Proto-Romance Phonology 0444001832

Table of contents :
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
1 Introduction
1.1 The Comparative Method
1.2 Phonological Reconstruction
1.3 The Nature of Proto-Romance
2 The Phonemic Inventory of Proto-Romance
2.1 Languages Compared
2.2 Prosodic Features
2.3 Vowels
tense i
lax i
tense u
lax u
close e
open e
close o
open o
a
2.4 Semi-Vowels
2.5 Consonants
2.6 Vowel-Clusters and Diphthongs
2.7 Clusters of Two Consonants
2.7.1 Homosyllabic
2.7.2 Ambisyllabic: Double Geminate
2.7.2 Ambisyllabic: Other
2.8 Clusters of Three Consonants
2.8.1 Not Palatalised or Labialised
2.8.2 Ending in j
2.8.3 Ending in w
3 Proto-Romance and Latin
3.1 Every-Day and Literary Latin
3.2 From Gracchan Latin to Proto-Romance
4 Major Developments in Early Romance
4.1 Earliest Divisions
4.2 Further Early Developments in Vocalism
4.3 Early Developments in Consonantism
4.4 Prosodic Features
4.5 Sporadic Sound-Changes
4.6 Phonological Effects of Analogical Substitution
4.7 Borrowings
Appendix I. Further Phonological Tables
Appendix II. List of Proto-Romance Words
a
b
d, e, f
g
i, j
k
l
m
n
o, p
r, s
t
u
References: Abbreviations, Authors and Titles
Index

Citation preview

a

PROTO-ROMANCE PHONOLOGY

Foundations of Linguistics Series

Editor: Charles F. Hockett, Cornell University

Contributors: Erwin A. Esper Mentalism and Objectivism in Linguistics: The Sources of Leonard Bloomfield’s Psychology of Language, 1968 Robert A. Hall, Jr.

Comparative Romance Grammar: External History of the Romance Languages, Volume I, 1974 Proto-Romance Phonology, Volume II, 1976

C. F. and F. M. Voegelin Classification and Index of the World’s Languages, 1976 (in preparation)

COMPARATIVE ROMANCE GRAMMAR, VOLUME

PROTO-ROMANCE PHONOLOGY Robert A. Hall Jr Cornell University

a ELSEVIER

New York/Oxford/Amsterdam

II:

AMERICAN ELSEVIER PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017

ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY

335 Jan Van Galenstraat, P.O. Box 211 Amsterdam, The Netherlands

© American Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc., 1976

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Hall, Robert Anderson, 1911Proto Romance phonology.

(His Comparative Romance grammar; 2) (Foundations of linguistics series) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Romance languages—Phonology. 2. Romance languages—History. I. Title.

PC76.H3

440°.09 75-45215 ISBN 0-444-00183-2

Manufactured in the United States of America

‘To Diana, Bill, Scott, Barbara and Darrin

Introduction..........6.00005 eect ree ence eeenee 1.1. The Comparative Method...........eeeceeeee eee e renee eeeneeee 1.2, Phonological Reconstruction.........6sseeeeee 1.21. Phonemic Inventory..... 1,22, The Regularist Assumption... 1.23. Interfering Factors aes 1.3. The Nature of Proto-Romance..........++eeeeeeeeeeee 1.81. Vulgar Latin, Common Romance, Proto~Romance. The Phonemic Inventory of Proto-Romance..............+ee0+ 2.1. Languages Compared.........0.ccceeeeeeeeeeeeneeeeees 2.11, Abstract Considerations. . a 2.12. Comparative Tables... Segn sarees In or sacitcelrraatadanencipialnceds 30h Se 2.2. Prosodic Features. . 2.3. 2.31. Phonological Components. . 2.32. Individual Phonemes.... 2.4. Semi-Vowels 2.41. Phonological Components...........:ecceeeee eee e ee eeeee 2.42. Individual Phonemes.... 2.5. Consonants........+0.eeeeeees 2.51. Phonological Components. . 2.52. Individual Phonemes..... 2.6. Vowel-Clusters and Diphthongs 2.61. Vowel-Clusters.............0-000+ 2.62. Diphthong..........-..ceseeeeee 2.7. Clusters of Two Consonants. . 2.71. Homosyllabic....... as 2.72; Ambisyllabieccwimawes oo evasepnaa exer aenamanaiiien an 2.721. Double (Geminate).......... 0c ccce seen e eee eeee 2.722, Othersisnvsses ras 2.8. Clusters of Three Consonants........ 2.81. Not Palatalised or Labialised. . 2.811. Ending in /r/........ 2.812, Ending in /1/. 2.813. Other..... 2.82, Ending in /i/...........ee eee 2.821. Double Consonant + /ij/ 2,822. Consonant + /ri/....... 2.823. Consonant + /ti/... os 2.824, Consonant + /kj/... c . c cece cece cece ee ee eee ees

oourunnneek

TABLE OF CONTENTS

viii

TABLE or CONTENTS 2.825.

8.

4,

2.83.

cece eee e eee eeeenee Consonant + /dj/.......cceee

2.826, Consonant + /uj/.......-.+ Ending in /y/:............

Proto-Romance and Latin............cseeseeeeeeeeeeeneee 3.1. 3.2.

Every-Day and Literary Latin............0ceeeeeeeee From Gracchan Latin to Proto-Romance

177

-.

BAL,

VOW Siscsscanauekews was 24 ommemmmenreoies tote 08 PERO Hie

4.12.

The Development of Proto-Romance /u/. .

8.22. Diphthongs.............sccecescccnccersceeseaseooosss 3.23. Single Consonants... --. 3.24, Consonant-Clusters. B25 SELERS 0. ecermsesousio nse ccojece nein nueieineieinule iS EAETSAS HAREY OS ERE Major Developments in Early Romance. vee B1,. Marliest DIvisiODsicsescess ee waracaoswrscwccencecacacpiem eecaceseiqe. sue:ecesmiacenenmunverts 4.11, The Development of Proto-Romance /i/............+.0055 4.2,

4.3.

4.4. 4.5.

4.6.

4:7.

174 bis

175 175

-+»

4.13, Syncope... .. 0... cece cece cece cece eee nent een n eee ee Further Early Developments in Vocalism............22.00eeee0s 4,21, Umlaut .. 4.22. Diphthongisation... 0.0.0.0... 00. cc cece cence eee ence anes 4.23. Systemic Amplifications...............00ececeeeeeeeeeees 4,24, Systemic Reductions Early Developments in Consonantism...........0.0eee eee scene A431, Assimilationy sissies esavseeaswe sas vaste ee de doves ve mene 4.32. Palatalisation . 4.33. Labialisation. ........ 0... c cece cece eee eee ee eee ee ene 4.34, Simplification of Geminates............ 00. cece cece eeeeae 4.35. Lenition Prosodic Features Sporadic Sound-Changes 4,51. Dissimilation... -» G152;. Metathesis sia: ianwisriasia os 03 couieiitios andes atancnmmun 4.53. Haplology viis.sis cscswaes vee ov wean ane 44 HV NST eda Soioraie Phonological Effects of Analogical Substitution -» Browngs couse sesageneguwiee 10268 PAN RORSETS AG Hicaielemie ne eeecowie

4.71. Sources......... 0... cece eee 4.72. Effects on Phonological Systems .. Appendix I. Further Phonological Tables..............0cccceecuecsecees Appendix II. List of Proto-Romance Words............00.ccecceucceuces ROLVENCOR 366 possess, coca nercaia convener anys NI LER assess avevencrematicns 4-aiy ia a Sivslaralerbe eager etram ana fw wioraeIele GAARRAIRRR A Gees

177 178

178

179 180 180 181 185 185 185

187

188 189 189 190 192 193 194 194 195 198 198

200 201 201 201

202

202 202 207 267 283 295

Preface The present volume, devoted to the comparative phonology of the Romance languages, is the second in a series of six planned to form, when completed, a Comparative Romance Grammar. The first (Hall 1974) dealt with the “external history” of the Romance languages, i.e. with the circumstances attendant on their development, use, and (in some instances) decline. The later volumes are expected to treat of inflection, syntax (phrase- and clause-structure), word-formation, and lexicon.

The method used in this and the other volumes of the series is inten-

tionally eclectic, not adhering exclusively to any one school of linguistic analysis, but taking from each approach whatever techniques are most helpful for the problem under consideration. For my basic view of the nature and function of language, cf. Hall 1974:1-3. With regard to the historical development of linguistic features, our prime approach is that of the comparative method, leading, in the case of the Romance languages, to the reconstruction of Proto-Romance speech and its comparison with attested phenomena of Latin (cf. below, § 1.1). The material collected in this and subsequent volumes is presented chiefly in the form of comparative tables, each exemplifying one specific feature of Proto-Romance as reconstructed on the basis of the languages shown in the table. Each table is annotated with explanations of special

features of the items cited (especially the period from which they are attested or, in the case of non-standard forms, the dialect to which they belong), and by a discussion of the correspondences on the basis of which the reconstructed feature is established.

Forms are cited in phonemic transcription, set up on the basis of what is

known about the phonology of each language. The stage selected for each language is normally the earliest attested (Old North French, Old South French, etc.). In some instances, justifiably presumable earlier forms have

been set up on the basis of correspondences between later forms and related

forms in the other Romance languages or Latin. Thus, the word for ‘to get angry’ is attested in Old North French writing as azrer; but we may jus-

tifiably assume the existence of an earlier stage /a & irér/ on the basis of

its correspondence with Old South French /azirér/ and Italian and Sardinian /adirdre/, all pointing back to a Proto-Romance /adi‘rdre/,

x

PREFACE

which is confirmed by Latin /adi-ra-re/ adirare. Sardinian words are cited in the non-lenited form as normally preserved in the dialects of Bitti and Fonni.

The following marks are used in the transcription to indicate levels of

bondage (cf. Hall 1946a, 1964: 132-133): Mark

Level

-

inflectional

I ¥

phrasal clausal

+

derivational

As a source for cited forms, I have used primarily Meyer-Liibke 1911 (1936*), corrected and updated from other sources, especially the great linguistic atlases (such as Gilliéron and Edmont 1902-1910, or Jaberg and Jud 1928-1940). For general knowledge and approach, I am of course indebted to all my predecessors in Romance philology and linguistics. For the individual languages, I have utilised particularly Wagner 1938-1939 and 1941 for Sardinian; Nandris 1963 and Rosetti 1968 for Roumanian; Meyer-Liibke 1890, Grandgent 1927, Rohlfs 1949-1954, and Tekavéié 1973 for Italian; Grandgent 1905 for Old South French (Old Provengal); Nyrop

1899-1930 and Brunot and Bruneau

1905-1969 for Old North French;

Badia i Margarit 1951 for Catalan; Menéndez Pidal 1904 (19498) and 1926 for Spanish; Williams 1938 and Mattoso Camara 1972 for Portuguese; and for the Romance field as a whole, Meyer-Liibke 1890-1900 and Tagliavini

1949 (19725).

R.A.H., Jr. Ithaca, N.Y.

CHAPTER

1

Introduction

1.1.

The Comparative Method

Of the various approaches to historical linguistics that have been de-

veloped in the last two hundred years, the comparative method has given the firmest, most dependable results, and has served as a base (whether acknowledged or not?) for all others. When two or more languages show resemblances, on all levels of structure, that cannot be ascribed to chance nor yet to linguistic borrowing, it is to be assumed that they have developed out of a common “ancestral” form, which can be reconstructed by comparing the resemblances and systematic correspondences between the languages involved. At some earlier time, that is, the persons from whom

later generations learned their speech were using a substantially unified

language, so that the differences between the later languages arose as a result of progressive variation, systematic in its nature. A language reconstructed in this way is termed a “proto-language.” Forms ascribed to a proto-language are usually marked with an asterisk and are therefore often called “starred forms,” e.g. Proto-Romance */abantidre/ ‘to go ahead’. In this work, however, the label PRom. (= Proto-Romance) always refers to a reconstructed form, and hence renders unnecessary the use of an asterisk or star. Thus, in the Romance languages we find numerous sets of obviously related forms such as those shown in Table I. On the basis of such sets of correspondences, we reconstruct Proto-Romance forms which are very close to (though not identical with) Latin forms having the same or similar meanings. It is impossible, therefore, to deny that a relationship between

our reconstructed Proto-Romance and Latin exists. Our procedure should always be to reconstruct the Proto-Romance forms first and then to com-

pare the reconstructions with attested Latin material. In this way, we are

enabled to pin-point the features (positive or negative) of popular speech preserved in Romance more clearly than by a direct comparison of one or

2

Proto-RomANcE PHONOLOGY TABLE

I

Sample Sets of Correspondences in the Romance Languages

Meaning

‘hour’

Sardinian

éra

Italian Old S. French

ova o’ra

Roumanian

Old N. French

Catalan

Spanish

Portuguese Proto-Romance

Latin

‘door, gate’ porta

odra

é*ure 6*re

éra

6’ra 6’ra

ho-ra

poarte

pérta porta

pérte

pérta

porta

more Romance varieties with Classical final /m/ in monosyllables, § 2.52.10,

§§ 2.722.2.a-c).

1.2.

1.21.

krédere

kréde(re)

kré“dere kré‘ire

kré“idra

puérta

pérta, pérta

‘to believe’

kréura kreér

kreé*r kré“dere kre-dere

‘bread’ pane

pfine

pane pa(n*)

pin

p&(n*)

pan

pao pane

pane-

Latin (as in the case of Latin or of initial /s/ + consonant,

Phonological Reconstruction

Puonemic

Inventory.

In reconstructing the phonology of a

proto-language, our prime purpose is to establish its phonemic inventory. This is best done by taking sets of forms which are clearly related in meaning and which show regular correspondences between sounds in similar positions. In general, therefore, we will compare, say, stressed

vowels with stressed vowels, medial consonants with medial consonants,

and so forth, unless it is possible to state the conditions under which unlike phenomena are to be compared.

1.22,

Tue Recutarist Assumption.

The fundamental assumption of

historical phonology, often debated? but never convincingly refuted, is that, under like conditions, the sounds of a language would develop in like

manner, if there were no interfering factors. There are, of course, various types of factors which interfere with regular phonetic development, but it is only the “regularist”’ assumption that enables us to identify the (often more interesting) causes of non-regular sound-correspondences. The task of phonological reconstruction is easiest when, in a set of

related forms, we find the same sound in the same position in all the

3

InTRODUCTION TABLE

II

Romance Correspondences with Initial /m/

Meaning

‘my’ (m.sg.)

‘measure’

‘honey’

‘death’ mérte moérte morte mort mort

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

méu miéu mfo miéu mién

mestira mastira mistira meztira moziira

méle miére miéle mél miél

Span. Port.

mfo méu

fmeztira meziira

miél mél

muérte mérte

me-nsu‘ra,

mel

morte-

Cat.

PRom.

Lat.

méu

méun

meum

mozire

me‘sti*ra

mé‘]

méle

mért

mérte

languages being compared, as we do for initial and medial /m/ in Romance (Tables II, III). Here, it can be assumed without difficulty that the protolanguage had the same phoneme as we find in the later languages. Likewise, if, in one or more of the later stages, we find a divergent development occurring consistently, we can consider this to be a case of regular soundchange, as shown for French /y/ < PRom. /u*/ (Table IV). TABLE III Romance Correspondences with Medial /m/ Meaning Sard. Roum.

Ital.

OSFr.

ONFr.

Cat.

Span.

‘smoke’

‘woof?

‘to love’

fimu fim (u-)

tréma trdéme

amare

fim

tréma

fimo fim

fim

hiimo

Port.

fimo

Lat.

fu:mu-

PRom. * Old Sardinian

> Old Italian ° Old Spanish

4 ‘in what manner’

fi*mu

tréma

amare

tréimo

amr

tréma,

amér

tréme

tréma

tréma,

tra‘ma

amar

amér

amar

amére

amare

‘how’ 9kdé kim

*k6*mo

k6*m

kém(9)

k6%m

*kuémo

ké*mo

k6*mo

4kyo- modo:

4

Proto-Romancn PHonotoay TABLE IV Modern French /y/ = Romance /u/, Proto-Romance /u*/, Latin /u’/ Meaning

‘tiny’ (f.sg.)

Sard. Roum.

tminiita mertinta

OSFr. ONFr. Mod.Fr. Cat. Span. Port.

mentida moniide mony mentide mentida mitida

Ital.

miniita

PRom.

mint*ta

Lat.

‘judge’ iddike huide

fidide

Buge guge byt bige Buezguiz-

ii‘dike

minu‘ta,

ju-dike-

‘hard’ (f.sg.)

‘ripe’ (f.sg.)

dura —_

® fmattira bmottira

dira dura dyr duira dura dura

madura modtire myr medtire madira madiira

du-ra

ma-tu-ra

dura

mattra

dii*ra

matii*ra

® ‘big [of fruits)’ » Moldavian: ‘over-ripe’ note: The value of ONFr. u is uncertain, as to whether it represented /u/ or ly/; Modern French has /y/. TABLE V Analogically Reshaped

Forms in Modern

(with /e/ and /o/ in free syllable)

PRom. e ° léyat ‘he raises’

leyére ‘to raise’ assédikat ‘he besieges’

ONFr. Stressed ié ué > ud liéva asiéga

assedikére ‘to

besiege méyent ‘they move’

moyé‘re ‘to move’

>trépat ‘he finds’

btropfre ‘to find’

French

Mod.Fr.

Unstressed a oO

loveér asogidér

muévent truévo

mové‘ir trovséir

* Forms reshaped by analogy. > Proto-Gallo-Romance. ° Attested as late as Early Modern French (17th ©.)

Stressed ie g

Unstressed a u

4liev

slev

asied

®asieke~ mgv*t *trov

love*

*asohe~ muvwar

struv

truve*

InTRoDUCTION

5

1.23. Intmrrerine Factors can, on the other hand, in many instances obscure the effects of regular sound-change to a greater or less degree, even to the point of rendering it difficult to determine which of several developments is to be considered the ‘‘normal” one.? These factors are of several types:

1.

Internal borrowing, or ‘‘analogical”’ development. Especially when a

2.

External borrowing, of three main kinds:

particular phoneme of the proto-language has developed in different ways under different conditions, the resultant morphophonemic alternation may be smoothed out in one direction or another, as shown for the French developments of PRom. /é/ and /6/ in Table V. In some words, like PRom. /moyé*re/ ‘to move’ > Mod.Fr. /muvwar/, the morphophonemic alternation resulting from variation in stress has persisted down to the present. In others, like PRom. /leudre/ ‘to raise’ > Mod.Fr. /leve*/ and ProtoGallo-Romance /tropére/ ‘to find’ > Mod.Fr. /truve*/, the unstressed development has been extended to forms that were originally stressed. In others, like PRom. /assedikére/ ‘to sit down (in front of)’ > Mod.Fr. /asieZe*/ ‘to besiege’, the stressed development has been generalised.

a. From an earlier stage of the language of which attestations have been preserved. These borrowings are often termed LEARNED words. In such instances, the borrowing in the later language often follows, more or less closely, the spelling of the earlier stage (in the case of the Romance languages, normally, Latin). To CL /interroga-re/ ‘to interrogate’ corresponded PRom. /interrogére/ > ONFr. /entervér/. During the Renaissance, this word was replaced by the learnéd form interroger, whose spelling followed that of the Latin verb, and which was hence pronounced /@teroZe*/. On occasion, popular developments and learnéd borrowings survive side by side, with different meanings. To CL /iu'stitia/ ‘rightness’ corresponded PRom. /iu“stitia/ > Ital. /gusté*¢¢a/; in addition to this word, modern Italian has giustizia /gusti¢ia/ ‘justice’, identifiable as a learnéd form by the presence of -izi- /ifi/ = CL -iti-.

b. From related languages of the same family. The classic instance here is the French development of PRom. /amé‘re/ ‘love’, to which in modern French corresponds the abnormal development /amur/. One would have expected */amgr/, parallel to /k¢/ ‘tail’ < PRom. /k6*da/ and numerous similar instances (cf. § 2.32.7). In fact, North French

6

Proto-RoMaNncs PHONOLOGY

dialects do show /am¢r/ in the meaning of ‘rut, seasonal heat (of animals)’. In Old South French, on the other hand, PRom. /amé*re/ > /am6é*r/

and later /amur/, which was used in the prestigious courtly love-lyrics of

the Provengal troubadours, with elegant and lofty connotations.

Clearly,

NFr. /amur/ does not continue PRom. /am6“re/ directly, but is a borrowing from South French, replacing /amgr/, which was relegated to the barn-yard. c. From related dialects, as in the case of Spanish /xuérga/ ‘spree’ < Andalusian (cf. Hall 1974:104), or Ital. /karé*na/ ‘keel’. This latter form, from PRom. /kari*na/ (= CL /kari-na/), does not show the normal Tuscan and standard Italian development, which would have given */karina/. In Genoese, however, PRom. /{*/ > /é*/, and Ital. /karé*na/ is thus indicated as a probable Genoese borrowing, as might well be expected in connection with a ship-building-term. 3. Sporadic sound-change. In every-day speech, we all stumble in various ways, making “mistakes” in pronunciation such as spoonerisms, substitution or omission of sounds, or false starts which we may or may not perceive in time to back-track and start over again, editing them out (cf. Hockett 1967). Children’s speech is notoriously full of such “errors” (cf. Hall 1964:279). Such “slips of the tongue” are, in general, isolated events, occurring only once. On occasion, however, a single speaker may, for one reason or another, acquire the permanent habit of using such a “mistake” (e.g. the dissimilated form libary for library); others may imitate him, seriously or (at first) mockingly; and a group of speakers may

thus get into the habit of using forms which have originated as sporadic

lapses. When this happens, the resultant form may spread and become generalised in the entire speech-community. Such processes are going on all the time, at the same time as regular sound-change; but the latter must be analysed first by the historical linguist, in order to identify and classify the former. 4,

Sporadic sound-changes include the following types:

a.

Dissimilation, when two like sounds, either adjacent or separated,

are made unlike by the replacement of one or the other of them by a different (normally phonologically related) sound (cf., for detailed discussion, especially Posner 1961). Thus, ONFr. /kérra/ ‘to seek’ and Span.

/kerér/ ‘to love’ are normal continuations of PRom.

/kérere/ ‘to seek’

InrRopuctTiIon

7

(: CL /kuaerere/); but in Italian, the sequence /r...1r/ was dissimilated

to /d...r/,

giving /kiédere/

/bo‘no-nja/ Béndnia, /n...n/

Ital. /bol6é*nna/ Bologna.

‘to seek, ask’. In the Latin place-name

was dissimilated to /l...n/, resulting in

b. Assimilation, of either adjacent or separated sounds. This is the opposite of dissimilation, in that sounds originally unlike are made alike, normally through the extension of one or more phonological components from one of them to the other. Many assimilations of adjacent sounds come to be regular phonological processes, as when PRom. /gn/ between vowels > Sard. /nn/, as in /mdgnu/ ‘great’? > /mdnnu/ (§ 2.722.1.e). Such assimilations also take place after intervening sounds (such as unstressed vowels) have dropped, as in PRom. /kt*nula/ ‘little cradle’ (: /ki‘na/ ‘cradle’) > pre-Italian */ktin’la/ > Ital. /killa/. Assimilation can be total, as in the examples just cited, or partial: for western Romance developments of palatalised /nn/ from PRom. intervocalic /gn/, we must hypothesise an intermediate stage of [nn], with the voiced velar plosive /g/ becoming a voiced velar nasal continuant, and then with the two successive nasals fusing into a double (long) palatal nasal.

ce. Haplology, the loss of one of two successive identical or nearly identical syllables, as when Late Lat. /fdol-/ (< Gk. /éidolon/ 1’dodov ‘image’) + /latria/ (< Gk. /latréia/ \arpé@ ‘worship’) — */idololatria/ > /idolatria/ ‘idolatry’. (Some wags have even coined Eng. haplogy as an

exemplification of this process in the word itself.)

d.

Popular etymology,

association

the restructuring of a morpheme

(phonological or semantic), real or imaginary,

through

with another.

This process often takes place in words whose derivational relationships

have become obscure, or which involve forms unfamiliar to naive speakers. The German instrument-name /krim+horn/ Krummhorn ‘crooked horn’ was imitated in Renaissance French as /kremorna/ cremorne, and this term was reinterpreted in seventeenth-century English as /kreména/ Cremona, because of the fame of that Italian city as a centre of instrument-makers. The modern Italian expression cassa mutua ‘mutual fund’, containing the learnéd word mutua, has (as pointed out by Mosino 1969) been reshaped into cassa muta ‘mute fund’ (perhaps because of the slowness of its payments!),

8

Proro-Romancr PHONOLOGY

Akin to popular etymology is the occasional rise of folkloristic notions

concerning one linguistic phenomenon or another, which can even lead to

avoidance or to over-emphasis with regard to sounds, forms, or constructions. In normal modern Italian usage, the oblique form of the relative pronoun, /kti/ cui, can be either a possessive (/ikuilfbri/ 7 cui libri ‘whose

books’), a dative (/ilrag颢o kuidddatoilfbri/ il ragazzo cut ho dato « libri ‘the boy to whom I gave the books’), or the object of a preposition (/larag6“ne perkuiléffatto/ la ragione per cui V’ho fatto ‘the reason for which I did it’). Some speakers, however, have acquired the (historically and

descriptively unfounded) idea that /kui/ cui should be reserved for persons, and that for things one should use the pronominal phrase /ilkudle/ 7 quale ‘the which’,

e. Over-correction, the extension of an analogy beyond historically or descriptively justified limits (also termed HYPERURBANISM, since in most instances it involves the carrying to extremes of some phenomenon considered prestigious or elegant). A classic instance of over-correction is narrated by the Roman historian Suetonius (Divus Vespasianus 22.3): when the emperor Vespasian was reproved by the grammarian Florus for saying /plo-stra/ ‘wagons’ instead of the “‘correct’’ /plaustra/, the emperor got back at him the next day by calling him /flayrus/. In some instances, excessive emphasis on certain phonetic features may have led to naive hearers’ misunderstanding the nature of a given sound and substituting something more familiar. This may be the explanation for the wide-spread development, in western Romance, of Germanic /w/ in loan-words to /gu/, as in Gme. /wardo-n/ ‘to keep, watch, guard’ > Ital. /guardére/, Span. and Port. /guardar/, OFr. /guardér/ (> Mod. Fr./garde*/).

f. Spelling-pronunciation, when the pronunciation of a word is reshaped in accord with what seems to be signalled by its orthography. This phenomenon occurs most frequently when a word’s spelling contains etymologically, but not descriptively justified elements. In Renaissance French, the word for ‘sculpture’ was pronounced /skyltyr/ ( : Italian /skulttira/ scultura), but spelled sculpture, to correspond with Latin /skulptu-ra/. Modern speakers have, on seeing the letter p in the spelling,

introduced the sound /p/ into the pronunciation of the word, so that it

is now /skylptyr/. In the phonological tables given hereinafter, and in our accompanying

discussions, many variations from “normal”

correspondences are to be

explained as results of the above types of interfering factors.

INTRODUCTION 1.3.

9

The Nature of Proto-Romance

As mentioned in Hall 1974:9-17, there has been extensive discussion, not all of it enlightened or enlightening, of the proto-language which can be reconstructed by comparing the Romance languages, and of its relation to the surviving attestations of early, classical, and late Latin. All competent scholars agree that the Romance languages have arisen, over something more than two millennia, by gradual differentiation from a common source, which was closely related to, but not identical with, the Latin used by authors from Plautus’ time to that of, say, Tertullian. Beyond this, however, there is little agreement concerning either the name to be given to this common source of the Romance languages, its chronology, or its exact relation to attested Latin. 1.81. Vuucar Latin, Common Romance, Proto-Romance. Of these three terms for the common source of the Romance languages, the first is much the most widespread, almost universal in discussions of Romance linguistics and philology.* Nevertheless, it is an unfortunate term, open to a number of objections (as pointed out in Hall 1974:73, 78 [fn. 47]). Its time-reference is vague, and it has been used for speech of the Plautine period and even before (as in Altheim 1932) ; for that of the Imperial epoch; and (as in Muller 1929) for that of Merovingian and even Carolingian times. It is vague with regard to the social levels involved, since the terms sermov ulgaris ‘speech of the common herd’ and sermo plebeius ‘speech of the lower classes’, on which the expression “Vulgar Latin” is based, do not exhaust the possibilities of social stratification (the Romance languages do not necessarily reflect exclusively lower-class usage’). Furthermore, most scholars have identified “Vulgar Latin” almost exclusively with the common source of Italian and the western Romance languages, neglecting Roumanian and Sardinian, and thereby rendering “Vulgar Latin” virtually the equivalent of our Proto-Italo-Western Romance. Of the various terms hitherto suggested as substitutes, ‘Popular Latin” is perhaps the best. A negative term, “Informal Latin,” might be even better, to cover all varieties of non-formal usage, and to be used with indications (wherever possible) of the period and the social stratifications involved. It is desirable to distinguish sharply—more sharply than has been customary in much of Romance linguistics—between material attested in the written Latin of Imperial times (of whatever literary or social standing) on the one hand, and the common ancestral form out of which the Romance languages have developed and which we reconstruct by working backward, on the other. For this latter, the term “common Romance” (Fr. roman

10

Proro-Romancr PHONOLOGY

commun) has on occasion been used. This term also, however, is open to

objections on the ground of vagueness of time-reference, since it is sometimes used for ancestral forms common to all Romance languages, and sometimes for forms characteristic of intermediate stages after differentiation had already begun. The best term for the common ancestral form is Proro-RoMANcE (abbr. PRom.), which by definition refers to the earliest stage that can be reconstructed through a comparison of all the Romance languages. We must always, however, remember that:

(a) Our reconstruction of Proto-Romance can go only as far back as the available Romance data permit. For instance, all Romance linguists’ reconstruct a nine-vowel system for Proto-Romance: i

u

+/*/

(tenseness)

a

as discussed in § 2.31. To this system corresponds, in Classical Latin, a ten-vowel system: i

u

e

or+/:/

(length)

a For Gracchan Latin, the common ancestor of Proto-Romance and Classical Latin (cf. Hall 1974:16), we reconstruct a ten-vowel system (five vowels + length for each), and assume that vowel-length /-/ became tenseness /*/ in Proto-Romance, and that the contrast between tense and lax was lost for /a/. But if some hitherto unknown variety of Romance were to be dis-

covered (no matter where) in which there existed a clear distinction that

had to be ascribed to a contrast between PRom. /a/ and */a“/, this discovery would deepen our time-perspective for Proto-Romance and would compel us to revise our concept of its vowel-system to extend the tense-lax

contrast to /a/ as well as to the other four vowels. The concept of a proto-

language, in other words, is not static, but has to be revised as necessary in accordance with new evidence or compelling new analyses. (b) A reconstructed proto-language must not be thought of as constituting a unified, wholly consistent system or état de langue (any more than any other language, as pointed out in Hall 1974:11). We can, in a

INTRODUCTION

ll

very approximate way, suggest that the Romance languages continue many characteristics of the informal Latin used during the first century

B.c.; but the picture given by reconstruction is inevitably slightly “out of

focus,” since our reconstructed Proto-Romance was a congeries of features, some of which may go back to Plautine times (such as the inflected relative possessive adjective /kui*iu- °a-/ ‘whose’), and others may have come into

general use only in Caesar’s and Cicero’s or even Augustus’ time (e.g. /kaballu/ ‘nag > horse’ replacing Lat. /ekyu-/). Some features of our reconstructed Proto-Romance would undoubtedly have struck a speaker

of Caesar’s time as disgustingly lower-class (e.g. /kabdllu/ ‘horse’, or /kasa/ ‘house’ rather than ‘hut’),8 and other features might have seemed regional or dialectal (e.g. the different words that must be reconstructed for ‘awaken’: /de-eks-pertdre/, /de° re° eksyigildre/, etc.). This amount of internal divergence and inconsistency is, however, no greater than what is found in any large speech-community, such as those of modern French, Spanish, or Italian. (c) Neither Latin nor Proto-Romance and its later developments

spread throughout Roman territory at a uniform rate. Efforts to trace the

Romance of various regions to the Latin of the time at which the individual regions were colonised® have therefore not been very successful. It is perfectly possible that, in some instances, an earlier type of Romance was present at one time in a given region and was then overlaid, in very large part, by phenomena of a later stage borrowed from other regions (or classlevels). The vocalism of mediaeval and modern Spanish goes back, in general, to the seven-vowel system of Proto-Italo-Western Romance (PItWRom.), so that PRom. lax /i/ and /i/ appear in Spanish as /é/ and /6/, respectively, as in OSp. /pé¢/ ‘fish’ < PRom. /piske/, Sp. /térre/ ‘tower’ < PRom. /ttrri/. But certain words with stressed vowels going back to PRom. /{/ and /t/ have these same vowels, e.g. Span. /stirko/ ‘furrow’ < PRom. /stilku/. Attempts to explain this aberrant development as due to learnéd borrowing have not been very successful, since many of the things referred to by these words were objects of every-day use. It has been suggested” that the /{/ and /t/ of this category of words may be survivals of an earlier stage of Romance, as spoken in Iberia before its speakers took over the mergers of /{/ with /é*/ and of /u/ with /6*/ (cf. § 4.21)—i.e. a stage similar to that represented by Sardinian, in which /{/ and /i/ remained as such. A similar situation undoubtedly prevailed with respect to the non-lenited intervocalic consonants /p t k/ in early mediaeval

southern Gallo-Romance and southern Ibero-Romance, and still prevails to this day in Sardinian and central Italian." (d) At any given point of time, in any language, there are fluctuations

in usage on certain points, due to dialect-mixture. In phonology, these

12

Proto-RoMance PHoNoLoGy

fluctuations consist of the presence, at one and the same time, of two or

more treatments of the same phoneme (as in the alternative pronunciations of Eng. roof as /raf/ and /riwf/). Such a fluctuation has been termed a “shimmer.” A situation of this type may persist over decades or even centuries, giving rise to divergent developments at different periods. Thus, an alternation between [ay] and [0:] lasted, in Latin, from Republican times down into the Empire. Certain words which in Classical Latin have /ay/, eg. /kayda/ ‘tail’, appear in Romance exclusively with /o*/ or

developments thereof: PRom.

/ké*da/ > It. /k6“da/,

ONFr. /k6*ude/

(> Mod. Fr. /k¢/). These developments reflect a stage in which popular speech reproduced Gracchan Latin vocalic length without regard to the openness or closeness of the vowel-sounds: GrLat. [kayda] > [ko:dal, interpreted phonemically as /ko-da/ > PRom. /k6*da/. At a later stage, when vowel-quality, not -quantity, was phonologically significant, vowels which in Gracchan and Classical Latin had /ay/ were given open /o/ [9] in some varieties (not all) of every-day speech, as reflected in such Romance developments as PRom. /4uru/ ‘gold’ > Span. /éro/, ONFr. /ér/, It. /6ro/. That this treatment of earlier /ay/ was later than its representation by /6*/ is shown by the fact that all the Romance words for ‘tail’ go back to /k6*da/, whereas not all those for ‘gold’ show /o/ (Roumanian has /aur(u-)/, Old South French had /dur/). In other words, the development, of /ay/ to lax /o/ is not to be ascribed to Proto-Romance, whereas a word like PRom. /k6*da/ received its /6*/ < /ay/ at an early stage of the “shimmer,” previous to our reconstructed Proto-Romance.

NOTES TO CHAPTER

1

1. For discussion of the merits of the “neolinguistic’’ approach (which affirms the exclusive validity of spatial considerations), cf. Bartoli 1925; Bartoli and Bertoni 1925; Bonfante 1947, 1972; Hall 1946b, 1957. For “glottodynamics,” cf. Malkiel 1968; Hall 1969a.

2. Cf., among the many discussions, those of Schuchardt 1885; Hermann 1931; Bloomfield 1932; Hockett 1948; Hall 1957, 1964:295-305. The recently advanced notion of “rule-change”’ as a substitute for the concept of sound-change gets us no forrader. 8. In such instances, some scholars speak of “tendencies” (e.g. Pei 1941) or of ‘weak sound-change” (e.g. Malkiel 1962)—terms which add nothing to our knowledge and only “short-circuit enquiry” concerning the sources of the double or multiple developments involved. 4. It is used almost universally in treatises and anthologies dealing with the nonClassical Latin of the Empire, from Mohl 1899 and Grandgent 1907 to Battisti 1949, Maurer 1959 and 1962, Schmeck 1955, Haadsma and Nuchelmans 1963, and Vaidnanen 1963 (19672).

InTRODUCTION 5. 6. 7. 8. highly 9.

10,

11.

13

As pointed out by Holmes and Schutz (1933). Particularly by A. Burger (1943a) and his followers (e.g. de Dardel 1958, 1965), Ever since Schuchardt 1866-1868. For the intentional use of such elements by Horace, a poet normally considered “classical,” ef. J. Bourciez 1927, Bonfante 1936-37. E.g. Gréber 1886-1888 (1904-06?) 1.146; Bonfante 1943.

By Liidtke 1956:175, Cf. Hall 1974/75.

Proto-Western Ibero-Romance

Proto-Galician

Proto-Portuguese

Galician dialects

Proto-North Portuguese

|

North Portuguese dialects FIGURE

|

Proto-Central Portuguese

|

Central Portuguese dialects

1:

Proto-South erase

|

rt

South Portuguese dialects

Western Ibero-Romance Proto-Central Ibero-Romance

Proto-North Spanish

|

|

Proto-South Spanish

|

|

North Spanish dialects FIGURE 2:

|

|

South Spanish dialects

Central Ibero-Romance

Proto-Hastern Ibero-Romance

Proto-Catalan

|

|

Proto-Balearic

Lt

Balearic dialects

Proto-Valencian

|

Proto-Mainland Catalan

|

Proto-North Catalan

|

{

North Catalan dialects FIGURE

3:

|

|

|

Valencian dialects

Proto-South Catalan

| [id

South Catalan dialects

Eastern Ibero-Romance

CHAPTER 2 The Phonemic

2.1.

Inventory of Proto-Romance

Languages Compared

2.11, Apstract ConsIDERATIONS. In theory, the completest and most accurate picture of a proto-language would be obtained by starting with

the smallest sub-groupings within each group and reconstructing the inter-

mediate proto-forms for each: e.g. for the Ibero-Romance languages as shown in Figures 1-4, and for each other Romance group in the same way. Comparison of these reconstructions of intermediate stages would then bring us back to the ultimate stage, Proto-Romance itself, as shown in Figure 5.1 Such a procedure, although perhaps desirable in the abstract, would be open to two objections, one theoretical and one practical. If applied too schematically, without due attention to factors of cultural influences (especially, in the Romance field, learnéd and inter-language borrowings’), it would give rigid and unrealistic results. In any case, there simply is not—and will not be, in any foreseeable future—sufficient human energy, time, and financial support available for such a grandiose project. It is therefore preferable to make a first approximation by starting our reconstruction from the earliest attested forms of the standard languages (which, in any case, were more dialectally differentiated in the Middle Ages than in modern times), and at the same time drawing upon data from modern dialects wherever these help us to deepen our time-perspective.

2.12, CoMPARATIVE TaBLEs will be based on the following Romance varieties: Sardinian, Roumanian, Italian, Old South French (Old Provengal), Old North French, Catalan, Spanish, and Portuguese—in that

order in each column of forms compared. The earliest attested stage of

each language is used, with, for the Ibero-Romance languages, the medi-

aeval contrasts between voiced and voiceless sibilants (/s/ ~ /z/), be-

Proto-Ibero-Romance Proto-North Ibero-Romance

|

Proto-South Ibero-Romance

|

PCentIbRom.

PWibRom.

.

Mozarabic

PEIbRom.

FIGURE 4:

Ibero-Romance

Proto-Romance

|

|

Proto-Sardinian

|

J

Sardinian dialects

Proto-Continental Romance

|

|

Proto-ItaloWestern Romance

Proto-Balkan Romance

|

Albanian

Proto-

borrowings

Proto-Western Romance

Proto-Ibero-

M1

t

Roumanian dialects

|

Italian

Romance

—|

I

Proto-ItaloRomance

Proto-Gallo-

Romance

Roumanian

Dalmatian

dialects

|

TberoRomance

varieties

|

Proto-SouthGallo-Romance

[|

South French dialects

|

Proto-NorthGallo-Romance Proto-NorthFrench

I

|

North French dialects

FIGURE 5; 16

|

Proto-RhaetoRomance

I

{|

RhaetoRomance varieties

Proto-Romance and Earliest Intermediate Stages

|

Tue Pyonrmic Inventory or Proto-RoMANCE

17

tween dental and palatal series (/s/ ~ /8/, /z/ ~ /%/), and between dental stops and assibilates (/t/ ~ /¢/, /d/ ~ /g/).4 For Old French, the

(attested or justifiably presumable) presence of /®/ is indicated.* For Sardinian, the non-lenited varieties to be expected in Bitti, Fonni, and the Baronfa are given.® This order has been chosen because of the relationship among the Romance languages shown in Figure 5: the last-mentioned six as having developed out of Proto-Italo-Western Romance—which (with the addition of Roumanian and Balkan Romance) leads us back to Proto-Continental Romance, and this in its turn (with Sardinian stirred in) to Proto-Romance. At the bottom of each set is given the PRom. form to be reconstructed on the basis of the items compared, and the related Classical Latin form, if any. The Gracchan Latin is to be presumed as identical with the Classical

Latin, unless otherwise stated.’

In general, the lexemes exemplifying each Proto-Romance phoneme have been chosen with a view to obtaining the most wide-spread representation available in all the Romance languages. In some instances, descendants of a given Proto-Romance form are lacking in one or more of the later stages. In a few cases, attestations are severely limited in their distribution. In such instances, the presence of a form in Sardinian or Roumanian and in Classical Latin has been considered sufficient evidence for the reconstruction of a Proto-Romance equivalent; or, in the absence of a Sardinian or Roumanian form related to an Italo-Western Romance

item, Classical Latin has been considered an adequate substitute for Sar-

dinian or Roumanian. Notes (indicated by superior lower-case letters preceding the item cited) specify peculiarities of the form involved: dialect, stage of the language, social status, or divergent meaning.

2.2.

Prosodic Features

In the absence of detailed phonological analyses of the prosodies of virtually all present-day Romance languages except French,* and (a fortiori, since we have no sound-recordings antedating ca. 1900) of any earlier stages, very little of Proto-Romance prosody can be reconstructed with any certainty. Affirmations concerning the position of the sentence-accent

or the “rising” or “falling”’ sentence-pitch in Latin (literary or every-day)®

are based on considerations of syntax and logic, not of a (necessarily undiscoverable) intonation.

The only prosodic feature that can be ascribed with certainty to Proto-

Romance is a contrast in syllabic stress, with at least two levels: unstressed

18

Proro-Romance PHONOLOGY

(left unmarked in our transcription) and stressed (symbolised by an acute accent-mark: /’/). In Proto-Romance, syllabic stress was clearly significant, since it could occur on any syllable from the third-before-the-last to

the last, and was not predictable in terms of syllabic structure. In this respect, Proto-Romance was different from Classical and earlier Latin, in which position of stress was predictable in terms of syllable-length.” The change in the phonological status of stress between Gracchan Latin and Proto-Romance was due to the “dephonologisation” of vowel-length (cf. below, § 4.1), as a result of which stress was no longer predictable and was therefore phonologically significant. Minimal contrasts in this respect in our reconstructed Proto-Romance are rare, but at least one is certain: that between the 3.sg. present of verbs with stems in /a/, e.g. 325 /mf*rat/ the looks at’, and one of the forms of the 3.sg. preterite of such verbs, e.g. 326 /mi*rat/ ‘he looked at’.

2.3.

Vowels

2.31. PHoNnotocicaL Components. reconstruct a nine-vowel system: 1° i e* e

a

For

Proto-Romance,

all

scholars

u* u o* °

This system can, as shown in the diagram given in § 1.31, be further resolved into a set of five basic vowels, of which all but /a/ could occur with or without tenseness /*/. This system was based on a combination of three degrees of tongue-height (high, mid, low) and a two-way contrast between front and back, applicable to the high and mid levels, but not to the low. All nine resultant vowels occurred in initial and medial position; the tenseversus-lax contrast seems to have been represented only spottily in final position. There is no evidence compelling us to project back into ProtoRomance any phonological feature of vowel-length, nor a series of frontrounded vowels /y ¢/ or a mid-central vowel /a/.

NOTES TO §§ 2.1, 2.2 1. 2.

Cf. Trager 1946, Hall 1950a, Cf. Hall 1974, passim.

PS St es

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proto-RoMANCcE As Cf. Cf. Cf. In

19

suggested in Hall 1950a:14-15. A. Alonso 1955-69. Schwan(-Behrens) 1888; Hall 1946c. Wagner 1941:68-69, 195. other words, Classical Latin continued the situation in Gracchan and earlier

Latin with relatively little change, whereas popular speech—as reflected in our reconstruction of Proto-Romance—kept developing. 8. Coustenoble and Armstrong 1934. 9. As attempted, for instance, by Richter 1903, 1911. Unfortunately, Waiblinger 1914 and Sapon 1958/59 represent only a beginning, and the program set forth by von Ettmayer 1925 has never been carried out satisfactorily.

10. 1975.

Cf. Sturtevant 1920 (19402): §§ 206-211; Kent 1932 (1945*) §§ 63-67; Pulgram

11. Cf. Hall 1955. In our transcription, for typographical convenience, we use a freestanding circumflex /*/ following a vowel-letter to indicate a phonological component of tenseness. Those who do not like this transcription are free to substitute it with the

customary dot under the vowel-letters: i* = i, e~ =e, u* = y, 0° = 9. Indication of

openness (often made with a hook under the vowel-letter, e.g. e, 9) has been omitted

ag unnecessary.

20

Proto-Romancr PHONOLOGY

2.382.

INDIVIDUAL PHONEMES.

1. /i*/ stressed and unstressed: /i/ or later developments thereof in all Romance languages. a.

Stressed:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

1 ‘wine’ binu

Roum.

It. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning

vin(u-) vino vi(nt) vin vi(nt) bino vino yi*nu yi-nu9356

tristu trfist(u-) triste °o trist trist trist triste triste

tri‘ste °utri-ste8918

5 ‘to laugh’ ridere

ispina

It. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

ridere rire riSra riurér rrefr rrir ri‘dere ri-dere 7302

¢(i)spina

ride(re)

espina espina esping

espina Sespino

ispi*na spina

8150

dormfre dorm{(re) dormfre dormir dormir dormir dormir dormir

oP

‘magpie’ pika —_— >pika piga pia — —_—

sdorm{*re

pi'ka

dormi-re 2751

pika 6476 7

8

‘nettle’

‘day’

urtika urzike ortika ortiga ortia ortiga ortiga ortiga

die a“ bdie, dia di, dia df di, dfa dia, dia

urti-ka 9090

di-e2632

urti*ka

Notes to stressed /{*/:

9

4

‘to sleep’

6 ‘thorn’

Sard.

Roum.

3

2 ‘sad’

And all other verbs with infinitive in /-{*re/.

Old Italian. With Olt. initial /i/ movable: cf. § 2.722.2.a-c. With change of grammatical gender to masculine.

df*a, d{*e

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE b.

21

Unstressed: Pretonic:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

9 ‘winter’ iérru idrne imvérno ivérn ivérn ivérn sibiérno bivérno i*yérnu hi-bernu4126

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

kridre _— °[kredre] kriér kriér kridr kridr kridr

PRom.

Lat. REW

13 ‘to create, educate’

kri*ére

§

kre-a:re 2305

10

‘to urinate’ pisdre

imbitére

pissdre pisdr pisér pisdr

imvitére envidér envideér envidér embidér envidér

pisd(re)

pi‘ssiére 6544

es op

deSiderd (re) desiderdre dezirér dezidraér dezirér

inyi*tére

de“si“derdre

4535

14

‘thorny’ (f.sg.) ispinédsa spinodsa 4(j)spind’sa

espind“za

espind“uzo

espind“za

espinéza espindza

ispi*ndé’sa

spi-no-sa 8155

Aragonese. Galician.

Learnad, because of /e“/ instead of /i/

With OIt. /i/ movable; cf. § 2,722.2.a-c. Lucchese: ‘to bring to shore’. ‘to land’. ‘to bring to shore’.

12

‘to desire’

invité(re)

inyi-ta-re

Notes to pretonic /i*/:

noo

ll ‘to invite’

15 ‘roast’

friptira frittura frittira frittire frittira fritiira fritura fri*ktti*ra (: fri-g- ‘fry’) 3508

de-si-dera-re 2593

16 ‘to arrive’ arripére *arripare arribér arriveér arribér farribar farribar

Sarripare

(: ri-:pa ‘bank’)

675

Proro-Romancr PHONOLOGY

22 ii,

Final:

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

— iért iéri ér iér afr ajér

—_— — eli — fl — déle

si — °si si si si si

— kédri kuddri — —= — _

éri*

lli*

si*

kyddri*

Port.

aéire

Lat. REW

heri4ll5a

PRom. §

Notes to final /i*/: a. b, ce.

20 ‘squares’

19 af’

18 ‘that man’

17 ‘yesterday’

Ex, no. Meaning

Old Portuguese. Old Spanish. Old Venetian.

éle

(3 ill-) 4266

si

si:

—_— 7889.1

kyadri6921

Tue Poonemic INveNToRY or ProTo-RoMANCE 2. /i/, stressed and unstressed: in other Romance languages. a.

/i/ in Sardinian, /e*/ or later developments thereof

Stressed:

Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

21 ‘pear’

24 ‘snow’

limba limba

nfe néa

péra péra pé‘ra, pira bpira 6524

genir genir fingir kingere kingere 1924

léngua léngua lingua lingua lingya 5067

—_ niébe _ niye niye5936

pé‘ra, pé‘ra pé‘ira

dingere ¢6"ner ¢é“indra

25 ‘they rub’

frégon frégan

PRom. Lat. REW §

23 ‘tongue’

kingere °Sinze

¢fré“gano fré*gan fré“iont

Cat. Span.

22 ‘to gird on’

pfra apér

frfkant fréke

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

Port.

23

fréga,

frikant frikant 3501

‘lingua, 1é*nga léngo

26 ‘green’ birde vérde

vé‘rde vé'rt vert

né‘ve né“u né‘if

27 ‘breast’ sinu sin(u-)

sé“no sé‘in

28 ‘pitch’ pike —

péte peng pe ig

vért, bérde

— séno

_ pé¢

uirde yiride93688

sinu sinu7950

pike pike6553

vé'rde

sé‘no

pé¢

Bere

Notes to stressed /f{/:

e.

With change of grammatical gender to masculine. Neuter plural (nom.-acc.) to /piru-/ ‘pear’. Macedo-Roumanian.

Dialectal Italian /éé6“ngere/, /lé‘ngua/ (PItWRom. /é*/ > /i/ before nasal + palatal or velar). With intervocalic /g/ in imitation of Gallo-Romance lenition.

Proro-Romance PHONOLOGY

24 b.

Unstressed: i.

Pretonie:

Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

sinténdere >inténde(re) *inténdere denténdre Senténdra eenténdra *entendér

°etedé*r

inténdere intendere 4483,

intrére

intrd(re) e“ntrdére

entrér entrér

entrar entrar étrér intrére intra-re 4511

33 ‘beam; helm’ timéne

timo“ne

timd*(n*) timén

timé* (nt)

timén timd timé*ne timo-ne8625

34 ‘tiny’ (f.sg.) mintta

mortinta

mintta mentida mentida mentida mentida, mitida

minti*ta minu-ta 5600

rom

me ao oe

Notes to pretonic /i/: ‘to understand’. ‘to stretch out’. ‘to understand; to hear’,’ ‘to hear’: ‘to understand’. ‘to grasp’. OMil., Bergam.: ‘to dirty’. ‘to daub with pitch; to grab’. ‘to daub with pitch’. ‘to stick; to hit; to bump’, ‘to adhere, to stick’.

32

31 ‘to bind’

30 ‘to enter’

29

‘to turn towards’

‘to fear’ timfre

ligdre

leg (re)

téme(re)

liér lider ligér lidr lidr ligdre liga-re 5024

te“mé*r

te“*mé‘re

le“gaére

35 ‘neighbor bikfnu

vetin (u-)

vigino

vezi(nt)

ve*izin vet begino

vizino

uikinu

yiki-nu9312

témbra temér

te“mé*r timé*re

time-re 8737 ’

36 ‘to adhere’ fpikére ®pegdr

bpe“gér

ipe*idr ipegar kpegdr kpegdr pikdre pika-re 6477

THE Pyonrmic Inventory or Proro-ROMANCE ii,

Pre- and inter-tonic:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning

37 ‘to grind’ makinére matind(re) matindére *mainé — — makindre bmakina-re 5205

mormé£nt(u-)

Roum.

kmolimént(o) morimén —_ — — —_—

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

mon? moliméntu

PRom. §

38 ‘week’ ae saptemine settiména setména somdino sotméne semana °seména septiména septima-na, 7834. 42 ‘medicine’

41 ‘monument, tomb’ imoliméntu

Sard.

Lat. REW

medikina _

mmedzina me¢ina mes{ino mo¢ine — mezina

medik{*na

mon?’ molumentu- mediki-na 5458 5672.2, 3

Notes to pre- and inter-tonic /i/: Ladin (Val Gardena). Spelled machinare. At least semi-learnéd, because of /n/. ‘to cut around’. Dial. (Taranto). ‘to include, surround’. ‘to round off’. ‘to castrate’. Friulian. ‘cairn’. Old North Italian. . Genoese. Campidanian: ‘to fix’. ‘to beg’. ‘to buy’. Old Spanish: ‘to reach’.

TOURER Ror Em He Bo oS

25

39

‘to cut a circle’

40

‘to be like’

dkirkinére

simizére

ctertindére

somil]4re

fderneéer

igeme(j)&

edergendr héerdedr kirkindre kirkina-re 1941

43

‘to seize’

semezZar

seme lér

similidre ( : si:mile-) 7926

4t ‘health’

takkabiddi

sanitdte

Pakkattdére akaptér satater

sanitate santat santé6d

sanotate

takabddr akkapitére (: kapit-)

62, 63, 65

sanitdte (: sa-nu-)

7580

Proto-RomaNcE PHONOLOGY

26 iii.

Post- and Intertonic:

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

iddike hide

fidiée

guige Suge Buigo

gud? (°2+)

Sul¢ (2+) iidike

ju-dike4599

49 ‘mani ,

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

‘willow’ sélike sdlée sdlée sdude sal¢ séu¢ sdl¢o ssduza sélike salike7542

émine

é6m(u-)

eudmin4émne eéme 6m émbre 6mé f6mine shomine4170

férfike forfike3435

pm

mp as op

Notes to post- and intertonic /i/: Place-name, Souza. Old Neapolitan. Pl. /uémini/; sg. /uémo/. Oblique: nom. /ém/. Oblique; nom, /uém/. Oblique: nom. /émo/ (230). Oblique: nom. /homo-/. Old Italian; modern /férbiti/. Old Ticinese,

‘doctor’ médiku

simile sémen

bs6“mile sé“mble sémblo

médiko mége miégo

sfmile simile7926

médiku mediku5459 52 ‘flea’

51 ‘path’

50 ‘shears’ férfike foarfece hférfi¢e férfe forges

48

47 ‘like’

46

45 judge’

Ex. no. Meaning

sémita isémeda

sé“nda sénda sénda sénda

sé“nda sé“‘mita semita 7813

pulike puree pulée

priga pusa

pti‘like

pulike-

6816

Tur Puonemic Inventory or ProTo-ROMANCE iv.

In final syllable:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

Cat.

Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

54 ‘enough’

53 ‘outside’ afére *affudri aférs afuéra aféra afféris ° ad féris "as 265

57 ‘Tuesday’

bassdi asi¢ asad

assatis ad satis 199

martis méar¢i martedi= dimar¢ mar¢di dimérs martes

vineri vénerd{* divénres vendresdi divénres biérnes

martis (df*e) martis (di-e-) 5383

uéneris (df*e) yeneris (di-e-) 9197

Old Italian; cf. also Old Venetian /aféra/. ‘a great deal’. ‘put’. Nominative.

56 ‘Monday’

55

‘more’ linis lini

mai mai mais mais méi més midis midis magis

ldned{* (di)hins lunsd{ difins lines

li‘nis (di*e)

lu-nis (di-e-) 5164.2

5228

59

58 ‘Friday’

Notes to /i/ in final syllable:

Bere

27

‘thirst’ sitis séte

sé“te sé“t 86°58 sét séd

sé“de

sitis Ssitis 7961

Proto-RomMance PHONOLOGY

28 v.

Word-final: 63 ‘tower’

62 ‘sixteen’

61 ‘fifteen’

60 ‘fourteen’

Ex. no. Meaning

Sard.

battérdiki

kindiki

sédiki

tirri

Ttal. OSFr.

kuattérditi katérze

kuindiéi kinze

sé“diti s6ze

to“rre to°r

kinzo

860

tor

— sé“diki

to*rre tiirri

Roum.

—

ONFr.

katdérzo

Cat.

kotérza

Span.

katérze

Port. PRom. Lat. REW

katérze kyattérdiki §

kyattuordekim 6946

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom.

Lat.

REW

—

kingo

kinze

kinze kuindiki

kui-ndekim 6959

séiza

se-dekim 7779

tor

térre

turri9008

64 SP? age se* se sa _ — se si*

§

()

7889.2

Notes to word-final /i/: a,

Old Roumanian.

b.

Possibly < /sit/ ‘let it be (that... .); cf. Nicholson

Place 1937; but also Lograsso 1938, Spitzer 1939.

1935, 1938, Armstrong

1936,

Tue Puonemic INveNToRY or Proro-ROMANCE 3.

29

/u*/, stressed and unstressed: /u/ or later developments in all Romance languages.

a.

Stressed:

Ex. no. Meaning

65 ‘hard’ (f.sg.)

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

diira —_ dura diira diiro diire diira diira

Lat.

du-ra

PRom.

friittu friipt(u-) fritto frué fruit fritit

frii¢o fruito

di*ra

REW § Ex. no.

Meaning

fri*ktu

fru-ktu3537

2808 69

‘naked’

70 ‘health’

(f.sg.)

Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

niida —_— nuda nuza nda nia nuda nia

saltite

Lat.

nuda

salu-te 7555

PRom.

nii‘da

REW §

5988

sahite sahit salid soltit salud satide

sali*te

ppeoe

Notes to stressed /i*/: Old Spanish. Campidanian. Old Italian. With Olt. /i-/ movable; cf. § 2.722.2.a-c. Sopraselvan (Rhaeto-Rom.)

68

67

66 ‘fruit’

‘wart’

‘arse’ kdlu ktir(u-) kilo kil kdl kdl kilo kvio

bberriiga

kulu2384

yerru‘ka

verrtika verrtiga verrtia verriga verrtiga

yerrti*ka

ki‘lu

9241

72 ‘foam’

71

‘to lead’ dtikere diiée(re) ediidere diiire diira dur dugir

dii*kere du-kere 2785

ispima sptime

4(i)spima *spima esptima espima

ispi*ma spu‘ma 8189

30

Proro-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY b.

Unstressed (pretonic):

Ex. no.

73

Sard.

usére

Roum.

74

‘to sweat’

‘to use’

Meaning

—_—

—

75

mutdre

—

mutd(re)

sudeér

smudér

a

usére uzér

Cat. Span.

uzér uzér

suér sudér

— mudér

kruél kruél

u‘sére

su dére

mu‘tére

kru“dé‘le

uzeér

Port.

uzér

PRom.

Lat. REW

§

wsa-re 9093

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr.

su-da-re 8421 77 ‘shine’

lukére ‘lukodre dluké*re lugé*r

ONFr. Cat.

lud*ur lugé*r

Span. Port.

—_—

PRom.

Lat. REW

sudr

lu*k6*re §

(: lu-ke-re) 5144

78 ‘to smoke’ affumdre afum4(re) affumdre afumér

— —

ahumér afumér

affu“mére

(: fuemu-) 268

Notes to unstressed (pretonic) /u*/: a. b. ce. d. e.

‘to moult’. Campidanian. Old Roumanian. Old Italian. Also /ister® istar®/.

mutdére mudér

bkruéli

Ital. OSFr.

ONFr.

suddre suzaér

76

‘cruel’

‘to change’

mudér

mu-ta-re 5785 79 ‘to measure’

krudé le kruzé“l

krudél

krué“l

kru-dele2341

80 ‘to sneeze’

mesurdre mozur4(re) misurére mezurar

isturritére stronutd(re starnutére estornudér

mezurér mezurér

estornudér —

mozurér mozurdr

me‘sur4re

me-nsu-ra:re 5503

esternudér estornudér

Sistornutére sternu-ta-re 8250

Tur Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE

31

4. /u/, stressed and unstressed: /u/ in Sardinian and Roumanian, developments thereof in other Romance languages. a.

Stressed:

Ex. no.

81

Meaning Sard. Roum.

Span.

béka,

REW

§

biikka *bukka

Ex. no.

85

Sard. Roum.

gutta °guite

OSFr. ONFr.

gota gota

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

géta g6*ta gutta gutta

Ital.

gotta

Cat.

g6*te

§

méska

3928

—

muska muska

3910

stlku sulku-

5766

86

‘drop’

36‘Iko ssuk 4s6léa 861k

mé‘ska

gula gula

1957

Meaning

REW

géla

‘furrow’ stlku

mé‘ska m6‘ska mé‘sée m6‘sko

—

84

‘fly’ muiska muisko

gola gé'la go-ula g6%le

bé*ka

83

‘throat’ bula bere

bé*kka bé*ka bé*va bé*ka

Port.

82

‘mouth’ biikka *biiko

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

PRom. Lat.

87

‘race’ kiissu kurs(u-)

8442 88

‘wave’

‘shade’

Unda vinde

umbra uimbra

k6*rs k6*rs

Onda éndo

6*mbra émbre

késo k6*so kursu kursu-

énda 6*nda vinda unda

—_— — umbra umbra

k6*rso

ké’s

2417

onda 6‘na

9059

Notes to stressed /u/: a, b. e. d. e.

/o*/ or later

‘cheek’. ‘mouth’. Modern Bearnese. With change of gender; probably from neuter plural */sulka/. ‘gout’ (< Mod. Fr. /gut/ goutte?).

6“mbra 6‘mbro

9046

32

Proro-RomMancr PHONOLOGY b.

Unstressed: i.

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

Pretonic: 89 ‘woman’ muzére

muiére smo lléra,

bmolér bmo*lér mo‘lér

Span.

Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

mudzér molér muliére

muljere-

5730.2

90 ‘break’ untura unttire eemcns onétira ointura untiira untiura

ruptiira rotttira, ro*ttira

*rottira

ro trira rrotira trotira

tittira

rupti‘ra

unktti*ra unktu-ra 9058

ruptu-ra

7455

93 ‘to suspect’

94

‘to count’ numerére

fundére

sospettdre sospetér

*no‘verére

fo“ndére

sospitar

suspecér

sospeitér suspektére suspekta-re 8484

nombrér nombreér no “mbrér numerére

numera‘re

5993

buddfre

bo‘ llfre bo‘lir

bo*lfr

bolfr bolfr bo*lir

bullf*re bulli-re 1389

95 ‘to found’

suspettdre

numor4(re)

92 ‘to boil’

91

‘salve’

96 ‘to fight’ fpunndre

fo“ndér

®po“nér

fundére funda-re 3580

hpundr ipundr pugnére pugna-re 6813

fondér fo“ndér

po*niér

rrp

me poop

Notes to unstressed (pretonic) /u/:

Old Italian; Mod.It. /mé“IJe/ ‘wife’ < PRom. nom. /mulier/

Oblique; nom. /mé*Jer/ < PRom. /miulier/. ‘untilled land’. Mod.It. /unttira/ is learnéd; ef. Battisti-Alessio 1949-56 :5.3955. With irregular /v/ ~ /m/. ‘to incline towards something’. ‘to make an effort’. ‘to strive’. Old Portuguese; ‘to make an effort’.

33

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE Pre- and intertonic: Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

97

98

‘to swallow’

‘to lengthen’ *alungd(re) ballungire

alo“ngér

Singurtfri ingi¢f(re) ingiottire

alongisr

englo*tir englo“tfr

99 ‘to favor’ sekundére

seko“ndére

100

‘to deafen’ asurzf(re)

assord{re

aso rdir

askond&

*asordefér allungére (: longu-) 2853

inglutt{*re inglutti-re 4423

sekundére sekunda-re 7772

assurd{“re

{( : surdu-) 6024

Notes to pre- and intertonic unstressed /u/: a. b. c. d. e, f.

‘to drive away’. Old Italian. Campidanian. Friulian. Old Spanish. Latin /obsurde-skere/. iii.

Ex. no.

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

Post- and intertonic: 101

102

‘cloud, mist’ néula — nébbia néula niéble — niébla névoa nébula nebula 5865

‘people’ pépulu popér(u-) pdpolo poble puéblo poble puéblo pdévo pépulu populu6654

104 ‘board’

103

‘sulphur’ svilfuru. 946*Ifo

s6‘lfre s6‘lfro sé ‘fra azufre

end6“fre

sulfuru sulfur 8443

téula tévola tdéula table tdéule tabla téboa tébula

tabula

8514.1

Note to post- and intertonic /u/: a.

With /¢/ probably from /ingo“lfére/ ‘to sulphuret’; cf. Hall 1942a.

Proto-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

34 iv.

In final syllable:

Sard.

kantémus

kint{m skantémo kantém béantéms kantém kantémos katdmos kantémus

Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom.

Lat.

REW

§

kanta-mus 1611

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

—_

Ital.

pé“nno

OSFr.

pé‘n

ONFr. Cat.

— —

Span.

4péno

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW §

korpus

2248

113 ‘token’ fpinnus

Roum.

kérpus

ekérp(u-) kérpo kérs kérs kés kuérpo kérpo kérpus

—

pignus pignus 6430

péttus

piépt(u-) pétto piéi¢ pi¢ pit apécos péito péktus

pektus

6335

114 ‘side’ slétus

ldt(u-)

léto

115 ‘worse’ (adv.) péus —_

pékio

la¢

piti¢

lado

—

dled —

lddo

ldtus latus 4934

pig —_

—

péius peius 6367

Notes to unstressed /u/ in final syllable:

HER mS Be oP

*

The example-numbers 105-108 were omitted by over-sight. Dialectal. With /6/ probably from PRom. /stimus/ ‘we are’. Megleno-Roumanian.

Old Spanish.

In Oaths of Strassburg (a.p. 848) /méon/ meon. Old Sardinian.

‘half’.

‘beside; near’ (prep.) Old Portuguese.

‘my’ (m.sg.)

‘chest?

‘body’

‘we sing’

Meaning

112

111

110

*109

Ex. no.

méu

miéu mf{o miéu emién méu mfo méu méun

meum

5556

116 ‘under’ (adv.) suttu

supt

s6tto

36°¢

so°¢ a6¢

as6to

§s6“to

stiptus subtus 8402

35

Tus Poonemic Invenrory or Proro-RoMANCE v.

Word-final: 117

Ex. no.

‘iron’

Meaning

férru fiér(u-) férro fér(re) fér

bénu biin(u-) buéno bé(nt) bén

ékku — ékko ék —_

Span.

hiérro

buéno

—

bonu-

ekkum

férra

férro sférru

Port. PRom.

Lat.

REW

§

ferru-

3262

bé(nt)

bb abénu

1208

‘up’ (adv.)

‘behold’

Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

120

119

118

‘good’ (m.sg.)

—_—

— ékku

2822

—_ suis bstiso suis sts sus

stizo

stizo sti‘su

*su-sum

8478

Notes to word-final /u/:

a.

And all masculine nouns and adjectives in /-u/ in the oblique singular.

c.

Variant of /su-rsum/.

b.

Old Italian.

Proto-Romance PHonoLoey

36

5. /e*/, stressed and unstressed: /e*/ or later developments thereof in all Romance languages.

a.

Stressed:

Ex. no. Meaning

121 ‘silk’

Sard. Roum.

séta —

OSFr.

sé“da

Ital.

ONFr.

Cat. Span. Lat.

REW

mésa méaso

sé*ta

bmé*za,

s6ida

°mdiza

séda séda

Port. PRom.

Ex. no. Meaning

kadé“na éadé*ina kadéna kadéna.

kadé“a katé“na,

mé‘sa

*saeta

me-nsa 5497

7498

kate-na 1764

126

125 ‘woman’

123 ‘chain’ katéna dkotine katé“na

méza méza,

sé“da sé"ta

§

122 ‘table’

‘upright’

fémina —

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

fé‘mna fémo fémne shémbra

dré*& dré*i¢

drét deréto

péndra iprendér

fe-mina

de-re-ktu-

prehendere 6736

Ital.

fé‘mmina

Port. PRom.

Lat.

bfé“mea fé"mina

REW §

3239

diré*ito de*ré*ktu 2648

En

ms a9 op

Notes to stressed /é*/: ‘hair; silk’. Lucchese. Engadinese. Macedo-Roumanian: ‘back-bone’. In /erménu éru/ ‘true cousin’. ‘cousin’; noun m/II. Old Spanish. Old Portuguese. ‘to catch (fire)’.

*(b)éru

fyar(u-)

vé"ro vér

véir

vér &béro

hyé*ro ué‘ru ye-ru9262

127 ‘to take’

Sard. Roum.

deréttu d(e)répt(u-) d(i)ritto

124

‘true’ (m.sg.)

préndere prinde(re)

pré“ndere pé‘nre

préndra

prédé*r pré“ndere

128

‘bait’ éska

idske

é'ska ska "sta

ésko éska ska

éska eska

2913

Tur Pyonremic Inventory or Proro-RoMANcE b.

Unstressed, pretonic:

Ex. no, Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

129 ‘measure’ mestira mesiira mistira meziira moaztiro maziira meziira meziira

me‘sti‘ra

me-nsu-ra, 5502

sserénu sen{no A seré na

kredinga kredénga

seré“ina

kredingo

seré“na soréng

seré“na serena

7843

disérto dezért dezért dozért deziérto dezért

de“sértu

de-sertu2592

bkreén¢ia krénga

kre“déntja kre-dentia 2316

134 ‘to despise’

133 ‘desert’ edeSért(u-)

131 ‘belief’

130

‘clear’ (f.sg.)

despetd(re) Sdispettdre despetér despitisér dospitér edespetér ‘despeitdr

de“spektére

Sde-spekta-re 2597

Notes to pretonic /e*/:

Bre perp

87

‘evening-dew’; noun m/II. semi-learned, because of /guéro sérre suér _ — —_—

senjor

*goror

®sénior

195

*s6ror

7821

8102

Notes to /o/ in final syllable: a.

b.

Nominative. Old Italian.

vi.

Word-final:

Ex. no.

228

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital.

étto épt 56tto

Cat. Span. Port.

vuit 9660 dito

OSFr. ONFr.

uéd uit

PRom.

Lat.

REW

ékto

§

229

‘eight’

okto-

6035

230

>’ Sron’ a sférro

— —

—_— 9(h)iérro

>férro

ferro:

231

‘man’ —— é6m(u-) *uémo

6m uém

6m — _

46mo

shomo-

4170

232

‘evening’ séro ——

sé“r sé‘ir

== —

sé‘ro

°se-ro

7841.2

‘I sing’ kénto kint skénto

ként éént

ként akdnto kdnto

fkénto

kanto-

_

Notes to word-final /o/:

me paso

a.

Related forms have /-0/ in dialects in which /-o/ contrasts with /-u/. For notes a-c, ef. Hall 1968, Messing 1972. As mass-noun. Ablative. Nominative. ‘at evening’. And all l.sg. present-tense-forms ending in /-0/.

52

Protro-Romancr PHONOLOGY

/a/, stressed and unstressed: /a/ or later developments thereof in all Romance

9.

languages. a,

Stressed:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

233 ‘salt’ sfile sfre sdle sél sel sél sél sal sdle sale7521

prétu praét(u-) prato prat pred prat prddo prdédo prétu pra-tu-

6732

237 ‘beard’ bérba —_ barba, barba barba barba barba barba baérba barba 944

Notes to stressed /4/: a, b.

Macedo-Roumanian: ‘woolen cloak’. ‘deed; fact; sorcery’ (noun).

‘cape’

‘hand’ manu mine mano m&(n*) méin

skdpo képpa képa tépa

méno

képa k4pa

ménu

képpa

ma(n*)

méo

képa

kappa 1642

manu5339 239 ‘done’

238 Sump’ séltu sélt(u-) sdlto sdut salt sélt sdlto salto séltu saltu7554

236

235

234 ‘meadow’

240 ‘plant; sole (of foot)’

fattu

prdnta

fatto £48 fait fét héto féito féktu faktu3135

pidnta planta planta

>fapt(u-)

plénte lénta

data plénta planta 6515, 6576

Tue Puonemic INVENTORY Of PRroro-RoMANCE b.

Unstressed: i,

Initial:

Ex, no. Meaning

241 ‘August’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr.

auistu agust(u-) agé‘sto ago’st

Cat. Span.

agé’st agésto

ONFr.

ad’st

Port.

agé’sto

PRom. Lat.

REW §

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr.

786

algu(n*)

Span.

alguno

§

algi alkti*nu 4(: alikye-) 339

pe oe

Notes to initial /a/: Old Roumanian. Old Italian. Perhaps < Span. /abatfr/. + /u’nu-/ ‘one.’

243

242 ‘bitter’ amér(u-) améro amar amar

améru ama-ru406

245 ‘some-one’

alkiin

Cat.

REW

agustu augustu-

—_ —_ alkiino aukiin

ONFr.

Port. PRom. Lat.

53

‘before’

eabbattiri

*ainte bavante abéin avant abant

dabaéte(re)

abinte ab ante 4

247 ‘silver’

246

‘April? aprile (a)priér aprile abril avril abril abril abril

argéntu argint(u-)

apri-le-

argentu-

aprile

562

argénto argen(t*) argént

argén(t*+) argéntu

640

244

‘to beat down’

abbdttere abétre abdtra abétra abatir abaté*r abbdttere abbattyere ll

248

‘to listen to’ askultére

askultd(re)

asko“ltére asko“ltér

asko“Iteér eskoItér

eskuddr eskutdr askultére auskulta-re 802

Proto-RomancEr PHONOLOGY

54 ii.

Pretonic:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

farina fofno farina farina farina ferino

Port.

farfna

Span.

REW

fari*na §

fari-na

3197

Ex. no. Meaning

poréte paré‘te

maisé‘le

paréid

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

osaé“tta saé“ta saé“ta sogéta saéta,

pavé“ne

PRom.

sagitta

Port.

Lat.

sé“ta

REW §

sagitta

7508

patélla patella

paréte

pare-te6242 254

padne

sagedte

padéla padéla pata padiéla

paréd paré“de

256 ‘to pay’

255

pain

l&(re)

lavdre Javdr laveér Javér labar lavar laudre laua-re 4951

padé*(n*t) paén

pagé*(n*)

pabén

pavé

payd“ne

payo-ne 6313

op

Galician. With /d/ in imitation of WRom. lenition.

Pepe

Notes to pretonic /a/:

Old Roumanian. Old Roman. ‘to pacify’.

With loss of /g/ in imitation of WRom.

6286

‘to wash’

‘pea-cock’

sagitta

bpadélla

paré“t

meSiJa smeiké’la maksilla maksilla 5448

253 ‘arrow’

252

‘frying-pan patédda

massidda maséa maSdélla

Sard.

Roum.

‘wall’

maisé“la

harina

PRom.

Lat.

251

250 Saw’

249 ‘flour’

lenition.

dpakd(re) *pakdre pagar paiiér pogdar pagar pagdr

pakére ‘paka-re

6132

,

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proto-RoMANcE iii,

Pre- and intertonic:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

257 ‘tamarisk’ tamarike tamarfte — —_— tomarft — tamarf¢

PRom.

tamart{*ke

Lat.

REW

§

55

258 ‘oath’ — — *sakraménto sagramén (t+) sairemént — aa —_—

btreméndo airamén(t*) adramént — — —

sakra-mentu-

atra-‘mentu-

sakraméntu

tamari:ke8548

7492

260 ‘to hex’

259 ‘ink’ treméntu

atraméntu 758

inkint4(re) inkantére enkantér enéantér enkantér enkantar ékatdr

inkantére inkanta-re 4341

Notes to pre- and intertonic /a/: a. b.

Old Italian. Molfettese (Apulian): ‘black ink’. iv.

In final syllable:

Ex. no.

261

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital.

féras *féra >fudra,

Cat.

fora

OSFr. ONFr.

féras —

Span.

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW

263

‘nipples’

‘he rubs’

mamiddas == —

frikat fréke ffré“ga

moméles

frége

—

fré*ga

mamé‘las mamé’les

fuéra

mamélas

féras foras

4mamfllas emamilla-s

fora, §

262

‘outside’

3431

5276

264

‘(that) he hang’ péndat

fré“ga fré*jod

pénda pénda pénded

fréga

pénda

#frikat, Sfrikat

bpendat bpendat 6383

3501

péda

Notes to /a/ in final syllable:

a. b.

ce. d. e. f. g.

h.

‘without’. Old Italian.

‘hills’, Oblique plural (and in all other nouns f/I). Accusative plural. With /g/ in imitation of WRom. lenition. 38.sg. present (and in all other verbs of ist conjugation). 3.sg. present subjunctive (and in all other verbs of other than Ist conjugation).

Proto-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

56 v.

Word-final:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

érva idrbe érba érba érba érba iérba, érva >érba herba 4109

settdnta

via via

settdnta seténta sotdnte satdnte seténta

ayé%io

tiérra, térra, >térra,

bui*a

terra

8668

‘seventy’

bia

térra fare térra térra téra térra

268

267 way

266 ‘earth’

265 ‘grass’

via bia via

yia 9295

setéta

*settd(i)nta sept(u)a-ginta 7836

Notes to word-final /a/: a. b. ce.

With /6i/ as if from PRom. /ufa/ (Mod. Fr. /vwa/ voie). And all other nouns of f/I declension ending in /a/ in the singular. If Roumanian had preserved a cognate form containing /pt/ (as in /S4pte/ ‘seven’ < PRom. /sépte/ : Lat. /septem/), or if we take into account the PRom. /sépte/ on which this numeral is based, we might set up PRom. */septd(i)nta/.

57

Tue Puonemic InveNToRY or ProTo-ROMANCE 2.4.

Semi-Vowels

PHonouocican Compongnts.

2.41.

The semi-vowels /j/ and /y/ must

be set up for Proto-Romance. These are characterised by being articulated

in positions corresponding to those of vowels (the high-front /i/ and high-

back /u/, respectively), but with the muscular tension of consonants, 80 that they do not constitute independent syllabic nuclei. They could also be represented by the symbols /j/ and /v/, but, to emphasise their relationship to the corresponding high vowels, we have chosen to use the mark /./, signifying a phonological component of non-syllabicity, under the letters /i/ and /u/ respectively. 2.42.

INDIVIDUAL PHONEMES.

1.

fifi a,

Initial:

gdx

—_— zatea(re) gaéé‘re

agsukére bguk4(re) gokdére

£4 id

g4ure iagér

fogér gugér

Sard. Roum. Ttal.

id

Cat. Span.

OSFr. ONFr.

£4 &4

Port. PRom.

ea id*

Lat.

REW

fazér ge“ 2ir

jam

§

4572

bazé‘r jaké*re iake-re

4562

Notes to initial /i/: a. b.

‘to play’

‘to lie’

‘already’

Meaning

271

270

269

Ex. no.

With /é/ possibly under Italian influence. Also ‘to dance’.

gogér gor

gogér jokére

joka-re

4584

272

‘to swear’ jurére gurd(re) gurdre

gurér gurér

gurér gurér

éurdér ju*rére

jwra-re 4630

Proro-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

58 b.

Intervocalic:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

omdiu

Roum.

méj(u-)

Ital. OSFr.

mégzo méi

ONFr.

mai

Cat.

méé

Span.

majo

Port. PRom.

Lat.

REW

273 ‘May’

miio méiju §

maiju-

5250

Notes to intervocalic /i/: a, b.

Campidanian. Bittese.

274 ‘worse’ —

dejunére

pekié*re pegor

digunére gegundér

pego*r

digundér

—

peér

ped*r peid*re

peio-re6367

276

275 ‘to fast’ azund(re)

gouneér

‘rain’ bprdéia plodie

pidgga

pléia pluio

ajundr

gesundr de“? ie*iu“nére je iu-na-re 4581

ploia

(: pluyere)

6620.3

Tus Puonemic Inventory or Proto-RoMANCE

59

2. /y/. The developments of /u/ show either the labio-dental fricative /v/ or the bilabial plosive /b/ in the various Romance languages. This fact, and the wide-spread interchange between the letters b and v in Late Latin and mediaeval documents (ef. Viaananen 1963 [1969°]: § 89) suggest that PRom. /y/ was probably a bilabial fricative [6], at least in some varieties. a.

Initial:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

277 ‘to be worth’ bélere —

Ttal. OSFr.

valé“re valé*r

Port. PRom.

valé*r ualé‘re

ONFr. Cat. Span.

REW

§

Ex, no.

Sard. Roum.

Ital. OSFr.

byariu-

281

Port. PRom. §

fbidda —

vaseir véura *beér

vile hyflo hbila

9319

béspa uéspa

vé*o ué‘lu

villa evila

byila uf‘lla villa

9330

Ao oP

yelu-

9184

283

284

‘empty’ (f.sg.)

‘voice’

bikita, —

béke bodte

vilida biiida ibuéita

void véu bé¢

vusta vuéida

— yd(ki)ta —_

Notes to initial /y/:

Hemme

veil vél bélo

9272

‘manor’

bidére vaded(re)

yide-re

vé'lo vél

282

‘to see’

vér yidé*re

véspa véspa.

yespa,

9157

280 ‘veil’ bélu

dguéspo véspa abispa

aveiro udriu

vedé*re vezér

ONFr. Cat. Span.

REW

véir —_— —

9130

279 ‘wasp’ éspe eviéspe

vaio vir

yale-re

Meaning

Lat.

baérgu —-

valé*ir vaéldra balér

Lat.

278 ‘many-coloured’

Old Galician, Old Portuguese. ‘manifold’. Masculine. With /gu/ from Germanic (Frankish /wéspe/). Old Spanish. ‘village’. ‘town’. ‘market-village’. Old Aragonese.

9429

vérte veg

vod ud*ke

uo-ke-

9459

Proto-Romance PHONOLOGY

60 b.

Intervocalic: 285 ‘saliva’

Ex. no.

Meaning

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

salfa saliva saliva salfva saliva salfba *safva

sali*ya sali-va 7541

289 ‘snowy’ (£.sg.) nidsa neuodésa A nevé sa navé~za nebéza nevéza

niyé*sa niyo-sa 5936

286 ‘bird’ Ze

edu abe five dye aue-

831

uf“yere yi-uere 9411

oP as

boue-

1225 292 ‘he raises’

291

‘to move’ *méere muédvere

mové‘r mové‘ir méura mobér

mové‘r

moué‘re

moue-re 5703

Notes to intervocalic /y/:

RMP

fox’?

bée béu béve buéu buéf béu buéj béi béye

néa néa nudéva, néva nuéva ndéa nuéba néva néua noua 5972

290 ‘to live’ bfere dyfe(re) vivere viure vivro viura bibfr vivé’r

288

287 ‘new’ (f.sg.)

Old Portuguese. ‘pird of prey; eagle’. Old Catalan. Old Roumanian. ‘to go, travel’. Old Italian. With initial /]/ < /li/ in Pre-Spanish */liébat/.

léat lia fliéva léva liévod léva

8léba

léva,

léyat

leyat 5000

Tue Pyonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCcE 2.5. 2.61.

61

Consonants PHonotoaican Components, in the consonant-phonemes of Proto-

Romance,

are to be classified under three headings: place of articulation,

manner of articulation, and voicing. In the Romance languages as a whole,

there is (as pointed out by Izzo 1972 : 115-121) no such thing as a “typically

Romance”

consonantism,

since nearly

every kind of consonant can be

attested from one Romance variety or another. For Proto-Romance, however, we can reconstruct a quite limited number of individual consonant-phonemes, with the following types.of contrasts: Place of articulation: labial (labio-dental) ~ dental ~ velar. Manner of articulation: stop ~ fricative or sibilant ~ nasal ~ lateral ~ flap. Voicing: voiceless ~ voiced.

The combinations of these components which we can ascribe to Proto-

Romance are shown in Table VI. Especially to be noted are the absence of a separate palatal place of articulation and of an assibilated manner of articulation, and the presence of a contrast in voicing only in the stops /p ~ b/, /t ~ d/ and /k ~ g/. TABLE

VI

Proto-Romance Consonant-Phonemes Bilabial or Labio-Dental

Stop Fricative or Sibilant Nasal

Pp

Dental t

b f

k d

8 m

Velar

nD

Lateral

1

Flap

r

g

Proro-Romance PHonNoLocy

62 2.62.

InpIvipuAL

1.

/p/, initial and intervocalic. a.

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning

Initial: /p/ in all Romance languages.

pérta podrta porta porta pérta pérta puérta porta porta porta 6671

Lat. REW

pura 6864

pti‘ra

§

Notes to initial /p/: Old Spanish. ‘sorrow, worry’. Old Italian. ‘to lay (an egg)’.

pdskere pdédte(re) passere passer pdistre péSer pagér pagé*r paskere paskere 6263

péSse pé‘is

pé‘is pés

apé¢

péise piske piske6532

297 ‘pure’ (f.sg.) ptira — pura pra puro puro pura pura

PRom.

piske péte

298

pésu

pé‘is pés péso

pé*zo pé‘su

pe-nsu6394

pédr(u-)

pélo pilu-

6508 300 ‘to put’

299

‘weight’

bpds(u-) pé*so pé’s

296 ‘hair’

295 ‘to graze’

294 “fish?

293 ‘door, gate’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

a. b. e. d.

PHONEMES.

‘hen’

piidda pola pola pole pdo’Je pda

pulla pulla

6828.2

pdénere ptine(re) epd“nere

pé‘nre

4péndra ¢péndre ponér po‘nere po-nere 6647

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proto-RoMANcE

63

b. Intervocalic: /p/ in Old Sardinian and Eastern Romance, /b/ or later developments thereof in most (but not all) of Western Romance (cf. Hall 1974/75). Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

ape

¢éba

ape-

525

eské“uva eskéba eské*ba

iské“pa

sko-pa

ri-pa 7328

ke-pa

1817

305 ‘uke-warm’

esk6*ba

ri*pa

ké“pa

dpe

8(i)ské“pa

ripa riba rive riba triba, rriba

dive

306 ‘soap’

7734

307

‘to know’

tépidu

sapé“ne

assapéskere

tiépido tébe tiéde

sapé“ne

sapé‘re sabé*r savé ‘ir

t6*bi

tibio tibio tépidu tepidu8657

sapuin

sabé*(n*)

savén

sabé*(n*)

*Sabé6n sabé

sapé“ne sapo-ne7589

304

‘broom’ isképa

ripo

¢6“ba

def

‘bank’ ripa

éedpa

dpe

303

302 ‘onion’

301

‘bee’

sabér sabér sabé‘r

sapé‘re ssapere 7586

308 ‘to crack’ krepdre krapd(re) krepdre krebdr krover krebér kebrér kebrar krepdre krepa-re 2313

Notes to intervocalic /p/: a. b. c.

Old Italian, with initial /i/ movable: cf. § 2.722.2.a-c. Old Spanish, with unexplained initial /8/, possibly under Arabic influence. ‘to taste; to be wise, understand’.

Proro-RomANcE PHONOLOGY

64 2.

/t/, initial, intervocalic, and final: a.

Initial: /t/ in all Romance languages.

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning

tile stdre tale tal tél tél tal tal tdle tale8543 313 ‘torture’

Sard. Roum.

trumméntu —

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

tormen(t*) tormént — torménto °2,

PRom. Lat. REW §

torméntu tormentu8793

Ital.

Port.

torménto

torméto %,

re

Notes to initial /t/:

mons

310 ‘to pull’

309 ‘such’

‘strong, firm’. Old Roumanian. Macedo-Roumanian. Old Italian. ‘outer court-yard’. ‘shop’.

tirére tirdre tirdr tirér tirdr tirdr tirér

ti‘rdre

tira-re 8755 314 ‘turtle-dove’ tirtura *tiirtura té*rtora té“rtora té*rtra té“rtre tértolo tiirtura

turture-

9009

3il

312

‘fear’

‘slow, late’ (f.sg.) tardfa tirzfo

timdé‘re btemodre

tardfa tardfa

temér tem6‘r

tardiva tardiva tardiva tardfe

timd*re temé*r temé*ur tem6o*r

timd*re

tard{*ya

timo-re-

tardi-ua 8576

8738 315

316

‘to shave, shear’ tuindere trinde(re) 4t6“ndere

t6“ndre téndra

té“ndra

tundir _ tiindere tundere

8779

‘tent’ ténda etinda ténda

ténda ténda

ftiénda ttéda, ténda tenda

8639

Tur PHonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANcE

65

b. Intervocalic: /t/ in Sardinian and Eastern Romance; lenited to /d/ (or further developments thereof) in most (but not all) of Western Romance. Cf. Hall 1974/75.

Ex. no.

317

Meaning

‘ye smoke’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

fumdtes fumd¢i fumdte fumé¢ fumed fuméu shumddes humddes

Lat. REW

fu-ma-tis 3566

PRom.

bfu“mdtes

§

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

§

muta mite muta muda muda muda muda muda

fu-ma-ta, 3566

mu-ta 6798

°fu“méta

322 ‘to swim’

eJatinu

natére

latino ®lati(n+) ‘latin

jnatdre nadér —

Jati*nu

lati-nu4927

319

noddr nadér nadar

natdre

nate-re 5845

mii*ta

323 ‘to be able’ potére puted (re)

poté*re podé*r podé*ir

uta

yita 9385 324 ‘puppy’ _ kedél(u-)

ikatéllo kadél &odél

kpot6682

katellu1763

poté*re

Old Spanish.

ec.

And all other f.sg. past participles in /-dta -{*ta -vi*ta/.

d. ‘live-stock; cattle’. e. ‘clear.’ f. Old Italian: ‘understandable’. g. noun, m/II: language’ (learnéd). h, ‘skilled in language; crafty’. i. ‘pure, unmixed; crafty’. j. Old Italian. k. Infinitive /posse/ < /pot-/ + /-se/. m. f.: ‘female puppy; bitch’.

bita site vita vida vide vide bida vida

kedél kadiélo nkadéla

a.

And all other 2.pl. verb-forms.

‘life’

podér podér pode*r

Notes to intervocalic /t/: b.

320

‘mute’ (f.sg.)

fumita fumite fuméta fumdda fuméda fumddo humdda fumdda

321 ‘Latin; clear’

hJad{no jladino

PRom.

Lat. REW

318

‘smoked?’ (£.sg.)

katéllu

Proro-Romancr PHONOLOGY

66

Final: lost everywhere except in Sardinian, Lucanian, and Old North French,

c. Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

325 ‘he looks at’ mirat *mfra bmira, mira mired mi{fra mfra mira emf*rat: mi-rat 5603

326 ‘he looked at’ mird(i)t — 4mirdtta mirét emirdd — mi‘rA(i)t mi-ra-(ui)t 5603

a

Notes to final /t/:

e.

In reflexive phrase /som{ra/ ‘he wonders’. Lucanian /mfrati/. And all other 3.sg. verb-forms. Neapolitan; perhaps of Oscan origin (cf. Oscan preterite forms in /-atted/, Buck 1928:172). Cf. also the ending /-diete/ in Lucanian (Cosenza) (Lausberg 1939: § 334), Cf. jurat /gurat/ ‘he swore’ in the Oaths of Strassburg (Hall 1953, 1966).

Tuer Puonemic Inventory or Proro-ROMANCE 3.

67

/k/, initial and intervocalic:

a. Initial: preserved as such before /a o u/ in most of Romance; palatalised before /e i/ in most Romance varieties except Sardinian and (before /e*/) in Vegliote. Cf. Hadlich 1965:53-54, 87-88. Ex. no.

327

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital.

kéra éedra 6é"ra

ONFr.

dra

OSFr.

PRom.

¢éra ¢éra, ¢6°ra

gén ciénito ¢éto

ke-ra

kentu-

REW

§

1821

Ex. no.

Sard.

§

kampu1563

kornut (°d-) korntido

korntido kornt*tu

kornu-tu-

Notes to initial /k/: a. b. c.

Old Spanish. Campidanian: ‘coal-basket’. ‘to make arable’.

2242

334

‘cup’

k6*ppa ké*pa k6*pa

kornut(u-)

1913

333

‘hornéd’

korntito korntit (°d-) kornud

k&po kémpu

kfliu

1915

kaémpo kémp é4mp

kémp kémpo

REW

kiliu-

bkuippa

Cat. Span.

Lat.

ki-mike-

korruitu

kimp(u-)

Port. PRom.

— — —

k4mpu

Roum.

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

— edisme dim¢e

332

‘field’

¢é1

#f]

ki*‘mike

1816

331

Meaning

lo

a

kéntu

‘eye-brow’ kigu

_—

¢ént

330

‘bed-bug’ kimike — emiée

¢én(t)

ké*ra

Lat.

329

‘100’ kéntu —_—_ éénto

#é"ra

Cat. Span. Port.

328

‘wax’

‘to care for’ —

kuipa

ekurd(re)

ké*pa képa

kurér kurér

kuppa

ku-ra-re

ké6*pa kiippa 2409

kurére kurdr kurér

kurér ku‘rére 2412

Proto-RomancE PHONOLOGY

68

b. Intervocalic: unchanged in Sardinian, lenited in most (but not all) of Western Romance (cf. Hall 1974/75); palatalised before /i e/ in most of Romance, except Sardinian (cf. Migliorini 1929; Gamillscheg 1968; Nandrig 1970). Ex. no.

335

Meaning Sard.

Roum. Ital.

REW §

*éko

am{ka,

bféde

°f46-

—_ — aged féke

fér hagér fazé‘r fdkere

amiga amfo

aku-

Ex. no.

339

léku 16k (u-)

fluéko

ONFr. Cat.

liéu 16k

OSFr.

16k

Span. Port.

sluégo légo

Lat.

loku-

PRom.

léku

§

340

5097

hikere luéi(re)

luéé’re

luafr

luizfr lutr

lu*ké“re “{*re lu ke-re 5136

fakere

3139

3128

341

‘to shine’

lugir lugir

féire fdira

faeke-

422

‘place’

Ttal.

REW

ami-ka

130

fékere

fAée(re)

ché¢ —

amiga amiga amiga am{*ka,

Meaning Sard. Roum.

‘to do’

féke

—

— — — éku

Lat.

338

‘faeces’

amika

—

Cat. Span. Port. PRom.

337

‘lady-friend’

éku

dk(u-)

OSFr. ONFr.

336

‘needle’

‘mildew’ mukére hmukodre

imuk6"re —_—

— a

imugér ——

mu*ké*re

mu-:ko-re5712

342

‘safe, sure’ sekiru

sikuro

seguir

sour seguir

seguro seguro

sekti‘ru

seku-ru7776

Notes to intervocalic /k/:

or

pe

me

ae oF

a.

Tuscan [‘atho]. Standard Italian has /4go/, with /g/ in imitation of Western Romance lenition.

Dialectal: Canistro (Abruzzi).

Bearnese. Old Portuguese. Infinitive /fdre/. Old Italian. Old Spanish. ‘glanders’. Abruzzese. Asturian.

Tue Puonemic Inventory of Proro-RoMANCE 4,

69

/b/, initial and intervocalic: a.

Initial: preserved throughout Romance territory:

Ex. no. Meaning

343 ‘bath’

344 ‘to beat’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

bainzu — bénno bén béin bén béno

sbattiri bdte(re) battere batre batro bétra batir

PRom. Lat. REW §

béniu balneu916

battere battyere

Port.

Ex. no. Meaning — biite

OSFr. ONFr.

bé*t bé*t

Span.

béte

PRom. Lat. REW §

buittebutte1427

bé*tte

Cat.

Port.

996

347 ‘cask’

Sard. Roum.

Ital.

baté*r

baéno

bé*te bé*te

348 ‘to drink’

asoe

bé‘lla bé‘la bé‘le bé‘le

*béla

4ho‘la bulla bulla

1385

349 ‘to bleat’ belére

fhé*v-

be‘lére be*lér

bé‘ure

bé*ivra béura bebér

bebé*r bfbere bibere

1074

Notes to initial /b/:

Prime

»biidda

bfere

bed(re)

Campidanian. ‘intestines’. ‘silk-vapours’.

Galician, Alemtejano: ‘(bread-) roll’.

Old Italian. Infinitive /bé‘re/. Spelling beeler; /ee/ onomatopoetic. Galician: ‘wild grape-vine’.

346

345

‘goodness’

‘bubble, ball’

sbeelér belér

be*lére

be-la-re 1021

bonitdte bunatdte *bonitdte bontat bontéd bontaét bondéd boddde bonitdte bonita-te1206

350

‘donkey ; bastard’ burdu

bért

bé*rt bé*rt bbé*rda biirdu burdu-

1405

Proro-RomANcE PHONOLOGY

70

b. Intervocalic: preserved as /b/ > /v/ or later developments thereof. Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

351 ‘horse’ kéddu

Roum.

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

k4l(u-)

kavallo kabél geval kevél kabdlo kavdlo kabdllu kaballu1440

Notes to intervocalic /b/: a. b. e. d. e.

352

‘tallow’ séu séu

sé‘go

séu sfu, sif séu sébo sé“*bo

‘to hide’. Macedo-Roumanian. Old South Italian. Judaeo-French. ‘to be enough’.

/v/)

353

‘to have to;toowe’

dové*re de“bé*r dové‘ir

provare probér prover

devé*r de*bé*re

provaér probdre

356 ‘bean’ fée >féua fava féba féve fava héba fdva féba faba 3147

354

profre

2490

prodr probér

proba-re 6764

357

‘elod’ léa

elsewhere,

‘to try, test’

dévere

de-be-re

se‘bu7762

French;

in South

only

déure debér

sé*bu

355 ‘to rest, brood’ *kuére — ko“vare koaér ko“veér ko*var — —_— kubdre kuba-re 2351

(#

358

‘to overflow’ aunddre

°gliéva — gléve —_

lé*iva

glé*ba gle-ba

3782

abbo“ndére abondér Sabondér °(a)bonddr

*boddr

a(b)bunddre abunda-re 52

Tue Puonemic INvENToRY or Proto-RoMANCE 5.

/d/, intervocalic, medial, and final: a.

Initial: preserved throughout the Romance languages:

Ex. no.

359

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital.

Cat. Span. Port. PRom.

dér dar dér dare

Lat.

REW

§

Ex. no.

Meaning

dare

2476

a6*(n+) dén dé dé*nu

odigddezfir dizé*r di*kere

2749

2628

363

durére dur&(re) durdre durér durdér durér durér

Lat.

duw-ra-re

durér du*rére

§

=diz-

2805

dé“us difi °e °os

duo-

2798

délu dolu2727 366

365

edékuma détima dézma dizma déumo fdiégmo

dizima dékima

dekima

a. b.

Infinitive /dire/. Infinitive /dfra/.

d. e. f.

Old Spanish. With /u/ possibly under influence of Catalan. Old Spanish; masculine.

Infinitive /dir/.

dé

‘of, from’

‘one-tenth’

Notes to initial /d/:

¢e.

dél

duél dél duélo

di-kere

‘two’ diios ddi dtie dé*s dé*us d6*s dés

délu dér(u-) dudlo

bdiz-

364

‘to last’

Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

Port. PRom.

dé*(n+)

do-nu-

‘pain, sorrow’

‘to say’ 2iée(re) adfé-

dén

362

361

‘gift’ dénu — dé*no

dar

ONFr.

360

‘to give’ dare da(re) dére

OSFr.

REW

71

2503

de de di de da da de de

de* de-

2488

72

Proto-Romancre PHoNnoLOoGY

b. Intervocalic: preserved in Eastern Romance, lenited to /8/ or further developments thereof (including loss) in Western Romance. Ex. no.

Meaning

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

adirdre —_ adirdre azirér adirer airar airdy *airdr

PRom.

Lat.

REW

adi‘rére

§

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

REW

adi-ra-re 166

sud6“re suz6‘r sudd“ur sud‘r

§

sudér suér su“dé‘re su-do-re 8427

Notes to intervocalic /d/: a. b. e.

Normally reflexive. Old Spanish. Old Portuguese.

369

368

‘to fall’

‘nest? nidu

kaded (re)

kadé*re kazé“r

nido nfu nid niu

kadé‘re kade-re 1451

5913

372 ‘to sit? seded (re)

4938

373

‘to judge’

sedé“re

Zudek4(re) Budikére

8006 ‘ir

gugiaer

sezé‘r séura bseér

*se6"r sedé“re sede-re 7780

léudo léda léuza ]é6a léa, léuva léydat laydat

kaé“r

ni-du-

370

‘he praises’

16895

6ad6‘ir kduver kaér

ni‘du

371 ‘sweat? — sudodre

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

367

‘to get angry’

sugar Sugér

ju“dikére ju-dika-re 4600

374

‘to believe’ krédere kréde(re)

kré“dere

kre“zé*r, kré*ire

kré%i8 ra

kréura kreér

kré*r kré“dere kre-dere 2307

Tur Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE

73

ce, Final: preserved in a few proclitic forms in Italian; treated as intervocalic /d/ in a few proclitic forms in OSFr. and ONFr.; lost elsewhere. Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

Ital.

OSFr.

ONFr.

Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

375 ‘to’

376 ‘what?’

a a

kf cé

a, az

ké*

ax, ad a, ad

a a a a(d) ad

136

ké*= k6i8

ké ké ké* kyfd kuid 6953

74

Proto-Romancn PHONOLOGY 6.

/g/, initial and intervocalic:

a. Initial: preserved throughout before back vowels; palatalised to /é/ (or later developments thereof) before /e i/ everywhere except in Sardinian; also before /a/ in ONFr. Cf. Migliorini 1929; Meyer-Liibke 1936. Ex. no. Meaning

377 ‘gum (in mouth)’

378 ‘to freeze’

Sard.

gingiva

gelére

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

gengiva gengiva gen¢ivo ®enive gen° *en¢ia gengiva gingi‘ya gingf-ua

geldre gelér falar gelér &eldr gedr geldre gela-re

Roum.

REW

gingfe

§

3765

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

381 ‘hen’ —S

Roum.

gaino

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

gallina galina, gelfina galing galina

PRom. Lat. REW §

gallina galli-na 3661

Port.

galina

—_

3714

382 ‘to gabble, talk’

379 ‘son-in-law’ géneru ginere

&énero &éndre &éndra &éndra jérno génro géneru

generu3730 383 ‘greedy’ (f.sg.)

—_

bgarf(re)

°garrire

— — dgarrir

garrir

garri‘re garri-re 3691

golé*sa golé*za golé“uza golé*za goléza

eguldé’sa gulo-sa 3914

380

‘to groan’ &éme(re)

gémere gemfir giéndro gemir gemé*r gémere gemere 3722

384 ‘to taste’ gust4(re)

fgustdre

go star

go’stér

fgustdr

gostér gustdre gustdre gusta-re

3926

mops

op

Notes to initial /g-/: Old Spanish. Macedo-Roumanian: ‘to twitter’. ‘to caw’. ‘to chatter’; Mozarabic /gér/ ‘speak, tell!’. Derived from /gila/ ‘throat,’ hence reconstructed with pretonic /u/. Probably learnéd, because of pretonic /u/ instead of /o*/.

Tue Puonemic INvENToRY oF Proto-ROMANCE

75

b. Intervocalic: palatalised to /£/ (or later developments thereof) before /e i/ everywhere except in Sardinian; preserved before /a o u/ except in Gallo-Romance. Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

rége

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

ri r6i réi rréi

Lat. REW

Te-ge7286

Ital.

fig(u-)

féu fou

rré4i ré‘ge

§

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

387

‘beech-tree’ fréu

és

Port. PRom.

386

385 ‘king’

*hé fagu-

3145

dé*ga dé*ga dé*va dé*ga dé*ga

fri-gere

2714

3510

391

390 ‘to flee’

388

‘stave (of cask)’ déga doiga

irfgere frige(re) friggere fr(e)ir frira frogir frefr frigtr

fri*gere

fégu

389 ‘vegetable’

‘to fry’

‘to deny’

392 ‘to ask, beg’

—_—

fugfre

bnegdre

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

leguime leim lovin

negére

*rogdre

niér

Span. Port. PRom.

legumbre legtime legi*me(ne)

fugéire fugir fufr fugir hufr fugir

rover rogar rrogér rrogér rogére

Roum.

legtimo

Cat.

Lat.

REW

Jogim

§

legu-mene-

4972

fugf(re)

fu‘gi*re fugere

3150

Notes to intervocalic /g/: a. b. ce.

Old Spanish. ‘to accept (< to refuse out of courtesy)’. ‘to notarise’.

negér

nogér negar negar negére

nega-re 5876

rugé(re) rogér

roga-re 7361

Proro-Romance PHONOLOGY

76 7.

/f/, initial and intervocalic:

a. Gascon). Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

preserved

>fér ofuér >fér afuéro °féro

féru

§

Ex. no. Meaning

throughout

393 ‘market-place’ fér(u-)

PRom.

Lat. REW

Initial:

foru3459 397 ‘fork; gallows’

filu3306 398 ‘hunger’

Lat. REW

furka 3593,

famine3178

fdmi(ne)

Ll

396 ‘ditch’ féssa, ffodse féssa, fésa fése fésa 8fuésa fésa féssa fossa 3460

fi*su

fu-su-

3620 399

‘family’ ifomede fam({lla famfla famile

famflia familia 3180

Notes to initial /f/: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

in Spanish

395

friso fis fiis

flu

/h/

‘spindle’ fuis(u-)

famine hfodmine fame fém féim fim hdmbre féme

§

>

fuisu

flu ffr(u-) filo fil fil ffl hilo ffu

firka firke f6*rka £6"rka, £6°rva —_— hérka £6°rka firka

(except

394 ‘thread’

Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

PRom.

Romance

‘town-square, plaza’. ‘law’. ‘tax, law’. Old Spanish: ‘law, ordinance’. ‘court’. Transylvanian. Old Spanish: ‘grave’. Old Roumanian. Old Roumanian; Mod. Roumanian /feméie/ ‘woman’.

400 ‘to steal’ furdre

furd(re)

furdre furdr furér

fu‘rére

fu-ra-re 3591

and

Tue Pyonemic INVENTORY OF Proro-RoMANCE

77

b. Intervocalic: rare (found only in words containing prefixes or borrowed into Latin from Oscan or Umbrian; cf. Ascoli 1886, d’Ovidio 1903). Preserved in Sardinian and Eastern Romance; lost or substituted by analogy in other regions. Ex. no.

401

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal.

‘sow’ — skrodfa a(i)skré“fa

OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

beskriibo *eskr6“ua —

PRom.

iskré“fa

Span. Port. Lat.

REW

—_ —

§

skro-fa

7748

402

‘deep’ (f.sg.) proftinda — profé‘nda

preé‘nda parfénda pregé“ne

—_— —_—

proftinda profunda 6772

Notes to intervocalic /f/: a. b. c,

With “/i/ movable” in Old Italian; cf. § 2.722.2.a-c. Modern South French, dialectal. ‘screw’.

78

Proro-Romancre PHonoLoay 8.

/s/, initial, medial and final (cf. Michel 1954; Galmés de Fuentes 1962): a.

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

403 ‘whole, healthy’

sina sina sina

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

sdino sino sina sé

PRom.

séna

§

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

404 ‘evening’

(f.sg.)

sina

Roum. Ital. OSFr.

Lat. REW

Initial: preserved as voiceless /s/ throughout Romance:

sana 7584

—

sefira sé‘ra bsé“ra, — —_ —

sé‘ra

sera 7841.2

407 ‘seat, saddle’ sédda Séa, sélla séla sélo sélo siéla séla sélla sella 7795

408 ‘fate, lot’ sérte sodrte sérte sort sdért sért suérte sérte sérte sorte8107

stiu adu stio 86 son, suén son su, stijo séu Sstiusuu8490 409 ‘to loosen’

sikka séko

s¢“kka sé*ka dg6*Sa séko séka

sé*ka

sikka sikka 7897 410 ‘sixty’ sessinta

fsélvere sdélver séldra

sessinta seisdnta seisdnta seSdnto sesénta sesénta

solbér solvé"r sdélyere solyere 8081

a. b. c.

Macedo-Roumanian. Modern East Provengal. Oblique /stiun/, nom. /stius/.

e. f.

A borrowing from Italian, because of intervocalic /lv/? Old Italian.

Masculine /sé*k/ < PRom. /stkku/.

‘dry’ (f.sg.)

esdlvere

Notes to initial /s/:

d.

406

405

‘his, her, its’

seks4(i)nta

seksa-ginta 7886

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proro-ROMANCE

79

b. Intervocalic: preserved as voiceless in Eastern Romance; voiced to /z/ in Western Romance. Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

411 ‘nose’ ndésu nés(u-)

412 ‘pea’ apisu —

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

néso nés nés

pé"so pé‘s pé‘is

Port. PRom.

nézo nésu

— pisu

Cat. Span.

nés n&zo

Lat.

REW

§

Ex. no.

415

Sard. Roum.

risu ris(u-)

Span.

rr{zo

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

Port. PRom. Lat.

REW

§

resérzu —

a.

‘bean’.

pesdre apasd (re)

rrizo rf‘su

— ras6é‘riu

pe“zér pe‘sfre

raso-riu7076

‘distant’. ‘firm, unyielding’. ‘to worry [some-one]’ (impersonal), ‘to dwell’. ‘to put away’. g. Old Spanish: ‘to sit down’. h. ‘to set, put, lay’.

418

‘to weigh’

pe‘sdre pe*zér pazeér pozdr

—_—

9099

417

‘razor’

Notes to intervocalic /s/: b. ec. d. e. f.

uwsu-

8651

tas6‘io raz6*r raz6‘ir rez6"r

7336

isu

tensa

riso rfs ris ris

ri-su-

izo

té*za, té‘sa

416

‘Jaughter’

tiso is tis

*téza téza

6543

414 ‘use’ visu —_—

té*sa — —

pisu-

5842

Meaning

btésa,

—_ —

na‘su-

413 ‘stretched’ (f.sg.)

‘to stop’ pasdre epasdre

posére pauzér pozér fpozér

pezdr

®pozér

pe‘nsa-re

hpausa-re

6391

pouzér paysdre 6308

80

Protro-Romance PHoNnoLoGy

c. Final: lost in Roumanian and Italian, preserved elsewhere (cf. Politzer 1947; Viiiiniinen 1950): Ex. no.

Meaning

Sard.

419

mézus

Roum. Ital.

_ méllo

ONFr.

mié]¢

Span.

—

OSFr.

Lat.

REW

§

Ex. no.

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

PRom.

Lat.

REW

mu-lo's 5742

Notes to final /s/: a. b.

—

limes

bés

—

limas

Old Roman. Old Spanish.

pék

limas

pék

limes

pégo pékus

Ifmas If*mas

pekus

9455

423

mii‘los

§

v's

6339, 6325

424

‘mules’ muilos — — muils muls miils mulos mus

l{mas —= —

yos

5479

422

‘files’

apéko

v6*s ud*s

melius

Meaning

pékus

vo's

— mélius

421

‘animals; sheep’

vi voi

v6"s

mi]s

Port. PRom.

‘ye’

bés

miéls

Cat.

420

‘better’ (adv.)

‘feet?

425

‘thou combest’

li-mas

5042 426

‘ye comb’

pédes —= — pés pié¢ péus piés pés

péttenas —_ pénéenas pénes péntines péinas pénteas

pettendtes pieptond¢ pettindte penéend¢ penis¢ pentiné¢ >peinddes penteddes

pedes

pektina:s

pektina-tis

pédes

6439

péktenas 6329

pektendtes 6329

Tue PHonemic Inventory or Proto-RomaNncE 9.

/m/, initial and intervocalic. Preserved as such throughout. a.

Initial:

Ex. no. Meaning

427 ‘bad’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

mélu — milo mal mel mél milo méu

Lat. REW

malu5273

PRom.

mélu

§

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

must(u-)

Ital.

428 ‘wall’ miuru bmiir(u-) muro mur mur mur muro muro

mii‘ru

muw-ru5764

431 ‘must (new wine)’ mustu

Roum.

mé‘sto

amuk(u-)

emé*kko mé*k

mé"]} m{]

mé*k

mi]

*mizo milo miliu milju5572

432 ‘sleeve’

méko

mé*ko

muikku mu:ku5709

433 mil? molinu

maturdre

manika

maturére madurér

manto

Span.

mésto

manga

ménika manika 5300

molf*nu moli-nu5644

m6o‘st

PRom. Lat. REW §

m6‘sto

mustu mustu5783

ménega

ménega maga

mofino

Notes to initial /m/:

sper

434 ‘to ripen’

ménika,

minako

most

Cat.

‘snot’ mikku

mfzu méiu milo

ONFr.

mé‘st

430

429 ‘millet’

mulfno molf(nt) molfn molf(nt) molfno

OSFr.

Port.

81

Written mel ‘trouble, sorrow’ (Aucassin et Nicolete §1). Macedo-Roumanian. Old Spanish. ‘dried snot’. Old Italian.

madurér madurér madurér

matu‘rére matu-ra-re 5430

Proro-Romance PHONOLOGY

82 b. Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

Ital.

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

Intervocalic: 435 ‘branch’ rému —_— rémo rém réim. rém rrémo rrémo. rému ra‘mu7035

fi*mu

fu-mu3572

439 ‘woolen yarn’

*ké kim bk6*mo ké*m

kém(e)

k6*m ekuémo

ké*mo

k6*mo 4kyo: modo6072 441

440

‘noise’

‘to love’

442

‘to tremble’

estdmine

amére

rumére

tremuldre

°(i)stéme

améare

rumére

tremoldre tremblér tremblér tromolaér temblar

estém estdim. estém estdmbre estime istéme(ne) fsta‘men 8230

amar ameér amér amar

amar amare amare 399

rimé*r remé“ur

A remé-ur rrumér A. rrumé r AA ru mé re ru-mo-re74il

Notes to intervocalic /m/:

Pepe oP

‘how’

‘woof’ tréma trémo trama trama tréime tréma trama tréma, tréma tra‘ma 8847

fimu fuim(u-) fimo fim fim fim himo fimo

438

437

436

‘smoke’

Old Sardinian. Old Italian. Old Spanish. ‘in what manner’.

With ‘movable /i/’ in Old Italian; cf. § 2.722.2.a-c.

‘warp (of loom)’.

tremuld(re)

tremulére tremula-re 8879

Tue Pyonemic INvEnrory or Proto-RoMANCE 10.

/n/, initial, intervocalic, and final. a.

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

Roum.

Ital.

Initial: preserved as such in all Romance languages. 443 ‘neither, nor’ nen niéé né*= ne, nf na, nf ni ni né né*n) nek 5868

445

bndrs nére na-re5826 448 ‘nest-ege’ ’

446

‘(wal)nut?

‘knot’

mike

nédu

né“te

n6“do

né“¢

né‘i¢ nué¢ né“¢ nike nuke6009

néd(u-)

né*

né“ud

nis ntido

ndé~

né“du no-du5947

450

449 ‘new’ (dim.)

‘to harm’

niimeru

niddle

fnoéddu

ndékere

né“vero

nial nizél nidaél

novéllo noél

nozé‘r

né“mbre némbra né“mbra — /|/ in Catalan:

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

léna lina léna lina ldino ]éne léna léna lana A875

Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

469 ‘struggle’ lipte

16*tta

16%éa lite Wite liga lite hikta lukta 5147

lig

1éi 1éi 16% 1é“ge le-ge5008

li

Ex. no. Meaning

lide

ei ei

Wit

ohig

shi¢ li*ke

luna

5190

471 ‘to raise’

léttu

»ledre

létto liéé lit

levaére levér lover Jovaér *lebar levaér

ltt

1éé0 léito léktu lektu4965

Notes to initial /1/: a. b. ¢,

li*na

lu-ke-

470 ‘bed’

,

Inflectional and derivational stem /liz-/. Also ‘to absorb’, Also ‘to carry’.

‘moon’ lina hina lina lina line ine lina hia

like

lége 1é*EBe

468

467 ‘ight’

466 aw’

465 ‘wool’

Ex. no. Meaning

5163 472

‘binding’

lud(re)

legatiira legatiira liadtira liadtire Jegadtire

leydre

ligatti*ra liga-tu-ra 5026

leya-re 5000

Tue Pyonemic Invenrory or Proto-ROMANCE

87

b. Intervocalic: lost in Portuguese-Galician, preserved elsewhere: Ex. no.

473

Meaning Sard. Roum.

paélu par(u-)

Ttal. OSFr.

palo pal

ONFr. Cat.

pél pal

Span.

palo

Port. PRom. Lat.

REW

6182

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

§

tela

3293

8080

478 ‘hairy’ pilésu pordés(u-)

pald*s pelézo —

pilo-su6505

molér

moé“r mélere

so-lu-

8620

pild*su

fila-re

méldra —

sélo

fi‘lére

Lat.

bmglo mélre

s6~ sé‘lu

peldé*so pelé’s palé“us

filér hilér fiér

REW

sé“ul 861

‘to grind’ mélere —

86°lo 861

filére filér filer

Cat. Span. Port.

PRom.

+6%ile télo

477 ‘to spin’ filére —

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

sdlu

tla té‘la

476

‘alone’

téla “tedro

té‘la

palu-

475

‘cloth’

téla

pao pélu §

474

‘post?

molere

5642

479 ‘to wish’ sbolliri vred(re)

volé‘re volé*r volé*ir volér — —

yolé*re

4uol-

9180.2

480 ‘miller’ molinérgu

mulindio molinér molinisr

molinér molinéro emoléiro

moli*nériu

moli-na-riu5643

SRE

oe

Notes to intervocalic /l/: ‘linen on the loom’. Piedmontese. Campidanian. Latin infinitive /yelle/; Romance infinitive remade on root /yol-/. From pre-Port. */molléiro/ < */molnarju/ < /moli‘narju/.

Proro-Romancr PHONOLOGY

88 12,

/r/, initial, intervocalic, and final:

a. Initial: > /rr/ in Central and Western Ibero-Romance, elsewhere: Ex. no.

481

Meaning Sard.

réta

Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

Lat.

REW

§

ro“da ré‘ta,

mt ré“ne

rrfo ri‘u

— rréne

ro-ta,

485

*réste résta rést

Span. Port.

rréstra rréstea,

rést rést

réste

Teste-

16°s r6°s

*rréso

rii*ssu

ru-ssu-

rroé*r r6“dere

487

‘red’ —_—_ artis(u-) 16sso ré"s

rroér

7341.2

486

‘rope’

‘to bellow’

pe TE Reo

ro-dere 7358

488

‘to scrape, scratch’

— rugf(re) rugéire rugir

fraskdr raskdr

*rruir rrugir

rraskér °g4r rrasgdr

rufr

ru’gi*re ru-gire

Notes to initial /r/: With /ué/ through morphophonemic realignment. ‘side of the body’. ‘rope of sedge’. ‘reddish (of cows]’.

‘to gnaw’ rofide(re) r6“dere a r6“ire, ro“z6"r r6“udra

riuu

7206

such

—

ru rrfo

re-ne

7387

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr.

PRom.

rfu

riu rfo rfu ri(f)

Ex. no.

Lat.

_—

as

484

‘stream’

brino ré‘ne — ré‘in

Meaning

ONFr. Cat.

483

‘kidney’

rosta ré“ta ré“da r6"uda

ré“da *rruéda

Port. PRom.

482

‘wheel’

preserved

Old Spanish. Venetian, Lombard: ‘to have neck-itch; to clear one’s throat’. Past participle of /radere/ ‘to shave’.

rasikdre

rastiér raskér

rasikére

(: ras-)

89

Tue Puonemic InvENrory or Proro-ROMANCE b. Intervocalic: preserved everywhere. Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

490 ‘sea’

489 ‘rare’ réru ‘rdro rar

rér rér rrdro

rréro

réro ra-Tu7067 493 ‘parent, relative’ parénte dparinte parénte

parén(tt)

parént

parén(t*) pariénte

parénte parénte

parente-

6233

mare mare mfare mér mer mér mar mar mére mare 5349

491

kolé“re

kolé*r

kolé“ur kolé*r kolér

ké*r kolé*re

g.

h. i.

5433

496

495

‘to die’

‘to perish’ perf(re) perire perir porfr perir peregér

pere¢é*r

perf‘re

dperi-re

Notes to intervocalic /r/: a. b. c. d. e. f.

ma‘tu-ru-

2056

pardre

Also /r4do/, through dissimilation. ‘big [of fruits)’. Moldavian: ‘over-ripe’. ‘father; priest’. ‘to ward off’. ‘to stop’. With unexplained /rr/. ‘to go across’. Infinitive /mori-/ (medio-passive, deponent).

6415

?

mati‘ru

kolo-re-

epardre pardre pardr parder

492 ripe’

bmatiru *matur(u-) mattiro madir modtr madur madtiro madiiro

kolére

494 ‘to prepare’

porar fparér fpardr pardre para-re 6229

‘

‘colour’

murf(re) morfre

morir morir morfr morir

emorrér

morf‘re imor5681.2

Proto-RomANcE PHonoLoecy

90 ce.

Final:

Sard. Roum.

per p(rje

Ital.

REW

per

amdggo

per

emajor

bmdior méira — —

per par per — — per

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom.

Lat.

mére —

§

*méjor

6396

5247

‘shepherd’

‘emperor’

‘greater’

‘by, through’

Meaning

500

499

498

497

Ex. no.

— impardt(u-)

i

emperdire emperé6re — — — *imperdtor

*impera tor 4305

— —_—

epastre °0

pastre {péstre — — — pastor

°pastor

6279

Notes to final /r/: a, b. c. d. e f.

Tuscan. Also Franco-Provengal (Montana, Vaud) /méjor/ ‘swine-herd’. Nominative singular. But ef. OIt. /sendto/ ‘senator’ < PRom. /sendtor/ : Lat. /sena-tor/. North Italian: Bellunese and Old Trevisan, respectively. Also Ladin (Val Gardena) /p48ter/.

2.6.

Vowel-Clusters and Diphthongs

2.61. 1.

Vowru-Cuusters.* /8i/:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

502 ‘forty’ bardénta

— kuardnta kardnta kardnte korénte kuarénta kuarénta kyard(i)nta kuadra-ginta 6912

Further examples: 55 /mdjs/

503 ‘ninety’ norénta

— novanta nonénta nonénta nordnte nobénta novénta *nond(i)nta nona-ginta 5953

504 ‘I sang’ kantd(v)i

kintéi kantéi bkantéi éantdi bkanti kanté katéi kantd(y)ikanta-(w)i—

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE 2.

91

/6i/: (shaky, because attested only in Italian and OSFr.):

Ex. no. Meaning

505 ‘T lost’

Sard. Roum. Ttal.

perdéi perdéi

OSFr.

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

perdéi

REW § Notes to /4i/ and /éi/: * a.

The number 501 was omitted through over-sight. The forms in /v/ have been reshaped by analogy with the developments of /néye/ ‘nine’; those with /r/, by dissimilation from the other /n/-consonants. Forms reshaped by analogy with other conjugations.

b. 8.

Ex. no.

/af/:

Meaning

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

506 ‘master, teacher’ méstru maéstru

maé‘stro maé‘stre maistre

maé‘stra

m/(a)éstro méstro matstru magistru-

5229

Proro-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

92

/ay/ (before consonant), stressed and unstressed:

Dieutuone.

2.62.

some South Italian dialects, Old South

preserved as such in Roumanian,

French, and as /ou/ in Portuguese-Galician; other Romance varieties. 1.

Stressed:

Ex. no.

507

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

§

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

§

508

‘gold’ — dur(u-) éro dur or ér 6ro éuro duru auru800

tréu tdur(u-) téro téur — stdur téro téuro téuru tauru8602

511 ‘south wind’ —. dustru éstro dustre éstra — — — dustru aystru807

509

‘bull’

512 ‘he stops’ pasat 4pdso pdésa péuza pézad *pdéze fpdza ®pduza pdysat paysat

6308

Notes to stressed /4y/: a, b. e. d. e. f. g.

> /a/ in Sardinian, /o/ in

Old Catalan. ‘thorn-apple’. Old Portuguese. Old Roumanian: ‘he dwells’. ‘he puts away’. Old Spanish: ‘he sits down’. ‘he sets, puts, lays’.

Further examples: 161 pduperu, 370 ldudat.

‘laurel’ léru ‘J4ur(u-) alléro léur lor — léuro lduru layru-

4943

510

‘to close’ kléudere klfde(re) kitidere kléure kléra kiéura *éouvir kl4udere klaydere 1967

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proto-RoMANCE 2.

Unstressed:

Ex. no.

513

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. REW

audi*re

§

aydi-re

779

Note to unstressed /ay/: a.

514

‘to hear’ — auz{(re) udfre augir odfr ofr ofr ouvir

PRom.

Lat.

93

Old Catalan.

515

‘bird’ — — udtdéllo auzél oizél sauzél —

aykéllu

aukellu828

‘to kill’ — uéfde(re) uétidere augfre offdra *au¢iure —

aukt*dere ayki-dere 6030

516

‘to praise’ — laud4(re) lodére lauzér lodéer loér loar louvér

laydére

layda-re 4938

94

Proro-Romancr PHONOLOGY

2.7.

Clusters of Two Consonants

2.71. HomosyLuaBic, i.e. with both consonants belonging to the same syllable and beginning it. Of this type are the clusters consisting of stop

or fricative + liquid (/lr/), initial and intervocalic. 1.

Consonant + /r/: a.

/pr/: i.

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital.

Initial: 517 ‘booty, prey’ apréa prado préda

OSFr.

bpré“za

ONFr. Cat. Span.

bpré‘ia — bpréa

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW §

Ex. no. Meaning

bpré“a

préda praeda 6714

prémere —_— prémere

ONFr.

priémbra

Cat.

premé‘r

Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

prina priino

premé*r

ipremér —_—_ prémere premere 6738

pré*= pré*

primu *imprime primo ‘prim

prél pré“l

&prim tprimo hprimo

proud pro“u

priino *priina

pru*na

pri*mu-

pré“de

apru-na

pro-de

6798

pri-mu6754

6766

523 ‘ready’

522

‘price’

pré¢(u-) pré¢go pré¢

pris

520 “first?

519 ‘advantage’ préde

prina prune prina

521 ‘to press’

Sard. Roum. Ital.

OSFr.

518 ‘plum’

524 ‘breakfast, lunch’

préntu

prénzu

pré‘nto

praéngo

prinz(u-)

prént

pro“nt

Iprénto prétju pretiu6746

préto pro“ntu

préndju prandiu6730

pro-mptu-

6776

monaorp

Notes to initial /pr/: Old Campidanian: ‘pledge, pawn’.

With /é*/ or developments thereof by analogy with /pré‘sa/ ‘capture’?

Old Spanish. Neuter plural of /pru:num/ ‘plum’. Derived adverb: ‘early, at first’. ‘outstanding, fine, delicate’.

g. h. i, j.

‘thin, delicate’. Noun: ‘cousin’. ‘to push down, sink’, Adverb: ‘quickly’.

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE

95

ii. Intervocalic: preserved in Eastern Romance, lenited in Western Romance. Ex. no.

525

Meaning

‘goat?

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

krépa k&pre képra kébra éisévra

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

kébra kébra képra kapra

Cat.

kébro

REW §

1647

Notes to intervocalie /pr/: a. b. ce. d.

Old Bolognese. ‘protected’. Old Ligurian. Old Spanish.

526

‘goat-herd’ krapérzu keprér kaprdéio kabriér

éevriér

kobriér kabréro kabréiro

kaprérju

kapra-riu1648

527

528 ‘sunny’

‘copper’ bapriku

*k6“vro ké*ure k6“ura k6“bre

k6"bre

kiipru kupru2445

*abrigu

dabrigo

apri*ku

apri-ku561

Proro-RoMANcE PHONOLOGY

96 b.

/br/: Initial: preserved throughout, except in Sardinian.

i.

Ex. no.

529

Meaning

530

‘breeches’

Sard.

srfigas

‘short? —

—

Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

bréke sbréke bréga bréia

— briéve bréu briéf

4brima *brima {prima fbrima

Span. Port.

>bréga bréga

*brébe bréve

fbrima fprima

Lat.

bra-ka,

Cat.

brdéga

PRom.

bréka,

REW §

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

REW

bréue

533 ‘paw’

bbréka brénka §

bri*ma bru-ma

1291

frénka Sbrinke bbrénka ibrénka ibrénte ibrénke hbrénka,

Port. PRom.

thriima

breye-

1252

Ex. no. Meaning

Lat.

bréu

branka 1271

1335

534 ‘ugly’ — —_ briitto brit brit brit Ibnito

briito Sbra“ttu bru-tu1348

Notes to initial /br/: a, b. c.

Plural. Also ‘diapers’. At least semi-learned, because of non-diphthongised /é/.

e.

Umbrian.

g. h. i.

Also ‘hand’. ‘claw’. ‘branch’.

k.

Not learnéd.

d.

f.

j.

‘fist’.

‘mist’.

‘stupid’.

Baa

‘winter’

‘arm! br颢gu

brdé¢(u-) bréééo brag bra¢

bré¢

brézo brdzo

brékiu

brakju-

1256

Tue Puonemic Inventory oF ProTo-ROMANCE

97

ii. Intervocalic: first element labialised or lost in Sardinian and Roumanian: doubled in Italian; lenited in Western Romance. Ex, no. Meaning

535 ‘smith’

Sard. Roum.

fréu féur(u-)

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

féure feévre — — — fébru fabru-

Ital.

REW

fébbro

§

3120

536 ip’ sléra, lébbro slgura alsévra

‘ébru a ‘labru- °a, 4813

gpaerP

Notes to intervocalic /br/: Feminine. Masculine and feminine, respectively. Neuter singular and plural, respectively. Macedo-Roumanian. Learnéd, because of initial /f/.

‘fever’ fréa shdvre fébbre féure fiévra fébre hiébre fébre fébre febre3230

538

‘February’ frefrgu fourér febbrdio feuriér fevriér febrér *febréro feveréiro februdriu februa-rju3231

98

Proro-Romancr PHonoLocy c.

/tr/: i,

Initial: preserved throughout:

Ex. no.

539

Meaning Sard. Roum.

Ttal.

ONFr.

trédiki ==

tréu

tré*s

tré*ze

tré*=

Cat.

tréu

Port.

tréve

PRom. Lat. REW

§

Ex. no.

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital.

tré*izo

bkriémbro

trés

tréze

543

tré“ge

trinta — tré“nta

tré“nta

Cat.

tréuro

trénte

Port.

trazé“r

trite

tréira

Span.

traér

PRom.

Lat.

REW

tr&(g)ere

§

trahere 8841

8870

545

‘thirty’

tréire

ONFr.

—

*tremér

tré“diki tre-dekim 544

‘to draw, pull’

tremér

tré*za

8883

tréere trdge(re) strax

OSFr.

atré%is

tré“s tres

8823

trémere

tremare

tré“z

trabe trabe-

‘to tremble’

tr6“didi

trés

trabe

542

‘thirteen’

trés tréi

treif

Span.

541

‘three’

traébe —_—

tréve

OSFr.

540

‘beam’

trénta

tréinta trinta

tri-ginta 8901

‘trumpet’

tremé*r

trémere tremere 8877

546

‘trunk, stump’

triimba,

trinku

*tré“mba

tré“nko

‘tré6mpo

trénk

tré*mba “pa,

tré*mpa

tr6“nk

tré“nk

trémpa

trénko

trumba pa

trinku

tribba “pa —_—

8952

triku

trunku8956

mS

Bo

TP

Notes to initial /tr/:

Before following vowel, /tré*iz/ > Mod.Fr. /trwaz/, as in /trwazom/ ‘three men.’ With /kr/ < Gallic /krem-/ ‘to fear’ (?). Old Spanish.

Olt. /tra(é)-/.

Also ‘tornado’. ‘hunting-horn’.

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proto-RoMANCE

99

ii. Intervocalic: preserved in Eastern Romance, lenited in Western Romance: Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

O*tre Sire

ONFr.

_

Span.

édre

Cat.

PRom. Lat. REW

ematre

mire méedra mara madre miatre matre

6“dra

Port.

odre §

litre utre-

Sard. Roum.

ma‘tre-

5406

9102

Ex, no. Meaning

Ital. OSFr.

Jatré“ne lairé*(n+)

Port. PRom.

ladré latré“ne

Lat.

REW

ladrén — ladrén

§

552 ‘womb’

551 ‘thief’ — ees

ONFr. Cat. Span.

‘mother’

latro-ne4931

ematrike hmatri¢e matriée mairi¢

madri¢ madri¢

matri*ke

matri-ke5422

Notes to intervocalic /tr/: a. b. ce. d.

e

£. g.

h,

549

550 ‘glass’

‘brother’

bitru

suirdi bitri

Ital. OSFr.

548

547 leathern bottle’

Campidanian. Macedo-Roumanian. Old Italian. Oaths of Strassburg: fradra % /frédra/. Oblique; nom. /fréter/ ( : Lat. /fra-ter/). Old Spanish. ‘yeast’. Maramures: ‘colic’.

*frdtre frdire afreSra

vé"tro vé‘ire

véiSre

fhédro *frdétre fra-tre3485

yftru yitru9404

100

Proto-RoMANcE PHONOLOGY d. /dr/: i,

Initial: preserved everywhere:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

Ital. OSFr.

553 ‘dragon’ — drék(u-)

— —

—

drép

sdraké“ne dragé“n

ONFr.

Cat.

tragé*(n*)

Span.

dragén

Port. PRom.

dragé draké*ne

Lat.

REW

§

554 ‘cloth’

drako-ne2759

dréppo drép drép

trépo

trépo dréppu

—_

2765

Note to initial /dr/: a.

Old Italian.

ii. Intervocalic: preserved in Eastern Romance regions: Ex. no.

555

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

‘backwards’ —_— saddréto aréire ariédra arréra arrédro arrédo adrétro ad retro: 198

Notes to intervocalic /dr/: a. b.

Tuscan. Noun, m.: ‘beam’.

556

‘square’ (adj., f.sg.) —_ — kuadréta kairéda kadrédo >kairdt kuadréda kuadréda kyadréta kyadra-ta 6915

Romance,

lenited in some

Western

Tur Puonemic Inventory or Proto-RoMANcE ea

/kr/: j.

Initial: preserved throughout:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard, Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

101

557 ‘tomorrow’

559 ‘hair’

558 ‘crinkly, wavy’

krds

krispu

krine

skrdi

kré*spo

krfne dkrf(nt) krin dkrf(nt)

krésp kré“sp krésp

bkrés *kr4s krés kra-s 2296

kréspo kré“spo krispu

nike kriiée

kr6*ée

kr6“¢

kr6*ig (2+) kréu

krf*ne

krike kruke2348

kri-ne-

krispu-

2329

560 ‘cross’

2326

ii. Intervocalic: Ex. no.

560a ‘bitter’

Meaning

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

ékru ékru dkre

Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

dgre egro agra dgro agro

dkru °e akre92

560b ‘tear’ lékrima lékramo lékrima ldgrema léirma légroma légrima légrima lékrima lakrima 4824.

amp aes oe

Notes to initial and intervocalic /kr/: Old and South Italian. Old Spanish. Old Portuguese. ‘mane’. Old Italian. ‘gift’. ‘usury’.

560d ‘gain’

560c ‘thin’ mékru emakro méagre magro magro

mékru makru5202

hikru

16“gre 16“gra

elégro

816°gro

hikru lukru-

5146

102

Proto-Romancr PHonotocy f.

/gr/: i.

Initial: preserved throughout except in Sardinian:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

561 ‘crane’ Sarrui

Roum.

rénu

gruie

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

PRom. Lat. REW §

gréin

gréno

griégo

grino

gra(nt)

gré(n*)

gria

grii‘a °e gru-e3896

bgriio grénu granu3846

564 ‘fat’

563 ‘Greek’ grék(u-) griéko griéu griéu

griu

grti(e) gria griio griie grda

Port.

562 ‘grain’

grégo gréku graeku3832

réssu

grds(u-)

grdsso grés gras gras gréso

*gréso dgrdssu krassu2299.2

ii. Intervocalic: preserved in Eastern Romance, lenited in some regions of Western Romance: Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

Roum. Ital.

565 ‘field’ —

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

agru agro

— dira — — —_ égru agru276

566 ‘entire’ intrégu intrég(u-)

enté“gre

entfr

567 ‘black’ négru

'né‘ro né‘gre

entégra entrégo

né‘ir négra négro

intégru integru-

nigru nigru-

entérgo 4479

né“gro 5917

568

‘blackness’ negred¢a

negré“¢¢da

nigritia nigritia

Sao

oS

Notes to initial and intervocalic /gr/: Campidanian. ‘scarlet-berry’. With /8/ from /gréi&a/ ‘fat’ (noun) < PRom. /grdssja/. With /g/ from /gréssu-/ ‘gross.’ With /r/ instead of /gr/ probably in imitation of ONFr. /né‘ir/.

5921

103

Tue Puonemic INVENTORY or Proro-RoMANCE

g /fr/: i.

Initial only:

Ex. no. Meaning

569 ‘bridle’

Sard. Roum.

— friu

Cat. Span.

fré(n*) fréno

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

fré“no fré“(n+) fré*in

Port. PRom. Lat.

REW

fré%io fré“nu §

fre-nu-

3496

‘to rub’ frikdre freké afregdre fre“gér fre“isér frogér fregér

fre“gér

frikére frika-re 3501

Notes to initial /fr/: a. b.

With /g/ in imitation of WRom. lenition. Nominative to 549 /frdtre/.

571

‘brother’

‘ash-tree’ frdsin(u-) fréssino fréise frdisno frésa frésno fréiso fréksinu fraksinu3489

fréte frate

fréde

bfréte(r)

fra-ter 3485

104

Proro-Romancr PHonoLocy

2. Consonant (stop or fricative) + /1/. Preserved in some regions (especially Roumanian, Gallo-Romance); second element palatalised in others (Italo-, IberoRomance). a.

/pl/: i.

Initial:

Ex. no.

573

Meaning Sard. Roum.

— plaéga

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

REW

é4ga

§

6562

Ex. no.

577

Meaning Sard. Roum.

Ttal. OSFr.

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

‘flat?

pléno Jéna

pléna pla-na

plé‘na plena

p()is

plis pus bplus pis

"ia

pli*s

plus 6618

6596

578

579

‘to rain’

‘to fold’

580

‘to please’

—_ plod(re)

—_— *plekdre

plékere plaéed(re)

plat plat édto édto pléttu —

plové‘ir pléura Jobér éovér pléyere plouere, pluere _

pliidér plegér elegér eéegdr plikére plika-re

plaizir pldéure

6586

pidvere pléure

6610

Notes to initial /pl/: a. b. ce.

‘blow’. Old Aragonese. Old Portuguese.

e. f.

‘to arrive’. With /g/ in imitation of WRom. lenition.

d.

piti*

—_— aplate

pidtto plat

§

plane léna

6581

576

‘more’ (adv.)

pris

pié‘na plé*na plé‘ina

i

pliga *pla-ga

575

‘full’ (f.sg.) —_—_ pline

pidna pléna pléino

— liga

Port.

574

‘Jevel, even’ (f.sg.) préna —_

pidga pléga pléie

Cat. Span.

PRom. Lat.

‘wound’

Macedo-Roumanian: noun, ‘flat hand’

(f.).

fpie“gére ple“gaér

6601

piacé*re plazé*r

plaké*re plake-re 6557

Tur Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE ii. Intervocalic: Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

581 ‘double’ — diiplu

Tal.

dé“ppio

OSFr.

dé*ble

ONFr. Cat.

dé“bla dé“ble

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

— —_— duplu duplu-

REW §

2802

b.

/bl/: Initial only:

Ex. no, Meaning

582 583 ‘love-lies-bleeding’ ‘flattering’ (f.sg.)

Sard. Roum. Ital.

—

OSFr.

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

*bié*tola

eblinda —

>blé“ta blét *blédo Sbré“do blit(t)ublitu-

blindo tblénde — —_— blinda blanda

blé*t

§

1173

Peas

op

Notes to initial /bl/:

‘beet’. ‘orache’. ‘wild fox-glove’. ‘green amaranth’. ‘soft, tame’. Tortosa: ‘soft’.

blénda

1151

106

Protro-Romance PHonotocy ce. /kl/: i.

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

§

Initial: 584 ‘clear, bright’ ééru skidr kidro klar klér klér — —_ Kléru Kla-ru-

1963

Ede kéie kidve kléu klaf (vt) kléu lébe cave kléye kla-ye1981

Notes to initial /kl/: a,

586 ‘nail’

585 ‘key’

Old Roumanian: ‘pure, clean’.

587 ‘to call’

du

gamdre

kiévo kléu kiéu kléu

kiamére klamér kKlamér klemér Jamér éamar klamdre kla-ma-re 1961

kléyu klayu1984

kem4(re)

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proto-ROMANCE

107

ii. Intervocalic: only as result of syncope: Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

éiu okiu

OSFr. ONFr.

ué} ué]

Ital.

bé¢du vékiu vékkio viél viel

6kkio

Cat.

ul

Span. Port.

PRom. Lat. REW §

vé']

biéZo vélo uéklu *uetulu9291

640 élo

éklu okulu6038

Ex. no. Meaning

592 ‘louse’

Sard. Roum.

_ pediike

Span.

pidzo

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Port.

589 ‘old’

588 ‘eye’

pidé*kkio pezo*] pa2d6*] pol

PRom. Lat. REW §

ped*Jo

pedtklu pedukulu6361

Notes to intervocalie /kl/: a. b. c.

Diminutive to /uetus/ ‘old’. < /ispfkulu/? Campidanian.

591

590

‘pair’

‘mirror’

bispfku spékkio espé] espfl

espéZo

espélo

ispéklu spekulu8133

*pariga poréke

paré“Jo

parélo paréza paré’Ja parfkla

(3 par-) 6240

Proro-Romancr PHONOLOGY

108 d. /gl/: i.

Initial:

Ex. no. Meaning

593 ‘sword’

Sard. Roum.

— _—

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

=gldi agldi

Ital.

Ex. no.

Meaning

Sard.

gliga

glige

— — glédiu gladju-

glékia glakie3771

3773

597 ‘little acorn; gland’

598 ‘greedy person’

réndula

Roum.

gindtira

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

gid¢o giddda

giddo

REW §

gidndola gléndola gléndra berdnola léndre léndoa gléndula §

glandula 3777

°gid*tto

fgloté*(n*) fglotén

gloté*(n*)

eglutté“ne hglutto-ne 3808

asop

Notes to initial /gl/:

PRO

595

594 ‘ice’

Siris’.

Valencian. Old Spanish. Old Portuguese. Adjective, ‘greedy’ (< nom. /glitto/.

Oblique: nominative /glé*t/.

Oblique: nominative /glitto/. Nominative /glutto-/.

‘gravel’

gidia gidira gldiro gléra

gléra léira glirja

glarea

3779

596 ‘acorn lénde ginda gidnda glan(d*) glént (*d*t) bgléns *lénde ‘Jénde glande glande3778

?

Tur PHonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE

109

ii. Intervocalic: only as result of syncope: Ex. no. Meaning

599 ‘clabber’

Sard. Roum.

600 ‘to stay awake’

kézu. kidg(u-)

Ital.

bizére vegid(re)

kudllo

OSFr.

aveggidre

ké]

ONFr.

velar

ké}

Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

velar

kod] kudZo kudlo kuéglu koagulu2006

vetlér — — uiglire yigila-re 9326

Note to intervocalic /gl/: a.

Old Italian. e.

/fi/: Initial only:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. OSFr.

filédkku fiék(u-)

Span. Port.

fidmma fidma

flor

fAdk

fldma

fidk

— fréko

fid“re

§

fld4mma aflame

fidkko fiék

— —_—

PRom.

603 ‘flame’

fid*re f6*r

fié*ur

Cat.

REW

602 ‘flake’

flére flodre

Ital. ONFr.

Lat.

601 ‘flower’

fidkku

flo-re-

3382

fiammére flamar

flamér

lima cdma,

— —

flamma

3375

flammére —

flame

fismma

fiokku-

604 ‘to flame, burn’

3350

flomér

flammére

flamma-re 3352

Note to initial /fi/:

a.

2.72.

‘dryness.’

AmBISYLLABIC

(by

case of /nt/, § 2.272.2.s.ii):

definition intervocalic;

‘

word-final

also in the

2.721. Dousie (GEMINaTE): preserved in Sardinian and Italian (central and southern), simplified elsewhere. (Cf. Sala 1964.)

110

Proro-Romancr PHonotocy

1

/yy/:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

§

605 ‘to come to, happen’ *aven{(re) avvenire avenfr avonir bavonir *abentr davir auuent*re adyeni-re 216

606 ‘to come to, arrive’ — — *avventdre faventé — — — — ayuentdre adyenta-re 218

607 ‘to inform’ —_ — avvertire avertir avertir — abertfr avertir auyertf‘re adyerti-re 222

608 ‘lawyer’

avvokéto avokat avosed abogédo avogado auyokétu adyoka:tu226

Notes to /yy/: a. b. ce. d. e. f.

‘to ferment’. Old Catalan. Old Spanish. Old Portuguese. Old Italian: ‘to prosper’. Dauphinois.

2. /pp/: Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

*kappéni kapun

Ital. OSFr.

ONFr. Cat. Span.

REW

§

610 ‘to call’ bappeddére —_—

611 ‘to escape’ — skapd(re)

612 ‘to eat’ pappire

papa(re)

kappé“ne kapé*(n*)

appellére apeldr

°(i) skappdre eskapér

kapé kappé“ne

apelér appellére

eskapar eskappdre

pappére papér papeér papar papdr papér pappdre

2952

pappa re 6214

éapén kapd*(n*) kapén

Port. PRom,

Lat.

609 ‘eapon’

kapo-ne1641

apalér — —

appella re 542

eséapxr eskapér eskapar

(: kappa)

Notes to /pp/: a,

Campidanian.

¢.

With ‘/i/ movable’ in Old Italian; cf. § 2.722.2.a-c,

b.

‘to bark’.

Further examples: 225 /&ppos/; 236 /képpa/; 333 /kippa/; 1046 /appardre/; 1047 /apparé“re/; 1048 /apparé“skere/; 1049 /appe*sdre/; 1050 /appé“nere/.

111

Tue Puonenic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE 3.

/tt/:

Ex. no.

613

Meaning Sard.

bétiu

Roum. Ital. OSFr.

cat

Cat.

REW

§

Ex. no.

Meaning Sard. Roum.

gato gdto g° kéttu kattu1770

617

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

amatta eméto mate

Port.

hméta

PRom. Lat. REW

eméte esmidta

§

f6*tra

‘blanket, covering’ omatta, —

Cat. Span.

métro

5616

matta matta

5424.1

atendrér atendér

atedé*r

atténdere attendere 763

t6*ta to*te

té*ta

hodér fo‘dé*r futtere futyere

téda

t6*da

to°t(t)a to-ta

8915

3612

618

atténdere aténdre aténdra

>tritta

f6*tra

620 ‘fight’

619

‘to attend, wait’ atténdere —

totta téte

futtfre

fuite(re) f6"ttere £6*tre

metér me*té*r mittere =mittere

616 ‘all’ (f.sg.)

615

‘to inseminate’

—= mé‘ttere mé“tre mé‘tra

gat

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

‘to put? mintere

— gdtto gat

ONFr.

614

‘cat?

‘head-band’ — ibdta

ivé*tta véta kyé"ta — béta

—

uftta yitta

9494

mbatdie battd}la batéla batd]o batdéla

battdlia

battya-lia 995

Frit

mo ae oP

Notes to /tt/:

m.

‘to send’. With /i/ either from /ku-nktu-/ ‘all or in imitation of OFr. /ttit/ ‘all’ (m.pl.). ‘bush, tree’. Old Italian. Modern SFr.: ‘thatch’. ‘sour milk’. ‘bush’. ‘tree’. ‘band, strip’. ‘summit’. ‘thong’. ‘fisticuffs’.

Further examples: 85 /gitta/, 98 /inglutt{*re/, 166 /Mttera/, 253 /sagitta/, 344 /béittere/, 347 /biitte/, 534 /bri“ttu/, 577 /pléttu/, 582 /blittu/, 598 /glutté*ne/, ete.

112

Proto-Romance PHono.tocy 4,

/kk/:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

REW

621 ‘mouthful;

small roll’

— bukéta bokkéta, bokdda botkda bokdda bokdda bokida bukkdta §

(: bukka)

1358

Ex. no. Meaning

625 ‘cow’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

bikka vike vakka vika vééa viko béka vika

Lat. REW

yakka 9109

PRom.

yakka

§

623 ‘rock’

622

‘snotty; shiny’ (f.sg.)

mukkésa mukésa *mukktsa moké*za

rékka

moké*zo

rékka réka rééa réka

mukké‘sa

rékka

mokéza monkéza

(: mukku-) 5708 626 ‘sin; misfortune’

pekkétu pakét(u-) pekkdto pekat

petitd pokaét pekddo

pekddo

pekkdétu pekka-tu6323

7357 627 ‘to prick, stick’

624 ‘sack, bag’ sékku sdk (u-) sikko sik sdk sdk siko sdko sékku sakku7489 628 ‘to tune; to grant’

pikkére

akkordére

pikkére pikér

akkordére akordar akordér akordar akordér akorddr akkordére bakkorda-re Tla

pikér pikér pikér pi-kkére 6495

Notes to /kk/: a. b.

South Italian. Spelled acchordare.

Further examples: 43 /akkapitdre/; 81 /buikka/; 154 /pekkdre/; 406 /sikku/; 430 /miikku/; 602 /fidkku/, ete.

113

Tur Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANcCE 5.

/bb/:

Ex. no. Meaning

629 ‘to beat down’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

Sabbattiri babdte(re) abbdttere abdtre abditra abdtra abatir

Port.

abaté*r

PRom. Lat. REW §

abbdttere abbattuere ll

630 ‘to burn’

631 ‘to give drink to’

632

‘to shorten’

abburdre abburdre *abré daburér *aburdr

abbu‘rére 15

abbe“verdre abeurdr abreuvér abeurér abrebér abebrér abbiberdre (: bib-) 12

abbrevidre abreugdr abregiér abreugér abrebidr abrevidr abbreyidre abbreuia-re 14

Notes to /bb/: a. b. e. d, e.

< Spanish? ‘to turn aside’. Modern South French. Salamancan. Galician.

Further example: 358 /ab(b)undére.

6.

/dd/:

Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

— adtige(re) saddiiébadfra aduira adur adugir

Port. PRom. Lat. REW

633 ‘to lead up, adduce’

aduzé*r addi*kere

§

addu-kere 150

634 ‘to go to sleep’

adorm{(re)

addormfre adormir adormir adormfr adormir adormir

addorm{*re addormi-re 157

635

‘to give (oneself) to’

addo“nar(si)

(se) ado“nér °(se*i) adonér

636 ‘to say to’

eaddié-

dado“nér(sa) adondrse)

faddir(sa)

addo“nére

addi*kere addi-kere

addo-na-re 156

153

Notes to /dd/: a. b. ce. d.

e

f.

Infinitive /addirre/. Franco-Provengal. ‘to get accustomed’. ‘to perceive’. Infinitive /addfre/: Old Italian ‘to assign,’ Modern Italian ‘to fit’ (reflexive). ‘to fit’ (reflexive).

114

Proto-Romancr PHONOLOGY 7.

/g¢/—no pan-Romance examples.

8.

/ff/:

Ex. no.

637

Meaning Sard. Roum.

— —

Ital. OSFr.

affilére afildr

ONFr. Cat. Span, Port.

afileér afilar *pfilér afilér

PRom. Lat. REW

affilére §

638

‘to sharpen’

639

‘to seize’ afferrére —

afferrére aferrér

baffungére *afundé(re)

afersr aferrdr aferrér aferraér

affi-la-re 260

afferrére

(: ferru-) 264

Notes to intervocalic /ff/:

Bere

640

‘to suffer’

‘to sink’

‘to make smooth’. ‘to dive in’ (questionable). ‘to deepen’. Infinitive /sufferre/.

Further examples: 78 /affu“mére/, 265 /afféras/.

affo“ndére af6“ndre

afondér — afundér afundér

affundére

(: fundu-) 269

sufferfre suferf(re)

so firfre so frir so frir sufrir sufrir

so fré“r sufferf“re

dguffer-

8428

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proto-ROMANCE 9.

/ss/:

Ex. no. Meaning passu

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

padsso pas pas pas piso paso passu passu6271

Roum.

déssu

dorsu2755 645 ‘thick’

ispfssu dspés(u-) °(i)spé“sso

OSFr.

espés

ONFr. Cat. Span.

espé‘s espés espéso

Port.

REW

déssu dés(u-) désso dés dés dés

pas(u-)

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital.

espé“so

§

642 ‘back’

641 ‘step’

Sard.

PRom. Lat.

115

ispfssu spissu-

8160

mésse

massa *mésa méso

mésse més més

masa bmdsa massa massa 5396.1 647 ‘to be’ éssere

tiissi tise t6°sse

éssere

t6*s

éstra

tése

fsér fs6*r éssere esse

t6’s

t6’se

tiissi tussi9016

‘harvest’

massa

646 ‘cough’

to's

644

643

‘mass, lump; dough’

essé“r

esé‘r

2917

omé’s

miés més mésse messe5543 648 ‘to sit’

®aSezd(re)

hasagar hasiegisér Jaseidr Jaseidr assedidre (: sed-) 271

Notes to /ss/: a. b. e. d.

e.

i. g. h. i.

‘crowd’, ‘dough; crowd’. Old Catalan. Macedo-Roumanian. With “movable /i/’”’ in Old Italian; cf. § 2.722.2.a-c.

X /seé(*)r/ < 372 /sedé*re/ ‘to sit’.

‘to set, arrange’. ‘to besiege’. ‘to decorate’.

Further examples: 54 /assdtis/, 100 /assurd{*re/, 201 /éssu/, 564 /grdssu/.

116

Proto-Romancr PHoNnoLoGy

10.

/mm/:

Ex. no. Meaning

Sard.

Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

649 ‘mother’

—_—

mimeo mémma —_— smamén — méma, — mémma mamma 5277

650 ‘highest’ simmu

s6°mmo

»s6°m.

sém °s6°m bsémo

simmu

summu8454

FOr

rR

oe

aS

oP

Notes to /mm/: With /4n/ from /mamméne/, oblique. Noun: ‘summit’. ‘superficial, shallow’. ‘to faint’. ‘to become stiff, fall asleep’. ‘to extinguish’. Also ‘to deafen’. ‘to dare’. ‘to commit’. ‘to demand’. ‘to entrust’.

Further example: 603/flamma/.

651 ‘to kill, deaden’ dammutréskere *amorfi(re) fammortire amortir amortir amortir ®amortegér Zamorte¢é‘r

ammorti‘re admorti-re 186

652 ‘to put together’ hkuméte(re) ‘kommé“ttere

ikomé“tre ikomé“tra

tkométra kometér

kometé“r

kommifttere kommittere 2086

117

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE 11.

/nn/: palatalised in Spanish and (in final position) in Catalan:

Ex. no. Meaning

653 ‘reed’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

kénna —_— kfnna kéna — kano

Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

kéna kénna kanna 1597

Span.

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

paénnu — pdnno pdn pén

Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

paéno bpdéno pénnu pannu6204

Cat.

pan

dénnu &n(u-)

péna pé‘na

k6*n kén k6*n

én én dn

péna

pé‘na pinna pinna

6514 658 ‘little cloth’

*pannéddu pannéllo panél panél spainél pannéllu (: pannu-) 6200

k6*nno

kéno —_—_

kinnu kunnu2399

g.

anno

ano ano

énnu annu487

659 ‘to kill; to drown’

660 ‘yearling’

—=

annotinu

fannegére fnegér ‘neiider Sanogér

annotino — —_ —_

fanegér

—_

*inekd(re)

fanegdr

(an)nekére (ad)neka-re

5869

Notes to /nn/: a. b. ce. d. e. f.

656 ‘year’

—_— —

apéna

657 ‘cloth’

655 ‘female genitals’

pinna pane

pé‘nna

kéna

Ex. no. Meaning

654

‘feather; pen’

‘spire’. Also ‘sail’. Gallurese: ‘skirt’. ‘door-panel’. ‘to drown’; Macedo-Roumanian, Transylvanian ‘to kill’. ‘to drown’. Adjective: ‘of the previous year’.

noatin(u-)

——=

annot{*nu Sannoti-nu-

485

118

Proto-Romancn PHONOLOGY

12.

/11/: palatalised in Catalan and (in non-final position) in Spanish.

Ex. no. Meaning

661 ‘path, road, street?

662 ‘skin’

Sard.

—

pédde

Ital.

akdlle

pélle

Roum.

kéle

OSFr.

—

ONFr.

—

Cat.

Span.

REW

§

665

nile

Span. Port.

—

PRom.

Lat.

REW

nila §

nulla

5992

po’

pdlo

Ola Ola

pd‘lo pullu

olla

pullu-

6059

666

‘no, none’ (f.sg.)

nila nila nile

Cat.

oJ

éla

6377

°niidda

pé‘llo

pol

ole

pelle-

1520

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr.

Ola

‘ring’

664 ‘chicken’

puiddu

la

péle pélle

kalle-

Ex. no.

pél

piél

— kdlle

Lat.

ole

pe’

kéJe

Port. PRom.

piéle

pél

kd]

663 ‘pot’

6828.2

667

‘hammer’

668

‘to take away’

danédda inél (u-) anéllo anél anél

martéddu —_— martéllo martél martél

tdéllere tdéldre téldra

aniélo anél

martiélo martélo

tolér —_—

martellu-

tollere

ané]

anéllu

anellu452

marté*]

martéllu 5379

*téddere; ‘toddfre

télra

téllere

8769

Notes to /ll/: a. b. c. d. e. f.

Old Italian. North Italian (Lombard). ‘nothing’. Feminine. ‘to make up one’s mind’. ‘to collect’.

Further examples: 92 /bulli*re/, 282 /sélla/, 299 /puilla/, 345 /billa/.

Tur Poonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANcE 13.

119

/rr/: preserved except in Roumanian:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard, Roum. Ital. OSFr.

sérra, *Séra sérra, sérra

ONFr.

Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

669

‘saw’

REW §

sérra siérra sérra sérra, serra 7861

671 leek’

670

‘cart, wagon’ kérru kér(u-) kérro kér ear kér kérro kérro kérru karru1721

pérru

pér(u-) pérro pérre porro

puérro pérro pérru porru6670

672

‘thong, whip’ korrfia, koréa

koré*gza korré‘ia

koré*ia korége korréa

korré*ia korrigia korrigia 2253

Note to intervocalic /rr/: a.

Macedo-Roumanian.

Further examples: 16 /arri*pére/, 63 /ttirri/, 68 /yerri*ka/, 117 /férru/, 146 /errdre/, 266 /térra/, etc.

Proto-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

120

2.722. 1,

Orumr.

With first element as determinant:

a.

/pt/: preserved in Roumanian, elsewhere assimilated to /tt/:

Sard. Roum. Ital.

suttile sup¢ire sottile

nittu sript(u-) r6tto

ONFr.

sotil

r6"t

sotil

OSFr.

sotil

Cat.

—

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW

§

suptt‘le subtile8399

iskrittu b(i)skritto

r6"t

eskrit

6"

eskrit

eskrituira

eskrito

iskri*ptu skri-ptu-

ruptu ruptu-

_—

7442

eskrittira eskrittire

eskrito

rr6“to

= skriptir b@)skrittira

eskrittr

eskrit

rré6to

—

Span.

‘writing’

‘written’

‘broken’

‘thin, fine’

676

675

674

673

Ex. no.

Meaning

eskritura

iskri*ptii*ra skri-ptu-ra 7746a

Notes to /pt/: a. b.

‘lease’. With movable /i/’” in Old Italian; ef. § 2.722.2.a-c.

Further examples: 38 /septimdina/, 90 /ruptt*ra/, 143 /sépte/, 268 /sépte/, ete. b. /ps/: assimilated to /ss/ in Sardinian and Italian; replaced by /ks/ in North Gallo-Romance and in Ibero-Romance; multiple treatment in South Gallo-Romance (cf. Pfister 1960). Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital.

issu éns(u-) &sso

OSFr.

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

677 ‘himself’

é‘is

§

és & .éso afso {psu ipsu-

4541

Notes to intervocalic /ps/: a, b. ce.

‘this matter, this thing’. ‘reliquary’. ‘water-fall’.

678 ‘same’ = _ _

medé“sme

medésmo matés om _ metfps(im)u metips(issim)u5551

679 ‘box’ = _ kdssa

kéisa

bédsa _ = — k&psa kapsa

1658

680 ‘fall’ = = lésso

°(es) dus _ _ = — lépsu lapsu-

4916

Tur Puonemic Invenrory or Proro-RoMANCE c.

121

/kt/: first element replaced by /p/ in Roumanian, assimilated to following

/t/ in Sardinian and Italian, palatalised in Western Romance. Cf. Meyer-Liibke 1925. 681 ‘milk’

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

ldpte létte 14% lait 1é léée léite lakte lakte4817

ré“tto

r6G rét

ré*ktu re-ktu7134

péttene piépten(u-) péttine pénée(n*) pina pinte(n*) péine

pete

vipt(u-) vitto

bfito

685 ‘comb’

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

arréttu

litte

683 ‘food’

682

‘upright’

pé(n)ktene °pektine6328

686 ‘comb-maker’ pieptendr(u-) pettindio penéeniér penisér pentonér peinéro pétiéiro pektendrju pektena-riu6330

yi*ktu

yi-ktu9315

684

‘narrow’ istrintu str{mt(u-) stré“tto

estré“% estré“it

estrét estréto estréito istri(n)ktu bstriktu8305 688 ‘to struggle’

687 ‘lettuce’ laptiike latttika lahiga laitiio lottiga lecuiga

laktti*ka laktu-ka 4833

lupta(re)

lo“ttére

luéar luitiér luitér luédr luitdér luktére lukta-re 5148

Notes to /kt/: a, b. c.

Friulian: ‘straight, nearby’. Past participle of /string-/ ‘squeeze’. Nominative /pekten/.

Further examples: 15 /fri*ktu*ra/, 66 /fri“ktu/, 93 /suspektdre/,

111 /péktus/,

131 /de“spektére/, 204 /nékte/, 207 /oktéyu/, 217 /pektordle/, 220 /pernoktére/,

228 /dkto/, 230 /fdktu/, 425 /péktenas/, 426 /pektendre/, 469 /lukta/, 470 /\éktu/, ete.

Proto-RoMANcE PHONOLOGY

122

d. /ks/: first element palatalised in Western Romance; assimilated to following /s/ in Sardinian, Central and South Italian (cf. Hall 1942b), and (partly) in Roumanian; developed to /p/ (partly) in Roumanian. Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

— kofpsa *késsa kuéisa kiiis> ké%o kéSa ké3a kéksa koksa 2292

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

690

689 ‘thigh’

693 ‘poison’ _ >todpsek(u-) tésko tuéisek = _ _ — téksiku toksiku8818

691

‘yew-tree’

692

‘six’

‘to weave’

téssu

sése

téssere

tisso _ = t68 t&o

séi siéis sis sis séis

téssere téiser tistro tadfr tesér

—

Bdse

téiko

séis

téksu taksu-

694

laisdr laisiér de&4r dekhr leisar

laksdre

laksa-re 4955

téksere teksere

7885

8693

695

‘to leave, let go of’

lasd(r >) ‘lassdre

te¢é“r

sékse seks

8607

lassdre

#ése(re)

696

‘molar (tooth)’

fmassiddére

—_ madéellére

smaiseldé, maisolér _ _ —_—

maksillére

maksilla-re 5444

‘ash-grov2’ _—

frosinét(u-) frassiné“to

_ Mraisniddo _ hfresnéda _

fraksiné*tu

fraksine-tu3488

Notes to /ks/: a. b, e. d. e. f. g. h,

South Italian. Old Roumanian. Old and South Italian. Old Spanish. Old Portuguese. Gallurese. S. E. French, Feminine.

Further examples: 250 /maksflla/, 410 /seksdinta/, 571 /frdksinu/,

1464 /yekst*ka/.

1389 /séksu/,

Tur Pyonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE

123

e. /gn/: first element assimilated to following /n/ in Sardinian and (partly) in South Italian; labialised in Roumanian and (partly) in South Italian; palatalised in Tuscan, North Italian, and Western Romance. Cf. Keller 1943; Deanovié 1963. Ex. no.

697

Meaning Sard. Roum.

*punn* pumn(u-)

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

ptinno pon pon

Cat. Span.

pun ptino

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW

pignu pugnu-

Ex. no.

— lémn(u-)

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

16“nno 1én 1é*in lén

Port.

1é*no

Span.

PRom. Lat. REW

léno

§

Mgnu lignu-

5034

sséna

8sé“na,

7908

1é*na

pfgnus pignus

ligna ‘ligna

6490

s{nnu sémn(u-)

sé“nno sé"n sé‘in 836“no

léna léna

—

5034

703

‘sign’

signu signu-

16*nna 1é*na 16*ine

— *péno

702

‘wood’

‘to mark’ sinnére semnai(re)

se “nnére se“nér se“niér senér

hsendr

—

signdre signa-re 7905

Notes to /gn/: a. b. ce. d. e.

f.

g.

h,

In Mod. Sard. (Seni) /punnigézu/ ‘blow with the fist’. Otrantine: ‘beautiful’. Old Spanish. Old Sardinian. Neuter plural of /lignum/ ‘wood’ (cf. no. 701).

‘skiff’.

< PRom. /signa/ : Lat. /signa/ neut.pl. ‘signs’.

Aragonese.

Further examples: 96 /pugndre/, 213 /kognéskere/.

‘fire-wood’ Ifnna,

pé“nno pén —

5231

700

‘pawn; token’ 4p{nnus —

bménno mén —

701

Meaning Sard. Roum.

ménnu —_

mégnu magnu-

6814

699

‘great?

°méno

puino

§

698

‘fist?

704

‘sister-in-law’ konnéta kumnidte

konndta kundda — kunéda kundda

kundda

kognéta kogna-ta 2029

Proro-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

124

f. /mn/: second element assimilated to first in North French; first element assimilated to second everywhere else except in Roumanian, where labialisation remains as non-syllabic /u/, after /a/, as /m/ otherwise.

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

705 ‘harm’ dénnu sdduno dénno dan déma

Cat.

dén

Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

déno dano démnu damnu2468

706 ‘bench’

707 ‘sleep’

iskénnu skéun(u-) >(i)skdnno eskdn eskimo

sénnu sémn (u-) sénno sén —

eskino *eskdéno iskémnu skamnu7649

suéno séno sémnu somnu8086

=

son

Notes to intervocalic /mn/: a.

b. e,

With final /o/ < /-a/ of neuter plural /damna/.

With “/i/ movable” in Old Italian; cf. § 2.722.2.a-c. Galician and North Portuguese. g.

/lp/: preserved throughout:

Ex. no. Meaning

*711 ‘flesh’

Sard. Roum.

puilpa pulpe

Span.

pulps

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Port.

PRom. Lat. REW

§

712 ‘fox’ guirpe viilpe

pé‘lpa péolpa pé‘Ipa pé‘Ipa

v6"Ipe vo"lp — —

pé‘Ipa

—

pilpa pulpa

6834.

—_

ytilpe wulpe-

9454

* The numbers 708, 709 and 710 were not used.

Tun Puonemic Invenrory or Proto-RoMANcE

125

h. /lt/: preserved, in general, in earlier stages, except in Old South French, and in later developments elsewhere. For the vocalisation of /l/ to /y/ in this and other

clusters of /l/ + consonant, cf. de Kolovrat 1923a, 1923b; Schiirr 1927; Straka 1942. Ex. no.

713

Meaning Sard.

aéltu

Roum.

—

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

Alto dut shalt alt

Port.

Alto

Span.

PRom. Lat. REW

—

‘to turn’ boltdre

saltdé(re)

mé‘Ito mé‘ut molt mé‘lt

saltére sautér salteér saltér

voltdre byjutd voltér evoltar

miito

saltdr

avoltar

saltar

miultu multu-

387

716

‘to jump’ —_

muito

éltu altu-

715

‘much, many’ mult(u-)

Alto

§

714

‘high’

5740

saltdre salta-re 7551

—

yoltére uolta-re 9446

Notes to /It/: a. b. ce. d.

With initial /h/ from a Germanic word related to Eng. high. Modern South French. ‘to overturn’. ‘to turn around’.

Further examples: 238 /sdltu/. j. /lk/: preserved, in general, in earlier stages, except in Old South French and Portuguese, and later developments elsewhere. Ex. no. Meaning

717 ‘sweet?

718 ‘scythe’

719 ‘heel; foot?

720 ‘to step, tread on’

Sard. Roum. Ttal.

diilke diilée dé‘lée

falke falée falée

*kdlke bkélko kdlée

kalkére kalk&(re) kalkére

ONFr.

dé“ig

fal¢

tale

éaléiedr

OSFr.

dé*u¢

Cat. Span.

Port. PRom. Lat. REW

dog diilge

§

dé*¢e dilke dulke-

2792

féug fal¢ hé¢

féude falke falke-

3175

— ako

ekéuge kdlke kalke-

1534

kalkér

kalkér kalkér

kalkér kalkére kalka-re

Notes to /Ik/: a. b. c. d, e.

‘foot-step’. Hat. ‘heel of stocking’. ‘beam-end’. ‘plow-heart’.

Further examples: 84 /stilku/, 1177 /kalki*na/, 1182 /kélke/ ‘lime’,

1491

Proto-RomAaNncE PHONOLOGY

126

m.

k. /Ib/: Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr.

721 ‘white’ albu filb(u-) — aguba,

ONFr.

*éIbo

Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

Ex, no,

Meaning Sard.

kdlda kdlda

OSFr. ONFr.

kduda Aldo

kélda

Span. Port. PRom.

331

Lat. REW §

Notes to /lb/:

Note to /ld/:

a. b.

a.

Noun, fem.: ‘dawn’. Noun: ‘white of egg’.

mulge(re)

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

muingere mo‘lzé*r mé‘Idra munir smunir; ’munéfr mungir

PRom.

Lat. REW

723 ‘to milk’ muirgere

Sard.

Roum.

mulgere “re

§

mulge-re 729

Notes to /lg/: a.

b.

Asturian.

Aragonese.

*kdldo *k4ldo kélda

kal(i)da 1506

Noun, masc.: ‘hot soup’.

o. = /lf/:

n. /lg/: Ex. no. Meaning

722

‘hot? (f.sg.) kdlda

Roum. Ital. Cat.

—. — bélvo albu albu-

REW §

/ld/:

Only pan-Romance example is 103 /silfuru/.

Tue Pyonrmic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCcE p. /ls/: Ex. no. Meaning

725 ‘milked’

726

‘to falsify’

Sard.

—

falsdre

Ital.

—

falsdre fausdr

Roum.

miuils(u-)

OSFr.

mé“us

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

— —_— — — mulsu mulsu-

REW §

—_ q.

/lm/:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

§

727 ‘palm (of the hand)’ —_— pdlmo pdlma pduma pdlmo palme palma pélma pélma, palma

6171

Note to /lm/: a.

Oblique stem; nom., acc. sg. /kulmen/.

729 ‘summit’

kilme

ké*Imo ké*Imo kuimbre kiuime kiilme(ne) ®kulmin2376

127

128

Proro-RoMANcE PHONOLOGY 2.

With second element as determinant:

a. /sp/.

This cluster and the two following (/st sk/) can be set up only as

intervocalic for Proto-Romance. Classical Latin, Roumanian, and Modern Italian have

these three clusters in initial position as well. However, Old Italian had initial /i/

alternating with zero in such words, and a prothetie /i/ (as in Ismurna = Smyrna at Pompeii; cf. Viiininen 1963 [19672] §§ 82-85) is attested early for Latin popular speech, Clearly, we must consider that, for all Proto-Romance forms, we must reconstruct an

initial /i/ and regard the situation in modern

a later loss of the prothetic vowel.

Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

730 ‘ear (of grain)’ ispika spike (i)spiga espiga + espiga espiga espiga isp{*ka *spi-ka 8145

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

734 ‘guest, host’ — fofispe éspite éste éste ésta uésped éspede éspite hospite4197

731 ‘basket’ ispdérta (i)spérta

espérta

esporta espuérta esporta,

ispérta sporta

8179 735 ‘suspicion’

suspétta, sospétto Ssuspiét

suspéktu suspektu8485

Roumanian

and Italian as representing

732 ‘to strew, scatter’ ispdérgere

dsparge(re) (i)spargere

esparzé“r espérdra espargir *esparzér espargir ispdrgere spargere 8120

736

‘to sigh’ suspirdre

suspind (re) sospirdre sospirdr sospireer

suspirdre

suspi-ra-re

8489

Ree BS oP

Notes to /sp/: ‘total number of ears of grain’. Cf. also ONFr. /espi/ < 1158 /ispt*ku/. Neuter plural of /spi-kum/ ‘ear of grain’. Old Roumanian. Old Spanish. Old Roumanian; < nom. sg. /dspe/ : Lat. /hospes/. Friulian.

733 ‘to hope’ isperdére

— (i)sperare

espe*rér

esparér esporar esperar esperar ispe*rdre spe-ra-re 8141

Tur Puonemic Invenrory or Proro-RoMANCE

129

b. /st: Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

737 ‘to stand’ istdre std(re) (i)stdre estar ester estar estir estar istdre stare 8231

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

Stérk(u-) (i)stérko

istéddu sted, (i)sté“a

esté“la esté“ile

estélo bestréla

sistiérko estérko istérku

bestré“la

istél (a stella

sterku-

8245

741 ‘side’ késta kodsta késta késta késte ekésta kuésta késta késta kosta 2279

739 ‘star’

738 ‘dung’

8242

742 ‘just? iistu gusto

gust

guste gust gusto gusto jd*stu iu-stu4635

743 ‘stick, staff’ fiiste fuste fuisto fust fist fust

fuiste

fii*ste

fu-ste3618

MER mp ae oe

Notes to /st/: Asturian. With /str/ from /dstru/ ‘star’? ‘sheep-fold’. Old Portuguese. ‘coast’. In /kastigétu/ ‘crazy,’ originally past participle. ‘to get, earn’. ‘to instruct’. ‘to scold’.

740 ‘stable’ stdéul(u-)

°(i)stabbio estdble establa

destébro istaéblu stabulu8209 744.

‘to purify, punish’ tkastigdre ®kadtigd (re)

kastigdre hkastigdr astiiér

kastigér kastigér kastigdre kastiga-re

1746

130

Protro-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY ce. /sk/:

Ex. no.

745

Sard. Roum.

iskdla skéro

Ital.

(skéle

OSFr.

eskéla

ONFr.

estidelo

Cat. Span.

eskélo eskila

Port.

PRom.

Lat.

REW

iskéla §

ska-la

7637

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

746

iskéla ’kodlo

hiska —

—

eskéla

16*ska

—

ski-re

7722,

750 ‘bundle’ faske —

£4880 fdis fais £68

PRom.

ufsku

faske

REW

§

yisku-

9376

eskélo eskuéla,

isk{*re

byé*sko vé's — vésk

Lat.

—

—_— —

bird-lime’

*bisko visko

(i)skéla

—

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

hé¢ féi8e

faske-

3214

iskéla, skola

7703

751 ‘to grow’ kréskere kréSte(re)

kré*S8ere kré‘isser kré“istra kré“iSer kregér kregé*r

kré‘skere

kre-skere 2317

Notes to /sk/:

a.

b. ce.

Mase. sg. /16*is/ < Pre-Fr. /16‘sk/ < PItWRom. /16“sku/. Old Italian. ‘putty’.

748

‘squinting’ (f.sg.)

iskfre Sti(re)

749 ‘mistletoe; bisku vésk(u-)

747

‘school’

‘to know’

‘ladder’

Meaning

16ska,

16*sto —

hiska

luska

5181

752 ‘to fish’ piskére

pe‘skére pe’skér pestissr peskér peskér pe‘skér

piskére

piska-re 6526

Tuer Pronemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE

Ex. no.

d. /rp/:

Meaning

753

754

‘serpent’

755

‘purple’

odérpi

purpura

Ital.

bsérpe

pé‘rpora

kérpino

pé‘rpra pé‘rpra

dkérn —

Roum.

Sdrpe

OSFr.

ONFr. Cat.

sérp

po‘Ipra

siérpe

pérpola

— sérp

Span.

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW §

—_

sérpe

°sérpe *serp-s 7855

—

purpura purpura 6862

756

‘hedge-beech’

Sard.

—

karpin(u-)

kérpre kérpe

kérpe

kérpi(nu) karpinu1715

131

‘serpent’ serpénte —

serpénte

serpén(t*)

serpént serpén(t*) serpiénte

serpéte

*serpénte *serpente7815

ope

oP

Notes to /rp/: Campidanian. Old Italian. Nominative singular: cf. Maher 1969a, 1969b; Romeo 1969; Hall 1969b. Picard, Norman. Oblique stem.

Proto-RomancE PHONOLOGY

132 e.

/rt/: preserved throughout:

Ex. no.

757

‘paper’

Meaning Sard.

kérta

Roum.

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

REW

§

Ex. no.

Meaning

Lat.

portu-

a, b. e. d. e. f. g. h.

pértu

§

arte art drt art

férte fort fért fort

6680

—

762

kudrtu

kuartu6936

fuérte forte férte forte-

679

‘fourth’ ekértu — kudrto kart kart kart kudrto kudrto

foarte

arte arte arte arte-

5695

761

pértu — pérto port pért — puérto pérto

REW

mérta mérta mérta mérta

muérta morta morta mortya

Sard. Roum. lial. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

PRom.

forte

bkérta, bkérta kérta dkarta,

‘harbor, port’

760

‘strong’

arte

moérta

1866

759

‘skill, art?

mérta

skérte

kérta bkérta Carte bkérta

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

758

‘dead’ (f.sg.)

3457

763

‘opening’

764

‘strength, manliness’

apertura — apertura abertura fovertiira abertiira abertuira abertura

birtuite varttite 8vertuite vertut vertud — — hvertiide

apertu-ra

yirtu-te-

apertti‘ra 516

uirtii*te 9371

‘letter, book’, from plural /karte/ ‘papers’. ‘letter’. ‘document’. Spelling charta; from Greek /khidrte-s/. ‘quarter-bushel’. With initial /o/ from ONFr. /ovrir/ < PRom. /operf*re/ ‘to open’. Old Italian: ‘power, ability’. Old Portuguese.

133

Tus Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE f,

/rk/: first element preserved, second developed like initial /k/ (§ 2.52.3.a):

Ex. no. Meaning

765 ‘chest, strong-box’

Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

— —_— frka arka arta firke arka arke arka arka

REW §

611

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

bSerk4 (re)

Ital.

ée“rkére

OSFr. ONFr.

¢e“rkér fertiaér

Span.

derkdr

Cat.

gerkér

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW

§

6656

769 ‘to go around, seek’ kirkére

Roum.

*podrke pérka, pérka — pérke puérka poérka pérka porka

770 ‘to twist?

toréere

téiger tordra

tordé*r toréé“r

1938

8798

Notes to /rk/: a. b. ce. d. e.

torgér

ode“rkér

kirkére kirka-re

arku ark(u-) firko ark ark ark érko frko érku arku618 W711 ‘market’

térkere

atodrée(re)

‘a kind of children’s game’. ‘to seek, try, taste’. ‘to surround’. ‘to spin’. Old North Italian.

térkere torkue-re

768

767 ‘bow’

766 ‘sow’

merkéto merkét martiéd morkét merkddo merkddo merkétu merka-tu5516

‘circle’ kirku éérk(u-)

é6"rko

¢érko

¢6"rko

kirku kirku-

1948 772

‘to perceive’

priéépe(re)

epergé“ver

pereé“bre pergevéir pordé“bra per¢ebfr

perfebé*r perkfpere perkipere 6399

134

Proto-Romance PHonotocy g.

speech.

/rb/: preserved in part, but extensively confused with /ry/ in popular Latin

Ex. no, Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

—_— érba érba érba érba sérba

§

174

773 ‘blind?’ (£.sg.)

— érba, orba

6086

kérve kérba kérba

bkérbe kérbe % korbe2224

Notes to /rb/: a. b. c,

775 ‘coal’

‘basket?

Old Catalan. Galician. Macedo-Roumanian: ‘oak-forest’.

776 ‘grove’ arburétu

korbtine karbé“ne karb6*(n*) éarbén karb6*(n*) karbén

earburét(u-)

karbé“ne karbo-ne-

arboré“tu arbore-tu607

karvé

1674

alberé*to

arbréi6 arboléda

arvoré“do

135

Tuer Puonemic Inventory or PRoTO-ROMANCE h.

/rd/: preserved throughout:

777

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span, Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

‘deaf’ (f.sg.)

s6“rda 86‘rda 86‘rda

86‘rdo stirda suirda sirda surda

8474.

781 ‘to burn’

Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

drde(re) ardere ardre

4rdra; ardé*ir ardrér ardér

ardé‘r frdere °6"re arde-re 620

tirda tarda tirdo tarde tirda tarda 8577 782 ‘to order’ burdind (re) ordindre ordenér ordenér ordenér ordindre ordina-re 6090

779

‘excrement’ mérda amérdu mérda mérda mérde mérdo miérda mérda mérda merda 5520

tirda

stirda stirde

Ex, no. Meaning

778 ate’ (f.sg.)

783 ‘to confuse’

Macedo-Roumanian. ‘to order, arrange, follow, flow’. With “/i/ movable” in Old Italian;

mérdere mérdere

mordé*r mérdro mordér mordér

mordé‘r

mérdere mordere 5679 784 ‘to pardon’

isturdire

perdondre

°(i)stordfre

perdo“nére

esto rdir aturdir aturdir

esturdi*re

(:: turdu-) 8999

Notes to /rd/: a. b. ce.

780 ‘to bite’

cf. § 2.722.2.a-c.

perdo“nér pardonér

perdo“nér perdonér

perdo“4r perdo“nére

( : do-na-re) 6405

136

Proto-Romancz PHonoLocy j.

/re/: first element preserved, second treated like initial /g/ (§ 2.52.6.a):

Ex, no. Meaning

785 ‘rod’

Sard,

birga

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

vé'rga vé'rga, véréa

Roum.

786 ‘broad’ (f.sg.) lérga

bmérgine

lérga ldrga liréa

mérgine marge mérga

vorgo

larga

Cat. Span.

vérge bérga,

PRom. Lat.

uirga yirga

Port.

vé'rga

REW

§

Ex, no.

lérgo larga

marge méargen

dtéfla argila

lirga larga

°margin(e) margine-

mérgé

4912

5355

— argintér(u-) argentdio argentiér argentiér

Span. Port.

purgér purgdér

— —

PRom.

Lat.

REW

*pu(*)rgére

§

purga-re 6859

arila

argi‘lla argi-lla 641

‘silver-smith’

prugdre — purgdre po rgér purgisér

porgdr

aréflla aréfla arkilo

790

‘to cleanse’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

Cat.

argidda

—

789

Meaning

788 ‘clay’

margine

slérga,

9361

787 ‘edge’

argentir

argentériu

argenta-rju639

Notes to /rg/: a. b. c. d. e.

‘long’. Old Sardinian. The OSFr., ONFr., and Cat. forms may be survivals of the nom.sg. /mdrgo/ (: CL /margo-/). In /térrogfle/, lit. ‘clay earth’. Some forms show /u/, as if from PRom. /u*/, perhaps under learnéd influence.

137

Tun Puonemic Invenrory or Proro-RoMANCE k,

/rf/: preserved, in general, throughout:

Ex, no,

791

Meaning

‘orphan’

Sard. Roum. Ital.

érfanu sofrfon (u-) érfano

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

érfono érfa uérfano érfio érfanu borfanu6105

OSFr.

—_—

Notes to /rf/: a. b.

Macedo-Roumanian. < Greek /érphanos/.

Further example: 50 /férfike/.

m. /rs/: partly preserved, but with assimilation to /ss/ in some regions:

Ital.

mérso

6rs &s

mérs mérs

ors

Span. Port.

6so ——

virsu

PRom.

Lat.

REW

§

*méssu —_—

6*rso

OSFr.

ONFr. Cat.

‘bite’

‘bear’ uirsu iirs(u-)

Sard. Roum.

793

792

Ex, no.

Meaning

ursu-

9089

mors

—_ Ss

mérsu

morsu-

5691

Notes to /rs/: a. b.

‘morsel’. ‘to cultivate’.

Further example: 86 /kirsu/.

795

794

‘purn, burning’

‘peach’ péssike piérseko

péska,

per? présega

arsiira, arsure

arstira

arstira,

péste présok

arstiro arstira

pérsika

arstira,

prisko pésego

persika 6427

—_— —_—

arsu-Tra, 682

796

‘to pour, turn’ —_ versa (re)

versére

versar

versér vasér

—_— bvesir

uersdre

yersa-re 9242

Proto-RomaNncrE PHONOLOGY

138 n.

/rm/: preserved throughout:

Ex. no. Meaning

797 ‘weapon’ «

Sard. Roum,

arma arma

trima tirmo

OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

arma érmo arma

—_— — —_

Ital.

arma

Span.

Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

Tial.

arma,

rma érma *arma 650

Port. PRom. §

— tiirma turma 9005

arméntu =

formé*za — — herméza

—_— armént _ *arméntu

fo-rmo:sa 3450

firmu

bérme viérme byérmine vérm vérm

f6*rm 6*rm

bérme evérmé yérme(ne) yermen “ine 9231

firmu firmu3320

802 ‘cattle, herd’

—_— frumofse

formé*za fo*rmé’sa

‘worm’ ,

fé*rmo

vé‘rm(a)

—

801 ‘shapely, beautiful’

dformé“za

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Lat. REW

t6*rma

arménto

arméntu arméntu

armentu658

800 ‘Bren?

799

798 ‘troop, band’

férm

804 ‘to murmur’

803

‘twig’ sarméntu sarménto sarmén(t*) sarmént, sarmén(tt) sarmiénto

sarméto

sarméntu

sarmentu-

7609

murmurdére

murmurd4(re)

mo‘rmorfre

fs t_

i. i, im, murmurére

murmura-Te 5761

pe aoop

Notes to intervocalic /rm/: Neuter plural, ‘weapons’. Tuscan. Old Portuguese. Old Venetian. Asturian. Learnéd forms with /u/.

Further examples: 3 /dormt‘re/,

223 /marmore/, 313 /torméntu/.

162 /térmene/,

186 /f6*rma/,

214 /formf*ka/,

139

Tus Puonemic Inventory or Proto-ROMANCE o.

/rn/: preserved throughout, except in Sardinia (> /rr/):

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

805 ‘meat?

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

Roum.

kérru kérn(u-) kérno kérn kérn kérn kuérno kérno kérnu kornu2240

kérre kérne kérne kérn séirn kérn kdrne kérne kérne karne1706 809 ‘to sift” kérrere

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

éérne(re)

séérnere gernér ¢érdra ¢éndra ¢ernér bgernir kérnere kernere 1832

807

806 ‘horn’

46*rna,

£6*rn

forna

{6°rn

—= —_—

f6*mo

—

fiirnu furnu-

virna urna

3602

9086

811

‘to return’ torrdre turnd(re) to*rndre

esternir

to*rmneér

8246

eurno

f6°rn hérno

istérrere aStérne(re) igterni

sternere

— ‘rn

£6°rno

810

istérnere

‘pitcher, urn’

furru bfurnu

‘to strew’

jestré“r

808

‘oven’

to*rndr

to“rnér tornér

to“rnér

torndére to(-)rna-re

8794

VBR

me aS oP

Notes to /rn/: Also /éeér/ cher < nom.sg. /k&ro/ : Lat. /karo-/. Macedo-, Megleno-Roumanian. Macedo-Roumanian: ‘pail’. North Italian. Rouergat.

Ladin: ‘bucket’. Old Italian. ‘to choose’. Piedmontese: ‘to plaster’. Old Portuguese.

Further examples: /korni“tu/.

9 /i‘yérnu/,

80 /star® sternu“tére/,

220

/pernoktfre/,

332

140

Proro-Romance PHONOLOGY p.

/rl/: preserved throughout, except in Sardinian (> /rr/):

Ex, no, Meaning

812 ‘plack-bird’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

oméurra miérlo meérla mérla mérlo

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

miérla, mérla, mérla, merula

Cat.

REW

mé‘re

§

5534

Note to /rl/: a,

Campidanian. q.

/mp/: preserved throughout except in some South Italian dialects (> /mb/;

ef. next section).

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum,

813 ‘time’ témpus timp (u-)

Ttal.

témpo

OSFr. ONFr.

tém(p)s témps

Span.

Cat.

PRom. Lat. REW

r6‘mpere

ampé‘lla

tiémpo

rrompér

ampdla

témpus tempus

ruimpere rumpere

8634

ré“mpre

rrémpé“r

Notes to /mp/: a. b.

ampudda — ampé‘la ampé‘la

tépo

§

srtimpere

815 ‘jar; blister’

tear’

ré‘mpre rémpra

témps

Port.

814 ‘to break,

‘to tear, push in’. ‘to get ready, get together’.

Further example: 331 /k4mpu/.

7442

—

épd‘la

ampulla ampulla 431

816 ‘to buy’ komperdre kumporé(re)

komperére komprér komporér

komprér

komprar

koprar

komperdre >kompara-re 2094

141

Tue Puonemic INVENTORY OF ProTo-ROMANCE

r. /mb/: Together with /nd/, retained in most regions; second element assimilated to first (> /mm/, /nn/) in some varieties of central Italian and Ibero-Romance, with accompanying development of /mp/ > /mb/, /nt/ > /nd/. For possibility of Osco-Umbrian substratum-influence in this development, ef. Hall 1950b. Ex. no.

817

Meaning

‘leg’

Sard.

kaémba

Ital. OSFr.

gamba kémba

Roum,

818

timba

—

btimba

gémbo

témbe

Span.

8k4m(b)a

4timba

PRom. Lat.

ke gémba kamba

timba tumba

ONFr.

Cat.

kémbo

Port.

REW

§

1539

Ex. no.

Sard. Roum.

Ital. OSFr.

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW

°té~mba

émes

pié“mbo plé*m plémb

plé*m

=4mas

—

bas

&mbas amba:s °o411

822

—_ portimb(u-)

—_— — lamér

kombatra kombatro kombater

—_ — paléma

kombattere kombattere

paliimbu ° palumbu- °a

l&mbere lambere 4865

kobaté*r 2073

palé*mbo °a palé*mba,

pobo

Old Spanish. Macedo-, Megleno-Roumanian: ‘grave-hillock’. ‘coffin’. ‘tomb; coffin; bier’. Old Roumanian. Old Portuguese. Languedocien: ‘elder-flower’.

Further example: 545 /trimba/.

plimbu plumbu6615

824

‘dove’

kumbéttere —_

kombittere kombatre

fGbu

823

‘to fight’

Notes to /mb/: a, b. ce. d. e. f. g.

plimb(u-)

&mbes

8977

‘lead’ —

lémbere —

labé*r

§

dmbo —

‘to lick’

— —

ONFr. Cat. Span.

émbas

e{mbe

4tumba

820

‘both’ (f.pl.)

té*mba té*mba,

821

Meaning

819

‘grave, tomb’

6181

‘elder-tree’ sambuku —

sambtiko 8sibykjé~ —_— —

—

sambui*ku sambu-ku7561

Proro-RomANcE PHONOLOGY

142 s.

/nt/, intervocalic and final:

i, Intervocalic: preserved, in general, throughout (except > /nd/ in some central Italian dialects; cf. § 2.722.q): Ex, no, Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

825 ‘tooth’ dénte dinte dénte dént dént dént diénte déte dénte dente2556

ménte minte ménte mént mént *miénte méte

ménte mente5496

829 ‘slow, flexible’

830 ‘so much’

(E.sg.)

blénta lénta lénta lénta liénta

eléta

lénta lenta 4983

téntu atét tanto tant

tdnt tant

tanto

této

téntu

tantu8562

828 ‘wind’

827 ‘mountain’

826 ‘mind’

ménte muinte ménte mént mént mént

amuént

mtée

ménte

monte-

5664

béntu vint(u-) vénto vént vént vént biénto

véto

yéntu yentu-

9212 832 ‘to lie’

831 ‘to sing’ kantére kintd(re) kantdre kantdr éanteér kantér kantdr katér kantére kanta-re 1611

min¢f

mentfre

mentir mentir mentir mentir métir

ment{*re menti-re 5510

Notes to intervocalic /nt/: a. b. ce.

Old Spanish. ‘soft; damp’. ‘damp’.

Further examples: 29 /inténdere/, 41 /moniméntu/, 170 /inter/, 177 /frénte/, 243 /abénte/, 247 /argéntu/, 258 /sakraméntu/, 259 /atraméntu/, 260 /inkantére/, 268 /septé(i)nta/, 328 /kéntu/, 410 /seks4(i)nta/, 493 /parénte/, 502 /kyaré(i)nta/, 523 /pro“ntu/, 566 /intégru/, 756 /serpénte/, 790 /argentarju/, 803 /sarméntu/, etc.

Tue Puonemic INvenToRY or Proro-ROMANCE

143

ii, Final: preserved in Old Sardinian, Old North French, and certain South Italian dialects; reduced to /n/ (or later developments) elsewhere, except in Roumanian: Ex. no.

833

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital.

OSFr.

Cat.

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

‘they were’

sunt sint °s6“no

érant érau. érano

mfront

pérdont,

sént

iéront

mfran bmfra mf‘rant mi-rant

—

pérdon

pé“rden

piérden bpérdd pérdunt “ent perdunt

Notes to final /nt/: a. b. ce.

836

‘they are’

pérden(t) piérd pérdono

miran

REW §

835

‘they lose’

mirant miro “mfrano

miran

ONFr.

834

‘they look’

Cf. also Calabr. /kA4ntant/. Old Portuguese. Cf. also Apulian /stintu/.

—_

86“n

s6‘n

sén bs6 stint sunt

—

éran éran

éran. 6rd érant erant

—_

144

Proro-Romancr PHonoLoay

t. /nk/: in general, preserved throughout before back vowels; second element palatalised before front vowels as if initial: Ex. no.

837

Meaning

838

‘mussel-shell’

Sard. Roum.

*kénka

iinku

ONFr.

bkénka ckénka,

dk63

&6°nko gé°nk

Ttal. OSFr. Cat.

Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

§

Sard. Roum. Ital. ONFr.

Cat.

REW

842 ‘hook’

843 ‘maid’

8(i)spilé“*nka,

jankfdda — anéé‘lla

espolénéa

—

an¢é‘la

ispeltinka §

7040

unkinu — unéino

— —_—

PRom.

Lat.

841 ‘cave’

—

Span. Port.

rrangio rra¢io rénkidu rankidu-

4619

fispelinka

OSFr.

—_

rdngi

ginko —_— iinku junku-

2112

Ex. no. Meaning

réndtido range

£6°nk

kuénka kéka kénka konka

‘rancid, stale’

rénkidu rinéed(u-)

g6nk

ekénka

839

‘reed’

spelunka 8140

— —

—_— €ésino

unk{*nu

unki-nu9055

an¢é‘la

a.

Old Sardinian: ‘valley-trough’.

c. d.

‘a measure of fodder’. Lorraine: ‘pig-trough’ < ONFr. */konte/.

e.

f. g. h. i.

binkere invinge(re)

vintere vé"nser

vé‘inkra

véngor

bengér ve¢é*r yinkere uinkere 9338

844 ‘to cut short’ trunkére — tro“nkére

tro“nkér trenéiér

—

tro‘nkér

ank(lla

trunkére

— —=

ankilla 443

Notes to /nk/: b.

840

‘to conquer, win’

‘basin’.

‘dish’.

Place-name. With “/i/ movable” in Old Italian; cf. § 2.722.2.a-c. Galician, North Portuguese: ‘rake’. Old Sardinian.

Further examples: 250 /inkantére/, 533 /brénka/, 545 /trinku/.

tronkdr trokér

trunka-re 8953

145

Tue Pxonemic Inventory or Proto-RoMANCE u. /nd/: preserved (§ 2.722.2.7, above): Ex. no.

845

Meaning Sard. Roum,

Ital. OSFr,

ONFr.

kdéndo kind

ont

kant

REW

§

Ex. no.

‘to melt?

Sard. Roum. Ital.

fuindere — {6“ndere

ONFr. Cat. Span.

féndra £6“ndra —

OSFr.

£6“ndre

Port. PRom.

Lat.

REW

— fuindere §

fundere 3581

téndre

mé*n

mundo miido mundu mundu-

6932

849

Meaning

téndere téndre

mént

kudndo kuddo kydndo kyando-

tendér tédér téndere tendere

5749

850

binnénna — vendé*mmia

vendé“mia

vendénga — bendimia

vidima uindé*mia

yinde-mia 9343

8640

851

‘grape-harvest’

848

‘to stretch’ téndere *t{nde(re)

mé“ndo m6é*n

ként

9062

‘world’ mundu —

kudndo kén

bénd — inde unde

847

‘when’

indi Vinde

a

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

846

‘whence’

onde on

Cat.

in general, except as set forth in connection with /mb/

‘beggar’

852

‘second’ (f.sg.)

mendiku —_— mend{ko

sekiinda — seké*nda

-_— 4menfk mendigo

*segonda segé “nda segénda

mendik

médigo mend{*ku

mendi-ku5494

sego “nda

segéda sekiinda sekunda 7774

Notes to /nd/: a. b. ce. d. e.

Campidanian. Old Spanish. Old Roumanian. Old Catalan. At least partly learnéd, because of intervocalic /g/.

Further examples:

/pré“ndere/,

61 /kuy{*ndiki/, 87 /inda/,

95 /fundére/, 99 /sekunddre/,

127

168 /yé“ndere/, 315 /tindere/, 316 /ténda/, 358 /ab(b)undare/,

402 /profiindu/, 583 /blindu/, 639 /affunddre/, etc.

596 /glinde/,

598 /glindula/,

618 /atténdere/,

Proto-Romancy PHONOLOGY

146

w. /ng/: palatalised before front vowels, preserved before back: 853 ‘long’ (f.sg.)

Ex. no, Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

lénga linge hinga lénga léngo Iénga bluénga

léga

lénga longa 5119

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

ingust(u-)

frdngere

fri{nge(re)

fréngere fréner fréindre frénor ffranér fr fragé“r fréngere frangere

3482

iuingere *éingere

£6‘ner

&6indro

gunir

angésto

digo“sto

angustu angustu471

4unir sea gir juingere jungere 4620

856

‘to weep’ plinge(re) pidngere planer pléindra planer blanér tager plangere plangere 6572

858

857 ‘to break’

Ex. no. Meaning

855 ‘to join’

854

‘narrow’

‘to smear’ Ungere

vinge(re) Uingere

O*ner

éindra

bunfr uingere

ungere 9069

rope

oP

Notes to /ng/: Masculine /lénc/ < PRom. /léngu/. Old Spanish. ‘to arrive’. ‘to hitch up’. Old Galician. Asturian, Aragonese.

Further examples: 22 /kingere/, 97 /allungére/, 377 /gingt“ya/, 1237 /lingere/, 1416 /tdngere/, 1424 /tingere/.

1152 /inkingere/,

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE y.

/nf/: preserved throughout (perhaps partly learnéd):

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

859 ‘under-world’ inférru ca inférno enférn enférn inférn infiérno iférno inférnu infernu4397

Notes to /nf/: a. b. c.

‘to rinse’. Abruzzese. ‘to become wet and cold’.

860

‘to pour in’ sinfiindere

bnfé*nna *enféndra

inftindere infundere 4415

147

Proro-Romance PHonoLoGy

148

8. With /j/ as second element: /dj/ initial and intervocalic, others intervocalic only. All clusters with /j/ as second element show extensive but frequently confused palatalisation in Italo- and Western Romance (ef, Gamillscheg 1968; Kiepinsky 1968; Nandris

1970).

a.

/pj/: palatalised in Western Romance:

Ex. no. Meaning

861 ‘cuttle-fish’

Sard. Roum.

—_— —

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

sta sépia aSibia stba

Ital. OSFr.

862 ‘that he know’ — —

sé‘ppia se“péa

PRom.

sé“pia

Lat.

REW

§

appropidre apropid(re)

sdppia sapéa

— apropéar

shtod sépiga sépa sdiba

aprotiaér apropar — —

sépiat

se-pja

7828

863 ‘to draw, bring near’

appropiére

bsapiat

appropia-re

_—_

557

Notes to /pi/: a. b.

Old Spanish. ‘that he be wise’. b.

/ti/: second element assimilated to first in Sardinian; first element assibilated

in Western Romance and Italian. (Cf. also Martinet 1949; Liidtke 1957.) Ex. no.

864

Meaning

omdtta bmdta

Sard. Roum.

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

emédda

Cat. Span.

REW

§

865

866

‘well’ pitu pu¢(u-)

‘tenderness’ —_— dtinerége

titténe tediine

—

teneré“¢da tendré“¢a, tendré*¢a

ti¢dd“ne tiz6*(n*) tizén

— matia

pé*zo putiu

terné*za tenerftja

tizd titid*ne

matja

5412

pou pd6zo

putiu

6877

tendrée ternéza

teneritia

Notes to /tj/: a. b. c. d. e.

867

‘fire-brand’

po*ddo po puig

— —

Port. PRom.

Lat.

‘bowels’

‘belly’. ‘entrails’; ef. also /mé¢(u-)/ ‘gut’. Neapolitan, Subiaco: ‘entrails’. ‘youth’. ‘to lament the dead’.

8647

tiz6* (n+) tigén, ti-tio-ne8758

868

‘to kindle’ *attitdre ati¢d(re)

attidddre atizdr atiziér atidr atizér

atigér atti*tidre (3 titi-) 769

Tue Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE c. /kj/: palatalised in Roumanian and Western Romance. (Cf. also Pugcariu 1904.) Ex. no.

869

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW

§

870

‘face’ féke "fido fatda, fa¢ a fig fi¢ hé¢ faze fdkje %a fakije-

3130.2

‘string’ léttu lé¢(u-) 14860 lag la¢ lad 14z0 lézo lékju lakyeu-

Italo-Romance, 871

‘paunch’ ava pintete pinta pings péngo painga pinga, pinga pan (ti)kia % pantike-

4909

6207

Notes to intervocalic /ki/:

a. b.

‘cheek, face’. ‘arm-harness’.

Further examples: 532 /brékiu/, 594 /glakia/. d.

/bi/: palatalisation most extensive in Gallo-Romance:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

—

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

rébbia rdgi rége

Roum.

—

Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

— rrdbia, rrdiva, rdbja, rabje6980

Notes to /bj/: a.

b.

‘light bay [horse-color]’.

‘blond’.

874 ‘red’

‘anger, rage’ riiu

®rdib(u-)

r6°bbio r6i r6‘éa

66 brruibio — ruibju rubju7408

merged

149 with

872

/tj/ in

‘arm-band’ broffira braéédle >bra¢él bragidél brazél brazél brakjdle brakja-le 1254

150

Proto-Romancr PHonoLocy e.

/dj/, initial and intervocalic: i,

Ex. no. Meaning

Initial: 875 ‘Diana; hunt-goddess’

876 ‘day’

Sard. Roum.

sjdna szino

—_ —_

OSFr.

ajina

£6°rn

Ital.

djfna

ONFr. Cat.

g6°rno

“éeeno

Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

&6*rn &6°rn

Sina —_— diéna dia-na 2624

— —_— ditrnu adiurnu2700

Notes to initial /di/:

a,

b. ec. d.

‘fairy’.

‘witch’. Asturian: ‘elf, fountain-nymph’. adj/I-II: ‘of the day’. ii.

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

Intervocalic (cf. also Kfepinsky 1939): 877 ‘today’ ée —_— Rei uéi Vi avili 6i dze édie hodie4163

878 ‘bushel-measure’ méiu °m6z70 muéi mii —_— méio mdéio médiu modiu5629

879 ‘hillock’ — — pogo puéi pui pug bpdio pdio pédju podiu6627

880 ‘disgust’ fastisu °fastiu fast{ fast{ fastik hastfo fastfo fast{“diu fasti-diu3217

Notes to intervocalic /di/: a. b. ce,

‘wheel-hub’; cf. also /még0/ ‘bushel-measure’. ‘bench in front of house’. Sicilian: ‘muck’.

Further examples: 648 /assediire/, 1265 /merf“didre/, 1266 /mer{“die/.

881 ‘half’ méiu miéz(u-) mézz0

miég

mig méio médiju mediu5462

Tu Puonemic Inventory or Proro-RoMANcE f,

151

/gj/: only pan-Romance example is 672 /korrigia/.

. g. /sj/: palatalisation or its effects almost wholly absent from Sardinian, present in remaining Romance territory: Ex. no.

Meaning

882

Sard.

*maséne

OSFr.

4mazd*(n*)

Roum. Ital. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. REW

—_ —_— kézo kéizo

— bés bézo béizo

baiziér bezér bezér beizdr

kaseu-

basiu-

a

mansio-ne5311

886 ‘pheasant’ fasdnu = fagéno — faizin — —

PRom.

fasjdnu

REW

—

§

fasia-nu6465

—

késju

1738

887 ‘happening, cause’ kaiéne — (ak)kag6“ne akaiz6*(n*) aéaizon —

h(a)kaizd

akkasié“ne

okkasio-ne6029

Notes to /si/:

PRmoaspe

nomena

°maizén

Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Lat.

bisu

‘to kiss’

_ &bdso

Ex. no. Meaning

Port.

késu

885

‘kiss’

k48(u-) skéSo

masj6“ne

§

884

‘cheese’

bmaStin (a) °mastinu

fmezén _—_

PRom.

Lat.

883

‘dwelling, shelter’

‘herd of cattle’. Dalmatian: ‘sleeping-place for sheep’. Apulian: ‘chicken-coop’. ‘open stall’. ‘dwelling, house’. ‘inn’. Tuscan. ‘misfortune’.

béis

bésju

976

ebakdre

baizdr

basjare

Proto-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

152 h.

j.

/mij/:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

889

888 ‘monkey’

‘vineyard’ binza, vie vinna vina vino vina bina vina ufnia yi-nea 9350

—_— —_ Simmia simia singe simi ‘lo Simia s{mia

PRom.

Lat. REW

s{‘mia

§

/nj/:

si-mia, 7929

890 ‘spider; scabies’ rfie

(a)ranna

arana ardina ardna araéna aréna ardnja

®aranea

593

Further example: 850 /yindé“mia/. Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

891 ‘chestnut’ kastanza bkasténo kasténna kasténa kastdino kastdno kasténa kasténa kastania kasta:nea 1742.1

892 ‘heel’ karkdnzu kalkfiu kalkdénno kalkén kalkdin —_ kalkéno — kalkéniu kalka-neu1490

Notes to /nj/: a. b. c. d. e f.

Adjective, fem.sg.: ‘pertaining to a spider’. Megleno-Roumanian. ‘pin on plough’. ‘nail’. ‘coin-stamp’. ‘rock in middle of river’.

‘older

894 man;

sinné‘re

senor sendé-ur sond‘r senér re send rT

senjé‘re

senio-re7821

lord’

Tue Pronemic Invunrory or Proro-RoMANCE

153

k. flj/: Ex. no.

895

Meaning Sard.

Roum.

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

PRom,

Lat.

REW

>ffia

pala

filla

palea

filia

*folia

899

k6“}o

k6%] k6}

Cat.

—

Span. Port.

—_

PRom.

Lat. REW

k6Iju §

ko-leu2038

mila —_— mile —— —_—

—_ —

mil]é*re

melé*r me]6“ur

milé*r

mezZér melé*r

melio-re5479

5569

901

‘better’

meljé*re

mi‘lja

*mi-lia

3415

900

‘testicle’

——

folia

3295

kéza kéiu

OSFr. ONFr.

mi]]a °o

fuéla fuélo filo hdéda féla

Ex, no.

Ital.

folla

fila filo filo hiza fila

Meaning Sard. Roum.

miza

pala pélo palo pita pala

6161

‘mile’

‘fésa,

fodie

ff‘lja

898

‘leaf?

°ffe

palja

§

897

‘daughter’

paéza

apdie

Ital.

896

‘straw’

902

‘to cut? tazaére taid(re)

tallére

‘to resemble’ asimizdre —

assomil]4re

talér talér

— —

tazar talér

asemezar asemelér

talér

taliére

8talia-re 8542

—

assimiliére

(: simile-) 730

Notes to /li/: a. b. ec. d. e. f. g.

Feminine plural. Old Sardinian. Old Roumanian. < Italian? Neuter plural. Old Italian. ‘to split’.

Further examples: 40 /similjére/, 89 /muliére/, 429 /milju/, 620 /battélia/, ete.

218 /de“spoliére/,

419

/mélius/,

Proro-RomaNncEe PHONOLOGY

154

m.

/tj/:

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

903 ‘north wind’

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW §

‘leather’

porkérzu

kérzu

béria borea:s

porkdio porkiér portiér porkér porkéro porkéiro porkérju porka-riu-

kudio kéir kuir kuir kuéro kéuro kérju koriu-

907 ‘threshing-floor’

little threshing-floor’

= *bifra >béra, — béira béire béiras

REW §

905

904

‘swine-herd’

1219

— drie dia dir dire éra éra, éira, arja area

porkar(u-)

6659

2233

906

‘cover, blanket’ kerpetdér(u-)

koperté*io koberté*ra

koverté*ur

koberté*ra kobertéro

kopert6“rju

koperto-riu2206

908

arzdéla, aiudla ceirdla ferdla Siruéla Seirdéa aridla

626

areola, 632

ame ao re

Notes to /rj/: ‘drizzle, mist’. Triestine. ‘clouds’. Franco-Provengal (Saéne): ‘garden’. South French: ‘garden-bed’. ‘garden-bed’. Place-name.

Further examples: 278 /ydrju/, 416 /rasé“rju/, 595 /glévia/, , 790 /argentdriu/, ete.

Tur Puonumic Inventory or Proro-RoMANCE 4,

155

With /y/ as second element: all intervocalic only, except /ky/: a,

/ky/: initial and intervocalic: i.

Initial: /y/ lost except in Italo- and Ibero-Romance:

Ex. no.

909

Meaning

‘how much’

910

‘of what sort?’

911

912

‘to seek, wish’

‘who? which?’

Sard.

kéntu

kale

kérrere

kf

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

kudnto kant —_ ként kudnto

kuéle kal kel kal kudl

kiédere kérre kérra

kf ki kf ki Dif

kydle kyale-

kyérere kuaerere

Roum.

kit

Port.

kare

kuéto

PRom. Lat. REW

§

éére(re)

okerér

kudl

kydntu kyantu6933

skeré*r

6927

okt

kyfi* kui-

6923

6953.1

Notes to initial /ku/: a. b. ce.

‘to want, love’. Old Spanish. Old Portuguese.

ii, Intervocalic: /k/ lost and stop component preserved as labial element in Sardinian and Roumanian (probably an Oscanism; ef. Pisani 1939); stop element lost in Old North French, labial element lost in Old South French; labio-velar articulation preserved elsewhere: Ex. no.

913

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

abba apa akkua, sgiga eévo

Span.

agua

Cat.

agigua

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW

agua

§

ékua akya

570

Notes to intervocalic /ky/: a. b. c.

d.

914

‘water’

< */ékuja/. Valsugana (Venetia). Sassarese.

Old Sardinian.

915

‘mare’ ébba igépo béka, éga fva égua

iégua égua

ékya ekua,

2883

916

‘eagle’ efbila acera dkuila digle file dgilo

dgila dgia

dkyila akyila

582

‘ever’ dalikéndo —_— — —. — —

—

alguéndre

alikyando alikyando344

Proto-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

156 b.

/dy/: only one example, perhaps partially learned:

Ex. no.

Meaning

‘widow’

Sard.

917

bida

Roum.

véduvo

Ital.

vé"dova

OSFr.

vé"zoa

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

véSuva viuda bitida vitiva yfdua yidya

REW § e

9321

/ny/:

Ex. no.

Meaning

918

Sard. Roum. Ital.

simbérvere {nvodlbe(re) imvélgere

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

envéldra _ — —_— inudlyere inyolyere

OSFr.

REW

envolvé*r

§

919

‘to wrap up’

4540

‘agreement? — bkuvint(u-)

skové —_ 4kombiénto dies sja's

do-num dé-ron da-nam

fe-kiéthe-ka ‘I set? adha-m

mus mus mu‘S

179

Protro-RoMANCE AND LATIN TABLE VIII

Stages of /'/ > /“/ from Latin to Romance Stage 1 Length only

fi til fi/ {il

/e/ le]

/e/ [el

/u-/ (w']

>

Stage 2 Length and Tenseness

he/ #4) fi/ @

/e/ [e"]

/e/ [el

/w/ (u-]

/a/ [ul

/o/ [w']

an [0]

ee fed

/o-/ {o'] a:/

[a]

/a/ [6]

/o-/ [o-"] a:/

[a

/a/ (a)

>

Stage 3 Tenseness only

K/ Af

/e/

lef

/o"/

/uf

/o°/ /o/

fal

significant phonetic variation arose in which long vowels were higher and tenser than short vowels—except for /a/, in which (due to its low position of articulation) there was no variation, at least none for which any evidence has survived in Romance. Then, when the position of stress (§ 3.25) ceased to be predictable and became significant, vowel-length lost its réle as a determinant of stress and hence was no longer significant. After vowellength lost its phonological significance, what was left was the contrast between tenseness and laxness, so that (as usually stated) vowel-quality replaced -quantity (or, formulaically, /-/ > /*/. The process is summed up in Table VIII. The vocalism of Gracchan Latin represented a stage only shortly preceding that of Proto-Romance. In the preceding centuries, certain other changes had taken place which are reflected in both Classical Latin and Proto-Romance, such as the development of Old Latin /o/ to /u/ in final syllables before /s/, /m/, and /nt/.6 The resultant endings show up as Classical Latin and Proto-Romance /-us/ and /-unt/, and as Classical Latin /-um/ : Proto-Romance /-u/ (passim in our comparative tables). The extensive reduction of Old Latin short vowels in medial syllables? was likewise anterior to Gracchan Latin.

3.22. Dirutuones. For Proto-Romance, we need reconstruct only one diphthong, /ay/, as in 507 /éyru/ ‘gold’ or 508 /téyru/ ‘bull’ (§ 2.62). Classical Latin, however, had a considerably larger number of diphthongs:

/ay ag og ey ui/, as in /tayru-/ ‘bull’; /kaglu-/ ‘heaven’; /koepi-/ ‘I have

begun’; /neyter/ ‘neither’; /huik/ ‘to this’. These diphthongs are hence to be ascribed likewise to Gracchan Latin, but they were all simplified (ex-

180

Proto-Romancr PHonoLoay

cept /ay/) in popular speech as reflected in Proto-Romance. Older /ae/ is

reflected in Romance by lax /e/, and hence we assume that it had merged

with this phoneme before the time of our reconstructed Proto-Romance.®

Gracchan Latin /oe/ merged with /e:/ (> ‘pain, penalty’

> PRom.

PRom. /e*/), as in /poena/

1340 /pé*na/. The only continuation of /ey/ is

in Roumanian /s$u/ ‘or’ < /sey/; but it is not known at what stage this form was introduced into Pre-Roumanian, so its ascription to ProtoRomance is questionable. In PRom. /kt*i*/ ‘to whom’, we have simply a sequence of two vowels in separate syllables (as in present-day Italian /kti/ ['ku: |i]), thus continuing the optional dissyllabic pronunciation of /ui/ in Latin.®

3.28. StneuE Consonants. The consonant-inventory was the same in Classical and Gracchan Latin as in our reconstructed Proto-Romance (cf. Table VI), with the addition of /h/, which was lost relatively early in popular speech and even in classical prosody.}° Certain single consonants were lost in specific positions, between Gracchan Latin and Proto-Romance, in popular speech. Final /m/ was lost throughout in all polysyllables (cf. many examples, passim, in our tables). In monosyllables, final /m/ > /n/, probably through an intervening stage of nasalisation," which was then reinterpreted as equivalent to /n/, as suggested in Table IX. To this final /n/ was then added, in most instances, a final vowel, on the analogy of one form-class or another, as in PRom. 140 /réne/ ‘thing’ < /rem/ (acc. sg. of /re-/) + /-e/ of third-

declension noun-stems.

3.24.

CoNnsoNANT-CLUSTERS.

1. Double consonants were present in Classical and earlier Latin, corresponding closely to those of Proto-Romance.” In many instances, they were the result of assimilation, as in /afferre/ ‘to bring to’ = /ad/ ‘to, at’ +

/ferre/ ‘to bring’. In the case of /rs/, there was a “shimmer” between as-

similated /ss/ and the unassimilated

cluster, reflected, for instance, in

TABLE IX Stages of the Development of Latin Final /m/ in Monosyllables

Gracchan Latin

Popular Latin

Popular Latin Reinterpretation

PRom.

[Vm] /Vm/

[V] /Vm/

(¥] /Va/

[Vn] /Vn/

Proto-RoMANCE AND LATIN

181

the Ibero-Romance forms from PRom. 792 /tirsu/ ‘bear’ as opposed to those in the rest of Romance. In some forms, however, the double con-

sonants were not morphophonemically conditioned, as in /yakka/ ‘cow’ (; PRom. 625 /yékka/) or /mittere/ ‘to send’ (:; PRom. 614 /mittere/

‘to put’). Semi-vocalic /i/ was, at least in some varieties of Latin, also normally double in intervocalic position, e.g. /maiiu-/ ‘May’.

2.

Other clusters were more numerous in Gracchan and Classical Latin

than in Proto-Romance, which simplified a number of them, such as /mpt/

(> /nt/,e.g.in /tempto-/ ‘I try’ : PRom. 1421 /ténto/) and /ns/ (> /s/,

e.g. in /me-nsa/ ‘table’ : PRom. 417 /pe“*s4re/).1® with, for instance, /ty/ /b&ttere/ , or /futyere/

PRom. 122 /mé*sa/ or /pe-nsa-re/ ‘to weigh’ : Certain clusters ending in /y/ lost that element, > /tt/ (e.g. /batyere/ ‘to beat’? : PRom. 344 ‘to inseminate’ : PRom. 615 /ftittere/), and

/su/ > /s/ (e.g. in /konsyere/ ‘to sew’ : PRom. 185 /ko“sere/). Other

clusters simply had no continuation in Romance, such as /bst/ (as in /abstine-re/ ‘to hold off from’, /dst/ (e.g. in /adstare/ ‘to be present’), /mps/ (as in /sumpsi-/ ‘I have taken’, and certain variants such as /mpn/ ~ /mn/ (e.g. in /kolumpna/ = /kolumna/ ‘column’). Certain relatively infrequent clusters were replaced by others, as in /gm/ > /ym/, e.g. in Greek /sigma/ cé&ypa ‘burden; body’ > /s&yma/ (> Ital. /sé6ma/, whence /silma/ ‘corpse’ by false reconstruction); and /tl/ > /kl/, as in /yetulu-/

‘little old’ (: /yetus/ ‘old’) > /yetlu/ > /yeklu/ : PRom. 589 /yéklu/ ‘old’.16 On the other hand, the number of clusters ending in /i/ (cf. § 2.82)

was increased by the development of both /e/ and /i/ in hiatus to a semiconsonant /i/.!7 Certain clusters which arose in this way were, in their

turn, simplified, e.g. /Ing/ > nij/, as in /balneu-/ ‘bath’ > PRom. 343 /banju/.

3.25. Stress, which in Classical and earlier Latin was, in general, predictable in terms of syllable-length for almost all the normal words of every-day speech. Historians of Latin pronunciation'® postulate several stages in the development of stress-accent: 1. Atan early time (perhaps, by and large, early and middle Republican days), there is thought by most scholars to have been a period of

strong initial stress, even on words of four syllables such as */audakiter/

‘boldly’ or */praefakio-/ ‘I set before’, to account for such phenomena as

syncope of certain post-tonic vowels (e.g. in /audakter/ and the ‘‘weakening”’ of a number of other vowels in presumably unstressed syllables (as in /praefikio:/; cf. Hall 1974:59, 61)1°

Protro-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

182

2. Later, at roughly the period of our “Gracchan” and Classical Latin, from ca. 200 3.c. to ca. A.D. 300, stress remained automatic in conservative

pronunciation, but shifted from the initial syllable to a position determined by the number of morae in the word. Defining the mora as a unit of length,

consisting of either (1) a short vowel, (2) vowel-length /-/, or (3) one or more consonants checking a syllable; and counting the final syllable of a word as one mora no matter whether it was free or checked or whether it contained a long or a short vowel, we can state that stress fell automatically on the syllable containing the third mora from the end of the word. Thus: ‘pole’ ['per | ti| ka], /pertika/ ['kar|mi|na], ‘songs’ /karmina/ /pertika:/

‘from

a

pole

(abl.sg.)’

['per|ti|ka:],

/karina/

‘keel’

(ka |'ri:|na], /karina-/ ‘from a keel (abl.sg.)’ [ka | 'ri: | na:], (acc.sg.)’ ‘woman /mulierem/ ['mu|li|er], ‘woman’ /mulier/ [mu | 'li|e | rem], etc. In a few words which had lost their final syllable

through syncope, such as /nostra‘s/ ‘of our country’ < /nostra‘tis/ or /postha:k/ ‘hereafter’ < /postha-ke/, we are told that the stress fell on the resultant final syllable.2° There has been some debate as to whether

the “‘accent’’ in conservative speech in this period was one of stress (i.e. greater force in expelling the air from the lungs) or of pitch.” Quite likely, the two coincided, as they do by and large in present-day English and some other languages.

3. In popular speech, however, several of the sound-changes we have just enumerated resulted in the position of stress becoming unpredictable: the loss of significant vowel-length (§ 3.21), the reduction of /i/ and /e/ in hiatus to /i/ (§ 3.24.2), and analogical shifting of stress as a result of this latter development. Thus, in sequences of sounds such as [anatis] ‘of a duck’ and [amatis] ‘ye love’, it was no longer possible to predict whether the stress would fall on the first syllable (as in the first) or on the second (as in the second). In these circumstances, it is therefore necessary to mark significant stress: /Anatis/ ‘of a duck’, but /amAtis/ ‘ye love’. Similarly, from Romance forms such as those developing out of PRom. 89

/muliére/, we know that the stress shifted off the formerly syllabic /i/ in

hiatus onto the following vowel, thus rendering it unpredictable in contrast to such words as PRom. 685 /péktene/ ‘comb’ or PRom. 144 /pérdere/ (and a great number of other verbs with infinitives in /sere/). Classical Latin versification continued to be based on syllable-length, without regard to stress, until ca. a.p. 300.” After this time, stress comes to play a continually greater réle in the composition of traditional Latin metres, clearly reflecting the situation in normal popular speech as applied to the pronunciation of even the most conservative Latin,

Proro-RoMANcE AND LATIN

183

NOTES TO CHAPTER 3 1, Cf. Lifstedt 1959:15 (a propos of the relationship between popular and literary Latin usage): “[. . .] there are numberless gradations between the language of cultivated

conversation and that of the unlettered populace.” Cf. also Hofmann 1936; Altheim

1951:395-404; Pisani 1962:5-6. 2. Cf. Sittl 1882; Palmer 1954:59-73; and, for dialectal borrowings in lexicon, Ernout 1909. 3. Cf. Bardon 1952. 4. Phonemic vowel-length is or has been present in various Romance languages, e.g. fifteenth- and sixteenth-century French (cf. Nyrop 1899-1930:1. §§ 1047, 1301; Brunot and Bruneau 1905-1969:2,263, 272-273); certain modern North Italian dialects (e.g. that of Frignano [Emilia]; cf. Uguzzoni 1971); and reconstructed Proto-RhaetoRomance (cf. Leonard 1940:23-24). All such phenomena in Romance, however, represent later developments; none compel us to set up phonemic vowel-length for Proto-Romance. 5. Cf. Vaininen 1963 (19672): § 42; Tagliavini 1949 (1972): § 49; ete. 6. Cf. Kent 1932 (1945%): § 126.ID.A.

7.

8.

Cf. Kent 1932 (19453): § 125; Hall 1974:59, 61.

The stressed vowels of a few Romance words suggest that they go back to tense

/6*/: e.g. Modern French /fwé/ foin ‘hay’ (< ONFr. /fé*in/) and Old Spanish /héno/

heno < PRom. /fé‘nu/, contrasting with Italian /fiéno/ < PRom. /fénu/ ( : Lat. /faenu-/). Similarly, ONFr. /sdif/ < /sé*if/ ‘hedge’ < PRom. /sépe/ ‘hedge’, but Italian /siépe/ < PRom. /sépe/ (: Lat. /saepe-/). This alternation in Proto-Romance is to be traced to a “shimmer” (like that suggested for PRom. /ay/~ /o*/, § 1.31) due to a “rustic” replacement of /ae/ by [e’:], interpreted by other speakers at an early stage as /e-/, but later as /e/; cf. Sturtevant 1920 (1940*): § 131.a; Allen 1965:60-61. 9.

Cf. Sturtevant 1920 (19402):

13.

Cf. Vidindnen 1963 (1967):

22.

Cf. Sturtevant 1920 (19402):

§ 144.c.

10. “From the time of our earliest documents [.. .] Lat. h was an unstable sound”’ (Sturtevant 1920 [19402]: § 180). For a complete discussion, cf. ibid. §§ 130-134; also Kent 1932 (1945%): § 52; Allen 1965:43-45. 11. Cf. Allen 1965:30-31. 12. Cf. Horecky 1948; Allen 1965:11. Some scholars also assume that Lat. qu and gu in hiatus represented single labio-velar phonemes /k¥/ and /g*/ respectively; cf. Allen 1965:16-20. If this was the case, they merged with /ky/ and /gu/, respectively, throughout in Romance. § 119.

14. Cf. Sturtevant 1920 (19402): §§ 160-163. 15. Cf. Vainiinen 1963 (19672): § 121. 16. Attested in the Appendix Probi: vetus non veclus. 17. Cf. Vaandnen 1963 (19672): §§ 76, 77. 18. E.g. Sturtevant 1920 (1940%): chapter VII; Kent 1932 (19458): § 56; Allen 1965 :85-88. 19. Cf. Kent 1932 (19453): § 125. 20. Cf. Sturtevant 1920 (19402): §§ 209a, 218-214; Viiiniinen 1963 (19672): § 46. 21. Cf. the discussions in Sturtevant 1920 (19407): § 207; Kent 1932 (19453): §§ 63-66; Vadniinen 1963 (19672): § 46; Allen 1965:83-86. § 211a.

CHAPTER 4 Major Developments in Early Romance

The differentiation of the Romance languages! did not take place all at once, or even rapidly. It was a slow process, lasting two millennia, and is of course still going on. Our attention here, however, must be concentrated on those phonological changes which were of greatest importance in the early stages, since these are the phenomena on the basis of which the major divisions of the Romance languages are to be established.? There is a valid reason for regarding phonological criteria as basic in the classification of languages within a “family,” in the frequency of the occurrence of sounds in speech, as opposed to inflectional features, syntactic combinations, or lexical items. Any given contentive® occurs much less frequently, in running text (spoken or written) than any given functor,’ since there are far more contentives than functors in a linguistic system.* Both functors and contentives, however, are built up out of a quite small, limited number of functional units of sound (phonemes). Each phoneme occurs, therefore, many more times in running text than does any one linguistic form. Among the phonemes, there are differences in frequency of occurrence: there are fewer vowels than there are consonants, and hence the former are more frequent than the latter. In describing linguistic structure and history, the traditional procedure of starting with vowels and then proceeding to consonants and prosodic features is therefore fully justified.

4.1.

Earliest Divisions

4.11. Tae Dsvevopment or Proto-Romance /i/. This was the first element of Proto-Romance phonology to undergo change, with lax /i/ merging with tense /e*/, and spreading to all regions of Romance speech

except Sardinia, part of Corsica, and a small area in Lucania.* The change

/i/ > /e*/ is attested as early as the first century a.p., as in Pompeian

inscriptions: veces = vices ‘turns’; pravessimus

= pravissimus ‘most evil’:

Proto-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

186 domene

=

domine

‘master!’, and reverse spellings like minses

=

menses

‘months’.® Before this time, the use of /e/ instead of /i/ was considered

r “rustic,” 7 This fact has led some® to regard this development in Popula carrya ie. ” Latin and Romance as due to Oscan-Umbrian “substratum, over of earlier speech-habits by speakers of those languages into their

newly-learned Latin.

This change is reflected in many sets of Romance cognates, e.g. our nos. 21-64 and others. The stage immediately following the development /i/ > /e*/ may, from the fact that it eventually embraced almost all the conti-

nental varieties of Romance, appropriately be termed PRoro-CoNTINENTAL

Romance (PCRom.). For our Proto-Romance forms nos. 21-28, for instance, the Proto-Continental Romance forms (which remained the same in the next stage, that of Proto-Italo-Western Romance; cf. § 4.12) would be:

No. 21

22 23

24

25 26 27 28

Meaning

PRom.

‘pear’

pira

‘to gird on’ ‘tongue’ ‘snow’

PCRom., PItWRom. pé‘ra

kingere Iingua

ké“ngere 1é‘ngua

frikant uirde sfnu pike

fré“kant ué‘rde sé“nu pé*ke

niye

‘they rub’ ‘green’ ‘breast’ ‘pitch’

né“ye

At the Proto-Continental Romance stage there was, therefore, no longer a nine-vowel pattern like that of Proto-Romance (§ 1.31), but an unbalanced eight-vowel pattern (with an undifferentiated /i/ < PRom. /i*/, as in our sets nos. 1-20):

i e*

e

u u

o*

0

or, reformulating the same pattern by extracting the component of tongue-

Masor Deve.opments In Earty RoMANCE

187

height or tenseness /*/;

Tus Deve opment or Proro-Romance /u/. Lax /u/ merged with 4.12. tense /o*/, parallel to but later than the change /i/ > /e*/, as shown by both its later attestation® and its lesser extension in Romance. Not only in Sardinia and parts of Corsica, but also in a wider area in Lucania’ and in Balkan Romance," was /u/ preserved as such, merging, not with /o*/, but with /u*/. Some scholars (cf. fn. 8) have regarded this change, too, as due to an Oscan-Umbrian substratum, despite its later development and spread. The third stage, resulting from the merger of /u/ and /o*/, is common to Italo-Romance (including Dalmatian'?) and to the western varieties (Gallo- and Italo-Romance). We can therefore term it Proto-ITa.oWestern Romance (PItWRom.). For the forms to be set up at this stage for our nos. 21-28, ef. the table in § 4.11. For the back vowel /u/ > /o*/, ef. our PRom. forms nos. 81-120. The PItWRom. forms for nos. 81-88 would be: No. 81

82 83

84 85 86 87

88

Meaning ‘mouth’

‘throat’

‘fly’

‘furrow’ ‘drop’ ‘race’ ‘wave’

‘shade’

PRom., PCRom.

PItWRom.

bikka

bé*kka,

muska

m6‘ska

imbra

é*mbra

guila

silku gutta kdrsu Vinda

g6'la

so‘Iku gotta k6*rsu Onda

The Proto-Italo-Western Romance vowel-pattern restored a kind of equilibrium in the system by rendering the high back vowel /u/ (< /u*/, exemplified in our sets nos. 69-80) no longer differentiated as to tongueheight (tenseness), thus becoming parallel to PCRom., PItWRom. /i/, as

shown in the two formulations below (seven-vowel system; same system

188

Proro-RoMANcr PHoNoLoGy

with /*/ extracted) : u

e* e

Of a

Or

i

+

/*/

u

{eee e

Reser

Ses eee a

°

S

ree

This seven-vowel system was at the base of all later developments in Italo- and Western Romance, remaining the same in Italian and Old South French, being reduced in Castilian, and undergoing further developments in Dalmatian, Old North French, Catalan, and Rhaeto-Romance.

4.18. Syncope, the loss of an unstressed pre- or intertonic vowel, was a process going on all during the Latin and Romance periods, creating, in a number of words, a constant “shimmer” often lasting centuries before one variant or the other finally won out. Thus, in very early Latin, we find graphs such as dedrot = dederunt ‘they gave’; but in such instances there may be either syllabic writing (with d = de) or dialectal borrowing." Other examples, less open to doubt, are Lat. /dekstru-/ ‘right’ < ProtoItalic */deksiteru-/; Lat. /amputa-re/ ‘to prune around’ with its first element from an earlier /ambhi-/; Lat. /pri-nkipe-/ ‘chief? < earlier */pri-mokape-/ ‘first head’. Plautus has such syncopated forms as /yalde:/ ‘indeed’, which survived into Classical Latin alongside of the non-syncopated form /yalide:/ ‘strongly’, and /domnu-/ ‘master’ alongside of /dominu-/.15 In Greek borrowings, likewise, such a word as older /balineu-/ ‘bath’ (< Gk. /balaneton/ fadaveiov) became /balneu-/; Gk. /kélaphos/ Kéhagos ‘blow’ > Lat. /kolap(h)u-/, which survives in Proto-Romance only as /kélpu-/. This “shimmer” gave rise to such back-formations as Lat. /saekulu-/ ‘century’ ~ earlier /saeklu-/ or /stabulu-/ ‘place of abode’ ¥ /stablu-/, on the analogy of syncopated forms coming from the diminutive suffix /tkulu-/ > /+klu-/.16 As Vaandnen has put it, “La syncope est un phénoméne d’aspect éminemment populaire et familier. Sur 227 ‘fautes’ relevées dans l’Appendix Probi, 25 se rapportent @ la syncope.”

Syncope continued all through the period of Imperial Latin,!” and in some

Romance varieties, e.g. North French, through the Middle Ages and down to the present day: cf. ONFr. /sairamént/ ‘oath’ (< PRom. /sakraméntu/) > Mod.Fr. /serma/ serment, and the loss of /o/ between two single conso-

nants in Modern French

horses’, etc.) .18

(e.g. /le*Svo*/

< /le*Savo*/ les chevaux ‘the

Mayor DrveLopments 1n Harty RoMANcE

189

In Popular Latin, certain phonological environments seem to have favoured the development of syncope, especially when the unstressed vowel was preceded or followed by a liquid or nasal:!®

A. Between /C/ + liquid, or between liquid and /C/: e.g. PRom. 1033 /dlteru/ ‘other’ ( : Lat. /alteru-/) > PCRom. /altru/; PRom. 600 /Niglire/ ‘to stay awake’ ( : Lat. /yigila-re/) ; PRom. 102 /pépulu/ ‘people’

(.: Lat. /populu-/) > PWRom. /péplu/.”°

B. Between labial + /C/: eg. PRom. 102 /pdpulu/ ‘people’ (just cited) ; PRom. 705 /démna/ ‘mistress, lady’ ( : Lat. /domina/). By and large, syncopated forms are more common in Western than in Eastern Romance; this fact has led some scholars”! to consider that the speech of the latter regions was, by and large, more conservative in Imperial times than that of the former, at least with regard to intertonic

vowels.

Lack of detailed evidence concerning the every-day speech of

Imperial times and the early Middle Ages renders it difficult, if not impossible, to reach a clear solution of this problem. The same is true of any detailed chronology, such as has been attempted,” for the development of syncope in any given area, since we have only the sketchiest hints as to what may have been the cross-currents of dialectal borrowing. The most that can be said is that the incidence of syncope seems to be greatest in Gallo-Romance, and that it is quite likely that, in late Imperial times and the early Middle Ages, many syncopated forms were borrowed from GalloRomance into the rest of the western Romance territory. 4.2.

Further Early Developments in Vocalism

4.21. Umuaut, or the alteration of a vowel-phoneme (usually raising) under the influence of a neighbouring, normally a following, vowel, is found in a number of Romance varieties.”* In most instances, this involves the raising of a mid-vowel to a higher position of articulation, with open /e o/ > close /e* 0*/, respectively, or /e* 0*/ > /iu/. It is found chiefly when, at

some stage, the final vowel of a word was /i*/ or /u/. In some Romance

languages, umlaut occurred only with a final /i*/, as in ONFr. and OSFr.

/fis/ ‘I did’ < PRom. /fé6*ki*/; ONFr. and OSFr. /vint/ ‘20’ < PRom.

1474 /uf(i)nti*/. In others, especially South Italian dialects, both /-u/ and /-i*/ bring about the raising of a preceding stressed vowel, even across an intervening unstressed syllable:** e.g. OLomb. /p{Si/ pisci ‘fishes’ (< PItWRom. /pé*ski/ < PRom. 294 /pisk-i*/); Trevi (Umbria)

/6*mmani/

‘men’

(
Span. /ndéée/), whereas the latter did not: PRom. 173 /béne/ ‘well’ > Span. /bién/ and PRom. 396 /féssa/ ‘ditch’ > OSpan. /fuésa/ ‘grave’, but PRom. 327 /ké*ra/ ‘wax’ > OSpan. /¢é*ra/ and PRom. 431 /mistu/ ‘must (new wine)’ > PItWRom. /m6*stu/ > Span. /mésto/.** The same loss of contrast between lax and tense varieties of /e o/ seems to be under way in regional varieties of standard Italian in north and south Italy,?° whereas central Italy still preserves that contrast. The fact that in these, as in so many other, instances the same pattern has been reached by diverse routes demonstrates the invalidity of typological considerations for the classification of languages or language-groups on an historical basis.

4.3.

Early Developments in Consonantism

There are no consonantal changes in Romance which can with certainty be traced back as far as the Proto-Continental Romance stage or the beginning of the Proto-Italo-Western Romance (‘Vulgar Latin’) period.” It is quite likely that some changes which later became phonologically significant had their beginning in the early Empire as positional variants of Popular Latin phonemes, but they did not become “phonologised” until later. The chief phenomena which are to be ascribed to the end of the Empire and the early Middle Ages are assimilation, palatalisation, labialisation, the simplification of double (geminate) consonants, and lenition.

4.81, AssIMILATION. This would to have gotten under way, to judge and to a certain extent Roumanian assimilation was present from very emes, the assimilation of the first second began later. To judge by its

seem to be the earliest of the processes from its presence in Sardinian, Italian, as well. Across morpheme-boundaries, early times in Latin; but within morphelement of a consonant-cluster to the spread, the assimilation of /ps/ > /ss/

Masor Deveropments in Harty Romance

195

would seem to have preceded that of other consonant-clusters, since it is found in part in Roumanian as well as elsewhere (on the other hand, /ps/

is also preserved in part in Old Sardinian and in Old South French,** due

to dialect-mixture whose exact distribution escapes us through lack of attestation) : cf. PRom. /iskri*psit/ ‘he wrote’ (preterite of 942 /iskri*bere/ ‘to write’ > OSard. /iskr{psit/ but Roum. /skrise/, Oltal. /(i)skrisse/,

ONFr.

/eskrist/ and OSpan.

PRom.

692 /téksere/

/eskriso/; PRom.

677 /ipsu/ ‘himself’?

>

OSFr. /é*ps/, Roum. /insu/, but Sard. /issu/ and Italo-Western developments from /ss/; Ital. /6é*sso/, Span. /éso/ ‘that’. The cluster /pt/ is preserved in Roumanian but becomes /tt/ elsewhere, as in PRom. 674 /riptu/ ‘broken’ > Roum. /ruipt(u-)/ ‘lease’, Sard. /rittu/, and Italo-Western developments from PItWRom. /ré*ttu/; PRom. 143 /sépte/ ‘seven’ > Roum. */sedépte/ > */sidpte/ > /SApte/, but Sard., PItWRom. /sétte/, Clusters of /kC/ were assimilated to /CC/ only in Sardinian and ItaloRomance (cf. below for their development elsewhere, §§ 4.32, 33): e.g., for /ks/, PRom. 692 /t&ksu/ ‘ash-tree’ > Sard. /tdssu/, Ital. /tasso/;

‘to weave’

>

Sard., Ital. /téssere/; PRom.

694

/laks&re/ ‘to let go of, leave’ > Sard., Oltal. /lassére/.3* Similarly, Sardinian and Italian show assimilation of /kt/ > /tt/ in such words as PRom. 681 /lakte/ ‘milk’ > /latte/; PRom. 228 /ékto/ ‘eight’ > /étto/; PRom. 685 /péktene/ ‘comb’ > Sard. /péttene/, Ital. /péttine/. The cluster /nkt/ behaves likewise, as in PRom. 972 /kinktu/ ‘belt, girdle’ > Sard. /kintu/ ‘waist’; Ital. /éinto/; PRom. 974 /pinktu/ ‘prick, point’ > Sard. /pintu/, Ital. /ptinto/. Clusters of /Cn/ show assimilation in Sardinian, and /mn/ > /nn/ in Italian also: e.g. PRom. 705 /démnu/ ‘harm’ > Sard. /dannu/, Ital. /danno/; PRom. 706 /iskamnu/ ‘bench’ > Sard. /isk4nnu/, Oltal. /(i)skénno/; PRom. 707 /sémnu/ ‘sleep’ > Sard. /sénnu/, Ital. /sénno/. On the other hand, /gn/ > /nn/ only in Sardinian and parts of southern Italy (not in standard Italian) 4° as in PRom. 700 /ligna/ ‘fire-wood’ > Sard. /linnu/, Ausonia (Campania) /lé*na/; PRom. 698 /mégnu/ ‘large’ > Sard. /ménnu/. The reflexes of /rs/ show mixed development, probably due to early dialect-borrowing: in some regions PRom. 792 /trsu/ ‘bear’ and 794 /pérsika/ ‘peach’ appear with /ss/ or later developments thereof, in other regions with /rs/ conserved: Sard. /péssike/, but /ursu/; ONFr. /péste/ (whence, possibly, Ital. /pé*ska/), but /6*rs/; whereas, in IberoRomance, Portuguese has /pésego/, but Catalan and Spanish have /6*s/ and /6so/, respectively.

4.82. PALATALISATION is one of the most wide-spread and at the same time most tangled developments in early Romance.“ Its beginning was in the development of assibilated allophones [t*] [d*] for /ti/ and /dj/, /i/

196

Proro-RoMANcE PHONOLOGY

respectively, as shown by such spellings as oze (2nd cent. a.p.) for hédie,

PRom. 877 /édie/ ‘today’ (presumably [[o | de]); Vincentzus for Vincentius (2nd-8rd cent. a.p.).!? Later, /ki/ and /gj/ also developed fronted

allophones in the fourth and fifth centuries a.., evidenced in such spellings as terciae ‘third’ for tertiae. The voiceless assibilated and palatalised sounds coming from /ti/ and /ki/ merged in some regions giving /¢/, but in others they were kept apart, giving /¢/ and /&/ respectively, as in the following:* Meaning ‘open place’ ‘well? ‘face’ ‘string’

Number 977 865 869

870

PRom. plattja putiu fakia lékiu

Italian pid¢da po-¥¢¢o f4d6a l&ééo

Old North French pléga pui¢ fago 4g

There were, however, a fair number of borrowings between dialects and languages in later times, resulting on occasion in over-corrections, such as Ital. /kaééére/ ‘to hunt’ ¥ earlier /ka¢¢ére/.“4 The corresponding voiced sounds were thoroughly mixed up, and gave varying results even in the same regions, in all probability because of extensive dialect-mixture in late Imperial times for which we have no direct evidence, as in: ‘barley’ ‘today’ ‘May’

1009 877 273

érdiu édie méju

6rzo 6ggi mfgzo

érga ui mfi

The velar stops /k/ and /g/ also developed—even later, according to some scholars**—palatal allophones before the front vowels /i e/, probably through the stages [ki] and [gi ],4* ending up as [t®] and [d®], respectively. As long as the occurrence of these sounds was wholly conditioned by their position before front vowels, and they were in complementary distribution with stop-sounds [k g] elsewhere, they were still positional variants of /k/ and /g/, and no phonemic change had occurred. The same arguments hold true for the development of assibilated variants of /ti/ and /di/ (above) : as long as they contained a palatal element and were in complementary distribution with [tj] and [dj], they were still allophonic in nature. But when, say, PRom. 532 /br&kju/ ‘arm’ and its plural /brakia/

had become ['bra | t#u] and ['bra | ta], [t*] now occurred not only before front vowels,

but before back vowels as well, so that it was coming in

Masor Deve.orments In Earty RoMANcE

197

contrast with [k’]] before the latter. The same argument holds for [t*], ({d*],

and [d*] coming to stand before a back vowel, as in, say, the developments

of PItWRom. /baptidjare/ ‘to baptise’ (< Gk. /baptizein/ Barrifew ‘to dunk’): when this came to be pronounced [bap | ti| 'd‘a|re] or [bap | ti| 'd'a | re], the resultant assibilated or palatalised stop was in contrast with plain stops in the same position, and hence constituted a new phoneme. As a result, a new series of assibilated dental and palatal stops arose and was continued in all Romance varieties except Sardinian.” The new organisation of the stop-consonant-system was, therefore:

Plosive

Assibilate

In clusters of /kC/, palatalisation is found in wide regions of western Romance. It is generally assumed‘* that the initial stages of the develop-

ment of [k] + stop involved a fricativisation of [k] to [x], and such a sound is indeed attested in such Mozarabic forms as nht = ['noxte] ‘night’.4® The [x] in such clusters would then have been fronted to [¢] and to [i], joining with the following consonant to palatalise it. For ProtoGallo-Romance and Proto-Ibero-Romance, we have to set up such pal-

atalised consonants as /t/, /s/, /l/, /y/ to account for developments of the type of PRom., PIbRom. 204 /nékte/ > PNIbRom. /néte/ > Port. /noite/, Span. /ndéée/, Cat. /nit/; and similarly PGRom. /nét/ > OSFr. /nuéit/, ONFr. /nuit/. In like manner, /ks/ > /is/ > /s/, e.g. in PRom. 689 /kéksa/ ‘thigh’ > PNIbRom. /késa/ > Cat., OSpan., Port. /ké8a/

and PGRom. /késa/ /\/, as in PRom.

> OSFr. /kuéisa/, ONFr. /ktise/; /kl/ > /il/ >

589 /yéklu/ ‘old’ > PNIbRom.

/vélu/

> Port. /vélo/,

OSpan. /viééo/, Cat. /vél/ and PGRom. /vél/ > OSFr., ONFr. /viél/.

Clusters of /gC/ shared in this development, as evidenced in such words as PRom. 565 /dgru/ ‘field’ > ONFr. /dire/ ‘nest; origin; manner, bearing, air’;5° PRom. 600 /yiglére/ ‘to stay awake’ > OSFr. /ve*lér/, ONFr. /ve"l|ér/, Cat. /vetlér/. The cluster /gn/ passed through a semi-assimilated stage [nn] > [pn], as in PRom. 701 /lignu/ ‘wood’ > PItWRom.

/\é*nu/ > It. /lé*nno/, OSFr. /1é*n/, ONFr. /lé*in/ ‘skiff’, Cat. /16%/

‘ship’, Span. /léno/, Port. /lé*no/. Later palatalisations, such as that of /k/ to /¢/ before /4&/ in Old North French (e.g. PRom. 670 /kérru/ > ONFr. /é&r/; PRom. 625 /yikka/

198

Protro-Romancn PHONOLOGY

‘cow’ > ONFr. /véte/) individual languages.

were much later and belong in the histories of

4.83. LABIALISATION, in contrast to palatalisation, is evidenced chiefly in Sardinian, some southern Italian dialects, and Roumanian.” It manifests

itself in the developments of two types of clusters: the labio-velars /ky/

and /gy/, and sequences of /kC/ and /gC/. The treatment of these clusters is not wholly parallel in every instance, as shown by such sets as PRom. 224 /kydttoro/ ‘four’ > Sard. /b4ttoro/, Roum. /pétru/; PRom. 23 /\ingua/ ‘tongue’ > Sard. /limba/, Roum. /limba/; but PRom. 909

/kuéntu/

‘how

much’

>

Sard.

/kudéntu/,

Roum.

/kit/;

PRom.

911

/kuérere/ ‘to seek’ > Sard. /kérrere/, Roum. /%ére(re) / ‘to ask’. Similarly, in the developments of such clusters as /kt ks gn/, Sardinian has assimilation (cf. above, § 4.31), whereas Roumanian and, in some instances, South Italian dialects have /wC/ or /pC/: e.g. PRom. 469 /hikta/ ‘struggle’ > Roum. /ltipte/; PRom. 689 /kéksa/ ‘thigh’ > Roum. /kodpse/; PRom. 1025 /A&gnu/ ‘lamb’ > Avetrana (Apulia) /4yne/; PRom. 700 /ligna/ ‘(fire-) wood’ > Acerno (Campania) léyna; and PRom. 701 /lignu/ ‘wood’ > Roum. /lémn(u-)/. These labialisations are obviously related in some way, as shown by their geographical distribution; but in what way, is not clear (whether, as suggested by some,* an Oscan-Umbrian substratum is involved, or perhaps an over-correction due to some type of conservative reaction against palatalisation). 4.84, SIMPLIFICATION oF GEmINATES is found in all Romance languages except Sardinian and Italian, which conserve a full series of double (long) consonants. Ibero-Romance preserves a contrast between /r/ and /rr/ down to the present, and Gallo-Romance probably kept it until a relatively late period (16th-17th centuries).°° Various conditioned sound-changes, especially diphthongisation in previously free syllables versus non-diphthongisation in previously checked syllables, indicate that double consonants were preserved in many western Romance varieties until well after the Proto-Italo-Western Romance period.** Thus, we find PRom. 670 /kérru/ ‘cart’ giving ONFr. /é4r/, Span. and Port. /karro/, but PRom. 1193 /kéru/ ‘dear’ > ONFr. /éiér/, Span. and Port. /k4ro/. Similarly, PRom. 646 /ttssi/ ‘cough’ > PItWRom. /té“sse/ > ONFr. /t6*s/, but PRom, 14 /ispi*né*su/ ‘thorny’ > PItWRom. /espiné*su/ > ONFr. /espin6*us/. In other instances, we reach similar conclusions on the basis of the preservation of a contrast between the out-comes of earlier double consonants as opposed to those of short consonants, as in PRom. 643 /massa/

‘mass, lump; dough’ > /mAsa/ in Old North French and /mésa/ in Old

Masor DeveLormEnts In Earty RomANcE

199

South French, Spanish and Portuguese, versus the results of PRom. 178 /késa/ ‘house’ > /kéza/ in Old South French, Old Spanish and Portuguese, /kdze/ in Catalan, and /éézo/ in the Old North French locution

/é&z0 diéu/ chaise Dieu ‘house of God’; or as in PRom. 625 /yakka/ ‘cow’ > ONFr. /vite/, Cat. /vike/, OSFr. and Port. /véka/, Span. /baka/, as contrasted with PRom. /pdkat/ ‘he pacifies, pays’ (: PRom. 256

/pakére/ ‘to pacify, pay’) > ONFr. /pdied/, Cat. /piga/, OSFr., Span., Port. /paga/. In view of these considerations, we must ascribe the contrast of single versus double consonants, i.e. of consonants which did not check a preceding syllable versus those which did, not only to Proto-Italo-Western Romance but also to Proto-Gallo- and Proto-Ibero-Romance. The simplification of the geminates probably took place through their passage to a stage of fortis articulation (versus lenis for the single consonants) and then

their shortening in terms of time taken for their pronunciation while they

remained phonemically distinct as fortes. In any case, this process clearly took place after the lenition of intervocalic single consonants (cf. below), since the contrast was preserved, though in different form.

4.35. Lenition has often been considered the hall-mark of western as opposed to eastern Romance; but here again, numerous survivals of nonlenited consonants in the western regions and some mediaeval attestations make it clear that lenition, likewise, did not characterise “Vulgar Latin” in Imperial times,*’ and spread outward from some source-area (probably northern Gallo-Romance) considerably later. Among the evidence for the late survival of non-lenition,®® we may cite the well-known area of Upper Bearnese,®* in which we find the conservation of intervocalic /p t k/ in

forms like /sApo/ ‘sap’ < PRom. 1184 /s&pa/ ‘juice’; /espéto/ ‘sword-like

part of a plough’ < PRom. 1157 /ispita/ ‘sword’; /plek4/ ‘to fold’ < PRom. 579 /plikére/. Because of the presence of these forms in a marginal area of Gallo-Romance, we must ascribe lenition to some stage later than Proto-Gallo-Romance, and must set up the intermediate forms PGRom. /sipa/, /espata/, /ple*kare/.®° Similarly, in Upper Aragonese in the IberoRomance area, we find /sapér/ ‘to know’ < PRom. 307 /sapé*re/; /espdta/ < PRom. 1157 /ispata/; /berrika/ ‘wart’? < PRom. 68 /yerri*ka/. These, likewise, call for PIbRom. ancestral forms /sapé*re/, /espita/, /verrika/. Mediaeval Iberian attestations afford further confirmation with regard to non-lenited forms, such as Mozarabic vetare ‘to forbid’, akutos ‘sharp’, lupayra ‘wolf’s den’, from PRom. /yetdre/, /akii*tos/, /lu*pdria/ respectively. In the light of this material, it is quite probable that the writing of non-lenited forms in Old Spanish glosses (such as kematu ‘burned’ < PRom, /kremétu/; sapet ‘he knows’ < PRom. /sdpet/; aplekat ‘he arrives’

200

Protro-Romance PHonoLocy

< PRom. /applikat/) represented actual speech with non-lenited conso-

nants, and was not merely a Latinising way of writing.

Modern Sardinian has lenition of intervocalic plosives in the interior of

words and also in sentence-sandhi; but this phenomenon is clearly a late development (probably in imitation of Genoese and Catalan), since the earliest Sardinian documents still show non-lenited forms.® Lenition may seem at present to be characteristic of western Romance and Sardinian; but historical evidence shows that it arose and spread at a relatively late period, say the seventh or eighth centuries and thereafter, and the process is not yet finished. Its ascription to Keltie or some other substratum® is

thereby rendered less probable.

4.4,

Prosodic Features

The only prosodic feature that we can reconstruct with any certainty for Proto-Romance is stress (§ 2.2). Phonemically significant stress has continued down to the present in all Romance languages except French.® In Old North French, PRom. final /a/ survived as /o/, and this latter phoneme was also the continuator of such other vowels as remained as “voyelles d’appui’’; other final vowels disappeared. As a result, stress came to be automatic in words ending in a consonant or in /a/; but it remained phonemic, since there was still a contrast between /Ai/ and /af/ in such pairs as /pdis/ ‘peace’ (< PRom. 1312 /pd&ke/) and /pais/ ‘country’ (< PRom. /pagé“*se/ : Lat. /page:nse-/ : /pagu-/ ‘region’). When ONFr. /&i/ became open /e/ in the twelfth century, the last contrastive function of stress was lost, and stress became wholly automatic and has remained so in French down to the present.

4.5.

Sporadic Sound-Changes

Since “slips of the tongue” are going on at all times, as already pointed out (§ 1.23.3), some which took place in the Popular Latin of the Imperial period have left traces in later Romance. In general, these sporadic changes resulted in alternants in the reconstructed Proto-Romance forms, since the later developments cannot be brought together under a single ancestral phonemic shape. 4.51. Dissim1,atTion™ was at work in such variations as that between PRom, /fragrére/ ‘to smell’ (> Sard. /fragrére/, Abruzz. /frah’/) as

Masor DrvELopMENTS IN EarLy RoMANcE opposed to PRom.,

/flairider/,

/flagrére/

Port. /éeirér/;

(>

REW®*

Sic. /éaurari/, OSFr.

§ 3476);

PRom.

(> Sard. /krontika/) versus PRom. /kontkla/ (> OSFr. /kon6“la/, ONFr. /ken6*le/; REW? § 2061).

201

/flairér/, ONFr.

/koltkla/

‘spindle’

Ital. /koné*kkia/,

4.62. Meratussts is found in such alternations as PRom. /ane“lare/ ‘to pant’ (: Lat. /anhe-la-re/ ‘to breathe’) (> Macedo-Roum. /alindre/) versus PRom. /ale*nére/ (> Sard. /alendre/, Ital. /ale*nére/, OSFr. /ale*ndér/, ONFr. /aleinér/; REW® § 473); or PRom. /pali*de/ ‘swamp’ (: Lat. /palu-de-) (> It. /paltide/, OSFr. /pali/, ONFr. /pali8/) over against PRom. /padi“le/ (> Sard., Tusc. /padile/, Roum. /padtire/ ‘forest’, OSpan. and OPort. /patil/; REW® § 6183). 4.68. HapioLocy was manifested in certain Greek borrowings of the Imperial period: e.g. /eidolo-létre-s/ cidokwAdrpys ‘worshiper of idols’ > Late Lat. /idola:tr-/, taken into Romance as at least a semi-learnéd word, Ital. /idolétro/, ONFr. /idolétra/; Gk. /hippopdétamos/ immorérapos ‘river-horse’ > Late Lat. /hippopotamu-/, taken into ONFr. as /ipotam/. These have, in general, developed through popular mishearing of highfalutin’ terms of learnéd or semi-learnéd origin.

4.6.

Phonological Effects of Analogical Substitution

In some instances, analogical changes in morphology may result in the substitution of one sound or group of sounds for another, so extensively as to simulate the end-product of an unconditioned sound-change. This happened, for instance, with the Popular Latin treatments of certain Latin neuter nouns which ended in a consonant: /mel/ ‘honey’, /sal/ ‘salt’, /fel/ ‘gall’, reshaped by the addition of a final /e/ so as to appear in ProtoRomance as 138 /méle/, /féle/, 233 /sile/. The addition of such a “paragogic” vowel may appear to be a regular sound-change, but in reality it is the result of morphological adaptation, in this instance the inclusion of these morphemes in the “third” or /e/-stem declension of nouns. Similarly, many scholars® have thought that final /s/ and/or final /es/ and /as/ became /i/ in Italian and Roumanian, in view of such developments as PRom. /n6*s/ ‘we, us’ > Ital. /né6*i/, Roum. /néi/; PRom. 261

/f6ras/ ‘outside’ > Ital. /fudri/; the plural ending /e/ in nouns with /a/-

stems such as Ital., Roum. /kase/ ‘houses’, supposedly from PRom. /kasas/ rather than /kdse/; the 2.ag, ending /i/ of verbs of the /a/- and /e/-stems,

e.g. Ital, /kAnti/, Roum. /kinti/ ‘thou singest’ < PRom. /kdntas/ (: 831

202

Proto-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

/kantére/ ‘to sing’) or Ital. /vé*di/, Roum. /védi/ ‘thou seeest’? < PRom.

/wides/ ( : 281 /yidé*re/ ‘to see’); and the plural ending /i/ in /e/-stem nouns such as Ital. /kéni/, Roum, /kfini/ ‘dogs’ < PRom. /k4nes/. In none of these instances, however, is it necessary to assume that a final /s/, whether preceded by a vowel or not, became /i/ by phonological change, since all these developments can be explained as the result of ana-

logical substitutions: spread

of the plural-ending /-i/ of the “second”

declension to other nouns and to pronouns; and spread of the second person singular ending /-i/ from /i*/-stem verbs to those of other conjugations, as in PRom. /dérmi/ ‘thou sleepest’ ( : 3 /dorm{‘re/ ‘to sleep’.°° As for the ending /-e/ in “‘first-declension” nouns like /k4sa/, there is no reason for deriving it from /-as/ instead of the obvious /-e/, except a desire to trace all Romance noun-forms back to the Latin accusative.”

4.7,

Borrowings

4.71. Sources for large-scale borrowings, in early Romance times, were (as pointed out in Hall 1974: 50-51, 68, 84-91) Greek and Germanic. With the former, speakers of Latin were in continual contact from the third century B.c. down to the fifth century a.p. In popular speech of Imperial times, Greek influence was strongest in the parlance of the Christian community,®* from which a number of words and other features of linguistic structure spread into general usage. Germanic loans came into popular Latin chiefly through the speech of Imperial soldiers, an ever larger number of whom came to be recruited from Germanic-speaking communities. Later, as the Empire fell apart in the west and Germanic kingdoms were established, the various Germanic languages left greater or smaller traces in local Romance speech, before the invaders or their descendants gave up their ancestral language and became members of the Romance speechcommunity.

4.72, Jirrects on PHonotoeican Systems. Certain Romance developments have been ascribed to Greek influence, but none convincingly. It is possible that the large number of Greek loan-words containing the sounds [ts] and [dz] may have contributed to reinforcing the phonemic status of /¢/ and /z/ in early Romance (§ 4.32). In regions such as southern Italy and Sicily, where Greek speech had survived from the times of Magna Graecia,® the development of PItWRom. stressed /é* 6*/ and of final /e o/ to /i/ and /u/ may have reflected similar developments

in Greek.

Masor DrveLormEnts In EARLY RoMANCE

203

The effects of Germanic pronunciation-habits are rather more certain, at least in two instances: the development of a new cluster /gy/ in ProtoItalo-Western Romance, in Germanic loan-words such as /werra/ ‘war’ > PItWRom. /guérra/ (> Ital. /guérra/, ONFr. /gérre/, Span. /gérra/ ete.; REW? § 9524a), or /want/ ‘glove’ (> Ital. /guénto/, ONFr. /gant/, Span. and Port. /gudnte/) ;”° and the reintroduction of /h/ into at least Old North French, in words of the type of /hélmo/ < Frankish /helm/ (REW? § 4101) and /huéza/ ‘hose’ < Frankish /hosa/ (REW? § 4195). Since the /h/ in such words is attested only in Old North French (and confirmed by its survival as /‘/ “hk aspirée” in Modern French), it is in many instances impossible to tell whether they were borrowed into Romance at an earlier stage with /h/ (as if there had been a PItWRom. */hélmu/ and */hésa/ respectively), and then lost it in their non-NorthFrench developments such as Ital. /élmo/ ‘helmet’ and Old Ital. /udsa/ ‘hose’, or whether the Italian and other Romance terms of this type were

borrowed from northern Gallo-Romance without their having had a com-

mon Proto-Italo-Western Romance etymon. For the possibility that stress-timed verse in mediaeval Romance languages reflected Germanic prosody, cf. Hall 1974:85.

NOTES TO CHAPTER 4

1. For general discussions of the process and presumed causes of differentiation, cf. von Wartburg 1936, 1950; Merlo 1939; Meier 1941; Bonfante 1943; Sofer 1950; Bolelli 1951; Coseriu 1954; Togeby 1957; Kiepinsky 1958; Liidtke 1965. 2.

For the extensive

(and as yet unresolved) debates over the classification of the

Romance languages, cf. Schuchardt 1900; Trager 1934; Puscariu 1937; Pei 1949; Hall 1950a; Straka 1956; Reichenkron 1958; Grimes and Agard 1959; Mariczak 1959; Leumann 1960; Kroeber 1960/61; Contreras 1962/63; Muljacié 1967; Pellegrini 1970; Miller 1971; Francescato 1973.

3. In the sense given these terms by Hockett (1958:264-265), and roughly equivalent to “content-words” and “function-words’’ (cf. Fries 1952:87-109), except that the term functor refers not only to independent words, but also to substitutes, markers, inflectional and derivational affixes, and other grammatical processes.

POSS

Te

Cf. the discussion in Francis 1958 :229-234. Cf. Lausberg 1939: §§ 21-35. Cf. Grandgent 1907: § 201; Viidéniinen 1963 (1969%): § 55, E.g. by Cicero (De Oratore 3.46) and Varro (De Re Rustica 1:2.14). E.g. Devoto 1930 and 1936 :207-210, 298. Cf. Grandgent 1907: § 208 (“probably by the fourth century or earlier’); Vaiindinen 1963 (1969*): § 55, citing the Appendix Probi’s “colwmna, non colomna.” 10. Cf. Lausberg 1939: §§ 69-72.

204

Proro-Romance PHONOLOGY

11. Not only in Roumanian, but in the Popular Latin loans in Albanian as well: thus, Albanian has /ftirke/ ‘pitch-fork’ < Pop. Lat. /furka/; /kiilm/ ‘summit’ < /kulme(ne-)/; /ptile/ ‘hen’ < /pulla/; /stirda/ ‘deaf? < /surdu-/; etc., as opposed to, say, /péSk/ ‘fish’ < /piske-/, /sén/ ‘sign’ < /signu-/, /’pé4/ ‘thick’ < /spissu-/, or /vérSe/ ‘yellow, pale’ < /yirde-/ ‘green’. Cf. Mihiescu 1966. 12. Cf. Hadlich 1965:39-40; Hall 1967. 13. The seven-vowel system of our Proto-Italo-Western Romance is the same as that usually set up in most manuals of Romance linguistics for “Vulgar Latin’’—not surprising, since “Vulgar Latin” is customarily established by comparison of Italian and the western Romance languages. 14. Cf. Kent 1932 (19458): § 16; Vaiinaénen 1963 (19692): § 65. 15. Cf. Viininen 1963 (19697): § 66. 16. Cf. Vadniinen 1963 (19692): § 67. 17. Cf. Cross 1930. 18. In popular French speech, the interconsonantal syncope of /a/ has gone well beyond the traditional “loi des trois consonnes,’”’ extending even to initial syllables (as in /ptit/ < /potit/ petite ‘little’ or /msjce*/ < /masjcer/ monsieur ‘my lord; gentleman; sir’, to say nothing of even more extensive shortening in such words as /mamzel/ < /madomwazel/ mademoiselle ‘my damsel; young lady; miss’. Cf. Hall 1948:13-14, and the discussion of ‘mute e’’ in almost any French grammar or treatise on phonetics. 19. Cf. Grandgent 1907: §§ 233-238. 20. Ital. /pépolo/ would seem to be semi-learnéd, because of the non-diphthongised /6/ in free syllable; but cf. OVen. /pudvolo/, which points back to a PItWRom. /pépulu/, not yet syncopated, so that the syncopation must be ascribed, at the earliest, to the Proto-Western Romance stage. 21. E.g. von Wartburg 1934:43. 22. E.g. Straka 1953, for the chronology of syncope in North French with respect to diphthongisation. 23. For general discussions of umlaut in Romance, cf. Férster 1879; Schuchardt 1880; Zimmermann 1901; Schiirr 1936, 1938, 1970. 24, Cf. Rohlfs 1949-54 (1966-697): §§ 20-22, 53, 61, 74, 79, 91-95, 112-116, 123. 25. Thus, for instance, Goiddnich 1907; Lausberg 1947; Manoliu 1963; Delbouille 1966; Romeo

1968.

26. Held particularly by Schiirr (1936, 1938, 1952, 1956, 1964, 1964/65, 1970). 27. Especially by von Wartburg (1950 [19717]: chapters 2.a, 3.c) and (for Tuscan) Aebischer 1944. 28. E.g. Rohlfs (1945-54 [1966-697]: §§ 85, 107) and the present writer (Hall 1951:220), arguing for North French influence in Tuscany, as a “Modestrémung’’. Castilian diphthongisation may likewise have been an imitation of North French; in both Tuscany and Castile, French influence was strong in political, religious, and cultural matters. Others, however (e.g. Castellani 1962), have opposed this view-point and the “monogeneticist’”’ position as well, arguing for the independence of Tuscan diphthongisation from similar phenomena elsewhere in Romance. 29. Cf. Hall 1955 for an over-all discussion of Romance developments in vowelpattern.

30. Cf. Hall 1946c. 31. Reformulated from the presentation in Hall 1948:10. The symbol /?/ stands for a component of backing, as in /pa”t/ [pa:t] pdte ‘paste’ as opposed to /pat/ [pat] patte ‘paw’. 32, As suggested in Hall 1943, Most other scholars have preferred to identify

Masor DevELopmENTs IN Harty Romance

205

Portuguese nasalisation with /n/ or /m/, but I remain unregenerate in treating it as

separate phonological component, concomitant with the utterance of a vowel. In 1943, I distinguished /a/ and /a/, on the basis of the occurrence of the latter in one pair of

contrasting paradigmatic forms, l.pl. present (e.g. /ktémus/ ‘we sing’) versus 1.pl. preterite (e.g. /kétémus/ ‘we sang’). This contrast is apparently growing rarer and rarer

in every-day speech. If it needs to be symbolised at all, I would now favour extracting a

component of tongue-lowering /Y/ for /4/ and marking it only in the preterite I.pl.: /kitémus/ (k5!"tomus] ‘we sing’ vs. /kité”mus/ [k5!"tamus] ‘we sang’. 38. Cf. Agard 1958:10-11, or any school-grammar of Roumanian. 34, Modern Sardinian has seven stressed vowel-sounds, with [e*] and [o“] occurring only before following /i/ or /u/, and [8] and [o] elsewhere, so that they are allophones of /é/ and /6/ respectively; but modern loan-words from Italian and Catalan are beginning to upset this situation by introducing the open and the closed mid-vowels in other phonetic contexts. Cf. Wagner 1941: § 15. 35. For the present-day situation in Spanish, cf. Trager 1938; Navarro Tomas 1946; or any later discussion of Spanish phonemics. The misguided effort of Harris (1969) to set up a contrast between /é*/ and /é/, /6°/ and /6/ for modern Spanish is simply a reformulation of a morphophonemic alternation in unjustifiably historical terms. 36.

Cf. Hall 1960; de Mauro

1963:153-154, 409-411.

37. For those which can be assigned to the development of Gracchan Latin into Proto-Romance, ef. §§ 3.23, 3.24. 38. The picture in Old South French is quite confused (cf. Pfister 1960), but forms written with the graph ps cannot be dismissed as mere Latinisms. 39. Modern Italian /la884re/ has its /88/ from imitation of North Italian or western Romance palatalisation of /ks/; for the mixed development of this cluster in Tuscan and central Italian, cf. Hall 1942b. 40. Cf. Keller 1943. 41, For general discussions of palatalisation, cf. Lenz 1887; Gamillscheg 1940, 1968; Burger 1943, 1955; Nandris 1952, 1970. 42. Cf. Vaindnen 1963 (19692): §§ 95-96, with a reference to Sturtevant 1920 (19402): §§ 203-205 for the use of z in the values [t*] and [d’]. 43. Cf. Liidtke 1957. In Sardinian, the earliest attestations and the most conservative dialects still largely preserve the /j/ in /Cj/ combinations (cf. Wagner 1941: §§ 223-41). Another stratum, presumably the next to develop, shows simply loss of /j/, as in /pitu/ ‘well’ < PRom. 865 /putiu/, /fake/ ‘face’ < PRom. 869 /fdkie/, and /kasu/ ‘cheese’

< PRom. 883 /kdsju/. Later imitations of Italian or Spanish palatalisations led to such developments as /nz/ < /nj/ as in /binza/ ‘vineyard’ < PRom. 889 /yi‘nja/ or /2z/

< /li/, as in /piza/ ‘straw’ < PRom. 895 /palia/. 44, From PRom. /kaptiére/ ‘to hunt’ ( : Lat. /kaptu-/, past participle of /kap-/ ‘take’). The normal development /ka¢gaére/ probably acquired obscene connotations, still surviving in the post-verbal noun /k颢o/ ‘penis’, and was hence replaced by the over-corrected pseudo-Gallicism /kaééére/. 45. E.g. Joret 1874; Deloche 1883; Horning 1883; Paris 1893a, 1893b; Vianinen 1963 (1969): § 100; but cf. Meyer-Liibke 1905, 1936. 46. Of the type to be heard in some varieties of Southern American English, as in /kia:/ ‘car’, /gia:don/ ‘garden’. 47, Assibilated dentals or palatals in Sardinian are probably later imitations of either Italian (Genoese, Pisan) or Ibero-Romance (Catalan, Castilian) developments. 48. Cf. Meyer-Liibke 1925. Many scholars trace the palatalisation of these clusters to a Keltic substratum, basing their arguments chiefly on the geographical distribution

206

Proro-Romance PHONOLOGY

of these palatalisations in modern dialects, and on a few (somewhat doubtful) inscriptions; cf. Jungemann 1955 : 205-226. 49. Cf. Heger 1960: 118-119, 123-124, 204. 50. Cf. Rohlfs 1920. 51. Cf. Sturtevant 1920 (19402): § 178b. 52. Cf. Keller 1943; Sala 1970: 146-147. 53. E.g. Pisani 1939. 54. For the status of long consonants in modern Italian, cf. Hall 1971. 55. Cf. Martinet 1955:278; Leonard 1964/65. 56. Cf. the detailed discussion in Hall 1950a. 57. Cf. Weinrich 1960. 58. Discussed at greater length in Hall 1974/75. 59.

60. 61. 62.

Cf. Eleock 1938: chapters 1-4.

As argued in Hall 1950a:14-15. Cf. Wagner 1941: §§ 101-103, 346. As suggested by Bartoli (1925:46); Tovar (1951:102-120 and 1952:9-15); and

Martinet (1952).

63. The ill-advised effort of Saltarelli (1970) to banish stress from the roster of Italian phonemes has not been generally accepted; cf. Hall 1972. 64. Cf. Grammont 1895; Posner 1961; Vainanen 1963 (19692): §§ 134-135. 65. Beginning with Meyer-Liibke 1890: §§ 106, 390; cf. also Pei 1941: §§ 92, 104, 180; Reichenkron 1939; Gerola 1950; Gaeng 1971, 1972; Tekavéié 1972:1. §§ 158-160, 259-269. 66. Cf. Grandgent 1927: § 55; Hall 1939, 1961/62; Rohlfs 1949-54: 1. § 308. 67. Cf. Gazdaru 1968. 68. For “Christian Latin,” cf. especially Mohrmann 1955, 1961-65. 69. Cf. Rohlfs 1924, 1933, 1962, 1964/65. 70. It has been suggested that the origin of the /g/-element in these borrowings may have been East Gothic /ggw/, with “Verschirfung”’ operative already in their Germanic source; cf, Brosman 1964. That this development is not due to Germanic influence (Meier 1960) seems hardly likely, since it appears exclusively in words of Germanic origin, but in such numbers as to have constituted a permanent addition to Romance phonology.

APPENDIX

I

Further Phonological Tables

In this appendix are given a number of sets of corresponding forms in the Romance languages for which there was no room in Chapter 2. The sets are arranged in the alphabetical order of the reconstructed ProtoRomance forms.

Ex. no.

1021

Meaning Sard. Roum.

dere aved(re)

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

avé’re avé’r avé‘ir over

Span.

abér

Port. PRom. Lat.

REW?

habe-re

Ex. no.

— adund(re)

— *aduin

1025

‘lamb’ == miél

adundre azundr adunsr aundr

>adin — —

aundr adu“nére

— adi*nu

— agnéllu

211

284

1026

annéllo anél anél enél

Savin

—

ad u-nu-

209

‘lamb’

1024

‘at once”

adu-na-re

3958

Meaning

1023

‘to join’

aunér

avé“r abé‘re

§

1022

‘to have’

‘to wish, prophesy’

1027

‘to help’

agnellu1028

‘water-holder’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

— — 44nno —_— éno

°aguridi fagurd(re) Sagurir aurdr _

azudére aZuta(re) aiutdre aguddr aidisér

Span. Port.

— ano

bagordr agourdr

ajudér aguddr

jJagéira agé‘ira

aiu-ta-re

akya-riu-

Cat.

PRom.

Lat.

REW? §

—_

dgnu

agnu-

290

—_—

agu(*)rére augu-rare

784

agudér

aju‘tire 172

abbarzu — akkudio aigiér sovisér

jaigéra

akydriu 576

208

Proro-Romance PHonotogy

Notes to nos. 1021-1028: a, b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

In /deadiin/ ‘together’. OLomb.: ‘at the same time’. ‘yet’. Old Italian. Campidanian: ‘to howl [of dogs)’. ‘to prophesy’. ONItal.: ‘to prophesy’. Old Spanish. Tarragona, Sanabria.

Ex. no.

1029

Meaning

‘watery’

Sard. Roum.

— apés(u-)

®agida

dla

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

aigé’s wevé‘us — agudzo

aktita

aguda bagide eguda aguda

fla dla éle alo dla da dla ala

Ital.

akkué*so

Port. PRom.

agué~zo akud*su

Lat.

REW?

§

akyo-su588

Ex. no.

atteru Alt(u-)

ONFr.

ltre

REW:

altro 4utre

§

1385

altro étro éutro alteru alteru-

382

altér(u-) altére autdr

204

altér altar altér altar altdre alta-re 381

1035 ‘bitter’

1034

‘other’

Sard. Roum.

Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

aku-ta

1033

Meaning

Ital. OSFr.

agida akui*ta

1032 ‘altar’

1031 ‘wing’

1030

‘sharp’ (f.sg.)

‘bitterness’

1036 ‘lover’

marikésu

amatére

amar颢a amar铢a,

*smarigtis

amatdé“re

_ an —_— amaritia amaritia

amargé’s

emadé*r

amargé"zo amarik6é*su

amadé‘r

— amored¢a —_—

403

amargdéso

amariko-su402

amadé‘r amedo“ur amadér

amatd‘re

amato-re-

Notes to nos. 1029-1036: a. b. ce.

Campidanian: ‘peg, pin’ (< PRom. /aku*tu/ m.sg.). At least semi-learnéd, because of preservation of intervocalic stop. Istrian (Rovigno).

407

’

209

Apprnpix I Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? § Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

sgméntu _ _—_ bamentin — amiénto *améto améntu amentu417

*inoda(re)

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1038

‘friend’ am{ku — am{ko amik ami oem{k amigo amigo amf{*ku ami-ku-

anno“ddre

no“zér no‘Sér nudr anudér — (an)no“dére no-da-re 5942

1039

‘ring-maker’ — ineldr(u-) _ aneliér analiér — —_— elér anellérju anella-riu-

422

1041 ‘to knot? annodére

Roum.

Ital.

1037 ‘thong’

451

1042

dnte(s)

—_—_

— — Antes

ates

Ante(s) ante

494

475

1044 ‘to open’

‘old’ (f.sg.) —_—

—_— antika antiga

antiva antigua antigua

atigua

ant{*kya anti-kya 504

Notes to nos. 1037-1044:

Ree ae rE

d4nima dinima énima 4nma, rma dénme arma alma alma énima anima

1043

‘before’ fintre Ante %

1040 ‘spirit, soul’

‘yoke-thong’. ‘string for [toy] top’; < PRom. /ament{‘nu/ dim. Old Galician: ‘helmet-band’. ‘heart’. Cf. Macedo-Roum. /nudare/. Old Roumanian. Megleno-, Macedo-Roum.: ‘to break [of day]; to arise early’.

apérrere

®apirire aprire

obrir ovrir obrir abrir abrir

a° operf*re a® operi-re 515

210

Proro-Romancn PHONOLOGY

Ex. no. Meaning

Sard.

Roum, Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

Ex, no, Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1045 ‘opened’ (f.sg.) apérta

1046 ‘to prepare’ *apord(re)

apérta,

ubérta ovérta obérta abiérta abérta a? opérta a° operta 1049

‘to crush’

apasd(re)

apezér

apozer

appardre aparér

aparér apardr

aparar appardre appara-re 534

aptine(re)

*appd“napé“nre

apéndro

(3 append-) 544

apo‘r app6‘nere appo-nere 551

apparé‘re aparé‘ir aparér

apparé‘re appare-re 535

1051

‘to plough’ ardre ard(re) ardre araér ordr ardr ardr

ardre ara-re

598

ro

paoop

Notes to nos, 1045-1052: ‘to protect, defend’. ‘to begin to appear’.

Infinitive /appé*rre/.

1048 ‘to appear’

appérrere apared(re)

1050 ‘to place at’

aponér

appe' sire

1047

‘to appear’

OVicent., OPad.; f.sg., in /térra aradra/ ‘plough-land’. OLorr.: f.sg., in /térra arcera/ ‘plough-land’. Old Portuguese: ‘work-day’, f. noun.

apareis¢*r aparé‘istra

operéser aparegér

apare¢é“r apparé‘skere

bappare:skere 536

1052 ‘suited for ploughing’ aratér(u-) daradra *arcera

farad6“ura araté“rju arato-riu601

AprEenpix I Ex. no.

1053

Meaning Sard,

ardtu

Roum. Ttal. OSFr.

*ardtu ardto(lo) ardire

ONFr. Cat.

aréidro arédra

Port. PRom. Lat.

arddo arét(r)u ara-tru-

Span.

arédo

REW? § Ex. no.

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

PRom. Lat. REW? §

1054

‘plough’

‘burning’ ardére

ard6“ur ardé*r

arduira ardiira

ardé*r ardé‘re ardo-re-

ardira ardu‘ra ardu-ra

1057

armére arma-re 651

ar® almér(u-) armddio *armdé‘ira

armériu arma-riu652

aeorP

Notes to nos. 1053-1060: Macedo-Roumanian. ‘to equip, decorate’. With suffix < PRom. /*6‘rju/. Abruzzese: ‘door-angle’.

aronidtra — —_

— are naérju °a are-na-Tiu

625

‘cupboard’

— —

— rendio areniér

ardtira

1058

‘to arm’

1056

‘sand-pit’ arenarzu

— ardura ardura

624

barmire armd(re) armére armér armaér ermér armér armér

1055

‘burning’ ardiira,

—_ ardé“re ardé“r ardér

602

211

631

1059

1060

‘equipment’ armatira armatira armadutira armadiira ermedira armadtra armadura

armatii‘ra arma-twra 653

‘handle’ ésa — Sésa —_ — — Aza dza

fsa ansa, 490

212

Proro-Romancn PHoNoLoGY

Ex, no. Meaning Sard, Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

1061 ‘donkey-driver’

asindio azeniér

REW? § Ex. no.

Meaning

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

aznéro aznéiro asinériu asina-rju703 1065 ‘above’ asstipra

aslipra dasstipra

sinu gsin dsino aze(n*) dzno dz dzno dzno dsinu asinu704

attené“re

atené*r

bisktindiri

asktinde(re) aské“ndere

ask6“ndre

até*r

attené“re attene-re

767

assire

askéndra

*brassar

eskondér

asdr asdr assére

eskondé*r

as® eskuindere abskondere 41

assa‘Te

716

1067 ‘stretched’ fattésu fatdis

atenir atenirsa atenér assuipra ad supra: 200

‘to roast?

‘to hide’

1066 ‘to hold onto; attain’ °atined (re)

1064

1063

1062 ‘donkey’

1068 ‘or’

au o(d)

o(z)

0d

atté*su

atte-nsu-

764

ou aud aut

810

Romo peop

Notes to nos. 1061-1068: Old Roumanian. Campidanian: ‘to defend’. Rhaeto-Romance (Surselvan): with /br-/ from Germanic /bra-ten/. Abruzzese (Vasto). ‘to listen’. ‘far, distant’. North Italian (Bolognese).

213

Appenpix I Ex. no. Meaning

1069 ‘hearing’

1070 ‘goose’

Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

— auzit(u-) udito auzit _ _ ofdo ouvido

éka éuka éua éke

Lat. REW?

audi-tu780

auika, 826

PRom.

audi*tu

§

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1073 ‘drooling’ béa bbile baiva baba beéva bava baba baba baba — 853

“$vra ora dura, 6ra

duke

1074 ‘bearded’ *barbat, barbato barbat barba#d borbdt barbddo barbddo barbdtu barba-tu946

1072

1071

‘to dare’

‘breeze’

dura

aura,

788

osdre

auzér

ozeér gozér ozér ouzér

ausdre

auysa-re 801 1076 ‘wether’

1075 ‘strong man’

Sbhéro bard” (n*) fbarén

b(b)arbéke berbéée mbrab{s

sbarén

byario

ibaré“ne

ibaro-ne1038

berbé*ke

nyerye-ke9270

Notes to nos. 1069-1076: a. b. c. d. e. f. g&

Macedo-, Megleno-Roum.: ‘coolness’. Plural. Noun: ‘man’. ‘cheater, scoundrel’. ‘brave man’ (nom. /bd4r/). ‘brave man; baron’ (nom. /bsér/). ‘man’ (spelling varon; homonymous with /barén/ barén ‘baron’).

i, j. k.

Common meaning ‘strong man’; not from Germanic (cf. Hall 1947; forthcoming). ‘lout’. ‘sheep’.

n.

Cf. § 2.722.2.g,

h.

m.

‘husband’

(dialectal).

(X /nutri*ke/?).

Proto-RoMANcE PHONOLOGY

214 Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1078 ‘two by two

1077

‘drinker’

sb{nu

bitdére bautér

bevité*re

bevedé*r bevedé*r

1079 ‘to flatter’ imblinaf(re)

bbina

blandfr blandir

*bin

bebedér

bebedé*r

bibité*re bibito-re1077 1081

‘belt, trousers’ brakfle sbradiri

brakf‘le

braki-le1258

bland{‘re

bf‘nu

4bi-ni-

blandi-re 1149

1111 1082

‘plough-sole’

1083 ‘toothed’ (f.sg.)

dentdle

dentéta

dentdle dentdl

dentéta dentéda dentéda dantddo dentdda détida dentéta denta-ta 2560

dontél dentél ddétdes dentdle denta-le2559

Notes to nos. 1077-1084:

gsaeore

’

‘connected’. North Italian (Veronese): ‘a pair’ (f.sg.). In /binab{n/ ‘by pairs’. Plural. Infinitive /depé‘rre/.

1080

‘cow-herd’

bofr(u-)

boro boiér boidér boiér bojéro boiéiro bodrju boa-rju1180

1084 ‘to put down’ depénnere deptine(re)

edepé“ndepé“nre deponér depdé*r

de“pé*nere

de-po-nere 2572

215

AppEnpIx I Ex. no.

Meaning Sard. Roum, Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW! § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

=deStinde(re) Séndere

deisendé*r des¢éndra doSéndre des¢endér

des¢endé“r de“skéndere de-skendere 2590

déus azéu

desko“vrir doskobrir deskubrir deskobrir

(di)skoperf*re (: koperi-re) 2659

Old Roumanian. Old Italian.

ditdle

ditu déget(u-) dito

diéu

dedél

dé*t dé*it

diés

dedél

dédo

diéu

de® didél

déu

dit

didal

dé(u)s

dedél

déus

di(g)itale

deus

digita-le

2610

1089 ‘to uncover’ iskopérrere deskoperif(re) (di)skoprire deskobrir

‘finger’

‘thimble’ ditéle degetar(u-)

dio

1088

1087

‘god’

‘to go down’

Notes to nos. 1085-1092: a. b.

1086

1085

2638

1090

dolar dolér —

dolér —

dolére

dola-re

2718

digitu-

2638

1091

‘to chop’ dolére duré(re) bdolére

dé“do df{(g)itu

4

‘to hurt? dolére dured (re) dolé*re

dolé*r dolé*ir

dolére *durodre

dolé*re dolé*r

dolé*ur

délra

dolé*r

dolé*re

dé*r dolé*re

dolér doé*r

dole-re

2721

dolér

dolo-re-

1092

‘pain

2724

?

Proro-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

216 Ex. no, Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

1093

‘domestic(ated)’ sdoméstiku bdumedstek(u-) *méstego doméske domésta

Cat.

—

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

REW: §

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1097

dé*ze

duo-dekim 2799

‘ivy’

e

—

e(d) e(z) e(8) i e e e(d) et

iédera éllera élra ié6ra éura iédra éra édera hedera

4092

édu iéd(u-) °égiu

1100 7 égo

éu

(ijéu

‘Bg, Bou j6

édu haedu3974

Notes to nos. 1093-1100:

Pepe re

duplu duplu2802

1099 ‘goat’

1098

‘and’

2919

dé*ble

dé*blo dé*bla

dé“diki

dom(i)nu2741

be

dé*ppio

dé*ze dé*za

démnu

domestiku2732

Ex, no. Meaning

duiplu

dé“ didi

dé*za déze

dé

doméstiku

dédiki

duéno

—

‘double’

‘twelve’

ford’ démnu démn(u-) dénno dén 4dim

1096

1095

1094

Old Sardinian: ‘cultivated land with slaves’ dwellings’. Old Roumanian. Venetian. With /a/ from PRom. 709 /démnu/ ‘harm’. Corsican. Unstressed and stressed forms, respectively.

16 éu

&(g)o

ego: 2830

217

Apprnpix I Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum, Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? § Ex. no. Meaning

1101 ‘eh! hey!’ éa ia — éia éa — éa éia éja eja

1102

‘to fall out’ oskadedi(re)

bskadé‘re ceskazé“r cestadé ir eskéura

deskaegér

deskedé*r 2832 1105 ‘to beat out’

eskadé“re (: 369 kade‘re) 2944

1106 ‘to stretch out’

hiskuitere

isténdere

Ital. OSFr.

i(i)skuétere hesk6“ire

Cat. Span.

—_— meskudir

(i)sténdere esténdre esténdro esténdra estendér

Sard.

Roum.

ONFr.

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW? §

igkodte(re)

esk6“Sra

esudé“r

i? esktitere ekskutere 2998

Notes to nos, 1101-1108:

MS BO oS PE RSM ER SBO

‘to decrease’. ‘to fall due’. ‘to meet, happen’. ‘to forget’. ‘to bathe’. ‘to scald’. ‘to get away, escape’. ‘to beat’. ‘to take out’. ‘to shake’. ‘to thrash’. . ‘to shake’. Old Spanish. ‘sorcery’. feature; invoice; sorcery’. ‘feature’.

estédé*r

i° esténdere ekstendere 3083

1103 ‘to warm, heat’ eskaldé(re) skaldére eskaudér festaldeér feskaldér feskaldér feskaldér eskaldére ekskalda-re 2946 1107

‘to twist out? istrékere stodrée(re) (i)stéréere estér¢er estérdra estér¢er

1104 ‘to drip, run off?

iskolére sko“lére esko“lér esko“lér esko“lér

Seskolér

esko“ér esko‘lére

eksko-la-re 2978

1108

‘feature, form’ “fattira feptira fattira faciira Pfaitiire

estorgér

i? estérkere ekstorkye-re 3094

faktti‘ra faktu-ra 3136

Proto-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

218 Ex. no.

1109

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr.

ONFr.

Cat. Span.

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW? §

>fdllere falir

*faledér

féls —_—

fallere fallere 3167

fdlsu falsu3171

*faledé*r

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

PRom.

1113 ‘fennel’ fenik(r)u finé*kkio fend*] fond*] foné*] hindzo —

Lat. REW? §

feniklu

fenukulu3246

a.

—

1114 ‘to strike’ férrere — ferfre, fiédere ferfr forfr forfr herfr ferfr

férere -{*re feri-re 3253

ec. d. e. f. g. h.

‘to go astray’.

Old Italian.

fredérzu fourdr febbrdio

féure fiévra

fals

Notes to nos. 1109-1116:

b.

‘February’

ffréa, ehévro fébbre

félsu — félso féus

SfAldro, falir

1112

‘fever’

‘false’

be lacking’

*faddire

1111

1110

‘to deceive,

‘to be lacking’. ‘to be lacking; to be necessary’. ‘to die’. ‘fear’. Macedo-Roumanian. Neuter plural, to /ferramentu-/ sg.

feuriér fevriér

fébra hiébre fébre fébre

febrér

feveréiro febrériu

febre-

februa-riu-

3230

3231

1115

‘ron-work,

1116

-ware’ ‘to shoe [a horse]’

ferraménta

ferrére

ferraménta ferraménta ferramént ferroménta herramiénta

ferrére ferrér ferreér ferrér herrér

—

ferraméta

ferraménta -u

hferramenta -u-

3255

infierd4 (re)

ferrér

ferrdre

( : 117 férru)

3256

219

Apprnpix I Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? § Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

Ital.

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

REW? §

1117

fiéra féra féra fera 3265 1121 ‘to split’

féndro féndro hendér

fésta fésta féste féste fiésta, fésta fésta festa 3267

fédé*r

findere findere 3312

oe eo oP

Adj., f.sg., to /feru-/ ‘wild’. ‘dry fir-needles’. Cf. Chapter 3, note 8. ‘descendants’. ‘boy’. Marchigiano. Modern South French: f., ‘girl’. Nouns, m. and f. ‘embryo’. ‘to stop’. ‘to close’. . Macedo-Roumanian.

Brin

>£6%io °fé*nu

b§é*tu % ife-tu-

fe-nu-

3273

3247

ife“rmdre fe“rmér

Notes to nos. 1117-1124:

«f6“do

£é*in £6(n*) héno

1123 “fig!

1122

firmére firma-re 3318

efSt(u-) fé“tu

£6*(n*t)

‘to make firm’

Kermsér fermér

sfétu

fénu fin(u-) fiéno

firmdre

fé“ndere £6“ndre

thay’

‘feast-day’ fésta

féra fidra fiéra féra

1120 ‘child’

1119

1118

‘wild beast?

fiku mhik

1124

‘step-son’

fiko

fizgdstru fidstru fill4stro

fi

fijdstro

higo figo

ff*ku

fiku3281

fildstre

hizdstro filastro

fi‘liéstru fi-liastru3297

Proto-Romancn PHONOLOGY

220

Sard, Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

félu

fil]o ff]

fine f{(n*) fin f{(nt)

fdllo

fi]

hfgo filo

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW: §

fuind(u-)

£6°ndo f6“ns f6"n¢

Note to no. 1131: a.

‘shy’.”

3534

1182 ‘rooster’

1131 ‘thief’

fine flinie fine

fiir(u-) fliro

gallo

fin

fir

&4l

*fiiro

gaélo

héndo fiindus fundus 3585

frontdle fronta-le-

folju3415 1130 ‘rope

1129

frotal

félju

fine3315

‘bottom’

fédo

fu]

ff‘ne

3303

fruntér(u-) frontdle frontal frontél frontél frontél

fué] fué]

ff

f(‘lju fi-lju-

1128 ‘head-band’

1127

‘leaf; sheet, page’

fine

ff]

Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

‘end’

fizgu

ffu

Span.

1126

1125 ‘son’

Ex. no. Meaning

fi*ne

fu-ne3589

fi*ru

fu-re-

3590

ed]

gaélo gallu gallu-

3664

221

Apprnpix I

bentiju gentinkiu

— &ér(u-)

Sard. Roum.

bind*kkio gend*]

&élo él

Ital. OSFr.

rémen —

bgramétta, °grém

ONFr. Cat. Span.

biél — hiélo

gend"} fend" ] hindzo

— gram gréma

PRom. Lat.

gélu gelu-

geniklu sgenukulu-

grémen gra‘men

REW?

£ed"lo

—

Port.

§

3737

3718

Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr.

— —_ grande gran (d*)

Cat. Span.

grén(d*) grande

PRom. Lat.

grande grande-

grént (°d*)

ONFr.

gride

Port.

REW?

§

randinére grindin4(re) grandinére — —

— —

—

grandindre grandina-re

3842

Notes to nos. 1133-1140: a. b. c. d. e.

‘little knee’. Marchigiano: ‘couch-grass’. ‘couch-grass’. Macedo-Roumanian. Sicilian.

3841

grantio graniér

groniér gronér granéro grandérju gra‘num 3839

3835

1140

1139

‘bran’

‘hail’

‘to hail’

‘large’

Meaning

—_— grandr(u-)

—

gréma

1138

1137

Ex. no.

1136 ‘granary’

1135 ‘grass’

1134 ‘knee’

1183 ‘frost?

Ex. no, Meaning

raéndine grindine grindine — _—_

— —

grdindine grandine3843

grénia dgrdnge egranga —_—

— grénza.

—

gréndia grandja

3840b

Proto-Romance PHonoLoay

222 Ex. no, Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW: §

sas re

‘heavy’ — gréu bgriéve gréu

gréfga

grébe grave gréiye graye3855.1

gréye a—_§

3854

1145

‘taste’

gist (u-) g6’st

1146

e‘lla

ee“llo

&lo

—

éla

él

la

flla illa 4266

gustu-

3927

1147

fddu

le

(Engadinese).

Italian. Spanish. /graye-/ X /leye-/ ‘light’. Italian.

gré6sso grés grés grés gruéso gréso gréssu grossu3881

1148

‘that one (m.); he’

fdda la

gustu

3855.1

‘that one (f.); she’

éa

g6*st

Rhaeto-Romance

gréu °griébe

grdéyida grayida

1144 ‘thick, over-size’

grés(u-)

griéf

— —

Notes to nos, 1141-1148: Old Old Lat. Old

1148

‘pregnant’ réida — grévida —

grive

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1142

1141 ‘heavy’

él

él

4

é‘le

flu illu4266

‘before’

inafnte *inante %i enén(s)

endént inénte in ante 4335

223

Apprnpix I Ex. no. Meaning

1149 ‘from thence’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

‘nde inde >(i)nde en, ne ent, ne ende déde inde inde

REW? §

indu‘rére

indu-ra-re 4386

— (i)skviro eskiir

ONFr.

eskiir

Cat. Span. Port.

eskiir eskiiro eskviro

PRom.

iski*ru §

(ob)sku-ru6020

1152

‘to gird on, around’

imbenujarse ingentinkid(re)

in@inge(re)

— ingenuklére (: 1184 geniklu)

i¢tetr inkingere inkingere

4420

eskudéro isku“térju

sku-ta-rju7755

1156

‘shield’

‘scaly’ (f.sg.)

iskitu

—

£(i)skiido

(i)skuamé‘sa

eskud eskuit eskudo

— _ feskaméza,

skut(u-)

®&(i)skuddio eskudiér eskudiér

4352

1155

1154

‘shield-maker, -bearer’

fiskdru

Roum. Ital. OSFr.

1151

‘to kneel’

ingind*kkiare — in&{ngere engeno’lérse enge"né*r — engé‘indra

indurdre endurdr *endursr enduraér endurar édurér

1153 ‘dark’

Sard.

Lat. REW?

*indurd(re)

4368

Ex. no. Meaning

1150

‘to harden’

esktit

esktido iski*tu sku-tu7759

Notes to nos. 1149-1156: a, b. c. d. e. f.

&

Old Sardinian. Old Italian. Old Spanish. Old Portuguese. ‘to endure’. Noun: ‘darkness’. With intervocalic /d/ in imitation of Gallo-Romance lenition.

skeméso

eskamé“za

eskamé”za iskyamé‘sa

skyamo-sa 8202

224

Proro-Romance PHonoLoay

Ex, no.

1157

Meaning

Sard, Roum, Ital.

ispita spite >(i)spdida

OSFr. ONFr.

espaza espiida

Cat. Span. Port.

espiza espida espida

PRom.

REW:

§

Ex. no.

Meaning Sard. Roum.

Span.

REW?

8128

1161

espozdr

spo-nsa-re 8175

esp6“za, ispé’sa spo-nsa 8177

~ee espiné ‘ida

8152

(i)spé“sa espéza — espd“za

espéza

me spinét(u-) (i)spiné*to

ispi‘né“tu °a

‘bride’ ispésa —

1160

‘booty’

spi-ne-tu1162

‘to marry’

1159

‘thorn-hedge’

— — —

8148

espo“zér ispo*sére §

espfk espi

spi-ku-

(i)spo*sdre espo“2dr espo zér espo“zér

Port. PRom.

— sp{k(u-) 4(i)spfgo

isp{*ku

*spathe-

isposére —

Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

1158

‘ear (of grain)’

espik — —_

ispdta

Lat.

Lat.

‘sword’

espdjo 1(i)spdlle

Sdespdla espd]a

—— espdéza —

ispélja

spolia

8168 1163

1164

‘to foam’ ispumdre spum4(re)

‘foamy’ —_— spumodsa

(i)spumére espumdr — espumér

(ispumé’sa espumdé“za — espumé“za

espumdr ispu“mére

— ispu“mé‘sa

espumér

spu-‘ma-re 8190

—

spu-mo'sa 8191

Notes to nos. 1157-1164: a.

Old Roumanian.

c. d, e. f. g.

Greek. ‘lavender’; with intervocalic /g/ in imitation of Gallo-Romance lenition. Macedo-Roumanian. Plural: ‘spoils’, With initial /d/ from derived verb /despolar/ ‘to despoil’.

b.

With intervocalic /d/ in imitation of Gallo-Romance lenition.

225

AppEnpix I Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1165

istrdémine (i)strdéme

estrém estrdim

*estriime istrdmi(ne) stra‘mene-

8287

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1166

—_ bstrimtiira (i)strettira bestretiira — = estregiira estreitiira istri(n)kti*ra striktu-ra 8304

1169 ‘play’ géku

&6k(u-)

°*gudko &6k géu &6k guégo &6go iéku joku4588

b. ce.

ierrdre iernd(re) ‘inverndre ivernér ivernér ivernér imberndér invernar i*(n)uernére hi-berna-re 4124

1170

1171

‘oath’

itiu

—_—

oe")

Suramén(t*)

juigo figo

guramiénto guraméto

guig(u-) £6°go

£6°k géu

jugu jugu4610

X /tu*me/, abstract suffix?

‘narrow pass’. Old Italian.

‘to winter’

‘yoke’

Notes to nos. 1165-1172:

a.

1167

‘narrowness’

‘straw’

Zuramént guraménto Zuromént guremént

ju‘raméntu ju-ra‘mentu4629

1168 ‘to throw’ bettére gettdre ge° gitér geatér gotér ecar geitdr jektdre jakta-re 4568

1172

‘to ride horse-back’ kaddikére kavalkére kabalgér vovaléiaé kovalgdr kabalgér kavalgér kaballikére kaballika-re 1439

Proro-RoMANcH PHONOLOGY

226 Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital.

OSFr. ONFr.

Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

REW? § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1173

‘to defecate’ kakére kok&(re) kakére kagér Giidbr kogér kagér kagér kakére kaka-re 1443 1177 ‘lime, mortar’ kalkina

keldére kalddia kaudéra éaldistra koldfro kaldéra kaldéira kaldérja kalda-ria 1503

éal¢ine kealsino

kalkf*na kalki-na 1501

Modern Provengal. Bittese. Campidanian. Macedo-Roumanian. ‘ashes’,

1175

‘warmth, heat? kardtira koldura kaldvira *kaudyro

kaldu*ra kaldu-ra 1505

1178

kalkitére

bkéddu k4llo

éalgitraér

kalki*trére

kalki-tra-re 1501a

1176

‘to be hot’

kalé*re kalé*r éalé*ir

kalé‘re kale-re

1540

1179 ‘callus’

‘to kick out backwards’

kaléina

kau¢ina

Notes to nos. 1173-1180:

epere

1174

‘kettle’

kéJo kélo kéllu kallu-

1521

1180

‘heat? ckaléri

dkorodre

kalé*re kalé*r éalé*ur kalé*r kalér

&k6*re kalé*re

kalo-re-

1526

227

Apprnpix I Ex, no, Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

karkéngu kolkiiu kalkénno kalkén —_—

Span.

skalkéno

Port. PRom. Lat.

REW? §

kalkénju kalkaneu-

1490

Ex, no. Meaning

kanfnu — kan{no

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

éenin kanf(n*) kanino kafno

kanf(n*)

PRom.

Lat. REW?

kanf“nu §

kani-nu1590

Notes to nos. 1181-1188: a. b. ec. d. e.

f. & h. i,

ckalfamint kalgaménto

kéls

kolsamént

kéu¢ cal

Old Spanish. Nominative /kalks/. Old Roumanian. Mallorcan. Old Portuguese.

Old Spanish.

‘to gather’. ‘to earn, get, pluck’. ‘to arrive, happen’.

kaugamént taldomént,

—_— kélke vkalke1533

kal¢améto kalkiaméntu kalkeamentu1496 1186

1187

‘song’ kéntu — kénto

kén(t*)

tant

kén(t*)

‘gray-haired’ kantitu kortint(u-) kantito kantt

&ké,

kane kane-

1592

1188 ‘to take’ *kapitdre

bkapotd(re)

ikapitdre

contd

fkantido

kéntu kantu-

kant*tu kanu-tu-

1620

kéne kfine kdne ké(nt) tién 4k4(n*t) kén

kent

kénto

kito

1184 ‘dog’

1183 ‘foot-gear’

— kélée

1185 ‘canine’

Sard. Roum. Ttal.

OSFr.

1182 ‘lime’

1181 ‘heel’

—

1622

kapitdre kapita-re 1635

228

Proro-RomMANncE PHONOLOGY

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

kopriféiu kaprifé}Jo kabrifué] éidvrofué]

kaprifdlju

kaprifolju-

1652

1193 ‘dear’

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1190

1189

‘head’

‘honey-suckle’

kéru kéro kér Gisér kér kéro kéro kéru ka-ru1725

képu

kép(u-)

kerbunér(u-) karbondio ekarbuniér éarbonisér korbonér karbonéro karvoéiro karbo“nérju karbo:na:rju1676

képo *kép dist ckap kébo kébo kdpu dkaput,

1668 1194

‘cheese-basket’ ekoSdre katdio kaziéra éaziéra keséra, kezéira,

kasidria

ka-sea-ria 1735

Po Be oP

Notes to nos, 1189-1196:

rR

1191 ‘coal-dealer, -man’

Derivative stem /kabt/. Derivative stem /tiev*/. Derivative stem /kab*/. Oblique stem /kapit-/. Modern Provengal. Old Italian. Macedo-Roumanian. Old Roumanian. North Italian (Mantuan, Lombard). Friulian.

1192 ‘cart-, wagon-road’ kordére fkarréia, ekarréira korréra karréra karréira

karrdrja

karra-ria 1718 1196 ‘kettle’

1195

‘castle’ kastéddu kastéllo kastél éastél kestél kastiélo kastélo kastéllu kastellu1745

katfnu

hkodino

ikadin

ikadin kadfno

katf*nu

kati-nu1769

229

AppEnpIx I Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

REW? §

skotd(re)

bkattdre ckatér

ckotdr *katdr ckatdr katidre kapta:re 1661

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1198 ‘thing’

1197 ‘to try for, strive’

1201

‘supper’ kéna éine

&6"na dé"na ¢éna

¢6°a

ké‘na

ke-na 1806

4kfsa,

kerbéddu

késa kéuza &6z0 —kéza kéuza kdysa ekaysa 1781

éervéllo gervél gervél ¢ervé] — —s kerbéllu kerebellu1826

1202 ‘to sup’

’

poop

1203 ‘belt, girdle’

kendre

—_—_

ée“ndre de“nér

Gintura —

éind(re)

foneér gondr gendr

de“dr ke“nére

ke-na-re 1808

Notes to nos. 1197-1204: ‘to care for, seek’. ‘to get, earn’. ‘to see, observe’. Old Sardinian. ‘court-case’. ‘to scold, punish; (refl.) to struggle’. Old Italian. Adjective: ‘related’.

PRoOS

1199 ‘brain’

—_—

ge“inttira — fintira

dintira kinktiira,

kinktu-ra 1922

1200 ‘to struggle’ kertére

Serta (re)

Sertére

kertére kerta-re 1840 1204 ‘brother-in-law’ konnétu kumnét(u-) konndto kupdt kunét kunddo kunddo

kognétu

bkogna-tu2029

Proro-RoMANcE PHONOLOGY

230 Ex. no.

1205

Meaning Sard. Roum.

kékere kodée(re)

Ital. OSFr.

kudéere kozé"r

ONFr.

kiire

Cat.

kéure

Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

kozér kozé*r kékere kokyere 2212

Ex, no. Meaning

‘to colour’ kolorére —

kolo*rére ko‘lrér

*koldrar

bko“lrér

kolorér kolo*rére kolo-ra-re 2057

1209 ‘come together; agree’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

kumbénnere kuveni(re) komvenfre kovenfr kovonfr konvenfir kombenfr kévir

Lat.

konyeni re

PRom.

konyenf‘re

REW! §

2192

‘to tan (leather)’.

b. ec. d. e.

‘to Old Old Old

g. h.

Old Portuguese. With suffix-change.

f.

koperiméntu ekoperimint kopriménto —_— =a fkobrimént —_ —

koperiméntu

kooperimentu-

2204

brown’. Roumanian. Spanish. Roumanian: ‘roof, cover’.

‘hiding’.

‘concubine’ kénkuba *kénkove kénkoa 4kuénkuba, kénkuba konkuba 2118

1210 ‘covering’

Notes to nos. 1205-1212: a.

1207

1206

‘to cook, boil’

1211

‘heart’

1208

‘to contradict’ kontradfkere kéntraddire kontradire kontredira kontredir kontradezir kétradizé*r

kontrad{*kere

kontra-di-kere 2189

1212 leather-work’

kéro kuére kér kuér dkuér ekér kére kore2217

koréme dkuirién kuirém korémbre kor(j)4me(ne) (: 905 /kériu/)

2231

Apprnpix I Ex. no.

Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital.

OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

1213

Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW?

§

kostére bkustd(re) ko*stdre

kuidér kuidér kogitére kogita-re

kostér kustér ko*stdre ko-nstare

Ex. no.

1217

krudo kriit krid kri

Span.

kriido

Port. PRom. Lat.

REW?

kr. krii*du

§

2170

kru-du2342

ckufle

kovile — — —— kubfl

kovfl kubf‘le

kubi-le2353,

Marchigiano (Metauro). ‘to live’. ‘stall’, Old Roumanian. With /¢/ from */kurtjdére/ ‘to shorten’.

‘crested’ — krestdt(u-) krestdto

kré“sta kré"sta krésta

— — krastét

2330

2331

krésta krista krista krista

krestédo —= kristatu krista-tu-

1219

‘den, lair’

Notes to nos. 1213-1220:

gasp

krista krefista krésta,

1218

‘raw’ kridu kriid(u-)

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

ko‘stér ko*ste6r ko‘stér

1216

‘comb’

cost’

— kugetd(re) *kudeté,

2027

1215

‘to consist,

care (for)’

Meaning Sard. Roum.

1214

‘to think,

koitér kuidigér _—

231

1220

‘to run’ kurrere dkuire(re)

ko*rrere k6‘rre ké*rre k6‘rrer

korrér

korré*r kiirrere kurrere 2415

‘short’ ekurdu skurt(u-)

ko*rto ké*rt ké*rt kiirt kérto

kiirto kiirtu

kurtu-

2421

Proro-RomaNcr PHONOLOGY

232 Ex. no. Meaning Sard, Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW: §

kérku

ké*to

*éérkua,

bkirka, kyérku °kya, kyerku6951

lébru °a labru- °a 4813

ké"do kyé*tu

kuy(i)e-tu6958

lakrimdére lakram4(re) lakrimdre lagremdr Jogromér lagrimér lagrimér lakrimére lakrima-re 4825

Neapolitan, Old Aquilan. Mozarabic. ‘to plough’. ‘to work; to sew, to weave’. ‘to plough; to sew’. Old Milanese. ‘seed’. ‘ploughing’. ‘ploughing; needle-work’. Old Italian, Neapolitan.

flavor

habér

labé*rare

labo-ra-re 4809

1227 ake’

1226 ‘to weep’

Notes to nos. 1221-1228:

rite me a9 op

flavé*re

‘Jaurér dJabrér lavrér

ip’

lébbro léura lévra

lavo*rére

ké*t

1225

léra

laére

‘labo*rér

kédo

‘work’

‘laorére

ké*t

k64i8

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

‘quiet’ &ét(u-)

1224

1223 ‘to work’

1222

1221

‘oak’

léku 1&k(u-) jléko lék lék 14k lago ldgo

léku laku-

4836

lavé*r lab6“re

labo-re4809

1228 ‘woolly’ (f.sg.) linodésa lané*sa lané“za

lainé“uzo Joné“za

landéza

landé“sa,

lano-sa 4895

AppEnpix I Ex. no. Meaning

1229 ‘bacon, lard’ lérdu *}ird(u-) lérdo lart

lotré(re) latrdre ladrar

Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

Jért lérdo lérdo lardu lardu-

Jadrar ladrér ladrér latrére la-tra-re

REW?

lért

§

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal.

Jauzadé*r 1o36*ur

Cat. Span. Port.

— loadér louvadé*r

PRom. REW?

laudaté‘re

§

—_—

4928

1233 ‘praiser’ —_— laudetér lodaté*re

OSFr. ONFr.

Lat.

4915

dJauda-to-re4929

1234 ‘nit’

—— lotdr! lavatiira lavadtira lavadtira

— —

lavadtra lavadira

lita

lata 4925

1235 ‘wood-stuff, -supply’ linndmine — lennéme leném

]émano liéndre léndea

dJeném lendme ———e ligndmine ligna-mine5030

lénde —

léndine °a

lendine4978

Transylvanian. Oblique: nom. /layzdire/. Oblique: nom. /laydator/. Oblique stem: nom. /layda-tor/. Also ‘carpenter’.

1232 ‘washing’

léta léto léta lida ldda

léndine lindina léndine

Notes to nos, 1229-1236:

rae oP

1231 ‘broad, wide’ (f.sg.)

1230 ‘to bark’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFyr.

233

layatt*ra

laya-tu-ra 4953

1236 ‘wood-dealer’

elemnér lenndio —_— —_ lenéro lenéiro ligndériu ligna-riu5032

234

Proto-Romancn PHONOLOGY

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

1237 ‘to lick’ lngere

Roum,

lnge(re)

Ital.

OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

*1é"nger

Ex, no. Meaning Sard.

1241 ‘wolf’ lipu

Roum.

lip(u-)

Ital.

16*vo

ONFr. Cat. Span.

16%u 1p lébo

OSFr.

Port.

16*p

PRom. Lat. REW? §

—

—

limére

limér limeér Jimér limér limér li*mére li-ma-re 5044

Nénzi — — — lingere lingere 5065

16*bo

lipu lupu5173

b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

Old Milanese.

{mos(u-)

limé*so

limd*s

limézo

limé“zo li‘md*su

li-mo-su5054

1242 ‘mire, filth; clay’ ahitu

hit(u-)

16*to

16%t

16% lédo

16*do

hitu lutu5189

Notes to nos. 1237-1244:

a.

1239 ‘slimy’

1238 ‘to file’

Friulian. Venetian. ‘potter’s clay’. ‘world’. ‘hearth-fire’. ‘to kill some-one else’s cattle’. ‘to harm, dishonour’. ‘to cause saddle-sores’.

1243

ight? limene chime lime him lim limbre ‘hime li*me(ne) lumen “ine5161

1240

‘slime’ limu fm (u-) limo lim lim lfmo lfmo

If*mu

li-mu5058 1244

‘to slaughter’ *makeddére maéellére mageldr

maizeleér bman¢elér imazelar

makelldére makella-re 5199

235

Apprnpix I Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr, Cat. Span.

1245 ‘slaughter-house’ —_— —_ matéllo mazél —_ —_ —

Port. PRom. REW

§

5201

Ex. no.

Sard. Roum. ONFr.

méin

—

§

5258

1249

iméne mé(nt)

Cat.

dmale di-kere

— — mane jma-ne

5294

ima(n)né“kkio mandé‘]

mand*}

mond‘}

bmandzo mé‘Jo mantklu manukulu5306

mo ao oP

Notes to nos, 1245-1252:

trom

mammére —— mammére —_ —_— momar mamér

mamér mammére

mamma-re 52778

1251

‘bundle’ — montinkiu

‘to slander’. Old Spanish. Old Portuguese. ‘to speak evil’. Old Italian. Old Catalan. ‘to chomp, gobble’. ‘tomorrow’. Old Italian. ‘early morning; in the morning’.

1248

1247 ‘to suckle’

1250

‘morning’ méne bmiine

Ital. OSFr.

REW?

maldizé*r maled{*kere

makellu-

Meaning

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

maladikere —_— maledfre maudir maldfr *maldir bmaldezfr

— makéllu

Lat.

1246 ‘to curse’

‘marvel’ maraviza

— ma® meravilla meravila mervé‘Ja

—

—_ maravija ma? merayilia mi-ra-bilja 5601

‘to eat? man(d)ikére mink4 (re)

emandukére mangér mangiér fmonugaér

mandu® mandikére emandu-ka-re 5292 1252

‘husband’ maritu marito marft marid morft marido marido

mari‘tu

mari-tu5363

236

Proto-Romancr PHONOLOGY

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum, Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW® §

1253

‘male’ smésu bmaskur(u-) méaskio méaskle misla masklo *mdslo maskulu maskulu5392

Ex, no.

1257 ‘to urinate’

Meaning

Sard. Roum. Ital.

medre

OSFr.

1254

‘to chew’ mastikére mesteké(re) mastikére mastegir

mastitr

mastagéir masgér

4mastegdr

mas(ti)kdre

mastika-re 5398

1258

‘to consider’ meletdre

kmitir

mmeltdre omaudér Pmiaudér

medr

ameldér

me(i)ére meja-re

meletdre tmeleta-re

ONFr. Cat. Span.

Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

mizér

5468

5475

MOU PE ROR

mp ae oP

Notes to nos. 1253-1260: ‘ram’. ‘castrated boar’. Old Spanish: ‘little man; penis’. Galician. ‘sleeping-place for sheep’. Trevisan, Bellunese: ‘farm’. Modern Provengal: ‘farm’. ‘farm’. Aragonese: ‘farm’. Past participle of /mane-re/ ‘to remain’. Vegliote.

. Judaeo-Italian: ‘to teach: to read Hebrew’. Modern Provengal: ‘to await’. Judaeo-French: ‘to teach’. ‘to pray in Jewish fashion’. From Hebrew.

1256

1255

‘to doctor’

‘resting-place’

medikére

emas(u-) fmas emds bmits 'mds imds

medikére megicér mogar

mésu jmansu-

medikére medika-re 5457

5322

1260 ‘fault?

1259

‘to improve’ mezordre

méndu

millo*rére

ménda ménda

milo‘rér meZordr

ména

melurdr

melo‘rér melijo*rére

melio-ra-re 5480

ménda %u menda °u5491

237

AppEnpix I Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

REW? §

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr.

aménta minto ménta ménta ménta ménta smiénta —_— menta, menta

5504

ONFr.

—

—

Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1262

‘Viar’

dmaridar

— meri“djére meri-dija-re 5530

1263

‘lunch, supper’

mingitér mentité*re

merfnde merénda

mentad6“ur

marénda

mentiddé*r

montidé*r — métidé*r

menti*to*re

menti-to-re5511

1265 ‘to take a siesta’ meridre emeriz4(re) meri (gg) dre —_—

Cat.

Span.

1261 ‘mint’

1266

‘noon’ emeréze merigzo

‘mfr? mflie — —=

—

merf“die

meri-die-5531

merénda

baréno meriénda, meréda

merénda

merenda 5521

1267

‘to earn, deserve’

1264

‘to lunch, to sup’ bmerind4(re) merenddre merendér borandr merendér merédér merenddre merenda-re 5522 1268 ‘merchant’

meréskere emerfre merir

morfr bmorir

merkatdnte merkadan(t*) imaréodént

mere¢ér

merkaddénte

merf‘re °6“skere

merkaténte

mere¢é“r mere-re 5522

(: 771 merkdétu) 5516

rom

meas

op

Notes to nos, 1261-1268: Asturian. ‘to eat’. Oas. Salamancan: ‘to take a siesta; to inseminate [of sheep]’. Transylvanian. Friulian. Calabrian, Old Abruzzese: ‘to deserve’. Old Catalan. Must be hypothesized to account for Modern French /marSat/ marchand.

Proro-RoMANCE PHONOLOGY

238

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

1269

metire

bmiéra mér miér mér emiéro —

— — — — med{r medir

meru-

meti-re

meti*té*re

meti-to-re5552a,

1274

‘me’

mé mine

fmé“ne mé* méi mé —= —

mé*(ne)

me: 5449

‘month’ mése Smés

1275 ‘threat’ mindtta

mé‘se més mé‘is

mindééa mend¢a

mé*s

amed¢a mindkkia

més més

mé‘se

me-nse5500

mondo

manéso (a)mend¢a mina-kia 5584

Notes to nos. 1269-1276:

reirpR ms ae op

‘apple’ méla mér(u-)

mé‘la 4mfil

medidér

5552

1273

1272

1271

‘measurer’ metitére

met{*re

5535

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

‘to measure’

‘méru

méru

REW! §

1270

‘pure, unmixed’

Tt

Ex. no. Meaning

‘pure [of wine]’. Neapolitan: ‘unmixed [of wine]’. ‘Sjuniper-oil’. Romansh. Sg. /melum/, neut.pl. /me-la/: < Gk. /mé-lon/ pido. Old Italian, South Italian. Macedo-Roumanian. ‘to tan leather’. ‘to drive animals’. ‘to lead’. Asturian: ‘to drive (cattle) together’.

mé‘lu °a

eme-lu-

5272.2

1276 ‘to drive, lead’ bmindre imind (re) 4 jme“ndre

ime“nér

imonsér jmonér kaminér

minére mina-re 5585

239

Apprnpix I Ex, no. Meaning

1277

‘less’ (adv.)

1278 ‘mixture’

Sard.

minus

misttira,

Ital. OSFr.

mé“no mé“(n)s, mé“ns mé‘ins mé‘ns

mistira mestiira mestiira

Roum, ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

ménos

méos

REW? § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

5594 1281

‘soft? médde mofle mille mél mél bméd] muéle méile médlle molle5649.1

Notes to nos, 1277-1284:

epeoe

mestiira mistira

mil

mikstu-ra 5622

miclle

mistti*ra,

minus minus

‘to wonder’ (reflexive). ‘tender’. ‘swampy meadows’. Ticinese. Old Spanish, Asturian.

1279

‘one thousand’

1282

‘softness’ emoled¢a

mollé“¢¢a

molé*4a molé*¢o molésa

moléza molé*za

mollitia

mollitia 5650

mil mi‘lle 5573

1283 ‘to go up’

1280

‘to look at? mirére *mir4(re) mirdre mirér mirér mirér mirér mirdr

mi‘rére

mni-ra-re 5603 1284 ‘to die’

montére montére montér montér muntér emorrér montér A morré Tr méotér A morré re montére (: 827 /ménte/) mori5681.1 5668

Proto-RoMANcE PHONOLOGY

240

REW?

§

mokér

mukkére (: 430 /muikku/) 5706

5689

Sard. Roum.

mundu —

ONFr. Cat.

mont, —

mé‘ndo mé“n(d*)

Ital. OSFr.

m6“ndo médo

Span. Port.

§

muindu mundu5748

mira emure

mo‘nddre mo‘ndér

mon mon mon

mondsér

5556

1291

‘to mutter’ mutfre —_—

mé‘ra m6‘ra

emo tir

méra mé‘ra

— —

mé“ura mo‘ra

mura 'mo-ra

5696

emo“ tir

mutt{*re mutti-re 5794

Bo

oP

Notes to nos, 1285-1292:

Bre

mondar médér mundére munda-re 5744

mi mi m(e)un meum

‘mulberry’

‘clean’

1288

‘to clean’ mundére

— a 4-mo

1290

1289

Ex. no.

REW?

mo*kdr mo tisér mo*kér

— bmésa, mérsa, morsa,

Meaning

PRom. Lat.

°mo*kér

mérsa

—— mérso >mésa

OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

—

®mdéssa

Sard. Roum. Ital.

‘my’

‘to blow one’s nose’

‘bite’

Meaning

1287

1286

1285

Tnx. no.

‘bit [of bridle)’. ‘notch’, Venetian. Old Italian, South Italian; enclitic to nouns. ‘blackberry’. Neuter plural ( : /mo-ru-/ ‘mulberry, blackberry’. ‘to speak’.

1292

‘big-nosed’ nastitu nostit (u-) nastito

241

Apprnprx I Ex. no. Meaning

1293 ‘buttock’

Sard.

natika,

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

natika nééa nate *ndlgo ndlga nddega nétika natika

Roum.

—

REW? §

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

5848

1297 ‘to swim’ —_— anotaé(re) nuotére — nodvér —_ ——

REW? §

*notdre nata-re

5846.2

1295

1294 ‘ship’ née néie nave néu nef néu nabe nive

ndaye na-ye-

5863

1298 ‘newly cleared land’

népita

ndékere

bnépita népta

nudéere

népta *niébeda néveda népita nepeta

5889

nodésu

novale

nodé"so

novél fnudézo

no“dé*su

no-do:su5946

peop

Notes to nos. 1293-1300:

Prop

nogé"r

nuizfr, nuire ndéura

*nuzir

nékere, noké“re noke-re

5938

1299 ‘knotty’

nofle

nobél novél noudle noyale 5966

1296

‘to harm’

‘catnip’

Old Catalan. Calabrian; cf. standard Italian /nepitélla/ (diminutive). Old Spanish. Old Roumanian. Perhaps X */nota/, rustic form of /nayta/ ‘sailor’? Old Spanish. X 1243 /li*mene/ ‘light’? Oblique stem; nominative /no-men/.

1300

‘name’ shimene nime

né“me

né‘m ném né“‘m némbre né“me

né‘me(ne)

4no-mine5949

Proro-RoMANcn PHONOLOGY

242 Ex, no.

1301

Meaning Sard. Roum.

‘we, us’ nés ndi

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

noéé*to

— —

né‘s

PRom. Lat.

REW? §

Sard. Roum.

nodrir *nodrir

nutrika-re

5960 1305 ‘to smell’

6002

1306

‘burden’

no Srir

1307 ‘to work, to effect’

nutrf‘re nutri-re 6006

1308 ‘worker’

=

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

eolé*re olé*r olé*ir

Cat. Span. Port.

PRom.

éldra olér —

operdre obrér ovrér obrér obrér obrér

operdio obriér ovriér obrér obréro obréiro

ole-re

opera-re

opera-rju

olé*re

REW? §

6053

operére

6066

Notes to nos. 1301-1308:

pao oP

nutrire —_— *nodrire noirir

nutrikére

né’s no's

Ex. no. Meaning

1304 ‘to nourish’

bnurdidi *nutrikdére 4nodrigh(r) noirigér

—

nés

Port.

Lat.

nuéét(u-)

nd‘ né*s né‘s né’s

1303 ‘to nourish’

1302

‘walnut-grove’

Old Spanish. Campidanese. Macedo-Roumanian. North Italian (Parma, Piacenza). Old Italian.

6071

operériu 6072

243

Apprnpix I Ex. no.

1309

Meaning

1310

‘garden’

Sard.

értu

Roum.

— olériu —_ oliér

—

Ital.

érto

OSFr. ONFr. Cat, Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

REW? §

ért *6rt ort uérto érto értu hortu-

oll4rju

o-lla-rju6060

1313 ‘agreement’

1312

‘peace’ pike pate pate pig pais pau pag pag

olér o]éro oléiro

4194

Ex. no. Meaning

1311

‘potter’

1315

‘to seem, appear’

pake

pa-ke-

6317 1316

‘similar; equal’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr.

pattu — patto spite

péla

parrere

h(ap)pdre

pala pala péle

pari ipdr ipér

Cat. Span. Port. PRom.

péite fpéto {péito paktu

pala pila

paré‘re paré‘r,paré‘iser paré‘ir, paré‘istra

Lat.

paktu-

ONFr.

REW?

psd

§

6138

pa

pala pala

6154

Notes to nos. 1309-1316: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i,

i.

k,

‘vegetable-garden’. Old Italian. Inflectional stem /péz-/. ‘treaty’; from neuter plural /pakta/. Rhaeto-Romance: ‘pact’. ‘tax’. Also ‘shoulder’, ‘similarly’. ‘companion’. ‘peer’; (£.) ‘wife’. ‘pair’.

pored(re)

paréSer paregér paregé“r paré‘re,

paré“skere pare-re

6235, 6237

—

pdr kpdr kpér pare

pare-

6219

Proto-RoMANcE PHONOLOGY

244 Ex. no, Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

‘similar’

paré*kkio paré"] paré"] paréZo

pariklu (: 1816 /pére/)

parte-

6241

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

pirte parte parte part part part parte

paré‘Jo

1319 ‘particle’

1318 ‘part?

1317

parti¢ed partiéélla par¢éla par¢élo

parte parte

6254 1322 ‘to pass’

1321 ‘birth’

1323 ‘paste, dough’

passdre

pasta

parto

passére

pasta

part parte

parte

parte

parte-

6260a

pasér

paseér

pasdr pasér pasdr passdre ( : 641 /péssu/)

6267

pasta pasta

pasta pista pasta

pasta pasta

6272

Notes to nos. 1317-1324: a. b.

partire

partire partir partir partir partir parte¢iéla partir parti*re partikélla (: 1818 /parte/) parti-re 6259 6257

pértu

part

1320 ‘to separate’

Oblique; cf. ex. 500 for nominative /pdstor/. Oblique stem; cf. ex. 500 for nominative /pastor/.

1324 ‘shepherd’ pastére postér(u-)

pasté“re

pasté*r pasté“ur pasté*r pastor

pastor apasté“re

>pasto-re6279

Aprrnpix I Ex. no.

1325

Meaning

‘fodder,

nourishment’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

paéstu — spdsto past >pést. past pasto

Port. PRom. REW?

§

Ex. no.

1329

— —

OSFr.

péuk

poko

ONFr. Cat.

pdi pok

Span. Port.

pdko péuko

PRom.

REW?

6282

‘little’

Sard. Roum.

Ital.

pastu'ra

6283

péuku §

pauku6303

1327

*padélla padéla padélo potlo padiéla patella

pavé“ne

pad*(n*)

padn pagé*(n*)

pabén pavé

paudne

payo-ne6313

1331

*pdére —_—

PRHS BoP

1332

‘oot-)fetter, foot-print’ pédika piédeko

fpavére

fpiédika

padé“ur por

piége &pésa

po‘r

pabér pavé‘r

payd‘re

payo-re6314

With /d/ in imitation of Gallo-Romance lenition.

Old Spanish. In /éminedepére/ ‘man of authority’. Old Italian. ‘foot-print, step’. Asturian.

6294

‘fear’

Notes to nos. 1825-1332: ‘meal’, ‘dog-, bird-feed’.

patfre pafgf(re) patfre —_— — —_ dpadir pati-re

6286

1330

‘to suffer’

padegé“r pati“re

patélla

‘peacock’ padéne pein

1328

‘frying-pan’ patédda

pastiira pastii*ra

pastu-

Meaning

Lat.

pastura — pastura pastiira pastuira pasture pastiira

pasto pdstu

Lat.

1326

‘pasture’

245

hpiélga péga

pédika

pedika

6347

Proro-RoMANcE PHONOLOGY

246 1333

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

pekkatére —

pekkaté“*re *pekadé“r >petadd“ur pokedd*r pekadér

pekadé*r epekkaté‘re

dpekkato-re6322

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1334

‘sinner’

‘herdsman’ = pokurdr(u-)

pekordio

spiordr peguréiro pekorarju

(: 421 /pekus/) 6326

1337

1338

‘pole’ pértika

——

pértika pérga pérée

—_— —

pértika

pertika 6432

‘to seek’

®pef{(re) — —

pedir pedir

pett‘re -ere petere

6444

pm

mo

ao

op

Notes to nos. 1333-1340: Oblique; nominative /pekdire/.

Oblique; nominative /peéad6“ur/.

Oblique; nominative /pekkétor/. Oblique stem; nominative /pekka-tor/. Rhaeto-Romance. Old Roumanian. ‘to woo’.

Velletri (Lazio).

Old Portuguese.

péndere péndere péndre péndra

pelffa pelfga

pendé*r

pendér

pellf*tia

pelli-keu-

6375

1339 ‘quarry’

petire

bpéte

‘to hang’

fpeli¢a pellfééa peli¢a pali¢a

polfsa

—=

1336

1335

‘of skin; fur’

péndere pendere 6383

1340

‘pain, penalty’ péna

petrdia peréira pedriéra podréra pedréra, pedréira, petrériu ° petra-rju6445.a

pé‘na péna pé‘ino péna péna

ipé“a pé*na

poena

6628

247

Apprnpix I

1342

Ex, no. Meaning

‘pepper’

Sard. Roum. Ital.

1343 ‘to pluck (hair)’

pipere

bpé*pe

OSFr. ONFr.

pé*bre péivra

Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

pébra pébre

REW? § Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW: §

epfipere 4pipere6521

pfkula pikula 6483 1345 ‘fisher’

pe‘lére pe‘lér poleér poldr

pe lér

pildre pila-re

6502

1347 ‘pine-tree’

1346 ‘to trample on’

piskatére

pistére

pinu

peskaté“re

pe‘stdre pe’stér

pino

peskadé*r

pestodé“ur poskedé*r

peskadér peskadé*r piskaté“re piska-to-re6528

pistér pistére pista-re 6536

pin(u-) pf(nt) pin

pi(n*) pino

pi‘nu pi-nu6519

1344 ‘pertaining to fish’ epaskér(u-) fpeskdia *pestisér 8paskéra bpeskéra. hpeskéira piskérju piska-rju6527

1348

‘to stamp (on)’ pisd(re) ipisdre pizdr pizér jpizdr jpizér

pi‘sdre

pi-sa-re

6517

Notes to nos. 1341-1348: In derivatives, e.g. /pikuléru/ ‘wall-weed’, /pikulfre/ ‘to smell [of meat]’.

ee

ae

Cf. also Olt. /pé*vere/.

Oblique; nominative /p{pe(r)/. Oblique stem; nominative /piper/. ‘fisher’.

“fish-pond’ (£.).

‘catch of fish’. ‘fishing-place’. Apulian, Calabrian: ‘to thresh (with animals)’. ‘to step, tread’.

Proro-Romancs PHonoLocy

248 Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW: §

prantdre piantdre plantar plantér plontér

aitdr

plantére

planta:re 6578 1353 ‘to carry’ portdre portd(re) portdre portdr porter portar portér portér portdre porta-re

6672

Notes to nos, 1349-1356: a. b. ce.

1350 ‘bridge’

1349

‘to plant’

Old Portuguese. West Provengal. Old Sardinian.

pénte punte ponte pont pént pont puénte

porkéddu puréél(u-) porééllo porgél por¢él

ponte

porkéllu porkellu6660

ponte

ponte-

6649 1354 ‘door-keeper’

portar(u-) portiér

portatére portatér(u-)

portaté*re portadé*r

portedé*ur

portéiro

portadé*r portatdé*re

portériu

porta-riu6673

‘pig-sty’ porkfle poréfle bpursfu por¢il

pork{‘le porki-le6661 1356 ‘afterwards’

1355 ‘bearer’

portieér portér portéro

1352

1351

‘piglet’

portadé*r portadér

porta-to-re-

6674

*ptis péi péi pos

pués

pés pés

post

6684

Appenpix I Ex. no.

1357

Meaning

OSFr. Span.

prdndere prinz{(re) —

“péma pé*mo

ao —

4pé‘mo pé"ma

— prandere {re

REW?

§

Ex. no.

Sard.

6728

1361

‘to prune’ putdre

Roum.

—

Ital. OSFr.

po*tére po‘dér

ONFr.

Cat.

Port. PRom.

po*dér putére

§

puta-re 6869

pu-ra-re 6857

— ptingere pungere

6835

6850

1363

1364

‘stinking’

‘stench’

putidu

—

— pu rére

—

pulpo-su-

purdr

ipordr

po ndra punir

pulpézo

epiitto fput

podér

poné*r

pulpé*zo _ pulpd“su

purére purdr

pureér

puingere — puingere

——

1362

purdre

‘to stick, prick’

prupésu pulpés(u-) —

‘to purify; to drip’

—

po*dér

Span.

REW?

prandere

6645

1360

‘fleshy’

— —

—_—

4po-ma

Meaning

Lat.

—

*péma,

Port. PRom.

1359

‘to breakfast’

— podmo "pé*mo

bpé*m

ONFr. Cat.

Lat.

1358

‘fruit?

Sard. Roum. Ital.

249

putire

pu¢f(re)

putfre pudir

spit

pudir

hptidio

ipudfr

pii*tidu

pu-tidu6878

pm

hp Be oP

Notes to nos. 1357-1364: ‘apple’. East Provengal: ‘apple’. Old Spanish. Neuter plural of /po:mu-/ ‘fruit’. Noun: ‘child, boy’. ‘hideous’. ‘hideous, ugly, base’. Old Spanish in meaning ‘stinking’; Modern Spanish ‘repulsive’. Old Spanish.

pudir

pu‘t{‘re pu-'ti-re 6876

Proro-Romance PHONOLOGY

250 Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

1365 ‘stench’ _ putodre

Ital. OSFr.

spu(d)6*r pudé*r

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

pudd*ur pudé*r >pudér

PRom.

pu‘té*re

Lat.

REW! §

pu-to-re

6883

Ex, no. Sard.

Roum.

‘to shave’ rasére

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

rédere réde(re)

rédere réire

—

rasére *razér razeér rezér rrazér rrazér rasdre (: 1870 /résu/ 7070

ranké‘re

rapa

rrénkor

rraké*r ranké‘re

ra-dere

ranko-re7041

1370

‘shaven, smooth’

1371

‘to recognise

frdésu

rekonnéskere

hr4so irds ines krdza myrdza, =rrdzo résu °ra-su7082

rikon6“sSere

®rfs(u-)

Notes to nos. 1365-1372: a.

Old North Italian.

e. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. m. n, o.

Old Portuguese. ‘tail’. ‘to fill’. ‘level, even’. ‘shaven off’, ‘smooth’. ‘a kind of measure’. ‘a measure; level’. Noun: ‘furrow of rain-water’. ‘plain fland]’. Galician: ‘sand-plain’. Past participle to /ra:dere/ (cf. ex. 1366).

b. Old Spanish.

répa

ranké*r

rddere

‘turnip’

rankére

ranké“ur

réire _ rdure rraér orrér

1368

1367 ‘rancour’

ranké*r

6987

1369

Meaning

1366 ‘to shave’

rekono“isé*r

rakoné‘istra rokonéSer rrekono¢ér

rrekone¢é“r rekogné‘skere rekogno:skere 7126

réba réva réba 4rréba ‘rréba répa ra:pa 7065 1372 ‘to answer’ resptindere rasptinde(re) rispéndere respéndre respéndre

raspondé*r rrespondér

rrespondé‘r respéndere responde-re 7247

Apprnprx I Ex. no.

1378

Meaning

tiinda ratuindo

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

*rit6 “nda redé“nda redéndo

Cat.

rod6“na

Span.

rredonda

Port.

rredé“nda

Lat.

rotunda

PRom.

retuinda

REWS

§

Ex. no.

Meaning

7400

1377

rumigére rumegd(re)

Cat. Span. Port.

rumiér brremugér rromidr

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

PRom. REW?

§

— rim4(re)

brumdre eri? rumér —

rimér

rrimar

—-

ri’? ru*mére

ru‘migére

ru‘mingre

7440

—

arrotér

—

rukta-re

— — —

ru-mina-re 7440a

Fi'tpme ms pe oP m.

ruipere

{*rupere

7442

1379

1380

‘willow-grove’ — saléét(u-)

saléé“to sauzé“da salsé“i8a — —_— —

saliké*tu

salike-tu-

Old Italian. Tuscan, ‘to raise the skin’. Lombard. ‘to till; to push in’. Without nasal infix; cf. Kent 1946: § 367.III. Venetian. Campidanian. Macedo-Roumanian. ‘to go up’. ‘to go out’.

—_—

rukt? ruttére

Notes to nos, 1373-1380:

Aragonese.

—_ — —

ro“tér

1378

— — rumér

‘to break’ eruipere ruipe(re)

arydh, ro"tér ro ter

‘to chew the cud’

“rumegér romiér rungiér

ru-miga-re

rittare —

7416

irumindi Jaruminére

1376

‘to burp’

—

7320

‘to chew the cud’

1375

‘to rummage through’

Tima-re

Sard. Roum,

Lat.

1374

‘round’ (f.sg.)

Sard. Roum,

251

7532

‘to jump’ — salf(re)

ksalfre salfr salir

salir ngalir mgafr

salf{*re sali-re

7540

252

Proto-Romancr PHONOLOGY

Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum. lial. OSFr. ONFr. Cat, Span, Port. PRom. Lat. REW: §

1381

sanére — sanére sandr sonar sonar sandr sadr

salu-ta-re

sana-re

7556

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW! §

1385

sapdére _

sap6re sabé‘*r savo~ur sabé“r sabér

sabé*r

sapé‘re sapo-re7590

“sipa

santo sdint sdéint sant

ssipa siba sévo siba sdba

sdnktu sanktu7569

7566

1386

‘taste’

sdntu

bsimt(u-)

sandre

‘sated’

1387 ‘saw; plow-share’

_—_ satiil (u-)

sato‘llo *sadél fg05671 sodé*] —_

—

satillu satullu7620

me Bo op

sdpa sapa

7585

1388 ‘to cut, saw, mow’ jsekdre

&séga

hségo sfo

iséga, séka

Ssegdre segdr

siér

sogdr segdr segér

sekdre

( : 1388 /sekdre/) seka-re

7762a

Notes to nos. 1381-1388:

rm

1384 ‘juice’

‘holy’

‘to heal’

salutdre ‘soruté(re) salutdre saludér saluddr saluddr saludar sauddér

salu“tére

1383

1382

‘to greet’

Old Roumanian ‘to greet’; Modern Roumanian ‘to kiss’. Old Roumanian. ‘fruit-juice’. ‘unboiled juice’. ‘sated; drunk’. ‘drunk’. With /g/ in imitation of Gallo-Romance lenition. Modern Provengal. ‘plow-share’. ‘to cut to pieces’.

7764

253

Apprnpix I Ex. no. Meaning

1389 ‘sex’

Sard. Roum. Ital,

REW? §

— _ —_— — séksu seksu-

Ex. no. Meaning

b. c.

7775

7796

1394

1395

‘seed’

‘to sow’

sementére

sé se sé”

— —

sementér semétér

se

se-men “ine

7761

Notes to nos. 1389-1396: a

sella-rju-

sellérju

sé*me

s6“= §

sekure-

serrare serrér serreér sorrar ferrar ¢erraér serrare serra-re 7867

—

sé* sé%i

PRom.

selldio seliér seliér solér siléro seléiro

sémene

Cat. Span. Port.

Lat. REW?

sktire — —_— — seguir segure

itself’

8é sé, °sine sé*x

‘female genitalia’. Campidanian.

< PRom. /sé“ne/.

1392

‘to close, shut’ serrére

1393 ‘him-, her-,

Sard. Roum. Ital.

OSFr. ONFr.

chair-maker’ Kedr(u-)

sekui*re

78888

‘saddler,

—_

—

—_—

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

1391

‘axe’ bseguiri

sséssu. —_ sésso

OSFr.

1390

sé‘me(ne) 7802

se“mentdre

se‘menta ‘re 7805

1396

‘to sow’ semindre semend (re)

se“mindére a se mendr semeér

sembrér semedar Roos se mindre se-mina‘re 7807

254

Proto-RomaNncn PHONOLOGY

Ex. no. Meaning Sard.

1398 ‘half; diminished’

1397 ‘sower’

1399

—

*sému

fserénu

Ital. OSFr. ONFr.

seminaté“re semenadé“r somedé“ur

>3é*mo °36°m, a36*in

seré“no

Port.

semeadé*r

Roum,

somonetér(u-)

Cat. Span.

— sembradér

PRom. Lat.

REW? §

se“minaté“re se-mina:to-re-

7808

Ex. no. Meaning —

Ital. OSFr.

— se“mblér

semena(re)

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

REW? §

sembleér semblér — —_— similére simila-re

7925

Notes to nos, 1397-1404: a. b. ce. d. e. f.

Old Sardinian. ‘foolish’. ‘faulty’. Fem. /sé*ima/. ‘incomplete; crippled’. ‘evening-dew’.

h.

‘s0; yes’. ‘yes’,

g.

1

‘and’,

sé*mu

se-mu-

7811

1401 ‘to resemble’

Sard.

Roum.

°sém.

1402 ‘so, thus’ si 883i hofx bef sf sf igf igf

si*

sik 7892

1400

‘serene, clear’

senin(u-) seré*(n-)

soré‘in

seré(n-)

se“ré“nu se-re-nu7843

1403 ‘to dream’ sonnidre sonnére somnar songiaér somidr sondér sonér

somnijdre

somnja-re 8082

‘to dry’ sikkére sek4(re)

se“kkére se“kér se tid

sokér sekér

se“kér

sikkére sikka-re 7894

1404 ‘to sound’ sonére

sund(re) s(u)ondre sonar sonér sondr

sonér soar

sonaére

sona-re 8087

Appmnpix I Ex. no.

1405

‘sound’

Meaning Sard. Roum.

sénu —_—

ONFr.

sén

Ital. OSFr. Cat. Span.

Lat.

REW:

§

Ex. no.

Meaning Sard. Roum.

8090

8095

1409

‘to subject’

sommé*ttere somé“tre igodmé“tra igsotmétra

Span.

sometér

Port.

REW?

sorbu-

— bguméte(re)

Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

PRom. Lat.

sérva,

sonu-

someté*r

§

summittere submittere 8382

Old Spanish.

1410

‘to overcome’ — jsuperd (re)

*so“prére ™30brér — =g0“brér =sobrdr

sobrér

superdre supera-re 8458

b. ce, d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

‘service-tree’. Old Italian. Oblique of 227 /séror/. Oblique stem of /soror/. ‘fof horses] to kick with rear hoof’, Milanese. ‘to bend back’. XX 116 /stiptus/ ‘under’. ‘to anger’.

Re

‘to be left over’.

k, Old Italian. m, . ‘to be in excess’, oO. ‘pointed chisel’.

_ sakudir

—

—_—

sukktitere

4gor6“re

*soro-re=

subkutere

8102

Notes to nos. 1405-1412:

a.

sokéSra

— —

sérba °u-

sénu

esykydi sek6‘ire

soré-ur

— sérba

1408

‘to shake’ fgukkutire —_—

*soré‘re soré‘r

bsérba

86

PRom,

1407

‘sister’ — —

sérbo sérba

s6(nt) *suéno

Port.

1406

‘service-berry’ —_ sorb(u-)

sudéno s6(n*)

255

8413

1412

1411

‘to hold up’ susténnere —

‘awl’

stila stile

sostené‘re sostené‘r sostenfr sostenir

°stibbia — — —

sosté‘r

—

sostenér

sustené“re sustine-re 8490

—

su(bu)la su-bula 8403

256

Proro-RomaNncr PHonoLoey

Ex. no.

1413

Meaning Sard. Roum.

_— tated (re)

stik — suk

tazé*r taizfr —

ssiigo

Span.

>Sigo

Port. PRom.

tacé‘re

Lat,

REW?

§

su‘ku-

Ex, no.

1417

Meaning

‘to delay’

talénto

1418

etdner {téunger 8tdénor btanér

tangere

8540

8558

1419

‘to touch, taste’

4tdngere

itangé*r tdngere

talentu-

8517

‘to touch’ tangere ——

taléntu

take-re

8419

taléntu —

*taliénto

— také“re

1416

‘a weight; a coin; desire’

talén(t*) talént talént

—

stigo sii*ku

1415

‘to be silent’

— suik(u-)

Ttal.

OSFr. ONFr. Cat.

1414

‘juice’

‘time; storm’

1420

‘to hold’

Sard.

tardére

attastdre

ktempordle

ténnere

Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

tardére tardér tardér terdér tardér tardér

tastdre tastdr tastér testér — —

mtempordle mtemporal — — —_ mtemporél

tené“re tenir tanir tenir tenér tr

tarda-re

itaksita-re

™tempora:le-

tene-re

Roum.

_—

PRom.

Lat.

REW?

—

tarddre §

tastare

8572

8595

—

temporéle 8631

ER me as op

Notes to nos. 1413-1416: With /g/ in imitation of Gallo-Romance lenition. With unexplained initial /8/ (perhaps < Arabic?). Old Spanish. Old Marchigiano. ‘to be fitting’. Rhaeto-Romance

(Surselvan): ‘to reach for; to be sufficient’.

BHA

‘to belong; to be related to’. Old Spanish. ‘to touch’. Not < /tangere/ X /gusta-re/ (REW®). ‘time; season’. . ‘storm’. Adjective: ‘pertaining to time’.

fined (re)

tené“re 8646

257

Apprnpix I Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span.

1421 ‘I try’ ténto —_— ténto tént tént tént *tiénto

Port.

PRom. Lat. REW? §

ténto tempto8637

tinka — tinka

ONFr. Cat. Span.

ténéa ténka —

OSFr.

Port.

té“nka

PRom. Lat. REWS §

téka

tinka tinka 8742

‘to dye’

—_—

tingere

stésta, atésta

té*tto te t6it

tingere

té“ner

té*indra

*tiésta

tééo

tenfr tenir

tésta, testa

té*ktu te-ktu-

tingere tingere

t6“ito

8682

1425 ‘tench’

Sard. Roum. Ital.

1424

1423

roof’

tésta sdasta

>tésta

této

Ex. no. Meaning

1422

‘pot-sherd; skull, head’

8750

8609

1426

1428 ‘aunt’

1427

‘dyed’

‘dye’ tia

1t6°nd eté“n teint

tintira tenévira te“intiire

htinto

—

tinktu

tinktu*ra

htito

itinktu8744

—_—

tinktu-ra 8743,

iffa tla tia tia tia tia Kia 8709

rForpR

me ao oe

Notes to nos. 1421-1428: ‘skull’. ‘head’. ‘nut-shell; head’. ‘pot; skull, head’. Old Spanish. Lombard. ‘dark’. ‘dark red’. Past participle of /tingere/ ‘to dye’. With initial /¢/ from South Italian /giéna/ ‘aunt’ < /t{-/ + /*éna/. < Gk. /théia-/ deia.

258

Proto-Romancr PHONOLOGY

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

Ttal. OSFr.

ONFr.

Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW?

§

‘uncle’ ttu

btéddere

t{no tina tine tina tina

adfo

ti‘na

tu

*téllere téldre téldra télra tolér stolé*r téllere tollere 8769

thu tfo tio

tina

ti-u8709

8741

1433 ‘cake’

térta torte térta térta térta

torta

8802

1434

‘twisted’ tértu etért(u-) {térto Stért 8tort stért ftuérto 4térto tértu‘tortu8809

mo Be oP rire

Noun: ‘web’. Also as noun: ‘wrong’. Noun: ‘wrong’. ‘one-eyed’; as noun, ‘wrong’. Past participle to /torkye-re/ ‘to twist’.

‘hard’.

Adverb: ‘soon’.

tuné(re)

t(u)onére

tonér

tonére

tona-re

8778

1436 ‘baked’

tostére

itéstu

tostdre

ktdésto

tostdr tostér tostdre

téstu

tosta:re

8813

With initial /¢/ from SIt. /fidnu/ < /ti-/ + /+dnu/.

In /tole*rse demébros/ ‘to become lame’.

‘to thunder’

1435 ‘to toast’

Notes to nos. 1429-1436: Also /toddire/ ‘to collect’. Old Italian.

1432

1431

‘to take (away)’

tina

Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW: §

1430

1429 ‘vat, wine-cask’

ktést ktést

tostu-

8814

259

AprEnpix I Ex. no, Meaning Sard. Roum. Ttal. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? § Ex. no. Meaning Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat. REW? §

1438

1437

téu téu tiio ton, tuén téu tu, tiijo téu té*u(n) tuum

9020

tremére —

*trija

tramé“tre

bkremé*r

4tré‘Ja

tremétro

tremé*r

etrija

tramé“tra

— tram{ttere

tra-mittere 8849

1441 ‘to thunder’

ftrondre tronér

ité“naka ——

8778

—_—

tremé*r tremé*re

tremo-re8878

1442

httinika

8tona-re

tremé“re

1443

‘tunic, cloak’

tronére

trondr tronér troér trondére

‘bower’

‘trembling’

— triméte(re)

tramé“ttere

t6*

1440

1439

‘to transmit, send’

‘thy, thine’

‘thrush’

1444

‘to cough’

té*rdo mturt

tossfre

kténga

térdo

8985

trik(h)ila 8894

tussfre

até rt

—= tinika tunika

trikla

tirdu

iténga

—

4tré"Jo

t6rt

t6*rdo tirdu turdu-

8999

tua{(re) to’sfr

to*sir to’sir

tosér tusir tuss{*re tussi-re 9016

PERT

rams

ao

op

Notes to nos. 1437-1444: Old Italian. With initial /k/ from some source such as Keltic /krem-/ ‘fear’. ‘arbour attached to house’. ‘trellis’. Manresa: ‘orchard’. Old Italian. With /r/ under influence of some other form, e.g. /tonitru-/ ‘thunder’. ‘upper mill-stone’. ‘covering’. ‘layer’. ‘cloak’. Modern Provengal.

Stem /t6*rd-/.

Proro-Romancr PHonoLtoay

260 Ex, no. Meaning Sard. Roum.

tiie ti

Ttal.

Cat. Span. Port.

ti ti ti

PRom. REW! §

tu:

8963

— undésa

ONFr. Cat. Span. Port. PRom. Lat.

—

ondé*sa ond6é“za

§

*ondéza — undé‘sa undo:sa 9065

Notes to nos. 1445-1452: a. b. e. d. e.

Vibe ubi

Old Spanish. Old Portuguese. Old Italian. Modern Provengal. Modern Walloon.

umbrék(u)lu

umbra-kulu9047

9028

1449 ‘wavy’ (f.sg.)

Sard. Roum.

REW?

undére und&(re)

o’ndére ondér

56

Ex. no. Meaning

Ital. OSFr.

*ombrékolo ombré]

>6Mu

ti

Lat.

umbr4ju

ove s $e

tu ti

1448

‘to wave’

‘arbor’

‘where’ libe iu

tu*

OSFr. ONFr.

1447

1446

1445 ‘thou’

1450

‘damp timed (u-) vimido dime im

ti‘midu

hu-midu4233

unddre unda-re 9060 1452 ‘one’ (f.sg.)

1451

O

‘one’ (m.sg.) vinu vin(u-) vino vi(n) in vin vino

ina tine tina ving vine Vina tina

v*nu uwnu9075

Wena wna 9075

é

uma

261

Apprnpix I Ex. no. Meaning

1453 ‘interest, usury’

Sard. Roum. Ital. OSFr. ONFr. Cat. Span. Port.

ustira — ustira uzira uatira uztira uzira uziira

PRom.

Lat.

REW?

—s —_— usurdio uzuriér uzuriér uzurér uzuréro uzuréiro

u’sti*ra

§

Sard.

u’su’rériu

wsu'ra,

wsu-rariu-

9098

Ex. no. Meaning

9098

1457 ‘poison’ —

Roum.

velé*no