addition, such species may become somewhat nomadic when not breeding, a lifestyle also followed by many migratory raptors in their non-breeding areas. By contrast, most raptors in other regions, as well as many open-habitat species such as the Grasshopper Buzzard-hawk Butastur rufipennis in West Africa, undertake some kind of seasonal movement, even if only over short distances. Many species are partial migrants; their northern (or southernmost) populations migrate, while those in more temperate climates do not. Good examples include the Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos and the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus in the Holarctic (the Nearctic and Palearctic combined); the tundra races of the latter move right down into the southern hemisphere, leapfrogging other shorter-range migrants of their species and spending the non-breeding season south of resident populations. Yet even in the north polar regions, some species are capable of surviving winters that are harsh in the extreme; Steller’s Fish-eagles Haliaeetus pelagicus in northeast Asia move only a short distance south to feed around ice-covered waters on Hokkaido, Japan; and most Gyr Falcons Falco rusticolus spend the non-breeding period not far south of the Arctic Circle, and some well inside it, although the entire population may migrate at times of extreme food scarcity. This last event is an example of eruptive migration, associated more with such food specialists as the rodent-eating Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus in the north and, in the south, Australia’s desert-dwelling Letter-winged Kite Elanus scriptu. Nomadic movements made by various insectivorous raptors in the tropics are comparable, with food availability being the controlling factor in both cases. Of the 338 raptor species treated in this book, almost 60% undertake some form of annual seasonal migration, ranging from short local movements, such as post-breeding dispersal, to much longer flights over thousands of kilometres from one hemisphere to the other. In the cases of some 20 species, virtually the entire population migrates. Full discussion of such phenomena would fill an entire volume, and in these few pages it is possible to give only the very briefest and most superficial of summaries with just occasional examples of the many remarkable aspects of raptor movements. Fuller details are given in the ‘Movements’ section of the individual species accounts in Raptors of the World (Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001), and in the publications listed above. In particular, however,

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Fig. 14. Primary routes followed by migrating raptors. Most important flyways are shown by red lines, blue lines indicating secondary routes. Many other pathways not shown on the map are used regularly by variable numbers of raptors.

one has to marvel at the long-distance mass migrations of Swainson’s Hawks Buteo swainsoni from southern Alaska to northern Argentina and back, a round trip of some 30,000 km, and the equally long journeys made by ‘Steppe’ Buzzards Buteo buteo vulpinus between Siberia and southernmost Africa. Just as impressive are the autumn flights made by Eastern Red-footed Falcons Falco amurensis and Lesser Kestrels F. naumanni from east Asia to Africa, many apparently crossing over 3,000 km of the Indian Ocean; the return takes most of them north through East Africa and across the southern parts of Asia. In very general terms, the various strategies adopted by different migratory raptors are to a large extent dictated by their structure and by their wing-loading (weight divided by wing-surface area). Species with high wing-loading, such as most accipiters and Hieraaetus/Spizaetus hawk eagles, and the typical falcons, are capable of strong flight with rapid bursts of flapping. Narrower-winged raptors, which include most harriers Circus and, especially, the Falco species and the Osprey Pandion haliaetus with their well-developed pectoral musculature, are better adapted for active flight and can more easily cross open areas of sea and desert. Low wing-loaders, typified by large kites and eagles, buteos and most vultures, are not capable of sustained flapping and are better suited to soaring and gliding; they therefore require updraughts and warm-air thermals to enable them to travel long distances, also using the dynamic air currents that rise on the windward side of a mountain or similar edge. This means that the broad-winged species have to follow mountain ranges, coasts and similar leading lines, where they can find thermals in which to soar to high levels before gliding on to the next thermal where the process is repeated, this continuing all the way along the route to the final destination. Several departures from this broad picture demonstrate the way in which raptors adapt to circumstances. For example, Western Honey-buzzards Pernis apivorus, with relatively low wing-loading, often use flapping flight for part of their migratory flight; conversely, other species, such as the Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes, although capable of sustained beats, make extensive use of soaring-and-gliding flight on their travels. In fact, all raptors will take advantage of thermals when they encounter them. Many raptors travel for at least some of their journeys on fairly broad fronts, and at great altitudes, this being characteristic of, for instance, Eastern Red-footed Falcons and Lesser Kestrels migrating from eastern Asia to Africa. Their passage is, therefore, invisible to ground-based observers. Yet at least some of these, as well as the majority of the soaring-and-gliding species, become concentrated at narrow land bridges and at mountain passes, and, since raptors migrate almost solely by day (though radar studies in the 1990s provide good evidence that some, such as harriers, Levant Sparrowhawks and some falcons, at times migrate also by night), and normally in good weather conditions for viewing, it has been possible to collect a great deal of data on their migrations. Although identifying raptors in flight, at long range, poses many problems, great advances made since the 1980s have enabled reasonably accurate reports to be amassed in many parts of the world. Because most raptors try to avoid having to make sea-crossings of more than 25–30 km – though there are some notable exceptions (see above) – huge concentrations form at bottlenecks which afford the shortest possible

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crossing from one landmass to another. Several of these sites are very well known: in America, the isthmus of Panama and the Antilles chain of islands; in Europe, Falsterbo at the southern tip of Sweden, Gibraltar, and the Strait of Messina separating the foot of Italy from Sicily (from where raptors move between Europe and Cape Bon, in north Tunisia); in the Middle East, the Bosporus in Turkey, Eilat at the north end of the Red Sea, and several other sites; and, in Asia, the Isthmus of Kra and the Strait of Malacca in the Malay Peninsula, the Sundas, the Korean Strait, and the island chain of the Ryukyus (Nansei-shoto). Migration seasons vary from species to species, but very generally, and taking extremes into account, autumn passage of northern migrants begins from late July/August, although many raptors do not depart until September; passage peaks on route frequently occur in September–October, with stragglers appearing through November. Nonbreeding quarters may be reached at any time from as early as September to, in the case of long-distance migrants, as late as January. Return migration, generally less leisurely than that in autumn, can begin from January in the far south, increasing in intensity through February–March. Breeding grounds are reoccupied from about April–May, but raptors nesting in the world’s northernmost regions are often not back until May or even early June. The timing of passage is approximately the same each year for any given species, although peak periods can vary by up to several weeks, depending on weather conditions. Different age-classes may migrate at different times, and along different routes, but space here does not allow discussion of this interesting phenomenon (for further details, see e.g. Shirihai & Christie 1992, Shirihai et al. 2000).

MAIN ROUTES AND WATCHPOINTS A number of migration routes have been used by raptors for thousands of years, and these traditional flyways and corridors offer a reliable means of studying the movements of diurnal birds of prey. The world’s main raptor routes are shown in the map on page 51. As mentioned in the opening paragraph, all known watchpoints through which raptors pass regularly on migration – 388 in total – are listed in full, with comprehensive data on species, numbers and timing, in Raptor Watch: A global directory of raptor migration sites. Here, we present a brief summary of the most important routes and sites.

North and Central America, and into South America In the New World, geography dictates that raptors moving between North and South America have but a single optimum route: the narrow land bridge connecting the two continents. The principal routes in North America follow the north–south orientation of the mountain ranges, and four major migration corridors can be identified. These are, from west to east: the Pacific flyway, including the coastal mountains and islands; the Western Mountains flyway, including the Rockies; the Prairie flyway, used by raptors breeding in the western tundra and boreal forest; and the Eastern flyway, through Labrador and the east Canadian coast, around the Great Lakes and along the Appalachians. Many watchpoints are situated in the border area between Canada and the USA, notably in the lower ranges of the Rockies in the west, around the Great Lakes, and in New York State and the Appalachians in the east. In Pennsylvania, one of the most familiar names to raptor enthusiasts is Hawk Mountain Sanctuary in the central Appalachians, visited by many thousands of birdwatchers over many decades since its importance was first pointed out in 1934; 16 species occur there regularly, with an average annual total of 18,000 individuals counted. Autumn migration begins on a broad front in the north, becoming more concentrated towards the Canadian border. In the west, a proportion of migrants continues southwards along the coastal mountains, large numbers then moving through California, although the majority appear to take a more inland route along the Rockies; east of there passage is more dispersed, with some local concentrations along rivers and forest edges. Farther east, however, the Great Lakes represent a considerable obstacle, and southbound raptors are forced to fly around the western shores of those huge waters before moving down the Appalachians; at one station, Southeastern Michigan Raptor Research on the west shore of Lake Erie, an annual autumn average of some 110,000 raptors is recorded, and substantially more fly through in some years.

Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura Mississippi Kite Ictinia mississippiensis Sharp-shinned Hawk Accipiter striatus Broad-winged Hawk Buteo platypterus Swainson’s Hawk Buteo swainsoni American Kestrel Falco sparverius

AUTUMN Peak period Av. total

SPRING Peak period Av. total

mid Oct 844,000 early Sep 29,500 early/mid Oct 2,430 late Sep/early Oct 912,000 early Oct 365,000 mid/late Oct 2,780

late Mar late Apr early Apr early Apr early Apr mid Apr

163,000 11,110 1,840 317,000 107,000 2,100

Table 1. Most numerous of 19 raptor species passing through coastal plain of Veracruz, based on 1991–94 data.

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Although some pass through Florida and the Caribbean islands before either turning west towards Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula or continuing through the Antilles to northern South America, the main routes southwards converge in Texas along the Rio Grande valley and the Gulf coast; annual counts at Hazel Bazemore Park in south Texas average some 230,000 individuals. There, hundreds of thousands of raptors, including virtually the entire world populations of Broad-winged Hawks Buteo platypterus and Swainson’s Hawks, enter northeast Mexico before pressing on south to the narrow isthmus of Panama. By far the most important site, however, is in eastern Mexico, where the coastal plain of Veracruz provides excellent opportunities for studying the biggest passage of raptors to be found anywhere in the world. In the early 1990s, an average of 2.1 million individuals of 19 species was recorded in autumn, and 610,000 of 15 species in spring (table 1). In autumn 1994, 3.3 million raptors passed through during October alone, including over 1.2 million Turkey Vultures Cathartes aura (334,000 on 11th October), nearly 1.5 million Broad-winged Hawks (368,000 on 7th), 448,000 Swainson’s Hawks (144,000 on 11th), and 10,000 American Kestrels Falco sparverius (almost half of these on 10th). Even more remarkably, up to 4.5 million raptors were counted in the autumns of 1998 and 1999, but, quite astonishingly, that figure was eclipsed in the first years of the new millennium, when the total number passing through Veracruz at that season reached more than 6.5 million (tables 2, 3). Indeed, some of the counts of individual species made there in these recent years – more than 2.6 million Turkey Vultures, nearly 2.4 million Broad-winged Hawks and up to 1.2 million Swainson’s Hawks – make the 20th-century totals appear modest by comparison. Day totals of raptors are equally amazing; for example, 662,640 (almost 95% of them Broad-winged Hawks) on 26th September 2002, and over 1.5 million (707,000+ Turkey Vultures, 782,000+ Swainson’s Hawks) on 17th October 2003. Whether there is any significance in the apparent steady decline in grand totals during 2002–2004 (table 2) is uncertain, but continuing comprehensive observer coverage at this supreme bottleneck should help to provide an answer in the near future.

2002

2003

2004

Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura Mississippi Kite Ictinia mississippiensis Broad-winged Hawk Buteo platypterus Swainson’s Hawk Buteo swainsoni

2,677,355 306,274 2,386,232 1,009,648

2,028,633 210,105 1,745,351 1,216,153

1,404,964 177,088 2,069,336 980,494

Total all raptors

6,571,019

5,266,478

4,685,640

Table 2. Most numerous species, and totals of all raptors, passing through Veracruz in autumns of 2002–2004 (data from Hawk Migration Association of North America website).

AUGUST

SEPTEMBER

OCTOBER

TOTAL AUG–OCT

Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura Mississippi Kite Ictinia mississippiensis Broad-winged Hawk Buteo platypterus Swainson’s Hawk Buteo swainsoni

5 33,003 0 0

5,406 143,830 1,247,611 123

1,399,553 255 821,725 980,371

1,404,964 177,088 2,069,336 980,494

Total all raptors

33,127

1,403,263

3,249,250

4,685,640

Table 3. Most numerous raptors in Veracruz, 20th Aug to 21st Oct 2004 (data from Hawk Migration Association of North America website).

Despite these staggeringly large passages through Veracruz, the routes followed farther south and through South America are very poorly known. A few migrants fly variable distances down the western side of the Andes, but the majority appear to spread eastwards towards Venezuela, as do most Turkey Vultures, or fly along the eastern slopes to the continent’s interior. Broad-winged and Swainson’s Hawks, for example, move on to northeast Peru and western Brazil, many Swainson’s continuing still farther to the northeast Argentine pampas. The northward return is very roughly along the same routes, although the detour around the Great Lakes is then made along their eastern shores.

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In South America, several open-country raptors that breed in the southernmost Neotropics migrate north in July in response to changes in the weather. A typical example is the Red-backed Hawk Buteo polyosoma, although even some of these remain all year as far south as Tierra del Fuego.

Europe, Middle East and Asia Numerous raptor sites are known in Europe, where ornithology has a long history and the study of migration has enjoyed a huge popularity among birdwatchers. Between Falsterbo in the north and the western and eastern ends of the Mediterranean Sea in the south, there are some 21 sites where, in each case, 10,000+ birds of prey are counted on migration more or less annually. In the Mediterranean, other routes run down through Italy and the Balkan peninsula, thence across to the north African coast. Indeed, it is notable that Italy’s Strait of Messina is the only place in Europe where Eastern Red-footed Falcons have been recorded, one or two being seen in most springs, and occasionally in autumn, since the mid 1990s. Messina is probably Europe’s most important route for harriers returning from Africa in spring, at which season over 20,000 Western Honey-buzzards can also be expected at the same site (Corso 2001). Migration across Europe is largely on a broad front, with – as elsewhere – concentrations along such leading lines as river valleys and mountain ranges, but seven main migration corridors are known. In autumn, 20,000– 40,000 raptors, mostly Northern Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus, Common Buzzards Buteo b. buteo and Western Honey-buzzards, leave Scandinavia at Falsterbo before making the short crossing of the southern North Sea to the main European landmass (table 4). Larger numbers collect in the south for the shortest crossings of the Mediterranean: in the west at the Straits of Gibraltar (table 5), and in the east at both ends of the Black Sea (especially the Bosporus and the northeast Pontics, where there have been counts of 75,000 and 200,000+ raptors respectively). These latter bottlenecks channel populations from north and east Europe that mostly travel on through Turkey and the Levant.

Western Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus Northern Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus Common Buzzard Buteo buteo

Average

Maximum

Day maximum

5,200 14,650 10,800

22,100 19,900 37,200

10,000 1,890 14,800

Table 4. Most numerous raptors at Falsterbo in autumn.

AUTUMN Av. total Max. total Western Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus Black Kite Milvus migrans Short-toed Snake-eagle Circaetus gallicus Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus

86,700 39,000 5,200 6,830

116,000 63,000 8780 14,490

SPRING Av. total Max. total 4,480 9,950 760 288

8,210 940 465

Table 5. Most numerous raptors at Gibraltar.

Every year, several million raptors, of 40 or so species, pass through the Middle East between the Palearctic and Africa. Various routes that skirt the Black and Caspian Seas converge before either turning southwards across the Arabian Peninsula, entering Africa at the southern end of the Red Sea at the Bab-el-Mandeb strait (240,000 recorded), or moving on through Israel to reach Africa via Suez or Sinai. The spring return is along similar routes but, although significant numbers of Eastern Red-footed Falcons and Lesser Kestrels cross the southern parts of Arabia, fewer other migrants do. Instead, a massive passage moves north on the west side of the Red Sea and then over southern Israel, where Eilat, at the top of the Gulf of Aqaba, records up to 1.2 million raptors every spring, making it the most important Old World watchpoint; it is also, incidentally, the site where migrating raptors have been studied more intensively than they have anywhere else in the world. Raptor passage through the Middle East is dominated by Western Honey-buzzards, Black Kites Milvus migrans, Levant Sparrowhawks, ‘Steppe’ Buzzards, and Steppe Aquila nipalensis and Lesser Spotted Eagles A. pomarina (table 6). In addition, a notable 4,000 Western Red-footed Falcons Falco vespertinus have been counted in spring in northern Israel.

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Western Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus Black Kite Milvus migrans Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes ‘Steppe’ Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis

N & C ISRAEL: AUTUMN Av. total Max.

Av. total

EILAT: SPRING Max.

321,750 1,215 40,250 1,160 83,584 231

389,260 26,110 20,450 348,650 55 28,480

851,600 36,690 49,830 465,820 211 75,000

437,400 2,695 60,390 4,154 141,860

Day max. 176,420 20,450 25,520 130,000 4,292

Table 6. Most numerous raptors passing through Israel, 1978–98.

Farther east, migrant raptors moving south out of northern Asia concentrate along main river valleys and mountain slopes and passes, and along the shores of large lakes, such as Baikal. Some meet up with the more westerly populations migrating around the Caspian Sea, but most move into southern parts of the continent, especially India. As Asia has comparatively few ornithologists, and access to sites is in many cases far from easy, coverage of much of that continent has been at the very best only partial. Reliable information is limited, and relates chiefly to some migration corridors in eastern and southern Asia. Those raptors breeding in the region from northeast Siberia to Japan use the East Asian flyway, which splits into three main arms. The eastern inland route follows eastern China down into the northwest parts of southeast Asia and on through the Malay Peninsula, then across the Malacca Strait to Sumatra, where it turns eastwards through the Sundas; another arm proceeds from northeast Siberia along the Pacific coast to reach southeast Asia; and a third takes raptors down an oceanic route, passing through the Kurils, Sakhalin and the Korean Peninsula into Japan, and down through the Ryukyus (Nansei-shoto) and Taiwan to the Philippines, some continuing across to the southeast Asian mainland and Indonesia (this last journey includes the longest over-water flights of any raptor route with the exception of that apparently taken by small falcons crossing the Indian Ocean). On China’s east coast, 11,000+ raptors passing Beidaihe in autumn include up to 6,000 or so Pied Harriers Circus melanoleucos, and at the south end of that corridor, at the Malacca Strait, 180,000 Eastern Honey-buzzards Pernis orientalis have been seen in autumn, as also have Japanese Sparrowhawks Accipiter gularis passing at a rate of 1,400 per hour. Increased observer activity in recent years in this part of the world has led to some interesting results, perhaps the most important of which is the confirmation that Chumphon, on the eastern coastal plain of peninsular Thailand, is a watchsite of global significance. There, during six weeks in autumn 2003, a total of 170,665 raptors of 15 species was counted, Black Bazas Aviceda leuphotes and Chinese Sparrowhawks together accounting for 74% of these migrants (table 7) (DeCandido et al. 2004). Farther eastwards, through the Sundas, watchers in northwest Bali in October have counted 8,000 Japanese Sparrowhawks, 5,000+ Eastern Honeybuzzards and 1,000 Chinese Sparrowhawks A. soloensis.

Black Baza Aviceda leuphotes Eastern Honey-buzzard Pernis orientalis Eastern Marsh Harrier Circus spilonotus Chinese Sparrowhawk Accipiter soloensis Japanese Sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis Grey-faced Buzzard-hawk Butastur indicus

Total

Day Maximum

68,219 15,972 178 57,667 5,811 14,962

42,046 3,021 25 10,389 606 9,985

Table 7. Most numerous raptors passing over Chumphon, 27th Sep to 9th Nov 2003.

The vast majority of raptors recorded on the easternmost routes are Chinese Sparrowhawks and Grey-faced Buzzard-hawks Butastur indicus. Tens of thousands of each travel through Japan to Taiwan, where up to 70,000 of the former and 10,500 of the latter are observed at single sites in autumn (and 11,600 Grey-faced Buzzard-hawks in spring). It is highly likely, however, that the true numbers involved are, at least in some years, significantly greater than these figures suggest. In autumn 1999, for example, observers in Japan recorded 439,276 Chinese Sparrowhawks moving over Uchiyama-toge, in the Korean Strait, and 31,784 Grey-faced Buzzard-hawks passing over Kagoshima, in south Kyushu; and in September 2004 more than 200,000 Chinese Sparrowhawks were counted at the southern tip of Taiwan.

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Africa Although some raptors, including many harriers and small falcons, as well as Ospreys, reach Africa across a broad front and, being strong active fliers, often continue south across the Sahara, most Palearctic migrants, as outlined above, enter at the northeast and northwest extremes on each side of that formidable desert barrier. In the west, these move variable distances southwards, rather randomly and slowly. The biggest numbers, in the northeast, more or less follow the Rift Valley, in some cases all the way into southern Africa. In spring, northbound raptors moving along the valley sometimes collect in huge flocks of 100,000+ near and around Lake Victoria. In the south, certain species migrate north out of southern Africa on a fairly regular basis. The Black Harrier Circus maurus of the fynbos scrub and the mountain-dwelling Jackal Buzzard Buteo rufofuscus are two such examples. Most migration within the Afrotropics involves seasonal movement of variable distances triggered by the onset and subsequent cessation of the rains. Much of this is rather poorly understood, and conflicting statements have often been published. In broad terms, raptors adapt to ecological exigencies by moving north or south within the tropics, to areas where their food is, or is about to become, temporarily abundant. In West Africa, for instance, this involves a shift to the Sahel in the wet season (July–September) and a southward return to the humid savannahs in the dry season (December–February).

Australasia While many raptors in Australia are either more or less resident or nomadic, a few are regular migrants. Many Australian Hobbies Falco longipennis move north after breeding and cross the Torres Strait to New Guinea and the Sundas, before returning south a few months later; but it is unclear how many other species make this journey. In southern Australia, raptor movements are most pronounced in the southeast; for example, the Tasmanian population of the Australasian Marsh Harrier Circus approximans migrates to the mainland, as do juvenile Brown Falcons Falco berigora, though the adults of that species are apparently residents on the island.

CONSERVATION ASPECTS Apart from the relative importance of the various passage corridors to individual raptor species, migration studies have uncovered several important facts of relevance to conservation. By counting numbers of raptors each year, it has been possible not only to revise previous estimates of species’ total populations but also to monitor, to some extent, population trends. Good examples are provided by migrant numbers recorded in the Middle East for two species in particular. The Lesser Spotted Eagle was thought in the 1970s to number no more than 1,000 pairs in its entire Palearctic breeding range, but autumn counts of 40,000–45,000 individuals at Suez in 1981, 140,000+ in north-central Israel in 1983 (plus 114,000 there in 1986) and 32,000 at the Bosporus in 1988 radically altered this view. At the same time, the total world population of the Levant Sparrowhawk, virtually unknown, was guessed at below 5,000 pairs, yet nearly 50,000 individuals were counted on spring migration at Eilat in 1987, and in 1994 over 44,500 there and 60,000+ in autumn in northern Israel. While this sparrowhawk’s numbers appear to be reasonably stable, the Lesser Spotted Eagle’s have decreased considerably, possibly reflecting a reduction on the breeding grounds. This has been shown also to be the case with the Steppe Eagle A. nipalensis; a steady drop since the mid 1980s in migrant totals has been accompanied by an observed decline in breeding numbers in the western parts of that species’ range. It should be mentioned that various risks accompany migration. Aside from the possibility that weather conditions will suddenly become unfavourable at any point along the route, there are the obvious physical demands imposed on a bird undertaking a long-distance journey. An interesting adaptation is what is termed ‘fasting migration’, in which the bird takes on sufficient fuel for the journey in the form of fat deposits so that it will not need to feed during the flight. This strategy is followed by some of the buteos (perhaps Swainson’s Hawk, in particular) and the Western Honey-buzzard, which do not feed during their lengthy journeys, even when food is easily available. By contrast, the insectivorous falcons, such as the two red-footeds, hobbies and several kestrel species, being essentially aerial feeders, can take advantage of any insects that they encounter along the way. More serious are various dangers from the activities of human beings. It has been a regular pastime in some parts of the world to shoot migrating raptors every year as they pass along traditional routes, the hunters treating this as ‘sport’ or using the long-discredited excuse that such birds are ‘vermin’. Many tens of thousands of raptors still fall victim to the guns in such places as Malta, the Strait of Messina and other parts of the Mediterranean in Europe, and in parts of Central and South America, while the same problems face other species in China and Taiwan. Migrating raptors have even been used for target practice by bored soldiers during times of human armed conflict, as for instance in parts of the Middle East. It is difficult to believe that the slaughter of raptors in such massive numbers cannot ultimately have an adverse effect on breeding populations, the more so since it is the juveniles that make up a large proportion of the passages and normally migrate longer distances than do the adults. The fact that the shooting of migrating raptors is in most cases illegal seems not to have deterred those taking part in this activity, and one is left to conclude that the only course likely to lead to a more enlightened attitude is a series

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of large-scale programmes aimed at promoting public awareness. The success achieved by the Hawk Mountain Sanctuary, which is visited by almost 100,000 people every year, demonstrates what could be done elsewhere in the world. Its Hawks Aloft Worldwide (HAWW) initiative, promoting the global conservation of migratory raptors, has already had an influence in south Thailand and peninsular Malaysia: every autumn, each country now holds a ‘Raptor Watch’, and these attract large numbers of non-ornithologists who are simply fascinated by the spectacle of huge flocks of migrating raptors. Since falconry remains a popular pastime in some parts of the Old World, many raptors, especially large falcons, are caught during migration in order to be used for this purpose. Trapping is particularly prevalent in the Middle East, but occurs also in parts of China and Russia and possibly elsewhere. Saker Falcons Falco cherrug, the populations of which are certainly already small, are frequently a prized acquisition for falconers, but other large falcons, as well as some of the eagles and hawks, are also caught. A final point worth mentioning is one that may not be immediately obvious. Because raptors do not normally migrate at night (see above), they need to find suitable sites at which to rest during the hours of darkness. Although large flocks of Western Honey-buzzards and Swainson’s Hawks, among others, are able to use bare ground, such as mountainsides, open fields and lakeshores, as stopover/roosting sites, many species prefer to rest in or on vegetation. It is important, therefore, that the habitats along major migration routes be preserved.

MOULT PATTERNS, AGE CRITERIA AND POLYMORPHISM Carl Edelstam A knowledge of moult is central to any assessment of the age of many medium-sized and large raptors. It may also help in determining the sex and, in certain cases when individual birds are in odd-looking intermediate plumages, sometimes even the species.

MOULTING PERIOD Moult costs energy and impairs flight. It therefore takes place at times in the annual cycle when the pressures from nesting, feeding, climatic conditions or migration are not too heavy. It starts usually at the end of the breeding season and, in populations of temperate regions, either is completed before the onset of winter or is suspended during migration and resumed on arrival in the winter quarters. A few long-distance migrants, such as the Osprey Pandion haliaetus and Western Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus, remain for their first 18 months in tropical non-breeding quarters, where they go through the moult into their second plumages. Sedentary tropical raptors either moult slowly throughout the year, except when breeding, or may synchronise the moult with the wet or dry seasons. Among raptor species where the male supplies all the food for the family until the young can be left unattended in the nest, the female may start quill moult during incubation; the male, on the other hand, does not begin until his mate can play her part in hunting. This is not a firm rule, but it may help to distinguish the sexes during the breeding season when one of the two is in quill moult.

BODY MOULT Body moult often starts before quill moult and, among larger raptors, is mostly completed before the last new quill has grown. In crude terms, it advances like a wave from front to rear, though certain feather groups may precede the wave. Thus, juvenile accipiters, for instance, often replace some tibial feathers first, before the body moult is properly under way. Individual small falcons may show these early signs of post-juvenile moult during their first autumn, foretelling an early onset of moult in the winter quarters. In mid-moult between two markedly different plumages, certain raptors may, for a brief period, look rather odd in comparison with their appearance in standard illustrations, including those in this book. In such cases, a knowledge of the timing and progression of body moult will help the observer to identify the species. Some of the hawk eagles of the genus Spizaetus are cases in point. An occasional contour-feather left unmoulted can provide a guide to age. A Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis with a second-year underwing-covert in the adult plumage can safely be identified as a third-year bird. Conversely, one with an old and worn adult covert in otherwise fresh plumage is in at least its fourth year. Although, in principle, the body plumage is renewed annually, the number of contour-feathers that escape moult is greater on larger raptors than on small or mid-sized species. These faded retained feathers are not usually visible at any real distance. In the case of, for example, Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos, however, they stand out from freshly moulted feathers as mottling, especially on the upperwings; they help to distinguish second-winter and

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third-winter birds from juveniles when other features may, because of the finely stepped plumage development of this species, still present a fairly juvenile appearance. The number of separate plumages that precede the definitive adult depends in part on the size of the species and in part on its systematic affinities. Small accipiters and falcons moult directly from juvenile to adult plumage. The relatively large Northern Goshawk assumes an intermediate, or ‘subadult’, plumage for its second year, whereas the equally large Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus does not. Indeed, the largest caracaras Caracara and, possibly, the forest-falcons Micrastur may be the only falconiforms to have an intermediate plumage. The second plumages of the snake-eagles Circaetus and serpent-eagles Spilornis are, as a rule, only slightly different from the definitive adult plumages. But most fish-eagles Haliaeetus, harpy eagles, and true (or ‘booted’) eagles of such genera as Aquila and Hieraaetus, whether large or relatively small, have a sequence of several intermediate plumages. These may represent a gradually stepped change through many plumages from juvenile to adult, as illustrated by the Golden Eagle; or two juvenile-like plumages followed by three or more that gradually approach the adult, as demonstrated by the Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca; or two similar but quite characteristic intermediate plumages followed by one or two closely approaching the adult, as with the White-tailed Fish-eagle Haliaeetus albicilla. Exceptions include the Neotropical Black-and-white Hawk Eagle Spizastur melanoleucus; three of the four smaller hawk eagles of the genus Hieraaetus, which not only lack an intermediate plumage but sometimes cannot, as adults, be distinguished from juveniles; and the Great Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi, one of the biggest of all eagles, yet with the adult almost identical to the juvenile. Insular raptors in general do tend to have fewer intermediate plumages than their mainland relatives, or to produce an adult plumage that is less distinct from that of the juvenile.

QUILL MOULT When plumage details cannot be clearly seen, or do not provide conclusive evidence for ageing, quill moult may offer valuable information: see fig. 15, which illustrates the use of the terms ‘wave’, ‘front’ and ‘focus’ in connection with wing moult. All diurnal raptors have 10 functional primaries on each wing. All also have 12 tail-feathers (for moult purposes, counted as 6 on each side of the tail), except for Steller’s Fish-eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus and some Old World vultures, which have 14 (7+7), as does a minority of Forster’s Caracaras Phalcoboenus australis. But the number of secondaries varies considerably, and it is useful to understand this when checking for moult gaps. Including the 2–4 small innermost secondaries, nearly all species of the four largest raptor groups have 13–15 secondaries on each wing: the kites, including the bazas Aviceda and honey-buzzards Pernis/Henicopernis (but not the Bat-hawk Macheiramphus alcinus, if indeed it is a kite); the accipiters; the buteonines (except Fig. 15. Moult waves (arrows), fronts (solid lines) and foci that the exceptionally large Black-chested Buzzard– (circles) in the wing of an Osprey Pandion haliaetus aged eagle Geranoaetus melanoleucus and the solitary-eagles 22 months. Note two primary moult waves (representing the Harpyhaliaetus usually have 16 – as, incidentally, do the second and third generations of primaries) and a worn and chanting-goshawks Melierax, which are often treated bleached outermost juvenile (first-generation) primary. (After as accipitrines, but see p. 67); and all the falconiforms. Edelstam 1984) On the other hand, the Indian Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis has 14–16 secondaries; the two Afro-Malagasy rainforest serpent-eagles Dryotriorchis and Eutriorchis, the hawk eagles Hieraaetus and Spizaetus and the Palmnut Vulture Gypohierax angolensis all have 15–17; the Bat-hawk 16–18; and the larger eagles and fish-eagles 16–21, the number varying slightly among species. Of the other serpent-eagles and snake-eagles, the Asiatic Spilornis possess 15–17 secondaries and the mainly Afrotropical Circaetus 17–19, but the almost delta-winged Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus is endowed with a remarkable 23–25. The very large but rather sedentary Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius has 18–20 secondaries, and the relatively small but strongly migratory Osprey has 19–21. While the smaller New World cathartid vultures Cathartes and Coragyps have only 16–18 secondaries, the similarspanned but unrelated Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus of Africa and the wider-ranging Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus both have 19–21. Among the bigger vultures of both groups, the King Vulture Sarcoramphus papa of the Neotropics and the much wider-spanned Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus of Africa and Eurasia are furnished with 20–22 secondaries, and the other large Old World vultures all with 23–25. Of the two widest-spanned raptors of all, the California Condor Gymnogyps californianus has only 21–23 compared with the 26–30 of the Andean Condor Vultur gryphus.

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a.

a.

b.

b.

c.

Fig. 16. Left dorsal views of (a) a falcon Falco and (b) a generalised accipitrid hawk, with origins and directions of moult waves shown by arrows. Moult waves on the wing proceed linearly in the units indicated; and in the tail on an alternating scheme, with 1–3–2 and 6–4–5 as the preferred sequences. A few long-winged raptors, notably some Old and New World vultures, may have an extra moult focus in the mid-arm region. (After Edelstam 1984)

Fig. 17. Left dorsal views of a large eagle in its (a) second, (b) third and (c) fourth years. Fresh quills are shown in black, one-year-old quills shaded, and older quills in white; pointer marks boundary between primaries and secondaries. In practice, a long moult season results in gradual differences in wear and depth of colour which are not attempted here. Individual variation is also considerable and must be taken into account. Note the pointed juvenile quills remaining into the second and even third years. (After Edelstam 1984)

As a rule, the primary moult series, counting the primaries from the innermost outwards, starts with the fourth primary (p4) in the falconiforms (fig. 16a), but with p1 in all other diurnal raptors (fig. 16b), and concludes with p10. The moult of all secondaries and rectrices is also normally accomplished within the same period, although occasionally an inner secondary may be shed first, and a middle secondary last (one of s4 or s7–9, counting inwards). Among the upper greater coverts, those of the primaries closely follow their quills, but the secondary coverts and tail-coverts are replaced in a less predictable manner. The time required to grow a new quill is 2–3 weeks for the smallest accipiters and probably 2–3 months for an Andean Condor under natural conditions. To avoid large moult gaps which might impede flight, the moulting process is divided into smaller units on each wing, and moult waves proceed simultaneously through all units from predetermined foci until they reach a neighbouring moult focus, an opposing moult wave, or either end of the wing (fig. 15). Although similar in principle, this process differs considerably in detail between the falconiforms and all other raptors. For one thing, all falcons and caracaras have two moult units in the hand and three in the arm, whereas the rest have one and four. Moult-wave direction also differs for some of the units (cf. figs 16a and 16b). In this manner, all the kites and their allies (except, again, the Bat-hawk), and the harriers Circus, accipiters and falconiforms are able to replace their quills annually. Some of the larger species, however, such as Northern

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Goshawk and Northern Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus, may retain an old s4 or s8 (or sometimes several mid-arm quills) until the next year’s moult. Most mid-sized and large raptors extend the moult of each quill generation over more than one year. By the end of the first moult season, with only some of the juvenile quills replaced (fig. 17a), the moult waves are arrested and then move on as the next moult season begins. At that time, new moult waves – representing the third generation of quills – are initiated at some or all foci (fig. 17b). Other waves follow in subsequent years so that more than one moult front may be present within any unit, each advancing at a relatively slow pace (fig. 17c). It should be added that for the smallest buteonines the rapid growth of the quills often precludes the appearance of more than one front within each unit, so they hardly qualify for inclusion in this group. This is the process, known as ‘serial moult’, that is characteristic not only of cathartid vultures, Old World vultures, fish-eagles, snake- and serpent-eagles, gymnogenes Polyboroides, chanting-goshawks, larger buteos, true eagles, and the Osprey, Bat-hawk, Long-tailed Hawk Urotriorchis macrourus and Secretarybird, but also of some other avian orders with species that are either very large or have particularly stringent demands on flight performance. The latter include pelicans Pelecanus, cormorants Phalacrocorax, storks (Ciconiidae), most large owls (Strigidae) plus the smaller owls of the genus Aegolius, and even a few terns (Sternidae). Since moult waves do not always run entirely in parallel on the right and left wings, and since minor lapses in the sequence occur within units, the picture may become somewhat blurred as a bird ages. This applies particularly to all vultures, which seem to be less dependent on flight symmetry than are active hunters (irregularities are common also among the carrion-eating caracaras, although those moult all quills annually). As a result, while most remiges and rectrices are renewed according to a crudely annual scheme on the smaller serial moulters, and approximately biennially on many of the large ones, individual wing-quills may serve for 3–4 years on a big raptor. Even these large species, however, often replace some rectrices and inner secondaries after only one year.

ASSESSING AGE Until a raptor reaches adult plumage, quill-moult irregularities are usually insignificant. With a knowledge of the pattern and pace of moult, and of the way in which quills become bleached and worn on the wing or in the tail, one can deduce the age of a large raptor in intermediate plumage by examining its remiges and, so long as a juvenile p10, s4 or s7–9 is still present, by counting moult fronts. Later, an approximation of age should be possible up to the time when full adult plumage is assumed. With the bird in the hand or in a good photograph, this can be done even when there is no sign of active moult. Additional help in distinguishing juvenile quills from later ones is provided by the difference in their length, a typical feature of Lammergeiers, Egyptian Vultures, and the largest Aquila and Haliaeetus species, and by the difference in their shape, which is more general (though not universal) among raptors. When seen from directly underneath, the pointed juvenile quills make for a saw-toothed appearance to the trailing edges of the wings; by comparison, the adult edges look fairly smooth. As moult sets in, the difference in length becomes even more apparent among the large eagles and fish-eagles, and the Egyptian Vulture and Lammergeier, because their remaining juvenile secondaries stand out from the new quills by 1–4 cm or, in the case of the Lammergeier, by 4–6 cm. This difference in quill length does not occur in the New World vultures. Among true raptors, it is almost non-existent in the case of the Imperial and Steppe Eagles Aquila nipalensis, and becomes inversed in the smaller Aquila species, such as the three spotted eagles, on which the juvenile quills are slightly shorter than the adult ones. Among falcons, only the Gyr and its closest relatives have longer quills as juveniles than as adults. Differences in colour pattern between quills grown in successive years may also provide significant information. This is especially so for such species as the Golden Eagle, in which, as we have seen, the change takes place gradually over many years. Nevertheless, the art of ageing large subadult raptors by moult criteria, after the last juvenile quill has been shed, requires a solid background knowledge of many moult protocols so that the moulting speed of each species, and its individual variation, can be correctly assessed. Such detail, which may be obtained only from series of museum skins or from birds trapped for ringing, cannot be given here (but see Edelstam 1984). Birdwatchers should be aware of the potential value of good photographs, carefully dated, of any large raptors, whether on passage, on the breeding grounds or in winter quarters. A photograph provides a much better basis for assessing age than does any description, however competently reported. Excellent examples of high-quality photographs have been provided by, for example, Forsman (1999) and Wheeler (2003). A central archive of such photographs, if we had one, could tell us much. It could help us to understand the population structure of some species. It could give us additional information about the timing of the migrations of certain age-classes, a subject already touched on by, for instance, Shirihai & Christie (1992) and Shirihai et al. (2000) with regard to the huge passages of raptors through the Middle East (see pp. 54–55) and by Kjellén (e.g. 1995) for autumn raptor passage over the south Swedish peninsula of Falsterbo. It could also tell us something about the ages at which various raptors start breeding, because at least the females of many species, from Northern Goshawk to large eagles, may do so in intermediate plumage.

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Note, however, that captive birds should never be used as a source of reference for moult patterns in the wild. First, the lack of normal social stimulation in captivity may disrupt the moult process. Secondly, regular access to a surplus of food will accelerate it considerably. There is even a suspicion that the food put out by conservationists in Sweden since the mid 1990s to help support wintering White-tailed Fish-eagles in that country may be inducing the birds to assume adult plumage earlier than they did before, when no food supplement was offered.

POLYMORPHISM Apart from the differences of sex, age or geography, the great majority of bird species also show slight variations in size, shape and colour. A few species, however, have two or more classes of markedly different individuals which may occur side by side in relatively stable proportions. Such ‘morphs’ are more common among the accipitrids and falconids than in any other major group of birds (for a review, see Huxley 1955). A melanistic morph is the commonest, resulting as a rule from a surplus of eumelanin, and sometimes also of phaeomelanin, on a mixed (normal) background of both kinds of melanin, this giving rise to a dark brown or blackish-brown plumage. In cases where eumelanin but not phaeomelanin is involved, the effect is of a pure black or dark grey, dependent on concentration; with ‘red’ phaeomelanin only, the result is an intense chestnut (erythrism). On rare occasions, it seems that eumelanin can simply replace phaeomelanin, as in the grey morph of the Long-tailed Hawk Urotriorchis macrourus, in which the dark neutral grey of the throat extends to breast and belly, which are normally chestnut. Melanistic morphs occur as a more than occasional feature in over 30 species of honey-buzzards, kites, fisheagles, harriers, accipiters, buteos, true eagles and falcons; and erythristic morphs in another ten. In addition, as suggested by Cooke (1985), some species which are now characteristically dark may at some stage have been polymorphic, until the dark morph got the edge on its conspecifics and eventually became 100% dominant. Cases in point might be the Black Honey-buzzard Henicopernis infuscatus, Black Harrier Circus maurus, White-rumped Hawk Buteo leucorrhous, Long-crested Eagle Lophaetus occipitalis and Black Falcon Falco subniger. The dark morph of Steller’s Fish-eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus may have become extinct over the last two decades as a result of the merciless persecution of large birds in North Korea, its former centre of distribution. Closely related species may look deceptively similar in melanistic plumage. As melanin invades the plumage, however, it may in some cases leave white those parts which in the pale morph are entirely devoid of pigment, and this may help to identify a bird. Moreover, parts of the plumage which are pure chestnut may remain unaffected by an increase in eumelanin. For instance, the Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus in North America and, in Eurasia, the Long-legged Buzzard B. rufinus and Upland Buzzard B. hemilasius, three species of similar size and proportions, all have dark morphs which are blackish-brown with strikingly white bases to the primaries underneath; but only on the first of these is the uppertail often partly white. The dark morph of the Augur Buzzard B. augur of Africa is all black-brown except for its bright chestnut tail, which facilitates identification. More than a dozen possible reasons for the presence of dark morphs in various animal species have been put forward by students of evolution. Among these, as argued by Paulson (1973), the most generally applicable to raptors is probably that of frequency-dependent selection. Applied to a predator, this hypothesis states that a potential prey will less easily learn to evade a predator that appears in different guises (a predator whose preferred prey comes in different colours would have corresponding difficulties: that this is so has been statistically demonstrated). Thus, as an alternative plumage appears by mutation in a raptor, it may – so long as it does not become too frequent – confer an advantage during hunting that compensates for possible drawbacks in other respects. This argument is strengthened by the fact that other birds with a high incidence of melanism, such as herons (Ardeidae) and skuas (Stercorariidae), also feed primarily on visually alert prey; and that members of these groups that feed primarily on carrion, or on such defenceless prey as nestling birds, are only rarely polymorphic (Paulson 1973 again, though exceptions are provided by harmless species that mimic more capable raptors: see below). That this hypothesis may be difficult to verify in the field, however, even in birds as intensively studied as the skuas, was shown by Furness (1987). It must be stressed that no systematic study has been carried out to establish whether individuals of any morph differ from those of other morphs in feeding ecology. If they do, polymorphism could indicate a partitioning of food resources rather than a strategy to outwit a common prey. Arguments to this effect were detailed by Murton (1971) for herons. The hypothesis of a niche difference between morphs would better suit the fact that substantial variations occur in the frequency of morphs between and within polymorphic species, and it could also help the understanding of why some species are polymorphic only in the juvenile plumage and others only in the adult. This explanation gains credibility through the observations that dark Red-tailed Hawks Buteo jamaicensis prefer less exposed perches than those used by their lighter-coloured conspecifics (Preston 1980). The incidence of melanism among raptor species varies from zero to over 90%. The proportion may be relatively uniform over the distributional range of a species (6.5–25% among Gabar Goshawks Micronisus gabar over much of Africa: Brown et al. 1982); vary at lower levels (a few percent in Rough-legged Buzzards in North America, with much local variation, but less than one per thousand and possibly even zero in the Eurasian population: Dementiev

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& Gladkov 1951, and own data); or show more dramatic differences, such as from zero among east European Longlegged Buzzards to over half the population in Afghanistan (Dementiev & Gladkov 1951; for other temperate Asian raptors, see Stepanyan 1985). In the Bateleur, an erythristic morph with back and tail dark chestnut predominates, but a pale morph with these parts light buff or cream also occurs, especially in drier areas. Most or all eumelanistic morphs are known in both adult and juvenile plumages. The chestnut and whitish morphs of the Bicoloured Hawk Accipiter bicolor, however, are seen only in juveniles, and the rare buffish (‘fulvescens’) morph of the Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga is nearly restricted to juveniles, as also are the white-speckled varieties of the Common Buzzard Buteo buteo which are common in the southern part of the species’ range. Conversely, dimorphism among Bateleurs has been reported only for adults. Dimorphism (the presence of two morphs) is, however, not the only alternative to a ‘standard’ plumage, should such exist. On close examination, dark individuals of Wahlberg’s Eagle Hieraaetus wahlbergi can be divided into four groups: one (moderately frequent) very dark brown, one (frequent) dark brown, one (scarce) more olive-brown below, and one (scarce) dark rufous-brown. None of these is likely to be picked out in the field except as ‘dark’, whereas the pale white-speckled morph is highly characteristic but rare. The Booted Eagle H. pennatus is generally said to have two morphs, dark and light; but rufous individuals can be distinguished in good light conditions, and museum studies reveal that intermediates occur. These examples suggest that ‘melanistic’ versus ‘standard’ is not always a matter of two alleles at a single locus that governs the production of either kind of melanin (though that may well be so at an initial stage). This becomes even more clear when we look at the Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus, which in its arctic distribution unfolds a range of variants – from nearly white (‘candicans’) to very dark (‘obsoletus’) – related only in part to sex, age and geography. A similar situation occurs in many so-called polymorphic species. The limited information available on the genetic background of polymorphism among birds has been reviewed by Harrison (1985), and additional data on skuas were presented by Furness (1987). A more complex morphism occurs in other species. The Plain-breasted hawk Accipiter ventralis of South America, formerly regarded as a race of the Sharp-shinned Hawk A. striatus of North America, is known to have blackish, rufous and pale forms in the adult plumage. The Hook-billed Kite Chondrohierax uncinatus of Latin America has been cited as the most variable species among raptors, but this title undoubtedly belongs to the Western Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus, which features about ten different morphs that are differently distributed between juveniles and adults. It must be stressed, however, that the morphs of the Hook-billed Kite and the Western Honey-buzzard are not simply alternatives (as in most dimorphic species), but represent frequency peaks in a complex ‘colour-pattern landscape’ that must have evolved over a considerable period of time. The reason for the great variability of the Western Honey-buzzard appears to be that it mimics more powerful raptors and so achieves protection from enemies. Since powerful raptors are relatively rare, selection has favoured the splitting of the mimic into a number of morphs, each of which models a particular small eagle so that – primarily in its African winter quarters (where the Western Honey-buzzard, being insectivorous, spends more time than it does in its temperate breeding range) – protection can be obtained from a variety of sources. Its Asian congeners, particularly the Indomalayan P. ptilorhynchus and Barred Honey-buzzards P. celebensis, have been equally successful in copying local eagles, mostly Spizaetus hawk eagles, and have carefully adapted to their respective models not only in colour but also in the length of the nuchal crest, which varies from non-existent to very prominent. Similarly, the Hook-billed Kite seems to mimic a set of local raptors, including the Bicoloured Hawk, forestfalcons Micrastur and two or three small buteonine hawks, which all fly faster and have stronger talons than does the kite. It seems likely that instances of mimicry in this sense (not to be confused with so-called vocal mimicry, which involves learning, and not normally disguise) will be discovered among other timid raptors. This has been suggested for the Rufous-thighed Kite Harpagus diodon of South America in relation to the local race of the Bicoloured Hawk A. b. pileatus (see Willis 1976). Conversely, the remarkable similarity of the Zone-tailed Hawk Buteo albonotatus to the Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura may be the result of its mimicking the vulture in order to approach potential prey unnoticed (Willis 1963), or to avoid being mobbed. It has also been proposed that the white morphs of the Grey Goshawk Accipiter novaehollandiae of Australia and of the Varied Goshawk A. hiogaster of New Guinea have evolved in response to the presence – over parts of those two species’ ranges – of Cacatua cockatoos that are mainly white, are far more common than the goshawks, and thus may provide cover for it when it approaches its prey. The presence of white goshawks in Tasmania – where white cockatoos do not occur – does, however, slightly mar this attractive theory.

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TAXONOMY, SEQUENCE AND NOMENCLATURE OF RAPTORS FAMILIES AND GENERA Following some criticism of the ordinal divisions which we used in the original book (Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001), and continuing disagreement about the taxonomic position of the American cathartids, we are here disregarding all rankings above the family level, but retain five families and two subfamilies of raptors: the Cathartidae (New World vultures), Pandionidae (Osprey), Accipitridae (kites, fish-eagles and vultures through to hawks and eagles), Sagittariidae (Secretarybird), and Falconidae, the last comprising the Daptriinae (caracaras and forest-falcons) and Falconinae (pygmy-falcons, falconets, and true falcons) (many authors still place the Osprey and Secretarybird in individual subfamilies of the Accipitridae). Following Olson (1976), backed up much more recently by Wink & Sauer-Gürth (2004), we continue to treat the Spot-winged Falconet Spiziapteryx circumcinctus with the New World Polyborinae, rather than as related to the Old World falconets in the Falconinae. At the next level, we have proceeded with the same 78 genera as before – not least because at least one example of each is pictured on the key plates 1–3. Thus, we have not followed other recent authors who separated the four Aegypius vultures into the monospecific genera of Sarcogyps, Trigonoceps and Torgos, reserving Aegypius for the Monk (Cinereous) Vulture alone. We have also retained the Grey Hawk, nitidus, in Buteo (not transferred it to the monospecific genus Asturina) and the Red-throated Caracara, americanus, in Daptrius (not Ibycter). In contrast, Amadon (1982) reasoned that four previously monotypic genera of eagles should be synonymised with larger genera (Polemaetus with Hieraaetus, and Lophaetus, Stephanoaetus and Oroaetus with Spizaetus). More recently, on the basis of DNA sequencing, Wink & Sauer-Gürth (2004) concluded that, of the ‘true eagles’ or ‘booted eagles’, at least Hieraaetus and Lophaetus should be merged with Aquila.

SPECIES The number of species recognised in this book is 338, an increase of 25 on the total featured by Ferguson-Lees & Christie (2001). One is new to science, in that specimens of forest-falcons Micrastur from undisturbed terra firme forest southwest and south of the Amazon, long attributed to the Lined Forest-falcon M. gilvicollis whose range otherwise lies mostly north of that great river, have now been distinguished under the name of Cryptic Forest-falcon M. mintoni (Whittaker 2002). The other 24 taxa involved were previously treated by us as races but are here raised to the species level. Most of these changes already have some published support, and several have widespread if not yet universal recognition as such. They comprise two honey-buzzards Pernis, three kites Chondrohierax/Milvus, one vulture Gyps, three harriers Circus, five accipiters Accipiter, one buzzard Buteo, three eagles Aquila, four hawk eagles Spizaetus, one caracara Caracara and one falcon Falco. These 25 additional species are listed below, each followed in brackets by the name of the species with which we previously combined it: 1. Eastern Honey-buzzard Pernis orientalis [Indomalayan (Crested) Honey-buzzard P. ptilorhynchus] 2. Steere’s Honey-buzzard Pernis steerei [Barred Honey-buzzard P. celebensis] 3. Cuban Hook-billed Kite Chondrohierax wilsonii [Hook-billed Kite C. uncinatus] 4. Black-eared Kite Milvus lineatus [Black Kite M. migrans] 5. Yellow-billed Kite Milvus aegyptius [Black Kite M. migrans] 6. Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris [Long-billed Vulture G. indicus] 7. Eastern Marsh Harrier Circus spilonotus [Northern Marsh Harrier C. aeruginosus] 8. Papuan Marsh Harrier Circus spilothorax [Australasian Marsh Harrier C. approximans] 9. Malagasy Marsh Harrier Circus macrosceles [Réunion Marsh Harrier C. maillardi] 10. Red-chested Goshawk Accipiter toussenelii [African Goshawk A. tachiro] 11. White-breasted Hawk Accipiter chionogaster [Sharp-shinned Hawk A. striatus] 12. Plain-breasted Hawk Accipiter ventralis [Sharp-shinned Hawk A. striatus] 13. Rufous-thighed Hawk Accipiter erythronemius [Sharp-shinned Hawk A. striatus] 14. Chilean Hawk Accipiter chilensis [Bicoloured Hawk A. bicolor] 15. Archer’s Buzzard Buteo archeri [Augur Buzzard B. augur] 16. Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata [Lesser Spotted Eagle A. pomarina] 17. Indian Tawny Eagle Aquila vindhiana [Tawny Eagle A. rapax] 18. Spanish Imperial Eagle Aquila adalberti [Imperial Eagle A. heliaca] 19. Dimorphic Hawk Eagle Spizaetus limnaeetus [Indian Crested = Changeable Hawk Eagle S. cirrhatus]

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20. Andaman Hawk Eagle Spizaetus andamanensis [Changeable Hawk Eagle S. cirrhatus] 21. Simeuluë Hawk Eagle Spizaetus vanheurni [Changeable Hawk Eagle S. cirrhatus] 22. Flores Hawk Eagle Spizaetus floris [Changeable Hawk Eagle S. cirrhatus] 23. Crested Caracara Caracara cheriway [Crested = Southern Caracara C. plancus] 24. Cryptic Forest-falcon Micrastur mintoni [not distinguished from Lined Forest-falcon M. gilvicollis] 25. Red-necked Falcon Falco horsbrughi [Red-headed Falcon F. chicquera] It has long been accepted that species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups (Mayr 1969). We often cannot know, of course, whether taxa effectively kept apart by seas, mountain ranges or other major geographical features are in fact reproductively isolated. Almost half of those in the above list are indeed separated by great distances in breeding (1) or total range (14, 16, 17, 25), or are endemic island taxa (2, 3, 8, 9, 20, 21, 22); all show marked differences in morphology and, frequently, ecology from their nearest relatives. Most of the remainder (4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 18, 19, 23), and some of those already referred to (e.g. 8, 9) are parts of species groups that are increasingly being treated as distinct species. (The concept of ‘superspecies’ as groupings of closely related and largely or entirely allopatric species [asterisked on the species list on pp. 4–25] is invaluable in recognising affinities, rather than lumping them as conspecific.) The 25 species listed above are individually discussed below, along with a few comments, where relevant, on other taxa of uncertain position.

Honey-buzzards Pernis (1–2) At one time the Western Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus and its Eastern and Indomalayan counterparts P. orientalis and P. ptilorhynchus were all considered conspecific, but the Western taxon has been treated as specifically distinct for many years (e.g. Vaurie 1965) and it and orientalis can be distinguished in the field in reasonably good views (e.g. Forsman 1994). The migratory Eastern Honey-buzzard (plate 11:2) has continued to be regarded by most authors as a race of the sedentary Indomalayan Honey-buzzard (12:1) – under such varied names as ‘Crested’, ‘Asiatic’ and ‘Oriental’ – but it is reproductively isolated and differs markedly in proportions of bill, tarsus and wings. Similarly, Steere’s Honey-buzzard P. steerei of the Philippines has traditionally been considered a subspecies of the Barred Honey-buzzard P. celebensis of Sulawesi, but these endemic island forms are clearly long isolated and have constant plumage differences. Moreover, they each mimic the very different endemic hawk eagles of those two island groups, to an astonishing degree on Sulawesi, where the Sulawesi Hawk Eagle Spizaetus lanceolatus is the only ‘model’ (compare plates 12:2 and 82:2), and rather less so in the Philippines, where there is not only the Philippine Hawk Eagle S. philippensis (82:3) but also a local race of the Dimorphic (Changeable) Hawk Eagle S. limnaeetus (81:2) (see below).

New World kites Chondrohierax (3) and Leptodon The now seriously endangered and rarely seen Cuban Hook-billed Kite Chondrohierax wilsonii (15:3) has previously been proposed to be specifically distinct from the widespread and polymorphic Hook-billed Kite C. uncinatus of Central and South America and the Lesser Antilles (14:4), but is still generally treated as an endemic island race. We follow Raffaele et al. (1998), however, in treating it as a separate species because it is clearly long isolated, monomorphic and, though smaller in size, highly distinctive on account of its larger all-yellow bill. This bird is now so rare that Garrido & Kirkconnell (2000) were able to note only 3 sightings in the previous 30 years, the last in 1992, and so it seems unlikely that field studies will be able to shed light on its taxonomy. In the absence of any new published information on the equally rare Forbes’s Kite Leptodon forbesi (15:2) of Brazil, we have continued to regard it as a distinct species and not a colour morph of the much more widely distributed Grey-headed Kite L. cayanensis of Central and South America (plate 15:1). Forbes’s (White-collared) Kite was long known only from the type specimen, killed in Pernambuco in northeast Brazil and now in the Natural History Museum at Tring, Hertfordshire, which is also the sole specimen that we have been able to examine. It was considered by Brown & Amadon (1968) to be a variant of the Grey-headed Kite, but then came reports of adult and juvenile specimens from adjacent Alagoas (Teixeira et al. 1987a, b; Teixeira 1990-97 in litt.). Amadon & Bull (1988) concluded that the status of the taxon must remain indeterminate, and the details of the more recent Brazilian specimens have apparently still not been published.

Old World kites Milvus (4–5) We are now distinguishing the Black-eared Kite Milvus lineatus of eastern Asia (7:2) and the Yellow-billed Kite M. aegyptius of the Middle East and Africa (7:3) as separate from the Black Kite M. migrans of the Western Palearctic and the Indian region through to Australia (7:1). They have traditionally been regarded as conspecific, because of secondary hybridisation where the ranges of migrans and lineatus meet in Asia, and some intermediacy between migrans and aegyptius in southern Arabia (e.g. Vaurie 1965). All three, however, variously differ in size, general patterns of head and underparts, extent of wing-patches, proportionate length of tail and depth of fork, bill colour,

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and ecology. The Eurasian migrans and lineatus are now, like other east-west Palearctic species-pairs, increasingly, and more usefully, treated as distinct species (e.g. Sibley & Monroe 1990, Rasmussen & Anderton 2005). The warm brown Arabian aegyptius and its African counterpart parasitus, with their more deeply forked tails and, as adults, bright yellow bills, are also now often considered to represent a third species. We continue to regard the critically endangered, if not already extinct, Cape Verde Kite M. fasciicauda as an island endemic specifically distinct from the Red Kite M. milvus.

Thin-billed Indian vultures Gyps (6) The Long-billed and Slender-billed Vultures Gyps tenuirostris and G. indicus (24:1-2) have traditionally been treated as conspecific, but are largely or entirely allopatric and have clear differences in structure (most obviously, of bill, head and neck), in form and extent of feathering (particularly, on head, thighs and crissum), and in breeding biology. The details on plate 24, and notably the quotations there under Slender-billed, are taken from Rasmussen et al. (2001). ‘Long-billed’ is here preferred to ‘Indian’ as a name for indicus because both these taxa have narrower and more elongated bills than other vultures and it is useful to link them as a species-pair; both are also ‘Indian’, though the Slender-billed extends into Kashmir and Nepal and is present also in one region of Southeast Asia which may indeed, following the disastrous crash of vulture populations in the Indian subcontinent, now hold more of this species than occurs in the rest of its range.

Marsh harriers Circus ‘aeruginosus’ (7–9) For many years, all the marsh harriers, other than the African Circus ranivorus, were treated as races of one species – C. aeruginosus – with a wide distribution in the Old World. Then the Australian approximans and the Malagasy maillardi became increasingly regarded as specifically distinct from the Northern aeruginosus, and Amadon (1978), Stresemann & Amadon (1979) and Amadon & Bull (1988) also considered the eastern Asiatic spilonotus to be a separate species, despite the evidence of its interbreeding with aeruginosus in Asia (Vaurie 1965). The Papuan spilothorax, which resembles a darker and more heavily streaked spilonotus, was regarded as an isolated population of that, and later by us as a distinctive race of the Australian approximans. But logic demands that we now follow Simmons (2000) in treating spilothorax as an endemic island species, also limiting maillardi to the population of the Indian Ocean island of Réunion, its type locality, and giving that of Madagascar and the Comoros separate specific status as C. macrosceles. The now seven species of marsh harriers are grouped geographically on plates 34, 36 and 37.

Goshawks and sparrowhawks Accipiter (10–14) We now follow Sibley & Monroe (1990) and various subsequent authorities in treating the Red-chested Goshawk Accipiter toussenelii of West Africa (41:3) as specifically distinct from the African Goshawk A. tachiro (41:2); and the White-breasted, Plain-breasted and Rufous-thighed Hawks A. chionogaster, A. ventralis and A. erythronemius of Central and South America (53:2-4) as all specifically distinct from the North American, Mexican and Caribbean Sharp-shinned Hawk A. striatus (53:1). Long regarded as representatives of a single species, these latter four taxa are allopatric (except that striatus winters within the range of chionogaster) and differ sufficiently in ecology and morphology (particularly ventralis) to be considered distinct species; we have previously argued against this, but, as the Central and South American taxa are ecologically isolated and readily distinguishable in the field, we now separate them here in accordance with increasing (though not yet general) practice. The southern Chilean Hawk A. chilensis (55:2) is often regarded as conspecific with the Bicoloured Hawk A. bicolor of northern Argentina north to southern Mexico (55:1), but it is geographically isolated (apart from, possibly, a slight overlap in the southern winter), lives in a more specialised habitat, and is far less variable in plumage. These two form a superspecies with Gundlach’s and Cooper’s Hawks A. gundlachi and A. cooperii of Cuba and North America (54:1–2).

Buzzards Buteo (15) Formerly, the Jackal Buzzard Buteo rufofuscus, Augur Buzzard B. augur and Archer’s Buzzard B. archeri (plate 76) were assumed to be conspecific. It was then established that the first two overlap in range without interbreeding, and that they differ in their calls and some behavioural aspects. We believe that the same applies to the Augur and Archer’s Buzzards, and we follow Sibley & Monroe (1990) in treating Archer’s as a distinct species, which is confined to north Somalia. It has no dark morph, which is a common feature of Augurs in parts of neighbouring Ethiopia, and the rufous of its underparts is more reminiscent of that of the Jackal Buzzard of southern Africa; its voice also appears to differ, but this needs confirmation.

Eagles Aquila (16–18) and Spizaetus (19–22) The Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata (86:2) has until recently been regarded as conspecific with the Lesser Spotted Eagle A. pomarina of eastern Europe and southern Africa (86:1), but it is geographically long isolated and Parry et al. (2002) and Kapanen et al. (2004) have shown that it differs in osteology (especially skull and jaw), morphology (especially gape size, leg feathering, and plumage of head and nape), eye colour, and breeding behaviour; the two

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are readily distinguishable in all main plumages. Similarly, we now follow Sibley & Monroe (1990) in treating the Indian Tawny Eagle Aquila vindhiana (65:2) as specifically distinct from the African Tawny Eagle A. rapax (65:1), taking account also of differences in morphology and behaviour; once it was established that the Steppe Eagle A. nipalensis (65:3), which breeds in central Asia and winters in north India, Arabia and Africa, could not be providing a link between those two, it was clear that they were long isolated. We also now accept the arguments of Hiraldo et al. (1976) and González et al. (1989) and follow most recent authors in treating the Spanish Imperial Eagle A. adalberti as a separate species from the Imperial Eagle A. heliaca of southeastern Europe and western Asia. The five species of hawk eagles Spizaetus on plate 81 have long been regarded as one (under the patently absurd name ‘Changeable’). These five differ markedly in size, markings, and length or absence of crest; only one is polymorphic, and another has a juvenile-like adult plumage. Rasmussen & Anderton (2005) have argued for the specific distinctness of S. cirrhatus and S. limnaeetus (81:1-2) on morphological and vocal grounds (we now revert to a former name for the first of these, Indian Crested Hawk Eagle, as used by Ali & Ripley 1978, but prefer to call the second the Dimorphic Hawk Eagle). Earlier, Gjershaug et al. (2004) presented a strong case for the separation of the Flores Hawk Eagle S. floris (81:5), which is endemic to just three of the Lesser Sunda islands and which not only has the juvenile-like adult plumage but is also much the largest of this group. Against this background, we propose that the other two, the Andaman and Simeuluë Hawk Eagles S. andamanensis and S. vanheurni (81:3-4) – both also island endemics, both evidently long isolated and both much smaller – should also be raised to species level. Clearly, the five together form a superspecies.

Caracaras Caracara (23) The Crested, or Northern, Caracara Caracara cheriway of southern USA south to northern South America and the Southern Caracara C. plancus of sub-Amazonian South America (91:1-2) were considered specifically distinct until 1949, but were then combined – confusingly, under the name ‘Crested Caracara C. plancus’ – because some from Brazil appeared intermediate. Fifty years later, after examining nearly 400 specimens, Love & Banks (1999) found that, while a few from the Amazon and adjacent coast to the south showed a mix of characters, this was inconstant compared with the abrupt shift in plumage from the northern type to the southern; there was clinal change within each taxon, but not between them, and it was concluded that intermediates were the result of secondary contact between two species. A third member of this group, the Guadalupe Caracara C. lutosus, was endemic to Guadalupe, off Baja California, until 1900; it is the only raptor species anywhere known with certainty to have become extinct in the four centuries 1600–2000.

Forest-falcons Micrastur (24) With the Cryptic Forest-falcon Micrastur mintoni (94:3) recently identified by Whittaker (2002), the number of species in this secretive but vocal genus is now increased to seven. Specimens of this bird had previously been overlooked as Lined Forest-falcons M. gilvicollis (95:2), which are now understood to be confined mainly to the region north of the Amazon. The taxonomy of this group has had a somewhat chequered career. Brown & Amadon (1968) regarded the Lined Forest-falcon as a race of the Barred M. ruficollis (95:1), with the Plumbeous M. plumbeus (85:3) a separate species related to the Lined. Schwartz (1972) then showed gilvicollis to be ‘a valid species sympatric with M. ruficollis in Amazonia’; he treated plumbeus as a race of gilvicollis, but thought that it might be separate as it has clearly been long isolated. Hilty & Brown (1986), Sibley & Monroe (1990) and subsequent authors have considered plumbeus a good species.

Falcons Falco (25) The Red-necked Falcon Falco horsbrughi of Africa (110:3) is usually treated as conspecific with the Red-headed Falcon F. chicquera of the Indian subcontinent to southeast Iran (110:2). They are similar in shape, flight and broad pattern, though the African species is shyer, less conspicuous and more crepuscular, and its whole plumage is more heavily marked; there seem also to be differences in ecology and breeding. Clearly, they are long isolated, and it is interesting to note that DNA sequencing by Wink & Sauer-Gürth (2004) indicated ‘approximately 0.9 million years of divergence’. The Altai Falcon Falco altaicus (114:3) remains a puzzle. This high-altitude and relatively early-breeding bird is usually treated as a subspecies, or simply a local morph, of the Saker Falcon F. cherrug (114:2), though it has also been considered a race of the Gyr Falcon F. rusticolus (115:1) and we understand that its ‘jizz’ in the field more closely resembles that of the latter species. DNA links with Sakers have been established (e.g. Sibley & Munro 1990, Wink & Sauer-Gürth 2004), but the Altai’s exact taxonomic position remains far from clear. Indeed, Eastham & Nicholls (2002), who undertook morphological analyses of all three of these taxa of large falcons, and of various captive-produced hybrids between them, found that Altai Falcons and Sakers were very similar in morphometrics, but that the plumage colours of the former suggested that they were more likely to be back-cross Gyr/Saker x Saker hybrids. Yet one wonders how such a population could become established as early breeders in those high mountains. The Altai Falcon used to be regarded as a distinct species in the past (e.g. Vaurie 1965), and the discussions by Ellis (1995a, b) and Moseikin & Ellis (2003) should not be ignored, so for the time being we continue to treat it as such.

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Past and future A number of other inter- and intraspecific distinctions were discussed by us previously (Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001). We should particularly draw attention to our reasons there (pp. 73–74) for splitting the southeastern Asiatic and Indonesian serpent-eagles Spilornis into 13 species, instead of the more usual five; we continue that treatment here (plates 30–31). We also hope that research will be stimulated by our discussion then (p. 74) of the enormous differences between some of the clearly isolated endemic island taxa that make up the ‘novaehollandiae’ group of accipiters; we still treat them here as just three species (plate 51), but continue to believe that there may be strong cases for further division at this level. As to the future, we note that Wink & Sauer-Gürth (2004), in addition to supporting several of the splits discussed above, conclude from DNA sequencing that some other ‘subspecies, which differ in morphology, size and distribution, can be regarded as distinct species’. These include two of the races of the Merlin Falco columbarius (plate 112) – columbarius of North America and aesalon of Europe and west Siberia – and all three main races of the Osprey Pandion haliaetus (carolinensis then including the smaller ridgwayi of the Caribbean) (10:1).

SUBSPECIES For the most part, the subspecies named in the caption texts and, more completely, in the list of species on pages 4–25 currently have widespread acceptance. Subspecies, or races, bear a trinomial scientific name, the generic and specific names being followed by a third or subspecific name. Within all the caption texts here, the third name is frequently used on its own or, in the case of the ‘nominotypical’ race, the race that includes the type of the species, is replaced by the older but shorter and simpler equivalent word ‘nominate’.

RELATIONSHIPS AND SEQUENCE For convenience and conformity, our sequence of species on pages 4–25 follows that used in the most recent checklist of birds of the world (Dickinson 2003), though there are minor exceptions. In particular, we keep the Osprey before the Accipitridae; and the Daptriinae and Falconinae follow at the end, instead of coming between the cathartid vultures and the Accipitridae. Thus, in general terms, our sequence does not differ greatly from that of Stresemann & Amadon’s revision (1979) of the first volume of Peters’s Birds of the World, which was, in effect, an update of Brown & Amadon (1968). A number of uncertain relationships, however, remain unresolved at the generic level. In our previous book we listed some of the doubts that remain about the positions of the ‘accipitrine’ chanting-goshawks Melierax and the ‘buteonine’ Lizard-hawk Kaupifalco and buzzard-hawks Butastur, which have variously been placed close to the gymnogenes Polyboroides or, along with the last and the Long-tailed Hawk Urotriorchis (but not Butastur), regarded as probably relatively closely related descendants of a common ancestor. Other hypotheses previously suggested were that several small Australasian genera, including not only the ‘kite types’ of Henicopernis, Lophoictinia and Hamirostra, but also the ‘accipitrine’ Erythrotriorchis and Megatriorchis, might comprise an ancient clade of endemic kites unrelated to Eurasian species. Other authors had proposed that aberrant kites might include the apparently buteonine Black-collared Hawk Busarellus nigricollis of Central and South America (Olson 1982) and the specialised nest-robbing Indian Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis of southeast Asia (Amadon & Bull 1988), though both are serial moulters and so probably not kites. Wink & Sauer-Gürth (2004) had tested only a few of these genera, but found that what one might term the typical kites of the genera Milvus and Haliastur clustered between Buteo and the buteonines on the one hand and the chanting-goshawks and Lizard-hawk on the other, but that Lophoictinia, Hamirostra and Aviceda ‘represent different and independent lineages’; they also tentatively considered it possible that the white-tailed or black-shouldered kites of the genus Elanus, which clustered outside the main Accipitridae, might form a family of their own. Nevertheless, although the ‘kites’ obviously make up a particularly heterogeneous collection, we have followed general listings and continued to group the 17 genera from Aviceda through to Milvus and Haliastur in the traditional way. We have even left the Bat-hawk Macheiramphus alcinus in the middle (where it is sometimes placed in a subfamily of its own); it differs, however, from all kites in moult, number of secondaries (for no obvious adaptive reason), bill shape and foot pads and, if a ‘kite’ at all, would be better placed first in this group (rather than at the end, which leads into the fish-eagles). DNA sequencing indicates that the Palmnut Vulture Gypohierax angolensis, variously regarded in the past as a link with the fish-eagles Haliaeetus, the Old World vultures or even the serpent-eagles, appears closest to the honeybuzzards Pernis and the two atypical Old World vultures, the Egyptian Neophron percnopterus and the Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus (Wink & Sauer-Gürth 2004). Earlier, Amadon & Bull were ‘not convinced...that Gypaetus is indeed a vulture’. It will be realised from this necessarily brief and superficial discussion that much remains to be learnt about the affinities of a number of individual species of diurnal raptors. DNA studies should eventually help to provide some of the answers.

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Meanwhile, whatever sequence be adopted, the huge family of the Accipitridae, comprising 263 of the 338 species recognised here, is unwieldy without some subdivision. Therefore, in the list of species on pages 4–25, this family is divided under 20 artificial group headings that will perhaps be more helpful in field terms. These separate the bazas, honey-buzzards and ‘atypical kites’ in one group from the Bat-hawk, the white-tailed kites, the true kites, and the fish-eagles and fishing-eagles in four, and the Palmnut Vulture, Lammergeier and Egyptian Vulture in two groups divided from the typical Old World vultures; and a further 12 groups comprise, respectively, the snake- and serpent-eagles, the gymnogenes, the harriers, the chanting-goshawks, the Gabar Goshawk, the true accipiters, a sink of ‘atypical accipitrines to buteonines’ (Erythrotriorchis, Megatriorchis, Urotriorchis, Butastur, Kaupifalco and the Crane-hawk Geranospiza), the buteonines, the harpy eagles, the Indian Black Eagle and two groups of true or booted eagles (Aquila and the hawk eagles). Finally, some speculation about the American Crane-hawk Geranospiza caerulescens and the Old World gymnogenes Polyboroides seems appropriate here. At one time these two genera were always placed together, and Brown & Amadon (1968) continued to associate them because of their similarities in shape (but not size), coloration, and long ‘double-jointed’ tarsi and short outer toes (which combine into unique foot adaptations), as well as broad secondaries and weak bills. They are also similar in their feeding behaviour of pulling young birds from holes and other nests. Burton (1978), however, concluded from skeletal examinations that ‘the resemblances of the hind limbs of these two genera are not strong evidence of phylogenetic relationship’. Later, Amadon (1982b) reasoned that the Crane-hawk belonged with the buteonines (or ‘sub-buteonines’), and all recent lists, including Stresemann & Amadon, which formed the basis of ours, have placed it just before the ‘white hawks’ Leucopternis. It is not a typical buteonine, however. An obvious solution for our purpose would be to move it back into the ‘Hawks of uncertain position’, but it is a serial moulter whereas they all have a complete annual moult. With the sequence fixed, the best we can do is to emphasise that it may not belong with the typical ‘hawk’ group of Buteo (and certainly not with the other ‘hawks’ in Accipiter) by giving it a hyphen (see pp. 69–72). We hope that this discussion, and not least the Crane-hawk example, will have illustrated the doubts and problems that remain among accipitriform relationships. The Afro-Malagasy ‘buteonines’ and the Australasian ‘kites’ also demonstrate the risk of ending up with sinks for species one does not know what to do with.

english names of raptors Even disregarding local names, a single species may be known formally at national levels by several ­ different English alterna­tives in various parts of a wide range. Although there is now almost universal agreement to use ‘Black Kite’ as the English name for Milvus migrans, one of the most widespread and numerous raptors in the world, it was long known variously as, for example, ‘Pariah Kite’ and ‘Large Indian Kite’ (as well as by other, coarser, epithets) in India; and, until relatively recently, as ‘Fork-tailed Kite’ in Australia (the last is a suitable differentiation from the same country’s endemic Square-tailed Kite Lophoictinia isura, but in world terms inappropriate by comparison with several more deeply fork-tailed species, not least the Red Kite M. milvus of the Western Palearctic). Two other regional names for Black Kites are given greater prominence now by the increasing practice, also adopted here by us, of treating the African ‘Yellow-billed’ forms aegyptius/parasitus and the eastern Asiatic Black-eared lineatus as distinct species (see pp. 64–65). If we take the kestrel group as further examples, Falco tinnuncu­lus is variously ‘Common Kestrel’ in Europe, ‘Rock Kestrel’ in South Africa, ‘Eurasian Kestrel’ as a vagrant in North America and, reflecting different subspecies, ‘European Kestrel’, ‘Indian Kestrel’ and ‘East Himalayan Kestrel’ in India. In the UK it has long been known simply as ‘Kestrel’, which is fine at the national level but in turn makes it difficult to discuss in relation to other kestrels. The closely related species of the Moluccas, F. moluccensis, is known as either ‘Spotted Kestrel’ or ‘Moluccan Kestrel’ and its replace­ment in New Guinea and Australia, F. cenchroides, as ‘Australian Kestrel’ or, formerly, ‘Nankeen Kestrel’. Conversely, one name is sometimes applied to different species in different parts of the world. Thus, ‘Spotted Kestrel’ has been used not only for F. moluccensis, but also for F. newtoni of Madagascar, where this name contrasts that of the ‘Barred (or Banded) Kestrel’ F. zoniventris (at least the American Kestrel F. sparverius is no longer called ‘Sparrow-Hawk’). ‘Swallow-tailed Kite’ is used for Elanoides forficatus in the Americas and for Chelictinia riocour­ii in Africa. ‘Black Eagle’ is the name for Aquila verreauxii in South Africa, but for Ictinaetus malayensis from India eastwards. Most confusing of all, ‘Black Vulture’ is Coragyps atratus in the New World, but has long been used for Aegypius monachus in the Palearctic and for Aegypius (Sarcogyps) calvus in India. The last is also sometimes called ‘King Vulture’, but that is the only English name for Sarcoramphus papa of Central and South America. At the generic level, most Old World species of Accipiter bear the name ‘Goshawk’ or ‘Sparrowhawk’, but all those in the New World – apart from the standardised ‘Northern Goshawk’ for A. gentilis and, uniquely and therefore illogically, ‘Grey-bellied Goshawk’ for one of several South American species, A. poliogaster – normally

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have just the word ‘Hawk’ as the generic term. Furthermore, ‘Hawk’ is also applied in the Americas to all species of Buteo, whereas in the Old World these all bear the name ‘Buzzard’. ‘Buzzard’ in America was formerly the Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura, and in Australia, where Buteo is absent, it is still sometimes applied to the Black-breasted Kite Hamirostra melanosternon. The species of the genus Aviceda are called ‘Bazas’ in southeast Asia, and now also in Australia, where the one representative, the Pacific Baza A. subcristata, was long known as ‘Crested Hawk’; but in India these are often ‘Lizard-hawks’ (reflecting food) and in Africa ‘Cuckoo-hawks’ (reflecting the barred breast) or even ‘Cuckoo Falcons’. And so on.

RATIONALISATION OF ENGLISH NAMES In 1988, the British Ornithologists’ Union Records Committee and British Birds began attempting (so far with rather less than universal success or approval) to revise the English names of Western Palearctic bird species for use in British publications. Apart from making reference to inappropriate descriptive names and the advantages of simplification, the BOURC’s main objectives might be condensed as: 1. Unrelated species should never have a common group name which would result in their being indexed together. 2. All species within a natural group … should preferably have a distinctive name under which they would be indexed together. 3. Each species … should have a unique name (i.e. one not shared with another species or with a group) … ideally on a world scale. 4. When possible, names should accord with those adopted in other countries (particularly where the species is commoner) … Subsequently, on the initiative of various British and American ornithologists, including the late Burt L Monroe Jr, who had wrestled with this problem in compiling one of the major world lists (Sibley & Monroe 1990), a committee was set up to make recommendations for universal standardisation at the International Ornithological Congress of 1994 in Vienna, Austria; the subject was then in turn passed to the Congresses of 1998, in Durban, South Africa, and of 2002, in Beijing, China. Some progress has now been made and a standard list of recommended English names for all the world’s bird species is due to be published in 2006 – but there is no guarantee that it will be universally accepted when it does appear (in this context, it is worth noting that a standardised world list of French names was produced as long ago as 1993, by the Commission Internationale des Noms Français des Oiseaux). In deciding what English name to use in this book for each of the world’s raptors, we have borne in mind the original aims of the BOURC and agree with most of its adopted usage for this group of birds, as published in The British List (1998), but there are two exceptions. First, ‘White-tailed Eagle’ violates point 1 of its objectives as condensed above (see next section). Secondly, we prefer to avoid the word ‘Eurasian’ in terms of animal distribution: one of its two meanings refers to intercontinental racial hybrids and the other, which applies here, is inappropriate because Eurasia includes parts of two of the other great zoogeographical regions, the northeastern corner of the Afrotropical and much of the Indomalayan. In ornithological names, it can often be replaced by, say, ‘Northern’ (e.g. ‘Northern Sparrowhawk’, ‘Northern Hobby’). Below, we attempt to justify our decisions where they depart from other practices.

‘BUZZARDS’, ‘EAGLES’, AND ‘FALCONS’ Remembering points 1 and 2 of the BOURC’s aims as outlined above, not so much for the question of indexing as to avoid suggesting incorrectly close affinities, we have adopted the convention of using a hyphen, followed by a lower-case letter, where the last word of the English name is misleading. Thus, as the BOURC has done for the one British species, we have hyphenated ‘Honey-buzzard’ for all Pernis and Henicopernis, to differentiate these, which belong to the ‘kite’ group, from the unrelated true buzzards of the genus Buteo. A corresponding situation arises from the word ‘Eagle’, which has long been applied to raptors of eight genera that are quite unrelated to the true eagles. Therefore, we have used ‘Fish-eagle’ (in preference to the less universally appropriate ‘Sea-eagle’) for all species of the genus Haliaeetus – apart from the Bald Eagle H. leucocephalus, the name of which is too well established as that of USA’s national bird – and, similarly, ‘Fishing-eagle’ for the two Ichthyophaga: these two genera are close in taxonomic terms to the Old World vultures and, more especially, the kites, but not at all to the typical eagles. Likewise, we have used ‘Snake-eagle’ and ‘Serpent-eagle’ for all Circaetus and Spilornis respectively, again to emphasise that they belong to a quite different group. Three species in two South American genera which have hitherto generally been called ‘Eagles’ are actually buteonines, or buzzard-types, even if they are large: thus, we have hyphenated the two Harpyhaliaetus as Black and Crowned ‘Solitary-eagles’; and Geranoaetus melanoleucus, for which we used the generic term ‘Eagle-buzzard’ in the previous book (Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001), is here switched back to its more usual name of ‘Black-chested

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Buzzard-eagle’, but again with a hyphen. ‘Eagle’ has, however, been retained for the more typical harpy eagles (though they have bare tarsi) and the true or ‘booted’ eagles (so called because of their feathered tarsi), among them all the hawk eagles: thus, the term ‘Eagle’ is used here for all species from the genus Morphnus through, among others, Aquila, Hieraaetus and Spizaetus to Oroaetus. The booted group still includes Ictinaetus (‘Indian Black Eagle’), though it has been thought that this may be a large and highly specialised kite. While many species in the genera Hieraaetus and Spizaetus have long been called ‘Hawk Eagles’, we have not attempted to standardise them (which would involve, for example, ‘Booted Hawk Eagle’ for H. pennatus), nor to hyphenate them as ‘Hawk-eagles’, because they are all still true eagles close to Aquila, while simply to drop the word ‘Hawk’ from some of their names would result in further confusion. In this connection, we now use ‘Great Philippine Eagle’ for Pithecophaga jefferyi as further distinction from the Philippine Hawk Eagle Spizaetus philippensis. To differentiate the ‘falcons’ of the more primitive South American genera of Herpetotheres and Micrastur from typical Falco, we have similarly hyphenated the former as ‘Laughing-falcons’ and ‘Forest-falcons’ respectively. We have also linked the two Polihierax as ‘Pygmy-falcons’, but have left both Spiziapteryx and Microhierax as ‘Falconets’, even though the South American Spot-winged Falconet S. circumcinctus – which is much larger than any of the five Indomalayan Microhierax (the smallest raptors of all) – has been considered closer to the other primitive South American falconiforms (Olson 1976).

‘VULTURES’, ‘HAWKS’, AND OTHERS We have made no attempt to rationalise either ‘Vultures’ (apart from discarding ‘Griffon’ as a generic term often applied to many, but not all, of the genus Gyps) or the American ‘Hawks’. New World and Old World vultures are unrelated, belonging to quite different families, but we have retained ‘Vulture’ for both. At the least, this word demonstrates the convergence of their characters of size, superficial shape, mostly bare heads sometimes edged with a ruff, social behaviour, carrion-eating habits, and very limited or non-existent sexual size dimorphism (see pp. 42–46). The two largest American cathartid vultures, Gymnogyps and Vultur, remain ‘Condors’ of course. The only Old World vulture that does not usually include the generic term in its English name is the atypical Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus of Europe, Asia and Africa. Although ‘Lammergeier’ is both Dutch and German for ‘Lambs Vulture’ (strictly, Lämmergeier in German, Lammergier in Dutch), which gives a totally wrong impression of the food spectrum of this magnificent scavenger of bones, we have retained that name, rather than using the alternative ‘Bearded Vulture’; there is still disagreement over whether the species can be regarded as a vulture at all. We have placed a hyphen before the word ‘hawk’ for ‘Cuckoo-hawks’ and ‘Bat-hawk’ Macheiramphus alcinus, both classed as atypical kites (but see p. 58); for the ‘Harrier-hawks’ (although choosing to use the alternative ‘Gymnogene’ as the English name at the species level); and for the ‘Crane-hawk’ Geranospiza caerulescens (see p. 68) – all in an effort to confine the use of ‘Hawk’ on its own to the accipitrine and buteonine groups, especially the typical Accipiter and Buteo. Courage has failed us over any attempt to standardise these last two genera (two of the largest three in world terms) so far as the Americas are concerned. In the Old World, all Accipiter species, except for the Shikra A. badius and the Besra A. virgatus (names of Urdu and Hindi origin respectively), include either ‘Goshawk’ or ‘Sparrowhawk’ as a generic term: the difference between those terms is made mainly on the basis of the foot formations of strength and length of tarsi and, particularly, toes (not, as is often assumed, solely on body size although this, together with accepted usage, has been taken into account for certain species which are neither big and short-toed nor small and long-toed). At the same time, all Buteo species in the Old World are ‘Buzzards’ (including the Holarctic Roughlegged Buzzard B. lagopus, which is called ‘Rough-legged Hawk’ in North America). Perhaps the Americas will eventually follow suit, as they did, not so very long ago, with their species in the third of the largest three genera, Falco: it seems surprising now that, until the 1950s, the Peregrine Falcon F. peregrinus was often still called ‘Duck Hawk’ and the Merlin F. columbarius ‘Pigeon Hawk’. Turning to small genera, we have hyphenated ‘Chanting-goshawk’ for all Melierax to differentiate them from the true ‘Goshawks’; we might also have removed the ‘gos’, but the name as it stands has a certain ring to it. Now that it, too, is no longer regarded as just an aberrant goshawk, there has been a similar tendency to distinguish Megatriorchis doriae of New Guinea by using the name ‘Doria’s Hawk’ without the ‘Gos’; we have followed this, and taken it a step further by dropping ‘Gos’ from ‘Red Hawk’ for the Australian Erythrotriorchis radiatus and from ‘Bürgers’s Hawk’ for the now evidently congeneric E. buergersi, again of New Guinea, neither of which is particularly close to the accipiters that form the true goshawk/sparrowhawk group. Nor are the four species of Butastur in any way typical of the buteos, even though they have hitherto been known universally as ‘Buzzards’: we could perhaps have called them ‘Hawks’, but they do not sit easily with other species so termed and, indeed, are in some ways intermediate between the accipiters and the buteos; hence, we have preferred to coin the name ‘Buzzard-hawk’, which seems rather appropriate and also has the advantage of retaining the more familiar word ‘Buzzard’ as part of it.

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EPONYMOUS NATURALISTS The above-named Bürgers’s Hawk illustrates another point. An increasing trend in recent years, particularly in the tropics, has been to discard eponymous names in favour of other names that describe some feature of the species. In New Guinea lists, Dr Bürgers’s hawk has now tended to give way to ‘Chestnut-shouldered’ (and, incidentally, been called ‘Goshawk’, presumably because of its size, whereas, were it an accipiter, its relatively slender tarsi and long toes would make it a ‘Sparrowhawk’). This discarding of the familiar names of once-renowned ornithologists and naturalists (or their wives and friends), such as Ayres, Blyth, Bonelli, Cassin, Cooper, Gurney, Jerdon, Montagu, Pallas, Ridgway, Rüppell, Steller, Swainson, Verreaux, Wallace and, not least, Darwin himself, seems sad to us. We have retained all these, as well as Beaudouin, Bürgers, Buckley, Dickinson, Forbes, Forster, Gundlach, Henst, Isidor, Meyer, Sanford, Steere, Wahlberg and, of course, Doria, Frances (not France’s, for Accipiter francesii) and Eleonora. How much more distinctive and evocative is ‘Isidor’s Eagle’ than ‘Black-and-chestnut Eagle’, when there are others in South America with black and chestnut in their plumage. We have two exceptions to this policy. First, we have preferred ‘Moluccan Goshawk’ to ‘Gray’s Goshawk’ for Accipiter henicogrammus, because of the possibility of confusing the latter with ‘Grey Goshawk’ A. novaehollandiae, ‘Grey-throated Goshawk’ A. griseogularis and ‘Grey-headed Goshawk’ A. poliocephalus, all of which occur also in the Australasian region. Second, we have preferred ‘Malagasy Spotted Kestrel’ to ‘Newton’s Kestrel’ for Falco newtoni (see next paragraph).

OTHER EXAMPLES AT THE SPECIES LEVEL Continuing with specific names and looking first at the confusions in the opening paragraphs, ‘Common Kestrel’ seems most suitable for F. tinnunculus, which has a wide range in the Old World, and ‘Moluccan Kestrel’ for the closely related F. moluccensis, leaving ‘Malagasy Spotted Kestrel’ and ‘Madagascar Barred Kestrel’ for the endemic Malagasy pair of F. newtoni and F. zoniventris. ‘Swallow-tailed Kite’ is retained for the American Elanoides forficatus, and the often already favoured term ‘Scissortailed Kite’ is applied to the smaller and less spectacularly streamered Chelictinia riocourii of Africa. ‘Verreaux’s Eagle’ is used for Aquila verreauxii, leaving ‘Black Eagle’ or, better, ‘Indian Black Eagle’ for Ictinaetus malayensis. ‘Black Vulture’ is now applied here to the American Coragyps atratus alone: the southeastern Asiatic Aegypius calvus becomes ‘Red-headed Vulture’, an already well-established alternative, and the Palearctic Aegypius monachus is given the comparatively recently coined but seemingly apt name of ‘Monk Vulture’ (which is also the equivalent of its Dutch and German names) in preference to the more usual alternative of ‘Cinereous Vulture’ (it is no more ashy-grey than it is black). ‘Banded Snake-eagle’ has previously been applied to both Circaetus cinerascens and the far more local C. fasciolatus, often confusingly qualified by ‘Smaller’ and ‘Southern’ respectively, but the ‘Smaller’ averages longerwinged and, if it looks smaller, that is only because of its shorter tail, whereas the range of the ‘Southern’ is mostly farther east and more coastal; as C. cinerascens has the obvious tail-band, we think it more helpful to call this ‘Banded Snake-eagle’ and use ‘East African Snake-eagle’ for C. fasciolatus. Also in Africa, we prefer ‘Great Sparrowhawk’ to ‘Black Sparrowhawk’ for Accipiter melanoleucus because there are a number of melanistic accipiters and, as the scientific name here indicates, this species is usually black and white. In the genus Aviceda, we have retained ‘Baza’ for the Indo-Australasian species and ‘Cuckoo-hawk’ for the Afro-Malagasy. We have also preferred the Australasian ‘Pacific Baza’ to the more translatory ‘Crested Baza’ for A. subcristata, because all bazas are crested to some extent. Some other examples of changes should be mentioned. Following a recent trend, we also use ‘Greater Spotted Eagle’ for Aquila clanga to distinguish it from ‘Lesser Spotted Eagle’ A. pomarina and now ‘Indian Spotted Eagle’ A. hastata. ‘Australasian Marsh Harrier’ is preferred to ‘Swamp Harrier’ for Circus approximans, and ‘Malagasy Marsh Harrier’ is used for C. macroscelides, leaving ‘Réunion Marsh Harrier’ for C. maillardi (from which it is now usually considered specifically distinct), to relate both more clearly to the remainder of this superspecies. We also have ‘Eastern Marsh Harrier’ for C. spilonotus (to contrast with ‘Western’ for C. aeruginosus) and ‘Papuan Marsh Harrier’ for C. spilothorax (which has variously been treated as a race of approximans or, more usually, of spilonotus): with the Malagasy and Réunion Marsh Harriers now regarded as separate species, we find it impossible to do anything other than distinguish all the main marsh harrier taxa at this level, a complete reversal of the policy of Brown & Amadon (1968) who treated all except for the African C. ranivorus as conspecific with the Western Palearctic C. aeruginosus. Our decision to raise a total of 24 further taxa to the species level creates several other ‘new’ English names, most of which seem self-explanatory – but perhaps not all. Now that the two relatively thin-billed vultures of the Indian region are generally distinguished as Gyps tenuirostris and G. indicus, we have retained ‘Long-billed’ for the former and used ‘Slender-billed’ for the latter in preference to ‘Indian’ because that is a reminder that they are a closely related species pair (and both occur in India anyway). Perhaps more significant is our decision to treat the ‘Changeable Hawk-eagle’ Spizaetus cirrhatus complex as five species. This has long been an uneasy grouping of birds of different sizes, with various stages from crested to crestless, only one of which is dimorphic, while another retains a juvenile-type plumage into adulthood: it is these

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differences that resulted in the all-embracing ‘Changeable’ (which, literally, is an absurd term). Taking comfort from the decision of Rasmussen & Anderton (2005) to split the two main taxa, the crested cirrhatus and the dimorphic but virtually uncrested limnaetus – which makes neither ‘changeable’ – we have adopted the name ‘Indian Crested Hawk Eagle’ for the former (as was used by Ali & Ripley 1978) and coined ‘Dimorphic Hawk Eagle’ for the latter. The other three of these taxa are given the names of the islands to which they are endemic. Among the falconiforms, it is tempting at first sight to have ‘Yellow-throated Caracara’ for Daptrius ater and ‘White-throated Caracara’ for Phalcoboenus albogularis, to correspond with the Red-throated D. americanus, but we have followed current practice with ‘Black Caracara’ in the first case and prefer ‘Darwin’s Caracara’ in the second, not only because of the eponym but also because the adult is actually wholly white below (not just on the throat). With the ‘Crested Caracara’ split into two, the name ‘Southern Caracara’ has already been used for the taxon that inhabits much of South America east of the Andes. ‘White-fronted Falconet’ is preferred to ‘Bornean’ for the endemic Microhierax latifrons of Sabah, because there is another falconet in Borneo. We continue to favour ‘Eastern Red-footed Falcon’ over the admittedly much simpler ‘Amur Falcon’ for F. amurensis in order to maintain the link with the other half of this species pair, the Western Red-footed F. vespertinus: although now universally recognised as distinct species, they were regarded as conspecific only 30–40 years ago and their common origin is close enough to take them both back to winter in partly overlapping regions of southern Africa. We also use ‘White-eyed Kestrel’ in preference to ‘Greater Ke­strel’ for Falco rupicoloides because that species is not particularly large and its white eyes are diagnostic; and ‘Australian Hobby’ replaces ‘Little Falcon’ for F. longipennis, to complete the hobby quartet, even though it has been proposed that any resemblance is the result of convergence. Finally, where islands or countries have altered their names, we have generally adopted the new name or spelling: for example, ‘Sulawe­si (not Celebes) Hawk Eagle’ for Spizaetus lanceolatus. In some instances, however, where the older name is still widely used, we have retained that: so, we have ‘Ryukyu (not Nansei) Serpent-eagle’ for Spilornis perplexus. Certain of these decisions may seem to ride roughshod over some names at national levels. If that be the case, we apologise but hope that our actions will be seen as attempted steps towards rationa­lisation. Other names may perhaps emerge as preferences in the future, such as ‘Savannah Vulture’ and ‘Forest Vulture’ for the two yellowheaded vultures Cathartes burrovianus and C. melambrotus of South America. Critics may say that the scientific names are there to show affinities between and among species, so that English names are relatively unimportant, but English-speaking birdwatchers on both sides of the Atlantic, like Englishspeaking people in general, tend to be ill at ease when not using their mother tongue. We therefore feel that, for practical reasons, there is some merit in attempting to standardise vernacular names in a more rational way than has been done before.

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Cade, T. J. 1982. The Falcons of the World. Cornell University Press, London & Ithaca. Campbell, B. & Lack, E. 1985. A Dictionary of Birds. T & A D Poyser, Calton. Cayley, N. 1961. What Bird is That? A Guide to the Birds of Australia. Angus & Robertson, Sydney. Chancellor, R.D. & Meyburg, B-U. (eds). 2004. Raptors Worldwide: Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls. Budapest, Hungary 18-23 May 2003. WWGBPO, Berlin; MME/BirdLife Hungary, Budapest. Clark, W. S. & Wheeler, B. K. 1987. A Field Guide to Hawks: North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Clark, W. S. & Schmitt, N. J. 1999. A Field Guide to Raptors of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Cocker, M. 1989. Richard Meinertzhagen: Soldier, Scientist and Spy. Secker & Warburg, London. Cooke, F. 1985. Polymorphism. In B. Campbell & E. Lack, A Dictionary of Birds. T & A D Poyser, Calton. Corso, A. 2001. Raptor migration across the Strait of Messina, southern Italy. British Birds 94, 196–202. Cramp, S. & Simmons, K. E. L. (eds) 1980. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2. Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press, Oxford. DeCandido, R., Nualsri, C., Allen, D., & Bildstein, K. L. 2004. Autumn 2003 raptor migration at Chumphon, Thailand: A globally significant raptor migration watch site. Forktail 20, 49–54. Del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. (eds) 1994. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Dementiev, G. P. & Gladkov, N. A. (eds.) 1951. The Birds of the Soviet Union.Vol.1. Israel Program for Scientific Translation, Jerusalem. Engish translation 1969. Dickinson, E. C. (ed.) 2003.The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Christopher Helm, London. Eastham, C. P. & Nicholls, M. K. 2002. Morphological classification of the so-called “Altai Falcon” Falco altaicus. In R. Yosef, M. L. Miller & D. Peplar (eds), Raptors in the New Millennium, pp. 211–219. International Birding and Research Center, Eilat. Edelstam, C. 1984. Patterns of moult in large birds of prey. Annales Zoologici Fennici 21: 271–276. Edelstam, C. 1985. Mimicry. In B. Campbell & E. Lack, A Dictionary of Birds. T & A D Poyser, Calton. Ellis, D. H. 1995a. What is Falco altaicus Menzbier? Journal of Raptor Research 29, 15-25. Ellis, D. H. 1995b. The Altay Falcon: origin, morphology, and distribution. In Proceedings of the 1995 Specialist Workshop, pp. 143–168. Middle East Falcon Research Group, Abu Dhabi. Ferguson-Lees, J. & Christie, D. A. 2001. Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London. Forsman, D 1994. Field identification of Crested Honey Buzzard. Birding World 7, 396–403. Forsman, D. 1999. The Raptors of Europe and the Middle East. T & A D Poyser, London. Furness, R. W. 1987. The Skuas. T & A D Poyser, Calton. Génsbøl, B. 1986. Collins Photo Guide to the Birds of Prey of Britain and Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Collins, London. Génsbøl, B. 1995. Rovfuglene i Europa, Nordafrika og Mellemøsten. Gads Forlag, Denmark. Gjershaug, K., Kvaløy, K., Røv, N., Prawiradilaga, D. M., Suparman, U. & Rahman, Z. 2004. The taxonomic status of Flores Hawk Eagle Spizaetus floris. Forktail 20, 55–62. González, L. M., Hiraldo, F., Delibes, M. & Calderón, J. 1989. Zoogeographic support to consider the Spanish Imperial Eagle as a distinct species. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 109, 86–93. Harrison, C. J. O. 1985. Abnormal plumage. In B. Campbell & E. Lack, A Dictionary of Birds. T & A D Poyser, Calton. Hawk Migration Association of North America. Website: http://hmana.org Heintzelman, D. 1975. The Migrations of Hawks. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IA. Hill, N. P. 1944. Sexual dimorphism in the Falconiformes. Auk 61: 226–234. Hilty, S. L. & Brown, W. L. 1986. A Guide to the Birds of Colombia. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Hiraldo, F., Delibes, M. & Calderón, J. 1976: Sobre el status taxonómico del Aguila Imperial Ibérica. Doñana Acta Vertebrata 3, 171–182. Hollom, P. A. D., Porter, R. F., Christensen, S. & Willis, I. 1988. Birds of the Middle East and North Africa. T & A D Poyser, London. Huxley, J. 1955. Morphism in birds. International Ornithological Congress 11: 309–328. Kapanen, M, Lindholm, A, & Forsten, A. 2004. First-winter Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata. Alula 10, 74–78. Kemp, A. C. 1986. The Gabar Goshawk: taxonomy, ecology and further research. Gabar 1, 4–6. Kerlinger, P. 1989. Flight Strategies of Migrating Hawks. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. Kipp, F. A. 1959. Der Handflugel-index alsflugbiologisches Mass. Vogelwarte 20: 77–86. Kjellén, N. 1995. Ålders-och könsfördelning hos sträckande rovfåglar över Falsterbohalvön hösten 1994. Anser 34: 85–104. Lack, D. 1968. Ecological Adaptations for Breeding in Birds. Methuen & Co., London. Love, C. J. & Banks, R. C. 1999. A taxonomic study of Crested Caracaras (Falconidae). Wilson Bulletin 111, 330–339.

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Marchant, S. & Higgins, P. J. 1993. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Mayr, E. 1969. Principles of Systematic Zoology. McGraw-Hill, New York. McClure, H. E. 1998. Migration and Survival of the Birds of Asia. White Lotus Press, Bangkok. Moseikin, V. & Ellis, D. H. 2004. Ecological aspects of distribution for Saker Falcons Falco cherrug and Altai Gyrfalcons F. altaicus in the Russia Altai. In R. D. Chancellor & B-U. Meyburg (eds), Raptors Worldwide: Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls. Budapest, Hungary 18-23 May 2003, pp. 693–703. WWGBPO, Berlin; MME/BirdLife Hungary, Budapest. Mueller, H. C. 1986. The evolution of reversed sexual dimorphism in owls: an empirical analysis of possible selective factors. Wilson Bulletin 98: 387–406. Mueller, H. C. 1989. Evolution of reversed sexual size dimorphism: sex or starvation? Ornis Scandinavica 20: 265–272. Mueller, H. C. 1990. The evolution of reversed sexual dimorphism in size in monogamous species of birds. Biological Review 65: 553–585. Mueller, H. C. & Meyer, K. 1985. The evolution of reversed sexual dimorphism in size. A comparative analysis of the Falconiformes of the western Palearctic. Current Ornithology 2: 65–101. Murton, R. K. 1971. Polymorphism in Ardeidae. Ibis 113: 97–99. Newton, I. 1979. Population Ecology of Raptors. T & A D Poyser, Calton. Newton, I. 1986. The Sparrowhawk. T & A D Poyser, Calton. Nicholson, E. M. 1988. The bird population of Great Britain. British Birds 81: 613–624. Noakes, D. 1990. Wing spread of raptors. Australian Raptor Association News 6: 15–19. Norberg, R. Å. 1987. Evolution, structure and ecology of northern forest owls. In Nero, R. W. et al. (eds) Biology and Conservation of Northern Forest Owls. USDA Forest Service, Fort Collins. Olson, S. L. 1976. The affinities of the falconid genus Spiziapteryx. Auk 93: 633–636. Olson, S. L. 1982. The distribution of fused phalanges of the inner toe in Accipitridae. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 102, 8–12. Parry, S. J., Clark, W. S. & Prakash, V. 2002. On the taxonomic status of the Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastate. Ibis 144, 665–675. Paulson, D. R. 1973. Predator polymorphism and apostatic selection. Evolution 27: 269–277. Porter, R. F., Willis, I., Christensen, S. & Nielsen, B. P. 1981. Flight Identification of European Raptors. T & A D Poyser, Berkhamsted. Preston, C. R. 1980. Differential perch site selection by colour morphs of the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis). Auk 97: 782–789. Raffaele, H., Wiley, J., Garrido, O., Keith, A. & Raffaele, J. 1998. Birds of the West Indies. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Rasmussen, P. C. & S. J. Parry. 2001. The taxonomic status of the ‘Long-billed’ Vulture Gyps indicus. Vulture News 44, 18–21. Rasmussem, P. C., Clark, W. S., Parry, S. J. & Schmitt, J. Field identification of ‘Long-billed’ Vultures (Indian and Slender-billed Vultures). Oriental Bird Club Bulletin 34, 24–29. Rasmussen, P. C. & Anderton, J. C. 2005. The Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Ratcliffe, D. 1993. The Peregrine Falcon (second edition). T & A D Poyser, London. Safina, C. 1984. Selection for reduced male size in raptorial birds: the possible roles of female choice and mate guarding. Oikos 43: 159–164. Schmidt-Bey, W. 1913. Neckereien der Raubvögel nebst Gedanken über die Entstehung ihrer sekundären Geschlechtsunterschiede. Ornithogische Monatsschrift 38: 400–416. Schwartx, P. 1972. Micrastur gilvicollis, a valid species sympatric with M. ruficollis in Amazonia. Condor 74, 399–415. Shirihai, H. 1996. The Birds of Israel. Academic Press, London. Shirihai, H. & Christie, D. A. 1992. Raptor migration at Eilat. British Birds 85: 141–186. Shirihai, H., Yosef, R., Alon, D., Kirwan, G. M. & Spaar, R. 2000. Raptor Migration in Israel and the Middle East. International Birding & Research Center in Eilat, Israel. Sibley, C. G., & Monroe, B. L. 1990. Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. New Haven & London. Simmons, R. E. 2000. Harriers of the World: Their Behaviour and Ecology. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Smith, N. G. 1980. Hawk and vulture migration in the neotropics. In A. Keast & E. S. Morton, Migrant Birds in the Neotropics, pp. 51–65. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC. Smith, N. G. 1985. Dynamics of the trans-isthmian migration of raptors between Central and South America. In R. D. Chancellor & I. Newton (eds), Conservation Studies on Raptors, pp. 271–290. ICBP, Cambridge. Smith, S. M. 1982. Raptor ‘reverse’ dimorphism revisited: a new hypothesis. Oikos 39: 118–122. Snow, D. W. 1987. Colonel Meinertzhagen’s wing drawings. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 107: 189–191.

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QUICK GUIDE TO PLATES, CAPTIONS AND MAPS Raptors of the World: A Field Guide contains a vast amount of information, but in order to keep the book at a size suitable for use in the field much of this has had to be abbreviated or codified. While all the abbreviations used are fairly straightforward, some, such as the cross-references, may take a little time to get used to; readers should refer back to this page until familiar with them.

Species numbering Each species on the plate is given a number (1–4, for example), and then further divided up by letters. The combinations of numbers and letters correspond with those on the plate opposite. Subspecific trinomials are given here where appropriate (together with a brief indication of range); plumages and sexes appear in the order adult male, adult female, juvenile.

PLATE 14: NEW WORLD KITES I 1 WHITE-TAILED KITE Elanus leucurus

Measurements L is the range of the species’ total length (in centimetres); the figure in parentheses is the median of this range (in inches). S is the range of the wingspan (in centimetres); the figure in parentheses is the median of this range (in inches).

L35–43 cm (15 in): S88–102 cm (37 in): T15–19 cm (7 in): ¢94% Grassland, savannah, marsh, to 1,000 m (2,500+ m). Smallish gull-like ­falcon-shaped kite; longish pointed wings, squared tail; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Deep graceful beats, cupped wings; glides on arched wings, hands level; soars in V; hovers. Solitary/social. Diurnal/crepuscular. [cf. 16:2-3; also Nea 33:1a; Neo 33:2a] 1a Adult Grey and white, with black shoulders; black patch by orange-red eyes. Flight below (1b): white linings as body; black carpal patches; grey secondaries, blackish primaries. 1c Juvenile Grey-brown above, edged white on back, streaked on head; dark subterminal tail-band; black shoulders less obvious against darker wings; rufous specks on breast; brown eyes.

6

2 SNAIL KITE Rostrhamus sociabilis L39–48 cm (17 in): S99–115 cm (42 in): T16–21 cm (7 in): ¢98% Fresh marsh, to 1,000 m. Mid-sized kite; paddle wings, notched tail, thin deephooked bill; wing-tips exceed tail-tip. Slow floppy beats; glides/soars on bowed wings. Gregarious/solitary. [cf. 3-4; also 62:1-4 (all much bulkier); 59:1-2] 2a Adult male Slaty-black; white tail-base and tail-tip; eyes/lores red. Flight below (2b): black band on white tail; orange legs. 2c Adult female Dark brown, edged rufous above, blotched cream ­below; buff supercilia/cheeks; tail as a; lores/legs yellow-orange. Flight below (2d): linings darker than body; barred remiges usually pale-based, secondaries darker distally; two-tone tail. 2e Juvenile As c but broader edges, streaked crown; cream below with clearer streaks; eyes brown, lores creamy, legs yellowish.

?

?

?

?

7-

3 SLENDER-BILLED KITE Rostrhamus hamatus

T is the range of the length of the tail (in centimetres); the figure in parentheses is the median of this range (in inches).

L35–41 cm (15 in): S80–90 cm (33 in): T11–14 cm (5 in): ¢95% Forest lagoons, wooded swamps, also coffee plantations, to 750 m. Smallish kite, smaller and chunkier than 2; shorter broader wings, shorter squarer tail, similar hooked bill; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Faster flatter beats; glides on less bowed wings. Solitary/loose groups. [cf. 59:2; also 2ab; 3fgjk; 62:1-4] 3a Adult Dark slate-grey, blacker on remiges/tail; yellow-white eyes; lores/ legs orange. (As 2, staple food apple snail Pomacea.) Flight (3b): all slate, no white; orange legs. 3c Juvenile As a but for wing/tail-coverts edged rufous to cream, 2–3 ­whitish tail-bars and tail-tip. Flight below (3d): dark but for tail-bars and obscure barring on dark-tipped remiges.

4 HOOK-BILLED KITE Chondrohierax uncinatus

This figure gives the size of the male in proportion to the female as a percentage, based on the cube of the median of the wing measurements.

?

?

?

5



L41–51 cm (18 in): S81–98 cm (35 in): T18–23 cm (8 in): ¢89% Wet forest, drier scrub, coffee, to 1,500 m (rare 2,700 m). Mid-sized kite; paddle wings, longish tail, heavy bill, short legs; wing-tips half down tail. Slow beats; glides/soars on slightly bowed wings. Solitary. [cf. (a) 70:1, 87:2a, 95:1b; (bcf) 55:1, 66:1-2, 70:2, 72:1; (degh) 2ab, 59:2-3, 72:1-2] 4a Adult male (nominate; C/S America) Slaty, usually thinly barred ­below; 1–2 tail-bands; eyes white; orange on green lores. 4b Adult female (nominate) In flight. Barred rufous/cream; banded quills. [Grey-brown above, dark crown, rufous collar, 2 tail-bands.] 4c Adult female (aquilonis; Mexico) Black cap; rufous extends to cheeks. 4d Dark adult All slaty-black; one white tail-band. Flight (4e). 4f Juvenile Rufous edges, white collar, 3 tail-bands; white below; eyes brown, face yellow. Flight (4g). 4h Dark juvenile Blackish, edged buff; 2–3 tail-bands. Flight below (4i): dark linings, barred remiges.

5

104

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Cross-references 4 HOOK-BILLED KITE Chondrohierax uncinatus L41–51 cm (18 in): S81–98 cm (35 in): T18–23 cm (8 in): ¢89% Wet forest, drier scrub, coffee, to 1,500 m (rare 2,700 m). Mid-sized kite; paddle wings, longish tail, heavy bill, short legs; wing-tips half down tail. Slow beats; glides/soars on slightly bowed wings. Solitary. [cf. (a) 70:1, 87:2a, 95:1b; (bcf) 55:1, 66:1-2, 70:2, 72:1; (degh) 2ab, 59:2-3, 72:1-2] 4a Adult male (nominate; C/S America) Slaty, usually thinly barred below; 1–2 tail-bands; eyes white; orange on green lores. 4b Adult female (nominate) In flight. Barred rufous/cream; banded quills. [Grey-brown above, dark crown, rufous collar, 2 tail-bands.] 4c Adult female (aquilonis; Mexico) Black cap; rufous extends to cheeks. 4d Dark adult All slaty-black; one white tail-band. Flight (4e). 4f Juvenile Rufous edges, white collar, 3 tail-bands; white below; eyes brown, face yellow. Flight (4g). 4h Dark juvenile Blackish, edged buff; 2–3 tail-bands. Flight below (4i): dark linings, barred remiges.

Similar species are cross-referenced as follows: [cf. (a) 70:1, 87:2a, 95:1b; (bcf) 55:1, 66:1-2, 70:2, 72:1; (degh) 2ab, 59:2-3, 72:1-2] In this example, the male Hook-billed Kite (figure a) is compared with species number 1 on plate 70 (70:1), the male of species 2 on plate 87 (87:2a), etc. Adult females and juvenile (figures bcf) are compared with species 1 on plate 55 (55:1), species 1 and 2 on plate 66 (66:1-2), etc. Other plumages (figures degh) are compared with adult male Snail Kite on the same plate (2ab – references to species on the same plate are in bold), as well as species 2 and 3 on plate 59 (59:2-3), etc.

Sometimes a three-letter reference to a zoogeographical zone is also given. This means that a particular cross-reference applies only in that region, e.g. ‘Nea 29:2a’ applies only in the Nearctic. Zoogeographical zones that appear in the crossreferences are as follows: Afr Aus Cos Ind

Afrotropical Australasian Cosmopolitan Indomalayan

Mal Nea Neo Pal

Malagasy Nearctic Neotropical Palearctic

[These appear in brackets if marginal]

Maps

Green shading shows a resident population, or regular occurrence throughout the year, though numbers present may vary.

Yellow shading shows populations that are summer visitors only, usually visiting the region for breeding.

Arrows point to small island populations and those of restricted range. Blue indicates regular non-breeding areas; these are winter quarters or areas of shorter seasonal dispersal.

Paler tints of these colours represent a more scattered distribution, while dotted lines represent irregular limits.

4–5

The numbers in the corner of each map indicate an estimate of the total population size of the species, increasing by orders of magnitude. These numbers equate to: 1= 2= 3= 4=

1–10 birds 11–100 101–1,000 1,001–10,000

5 = 10,001–100,000 6 = 100,001–1,000,000 7 = more than 1,000,000

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PLATE 1: KEY TO GENERA OF MAINLY LARGER RAPTORS (Scale: c. 1:40) Examples shown are all adult ¢s. While most ™s are bigger and a few just smaller, proportions below relate to adults in general. But some juveniles have tails clearly longer or shorter; others have wings broader or longer.

Genera confined to New World

A CORAGYPS (Black Vulture) Smallish stocky black vulture: thin bill, bare grey head (juv black), broad wings with white near tips below, short squared tail: L56–74 cm, S133–160 cm. Nea/Neo plate 4. B CATHARTES (Turkey Vulture) Slender blackish vultures: bare red or yellow/blue heads (juvs dusky), long 2-tone wings, longish rounded tails: L53–76 cm, S150–182 cm. Nea/Neo plate 4. C GYMNOGYPS (California Condor) Huge black vulture: heavy bare orange head (juv dusky), long broad wings marked with white, shortish squared tail: L109–127 cm, S249–300 cm. [Nea] plate 5. D VULTUR (Andean Condor) Huge black vulture with white ruff/wing-patches (juv all-brown): bare purplish head (¢ big comb), long broad wings, longish tail: L100–122 cm, S272–310 cm. Neo plate 5. E SARCORAMPHUS (King Vulture) Mid-sized white and black vulture (juv brown): bare multicoloured head (juv dusky), very broad wings, shortish squared tail: L71–81 cm, S170–200 cm. Neo plate 5. F GERANOAETUS (Buzzard-eagle) Slate and white or barred eagle-sized buteonine (juv browner, streaky): rather pointed wings, short wedged tail: L60–76 cm, S145–180 cm. Neo plate 63. G HARPYHALIAETUS (Crowned Solitary-eagle) Ashy or slate eagle-sized buteonines (juvs browner, streaky): long broad wings, medium or short tail: L60–73 cm, S155–180 cm. [Nea]/Neo plate 63. H MORPHNUS (Crested Eagle) Large polymorphic eagle (juv more whitish): longish erectile crest, short rounded wings, bulging secondaries, long rounded tail: L71–89 cm, S140–160 cm. Neo plate 77. I HARPIA (Harpy Eagle) Huge slate, white and grey eagle (juv whiter): forked crest, short rounded wings, bulging secondaries, longish tail: L89–100 cm, S180–200 cm. Neo plate 77. J OROAETUS (Isidor’s Eagle) Large black, chestnut and grey eagle (juv more whitish): pointed crest, broad wings, bulging secondaries, longish tail: L63–74 cm, S155–175 cm. Neo plate 77.

Genera common to New and Old Worlds

K HALIAEETUS (a Bald Eagle, b Steller’s Fish-eagle, c African Fish-eagle) Large dark fish-eagles, most partly white (juvs complex): long broad wings, rounded/wedged tails: L60–105 cm, S165–244 cm. Cos except Neo plates 18–21. L AQUILA (a Golden Eagle, b Wedge-tailed Eagle) Large tawny to black eagles (juvs often paler): very important to note wing/tail shapes: L60–104 cm, S145–235 cm. Cos except Neo/Mal plates 83–87. M SPIZAETUS (Indian Crested Hawk Eagle) Small to largish varicoloured eagles (juvs whiter): short rounded wings, longish tails: L45–84 cm, S95–175 cm. Neo/Pal/Afr/Ind/[Aus] plates 78, 80–82, 89.

Genera confined to Old World

N ICHTHYOPHAGA (Grey-headed Fishing-eagle) Smaller grey-brown and white fishing-eagles (juvs browner): broad rounded wings, rounded dark or 2–tone tail: L53–77cm, S120–175 cm. Ind/[Aus] plate 21. O GYPAETUS (Lammergeier) Very large blackish and orange vulture (juv brown): feathered head, tapering wings, long diamond-shaped tail: L94–120 cm, S225–287 cm. Pal/Afr/[Ind] plate 22. P NECROSYRTES (Hooded Vulture) Smallish dark brown vulture: thin bill, bare red head (juv duller), broad rounded wings, short rounded tail: L57–68 cm, S150–180 cm. Afr plate 22. Q GYPS (Griffon Vulture) Largish to large tawny to blackish vultures with pale ruffs (juvs darker): downy heads, long broad wings, short tails: L75–110 cm, S185–285 cm. Pal/Afr/Ind plates 23–26. R AEGYPIUS (Monk Vulture) Large all-dark vultures (except smaller 27:2 with much white): bare/downy heads, long broad wings, short tails: L72–120 cm, S200–295 cm. Pal/Afr/Ind plates 23–24, 27. S CIRCAETUS (Short-toed Snake-eagle) Small to largish brown or pied snake-eagles (juvs vary): large heads, long broadish wings, longish tails: L54–78 cm, S120–198 cm. Pal/Afr/Ind plates 28–29. T HARPYOPSIS (New Guinea Eagle) Large brown and white eagle (juv similar but paler): rounded crest, short rounded wings, long rounded tail: L72–90 cm, S120–160 cm. Aus plate 79. U PITHECOPHAGA (Great Philippine Eagle) Huge brown and white eagle (juv similar): shaggy head, short rounded wings, longish squared tail: L86–96 cm, S180–200 cm. Ind plate 79. V ICTINAETUS (Indian Black Eagle) Largish slim black-brown eagle (juv tawny below and streaked): long paddle wings, longish tail: L65–80 cm, S160–185 cm. Ind/[Aus] plate 79. W HIERAAETUS (a African Hawk Eagle, b Booted Eagle) Small to largish slender varicoloured eagles (juvs also vary): longish wings and tails: L40–74 cm, S102–179 cm. Pal/Afr/Ind/Aus plates 23, 83, 87–89. X STEPHANOAETUS (Crowned Hawk Eagle) Very large blackish and blotched eagle (juv whitish): rounded crest, hortish rounded wings, longish tail: L80–95 cm, S150–180 cm. Afr plate 90. Y POLEMAETUS (Martial Eagle) Very large brown and spotted eagle (juv whiter): broad head, short crest, long broad wings somewhat pointed, shortish tail: L78–96 cm, S190–240 cm. Afr plate 90. Z SAGITTARIUS (Secretarybird) Very large, grey and black, terrestrial: crest, red face (juv yellow), long neck/ legs, broad wings, elongated central tail: L112–150 cm, S200–225 cm. Afr plate 90.

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Swainson’s Hawk

D

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Black Kite

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PLATE 2: KEY TO GENERA OF MEDIUM-SIZED RAPTORS (Scale: c. 1:25) Genera confined to New World A ELANOIDES (Swallow-tailed Kite) Largish black and white kite (juv similar): most graceful, long pointed wings, long tail deeply forked: L52–62 cm, S119–136 cm. Nea/Neo plate 17. B LEUCOPTERNIS (a Plumbeous Hawk, b White Hawk) Small/mid-sized grey, white or pied buteonines (juvs similar): shortish rounded wings, mid-length tails: L31–58 cm, S55–130 cm. Neo plates 59–61. C BUTEOGALLUS (a Common Black Hawk, b Savannah Hawk) Mid-sized/large black/rufous buteonines (juvs browner): mostly broad wings, short tails (but see 179): L38–67 cm, S81–140 cm. Nea/Neo plates 62, 64. D PARABUTEO (Bay-winged Hawk) Mid-sized black and rufous buteonine (juv paler, streakier): longish paddle wings, longish rounded tail: L45–59 cm, S101–119 cm. Nea/Neo plate 64. E BUSARELLUS (Black-collared Hawk) Mid-sized rufous buteonine marked black and white (juv streakier): long broad wings, short broad tail: L47–58 cm, S115–140 cm. Neo plate 64. F SPIZASTUR (Black-and-white Eagle) Smallish pied eagle (juv similar): contrasted crest, somewhat tapering wings, longish squared tail: L51–61 cm, S110–140 cm. Neo plate 78. G DAPTRIUS (Red-throated Caracara) Mid-sized to small black or pied arboreal caracaras (juvs similar): bare face red/yellow, long wings/tails: L42–59 cm, S90–125 cm. Neo plate 94. H PHALCOBOENUS (Mountain Caracara) Largish pied or blackish upland caracaras (juvs rufous/brown): bare face, wings more pointed, longish rounded tails: L48–62 cm, S110–130 cm. Neo plate 91. I CARACARA (Crested Caracara) Large pied caracara (juv browner): bare face orange-yellow, long rounded wings, longish rounded tail, long legs: L51–62 cm, S115–140 cm. [Nea]/Neo plate 92. J MICRASTUR (a Barred Forest-falcon, b Collared F-f) Mid-sized to large falcons, secretive and polymorphic: short rounded wings, long/longish rounded tails: L30–60 cm, S45–85 cm. Neo plates 94–96.

Genera common to New and Old Worlds K PANDION (Osprey) Mid-sized white and brown fish-eating eagle-like hawk (juv similar): long narrow-tipped wings looking gull-like, shortish tail: L50–66 cm, S127–174 cm. Cos except Mal plate 10. L CIRCUS (a Northern Marsh Harrier, b Montagu’s = juv ¢s) Slender grey, brown and/or black hawks (ad ™s and juvs similar): long narrow wings in V, longish tails: L39–61 cm, S90–155 cm. Cos plates 33–37. M BUTEO (a Roadside Hawk, b Common Buzzard, c Augur Buzzard) Small to mid-sized hawks: longish broad wings, short to mid-length tails: L28–67 cm, S65–165 cm. Cos except Aus plates 65–76.

Genera confined to Old World N HENICOPERNIS (Long-tailed Honey-buzzard) Largish blackish, barred and streaked, or black, kites (juvs similar): long broad paddle wings, long rounded tail: L48–61 cm, S105–140 cm. Aus plate 10. O PERNIS (Western Honey-buzzard) Largish polymorphic kites (juvs also vary): protruding head, long wings pinched at base, longish tails: L50–65 cm, S110–155 cm. Pal/Afr/Ind/[Aus] plates 11–12. P GYPOHIERAX (Palmnut Vulture) Small white and black fruit-eating vulture (juv dark): bare face red, shortish broad rounded wings, short rounded tail: L57–65 cm, S135–155 cm. Afr plate 19. Q NEOPHRON (Egyptian Vulture) Smallish white vulture (juv dark brown): thin bill, bare face yellow, long broadish wings, longish wedge tail: L58–70 cm, S146–175 cm. Pal/Afr/Ind plate 22. R TERATHOPIUS (Bateleur) Black, chestnut and white snake-eagle (juv brown): bare face red, very long pointed wings, bulging secondaries, shortest raptor tail: L55–70 cm, S160–190 cm. Afr plate 27. S SPILORNIS (Crested Serpent-eagle) Tiny to largish spangled brown snake-eagles (juvs whiter, streaky): rounded wings/tail boldly banded: L38–74 cm, S85–175 cm. Ind plates 30–31. T DRYOTRIORCHIS (West African Serpent-eagle) Mid-sized brown and white or blotched snake-eagle (juv paler, spottier): short rounded wings, long rounded tail: L54–60 cm, S90–105 cm. Afr plate 29. U EUTRIORCHIS (Madagascar Serpent-eagle) Accipiter-like grey-brown and barred snake-eagle (juv darkbanded/white-tipped above): short rounded wings, long rounded tail: L57–63 cm, S98–110 cm. Mal plate 32. V POLYBOROIDES (African Gymnogene) Largish grey and barred hawks (juvs brown or partly rufous/white): long broad wings, longish tails: L51–68 cm, S120–155 cm. Afr/Mal plate 32. W ERYTHROTRIORCHIS (Red Hawk) Large accipitrines with rufous body or shoulders (juvs redder/less streaked): long broad rounded wings, longish tails: L43–61 cm, S95–136 cm. Aus plates 48, 52. X MEGATRIORCHIS (Doria’s Hawk) Large streaked/barred black and buff accipitrine (juv whiter): short rounded wings, long rounded tail: L51–60 cm, S90–105 cm. Aus plate 48. Y UROTRIORCHIS (Long-tailed Hawk) White-rumped grey and chestnut accipitrine (juv brown and white or spotted): short rounded wings, very long graduated tail: L56–65 cm, S75–95 cm. Afr plate 57. Z LOPHAETUS (Long-crested Eagle) Smallish mainly black eagle (juv similar): long floppy crest, shortish rounded wings, longish tail: L50–59 cm, S115–135 cm. Afr plate 89.

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Swainson’s Hawk

Ja Jb

Ba

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E

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Black Kite

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PLATE 3: KEY TO GENERA OF MAINLY SMALLER RAPTORS

(Scale: c. 1:18)

Genera confined to New World A LEPTODON (Grey-headed Kite) Mid-sized black and white kite (polymorphic juv Grey-headed very variable): long broad paddle wings, longish rounded tails: L43–53 cm, S90–110 cm. Neo plate 15. B CHONDROHIERAX (Hook-billed Kite) Mid-sized polymorphic kite (juv also very variable): long-hooked bill, paddle wings, longish rounded tail: L39–51 cm, S78–98 cm. [Nea]/Neo plate 14, 15. C GAMPSONYX (Pearl Kite) Tiny black and white falcon-like kite with orange and rufous patches (juv similar): longish pointed wings, squared tail: L20–25 cm, S45–55 cm. Neo plate 16. D ROSTRHAMUS (Snail Kite) Mid-sized mainly dark kites (juvs similar or like ™s): thin long-hooked bill, long paddle wings, squared or notched tail: L35–48 cm, S80–115 cm. [Nea]/Neo plate 14. E HARPAGUS (Double-toothed Kite) Small grey-black and pale grey or rufous kites (juvs browner, streaked): shortish rounded wings, longish rounded tails: L29–35 cm, S60–72 cm. Neo plate 17. F ICTINIA (Mississippi Kite) Small pale grey and blackish falcon-shaped kites (juvs brown, streaked): long pointed wings, squared or notched tails: L29–38 cm, S70–85 cm. Nea/Neo plate 16. G GERANOSPIZA (Crane-hawk) Mid-sized slim grey and barred hawk (juv streakier): shortish rounded wings, bulging secondaries, longish rounded tail, long legs: L38–54 cm, S70–110 cm. [Nea]/Neo plate 59. H MILVAGO (Yellow-headed Caracara) Small slim brown, or buff and blackish, caracaras (juvs similar or streaked): long rounded wings, longish tails: L37–46 cm, S80–100 cm. Neo plate 93. I SPIZIAPTERYX (Spot-winged Falconet) Small streaky grey-brown primitive falcon with white rump/belly (juv similar): round-tipped wings, long rounded tail: L26–30 cm, S45–55 cm. Neo plate 96. J HERPETOTHERES (Laughing-falcon) Mid-sized, dark brown and buff, primitive falcon (juv paler): large masked head, shortish rounded wings, longish rounded tail: L45–55 cm, S75–95 cm. [Nea]/Neo plate 93.

Genera common to New and Old Worlds K ELANUS (Black-shouldered Kite) Small grey/white gull-like kites (juvs browner, mottled): black-marked pointed wings, short squared/notched tails: L31–43 cm, S77–102 cm. Cos except Mal plates 6, 13–14. L ACCIPITER (a Northern Goshawk, b Sharp-shinned Hawk, c Levant Sparrowhawk) Small/mid-sized hawks, often barred or rufous below (juvs browner, streaked): short rounded wings, long tails: L20–62 cm, S38–122 cm. Cos plates 39–56. M FALCO (a Oriental Hobby, b Common Kestrel, c Peregrine Falcon) Small to large falcons (juvs similar or streaked): pointed wings, short to longish tails: L21–61 cm, S40–130 cm. Cos plates 99–118.

Genera confined to Old World N AVICEDA (a African Cuckoo-hawk, b Pacific Baza) Small/mid-sized kites often barred below (juvs browner): crest, long paddle wings, rounded tails: L28–49 cm, S64–105 cm. Afr/Mal/Ind/Aus plates 8–9. O MACHEIRAMPHUS (Bat-hawk) Mid-sized black-brown falcon-like kite (juv browner): broad-based pointed wings, shortish tail, crepuscular: L41–51 cm, S95–120 cm. Afr/Mal/Ind/[Aus] plate 8. P CHELICTINIA (Scissor-tailed Kite) Small grey and white tern-like kite (juv browner): long pointed wings, long deep-forked tail (juv much shorter): L33–38 cm, S68–76 cm. Afr plate 8. Q LOPHOICTINIA (Square-tailed Kite) Largish slender brown and rufous kite (juv redder, less streaked): very long wings, longish notched tail: L50–56 cm, S131–146 cm. Aus plate 13. R HAMIROSTRA (Black-breasted Kite) Large stocky black and rufous kite (juv much paler, less black): longish broad wings, short broad squared tail: L51–61 cm, S141–156 cm. Aus plate 13. S MILVUS (Black Kite) Large dark brown or rufous kites (juvs similar): long and fairly broad wings, longish forked or triangular-looking tails: L46–68 cm, S120–171 cm. Pal/Afr/Mal/Ind/Aus plate 7. T HALIASTUR (Brahminy Kite) Large rufous and white, or brownish, kites (juvs streaky, or similar): broad rounded wings, medium/longish rounded or wedged tail: L44–59 cm, S110–146 cm. Ind/Aus plate 18. U MELIERAX (Dark Chanting-goshawk) Largish grey and barred accipitrine hawks (juvs brown and barred): broad rounded wings, longish graduated tails: L45–63 cm, S95–125 cm. Afr/[Pal] plate 38. V MICRONISUS (Gabar Goshawk) Small grey and barred accipitrine hawk with white rump, or all black (juv streaky brown and barred): rounded wings, long rounded tail: L29–36 cm, S55–65 cm. Afr plate 38. W BUTASTUR (White-eyed Buzzard-hawk) Mid-sized rufous-marked buteonines (juvs similar): rather pointed slender wings, longish tails: L35–48 cm, S80–110 cm. Pal/Afr/Ind/Aus plates 57–58. X KAUPIFALCO (Lizard-buzzard) Smallish grey and barred buteonine with white rump/tail-band (juv similar): longish wings somewhat pointed, mid-length tail: L30–37 cm, S65–80 cm. Afr plate 57. Y POLIHIERAX (African Pygmy-falcon) Small grey and white falcons, some chestnut on ™s (juvs similar): short pointed wings, squared or graduated tail: L19–28 cm, S31–45 cm. Afr/Ind plate 97. Z MICROHIERAX (Collared Falconet) Tiny black and white falcons, some also with rufous (juvs similar): short pointed wings, longish rounded tails: L14–20cm, S27–37 cm. Ind plates 97–98.

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Swainson’s Hawk B

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Black Kite

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PLATE 4: SMALLER NEARCTIC AND NEOTROPICAL VULTURES 1 TURKEY VULTURE Cathartes aura L62–76 cm (27 in): S160–182 cm (67 in): T22–29 cm (10 in): ¢97% Open/forested areas, to 2,200 m (3,000 m). Slim vulture; long wings, longish tail, small wrinkly head. Deep flexible beats; glides/soars rocking on V wings. Often social. [cf. Nea (esp. d) 4d, also 33:3e, 69:2, 84:1b; Neo esp. 2, 3, 4e, also 33/69 again] 1a Adult (septentrionalis/nominate; N America S to Costa Rica/West Indies) Brown-black, glossed on back, scaled grey-brown on wings; head dull red; bill ivory, legs reddish to whitish. Flight below (1b): black with silvery remiges, grey tail. 1c Adult (ruficollis; Panama, lowland S America to N Argentina) Blacker; less 7 scaled; yellowish nape-bands, or crown-patch. 1d Adult (jota; Colombian Andes to Patagonia and Falklands) Clearer greyer scaling above; head bright red (no yellowish as c). 1e Juvenile (septentrionalis) Thin buff scaling on wings; head dusky with brown fuzz on crown/nape; bill black with paler base.

2 LESSER YELLOW-HEADED VULTURE Cathartes burrovianus L53–65 cm (23 in): S150–165 cm (62 in): T19–24 cm (8 in): ¢96% Marshland, wet savannah, riverine forest, to 1,000 m. Rather smaller/ slimmer than 1 and 3; tail relatively short. Gliding buoyant/rocking as 1, but usually lower over ground; seldom soars high. More often on posts/other low perches. [cf. (esp. c) 1(esp. be), 3; also 4b-e, 5:1cd, 33:3e, 69:2] 2a Adult Black above, somewhat glossed; browner below; wrinkled head varies from yellow to orange, even red on forecrown and nape (2b), but greyblue on central crown and sometimes throat; bill/legs flesh to whitish. Flight below (2c): black with silvery remiges, grey tail, much as 1b. Above (2d): whitish shafts to outer primaries form distinct pale area. 2e Juvenile Head/bill dusky but for whitish nape; legs yellow-white.

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3 GREATER YELLOW-HEADED VULTURE Cathartes melambrotus L64–76 cm (28 in): S166–178 cm (68 in): T25–29 cm (11 in): ¢99% Forest, forest edge, to 700 m. Bulky vulture; broader-winged than 1/2, larger/longer-tailed than 2. Flight heavier, less buoyant/rocking than 1/2. Mostly solitary, rarely groups; sometimes roosts on high exposed branches with other vultures (esp. 1). [cf. 1, 2; also 4, 5:1cd] 3a Adult Much glossier velvety-black than 1/2; head rich yellow but for blue on central crown and spot by eyes; bill whitish to flesh, legs dingy white with darker feet. Flight below (3b): still two-tone effect, but remiges browner-grey while dusky inner primaries form contrasting patch. Glides on flattish wings or in slightest V (3c). Above, primary quills white as 2d. Juvenile: less whitish on nape than 2e.

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4 BLACK VULTURE Coragyps atratus L56–74 cm (26 in): S133–160 cm (58 in): T16–21 cm (7 in): ¢102% Open and wooded country, towns, to 2,700 m. Smallish vulture; short broad wings/tail, bare head; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Mixes stiff shallow flaps, wings forward, with glides on flat wings upswept. Gregarious. [cf. Nea 1; Neo 5:1cd, 1, 2, 3, also 62:1a/4a, 63:1a, 69:2a; dark buteos] 4a Adult (nominate; USA) Black, glossed greenish on back/shoulders; wrinkled grey-black head; bill-tip ivory, legs whitish. Flight below (4b): white primary patches. Only shafts white above, as f. Soars flat or in slight V (4c). 4d Adult (brasiliensis; Mexico to Brazil) Small; bolder wing-patch. 4e Adult (foetens; Ecuador to Chile/Argentina) Wing-patch obscure. 4f Juvenile Much as a–e, but body duller black; head blacker, less wrinkled, more bristly; bill all dark. Underwings similar.

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1e

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PLATE 5: LARGER NEARCTIC AND NEOTROPICAL VULTURES 1 KING VULTURE Sarcoramphus papa L71–81 cm (30 in): S170–200 cm (72 in): T21–26 cm (9 in): ¢109% Forest, savannah, to 1,500 m; casual to 3,300 m. Solid vulture; broad squarish wings, shortish squared tail, caruncled head, heavy bill; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Stiff shallow beats; glides/soars on flat wings upswept. Often solitary. [cf. (c-e) 4:1-4 juvs, also 5:3cf, 63:1a; (abg) storks Ciconia/Mycteria] 1a Adult Creamy body/shoulders; black rump/tail/remiges, greyer ruff; multicoloured head (top bristly, sides corrugated) and neck with pendant mauve lobe on lores, orange wattle on cere; red-ringed eyes white, legs dusky. Flight below (1b): white and black (pattern much as Wood Stork Mycteria americana). 5 1c Juvenile All sooty, or obscurely mottled whitish below; bare parts dark, bill tinged red; no caruncles. Flight (1d/1e). 1f Second- to third-year Black above, white below, dark collar; partly orange bill/head, caruncles developing; eyes yellow-grey to whitish. 1g Third- to fourth-year In flight. Wing-coverts, scapulars and, later, back turn white mottled with black-brown, heaviest on mantle.

2 CALIFORNIA CONDOR Gymnogyps californianus L109–127 cm (46 in): S249–300 cm (108 in): T33–38 cm (14 in): ¢109% Dry foothills, mountains; extinct in wild, releases from captive stock since 1992. Huge vulture; long broad wings, shortish squared tail (juv. slightly wedged), bare head, deep bill; wing-tips near tail-tip. Slow stiff beats; glides/ soars in flat V, fingers brush-like. Solitary/social. [cf. Nea 3bd (™s released in California); Neo (ef) 4:1, imm 20:1, 84:1, but far smaller] 2a Adult Blackish, thinly edged brown above, streaked grey on ruff, with white tips/fringes to greater coverts/secondaries; wrinkled head red-orange to yellow, black bristly patch on forecrown; pinkish neck redder in front; eyes red, bill whitish-yellow, legs dusky-pink to whitish. Flight below (2b): white 2 band along wing-linings, orange head, pale legs and (often visible) bare red strip on breast. Above: white-tipped greater coverts and silver-washed secondaries. 2c Juvenile Much as a, but head dusky with fuzzy down on neck; eyes grey-brown, bill black. Flight below (2d): whitish band along wing-linings heavily mottled dusky; tail more pointed. 2e Third-year Some orange, mainly at neck-base; eyes redder. Flight below (2f): wing-linings still show very little white; tail as a. From c. 4-yr, wing-linings progressively whiter, head more orange (still mottled blackish), neck-ring redder; adult by 6/7-yr.

3 ANDEAN CONDOR Vultur gryphus L100–122 cm (44 in): S274–310 cm (115 in): T33–40 cm (14 in): ¢126% Mountains 1,800–5,200 m, coastal lowlands in S. Huge vulture; long broad wings, longish rounded tail, bare head (male with caruncles); wing-tips short of tail-tip. Flight as 2; soars on flatter wings. Solitary/social. [cf. (ef) 1de, 4:1-3 and dark mountain eagles/buteos, all far smaller] 3a Adult male Black with silvery-white secondaries/larger coverts, white ruff; dull reddish head with fleshy comb and dewlap; eyes grey-brown, bill tipped ivory, legs dusky. Flight below (3b): white ruff, sometimes streaks on inner secondaries. Above (3c): much white on rear inner two-thirds of wings. 4/5 3d Adult female Head appendages lacking or much reduced; eyes red. 3e Juvenile Dull black, scaled paler, with brown ruff/inner coverts; head brown with fuzzy down on neck; eyes/bill brown. Flight above (3f): all dark, but ruff/inner wings slightly paler.

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PLATE 6: OLD WORLD KITES I 1 RED KITE Milvus milvus L60–72 cm (26 in): S143–171 cm (62 in): T30–38 cm (13 in): ¢87% Broadleaf woods, valleys, wetland edges, to 800 m. Large slim kite; long wings (5 fingers), forked tail; wing-tips to fork. Deep fluid beats; glides/soars on slightly arched wings, wrists forward, tips back, with twisting tail. Solitary/ social. [cf. rufous juvs of 7:1; and of possible vagrant 7:2 in Middle East] 1a Adult Mainly rufous; streaky whitish head. Flight below (1b): pale head, dark-streaked rufous body/linings, whitish windows, dark-cornered translucent rufous tail. Above (1c): whitish crown; buff panels on wing-coverts, pale windows; rusty tail. 1d Juvenile Flight below. Paler mottled body contrasts more with wings, less with tail; subterminal tail-band; greater coverts pale-tipped. Above (1e): darker crown, clearer wing-panels, pale-tipped primary coverts, subterminal band on duller tail.

5+

2 CAPE VERDE KITE Milvus fasciicauda L50–62 cm (21 in): S134–152 cm (57 in): T27–35 cm (12 in): ¢93% Usually treated as race of Red Kite (1), but intermediate in characters between it and Black Kite (7:1), with which has interbred. Now only on Santo Antão (outermost NW island) to 1,500 m (2,000 m), and virtually extinct there. Wings shorter than Red Kite and rounder-tipped than either; looks shorter-tailed, fork intermediate. [cf. 7:1] 2a Adult Smaller/browner than 1, with black bill; size similar to W populations of Black Kite (7:1), but thinly rufous-edged above, redder and clearly streaked below; contrasting rufous crown and whitish face; brown bars on dull reddish tail. Flight (2b): underbody and wing-linings dull rufous with black shaft-streaks; wing-panels above and primary windows below much as 1bc, but latter marbled greyer. Juvenile broadly rufous-edged above and buff-mottled below; browner tail more barred.

1

3 BLACK-SHOULDERED KITE Elanus caeruleus L31–37 cm (13 in): S77–92 cm (33 in): T11–15 cm (5 in): ¢91% Savannah, wood edges, cultivation, semi-desert, to 3,000 m. Small falcon-shaped kite; long pointed wings exceed notched tail. Fast cupped beats; glides/soars on raised arms forward, level hands back; hovers. Solitary/ social. [cf. Aus 13:4; Afr (ef) 8:1c; also Pal/Afr/Ind 35:1a-c] 3a Adult Grey/white; black shoulders, black-rimmed red eyes; often lifts/wags tail. Flight below (3b): white; dusky primaries, grey tips to secondaries. Above (3c): grey; darker-tipped wings, black shoulders, light tailedges. Hovering (3d). 7 3e Juvenile Browner; streaky crown; white tips to back, scapulars, greater coverts and quills soon lost; but black areas as a; eyes greyish to brown to orange to red. Flight above (3f).

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1a 1b

1c 2b

1d

2a

1e

3d 3e 3c

3f 3b

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3a

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PLATE 7: OLD WORLD KITES II 1 BLACK KITE Milvus migrans L46–60 cm (21 in): S120–140 cm (51 in): T21–29 cm (10 in): ¢92% Very varied, mainly in lowlands and foothills: especially near lakes/rivers, in cultivation and open woodland and, regionally (especially d), towns and harbours; mostly below 1,000 m, at least foraging to 2,000+ m; and up to 3,000 m in Africa in winter. Stockier than Red Kite (6:1); 6 fingers, notched or triangular tail; wing-tips near tail-tip in northern migratory populations, less so in d/e. Glides/soars on slightly arched wings held forward; can hover, snatches food from water. Gregarious (e.g. at food/roost). [cf. Pal/Afr 2, 3, 88:3de; W Pal 6:1; Afr 87:1a-cij; Ind/Aus 18:2ef; Aus 13:1, 18:1, 83:1cd; dark harriers] 7 1a Adult (nominate: W Pal, winters Africa) Brown above, dark-streaked whitish head, lightly barred tail; dark red-brown below; eyes yellow. Flight below (1b): head/windows paler than body. Above (1c): panels/windows duller than on Red Kite. 1d Adult (govinda: sedentary S Asia) Flight below. Wings average shorter, tail longer and fork deeper (40-70 mm) than shown; paler and less rufous underparts (but crown more rufous); wing-windows larger. 1e Adult (affinis: Lesser Sundas to Australia) Smallest race, hardly overlapping, sex for sex, with d; rather uniformly brown except for pale face/throat (not rest of head) and shoulder panel. 1f Juvenile (nominate) In flight. More contrasted than a; buff-spotted above; clearer wing-panels/windows/line on greater coverts; creamy breast-streaks, paler belly; two-tone tail cream-tipped.

2 BLACK-EARED KITE Milvus lineatus L58-66 cm (24 in): S125–153 cm (55 in): T28-35cm (12 in): ¢90% ����������� 6 Again very varied, from wetland edges to open woodland, but less associated with cultivation and human activities and also extends to higher altitudes, apparently breeding to 4,000+ m, in Himalayas, and foraging to 5,000+ m. Large kite, looking larger than 1 (especially when overlaps 1d), with broader wings and relatively shallow-forked tail compared with 1d; prominent dark cheek-patch and dark eyes at all ages; wing-tips to base of fork. [cf. 1, 88:3de, dark harriers; Ind 18:2ef (Oct-Mar); 58:1-3 when perched] 7 2a Adult Brown above with slightly paler crown and throat emphasising ������������ bold dark cheek-patch; brown below, variably suffused rufous (less than 1a but more than 1d), often boldly dark-streaked, but crissum paler; eyes dark, bill black. Flight below (2b): larger; browner-headed than 1a or 1d, belly/tail paler; extensive bold windows more as Red Kite (6:1). Flight above (2c): browner than 1c, head not paler but dark cheek-patch usually distinctive (beware that juveniles of 1 may show something of a dark mark). 2d Juvenile Broad pale feather-edges above, browner-headed than 1f, with bolder dark cheek-patch, and more distinctly and heavily streaked whitish below; cere bluish. Flight below (2e): wing-linings heavily marked, bold white windows as 2b, again paler belly/tail.

3 YELLOW-BILLED KITE Milvus aegyptius L44–58 cm (20 in): S115–135 cm (49 in): T23-27cm (10 in): ¢96% Varies from semi-desert to any open country with trees, especially cultivated areas near lakes and rivers, often in numbers in towns; to 3,000 m. Large kite, averaging smaller than 1; tail often more deeply forked (30-46 mm, against 20-35 mm for 1a). [cf. 1, 87:1a-cij, 88-3de (Oct-Mar); dark harriers; 57:3 when perched, dark buteos] 3a Adult (parasitus: sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar) Paler and more evenly coloured than 1, with rufous head, to hind-neck and cinnamon-rufous underparts; more distinctly barred tail; distinctive heavier-looking, all-yellow bill; eyes brown. Nominate aegyptius (not illustrated), of Egypt and Red Sea region, browner-rufous head and underparts, bill sometimes blackish, but eyes still dark. Flight below (3b): head and wing-linings uniformly rufous as underbody; windows at bases of primaries much as 1, but tail often looks more deeply forked and yellow bill striking if head is turned at all. 3c Juvenile (parasitus) Bill black (but cere yellow) and plumage much like 1f, with pale dark-streaked head, buff spotting on upperparts; tends to be less contrastingly streaked below; more deeply forked tail less two-toned; but, with individual variation, juvs often indistinguishable in field. Flight below (3d): wing-linings tend to be darker and more uniform than 1f, windows clearer, tail slightly more forked.

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1a 1f 1e 1c

1b 1d

2b

3b 2c

2d

3d 2e

3c

3a 2a

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PLATE 8: SCISSOR-TAILED KITE, CUCKOO-HAWKS AND BAT-HAWK 1 SCISSOR-TAILED KITE (AFRICAN SWALLOW-TAILED KITE) Chelictinia riocourii L33–38 cm (14 in): S68–76 cm (28 in): T17–22 cm (8 in): ¢94% Semi-desert, dry savannah, to 500 m. Small slim tern-like kite; long pointed wings, long deep-forked tail (but see c), weak bill, short legs; wing-tips half down tail. Fast buoyant beats; much on wing; soars on raised arms; hangs and hovers. Insectivorous. Gregarious; noisy at colonies/roosts. [cf. (c) 6:3ef] 1a Adult Pale grey above; black patch by red eyes, sooty-edged scapulars, white-tipped remiges; white below; cere grey. Flight below (1b): black carpal strips, greyish primaries. 1c Juvenile Browner above, edged rufous; rounder wings and notched tail shorter/cream-tipped; buff chest-band with thin streaks; eyes grey. Flight below (1d): chest-band; greyer quills.

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2 AFRICAN CUCKOO-HAWK Aviceda cuculoides L38–43 cm (16 in): S85–95 cm (35 in): T18–21 cm (8 in): ¢90% Forest, wet savannah, to 3,000 m. Smallish cuckoo-patterned kite; looks accipitrine, but long wings more pointed; slight crest, short legs; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Slow beats; glides/soars on flat wings. Still-hunts. Solitary. [cf. 38:1-4; 57:2; also 41:2-3] 2a Adult male (nominate; Senegal/DR Congo) Dusky above, grey head and chest; grey bands on black tail; abdomen barred rufous/white. Flight below (2b): rusty wing-linings, black-edged silvery remiges. 2c Adult female Browner; broader tail-bands; vaguer barring below. 2d Adult (verreauxi; DR Congo S: ¢) More rufous on nape. Flight (2e: ™): linings barred rufous/white as body; more barred remiges. 2f Juvenile Dark brown above, edged buff; white supercilia; white below, drop-shaped spots. Wing-linings dark-speckled buff.

5

3 MADAGASCAR CUCKOO-HAWK Aviceda madagascariensis L40–44 cm (17 in): S90–100 cm (37 in): T20–23 cm (8 in): ¢95% Forest and edge, wooded savannah, scrub, marshes, to 1,800 m. Smallish kite, but larger than 2; rather buteo-like at rest; eyes large and protruding; white underparts with rufous-brown flanks and breast-band; long wings roundertipped; lacks cuckoo-pattern. Slow heavy beats; glides on flattish wings; apparently seldom soars. Solitary. Crepuscular. [cf. possibly 74:2; also 42:1] 3a Adult Brown above, streaked on paler head; tail-coverts mottled white; 3 pale grey-brown tail-bands, basal 2 variably marked with white; white below, throat streaked brown, breast/flanks variably blotched; cere mid-dark grey; feet and legs dull yellow-grey with slight pink cast. Flight below (3b): brownish linings mottled white; whitish quills barred dusky. 3c Juvenile Much as a, but darker brown above; more white-streaked head; more white at base of tail; darker markings below.

4

4 BAT-HAWK Macheiramphus alcinus L41–51 cm (18 in): S95–120 cm (42 in): T15–19 cm (7 in): ¢83% Woods near caves, towns, to 2,000 m. Mid-sized falcon-like kite; long pointed wings, shortish tail, pointed crest, small bill but huge gape, big eyes; wing-tips near tail-tip. Silent slow beats/glides. Crepuscular; eats bats whole. [cf. larger crepuscular falcons: 117/118; Afr 113:1; Mal 106:1-2; Ind 113:2; Aus 109:2] 4a Adult (nominate; SE Asia) Brown-black; white by eyes, white throat-sides/chest, often belly; cere grey, feet blue-grey. 4b Adult (anderssoni; Africa/Madagascar) Chasing bat. Sooty-brown; white or browner throat-sides; faint pale tail-bars, primary spots. 4c Pale adult (?subadult) (anderssoni) Browner, white spots on nape; pale bars on tail; white below blotched brown (linings, too). 4d Juvenile (nominate) Browner above than a, with some white mottling; mostly white below with variable blackish blotches (cf. c).

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1a 2a 1c 1d

4c

2b

1b

2d

2c

2e

2f

3b

4b

4a 4d

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3c 3a

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PLATE 9: INDOMALAYAN AND AUSTRALASIAN BAZAS 1 JERDON’S BAZA Aviceda jerdoni L40–49 cm (18 in): S80–100 cm (35 in): T19–24 cm (8 in): ¢91% Forest/edges, at 150–1,850 m. Mid-sized kite; broad rounded wings, longish tail, long crest, short legs; wing-tips well down tail. Slow flexible beats; glides on V wings, soars on flat. Pairs/families. Shy; crepuscular. [cf. 45:2-3; 80:2bc, 80:3; also 11:1-2] 1a Adult male (nominate; SE Asia) Dark brown above, edged rufous on nape/mantle; white-tipped blackish crest, barred remiges; 3 dark bands on buff-tipped tail; black stripe on white throat; chest rufous, abdomen barred brown/white; cere blue-grey. 1b Adult (ceylonensis; Sri Lanka/S India) Smaller; paler above, narrower tail4 bands; paler chest, less barred underbody. 1c Adult (celebensis; Sulawesi/Sula) Also smaller; but dark with black-streaked rufous head, rich rufous chest, bold barring. 1d Adult female (nominate) Flight below. Unevenly banded tail recalls Indomalayan Honey-buzzard (12:1), but has pale tip; wing-linings barred as body, grey-white remiges evenly banded at tips. ¢ darker chest and barring. 1e Juvenile (nominate) Scaled buff above; whiter head/underparts streaked black, blotched rufous; 3–4 more even bands on tail.

2 BLACK BAZA Aviceda leuphotes L28–35 cm (12 in): S64–74 cm (27 in): T13–15 cm (6 in): ¢96% Forest with glades/streams, to 1,500 m. Smallish chunky kite; broad rounded wings, moderate tail, long crest often erect; wing-tips well down tail. Crowlike in flight, among trees. Hovers at or hangs from foliage to feed. Social; crepuscular. [Almost unmistakable, but cf. 1, 8:4, 11:2] 2a Adult (nominate; SW India) Black; white blotches on back; chestnut, or chestnut and white, patch on secondaries; white/black/chestnut breastbands; rufous bars on white breast/flanks; cere grey, feet black. Flight above (2b): white blotches; rufous, white and black secondaries. 2c Adult (syama; Nepal to S China/Myanmar/W Thailand, winters to 5 Sumatra) Less chestnut and white above; darker bars below. Flight below (2d): black head/linings/chest-band/vent; white chest, barred breast; silvery tail-base, black-tipped primaries, grey secondaries. 2e Juvenile (nominate) Duller, browner; more white on back, but less on secondaries; streaked white on throat and brown on chest.

3 PACIFIC BAZA Aviceda subcristata L35–46 cm (16 in): S80–105 cm (36 in): T19–23 cm (8 in): ¢92% Forest, savannah, mangroves, gardens, to 1,300 m (1,700 m). Mid-sized kite; longer wings than 1, narrower near body; pigeon head, short crest; more cuckoo-patterned. Loose shallow or deep rowing beats; glides on flat wings, wrists forward, trailing edges S-curved. Snatches prey from foliage/stretches to it. Pigeon-like display-flight. Two-note whistle. Social. [Almost unmistakable, but cf. 47:2, 51:2, 52:1-2; also 10:2] 3a Adult male (nominate; NE/E Australia) Grey head/chest, black-tipped tail; darker crest/wings, brown scapulars; barred brown/cream below, rufous thighs/crissum; cere slate, feet grey. ™ more rufous below, browner above. 5 Flight below (3b): barring to axillaries; rufous linings; silvery quills; barred wing-tips, dark rear edges; black tail-end, white corners, 2 basal bars. 3c Adult (njikena; NW Australia) Smaller; blacker; blacker barring. 3d Adult (rufa; N Moluccas) Also small/mid-sized; reddest race, with rufous wash on much of head/chest and bold rufous barring below. 3e Juvenile Brown above, scaled rufous; whitish throat, grey-rufous collar, fainter barring to vent; cere cream to blue-grey.

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1b

1a

2a

2c

2e

1e 2b

2d

1c

1d

3b 3a

3e

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3d

3c

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PLATE 10: OSPREY AND HENICOPERNIS HONEY-BUZZARDS 1 OSPREY Pandion haliaetus L50–66 cm (23 in): S127–174 cm (59 in): T17–23 cm (8 in): ¢85% Fresh or salt water, mainly below 1,000, locally to 3,300 m. Mid-sized fish-eating hawk; long pointed angled wings look gull-like; shortish tail, prominent head; wing-tips exceed tail-tip. Slow, shallow, flexible beats; glides/usually ? soars on arched wings, hands dropped, wrists forward. ? Dives into water, feet/head first, from clumsy hover (d) ? or glide. Solitary/social. DNA sequencing has suggested that the three Osprey taxa shown here might be regarded as distinct species (carolinensis then including the smaller ridgwayi of the Caribbean). [cf. 11:1e; distant 5 large gulls Larus; imm fish-eagles larger; pale buteos/ honey-buzzards] 1a Adult male (nominate: Pal, winters Afr/Ind) Dark brown above, paler barred tail; creamy head/underparts with broad dark eye-band, streaky rusty-buff gorget; eyes yellow; cere/feet blue-grey. Flight below (1b: ¢) white with bolder gorget, black carpal patches/wing-diagonals/wing-tips, barred greyish remiges/tail. Above (1c). Also hovering/diving (1d). 1e Adult (carolinensis: Nea, winters Neo: ¢) Slightly larger than a; forehead, back and wings darker brown; crown and chest whiter; almost no gorget streaks. ™ tends to have slightly more breast-markings. 1f Adult (cristatus: Australia to Java/Philippines: ¢) Smaller and shorter-winged; whole head whiter; narrower and less continuous eye-band; gorget stronger. 1g Juvenile (nominate) Heavier crown-streaks (nape tinged rufous at first); cream-scaled above, broad tail-tip; whiter gorget; eyes orange. As a-d, once pale tips lost in first 6 months.

2 LONG-TAILED HONEY-BUZZARD Henicopernis longicauda L50–61 cm (22 in): S105–140 cm (48 in): T29–37 cm (13 in): ¢89% 5 Forest, to 3,000 m. Largish kite with small head; slender bill, wing-tips half way down long tail. In flight, long wings often angled forward at wrists, noticeably broad near rounded tips, with curved rear edges and cut in at body; loose shallow beats; glides/soars on level wings. Skulking. Diurnal/crepuscular. Solitary. [cf. 48:1(esp. de); 79:1 in flight; also 18:2e-g; larger accipiters] 2a Adult Brown-black above, head streaked whitish, back/wings barred brown-grey; 4 brown-grey bands on tail; cream to buff below, streaked blackish, most heavily on breast; cere/feet bluish-white. Flight below (2b): wing-linings thinly streaked blackish, like throat/breast; flight-feathgers and tail banded grey and blackish. 2c Juvenile Tail and primaries have the subterminal dark and adjacent pale bands clearly narrower than on a/b; similar pattern on lighter brown back and wing-coverts makes upperparts look paler and more closely barred; richer buff below with redder-brown streaks. Flight below (2d): buff body and wing-linings less contrastingly streaked; much paler than b and also distinguished by narrower bands on tips of tail and more pointed flight-feathers.

3 BLACK HONEY-BUZZARD Henicopernis infuscatus L48–52 cm (20 in): S110–115 cm (44 in): T25–27 cm (10 in): ¢90+% Forest, chiefly below 1,600 m. Largish kite; long broad wings, longish tail; shape and, apparently, character very much as 2, and sometimes treated as conspecific, but smaller, relatively shorter-tailed and far darker. Little known; mostly seen when gliding/soaring on flat wings over forest ridges. Solitary. [cf. 50:1de because of black colour] 3a Adult Mainly black above and blackish below, mixed with little white on crown/nape, cream on throat, buff on thighs/crissum; 2–3 brown-grey bands on tail, 2 on remiges; feet blue-white. Flight below (3b): black body and wing-linings; slightly paler throat and crissum; remiges and tail banded black and whitish. Juvenile (not illustrated) similar, apart from more pointed primaries, and probably indistinguishable in field.

3-

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1g 1f

1a

1d

1c 1e

1d 1b

2c

2a

3a

2b

4d

2d 3b

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PLATE 11: MIGRATORY OLD-WORLD HONEY-BUZZARDS 1 WESTERN HONEY-BUZZARD Pernis apivorus L50–60 cm (22 in): S118–144 cm (52 in): T21–27 cm (9 in): ¢94% Forest with clearings, woods, to 1,500+ m. Largish buteo-like kite; long wings (5 fingers) often pinched in at body; longish tail (juvenile shorter) notched with rounded corners; protruding cuckoo-like head, small bill; wing-tips nearly to subterminal tail-band. Deep flexible beats; glides on flat or slightly bowed wings, wrists forward, hands back; soars on flat ‘parallel-edged’ wings; no hovering. Roller-coaster display: quivers raised wings at zeniths. Solitary/ migrating flocks. [cf. 2 where overlap/vagrant, also 74:1, other buteos, 28:1; Afr 87:1, 88:3, 89:1-3, also 28:4] 1a Barred adult male Grey-brown above; cheeks grey (female brown); 7thin streaks on cream throat/chest, cinnamon/sepia bars on white abdomen; eyes orange-red (female yellow), cere blue-black (prey: nest of wasps Vespula). Flight below (1b: ™): bars blackish on breast/linings, rufous on belly/thighs (or all bars dark); barred greyish tail, broad distal and 2–3 basal bands (echoed on wings); black carpals; note adult ™ has dark fingers (cf. c-f). 1c Dark adult female Dark chocolate with black shaft-streaks; here pale throat, some white spots on nape/breast, broken bars on flanks/thighs/crissum. Flight below (1d: ¢): dark bird with wing-linings as body (carpals hardly show), dark secondaries; note adult male dark ‘fingernails’ (female has dark fingers, juvenile has dusky hands). 1e Pale adult (male) Flight below. Creamy with only few dark streaks on breast, spots on flanks; bold carpal patches, remiges/tail much as a. Above (1f): warm grey-brown; grey cheeks (¢) sharply demarcated from white throat; typical tail pattern. 1g Dark juvenile Flight below. Often blackish; here chestnut with speckly throat, whitish-barred strip on midwings; this tail atypical (normally as j). Above (1h): dark brown; thin pale tips forming lines on mid-wings and rump; pale windows. 1i Pale juvenile Brown above, tipped white; creamy head/underbody with speckly dark eye-patch, brownish nape-spots, streaks below; eyes brown, cere yellow (cf. a). Flight below (1j): streaky chest, speckly carpals; here brown bars on belly and flanks, bars/streaks on linings. Above (1k): eye-patch; mottled mantle/shoulders; clearer lines and windows than g.

2 EASTERN HONEY-BUZZARD Pernis orientalis L54–65 cm (23 in): S128-155 cm (56 in): T24–27 cm (10 in): ¢92% 5-6 Forest, cultivation, river valleys, to 1,800 m. Largish kite; as 1 but looks bigger, heavier; broader wings more rounded at tips (6 fingers), broader tail appears shorter; head very slightly crested, feet larger; tail and underwing ? patterns also differ, and often throat pattern; morphs less extreme. [cf. 1 where overlap/vagrant; 73:2, 74:1, 88:3; Ind (esp. Sep-Mar) as for 12:1-2] ? 2a Dark adult male Grey-brown above, greyer head, tiny crest; eyes dark red (™ yellower); often (as here) dark-bordered pale throat, sometimes also dark median gular line; mostly blackish tail, broad pale greyish central band, wide creamy tip (fresh plumage); dark-barred/mottled underside. 2b Lightly barred adult male Flight below (cf. 1a). Barred body, plain linings; rear inner bar on flight-feathers long, reaching body (hidden by greater coverts in 1a/e); here tail atypical (normally looks black with broad pale central band, as a). 2c Pale adult female Flight below. Plain underbody/linings light tawny-buff; no dark carpal (or sometimes small spot), 3 evenly spaced dark bars on secondaries, primaries with additional distal bar on fingers, inner tail-band(s) relatively broad (cf. 1b). 2d Intermediate adult female Tiny crest; tail-bands stronger than 1 (and inner bands broader); here (but not always) with dark gorget. 2e Pale juvenile Eyes dark, cere yellow; pattern much as 1i, but underbody more often light tawny with dark streaks, often (as here) dark-bordered pale throat like a; 4–5 tail-bars plus broader subterminal. Flight above (2f): very like smaller 1k, but more rounded wing-tips with 6 (not 5) fingers. 2g Dark juvenile Flight below. Body/linings all dark; pale remiges extensively barred, contrasting dark wing-tips (usually also broad dark trailing edge) (cf. smaller 1g).

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1c 1b

1j 1i

1a

1g

1d

1e

1k

1f

1h 2g

2b

2c 2a

2d 2e

2f

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PLATE 12: SOUTH-EASTERN ASIATIC HONEY-BUZZARDS 1 INDOMALAYAN (CRESTED) HONEY-BUZZARD Pernis ptilorhynchus L53–65 cm (23 in): S113–142 cm (50 in): T24–29 cm (10 in): ¢c82% Forest, cultivation, semi-desert, to 1,800 m. Largish honey-buzzard; wings shorter than in migratory species (Western and Eastern Honey-buzzards, 11:1–2) and with more rounded tips; crest varies in different populations from long to slight or even absent. Feeding and behaviour as other honey-buzzards. Deep steady wing-beats interspersed with glides. Roosts communally. [cf. 3, 11:2; mimicry of Spizaetus esp. (c) 80:3a, (d) 80:2a, also 9:1, 30:1g, 45:2] 1a Adult male (ruficollis: S Asia) Slight crest; plumage often barred or brown, rufous neck; can have white throat, dark gorget. Dark morph (1b: ™): head and whole body dark sepia. (1c also has dark morph.) 6 1c Typical adult male (torquatus: SE Asia/Borneo) Long crest; mainly brown, barred below; rufous neck, dark gorget. 1d ‘Tweeddale’ morph male (torquatus) (mimics Blyth’s Hawk Eagle, 80:2) Blackish with white throat, bold barring below. 1e Adult female (philippensis: Philippines) Flight below. No crest; large, paler, less barred. 1f Pale juvenile morph (ruficollis) More or less whitish head; underbody creamy. Flight (1g): rufous morph.

2 BARRED HONEY-BUZZARD Pernis celebensis L50–58 cm (21 in): S110–125 cm (46 in): T25–28 cm (10 in): ¢87% Forest, to 1,800 m (2,000+ m). Smaller than 1; adult boldly patterned, very like Sulawesi Hawk Eagle (82:2ab), with similar short crest. [cf. 12:1, 11:2 (?Sep-May); 82:2ab; also 9:1, 45:3] 2a Adult male Black crown; dark brown above; paler tail with broad blackish bands, 2–3 thinner basal bars; white throat with median stripe; rufous-buff chest streaked blackish, abdomen barred. Flight below (2b: ¢): linings barred like abdomen, indistinct carpal patches; greyish remiges barred most on primaries. Above (2c): mainly brown with distinctly banded tail; short crest. 2d Juvenile Much paler than a, edged paler still above; less clearly streaked and barred below; 5 dark tail-bars.

5-?

3 STEERE’S HONEY-BUZZARD Pernis steerei L51–57 cm (21 in): S113–123 cm (46 in): T26–28 cm (11 in): ¢89% Forest, to 1,300 m (1,500 m). Size similar to 2; less strongly marked; less convincing mimicry of Philippine Hawk Eagle (82:3ab), with similar long crest. [cf. 12:2e, 11:2 (Sep-May): 82:3ab; also 9:1, 45:2] 3a Adult male Lighter brown above; thinner streaks on paler neck/chestnut, weaker barring on abdomen. Flight below (3b: ™): wing-linings and remiges much paler and less barred than 2b. Above (3c): similar to 2c, but lighter brown; tail less boldly banded; much longer crest. 3d Juvenile (male) Flight below. Less marked than 2d; linings often, and body sometimes, plain white/cream.

4?

Honey-buzzards are not at all closely related to the true buzzards or buteos (plates 65-76), and have relatively weak bills, short legs, and flattish talons liable to be blunted by digging for nests of social wasps and bees. Most are sedentary in the Indomalayan region, and even the two migratory Palearctic breeding species (11:1-2) spend more than half their lives in tropical winter quarters where food is plentiful, but where they in turn are vulnerable to attack from larger raptors and owls. Both those two and the widely distributed Crested Honey-buzzard (1 above) are among the most polymorphic of all raptors, and many of their plumages show marked similarities to those of much stronger hawk eagles – especially Spizaetus (plates 80-82) in southeast Asia and Hieraaetus (plates 87-89) in Africa – to such an extent that it is difficult not to conclude that protection for the weak has been achieved by the evolution of mimicking the plumages of the powerful. On a more limited scale, the endemic island honey-buzzards of Sulawesi and the Philippines (2 and 3 above) mimic the very different endemic hawk eagles of those two island groups, to an astonishing degree in Sulawesi, where there is only one Spizaetus ‘model’ (82:2), but far less so in the Philippines, where there are two (81:2 and 82:3). Comparable plumage mimicry is found in a number of other raptors. For example, the Rufous-thighed Kite of South America (17:3) mimics the male Bicoloured Hawk (55:1), to which it is remarkably similar in size, flight and pattern.

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1b

1e

1c

1f

1d 1g

1a

2c

2d

2b 2a

3c

3b 3a

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PLATE 13: ENDEMIC AUSTRALIAN KITES 1 SQUARE-TAILED KITE Lophoictinia isura L50–56 cm (21 in): S131–146 cm (55 in): T25–28 cm (10 in): ¢89% Forest/scrub, to 1,000 m. Large slim kite; long splay-fingered wings, long square/notched tail, slight crest; wing-tips just exceed tail. Shallow loose beats; glides/soars in shallow V, wrists forward, tail twisting. Solitary. [cf. (d) 6:3; 2e; also 52:3; 83:1f; in flight, 37:2] 1a Adult Creamy face; dark-streaked rufous nape/underparts; dark brown above, mottled pale shoulders; cere/feet flesh-white. Flight below (1b: rufous linings, black carpal arcs; barred primaries, whitish windows; dark-tipped secondaries; greyish tail with faint bars, subterminal band. Above (1c): dark with creamy forecrown/face, pale diagonal wing-panel. 1d Juvenile No white face; rufous head/underparts finely streaked; edged/ scalloped rufous above, especially shoulders; rump often pale.

4

2 BLACK-BREASTED KITE (BLACK-BREASTED BUZZARD) Hamirostra melanosternon L51–61 cm (22 in): S141–156 cm (58 in): T20–22 cm (8 in): ¢94% Woods to desert, esp. river trees, to 1,000 m. Large eagle-like ‘kite’ (relationships uncertain); long, broad even wings, stub tail, big bill/legs, slight crest; wing-tips well exceed tail. Deep strong or flat fast beats; sails rocking on backswept upcurved V wings. Hoarse yelps. Solitary, except at food/roosts. [cf. (e) 83:1fg, 1d; also 52:3] 2a Adult Blackish face/breast/back; rufous nape/shoulders/abdomen; brown tail; cere/legs flesh-white. Flight below (2b): plain patterns, white windows; dusky-rufous linings/crissum, pale tail. Above (2c): rufous forewings, pale windows. Eating eggs of Emu Dromaius novaehollandiae (2d): throws stones with bill to break them. Supposed ‘pale morph’ is 2/3-yr: see e. 2e Juvenile Rufous; paler head, black mottling above, chest-streaks, unbarred primaries/tail. 2/3-yr (not illustrated) browner; streaks heavier.

4

3 AUSTRALIAN BLACK-SHOULDERED KITE Elanus axillaris L33–37 cm (14 in): S82–94 cm (33 in): T14–15 cm (6 in): ¢96% Woods, grassland/crops, urban wastes, to 1,500 m. Small kite, like falcon; pointed wings, notched tail; wing-tips exceed tail. Shallow gull-like beats; sails in shallow V; hovers. Flicks tail. Solitary/social. Also crepuscular. [cf. 4; hovering (ef) 103:2; also 51:1abef, 108:2a,] 3a Adult White with grey back/wings, darker primaries; shoulders black; black to behind eyes forms eyebrows (3b); eyes red, cere horn/yellow, feet yellow. Flight below (3c): white; dark wing-tips, black carpals. Hover (3d): fast flat beats. 3e Juvenile Rusty-brown head/back, mottled grey wings with darker shoulders, all white-tipped above; more rufous breast; eyes brown. Flight below (3f): rufous breast; wing-tips browner.

6

4 LETTER-WINGED KITE Elanus scriptus L34–37 cm (14 in): S84–89 cm (34 in): T14–16 cm (6 in): ¢87% Timbered watercourses/grassland, to 1,000 m; eruptive. Like 3: note differences under a in face, cere, legs, underwings. More buoyant tern-like flight, deeper slower beats and hover; flatter-winged glide. Gregarious. Crepuscular/nocturnal. [cf. 3; hovering (ef) 103:2; also 51:1abef, 108:2a,] 4a Adult Like 3a, but more black in front of larger eyes and ring around give owl-like face (4b); cere horn, legs cream to flesh-white. Flight below (4c): variable black band along wings; paler grey primaries than 3, translucent secondaries. 4d Juvenile Browner, less mottled above than 3e; more orange-brown on breast. Flight below (4e): paler primaries; usually blackish band on wings (may be faint, broken, even absent).

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1d

1a

1b 1c

2b 2e

2d

2a 2c

3e

3d

3b 3a 3f 4b

3c

4d 4a

4e

4c

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PLATE 14: NEW WORLD KITES I 1 WHITE-TAILED KITE Elanus leucurus L35–43 cm (15 in): S88–102 cm (37 in): T15–19 cm (7 in): ¢94% Grassland, savannah, marsh, to 1,000 m (2,500+ m). Smallish gull-like falcon-shaped kite; longish pointed wings, squared tail; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Deep graceful beats; glides on V wings, hands level; soars in V; hovers. Solitary/social. Diurnal/crepuscular. [cf. 16:2-3; also Nea 33:1a; Neo 33:2a] 1a Adult Grey and white, with black shoulders; black patch by orange-red eyes. Flight below (1b): white linings as body; black carpal patches; grey secondaries, blackish primaries. 1c Juvenile Grey-brown above, edged white on back, streaked on head; dark subterminal tail-band; black shoulders less obvious against darker wings; rufous specks on breast; brown eyes.

6

2 SNAIL KITE Rostrhamus sociabilis L39–48 cm (17 in): S99–115 cm (42 in): T16–21 cm (7 in): ¢98% Fresh marsh, to 1,000 m. Mid-sized kite; paddle wings, notched tail, thin deephooked bill; wing-tips exceed tail-tip. Slow floppy beats; glides/soars on bowed wings. Gregarious/solitary. [cf. 3-4; also 62:1-4 (all much bulkier); 59:1-2] 2a Adult male Slaty-black; white tail-base and tail-tip; eyes/lores red. Flight below (2b): black band on white tail; orange legs. 2c Adult female Dark brown, edged tawny above, blotched cream below; buff supercilia/cheeks; tail as a; lores/legs yellow-orange. Flight below (2d): linings darker than body; barred remiges usually pale-based, secondaries darker distally; two-tone tail. 2e Juvenile As c but broader edges, streaked crown; cream below with clearer streaks; eyes brown, lores creamy, legs yellowish.

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7-

3 SLENDER-BILLED KITE Rostrhamus hamatus L35–41 cm (15 in): S80–90 cm (33 in): T11–14 cm (5 in): ¢95% Forest lagoons, wooded swamps, also coffee plantations, to 750 m. Smallish kite, smaller and chunkier than 2; shorter broader wings, shorter squarer tail, similar hooked bill; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Faster flatter beats; glides on less bowed wings. Solitary/loose groups. [cf. 59:2; also 2ab; 3fgjk; 62:1-4] 3a Adult Dark slate-grey, blacker on remiges/tail; yellow-white eyes; lores/ legs orange. (As 2, staple food apple snail Pomacea.) Flight (3b): all slate, no white; orange legs. 3c Juvenile As a but for wing/tail-coverts edged rufous to cream, 2–3 whitish tail-bars and tail-tip. Flight below (3d): dark but for tail-bars and obscure barring on dark-tipped remiges.

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5

4 HOOK-BILLED KITE Chondrohierax uncinatus L41–51 cm (18 in): S81–98 cm (35 in): T18–23 cm (8 in): ¢89% Wet forest, drier scrub, coffee, to 1,500 m (rare 2,700 m). Mid-sized kite; paddle wings, longish tail, heavy bill, short legs; wing-tips half down tail. Slow beats; glides/soars on slightly bowed wings. Solitary. [cf. (a) 70:1, 87:2a, 95:1b; (bcf) 55:1, 66:1-2, 70:2, 72:1; (degh) 2ab, 59:2-3, 72:1-2] 4a Adult male (nominate; C/S America) Slaty, usually thinly barred below; 1–2 tail-bands; eyes white; orange on green lores. 4b Adult female (nominate) In flight. Barred rufous/cream; banded quills. [Grey-brown above, dark crown, rufous collar, 2 tail-bands.] 4c Adult female (aquilonis; Mexico) Black cap; rufous extends to cheeks. 4d Dark adult (nominate) All slaty-black; one white tail-band. Flight (4e). 4f Juvenile (nominate) Rufous edges, white collar, 3 tail-bands; white below; eyes brown, face yellow. Flight (4g). 4h Dark juvenile (nominate) Blackish, edged buff; 2–3 tail-bands. Flight below (4i): dark linings, barred remiges.

5

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2a 2d

1b

2c

1a

2b

2e 3d

3c

3b

1c

4i 4f

3a

4e

4h 4g

4d 4a

4b

4c

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PLATE 15: NEW WORLD KITES II 1 GREY-HEADED KITE Leptodon cayanensis L43–53 cm (19 in): S90–110 cm (39 in): T21–26 cm (9 in): ¢94% ? Humid forest/edge, near water, to 1,000 m (2,200 m). Largish kite; broad rounded wings, long rounded tail; wing-tips near tail-base. Flap/glide flight; usually soars low. Unobtrusive in canopy. Solitary. [cf. (a-c) 2, 60:1-4, 61:1-3; (d) 14:3fg, 78:1a, 96:1; (ef) juvs of 16:3, 62:1-2, 66:2, 70:1] 1a Adult Grey crown/nape and paler cheeks merge into grey-white underbody; slaty-black back/shoulders, obscure two-tone grey bars on wings; tail with white tip, 2 whitish bars, third on coverts; bare parts blue-grey. Flight below (1b): white body contrasts black linings, banded quills. Above (1c): pale head, obscurely barred wings, 3 thin bars on black tail. 5 1d Pale juvenile Head/underbody white but for dusky crown-patch and triangles behind eyes; brown above, edged rufous; broad grey-brown tailbands, tip buff. Flight below (1e): bare plain creamy-white linings and basal part of secondaries; whitish remiges thinly barred, 2 dark tail-bars. 1f Dark juvenile All dark brown above, head sometimes (in S range) tinged rufous and with obscure collar; buffier below, more or less marked blackish; here almost solidly dark throat/breast. Flight below (1g): more lightly marked bird with central throat-stripe, streaked breast, mottled thighs/wing-linings; secondaries browner than c, dark tail-bands often broader.

2 FORBES’S KITE (WHITE-COLLARED KITE) Leptodon forbesi [Data inadequate, but L49-50 cm (19 in), proportions comparable with 1] Coastal rainforest in Alagoas and Pernambuco (areas devastated by slash����������� and-burn clearance for sugarcane); sea-level to 600 m. This taxon was long 2-3 known only by the type specimen (from Pernambuco, in Natural History Museum, Tring, UK); Swann (1922) (for refs see p. 72) described it as distinct species, but Brown & Amadon (1968) considered it ‘only a variant of the immature plumage’ of Grey-headed Kite (1 above). More recently, it has been proposed as separate species again on basis of three more old specimens (from Alagoas in Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro) (Teixeira et al. 1987a/b), these being adult male, adult female and subadult female (Teixeira in litt. ���������� 1-2? 1992-93); subsequent records came from two areas in Alagoas in the 1980s and one in Pernambuco in the 1990s, but no descriptions of these others have yet been published. ‘I have visited the remaining forest tracts in these states (the largest in Alagoas is just 30 km², in Pernambuco 45 km²) and there have been no recent observations of forbesi to my knowledge’ (M Pearman in litt. 1998, 2005). It may even be that this bird is now extinct. Plate and decription here based on the Tring specimen, which is hardly ‘immature’, being in fresh-moulted plumage and apparently largely adult except for two or three old secondaries and some contour feathers. [cf. 1, also 60:3, 61:3] 2a Adult Tring specimen differs from adult 1 in whiter-grey forehead, whitish hind-collar, conspicuous white tips to mantle and remiges (which would become abraded) and, most strikingly, a single broad ash-white tail-band (5585 mm deep). Flight below (2b): this broad white tail-band and the white wing-linings (fresh on the specimen, not retained from juvenile plumage) contrast with the thinly white-barred tail and black wing-linings and of 1ab. The Tring specimen’s wing-formula is also different (including p7/8 longest, compared with p6/7 longest on 1).

3 CUBAN HOOK-BILLED KITE Chondrohierax wilsonii L38–43 cm (16 in): S76–83cm (31 in): T16–18 cm (7 in): ¢86% See map above Montane gallery forest. Mid-sized kite with massive-looking hook-tipped bill, longish tail, short legs; wing-tips half down tail. Slow beats on paddle wings with broad rounded tips; glides/soars with wings slightly bowed. Feeds on tree snails Polymita and slugs. Often treated as race of Hook-billed Kite (14:3), but long isolated, monomorphic, and distinct on large yellow bill and smaller size. Critically endangered [cf. 14:2; migrant 33:1 and buteos, e.g. 70:2] 3a Adult male Grey and brown above, with thin whitish collar barred grey and rufous like underbody; tail evenly banded black and pale grey; bill yellow, cere bluish-green, eyes bluish-white. Flight below (3b): barred wing-linings as underbody, banded tail, distinctly barred flight-feathers. 3c Adult female Pattern as ¢, but much browner above, dark tail-bands narrower, collar and underparts coarsely barred reddish-brown and whitish; bill again yellow. Flight below (3d): again pattern much as ¢, but body/linings barred rufous, banding on undertail much thinner/less bold.

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1b

1c

1e 1d 1f

1g

2b 3d

3a

3b 2a

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PLATE 16: NEW WORLD KITES III 1 PEARL KITE Gampsonyx swainsonii L20–25 cm (9 in): S45–55 cm (20 in): T8–12 cm (4 in): ¢91% Palm savannah, scrub, woods, even towns, to 1,000+ m. Tiny falcon-like kite; pointed wings, roundish tail; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Dashing flight, fast beats; glides on flat wings; hovers briefly. Still-hunts. Confiding. [Almost unmistakable, even as juv; but consider brief view of 104] 1a Adult (nominate; S from Amazon) Slaty-black and white; orange forehead/cheeks, white and chestnut collar, black (or rufous) patch on chest-sides, rufous thighs; eyes red, cere blue-grey. Flight below (1b): white with cream wing-linings, palest grey remiges/tail (above: rear wing-edge boldly white). 1c Adult (leonae; Nicaragua to Amazon) Some rufous on flanks, too. 1d Juvenile Clearer collar; rufous edges above; flanks more rufous.

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5

2 PLUMBEOUS KITE Ictinia plumbea L29–38 cm (13 in): S70–85 cm (31 in): T12–17 cm (6 in): ¢95% Riparian forest, wooded hills, mangroves, to 1,200 m (1,700 m). Small kite very like 3; more pointed wings, squared tail, short legs; wing-tips well exceed tail. Solitary/small groups. [cf. Sep-Apr 16:3; also (de) 14:1c] 2a Adult Grey head, paler crown and throat, blackish around red eyes; dark slate above, rufous on primaries; grey below; cere dusky, legs orange. Flight below (2b): grey; pale throat; 2 white tail-bars; extensively rufous primaries. Above (2c): dark; paler head; 2 broken tail-bars, rufous on primaries. 2d Juvenile Like 3e, but blacker above, edged buff; secondaries dark, slight rufous wash on inner webs of primaries; blacker streaks below. Flight below (2e): pale greyish-rufous primaries speckled white at bases; 3 full white tail-bars.

6-7

3 MISSISSIPPI KITE Ictinia mississippiensis L31–37 cm (13 in): S75–83 cm (31 in): T15–17 cm (6 in): ¢89% Riverine forest, parks, plains, to 1,200 m. Small falcon-like kite; long pointed wings, longish notched tail, short legs; wing-tips just exceed tail. Buoyant ? leisurely beats; glides on flat wings, tips upswept in soaring. Gregarious. [cf. Neo Sep-Apr 16:2; also (ef) 14:1c] 3a Adult male Whitish head, black around red eyes; slate-grey body, paler below; silvery secondaries, some rufous on primaries; black tail; legs orange. ? Adult female (3b): grey head. Flight below (3c: ad ¢): wing-linings grey as underbody, grey secondaries white-tipped; at most only slight tinge of rufous in primaries (cf. 2b); plain tail. Above (3d: ad ¢): silvery secondaries, some 5 rufous on primaries (cf. 2c). 3e Juvenile Dark brown above, edged rufous; whitish streaks on head, short buff supercilia; greyish secondaries, all remiges white-tipped; creamy below, streaked rufous or brown; eyes brown. Flight below (3f): streaked body, mottled wing-linings; primaries vary from all-dark to showing large white patch; tail may be more or less plain or show 2-3 usually incomplete whitish or pale bands. 3g First-year Flight below. Body as a but for some white and brown spots of juvenile feathers; remiges/tail as e/f; eyes reddish.

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1a

2b

1d

1b 2e 1c

2a

2d

2c 3d

3c

3b 3e 3a

3g

3f

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PLATE 17: NEW WORLD KITES IV 1 SWALLOW-TAILED KITE Elanoides forficatus L52–62 cm (22 in): S119–136 cm (50 in): T28–37 cm (13 in): ¢93% Wetlands, forest, savannah, to 1,800 m (wanders to 3,500+ m). Largish elegant kite; long pointed wings, long deep-forked tail; wing-tips exceed base of fork. Slow loose beats, skims water, rides air-currents, tail opening/ closing/twisting; glides/soars on mainly flat wings. Social. [Almost unmistakable, even as juv] 1a Adult (nominate; SE USA) Head/underparts white (also some tertials); back/wings/tail blue-black, glossed purple; eyes red, cere/legs blue-grey. Flight (1b): shape/pattern. 1c Adult (yetapa; S Mexico/S America) In flight. Glossed green. 1d Juvenile Shorter tail; glossed green; white tips on wings wear off by late summer; sometimes dusky shaft-streaks on head/breast.

6

2 DOUBLE-TOOTHED KITE Harpagus bidentatus L29–35 cm (13 in): S60–72 cm (26 in): T13–17 cm (6 in): ¢88% Forest, wooded savannah, to 1,200 m. Proportions and ‘teeth’ much as 3. Fast beats/glides. Not shy. [cf. 53:1efg, ™s of 53:2-4, ¢s of 55:1; also 66:2, 70:2, 95:1abh-j; (ef) 3de] 2a Adult male (nominate; most range) Dusky grey-brown above with greyer head; whitish tail-bars; rufous below, lightly barred; throat (with dusky stripe) and crissum white; eyes orange, lores greenish. 2b Adult male (fasciatus; S Mexico/W Ecuador) White below, variably washed rufous (some only on flanks or belly) and barred grey. 2c Adult female (nominate) Flight below. Rich rufous; creamy wings, 5 banded remiges; clear whitish tail-bars; puffy tail-coverts. 2d Adult female (fasciatus) Broad rufous bars on abdomen; little grey. 2e Juvenile male (fasciatus) Brown above, thinly pale-edged; creamy-buff below, variably streaked; tinged rufous on flanks/thighs and more barred; throat-stripe. Flight (2f): wing-linings as c.

3 RUFOUS-THIGHED KITE Harpagus diodon L29–35 cm (13 in): S60–70 cm (26 in): T13–17 cm (6 in): ¢87% Forest, to 1,000 m. Small accipiter-like kite; short rounded wings pinched in at base, longish tail, short legs; 2 ‘teeth’ on upper mandible; wing-tips only part down tail. [cf. 55:1; also (de) 2ef] 3a Adult Slate-grey above, head blackish; grey-white tail-bars and tail-tip; grey below, with throat-stripe, rufous thighs, white crissum; eyes red. Flight below (3b): throat-stripe; grey body; rufous linings/thighs; black tail, pale bars (cf. adult male pileatus Bicoloured Hawk, 55:1f). 3c Juvenile Black-brown above; creamy below with throat-stripe, bold brown blotches on breast/belly (or, as shown by d, thinner drop-shaped streaks); thighs rufous, faintly barred. Flight below (3d): here rufous-tinged linings thinly streaked.

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1c

1d

1b

1a

2b 2e

2f 2c

2d 2a

3c

3a

3d

3b

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PLATE 18: INDO-AUSTRALASIAN KITES AND FISH-EAGLES 1WHISTLING KITE Haliastur sphenurus L51–59 cm (22 in): S120–146 cm (52 in): T23–29 cm (10 in): ¢79% Coasts, wetlands, open woods/plains, often by water, to 1,400 m. Large untidylooking kite; longish fingered wings, longish rounded tail; wing-tips short of tailtip. Deep jerky beats; soars on arched wings; glides on flat wings, hands bowed, wrists forward. Scavenger; pirates raptors. Long descending whistle, then fast rising chatter. Solitary/gregarious. [cf. 83:1abfg; also 7:1, 13:1d, 2eg] 1a Adult Brown, rufous and sandy, darker above and streaked below; paler head, darker remiges, grey tail; cere grey, feet cream. Flight below (1b): pale streaky body/linings; pale inner primaries, wing-diagonals and tail contrast blackish remiges. 1c Juvenile Darker, rustier, streakier; strongly pale-spotted above.

6

2 BRAHMINY KITE Haliastur indus L44–52 cm (19 in): S110–125 cm (46 in): T18–22 cm (8 in): ¢86% Coasts, wetlands, forest, lowlands but also to 3,000 m; Industrial towns. Largish compact kite; broad rounded wings, shortish tail; wing-tips reach/ exceed tail-tip. Glides on raised wings; soars in flat V. Peevish bleat peeeah. Often gregarious. [cf. 4cd; Aus (e-g) 1, 83:1abfg] 2a Adult (nominate; India–SE Asia) White, with black shaft-streaks, and chestnut; black primaries. Flight below (2b): white body, chestnut linings/ crissum, rufous quills, all black wing-tips. 2c Adult (girrenera; Australasia) White parts pure, no streaks. 2d Adult (flavirostris; Solomons) White also pure; bill all yellow. 2e Juvenile (nominate) Blackish above, spotted buff, fading to brown; more rufous and more streaked below and on cheeks/shoulders. Flight below (2f): dusky linings; pale windows, black tips. 2g Juvenile (girrenera) In flight. Tail paler; abdomen dingy whitish.

6

3 SANFORD’S FISH-EAGLE Haliaeetus sanfordi L70–85 cm (31 in): S165–185 cm (69 in): T25–28 cm (10 in): ¢90% Forest, to 1,500+ m; also coasts, but less water-associated than congeners. Slim fish-eagle; long broad wings, wedged tail relatively longer than 4; wingtips short of tail-tip. Glides and soars on shallow V wings. Feeds on phalangers and fruit-bats as well as fish. [cf. 2eg, perhaps vagrant 4cd, 1] 3a Adult Tawny head; brown to blackish back and wings, blacker tail; all dull rufous below; bill/cere greyish. Flight below (3b): tawny head and rufous underbody clearly paler than rather uniformly dark under-wings; pale tip to blackish tail. 3c Juvenile As 4c but tail dark with pale tip; throat darker ochre; much more clearly streaked below; crissum darker and mottled.

3

4 WHITE-BELLIED FISH-EAGLE Haliaeetus leucogaster L70–85 cm (31 in): S178–218 cm (78 in): T21–26 cm (9 in): ¢81% Coasts, rivers, lakes, to 900 m. Largish slender fish-eagle; long broad wings, shortish wedged tail; wings reach tail-tip. Glides/soars in stiff V. Snatches food from water; scavenges, pirates. Solitary/social. [cf. (c-e) Ind 21:1d-g, 20:2d-f; Aus 83:3e, also 3] 4a Adult White with grey back/wings/tail-base, blackish remiges; cere grey, feet cream (prey: Yellow-bellied Sea Snake Pelamis platurus). Flight below (4b): white; dark remiges/tail-base. 4c Juvenile Pale-tipped/streaked brown; white tail shading to broad brown tip; cere blue-grey, feet cream. Flight below (4d): blotched linings, whitish diagonals/windows; dark tail-band. 4e Second-year In flight. Head/tail whiter; some rufous on chest/thighs; dark-tipped remiges/primary coverts; some c secondaries left.

5-

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2b

1b 2f

1a 1c

2g 2a 2d 2c

2e

3c

4b 3a

4e

4d 4c

4a

3b

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PLATE 19: AFRO-MALAGASY FISH-EAGLES AND PALMNUT VULTURE 1 AFRICAN FISH-EAGLE Haliaeetus vocifer L63–75 cm (27 in): S175–210 cm (76 in): T19–24 cm (9 in): ¢82% Rivers, lakes, coasts, to 4,000 m (mainly under 1,500 m); immatures wander well away. Mid-sized fish-eagle; long broad rounded wings, short rounded tail; wing-tips exceed tail-tip (not on longer-tailed juvenile). Slow beats; glides on flat wings, wrists forward; soars flat or in shallow V. Typical ringing weeah kyow-kow-kow of African waters; pair often duets. [Almost unmistakable, but cf. (bc) 3c-e; 10:1 fishes too] 1a Adult White head to mantle/breast, and tail; black wings/rump; chestnut belly/shoulders; head flung back in characteristic call here. Pairs often perch together (1b). Flight (1c): white head/chest/tail; chestnut belly/linings; slaty 6 remiges. 1d Juvenile Ragged, streaky; variably black-brown (¢s darker?); dark cap, pale cheeks; white breast-band, streaks on mantle/wings; off-white tail-base; cere/legs grey. Flight below (1e): whitish breast-band, tail-base, wing-linings and windows. 1f Second-year Flight below. Whiter head/breast variably streaked dark; thinner dark tip to white tail; linings paler, windows white; few d secondaries. Variable dark cap; cere pinkish. 1g Third-year Flight below. Breast white with black streaks; belly and linings moulting black to chestnut; tail white or faintly dark-tipped; cere pinkish. Head white, some brown on crown.

2 MADAGASCAR FISH-EAGLE Haliaeetus vociferoides L60–66 cm (25 in): S165–180 cm (68 in): T23–30 cm (10 in): ¢82% Coastal mangroves, lakes, cliffs. Slightly smaller than 1; relatively shorter wings, longer tail and legs. Loud call. [Unmistakable] 2a Adult Grey-white crown, nape and throat, streaked rufous and brown; white cheeks; white tail with thin blackish shafts; otherwise dark brown, variably streaked rufous on mantle, breast and wings; remiges greyer; cere/legs whitish. Flight (2b): looks dark with whitish head and white tail, but winglinings as body, dark grey remiges, pale primary bases. 2c Juvenile Paler brown than 1d, and more evenly streaked whitish above, mottled yellow-buff to whitish below; rufous throat; blackish remiges and grey-brown tail, all edged whitish.

3-

3 PALMNUT VULTURE Gypohierax angolensis L57–65 cm (23 in): S135–155 cm (57 in): T19–21 cm (8 in): ¢92% Forest, mangroves, wooded savannahs, to 1,500 m (1,800 m), near food palms and water. Small Haliaeetus-like vulture; short broad wings, short rounded tail; well projecting head, bare face, strong bill; wing-tips almost cover tail-tip. Fast flaps/glides; soars high. Arboreal; also forages on ground, takes fish. Often solitary. [cf. (ab) 1ab and 22:2acd (both much white); (cd) 22:3e, 22:2f-h; 32:3 eats palmnuts too] 3a Adult Much white; black scapulars/secondaries/larger coverts; cere blue, face orange-red, legs dull orange. (Food fruit of oil palm Elaeis guineensis.) Flight (3b): black-tipped white primaries, black secondaries/primary 6 coverts/tail-base. 3c Juvenile Brown, back/remiges/tail darkest, head/shoulders/rump palest; face/cere yellow-grey, legs whitish. Flight below (3d): paler head/axillaries/wing-diagonals; dark primaries. 3e Second-year Flight below. Dusky secondaries, pale windows and white-tipped tail show pattern emerging as a (cf. also 1f). 3f Fourth/fifth-year Head, body and coverts patchy (not streaky as 1f/1g) or largely white; face flesh to yellow, legs whitish-yellow.

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1b

1e

1a

1f

1g

2a

1d

1c

2c

3b

2b 3c

3e 3f 3d

3a

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PLATE 20: NEARCTIC AND PALEARCTIC FISH-EAGLES 1 BALD EAGLE (BALD FISH-EAGLE) Haliaeetus leucocephalus L70–90 cm (31 in): S180–230 cm (81 in): T23–37 cm (12 in): ¢76% Coasts, lakes, rivers, to 2,000 m. Large fish-eagle (larger in N); neck shorter, tail longer/less wedged than 2; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Glides on flat wings, wrists forward; soars flat or in slight V. Often gregarious. [Adult unmistakable, but cf. (d-f) 84:1, perhaps vagrant 2d-f, 3e-g; also (g) 10:1] 1a Adult Dark brown body/wings, edged paler; white head/tail plus coverts; may have few dark spots on head; bill orange-yellow. Flight below (1b) and above (1c): white head/tail/rump. ? 1d Juvenile Head dark; back, wing-coverts and belly paler tawny; sometimes white streaks below; tail with whitish base or all dark; bill black. Flight 6 below (1e): whitish axillaries and diagonals; wings/tail longer than a; trailing edges serrated. 1f Second/third-year Flight below. Belly white, variably dark-streaked; tail as d but shorter; new dark-tipped whitish secondaries shorter and some d secondaries left, so trailing edge uneven. Above: inverted triangle on back and some coverts whitish. 1g Fifth/sixth-year Flight below. Head whiter, body darker; axillaries white, diagonals fading; tail variable. Close-up 2/3/4-yr head (1h): Osprey pattern with dark eye-stripe; eyes/bill now yellowish.

2 WHITE-TAILED FISH-EAGLE (WHITE-TAILED EAGLE) Haliaeetus albicilla L74–92 cm (33 in): S193–244 cm (86 in): T23–34 cm (11 in): ¢77% Coasts, lakes, rivers, to 2,000 m (mostly lower). Large 5 bulky fish-eagle; long rectangular wings; neck/heavy ? ? bill protrude as far as short wedge-tail; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Stiff shallow beats; glides/soars on flat or slightly bowed wings. Often solitary; immatures social. [cf. 21:1, (d-f) 3e-g, 23:1-3, various eagles (84-86), perhaps ? vagrant 1d-f] 2a Adult Mostly brown, scaled paler, looking ragged; streaky buff to creamy head/neck merging into brown chest and, in turn, darker belly/thighs; white tail; bill yellow. Flight below (2b): white tail, pale head/chest. Above (2c): white tail but dark rump; scaled back/wingcoverts paler than remiges. 2d Juvenile Dark head/remiges/thighs, mottled tail; rest red-brown, tipped blackish above, heavily streaked below, throat paler; bill blackish. Flight below (2e): streaked body; whitish axillaries and wing-diagonals; mottled inner secondaries; longer and less wedged tail with whitish-centred feathers. 2f Third-year Flight below. Mottled brown/white; tail shorter/more contrasted than d; some d secondaries left; bill yellowish.

3 STELLER’S FISH-EAGLE Haliaeetus pelagicus L85–105 cm (37 in): S195–230 cm (84 in): T32–36 cm (13 in): ¢82% Rocky coasts, coastal rivers. Huge fish-eagle; paddle-shaped wings, longish wedged tail, massive bill; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Often solitary; social in winter. [Virtually unmistakable, but cf. (e-g) 2, 84:1, perhaps vagrant 1d-f] 3a Adult Blackish, with white forehead, shoulders, thighs, tail, and all tail-coverts above and below; greyish streaks on crown/neck; face/bill/legs orange-yellow. Flight below (3b) and above (3c): blackish with white forewings, white tail. 3d Dark adult (‘niger’; Korea) All black but for white tail; rare (extinct?). 4 3e Juvenile Blackish with grey streaks on head/chest, white-mottled median coverts/inner secondaries, dark-tipped whitish tail; face/bill/legs yellow. Flight below (3f): pale mottling on chest, axillaries and wing-linings; whitish-based remiges; darker-ended whitish tail (with rounder wedge-tip than a). 3g Third-year Flight below. Whiter-mottled wing-linings, neck, and thighs; windows on blacker remiges; dark-mottled white tail.

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1g

1e

1h 1f

1a 1d

1c

1b

2b

2c 2f

2e

2d 2a

3f

3e 3g

3b

3c 3d

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3a

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PLATE 21: ASIAN FISH- AND FISHING-EAGLES 1 PALLAS’S FISH-EAGLE Haliaeetus leucoryphus L72–84 cm (31 in): S185–215 cm (79 in): T25–30 cm (11 in): ¢81% Inland seas, lakes, rivers, to 5,200 m. Large slim fish-eagle; long broad wings, squarish tail, longish neck, smallish bill; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Faster lighter beats than White-tailed Fish-eagle (20:2); glides/soars on flat wings. Gregarious/solitary. [cf. 3; (d-f) 20:2d-f; also eagles (84-86), esp. tail of 84:1e-g] ? ? 1a Adult Brown, darkest on shoulders/back and more rufous ? below; pale head, broad white tail-band; tawny crown/mantle and ? whiter face tinged rufous when fresh; cere grey, feet flesh to white. Flight below (1b): whitish head, white tail-band; dark wings, slightly paler diagonals. Above (1c): pale head to V on mantle, white tailband; grey-based outer primaries. 4 1d Juvenile Brown above, edged buff or light brown; dark head; paler below with tawny breast; cere grey, legs dull whitish. Flight below (1e): brown body and darker tail; whitish axillaries; pale brownish-buff wing-diagonals on dark-mottled linings; brown remiges with well-defined whitish windows; carpal arcs. 1f Fouth-year Flight below. Less contrast now on underwings; mottled tail-band and whitish base. Close-up of head (1g): paler than d; dark mask contrasting buff throat. Adult by c. 5/6-yr.

2 LESSER FISHING-EAGLE Ichthyophaga humilis L53–68 cm (24 in): S120–165 cm (56 in): T18–25 cm (8 in): ¢74% Fast-flowing forest waterways, to 2,500+ m. Small fishing-eagle; broad wings not especially long, rounded tail; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Faster beats than 3; glides/soars on flat wings. Swoops on fish from mid-stream rocks. Solitary. [cf. 3; also 1] 2a Adult Brownish but for greyer head/neck with fine dark streaks, white belly/thighs; uppertail rather uniform; eyes yellow, cere brown, legs whitish. Flight below (2b): white abdomen; greyish tail variably speckled, giving greater/lesser contrast with dark tip; often pale primary-flashes (cf. 3). Above (2c): brownish; darker remiges. 4 2d Juvenile Paler brown, streaked on head/breast; belly/thighs white as a; whitish feather-bases show on back/wings; eyes brown. Flight below (2e): far paler; wing-linings mottled; lightly barred remiges dark-tipped; diffuse tail-band, whitish base.

3 GREY-HEADED FISHING-EAGLE Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus L66–77 cm (28 in): S140–175 cm (62 in): T23–28 cm (10 in): ¢75% Rivers, lakes, irrigation tanks, in wooded country, to 1,000 m; also coastal lagoons, estuaries. Mid-sized fish-eagle; shape as smaller 2. Deep beats less heavy than Haliaeetus; glides/soars on flattish wings. Solitary. Swoops from perch to take fish at surface. Laughing screams. [cf. 1; also 2] 3a Adult Brown with grey head/neck; more rufous below; white belly and thighs; white tail with broad dark subterminal band; eyes yellow, cere dark grey, legs whitish. Flight below (3b): white abdomen/tail-base, plain brown ? wings (cf. smaller 2). Above (3c): dark; paler head; contrasting white tail-base. 3d Juvenile Head/neck/breast bolder-streaked than 2d; dark brown above, 4-5 edged grey; whitish tail with brown-speckled bars; white thighs also mottled brown; eyes brown. Flight below (3e): much paler than a or 2d; streaked axillaries and body darker than mottled wing-linings, mid-wings largely white; speckly bars on mottled tail, no clear subterminal. 3f Second (third?)-year Flight below. Less streaked breast, darker wings, clearer tail-band, whiter belly/thighs, so more like 2d.

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1a

1b

1c

1g 1f

1e

2b

1d

2e

2d

3b

2a

3f

3e 3d

2c

3a 3c

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PLATE 22: LAMMERGEIER AND SMALL OLD WORLD VULTURES 1 LAMMERGEIER Gypaetus barbatus L94–125 cm (43 in): S231–283 cm (101 in): T43–52 cm (19 in): ¢97% Mountains, upland steppes, 1,000–4,500 m (300–7,500 m). Huge slender vulture; long narrow pointed wings, long broad diamondshaped tail; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Soars with wings flat or hands lowered, glides slightly bowed. Solitary. [Almost unmistak? able, but cf. (d-f) 2e-h] 1a Adult (aureus; Eurasia) Cream head, black mask/beard/streaks; grey-black above, whitish shaft-streaks; orange-buff below, broken black gorget. Flight below (1b): cream-orange body; black wing-linings; slate-grey remiges black-tipped. 1c Adult (meridionalis; E/S Africa) Smaller than a; no streaks on head, no broken gorget. Also, bottom 4–5 cm of tarsus bare. 5 1d Juvenile All darker: black head/neck (short beard not obvious); blackish above, spotted buff-white; grey-brown below. Flight below (1e): grey-brown body and wing-linings somewhat paler than black head and blackish quills. Longer secondaries and often abraded tail can make shape less distinctive. 1f Third-year Flight below. Body now blackish-mottled rusty-cream.

2 EGYPTIAN VULTURE Neophron percnopterus L54–66 cm (24 in): S146–175 cm (63 in): T23–26 cm (10 in): ¢98% Plains, deserts, coasts, towns, mountains, to 2,500 m (3,600 m). Small slight vulture; long wings, wedged tail, small head, shaggy ruff, thin bill; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Deep beats, flaps more than larger vultures; glides/soars with wings flat or hands dropped. Often solitary. [High overhead, cf. (ab) stork/pelican Ciconia/Pelecanus, 18:4b, 88:3b; (f-hj) 1f-h, eagles (84-86)] 2a Adult (nominate; Afr/Pal) Mainly white with black remiges; often variably stained rusty-pink, buff, grey or brown; eyes brown to red, bare face yellow-orange, bill mainly black, legs flesh to yellow. Dropping stone on egg of Ostrich (2b). Flight below (2c): body/forewings/tail white, remiges black. Above (2d): cream/grey 5 on outer webs. 2e Adult (ginginianus; India) 5% smaller; bill mainly yellow. 2f Juvenile Dark brown with blacker head, variable cream-buff tips; eyes/bill brown, bare face grey. Flight below (2g): dark with paler head, whitish-tipped grey-brown tail. Above (2h): back, coverts, remiges and tail edged creamy-buff. 2i Second-year More mottled as, increasingly, some white feathers appear on body and wing-coverts; bare face already yellow. 2j Fouth-year More as a, but whites tinged buff, some brown feathers.

3 HOODED VULTURE Necrosyrtes monachus L54–66 cm (24 in): S150–180 cm (65 in): T21–24 cm (9 in): ¢95% Savannah, coastal towns, forest villages, to 1,800 m (4,000 m). Resembles small ragged/pale-headed 2f; thin bill, broader wings, shorter rounded tail, bare head, untidy ruff; wing-tips cover tail. Easy flaps; soars/glides on flat wings, looking like tiny Lappet-faced Vulture (27:1). Gregarious near man. [cf. 2f-h, 19:3c (roost together); high overhead resembles still higher 27:1e] 3a Adult Dark brown, quills blacker; hood of silver-brown down over hindneck shades to white at sides; crop cream-buff; bare face/foreneck pink, blushing red when excited (3b). Flight below (3c): pale-edged secondaries/ greater coverts, but main contrasts are pale head area, white underdown on thighs, whitish legs. Above (3d): all dark but for paler head. 3e Juvenile Scaled buff above; blackish down on hindneck; thighs and crop area blackish; face/throat grey-white, just tinged pink.

6

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1b 1c

1e 1a

1f 2d 1d

2b

2g 2c 2e

2i 2a

2j

2h

2f

3c

3b 3e 3a

3d

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PLATE 23: LARGER OLD WORLD VULTURES 1 HIMALAYAN VULTURE Gyps himalayensis L103–110 cm (42 in): S260–289 cm (108 in): T37–40 cm (15 in): ¢100% Mountains 1,200–2,500 m, foraging 600–6,000+ m. Largest Gyps vulture; long broad wings, bulging secondaries, relatively long tail; downy head/neck, feathery basal ruff. Slow deep beats on take-off; glides on flat wings, hands depressed and angled back; soars in shallow V. Solitary/social. [cf. 2 in SW of range; at lower altitudes N Ind 24:2, 25:2; also (cd) 3, 25:1de] 1a Adult Palest tawny to sandy-white above; ruff/underbody cream to buff with white shafts; blackish tail, remiges, centres to greater coverts; stubbly head cream; bill yellow-horn, cere brownish, feet green-grey to white. Flight above (1b): pale back/forewings; blackish quills/blotches on greater coverts. 5+? 1c Juvenile Dark brown, with whitish streaks most marked on ruff, wingcoverts, and more chocolate underparts; head whiter than a, wings blacker in fresh plumage. Flight below (1d): much darker than 2c (less contrast with remiges/tail) and boldly streaked (this and white around crop separate from 3). 1e Fouth-year Flight below. Body/coverts increasingly paler until ad by c. 7th-year. Quills black when fresh, fading to brown.

2 GRIFFON VULTURE Gyps fulvus L93–110 cm (40 in): S234–269 cm (99 in): T28–33 cm (12 in): ¢92% Mountains to 3,000 m, foraging plains and desert to 3,500+ m. Large bulky vulture; long broad wings, bulging secondaries, short rounded tail (squared/wedged by wear); bare-looking head/neck, basal ruff. Deep beats; glides with arms flat, dropped hands angled back; soars in shallow V. Solitary/gregarious. [cf. W Pal 3, 20:2, Aquila eagles; E Pal/Ind also 1, 24:2, 25:2cd; Afr 26:1c-e/2d-f, 27:1] 2a Adult (nominate) Pale tawny to cream-buff; blackish quills, centres to greater coverts/scapulars; stubbly head creamy (lores black); thick downy ruff white when clean; bill yellowish, cere slate, feet grey. Flight above (2b): pale back/forewings; dark quills, blotches on scapulars/coverts. 6 2c Adult (fulvescens; Afghanistan/N India) Often paler-looking; generally more rufous-buff to cinnamon; ruff creamy-yellow. 2d Juvenile (nominate) Pale rufous-brown with light streaks; dark greater coverts; downy head white (lores, too), feathery ruff sandy-buff. Flight below (2e): pale red-brown and blackish. 2f Fourth-year (nominate) Flight below. Body/coverts become tawnier until ad by c. 7th-year. Quills black when newly moulted, fading to brown.

3 MONK VULTURE (CINEREOUS VULTURE) Aegypius monachus L100–120 cm (43 in): S250–295 cm (107 in): T33–41 cm (15 in): ¢93% Grassland, semi-desert, open forest, mountains, to 3,800 m (4,500 m). Largest Old World vulture; long parallel-edged wings, short wedged tail (rounded by wear); massive bill, downy head, shortish neck, feathery ruff high-backed. Deep beats; glides/soars on flat wings, hands dropped/angled back when gliding. Often solitary. [cf. W Pal 2; E Pal/Ind 1cd, 25:2cd; also 20:2de, 27:1de, Aquila eagles] 3a Adult Dark brown, ruff too; thighs/quills blacker; down on face/throat blackish, on crown/cheeks greywhite; bare neck grey-flesh/blue-white; cere mauve to 5bluish, feet blue-grey to yellow-white. Flight below (3b: worn plumage): grey-brown around crop, pale wingdiagonal and feet. Above (3c): only crown paler. 3d Juvenile Blacker all over; down on crown/cheeks also blackish; cere whitish, legs pinkish-grey to yellowish. Flight below (3e): all sooty-black; barely lighter remiges, pale feet.

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1a

1c 1d

1e

1b 3c

2b

2a

2c

2e

2d

2f

3d 3e

3a

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3b

6/9/05 2:42:16 pm

PLATE 24: INDOMALAYAN VULTURES I 1 LONG-BILLED VULTURE (INDIAN VULTURE) Gyps indicus L89–103 cm (38 in): S222–258 cm (94 in): T24–31 cm (10 in): ¢c96% Semi-desert to dry foothills, open areas and around villages (to c. 1500 m?); normally cliff-nester. Medium-large vulture, typical of Gyps, with rounded head, strong (though, in this case, relatively thin) bill and robust neck, basal ruff, bulky-looking body. In flight, trailing edges of long broad wings almost straight, tips of toes do not reach end of short rounded tail (may be squared/ wedged by wear). Glides on flat wings, hands dropped/angled back; soars in shallow V. Gregarious. [cf. 23:2, 25:1de, 25:2cd; 2 and 23:1 in N India] 1a Adult Clear pale buff above, with broad pale edges to dark-centred larger coverts, and sandy below; blackish-brown remiges; fluffy white ruff; 3? blackish head/neck with pale down on upper hindneck, light bluish cere, pale yellowish bill (see also close-up: 1b); legs slate, talons pale yellowish, contrasting darker toes. Flight below (1c): dark head/crop, white ruff-sides, pale wing-linings and body (crissum area looking broad); blackish primaries/tail darker than browner secondaries. Flight above (1d): light buff wing-coverts separated from contrasting blackish flight-feathers by pale-edged dark band along midwings. 1e Juvenile Body feathers long and pointed, helping to make upperparts dingy and heavily streaked; also lightly streaked buffish below; pinkish head and neck completely covered with white down, dark bill with paler culmen and base (see also close-up: 1f). Flight below (not shown): pale underbody and wing-linings with buffish streaks, no white line along sides of underbody (cf. 2g).

2 SLENDER-BILLED VULTURE Gyps tenuirostris L93–100 cm (38 in): S234–250 cm (95 in): T24–26 cm (10 in): ¢c96% Generally much moister and more wooded habitats than 1, also around villages (to c. 1,000 m?); tree-nester. Although similar in general colour and size to 1, ‘surprisingly easy and straightforward to distinguish in any plumage, whether standing or in flight’ (Rasmussen et al. 2001). Differs in its angular crown, thinner elongated bill and face, large prominent ear-holes, slender and more deeply creased/wrinkled neck (which, comparing birds of any particular age-group, is also less downy), flattened basal ruff, thin-looking body: indeed, ‘smaller-headed, larger-eyed, longer-billed, longer-legged, ragged, dingy, and graceless’ (Rasmussen et al. 2001). In flight, bulging sec3 ondaries give long broad wings pinched-in look at base; tips of toes reach end of short rounded tail (may be squared/wedged by wear). Similarly glides on flat wings; soars in shallow V. Gregarious. [cf. 1, 23:1-2, 25:1de, 25:2, also 18:4c-e] 2a Adult Darker and browner than 1a with only narrow pale edges to larger coverts; small, ragged and dirty white ruff; almost no down on shiny black head/neck, and usually thinner bill dark with black cere and pale culmen (see also close-up: 2b); no contrast between dark toes and talons. Flight below (2c): blacker head/crop, reduced whitish ruff-sides, underparts somewhat darker (darkest on narrow-looking crissum area), thus emphasising white line along each side of underbody formed by exposed down on legs; primaries and secondaries uniformly dark, but wing-linings may be paler than shown. Flight above (2d): much dingier than 1d, with far less contrast between wing-coverts and flight-feathers; obscure lighter and darker lines along midwings. 2e Juvenile Head/neck black with sparse white down on nape/upper neck-sides, dark bill with variable pale area on culmen (see also close-up: 2f); otherwise not unlike adults but for more streaked upperparts. Flight below (2g): like 2c, shows white line along each side of underbody, but wing-linings may be darker than shown.

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1a 1e

1d

1b 1c

1f

2c 2b

2g 2f

2d 2e 2a

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PLATE 25: INDOMALAYAN VULTURES II AND HAWK EAGLES I 1 RED-HEADED VULTURE Aegypius (Sarcogyps) calvus L76–86 cm (32 in): S199–227 cm (84 in): T23–26 cm (10 in): ¢98% Forest, plains, cultivation, semi-desert, to 1,500 m, locally 2,500+ m. Bulky mid-sized vulture; long and relatively slim wings rather pointed; short tail slightly wedged (rounded by wear); heavy bill, bare wattled head, feathery ruff. Powerful beats on take-off; soars in shallow V. Often solitary. [Distinc? tive, but cf. intermediate stages of 2; may be seen with 24:1-2] 1a Adult Mainly black, ruff also; browner on lower back/bases of secondaries, white patches on chest and upper thighs; bare head/wattles orange, reddening in excitement (1b); eyes yellow to red, cere yellow-red, legs fleshwhite to dull red. Flight below (1c): black body/wing-linings, grey-white 4 diagonals at base of remiges; white chest/thigh-patches; reddish head/feet. 1d Juvenile Brown, edged paler above; whitish chest-patch, lower flanks, belly, tail-coverts, and down on crown; eyes brown, head/wattles/cere/legs paler reddish. Flight below (1e): brown; thin wing-diagonals; whitish on belly/crissum.

2 WHITE-RUMPED VULTURE Gyps bengalensis L75–85 cm (31 in): S192–213 cm (80 in): T22–24 cm (9 in): ¢98% Open country like Slender- and Long-billed (24:1–2) (often with one or other), also more wooded areas, to 2,700 m (3,000 m); typically, riverine and village trees. Size comparable, shape/actions similar, but arms relatively longer and tail shorter. Gregarious. [cf. (esp. cd) 24:1; in N India, also 23:1-2, 24:2] 2a Adult Blackish-slate with white rump, grey secondaries, fine pale streaks on breast/belly; sparse white to dirty cream down on upper-side of grey head/neck; thick downy white (or soiled) ruff; bill whitish, cere black, legs green-grey/blackish. Flight below (2b): white wing-linings; blackish leading 3-4 edges, primaries, axillaries, body, tail; secondaries grey-brown. 2c Juvenile Dark brown (rump, too), warmer below, all streaked buff; whitish-buff down on head/neck; darker, heavier-billed than non-adult Slender- and Long-billed (24:1de/2de). Flight below (2d): less contrast than juvenile Griffon (23:2de) with darker crop-patch/wing-linings, streakier abdomen; white/cream bar(s) near front wing-edges. 2e Fourth-year+ White rump; mixed blackish plumage. Adult by c. 6th/7th-yr.

3 RUFOUS-BELLIED HAWK EAGLE Hieraaetus kienerii L46–61 cm (21 in): S105–140 cm (48 in): T17–24 cm (8 in): ¢82% Forest, to 2,000 m, but at 200–300 m in Nepal. Small slim eagle; longish pointed wings, longish tail, feathered legs, short crest; falcon-like look with black cheeks, colours of Oriental Hobby (107:3); wing-tips well down tail. ? Fast deep beats; glides/soars on flat wings pressed forward. Hunts by stoop in flight or from hidden perch in canopy. [Ad almost unmistakable, but cf. (a) 107:3 (far smaller), 74:1 (flight below); (cd) 80 (Spizaetus juvs), 88:3 (a-cf] 3a Adult (male) (nominate; mainland/Sri Lanka/Hainan) Mostly jet-black above, head/crest glossiest; browner greater coverts/remiges; barred tail; largely rufous below, but for white throat/chest, and streaked black. Flight 4+ below (3b: ™): wing-linings also rufous, mottled black; barred remiges rather dark, but large whitish patch at base of primaries (shows pale brown above, too); greyish tail with 3–4 bars, broader subterminal band. 3c Adult (male) (formosus; Peninsular SE Asia to Philippines/Sulawesi) Typically far smaller and all black above (but decreasing size and darkening colour both clinal from west to east). 3d Juvenile (female) (nominate) Brown above, edged paler; white on forehead extends back over dark eyepatches, whitish cheeks streaked tawny; grey-brown tail barred black; white below. Flight below (3e: ¢): largely white linings; pale grey quills finely barred, patch at base of primaries as a. 3f Juvenile female (formosus) Flight below. Note small size compared with e. 3g Second/third-year (male) (nominate) Flight below. Still white below, with some black streaks/mottling, but black hood already shows.

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1b

1d

1c 1a

1e

2a 2b

2e 2d 2c

3e 3a

3f

3b

3c

3d 3g

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PLATE 26: LARGER AFROTROPICAL VULTURES I 1 WHITE-BACKED VULTURE Gyps africanus L78–90 cm (33 in): S197–229 cm (84 in): T24–28 cm (10 in): ¢96% Plains, savannah, thornbush, riverine trees, to 3,000m (4,000 m). Mid-sized vulture; long broad wings, bulging secondaries, short rounded tail (squared by wear); bare-looking head/neck, basal ruff. Deep beats; glides on flat wings, hands dropped and angled back; soars in shallow V. Gregarious. [cf. (cd) 2def; 3 in south] 1a Adult Rather uniform brown to buff (even creamy when old); white rump; blackish quills/greater coverts; sparse whitish down on upper-side of blackish head/neck; downy white (or soiled) ruff; bill, cere and legs blackish. Flight below (1b): whitish body/wing-linings, blackish remiges/tail. 6 1c Juvenile Darker; narrow white streaks on brown rump, coverts, feathery ruff, underparts; thick white down on head/neck but bare green-black face; smaller, shorter-billed, paler than 2d. Flight below (1d): dark body/wing-linings finely streaked white, whitish band near leading edge; black quills. 1e Fourth-year+ Little change before 4-yr but paler, less streaked; rump and wing-linings whiten over next 3 years. Adult by c. 7-yr.

2 RÜPPELL’S VULTURE Gyps rueppellii L85–97 cm (36 in): S226–255 cm (95 in): T26–30 cm (11 in): ¢98% Mountains to 4,500+ m, also thornbush/savannah/semi-desert near crags/ cliffs. Largish vulture; like slightly larger Griffon (23:2) and smaller 1, but more compact with snaky neck. Notably, soars on flat or slightly raised wings. Gregarious. [cf. (def) 1cd; 23:2 in north; also 27:1b high overhead] 2a Adult (nominate; most of range) Brownish-black (tinged grey when fresh), boldly cream-scaled; plainer mantle, blackish quills; downy white head/neck; white feathery ruff; eyes yellowish to grey, bill yellow, cere/feet grey-blue. Flight below (2b): scaled body; cream band and 2–3 broken bars on wing-linings. 5 2c Adult (erlangeri; Ethiopia/Somalia) Browner; broader scaling less sharp; below, dark-spotted creamy body paler than wings. 2d Juvenile (nominate) Dark brown above (ruff, too), only faintly scaled; tawnier below, pale-streaked; down on top of head brownish; eyes/bill browner. Flight below (2e): very like 1d, but streaked body paler (not darker) than wing-linings with clearer streaks forming 3–4 lines behind front band. 2f Juvenile (erlangeri) Flight below. More uniformly pale, recalling small juvenile Griffon (23:2e) but with somewhat darker wing-linings, dark crop area.

3 CAPE VULTURE Gyps coprotheres L95–105 cm (39 in): S228–250 cm (94 in): T30–35 cm (13 in): ¢98% Cliffs, mountains, grassland, thornbush, desert, to 3,000 m. Large vulture near Griffon (23:2) in size; relatively shorter-winged, longer-tailed; bare neck. Soars in slight V. Gregarious. [cf. 1] 3a Adult Palest buff above (downy ruff, too), cream/white below; blackish to grey-brown quills; bare blue neck, white down on head; eyes yellow, bill/ feet blackish. Flight below (3b): whitish wing-linings (usually spots on greater coverts), dark primaries/tail, greyish secondaries with dark trailing edge. Above (3c): similar; always spots; browner secondaries. 3d Juvenile Pale brown, scaled buff above, streaked whitish below; downier 4+ buff head/neck; feathery ruff streaked whitish; eyes brown. Flight below (3e): pale brown with streaky body, whitish-mottled wing-linings, dark greybrown secondaries. 3f Third-year Coverts buff-white; ruff still feathery, back scaled, slight streaks below. Eating Common Zebra Equus burchelli.

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1e 1c

1b

1d

1a

2b 2d

2e 2c

2f

2a

3d 3c

3a 3b

3f 3e

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PLATE 27: LARGER AFROTROPICAL VULTURES II AND BATELEUR 1 LAPPET-FACED VULTURE Aegypius (Torgos) tracheliotus L95–115 cm (41 in): S250–290 cm (106 in)): T33–38 cm (14 in): ¢92% Desert, dry plains, dry thornbush/savannah, wooded grassland, mountain plateaux, to 3,000 m (4,000 m). Huge bulky vulture; long broad wings, wedged ?? tail, massive bill, fleshy folds on bare head, downy thighs. Deep beats; glides on flat wings, hands dropped and angled back; soars on flat wings. Often solitary; dominant at carcases. [cf. (ef) 22:3ce and 2cd (both much smaller) at distance or high overhead; 26:1d, 26:2ef; also ef 23:3e/23:2 in Mid East] 1a Adult (nominate; Africa) Blackish above, thinly edged brown; head pink to red, bluer on cheeks, blushing scarlet in excitement (1b); brown ruff fronted by white down; below, thick white down, streaked by black of feathers except on 4+ thighs; bill yellowish, cere/feet pale blue to grey. Flight below (1c): white thighs and patagial bars, pinkish head, streaky body, blackish quills. On nest (1d). 1e Juvenile (negevensis; Arabia) Dark brown, edged rufous, showing buff underdown below; head downy whitish (bare pink in S Africa). 1f Second-year Flight below. Almost all brown, like e, with thighs still dark (half white by 4-yr), but suggestion of patagial bars, streakier chest/crissum.

2 WHITE-HEADED VULTURE Aegypius (Trigonoceps) occipitalis L72–82 cm (30 in): S207–223 cm (85 in): T27–30 cm (11 in): ¢93% Savannah, wooded grassland, semi-desert, to 4,000 m. Mid-sized vulture; long wings, wedged/rounded tail, triangular head, heavy bill, downy thighs. Easier beats; glides/soars on flat wings. Often solitary; subordinate at carcases. [cf. cd and juv) 1ef (much larger), 22:3 (much smaller)] 2a Adult female Blackish above, edged buff on coverts, with red bill, blue cere, bare pink face, thick white down on peaked crown and (™ only) white inner secondaries; white below with black breast. Flight below (2b: white of crop area, abdomen, thighs and, on ™, inner secondaries extends to axillaries and band along greater coverts (variably also mottling on medians). 4-5 2c Second/third-year male Mainly dark brown, but much of head already white, some white on crop area, abdomen and rear thighs. Flight below (2d): indication of ad pattern of white on head, crop, abdomen and especially wing-linings. Juvenile all dark, but bare parts and white edge to wing-linings much as ad; ™ has white inner secondaries from 2-yr.

3 BATELEUR Terathopius ecaudatus L55–70 cm (25 in): S168–190 cm (70 in): T10–12 cm (4 in): ¢83% Long-grass woodland, thornbush, savannah, semi-desert, grassland, to 3,000 m (4,500 m). Mid-sized stumpy snake-eagle; very long pointed wings, ‘tailless’ (but juv tail 13–17 cm); bushy head. Rapid beats in take-off only; sails fast on deep V wings, tilting side to side. Solitary/social. [cf. f 28:4, even 28:2c, 28:3c; also colours of a and d with 76:2a, 76:3ce] 3a Adult male Black but for chestnut from mantle to whole tail, and brownish-grey shoulders; bill black, yellow and red; cere, bare face and legs red. Flight below (3b): white wing-linings; black body and remiges but for greyish-based primaries; chestnut tail, projecting red feet. 5+ 3c Cream adult male Back cream to pale brown, tail pale chestnut. 3d Adult female and in flight (3e): Secondaries black-tipped grey, variably separated from browner shoulders by dusky to brown greater coverts. Flight below (3f): thin black wing-edge. 3g Juvenile Brown, edged rufous above; eyes brown (cf. Black-chested Snake-eagle, 28:3c; Brown Snake-eagle, 28:4), bill grey-blue, cere/face green-blue, legs green-grey. Flight below (3h): all brown; broader wings, longer tail than a/d. 3i Fifth-year male Blackish, mottled chestnut on back and grey on shoulders; cere/face orange, feet pink. Flight below (3j): white mottling on wing-linings now begins ad pattern. Like shorter-tailed juvenile until 3-yr; darkens in 4-yr; adult by 7/8-yr.

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1d

1c

1f

1a

1e 1b

2b 2c

2a

2d 3d

3a

3c

3b

3f

3i

3e

3h

3g 3j

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PLATE 28: INDO-PALEARCTIC AND AFROTROPICAL SNAKE-EAGLES I 1 SHORT-TOED SNAKE-EAGLE (SHORT-TOED EAGLE) Circaetus gallicus L62–70 cm (26 in): S166–188 cm (70 in): T26–33 cm (12 in): ¢91% Timbered open country, to 2,000+ m. Big snake-eagle; long rounded wings, longish tail, large head; wings reach tail-tip. Glides on slightly arched wings, hands dropped; soars flatter; often hovers. Solitary; social on migration. [cf. Afr (winter) esp. 2, also 3e; Pal pale 10:1a, 11:1bfk, 74:1, 88:3; Ind 30:1hj] 1a Adult Brown/grey-brown above, edged paler; white below, more or less dark-marked; cere/legs grey. Flight below (1b–d): dark wing-tips, 3 tail-bands; varies (1b) dark hood/broad broken bars, (1c) less clear hood/paler bars, to (1d) white head/almost plain. 5 1e Juvenile Often indistinguishable; throat/chest and blobs (rather than broken bars) below tend to rufous. Hovering above (1f): as a.

2 BEAUDOUIN’S SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus beaudouini L60–66 cm (25 in): S155–170 cm (64 in): T25–28 cm (10 in): ¢89% Woodland, fertile plains, to c. 1,500 m (2,000 m). Much like smallest 1, often thought conspecific (but this unlikely); shorter wings fall short of tail-tip. Adult/juvenile differ. [cf. 1 (northern winter); (cde) 1, 3, also 10:1a, 11:1bfk, 32:3f, 90:2de] 2a Adult Darker brown above than 1, with 3–4 tail-bands; chest grey-brown, white below with thin even bars. Flight below (2b): dark hood, plainer winglinings, more even bars on body; bands on remiges. 2c Juvenile All dark brown or, as here, dull red-brown below barred only on flanks/crissum. Flight below (2d): body and wing-linings dark brown or rufous, without darker hood of a or many 1. Later (2e/2f): head, neck and underparts become largely whitish.

4?

3 BLACK-CHESTED SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus pectoralis L63–71 cm (26 in): S160–185 cm (68 in): T26–29 cm (11 in): ¢87% Wooded grassland, savannah, thornbush, desert, to 3,400 m. Shape/flight as 1; hood blacker than dark 1 or 2a. Adult/juvenile differ. Solitary; may roost/hunt socially. [cf. (abe) 90:2ab; (c) 2ac, 4, 29:2f, also 10:1a, 11:1bfk, 32:3f, 90:2de] 3a Adult Blackish back/head/chest, often whitish throat; abdomen plain white; eyes yellow, legs whitish. Flight below (3b): black to chest, white abdomen/wing-linings, 3-banded quills. 3c Juvenile Dark brown above, edged rufous; head/underbody rich redbrown (prey is Night Adder Causus rhombeatus). Flight (3d): linings as body; quills grey, bars faint; tail looks plain from afar. 3e Second-year In flight. By end 2-yr rufous replaced by dark grey-brown and white; wings/tail whiter, bands clearer; abdomen spotted.

5+

4 BROWN SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus cinereus L71–78 cm (29 in): S160–185 cm (68 in): T25–30 cm (11 in): ¢94% Woodland, savannah, thornbush, to 2,000 m. Size as largest 1, again with big cowled head; narrower wings look longer; tail shorter, so wing-tips still reach tip. Adult/juvenile often similar. Hovers less; more often hunts from perch. Solitary. [cf. 27:3g, 29:2f, also 3c, 85:1cd, 87:1ab] 4a Adult All dark brown; 3 thin whitish tail-bars; eyes yellow as congeners, cere/legs grey-white. Flight below (4b): body and wing-linings brown, remiges plain dull white with greyish wing-tips; broad brown tail-bands. 4c Juvenile Some indistinguishable from a, unless edged paler above; others flecked white on crown/nape and abdomen/thighs; others again (S Africa) more streaked on head, blotched white below.

5

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1a

1e 1b

1c

2f

1d 1f

2b

2a

2e

2c

2d

3a

3c

3b

3e

3d 4c 4a 4b

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PLATE 29: AFROTROPICAL SNAKE-EAGLES II 1 EAST AFRICAN (SOUTHERN BANDED) SNAKE-EAGLE Circaetus fasciolatus L54–60 cm (22 in): S119–128 cm (49 in): T25–27 cm (10 in): ¢93% Coastal/lowland forest, dense woodland, often by water, to 1,500 m. Smallish snake-eagle; broad rounded wings, longish squared tail, large head; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Fast shallow beats; seldom flies far, soars only in display. Secretive; still-hunts. Call high ko-ko-ko-ko-kaw. [cf. 29:2; also likened to 8:2ac, larger accipiters, even 36:1-3] 1a Adult Head/breast dark grey-brown; back/coverts blacker, tipped rufous; grey-brown tail banded blackish and tipped white; white abdomen/thighs barred grey-brown. Flight below (1b): fine-barred wings look whitish with black trailing edge; 3 tail-bands. Above (1c): back/wings blacker than grey head. 41d Juvenile/immature Brown above, head variably white-streaked, tailbars thinner; white below, thin dark streaks on throat/chest, buff-tinged on breast, later buff-barred lower down. Flight below (1e): paler, whiter-headed, more lightly marked than a.

2 BANDED SNAKE-EAGLE (SMALLER BANDED SNAKE-EAGLE) Circaetus cinerascens L50–58 cm (21 in): S120–134 cm (50 in): T22–23 cm (9 in): ¢90% Riverine forest, wetter wooded savannah, to 2,000 m. Smallish stocky snakeeagle; relatively short tail; wing-tips almost to tail-tip. Rapid shallow beats; perches for long periods like 1, but less shy, soars more readily. Less vocal: kok-kok-kok-kok-ko-ko, mainly in flight. [cf. 28:4, 29:1] 2a Adult male All grey-brown, variably barred white on belly/flanks (often indistinct, even absent); tail with broad central white band; bill-base yellow. Flight below (2b): much as 1b but for tail, though wing-linings plain white or hardly barred and body more uniform. Above (2c): back/wings little darker than head; black tail-base less clear when tail folded. 4 2d Adult female Usually darker, more boldly barred on belly/thighs. 2e Juvenile Brown above, edged buff; whitish head dark-streaked; tail whitish-brown with dark subterminal band; buff-white below, darkest on breast, brown markings on belly/thighs. Flight below (2f): body/wing-linings buff-white, remiges obscurely barred; tail with broad distal band, dusky base. 2g Immature All dark brown plumage, without any grey or barring, probably assumed between e and a; tail/ remiges much as a.

3 WEST AFRICAN SERPENT-EAGLE Dryotriorchis spectabilis L54–60 cm (22 in): S94–106 cm (39 in): T25–27 cm (10 in): ¢91% Primary forest, below 900 m. Smallish accipiter-like snake-eagle; short broad wings, long graduated tail, big head/eyes, parrot-like bill; wing-tips barely exceed tail-base. Still-hunts from low perches, large eyes adapted to dim light. Nasal cow cow cow in series characteristic; also miaowing. [cf. 57:1de and 89:3 on distribution/habitat/shape, also 18:1b] 3a Adult (nominate; W from Cameroon) Blackish above, rufous collar; white below, variably washed rufous, with black throat-stripe and moustaches, blobs on breast, browner bars on thighs. Flight below (3b): dark marks on white wing-linings; 5–6 bands on long tail. Above (3c): rufous collar, banded tail. 4-5 3d Adult (batesi; E/S from Cameroon) Browner above, whiter below; spots/ bars confined to flanks. Flight below (3e): little or no rufous, white central body, fewer marks on wing-linings. 3f Juvenile (nominate) Crown/mantle whitish and rufous, spotted black; coverts edged whitish; white below, spotted black and rufous. Flight below (3g): spots, not bars; tail-bands fainter.

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1d 1b

1a

1e

2d

2a

2b

2f

1c

2e

2c 2g

3c 3f 3e

3d 3a

3b

3g

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PLATE 30: MAIN COMPLEX OF INDOMALAYAN SERPENT-EAGLES 1 CRESTED SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis cheela L50–74 cm (24 in): S109–169 cm (55 in): T22–32 cm (11 in): ¢90% Forest, wooded mountains, to 2,000 m (3,000+ m). Large/small; broad rounded wings, mid-length tail; flat head, puffy crest. Glides/soars on shallow V wings. Shrill 1- to 3-syllable scream. [cf. local endemics: 2-7, 31:1-2; 28:1; also juv hawk-eagles (esp. 80:1, 81:1-5)]. Insular forms 2–9 below often treated as races. 1a Adult (nominate; Himalayas east to Assam) Brown, redder below, spotted; blackish head. Flight (1b): bold white band on wings/tail. 1c Adult (burmanicus; Myanmar/Indochina) Smaller; paler; more barred. 1d Adult (melanotis; S India) Smaller; plainer breast; 2 bands. 6 1e Adult (spilogaster; Sri Lanka) As d, still smaller; grey throat. 1f Adult (davisoni; Andamans: cf. Andaman Serpent-eagle, 31:1) Flight: more barred; paler buff below. 1g Adult (richmondi; Borneo: cf. 7) Flight: small; very pale; grey throat. 1h Juvenile Pale-edged and streaky whitish; dark mask. Flight (1i): barred remiges, banded tail.

2 CENTRAL NICOBAR SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis minimus L41–45 cm (17 in): S89–103 cm (38 in): T17–19 cm (7 in): ¢92% Tiny; pale grey-brown; greyish cheeks/breast; barred below; pale tail-base. [cf. 1f, also 31:1-2; S. cheela malayensis (not ill.) has occurred]

9 (2+)

3 SIMEULUË SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis abbotti L49–54 cm (20 in): S108–120 cm (45 in): T20–23 cm (8 in): ¢88% Small; dark; purplish-brown above; barred below; black tailbase, brownish-white band.

2 (2)

4 NIAS SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis asturinus

3 (3-?)

L43–46 cm (18 in): S95–102 cm (39 in): T18–19 cm (7 in): ¢91% Tiny; pale brown above with contrasting black crown; greyer cheeks; more spotted below.

7 (3?) 6 (3-?)

4 (3-?) 5 (3?)

8 (2?)

5 MENTAWAI SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis sipora L47–50 cm (19 in): S95–105 cm (39 in): T21–22 cm (8 in): ¢87% Small, short-winged; chocolate-brown with black crown, blackish cheeks; spotted below.

6 NATUNA SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis natunensis L44–48 cm (18 in): S95–109 cm (40 in): T18–19 cm (7 in): ¢86% Tiny; darker back/tail, greyer cheeks than 2; faintly barred breast, spotted belly.

7 KINABALU SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis kinabaluensis L55–58 cm (22 in): S118–129 cm (49 in): T25–26 cm (10 in): ¢94% Larger than 1g (both Borneo). [cf. 1g or, rather, S. cheela pallidus (not illus); also 80:2-3] 7a Adult Blackish, finely spotted white below; nape brown. 7b Adult Flight. As a.

8 BAWEAN SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis baweanus L46–51 cm (19 in): S100–115 cm (42 in): T21–23 cm (9 in): ¢85% Small; dark; rich brown throat/breast; barred below; brown tail-base, thin white band.

9 RYUKYU SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis perplexus L50–56 cm (21 in): S110–123 cm (46 in): T22–24 cm (9 in): ¢89% Smallish; paler even than 1g, with strongly contrasting white-mottled black crown/nape.

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1a

1h

1d 1c

1e

1b

1f

1i 1g 2

9

7b 7a

3

5

6

8

4

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PLATE 31: HIGHLY DISTINCT INDOMALAYAN SERPENT-EAGLES 1 ANDAMAN SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis elgini L51–59 cm (22 in): S115–135 cm (49 in): T22–24 cm (9 in): ¢79% Forest clearings, wooded hillsides, to 700 m (little overlap with much paler davisoni Crested Serpent-eagle (30:1f), which inhabits mangroves, tidal creeks). Smallish; relatively short-tailed. [cf. 30:1f, also 30:2, 2] 1a Adult Dark chocolate, speckled white on body/coverts; barely darker black crown edged buff; tail with 2 thin pale bands. Flight below (1b): blackish, breast/linings speckled white, crissum barred; narrow white bands on dark quills. 1c Juvenile Not so dark as a: more white edges above, spots below; head white with dark feather-centres and mask, streaked throat. Flight below (1d): like pale b with streaky head, 3 bands on tail, 4–5 on wings (2 and 3–4 respectively on a).

3-4

2 GREAT NICOBAR SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis klossi L38–42 cm (16 in): S85–95 cm (35 in): T17–20 cm (7 in): ¢82%? Primary forest, to 600 m. Minute (smallest of serpent-eagle complex); relatively long-tailed: size more like accipiter. [cf. 30:2, also 30:1f, 1; 45:1de; consider migrant accipiters] 2a Adult Black crown cinnamon-tipped; brown nape, dark brown back, white-tipped coverts; tail unevenly banded, with broad black sub-terminal; grey cheeks; rich buff throat/breast fading to whitish belly/flanks (prey Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica). Flight below (2b): wing-linings whitish as belly/flanks; remiges/tail both with black sub-terminal and 2 other bands. 2c Juvenile Like a, but buff-white tips above; tail more barred. Flight below (2d): paler than b; 3 narrow tail-bars, and remiges thinly barred, both lacking bold subterminal band.

2-3

3 SULAWESI SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis rufipectus L46–54 cm (20 in): S105–120 cm (44 in): T22–25 cm (9 in): ¢83% Savannah, forest, edges, to 1,000+ m. Small; wings broad/rounded as whole genus, but relatively shorter-winged/longer-tailed. [cf. (de) 82:2, 80:1] 3a Adult (nominate; Sulawesi) Black head, buff-tipped; dark brown above, pale tail-band; rufous below, chest thinly streaked black, abdomen barred white and black. Flight below (3b): black head, rufous chest, spotted belly/ wing-linings; bold whitish wing-band and 2 on tail (sub-terminal black widest). 3c Adult (sulaensis; Sula Islands) Slightly smaller; much paler. 3d Juvenile Black-streaked creamy head, dark mask; blotchy brown and cream above; brown-streaked white below, abdomen washed rufous. Flight (3e): linings mottled rufous, quills barred.

5-

4 PHILIPPINE SERPENT-EAGLE Spilornis holospilus L47–53 cm (20 in): S105–120 cm (44 in): T23–26 cm (10 in): ¢83% Riverine forest, wooded foothills, open country, to 1,500 m (2,500 m). Small; again relatively short-winged/longer-tailed. [cf. (cd) 81:3e, 81:2ef, 80:3f] 4a Adult Grey-brown head, rufous-edged crest; brown above, coverts white-spotted; dark brown tail, broad pale central band; rufous below, with brown-ringed white spots. Flight below (4b): white-spotted rufous winglinings as body; dark brown remiges/tail with bold central and thinner basal grey bands. 4c Juvenile Dark-marked white head, obscure mask; brown above, edged buff, spotted rufous/white; tail banded light/dark brown; white below, streaked rufous. Flight below (4d): white with rufous-streaked wing-linings, barred remiges, banded tail.

4-5

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1a

1c

1b

1d 2c

2b 2a

3c

2d 3d

3a

3b

3e

4c

4a

4b

4d

002 systematic.indd 139

6/9/05 2:43:07 pm

PLATE 32: MADAGASCAR SERPENT-EAGLE AND GYMNOGENES 1 MADAGASCAR SERPENT-EAGLE Eutriorchis astur L57–66 cm (24 in): S98–110 cm (41 in): T26–29 cm (11 in): ¢90%? Rainforest, to 1,000+ m. Smallish accipiter-like snake-eagle; short broad wings, long rounded tail, short erectile crest, knobbly legs; gentle expression, short deep ‘toothless’ bill, bristles hide grey cere; wing-tips to tail-base. More upright stance than shown. Feared extinct for 50 years, but several records since 1988. [cf. 42:1abc, esp. c on size/plumage] 1a Adult Grey-brown above, obscurely dark-banded (esp. scapulars); thin white barring on neck-sides/shoulders; 5–7 blackish bars on brown tail; white below, closely dark-barred (densest on throat/chest). Flight below (1b): white linings closely dark-barred much as body; greyer quills also heavily barred. 1c Juvenile Dark bands/white tips above; crest mottled white but not shoulders; quills more pointed, tail tipped white; streakier cheeks; less dense bars below, tinged rufous; eyes brown to yellow-white. Flight below (1d): less barring; head paler.

3-?

2 MADAGASCAR GYMNOGENE Polyboroides radiatus L57–61 cm (23 in): S116–132 cm (49 in): T29–33 cm (12 in): ¢85% Wooded areas, esp. palm savannah, to 2,000 m. Smaller than 3a, nearer to W African 3d, but relatively shorter-winged and longer-tailed; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Flight and behaviour similar: forages more on ground where deforested. [Unmistakable, even cd] 2a Adult Pattern as 3a but paler grey (much paler than 3d); bare yellow face likewise flushes red in excitement. Flight below (2b): pale grey head; finely barred body and linings; wider black trailing wing-edges than 3; white band on black tail. 2c Juvenile Medium brown above with white-edged coverts, dark-barred quills; crown/face/breast white or mixed with brown; browner below, somewhat barred on flanks/crissum; bare face blackish. Flight below (2d): brown-blotched white head, breast and wing-linings; barred abdomen; allbarred remiges and tail. 2e Second-year Intermediate between a and c; moults directly (cf. 3g).

4+

3 AFRICAN GYMNOGENE Polyboroides typus L51–68 cm (23 in): S118–152 cm (53 in): T26–32 cm (11 in): ¢90% Forest, riverine woodland, savannah, thornbush, cultivation with eucalyptus, to 3,000 m. Gangling hawk, much larger than American equivalent (Cranehawk, 59:1); long broad wings, longish rounded tail, small maned head, bare face; wing-tips well down tail. Slow buoyant beats; glides/soars on flattish wings. Takes oil palm fruits (W Africa), or insects, eggs, nestlings and small vertebrates, inserting slim head or double-jointed leg inside crevices, often hanging with flapping wings; also hunts from flight/perch, or walking on ground. Solitary. [cf. 38:1-3; also 29:2, 57:2] 3a Adult (nominate; E/S Africa) Mainly grey above; black blobs on scapu6 lars/coverts; white band on black tail; abdomen barred black/white; yellow face flushes red in excitement. Flight below (3b): grey head; barred body/ wing-linings; grey-based remiges, bold black wing-tips/trailing edges; white tail-band. 3c Grey adult (nominate) Barring all more or less replaced by grey. 3d Adult (pectoralis; W from W Sudan) Smaller; darker; bolder-barred. 3e Dark juvenile All dark brown, edged rufous; tail faintly barred; breast streaky, belly dark or barred rufous; face blackish. 3f Pale juvenile In flight. Whitish to rufous below, breast/linings streaked rufous or dusky, belly all rufous or barred; greyish quills lightly barred, wings dark-tipped. 3g Late second-year Transition variable; most have partial 2nd plumage browner/more barred than a, then moult to a; face yellowing.

140 002 systematic.indd 140

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1c

1b

1a

1d

2b 2e

2c 2d 2a

3b 3a

3f

3c

3e 3d

3g

002 systematic.indd 141

6/9/05 2:43:13 pm

PLATE 33: NEARCTIC AND NEOTROPICAL HARRIERS 1 NORTHERN HARRIER Circus hudsonius L41–50 cm (18 in): S97–122 cm (43 in): T22–25 cm (9 in): ¢78% Marshland, open country/boreal forest, fields, to 2800 m. Midsized harrier with roundish-tipped wings, long narrow tail; legs 10% longer than 2 or Hen Harrier (36:1); wing-tips short of tail-tip. Slow flexible beats; glides in V; soars in shallower V or flat. Hunts by low quartering. Sometimes 100s in winter roosts. Usually treated as conspecific with Hen Harrier. [Only harrier in Nea; cf. (a) 14:2ab; also 4:1-2; 71:1 on rocking V flight; Colombia 2] 1a Adult male Grey head/chest, darker back/wings, white rump; tail obscurely banded; white below, breast/belly variably spotted rufous, often thighs/crissum too. Flight (1b): white rump; white underwings with black tips, dark band by rear edge. 61c Adult female Dark brown above, mottled tawny; rump white, tail evenly banded light and dark; dark-streaked creamy below; eyes brown to (after 2–6 years): yellow. Flight (1d): white rump; remiges barred, strongest on darker secondaries which combine with streaked coverts as dark patch on inner wings. 1e Juvenile (male) ¢™ darker above than c; rufous below fading to buff/cream, only chest streaked; eyes pale greyish (¢): or brown (™) autumn-winter, but ¢ pale yellow and ™ paler brown by spring. Flight (1f: ™): inner underwings darker than c.

2 CINEREOUS HARRIER Circus cinereus ? L39–48 cm (17 in): S90–115 cm (40 in): T21–28 cm (10 in): ¢72% Marshes, grassland, cultivation, to 4,500 m. Superspecies with 1 and Hen Harrier (36:1); smaller; relatively shorter-winged and longer-tailed; wingtips well short of tail-tip. Actions similar. [cf. 3; also (a) 14:2ab, (c-f) 93:1; Colombia 1] ? 2a Adult male As 1a, but tail greyer with wider darker subterminal, whole abdomen/thighs boldly barred rufous. Flight (2b): underwings as 1b, but white stands out against barred body. 2c Adult female Dark brown above, edged/spotted buff/grey; white rump; quills tinged grey; white below, throat streaked, chest barred brown, rest 5 barred rufous. Flight (2d): white rump; wing-linings barred rufous; inner wings not darker (cf. 1c). 2e Juvenile (male) Blacker-brown above than c, hardly any grey tinge; buff-white below, streaked dusky on throat/chest and rufous on abdomen/thighs (or spotted/barred on belly). Flight (2f: ™): wing-linings streaked rufous; inner wings just darker.

3 LONG-WINGED HARRIER Circus buffoni L46–60 cm (21 in): S119–155 cm (54 in): T23–29 cm (10 in): ¢80% Reedbeds, hunting over marshes, ricefields, cultivation, to 1,000 m. Largest harrier, but lightly built; lanky, with noticeably long wings; tips nearly reach tail-tip. Flight as congeners (e.g. 1). Solitary. [cf. 2, also 4:1-2 and 71:1 on rocking V flight] 3a Pale adult male Black above, with banded grey greater coverts and quills, white rump; white forehead/supercilia, whitish throat; white below with black chest-band, odd streaks/spots; eyes brown, cere grey. Flight (3b): black above with contrasting banded grey remiges/tail, white rump; white below with dark chest, fine bars on wing-linings, banded quills. 5 3c Pale adult female More like ¢ than most harriers, but browner above, face marks creamier, more streaks below. Flight (3d): white rump; remiges less grey above; wing-linings streaked/barred. 3e Dark adult (male) In flight. ¢™ sooty-black, browner below, but white on face, barred rump, quills as a or c, sometimes rufous thighs. 3f Juvenile (male) Brown above, edged paler; more streaked below than c. Flight (3g: ™): wing-linings also streaked; no contrast on upperwings (cf. a/c). Dark morph (3h: ¢): barred rump; far more heavily streaked blackish below, thighs/vent rufous.

142 002 systematic.indd 142

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1e

1d 1c

1f

1b

1a

2d

2e 2c 2b

2f 2a

3b 3f 3c

3d

3e

3a

3h 3g

002 systematic.indd 143

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PLATE 34: AFROTROPICAL AND MALAGASY HARRIERS 1 BLACK HARRIER Circus maurus L44–48 cm (18 in): S105–115 cm (43 in): T23–27 cm (10 in): ¢79% Scrub, grassland, wheat; less in marshes; locally mountains to 3,000 m. Midsized heavy-bodied harrier; relatively short round-tipped wings, long tail; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Flight as other harriers (33-37); hovers more regularly 1–2 m up with slow flaps. Solitary. Also crepuscular. [Almost unmistakable, but cf. 35:2dej, 36:2es (both marginal overlaps); also (d) 28:3a] 1a Adult male All brownish-black but for white rump, grey secondaries, greybanded tail; some thin white edges on abdomen/thighs. Flight below (1b: ™): blackish but for black-tipped white remiges with thin bars on inner secondaries, white-banded tail. Above (1c: ™): white rump; black-tipped grey remiges. 3+ 1d Juvenile female Dark brown above, edged rufous-buff, with white rump; whitish supercilia/nape/throat; buff below, streaked or blotched brown on breast. Flight (1e/1f: ¢): buff wing-linings also blotched; quills not unlike a, but patterns less clear.

2 AFRICAN MARSH HARRIER Circus ranivorus L44–49 cm (18 in): S105–125 cm (45 in): T21–25 cm (9 in): ¢81% Marshes, wet grassland, to 3,000 m. Mid-sized harrier, smaller than Western Marsh Harrier (36:2); wings similarly roundish-tipped, tail relatively longer; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Harrier flight; tends to fly higher when quartering, at 5–10 m, than dry-habitat species. Solitary. [cf. 36:2i-t (esp. juvs); also 35:1d-m, 35:2f-q] 2a Adult Dark brown above, edged rufous; no white rump but dappled shoulders; dark-barred tail grey centrally, rufous at sides; throat/breast streaked brown and white; abdomen plain rufous to brown, or streaked brown or blotched white. Flight below: pale (2b): or streaky (2c); buff linings 4+ also variably streaked; white remiges and grey tail all barred black. Above (2d): whitish forewings; rufous rump; boldly barred tail. 2e Juvenile Dark chocolate, edged buff above, with buff shoulders, obscurely paler-barred tail; variable white on nape and face, ragged white breast-band, chestnut abdomen and rump. Flight below (2f): white chest-band; rufous wing-linings variably streaked blackish; grey quills with inconspicuous dark bars. Above (2g): dark but for whitish nape and buff forewings.

3 MALAGASY MARSH HARRIER Circus macrosceles L48–55 cm (20 in): S121–140 cm (51 in): T23–26 cm (10 in): ¢89% Marshes, lake edges, crops, to 2,000 m (3,000 m). Mid-sized to largish harrier, relatively thickset; longish round-tipped wings, longish rounded tail; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Superspecies with other marsh harriers; a most like ad male Eastern Marsh Harrier (36:3a). [Only harrier of region] 3a Adult male Head/mantle/breast white, heavily black-streaked; otherwise black above, white below, with white rump, black-barred grey secondaries, grey tail. Flight below (3b): white wings with black tips and rear band. Above (3c): grey and black wings, white rump. 3d Adult female Dark brown and buff, strongly streaked. Flight (3e/f): white rump and banded quills like ™ 99–104. 3g Juvenile (male) Like dark d; no grey on upperwings, less clear white rump still obvious in flight (3h/i: ™).

��������������

������������

4

3

4 RÉUNION MARSH HARRIER Circus maillardi L42–45 cm (17 in): S105–123 cm (45 in): T22-24cm (9 in): ¢85% Marshes, lake edges, crops, to 2,000 m. Mid-sized harrier; longish round-tipped wings, long rounded tail; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Superspecies with other marsh harriers, a most like ad male Papuan Marsh Harrier (37:3a). Endemic to Réunion. [Only harrier of region] 4a Adult male In flight. Much smaller than 3a; darker head; black above; clearer subterminal tail-band; streaks below. 4b Adult female In flight. Body uniformly darker than than 3d; less clear white rump. 4c Juvenile (male) In flight. Rusty abdomen; no white rump (cf. 3g).

144 002 systematic.indd 144

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1c

1b

1e 1d

1a

1f

2c 2b

2g

2d 2e 2f

2a 3c

3f

3b

3e 3a

3d

4a

3i 3h

3g

4b

4c

002 systematic.indd 145

6/9/05 2:43:29 pm

PLATE 35: PALEARCTIC HARRIERS I 1 PALLID HARRIER Circus macrourus L40–50 cm (18 in): S100–121 cm (44 in): T20–25 cm (9 in): ¢77% Dry grassland, to 1,200 m; in winter also scrub, savannah, cultivation, marsh, semi-desert, to 3,000 m (4,000 m). Small to mid-sized slim harrier; narrow pointed wings, relatively long tail; wing-tips ? short of tail-tip. Light, buoyant, tern-like beats and wavering glides; glides/soars on shallow V wings; quarters ground at c. 1–9 m up. Solitary; congregates for grass fires, winter roosts, migration. [cf. 2, Pal 36:1; also (a-c) 6:3a-d] 1a Adult male Palest grey and white; blackish wing-tips. Flight below (1b): white with black wedge on 4 longest primaries, faint grey tail-bars. Above (1c): grey with black primary wedges, grey5 barred rump (looks grey), obscure bars on tail-sides. 1d Adult female See head (1e). Dark grey-brown above, edged rufous or, on wings, more broadly buff; thin white rump, dark-banded tail; cream to rufous below, streaks heaviest on chest; often thighs barred (those of 2f streaked). Flight below (1f): linings streaked, primaries barred, secondaries with 2–3 grey-brown bands and trailing edges; 4–5 tail-bars. Above (1g): paler area on wing-coverts, thin white rump; tail rufous at sides. 1h Juvenile (female) See head (1i). Darker and more broadly edged rufous above than d; plain rufous-buff below (prey: Four-striped Grass Mouse Rhabdomys pumilio): Flight below (1j: ¢): from f by unstreaked body/wing-linings, dark grey or obscurely banded secondaries. Above (1k: ¢): darker than g, clearer collar. 1m Immature female In flight. Dark juvenile secondaries may remain (on ¢s, too).

2 MONTAGU’S HARRIER Circus pygargus L39–49 cm (17 in): S102–123 cm (44 in): T20–24 cm (9 in): ¢95% Rank grass, corn, reedbeds, heaths, moors, young conifers, scrub, to 1500 m; in winter as 1. Small/mid-sized harrier; shape/flight much as ™ 1, but wing-tips reach tail-tip. Solitary; congregates like 1. [cf. 1, Pal 36:1] 2a Adult male Dark grey above; black primaries, bar on secondaries; face to breast paler grey, shading to white abdomen streaked rufous. Flight below (2b): grey head, white wing-linings streaked rufous (usually less than abdomen, sometimes plain), primary coverts barred grey-brown; outer 8 primaries black, other remiges grey-white with 1–2 black bands and thin dark trailing edge; pale 6grey tail obscurely barred. Above (2c): dark grey, with black wingtips and bold bar (sometimes 2). 2d Dark adult male Blackish with thin white tips to secondaries, dark grey-brown tail (prey European Common Frog Rana temporaria): Flight (2e): often greyish primary coverts below; greyish tail. 2f Adult female From 1d by head pattern (2g below). Flight below (2h): wider-spaced dark bands on secondaries (1–2 bands and trailing edges: cf. ad female Hen Harrier, 36:1d). Above (2i): bar as c (1d plain). 2j Dark adult female In flight. Dark brown with banded tail, pale grey primary bases (mottled/barred) and secondaries (dark-barred). 2k Juvenile (male) From 1h only by head pattern (2m below) and thin barely darker streaks on underparts. Also flight (2n/p: ¢). 2q Immature female In flight. Dark juvenile secondaries may remain (on ¢s, too).

Heads of female/juvenile Pallid, Montagu’s and Hen Harriers 1e Pallid C. macrourus female Streaky collar, dark cheek-crescents to bill, line divides white behind eyes. 1i Pallid C. macrourus juvenile Clear collar, solid crescents, eye-lines as ™ under broad supercilia; plain rufous chest. 2g Montagu’s C. pygargus female Obscure collar, dark rufous-streaked crescents not to bill, eye-lines often barely visible. 2m Montagu’s C. pygargus juvenile Slight collar, darker crescents, eye-lines as ™; plain chest with dark shafts. Hen C. cyaneus female (36:1e) Owl-like ruff, streaked collar and crescents, less white around eyes, but sometimes clear supercilia. Hen C. cyaneus juvenile (36:1i) Like ™ or sometimes (much) darker face, but no bold pattern.

146 002 systematic.indd 146

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1d 1a

1b

1f 1c 1g

1h

1j

1m 1k

2f 2a

2c 2b

2h

2k

2q

2i

2n 2p

2d

2j

2e

1e 1i

002 systematic.indd 147

36:1e

2g 2m

36:1i

6/9/05 2:43:37 pm

PLATE 36: PALEARCTIC HARRIERS II 1 HEN HARRIER Circus cyaneus L42–50 cm (18 in): S100–121 cm (44 in): T20–26 cm (9 in): ¢76% Moorland, young conifers, scrub, open taiga, steppe, wetland edge, dunes, to 1,200 m; in winter coasts, marshes, grassland, fields, to 3,000 m. Mid-sized slim harrier; roundish-tipped wings, long tail; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Usually glides on V wings, but sometimes flat or hands dropped; soars in shallow V. Often considered conspecific with Northern Harrier (33:1). [cf. 35:2, 2-3] 1a Adult male Blue-grey head/chest (often brownish nape), slightly darker mantle/wings (may be brown-tinged), black primaries, white rump, silvery tail faintly barred at 6 sides; white below, mottled grey on flanks. Flight below (1b): white with grey head, black wing-tips and variable grey trailing edges, plain whitish tail. Above (1c): blue-grey, palest on secondaries; black outer primaries, white rump, grey tail. 1d Adult female Very like ™s Pallid (35:1d) and Montagu’s (35:2f) but for head (see foot of 35). Flight below (1e): underwings as ad female Pallid (secondaries evenly banded). Above (1f): white rump often larger and squarer. 1g Juvenile (male) Often indistinguishable from d, but slightly more rufous with darker cheek-crescent (see foot of 35); eyes brown (not yellow): to 3–4 yrs; differs from juvs of Pallid and Montagu’s in head pattern, and streaking below. Flight below (1h: ™): secondaries usually hardly darker than on e.

2 WESTERN MARSH HARRIER Circus aeruginosus L42–54 cm (19 in): S115–145 cm (51 in): T21–25 cm (9 in): ¢87% Extensive reeds; also wetlands, rushy grassland, to 2,000 ������������� m. Bulky harrier; relatively rounded wings; wing-tips short 5 ? of tail-tip. Heavy beats; glides tilting on V wings, wrists pressed forward; sometimes dangles legs, often hunts 5–10 m up; soars on V wings. Solitary; parties on migration, ? communal winter roosts. [cf. (esp. females/juvs) 1; Afr 34:2; C Pal 3; generally also 7:1, 88:3de; (d) 35:2dej] 2a Adult male Dark-streaked cream/rufous head; dark brown above, edged rufous when new, with buff shoulders, grey greater coverts/secondaries/tail; some white on rump; cream/rufous below with heavy streaks (belly darkest). Flight below (2b/c): wing-linings blackstreaked; remiges white with black wing-tips, usually 6 dark rear edge; tail grey. Above (2d): grey wings with black tips, brown coverts, buff shoulders; some white on �������������� rump; grey tail. 2e Dark adult male In flight. Black with grey tail, pale mid-wings. 2f Adult female Brown, edged rufous above; crown/shoulders cream to rufous-buff streaks; dark mask; creamy throat and variable breast-patch; tail tinged rufous or, when older, grey. Flight (2g/h): creamy crown, shoulders and throat; patch on breast; often paler-based primaries below. 2i Juvenile (female) Like f, but crown often plainer, usually no pale shoulders or breast; variable buff edges on mantle/wings; tail brown. Flight (2j/k: ¢): blackish; tail just paler; crown/throat cream (j) to all dark (k).

3 EASTERN MARSH HARRIER Circus spilonotus L43–54 cm (19 in): S119–145 cm (52 in): T22-25 cm (9 in): ¢88% See map above Marshes and other wetlands with extensive reeds, to c. 2,000 m. Similar in shape and flight to 2 above, and often treated as conspecific, but now more usually given species status. Apparently melanism not recorded for C. spilonotus. Note similarities between ¢ and ¢s of Réunion (34:4) and Papuan (37:3) Marsh Harriers (both endemic island taxa). [cf. (esp. females/juvs) 1, 37:1; C Pal 2; generally also 7:1, 88:3de] 3a Adult male White head/underbody streaked black; white-spotted blackish mantle/inner coverts; shoulders white. Flight below (3b): inner wing white. Above (3c): brown of 2d replaced by black/white; more white on rump. 3d Adult female Whiter head than 2f, shoulders/underparts dark-streaked; tail barred. Flight (3e/f): wing-linings paler and streaked as body, remiges obscurely barred but for paler primary bases; banded tail, rufous-mottled white rump. 3g Juvenile (male) In flight. Paler than 2i/j; cream head and rufous underbody streaked; white-flecked rump; faintly barred tail.

148 002 systematic.indd 148

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1c

1b

1g

1e 1d

1f 1h

1g

1a 2b 2c 2d

2e 2a 2g 2f

2k

2h 2j

2i

3c 3b 3d 3a

3f

3g

3e

002 systematic.indd 149

6/9/05 2:43:46 pm

PLATE 37: ASIAN AND AUSTRALASIAN HARRIERS 1 PIED HARRIER Circus melanoleucus L43–50 cm (18 in): S110–125 cm (46 in): T20–24 cm (9 in): ¢87% Steppe, boggy scrub; winters paddies, marshes, plains, to 2,100 m. Mid-sized harrier; shape much as Hen Harrier (36:1). Glides/soars on V wings. Solitary; parties on migration. [cf. (a-c) 36:3abc, also 6:3a-d, 9:2; (def) 36:3d-I, also 7:1, 18:2ef] 1a Adult male Head/back/breast black; abdomen white; tail/wings grey with black primaries and median coverts, white shoulders. Flight below (1b): white with black head and wing-tips. Above (1c): black and grey. 1d Adult female Streaky head, dark brown back, buff shoulders; greyish secondaries; white rump, dark-banded tail; white/cream below, variably streaked darker. Flight below (1e): wings whitish, linings plain to broadly streaked, 5 remiges barred darker and tipped black; tail dark-banded. Above (1f): pale leading edges, greyish secondaries; brown back, white rump, banded tail. 1g Juvenile (female) Dark brown above, edged rufous; streaky head, whitish nape; no grey in wings; buff/white rump; banded tail darker than d; dark rufous below, streaked blackish. Flight below (1h: ¢): more rufous than e, darker secondaries. Above (1i: ¢): much darker than f; narrower white rump.

2 AUSTRALASIAN MARSH HARRIER (SWAMP HARRIER) Circus approximans C. spilothorax 4? L48–61 cm (21 in): S118–145 cm (52 in): T20–25 cm (9 in): ¢86% Fresh or salt wetlands, adjacent grassland, crops, to 1,200 m in Australia; often farmland, upland slopes. Largish bulky harrier. Glides on V wings, wrists forward, tilting sideways; soars, kites, hovers clumsily. Solitary; migrant/roosting parties. [cf. 4cd; also 13:1d, (def) 52:3] 2a Adult male Dark brown above, edged rufous; paler streaky head; white rump; greyish remiges/tail obscurely barred; whitish to cream below, streaked rufous. Flight below (2b): whitish linings streaked as 5 C. approximans body, primaries pale-based, quills lightly barred. Above (2c): barred greyish remiges, white rump, faint-barred grey tail. 2d Adult female As a, but generally darker/browner above, heavier streaks below, clear tail-bands. Flight below (2e): inner wings darker. Above (2f): brown with white rump, banded tail. 2g Juvenile Mainly dark red-brown; whitish nape-streaks, little or no white rump, faintly barred tail. Flight (2h): dark but for pale nape, obscure tail-bars, pale-based primaries below.

3 PAPUAN MARSH HARRIER Circus spilothorax L46-50cm (19 in): S120–130 cm (49 in): T22-23cm (9 in): ¢85%? See map above Grassland and other open country, mainly in highlands, sea level to 3,800 m. Variously treated as isolated resident race of Eastern Marsh Harrier (¢s similar, breeding ranges c. 5,000 km apart) or as distinctive race of 2 (adjacent in range, ¢s very different); but Papuan ¢ more like Réunion ¢, including wing-bars formed by dark-tipped greater coverts and secondaries. Dimorphic. [cf. (ab) 2abc, ?1abc; ™s similar, but more barred tail, clear dark trailing wing-edges] 3a Adult male Head/mantle/breast heavily black-streaked; otherwise black above, white below, with blacktipped grey secondaries, grey tail. Flight below (3b): white wings with black tips and rear band. Above (3c): grey and black wings, white rump. Boldly black/grey/white (cf. 1). 3d Dark adult male (Rare, confined to highlands?) Mostly black, including rump, but tail dark grey.

4 SPOTTED HARRIER Circus assimilis L50–61 cm (22 in): S121–147 cm (53 in): T25–29 cm (11 in): ¢72% ? Grassland, crops, scrub, open woods, to 1,500 m; will hunt over water or swamps. Largish, slim, lanky harrier; long broad-based wings, rounded/ ? wedge-tipped tail. Sails on V wings; soars high; often trails one or both long legs; hovers. Solitary. Tree-nester. [cf. (cd) 2a-f; also 13:1d, 52:3] 4a Adult (male) Blue-grey above, chestnut below, all spotted whitish; streaky crown, chestnut face and shoulders; black-banded grey tail. Flight (4b: ™): speckly blue-grey above, black-tipped primaries, barred secondaries; speckly rufous below but plain face. 4c Juvenile (female) Dark brown above, with broad orange-buff edges ap6 pearing almost solid on head/forewings, more scaled on back; rufous-buff to pale brown below, thinly streaked. Flight (4d: ¢): above, dark with orangebuff head/forewings, paler rump; below, linings as chest, quills patterned as a but greyer.

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1d

1f

1e 1a 1c 1b

1h 1i 1g

2a

2b

2c

2e

2f 2d 2g 2h

3b

3c

3d

3a

4c

4b

4d

4a

003 systematic.indd 151

6/9/05 2:56:49 pm

PLATE 38: CHANTING-GOSHAWKS AND GABAR GOSHAWK 1 DARK CHANTING-GOSHAWK Melierax metabates L42–50 cm (18 in): S86–104 cm (37 in): T20–23 cm (8 in): ¢84% Thornbush, savannah, to 3,000 m. Character as under 2/3. [cf. 2; also 4, 57:2, 28:2ab, 32:3abd, and accipiters] 1a Adult (male) (nominate; Senegal/SE Tanzania) Slate-grey above, back browner; black tail broadly tipped and laterally banded white; white-freckled secondaries/larger coverts/throat; grey chest; dark-barred white abdomen and rump; eyes red-brown, cere/feet red-orange. Flight below (1b): palebanded tail; dark wing-ends. 1c Adult (female) (mechowi; S from S Uganda/SW Tanzania) Wings plain grey; cere/feet redder. Flight (1d: ¢): obscure rump-patch; again blackish 6+ wing-ends (cf. 2b); speckled secondaries; barred linings. 1e Juvenile (male) (nominate) Brown above, all wing-coverts edged paler, secondaries/rump barred; tail barred darker, whitish-tipped; throat whitish, chest streaky brown; breast/belly broadly barred; eyes yellow, cere grey-brown, feet dull yellow. 1f Juvenile (female) (mechowi) In flight. Greyer-brown above than e; rump barred as c, but tail more banded.

2 EASTERN CHANTING-GOSHAWK Melierax poliopterus L49–55 cm (20 in): S96–110 cm (41 in): T21–25 cm (9 in): ¢85% Dry thornbush, semi-desert, wooded grassland, to 2,000 m. Mid-sized accipiter-like hawk; broader wings, shorter graduated tail; wing-tips half down tail. Perches atop trees/poles; shallow straight-arm beats; glides/soars on flat wings, sometimes V. Solitary. Size/colour intermediate 1–3. [cf. 1abe; also 4 etc. as set out for 1] 2a Adult (male) Paler than 1a; more contrasting pale wings; rump white; eyes dark red, cere orange-yellow, feet orange (prey: Green Tree-snake Philothamnus irregularis). Flight (2b): wing-tips blacker than 1b, inner wings paler; white rump. 2c Juvenile (female) In flight. Browner than 1c, rump speckled; darker secondaries, lighter windows; eyes whitish, feet pale yellow.

6+

3 PALE CHANTING-GOSHAWK Melierax canorus L50–60 cm (22 in): S102–123 cm (44 in): T23–27 cm (10 in): ¢77% Arid thornbush, scrub, desert, to 2,000 m. Paler, larger (esp. ™), longer-legged than 1/2. Sluggish; hunts more on foot. Often thought conspecific with 2, but geographically isolated from it by 1. All chanting-goshawks named from peeu-peeu-peeu-pee-pee-pee-pee... when nesting. [cf. 1cdf; also 4 etc. as set out for 1; perhaps 35:1abc too] 3a Adult (female) Pale blue-grey above to chest; white rump; much paler wings than 1c, whiter tail-sides; eyes brown, cere/feet orange-red. Flight (3b: ¢): black-ended white underwings. 3c Juvenile (male) Richer brown than 1f, secondaries tipped buff; rump speckled; chest blotched, abdomen less clearly barred; eyes pale yellow, cere orange/black, feet dull orange-yellow.

6+

4 GABAR GOSHAWK Micronisus gabar L29–36 cm (13 in): S56–66 cm (24 in): T15–19 cm (7 in): ¢84% ? Thornbush, woodland, semi-desert scrub, locally urban areas, to 2000 m. ? Smallish accipitrine hawk; short wings, long rounded tail. Perches in canopy; flies among trees. Solitary/pairs. [cf. 39:1-2, 40:1, 57:2; also other accipiters (inc. dark morphs), chanting-goshawks] 4a Adult (male) (4b: ™) Grey, paler chest; barred abdomen; white rump and wing-bar; tail banded below; bare parts red. Flight (4c: ™): white rump, white-tipped banded tail; barred underwings. 4d Dark adult (female) Black; white tail-bars. Flight (4e: ¢): black-barred 6+ white remiges below, with windows; 3 thin tail-bars. 4f Juvenile (female) Brown; white rump, 2 wing-bars, streaky head; creamy below, streaked/barred rufous or brown; eyes/cere yellow or grey, feet yellow. Flight (4g: ™): brown/rufous markings.

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1e

1d

1f

1c

2b

1a

1b

2c

2a

3a

3c

3b

4a

4d 4c

4b

4e

4g

003 systematic.indd 153

4f

6/9/05 2:56:58 pm

PLATE 39: SMALLER AFROTROPICAL ACCIPITERS I 1 SHIKRA Accipiter badius L25–35 cm (12 in): S48–68 cm (23 in): T12–18 cm (6 in): ¢71% Woodland, savannah, gardens, to 3,000 m (Asia 2,000 m). Small accipiter; wing-tips/tail rounded in Ind f/h/i, tail more pointed in smaller Afr a/d; small bill, shortish legs/toes. Still-hunts from concealed perch. Solitary; noisy. [cf. S Pal/Afr 43:3; Afr 2, 40:1, 41:2-3, (j) 38:4ef; E Pal/Ind 43:2 (esp. juvs), 44:1-3] 1a Adult (male) (sphenurus; W Africa/Tanzania) Grey above; cream below, barred vinous; crissum plain, throat-stripe faint or absent; eyes orange-red. Flight below (1b: ¢): linings as body; remiges variably all barred (secondaries less) to all plain (here faint-barred on dark-tipped primaries, cf. Levant Sparrowhawk, 49:3). Flight 7 (1c: ™): browner than ¢s (all races); wider browner bars below; all remiges barred, dark tips small; eyes yellower. 1d Adult (male) (polyzonoides; S from S Tanzania) Thin grey/brown bars on white below; tail bolder-banded at sides, less pointed than a. Flight (1e: ™): from 2a by thin bars and shape. 1f Adult (male) (cenchroides; Iran/Kazakhstan/NW Pakistan) Sandier-grey above; pale rufous barring and collar; clearer throat-stripe; usually white thighs. Flight (1g: ™): brown-barred below. 1h Adult (male) (dussumieri; Pakistan/N India) In flight. Intermediate a/d/f; slight collar/throat-stripe; barred rufous on cream below, thighs/linings plain; remiges barred, tail-bars wider-spaced. 1i Adult (male) (poliopsis; SE Asia) Clearer grey head; heavy barring. 1j Juvenile (male) (sphenurus) Streaky head; brown above, variably edged rufous; throat-stripe; dark rusty blotches/ arrowheads below, flanks/belly more barred. Flight below (1k: ™): linings spotted or barred rufous; quills blackbarred (above also).

2 OVAMBO SPARROWHAWK Accipiter ovampensis L31–38 cm (14 in): S60–75 cm (27 in): T15–19 cm (7 in): ¢67% Woods, savannah, plantations, to 1,800 m. Smallish accipiter; long rounded wing-tips, squared tail, small beaky head/face, short legs/unusually long toes. [cf. (a-c) 38:4ab, 1a-e, 40:1abc; (de) 38:4cd, also 41:2d; (f) 3a-d] 2a Adult male Grey above, rump marked white; white-centred paler tailbands; barred grey/white below; eyes red. Flight below (2b). 2c Adult female In flight. Browner above, rump and white spots on tail as a; heavy bars below, barred linings and banded quills as b. 2d Dark adult (female) Blackish-brown, but tail pattern as a/c. Flight (2e: ¢): boldly banded quills as c (no windows, cf. dark Gabar Goshawk, 38:4e). 5 2f Rufous juvenile (male) Brown above, edged rufous; pale supercilia, dark cheeks; tail marks on shafts only (cf. 3); rufous below with shaft-streaks, or throat whitish, abdomen barred. 2g Pale juvenile (female) In flight. Whiter head; whitish below, variably barred; linings barred, quills more thinly barred than a/c/d.

3 RUFOUS-BREASTED SPARROWHAWK Accipiter rufiventris L29–36 cm (13 in): S58–72 cm (26 in): T16–20 cm (7 in): ¢63% Forest, woodland, plantations, to 3,700 m. Smallish accipiter; structure as 2, sometimes treated as conspecific. [cf. (a-d) 2; also (e) 38:4e] 3a Adult male Slate above, plain hood; broad tail-bands; all rufous below, or throat/belly white and breast/thighs rufous (prey: ¢ Red-billed Quelea Quelea quelea). Flight below (3b): linings pale rufous; whitish quills boldly banded blackish. 3c Adult female In flight. Browner above; pattern below all much as a. 3d Rufous juvenile (male) Dark brown above, some rufous edges; shafts on pale tail-bands may be as white as those on 2f; mostly rufous below, vari6 ably blotched and barred cream, with dark shaft-streaks; still dark hood and rufous thighs (cf. 2f). 3e Pale juvenile (female) In flight. Whitish below with rufous streaks, brown bars; quills as c; again dark hood/ rufous thighs (cf. 2g).

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1i

1g

1f

1h 1k

1j 1a 1c 1b

2d 1e 1d 2e

2c

2b

2a

3d 3c

2f

2g

3b 3e 3a

003 systematic.indd 155

6/9/05 2:57:07 pm

PLATE 40: SMALLER AFROTROPICAL ACCIPITERS II 1 LITTLE SPARROWHAWK Accipiter minullus L20–25 cm (9 in): S39–52 cm (18 in): T11–13 cm (5 in): ¢66% Thornbush, savannah, woodland, forest, to 1,800 m. Tiny plump accipiter; short pointed wing-tips, short squared tail, tiny bill, long thin legs/toes. Retiring; moves from tree to tree; still-hunts, or chases birds among trees. [cf. 38:4 (white rump); 39:1 (size); 39:2a-c (pale rump, tail-bars); 41:3; 2 (allopatric)] 1a Adult male Dark slate above; white rump, 2 rows of tail-spots and tip; white throat; brown-barred whitish below, washed rufous on flanks; eyes orange. Flight (1b): linings rufous-buff, barred darker; 2–3 dark bands in mid tail, 6–8 bars at sides. 1c Adult female In flight. Larger; browner; only central tail-spots clear; 5+ bolder barring below, paler rufous flanks; eyes pale yellow. 1d Juvenile (male) Blackish crown; brown above, edged rufous-buff; dark tips on white rump; ghost tail-spots; whitish below, or pale rufous-buff (see e), sparsely streaked on throat, blotched brown on breast/belly, and barred on flanks; eyes pale brown, cere/legs greenish-yellow. Flight (1e: ™): blotched body, black-spotted pale rufous wing-linings; quills much as b.

2 RED-THIGHED SPARROWHAWK Accipiter erythropus L22–27 cm (10 in): S45–57 cm (20 in): T10–13 cm (5 in): ¢59% Forest, especially riverine and edges, locally wooded savannah, to 1,500 m. Very small plump accipiter; structure as 1, sometimes thought conspecific. Skulking; seldom in open or flying above trees. [cf. 3, 41:3; also 1 (but allopatric)] 2a Adult male (nominate; Gambia/Nigeria) Slaty blue-black above, head and tail darkest; white rump, 3 broken rows of tail-spots (central missing, also no tip: cf. 1a); sharp white throat; grey below, washed dull pink on flanks and thighs; eyes red, cere/legs orange. Flight (2b): linings white, fine-barred grey-brown; 3–4 dark bands on mid tail, 7–8 bars at sides. 2c Adult female (zenkeri; E/S from Cameroon) Blacker above, deep vinous 5 below; central tail may show 1–2 spots, others less clear. 2d Adult female (nominate) In flight. Very like a; browner-black above; some faint barring below (note that spots are hidden on closed tail). 2e Juvenile (male) Dark brown above with variable rufous edges (often none); dark tips on white rump; ghost central tail-spots, others more buff-white; buff-white below barred grey-brown, more diffusely on pale rufous flanks; bare parts all deep yellow. Flight below (2f: ™): closely resembles 1a but for shorter tail with 3–4 bands; very different from 1d.

3 CHESTNUT-FLANKED SPARROWHAWK Accipiter castanilius L28–37 cm (13 in): S43–58 cm (20 in): T13–17 cm (6 in): ¢63% Lowland forest. Smallish accipiter (A. c. beniensis of E Congo c. 8% larger); short rounded wing-tips, long rounded tail, long legs/short toes. Skulks; rarely in open. [cf. 41:3 (all ages, esp. smaller ¢s); 2; also 1 (but allopatric)] 3a Adult male Blue-black above, greyer on mantle and cheeks; 3 white spots on middle of obscurely banded tail; white below, finely barred grey on throat and boldly barred rufous on central breast/belly, but flanks and thighs plain rufous; eyes red. Flight below (3b): wing-linings white, sparsely barred grey; secondaries almost plain; 3 dark bands in mid tail. 3c Adult female In flight. Tail-spots less distinct; chestnut flanks darker; barring brown, sharper; secondaries narrowly barred. 5? 3d Juvenile (male) Dark brown above, faintly edged rufous/grey; whitish nape; ghost tail-spots; cream below with brown throat-stripe, drop-marks, flank-bars; bare parts green-yellow. Flight below (3e: ™): linings white, few dark spots; 4 mid tail-bands.

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1b

2b

1e

1c

2d

1d 1a

2f 2e 2a

3b

2c 3d

3c

3a

003 systematic.indd 157

3e

6/9/05 2:57:15 pm

PLATE 41: LARGER AFROTROPICAL ACCIPITERS 1 GREAT SPARROWHAWK (BLACK SPARROWHAWK) Accipiter melanoleucus L40–54 cm (19 in): S77–105 cm (36 in): T19–27 cm (9 in): ¢69% Forest, woods, plantations, to 3,700 m. Largish/large accipiter (nominate race biggest African species, but smaller than Northern Goshawk, 43:1); rounded wing-tips, longish tail, slight crest, big bill, longish thick legs/toes; nominate race dimorphic. Flat beats and short glides; glides on flat wings; seldom soars. Takes prey in flight; will hunt outside forest, but perches mainly in canopy. [cf. (g) 2fg (esp. ¢s with ™s 2); (e) 2d, 38:4cd, 43:2de; (d) ¢88:2, 89:1/3] 1a Adult male (nominate: E/SE Africa) Black above; conspicuously white below, with blotchy black of flanks/thighs variably extending to sides of belly; eyes darkest red to yellow. Flight below (1b): predominantly white but for blotchy 6 black waistcoat and trousers, sparsely spotted wing-linings, banded quills. 1c Adult male (temminckii: W Africa/DR Congo) Smaller; flanks mottled. 1d Adult female (nominate) In flight. Larger; brownish-slate above; browner on flanks; axillaries more barred; thinner bands on remiges. 1e Dark adult (female) (nominate) Black; white on throat, variably on belly/crissum/underwings; tail plain black-brown or obscurely banded. This rare morph known only in east and south. 1f Rufous juvenile (male) Streaky head, supercilia/nape paler; brown above, edged rufous; rufous below, streaked dark (esp. ™s); tail dark grey-brown, barred blackish; bare parts grey/yellow. 1g Pale juvenile (female) In flight. As f, similarly streaked, but whitish below, not rufous; undertail on both dark-barred rufous-grey.

2 AFRICAN GOSHAWK Accipiter tachiro L32–46 cm (15 in): S56–80 cm (27 in): T17–23 cm (8 in): ¢55% Lowland and montane forest, woodland, wooded islands in open savannah, wooded gardens, eucalyptus and other plantations, to 3,000 m. Mediumsized to largish accipiter (in general, much smaller than 1); short rounded wing-tips, long tail, heavy bill, long thick legs/short toes. Often unobtrusive; �������������� early in day most easily seen African accipiter, soaring in display with sharp 6 whit. Still-hunts, taking mostly birds/mammals. [cf. 3, 39:2, much smaller 40:1, 39:1/3, even 43:3; (fg) 8:2f, 40:1g; (d) 1e, 38:4cd, 39:2de] ���������� 2a Adult male (nominate: S Africa/Zimbabwe) Dark brownish-slate above, 3 central white tail-patches; closely barred rufous below, but throat mottled, 6 crissum almost plain white; eyes golden. 2b Adult male (sparsimfasciatus: Angola to Kenya/Somalia) Less clear tailpatches; browner barring below. Flight below (2c): close brown barring on wing-linings, 4–5 blackish bands and dark tips on remiges; tail grey with 3 broad blackish bars. 2d Dark male (sparsimfasciatus) Mainly black (browner breast/wings), with distinct grey bars on tail; much smaller than 1e, with no white on throat or undertail-coverts; eyes green-grey. 2e Adult female (sparsimfasciatus) In flight. Much larger than b; heavier barring brown; greyer tail-patches less distinct. 2f Juvenile (male) (nominate) Brown above, edged rufous-buff; whitish supercilia/nape; black-banded brown tail tipped buff; whitish below, black throat-stripe, sepia drops on breast, sepia (or mixed rufous) bars on flanks/thighs; bare parts green-grey.

3 RED-CHESTED GOSHAWK Accipiter toussenelii L31–42 cm (14 in): S55–76 cm (26 in): T15–21 cm (7 in): ¢65% Tropical forest, dense secondary growth, chiefly in lowlands below 1,200 m but locally in montane forest to 2,000 m. Generally smaller than 2; paler and more richly coloured and, except in W, hardly barred below; much lower RSD supports impression that small mammals, frogs and lizards more significant as prey. Soaring display not recorded. [cf. 39:1, 40:2-3, also 2] 3a Adult male (canescens: W Uganda/N DR Congo) Smaller than 2; dark grey above, head pale blue-grey; 2-3 large white tail-patches; rufous-pink below with grey throat, white tail-coverts/wing-linings. 3b Adult male (nominate: Gabon/S Cameroon). Flight below. Rich rufous-pink breast/belly sharply demarcated from grey throat; wing-linings paler pink shading to white; quills indistinctly barred. 3c Adult male (macroscelides: W Cameroon/Senegal). Again smallish; grey head, darker back; 3 clear white tailpatches; grey throat; bright rufous barring below, washed rufous on flanks/thighs. 3d Juvenile (male) (canescens) Blackish above; white below, few spots.

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1a

1c

1e

1b

1d

1g 2c 1f

3b

2e 3d

2d

2f

2i

2b 2a 3a

003 systematic.indd 159

3c

6/9/05 2:57:22 pm

PLATE 42: ENDEMIC MALAGASY ACCIPITERS 1 HENST’S GOSHAWK Accipiter henstii L52–62 cm (22 in): S86–100 cm (37 in): T24–29 cm (10 in): ¢65% Humid forest/edges, wooded savannah, scrub, to 1,800 m. Large accipiter like Northern Goshawk (43:1); short rounded wing-tips, long tail, big bill, long stout legs/toes. Unobtrusive, but soars in display. Probably mainly stillhunts. [cf. 32:1; also much smaller 2] 1a Adult male Brown-slate above; slight speckled supercilia; obscure tailbars; white below, barred blackish from chin to thighs and crissum. Flight below (1b): bars sparser on crissum; wing-linings well barred; grey remiges dark-tipped, faintly banded; dark central bands, wider subterminal, on grey tail. 4? 1c Adult female In flight. Barring coarser; remiges clearly darker below. 1d Juvenile (male) Brown above, edged rufous-buff; thin brown bars on blackish tail; whitish to pale rufous below, boldly streaked and blotched dark brown. Flight below (1e: ™): streaked body but linings barred, remiges and tail clearly banded.

2 MADAGASCAR SPARROWHAWK Accipiter madagascariensis L30–42 cm (14 in): S50–69 cm (23 in): T13–20 cm (6 in): ¢53% Forest, wooded savannah, scrub, to 1000 m (1500 m). Small/mid-sized accipiter like tiny thin-legged 1; short rounded wing-tips, medium squared tail, small bill, long thin legs/toes. Perches hidden; still-hunts or drops on prey in flight. [cf. much larger 1; also (ab) 3fh] 2a Adult male Brown-slate above; obscure tail-bars; cheeks greyish; white below, barred blackish, but throat streaked, crissum almost plain. Flight below (2b): white crissum; barred linings; pale-based greyish quills clearly barred (cf. 1b). 2c Adult female In flight. Much larger; browner with darker head/cheeks, 4+ heavier-barred below. 2d Juvenile (male) Brown above, edged rufous; banded tail; cream below, streaked brown, thinly on throat. Flight (2e: ™): barring on flanks, crissum spotted; linings streaked, quills as a/c.

3 FRANCES’S SPARROWHAWK Accipiter francesii L21–29 cm (10 in): S40–54 cm (19 in): T10–16 cm (5 in): ¢70% Forest, wooded savannah, scrub, coffee, to 2,000 m; in Comoros also in cultivation, mangroves. Tiny/small accipiter; short pointed wing-tips, long tail (c/d/e shorter), heavy bill, long thin legs/short toes. Forms in Comoros are sometimes treated as a distinct species: c/d resemble a, e more like f; unlike f, ™s of all 3 resemble ¢s. Very confiding; perches in open; still-hunts for prey on ground or on trees. [cf. ¢s 2] 3a Adult male (nominate; Madagascar) Dark grey above, head paler; grey tail, blackish subterminal; white below, variably tinged buff to vinous, breast faintly barred rufous/grey. Flight (3b): axillaries barred, linings plain; thin bars 5+ on grey-tipped, white-based remiges; tail grey with central bars/plain sides. 3c Adult (male) (griveaudi; Grand Comoro) Smaller; 4 dark tail-bands; white below with faintly vermiculated salmon flush on breast. 3d Adult (male) (pusillus; Anjouan) White below, grey at breast-sides. 3e Adult (male) (brutus; Mayotte) Grey crown/nape; otherwise warm brown above; pale brown cheeks; white below, breast barred rufous. 3f Adult female (nominate) In flight. Larger; much browner above (paler than 2c), contrasting grey head; barred rufous-brown below, including thighs/wing-linings; bolder bars than a on remiges. 3g Juvenile (male) Rich brown above; streaky supercilia/nape; white below, barred (not streaked) brown. Flight (3h: ™): as f, but wider bars, rufous-tinged wings/tail, c. 10 thin tail-bars.

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1c

1b

1d

1e

1a

2a 2d 2b 2e

2c

3b 3f 3g

3a 3c 3h

3d

3e

003 systematic.indd 161

6/9/05 2:57:30 pm

PLATE 43: HOLARCTIC AND PALEARCTIC ACCIPITERS 1 NORTHERN GOSHAWK Accipiter gentilis L46–63 cm (21 in): S89–122 cm (42 in): T20–27 cm (9 in): ¢72% Forest, taiga, woods, plantations, to 1,500 m (3,000 m). Large accipiter; long rounded wing-tips, big bill, short thick legs/toes; some ¢s little bigger than 2e, but longer tapered wings, bulging secondaries, protruding head, pigeon-chest, broad rounded tail. Slower stiffer beats; short/long glides; tends to soar more with tail spread. [cf. Nea (d) 54:2ce; Pal (abeg) 2eg, also SE Pal 45:2; also Hol 115defl, small buteos] 1a Adult male (nominate; W Pal) Grey-brown above; blackish crown/mask, white supercilia; blackish bars/ 6-7 shaft-streaks below; eyes orange-red. Flight (1b): crissum usually plain white; barred linings, faintly barred remiges. 1c White adult male (albidus; NE Siberia) Birds larger/paler clinally to N/NE: in far NE, half are white with pale brown markings. 1d Adult male (atricapillus; N America) Bluer; bolder head marks; grey vermiculations below, black shafts. 1e Second-year female (nominate) In flight. Browner; heavier bars; eyes yellow. 1f Adult female (atricapillus) In flight. Coarser barring, bolder streaks. Red eye (also on ¢). 1g Juvenile (male) Dark brown above, edged buff/rufous; often facial ruff; below, rufous-buff (g) to white (h), dark-streaked; eyes green-grey, then yellow. Flight below (1h: ™): linings streaked; quills pale rufous/white.

2 NORTHERN SPARROWHAWK Accipiter nisus L28–40 cm (13 in): S56–78 cm (26 in): T13–19 cm (6 in): ¢61% As 1, also scrub, urban parks, to 4,500 m. Smallish accipiter; rounded wing-tips (shorter arms/longer hands than 1a), longish squared/notched tail, long thin legs/ toes, small head. Light beats; short glides. [cf. Pal (e) 1ab, locally 3; E Pal/E Ind 44:1/3; Ind 39:1, 44:2] 2a Adult male (nominate; most W Pal) Slate to bluegrey above; rufous cheeks; barred rufous to brown below, or solid rufous; eyes orange-red. Flight below (2b): almost plain white crissum; barred rufous/buff linings; banded greyish tail. 2c Adult male (wolterstorffi; Corsica/Sardinia) Small, dark. 7 2d Adult male (melaschistos; Himalayas/W China) Large; dark slate above; clearer rufous bars below. 2e Adult female (nominate) In flight. Grey-brown; white supercilia; streaky rufous cheeks; dark-barred below, flanks often rufous; quill barring clearer 1b; eyes yellow-orange. 2f Juvenile (male) Brown, edged rufous; supercilia and nape whitish; spotted/streaked on cream/pale rufous below, abdomen barred; eyes yellow. Flight (2g: ™): fewer tail-bars than 3e.

3 LEVANT SPARROWHAWK Accipiter brevipes L30–37 cm (13 in): S60–74 cm (26 in): T14–19 cm (6 in): ¢80% Open woods, steppe, riverine trees, orchards, scrub, to 500 m (2,000 m). Mid-sized accipiter; longish pointed wings more falcon-like, rounded tail. Slower beats; less dashing flight. Soaring migrant flocks. [cf. Pal 43:2; Afr 39:1, other small accipiters; also 38:4, even (ab) 100:1abc] 3a Adult male Blue-grey above; plain mid tail; grey cheeks; thinly barred pale rufous below; eyes red-brown. Flight (3b): black-tipped whitish wings (cf. Shikra, 39:1); thin side-bars on tail. ? 3c Adult female In flight. Supercilia slight/absent (cf. 2e); brown-grey above and cheeks; barred rufous/pale brown below; wings paler than 2e, dark-tipped; mid-tail plain but for subterminal. 3d Juvenile (male) Dark brown; pale streaky head (more as a/c by Apr); throat-stripe, bold drops/bars below; eyes yellow-grey/brown. Flight (3e: ™): paler below than 2g, but boldly marked linings, dusky wing-tips/trailing edges, more tail-bars.

5+

162 003 systematic.indd 162

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1a

1f

1e

1h

1c

1d

2f 1b 2a

1g

2b 2g

2e 3d

2c

3b 3a

3c 2d 3e

003 systematic.indd 163

6/9/05 2:57:43 pm

PLATE 44: EAST PALEARCTIC AND INDOMALAYAN ACCIPITERS 1 JAPANESE SPARROWHAWK Accipiter gularis L23–30 cm (10 in): S46–58 cm (20 in): T11–14 cm (5 in): ¢66% Forest, urban parks, to 1,800 m; winter open country, too. Tiny accipiter; long pointed wing-tips, shortish tail, long thin legs/toes. Fast beats; surprise/ pursuit hunter. Migrant flocks. Sometimes treated as conspecific with 2, but differs in structure/sexual dimorphism. [cf. E Pal summer 3, 43:2; Ind OctMar also 2, 39:1, locally island endemics] 1a Adult male Blackish-slate above, white on nape; 4 bands on grey tail; brown-grey cheeks; obscure stripe on white throat; whitish below, variably barred grey-brown and washed rufous; eyes orange to red. Flight below (1b: paler ¢): only faint rufous wash at chest-sides, more distinct grey-brown bars 5-6 on flanks and wing-linings; remiges thinly but clearly banded. 1c Adult female In flight. Browner above; no rufous below; throat-stripe slightly clearer; white body/linings all barred grey-brown. 1d Juvenile (male) Dark brown above, edged buff/rufous; supercilia/nape whitish; thin tail-bars (cf. 2f); cream below, rufous/brown chest-streaks, belly-spots, side-bars; usually throat-stripe; eyes brown. Flight (1e: ™): linings barred rufous/brown.

2 BESRA Accipiter virgatus L24–36 cm (12 in): S42–65 cm (21 in): T11–17 cm (6 in): ¢60% Broken forest, 300–2200 m (3440 m); also winters lowland groves. Tiny to smallish accipiter; nominate and d/e structured as 1, but a–c short pointed wing-tips. Surprise/pursuit; also still-hunts. Solitary. [cf. 39:1, Oct-Mar 1/3, 43:2, locally island endemics; also (e) 45:2 ¢s] 2a Adult male (besra; S India/Sri Lanka) Slate-grey above, white on nape; 3 dark bands on grey tail; white below, throat-stripe clear, chest mottled brown/rufous; rufous barring on breast and thighs, wash on flanks; eyes yellow/red, cere green-grey/yellow. 2b Adult male (vanbemmeli; Sumatra) Darker above than a; throat buff; 6? more solid rufous below with fine black streaks on chest. 2c Adult male (confusus; Philippines) Paler bluer-grey head; 5 narrow bars on tail; throat-stripe faint and broken; almost solid vinous below, but thighs all grey or barred grey (cf. Vinousbreasted Sparrowhawk, 46:1). 2d Adult male (affinis; Himalayas/Vietnam) In flight. Largest race; less rufous, more barred; wing-linings of all races white with rufous wash, barred blackish; bold dark bands on remiges. 2e Adult female (affinis) In flight. Browner above; streaked black on mid-chest (extends throat-stripe); boldly barred rufous below. 2f Juvenile (male) (affinis) Can be very like smaller 1d, but more boldly marked below, broad tail-bands diagnostic; some washed rufous below as here; eyes green-grey. Flight below (2g: paler ™): boldly marked body and especially thighs (cf. 1e/3e).

3 CHINESE SPARROWHAWK Accipiter soloensis L25–30 cm (11 in): S52–62 cm (22 in): T12–14 cm (5 in): ¢89% Woods by ricefields/swamps, to 1,000 m (1,500 m). Small accipiter; long pointed wing-tips, short tail, short legs/toes. Can hover; specialist feeder on frogs/lizards/waterside insects; still-hunts or glides/stoops. Migrant flocks. [cf. E Pal summer 1, 43:2; Ind Oct-Mar also 39:1, 2, locally island endemics] 3a Adult male All blue-slate and white, washed/faint-barred pink, buff or grey on chest/flanks; eyes red (prey: frog Rhacophorus). Flight below (3b): wings white, tipped blackish (cf. Levant Sparrowhawk, 43:3). 3c Adult female In flight. Little larger; browner; more strongly washed and faintly barred rufous-tawny on breast/flanks; underwings creamier with ? 6 browner tips, sparse barring on some primaries. 3d Juvenile (male) Much as 1d; thin-banded tail; slightly redder streaks/ arrowheads/bars below; head darker or greyer. Flight (3e: ™): wing-linings plain buff/pale rufous, faint bars on axillaries; dusky wing-tips, thinly barred remiges.

164 003 systematic.indd 164

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2d 1b

1c

1e

2e

1d

1a

2f 2g

2c

3b 2a

2b

3d

3e 3a 3c

003 systematic.indd 165

6/9/05 2:57:51 pm

PLATE 45: INDOMALAYAN AND ENDEMIC SULAWESI ACCIPITERS 1 NICOBAR SPARROWHAWK Accipiter butleri L28-34 cm (12 in): S50-57 cm (21 in): T13-16 cm (6 in): ¢80%? Car Nicobar/Katchall forest endemic. Small accipiter; short wing-tips, medium tail, heavy bill, short toes. Often treated as race of Shikra (39:1), but structure, plumage and ecology distinct: forms complex with Shikra, Levant (43:3) and Chinese (44:3) Sparrowhawks. Still-hunts, especially lizards. [cf. 44:2; Oct-Mar 43:2, 44:1, also 99h-kqr (all longer-winged)] 1a Adult male (obsoletus; Katchall) Blue-grey above; paler nape/cheeks, whitish supercilia/lores; plain tail with faint subterminal bar; white below, finely barred pale fawn on chest; eyes red. 1b Adult male (nominate; Car Nicobar) Flight below. Smaller; head less 3 pale; throat grey-white; chest-bars pale rufous; eyes orange. Both races: white wing-linings, greyer remiges with darker tips and adjacent mottling; obscure subterminal tail-bar. 1c Adult female (nominate) Browner above; clearer red-brown chest-bars. 1d Juvenile (male) (nominate) Rich chestnut above, feathers dark-centred; mid and subterminal tail-bands; rufous-buff below, streaked and vaguely blotched dark red-brown; eyes whitish, cere pale green. Flight below (1e: ™): wings buff, streaked rufous on linings, thinly dark-barred on remiges; 2 tail-bars.

2 CRESTED GOSHAWK Accipiter trivirgatus L30-46 cm (15 in): S54-79 cm (26 in): T14-21 cm (7 in): ¢73% Broken forest, to 2,400 m. Mid-sized/large but slim-looking accipiter; short ? rounded wing-tips, medium tail, heavy bill, short sturdy legs/toes; crest like Jerdon’s Baza (9:1), but wing-tips barely exceed tail-base. Still-hunts. [cf. 9:1; ? also SE Pal 43:1abgh; also throat-stripe 39:1, 44:2] 2a Adult male (indicus; mainland, bar S India) Brown above; blackish crown, grey cheeks; banded tail, whitish line on coverts; dark median and lateral stripes on white throat; chest washed rufous and streaked darker, abdomen/flanks barred brown to chestnut, thighs more finely barred blackish. Flight below (2b): wing-linings white to buff, spotted brown; remiges tinged 5+ grey-brown towards tips and boldly banded; white crissum contrasts with streaked/barred body and banded tail. 2c Adult male (layardi; Sri Lanka) Smaller; cheeks browner; chest less rufous and darker-streaked; abdomen more boldly barred. 2d Adult male (microstictus; Borneo) Size intermediate; chest heavily blotched to almost solid rufous; abdomen fine-barred rufous. 2e Adult male (indicus) In flight. Brown cheeks; heavier brown markings. 2f Juvenile (male) (indicus) Paler grey-brown above, banded blackish and tipped whitish; rump broadly tipped; crown/small crest edged buff; cream/rufous below, more lightly streaked/spotted, but thighs still finely barred. Flight (2g: ™): wing-linings washed pale rufous; quills much as a; but crissum speckled. 2h Juvenile (layardi) Flight below. More rufous than b; unmarked but for blobs on flanks, spots on thighs; reduced wing-bands.

3 SULAWESI CRESTED GOSHAWK Accipiter griseiceps L28-37 cm (13 in): S51-65 cm (23 in): T13-17 cm (6 in): ¢74% Forest, open woodland, mangrove, to 2,000 m. Smallish/mid-sized accipiter; shape as 2, less crest. [cf. (d) 46:1-3 imm ™s; also Oct-Mar 44:1/3 imm ™s] 3a Adult male Richer brown than 2a; head grey; fainter tail-bands, plain coverts; white below, central throat-stripe, boldly streaked breast/flanks, barred thighs, plain crissum. Flight below (3b): white linings; greyish remiges sparsely barred; near-plain outer tail with obscure sub-terminal band. 3c Adult female In flight. Bolder markings; some spots on wing-linings. 3d Juvenile (male) Richer brown than 2f, edged rufous; tail-bands wider/ clearer than a; below, fine rufous/brown streaks with black shafts; thighs spotted. Flight (3e: ™): body not so heavily marked as a/c; linings plain; remiges darker-tipped.

4

166 003 systematic.indd 166

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1b

1c

1e

2b 1a 1d

2a

2e

2g 2f

2c 2d 3d

2h

3a

3b 3e

3c

003 systematic.indd 167

6/9/05 2:57:59 pm

PLATE 46: ENDEMIC SULAWESI ACCIPITERS 1 VINOUS-BREASTED SPARROWHAWK Accipiter rhodogaster L26–33 cm (12 in): S46–62 cm (21 in): T12–16 cm (6 in): ¢59% Forest, broken country, mangrove, to 2,000+ m. Small/smallish accipiter very like 2; shape similar apart from longer toes, but far greater RSD, so ™s more clearly bigger. Eats birds/insects. Probably related to Moluccan (47:1), New Britain (49:3) and Collared (52:1) Sparrowhawks, resembling 2/3 by convergence. Rapid hihihihi, deeper than 2. [cf. 2-3 esp. ¢s; also 45:2d, OctMar 44:1/3] 1a Adult male (nominate; Sulawesi) Slaty-black above; barred grey tail (no white spots); cheeks grey; throat also, or grey-mottled white; breast vinous, shading to grey/white abdomen; eyes/feet yellow, cere yellow-green. Flight 4? (1b): grey-mottled cream linings; dark-barred grey quills. Slight variations in size, colour and especially cheeks: paler grey in butonensis (Muna/Buton); tinged vinous and on to hindneck in sulaensis (Peleng/Sula). 1c Adult female (nominate) Far larger; much as a, sometimes duller above, washed brownish; throat/thighs greyer; breast paler vinous. Flight (1d): linings more spotted, remiges browner-tinged. 1e Juvenile (male) (nominate) Rufous above, spotted/barred black-brown; blackish crown, some white on nape; banded paler rufous tail; tawny-buff below, with dark throat-stripe, streaked breast and spotted thighs. Flight below (1f: ™): axillaries all barred, linings spotted; rufous-washed quills boldly banded.

2 SULAWESI SMALL SPARROWHAWK Accipiter nanus L23–28 cm (10 in): S44–54 cm (19 in): T11–14 cm (5 in): ¢70% Mountain forest, 550–2,000 m. Tiny accipiter; short rounded wing-tips, short square tail, heavy bill, long thin legs/toes. Agile flight among trees for insects/small birds. Probably related to Besra (44:2), resembling 1/3 by convergence. Thin high kiliu, also fast ki-ki-ki-ki-ki. [cf. 1/3 esp. ¢s; also 45:2d, Oct-Mar 44:1/3] 2a Adult male Blackish above; dark grey tail dimly barred, 3 white spots on inner webs of t2–4; streaked white throat; vinous below, cheeks/thighs grey, crissum white; eyes/feet yellow-orange, cere greenish. Flight (2b): buff linings often stippled; barred remiges; grey tail, broken white bars. 3? 2c Adult female In flight. Black duller; breast cinnamon, abdomen greyer. 2d Juvenile (male) Plain rufous above; dusky head edged rufous, some white on nape; tail banded blackish; creamy below, sparsely but boldly streaked blackish on breast/flanks; eyes/ cere yellow-green, legs pale yellow. Flight below (2e: ™): linings washed rufous, slightly streaked; banded rufousgrey tail.

3 SPOT-TAILED SPARROWHAWK Accipiter trinotatus L26–30 cm (11 in): S45–51 cm (19 in): T12–14 cm (5 in): ¢85% Virgin forest, dense mangrove, to 1,600 m. Small/smallish accipiter; short wing-tips, rounded tail, heavy bill, long legs/short toes. Big ¢s hardly smaller than small ™s. Still-hunts reptiles/insects. Resembles 1/2 by convergence. Deliberate hee, slowly repeated. [cf. 1-2 esp. ¢s; also 45:2d, Oct-Mar 44:1/3] 3a Adult male Blue-black above; black tail with white tip, and 2–3 white spots on inner webs forming broken bars; paler cheeks, grey/whitish throat; breast bright rufous-buff, shading to white on abdomen; eyes brown/redbrown, cere orange. Flight below (3b): paler than 1/2, wings whitish, few bars on dark-tipped remiges; but tail blackish with 2–3 white bars. 5? 3c Adult female In flight. Very similar to a; more barring on remiges. 3d Juvenile (male) Bright rufous above; dark crown edged rufous, mantle sometimes faintly spotted; tail as a, but browner and spots larger; cream/pale rufous below, streaked breast/flanks; eyes pale grey/brown, cere brown. Flight (3e: ™): white linings emphasise streaks on body; thin bars on remiges/ outer tail.

168 003 systematic.indd 168

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2a

1a

1c

3a

2c

1d

2b

2e 3e

1f

1b

1e

3d

2d 3c

3b

003 systematic.indd 169

6/9/05 2:58:06 pm

PLATE 47: ENDEMIC MOLUCCAN AND FIJIAN ACCIPITERS 1 MOLUCCAN SPARROWHAWK Accipiter erythrauchen L26–33 cm (12 in): S47–65 cm (22 in): T12–16 cm (6 in): ¢56% 4 Forest, to 1,400 m. Small/smallish accipiter; medium pointed wing-tips, short tail, long legs/toes. Little-known bird-eater. Related to New Britain (45:3) and Collared (48:1) Sparrowhawks. [cf. 51:2de, 51:3; also larger 2 and 50:1, esp. juvs; Oct-Mar 44:1/3] 1a Adult male (nominate; N Moluccas) Dark slate above, with clear dark rufous collar; tail faintly barred; dusky-speckled whitish throat; rufous-pink below, lower abdomen delicately tinted or greyish with obscure white bars; feet greenish-yellow. Flight below (1b): linings and outer primary bases greyrufous, barred darker; remaining remiges grey and barred; tail grey. 1c Adult male (ceramensis; Seram/Buru) Larger; blacker above; mainly pale warm grey below, pink flush on breast/breast-sides only. 1d Adult female (nominate) In flight. Body slightly darker/greyer than b. 1e Juvenile female (nominate) Flight below. Wings rufous-grey, darker than body, and strongly streaked/barred; tail-bars clearer below. 1f Juvenile male (ceramensis) Blackish above, with broad rufous edges (thinner in nominate race), especially on hindneck, where white also shows through; tail closely barred; dark shaft-streaks on white throat; cream below, boldly streaked brown; feet as a.

2 MOLUCCAN GOSHAWK Accipiter henicogrammus L37–43 cm (16 in): S64–75 cm (27 in): T19–23 cm (8 in): ¢74% 4? Halmahera/Morotai/Bacan: mountain forest, to 1300 m. Mid-sized to largish accipiter; short rounded wing-tips, long tail, heavy bill, long legs/short toes. Little known. [cf. 51:2de, 51:3; also smaller 1 and larger 50:1, esp. juvs; Oct-Mar 44:1/3] 2a Adult male Dark blue-slate above, some white on nape; many obscure tail-bars; dark throat mottled white; chestnut below, thinly barred white (or breast may be solid chestnut). Flight below (2b): linings white-barred chestnut as body; whitish-based grey remiges, all barred darker; obscure bars on grey tail. 2c Adult female In flight. Much as a but for size; some browner above. 2d Juvenile (male) Blackish above, head streaked white, nape spotted black, back/wings edged rufous and barred white/brown; many dark bars on paler tail; dark-spotted white throat; creamy below, barred blackish on breast and more rufous on abdomen. Flight below (2e: ™): buff linings streaked/barred brown; rufous-grey quills black-barred, all remiges whitish-based.

3 FIJI GOSHAWK Accipiter rufitorques L30–42 cm (14 in): S58–73 cm (26 in): T14–17 cm (6 in): ¢62% Forest, open woodland, cultivation with trees, urban parks, to 1,200 m. Midsized accipiter; pointed wing-tips, short tail, heavy bill, stout legs/toes. Glides on flat wings, soars with tips upcurved. Bird-eater: still-hunts, surprise-flights or chases. [Unmistakable] 3a Adult male Smoky-grey above with paler cheeks and vinous collar, unmarked tail; whitish throat with obscure central stripe; pale pink below, suffused light grey. Flight below (3b): linings all plain pink-cream; silvery remiges plain but for dark-edged outer primaries; tail grey. 3c Adult female In flight. Darker greyish-pink below, some faintly barred 4 whitish; wing-linings darker/greyer, too; collar more rufous. 3d Juvenile (male) Brown above, edged rufous (esp. on nape as slight collar); grey-brown tail obscurely barred; cream to rufous below, boldly streaked blackish and rufous, barred on flanks; thighs barred brown/rufous. Flight below (3e: ™): linings washed rufous, variable spots/streaks; quills lightly barred.

170 003 systematic.indd 170

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1b 2b 1f 1c

1e

2c 1d

1a 2e 2d

2a

3e

3d

3a

3c

3b

003 systematic.indd 171

6/9/05 2:58:12 pm

PLATE 48: ENDEMIC NEW GUINEA ACCIPITERS AND ALLIES 1 DORIA’S HAWK Megatriorchis doriae L51–69 cm (24 in): S88–106 cm (38 in): T25–31 cm (11 in): ¢65% 4 Forest canopy, mangrove, to 1,400 m (1,650 m). Large slim hawk; rounded wings, long rounded tail, small head, strong legs; wing-tips barely cover tailbase. Long treated as aberrant accipiter, but more kite-like in various ways. Stays mostly in canopy. Hissing whistle, long-drawn, descending. [cf. 10:2, even 79:1; also larger accipiters 2 and 50:1, esp. juvs] 1a Adult (male) Streaky rufous/blackish crown, whitish supercilia, ‘Osprey’ mask; barred brown/blackish above, tipped rufous; tail close-barred black/ grey; cream below, streaked dusky/rufous; cere green to slate-blue, feet greyyellow. Flight below (1b: ™): linings cream, all thinly streaked; dark-barred greyish remiges white-based; tail barred. Above (1c: ™). 1d Juvenile (male) Greyish ear-coverts streaked dark, but no mask like a; duller narrower barring above; deeper buff below with more diffuse streaking. Flight (1e: ™). 1f Juvenile? White head, black nape-spot; dark brown above, edged buff; white below, some blackish shafts.

2 BÜRGERS’S HAWK (CHESTNUT-SHOULDERED HAWK) Erythrotriorchis buergersi L43–53 cm (19 in): S85–109 cm (38 in): T21–25 cm (9 in): ¢78% Hill/mountain forest, 450–1,600 m. Large hawk, usually placed in Accipiter, probably closer to Red Hawk (52:3); long rounded wings, medium tail. Noisy while soaring: high nasal upslur. [Ad almost unmistakable, but cf. 10:2 in flight below; also 1, (de) 50:1fg] 2a Adult (male) Black above, shoulders boldly edged rufous, scapulars less so; tail obscurely barred; below, white with black streaks/hearts/bars, rufous spots/bars on thighs. Flight below (2b: ¢): linings as flanks; quills barred white on dusky. Flight (2c: ™). Also one known specimen of black morph. 2d Juvenile (male) All rich rufous; black feather-centres above, bars on tail, streaks on head/below; bare parts greener. Flight below (2e: ™): linings as body; whitish crissum/tail-bars.

3-4

?

?

?

3 BLACK-MANTLED GOSHAWK Accipiter melanochlamys L32–43 cm (15 in): S65–80 cm (29 in): T15–20 cm (7 in): ¢65% Cloud forest, secondary growth, nearby cultivation, 1,100–3,300 m. Mid-sized accipiter; short pointed wing-tips, short tail, longish legs/short toes. [cf. (abc) 51:2ac, 52:1d, 52:2c; (de) 4de, 10:2 (much larger), 50:1fg (similar altitude)] 3a Adult (male) Glossy black above, including tail, but collar and underbody rufous-chestnut; eyes/legs yellow-orange. Flight below (3b: ¢): linings as body; quills pale grey, tipped darker, sometimes with faint barring. Flight (3c: ™). 3d Juvenile (male) Blackish above, edged rufous, but for black-blotched white collar; tail faintly barred; all dark-spotted cream to pink-buff below. Flight below (3e: ™): wings rufous-buff, thinly streaked; tail greyer; quills dark-barred/grey-tipped.

4

4 GREY-HEADED GOSHAWK Accipiter poliocephalus L30–36 cm (13 in): S56–65 cm (24 in): T15–17 cm (6 in): ¢80% Forest, secondary growth, cultivation, to 1,500 m. Mid-sized accipiter; pointed wing-tips, heavy bill, longish legs/short toes. Does not soar. [cf. (de) 3de; no confusion with other endemic accipiters, but Oct-Mar see 44:3] 4a Adult (male) Slate-grey above, head/mantle pale grey; white below, breast lightly washed or barred grey; cere/legs red-orange. Flight below (4b: ¢): linings white; whitish-based grey remiges thinly barred; tail dimly barred. Flight (4c: ™). Also two reports of black morph. 4d Juvenile (male) Dark brownish-slate above, thinly edged buff [or pale brown, broadly edged]; mantle mottled white; tail obscurely barred; creamy below, sparsely streaked; cere orange-yellow. Flight below (4e: ™): creamy linings; greyish quills all thinly barred.

5

172 003 systematic.indd 172

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1f

1c

1b

1e 1d 2b

2e

1a

2d

2c

3d

3b

2a

3a

3e

3c

4c 4a

4b 4e

003 systematic.indd 173

4d

6/9/05 2:58:19 pm

PLATE 49: ENDEMIC NEW BRITAIN AND MELANESIAN ACCIPITERS 1 NEW BRITAIN GOSHAWK Accipiter princeps L38–45 cm (16 in): S75–86 cm (32 in): T18–21 cm (8 in): ¢72%? Mountain forest, 750–1600 m (from 200 m). Largish accipiter; short rounded wing-tips, short tail, heavy bill, thick legs/short toes. Only 5 adult specimens recorded, from Baining, Timoip and Talawe mountains; handful of recent sight records; juvenile not certainly known. [cf. 2-3 (both smaller), 50:1 (rather larger), 51:2f (paler and pinker)] 1a Adult male Slate-grey above, sides of head/neck paler (not whole head as Grey-headed Goshawk, 48:4); crown/wings/tail darkest; white below, lightly washed or obscurely vermiculated grey at chest-sides; eyes orange, cere redorange, legs yellow-orange. Flight below (1b): linings and bases of remiges white or faintly grey-barred/mottled; tail grey, tips of remiges blackish. 1c Adult female In flight. Apparently much as a apart from larger size.

3?

2 SLATY-BACKED SPARROWHAWK Accipiter luteoschistaceus L28–36 cm (13 in): S55–65 cm (24 in): T14–17 cm (6 in): ¢72% 3-4 Forest, secondary growth, to 700 m. Smallish accipiter; short rounded wingtips, short tail, big bill, long thin legs/short toes. [cf. 3; 1 (above 750 m; also larger); also 50:1 (far larger), 51:2f (paler and pinker)] 2a Adult male Slate-grey above, crown darkest, mantle paler; cream to buff below, faint greyish bars on breast; eyes orange-yellow, cere/feet red-orange. Flight below (2b): linings cream as body; remiges lightly barred grey/buffwhite; tail dark grey. 2c Adult female In flight. Browner above; blacker crown/nape, still dark grey cheeks; buff below, rather clearer brown bars on breast. 2d Juvenile (male) Barred kestrel-like black/rufous above, including tail; blacker crown/nape edged rufous; cream below, heavily barred brown/ rufous, but throat plain with thin median stripe. Flight (2e: ™): linings as body; pale rusty quills barred.

?

3 NEW BRITAIN SPARROWHAWK Accipiter brachyurus L27–34 cm (12 in): S50–62 cm (22 in): T13–15 cm (6 in): ¢65%? Forest, mostly montane, edge/clearings, to 1800 m. Smallish accipiter; pointed wing-tips, very short tail, fairly heavy bill, long thin legs/toes. [cf. 2; 51:2f (paler and pinker); also 49:1, 50:1 (both clearly larger)] 3a Adult male Blackish-slate above, with clear-cut rufous collar; pale grey below, whiter on throat and belly/crissum; eyes red. Flight below (3b): pale grey linings mottled darker; pale-barred remiges tinged rufous at base; tail plain grey. 3c Juvenile (male) Rufous above, blotched blackish, tail dark-barred; black crown edged rufous; buff below, marked brown. Flight (3d: ™): linings as body; pale rusty quills barred. 3e Immature? (female) In flight. Barred brown above, tail dimly, head greyer; rufous collar/bars on white breast/linings; eyes red.

3+

4 NEW CALEDONIA GOSHAWK Accipiter haplochrous L32–40 cm (14 in): S58–74 cm (26 in): T14–18 cm (6 in): ¢65% Forest/edge, savannah, to 1,300 m. Medium accipiter; pointed wing-tips, short tail, heavy bill, long thick legs/short toes. [Small local race of 52:2 (cf. juvs) is only other accipiter; other raptors not confusable] 4a Adult male Slate-black above, darkest on crown; tail virtually plain; throat/ chest also blackish, sometimes mottled/barred whitish; abdomen white; eyes red, cere yellow/dusky. Flight below (4b): white linings and silvery secondaries contrast blackish head/chest and dark wing-tips. Ad ™ flight (4c): larger. 4d Juvenile (male) Black-brown above, edged buff/rufous; tail barred; cream/buff below, thighs pale rufous, all streaked/barred blackish. Flight below (4e: ™): deep buff linings as body; pale slaty-cream tail and creamy remiges all thinly barred.

4+

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2c

1c

2b 1b

2a 2e 1a 2d

3b

3a

3e 3c 4d

3d 4a 4e

4b

4c

003 systematic.indd 175

6/9/05 2:58:26 pm

PLATE 50: ENDEMIC NEW GUINEA AND MELANESIAN ACCIPITERS 1 MEYER’S GOSHAWK Accipiter meyerianus L43–53 cm (19 in): S86–105 cm (38 in): T20–24 cm (9 in): ¢77% Lowland/mountain forest, to 2,700 m. Large accipiter like Northern Goshawk (43:1); long rounded wing-tips, short tail, heavy bill, short strong legs/toes. Pigeon-like beats. Soar-hunts birds early; by day in cover. High nasal upslur ky-ah. [(abc) unmistakable, but no ? ? ? bigger than 49:1c or 3d; (de) rare black 49:1; (fg) 48:2de] ? ? 1a Adult (male) Black above, some white on nape; tail faintly ? barred or plain; white below, variably barred brown-grey, some ? black shaft-streaks; usually shaft-streaked throat, plain crissum; eyes red-brown, cere greyish. Flight (1b): lightly marked ¢ with unbarred grey quills; looks black/white at distance. Flight (1c): more barred ™ below; remiges faintly barred. 4? 1d Dark adult (male head) Black but for white on nape; quillbars may be less or more obvious than on a. Flight below (1e: ™). 1f Juvenile (male) Dark brown above, edged/barred rufous/buff, most strongly on nape and rump; rufous supercilia; tail variably barred; rufous-buff below, streaked dusky. Flight below (1g: ™): linings as body; remiges obscurely barred.

2 IMITATOR SPARROWHAWK Accipiter imitator L28–33 cm (12 in): S53–63 cm (23 in): T13–16 cm (6 in): ¢80%? 3Papua New Guinea (Bougainville) and Solomons (Choiseul, Santa Isabel, ?Makira) forest, to 1,000 m. Smallish accipiter; short rounded wing-tips, shortish tail, big bill, thin legs/short toes. [cf. white-chested ™ (like c) with collarless ¢ 3c and juvs; 1 larger; also 51:2g/m] 2a Adult (male) Jet-black above; throat/chest black, abdomen white; eyes red-brown. Flight below (2b: ™): linings and primary bases white, latter darkbarred; rest of quills slate-black. 2c Pale adult (male) In flight. Just as a except chest and dark-streaked throat white (cf. 3a/c shape, upperparts, underquills, eyes). 2d Juvenile (male) Dark brown above, edged rufous; crown distinctively mottled/barred black/white; rufous collar mottled blackish; brown tail thinly barred; buff below, throat/breast finely barred rufous, abdomen/thighs plain or faintly vermiculated; eyes yellow. Flight (2e: ™): linings mostly plain buff; remiges whitish with close dark bars; tail thinly barred.

3 PIED GOSHAWK Accipiter albogularis L33–43 cm (15 in): S60–80 cm (28 in): T15–20 cm (7 in): ¢62% 4+ Forest/edge, secondary growth, gardens, to 1,800+ m. Mid-sized accipiter; long pointed wing-tips, heavy bill, longish thick legs/toes. Perches openly. Musical ku-ku. [cf. collarless ¢ (c) with white-chested ™ (like 2c and juvs; 1 larger; also 51:2g/m] 3a Collared adult male (woodfordi; Bougainville-Malaita) Blue-slate to grey above, blacker head, chestnut collar ends in rufous/grey smudges by white breast; eyes orange-yellow. Flight below (3b: ¢): white linings; grey remiges with finely barred white bases; centre of grey tail faintly barred. Collar brighter on eichhorni (Feni), obsolete on sharpei (Santa Cruz). 3c Collarless adult male (woodfordi) Head. No collar; sooty-smudged chest-sides. Flight (3d: ™): much as b but bases of inner remiges stippled (not barred). Nominate race (Makira) and gilvus (New Georgia group) similar, usually collarless. 3e Dark adult female (woodfordi) In flight. Slate; paler remiges; eyes red. 3f Juvenile (male) (woodfordi) Rufous-brown above with cream collar, all spotted/barred blackish; cream to rufousbuff below, darkest on thighs, blotched blackish on breast, barred chestnut on flanks/abdomen. Flight (3g: ™): wings/tail all washed pale tawny/rufous; linings spotted blackish; quills thinly barred. 3h Tawny juvenile (male) (woodfordi) As f but chestnut (juvenile of e?). 3i Juvenile (male) (gilvus) Pale tawny below; sparser markings than f.

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1a 1c 1b

1e 1f

1g

1d

2e 2b 2c 2d 3g 3d

2a

3b 3h 3f 3c 3e

3a

003 systematic.indd 177

3i

6/9/05 2:58:33 pm

PLATE 51: AUSTRALASIAN ACCIPITERS 1 GREY GOSHAWK Accipiter novaehollandiae L44–55 cm (19 in): S72–101 cm (34 in): T20–24 cm (9 in): ¢65% Forest, to 1500 m. Large accipiter; shorter/squarer tail, broader wings than Brown Goshawk (52:2); short rounded wing-tips, heavy bill, short thick legs/ toes. Shallower/more laboured beats; glides on bowed wings. Solitary. [cf. (ab) 52:2, also 108:2, 13:3-4, even 9:3; (cd) white cockatoo Cacatua] 1a Grey adult (male) Grey above, white below, breast finely barred; silvery tail obscurely barred (above, too); eyes red. Flight (1b: ™): linings white; remiges grey, bases white or faintly barred. 1c White adult (commonest S/W: ™) White; rarely odd grey feathers. Flight (1d: ¢). Juvenile (not illustrated) same or faint tail-bars; eyes as c. 1e Grey juvenile (male) Browner neck, coarser V-bars below; tail-bars above/below; eyes brown, orange by 2-yr. Flight (1f: ™).

5

2 VARIED GOSHAWK Accipiter hiogaster L30–45 cm (15 in): S55–80 cm (27 in): T13–20 cm (6 in): ¢64% Broken forest/edge, coconuts, savannah with trees, wetlands, cultivation, locally to 1,600 m. Small/medium accipiter; shape as 1 (but h/i wings longer/more pointed) and often treated as conspecific, sometimes 3 also. Very variable (20 races, but perhaps at least h/i group also distinct sp.), though only a has colour morphs. Has white morph like small/ yellow-eyed 47:1cd. [cf. in New Guinea 52:1-2, 48:3-4; elsewhere 47:1, 49:1-3, 50:1-3; Oct-Mar 44:1/3] 2a Adult male (leucosomus; New Guinea) Second largest; 6 grey/vinous-rufous; head paler, throat grey, sometimes abdomen/flanks obscurely pale-barred. Dark morph ¢ (2b: flight): all sooty-brown, thigh chestnut. White morph like small yellow-eyed 1c (not illustrated). 2c Adult female (leucosomus) In flight. Browner; more barred/less rufous below. 2d Adult male (nominate; Seram) Small; slate above, chestnut below. 2e Adult male (pallidiceps; Buru) Small; slate-grey above, but pale grey head/mantle; rufous below, but much paler throat/chest. 2f Adult male (dampieri; New Britain) Smallish; pale, hint of pink collar; vinous-pink breast; paler abdomen. 2g Adult male (rufoschistaceus; Choiseul/Santa Isabel) Larger; darker; grey throat. 2h Adult male (albiventris; Kai Is) In flight. Small, wings pointed; pale grey above; pink breast and, variably, obscure collar, white abdomen; white linings, pale grey quills, wing-tips darker. 2i Adult male (sylvestris; Lesser Sundas) Much smaller, wings pointed, tail squared; medium grey above, evenly barred rufous/white below. 2j Pale juvenile male (leucosomus) Brown above, thinly edged buff (edges soon abraded); tail obscurely barred; cream/buff below, breast streaked brown/rufous, abdomen barred. Flight below (2k: rufous ™): body/linings washed rufous, almost plain or obscurely marked red-brown. 2m Juvenile male (nominate) In flight. White below, scattered dark spots. 2n Juvenile male (rufoschistaceus) In flight. Darker; rufous collar trace; faint tail-bars; whitish below, breast-bars; linings cream.

3 GREY-THROATED GOSHAWK Accipiter griseogularis L35–48 cm (16 in): S60–85 cm (28 in): T15–21 cm (7 in): ¢60% Forest, to 1,200+ m. Mid-sized accipiter; tail longer than 1. [cf. 47:2, 47:1 (smaller); only other accipiters 49:1 (much larger) and Oct-Mar 44:1/3] 3a Adult male (nominate; C Moluccas) Slate-grey above, with variable rufous hind-collar; grey throat; rufous below. Flight (3b): linings much as belly. 3c Adult male (mortyi; Morotai) Smaller; darker; clear rufous collar. 3d Adult female (nominate) In flight. Browner above, tendency to clearer collar; tail sometimes obscurely barred; more barring below. 3e Juvenile (male) (nominate) Blackish-brown above, faintly edged buff; head mottled white; tail barred black; cream below, broken throat-stripe, breast strongly spotted/streaked blackish, abdomen barred. Flight (3f: ™): linings/quills all barred.

4

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2b

1b 1f

1d

1c

1a

2c

1e

2n 2k

2m 2h 3c

2j

3a

2a 2f

2g

2d

3b 2e

3e

2i

3f

003 systematic.indd 179

3d

6/9/05 2:58:42 pm

PLATE 52: AUSTRALASIAN ACCIPITERS AND RED HAWK 1 COLLARED SPARROWHAWK Accipiter cirrhocephalus L27–38 cm (13 in): S53–77 cm (26 in): T13–16 cm (6 in): ¢62% Forest, timbered gorges, wooded savannah, scrub, urban areas, to 2,500 m. Smallish accipiter; pointed wing-tips, long thin legs/toes; from 2 by more curved wings, squared or notched tail, smaller head, staring eyes, thin legs, longer middle toes. Jerky winnowing beats; glides on flat/slightly bowed wings; soars with tips up. [cf. esp. 2; in New Guinea also 51:2abcjk, 48:3-4, Oct-Mar 44:1/3] 1a Adult male (nominate; Tasmania/most Australia) Grey head, rufous hind-collar; slate or washed brown above; tail thinly barred; closely barred rufous and white below. Flight below (1b): linings finely barred rufous; remi5+ ges barred greyish. 1c Adult male (quaesitandus; N Australia) Slightly greyer above and paler all over (prey: Long-tailed Finch Poephila acuticauda). 1d Adult male (papuanus; New Guinea) Small; darker; bars more diffuse. 1e Adult female (nominate) In flight. Larger; bars bolder and browner. 1f Juvenile (male) Brown above, edged rufous, blotched/streaked white; whitish below, throat/chest heavily dark-streaked, abdomen barred; finely barred thighs washed rufous. Flight (1g: ™): linings, remiges and tail all tinged and finely barred.

2 BROWN GOSHAWK Accipiter fasciatus L33–55 cm (17 in): S60–98 cm (31 in): T15–26 cm (8 in): ¢65% Open forest to urban parks, to 2,000 m. Medium/large accipiter; pointed wing-tips, long thick legs/short toes; as 1, but rear wing-edges less curved, head/neck and rounded tail longer; beetle-brows, thicker legs, shorter toes. Deep beats; glides on more bowed wings. [cf. esp. 1; Australia also 9:3, 51:1abef, 109:2; elsewhere 44:1/3, 47:1, 48:1-4, 49:4, 50:1-3] 2a Adult male (nominate; Tasmania/most Australia) Size much as ™ 1; plumage similar. Flight (2b): quills less heavily barred. 2c Adult male (didimus; N Australia) Smaller; paler grey above, more rufous below; more pointed wings; tail squarer (but not on ™). 6 2d Adult male (wallacei; Lombok/Babar) Shorter-tailed; blue-grey/pink. 2e Adult female (nominate) In flight. Much larger; browner; more barred. 2f Juvenile (male) (nominate) As 1f but for shape/structure. Flight (2g: ™). 2h Juvenile (stresemanni; Flores Sea) Smallest race (L30+ cm); adult much as c; juv more creamy-buff below, more mottled white above.

3 RED HAWK (RED GOSHAWK) Erythrotriorchis radiatus L46–61 cm (21 in): S111–136 cm (49 in): T20–27 cm (9 in): ¢73% Forest, woods, to 1000 m. Large hawk, size of small eagle; long wings tapered, longish squared tail, flat head, slight crest/facial ruff, big feet/long toes; wing-tips near tail-tip. May flap crow-like, but pursuit-flight fast, falconlike, with deep fluid beats; glides on flat wings; soars in shallow V, edges parallel, tips upswept. Secretive. [cf. 13:1, 37:2def, 109:2 (rufous morph); also 2fg, 13:2e, 18:1, 18:2eg, 37:4cd, 83:1cd] 3a Adult male Blackish above, edged rufous; slate-grey tail with dark subterminal, and variably barred; pale streaky head/throat, grey face; rufous below, breast/flanks streaked, thighs plain; eyes brown(ish), cere grey. Flight 3-4 (3b): rufous linings; whitish quills thinly barred, primaries dark-tipped. 3c Adult female In flight. Build heavier, bill deeper; less rufous; primaries/tail more heavily barred; dark-streaked whitish below, rufous flanks/thighs, sometimes paler rufous chest; eyes yellow. 3d Juvenile (male) Redder; wider edges above; rufous of head clearer than streaks; tail edged rufous at base, bars often broken; dark-streaked rufous below; cere pale blue, legs cream (prey: Rainbow Lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus). Flight (3e: ™): linings as body; head paler; diffusely grey primary tips.

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1f

1c

1d

1a 2f 2c 2d

2a

1b 2b

1e

2e

2h

3a

1g

2g 3c

3d

3b

3e

003 systematic.indd 181

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PLATE 53: NEARCTIC AND NEOTROPICAL ACCIPITERS 1 SHARP-SHINNED HAWK Accipiter striatus L(23) 26–35 cm (12 in): S(42) 48–68 cm (23 in): T13–18cm (6 in): ¢55% Forest and forest edges, esp. conifer/mixed, most numerously in W mountains and in far N, but less densely in wooded areas elsewhere, sea-level to 3,700 m. Small slim accipiter; mid-length rounded wing-tips, longish squared/notched tail, eyes central in small rounded head (cf. 54:2), long thin legs/toes. Buoyant fast beats; glides/soars on flat wings, wrists slightly forward, head projecting little. Secretive, mainly in canopy; hunts in open. Only main N American ? and N Mexican races shown. Five others (including the nominate) are largely sedentary, but northern velox winter south into Central America. [cf. ™s with ¢s 54:2, 54:1 (Cuba); also 43:1dgh, 112fghqr; C Amer 2, 55:1, also 95:1] 6+ 1a Adult male (velox: N America) Blue-grey above, crown similar; equal pale/ dark tail-bands, thin white tip; rufous cheeks; white below, finely barred rufous, throat streaked dusky, crissum plain; eyes orange/red. Flight below (1b): linings finely barred rufous; remiges well barred; 3 dark tail-bands. 1c Adult male (suttoni: Mexico N to US border) Larger; more diffusely barred below; flanks/thighs plain rufous. 1d Adult female (velox) In flight. Heavier barring than a; browner-grey above. 1e Juvenile (male) (velox) Dusky-brown above, thinly edged rufous (but little/no white mottling); thin supercilia, brown cheeks; white/cream below, streaks on breast usually bold and rufous (sometimes thin/brown), arrowheads on abdomen, bars on flanks, plain crissum; eyes yellow. Flight below (1f: ™): linings streaked as body; quills as bd.

2 WHITE-BREASTED HAWK Accipiter chionogaster L27–32 cm (12 in): S49–62 cm (20 in): T13–15cm (5.5 in): ¢59% Forest, mostly 350-2,600 m (rarely lower), esp. pine or pine/oak mixed in ��������������� temperate zone, also montane rain and cloud forest. Similar in shape and flight to 1, if slightly shorter-tailed and apparently less RSD. [cf. ™ with 4/5 ¢55:1; also ™56:1, 95:1; Oct-Apr 1, ¢54:2, 112fghqr] 2a Adult male Blackish-grey above; ear-coverts greyer; all white below, but ������������ for pale rufous-buff thighs; eyes orange to red. Flight below (2b): largely 5 white with pale rufous thighs, some buff tinges to linings; remiges barred, tail clearly banded. Adult female (not illustrated) as a, but larger and tinged ���������������� browner above; eyes deep yellow to orange-red. 5-6 2c Juvenile (female) Not unlike a, being largely blackish-brown above (thinly fringed rufous in fresh plumage) and white below, usually with cinnamontinged thighs; but blacker crown and nape, thin whitish supercilia, and dusky shaft-streaks on throat/breast. Flight below (2d:™): similar to (b) but for dusky shaft-streaks on breast and sparse dark flecks on wing-linings.

3 PLAIN-BREASTED HAWK Accipiter ventralis L25–33 cm (11 in): S45–64 cm (21in): T15–19 cm (7 in): ¢53% See map above Tropical and temperate mountain forest edges, cloud forest, secondary scrub, 800-2,700 m (300-3,500+ m). Similar in general to 1, but wing-tips shorter, tail relatively long; polymorphic. [cf. ™ with ¢55:2, 56:1, ™56:2] 3a Typical adult male Brown-slate; pale tail-bands thin; brown cheeks; white variably tinged/barred rufous-buff below, throat streaked, flanks/thighs rufous; eyes yellow. Pale adult (not illustrated) brown and white; rufous thighs. 3b Dark adult male Black-brown above; paler tail-bands narrow/obscure; slate-grey below, throat paler, cheeks/ abdomen tinged chestnut. Flight below (3c: ¢): body chestnut-tinged slate, wing-linings more chestnut with sparse dusky flecks; flight-feathers and tail suffused grey, so that pale barring and narrow tail-bands obscure. 3d Juvenile (female) Blackish-brown above, some rufous edges but little white mottling; thin supercilia; pale tailbands thin and obscure; variable greyish streaks on throat, but breast spotted or blotched with cinnamon and thighs washed rufous. Flight below (3e:™): barring on flight-feathers and thin pale tail-bands clear; belly more barred than blotched, crissum white on dark morph, which is all blackish below with rufous edges.

4 RUFOUS-THIGHED HAWK Accipiter erythronemius L25–30 cm (11 in): S42–58 cm (20 in): T12–16 cm (5.5 in): ¢64% See map above Dry forest, savannah woodland and scrub, to 1,800 m. Closest to 2, with similarly shortish tail and less RSD, but plumage nearer to pale 3. [cf. ™ with ¢55:2, ™56:2, also 17:2, forest-falcons] 4a Adult male Bluish-grey above; pale tail-bands again narrow; white underparts finely barred rusty-grey, flanks/ thighs deep rufous; eyes yellow. Flight below (4b: ¢): linings as breast; contrasting rufous thighs and white crissum. 4c Juvenile (female) Dark brown above, some rufous edges and thin supercilia; whitish below, blotched with brown; flanks washed rufous. Flight below (4d: ™): linings much as breast; rufous flanks again contrast white crissum.

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1e

1a 1d

1b

1c

1f 2a

2c 2d

2b

3a 3b 3c

3d

3e

4a

4b 4c

4d

003 systematic.indd 183

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PLATE 54: NEARCTIC AND ENDEMIC CUBAN ACCIPITERS 1 GUNDLACH’S HAWK Accipiter gundlachi L40–46 cm (17 in): S74–84 cm (31 in): T20–24 cm (9 in): ¢76% Forest/edge, open woods, mangrove, to 800 m. Largish stocky accipiter; shape as 2 with medium rounded wing-tips, long rounded tail, long thick legs/toes, heavier bill/claws. Sometimes treated as conspecific with 2, but more realistic that both form a superspecies with Bicoloured (55:1) and Chilean (55:2) Hawks. Flight probably similar to 2. Secretive; thought in 1960s to be near extinction, but 300 estimated in late 1990s. [cf. ¢s with ™s 53:1; ?vagrant 54:2; also local races of 70:2, 72:2] 1a Adult (male) (nominate; W/C Cuba) As 2, but cheeks and chest grey with brown wash; rufous lower breast/belly sparingly barred white; rufous 3 thighs tipped white; cere dark grey. Flight (1b: ™): greyish, rufous and white body; white-barred rufous wing-linings, barred remiges; tail obscurely banded. 1c Adult (male) (wileyi; E Cuba) In flight. [Paler grey above.] Cheeks and chest pure slate-grey; belly/flanks finebarred rufous/white; thighs also barred; outer tail nearly plain; cere green-grey. 1d Juvenile (female) (nominate) In flight. Creamy-buff below with dark streaks and brown bars; more barred flanks; linings streaked/barred; quills much as c; cere greenish. Darker brown above than 2e, edged more rufous; crown similarly darker than back. 1e Juvenile (male) (wileyi) Much as c above; longer blacker streaks and fewer bars below, more heavily marked thighs; cere yellowish.

2 COOPER’S HAWK Accipiter cooperii L37–47 cm (17 in): S64–87 cm (30 in): T18–24 cm (8 in): ¢68% Forest edge, open woodland (esp. broadleaved/mixed), riverine groves, parks, to 3,000 m. Medium/largish stocky accipiter; smallest W ¢s little larger than ™ Sharp-shinned Hawk (53:1), but longer rounded tail, eyes forward in big squarish head, sturdier legs/toes. Strong flight, stiff beats; glides on flat wings, wrists forward, head projecting; soars on flat or slightly raised wings, front edges nearly straight, head projecting still farther. Secretive, but in W perches more in open, even on poles; hunts in open. Solitary on migration. [cf. ¢s with ™s 53:1, also 43:1dgh; C Amer 54.2, 55:1] 2a Adult male Blue-grey above; contrasting slaty-black crown, paler hind? 6 collar; equal light/dark tail-bands, broad white tip; cheeks grey; white below, barred rufous, throat streaked dusky, crissum plain; eyes red to orange (prey: Bobwhite Colinus virginianus). Flight below (2b): linings barred rufous, remiges well barred; tail dark-banded. 2c Adult female In flight. Similar, clearly larger; browner-grey above; grey or rufous cheeks, but always grey nape. 2d Juvenile (male) Brown above, edged buff, some white mottling; head darker-hooded, nape pale-streaked; often tawny cheeks, rarely pale supercilia; white below with thin brown streaks, plain crissum; eyes greenish-yellow. Flight (2e: ™): wing-linings thinly streaked as body; quills much as a.

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1a

1e

1c

1d

1b

2e

2c

2a 2d

2b

003 systematic.indd 185

6/9/05 2:59:08 pm

PLATE 55: ENDEMIC CUBAN AND NEOTROPICAL ACCIPITERS I 1 BICOLOURED HAWK Accipiter bicolor L34–43 cm (15 in): S58–80 cm (27 in): T16-21 cm (7 in): ¢56% Forest clearings/edges, open woodland, savannah trees, scrub, plantations, to 2,700+ m. Medium/largish accipiter; shortish rounded wing-tips, longish rounded tail, long thick legs/toes. Colour of underparts very variable, and at least nominate race polymorphic. Faster lighter beats than Cooper’s Hawk (54:2); glides on flat wings, wrists forward; soars flat/slightly raised. Birdeater; mainly still-hunts. [cf. ad plumage with 17:3ab; ¢s with ™s 53:2-4; see also 56:3 and forest-falcons] 1a Pale adult (male) (nominate: Yucatán to Peru/N Bolivia/Amazonia) Slate-grey above, with black crown and browner wings; blackish tail with 2–3 6 grey bands; whitish-grey below with faint shaft-streaks, but crissum white, thighs rufous; eyes orange. Flight (1b: ™): white wing-linings mottled grey; light rufous remiges barred; pale bands on dark tail (see d). 1c Dark adult (male) (nominate) Blackish-grey above; thin tail-bands; dark grey below; obscure bars on crissum; thighs rufous as a. Flight below (1d): wing-linings more mottled than b, but much paler than body; white tail-bands; pale crissum clear. 1e Intermediate adult (male) (nominate) Colour tones between a and b. 1f Adult (male) (pileatus: E/S Brazil/E Paraguay/NE Argentina) Pale brownish-grey below, extending up as hindcollar. Flight (1g): wing-linings as well as thighs rufous (cf. adult Rufous-thighed Kite, 17:3b); 3 faint tail-bands (prey: Magpie Tanager Cissopis leveriana). 1h Adult (male) (guttifer: SE Bolivia/W Paraguay/NW Argentina) Again variable below, from white-spotted pale grey (resembling f) to barred/mottled white/grey/rufous (resembling rufous 2a); here white, mottled/barred rufous; always plain rufous thighs. 1i Pale juvenile (male) (nominate) Blackish above, variably edged cream, with blacker crown, whitish collar; 3 grey tail-bands; below, plain white to buff (j) but thighs mottled dusky. Flight below (1j: ™): linings plain as body; mottled thighs and clearly barred remiges stand out; white bands on dark tail. 1k Rufous juvenile (male) (nominate) Rufous edges above; rufous below. 1m Juvenile (male) (pileatus) Paler than i above; wider edges, broader collar; below, white to rufous as i/k, but streaked blackish.

2 CHILEAN HAWK Accipiter chilensis L35–45 cm (16 in): S62–83 cm (29 in): T17–22 cm (8 in): ¢56% Mosaics of temperate wet forest, especially of southern beech Nothofagus, and adjacent open country or scrub, to 1,000 m. Medium/largish accipiter with proportions, flight and feeding generally similar to 1, but averages larger (sex for sex) and likewise takes mainly bird prey, but this includes species as large as Chilean Doves Columba araucana. [Almost unmistakable; only accipiter of region] 2a Adult (male) Dark brown above with blacker crown and blackish-looking tail (lighter brown tail-bands provide little contrast in field); below, all mottled/barred white, grey and pale rufous, with some dusky shaft-streaks, 5 but thighs rich rufous, crissum white; eyes orange-red. Flight below (2b: ¢): like underbody (but, as here, not necessarily co-ordinated), wing-linings mottled white, grey and pale rufous; remiges barred; tail-bands clearer; rufous thighs contrast with white crissum. 2c Adult (female) General pattern as a, and similarly variable on underbody, but tends to show clearer barring on breast and flanks; eyes orange. 2d Juvenile (female) Blackish-brown crown and mask; variably conspicuous creamy nape/hind-collar with dark blotches; otherwise dark brown above, variously pale-edged and with scattered white patches; buff-white below with bold dark streaks, mainly on breast, and bold bars or spots on thighs; eyes yellow, cere yellow-green. Flight below (2e: ™) undersides of flight-feathers and tail much as 2c, but wing-linings buff-white with heavy dark spots and streaks; breast boldly marked with heavy streaks, thighs spotted or barred.

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1i

1d

1j

1b

1c 1g 1e

1a 1k 1h

1m

2b 2e

1f

2a 2c

003 systematic.indd 187

2d

6/9/05 2:59:13 pm

PLATE 56: NEOTROPICAL ACCIPITERS II 1 SEMICOLLARED HAWK Accipiter collaris L25–30 cm (11 in): S43–53 cm (19 in): T11–13 cm (5 in): ¢62% Mountain forest, edges and clearings, 600–1,950 m. Small/smallish accipiter; little-known subtropical/temperate replacement of still smaller tropical 2 but for rounded shorter tail. [cf. ¢s with ™s 2; 53:3, also forest-falcons as under 2] 1a Adult male Sooty-brown above; blackish crown, mottled grey cheeks, obscure whitish collar; grey-banded tail; creamy below, broadly barred brown except throat; eyes orange. Flight below (1b): linings barred as body; remiges also well barred; pale bands on central tail, thin dark bars on paler sides. 1c Adult female In flight. Much as a but for size; coarser browner bars. 4? 1d Rufous juvenile (male) Above, rufous with dusky mottling, or brown with broad rufous edges; blackish crown/nape, clear rufous collar; thin black bars on rufous tail; pale rufous below with diffuse bars, throat whitish. Flight below (1e: ™): all rufous, broadly barred on body, thinly on quills; linings plainer. 1f Brown juvenile (male) Brown above, at most thin rufous edges; darker crown, faint whitish/rufous collar; tail barred grey/black; creamy below, barred yellow-brown. Rarer than d: cf. 2e/g.

2 TINY HAWK Accipiter superciliosus L20–26 cm (9 in): S38–48 cm (17 in): T8–12 cm (4 in): ¢62% Forest edge, open woodland, plantations, to 1,800 m. Tiny/small accipiter; pointed wing-tips, short squared or notched tail, long legs/toes. Notably preys on hummingbirds, by still-hunting or attending their regular perches. [cf. ™s with ¢s 1, 53:1-4, even (ef) 17:2b; also 94:3, 95:1-2, locally 95:3] 2a Adult male (nominate; S America E of Andes) Blackish above, crown darkest, mantle tinged grey; grey tail-bands; cheeks grey; white below, all thinly barred grey except throat; red eyes. Flight (2b): as 1b, but body/winglinings thin-barred. 2c Adult male (fontanieri; Nicaragua/Ecuador) Smaller; darker; sharper 5? bars below (prey: Fork-tailed Woodnymph Thalurania furcata). 2d Adult female In flight. Larger; browner bars; mantle also less grey. 2e Brown juvenile (male) Brown above; blackish crown/nape; tail barred grey/brown; cream below, barred brown or, as f, rufous; eyes orange. Flight (2f: ™): all thinly barred, except linings. 2g Rufous juvenile (male) Rufous above, spotted/barred dusky; blackish crown/nape; broader tail-bars than 1d; buff below, thinly barred dark rufous; eyes orange. Rarer than e: cf. 1d/f.

3 GREY-BELLIED GOSHAWK Accipiter poliogaster L38–46 cm (17 in): S69–84 cm (30 in): T17–21 cm (7 in): ¢71% Lowland forest, dense woodland, riverine trees, to 500 m. Largish/large stocky accipiter; short rounded wing-tips/tail, heavy bill, short sturdy legs/ ? toes. Shallow beats; glides on flat wings, wrists flexed. Mainly still-hunts. [cf. juv plumage with far larger 78:3ab; ad most like 55:1abij; also 95:4a, 96:1ab/2ab] ? 3a Adult (male) Black above, glossy when fresh (especially ¢), browner when worn (especially ™); 2–3 grey tail-bars; cheeks vary from black (a) through dark grey (c/d) to pale grey (3b); white to palest grey below; bare yellow brows. Flight below (3c: ¢, 3d: ™) all white to pale greyish; remiges darker-tipped and variably mottled; 2–3 bars, white below and grey above, 4? on black tail. 3e Juvenile (male) Black-brown above, thinly edged white; paler bands on tail broader than on a; black moustaches, broad rufous cheeks/collar; white below, barred black; throat-streaks, rufous chest-sides/blotches. Flight below (3f: ™): boldly streaked/barred black/rufous on white; barred remiges tinged brown at tips; dark tail with whitish bands. Long thought separate species; resembles larger adult Ornate Hawk Eagle (78:3ab), even to slight crest.

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1a

2b

1b

1d

1f 2d

1c

2a

1e

2f

2g 3c 2c

2e 3d 3a 3e

3b

3f

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PLATE 57: DISTINCTIVE AFROTROPICAL HAWKS 1 LONG-TAILED HAWK Urotriorchis macrourus L56–65 cm (24 in): S81–94 cm (34 in): T31–37 cm (13 in): ¢84% Lowland forest, to 900 m. Mid-sized accipitrine hawk; short rounded wings, very long graduated tail. Little known; mainly in canopy; mostly seen when flying across clearings or roads. [cf. White-crested Hornbill Tropicanus albocristatus flying away (lacks white rump)] 1a Adult Dark slate above; blackish tail with white U above base, white tips and 4 irregular bars; grey cheeks, paler throat; otherwise mostly chestnut below but for white crissum; eyes reddish-yellow (prey: Olive Thrush Turdus olivaceus). Flight (1b): chestnut linings as body; whitish remiges all boldly barred; white around base of white-spotted cuckoo-like tail. 5? 1c Dark adult Dark grey replaces chestnut, so all slate except for white rump and crissum, white tail markings, and pale throat. 1d Juvenile Black-brown above (rump, too), edged tawny-rufous; rufous patches at chest-sides; white below, variably marked blackish (often spots on breast, bars on flanks/thighs), rarely almost plain (1e); tail brown above/white below with black bands and whitish tips; eyes brown to yellow. Flight (1f): white linings variably spotted; remiges less closely barred than a.

2 LIZARD-BUZZARD Kaupifalco monogrammicus L30–37 cm (13 in): S63–78 cm (28 in): T13–16 cm (6 in): ¢76% Broadleaved tall-grass woods, savannah, thornbush, cultivation, baobabs, locally to 3,000 m. Smallish thickset hawk, usually treated as buteonine but possibly closer to Melierax; rather pointed wings, medium tail, large head; wing-tips half down tail. Often upright on bare branch or pole; still-hunts; not shy. Flight low, direct, perch to perch, swooping up at end; rarely soars. Melodious chanting whistle. [Distinctive, but cf. 38:1-3, even 38:4] 2a Adult Grey above with white rump and central band (sometimes 2) on blackish tail; grey head/chest, but white throat with black median stripe; white abdomen finely barred black, but crissum plain; eyes red-brown, eye-rings/ 6+ cere/legs orange-red. Flight (2b): white linings, barred body and remiges; white rump and tail-band. Hunts prey in long grass among trees (2c). 2d Juvenile Pattern similar, but edged buff above, breast tinged brownish, crissum buff; eyes pale brown, cere/legs orange-yellow. Flight (2e): less clear tail-band, mottled wing-linings.

3 GRASSHOPPER BUZZARD-HAWK Butastur rufipennis L39–44 cm (16 in): S92–106 cm (39 in): T16–18 cm (7 in): ¢86% Savannah, thornbush, semi-desert, cultivation, forest edge, to 1,200+ m. Mid-sized, slender, kite-like, not a ‘buzzard’; long wings rather pointed, medium tail, longish legs; wing-tips almost reach tail-tip. Regularly on same bare branch/pole; often not shy. Flight low, buoyant, rather harrier-like flaps/glides, swooping up to perch. Gregarious during short intra-tropical migrations and when hunting insects at grass fires. [Almost unmistakable if seen clearly, but consider buteos] 3a Adult Grey-brown above, dark-streaked; mantle/shoulders edged rufous; bright reddish panel on outer wings, black-tipped primaries; obscurely 6 barred tail; buff-white throat, dark median streak, slight moustaches; variably rufous below, streaked black on breast. Flight below (3b): rufous body, whitish linings also streaked, pale rufous primary-patches, banded grey tail. Above (3c/d): dark head, clear reddish wing-patches. 3e Juvenile Head light rufous, dark-streaked; broader rufous edges than a; remiges white-tipped; central tail plain, sides often barred. Flight above (3f): Pale head; wing-patches as a.

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1c

1a

1d 1e

1b

1f

2b 2a

2d

2c 2e

3a

3d

3b 3e

3c

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3f

6/9/05 2:59:33 pm

PLATE 58: EAST PALEARCTIC AND INDOMALAYAN BUZZARD-HAWKS 1 RUFOUS-WINGED BUZZARD-HAWK Butastur liventer L35–41 cm (15 in): S84–91 cm (34 in): T14–15 cm (6 in): ¢90% Open woodland, savannah, ricefields, to 1,500 m. Not a ‘buzzard’; smallish, slender, more like harrier or kite with long narrow wings, squared tail, weak bill; wing-tips cover tail. Glides and soars on flattish wings; beats fast, accipiter-like, or slow and deep. Regular perches, often low; not shy; stillhunts. Solitary. [cf. 2 and, Oct-Apr, 3; also buteos when perched] 1a Adult Grey-brown above, darkest on finely streaked head/mantle, paler on rufous-tinged back/coverts; dark rufous tail with subterminal band, 2–3 broken bars; reddish remiges similarly marked; plain whitish throat; darkshafted brown-grey breast, obscurely barred belly, white crissum. Flight 4? below (1b): grey body, whitish wings; rufous-grey quills faintly barred. Above (1c): reddish quills, black trailing band. 1d Juvenile Much as a, but darker brown above; more heavily streaked head tinged rufous, with whitish forehead/supercilia; browner wing-coverts edged creamy; more tail-bars; and whiter throat. Flight above (1e): again as c, but browner head/forewings.

2 WHITE-EYED BUZZARD-HAWK Butastur teesa L38–43 cm (16 in): S88–100 cm (37 in): T15–18 cm (6 in): ¢84% Open woodland, scrub, cultivation, to 1,200 m. Smallish, slim; shape, flight and behaviour much as 1; perhaps more often on ground, still-hunting from ? perch on mound or stone, or walking after insects. Sluggish. [cf. in SE Asia 1 and, Oct-Apr, 3; also buteos when perched] 2a Adult Dark-streaked rusty-brown above; shoulders mottled white; subterminal band on rufous tail, other thin bars often faint or absent; white on nape/forehead/lores; white throat, black moustaches/median stripe; black shafts on brown cheeks/chest, lower breast barred brown/buff, thighs/vent all buff/rufous; eyes yellow-white. Flight below (2b): throat-stripe; wings paler 6 than body, esp near tips, despite barred inner linings and secondaries; greyish tail faintly barred centrally, plain sides. Above (2c): wing-coverts/nape-patch paler; rufous tail variably marked. 2d Juvenile Brown above, edged paler; head much paler, with white forehead/supercilia; quills as a but tail more barred; cream below, dark-streaked except on throat/thighs/crissum. Flight (2e): head/wing-coverts usually paler than a or 1d/3d.

3 GREY-FACED BUZZARD-HAWK Butastur indicus L41–48 cm (18 in): S101–110 cm (42 in): T18–20 cm (7 in): ¢95% Breeds more wooded/mountainous areas than 1/2, to 2,000 m; winters ricefields, plains with trees. Mid-sized slender raptor, larger than congeners; shape, flight and behaviour much as 1; less sluggish. Flocks on migration. [cf. 1-2 in SE Asia Oct-Apr; also buteos when perched] 3a Adult Dark-streaked grey-brown head; faint white nape-patch; back darkstreaked brown, greater coverts variably edged white, rump mot-tled white; 3 dark bands on brown-grey tail; white throat, dark grey moustaches/median stripe; rufous to dark brown chest streaked black; breast/abdomen/thighs barred white and brown, crissum white. Flight below (3b): throat-stripe; 6 white linings barred brown; white to rufous-grey remiges thinly barred grey; dark central bands on grey tail. Above (3c): some white on nape/rump; black wing-tips/trailing edges; white U above tail, 3 tail-bands. 3d Juvenile Streaky brown head edged rufous; whitish forehead, strong whitish supercilia above bold dark earcoverts; black-streaked dark brown above, edged buff/white (esp on wing-coverts); white to pale rufous below with throat-stripe, broad red-brown streaks, barring only on flanks/thighs. Flight above (3e): paler collar, wing-coverts and rump; 4–5 tail-bands.

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1d

1b

1a

1e 1c

2b 2a

2d

2c

2e

3a 3b

3d

3c

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3e

6/9/05 2:59:40 pm

PLATE 59: NEOTROPICAL HAWKS I 1 CRANE-HAWK Geranospiza caerulescens L38–54 cm (18 in): S76–111 cm (37 in): T20–25 cm (9 in): ¢77% Swampy forest, woods/scrub near water, to 750+ m. Slim and lanky; rounded wings, broad secondaries, long tail. Like African Gymnogene (32:3), probes with small head and long double-jointed legs, balancing on spread wings. [cf. 2 (also 3-4), 62:1-2/4; also 14:3-4, 69:2, 70:1; and 63:1-2 (much larger)] 1a Adult (nominate; N Colombia/Guianas/Amazonia) Grey; 2 white tailbands and tip; belly/thighs barred white or buff (b); eyes/feet red-orange, cere grey. Flight (1b): white wing-arc obvious below (cf. c); 2 tail-bands; bars on linings/abdomen variable. 1c Adult (gracilis; NE Brazil) All clearly barred white below, or throat/chest 6 may be plain grey; wider tail-bands tinged buff. 1d Adult (flexipes; Bolivia/S Brazil/N Argentina/Uruguay) Largest/palest race; bars variably also on face/wings/mantle; crissum/tail-bands buff. 1e Adult (nigra; Mexico to W Panama) Darkest race, slate-black; often pale barring on abdomen/wing-linings. 1f Juvenile (nominate) Grey above, edged/washed buff, tail as a but bands tinged buff; streaked grey and white below, belly/vent/thighs more barred and buff-tinged; cere black, legs orange-yellow. 1g Juvenile (nigra) Darker; heavier barring below; tail-bands whiter.

2 SLATE-COLOURED HAWK Leucopternis schistacea L41–46 cm (17 in): S85–96 cm (36 in): T18–20 cm (7 in): ¢89% Forest rivers/streams/lagoons, to 500+ m. Smallish buteonine; rounded wings/tail, short legs; wings cover only tail-base. Still-hunts frogs/snakes from open streamside perch or bank. Piercing downslurred whistle. [cf. (de) 14:3cd, 14:4jk; (abc) 14:4fg (2 allopatric; 62:4, 69:2 and 63:1-2 much larger)] 2a Adult (male) Mainly blue-slate; blackish head/wing-tips/tail, last with thin white tip, bold central band; cere/feet red-orange. Flight (2b: ™, 2c: ¢): all dark but for white on tail. 2d Juvenile (female) Much as a; sometimes second tail-band; abdomen and thighs faintly barred white; cere/feet orange. Flight below (2e: ¢): darkbarred white wings far paler than body/tail.

5

3 PLUMBEOUS HAWK Leucopternis plumbea L33–37 cm (14 in): S71–79 cm (30 in): T13–15 cm (6 in): ¢83% Humid forest, to 800 m (1,400 m). Like 2, but smaller, stockier, much shortertailed; wing-tips one-third down tail. Rare; perches openly in early mornings, otherwise rather low inside forest. [Like smaller 2 but allopatric: cf. same confusions, also 16:2abc and 62:1] 3a Adult (male) Dark slate with blackish wings/tail; white tail-band (but not tip) as 2, obscure white barring on thighs; eyes orange-red, cere/feet orange. Flight below (3b: ™): white wings contrast dark tips/rear edges/body/tail; tail-band, barred thighs. Above (3c: ¢): all dark but for tail-band. 3d (large female) Much as a; thighs more barred, lower abdomen mottled greyish; sometimes 2nd tail-band; some barring on underwings.

4-

4 BARRED HAWK Leucopternis princeps L51–57 cm (21 in): S112–124 cm (46 in): T20–23 cm (8 in): ¢91% Wet/mountain-cloud forest, 500–2,500 m (50–3,000+ m). Largish buteonine; fairly long broad wings, short tail; wing-tips half down tail. Unlike congeners, often soars. Then noisy: screaming kee-aaarr; weep...weep... in series. [cf. 63:3bcd (much larger); also 70:2a-d; barred ads 67:1/3; ads 1-3, 61:1, 62:1-2/4] 4a Adult (male) Blue-black, edged slate on head/chest, blotched white on scapulars; white tail-band; white abdomen barred black; eyes blue, snout-like yellow bill. Flight below (4b: ™): all white, finely dark-barred (looking greyish), but for black head/wing-tips/tail-band; tail-base white with grey bars. Above (4c: ¢): dark but for tail-band, blotched scapulars. 4d Juvenile (female) As a but thin whitish edges on back/wing-coverts.

?

4-5

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1a 1e

1c 1b 1g

1d

1f

2a 2c

2b

2d

2e 3c

3a 3b

3d

4a

4d

4c

4b

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6/9/05 2:59:48 pm

PLATE 60: NEOTROPICAL HAWKS II 1 BLACK-FACED HAWK Leucopternis melanops L35–43 cm (15 in): S65–78 cm (28 in): T13–15 cm (6 in): ¢83% Wet lowland forest, secondary growth, mangroves, thickets by rivers, to 1,000+ m. Small buteonine; short rounded wings, medium tail. Fast shallow beats and short glides; rarely, if ever, soars. Not shy, but perches in open only early in day; still-hunts reptiles. Long, clear, thin whistle. [cf. 61:1adh (only sympatric pied congener, much larger), but 2/4 and 62:2 adjacent] 1a Adult Black mask/streaks on white head; white spots on black scapulars; white central band on black tail; all white below; cere orange. Flight below (1b): mainly white; barred ends of remiges; white band on black tail. Above (1c): mainly black; streaky white head/mantle, spotted back, tail-band. 1d Juvenile As a, but cream-tinged head, thinner streaks; back/wings faintly edged buff; at least partial (as here) 2nd tail-band.

?

?

?

?

5?

2 WHITE-BROWED HAWK Leucopternis kuhli L32–40 cm (14 in): S65–76 cm (28 in): T13–16 cm (6 in): ¢80% Wet forest, to 500 m. Small buteonine; size/shape much as 1, and not dissimilar in pattern, but largely allopatric. Little known; still-hunts amphibians/reptiles. [cf. 61:1adh (only sympatric pied congener, much larger), but 1 adjacent] 2a Adult Mainly black above, speckled white from crown to upper mantle; thin white supercilia above black mask; white central tail-band; white below, streaked black on lower cheeks and chest-sides; cere orange (prey: green tree-frog Hyla). Flight below (2b): mainly white with barred ends to remiges, white-banded black tail, like 1 but for streaked chest-sides, paler tail-base (largely hidden by coverts). Above (2c): darker head, plainer back. Juvenile similar but said to have 2–3 thin white bars on tail (not illustrated).

5?

3 WHITE-NECKED HAWK Leucopternis lacernulata L42–48 cm (18 in): S91–101 cm (38 in): T16–19 cm (7 in): ¢89% Forest, plantations, to 900 m (2,800+ m). Mid-sized buteonine; like big 1, but longer wings over half down tail. Insect-eater. [cf. 61.3 (only sympatric congener); also 15:1a-c] 3a Adult Head/underparts white, tinged grey on nape/upper mantle; dark slate above, marked white on lower back/rump/lateral tail-coverts; basal tail dark slate with some white barring, distal white with black subterminal band. Flight below (3b): largely white but for black-tipped primaries, grey-barred secondaries with broad trailing edges, dark basal barring and subterminal band on tail. Above (3c): all-dark wings; white head and distal tail with black band; spots on back and bars on sides of tail-base. 3d Juvenile Black above; coverts edged white; streaked crown/mantle.

4?

4 SEMIPLUMBEOUS HAWK Leucopternis semiplumbea L31–36 cm (13 in): S51–64 cm (23 in): T13–15 cm (6 in): ¢75% Wet forest, to 1,000 m. Small chunky buteonine; short rounded wings just exceed tail-base. Fast beats, short glides; rarely, if ever, soars. Still-hunts under cover. Long high whistle, or in series. Attracted to birds following army ants (here Spotted Antbird Hylophylax naevioides). [cf. 1 (closest pied congener, except far larger 61:1); 95:2-4, 68:1a; also 15:1a-c] 4a Adult Hooded; slaty above, wings/tail darkest; white tail-band; all white below; cere/feet orange-red. Flight below (4b): linings white, greyer remiges barred blackish; white band on black tail. Above (4c): all dark but for white tail-band. 4d Juvenile Head streaked and mantle mottled white; some brown edges above; thin black streaks below (especially on chest); 2 tail-bands.

4+

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1a 1b

1d 1c

2b

2a

2c

3c

3a

3d

3b

4b

4c

4d 4a

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6/9/05 2:59:55 pm

PLATE 61: NEOTROPICAL HAWKS III 1 WHITE HAWK Leucopternis albicollis L46–58 cm (20 in): S98–117 cm (42 in): T19–25 cm (9 in): ¢79% Forest edge, swampy clearings, to 1,500 m. Largish buteonine; broad rounded wings, shortish tail; wing-tips half down tail. Slow strong beats; glides on flat wings; unlike most ‘white hawks’, often soars. Long wheezy call, sheeeer. Stillhunts snakes/lizards from forest-edge perch; not shy. [cf. 78:1; (adh) 60:1 (much smaller); other congeners mostly allopatric] 1a Adult (nominate; S America except NW) White head/underparts, or slight streaks on crown; black lores; spotted mantle; black wings edged white; black tail with white base/broad tip; cere grey. Flight below (1b): white except 6? tail-band, wing-tips and subterminal band on barred secondaries. Above (1c): white head/mid-back/rump; and white-edged black wings/tail. 1d Adult (williaminae; NW Colombia/W Venezuela) White above extends to black-barred scapulars, but crown clearly shaft-streaked, broken half-collar; whiter tail with broad black subterminal band (prey: Common Iguana Iguana iguana). Flight above (1e): extensive white, more or less marked black, on head/back/scapulars; white tail, black band. 1f Adult (ghiesbreghti; S Mexico/Nicaragua) All white except black lores, wing-tips, alula, and thin or even broken tail-band. Flight (1g/1h): white with black wing-tips and tail-band. 1i Juvenile (nominate) Much as a, but whole head and underparts more or less tinged buff; thin black streaks on crown and nape. 1j Juvenile (ghiesbreghti) Still very white (cf. f), but much black on remiges, spots on wing-coverts, shaft-streaks on crown/back.

2 GREY-BACKED HAWK Leucopternis occidentalis L45–52 cm (19 in): S104–116 cm (43 in): T20–22 cm (8 in): ¢85% Forest, to 1,400 m (2,900 m). Largish buteonine; shape much as 1 (with which it and 3 form superspecies), though shorter-tailed. Flight/actions perhaps similar; rare, little known. [cf. 78:1; 1adh (only paler-headed congener that might overlap)] 2a Adult Blackish-grey above, streaked white on head/mantle, tipped white on blacker wings; wide black subterminal on white tail; white below, often few dark chest-streaks; cere grey. Flight below (2b): white with black wingtips/tail-band as 1b, but thinner subterminal on barred secondaries. Above (2c): blackish-grey, including upper back (cf. 1c), with streaked head, mainly white rump/tail; white trailing edge to wings. 2d Juvenile Very much as a, but paler above, more dark grey than blackish; spotted grey on chest, faintly barred on flanks.

2?

3 MANTLED HAWK Leucopternis polionota L51–56 cm (21 in): S118–129 cm (49 in): T18–23 cm (8 in): ¢79% Forest, to 1,500+ m. Largish buteonine; forms superspecies with 1/2, but larger than 1a, and relatively longer-winged, shorter-tailed. Actions again perhaps similar; rare. [cf. 60:3 (only sympatric congener); also 15:1ac] 3a Adult Head/upper mantle white but for few faint shaft-streaks; slaty-black above, tipped white on back, rump, tail-coverts, scapulars and secondaries; basal half of tail black, distal white; below, white; cere yellowish or grey. Flight below (3b): white with black wing-tips and barred secondaries, but no obvious dark trailing edges and largely white tail (greyish base almost hidden by white coverts). Above (3c): slaty-black with white head and tail-end; white back markings and thin trailing edge to wings. 3d Juvenile Very like a, but more extensive and blacker streaks on head, darker back, more white edges also on wing-coverts.

3+

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1i

1a

1g

1b 1j 1c 1f

1h

1e 1d

2c

2a

2d

3a

2b

3c

3d

3b

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PLATE 62: NEOTROPICAL BLACK HAWKS 1 COMMON BLACK HAWK (LESSER BLACK HAWK) Buteogallus anthracinus L50–56 cm (21 in): S106–128 cm (46 in): T19–24 cm (8 in): ¢87% Forest wetland, coasts, rivers, to 1,800 m; mangroves, too. Broad wings, short tail, longish legs. Slow strong beats; soars/glides on flat wings. High whistle. [cf. 4/2 (Pacific coast), 63:1abc (larger); also 14:4fg, 59:1e/2/3abc, 69:1d-g, 69:2abc] 1a Adult (nominate; all but Cuba) Black; white tail-band/thin tip; lores/feet orange-yellow. Flight below (1b): tail-band; whitish at base of outer primaries. Above (1c): tail-band. 1d Adult (gundlachii; Cuba) Smallish; browner-black, edged paler; whitish moustaches; larger patch at base of primaries below. 5 1e Juvenile (nominate) Blackish-brown above, edged rufous and white; crown streaked buff; buff supercilia/cheeks/throat, dark eye-stripes/moustaches; 4–7 wavy dark bars on pale tail (cf. 4d), subterminal widest; buff below, blotched black (flanks solid black), thighs/ crissum barred. Flight below (1f): buff linings streaked; dark carpal arcs, buff windows, tawny secondaries.

2 MANGROVE BLACK HAWK Buteogallus subtilis L45–49 cm (19 in): S96–106 cm (40 in): T16–19 cm (7 in): ¢92% Mangroves, mudflats, marshes. Often treated as race of 1, but quite sharply defined ecologically, slightly smaller, relatively short-winged. [cf. 1; also other confusions listed there] 2a Adult On ground much as small 1, but generally in mangroves, where feeds almost exclusively on crabs caught by walking on mud and even wading in. Flight below (2b): mainly black with white tail-band/tip, like 1b, but redder secondaries, larger whitish/pale rufous patch at base of outer primaries. 2c Pale juvenile Dull grey-buff finely streaked brownish on head, more blotched on back/breast, barred on flanks/tail/remiges. Pale immature (not illustrated) mostly plain grey-buff; normal juvenile (not illustrated) much as 1e.

?

4?

3 RUFOUS CRAB-HAWK Buteogallus aequinoctialis L42–47 cm (18 in): S90–106 cm (39 in): T15–17 cm (6 in): ¢94% Coastal swamps, mangroves. Specialist crab-eater as 2, but smaller, shorterwinged, more plumage divergence. [Ad almost unmistakable, but cf. 64:1ab, 64:2abc, 64:3cd; (de) 62:4de (larger), 64:1de] 3a Adult Black head/throat; black above, edged rufous; secondaries rufous; obscure whitish tail-band, clearer tip; rufous below, finely barred black-ish; legs orange. Flight below (3b): black-barred rufous; black wing-ends, thin white tail-bar. Above (3c): blackish with black-tipped rufous secondaries. 3d Juvenile Blackish above, edged rufous/buff; secondaries tawny; greyish tail finely barred; pale supercilia; cream below, streaked blackish (esp. chest), thighs barred. Flight below (3e): pale patch on primaries; more rufous secondaries; dark-ended tail.

5

4 GREAT BLACK HAWK Buteogallus urubitinga L55–67 cm (24 in): S113–136 cm (49 in): T23–27 cm (10 in): ¢92% Forest swamps, riverine trees, wooded savannah, foothills, to 1,900 m. Less water-based than 1; larger, longer-legged, and shorter-winged. Harsh scream. Hunts also in flight. [cf. 1 and other confusions listed there, esp. 63:1abc; other dark buteos; also 4:4, 78:2] 4a Adult (nominate; S America) Black; white rump/tail-base/tip; lores yellow. Flight above (4b): whiter rump than 1c. 4c Adult (ridgwayi; C America) Flight below. Central tail-band as 1a, usually 2nd thin bar at base; linings/thighs spotted white; lores slaty. Both races: less (if any) whitish on primaries. 4d Juvenile (nominate) Like big 1e, but cheeks/throat less streaked, no moustaches; tail browner, coverts paler. Flight below (4e): relatively shortwinged; far more tail-bars (10–14).

6

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1a 1b 1e

1f 2c 1d

2b 1c

2a

3c

3b

3b

3a

1a

3d

3e

4d

4c

4e

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PLATE 63: SOLITARY-EAGLES AND BUZZARD-EAGLE 1 BLACK SOLITARY-EAGLE Harpyhaliaetus solitarius L65–75 cm (28 in): S157–180 cm (66 in): T22–28 cm (10 in): ¢85% Lower mountain forest, to 2,500 m. Large buteonine like big Great Black Hawk (62:4); wings relatively longer/wider, very short tail; slight crest, long? ish bare legs; wing-tips reach tail-tip. [cf. 62:4 (smaller), (de) 2ef (largely ? ? allopatric); C Amer also 62:1 (far smaller)] 1a Adult All dark slate-grey (™ slightly browner) but for broad white tail? band and thin white tips to tail and uppertail-coverts. Flight below (1b): and ? above (1c) all slaty except for tail-band; not so black as Great Black Hawk. ? 1d Juvenile Dark brown above, barely edged rufous; tail pale-mottled ? (variably rump, too), with blackish subterminal band; streaked sandy-buff 3+? head with buff supercilia, blackish eye-stripes; sandy-buff below, heavily dark-streaked, with nearly solid black patches (sometimes finely barred rufous) on chest-sides and thighs; blackish crissum tipped rufous; legs greenish. Flight below (1e): black patches on chest-sides/thighs; pale buff linings more lightly marked than body; black-tipped primaries whitish at base; darker secondaries grey-brown.

2 CROWNED SOLITARY-EAGLE Harpyhaliaetus coronatus L73–79 cm (29 in): S170–183 cm (69 in): T26–32 cm (11 in): ¢80%? Open woodland, savannah, to 1,200 m. Large buteonine; narrower wings than 1 and longer tail, clear crest; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Perches low; tame. Crepuscular. [cf. (ef) 1de (largely allopatric), 3ef; also 62:4 (smaller, darker), 70:1 (far smaller)] 2a Adult Mainly brownish-grey, darkest on crest and back, greyest on wing? coverts; broad white tail-band/thin tip. Flight below (2b): linings grey, edged/ streaked whitish; blackish thighs; black tips and trailing edges to wings; white ? tail-band. Above (2c): dark grey-brown; white-tipped rump; white tail-band. Dusk swoop on Amazonian Hog-nosed Skunk Conepatus semistriatus (2d). 3+? 2e Juvenile Paler than 1d; greyer-brown above, coverts edged buff; paler tail with clearer subterminal band; whitish below, less streaked, but spots still tend to coalesce at chest-sides, and thighs dark-barred; crest as long as a. Flight below (2f): much as 1d but paler, less heavily marked, with less clear dark patches on chest/thighs; sharper tail-band.

3 BLACK-CHESTED BUZZARD-EAGLE Geranoaetus melanoleucus L60–76 cm (27 in): S149–184 cm (66 in): T20–26 cm (9 in): ¢67% Thin woodland, grassland, dunes, open hills, mountains, to 4,500 m. Large bulky buteonine; long wings very broad; stubby tail wedged/rounded; wingtips exceed tail-tip. Slow beats; glides/soars on flat wings, often in pairs. [Ad unmistakable, but cf. (ef) 1de, 2ef, 77:3e; also smaller juvs, esp. 67:3ef] 3a Adult (nominate; E Bolivia/S Brazil/E Argentina/Uruguay) Dark slategrey above; shoulders pale grey with fine dark bars/black shafts; tail thinly tipped white; cheeks/throat grey; chest slate-grey with tiny white tips; below, plain white or a few fine bars. 3b Adult (australis; rest of range) White abdomen all grey-barred. Flight 5 below (3c): fine-barred white body/linings; dark chest/quills. Above (3d): shoulders much paler than rest. 3e Juvenile Dark brown above, edged rufous-buff on back, scapulars and shoulders; streaked crown/nape, pale supercilia; longer tail grey-brown, mottled/barred blackish; buff/rufous below, throat thinly streaked dark brown, breast almost plain or with scattered heavier streaks, belly/thighs heavily barred. Flight below (3f): linings well marked, so throat/breast look paler; also pale bases to primaries.

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1d

1a

1c

1b

1e

2d 2a

2c 2e

2b

3a 2f 3b 3d

3c

3e 3f

003 systematic.indd 203

6/9/05 3:00:19 pm

PLATE 64: NEOTROPICAL HAWKS IV 1 SAVANNAH HAWK Buteogallus meridionalis L46–64 cm (22 in): S121–140 cm (51 in): T19–23 cm (8 in): ¢86% Savannah with marshland, to 1,000 m (1,800 m). Largish lanky buteonine; long broad wings, medium tail, small head, longish neck/legs; wing-tips near ? ? tail-tip. Low flight, heavy beats; glides on cupped wings; soars high. Still? ? hunts; perches low, upright; often walks. Groups at fires/plough. [cf. (a-c) 2ac, also 3a-e, 62:3a-c; (de) other juv buteonines, also even 14:2c-e] 1a Adult Mainly rufous, dark-barred on neck and paler underbody; greyish face, slaty back/greater coverts; white band/thin tip on black tail. Flight below (1b): rufous body/linings; fine-barred pale rufous remiges with black border; tail looks pale with dark subterminal. Above (1c): rufous with slaty 6 body/greater coverts, black-edged wings, white on black tail. 1d Juvenile Dark brown above, edged buff; buff supercilia; mottled shoulders and barred remiges both rufous; pale bands on mid or basal tail; cream to buff below, thinly streaked, but blotched/barred black on chest-sides/flanks; more rufous thighs barred black. Flight below (1e): creamy with fine barring, darker chest-sides/thighs/wing-borders; barred tail.

2 BLACK-COLLARED HAWK Busarellus nigricollis L47–58 cm (21 in): S115–143 cm (51 in): T16–21 cm (7 in): ¢84% Mangroves, swamps, ricefields, forest rivers/lakes/ponds with floating vegetation, to 500 m (1,500 m). Largish bulky buteonine; long broad wings, short wide tail, small head; wing-tips almost to tail-tip. Soars on flat wings; sails over water, still-hunts from waterside branch/post, snatching fish at surface or plunging in shallows. Perches in open to dry. [Almost unmistakable, but cf. 1, 3, 62:3; for habitat, also 14:2c-e] 2a Adult (nominate; all but range of d) Mostly rufous, paler below and black-streaked above; fine-streaked creamy head, black dog-collar/wingtips/tail-bars; cere black, legs blue-white. Flight below (2b): rufous shades; 6 head white; outer third and trailing edge of wings, collar and subterminal tail-band black. Above (2c): also rufous/black; more streaks/bars. 2d Adult (leucocephalus; Paraguay/N Argentina) Larger; whiter head. 2e Juvenile Duller rufous, more streaked; collar broader, abdomen barred. Flight below (2f): barred abdomen/ linings/quills; dark wing-edges/subterminal tail-band; head/collar much as a.

3 BAY-WINGED HAWK (HARRIS’S HAWK) Parabuteo unicinctus L45–59 cm (20 in): S92–121 cm (42 in): T19–27 cm (9 in): ¢87% Savannah, scrub, desert, often near water, to 1,500 m (1,900 m). Largish buteonine; paddle wings, longish tail/legs; wing-tips half down tail. Fast shallow beats; glides on cupped wings, wrists high; soars flat; seldom hovers. Low quartering; still-hunts. Social in winter. [Distinctive, but cf. 1-2, 62:3a-c, dark buteos; in S Amer (fg) 62:1-4 and 14:2 juvs] 3a Adult (harrisi; S USA–W Peru) Blackish with rufous shoulders/thighs; white tail-base/tip. Flight below (3b): dusky body/remiges; rufous linings/ thighs; white tail-base/tip. Above (3c): rufous shoulders, tail black with white base and broad white tip. 5+ 3d Adult (nominate; S America bar W Colombia–NW Peru) Smaller, tail slightly longer; greyer face; some whitish flecks below, esp. mottling on flanks; slight barring on thighs. Flight (3e): rufous linings somewhat mottled; white-based primaries; some barring on secondaries; tail also tends to bars towards base. 3f Juvenile (nominate) In flight. Buff body dark-blotched; linings and thighs barred rufous/blackish; dark-tipped whitish primaries; thin-barred grey secondaries/tail. Above (3g): Dark brown, streaked buff on head; pale supercilia; edged rufous on body, broadly on shoulders; tail dark with white base, thin white tip.

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1a 1b

1c

1e

2c

1d

2d 2e 2a 2b

2f

3a 3b

3c

3e

3g

3d

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3f

6/9/05 3:00:28 pm

PLATE 65: ENDEMIC CARIBBEAN AND PACIFIC ISLAND BUTEOS 1 RIDGWAY’S HAWK Buteo ridgwayi L30–36 cm (13 in): S69–81 cm (30 in): T14–16 cm (6 in): ¢80% 2-3 Only Hispaniola and offshore islands: pine woods, scrub, mainly lowlands but to 2,000 m. Small long-legged buteo; rounded wings, medium tail. Rapid shallow accipiter-like beats/glides; glides with tips depressed; soars on flat wings. Solitary. [cf. 72:2k, migrant 72:2abmn; vagrant 70:2abchi; also 53:1 (much smaller)] 1a Adult male Grey-brown above; greyer head thin-streaked blackish; rufous shoulders; dark tail thinly barred/tipped white; white throat, greyish chest; grey-white abdomen heavily barred rufous (strongest on thighs). Flight below (1b): dark chest, pale rufous-barred body/linings; dark grey remiges and tail thinly white-barred. Above (1c: ™): rufous shoulders, obscure white tail-bars (™ head browner/streakier than ¢). 1d Juvenile Dark grey-brown above, edged buff (no rufous); cream below, streaked brown/rufous. Flight below (1e): linings as body; finely barred remiges/tail with wider sub-terminal.

2 GALAPAGOS HAWK Buteo galapagoensis L45–56 cm (20 in): S116–140 cm (50 in): T19–24 cm (8 in): ¢73% Only Galapagos, where sole raptor bar migrant Osprey (10:1) and Peregrine (117-118). Lava desert with cactus/thorn, crater uplands, to 1,700 m. Large buteo; long wings, longish tail; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Slow flexible beats; soars on V wings; hovers/kites. Forages in flight; still-hunts; catches insects/iguanas on foot. [Unmistakable; only other recorded raptors 10:1 and 117i/118m] 2a Adult (male) Sooty-black, edged grey-brown/buff above and rufous on flanks/belly; some whitish mottling above; tail-coverts all barred white; grey tail thinly barred blackish. Flight below (2b: ™): linings black as body, but 3 greater coverts barred; quills finely barred except bases of outer primaries. Above (2c: ¢): black; obscurely barred quills, clearly barred rump. Dashing at Land Iguana Conolophus subcristatus (2d). 2e Juvenile (female) Dark brown above, edged/scaled whitish-buff; obscure eye-stripes/moustaches; creamy tail thinly barred blackish; buff below, spotted and blotched blackish; cere grey-green. Rufous breast/abdomen at fledging; all paler brown and whitish in worn plumage. Flight below (2f: ¢): linings streaked as body, whitish-based primaries, fine-barred secondaries/tail.

3 HAWAIIAN HAWK Buteo solitarius L37–46 cm (16 in): S87–101 cm (37 in): T15–17 cm (6 in): ¢75% Endemic to Hawaii, where sole raptor apart from vagrants (especially Osprey, 10:1). Scattered trees, forest edge, to 2,700 m. Smallish compact buteo; medium wings, shortish tail. Rapid stiff beats mixed with glides. [Unmistakable; only other likely raptor is 37:2] 3a Pale juvenile (male) Much paler head than c, flecked black, dusky eye-stripes; dark brown above, edged buff/whitish; whitish below, tinged sandy-rufous, sometimes few brown spots; cere bluish, legs greenish-yellow. In worn plumage, head/underparts almost plain white. Flight below (3b: ™): all pale; few or no marks on cream linings; flight-feathers/tail much as e. 4 3c Dark adult (female) All black-brown with some paler edges; throat whitish-streaked, cheeks/neck rufous-tinged. Flight below (3d: ¢): blackish with rufous-tinged linings; quills as e. 3e Pale adult (female) Head-sides streaked grey-buff; dark brown above, faintly edged paler on scapulars/wingcoverts; whitish-buff below, streaked brown on breast/flanks. Flight below (3f: ¢): brown streaks/blotches on breast/linings; white-based outer primaries; finely barred secondaries/tail. 3g Dark juvenile (male) Head/breast buff-streaked, belly/thighs less so. Flight below (3h: ™): body/linings between a and e.

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1c

1a 1b

2c 1d

1e

2b

2e

2f 2d 2a

3d

3c 3b

3e

3a

3f 3g

3h

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PLATE 66: NEOTROPICAL BUTEOS I 1 WHITE-RUMPED HAWK Buteo leucorrhous L33–40 cm (14 in): S67–79 cm (29 in): T14–17 cm (6 in): ¢84% Humid mountain forest, esp. clearings/edges on steep slopes, 1,500–2,900 m (500–3,560 m). Small buteo; shortish wings, longish tail. Short whistled scream. Solitary. Flight pattern distinctive [Highly distinctive, but cf. darkmorph buteos, esp. 70:2d in Oct-Apr] 1a Adult Mainly black; white rump/crissum; grey-brown tail-band; rufous thighs obscurely dark-barred. Flight below (1b): black body; cream linings lightly spotted, black carpal arcs; barred remiges look dark; crissum and 2 tail-bands white. Above (1c): black but for white rump, obscure tail-bands. 1d Juvenile Browner above; head streaked sandy-rufous; wing-coverts 4+? edged rufous; white rump; sandy-rufous below, breast heavily streaked blackish, thighs barred, crissum plain cream. Flight below (1e): linings much less streaked than body, remiges clearly barred; pale crissum and white tail-bands much as a.

?? ?

2 ROADSIDE HAWK Buteo magnirostris L31–42 cm (15 in): S64–92 cm (31 in): T13–19 cm (6 in): ¢80% Forest/woodland edge, savannah, scrub, to 2,250 m (3,000 m). Small accipiter-like buteo; shortish wings, longish tail/legs; wing-tips half down tail. Plumage very variable: 16+ races named. Stiff shallow accipiter-like beats; glides on bowed wings, soars on flat, seldom high; does not hover. Still-hunts from pole/fence/wire; sluggish; not shy. Squealing kree-yurr or kzweeeooo. Solitary. [Surprisingly distinctive, but cf. 70:1hijk, 70:2; N Mexico 72:1; also accipiters, 14:4cd] 2a Adult (nominate; E Colombia/E Ecuador/N Brazil) Head/back/chest all grey, but throat white-streaked; rufous patch on primaries; pale U on 6 rump; tail banded grey/black; greyish below, barred rufous, crissum plain; eyes yellow, cere/legs orange. Flight below (2b): grey chest; linings less barred than abdomen; barred remiges, rufous patch showing against sun; tail-bands. 2c Adult (occiduus; E Peru/W Brazil/N Bolivia) Browner-grey above and on tail-bands; rufous on wing clearer, bars below extend into grey chest. 2d Adult (magniplumis; S Brazil into E Paraguay/NE Argentina) Larger; browner above, tail tinged rufous; dusky throat streakier; chest rufous. 2e Adult (pucherani; E Argentina/Uruguay) Largest race; very brown above, head blackish, chest rufous; larger and paler rufous wing-patch; pale tail-bands rufous; creamy underparts thinly barred rufous; eyes whitish-yellow. Flight below (2f): black head and primary tips contrast pale body and finely barred wings; dark tail-bands thinner but for subterminal. 2g Adult (petulans; SW Costa Rica/SW Panama) Grey above, paler than a, grey chest spotted buff/rufous; throat whiter; prominent wing-patch; tail strongly tinged rufous; well barred below. 2h Adult (griseocauda; Mexico to NW Costa Rica) Brown above, often with greyish cast; much less rufous on primaries; grey-brown/dark brown tail-bands; throat/chest all streaked whitish; bold rufous barring below, finer on more rufous thighs; eyes orange-red. Flight below (2i): less contrasted chest; boldly barred abdomen, but finely marked linings; primary tips barred. 2j Juvenile (griseocauda) Browner above than h, edged buff; streaked head, creamy supercilia; 5–7 thinner dark bars on tail; buff-white below, streaked brown to breast, roughly barred with rufous wedges on belly, finely barred on thighs; eyes yellow-orange. Flight below (2k): much as h but for more heavily streaked head/chest, more and thinner dark tail-bars. 2m Juvenile (magniplumis) In flight. Bolder chest-marks; 4–5 tail-bars. 2n Juvenile (saturatus; Bolivia/W Paraguay/NW Argentina) Larger than j/m and darker brown above; broader supercilia, clearer rufous wing-patches, and more contrasted tail; less streaked breast.

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1d

1b

1a

1e

2a

1c

2c 2b

2d

2f 2e

2g

2i

2h 2k

2n

2j

2m

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PLATE 67: NEOTROPICAL BUTEOS II 1 RED-BACKED HAWK Buteo polyosoma L45–56 cm (20 in): S113–141 cm (50 in): T17–24 cm (8 in): ¢84% Andean/Patagonian open country, 500–3,200 m (4,600 m). Big long-legged buteo; long wings rather pointed, medium tail rounded, as White-tailed Hawk (69:1), but wing-tips not exceeding tail-tip. Flight/hunting much as White-tailed Hawk. Variable plumages partly sex-linked. [cf. 3 and 69:1, esp. dark morphs; other dark morph buteos, esp. 68:1 and Oct-Apr 71:1] 1a Pale adult male Grey above; white-streaked forehead/cheeks; white tail with broad black subterminal, obscure cross-lines; white below, faintly barred grey on flanks. Flight below (1b): white linings faintly barred; wing-tips dark, secondaries barred; white tail, black band (™s unknown in this plumage). 6 1c Dark adult male All dark slate; tail as a. Flight below (1d): dark body; slate linings, greater coverts paler grey (form pale diagonal); quills as a, but bars/lines clearer (™s unknown in this plumage). 1e Pale adult female Often darker above than a; head/wings blackish, but mantle/scapulars rufous; as a below, or bars rufous, or whole abdomen barred (some ¢s have mantle all/part rufous). 1f Dark adult female Blackish-grey/chestnut above; throat/chest slaty, abdomen all chestnut. Flight below (1g): chestnut body; dusky head, thighs and linings (¢s unknown in this plumage). 1h Barred adult female Much as d above, but all barred slate-grey and whitish below, usually with variable rufous band on breast. 1i Pale juvenile Blackish above, edged buff; tail thinly barred; whitish below, with dark moustaches, throat-stripe, streaks on breast, bars/arrowheads on abdomen; thighs barred rufous. Flight below (1j): streaked whitish linings, more barred greater coverts; barred remiges pale-based; fine-barred tail. 1k Dark juvenile All dull blackish; some white on nape; tail as i. Flight below (1m): linings blackish like body, but greater coverts heavily barred; quills as i, looking more contrasted. 1n Rufous immature As i, but mantle rufous, abdomen barred rufous.

2 JUAN FERNÁNDEZ HAWK Buteo exsul L48–54 cm (20 in): S1231–138 cm (51 in): T20–22 cm (8 in): ¢85%? Endemic to Isla Alejandro Selkirk, outermost of group (some also now introduced on larger Isla Robinson Crusoe 160 km nearer S American mainland) volcanic rock slopes, to 1300+ m. Large buteo; shape as 1 and, though species sedentary, wings still long and relatively pointed; often treated as conspecific with 1, but, apart from isolation, sexes alike. [cf. endemic race of 104; 10:1 and Peregrine (see text 117i/118m) only likely vagrants] 2a Adult (female) Both sexes much like 1a, but darker grey above; upper head darker, with less white on forehead/cheeks; some paler scaling on mantle/wings, especially white on shoulders as leading edge to upperwing, but no trace of rufous; white below, but more barred on flanks/thighs/linings. Juvenile (not illustrated) very like 1i.

3-

3 GURNEY’S HAWK (PUNA HAWK) Buteo poecilochrous L52–62 cm (22 in): S133–151 cm (56 in): T21–26 cm (9 in): ¢91% Mostly high plateaux, wooded valleys, near/above treeline, at 2,800–5,000 m, but down to 900 m in Colombia. Large buteo; often inseparable in field from 1, possibly conspecific, though bigger (some overlap) and with broader rounder hands. Plumages vary similarly, but no recorded equivalent of 1f, while barred morph, rare in 1 (h), is commonest in 3. [cf. 67:1 where sympatric, esp. dark morphs; dark morphs of 68:1 and 71:1 in Oct-Apr] 3a Pale adult male Grey above, white with few bars below, as 1a. 3b Barred adult female Slaty head/barred wings, chestnut mantle/chest, barred slate/whitish below, as 1h. Flight below (3c): all barred, but for dark head/chest, wing-tips, tail-band. 3d Dark adult female Streaky throat, barred wings/thighs (cf. 1f). 3e Pale juvenile In flight. As 1j, but markings bolder; scarcer. 3f Dark juvenile In flight. As 1m, perhaps inseparable; commoner.

?

4-5

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1a 1b

1c

2a

1d

1e 1g 1f 1h 1j

1i

1m 1k 1n

3b

3c

3e

3d 3a

3f

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PLATE 68: NEOTROPICAL BUTEOS III 1 SHORT-TAILED HAWK Buteo brachyurus L37–44 cm (16 in): S83–103 cm (37 in): T13–18 cm (6 in): ¢76% Humid forest, swamps, wooded savannah, pine-oak to 1,800 m (2,500 m). Smallish compact buteo; long wings reach tip of short tail. Stiff beats; glides on flat wings, tips upturned; soars in slight V. Hangs in wind, wings flat, tail spread, head down, then stoops; or drops by stages on V wings. [cf. 2; (abcfg) 70:2hi, Oct-Apr 71:1abchi; (dehi) 70:2d, dark-morph juv buteos] ? 1a Adult (male) (nominate; S America) Slaty-black above, white below; dark hood but white forehead/lores; dark subterminal band and thin bars (often broken) on greyish tail. Dark morph (not illustrated) rare. 1b Pale adult (female) (fuliginosus; Florida/Panama) Browner above; in C 5? America neck-sides may be rufous, nape whitish. Flight below (1c: ¢): white linings/primary bases; thin bars on greyish quills, wider trailing wing-edges and subterminal tail-band. 1d Dark adult (male) (fuliginosus) All sooty-black but for whitish forehead/outer lores; tail as b. Flight below (1e: ™): all dark but for black-tipped white primaries and barred greyish secondaries/tail as c (but tail may be more banded). In Florida, dark morph the commoner. 1f Pale juvenile (male) Edged pale above; light streaks on cheeks, dark on chest-sides. Flight below (1g: ™): more even tail-bars. 1h Dark juvenile (female) As d, but belly/linings mottled white (breast all dark in contrast); tail as f. Flight below (1i: ¢).

2 WHITE-THROATED HAWK Buteo albigula L40–46 cm (17 in): S84–102 cm (37 in): T16–20 cm (7 in): ¢81% Humid mountain forest at 1,700–3,500 m, especially open stunted trees at 2,500+ m; in Patagonia down to 1,000 m in wooded foothills. Small buteo; similar to 1 (often treated as conspecific) but longer-tailed; wing-tips fall short of tail-tip. [cf. 1 (cd) 67:1ij, 67:2e, Oct-Apr 70:2hi, 71:1hi, also 3ef] 2a Adult (male) Black-brown above, white below; dark hood, white forehead/lores; brown tail with several black bars, barely wider subterminal band; chest-sides rufous; dark streaks on flanks form solid patch above rufous-barred thighs. Flight below (2b: ¢): linings patchily streaked; quills as 1b. 4? 2c Juvenile (female) Edged paler/more streaked; cheeks and chest-sides streaked; buff thighs barred brown. Flight below (2d: ™): more blotched linings; rather like Broad-winged Hawk (70:2) but for plain throat, heavier flank marks, finer-barred tail, greyish secondaries.

3 RUFOUS-TAILED HAWK Buteo ventralis L45–54 cm (19 in): S114–139 cm (50 in): T19–24 cm (8 in): ¢74% Forest edge, woodland, to 1,200+ m. Largish buteo; long broad squarishtipped wings, medium/longish tail; wing-tips almost to tail-tip. Until 1940s confused with polymorphic Red-backed Hawk (67:1), though far more like some forms of N American Red-tailed Hawk (72:2), with which forms superspecies. [cf. (ef) 67:1ijn, also 2cd; (cd) 67:1km] 3a Pale adult (male) Blackish above, edged paler; black-barred rufous tail, wider subterminal; rufous nape/cheeks, dark moustaches; cream/rufous below, streaked black, esp. flanks/belly; thighs barred darker rufous. Flight below (3b: ™): dark-blotched belly-band; dark patagia and carpal arcs; barred 3? secondaries dark-tipped; pinkish-grey tail barred, with subterminal band. 3c Dark adult (female) All sooty-black with barred tail. Flight below (3d: ¢): dark but for barred quills as a, but contrast can make tail look paler. 3e Pale juvenile (female) Wings/rump boldly edged rufous/cream, forming V on scapulars/greater coverts; dark-barred greyish tail; white below, blotched blackish on flanks/belly, spotted on thighs. Flight below (3f: ™): as a but whiter; clearer belly-band; streakier wing-linings; narrower subterminal bands on wings and tail.

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1h

1d

1b

1c

1e

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1f 1i 1a

2c

2b

2a 2d

3d 3a 3c

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6/9/05 3:00:53 pm

PLATE 69: NEOTROPICAL BUTEOS IV 1 WHITE-TAILED HAWK Buteo albicaudatus L44–60 cm (20 in): S118–143 cm (51 in): T19–22 cm (8 in): ¢82% Savannah, scrub, ranchland, hillsides, mainly below 1,000 m (recorded to 2,400 m). Big buteo; long wings rather pointed, pinched in at rear base; ? shortish tail, long legs; wing-tips exceed tail-tip. Slow heavy beats; glides with arms raised, hands flat; soars on V wings; hovers and kites. Concentrations at fires; also of juvs in winter. [cf. 67:1/3, esp. dark morphs; (mn) other dark-morph buteos, e.g. 69:2, Oct-Apr 71:1dej] 1a Pale adult (nominate; S Brazil/N Argentina) Dark slate above; blackish head extending to throat-sides (W Argentina) or whole throat, but white over lores; rufous shoulders; white rump/tail with grey lines, black subterminal 5 band; white below, flanks barred. Flight below (1b: ¢): more or less black throat; linings/secondaries barred; inner primaries darker, white patch on outers. Above (1c): all dark with hood, rufous shoulders, but for white tail with black band. 1d Dark adult (nominate) All blackish but for tail as a, usually dark bars on rump and some rufous on shoulders. Flight below (1e: ™): body/linings black; greater coverts/quills as b. 1f Dark adult (colonus; E Colombia/N Brazil, Aruba/Trinidad) All slaty but variable rufous on shoulders, grey/ rufous-barred flanks/thighs, white or barred crissum, tail as a. Flight below (1g: ¢): as e, but body/linings mainly slaty. Pale adult as h, but smaller; paler above; sometimes dark throat. 1h Adult (hypospodius; Texas/W Colombia) Slaty above (™s darker) but for white over lores, chestnut shoulders, white rump/tail as a; all white below, so dark cheeks give hooded look, but flanks/belly often slightly barred (™s more). Flight below (1i: ™): white linings, barred greyish remiges, dusky rear edge and carpal arc; usually white patch on outer primaries. 1j Juvenile (hypospodius) Mainly black-brown, edged tawny above; white U above base of finely barred greyish tail; variably streaked cream below or breast-patch as m, crissum/thighs edged white. Flight below (1k: ¢): remiges as i but, conversely, paler than white-mottled dark linings; barred tail, no broad subterminal. 1m Dark juvenile (colonus) All black-brown but for some rufous edges; breast may be all dark or as shown. Flight below (1n: ™): body/linings more or less dark; greater coverts/quills as j.

2 ZONE-TAILED HAWK Buteo albonotatus L46–56 cm (20 in): S117–140 cm (51 in): T19–24 cm (8 in): ¢79% Forest, woodland, scrub, riverine trees, canyons, mountains, to 2,600 m. Large buteo; long slender parallel-edged wings, longish tail; wing-tips reach tail-tip. ? Slow loose beats; may soar on flat wings with spread tail, but often sails tilting ? on V wings like small Turkey Vulture (4:1), which it resembles in shape/twotone pattern and may even accompany; hunts on wing by stooping, and this mimicry apparently enables closer approach to its prey. [cf. 4:1; 70:2d, (de) 69:1mn, 71:1dej; dark-morph buteos; 33:3e, 78:2abc; (ab) 62:1a] 2a Adult (male) Slaty-black but for white forehead, pale grey lores; one broad and 1–2 thin grey tail-bands (2nd thin bar indicates ™, but may be 4? obscure, mottled or hidden by coverts). Flight below (2b: ™): slaty-black linings contrast barred greyish remiges; tail-bands now white. Above (2c): black with grey tail-bands; sometimes white bases showing through on nape. 2d Juvenile All browner; body spotted white, esp. below; grey-brown tail with 5–7 narrow black bars and wider subterminal band. Flight below (2e): linings as body, but greater coverts mottled; remiges whiter than b; barred tail greyish-white.

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1a 1d

1b

1e

1h

1g

1f

1j

1i

1k 1m

1c

1n 2c

2a

2d

2b

2e

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PLATE 70: SMALL NEARCTIC/NEOTROPICAL BUTEOS 1 GREY HAWK (GREY-LINED HAWK) Buteo (Asturina) nitidus L36–46 cm (16 in): S75–94 cm (33 in): T14–20 cm (7 in): ¢87% Wet forest fringes, especially riverine, to dry woodland and timbered savannah, especially near water, to 800 m (1,300 m). Small compact accipiter-like buteo; tips of relatively short wings only half down longish tail. Dashing flight, rapid beats, short glides; glides/soars on flat wings. Still-hunts, chases, or stoops. Northern form (a/h) has been treated as distinct species. [cf. (a-g) 14:4a, 66:2, grey hawks (e.g. 59:1-4); (h-k) 2hi, 66:2j-m, also juv accipiters] 1a Adult (plagiatus; far S USA-NW Costa Rica) Rather uniform grey above, obscurely dark-barred and black-shafted; white U on rump; 2 white bands on black tail (upper thinner, often hidden); closely grey-barred white below, 6 but stippled throat, plain crissum; eyes brown. Flight below (1b): barred body, whitish wings more lightly marked; 2–3 uneven white bands on greyer tail. Above (1c): white tail-bands, U on rump. 1d Adult (nominate; Trinidad/Amazonia) Intermediate; eyes yellow. 1e Adult (pallidus; Bolivia/S Brazil/N Argentina) Palest grey above, clear barring; paler below, cheeks/throat/midchest almost plain; eyes yellow. Flight below (1f): whitish linings, more barred remiges. Above (1g): banded tail more obvious, but thinner bar may be absent and white U on rump much reduced. 1h Juvenile (plagiatus) Black-brown above, edged/blotched rufous; 5+ dark bars on brown tail; creamy supercilia/cheeks/throat and contrasting dark eye-stripes/moustaches; creamy-white below, blotched dusky on breast, stronger on flanks/belly, barred on thighs. Flight below (1i): wings more barred than a, but still look whitish; body-blotches; multibarred tail. 1j Juvenile (pallidus) Browner above, marked buff; contrasted tail with broader buff and blackish bands; cheeks whiter, facial stripes finer; white below, blotched sooty; thighs less barred/plain. Flight below (1k): whiter than h; tail more contrasted.

2 BROAD-WINGED HAWK Buteo platypterus L32–42 cm (15 in): S74–96 cm (33 in): T15–19 cm (7 in): ¢82% Forest, open woods, mostly lowland; also mountains to 3,000 m (4,000 m) in winter. Small stocky buteo; rather pointed wings, longish tail; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Strong stiff beats; glides/soars on flat wings; no hover. Migrates in huge loose circling flocks. [cf. 66:2 and 72:1 and 17:2, 43:1 and 54:2; (d) 71:1d; (h) 1hj, 68:1f, 68:2c] 2a Pale adult (nominate; mainland) Dark grey-brown above, edged paler; broad white band on black tail, second thinner bar partly hidden; white below, heavily mottled/barred rufous, more lightly on belly/thighs, crissum plain. Flight below (2b): wings mainly white, rufous spots on coverts, dark 6+ trailing edges; body more heavily marked; tail showing second white bar when spread. Above (2c): dark but for white tail-band(s). 2d Dark adult (nominate; rare, breeds Alberta) Body/coverts dark brown; tail as a; underwings two-toned, with silvery remiges. 2e Adult (cubanensis; Cuba) Smaller; streaky below, more like imm h. 2f Adult (insulicola; Antigua) Smallest/palest of small Caribbean races: paler brown above, edged still paler; whiter below with clearer throat, lighter breast-streaks and flank-bars. 2g Adult (antillarum; St Vincent-Tobago) In flight. Like smallish a, but breast more solidly rufous, linings also tinged rufous. 2h Juvenile (nominate) Dark brown above, edged white or rufous; tail paler, 4–5 dusky bars; pale supercilia, blackish moustaches; white below, streaked/blotched brown (some heavily, others almost unmarked on breast); thighs plain or spotted, rarely barred. Flight below (2i): wings as b, but rear edge less dark, square window on primaries; variably streaked body, barred tail.

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1a

1d 1b 1e

1f

1h 1i 1j

1k

1c 2a

2c

2d

1g

2b 2f

2g 2e

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2i

6/9/05 3:11:51 pm

PLATE 71: NEARCTIC BUTEOS I 1 SWAINSON’S HAWK Buteo swainsoni L43–55 cm (19 in): S117–137 cm (50 in): T19–23 cm (8 in): ¢88% Plains, prairies, tundra, semi-desert, fields, to 1,500 m (2,800 m on passage). Largish slender buteo; long wings rather pointed, longish tail; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Light moderate beats; glides with arms raised, hands flat; soars rocking on angled V wings; often hovers and kites. Perches on fences, ground; follows tractors. Migrates in flocks. [cf.(a) 68:1, 69:1; (d) dark morph buteos (see 66-73), esp. 69:1m; (h) 68:3, 72:2m, 114:1] 1a Pale adult Brown above, thinly edged rufous-buff; grey-brown tail finely dark-barred, pale U on coverts; white forehead and large throat-patch; rufous to dark brown breast-band (may be incomplete); whitish belly some7 times dark-barred (esp. ™s). Flight below (1b): two-tone with white linings, faintly barred dark greyish remiges; variably obvious carpal arcs; dark breast. Above, in circling flock (1c): pale U above barred tail. 1d Dark adult All sooty-brown (rarely black) with barred tail and usually barred whitish crissum; often pale U over tail, some white on forehead/throat. Flight below (1e): linings dark brown, rufous-buff or mottled white, showing little contrast. 1f Rufous adult Belly/thighs dark rufous, or whitish and barred dark rufous like crissum. Flight below (1g): rufous or mottled rufous linings showing some contrast with dark grey remiges. 1h Pale juvenile Streaked crown; buff supercilia/cheeks/throat, dark eye-stripes/moustaches; broad buff edges above; pale U above barred tail; creamy-white below, spotted or blotched dark brown. Flight below (1i): still twotoned, but less contrast between spotted creamy linings and barred remiges; tail as a. 1j Dark and rufous juvenile (1k) Buff to rufous below, blotched dusky (esp. belly/thighs).

2 FERRUGINOUS HAWK Buteo regalis L50–66 cm (23 in): S134–152 cm (56 in): T23–25 cm (9 in): ¢95% Plains, desert uplands, dry open country, to 1,500+ m (2,000 m in winter). Large robust buteo; long tapered wings, medium tail, big head, long gape, feathered legs; wing-tips almost reach tail-tip. Strong slow eagle-like beats; glides with shallow V wings, or hands flat; soars in deeper V; hovers. Perches trees/fences/mounds; roosts communally. Quarters, stoops from height, still-hunts. [cf. (ag) 72:2afj, 73:1hj; (b) dark buteos 1, 68:1, 69:1-2, 70:2; (i) 73:1 imms] 2a Pale adult Dark brown above, broadly edged rufous; crown/nape streaked rufous or cream; tail white, pale grey or rufous (or mixed), speckled 4-5 grey; cheeks whitish, dark line behind eyes; white below; thighs barred rufous, or rufous with dark bars (prey: Common Prairie-dog Cynomys ludovicianus). Flight below (2b): whitish wings with dark carpal arcs, usually rufous mottling on linings (especially ™s); rufous thighs obvious. Above (2c): dark but for pale tail, whitish patch on primaries. 2d Dark adult Browner above, thinly edged rufous; grey tail variably mottled darker; dark rufous below, or dark brown (2e), with some white breast-streaks; chestnut crissum. Flight below (2f): all rufous or dark brown with silvery quills; darker trailing wing-edges; white inside carpal arcs. 2g Pale juvenile Much less rufous above than a; grey-brown tail with black-spotted white base; white below, dark-blotched/spotted on flanks/thighs, sometimes also in band on chest or belly. Flight below (2h): white wings with dark carpal arcs, some spots on linings; silvery-grey tail with subterminal band. 2i Dark juvenile Flight below. All dark brown, breast sometimes more rufous, with contrasting silvery remiges (dark trailing edge) and tail (subterminal band); white inside carpal arcs.

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1c

1a

1b

1e

1g

1f 1d 1i

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1h

1j 2c

2a 2b 2d

2f

2e

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2g

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2i

6/9/05 3:11:59 pm

PLATE 72: NEARCTIC BUTEOS II 1 RED-SHOULDERED HAWK Buteo lineatus L38–47 cm (17 in): S91–114 cm (40 in): T16–24 cm (8 in): ¢85% Moist woods, riparian forest, often by water, in W also drier woods, to 1000 m (migrants/winter to 2500 m); widespread Florida. Mid-sized/largish slender buteo; longish tail/legs; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Stiff shallow accipiter-like beats; glides on bowed wings, soars on flat; does not hover. Unobtrusive (less so in W/SE USA, Mexico). [cf. (bc) 70:2bc; (ef) 70:2hi; but bear in mind 33:1f, 43:df] 1a Adult (nominate; E N America) Dark above, edged rufous, head tawnystreaked; rufous shoulders, white-barred black wings; tail black with 3–4 thin white bars; rufous below with black streaks, whitish barring. Flight below 5+ (1b): barred rufous body/linings darker than barred whitish remiges; white window crescents on wing-ends; banded tail. Above (1c): window arcs, chequered remiges; red shoulders; banded tail. S Florida race (not illustrated) smaller/paler; grey head, greyish back, 2–3 tail-bars. Texas race (not illustrated) redder above. 1d Adult (elegans; W N America) Smaller; brighter; breast/shoulders solid rufous; 3–4 tail-bars. 1e Juvenile (nominate) More mottled tawny/whitish above; paler head, buff supercilia, dark moustaches; hint of rufous shoulders, pale U on rump; 7–8 bars on rufous-based tail; white below with dark blobs. Flight below (1f): plain or lightly spotted creamy linings, tawny window arc on wing-ends, blotched body, many tail-bars.

2 RED-TAILED HAWK Buteo jamaicensis L45–58 cm (20 in): S107–141 cm (49 in): T20–25 cm (9 in): ¢82% Woods, open country, deserts, mountains, to 3,200 m. Large buteo; broad wings, longish tail; wing-tips reach tail-tip in W races. Slow deep beats; glides on flat wings or hands slightly down; soars often in shallow V; hovers and kites. Perches openly. Social in winter and on migration. [cf. 71:2; (h) 73:1kn; (p) 70:2h; other buteos] 2a Adult (borealis; E N America) Dark above, edged/mottled white (often in V on back, U on rump), with paler hooded head, dark moustaches; rufous tail, thin subterminal band; white below, often chest-sides rufous and belly streaked. Flight below (2b): linings white or washed rufous; dark leading 6+ edges and carpal arcs; usually belly-band; tail can look pinkish. 2c Dark adult (calurus; W N America) Blackish; rufous tail with wider subterminal, often also thin bars. Commoner pale adult (not illustrated) as a, but darker, redder; barred flanks/ thighs, variably barred tail. 2d Rufous adult (calurus) Blackish above; 7–11 thin bars on rufous tail; rufous below, solid belly-band, barred thighs/crissum (not streaked as shown). Flight (2e): rufous wing-linings with dark leading edges. 2f Adult Krider’s (rather rare whitish morph of a in Great Plains) Much mottled white above, head and pinktipped tail whitish; all white below. Flight below (2g): no belly-band, dark leading edges to linings reduced/absent. 2h Adult (harlani; Alaska/Yukon/N British Columbia, wintering USA) Black, variably mottled pale grey; whitish to dark grey mottled tail, dark band usually at end, sometimes 6–8 thin bars (but tail pattern/colour very variable). Flight (2i): black, some speckling; white-streaked breast, often pale throat; dark rear edges to barred remiges/ greyish tail. 2j Pale adult (harlani) In flight. Rare; much as f, but body/linings more marked; tail varies as h (again often subterminal band). 2k Adult (nominate; W Indies) In flight. Smaller; streaked breast, heavy belly-band, clear dark leading wing-edges; rufous tail. 2m Juvenile (borealis) Paler head than a; whiter below; belly-band and V on back clearer; dark-barred brown tail often rufous-washed. Flight (2n): whiter linings with less clear dark leading edges; thinner trailing edges to remiges; squarer pale primary-windows. 2p Dark juvenile (calurus) In flight. Dark brown body/linings, linings sometimes mottled rufous-buff; tail rarely with rufous wash, bars may be broader than on pale juvs (e.g. m); outer primaries with black tips. 2q Juvenile (harlani) In flight. Like p, but blacker, usually streaked white on breast, mottled on belly/linings; bartipped outer primaries, no band on trailing wing-edges; tail-bars wavier.

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1f

1b

1c

1a

2b 1d

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1e 2i

2a 2j

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2m

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2q

6/9/05 3:12:08 pm

PLATE 73: ROUGH-LEGGED AND UPLAND BUZZARDS 1 ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD Buteo lagopus L45–62 cm (21 in): S120–153 cm (54 in): T20–26 cm (9 in): ¢85% Tundra, thin taiga, to 1,200 m; winters wetlands, farmland, moorland, steppe. Large bulky buteo; long wings, longish tail, feathered legs; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Slow loose beats; glides/soars with arms raised, hands flatter; hovers with deep beats, or flutters, or kites; still-hunts from low perch. Gregarious on migration; winter roosts. [cf. Pal 2, 74:1, 75:1; also 11:1-2; Nea dark morphs, esp. 71:2hi, 72:2hi] 1a Adult (nominate; Eurasia to Yenisey) Black-brown above, marked brown/rufous/cream; dark-streaked whitish head; white-based tail greyer near tip, with sub6 terminal band and 0–1 bars (especially ™) to several bars (especially ¢); variably dark-blotched on cream below, most on flanks; pale U on breast. Flight below (1b/1c/1d) variable U; cream linings more or less streaked dark brown; black carpals/wing-tips; white quills variably barred, subterminal band. 1e Adult (menzbieri; NE Siberia) Averages larger; generally paler. Flight below (1f): abdomen less marked, tail-bars thinner. Above (1g): dark with paler head, small whitish patch at base of outer primaries, white-based tail (a similar above). 1h Adult male (sanctijohannis; N America) Dark grey-brown above, edged white/tawny; paler streaked head; white tail, dark subterminal band and 2–3+ broken bars; breast more marked than abdomen (mid-belly may be plain), creamy U between. Flight below (1i): pale belly, mottled carpals, barred tail (some ™s similar). 1j Adult female (sanctijohannis) Flight below. Browner above; belly well marked, even as solid band, so pale U emphasised; white tail greyer near tip, usually single subterminal band; white underwings with dark-spotted linings, some barring and dark subterminal band on secondaries, black carpal patches (some ¢s similar). 1k Dark adult (female) (sanctijohannis) Much darker black-brown than d (¢ may be blacker still, but some are brown); in dark morphs, tail pattern of sexes often similar and both have barring in addition to the dark subterminal, but ™s only if unbarred on upper surface. Flight below (1m: ¢): blackish linings, dark-barred silvery remiges; silvery tail with subterminal band (most ™s) or several bars (most ¢s). 1n Juvenile (nominate) Browner above than a; white head less streaked, moustaches fainter; white tail shades into brown towards tip; chest/thighs less marked but belly/flanks often solidly dark. Flight below (1p: ¢): paler than b, creamy but for belly-patch, carpals, wing-tips and brownish tail-end; usually streaks on throat/breast/linings, slight bars (but no subterminal band) on secondaries. Above (1q) big windows; dark distal tail.

2 UPLAND BUZZARD Buteo hemilasius L57–67 cm (24 in): S143–161 cm (60 in): T25–28 cm (10 in): ¢81% Open steppe, desert, mountains, 1000–4500 m (500–5000+ m), locally to sea-level in winter. Large eagle-like buteo; long wings, longish tail; wing-tips near tail-tip. Deep flexible beats; glides with arms slightly raised, wrists forward, hands flat; soars in V; often hovers. Formerly thought conspecific with Long-legged Buzzard (75:1). [cf. variability of this and 74:1, 75:1, 1 (last sympatric only Sep-Oct/Apr-May)] 2a Pale adult (male) Brown/grey-brown above, edged tawny/rufous; pale streaky head; brownish-white tail, usually 2–3 distal bars; white/pale rufous below, chest-streaks, flank/thigh-patches, some bars elsewhere. Flight below 5+? (2b: ™): linings darker rufous than body, some streaks; black carpals and wingtips; whitish remiges, some bars on secondaries, darker rear edges; whitish tail barred near tip. Above (2c: ¢): streaky head; whitish windows; brownish-white tail, slight distal barring. 2d Dark adult (female) Flight below. Mainly black-brown; grey remiges, broken white bars at bases; small whitish primary-patches (cf. Long-legged Buzzard); thin dark bars and broad subterminal on whitish tail. 2e Juvenile (male) As a but streakier below; browner tail more barred. Flight below (2f): body/linings more streaked; secondaries more barred, dark on rear edges less clear; tail all barred.

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1g

1q

1b

1a

1c

1n

1d

1e

1p

1h

1f

1k

1j

1i 2c 2a 1m

2e

2f

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2b

2d

6/9/05 3:12:21 pm

PLATE 74: COMMON AND MADAGASCAR BUZZARDS 1 COMMON BUZZARD Buteo buteo L40–52 cm (18 in): S109–136 cm (48 in): T17–23 cm (8 in): ¢85% Wooded/open country, rocky coasts, uplands, to 2,500+ m (4500 m on migration). Compact buteo; broad wings so tail looks short; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Fast stiff beats; glides on flattish wings or hands lowered; soars in shallow V; hovers. Sometimes treated as conspecific with Red-tailed Hawk (72:2). Mewing pee-yow. Hunts from flight, perch, even on foot. Solitary; flocks on migration. [cf. 11:1-2, 28:1, 73:1-2, 75:1, 88:3; Afr also 75:2, 76:1] 1a Medium adult (nominate; W/C Europe/Atlantic Is) Very variable; often darkish brown above, thinly edged rufous; grey-brown tail with dark bars, broader subterminal; streaked throat; greybrown to red-brown breast above pale U; barred abdomen, sides 7 darkest; eyes dark brown. Flight below (1b): linings barred brown and mottled grey/rufous; variably distinct carpals; whitish-based primaries, barred and dark-tipped secondaries; tail-bars and subterminal band. Above (1c): body/coverts paler than remiges; barred tail. 1d Darkest adult (nominate) Black-brown but for variable U on breast, variably paler crissum, sometimes strip joining these areas; creamy throat-streaks; tail as a. Flight below (1e): blackish linings spotted/barred rufous/white; dark carpals; quills as a. Above (1f): mostly dark; obscure tail-bars. 1g Palest adult (nominate) Largely white; more or less dark centres above, scattered streaks below, bars/ arrowheads on flanks; white cheeks, thin moustaches. Flight below (1h): may be all white but for dark carpal arcs, wing-tips/rear edges, subterminal tail-band; some barring on remiges/distal tail. 1i Rufous adult (vulpinus; N/E Europe/Asia to Yenisey) Much as a but tone warm brown to rich rufous (some all blotched below or solid rufous); more or less rufous tail with reduced bars. Flight below (1j): pattern often as b, with pale U on breast, but rufous tinge to body/linings, pinkish-cream tail; whiter-based primaries, often dark rear wing-edges clearer, but often no more than hint of black on carpals (cf. Long-legged Buzzard, 75:1). Above (1k): whitish patch on primaries; rufous tail usually barred, but sometimes even subterminal band absent (cf. Long-legged Buzzard). 1m Dark adult (vulpinus) Flight below. Dark brown, with/without U on breast and fine or faint mottling on belly; quills as i, trailing edges striking. 1n Adult (japonicus; E Asia) Less rufous, more as a, but pale below with plain creamy breast, barred belly/flanks, usually plain thighs (not barred as shown here); brown tail faintly barred, or plain but for rather indistinct subterminal band; feathers extend farther down tarsi. Flight below (1p): broad cream strip across breast/median coverts behind darker head/forearms; tail-barring variable. 1q Juvenile (nominate) Flight below. As a (varying as a/d/g), but more streaked on belly/linings; eyes pale grey to light brownish; overhead, trailing wing-bands and subterminal tail-bar much thinner. 1r Juvenile (vulpinus) Indistinguishable from q unless showing rufous.

2 MADAGASCAR BUZZARD Buteo brachypterus L40–48 cm (17 in): S93–111 cm (40 in): T16–20 cm (7 in): ¢94% Forest edge, woodland, wooded savannah, scrub, cultivation, to 2,300 m. Mid-sized stocky buteo; short wide head, shortish broad wings/tail. Perches openly; soars. Hunts from perch/flight. [cf. 8:3 (but shape/patterns very different); possibility of vagrant 74:1hijk Sep-Apr?] 2a Adult Dark brown above, edged paler; dark bands on brown tail, subterminal widest; white below, streaked/blotched brown on throat/chest/ flanks, lower breast plain; thighs dark-barred rufous; cere blue, feet whitish/ yellowish. Flight below (2b): lesser coverts dark as head, medians blotched, and greaters barred; white-based primaries, barred and dark-tipped secondaries; banded tail. Above (2c): dark; white base to banded tail. 2d Juvenile (flight below) More evenly blotched, no darker head/forearms or white lower breast; rufous thighs lightly marked; tail evenly barred; no dark trailing wing-edges.

5

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1f 1c

1b 1k

1e

1d

1h

1a

1j

1m

1p

1i 1g

1q

1r 1n

2a

2c 2b

2d

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6/9/05 3:12:29 pm

PLATE 75: LONG-LEGGED AND RED-NECKED BUZZARDS 1 LONG-LEGGED BUZZARD Buteo rufinus L43–62 cm (21 in): S112–160 cm (54 in): T19–27 cm (9 in): ¢76% Steppe, semi-desert, open rocky country; also forested hills, mountains, to 3,000+ m (5,000 m on migration). Large eagle-like buteo (but noticeably smaller N Africa); long broad wings (esp. long arms), longish tail; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Slow flexible beats (less stiff than Common Buzzard, 74:1); glides on shallow V arms and flat ?? hands; soars on shallow V wings pressed forward, fingers upturned; often hovers. Short mew; not very vocal. Hunts from circling flight ? or hover, rock/mound perch, or on foot. Mostly solitary, but small flocks on passage. [cf. 74:1 (esp. ijkmr), also 73:1; E Asia 73:2; (fgh) E Afr Sep-Apr 76:1abcfg, 76:3cd] ? 1a Pale adult (male) (nominate; SE Europe to C Asia) Brown ? 6 above, edged buff; thin-streaked creamy head; whitish-based rufous tail (traces of bars on younger adults); cream below, some streaks, dark flanks/thighs. Flight below (1b/1c: ¢): cream to pale rufous linings, black carpals; white-based primaries/ barred secondaries tipped black; cream tail orange against light. Above (1d: ¢): cream head, buff mantle/forearms; primaries whitish-based but secondaries dark grey; whitish-based rufous tail. 1e Rufous adult (male) (nominate) Darker above, edged rufous; streakier head pale rufous; rufous tail; darkstreaked rufous below, richest on belly/thighs; buff crissum mottled rufous. Flight below (1f: ™): rufous linings; dusky carpals; quills as a. 1g Dark adult (female) (nominate) All black-brown; often white nape-patch; grey-brown tail with narrow dusky bars (usually), broad subterminal. Flight below (1h: ¢): blackish linings as body; remiges much as f, but rather more barred secondaries, bolder trailing edges, pale primary-patch; grey-white tail usually dark-barred, broad subterminal band. Above (1i: ¢): blackish but for pale windows, plain or dark-barred grey-brown tail with broad black subterminal band; often white on nape. 1j Adult (cirtensis; N Africa) Flight below. Significantly smaller, with relatively shorter wings (largest ™s mostly smaller than smallest nominate ¢s); varies exactly as a-e in colour, but no dark morph like f-h; greater risk of confusion with rufous adult vulpinus Common Buzzard (74:1i-k). 1k Pale/rufous juvenile (female) (nominate) Varies much as a/e, if rather more streaked below, but grey-brown tail closely barred. Flight below (1m: rufous ¢): less clear-cut dark trailing edges to wings (difference not so marked as in juv nominate Common Buzzard, 74:1q); barred tail. Above (1n: rufous ™): differs from a/e mainly in tail. 1p Dark juvenile (female) In flight. Paler/browner than h; dark trailing wing-edges, striking white primary-bases; more clearly barred tail with or without obvious broader subterminal (variable: tail sometimes all dark).

2 RED-NECKED BUZZARD Buteo auguralis L42–50 cm (18 in): S105–127 cm (46 in): T17–21 cm (7 in): ¢82% Broadleaved woodland, plantations, savannah, farmland, forest edge, to 2500 m. Mid-sized buteo; broad wings, medium tail; wing-tips short of tailtip. Unobtrusive, but soars noisily in display: mewing scream peee-ah. Solitary; ? sometimes small parties on southward passage. Mainly still-hunts. [cf. SepApr 74-1ijkmr, also 1; also (def) E Afr Dec-Mar 76:1f-h/3cf] 2a Adult Black-streaked rufous head/mantle; dark back edged paler; rufous tail, black subterminal; white-streaked dark throat, brown chest; white abdomen, breast/flanks blotched blackish. Flight below (2b): white with brown chest, rufous tail; dark spots on belly/linings, grey carpal arcs, black trailing 5 edges. Above (2c): rufous head/mantle, redder tail with subterminal bar; obviously grey remiges barred/tipped black. 2d Juvenile Brown above, edged rufous; barred tail tinged rufous; cream chest/flanks dark-blotched. Flight below (2e): less marked than b, paler head; secondaries with faint bars and tips; barred tail. Above (2f): rufous tone; tail barred.

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1n

1i 1d

1b

1c

1e 1a

1f

1h

1g

1p

1k

1m

2c 2a

1j 2f

2d 2b

2e

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6/9/05 3:12:36 pm

PLATE 76: AFROTROPICAL BUZZARDS 1 MOUNTAIN BUZZARD Buteo oreophilus L41–48 cm (18 in): S102–117 cm (43 in): T17–19 cm (7 in): ¢91% Mountain forest in E, 2,200–3,800 m (4,500 m); lowland forest and pine plantations in S, to 1,500 m. Smaller than 74:1i-k, with thinner wings/tail, shorter legs; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Beats more flexible; soars on flatter wings. Mostly stillhunts. Shrill high peee-oo. Solitary; trizonatus may be distinct species. [cf. 74:1hijq (Sep-Apr, most silent); in N (abcfg) 75:1 (Sep-Apr), 75:2def (Dec-Mar)] 1a Adult (female) (nominate; E Africa) Brown above; thin tail-bars, wider subterminal; brown-blotched whitish below; brown/rufous-barred thighs; eyes brown. Flight below (1b: ¢): blotched body; darker thighs/patagia/ 4+ carpal patches, mid-wing panels mottled white; white-based primaries, barred secondaries, wide dark trailing edges; barred greyish tail and broader subterminal. Above (1c: ¢): quills barred; small pale primary-windows. 1d Adult (female) (trizonatus; S Africa) Broader rufous edges above; more rufous tail; usually white breast-band. Flight below (1e: ¢): pale breast-band/mid-wing panels; tail often paler-based. 1f Juvenile (male) (nominate) As a-c but more edged rufous above, streakier below; eyes yellowish. Flight below (1g: ™): more lightly marked; narrower trailing edges; no subterminal tail-band. 1h Juvenile (female) (trizonatus) Flight below. Differs from e much as g differs from b.

2 JACKAL BUZZARD Buteo rufofuscus L46–55 cm (20 in): S127–143 cm (53 in): T18–22 cm (8 in): ¢79% Hills, mountains, especially montane grassland, to 3,500 m. Shape/behaviour much as 3 and formerly treated as conspecific, but ranges overlap in W Namibia; voice differs. [cf. 3, esp. dark morphs/juvs (sympatry limited); also 27:3] 2a Adult (female) Like 3a above, including rufous tail (usually subterminal band if subadult), but sometimes mostly white; throat black; ragged white line above rufous chest; black abdomen with white bars; sometimes throat/ chest whitish (pale morph); rarely all blackish-brown below (dark morph). Flight below (2b: ¢): quills much as 3b/d (secondaries less barred), but 5+ linings almost always blackish and abdomen barred. Above (2c: ¢): black (occasionally mostly white); barred greyish remiges, rufous tail. 2d Juvenile (male) Paler crown than 3e, washed rufous; mottled rufous above, secondaries paler; white to pale rufous below, richest on sides, usually some dark streaking. Flight below (2e: ™): pale rufous body/linings; carpals/ tail-bars less clear than 3f.

3 AUGUR BUZZARD Buteo augur L 49–57 cm (21 in): 122–149 cm (53 in): T20–23 cm (8 in): ¢82% ���������� 4? Open uplands/rocky outcrops, to 5,000+ m; desert in Namibia. Large thickset buteo; long broad wings, short tail; wing-tips exceed tail-tip. Flexible beats; glides rocking in V; soars with less V; hovers. [cf. 2, esp. dark morphs/ juvs (sympatry limited); also (cd) 75:1fgh; (ef) 4c, 75:2def] 3a Pale adult (female) Slate-black above, whitish flecks, barred secondaries; �������� rufous tail (subterminal band may be subad); white below (if throat white, 7 too, probably ¢). Flight below (3b: ¢): white but for black carpal arcs and wing-tips/trailing edges, barred secondaries, rufous tail. 3c Dark adult (female) (50-55% in Ethiopia, rare in S range) Black but for barred remiges, rufous tail. Flight below (3d: ¢): all black with rufous tail, remiges as ab. 3e Juvenile (male) Brown above, edged buff; tail close-barred; buff below, some streaks on throat/breast-sides. Flight below (3f: ¢): buff body/linings, barred secondaries/tail (cf. b).

4 ARCHER’S BUZZARD Buteo archeri L 48–56 cm (20 in): 120–146 cm (52 in): T19–21 cm (8 in): ¢c82% See map above Mountains and upland savannah, to 3,000 m. Shape/behaviour much as 3, and formerly treated as conspecific, but no dark morph and plumage closer to 2; voice also differs. [Ad rufous unmistakable, but cf. (c) 3ef, 75:1ijk] 4a Adult (female) Back mottled/blotched rufous; all rufous below, but whitish throat marked with black, black chest-sides. Flight below (4b: ¢): rufous body/linings/tail; remiges as 3b/d, but secondaries washed rufous. 4c Juvenile (female) Flight below. Body/linings pale rufous, very like 2e but fewer markings; tail obscurely barred.

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1b

1e

1h

1g

1a 1d 2c

1c

1f

2b

2a 2e 2d 3c

3b

3d

3a

3f

4a 3e

4b

4c

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6/9/05 3:12:43 pm

PLATE 77: LARGE NEOTROPICAL EAGLES 1 CRESTED EAGLE Morphnus guianensis L79–89 cm (33 in): S138–154 cm (57 in): T34–43 cm (15 in): ¢88% Lowland forest, to 600 m (1,200 m). Large slender eagle; broad rounded wings, long tail, pointed erectile crest, bare legs. Sits in tall trees; soars high. Solitary. [cf. 2; also (a) 78:1, 14:1abc (far smaller); (ce) 77:3a, 78:2a; (fg) 77:3cd, 78:3cd] 1a Pale adult (male) Pale brown-grey head/chest, pale-tipped black crest; bare slaty mask/cere; blackish above, coverts and rump edged white; tail black with 3 mottled grey bands; abdomen creamy, sometimes fine brown or rufous bars. Flight below (1b: ™): cream but for grey chest-band, dark bands on grey quills (hindmost broadest in each case). 41c Dark adult (female) Head/neck/chest dark grey, throat paler; black bars below (sometimes much reduced). Flight below (1d: ¢): dark chest, barred abdomen/linings. Extreme morph (1e): almost all blackish (some white tips) but for banded quills. 1f Pale juvenile (male) Head/underbody all whitish but for mask and some black on crest; sandy-grey above, mottled blackish and white; 7–8 thin tail-bars. Flight below (1g: ¢): white body/linings; barred quills. 1h Dark third-year (female) Flight below. Grey chest mottled brown (later black, tipped grey), irregular dark bars elsewhere. Dark brown above (not illustrated), mottled white; head sandy-grey, crest spotted.

2 HARPY EAGLE Harpia harpyja L89–102 cm (38 in): S176–201 cm (74 in): T37–42 cm (16 in): ¢83% Lowland forest, to 900 m (2,000 m). Huge eagle; broad rounded wings, long broad tail, two-pointed crest, massive bare legs. Mostly stays within canopy; seldom soars (?). Hunts arboreal mammals by fast twists/glides among branches. Wailed wheeeoooo. [cf. 1, esp. juvs; also (a-d) 63:2a-c, 63:3a-d; (ef) 63:2ef] 2a Adult (male) Grey head, double blackish crest; black above, thinly edged whitish; 3 greyish tail-bands; white below with black chest, barred thighs; cere black. Crest erectile (2b). Taking Squirrel Monkey Saimiri sciurea (2c). Flight below (2d: ™): white with grey head; black chest, axillaries and 5 irregular bands on linings; banded tail, more barred remiges. 2e Juvenile (female) Brown-grey above, marbled blackish; white head and underparts (bushier crest soon dark); several thin tail-bars. 2f Second/third-year (male) Flight below. Still whiter than d; throat/chest pale grey, later chest mottled; thighs and linings obscurely barred; tail with 3–4 thin bands, slightly wider subterminal.

3 ISIDOR’S EAGLE (BLACK-AND-CHESTNUT EAGLE) Oroaetus isidori L63–74 cm (27 in): S1447–166 cm (62 in): T27–34 cm (12 in): ¢79% Mountain forest, 600–3,400 m (nesting 1,800–2,500 m). Sturdy eagle; broad wings, longish tail, feathered legs; pointed crest usually raised. Heavy flight; soars high. [Ad unmistakable, but cf. (cd) 63:2ef, 77:1fg (lowland), 78:3cd, also 63:1e/3a] 3a Adult (male) Glossy black head/back; black-tipped grey primaries; pale greyish tail, broad subterminal band; chestnut below, thinly black? streaked; thighs black. Flight below (3b: ™): black head, chestnut body/ linings, two-tone tail; pale primary-windows, darker secondaries with broad dark trailing edges. 3 3c Juvenile (female) Creamy head, crown/crest dark-streaked; greybrown above, edged buff; tail mottled whitish, with 2–3 dark bars, broader subterminal; whitish below, few dusky/rufous streaks on breast/flanks. Flight below (3d: ¢): whitish body/linings, some streaks; pale windows, darker secondaries, barred tail. 3e Third/fourth year (male) More or less blackish above, buff-streaked on head/crest, grey-black wings edged whitish; tail more as a; whitish below, variably mixed with rufous, somewhat streaked.

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1e

1c 1a

1d

1f

2c

1b

1g

2b

1h

2d

2e

2a

3c 2f

3a

3b 3e

3d

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PLATE 78: NEOTROPICAL HAWK EAGLES 1 BLACK-AND-WHITE HAWK EAGLE Spizastur melanoleucus L51–61 cm (22 in): S110–135 cm (48 in): T23–25 cm (9 in): ¢70% Wet forest, forest openings/edges, to 1,700 m (wanders to 3,000 m). Smallish chunky buteo-sized eagle; longish rounded wings, longish tail, short bushy crest, feathered legs; wing-tips half down tail. Shrill kree-ówow. Soars; perches openly; but scarce. [cf. 15:1d, 78:3cd; also pale-headed Leucopternis (60:1/3, ? 61:1/3)] 1a Adult (male) All-white head/underbody but for small black mask and skullcap; black back/shoulders, browner wings; greyish tail, 3–4 black bands, subterminal wider; cere red-orange. Flight below (1b: ™): nearly all white; black-tipped primaries, lightly barred secondaries, banded tail. Above (1c): 5black but for white head with black skullcap, grey and black tail. 1d Juvenile (female) Much as a, but less compact skullcap, browner back, white-edged shoulders, thinner distal tail-band. Flight below (1e: ¢): as b, but more pointed primaries clearer-barred.

2 BLACK HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus tyrannus L58–71 cm (25 in): S115–148 cm (52 in): T29–39 cm (13 in): ¢87% Forest, secondary woodland, mainly below 1,500 m but locally to 3,000 m. Slim mid-sized eagle; broad wings narrowed at bases, long squared/slightly rounded tail, short wide crest, feathered legs; wing-tips just exceed tail-base. Soars high on flat wings held forward, tail almost shut. Perches in canopy, seldom seen; mostly still-hunts. Noisy: whit, whit-whit wheéeear, last note downslurred. [cf. (abc) 14:4fgjk, 77:1cdeh, also 62:1a-c/4a-d, 63:1a-c, 69:2, dark buteos; (de) 78:3a-f] 2a Adult (female) (nominate; E/S Brazil) Black but for white-based crest, lightly white-barred thighs/crissum; throat/belly may also be white-flecked; 6 3 wide grey tail-bands/thin tip; cere slaty. 2b Adult (male) (serus; rest of range) More and clearer white bars on thighs/crissum, often streaks/spots on throat/belly. Flight below (2c: ™): black breast, white-spotted linings (both races) and abdomen; bold bands on quills, rearmost widest. 2d First/second-year (female) Browner above, edged whitish; mottled whitish head, dusky cheeks; 4–5 thinner tail-bands; streaks on cream breast; dark abdomen mottled/barred white. Flight below (2e: ¢): dark-mottled whitish linings; quills evenly banded (cf. 3b).

3 ORNATE HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus ornatus L56–65 cm (24 in): S107–127 cm (46 in): T23–29 cm (10 in): ¢83% Forest, to 1,500 m (wanders to 3,000 m). Lanky eagle; short rounded wings narrow at base, longish tail, long erectile crest, feathered legs; wing-tips part down tail. Soars, often low, on flat wings held forward. Noisy: whit, wheéeeuu, whep whep, whep whep, second note downslurred. Mostly still-hunts from hidden perch; swoops; tail-chases. [cf. (ab) 56:3de; (a-f) 78:2de; (cd) 14:4hi, 78:1, also 15:1de, 77:1fg, 77:4cd] 3a Adult (male) Black cap/crest, rufous cowl to chest-sides; black above, 3 broad greyish tail-bands; white below, bordered on throat/chest by black moustaches/scattered streaks, boldly barred on abdomen/legs; eyes orange, 5+ lores grey. Flight below (3b: ™): rufous cowl, barred abdomen, broadly banded tail; spotted linings, thinly barred remiges, pale-based primaries. 3c Juvenile (female) White head/underparts but for dusky crest, variably black-barred flanks/thighs; brown above, shoulders blackish; 4–5 tail-bars. Flight below (3d: ¢): mostly white; spotted on flanks/greater coverts; barred wing-tips/secondaries/tail. 3e Second-year (female) Intermediate, with black and rufous increasing on head, stronger barring on flanks/ thighs/legs, blacker mantle; thin tail-bands. Flight below (3f: ¢): more like c.

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1d

1a

1b

1e

1c 2a

2d

2b

2c

2e

3b

3e 3c

3f

3a

3d

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PLATE 79: LARGE AUSTRALASIAN AND ASIAN EAGLES 1 NEW GUINEA EAGLE (PAPUAN HARPY EAGLE) Harpyopsis novaeguineae L72–90 cm (32 in): S121–157 cm (55 in): T36–44 cm (16 in): ¢64% Forest, clearings, nearby savannah or scrub, to 2,000 m (3,200 m). Large eagle: short broad wings, long rounded tail, bare legs, short erectile bushy crest; wing-tips barely cover tail-base. Flies low; seldom, if ever, soars. Perches upright in canopy, tail curving forward; peers down, bobbing head; slips away through trees. Walks parrot-like on branches; lollops on ground with raised wings. Often crepuscular: low staccato uumpph!, then occasionally buk-buk-buk…. [cf. only other large sympatric raptors 18:4, 83:2-3, but 10:2 often confused] 1a Adult (male) Grey-brown above, barred darker and edged cream; 4–5 4? blackish tail-bars and broad subterminal band; creamy below, throat/chest variably tinged grey and flanks flecked brown. Flight below (1b: ™): creamy, head darker; bold bars on greyish quills, broad subterminal. Swooping, like huge accipiter, on Papuan Lesser Forest Wallaby Dorcopsulus macleayi (1c). 1d Juvenile (female) As a, but paler above, plainer and more buff below; 7–8 thin tail-bars, no subterminal. Flight below (1e: ¢): uniform creamy-buff; thinly barred tail and distal remiges.

2 GREAT PHILIPPINE EAGLE Pithecophaga jefferyi L90–100 cm (37 in): S184–202 cm (76 in): T42–46 cm (17 in): ¢90%? Forest, 150–1,800 m (2,000 m?). Huge eagle; short broad round wings, long squarish tail, very deep narrow arched bill, bushy erectile crest, bare legs, huge feet; wing-tips part down tail. Flaps and glides like enormous accipiter; soars in display. Endangered. [cf. 81:3c (far smaller, as other sympatric eagles); 18:4 (similar in size but very different)] 2a Adult (male) Dusky-streaked creamy head; brown above, edged cream; tail obscurely dark-banded with broader subterminal and white shafts; white below, streaked rufous on throat-sides/thighs; eyes blue-grey, cere green-grey. Flight below (2b): mainly white; obscure dark sub-terminal bands on silvery 3 secondaries and otherwise plain tail; slight streaks on thighs/forearms. 2c Juvenile (female) Similar to a; eyes brownish; wing subterminals fainter; tail-end almost plain. Catching Philippine Flying Lemur Cynocephalus volans (2d).

3 INDIAN BLACK EAGLE Ictinaetus malayensis L65–80 cm (29 in): S148–182 cm (65 in): T29–38 cm (13 in): ¢83% Hill forest, scrub, mainly at 300–2,700 m (0–3,000+ m). Largish kite-like eagle; long broad paddle-shaped wings narrow at base, longish rounded tail, feathered legs, small bill; wing-tips exceed tail-tip. Slow deep beats; when foraging, glides harrier-like in shallow V in open or in trees; circles low in stronger V, long splayed primaries upturned, enabling minimal speeds while checking canopy for nests. Feeds on eggs/nestlings. [Ad shape unmistakable: cf. (abc) 25:3cd, 86:2a-c, other Aquila; juv plumage distinctive] 3a Adult (male) (nominate; SE Asia/Moluccas) All blackish-brown but for variable whitish on rump and around eyes/bill, faint greyish barring on tail. 5 Flight below (3b: ¢): black with faint grey barring on both tail and remiges, small white patch at base of outer primaries. Clambering down branch towards nest of Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus as owner swoops (3c). 3d Adult (female) (perniger; India/Sri Lanka) Larger (but note a is ¢). 3e Juvenile (male) (perniger) Dark brown above, speckled buff; barred rump, obscurely barred tail; tawny-buff head/underbody all streaked blackish except face. Flight below (3f: ™): plain head; streaked breast; wing-linings paler than darkly barred remiges/tail. 3g Second-year (male) Flight below. Acquires adult plumage quicker than other eagles; intermediate stage dark brown, paler-headed, streaked below.

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1a 1d 1b

1e 1c

2a

2b 2c 2d

3c 3b

3d 3a

3f

3e

004 systematic.indd 235

3g

6/9/05 3:13:02 pm

PLATE 80: INDOMALAYAN HAWK EAGLES II 1 MOUNTAIN HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus nipalensis L66–84 cm (30 in): S134–175 cm (61 in): T26–39 cm (13 in): ¢86% High forest, at 600–2,800 m in Himalayas, to 4,000+ m in China, but to only ? ? ? 1,500 m in S India and at 250–1,500 m in Japan. Largish slim eagle; short rounded wings, longish rounded tail, feathered legs; long crest (not c); wingtips barely exceed tail-base. Glides/soars in shallow V. Noisy: sharp kee-kikik. Hunts from flight or perch. d possibly distinct species. [cf. 25:3 except (ef) 81:1 (SW India, Sri Lanka); also 2-3 (esp. juvs), 9:1, 11:2] 1a Adult (male) (nominate; mainland/Taiwan) Brown above; black crown and buff-tipped crest, pale midwing-coverts, light-barred rump; tail obscurely banded; streaky cheeks, black moustaches and throat-stripe; rusty chest with 4+ dark streaks/broken white bars; white abdomen barred brown; cere blackish. Flight below (1b: ™): rusty linings all heavily streaked/barred; barred remiges; 2–3 bands and broader subterminal on whitish tail. 1c Adult (female) (kelaarti; SW India/Sri Lanka) In flight. Small; light marks below. 1d Adult (male) (orientalis; Japan) Much larger (¢ bigger than ™ a/c); very short crest; generally paler, not heavily marked. Flight below (1e: ™): buff linings with medium marks (cf. b/c). 1f Juvenile (female) (nominate) Crest as a (cf. juv Dimorphic, 81:2e); head/underbody variably buff-tinged, head dark-streaked; much as a above, but edged buff; tail barred light/dark brown. Flight below (1g: ¢): creamy; vague carpal arcs, dark wing-tips, barred secondaries; tail as juv Indian Crested 81:1e, but light/dark bars more equal. 1h Juvenile (female) (orientalis) Much as f but for large size, tiny crest. 1i Second/third-year (male) (nominate) Flight below. Bars, streaks and mottles appearing on body, wings and legs; quills may be as f or a.

2 BLYTH’S HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus alboniger L50–58 cm (21 in): S100–115 cm (42 in): T22–25 cm (9 in): ¢77% Upland forest, at 500–1,500 m (2,200 m). Smallish slim eagle; proportions as undersized 1. Agile; hunts accipiter-like through trees; soars less. Screaming yhu yhu yip-yip-yip, 3 last notes higher; less shrill than Dimorphic Hawk Eagle (81:2). [cf. 3a-e; (ab) 11:2d, (cd) 11:2c; also 80:1a-e (almost allopatric), 9:2, 30:1] 2a Adult (male) Black above including head/crest; duller wings, grey tail? band; white below, black throat-stripe, streaked breast, barred belly/thighs; cere blackish. Flight below (2b: ™): linings much as belly, remiges thin-barred; tail-band white. 4 2c Juvenile (female) Tawny head, buff-tipped crest; brown above, edged paler; 4–5 tail-bars; buff below, plain or speckled darker, flanks/crissum often faintly barred. Flight below (2d: ¢): buff; thin dark bars on whitish quills not always very clear. 2e Second/third-year (female) Flight below. Buff body/linings variably barred and streaked blackish; tail and remiges already much as a.

3 WALLACE’S HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus nanus L45–49 cm (19 in): S95–105 cm (39 in): T22–24 cm (9 in): ¢88% Lowland forest, to 500 m, irregularly 1,000 m. Slim eagle; even smaller than 2 (with which long confused), but relatively longer wings/tail. [cf. 80:2a-e; (a-d) 11:2cf; also 80:1a-e (almost allopatric)] 3a Adult (male) (nominate; whole range bar e) Black-brown above, edged paler; rufous-buff head heavily dark-streaked, buff-tipped black crest; 3 black bands on greyish tail; creamy below with dusky median throat-stripe/breaststreaks, browner bars on abdomen/legs; cere blackish. Flight below (3b: ™): like older 2e, but rufous-buff wing-linings lightly spotted, 3 tail-bands more equal. 3c Juvenile (female) (nominate) Like 2c but for smaller feet, less tawny 3-4 colour; creamier below, palest on throat/legs. Flight below (3d: ¢): tendency to ‘honey-buzzard’ spacing of tail-bars. 3e Juvenile (male) (stresemanni; Nias Island) As c, but all head (except black crest) and whole underparts white. Adult has never been described.

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1a

1b 1d

1e

1f

1c

1g

1h

1i 2c 2a 2b

3c

3e

2d

2e

3a 3d

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3b

6/9/05 3:13:09 pm

PLATE 81: INDOMALAYAN HAWK EAGLES III 1 INDIAN CRESTED HAWK EAGLE (CHANGEABLE HAWK EAGLE) Spizaetus cirrhatus L58–77 cm (27 in): S114–150 cm (52 in): T24–30 cm (11 in): ¢87% Open woodland, savannah, cultivation, village edges, to 1,500 m. Largish slim eagle, smaller in south India and Sri Lanka; short broadish wings, longish tail, feathered legs; long crest; wing-tips half down tail. Fast beats; glides/soars on flat or slightly lowered wings, ������������� carpals forward. Noisy near nest. Perches upright in canopy or in 5 open, even on telegraph poles; mainly still-hunts. [cf. 80:2, 25:3de (both locally in S); (de) 30:1hi; also 9:1, 11:2, 12:1, 88:3a-cf] 1a Adult (male) (nominate: peninsular India) Dark-streaked rufous head, buff-tipped black crest; brown above, edged paler; dark tail������������ bands; white throat with black streaks, median stripe, moustaches; 5 white breast boldly dark-streaked (sometimes as strongly as 2a); ������������� brown abdomen, barred white on thighs/vent; cere green-brown. 3 Flight below (1b: ™): streaked breast/linings, white-based primaries, ������������ 3? barred secondaries; 2–3 tail-bars, broader subterminal. ��������� 3? 1c Adult (female) (ceylanensis: Sri Lanka) Flight below: smaller; linings less boldly marked; often paler brown above. 1d Juvenile (female) (nominate) Crest as 1a, but head mainly whitish to buff, wings broadly pale-edged; whitish below, variably flecked brown on breast, barred on thighs/crissum. Flight below (1e: ¢): wing-linings lightly marked; c. 5 thin tail-bars, subterminal only slightly broader.

2 DIMORPHIC HAWK EAGLE (CHANGEABLE HAWK EAGLE) Spizaetus limnaeetus L63–77 cm (28 in): S123–150 cm (54 in): T24–28 cm (10 in): ¢87% See map above Forested foothills, wooded wetlands, to 2200 m. Resembles 1, but dimorphic with some intermediates; crest very short or vestigial. [cf. 80:1-3, 25:3de; 9:1, 11:2, 12:1, 88:3 (Oct-Apr); (abef) 82:1/3; (cd) 79:3a-d; (ef) 30:1hi] 2a Pale adult (male) Not unlike crestless 1a; breast may show bolder streaks. Flight below (2b: ™): wing-linings paler. 2c Dark adult (male) All blackish, including uppertail (inner part greyer). Flight below (2d: ™): blackish body, linings, and tips to greyer remiges/tail. 2e Pale juvenile (female) Like 1d, head and underparts variably whitish to buff; only slight barring on flanks, brownish thighs. Flight below (2f: ¢): body/linings sometimes look almost pure white.

3 ANDAMAN HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus andamanensis L55–62 cm (24 in): S107–122 cm (45 in): T20–23 cm (8.5 in): ¢c90% See map above Lowland forest edges near open country, to 700 m. Smaller even than 1c and crest very short or vestigial like 2. [cf. (ef) 31:1cd, 31:2cd, 30:1hi (size of 30:1e), juv 30:2; also Sep-Apr 11:2, 88:3a-cf] 3a Adult (male) Flight below: clearly smaller than 1b/2b, more sixe of long-tailed buteo than eagle. 3b Juvenile (female) Like small 2e, with similarly reduced crest; head/underparts tend to be very white rather than buff.

4 SIMEULUË HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus vanheurni L52–56 cm (21 in): S101–109 cm (41 in): T19–20 cm (8 in): ¢c88% See map above Lowland forest, adjacent cultivation, mostly under 250 m. Smallest of ‘Changeable’ group, size only ¾ of 1/2 and almost no crest. [cf. 80:2cd, 80:3cd, juv 30:3; also 9:1e, 12:1, Sep-Apr 11:2, 88:3a-cf] 4a Adult (male) Whiter breast less blotched than 1a-c/2ab.

5 FLORES HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus floris L71–82 cm (30 in): S140–160 cm (59 in): T26–30 cm (11 in): ¢c90% See map above Lowland rainforest, also adjacent cultivation, submontane forest to 1600 m. Largest of ‘Changeable’ group and very distinct; adult retains juvenile-like plumage; wings relatively long, no crest. [cf. 30:1hi, also Sep-Apr 11:2, 88:3a-cf] 5a Adult White head, underparts, rump, and primary bases (forming upperwing window) contrast blackish back. 5b Adult (female) Flight below: sometimes faint bars on thighs/wing-linings, 5-6 tail-bars with sharp subterminal. Juvenile (not illustrated) very similar apart from more diffuse subterminal tail-band.

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1d 1b

1a 1e

1c 2c 2a

2d 2e

2f 3b

2b

4a

3a

5a 5b

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6/9/05 3:13:14 pm

PLATE 82: INDONESIAN AND PHILIPPINE HAWK EAGLES 1 JAVAN HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus bartelsi L56–60 cm (23 in): S110–130 cm (47 in): T24–26 cm (10 in): ¢85%? Mountain forest, mostly at 500–2,000 m (0–3,000 m). Smallish slim eagle; short rounded wings, longish rounded tail, feathered legs, long erectile crest; wing-tips cover tail-base. Rare. [cf. 11:2, 12:1, 11:2 (Sep-Apr, but cd all year); 25:3, 81:2e (esp. juvs); ?vagrant 88:3, 80:2-3] 1a Adult (male) Dark brown above; white-tipped black crest, rufous cheeks/ nape; grey-brown tail banded black; white to whitish-buff below, black moustaches/throat-stripe, breast with blackish drops, belly/thighs/crissum darkbarred; cere blackish. Larger adult ¢ (1b). Flight below (1c: ™): rusty-buff linings flecked/bordered blackish, pale grey/whitish remiges barred (usually 3 fewer and broader bars than shown); 2–3 dark bands on greyish tail, blacker subterminal. 1d Second-year (female) Dark brown above, edged whitish; pale buff to dirty white head/underbody, blackish flecks on crown, crest as a; 5 thin black tail-bars. Flight below (1e: ¢): buffish with dark-ended greyer primaries, barred secondaries, several tail-bars.

2 SULAWESI HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus lanceolatus L55–64 cm (23 in): S110–135 cm (48 in): T23–28 cm (10 in): ¢70% 4+ Mountain forest, at 250–1,500+ m (2,000 m). Smallish/mid-sized eagle; proportions much as 1 (or small Mountain Hawk Eagle, 80:1), but very short crest. [cf. 12:2 (esp. ads), 11:2 (Sep-Apr); ?vagrant 88:3, 25:3 (esp. juvs)] 2a Adult (male) Blackish above; grey tail with 3–4 blackish bands; rufous of streaky cheeks extends into obscure collar; black moustaches/stripe on white throat; rufous breast streaked black; white abdomen barred dark brown; cere black. Flight below (2b: ™): linings barred as belly; greyish remiges, whitebased primaries; 3 blackish tail-bands unevenly spaced. 2c Juvenile (female) Dark brown above, whitish bases showing through; grey-brown tail with 5–6 blackish bars; white head/underbody, sometimes with obscure brown streaks on crown/breast, bars on flanks. Flight below (2d: ¢): largely white, including linings and bases of primaries, but thin dark bars on quills. 2e Second/third year (male) Flight below. Barring appearing on abdomen and wing-linings, but all still pale; tail here mixture of a/c.

3 PHILIPPINE HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus philippensis L56–67 cm (24 in): S105–125 cm (45 in): T26–29 cm (11 in): ¢71% High open forest, to 1,900 m (locally 2,500 m). Smallish to mid-sized eagle; shape of genus (see above) and part of 1/2/Mountain (80:1)/Blyth’s (80:2) Hawk Eagle superspecies; wings relatively even shorter and tail longer. [cf. 25:3 (esp. juvs), which often misidentified, also 12:1/3] 3a Adult (male) (nominate; N Philippines) Dark brown above; head streaked paler, with blackish crest; grey-brown tail barred blackish; black moustaches/stripe on white throat; rufous breast heavily dark-streaked; whitish/rufous thighs barred blackish, legs barred brown; cere dusky. Flight below (3b: ™): streaky rufous breast, dark belly, barred legs/crissum/linings; 4barred greyish remiges; 3–4 bands and broader blacker subterminal unevenly spaced on greyish tail. S race pinskeri (not illustrated) paler above and below, whitish crown. 3c Juvenile (female) Dark grey-brown above, edged paler and whitish bases showing through; head white, some dark spots; crest as a, but white-tipped; brown tail barred blackish; all white below (thighs lightly barred rusty-buff in S); prey male Philippine Fairy-bluebird Irena cyanogaster. Flight below (3d: ¢): whitish but for dark-tipped primaries, lightly barred secondaries; 5–7 thin tail-bars, sometimes broader subterminal. 3e Second/third-year (male) In flight. Streaky breast, browner belly/linings; first bars on mid-wings/legs/vent; quills already much as a.

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1d 1b

1c

1a 1e

2b

2a 2c

2d

2e 3a

3b

3d

3c

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3e

6/9/05 3:13:23 pm

PLATE 83: AUSTRALASIAN EAGLES 1 LITTLE EAGLE Hieraaetus morphnoides L38–55 cm (18 in): S101–136 cm (47 in): T17–22 cm (8 in): ¢68% Woods, scrub, riverine trees, to 1,500 m; forest in New Guinea to 2,100 m. Small stocky eagle; squared tail, feathered legs, slight crest; wing-tips half down tail. Strong beats; glides on flat wings, primaries slightly lowered; soars on flat or slightly raised wings; hangs on wind, perhaps dropping in stages. Fast loud whistle of 2–3 syllables. Usually solitary. [cf. 13:1-2, 18:1, 18:2ef, even 20.3, 52:3; for vagrant in Indonesia, also 88:3] 1a Pale adult (male) (nominate; Australia) Dark brown above, pale band on wings/scapulars; barred tail; head/underbody sandy to pale rufous, belly whiter; black streaks on crown/crest, variably on cheeks; shaft-streaks on 5breast (¢ more); eyes red-brown, cere/feet grey to cream. Rare intermediate/ rufous ad (not illustrated) similar, but head and underbody rich rufous, streaks heavier. Flight below (1b: ™): rufous forearms, pale diagonals, grey-barred secondaries, patches on black-tipped primaries; thin bars on greyish tail. 1c Dark adult (male) (nominate) Head/underbody light to dark brown with heavy streaks (™ more). Flight below (1d: ™): all dark but for inner primaries; wing-diagonals often darkest (cf. b). 1e Adult (male) (weiskei; New Guinea) Clearly smaller (™ size of ¢ a); darker and more uniform above; broader heavier streaks below. Dark morph (not illustrated) rare. 1f Pale juvenile (female) (nominate) As a, but less clear wing-bands, maybe rufous spots on shoulders; head/ underbody more rufous, hardly streaked; eyes brown, cere/feet creamy. Flight below (1g: ¢): as b, but more rufous body/forearms; pale trailing edges to quills. Dark juv (not illustrated) as c, but more red-brown, fewer streaks.

2 GURNEY’S EAGLE Aquila gurneyi L74–86 cm (31 in): S165–185 cm (69 in): T32–37 cm (14 in): ¢83% 4 Coastal/lowland rainforest, to 1,500 m. Large solid eagle; longish wings, bulging secondaries, long fingers; longish rounded or faintly wedge-tipped tail; big head, slim feathered legs; wing-tips over half down tail. Glides/soars on flat/slightly raised wings. Solitary. [cf. (c-f) 46c-e; also 3, 79:1 (both New ? Guinea), 79:3 (Moluccas)] 2a Adult (male) All black-brown; cere grey-brown, feet yellow. Flight below (2b: ™): greyish mottling at bases of remiges/tail. 2c Juvenile (female) Browner above with much grey/buff marbling; blackish tail faintly barred; streaked tawny head/breast, plain creamy abdomen/legs. Flight below (2d: ¢): tawny linings streaked as breast; tail and black-tipped wings dark-barred greyish. 2e ?Fourth-year (female) Less marbled above; head/underbody paler/sandier, mixed with brown on crown/ cheeks/breast. Flight below (2f: ¢): wing-linings much creamier, with variable dark markings.

3 WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE Aquila audax L85–106 cm (38 in): S182–232 cm (81 in): T42–46 cm (17 in): ¢96% Open mountain forest to savannah or semi-desert. Large lanky eagle; long and relatively narrow wings, long diamond-shaped tail, small head, big bill, large shoulders, baggy feathered legs; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Deep loose beats; soars and glides on shallow V wings, splayed fingers and tail-edges curved up. Gregarious at carrion. Mostly silent. [cf. 13.2, 46c-d; in S New Guinea, also 2, 79:1] 3a Adult (nominate; Australia/New Guinea) Glossy blackish; tawny hackles, mottled grey-brown wing-bands, brown/rufous crissum; cere/feet creamy. Flight below (3b): pale-based remiges. 6 3c Adult (fleayi; Tasmania) Cream/pale buff nape; paler wing-bands. 3d Juvenile (nominate) Dark brown, edged rufous above; nape and broad wing-bands golden-rufous; streaky cheeks/chest. Flight below (3e): dark body/linings with some paler mottling and uniformly pale crissum; dark-barred greyish quills, black wing-tips. 3f Fifth/sixth-year Much as d during 2/4-yr, but for thinner wing-bands, moulting quills; then nape darkens to red-brown; ad at c. 7/8-yr.

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1c

1f

1b 1a

1d

1e

2a

1g

2e

2b

2c 2d

2f 3a

3d

3b

3c

3f 3e

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PLATE 84: LARGE PALEARCTIC (AND NEARCTIC) EAGLES 1 GOLDEN EAGLE Aquila chrysaetos L66–90 cm (31 in): S180–234 cm (81 in): T28–38 cm (13 in): ¢81% Mountains, rocky hills, sea-cliffs, desert bluffs, forest, to 5,500 m. Large eagle (but much size variation over wide range); long broad wings, bulging secondaries, narrower hands/base; longish rounded tail, protruding head; baggy feathered legs; wings reach tail-tip. Slow deep beats; glides on flat wings, or sometimes V arms, level hands, upswept ? fingers; soars in shallow V, sometimes flat. Hunts by low flight, short pounce; or will stoop from height. Solitary. [cf. Nea 20:1def; Pal (e-g) 87:2a-c; (a-c) 2a-c/3a, 85:3a-d, 86:1:a-d/3a-c; beware buteos] 1a Adult (male) (nominate; W Eurasia) Dark brown (often 6 mottled by new and old feather mix); golden-buff to rufoustawny crown/nape; tawny to greyish band on wings; slightly paler grey-brown tail obscurely barred and dark-tipped; thighs paler, legs more so. Flight below (1b: ™): slightly paler bases to quills. Above (1c: ¢): tawny crown/nape, midwing-bands. 1d Adult (male) (canadensis; N America/NE Asia) Blacker; often also brighter rufous nape (varies dull yellowish to orange-brown). 1e Juvenile (female) Duller browner crown/nape, no wing-bands; whitish bases show through as body mottling; white tail-base; whitish to pale rufous trousers/crissum. Flight below (1f: ¢): white tail-base and variably extensive wing-patches. Above (1g: ™): tail-base more obvious, but wing-patches smaller. 1h Fourth-year (male) Flight below. Resembles b, but wing-patches much smaller, tail-base less clear. Above (1i: ™): more as c, with pale crown, tawny midwing-band, little or no white on remiges; tail mix of dark and light feathers. Not full adult until 9-yr, but difficult to separate after 3-yr, and even to age in 2/3-yr because amount of white on quills varies.

2 IMPERIAL EAGLE Aquila heliaca L68–84 cm (30 in): S176–216 cm (77 in): T26–31 cm (11 in): ¢83% Open timbered lowlands, steppe, marshland; also forested uplands where 1 absent, to 1,800 m (to 3,900 m on migration). Large robust eagle; long wings relatively narrow, often parallel-edged (juvenile secondaries more bulging), deep-fingered hands; longish squared tail, prominent head, large bill; baggy feathered legs; wing-tips near tail-tip. Heavy floppy beats; glides/soars on flattish wings, fingers upcurved, tail often closed. Hunts to ground from flight or perch. Usually solitary, ���������� ������������ 4 even on migration. [cf. a-c/d-f both distinctive, though see 1a-c/e-g 3 and other Aquila; (gh) 85:2ij] 2a Adult (male) Black-brown; golden-buff to cream crown/nape, white braces; silvery-grey tail with thin bars, broad subterminal; creamy to pale rusty crissum. Flight below (2b: ™): blackish body/linings; dark grey remiges and tail-base; rusty-yellow crissum. Above (2c: ¢): whitish nape, braces; two-tone tail; lower back often pale. 2d Juvenile (female) Tawny-buff, all streaked down to breast. Flight below (2e: ¢): streaked tawny forebody/ linings, plain creamy crissum/thighs; plainer greyish greater coverts; pale-tipped blackish quills, wedges on inner primaries. Above (2f: ™): similar; creamy rump; bold pale tips to dark greater coverts. 2g Fourth-year (male) Flight below. Patchy; still pale crissum, primary-wedges. Above (2h: ™): obscure pale line on tips of greater coverts, often pale crown/nape. Adult by c. 6/7-yr.

3 SPANISH IMPERIAL EAGLE Aquila adalberti L71–84 cm (31 in): S183–216 cm (79 in): T27-31cm (11 in): ¢87% Lightly wooded lowlands and hills, to 1,500 m. Large robust eagle similar to 2 in size and shape (if averaging marginally larger), and in flight and hunting behaviour. Superspecies with 2: often considered conspecific, but long isolated and now generally treated as specifically distinct. [cf. (a) 1a-c; (b) 85:1be-h, 86:3gh (both N Africa)] 3a Adult (male) White shoulders (leading edges to wings in flight), clearer braces than 2a, often less buff on head. 3b Juvenile (female) Strongly tinged rusty, far less streaked than 2d; head/underbody often plain with sparse rufous breast-marks.

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1c

1b 1i

1f 1h

1g

1a

2a

1e

3a

2d

3b

1d

2c 2f

2h

2b

2e

2g

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PLATE 85: OTHER OLD WORLD EAGLES I 1 TAWNY EAGLE Aquila rapax L60–72 cm (26 in): S159–183 cm (67 in): T25–30 cm (11 in): ¢89% Wooded savannah, dry thornbush, semi-desert, to 3,000 m. Mid-sized eagle; broad wings with somewhat narrower hands; longish tail when fresh; bold head, baggy trousers; short gape (cf. 3); wing-tips near tail-tip. Deep beats; soars on flat or slightly raised wings, often more arched in glide. Stoops to ground, strikes prey in air, pirates, still-hunts, scavenges. Solitary, except in thermals or at carrion. Superspecies with 2/3. [cf. other Aquila, esp. (abef) ������������ �������� 5 84:2d-f, 86:3gh, pale 3; (cd) 3ad, 86:3ac; Afr 87:1a-c] 6 1a Intermediate adult (male) (nominate; S Africa to Kenya) Dark-streaked tawny to rufous (™s often heaviest-marked, least on head/abdomen); blackish remiges, faint-barred tail; all adult eyes yellow. 1b Pale adult (male) (nominate) Pale buff to cream (palest when worn), with contrasting dark quills. 1c Dark adult (male) (belisarius; N Africa to Niger/N Kenya/S Arabia) Dull dark streaky brown, less rufous. Flight below (1d: ™): linings dark brown; finely grey-barred quills also look dark. 1e Pale adult (female) (belisarius) Dark-streaked buff to whitish, not so pale as b; creamy back/rump. Flight below (1f: ™): linings much paler than finely barred quills; greater coverts darker; paler primary-wedges. 1g Pale juvenile (male) (belisarius) In flight below. (1h: ¢ flight above) Tawny-buff to cream; dark remiges, pale inner primary-wedges and cream trailing edges.

2 INDIAN TAWNY EAGLE Aquila vindhiana L61–70 cm (26 in): S162–181 cm (68 in): T24–29 cm (10 in): ¢90% Lowland plains, dry open woodland, semi-desert, also near villages, to 350 m. Superspecies with 1/3; broadly similar in shape to 1, if relatively shorter-tailed; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Still-hunts, but most typically snatches prey from other raptors, scavenges at carcases and rubbish dumps. Roosts and scavenges semi-socially. [cf. other Aquila, esp. (b) 3a, 86:3gh, 84:2d-f; (a) 3ad, 86:3ac, also 86:2, even 79:3db] 2a Typical adult (male) Grey-brown, no rufous (cf. 1a); head buff-tipped when fresh; eyes brownish/brown. 2b Dark adult (male) Flight above. Dull dark grey-brown; tail less barred; primary-wedges less above than 1/3. 2c Pale adult (male) Flight above. Again greyer tone, head buff-tipped, tail less barred than 1d; above as below, coverts much paler than obscurely barred quills, but greaters darker. 2d Pale juvenile (female) Flight above. Darker rufous-buff than 1h, leaving pale back/rump, more contrasted greater coverts; barred tail but remiges plain as 1h; juv eyes brown.

3 STEPPE EAGLE Aquila nipalensis L60–81 cm (28 in): S165–214 cm (75 in): T23–30 cm (10 in): ¢87% Steppe, semi-desert, open/wooded hills, also grassland in winter, to 3,000 m (4,500+ m, even 7,900 m, on passage). Generally larger (esp. a) than 1 or 2, with longer wings, shorter tail, long gape; longer-necked than 86:1-3; wing-tips may exceed tail-tip. Heavier beats. More on ground; shambles after prey. Flocks on passage or at food (abundances of termites/locusts/quelea chicks in Afr). [cf. other Aquila, esp. imms and (a-d) 86:1a-c/2a/3a-c; palest (e-h) 84:2d-f, 1gh/2c] 3a Adult (male) (nominate; C Asia, winters S Asia) Mid to dark brown; usually yellow patch on rear crown/nape; all adult 3 have brown eyes. 6 3b Adult (male) (orientalis; E Europe/W Asia, winters Africa/SW Asia) Smaller (but bulkier than 1/2); less or no nape-patch. Flight below (3c: ™): greater coverts grey-brown; linings dark brown as body, or paler/greyer similar in tone to remiges; obscure carpal patches; all quills grey-barred with dark trailing band; usually pale throat. Above (3d: ¢): dark brown (or forearms greyer, rarely yellow-brown); remiges variably barred or all dark, pale wedges on inner primaries. 3e Juvenile (female) (nominate) Clay-brown to dark brown, usually pale, and variably buff-tipped; generally rufous-buff nape-patch; some birds tawny-buff below; dark brown wings, 3 bold cream bands on tips of coverts and secondaries; pale tip to barred tail. 3f Juvenile (female) (orientalis) Smaller; not always nape-patch. Flight below (3g: ¢): mid-brown to yellowish; paler throat; cream crissum and band along greater coverts; pale primary-wedges; light tips to broad-barred quills whiten and then abrade. Above (3h: ™): white bands on greater and median coverts and on trailing edges of quills; pale primary-wedges, U above tail. 3i Third/fourth-year (male) In flight. (3j: ¢ flight above) Echoes of juvenile: pale bands much thinner (and none on median coverts); body often darker than linings but variable. Quills untidier than shown: ragged trailing edges.

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1b 1a 1f

1d 1e

1g 1c

2c 2b 2d

2a

1h

3h

3d

3j 3e

3a

3c

3b

3g

3f 3i

004 systematic.indd 247

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PLATE 86: OTHER OLD WORLD EAGLES II 1 LESSER SPOTTED EAGLE Aquila pomarina L55–65 cm (24 in): S146–166 cm (61 in): T20–25 cm (9 in): ¢85% ����������� Forest near water, dry mountain woodland, to 1,800 m (2,200 m). Mid-sized eagle; often straighter-edged narrow wings make rounded tail look longer than 3; tight-feathered legs, no bagginess (cf. Tawny, Indian Tawny and ���������� 4 Steppe Eagles, 85:1–3); small bill; wing-tips near tail-tip. Shallow beats; glides and soars on slightly arched or flatter wings, hands down. Hunts from ? glide/soar or perch, forages on ground. Often solitary, but feeding groups, passage flocks. [cf. other Aquila eagles, esp. 3, 85:1/3] 1a Adult (male) All brown with paler crown/shoulders, blackish quills; eyes yellow. Flight below (1b: ™): brown body/linings (greater coverts rarely 6-? white-mottled, crissum hardly paler) usually paler than blackish quills; 1–2 pale carpal arcs normally stronger than shown. Above (1c: ¢): dark with contrasting paler head/forearms; white flash at base of inner primaries; whitish U above tail. 1d Pale adult (male) Head/body/coverts mottled or more uniform yellow-buff; less pale and far rarer than 3g. 1e Juvenile (female) Dark brown with paler shoulders; black greater coverts with whitish tips, smaller on browner medians; pale-tipped blackish quills; rufous-buff nape-patch; cream crissum; eyes brown. Some juvs more spotted above, like 2b. Flight below (1f: ¢): similar to 1b, but cream crissum; thin pale tips to quills and greater coverts soon abraded. Above (1g: ™): forearms just paler; whitish spots on coverts; pale patch on nape (usually on back, too), U above tail, primary-wedges, but trailing edges to quills soon lost.

2 INDIAN SPOTTED EAGLE Aquila hastata L59–67cm (25 in): S154–168 cm (63 in): T22–26 cm (9½ in): ¢92% Open woods, fields, near water, below 1,000 m. Mid-sized eagle, larger than 1 (and less RSD), with broader wings, broader head, somewhat bigger bill, distinctly larger gape; adult eyes brown-yellow/yellowish, plumage generally darker. In many respects, including wing shape, more like 3 (ranges overlap in winter) than 1. Tightly feathered legs often look long when perched (plumage sleeked). Flight much as 1. Hunts from flight or perch, forages on ground; often pirates other raptors. Solitary. [cf. other Aquila eagles, esp. 3, 85:2-3; also 79:3db] 2a Adult head Dark brown (often darker than shown) with darker streaks; very long gape with thick flanges (visible from distance); eyes brown. Rest of plumage similar to 3a, thus darker than 1a. 2b Juvenile (female) Crown to mantle/scapulars/shoulders often fine-spotted; no pale nape-patch (cf. 1e); big round spots on medians (soon worn off); dark-streaked pale brown below (paler-looking than 3d, streaks less contrasting), creamy crissum. Many less spotted, like 1g. Flight above (2c: ™): fine spots (often only few), pale scapulars/tertials; U above tail; tail and secondary tips all barred; lesser/median coverts paler than greaters (3f more uniform); distinct pale primary-patches. Below, distinct pale triangular flash on inner primaries.

3 GREATER SPOTTED EAGLE Aquila clanga L59–71 cm (26 in): S157–179 cm (66 in): T23–27 cm (10 in): ¢85% 4+ Marshes with trees, forests near water, to 1,000 m (1,700 m), but to 4,000+ m on passage. Mid-sized compact eagle; straight-edged wings (or secondaries bulging, esp. juvs) broader than 1, so tail looks shorter; slightly bigger bill; again tightly feathered legs; wing-tips near tail-tip. Beats deeper than 1, wings often more bowed in gliding. Pirates other raptors. Settles hunched. Solitary; small parties on migration, groups at food. [cf. other Aquila, esp. 85:1/3, 84:1/3; d-f distinctive, but cf. 85:1e-g, 85:3b-c; in winter Ind also 2, 79:3] 3a Adult (male) All dark brown, glossed purple above when fresh; eyes brown. Flight below (3b: ™): body/linings darker than quills, or all same tone (rarely, linings slightly paler); single whitish crescent by carpal patches. Above (3c: ¢): uniformly dark, or shoulders may be paler; faint U above tail; small greyish primary-patches indistinct. 3d Juvenile (female) Blackish-brown; white-spotted coverts/back, cream-tipped secondaries/tail; below, some buff streaks, creamy crissum. Flight below (3e: ¢): blackish with paler thinly barred remiges, as b, but creamy crissum, broad trailing edges, clearer crescents by carpal patches. Above (3f: ™): white spots on back and coverts, latter in 2–3 almost merging lines; pale primary-patches (primaries white-shafted), creamy trailing edges, U above tail; with wear, spots/trailing edges smaller. 3g Pale juvenile (male) Creamy-buff; quills as d. Flight (3h: ™, 3i: ¢): pale body/coverts contrast dark quills. Rare pale adults similar; intermediates include deep tawny morph in both adult and juvenile. 3j Second/third-year (female) Flight above. Blackish; midwing-line(s); U over tail.

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1a 1b 1e

1f

1c 1g

2b

1d

2a 2c 3f

3i

3c

3j

3b

3g

3a

3h

3d

004 systematic.indd 249

3e

6/9/05 3:13:58 pm

PLATE 87: AFROTROPICAL EAGLES 1 WAHLBERG’S EAGLE Hieraaetus wahlbergi L53–61 cm (22 in): S130–146 cm (54 in): T21–25 cm (9 in): ¢85% Wooded cultivation, savannah, riverine trees, thornbush, to 2,800 m. Small slender kite-sized eagle; rather long narrow wings, longish squared tail, small pointed face, slight crest (often flat), longish feathered legs, baggy trousers; wing-tips just short of tail-tip. In flight, narrow parallel-edged wings and usually closed longish tail often likened to crossed planks. Fast beats; soars/glides on flat wings, fingers barely separated. Dashes at prey; stoops from height. Sometimes gregarious on migration. [cf. (a-j) 88:3a-f (esp. Sep-Apr), also 28:4, 85:1; and Oct-Apr 7:1, dark 36:2, 85:2, 86:1] 1a Dark adult (male) Dark sepia to dark chocolate, with pale-edged wing6 coverts, and sometimes paler cheeks or belly; remiges and tail black-brown; eyes brown. Flight below (1b: ™): body/linings dark; tail, secondaries and more contrasted primaries greyer and obscurely barred. Above (1c: ¢): all dark but for slight pattern on wing-coverts and tertials. 1d Pale adult (male) White with cream-edged grey-brown coverts/back, blackish remiges/tail. Flight below (1e: ¢): body/linings white (sometimes, as here, obscure dark marks on axillaries and greater coverts), contrasting with quills as a (cf. Booted Eagle, 88:3). 1f Intermediate adult (male) Varies from pale brown, with or without darker head, to dark brown with pale crown, wholly pale head or also whitish belly; or variably intermediate between these and a/d. More contrasting remiges/tail/thighs in flight below (1g: ™); often greyer wing-coverts above (1h: ¢). 1i Juvenile (female) Much as a/d/f and equally variable, though head may be more streaked, coverts more broadly pale-edged. Flight above (1j: ™): as a/d/f but with creamy trailing edges to quills.

2 VERREAUX’S EAGLE (BLACK EAGLE) Aquila verreauxii L78–90 cm (33 in): S181–219 cm (79 in): T27–36 cm (12 in): ¢84% ? Mountains, gorges, cliffs, crags in desert or thorn-scrub, to 5,000+ m. Large ? eagle; long paddle-shaped wings unusually broad across outer secondaries, pinched in at base; longish tail often part-spread; prominent head; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Deep strong beats; glides on flat or slightly raised wings; soars in shallow V, fingers upturned. Catches prey by stoop or from perch, or by skimming along rock face; staple food often rock hyraxes Procavia/Heterohyrax. Generally in pairs. [Distinctive, but cf. (a-c) 84:2abc (E Africa, Oct-Apr); (e-g) 84:1 (Middle East)] 2a Adult (male) All black perched, but for thin white V on back; bare 5 brows/eye-rings yellow. Flight below (2b: ™): black linings and dark grey secondaries; whitish windows. Above (2c: ¢): greyer-white windows; thin-armed broad-based Y of pure white on back/rump. Catching rock hyrax Procavia capensis (2d). 2e Juvenile (female) Golden crown, often streaked, and rufous nape/mantle contrast black cheeks; dark above, coverts scaled buff (tips of greaters forming bar); brown-streaked white rump, barred tail; pale brown throat streaked darker; sooty chest, rufous to buff abdomen blotched blackish; creamy-buff legs. Flight below (2f: ¢): shape as a, but tail longer; buff-mottled blackish linings; buff-tipped dark-barred secondaries/tail; buff-white windows. Above (2g: ™): scaled coverts; pale crown, rump, windows, and trailing edges to blackish quills. 2h Fourth-year (female) Black feathers gradually appear during 2/5-yr, though diagnostic pale trousers usually retained into 3-yr; plumage then mainly dark grey-brown with buff nape and lower back, buff-edged coverts/ abdomen, whitish rump. Flight below (2i: ¢) and above (2j: ™): intermediate between a/e.

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1c

1j

1h

1b

1g

1a

1f

1d

1e

1i

2c

2j

2g

2d

2a

2b

2e

2f

2h 2i

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PLATE 88: EURASIAN AND AFRICAN HAWK EAGLES 1 BONELLI’S EAGLE Hieraaetus fasciatus L55–67 cm (24 in): S142–175 cm (62 in): T24–29 cm (10 in): ¢89% Mountains, cliffs, gorges, woodland, to 2,000 m, in Asia to 3,000 m (3,750 m); some winter lowlands, wetlands. Smallish eagle; broad wings, long tail, small protruding head, like big Western or Eastern Honey-buzzard (11:1–2); wing-tips reach tail-band. Loose shallow beats; glides flat, wrists forward; soars little, wings flat/just raised. Usually in pairs. [Distinctive, but cf. (a-d) 11:1-2; (e-g) 75:1de/j-m; ? Red Sea 2 (esp. juvs)] ? 1a Adult (male) (nominate; whole range bar d) Dark brown above; capped head, white patch on back; tail grey, obscurely barred, with broad subterminal band; white below with thin streaks, broader on 5 breast/flanks, bars on belly/crissum. Flight below (1b: ™): white body, black band on linings; obscure dark trailing edges to greyish remiges; subterminal band on paler tail. Above (1c: ¢): white on back; grey tail, dark band. 1d Adult (female) (renschi; Lesser Sundas) Flight below. Smaller; quills more clearly barred; belly/thighs/crissum more boldly marked. 1e Juvenile (female) Paler; streaked crown, all-barred tail; pale rufous below, thin streaks; buff abdomen. Flight below (1f: ¢): pale rufous linings with thin midwing-line; quills barred, whitish windows. Above (1g: ™): grey windows, barred tail. 1h Third-year (male) Intermediate; variably rufous to cream below, plain or streaked; dark subterminal band developing on tail; ad by 4/5-yr.

2 AFRICAN HAWK EAGLE Hieraaetus spilogaster L55–62 cm (23 in): S132–150 cm (56 in): T23–29 cm (10 in): ¢87% Wooded savannah, open woods, riverine thornbush, to 1,500 m (3,000 m). Often made conspecific with 1 but shorter-winged, longer-tailed, differs in ecology/behaviour. Flight similar; hunts more in cover like big accipiter. [cf. 89:1, Red Sea 1 (esp. juvs); also 11:1, 90:1 (much larger), (d-f) 41:1fg] 2a Adult (male) Black above, white flecks; subterminal band on barred grey tail; white below, drop-like streaks (more on ™), plain thighs/vent. Flight below (2b: ™): mottled black mid-wing, much white on remiges, black trailing edges; black tail-band. Above (2c: ¢): greyish windows/tail, black trailing edges. 2d Juvenile (female) Dark brown above, crown streaked; rufous below, 5-6 thin breast-streaks, paler legs. Flight below (2e: ¢): body and linings rufous, sparsely marked; broken midwing-line; whitish primary-patches; greyishbuff secondaries/tail thinly barred. Above (2f: ™): contrasting creamy windows; barred tail.

3 BOOTED EAGLE Hieraaetus pennatus L42–51 cm (18 in): S113–138 cm (49 in): T19–22 cm (8 in): ¢78% Woods, hills, savannah, desert, to 3,000 m. Small buteo-sized eagle; narrow parallel-edged wings, longish tail; wing-tips near tail-tip. Loose deep beats; glides on arched wings, fingers upswept; soars flatter, wings pressed forward. Spectacular stoops. Solitary, even on passage. [Distinctive, but cf. 11:1i-k, 11:2g; even 7:1, dark 36:2; Afr 87:1, 89:1gh] 3a Pale adult (male) Brown above, wings broadly edged buff; white shoulder ‘lights’; blackish cheeks, streaked throat; creamy below, or tinged rufous and streaked. Flight below (3b: ™): dark cheeks, cream body/linings; black remiges, pale wedges on inner primaries; grey5 brown tail darker near tip. Above (3c: ¢): broad buff band across wings and buff scapulars, whitish U above tail. 3d Dark adult (female) As a above, including white shoulder ‘lights’; below, dark chestnut-brown, but thighs and tail-coverts often mottled white. Flight below (3e: ¢): all dark but for pale wedges on inner primaries, grey-brown tail darker near tip. 3f Pale juvenile (female) Very like a, and often indistinguishable, but usually more rufous head, less sharply defined streaking below.

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1g

1c 1b

1e

1a

1f

1h

2f

1d

2c

2b

2a

2d

2e 3c 3d

3f

3b

3e 3a

004 systematic.indd 253

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PLATE 89: AFROTROPICAL HAWK EAGLES 1 AYRES’S HAWK EAGLE Hieraaetus ayresii L44–57 cm (20 in): S106–137 cm (48 in): T17–23 cm (8 in): ¢76% Forest edge, riverine woods, to 3,000 m. Small eagle, smaller and stockier sex for sex than African Hawk Eagle (88:2); broad wings, medium tail, round head, slight crest usually flat, feathered legs. Loose deep beats; glides/soars (very high) on flat wings; stoops like falcon, chases among trees like accipiter. Scarce; little seen. [cf. (ab) 88:1ab, 88:2abc, 88:3abcf; (c) 88:1c; (ef) 88:3de; (gh) 88:1ef, 88:2def, 88:3bf] 1a Adult male Blackish above, pale-edged; white forehead and usually supercilia; white shoulder ‘lights’ as Booted (88:3); grey tail barred blackish, wider subterminal; white below, variably spotted blackish (least on throat/legs). 4 Flight above, stooping in heart-shape (1b): dark; no windows, unlike African Hawk Eagle; barred tail (prey: Cape Turtle Doves Streptopelia capicola). 1c Adult female Distinctly larger; more hooded, usually little or no white forehead/supercilia; heavier blotches below, often coalescing on parts of breast/flanks; eyes more orange. Flight below (1d): blotched body/linings, well-barred quills. 1e Dark adult (rare: male) All black, or breast flecked white, some with white forehead/supercilia; still white shoulder ‘lights’. Flight below (1f): all black but for barred remiges/tail. 1g Juvenile male Grey-brown above, scaled whitish; forehead/supercilia rufous-buff, crown/mantle dark-streaked rufous-buff; pale rufous-buff below, thinly streaked on breast/flanks; eyes grey-brown. Juv ™ (not illustrated) less rufous-buff on forehead/supercilia. Flight below (1h): rufous but for lightly barred greyish remiges/tail. 1i Second (third?)-year male Much as a, but buff-tinged, less heavily spotted.

2 LONG-CRESTED EAGLE Lophaetus occipitalis L50–58 cm (21 in): S112–129 cm (47 in): T19–25 cm (9 in): ¢81% Woodland, riverine trees, plantations, cultivation, savannah, to 2,000 m (3,000 m). Small black eagle; broad rounded wings, relatively longish tail, remarkable long floppy crest. On tree, pole or fence; drops to ground or flaps/glides perch to perch; often soars. [Unmistakable, even though other eagles have dark morphs] 2a Adult (male) Black but for white-edged shoulders, white legs, banded tail. ™ crest slightly shorter, tarsal feathers sometimes mixed brown/white. Flight below (2b: ™): black body/linings, pale feathered legs; large white windows, barred secondaries; banded tail. Above, dropping to ground (2c): 5+ white windows; tail-bands. 2d Juvenile (female) Browner, whitish tips, more white on shoulders; short crest; eyes grey/brown. Flight below (2e: ¢): white-mixed linings; thin tail-bars. Above (2f): tail-bars (prey: Vlei Rat Otomys irroratus).

3 CASSIN’S HAWK EAGLE Spizaetus africanus L50–56 cm (21 in): S103–113 cm (43 in): T21–27 cm (9 in): ¢82% Dense forest, to 2,300 m. Small sturdy eagle; short rounded wings, relatively long tail. Perches in canopy; soars. [cf. (a-c) 41:1d; also 29:3, 88:2, 89:1] 3a Adult (male) Blackish above, white bases; barred tail, subterminal band; white below, but blotched black on chest-sides, flanks, outer thighs. Flight below (3b: ™): white body, much black on linings; quills clearly barred, with wider trailing edges. Above (3c): some whitish mottling, barred quills (prey: Fire-footed Rope Squirrel Funisciurus pyrropus). 3d Juvenile (female) Brown above, edged buff; thinly barred tail; rufous head streaked black; white below, variably buff-tinged, spotted on breast and more heavily on flanks/belly; feathered whitish legs; vent spotted brownish. Flight below (3e: ¢): black-spotted buff linings, thinly barred quills. 3f Second/third-year (male) Flight below. Intermediate in plumage.

4+

254 004 systematic.indd 254

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1a 1c 1d

1f

1e

1h

1g

1i 2c

1b

2b 2a

2e

2f 2d

3b 3d

3c 3e

3a 3f

004 systematic.indd 255

6/9/05 3:14:22 pm

PLATE 90: LARGE AFROTROPICAL EAGLES AND SECRETARYBIRD 1 CROWNED HAWK EAGLE (CROWNED EAGLE) Stephanoaetus coronatus L80–95 cm (34 in): S151–181 cm (65 in): T30–40 cm (14 in): ¢76% Forest, woodland, riverine acacia, to 3,000+ m. Large eagle; short broad rounded wings, longish tail, double crest usually flat, feathered legs/short toes; wing-tips to tail-base. Fast beats; glides flat, soars in slight V. In canopy; still-hunts small antelopes, strikes monkeys on wing. Noisy in display: ¢ melodious kewee, ™ deeper mellow kooee. Solitary. [Ad unmistakable; cf. (d-f) ? 2de] 1a Adult (male) Slate-black above; 2 grey tail-bands; browner head, blacktipped crest; cream (esp. ¢) to rufous (esp. ™) below, blotched/barred black (more on ™); cere grey. Flight below (1b: ™): rufous linings, 2 rows of black 4+ spots; black subterminal, 2 thinner bars, on white quills. Above (1c): same on grey-brown quills (prey: Suni Neotragus moschatus). 1d Juvenile (female) Pale grey-brown above, coverts scaled white; 4 dark tail-bands; white head/underparts, chest washed rufous at first; legs and crown become spotted in 1-yr; eyes/cere grey. Flight below (1e: ¢): white; linings washed rusty; remiges as a; tail subterminal thinner, 3 other bars. Above (1f: ™): head white; forearms scaled white; 4 dark bars on quills. 1g Second/third-year (female) Flight below. Head/underparts become pale rufous and gradually more blotched/barred; quills as a by end 2-yr.

2 MARTIAL EAGLE Polemaetus bellicosus L78–96 cm (34 in): S188–227 cm (82 in): T27–32 cm (12 in): ¢76% Woodland edge, thornbush, subdesert, to 3,000 m. Very large eagle; long wings rather pointed, shortish tail, short crest, feathered legs/long toes; wingtips near tail-tip. Flexible beats; glides/soars on flattish wings; will hover. Stoops to ground, strikes in air, pirates raptors, still-hunts. Perches out in ? open, large shoulders forward. Solitary. [cf. (a-c) 28:3ab (much smaller); (de) 1df] 2a Adult (male) Brown-grey above, edged paler; browner head/chest; barred tail; white abdomen sparsely spotted; cere/feet pale greenish. Flight below (2b: ™): white abdomen contrasts dark head/linings and closely barred 5 quills (™ more heavily built, more spotted below). Above (2c): dark brown with barred quills (prey: Helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris). 2d Juvenile (female) Paler brown-grey above, edged whitish; white below; tail/cere/feet as a, eyes brown. Flight below (2e: ¢): white linings brown-mottled; barred quills. 2f Fourth-year (female) In flight. First dark feathers on head/breast/linings in 3-yr; gorget and spots below in 4/5-yr. As a by 6/7-yr.

3 SECRETARYBIRD Sagittarius serpentarius L112–150 cm (51 in): S191–215 cm (80 in): T57–85 cm (28 in): ¢107% Open/wooded grassland, thornbush, semi-desert scrub, to 3,000 m. Very large terrestrial raptor; rounded wings, graduated tail elongated in centre, smallish bill, long mobile crest, long neck, very long bare legs. Walks steadily, head to and fro; runs rather than flying, but also soars; roosts on trees. Solitary/families; groups near water. More like crane/bustard. [Unmistakable; recalls bustard (Otidae) or crane (Gruidae)] 3a Adult male Blue-grey above, whitish-grey below; black head-plumes, remiges, subterminal tail-band, and belly/thighs; eyes brown, face orange, legs flesh. Flight below (3b): solid grey and black. Above (3c): similar; 5 rump black, tail-coverts white or barred (prey: Striped Ground Squirrel Xerus erythropus.) 3d Adult female Slightly smaller, darker; crest and tail often shorter. 3e Juvenile Much as a; shorter tail/crest, grey eyes, yellow face; linings tinged brown. Sometimes all grey areas much browner (3f).

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1a

1d 1b 1f

1e

1c

1g

2c

2b

2d

2a

2e

2f

3f 3c

3b 3d

3e 3a

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PLATE 91: CARACARAS I 1 CARUNCULATED CARACARA Phalcoboenus carunculatus L50–56 cm (21 in): S112–119 cm (45 in): T19–22 cm (8 in): ¢98% Open slopes, windswept pastures, at 3,000–4,000 m. Largish slim caracara; long well-fingered wings, longish rounded tail; weak bill/legs, wrinkled bare face, curly crown; wing-tips far down tail. Flight/behaviour as 2, perhaps conspecific. [cf. Ecuador 2, esp. juvs; also (de) 92:1de (usually lower)] 1a Adult Black with white-streaked breast, white thighs/crissum, rump, quill-tips; bare face orange-red. Flight below (1b): black remiges and whitetipped tail; white linings/thighs, streaked breast. Small flock among llamas Lama glama (1c). 1d Juvenile Brown; paler head/rump/underbody obscurely mottled buff; darker quills; face/legs greyish. Flight below (1e): brown with pale patches at bases of primaries.

4

2 MOUNTAIN CARACARA Phalcoboenus megalopterus L48–55 cm (20 in): S111–124 cm (46 in): T19–23 cm (8 in): ¢86% Bare slopes, crags, plains, at 3,000–7,000 m (down to 1,000 m and below in S). As 1 but face not wrinkled. Flies low, swept on winds, wings flat or half-closed; soars flat. Crow-like; scavenges on ground, scratches for food. Solitary; flocks near abundant food. [cf. Ecuador 1, esp. juvs; S Andes (de) 3c, also 92:2ef and 93:1 (usually lower)] 2a Adult Glossy black above and to chest; white rump, quill-tips and belly/ thighs/crissum; face red-orange, bill-base bluish, legs orange-yellow. Flight below (2b): black chest/quills, white linings/belly/tail-tip. Scavenging near hut (2c). 2d Juvenile Much as 1d, but darker redder-brown with more black shaftstreaks and whitish tips; clearer pale rump. Flight below (2e): rusty with paler rufous primary bases.

6+

3 DARWIN’S CARACARA (WHITE-THROATED CARACARA) Phalcoboenus albogularis L49–55 cm (20 in): S110–119 cm (45 in): T21–23 cm (9 in): ¢93% Lower mountain slopes, open woodland, scrub, to 3,000 m; down to sea-level in S. Much as 1/2 in shape/flight/behaviour: all three best regarded as forming a superspecies. Groups at carcases. More usual name ‘White-throated Caracara’ misleading. [cf. S Andes (c) 2de, also 92:2ef and 93:1; Tierra del Fuego (c) 4cd] 3a Adult Brown-black above, less glossy than 1/2; still white rump/quilltips; all white below (not only ‘throat’) but for dusky mottling on chest-sides to flanks; face orange-yellow, bill-base bluish. Flight below (3b): white body/ linings; blackish quills, white-barred primary bases, white tail-tip. 3c Juvenile Much as 1d/2d but all darker brown; forehead/cheeks blackish; abdomen mottled.

5?

4 FORSTER’S CARACARA (STRIATED CARACARA) Phalcoboenus australis L55–60 cm (23 in): S116–125 cm (47 in): T23–25 cm (9 in): ¢93% Rocky coasts, tussock grass. Large caracara; shape/flight as 1–3; pointed crown-feathers, not curly crest. Scavenges at seabird colonies; digs for food in winter. [cf. Tierra del Fuego (cd) 3c; also 92:2ef and 93:1] 4a Adult Blackish, streaked white on neck/underparts; white tail-tip, rufous thighs; bare face orange-pink. Flight below (4b): rufous linings/thighs; blackish quills, white windows/tail-tip. 4c Juvenile Dusky brown, neck/chest flecked cinnamon; chestnut tail; bare parts grey (feeding on dead juvenile Magellanic Penguin Spheniscus magellanicus by colony). Flight below (4d): blackish-brown with paler tail; smaller whitish areas at bases of primaries. 4e Second-year Neck/chest more streaked; face/legs yellow, bill bluer.

4+

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1a 1b

1e

1c 1d 2a

2c

2b

2e 2d 3a

3b 3c

4b 4a

4d

4e

4c

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PLATE 92: CARACARAS II 1 CRESTED CARACARA Caracara cheriway L51–60 cm (22 in): S107–132 cm (47 in): T22–25 cm (9 in): ¢97% Open country with some trees, from prairies and farmland to upland slopes, to 2,500 m (3,000 m, and recorded to 3,800 m). Large caracara with big flatcrested head, bare face, and large, laterally compressed and strongly hooked bill; longish neck, tail and legs; wing-tips well down tail. Slow steady beats of long, parallel-edged, six-fingered wings; glides on slightly arched wings, wrists forward; soars flat, straight-edged, with eagle-like head projection. Walks/runs easily; scavenges like other caracaras, cruising roads for crushed corpses, joining and often dominating vultures at carcases (where may pick out maggots), taking eggs/nestlings/sick animals; also agile aerial pirate. 6 Mostly silent except in breeding season, when hard dry single or double chak near nest, craking rattle in head-tossing display, and shrill screaming keeer in aerial skirmishes. Often solitary, but locally groups of up to 50; gregarious at food sources. The two races listed here intergrade and are probably better combined as a monotypic species. [Almost unmistakable (cf. 2), but see 4:4, 62:1ef and, in far S of range, 93:2cd] 1a Adult (auduboni: USA/W Panama/Cuba) Black-brown above, including scapulars; black crown, white cheeks/ throat, barred nape/mantle/chest; barred tail, broad terminal band; black belly, pale patch inside black thighs, cream crissum; face yellow to orange-red, bill whitish with pale blue base. 1b Adult (nominate: E Panama/N Peru/Amazonia) Blacker above, including scapulars; more extensive barring. Flight below (1c): black belly/wings, white throat, barred chest/windows/tail, broad terminal band; pale parch betwen thighs (not shown). Above (1d): similar, but black crown, smaller windows. 1e Juvenile (auduboni) Browner than a (especially crown); buff cheeks/throat, streaked mantle/breast; face pinkishgrey, legs yellow-grey. 1f Juvenile (nominate) Flight below: buff head, streaky chest (cf. b and 2e/f).

2 SOUTHERN CARACARA Caracara plancus L54–66 cm (24 in): S108–144 cm (50 in): T23–28 cm (10 in): ¢93% Open country, sparsely wooded savannah, cattle ranches, to at least 1,400 m. As 1 in shape, with big head, flat crest, bare face, longish neck, tail and legs, but averages larger, with deeper bill. Similar flight with slow steady beats; glides on slightly arched wings, soaring on level wings with eagle-like head projection. Size increases from N to S, and some S look very large, esp. ™s. Gait and behaviour much as 1, but probably takes more live mammals, freshwater turtles, snakes, lizards and amphibians; locally also coconut flesh dried as copra; regularly waits for chances at edges of flamingo colonies. Distinctive single or double krik of alarm and rattling karaka-raa in display 6 may be significantly different from those of 1. [Almost unmistakable (cf. 1), but see 4:4, 62:1ef and, flying away, 93:1, 93:2cd (both much smaller)] 2a Adult Back/uppertail-coverts and breast/crissum all continuously and more extensively barred than on 1a-d; barred scapulars; dark patch inside thighs. Flight below (2b): breast extensively and finely barred; dark feathers between thighs. Flight above (2c), dropping to join group at horse carcass (2d): fine barring continuous from back to tail-coverts. 2e Juvenile Paler than 1e/f, more finely streaked above and, especially, below. Flight below (2f): browner and less contrasted than b, with more streaked wing-linings and less clearly barred tail.

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1c

1a

1e

1f

1d

1b

2b 2d

2f

2c

2e

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2a

6/9/05 3:14:38 pm

PLATE 93: CARACARAS III AND LAUGHING-FALCON 1 CHIMANGO CARACARA Milvago chimango L37–43 cm (16 in): S80–99 cm (35 in): T16–20 cm (7 in): ¢89% Open country, esp. farmland, also wetlands, mountain slopes, scrub-desert, to 3,000 m (4,000 m). Smallest caracara; as 2, but flatter head, longer wings. Measured beats; glides on bowed wings, soars flatter. Perches anywhere; nests even in rushes. Follows cattle or plough, often 50+ with gulls behind tractor. Chatters/squeals when nesting. Social at food or roost. [Often distinctively numerous, but when flying off cf. 2cd, 66:2, 91:2-4, 92:2ef] 1a Adult (nominate; E Bolivia to Uruguay/Argentina) Cinnamon-brown, crown/nape streaked darker, back/wings edged paler; whitish rump; greybuff tail thinly barred, broad subterminal; below, dusky streaks, obscure grey 7 bars, buff throat/crissum; bill horn, legs whitish, feet bluer. Flight below (1b): brown linings, pale windows, dark tail-end. Flock following tractor (1c). 1d Adult (temucoensis; S Chile/SW Argentina) More red-brown, heavier markings. 1e Juvenile (nominate) Much as a but tinged rufous, more pale edges; subterminal tail-band obscure. Flight below (1f): paler throat/lower abdomen; larger windows; no clear subterminal.

2 YELLOW-HEADED CARACARA Milvago chimachima L40–46 cm (17 in): S81–95 cm (35 in): T18–21 cm (8 in): ¢97% Savannah, scrub, timbered ranchland, riverine forest, to 1,800 m (2,600 m). Small slim caracara; longish rounded wings/tail, weak bill/legs, bare lores; wing-tips well down tail. Buoyant beats; glides on bowed wings; soars little. Often on ground, esp. by roads/rivers, or perches in tree tops; searches cattle for ticks. Scavenger. Often social, esp. at food. [Ad almost unmistakable, but cf. (cd) 1, 92:1fg, 70:1h-k and other buteos] 2a Adult Black-brown above, thinly edged whitish; head/underbody all cream to buff, crown/nape slightly rusty-tinged, dusky line behind eyes; buff tail finely barred, wide subterminal; bill pale blue, legs green. Flight below 6+ (2b): buff body/linings; fine-barred windows and tail, dark secondaries and tail-end. 2c Juvenile Browner above; buff-tipped crown, obscure tail-band; all streaked blackish below. Flight below (2d): body/linings mottled/streaked, throat paler; quills much as a but browner with barred secondaries and tail-tip.

3 LAUGHING-FALCON Herpetotheres cachinnans L43–52 cm (19 in): S75–91 cm (33 in): T18–24 cm (8 in): ¢98% Forest edges/clearings, riverine woodland, cerrado, to 1,500 m (2,500 m). Mid-sized falcon; shortish rounded wings, longish rounded tail, large head/ eyes, stout bill, short legs rough-scaled; wing-tips cover tail-base. Rapid stiff beats, short glides; no soaring; wags tail on landing. Sluggish; perches upright in open. Still-hunts, esp. snakes. Noisy, esp. dusk/dawn, even after dark: farcarrying wah’co, wah’co… (2nd syllable lower) often for over 1 min, increasing in tempo and becoming more rhythmic (cf. Collared Forest-falcon, 96:1), often in duet; shorter chuckling or muffled ‘laughing’ less common. Solitary. [Almost unmistakable, but cf. 2ab] 5+ 3a Adult (nominate; whole range bar c) Dark brown above; head/underbody and rump cream/buff with dusky shaft-streaks on crown, broad black mask extending around hindneck, sometimes dusky spots on thighs; creamy bands and tip on blackish tail. Flight below (3b): cream/buff body; buff/rufous-buff linings, often some dusky spots; buff-based remiges barred towards tips; banded tail. 3c Adult (fulvescens; Pacific Panama/NW Peru) Smaller; richer buff. 3d Juvenile (nominate) As a, but edged paler brown above; buff areas perhaps whiter (but adults similarly variable in colour intensity) (prey: Coral Snake Micrurus fulvius).

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1c

1e

1b

1a

1d

2a

1f

2c

2b

2d

3a 3b

3d 3c

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PLATE 94: CARACARAS IV AND FOREST-FALCONS I 1 RED-THROATED CARACARA Daptrius (Ibycter) americanus L43–56 cm (19 in): S96–124 cm (43 in): T21–30 cm (10 in): ¢96% Forest and edges/clearings, to 1,500 m. Largish slim but gawky caracara; longish wings, long rounded tail, small head, bare face, chicken-like bill, ? short legs. Slow heavy beats, short glides; seldom much above trees. Does not scavenge like other caracaras: feeds mainly on wasp/bee larvae and fruits. Mostly high in trees, sometimes down on ground. Noisy: exceptionally loud raucous ah-ah-ah-aou, often extended into quarrelsome cacophany. Often in parties. [cf. 2; also mainly black curassows (Cracidae)] 1a Adult All glossy black but for grey-streaked cheeks, contrasting white belly/thighs/crissum; eyes red/brown, face red, bill yellow with greyish base, 6? legs orange-red. Flight below (1b): black; contrasting white belly. Party in trees (1c). 1d Juvenile Much as a, but less gloss, little streaking on cheeks; face yellowish and with scattered feathers, legs yellower. Feeding on social wasp larvae: wings hanging, grips nest, makes hole and thrusts in head; apparently immune to stings.

2 BLACK CARACARA Daptrius ater L41–46 cm (17 in): S91–100 cm (38 in): T18–20 cm (7 in): ¢99% Forest edges/clearings, riverine woods, mangroves, savannah, to 600 m. Small caracara; not unlike 1, but narrower wings, shorter tail. Flight similar but less laboured; rarely, if ever, soars. Not specialised feeder like 1, but general scavenger of carrion, insects, dead fish, eggs and nestlings; also takes palm and other fruits. Not confined to trees, and often settles on ground or river sandbars. Descending hoarse scratchy kra-a-a-a-a-a-a-a; harsh screams/ croaks in flight; quieter than 1. Less social, but often in families. [cf. 1; also black curassows (Cracidae) with white crissa] 2a Adult Glossy black; white band at tail-base; legs/face orange (throat 5? yellower), eyes red-brown, bill black. Flight below (2b): black; pale throat; partly hidden white tail-band. 2c Juvenile Much as a but black less glossy, obscurely tipped/barred buff below; 3–4 extra narrow whitish bars on basal half of tail; legs/face yellow, eyes brown (feeding on green figs Ficus). Flight below (2d): as b but for more barred tail.

3 CRYPTIC FOREST-FALCON Micrastur mintoni L 34-39 cm (14 in); S53--55 cm (20 in): T13-15 cm (5.5 in): ¢95% Before formal description in 2002, museum specimens were overlooked as Lined Forest-falcon (95:2). Humid tropical forest, especially never-flooded ‘terra firme’ with high canopy and dense understorey, but also in seasonally flooded areas. Like all Micrastur, characterised by short rounded wings, longish rounded tail (though shorter than Lined), longish legs; wing-tips cover tailbase. Shy, hard to see, best located by song: single low-pitched notes uk, uk, uk… repeated 120-150 times at c. 1 per second; also excited cackling that speeds up then slows down like bouncing object. [cf. where sympatric, 95:1-3, 96:1-2 (juvs); also 17:2abc, 55:1ijkm, 56:1a-c/2a-d] 6 3a Adult Slate-grey above, like Lined Forest-falcon, but with only one, slightly broader, band across pale-tipped blackish tail (any 2nd band completely hidden by coverts); tendency to dark forehead/crown/nape; larger area of bright orange from cere around eyes; dark barring on white underparts bolder on breast, but reduced or absent on lower belly/crissum; eyes white. Here perched about swarm of Eciton army ants, watching for any reptiles/invertebrates disturbed by them. Flight below (3b) single white tail-band on plain blackish tail, greyish-white underbody, white crissum and linings contrasting banded remiges. Above (3c): grey with blacker quills, one tail-band. Wing-shape (3d): all Micrastur have rounded wing-tips (not as suggested by plates 95/96). Sub-adults have 2 white bands on buff-tipped tail; much less barring below (juvenile possibly less still, only on chest-sides); blacker cap; pale-tipped bill.

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1c

1a 1b

2b

1d 2d

2c

3a

2a

3c

3d 3b

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PLATE 95: FOREST-FALCONS II 1 BARRED FOREST-FALCON Micrastur ruficollis L33–38 cm (14 in): S49–59 cm (21 in): T15–18 cm (7 in): ¢95% Forest, to 2,700 m (3,000 m). Typical small forest-falcon, with short rounded wings, longish rounded tail, longish legs; wing-tips to tail-base. (Note c-k drawn to smaller scale than a-b.) Rapid wing-beats through cover. Furtive; seldom seen. Series of sharp barks kah, kah, kah... like distant small dog; also slowing cackles. [cf. where sympatric, 2, 3, 94:3, (j) 96:1deg] 1a Rufous adult (nominate; E/S Brazil/NE Argentina/Bolivia) Rufous cheeks/back/throat/chest; 3 white tail-bars; barred abdomen. Flight below (1b): rusty linings/whitish remiges barred. 1c Grey adult (nominate) Grey above; all white below, mostly barred. 6-7 1d Rufous adult (zonothorax; N Venezuela/E Colombia/NE Peru) Dusky rufous back; rusty-brown cheeks/throat/chest. Flight below (1e). 1f Grey adult (zonothorax) Back slate-grey; thin-barred white below. 1g Adult male (guerilla; S Mexico/Nicaragua) Slate above; grey throat; grey breast/white abdomen barred. Flight (1h): browner ™. 1i Juvenile (guerilla) Dark brown above, wings edged rufous; thin buff collar; variably buff below, usually coarse barring. But some plain buff (1j). Barred juvenile nominate flight below (1k).

2 LINED FOREST-FALCON Micrastur gilvicollis L342–38 cm (14 in): S51–60 cm (22 in): T13–14 cm (5.5 in): ¢94% Forest, to 1,500 m. Resembles Cryptic Forest-falcon (94:3), all specimens of which were overlooked as this species until 2002; also not unlike 1 (but longer wings/shorter tail), with which thought conspecific until 1970s. Loud 2-note lamenting bark repeated at 3-5 seconds, sometimes preceded by single notes or ending in series of 3 notes. [cf. where sympatric, 1, 94:3, 96:1 (juvs)] 2a Adult Slate-grey above; 2 white bars on pale-tipped black tail; white below, breast finely barred (no rufous morph); cere/lores red-orange (not orange-yellow), eyes white (not orange-brown to yellow). Flight below (2b): whitish, thinly barred; 2 white bars and tip on blackish tail.

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3 PLUMBEOUS FOREST-FALCON Micrastur plumbeus L30–34 cm (13 in): S51–55 cm (21 in): T12–14 cm (5 in): ¢97% Pre-montane wet primary forest, 500 m (300 m) to 1,500 m. Small forest-falcon; as 1 but bulkier, with shorter tail/relatively longer wings; wing-tips exceed tail-coverts. Mostly on or near ground. Single lamenting quacked or barked qua, gradually increasing in strength and speed over several minutes to c. 6 notes per c. 2 seconds, which then repeated at intervals of 5-10 seconds for up to 15 minutes; also excited cackling. [cf. grey 1; also 4 (lowland), 96:1 (larger still, blackish back, collared), accipiters] 3a Adult Bluish-grey above, palest on head/neck/mantle; only 1 white bar and tip on blacker tail; pale grey throat; grey chest and whitish abdomen finely barred (indistinctly so or absent on lower abdomen); eyes brown, cere/lores/ orbitals flame-red, legs reddish-orange. Flight below (3b): whitish with grey throat, fine barring, white wing-linings. 3c Immature Much as a, including only one tail-bar; but white to pale buff below, coarser dusky barring on breast/flanks; eyes dark brown

4 SLATY-BACKED FOREST-FALCON Micrastur mirandollei L40–44 cm (17 in): S65–71 cm (27 in): T18–20 cm (7 in): ¢96% Forest, to 500 m. Mid-sized forest-falcon, but tail relatively short. Low undergrowth, or on ground. Mostly heard: nasal kaaah 8–13 times, falling/rising/ accelerating; or varied with double note ow-wah at end (or one then other syllable repeated); or passerine-like weet in series. [cf. 1, 96:1 (larger, blacker, collared); also 2, 55:1ij, 56:3abc, 60:1-4 (esp. 4), 94:3] 4a Adult Slate-grey above, paler cheeks; blackish-grey tail with 3 thin white to grey bars and tip; white to cream below, scattered shaft-streaks; bare parts yellow(ish). Prey here Spotted Antbird Hylophylax naevioides, but more typically small reptiles/large invertebrates. Flight below (4b): white linings; unevenly barred remiges, broad trailing edges; 3 faint tail-bars. 4c Juvenile Browner above; broadly mottled dusky below, especially breast.

?

?

5?

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1d

1b 1k li

1h

1j

1f

1e

1g 2b 1c 1a 2a

3c 3a

3b

4c 4a

4b

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6/9/05 3:14:56 pm

PLATE 96: FOREST-FALCONS III AND SPOT-WINGED FALCONET 1 COLLARED FOREST-FALCON Micrastur semitorquatus L46–58 cm (20 in): S72–86 cm (31 in): T23–30 cm (10 in): ¢90% Forest/edges, dense secondary growth/scrub, riverine forest, to 1,500 m (2,000 m). Large slender forest-falcon; long graduated tail; as 2 and species on plate 95, short rounded wings, stout untoothed bill, bare lores, slight facial ruff, shortish toes; wing-tips to tail-base. Stays in understorey, flying perch to perch, dashing through cover, even running. Seldom in open, or crossing clearings, but near dusk calls from forest-edge perch: loud slow aow...aow..., resonant, not accelerating. [cf. 2 (esp. but local), (de/g) 95:1j, (h) 95:1ab, (ij) 95:1ik; also 14:4gh, 55:1jkm, 56:1] 1a Pale adult (nominate; S America E of Andes) Blackish above with white 6? collar; 3–4 white tail-bars (5–6 on outer feathers) and tip; black cap in crescent to lower cheeks; mid-cheeks and underbody all white; cere/lores dull yellow-green. Darker variant (1b): some intermediate a/d, cream/washed buff below (cf. d). Flight below (1c): white linings; boldly barred remiges; white bands/tip on dark tail. 1d Buff adult (nominate) As a, but variably buff below; collar may still be white. Flight below (1e): linings buff as body. 1f Dark adult (nominate) All sooty-black (no collar) but for white tail-bands; often some white speckles/bars on lower flanks. 1g Buff adult (naso; Mexico/Ecuador W of Andes/NW Peru) As d, but slightly larger/darker (again 3 morphs in naso, but dark very rare). 1h Pale juvenile (nominate) Dark brown above, edged and barred tawny; crown blackish; cheek pattern less clear and collar may be obscure or absent; tail as a or tinged brownish; white below, variably washed rufous on chest, coarsely barred blackish. 1i Buff juvenile As h but buff below, with more rufous, and browner bars. Flight below (1j): linings as body; quills as d.

2 BUCKLEY’S FOREST-FALCON Micrastur buckleyi L41–48 cm (18 in): S61–72 cm (26 in): T22–24 cm (9 in): ¢95% Forest, to 700 m (and recorded 1,800 m). Largish forest-falcon; shape as 1 but smaller, with shorter legs, relatively short tail. Little known. [cf. (ab) 96:1ac, (cd) 96:1ij; also 14:4gh, 55:1jkm, 56:1] 2a Adult female Blackish above, white below, with white collar, black cheekcrescents and 3–4 white tail-bands, as 1; but 3–4 bars (not 5–6) on outer tail-feathers, and ™ (not ¢) also white spots on secondaries. Flight below (2b): white linings as body, boldly barred quills, like small shorter-tailed 1. 2c Juvenile Dark brown above, edged and barred tawny; blacker crown, buff collar, tail much as a; so like 1h except bars below confined to lower breast/flanks; chest/crissum plain buff. Flight below (2d): strongly barred but for chest/crissum.

?

? ?

5-?

3 SPOT-WINGED FALCONET Spiziapteryx circumcinctus L25–31 cm (11 in): S46–54 cm (20 in): T13–15 cm (6 in): ¢78% Xerophilous woodland, dry savannah/scrub with mesquite/thorn trees, semi-desert with cacti, to 500 m (?750 m). Small falcon (bill untoothed, stout feet with hexagonal scales as forest-falcons); rounded wings, longish rounded tail; wing-tips only part down tail. Fast shallow parrot-like beats, with glides. ? ? Perches hidden in trees (and said to hop/clamber upwards rather than fly), sometimes in open on posts, poles or pylons. Mostly solitary. [Almost unmistakable, but on size alone cf. 16:1, 53:4, even 104, 111:1] 3a Adult male Grey-brown above, streaked dusky; white rump, spots on wings; white-tipped tail with 4 side-bars (centre plain); white supercilia/loral 4+? stripes join obscure collar; streaky black cheeks, black moustaches; white below, usually tinged buff, thinly streaked on chest. Flight below (3b): white linings variably buff-tinged, sometimes few streaks; remiges/tail barred with white spots. Above (3c): greyish with white rump/supercilia; bold spots on remiges/tail-sides. 3d Adult female Much as a but larger. Juvenile (not illustrated) apparently also similar.

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1c

1a

1b

1e

1d

1f

1j

1g

1h 1i

2b

2a 2d

2c

3d 3c

3a

3b

004 systematic.indd 269

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PLATE 97: AFRICAN AND INDOMALAYAN PYGMY-FALCONS I 1 AFRICAN PYGMY-FALCON Polihierax semitorquatus L18–21 cm (8 in): S34–40 cm (15 in): T7–8 cm (3 in): ¢97% Dry thornbush, subdesert scrub, to 1,600 m. Tiny shrike-like falcon; shortish pointed wings, rounded tail; wing-tips less than half down tail. Distinctive fast undulating flight like woodpecker. Perches mornings/evenings on tree tops and open branches, often bobbing head before taking flight and wagging tail when excited; more in shade in heat of day. Still-hunts, mainly insects/lizards, by dive to ground; watches by turning head almost through 180°. Mostly silent except when nesting. Breeds in nests of various social weavers. Pairs/families. [Almost unmistakable, but consider shrikes Eurocephalus/Lanius minor]. 5+ 1a Adult male Blue-grey above; white forehead, thin collar (often partly hidden), white rump; white spots on black quills, white tips on secondaries/ tail; white below; cere/legs red-orange. Flight below (1b): white linings/body; well-barred quills. 1c Adult female Much as a except for chestnut patch on back; fractionally larger. Here dismembering Desert Locust Schistocerca gregaria. 1d Juvenile male Much as a but edged rufous above, washed buff below. Juvenile ™ (not illustrated), with chestnut back, differs in same ways from c.

2 WHITE-RUMPED PYGMY-FALCON Polihierax insignis L24–27 cm (10 in): S42–45 cm (17 in): T12–13 cm (5 in): ¢92% Dry forest edges/clearings, savannah woodland, also more open country, to 900 m. Small shrike-like falcon; shortish slightly rounded wings, long wellrounded or graduated tail; wing-tips less than half down tail. Flight has been described as weak, fluttering and parrot-like, but in fact undulates like 1. Similarly perches on high bare branches, still-hunts insects, lizards and frogs by diving down to ground. Breeds in tree holes and in nests of other birds. Long descending whistle. Solitary/pairs. [cf. Almost unmistakable, but cf. 98:1-2/4 (all smaller) and consider shrikes (Laniidae)] 2a Adult male (cinereiceps; S Myanmar/Thailand/Laos) Slate-grey above with 4-5 dark-streaked whitish head/neck/mantle; browner remiges with concealed white spots; white rump; black tail, plain in centre, barred and tipped white on outer feathers; all white below. Flight below (2b): white linings/body, dark-barred remiges; blacker tail with white bars and tip. Adult ¢ nominate (not illustrated) (upper Myanmar): paler above; some streaking on breast/flanks. 2c Adult male (harmandi; S Laos/Cambodia/S Vietnam) Very similar to a and dividing line not clear (probably clinal), but typically head paler, more whitish, with thinner dusky shaft-streaks. 2d Adult female (cinereiceps) As a, but crown/nape/mantle rufous-chestnut with less dusky streaking except on forehead and above eyes. 2e Juvenile male (cinereiceps) Much as a above, but head more heavily streaked down to breast and, more lightly, to flanks/thighs. 2f Immature female (cinereiceps) Rufous-chestnut present on crown/nape (to some extent in 1st plumage?) long before streaks below lost.

3 WHITE-FRONTED FALCONET Microhierax latifrons L14–16 cm (6 in): S28–31 cm (11.5 in): T5–6 cm (2 in): ¢91% Forest clearings with dead trees, to 1,200 m. Minute falcon (3 and Collared (98:1) and Black-thighed (98:2) Falconets smallest of all raptors); pointed wings, shortish tail; wing-tips over half down tail. Behaviour as Black-thighed. Food especially dragonflies, caught in fly-catching sallies. [cf. 98.2 (only sympatric falconet)] 3a Adult male All glossy blue-black above, including triangular extension on neck-sides and black mask, except forehead/forecrown white; tail plain; white below with tawny wash on belly/crissum, but black flanks and outside thighs; cere/feet black. Flight below (3b): white linings flecked blackish; blackish remiges barred white; plain dark tail, dark flanks/thighs. 3c Adult female As a, except whole forehead/forecrown rufous-chestnut. 3d Juvenile male As a, but whole forecrown and also cheeks buff. Juvenile ™ (not illustrated) same, but some rufous-chestnut on forecrown at early stage.

4?

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1b 1a

1c 2b

1d

2a 2e

2c

2d

2f

3b

3a 3c

3d

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PLATE 98: INDOMALAYAN FALCONETS 1 COLLARED FALCONET Microhierax caerulescens L14–17 cm (6 in): S28–34 cm (12 in): T6–7 cm (2.5 in): ¢80% Forest edges/clearings, to 1,700 m (2,000 m). Minute falcon; shape/behaviour as 2 (once thought conspecific).[cf. 2/4 (both only marginally sympatric)] 1a Adult (nominate; Himalayas/Assam) Glossy black above; white forehead/supercilia and collar, curved black mask; rusty-white below, dark rufous throat and lower abdomen/thighs; cere/feet black. Flight below (1b): linings whitish like breast, darker rufous throat/abdomen; barred remiges, wider trailing edge; 4 white bars on black tail. In old barbet hole (1c). 1d/1e Adult (burmanicus; Myanmar/SE Asia) Wide collar; whiter breast. 1f Juvenile (burmanicus) White areas of head rufous; pale-edged above when fresh; some whiter below (prey: longhorn beetle Batocera celebiana).

5+

2 BLACK-THIGHED FALCONET Microhierax fringillarius L14–16 cm (6 in): S27–32 cm (11.5 in): T5–6 cm (2 in): ¢91% Forest edges/clearings, cultivation, to 1,500 m. Minute shrike-like falcon; pointed wings, squarish-ended tail often spread. Fast beats/glides. Sallies like flycatcher from dead branches; also hawks insects on wing or drops to ground. Nests/roosts esp. in barbet holes. [cf. 1/4 (both only marginally sympatric)] 2a Adult male Glossy black above; white forehead/arc by black cheeks, no collar; white or rufous-washed throat, white breast shading to rufous abdomen; black flanks and outside thighs; cere/legs black. Flight below (2b): quills as 1b; throat paler, abdomen with more rufous, flanks black. 2c Adult female Longer-tailed; undertail barred white in both sexes. 2d Juvenile male As a but white areas of head rufous; pale-edged above when fresh.

5+

3 PHILIPPINE FALCONET Microhierax erythrogenys L15–18 cm (6.5 in): S32–37 cm (13.5 in): T6–7 cm (2.5 in): ¢88% Forest edges/clearings/rivers, to 1500+ m. Minute falcon; slightly larger and longer-tailed than 2. Similarly waits on high dead branches, flies up after insects, nest/roosts in barbet/woodpecker holes. Sometimes small groups. [Almost unmistakable, but consider wood-swallow Artamus leucorhynchus] 3a Adult male All glossy black above except for white lower cheeks/earcoverts; all white below (belly may be buff-washed) but for black flanks/thighs; cere/feet black. Flight below (3b): black linings (unlike all other Microhierax) and plain black tail/flanks/thighs contrast sharply with clear white body; white spots on inner webs of remiges form indistinct broken bars (cf. c). 3c Adult female Flight below. Wings solid black. 3d Juvenile female As a/c, but ear-coverts tinged tawny-yellow.

4

4 PIED FALCONET Microhierax melanoleucus L16–18 cm (6.5 in): S33–37 cm (14 in): T7–8 cm (3 in): ¢90% Forest clearings, wooded foothills, tea plantations, timbered rivers, especially with high dead branches, to 1,500 m. Minute falcon even if just largest and longest-tailed of this sparrow-sized genus. Flight/behaviour as 2/3; takes lizards, small mammals and birds to thrush size. [cf. 1 (only marginally sympatric)] 4a Adult/Juvenile All glossy black above, white below, black sides/flanks; white arc around cheeks (as 2), usually white forehead, rarely thin collar; like most congeners, white spots on inner webs of secondaries and tail; cere black, feet browner. Flight below (4b): all-white body/linings, but black bodysides/flanks; white-barred blackish remiges; white bars on black tail.

4-5

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1a 1b 1c

1d

1f 1e 2c

2a 2d 2b 3b 3a

3c

3d

4b 4a

004 systematic.indd 273

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PLATE 99: COMMON KESTREL 1 COMMON KESTREL Falco tinnunculus L27–35 cm (12 in): S57–79 cm (27 in): T13–19 cm (6 in): ¢87% Widespread wherever cliffs or scattered trees, breeding to 3,500 m, occurring to 5,500 m: moorland, steppe, semi-desert, small islands, wetlands, open woods, savannah, cultivation, especially roadsides, locally cities. Smallish falcon; long pointed wings, long round-tipped tail; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Fast shallow beats with glides and twists; soars with tail fanned, ? flat wings looking much more rounded like accipiter; also recalls accipiter when flying among trees with wings held in. Characteristic hovering head to wind, hanging motionless in upcurrent or with fast shallow beats, tail fanned, before dropping in 2–3 stages on to prey; also flies at small birds. Perches upright, more 7 horizontally on cables. Solitary; small groups on migration. [cf. Pal 100:1 (most Feb-Oct); Afr 100:1 (esp. Oct-Feb); (h-r) 100:2 (E/S Afr), 100:3 (mid Afr)] 1a Adult male (nominate; Pal, winters S to Malawi/Sri Lanka) Chestnut back/coverts black-spotted, contrasting blue-grey head, rump and tail, last with wide black subterminal band and white tip; narrow dark moustaches, whitish throat; buff below with black spots/streaks on breast/flanks; claws black (cf. ad ¢ Lesser Kestrel, 100:1a). Flight below (1b): buff-white linings spotted like breast, whitish remiges finely grey-barred, darker wing-tips, greyish tail with black subterminal. Above (1c): chestnut back contrasts blackish wing-ends/secondaries and blue-grey head/rump/tail, but head colour and spots on back not always clear (cf. ad ¢ Lesser Kestrel, 100:1a). 1d Adult male (rufescens; sub-Saharan Africa to Tanzania/N Angola) Much darker than a (which winters same areas); slate-grey head more streaked; deeper chestnut back, bolder spots; tail darker, some barring; deeper buff below, heavier markings. 1e Adult male (dacotiae; E Canaries) Palest of 4 small island races in Canaries and Cape Verdes (cf. f); paler above than a, although more rufous-cream and somewhat more heavily marked below. 1f Adult male (neglectus; N Cape Verdes) Smallest Atlantic island race and very dark (cf. e); darker than a, crown streaked, back/wings darker chestnut with heavier spots, and tail lightly barred. 1g Adult male (objurgatus; S/W India/Sri Lanka) Smaller than a; heavy bars on dark chestnut back, some tail-barring; bold blotches below. 1h Adult female (nominate) Mostly rufous-brown above (but rump blue-grey, tail often and head sometimes grey, even blue-grey), heavily barred blackish on mantle/coverts, more spotted on back/rump; tail with thin bars (may be reduced or incomplete) and broad subterminal; ill-defined moustaches; creamy-buff below, more streaked than ¢; claws black (cf. ad ™ Lesser Kestrel, 100:1e). Flight below (1i): streaked breast/flanks, creamy-buff linings spotted/flecked; quills usually clearly barred, subterminal tail-band obvious. Above (1j): blackish wing-ends contrast dark-barred rufous inner wings/back; more spotted rump shows greyer (more rarely rufous as shown); and barring on spread tail usually obvious enough, even on (older?) birds with head/tail strongly tinged blue-grey. Hovering (1k). 1m Adult female (rufescens) Deeper rufous-chestnut above than h and also more heavily barred; richer buff and bolder-streaked below. 1n Adult female (rupicolus; S Africa) ¢™ both paler than rufescens (cf. d/m); ™ as ¢ but for stronger tail-bars (lost with age), darker greyer head. 1p Adult female (dacotiae) Relatively even paler than e; palest ™ of all. 1q Juvenile (nominate) Often barely separable from adult ™ (h), but tends to heavier streaks on head, broader bars on mantle/coverts, paler below; cere greenish (not yellow: plate inaccurate); tail grey or brown with often incomplete barring and thinner subterminal band; juvenile ™ rump usually more barred, ¢ sometimes plain blue-grey. Flight above (1r): as j but shorter rounded-tipped wings; primary coverts usually clearly pale-tipped. 1s Second-year male (nominate) With moult of body in Aug-Apr of 1-yr, starts to show adult ¢ feathers, but still variably rufous on crown and barred on back and tail until 3-yr.

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1a

1h 1k

1q

1s 1d

1n 1b

1m

1i

1g 1e

1c

1j 1f 1p

1r

004 systematic.indd 275

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PLATE 100: EURASIAN AND AFROTROPICAL KESTRELS 1 LESSER KESTREL Falco naumanni L26–31 cm (11 in): S62–73 cm (27 in): T13–16 cm (6 in): ¢99% Open dry lowlands, e.g. steppe, semi-desert, poor cultivation, to 1,000 m (1,500+ m), on migration to 3,700 m; winters savannah, grassland. Smallish slim falcon; very like Common Kestrel (99), but marginally broader wings slightly less pointed; slightly shorter tail ? often projecting in centre (beware Common Kestrel in moult); wingtips near tail-tip (nearer than shown). Faster flatter beats; hovers less, often kites. Takes insects on ground or in flight, esp at grass fires; hunts moths in artificial light. Colonial; 1,000s at Afr roosts. [cf. Pal/ Afr 99, also 2/3 (all seasonal); soaring migrant, even 43:3 (esp. ¢s)] 1a Adult male As Common Kestrel, but no spots above, bluer 5 head/tail, grey-blue band on wings, faint moustaches (may be absent), cream to rufous-buff below, usually few small dusky spots on breast/flanks; claws pale brown to white (cf. Common Kestrel). Flight below (1b): linings whiter than body, spotted or plain; generally plain whitish remiges, primaries dark-tipped; black subterminal on greyish tail. Above (1c): blue diagonal between blackish hands and chestnut back/forearms; blue head and subterminally banded tail. Flock hawking insects near colony in old barn (1d). 1e Adult female Not certainly separable from ™ Common Kestrel on plumage, though often thinner greyer moustaches, narrower bars above, less heavy streaks below; but claws as a. Flight below (1f): wings whiter than ™ Common Kestrel, linings often more finely spotted, remiges less barred. Above (1g): thinner bars more spaced. 1h Juvenile Not certainly separable from e, though paler, with pale edges above; juvenile ™ has bars above heavier (but still thinner than juv Common Kestrel). 1i Immature male After moult Nov-May of 1-yr, head/body much as a but remiges, greater coverts and tailsides still h.

2 WHITE-EYED KESTREL (GREATER KESTREL) Falco rupicoloides L29–37 cm (13 in): S68–84 cm (30 in): T13–18 cm (6 in): ¢90% Grassland with trees, semi-desert, to 2,150 m. Smallish-medium falcon; like Common Kestrel (99) but more thickset, esp head bigger. Loose shallow beats; often hovers (b), and will dash after prey or chase flying birds, but usually still-hunts arthropods. Sluggish, on one perch for long periods; prefers pylons/high branches as lookouts, but will use fences, termite mounds or bushes. Breeds in old nests, esp of crows. Solitary. [cf. 99h-r, 1d-g (seasonal); also 3 (only locally sympatric)] 2a Adult (nominate; S Africa) ¢™ resemble ™ Common Kestrel; all tawnyrufous, barred above, thinly streaked breast, barred flanks, whitish crissum; 6rump/tail grey with black bars, broader subterminal, white tip; eyes cream/ brownish-white (other kestrels brown). Flight below (2b): cream/white linings and thinly barred remiges contrast dark-marked rufous body more than any other ™-type kestrel; blackish tips and trailing edges sharper than 1b; barred grey tail. Above (2c): ™-type kestrel with barred grey tail; pale spots show on inner webs of remiges. 2d Adult (fieldi; N Kenya/Ethiopia/Somalia) Smaller; much paler. 2e Juvenile nominate: Much as a, but rump/tail rufous and more thinly barred; flanks streaked (not barred); eyes dark brown, cere blue-white (not yellow). Some streaks on linings in flight.

3 FOX KESTREL Falco alopex L32–38 cm (14 in): S76–88 cm (32 in): T18–21 cm (8 in): ¢91% Lowland dry savannah, semi-desert with rock outcrops, but to 2,200 m in Eritrea. Mid-sized slim falcon; long pointed wings, unusually long tail almost pointed. Stiff flat beats, with glides. Rarely, if ever, hovers; still-hunts; catches insects on wing in swarms or at grass fires. Solitary. [Shape/colour distinctive, but cf. 99, 1 (seasonal), 2 (only locally sympatric)] 3a Adult Foxy-rufous above, crown thinly streaked, back/wings more broadly; 15+ thin tail-bars, often faint; paler below, breast thinly streaked. Flight below (3b): rufous body, plainer buff linings; dark-barred white remiges black-ended; barred rufous tail. Above (3c): all rufous with blackish remiges. 3d Juvenile Slightly heavier streaks on wings, broader bars on tail.

5

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1a 1e

1d

1b

1f

1i

1g 1c 1h

2d

2a 2c

2e

2b

3b 3a 3d 3c

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PLATE 101: AFRO-MALAGASY GREY KESTRELS 1 GREY KESTREL Falco ardosiaceus L28–33 cm (12 in): S58–72 cm (26 in): T13–16 cm (6 in): ¢73% Palm savannah, wooded grassland, cleared forest, riverine trees, to 1,800 m. Smallish thickset falcon; shortish pointed wings, longish wedged tail, large head/bill; wing-tips well short of tail-tip (cf. Sooty Falcon, 106:2). Fast shallow beats; generally low over open ground or among trees, sweeping up to perch; also soars. Still-hunts insects/lizards with slant to ground from high branch or cable; chases birds low, usually taking them on ground; attends termite swarms (cf. Sooty Falcon) but perhaps less at fires (cf. 2). Hovers in some areas, ‘never’ in others. Chases bats, but usually diurnal (cf. 2/106:2). Solitary. [cf. vagrant 106:2a-c; also 2 (very different)] 6 1a Adult male All slate-grey; dusky shaft-streaks esp. on head/neck; blackish primaries. Flight below (1b): grey, with obscure whitish barring on primaries/tail. Above (1c): grey, with whitish spots showing on inner webs of blackish primaries, obscure grey spots on lateral tail. Hovering (1d), but see introductory paragraph. 1e Adult female Simply larger (dimorphism greater than many other kestrels). 1f Juvenile female Not separable in field: tinged browner, abdomen paler.

2 DICKINSON’S KESTREL Falco dickinsoni L27–30 cm (11 in): S61–68 cm (25 in): T13–15 cm (6 in): ¢87% Lowland savannah with Dum Hyphaene or Palmyra Borassus palms, coconuts, cultivation, open woodland, often by water, locally to 1,200 m. Smallish stocky kestrel; as mainly allopatric 1, but smaller head, larger eyes, rounded tail, ™s not so big. Likewise hunts from perch, slanting to ground; also hovers, kites, follows plough. At fires (d), stoops at birds/insects and eats them in flight. Often hawks bats at dusk. Solitary. [Distinctive, but cf. 1, migrant 105:1-2, vagrant 106:2a-c] 2a Adult (female) Black-streaked pale grey head/rump contrast blackish back/wings; tail also pale grey with thin black bars, broad subterminal band; 5 variably grey or grey-brown below, finely streaked blackish, but throat and crissum paler. Flight below (2b): linings varying from grey to greyish-brown as body; paler head/crissum; barred primaries/tail, secondaries plain slate. Above (2c): contrast between blackish back/wings, whitish head/rump and clearly barred tail; white spots show through on spread primaries. Attending grass fire (2d). 2e Juvenile (male) Very like a (especially those browner below), but for fine white barring on flanks; cere much paler yellow at first.

3 MADAGASCAR BARRED KESTREL (MADAGASCAR BANDED KESTREL) Falco zoniventris L27–30 cm (11 in): S60–68 cm (25 in): T14–15 cm (6 in): ¢88% Forest, wooded savannah, cultivation between forested ridges, to 2,000 m. Small falcon; relatively short/broad pointed wings, longish tail. Mainly stillhunts, taking insects/lizards on ground and from trees, often flying 150–200 m from perch on bare branch to snatch chameleon from dense foliage. Solitary. [Very different from 102:1, but cf. 106:2 (Oct-May)] 3a Adult male Darkish grey above, back/rump bluer, all shaft-streaked and faintly barred; blackish tail barred grey-white at sides; whitish forehead, thin supercilia; white below, throat/chest streaked brown, rest boldly barred greybrown. Flight below (3b): barred dusky except streaked chest; dark-tipped 4 wings and tail. Above (3c): grey with bluer rump; black tail barred at sides; whitish spots on primaries. 3d Adult female Much as a apart from size, but darker slate-grey above. 3e Juvenile Browner above, edged/spotted tawny/rufous; light streaks on hindneck; lateral tail marks obscure; as a/d below but bars browner (prey: Flap-necked Chameleon Chameleo dilepis). Flight below (3f): as b but for buff/rufous tail-bars. Above (3g): as c but browner; tail all dark unless open.

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1e

1d 1a 1b

1c 1f

2d 2e 2b

2a

2c

3b

3a 3f

3d 3c 3e 3g

004 systematic.indd 279

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PLATE 102: ENDEMIC INDIAN OCEAN ISLAND KESTRELS 1 MALAGASY SPOTTED KESTREL Falco newtoni L25–29 cm (11 in): S49–63 cm (22 in): T11–13 cm (5 in): ¢82% Forest edge, wooded savannah, plains, cultivation, roadsides, villages, towns, to 1,800 m (2,300 m). Small falcon; shortish pointed wings, medium tail. Still-hunts ground prey from open perch; also hovers, hawks insects. Sometimes crepuscular. Solitary. [No other Malagasy falcon has chestnut back; vagrants could include 99, 100:1] 1a Pale adult male (nominate; Madagascar) Rich chestnut back/wings, sparsely black-spotted; grey-rufous head, slight moustaches; black-spotted grey rump; black-barred grey tail, subterminal band, white tip; blackish primaries; whitish below, breast streaked, belly spotted, throat/thighs/crissum 5+ plain. Flight below (1b): all whitish, streaked on breast, spotted on abdomen/linings, thinly barred on quills. Above (1c): chestnut with blackish hands, grey rump and barred tail. 1d Dark adult male Markings as a, but rich dark chestnut all over; crown/nape blackish; legs orange. Hovering (1e): chestnut linings/body black-spotted, much paler quills grey-barred. 1f Pale adult female Larger; more chestnut head, more spotted back. 1g Adult female (aldabranus; Aldabra) Smaller; variable but usually paler; below, more lightly marked, sometimes almost plain whitish. Dark morph unknown in this race. 1h Juvenile female (nominate) As f but heavier spots; quills buff-tinged.

2 MAURITIUS KESTREL Falco punctatus L25–29 cm (11 in): S49–56 cm (21 in): T12–15 cm (5 in): ¢85% Steep forested gorges, to 800 m. Small thickset falcon; short pointed wings, relatively long tail. Usually still-hunts from hidden perch, flying tree to tree; surprises or chases birds, hops along branches after geckos, hawks insects; also searches low over canopy, sometimes hovers over scrub. Rare, less adaptable to human presence than 1/3: fewer than 10 left in early 1970s, with nests at risk from introduced monkeys; but conservation and captive-breeding had raised total in wild to 500–800 by 2000. [Only Mauritius raptor; but vagrant falcons could occur (see under 3)] 2a Adult male ™-type plumage, all rufous above with black-streaked head, 3 barred back/wings/tail; whitish below with bold black spots/hearts, streaked chest. Flight below (2b): whitish linings streaked/spotted; all quills barred, primaries tipped blackish, secondaries and tail tinged rufous. Above (2c): black-barred chestnut; blackish hands. 2d Adult female Indistinguishable in field from a but for larger size. 2e Juvenile male Again much as a but paler above, less boldly marked below.

3 SEYCHELLES KESTREL Falco araea L20–24 cm (9 in): S44–47 cm (18 in): T11–12 cm (4.5 in): ¢90% Forest, rocky uplands, more open areas, coconut plantations, gardens, churches, towns, to 900+ m. Very small slim falcon, smallest of genus Falco; short pointed wings, medium tail. Fast flickering beats/glides. Perches openly on poles, trees, rocks, buildings; still-hunts lizards on ground or trees. Noisy ki-ki-ki... when nesting. [Only Seychelles raptor, but 100:1, 101:1, 105:1-2 and 107:1 all recorded as vagrants] 3a Adult male Black-spotted chestnut back/wings, dark grey head/rump, short moustaches; grey tail with c. 4 thin black bars, subterminal band, whitish tip; pinkish-buff below, whiter throat/crissum (prey: Seychelles Skink 3+ Mabuya seychellensis). Flight below (3b): pink-buff body/linings; dark-barred greyish primaries and pink-tinged secondaries; barred tail. Above (3c): grey head/rump/barred tail; chestnut back/wings; dark brown hands. 3d Adult female Unusual in having ¢-type plumage; averages larger/paler than a. 3e Juvenile male Differs above from a/d in chestnut crown, heavier markings, rufous-tinged/buff-tipped tail; rufous-buff below, sparsely spotted; throat/crissum cream. Flight below (3f): much as b but for spots, chestnut head, more rufous tail.

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1e 1f

1g

1b 1c

1a

1h

1d

2a

2b

2e

2c 2d

3a 3c

3e

3d

3b 3f

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PLATE 103: AUSTRALASIAN KESTRELS 1 MOLUCCAN KESTREL Falco moluccensis L26–32 cm (11 in): S59–71 cm (26 in): T14–16 cm (6 in): ¢89% Open country, cultivation, towns, to 2200 m (2800 m). Smallish falcon; long pointed wings, longish rounded tail; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Flight/ behaviour much as 2 and Common Kestrel (99), including characteristic hovering/kiting. Ground prey taken in this way or by still-hunting from open perch; also hawks insects on wing. [cf. vagrant 2 (Sundas), 88:1 (Borneo); hovering 6:3; also 107:2-3, and accipiters] 1a Adult male (nominate; Moluccas) Chestnut above, thin black streaks on head, spots on back/wings; blackish primaries; grey tail, black sub-terminal band, whitish tip; slightly paler chestnut below, streaked/spotted black, 5 throat/thighs/crissum plainer. Hovering below (1b): whitish to cream wings much paler than body, with black-spotted linings, grey-barred remiges and rufous-tinged secondaries; grey tail, black subterminal. 1c Adult male (microbalia; Sulawesi/Lesser Sundas from Lombok to Alor) Paler; greyer cheeks (also whiter winglinings in flight). 1d Adult male (timorensis; Timor to Tanimbar) Paler still. Flight below (1e): less marked than b. 1f Adult male (javensis; Java/Bali/Kangean) Flight above. Much as c; all races above have chestnut head/body/ inner wings, spotted and streaked; blackish hands; grey tail and subterminal band. 1g Adult female (nominate) ™s like heavily marked ¢s, but more barred above, more streaked and arrowheaded below; tail grey, but c. 8 often broken or incomplete bars as well as subterminal band. 1h Adult female (javensis) Flight below. Much as e but for tail-bars. 1i Juvenile female (microbalia) Juveniles resemble ™s, but are darker and still more heavily marked; 6–7 coarser bars on rufous-tinged tail. 1j Juvenile female (javensis) Flight below. As h, but linings more buff.

2 AUSTRALIAN KESTREL (NANKEEN KESTREL) Falco cenchroides L28–35 cm (12 in): S66–78 cm (28 in): T14–16 cm (6 in): ¢84% Open country in Australia, especially farmland with scattered trees, also towns, to 2,000 m; some winter in grassland, savannah and airfields in New Guinea; another race sedentary in New Guinea mountains, at 3,200–3,800 m. Smallish slim falcon; long narrow wings, longish rounded tail; wing-tips reach subterminal tail-band. Fast winnowing beats; sweeping glides on flat wings. Characteristic hovering with fast beats, or hanging on wind with motionless wings flexed above back; dives steeply on to ground prey. Perches openly on dead trees, poles, wires or buildings. Solitary/loosely gregarious. Obviously closely related in both form and behaviour to 1 and Common 6+ Kestrel (99). [cf. 1 (Sundas); hovering 13:3-4, 6:3 (PNG/Sundas), even (e-h) 109:2a-c; also 107:3] 2a Adult male (nominate; Australia/Tasmania, some winter S New Guinea/E Sundas) Pale rufous-chestnut above, sparsely black-spotted only on scapulars/greater coverts; grey crown finely streaked, whiter cheeks, thin moustaches; grey rump/tail, subterminal black band, whitish tip; blackish primaries; cream below, more rufousbuff on chest/flanks, with dark shaft-streaks. Flight below (2b): all whitish but for few fine streaks, faintly barred remiges and subterminal tail-band. Above (2c): pale chestnut with grey head and black-ended tail, blackish hands. 2d Adult male (baru; Snow Mts of New Guinea) Slightly larger than a; darker grey head/tail (prey: Blue-faced Finch Erythrura trichroa). 2e Adult female (nominate) All rufous-chestnut above, or rump may be grey and head/tail washed grey; tends to be more spotted above and streaked below than a, and tail often barred, but usually much less marked than most ™ kestrels (extreme example shown and some much more like a). Flight below (2f): much as b, but rather more body-streaks, tendency to bars on tail. Above (2g): resembles c but for rufous head/tail, some barring. 2h Juvenile female Much as e; tends to be more strongly streaked and spotted above, with clearer tail-bars, and more buff and broadly streaked below.

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1e 1j

1d 1h 1f 1g

1i

1a 1c 2a

2b 2e

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2c 2d

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PLATE 104: AMERICAN KESTREL 1 AMERICAN KESTREL Falco sparverius L21–27 cm (9 in): S52–61 cm (22 in): T11–15 cm (5 in): ¢90% Widespread except beyond arctic treeline (not tundra) and in Amazonia (not dense forest), to 4,300 m; so habitats similar to Common Kestrel (99) in Old World, but also more in towns and cities. Small compact falcon; pointed wings, rounded tail (neither particularly long); wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Light buoyant beats, faster and shallower in pursuit; glides on flat wings, or wrists thrust down and tips upcurved; soars flat, tail often fanned. Hovers with rapid beats, or hangs motionless in air, almost as habitually as Common, Moluccan (103:1) and Australian (103:2) Kestrels. Perches erect on bare trees, posts, wires, and buidings. Solitary; gregarious on migration/at 7 food abundances. [Distinctive, but cf. hovering 14:1; also, on size, Nea 112, Neo 16:1, 111:1] 1a Adult male (nominate; most N America) Blue-grey crown with central rufous patch (variable, may be absent); white throat/cheeks with 2 distinctive vertical stripes each side; black ‘false eye’ at each side of rufous nape (protective pattern against predators?); rufous upperparts lightly barred on back/scapulars; blue-grey wing-coverts with smaller spots of black; usually rufous tail (sometimes dull brown or grey-brown, but varying white to black) with broad black subterminal band (sometimes additional bands of black and grey-white), also variable white, grey or rufous tip, and black-banded white outermost feathers; cream to rufous below with black spots/blotches on lower breast/flanks. Hovering below (1b): buff-white wing-linings spotted black, remiges banded dark grey, but wings usually paler than body; rufous tail with black subterminal band; white spots near tips of remiges show up against strong light. Flight above (1c): combination of rufous body and tail (tipped black and white), blue forewings, and blackish remiges (again showing white spots at times). Breaking into nest of Cliff Swallows Hirundo pyrrhonota (1d); commoner prey insects, reptiles, mammals. 1e Adult male (paulus; Florida to S Alabama/S Carolina) Averages smaller; richer colours; fewer spots/bars above, few or no spots below. 1f Adult male (peninsularis; NW Mexico to S Baja California) Size as e; paler; vertical cheek-stripes reduced; some spots below. 1g Pale adult male (sparverioides; S Bahamas/Cuba/Jamaica) Size again as e; plain and rather pale above; vertical cheek-stripes narrow; strikingly white below but for rufous tinge to chest-sides. 1h Dark adult male (sparverioides) Much darker; white cheeks reduced; blue-slate above, including mantle, and plain rich rufous below. 1i Adult male (ochraceus; NW Venezuela/E Colombia) Larger again; few black markings; breast orange-cinnamon, belly/thighs paler. 1j Adult male (isabellinus; E Venezuela/N Brazil) Paler; some spotting. 1k Adult male (cinnamominus; SE Peru/Bolivia/Paraguay/Uruguay S to Tierra del Fuego) Largest race; paler, dull rufous to buff; more barred on back, well spotted on wing-coverts, blotched on flanks; often more black-and-white banding on outer tail. 1m Adult female (nominate) Head much as a, though paler, less blue, more streaked; otherwise all more or less red-brown above, barred dark brown, including wing-coverts and tail, latter also with thinner subterminal band; cream below, streaked rufous except crissum. Flight below (1n): linings streaked rufous as body, remiges as a but washed rufous, and barred rufous tail all combine in rusty tone. Above (1p): dark-barred rufous body/tail/inner wings, and blackish hands. 1q Pale adult female (sparverioides) Narrower cheek-stripes; creamy-white below, with rufous streaks largely confined to breast-sides. 1r Dark adult female (sparverioides) Head much as h with little white; otherwise all rich rufous, well barred above, streaked below. 1s Juvenile male (nominate) Much as a, but crown-patch browner and more streaked, back more barred, underparts paler and breast more streaked; legs paler (prey: grasshopper). Usually moults to adult in first autumn. 1t Juvenile female (nominate) As m, but often subterminal tail-band hardly wider than other bars, and crown more streaked; legs paler.

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1b 1a 1c

1d

1n

1p

1s

1m

1t

1r

1g

1h 1q

1k

1i 1j

1e

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6/9/05 3:21:51 pm

PLATE 105: RED-FOOTED FALCONS 1 WESTERN RED-FOOTED FALCON Falco vespertinus L27–32 cm (12 in): S66–77 cm (28 in): T12–14 cm (5 in): ¢98% Open country with trees, also marshes, riverine woods, forest clearings, to 1,500 m; grassland and low scrub in winter. Smallish slender falcon; ? thin pointed wings broader-based than Northern Hobby (107:1), squared or rounded tail little longer; wing-tips reach/exceed tail-tip. Loose beats, fast/stiff when hunting; glides on scythe wings as Northern Hobby; soars on slightly depressed wings, spread tail. Often hovers (less than Common Kestrel, 99) or still-hunts from wire/post/branch; diet insects, often caught/ eaten in agile flight; chicks given vertebrates (a). Often crepuscular. Single pairs in crow nests, colonial in rookeries; flocks migrate up to 11,000 km, 6+ large winter roosts. [cf. Pal/Afr 99, 107:1; (a-c) 106:1e-h, 106:2a-c, Afr NovMar 2ab, 101:1; (g-m) 107:1gh] 1a Adult male Dark slate above, head/tail blacker; slate below, but lower belly/thighs/vent dark rufous; bare parts orange-red (prey: Common Spadefoot Toad Pelobates fuscus). Flight below (1b): dark grey body/remiges, black linings/tail; thighs/crissum rufous at close range. Above (1c): slate with silvery remiges. 1d Adult female Brownish-slate above, barred blackish; paler grey tail with dark bars, black subterminal band and rusty-white tip; rufous head/underbody finely streaked; cream forehead/cheeks, black lores, chestnut moustaches; bare parts orange. Flight below (1e): buff to rufous linings, sparsely marked, often paler than body; quills barred, subterminal tail-band. Above (1f): black-barred slate with plain remiges, rusty head. 1g Juvenile (male) Pale-edged above; buff forehead and dark-streaked crown, whitish collar, dark horseshoe by eyes; rufous-washed grey tail barred black, thin subterminal, rufous-white tip; buff below, breast/flanks streaked; bare parts orange-yellow. Flight below (1h): blackish-streaked rufous-buff linings darker than barred quills and often than body; dark trailing wing-edges. Above (1i): streaky cap, pale forehead/collar; buff-edged back paler than remiges; rusty-grey barred tail. 1j First-summer male More as a above after incomplete moult in Africa, but rusty hindneck, creamy cheeks, dark moustaches, and juv remiges/wing-coverts/tail-sides; rufous below, then breast slate and variably washed rufous (and thighs/crissum usually all rufous). Flight below (1k): rufous and slate body; linings more as g; quills as g. Above (1m): note faint collar, dull remiges, barred tail-sides. 1n Second-autumn male Flight below. Moults again Jun-Dec; much as a by autumn, but mix of adult and worn juvenile remiges/primary coverts; paler breast/tail show blackish moustaches/subterminal band.

2 EASTERN RED-FOOTED FALCON (AMUR FALCON) Falco amurensis L26–30 cm (11 in): S63–71 cm (26 in): T12–14 cm (5 in): ¢97% Wooded steppe, riverine/marshy woodland, in N also bogs, to 1,000+ m (to 4,420 m on migration); winters savannah, grassland with trees. Very like 1, if marginally smaller, shorter-winged, longer-tailed; wing-tips just short of tail-tip. Often thought conspecific, but striking plumage differences, disjunct breeding, little winter overlap. Roosts of 5,000 common; most nest singly. Migrates c. 11,000 km to S Africa.[cf. E Pal (c-e) 107:1a-f, (fg) 107:gh; 99, 100:1; Afr Oct-Mar (ab) 106:1a-c, 106:2a-c, 107:2] 2a Adult male Very like 1 at rest, though somewhat darker above and bluer-grey below. Flight below (2b): white linings against dark grey remiges, 6 blackish tail, and rufous lower abdomen. 2c Adult female More like Northern Hobby (107:1) than 1d; grey above with very obscure barring, but slaty head (forehead should be whitish), black moustaches, black-blotched cream underbody, pale rusty lower abdomen/thighs; bare parts orange-red. Flight below (2d): dark-blotched white linings paler than body; thinner bars on white tail (1 has black head, heavy streaks below, dark rufous lower abdomen, darker tail, yellow bare parts). Above (2e): as 1f but dark head/moustaches, paler back/wings. 2f Juvenile (male) All grey-brown above, back/wings edged buff/rufous; hint of paler collar, less contrast on head-sides than 1g; tail greyer; cream below, well streaked (cf. juv Northern Hobby, 107:1g); bare parts yellow. Flight below (2g): as d but more streaked.

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1c

1b

1f 1m

2b 2e 1i

1n

1g 1e 1k 1j

2d

1d 1h

2g 1a

2c

2a 2f

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PLATE 106: ELEONORA’S AND SOOTY FALCONS 1 ELEONORA’S FALCON Falco eleonorae L36–42 cm (15 in): S84–103 cm (37 in): T16–20 cm (7 in): ¢84% Island cliffs, hunting coastal marshes, lakes, woods; winters wetlands, forest, uplands, to 2,000 m (3,000 m). Largish slender falcon; long narrow wings, longish rounded tail; wing-tips crossed over tail-tip. Slow shallow beats, still relatively slow but deeper in pursuit; glides/soars on flat or slightly depressed wings, tail closed or part-open in soaring; kites. Stoops at birds, hunts insects with mix of flapping, gliding, soaring. Gregarious/colonial. [cf. (e-h) 2a-c (Mal), 105:1a-c/2ab (E Afr); (a-c/i-k) 107:1, 108:2d-f, 117b/118cd] 1a Pale adult (male) Blackish-slate above; cream area behind blackish moustaches; creamy-buff throat obscurely shaft-streaked; buff to rufous 5 below (some suffused sooty, which may be first-summer plumage), heavily streaked blackish, crissum usually plain; ¢ cere and orbital rings yellow, ™ blue (see e/g). Flight below (1b: ¢): creamy throat, streaked body, plain crissum; dark-tipped greyish tail barred rufous; dark brown linings, dusky remiges paler-based. Above, chasing Common Swift Apus apus (1c: ™): all dark, tail just paler. Party hawking insects (1d). 1e Dark adult male All dark brownish-slate, but throat often washed cream, lower underparts sometimes tinged rufous; cere and orbital rings yellow. Flight below (1f): all dark; linings blackest, quills little paler, esp towards bases of remiges. 1g Dark adult female Usually slightly browner; cere and orbital rings clear pale blue. Flight above (1h): all dark, looking black. 1i Juvenile (male) Both morphs as a, but fringed cream to rufous above; buff to rufous below, washed brownish, streaked broadly on breast, more finely on belly/thighs; cere bluish, legs green. Flight below (1j: ™): linings heavily spotted blackish (all dark at distance); remiges paler than a, obscurely barred, with dark trailing edges; clearer rufous tail-bars. Above (1k: ¢): browner than a, pale-edged; tail barred/tipped rufous. 1m Dark first-summer (female) As e/g, edged buff to rufous above; belly also edged rufous, crissum barred cream and grey; bare parts as i. Flight below (1n: ¢): dark with paler crissum, whitish to rufous barred tail, whitishmottled remiges. Above (1p: ¢): browner than e/g, edged pale; tail barred/tipped rufous.

2 SOOTY FALCON Falco concolor L32–37 cm (14 in): S75–88 cm (32 in): T13–14 cm (5 in): ¢88% Deserts, hot open lowlands, rocky islands, to c. 1,000 m; winters esp. lakes, rivers, paddyfields, also rainforest, towns, to 2000 m. Mid-sized falcon; shape as larger 1, but shorter wedge-tipped tail; wings crossed over tail, end at or beyond tip. Slowish stiff beats with glides, but in pursuit beats fast and strong as Peregrine (117–118); glides flat; soars on slightly lowered wings angled at wrist. Like 1, insectivorous, feeds young on birds. Crepuscular. [cf. (a-c) 1e-h (Mal); 101:1, 105:1a-c/2ac, (all E Afr); (d-f) 105:1, 1a-c/i-k, 107:1] 2a Adult male All blue-grey with blacker lores and primaries, greyer tail, usually faint black moustaches, sometimes pale throat; bare parts orange5+? yellow (prey: European Bee-eater Merops apiaster). Flight below (2b): grey; dark wing/tail-tips. 2c Adult female Flight above. All blackish primaries and dark tail-tip same as a; otherwise darker sooty-grey contrasting blue rump; usually pale throat, no moustaches; bare parts lemon-yellow. 2d Juvenile Browner-grey above, edged whitish to buff; dusky hood, moustaches and aural wedges contrast cream-buff throat/lower cheeks; buff to yellowish-brown below, variably streaked brown-grey, breast blotched and washed slate; cere/orbital rings bluish, legs pale yellow. Flight below (2e): buff throat; streaked body darkest on breast (some paler than others); linings as breast but more barred; dusky remiges, paler-barred bases; thin tail-bars, wider subterminal. Above (2f): brown-slate with greyer tail, darker primaries, all edged whitish-buff. 2g First-summer Flight below. Darker/sootier than c, much darker than a, but with barred juvenile remiges/tail (this plumage may be origin of claims of dark morph, now not substantiated).

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1f

1n

1b

1p

1j 1k

1h

1d

1i

1c 1m

1e 1g 2g 1a 2b

2e

2a

2c

2f

2d

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PLATE 107: NORTHERN, AFRICAN AND ORIENTAL HOBBIES 1 NORTHERN HOBBY Falco subbuteo L28–34 cm (12 in): S68–84 cm (30 in): T12–15 cm (5 in): ¢88% Open woodland, heath/steppe/farmland with trees, locally towns, to 3,000 m, but 4,000 m in Himalayas; winters savannah, farmland, woodland, often near water, also suburbs. Slim smallish falcon; thin pointed scythe-like wings (™ broader-based), squared/wedge-tipped ? tail; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Stiff shallow beats, deeper and faster in pursuit; glides on flat wings angled back; soars on outstretched wings flat or slightly depressed, tail spread; rarely hovers. Chases/stoops at birds; flaps/glides/soars to catch/eat insects in flight. Solitary nester; sometimes groups on migration; feeds/roosts communally in winter. Often crepuscular. [cf. 2-3 (Oct-May); 105:1d-m/2c-g; 6 106:1a-c/i-k/2d-f; also 112, 117/118 (esp. juvs)] 1a Adult male (nominate; whole range bar d) Dark slate above, often slightly rufous-tinged nape; blackish head/moustachesaural wedges, short creamy streak over eyes, cream cheeks; buff/rufous-buff below with blackish streaks, heaviest on breast, but thighs/crissum rufous, plain or barely streaked. Flight below (1b): cream throat, well-streaked breast, rusty rear body; whitish to rufous-buff linings barred/spotted dark and dark-barred pale grey remiges give grey-looking underwings; barred tail. 1c Paler adult (male) (nominate) S birds tend to be paler slate above and cream to buff below, but no constant racial differences. 1d Adult (male) (streichi; SE China/N Laos) Averages smaller/paler; sedentary. 1e Darker adult female (nominate) Larger; browner by comparison. Flight below (1f): as b, though thighs often more clearly dark-streaked. 1g Juvenile (male) (nominate) Just fledged. Browner above, all edged rufous-buff; thighs/crissum buff ordull rufous-buff (not red); cere bluish, feet green then yellow. Flight below (1h: older ™): similar to f but belly buff (prey: Keeled Skimmer Orthetrum caerulescens).

2 AFRICAN HOBBY Falco cuvieri L26–31 cm (11 in): S60–73 cm (26 in): T11–13 cm (5 in): ¢81% Open woodland, forest edge, damp savannah, locally suburbs, to 3,000 m. Smallish slim falcon; slightly smaller and shorter-winged than 1. Flight simiar; flies fast/low. Little seen; solitary except at insect swarms.[cf. 1 (Oct-May), 105:2c-e (Oct-Mar); E Afr 116:1] 2a Adult (male) Slaty-black above, darkest on head; black moustaches, rufous-buff cheeks/throat (often few rufous feathers on nape) shading to rich rufous below, breast/flanks finely streaked black. Flight below (2b: ¢): linings as body, all looking plain rufous at distance; greyish quills faintly barred buff to rufous. Above, hawking termites on wing (2c: ¢ and larger ™): all blackish 5unless rufous flecks on nape. 2d Juvenile (female) Browner and thinly edged rufous above, more broadly streaked black below; bare parts first greenish, soon yellow. Flight below (2e: ™): as b but body/linings more broadly streaked.

3 ORIENTAL HOBBY Falco severus L24–29 cm (10 in): S61–71 cm (26 in): T9–11 cm (4 in): ¢78% Forest by cliffs, foothills, to 2,600 m. Slim falcon; big ™s no larger than small ¢ 1; shorter-tailed. Flight/behaviour similar. Eats more bats; hunts insects socially. [cf. 107:1, (e-g) 105:2fg (Oct/Nov-Mar/May); Indonesia/PNG 108:1; (a) 81:4, 117f] 3a Adult (male) (nominate; SE Asia/Sundas) Slaty-black above, blacker head (no moustaches); rich rufous below, throat/neck-side paler, all plain except chest-sides (prey: scarab beetle Potosia). Flight below (3b: ¢): linings as ? body, but often some streaks; quills mainly grey, barred rufous on primaries/ tail. Above (3c: ™): all black (chasing vesper bat Myotis). 4? 3d Adult (male) (papuanus; Sulawesi to Solomons) Small; blacker above. 3e Juvenile (female) Dark brown above, edged paler; boldly streaked blackish below; bare parts bluish, soon yellow. Flight below (3f: ™): as b but boldly marked. Above (3g: ¢): all blackish.

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1h 1b 1d

1f

1g

1e

1c

1a

2b

2e 2a

2c

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3d 3g 3c 3e

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PLATE 108: SMALLER AUSTRALIAN FALCONS 1 AUSTRALIAN HOBBY Falco longipennis L29–35 cm (13 in): S66–83 cm (29 in): T13–15 cm (6 in): ¢76% Open woodland, riverine trees, timbered suburbs, semi-desert, to 1,000 m (2,000 m). Smallish slim falcon; long pointed wings, fairly long squared tail; wing-tips reach or exceed tail-tip. Size as Northern Hobby (107:1); larger than African or Oriental (107:2–3). Flat stiff beats, or dashing/flickering in pursuit when often low fast chases over or among trees or open ground; glides on flat or drooped wings with tips backswept; soars on outstretched flat wings turned slightly back at carpals, trailing edges curved. Attacks birds/bats with series of short stoops and towering upswings; eats insects or other small prey on wing or on high perch. Often crepuscular. Solitary. [cf. needletail Hirunda5pus caudacutus, 2, 103:2fg, 117q/118s; Indonesia 107:1-3] 1a Adult (male) (nominate; Tasmania/humid S Australia) Dark slate-grey above; paler rump, fine-barred tail; sooty-black helmet extending into short broad moustaches, cream to buff forehead/throat/half-collar; rich rufous below, breast streaked, flanks blotchy; cere and eye-rings pale grey to yellow. Flight below (1b: ¢): rufous linings streaked as breast; grey quills barred rufous. Above (1c: ™): dark slate; blacker primaries, barred tail. 1d Adult (male) (murchisonianus; dry inland/N Australia) Paler blue-slate above; dull blackish head, cream to buff throat/half-collar; buff to pale rufous below, chest narrowly streaked, flanks spotted/barred. Flight below (1e: ¢): buff linings finely streaked as body; quills much as b, though paler bars. Above (1f: ™): paler grey with blackish primaries, barred tail (prey: White-breasted Wood-swallow Artamus leucorhynchus). 1g Juvenile (female) (nominate) Dark brownish-black above, edged rufous; head suffused buffish-rufous, tail barred rufous; rich rufous below, chest/flanks dark-streaked, but thighs/belly/crissum paler and plain; cere and eye-rings pale blue, feet paler yellow. Flight below (1h: ™): much as b, but body/linings more thinly streaked. Above (1i: ¢): browner than c, with similarly barred tail. 1j Juvenile (female) (murchisonianus) Much as g; duller brown above, similarly edged/barred rufous; crown more rufous; buff throat/chest shading to rufous breast, chest/flanks thin-streaked. Flight below (1k: ™): plainer body than e/h; streaked linings, barred quills. Above (1m: ¢): as i but head more rufous.

2 GREY FALCON Falco hypoleucos L33–43 cm (15 in): S81–103 cm (36 in): T14–19 cm (6 in): ¢66% Semi-desert, grassland, scrub, riverine trees in arid zone, sometimes more humid open areas, to 1,000 m. Mid-sized stocky falcon; long rather pointed wings, short tail, short legs; wing-tips of ¢ reach tail-tip, of ™ fall short. High sexual size dimorphism. Shallow winnowing beats, faster and deeper in zigzag pursuit; glides on flat wings; soars with wings pressed rather stiffly forward, slightly rounded tips upswept. Eats mainly birds; stoops from height, often takes prey on ground. Solitary; or often family groups. [cf. (a-c) 1 (greyest individuals), 103:2a-c, 107:1d-f, 109:2a-c, 117h/118i, even 13:3-4] 2a Adult (female) All blue-grey above and white to palest grey below, with 4faint black shaft-streaks; obscure moustaches; blackish primaries; grey tail fine-barred, broader darker subterminal band; bare parts orange-yellow (prey: Galah Cacatua roseicapilla). Flight below (2b: ¢): linings white to palest grey as body; remiges faintly mottled and dark-tipped, tail obscurely barred. Above (2c: ™): plain grey with dusky remiges, dimly barred tail. 2d Juvenile (male) Slightly darker grey above, edged pale brown, with clearer shaft-streaks; finely barred tail much as a; clearer moustaches; white below, streaks on breast, drops on flanks; cere and eye-rings blue-grey, feet dull yellow. Flight below (2e: ™): white linings streaked/spotted as body; remiges more clearly barred than a. Above (2f: ¢): mottled grey; less contrast with primaries/tail (prey: skink Egernia).

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1b

1h 1e 1a

1i

1k 1g

1c

1m

1d

1f

2a

1j

2e

2b

2c

2f 2d

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PLATE 109: LARGER AUSTRALASIAN FALCONS 1 BLACK FALCON Falco subniger L45–56 cm (20 in): S96–114 cm (41 in): T21–25 cm (9 in): ¢76% Sparse woodland, scrub, plains, esp in arid interior, to 1,000 m. Large sleek falcon; size as Peregrine (117–118), but broader wings/squared tail both longer; small head, short legs/big feet; wing-tips near tail-tip. Short stiff winnowing beats or slower, looser, more crow-like; rapid thrashing in pursuit; soars/glides on slightly drooped wings, wrists forward, rear edges straight, tail usually closed. Soars much, often over shooters, farm machinery, livestock, fires, or foraging harriers; stoops, levels out to chase birds or snatch prey from ground; also pirates raptors. Mostly silent. Solitary. [cf. 2e-g; greyest individuals recall 108:2a-c; when soaring, even 7:1] 4+ 1a Adult (male) Sooty-black to dark brown, with or without grey bloom; often buff forehead or cheeks, white chin; sometimes speckles on breast, faint bars on crissum; cere/eye-rings pale blue-grey, feet pale grey. Flight below (1b: ¢): slightly two-tone wings with remiges marginally paler; sometimes few pale spots on linings, faint thin bars on quills. Above (1c: ¢): uniformly dark. 1d Juvenile (female) Usually darker, esp. against own parents; pale-edged mantle; sometimes pale markings as a; feet bluer-grey. Not distinguishable in flight (1e/1f: ™) except by complete remiges and tail in November–March (when a in quill moult) (prey: Red-kneed Dotterel Charadrius cinctus).

2 BROWN FALCON Falco berigora L41–51 cm (18 in): S88–115 cm (40 in): T21–23 cm (9 in): ¢73% Widespread Australia except dense forest, to 2,000 m; scarce lowland New Guinea, more in mountain valleys to 3,000 m. Largish scruffy falcon, roundshouldered and pot-bellied; blunt-tipped wings, rounded tail, big head, long legs/small feet; wing-tips equal to well short of tail-tip. Slow heavy beats with rowing action, often erratic jinking; in pursuit, shorter stiffer deep beats on backswept wings, jerky and erratic, not flickering like most falcons; glides in shallow V; soars with tips upswept or full dihedral, curved rear edges, often fanned tail. Hovers or kites; and still-hunts, often from man-made structures; will run after insects/lizards; chases birds into cover, pirates raptors, eats car6+ rion. Solitary, or loosely gregarious in local movements or at food sources (e.g. mouse/insect plagues or where fires/tractors disturb prey). Raucous crowing cackles, chatters, screeches. Polymorphic and ratios vary geographically; only paler juveniles distinguishable, except when ads in quill moult October–February. [cf. (e-g) 109:1, also 117/118 juvs; also 103:2e-h, 52:2fg (smaller), even (dhi) 52:3ab] 2a Brown adult (male) (sole morph; Tasmania/predominant SE Australia and New Guinea) Brown above, spotted rufous; tail barred rufous; whitish/grey forehead/face/supercilia and dark moustaches/ear-coverts; white below, shaft-streaks on breast, brown or brown-spotted flanks, brown thighs; or brown or mottled breast/flanks (¢s may tend to be whiter below); bare parts pale grey (or rarely dull yellow). Flight below (2b: ™): white linings variably marked brown; lightly barred remiges, dark wing-tips; barred tail tipped whitish (prey: juvenile rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus). Above (2c: ™): dark brown, tinged rufous by spots/bars. 2d Rufous adult (male) (commonest inland/W Australia) Variable as a, but redder-brown above, rufous below, pale face rufous-buff. 2e Dark adult (female) (commonest N Australia) All black-brown; sometimes obscure moustaches/cheek-patches; indistinct rufous tail-bars; indistinct rufous spots on flanks, sometimes bars on crissum. Arid interior adult (2f: ™): not so dark; clearer moustaches/tail-bars. Flight below (2g: ™): linings as body; quills paler/barred. Above (2h: ™): all dark, quills obscurely notched/barred rufous. 2i Rufous juvenile (male) Mainly dark brown, edged/mottled rufous; head as a/d but face rufous; still rufous tail-bars; bare parts as a (prey: tenebrionid beetle Helaeus colossus). Flight below (2j: ¢): mainly dark brown body/ linings, variably mottled on mid-breast/belly/crissum; dark-barred buff quills. Brown juveniles (not illustrated) similar, but pale face and mottling below more cream to buff, and usually broad buff collar. Dark juveniles (not illustrated) much as e.

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1a

1b

1c

1d

1e

1f

2e 2a 2f 2h

2c

2d 2i

2g

2j

2b

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PLATE 110: NEW ZEALAND AND RED-HEADED FALCONS 1 NEW ZEALAND FALCON Falco novaeseelandiae L36–48 cm (16 in): S66–91 cm (31 in): T16–23 cm (8 in): ¢64% Forest and dense bush, but now more in open tussock grassland, pasture and light scrub in sheep-farming country, to 1,500 m (2,100 m). Powerful falcon of variable size (because of marked sexual dimorphism and forest birds being smaller than those in grassland); shortish rounded wings, longish tail; wingtips well short of tail-tip. Fast powerful beats, faster and deeper in pursuit; glides/soars on flat wings; kites but does not hover. Still-hunts; also hunts from high-circling or, less often, like accipiter, flying low, weaving among trees; preys by direct flight mainly on introduced birds, rabbits, rats and mice; forest populations more on indigenous birds. Solitary. [Unmistakable (37:2 5only other regular raptor; 103:2 is vagrant)] 1a Adult male Blue-black above, very thinly barred rufous to whitish; greyish bands on tail; broad black moustaches, slight rufous eyebrows, dark-streaked rufous cheeks/throat; cream to buff below, thighs/crissum rufous, all streaked dark brown, flanks well barred (prey: Saddleback Creadion carunculatus). Larger female (not illustrated) dull black above, sometimes no pale bars; bolder markings below. Flight below (1b): streaked body, rufous thighs; pale buff linings dark-barred as flanks; quills boldly barred dark brown and whitish. Above (1c): all blackish with pale bars; solid dark wing-ends (prey House Mouse Mus musculus). 1d Dark juvenile (female) Blackish above; rufous eyebrows/cheek-streaks; dark brown below, mottled rufous; thighs chestnut, flanks pale-spotted; contrasting cream/buff throat; bare parts pale blue to grey or olive. Flight below (1e: ™): dark linings mottled paler; boldly barred quills. Above (1f: ™): all blackish but for faintly barred tail. Pale juvenile (not illustrated) more as a but browner; some (especially ¢s) pale-lined above; no bars on flanks.

2 RED-HEADED FALCON Falco chicquera L28–35 cm (12 in): S55–69 cm (24 in): T12–16 cm (5.5 in): ¢76% Plains, semi-desert scrub, foothills, any open country with scattered trees, cultivation, villages, to 1000 m. Smallish slim falcon; shortish pointed wings, longish tail; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Fast winnowing beats, deep and regular in pursuit; glides little, soars less, on flat wings or wrists depressed; hovers only momentarily over prey. Bold, dashing, direct; shoots up near-vertically from perch; flushes birds by flying low or into cover. Almost invariably in pairs, hunting co-operatively. Noisy only at nest. Superspecies with 3. [Almost unmistakable, but cf. 113:2, 116:2 (Iran-NW Ind); also hobbies (107:1/3)] 2a Adult (male) Blue-grey above, faintly barred black on wings; faint black 4 tail-bars, wide subterminal band, white tip; rufous cap/hindneck, darker moustaches; white cheeks to throat, often rufous-tinged chest; white to greywhite below, thinly streaked black on chest, more clearly barred on abdomen. Flight below (2b: ¢): white linings thinly barred black as lower body; grey-white remiges barred brown; greyer tail with bold subterminal band. Above (2c: ¢): grey with contrasting rufous head, and black outer wings and tail-band. Juv (not illustrated) similar but dull rufous head streaked black, browner upperparts barred blackish, and more heavily barred below.

3 RED-NECKED FALCON Falco horsbrughi L30–36 cm (13 in): S59–70cm (25 in): T13–17 cm (6 in): ¢77% Moist tall-grass savannahs, largely where Borassus palms present, but locally (more in S Africa) arid areas with riverine trees, acacia scrub, to 500 m. Superspecies with 2; similar in shape, flight and broad pattern, and usually treated as conspecific, but long isolated: shyer, less conspicuous, more crepuscular; whole plumage more heavily marked; apparent differences also in ecology and breeding. [Almost unmistakable, but cf. (a-c) 113:1a-g; (de) 113:1k-n, 107:1-2] 3a Adult (male) More barred above than 2, tail too; blacker moustaches and above/behind eyes; more rufous on chest, more barred below. Flight 4 below (3b: ™): all well barred; bold subterminal tail-band, rufous chest, black around eyes. Above (3c: ¢): grey areas finely barred. 3d Juvenile (female) Darker above, edged brown, faintly barred blackish; brown crown/nape streaked blackish, 2 buff patches on lower hindneck; white throat; washed rufous below with brown bars, fine streaks. Flight below (3e: ¢): much as b, but barred body/linings washed rufous, especially on breast.

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1d

1b 1e 1a 1f

6+

1c

2a

3e

3a 2b

3b

2c 3d 3c

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PLATE 111: NEOTROPICAL FALCONS 1 BAT FALCON Falco rufigularis L23–30 cm (10 in): S51–67 cm (23 in): T9–12 cm (4 in): ¢61% Forest edge/clearings, wooded savannah, urban areas, to 1,700 m. Small sturdy falcon; long thin wings, longish squared tail, small feet; head enlarged by erectile neck/cheek-feathers; wing-tips near/at/just past tail-tip. At distance dark with pale throat, like White-collared Swift Streptoprocne zonaris. Stiff flat beats; fast, agile, noisy; crepuscular. Pair often on dead tree by day. [cf. 2-3; silhouette recalls 112 or White-collared Swift Streptoprocne zonaris] 1a Adult (petrophilus; NW Mexico) Blue-slate above, edged bluer; obscure thin whitish bars on black tail; black head, white to buff throat/chest/partcollar; black T-shirt, indistinct thin white bars at closer ranges; all-rufous 6 lower abdomen/thighs (prey: spear-nosed bat Artibeus). 1b Adult (nominate; rest of range) Blacker above, edged blue-grey; throat/ collar more buff (even orange on upper chest). Flight below (1c): black head, pale throat; finely white-barred black wings/breast/tail, rufous belly. Above (1d): black; pale part-collar; obscurely white-tipped secondaries, thin-barred tail. 1e Juvenile (nominate) As b above but no bluish edges; throat/collar and bars below more buff to rufous (chest often shaft-streaked); thighs/crissum paler rufous, spotted/barred black. Flight below (1f): much as c but more rufous tone, dark-spotted crissum.

2 ORANGE-BREASTED FALCON Falco deiroleucus L33–40 cm (14 in): S69–85 cm (30 in): T11–15 cm (5 in): ¢66% Forest, especially with cliffs, in S also dry thorn-scrub/woods, to 2,400+ m. Mid-sized powerful falcon; much as smaller and far commoner 1, but shorter wider-based wings, shorter tail, big feet, heavy bill; ¢ head chunky, ™ longer/thinner; wing-tips reach or exceed tail-tip. Behaviour similar to 1, but character more like ¢ Peregrine (117–118) than big swift. [cf. 1/3; also suggests small 117-118 in shape] 2a Adult Blackish-slate above, edged blue-grey; 3–4 thin white tail-bars/tip; black head, white throat, orange part-collar and chest-band (in S America ? sometimes neck-sides/chest apricot, chest also black-streaked), black waist4 coat coarsely barred whitish to cinnamon, rufous lower abdomen/thighs, black bars on crissum (cf. 1e). Flight below (2b): much as 1c but whiter throat, usually broader orange chest-band; rufous-barred breast, barred crissum as 1e. Above (2c): like 1d (prey: Sun Parakeet Aratinga solstitialis). 2d Juvenile Browner-black, edged buff; paler rufous to buff below, less clear waistcoat, more streaked chest, barred thighs/belly/crissum. Flight below (2e): whitish throat, streaked/barred body; wings/tail as a.

3 APLOMADO FALCON Falco femoralis L35–45 cm (16 in): S76–102 cm (35 in): T14–21 cm (7 in): ¢72% Grassland, savannah, to 4,600 m. Mid-sized slim falcon; narrow wings, longish tail; wing-tips well short of tail-tip. Slow buoyant beats, faster in hunt; glides/soars on flat wings, or wrists depressed/tips upcurved. Hunts from perch/low flight; often co-operatively in pairs; hovers. [cf. 1-2] ? ? ? 3a Adult (septentrionalis; C America) Blue-slate above; black tail, 5+ thin white bars; cream cheeks/supercilia into V on nape, black eye-bands/moustaches; cream/buff breast shaft-streaked (esp. ™s); white-edged black cummerbund; rufous below (prey: Ground Dove Columbina passerina). Flight below (3b): pale chest, dark cummerbund, rufous thighs/belly/crissum; dark wings fine-barred, 5-6 white trailing edges; barred tail. Above (3c): grey; white trailing wing-edges, white-barred rump/tail, V on nape. 3d Adult (pichinchae; temperate Andes) Darker; breast more rufous and streaked, abdomen richer rufous; midcummerbund broken. 3e Adult (nominate; rest of S America) Smaller; duller above, crown blacker, supercilia buff; cummerbund narrowed but not broken. 3f Juvenile Much duller/browner above, edged cinnamon; thin buff tail-bands; more buff below, breast heavystreaked, more solid browner cummerbund fringed buff. Flight below (3g) and above (3h): much as b/c, but more heavily marked breast, obscurely barred tail.

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1a 1b 1e 1c

1f

1d

2b

2c 2a

2e

2d

3g

3a

3b

3d

3c

3e

3h 3f

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PLATE 112: MERLIN 1 MERLIN Falco columbarius L24–32 cm (11 in): S53–73 cm (25 in): T11–15 cm (5 in): ¢79% Tundra, moorland, mountain scrub, prairie parkland, sand-dunes, other open country, but also wooded steppe, broken forest, locally towns in Nea, to 2,000 m, on migration to 3,000 m; often winters estuaries, saltings, marshes, farmland. Small compact falcon; shortish broad-based wings, longish tail; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Fast shallow beats, twists/turns in chase; brief glides on flat wings, and undulating hunting flight through regular glides on fleetingly closed wings; soars flat, tail part-spread. Solitary. [cf. distant 117/118; Nea 53:1, 104, 114:1; Pal 43:2, 99, 105:12, 107:1; E Pal 44:1-2, 3de, 39:1k] 6+ 1a Adult male (aesalon; Europe/W Siberia, winters to N Africa/Iran) Slate-blue above with black shafts; tail faintly barred, with broad black subterminal band, white tip; greyer crown, rusty nape; rather obscure face pattern of thin pale supercilia and faint dark moustaches against whitish throat and black-streaked rufous cheeks; cream to rufousbuff below, streaked brown, heaviest on breast/upper belly (prey: Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis). Flight below (1b): creamy to rufous body/linings variably dark-streaked; barred remiges; pale tail with broad dark subterminal band. Above (1c): slate-blue but for blackish remiges and tail-band. 1d Adult male (insignis; C/E Siberia, winters to Iraq/N India/China) Paler blue-grey above, whiter below; often more white on forehead. 1e Adult male (pallidus; W Siberian steppes, winters to Turkey/NW India) Averages slightly larger; much paler; only thin streaks below. 1f Adult male (nominate; Canada/N USA, winters to N Peru/Caribbean) Darker blue-slate above, stronger tail-bars; darker buff cheeks/supercilia; whiter below (often rufous wash only on breast/thighs) with heavier dark to red-brown streaks, less so on thighs/crissum. Flight above (1g): less contrast with remiges; 3 dark bars on tail (tail looks black with pale bars). Flight below (not illustrated): wings much darker, with thin pale spots/bars. 1h Adult male (richardsoni; Great Plains, winters to S USA/C Mexico) Slightly larger than f; much paler above, with pale rufous nape more as a; moustaches may even be absent; creamy below, more lightly streaked rufous. Flight below (not illustrated): wings much paler, more as a. 1i Adult female (aesalon) Darkish brown above, edged rufous, black shaft-streaks; rump usually greyer; tail with 6+ cream bars and tip; head pattern as a, but dark brown and cream; below, whitish to buff, tinged rufous from breast down, heavily streaked brown (often more drop-like or barred on flanks/belly/thighs); crissum usually plain. Flight below (1j): wings as a, tail strongly barred. Above (1k): dark brown; whitish nape, greyer rump, barred tail. 1m Adult female (pallidus) Palest race; much paler brown above, edged buff; sharper supercilia, whiter cheeks/ nape/below. Flight above (1n). 1p Adult female (nominate) Darker brown above than i, sometimes washed grey on back/wings and especially rump; buff to rufous supercilia, darker cheeks, obscure moustaches; more rufous below, heavily marked dark brown but less on thighs/crissum. Flight (not shown): dark underwings as f; tail has only 4 buff bars, wider white tip. 1q Adult female (suckleyi; SE Alaska/W British Columbia, few winter to California) Darkest race; blackish above (¢ grey sheen in good light); rusty-buff below, heavily blotched blackish. Flight above (1r): all dark, including tail but for thin whitish tip. 1s Juvenile (male) (aesalon) Not safely separable in field from i, though rump dark brown (not greyish); tendency to have darker brown upperparts, and deeper buff underparts with darker streaks. Juveniles of other races also like adult ™s, but lacking any grey.

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1j

1s 1i

1b

1c

1k 1a 1h 1r

1q

1f

1p 1g

1m 1n 1e

1d

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PLATE 113: LANNER AND LAGGAR FALCONS 1 LANNER FALCON Falco biarmicus L39–48 cm (17 in): S88–113 cm (40 in): T16–21 cm (7 in): ¢76% Desert, savannah, wooded grassland, forest cliffs, mountains, hunting also ?? over fields/coasts, to 2,500 m, in Africa locally to 5,000 m. Medium falcon; long wings, longish tail; wing-tips often reach or almost reach tail-tip. Slow ? flat beats, faster/deeper in pursuit; glides/soars on flat or slightly depressed ? wings. Hunts by surprise, chase, stoop, or even frontal attack (c); often snatches from ground. Solitary, often in pairs; up to 20 at abundant food (termites, locusts, queleas) or localised supply (waterholes, grass fires). Also crepuscular. [cf. 114:2 (esp. juvs); C Asia 114:3; also 116:2, 117-118] 1a Adult (male) (nominate; S Africa to S Kenya) Blue-grey above, barred 6+ tail; white forehead, rufous crown/nape outlined black, thin moustaches; white below, or pink (esp. ™s?), flanks/thighs spotted. Flight below (1b: ¢): linings as body, any spotting generally invisible; obscurely barred quills. Above (1c: ™): blue-grey, paler tail narrowly dark-barred; rufous cap, obvious moustaches (flying head-on at Common Pratincole Glareola pratincola). 1d Adult (female) (abyssinicus; N Kenya across tropical sub-Saharan Africa) Less even blue-grey above, more barred, edged brown (esp. ™s); chestnut crown; wider tail-subterminal; spots below, tending to bars on flanks/thighs (prey: Wahlberg’s Epauletted Fruit-bat Epomophorus wahlbergi). 1e Adult (male) (erlangeri; NW Africa) Smaller; palest race (usually much paler than shown); light brownish-slate and barred above; buff crown thinly streaked or plain; cream below, lightly spotted. Flight below (1f: ¢): whitish, thinly spotted; quills only faintly barred. Above (1g: ™): pale-edged brown-grey, so primaries much darker; pale crown outlined black; tail-bars rusty-grey. 1h Adult (male) (feldeggii; SE Europe/Asia Minor to Azerbaijan) Darkest race; dark slate-brown above, barred/ tipped paler to rusty-grey; deep rufous crown all streaked; cream below with dark streaks/drops, buff flanks/ trousers more barred. Flight below (1i: ¢): cream to buff linings streaked (especially greater coverts), or sometimes little marked; quills paler as dark bars narrower than on a; thighs/flanks barred. Above (1j: ™): slate-brown, primaries hardly darker; streaky rufous cap, pale tail-bars. 1k Juvenile (female) (nominate) Dark brown above, edged buff; paler crown, light supercilia, brownish cheeks; plain mid-tail, buff tip; plain throat; cream below, heavy streaks, flanks/thighs blotched; cere green-grey. 1m Juvenile (female) (feldeggii) As k, but rufous crown heavily streaked; supercilia white to cream; here relatively lightly streaked below (cf. n); cere/eye-rings bluish (also feet at first). Flight below (1n: ™): pale throat; body and linings (especially greater coverts) may look all dark with pale spots/streaks; quills much paler as b, but browner bars, darker wing-tips.

2 LAGGAR FALCON Falco jugger L39–46 cm (17 in): S88–107 cm (38 in): T16–21 cm (7 in): ¢79% ? Dry open woodland, scrub, plains, cultivation, semi-desert, wherever some trees, also towns, to 1,000 m (recorded to 1,980 m). Mid-sized falcon; shape ? as 1, sometimes thought conspecific. Flight/pattern comparable. Seen more on poles, trees, even city buildings. Waits on shooting parties to stoop at flushed/wounded birds. [Distinctive as 1 and 114:2 little overlap (NW Ind); also 116:2, 117-118] 2a Adult (male) Dark brown above, edged paler; plain centre tail, tip buff; rusty-white to rufous crown/nape with black shafts, outlined in white over black eye-stripes/moustaches; whitish to rusty-white below, lightly streaked 5on chest-sides, more on belly, blotched/barred more solidly on flanks/thighs. Flight below (2b: ¢): whitish throat/chest, streaked abdomen/linings (esp. flanks/greater coverts); dark-barred pale quills. Above (2c: ™): all dark but for streaky rusty crown, whitish supercilia, buff tail-tip. 2d Juvenile (female) Much as a above, but crown/nape brown; eye-stripes and rear cheeks browner, less clearcut; except white throat, mainly dark brown below and variably pale-mottled; cere/eye-rings grey-green (also feet at first). Flight below (2e): mainly dark body/linings contrast white throat, pale-barred quills.

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1g

1n 1b

1j

1c

1f 1h

1a 1m

1i

1k

1d 1e

2d

2e 2c

2b

2a

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PLATE 114: PRAIRIE, SAKER AND ALTAI FALCONS 1 PRAIRIE FALCON Falco mexicanus L37–47 cm (17 in): S91–113 cm (40 in): T16–20 cm (7 in): ¢72% Prairies, semi-desert, with bluffs, in foothills, mountains, to 3,700 m; in winter lowland plains, farmland, wetlands. Fairly large falcon; pointed wings, longish tail, squared head, big eyes; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Stiff shallow beats below horizontal; glides on flat wings, or wrists depressed; soars flat, tail somewhat fanned. Surprises mammals on ground with low flight or glide from perch; chases flushed birds; will hover when prey enters cover. Solitary. [cf. 117-118 (juv tundrius); also 112 (far smaller), 115d-gm (winter, N), 71:1h (perched)] 1a Adult (male) Brown above, edged/barred paler; barred tail-sides; streaked crown, paler collar, whitish supercilia/strip behind eyes, thin mous5taches; whitish below, breast streaked, belly spotted, flanks barred. Flight below (1b: ¢): looks rather pale apart from dark band on mid-wings, widest on axillaries; relatively lightly marked forewings/body; barred pale quills. Above (1c: ™): brown, edged paler; head markings; barred tail-sides (chasing Western Meadowlark Sturnella neglecta). 1d Juvenile (female) Much as a, but lacks pale bars above and more buff and streaked below, so darker; thighs more streaked; bare parts grey at first. Flight below (1e: ™): buff tone and more heavily streaked, but pattern as b.

2 SAKER FALCON Falco cherrug L47–57 cm (20 in): S97–126 cm (44 in): T18–24 cm (8 in): ¢72% Plains to forest-steppe in W, to 2000 m; semi-desert montane plateaux/cliffs in E, at 2,600–4,700 m; winters open grassland to desert; often hunts at wetlands. Large bulky falcon; long broad blunt-tipped ? wings, longish tail; wing-tips short of tail-tip. Slow shallow beats, but faster/deeper in pursuit; soars/glides on flat or slightly depressed wings; sometimes hovers. Most prey taken on ground, from low flight or perch, but stoops at birds. Solitary/pairs. [cf. 113:1 (esp. juvs); NW Ind 113:2; also 3, 116:2, 117-118; 115d-gm (allopatric)] 2a Adult (nominate; E Europe/W Asia/Siberia, winters to E Africa/NW India): Brown to greyer-brown above, edged whitish/ rufous; greyer/rustier tail with lateral bars; cream/rufous-tinged head with dusky streaks, whitish supercilia, thin moustaches; creamy 5 below, variably streaked/spotted (cf. d) (prey: Spotted Souslik Citellus suslicus). Flight below (2b: 3 ¢s): palest thinly streaked, and faint bars on quills; darkest heavily streaked, esp. band on greater coverts, and clearer bars. Above (2c: ™): pale edges give buff/rufous tone; dark remiges, pale head, lateral tail-bars. 2d Adult (milvipes; C Asia E/S of a, winters to Iran/C China) Barred rufous above, tail too; pinkish-rufous crown/nape streaked dark, clearer moustaches; marked below as variably as a, but flanks/thighs more barred than streaked. 2e Juvenile (female) (both races) Much as a; darker crown more streaked, clearer moustaches; usually heavier streaks below; bare parts blue-grey. Flight below (2f: ™): linings almost solidly dark against pale remiges; tail more clearly barred than b.

3 ALTAI FALCON Falco altaicus L48–58 cm (21 in): S100–122 cm (44 in): T19–24 cm (8 in): ¢70%? Open plateaux, forest edge, at 1,500–2,750+ m. Big heavy falcon; proportions as 2 and Gyr Falcon (115) and usually considered conspecific with one or other (see p. 66). Flight/behaviour presumably similar, but breeding regime different. [cf. 114:2, 115, 117-118] 3a Grey adult (male) Grey to brown-grey above, or more barred (b); streaky head, pale supercilia, obscure moustaches; cream below, usually heavily streaked/barred. Flight below (3b: ™): much as 2e; rather solidly dark linings, barred quills. Above (3c: ¢): dark grey; pale supercilia, slight collar. 3d Rufous adult (female) More as 2d, edged and broadly barred rufous; but darker crown, more rufous tone, clearly barred tail. Juvenile (not illustrated) apparently similar, equally variable; bare parts blue-grey.

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3+?

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PLATE 115: GYR FALCON 1 GYR FALCON Falco rusticolus L50–63 cm (22 in): S105–131 cm (46 in): T19–27 cm (9 in): ¢80% Rocky arctic coasts/islands, tundra rivers/lakes with crags, taiga edge, subarctic mountains, to 1,500 m; in winter also flat coasts, steppe, farmland. Largest bulkiest falcon; broad blunt-tipped wings, longish wide-based tapering tail, large feet; wing-tips under two-thirds down tail. Slow shallow beats look confined to hands, but fast and deep in pursuit; glides/soars on flat or slightly bowed wings, tips often upcurved. Like other large falcons, hunts mammals and birds (especially seabirds, grouse, ducks) from low or high flight, or perch; takes much prey from ground or water; chases birds, often rising for final stoop, but seldom 5stoops from high as Peregrine (117–118). Mostly solitary; juveniles together on passage. Polymorphic: white morph (‘candicans’) commonest in Greenland and high Arctic; grey morph (‘islandus’, ‘rusticolus’, etc) in Subarctic; dark morph (‘obsoletus’) scarcer; but each may occur anywhere and any or intermediates may be locally dominant, though dark morphs mainly on taiga, white around cliffs. [a-cjk distinctive, but cf. white buteos; (d-g esp. hin) 43:1, 117-118, Pal 114:2, Nea 114:1] 1a White adult (male) White, variably marked with arrowheads/bars on back/wings, sometimes almost plain (b); tail correspondingly barred or plain; often some dusky streaks on head; sometimes faint moustaches, few spots/ streaks on flanks/thighs; bare parts yellow/orange. Flight below (1b: ¢): white; dark-tipped wings; sometimes thin spots/streaks on linings/flanks. Whiter bird above (1c: ™); few dusky marks on scapulars, coverts, wing-tips, and tail (chasing Common Eider Somateria mollissima). 1d Grey adult (female) Dark slate-grey above, edged/barred paler, with barred tail; grey crown/nape usually streaked whitish, thin supercilia, streaky pale cheeks, faint moustaches. Flight below (1e: ¢): whitish with sparse to (as here) heavy grey-brown streaks on breast/linings, spots on belly, bars on flanks; two-tone wings with obscurely barred remiges; barred tail. Above (1f: ™): all grey but for paler head, edgings and bars; barred tail. Darker bird above (1g: ™): all rather uniform slate-grey. 1h Dark-hooded adult (male) Crown/nape/cheeks all dark brown; streaky cream forehead, usually pale supercilia, and thin moustaches; brown to brown-grey above, barred/edged paler; white to cream below, with streaks on chest, arrowheads/bars on abdomen. Not unlike Peregrine, but duller (no blue) above with paler cross-bars, less regular bars below; pale supercilia and more extensive forehead; shape, wing/tail proportions and underwings differ. 1i Dark adult (male) Flight below. Dark brown, streaked whitish on breast, more barred on thighs/belly/crissum; linings spotted; paler greyish remiges with little barring; tail well barred. 1j White juvenile (female) Not unlike a, but white head finely streaked; back/wings more streaked than spotted or barred, or mostly brown with broad white edges; tail white or barred; white underbody more extensively streaked; bare parts green-grey to blue-grey. Flight below (1k: ™): much as b, but often obscure barring on remiges; tail usually white from below. 1m Grey juvenile (female) Flight below. Cream body and linings heavily streaked brown; contrasting paler remiges barred cream; tail barred, too; bare parts as j. 1n Dark juvenile (male) All dark brown to grey-brown with paler edges; tail usually plain brown, rarely obscurely barred at sides; at distance looks almost plain above and lightly streaked below; bare parts as j. Plucking ¢ Ptarmigan Lagopus mutus.

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PLATE 116: TAITA AND BARBARY FALCONS 1 TAITA FALCON Falco fasciinucha L26–30 cm (11 in): S61–72 cm (26 in): T7–9 cm (3 in): ¢70%? Rocky gorges, crags, at 600–3,800 m in wooded uplands with low rainfall; some wander to lowland cultivation/woodland, even savannah, but mostly scarce with fragmented distribution except in Zambezi gorges (often seen at Victoria Falls). Small stocky falcon; merlin-sized, hobby-coloured, peregrineproportioned; pointed wide-based wings, short tail; wing-tips reach tail-tip. Fast, stiff, shallow parrot-like beats; glides/soars on flat or slightly depressed wings. Mainly bird-eater: circles high and stoops spectacularly; sometimes shoots past and, swooping up, takes prey from below; catches hirundines and swifts; also eats insects in flight like African Hobby (107:2). Perches incon4spicuously on cliffs or cliff-face shrubs for long periods. Solitary; often pairs. [cf. 107:2 (2 larger, strictly allopatric)] 1a Adult (male) Slate-grey above; paler buff-tipped tail obscurely barred; blacker crown, rufous nape-patches/ forehead; white to cream throat and rufous-edged cheeks, bold moustaches; rufous below with few very faint fine black shaft-streaks. Flight below (1b: ¢): pale cheeks/throat; linings rufous as body but lightly barred/spotted; quills finely barred. Above (1c: ¢): rump/tail paler grey than slate to blackish back/wings; rufous nape-patches also show in good light. Diving at Black Swifts Apus barbatus (1d). 1e Juvenile (female) Much as a, but browner-grey above, scapulars/greater coverts buff-edged; less rufous forehead/nape-patches; duller rufous below, more streaks on chest/abdomen. Flight below (1f: ™): linings usually plain rufous, though duller body somewhat streaked. Above (1g: ™): brownish-grey, rump/tail hardly paler, but tail buff-tipped; nape-patches show in good light.

2 BARBARY FALCON Falco pelegrinoides L33–44 cm (15 in): S76–102 cm (35 in): T12–16 cm (6 in): ¢64% Stony semi-desert and desert, rocky foothills, with bluffs and some trees/ bushes, hunting also over cultivation and around oases/settlements, to 1,000 m (2,000 m). Medium to largish falcon often treated as conspecific with Peregrine (117–118), but slimmer body, relatively longer thinner wings, longer-looking squarer tail; wing-tips almost reach tail-tip. Flight similar, but ? normal action faster, shallower, more flickering, with only hands appearing ? to move. Sudden directional changes when pursuing prey; but most behav? ? ? iour otherwise comparable. [cf. 117bp, 118cdq; 113:1 (N Africa/SW Asia), ? 113:2 (NW Ind); 110:2 (Iran-NW Ind)] 4? 2a Adult (male) (nominate; N Africa/Middle East/SW Arabia) Pale bluegrey above with thin dusky spots, blacker on mantle/shoulders; barred tail with subterminal band, whitish tip; rufous-buff forehead and band around nape, brown crown; thin dusky eyestripes and moustaches; cream to cinnamon or orange-buff below, cheeks and throat/breast plain, belly lightly spotted or streaked, flanks/crissum thinly barred. Flight below (2b: ¢): cream to buff, barred mainly on flanks, faintly on wings; dusky wing-tips/distal tail-bands; thin moustaches. Above (2c: ™): blue-grey, rump palest; rufous nape, barred tail (flying at ¢ Blue Rock-thrush Monticola solitarius). 2d Adult (male) (babylonicus; Iran/W Mongolia, also winters India) Little larger; paler grey above, more rufous nape/forehead, narrower moustaches; paler and more rufous-tinged below, sometimes lightly marked only on flanks/thighs. Flight below (2e: ™): as b, but even more thinly barred. Above (2f: ™): paler than c; forehead/nape more contrastingly rufous. Lanner (113:1) similar, but less slim with broader wings, paler crown, more black in head pattern. 2g Juvenile (female) (babylonicus) Grey-brown above, broadly edged rufous; brown crown, cream to rufous-buff forehead and around nape, thin moustaches; cream to rufous-buff below, thinly streaked (much less heavily marked than Peregrine). Flight below (2h: ™): thin-streaked body, barred linings/quills, dark wing-tips, thin moustaches. Above (2i: ¢): rufous-tinged grey-brown; barred tail, brown crown, rufous-buff collar. Juvenile nominate (not illustrated) darker brown above, but still rusty-buff on head.

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PLATE 117: PEREGRINE FALCON I 1 PEREGRINE FALCON Falco peregrinus (i) L35–51 cm (17 in): S79–114 cm (40 in): T13–19 cm (6 in): ¢69% For map see p. 312 Widest natural range of any bird species, but mostly scarce: coastal cliffs, gorges, forest rivers, moors, tundra, mountains, to 3,300 m (4,000 m); locally forests, rocky deserts, even cities; hunts/winters estuaries, wetlands, plains, savannah, any other fairly open country. Mid-sized/largish compact falcon; triangular wings with short broadbased arms and long narrow-pointed hands, square/tapering tail, deep chest, broad head and rump; wing-tips near or reaching tail-tip. Flight powerful, fast, agile: stiff shallow beats with short glides, faster/deeper in pursuit; glides on flat wings or with wrists depressed; soars flat with angled leading edges and straight trailing edges, rounder-looking tips, and spread tail. Hangs in updraughts over cliffs, rarely hovers. Locates prey in circling flight or from high perch; stoops, or chases before final stoop; some prey seized without stoop or snatched from tree, cliff or ground. Stoop speeds certainly reach 160 km/h, sometimes possibly 250 km/h (on occasion allegedly 400+ km/h). Mostly solitary, even on migration. Plumages very variable throughout vast range, and notes below must be treated only as general guide. [cf. Nea 115, also 114:1; Neo 111:1-2; Pal 113:1, 114:2-3, 115, 116:2, also 106:1-2; Afr 113:1, also 8:4 and local/rare 116:1-2, 114:2; Ind 110:3, 113:2, also still more locally 8:4, 114:2 (winter), 116:2 (winter); Aus 108:2, 109:2] 1a Adult male (nominate; most Europe across N Asia S of tundra): Blue-grey above, barred black; paler rump, barred greyer tail; black crown/mantle/shoulders edged blue-grey; broad dark moustaches, cream cheek-patches, white throat; cream to pink-buff below, variably tinged grey, chest flecked black, otherwise barred (prey: Feral Pigeon Columba livia). Replaced from NE Norway across N USSR by calidus (not illustrated; winters S to S Africa/ India/New Guinea): bulkier, paler, with more grey-blue crown/mantle; thinner moustaches, larger cheek-patches; whiter and less heavily barred below. 1b Adult male (brookei; Mediterranean/N Iran) Smaller; darker above, sometimes rufous nape-spots/band; pinker below, denser bars. 1c Adult male (madens; Cape Verdes) Less RSD; rufous-brown above, head also; collar/cheeks/underbody pinkish-buff. Female more tawny/rufous below. 1d Adult male (minor; sub-Saharan Africa) Small; darker above than a (and esp. migrant calidus), sometimes rufous nape; cream-buff below, well spotted/barred. 1e Adult male (radama; Madagascar/Comoros) Small; darker above than d; helmeted; heavy barring. 1f Adult male (peregrinator; India/China) Smallish; dark slate above; sometimes black cheeks form helmeted head, but often pale cheek-patches; rufous/grey below, well to little barred. 1g Adult male (ernesti; S Thailand/Indonesia/Philippines/New Guinea) Darkest race: black above, faintly edged/ barred grey; black helmet; breast buff/rufous, belly/flanks blue-grey, densely barred. 1h Adult male (macropus; Australia) Head/cheeks black, forming helmet; N bird shown, being dark blue-slate above, with buff/rufous chest, grey flanks/thighs finely barred. In SW Australia smaller, with pale rufous chest, black-barred deep rufous abdomen/flanks (see also j on plate 118). 1i Adult male (anatum; most N America) Averages larger/darker than a, crown blacker; plain or lightly streaked chest white, buff or rufous. Replaced from Bering Strait to Greenland by tundrius (not illustrated; winters S to Argentina/Chile): size of a, and similar above, but pale forehead, larger cheek-patches, thinner moustaches, plain or lightly marked white chest. Replaced to NW by pealei (see n on plate 118 and also juvenile s below): largest race; darker; streaks on larger cheek-patches; heavier spots on white chest. 1j Adult male (cassini; S Chile/Argentina/Falklands and N locally to Ecuador) Dark slate above, broadly barred black; like g, h and some f, black cheeks form helmeted head; rufous and grey below, boldly spotted/barred. 1k Pale adult male (cassini; pale ‘kreyenborgi’ morph, long thought separate species) Pale grey above and all clearly barred blackish; buff to cinnamon crown finely streaked black; large brownish-white cheeks behind thin moustaches; white to cream below, obscurely barred and finely streaked dusky (esp. at sides). 1m Adult female (nominate) Larger than a; slightly darker above; often deeper buff below, sometimes pale rufous, with heavier chest-spots, coarser barring (prey: ¢ Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope). 1n Juvenile (female) (nominate) Dark brown above, thinly edged rufous; buff streaks on head form collar; streaky cream cheeks behind wide moustaches; dark-streaked cream to rufous-buff below, plainer throat; bare parts bluegrey to greenish, legs soon turning yellow. 1p Juvenile (female) (brookei) Head marked rufous; darker brownish to rufous below, heavier streaks. 1q Juvenile (female) (macropus) Dark cheeks forming helmet as h; buff to orange-buff below with heavy streaks/spots. 1r Juvenile (female) (anatum) Darker brown above than n, edged rufous; more rufous below, streaks heavier/ darker, Vs on thighs. Juvenile tundrius (not illustrated; see i) has buff forehead, supercilia, cheeks, sometimes crown; thin moustaches; wide buff edges above; often thin streaks below. 1s Juvenile (female) (pealei; Commander to Queen Charlotte Islands, winters S to California) Still blacker above; cheeks/throat heavily marked; solid streaks below.

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PLATE 118: PEREGRINE FALCON II 1 PEREGRINE FALCON Falco peregrinus (ii) L35–51 cm (17 in): S79–114 cm (40 in): T13–19 cm (6 in): ¢69% 1a Adult (nominate; most Europe across N Asia S of tundra) ¢™ Flight below. Broad moustaches, cream cheeks, white throat; often cream to pink-buff tone to breast, but spotted/barred abdomen and barred linings look grey, as do greyer-white quills barred dark grey. Above (1b: ™): blue-grey to blackish; back/rump/white-tipped barred tail palest; head/shoulders/remiges darkest. 1c Adult male (brookei; Mediterranean/N Iran) Flight below. Smaller; broader moustaches; rufous-pink tone to breast/forearms and all more closely barred. Above (1d: ™): dark slate-grey; often rufous spots on nape, sometimes 5 forming obscure collar or even extending to crown.

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1e Adult male (minor; sub-Saharan Africa) Flight above. Smaller; darker still; again variable rufous nape-patches or collar, especially in N part of range. 10% smaller, 30% lighter, and clearly darker than migrant calidus from N Eurasia (see note under a on plate 117). 1f Adult male (peregrinator; India/China) Flight below. Smallish; dark; pink to richly rufous and/or grey below, nearly plain to well barred. Above (1g: ™): dark slate with blacker head; any paler strip on cheeks often rufous, sometimes white. Again smaller and darker than migrant calidus (note under a on plate 117) and japonensis (more like k). 1h Adult male (ernesti; S Thailand/Indonesia/Philippines/New Guinea) Flight below. Darkest race; buff to rufous breast and grey abdomen/linings heavily barred; remiges paler. Black above, faintly edged/barred; black helmet; much darker than calidus (see a on plate 117). 1i Adult male (macropus; Australia) Flight below. Black head/cheeks form helmet as f/h; variably white to buff/ rufous chest (see h on plate 117 and j below), grey abdomen/linings; all barring fine. 1j Dark adult male (macropus; ‘submelanogenys’, formerly treated as distinct race) Flight below. Helmeted head as i; chest often buff, breast/abdomen richly rufous with coarser barring. 1k Adult male (anatum; most N America) Flight below. Averages larger than a; white to rufous chest plain or lightly streaked. Above (1m: ™): darker, crown blacker. Replaced to NW by pealei (see n), and from Bering Strait to Greenland by tundrius (wintering S to Argentina/Chile): as a, but forehead paler, cheek-patches larger, moustaches thinner, white chest plain or lightly marked. 1n Adult male (pealei: Commander to Queen Charlotte Islands, winters S to California) Flight above. Longer broader tail than k; darker; larger white cheek-patches streaked. Whiter chest, heavier spots (prey: Ancient Murrelet Synthliboramphus antiquus, of similar range). 1p Juvenile female (nominate) Flight below. Cream to rufous-buff, streaked dark brown except throat; linings coarsely barred, looking browner at distance than greyish wings of a; remiges much as a, but barred tail browner; creamy cheek-patches lightly streaked, narrower moustaches. 1q Juvenile female (brookei) Flight below. Darker than p; browner to rufous, more heavily streaked. 1r Juvenile female (peregrinator) Flight below. Rusty-brown; bold thin streaks; reduced cheek-patches. Migrant juvenile calidus (not illustrated; see note under f above and also a on plate 117) larger, whiter, broadly streaked. 1s Juvenile female (macropus) Flight below. More or less deep buff underparts, with dusky streaks on breast, coarse wavy bars on flanks/thighs; dark cheeks forming helmet as on i, but browner. 1t Juvenile female (anatum) Flight below. More rufous than p and heavier darker streaks, thighs with arrowheads; buff cheek-patches. Juvenile tundrius (not illustrated; see k) creamy below, narrower streaks, thin moustaches. 1u Juvenile female (pealei) Flight below. Much darker than t; broader streaks, so looks almost solidly dark with pale lines; also cheeks/throat streaked.

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Further reading There are numerous books on birds of prey, many of them excellent. The following, greatly abbreviated list includes those which we consider to be the most important, or the most useful, internationally and/or regionally, with regard mainly (but by no means exclusively) to the identification of raptors in the field; also included are several field guides and avifaunas which, while not devoted solely to raptors, have particularly useful sections on them. Note that regional field guides exist for most parts of the world, but not all are listed here. Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. 1978. Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi. [All subspecies treated individually] Beaman, M. & Madge, S. 1998. The Handbook of Bird Identification for Europe and the Western Palearctic. Christopher Helm, London. [Fine treatment of raptors] Beehler, B. M., Pratt, T. K. & Zimmerman, D. 1986. Birds of New Guinea. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. [Still invaluable for this region] Borrow, N. & Demey, R. 2001. Birds of Western Africa. Christopher Helm, London. [Up-to-date distributions] Brown, L. H. & Amadon, D. 1968. Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World. Country Life, Feltham, UK. [Still essential for serious raptor students] Brown, L. H., Urban, E. K. & Newman, K. 1982. The Birds of Africa. Vol. 1. Academic Press, London & New York. [Much useful information] Cramp, S. & Simmons, K. E. L. 1982. Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. [Comprehensive texts] Debus, S. J. S. 1998. The Birds of Prey of Australia: a Field Guide to Australian Raptors. Oxford University Press, Melbourne & Oxford. [Essential for Australia] Del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. (eds). 1994. Handbook of the Birds of the World. 2. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. [Excellent overview] Ferguson-Lees, J & Christie, D. A. 2001. Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London. [Comprehensive work] Forsman, D. 1999. The Raptors of Europe and the Middle East. A Handbook of Field Identification. T & A D Poyser, London. [Best book for region, photographic] Grossman, M. L. & Hamlet, J. 1964. Birds of Prey of the World. Cassell, London. [Many outstanding photos] Kemp, A. & Kemp, M. 1998. Birds of Prey of Africa and its Islands. New Holland Publishers, London & Cape Town. [Succinct and also covers owls] Marchant, S. & Higgins, P. J. 1993. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press, Melbourne & Oxford. [Exhaustive treatment of species] Mundy, P. J., Butchart, D., Ledger, J. & Piper, S. 1992. The Vultures of Africa. Academic Press, London. [Wonderfully readable] Palmer, R. S. 1988. Handbook of North American Birds. Vols 4 & 5. Diurnal Raptors. Yale University Press, New Haven & London. [Much useful information] Rasmussen, P. C. & Anderton, J. C. 2005. The Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. 2 vols. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. [Covers Indian subcontinent and Afghanistan] Ridgely, R. S. & Greenfield, P. J. 2001. The Birds of Ecuador. 2 vols. Christopher Helm, London. [In-depth ­treatment of 70+ species] Robson, C. 2000. A Field Guide to the Birds of South-east Asia. New Holland, London. [Best field guide for region] Sibley, D. 2000. The North American Bird Guide. Alfred A. Knopf Inc., New York, Random House, Toronto, & Pica Press, London. [Excellent illustrations] Simmons, R. E. 2000. Harriers of the World: their behaviour and ecology. Oxford University Press, Oxford. [Monograph on all the harriers Circus] Stevenson, T. & Fanshawe, J. 2002. Field Guide to the Birds of East Africa. Christopher Helm, London. [Up-to-date ­distributions] Svensson, L., Grant, P. J., Mullarney, K. & Zetterström, D. 1999. Collins Bird Guide. HarperCollins, London. [Easy to use] Wattel, J. 1973. Geographical Differentiation in the Genus Accipiter. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 13. [Unrivalled analysis of genus Accipiter] Wells, D. R. 1999. The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London. [Detailed texts] Wheeler, B. K. 2003a. Raptors of Eastern North America. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. [Essential for North America] Wheeler, B. K. 2003b. Raptors of Western North America. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. [Essential for North America] Wheeler, B. & Clark, W. S. 1995. A Photographic Guide to North American Raptors. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. [Handy for field use] Yosef, R., Miller, M. L. & Pepler, D. 2002. Raptors in the New Millennium. International Birding & Research Center, Eilat, Israel. [Stimulating Proceedings of 2000 world conference] Zalles, J. I. & Bildstein, K. L. 2000. Raptor Watch: A global directory of raptor migration sites. BirdLife International, ­Cambridge, England. [Innovative, highly detailed directory]

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INDEX Entries in the species list at the front of the book are given in italic. Page numbers are in roman script, while plate numbers are in bold. Accipiter albogularis 12, 176, 50 badius 11, 154, 39 bicolor 14, 186, 55 brachyurus 13, 174, 49 brevipes 11, 162, 43 butleri 11, 166, 45 castanilius 11, 156, 40 chilensis 14, 186, 55 chionogaster 14, 182, 53 cirrhocephalus 13, 180, 52 collaris 13, 188, 56 cooperii 14, 184, 54 erythrauchen 13, 170, 47 erythronemius 14, 182, 53 erythropus 13, 156, 40 fasciatus 12, 180, 52 francesii 11, 160, 42 gentilis 15, 162, 43 griseiceps 11, 166, 45 griseogularis 12, 178, 51 gularis 13, 164, 44 gundlachi 14, 184, 54 haplochrous 12, 174, 49 henicogrammus 12, 170, 47 henstii 14, 160, 42 hiogaster 11, 178, 51 imitator 12, 176, 50 luteoschistaceus 12, 174, 49 madagascariensis 9, 140, 32 melanochlamys 12, 172, 48 melanoleucus 14, 158, 41 meyerianus 15, 176, 50 minullus 13, 156, 40 nanus 13, 164, 44 nisus 14, 162, 43 novaehollandiae 11, 178, 51 ovampensis 14, 154, 39 poliocephalus 13, 172, 48 poliogaster 10, 188, 56 princeps 15, 194, 59 rhodogaster 13, 164, 44 rufitorques 12, 170, 47 rufiventris 14, 154, 39 soloensis 11, 164, 44 striatus 14, 182, 53 superciliosus 13, 188, 56 tachiro 11, 158, 41 toussenelii 11, 158, 43 trinotatus 11, 168, 46 trivirgatus 11, 166, 45 ventralis 14, 182, 53 virgatus 13, 164, 44 Aegypius calvus 8, 126, 25 monachus 8, 130, 27 occipitalis 8, 130, 27 tracheliotus 8, 130, 27

Aquila adalberti 19, 244, 84 audax 19, 242, 83 chrysaetos 19, 244, 84 clanga 19, 248, 86 gurneyi 19, 242, 83 hastata 19, 248, 86 heliaca 19, 244, 84 nipalensis 19, 246, 85 pomarina 19, 248, 86 rapax 19, 246, 85 verreauxii 19, 250, 87 vindhiana 19, 246, 85 Asturina nitidus 16, 216, 70 Aviceda cuculoides 4, 92, 8 jerdoni 4, 94, 9 leuphotes 5, 94, 9 madagascariensis 4, 92, 8 subcristata 5, 94, 9 Bateleur 8, 130, 27 Bat-hawk 6, 92, 8 Baza, Black 5, 94, 9 Jerdon’s 4, 94, 9 Pacific 5, 94, 9 Besra 13, 164, 44 Black Hawk, see Hawk Busarellus nigricollis 16, 204, 64 Butastur indicus 15, 192, 58 liventer 15, 192, 58 rufipennis 15, 190, 57 teesa 15, 192, 58 Buteo albicaudatus 17, 214, 69 albigula 17, 212, 68 albonotatus 17, 214, 69 archeri 18, 228, 76 augur 18, 228, 76 auguralis 18, 226, 75 brachypterus 18, 224, 74 brachyurus 17, 212, 68 buteo 18, 224, 74 exsul 17, 210, 67 galapagoensis 17, 206, 65 hemilasius 18, 222, 73 jamaicensis 18, 220, 72 lagopus 18, 222, 73 leucorrhous 17, 208, 66 lineatus 17, 220, 72 magnirostris 16, 208, 66 nitidus 16, 216, 70 oreophilus 18, 228, 76 platypterus 17, 216, 70 poecilochrous 19, 242, 83 polyosoma 17, 210, 67 regalis 18, 218, 71 ridgwayi 17, 206, 65 rufinus 18, 226, 75 rufofuscus 18, 228, 76

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Buteo (cont.) solitarius 17, 206, 65 swainsoni 17, 218, 71 ventralis 18, 212, 68 Buteogallus aequinoctialis 16, 200, 62 anthracinus 16, 200, 62 meridionalis 16, 204, 64 subtilis 16, 200, 62 urubitinga 16, 200, 62 Buzzard, Archer’s 18, 228, 76 Augur 18, 228, 76 Black-breasted 6, 102, 13 Common 18, 224, 74 Jackal 18, 228, 76 Long-legged 18, 226, 75 Madagascar 18, 224, 74 Mountain 18, 228, 76 Red-necked 18, 226, 75 Rough-legged 18, 222, 73 Upland 18, 222, 73 Buzzard-eagle, Black-chested 16, 202, 63 Buzzard-hawk, Grasshopper 15, 190, 57 Grey-faced 15, 192, 58 Rufous-winged 15, 192, 58 White-eyed 15, 192, 58 Caracara, Black 21, 264, 94 Carunculated 21, 258, 91 Chimango 21, 262, 93 Crested 21, 260, 92 Darwin’s 21, 258, 91 Forster’s 21, 258, 91 Mountain 21, 258, 91 Red-throated 21, 264, 94 Southern 21, 260, 92 Striated 21, 258, 91 White-throated 21, 258, 91 Yellow-headed 21, 262, 93 Caracara cheriway 21, 260, 92 plancus 21, 260, 92 Cathartes aura 4, 84, 4 burrovianus 4, 84, 4 melambrotus 4, 84, 4 Chanting-goshawk, Dark 10, 152, 38 Eastern 10, 152, 38 Pale 10, 152, 38 Chelictinia riocourii 6, 92, 8 Chondrohierax uncinatus 5, 104, 14 wilsonii 5, 106, 15 Circaetus beaudouini 8, 132, 28 cinerascens 8, 134, 29 cinereus 8, 132, 28 fasciolatus 8, 134, 29 gallicus 8, 132, 28 pectoralis 8, 132, 28 Circus aeruginosus 9, 146, 36 approximans 9, 150, 37 assimilis 10, 150, 37 buffoni 10, 142, 33 cinereus 10, 142, 33 cyaneus 10, 146, 148, 36 hudsonius 10, 142, 33

Circus (cont.) macrosceles 10, 144, 34 macrourus 10, 146, 35 maillardi 9, 144, 34 maurus 10, 144, 34 melanoleucus 10, 150, 37 pygargus 10, 146, 35 ranivorus 10, 144, 34 spilonotus 9, 148, 36 spilothorax 9, 150, 37 Condor, Andean 4, 86, 5 California 4, 86, 5 Coragyps atratus 4, 84, 4 Crab-hawk, Rufous 16, 200, 62 Crane-hawk 15, 194, 59 Cuckoo-hawk, African 4, 92, 8 Madagascar 4, 92, 8 Daptrius americanus 21, 264, 94 ater 21, 264, 94 Dryotriorchis spectabilis 9, 134, 29 Eagle, African Hawk 20, 252, 88 Andaman Hawk 20, 238, 81 Ayres’s Hawk 20, 254, 89 Bald 7, 116, 20 Black 19, 250, 87 Black-and-chestnut 21, 230, 77 Black-and-white Hawk 20, 232, 78 Black Hawk 21, 232, 78 Blyth’s Hawk 20, 236, 80 Bonelli’s 20, 252, 88 Booted 20, 252, 88 Cassin’s Hawk 20, 254, 89 Changeable Hawk 20, 238, 81 Crested 18, 230, 77 Crowned Hawk 21, 256, 90 Crowned 21, 256, 90 Dimorphic Hawk 20, 238, 81 Flores Hawk 20, 238, 81 Golden 19, 244, 84 Great Philippine 19, 234, 79 Greater Spotted 19, 248, 86 Gurney’s 19, 242, 83 Harpy 19, 230, 77 Imperial 19, 244, 84 Indian Black 19, 234, 79 Indian Crested Hawk 20, 238, 81 Indian Spotted 19, 248, 86 Indian Tawny 19, 246, 85 Isidor’s 21, 230, 77 Javan Hawk 20, 240, 82 Lesser Spotted 19, 248, 86 Little 20, 242, 83 Long-crested 20, 254, 89 Martial 20, 256, 90 Mountain Hawk 20, 236, 80 New Guinea 19, 234, 79 Ornate Hawk 21, 232, 78 Papuan Harpy 19, 234, 79 Philippine Hawk 20, 240, 82 Rufous-bellied Hawk 20, 126, 25 Short-toed 8, 132, 28

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Eagle (cont.) Simeuluë Hawk 20, 238, 81 Spanish Imperial 19, 244, 84 Steppe 19, 246, 85 Sulawesi Hawk 20, 240, 82 Tawny 19, 246, 85 Verreaux’s 19, 250, 87 Wahlberg’s 19, 250, 87 Wallace’s Hawk 21, 236, 80 Wedge-tailed 19, 242, 83 White-tailed 7, 116, 20 Elanoides forficatus 6, 110, 17 Elanus axillaris 6, 102, 13 caeruleus 6, 88, 6 leucurus 6, 104, 14 scriptus 6, 102, 13 Erythrotriorchis buergersi 15, 172, 48 radiatus 15, 180, 52 Eutriorchis astur 9, 140, 32 Falco alopex 23, 276, 100 altaicus 25, 304, 114 amurensis 24, 286, 105 araea 23, 280, 102 ardosiaceus 23, 278, 101 berigora 25, 294, 109 biarmicus 25, 302, 113 cenchroides 23, 282, 103 cherrug 25, 304, 114 chicquera 24, 296, 110 columbarius 24, 300, 112 concolor 24, 288, 106 cuvieri 24, 290, 107 deiroleucus 24, 298, 111 dickinsoni 23, 278, 101 eleonorae 24, 288, 106 fasciinucha 25, 308, 116 femoralis 24, 298, 111 horsbrughi 24, 296, 110 hypoleucos 25, 292, 108 jugger 25, 302, 113 longipennis 24, 292, 108 mexicanus 25, 304, 114 moluccensis 23, 282, 103 naumanni 22, 276, 100 newtoni 23, 280, 102 novaeseelandiae 24, 296, 110 pelegrinoides 25, 308, 116 peregrinus 25, 310, 312, 117-118 punctatus 23, 280, 102 rufigularis 24, 298, 111 rupicoloides 23, 276, 100 rusticolus 25, 306, 115 severus 24, 290, 107 sparverius 23, 284, 104 subbuteo 24, 290, 107 subniger 25, 294, 109 tinnunculus 22, 274, 99 vespertinus 24, 286, 105 zoniventris 24, 278, 101 Falcon, Altai 25, 304, 114 Amur 24, 286, 105

Falcon (cont.) Aplomado 24, 298, 111 Barbary 25, 308, 116 Bat 24, 298, 111 Black 25, 294, 109 Brown 25, 294, 109 Eastern Red-footed 24, 286, 105 Eleonora’s 24, 288, 106 Grey 25, 292, 108 Gyr 25, 306, 115 Laggar 25, 302, 113 Lanner 25, 302, 113 Orange-breasted 24, 298, 111 Peregrine 25, 310, 312, 117-118 New Zealand 24, 296, 110 Prairie 25, 304, 114 Red-headed 24, 296, 110 Red-necked 24, 296, 110 Saker 25, 304, 114 Sooty 24, 288, 106 Taita 25, 308, 116 Western Red-footed 24, 286, 105 Falconet, Black-thighed 22, 272, 98 Collared 22, 272, 98 Philippine 22, 272, 98 Pied 22, 272, 98 Spot-winged 22, 268, 96 White-fronted 22, 270, 97 Fish-eagle, African 7, 114, 19 Bald 7, 116, 20 Madagascar 7, 114, 19 Pallas’s 7, 118, 21 Sanford’s 7, 112, 18 Steller’s 7, 116, 20 White-bellied 7, 112, 18 White-tailed 7, 116, 20 Fishing-eagle, Grey-headed 7, 118, 21 Lesser 7, 118, 21 Forest-falcon, Barred 22, 266, 95 Buckley’s 22, 268, 96 Collared 22, 268, 96 Cryptic 22, 264, 94 Lined 22, 266, 95 Plumbeous 22, 266, 95 Slaty-backed 22, 266, 95 Gampsonyx swainsonii 6, 108, 16 Geranoaetus melanoleucus 16, 202, 63 Geranospiza caerulescens 15, 194, 59 Goshawk, African 11, 158, 41 Black-mantled 12, 172, 48 Brown 12, 180, 52 Crested 11, 166, 45 Fiji 12, 170, 47 Gabar 10, 152, 38 Grey 11, 178, 51 Grey-bellied 10, 188, 56 Grey-headed 13, 172, 48 Grey-throated 12, 178, 51 Henst’s 14, 160, 42 Meyer’s 15, 176, 50 Moluccan 12, 170, 47

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Goshawk (cont.) New Britain 13, 174, 49 New Caledonia 12, 174, 49 Northern 15, 162, 43 Pied 12, 176, 50 Red 15, 180, 52 Red-chested 11, 158, 43 Sulawesi Crested 11, 166, 45 Varied 11, 178, 51 Gymnogene, African 10, 140, 32 Madagascar 10, 140, 32 Gymnogyps californianus 4, 86, 5 Gypaetus barbatus 7, 120, 22 Gypohierax angolensis 7, 114, 19 Gyps africanus 8, 128, 26 bengalensis 8, 126, 25 coprotheres 8, 128, 26 fulvus 8, 122, 23 himalayensis 8, 122, 23 indicus 8, 124, 24 rueppellii 8, 128, 26 tenuirostris 8, 124, 24 Haliaeetus albicilla 7, 116, 20 leucocephalus 7, 116, 20 leucogaster 7, 112, 18 leucoryphus 7, 118, 21 pelagicus 7, 116, 20 sanfordi 7, 112, 18 vocifer 7, 114, 19 vociferoides 7, 114, 19 Haliastur indus 7, 112, 18 sphenurus 7, 112, 18 Hamirostra melanosternon 6, 102, 13 Harpagus bidentatus 6, 110, 17 diodon 6, 110, 17 Harpia harpyja 19, 230, 77 Harpyhaliaetus coronatus 16, 202, 63 solitarius 16, 202, 63 Harpyopsis novaeguineae 19, 234, 79 Harrier, African Marsh 10, 144, 34 Australasian Marsh 9, 150, 37 Black 10, 144, 34 Cinereous 10, 142, 33 Eastern Marsh 9, 148, 36 Hen 10, 146, 148, 36 Long-winged 10, 142, 33 Malagasy Marsh 10, 144, 34 Montagu’s 10, 146, 35 Northern 10, 142, 33 Pallid 10, 146, 35 Papuan Marsh 9, 150, 37 Pied 10, 150, 37 Réunion Marsh 9, 144, 34 Spotted 10, 150, 37 Swamp 9, 150, 37 Western Marsh 9, 146, 36 Hawk, Barred 15, 194, 59 Bay-winged 16, 204, 64 Bicoloured 14, 186, 55 Black-collared 16, 204, 64 Black-faced 15, 196, 60

Hawk (cont.) Broad-winged 17, 216, 70 Bürgers’s 15, 172, 48 Chestnut-shouldered 15, 172, 48 Chilean 14, 186, 55 Common Black 16, 200, 62 Cooper’s 14, 184, 54 Doria’s 15, 172, 48 Ferruginous 18, 218, 71 Galápagos 17, 206, 65 Great Black 16, 200, 62 Grey 16, 216, 70 Grey-backed 16, 198, 61 Grey-lined 16, 216, 70 Gundlach’s 14, 184, 54 Gurney’s 17, 210, 67 Harris’s 16, 204, 64 Hawaiian 17, 206, 65 Juan Fernandez 17, 210, 67 Lesser Black 16, 200, 62 Long-tailed 15, 190, 57 Mangrove Black 16, 200, 62 Mantled 16, 198, 61 Plain-breasted 14, 182, 53 Plumbeous 15, 194, 59 Puna 17, 210, 67 Red 15, 180, 52 Red-backed 17, 210, 67 Red-shouldered 17, 220, 72 Red-tailed 18, 220, 72 Ridgway’s 17, 206, 65 Roadside 16, 208, 66 Rufous-tailed 18, 212, 68 Rufous-thighed 14, 182, 53 Savannah 16, 204, 64 Semicollared 13, 188, 56 Semiplumbeous 16, 196, 60 Sharp-shinned 14, 182, 53 Short-tailed 17, 212, 68 Slate-coloured 15, 194, 59 Swainson’s 17, 218, 71 Tiny 13, 188, 56 White 16, 198, 61 White-breasted 14, 182, 53 White-browed 16, 196, 60 White-necked 16, 196, 60 White-rumped 17, 208, 66 White-throated 17, 212, 68 White-tailed 17, 214, 69 Zone-tailed 17, 214, 69 Hawk Eagle, see Eagle Henicopernis infuscatus 5, 96, 10 longicauda 5, 96, 10 Herpetotheres cachinnans 21, 262, 93 Hieraaetus ayresii 20, 254, 89 fasciatus 20, 252, 88 kienerii 20, 126, 25 morphnoides 20, 242, 83 pennatus 20, 252, 88 spilogaster 20, 252, 88 wahlbergi 19, 250, 87

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Hobby, African 24, 290, 107 Australian 24, 292, 108 Northern 24, 290, 107 Oriental 24, 290, 107 Honey-buzzard, Barred 5, 100, 12 Black 5, 96, 10 Crested 5, 100, 12 Eastern 5, 98, 11 Indomalayan 5, 100, 12 Long-tailed 5, 96, 10 Steere’s 5, 100, 12 Western 5, 98, 11 Ibycter americanus 21, 264, 94 Ichthyophaga humilis 7, 118, 21 ichthyaetus 7, 118, 21 Ictinaetus malayensis 19, 234, 79 Ictinia mississippiensis 6, 108, 16 plumbea 6, 108, 16 Kaupifalco monogrammicus 15, 190, 57 Kestrel, American 23, 284, 104 Australian 23, 282, 103 Common 22, 274, 99 Dickinson’s 23, 278, 101 Fox 23, 276, 100 Greater 23, 276, 100 Grey 23, 278, 101 Lesser 22, 276, 100 Madagascar Banded 24, 278, 101 Madagascar Barred 24, 278, 101 Malagasy Spotted 23, 280, 102 Mauritius 23, 280, 102 Moluccan 23, 282, 103 Nankeen 23, 282, 103 Seychelles 23, 280, 102 White-eyed 23, 276, 100 Kite, African Swallow-tailed 6, 92, 8 Australasian Black-shouldered 6, 102, 13 Black 6, 90, 7 Black-breasted 6, 102, 13 Black-eared 7, 90, 7 Black-shouldered 6, 88, 6 Brahminy 7, 112, 18 Cape Verde 6, 88, 6 Cuban Hook-billed 5, 106, 15 Double-toothed 6, 110, 17 Forbes’s 5, 106, 15 Grey-headed 5, 106, 15 Hook-billed 5, 104, 14 Letter-winged 6, 102, 13 Mississippi 6, 108, 16 Pearl 6, 108, 16 Plumbeous 6, 108, 16 Red 6, 88, 6 Rufous-thighed 6, 110, 17 Scissor-tailed 6, 92, 8 Slender-billed 6, 104, 14 Snail 6, 104, 14 Square-tailed 5, 102, 13 Swallow-tailed 6, 110, 17 Whistling 7, 112, 18 White-tailed 6, 104, 14

Kite (cont.) Yellow-billed 7, 90, 7 Lammergeier 7, 120, 22 Laughing-falcon 21, 262, 93 Leptodon cayanensis 5, 106, 15 forbesi 5, 106, 15 Leucopternis albicollis 16, 198, 61 kuhli 16, 196, 60 lacernulata 16, 196, 60 melanops 15, 196, 60 occidentalis 16, 198, 61 plumbea 15, 194, 59 polionotus 16, 198, 61 princeps 13, 174, 49 schistacea 15, 194, 59 semiplumbea 16, 196, 60 Lizard-buzzard 15, 190, 57 Lophaetus occipitalis 20, 254, 89 Lophoictinia isura 5, 102, 13 Macheiramphus alcinus 6, 92, 8 Marsh Harrier, see Harrier Megatriorchis doriae 15, 172, 48 Melierax canorus 10, 152, 38 metabates 10, 152, 38 poliopterus 10, 152, 38 Merlin 24, 300, 112 Micrastur buckleyi 22, 268, 96 gilvicollis 22, 266, 95 mintoni 22, 264, 94 mirandollei 22, 266, 95 plumbeus 22, 266, 95 ruficollis 22, 266, 95 semitorquatus 22, 268, 96 Microhierax caerulescens 22, 272, 98 erythrogenys 22, 272, 98 fringillarius 22, 272, 98 latifrons 22, 270, 97 melanoleucus 22, 272, 98 Micronisus gabar 10, 152, 38 Milvago chimachima 21, 262, 93 chimango 21, 262, 93 Milvus aegyptius 7, 90, 7 fasciicauda 6, 88, 6 lineatus 6, 88, 6 migrans 6, 88, 6 milvus 6, 88, 6 Morphnus guianensis 18, 230, 77 Necrosyrtes monachus 8, 120, 22 Neophron percnopterus 7, 120, 22 Oroaetus isidori 21, 230, 77 Osprey 4, 10, 96 Pandion haliaetus 4, 10, 96 Parabuteo unicinctus 16, 204, 64 Pernis apivorus 5, 98, 11 celebensis 5, 100, 12 orientalis 5, 98, 11 ptilorhynchus 5, 100, 12 steerei 5, 100, 12 Phalcoboenus albogularis 21, 258, 91 australis 21, 258, 91 carunculatus 21, 258, 91

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Phalcoboenus (cont.) megalopterus 21, 258, 91 Pithecophaga jefferyi 19, 234, 79 Polemaetus bellicosus 20, 256, 90 Polihierax insignis 22, 270, 97 semitorquatus 22, 270, 97 Polyboroides radiatus 10, 140, 32 typus 10, 140, 32 Pygmy-falcon, African 22, 270, 97 White-rumped 22, 270, 97 Rostrhamus hamatus 6, 104, 14 sociabilis 6, 104, 14 Sagittarius serpentarius 21, 256, 90 Sarcogyps calvus 8, 126, 25 Sarcoramphus papa 4, 86, 5 Secretarybird 21, 256, 90 Serpent-eagle, Andaman 9, 138, 31 Bawean 9, 136, 30 Central Nicobar 9, 136, 30 Crested 8, 136, 30 Great Nicobar 9, 138, 31 Kinabalu 9, 136, 30 Madagascar 9, 140, 32 Mentawai 9, 136, 30 Natuna 9, 136, 30 Nias 9, 136, 30 Philippine 9, 138, 31 Ryukyu 9, 136, 30 Simeuluë 9, 136, 30 Sulawesi 9, 138, 31 West African 9, 134, 29 Shikra 11, 154, 39 Snake-eagle, Banded 8, 134, 29 Beaudouin’s 8, 132, 28 Black-chested 8, 132, 28 Brown 8, 132, 28 East African 8, 134, 29 Short-toed 8, 132, 28 Smaller Banded 8, 134, 29 Southern Banded 8, 134, 29 Solitary-eagle, Black 16, 202, 63 Crowned 16, 202, 63 Sparrowhawk, Black 14, 158, 41 Chestnut-flanked 11, 156, 40 Chinese 11, 164, 44 Collared 13, 180, 52 Frances’s 11, 160, 42 Great 14, 158, 41 Imitator 12, 176, 50 Japanese 13, 164, 44 Levant 11, 162, 43 Little 13, 156, 40 Madagascar 13, 160, 42 Moluccan 13, 170, 47 New Britain 13, 174, 49 Nicobar 11, 166, 45 Northern 14, 162, 43 Ovambo 14, 154, 39 Red-thighed 13, 156, 40 Rufous-breasted 14, 154, 39 Slaty-backed 12, 174, 49

Sparrowhawk (cont.) Spot-tailed 11, 168, 46 Sulawesi Small 13, 164, 44 Vinous-breasted 13, 164, 44 Spilornis abbotti 9, 136, 30 asturinus 9, 136, 30 baweanus 9, 136, 30 cheela 8, 136, 30 elgini 9, 138, 31 holospilus 9, 138, 31 kinabaluensis 9, 136, 30 klossi 9, 136, 30 minimus 9, 136, 30 natunensis 9, 136, 30 perplexus 9, 136, 30 rufipectus 9, 138, 31 sipora 9, 136, 30 Spizaetus africanus 20, 254, 89 alboniger 20, 236, 80 andamanensis 20, 238, 81 bartelsi 20, 240, 82 cirrhatus 20, 238, 81 floris 20, 238, 81 lanceolatus 20, 240, 82 limnaeetus 20, 238, 81 nanus 21, 236, 80 nipalensis 20, 236, 80 ornatus 21, 232, 78 philippensis 20, 240, 82 tyrannus 21, 232, 78 vanheurni 20, 238, 81 Spizastur melanoleucus 20, 232, 78 Spiziapteryx circumcinctus 22, 268, 96 Stephanoaetus coronatus 21, 256, 90 Urotriorchis macrourus 15, 190, 57 Terathopius ecaudatus 8, 130, 27 Torgos tracheliotus 8, 130, 27 Trigonoceps occipitalis 8, 130, 27 Vultur gryphus 4, 86, 5 Vulture, Black 4, 84, 4 Cape 8, 128, 26 Egyptian 7, 120, 22 Greater Yellow-headed 4, 84, 4 Griffon 8, 122, 23 Himalayan 8, 122, 23 Hooded 8, 120, 22 Indian 8, 124, 24 King 4, 86, 5 Lappet-faced 8, 130, 27 Lesser Yellow-headed 4, 84, 4 Long-billed 8, 124, 24 Monk 8, 122, 23 Palmnut 7, 114, 19 Red-headed 8, 126, 25 Rüppell’s 8, 128, 26 Slender-billed 8, 124, 24 Turkey 4, 84, 4 White-backed 8, 128, 26 White-headed 8, 130, 27 White-rumped 8, 126, 25

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