Psychodynamic factors in the use of religious devotional literature

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PSYCHODYNAMIC IN

THE

USE

OF

RELIGIOUS

FACTORS DEVOTIONAL

LITERATURE

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School University of Southern California

In Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree Master of Arts

by Joseph Havens August 1950

UMI Number: EP65198

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This thesis, w ritten by ........ jQ5.eph„HavenB................... under the guidance of h.XB~ F a c u lty C om m ittee, and app ro ved by a l l its members, has been presented to and accepted by the C ouncil on G ra duate Study and Research in p a r t ia l f u l f i l l ­ ment of the requirements f o r the degree of

..Art a.

Faculty Committee

Chairnu

table

of

contents

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

HISTORICAL AND MODERN ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM. The art of spiritual direction.

. .

1

. . . . . . . . .

1

» ♦

4

Spiritual direction in the Catholic Church. Devotional literature and modern psychology

II,

Statement of the problem. . . . . . . . . . .

5

Definition of devotional literature ♦

7

Method of procedure « . . * . . • * * * » * •

7

THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL,FRAME OF REFERENCE•, . . The phenomenological theory of personality.

, .

9

* » 10

The basic human need. • • * * » • * . . . « • •

12

The self-concept. » . * . . * . » « * . . . « *

13

Social aspects. III,

1

*t 16

P SYGHO DYNAMIC FACTORS IN THE USE OF DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

Within the phenomenological frame of reference*

19

Devotional literature as threat or satisfaction.

19

With a restricted self-concept* With an inclusive self-concept.

22 . . • • • • *

23

Within a Hsuper-individual” orientation • * • *

24

Psychodynamics determined by the total situation*

. . . . . * * * *

• « .* . # *

23

iii CHAPTER

PAG-E Within the psychoanalytic frame of reference* . 29 Bibliotherapy . # . * . . * # * * * . * * # . 2 9 Compulsive thinking . . . . . . * * * * . . . 3 2 Collecting reassurances against anxiety * . * 34

IV,ILLUSTRATIVE CASES

37

Case A, - Emersonian Theology. . . . . . . . . .

38

Case B # - Supernatural Theology.

. . . . . . . .

39

Case C. - Thirty-eighth Psalm. • * . • • • • * *

41

Case D. - Dom Chapman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6 Case E. - Thomas a Kempls* . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 Case F. - Isaac Penington.

# . * * . # . . . # # 5 6

Case £. - Thomas Kelley. Case H, - Romans 2 . . .

62 . . . . . . .

Case I* - Meister Eckhart. V*

.....68

. . . . . . # . # . * 7 1

PSYCHODYNAMICS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE TOTAL LIFE-COURSE.

77

The course of life as G-estalt* . . . . . . . .

.77

Devotional literature and the intensification of conflict. . . . * . . . . . . * . . . . . * 7 8 VI.SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

G-eneral summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # * 8 5 B

The importance of psychodynamic factors. . . . 85

iv CHAPTER

PAG-E The need forguidance.

» * * . . • • • « •

Suggestionsforfurther research BIBLIOGRAPHY

* . * .

85 *

86 89

CHAPTER I HISTORICAL I

AND

MODERN

ASPECTS

OF

THE

PROBLEM

THE ART OF SPIRITUAL DIRECTION

One of the major justifications for undertaking a study such as this is the continued wide-spread use of de­ votional literature. Among Catholics arid Episcopalians, the long tradition of the use of devotional literature continues and may possibly be growing. Among Protestants, there seems to be a resurgence of interest in devotional literature, the reflection of which may be seen in the recent republication by Harper and Brothers of several older devotional classics (The Cloud of Unknowing: Fenelon’s Christian Perfection; etc.), and in the popularity of such contemporary writers as Douglas V. Steere, G-erald Heard, and Rufus M. Jones* On a more popular level this new interest in the inner life may be seen in those new movements, such as Unity, which empha­ size the importance of one’s inner state of mind and which provide devotional literature to produce the desired state. Spiritual direction in the Catholic Church. But along with this heightened interest in religious reading there has come little of what has been called ”spiritual direction .11 In the Roman Catholic Church, the term 11spiritual direction” has referred to the guidance given by priests or others to

2

spiritual seekers, particularly regarding their prayer life* It has been used especially in monasteries and convents, where the devotional life has been pursued most intensively* but it is not uncommon for parish priests and even lay Cath­ olics to act as spiritual directors for those outside of the religious orders* Father Augustin Baker, writing in the 17th Century, has this to say about the functions of a spiritual director: But by a spiritual director I intend one that* * * is to instruct the disciple in all the peculiar duties of an internal life; that is, to judge of her propension to contemplative ways, and that can at least teach her how she may fit herself with a degree of prayer proper for her; * * . that can judge what employments, etc* are helpful or hindering to her progress in internal ways; but especially that can teach her how to dispose herself to hearken to and follow & o d ,s internal teach­ ing, and to stand in no more need of consulting her external director, etc *1

The instructor therefore is to behave himself towards them all according to the quality and need of each spir­ it, always remembering that his office is not to teach his own way of prayer, etc., but to instruct his disci­ ples how they may themselves find out the way proper for them, by observing themselves what doeth good and what causeth harm to their spirits; * . . * It is obvious from this description that a major task of the spiritual director is the selection and recommendation of

1 F. Augustin Baker, Holy Wisdom (London: Burns, Oates & Washburn, 1876) p.75.

^ Ibid.

P*85

3 devotional literature on the basis of the needs of the seeker. In addition, of course, the director must see that a creative and growthful use is made of the literature; he must have, in other words, some comprehension of the dynamic use which is being made of the content of the literature. It would seem, then, that from Catholic sources we ought to learn much about the use and misuse of devotional literature which would throw light on our investigations of psychodynamics. Unfortunately however, this is not the case; there appears to be little in the Catholic writings on the use of devotional literature that could be related to what we call psychodynamics. The reason for this seems to be two­ fold. In the first place, the frame of reference in which Catholic spiritual direction has been practiced is that of ’’levels of prayer** and is oriented largely in terms of the soul’s relation to God, to Christ, and to the Church. Our frame of reference, on the other hand, is much more that of the individual and what goes on within him in terms of his own inner perceptions. In the second place, we are led by the literature to assume that much of the knowledge of sf>ifitual direction is passed on from director to director by personal instruction, and that very little of the skill and wisdom of the spiritual director is known by or available to the public. There is surely a large element of intuitive insight in religious guidance, which is mostly the result of

temperament and long experience 9 and which could never be systematized. It should be added that in this study only Catholic literature on the subject was investigated, and individual priests who might have given more specific infor­ mation in terms of their own practice were not consulted. It must be concluded that the wisdom of long Catholic experience 'in this matter is not available, at least within the limited scope of the investigations for this paper.3 II

DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE AND MODERN PSYCHOLOGY

Beginning with Freud in his book, The Future of an Illusion. it has become common practice among psychoanalysts to point out the neurotic basis of religious beliefs and practices. With a few notable exceptions, the outstanding one being C.G-.Jung, psychoanalysts have dismissed religion either as an expression of misplaced libido or as an inade­ quate resolution of the Oedipus complex, or they have passed over it as outside their ken, and have failed to deal with it as a positive or integrative force in the personality. However, anyone who studies the psychoanalytic descriptions of the misuse of religion cannot help but find in them much truth. Even making generous allowances for error and for

3

See Bibliography for listing of Catholic books consulted

5 some prejudice against religion,there is still much to be learned from what psychoanalysis has to say about the psy­ chodynamics of religious belief and practice. There is rather little material in the psychoanalytic literature that deals specifically with the use of devotional writings, but there are certainly many mechanisms described by ana­ lysts which are relevant to the present study. Perhaps the most compelling aspect of the challenge which the psychologists have made to religious leaders lies in the growing number of case histories which attest to the misuse of religion. This is true not only in psychoanalysis but especially in that school of clinical psychology, the non-directive or client-centered school, in which verbatim records are made of the therapeutic sessions. Here there is irrefutable evidence concerning the effects which the mal­ practice of religion can have .4 Modern dynamic psychology really came into being through insights in clinical prac­ tice, and religious thinkers also can gain much from the re­ sults of clinical psychological practice. Statement of the problem. Finally we are in a posi­ tion to state the problem of this study. Essentially it is an attempt to isolate and investigate the different psycho-

4 See, for example, the case of ^Barbara" in Rogers 1 Coun­ seling and Psychotherapy. pp. 185-94 and pp. §11-12.

6 dynamic factors which determine the use an individual makes of religious devotional literature. Theoretically we are in­ terested both in the creative, growthful use of such litera­ ture, and in the negative or pathological use. In actuality, however, for reasons stated below, we shall concentrate more on the misuse than on the positive use. Since a major empha­ sis of this study is empirical and clinical rather than theoretical and speculative, a large portion of the thesis is devoted to case studies, and the practical aspects of the problem will be uppermost. It is hoped that the study may be of some use to ministers, religious teachers and others who are in a position to recommend spiritual reading to others* There are surveys which indicate that a great many more people are taking to psychologists rather than to mini­ sters their personal troubles, and even their unsatisfied needs for more abundant life. There is in this fact a chal­ lenge which must be met if religion is to continue to make its unique contribution in the cure of souls. One way of meeting this challenge is to attempt to. understand what psychology and psychiatry have to teach us. An eminent psychoanalyst, Karl Menninger, has this to say: If I were a minister I would study with the psychiatrist some of those instances in which religion has seemed to do harm rather than good for the individual; I should study them without prejudice and without fear.

7 * • * religion may mean different things to.different people and . . * psychological mechanisms determine what type of religion will satisfy a particular individual. The manner in which a man utilizes his religion .. . is a commentary on the state of his mental health .5 Definition of devotional literature. At this point should be made clear just what is meant by Hdevotional lit­ erature. n Actually this term should be

given as broad an in­

terpretation as it will carry. For the

purposes of this

study, any literature should be considered devotional if it contributes in some way or another to the private religious life of the individual, or, in other words, if it is more than simply an intellectual study. Thus the most theoretical kind of religious philosophy would be considered devotional if it had a dynamic and change-producing effect upon the reader* s view of G-od, his fellow-men, or the world about him. In nearly all the cases cited below, the literature is in the Judeo-Christian tradition. However, the psychodynamic problems would be essentially similar if the literature were Hindu, Theosophical or Ethical Culturlst. Method of -procedure. There are two major difficulties in attempting a study of this kind. First is the lack of previous studies on which one may draw. The second diffi­ culty is the lack of any truly adequate and fully acceptable

5

Karl Menninger, ^Religious Applications of Psychiatry**, Pastoral Psychology Vol.l, No.3, April, 1950. p*17.

method of determining just what psychodynamics are involved in behavior. There are serious disagreements even among the schools of psychology which try to deal with psychodynamics, ie. the psychoanalytic and the phenomenological.

(See the

following chapter for a definition of "phenomenological school.") Thus it has been necessary, -almost arbitrarily, to pick a particular psychological frame of reference., and to try to fit what data are available into that frame. The frame chosen is that of the phenomenological theory of per­ sonality. However, it has been necessary to include a sec­ tion from psychoanalysis in order not to lose the great con­ tribution which that school can make to the solution of our problem. After outlining the frame of reference, we shall try to relate the specific problem of the use of devotional literature to it, and then try to understand and explain the few case histories in its terms. The cases were secured mostly through personal contacts with the individuals them­ selves, with close friends,or with psychotherapists treating them. The source of the information on each case will be stated at the beginning of its respective section.

CHAPTER II THE

PHENOMENOLOGICAL

FRAME

OF

REFERENCE

As noted in the preceding chapter, dynamic psychology is far from being unified in any one theory of personality. However, psychiatry is more and more dominated by psycho­ analytic theory, whereas clinical psychology seems to be rallying increasingly around the phenomenological frame of reference. In order that the study may be unified around a single theory, it has been necessary to choose one of these theories and to try to refer the cases to it. The use of a particular frame also may allow the reader to fit other cases from his own experience into a theory which will make them more understandable. Only in this way can they take on mean­ ing and be dealt with constructively and with some measure of confidence. The phenomenological’frame was chosen rather than the psychoanalytic for a number of reasons, the most important being that it is simpler to understand and to explain. Fur­ thermore, it is less controversial, and it is able to con­ tain most of the facts without too much straining and too many special explanations. Also, it is newer than psycho­ analysis, and has no crystallized judgments about religion such as are found in some psychoanalytic circles. Some of

10 the limitations of the phenomenological theory in relation to our problem will be mentioned later on. The phenomenological theory of personality has grown largely out of the clinical experience of the non-directive or client-centered school of psychotherapy. Carl R. Rogers is generally recognized as the founder of this school, arid the basic manual of clinical practice is his Counseling and Psychotherapy. An early and influential book in the development of the theory of personality corresponding to this therapy was P# Lecky*s Self Consistency. Since then there have been a number of journal articles developing the theory, mostly by Rogers, but the only book-length statement of the theory is a recent work by Donald Snygg and Arthur W. Combs entitled Individual Behavior. Although we shall make brief reference to one of Rogers1 articles, the main source of this brief exposition of phenomenological psychology will be the Snygg and Combs book. The phenomenological theory of personality. A basic underlying assumption of this theory is that all behavior has meaning. This meaning can be understood according to certain laws; thus psychologists should eventually be able not only to understand but to predict all kinds of human thought and activity. According to these authors, all behavior is deter­

11 mined by what they call the phenomenal field. By the phenomenal field we mean the entire universe, in­ cluding himself, as it is experienced by the individual at the instant of action. . . * It is simply the uni­ verse of naive experience in which the individual lives, the everyday situation of self and surroundings which each person takes to be reality* * . * to the individual himself his phenomenal field reality, the only real­ ity he can know. I The two basic characteristics of this field are its fluidity, its constant change, and the fact that it is always organiz­ ed and meaningful (assuming of course that the individual is • not seriously ill mentally)* The phenomenal field is organ­ ized and maintained on the basis of selection by the indivi­ dual. This selection f,is carried on by the individual as a means of satisfying his needs, and in conformity with the existing organization of his phenomenal field.112 The basic principle by which the individual organizes and adds to his field operates at all times and with respect to both the inner and outer worlds* Frequently influences and events, both inner and outer, are distorted or even rejected when they do not fit with the existing organization; and always they are looked at in terms of the meaning given them by the existing phenomenal field. For Snygg and Combs, the word phenomenal means

1

Donald Snygg and Arthur W. Combs, Individual Behavior (Mew York: Harper & Brothers, 1949. 360 pp.) p. 15

2

Ibid* p.23

12

essentially subjective. When they talk of trying to view be­ havior in phenomenological terms, they mean simply trying to see that behavior through the eye's of the behaver. They feel that only as the scientist is able to “feel himself into" the total situation of the behaver. can he fully understand and explain his behavior* The idea of trying to see a situa­ tion from another1s point of view is far from new, of course, but the attempt to make it into a scientific theory is

new,

and it has already yielded fruitful results* The basic human need. There is a special and highly significant part of the phenomenal field which is called the phenomenal self. This self is simply all the aspects of the phenomenal field which the individual experiences as a

part

of himself or even as characteristic of himself. This in­ cludes more than the physical body; it may include clothes, home, automobile; and most important, it includes all one*s evaluations and definitions of oneself —

psychologically,

morally and spiritually. The phenomenal self is the most permanent part of the individualfs phenomenal field and is the point of re­ ference for his every behavior. The basic need of everyone is to preserve and enhance the phenomenal self, and the characteristics of all parts of the field are governed by this need. The phenomenal self is so impor­ tant in the economy of the individual that it gives continuity and consistency to his behavior.3

3

Ibid. p.78

13 The phrase f,to preserve and enhance the phenomenal self0 is a key one for our purposes; it is said by these authors to be the basic human need, and most of our explanations of the use of devotional literature will be made in its terms. The need for enhancement of the self might also be called the need for self-esteem or for self-respect. The almost universal desire for social approval and acceptance is closely related to it. The self-conceTot. Perhaps an even more important term for our use here is what Rogers has called the self-concept. By self-concept is meant that relatively limited portion of the phenomenal field which most constantly and potently affects behavior* f,The self-concept includes those parts of the phenomenal field which the individual has differentiated as definite and fairly stable characteristics of himself.04 The self-concept is closely related in meaning to what other psychologists have called the ego-image, and the ego-ideal. The self-concept is simply the inner image which the indivi­ dual has of himself on the psychological, moral and reli­ gious level. The ego-ideal is more especially the highest or most idealized image an individual has of himself. It is partly on the level of aspiration, but often it is a potent

4

IbidC p. 112

14 factor in behavior because the individual conceives of him­ self as having in some sense attained his ego-ideal, or at least on the way to attaining it* We shall find that the self-concept is of crucial significance in the selection and use of devotional literature. There are many psychological corollaries to be drawn from these basic concepts. For instance, if we assume that the self-concept is the core of the personality, then the closer a perception or stimulus comes in content or meaning to the self-concept, the more vividly it will be experienced* This is true whether the perception is threatening

or sat­

isfying. The more closely some part or aspect of our selfconcept is related to something we read, for instance, the more we will be affected —

or the more wego-involved0 we

will be. For instance, if in ray theological reading I come across descriptions of the arguments of the early Christian church about the two natures of Christ, I am interested only from an academic point of view and my self-concept is hardly touched; and I may have difficulty staying awake. If I should happen to come upon the same argument, however, where it cropped up in.the current theological controversies of my own denomination, I should read more carefully; I might have to defend my own idea of Christ to my associates

4

Ibid. p. 112

15 or at least to myself. If finally I should happen to run across a psychological description of the experience of the "inner Christ" which exactly described,my own, and which then went on to draw some conclusions which would threaten a basic aspect of my "inner Weltanschauung,"I would feel very insecure and might even refuse to finish reading the book. At that point, the very core of my phenomenal self would have been threatened. According to Carl Rogers 5 > all perceptions fall roughly into three classes, so far as their fate is concerned; 1) They are related positively to the present selfcept, and thus are organized into it; 2) They are ignored because they are irrelevant to the present self-concept; 3) They are denied to conscious awareness because they are inconsistent with the self-concept (what the psychoanalysts call repression, projection,etc.) Snygg and Combs go on to try to explain in phenomenological terms many of the defense mechanisms discovered by psycho­ analysis. One of the most significant for this study Is the very common mechanism of rationalization.

5

Carl. R. Rogers, A Comorehensive Theory of Personality and Behavior (Mimeographed only. University of Chicago. No date.)

16 Rationalization appears to be the direct outgrowth of the selection imposed upon perceptions by the phenomenal self. . . . The dynamics appear to operate somewhat as follows: The individual behaves in terms of his phenome­ nal field and, in particular, in terms of his phenomenal self. Acting in terms of one aspect of the phenomenal self, however, sometimes leads him into behavior antagon­ istic to another aspect of self. This is a threatening situation and must be dealt with in some fashion. Being unable to accept the threatening concept, the situation may be perceived as consistent with the self by select­ ing those aspects which are self-enhancing and ignoring those which are not. He finds rtgoodH reasons for the “real" reasons for his behavior*$ Social aspects* So far our discussion of phenomenolog­ ical psychology has seemed to make it largely individualcentered. Unfortunately this is true; there is a rather inadequate treatment of social psychology —

inadequate,

that is, because it is treated exclusively from the stand­ point of individual psychology. The following quotation, however, may provide the basis on which phenomenological psychology could be expanded beyond its present narrowly individual scope* A social being must necessarily adjust to the demands of society or remove himself from it. If he identifies himself with society, he cannot deny it for to do that is to deny himself. Since he lives in and is dependent upon society for his welfare, his own maintenance and enhancement will lead to that of the members of society as well. . . .^ The implication of this statement is that the phenomenal

6

Snygg and Combs, op. clt.

7

Ibid. p. 140

p. 155f

[Underlining mine3

17 self could be expanded to include others, *and possibly eventually all of society. More realistically, it might be possible to say that ,&t times (in times of great magnanimity, or of great inspiration or breadth of visiori, for example) the phenomenal self is expanded to talce in more than what we know as ego; and in the rare experience of the mystic1s vision, the phenomenal self would be co-extensive with all of reality. However this view is not developed by the au­ thors, and it would be beyond the scope of this thesis to use the theory in this inclusive sense. An individual selects from any given objective sit­ uation those aspects which will serve him in his attempt to ^maintain and enhance his phenomenal self.*1 This is the key idea which will be of most use to us in our study of devo­ tional literature. However, before leaving this outline of Snygg and Combs1 theory, let us try to state what they feel is the condition of mental health, or of creative psycholog­ ical adjustment. In general, an individual is mentally healthy when he has a phenomenal self which can accept and integrate into itself most or all of the outer and inner stimuli which play upon it —

in other words, when there is

a minimum of repression, projection, rationalization, etc. This implies a broad and realistic self-concept, and the inner security to come to terms with whatever experiences life brings. Such a phenomenal self will in general

18 experience life more fully and satisfyingly and, as Rogers points out, “be able to build more lasting and creative human relationships* When an individual accepts into one consistent and inte­ grated system all of his perceptions, then he is neces­ sarily more understanding of others and is more accept­ ing of others as separate individuals*8 In other words, a self-accepting attitude has implications which extend beyond the individual himself —

such an atti­

tude, in allowing him to experience more completely all sides of his own nature, makes him more appreciative of a larger variety of other individuals as well* In this chapter, we have tried to state the reasons for choosing a particular frame of reference, and the neces­ sity for outlining the basic principles of that frame* This was followed by a brief statement of these principles along with definitions of the leading concepts of the theory* It should be clear that this is a very sketchy outline, and. that many matters of importance have been omitted* Also we have tended to select those aspects of the theory which are most helpful in trying to explain the dynamics of the use of devotional literature. In the next chapter a more speci­ fic application of this theory will be attempted*

8

Rogers, on* cit*

CHAPTER

III

PSYCHODYNAMIC FACTORS IN THE USE OF DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE Oskar Pfister is a Swiss pastor who many; years ago saw a relationship between Freudian psychology and the work of the Christian minister, and ever since he has been trying to come to grips with the bearing of each on the other. He has this to say about our present subject; Religious truths are not accepted or rejected solely in accordance with their epistemological and logical con­ tent. . . . Rather they are accepted in terms of the individual's attitude (which) is determined by needs resulting from his experience, repressions, and desires .1 We shall take this basic idea as our theme and follow it through, first in terms of phenomenological psychology, and then in terms of psychoanalysis. Although the cases which follow In the next chapter will be dealt with in terms of the preceding chapter, it would be impossible to write a thesis on this subject without including some references to psychoanalytic discoveries* I

WITHIN THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL,FRAME OF REFERENCE Devotional literature as threat or satisfaction.First

1

Oskar Pfister, Christianity and Fear: A Study in History and in the Psychology and Hygiene- of Religion (MacMillan), cited by Wayne E* Oates in a review in Pastoral Psychol­ o g y . Vol. 1 , No. 1 , February, 1950*

20 of all, we may safely say that devotional literature, will have the same fate as any other external stimuli which affect

the

phenomenal self; it will be appropriated, disregarded, or re­ jected on the basis of the current needs and goals of the * individual. If the literature in some way contributes toward the preservation and enhancement of the self, it will be gladly read and its advice perhaps followed. If the meaning of the literature in no way impinges upon the self-concept of the individual, It will probably be passed over as of little personal worth; it may be read, perhaps with a kind of detached interest, but it will have no real effect on the life of the reader. If the ideas and feelings of the litera­ ture in some way constitute a threat to the individual, it will probably be shunned as ‘‘heretical11, “unrealistic”, “materialistic“ etc. Some types of persons, however, react to a threat as a kind of challenge, and may find themselves compelled to read literature they don't like just to find its weak points, and thus to bolster their challenged atti­ tudes. In these cases, however, we could hardly say that the literature was being used “devotionally.“ Snygg and Combs calls this use of an outer stimulus the pursuing of a “nega­ tive goal,” and cites this example from educational psychology: . . . material forced upon students without considera­ tion of their present need and immediate goals tends to

21

acquire a meaning which makes it less useful in the sat­ isfaction of need than if it had never been studied. Since it does not assist the satisfaction of need, its intrusion into the field simply creates additional dif­ ficulty for the student. The demand that he abandon his current problems and turn to the study of the required material is pretty sure to cause him to regard the mat­ erial as an obstacle to self-enhancement, as something to be avoided, a negative goal.* In general however we may say that the readers of devotional literature find it a satisfying or enhancing stimuli rather than a threatening one, and we shall deal with it in that sense in this study. There are several ways in which devotional literature differs from other stimuli in its effects on the phenomenal self. It is generally operative in the life of the indivi­ dual over a long period of time; thus its use is often more dependent on the basic character structure than brief pass­ ing stimuli, and in turn its effect on that structure is sometimes more deep and lasting. We could also say that in the interaction it is the higher levels of the self which are most concerned. That is, it is most often the self-con­ cept rather than the physical aspects of the individual which is involved, and, within the self-concept, the egoideal is quite frequently of greatest importance. In other words, it is the highest aspirations of the individual which determine his use of devotional literature, and it is

2

Snygg and Combs, op. clt. pp. 2l0f.

22

his need for self-respect and self-esteem rather than simply his physical survival which is the primary motivat­ ing factor. With §. restricted self-concept. Without getting into an extended discussion of the place of values in dynamic psychology, it is possible to say briefly what the phenomena ologists would designate as negative or inappropriate use of devotional literature. This of course can be readily surmised from the previous chapter. Whenever an individual uses something as a means of bolstering or crystallizing a narrow or inappropriate self-concept, he is using it nega-^ tively. Whenever he selects or distorts his perceptions so that they perpetuate a phenomenal self which is not inclu­ sive, he is working against his own best interests; he is not in a state of true mental health. It should be clear from previous discussion what we mean by an Inclusive selfconcept and what its implications are in terms of satisfying life-experlences. However, there is also an inappropriate kind of self-concept which can be as damaging as a merely restricted one. An obvious example of this is a highly sen­ sitive girl, known to the writer, who was raised In a family of intellectuals and social extraverts* The problem here was not only that her self-concept was limited to the one which her family held of her (which she had taken over

23 completely), but that it was highly inappropriate —

it

seemed to be precisely the opposite of the one which her temperament demanded* Frequently, devotional reading seems to have fostered this inappropriate kind of ego-ideal *'5 With an inclusive self-concept. It is obvious from the above what is considered positive experience by the phenomenological psychologists. Carl Rogers says it well: The greatest values for the enhancement of the organism accrue when all experiences and all attitudes are per­ mitted conscious symbolization, and when behavior be­ comes the meaningful satisfaction of all needs, these needs being available to consciousness .4 In other words, the satisfaction of all needs is the ideal, and this ideal comes nearest to fulfillment when the selfconcept is most inclusive. Thus a positive dynamic use is the one which works to the satisfaction of legitimate heeds within the framework of a broad self-concept. However, the thoughtful person may charge that this norm is ultimately an egocentric one, and may maintain that there are legitimate goals beyond those of the needs of the organism. Let us examine briefly some other theories which are more satisfactory at this point.

3

An inappropriate self-concept is of course a restricted one, but the distinction seems valid enough and helpful enough to point out, particularly in the present context.

4

Rogers, op. cit.

24 II

WITHIN A "SUPER-INDIVIDUAL" ORIENTATION

Andras AngyaJL has written an extremely provocative book in which he tries to outline a comprehensive theory of personality from the "holistic" point of view.* Instead of positing one fundamental life urge which should explain all of human behavior, he posits two. The first of these basic life urges or trends is in some ways parallel to the phen­ omenological "preservation and enhancement of the self." The other, however, which he calls the "trend toward homonomy," has no parallel in the other approach, and in some ways supplies the additional principle of explanation which we need. The following two quotations show clearly how Angyal tries to go beyond the Snygg and Combs point of view; they define what he means by homonomy: Thus far we have discussed the biological total process from a rather solipsistic point of view. We have con­ sidered the individual organism as if it were standing alone in the world facing its environment. . . . The picture thus obtained shows, however, only one aspect of living. In order to penetrate deeper into the problem of personality we must go beyond a purely individualis­ tic point of view and consider the problem of the Inte­ gration of the Individual into superindividual units.* While the trend toward increased autonomy fthe indivi­ dual-centered basic needj aims at the domination of the surroundings, the characteristic attitude toward super­ individual wholes is rather a kind of submerging or sub­ ordination of one’s individuality in the service of superindividual goals. In this latter trend a person

5

Andras Angyal, Foundations for a Science of Personality (New York: The Commonwealth Fund, 1941)7 p. 167

25 seeks union with larger units and wishes to share and participate in something which he regards as being greater than his individual self* . . » For this prin­ ciple we propose the term 11trend toward homonomy11. that is, a trend to be in harmony with superindividual units, the social group, nature, God, ethical world order, or whatever the person's formulation of it may b e *5 Angyal goes on to develop this theme more fully, but there is almost nothing of an experimental or clinical nature to substantiate and elaborate it* However, in terms of what we know generally about human nature, and also in the more theoretical terms of the holistic frame of reference, the postulating of this basic trend has much to support it. It is also supported by other psychologists writing from other points of view. These words from Gordon Allport certainly fit closely with Angyal*s theory: Faith is basically man1s belief in the validity and attainability of some goal (value). The goal is set by desires. Desires, however, are not merely pushes from behind (drive-ridden)* They include such complex future-oriented states as longing for a better world, for one's own perfection,„for a completely satisfying relation to the universe* A man *s religion * . . * is his ultimate attempt to en­ large and to complete his own personality by finding the supreme context in which he rightly belongs*® Allport also paraphrases favorably a European psychologist, Spranger:

6

Ibid. p*. 172

7

Gordon W* Allport, The Individual and His Religion (New York: MacMillan Go*, 1950) * pp. 130f.

8

Ibid.

p. 142

26 Spranger attempts to identify subjective religion with the longing for unity — complete unity of thought, feeling, and deed . . . . the religious intention. * * represents a. desire for total harmony, meaning thereby the individual* s successive efforts to complete the incomplete, to perfect the imperfect, to conserve all values, eliminate all disvalues, to find permanence in the place of transitoriness. From this point of view, the essence of religious value can be found only in the mystical goal of oneness.^ It is probable that as psychology attempts more and more to come to grips with these higher reaches of human experience, it will tend to substantiate some such basic trend as Angyal has postulated. Assuming the existence of such a trend, we could say that the normal and proper func­ tion of devotional literature is to discover and reinforce it in the life of the religious seeker.

In terms of its con­

tent, all devotional literature seeks to relate the reader to ”superindividual wholes,” particularly to God. Thus even for those individuals who use such literature in a neurotic or egocentric way, the ostensible aim is the achievement of HhomonomyH ; and in many or most cases the individual actual­ ly feels he is achieving greater ”homonomy.” Thus the dif­ ficulties of even the psychologically-trained observer to separate neurotic use from proper use are very great. The ”trend toward homonomy,” then, is a highly useful concept for this study. However although there seems to be

9

Ibid. p. 132

enough evidence of its validity for us to use it at cer­ tain points, we know so little about the more- specific dy­ namics which would be subsumed under it that its general use might be somewhat speculative* Unfortunately the verdict of the preceding statement would seem to apply to nearly all generally accepted theories of personality when they get beyond the neurotic or the j

merely “well-adjusted” levels* For this reason there is very little to go on in trying to ferret out the psycho­ dynamics of the use of devotional literature when it is used in a creative and validly inspirational way. One quick­ ly finds himself in the realm of speculation when he tries to posit psychodynamics in cases of religious growth beyond the normal or the usual* For this reason, and also because of the fact that most of the cases known to the writer were illustrative more of the neurotic than the creative use of devotional writings, this thesis will deal largely with the former* It is sad but true that one feels on much safer ground in dealing with the dynamics of the "abnormal” than of the "normal” or the "supernormal” in these days of the youth of the science of psychology .!0

10

For another theory of behavior which may have poten­ tialities in explaining "supernormal" Individuals, see Kurt Goldstein, Human Nature (Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press, 19407T See especially pp. 139-49.

28 Psychodynamics determined by the total situation. Before leaving this subject we should emphasize the fact that the nature of the response which the individual gives to devotional reading is not determined solely by the con­ tend of the literature; it is determined by the total situa­ tion, in which the content of the material is only one fac­ tor, albeit often the most important one. There can be other factors which in some cases outweigh the influence of the content. One of these is the attitude toward the person who recommends the book. The book may be read through solely be­ cause the judgment of the recommender is so highly respected by the reader. Or, it may be read solely because the reader needs the approval or protection of the person who suggested it. Another factor may be the meaning to the individual simply of owning and reading a “religious devotional book,H with little or no regard to the specific content of one par­ ticular book* Here again we meet the problem of seeing the total situation just as it is seen and experienced by the person being studied. If we are unable to get some approxi­ mate idea of his phenomenal field, we are sure to miss im­ portant dynamic factors. The two preceding sections of this chapter have attempted to deal with psychodynamics within the phenomeno­ logical frame of reference, and within other psychological frameworks where our chosen one seemed inadequate. Actually,

29 the most useful attempt to explain psycho dynamics will prob­ ably be found in the cases in Chapter IV. Before turning to specific illustrations, however, let us look at what light psychoanalytic theory and practice can throw on our problem* III

WITHIN THE PSYCHOANALYTIC FRAME OF REFERENCE It would not be unfair to say that most of what we

kno*/ of psychodynamics is, directly or indirectly, a result of psychoanalytic investigations. Even Snygg and Combs, who certainly disavow any help from psychoanalysis, felt it necessary in their book to describe in their terms the basic psychological mechanisms (regression, projection, compensa­ tion etc.), which were discovered and described largely by psychoanalytic psychology* Also, it is only in psychoanalytic books and articles that any specific description of the dy­ namic meanings of reading and the use of literature is set forth. Thus it is appropriate that we deal at least briefly with material from psychoanalysis, even though we do not attempt to reinterpret it in phenomenological terms* Bibliotherapy. Of a considerable number of journal articles dealing with bibliotherapy, only one discussed at any length the psychoaynamic factors involved.II

11

William C. Menninger, nBibliotherapy,H Bulletin of the Mennlnger. Clinic. 1:263-274. Vol. 8 , 1937*

30 (Bibliotherapy is psychological therapy by means of se­ lected reading assigned to the reader-patient.) The psycho­ logical factors operative in reading, outlined in this ar­ ticle, were investigated in extended experimenting with bibliotherapy at the Menninger Clinic at Topeka, Kansas. The writer is an outstanding psychoanalyst* These factors, which are described below, apply to reading in general, including devotional reading. 1) Identificatlon with a character or experience in the book: the patient may through identification obtain a vicarious satisfaction from the hero's struggle or victory; or he may be bolstered in recognizing that others have problems similar to his own (e.g*, a patient identified herself with unappreciated Marie in Ludwig's Marie Antoinette). Identification can likewise have negative effects, as for example the schizophrenic would-be poetic genius who collected Swinburne and Pope, but had no intention of reading them; or the excitable,, hyper-sexual woman who de­ manded sex stories. 2) Projection of one's own traits, especially bad ones, upon characters in the story one is reading;"bad parents” and "unfaithful partners" in the books often carry a tremendous amount of hostility from the reader. Thus for example one patient identified

31 her husband as Butler in Gone with the Wind, and then could project upon him what she wished* 3) Comparative standards. where standards or ideas are such that the patient can accept or adopt them for his own use* (Such psychological books as Outwitting Our Nerves and Discovering Ourselves sometimes pro­ vided helpful new standards. However, psychological books can also have deleterious effects, when for instance patients find corroboration of their intro­ spective doubts and fears, or when they find support for self-destructive or aggressive tendencies.) 4) Egocentric gratification: a) Patients sometimes escaped their own conflicts by immersing themselves in fantasy; this would be especially easy with fictional reading* b) Some patients added to their sense of self-impor­ tance by receiving and reading many newspapers and magazines, or simply by continually adding to their fund of knowledge (This would be desirable in those instances in which it prevented further deteriora­ tion, or where the reading meant maintaining some contact with reality)* c) Some patients read simply to gain the approval of the therapist or physician, or to gain general

32 social approval # ^ To this general outline should be added Menninger’s comments on religious reading. In general, he says, it is "detrimental #11 It is permitted in the hospital when it is not used to the exclusion of other reading and when it is not used to support delusional trends. Many times it has been found that religious reading increases mental illness. The Bible is prescribed only for elderly persons for whom the Bible is a necessary support and compensation* Perhaps the most important thing we can draw from this last paragraph is some sense of the potency of the Bible and of religious literature. It can be a tremendous influ­ ence toward health or toward ill-health. These conclusions underscore one of the major theses of this study, namely, that guidance or a check of some kind by a second person is needed in the individual’s use of spiritual literature. We shall deal more fully with this in the final chapter* Compulsive thinking. In its general theory, psycho­ analysis has several principles which may bear on this study. The two items mentioned her(e are taken from The ? sychoanal.vtic Theory of Neurosis by Otto Fenichel, the

12

This point applies with equal force to ministers and religious educators who occupy, with physicians, posi­ tions of respect and authority; their friendship and approval is a potent force in all their relationships.

55 great systematizer of psychoanalysis. Since devotional literature frequently deals with ideas which the scientist would consider “abstract" and divorced from concrete reality, this quotation on the thinking of the compulsive neurotic person may be relevant. . * . compulsive thinking is abstract thinking, isolated from the real world of concrete things. Compulsive thinking is not only abstract, it is also general. di­ rected toward systematization and categorization; it is theoretical instead of real. The patients are interested in maps and illustrations rather than in countries and things. But in another respect the retreat from feeling to thinking , as a rule, fails. The cleavages and contra­ dictions that permeate the emotional life of compulsion neurotics are displaced to the sexualized intellectual problems, resulting in obsessive brooding and doubt. Doubt is the instinctual conflict displaced to the in­ tellectual field. A patient, looking at a door, was com­ pelled to spend much time brooding about the problem: What is the main thing, the empty space, filled out by . the door, or the substantial door, filling our the empty space? This "philosophical 11 problem covered the other doubt: What is the main thing in sexuality, woman or man? And this again meant: What is the main thing in me, femininity or masculinity?1^ We may or may not agree with the conclusion here that this "philosophical" problem was merely a masculinity-femininity conflict. However, we must take cognizance of the more gen­ eral principle that intellectual ideas and conflicts, parti­ cularly with mentally unhealthy individuals, are often the medium or the mode of expression of deeper instinctual

13

Otto Fenichel, Psvchoanalvtic Theory of Neurosis (New York; W.W. Norton & Co., 1945). p. 297

conflicts. Obsessive doubting, particularly, has been found to be present in many compulsive individuals, and when certain kinds of religious literature are used more or less compulsively either to maintain or prematurely to allay doubt, the legitimacy of this use may be called into question. This leads to the next point, that of using rel­ igious literature as an assurance against anxiety. Collecting reassurances against anxiety. In his chapter on Character Neuroses, Fenichel lists "collecting re­ assurances" as a common way of fighting anxiety. Collecting affection, prestige, admiration or power are some of the outer reassurances he mentions. Then he adds, "Oood con­ science and the feeling of acting right In fulfilling ideals may be used for the same purposes as collecting externa,! reassurances.

It Is obvious how devotional lit­

erature can provide this latter kind of reassurance, and thus how it can interfere with the attempt to deal with a neurosis on the level of the cause of the anxiety. Only as the anxiety comes to conscious expression in some way can it act as effective motivation to help bring about a cure. It is of course one of the major functions of reli­ gion to provide a kind of total or cosmic reassurance to

14

Ibid. p. 483

creaturely man that life is meaningful and that each person has a real place to fill in the divine plan. The neurotic who grabs compulsively for every inner and outer reassurance is very different from the truly religious individual who, out of the awareness of his own sinfulness and cosmic insigficance, seeks the reassurance of knowing man’s ultimate meaning and purposefulness* The latter person is driven by a creative anxiety which is very different from a neurotic anxiety, and it should be one of the tasks of the pastor to make this distinction. It is sometimes more creative in the long run to withhold assurances and to cause the neu­ rotic individual to face up to his anxiety and then to seek out its deeper causes in his egocentric or unbalanced life. The problem of distinguishing between the two kinds of anxiety has been well treated by Hollo May .15 To explore the many other postulates of psychoanalysis which might bear on our subject would carry us too far afield. The few points noted above are at least suggestive. We shall not attempt to restate them in phenomenological terms, since they are fairly clear as they stand and their relation to the use of devotional literature is obvious or has been stated. One or two of them will be referred to in

15

See especially Hollo May, ’’Religion and Anxiety” ,Pastor­ al Psychology. Vol. 1 , No. 3. pp. 46-49.

36 the discussion of specific cases in the next chapter. In this chapter we have tried to deal with the more theoretical aspects of the main problem of the thesis. We have tried to apply some of the basic principles and con­ cepts of phenomenological and psychoanalytic psychology, particularly those outlined in Chapter II, to the use and misuse of devotional literature in such a way as to point up the psychodynamics involved. Some concrete illustrations of both the creative and the neurotic use of literature were cited. An attempt was made to indicate the inadequacy of the phenomenological frame of reference for the present study, and a principle from the "holistic" point of view was included to cover this inadequacy. An article by William Menninger was of considerable help, and came closest to deal­ ing with the specific problem of this study. Because of the great., dearth of previous Investigation of the problem, however, we have had to rely on conjecture to some extent. The following chapter of cases will attempt to illustrate more fully some of the hypotheses set forth in this chapter.

CHAPTER ILLUSTRATIVE

IV CASES

This chapter will consist wholly of cases. Case mater­ ial will include both a statement about the devotional liter­ ature used and enough material about the individual involved to draw some conclusions concerning the psychodynamic factors which are operating. The sources of the cases are varied, and will be stated specifically at the beginning of each case* The cases are in no sense meant to be parallel, nor repre­ sentative; they happened to be available, and they seemed appropriate for the study* Here again, some speculation is involved in theorizing about the psychodynamics; however, there seemed to be an unmistakeable core of truth in each which was well enough understood to Justify their being included. Most of the cases in this study deal with the use of particular pieces of devotional literature, and considerable data are available on them* The first two cases, in con­ trast to this, deal with the psychodynamics of the use of a general religious point of view, and are taken from rather sketchy material in books concerned with the use of psych­ ology in ministerial practice. However, they throw some light on the problem with which we are grappling.

38 CASE A* - Emersonian Theology This case is taken from a journal article by a Pro­ fessor of Biblical Literature and History of Religions who is well acquainted with psychoanalytic theory.^-He makes a general statement about the nature of the Hew England theology, saying that it makes G-od primarily a punishing father-figure.

(New England theology is Calvinistic;

its

major spokesman is Jonathan EdwardsJ In doing so, it tends to raise what the Freudians call °Oedipus guilt .0 That is, the eood church people on the listening end of a Calvinistic sermon tend to think of God as they once thought of their fathers, particularly when those fathers were in a retribu­ tive and punishing mood. More especially, say the Freudians> they associate God with their fathers when they were threat­ ening them as little boys for their very early love of their own mothers —

that is, when they were competing with the

father for the love of the mother. Dr. Casey then goes on to cite the case of a woman who, in defense against the 0Oedipus guilt 0 aroused by her background of New England theology, turned to Unitarianism, modern Biblical criticism, and optimistic Emersonian theology. Her theology, Casey says, was °a marked success as a defense mechanism .0

1

Robert P # Casey, °Oedipus Motivation in Religious Thought and Fantasy ,11 Psychiatry. Vol. 6 , pp. 219-28, 1942. s

39 Unfortunately, the writer does not give sufficient details for one to evaluate just how completely this wo­ m a n s theology was dominated by her need to allay this guilt anxiety. It seems plausible, however, that it was at least partly motivated by this* Here then was a pressing phenomenological need: to ward off the anxiety-producing guilt feelings which would be such a threat to the phenom­ enal self. In satisfaction of this need, the individual turned to a hind of theology which reassured her that God was not a Divine Person who would punish as her father did. The Biblical criticism also knocked some of the Scriptural props from under the New England theology and strengthened the individual in her desire to disprove the threatening theology with which she had grown up. CASE B» - Supernatural Theology The second case dealing with a general religious point of view concerns a young 26 year old instructor in Philosophy of Religion. It is cited by Hollo May.^ At the time that he came for counseling he had become interested in what he calls "supernatural theology," which evidently included a view of man as depraved and of little

2

Hollo May, The Art of Counseling (Nashville: Cokesbury Press, 193977 pp. 131-42. "” "

40 intrinsic worth* But let us first look at the character structure of this teacher, whom we shall call Mr. B. Mr. B* always found it necessary to work under great tension; he had to have some kind of outside compulsion to keep him under pressure or he became quite restless. He was almost perfectionist in his writing, never allowing anything to be published for that reason. His ambition was inordin­ ately strong; this he associated with early competition with his sister, which eventually resulted in strong inferiority feelings* Here we get some' light on the development and the nature of the phenomenal self,which had to support itself by turning to supernatural theology. Toward the end of the counseling, Mr* B. makes this revealing statement about his theological views: . . . I think that distrust of life explains why I have become so interested lately in supernatural theology. By this I was able to look down on the world, and condemn man and conclude that the world was all bad and nothing could be expected but catastrophe. I now see that this attitude is probably connected with my general pessimism about life.^ Somehow, in this personality, the childhood inferiority had not been outgrown but had continued to dominate the grown man. The attempt to compensate for it by academic accom­ plishment had been successful outwardly, but inwardly the fear of failure and the need for perfection and greater

3

Ibid. p. 14B

41 accomplishment still operated. These were impossible of at­ tainment of course, so the inner anxieties and pressures now turned to an outer philosophy for their expression. Here, through a superior, condescending view of life, the self could fight off its own inner enemy through an outer pro­ jection and thus achieve a kind of false security. The self was “preserving ,11 possible even Menhancing,w itself, but only at the expense of distorting life and selecting from it only those facts which fitted a particular philosophical framework. CASE C* - Thirty-eighth

Psalm

The case material on which this illustration is built is contained in Seward Hiltner*s book, Pastoral Counseling .4 A parishioner, a pillar of the church, drops in at the pastor* s home. He immediately opens the conversation with the pastor by saying he would like to talk about the thirty-eighth psalm, to which he had a “most peculiar re­ action.” (This psalm is a song of lament over the sins and distress of the psalmist, who has lost his friends, whose enemies are active against him, and who turns with pitiful pleading to his G-od.) The parishioner says,

4

Seward Hiltner, Pastoral Counseling (New York and Nash­ ville: Abingdon-Cokesbury. 1949.) p p * 203ff.

42 "Last night I turned to this psalm in the readings I've been following. When I read about the Lord1s arrows sticking fast in me, it touched something; that's the way I, felt. I got to feeling worse and worse. And when I got to that place about being feeble, that's exactly how I felt. . . " Here the identification with the psalmist is clear. But the solution of the psalmist is most unsatisfactory to the reader, as is evident later in the interview: "But he doesn't really get anywhere. He may be courage­ ous in admitting how he feels, but what good does it do? He feels just as bad at the end as he did at the beginning, doesn't he?" The identification is made, but if it were continued to its conclusion it would lead the reader to the highly unfruitful outcome of calling on a Lord whose presence he feels only in a kind of intellectual way. The psalmist turns to G-od, as the pastor points out, "not with confidence, but because he doesn't know what else to do*" The important thing here is to try to isolate the psychodynamic factors which moved the reader so strongly and which impelled him to go all the way to the pastor's house to try to talk it through. We get a fairly specific answer in this comment: "Well, I guess it does hit pretty close home. I have been feeling sorry for myself, and here I come across a fellow who does the same and admits it. But it's a little disconcerting to find he doesn t get anywhere with it." In general terms we might say that he was deeply moved be­ cause of his identification with the psalmist on the basis

43 of their mutual suffering. As we look more carefully, however, we can distin­ guish at least two basic phenomenological needs which lielp to explain the use of the psalm* We assume in the first place that Mr* B. experiences some kind of suffering as coming from "outside" to him, ie. from his environment or from the non-ego parts of himself* His first need, we might say, is to get rid of his suffering. The "preservation and enhancement of the phenomenal self" generally includes with­ in its meaning the desire to preserve that self without suffering and pain. The second need we may distinguish, however, is baaed on the possibility that he may have to continue to suffer: he needs to feel that his self-pity is justified; he does not want to feel guilty for feeling sorry for himself. As a religious man his conscience would un­ doubtedly bother him if he indulged in the "self-centeredness" of self-pity; his normal self-concept does not in­ clude any self-pity. However,

since he obviously does pity

himself to some extent, he will grab at any outer assurance that self-pity can legitimately be included in his selfconcept. And it is precisely this kind of assurance that the thirty-eighth psalm provides for the parishioner; it provides it because it has the prestige and acceptability of the Bible* The reader might have felt: "If it's in the Bible, it must be a valid religious

44 feeling. And if it's a valid religious experience then it can't be so terrible for me, a religious man, to feel it. So I guess I don't feel so badly about pitying my­ self after all; perhaps it's justified for me if it's justified for the psalmist." The fact that the reader felt "worse and worse" as he read the psalm was certainly partly due to the identification with another's suffering; but it may also have been partly due to the relaxing of self-condemnation and guilt, which then allowed Mr. B. to experience more fully his grief and pain. The phenomenological need to include self-pity into the self-concept was partly met, then, by.; the reading of the psalm. And this very accepting of self-pity may, in its turn, have allowed an even fuller identification with the psalmist's lament. But we have stated that there was another need pull­ ing in another direction —

the demand of the self to be

freed from pain. Thus another reason why the psalm appealed was that at first it offered the possibility of help in the relief of suffering. More than that, the way it might have suggested, had it gone on to- do so, would have been con­ sistent with what Angyal calls the "trend toward homonomy"; that is, any solution suggested in the psalms would have been in terms of G-od, and thus would have satisfied the deep inner longing to be identified with "superindividual wholes," in this case, G-od. But this hope was not fulfilled. So although the

45 reader got some satisfaction for one of his needs, the other ones were not met and it left him very dissatisfied. It was this dissatisfaction, pins the possibility of finding still another solution, also consistent with the "trend toward homonomy," which impelled him to go to see the minister* Such cases of identification with the lamenting psalmist do not always turn out so hopefully. Following his report of the above case, Mr* Hiltner makes the following comment:

. * at least one man has been reported within

the past year or two as having committed suicide after meditation on the thirty-eighth psalm.■

In this instance we

might assume that the hope of meeting the need to get well was extremely low (or possibly deeply buried under other aspects of the personality), and the concept of the self was dominated by despair and discouragement even before the reading of the psalm. The identification with the psalmist was the final factor, then, in the process of self-destruc­ tion, particularly because of the "paranoid" elements of the psalmist*s lament, as Hiltner points out. (It is pos­ sible to classify suicide within the phenomenological frame of reference by assuming that only by self-destruction can a vital aspect of the phenomenal self be preserved. Thus only by suicide could a bank teller caught in fraud preserve

5

Ibid*

p* 208

46 the phenomenal self -which clung to the "bravery” of suicide as the last fragment of self-respect'left.) CASE D. - Dom Chapman This illustration is based on the history of a young woman known to the writer for a number of years. The case material is based on conversations with her, and on personal contacts with two psychotherapists from whom she has had help. We shall designate her as Miss L* The devotional literature which she used was,first, The Spiritual Letters of Dom John Chapman, and later, Pere de Caussade's Abandonment to Divine Providence. There were two teachings in particular which she remembers as having appealed to her, or as having been important so far as the influences of the writings upon her was concerned. The first was the insistence on prayer, and on continuing to pray re­ gardless of its seeming fruitlessness, and regardless of one's inner state* The following is a quotation illustrative of this emphasis! But it has certainly been a disastrous mistake to short­ en the time of prayer when it does not go well. And the use of books or meditation instead is a mere waste of time. I quite believe that more prayer will be good for your nerves and strengthen you. . -V •• If prayer becomes only acute suffering, so much the better, I suppose.6 The second significant emphasis.concerned the disre6

Spiritual Letters of Dom John Chapman, 0. S.B* (London: Sheed and Ward. 1944) pp. 148f.

47 garding of one's feelings —

the advice to live on as though

feelings, particularly disturbing or unpleasant ones, were of not the slightest importance* Whatever feelings one had were to be accepted as HGod's Will" and were to be left be­ hind as soon as possible* God is leading you into perfection "by ways that you knew not". , . , So do not worry, but accept all your imperfections — whether past or present — as inevit­ able, and use them as steps up* . * . Take your imperfect„state as God's Will, and hug the pain it gives you* This second emphasis fits well with the basic message of both these books-, namely, that one is to abandon all that happens to the will of God, or to Divine Providence; that is,that one is to accept everything which happens as God's will, and thus as something to which to be resigned rather than as something to be understood* Many of the Dom Chapman letters were addressed to cloistered Catholic nuns who had written to him for advice about their own spiritual trials* The similarity of their problems with those of Miss L. led her to an identifica­ tion with the nuns, and to an acceptance of the attitudes suggested by Dom Chapman to them. This is the kind of statement which led Miss L. to feel that their problems were her problems:

7

Ibid.

pp. 153f f.

48 You have been in 1desolation1 and you have been hoping that you had found the’cause in some want of detach­ ment from this or that* . * • you need to learn detach­ ment from yourself, and G-od is teaching you this in the usual way, by letting you feel powerless to get to Him. . . .8 Here, as in the case of the parishioner who was so moved by the thirty-eighth psalm, the individual was impressed with what she read because it seemed to **speak to her condition**; it described her own inner state of "desolation,** and it purported to suggest the spiritual way to deal with that condition* To her, thep, the thing to be done was to pray regu­ larly and intensely, without regard to how useful or useless it seemed or how meaningful or meaningless it became* She was given to long periods of depression and despair, but she strove desperately to put these feelings out of her mind and to live as though everything were just the same; she refused to show outwardly, and tried not to admit inwardly, how des­ perate her inner condition actually was. Finally, however, the ineffectiveness of this whole approach became undeniably clear and she sought help from a psychologist, who assured her that she should abandon this prayer and devotional read­ ing if it was not helpful or meaningful to her. As she pro­ gressed in therapy, she came to see the compulsive element

8

Ibid.

pp* 154f

49 in her praying and her reading, and now feels that she has some perspective on that whole period in her life.^ What are the dynamics of this case from the phenom­ enological point of view? Miss L. has described herself in this period as a “moral star11; that is, she considered her­ self an entirely selfless and deeply spiritual person. She liked especially to think of herself as a person with regu­ lar periods of prayer and meditation, since that, more than any other one thing, spelled true religious commitment for her. She never allowed herself to consider her own feelings, but always did what she considered a “religious person” would do. She had an unusually strong sense of duty, and tried to subject her own will to what she considered was G o d 1s will. In other words, she was governed largely by a self-concept of a “God-centered person.”-*-® It should be clear how devotional reading strengthened this view of her­ self. We can see how the choosing of this kind of reading and the emphasizing of prayer and self-abandonment led to the maintaining and solidifying of this concept of self. We can understand and appreciate also, however, how a person

9

It is significant that the most difficult problem in the early stages of therapy was fo.rj. Miss L. to gain any in­ sight at all into what she reall.v felt.

10 This high concept of herself gave Miss L. a feeling of moral superiority over her husband, who did not share her religious fervor. Her unconscious condescending atti­ tude led to marital estrangement and eventually divorce.

50

under great inner pressure and outward suffering would be led to such choices, since they seemed at the time to offer the one way to achieve a kind of inner security* Such behavior, however, led to a crisis, as it so frequently does. The inner forces, largely deeper needs stemming from her own feelings, which had been kept in sub­ jection for so long, reasserted themselves more and more strongly* Where she would say a conscious l,Xesfl to an outer situation which she thought demanded her services, her deep­ er self uttered an unconscious !lN o B; and she gradually be­ came more aware of -this conflict. Her recurrent depressions also continued, with their psychosomatic symptoms. All of these led her to seek psychological help, which in turn has brought her to an enlargement of her concept of herself and to a larger understanding of the meaning of devotional lit­ erature in her life. It is interesting to note that in her recollections, she refers frequently to the long periods of time over which the nuns suffered their 11desolations’1 '(according to the dates on the letters in the •Chapman book). The Abbot1s advices, in other words, seemed to be ineffective so far as relief from suffering was concerned. It is fairly; cer­ tain, however, that this‘fact of time was at first excluded from her awareness — focus —

or at least never came into clear

until she was beginning to think of abandoning the

51 Chapman~de Caussa&e answer to her problem. Now, when her self-concept does not include the things emphasized in these writings, the fact of their seeming failure is in focus, and the more positive aspects are depreciated. This is a good example of the selectivity of perception, based on current phenomenological needs. CASS E. - Thomas ^ Kempis The individual who supplies this case history is known intimately to the writer, as is the psychologist with whom he has worked. We shall designate him as Mr. P. The devotional material on which we shall concen­ trate so far as Mr. P. is concerned is the Imitation of Christ» perhaps the most widely read of the Catholic devo­ tional classics. This book was used most Intensively by Mr. P. at a time when he felt a need to make religious devo­ tion the center of his life. He was a conscientious objector during the war, and he had come -to feel the "radicalness" *

of his stand; he felt that only by bringing all aspects of his life under the radical kind of Christianity which paci­ fism implied could he be consistent and self-respecting. Thus he came to the Imitation with a desire to commit him­ self single-mindedly to God. The following quotation is a sample of the kind of emphasis in the Imitation which most Impressed him;

52 If a man give his whole substance, still it is nothing. And if he do great penance, it is but little. And if he attain to all knowledge, he is far off still. And if he have great virtue and very fervent devotion, there is still much wanting to him, namely, the one thing necessary for him. What is this? That having left all things else, he leave also himself, and wholly go out of himself, and retain nothing of self-love. Then may he be truly poor in spirit, and may say with the Psalmist: U1 alone and poor.B Yet is there no one richer than such a man, none more powerful, none more free; who knoweth how to leave himself and all things, and to put himself in the* very lowest p l a c e . H Some of the other specific teachings of this book which he used were: “Shun the company of men”; “Love to be silent when with others11; “Never be wholly idle11; “Bear others* defects patiently11; “Always judge well and highly of others.” All of these emphases appealed to him, since they helped him to feel the humility which a Kempls urged, and they per­ mitted more single-minded concentration on the major task of the worship and service of Cod. Now let us try to examine critically the psychodynam­ ic factors which were operating in this use of the Imitation. First of all, the concluding section of the above quotation ought to be examined; here the writer praises highly the individual who tries to achieve this humility and :

11

Thomas a Kempis, The Imitation of Christ (Rev. J.M* Lelen, editor; United.States and Canada: Catholic Book Publishing Co., 1941) pp. I24f Book II, Chap. XI.

53 he promises such an individual spiritual riches, power and freedom. This picture of the saint and spiritual wise man appealed greatly to the imagination of Mr* P* —

it repre­

sented his ego-ideal and the core of his self-concept* Thus he was more than willing to try to follow advice as to how one attained such treasures* There was already of course an element of spiritual superiority even in reading and trying to follow such lofty teachings; Mr* P#*s self-esteem was certainly raised by the use of this devotional literature* But as we tried to examine the psychodynamics there seemed to be factors other than simply the bolstering up of the feeling of self-righteousness. Strangely enough the great emphasis on a severe judgment of oneself seemed to serve the needs of that same self* The self-condemnation was not complete of course, but selective, and that selec­ tion was made on the basis of the teachings of the Imita­ tion and on the needs of the phenomenal self; the self-con­ demnation was particularly strong where the teachings coin­ cided with what the self actually wanted to condemn. And, as pointed out in the preceding chapter, the phenomenal self tries to exclude from itself those aspects of reality which constitute a threat to it. One of Mr. P . 1s problems was a feeling of insecurity in social groups; thus the Imitation1s advice to shun the company of men was gladly accepted and Mr. P* felt he could give in to his natural

54 inclination to stay away from social gatherings. He also tended to shy away from f,f eeling-relationshipsH with others, that is, relationships where he would become so involved that he would have to express how he really felt about someone, either positively or negatively. Ihus the advice to bear others* defects and never to be critical of them was gladly accepted. He tended to fight his inner anxieties by pushing himself to work, study etc., and this also was encouraged by the book.In general we could say that the extreme self-ahnegation taught by a Kempis was used partly as a means of excluding the unacceptable from the phenom­ enal self. Many of the insecurities which always came to Mr. P. in his relationships with others were alleviated at the same time that he enhanced his concept of himself as a Mreligious man.11 For many individuals, there is a kind of security, that comes with dogmatism, or with an absolute judgment of any kind, or with any final decision. Some people have a need for certainty, and any kind of belief or action that meets their need for certainty is embraced. It is interest­ ing to note in the case of Mr, P. and his use of the Imita­ tion that there was security in the absolute condemnation of self, just as there might be security in the absolute positive valuing of the self for others. Such statements as, 11It will do thee no harm to put thyself below everybody,

55 but it will hurt thee very much to put thyself before any one*”-^ reinforced this need for absoluteness which was dis­ guised under the banner of humility* Essentially such”eitheror-ness” is another kind of protection against facing unde­ sirable aspects of the self, for when one is willing to look at himself as he is, he sees neither white nor black but various shades of gray* Wholesale condemnation, either of oneself or others, can be a most effective defense against facing the real truth, and the Imitation is cer­ tainly open to the charge of supporting that kind of de­ fense when it Is used by some types of individuals* We cannot leave the case of Mr. P. without admitting that in the attempt to show negative psychodynamic factors which entered into his use of the Imitation of Christ, we have not given a fair picture. There were certainly large elements of the ’’desire to relate to superindividual wholes11 in his devotional life. There is not much doubt but that a Kempis1 emphasis on self-examination,'on simpli­ city, ana against the piling up of nworldly11. knowledge had considerable positive effect on Mr, P . 1s life. Even the feeling of o n e ’s own smallness before the Totality which is Cod must have had some elements of true ’’homonomy” in it. The real task is to try to separate out the pathological

12

I'bid.

p. 31.

56 and negative from the growthful and positive —

to try to

select and balance what one uses from devotional writings# Here again, then, we come upon the need for psychological understanding. Here again the place and the necessity of the "spiritual director” in the use of devotional reading becomes clear, CASE F# - Isaac Penington The individual, in this instance, a middle-aged woman whom we shall call Miss 0 # , is a Quaker who has taken an active part in the Society of Friends for many years and continues to do so. However, in the past three or four years she has been going through a Jungian analysis and has gained considerable insight into the inner meaning of some of her past practices* The facts were related by her. The doctrine of the Inner Light has been central in Miss 0.*s thinking about Quakerism. She has read intensively in Quaker literature, particularly in the Works and Letters of Isaac Penington. and these writings have influenced her considerably in her search for the Inner Light working in her own consciousness. Gradually she began to identify the Inner Light with a kind of non-rational prompting which would corner into her consciousness at times. Often this prompting would suggest particular courses of action

or particular

57 solutions to problems and, so far as she could tell, it came from beyond her conscious, rational mind. These promptings seemed to fit, in other words, with what she had read of the nature of the Inner Light. It was also a central doctrine of early Quakerism that the Light was infallible, and that one must follow Its leading* Let nothing judge in thee (concerning thine own heart, concerning others, or concerning any way or truth of God) but only the begotten of God in the heart. Let the light In which thou are begotten to God, and which shines upon his begotten, be the only judge in thee, and then thou canst not err in judgment. Be not hasty, be not forward in judgment, keep back to the life, still waiting for the appearance and openings of the life.13 From such quotations as this one she got the feeling both of the infallibility of the inner leading, and also of the patience one must exercise in order to: acquire it. There was much that she had read which described the Light as appearing first as glimmerings or as only slight promptings; if one followed these leadings, greater Light would come* Thus it was natural that she took slight inner feelings, vague uneasinesses, barely conscious urgings, etc. as in­ stances of “glimmerings of the Light.” “They come from be­ yond myself —

13

I did not originate them,” she said to

Robert J. Leach,editor, The Inward Journey of Isaac Fenington (Wallingford,Pa.; Pendle Hill Historical Studies, No* 6) p. 30.

58 herself, ”so they must be what the early Friends were talk­ ing about.” She also had gathered from her reading that if the Light at one commands a thing as evil, it does not at another time command the same thing as good. Thus, since she believed in the validity of the Light in early Quakers, any leading of her own that led her into actions similar to the actions of early Friends must be her own true Light. An example in terms of a slight incident may give body to this abstract discussion of Minner leadings.” Miss 0 . relates, I was in the house one morning and, looking out the window after the milkman had come and gone, I noticed that he had left a lot of slips of paper lying around on the street. I thought they might be of value to him and that, inasmuch as I saw them there, I should pick them up. I did this and learned later from the milkman that he had intended to throw them away. In deciding to pick them up, I felt reluctant to do it because I would be conspicious; this reluctance I. took as unwillingness to be obedient to an inner urge. I also thought to my­ self, “What if I don’t pick them up, maybe h e 111 lose something he needs.” The reluctance in this example Miss 0* took to confirm the validity of the inner leading which counseled to overcome it* In this more or less forced overcoming we can see a com­ pulsive element which is a sign that the choice and the action was not a wholly free one —

at least in the sense

that the motivations for it were not fully understood. As

14

From Miss 0**s notes, prepared for this study.

59 Miss 0* did come to understand the nature of these inner urges more adequately, she discovered that the compulsive element was frequently present* In her analysis she has found these vague uneasinesses which she had called the Light were frequently the result of previous standards or modes of thought which she felt she had abandoned, now forcing them­ selves again into consciousness. In general these standards or values which were often the source of the Inner Voice were masculine, over-responsible, somewhat aggressive as­ pects of herself; they were deeply ingrained in her charac­ ter structure and were encouraged especially in her college training. Here she had learned to overvalue her critical faculty and her ability to organize, and to undervalue her feelings and her more feminine side. After college,

she be­

came more interested in religion, and felt she had adopted a new set of values which were less rigid and more suitable to her as a woman. However, the intellectual and critical side, although less conscious, continued to dominate her, and expressed itself in some aspects of the Inner Light..In the example cited above, this over-responsible side shows it­ self in the determination to pick up the papers on the basis of a single preconceived idea? WI must be responsible and of service to others at all times” ; without this compulsive element, her intuition probably would have told her that lost papers would not have been so numerous, so conspicious,

60 eo obviously discarded, etc* Phenomenologically, the following explanation seems i

plausible. Miss 0 . 1s self-concept included, in a central position, the idea of herself as a good member of the Soc­ iety of Friends —

a member, in fact, who more than the

average present-day Quaker delved back into the early exper­ iences of Friends and tried to rediscover in them the life and light which they had discovered. This led, in terms of the “enhancement of the self11 concept, to great effort on her part to find in her inner experience the kind of thing which would confirm this high self-concept, and she found it in these “glimmerings", which were really old standards reasserting themselves through non-ratiopal feelings. Since, however, they were the only thing Miss 0.z found within her­ self which seemed to "come from beyond," it is understandable that she called them her own Inner Light. It is clear also that her conscious self would not normally choose to do many of the things suggested by the Inner Voice (e.g* picking up the slips of paper); she would not usually be so self-asser­ tive or conspicuous. Insofar, then, as she did carry out the behavior suggested to her, she was able to assert herself in accord with a somewhat repressed side of herself, and yet did so in a way consistent with her self-concept as a "fem­ inine person" and as a "good Quaker.11 This discussion raises of course the further question,

61 raised also by Case G . , What is a valid "inner leading"? The answer to this question lies beyond the scope of this study. It is probable that any adequate answer would lie in a concept of personality itfhich would transcend the phenomen­ ological principle that all human behavior is directly re­ lated to the "preservation and enhancement of the phenomenal self," and would include something of Angyal's belief .that every individual has the power to relate himself meaningfully to superindividual wholes, the most inclusive of which we would call God. Jung Ian psychology can also help us with this problem, but the complexness o f — the lack of experimental data on —

and to some extent

these theories make it

impossible for us to explore them further in this study. In this case, as in others included in the thesis, the more positive side of the use of devotional literature has not been adequately stressed. In the following chapter, which deals with the meaning of such literature in the total life-course of the individual, some general conclu­ sions are drawn which are relevant to the more positive aspects of this case.

62 CASE Gr. - Thomas Kelley The material for this illustrative case is taken from personal conversations with the individual concerned, and with the two psychotherapists who have worked with her. We shall designate her Mrs* F. for the purposes of this study* Although Mrs* F, had read quite widely in devotional literature and had found much help from a number of sources, we shall consider here only her use of Thomas Kelley*s Testament of Devotion and its meaning for her, Mrs. F. read this book at a time of trial for her —

a time of insecurity,

financially and psychologically, and a time of physical suf­ fering. She found herself inadequate to make the decisions with which she was faced and it was natural that she should turn to prayer and devotional reading for support and gui­ dance, Through the reading of books by G-lenn Clark and Emmett Fox she had come to have great reliance in the effi­ cacy of prayer, but it was not until Thomas Kelley’s writing became known to her that she began to put much trust in what he calls “inner guidance.“ It is the meaning of this reliance on her own “inner guidance” that we shall try to explore psychodynamically. In Mrs. F * ’s state of insecurity and physical dis­ tress, it was natural that such a passage as the following would have a great appeal to her:

65 Do we live in the steady peace of God, a peace down at the very depths of our souls, where all strain is gone and G-od is already victor over the world, already vic­ tor over our weaknesses? This life, this abiding, en­ during peace that never fails, this serene power and unhurried conquest, inward conquest over ourselves, outward conquest over the world, is meant to be ours. It is a life that is freed from strain and anxiety ahd hurry, for something of the Cosmic Patience of G-od becomes ours.*^ For Thomas Kelley, a present-day Quaker, the answer to everyone*s longing for peace lay in abandoning oneself to the Truth which lies within, to the Cosmic Power which we can tap if we will only listen: When we say Yes or No to calls for service on the basis of heady decisions, we have to give reasons, to ourselves and to others. But when we say Yes or No to calls, on the basis of inner guidance and whispered promptings of encouragement from the Center of our life, or on the basis of a lack of any Inward l,rising,, of that Life to encourage us in the call, we have no rea­ son to give, except one— the will of God asywe discern it. Then we have begun to live in g u i d a n c e . By nature Mrs. F. is; an intuitive type of person; also she is more than usually open to following other peo­ pled

suggestions concerning her own life, and sometimes

has difficulty in making up her own mind. Thus it was to be expected, in her state of great need, that she would try to follow Thomas KelleyVs advice, since he had described so beautifully her own deepest longings, and since his method

15

Thomas H. Kelley, A Testament of Devotion (New York: Harper and Brothers. 1941.) pp* 119f.

16

Ibid.

p. 124.

64 fitted her natural gifts and inclinations* Also other devo­ tional reading which she was doing at the time, mostly Emmett Fox and Unity publications, strengthened her feeling that listening to the "inner voice" would bring the peace and freedom she desired* In the year that followed the reading of the Kelley booh, Mrs* F. did rely more and more on what seemed to her inner guidance* She was not able to think through her prob­ lems logically and consciously, and the reliance on the inner promptings became more marked* However, as this reli­ ance became greater, she found she was less able to combine With it the use of conscious searching and the complete willingness to follow any of the several alternatives open to her at the time —

both of which were urged by most writers

as necessary preliminaries to receiving; true guidance* This led to a conscious distrust of the voice, and to vacillation between following and not following its advice* She provides the following illustration of the extent to which the voice figured in her decisions: After a meeting at the church, I thought it would be nice to speak with K.H* — we are good friends and I like to be with her. However, the inner voice seemed.to tell me not to go ahead. In this instance I went against the inner voice, and waited around while K*H* talked with some other people* However, when she was through, I found she had other plans very soon, and I felt as though perhaps I shouldn t have waited. In this case,

65 17

the inner voice may have been right.

Gradually she began to sense that some of the more important decisions made by the voice, which she had follow­ ed, actually went against the best Interests of both herself and her children. The more she relied absolutely on it, and the more she allowed it to decide insignificant matters of detail, the less confident and more anxious she became* A wise minister whom she consulted strongly advised her against continued reliance on the voice* Finally, at the time of this writing, she has come to feel that the voice is an expression of a pathological rather than a healthy kind of religion, and under the guidance of a wise therapist, she is finding other and more solid bases on which to guide her life* In psychological terms, the dynamics here are not hard to see. The great desire to bring back to health both her physical and her psychjc self led her to adopt any program which offered the possibility of fulfillment. However, it is important to point out that whatever program she adopted had not only to fit her temperament, as we indicated, but it had also to conform to her self-concept. This constituted, and still constitutes,one of the basic problems of her com­ ing to self-knowledge, for Mrs* F . 1s concept of herself is

17

Based on conversations with Mrs* F*

66 that of a deeply spiritual, always loving person who tries to follow the will of G-od £& she has known it or read about it in religious circles and in devotional literature. Thomas Kelley was obviously a deeply spiritual writer, highly recommended by nearly all the persons whom Mrs# F. respected. His description of the fruits of following the inner light fitted well with the vision she had of herself in her most idealistic moments# If Thomas Kelley*s method had “worked11, she could have had peace and happiness on her own terms, in accordance with her own present self-concept. But this, unfortunately, did not seem to be the way she was meant to attain peace. There is much yet to be learned about Mrs. F . ; we do not yet understand, for instance, just what it is in her unconscious or nundifferentiated” psyche that did govern, the messages of the inner voice. But enough is known to in­ dicate rather clearly the dynamics which led to her use of the Testament of Devotion. There is an additional point in connection with Mrs.F.1s use of Glenn Clark1s I, Will Lift Up Mine Eyes

which is in­

structive for our study# When trying to follow Mr. Clark1s advices in praying, she,felt a particular urge to achieve the kind of absolute forgiveness which he asserted was a necessary prerequisite to successful prayer. Here are some

67 excerpts from his section on forgiveness: If you hate just one individual in the world, by just that much you are separated from G-od Himself* If anyone has sinned against you and you have not for. given him, you are hating and despising God* . * • Your first duty is to forgive others# Turn to all those who have trespassed against you and forgive them* Open your soul while the love of Christ — wthe acme of all spiritual love" — the love which has the powerJ.to save, and redeem the most hopeless of sinners — takes complete dominion over every area of your life.18 Here is a challenge to absolute love, but a love which is to be achieved evidently mostly by the use of the will. In trying to achieve it, as Mrs* F* now clearly realizes, she suppressed or forced out of her awareness all feelings of dislike or criticism or hatred which she had of others. This action, as psychologists know so well, does not dispose of these negative feelings, but merely causes them to become operative in ways which are not under the conscious control of the individual. In phenomenological terms, these unac­ ceptable aspects of the self were vigorously excluded from the self-concept, but they were certainly among the. factors which have re-entered Mrs. F.Vs thoughts and behavior by means of the inner voice, particularly where the leadings of the voice were self-defeating or destructive. Here then is a rather clear-cut instance in which devotional literature

18

Glenn Clark, I, Will Lift Up Mine Eyes (New York: Harper and Brothers. 1937.) pp. 31-2, 34.

68 has actually helped to block the enlarging of the self-con­ cept and thus the growth of the individual. This instance is of especial importance because so much devotional liter­ ature stresses the need for love and forgiveness, but the methods which are offered to achieve these ideal states sel­ dom take into account levels of personality deeper than im­ mediate awareness. Modern psychotherapy, in contradistinc­ tion to this religious emphasis, has urged the necessity of recognizing and in a certain sense "accepting” o n e ^ dis­ likes and,hates as a part of oneself. Only thus, it says, can the individual grow gradually into a state of love and forgiveness from the whole being. CASE H. - Romans 2 For reasons which have been stated above, most of the cases and illustrations in this thesis deal with the misuse of religious literature. This case, taken from a book by John Sutherland Bonnell^9 , deals with the positive use of a selection from the Bible. It was used in a counseling ses­ sion conducted by Mr. Bonnell, and was injected at just the right "psychological moment." It is probable that an inter­ pretative statement from the counselor, without any refer­ ence to the Bible, would have accomplished the final result

19

John Sutherland Bonnell, Pastoral Psychiatry (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938) pp. 58-61*

69 just as well. However, there are undoubtedly many instances in which an individual happens upon a piece of devotional literature at just the time when it can be of most service to him, and of these instances this case can be a good illustration. We are told that the counselee, whom we shall call Mr. A., comes in to see the counselor concerning his wife. He feels she lacks (jUscipline. After discussing the wife for a while, the counselor asks Mr. A* to tell him a little about himself. He proceeds to.do this, and says, among other things,

"I have a bad temper” ; "I’m very selfish, too”; ”I 1m

not very considerate, 'I suppose, of my wife and children.” But he comes back to his w ife1s problem and asks again if anything can be done about her. It is at this point that the counselor opens his Bible to Romans 2 and asks the coun­ selee to read verses 1 to 6. Mr.A.1s first response, after reading, is, "Well, what about it?", to which the counselor replies,

"Read aloud once more verses 1 and 3.”

"Therefore thou art inexcusable, 0 man, whosoever thou art that judgest; for wherein thou judgest another, thou condemnest thyself; for thou that judgest doest the same things. "And thinkest thou this, 0 man, that judgest them which do such things, and doest the same, that thou shalt escape the judgment of G-od?" Finally he says, "My own life lacks discipline.

. . I have

hated myself for it, and I guess I have been striking at the same thing in my wife." Presumably through meditating

on the meaning of these verses the counselee came to gen­ uine insight into his own projections, and began to see the problem as a joint one and not just that of his wife. Phenomenologically this is an excellent example of the 11enlarging of the self-concept11 which, according to Carl Rogers, is the only road to growth and maturity. It is the basic aim of client-centered therapy to provide the at-. . mosphere in which this enlarging of o n e ^ view of oneself can take place. In Bonnell*s case it is impossible to sepa­ rate the effect of the Scripture as such from the atmosphere of acceptance which Bonnell himself must have provided for this counseling. It is in cases such as this one that good religion and good psychotherapy go right along together. However, it should be noted that the Scripture cited is, in the use Bonnell makes of it, a teaching about human relationships; the theistic element is not predominant. It is more in those instances in which the concept and worship of Cod play leading roles that devotional literature and modern psycho­ therapy tend to diverge.20

20

See Robert H. Bonthius, Christian Paths to Self-Accep­ tance (New York; King*s Crown Press, 19487 for an In­ teresting treatment of theology from the psychothera­ peutic point of view.

71 CASE I. - Meister Eckhart The source of information on this case is an indivi­ dual well-versed in both devotional literature and in depth psychology who drew both upon her own knowledge of the case and upon the insights of another informant, even closer to the person concerned. The writer has had no direct contact with the individual in this case. This person, whom we shall designate as Mr. Y. , is a man of about 45, a professor in a field requiring intense concentration of the intellect. Some years ago, Mr. Y* began to be interested in de­ votional literature and mysticism and became an extreme de­ votee of the mystical way. He read extensively and inten­ sively in the literature, including such writers as J.N* Grou, Franpois de Sales, Thomas Kelley, Dom Chapman, Father Baker, Meister Eckhart, and the author of The Cloud of Un­ knowing. The latter three were his especial favorites. For a period of two. years or more he meditated two or three hours daily; his meditations were of the discursive or thinking type, and they served well to convince him of the reality of God, ajid of his need to serve what he considered the Highest Good. Calmness and imperturbability were among the virtues which he tried to cultivate. From his reading he tended to select those teachings which emphasized the rigorousness

and reasonableness which fitted his own

72 nature and he developed these qualities to an even higher degree than he had possessed them naturally. The following quotation from Eckhart is a good example of the kind of passage which supported his natural tendency to emphasize the will and the intellect; . . . there is no need for the mind to turn elsewhere Cthan to God} and it never attends to creatures without suffering violence and being hurt and perverted Cby the distraction}. When the mind has once.been spoiled in youth, or any other age for that matter, every effort should be made to correct it, to withdraw it to its proper sphere and to train it there. However natural and native God is to the mind, once the mind has digres­ sed, taken root in creatures, and been perverted by them and become accustomed to them, it is proportionately in­ fected and enfeebled, handicapped for its .nobler func­ tions, so that every effort one may make is always too little to effect the mind1s restoration.21 Of especial significance, tachment from

here is Eckhart1s emphasis on de­

“attending to creatures,” since Mr. Y . , even

before he began to read devotional literature* 'was greatly f lacking in feeling, or in the expression of feeling. Because of this serious deficiency in the development of his “feeling side,” all of Mr. Y . 1s decisions and his judgments of others were made on a coldly logical basis, and he had difficulty in visualizing reality in any other way. Thus it was not unexpected that he began to have diffi­ culty in his marriage. According to the available information,

21

Raymond Bernard Blakney, translator, Meister Eckhart. A Modern Translation (New York: Harper and Brothers. 1941) pp. 31f. Bracketed additions by the translator.

73 he was mentally cruel to his wife, even sadistic at times, yet without ever coming to feel his own guilt in the sit­ uation. From his logical, unfeeling point of view, his wife seemed wholly to blame. Because of his inability to see be­ yond that point, the marriage eventually resulted in di­ vorce. Somehow Mr. Y. was able to select from his extensive devotional reading those elements which supported his think­ ing critical faculty, and which provided a theoretical ra­ tionale even for his marital cruelty, and he seemed to pass over completely those elements which would have called at­ tention to the feelings of himself and others. It is signi­ ficant that he sometimes did have strong negative feelings towards others who he felt had fallen from his standard of 11spirituality,

but these judgments, although, probably un­

consciously determined, were always justified by him on the basis of objective facts. He seems to have an inordinate sense of being right which extensive reading and meditation has not dented. The key to the psychological understanding of Mr. Y. seems to lie in recognizing the predominant emphasis on the intellect, and on a self-concept which is concerned almost exclusively with that side of the personality. A survey of his family background and early experience may help to clar­ ify the picture. Mr. Y . 1s mother and father were never happy together,

74 and there seems to have been a dearth of affection in all the family relationships. The father, spoiled to some ex­ tent by his wife, was a very successful scientist and tend­ ed to be domineering. He was away a good deal of the time, so the mother turned to the son, who was an only child. For this and other reasons, the child developed the habit of ad- justing to adults rather than to his contemporaries. For instance, in his early school years, he always came back late in the fall after summer vacations with his mother and grandparents, which helped to accentuate his lack of adjust­ ment to children of his own age. His childhood was molded partly by his desire to be a "model child," which evidently was the way! he.‘chose to maintain a close relationship with his mother . When very young he started to repress his real feelings and took refuge in "ideas.” His father had once told him that when he became ae college graduate, he would sit down and talk with him; only then could they discuss scien­ tific subjects together. Thus he was forced to compete with his father, who evidently showed him little real affection. The religious background was Christian Science, which also sometimes causes- a1 withdrawal of the individual from the full warmth of human relationships. (In order to main­ tain and fortify their theological belief in the virtual non-existence of evil, disease, sin etc., some Christian Scientists have to insulate themselves against feeling the

75 full brunt of the suffering and unhappiness which exists around them; this is an integral part of their attempts to insulate their conscious selves against the inner evil thoughts and desires which rise from within them,22) As a consciously religious person, his love seemed to be 0in theory11 rather than from the heart. From his earliest childhood and up through his youth, Y. being an only child and somewhat spoiled by his wealthy family, was able to continue in a relatively egocentric ad­ justment to life. All these factors together allowed him to make his adjustment in terms, of his most superior faculty, that of thinking, and did not require that he develop his deeper feelings of sympathetic understanding. From this picture, then, the phenomenological pattern emerges rather clearly* The phenomenal self is that of a thinking individual who is occasionally invaded by negative feelings which, however, are fully justified outwardly*The self-concept is centered around the picture of a deeply spiritual man who thinks he sees, through his long medita-/ tion and his great powers of concentration, what'

is spiri­

tually right* This phenomenal self seems to have developed

22

It should be emphasized that this is not a statement about Christian Scientists in general, but is based on the observation of some members of that group by the writer and the informant in this case.

76 rather smoothly from childhood and, because it has brought success along most lines — marriage —

with the major exception of the

has become even more crystallized and rigid,

(His long practice of devotional meditation, and the fact that he is considered something of an authority in "the life of the spirit" has made him more and more convinced of his own inevitable progression in that life*) His basic need for self-esteem seems well enough satisfied with his present character and mode of adjustment that a failure in one area was not sufficient to cause a breakdown or even a serious questioning of the present self-concept. There are evidences that increasing loneliness and social isolation is making his adjustment on the present level more difficult, and it is possible that outer events may still bring about a crisis which could cause a revaluation of his entire mode of life and thinking. An even more serious neurosis is also quite possible of course,

>

CHAPTER

V

P SXCHO DYNAMIC S IN THE CONTEXT OF THE TOTAL LIFE-COURSE This study would not be complete without an attempt to place in the broader context of the individual's lifecourse the specific dynamics.of a particular period in his life. The case history method of study has in a certain sense always done this, and Andras Angyal has made even more explicit the necessity for viewing personality nas it evolves through time*"1 The course of life as G-estalt* The ■attempt to- under­ stand the specific psychodynamics is always aided.by a fuller knowledge of the individual's past. With such knowledge,' the patterns of neurotic behavior can be more easily seen and isolated. In addition, such knowledge can be of help, in this study for instance, in the problem of evaluating the experience with devotional literature — ; that is, in learn­ ing to what extent and in what way the use of the litera­ ture aided or impeded the individual's search for maturity and spiritual attainment. Angyal states convincingly the great importance of total life-goals in the development of the personality, and thus in the understanding of that

1

Angyal, op* £it. p. 343*

78 personality: If one allows the life course of a person to pass before his eyes one sees him toiling to reach now one and now another goal. . * . Beyond the goals to' be achieved, and the states to be reached the person has, however, the broader motivation of shaping his life into a coherent meaningful whole* .The course of life is not entirely instrumental for achieving certain goals but has, so to say, an intrinsic or self-purpose. The course of life is, in a way, comparable to a work of .art which one creates, shapes, and perfects by living it. . * .The person may be only vaguely conscious of this, but it still seems that the life history, the work which he creates by living it, is his greatest concern. The desire for self-realization, a tendency to shape o n e 1s life course into a meaningful whole, gives coher­ ence and unity to the life history. The personal devel-opment thus becomes a process of G-estalt formation.^ Thus it is a basic thesis of this study that only by seeing an episode in the context of the total life history can any valid evaluation be made. Devotional literature ana the intensification of con­ flict. Unfortunately the data are not available to make a thorough investigation of the total life-history aspect of the problem. However, within the writer’s acquaintance are several individuals whose experiences with devotional liter­ ature over a long period of time seem to have paralleled one another; and the sequence of their experiences has consider­ able relevance for this aspect of the problem. This sequence and its significance will be outlined below.

2

Ibid. pp. 354f

79 The original turning of the individual toward the life of the spirit and to the reading of devotional litera­ ture often occurs along with some kind of religious commit­ ment —

a commitment to do only the will of G-od, or to fol­

low one*s f1inner voice,11 or simply to seek more intensively. Without investigating at this point the psychology of the making of a commitment, it could be said that the commitment is the major motivation (on a conscious level) which holds the individual to a more intensive reading of devotional literature and, more important, which causes the literature to have a real and lasting impact upon his life. In other words, the commitment makes the seeker take seriously what he reads.3 Because of this, and because of the very nature of devotional literature, the individual is often made more aware of his inner conflicts. (In any view of the total , life-course of an individual, crises and conflicts appear as crucial. Thus it is appropriate to deal with them more specifically at this point.) This increased awareness can come about in a number of ways.

For some individuals who

have a high degree of self-awareness, the very attempt to achieve a more spiritual life may lead to a keener sense of

3

See William James1 Varieties of Religious Experience for some treatment of this subject of commitment, especially the section on asceticism in the chapter on Saintliness.

80 inner cleavages. As a devotee, the religious seeker may con­ centrate on the nature of God as Absolute Perfection or as Absolute Love, and he tries to perfect in himself the vir­ tues of patience, humility, non-attachment etc* But almost inevitably this striving and this worship of an absolute God make him more aware of his own complete inadequacy to realize these high goals. He finds in himself serious blocks to their attainment. The very intensity of the concentration on the Highest makes him more conscious of his own f,dark side”, and he comes to feel much more acutely how little his life is really totally committed to what his conscious mind, wills. Sometimes this awareness of inner inconsistency and conflict becomes so great that the individual can no longer follow the traditional life of devotion and must turn to other aide, such as psychology or psychoanalysis.4 Other kinds of individuals, less open to their inner situations, may not be aware of the intensification of con­ flict which religious striving may bring. For these persons, the conflict may precipitate personal crises which seem to be forced upon them from outside. These crises may in turn compel the individual to become aware of both the fact and the nature of the inner cleavages. The need for sexual out­ lets versus the desire for self-discipline, or the need to

4

Other aids are less intensive forms of religious practice, a broadening of cultural or vocational interests, etc*

81 express hostility or affection versus the desire to make all things rational or intellectual, are examples of the kinds of inner conflict -which can he intensified by devotional study. For instance, in the case of Miss L* , the repression of inner feelings undoubtedly had much to do with the break­ down of relationship with, her husband and with their even­ tual divorce. Here it took a neurotic crisis to force aware­ ness. In contradistinction to this, in the case of Mr* P * , a series of smaller crises, such as getting married, a dis­ satisfaction with a “radical" religious life, etc* gradually increased awareness to the point that Mr* P. recognized some of the neurotic elements in his use of the Imitation of Christ* The degree to which a particular person may be forced to become aware of growing inner conflict by outer crises varies greatly* In substantiation of the above point of view, a rather lengthy quotation is included, written directly to the sub­ ject by Dorothy B. Phillips, editor of The Choice Is Always O u r s , a recent anthology of devotional material from both psychological and religious sources. Instead of dealing primarily with the differences in the individuals, she em­ phasizes the different kinds of meditation and their effects upon the precipitating of crises. It has been the observation of several people, myself included, that the practice of the kind of meditation which does not allow for the facing of the "Dark S i d e " —

82 that is, which focuses exclusively on the positive as­ pects of R e a l i t y — tends to lead persons into psycho­ logical crises more rapidly than might otherwise occur* Particularly does this seem to happen when there is forced concentration on prescribed subject-matter re­ quiring one to repeatedly dismiss "subjective fantasies11 or to repress negative feelings (Example: the very inse­ cure person evidencing braggart behavior meditating on “Humility”,: or one ’ w ith deep resentments and unresolved hatreds meditating o n 1"Love" or "Peace,") Any cleavage which may exist between conscious and unconscious pur­ poses is thus likely' to be intensified and the crisis situation accelerated. Since every crisis presents opportunity for inner clarification, such seemingly negative results always hold the possibility of positive gain. Whether such gains are realized seems to depend on the general per­ sonality structure. The fairly normal person usually gains insight into the inconsistencies between his inner and outer living and is driven to seek help in reconcil­ ing the two. With the neurotic whose inner rigidities make learning from crisis experiences difficult, the op­ posite may occur. He may react to "failure" by intensi­ fying his mal-practice of meditation and thus increasing his difficulties or he may seek some new means by which to escape facing his inner dilemma* • Balanced meditation, on the other hand, may also hast­ en psychological crises for some people but with greater certainty of yielding fruitful results. By balanced med­ itation is meant the consideration of both the negative , and positive aspects of Reality as they are revealed from within through personal experience and from without . . . within the larger context* This kind of procedure is more trustworthy for it is more likely to bring the individual into contact with the "personal unconscious" and to help him to face and assimilate the contents therein. Bal­ anced meditation may combine the use of religious con­ cepts and symbols which hold vital meaning for the in­ dividual with symbols arising from dream and "subjective fantasy" experiences, thus providing rich and dynamic subject-matter around which to bind the attention-. . . *5 There seems to be considerable evidence, then, that

5

Written for this study by Miss Phillips.

83 readers of devotional literature often find themselves for­ ced to seek a resolution of their conflicts earlier than otherwise would have 'been the case. In some of the cases cited in the preceding chapter, the resolution was sought in Freudian or Jungian analysis. Such a course may not he Hspiritual” in a strict sense, hut it may lead to personal growth and the acceptance of all the aspects of the self, which may ultimately he in the direction of fuller relation­ ship with “superindividual wholes,” or with God. Thus what seems to have been pathological or self-defeating in the short-term view may ultimately have become healing or growthful.

(This benign outcome does not always occur, of

course. Mr. Y. is an example of a case where the crises, even the one of divorce, has not yet made the individual aware of his own inner problem. However, it has occurred in at least six cases known to the writer —

three of which are

included in Chapter IV.) It is impossible to make any final statements with regard to the material of this chapter. It can at least be said, however,that a particular dynamic use of devotional literature, whether positive or negative, must finally be placed in the context of the entire life of the individual, and that a final evaluation of its value or lack of value can be made only in terms of the total life-course.

CHAPTER SUMMARY I

AND

VI

CONCLUSIONS

G-ENERAL SUMMARY

The purpose of this study has been to explore the use of religious devotional literature in terms of the insights of modern psychology. First,

the practices of the past with

regard to the use of this literature were investigated in order to determine the pertinence which they had for this study; In particular, some of the Catholic literature on 11spiritual direction” was reviewed. Following this, the cur­ rent psychological frames of reference were discussed and the most satisfactory for the present study was briefly out­ lined, emphasizing those aspects which had the greatest re­ levance for our purposes. In Chapter III, the specific dyna­ mics of the use and misuse of devotional literature was ex­ plored, first in terms of the phenomenological frame of re­ ference, then in terms of the “holistic” and the-psychoana­ lytic frames where those theories were particularly relevant or helpful in terms of devotional literature. Then a number of cases were reviewed which illustrated psychodynamic fac­ tors operating-in devotional reading. In general these cases dealt with the psychodynamics of misuse rather than the creative use of such reading. Finally, an attempt was made

85 to set these specific dynamics in the larger framework of the total life-history, under the assumption that only in this way could any true evaluation of the meaning of devo­ tional reading be made. II

CONCLUSIONS

The importance of psychodynamic factors. It should be evident from, the preceding chapters, particularly from,the cases, that psychodynamic factors are of crucial importance in determining just what use an individual makes of devotion­ al reading. The reader may feel that there is much more to the problem than the factors which have been reviewed in this study, but at least the necessity of exploring and at­ tempting to understand the psychological factors which are operating has been demonstrated. This demonstration of the key significance

of psychological factors has been the main

specific purpose

of this thesis.

The need for guidance. It is a truism of clinical psychology that it is extremely difficult for any individual to know his own nblind spots,,f or has been clearly

self-deceptions.This fact

recognized by the Catholic Church for many

centuries, and is the reason for their emphasis upon having spiritual direction for the higher levels of prayer and religious aspiration. It is a fact which Protestantism seems

86 to have lost sight of at times, to its own peril. All of the individuals in our illustrative cases are Protestants, and most of them seem to demonstrate the need for modern "spiritual directors.1* In some ways the current emphasis on the psychological training of ministers in seminaries is an attempt to meet this need. However, even,here, more spec­ ific training in the proper and improper use of religious literature■should he helpful to most ministers.^ Aside from specific recommendations, it would probably he justified to maintain that psychological awareness is needed by anyone who undertakes to publish, advertise or recommend devotion­ al literature. And insofar as the statement in the intro­ ductory chapter about the increasing use of devotional liter­ ature is correct, one could say that this awareness is es­ pecially needed at the present time. Suggestions for further research. There are obvious­ ly many aspects of this study which need filling in. The possibilities for further research are almost unlimited. One of the greatest needs in this field Is an adequate psycho­ logical frame of reference; the inadequacy of the present

1

At least two ministers who are widely known as modern “spiritual directors" recommend spiritual reading prim­ arily on the basis of the individual^ “personal pre­ occupation" at the time, hoping that interest in the spiritual life will be stimulated on this level first. This is sound pedagogy but it can easily lead to a

87 frames is seen especially in the attempts to explain the more creative and inspirational uses of religious literature. This problem is not one of a specific research project, of course, but is dependent largely upon discoveries in the new fields of psychology and psychiatry* If it is true that the case studies have been the most revealing part of this thesis, then it is also true that more and fuller case studies would shed much more light on the problem. In the first place, there ought to be a more adequate sampling of cases —

cases which would show a

greater variety of dynamics and include a greater variety of devotional literature used, and especially cases which show more fully the positive use of such literature. This latter kind of case could probably be obtained from psycho­ logically-oriented ministers. The most helpful cases would be those which include some pastoral counseling and also some contact with the minister following counseling when the individual is seeking spiritually through prayer, read­ ing, etc. It is only through fairly intensive counseling or psychotherapy that real insight into psychodynamics can be gained. Psychologists and psychiatrists could probably give

neglect of the more basic psychological factors if the effort to ”strike a spark” is the only concern. See Russell Picks, ’’Devotional Literature in Pastoral Care,” Pastoral Psychology. Vol.' 1, No. 1, February, 1950.

88 fuller data on cases where the use of religious literature has been pathological. Here, however, the investigator should be c-areful to choose doctors who are not unsympathe­ tic to religion, since distortion in the presentation of cases in the direction of one*s prejudice.is both easy and common. Another area of study ,is the comparison of the dif­ ferent kinds of literature used and the techniques of pre­ senting it which are utilized by ministers and others who are in spiritual counseling situations. This area has not been investigated at all in the present study* In general, however, the more intensive study of more case histories where religious literature has been an impor­ tant factor will probably turn out to be the greatest source of new knowledge; the careful study of personalities should remain central for this kind of search for truth.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

bibliography

A*

DEVOTIONAL

LITERATURE

Baker, F. Augustin, Holy Wisdom. London: Burns, Oates and Washburn, L t d * , 1876. 662 pp* Blakney, Raymond B., Meister Eckhart, A Modern Translation. New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1941. 305 pp. Charman. Pom J o h n . Spiritual Letters o f . London: Sheed and Ward# 194$. 334. pp. Clark, Glenn, I, Will Lift Ur Mine Eyes. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1937. 178 pp. Kelley, Thomas R . , Testament of Devotion. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1941. 124 pp. £ Kempis, Thomas, The Imitation of Christ. Rev. J* M # Lelen editor. United States and Canada: Catholic Book Publish ing Company, 1941. 374 pp. Kepler, Thomas S., editor, Contemporary Religious Thought. Nashville: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1941. 401 pp. An anthology, mostly from the philosophy of religion point of view. There are some selections bearing on contemporary devotional life* Leach, Robert J*, editor, The Inward Journey of Isaac Penington. Wallingford, Pa.: Pendle Hill Historical Studies, No* 6, no date. 43 pp. Phillips, Dorothy Berkeley, editor, The Choice Is Always Ours. New York: Richard R* Smith, 1948. 496 pp. Po'ulain, A. , The Graces of Interior Prayer. London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd. 1928. 588 pp. A standard Catholic work on prayer, with some refer­ ences to spiritual direction. von Hugel, Baron Friedrich, Selected Letters, 1896-1924. London: J.M* Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1927. 376 pp. A rich source of some of the best of recent Catholic spiritual direction, but unfortunately not organized and correlated with individual personalities*

90 B.

PSYCHOLOGICAL MATERIAL

Allport, Gordon W. , The Individual and His Religion* New York: Macmillan Company, 1950, 142 pp. Angyal, Andras, Foundations for a Science of Personality. New York: The Commonwealth Fund, 1941. 381 pp. Bonnell, John Sutherland, Pastoral Psychiatry. New York: Harper and Brother, 1938. This book deals with the use of psychiatry in pastoral counseling by a minister who is a pioneer in this field. Bonthius, Robert H . Christian Paths to Self-Acceotance. Neitf York: KingT s Crown Press, 1948. 215 pp* Casey, Robert P * . ’’Oedipus Motivation in Religious Thought and Fantasy, ■ Psychiatry. 6:219-228, 1942. -------- ’’Religion and Psychoanalysis,” Psychiatry, 6:291ff, 1943. This article is a highly stimulating discussion of pro­ jection as an inevitable and essential element in religion. Picks, Russell L . , ’’Devotional Literature in Pastoral Care,” Pastoral Psychology. Vol.l, No.l, February, 1950. This article deals in a general way with the use of devo­ tional literature by the pastor, but is specific neither in terms of the literature nor of dynamics. Fenichel, Otto, The P e.yc ho an al y t ic Theory of Neurosis. New York:- ¥. W. Norton & Company, 1945. 589 pp* Goldstein, Kurt, Human Nature. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1940. 238 pp* Hiltner, Seward, Pastoral Counseling. New York and Nashville: Abingdon-Cokesbury, 1949* 291 pp* James, William, Varieties of Religious Experience. New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1902. 527 pp* An early classic in this field which attempts to explain religious experience of a mystical nature. Indispensable as background for any study In psychology and religion*

91 May, Hollo, The Art of Counseling. Nashville: Cokesbury Press, 1939# 224 pp* ------- , ’’Religion and Anxiety,” Pastoral Psychology, Vol. 1, No# 3, pp. 46-49, April, 1950# Menninger, Karl, '"Religious--Applications of Psychiatry” , Pastoral Psychology. Vol.l, No.3, pp. 13-22, April, 1950. Menninger, William C * , ”Bibliotherapy,” Bulletin of the Men­ ninger Clinic. 1:263-274, No. 8, 1937* Pfister, Oskar, Christianity and Fear: A Study in History and in the Psychology and'Hygiene of Religion. New York and London: The Macmillan Company. (Reviewed by Wayne E* Oates in Pastoral Psychology# ‘Vol: 1, No# 1 , February, 1950*) Rogers, Carl R . , Counseling and Psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 194.2#; 437 pp. Thef manual of. ’cldenl-^centered” therapy — a therapy ,the basic assumptions of which seem to be consistent with the best in religion. — ----- , A Comprehensive Theory of Personality and Behavior. Mimeographed only. University of Chicago, no date* Schneck, Jerome M * , "Bibliotherapy and Hospital Library Activ­ ities for Neuropsychiatric Patients,” Psychiatry» 8:207-228, 1945* A discussion mostly from the angle of the books chosen by mental patients rather than assigned to them* Snygg> Donald and Arthur W. Combs, Individual Behavior. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949, 360 pp.