Pushkin’s Rhyming: A Comparative Study [1 ed.] 9780299249731

Table of contents :
Table of Contents
......Page 6
Introduction
......Page 8
Introduction Tables: Rhyme Frequency
......Page 31
1. Rhyme-Element Contrasts
......Page 40
2. Rhymeword Contrasts
......Page 234
3. Grammar Contrast in Rhyme Pairs
......Page 351
4. Horizontal Enrichment of Rhyme-Elements
......Page 517
5. Vertical Enrichment of Rhyme-Elements
......Page 600
Abbreviations: Bodies of Poety; Rhyme Types Studied; Others
......Page 649
Frequently Cited Works of Scholarship; Poetry Editions Used
......Page 658
Glossary
......Page 661
Complete Indexes of Poetry
......Page 7
Puskin
......Page 673
Batjuskov
......Page 693
Baratynskij
......Page 698
Index of Poems Cited......Page 704
Index of Names (other than Puskin, Batjuskov, Baratynksij)
......Page 713
Index of Rhyme Types and Analyses
......Page 715

Citation preview

The Uni\ ersity of Wisconsin Press 1930 Monroe Street. 3rd Floor Madison. Wisconsin 53711-2059 uwpress.wise.edu

3 Henrietta Street London WC2E 8LU, England eurospanbookstore. com

Copyright © 2010 The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted. in any format or by any means. digital, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording. or otherwise, or conveyed via the lntemet or a Web site without written permission of the University of Wisconsin Press, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in critical articles and reviews.

5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

Foreword This book represents the culmination of Professor 1. Thomas

Shaw'~

decades-long study of

the rhymes of Aleksandr Puskin, using the rhymes of Batjuskov and Baratynskij as controls. There is much in this book that has been treated in some form in Professor Shaw's previously published works, but the vast majority of what appears here is new material that he had been compiling over many years. As a graduate student I first began working with Professor Shaw on this volume in

2004. At that point most of the data had been analyzed to his satisfaction and what remained was to construct a book out of the data. Professor Shaw worked continuously and energetically on this project until he fell iII in the fall of 2006. Most of the work that remained on the body of the text was editing details. but much of the back matter either had yet to be started or existed only in a rudimentary form. Those who were closest to the project (Professors James Bailey and David Bethea, and J) decided that it would be realistic to finish the project despite the fact that Professor Shaw would no longer be able to work on it. He himself had remarked not long before this that he believed the book to be in such a condition that, if necessary, it might be finished without his help. After a considerable amount of effort converting Professor Shaw's computer files to a form that we could work with, Professor Bailey and I began editing the text. What we have done to the body of the text amounts to proofreading and formatting; in other words, the text of the introduction and of all five chapters is entirely Shaw's own. He had intended to write more elaborate conclusions to some ofthe chapters, and perhaps a summary conclusion to the whole book; we made the decision early in the process not to write our own version of these. and to leave the volume as purely as possible the work of Professor Shaw. For this reason, it may seem that some of the chapters end rather abruptly while others have thoroughly developed conclusions. Professor Shaw had begun all aspects of the back matter for this book, but Professor Bailey and I have completed much of it. The first two indexes were compiled based on markings that Professor Shaw had made in his computer version of the text. The third index (the Index of Rhyme Types) was put together based on Professor Shaw's notes regarding how he intended to organize that index. The glossary and abbreviations lists are a combination of Professor Shaw's versions of these as we found them and our own work on completing them. The bibliography, the list of editions used, and the complete lists of poems were at a fairly advanced stage already and are printed here much as we found them. Had Professor Shaw himself been able to finish this book, he would certainly have wanted to thank numetous people for their help since the 1960s when this project began. We would never be able to reproduce this list of acknowledgements, but we can refer the reader

to the acknowledgements in previous volumes of Professor Shaw's Collected Works for the names of many who have helped over the years. In addition to the people acknowledged there, it must be said that completion ofthis project would not have been possible without the support of David Shaw and the technological help of the support staff at Nota Bene and, especially, of Bruno Browning at the University of Wisconsin Learning Support Services. Keith Blasing University a/Wisconsin October 2008

PUSHKIN'S RHYMING A COMPARATIVE STUDY

T ABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction Tables: Rhyme Frequency .................................. 23

Cbapters 1. Rhyme-Element Contrasts ................................................. 32 I-A. Class 1: Rhyme-Element Contrasts and Constraints: non-phonetic ............ 36 I-A.l. Vowel ................................................... 37 I-A.2. Consonant .............................................. 84 I-A.3. Consonant-and-Vowels ..................................... 114 1-A.4. Totals, Class I ............................................ ll6 I-B. Class 2: Contrasts in OM pairs; j-O feminines ........................... 118 I-B. I. Open masculine (OM) consonant contrasts ...................... 119 I-B.2. J-O feminines ............................................ 131 1-B.3. Totals, Class 2 ............................................ 143 I-C. Class 3: Phonetic Contrasts: vowels and consonants ...................... 145 I-C. 1. Vowel contrasts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147 I-C.2. Consonant contrasts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 154 I-C.3. Totals: vowels plus consonants ............................... 175 I-D. Rhyme-Element contrasts, totals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 177 I-E. Conclusion ...................................................... 183 Chapter 1 Tables ................................................... 187 2. Rhymeword Contrasts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction.......................................................... 2-A. Homonym / Repetend, and Echo Rhymes ............................... 2-B. Proper Rhyme Pairs ............................................... 2-C. Rhymewords Printed in Italic Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-D. Compound Rhymewords: Lexical. .................................... 2-E. Rhymeword Compounds-in-Use ...................................... 2-F. Rhymewords Special in Grammar or Rhymeword Form .................... 2-F.1. Short-form semipredicates ................................... 2-F.2. "Old" Rhymeword Types .................................... 2-F.3. "New" Rhymeword Types ................................... 2-G. Totals: Rhymeword Contrasts (2-A through 2-F) ......................... 2-H. Conclusion ...................................................... Chapter 2 Tables ...................................................

226 227 230 240 244 249 256 260 261 264 280 312 318 323

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd) 3. Grammar Contrast in Rhyme Pairs ......................................... Introduction .......................................................... 3-A. The Distribution of Rhymeword Parts of Speech ......................... 3-B. Measuring Grammar Contrast in Rhymes: Indexes ........................ 3-B.0. Introduction: How Indexes and Shares Are Measured: Method and Examples ..................................... 3-B.1. Poets ...................................................... 3-B.2. Genres: ASP-PL. ............................................. 3-B.3. Basic Rhyme Patterns In Two Genres: ASP-PL ..................... 3-8.4. ASP-L, and ASP-PL Periods ....................................

342 344 349 376 377 395 412 426 454

Chapter 3 Tables ................................................... 472 4. Horizontal Enrichment of Rhyme-Elements .................................. Introduction ......................................................... 4-A. One Segment: Consonant or Vowel ................................... 4-B. Two or More Segments ............................................. 4-C. Totals: Full Horizontal Enrichment. ................................... 4-0. Horizontal Quasi-Enrichment ........................................

508 509 5 16 542 556 562

Chapter 4 Tables ................................................... 570 5. Vertical Enrichment of Rhyme-Elements .................................... Introduction .......................................................... 5-A. Class A: V and VC ................................................ 5-B. Class B: One Segment; Two or More Segments .......................... 5-C. Vertical Quasi-Enrichment .......................................... 5-D. Conclusion ...................................................... Chapter 5 Tables ...................................................

591 592 596 602 619 627 629

Abbreviations: Bodies of Poetry; Rhyme Types Studied; Others .................... Frequently Cited Works of Scholarship; Poetry Editions Used ...................... Glossary ................................................................ Complete Indexes of Poetry: Puskin .............................................................. Batjuskov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baratynskij . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indexes: Index of Poems Cited .................................................. Index of Names (other than Puskin, Batjuskov, Baratynksij) .................... Index of Rhyme Types and Analyses ......................................

640 649 652 664 684 689 695 704 706

INTRODUCTION

All art deals with expectations and their fulfillment: successful art has often been spoken of as dealing with expectations in one or the other of two ways. The first is art in which our expectations are pleasurably fulfilled in such manner as to give a sense of inevitability and rightness; the second is art in which expectations are pleasurably defeated but with expressiveness andlor surprise that convey the sense of inevitability and rightness in its context: the apparent technical imperfection that produces a pleasing result "beyond the reach of art." Classical art, in a large sense, is connected with the first of these, and Romantic art with the second. Fulfilled expectations always carry with them the danger of banality; on the other hand, each instance of unfulfilled expectations in poetry carries with it the implied obligation of being better in its context than the technically '"flawless" would have been. In rhyme, both the technically unexceptional, on one hand, and the unexpected on the other, are in constant danger of becoming banal: close rhyming is in constant danger of the banality of the all-too-expected; on the other hand, frequent use of the greatly unexpected is accompanied by constant danger of losing surprise and shock, and by its becoming more and more difficult or even impossible to sustain, or becoming shrill--or else too contrived. In the history of Russian rhyming, the age of Alexander Puskin (1799-1837) comes at once to mind as the time, not only of great poetry, but also, of "close" rhyming-that is, with minimal departures from the normative rhyme expectations current at the time. From this point of view, of the four bodies of poetry here treated, Post-Lyceum Puskin (ASP-PL; later 1817-36) and Evgenij Baratynskij (BAR, 1800-44) represent the best examples in their time. Konstantin Batjuskov (BAT; 1778-1855) and Lyceum Puskin (ASP-L; 1813-early 1817) have more of the transitional from eighteenth century rhyming--especially than that of Gavrila Derzavin (1743-1816) to that of the mature Puskin and to Baratynskij. The Rhyming of Alexander Pushkin: A Comparative Study is the final and culminating book in my long-term multi-faceted computer-assisted study of the rhyming in the

2

Introduction

basic texts of all Puskin's poetry (ASP-PL) written after his Lyceum years (ASP-L). The study was begun in the middle 1960's; published books as part of the project include Rhyme Dictionaries and Concordances for all of these poets. and two books of studies (themselves based on or including articles published as part of the project): Pushkin's Poetics of the Unexpected: The Nonrhymed Lines in the Rhymed Poetry and the Rhymed Lines in the Nonrhymed Poetry (1993), and Studies in Pushkin's Rhyming: Theory from Practice. (For bibliographical detail, see, below, Frequently Cited Works of Scholarship, pp. 649-50, where bibliographical data are given for books primarily cited in this study-such details, for the remainder of books cited, are given parenthetically in text-so footnotes can be avoided in this study). This study is comparative in that, though it focuses on the complete poetry of Puskin's Post-Lyceum years (ASP-PL; late 1817 to his death), there is systematic comparison, in all the analyses, with three additional bodies of poetry that have much overall similarity: Puskin's schoolboy poetry written during the Lyceum years (1813 to early 1817), and the complete poetry of two poets contemporary to him, one somewhat older, Konstantin Batjuskov (BAT; 1778-1855), and one a little younger, Evgenij Baratynskij (BAR; 1800-44). These four bodies of verse will be compared below under the term poets; and the other three give context for the study of ASP-PL. Puskin's Post-Lyceum poetry will be treated in more detail: always under genres, and usually under basic rhyme patterns (stanzas, couplets, free rhyme patterns) and under ASP-PL periods. In this long-term project, begun forty years ago, an attempt has been made to isolate, and then study in detail, all the rhymes of the basic texts of the complete poetry of all these four poets, with greatest focus on ASP-PL. This has led to the detailed multifaceted treatment of the rhymes in the five chapters in this book: on rhyme-element contrasts and constraints in rhyme pairs: on contrasts in rhymewordform within a rhyme pair or between one rhyme pair and all other rhyme pairs; on rhyme grammar contrasts in rhyme pairs; and on two kinds of enrichment, horizontal enrichment (to the left of the rhyme-element in both partners of rhyme pairs) and vertical enrichment (of rhyme-element segments in rhyme pairs in rhyming proximity that do not or need not rhyme with each other for a poem or passage to be a11rhymed). What these chapters attempt individually will be treated at some length farther along in this Introduction. Studies of Russian rhyming have usually dealt mainly with long-term development and shifts in rhyme practices, rather than with meloei-the infinitesimals of rhyming, the detailed study of all the rhyming in all the poetry of a great poet or a small group of poets. This study, on the contrary, deals in detail, not only with the most frequent types of rhyme-element

Introduction

3

similarities and contrasts, but also with the many varieties of infrequently used contrasts or constraints of these poets' rhyming, especially those of Puskin in his Post-Lyceum poetry (ASP-PL). This study attempts to raise and study, not only the large questions as regards the rhymes, but also and especially the pertinent small ones: to classify them, and to see to what degree they are present in the poetry ofPu~kin, early (ASP-L) and late (ASP-PL), Batjuskov (BAT), and Baratynskij (BAR). These poets, especially ASP-PL and BAR, are poets of nuance as regards rhyme use and acceptability. Rhyme studies hitherto have almost always depended on samples of poets' work-as is of course unavoidable with general treatment of history of rhyming, and with the lack of dependable complete scholarly editions of the poetry of many poets, even important onesfor example, Vasilij Zukovskij (1783-1852). This study assumes that for precision with regard to an individual poet's rhyming one needs to take into consideration all the rhyming of the texts of the complete works-and especially with a poet such as Puskin. As we shall see, he has significant differences in rhyming that sampling can hardly reveal, for example, in and among his different large poetic genres (lyrics, narratives, Evgenij Onegin, the folk-imitation verse Skazki), and chronologically in his development (his periods). Study of the a poet's complete poetry makes possible accuracy in measuring the relative frequency and relative proportions of phenomena. This study uses percentages and proportions. As regards rhyme frequencies of many kinds, there is a paradox: the importance of the individual instance of rhyme contrast in a pair tends to be in inverse proportion to its frequency. Hence the small categories (or even the tiny rhyme types) may deserve far more attention than their proportionate use suggests. As for the more frequent phenomena of rhyme contrasts, study of the complete poetry makes possible accuracy in determining when larger categories of rhyme contrast have a definite pattern of change, of increase or decrease in the rhyming. The larger the number and proportion of such contrasts, the less important is the individual instance, though the larger whole, used "often"-but not too often-in the author's practice, may exert its own stylistic effect. Precise counts also make it possible to check dependably another interesting phenomenon that occurs simultaneously in the study of ASP-PL's rhyming: the reLative increase in a particular contrast phenomenon, in accordance with the general historical pattern for it, and at the same time an absolute decrease in its use. Basic rhyme concepts, terms, and distinctions in this book The most important basic rhyme concepts and terms, as used in this study, will, for convenience, be summarized here; they can also be found in the Glossary (pp. 652-63); various

4

Introduction

of them have been treated in my Studies in Pushkin 's Rhyming (see, in it, Index 3: Terms, pp. 309-16, and the pages referred to there). All these poets used end-rhyme, which means that the rhyme-elements (final portions) of rhymewords have the "ideal" expectation of being phonetically the same; there was, in addition, strong feeling at that time that rhyme-elements in each pair should have the "same" orthography (that is, they use, or have available, the precise same orthography or substitute orthography then considered to be "the same" for rhyming). (My studies of rhyming are built on the basic studies of Russian rhyme: see my Studies in Pushkin 's Rhyming, pp. 13-15.) In order to function as rhymes in the structure of poems, rhymewords in these poets'

rhyming system must be in rhyming proximity, for which they had a definite rule in common: such rhymewords must be endwords of contiguous lines of verse, or of lines with only one line of verse between them, or else, ifthere is more than one end word between the endwords, the intervening endwords must rhyme with each other, in the patterns aaBB, aBaB, AbAb, aBBa, or AbbA (capital letters here stand for feminine rhymes, lower-case, for mas-

culines). In these poets, the largest number of intervening endwords that do not rhyme with a rhymeword in a rhyme pair is three, in the pattern aBBBa, or AbbbA. Basic rhyme-element forms. The minimum requirement of any rhyme-element form for

these poets (without exception in the rhymed poetry) is that it include at least two segments: a stressed vowel and a contiguous consonant in the same order.

There are two kinds of basic rhyme-element forms in Russian verse: one, according to number of rhyme-element syllables (the same as the number of vowels), and the other, according to the relative location of the required minimum rhyme-element components: consonant and vowel. As regards the numbers of syllables (or vowels) of rhyme-elements, the

rhymes are called masculine (l syllable), feminine (2 syllables), dactylic (3 syllables), and hyperdactylic (4 syllables or more). Masculine rhymes are divided into two basic forms: closed masculines (eM), in which the rhyme-element begins with the vowel and ends with a

consonant; and open masculines (OM), in which the stressed rhyme-element vowel (under the ictus) is terminal in the rhymeword, and the required consonant precedes that vowel. Thus the rhyme-element form of all open masculines is significantly different, not only from closed masculine rhymes but also from all other rhyme-elements (feminines, dactylics and

hyperdactylics) in the relative position of the stressed vowel and the contiguous consonant. Nothing about the perception of rhymes (and probably of the relationship of sounds in general) is more important in Russian poetry than the difference between this consonant plus vowel relationship in open masculines and the stressed-vowel plus contiguous-consonant

relationship in all other rhymes. The two prime rhyme-element sounds in these poets are

Introduction

5

always the stressed vowel and the contiguous consonant (this is a particularly important matter in vertical enrichment, which will be studied below in Chapter 5). Almost all the rhyme pairs of all the poets studied here are masculine or feminine, and almost all the verse has regular alternation of masculine and feminine rhymes. Rhyme pairs and sets. The smallest unit of poetry for studying these poets' rhymes as such is the rhyme pair. All these poets used a rule of rhyming that all endwords in rhyming proximity and without difference in the rhyming portions (rhyme-elements) are rhymewords and rhyme with each other in rhyme sets. The rhyme sets vary in size from two upward, with no theoretical limit in size. The largest in these bodies of poetry is one set of 30 in one of Puskin's Lyceum poems. In rhyme sets, all rhymewords rhyme with each other. The numbers of rhyme pairs in rhyme sets are as follows. A set of two has one rhyme pair; a set of three, 3 rhyme pairs; a set of five, 10 rhyme pairs. The formula is: if n = number of rhymewords in a given set, n(n-l) / 2. For example, the number of pairs in a rhyme set of five is: 5(4) /2= 10 pairs; a set of six is 6(5) / 2 = 15 pairs. In basically unrhymed poetry, occasional individual rhyme pairs, and even rhymed passages, exist whenever two or more end words in rhyming proximity have no difference in their rhyme-elements. All these matters are studied in detail, with examples and bibliographical references (that need not be repeated here), in my Studies in Pushkin's Rhymingespecially the first article, "Large Rhyme Sets and Puskin's Poetry" (pp. 11-35). Technical terminology used---or avoided-in this book. Use of technical terminology is unavoidable in this type of study; indeed, the need for a number of such concepts arose (e.g., rhyming proximity). and terminology for them was devised for this study. They are listed in the Glossary toward the end of this book-specifically with reference to the use of these words in this study. It should be noted that in my rhyme studies, including this one, I focus on particular poets in a particular period, and avoid such terms as "approximate rhymes" (priblizitel 'nye) and "precise" or "imprecise" (tocnye, netocnye) rhymes-in order to seek without preconceptions that might be dictated by (or accompany) such terminologyto discover how these poets, especially Puskin in ASP-PL, reacted to tradition and to their own perceptions of acceptability and desirability in rhyming. Orthography and pronunciation. The complex question of the relationship between the orthography used by these poets and the pronunciation expected is treated in detail in Chapter I. The rhyme-elements of rhyming pairs of the poets studied here are utilized to derive the answers used in this book. All the evidence of the rhymes for definite pronunciation, especially of post-tonic jotated vowels that indicate palatal (soft) pronunciation of the immedi-

Introduction

6 ately preceding consonant (all except

z, s, c) will be examined. There will also be considera-

tion of how intentional ambiguity could then be used to avoid objections to a rhyme pair: use ofthe same post-tonic vowels in both partners of a pair, or else vowels such that neither has a definite pronunciation that gives a definite pronunciation to the other (e.g., a set of two, with "ambiguous e" as post-tonic vowel in one, and ja as post-tonic vowel in the other). The rhyme-elements of the rhyme pairs are the most dependable source of information on the subject of the relationship of orthography and expected pronunciation of the poetry-though this source must be used with caution and discretion, and the expected pronunciation in rhymed poetry could be different from ordinary speech. For example, it gives no information on how the same post-tonic rhyme vowels in a given rhyme pair were to be pronounced: that remains ambiguous. Rhyme contrasts and constraints. The rhymes of these poets include, on occasion, con-

trasts in the orthography then used (OS) and/or in the phonetics of rhyme-elements. All of

these poems have at least some rhyme-elements with contrasts (differences) in phonetics (though extremely few of them in BAR). Rhyme conventions of the time tolerated (though some individuals objected) certain substitutions in orthography and/or pronunciation that would obviate differences-though one may assume that there is at least some constraint in any change of orthography or punctuation to avoid any such contrast. However, the rhyme contrasts and constraints at the time of these poets are so intertwined that it proved impracti-

cal to dissociate them on any consistent basis, or even to try to set up a definite hierarchy of them. For example, there was orthographic contrast if the two post-tonic vowels of a feminine pair had two different orthographic post-tonic vowels. Feminine rhymewords ending in yj-oj, for example. could. under the conventions of the time, be respelled oj-oj. There was at least some constraint in any respelling. However, none of these poets consistently respelled all the yj-oj instances as oj-oj rhymewords in his lifetime poetic book-form collections-sometimes for an obvious reason-to avoid ambiguity as regards the particular noun that each respective rhymeword modifies in its context. So that the poets seem to have preferred actual orthographic contrast to ambiguous constraint, when the orthography yj-oj is used. The same point can be made with regard to the conventionally permitted substitution of orthographic for stressed "ambiguous e" after a shibilant

(z, c, s, sc) or the grapheme c.

0

Baratynskij. who

almost completely confines (0) pronunciation of stressed "ambiguous e" to the rhyme word after a shibilant

(z, c, s,

SC), and that has a rhyme partner in orthographic

shibilant), by no means always uses orthographic shibilant.

0

0

(not after a

instead of "ambiguous e" after the

Introduction

7

Rhyme theory in this book, and "Studies in Pushkin's Rhyming" The theoretical problems that needed to be worked out before this study could be done, along with a number of practical applications of their solutions, have been presented in detail in my

Studies in Pushkin's Rhyming: Theory from Practice (Schlacks: Idyllwild, CA, 2002). [t is assumed that book will used in direct connection with this study; my studies of the rhymes of Puskin, Batjuskov, and Baratynskij are built on the basic studies of Russian rhyme-by V.M. Zirmunskij, B.V. Toma§evskij, R.O. Jakobson, M.L. Gasparov, (cited pp. 13-15 and notes), and listed in Frequently Cited Works of Scholarship, below, pp. 649-50. The existence and availability of my Studies in Pushkin 's Rhyming has made it possible for this book to concentrate on the direct analysis of the rhymes. References have been kept to a minimum, and footnotes are avoided. At the same time, the effort has been made for the analyses in this book to be complete in themselves; thus, for completeness, there is treatment here of some of the problems and analyses previously also handled in Studies in Pushkin 's

Rhyming. In such instances, materials from BAT, ASP-L, and BAR have been added if not present in the previous studies, and the Puskin materials have been revised (and often somewhat condensed) to a format consistent with the remaining analyses of this book, so as to fit into the present study. This process has resulted in the addition of considerable new materials. especially with regard to ASP-L, BAT, and BAR. On the other hand, it has sometimes resulted. especially, in fewer ASP-PL examples being given in this book than in the earlier publication. With regard to the distribution of parts of speech in ASP-PL, revision for inclusion has resulted (in Part A of Chapter 3) in the omission in this book of three embedded studies on matters of importance in Puskin' s rhyming: (1) comparison of the distribution of parts of speech in Puskin's unrhymed verse with that in the rhymed verse, to determine the degree, if any, that rhymewords were chosen to use or avoid "easy" rhymeword parts of speech; (2) demonstration of the surprising similarity of the distribution of parts of speech in Evgenij Onegin and in Puskin's prose tale, Pikovaja dama in comparison with other ASP-PL poetic genres; and (3) detailed investigation of the extent to which Puskin carried out (or failed to carry out) the narrator's threat in Domik v Kolomne, to use verbs as rhymewords, instead of "shunning" them, and to utilize the "whole dictionary"-that is, all the parts of speech. including those that had been considered "unsuitable" for rhyming

(Studies in Pushkin 's Rhyming, pp. 101-49).

Introduction

8

Considerable effort has been exerted to make this book understandable in itself; however, for the rhyme theory employed here, for bibliography, and occasionally for more examples from Pu1lkin, it is desirable to consult Studies in Pushkin 's Rhyming, as well as other books that have been published in this project, including especially the Rhyme Dictionaries, as well as the Concordances, for these poets' verse. Structure of this book. This Introduction is designed to give information on the purpose, background, and methodology used in this study, and, in thumbnail form what each chapter undertakes. It concludes with information on various technical (especially typological) means that have been systematically used for clarity, ease, and concision. The Introduction is followed by rhyme pair frequency tables used in this study (preceded by a detailed list). This study proper consists of five chapters studying various aspects of the rhyming of these poets, with emphasis on ASP-PL. Below there will be given a succinct statement of what each chapter undertakes. The chapters are followed by the following sections: Abbreviations Used in this book; Glossary; Scholarly Works Principally Used in this Study; The Modem Editions Primarily Used in This Study, and Lifetime Book-Form Editions and Collections Examined. The book concludes with indexes, as follows: The Complete Indexes of Poetry include a listing, by poets, of all the poems studied in the editions used: the poem number and/or abbreviation form for poet or volume ofPu1lkin as well as poems cited in text by title, and also other information on each poem, including the grammar contrast index (see Chapter 3). The Index of Poems Cited lists poems specifically mentioned in the text of this book, and/or from which citations are taken. If the poem title is mentioned in text, the poem name and poem number (as in the Indexes of Poets) are given; otherwise, the poem number or abbreviation only. This index is designed to make it possible easily to fmd the poetic context for any rhyme pair cited (or other mention). (Evgenij Onegin is listed, when spelled-out in text; EO (as genre) is not listed in this Index, except in specific citations with chapter and verse numbers.) The Index of Names lists all persons mentioned in this study (with the exceptions ofPu~­ kin, Batjuskov, and Baratynksij). The Index of Terms and Analyses is designed to make it easy to find in text instances and explications of the rhyme terms used, along with definitions and illustrations as needed-and then the rhyme analyses which make up this book. The detailed nature of the treatment of rhyme terms in the Terms index in my Studies in Pushkin's Rhyming has made it possible to focus here on analyses of the various-and numerous---rhyme types, both the large ones, and

Introduction

9

the tiny ones usually overlooked in rhyme study. This index is preceded by rather full information on how to use it. The Glossary, which profides definitions of the specific terms used in this volume with regard to rhyming (and poetics), is intentionally a little generous, both in the words included and in the definitions, for the benefit of the non-specialist. Several terms in the Glossary have been devised during the long-term project of the study of rhyming. Before using these indexes, one should familiarize oneself with the explanations preceding them-particularly the Index of Terms and Analyses. What this book attempts and how The remainder of this Introduction will deal directly with the question of what this book attempts and how. First will be treated the question of modern texts primarily used, and how lifetime book-form texts are also utilized. Then general information will be provided on the major levels of analysis that are provided. They include four levels: poets; ASP-PL genres; ASP-PL basic rhyme patterns in two genres; and Puskin's development from ASP-L through the periods of ASP-PL. The poets are BAT, ASP-L, ASP-PL, and BAR. The ASP-PL genres studied are: lyrics (L YR), long narratives (NAR), novel in verse (Evgenij Onegin-EO), and the verse folk-tale imitations Skazki (SK). The ASP-PL dramas have only 238 rhyme pairstoo few to merit separate analysis together with the others; however, particularly noteworthy instances may be cited when they occur. The basic rhyme patterns-stanzas (ST), couplets (CO), and free rhyme patterns (FR)-are studied in two genres: lyrics vs. long-form poems: LYR-ST vs. EO-ST; LYR-CO vs. SK-CO; and LYR-FR vs. NAR-FR. The ASP-L periods are: I (later 1817-20), II (1821-25), III (1826-30); IV (1831-36). Next there will be a succinct statement of what each of the five chapters attempts to study: rhyme-element contrast, rhymeword contrast, rhyme grammar contrast, horizontal enrichment, and vertical enrichment. After that, information on the tables will be given. This will be followed by more specific information on the individual analyses and how they are done. Finally, there will be succinct treatment of some technical matters about the book, including special typography. Texts mainly used; utilization of lifetime book-form editions. The editions primarily used in this study were chosen, as the best available modem editions of the complete poetry of these poets when this study was undertaken forty years ago. They are as follows. For Puskin, the text used is the most authoritative and complete edition of his complete texts that has appeared so far: A.S. Pu§kin, Polnoe sobranie socinenij, 17 vols. (AN SSSR, 1937-59)-the "large Academy" textual edition. The others are: K.N. Batju§kov, Polnoe sobranie stixotvorenij, ed. N.F. Fridman (Moskva, Leningrad: Sovetskij pisater, 1964), and E.A. Baratyns-

Introduction

10

kij, Po/nae sobranie stixotvorenij, ed. E.N. Kuprejanova (Leningrad: Sovetskij pisatel', 1957). All these texts are in New Style; the Puskin edition is particularLy useful for calling attention to the problems of conveying in NS some of the particularities of the OS manuscript texts. "Sameness," not only of the phonetics, but also the orthography, of the rhyme-elements in the rhyming pairs, was required for technically unexceptionable rhyming, according to the ideas prevalent in Russia in the time of Puskin and these other poets. Hence any careful, detailed study of the rhyming of Puskin and these other poets must of necessity include close attention to "sameness" of orthography. However, "sameness" of orthography must be determined from the Old Style (OS) orthography then in use. The orthographic use of these poets is most convincingly discovered by the orthography of the book-form editions (especially collected editions) of their own poetry that these poets took responsibility for during their lifetimes: we shall call them life-time book-form editions and collections. However, modern editions had to be used, both for completeness and dependability, because of the poetry that did not receive such pUblication during these poets' lifetimes, and/or that was published incompletely or with changes required by the censorship. The lifetime editions studied in this connection are listed below: Lifotime Editions Used: Puskin. Batjuskov. Baratynskij (pp. 650-51) Detailed study of the rhymes has made evident a point that I have never seen made before: in these authors there is no phonetic contrast in the rhyme-elements of a pair in which the rhyme-element orthography was the "same" in the author's OLd Style spelling in these book-form collected editions, or in which rhyming conventions then permitted one of the partners to be respelled so that the two rhyme-elements would be the "same." Levels of analysis used in this book Here follows information on levels of analysis for the various categories in each individual chapter. As noted above, there are four levels of analysis, all of which are usually present: poets; genres: ASP-PL; basic rhyme patterns in two genres: ASP-PL; and ASP-L, and ASP-PL periods. Before each analysis, there is indication of the table in this book from which data are drawn (at the end of the pertinent chapter), and also of the table (after the Introduction) according to which percentages are calculated (most frequently Table Int.1, all rhymes per unit of poetry). There will now be comment on the usual analyses performed on each of these levels, pLus two occasionally used types of analyses: constituent categories, and profiles.

Introduction

11

Poets. Each analysis begins with consideration of the Poets: BAT, ASP-L, ASP-PL, and BAR. The data are usually analyzed in either ascending or descending sequence of percentage frequencies of the item being analyzed. These analyses are of all the rhymes in the text of the edition used, in the complete poetry of each of these poets. The most frequent pattern involves chronology of the poets: from BAT to ASP-L to ASP-PL to BAR, often in pairings of BAT and ASP-L, and ASP-PL and BAR; it is not unusual for ASP-L to have the higher percentage in the first pairing. Occasionally, ASP-L and ASP-PL are closest together. Other patterns may be found; for example, percentages may be on four different levels. Genres: ASP-PL. Within ASP-PL, the analysis is of the four large poetic rhymed genres: L YR (lyrics), NAR (long narrative poems-poemy and povesti v stixax), EO (novel in verse,

Evgenij Onegin), and SK (the folk-imitation poetic Skazki). Pu§kin's fifth poetic genre, the DR (dramas) is predominantly in unrhymed verse: it has few rhymes-only 238 pairs-too few for analyses along with the other genres. However, the figures for DR are included in ASP-PL totals (hence the genre totals in text analysis may differ slightly from totals of all the poetry). Baratynskij's poetry has both lyrics (LYR) and long narratives (NAR). In this book, the tables include detailed information on BAR's genres. just as they do on ASP-PL genres. However, for reasons of space and focus, it proved unfeasible to analyze BAR's genres here--they are cited in text only in their overall totals. Perhaps one or more other scholars may undertake to study them in detail, either in themselves or in comparison with ASP-PL. Frequently in the course of analyses it is found pertinent to speak in generalizing terms of ASP-PL genres. One general categorization that will be frequently used is the "old" poetic genres, LYR and NAR-that he inherited from his Russian poet-predecessors, versus his

"new" genres, novel in verse (EO), and the folk-imitation poetic Skazki (SK), which Pu§kin introduced into Russian poetry written for the educated reader. Another is of L YR as the

"short-poem genre," in contradistinction to the "long-poem genres" NAR, EO, and SK. A third is the "literary" genres L YR, NAR, and EO, in contrast with the "folk-imitation" poetic genre SK. Study of ASP-PL genres provides perhaps the most useful single approach to the significant variations in his rhyming.

As will be seen in the detailed study below, the two "old" ASP-PL genres, LYR and NAR, are the most conventional in their rhyming (though various lyrics have experimentation, especially those obviously not designed for publication, and the unpublished poems that are left brief and fragmentary). The "new" genres, EO and SK, both diverge--though most often in different directions-from both the "old" genres, and from each other. Each of the ASP-PL genres is continually interesting in this study: for example, one expected the kinds of

12

Introduction

individuality that one tinds in EO, but one is continually surprised as 'analysis shows more and more about the specificities ofthe rhyming of SK. As regards "experimental" genres, EO belongs entirely to that classification; L YR includes various kinds of experimenting (especially in the uncompleted poems), and SK, an experiment in adapting the folk-rhyming poetics for his poetic use. Curiously enough, NAR is his least experimental large genre, as regards the rhyming-however experimental it may have been in a broad sense, for example. in introducing the romantic verse tale. Basic rhyme patterns (BRP) in two genres: ASP-PL. The background research for this book-reflected in the tables, included obtaining detailed data with regard to the basic rhyme patterns-stanzas (ST), couplets (CO), and free rhyme patterns (FR) in the poetry. In ASP-PL, each of the long-poem genres is predominantly in one basic rhyme pattern: EO in stanzas (EO-ST), SK in couplets (SK-CO), NAR in free rhyme patterns (NAR-FR). In ASP-PL. LYR-which contains over two-fifths (43.6%) of all the rhyme pairs in ASP-PL (7,834 pairs of 17,958)--4;omprises the only broad genre that has a substantial number of pairs and also a substantial percentage of its total in each ofthese three basic rhyme patterns. Evgenij Onegin is almost totally in stanzas, but, for example,

Tat~ana's

and Onegin's letters

are in free rhyme patterns. The rhymed SK poems are in couplets (with no incidental unrhymed lines), but the non-rhymed Skazki have a small number (22) of sporadic rhymes (classified, in this study, as being in free rhyme patterns). The finished long narratives (NAR) are in free rhyme patterns except Domik v Kolomne, which is in stanzas; in addition, a number of songs in stanzaic form are inserted in long narratives in free rhyme patterns, and two in one play, Pir vo vremja cumy, that is basically in blank verse. In the various parts of this book, as feasible, the ASP-PL basic rhyme patterns receive treatment, particularly pairings of the same basic rhyme pattern in L YR and another genrebasic rhyme patterns in two genres: stanzas: EO-ST vs. LYR-ST; couplets: SK-CO vs. LYR-CO; and free rhyme patterns: NAR-FR vs. LYR-FR. The most interesting of these, in general, have been found to be in couplets. LYR-CO-primarily in alexandrines-is the most "literarily" conservative part of Puskin's poetry; SK-CO imitates folk poetry. Stanzas, as interpreted here, include not only repeated and varied stanzaic forms in given poems in L YR, but also the poetic fragments-all of them also in LYR--of eight lines and fewer; various of them are obviously experimental. It is not surprising that, in these contrasts of two genres, the poetry infree rhyme patterns. LYR-FR vs. NAR-FR, show most similarity. Nor is it surprising that the pairing L YR-CO vs. SK-CO frequently has both the highest and lowest basic rhyme pattern percentages for the phenomenon under study. It is perhaps even more interesting when they occasionally are closest to each other among these basic rhyme pattern

Introduction

13

pairings-when the most "literary" is closest to the folkish. The "literary" tends to be the "old"; as regards some rhyme dictional forms, as we shall see, those "old" forms not infrequently coincide with those in the folk-imitation SK. Periods in Puskin's poetry. An effort has been made in this study to discover rhyme developments from ASP-L (l8l3-early 1817) to ASP-PL (late 1817-36), not only in overall terms, but in connection with the periods of ASP-PL. The periods of ASP-PL as here studied are as follows: I: late 1817-20; II: 1821-25; III: 1826-30; IV: 1831-36. In this book, the heading ASP-L, and ASP-PL periods precedes these analyses. Here, for convenience in anticipation, follows summary-type information on frequent patterns of phenomena, as regards ASP-L and ASP-PL periods, that will be found in the individual analyses in this study. Often the pattern is one of a considerable contrast between the ASP-L figure and that of ASP-PL, I. (In the analyses in this book, when the context is clear the word periods is usually omitted, and period numbers are cited alone-as here-in italics.) Occasionally there is a continuity between ASP-L, and I, and then the later periods considerably diverge. Rarely, ASP-L most closely resembles one of the later periods. Within ASP-PL, various frequency patterns are found in analyses. The most common is for / and III to be most similar and to have the highest frequency for the rhyme phenomenon under study-these are the periods, respectively of Ruslan and Ljudmila and PO/lava, the two long narratives that Puskin called poe my. The ASP-PL period of lowest contrast frequency for given phenomena is usually 11:

Puskin's rhyming, on the whole, is less venturesome at the time he is introducing to Russia the romantic verse tale and developing a new lyric persona. The lowest (or, rarely, highest) percentage is usually

Iv~

that of the trochaic tetrameter Skazki (SK). Thus II and IV often

form a lower pairing (though usually with some range in percentages) to compare with the higher percentage in periods 1 and Ill. Indeed, there is a surprising correspondence of rhyme contrast phenomena with periods of Puskin's life: rhyme contrasts tend to be most numerous during the periods ofleast constraint in his life: /, in his years in St. Petersburg, 1817-20; and lll, in his life, mainly in S1. Petersburg, in 1826-30, after his Southern exile. The opposite is

true during 11, which largely coincides with his exile from St. Petersburg (1820-26); and lV, the years of his marriage, and of increasing political and social constraints. The chapters of this book The five chapters of this book are designed to give a multi-faceted study of the important aspects of the rhyming of Puskin's Post-Lyceum poetry (ASP-PL), first, overall in comparison with his Lyceum poetry (ASP-L) and the complete poetry of Batjuskov (BAT) and

14

Introduction

Baratynskij (BAR), and then detailed treatment (as indicated above) of ASP-PL. The first and third chapters are especially complex and long, and hence this thumbnail description of them will of necessity be more detailed than the others. Here we shall briefly indicate what the

individual chapters undertake. The text of each chapter is preceded by a rather detailed listing of the contents, the chapter proper, and ends with a listing and then the tables for that chapter. Chapter 1: Rhyme-Element Contrast in Rhyme Pairs. Chapter I attempts to treat all the contrasts and constraints within the rhyme-elements of the rhyming pairs of BAT, ASP-L, ASP-PL, and BAR-with main focus on ASP-PL. In the analysis, the rhyme-element contrasts and constraints are treated in three classes. Class 1 presents the lowest amount of contrast and constraint, as is reflected in its relatively large numbers; Class 3 represents the most noticeable contrasts-those that represent for these poets the greatest amount of contrast and constraint, as is seen in the small numbers. The numbers of Class 3 are small enough that every example is cited and analyzed in its context. Class 2 involves consonant contrasts in open masculine rhymes (OM); and feminine rhymes with terminal vowel verses the consonant-glide j Got), j-O pairs. The glide j Got) is called a consonant or consonant-glide in this study because it performs the function of the required rhyme-element consonant in open masculines (e.g., in the word ja as rhymeword), and also in open-closed feminines G-O), which is almost always post-tonic vowel versus vowel plus jot. (In addition, the jot serves as one ofthe features of the other soft consonants). Class 1 (§l-A) rhyme pairs have contrasts involving orthography- including use ofspecial orthography-special grammar, and/or special pronunciations; but not phonetic contrast. There is detailed consideration of orthography and pronunciation: especially of the evidence in the rhyming for definite ("required") reduced pronunciations of the post-tonic vowels: a-o and thejotated vowels in rhymewords in these poetic texts: ". e, 1> (e).

10, H.

Class 2 (§l-B) comprises two types of contrasts that involve not only orthography but also a consonant, almost always j: (1) feminine pairs with "truncation": open vs. closed feminines: j-O pairs; and (2) open masculine pairs with difference in the rhyme-element consonant immediately preceding the vowel. In Class 2, the largest type of OM consonant contrast (in all the bodies of verse except BAT) is ja-menja, in which a consonant G) in one rhyme partner corresponds with part of the corresponding consonant in the other rhyme partner: a soft consonant (one with a glide) plus vowel (n': me.!!.i.J!) rhymes with the consonant-glide plus vowel G!). A part ofa consonant rhymes with itself as the entire consonant; a consonant with imbedded jot (glide) rhymes with jot-glide as consonant. This may be compared with an infrequent rhyme type in ASP-PL: xoCu, iscu-in which a rhyme-element consonant

sc has, as corresponding rhyme-

Introduction

15

element consonant, a part of itself (in one pronunciation), c. Class 3 (§I-C) contrasts, in closed masculine or feminine rhymes, are in rhyme pairs with consonants that differ phonetically, and in post-tonic rhyme-element vowels which are never orthographically substituted in these poets' rhymes (a-i, a-u, i-u). Class 3 pairs always

have orthographic contrast. Finally, there will be consideration of total contrasts: the sum of Classes I, 2, and 3, and their proportions in the totals. Chapter 2: Rhymeword Contrasts. Chapter 2 treats rhymeword forms or combinations that manifest a given phenomenon, in contrast to all the other pairs. The kinds of such rhymeword contrast studied here include the following: homonym/repetend and echo rhymes; proper rhymewords (one or both rhymewords capitalized in rhyme pairs); rhymewords printed in italics (cursive) in the poetic texts, lexical compound rhymewords, rhymewords with special rhymeword grammar or form, and rhymeword compounds-in-use (with an immediately preceding preposition). These rhymeword contrasts may be of one pair versus all other pairs, as in homonym/repetend rhymes (examples are given together with the analysis in Chapter 2). There may be rhymeword contrast within the pair, as with echo rhymes, where the longer rhymeword includes all of the shorter one. In proper rhymeword pairs, either one or both rhymewords may be capitalized. The rhymewords printed in italics may be isolated words or phrases, or passages of poetry, or even a dedication to a long poem (as for Ruslan i Ljudmila. for example). A few words need to be said here about the compound rhymewords and the rhymewords with special grammar or form. The compound rhymewords studied here are of two kinds: lexical compound rhymewords, and rhymewords compounded with a preposition immedi-

ately preceding the lexical endword-which will be called rhymeword compounds-in-use. Lexical compound rhymewords are of two kinds: those compounded before the final stressed (ictus) vowel (pre-stress compound rhymewords) as in lebed'-ptica; and those compounded after it (mosaic rhymewords), as in kogda-to. The rhymewords special in grammar or wordform are relatively few in individual types and in totals, but they are so interesting and so important, individually and combined, that they require close examination and comparatively extensive treatment. The rhymeword compounds-in-use are so numerous, in proportion to other rhymeword contrasts that all the other rhymeword contrasts are treated in contrast to the totals of all the other rhymeword contrasts combined.

Introduction

16

Chapter 3: Rhymeword grammar contrast. This chapter deals in detail with the questions of grammar contrast in rhyme pairs, first (§3-A) in terms of the distribution of the rhymeword parts of speech, and then (§3-B) in terms of indexes, designed to measure grammar contrast in any unit of poetry, utilizing all three major components of grammar: parts of speech, mor-

phology, and syntax. In §3-A is examined the frequency of use of the rhymeword parts of speech, individually, and in groups of parts of speech: declinables (noun, pronoun, adjective, participle), verbals (verb-past and nonpast, infinitive, imperative), and others. The "others" include adverbs, and two special Russian parts of speech, the deepricastie and predakativ, plus a number of seldom-used parts of speech: lexical compounds, Latin alphabet words, particles, numerals, inteIjections, prepositions, indeclinable used as noun (IAN), and conjunctions. Two parts of speech that have verbal characteristics have been classified with other parts of speech, because their rhymes resemble those categories: participles, with the declinables; and the deepricastie (or verbal adverb), which rhymes like the adverb (as do the remainder of the

"other" category). Section §3-A broadens and adapts my previous study "The Distribution of Rhymeword Parts of Speech in Pu§kin's Post-Lyceum Poetry," to the format of this book; it gives separate data for ASP-L and ASP-PL, and broadens the study so as to include the poetry ofBa~U§kov and Baratynskij. (See my Studies in Pushkin 's Rhyming. pp. 95-149.) In §3B, the introductory section gives information about how rhyme contrasts are measured in a pair, or a unit of poetry of whatever kind, in order to calculate an index,

between I and 1000 in size, which gives a numerical index of the total rhyme contrast of parts of speech, morphology, and syntax in that unit of verse. These indexes are listed, by poem in the Indexes of Poems for

Pu~kin,

Batju§kov, and Baratynskij at the back of the sec-

ond volume of this book. Then §3-B studies in detail the contribution of individual parts of speech and the groups of them (declinables, verbals, and others), to the total rhyme grammar contrast indexes for the various levels analyzed in this book: poets (BAT, ASP-L, ASP-PL, and BAR), ASP-PL genres (LYR, NAR, SK, and EO), basic rhyme patterns in two genres in ASP-PL (stanzas, couplets, and free rhyme patterns), and in

Pu~kin's

development, ASP-L, and through the

four periods of ASP-PL: L II, IlL and IV. All these matters are presented in detail, with examples, in Chapter 3-including the great effect on rhyme contrast that is played by using pairs with the same part of speech (same-type rhyme pairs) vs. different parts of speech (different-type rhyme pairs). Shares of total index contributed by individual parts of speech or groups of them. These analyses are designed to determine the relative contribution of the different parts of

Introduction

17

speech and groups of them to total indexes, for example, the noun or the verb (past and nonpast); the declinables or the verbals. The term share of total grammar index is used here for the portion of the total grammar index contributed by a part of speech (or group, as indicated). The shares of all parts of speech for any unit of verse, added together, will give the total grammar index. Each total index is computer calculated by dividing the number of contrast points (of whatever kind) of the unit of poetry by the number of rhymeword uses (double the number of pairs). For example, the noun's frequency percentage as part of the ASPPL total is counted by the computer; the noun's share of total index is the total index (also counted by the computer) divided by the noun's frequency in ASP-PL; the noun's contrast percentage is the percentage of total index constituted by the noun's share. Each of our

analyses in text also produces a frequency/contrast ratio: the portion of total grammar index produced by one percent of frequency in the unit of verse. For example, in ASP-PL (as will be seen in the analysis in Chapter 3), one percent of noun use as a rhymeword usually produces one percent of the total contrast index; the ratio is 1 : 1. It will be a matter of interest in the study to determine, in general, what the ratio is for groups of parts of speech (declinables, verbals, others), and of the most frequent parts of speech in each of these groups, the noun, the verb (past and nonpast), and the adverb. This will make it possible for one to sense expectable grammar contrast from these parts of speech, and to allow for variations, depending especially upon differing proportions of same-type and different-type rhyme pairs, and upon differing morphological contrast in same-type pairs-when that occurs. An objective answer to this problem should be of interest to any reader of poetry-and is the principal goal of this chapter. It could be helpful if further studies using this method were applied to other poets' complete works. Every reader of any poetry containing, for example, verb-verb rhymes faces the problem, consciously or unconsciously. Chapter 4: Horizontal Enrichment. Chapter 4 treats in detail horizontal enrichment in

rhyme pairs; that is, the use in rhyme pairs of the same contiguous rhyme-element sounds immediately to the left of the rhyme-elements of both rhyme partners of the pair. The enrichment may be of one or more segments (consonant or vowel). It is measured by dividing the number of pairs having this enrichment by the total pairs in a unit of verse. My study of horizontal enrichment is apparently the first that includes and gives detailed treatment of vowel enrichment as well as consonant enrichment. Vowel enrichment occurs almost exclusively in open masculine rhymes; any change in the proportion of open masculine rhymes can be expected to have a definite effect on totals for consonant enrichment. In the chapter, there is study of vowel enrichment, consonant enrichment, and vowel or consonant enrichment in one-segment horizontal enrichment. After that, there is also detailed study of two-segment horizontal enrichment, especially deep enrichment (of both vowel and

Introduction

18

consonant), but also of two-consonant enrichment. (In the poetry studied, there are no examples of two-vowel enrichment.) We shall study how horizontal enrichment, in its particularities, in these poets, especially ASP-PL, varies in each of the two differing basic masculine rhyme-element forms: open and closed masculine rhymes (OM, CM), in feminine (F) rhyme-element forms, and in their totals. We can expect horizontal enrichment in open masculines to give data quite different from those of closed masculines; the proportions of the two kinds of masculine rhymes will affect total figures, not only for total masculine rhymes but also for the totals of all masculine plus feminine rhymes. In an appendix, Chapter 4 examines the data on quasi horizontal enrichment: the amount that horizontal enrichment totals would be augmented if voiced-unvoiced (v-uv) and hardsoft (h-s) horizontal consonant contrasts were counted as "equivalent," that is, were consid-

ered to be the "same." The question is this: is quasi horizontal enrichment a complement of horizontal enrichment, or an integral part of it? Chapter 5: Vertical Enrichment. Vertical enrichment occurs when there is sameness of the sounds of consonants and/or vowels in the rhyme-elements of rhymewords in rhyming proximity that do not, or need not, rhyme with each other for the poem to be all-rhymed; it is measured by strings of four or more rhymeword appearances in text. The most striking two categories of vertical enrichment are studied first: (I) strings of stressed (ictus) vowels, and (2) (even more striking) the strings of both the prime rhyme-

element segments (stressed vowel and contiguous rhyme-element consonant) of rhyme pairs in the strings. Then is studied vertical enrichment of any segment (vowel or consonant) in the rhyme-element: one-vowel, one-consonant, one-segment vertical enrichment; then twosegment vertical enrichment--of two vowel(s) and/or consonant(s) are studied; and, after that, briefly, three. Percentages in vertical enrichment are calculated, not from rhyme pair counts, but from rhymeword appearances (R WA) in the printed text of the unit of poetry being analyzed: the number of rhymewords participating (R WV) in the specific vertical enrichment strings divided by the total RWA of that unit of poetry. My detailed study of vertical enrichment-including defining and measuring it-is new in the study of rhyme. It was introduced in the article "Vertical Enrichment in

Pu~kin's

Rhymed Poetry" (1978), republished in my Studies in Pushkin's Rhyming (pp. 35-62). In this book that analysis is broadened to include not only Puskin, but also Batjuskov and Baratynskij, and the analysis was adapted to give information specifically on ASP-L and ASP-PL in the format used throughout this book. One category of vertical enrichment-stressed vowel and contiguous consonant in some Soviet poetry-has been studied by Vadim Baevskij, with the term "ghost rhyme" (see "Tenevaja rifina").

introduction

19

As with horizontal enrichment, an appendix on quasi vertical enrichment of voicedunvoiced (v-uv) and hard-soft (h-s) consonants is added to the study of horizontal enrichment, so as to provide a study of it, and determine whether such quasi vertical enrichment is a complement or, instead, an integral part of vertical enrichment. Tables in this book The tables in this book have been set up in similar format, to the degree practicable. They are placed after the Introduction, and after each chapter. The tables are of two principal kinds: the frequency tables for the rhymes, which follow the Introduction; and the data tables for the rhyme phenomena studied in the individual chapters. The usual format for each table has four vertical columns: stanzas, couplets, free rhyme patterns, and totals. The left-margin vertical stubs are of poets and genres, in the order: BAT; ASP-L; ASP-PL: L YR, NAR, EO, SK, DR, TOT; BAR: LYR, NAR, TOT. There may be one line of data, or more; if the data are rhyme types, they are indicated (as in text) by lower-case alphabetical letters (a, b, c, etc.); other-

wise, by Arabic numerals. The tables are followed by Notes, indicating the what is measured in the horizontal data lines (e.g., type or category), and information regarding the Introduction table used for calculating percentages. The tables for the chapters have two parts: A. Poets, and B. Periods: ASP-PL. Part A of the tables also gives data for the genres of ASP-PL and BAR. and also for basic rhyme patterns (stanzas, couplets free rhyme patterns) for each poet. The second part, B. Periods: ASP-PL, differs from the pattern of the poets, by having vertical columns for ASP-PL

periods: 1 (late 1817-20), II (1821-25), 111 (1826-30), and lV (1831-36) (instead of stanzas, couplets, free rhyme patterns, totals). Method used in specific analyses; one usual pattern: the chronological. The analyses are deliberately done in such fashion as to be similar to each other in method, approach, sequence, and even phraseology. It may be helpful to look at these notes as one goes through an analysis or two in text. Now we shall outline briefly the method applied and utilized in the specific individual analyses, and one pattern often found in them. In the following (final) section of this Introduction, there will be some notes on various technical matters, and how some of them are handled for clarity and concision-for example, numbering and subordination, and special typography. Before each analysis, there is information identifying the table the relevant data are drawn from (usually a table at the end of the chapter), and also which frequency table (located at the end of this Introduction) is used for calculating percentages. Most frequently, percentages are calculated according to all pairs per relevant unit o/poetry (Table Int.l), but other frequency tables are used as appropriate, for example, open masculine rhymes, closed

20

Introduction

masculine rhymes, feminine rhymes, ASP-PL periods, and so on. Analyses are handled as follows. For each analysis, there is definition of terms or concepts as needed, examples given, and subcategories (and types, as appropriate) are identified. Under a category to be examined there are analyses, in sequence (as seen above), as follows: by poets, by ASP-PL genres, usually by basic rhyme patterns in two genres in ASP-PL; and by Puskin's development: ASP-L, and through the four periods of ASP-PL. In each of these analyses there is citation of pertinent data for the specific level of analysis: for poets, usually in chronological order (especially if data indicate a particular development) from BAT, to ASP-L, to ASP-PL, to BAR); often, in two chronological pairings, ASP-L is given first when its percentage is higher than that of BAT. Within the analyses, special typography (see below) is used for high and low percentages in the citations, and to indicate one or two (rarely more) pairings of similar percentages (in comparison with range of other percentages). There is indication of maximum range of percentages, between which two items of the analysis. In ASP-PL genres, and in basic rhyme patterns in two genres, the maximum range in percentages is given. In Puskin' s development-ASP-L through the four periods of ASP-PL-the maximum range is given; if ASP-L is at maximum high or low, a separate range is given for high and low in the ASP-PL periods. When a given poet has no examples ofa given kind (e.g., BAR has no Class 3 phonetic contrasts at all in his rhymes-in Chapter 1), ranges may explicitly be given for poets that have the phenomenon. Analyses are given in concise terms, and factually; utilizing, as possible, similar procedures, techniques, and phraseology, for easy and immediate comprehension. Boldface typography is used for high and low percentages, and italics for ASP-PL periods numbers-I, II, Ill, IV-to make it possible for one to see at a glance the most pertinent data for the partic-

ular analysis. Special typography is used in analyses, to facilitate understanding of data by pointing up high and low percentages, and pairings of comparable data., while at the same time providing the substantiating documentation. In citations, the frequency, however small, is indicated by percentages (unless specifically stated otherwise), and the number of pertinent number pairs are listed within parentheses (if the item counted is not rhyme pairs, it will be identified in the particular instance). In the analyses, there is a constant seeking for patterns. One pattern among poets deserves mention here: straight-line chronological deve[opment--of increase or decrease of percentage-from BAT, to ASP-L, to ASP-PL, to BAR. Typically, as we shall see, two chronological pairings of phenomena regarding these bodies of poetry occur-BAT and

Introduction

21

ASP-L, and then ASP-PL and BAR-even when the development is chronological. However, it is more usual in such pairings that ASP-L percentages for phenomena exceed those of BAT, so that the pattern is two chronological pairs ASP-L and BAT (themselves not in chronological order), and ASP-PL and BAR. It is not unusual for the ASP-L figure, even in such pairings, to exceed that of BAT far more than the figure for ASP-PL exceeds that of BAR. Less typically, other pairings or sequences may occur (for example BAR may exceed ASP-PL), and sometimes the phenomena will be on four disparate levels. The individual specific analyses are followed by an analysis of their totals. In addition to these analyses of totals. not infrequently there are considerations of constituent categories (CC): pair counts, especially when there are two large components of the specific matter being analyzed. In such instances, the percentage of the count of total pertinent pairs is divided by the total of one of the two, in order to find its percentage of that total (the percentage of the second is implied). The same technique, on occasion, is used to determine the relative percentage of one kind, against the total of that kind and all the other pertinent ones. Particularly in totals of multiple units (for example, categories), a profile of percentages of the components may be juxtaposed so that their relative sizes are easily visible for comparative analyses, as pertinent. Notes on technical matters Numbering system in this book. The numbering system used in this book is as follows, in order to provide easy finding and referencing. Chapters are numbered in Arabic numerals, main parts of chapters in capital Latin-alphabet letters, categories (also subcategories, if any)

in Arabic numerals, and rhyme types in lower-case Latin alphabet letters. In references, the chapter number is connected to main part by a hyphen. For example, §1-A.2.3, type c refers to Chapter t, Part A, category 2, subcategory 3, type c. The Contents for the entire book presents the various parts, including the chapters and their main parts. In addition, for ready referencing and finding, each chapter is preceded by its own, far more detailed, listing of its contents. Each chapter is followed by a listing oftables and then the tables themselves. Transliteration. Russian Cyrillic is consistently transliterated in this book, using System III in J. Thomas Shaw, The Transliteration of Modern Russian for English-Language Publications (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), except for bibliographical citations for

studies using a different transliteration. The orthography and capitalization of the editions used is followed here (and also in my Rhyme Dictionaries for these poets). Decimal places. In this study, analysis usually is carried out with one decimal place. However, in Chapters I and 2, some entire categories are quite small but nevertheless still have a number of constituent types, whose relative size and proportions deserve being denoted pre-

22

Introduction

cisely. All categories and types of rhyme-element contrast are considered to be so important, and their relative sizes so important, that a number of categories (and their types) with small numbers of total pairs have tables carried out in two decimal places, and analysis in text is in two decimal places. This is true in Chapter I, as regards some of the vowel categories, some of the consonant categories, and the consonant and vowel category for Class 1; percentages of data with regard to all the Class 3 individual categories are given in two decimal places. In a given analysis, when there is a mixture of data with one and with two decimal places, all may be converted to two decimal places; in summary tables and analyses, all may be given with one decimal place. Special typograpby. Effort has been exerted in this book to use typographical means to help make principal relationships instantly clear, insofar as practicable, even when less important details are given for completeness of documentation. Special type is used in this book as follows: Italics (kursiv) is used for emphasis; for cited book titles; for cited rhyme pair words; in analyses, for data on pairs close together in size (in comparison with others in the given analysis); for period numbers in ASP-PL:

L IL IlL W(for conciseness, the period number may be

cited alone when the context is clear). When rhyme pairs are cited (in italics), an additional word of the rhyme phrase may be cited in parentheses, for example. (cudnoe) mgnoven'e,

(mimoletnoe) viden'e (S2.267. 1, 3). Boldface is used: for chapter and other titles and headings on all levels (except running heads at tops of pages); in this text for citations, references, etc., e.g., §1-A.l.1.1, type b ( = Cbapter 1, Part A, category I, subcategory I, subsubcategory 1, type b); for rhyme types, and the like (e.g. ja-menja, yj-oj, v-uv); for citing individual graphemes. and phonetic transcription: e.g., post-tonic orthographic o-[a[; in analyses, for high and low percentages and maximum range percentages; for individual alphabetically arranged entries in Index: Terms; for strong emphasis (as alternative to italics). Underlining is used for a second pairing in a context where there is a first pairing that is printed in italics. Boldface italics is used for high or low percentage of an analysis when a pairing in data in cursive because of similarity of size; it may be used in to call attention to a particular rhyme-element grapheme in a citation (in italics)-for example, in the pair: roidennyj,

zadusevnyj (S 1.18. 66, 68). Boldface underlining is used for high or low percentage of an analysis when a pairing in data is underlined because of similarity of size within it. If boldface italics is used to emphasize one grapheme in a rhymeword, boldface underlining may be used for emphasizing the

Introduction

23

second: for example, in do vremi!. iz edem!, (SI.I37.d. 69, 71}-the only rhyme pair in this study with definite indication that orthographic ja, as post-tonic rhyme vowel, is to be pronounced la).

INTRODUCTION: TABLES

Frequency Tables: Rhyme Pair Counts: Puskin, Batjuskov, Baratynskij

Table Int.l. Total Rhyme Pairs: Poets ......................................... 24 Table Int.2. Masculine and Feminine Rhymes: Poets .............................. 25 Table Int.3. Masculine Rhymes: Open and Closed: Poets .......................... 26 Table Int.4. Open Masculines

VS.

Closed Masculines plus Feminines ................. 27

Table Int.5. Dactylic (and Hyperdactylic) Rhymes ................................ 28 Table Int.6. ASP-PL Periods: Rhyme Pair Totals by Basic Rhyme-Element Shapes ............................... 29 Table lnt. 7. Total Rhymeword Appearances in Texts Used (RWA) ................... 30 Table Int.8. Rhymeword Appearances in Sets of Four or More ...................... 31

Introduction

24

Table Int.1. Total Rhyme Pairs: Poets: by Genre and Basic Rhyme Patterns: Poets Stanzas Pairs Pet.

Couplets Pairs Pet.

Free

Totals Pairs Pet.

Pairs

Pet.

100.0 12.9

1929

100.00 54.03

3570

100.0 100.0

BAT 1. 2.

1179

100.0 33.0

462

ASP-L (excluding Poems S1.81 and S1.131)

1. 2.

980

100.0 24.1

316

100.0 7.8

2776

100.00 68.1

4072

100.0 100.0

LYR

1. 2.

3704

51.5 473

693

37.2 8.8

3437

38.6 43.9

7834

43.6 100.0

NAR

1. 2.

537

7.5 9.4

5218

58.4 90.6

5755

32.1 100.0

EO

1. 2.

2889

40.2 970

90

1.0 3.0

2979

16.6 100.0

SK

1. 2.

6.4 100.0

ASP-PL

DR

L

57

2. TOT

L 2.

7187

1130

60.6 96.4

22

0.5 3.6

1152

0.8 24.0

41

2.2 17.2

140

1.5 58.8

238

100.0 40.0

1864

100.0 10.4

8907

100.0 49.6

17958

100.0 100.0

350

100.0 12.3

1251

44.8 43.8

2855

60.5 100.0

1542

55.2 82.5

1868

39.5 100.0

2793

100.00 59.1

4723

100.0 100.0

1.3 100.0

BAR (excluding Poems 45 and 233) LYR

l. 2.

1254

79.4 43.9

NAR

l. 2.

326

20.6 17.5

TOT

1. 2.

1580

100.0 33.5

Notes.

Line 1. Percentages are of basic rhyme pattern totals (stanzas, couplets, free rhyme patterns, totals)

350

100.0 7.4

Line 2. Percentages are of genre totals (L YR, NAR, EO, DR, SK), and overall totals (TOT)

Introduction: Frequency Tables

25

Table Int.2. Total Pairs: Masculines and Feminines: Poets Stanzas Pairs Pet.

Couplets Pet Pairs

Free Pairs

Pet.

Totals Pairs Pet.

BAT 1. 2. 3.

610 569 1179

51.7 48.3 100.0

ASP-L (excluding S1.81 and S1.131) 54.7 I. 532 2. 441 45.3 973 100.0 3. ASP-PL LYR

225 237 462

48.7 51.3 100.0

1021 907 1928

53.0 47.0 100.0

1856 1713 3569

52.0 48.0 100.0

163 153 316

51.6 48.4 100.0

1434 1342 2776

51.7 48.3 100.0

2129 1936 4065

52.4 47.6 100.0

341 352 693

49.2 50.8 100.0

1788 1635 3423

52.2 47.8 100.0

4095 3722 7817

52.4 47.6 100.0

I. 2. 3.

1966 1735 3701

53.1 46.9 100.0

NAR

I. 2. 3.

312 225 537

58.1 41.9 100.0

2690 2528 5218

51.5 48.5 100.0

3002 2753 5755

52.2 47.8 100.0

EO

I. 2. 3.

1709 1180 2889

59.2 40.8 100.0

38 52 90

42.2 57.8 10.0

1747 1232 2979

58.6 41.4 100.0

SK

I. 2. 3.

DR

I. 2. 3.

36 21 57

TOT

I. 2. 3.

4023 3161 7184

549 577 1126

48.8 51.2 100.0

6 10 16

37.5 62.5 100.0

555 587 1142

48.6 51.4 100.0

63.2 36.8 100.0

23 18 41

56.1 43.9 100.0

72 63 135

53.3 46.5 100.0

131 102 233

56.2 43.8 100.0

56.0 44.0 100.0

913 947 1860

49.1 50.9 100.0

4594 4288 8882

51.7 48.3 100.0

9530 8396 17926

53.3 46.7 100.0

177 173 350

50.6 49.4 100.0

672 575 1247

53.9 46.1 100.0

1491 1350 2841

52.5 47.5 100.0

857 685 1542

55.6 44.4 100.0

1041 827 1868

55.7 44.3 100.0

1529 1260 2789

54.8 45.2 100.0

2532 2177 4709

53.8 46.2 100.0

BAR (excluding Poems 45 and 233) LYR I. 642 51.6 2. 3.

602 1244

48.4 100.0

NAR

I. 2. 3.

184 142 326

56.4 43.6 100.0

TOT

I. 2. 3.

826 744 1570

52.6 47.4 100.0

Notes.

177 173 350

50.6 49.4 100.0

Line 1. masculine pairs Line 2. feminine pairs Line 3. totals: masculines and feminines Percentages are of pair numbers by basic rhyme pattern and genre (respective line 3 entries) All the rhyme pairs in Pu§kin's poetry are masculines and feminines except 32 pairs: 30 of them dactylic and 2 hyperdactylic. The dactylic and hyperdactylic pairs account for the slight differences between basic rhyme pattern totals and broad genre totals in this table, as compared with Table

lot.l.

26

Introduction

Table Int.3. Total Pairs: Masculines, Open and Closed: Poetil Stanzas Pairs Pet.

Couplets Pairs Pet.

Free

Totals Pairs Pet.

Pairs

Pet.

15.1 84.9 100.0

186 835 1021

18.2 81.8 100.0

321 1544 1856

16.8 83.2 100.0

BAT

I. 2. 3.

92 518 610

15.1 84.9 100.0

34 191 225

ASP·L (excluding Poems S 1.83 and S 1.131)

ASP-PL LYR

NAR

I. 2. 3.

117 415 532

22.2 78.8 100.0

25 138 163

15.3 84.7 100.0

284 1150 1434

19.8 80.2 100.0

426 1703 2129

20.0 80.0 100.0

I. 2. 3.

544 1412 1966

28.2 71.8 100.0

118 223 341

34.6 65.4 100.0

504 1284 1788

28.2 71.8 100.0

1176 2929 4095

28.8 71.2 100.0

I.

93 219 312

29.8 70.9 100.0

709 1981 2690

26.3 73.7 100.0

802 2200 3002

26.7 73.3 100.0

497 1212 1709

29.1 70.9 100.0

15 23 38

39.5 60.5 100.0

512 1235 1747

29.3 70.7 100.0

2. 3. EO

I. 2. 3.

SK

I. 2. 3.

DR

I. 2. 3.

19 17 36

TOT

I. 2. 3.

1163 2860 4023

175 374 549

31.9 68.1 100.0

0 6 6

0.0 100.0 100.0

175 380 555

31.5 68.5 100.0

52.8 47.2 100.0

5 18 23

21.7 28.3 100.0

31 41 72

43.1 56.9 100.0

55 76 131

42.0 58.0 100.0

28.9 71.1 100.0

298 615 913

32.63 67.37 100.0

1259 3335 4594

27.4 72.6 100.0

2720 6810 9530

28.5 71.5 100.0

44 133 177

24.9 75.1 100.0

198 474 672

29.5 70.5 100.0

458 1033 1491

30.7 69.3 100.0

282 575 857

32.9 67.1 100.0

356 685 1041

34.2 65.8 100.0

480 1049 1529

31.4 68.6 100.0

814 32.1 1718 67.9 2532100.0

BAR (excluding Poems 45 and 233) LYR

I. 2. 3.

216 426 642

33.6 66.4 100.0

NAR

I. 2. 3.

74 110 184

40.2 59.8 100.0

TOT

I. 2. 3.

290 536 826

35.1 64.9 100.0

Notes.

44 133 177

24.9 75.1 100.0

Line I. open masculine pairs Line 2. closed masculine pairs Line 3. total masculine pairs (sum of Lines I and 2) Percentages are of total masculine pairs by genre and basic rhyme pattern.

27

Introduction: Frequency Tables

Int.4. Total Pairs: Open Masculines Versus Closed Masculines Plus Feminines: Poets Stanzas Pairs Pet.

Couplets Pairs Pet.

Free Pairs

Pet.

Totals Pairs Pet.

BAT

I. 2. 3.

92 1087 1179

7.8 92.2 100.0

34 428 462

7.4 92.6 100.0

186 1742 1928

9.7 90.3 100.0

312 3257 3569

8.7 91.3 100.0

ASP-L (excluding SI.8[ and S1.l31)

1. 2. 3.

117 856 973

12.0 88.0 100.0

25 291 316

7.9 92.1 100.0

284 2492 2776

10.2 89.8 100.0

426 3639 4065

10.5 89.5 100.0

LYR

I 2. 3.

554 3147 3701

15.0 85.0 100.0

118 575 693

17.0 83.0 100.0

504 2919 3423

14.7 85.3 100.0

1176 6641 7817

15.0 85.0 100.0

NAR

I. 2. 3.

93 444 537

17.3 82.7 100.0

709 4509 5218

14.7 85.3 100.0

802 4953 5755

13.9 86.1 100.0

EO

I. 2. 3.

497 2392 2889

17.2 82.8 100.0

15 75 90

16.7 83.3 100.0

512 2467 2979

17.2 82.8 100.0

ASP-PL

SK 2.

3.

175 951 1126

15.5 84.5 100.0

0 [6 16

0.0 100.0 100.0

175 967 1142

15.3 84.7 100.0

DR

I. 2. 3.

19 38 57

33.3 66.7 100.0

5 36 41

12.2 87.8 100.0

31 104 135

23.0 770 100.0

55 178 233

23.6 76.4 1000

TOT

I. 2. 3.

1163 6021 7184

16.2 83.8 100.0

298 1562 1860

16.0 84.0 100.0

1259 7623 8882

14.2 85.8 100.0

2720 15206 17926

15.2 84.8 100.0

44 306 350

12.6 87.4 100.0

198 1049 1247

15.9 84.1 [00.0

458 2383 2841

16.1 83.9 100.0

282 1260 1542

18.3 81.7 100.0

356 1512 1868

19.1 80.9 100.0

480 2309 2789

17.2 87.8 100.0

8[4 3895 4709

17.3 82.7 [00.0

BAR (excluding Poems 45 and 233) LYR

I. 2. 3

216 1028 1244

17.4 82.6 100.0

NAR

L 2. 3.

74 252 326

22.7 773 100.0

TOT

1. 2. 3.

290 1280 1570

18.5 81.5 100.0

44 306 350

12.6 87.4 100.0

Line I. open masculines (same as Table Int.3, line 1) Line 2. closed masculines plus feminines Line 3. totals (same as Table Int.2, line 3) Percentages are of all (open and closed) masculines plus all feminines

Notes.

Introduction

28

Table Int.5. Total Rhyme Pairs: Dactylics (and Hyperdactylics) Stanzas Pairs Pet.

Couplets Pairs Pet.

Free Pairs

Pet.

Totals Pairs Pet.

0.1

0.0

BAT 0

0.0

0

0.0

0.7

0

0.0

0

0

0.0

ASP-L (excluding S1.81 and Sl.13l) 7

0.0

7

0.2

14

0.4

17

0.2

0

0.0

0

0.0

ASP-PL

LYR

3

0.1

NAR

0

0.0

EO

0

0.0

SK

4

0.4

0

0.0

0

0.0

6

27.3

10

0.9

DR

0

0.0

0

0.0

5

3.6

5

2.1

TOT

3

0.0

4

0.2

25

0.2

32

0.2

0

0.0

4

0.3

14

0.5

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

4

0.1

14

0.3

BAR (excluding Poems 45 and 233)

LYR

10

0.9

NAR

0

0.0

TOT

10

0.6

Notes.

Percentages are of all pairs by basic rhyme pattern and strofika form (Table Int.l); all these pairs are dactylics, except two hyperdactylics in ASP-PL: one in the Lyrics (stanzas) and one in the Skazki (BA: couplets).

29

Introduction: Frequency Tables

Table Int.6. Periods: ASP-PL Rhyme Pair Totals by Basic Rhyme-Element Form

n I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

m

Prs.

Pct.

Prs.

Pet.

Prs.

Pct.

333 1168 1501 1378 2546 2879 I 2880

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

1001 2366 3367 2927 5294 6295 2 6297

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

916 2193 3109 2570 4763 5769 12 5691

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Notes: vertical columns: ASP-PL periods I: Late L817-20 II: L821-25 ill: 1826-30 IV: 1831-36 horizontal lines L. open masculines 2. closed masculines 3. total masculines 4. feminines 5. closed masculines plus feminines 6. total masculines plus feminines 7. others: dactylics plus hyperdactylics 8. total pairs Note. Each percentage is 100% for its unit of verse.

IV Prs. 470 1083 1653 1520 2603 3073

17 3090

Pct. LOO 100 100 LOO 100 100 100 100

Introduction

30

Table Int.7. Total Rhymeword Appearances (RWA) A. Poets Stanzas Ind. RWA

Couplets RWA Ind.

Free RWA Ind.

Totals RWA Ind.

BAT I. 2.

2135

100.0 34.0

836

100.0 13.3

3307

100.0 52.7

6278

100.0 100.0

I. 2.

1730

100.0 25.9

568

100.0 8.5

4384

100.0 65.6

6682

100.0 100.0

I. 2. I. 2. 1. 2. I. 2. 1. 2. 1. 2.

6174

50.0 47.3 5.3 7.1 43.9 97.2

1354

40.0 10.4

5528

37.8 42.3 59.1 92.9

13056

1.1

5566

43.0 100.0 30.6 100.0 18.4 100.0 6.6 100.0 1.4 100.0 100.0 100.0

ASP-L

ASP-PL LYR NAR EO SK DR TOT BAR LYR NAR TOT

1. 2. I. 2. 1. 2.

658 5410

8627 156 1961

98 12340

0.8 23.2 100.0 40.7

2473

79.3 46.4 20.7 20.2 100.0 36.6

644 3117

74 3389

684

57.8 98.0 2.2 17.5 100.0 11.2 100.0 12.8

2.8 0.3 2.1 1.7 59.3 100.0 48.2

41 251 14603

2173

46.1 40.7 53.9 79.8 1000 53.4

2545 6841

100.0 18.0

4717

9285

2002 423 30332

5239 3189 8518

62.6 100.0 37.4 100.0 100.0 100.0

Periods: ASP-PL I 4783

Notes.

100.0 15.8

10329

II 100.0 34.0

III 9783

IV 100.0 32.2

5437

100.0 17.9

In this book the data of this table are used in figuring percentages in vertical enrichment. All rhymed lines are included. 1. Percentages for unit of poetry, as portion of all rhymed lines (rhymeword appearance) per poet, with same basic rhyme pattern, and totals 2. Percentages per unit of poetry, as part of total genre (or total poet)

31

introduction: Frequency Tables

Table Int.S. Rhymeword Appearances in Large Sets: Poets (Sets of Four or More Rhymewords) Stanzas BAT

RWA 68

Pet. 3.2

Couplets RWA 38

Pet. 4.6

Free RWA 103

Totals

Pet. 3.1

ASP-L

90

5.2

32

5.6

334

7.6

ASP-PL LYR

323

5.2

16

l.2

273

NAR

42

6.4

382

166

3.1 130

6.6

8

8.2

4

5.4

TOT

539

4.4

150

4.4

BAR LYR

82

3.3

8

1.2

8

l.2

EO SK DR

NAR

4

0.6

TOT

86

2.9

Notes.

RWA 209

Pet. 3.3

456

6.8

4.9

612

4.7

4.4

424

4.6

5

3.2

171

3.1

0

0.0

130

6.5

l.6

16

3.8

664

4.6

1353

4.5

41

1.9

131

2.5

1I4

4.4

1I8

3.7

155

3.3

249

2.9

RWA represents the rhymeword appearances in the sets of four and larger in these poets. In this count, each rhymeword in text produces I R WA. (In this book, this information is used in Chapter 5: Vertical Enrichment.)

Chapter J RHYME-ELEMENT CONTRASTS

Introduction ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I-A. Class I: Rhyme-element contrasts and constraints: non-phonetic .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I-A.!, Vowel. ........................................................ J-A.!'1. Vowel: tonic (stressed; corresponds to ictus) ...................... I-A!.!.!. Vowels. tonic: e-leJ ande-(o] ............................. I-A.I.!'2. Vowels, tonic: miscellaneous (others) ....................... I-A.!.!.3. Vowels, tonic: totals ....................................

34 36 37 38 38 47 52

I.A.!.2. Vowel: Post-tonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. l-A.I.2. I. Post-tonic terminal yj-oj (respellable as oj-oj) ................ l-A.I.2.2. Other non-orthographic post-tonic vowel contrasts (all but yj-oj). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I-A.I.2.3. Post-tonic orthographic vowel contrasts ..................... I-AI.2.4. Total post-tonic vowel contrasts ........................... I-A!.3. Vowels: totals ..............................................

54 55 57 67 79 82

l-A.2. Consonant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84 l-A2.!' Orthographic consonant contrasts, neutralized v-uv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85 l-A2.2. Orthographic contrasts: rhyme-element clusters, silent consonant in one: s(t)n ...................................... 88 I-A.2.3. Other orthographic contrasts: alternative pronunciation .............. 89 l-A2.4. Other orthographic contrasts: usual pronunciation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101 I-A.2.5. Nonorthographic contrasts: alternative form (and also, for some, alternative pronunciation) .................. 106 1-A.2.6. Totals: Class I consonant contrasts ............................ III l-A3. Consonant-and-Vowels: ova-ogo (ago OS) ........................... 114 l-A4. Totals: Class I ................................................. 116 I-B. Class 2: Rhyme-element contrasts: open masc.(OM), and j-O fern. pairs ......... I-B.!. Open masculine (OM) consonant contrasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1-B.2. j-O feminines (consonant [usually consonant-glide j] vs. 0) ............... I-B.3. Totals: Class 2: OM consonant contrasts, plusj-O feminincs ..............

118 119 131 143

Chapter I

33

I-C. Class 3: Rhyme-element contrasts: orthographic and phonetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I-C. I. Class 3 vowel contrasts ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I-C.U. Vowel contrasts in CM pairs: stressed vowel ..................... l-C.l.2. Vowel contrasts in F pairs: post-tonic vowel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I-C.1.3 Totals: Class 3 vowel ....................... see editor's note, pg. I-C.2. Class 3 consonant contrasts ........................................ I-C.2.l. Consonant contrast in CM pairs ................................ I-C.2.2. Consonant contrast in F pairs .................................. I-C.2.3. Totals: consonant contrasts .................................... I-C.3. Totals: vowels plus consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

145 147 147 148 154 154 155 163 174 175

I-D. Rhyme-Element Contrasts: Totals ........................................ I-D. I. Totals: Poets ................................................... I-D.2. Totals: ASP-PL Genres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I-D.3. Totals: ASP-L and ASP-PL Periods .................................

177 177 179 181

I-E. Conclusion .......................................................... 183 Tables .............................................................. 187

Rhyme-Element Contrasts

34

INTRODUCTION

This chapter will deal with rhyme-element (RE) contrasts and constraints in rhyme pairs: that is, with rhyme pairs that do not meet all expectations for rhyme-element "flawlessness"-lack of technical imperfections-as interpreted in expectations, at the time

Pu~kin

Pu~kin's

day. As has often been noted, those

published Ruslan i Ljudmila in 1820, were stringent. (For a

detailed examination of the polemics on RL upon its appearance, including its rhymes, see Tomasevskij, PuSkin, 1, 350-380). For a rhyme to be judged as being without flaw, there would be "sameness" in both the orthography and phonetics of the rhyme-elements of the two rhyme partners of the pair-and without any use of variant orthography or any variant pronunciation. For example, N.F. Ostolopov in a book published by the Imperial Russian Academy in 1821 defines rhyme as follows: "Rifmoju nazyvaetsja soglasie zvukov kone~nogo

slova v stixe s

kone~nym

ze slovom drugogo stixa," but calls a rhyme "nepolnaja

iii bednaja: kotoraja zvukami i bukvami nesoversenno soglasuetsja s drugim slovom, kak na pr.: naS, straZ; sosed, obet; slov, Ijubov· i pr." (Ostolopov, Slovar' drevnej i novoj poezii, 3: 17). He objects not only to hard-soft pairs, but also to neutralized terminal voiced-unvoiced rhymeword pairs. A further important matter: when there was orthographical "sameness" of the rhymeelements of a pair-with usual or alternative orthography-there was then sensed to be no contrast in the phonetics of the rhyme-elements as regards rhyming. Furthermore, if there is contrast in phonetics in the rhymes, there is also contrast in orthography. Chapter 1 will attempt to classify and deal with all the rhyme pairs that have rhymeelement contrasts and constraints. Some such rhyme pairs have contrasts both in phonetics and orthography. However, the largest groups of Class I contrasting rhyme pairs have no contrast in the phonetics of their rhyme-elements, but differ in pronunciation unless variant pronunciations are used, or that vary in orthography unless variant orthography is used, or both. They also include rhyme pairs that, when these poets wrote, could have different pronunciations, or different orthography (either of which might cause constraint about the use). In open masculine pairs (OM}-those in which the rhyme-element ends with a tonic vowel-

there is at least some contrast in the pronunciation of rhyme-elements in pairs, if the orthography of the rhyme-elements is not identical. In all other basic rhyme-forms, the orthography was considered to be the "same" if all the graphemes except the stressed vowels were identical, and the stressed vowels were identical or the two stressed vowels of the pair were two of these Cyrillic orthographic alternatives: a-H; J-e-lI (l\);

bl-B;

y-IO. The 11 (l\) is

Chapter J

35

listed specifically here because it enters considerably in the analyses below; in the poetry of the time of our poets, the

e and

"ambiguous e" were not at all the same thing, though they

had attributes in common. As we shall see below, many rhymewords and rhyme types had a variant pronunciation;

the expected pronunciation may be unclear or ambiguous---or it may be indicated by the definite pronunciation of the rhyme-partner. We shall use the term "required" pronunciation to designate the situation when the definite pronunciation of the rhyme-element of one

rhymeword of a pair results in, and signals the same definite pronunciation (of an available variant) for the other rhyme partner. The most frequent type of "required" pronunciation has to do with what we shall call stressed "ambiguous e," which could be given definite ("required") pronunciation by a rhyme partner, in definite

lei

or definite [01. The lifetime collected books of poetry of these poets

show that when the poetry then appeared in collected editions for which the poets had responsibility, at least occasionally, "ambiguous e" may have three different spellings. They are as follows: e or i! in any rhyme pair; or 0 when immediately preceded by a shibilant (z, (!,

s, §(!) or the grapheme c in a poetic context in which the post-tonic vowel in one rhymeword is rhyme partner with a rhymeword in definite [01. By rhyming both rhyme partners of a pair in "ambiguous e," the poet could avoid criticism that might accompany a pair given a definite pronunciation that was not to reader's preference. But at the same time, he could risk the danger of banality, for example, if the use is of verb-verb rhymes (with their usually similar morphology). Our poets' rhymes with stressed "ambiguous e" will be studied in some detail below. In this chapter we shall treat rhyme-element contrasts and constraints in three classes; their totals will include all pairs with rhyme-element contrasts and constraints. For convenience, the word contrasts will be used below as also including constraints. Perhaps the following should be explicitly stated, in order to preclude misunderstanding. Some of these types of variations from technical flawlessness, as we shall see, exist in small numbers; some in large. It is not the purpose of this study to condemn all rhymes that had such variations, or to condone those that do not-but to analyze the types of departure from such technical flawlessness. We shall not be concerned with value judgments about rhyming below, but shall analyze and describe what we find. But here it may be appropriate to make the following generalization explicitly. The more one studies

Pu~kin's

works, the more one is convinced that every kind of departure from his

norms in ASP-PL was felt by him as having its own justification, not only as providing its particular effect in its immediate context, but in the context of all his poetry. In ASP-PL,

Pu~­

kin did not do what may be termed as "sloppy" rhyming. In fact, the impetus for beginning

Rhyme-Element Contrasts

36

this study so long ago was to have context for discovering the poetic norms employed in ASP-PL, so as to attempt to discover the expressiveness that results when he departs from the neutrally unobjectionable. From this point of view, even quite acceptable departures from the "ideal" norm may have their profiles of use and expressiveness. This is why the treatment here of Pu§kin's rhyming is so detailed in comparison with rhyme studies done, so far as [ know, of any poet. The three classes of rhyme-element contrast or constraint are treated in the three main parts of this chapter, and their sum in the fourth, as follows: I-A. Class I: rhyme-element contrasts and constraints, not in phonetics, but in orthography, and/or use of variant forms and/or variant pronunciations 1-8. Class 2: rhyme-element contrasts in open masculine (OM) consonants, and in j-O (open vs. closed) feminine (F) pairs I-C. Class 3 rhyme-element contrasts in both orthography and phonetics in closed masculine (CM) and feminine (F) rhyme pairs I-D. Conclusion: grand totals: rhyme-element contrasts, Classes 1-3. Successively, each of these classes is much larger than the next: the first is much larger than the second, and the second is much larger than the third. Some pairs have rhymeelement contrasts of more than one class; they will be noted in the detailed study of each class. Further definitions and examples will be given for these classes and their categories, in the detailed treatment below. I-A. CLASS I: RHYME-ELEMENT CONTRASTS AND CONSTRAINTS

Rhyme-elements in pairs with Class 1 contrasts are treated by the poets studied here (BAT, ASP-L, ASP-PL, and BAR) as being the "same" in pronunciation (phonetics) for the purposes of rhyming if there was no difference in orthography between the rhyme partners of the pairs. However, these Class I pairs have unavoidable contrasts in orthography, or else they avoid contrast in orthography and/or pronunciation by using variant orthography, and/or variant pronunciations, and/or variant wordforms. Class I rhyme-element contrasts in these poets occur in closed masculine rhymes (CM) and in feminine (F) rhymes. (All the contrasts in open masculine rhymes are classified as Class 2.) Class I contrasts will be treated as follows: I-A. I. vowels I-A.2. consonants I-A.3. vowel-and-consonant: ova-ogo (ago OS) I-A.4. totals: Class I

Chapter I

37

i-A.I. CLASS 1: RHYME-ELEMENT CONTRASTS: VOWELS

There has apparently been relatively little detailed study of rhyme vowel contrasts and constraints in Russian rhyme, except as regards rhyme practices in terms of the orthographic sameness (or difference). For example, Academic M.L. Gasparov, in his studies, assumes knowledge and basic agreement about the phonics (fonika) of post-tonic vowels so that he need mention only difference in orthography in rhymes (in his "Evoljucija russkoj rifmy"). For our purposes, we think it may be helpful to say more explicitly, not only which orthographically contrasting vowels are rhymed with which others, but to examine the justification in the poetry for attributing specific resulting pronunciation; one of the great advantages of the existence of ASP-L as well as ASP-PL is to give enough materials to help make that judgment. We assume that, except for "ambiguous e," stressed vowels had during our poets' time, a pronunciation corresponding to the orthography of the orthographic stressed vowel. In addition to expected orthographical identity of stressed rhyme vowels, before our poets' time there had also been a strictly observed practice, according to which the post-tonic vowels should correspond with each other in orthography. This meant that the rhyming would not indicate any variance in pronunciation of unstressed rhymes from the that of the orthographic norm of stressed vowels. However, during our poets' time, the practice became more prevalent of the use of rhyme pairs in which there were different orthographic post-tonic variants, particularly, as we shall see, o-a variants, and variants in the jotated vowels (i, e, 1\, ja, ju)---the vowels before which the immediately preceding consonants automatically become palatalized (soft, instead of hard). The general acceptance of such variance ofnon-jotated vowels (except orthographic 0 to a) came later-the few instances in ASP-PL in which this occurs are treated as a contrast of the Class 3 variety-not Class 1. At such a time, poets might have a quite different sense than their readers and critics, as regards acceptable pronunciations of unstressed vowels in poetry in general, and the suitability of possible alternative pronunciations for poetry of the kinds these poets wrote. For example, in this period, some of the older generation of critics strongly objected to "required" stressed e-(oJ, as "unsuitable" for poetry (the most famous was Admiral A.S. Siskov, in his Rassuidenie

0

starom i novom sloge, 1803), but our poets nevertheless used it-as we shall see. When Pu~­

kin's Ruslan j Ljudmila appeared in 1820, it was attacked for the use of stressed e-(o] pairs (spelled i!); here was a jeering attack on instances of stressed "ambiguous e" being pronounced 340-56).

0,

as "muzicskie rifmy" (for the polemics on this subject see Tomasevsij, Puskin, 1:

38

Rhyme-Element Contrasts

I-A.I.1. Class I: Rhyme-Element Contrasts: Vowels, Tonic Class I contrasts in tonic vowels will be treated in the following subsections: I-A.l.t.l. Vowels, tonic: e-(eJ and e-Iol I-A 1.1.2. Vowels, tonic: miscellaneous (others) I-AI. 1.3. Vowels, tonic: totals I-A.l.I.I. Class 1: rhyme-element contrasts: vowels, tonic: e-Iel and e-iol. The large rhyme category with non-phonetic tonic vowel contrast is that of "ambiguous e": which then could be rhymed as definite leI or lol-but, if "ambiguous e" is rhymed with "ambiguous e," it was left to the reader to choose how to pronounce it in each particular instance. An example of a pair with two rhymewords forming an unobjectionable pair with "ambiguous e" is the verb-verb pair: poet, gryzet (EO.7.7. 13, 14): the orthography does not reveal either expected pronunciation of the stressed vowel. A definite pronunciation is "required" in each of the following pairs: poMd, nastaet (S2.146. 6, 8, "K Napoleonu"; 1821) Ie]; and poet, u vorot (RL.4. 96, 98) [0]. In the orthography of that time (OS), stressed e of po bed made it definite that stressed e in nastaet was to be pronounced lei-there is no instance in these poets in which stressed e has a required pronunciation of [01. (The lifetime editions have been consulted, and in this chapter, when pertinent to interpretation, e stressed or unstressed-taken from them-will be indicated in the transliteration.) In the second pair cited above, poet, u vorot, the second rhyme partner makes definite the "required" pronunciation of (0] for otherwise "ambiguous e." In this section-tonic e-(e] and e-(o]-the required pronunciations of stressed "ambiguous e" will be treated under the following types: l-A.t.l.l, type a tonic "ambiguous e" rhymed as Ie]: (e-Ie] pairs) I-A I. 1.1, type b. tonic "ambiguous e" rhymed as (oj: (e-(o] pairs) I-A l. 1.1, c. totals of tonic e-Ie] and e-(oJ pairs I-A.I.t.l, type a. Tonic "ambiguous e" rhymed as lei (e-(e] pairs). Each rhyme pair with stressed "ambiguous e" rhymed as (e] (e-(el pairs) consists of one rhymeword in tonic (e] and the other in tonic "ambiguous e," so that the rhyme vowel in the pair is "required" (e]. The e-(e( pairs fall into two main groups: (I) feminine rhymes in which one rhymeword is a long-form past passive participle in stressed enn (enn pairs-